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HOOKER, K.d its various regions, and forming out of these a general description of tliu world and its inhabitants. Works of this class have always possessed a peculiar attraction. Even in ancient times, when the extent of the known world, and the information with respect to the inhabitants and productions of its remoter rogionn, were comparatively limited, the geographical descriptions of Herodotus, Strabo, Pomponius Mela, and Pliny, rank among the most valuable pro- ductions of the classic ages. But in modern times, and particularly in the present age, Geography has acquired a much more prominent place among the departments of human knowledge. The discovery of America in the fifteenth century awakened a spirit of enterprise, and a desire to explore unknown regions, that has continued to gain new strength. During the last half centui-y more especially, the most civilised nations of Europe have been contending with each other for the glory of discovery ; and there is now scarcely a shore however remote, or the interior of a continent however barbarous or difHcult of access, which has not been surveyed and described. Materials have thus been provided for a much more complete, interesting, and authentic description of the larth, than could have been drawn ;ip at any former period. The extensive discoveries thus recently made have thrown a wonderful light on the structure and productions of tlie earth, and aflbrdod large contributions to all the departments of natural history. They have also displayed man in every varied condition, from the highest roflneniont of civilised society, to the rudest and most abject condition of savage life. These representations are not only interesting in themselves, but throw light on the history of past ages. Communities are still found exactly similar to sonic of those described in the earliest records of antiquity. The A ;j VI PREFACE. tent of the Arab sheik ilifTers little from that wliich Abraham pitciied on the plains of Mamre ; many of the Tartar tribes are a people exactly similar to those who roamed in early ages over the plains of Scythia ; and the splendid courts of Babylon and Persepolis have their represent- atives in the existing world. We may thus, in fact, trace back man to an earlier and ruder stage than any represented in the ancient records ; for these convey only faint and fabulous notions of what mankind had been at a very early period. But the wilds of America, and the shores of the Pacific, exhibit the state of savage simplicity, which doubtless existed in Europe before the light of authentic history had begun to dawn. Hence it is that Geography, in its present extended range, not only shows man as he actually exists, but delineates, as it were, the pro- gressive history of the species. Besides the gratification thus afforded to a liberal curiosity, the know- ledge of even the remotest regions has, through recent events, become an object of the utmost practical importance. In many of these, colonies have been founded, political relations formed, and a commercial inter- course with them opened, by the civilised nations of Europe, and par- ticularly by Britain. Regions the most distant to which a ship can sail form integral portions of her dominion, and have their ports crowded with her vessels. There are thousands in this country who have a more intimate connection with Calcutta or Sydney, than with towns in their immediate vicinity. The manufacturer labours to supply the markets of countries, the very existence of which, fifty years ago, was unknown ; the circumnavigation of the globe is now an ordinary trading voyage. The knowledge of Geography has thus become a necessary qualification for the pursuits of commerce and industry, and for much of the ordinary and current business of life. A great proportion of the youth of Britain are trained for employments in countries which lie far beyond the limits of Europe. The same causes have, moreover, given to the knowledge of distant countries a peculiar hold on the domestic and social aflections. There are few amongst us who have not a near relation, perhaps a brother or a child, residing in another hemisphere. Oceans now separate us from those to whom we are united by the tenderest ties ; the objects of our affection have their abode on the banks of the Ganges, or the shores of the Pacific ; and many, whose hearts are knit in the closest friendship, are divided from each other by half the earth. In this situation, a description of the place in which our friend or relative dwells, the objects which meet his eye, the society in which he mingles, must afford peculiar gratification, and soothe the mind under this painful separation. Deeply impressed with a sense of the great extent and diiBcult exe- cution of a complete geographical work, the Editor, during nearly ten years in which he has been engaged upon it, has used the utmost exertion to procure from every quarter information and aid. He has studiously collected the most recent, authentic, and accurate accounts of tlh extent, natural features, population, productions, industry, political constitution, PREFACE. Mi literature, religion, and social state of the various regions of the globe, with the leading details as to their districts and cities. The sciences connected with the natural history of the earth have, however, attained to such an extent and importance, that a thorough knowledge of them can only be possessed by individuals who have specially devoted them- selves to one particular branch. The Editor, therefore, considered it essential to procure the co-operation of writers who had risen to acknow« ledged eminence in the departments of Geology and Mineralogy, Zoology and Botany. He considered that he had fully succeeded, when Professor Jameson undertook to delineate the geological structure of the globe, and the distribution of minerals over its surface ; Mr. Swainson to explain the distribution of animals, and the most remarkable of those found in each particular region ; and Dr. Hooker to perform the same task in regard to the vegetable kingdom. Professor Wallace has illustrated the relations of the earth as a planet, the trigonometrical surveys, the construction of maps, and other subjects connected with mathematical science. These tasks have been executed in a manner which, it is hoped, will fully support the high reputation of their respective authors. In preparing the sections relating to commerce, the editor derived much assistance from Mr. MTuUoch's Dictionary of Commerce, and he is also indebted to that gentleman for many valuable communications. Various parts relating to remote countries have been revised by gentlemen recently returned from them, particularly Barron Field, Esq. Chief Justice of Gibraltar, some years resident in Australia. It is only justice to add, that neither exertion nor expense hpve been spared by the Publishers, to enable the Editor to render the work as perfect as possible. The Maps, which are so numerous as to form a complete Atlas, have been executed from drawings by Hall ; and having been carefully revised by the Editor, they will, it is hoped, be found to be accurate, and to in- clude all the most recent discoveries. Notwithstanding the smallness of the scale, they are illustrated by the letter-press in a manner which en- ables them to comprise equal information with others of much larger dimensions. The other Wood Engravings are mostly original, or have been care- fully selected from the most faithful representations of the objects de- scribed ; and they are executed in the best style by the eminent artists whose names appear on the title-page. They exhibit the most remarkable plants and animals, the chief cities, public buildings, natural curiosities, and picturesque scenery, with the characteristic figures and costumes of the natives, in the countries described. It is not believed that any work of this kind is similarly embellished, at least to nearly the same extent. These representations are by no means introduced for the sake of mere ornament ; they will be found of the greatest utility, conveying an in- finitely better idea of the objects than could be derived from the most laboured description. Segnius irritant animos, demissa per aiires, Quam quae sunt oculis subjccta fidelibus. A 4 vlU PREFACE. Notwithstanding all these efforts, it is impossible to lay this volume before the Public without the painful reflection, that, in a subject in- Tolving such an infinite number and variety of details, many of which are often very difRcuIt to procure, not a few imperfections and even errors must inentably occur. M. Bulbi, whoso exertions to collect tho most recent geographical information are well known, and to whose labours the present volume is much indebted, candidly observes: — *' One of the greatest obstacles to be surmounted in the composition of an elementary treatise of Geography is the want of contemporary docu- ments. Geography is almost necessarily a compound of things which are, with things which have ceased to be. How can one be informed of all the changes that take place in the course of a few years, oven in the capitals of Europe, silM more in those of Asia, AtVica, and America? To compose a Geography which should exhibit a cuniplete picture of the globe at a particular period, it would be necessary to have authentic documents, all of the same date, and that u recent one ; which never has been, and never can be." As, therefore, the local knowledge of many into whose hands this work may fall will enable them to discover defects, an intimation of these, addressed to the Publishers, will be grutufully received, and employed in the correction of a future impression /x volume tject in- f which tid oven llect the > whose rvc8 ; — lidon of y docu- H which rnied of n in the ticricu ? u of the ithcntio iver lioH f many defects, utufully CONTENTS. PRirACK Introduction Pig* - Hi . 1 PART 1. HISTORY OF OEOORAPHV. BOOK I. ANCIENT OEOaRAFIIY. CiiAP. I. Page Hebrew and Phanlclan Geography . • S I. Patriarchal Agei ■ S II, Kingdom of Iirael - . . S III, Commerce of Tyre • - .3 IV. The World according to the Hebrewi ■ 4 I. Tarihiih . . • . 4 8. Ophir ■ . . . 6 3. The lilei • ... 7 4. Sheba and Oedan • . . 8 B. Countrlea on the Euphratci . - 9 & Oog, Magog, and the North . . 9 Chap. II, Ancient Voyagei of Dlieovery ■ -10 I. Circumnavlmtlon of Aflrica under Nccho 10 II. Voyage of sataspei - ■ .11 III. Voyage of Hanno • • 11 IV. Voyage of Eudoxui . . . 14 V. Voyage of Pythcaa • - • 15 VI. Voyage of Nearchu> . ■ • 16 VII. Pcrlplui of the Erythrean 8o» - -18 Chap. III. Oreck Geography before Alexander • 'SI I. Geography of Homer . - • SI II. Poetical Geography . - - S2 III. School of Milptua ... S3 IV. OeographT of Herodotua ■ . SS 1, Europe of Herodotus . . . fU 5. Alia of Herodotus - . . S5 3. AfVica of Herodotus . .-86 Ch»p. IV. First Alexandrian School. Eratosthenes and Strabo . . ■ - . 27 I. Expedition of Alexander . - . £7 II. Expedition of Seleucus -- . - S8 III. Eratosthenes . - -28 IV. Hlpparchus . • - - 89 V. The World according to Eratosthenes and Strabo • - ■ . S9 1. Europe ■ . . . SO S. Asia . • . .33 a AMca . . . . 33 Chap. V. Roman Geography ... .33 I. Mela . • - . . 35 II. Pliny . . . . 37 II L Itineraries— PeutiiigcrianTublo . 88 Chap. VI. Second Alexandrian School • > . S9 I. Marinus of Tyre ■ • .99 II. Ptolemy - ■ . • 41 1. Euro|ie - . . 43 S. AsU • 3. Aftica . . . . BOOK II, oiooaAFiiT or the biiddle aoes. Chap. I. Arabian Geography . • ■ . I. General System ... II. Asia . ... III. AMca . . . . . Chap. II. European Geography during the Dark Ages ■ Chap. III. Geographical Knowledge derived fVom the Ciu. sadei .... Pai Tartar Geography Chap. IV. Chap. V. 48 48 50 51 51 M 63 Venetian Geography ... BOOK III. MODERN aBOORAPHT. Chap. I. DiKovery of America and the East Indies Chap. IL Early System of Modern Geography Chap. Ill, Modern Astronomical Geography Chap. IV. Modern Critical Geography 67 58 ah no Chap. V. Modem UeKriptlve and Statistical Geography til Chap. VI Modern Geography of Asia Chap. VII. Modern Geography of AfVica Chap. VIII. Modern Geography of America Chap. IX. Modem Geography of the Austral Sea^ and Islands ■ . . . . Su Cii X CONTENTS. PART II. - PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. BOOK I. Chap. XV. Page ASTRONOMICAL PRINCIPLIS. Law of Universal Ofavitation Chap. XVI. . 105 ClIAP I. Page Figure and Constitution of the Garth deduced General View of the Phenomena of the Hea- from the Theory of Gravitation 112 Tens, ap|>arent Motions, fixed Stan, Planed, tec . . • . 68 Chap. XVII. The Tides • . 114 Chap. IL The Heavens as seen through the Telescope • 69 Chap. XVIII. Chap. III. General View of the Solar System • 120 Apjiroximation to the Figure and Magnitude of the Earth - ' ... Chap. XIX. 71 Figure and Magnitude of the Earth - 123 Chap. IV. Chap. XX. Doctrine of the Sphere . . 78 Determination of Latitude and Longitude 130 Chap. V. Chap. XXL Rotation of the Sun, Moon, --nd Planets on their Axes — their Figure 74 Representation of the Earth 141 Chap. VI. BOOK II. ! Distances and Magnitude of the HeaTenly OEOLOQICAL FRIKCIFLES. Bodies ..... 75 Chap. I, Chap. VIL Meteorology • . • 158 Rotation of the Earth . ... 77 Chap. IL Chap. VIII. Hydrology .... _ 177 Apparent Annual Motion of the Sun. Vicissi. tude of Seasons - . • 78 OiAP. in. Geognosy • . . . . 198 Chap. IX. Division and Measure of Time . • . 88 BOOK III. Chap. X. OKNBRAL FRINCIPLGS OF OEOaRAPHr UNDER 1 Proper Motion of the Moon. Her Phases. ITS RELATION TO OROANISED AND LIVING 1 Eclipses of the Sun and Moon 86 BEINGS. Chap. XI. Chap. I, Motion of the Planets round the Sun . 96 Geography considered in relation to the Distri. bution of Plants . 227 , Chap. XII. Motion of the Earth round the Sun 93 Chap. IL Geography considered in relation to the Distri- Crap. XI IL bution of Man and Animals • , 247 Orbits of the FlaneU 101 Chap. IU. Chap. XIV. Geography considered In relation to Man in Comet* . . ... 102 Society . . ■ 2fi9 PAR- r III. GEOGRAPHY CONSIDERED IN RELATION T O THE VARIOUS REGIONS OF THE LO BE. BOOK I. S. Western Counties ■ 422 6. Wales ^ 430 EUROPE. Chap. III. Chap. I. Scotland .... 43.5 General Survrv of Europe 289 I. Gongraphlral Outline 4.1,5 I. Natural Features - - • SSS II. NnturnI Ocogrnphy IU. Ilintorical .Survey 438 II. InhabitanU 885 444 III. Botany - - • • 288 IV. I>nltllral Cnmtltullon 445 IV. Zoology ... 251 VII. I/)cal Ooography 1. The Lnwlund i'niuilics 454 CnAP. II. 4.'!5 ENOi^Nn • ■ 309 3. The Highland Counties 467 1. Oeographicsi Outline 309 3. The Scottish talniids 473 II. Natural Geo(traphy 315 III. Historical Geography 34fi Chap. IV. IV. Political Geography 340 iRRLANn 478 V. Productive Industry . . . 3(12 I. General Outline and Ai|)cct 478 VI. Civil and Social SUte 37.1 II. Naturol ChMigrapliy III. IIi>torlral (jragrnphy IV. Political ConRtltiitlon 479 VII. Local Geography 1, Southern Counties • • 38.1 487 385 489 S. Eastern Counties 3<)i V. Productive IndiiKtry 491 3. Central Counties • - 398 VI. Civil ami Social State 49(5 4 Northern Counties 413 Vlt. Local Geography 500 ■ Page lOS •th deduced 112 ■ 114 ■ 120 - 123 gitude 136 • • 141 CONTENTS. LIS. 158 177 198 RAPHV UNDER 1 AND MVINa the Distri. he Dislri> Mail in 227 247 2fi9 PHE OLOBE. - 422 . 430 43,'i 4.1'; 438 444 445 447 mi 454 455 467 473 478 478 479 487 489 491 496 500 1. LeliMter 2. Munster :i, Coiinaught 4. Uliter Chap. V. France . . . I. General Outline and Aspect II. Natural Geography III. Hiatorical Geography IV. Political Geography V. Productive Industry VI. Civil and Social State VIL Local Geography CUAP. VI. Spain - . - - I. General Outline and Aspect II. Natural Geography III. Historical Geography IV. Political Geography V. Productive Industry VL Civil and Social State VII. Local Geography Chap. VII. FoRTUaAL - . L General Outline and Aspect II. Natural Geography III. Historical Geography IV. Political Geography V. Productive Industry VI. Civil and Social SUte VII. Local Geography Chap. VIII. Italy . . . . I. General Outline and Aspect II. Natural Geography III. Historical Geography IV. Political Geography V. Productive Industry VI. Civil and Social State VII. Local Geography 1. Ecclesiastical States 2. Tuscany 3. Lombardo. Venetian Kingdom 4. SMtes or the King of Sardinia 6. Naples and Sicily Chap. IX. Switzerland . . . I. General Outline and Aspect II. Natural Geography III. Historical Geography IV. Political Geography V. Productive Industry VI. Civil and Social SUte VIL Local Geography Chap. X. Ul'.RMANT . . I. General Outline and Aspect II. Natural Geography III. Historical Geography . IV. Political Geography 1. Germanic Body 5. Austrian Empire 3. Kingdom of Prussia 4. Smaller States V. Productive Industry VI. Civil and Social State VII. Local Geography 1. Austrian Dominions 8. Prussian Dominions 3. Smaller Statea Chap. XI. Holland and Belgium I. General Outline and Aspect II. Natural Geography III. Historical Geography IV. Political Geography V. Productive Industry VI. Civil and Social State VIL Local Geography Chap. XU. HimaARV L General Outline and Aspect II. Natural Geography IIL Historical Geography Page 500 505 507 508 511 511 516 526 627 529 533 £39 555 555 557 565 566 568 569 572 586 586 587 587 588 588 589 590 595 595 599 609 610 611 614 618 618 626 628 631 634 648 642 616 651 652 633 654 655 664 664 665 672 673 678 674 676 678 679 682 685 696 706 708 7118 709 712 713 716 719 727 727 729 730 IV. Political Geography V. Productive Industry VL Civil and Social State VIL Local Geography . . Chap. XIIL Poland, with Ducal Puubsia I, General Outline and Aspect II. Natural Geography IIL Historical Geography IV. Political Geography • . V. Productive Industry VL Civil and Social State VIL Local Geography • . . I. Prussian Poland, with Ducal Prussia 3. Austrian Poland a Kingdom of Poland 4. Russian Provinces Chap. XIV. Denmark . • • I. General Outline and Aspect II. Natural Geography IIL Historical Geography IV. Productive Industry V. Political Geography VL Civil and Social State VIL Local Geography Chap. XV. Sweden and Norway ' '. L General Outline and Aspect IL Natural Geography III. Historical Geography IV. Political Geography V. Productive Industry VL Civil and Social State VII. Local Geography I. Sweden S. Norway • • . 3. Lapland Chap. XVL Russia in Europe L General Outline and Aspect IL Natural Geography III. Historical Geography IV. Political Geography V. Productive Industry VI. Civil and Social State VIL Local Geography Cbap. XVIL Greece - • • I. General Outline and Aspect II. Natural Geography in. Historical Geography IV. Political Geography V. Productive Industry VI. Civil and Social State VII. Local Geography Cbap. XVIIL Turkey in Europe L General Outline and Aspect IL Natural Geography IIL Historical Geography IV. Political Geography V. Productive Industry Vt. Civil and Social State VIL Local Geography BOOK II. ASIA. Chap. L General View of A bia L General Outline and Aspect II. Natural Geography IIL Historical Geography IV. Political Geography V. Productive Industry VL Asiatic Languages VII. Local Geography Cbak II. Turkey in Asia I. General Outline and Aspect II. Natural Geography III. Historical Geography IV Political Oeograpbr '^ 731 732 733 738 738 738 739 741 742 743 744 745 747 748 750 751 751 753 759 760 761 761 761 764 764 765 770 770 771 778 774 774 779 781 783 783 785 796 797 798 800 £04 812 814 814 815 816 817 818 819 839 829 831 839 840 843 844 846 851 851 854 868 864 865 865 870 870 870 871 881 xii CONTENTS. V. Prndi'.cUve Industry VI. Civil and Social State VII. Local Geography 1. Palestine • - - a. Syria 3. Asia Minor • - 4. Provinces on tho Euphrates ClIAP. III. Arabu - - ■ • I. General Outline and Aspect I I. Natural Geography III. Historical Geography IV. Politiral Geography V. Pr.Mluctive Industry VI. Civil and Social State VII. Local Geography Chap. IV. Peii.'iian Eupirb - • • I. General Outline and Aspect II Natural Geography III. Historical Geography IV. Political Geography ... V. Proiluctive Industry VI. Civil and Social State VII. Local Geography CUAP. V. iMDEPE.XnEUT PERSIA I. General Outline and Aspect II. Natural Geography III. Historical (ieography IV. Political Geography V. Productive Industry VL Civil and Social State VII. Local Geography Chap. VI. HlNDOSTAM I. General Outline and Asjicct II. Natural Geography III. Historical Geography IV. Political Geography V. Productive Industry VI. Civil and Social State VII. I.,ocal Geography 1. licngal Provinces 2. Western Provinces 3. Central India, with the Dcccan . 4. South of India . . . 5. Countries on the Hiinalayah 6. Ceylon • - . . ClIAP. VII. iNnO-CHINESE CoilNTIIIi:!! I. General Outline and Aspect II. Natural Giography III. Historic.^ Geography IV. Political Geography V. Productive Industry VI. Civil and Social State VII. Local Geography Chap. VIH. Chi.va . . I. General Outline and Asi>cct II. Natural Geography III. Hislorlcal Geogr.'.phy . IV. Political Geography V. Prmluctive Industry VI. Civil and Social .State VII. Local Geography Chap. IX. TlllRRT - . . . I. General Outline and Aspect I I. Natiir.il Gciigrapliy III. Historical and Political Geography IV Productive Industry V. Civil and Social State VI. Local Geography Tartarv ClIAP. .\, Gcncml Outline ami Aspect II. Natural Geography III. Historical (ieography IV. Polilic.tl Geography V. Proiluctive Industry yi. Civil and Social State VII. Local (ieography Page 882 • ma ■ 88fi 88ti [891] • 8au 9U »l(i 9II> 916 919 921 922 924 927 927 930 931 931 933 934 935 940 9'1I 914 mr, 94.') W7 949 !«2 9")4 9(i8 970 974 97fi 982 982 um 1048 I(H9 1049 lO.OI 1IW2 um hm uar, KWli 10.'.7 1058 Chap. XI. Page Russia ON Tiiu Caspian . . . 10R4 I. (leneral Outline and Asjiect \0(H II. Natural Geography . . . lom I H. Historical Geography . . . 1066 IV. Political Geography . . . 1067 V. Productive Industry - • . 1067 VI. Civil and Social State 1068 VII. Local Geography 1068 Chap. XU. Siiieria - . . - ■ 1072 I. General Outline and Asi>ect 1074 II. Naturr,! Geography . - - - 1075 III. Historical tieography 108.1 IV. Political Geography V. I'roductive Industry lOS.'i 108.'; VI. Civil and Social State 1088 VII. Local Geography 1090 Chap. XIII. Japa."* ... 1095 I. General Outline and As|icct 1095 II. Natural Geography 1097 III. Historical Geography 109!) IV. Political Geography • IKK) V. Proiluctive Industry 1101 VI. Civil and Social State 1102 VII. Local Geography 1104 Chap. XIV. East Inoian Archipei.aoo 1105 1. General Outline and Aspect 1105 II. Natural Geography 1107 III. Historical (ieography ■ 1122 IV. Political Geography 1122 V. Productive Industry 1123 VI. Civil and Social State 1120 VH. Local Geography • 1129 HOOK III. AFRICA. Chap. I. Gf.nkrai, Suhvev of Africa Il.^i 1. General Outline and Asjieet 1I3<> II. Natural (ieography - 1137 III. Historical Geography 1142 IV, Social and Political State. . 1142 V. Productive Industry . 1143 VI. The African Languages ■ im Chap. II. EavpT ... . 1144 I. General Outline and Aspect . 1146 11. Natural Gei)gr.-iiiliy 1146 111. Historical Gt^ography • 11. '55 IV. Political Geography . lljli V. Productive Industry • ll.'i7 VI. Civil and Social State . 11,59 VII. Local Geography . . - . 1161 1. The Delta, or I.<)iver Egypt 1101 2. Vostaiii, or Middle Kgypt . lUH 3. Said, Thehaid, or Upper Egypt una Chap. IH. NroiA - . . . 117i! 1. Gener.-'l Outline and As|>cct ■ 1176 11. Natural (ieography . 1178 III. Historical (ieography 1179 IV. Political Geography 1180 V. Productive Industry 1180 VI. Civil and Social .State 1180 VII. Local Geography . 1180 Chap. IV, AnvssiNiA . ... . 1)84 1. General Outline and As|>ect 1184 11. Natural (ieograpliy . 11S5 III. Historical (ieography ■ 118S IV. Political (ieography . . . . 118!) V. Productive Industry 1189 yi. Civil and .Social .State 1190 VH. Local (ieography ll!i2 Chap. V. Bahiiahv IVM 1. (iener.ll Outline ainl Aspect 1114 11. N.iliiral (ieiigrapliy lioi; III. Ilistoriciil (icdgraiiliy 1197 IV. V, VI, VII. WR8TI I. u II. III. IV. V. VI. Sotmii I. G( II. Ill, IV, V, VI, 1. s. CONTENTS. Page 1064 loot lUflR 1066 1067 1067 1068 IOCS 1072 1074 1075 1083 1085 1085 1088 1090 1095 10<)5 10tf7 109!) IIOO 1101 1102 1104 1105 1105 1107 lllia 11SK2 Wis 1126 llii9 ii.;ri HM 1137 1142 1142 11« 1144 1144 1141) lUf. 1155 1156 1157 I15y 1)61 1161 1164 111)8 1176 1176 1178 1179 I ISO 1180 1180 USO 1184 1IH4 11^5 118S 1189 1189 UIH) 11!>2 Il!4 ll!>4 ll'iil rulltical Gcngrn|il>y I'roiliicUvo liiiliiilry IV. V. VI. civil ami Suclnl Sliito VII. Local Ui>ogrn|ihy CllAP. VI. Westkrn Apriw I. Oeiicriil Uutlliio Alul Ai|)cct II. Niitural U«ugra|)liy HI. HUtorlcal and I'olUloal Geography IV, Prwiucttvo Iiuluitry V, Civil and Sotilal Stnlo . VI, Local (Icograiihy ciur. vn. SOUTIIERN ArillCA I. General Uullino ami Ai|)CCt II. Natural Ocography III. Hlitorlcal Oisograiiliy IV. Political Gcogrnnhy v. Civil anil Social Stale VI. Local Geography 1. The Ca|Hi Colony ... S. Territory of the CatlVcc Chai>. VIII. Eastkrn Aphica • • • CllAP. IX. CENTRAL Ai'RICA ' . I. General Outline anJ Ai|iect II. Natural Ocograpby III. Hlitorlcal Geography IV. Political Geography V. ProUuctho Inuuitry VI. Civil and Social Stale VII. Local _-tography Chap, X. Sahara, OH Orkat Di'.itiviiT AFRICAN IhLANP!* Chap. XI. liOOK IV. AMKUU'A. CllAP. I. OBNitnAi View op America • • • I. General Outline and Aiiitct • II. Natural Geography • • III. Hlitorlcal Geography ■ • IV. Political Geography V. I*roductlvo Induitry . - VI. Civil and Social Slate VII. I^anguagn Chap. It. IlRiTian Amkrica . . ■ . I. General Outline and AaiHKt • II. Natural Ouiigraphy ■ ■ HI. Hlitorlcal Geography IV. Political Geography V. Productive Induitry • • VI. Civil and Social State ■ - - VII. Local Geography . • Chap, III. Tub United Statm I. OencrnI Outline and Ai|K>ct II. Natural GeoRraphy HI. Hiatorloal Ucogrnphy - • IV. Political Geography V. Pro«luctlvo Induitry • VI. Civil and Social State VII. Local Geography • • 1. Northern or New Kniilnnd .StatM 2. Middle Statoi 3. Southern Htntei 4. Woitcrn Territory CllAP. IV. NORTIIERLT liEOIONt OP AMRRir A I. General Outline and A»|XHH II. Natural Geography III. I..ocal Gongrapny 1. Terrilory (-lidnictl l>y llrllalii 2. Terrltorfoi rlalnied tiy ItuHiilii 3. Territory claimed liy the I'nited Stntei. Page , 1198 1199 1300 1204 I 1509 I 1510 I 1210 1228 1228 1823 1886 1833 1833 1835 1247 1248 1248 1248 1348 1850 185S 1855 1855 1258 1859 1859 1260 1261 1S63 1271 1875 1885 I 1885 I 1890 1899 ' 1300 1301 : ISOl ISOS iao« I 1308 I 130« : 1313 1313 1313 I 1316 j ISIS i 1386 1387 laso 13M 1338 1337 1346 IS4A 1350 1S5S 18S6 1360 1366 1366 IS67. 1378 1378 1S7S 1878 CUAP. V. Mexico • . I. Gencrnl Outline and Aipcct II. Natural Geography HI. Hlitorlcal Geography IV. Political Geography V. Productive Induitry VI. Civil and Social State VII. Local Geography CHAP. VI. GUATE.MALA I. General Outline and Aqiect II. Natural Geography III. Hlitorlcal and Political Geography IV. Productive Induitry V. Civil and Social State VI. Local Geography Chap. VII. Colombia ... 1 General Outline and Aipect U. Natural Geography III. Hlitorlcal Geography IV. Political Geography V. Productive Induitry VI. Civil and Social State VII. Local Geography Chap. VIII. Peru .... I. General Outline and Aipcct II. Natural Geography III. rilitorical Oeographj IV. Political Geography V. Productive Induitry VI. Civil and Social State VII. Local Geography Chap. IX. Chili - - I. General Outline and Aipect II. Natural Geography III. Hlitorlcal Geography IV. Political Geography V. Productive Induitry VI. Civil and Social State VII. Local Geography Chap. X. La Plata I. General Outline and Aipcct II. Natural Geography lU. Hlitorlcal Geography IV. Political Geography V. Productive Induitry VI. Civil and Social State VII. Local Geography Chap. X'. ,1 Outline and Aipjct Brazil I. Gem II. Natural Geography in. Hlitorlcal Geography IV. Political Geography V. Productive Induitry VL Civil and Social State VII. Local Geography Chap. XII. West Indies I. General Outline and Aipcct II. Natural Geography III. Hlitorlcal Geography IV. Political Geography V. Productive Induitry VI. Civil and Social State VII. Local Geography BOOK V. AUSTRALASIA, POLYNESIA, AND THE IN THE POLAR SEAS. Chap. I. AtlSTRALABIA 1. New Holland I. General Outline and Aipect II. Natural Geography III. Hlitorlcal Gcogtupliy Ptgt 1379 1379 1388 1388 1389 1390 1398 1395 1401 1401 1401 1401 1402 1408 140S 1403 1403 1407 1409 1409 1410 1411 1418 - 1416 . 1418 ■ 1419 • 1420 - 1421 . 1421 - 1483 ■ 1424 - 1486 - 1426 - 1487 - 1431 • 1431 - 1438 - 1432 . 1433 1435 1436 1436 1440 1441 1441 144S 1443 1445 1445 1447 1455 146S 1455 1458 1459 1463 1464 1465 1471 1471 1471 1478 1473 ISLANDS 1480 1480 1480 1488 1490 »lv CONTENTS. IV. Political Geograiihy V. Productive Industry VI. Civil and Social Sute VII. Local Geography 8. Van Uicmen'i Land 3. New Zealand 4. Papua, or New Guinea 5. New Britain and New Ireland 6. Solomdii lilandi 7. New HebrldM 8. New Caledonia Ciup. II. POLI'NISU (. General Outline .ind A>|)cct IL Natural CeogrHpliy 1' IKK! MB!) iM lAB ISlt 1516 1517 I5I7 1517 1SI8 1518 15a) I5S0 IIL lllitorieat Geography IV. Polillcal Gconapfiy V. Productive Inouitry VI. Civil and Social SUte VII. Loral Geography Chap. III. ULaNi» IN THB PbLAa Ska I. General Outline and Aipcct II. Natural Geography , III. Hlitorlcal Geography l\'. Political Ocogra|>hy V. Productive Induatry VI Civil and Social SUte VII. Local Geography Taklb or LATiTimRS and I^NuiTimca ... Table or Ti?a Hkiuht or tnr principal Muuntainii on tub Oi.obk Comparative Lenhtii op tub prini'IPAL Rivbrh nuBX . . . • ■ Page 1525 I5S6 tSSti IA»> 1589 15.15 isas 1.536 1.5,'I6 \r>!» 1.U8 i53a • ISS) 1541 1555 1557 1.15!) SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION. WiiiLF. tho present edition wius passing through the press, the following additional intelli- gence liar: been received, which appears to merit insertion. NoatHEHN Coast of Aiikrica. Accounts have been received of Messrs. Simpson and Oease having, in the summer of 1839. discovered another part of this coa.st. Descending the Coppermine River, they cros.sed with little difficulty Coronation Gulf, and, amid serious danger from ice, doubled Cape Alexander in 68" .56' N., 106'^ 40' W. They then entered upon a spacious bay in> dented by an endless succes-sion of inner ones, and receiving a river twice the size of tuv Coppermine. The bottom was in 67° 40' N., whence the coast turned abruptly northward, and held that direction so far that they conceiveil the expectation of rounding the Cape Felix of Captain James Uos.s. At a bold point, however, in 68° 33' N., 98° 10' W., the direc- tion clianged, and they entered a strait narrowing to three miles, with a strong current rushing througli it from the eastward Thence sailing onward, they came successively to Point Richardson, Point Ogle, and Montreal Island of Sir George Back. Crossing now the bay, they reached a l>old blulT headland, named Britannia. Traversing another bay, they sailed alwut forty miles along a coast stretching north-east, from the extremity of wliich was di.ack to the period when Abraliam was driving his flocks over the scats of future empire on the Euphrates. Among Abroliam's contemporaries we discern the germ of the great monarchies which first changed the face of human affairs. Nimrod, the founder of Rabylon, almost like an Iroquois chief, is chiefly celebrated for his activity and success in the chace. Modern discovery has indeed made us acquainted with tribes existing in a still ruder form ; but there is no narrative in which we can trace so distinctly the gradual, yet somewhat rapid, transition made in these favoured regions, from the hunting and pastoral, to the commercial and agricultural states of society. Sect. I. The Patriarchal Ages. 4. In the early patriarchal records we discover first the rich Mesopotamian plain, not yet covered with cities and harvests, but standing as an open common, over which the sons of Tcrah drove unmolested their flocks and herds. In these favourable circumstances, and surrounded by simple and rural plenty, the flocks and the shepherds multiplied in an extraordinary manner. The heads of tlic families became petty princes, and were as such at once respected and feared. As they went on increasing, the land became " not able to bear them ;" and the most inti- mate friends were able to prevent dissension among their adherents only by an entire though painful separation ; nay, even by striking into routes so opposite, as to prevent tlie possibility of future union. Tliis, however, was rather a palliation than a cure for the evil ; for, in whatever quarter each directed his course, he came into contact with other families. Tlie difl[iculty wsis still augmented, when all the more fertile tracts began to be cultivated by a Book I. HEBREW AND PIKENICIAN GEOGRAPHY. 6xed population, subject to regular govcmmcnt. The first regions wliicli came under these circumstances appear to have been Lower Egypt and Gerar, on the coast of Philistia, along the Mediterranean, In the latter we find Isaac attempting to settle and cultivate the ground ; but the king, though evidently afraid to offend so potent a tribe, insisted, in a determined though courteous manner, upon their quitting his territory. The family were therefore obliged finally to establish themselves in the vicinity of Hebron, collecting the somewhat scanty herbage which grew amid the rugged mountains to the west of the Dead Sea. It was, therefore, an auspicious change when they were transported into the Land of Goshen, a rich pastoral district of Egypt. The circumstances attending the captivity of Joseph enable us already to observe the activity of that interior caravan-trade, which afterwards, on so great a scale, traversed Arabia. Two caravans, destined for the supply of Egypt, appear meeting each otlier in opposite directions ; and that cruel trade, of which men were the object, is already carried on in the same remorseless manner, and by tlie same unjust means, by which it has ever since been conducted. Sect. II. The Kingdom, (>f Israel. 5. The Israelites, after being established in Egypt for more than two centuries, were led back into the promised land, so long the scat of their ancestors. Every thing there, since the patriarchal age, had assumed quite a difi'erent aspect : it presented walled cities, and high cultivation, accompanied with that gross superstition and di' .olute voluptuousness which arc the too common attendants of early wealth. The guilty inhabitants of Canaan with their country were delivered into the hands of the Israelites ; and the territory being divided among the ten tribes, gave occasion to a very careful topographical survey ; but nothing yet occurred to attriut the views of the nation beyond these limits, or towards the world in general. Still less could this take place during the subsequent perio<>ple with icgard to the structure and boundaries of the earth may, however, be inferred from tlio genealogical chapters {Gen. x., repeated 1 Chron. !•)> uliich contain, in fact, a view of the known divisions of the earth, agreeing in some striking particulars with tlie records of pro- fane history ; also from the accounts of the commerce of Tyre, and from various detached notices in tlie historians and prophets. I 'J. The JTi'hrews obviously never attempted to form any scientific theory respecting the structure of the earth. The natural impression, which represents it as a flat surface, with the heaven as a firmament or curtain spread over it, is found universally prevalent. Beneath was conceived to lie a deep pit, the abode of darkness and tlie shadow of deatli. In one place we find the grand image of the earth being hung upon nothing ; but, elsewhere, the piilars of the earth are re|>catcdly mentioned ; and sometimes the pillars of heaven. In short, it is evident, that every writer caught the idea impressed on his senses and imagination by the view of these grand objects, without endeavouring to arrange them into any regular system. Although, liuwcvcr, the Jews never indulged in speculative geography, yet there are copious examples of minute and careful topography for practical purfioses. Our object, however, is not to mark the divisions of Judea, but to trace tlie ideas of tlie Jews respecting the extent and Iwuiuliu'ics of the known world. We shall at the same time be able to collect all that is now to bo known of tlie Phoenician Geography ; for it is evident that Ezekiel visited Tyre, as Herodotus did Babylon, with the eye of an intelligent observer ; and he would doubtless hold intca'ourse with the best informed men in that great school of commerce and naviga- tion. The objects always alluded to, as placed at the farthest limits of their knowledge, are Tarsliisli; Ophir; Hie Isles; Sheba and Dedan; The River; Gog, Magog, and the north. {Fig. I.) SuBSECT. 1. Tarttiish. 1 ;)• Tarshisit is the name which, in the annals of Jewish and Phoenician navigation, ocriirs most IVcqucntly, and ranks next to Tyre ; yet notliing has been found more difficult than to fix that name to any precise place. The peculiar difficulty is this ; that there arc two voyages fVom Turshish : one up the Mediterranean, bringing iron, silver, lead, and tin, the produce of Spain and Britain (Ftek. xxvii. 12.) ; the other up the Red Sea, bringing gold, ivory, and apes, tlio produce of tropical Africa (1 Kings, x. ^'2.). How tliese two voyages can be from the same place, appears at first sight to baffle research. H. Various places have been suggested, among which I should not think it necessary to mention Tarsus, in Cilicia, were it not supported by such names as Volney and Malte Brun. Except the resemblance of name, it has not a single feature which can be reconciled to the Tanliiih of Scripture. Besides, the name Tarsus is evidently of Greek origin (.See Steph. Bywnt, in i*. Strabo 1. 14. Bochart's Phakg., and Welstein's Nov. Test. vol. ii. p. 51 1. & 608.), whereas Tarshish is manifestly of oriental derivation, and is doubtless of Phoenician origin. Indeed, Malte Brun admits it to be tenable only on the clumsy and improbable supposition of tlicre being two places of the name of Tarshish. Tartcssus or Cadiz is certainly more plausible, and agrees with the Mediterranean voyage ; but tlic distance is too great, and notice might have been cxiiectcd to be taken of not a few intermediate objects, particularly of the Straits of Gibndtiur. It is altogether foreign to tlie voyage by the Red Sea. Tliis last objection D.OK I. HEBREW AND PHtENICIAN GEOGRAPHY. Fig. 1. GcooRArHicAL Ststem or the IIerhrwi. appears also to hold against Carthage, which, in every other respect, seems prcfcrnblo to Tartessus, and of which more will be said in the sequel. 15. To solve the problem if the two voyages, the only attempt, so far as I know, Imi boon In the ingenious hypothesis of Gossclin : Tarshish, according to him, signifies the great or open sea, as distinguished even from the largest of its enclosed gulfs. The name may tlion bo applied equally to the Atlantic and the I-idiun Ocean ; and the voyage to and fVom Tnnlilsh may equally be by the Red Sea or the Mediterranean. But though this hyputhcHls bu Hup» ported by the signification of an old Hebrew term, and though it solve the great problem, I think any one, who attentively traces the various occasions on which Tarshish is montioiied in Scripture, will be satisfied that it has a sense quite diflTerent from the loose and vague ono here ascribed to it. Let us only read the following verse : — " But Jonah rose up to fii'u into Tarshish from the presence of the Lord, and went down to Joppa, and he found a ship goh)g to Tarshish ; so he paid the fare thereof, and went down into it, to go witli them into Tamlilsh from the presence of the Lord." Do not these words unavoidably suggest a precise port, to which there was a regular packet, with a fixed rate of fare ? ^ not a mere vague setting out into the wide and open sea. If the following expressions can be reconciled to M. GoHsoliu'* hypothesis, it is only by very strained interpretations : — '< The kings of Tarsliish ; — tho nit by Book I. HEBREW AND PIKENICIAN GEOGRAPHY. atlons of Solomon ; liis utnrimt eflbrts combined with those of Hiram ; the materials of shi])* building conveyed by land over a vast desert ; the most skilful workmen transported to Ellon Oebcr ; a fleet composed of large vessels, called ships of Tarsbish, at last formed, and undertaking a series of voyages, in each of which three years were employed. What a waste of labour and expenditure to obtain a commodity which could have been conveyed across Arabia in two months on the backs of camels ! Yet the repetition of the voyage shows that the article was, in fact, procured on better terms than by the usual channel. In the voyage from Ophir, also, we find new articles never mentioned in relation to Sheba or Arabia, but characteristic of equatorial Africa — ivory, opes, and peacocks. With regard to tlie close combination in which Sheba and Ophir are always found, it will appear natural enough, when we consider that, unless during the short expedition of Solomon, Siieba appears to have been the channel by which the gold of Ophir was transmitted to Judep and Phoenicia. This circumstance might readily lead the inhabitants of those countries to consider tlio two as closely connected, though Ophir might be beyond Sheba, and even be separated from it by seas and territories of considerable extent. 20. The hypothetis which places Ophir in India, though supported by great names, appears quite untenable. Tlie trade of Ophir bears not the least resemblance to an Indian trade. It does not include the fine manufactures and rich spices which India has always furnished ; and its staple is gold, which never, at any time, was an article of export from that quarter of Asia. India has, on tlic contrary, always demanded a large balance of specie, and hai formed a gulf in which the gold of the west has been absorbed. If we reject India, we shall not certainly, with some lavans, travel as for as Peru in quest of our object, notwithstanding the slight resemblance of name, and the attempt to eke it out by the expression " gold of Par. vaim," which has some &{ pearance of being synonymous. 21. The eastern coast of Africa is tlie quarter to which nil the indications appear very clearly to point. In the voyage t/t Tarshish by the Red Sea, its name and that of Ophir are always combined ; nay, the voyage, which in the Book of Kings is called the voyage to Tarshish, in the Chronicles is called the voyage to Ophir ; so that it is evident thp two are one and the same voyage ; and, if Tarshish was Africa, Ophir must clearly be in Africa. There is, however, on tliis coast no abundant supply of gold till we reach as far south as Sofala ; thus implying an extent of navigation which is certainly somewhat startling. M. Gosselin par< ticularly urges, that in tlie time of Alexander there was no longer any knowledge of eastern Africa ; and tliat even tlie Romans never appear to have penetrated beyond Cape Delgado. On the other hand, it is to be considered that the alliance of Hiram and Solomon united advantages which never existed again in an equal degree. The wealth, naval skill, and ample materials which those great princes could command were scarcely equalled, even by the Ptolemies. After the dcatli of Solomon, the kingdom, split into two, and weakened by continued dissension, abandoned entirely these distant commercial enterprises. A solitary attempt to renew the trade was made by Jehoshaphat, but tlie vessels prepared for that pur- pose were wrecked in the very moutli of tlie port of Ezion Gebcr ; after which the under- taking was entirely given up. In the calamities which afterwards bcfel Israel and Judah, and the revolutions which subverted the whole political system of western Asia, it is not won- derful that every trace of this distant intercourse should have been obliterated ; and that the successors of Alexander should have had to enter on a new field of discovery. In support of the supposition of Sofula, there may ulso be noticed a certain resemblance of name ; and the duration of the voyage, stated at three years, would aflbi'd very ample time to reach the Zambese, even under all the imperfections of ancient navigation. SunsECT. 3. The Isles. 22. The Isles, a term which occurs much in Scripture, might be supposed to describe generally those portions of the globe which come under this description ; yet a careful com- parison of the diflerent passages in which the word occurs will probably show, that it is used in a much more precise and determinate sense, and is applied to a wide and connected range of territory. 'llie whole of the southern coasts of Europe, consisting either of real islands or of peninsular tracts, oppears by the Jews and Phoenicians to have been viewed as a long range of islands. Besides, the terms i^cros and insula were, in periods of remote antiquity, applied loosely to peninsulas as well as islands proper. Among many examples which might be adduced, me will suffice — Peloponnesus. The isles, relative to Tyre, ap- pear to have ranked only second to Tarshish as a source of wealth, and in respect of close and intimate intercourse. Tyre is called expressly, " a merchant of many isles :" and the consternation which shook tlie isles at the sound of her fall ; the dismay of their kings, who are said to have then cast off their robes, and sat on the ground, — all point out the extent and importance of this commerce. Tarshish, Elisha, Chitlim, and Dodanim are named in the genealogical chapter as the/bur who divided among them the isles of the Gen- tiles ; but, though Tarshish is so often named in combination with " the isles " among thu most distant maritime territories, there is never any indication as if it were itself an island. B 4 HISTORY OF GEOORAPIIY. Pakt I. Tlic combination is probably protlucitl by thu citvnitlvo iNMM'wIimi nnd rommrrro of IIm CartlmRiniai)!) in tho wvitcrn islands and coasts of Kiiropc, TIicms including tliu toutlivrn |ioint of Ilalv, were, as already observed, probably consiilvred as Insular, and wvni dintinguislied by the api>ellations of the " isles afar oH'," and '• the distant isles of the sea," 'I'ho " isle" in particular, which Isaiah mentions in such close connection with Turshisli, and which the merchants of Sidoii, " by passing over the sea, hud replenikhed," can scarcely lie any other tliun Sicily, an island almost Carthaginian, and containing so mitny llourishing cities, >Vith regard to the isles of Klisha, they are evidently Hellas, the Urei-k name of Oreece. Thu only distinctive characteristic, indeed, that of furnishing Tyre with the blue and purple dye, does not rccal to us any of the features under which wv have been accustonieeculiar abundance on thu coast of Laconia. Chittim appears very evidently Cyprus, and its early capital of Citium. The alarm iK'Ing given thence of the approach of tlio king of Uabylon, and its Iwing considered as thu natural place of refuge for tho inhabitants of Tyre, where yet they would not bu fkdlv secure, mark a proximity which belongs to no other island. The name, indeed, is in onu instuncu given to Greece, and in another to Italy ; but this seems merely to be, that, as thu nearest known island, its name is sometimes thus vaguely extended to thu whole of that territory considered by the Jews as insular. The attempts of lioclmrt to Hud the nanui of Chittim in Italy have been wholly abortive ; for we cannot consider as worthy of notice the uhservution that it and I.atium, in the respective Greek and Latin languages, Ixith signify "to liiile." In regard to Dodanim, convertible into Kodanim ( l and 1 being perpetually interchunge founded), though it is mentioned only once, we seem juslilUil in lUing on Ithuiles, already flourishing and commercial, tlunigh not yet become the rival of kings, Uocliurt seems to go much too far, when hu seeks for it on tho Ilhonu or the Uhro. Subse(;t. 4. Sluba nnd 1M»h, 23. Of Ihe internal trade if western Asia during the early ages, tho ntost extensive nnd important wus that carried on across Arabia. It consisted, not so much in (he productions of the region itself, as in tliuse of India and Africa, which found their way by this clmmitl to Judca and IMxcnicia. '24, Sheba, among the Arabian states, holds the most prominent place, being undoubtedly tliu same with the Subcca or Arabia Felix of the classic writon. Its imports weru Ihe precious commodities of gold and incense : the latter anciently in most extensive demand for tho purpose of sacriKce. These articles appear to have been brought to Judea, not by any maritime channel, but in crowded caravans. Thu " companies of Sheba" nro mentioned even in Job. Isaiali speaks of the " multitude of camels ;" and of " nil they fh>ni Sheba." Yet the incense, it is now certain, must havu come chietly tVom the oppt)s!le African const of Berbera; and the gold, we havu seen reason to think, must linvo bi'un derived from a still more remote part of that continent. 25. The commerce of Dedan rivalled that of Sheba, being carried on A'oni Ihe opposite or eastern coast. The mention of " many isles " in combination with Detlan seems to Ax it to that point at the entrance of the Persian Gulf, which is, in fact, borden a more distant IX>dan, adopts the hackneyed scheme of supposing that there were two IXMlans. There is no (H'casion for so unskilful a theory to cxpliun the intimate connection Iwtween these two stales. When caravans came across Arabia froin the Persian Gulf, it was at Edom or Idumea that (liey first touched on the civilised world. A depot was thus naturttllv formed there of thu (ummoditics in which they traded. This traffic raised Idunten nnd its capital, Petrn, to « high pitch of wealth and im))ortancc. So close a connection necessarily caused IX'dan to be deeply affected by any calamity which desolated Kdom, and renden>d her no longer the channel through which this commerce could flow. But these disastein nru by im means represented as touching her so closely or so deeply ; and while Edom is rt'presented as utterly spoiled, and converted into n waste and reproach, the inhabiluitts t)r IKnlan are merely warned to " turn back and dwell deep" {Jer. xlix. 8.) ; and the exprus,Hion, " tiiey of Dvdaii DOOK I. HEDREW AND PHCENICIAN OEOGRAPUV, ihall fall by the iword," U more correctly interprctenicians, overlooking the long range of narrow straits which separated it from Europe, no' yet recognised as a separate continent, appear to have extended the name to Thrace, and the interior of contiitentui (ireece. Alexander the Great is in one place called king of Javan. That a similar extension was recognised in the early ages of Greece itself, appears by the celebrated ancient inscription at tlie Isthmus of Corinth. " This is Peloponnesus, not Ionia." The Javan slaves were probably drawn from Thrace, whose barbarous regions amply supplied tlie ancient iiiiirkcts with this cruel species of commodity. Chap. IL H Ex AMCIEKT VOVAGES OF DISCOVERT. 31. TIte early voi/agei of discovery formed the most important materials for those delineations of the globe which were mode by the geographical schools of Greece and Rome in their more advanced and perfected state. Before proceeding, therefore, to consider the systems of these schools, it may be proper to take a survey of the exploratory voyages performed by ancient navigators. These do not appear very considerable in the eyes of a modern mariner. There is not one of them, perhaps, which the captain of a tolerably appointed merchant vessel would not, in the course of his ordinary busiii>>ss, be ready to undertake. Hut in steering along an unexplored coast, in vessels which could scarcely rank above boats, without the use of the compass, or any correct means of astronomical ohservution, even these limited voyoges were fraught with peril and adventure. The record of them is, however, involved in much mystery and controversy, i'licy were not reported to the world in those regular narratives with which the modern press teems. The ancient narratives are always meagre, and in many cases we have only fragments of hearsay testinuiiiy, collected by careless or pre- judiced writers. A learned investigation, tlierefore, is usually necessary, to discover along what coast the navigator sailed, to what point of it he reached, and suiiietimes whether he ever sailed along any coast. In several cases the most skilful dispniunts are still divided on questions, which, sunk in the deep abysses of time, must probably remain for ever undecided. Faint and dubious, however, as are these records, they will lead us over some of the most interesting problems of antiquity, and will enable us to trace, in some degree, the infant steps of maritime enterprise. Sect. I. Circumnavigalion of Africa under Necho. 32, To jterfomi the circuit of the coast of Africa was the favourite object of ancient maritime enterprise, as it continued to be of «liat of modern times, till the era of its final happy ac- complishment. The manner in which its coasts, beyond the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, began to converge, suggested the idea of a peninsula, the circumnavigation of wliich might be effected, even by the limited resources of ancient navigation. The wide sphere, both of knowledge and trade, which such a discovery wouid open to the enterprising mari- time nations round the Mediterra- lan, was sufficiently obvious, The first attempt of this description originated in a quarter which had usually been accustomed to keep aloof from every species of naval enterprise. Book I. VOYAGES OF SATASPES AND HANNO. tl- 33. Egypt had long held itself as a country strictly agricultural ; but Necho, who next to Sesostris, raised its military glory to the greatest height, appears, like other conquerors, to have been animated by an active spirit, which exerted itself in every direction. Not possessing (it instruments among his own subjects, he engaged some Phoenician navigators to descend the Red Sea, and endeavour to find their way back to the Mediterranean, by the Pillars of Hercules. The narrative is so very short, that we may easily give it in the words of Herodotus : " The Phoenicians, setting sail from the Red Sea, made their way into the southern sea ; and when autumn approached, they drew their vessels to land, sowed a crop, and waited till it was grown, when they reaped it, and again put to sea. Having spent two years in this manner, in the third year they reached the Pillars of Hercules, and returned to Egypt, reporting wliat does not find belief with me, but may, perhaps, with some other person ; for they said that in passing Africa they had the sun on their right hand. In this manner Libya was first known." 34. The mithenlidly of this narrative has been in a remarkable degree the object of learned curiosity, and has produced a mass of controversy, greater, perhaps, than its short and vague nature is well able to admit. The arguments appear to have been exhausted on the believing side by Rennell, on the sceptical by Gossclin and Vincent. Formidable as the achievement was, it docs not seem to involve any absolute impossibility, since the whole voyage might be performed witliout losing sight of the coast, or launching into the open sea, through which the ancients had no means of guiding their course ; and tlicir smaller vessels, keeping close to the shore, might even possess some advantage over our larger ones, obliged to stand out to sea, and encounter tlie stormy waves of the Atlantic. Herodotus seems inclined to credit the information, unless, on the ground of one general statement, which, being the very thing that should have happened, and disbelieved only through his ignorance, strongly fortifies our inclination to credit the story. Sect. II. The Voyage qfSataspcs. 35. The Persian monarchs, ailer their sway was established over the eastern coasts of the Mediterranean, found the exploration of Africa in some degree their peculiar province. This nation, however, laboured under an aversion and dread of the sea, greater, perhaps, than tliat of the other orientals. The only eflbrt of theirs on record was one which arose in a singular and rat;ier casual manner. 36. Sataspes, a Persian nobleman, having committed a heinous offence, was condemned by Xerxes to a cruel death. His tVicnds, however, persuaded the monarch, that by commuting this sentence into that of a voyage round Africa, he would inflict sufferings scarcely less severe, and might render a national benefit They prevailed, and Sataspes, having procured in Egypt a vessel and crew, passed tlie Straits of Gibraltar, and bent his course southwards. He is represented as having beat about for several months, at the end of wliich he probably reached the coasts of the Sahara. The view of tliose frightful and desolate shores, and of the tempestuous ocean wliich dashed against them, might well intimidate a navigator bred in the luxurious indolence of the Persian court. Sataspes was struck with a panic, and measured back his course to the straits. Yet, hoping that time and the degree in which he had accomplished his mission might efface the impression, both of former offence and of pre- sent failure, he again presented himself before Xerxes. In giving an account of his voyage, he merely related, that wherever he landed he had seen little men wearing a Phoenician dress, who immediately fled into the mountains ; but his people had done them no injury, beyond carrying oft' the cattle of which they stood in need. The failure of the ultimate object of the expedition he imputed to the occurrence of an insurmountable obstacle, the nature of which has not lieen satisfactorily explained. Xerxes, however, accustomed to expect that all nature should be subservient to his will, would listen to no excuse, and ordered the original sen- tence to be immediately executed. Sect. III. Voyage of Hanno. 37. The Carthaginians, as the greatest maritime and commercial people of antiquity, and !>9 decidedly African, might have been expected to make earlier and further progress in the discovery of Africa than any other nation. In general, however, a veil of deep and awful mystery shrouded all the proceedings of that powerful and aspiring people. It is even asserted t'lnt they considered as exclusively theirs the whole Mediterranean east of a line drawn across to Sicily, and tliat they captured all the vessels, and put to death the crews, that were found navigating within these forbidden precincts. The Romans, on the other side, animated by inextinguishable enmity, are said to have industriously destroyed all the records of the literature and history of their fallen rivals. ITie only fragment that escaped is the Periplus of Hannu, which, notwitlistanding the scepticism of Dodwell, its editor, the learned world are now generally agreed in considering as ancient and authentic. This celebrated docu- ment is so short, that we may find space here for a complete translation of it. " It pleased the Carthaginians lliat Hanno shoulil sail beyond the Pillars of Hercules, and should found iitii's of the I-iby-Phcpnitians. He set sail, therefore, with a fleet of sixty vessels, each of which was impelled by tirty oam. 'lliey carried with them men anil women lo the number of thirty thousand, with provision! and t4 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Part I, supplies of various kinds. Wc ssiled two days beyond the straits, and founded a city overlooking an ample plain, and which we called Thymatvrium, Thence we proceeded westward to Soloeis, a promontory of Libya, thickly shaded with trees, whore wc founded a temple to Neptune; then turning eastward for half a day's sail, we came into a lake not fsr (tmn the sea, overgrown with numerous and high reeds, and on whose banks elephant.- and a number of wild animals were I'ceuing. Having passed this lake in the course of a day's sail, we founded cities on the sea coast, Gaicios, Gyltc, Acra, Melissa, and Arambys. Then setting sail, wc made oar way to the great river Lixus, wliich flows tVom Libya. On its banks the Lixltss, a pastoral race, fed their flocks ; with whom we formed tics of firiendship, and spent a short interval. The country above them wa« inhabited by inhospitable Ethiopians, filled with wild beasts, and traversed by very high mountains, whence the Lixus Is said to descend ; and it was added, that these mountains were inhabited by men dwelling in caves, of a strange appearance, who outran even horses in the chase. Having received interpreters ITom the Lixltffi, we proceeded along a desert coast till the middle uf the second day ; when we sailcti one day to the eastward, and m the recess of a little bay found a small island, five stadia in circuit We left inhabitants there, and named it Cerne. This island, on taking an account of our course, we conjectured to be opposite to Carthage j for the navigation from Carthage to the Tiiiars, and from the Pillars to Cerne, corresponded Then we came to a lake through which flows a great river called Chretes. That lake contained three isluiuls greater than Cerne j by these, in the course of a day's navigation, we reached the interior shore of the lake, where very great mountains im|iended over it, inhabited by a rough pcopicdressed in skins of wild beasts, who by throwing stones repelled us, and preventecd ofl'the skins, which wc carried to Carthage." 38. Such is the entire narrative of this most celebrated of the ancient voyages i but it would be impossible to comprise within the same limits even a sketch of the commentaries to which it nas given rise among the learned. 39. Three leading hypotheses have been formed : one, that of Bougainville, who conceives Hanno to have reached the Gulf of Benin ; another, of Major Rennell, who carries his course only to Sherbro Sound, a little beyond Sierra Leone ; while M, Gosselin insists upon ter- minating it about the river of Nun. (Fig. 2.) When we reflect that the first of these courses is upwards of three thousand miles, and the last under seven hundred, an idea may be fomtcd of the excessively vngue nature of these data, where all the names are changed, and no one point fixed with such certainty tliat the others can rest upon it. 40. Bougainville contends that his assigned limits do not exceed what may reasonably be supposed to have been passed over by the most skilful navigator of antiquity ; in fact, tlie period of thirty-eight days is precisely tlie time employed by the squadron sent in 1641 to found the Portuguese fort of Elmina. AH the grand features of man and nature described by Hanno arc to be found in tropical Africa only; Etliiopians or Negroes; Gorilla;, who are evidently apes or oran-outangs ; rivers so large as to contain crocodiles and hippopotami. The great conflagrations of tlic grass, and the music and dancing prolonged through the night, are phenomena wliich have been observed only in the negro territories. 41. Afajor lienncU's system retains all the arguments by which that of Bougainville is supported, at the same time that it avoids tlie extravagant supposition of ancient vessels having made a course of seventy geographical miles in tlie day. Tlie Gulf* of Uissagu and Sherbro present those numerous islands described by Hanno, and not found on any other part of the coast ; and even thoir form seems to correspond to the appellation of Horn, applied by him to these great gulfs. If, then, Hanno's career reached central Africa, there can be little doubt that Major llenncU's hypothesis, or something near it, exhibits his reid progress. 4'_'. M- Gosselin restricts the voyage within much narrower limits. It was impossible, he urges, that the course could be otherwise than slow in a voyage of discovery upon an unknown sea, where the mariner could sail only by daylight, with constant precautions, and minutely examining every part of the coast. The motions of Hanno were clogged also by the large and incumbered fleet of which he was the escort. Destitute of the compass, and without the power of standing out to sea, he could never, it is alleged, have doubled Cape Bojador, which so long baliled the eflbrts of the Portuguese. With regard to the features supposed to be exclusively characteristic of tropical Africa, M. Gosselin conceives that Morocco, yet in no degree civilised or subdued, but in the full possession of rude native tribes, would Iwar a much more similar aspect than now to the interior portions of the continent. The ape tribe and the wild river amphibia might probably fill a region iinoccupieil by man, though UOOK !• VOYAGE OP HANNO It Fig, ?. Map illustrating the Votaoe or IIakno. «"l ■__ lOl 0| 10| SPAIN C. lUmiiii «'. Venl "^to C now, it is supposed, i>xpi>l1o(l l)y culture and n more crowded population. The term Eth'- (ipiims liiis lu'on applied, not t«> nej^roos only, but to all nations of a dark colour, lie con- iiives, tliercrori', llmt llanuo's course could never pass much beyond the frontier of Morocco, mid could have reached only a very little further than the estuary of the river of Nun. •J!t. V'li (/t'ci'i^' (I /)()i(i/ on which such learned men so widely disagree, is what we do not feel very forward to undertake j and really the diflicultics appear very great in any view of the subject. Tlie detail of the positions would, on the whole, lead us to prefer the most limited space. Of these positions the island of Cerne forms the key ; and the identifying of it with Arguin is essential to the support of the two remote hypotheses. But though it is evident tliat the wlidle of the sailing period to Cerne is not given, the time being omitted during which the live cities were foiuided, yet the general tcnour seems pretty inconsistent with so great a way being made along such a diflicult and unknown shore. The defect is in some ili'gree supplied by an aucieut nautical guide of some authority, called the Periphis of Scylax, ill which the sail from the straits to Cerne is given at twelve days, a period which Major Keiiiiell admits to be wholly insuflicient for reaching Arguin. Ptolemy, indeed, carries Cerne to ainios* a tropical latitude; but as he keeps it still north of the Canaries, his gra- duation here is manifestly erroneous, and his authority, cm the whole, is in favour of retaining Cerne within the limits of Morocco. The details of Ilanno do not appccr to be always very satisfactory ; but perhaps they might prove more so, did we possess a more accurate survey of this coast than has yet iH'cn taken. On the whole, then, the great question is, whether M. Gosselin's solutiuiis can account for the aspect of nature and life being so different from 14 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Part T. that of Morocco, nnd lo like tliiU of a negro coast : perhaps here, too, some light might be obtained from a careful observation of tlie ruder borders of the former empire. Sect. IV. foitages of Eudoxus. ' 44. The anMtion nfperfitnni»ii the circuit of Africa, the grand miiritiine problem of antiquity, was not solely connned to princts and states. E'von private adventurers, animated by the ambition of achieving so groat on enterprise, and hoping, perhaps, to combine witli it oppor- tunities of lucrative commerce, ore found in tlie list of tlic explorers of Africa. Eudoxus was the most memorable of these adventurers, whose story, however, has come down to us tlirougli a very clouded meiiium. In ancient, still ir.ore tlian in modem times, there existed men whose habit it was to treat witli doubt and derision all narratives of discovery that ex- ttmdcd beyond the ordinary limits. At tlie head of this sceptical band stands Strabo, one of tlie greatest geographers whose works survive, and who forms the chief medium by which tlicse narratives have reached our time ; a most luifortunatc circumstance to the fame of these early discoverers. However, in many instances, nature herself has stood forth as their vin- dicator; and our more extended knowledge has enabled us to detect the fallacy of the argu- ments by wliich Strolx) has endeavoured to refute them. This is not particularly the case with regard to Eudoxus; but really, in Strabo's notices respecting the adventurous life of that liold navigator, we cannot see any tiling which tends to controvert the general belief of antiquity, that he had made repeated and spirited attempts to explore the unknown coasts of the African continent 45. Acconlins' to the narratives ofSlrabo, Eudoxus was a native of Cyzicus, sent on a mission to Alexandria, then the great seat of maritime enterprise unes, and invited all who were animated with any spirit of enterprise to accompany him. He accordingly succeeded in equipping an expedition on a considerable, luul even magnificent scale. lie had one ship and two large boats, on board of which he carried, not only goods and provisions, but artisans, medical men, and even players on nnisiciil instruments. A crew so gay, and filled, probably, with extravagant hopes, were ill iitted to encounter the hardships of African discovery. They took fright at the swell of the open sea, through which Eudoxus was anxious to conduct them, and insisted, according to the usual timid system, on bi'iiig brought near to the shore. This led to the disaster wliich Eudoxus had foreseen t the ships were stranded, and the cargo with dilliculty saved. The most valuable articles were then put on board one vessel of a lighter constriictiun, and he prosecuted the voyage till he came to a race of people who appeared to him to speak the same language with those whom he had met on the opposite shore of the continent. Conceiving himself to have thus ascertained the object of his voyage, he returned, and endoavoiired to procure the ImrlMiric aid of Uocchus, king of Mauritania; but, suspecting that monarch of a tivaclierous design against him, he again betook himself to Spain. Here he succeeded in t'(|uipping a fresh expedition, consisting of one large vessel fitted for the open sea, and unotlier of smaller dimensions for exploring the coast. Here, unfortunately, tlie narrative breaks oil', referring to the Spaniards and Gaditanians, as likely UOOK I. VOYAGE OP PYTHEAS. 15 t(> know more ; but as nothing more is stated on any authority, we fear tliat tliis last expedi'> tioii must have had an unfortunate issue. Such is the narrative given by Strabo, upon iiifurmation which seems to have been originally obtained from Eudoxus himself; and really wc see notiiing in it unworthy of belief, or which might not very well be accomplished by a iiiuii of bold and enthusiastic character, possessed of science and talent, and devoted with such ardent zeal to the cause of discovery. Some of Strabo's own criticisms appear to be very trifling. He ask < how it was possible for Eudoxus, after being repeatedly stripped of all his wealth, to fit out always new expeditions on an augmented scale ; but his own narrative expressly states the foreign sources to which he had recourse. Again, it is tauntingly asked, why he turned bac': in his lost voyage, when he found himself so near tlie attainment of his object; but surel," when he tells us that liis whole armament was shipwrecked, and that he had nothing to proceed in but a boat put together out of its remnants, there does not appear the least mystery in his finding it very expedient to return. With as little reason can Eudoxus be made responsible for the fables which antiquity has put into his mouth. He is represented by some as having actually made the circuit of Africa ; by others as having I'oinc to one nation that was dumb, and another whose mouth was entirely closed, and vhich received food through an orifice in the nose, None of these fables arc found in the report of Eudoxus him!«lf, as coming through the mouth of Strabo his enemy ; and we may therefore justly conclude them to have arisen out of the propensity to the marvellous operating upon the successive minds of those through whom the narrative passed. Sect. V. Voi/age of Pj/theas, 46, The voyage of Pytheas, the Massilian navigator, is of peculiar interest, as it is the only one described in any detail, having Europe, and particularly the British Isles, for its object. It comes to us, however, still more deeply tinged by the same dim and discoloured medium through wliich that of Eudoxus has passed. It is known almost solely by the hostile (|uotations of the sceptical Strabo, adduced for the purpose of proving Pytheas to be " a liar of the first magnitude." Yet, when we find the nature of the grounds on wliich this conclusion is made to rest, it appears surprising that M. Gosselin, with all his propensity to doubt, should have adopted so eagerly the severe judgment of his predecessor. These grounds, in fact, arc such as to place iu tlie clearest light Strabo's own ignorance, and the superior information of Pytheas. This last will become more conspicuous, if we suppose, us sccnis probable, that the errors of tlic geogiaphcr were transmitted to him from Massilia ItSL'lf ; in which case, Pytheas being found possessed of knowledge of which his countrymen were destitute, there appears no mode in wliich be could have obtained it, except the actual performance of the voyages. 47. The following are statements on which Strabo rests his refutation of Pytheas. That navi> gatur stated, that tlie Calbium Promonlorium, the extremity of Bretagne, pointed to the west, while Strabo affirms it to be perfectly notorious that its direction was to the noWA. This last strange idea was connected with what we shall find to be the general error of this school, which allowed to France a southern coast only, and not a western one. Again, Pytheas represented Britain as having one of its sides much longer than five hundred miles, wlicrcas, his adversary maintains this to be the dimensions of its longest side, wluch, according to him, is that opposite to and seen from the shores of Gaul. Finally, Pytheas had reached such u pitch of ignorance and impudence, as to assert that liis Ultima Thule was t'arther north tlinii Ireland ; whereas, all well-informed persons, knowing Ireland to be four hundred miles north from Britain, and scarcely habitable on account of the cold, considered it as funning on that side the extreme boundary of tlie inhabited earth. Thus far it is necessary only to name the charges against Py*heas, to make hiin shine conspicuous abovo his enemies. •IH. There are other stntemenls, it must be confessed, which appear at first sight a little startling. Pytheas describes the longest side of Brit.iin not only as more than five hundred miles in length, but as exceeding two thousand. It is to be observed, however, that while Stralio described Britain as a triangle, having its longest side opposite to Gaul, Pytheas conceived it to have only two sides, one of which, consequently reached from the Land's End, or the Lizard Point, to the extremity of Scotland. If we consider this vast extent of coast, with so many winding shores and deep bays, all the sinuosities of which an ancient navigator was obliged to follow, the estimate will appear not very extravagant. Again Pytheas described ilip cojist of Kent as several days' soil from that of Gaul. But the term by wliidi Strabo designates Gaul, is KijAtikij (Celtica) ; and it appears from Ca:sar, that Celtica formed only one of the three parts into which Guul was divided, and was bounded on the east by the ■Seine. Pytheas probably used the term in this restricted and more proper sense ; when the distance assigned became strictly correct. He moreover described the coast of Spain as iiibabitcd by Gallic nations ; it wotdd even seem, that he considered the Calbium Promon- toriuni as Spanish. Here he was clearly in the wrong ; but the error will probably be found III have rested not in his observations and facts, but in mixing them with an erroneous tlieory prevalent at Rlassilia, according to which, France had not a western coast, nor one 16 HISTORY OP GEOGRAPHY. Part T. lacing the Atlantic ; such a coast liclonged to Spain only. Under this impression, Pythcas, so long as he sailed along the western coast of Gaul, and till he came to that opposite to Britain, would naturally imagine that he was sailing along the coast of Spain. 49. Strabo at last traces Pytheas to T/iule, and " her utmost isles," when he does, certainly, present a narrative assuming somewhat of a fabulous aspect. The most daring navigator, as he approached the dreary boundaries of earth and ocean, and saw only the high billows of the North Sea dashing against a rocky and misty shore, might become liable to some sinister impressions. Pytheas, it seems, said, that l>eyond Thule there commenced what was neither earth, sea, nor air, but a confused blending of all the three, similar to the substance called inilmo marinus (a species of medusa common on our shores). He added, that this substance was the basis of the universe, and that in it, air, earth, and sky hung as it were suspended. This last was evidently a mere theory, though certainly not devoid of extra- vagance. M. Gosselin, however, has certainly gone much too far, when he says, " It was impossible either to wolk, to breathe, or to sail in it ; and yet, if we are to believe I^theos, in it he walked, sailed, and breathed." Pytheas is evidently represented by Strabo as having merely beheld from a little distance this chaotic compound. " He saw it, and stated the rest from hearsay. " Now, as to tliis asserted view, if we place ourselves in the situation of Pytheas, seeing before him the northern sea, overhung by thick and gloomy mists, slirouded in twilight, and darkened by tempest, we may suppose him very easily persuaded, that what he beheld was a confused blending of all the elements, not very dissimilar even to that thick viscid animal substance to wliich it was compared. Nor can we feel much wonder, if, after this long and difficult navigation through so many perils, he should lend somewhat of a ready ear to a report which represented him to have reached that farthest boundary of nature, beyond which it was no longer possible for mortal sail to penetrate. Another report of Pytheas was, that at Thulc the phenomenon took place which belongs only to the polar circle, — a summer of one long day, and a winter of one long niglit. Antiquity is somewhat full of rumours of this phenomenon, which science had pointed as likely to take place at a certain latitude ; and there was a general disposition in those who had made any progress northwards to anticipate the term. Considering the loose way in which rumour then spread, it may easily be supposed, tliat the partisans of this idea might support it by an exaggerated representation of the real statements of Pytheas. One of these (Geminius) merely reports him as saying that the nights appeared to him to last only for two or three hours, a statement which at midsummer would be quite correct. Indeed, we have been assured by persons who have resided in these islands, that at that sc.ison there was scarcely any sensible term of darkness. A foreigner, then, visiting the islands, might very readily imagine he had arrived at that point on the globe where the summer was one uninterrupted day. 50. The theories, which would make Thule any otiier place than Shetland, seem not to require much discussion, though there arc not wanting learned partisans in favour of each. Iceland would imply too great an extent of open sea for an ancient navigator ; and the period of five days' sail from the continent would be very inadequate. Some Scandinavian writers have claimed Thule as belonging to their own region ; Uudbeck for Sweden ; Saxo Groinmaticus, and Schoenning for the Norwegian Tellemach ; Make Brun for Jutland. These theories seem sufficiently refuted by the single consideration, that Pytheas invariably considered Thulc as liritish, and expressly calls it the " farthest of the firitains." But Jutland or the Baltic he could have only reached by a long navigation along the coasts of Germany, which could never have been performed without the clear perception of having left far behind Iiim every thing belonging to Britain, •rt monarch or snge, h one of explor- ' c interior of the aritime discovery. Sect. VI. The Voyage of Ncarchus. 5\. Alexander the Great was animated beyond, perhaps, any otiieranc with an ardent zeal for discovery. His expedition became almost as ation as of conquest. Its course was in general by land, and throu^ continent ; but his mind was not less deeply fixed upon commerce an ' On reaching, therefore, the banks of the Indus, and bein'; obliged by the mutiny of his troops to fix there the termination of liis career, he was seized with a desire to explore the low-. . course of that river, and afterwards the southern coasts of Asia; a long range comp! N'^y unknown to the Greeks. The prospects of this voyage, however, were such as to appal the most enterprising of his naval officers. The perils of tempest and shipwreck on this wide and unknown ocean, with those of being driven upon a barbarous and desert coast, appeared almost to preclude the hope of reaching by this long circuit the destined station of the anny on the banks of tlic Eui)hrafes. Tlie inferior officers variously excused themselves from so heavy a task ; and the enterprise appeared ready to fail for lack of instruments, when Near- chus, the admiral of the fleet, came forward and proffered his own services. Alexander unwillingly committed tliis task to an officer so high in rank, and his intimate friend ; but the earnestness of Nearchus, and the backwardness of all the others, left him at length no alternative. 52. The voyage down the Indus was brilliant. Alexander conveyed his army in a crowded Part I. Book T. VOYAGE OF NEARCHUS. 17 npression, Pytheas, to that opposite to pain. he docs, certainly, ^ng navigator, as :he high billows of ne liable to some amenccd what was ar to the substance [e added, that this y hung as it were t devoid of extra- 1 he says, " It was believe I^theas, in f Strabo as having ' it, and stated the in the situation of iy mists, shrouded rsuaded, that what even to that thick h wonder, if, after nd somewhat of a aundary of nature, \nothcr report of only to the polar iquity is somewhat to take place at a nade any progress mour then spread, by an exaggerated us) merely reports hours, a statement ssured by persons ly sensible term of Ine he had arrived em not to require each. Iceliind the period of five vian writers have xo Grammaticus, These theories lably considered lit Jutland or the Germany, which far behind Iiim monarch orsnge, one of cxplor- interior of the itime discovery. ny of his troops plore the low-. . mge compl fc'v as to appal tlie ck on tliis wide coast, ajipcarcd ion of tlie anny nsclvcs from so ts, when Near- es. Alexander ate friend ; but at length no ly in a crowded fleet of two thousand vessels. The sound of numberless oars, echoed by the surrounding woods, as they floated down this majestic stream, excited tlic admiring gaze of the natives. Alexander even accompanied his admiral down the Delta of the Indus, and took a view of tlie ocean, after which lie returned, to lead his army by a most perilous and dithcult route tiirough Gcdrosia and Karamaniu to liabylon. Noarcliua now began his arduous naval route (Jig. 3.), after the usual antique preparation of sacriHcci 53. Fig. 5. Map or the Vovaob or Niakciius. 1-1 4> and gamps. At the mouth of the river appeared a most formidable obstacle ; a rock barring tlic passage, and aKiiinst wliicli the waves hrdke with fury. This was surmountcil by cutting a canal across the sotlest part of the rnck, through which the vessels were able to p.iss >' full tide, lie then passed the sandy island of Krokali (t'orachie\ and Mount Kirus (Cape Monzc", when, being now in the open wean, a scries of gales ticgan, so heavy and continued, as obliged him to .seek the shelter of an excellent harbour formed by an island called Jlibacta. The crews here landed, threw up an <'ntrenclinient to defend tbemselves against the natives, and remained for twenty-three days, subsi-ting cliietiy on shell-fish. The wind having abateil, they set sail, and came to a co.nst where water, of which tliey appear to have needed almost daily supplies, was only to be got by going several miles up into the country. 'I'hey then passed between a range of rocks, so close to each other, that the oars struck against them on each side. After sailing a considerable space, partly in a narrow channel lietween a wooded island and the shore, they came to the river Arabius (thi' moilern I'ooralce). It gave name to a numerous people, inhal>iling all the territory between this river and the Indus. On the other side was the coast of the ()rila?. In proceeding, however, Nearchus met with a dreadful tempest, in which three of his vessels pcri.shed, though the crews were savcil bv swimming, and ho with dillicnlty brought his shatterecl vessels to the coast Hero b.' found Leonatus, \vl i Alexander had detached to open a communication with him, which he obtained only by very hard fin mg. Nearchus here spent tome time in refitting his shattered vessels, and exchanged those of his crew who had proved themselves less etiicicnt, for fresh men out of the Greek army. Having laid in corn for ten days, they saded with a nrosperous wind, and reached the rapid stream of Tomerus Uhc nuHlern Wudill. Here the natives, six hiinilred strong, were drawn up to oppose their landing ; a barbarous race, armed with lances six cubits long, pointed not with iron, but with wood hanlcned in the fire. Nearchus caused a band of his light troops to suiui on shore, and to make no movement till the.v were drawn up in a triple line, then suddenly to raise a general shout, and pour in clouds of darts and missiles. 1 his tudden attack, their shouts, and the glitter of their arminir, prodnccil instant and total rout on the part of the natives. They are described as presenting an aspect almost incredilily savage, being covered in a great measure with hair, and having long naili like the claws of wild beasts. Their dress consisted in the skins of animals ami of large fishes. :it. The etfieilition now slreriiig nut to sea, and taking a southerly course, observed phenomena belonging to the midsummer of the tropic, the novelty of which struck them with surprise. When the sun was in the meri. ilian no shadow was projected, and when there came to be a little shadow, it declined to the southward. Stars, » hich were wont to lie seen high in the heavens, were now little above the horizon. At Hagaziri (tape ArrnhalO they left the coast of the ()rita<, iiiid entered that of the Ichthyophagi, or fish. eaters, a food which i> said to have so remarkably aboundetl, that even the flesh of the cattle .savoured offish, from their making it, like sea birds, their daily I'ikhI. The people were hospitable, but could give only (islies and goats. It was not till the (Jreeks had sailed a consite met him in the most kindly nunr.er, and presented to him masted fish and other victuals. Meeting their friendly advances, he expressed a wish to visit their city, and benig eorilially adinittnt, his first step was to take military occupation of it, and command the natives to lay open to liiin all their stores of grain. The poor citizens at first flew to arms, but having no means of eflectual resistance, were obliged to yield. It provceinK informed of the cause, made his crews raise the loudest iMiMllde sound by shouts, trumpets, and dasliinR of oars, which at once kept up their own spirits, and Was suiiiHwed to Induce these monsters of the ilecp to repUuiKe into their abysses. .'i.">. I'm' ciiasi ((/■ Ciirninania was next reached by Nearchus, alter passing the fabulous al)oo >iaeeta (Mussendoon), and nart a fertile and beautiful coast. In the delightful country at the mouth of the river Aimnils (the modern Minab) they landed, and began to refresh themselves after so many hardshijis. Then, a iMrly having priM'ciHleil to some distance into the ulterior, met, with tears of surprise and joy, a man in a Greek Iress, and siieaklng the (ircek language. This proved to be a soldier who had straggled from the army of Alexander, which he reported to be at a distance of only five days' journey. t)n receiving this intelligence, Nearchus caused the ships to be drawn on shore, a rampart to be formed round them, and the crews to take rest and relVeshment, while he and Archias set out alone for the cam|>. On their arrival, llicy presentnl an Aspect so haggard, pale, and stiuatid, that the persons thev met did not know them, but on being told their name, liasleiuHl to carry the first tidings to Alexander. Tlicy adiled (a hasty conclusion fiirnii>d from appear. Alices), that the fleet and the army had perished. Alcxamler received Nearchus with a kindness mingled with ■orrtiw, aiiit after the first salutations, began to ask particulars of the catastrophe of his favourite armament ; but when Nearchus repiiisl, " U king! thy ships and men are safe," the eonqueror burst into a floo, Moon alter thev quitted the coast of Caraiiiania and entereil that of Persia proper (the modern Fars^ which they followed till its termination at the river Arosis (the mwlcrn Knilian Tab), which appeare tivo ponce. I'he encouragement of industiy and connnercc never fonned part of the policy of (hut ptiwerful empire ; but tlie demand for luxuries of every description in its overgrown capital, where the wealth of the world was collected, and to procure which the remotest extremities of the earth and sea were ransuttiiig instruments. Some fine cloths, and ornaments of Slid And Sliver, were brought as presents or tribute to the king. Farther down, npiiarently in the Gulf of cyla, was the kingdom of /oskales, a prince who is described in glowing terms as adorned with every Virtue, and eminently skilled in Grecian literature ; but these seeds of civilization, if they ever existed, did liut rl|Kin In so ungeiiial a cliinata The coust now turns westward to the Indian Ocean. Fart I. Book I, PEllIl'LUS OF THE ERYTIIREaN SEA. tf lit lit tlicy anilnl r had even bnats. the fibrous lurk when the watera of the rich were she!. Nearcliui of water thrown 111 made the oarr s crews raise the own spirits, and ode of a Persian dsures, and then ,'as tolerfllily pro. and Iloinbareek, lussendoon), and ■rotus, an othrer foot to llaiiylon, Icxandcr, whose tlie Kuplirates ; leserts, uf whicli irsian gulf tlicy luitb of the river rdsliips. Then, a I man in a O reck om the army of this intcliigencc, the crews to take hey prcscnteil an being told tlieir led from ap|K'ar. ess mingled with iirito armament ; I a flood of tears, entire conquest et, was easy, care rid desert rock of eta (tlie miHlern per (tlie modern , which appeared and soon reached twccn the Red iinbitiun. He accomplishing o double that ntraiicc of the were always inferring, that kring curiosity ent by observ- night, and in suppose tliat of compara- of the policy ts overgrown the remotest le enterprise, staclcs which overcome, nt along the Arrian, not lucli u voyage ion, and will [cmies, and the The coast on The small port , the navigator ity of Arkeoko. is, about eight that variety of is, with bright )rass for vessels d oriiaincnts of in the (iulf of ed with every r existed, did fiO. A view qf the pasiage down the oppotite or eattern coast r\f the Red Sen must now he litken, Nsvlgiilnr* do not seem to have ventured across the breadth of that sea from Iterenice, but went hy Mvos llnriiiiia, nioiig llie mouth .if the (iulf of Siie«, touching at l.eulce Konie, the fair village, which formed thepiirt of llitgieut cum. niercial caiiital of I'etra. The coast downwards was most unfavourable to navigation, " liillof dniiger, wllhoiil harliimrs, beset with rocks, every where full of horror ;" anil such the whole of the Ued Sea U doserllied to bo by iniMlern navigators. If a vessel was driven too near the shore, it was linmeiliately pluiiilereil by Ilia barbarous Inhaliitants, and all who survived carried into slavery. At length they came In the lluriit Ulniiil, which seems to be fiebcl Tor, on the coast of Yemen, where they found a line country and a frlenilly iK'ople. The emiMirium of this coast was Moosa, near the modern Mo<-ha, said to be iiiliablle xreat |>car|.llshcry. The C'ornmMidcl crrnit i« neiirly a blaiilt, till we arrive at Ma»iillii. wliu h, with the gTent ahiindaiicc of its cotton clothii, H|>eaka clearly Maauhpalan. In proceedinK north wariU, naviKatori rainc 'o straiiKo and barbaroiiii |H'ople, with vUaiiei lonietimei of ciiormoiii leiiKth, at ulhe'f rcieinhliiiK thoae <>!' liiiriea, and aomc eating human fleah : an exaitgerated picture nf the Heri'o predatory racea who oocu| y the mountuin and jungle tract* ofOrlaaa. He ileacribea accurately, however, the direction to the eoat whicii the coaat of the ocean takea, before it receivea the mighty flood of the tlangea. At ita mouth iliere wai then, it aecma, a great cm|>orium liearing the name, which no city now doca, of the river itaelf. The ataple waa " au|>crlativclv line cotton clotha, called Oangetic," and which still cxiat In the iu|>erb fabrica of Dacca anil MourahedabaiL (i.'>. In Ihe iffioHs lifi/imd Uimifet the author of the Periplua gropca almoat in total darkneai. Mention la made of an iaianil, tile fartheat part of the world to the eaat, and which la richly atonil with the moat pre<'ioua pro. diicliona of the couiitriea that lie on the ahore of the Red Nco. T'hia cannot aceuiingly lie any other tliuii Sumatra, though erroi.euualy placed near the (laiigca. The only ulterior poaition ia 1 iiiiior, a great Interior city, aitnated op|Hisiteto I'onlua and the Caapian Sea, and near to where the I'alua Mirotiaflowa into the ocean. 'I'hia atrange aitu we ahall ailerwarila Hnd rcaaon to conaideraa a comliinat.,m of aoine actual rumoura with the theory formed by the lint Alexandrian achooi reapecting the form and dimenaions of the continent of Aaia, There accma aome re.iaun, however, to cencluile with Dr. Vincent, that thia I'hinie, whence caravana i .ime by way of Hactria to Harygaia, must have oliacurely indicated the capital of China. Nor can we lie caaily |H'r. •iiadeil that in the maliibni/irum, though moat usually applied to betel leaf, aome conl\iaed idea of lea ia not involveil. Ita bi-ing aotlrictlvcharaclcriaticof I'hiiKt, and iH'ing brought by (H'raima nf a broad forehead, abort iMNly, and flat nuae, featurea ilecidedly Mongol and C'liiiieae, aeeiii all in favour of thia aui>|Kiaition, and liicoii. •latent with that, which would make it merely U'tel leaf, a product of Indoatan ; though there ii doubtleaa ■> great anil manifeat coi fuaion in the accounts. Qi dV iiiiiiil HOW liMk buck lo llie Strails of llah.rl.Manriel, and follow our author along the African coaat. ^Fie. 5.) From thoae straits veswla proceeded eaatward along the aliiire opiKisite to Arabia, the mo- dern Iterliera. Ita porta, Avalitea, Moayl- luin, MiiMilns, Daphiiun, aud others, cannot be easily iileiitilleil on a coaat, with resiiect to which we have scarcely any mixicrn data. The inipiirts were nearly the same aa at Adulisj the expoits w*re myrrh, fraiikin. cense, a speciea of cinnamon called casia, aome other aroniatics, slaves, and a little Ivory. At length they doubled the pro. monlory of Arumata (Guanlafuii, when they came to a coaat atretching to the •outhward and facing the Indian Ocean. Here waa a port, the acat of a considerable trade, but by no meant aei'urc j however, when the north wind began to blow with dangeroiia violence, the veasels found shelter In the neighliouriiig promontory and port of Tabal. Proceeding onwards, they found Opoiie, Aixikapa the less and greater, Ni. con, Sernpion, seven successive rivera, with anchorages at the mouth of each. Soon ■iter, at the distance of aliotit three hun- dred stadia from the continent, there oc- curred a low wooiled island, bearing the very expanded name of Kiteneiliom.menou- thesias, which other writers wisely contract into Meiiuthiaa. It contained no wild ani. mals, but abouiideil in lisli, particularly tor. toises, which the inhabitanta were very diligent in catching. Two days' voyage far. thcr brought them to Kliapta, a promontory and port, and the seat of a great trade. Beyond this point, the ocean wa« not yet cxnloreil ; but it turned to the west and (outh, and was sup|ioseh- anily, by means of his seven mouths of rivers, of which RI. Gosselin admits that no trace can be found within his limits. They are clearly presented by the estuaries of the Quillimanci, on which are the important harbours of I'atte, Meliiula, and Mombaza. Hut we cannot, with Dr. Vincent, pass by I'emba and Zanzibar, to find in the little island of Monfia the Menuthias of Arrian. Zanzibar, from its size and its proximity to the coast, apgiears a feature which it was impossible to overlook, and its position is in much better bearing with the seven estuaries pre- viously pu.ssed. The next cape must then be Hliu|ita, and this will be that oppo.site to which m =■% -i'f WM Part T. ir (rape Comnrlnl, , till we nrrivf at III. In iiroci'MliDK Kirmuui liMiKth, nt :lurc of till! HtTco itfly, howcvor, the ml of the OuiiKCi. y now cneatli. 71. Homer, like llesiod and the ancient poets generally, delights in topographical detail, and scarcely allows a city or natural object to pass without applying to it some characteristic e|)ithet. It was only, however, within a very limited range that he could give these distinct and animated notices. Tlie Greek islands, beautiful and fertile spots, which seem to have beon the first cradle of European civilisation, were the central point from which his know- ledge emanated. He knew well, and had probably visited, on one side Pelopoimesus, Attica, aiul tlie regions immediately adjoining ; on the other, the western coast of Asia Minor, ond the banks of the beautiful rivers by which it is watered. Perhaps scarcely any otiier tract on tlie globe presents within the same compass such a variety of grand and beautiful olijects to rouse the imagination. Beyond this circuit the world of Homer was soon involved in mysterious obscurity. Some grand and distant features, discernible tlirough the gloom, were exaggerated and distorted by ignorance and superstition. Thebes, the mighty capital of Egypt, when that kingdom was in its greatest glory, is celebrated for its hundred gates, aivd the hosts of warriors which they sent fortli to battle. Beyond lay the Ethio- pians, deemed the remotest of men, dwelling on the farthest verge of the earth, and to whose distant confines Jui)iter repaired to hold an aimual festival. In the western part of the same continent the stupendous ridges of Atlas had excited in Grecian fancy the image of a gigantic deified being, to whom was intrusted the support of the heavens. Even farther to the west, the exploits and wanderings of tlie great Grecian demigod had conveyed a tradition of the strait loading into the ocean, and of the rocks on each side, celebrated inider the denomination of the pillars of Hercules. On the cast, Colchos was distinguished by its early wealth and commerce ; it was considered a city on the occ&n, with which, therefore, [lie Black Sea must have been confounded ; and being supposed to contain the palace of the Sun, where during the night he gave rest to his coursers, and whence in tl— morning he drove liis chariot to its diurnal career, Colchos must have been regarded by Homer as placed on (lie most eastern verge of the earth. On the north, Uhodope, under the name of tlie Uiphean Mountains, was considered a chain of indefinite extent, closing in the northern limits of the world. The poet, however, had heard a vague report of the Scytliians, under the description of a people subsisting on mares' milk. The vessels which conveyed the Grecian army to Troy were evidently little better than large boats; and all distant voyages, or those in which land was K st sight of, were considered as fraught with the extremest peril. A navigation to Africa or to Sicily took place only through tempest, terminating usually in sliipwreck ; and a return from these shores was esteemed almost miraculous. In regard la C 3 HISTORY OF cnoauAi'iiY. Part I. I ml F Sicily, indceil, Ilomor lias liirgdy coinmiinioatud Ills iiliw, liitvin^ nmili' il 'hv lln'iilrc of tlio woct unil Hiiiiilfriii(fs of tliu lioro of the Oilysscy. Rliikiiij; ovi-ry iilliiwiuicu for iiovlicul licence, »'o hi'U vviilciit. truces of tliu terrified uiul eiiileil iiliile of iiiiiiil in the liavi)(utorH ulio relumed from these shores. Monsters of struiigo form mid iiiii>(iiitude, who wiitchetl for the destruction ot tlie mariner, niid even fed upon his i|iiiveriii|{ liiiihs ; delusive sirens, who lured but to destroy ; imprisonment under the Iniii'-forined sliiipo of wild beasts ; these, probably, arc imly a highly-coloured repetition of the terrillc rumours brought by the few whose hark had been wufked to those as yet savage coants, Scot. II. Poetical deof^raiihi^ 72. y/n ideal anil poetical chnrncter wa» communicated lo the Hcicnco of Koogrnphy itself by the fables with which Homer thus tinged his narrative. This teiideiicv indeed did not rest solely upon Homeric iiillucnce, but proceeded from certain secret workings of the human licart. There exist in man ideas and wislies for which, in the sphere of his actual existence, he can find no corresponding objects; these he creates for himself in that dim boundary ^vllich separates the known from the unknown wiirld. There involiinlarily arises in his breast a longing after a more exalted state of existence than llie world before him presents — bright scenes, which he seeks but never finds In the circuit of realities, In it newly-discovered region, however, which possesses any share of beauty, iinagiiialioii soly on very imperfect observation, at the Canaries, These islands have not altogether lost the a|ipellalion ; and they are painted by Horace in glowing colours as a refuge still left for mortals from that troubled and imperfect existence which they experience in every other li people was there to be found, sought tliein next on the banks of the Danube ; but every tiling there was remote from that tranquil aspect under which the poets hud painted the Hyperborean world. Some traditions carry them westward ; but their seat was finally lixcd in that luirlhern extremity of Asiatic Itussia which the ancients never explored. They even carried with them the Ripha'an Mountains, which became thus an ideal chain, delineated in mixlern maps as extending along the extreme frontier of Ktirope. Impressions of gloomy darkness, and even of the terminatiun of existence, are, in other moods of the hiinian mind, associated with images of distance and obscurity. These infiueiices gave birlll lo the Ciniinerians, n people who dwelt in iierpetual darkness, and were never illumined by the cluerful rays of the sun. Their favourite seat was on the straits at the iiioiitli of the peninsula of Taurida, the farthest point, probably, of which rumour had spoken in the poetical ages, and which was called the Cimmerian Uosphorus. It was probably from similittide of name that they were afterwards confounded with the people called Cimhri, The learned, however, have found traces of Cimmerians in the extremities both of the east and the west ; and the idea of the curtli as terminated by a boundary of darkness, being foniiiled on natural impressions, has very generally prevailed. Park mentions it as the reigning belief among the Mandingos at this day : and the world, in the system of the .\rahian geographers, was endoseil by a seo of darkness, 73. Other fabulous creations, springing from those of Homer, continued long to hold a place in geography. The one-eyed Cyclops appears under the name of Arimaspian on the frontier of India, and in the remotest extremity of Africa. The I'igmies inultiplied still more extensively; they had seats on the Strynion, the Hehriis, in India, and the north of Europe. According to Strabo they were spread over the whole southern border of the earth ; and this representation even induced Uanier to suspect that, on that side, they liu\e been confounded with tlic monkeys. Part I. I!mix I. GEOGRAPHY OF HERODOTUS. > tlioiitru of tlio ,'u I'lir iiovlicul imviguloi'H uliu viitclit'd I'lir lliu ivL' Niri'iis, who bvikVltH J tlll'S'.', ^Iit by tliu IV'W t>ogni|>liy xtscU I'l'tl iliti nut rt'st of lliu liuiimii l-tliul I'xititVIICV, ilitii boiiiulury y iiriwH in liis liiiii iiri'sciits — 'wly-ilistcovvifd vM till- colourn brillinnt Hpots -tho loi'tuimtc lio lirst illusion, w nioro distant diiirly adapti-d, i'tlio Hi'spcriiin ( UN loi'inint; 11 llni'sl tivi's of tlicni and tiiu obsiMViition, at lioy uro iminlcd t troubled and , Indi'pi'nik'nt, iitl di'sirc to tlie 'oliunul roposc, , indci'd. would usiou, to Hutlor till! ri'Ci'ssos of boy were ri'pre- Kii'kni'ss, and 'un Mountains, dincrii' world, pi'oplo wns \\n^^ tlu'ri' was bori'an w orld. that nortlu'rn nurii'd with niiHlcrn maps (liiikni'ss, and usMH'iati'd with nnncrians, n iii'ri'ul rays of a of Taurida, and whii'li was hat tlii-y were ■r, have found be idea of the pressions, has Mandiu)(os at ,e'l by sea of lon){ to hold n uispian on the iiulti|)lied still I the north of border of the ide, they hu\o SiCT. III. School of Miletut, 74. The astronomical schonh of Mikliis ami Saiiios ojipear, so far at least as there Is any preeisc reeord, to have made the tirst attempts to form geography into a system, and to apply to it the lights der^ed from astronomy. These and other cities of Asia Minor rank high nnioiig the early seats of commerce, and they established colonies in various quarters of the Mediterranean and tlie Kuxine. While they continued independent they were very weultliy and prosperous, and the sciences were cultivated with ardour and success. To a commercial people practical mathematics, and especially those branches subservient to geography anil navigation, nuisl have peculiarly recommended themselves. Thales, Anuximander, [ Anaximenes, anil I'ytliagoras, ure celebrated by their countrymen as the inventors of all the processes by w hich the phenomena of the glol»e are calculated. The gnomon or sundial, for ascertaining the progress of the sun from tropic to tropic, and finally the latitude of particular places, the division of the year into '.]('>5 days, and into four seasons, are repre- sented as having originated in this school. It appears doubtful, however, v^hether theso discoveries were due to their own < xertions or borrowed from the Egyptians and Chaldeans, H'liose fame, amid the dim traditions of antiipiiiy, stands pre-eminent fur astronomical observation. ""i. Tliffiynt mile modi' of f()rmhig a division of tlio earth wn« into elimalei, determined l)y the spccici of aiiiiii.'il!! niid |>l.ints |ir(HlueiMl in e.teh. Tims the lU'iirn, tlie rliliiiicenis, llic elephant, were eonaidered m ehuracteristie iif tile torrid zone. 'I'liii very loose nietliiHl xi've nl.iee to another, I'ornied l>y obavrvinK at each lil.ice the leiiuth »f the loiixent and khorteat days. 'I'hia could only be done with aceuruey by a gnomon or dial, eri'i'ted on a norizontal plane, and ahowinK, by tho length or altortneaa of ita ahadow, the elevation of the ami abiivi' the horizon, there is niueh reavon tii tliink that lliia simple inatrument waa employed by the l':Kyptiani, e>piri^illy in the operation, whleh they undoiibtetlly performed, of aniling live daya mid a quarter to JsiHl to form n eoinphte year. It liaa even been imagiiusl liy aome, that the pyramids, tlio^e enorn:'>ua atrueturea by which tliia people excited the aatoniahnieiit of the world, were only fiuge suii- eiiig placed in the direct position of the carillnul pointa, they are perfectly Htted for being thus em|iloyed. Hut, though it ia rleur that I'halca »nd hia diaeiples had largely drawn trom theac early fciiurcea, they probably made considerable additloiia to the inforni.ition thence derived, 'i'wo books, one on the tropic, and the other on the equiimxes, are reported to have been written by I'hales hiinaelf The ilegree of kiiowleilKe thus altaineil enabled him to diaiover the error of the vulgar in aup|»isiiig the earth to lie a plane surface ; but he could not reach tlie precise idea of ita globular form. Anuximander viewisl it as ■ cylinder; some compared ita form to that of a boat ; others to that of a lofty mountain. The details of the I'ythagorean cosmography have not reaclied tia ; but the fact that tliey placed the sun in the centre of the system, with the earth moving rounil it, indicates at that infant era attainments which were lost uuring many ages, and only recovered at a far more advanced stage of inoilern science. 7(i. The mill) must, as s(H)|| aa geography waa cultivated, have occiirrisl aa the best nnd most perspicuous fomi of embodying its reaidta. Anaximander ia the tirst who is reported to have conatructed a map of the worltl, enibr.icing that limited sphere of objects which were then comprehended under that term. Hut the most celebrateil prwiuctioii of Ihia nature waa that employed by Aristagoraa, the prince of Miletus, to induce (It'omenes, the Spartan king, to undertake the coiKpiest of I'eraia He entered, it is saiil, the presence of that lo plele as could be formed from the materials w itliin his reach. It comprises a general summary of all that he could learn respecting the human race, and the regions which they inhabited. His information was obtained not solely or chiefly from books, but mostly by travelling, the only mode in which at that era geographical knowledge could be ttlijctually collected. He assures us that be had visited I'ersia, Assyria, Egypt, Thruce, Scythia, and all the distant regions which he describes. He viewed them, however, only as tracts of territory, the abode of nien, and did not attcm|it to combine them into any systcin of the earth ; nor did he possess, or, at least, apply any of the mathematical or astronomical principles of tlie IVlilesian school, lie even derides sonic of its conclusions; as that of the earth being round and encompassed by the ocean. His strange statement, tliat the sun in India was vertical in the morning instead of at midday, is evidently a niisiinderstood report of what he had been informed respecting the dillerence of time in the dillerent parts of the earth's circumference. His knowledge, however, such as it is, consisting of plain facts, untinctured with theory, is both solid iuid extensive. 7"). 77«.' division of the earth into three gunrters, or continents, was by this titne completely foiined. Sea, or atleast w.iter, seems to have been the principle of separation, tltough not C 1 24 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Part I. required to be altogether complete. Setting out from Europe, for tlic origin of wliich appcl- liition we have nothing hut tlic fubic of Europa, the Greeks seem to have named the other tontincnts from tlie distriets inmiediately beyond the intervening sea. Homer already mentions the name of Asia as applied to a large and line tract on the coast of Ionia. Thence it spread throu;j;h the spacious peninsula of which it forms part, and which Europeans con- tinue to call Asia Minor; but soon passing these limits, it was vaguely extended tlirough the boundless regions of the East, till it finally embraced entirely the largest of the three conti> nents. On the other side, directly to the south, the Greeks first landed on the coast of Libya ; and the name of Libya was by them applied to the entire continent. With the Romans, on the contrary, whose position and political relations attached them entirely to the district of Africa proper, in which Carthage is situated, the name of Africa soon prevailed over every other. 80. These grand divisions of the ancient world were already known to Herodotus; but he has astonished European readers in an extraordinary degree by the assertion, that Europe is longer and of greater extent than Asia and Africa united. The severe judgment of M. Gosselin pronounces such an assertion, made in the midst of the nations which carried on tlie most extensive navigation, to be a proof that they had not formed the least idea of the distance which their vessels sailed along the Mediterranean. Ilefore pronouncing so severe a sentence we must consider attentively what, in the conception of Herodotus, was Europe, and what was Asia. He mentions two boundaries : one formed by tlic lilack Sea and the Don, which, though it does not form a very appropriate boundary of a continent, continues still to prevail, being connected with the Northern Ocean by the mountain chain of the Urals. Rut in the other, which is that preferred by Herodotus, the RIack .Sea is continued by the Caspian ; the boundary line being carried along the north of that sea, and thence indefinitely eastward. Taking Europe in this sense, we find it in the west ru-extended witli the opposite coast of Africa, which the ancients necessarily considered as marking the length of that con- tinent, while, in the east, however far Asia might be prolonged, Eiiro|>e was still regarded as co-extensive. With regard to the boundaries of Africa, too, there was an extreme want of precision. Our limit of the Isthnnis of Suez is ceitaiidy the most accurate ; but the ancients, who could not readily admit the notion of a continent bounded by any thing but water, attached themselves more to the Nile, and did not well know whether to consider Egypt as Asiatic or African. SuiisECT. 1. The Europe of Ih'rodolus- 81. Scythia was the extremity of Europe, beyond Greece, with which Herodotus appears to have been most familiar, and which, in fact, he knew better tlian almost any other ancient writer. This name, which became ultimately Asiatic, was restricted by him to the tracts that now form the southern provinces of the Russian empire. These regions were then, and in a great measure still are, possessed by the same description of rude Nomadic and pastoral ])cople, who have always occu])ied the central plains of Asia. The attention of the historian was speci.illy called to them by the rash aiul daring expedition of Darius into a region secured by its natural barriers, and the wandering and untamed character of its people, against every form of regular subjection. Darius, crossing the Hellespont, marched along the northern shore of the Euxine, reached the banks of the Volga, aiul after the fruitless labour of erecting there several fortresses, returned by a more iidand route, in which Major Rennell even supjioses him to have passed the site of Little Novogorod. The knowledge acquired by this expedition, however, did not enable Herodotus to avoid great errors in the delineation of European Scythia. He imbibed a most exaggerated idea of the dimensions of the I'alus Ma'otis, which he calls the " mother of the Euxine." This appears to have arisci chietly from the false orii'ttling of the side which faces Russia, and wliich is made to stretch almost due north, instead of west, while the sea itself is represented as forming the eastern boundary of that great space of four hundred miles square, williiu which Herodotus comprises Scythia. The southern boundary was formed by the Euxine, ami the other two by the land, su that he does not connect it in any shape witli the Northern Ocean. 82. Tlie ilclnih of th'.: extensive rraion are ({ivon liy Ilcrciiliittis witli ciinnldcrnhlc .irrnrncy. Of its rivers, nfter tlie Danube, wliici lie r-iiiks sivond to the Nile, lie nu'iiliiiiiH llie Tyrt'B or Diieistcr, the Hypaiiis, or Itog (ami cvcii describes the close approach of thcHc rivera to e:ii'h (illuT ill tlie upper part of their course), tlicRrcat channel of the Ilory&lhenes, or Dnieoor, anil the Taiiais or Don, Ik'twccii the Inst he mentions st^verat t>treains, the Fanticapes, tlypacysis, una (leriluH, which not being recognined by miKlern geography, Major Ilenncll supposes to be creeks or liranehes of the greater rivers. 8;!. Milesian citlunies had, by the active enterprise of thai coiniiiereliil people, lioen already formed even on these rude shores. One, called the port of the llorysthelies, is deseribed aslherentre of the trade of . Scythia, On the hanks of this great river dwelt n people, lieariiig the rare character of {hi' plKUfhinfi .Scythians, who renouncing the almost universal habits of their race, raisinl crops of grain in this liTlile district, which still furnishes to the ports of 'i'agniirog and Odessa those supplies, which render them the granary of the Mcdi. terrancan. The Milesians had al.so a colony established at the mouth of the Danube, 8t. The niirlhern interior ciiunlries of Kurope, which lay iM-yoinl iho lliiiUs of the .Scythia explored by the exiiedition of Darius, were covered for Herodotus with « veil of iliiu (jbsrurlty. On the .Scythian frontier, along the heads of the Dniester and liorysthenes, he renreaeiits several imllons j the Melanchleni, " men clothed in black ;" the Androjihagi, " men eaters ;" the fileurl, " once a year ooiiverled into foxes." These Orcck names, and partly labulous attributes, show the very imperfect nature of the notices colleeteil on the suliject. The regions beyond the Danube are cxprctsly stuteil lu lie wcupicd by nations to hlin unknown. Two BuOK I. ASIA OF HERODOTUS. 25 precious commoditiOT, the ambor from the coast of Prussia, and the tin of the Cassiieridcs, under which last name a vhk»c iile.i nf the Hritisii Islands seems to be iiielucled, conimuiiicatcd the knowledge, that there was a great ocean in the north, but without the means of ascertaining its extent and limits. On the cast, however, as already observed, lie had attached to Europe a vast extent of territory wliith has been entirely sr ercd from it ill siil>sc(]uent systems. The expanse of northern and even middle Asia, which the ancients afterwards called Scylliia, and which forms the modern Tartary, inhabited by races exactly similar to the Scythians already dcscriliwl, amieared to Herodotus decidedly European. It was bounded by the I'hasis, the Caspian, the Aral (lint distinctly recognised), and the Jaxartcs. The Massageta?, celebrated for their contest with Cyrus, gave name with Herodotus to all the wandering tribes in this eastern part of Europe ; but they were afterward* nergcd into the prevailing appellation of Scythians. SuBSECT. 2. Asia of Herodotus. 8,'). ytsia, according to the conception of it formed by Herodotus, will appear, from what has been said, to include only a small portion of the vast continent to which we assign that name. Oil the north it had the same seas and rivers just enumerated as the boundaries of eastern Europe ; to the east it tenninated with India ; while, even to the south, a large portion of the desert tracts of Anibia were not yet believed to exist. When this great historian wrote, nil the various kingdoms and petty states, into which, in the infancy of the world, Asia had been partitioned, were absorbed into one vast empire. The Persians claimed Asia as their own, and had distributed it into twenty-four satrsipics, which have been illustrated in a very learned manner by Major Rcnnell. They included, with tlie exception of the northern part, which he considered as European, all of Asia that was known to the Greeks. In collecting therefore from Major Uennell's investigation the following table of those satrapies, we exhibit not only the outline of that great empire, but, with the somewhat dubious exception of a small part of Greece, the whole of the civilised world. The tribute paid in talents of silver will exhibit their relative wealtli and importance. TABLE OF THE DIVISION OF ASIA INTO SATUAPIEa loni.i, Mafrnpstn, Cnrln, .^oli.i, Svrta, Pam))h>l{a (the whole vest and south coast of Asia Minor) .Mvsi.i, I.jilia, \c. (the western interior) ....... l'lir>t;i», rapliligoiii i, ('iiii)ta(Iucia, ftc. (the south coast and the great interior table land of Asia Minor) Cilicia (including jiart of Svria, and rearhliiii to ttie Knplirates) . . - - I'liieninia, Palestine, and ('>|inifi (which furnlslied also a ttiird part of die naval force of the empire) Kcvpt, iiuliidini; (^Teneand ll-irca (halfor the Irilmte )i.dtt in (p-ain) - - - llalivlun and A&svria, including S)rTia, and fumi»hin^ also 5(10 eunuchs . . • . . Snsiana, or SonihiTii Persia ....--.- jMihH;! ( Northern i'ersla) ...... 'i'he (^-l^)>ians, ronticce, Pantlinathi, and D iritic (the ^.^uca^ian provinces of Persia) The MatlL-ni, Saspires, iVc. (.tderbUan and tlie Armenian provinces) ..... .Armenia .......-- The Mosetrs, Tiliareni, ^losrhl. fcc. (the 'W'estrm Clucasus, Cooriria, Minfirelia, as far as Trehisond) The .S.iiiijalians, Sar.nneans, &r. (Seistan, t'araniania, l.ar, and other territories along tlie Indian (icean, and tin- easli-rn part of ihi- Persian (in f) -..-.. The P.trtliiaiLs, i:lio.iMni ms, So^dians, and Arians ( Ivlior.-i^^an, Herat, Candahar) ... 'i'lii liand irii, t)ie lludlca>. Ace. (.\lari;iana, the countrv on die Murahab, between Klior.lssan and the Osus) Ilaiitia lllalli) - - - - . 'J'he Saru! and Caspico; (Kaushltiiur, Paincr, and other tracts of mountainous country about Uie head of th« (lilis) -. -- .... The Paricanii and Elhionians of Asia (Mekran, im-ludinfi, perhaps. Caubul, and the Delta of the Indus) liiiiia, the lartjest of all, LeiiiK 3GU talen's in gold, wliiili amounts in silver to - . 4(XI StlO 3GU SOU .ICO 141X1 1(1(10 3(10 460 WO mo 400 300 600 300 170 360 2.W 400 46S0 Sfi, Some outer tracts nf this vast empire, not formed into rej^nlar satrapies, were privileged to furnish only presents, or gifts, under an appearance of volinitary homage. Among these were ranked the lV>rsians proper, inhabiting the modern Fars, who obtained this distinction as the conquering peojilc by whom the empire was originally founded. The Southern Arab- iiins, and the Ethiopians abtive Egypt, derived the same imnumity from the difficult access to llidse rude regions in which they dwelt. The Southern Arabians are Siiid to have propi- tiated the favour of the great king by the present of a thousand talents of incense. The C'ok'liiaiiK, and the occupants of the neighbouring heights of Caucasus, were also numbered aiiuing the " givers of gifts ; " while the inhabitants of the northern parts of that great range, secure in their mountain fastnesses, are said to have cared very little about the mighty ruler of I'ersia. H7. T/'.ie delineations of Asia disjilay, upon the whole, a surprising accuracy and extent of knowledge; yet several remarkable errors occur with regard to points of which the investi> gatioii does not appear very ditticult. Thus the breadth of Asia .Minor was reduced a'linost a half; that l>etween Babylon and the capital of Egypt was underrated at least a fourth ; and the country between the Uluck Sea and the Caspian was placed in the same meridian with the Persian Gulf, while it is really four degrees to the westward. These errors are the more remarkable, as the distances, instead of being in civcss, according to almost every other ancient example, fall short of the truth. The early travellers exaggerated every space over "liich they actually passed ; but it sometimes liap|iened that two points were approached fiom dillerent quarters, and then united to each other by a hypothetical line, which, as men usually undervalue what they know nothing of, was made generally too small. It would 'iiiit appear that any regular route had been formed across the high and rugged table land in tlie interior of Asia Minor from Cilicia to Trebisond. These two points, being approached respectively along the southern and northern coasts a( the peninsula, might be supposed ni'urer to each other than they really were. Egypt was approached tlirough Syria and M HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Part I. Palestine, and Babylon by descending the Euphrates ; but the direct line between them lying across the Arabian desert, was scarcely known or frequented, and therefore became an ideal line in the view of Herodotus. Tlie line from Armenia to the Persian Gulf was of course measured along the Euphrates, the general course of whicli was south ; and as tlie ancients oriented all their lines to a cardinal point, tliey overlooked the gradual but constant bend which that river takes to the eastward. 88. The ideas of IleroAoUis concerning the extent qf Asia, even incluiling all that portion of it which he assigned to Euro|)c, could not tail to bo defective. He knew nothing of India t)eynnil the Ganges, TliilK't, China, Eastern Tartary, or Sitwria, more than halt' the superficial extent of the continent. Even his notiens concerning India were mmX imperfect. He descrihes it as bounded on the east by sand, stretching into an unknown and measureless desert. Erom this statement it clearly appears that his India comprehended merely the western part watered by the Indus and its live tributaries; he knew nothing of its widest and richest regions, the (jangetic provinces, Delhi, llengal, and the Decan ; large portions were also cut oH' IVom the •outhern caists of Asia, which were supposet, Herodotus states a line of two months' journey, partly along the banks, partly in boats which were dragged by ropes along the current through the rocky channel. At the end of this journey they came to Meroe, the capital of Ethiopia abo\e Egypt, an ancient and celebrated kingdom, wllo^e nionuments were viewed with almost religious veneration, and whose moiiaichs had repeatedly conquered Egypt and founded dynasties. This IVIeioe we suspect to be Merawe, ca)iital of the Sheygya kingdom, and including probably within its sway Dongola, situated on the opposite part of that wind- ing course which the Nile here takes. Two months' journey farther was the country of the Egyptian exiles, a nuinercnis body, who, having revolted from Psammelicus, sought the protection of the king of Ethiopia, and were cantoned by him in this remote district, which may be Senn.aar, or rather, perhaps, the branch of the ISahr-el-Abiad opposite to it; for Herodotus shows his knowledge of this last stream by observing that it comes from the west. 9'-'. Tlw loii/r tract if desert to the u'Cst if Egypt is also descriiied by Herodotus in some detail, ttiough apparently only from hearsay. The most conspicuous objects here are the oiises, particularly that which contains the ancient and venerated temple of Jupiter Aminon. His statements, though on the whole in favour of Siwah, scarcely all'ord data sufficient to solve that difficult question. To the west he gives the names of a succession of wandering and pastoral trilies, such as still roam over these arid and sandy regions, deriving from the soil only the produce of the d.tte tree. Many of them stand charged with morals peculiarly shameless and dissolute, the females indulging openly in the mo.it irregular conduct, and making even a boast of the number of their paramours. Prchably there may be scandal mixed in these very evil reports (>f tlie African ladies. \n exception to this rude pastoral character existed on the coast of Cyrenaica, where the Greeks estalilished flourishing colonies, which could be approacheil, however, only by the dangerous route of the Syrtis or quicksand, proverbial in ancient times as the scene of disastrous sliipwreck. n.'l. The \a.te district, wliich posite to it ; for from the west. rodotiis in some L'ts here are the iipiler Aunnon. data sulhcient DM of wandering Liiving from the norals peculiarly ar conduct, and may be scandal lis rude pastoral risliing colonies, is or quicksand, ol' other men, ilcatltiitp ofarmii, and unacquainted with war. These character! do not apply to the people of inoilorn IViian, which, however, l^i undoubtedly the tract pointed out To the north-west were the Uindanes (die niiidcrn tiad»niU\ anions whom the licence of public morals had risen to a greater height than iinuiiig all the other wanilerinn trllM'S of Libya. Still proceeding north-west, the traveller came to the lake 'rriloiils, oelelir.itcd In uncieiit fable aa the birthplace of Minerva, who, according to one legend, was sprung lYoni Neptune and the nymph of tlic lake. 'J'his lake forms the western limit of the long range of nomadic trilH'H. Ileyond it, lleriHlotua gives us the Maxyes, who cultivated the ground. He had now reached that fine r.niKO tit' territory iH'lciiiglng to farthage, stretcliing along the coast, watered and enriched by streams from the Atla.s. It is very reiimrkalile, however, that he should pass by entirely that mighty and celebrated state, ulilcli was not only the most powcrftd In Africa, but was also the centre of industry and commerce with rc^pci't to the ancient world. Major Kennell has suspecteil that this arose from a national feeling of enmity 01. account of their alll.nu'e with the I'ersians j but when wc consider that no such feeling has prevented the fullest account tVoni being given of the I'ersians themselves, it can scarcely be 8upposef till' (hirks became little more than a topographical delineation of military routes, after the intestine wars in which they were involved caused them to lose sight of tlie more distant regions tif the earth. Besides, as they never cultivated mathematical scii'iue with any care or to any extent, they had not the power of arranging even these limited materials into n systenmtic form, 28 IHSTOUY OF GEOGRAPHY. Part 1. p, H 98. The rxpfdiiion of Mfrnmhr gave a much Rroatcr degree of expansion to the human mind. That monarch" transferred the scat of war into tlie I'crsian empire, and carried his victorious amis into the remotest regions of the East. Whatever miglit be the faults and foHies with which his career was stained, it caimot be denied that an enlightened curiosity animated all his proceedings. Wherever he went, he was accompanied by skilful surveyors, Diognctus and Bwton, who measured the length and direction of every route over which the army passctl. Alexander himself cari'fnlly inspected these itineraries, employed all prac- ticable means for obtaining the best materials, and his letters are even quoted by Pliny as authorities for many geographical statements. These itineraries are said to have been after- wards published hy Ba-ton, under the title of " the Rlurchcs of Alexander." From the defective state of tlie science, however, which that prince could not remedy, all these materials were necessarily imperfect. 'I'liey could include nothing beyond mechanical measurement, nor is there any reconi, thnniglunit this long career, of a single attempt to fix the position of any sjiot by celestial observation. Imperfect as they were, however, these documents did not the less form a completely new era in geographical science. After the death of Alex- ander, they passed through the hands of Seleucus into those of Ptolemy Philadelphus, who spared no etlbrts to rentier .Alexandria the greatest seat of learning and science in the ancient world ; and among the sciences there cultivated, geography and astronomy held the most distinguished place. 99. 7'/(C /jro^rcsJ »/■ W/t'.wm/i'r led him at first through Syria, Egypt, and Persia, but did not bring the CJreeks to the knowledge of any countries, of whose existence and limits they were not already fully apprised, Hut after he began tlie pursuit of Bessus, who had carried off Darius into Baelriana, his march became a st)rt of exploratory route. In his vain pursuit of the Scythian armies he riMichod tlie banks of the Jaxartes, though he did not fully trace the course eitlier of that river or of tlie Oxiis. t)u his way thence to India, he had to penetrate tJie narrow passes o.erhung by the snowy ramparts of the Hindoo Coosh, and, with much dif- ficulty ,ind many hardships to his troops, learned to appreciate the magnitude of that great inland h.irrier of .\sia. In India, .Mexaiuler could not penetrate beyond the region watered by the five rivers. Yit he did not consider it as the Ixiiiiular)' of tlie earth ; he learned the existence and beauty of the line ivgions oii the Ganges, whither he in vain attempted to per- suade his fatigued and refractory triMips to follow him. lie consoled himself by conveying Ills army in pomp down the Indus, to view the entrance of tliat great stream into the ocean, and with instructions, as we have already seen, to trace the shores of Asia round the Persian liulf. He himself, upon very had information, undertook to lead back his army tlirongh Gedrosia and Cai-iiinania, the greater part of which he found, as modern travellers have (lone, to lie a desert vif the most dreary and formidable character, in which his army was with dilliculty saved from total destruction. Skct. II. Kj/H-iliiiov of Seleucus, 100. Selciiriis, on the partition of the einpire of .Mexander, succeeded to the dominion of Syria and tlie East. Neither that prince nor his Micces;,ors were either learned or patrons of learning ; but as the owner of extensive dominions, and aiming at farther conquest, he cherished the natural wish to lie acipiainted with what he possessed or hoped to obtain. lie employed his admiral, I'atiocles, to make a survey of the Caspian Sea, which had not entered into the line of .Mevaiuler's route j but the information gained by this voyage must, as we shall see, huve been far from complete. It would also seem as if he had employed the siunc admiral in an attempt to circumnavigate .Asia; but the assertion which obtained credit in that age, that he liiid sailed round from India to the Caspian, sufficiently attests the failure of the enterprise. Sileiiciis, also, finding, probably, that the inroad of Alexander into India had been of very transient result, undertook a military expedition, the details of which are little known, and wliich enabled him to establish no permanent footing in the country; but he collected some further materials for the geographer, ami the record of his marches appears to have been of itnpmtant ser\ice to Pliny. He sent also an embassy under Megasthenes to Paliliotliia, capital of the great Indian kingdom situated on the Ganges, from which the ancients irc, and carried his It be the faults and nlightcned curiosity jy skilful surveyors, y route over which I employed all proc- quotcd by I'liiiy as to have been atYer. jndcr," From the y, all these materials nical measurement, o fix the position of lesc documents did tlie death of Alex- Philadelphus, who !ience in the ancient omy held the most nd Persia, but did ICC and limits they us, who had carried In his vain pursuit did not fully trace , he had to penetrate ind, with much dif- litude of that great the region watered •th ; he learneil the II attempted to pcr- nself by conveying It stream into the of Asia round the ead back his army modern travellers n which his army positions which came nearly though not strictly within its range. It was called gene- rally, the parallel of Rhodes. The most westerly point was the Sacred Cape of Iberia (Cape St. Vincent), after which followed the " Strait of the Pillars" (of Hercules). The next |)oint was the Strait of Sicily, erroneously considered to be under the same meridian with Rome and Carthage. Then came Rhodes, the centre of the line. Issus, celebrated as the site of the victory of Alexander, was with little difficulty brought within the limit. Next followed tlie somewhat doubtful position of the Caspian gates, and the line was extended along the chain of Mount Taurus, supposed to divide Asia into two parts, till it terminated at the remote city of Thino;, situated on the eastern ocean. This entire lonj^th of the habitable world, as it was called, amounted to about 70,000 stadia, or, ac- cording to his estimate, one hundred degrees, not quite a third of the circuit of the globe. 102. In determining a nieridinn to exhibit his breadth of the habitable world, Eratosthenes laboured under still greater difliculties. On the extreme south was " the limit of the habit- able earth ; " for, according to this school, a certain tract around the equator was, from the excess of hcot, unfit for human habitation. The uninhabitable zone was supposed to extend 8,;)00 stadia, or about twelve degrees to the north of the equator. Under the next parallel were included the " Isle of the Exiles," in or near Sennaar, the cinnamon-bearing region, which appeiirs to be Bcrbcra, and Taproban, or Ceylon, Next come Meroe, the capital of Ethiopia, which was supposed, though with great error, to correspond as to latitude with the southern extremity of India : thence descending the Nile the geographer marks the cele- brated position of Syene, which was concluded to be immediately under the tropic, since there was a well, in the depth of which at noon-day, at the precise time of the vernal equinox, the disk of the sun wts seen reflected entire. The observation was very nearly correct. Next came Alexandria, of which, as the centre of all these observations, the position iis to latitude was very closely approximated. Then followed Rhodes in the centre of the great parallel already described as exhibiting the length of the habitable globe. Continuing northward, though not upon the same line, were found the Helles- pont, IJyzantium, the mouth of the Borysthenes, and passing over the vast obscurely- known tracts of Germany, Gaul, and Britain, the farthest Thule, which, on the report of Pytheas, Eratosthenes regarded as the extreme northern boundary of the earth. As the same authority placed Thule under the Arctic circle, or at sixty-six degrees of latitiide, the interval between that position and the limit of the habitable earth on the side of the equator amounted to about forty-four degrees, or according to his estimate 38,000 stadia, which formed thus the supposed breadtli from north to south of the habitable eartli. Sect. W ,— Hipparchus. IM. Hipparchus, carrying still farther the system adopted by Eratosthenes, subjected the whole science of geography to astronomical principles. His labours in numbering the stars, mill arranging them according to their place in the heavens, were such as appeared mar> vellous to the ancients, and are esteemed by Pliny as achievements that would have been arduous even for a god. In this career, however, he had been preceded by Timocharis ami Aristillus, who, more than a century before, had made some observations which (laved tbe way for the present extended discoveries. Hipparchus appears to have first conceived the idea of transferring the observed latitudes and longitudes of the stars to tia'ir corresponding places on the earth's surface, thus fixing the latter with a precision which no itinerary measurements could ever attain. He made a considerable number of observations of latitude, in addition to the very few previously existing, and he pointed out the mode in which the longitudes might be ascertained by observing the eclipses of the sun and moon. It does not appear to what extent he carried the ditlicult opera- tions reipiisite for this investigation ; but he is said to have calculated the eclipses for six bundred years, including the moments of their appearance at different places ; a perform- aiiie wbich seems to indicate a knowledge of their astronomical position. Thus Hipparchus distinctly perceived all the principles upon which an accurate system of geography might be I'miiuled, and iiuule some progress in their application ; but these important principles, like others which . were lieyond the cuinpiehension of the age in which they were made, remained for a long time donnant or misa|>plied, and were not brought into full prac- tical application until a much more advanced period in the progress of science. Sect. V. The world according to Eratosthenes and Slrabo. 101. The application to the diffrcnt parts of the earth's surface of the principles according to wliioh the globe was to be delineated, formed a task still more arduous than that of the first establishment of tliose jirinciples. The longitudes and latitudes of the ancients are both erroneous ; more especially the loiigitufles, to which astronomical observation was never very extensively applied ; hence it is noi wonderful that the errors should be great ; but the regular and rapid manner in which they accimuilate appears very surprising. Tliiy begin from the Sacred Cape of Iberia (Cape St. Vincent), which the ancients made tbeir first meridian, and continue regularly increasing as we jiroceed eastward. 30 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Part I, To the pillars of Hercules were assigned more than two degrees beyond the truth; to Alexandria, nearly seven ; to Issus, ten ; to the Caspian gotes, fourteen ; to Pattalena, or the Delta of the Indus, twenty-three ; to tlie mouth of the Ganges, nearly twenty-seven. M. Gosselin, by collecting these errors, has shown, that they must arise not from single de- fective observations, but from some general cause. To discover it, he has had recourse to a very bold and ingenious hypothesis. He supposes Eratosthenes to have had under his eye an early map, found, probably by Alexander or his generals, in some country of the East, where astronomical observation had been pursued with a degree of accuracy never attained among the Greeks. On this map he supposes the parts of the globe to have been correctly laid down, but on the principle of a plane map, where degrees were delineated as of equal length at all distances from the tquator. This mode of graduation Eratosthenes issupjioscd to have misunderstood, and to have considered the map as formed on the more exact plan, which made tlie degrees on his great parallel to consist only of 555 stadia, instead of 700, their length on the equator. Dividing, therefore, the stadia on the map by 555 and not hy 700, he brought out a number of degrees much above the truth, and always the more so as the space measured became greater. This conjecture is, doubtless, highly ingenious, and the application of it produces an approximation to the real positions which is somewhat surpris. ing. At the same time, it docs not seem very probable, that so perfect a school of geography as is here supposed should have so early existed ; we know not well where its seat could have been ; nor does this supposed excellence seem very consistent with the imjicrfect mode of graduation here supposed, and with the absence of any indication of the principle on which it was constructed. A more simple and probable solution seems to be, that the graduation was calculated from the itinerary measures reduced to degrees, at the rate adopted by Era- tosthenes of 70C at the equator, and 555 upon his main parallel of Rhodes. We have already had occasion to observe, and the remark is found in the best ancient geographers, that merchants and travellers of that age gave an exaggerated report of all the disttr.ices over which they passed. The windings of the route, the hardships and obstacles encou.itered by tliem, the desire to magnify their own achievements, all concurred in inducing them to view and present this particular through an amplitied medium. All the itineraries continued along the line upon which Eratosthenes measured his h'ngth of the habitable globe being tlius unduly extended, tlie degrees calculated out of then; were of course equally in excess ; and this excess became always the greater in proportion to the length to which the line was protracted beyond its commencement at the Sacred Cape, llie latitude of the principal places in and round the Mediterranean is in general not far from the truth, probably because it was determined by such rude observations as were within the compass of Greek science at tliat early period. 105. In tracing the outline of the hiown world, and especially of the continents, geographers still proceeded amid obscurity and doubt, 'i'his school had laid down the fundamental principle of a great circumambient ocean, embracing the entire circuit of the three continents. This idea, inherited from Homer, was doubtless supported by facts to a considerable extent ; but its application to the world in general, and especially to tlie northern shores of Europe and Asia, was manifestly hypothetical. Eratosthenes, in comparing the magnitude of his known world, even under its exaggerated dimensions, with the general circumference of the ' earth, became sensible that only a third part of this last was filled up. He indulges in con- jecture as to the contents of this vast unknown region, which, he observes, might either he supposed to consist of one great ocean, the whole of which he denominates the Atlantic, ur of lands and islands which might be discovered in sailing to the eastward. With a degree of caution, however, not very common in that age, he declines to give any decisive opinion on this question. — The system of Eratosthenes may now be considered in regard to Europe, Asia, and Afr b. Mnskllia fi. AntiiN)IU 7. (iL'tiua 5. I.iina 9. l'u|>iilonIum lu. Cum References to the Map qf Europe according to Eratosthenes. U. Honia Kil. lUiiiiluin \'l. (Mia lil. SivLiiium 1.1. CiriFli fl. 'riii.rli II. I'uli.(ill y.*. 'i'nrtiilnm I'l. NVnpolib *2I. Itniiulu-siuln Ifi. IViilutiia 'i'>- .*»iiius 17. Velia vfi. 'l't..inum IS. Laiis ^7. Aniuiia lU. Iliiiponiuiil 2S. Aruiuiiuiu ilf. Va\K a I.itfr .10. Kiiiilaurtu e (ianiiima Z\. K|tiit,iit)nua f Diiriut yi. A|>ulloiiia. it T.iuus h ^ViiiU Rivtrt, i Itiiim a All.iit k ItluHiantu I) Hlifiius € l>ct)uaii« 1 \'aruk, Part I. cyond the truth ; to L>n ; to Pattalenn, or nearly twenty-sevi'ii. s not from singlu do- lias had recourse to a vc had under liis eye country of the East, luracy never attained J have been correctly elineatcd as of equul tostlienes is supposed he more exact plan, idia, instead of 700, 1 by 5!>5 and not by Iways the more so as ly ingenious, and tliu is somewhat surpris. school of geography re its seat could have e imperfect mode of c principle on which , that the graduation ite adopted by Kra- Uhodes. We have incient geographers, all the dista.ices over acles cncouiitered by ducing them to view itineraries continued ubitablc globe being se equally in excess ; :o which the line was ude of the principal ith, probably because of Greek science at tinents, geographers n the fundamental the three continents, considerable extent j 11 shores of Europe lie magnitude of liis ircumfercnce of the' !e indulges in con- 'ves, might either be tes the Atlantic, or With a degree of Idecisive opinion on regard to Europe, Irespect to countries yiediterranean, Eni- ide all the leading I the same meridian ike with regard lo Ihe middle point is Kror could not fail ike respecting the Id I.icer le ruimc us from that of the Rhine and the Seine. Great as these errors are, we shall easily trace their origi>i ill considering the sources whence the Greeks derived their information respecting these extremities of Europe. Whatever may have been the case with regard to the Carthaginians, it is evident that neither Greeks nor Romans ever navigated its exterior seas. Pytlieas alone performed that daring voyage ; but having no witnesses to bring in sup|>ort of his relation, it was denounced as fabulous, in common with others made by early disco- verers. 'I'he regular channel of communication was Marseilles. Tlie merchandise of Britain being brought across the Britisli channel to the mouths of the Rhine and the Seine, was con- veyeil ilown those rivers, and by land carriiige to tliat great emporium of Gaul. Hence the l^eography of Gaul and Britain, in that age, was ruled entirely by Massylian ideas. From liiu causes stated, the Massylians had no communication with Britain unless by the northern coast of Ga\il, ami by routes directed from south to north through that c(mntry. Reasoning only from win! they knew, they might soon arrive at the conclusion, that (jaul iiad only a northern coast, and might apply to it the whole of the erroneous system now de .oiilied. 'J'he result of this system was, that the Cassittrides, Islands of Tli-, in which term the .Scilly islands were evidently blended with Cornwall, were made io approach to Spain, and came to be considered as much Spanish as British. So prevalent was this idea, that even atVerwards, when the conquests of Rome had made known the wide separation between the two couiuries, the Cassiterides are found in some maps still attached to Spain, and lit u little distance from Cape Ortegal. irai, Krilnin, under this system, was represented as a triangle, of which the base, or longest side, w.is thot along the channel and opposite to Gaul. As the < - ast, aOer passing the two extremities of this lino, begins on one side to bend inward towards the Bristol Channel, ami on Ihe other to the 'I'hamcs, navigators llien iniilwdily considered it as continuing in these directions till it came to a iH)int, far short of its real termination, lerno (Irelaml) appears in dim obscurity. It is said to be situated four hundred miles north from the centre ol Ilrilain, under a climate : j excessively cold that there could not lK)88Lbly be any inhabited country nearer to the |M)le. If the lour hinidrey- !se geographers comparing the intries were by nature, nor are 1 is formed by in the western est of all these t looking to the )ort of I'ytheas, lie west, and ho Loire and Ga- we shall easily leir information with regard to its exterior seas. ng in support of by early disco- ndisc of Britain Seine, was con- Ilence the ideas. From 11 u iniless by Th that country. onclusion, that ous system now in which term h to Spain, and this idea, that iirution between to Spain, and est side, was th-it this line, begins on , navigators then i real termination. 'S north from the inhabitiil country uthern coast, anil The rest of the ileak mountuinotis r northern limit of eptieisni of Strabo by the merchants (recks. They had, ly to rest upon the had on the north lere, too, I'vtheas, if StralK) had not the (icrman coa.«t, icry large island, itil It was cirrum. me to the Taiiais, Book 1. ROMAN GEOGRAPHY J» which apucari, no doubt, a very startling assertion ; but wc must remember that, In this irhool, IhO circumambient ocean was supposed to have a coast only a little north of the Euxino anil the Caspian, and tn communicate with these seas or gulfs (as they were supposed to be) by narrcw straits, one of wlitcli wiii tho Tanais, and the mouth of one of the great Baltic rivers might very cosily be Imagined to form tho tcrinliiatiuil of this strait. SuBSECT. 2, Asia. {Fig. 7. page 3'!,) 111. TIte limits assigned to Asia, already too small, were contracted by tho gongranhori of the Alexandrian school, notwithstanding the additional sources of information whicli tliuy possessed respecting that continent. This error arose partly from their theory of a surruiiiiding ocean, and partly from their neglect of the important information obtained by Ilcrodutuit respecting the countries along the heads of the Euxine and Caspian. Tho expedition of A lox- ander, indeed, and the embassy of Megasthenes, made them acquainted with tho Gnnges, rolling eastward through the fine plain of Upper Hindostan. Seeing it pursue this direction tu tho utmost limit of the then known world, they were led to conclude that its course contiiuieil eastward, and that it fell into the eastern ocean, which formed, on that side, tho boundary of the continent. Connecting this with the Caspian, the only northern Asiatic sea known to them, they drew a line from one to the other, by which they excluded nearly two thirds of the extent of Asia ; the Birman empire, China, the greater part of Tartnry, and tho whole of Siberia. On the shore of tlie eastern ocean was placed Thinie, evidently known only by vague rumour, and which they fixed at the extremity of the line measuring tho length oi' the habitable globe. What may be the import of this mysterious name, and whether it bo tho capital of Siam or of China, is a discussion which will be better reserved until wo come to tho more precise notices of Ptolemy. One other grand feature was known to this school ; tho cape of the Coliaci or Cape Comorin ; but conceiving the coast of Coromandel to follow tho line of tlic Ganges, and, consequently, to verge towards the west, tlicy made it several dogrooi more easterly than even ThiniB. 112. Asia witliin and Asia beyond Taurus were made t'ae grand divisions of that continent. That great mountain chain arising in Asia Minor was supposed to be prolonged by those of the Elbruz, of Khorassan, and of Hindoo Coosh, which, in fact, there is much reason to believe, may form a chain nowhere wholly interrupted. Within Taurus were oil tho fertiloi populous, and splendid kingdoms of Asia ; Syria, Assyria, Babylon, Persia, Susiana, lonin, Ciiicia ; beyond, were the ruder tracts of Scythia, Bactria, Sogdiana ; and more westerly, tho Caucasian territory, and the part of Asia Minor situated along the shore of tlie Black Sea, SuBSECT. 3. Africa. 113. In regard to Africa, the knowledge of these geographers, though accurate in Dome respects, was extremely limited. They believed its boundary to be the sea ; but this correct judgment proceeded rather from a casual coincidence with their theory of an encircling ocvon, than from any actual knowledge; since Strabo rejected even the possibility of circum- navigation. This scepticism was founded upon the hypothesis of an uninhabitahlo torrid zone, which formed an essential part of the reigning system at this period. It is a belief manifestly ' African, founded on the observation of those vast and burning deserts, which extend indefinitely beyond the narrow inhabited stripe bordering on the Mediterranean. The Nile, then, being still considered as the ea.stem boundary, Africa became a sort of right- angled triangle, of which the two smaller sides were formed by tliat river and the Mediter- rincan, while the hypotenuse, or largest side, was the unexplored shore. It was upon tho Nile that Eratosthenes measured the habitable world of Africa ; yet he does not trace that river so high as Herodotus, his details reaching only between three and four hundred miles above Meroe. In these details, however, he is very accurate : on the eastern side, ho represents it as receiving two great rivers, the Astapus and the Astaboras, the former of wl'.ich flows from lakes in the south, and, when swelled by the summer rains, forms almost the main body of the Nile. He describes also the bend which the river makes in its ptiHsago through Nubia. The source, being imagined to exist in regions rendered inaccessible by extreme heat, could not be considered as within the reach of discovery. The idea, however, still prevailed, that it came from the west, and Strabo even mentions a report, that its soiirco was in the remote region of Mauritania, south of the Atlas. This is the only statement made by geographers of this school, which can be considered as indicating any idea of iIm existence of the Niger. Chap. V ROMAN OEOGRAFHY. 114. The Roman geographers attained no proficiency in the mathematical branch of the science. M. Gossclin docs not even hesitate to assert, that they remained always strangera to its very first elements. They made no attempt, therefore, to combine their nmteriuU into 84 THE WOULD ACCOllUINO TO EllATOSTHENE: Fig. 7. Fig. 7. Hook I. ROMAN GEOOIIAIMIY. — MELA. 35 ^ivi 2 /' -^' is a i- 3 i 1 p M 3 /^i dr iiiR' Imrmoiiioiis system, or to fix their positions with tliat strict accuracy, wliich nstronomicai obsorvation alone can reach. Ytt no nation enipU)yoil greater diligence in tlie operations of piactical survey. This was, indeed, al)solutely recjuisite with a view to that incessant warfare in which they were engaged ; they could not conquer tlie world without previously surveying it. Their geograiihical rusearclies were, liowever, lield strictly subservient to this ambitious design. 1 15. Itineraries were thus the only form in which the results of Roman investigation were presented. Vegetius informs us that when war was to be carried into any coun»'y, the first care was to procure a complete set of routes, and place them in the hands of t'le general. These itineraries, it is observed, ought, if possible, to contain, not merely the intervals, in paces and Roman miles, between one place anil another, but the quality of ' I n roads, the siirruumliiig objects, mountains and rivers, delineated with the utmost possible precision. 'i'liey were not only to be noted, l)ut painted, that the commanders might not uiot" merely, but see before their eyes, the route by which they were to proceed. The Romans became tluis the surveyors as well as the conquerors of the world ; and every new war in which they engaged, every new conquest which their arms achieved, produced a fresh accumulation of materials for the use of the geographer. Even after a country was subdued, the necessity of accurate survey did not cease. The empire was long held in a state of mere military occu- pation ; camps formed at proper distances were connected by those excellent and durable roads, many of which remain to this day. An accurate acquaintance with the position and intervals of these camps, and the nature of the intervening territory, was essential to the maintenance of their dominion over the vast extent of their conquered countries. No sooner, therefore, had Julius Ciesar seated himself on the undisputed throne of the empire, than he caused a seiiatiis coiisulliiiii to be i)assed for a general measurement of the Roman world. This task, it is said, was intrusted to " the most prudent men, adorned witli every endowment of pliilusophy." The east was assigned to Zcnoduxus, the west to Thcodotus, and the south to I'olycletus. In the course of twenty.five years, as we are informed by iKthicus, the whole was completed. Julius Ca'sar, hoi ever, did not long survive the commencement of this great work, which the civil wars inobably suspended. It was apparently resumed and completed under the reign of Augustus and the ministry of his son-in-law Agrippa, to whom it appears, from I'liny, to have been afterwards ascribed. The exact priticiples upon which this grand measurement was conducted have nowhere been stated. The reform of the calendar, eflcctcd by Ca-sar, seems to point out that some elements of astronomy existed among those with whom he consulted. I l(j. Home, in tlie most flourishing era of its literature, produced two eminent geograi>liers. Mela and Pliny. Sect. I. Afcla. ' i ". The personal liistori/ of this eminent geographer is a subject respecting which scarcely any particulars have transpired. From the allusions, however, in his own writings, to the conquest of Britain by Claudius as a recent event, made in tliosc flattering terms which only a contemporary would have employed, it would appear that his work was written under the rti^'ii of that inglorious prince, and is, consequently, anterior to that of Pliny. 1 IS. ^[ela, informing his s;/item, does not appear to have possessed those extensive measure- ments and itineraries, which were probably deposited in the imperial archives. Faithful, liowever, to the object of his treatise, "desituorbis," he discovers very considerable anxiety to deteniiine the position of the globe, and trace with accuracy its general outlines. He adopts tlie general principles of the school of Eratosthenes, incorporating into it tlic new features which had been allbrded by Roman conquest. He does not appear, however, to have com- prt'liemled their idea of the globidar form of the eartli, nor is he very perspicuous in any thing that he says upon that sulvject. He begins — " All that, w Iiatever it is, to which we give tlie name of the world and heaven, is one thing, and in one circuit endiraces itself and all things ;" vague and pompous expressions, to w liicli no determinate idea can be attached. We liiul him, however, adopting in its fullest extent the belief of a circumambient ocean ; ami when he speaks of " the high earth in this middle part of it," and describes the sea as froiiig under and washing round it, we are led to believe, that he viewed the earth as a sort of cone, or as a high mountain raised by its elevation above the abyss of waters. Having made a vague division of the world into east, west, and north, he distributed it into five zones, two lomiicrate, one torrid, and two frigid. Only the first two were habitable ; and that on the soiilli was inaccessible to man, on account of the torrid regions intervening. According to this syslem, however, there was on that side another earth, inhabited by people, whom he calls lir/nrticcs to the 3/ri/j of the ll'urid according to F.ratusthc tics. KI-UOl'A. b llon'sihcnrs .I. IvSUS \^. 'rinii IiisuIt b .Tn\.irt» 1, Ma'.Ml.a c l\in.iU li. '1'h.iiKncui 1 1. Arathi.s Insula (■ V\ asis 2. It.iin.i !.•.. I'iM.lIii a Kiij-i ra;(>s 3. .\ihfnip ASIA. S. Siisa K'l. I'dlitiothra e 'I fj:ri.i 4. Itwjiiimin 1. DiosruiL.u 9. ll.il.\lon ' f Illliu-i 'i. Aniiftus It). Uhiiioi'oluia Hivt>$. p eailern river. /iiiitr, U Iwunilcil every where by leat and nreana. Itt leading feature ii the Mediterranean, Joined to the Kiixinc and the I'nliis Moenlii, which are cnntldered only at iirolnnKatlona of that lea ; while the Aegean, the Ionian, and the Adriatic leai, form itt three great Rulfi. Tnc eastern part he divide* into the Tuncan and the Libyan ncai. HU delineation of the exterior cnasta marks a great advance of knnwinlgc. Ho aitlgni to Siulii a northern, and to France a weitern coaat of great extent, and addi that the I'yrvnce>,aner U'lKirating France flrom .Spain, enter the latter country and |ienctrat« to Iti extremity, when they face the Atlantic, llore the whnle chain of the Cantahrian mountain! la coniidcred, by no very strained meaning, at I'yrenean. Ill treating of Ihene outer shores of Kiirnpe, and the " huge and inflnlte sea' on which they Iwriler, Mela re. latt's, with exaggerating wonder, the phenomena, unknown to a Mediterranean peoiile, of the tides, " that inighty movement by which the sea alternately advances and returns into itself, overnnwing the lands, driving back mighty rivers, and sweeping away the strongest land animals." Ills ■|ieculatlniii on the cause arc sin. Kular ; either the world is a great animal whose breathings excite In Its breast these alternate movements ; or It ciinlalns deep eaves, into which the waters arc olternately alisorlied and ejected. He does, however, mention the theory which supposes them induenceil by the m(Hm, and remarks their correspondence with the iniivementsorthatlKxIy. In treating of the Casslterides, or islands of tin, which Include, as already observed, the Si'illy Islands and Cornwall, he shows considerable penilcxity, only observing that they arc " In Celticls," indicating their close alliance with France. In regard to Britain Itself, however, he confldently undertakes Id Kive the world better information, in consequence of the victories of " the greatest of princes " over nations liitherti) unsulHlued and unknown ; and he certainly makes a great progress beyond the im|)erfect notions oi .Stralio. lie dcscrluct Britain as presenting two extensive nbllnuc coasts, one looking towards France, the oilier towards (ierinany : the two forming a great angle nearly opposite to the mouth of the Khine. 'I'lie cnnitts then iH'gaii to lienil Inwards, and forma triangle varied with numerous jioints and angles, and toinewhut similar In I'orin to Sicily. The country Is descrllH-d as flat, large, and fruitful, but contrary to what now obtains, more favourable to tlio supiwrt of fliH'ks than of men. The natives were unrultivated, warlike, and igiinrant of wealth ; they were accustomed to paint their IxMliea, and to ride In rhiirlols. Above llritain wat Iiiverna (Ireland^, nearly equal in size, and of an oblong funn, its soil scarcely Ht for the production of grain, but its pastures bo luxuriant, that If the cattle were allowed to feeil for more than a short jioriod of the day, they diitl ot repletion. The relative dimensions assigned to Driiain and Ireland would seem to show that the former W.1S known only in Its southern part, yet the writer discovers himself not unacquainted with the .Scottish inlands. He mentions thirty Orcad"S, In which number the Shetland Islands are probably includecar8 to have been Ignorant of any thing like a continent on the other tide of thli great bay. I'.'S. The outline <\f Affko, drawn by Ihia grogtaphrr, sufficiently shows his limited range of Infnrmntion. This continent he views as a triangle, the greatest length of whiefi, measured in his system from the Nile to the Atlantic, is consideralily less than the length of Kurope. Of this triangle, the Nile forms the base ; and from thence the southern coast, or that of the Kthiopic ocean, continually approximates to the northern, till, bcyniul the Pillars of Hercules, it tapers almost to a point The origin anil course of the Nile are to Mela a tuliject of much sm-culation. tJnc account, csteemctl by him as tolerably credible (aliqua credibile) identillei it with a great Ktniopian river, called in the language of the natives Nuchul ; whicli, while all other rivers lend towards the ocean, alone flows eastward to the central region, and no one knows where it terminates ; a striking coincidence with the actual observations of the moderns, respecting that celebrated stream deno. minatetl tlic Niger. Elsewhere, however, Mela pro|)ounds an hypothesis of a much more extraordinary character. He says, that if there he another earth ^on the south of trie equator), and Antichlhonei opjiosite to us, " it might not be departing too far from the truth" to siippose that the Nile arose in that earth, and reached our side of the globe by a channel beneath the ocean. Thus it would naturally swell during the summer solstice, which, on the side of the world ftom which it came, was the season of winter. Bertius and Vincent, however, have |ierhaps dealt too hardly with the author, in embodying this wild conception into a map, and giving it to the world as the system of Mela, who mentions it merely as a conjecture. The lower jiart of the rouise of t!'.» Nile he describes with less accuracy than Strabo, the two channels of the Astapus and Astaboraa being made branches of the Nile itself, first separating and then reuniting. His ignorance res|iecting even the shores of the Ked Sea is proved by their being tilled with poetical wonders ; the pigmies waging their ancient war with the cnines ; the phoenix, alter a life of four hunilred years, dying, and reviving IVoni its ashes. Proceeding to the interior and remoter shores of Kthiopia, he finds always new wonders, s|ihynxes, birds with horns, (lying horses. . He refers to the voyages of Haiino and of Kudoxus, to whom he ascribes a variety of fables, liy which the reputation of that navigator has been much and perhaps unjustly tarnished ; lastly, he conies to the Fortunate Islands, of which the soil prof miraculous virtues. In short, every thing that Mela says of Africa beyond the mere Mediterranean coast betrays a remarkable Ignorance of the mysteries of that continent, Section II. riini/. 1'.'.3. riiiiy, the most learned of the Roman writers, devotes two books of his extensive work on natural history to a system of gcograpliy. lie appears to liavc possessed a greater store of authentic materials tlian any former writer. From his intimate connection with the imperial family, and with many of the most eminent commanders, all the military imea- surements, as well as the general survey of the Roman cin))irc, were placed at his dis- posal, lie has introduced, therefore, a multitude of itinerary details, which are generally very nccurute and valuable. Hut he employs no astronomical elements, anil appears to havo taken no pains to construct a regular system. All the general iileas which we can trace iiv Ills delineation appear to be founded on the same basis with those of Mela. I'Jl. I'lini/ begins with Europe, which he considers as by far the most beautiful and fruitflil of the three quarters of tlie globe ; and he applauds the opinion of those who consider it not merely as a thiril, but as a half or the whole globe, separated from the other half by the Tanais and the Mediterranean. This capital error, however, will not appear so surprising, when we consider that the regions here compared with Europe were Asia terminated by tiie Ganges and the Jaxartes, and Africa extending only a few hundred miles inland front tlio Mediterranean. Europe had been computeil by Agrippa at 3440 mites in length, by I'olybius at only 2440, which last dimension is nearly correct, though M. (iosselin contends, that as it does not agree with the sum uf lilt particular distances, it must have been derived from an earlier and purer source. Pliny discovers a clear D :i 38 HISTOUY OF OEOORAPHY. Part I. iS i conception of the rorm of Spain, drawliiR the Pyroiicpt not fVom touth to north, but from south-cast to north-west, and observing that Simin, " where It >)eKlnii IVum them, Is narrower than France, and even than itself." The uosition of lirituln In the niai> of Kiiroiio is very fairly given j though, to enumerate Sjiain, with France and Germany, among the cniuitrles tn which it Is opposite, partakes too much of antlquatei theories. He states the belief of AgripiM that llrltain was eight iuuidriHl miles in length, and three hundred in breailth ; Ireland the same in breadth, but shorter by two hundred miles ; which is a tolerable estimate, the last particular cxce|)tcd. His disposal of the islands around llrltain is not a little conlXiscd. He mentions the Orknevs, seven /Emoda', ami thirty Kludiv, but without showing any precise idea of how they stand. Not only the Isle of Man, but that of Wight also, is placed between Kngland and Ireland. He commits also a remarkable error when he mentions Cassiterlm or Cattiterim, where tin is prodiiceotis. The latter receives the Tanais, Howliig from the Itlpliean Mountains, and forming the boundary of Europe. Ileyond that celebrated and dcml-fabulous range, he still lliids the Hyperboreans, a pca|ile screened from every noxious blast, leading a hap|>y life exem|>t from old ag ■, sickness, discord, and grief; till at length, satiated with felicity, they throw themselves IVom a riK'k Into the sea. These fables are, however, qualified with the saving clause, " if wc arc tn believe them," which shows that the faith of Pliny was not implicit. The shores of the ocean, he confesses, are "marke«l by uncertainty." On the authority, however, of Xcnophon Uimpsacemis and of Pytlieas, no reimrls llasllla or Daltla as an Island of Immense magnitude, three days' journey from the St-ythiaii coast. Proceeding westward, he comes to the Cimbric Chersonese, and opposite to It another Island, Si^andlnavla, of unexplored magnitude, but which was by many described as forming quite another world. Thus llaltla and Scandinavia, approached from different points, are considered as two distmct Insular territories, the vast extent of which, however, apiicars to be better apprc. bended by Pliny than by any other ancient writer. 126. Asia, in Pliny, is delineatcHl according to the general Ideas of Strabn and liiela. The Caspian or Hyrcanlan Sea is a gulf opening into the northern or Scythian ocean, which is in communication with that calletl Seric or Oriental. Pliny seems to have fliller inforination of tlie grandeur and wealth of India than any of his pre Paulinus ailcr a few days' march to tlie south of the Atlas. The Niger springs here from a lake ; but soon, indignant at flowing through sandy and s(|ualid tracts, it pa.sses under ground for several days, and emerges into another lake of Mauritania. After n circuit, however, of some extent, it again disa]>pears, and having pursued a subterranean course of twenty days, rc-appears, dividing Africa from Ktliiopiu. At last, in its passage through Ethiopia itself, it assuines the character of the Nile, first in two channels, Astusnpes and Astaboras, enclosing the island of Meroe, and afterwards uniting to form the entire and proper Nile. This wild and absurd detail evidently includes the course of several rivers belonging to dirtercnt and widely remote regions of Africa, It may even be doubted, if any part belongs to what by moderns has been considered the Niger. It seems very probable, however, that the middle part, which divides Africa fnim Klhlopia, has been suggested by the river of liornou, or the Yeou, as it has been called by our recent discoverers, Skct. III. Tlinerariva. — Poiilinncrinn Tablo. !29. Of the itineraries com|)osed by the masters of the world, and employed by them as an instrument in its conquest, some fragments yet remain. The inost luemorable is that which bears the name of Antoninus. It has been ascribed by some to Severus, by others to Theo- dosius, and in fact contains many particulars which could not have been written prior to the era of the last sovereigns ; but it seems probable that there were successive editions, with such amendments and alterations as time suggested. It is a mere skeleton road-book, with notliing but the names of places and their distance from each other. The same may be said of the Jerusalem Itinerary, exhibiting in great detail the route from Bordeaux U> that holy city. l!30. The Peuliiif;eriau Titble (the Italian portion «if which is exhibited \nfig. 9. p. '10.) Is a more remarkable monument, and may be considered, probably, as n specimen of the " i)ainted roads " of the ancients. It forms a map of the world, constructed, however, on the mo.st novel and peculiar principles. Its dimensions being twenty feet in length ami one in breadth, an idea Book I> SECOND ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL. 39 but lYom south-east to than France, and even Rh, to enumerate Spain, loo much of antiquate.1 igth, and three hundred I is a tolerable estimate, I'onftised. He mentions idea of how they stand, iland. He commits also ^cd, as an island at the e attributes of a region '8 sail from the Cronium lergen), Nerigon, which the Kuxine, and Palus forming tlie boundary lypcrboreans, a pco|ile , discord, and grief; till se fables are, however, the faith of Pliny was y." On the authority, an island of immense 1 comes to the Cimbric l)ut which was by many om difilirent points, are Jars to be better appre. d liela. The Caspian immunicaf ion with that ralth of India than any cd un good authority to its, one before, another !V('r known to emigrate monts of Diognetus and issy of iSIegasthenes, as 'aprobane, he observes, Miipiirics of Alexander c Seres was seen from may be formed of the correctness with which the proportion of the different parts is exhibited. The high road wliich traversed the Roman empire in the general direction of east and west is made the first meridian, and to this every other part is subjected. The objects along this line are minutely and faithfully exhibited ; of those lying to the north and south of it only some general notion can be conveyed : these are all represented, of course, most enormously extended in length and reduced in bre idth. Chap. VI. 8EC0MD ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL. 131. Alexandria by her contributions to geography supplied to a great extent the deficiencies of the Romans, who, amid the success with wliich they cultivated history and literature, never attained to any eminence in this science. That capital, even in its subject state, retained still the impulse received from the Ptolemies, and continued to be the second in magnitude, and tlie foremost in learning, of all in the empire. In the second century thero was established, here and at Tyre, a geograpiiical school, possessing more ample materials a:id resources than any that had hitherto existed. To the conquests and itineraries of Alexander wore now added those of Rome, which, extending in a different direction, embraced many countries to the north and to the west, Gaul, Britain, Germany, Spain, and Mauritania, respecting which tlie Greeks had possessed only confused and imperfect notions. Thus a greater portion of the globe tliaii at any former period was now united under one government, which, by a standing army and a regular system of laws, preserved the whole in peace and order. The terror of the Honian arms enabled travellers to penetrate with safety even beyond the limits of the empire. Lastly, the unbounded luxury of the great capitals, and above all of imperial Rome enriched with the spoils of the globe, fired the enterprise of the merchant, who found his way into those remotest markets of the eastern world, the rich commodities of which had hitherto been either brought by caravans or found at intermediate stations. isa. These enlarged materials were connected together by a much more accurate and scien- tific arrangement than had been adopted under the school of Eratosthenes. The method suggested by Hipparchus of subjecting the whole of geography to astronomical principles, and of fixing the position of every spot upon tlie globe according to its longitude and latitude, was now attempted to be carried into full eflTect The attempt, however, was made but in a very rude manner, and upon a very narrow basis of observation. Not only, therefore, did it present a very imperfect edition of the new system, but involved errors which caused it in some respects to retrograde even from the rude state to which it had been brought by tlie former school of Alexandria. Sbct. I. Marinus of Tyre. 133. No Tyrian system of geography has come down to us, notwithstanding the com- mercial greatness of its people at an early period. From the Hebrew writers we have accounts perhaps of nearly the whole of the distant countries with which the Tyrians held intercourse ; but if those writers are supposed to have borrowed from them their ideas respecting the general structure and boundaries of the eartli, geography among the early Fhccnicians will not app ti ■ to have passed its infancy. As Tyre, however, even under the Koman empire, remained still the scat of an extensive commerce, some of her intelligent citizens availed themselves of tlic lights afforded by tlie learning of Alexandria, and applied them to the illustration of tliose subjects on which the greatness and prosperity of their city depended. If tlie merchants of Tyre had nothing left of that proud rule, and those mono- polising profits, which enabled them to rival the pomp of princes, tlieir commercial relations probably extended over a wider surface of the globe than ever. They seem to have been engaged in that vast caravan route wliich was opened from Byzantium across the whole interior of Asia, conducting the merchants by a journey of ten or eleven months to the Ciiincse frontier, whence they brought silk, the staple product of that great country. Col- lecting these enlarged materials, Marinus, a native of Tyre, sought to apply to them the astronomical principles of Hipparchus, and thus to arrange geography into a new and more accurate form. I:U. The works qf Marinm have perished, and are known to us only by the references and extracts ot Ptoli'iny ; but these arc suflicient to show that his system iiartook largely ol the imperfection ofa first eflbrt, Aw,ire that the degree of longitude diminished as it rcce 4 40 THE PEUTINGERIAN TABLE. Fig. 9. DOOK Doox !• PTOLEMY. 4t I'lianU who had ponetratctl ncroii the vitst mountain and deaert tracts in the eawt to the cmintry beyond India, which is made to comprise one hundred degrees. This hi'iiiu iirobalily a new route o|)encil through the Himalleh, and across the vast deserts of Eastern Tartory, had bccii alllHitcd by all the sources of ampllHcation in a remarkable degree. Sect. II. Ptolemy. 1 H5. i'/o/cm, Vi tlio lant and greatest of the geographers of antiquity, and equally illustrious I ns an astrunuinur, iiistittitvd a complete reform of tlie science, and undertook to purify it from I nil the fiilso elements with which it had been alloyed. The principles, in fact, which he I mlo|)ted were strictly correct ; for tliough, as an astronomer, his theory of the universe was I siihstuntlully false, yet, in admitting its globular form, and the revolution of the heavenly I bodies, lie admitted all the elements which were requisite for the less lofVy sphere of earthly I dvlinvntion. I le adopted the system of Hipparchus in its utmost extent, subjecting every I spot on the known globe to astronomical data, and constructing his tables, never according I to itinerary dislunce, Imt according to the supposed latitude and longitude of each place. I He snw niul correetcd the error of Marinus in making the degrees of longitude equal under every lutitude. 'I'luis, though Ptolemy did not actually introduce any new principle into I gcognipliy, ho was tlio first who combined togetlier all the sound views of his predecessors, I and furnivd out of them r jihi nd harmonious delineation. Yet he was far from reaching I Ills iiiin of funning n perK't .n He still retained the erroneous measurement of the Idej^rce formed by Posidoii ..•■■ of which Marinus had made so unfortunate a use. 1 Hence, while he iVlt the ex .>."- . i; of the distances assigned by his predecessor, in con- I sequence of the adu])tion oi iiiu degree of 500 sladio, he extricated himself but partially Ifruni tlic same error, All his longitudes, extended along the length of the known world, I present a similar accumulation of errors, only somewhat diminished in amount These I errors, l)e|{iniiing from Cape St. Vincent, constantly increase till, in India, they amount to I upwards uf finty degrees. M- Gosselin has even accused him of an error which, as he justly lobscrves, wuulil mark a strange departure from every principle, and a neglect of what ought I to lie the first care of n geographer. This consists in giving to his degrees of latitude a Idill'erent dimension from that of the degrees of longitude, and retaining, with regard to tlie Ifiiniier, Kri-'osthenus's standard of 700 stadia. I suspect, however, Umt M. Gosselin has I been suinowhat precipitate in advancing so serious a charge against the ii'-st geographer of laiitiquily. The groimd on which he proceeds seems to be, that while Fiolemy bos changed Imaterinlly all the longitudes of Eratosthenes, the latitudes along the great line continue luiialtercd aiul generallv correct. The real cause of this, however, appears to be, that the llntitiules uf Uhodes ami several otiier leading points of this great line were determined by NOllTII I'AKT. V. SaMliHift ^. .Aiiiiiiii'o 4 Itritiit.-llo y ,Id.U'r« (i. hattAiliine 7. s.ili,irif N. I'iirhiiiUu '.1. rfifi.i 111. \ inilnlHtiiit 11. TiiitMini'A l< KiiiniiA .V I'i.la 11. Silvo ■'>. I'dTintlii *'■ Kmitf'liiiiiAlA .'. .V.nillfl.i H. (UiU.i y. AUlno 11. Keitiiui 1. Inilciilii •i. V\mv\\\\.\ ■1. .\i|iiif rti|>iitai\li> 1. Fiiiri-iiit,i 'I'liMiirum V Sina.lHlU ■li. Iliii.ril.4 7. \'i'rijin H. MiDiua y> Ml)|i|i4 l>. I'lM 1. AilullD V, Hon.tiim \ flti.io i. Vt.lMlll* ''■ A.iii.i, rAviRTll K'. \UuunA 17. .\riiiiiiio >H. tirai.lvA l'>. I'liiiiiiiiciHik (U. A<|uai lu.u< Rffcrmces to the Pcutingerian • Kiitilcum t Nvlurum u Matana V Mlio W l-'ltMll X 'J 'tun 11 y Nernlitum I Anio 41. AneoHt •IV. Ctulnt'iinvn iX Auiini AitolllnarU 41. H<>1»t(i 4A. INtl«nllft 4n. Itvntr 47. riuiii>llii Klrmatil 4M. AilNoni. I'ftrum 4<). Hotim Alt. Ilmtlft Al, rimrtAuInn AV, irHinCultNiU «t,1. Ai|tilk Alt litiKMttr itlariio M. tViMnlKtiink A(l. Ad MnUn A7. ThclitttvCul. Ah. 'riivii(>sU' Ail. Sirt-n \v%\h (>0, All A(|vituOii»ArU A Itnttiiliiui It Ihlnnm t' hAviint tl Aii«in • l-'riKliln f l.i|'rtlM« ft An-oln I t'lttllllll i I'niliu ■ I'aaIa I Aniiilo III Im'X It rnitiro It raliu |i AriiiHtlu (I MitrtA r TlUtrU SOUTH PART. 1. All rreturuiii •i, Scrvitiu 3. All i'rutnnitn 4. Miir^i) Mitjor A, liitU-iii'a fi. Tmtil'urKo 7. K.iKiirin H. Sicih, tun. W. h.^lon.i 10. K|»ello 11. InaroiiR IV. MriiUum W Nnroii.-! II. 'r.'iuriiiin Vu All Mntrici'tn Ifi. Sin|{l>luiiA 17. Kpttniiro IH. Sum til lit. Mnun V(>. Vlminnllo VI. Dvrrnilo VV. Aulunit V3. OsA (ul. V4. Sahrntit VA. HfHlo V(!. Cniiltin V7. i.At-t'nluni VH. ('N:«trn Mlnrme V!l. \'llMma Valeiitia 3(>. Tviiiu Table {page 40.). 31. Tarento 70. (junra 32. HrlmlUl 71. AdHorrea 33. (Jiiatle 7V. f.«Metnhtui 73. Thiruro Col. 34. Nerulos 3A. Salerno 74. Ad AquAi 36. Nuceria 75, Taiiarura 76. Tmaiw 37. OpIoiiUs .18. Ilunevento 77. Dreiianii 78. MIyVeo 3'J. Venusie 40. Nea|)u)i 79, Aiiiiiis Latiodea 41. Capua 80. Sinctttia 4V. CiniiBft Kt. Aelhna Mont 43. Hyllos 8V. Messana 44. Airas 4A. Prcltmlum Laiicria' Rirrr*. num a Dnnuliius 46. SiiVunlo 47. Ksentle 1) I)r[nuin c Savum 48. Teano Sciillclno il Marf;iuii 4!). SinueuA e 1. Piniiit q Nentum CV. Castro nota r Arno C3. Preiintfl t Tllwia 61. Uoma t Safo 6A. Hoatis 11 \'ultumua M. DiartAKlne T Klinera t)7. Aliiitila w Nininut 68. Alt AqilAft 69 ftlUuaClipeii 1 .Vti^ert « (itriii it THE WOULD ACCORDING TO PTOLEMY. Pig. 10. KI 1. Canh t. Mjvsi ^. tit'iui 4. Hoina .'i. Athn 0. lljui a llhem li ('lt•'^il r 'I .iti.ii d lilu e llorjjt 1. K|>lir Book I* PTOLEMY— EUROPE, 43 lobscrvations which, though not perfect, at least approached to the truth, while the longitudes Incrc calculated merely out of the itineraries. This central line, therefore, bisecting the Ibrcadtli of the known world, was fixed upon sound data, and the errors could accumu- llatc only to the north and south of it. In fact, we shall find that they did accumulate as rapidly as in the longitudes, when the sphere of observation was passed, which was bounded by Sycne on the south, Marseilles and Byzantium on the north. The mouth of the Seine is placed one degree too far north ; that of the Rhine, nearly two degrees ; that of the Elbe, norc than two degrees ; York is three degrees ; and the farther accumulation is only prevented by that singular conformation which we shall find given by Ptolemy to the northern part of Britain. To the south, again, Axum is placed three degrees too far south ; Cape lAroinata (Guurdafui), nearly six degrees ; and, as M. Gosselin will surely admit, from that point the errors continually become greater. Thus it appears, that as soon as Ptolemy quits jtlic sphere of observation, his latitudes are calculated exactly as his longitudes, out of ktincrarics, and exhibit the same accumulation of errors. I'm. 7'/(i'»i(i««scri/»/S()Ai'/o/<'»(^arccIearly8hownbyM. Gosselin to have reached us in a very imperfect stale. Ilii coiltitiiiR with care tlic ears, for several tenturies, to have been carried about as a guide by mariners and travellers, who, wherever they found any feature which did not agree with their observations, altered the writing or the map accordingly. 'J'his process liiiicars in the numerous variations of the I^atin copies with regard to the western part of the Mediterranean, ji'ui of the Greek with regard to the eastern. The alterations thus made would often, and indeed, most Eonerally, he improvements ; but the great discrepancies which they introduced into the difibrent copies, must Favo greatly bewildered the public. 1 37. In delineating lite geographical system of Ptolemi/, we can only consider the general nutlinc, which is pretty much the same in nil the editions. Ptolemy begins with rejecting the llicory of his predecessors, from Homer to Strabo downwards, who represent the whole earth as enclosed by a circumambient ocean. IVIercantilc caravans, especially in the cast of Asia, liad Inow proceeded considerably beyond the line of coast which, according to the last school, had linarked the eastern bounding ocean. Tliey had passed that line witliout reaching the distant corresponding one by which the Pacific and Arctic seas were actually drawn around {tills vast cuntiiieiit. The eastern Atlantic, and the Northern Oceans were, therefore, eilaced Jfroin the delineation of Asia, and an indefinite expanse of terra incognita (unknown land) |was substituted as the boundary of the world. This proceeding must certainly be considered OS more precise and pliilosophical than tlie gratuitous theoretical one for which it was sub- stituted. j\Ien, however, seldom know exactly where to stop : Ptolemy, having once formed Ithe idea of a bounding terra incognita, extended it round nearly the entire circuit of the Ikiiown world. All the reports of tlie circumnavigation of Africa were rejected ; that cnntineiit was represented as stretching indefinitely south, and it was even carried round to riuin the east of Asia, and form the Erythrean or Indian sea into a vast basin. Thus the hvliole system and structure of these two continents underwent, in the hands of Ptolemy, a complete transmutation. SuBSECT. 1. Europe. {Fig. 10.) 138. In regard to all the remoter boundaries of Europe, Ptoleiny displays an advancement In knovvlcdj^c, which INI. Gosselin considers as tridy wonderful, considering the short period viiich had elapsed since the days of Strabo. The facts which we have stated under the head uf Koman geography show the vast additional mass of information derived from the tonqucsts of Ca'sar, and from the imperial surveys. This hoving been incorporated into the kvriliniis of INlelit and Pliny, a century before the age of Ptolemy, would easily, through lliese and other chaiuiels, rcacli his knowledge. It is not surprising that the crude delinc- ttloii of the exterior coasts of Etirope under the Strabonic system should have been materially iiiieiulcd ; that Spain should have now a southern, and Gaul a western coast ; and that the liny of HIscay should appear clearly under tlie appellations of the Cantabrian Ocean and the (piltaiiian Sea. In regard to Britain, also, or, at least, England, a great reform hod been lell'ccted. Its coast, ofter passing the promontory of Kent, bends inward toward the estuary lli'Jerences to the Map qf the H t KI'llOl'.V. i. Sinor* 19. Ilaracura . Carlti.iKo.Nova 3. Amicus •M. Ilravnita i. M.uMlia 4. Inaus 21. Il.ir,ihis 1. lictuia 5. Klana •2i. Tnrola 1. Htniiii 6. /aaram •i.1. S.iliRiia I. .Xthiiinr- 7. Miua yi. 4'ati(.'.-ira C. ll)£.intium H. (ierra •ir>. Thiiiie 9. T.rwlon S(!. AHUilhra Rhm. in. Rihylon 27. Tomara a Uhenus II. Niniii SS. SInda 1 r)ii'>inmi Vi. nicwurlu 29. Daiiina r 'i'.iii.iii l."^. (iai(;ira 30. Kera i liha II. Sum f ltor>stheiin \'k I'tTMIMlU Riven Ifi. Hai'tra a Kinihratea ASI.\. 17. PanU h TiKiU )■ K|)l>nu> IS. ralHiothra r fHu% d Pot>tiim'tiis 5. Cvrene 6. Alexandria f (Kihonic* 7> Ilcrooiwlls a Hauiisus h Sen us 8. Svene ;>. riolemati 1 (taiiRea in. MtTov J Indus 11. Adutil Taprohamt Intuta. Riivrt a GaiiKes Q Trachir b Daratus 1,1 HYA VKI, AFRICA . c NlRlr 1. Niulra a (.tr 'i. (iira e Mlus 3. rnrthftKo f A&tapUii K Astaiioru. 4. rhycus 44 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Part I. Ti of the Thiunes, called licre Idumanus. Still more decided, on the opposite side, is the " Sabrina estuarium " (the estuary of the Severn), a very appropriate appellation for the Bristol Channel. The projection of Wales, and iu entire outline, appears then drawn in a very unexceptionable manner. With regard to Ireland, Ptolemy has not been able wholly to shake off the erroneous impressions of the first Alexandrian school, according to which that country lay to the north of Britain. He makes it west, indeed, but at the same time greatly too far north, iu southern coast being on a line with that of Lancashire, or, at least, with the north-western point of Wales. The consequence is, that the island of Mona (Man) is pl-ce(? off the south-eastern point of Ireland, not far from Wexford. Having pointed out tills great error, we must add, that the whole form and circuit of Ireland is given with a cor. rectness which appears very surprising, when contrasted with so great a mistake as to its relative position. Again, tlie eastern coast of England proceeds correctly till it reaches the vicinity of York, when an aberration takes place of the most extraordinary nature. The rest of the English coast, with the whole of that of Scotland, instead of ranging from north to south, runs from west to east. The eastern coast becomes thus tlic southern, the western becomes tlie northern ; and the coast of Germany appears opposite and parallel throughout its whole extent. The most northerly extremity of Britain is thus fixed at a point which Air. Pinkerton supposed to be the Mull of Galloway, but which seems more probably to be some point near Port Patrick, which might be supposed the most westerly, for the west is here tlie north. It is part of this arrangement, that the ilCbudie (Hebrides) are placed in the Deucaledonian Ocean, wliich washes the western coast of Scotland, made here the northern ; and tlie Orkneys are in the same ocean ; for, instead of following the line of tlie main land, they are placed, as, indeed, they ought to be, nortli, becoming thus at right angles to that line. IS'^. To account for titis strangcli/ distorted form of northern Sritain, M. Gosselin has, formed a very ingenious theory. 'Die southern extremity of the island being in lat. 5'2° N., and Thule, tlie remotest extremity, in 63°, Ptolemy could not, within these limits, find space for that vast expanse of coast, which the itineraries represented to him as belonging to Britain. To make out this space he had no alternative but to give to the northern part the form it actually bears in his maps, and under which the latitude is augmented only by the breadth of Scotland, a much smaller dimension than the length. The question, however, is, by ivlint circumstance Ptolemy was checked in his latitude of lliule, and why he should not have driven it out to the north as far as his itineraries seemed to require. We at one time thought it possible that this grand boundary point might have been fixed by some rude observation which was not applied to the intermediate points. But it appears very improbable, that any expedition which should have made an observation of latitude at Shetland, should not have done the same in the southern and much more accessible parts of Britain. I rather incline to adopt the following solution. We have seen, that, in the ideas of the Roman navigators, Thule was in a great measure separated from Britain, and attached to the east of Germany, or rutlier to Scandinavia ; whether its existence was made known to them by Scandinavian navigators, or whether a part of the coast of Norway was actually fixed upon by them instead of Shetland for this most northern limit of the earth. This idea, which attached Thule to Scandinavia, appears to have been combined in Ptolemy's mind with that of Pytheas, who made it the remotest extremity of Britain. Such a combination could be accomplislied only by stretching Scotland across tlie German ocean in tliat strange direction. 140. T/ie details of Scotland, if we pass over this radical error, are given in a manner much more tolerable than could have been expected in a country unsubdued by tlie Romans, and with their imperfect navigation. Thule, in Ptolemy, is not a cluster of islands, like those of Shetland, but one large island, upwards of a hundred miles in length : this circumstance more and more strengthens the suspicion that Norway, to a considerahio extent, entered into the idea attached to that celebrated name. 141. Under the heads of great Germany and of Sarmatia, Itulomy hiis given all the knowledge he had acauirni of the north and cast jf Europe, which was not inconsiderable. 'I'hc line of the German coast is very well formeil, and the Aniasius or Kms, the Visurgis or Weser, the AU>is or Kibe, the Vedra or Oder, and llie Visula or Vistula, appear in regular succession, and almost under their nioerhaps (Suthland. It is clear, that navigators had not lliin rounded Jiillaml, and passed through the .Skagerrack or Cattegat, otherwise they niiist have noticed tlicse •traits, and the grc.it extent of continent op))OSitc the Cimbric Chersonese, The Aloecian islands, however, situated oHthe mirthern extremity of Jutland, must have been suggesteil by some |>art of the Norwegian coast, as there are no islands in that <|uarter. The more northern part of the Norwegian coast was probably, as already observed, identilied with Thule. \Vl. The eimsl vf Sarniutia is described by Ptolemy on passing the Vistula, and he traces with accuracy the great bend which it takes northward to the gulf of Itiga. Four rivers are given, which cannot lie recoKtiiMil by their names, but which M. Oosselin conceives to be the I'regel, the Niemen, the Windau, and the Dwiiia. Beyond this he places '• the end of the sea of the known land," and immediately commences that boundary of terra ineognila which he carries around the whole of Asia. 14.1 In reftnrd to the south qf European Russia, I'toleniy recovers much of the knowledge which had been wholly or partially lost under Strabo. He api)ear» indeed to have gone back in a great measure to Herodotus, whom he Imitates in giving most unreasonable extension to the I'alus Mirotis. There is little room for conipLiiiji u to the Tanait, the Uorystheiics, and the other great riven which fall into the Euxinc. In this remote and Paht I. Book f- PTOLEMY— ASIA. 45 the opposite side, is the iriate appellation for the appears then drawn in a has not been able wholly liool, according to which ed, but at the same time f Lancashire, or, at least, lie ishtnd of Mona (Man) d. Having pointed out aland is given with a cor- ;reat a mistake as to its irrectly till it reaches t!ic dinary nature. The rest if ranging from north to he southern, tlie western and parallel througlmut s fixed at a point which !ms more probably to be sterly, for the west is here jrides) are placed in tlie made here the northern ; he line of the main land, right angles to that line. ritain, M, Gosselin lins, land being In lat. 5'J° N., n these limits, find space 1 as belonging to liritain. >rthcrn part the form it L'd only by the breadth of on, however, is, by what why he should not have We at one time thought )y some rude observation ery improbable, that any letland, should not have tritain. I rather incline f the Roman navigators, the east of Germany, them by Scandinavian cd upon by them instead •hich attached Thule to that of Pytheas, who Id be accomplished only :tion. are given in a manner itry unsubdued by tlie ly, is not a cluster of indred miles in length ; way, to a considerable nil the knowledge he had of the German coast is very the \'eilra or Oiler, and the n names. Jutland apivars correctly ; hut, in regard to It, lie calls it "the Sarmatic iicsc, an? clearly rccoRniscd nd opiMwite to tlic mouth iif at navigators had not I hen ■y nnist have noticed llicso Aloecian inlands, however, lart of the Norwegian coasl, ;ian coast was prohably, as he traces with accuracy the wliich cannot he recogiuMil c Windau, and the Dttiiia. )mnicnces that boundary of knowledge which had hcon rcat measure to Herodotus, is little room for compLiiiit uxiiie. Ill this rciuote anil 1 wild extremity of Europe, however, he has found a place for certain poetical anrt hiitorlcal ftctloni, which ex. Dcrience had banished h'om better known quarten, but which could not find a place here with any propriety i — the grove of Diana, the race-course of Achillea, the altars of CiEiar and of Alexander ; neither ot^whom ever carried their arms into this part of the ancient Scythia. 144 In tracing the Mediterranfan, Ptolemy improves considerably upon the labours of hli predcceiiori. Sicily in particular, is much better constructed, and the straits of Messina are placed nearly in tneir true lati- tude He still, however, merits deep reproach for the utterly barlwrous form, as M. Gosselin justly terms it, wliich he has given to Italy, that ruling countn, which must of all others have appeared to him the most siinixMing that Ptolemy must have \xen led into it by one of those Itinerary map* which, like the Peutingerjan, made every thing suluervient to the direction of the Roman high roi,"* 1 drew it in a straight line IVom one I extremity to the other. It is easjrtoiuppoie that hemigh "otco: I this map was constructed, and might conceive that be.-' '.de m I til completely within reach. It might be implicitly relii . < This s< d the very odd principle upon whi'^h -d to Italy, a country so near, r ••■ n is strengthened when we fl. so COmpiClCiy ivimm ifcni-i., lb ..1.0.11. w iti.ptit,iM7 ■«..«. > Aiiina- after passing Dyrrachium, the port of embarkation for Oie» ... this Ijolnb . direction of the great road of th^ empire, that the coast of Italy suddenly reaumet it* just form, and the peninsula of Campania makes even too I abrupt a bend to the south. 6uB»cr. 2. Asuu 14.7. Ill regard lo Asia also, important discoveries had been made since the time of I Eratustlicnes. Immense territories, included by that geographer within the domain of the I ocean, were known to Ptolemy as occupied by the wandering hordes of Scythia, or by the I peaceful and industrious nation of the Seres or Chinese. This advantage might be partly I due to the military itineraries, especially tliat of Trajan in his victorious expedition into I Parthia. The grand source, however, evidently was that bold spirit of commercial enter- I prise, to which an impulse was given by the vast consumption of Rome, when the wealth of I tlic world centred in tliat mighty and voluptuous capital. The East was the r?gion mainly I resorted to for the supply of the boundless wants which arose in that artificial and luxurious I state of society. The merchants soon learned to trace routes, both by land and sea, much I longer and more adventurous tlian had been achieved by their predecessois at any former I period. Under the narrative entitled " the Periplus of the Erythrean sea," we have followed I the maritime career by which the merchants of Alexandria were led to the coast of Malabar. I Wliethcr, in the time of Ptolemy, the Greek navigators had actually proceeded fartlier, it may be difficult to say with certainty. He has certainly, however, obtained a considerable acces- sion of knowledge with regard to this eastern extremity of the known world. He goes far beyond the mouth of the Ganges, at which we have observed tlie termination of all precise I knowledge in the author of the Periplus. He delineates a long extent of coast, the leading I features of which consist in a large peninsula called the Golden Chersonese, and a very I deep bay, named the Magnus Sinus. On his remotest shore, stretching north and south, is I the port of Cattigara, leading to the interior capital of Thino;. According to Vincent and I Gosselin, the Golden Chersonese is the southern extremity of Pegu ; the Great Bay is the I Gulf of Martaban, Cattigara is Tenasserim, while Thinae is Siam. We find, however, a I distinct report by Marinus of a voyage from the mouth of the Ganges to the fiirthest point I of Cattigara. The first portion, as far as Sada, is positively stated to stretch «ouM-west, I the other norM-west. The first, then, must have terminated with the southern extremity of ] Malacca, while all beyond must have extended towards the coast of China, and probably I to Canton. From the details it appears evident, that the Golden Chersonese was the coast I of Cambodia, receiving this name, perhaps, from the rich mines of Borneo. From this I point Marinus had been unaHc to make any precise delineation; but he gave, from the {rc|iiirt of a mariner named Alexander, the account of a voyage of twenty days, from the j Chersonese to Zabn, in the direction " opposite to south," which would, in fact, lead him to jtho head of the Gulf of Tonquin : thence a voyage of " some days south, and more to the l\S" conducted to Cattigara. The direction, though oddly expressed, does not ill describe ■ the course thence to Canton. Yet Ptolemy, in constructing his tables, has blended in la confused and inncctiratc manner information derived from other sources. In these tables Itlie Golden Cliersoiicsc, extending far south beyond all the rest of the coast, is evidently ■ the peninsula of Alalocca, combined even more or less with Sumatra. Beyond is the deep lexiiaiisc of " tlie Great Bay," which thus appeared to be the Gulf of Siam. The eastern Icoast of this gulf is represented as stretching southward, to a vast and indefinite extent, Ihiiviiig on it Cattigara, in about 8° S. lat. This very great error was evidently cherished liii iiccordanee with Ptolemy's favourite hypothesis of a coast encompassing the Indian Ocean, lor F.rytlircnn Sea, and joining that of Africa. This idea might also be fostered by ill luiulerstood intimations respecting the western coast of Borneo ; for that huge island does {nut appear under any other form. That of Java, too, is not exhibited at all in its real jfonn and dimension. To the south, however, of the Golden Chersonese appears a cluster |calle(l Subadivic; and considerably east of them a single one, named labadiu, and described las extremely fertile. These arc ]iTobably fragments of Java. Ptolemy thus had extensive E notions respecting these coasts, reaching almost to the eastern extremity of Asia; but he |uiulerstour, this it I fiiund in contradiction to the most iwsitive statements of Pliny and Ptolemy. Pliny, In express words, sliitet I Palibothra to be 42.0 miles distant from the junction of tliesc two rivers. Ptolemy mnkiis the dialiim'u sninp. I what greater still. In considering Allahabad, then, as Palibothra, we aliandon altogether the authority of Ihpsi) I two gre.1t geographers, a step in which we should be very little Justilicd, cither by a rcferenio to their gi'liural I rliaracter, or by our knowledge of their remarkable accuracy with regard to the other features iif ceiilrnl and ■ northern India. Their account of Palibothra, too, is given upon the authority of Urcek ambasiiAdors, wiii> [actually visited that capital. The river next in magnitude is the Ciogra or Sarayu. Hut the Jiiiictlnn of llilt ■ river with the Ganges is not nearly so far flrom that of the Jumna as the above ttatumeiils would rei|iilr(*. ■ Besides, Ptolemy actually gives us the Sarabus (Sarayu), with its junction in the due relative piisllldii In that lor the Jumna, but Palibothra much farther down. Major Rcnnell has made choice of Patiia, anil iiinalders Ilia ■junction of the Soane, at present thirty miles above that city, as having taken place formerly by a dllll'reiit ninl Incarer channel. This theory stands on much higher ground than the other: yet It by no nivalis eliisely ■corresponds with the ancient data. Pliny mentions both the Sonus and the Krraiiabons as niilli) distinct Itributaries of the Oangcs, and he places the city considerably farther down than Patna Is. Ptnlriny nImi, In Igiving the junction of the Soa and the Ganges, places Palibothra more than two hundred miles below, Major ITteiiiicll's theory, then, brings u> considerably short of the point at which this great capital ought to bo ■situated. I 149. Another point which appeared to me to unite the name and position qf Pallbothru has been meiitlnned liDiscooeries in Asia, v. I. p. 491.), and, without being inclined very confldently to dogmatise, it still ap|icnrs to Imc to comliinc better the different requisites than any other yet named. The name of ttofli/KHir iiiay Im Iconsidcred identical with Paliboor ; for, in transferring Indian terms into our characters, P and II, (> niiil A| |are always used promiscuously ; and the termination attached by the Romans is evidently aiciirdliig to tlivir Cystcin of harmonising foreign sounds with their own. A name is of little consciiiit'iice when It Is not ■ccompaiiied with a corresponding position; but here this appears to coincide nearly, llioiigh nut liideeil Cuite exactly, with Pliny. He makes Palibothra 4^0 miles from the junction of the (Jaiiges and .liiniiin, mill ElIU from Gange, a capitJl situated at the mouth of the former. Bogli|ioor, however, instead uf being iiiily Iwctilths of the distance between these two points, is about exactly midway. The space lower tliiwii the river, iving loss known, might mure readily have been exaggerated, and Gauge being on the must easterly brniuh of he Ganges, might occupy nearly the position of Islamabad. The place assigned by Ptolemy Is oxavtly iiildwiiy, ind therefore coincides strictly with the position of Doglipoor Near it the Ganges receives the (^oosy, nr rivot f Nipaul, certainly not the third in India as to magnitude -, but the ambassadors might not hiive very nreclso noans of ascertaining the relative dimensions of the Indian rivers. There is, therefore, a great weight of tideiicc, as to name and position, in favour of the theory here proposed. I must confess, however, Hint I llnil ^0 oor ; but besides losing the coincidence of name, It AgrvM loM Ihan the other [losition with the statements both of Ptolemy and Pliny, SuBSECT. 3. Africa. 150. In the delineation of Africa, Ptolemy, himself an African, had obvioiiH ndvnntngvu. Vccordinj^ly his delineations of several of the most interior features have, as in the cuno of outhern India, proved to be more accurate than those given by modern gco);rn|)la'rN down I a very recent period. The course of the Nile, up to its highest probablu soiircu ill tho lentral range of the mountains of the Moon, has been justified by recent cnfiiiu'y, ill oppo« ution to the Portuguese missionaries, who drew it from the mountains and lakvH uf Ahy»« linia. Tliis original fountain-head has not yet been traced by the daring foot uf thu Miiideril ravcller; but the description given to Brown, of its descent from the great mouiltuin cliuitt Duth of Darfoor, corresponds very exactly with Ptolemy, making allowance only fur liiH Troiicous graduation. With equal fidelity, he delineates the Astaboras, or Athara, the Ah> jtpus, or river of Abyssinia, successively falling into it from the east. He has, indeed, lliildo |iIcroe an island, enclosed by branches of the Nile ; but modern discovery has shown it to bo I very nearly insular, in consequence of the great bend taken to the south, tliut tliu vrrur nnnut be considered excessive. I l.il. In regard to central Africa, Ptolemy had not equal advantages, on account of the dUtniioo, becBllie b track had yet been forineer Nile, have obtained intelligence res|>cctiiig a portion at least of these vast regions, the npprnncli lo which ■ way of Dongola and Scnnaar was not obstructed by any very insurmountable tiarriers. Ilesides the ngri'ts lent of several names, as Gana, Tagana, Panagra, the general picture of this region as one of lakes, rivers, fed mountains, agrees much better with the interior than with the arid tract between Atlas and the desert, ly suspicion therefore is, that Ptolemy, unacquainted with any route across the great desert, was not aware of "e wide interval between the features to the north and those to the south of it, and linked them together III I description as contiguous and connected. As his knowleorted to him, one nindchy ptniiius Fjaccus from Garama, and the other by Julius Maternus from the coast of Cyreno, The funiior In "Kc, and the latter in four months, had penetrated into the country of the Ethiopians. Ptolemy cxprvstN Wdf very sceptical as to the possible length of this march • nevertheless he lays down the cuunlry of 48 HISTORY OP GEOGRAPHY Part I. Agiajrmba ai that fHthcit region of interior Ethiopia into which thew cnmmanden had penetrated, . AgltymlM we ttispcct to he Agaaei ; at ieaat M the march comprehends no rivrm or lakes, It cannot well liavi reached the line ul'thc Niger. Neverthclcta Ptolemy place* It considerably to the uiuth of Ni);ritia ; which ii i doubtleii In favour of the limited extent which M. Oouclln allows to hia Inrormntim. But we may obsi'rve that, auppoalng Ptolemy to have formed, in the manner above auppntcd, hIa idea of tiic plain of the Niger ai little removed to the aoutli of Kenan, he inuat, in protracting marchea of thre" '- four monthi, necesaarili have carried the line much farther (o the south, 153. In rfgard to the uieilem coasli qf ^iea, Ptolemy'i delineation la not very lumlnoua, but appears on the whole to favour M. Ooueiin'a viewa reapcctlng the extent of Hannn'a voyage and of the knowleilge of tiic ancient*. He doe* indeed nreaent two rivera, the Uaradua and the Stachir, flowing on a line with the plain ul Nigrltla. But I have no idea that Ptolemy could have any precise information reaching acroas the cntin ' breadth of the continent, and conceive, aa already hintwl, that the roaat and the interior were here hypothcti. j cally united. Aa IHolemy placed the plain of the Niger much too far north, he might make theao rivera on « ' line with It, without identifying them with the Senegal and Gambia. Hia poaitlon of the Fortunate Islandi ; (Canariea) opposite to their mouths, and aouth of Ccrne, la not at all in favour of the opinion which carries tliose ) laat features deep into central Africa. m. On the eastern coast of Africa^VXtAem^ adda to the line de*cribeait of the coast tu wlii( h the direction assigned to it belongs, except tVom Quiloa to Cape Delgado ; and if Khaptum be at or near Quiloa, the latter, allowing for some cxngccration of distance « on a coast *o little known, will be the promontory Prasum. Five devrccs cast anil three degrees south of tliii ' promontory is the island of Menuthias. The Menouthesiaa of the Periplus ap|iearet lYom Quiloi nie exaggeration of distance < three degrees south of thii ' iretl pretty plainly to bo one i hcie could be the Menuthias ' rioOK II. ARABIAN GEOGRAPHY. ided that of thu Araliian cultivated among tlicm; iarkness which preceded y- As the mantle of science ind strange race, sprunp under the guidance of law but the Koran and bunded splendid capitals race of humane and uishcd lamp of science. lost distinguished of its !n studied with grcalci employed the pens o( he ninth and tenth con- lay be added the respect- one of their works have avc translated portions, jd geographers to deli- maincd unknown. long the most favourite y afforded were applied le caliph Almamom en- It in the desert of Pal- ies subject to the Maho- [ways rigorously correct, eraries, like those of the and of Nazir Eddin, /Vjf. 1 J. Map of tiis World taken fiiom an Arabian MANUscam of Al Eduisi, ih tiix ' Bodleian Library. . Mountaim orthe Mnon 15. nnii huurri-s of tlie 16. Nile 17. . Uerliar.1 (IclnLMoin of Iti. Ailrl) AI-ZiinK {/nnt^ebiir) 19. . .Svt'.ila ISuril.1) VU. Al-Wak \\[ik lil. i SemiilrelilC-vlon) 'it. ', .\l-l'.mmr(.MaUa. 2.1. BTtar) 21. f A-ll.ui 2.5. L Al-Veinen (Arabia 2(). ' Felii) i Teh.mu S7. Al lleiM lArabla 2». ix-MTiiti ay. L Al-Sliujiir (Se(-pr) I At-Iiiiani.MVaiiiama) I AI-IlnlH-iliiEllUopla, 30. s Ab)'!k.tiUa; AI Vub* (NubIa) 31. AI Tajdeen AlBeiah :M. Al-Saiieetl (Upper KfO'pl. Saiil) ^^. AI.ouliat-wtmt (0.-i$Is) 31. (iow.is 36. Kanun Ik'lail Al-Vmliim XK. Ilt-'bul Miifraili 37. llclad Nvmniii'li 3H. AI-MiiliLiufilnlmJeh .V.l Curan (l^arouan, KureneJ Netrrolaiul Al-Soiis XiTa Al-Mu||hruh AI Anilicvn (M(>(;reb the Wnt ) Afreckeea (.VCrica) Rel.ld el (ierid (Dale IS. t'ountrv) 4!). St'hari'e, wrencek for .V). DeM-rtufllcrinikel SI. Mi»>ur(Ki!vi.r| Al-Shain (Sviia) Al-Irak (IVisl.iii cinpirf) Fars (Persia Proper) Kirinan (CarnianidJ AlHiZih Much an Al.Suiida (Srindi) Al-Ilind(lndla| Al-S«enli;iiiim) Khoratan AMlehanil A/erbijaii(M«ll.i) Kluiwar)/iu Al-iilia>li Khlrken Ai-Sefur Al-Til.iil (Tibet) Al-Niifti/ l»i Kurjeoa (IJeoVKlaA Kcjriiiak KulluL'a lizea Azkiuh Tiirke^h Iturab liuitfhar (Tliilgarla) AI Mutf'tiah YajooJ ,(io4) Majoiij (.^liiuOR) Asialii- (Kua«ia^ liejet'rul Al>.\liitan AI-Kluiz/aiti Khosrs (Cutpiaii StaJ 67. Turkea (TurkeT) 68. AII«ian(AII,ania} 69. Makeilunecali (Mace- donia) 70. Ilalilc- Sia 71. Jenuliea (probably Sweden) 72. (kTmania (Germany) 73. Denmark ?■!. Afrans*-cah (Franc) 73. Felowiah (Norway) 76. llortra or Uurtenca (Ulltain) 77. Comlcai Sardinia. 5co 78. Ikil; 7l>. Ashkerineah (part of Spall], Q. Andaluiiaf. pted by Graevius, and rcptiblislied by Hudson, aflbrd materials vliat are still useful for the ■istructioii of the maps of interior Asia. 1159- Man;/ countries, hitherto unknown and barbarous, were explored, and in some degree Jiiiscd, by the Moslem amis. Those on the Oxus and tlie Jaxartcs, the Asiatic Scytliia of I ancients, and occupied then only by Nomadic hordes, were covered liy them with great ^ nourisliing cities. Among these, Samarcand became afterwards the capital of an empire . extended over half of Asia. At the opposite extremity, Mauritania, which had been Brded by the Uumans as almost beyond the limits of social existence, became a flourishing |gdoni, and possessed in Fez an eminent school of learning. Even beyond tlie limits of Mahoraedan world, missions were sent to explore the remotest limits of the east wul HISTORY OP OEOGUAPIIY. Pah I WMt. One interesting result of tlioHU Iiuh been rDuiniunicntvil in the rvlnlli)n of two Malio< inedan travellers, Waliiul and Abuzalil, wliu in the ninth century pvnvtrnted into China, and gave n description of tliitt country , which, lluiu)(li only recently known to us by the translo- tion of Ueniiiidot, must liitvu been the earliest ever eonnuunlcatt'atc the disco, vcrics of Columbus, by exploring unknown countries beyond *' the sea of darkness." For ten or eleven days they steered westward ; l>nt seeing a sturtu approit'.hing, the light fuint, ond the sea tempestuous, they dreaded having einuu to the dark boundaries of the earth. They turned therefore south, sailed twelve diivs in that direction, and came to an island, which they called Ganam, or the island of bIriU ; but the llesb of these liirds was too bittur to be eaten. They sailed on twelve days farther, mid cunio to another islanil, the king uf which assured them that their pursuit was vain : that his father had sent an expedition for tlio &.'imc purpose ; but tliat, ar a monlli's sail, the light had wholly failed, and they hod been obliged to return. The adventurers, therefore, made their way back to the coast of Africa, which they reached in three days. The bearings slated Keeni to point out Madeira and the Canaries as the two islands visited in this expedition. 160. In regard to the general outline of the eavth, the Arabs seem to have closely adhered to ancient theories. They revived the early impression of an iK-ean, which, like a xonc, encompassed the whole earth. This, according to a natural feeling, was characterised as the " Sea of Darkness," an appellation most usually given to the Atlantic ; but the northern sea of Europe and Asia, inspiring still mure mysterious and gloomy ideas, is called the " Sea of pitchy Unrkncss." Edrisi h.xs even imaged the land as lloating in the sea, and only part appearing above, like an egg in a basin uf water. At the munu time he divides it into seven seas, fancifully appropriated to the seven cliniateH into which the earth was divided. Accord, ing to these climates, he describes the earth beginning at Ihu western and proceeding to the eastern extremity ; an ill-judged arrangement, which, by a mechanical section, scjiaratcs \m. tions of territory the most intimately connected. The knowledge of the Arabs was subject>.'il to another and a voluntary limit4ition. They studiously dexisted from all enquiry respecting those blinded nations, whose minds had never been illumined by the light of the Koran. Ibn Ilaukal even makes it a subject of glory, that he had found nothing worthy of remark among nations who could not be viewed without horror by men who hud any innate ])rinci- pies of virtue, wisdom, or religion. Tlieso views of the sidyect gn-atly restricted their means of knowledge in respect to Eurojie, unil reiulere..'-tti'd with tolerable accuracy; many of the leading positions, in this hitherto inaccessible part of the continent, were even fixed by astronomical observitliou ; and some positive though faint and indistinct notice appears to have been received respecting the people situated along the shores of the Northern Ocean, Unfortunately the main objects «)f curiosity and enquiry were Gog and Magog. The authentic ajiplicutiou of these names has been observed under the Hebrew system as belonging to a devastating race from the shores of the Euxinc and Cas- pian. Oriental fancy had transformed them into two enormous giants, who had erected an impregnable castle on the borders of Scythia. The elliirts made by the court of Bagdad in pursuit of this chimera were very extraordinary, The llrst expedition was undertaken with the hope of finding it somewhere on the shores of the ('aspian ; but as their conquests soon embraced the whole of that region, without the slightest trace of this tremendous castle, the more southern country of Dolchara was the next object of search. When that also had bM'n surveyed in vain, the court was involved in nuich perplexity, and scarcely knew to what ulte- rior region tlievr view was to be directed. At length one of the caliphs despatched a mission, with strict injunctions on no account to return without having discovered the castle of Go;;. The envoys, according to Edrisi's report, proceeded llrst along the shores of the Caspian, then through a vast extent of desert, probably the country of the Kirghises, when they arrivcii at a stupendous range of mountain; 'vhicli must have been the Altai. Here they diJ actually lind or pretend to find something which they concluded to be the castle of Gug and Magog. Perhaps they reached some of those ancient moniuneiits which have been found along this range, and gladly embraced this pretext to rid themselves of si» t'.oublesoine a commission. The picture they drew of it was certainly very highly coliMred, according; to Oriental tiLste. The walls were of iron cemented with brass., m\(\ \\ )^aie fifty cubits high wai secured by bolts and bars of enormous nutjjnitiide, Thu uuiids uf the Arabs were thus set A M BuoR II> IN EUROPE DURING THE DARK AGES. n vlatinn of two Malio. rutcd Into China, and II to u* by tlie transla- lio nutionii of the west. I an'.ici|>atc the disco, lu Nva of darkness. " ii'.hing, the light fuint, lundnries of the earth. i)d came to an inland, Hi birds was too bittur ,er island, the king of t an expedition for the cd, and they had iHin to the coast of Africa, t out Madeira and tlic to have closely adhered n, which, like a zone, vas characterised as tlie i; [ bnt the northern sea 1, is called the " Sea of the Noa, ond only part he divides it into seven I WHS divided. Accord. and proceeding to the I section, separates imi. he Arabs was subjcctiil n all enquiry respectinj; hu light of the Koniii. thing worthy of remark I had any innate princi- ly restricted their means i, unless witli regard to t Mahomedan. I rest, and in all the future delineations of Asia this mighty castle was seen towering at it« 1 lUrthcst extremity. Sect. 111. ylfrica. 1C2. In regard to Africa, the wiilc-citciuleU setllenicnts of the Arabt aflbrded them new liources of infunnation. Tlie Mediterranean coast, indeed, as far as Nuniidia, had been fully Icxpltired by the ancients, and had even formed a more intimate part of their political system Itliun it has done of tliat of the modems. Uy the Arabs, however, who had established hero la succession of kingdoms, it was (lvKcril)ed in greater detail than ever ; and as the most Iwestern of these kingdoms was the flourishing one of Morocco, this region, comprising the Incai'lr unlinown tracts of ancient Mauritania, formed an almost entirely new acquisition to Iknuwied^c. Uut their grandest achievement consisted in forming a road across the Great iDesvrt, and in colonising a considerable ])art of the central regions of Africa. They here jfotinded a series of powerful kingdoms : (ihana, the modem Kuno; Tocrur, wliich we con> Iceive to lie Sackatoo; Kuku and Knuga, wliicli recent travellers have found in and near tlm niodern region called liomoii. Tliey described those countries as situated on the Nile of ihe Ne};roes, wliich, contrary to ancient opinions, they represented as rising indeed from the laine fountain with the Nile ; but lis flowing westward across all Africa, and fulling into the I^Vtlantic ocean or sea of darkness. At its moutli they placed the island of Ulil, wlience salt ras conveyed to nil tlie Negro territories, which were entirely destitute of that necessary of lite. This view of the subject, though erroneous, was naturally suggested by the course of Uie rivers witliin the region with which they were alone intimately acquainted ; but we reserve tills discussion fur a separate chapter, when we propose to give a succinct view of the 8iic> tessive theories respecting this great African river. We shall at present only observe, that, ^s Tocrur is described to be only eighteen days' journey from the ocean, it is plain that the kii<>» ledj^e of the Arabs did not extend to 'J'ombuctoo; that they knew nothing of the Bene^'al or Gambia, or the countries upon these rivers ; ond that the ocean into wliich they epreieiited the Nile of the Negroes as falling was either a hypothetical feature altogether, ^r H.'is at least hypothedcally connected with till that they knew of the eastern tracts of liilerior Africa, Chaf. II. inged to that continent he appellation of Seen, iprehend Indio bevmul iig-woods, appears hy all. The countries on ilem empire, of wlmh lie first time, delii.. 'Ueii .•to inaccessible part of lie positive though faint 'opie situated along the •iosity and enquiry were L>en observed under the if the Euxine and Cas- its, who had erected an the court of Bagdad in in was undertaken with as their conquests >oon tremendous castle, tlic hen that olso had been ely knew to what idtc- desimtchcd o mission, jred the castle of Goj;. shores of the Cas)iian, lises, when they arrivcii Altai. Here they did the castle of Gog and hich have been found 's of so tioublesoine a coli'.ired, accordin;,' to lie filly cubits high wu Arabs were thus set Jl CUROFEAN GEOGRAFIIV nuniN'O THE DARK AGES. \(j% Eicn the iinjycrfijct knowkdjic ) essed hy the ancient geographers became involved in lie >reiieral progress ui that intellectual darkness, which ensued on the decline of the llunian ttiipire. Kiirope, overwhelmed with a deluge of barbarism, no longer cultivated urt or tieiice ; and the rude states into which it was divided had only a vague idea of each other's (tiiutioii. The advance of this darkness may be observed in an anonymous work, publ.^i.L'd Uaveiina in the eighth century. The writer presents only confused fragments of i',<. .!••■ krination contained in I'tulemy and I'liny. Tlie coast of India, indeed, the mercantile rou^.• I wliicli appears to have been kejit open, is still delineated with some degree of correctness, lilt the whole interior of Asia, from China to Uactriana, is included under the name of 1 Serie India :" the Caspian re-appears as a gulf of the Northern Ocean ; in short idl these Istaiit rejrjoiis are viewed, in the manner natural to ignorance, as a dim and inc«;linitc ex- Uise, tlie features of which were all confusedly blended with each other, 1 KM. 7'he monnitcries durinf' the dark ages aflbrded an asylum for all liiit remained of icieiit knowledge ; in them the manuscripts of many of the classic writers were still pro- ved, though little consulted. The rending aloud of histories, and descriptions of neigh> kuring, and even of distant countries, fjrnied a mode of begi-iling the tedious hours ; but pse being recorded under the title of " Wonders of the World," and crowded with the pst extravagant fables, served rather lor the amusement of the firc-sidc, than for any real ■truction, llGj. The m'mnns nndertakev ftir the conversion of the northern pagoTis v/erst the principal Bimel by wliicli any geographical knowledge was conveyed. The missionaries did not, ■this time, attempt to puss the limits of Europe ; but directed their eflbrts towards the con- rslon of the Slavonic tribes, who occupied Poland, Prussia and Livonia. Other appears fen to have penetrated through the interior of Russia to the Wliite Sea; he undertook also i extensive voyage along the coasts of Norway. The Anglo-Saxon Wilfrid, named by I pope tlie apostle of the Germans, appears to have been the person who transmitted the St lull details relative to the Slavonic tribes, St. Otto, bishop of Bamberg, and Anscuire, nonk of Corbie, penetrated to the kingdoms of Sweden and Denmark ; but the details I their mission have not been preserved. Although, however, the monks thus did somc- ng to illustrate the geography of Europe, there is suiticient evidence that they laboured, E 2 M IIISTOIIY OF GEOGRAPHY. Pari I. in many instances, under tlic grossest ignorance ; some of them lincw not even tlie capital of tlieir own country, or tlic cities nearest to their own. 166. The great moiinrcha nuule rtonic elFortii to rescue the age from tliis state of profound ignorance. The two ilhistrious monoi'clis, Chui'lenmgno and Alfred, distinguished tliem- selves by their endeavours to promote geography : the fonrcr constructed a silver table of large dimensions, on which wos delineated the whole world so for as known to him ; unfor> tuiutely the materials were too costly, and tlic silver world was soon melted down to supply the necessities of one of its kingdoms, Alfred produced a more valuable monument in a description of the north of Europe, from tne best materials wbich could be then collected, t nd which forms still the best record of the geographical knowledge of tliat age. Under the direction of William the Conipieror was drawn up tliat important document called Dooms- diy Book, in wliich the population, the culture, ami the taxes paid by each district, nre ex.'iibited in the greatest detail. A similar survey of Denmark was made in the tliirteentli century, by its sovereign Waldcmar 11.; and of the Mark of Brandenburg, in tlie fourteenth century, by the emperor Charles IV. U7. 7'hc Danes and Norwegians, the Northnxen as they were called, while under their mighty sea-kings they sjiread desolation over the maritime districts of Europe, necessarily acquL'ed a very extensive knowledge of its seas and roasts. Such knowledge, though nowhere formed into any regular nystein, may be traced in the sagos, or metrical histories, in which ihey celebrate the gallant exploits of their countrymen. Tliey were, of course, familiar with ali the countries bordering on the Baltic. Tliey knew by conquest Orkney, Shetland, the Hebrides, and the western coast of Ireland. Tlicir fleets reached even the shores of Italy and Sicily. Towards the north, they established colonies in Iceland and Greenland. But ' the most important discovery of the Northmen was, undoubtedly, America, if their claim to the merit of that discovery shall be admitted to be made good. In the beginning of the eleventh century, Thorwuld and Leif, two natives of Iceland, having sailed far to the soiitii- west, cami! to a country wliich oppearcd to them, doubtless by comparison, to be mild and agreeable ; the natives were of dwarfish stature, and maintained with them sometimes a hostile, but oftener a friendly intercourse. Finding that tlie rivers abounded with (ish, and that the finest furs could be procured, they and their countrymen repeated their visits ; and, in 1211, Bishop Eric is said to have repaired thither with the view of converting the natives, Tlie ii.ime given to the region is Vinhuul, from the vines growing in it ; a feature which cer- tainly occurs to us as very foreign to this part of the world ; but, in fact, wild vines are found growing in all the most nurtlierly districts of America. AAer the most careful examinatiuii of this subject, I have endeavoured to show in my late work on American discoveries, tliat America could not have been renclicd by the Icelandic adventurers, and that Vinland must have bsen moi'ely a southerly district of Grecniaiul. Chap. III. GkOORAPIIICAL KNOWMDOR UEHIVED FROM Till CRUSADIS. 168. The cniMdes formed a series of events which roused the European mind from Its local and limiteil range, anil directed its ken into tlie regions of another continent. The high-wrought enthusiasm wliich impelled 1''.urope to pour it«elf, as it were, in one mass on the eastern world, however liliiui might have been the zeal which inspired it, was, on the whole, highly beneficial : it drove back the tide of Saracen and Turkish conquest, which mi^ht have swallowed up the whole West, and involved it in the same gloom of barbarism and superstition ihat pervaded t' e Eiist. Above all, the crusades had a powerful influence in dispelling the mental darkness in wliich tlic western regions were inv'.'vcd, and in i)rc. paring that light of science aiul intelligence which was so soon to dawn upon them. The attention of Europe was thus directed to these interesting and memorable regions, known hitherto only by tlie meagre report of some occasional pilgrims. Not only the Holy Land, y.'M\ the kingdoms of Jerusalem and Edcssn, founded by the victorious crusaders, but the extensive domains belonging to tliii Saracen and Turkish empires, became objects of enquiry; search was now mule in the writings of the ancient geographers, and perhaps some li){his were derived even from the Arnliimi writers. Saniido compiled a mip of the world, annexed to nonpar's •' Gv.Xtx Dei per Francos," {Jig. 12.) in which the ideas formed out of the crusading expeditions are fully exemplifleil : Jerusalem is placed in the centre of the world, as the point to wh ch every other object is to be referred; the earth is made a circle sur. rounded by the ocean, the shores of whiili nre represented as everywhere nearly equidistant from that spiritual capital, the site of which is, indeed, remarkable for its relation to the three continents, Asia, Europe, ond Africa. Persia stands in its proper place ; but Indis, under the modilicatioiis of Greater and L; ucted a silver table of known to him ; unfor- mclted down to supply uablc monument in a ould be then collected, f tliat age. Under the cument called Dooms- 1 by each district, nre made in the tliirteenth burg, in the fourtcentli lied, while under their of Europe, necessarily ch knowledge, though or metrical histories, in vcre, of course, familiar ucst Orkney, Shetland, :ven the shores of Italy and Greenland. liut nerica, if their claim to [ the beginning of tlie sailed for to the sniitli- lorison, to be mild anj kith tliem sometimes a ihoundcd with fish, and leated their visits ; and, ' converting the natives. t ; a feature which cer- ict, wild vines are found tost careful examination lerican discoveries, that and that Vinland mu&t KNOWLEDGE FROM THE CRUSADES. Fig. 12. Sanuoo's Map of thk Wobld. 53 Occidvus iropcan mind from iti lothcr continent. Tin' t were, in one mass on inspired it, was, on the irkish conquest, wliicli ic gloom of barbarisni id a powerful influence in-.' 'ved, and in pre- awn upon them, 'flic orabic regions, known >t only the Holy Land. [)us crusaders, but thi: me objects of enquiry; 1 perhaps some h^hti of the world, annexed L-as formed out of the he centre of the world, is made a circle sur- here nearly equidistant ibr its relation tu the oper place ; but India, t different points, wliili |tlie river Indus is mention m the text as the eastern boundary of Asia. To the north, the Rustle of Gof; and Alagoj,, an Arabian feature, crowns a vast range of mountains, witnin ^liich it is said that tlie Tartars had been imprisoned by Alexander the Great. The Cas- pian appears, with the bordering countries of Georgia, Ilyrcanio, and Albania; but these ■eatures stand nearly at the northern boundary of the habitable earth. Africa has a sea to hie south, stated, however, to be inaccessible, on account of the intensity of the heat. The Eluropean countries stand in their due place, nut even excepting Russia and Scandinavia ; bough some oversights arc observable in the manner in which the two arc connected to- ether. CiiAr. IV. TAHTAU GEdOKAl'IIY 169. The rctmliUionii of the north itf Asia next attracted the eyes of Europeans to the dis- nt quarters of the world. The roaming tenants of those boundless wilds, known under the Bcient name of Scythia, and the modern one of Tartury, have at various periods conquered Dd desolated the civilised world of Asia. The oti'spring of Tartar chiefs sat for many cen- ^ries on the thrones of Pe^iin, of Delhi, of Ispahan, and of Constantinople : but, of the r rulers, none ever raised so terrible a name, or established so wide an empire, as Gengis ' /iufris ; originally an individual chief of the Monguls, he attained the general sway over at warlike race, and led tliem as conquerors from empue to empire. His first and most signal E 3 54 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. PAn? I. Vi --:■ exploit was the conquest of China ; having thence crossed the whole breadth of Asia, he died on the shores of the Caspian. His successors pressed on eastward, overran Russia, and penetrated through Poland into Hungary and Silesia ; their approach, their rapid move- ments, and the exaggerated reports of tlieir ravages, struck tlic nations of Europe with incx. pressible terror ; this was greatly heightened by the prevailing ignorance of geography, which was such tliat none knew when they niiglit arrive, or where they miglit be encountered. Tlie Danes were thus deterred one season even from going to the herring fishery, on the coast of Scotland. The Tartars defeated and killed the Duke of Silesia ; but a general muster of the German chivalry being made to oppose them, they retreated into the interior of Poland, and even farther to the east, leaving only a numerous vanguard ; but it was suspected that they were only mustering their strength, again to invade Europe, in more dreadful and destructive array. 170. Embassy, at this crisis, was deemed the expedient most likely to appease the fury of these dreaded invaders. According to the Ideas of the age, the pope appeared the most respectable character, in whose name a :nission could be undertaken, and monks tlie most fitting ambassadors. The choice was injudicious : these envoys, ignorant of the pollticni relations of countries, of the usages of society, and the mode of treating with mankind, ob. tained no respect in the eyes of the fierce conquerors of Asia. Tliey returned without fulfilling any object of their mission ; and if Europe was not again exposed to this barbarous inundation, it owed its safety only to the division of tlie immense empire of Kaptchak, and the dissensions among its princes. Tlicse ambassadors, however, traversed a large portion of the continent, before unknown to Europeans. One mission, indeed, under Ascelln, which met the Monguls on the frontier of Persia, docs not communicate any geogrnplucal Inform- ation; but the journey of CarpinI, and after him of llubruquis, {fig. 1;{.) led them through Fi". 13. Map OF THE Journey OF IIubruquis. -n ■7S ^ 101 the north of Russia, alonjj the sliorer. of the IJiack Si'ii, and the Casjiian, and thence into tho very heart of the iunni'n plains of interior Asia, where they found the great Tartar capiliil of Karakorum, the ehiol ^at of llie posterity of Ziiigis. Here the masters of the woilil, while embassies and presents were waiting tlicni from all the ccnirts of southern Asia, were living In the rudest Scythian fashion, feeding scantily on horse-flesli and mares' niilii, roving alioiit In tents, destitute of arts, and occupied only witli war and plunder. The Tartars, however, treated witli a proud disdain all other nations, over whom they held tlieni- selves as commissioned by heaven to rule, while they paid the most abject submission to tlieir own Khan, revering him as the appointed representative of deity on earth. 171. KaraUnrnm was found scareelii ciitillril to llic iianit' of rif!/,hv\ng litllc larger than one of the suliurbi of I'aris, aiiil its most sumptuoun cdiln-es stiarcely suitalile to n Kiiropean country town. The aituiitioii of lliii capital of «i) (treat an empire has heen a suhject of some oontroversy. D'Anville places it at a point In the nortli of China, near the eastern limit of the great desert of Shunio or I'ohi, while Tisehcr fixes it on llic Orrhon, one of the rivers whicii unite In forminft the Selingha. 1 have elsvwherc endeavoured to «how ( Disi-overies in Asia, I.) that hoth these positions must l)c ahnut a thousand miles to the eastward of the ri'.il site. It 18 true that upwards of four mouths was occupied in passing from the western frontier of Kussia lo this capital j and the missionaries o VENETIAN GEOGRAPHY. as Ijrcadth of Asia, lie dlud I, ovurran Russia, and ach, their rapid move. IS of Europe with incx- ice of geography, which it be encountered. The fishery, on the coast of but a general muster of the interior of Poland, t it was suspected tliat in more dreadful and f to appease the fury of ope appeared the most 1, and monks the most ^norant of the political ting with mankind, ub- They returned without xposcd to this barbarous iipire of Kaptchak, and avcrsed a large portion d, under Ascelin, wliiih ly gc()(;raphieal inforui- . I'J.) led them through iai\ an, and thence into tlio tlio great Tartar capiliil masters of the woilJ, irts of southern Asia, llesh and mares' milk, iir and plunder. The whom they held flieni- jott submission to their ■arth. ?cr tlian one of the suliurbi own, 'I'lie nituatioil i)( Ilm llu plarca it nt a point In liilu FiBiher fixes it on llic here cniliMvoiirod to sliow to the e.istwaril of the real stern frontier of Kus.sia to ey were conveye'l. 'I'lu'V enty mile*} aiiu this lime )f thei'ontliient. Hut whin. a rate i> founil which ilm K fVom the Dnieiier to tlu' » necessary to enable them to reach the Karakorum either of D'Anville or of Fischer ? Thejr roiiiii not have pnmieil tlie Kreat tal)le plain of SoonKaria, compared by the Oriental histories to a great sea of vcrilnre, and coiiMHiueii'ly of all others the best fitted to form the central encampment of this great pastoral mul inilitury cnipiro. All the geographical indications given by Itnbruqtiis agree with this position ; and iliiaKrec wliolly with the other two. He says all the rivers obscrveit by him flowed to the westv.'ard, which is tnu'iis far at ^ioongarla, but directly contrary to what takes place in t'ic other positions, both of which are even iilaccd iiiHin rivers that flow to the eastward. China is said to lie to the south-east, as it does from Soongaria; but from the two other imsitioiis it would In; directly south. The Kirghiscs are said to lie to the north, ami 1 the llasc'hkira to the west ; but these, according to the ordinary site, would have been at a distance quite I Imuionse, and could have hud no relations with Karakorum. The hypothesis which places that city in McinRolia is foiilidttl uikiii the latter having been the original seat of Zingis ; bo.t Rubruquis expressly states, ' that tills arranKenient had now ceased, and that Tartaria was " the chief and royal city." Such a change was, luilenli alnieot necessary to an empire which was to embrace at once the East and the West ; to hold China in uiitt liaui), ind Ituultt in the other. Chap. V. VENETIAN GEOGRAPHY. 172. The rffiutilirs of Ilnli/, ami above all that of Venice, were the states in which the spirit i of cumnierce and ict of lialashan (I the geographical ideas formel\ir 3. Fundan 4. .MiinKho A. Nlito fi. Mr,ha 7. 't'huU H. 'riial* 9. SoitAitfiir 10. IVll KiitttU II* Illu'Diva U. Tuni'UII la. iMi 14. An IS. niwniuii in. <'bamliin 17. Mihm IM. MiiRiiAn l». Niai'li«n> nil. SriK-lim VI. I'amlar VH. TlKiiii'lialn «.1. ll«l>lllllU.I V4. Mt^llMtl MItiA ■^^. Anha ,V..« Vl!. i'l| V7. Annoiua W. Sfthm 19. XaiddTO 30. Il«l .11. Ilalrh Xt. T.UIKUI .VI. rhaniuty .14. NaitKlit 5.5. Otianrii Mi. rainlit'liTli .17. An-h.liia]a .m, Nll-in Wl. Ditar 411. rii.ii;^!) 41. ScKvnach 4«. Srtmlluti' 43. Nepolrro rnt'am • Nllo 44. SaiiiarKaiit r KuflrttM 4.'». NooTal h Iniliu 4C. Mum^IiotU 47. rerinla 1 Mnndiis 4K. Ni.viMn-ado J (ianKea t Oiilan 1 MareBminIa 4!l. KIlm M. I'raxa. 111 Amu Itlitr§, Laktt, JIt. n I'utlaanchin • (lull.i o Man Ulancho b .Xcbe |i tMt •' Aiail q'lanal d AblTi r llaiiubhi. Part I Soox III< MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 57 held either in Europe or }ur and the beauty of its responds with Quinsai, 'ge city, very charmingly J lipclago, hearing only of luched at the coasts both ng India and its people, .rned by the Red Sea to . 0, which is preserved at isRum, exhibits a view of nformation derived from £ J. Giinim«nti» "■•^ IX'itrlu y^ AiinnW 'i *T. • Nllo t Kiifrdti h 1 mills i Mantlti* k Uiiian 1 Mare Drrunto 111 Amu n I'ulUanchln o Mure UiAiicho p Va\{\ q Tuial r DanuMo. BOOK III. MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 1 75. Geography was now to assume a new aspect, and worlds before unknown were to be nmprchendcd within her domain. Although the Italian states produced, almost exclusively, ninent astronomers, skilful pilots, and hardy navigators, tlieir attention was nearly engrossed ■ land conveyance, and the navigation of the interior seas of Europe : they did not origin- le, or even attempt to follow out any trains of oceanic discovery. The rulers of the itcrior coasts of Europe, and especially of the Iberian peninsula, carried off all the prizes in tis new and brilliant career. Between 1493 and 1498, the American contuicnt, and the issnge to India by the Cape, were discovered by Gama, and Columbus: the face of the lorld was changed ; and all the daring and enterprising spirits of the age embarked in tliis irccr of discovery, conquest, and commerce. Chap. I. DISCOVERT OF AMERICA AND THE EAST INDIES. 1 76. The progress of discovery over the globe, when the first steps had been taken, was Ltonisliingly rapid ; no cost, no peril, deterred even private adventurers from equipping Wts, crossing the oceans, and facing the rage of savage nations in the remotest extremities j' the earth. Columbus had not yet seen the American continent, and the mouth of the Irinoco, when Cabot, of Venetian descent, but sailing under English auspices, discovered ■cwfoiindland, and coasted along the present territory of the United States, probably as far 1 Virginia. In the next two or three years, the Cortereals, a daring family of Portuguese Lvigators, began the long and vain search of a passage round the north of America : they fclod along the coast of Labrador, and entered the spacious inlet of Hudson's Bay, which ley seum to have mistaken for the sea between Africa and America ; but two of them un> Ippily perished. In 1501, Cabral, destined for India, struck unexpectedly on the coast of frazil, which he claimed for Portugal, Amerigo Vespucci had sailed along a great part ' Terra Firma and Guyana, and he now made two extensive voyages along the coa«t of Irazil; services wliich obtained for him the high honour of giving his name to the \>holti Intincnt. Grijalva and Ojeda went round a great part of the circuit of the coasts of the klf of Jlexico. In 1511, Nunez Balboa, crossing the narrow isthmus of Panama, beheld I boundless expanse of the Pacific Ocean. These discoveries afforded the impulse which jomptcd Cortez and Pizarro to engage in their adventurous and sanguinary career j in which, |tli a handful of daring followers, they subverted the extensive and populous empires of exico and Peru. Expeditions were soon pushed forwa 1 on one side to Chili, and on the ber to California, and the regions to the north. Nearly a full view was thus obtained, both Itlie great interior breadth of America, and of that amazing range of coast which it presents Itlic southern ocean, |l77. In the Eastern, world, the domain which the papal grant had assigned to Portugal, covcry was alike rapid. Twenty years had not elapsed from the landing of Vasco de na, when Albuquerque, Almeida, Custro, Sequeira, Perez, and many others, as navigators las conquerors, had explored all the coasts of Indostan, those of Eastern Africa, of Arabia, ll'ersia; had penetrated to Malacca and the Spice Islands ; learned the existence of Siam 1 Pegu ; and even attempted to enter the ports of China. But the characteristic jealousy of kt power was soon awakened : the Portuguese embassy was not admitted into the presence lie emperor ; and a mandate was issued, that none of the men with long beards and large ks should enter the havens of the celestial empire. After all these discoveries, the grand lieveinent yet remained, of connecting together the ranges of eastern and western discovery ; 1 of laying open to the wondering eyes of mankind that structure of the globe, which, ugh demonstrated by the astronomer, seemed to the generality of mankind contrary to i testimony of their senses. p8. Magellan, in 1520, undertook, by circumnavigating the earth, to solve this mighty bicm : he passed through the straits which bear his name, and crossed the entire breadth Itlic Pacific. lie himself was unhappily killed at the Philippine Islands, but his com- ■ions sailed on, and presented themselves to the astonished eyes of the Portuguese at the Hureas. They arrived in Europe, after a voyage of three years ; and it could no longer doubted by the most sceptical that the eaith was u spherical body. 58 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Part l| ClIAF. II. II |J« EARLT SYSTEM OF MODERN CEOORAPHY. 179. T7te syglematic arrangement oftlie immense regions thus discovered, their adjustment to each other, and to the mass of knowledije previously possessed, was a task as yet beyond the resources of modern geography. It was to Venice that the results of discovery were still ^ referred to be arranged and systematised ; but the Venetian geographers, however skilful, laboured under many difficulties. The navigators seldom furnished them with any celestial oik servations, or even accurate surveys ; for wliich, indeed, science had as yet provided nu suiiubit i instruments : they gave only rude delineations, on which the geographer was obliged to trace I his uncertain way ; most of the covintries formerly known were touched at new points, and^^ recognised under new names ; and the continents, being made to contain both the old and tht;^ new features, were swelled to a preposterous magnitude. The east of Asia was obliged lo;^ contain at once the Serica of Ptolemy, the Mangi and Cathay of Marco Polo, and the China ' of the Portuguese, all as separate empires. The relative site of the two continents of Asii and America, the presentation of the west coast of the one to the east coast of the other, was of course the problem which they had tlie fewest means of solving. In a scries of Venetian maps, preserved in the king's library, the two continents are described throughout tlicir whole extent as either united, or separated only by the narrow Strait of Ai -m : the foniier delineation is retained even in a map by BertcUi, dated 1571 ; and in on. by Cimcrtinus (1566), Cathay is placed upon the Gulf of Mexico. The expedition of Magellan, it might , be supposed, would already have opened their eyes to the extent of that vast ocean wliich ; here intervened : but Magellan scarcely penetrated into the northern Pacific ; and his ill., understood course was probably supposed to reach direct from Cape Horn to the Moluccas, ; which did not interfere with the hypothesis of the two continents meeting each other in i: different latitude. The breadth of America, like all unknown spaces, was vastly exaggerntcil i in the early maps ; while eastern Asia, by the process above pointed out, was tripled in all its dimensions, and thus made to cover an ample portion of the Pacific. 1 80. Sebastian Munster, in 1 572, produced a delineation of the world, which is cleared of some of the grossest mistakes, and which very tolerably delineates the general outline oftlit earth. He commits, however, a very discreditable mistake, in taking Ptolemy for his guidi in regard to Scotland, ond consequently representing that country as extending from west to east ; a blunder the more singular, as his forms of Scandinavia and Ireland are liable tu litili : exception. Sinfilor flights of fancy are found in the works of these early gcogrnpheK ' Munster undertakes to describe, not only tlie surface of the earth, but also its interior : tliii ; is stated to be occupied by hell, a huge cavern two or three thousand German miles in Icngtt and breadth, and " capable of holding many millions of damned souls." Its existence vis proved by the spirits which, in the depth of mineral caverns, as he had been assured by Cor- nelius Agrippa, often killed instantly a great number of men. The inflammatory gases which are still frequently producing such disasters, afford certainly no unplausible gruund for that strange conclusion. 181. Orlelius, in the commencement of the seventeenth century, exhibits a remarkable iin. provement in geography. In his maps, all tlie parts of the globe begin to assume their real form and dimensions; America and Asia are widely separated, the expanse of the Soulb Sea interposing between them. The south pole is invested with a Terra ytustralis Iim:- nita ! which, as it relates to New Holland, is said to rest on the authority of Marco Puluand Barthema, and in regard to the West, on that of Magel'i.n. Terra del Fiiego is niiulei portion of this Austral continent : while in lat. 41° S., and long. 10° west of I'erro, is /'ro- montarium Terrie Australis. Tliere is a Terra Sepfentrionnlis Incognita, nearly as extciisivt and seeming to include Nova Zembla. Greenland, however, exists distinct from it. In tin interior of Asia, the Caspian, under the appellation of Mer de ISaclui, presents the same fora and dimensions as in Ptolemy, and receives all the rivers falling really into the Aral, tlio ex- istence of which seems not to be suspected by this geographer. 182. Mercator advanced consid',;rably farther, puiticularly by sfiowing the imperfections o( Ptolemy, and the injudicious manner in which the delineations given by him liad been miitd with those furnished by modern authority. Mercator retains the Austral continent, includin* in it Terra del Fuego, The lakes of Canada appear for the first time in his maps, as a sei of fresh water, the termination of which is unknown. In Africa, Abyssinia enormousl; amplified is made the principal and almost sole feature ; it extends southward to the viciniit of the Capo, compre'iending Mozambique, and bordering on Caffraria: the Nile rises pnh about ten degrees nonh of the Cape, and conseijuently traverses all Africa from south to iiortli With respect to the extreme northern regions, this very learned man has indulged in som extraordinary flights of imagination. Tlic ocean resumes, as in Homer, the character of i river, and is seen rushing by four mouths into the Polar gulf, to be absorbed, it is said, inl( the bowels of the earth. On one of the river branches are placed jiigmies, scarcely four f«i high ; a notion suggested, perhaps, by the diminutive stature of the Laplanders and &>■ Part L'S Book III> MODERN ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 59 )vercd, their adjustment to i^ s a task as yet beyond Ihejl iltsof discovery were still ^ ;raphcrs, however skilful, tliem with anycelestial ol). as yet provided no suitable aphcr was obliged to trace >uclied at new points, and )ntain both the old and the St of Asia was obliged tt larco Polo, and the Chini he two continents of Asij ' last coast of the other, was In a series of Venetian ; escribed throughout thcii jit of Ai in : the foniiti id in on. by Cimertiiiui : :ion of Magellan, it niiglii of that vast ocean uliicli hern Pacific ; and his ill. pe Horn to the Moluccas, ts meeting each other in i ;es, was vastly exaggeratui ted out, was tripled in all icific. world, which is cleored of the general outline of tlie ling Ptolemy for his guide as extending from wust ti d Ireland are liable to liti!( f these early geograplurs, but also its interior : tlie German miles in Iciigtl iouls." Its existence wn had been assured by Cot. The inflammatory gases, ily no unplausiblc gruuiid exhibits a remarkable iin- t)egin to assume their rtal tlic expanse of the Soutl 1 a Terra yfiistralis Inco;- hority of Marco I'olo and 'crra del Fiiefio is niadci 10° west of Ferro, is /V •nita, nearly as extensive; distinct from it. In the ui, presents the same foni illy into the Aral, tlic ex. wing the imperfections oi n by him had been niised istral continent, includinj ime in his maps, as a sa a, Abyssinia enormousli southward to the viciiiii; aria : the Nile rises onit frica from south to north. in has indulged in sotni omcr, the character of i al)sorbed, it is said, inlf ligmies, scarcely four ftii the Laplanders and So- Imoyedcs : on another is placed a sort of northern paradise, while the Pole itself, a black and I immense rock, towers to a prodigious heiglit, j 183. From the time of Mercator modem geography made rapid and continued progress, till Jit attained the state approaching towards perfection, in which it now exists ; this will appear, |whcn we consider it as astronomical, critical, or statistical ; and when we view it in its relation to the different quarters of the globe. Chap. IIL modern astrono^ucal geoqbapht. 184. The agronomical geogrnph;/ of the Greeks rested on a basis exceedingly narrow. M, Gossclin has, indeed, endeavoured to show, tliat they possessed a series of early and ac- curate observations, which they misunderstood and perverted ; but this point can scarcely be Considered as established. It was only at Alexandria, Syene, Rhodes, and a few other lead- ng points, that observations of latitude appear to have been made with a tolerable approach to kccuracy ; all the others seem to have been only extended from rude itineraries. With re- tard to the lonj^'tudes, although the mode of calculating them by means of eclipses appears I iiave been understood, only one or two actual observations of this nature are recorded ; kor does it seem to have exerted any important influence on geography in general. The lirabs made much greater progress in this department ; but, through the separation produced ky religious antipathy, their works were scarcely at all known in Europe at the period of the vival of letters. At that time, the pompous display of latitudes and longitudes made by Ptolemy, venerable as it had become from its antiquity, commanded universal assent. 185. Modern obserwtions have gradually shown the magnitude of Ptolemy's errors. The first ^cat shock to his authority was given by the latitude of Constantinople, which Amurnth III. aused to he taken in 1 574, when it proved to be two degrees lower than ancient authorities had Bsigncd : the idea of such a difference, however, was treated with derision by some European eographcrs, till it was confirmed, in 1638, by Greaves, who had been sent to the East by Irchbishop Laud. Even then, many, rather than renounce the authority of Ptolomy, be- Icvcd that a change had taken place in the positioti of the earth ; but this notion became r.u pnger tenable to any extent when Alexandria and other points were found very nearly to oiiicide with ancient observation. Ilut the great alarm as to the unsoundness of ancient radiiation was given in 1635, when M. de Petresc caused an eclipse of the moon to be ob- ^rved at Marseilles and at Aleppo ; and the difference of longitude, instead of 45° as it had een represented, was found to be only about no° : such an enormous error, in a dimension lliich ought of all others to have been most exactly ascertained, shook altogether the blind pntidcnce hitherto reposed in the longitudes of Ptolemy. It was at last perceived, that an ptire reform of his graduations must be effected, before geography could rest on any secure isis. Numerous observations upon eclipses now began to be made ; but it was then dis- bvcrcd, that this only known mode of ascertaining the longitude was attended with many pperfections. In the observation of fifty-six eclipses, collected by Ricciolus, there were I two, observed in the same two places by the same men, which exhibited the same quan- ■ of longitude : even the same eclipse gave different results, when observed at its four ftical periods. As it was found impossible to guard against errors amounting even to three four degrees, an opinion became prevalent, in the middle of the eleventh century, that lless for very great distances, even itinerary measures would give the result with greater juracy; yet Galileo, in 1610, had already pointed out a source of more accurate know- Igc 1 he had in that year discovered three of the satellites of Jupiter, and in his Nuncius pereus, pointed out the use to which they might be applied. As his hints did not meet ill the attention they merited, he communicated them more fully, in 1631, to Philip II. of Tin ; but that bigoted prince was unable to estimate their importance. Galileo met with jaore favourable reception from the Dutch, who sent Hortensius and Blcau to Florence, pommunicate with him on the subject. They found that great man involved in the storm persecution which the ignorant bigotry of the Romish church had raised against him ; he I thrown into prison j and, after having asked pardon on his knees, for asserting that the III moved round the sun, obtained only a mitigation of his confinement. This discovery T therefore of little use till 1668, when Cassini published his tables of the revolutions and pses of these satellites ; and three years after^vards, he and Picard made joint observations Pans, and in the observatories of Tycho Brahe at Copenhagen, by which the longitude ncse two important points, which had been the subject of long controversy, was finally 186. The French povernmeut now took the most active measures for extending geogra- Tal observation. Two academicians, Picard and De la Hire, were employed to cojistruct pv map ot France upon astronomical principles. In this operation they almost every ve reduced the previous dimensions, which had been founded upon itinerary measures, iwn f - ,;V' ;M} bO AiioiOllY OF GEOGRAPHY. Tart I, and were liable to their usual excess : they took off n whole degree from the western coast between Britnny and Gascuny, and hall' a degree from the coasts of Languedoc and Pro. vcnce ; so that on their return, Louis XIV. facetiously reproached tliem witli having rol>l)cd him of a part of his kingdom. Other academicians were employed to determine the loiigi. tudc of Goree on the coast of Africa, and of Guadaloupe and Mortinico in the West Indies; o'lu M. Chazelles was sent up the Levant on a similar mission. Expeditions on a much grander scale were despatched, under Maupcrtuis to the Arctic circle, and Condaminc to the equator. The primary object of these was to determine the figure of the eorth by the application of the pendulum ; but the opportunity was token of making various observations of longitude and latitude, in regions wliich had been formerly delineated only by processes of the most vague description. 187. In the operation of determining the position of places on the globe, important improvements have been made since the above eras. Altliough there can be no more accurate mode of determining the longitude, than by the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, these are of too unfrequent occurrence to answer the practical purposes required. Observations of the transits of Mercury and Venus over the sun, of the occultations of the fixed stars, and of what arc called lunar distances ; processes, the nature of which will be fully explained in the following book, have been employed with success. Nay, to such perfection have chro. nonietcrs been brought, that, by showing the diH'ercnce of time between known and unknown points, they serve many of the ordinary purposes of navigation. The voyages undertaken by Capt. Cook, under the auspices of George III., afforded the means not only of exploring many islands and regions of the Pacific and Polar seas, but of throwing much light upon the general structure of the earth. The expeditions of Capt. Parry, and the nautical surveys executed under the direction of the British government by Flinders, King, Owen, and otiier officers, have gone far to fix the outlines of the great continents. The trigonometrical sur. veys of France and England, executed within the last thirty years, have almost completed the delineation of those countries. Still this branch of geography remains very imperfect. Chap. IV. MOnEUN CRITICAL GEOGRAFilT. 188. TIte application of a sound criticism to geographical materials cannot be discerned in the rude and infant stages of the science. There is no branch in which the enquirer is so likely to be misled by false and fabulous rumours. The persons from whom he must draw his information, — the navigator, the merchant, the traveller, — make observations often only in a rough and superficial manner, and are swayed in their reports by fancy or vanity. The results of their own observation, or the authentic relations of well-informed persons, are confounded w'ith the most vague rumours wliich float among the vulgar. Hence almost all the early systems have a portion of truth, mingled with many ideal and fabulous creations. Tlie human mind unwillingly owns its ignorance even to itself. The geographer was reluctant to stop short at the point where his authentic information ceased. Having to delineate a kingdom or a continent, he filled up the really unknown parts from vague rumour, or a fanciful prolong- ation of those that were known. Whatever object had once found a place was copied media. nically witliout any enquiry, until modern maps and descriptions became crowded with objects, for the position of which no reason could be assigned. 189. Strabo, among the ancient geo^phers, was alone endowed with a critical spirit: but not having a sufficiently ample stock of materials, he exercised his judgment with a blind Nuvcrity, which appears to have done injustice to several individuals whose exertions in the infant cause of discovery were highly meritorious. This extreme of scepticism, opposite to that of credulity, has indeed thrown unjustly into shade the merits of some of the most eminent discoverers, both ancient and modern. It is only by the collation of numerous authorities, accumulated by time and extended intercourse, that the just medium can be observed, and on equitable sentence pronounced on the reports of each party. 190. D'Anville, in the eighteenth century, possessed of ample materials, endued with indefatigable patience ond sound judgment, undertook to revise the whole system, upon wliich the world ond its regions had been hitherto delineated. The maps of the age were still covered with many obsolete and many fanciful particulars ; and large portions of the world, concerning which absolutely nothing was known, were filled with imaginary cities and countries. D'Anville subjected every geographical feature to the strictest revision, ond expunged without mercy tliosc which rested on no positive and actual authority. Tlie world, under his hands, assumed a new, and in some respects, a lebs flattering aspect. Maps, which had before tjcn amply and regularly covered, now exhibited vast ond unseemly blanks, which, amid the boasted learning of this age, implied a mortifying confession of ignorance. It was impossible, however, to deny, that this was the sound system upon which to procfed. Geography rested at last upon sure bases, and proceeded in a regular course of iinprovenient DOOK III. MODERN DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. «l . the globe, important there can be no more Jupiter's satellites, tlicsc )uircd. Observations of 9 of the fixed stars, and ill be fully explained in h perfection have chro. 3n known and unknown rhe voyages undertaken ns not only of exploring ing much light upon the jid the nautical surveys King, Owen, and other rhe trigonometrical mt. I have almost completed eniains very imperfect. I cannot be discerned in I the enquirer is so likely liom he must draw liis iservations often only in or vonity. The results persons, ore confounded ce almost all the early creations. The human was reluctant to stop delineate a kingdom or or a fanciful prolong- locc was copied nicclia- bccamc crowded with h a critical spirit : hut udgment with a blind whose exertions in the scepticism, opposite to Tie of the most eminent numerous authorities, on be observed, and on laterials, endued with lie system, u])on wliieh age were still covered the world, concerning cities and countries, ision, and expunged Tlie world, under Maps, which had ly blanks, which, amid )f ignorance. It was n which to proceed, urse of improvement t l!)l. Myof Hennell, with a skill and sagacity not inferior to that of IVAnvillv, nrrnnged land illustrated the mass of important materials collected respecting India and AtVU'it | and, Itliough additional contributions of vast importance have in some degree Kupvriiedud hit 'actual dclinention, liis example has introduced a still greater prevision into tliv niudu of beating the subject. 19'J. The comixirison nj ancient and modern Geography, and the tracing of the Infant Lfeps of early discovery, constitute an interesting field of enquiry, which Ium been inucli cultivated during the ])resent age. Vossius, liochart, and other learned ttchulnrit uf Iho icventeenth century, had exercised much diligence in these researches ; but they were not always guided by the soundest judgment, nor were they sufficiently acquainted with tho jDlijects actually existing, to be able to recognise them under the early dcHcriptiunN. Keiuiell, fv'inceut, and Mannert, seem to have carried this research nearly as far as it can gu, tlioiigli without being able to dispel that impenetrable darkness in which some queNtiuiiH nru sliU involved. Gosselin has applied to the science an extent of investigation, and a eritlcul kcumcn, which, perhaps, none of his predecessors liave equalled; but nniuiuted by tuu Straboiiic a spirit, and seeking to subvert all the bases on which ancient geography had beforo tested, he has in many instances rather given lustre to bold and ingenious puroduxvs, tliuii Uiudu olid additions to tlie science. Chap. V. MODERN DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL OEOGRArHY. 193. The mere outline of the globe, its continents and countries, the leading features of nountains, rivers, and cities, their distance and position with respect to each other, constitutes Llltlmt in the very strictest sense can be called geography. But the mind cannot puss these In review, without feeling its interest excited, in even a superior degree, by other ubjects, for *liicli these only serve as the basis. The productions of the earth, whether natural or artilleiiil ; tlie treasures hid in its bosom ; the animals which roam or arc bred on its surface ; above alt, tlic men by whom each region is peopled, — their manners, laws, industry, cunnnerve, tho (evolutions through which they have passed, — these possess the strongest claim un our utteiw )ion, and arc of an importance superior to that of the mere geometrical outline. 19't. The ancients did not occupy themselves with much more than the simplu nud f\nida> nental bases of the science. The delineation of these formed alone an arduous tusk, wliieli Uic geographer was required to accomplish before he could attend to the acceHsury ami Irnainental parts. Eratosthenes docs not appear to have extended his reseiwch beyond thoso Iranchcs which .vere connected with astronomy. The work of Ptolemy fonns a mere nuked hbuhir list of positions, rarely enlivened by any historical or descriptive notices. Pliny dtK'S lot go much fiulher. Strabo alone has enriched his work with numerous anecdotes and «le- criptions which, though not given on any complete or systematic principle, constitute u great lortiou of its value. 195. Earl;/ modern writers confined themselves, like the ancient geograiihvrs, to mcro lutlines. All the first treatises were formed on the model of Ptolemv ; D'Anville, the head f the French school, applied himself solely to the boundaries and positions of couiltries, which i fixed witli a precision before unknown, but without directing much attention to their physieul nd social relations. 19fi. Statistics, the science which treats of kingdoms and states in their relatioDM of opuhition, wealth, productions, commerce, and public force, is, as a separate branch of Liowledge, only of recent origin. From the first it had a natural alliance with geography. pusching may be considered as the father of statistical geography : his vast research, strict elity, and access to the bestsources, enabled him, in his description of Europe, to nsMcnihlu I mass of information unequalled by any of his predecessors. He has arranged it, however, early in the same mechanical manner in which they had drawn the mathematical outlines the globe. His writings, instead of conveying to the mind striking general views, are adcd w itli minute and burdensome details, which can be useful only as matter of reference, bd would therefore have most properly appeared in the form of a dictionary. His sncceshors live been numerous, and their labours are of similar character and value, llruns, with Igard to Africa, and Ebeling to Asia, continued the scries. The great geographical work :ently completed by Hasscl, Cannabich, Gaspari, and Gutsmuth, in twenty-live octavo blunies, each ccjual to three or four of ordinary size, comprises, probably, tho largest ' of statistical information ever assembled into one work. ! 197. The English compilations of Sowen, Guthrie, Sal/nun, and others of the same srhiMtl, jere, perhaps, the first works which embraced nearly all the objects that can give interest to ■system of geography ; and though indifferently executed, and devoid of any charnm of Tfle, they acquired a very extensive popularity. Mr. Pinkerton has executed a work on tliu Die plan, in a superior manner, adding notices of the different branches uf natural liistury, «s HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Part I. and of the diflerent languages of nations. M. Maltc-Brun, l)y his acquaintance witli the eastern and nortiiern literature of Europe, and liy nn animatud and interesting style, haspm. duced a work in some ri"«pi'i'ts superior, M. lialbi has distinguished himself by the industry with whicli ht has collected geographical facts. We shall now take a view r tu comnierc'iul avidity, were left to be examined by expeditions Imving science and curiosity Ibr their object. This tusk was elfected by Cook, Perouse, Kroughton, and Krusenstern, Jvsmi, which had figured us a large continental tract, strctihing between Asia and Aiiuriai, was reduced by them to its insular form and dimensions, and its sepiu'ation from S;ighulli'n established ; the range of the Kurile islands was also traced ; but some (juestions respecting this very remote and irregular coast remain yet to be solved. Along its northern bouniian', beset by the almost jierpctual ices of the polar se.-\, the progress of nuvigutiun was slow and laborious. The English and Dutch, the chief maritime states, made extraordinar)' efforts, and braved fearful disasters, in the hopeless attempt to eHect by this route a nearer p.-issage to India ; but though they penetrated beyond Nova Zembla, they never could pass the funniduble promontory uf Severovostoclmoi, the most nurtliern ]>oint of the Asiatic continent. The Russians now claimed for themselves the task of advancing fartlier, They had most rapidly discovered, and conquered the whole south and centre of Siberia, and reached the eastern ocean at nrlmtzk ; but the frozen bounds of the north for some time defied their investigation. .Proceeding in little barks, however, they worked their wav from promontory to promt ntory, Uehring and Tchirikof, early in the last century, saikd through the Northern I'acific, discover 'd tho American coast, ond the straits, bearing tlic name of the former, -,vlii( h divide Asia from America. Deschnew and Shalaurof, by rounding the Asiatic side of this Cape, ai d discovering the coast stretching away to ti.e ' westward, were su]>]>osrd tu have establisned the fact of the entire separation of the two continents. There s'.ill remained a ]iurtiun of coast on the side of Asia, which, it was alleged, might, by an immense circuit, have connected the two together; but the late voyage of liaron Wrangel seems to have removed every ground on wliich such conjecture could rest, and tu have established beyond doubt or ilispute, the existence of Asia and America as continents altogether distinct, 199, Jies]H;cling the interior if Asia, the British obtained much additional information from India, ut\er they became undisputed masters of tlint region. This information was in many respects only a revival of ancient knowledge. The mountain boundary of India was traced, and found to rise to a height before imsuspected. The sources and early courses uf the Ganges and the Indus, were found in (juarters quite diflerent from those which modern geography had long assigned to them. The mountain territories of Cabul and Candahar, tJie vast sandy plains of Mekran, were illustrated by the missions of Elphinstone and I'ottinger ; while Turner and MuurcrofY penetrated into the high interior table land of Thibet. Recent and authentic information has also been actjuired respecting Rochara and Samarcand, those celebrated capitals of the early masters of Asia : but there remains still a great central Terra Incognita, respecting which our information rests chiefly upon tlie desultory and somewhat clouded reports of Marco Polo, and the meagre narrative of Goez; though some important and more precise information iias recently beeu afforded by tlic researches of Humboldt and Klaprotli. Chap. VII. MODERN GEOGHAFHY OF AFRICA. 200. Africa, more than any other quarter of the globe, has defied the research, and humbled the pride, of modern en(]uiry. After accurate surveys had been made of the remotest oceans and shores, this continent, placed almost in v'l'w of Europe, still bullied every attein))! to penetrate the mighty secrets which it held in it , bosom. This vast and unbroken rc;;ion, enclosed by huge expanses of desert, and occupied by barbarous and predatory tribes, fur a Part I. t acquaintance with tbe ntervsting style, has jno. 1 himself by the industry lartcrii of the glube. 3oo» III. MODERN GEOGRAPHY OF AFRICA. es t of Europeans, and tin; netrated into sonic of llii' I'm travollers have in vain scovcry lius lieen chiilly 'd all the soutliern coasts ud nothinjf tempting; tu science and curiosity lor nd Krusenslern. Jisscj, L'un Asia and Ai\u rica, .'paration from Sa^hulim onie (juestions rt'speclin^' ig its northern boundary, of navigation was sluw ites, made extraordinary ct by this route a ni'anr la, they never could jiavs !rn point of the Asiatic k of advancing fart her. th and centre of Siberia, Is of the north for scmn.' T, they worked their way n the last century, saiKd I the straits, bearing; tliti mew and Shalaurol', |jy stretching away to tl.e e separation of the two of Aiiia, which, it was I together ; but the lato n which such conjecture existence of Asia ami additional information This information was in n boundary of India was and early courses of the m\ those which modem uf Cabul and Candahar, jns of KIphinstone and interior table land of respecting Uochara and but there remains still i 1 rests chiefly upon tlie eagre narrative of Goez; tly bceu aflbrded by the defied the research, and il K'en made of the remotest itill ballled every atteiniit 1st and unbroken rcj;iun, ul predatory tribes, for i |on" period proved fatal to every daring mortal who attempted to penetrate itilo its depths. The I'ortugucse, liowever, at an early |ieriod, made ve- ' extraordinary exertions, impelled by tlie odd chimera of I'rester John, a Cliristian prince, whom tlicy expected to find ir. u'le interior. With this view they explored Abyssinia, oi which they vastly exaggerated Uie liiiiiensions, making them extend even to the Cape, in the vicinity of which, according their idea, the Nile took its origin. In their progress also along the w cstern coast, they tut repeated embassies into the interior, to discover, if possible, the abode of Prester John ; md tliough that favourite object alwavs elmled their search, they appear to have reached on kie iK'casion as far as Timbuctoo, r. id learned at Uenin some particulars respecting the treat interior kingdom of Ogane or G.iana. •JOI. The great interior rii'er called b;/ Plotemi/ the A'iger, was the object which froi. iho krst excited the chief interest in respect to the African interior. All the early European Lavi},'.itor8, on coming to the two broad estuaries of tlie Senegal and Gambia, concluded lat one or both formed the termination of the long course which the Niger had been described i tukiiif; across the entire breadth of Africa. For several centuries tlie Luro|)can nations, nteiit only on the trade in slaves, merely touched at ditl'erent points of tlie coast, to which jidse iiiiliappy victims were brought down by large caravans. In the beginning of tlie eveiiteeiitli century, however, the French and English having respectively settled on the Sene- anil (iaiiihia, « ere tempted, liy the report and view of the gold brought from the interior, I push up these rivers and endeavour to reach Timbuctoo. They had not aucended far, then they became sensible that the extraordinary magnitude and distant origin ascribed to otli was altogether chimerical. They were traced so near to their sources as to be |ttle more than rivulets; yet still the explorers were far from Timbuctoo, and from the ireat central plain, through which the main course of the Niger was understood to flow. ^t tlio same time, notices were transmitted to the French geograjjhers Delislc and D'Anville, rhieli led them to infer tint there was in that region another and greater river, which flowed Lstward towards the interior, and of which they were unable to learn the termination. Yet bis delineation of these great geographers had been in a great measure lost sight of, even noii:^ their own countrymen. '20'^. The itifurmation obtained bi/ the Jlfrican Association at first tended to confirm this impress on. The persons who had crossed the Niger at the most eastern part of the central African kaiii, described it to Mr. Lucas as flowing westward : but these conflicting statements were enceil by the first expedition of Mr. I'ark, who at Sego beheld it a broad and majestic stream, uwing through the plain of Kambarra from west to east, and directing its course into the ^ptlis of interior Africa. From that time, the termination of the Niger became the grand rohlein which the science and the enterprise of the age were exerted to solve. A boundli-ss ^'Icl \vas open to conjecture. By one theory, the Niger was lost in some great inland seas • lakes of the interior ; by another, it bent to tbe south and west, and reached the Atlantic [her in the gulf of Benin, or by the estuary of the Congo; lastly, it rolled to the eastward, II, under the name of the Abiad, or White Iliver, it became the princi)>al head of the Nile k' lijiypt. At last, by the persevering exertions of the IJritish government, an expedition fair- Miieeeded in |)enetrating into the hitherto unknown interior of Africa, and in throwing Roiulerful addition of light upon its st~ucturc. This mission, however, broke up the grand hestioii. They discovered, flowing through tlie great African plain, not one river in one Ireciion, hut several in diflerent directions; all ofwhich, itn]i|>ears, have been considered at fl'ereiit times, and under dillerent circumstances, as the Niger. These rivers are four : — The Senegal, considered by the Arabians and modern Europeans as the embouchure by hii'h the Niger entered the ocean. 2. The Joliba, which ever since it was visited, and its urse ascertained, by Park, has been fixed in the mind of Euroiieniis as the only Niger; pugli I (piestion if it was known to any of the ancient geographers who used tliat term,. terminatiun will be stated presently. 3. The Qimrrama, or river of Zirmie, first covered by the late mission, flowing from east to west, and fidling into the Joliba or lidlla. This is evidently the Arabian Nile of the negroes, on or near which are situated I their great cities — Ghana, now known under the name of Cano ; Ucrissa, under tli.tt of |rstiee; Toerur, as I apprehend, under that of Sackatoo. 4. The Yeoii, flowing eastward I Iho great lake of Uornou, and which appears to have been the western Nile of llerodotus, Btud tiy the Nasamonian adventurers from Tripoli. The mission also ascertained the site Itlie kingdom of Kornou, which had been very erroneously jilaced ; they discovered the lilo kingdom of Loggun, perhaps the Caiiga of Edrisi, and the great mountain region of kndarn, which appears to be the Mons Mundrus of Ptolemy. Tlie subsequent expedition IChipperton from tbe Gulf of Benin showed the connection between the Atlantic coast 1 the interior, and completed the diagonal section niiide across the greatest breadth of the tiean continent. It showed also the continuity of large and populous kingdoms extending khis direction : Eyeo, the Cago of Leo and the early geographers ; Zcgzcg, with its large lilal Zarin; Nyfle, the most industrious of the African states; Boussa, Koolfu, and IT flourishing cities. Tlie Niger of Park was here seen holding a southerly direction rards the Uuif of Benin ; but it was reserved for Lander finally to solve the grand C4 HISTORY OP OF.OOUAPHY. P\lirl, problem by tracing the Nit^vr (l(>wi\ to its torniinatloii in the Gulf of Benin. Tlils(lii.| covery, with timt uf itx numvroui liilkiitiirios, opi'iiit to l)rit!^h coiiiiiivrce tlio prus|ii'n] of l)oing able to pcni'trato into tlii> iiuist interior nnil llneiit region-i of tlio African | continent, though the first attempt hits not lieen xiu'cuNHful. '203. /tmouK partial but imfmHaiit foiitriliiiltimf to lliu knowledge of Africa, may b«| tnentioneil tliu olMervutions of Hruoe nnti Stilt in AbynHlnia ; thotouf llrown in Uarfur; of] Wiiddingtoii and Cailliiud in the iipiicr part of thu Nile ; and, litntly, of Lichtcnntein, Camp. bell, and Kurchell, upon the eoui\lrii'H whlih lio in the interior northward from the Ca{i«] of Uowl Hope. Yet a va>tt field still reniainH for fnliitv iliHCovery In particular, all tliej southern interior, from the equator nearly to the Cape, hat Ncarcely been the subject evinj of rumour. The HourccH of the Nile, M\vt the heareh of no many aget, are yet unexplorid as well as that wide range of territory which inlervvnes between it and the series of riven] which we have just noticed as assuming the name of Niger. The continuity and structure I also of that vast chain of mountains, which, according to recent travellers, appears to crwl Africa at its greatest l>rcadth, and gives rise to so many mighty itreami, has yet by no mean) | bt!eii completely traced. ruve. VIM. MODICIIN (IKOUUAI'HV (II'' AMRItlCA, 201. The iliscoveri/ of America, as formerly observed, was made in the first instance with' extraordinary rapidity. The thirst for gold and the spirit of itdventure urged nation after : nation to explore its coasts, and penetrate its interior. Within twenty years was formed i a full and tolerably precise outline of the whole western coast, from the mouth of Hudson's Dar to the Straits of ISIagellan. The concpiests of ('orte», of I'ixarro, and of their immediate' successors, soon conveyed o pretty accurate idea of the western coast of South Amerira, of Mexico, and even of the peninsula of Californiit. Itut the northern regions, stretciiing into the ices of the Pole, presented harriers of a foiiiiidablv description, which long baffled the utmost etlbrts of navigators. America on this sidu resisted for n longer time the attempts to complete its delineation than any other continent. 'JO.I. To explore the Xorth-weDterii coast Hcems to have been on undertaking iiroperly belonging to Spain, the possessor of all the vast and opulent regions which extend along the ; Pacific. llecent notices have shewn that they did not altogether neglect that enquiry, for . Cortez and several of tli'j oilier viceroys sent expeditions along this coast, to which they J gave the name of New Mexico. The Spaniards, however, as usual, shrouded in deep mystery j even these limited discoveries, and were long able to prevent the other nations of Europe from I visiting this coast, the most remote and inaccessible of any in the circuit of the globe. : Europeans, therefore, were not aware of the vast breadth to which this continent cxparuleii ' towards the north. They rather supposed that, like South America, it n.irrowed to a point or cape, upon passing which the navigator would enter upon the expanse of the Pacific, and might bear down upon Japan, China, and the I'.ast Indies. The commercial nations therefore made vigorous and almiist ceaseless ellbrls to turn this point, and efi'ect, as tliey imagined, a nearer and more direct route into the eastern seas. 2(>fi. The English look by much the moul ihridcU lead in Ihia important career. Under the reign of Queen Elizabeth, I'Vohisber and Davis made each three successive voyages. One discovered the entrance into Hudson's Hay, the other found the entrance into the {jrcat sea which bears the name of Hadin's Hay ; but, partly arrested by the well known obstruction! to which tliese seas are liable, partly diverted by a chimerical search after gold, they could not penetrate beyond the numerous islands and inlets by which these entrances are beset Hudson, in ICIO, steered a bolder course, and entered the vast bay, which has rcceivediti appellation from that great navigator, who there unfortunately terminated his adventuroiu career. The treachery of a ferocious and mutinous crew ex|)osed him on these frozen and desolate shores, where he miserably perished. Sir Thomas IJutton followed in 161'-', anil finding himself in the middle of this capacious basin, imagined himself already in the Pacific, and stood full sail to the westward. To his utter dismay he came to the long continuous line of shore which forms the western boundary of Hudson's Uuy. He ex|)rcKstd his disappointment by giving to the coast the name of " Hojie checked." Uylot and liaffin, wlio followed three years atler, were stopped by the ice at Sounliicul discovery. Alvaro Mendana, in 1568, sailed from Lima, and, after crossing the breadth of the Pacific, discovered a group of large maritime lands, which, from a chimerical reference to Ophir, he named " Islands of Solomon :" they appear part of the outer range of Australasia. Quiros made a still more important expedition : he passed through the Polynesian group ; and Sagittaria, one of the islands discovered by him, appears clearly i'' 'tified with Otaheitc : he terminated his voyage, like Mendana, among the exterior islands of Australasia ; and with liim expired the spirit of Spanish enterprise. 213. The Dutch, when they had expelled the Portuguese from Java and the Spice Islands, and had establishod in them the centre of tlii'lr Indian dominion, were placed in such close proximity with New Holland, that it was scarcely possible fur a great maritime nation to avoid extending their search to that region. Van Uiemen, the Dutch governor of India, about the middle of the seventeenth century, greatly promoted this object, and sent successive vessels to explore the coast of New Holland. Hortog, Carpenter, Nuytz, and Ulamlng made very extensive observations on the northern and western shores, but found them so dreary and unpromising, that no settlement of any description was ever attempted. Abel Tasman, however, went beyond his predecessors ; he reached the southern extremity of this great mass of land, to which he gave the name of Van Diemen, without discovering it to be an island : he then sailed across, surveyed the western coast of New Zealand, and returned home by the Friendly Islands. This important voyage was not followed up ; it refuted, however, the delineation of New Holland as part of the imagined Austral continent. In the newly arranged charts, that continent Ktill remained, l)ut with its position sliifted farther to the south, and New Zealand prubahly'contributing to form part of its fancied outline. 214. The English nation, by the voyages of several navigators, and particularly of Cook, secured the glory of fully exploring tlie de|)ths Mirs g, Vesta gj, Juno ■§■, Ceres ^, Pallas $, Jupiter V, Saturn Ij , Uranus lil. '2'JtS, Them arv other luminous bodies having a proper motion, which arc seen for a short time and ailerwnrds disappear. Their existence, however, is permanent. They are dis- tinguisheil tVom the planets by tlieir being visible only for a short period, and also by a train of light |)roceedlng from them on one side, forming a tot/; these bodies are called comets. Their number is nut known, but it appears to be very considerable. '229. Besides the sun, moon, planets, and comets, there are other luminous bodies visible every clear night ; these retain always the same position in respect of each other, and for tliis reason are deninninated riXKi> stahs. Their apparent motion about the axis of the celestial sphere is perfectly uniform, and a complete revolution is performed in about 23 hours .IG minutes. y!iO. lijf the permanence of the relative situations of the fixed stars on tlie concavity of the celestial sphere, we are enabled to determine the apparent motions of the other heavenly bmlies. Of tlivsu tliu motions of the sun and moon are the most conspicuous and simple. The motions of the planets appear more complicated, and are considerably different from one another. This disHimllarity might well lead to a conjecture, that the real motions of the heavenly bodies are very dilFerent from the apparent motions, and that these last are niuditied by the real inutiun of the earth. This conjectiu-e we shall afterwards find fully verified. 231. All the heaiviili/ bodies which this general survey has brought under our notice, with their motions and mutual relations, form the subject of astronomy, which of all the natural sciences presents the most extensive series of discoveries. By observing for ages, and determining witli exactness the positions of the sun, moon, and stars ; by tracing and measuring with precision their various motions ; and by employing all the resources of niatliematicul science in investigating the constant laws to which these motions are subject, the lunnan min stars extremely near to one another. Seven hundred of these V 3 70 PUINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Pam II. multiple stars were observed by Sir William Hcrschel, and the number has been increased by the joint labours of his sou and Sir James Souiii, also by the German astronomer Struv?. In some of them the small stars are diiroreir, in brightness and in the colour of their light. Thus a Hcrculis is double ; the larger of th j stars is red, the smaller blue : ( Lyraa is com- posed of four stars ; three while, and one red : 7 Andromeda; consists of two stars very unequal, the largci.t a reddish white, liiu smallest a sky-blue inclining to green. Some single stars evidently ditl'er in their colour: Aldebaran is red, Sirius of a brilliant white. 'J35. NfbuUt ar.> small luminous spots of a cloudy appearance and irregular shape, seen in many places ol' the heavens. The most remarkable appearance of this kind is the Galaxy, or Milky Way, which encompasses the whole heavens, and is visible to the naked eye. The Sword of Orion contains a beautiful nebula. Two occur in the head of the Great Hear, one of an oval shape, the other round like a omet without a tail. Viewed through a telescope of great magnifying power these luminous spots are resolved into a mi Uitude of snjiiil stars, distinctly separate, but apparently very near one another, whose light being blended together pro»luces the luminous appearance. In a portion of the Galaxy, ibout fifteen degrees in length, and two in breadth. Sir W.Herschel found no fewer than fifty tlijusand stars large enough to be distinctly counted. Tlic number of nebula; is very con- siderable, Herschel discovered two thousand ; before his time only one hundred and three were known. 236. Contiiuiod observation has shown that theJUed stars are not altogether exempt from change. Several stars mentioned by the ancient astronomers are no longer visible, while some are now seen by the nidted eye wliich arc not in the ancient catalogues. Some stars have suddenly appeared, and al\er having been seen for a short time have ceased to be visible. In 1572 a new star appeared in Cassiopeia's Chair; and in 1604 another appeared in Scr> pentarius. Tiicse stars did not change their places : but having gradually increased in brilliancy, until they exceeded Venus or Jupiter in brightness, and were even seen in tl;e day-time, they diminished in the same gradual manner, and in a few months entirely disap. peared. Son\e stars are observed to have periodical changes of brightness. Of this description is Algol, or /3 I'ersei : when brightest it is of the second, and when least bright of the fourlli magnitude. It goes through all its elianges of lustre in four days, twenty-one Lours, Other stars, like fi in tlie Whale, have gradually increased in brilliancy; or, like 8 in the Great Hear, have eontinualiy diiniiiislied in brightness, 237. Thfjiti'il slarsy when viewe green. Some illiant white. ;ular shape, seen bis kind is the ible to the nalced the head of the a tail. Viewed 1 resolved into a B another, whose )n of the Galaxy, fewer than fifty jula; is very con- indrcd and three \ether exempt from iger visible, while ;ues. Some stars ■ased to be visible. • appeared in Ser- lally increased in 1 even seen in the ths entirely disap- ghtness. Of this when least bright r days, twenty-one illiancy ; or, like 5 brilliant than the rest of the sun's disc. Sometimes^ though seldom, the sun has been with- out spots for several years : this was the case from 1676 to 1684. The dark nucleus of the spot is seen to fonn and disappear amidst the greater brilliancy that surrounds it. After the nucleus ceases to be seen, the umbra continues visible for some time : the place where it at length disappears becomes like the other parts of the solar surface, unless it be suc- ceeded, which is sometimes the case, by a luminous spot. Umbrae of great extent have, with few exceptions, a nucleus in their centre; but small umbrae are often seen without it. a'll. The solar spots are never stationary, but arc seen to move slowly over the !,un's disc from east to west. Their paths across the disc, when accurately traced, are found to be rectilineal in tlie beginning of June, and in the beginning of December ; but in the inter- mediate seasons they are found to be elliptic. Between June and December the convexity of the path is towards the upper part of tlie disc, and between December and June it is towards the lower part. y4'2. The planet Jupiter, when viewed through the telescope, appears to be attended by four small stars, ranged nearly in a straight line, which are seen sometimes on the same side, iiiul at other times on opposite sides of the planet. These small stars occasionally pass be- fvceii us and Jupiter, and then they are found to project shadows which are seen to traverse his disc. On the otlicr hand, tlicy are often immersed in the shadow of Jupiter, and exhibit the phenomenon called an eclipse. The planets Saturn and Uranus are also similarly at- temled, the former by seven, and tlie latter by six, little stars. These accompanying stars are called satellites, and also secondary planets, in contradistinction to the others, which are called primary. ai;i. Saturn is distinguislied from all thd other planets, in being surrounded by a circular rin^ concentric with itself. Wlien first examined by tlic telescojie, this planet was almost always seen between two small linninous bodies of an irregular form, wliicli seemed to be attaciied to it, and which, as they suggested tlie idea of handles, were denominated ansa:. Siiinetiuies tlie ansa; disappeared, and then Saturn appeared round like the other planets. I!y tracing witli care these singular .appearances, and combining tlicui with the positions of S.iturn relatively to the sun ami the earth, Iluygens at last discovered th.'t they are pro- duced by a ring which encompasses the Ijody of the planet, and which is every wliere separated from it. IJeing sjen obliquely, the ring appears of an oval or elliptic form. Before the time of Ilerschel the ring of Saturn was supposed to be single ; but this distinguished astro- nomer discovered that it is double : so that two rings concentric, and in the same i)lane, con- stitute what was formerly supposed to be a single ring. The ring, which is very tliin, is inclined to the plane of the ecliptic. It revolves from west to east in lO*" 39' 54". Its breadth is nearly equal to its distance from Saturn ; that is, about one third of the diameter iif the planet. The interval between the riugs is very little ; yet Sir W.Hcischel saw a star through it. The inner ring is somewhat broader than the outer. Chap. III. avfuoximation to the i 'vUihe and magnitude of tbe earth. 244. The true figure and exact magnitude of the earth are elements of the highest import- ance in geography. Their determination, however, has required the aid of astronomy in its most improved stiite ; yet it is necessary, to the explanation of the general doctrines of astro- no'ny, that we should, in the outset, know neiirly its figure .-nid magnitude : wo shall after- \\:mU explain by what means the first conceptions have been corrected, and its true figure and imifpiiliKle found. Having now pointed out, generally, the jihenoniena of the heavens — taking into view the more reniaikable discoveries made by aid of (he telescope — we are next to consider the causes ami mutual dejKndcnce nf these phenomena. The first step towards ob- laining an explication of the niotioiis of tlie heavenly bodies, is to form some notion of the figure and magnitude of the earth which we inhabit, and from which all the celestial phe- iioimna are observed. To a person placed in an elevated situation in an open country, where llie view is uncoiifined on all sides, tlie earth appears an extended plane, with the concave spliore of the heavens resting upon it, — the horizon being the common boundary. This a))i)oanuice is, however, altogether illusory. 'Jl,'). The earth is a round body, and is isolated in space. This is sufficiently established l)y the following facts ; — 1. To an observer who tiavels from north to uth the nocturnal heavens appear continu-- .illy to change their aspect. The stars, indeed, retain the same relative position in respect (ifcach iitlier, and the points on which the heavens appear to revolve remain unclianged ; l.n the angle, which the axis of their motion forms w itli the liori/on, continually decreases ; M iliat stars which, at the jilace from which he set out, appeared to reach their greatest ele- tatinii to the south of the point directly over his head, now that he has changed hih pusitimi, F I 79 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II ^r : I ■ appear, when highest, on the north of that point. Tills clearly Inillcates that his path ou the earth's surface has not been a straight line, but a curve of whicli the convexity is turned towards the sky. 2. The convexity of the earth is quite apparent to a spectator in u ship receding from the shore. At first low objects disappear ; then tliosc more elevated ; and at last the highest points of the land sink in the horizon, on account of the direct visual ray being broken by the interposed curved surface of the ocean. In like manner, when two ships approach each other, the navigators in each see at first tlie upper part of the rigging of the other vessel, the hull being still invisible : as the distance becomes less the body of each vessel comes gradually into view. The reverse happens if the distance between the vessels is increasing. From tliese appearances it is evident, that a straight line joining any two points of tlie earth's surface passes witliin the body of the earth. 3. That the horizon of the sea, which, to the eye, terminates its surface, is only an appa- rent limit in reference to the position of the observer, is evident from the fact, that if we advance towards it we find it recede ; ;:nd, at the same time, we still imagine ourselves placed in ths centre of an extended plane, bounded by the line in which the heavens and i .i,ih ippear to meet. Tliis is what tlie navigator uniformly experiences ; while, to an ob- t,crvcr on the shore, his vessel appears to sink below the horizon ; and by continuing to sail in the same direction, he will at last arrive at the same port from which ho .^et out, — having t'ms circumnavigated the earth. This enterprise has, it is well known, in numerous in. ^ lances, been accomplished by navigators, who have left the shores of Europe and returned home, some by sailing always towards the west, and others by holding an easterly coiirso. This great experiment demonstrates that the sea and land have a curved surface wliich re- turns into itself, so that no part of it is touched by the heavens. 246. There are oilier phaiomrna which prove that the earth, if not an exact sp'iere, is iit least nearly of that figure. The various appearances of the moon, in the course of her < -volution round the earth, show that she is an oiiai]ue body, and is visible only by the re- 'i;;Cted light of the sun. The earth being also an opMjue body, must project a shadow in a .lirection opposite to the sun. It will afterwards be shown 'lat the moon, when full, must sometimes pass through this f ;iadow. In tliis case, when tlic moon begins to penetrate, or is about to leave, the shadow, the greater part of the ('.isc is still illuminated by the sun ; ami it is found that this luminous part is always of the form of a crescent, having its concave side bounded by an arch of a circle. The section of the earth's shadow, shown by its projection on the moon, is, therefore, as to sense, circular, — a pioof that tht earth is a sphere, or nearly of a spherital figure ; whence wo may conclude that tliere is a point within the earth wliich is its centre. 247. That the earth is a ruutiil bodi/, is thus complctvli/ proved by experience and obscrv- ation ; yet, when this dootriue is presented to the mind for the first time, there is some dif. ticulty in believing that the earth is balanced, as it were, on its centre, without any visible support ; while all tliinjjs at rest -jii >ts surf; ce lequire to be supported. We must, however, consider that the bodies wiiioli we sec till towards the centre of the earth are mere atoms in comparison tu the earth itself; and tint, althuugli their tendency to its centre is another fact established by experience, yet it dots not thence follow thul the e:irth itself should move towards one point of space rather than tow ards another. A little retlection will show that there is no inconsistency in supposing the earth, an immense mass, to be at rest, and all things to be retained on its surface by some force analogous to that by which a \)iece of iion is drawn towards a magnet. This is really the fact ; and a consequence of it is, that on opposite sides of the earth its inhabitants stand in opposite directions, with their feet towards each other, for wliich reason they are called Antipodes; and every country has its own Antipodes. 248. The knou'h'dgc if the trui •• 'ire a'U magnitude of the earth is of the greatest import- ance in geography, and on this v '.uit we shall treat of fhein in a particular manner. In the mean time, as a near npproxin.,;tion to the truth, the e^. Ii may bo coiisidert-d as diJTeriMg but little from a spliere, 791(5 iiiili . in diameter, and co.iscquontly nearly '.'4,H70 miles in circumference. In geometry, t; - jircunifercnce of every circle is supposed to be dividm into 3(J0 equal parts, called degrees ; and eaiii of tliese into 60 equal parts, called minulcs. and so on. A degree, therefore, of any circle on the earth's surface, whose centre is the same with that of the eartli, will be ratlier inorv than <)'J miles; and a minute of a degree will be about 1|, mile. Chap. IV. IIOCTRINK OK TlilC srHERE. 'J 19. The iitiiiiitiis uf the cotcslial hmlies lirinu in ul'pearance alt performed on a sphere, ol vi liich the eye of lli".' spectator is the centre ; with a view to describe tiie iiuliue of tlwse inu- Paht II ates that his path oit e convexity is turneil ip receding from the A at last the highest ray being brolien by I ships approach each g of the other vessel, of each vessel comes vessels is increasing. ) points of tlie earth's face, is only an appa- n the fact, that if wc ill imagine ourselves fliich the heavens and L-es ; while, to an ob- by continuing to sail 1 la- ..et outj — having ,wn, in numerous in- Europe and returned ng an easterly course. ved surface which re- st an exact sp'iere, is 1, in tlie course of her visible only by the re- project a shadow in a noon, when full, must begins to penetrate, or nated by tlie sun ; and having its concave side shown by its projection Ih is a sphere, or nearly within the earth whicli perience and observ. imc, there is some dif. without any visible 1. We nmst, however, »rth are mere atoms in its centre is anotliti rtli itself should move tk'Ction will show thai to be at rest, and all which a piece of it on jueni'e of it is, that (iii ith their feet towards country has its own of the greatest import- mrticiilar manner. In oiisidetX'd as differiiij; early '.MjHTO miles in u\ip<>seil to be dividiu parts, called mimitis. , whose centre is (he a minute of a degree llooK !• DOCTRINE OF THE SPHERE. in 'brmcil on a n/ilieie, oi he nature of these iriu- lions, It has been fbimd expedient to suppose certain circles to be traced on this sphere, to vliicli, also, the positions of the heavenly bodies in space are referred. 250. T/te distance of lite fuxcd stars is immensely great in respect of the earth's semi- aiiuneter : for it is found that, when viewed from any two points of the earth's surface, they have the very same relative position, and the same apparent distances, at a given instant of lime. Hence it follows, that the appearance of the heavens, and the angular distances of the Bxcd stars, will be, as to sense, the same, whether they be viewed from the centre of the earth, r from a point on its surface. We may, therefore, conceive the axis of the diurnal revolution I pass through the centre of the earth, which will be aho the centre of the celestial sphere. Definitions. 251. A great circle of the sphere is that whoso plane passes through its centre : and all Others are called small circles. 'i5'i. A circle of tlie celestial sphere, whose plane passes through the eartli'a centre, and Is perpendicular to the axis, is called the Equator. The line in wljch this plane meets the (artli's surface is called tlie Euuatoh. of the cartli, or the Equinoctial. 25;i. To illustrate this by a diagram, let c be the centre of the sphere {Jig. 15.), which we suppose to coincide with the centre 15 z A of the earth, and let Pc;) be the axis; then the circle, whose diameter is E Q, which passes through c, and is perpen- dicular to Pp, is the Equator. The circles which the stars describe by the diurnal revolution, are all parallel to the Equator. Such is the circle whose dia- meter is A B. 254. A circle, whose plane passes through the poles, is called the Meridia n, and the section of the earth's surface made by this plane is called the Meridia^ of all the places through which it passes. Thus P E ;) Q. is a meridian circle in the heavens. The number of these circles is indefinite. 255. Bi; the geometrical projierties of a sphere, th.i plane of any meridian cuts the planes of the equator and nil r rcles parallel to it at right angles. 256. IVe knoiu by observation, that any body at rest, and let foil from a point al' ive the leartli, will, by its weight or gravity^ descend in a straight line. This line is the ditJction of traiiti/! it is also indicated by tlic direction of a cord to which a plummet is suspended, and It every where porpendicular to the surface of water at rest. If, now, a lire in the direction lof gravity at nu noint on the earth's surface be produced indefinitely upward and down- varil, this li.; ' '■ .led a Vertical, will n trk, on the celestial sphere, two points called the (iiNU'ii and Naoik. The former is the point in the heavei.s immediately over head. A lane eonceived tu pass through any plane on the earth's surface at right angles to the line i;; its zenith and nadir, will, when extenarent motion, he describes rounti the iieavens in the course of a year. >Vhen a spot is first discovered on the eastern edjjn the disc, it appcirs like a fine line : as it approaches the centre of the disc its hri'ailiil increases -. as it advances towards the western edge the breadth again diminishes, until thospji at length entirely disapiicars. The same s|)Ot is sometimes again observed, after fourinil days, on the east side ot' the disc ; but more frequently the spot is dissolved, and is no iiioiil seen. Hy careful observation of the time occupied by a spot in crossing the disc, takiii;! also into account thf in oper motion of the sun from west to east during that jieriod, tlw tiiul of Iho sun's rotation on his axis is found to be about twenty-five and a half days. '270. 'flint the moon, and the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, Im each a motion of rotation from west to east, on an axis inclined to the iilane of the mi;;i orbit, is inferred in like manner from the spots that are seen to traverse their discs, T!ii| moon i-resents alw.iys nearly the same side to the earth ; and must, therefore, revolve on Iwl axis ill tt'e same time in which she is carried round the heavens by her ap|>areiu iiiuiioiJ namely, in 27" 7'" 4;i'. Mercury revolves in 24" 5"" ; Venus in 23*' :)0"' ; Mars in 21" ;!'/.[ Jupiter in 9* 56"; Saturn in lO" 29"". In the remaining planets no ajipearuwcis haul Part II. 10 piano passing through \ of a spectator so situated i lace are cuUed Verticai I opcrtics of a sphere, art I ical circle ; and the ver. B Prime Vkrticai. )ints, end the prime vcr. L Points. They divide | li a stor, or any point of I is called tlie ALTiTunti id the meridian is calteil| uth. Tims, in^'. 15,, | Uie arc H O. on tlie meridian, and iij ridian J thot is, whcniu] •rceptcd between the star] ijt beint; a meridian that I S K is the declination o(l arc intercepted between I 'has Z being the zenith oil cZE. h of any particular placjl en the tirst meridian andl , is called tlie LongitidiI le of places from the me.1 Jreeiiwich. horizon, and PE, the (litl cumference of a circle oil mon arc PZ, tlie arcs ZEI e pole from the horizon oil latitude of that place. looK I. DISTANCES, ETC. OF THE HEAVENLY DODIES. It I >f F.S. THEIR FIOURI. K'scope, nre visible on hiil an axis, in about twentj.l ons, they are suffiiiim!|r across tlie /'du!erminiiig the distance of llic sun, moon, and planets. In reference to the there of the fixed stars, then, the earth is to be regorded as a point. To a spectator, at the In, moon, and iilancts, however, it would present a disc subtending an angle of greater or Bs magnitude, and, even when smallest, admitting of measurement. This angle can lie Jetennined by an observer on the earth's surface ; and as we know the true magnitude »>f the trth, it aflbrds us the means of estimating the distances of these bodies. Let () o be the places of two observers under the same meridian, but very distant from each other. Let P be a planet In the meridian of these places, and let some llxe' uii Vi tangi'iiii the circle O E o, and from C the centre draw C ty, C li to Ide iKiints t>( („ tii!t : draw also the vertical line! C Z ond C Z' through <> i ii! o the [ilaci of theolxcrvers, andpnxlucc I'O, Po tomcet C ()', > .' u in il and U. Noi for the sun and planets the angle O Po la very small, and even for the nun it is not very considerable. The distance P C may therefore l)e regarded, c every case, as much greater than C (V, or C li. Hence the Inns C ()', ci C U may without sensible error be considered as proixrttioiiii ii>theangla CPty, CPB, CPDj 10 that we have / CPO' ! ^ CPO = CO' ; Cl and / CPO : / CPo = CO' : CDiwhorefore I CPO': Z CPOt I CPo or Z OPo=CO' ! CB + CD. But tli. ungles at II .u ,D arc very nearly right angles, and therefore, t.. radius CO', a have CB = Sln. COH = Sin. POZi and CU = Sin. Cu U = Sin. I'o Hence wo obtain Z CPO' : Z OPo={CO : CB + CI)=) : Sin.POZ + Sin. PoZ' : And2 Z CPO' or Z 0'P(i = 2 Z Ol'm Rad. Seconds. I = 1 )■• = 2^2' Sin. POZ + Sin. PoZ' 27f). If the planet be on the same side of the zenith to both obscnoi then the difference, instead of the sum of the sines of the zenith distuncn must be taken for the denoniinator. Expressing the almvc furniuli r. words, we give the following simple ra\e : ^ Divide t/ie arc, (i'xp(vs.y the disc (\f the earth. 277. Since small angles, that require for their measurement only the use of tlie ni cromuter, cun be determined with much more accuracy than large angles requiring ii whole telescope to be moved, it is best to employ, in finding the angle O P o a star whic is near tlie planet : a small error in taking the zenith distances of the planet will |)r(Klu(i no sensible error in the result. 278. Another method of determining this angle, is by observations on the transit of ^■l•no over the disc of the sun ; a phenomenon in which the planet is seen like a dark spot on lii disc ; but the method now explained is sufficient for our present purpose. 279. Tlie folIowin<» are the angles subtended by the earth's disc at the sun, moon, m planets, when the earth is nearest to each : Seconds. A'iglo ot tlif Sim =17 Angle ot Uranus AlLTCUry s= 28 Vesta Venus •= C2 Juno Mars e= 42 Ceres Ju|>iter = 4 Pallas Saturn c= 2 Moon 880. To determine, now, the distance of the sun or moon, or of a planet ; — In the right angled friaoii O POC we have given the angle P equal to half the an(i "^ - subtended by the earth's disc at the liody wliiwd» tance is to lie found; also OC the earth's semi ilian ter : therefore the distance PC may be detenniiidii the prop<)rtiiin Sin. P : Had = C O : PC. Since li angle P is small, its sine must be nearly ei|ual ti> ili are which measures it Observing therefore that a arc to which the radius is equal, expressed in sec'(iuili,j SOC'.'fiS" we have Z P(in sivonds) : 'MiHiH = C, : tf aXKiij HenccPC=2CO x , ., « Whence we deriicUi following rule : — Divide the constant number 'MMIi the number qf seconds in the angle subtended by It earth's disc as seen from the body whose distanct in be determined; mulltpty the result by the diameter iif the earth, and the product is the distance requiri In the cose of the sun j assuming the diameter of the earth as unity, we have the distance equal to — or 12133 diameters of the earth. In like manner, taking 4", 2", 1" for the angles subtended by the cailii disc at Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus, the disUnces of these planets from the earth, when leant, will Ik?51»: 103132, 206PG5 diameters of the earth respectively. The mean distance of the moon is about sixty us. diameters of the earth. 28 1 . The apparent diameter of any one of the heavenly bodies, is the number of seconds ii the measure of the angle under which its circular disc is seen by a spectator upon the oartl When measured by a micrometer, the apparent diameters of the sun, moon, and planets » found to be, when greatest, as follow : _.. , . Seconds. Seconds. Diameter of the Sun = 1923 Diameter of Jupiter = 46 Mercury = 12 Saturn = 18 Venus = 61 Uranus = 4 Mars = 18 Moon = 2020 }Mv. APHY. Part I| ' I. ROTATION OF THE EARTH. 7T tho circle O K at the poInU O and u, n, bti-nded by the disc of the earth al ih, , tangcnti, draw PO- sii! Vi tanKfiiliMl Diitre draw C O*, C >' to 'i'e IKiiiits ol ooi.* C Z and C Z' through «> ; nl o the planj Po to meet C O'. '■ u »" '• »'"' 1>. Nml J Po 1» very small, and even for the moal listance P Cinay theruforc be regarded, !■■ C ty, or C i). Hence the lines CO', IP jc conaideretl as proportionii. H) the aiiglj Bhave/CPO'! /CPO = CO':(J : CD; wherefore ^ CPO': ii CI'O^I B + C D. But til. Migleii at II a J c», and therefore, i.. radius CO', .T JZj and Cl) = Sin. CoD = Sni. I'oZj / opo=(co : cn + cn=) iij id2 / CPO' or Z OTdsS Z Ol'o. same side of tho zenith to both objcnd le sum of the sines of the zenith distunnJ natiir. Expressing the alwvc formula r mple rule : — Uiviite the arc, (i'xpi-iJ*(( il uivs the observed angle at the planet, bi/ til Ustances «/' the planet, if it is belti n ii| by the diffirence qf these sines if the pkiM '0 both observers i and twice the resiM i-a he radius, that measures the angle sulikmlii rth. f usuremcnt only the use of the \w icy than large ongles requiring iJ nding the angle O P o a star wliiJ ilistanccs of the planet will produj observations on the transit of ViniJ planet is seen like a dark spot on tU ir present purpose. 3 earth's disc at the sun, moon, Seconds. Uranus = 1 Vesta Juno Ceres 9 Pallas . Moon = 2' 2' Angle r a planet : —In the right anglwl Iriaii;. e given the angle P equal to hairilicai..-. )y the earth's disc at tho Imdy wIu^m: be found ; also OC the earth's semi iliau )rc the distance PC may be dctcrmin«l on Sin. P : Had = C O : PC. Since i mall, iU sine must be nearly ojual I" easures it Observing therefore thai i! the radius is equal, expressed in secdiuli, Have / P (in seconds) : i!0()2(i5 = C : K SCO X f ., '« Whence we derive le ; Divide the constant number 'Mi& nf seconds in the angle subtended by lil as seen front the body whose distanci wM and the product is the distance reqmi\ inity, wc have the distance equal to __r I" for the angles subtended by the eartll 1 from the earth, when least, will lieSIWI distance of the moon is about sixty kbI y bodies, is the number of secomlsi;! is seen by a spectator upon the caittl ;rs of the sun, moon, and planets »J Seconds. icter of Jupiter = 46 Saturn = 18 Uranus = 4 Moon = 2020 he four remaining planets, according to tho most careful olHicrvntions, appear to subtend lly a small part of a second. |282. Now, for deducing tho real diameters from tho apparent, wo have this rule : — I the aj)!"^revt diameter of the earth, (or the seconds in the angle which its disc subtends,) as \nfrom ' planet, is to the apparent diameter of the planet as seen from the earth, so is the • diameter of the earth to the true diameter of the planet, |283. Calling the diameter of the earth imity, or 8000 miles in round numbers, wc ain, Diameter! of the Earth. Mlleft • 11 1-454 = 882,000 nearly. 0-398 = 3,140 — 0-9 = 7,200 — 0-517 = 4,100 — 10-860 t= 90,000 — 9-982 = 7fi,068 — 4-332 =3 34,5(X) — 0-273 = 2,160 — iM. As the SUV, moon, atiU planets ore spherical bodies, their magnitudes compand with ' magnitude of the earth, may be found upon the principle that similar solids are to one bthci as the cubes of their similar dimensions ; so that as the cube nf the diameter of the ilh i.( to the cube of the diameter qf the sun, moon, or a planet, no is the magnitude nf the ]»H(T to the majiiiitudc of the latter. 285. Assuming the magnitude of the eartli as unity i Tlie magnitude of the Sun = 1384472-000 Diameter of tho Sun Mercury Venus Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Moon Mercury = •063 Venus =« •927 Mors = •139 Jupiter a 1280-900 Saturn = 995-000 Uranus => 80-490 Moon = -020 ■vinjt now ascertained the distances and magnitudes of the heavenly bodies, we proceed riKjuire wliether the diurnal motion which we observe in them be a real or only an appa- It motiuii ; and whether tho earth is the centre to which the proper motion of any of them ) be referred. Chap. VII. rotation of the earth. 68R. The diurnal motion of the heavenly bodies suggests the existence of some cause, under I influence of which they either perform or appear to perform a revolution from east to pt ruiinil the axis of the celestial sphere in the space of a day and a night. Now, there } two suppositions, on either of which the diurnal motion may be explained. We may Ipose the heavens to be carried round the earth, while the latter remains immoveable in I centre ; or we may suppose the heavens to be at rest, and the earth to revolve on an axis 111 opposite direction ; that is, from west to east. To which of these hypotheses the pre- knce is due, will be evident if we consider that the heavenly bodies are independent one another, and are placed at very difiercnt distances from the earth ; that variations in the arcnt diameters of the planets itidicate great changes in their distances, while the comets ^ersc tlic heavens in all directions ; so that it is difficult to conceive that one and the same >. should impress on all these bodies a common motion of rotation. (87. Since the earth is a globe of about 8000 miles diameter, it is small when corn- ed with the immense mass of the sun. Were the centres of the sun and earth brought I coincidence, the former body would fill the orbit of the moon and extend as far again lond it. Besides, the sun is distant from us about t^velve thousand diameters of the f\i ; so tliat to revolve round the heavens in the interval of twenty four hours, he must ve at the immense velocity of about twenty five millions of miles in an hour. It is lefure mure reiisonable to suppose the earth to have a motion of rotation on an axis, than iuppose the sun, a body so distant and of such immense magnitude, to move with the vast lidity that would be requisite to carry him round the heavens in so short an interval. [til regard to the fixed stars, we moy reason in the same manner with still greater force -. the velocity necessary to carry the sun round in twenty-four hours is really insensible rii compared with the rapidity with which the fixed stars must move to accomplish a like ..:<,,. V* 4:^ \v^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) /. ^ .^^4^' ,v>'^* 1.0 I.I 11.25 U£|Z8 |2.5 |5o """^ M^H I US 120 1.8 U IIIIII.6 III P^-Wi> VQ 7; *^.v ■> '^ '/ /{^ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MS80 (716)872-4503 V i\ ^ V ^^^ ^ \ '^J^ ^>/^ '^' Uo ^ m ' /^\% i ^J^ M£p % lA d 78 PRINCIPLES OF OEOORAPHY. Par* II, rerolution. In order to account for the' diurnal motion of thu henvani on tho hypothnii that the earth is at rest, it must be supposed that the sun, moon, and Man hiivo thulr v«lo> cities so adapted to their respective distances, that all of them complvto their revolutioM round the earth in exactly the same number of seconds. Such on adaptation among innumerable independent bodies, placed at such a variety of dlstancM, It ii Impomlblo to admit 288. There are other phenomena of the heavent which serve still further to confirm tho conclusion, that tlie diurnal motion of the heavenly bodies is not n real motion. Evi>ry difficulty, however, disappears, if we suppose the earth to have a motion of rot(ttlon on an axis from west to east. Carried round with a velocity common to all the oltjucts which surround us on the earth's sur&ce, we are in a situation similar to that of u spectator placed in a vessel in motion. At the first careless glance he imaginui hlmwlf at rest, while the shore> and all the objects which he sees, unconnected with the vessvl, appear to be In motion. By reflecting, however, on the extent of the shore, on the magnitude of the moun. tiuns, and other objects on land, when compared with tho vessel ^om which he observes them, he frees his mind from this momentary illusion, and becomes convinced that the motion of these objects is only apparent, and that it is produced bv tho real motion of the vessel. The multitude of stars scattered over the heavens are, witli respect to us, what the shore and the objects upon it are with regard to the spectator placed In tho vusitel i and by the same considerations, by which his first impressions are so corrected that he becomes assured of the reality of his motion, we are led to the conclusion that tho rotation of ths earth on an axis produces the apparent diurnal motion of the heavens. 289. An argument for the rotation of the earth may also be drawn IVom Analogy. Several of the planets are known to have a motion on an axis similar to that which we have sup. posed to belong to the earth. Jupiter, for example, which is many times greater titan tho earth, revolves on his axis from west to east in less than half a day ^ and to an observer on his surface, the heavens would appear to revolve round that planet In tho same manner ns we see them revolve round the earth, but in about half the time. Thin niutiun of the hen. vens in reference to a spectator on the planet Jupiter -vould, however, be only apparent ; and hence we may reasonably conclude, that the casr ^ the same in reference to a spectator on the earth. 290. Lastly, if the earth is actually in motion, there will be generated a eentr\fUgai force, or a tendency to throiv off objects from its surface, which must diminiitli tlie force of gravity, particularly at the equator, where the motion is most rapid. Now, bv observationi made with the pendulum, this diminution of the force of gravity has been luiind to exist. The same cause affects also the figure of the earth, which has been found to bo flattened somewhat at the points of rotation, and elevated at the equatorial regittns. The same is observed to be the figure of Jupiter, — a circumstance which grcatlv strengthen)! the argu> ment drawn from analogy. The evidence which has now been adduced leaven no doubt respecting the earthV motion of rotation ; and thus we nre enabled to ascertain tho true place whicli the globe that we inhabit holds in the universe. 291. The points in which the axis of rotation meets the surface are culletl the ruLKs of the earth ; and it is evident that the axis, if produced, must pass tlirougli llie |H>leK of the heavens. Chap. VIIL arpaaent annual motion of the sun. vicibbitudk of hkaiako, 292. lyhile the sun participates in the diurnal motion of the heavent, he uIho oppoari to move eastward among the fixi'd stars. Tliis motion it will bu of lmport4mcu now to trace out, and to explain the change of seasons to which it gives rise. Jf we observe each day of the year tlie meridian altitude of the sun, and note the time which elapses between his pa** sage over the meridian and the passage of any particular star, we shall have the opparrnt motion of the sun in the direction of the meridian, and of the circles parallel tt) the vqualor in which he appears daily to be carried by the diurnal motion of tho heavens. Tlie result of the comiM>sition of these two motions will give the true motion for each day. In this manner it has been found that the sun moves in a path or orbit which cuts the equator In two oppo* site points, and makes with it an angle equal to 23'' 28' nearly. 293. The name of ecliptic is given to the circle which the plane of this orbit marks out on tho sphere of the heavens. It passes througli twelve constellations, which are called the twki.vk sioNs. This has given rise to the division of the ecliptic into twelve equal parts, called SIGNS, each containing, of course, .30°. Tlie twelve signs are contained in a none of tiio starry heavens, called the Zodiac. The names of these constellations, with t!ie (■haraclers by which they are u!>ually denoted, are as follow: .— Aries r, Taurus t) , Oeuilnl 11 , Pam II, Book X. VICISSITUDE OF SEASONS. TO I* on the hypothnii Am liAvo thttirvalo. )to thttir revolutioiH I wlfeptation among h it it ImpoMtlblo to tlier to confirm the oa\ motion. Evvry n of rotHtion on an 1 the obJvctM which that of It upectatiir imwlf nt rant, wltilo *v\, ni)|K*ar to tie In nitiulu of the moun. I wlilch liu obiervcn convinced titat the I real motion of the ipcct to ui, what the I tho vcuel I and by «d that lis becomca tlio rotation of the n analogy. Several which ws have «up. ntm greater than tho d to an ul)i«erver on tho fiamo manner ag t motion of tho hea> I be only apparent ; vrenco to a Rpeotatnr erated a centrlftigal mlniith the force uf low, bv olmervatlona iMien (ound to exiit. iind to be flattened (MiN, Tho game it viigthenN the argu> leaveM no doubt uHvertain tho true culleil the polks of h the iittlo« of the AIOKR. 10 niHO appear* to iince now to trace Nerve encli day uf between hU pan* mvo the apparent llel to the ecpiAlor 'Die reitidt of In till)! manner ator in two oppu* I marknoutontho nlled the TWisr.vK iial partft, called n a inne of the til (tie clmracterii 0, Gemini 0, Cancer a, Leo ^ \^rgo i)p, Libra ^, Scorpio nxi Sagittarius f, Capricomus vr> Aquo^ rius sence above the horizon and of his absence below it, at certain seasons, exceeds twenty-four hours ! it increases as we approach the pole, and may amount to days or even to months. Thus, when the ?un*8 declination north, increasing, becomes equal to the distance of the tenith of any place in the northern polar region from the north pole of the heavens, he ceases to set at that place. And continues above the horizon until he has reached the same declin> ntion in returning towards the equator. From that time the sim rises and sets in the course of twenty-four hours, until the sun's declination south becomes equal to the distance of the lenith from the pole, and then he ceases to rise and continues below the horizon till he has again acquired the same declination in returning northward. !)03. At the poUt the equator coincides with the horizon, and all the circles parallel to the equator are also parallel to the horizon. This is called the Parallel position of the sphere. To an observer, placed at the pole, the heavenly bodies would appear to move round, either in the horizon or parallel to it. Hence the sun is constantly above the horizon when he is on the same side of the equator with the pole, and constantly below it when on the other tide i so that at either of the poles of the earth there is only one day and one night in the year. !U}3. At any point on the earth's surface, between the equator and either of the poles, the equator and the circles parallel to it are oblique to the horizon. This is called the Oblique Itosition of the sphere ; and by the geometrical properties of the sphere, the horizon, in this position, divides all the circles parallel to the equator into two unequal parts ; hence arises the inequality of the days and nights at all places between the equator and eiUicr pole. In this country, for example, in summer, when the sun is on the north side of the equator, the larger portion of his diurnal course lies in the visible hemisphere, and the less in the invisible, BO that the day is longer than the night. The reverse is the case in the winter when the sun is on the south side of the equator. 904. If^ two places are situated on opposite sides cf tlte equator, the spring and summer of the one will, it is evident, correspond to the autumn and winter of the other. 505. With regard to the temperature, it is higher in the equatorial regions than in any other part of the earth, because there the action of the sun's rays is most direct. To every point of the earth's surface, whose zenith Hls between the tropics, the sun is vertical twice in the year ; so that his rays, acting perpendicularly, produce their greatest effect. In the polar reaions the temperature is lowest, in consequence of the obliquity with which the sun's rays fnU on the earth's surface, and the great length of the winter night. In the countries situated between tlic equatorial region and the two polar regions, there prevails a medium temperature, increasing as the lenith approaches the nearer of the two tropics, and diminishing as it ap- proaches the nearer of the polar circles, >106. A division of the eirth's surface into five uones has been suggested by this difference of temperature from the equator towards either pole. In the adjoining figure let Ifp repre- sent the earth's axis, P E ;> Q, a meridian, and E Q the equatorial diameter. Let E C Q be the representation of a circle on the earth's surface equally distant from the poles, which will therefore be the equator t and F G H, fg h circles on the earth s surface parallel to the equator, and at the distance of about 2n§ degrees; on each side of it, and ABD, afrf/ circles round the pules P,;;, and at the same distance of 23.J degrees. 307. At the times of the year when tlic sun is in the tropic of Cancer, he will, in his apparent revolution, be vertical to all places on the circle F G H ; and when he is in tlio tropic of Capricorn, he will be vertical to the circle y^ A. The space on the earth's sur- face between- these circles is the Torrid Zone. 308. niun the sun it in tlie southern tropic he will not be seen any where in the space bounded by the circle A B D. This is, therefore, the northern Frigid Zone ; and when he is in the iiortliurn tropic there is a like tract, bounded by the circle abd, round the south \i— il f-^o^ Part II. :hat the zenith is ecliptic, the sun suppose a circle liptic ; these two around either of )f the sun's pre> 3eds twenty-four even to months, ! distance of the eavens, he ceases the same declin> ets in the course i distance of the arizon till he has s parallel to the on of the sphere, ove round, either rizon when he is len on the other id one night in of the poles, the iled the Oblique 3 horizon, in this rts; hence arises either pole. In ' the equator, the s in the invisible, ter when the sun ; and summer of ons than in any irect. To every vertical twice in ct. In the polar the sun's rays ountries situated um temperature, 'shing as it ap- :his difference of towards either re let Pp repre- Q, a meridian, cter. Let £ C Q cle on the earth'K the poles, which and F G H, rface parallel to ice of about 2n§ and ABD,a6r{ and at the same year when tlic r, he will, in his :al to all places hen he is in the le vertical to the the earth's sur- is the Torrid ■e in the space and when he ound the south Book I. VICISSITUDE OF SEASON& 81 pole, whore he will then bo invisible. This is the southern Frigid Zone, The two tracts between the torrid tone and tlio fVigid tone are the temperate zones. 309. Another division iifihe earth into zones was used by the ancient geographers, founded on the different lengths of tlio longest day, as we proceed from the equator towards either of the poles. These loics wvro denominated Climates, and were each of such a breadth, that tlic longest day at tlio boundary nearer the pole exceeded the longest day at the boundary nearer tho equator by some certain space of time, as half an hour or an hour. Within the polar circle, the cliinatoi wore supposed of such a breadth as to make the longest day at the opposite sides diflbr by a month. 310. The t>oinls in which the equator and eclii>tic intersect each other are not immoveable, but appear, with respect to tho fixed stars, to recede towards the west at tlie rate of 50^" nearly, annually, or about 1° in 72 years. Tliis motion is called the Precessiok of the Equinoxes. When tlio constellations of the zodiac were first delineated by the ancient astro- nomers, the middle of tho sign Aries was at the point of the vernal equinox, from which it is now distant more than 58" towards the east. In consequence of the precession of the equinoxes, the time in which tho sun moves from the vernal equinox to the vernal equinox again, is less than tho iiino in which he moves from any star to the same star again ; — the point of the vernal equinox moving westward, so as to meet the sun, and thus anticipate the time of his crossing tho e(]uator in tho preceding year. 311. The intervals tftinui which separate the equinoxes or tite solstices are unequal. Almost eight days more elapse t\rom tlio spring to the autumnal equinox, than from the latter to the former. We mny theroforo conclude, that the motion of the sun is not uniform. From precise and multiplieft;ent diameter, if D and D' be hia distaneet at the two season* wlicn his diamoten are (< (Old ; U'; and vD> = ti'D"'. Hence it appears, that ttom the combined effect of the two causes influencing the sun's ap- parent motions, — namely, tho diminution of his velocity and the increase of his distance, — Ills daily angular inotiun diiiiiuishcs as the square of his distance increases; so that the pro- duct of the square of tho distanco by the velocity is a constant quantity. 313. Let us imnnine (i slraight line to join the centres of the sun and of the earth. Tliis line is usually calletl tho Uaiiiiis VitCToa. It is not difficult to prove that the small sector, or the area which tho Itadiiis Vector traces in a day, in consequtnce of the sun's motion, is pro|)ortional to tho product of tho square of this radius by the sun's daily motion, that is, to V U'. This area is thoR'loiv constant ; and the whole area, described by the Radius Vector, setting out from a fixed radius, increases as the number of days reckoned from the epoch wlicn the sun was at tho fixed nulius. Since vlfi = ii'iy,wo h«vo U' b Ui^H , Aiiuming, therefore, any line whatever for D, and finding, »' liy (>bservation, tho lun'i. angular vvUx'lty ttit every day of the year, the value of D' for each day may he fuund. Hence we shall bo able to trace a curve line representing the orbit of the sun. This curve is fuund to be not exactly circular, hut a little elongated in the direction of the straight line ]mssing through tho centre of tho earth, and joining the points in the orbit at which the sun h at his greatest and least distances. The resemblance of this curve to nn ctHpse having given rise to a comparisoa betweon them, their identity has been discovered. Hence we con- clude, that thi apparent solar vrliit is an ellipse having the centre of the earth in one of its foci. 314. The solar ellipse is not much difil'ient from a circle;" for its excentricity, which, from the geometrical properties of tho ellipse, is equal to half the difl'erciice of the sun's greatest and least distances IVoni the earth, is u quantity which bears but a very small pro- portion to the distance of tho sun. It appears, Aom observation, that there is a small dimi- nution of the excentricity, — so small, indeed, as scarcely to be perceptible in a century. 315. The position of tlie griMiter axis of the solar ellipse is not constantly the same Itn 83 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II extremities have an annual motion eastward, in reference to the fixed stars, of about 12" in the direction of the sun's motion. 316. The obliquiti/ of the sun's orbit, or of the ecliptic to the equator, is also subject to change, and appears to have been continually diminishing from the remotest date of astro- nomical observation. Its present rate of diminution may be stated at nearly 48" in a century. SI 7. TIte apparent elliptic motion of the «un does not represent, with perfect exactness, the results of modern observation, llie great precision now attained in the art of observing has made known to us small inequalities, the laws of wluch it would have been almost im> possible to determine by mere observation. These laws can be investigated only after the physical cause has been discovered upon which the phenomena depend. Chap. IX. DIVISION AMD HIASURE OF TIME. 318. The notion cf time is suggested by the succession of phenomena in the universe. When two events exactly correspond in all their circumstances, they are conceived to occupy equal portions of time. The descent of a heavy body to the earth, for example, from a given height, if repeated under precisely similar circumstances, will in every case bo per- formed in the same interval of time. Suppose then that a number of heavy bodies fall to the ground one after another from the same height, — the descent of the second and of each succeeding body commencing at the instant in which the body that preceded it has reached the ground : the whole time occupied by the fall of these bodies will be divided into equal portions, one of which may be assumed as the measuring unit of time. The vibrations of a pendulum, performed under precisely the same circumstances, are employed for estimating the smaller portions of time : the larger portions are determined by the motions of the sun ; from which arise the vicissitude of day and night, and the change of seasons. 319. Tfte Day, in civil life, is the time that elapses between the rising and setting of the sun ; and the Night the time between his setting and rising. The Astronomical or Solar Dat, on the other hand, comprehends the whole period of the sun's diurnal revolution, and is reckoned from the time of liis passing any particular meridian, to the time of his returning to the same meridian. The pendulum usually employed is of such a length as to divide the mean astronomical day into 24 x CO x 60=86400 equal parts called seconds; 60 of these parts make a minute ; 60 minutes make an hour ; and 24 hours complete the day. 320. As the apparent motion of the sun carries him eastward among the fixed stars, the time that elapses between his passing the meridian, and his returning to it again, is longer than the time that intervenes between two successive passages (called transits) of any parti- cular star. This latter period is the exact time of the earth's revolution on its axis, and is called a Sidereal day : it is about 23^^ 36"' 4* in length. 321. The motion of the earth on its axis being perfectly uniform, the length of the sidereal day is always the same. This is not, however, the case with respect to the astrono- mical or solar day, which is affected by the unequable motion of the sun, and by the obliquity of the ecliptic. At the summer solstice, towards which tlie sun's motion in the ecliptic is slowest, the solar day is more nearly equal to the sidereal day than at the winter solstice, when the sun's motion is quickest. 322. With regard to the effect of the obliquity of the ecliptic in reference to the length of the solar day, it is to be observed, that, by the geometrical properties of the sphere, equal por- tions of any circle, whose plane is perpendicular to the axis of revolution, pass over the me- ridian in equal times ; but if the plane of a circle is oblique to the axis, the arcs tliat p?5!< over the meridian in equal times are not equal. Hence, if the sun moved uniformly in tlie equator, the solar day would be always of the same length : but as he moves in the ecliptic, whose plane is oblique to the axis, even if he did proceed with a uniform motion, the equal arcs which he doily described would pass over the meridian in unequal times ; so that the solar day would be longer or shorter according to the sun's place in the ecliptic. 3:23. The motion of the shadow on a sun-dial marks out time as measured by the sun's motion in the ecliptic : but if the sun moved uniformly in the equator at such a rate as to complete the annual circuit of the heavens, in the same time as he docs by his actual motion in the ecliptic, time measured by his motion would then correspond with that of a well- regulated clock. 3'24. The difference between the time shown hy the sun-dial, and that shown by the clock, is called the Equation of Time, The port of this equation which depends on the obliquity of the ecliptic, vanishes at the equinoxes and at the solstices ; bcc.use at these seasons the sun comes to the meridian at the same moment as he would do if he moved in the equator. 325. From the vernal equinox till the summer solstice, and from the autumnal equinox till the winter solstice, the time as shown by the sun-dial is in advance of tliat indicated by the Part II of about 12" in also subject to st date of astio- 18" in a century, irfect exactness, art of observing been almost im- d only after the Book L DIVISION AMD MEASURE OF TIME. 8S in the universe, ccivcd to occupy example, from a ery case be per- ivy bodies fall to cond and of each ed it has reached ivided into equal rhe vibrations of ed for estimating tlons of the sun ; IS. nd setting of the OMICAL or SoLAa tl revolution, and e of his returning li as to divide the rub; 60 of these he day. e fixed stars, the again, is longer its) of any parti- its axis, and is length of the to the astrono- , and by the motion in the an at the winter :he length of the there, equal por- ass over the mc- le arcs tliat ppsA nifortnly in the in the ecliptic, lotion, the equal cs; so that the tic. red by the sun's such a rate as to lis actual motion that of a wcll- >it hi/ the clock, is the obliquity of seasons the sun he equator. i\na\ equinox till indicated by the clock ; because then the sun's distance from the first point of Aries, and first point of L^a, passes sooner over the meridian than the equal arc upon the equator, which the sun would have described had he moved in that circle. 326. Again, the hour shown by the sun-dial is behind that shown by the clock, from the summer and winter solstices, till the autumnal and vernal equinoxes ; because at these two seasons the distance of the sun from the first point of Aries, and from the first point of LibrOt requires longer time to pass over the meridian, than the equal arc upon the equator. 327. The part of the equation of time which arises from the unequable motion of the sun, will vanish when he is at his greatest and least distances from the earth ; because he is in these two points of Iiis orbit at the same instants of time as he would be if he moved uniformly with his mean velocity ; that is, with a rate of motion by which he would describe equally the ecliptic in the same time in which he describes it by his unequable motion. 328. T/ie dial, during the time when the sun is moving from the point of his greatest, to the point of his least distance from the earth, is faster than the clock ; because the sun is then at no instant so far advanced in his orbi% as he would have been if he had been moving uniformly with his mean velocity. The reverse is the case while the sun is moving from the point of his least to that of his greatest distance. Time measured by the dial is called apparent time ; that shown by a well-regulated clock is called true time. The effect of the obliquity of the ecliptic, and that of the sun's unequable motion, in rendering the dial faster or slower than the clock, sometimes combine with and at other times counteract each other. The amount of each is given in the two following tables for every fifth day of the year ; and by taking the sum or difference, according as the obliquity of the ecliptic and the sun's un- equable motion produce similar or opposite effects, a table may be formed of the equation of time. 329. Table shomng tlie Part of the Equation of Time that antes from the Oblufuiti/ of the EcliptiC' Dial Faster. Dial Slower. Dial Faster. Dial Slower. M. & M. S. M. & H. S. March . i>l June 21 September 23 December 21 •ib 1 39 26 1 48 28 1 39 26 1 48 30 3 15 July 1 3 32 October . 3 3 15 31 3 32 April - i 4 46 7 S 8 8 4 46 January • 5 5 8 9 6 9 12 6 85 13 6 9 10 6 35 14 7 S2 17 7 48 18 7 22 15 7 48 19 8 S3 22 8 45 23 8 23 20 8 45 24 9 9 28 9 26 88 9 9 25 9 26 30 9 40 August - 2 9 49 November 8 9 40 29 9 49 May . . 5 » 53 7 9 S3 7 9 53 February 3 9 53 10 9 49 12 9 40 12 9 49 8 9 40 15 9 !fi 17 9 9 17 9 26 IS 9 9 20 H Vi 22 8 23 28 8 45 18 8 23 a> 7 48 28 7 28 27 7 48 83 7 28 31 6 35 September 2 6 9 December S 6 35 28 6 9 June S 5 H 7 4 46 7 5 8 March 5 4 46 10 S 38 12 3 15 18 3 32 10 3 IS 16 1 48 17 1 39 17 1 48 15 20 1 39 330. TaMe shomng the Part of the Equation of Time that arises from tlie Inequality of the Sun's Motion. Dial Faster than Clock. Dial Slower than Clock. M. .S. M. R M. a M. s. July . . I October . 3 7 43 December SI March . SO 7 43 7 40 8 7 42 January . 5 41 April . 4 7 40 18 1 19 13 7 37 10 1 28 9 7 34 17 1 57 18 7 89 15 8 2 14 7 24 22 2 35 S3 7 18 80 2 4! 19 7 12 88 3 12 28 7 3 25 3 19 84 6 56 August . 8 3 47 November 9 6 45 29 3 56 SO 6 36 7 4 21 7 « 24 February 3 4 30 May . . 5 6 14 12 4 52 18 5 39 8 5 2 10 5 50 17 5 22 17 5 32 13 5 32 15 5 28 82 5 SO 88 S 2 18 5 39 80 4 58 28 6 14 27 4 30 23 6 24 26 4 81 September 8 6 36 December 8 3 56 28 6 45 SI 3 47 7 6 56 7 3 19 March . 5 7 3 June - . S .t IS 12 7 12 18 8 41 10 7 18 10 S 35 17 7 84 17 8 8 15 7 29 16 1 57 83 7 U 21 1 22 20 7 37 81 1 19 28 7 40 86 41 85 7 4S 86 40 09 84 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY Paui II. 331. The difference belween the apparent and the true lime, is very observable about the sea- «on when the day is lengthening or shortening with most rapidity. It is a common remark, that when the day is shortening, tlic change is more observable in the evening than in the morning ; but that the reverse is the case when the day is lengthening. This arises from the clock being before or after the sun. Thus, in the end of October, the dial is upwards of sixteen minutes faster than the clock ; so that the time of sun-rise, and the time of sun- set will each, as indicated by the clock, appear earlier by 16 minutes, than as indicated by the motion of the solar shadow. Hence the instant of noon, as shovn by the clock, ap. pears not to divide equally the time during which the sun is above the horizon : the time from sun-rise till noon, appears longer than from noon till sun-set. Again, about the middle of February, the dial is about 15 minutes slower than the clock ; so that the time of sun-rise and the time of sun-set will eacli, as indicated by the clock, be later by 15 minutes than as indicated by the dial; and the time from sun- rise till noon, as shown by the clock, will appear shorter than the time from noon till sun-set. 332. As the return of tlie sun to the meridian marks out the day, so his return to the same equinox marks out another portion of time of much importance to be determined with accu- racy ; namely, the Year. Tliis period comprehends the seasons which divide it into four parts. Within tliis period also, the moon goes twelve times through all her phases, which occupy the space of nearly twenty-nine and a half days : hence the year has been divided into twelve months, three of which are allotted to each season. By accurate observation it is found, that the time which elapses between the instant at which the sun passes the vernal c<]uinox, and the period of his return to it, is 365'' 5" 48*" 48*. This period is called the Tropical year. It is found to be shorter than the interval between two successive re. turns of the sun to the same star by 20"* 29*. Tliis lost-mentioned period is called the Sidereal year, and consists of 365" 6" 9"' 11'. 333. In order to make such a distribution of time as is accommodated to the purposes of life, it is necessary so to adjust t)ie reckoning of the solar revolution to the length of the mean solar day, that the beginning of the year may coincide with the beginning of the day, and the seasons may always recur in the same months. If the solar revolution consisted uf an exact number of days, there would be no difiiculty ; but as it includes a fraction of a day, it is evident that one year cannot be made equal to one revolution, without incurring tlie inconvenience of making the year commence at a diiTercnt point of time from the be- ginning of the day. But though one year cannot be made equal to one revolution, a certain number of years may be made equal to a like number of revolutions, 334. Julius Casar introduced the first near approximation to accuracy on this subject, in the 45th year before the commencement of the Christian era. The Romans had before that time estimated the year according to the course of the moon, in imitation of the Greeks; dividing it into twelve months, which consisted in all of 354 days; but as an odd number was thought the more fortunate, one day was added which made the year consist of 355 days. To make the lunar year correspond with the course of the sun, on which depends the vicissitude of seasons, an intercalary month was inserted every other year, between the 23d and 24th day of February. The intercalation of this month was left to the discretion of the priests, who, from interested motives, inserted often more or fewer thon the proper number of days, so as to make the year longer or shorter, according as it suited their own purposes. This caused the months to be transposed from tlieir stated seasons, the winter months being carried back into autumn, and the autumnal months into summer. When Julius Caesar became master of the state, he resolved to put an end to this disorder, by abolishing the use of intercalations wliich had been the source of it ; and for that purpose, by the assistance of •Sosigenes, a celebrated astronomer of Alexandria, he adjusted the year to the course of the sun, and assigned to the respective months the number of days which they still contain. Tliat matters might proceed with regularity from the beginning of the ensuing January, lie made the current year, which was called the last year of confusion, consist of fifteen months, or 445 days. 335. I'he Julian i/ear is founded upon the supposition that the solar revolution is exactly Seaj" 6''. For three successive years the six hours are omitted ; but in the fourth year an additional day is inserted in the month of February, which makes the four years correspond with four solar revolutions. This fourth year, consisting of 36G days, is called Bissextile or Leap year. But as the true length of the solar revolution is not 365'' C"", but oniv 865" 5" 48"" 48', the Julian year is too long by 11"' 12* ; so that before a new year begir..-, the sun has passed the point of the ecliptic where the preceding year began. The error thence arising is, however, so small, that it was long before it was observed. Ti'.t Julian Kalcndar \yas introduced into the church at the time of the Council of Nice, in the year 325 of the Christian era; and the vernal equinox was at that time fixeil to the 21st of March. In the year 1582, however, it was found that the vernal equinox fell, not on the 21st of March, but on the llth of that month; so that the Julian year had fallen about ten dajs behind the sun. If this erroneous reckoning had been continued, the seasons would Imvc entirely changed their places. It was therefore resolved to reform tlie kalendar, which was Book I. DIVISION AND MEASURE OF TIME. «# done by Po])e Gregory XIII., and the first step was to correct the loss of the ten days, by counting the day after the 4th of October, not the 5th, but the 15th day of the month. T!i« error in the Julian year reckoning, being about eleven minutes yearly, amounts to nearly three days in four centuries. Hence to prevent its accumulation in future, it was agreed to suppress three intercalary days in the course of four hundred years, by considering the last of three successive centuries conunon, instead of leap years. The years in which tlie inter> calory days arc omitted are 1700, 1800, 1900: and, in general, tlie last year of every cen- tury not divisible by four, is reckoned a common year, which in the Julian account is bissex- tile. The degree of accuracy thus attained is very considerable ; for taking the annual error at 11| minutes, in four centuries, it will amount to 4480 minutes, or to 3*' 2" 40"*. Of this error, the fractional part, 2" 40"", is all that remains uncorrected ; and this error will require the lapse of 3G00 years before it amounts to a day. 336. Other modes ofinlercalation. If the tropical year were 365'' 5* 49" 12', the Orego. rian intercalation would be perfwctly exact. Accurate observation proves, however, that the year is shorter by about 24 seconds. If scientific principles had been strictly followed, they would have pointed out other modes of intercalation still more accurate, though perhaps nof. more convenient, than that which has been adopted. The determination of the methods of intvrcalition best suited to make the computations in the kalendar correspond as nearly as possible with the real motions of the sun, requires all tho integer numbers to be found, which most nearly express the rotio of 5" 43"' 48* to a day. These numbers ore easily determined by the method of continued Jractions. In the Gregorion kolendor, 97 days are intercalated ill the course of 400 years ; but it would be much more exact to intercalate 109 days in the course of 450 years. If the tropicol year were precisely 365'' 5" 48"" 48', this intercala- tion would, indeed, be quite accurate ; for 5" 48"" 48', multiplied by 450, give exactly 109 days. 337. T/ie reformation of the kalendar, or the change from the Old Style to the New Stylk, (lid not take place in England, till tlie ycor 1 752, at which time it was established by an act of parliament. The alteration was ordered to be made on the 2d of September; and as the error of the Julian reckoning now amounted to 1 1 days, the 3d was to be counted the 14th of September. 338. Correspondence between the days of the week and month' As the common year con- sists of 52 weeks and one day, it is evident that the beginning and end of each common year will full on ^lie same day of the week. In a scries of years, therefore, if no leap years occurred, the fi-st day of each month would, year after year, be one day farther advonced in the week, til', in the course of seven years, the same days of the month would return to the same ditys of the week. But since leap year contains 52 weeks and 2 days, and occurs every fourth year, it follows that the days of the week cannot correspond to the same days of the month, till after the lapse of four times seven or twenty-eight years. This period is called the Cycle or the Sun. When this period is completed, the sun's place in the ecliptic returns to the some signs and degrees on the some months and days, so as not to difler a de- gree in a century ; and the leap years, as well as the common years, begin the same course over again with respect to the days of the week on which the days of the month fall. The year of our Saviour's birth, according to the vulgar era, was the ninth year of tlie soloc cycle : hence, to find the current year of that cycle, we must odd nine to the given year of the Christian era, and divide the sum by twenty-eight ; the quotient will be the number of cycles which hove been comp>jtcd since the birth of Christ, and the remainder will be the current year of the present cycle. Thus, for the year 1 829, the cycle of the sun is found to be IK. Hie first seven letters of the alphabet hove been employed to mark the severol (lays of the week. As one of those seven letters must necessarily stand against Sunday, it is printed in the kalendar in a capital form, and called the Dominical Letter : the other six letters are inserted in a diff'erent character, to denote the other six days of the week. When January begins on Sunday, A is the Dominical letter for that year : but because the next year begins on Monday, the Sunday will of course fall on the seventh day, to which is annexed the seventh letter G, which will therefore be the Dominical letter for all that year : and as the third year will begin on Tuesday, Sunday will fall on the sixth day, so that F will l)c the Dominical letter for that year, and so on. Hence it is evident that the Dominical letters will succeed each other in a retrograde order, viz. G, F, E, D, C, B, A. As the days of the week correspond to the same days of the month only once in twenty-eight years, it follows that it is only after the lapse of the same period, that the scries of Dominical letters can proceed in the same order in reference to the days of the month. Every leap year has tno Dominical letters ; one answering from the beginning of January till the end of Fe- bruary ; the other being the letter immediately preceding, answering for the remoir.derof the year. The Dominical letter may be found for any year of any century by the following rule : divide the centuries by 4, and lake twice what remains from 6 •■ (/ten add together thit last remainder, the odd years above tlie even centuries, and the fourth part of these edit years, Wjikcting the remainder if any : divide the sum by 7, and the excess of 7 above the remainder it the number answering to the letter required. Thus, for the year 1830, the Dominical letter G 3 N PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II. h C. For tha centuries 18 divided by 4 leave 3 ; and twice this remainder taken from 6 •Iso leaves 3 ; by adding to which the odd number of years 30, and their fourth part 7, we obtain 99 : tids sum divided by 7 leaves the remainder 4, which token from 7 leaves 3, answer- ing to C, tha third letter of the alphabet. • Chaf. X. raoria motiok or tux uook. hsr riiAsM. iclipses or thk sum and mook. 939. The moon, next to the sun, is the most interesting to us of all the heavenly bodies. Her phases, or that series of changes in her figure and illumination which she undergoes in the course of about a month, are among the most striking of the celestial phenomena ; and present a division of time so remarkable that it has been the first in use among all nations. 340. The moon has an apparent motion among the fixed ttars similar to that of the sun, but much more rapid : it carries her eastward at the rate of nearly 13° lOj', at an average, in 84 hours. When this motion is accurately traced out, it is found, that the moon describes round the earth, in 37'' 7" 43*", a path or orbit inclined to the ecliptic at an angle of nearly i^ B'. The line in which the plane of the orbit cuts the plane of the ecliptic is called the Limb or the Nodis. The point in which the moon crosses the ecliptic when cucentling to the north, is called the AscENniNO node ; and the opposite point, in which she crosses it when detcending to the south, is called the descendiho node. 341. The figure of the lunar orbit is determined in the some manner as that of the solar, by observing the changes in the apparent diameter of the moon, and comparing these with the variations in her angular velocity. It is thus found, that the moon's orbit, like that of the sun, is in appearance an ellipse, having the centre of the earth in one of the foci, and that the radius vector, or the line joining the centres of the earth and moon, describes areas proportional to the times. Neither the line of the nodes nor the greater axis of the lunar orbit is fixed. The former has a slow retrograde motion, by which it makes an entire revo- lution in something more than 18^ years; the latter has a progressive motion, by which it completes a revolution in something less than 9 years. The elliptic orbit is liable, indeed, to so many changes, that the full investigation of the lunar motion has been found one of the most difficult problems in astronomy. At the same time it is one of the most useful, as connected with the finding of the longitude of places on the surface of the earth. Accord- ingly, the eflTorts of astronomers have been assiduously directed to the perfecting of the lunar theory ; and by employing the resources of modern science, and combining these with con- tinued and accurate observation, their labours have been crowned with wonderful success. 343> The phases of the moon depend on her position with regard to the sun. Let £ be the earth, M the moon revolving in her orbit round the earth, £ S the direction of tlie sun, and let us suppose all the solar rays which illuminate the moon to pro- ceed in straight lines parallel to S £. The moon is an opaque body like the earth, and is visible only in consequence of reflecting the light of the sun. When she comes to the meridian, therefore, about the same time with the sun, that is, when she is at M, she must be invisible, on ac- count of Uie unenlightened side being turned towards us. It is then said to be mew moon: and, in reference to her position with regard to the sun, the moon is said to be in conjukction. Again, when the moon comes to the meridian about mid- night, that is, when she is at m, she is said to be in orrosnioN, and in that position she presents an entire circular disc ; be- cause the whole of the enlightened side is then turned towards the earth. It is then said to be full moon. At any point of her orbit, between the points of conjunction and opposition, the moon turns more or Imi of her enlightened side towards the earth, according to her angular distance from the ■un, and presents exactly the same appearances as an opaque spherical body, of which one ■ids ii illuminated, would exhibit, if viewed from a distonce, and in the same positions in DooK L PHASES OF THE MOON. [ AMD MOOK. which the moon is Men from the earth. After the conjunction, as soon as she has emOTged sufficiently from the solar rays, she is seen in the western sky, after sunset, in the form uf a Crescsnt, as at M', having the convex side turned towards the sun, and the conravn huunilvd by an cll^itic line. On every succeeding night the luminous part increases, wliile the «lll|illa boundary continually approaches to a straight line. On the seventh night from the timti nf new moon, the moon reaches the position M", where her distance from the sun Is 00° i u\w U .then said to be in her first Quadratuhc, and exhibits the appearance of half moon ) that U, the disc is a semicircle. The enlightened part still continuing to increase on the iwme whlii, the rectilineal boundary of the semicircular disc passes again into an elliptic line, anil Ilia moon becomes gibbous, as at M'" : on all sides the disc is convex, though it does not liecom* entirely full orbed until she reaches the point of opposition, at m, about the end of sevpn days from the time of half moon. From the instant of opposition the moon begins to return to the tun on the western side ; and in her progress towards the conjunction she goes llirougli the same series of changes in an inverted order, becoming first gibbous, as at m' i then half moon at the time when she reaches the position m", her second quadrature ; then a erescenti as at m'", which, continually diminishing, at last disappears altogether. Thus, on tlip sii|i> position that the moon is an opaque body and nearly spherical, and that she revolves In an orbit round the earth, the phenomena of her phases are easily explained. 343. Stricllff speaking, the moon is not exactly 90 degrees distant from the sun when sha presents the appearance of half moon. Ttiii phasis occurs at the moment when the moon ii in such a position t!iat two straight lines drawn from her centre, — the one to the centre of (lis earth, the other to the centre of the sun,>^ fbnn (i riglit angle. By observing, therefore, the moon'i distance from the sun, at the instant when the boundary between the enlightened and tlark part exactly bisects the lunar disc, we slunilU have in the right-angled triangle S M I'' the angle at F ; and hence, since the side V M ii also known, S F, the distance of the sun, may be determined. This was the first method employed for finding the sun's distance (Vom tlia earth ; but, from the nicety of tlie observations required, it cannot be expected to lead to any very satisfactory result. 344. To a spectator on the moon the earth must evidently exhibit a series of chang^l similar to the lunar phases as seen from the earth. At the time of conjunction the moon Is on the illuminated side of the earth, so that the earth must then appear, as seen iVom the moon, an entire circular disc. Again, at the time of opposition, the moon is on th? dark side of the earth ; so that the earth must then be invisible. When the moon is seen M A crescent, the earth will appear gibbous ; and when the moon appears gibbous, the earth will be seen as a crescent. 345. The fact of the earth appearing to a spectator on the moon an entire luminous dls«, Al the time of the moon's conjunction with the sun, furnishes an explanation of a phenomenon with which every one is familiar. In clear weather, when the moon is three or four davi old, her whole body is visible. The horns of the enlightened crescent appear to prn|e(>t beyond the old moon as if they were part of a sphere of considerably larger diameter than the unenlightened part. Now, the part of the moon not directly illuminated by the sun is seen by the light reflected from the earth. The appearance of a lucid bow, connecting the horns of the crescent, is produced by the circumstance of the eastern edge of tlie moon's disc being more luminous than the adjacent regions towards the centre. With regard to the enlighteneu crescent appearing a portion of a larger sphere, tliis is an optical deception, and fVirnlslies A remarkable proof that of two objects of equal magnitude, but of different degrees of bright* ness, the brighter appears larger. 346. A lunation or lunar month is formed by tlie time that elapses between one new moon and another. It consists of 29' IS** 44*" 3' nearly ; and therefore exceeds the period of lief mean sidereal revolution, which is 27'' T' 45'" 11^*. This excess arises from the proper motion of the sun in the ecliptic ; for it is evident that the period in which the moon gnes through all her phases must be equal to the time required to describe 360°, with an angular velocity equal to the difference between angular velocities of moon and sun. 347. Cycle of the moon. In 1 9 Julian solar years there are 235 lunations, and about one hour and a half more. Hence, after 19 years, the cor^junctions, oppositions, and other aspects of the moon recur on the same days of the month, and only about an hour and A half sooner. This period is accordingly called the Ctcle of the Mook, and has been found of SO much use in adjusting the lunar to the solar year, in order to know the time of new and M\ moon, and to determine the time of Easter, and other moveable feasts, that tho numbem of it have bee called Golden Numbers. The year of our Saviour's birth, according to the vulgar era, >.a8 the first year of the lunar cycle : hence, to find the golden number, or tltt G 4 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. PikHT IT. OolHen Numberi. Epacti. aolilen Numberi. Epacli. Golden Numberi. Epacu. I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. 11 22 3 14 25 6 VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. 17 28 9 20 1 12 23 XV. XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX. I. 4 \S 26 7 18 current year of that cycle, we must add one to the year of Chriit for which the 'golden number is required, and divide the sum by 19: the quotient will be the number of cycle* which have elapsed since the birth of Chrikt, and the remainder will be the golden number or current year of the cycle. 348. The epact is the diifvrence between the rAar and lunar periods at the end of each year, or the moon's age on the first of January, Since the Julian solar year is 365* (i\ and the lunar year, or twelve lunations, 354'' 8" 48" 36", if we suppose new moon to have hap- pened on the first of January, so that the epact for that year is 0, it follows that the epact for the ne«t succeeding year will bo 10* 21* 11"' 24', or nearly 1 1 days. For the third year, the epact will be nearly 22 days. For the fourth year it will be S3 days, or (rejecting SO days for a complete lunation) 3 days, and so on. 349. ThefoUouing table contains tlie golden numberi with the corresponding efiacU adapted to the Gregorian kalendar, till the year 1900. Tlie epact for each month of the year is, in like manner, the moon's age on the first day of the month, supposing nc'.v moon to have happened on the first of January. 350. The epact* for the months of the common and leap year are as follows : — Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Scpi Oct Nov. Dec. Common year - 0, 1, 0, 2, 2, 3, 4, S, 7, 7, 9, 9. Leap year - 0, 1, 1, 3, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 8, 10, 10. 351. // M evident that the moon's age will bo found ' adding together the epact of the year, the epact of tlie month, and the day of the month, rejecting thirty if the sum amount to that number. Thus, if it is required to find the moon's age on the 11th November 1829; by adding I to 1829 and dividing by 19, wc obtain a remainder G, which is the golden number for the year 1829. Now, against VI. in the table, we find 25 for the epact of the year, and 9 is the epact for November: hence 25 -t- 9 + U — 30 a 15, which is the moon's age ; so that the moon is full on that day. 352. The lunar cycle of 1 9 yean, though remarkably simple, is however far from being accurate. Nineteen years contain about an hour and a half more tlian 235 lunations ; so that at the termination of that period the moon has advanced about an hour and a half in tlie next lunation. This error amounts to a day in the course of 16 cycles, or about 300 years. But, to compensate this excess, the epacts may be advanced one day every 300 years, and in this manner the lunar and solar pcrimis will bie made to agree. In consequence of her apparent motion eastward, the moon is about 48 minutes later after every diurnal revo- lution of coming to tlie meridian. As 48 minutes is equal to | of an hour, an approximation is made to the time of her southing, by multiplying her age by 4, and dividing by 5. This gives the time, nearly, before or after noon, according as the moon is post the opposition or conjunction. 353. The time of her ruing and setting is aflTectcd by the same cause. In one part of the orbit, however, this is in a great measure counteracted by the smallness of tlie angle which the orbit makes with the horizon. For facilitating the illustration of this phenomenon, let us suppose the moon to move in the ecliptic, from which she never deviates much more than 5°. By turning round the celestial globe, it will be seen that the ecliptic makes with the horizon very diflferent angles, as the points of their intersection vary. If the first point of Aries be brought to coincide with the east point of the horizon, the angle which the ecliptic makes with the horizon is equal to the difference of the obliquity of the ecliptic and the complement of the latitude : but if the first point of Libra be brought into coincidence with the east point, tlic angle between the ecliptic and the horizon is equal to the sum of the obliquity and the complement of the latitude. When the moon is in Pisces or Aries, her motion in her orbit will therefore produce a considerable change, each succeeding night, on the distance between the east and the point of rising, but the time of rising will not be mucli affected. The reverse will be the case when the moon is in Virgo or Libra. Hence it is obvious that in every lunation, at a certain time, the moon must rise nearly at the same hour for several days together. This phenomenon, however, for the most part, passes unob- served ; but in the harvest season it attracts attention, as being then much more conspicuous than at any other time of the year. In the autumnal months tlic moon wfidl in the signs Pisces and Aries, (the sun being at that season in the opposite signs Virgo and Libra,) and on that account rises an entire orb (or nearly so) for about a week, almost at the time of sunset, thus affording a supply of light very beneficial to the husbandman, in gathering in DuoK I. PHASES OF THE MOON. the end of each t it 365' 6", and oon to have hap- that the epact for ir the third year, lys, or (rejecting ng epacti adapted gorian kalendar, >ar 1900. Tlie ich month of the lilce manner, the on the first day Dnth, supposing to have happened of January. t epacti for the the common and re as follows : — the flruits of the ourth. Tills liinntion hot accordingly been distinguished by the name of tllU IIAHVICIT MOON. 5.f'i. Tkt iHcKnoHoH qflht mimn'i orbit to the ecliptic makes the harvest moo* rise, more or Ivss, nearly at the same lime (hut shii would if she moved in the ecliptic, according tu the ponitiun of the lino uf the no<|uenlly the harvest moon will rise more nearly at the same time than if the moon had been in the ecliptic. In a little lets than <4 years, however, the lino of the nodes will have made half n revolution, and the descending node will be in Ariet. The moon's orbit will Ihoii make with the horiion an angle more than 5° greater than that which the ecliptic makes with It i and, consvi|ucntly, the harvest moon will not rise to nearly at the same time us if the moon lioil Iwvn in the ecliptic. 355. The quanlilif ofmuoHlight which we ei^oy in winter it much greater than in summer. As the m;' OH 2180 = 1-07 mile. Tlius the height of the lunar mountain in question is found to be about a mile. Tho principle now explained is correct in theory ; but with regard to the results obtained iVom the practical application of it, a greater difference of opinion exists than might have been expected. Tliese results arc, however, highly curious and interesting. S59. Moon's motion round the earth. The moon's surface, when viewed through a tclc> scope, is so strongly characterised by the spots visible upon it, as to leave no doubt of its being always the same. From this the inference is obvious, since we are certain from the moon's motion round the earth, that she must revolve on an axis nearly perpendicular to tlio plane of her orbit in the same time that she revolves about the earth, namely, in 27;{ davi nearly. Her rotation on her axis is equable ; but this is nv,t the case with her motion in her orbit, which is periodically variable : and hence there are parts of the eastern and western edges of the moon which are seen occasionally. This appearance is called the mrratioN or THE MOON IK LONGITUDE. It is entirely optical, and argues no inequality in the moon's motion on her axis. 360. The moon's axis of rotation is not altogether perpendicular to the plane of her orbit, but inclined to it at an angle of 88° 29' 49". In consequence of this position of her axis her poles are alternately visible, and a small portion of the polar regions; this phenomenon is called the libhation of the moon in latitude. 361. TIte diurnal libration of the moon is another optical appearance arising from tho monn being viewed from the surface instead of the centre of the earth. At rising, a part of llio western edge is seen, whic.i is invisible at setting ; and, at setting, a part of tlie eastern edge is seen, which is invisible at rising. 362. The explication of the lunar phases leads to that of Eclipses — those occasional oli- scurations of the sun and moon which have, in ages of ignorance, l>een objects of superstitious terror to mankind, and at all times objects of curiosity to the philosopher. At tlie time of new moon, the moon is upon the same side of the heavens with the sun, but, for tho most part, passes either above or below tlie solar disc without obscuring any part of it. Tliia DiioK T. ECLIPSES. m .1. 'Ml hom her orbit being inclined to the ecliptic : for it is evident that if the planes of the orl)it nnd ecliptic coincided, the centres of the sun, moon, and earth would, at every new moon, bo in the Hamc straight line ; so that tlie moon would be seen to pass over the sun's disc, and ti)0 lun would appear to be totally or partially eclipsed, according to the position of an in- habitant upon the earth's surface. Again, at the time of full moon, the moon is on the oppoitlto tide of tlie heavens from the sun ; and therefore she is on the same side of the iioavona with the shadow, which the earth, as an opaque body, projects into space. In most coKit, however, tlie moon passes above or below this conical shadow ; so that she is not de- prived of the sun's rays, . But if tlie plane of the orbit coincided with that of the ecliptic, the centres of the sun, moon, and earth would evidently be in the same straight line at every Alii moon as well as at every new moon : the moon would therefore fall into the earth's slindow, and would be eclipsed to all the inhabitants on that side of the earth which is turned towitrds tlio moon at tlie time. tiO'X Though the inclination of the lunar orbit to the eclii>tic prevents the occurrence at every new and full moon of these phenomena, there are certain distances from the nodes of the moon's orbit, called ecliptic limits, within which, if the moon is situated at the time of new or full moon, there will be a solar or lunar eclipse. !)(!4* To illustrate the getiercU phenomena of lunar eclipses. Let A B, D E be sections of tliu sun and earth, by a plane perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic. Draw A V, BV 76 i therefore A M might have been toiicliing the circles A B, D E on the corresponding sides in E and D, and meeting each otlu'r In Vi also draw B G, A H, touching these circles on the opposite sides in M and N. Tlu'n, if we suppose the figure A B H G to revolve about the line C F, which joins tlie ri'MlrvN urdiu circles, as an axis, the cone generated by the line £ V represents the shadow wliicli tiie I'ltrth projects into space ; and from every point of that conical shadow the light of llie sun is entirely excluded. The spaces between £ V, M G, and between D V, N H, will receive the light of a part of the sun : and hence the space round the shadow, which is generated liy the motion of the lines G M, £ V, is called the rENUMSRA. Jdhi C I'i. It is evident that the angle £ V F is equal to the difference of the angles A V, C, K C F. But A E C is the angle under which the sun's semidiameter is seen from lliu vnrlh } and E C F is the angle under which the earth's semidiameter is seen from the itiin. liuth of these angles being known, their difference £ V F is a given angle. Now, in the right angled triangle £ V F we have given the angle at V, and tlie side E F, wliich is the eartli's semidiameter : hence F V, the height of tlie earth's shadow, may lie determined. The height of the shadow varies from 213 to 220 semidiameters of tlie eiirlh. Aftnin, let F O be the distance of the moon from the earth : draw K O L perpendicular tn V V, and join F L. The angle L F O, under which the semidiameter of the section of the earth's shadow is seen from the earth, is equal to the difference of the angles FL £, FVL. lliit V \i E is the angle under which the semidiameter of the earth is seen from the moon, iinil V V L is, as has been shown, equal to the difference between the angle under which the Nun's Kcniidiameter is seen from the eartli, and the angle under which the earth's semidiameter in Ki'en from tlie sun ; hence, to find the angle under which the section of the earth's shadow tl'.rough which the moon passes in a lunar eclipse is seen from the earth, we must add to- Kt'tlier the two angles under which the semidiameter of the earth appears when seen from tliu m\\ and moon, and from the sum subtract the sun's apparent semidiameter, the ri'innliuler is the angle required. The angle L F O, when greatest, is about 46' : but the in- I'linulicni of the lunar orbit to the ecliptic is upward of 5°, and to this distance the moon Diuy reredo iVnm the ecliptic. It is evident, therefore, tliat an eclipse of the moon can take pliK'e only when she is near her nodes. 'MMt, Lh the circle A H B be the section of the earth's shadow at the moon ; A B a piiriion of the ecliptic, and DF a portion of the moon's orbit near the ascending node. Drnw C O ft-oni the centre of the shadow, (which must be the point of the ecliptic directly le labour. But it may bo obsorvod that in SS.I lunations, or 18 years 10 days (or II days according as four or Hve leap yoHrit occur in the interim), 7 hours 43 minutes, the moon returns to the sumo uositlon nvarly with regard to the sun, and the lunar nodes, and therefore the eclipses, will relur;^ nearly in tho saniu order and circumstances. Tliis is thought to be the period called the Chaldean Sat'oi, being used by the Chaldeans in predicting eclipses. 36!). inen it is knoum that a lunar eclipse is to happen, it if easy (o comptito Hi Rpnf rnl I'lrrumalAncei, I'lio distance of the moon from tlic ecliptic at opixisition, the time of opposition, tho nnHhui iiti the time that ela|HCS between the beginning of the eclipse and the op|HMition, niid bilwiiiMl llu< (ipposltlDii and the end of Ihc eclipse. Hut the time of the opiMXition it known, therefore the liinvt ef the livaliiiiliiii and end of the eclipse will also be known. 369. For estimating the quantity of an eclipse, the diameter of tho solar or lunar (IIhc is conceived to be divided into twelve equal parts called digits ; and accordinfj to tho munber of those parts wliich are obscured, so many digits are said to bo eclipsed. 370. Let it be supposed that Ihc edge of the moon's disc just touches tho od|(0 of tho Noctlon of the eartli's shadow at P, and that at tlio saino tluto the diameters of the moon and shadow aro vach at I lie vxaiimum, and we shall find the ecliptic limit fur liuiiir eclipses. Produce E D and I) A lo moot ill N s lliiii N C is the limit of the distancu of tho nodo ft'otn lliu opposition at which an eclipse can Imppoii. Since tlic line in which the centre of tho moon niovoN (which -jBfor a short distance may be cunsidorod as a straight line) must be supposed parallel lo tho tangent to lliu circle A P B at tho point P, tho nnglo at K i>i n right angle. The angle N, Is tho IncTlnalton of liio lunar orbit to the ecliptic ; also V. V, is I'lpml to tiiv sum of the scmidiumeters of tho moon and shallow, Hence from the spherical triangle C E N, C N moy be determined | anil Is found to hu about 14°. Unless when the node and the point of opposition, which aro both liable In continual change of position, come witliin this distance, there cannot possibly bo u luiiitr eclipse. 371. Calculation ojf longitude. Tlie penumbra mokes it very difljcult lo ohservo, widi precision, the beginning or end of a lunar eclipse ; so that though tlieso poriotls may bo em- ployed for determining the longitude of places on the earth, no great dogroo of accuracy ii to be expected. The best method is to note the time of the arrival of tlio boundary of lliu shadow at the different spo>s on the lunar surface, which may bo considurod as so niiiiiy different observations. 372. The moon seldom disap/iears entirely in lunar eclipses, but is seen of a dusky ri'i! colour : even the spots on the lunar surface may be distinguished through tho shado. Tliii Book I. ECLIPSES. innt fVom tlio «un. 10 moon inuHt cntor irvl'uro bu ucllpscd. Ill l)u tlis tnoinviit t K I (liu tnidilitt of t when httr cuntro lity of the purjian- tiid thu und of tho tthu U>avi>i« the ilm> tlun of thu nioun'M on thu dUtitnco bu* li whun lliu point of nndui It Im i'vldunt Ihv othvr *ldu of the iiulow. I enllrui It U iiiild to to liu fmrtlnl / nnd ho I'vlipw U »ald to lilt thrvu tlnu'N \wr ntlrvly obttcurvd fur n Iho InwH which i|iili'UH iiHlronondi'ul •Norvcd thnt In !22» Ivitp yi'MFH ofciir Im J nt'itrly with ri'^iinl ' nuiii'ly hi thu miuiu liiltlvun SaivB, being rAl rlrnimaliincci, The iimlf r which the i'«rlh*i Uiinliinrlvii, iiri' kniiwii eifect is to be attributed to a portion of the sun's light, which enters the conical shadow in consequence of being refracted by the atmosphere of the earth. The nature and effects of atmospherical refraction will afterwards be explained. 373. Eclipses of the sun. With regard to the general phenomena of solar eclipses, wc may begin with remarking, that when the sun's light is intercepted by the moon, so that at any place on the earth's surface he becomes partly or wholly invisible, properly speaking, it is an eclipse of that portion of the earth on which the moon's sliodow or penumbra falls. 374. The semi-angle at the vertex of the moon's shadow is determined in a similar manner to that on which the semi-angle at the vertex of the earth's shadow was found. It is equal to the difference of the angles under which the semi-diameters of the sun and moon would be seen, if each of these bodies were viewed from the other at the time of their conjunction ; and will therefore not be very far from being equal to the apparent semi-diameter of the sun OS seen from the earth. Computing, then, the length of the conical shadow of the moon, we shall un and moon, geen flrom E the centre of the earth at the moment of conjunction ; that is, when their centres are in the tame circle S B perpendicular to the ecliptic. Let the angle a Ed, formed by tangents drawn from E to the adjace.it edges of the solar and lunar discs, be cqualto the/;.''ea/«. H. / D. H. o ' IStl Juy . 18 3 — contact. 1874 October 10 9 — A 18 1841 July . 8 & A,M, 8 M 1H75 September S9 noon. July . 19 7 A.H. 3S 1845 May . a 8 - fi ir, 1879 4 1846 April . m Ar.M. < SI 1880 December SO S p.m. 4 94 1847 October 9 6 A.M. n (1 18Wt Hay . 17 6 a.u. 9 18 1&51 July . S8 9 r.M. » M 1887 August 19 8 — 11 58 1858 March 15 11 a,M. 11 30 18!X) June . 17 8 — 4 39 1800 July . 18 8p,m. » 19 18!n June . 6 5 — 3 mi December 91 S — .'5 18!t5 March ■ t6 9 A.M. 1 I8ti3 May^ . 17 riii\.uinbent pressure which they sustain. The same tiling holds true uf every siratuvt when compared, in reference to density, with that immediately below it; so that fruni the surface upwards the density gradually diminishes, at a few miles* elevation becomes very small, and at some point may be considered as altogether evanescent. Now, it is a well known principle, that if a ray of light, after passing through one medium (air, fur instance), enters another (say water) of a (liifcrent density, in a direction not perpen- dicular to its surface, it is bent out of its course towards the perpendicular to the surface on which the rny is incident, if the second medium is the denser of the two ; butyrom that pcr- pcndiciilnr if the second medium is the rarer. In passing through the atmosphere, therefore, aray of light will bo continually deflected from the rectilineal into a curvilineal path; be- cause at every point uf its course it is entering a medium of a greater density. The ray is said to be refracted / and as the tangent drawn from the eye to the curve which it describes is the direction in which celestial objects appear, it follows, that refraction renders the appa- rent altitude of all the heavenly bodies greater than tlie true. Hence they often appear above the horizon when they are actuidly below it. 388. The deviniion of the refracted raif from its original course increases with the angle of incidence, and vaiiiiihes when the direction of the ray is perpendicular to the surface of the second medium. Hence utmosphericul refraction is greatest when the object is in the huiizun, where it mity be about 34': at 45° altitude, it is about 57^": in the lenith it vanishes. 389. Whaleper alters the density of the atmosphere must aifect also its refractive power. In nil accurate observations, theretore, the state of the barometer and thermometer must be taken into accoiuit. At the snino xeiiith distances, the quantity of refraction varies nearly as the height of the Imrtnneter, supposing the temperature to remain the same. The effect of a varintioi) in the temperature is to diiniiush the quantity of refraction about ;^th part for every increase of one degree in the height of the thermometer. 3!)0. In passing through the ntmosphere tight is reeded as well as refracted. The re- flective power uf tlio atmosphere prtHluces the splendour of day by diffusing light in every direction. Combined witlt its reiVactive power, it causes that faint light called twilight. 96 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II. which it perceived before sunrise and after sunset ; — beginning in the morning In our latitude, and ending in the evening, when the sun's depression below the horison is about 18°. Various other phenomena arc to be attributed to tlie same cause : the red and orange colour of the morning and evening clouds ; the ruddy appearance of all the heavenly bodies when near the horizon ; the blue colour of the sky ; and the bright azure of the distant mountain, are all the effects of the refractive and reflective powers of the atmosphere. 391. Refraction is also tlie cause of the oval appearance of lite tun and moon when near the horizon. The diameter of the disc that is parallel to the horizon remains unaffected in iu apparent length, because both extremities are equally refracted ; but the diameter perpen. dicular to the horizon is shortened by about Jth of its length, because the lower edge of the disc, being nearer tlie horizon, is refracted nearly five minutes more than the upper. 392. The great apparent magnitude of the min nnd moon when in the horizon is another remarkable phenomenon which we may here notice. This illusion, which is altogether optical, is usually accounted for on this principle, that we form an erroneous judgment respecting the distances of these bodies when they are in the horizon, compared with their distances when they have attained a considerable elevation. When we see the moon, for example, in the heavens at a considerable altitude, we intuitively suppose her nearer than when she is in the horizon ; because, in the latter case, we see a multitude of objects, — many of them at great distances, and the moon beyond them all ; but, in the former case, we have no intervening objects by which to form nn estimate of her distance. The angle under which she is seen being nearly the same, we infer a greater magnitude when we imagine the distance greatest, that is, when the moon is in the horizon. Such is the error into which we, in this instance, fall, in the rapid judgments of the mind respecting magni- tude and distance connected with vision. The more deliberate conclusion on this subject drawn by reason is, that the noon must indeed be at a greater distance from an observer on the earth, when she is in l.:s horizon, than when she is in or near his zenith ; but that, how. ever the eye laay be deceived, her apparent diameter must, when exactly measured, be found less. This is accordingly the case ; for, when accurately measured with the micrometer, the moon's apparent diameter, when she is in the horizon, is actually found to be less than when she has attained a considerable altitude. 393. Parallax. We have formerly shown that, in comparison with the distances of the fixed stars, the earth is but as a point in the universe ; so that their positions in the heavens appear the same when viewed from the earth's surface, as they would if they were viewed from its centre. This, however, is not the case with regard to the sun, moon, and planets. At each of these bodies the earth presents a disc of an appreciable magnitude : and, on the other hand, their positions among the fixed stars, when viewed from different points of the surface of the earth, vary, and are different from what they would lie were they seen from the centre of the earth. 394. X«« ABE (Jig. 30.) be the earth, C its centre, and M, M", M' (a heavenly body, for example) the moon in the sensible horiion, the zenith, and any intermediate position. The true places of the mon in these positions, as seen from the centre C, and referred to the starry heavens, will be m, m", m'; and their ap- parent places, as st-en from B, will be »i, n" »»'. It is evident, that in the zenith the true and apparent places coincide, so tliat there is no parallax. In the horizon the parallax is greatest : it is measured by the arc m n, and is equal to the angle B M C, under which the semidiamctiT of the earth's disc appears when viewed from the moon. At the intermediate position M' the parallax is measured by the arc m' n : it is less than in the horizon, and de- creases as the body ascends until it vanishes when the body reaches the zenith. From the horizon to the zenith, £ parallax diminishes the apparent altitude of a body ; but as the altitude increases, this diminution becomes less and less. Its effect, therefore, is con- trary to that of refraction, which always increases the apparent altitude of a body. a( /^ 30 >< J JC^ / -,^ \ c )a la \ Chap. XI. MOTION OF THE rl.ANKTS UOUND THE SUN. 395. The phenomena of the motions of the other planets differ from those of the moon, which, as we have shown, are all easily accounted for, on the supposition that tlie moon revolves round the earth in an elliptic orbit, subject to various changes} which are confined, how. Book I. MOTION OF THE PLANETS ROUND THE SUN. » morning in our horiion is about ! red and orange heavenly bodies e of the distant mosphere. ion when near the unaffected in iu liameter perpen- ower edge of the e upper. yrixon is another ich is altogether meous judgment ipared with their >e the moon, for e her nearer than de of objects,— I the former case, ince. The angle ;nitude when we Such is the error nf the moon, wliicl), the moon rPvolvM are confined, how. ever, within certain limits. The attempts which the ancient astronomers mode to explain the celestial phenomena, by supposing the earth to be tlie centre of the universe, introduced a system, tlie ttolemaic, which was received for about 1500 years, as affording tlie true explanation of the planetary motions; but which the progress of scientific discovery has proved to be absurd. Ptolemy, an astronomer of Egypt, who flourislied about 140 years after the Christian era, supposed the planets to revolve about the earth in tlie following order ; viz. the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn. Beyond the region of the planets he placed the sphere of the fixed stars. While he thus accounted for the proper motions of the planets from west to cast, he conceived the whole to be carried round the earth by a diurnal motion, in the opposite direction, in twenty-four hours. The irregularities of the planetary motions, — these being sometimes direct, at other times retro> grade ; sometimes swiil, and at other times slow, — were imagined by him to arise from each planet moving in a small circle, called an epicycle, whose centre was carried round a larger circle, called the deferbnt, having the earth placed a little to the one side of its centre. The motions in these circles he imagined to be produced by the revolution of transparent globes ; each planet being supposed to be attached to a globe, which curried it round in its epicycle ; and this globe again supposed to be contained in the sliell of another glubc of sufficient thickness to receive it within its solid substance, and to allow it to revolve on its own centre, at the same time that it was carried in the deferent round the earth. 396. Setting aside the obvioM objections to this theory, arising from the extravagance of the sup- positions, as well as the awkwardness and complication of the machinery which it employs, an insuperable difficulty remains ; viz. that the whole system is entirely hypothetical, and oilers no proof of the existence of the agents to which it attributes such mighty effects. It is not surprising, therefore, that instead of being confirmed by subsequent discoveries, it fell to tlic ground as soon as the true method of investigating the laws of nature was understood and adopted. 397. Of the planets two, Mercury and Venus, always accompany the sun, never receding from him beyond certain limits : the rest are seen at all possible angular distances from the sun. Let us, then, fix upon Venus as the most conspicuous of the two which accompany tlie sun, and upon Mars as one of the most conspicuous among those which recede to all angular distances from him ; and by tracing out the apparent motions of these planets, let us endeavour to ascertain tlic centre about which they revolve. 398. tt^hea the planet yenus is near the sun, she is invisible ; but when she has emerged sufficiently from his rays, she is seen in the twilight of the morning or evening, accord- ing as she is to the west or east of the sun. In the former case she is the moknino star ; in the latter, the evening star. When she begins to be seen in the evening, she is found to be receding from the sun towards the cast, and thus disengaging herself more and more from his rays. Having reached her greatest angular distance, or elongation, which is from 45" to 48°, she begins again to approach him, and continues to do so till her angular dis- tance is about 28°. During all tliis time her motion is direct, that is, in the order of the sign.'. ; but now she becomes stationary, and in a short time she is seen moving in a direction contrary to the order of the signs, and has thus acquired a retrograde motion ; but still she continues to approach the sun, until in a short time she is lost in his light. After being invisible for about six weeks, she is again seen ; but now in the morning to the west of the su , emerging from the solar rays. Pier motion is still retrograde; but when she has reached about 28° distance from the sun, she again becomes stationary ; and in a short time resumes a direct motion, receding from him night after night, until her angular distance exceeds 45°. She then retuVns to the sun ; is for a time lust in his rays ; and at length' is seen in the evening to the east of the sun, to repeat the same round of plienomena. Willie Venus thus appears to have an oscillatory motion to the east and west of the sun, she is found, when viewed through a telescope, to present phases exactly similar to those of the moon, the illuminated portion being always turned towards the sun. We may hence infer that Venus is an opaque body, and shines in consequence of retlecting the solar light. At the same time her apparent diameter also varies, its variations having un evident relation to the position of the planet with regard to the sun. The diameter appears least when the planet is about to be immersed in the rays of the sun in the morning, or immediately after licr emerging from them in the evening. On the other hand, it appears greatest when she is about to be lost in the solar rays in the evening, or when she emerges from them in the morning. Such is a general view of the apparent motion of Venus ; and by attending to the phenomena which she exhibits, we are led to the conclusion that she revolves round the sun. Wlien in the morning she begins to disengage herself from the solar rays, she is seen to rise before the sun in the form of a crescent ; and it is then that her diameter ajipcars greatest. At thot time, therefore, she must be nearer to lis than the sun is, and not far from being in conjunction with him. Her crescent increases, and her diameter diminishes, as she recedes from the sun; when she hos reached her greatest elongation and returns again townids him, she continues to discover to us more and more of her enlightened hemisphere, II 98 FRINCIFLES OF GEOGllAPHV. Fahi II. her diameter all the time diminishing^, until she is lost, in the morning, in the sun's rays. At the instant of her disappearing, Venus is seen as a full disc ; and at the same time her diameter is least. Hence we may with certainty infer, that she is then at a greater distance from us than the sun, and again nearly in conjunction with him. After having remained for some time invisible, she re-appears in the evening to tlic east of the sun ; and in receding from and returning towards him exhibits, in an inverted order, the same phenomena, in reference to the changes in her disc and apparent diameter, which she had presented when seen in the morning, on the west of the sun : her enlightened hemisphere turns more and more from us, and her apparent diameter continually increases, until she again disappears, or is seen as a black spot traversing the disc of the sun. 399. From tlijse phenomena only one inference can be drawn ; viz. that Venus revolves in on orbit, near the centre of which the sun is placed. This conclusion, which rests on the firm basis of observation, leads to a natural and simple explanation of all the peculiarities of her motion. 400. The planet Mars, the next to be considered, appears to be carried round the earth by a motion which is subject to great inequalities. When he begins to be seen in the morning emerging from the solar rays, his motiim is direct, and at its greatest rapidity ; but it gradually diminishes until the planet's angular distance from the sun is about 1 37°. At that time it changes into a retrograde motion, whose rapidity increases till the moment that the planet comes into opposition with the sun, or is on the meridian at midnlglit. It is then at its greatest rate, and presently begins to decrease, continuing to do so till the planet becomes stationary when at the angular distance of about 1 ii?" from the sun. The motion now returns to its direct state, after having been retrograde fur about seventy-three days ; and in that period the planet describes an arc of retrogradation of about 16". Mars con- tiimes to approach the sun, until he becomes immersed in his rays in the evening. These phcnomeno aie repeated at every opposition of the planet, with considerable dif- ferences, however, in reference to the duration and extent of the retrogradations. At ditferent points of his course round the heavens, the apparent diameter of Mars is very ditierent: it varies from about 13-3" to 29'!". It is greatest when the planet is in oppo- sition to the sun. 401. The phenomena now described can be satisfactorily explained in no other way but by supposing ]\Iars to revolve round the sun. As he recedes from the sun to all possible angular distances, the earth must be situated within his orbit ; but the increase of his apparent diameter as he approaches his opposition, and its decrease when he approaches the sun, show that the cnrtli is not the centre of his motion. Before he reaches the point of opposition, his motion, from being direct, becomes retrograde ; after the opposition it resumes its direct state, when the planet is at the same distance from the sun, at which lie was situated when the motion became retrograde ; and it is at the moment of conjunction that this last motion is most rapid. Now, all these circumstances evidently indicate that the apparent motion of Mars is the result of two combined motions, which alternately conspire with and oppose each other, and of which one depends on the apparent motion of the sun. As we have found that Venus revolves round the sun, and accompanies him in his appa- rent annual motion round the earth, we are led by analogy to extend the same law to Mars, and to conclude that he also revolves in an orbit round the sun, 402. The disc of Mars changes ilsjigure, and becomes sensibly oval, according to his posi- tion relatively to the sun : hence we may conclude that Mars is an opa(jue body, and derives his light from the sun. 403. The same reasoning being applicable in the case of the other plawts, we may extend to all of them the conclusion which we have now established in reference to Venus and Mars, — namely, that they are opaque bodies, and revolve about the sun in orbits nearly circular; while that luminary of the system either describes or appears to describe an orbit about the earth in the couise of a year. This general law, which adbrds a simple and complete ex- plication of the ])lunetary motions, receives additional confirmation from the phenomena of the satellites of ,tupiter and the ring of Saturn ; fur these phenomena prove directly that Jupiter and Saturn revolve about the sun in nearly circular orbits. Chap. XII. MOTION or THE EARTH ROUND THE SUK. 404. The conclusion to which we have now been led, — tliiit all the planets descrilic orI)its that li:ive the sun ni-ar to then- centre, — naturally suggests the question, whether llm earth itself is not sulyect to the same laiv, and therefore to be ranked among the planets wiiicli Book I. MOTION OF THE EARTH ROUND THE SUN. revolve round the sun. With regard to the celestial motions, every appearance would remain the same to us, whether the earth described an orbit round the sun, or tlie sun uitli tiis accompanying planets revolved round the earth. To which of these hypotheses tlie preference is due will appear from the following considerations : — 405. 7'lie immetise masset of the sun and of several of the planets, combined tvith their great distances from the earth, render it much more simple to suppose that the earth de8cril>es an orbit round the sun, than that the whole planetary system revolves round the eurth. What an inconceivable rapidity of motion is it necessary to assign to Saturn, almost ten times more distani. from us than the sun, or to Uranus, at about double the distance of Saturn, in order that these planets may complete a revolution round the earth in a year, at the same time that they revolve about the sun ! It is a law which is found to pervade the planetary system, that the less body revolves about the greater body which is in its neighbourhood ; and by supposing the earth, in conformity with this law, to revolve about the sun, which in magnitude greatly exceeds all the planets taken together, we avoid all the complication and rapidity of motion which follow from the supposition of the earth being at rest. 406. The analogi/ which subsists between the earth and the planets confirms the hypothesis of the earth being carried round the sun by a motion of translation : Jupiter, for example, is known to have a revolution on his own axis, and to be attended by four satellites. In tlicsc particulars the earth resembles that planet, having also a revolution on its own axis, and being attended by one satellite, the moon. An observer placed on Jupiter would be led from appearances to imagine that the planetary system revolved round him, in like manner as an inhabitant of the earth supposes himself placed at the centre of the celestial motions : and the greater magnitude of Jupiter would give to such a conclusion, when d'awn by an observer placed on that planet, a greater resemblance to the truth than it would have when drawn by an inhabitant of the earth. With such a close analogy in theso respects before our eyes, may we not naturally conclude that it extends still farther ; and that as Jupiter revolves in an orbit round the sun, the earth must also have a similar motion? 407. Let us imagine ourselves to be placed on the surface of the mn, and from that position to observe the eurth and the planets. All these bodies would appear to move from west to cast ; tlie |>lancts would be found tree from all that complication in their motion to which they appear subject when viewed from the earth ; and the motion of the earth itself would in every cir- cmnstance correspond with that of the planets. The more distant a planet is from the sun, 'lie longer is the time which it requires to perform its revolution round him ; but throughout the planetary system this remarkable law prevails, connecting the periodic times with the distances, — the squares of the former are proportional to the cubes of the latter. If we compute, by this princi|>le, what should be tlie time of revolution of a planet situated at the distance of the earth from the sun, we find tlic result correspond exactly with the sidereal year; thus, the earth's distance from the sun being assumed as unity, the distance ot Mars is known to be 1 ■52.'3b'93 : his periodic time is 686'9796 days. Hence we have (1 •52693)3 : 13 : : (686'9796)« : (365'256)«. The periodic time of a planet, at the same distance from the sun as the earth is, should therefore be 365*256 days, which is the length of the sidereal year. This result leaves no doubt that the motion which the earth would bo seen to have, if it were viewed from the sun, arises from the same causes, and is regu- lated by the same laws as the motions of the planets : hence we may conclude that it is no less real. 408. The miition of the earth in an orbit round the sun, which the preceding considerations render so highly probable, is directly proved by the phenomena of cn(lictilar to the direction of the earth's motion. In this cane, Ihorofcire, the angle A I> K will lie the greatest ixusililc ; for the ratio of Bin. A D !•' to sin. D A F is con. tinni, lirliiK the same with the ratio of A F tu F I), or of 1 to lO.dlKl nearly : so that sin. \ D F is greatest, and liierelore A H K is greatest when sin. D A F is tlie greatest possible ; that is, when I) A F is a right angle. In the rascof any other star the greater axis of the ellipse which it apjiears tn descrilw roinid its true place as n centre will be equal to the diameter of the circle which a star in the fwle of the ecliptic would ap)icar to describe about the iwlc as a centre : for the ellipse will be the orthographic projection of a circle equal to that descrltietl almut the pole, the greater axis being the diameter, which is iwrpcndicular to a circle of the sphere passing through tiiestar and the p<>lc of the ecliptic, and at right angles to the echptic. When the star Is in the ecliptic, it will an|ioar to describe an arch equal to the greater axis of the ellipse described by a •tar not in the ecliptic, or to tnc diameter of the circle uf aberration that would be described by a star in the pole of the ecliptic. 41«. Hhcn angle D A F fa <» right angle, we have D F : F A : : rad : sin. ^ A D F j that Is, lO.IXX) :!::!: '0(101 ^ sine of greatest alwrratiun, which will therefore be 211" nearly. The aberration of a planet will dcpeiui nil Its own tnollnn as well as on that of the earth. If tlie motion of the planet were equal and parallel to tliut of the earth, no aberration would take place. The aberration of a planet may be found by first considering (he clllt't of thu motion of the earth on the apparent place, and then the aberration arising from the planet's own motion. 4 1 3. Such are the effects which, if the earth have actually a motion of translation that carries it in an orbit round the sun, must arise from that motion coiruined with the pro- gressive motion of light. To obtain, therefore, decisive proof o>' the earth's annual motion, it is only necessary to ascertain by accurate observation the r;xistence of these piie- tioinena. ■114, The true system of the world, which supposes the sun to be r.t rest in the centre, and the earth and planets to revolve round him, while the moon revolves about the earth, and the diurnal motion of tlic heavens arises from the motion of the earth on its axis, ua.s taught by several of the ancient philosophers, and particularly by Pythagoras. It was also hel({ by Archimedes ; but after him it was neglected, and even forgotten for many ages, until at length, in the beginning of the sixteenth century, it was revived and improvctl liy Copernicus, from whom it took the name of the Copkrnican System. Notwithstaiidin<; the beauty and simplicity which distinguish this theory, it was at first coldly received or utterly rejected. Tycho Brahe, an illustrious Dane, was among its adversaries. He regarded the dui'triiie of the earth's motion as untenable, without abandoning the testimony of Scripture : hence he was led to imagine another system, which bears his name ; in which the sun, with ail the planets and comets revolving roinul him, is supposed to perform a revohitiun aliotit the earth in a solar year, while at ttie same time all the heavenly bodies are suppo!icd to be carried round the earth from east to west in twenty-four hours. 'I I il. The only apparent difficulty connected with the Copemican system arises from the fiii'l, tliat the earth's oxis is always pointed to the same star, and that the stars preserve nlwfiys till' same relative positions ; though hy the annual motion of the earth, a spectator on its siirfiice views them at any two instants of time separated by the period of about six Taut II. y of Hglit, bcnrs motion will Iw, would bo if tlio ^ the direction of th were at rest at V S would receive along the axis of A, and show the th be Bupposeil to icity that bears a ght, the ray 8 A, ot reach the eye, m, be lost against lat the light from •d forward by tliu luch an inclination y parallel to 8 A, c in D, A F may th's velocity in ils is, of 1 to 10,000 9 along the axis as 1 be seen in the its true by a quaii- srration which will . Let the axis V E 10 convex surface a tlier position of the ariuht angle ( fortlie arth'ii motUin. In tins Ktosin. DAFi»C(m■ \ D K U greatest, and D A K it a right angle, round its true place as liptic would amiear to If a circle ciiual to tliiit liar to a circle of the le ecliptic. When the ■ ellipse descriljed by a icribcd by a rtar In the hat U. 10,000: 1::1: f a planet will depend ..al and parallel to that nid by flnt considering sing from the planct't of translation that incd with the pro- the earth's annual teucc of these plic- t in the centre, and bout the earth, and th on its axis, was goras. It was also un for many ages, d and improved by iotwithstaiidinK the received or utterly He regarded the mony of Scripture : in which the siin, lerform a revolution bodies are supposed tem oriscs from the at the stars i)rcserve earth, a spectator im iierioil of about six Book !• ORBITS OF THE FLANETS. lUl months, from two points nearly 200,000,000 miles asunder. During the wventoonlli cen- tury the supporters of the Copernican system laboured to remove tin's objection, by ilvlvi'lin(( u change in the position of the fixed stars. . T/te minute and accurate observaliont instituted for this purpose led. In the end, lu the important discovery made by the celebrated Dr. Bradley, that the very elFects witicli we have shown, must result from the annual motion of the earth combined with the progr^sKivti motion of light. He found that each star describes, round its true place as a centre, n sinnU ellipse of which the greater axis is about 40^' ; and that this ellipse approaches to a circle or to a straight line, which arc its limits, according as the star is situated towanls the pole of (he ecliptic, or towards the ecliptic itself. No parallax is observable in the fixed stars arUlnff from the earth's annual motion ; and hence it must be inferred that their distance U sn great, that even the diameter of the earth's orbit is to be regarded as a point in tllf universe. 417. From an attentive consideration of the celestial motions, we are therejhre Iml to rvjn't as erroneous the notions which apjtcarances al first suggest respecting the system planets; like them it receives light from the sun; and to complete th's analogy, it revolve* a'iout the sun in the same direction, and according to the same laws. By following out the results arising from the earth's motion being combined with the real n.otions of the pliinel* and of light, we find all the phenomena of the heavens flow, as necessary consequences, from one great principle. Thus the motion of the earth acquires all the certainty of which A physical truth is susceptible, 418. The vicissitude of season arises, as we have already explained, from the obliquity of the cclii>tic to the equator. The ecliptic, which we have hitherto considered as the path of the sun round the earth, we have now proved to be the orbit of the earth round the sun. The axis of the earth's diurnal motion is inclined to the plane of its orbit at an angle of Rlioitt 66' ii'2', and remains, as the earth revolves round the sun, nearly parallel to itself, Ilenee the circle which the sun appears to trace in the heavens in the course of a year forms with the equator an angle of about 2:i° 28'. This produces the differences in the distribution ot the solar light ond heat which we observe throughout the seasons of the year. 419. The parallelism of the ajcis is not absolute; for the axis is found to have a slow motion of revolution from east to west round a line passing through the centre of the earth, anil \WT-- pendicular to the ecliptic ; its revolution being completed in the period of 25,745 years, In consequence of this motion the poles in the sphere of the starry heavens describe each a cirele round the pole of the ecliptic, at the distance of 23° 28' nearly ; and the two points in which tlic terrestrial equator, when produced to the starry heavens, cuts the ecliptic shift to the westward, at the rate of about 50^ seconds yearly, which causes the precession of the equinoxes. A small inequality has been observed in the precession of the equinoxes, and in the mean obliquity of the ecliptic, which arises from a slight motion in the earth's axis, whereby its inclination to the ecliptic is not always exactly the same, but varies backwartU and forwards some seconds. This is called the nutation of the earth's axis, and was discu- vered by Dr. Bradley while employed in verifying his theory of aberration. The period of the changes of this inequality is nearly nine years. Chap. XIII. ORBITS OF THE rLANETS. 420. To an observer placed on the sun all the planets would appear to trace on the conCAve surface circular paths, cutting each other at various angles, but all comprehended within A certain zone of the heavens of some degrees in breadth. The angle which the plane of the orbit of a planet makes with the ecliptic is called the inclination of that orbit ; and the line of their intersection is called the line of the nodes. If a planet be observed twice in the same node, the node being supposed to have in the mean time remained stationary, the position of the line of the nodes can be determined, and also the distance of the planets from the lua at the times of observation. H 3 103 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II. Ml. Ul a luperhr plane! bo obwrvol In lt> nixic N from the cnrth at E, nml nner fhe pliiiet hai made an „ eiitlro revoliillon let the earth he at K'. I hen, rrnm the thne ami the 93 theory of the earlh'i imilinn, K K' \i given, and the anRlct 8KE', 8 K' Ji Hut the anglei S K N, 8 K' N are known hy obwrvatlon ) there, fore. In the triangle K K N, the angloi E E' N, E' h N, and the liaw E E' ■re given i and herii'e the •iilea K K' and E' N may tw (nund, Wherefora ftom cither of the trlnngiea 8 E N, 8 E N the dUtance 8 N U determined ( X' alio the angle ^8 N, whirh aiccrtalnt the petition of the node ai lecn IVom the lun. 422. From obacrvationi of this kind, itiodo at times consider- ably distant from i-ucli utiivr, it U found that tlie nodus of cacli planet have a kIuw retrngrndc motion. 42:1. Jiittin, the distance of a pluiict from the sun, and its place as sveii from tliu Hiin, may he determined fioin obscrv> ations made at tlie time of its oppoiiitioi) to the sun. 42*. Let E hf ihe rarth, 8 the lun, P the planet, O Iti place reduced to the r<'lli>ilr,SN the lino of the nodei pait- ;),'{ Ingthroughlheaun. Since the planet la InitaopiKMilInn, tho point! S, E,Oare in the name alralght P/ line. The angle ESVUknownbylait prnlilem, whii'h do. termincs thi'iMHition of the liiu'orthen()tU'«; therefore the arch O N in llie heavens, which measure* it, is also given l> The angle V N () Is equal to the Inclination of the planet's orbit t( " '"' "' ■' ' iriaiiglt •urc It to th.- ecliptic, and It therefore given j also the angle PONIi a right angle. Mgle PNO, the perpendicul:ir PO and the hyimtennse P V may be found. No« ! of the angle PSO, and PN Is thcmca»urcof P8N; vhereforc these two anglei Hence In the ipherlcal ow the arc PO It the mca. et arc given. In Ihe recti. lineal triangle PS E, the exterior angle PEOean bcdelerniined by observation : the angle PSE or PSO It J!lven, and the base ES Is known by the theory of the earth's motion ; whence P8, the dittance of the planet rom the tun, may be computed. 425. Orbit of a planet. Since the angle P S N is also known, the line P S is given in posi. tion as well as in magnitude. If many oppositions of u planet are thus observed, and if the radii obtained be laid down, the line connecting their extreme points will represent the orbit of the planet. In this manner it is found that the orbits of all the planets arc ellipses, having the sun in their common focus ; and that the angular motions of a planet round the sun are inversely as the squares of its distance from the sun : so that the sectors described by the radius vector are proportional to the times. This exactly corresponds with what was proved respecting the apparent motion of the sun in the ecliptic, and therefore the motion of the earth is regulated by the same law. 426. The planets which move immediately round the sun are called primary, their satellites are called secondary planets. Thus, the moon is a secondary planet to the earth. In considering the lunar motion, we found that the moon describes round the earth an elliptic orbit, and that the radius vector describes equal areas in equal times. The same holds of the satellites of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus ; so that the same principle runs through the motions of all the bodies of the planetary system. 427. iriien the mean distances of the planets are compared, and also their periodical times, it is found that the squares of the periodic times are as the cubes of the distonces, 428. The great general fads which have now been pointed out respecting the orbits of tiie planets, and their motions in these orbits, were first discovered by Kepler, afYer he hail employed immense labour and ingenuity in the research, and arc usually called Keplkk's LAWS. It may be proper to bring them under one point of view : — I. The primary planets all revolve in elliptic orbits round the sun, which occtipics one of the foci of the ellipse ; the plane of the orbit passing through the centre of the sun. II. The radius vector describes equal areas in equal times. III. The squares of the times of revolution in the planetary bodies ore as tlie cubes of their distances from tlie sun. Chaf. XIV. COMETS. 429. Thefitcd stars and the planets arc always visible when not obscured by the superior light of the sun ; but the class of bodies called comets are seen only wlien they arc in that part of their several paths which lies nearest to the sun : at all other times they move through regions of space far beyond the reach of our vision, even when assisted by the most powerful telescopes. The motions of the comets are, like those of the planets, performed ill elliptic orbits according to Kepler's laws; but, unlike the planetary orbits, the ellipses which the Book I. COMKTS. m arc as the cubes of romi'lii tlvurrlbo nre I'Xlrvmctv tlonKntcd i so tlint the Rinnll portion of thvir orbit* through wliii'li wu huvu nil o|i|iiirliinlt,v of triu'hig tliviii coliicidi-H vi-ry nviirly with a |mriiboln, thu riirvu of which U lliu limit af ihu vllipHv whcu its grviitiT uxiii is iiidi'tlnitcly iiicrvusvil. 'i'hu iiii'linaliiiim ill' tho iirlills ol' lhi< coiiii'ts is very various; soinu iiiovu in planes almost coiiicidi'Ut with Ihu I'l'llptli'i luiil otlivm in pinnvs nearly perpendicular to it. They mova also in very diU'vrelit direcllons | the inotluii of some being direct, and of others retrogrmle. 4:10. Tlie cumtt* illffi'r wiiMif/nim Ihi' jilnwlt in Ihfir amxarancc, as well as in the flgiiro and position of (heir orlills. \\'l'ion a comut is llrst seen, it is usually surrounded l>y a faintly luminous vapour, wlilvli liecomes iiiiire bright ns the comet approaches the sun, and at length shoots out into n lung lliinilioiis niid transparent Iruin, very much resembling a ilreamer, and extending in n direction iipposito to the niiii. The dense part of the comet, which both tu the nukeil eye, and when viewed through a telescope, resembles mucli the planetary bodies, is called the nm'lfii$ i Iho faintly luminous vapour by which it is surrounded is culleil tliu c«»in/ and the lung luiiiinoim train proceeding tVum the comet in un opposite direction iVoiii the sun is called the tiiil, Helweell the nucleus and the coma lies a part fainter than tho former, but brighter Ihnii thu latter, and in which the nucleus appears involved ; this is culleil the head of tho comet. 4;U. The Ifiiiiih iif'lhn Inil is very various. Sometimes it extends only a few degrees ; in other cases it has lievll found to reach over more than a fourth part of the heavens. If a comet does not conio verv near Ihv sun, the coma does not shoot into a tail, but retains tlio appearance of a nebulosity round the comet during the whole period of its being visible. The tail sometime* consists of two or more diverging streams of light, and is always so transparent that tliu siiinllest star* are seen through it without any sensible diminution of their brilliancy, 4;i'J. A'ifi/t4ri.' qfcomult. In ages of Ignorance comets have always, from their extraordinary a|)|iearance, been sources of superstitious terror to mankind. This fear has been dissipated by the light of science, which lias shown that the appearances of comets arc regulated by the game laws as other celestial plietiomeim. We are still, however, almost entirely ignorant of the nature of these bodies, though n great many hypotheses have been formed concerning tliein. They were considered by some of tliu ancients, aiul particularly by Aristotle, as accidental tires or meteors generateil in the atmosphere of thu earth ; but this opinion is obviously groundless. ]f they were connected with the earth or its atmosphere, they would partake of the diurnal niuliun on the axis, nnil could not therefore appear to have a diurnal revolution in the heavens along with thi) utilur celestial hwlies. Uesides, their having no diurnal parallax proves that they nru nt a grrut distance tVoni tho earth ; while the fact of their apparent motion being alVected by the nnininl motion of the earth shows that they are situated in the planetary regions, Observiilion has demonstrated that, like the planets, they are permanent bullies, and, in all pruhahllily, derive their light from the sun. 4;l;). From the tmiill fiiirliun of the orhit of any comet which we have an opportunity of observing, wo cannot uscertiiiii with siitticient accuracy the elements necessary for detcnnining tlie period of its return ; but supposing that their orbits are not disturbed by any cause in those distant regions of space tliroiigh which the greater portion of the paths of comets lie, it is evident that bv accurately observing all the comets that come within view, and carefully recording thu results, In the course of ages the return of many comets may be detected and tlioir periodic times ascertained. I lence the greater axis of the orbit of each may be deter- mined by Kepler's tliiril law ( and the comet's least distance from the sun being found by observation, tho less axis will also bcconiu known. In this manner the periodic time of some comets has been fuutui, mid their return predicted. •i;i4. Thejlrst and most reminknbte inalnnce is that of Dr. Ilallcy, v ho, by comparing his ol>SL'rv»tions on thu comet of ItiH'i, with those of Kepler on the comet of 1G07, and those of Apian on thu comet of I,'!;) I, found reason to conclude, from the agreement of the cir- ciiiustuiices of each, that what had been considered three distinct comets were only re-appear- ances of the same comet alU uiotionK regulated by them may be referred as to their cause. 'II 7> The motions of the Iteaveiili/ bodies have been variously accounted for. We have already adverted to tlie rude mechanism of deferent and epicyclic spheres, by which siiine of the ancient philosophers attempted to explain the celestial motions. Tin's doc- li'iiu' urigiiiuted with £udoxus and Callipus. But a more sensible attempt was made by CIvtiiillieM, another philosopher of Greece, wlio, from observing that bodies are easily carried riiiiiid by whirlpools or vortices of water, imagined that the celestial spaces are filled with an ('llit'i'eal fluid, which is in continual motion round the earth, and that it carried the sun and pliuit'l!) round with it. Though this hypothesis affords no real explanation of the phenomena, it u'liH revived in modern times, and maintained by two of the most eminent mathematicians iind philosophers in Europe, namely, by Des Cartes and Leibnitz, and for a long time met with general acquiescence. l)ut a much nearer approximation to right conceptions on this tiiilijk'ct was made by many philosophers, botli of ancient and modem times, who supposed lliiil the jilanctK were deflected from uniform rectilineal motions, by forces similar to what we ohst'rvu in the motions of magnetical and electrical bodies, or ii< the motion of common heavy liodieH ; where one body seems to influence the motion of another at a distance from it, witli- (iiit any intervening impulsion. Fermat was the first who suggested that the weight of a liiiily In (he sum of the tendencies of each particle of matter in the body to every part'cic of tliu t'lirth. Kepler made another approximation to the truth wlien he said, that if there were tun liodieM placed out of the reach of all external forces, and at perfect liberty to move, they would approach each other with velocities inversely proportional to their quantities of matter; vt\w\\ lie HNNcrted that the earth and the moon mutually attract each other, and are prevented front meeting by their revolution round t'leir common centre of attraction; and when he niii'ilmled the tides to the attractive influence of the moon in heaping up the waters imme- iliitti'ly under her. •IIH, //)(( 2)r, Hookd made the most precise surmise to this purpose. At a meeting of the Itiiyiil Society, May :}. 1668, he expressed himself in the following manner: —"I will i'\|iluiii It Hystent of the world very different from any yet received, and it is founded on the llirw following propositions; — " I. 'riiHt all the heavenly bodies have not only a gravitation of their parts to their own \\t»\\vv eentrcH, hut that they also mutually attract each other within their spheres of action. " '.'• 'I'hat all bodies having a simple motion will continue to move in a straight line unless (iiniiiuiidly deflected from it, by some extraneous force causing them to describe a circle, an i'lli|ho, or NOine other curve. " It. 'I'lint Ihiit attraction is so much the greater as the bodies arc nearer. As to the pro- |M\iiion in which these forces diminisli by an increase of distance, I own I have not yet dis- iiiwrcd it, nllhough I have made some experiments to that purpose. I leave this to others »lio liuve linte and knowledge sullicicnt for the task." Till' truly |ihilosophical views stated in these propositions relatively to the celestial motions \U'ri' ilhiNirated by a very pretty experiment, which Hookc had some time before exhibited to III!' Siu'iely. A bull, suspended by a long thread from the ceiling, was made to swing iiiimd (mother l)aU laid on a table immediately oelow the point of suspension. When the linimJKo given lo the pendulum was very nicely adjusted to its deviation from the perpendi> ciiliii', it (leNcrlhed n perfect circle round the ball on the table ; but when the impulse was vi'iy (jreat or very little, it described an ellipse having the other ball in its centre. The fiiri'i', imder the influence of which this circular or elliptic motion was produced, Hooke liowi'd to bo n deflecting force, proportional to the distance from the other ball. But he ■'ililt'il, that although this illustrated tlio planetary motions in some degree, yet it was not Miiliilile to their case ; for the planets describe ellipses, having the sun not in their centre but in their foviiH, no that they are not retained in their orbits by a force proportional to the dis- liiiiro iVoin the nun. 1 ID. Thus iw uie that certain points of resemblance between the motions of the planets and IM PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II. the motions of magnets and heavy bodies, had attracted the attention of many pliiltiNophcm ; but these observers failed to deduce from the principles wliich thi>y so dimly jiur(,'i'ivvd uiiy satisfactory conclusion. 450. M length the powerful genius of Sir Isaac Newton was directed to thu ttllliji'ft, niul liy his penetrating sagacity the law of universal gravitation was brought fully iiitit vlii|uen('i'ii,il lift lllli lni|Mll itiiuillatu .'tuiiiN tliu iiliint'lN lit ir i«oi))i< imHlilU'iitluii n^\^^Ut vxliMiil to llic iliiic'iil palli. How. (It!i'ply liiilxii'il Nviili , llllluNH it I'UtlUi iiu l)ruiiglit to tlilNli'kt, liiK till! inodllli'ittidii pni'ly tliv iiiiiKiiiludc ilicittion oC tliu liircu iK'v ili'vrt'iiHvit iiK tlio 9 Inilit of IIk< I'ltrili; ID plit'iutitu'iiitn I \w iwyvvr, to iviii'w liis vnvv of thu itK'ii>iiiru> tiul it lit hiild tliiit, n< d to ri'ipivNt n fVii'iul )la>iit)nK'iui with lliu opon iH't'ori' Idin, lie in nil lu'ciirntu iiiir- di'pt'ndvMi'k,', mid, nt I'hwiry t'oiiNi'qiiiMU'i'*, (.'count of it IIUIHt III on I niul nlilioii);li It yvt nil iiuitioiiH iiiu lincnr niotioiii uiiU'^ iiii'd, mid \* inndc In ictloii, latti'r lu>NuliJiTl('(t nt ii'pni'iilk'ly ciiiiM' li Id will di-Ki'iilu' llii' iliii- f i^xpt'iii'iu'c, mill li) ii> plmu'tmy iiiiiiIihh, ii' ri'i'iiiidili' iliiclriiii'M^I ri'nilllll'i'll III' till' lllnlll't ^tii'iiilly >iiiiii> iiT llii' lull, llllllll'lllill lU'llli l{>li'<. I.i'l ll> >ii|i|>ii>i' lli.il '< (./'//.■".I) !• II lixnl |iiiliil, iinillliiil .iliiiily liiiivi'iilii lliiiiiiri't'linii A II Willi nil iinlliitiii vi'liirllv, III mirii » rale, lliiit ir mil ili<. Iiirlii'il liy liny I'Xln •ml riiii>i', II itiiiiM liint'i' IVniii II til li III II ai'i'iiiiil III' I mil'. t,rl UK hIkii *II|i|III At II. It rrii'lMi nil llli|illlat< III till' illin. Iliiii UN, iiiiil III •mil iliti'li»lty,llliit, Itnii. IliK llliilli', II tiiiiiM |iim llli> liiiily III liiiivi' iiiiUiiiiiilv Imiii II III II III II •loiii'l. ('iilli|iliM,il ItC I tllli lllljilllai' nl II, I'olllllllivil MltlllliV ttl.lill'lll) tu vuiilliiiiv Book I. LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION 107 its motion In the line B b will cause the body to move along the diagonal B C ; lo that at the end ot a aecond it ivill actually lie at the point C ; and if no external cause actnl on tlie body, by the first law, it would continue to iiinvc uniformly ever alter in the direction B C c ; so that in the next second it would describe a line C e, equal to BC. But now suppose that the iMxly, whon at C, receives a second impulse in the direction CS, by which it would be carried uiiirormly from C to I in a second ; then, completing the parallelogram D 1 Cc, the actual path of the body will be the diagonal CD, which will beunil'onnly described in a second ; and if undis- turbed, the motion would be continued uniformly in the straight line C Dd, the distance I)(< described in the next second being equal to C D. A third impulse at D, in the direction D S, such as would carry the body unifiirinly from U to K in a second of time, would, when combined with the tendency to move in the direction lid, prmluce a motion along DE, thee" .igonal of the parallelogram E KDif, and a fourth impulse in the direc- tion ks, would, when combined with the motion in the direction Ee, produce a motion along the diagonal EF, and so on. In this way, by successive instantaneous impulses, a body may be made to describe the path ABCDEF, &c., which will lief..; in one plane. •Hit. Since the lines A B, Bi are equal, the triangles ASB, BSi are equal j but because C6 is parallel to SB, the triangle nSA is equal to the triangle BSC; therefore the triangle BSC is equal to A SB. In like manner, it may be proved that C 8 D is equal to B S C, and D S E to C S D, and so on : thus it apiiears that the triangles A SB, BSC, CSD, DSE,&c. are all equal. If we suppose a straight line to be drawn from the moving bwly to the fixed point S, and to be continually carried along with it, it is evident that this line will pass over or gdii'rate the equal areas A S B, B S C, C S D, D S E, &c. in equal intervals of time : it is also evident that the shorter the interval between the impulses communicated to the moving body, the greater will be the numlier uf sides of the figure formed by the diagonals of the parallelograms, and the nearer will the line composed of these diagonals approach to a curve. If we suppose, therefore, that the body is urgeetal force in that case. Draw the chord A liC, and let A D lie so small an arc, that it may be considered coincident with its chord. Draw I) E parallel to the tangent A B, and join C D. Then A U will measure the velocity of the body in its orbit at the point A, and A E the space over which the centripetal force directed to. wards S, if acting alone, would cause the body to move in the time in which it moves from A to D. Put v to denote the velocity, and /the centripetal force. Since the triangles A DC, A ED, are equi. angular and similar, we have AC:Al>=AD:AEi that is, A : » = w ;/ : therefore/ = — ;. 4*8. Neit, let WB (Jig. 3fi.) be the ellipticorbit qf a planet, S the focus in which the sun is placed, A the point at which the planet is at its greatest distance from the sun, and V any other [loint in its orbit Join V S ; draw the tangent P D, and draw S D perpendicular to P D. Let V and i;' denote the velocities of the planet at A and P respectively; and c and c* the chords oftheequicurve circles at A and P which p.iss through the point S, and let/ be the deflecting force at A, and J' the deflecting force at P. Then from \vhat we have proved respecting a body moving in the circumference of a circle round any point F as the centre of its motion, we have = ti'e' : i/'c. But since tlic small arcs which represent the velocities at A and P must be supposed to be described in equal times, the corresponding areas described by the radius vector will also be equal. Hence it is not (litficult to see that tix AS = ti'x SD, and ii : ^' = SD : SA. 'We obtain, therefore, /:/' = SU^ X c' : S A^ x e. Draw P E perpendicular to the tangent P D, meeting the axis in E, and draw E G perpendicular to P E, and EH (leriiendi- cular to P F. From the pro|)ertics of the ellipse^ P H is equal to half the principal parameter, and consequently to half of r, the chord of the circle, of equal curvature at A, which passes through S. Also P U is hall of c', the chord of the equicurvc circle at P, which passes through S. Therefore, /:/'=2SD2x PG: SSA'x PH. = SD2x PG: SA' X PH. Now, from the similar triangles G P E, E P H, we have O P ; P E = P E : P H : hence G P : P H = 1« : P E». But the triangles OPE, PS D beingalso similar, G P» : PE' = VS> : . SD'i; therefore, G P : PH =-- PS^ : SD^; and Psa X PII = S D'' X O P : and since it was shown that/ :/' = S D» X Pn I S A' X P, wherefore / :/" = P 0' x P H : SA'^ x P H : or leaving the common factor I' H out of tho Iwo ('nnsefjuents we have /:/' = PS' '■ SA'. 'i'hiis we have arrived at this important conclusion j that the force by whieli the planets revolve round the tun In rllipliial orbits, Ihe sun being in one i/ the foci, and the radius vector describing areas proportional to the llmrs, is always inversely as Ihe squares if the disliinces. 4"i!i. There remains yet annllier point to be determined respecting the forces which retain Ihe different planet! In their orbits ; namely, whether there is am/ analogy lulu ten them. From Kepler's third law, we know that tlif squares of the periodical times of any two of the iilanets are proportional to the cubes of their mean dis. lances from the sun. This law is independent of the eccentricities ol the orbits j and the same relation would iubtlit bctwcsn the mean diitancea and the periodic times, though the cccvntricitlci were to become infinitely \0i PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II. «mnl1 1 or. what f« the lamc thing, the orblti were to beeome cirrlei. Let us then suppose the planets to move with uiiir«rm vehicitlcs in circular orbits, having the sun in tlie centre, lliis summsition ilifftrs very little IViini the truth. I'ut v, 1/ to denote the velocities of two of the planets, r, c' the radii of their orbiU, /, t their liurliHllc times, aiul /, /' the forces by which they are retained in their mbits. Irom what we have already thowii resiwcllng a body moving in a circle round any imint as the centre of Us motion, wc have/ = — and But since the circumferences of circles are to one another ai their /» ■• 111 therefore /:/•= — radii, and the velocity or the space passed over by the planet in the unit of time is equal to the circumference of Its orbit, divided by the periodic time expressed in that unit, it is evident that v:v' = — : — : hcnco •1 , ll^JL . rL. rjt ,ince «» • «^= r = : »^»,— : ^ = 4 : ■!^,= A : -^ = '^ : »•'• Where, fore wo obtain / :/■ = r« : »■». -!()(). This result shows that the forces which, acting oji two planets, would cause them to tlcwibe circular orbits, agreeing with Kepler's third law, are inversely as the squares of the dis- tances- Hence wc may inffr the identity of the force which retains the planets in their respective orbits ; since it varies from orbit to orbit, according to tlie very same law wliieh iviiiihites its intensity at different distances in the same orbit. Tliis conclusion is fully estublished by the fact, that the forte which acts upon the comets during their descent to the Nun, varies exactly according to the law which we have now assigned as the law of the pinnctury force. The comet of 1 759, which was predicted by Dr. Ilallcy, came from regions fur beyond the most distant of the known planets, and approaclied nearer to the sun than VeniiH ; and when it arrived at the same distance from the sun as any of the planets, its (leHection from the rectilineal course by the action of the centripetal force, was the very tinnie us that of the planet. We may, therefore, conclude, that it is one and the same force which deflects all tlie planets as well as the comets. ■It) I. From what has noio been shown, it is evident that if all the planets were placed at the Nnnie distance from the sun, they would all be deflected equally by the centripetal force independently of the quantity of matter in each. Hence it follows tliat, at equal distances, the centripetal force must act equally on every particle of -1; ^er of which the planets are composed ; so that if one planet contain exactly double the quantity of matter that another pinnet contains, and if both are placed at exactly tlie same disinnce from the sun, the former will receive a double impulse. We may infer, therefore, that another law of the force which retains the planets in their orbits is, that, at equal distances, it is proportional to the fitass on which it actt: and that iftieo bodies act on the same particle of matter, the forces which thi'if erert are proportional to their masses. The force may be supposed to bo produced cither by a cause residing in the body which is placed in the centre of motion, or by a cause residing in the revolving body. In the former point of view, it is called a force of attuaction- ; in the latter, a force of ciiavitation. The truth is, however, that the cause of this force is nbsolutely unknown. We see only the elfects produced, and from these we investigate the laws which connect' them with each other, and the general principles on which they depend. 4()1}. Thus, from the facts discovered by Kepler respecting the planetary motion, we have (thown that each planet has a tendency towards the sun, in consequence of which from a Mate of rest it would move towards liim, acquiring at every instant an increase of velocity according to a fixed and determinate rule or law which applies alike to all the planets. This tendency, if not counteracted, would bring the matter of the sun and planets into one mass, 'J'liis, however, is prevented from taking [ilacc, in consequence of nn impulse having been originally comnmnicated to each planet, giving it a constant tendency to move in a straight line with an uniform velocity. The effects arising from these two tendencies arc so adjusted, ns to produce elliptic orbits. But the low which regulates the effects arising from the ten- dency of the planets towards the siui remaining the same, such a velocity might have been roinmiuiicated to each planet, by the original impulse which gave it its tendency to move inilforiniy in a straight line, as would have produced parabolic or hyperbolic orbits. In a circular orbit, if the centre of motion coincide with the centre of the orbit, the velocity of a planet is uniform, and of such rapidity as at every point to produce a tendency to move in II tangent to the orbit, exactly sufficient to counterbalance the tendency to move towards the cenire of the orbit. If the orbit be elliptical, and one of the foci the centre of motion, the motion of the planet is variable, and its tendency to move uniformly in a tangent to tlii> orbit sometimes exceeds, and at other times falls short of, that which would be necessary to cause it to revolve in a circle at the same distance from the centre of motion. 4fiH. Let A D n E 6e the elliptic orbil of a planet revolving about the sun, which is supposed to be placed in the focus S. Suppose the planet to set out from A in the direction A I', A being the jioint of its greatest distance from tlie sun. At A the direction of the planet's inolion is at right angles to the radius vector, and if the velocity were such as to jmidiicc n U'llilency to move in the direction of the tangent A G, exactly equivalent to the tendency «)f the planet to move towards the sun, the planet would revolve in a circle of which .S Is the centre, and S.\ the radius. Hut the velocity being supposed less, the path of ihc planet will full within the circle, ond the angle S 1' H contained between the radius vector und the tangent P H, which shows the direction of the planet's motion, changes from a rijjhl Book L LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION. 1U9 niiglc to on acuto nnglo. re have/ = ^ and )nc another ai their to the circumference = — : — 1 hence t f = r" : »•'. Where. uld cause them to squares of the dis- c planets in their y same law wlilcli unclusion is fully heir descent to the as the law of the came from regions rer to the sun tlian of the planets, its force, was the very and the same force were placed at the c centripetal force at equal distances, lich the planets are matter that another the sun, the former .■r law of the force s prnjiortional to the Her, the forces whkh be pro'he radius vector : tlie ^ direction, however, being oblique, ^he planet is brought still nearer to S. The tendency '.owards the sun is, in n great measure, still exerted in accelerating the motion, and as soon as the planet passes. D, its velocity becomes greater than what would produce a circular motion uboiit S. The angle S D K is, therefore, the least angle which the radius vector makes with the direction of the planet's motion, and iVom the moment when the planet passes the point D, that angle begins tu increase; and the etll'Ct uf this is tu cause the tendency of tlie planet towards the sun to be ]irincipally exerted in incurvating the orbit. Its influence in accelerating the planet's motion, tlioiigh it still exists, is gradually diminished, until the planet arrives at the point B, where it ceases altogether, in conse(]uenct' uf the radius vector being at right angles to the tangent B L. 464. As the i>elociti/ of the planvt at B is greater than what is sufficient to produce a motion in a circle of which the radius is S B, the path of the planet falls wholly without tlint circle ; and, consequently, it is now receding from the sun. The angle which the radi is vector makes with the tlirection of its motion becoming obtuse, the tendency of the i)lnnet towards the sun is now piu'tly employed in retarding its motion, so that its velocity is diminished. The angle contained between the radius vector and the direction of the planet's motion increases while the ))hmet is moving from B to E, and decreases from £ to A, when it becomes a right angle, as it had formerly decreased from A to D, and increased from D to B. The velocity of the pliuiet in its orbit must, therefore, decrease from B to A, as it had formerly increased from A to B ; at the point E it will be equal to what it was at D, and from E to A, tlie influence uf the )>lanet's tendency towards the sun to diminish its velocity will become less and less, until \n hen the (ilanet has arrived at A, it will cease alto- gether. The velocity is then the same as at lii-st, ond the motion goes on in this way for ever. AGS. )yhatever hat now bixn iMuccd from Kepler's Laws respecfing the orbits of the jirlmary planets, and the law «if the force by which they ore described, will apply equally to tlie orbits of the secondiu-y |>lanets : for in each of these little systems, there is the same analogy between the periodic times and the distances, which takes place in the general system ; the figure of the orbits Is also elliptic, and the areas described by the radius vector is |)ioi)ortional to the times. We nmy legitimately conclude, therefore, that the satellites rcvoh'ini; about ain/ planet, are retained in their orbits by a firce inversely proportional to the squares of their distances froni their priinuri/ planet ; so tliat all the celestial motions are pro- duced by forces regulated by this general law, 4G(>. The force which keeps the Sfrnm in her orbit is, then, the attraction of the earth, or her gravii:iiiun towards the earth. But we find that the earth attracts all the bodies near its surface by a force which is proportional to the mass of the body attracted. Whatever be tlie weight of a body, it falls to the earth from the same height in the same time, and with tlie same velocity. Thus, if the resistance of the atmosphere be removed, it is found by cxperlnient that the lightest iVallier falls to the earth, from a given height, in the very same time, and with the very same veloi-ity, as a stone, however great its weight. Let us enquire whether the force which ivtains the moon in its orbit may not be identified with thi-. attractive force which causes the descent of heavy bodies to the surface of the earth. 4(T7. (IV may ml/tout great erivr »iiii|iii parallel to M II, and (' II parallel to M A, the diameter o( the iifhlt The arch M I' may he rewarded as coimident with its chord ; Iherel'iiie, JnlniiiK A t\ it is evident that in the right angled triangle A f M we have A IM t M C =M C : SI I). Hence, since A M and M C are knnwn, M 1) nr lIC, the detlectiun of the moon from the tangent, in a Kcennil by the attraitliin of the earth, may l>e found. •his The tii'mm ilisinlicx her orbit round the earth in about 27' 7'' 43"', or \.',.i(iil,,W() neciinds; the circumference of her orbit is aliout fio times the cireinnfereneeof the earth, that is, if we reckon U!)| I'^nglish miles 111 a degree, 7,'.ii.'ii,.'!.')(i,iKX) feet ; therefore the length of the arc I\l (', which tile moon describes in a seeniul, will be found nearly equal to ,i,K'i,s feet. Again, A M, the diameter of the moon's iirhit, is about V,,'i'.M,l>.il,14l) fvet. Ileiice wo obtain M 1) eipial to -itMn feet nearly. Tills small fractional part of a foot is the siuice which a body, placed nl the ilislaiice of the moon, and falling from a state of re.si by the Bi'lliin of the force which retains the moon in her orbit, would paps liver In the llrst second of time. Ulwerving, now, that this force incrcaBcs as the ai|uares of the dlitaneci dverease, we nmy determine the space which a bmly at the surface no rniNCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY Part II. of the earth (or at the distance of one scmldiamcter from the earth'a centre), and falling from a state of rest, would pass over In the first second of time, if urgeil by the same force. For, since the moon's distance fl-om the earth is equal to almut sixty times the semidiamctcr of the earth, we have I' : (lO- =-(X)H7 : the space required, which is found to be 1609 feet. Now, this is exactly the siiacc which a boear of such difhcully as to transcend the powers of the human mind ; namely, tu determine the quantity of matter in the sun and planets. Let ./■ and /' denote the forces by whicli t«o bodies revolve in circuL-rr orbits round two central biHtics, of whicli the masses arc denoted by m and »»'. Let r and r' be the radii of the orbits, and / and t' the periodic times. From what we have already provtnl with regurd to a force that retains a body in a circular orbit, we have f ■ f =-Ji ■ Ji' But wc have also / :/'=-j5 . —,; therefore, -j;j : ;jj = ^ : ^Tji and con. •equcntly, m, : »i = _ Thus it appears that the masses of matter in the bodies which compose the solar system are directly as the cubes of the mean distances if any bodies which revolve round them, and inversely as the squares of the times in which the revolutions are performed. By means of this principle, the masses of the sun and of the planets which have satellites may be compared with one another. With regard to the planets which have no satellites, the quantity of matter contained in them c;in only be guessed from flic effects they produce on the motions of the other planets. The quantity of matter in the moon can, however, be determined DoOK I. LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION. Ill c distance correspond. with greater certainty, by comparing togetlicr the influence of the sun and moon in producing the tides and the procession of the equinoxes. Henco we learn, that the matter in the moon is about ^ of the matter in the eurth. Tlie following table exhibits the masses of the planets, that of the sun being considered as unity : TABLE. ]\rcrcury - Venus 'Iho Earth Mars 3MJ8I0 Jupiter Saturn Uranus TOTS If we add together the numbers given in this table, it will be found that the whole matter in alt the planets is not one-six-hundredth part of the matter in the sun. 473. Knowing the masses nf the planets and tlteir diameters, we can determine the force of gravity at their surfaces; for, supposing them to be spherical bodies, and to have no rotation on their axes, the forces with which a body placed on their surfaces gravitates to thorn will be proportional to their masses, divided by the sqnnres of their diameters. 474. From the masses of Jupiter anil the earth. La Place calculates that if we suppose tlioin to have no rotation, a body whicli at the earth's equator weighs one pound would, if carried to the equator of Jupiter, weigh 2 "509 pounds, supposing the weights to be iiioasured by the pressures exerted in the two situations. If the centrifugal force produced by tie rotation of the planets be taken into account, however, this weight must be diminished by about one-ninth part. The same body would weigh about 27*65 pounds at the surface of the sun. Hence it follows that a heavy body would there descend about 425 feet in the first second of time. 475. ire have hitherto attended chiefly to the action of the central body upon that which revolves roimd it ; but, in reality, the action is mutual. The planets attract the sun in the same manner as the sun attracts the planets ; and the same action and re-action have place among the primary planets and their satellites. Indeed, the gravitation of all the great budios of the system towards one another, appears only to be a consequence of a similar action between every particle of matter and every other particle of matter. This great fact, to which all the celestial pheiioiuena are ultimately to be referred — that the particles of mailer mutnally attract each other by a force varying inversely as the squares of the distances^ is commonly called the principle of Univehsal Gravitation. 476. The mutual altraclion if the bodies composing the planetary system, gives rise to a train of consequences which it has required the utmost efforts of human ingenuity to iinluld. We have already remarked that the planetary motions are liable to a variety of irregularities with which accurate observation has made us acquainted. Now, here we sec the cause to which all these irregularities are to be referred. If the sun were fixed immovable in the centre, and only one planet revolving round him, then the path of that ])lanet would be an ellipse, from which there would not be the least deviation ; and that t'uciis which is the centre of motion would coincide with the centre of the sun, supposing that body to be spherical and composed of matter of uniform density. But since the planet attracts the sun as well as the sun attracts the planet, with a force directly proportional to the mass and inversely proportional to the square of the distance, it follows that the sun must also move in an elliptic orbit round that point of which the condition is in po way disturbed by tlic mutual action of the revolving bodies, namely, their centre of gravity. It is with this point tha' ; focus of the orbit of the planet, and that of the solar orbit, would coincide, and about v , ' the radius vector of each would describe areas proportional to the times. Ill reference . . ;anccs. 477. If we now suppose two or T.are planets to revolve about the sun, it is evident that the motions of all would be distui' eti l<; dioir mutual gravitation. The immense magnitude of the Sim compared with that oi ..jsy of the planets, or of all the planets taken together, might, liouover, give to his attraction such a preponderance as would preserve all the planetary orbits nearly elliptical ; while his own orbit would become a more complicated curve, but suc'li as to furnish a centrifugal force in respect of each planet, just able to counterbalance the gravitation towards it. The centre of gravity of the whole system would be a point to which all tlioir motions are to be referred. Now this is actually the case of the planetary system. Accurate observation proves that the sun is not at rest in the centre, though his motion is vory small. His centre is never distant from the centre of gravity of the system so much as liis own diameter ; ond hence the orbit which he describes must be very inconsiderable, when compared with the orbits of the planets. With regard to those planets which are aciom|)aiiiod by satellites, it is not the centre of the primary which traces the elliptic orbit ruund tlio sun, but the common centre of gravity of the primary planet aud secondary planets which revolve round it, 112 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II. 478. Tlie perturbations which the mutual attraction of the planets produce In each other's motions are divided into two classes. The one class alFect the figure nnd position of the elliptic orbits, and increase with extreme slowness : these are called SECutAa ineuuahties. The other class depend on the mutual situation of the different planets, and acquire the same amount whenever the same relative positions occur : these are called pehiodic ineuua- LiTiES. Both these classes of inequalities have been demonstrated to be periodical ; that is, they increase only to a certain extent, and then decrease. Amidst all the changes whicli arise from the mutual actions of the heavenly bodies, there are two things which remain perpetually the same ; namely, the greater axis of the orbit which the planet describes, and its periodic time. Thus the pennanency of the planetary system is secured. 479. To subject to calculation the perturbations of the system requires the solution of the following problem: three bodies of given magnitudes, as the sun, the earth, and the moon, being projected into space with given velocities, and in given directions, and attracting each other according to a given law, namely, inversely as the squares of their distances from each other, and directly as their masses ; it is required to determine the nature of the curve, that one of them, as the moon, describes about one of the other two, as the earth. This is the celebrated pboblesi of the thiiee bodies, stated in all its generality, but under this antrifugul force, in h every particle of circle in which the that motion were to lot only to overcome one another, and so to revolve round the ■d from that of the )e to one another as about sixty times in 39343 minutes,) llitc. the earth revolved ar orbit close to its lut would not in the couviterbalaiiced by bit. Now, nil tlie umstances with the motion, and if the ixactly equal to the force of gravity ; so that they would no longer have weight If the earth's motion of rotation became still more rapid, they would fly off from the surface. 481}. M the equator a body Ueacribea acircle of which the circumference is about 132,105,600 feet in 23'' 56'" nearly : it must therefore describe an arc of about 1528 feet in a second of time. From what we have shown already respecting central forces, it is evident that, by dividing the square of this arc by the diameter of the earth, we shall And the deflection from the tangent in a second, which will be the measure of the centrifugal force. This deflection amounts to about -HJI, of an in';h, or ,}, of 16-f.j feet, the space through which a body would fall in a second by the force of apparent gravity. The centrifugal force at the equator ii therefore the 5^ part of the sensible weight of a body, or jjj part of its real weight. Suppose, then, a body, when weighed at the equator by a spring steel-yard, to be found capable of drawing out the spring to the division 288 : if that body were weighed :it the pole, where thu centrifugal force vanishes, it would draw out tlie spring to the division 289. 483. it admits of being demonstrated that, proceeding from the equator where the ccntri> fugal force is the greatest toward either pole, where it vanishes, tlie iliminvlion ofgruvily which it produces in different latitudes is direclly proportional to the squares of the cosines of the latitude. 484. Such being the nature of the forces that act upon every particle of matter of which the earth is composed, the determination of its figure from physical principles involves the solution of the two following problems : — 1. What is the law according to which a particle will gravitate towards a solid of a given form and constitution, the particle being supposed situated either within or without the solid ? 2. What figure will a mass of matter, either wholly or partly fluid, assume in consequence of the joint effect of the attraction of its particles (that attraction varying inversely as tho scuores of their distances), and a centrifugal force arising from the rotation of the mass about an axis ? — Both these problems involve a great degree of difficulty ; and the second is even more intricate than the first, in consequence of the reciprocal relations subsisting between tlic figure of the attracting body and the law of gravitation at its surface, which renders a knowledge of the one necessary to the determination of the other. Assuming that an homogeneous fluid of the same mean density with the earth has the figure of an oblate spheroid, and revolves on its axis in 23** SG'" 4' of solar time, it would be in equUibrio, if the axis of revolution were to the equatorial diameter in the proportion of 229 to 230. This is the figure which Newton ascribed to the earth ; and though the assumption which he made of such a figure was certainly gratuitous, the result of his investigation is almost the same as later writers have obtained by a more rigorous as well as direct mode of reasoning than that which he employed. Again, it has been demonstrated by La Place, that a fluid and homo- geneous mass, of the mean density of the earth, cannot remain in equilibrium and possess at the same time an elliptic figure, if the time of its rot",tion be less than a* 25"" 17'. If the time of revolution exceed this, there may always be two elliptic spheroids, and not more, in wliicli the equilibrium may be maintained. In tlie case of the mass revolving in SS"* 56'" 4', the one spheroid is that which has already been mentioned ; the other is one in which the polar diameter is to the equatorial in the ratio of 1 to 681. The extreme flatness of this spheroid must render the force of gravity at the equator almost nothing ; the fluid, therefore, would be so easily dissipated that this equilibrium can scarcely be regarded as stable. 485. Another conclusion on this subject, deduced by Clairault, is, tliat if the fluid mass, supposed to revolve on its axis, instead of being homogeneous, be composed of strata which increase in density towards the centre, in order to remain in equilibrium, it must still possess the figure of an elliptic spheroid, but the oblateness will be diminished. 480. The oblateness of the earth at its poles is a phenomenon which the measurements that have been made of arcs of the meridian have placed beyond all doubt ; but there is still an uncertainty as to the exact quantity of the compression. The results obtained, however, render it highly probable that it is less than -^^ which Newton, proceeding on the supposition of a uniform density, assigned for the compression. Hence we may conclude, that if the earth is a spheroid of equilibrium, it is denser in the interior than at its surface. This inference has been verified by very accurate experiments made by the late Dr. Maskelyne on the sides of the mountain Scliehallien, in Perthshire. The object was to determine the derangement of the plummet by the vicinity of this lofty and solid mountain ; and the results, olitain-.'d from observation made at two stations on the south and north sides of it, showed that tlie plummet deviated from the direction of gravity towards the mountain more than 7". The quantity of this change of direction gives the ratio of the attraction of the mountain to that of the whole earth, or to the force of giavity, equal to the ratio of 1 to 17804. But the bulk and figure of the mountain being also obtained by a trigonometrical survey, its mean density was found to be to the mean density of the earth nearly as 5 to 9. Thus it appears that the mean density of the earth is not much less than double the density of the rocks which compose the mountain SclichalMen ; and these, again, seem considerably more densu than the mean of tliose which form the exterior crust of the earth. IM PRINCIPLES OF GEOGEAPIIY. Part 1 1. 487. It may appear an objeclion to this mode of reasoning concerning thejtgure of the earth, timt it ti not evident how a centrifugal force should produce the same effect on a solid body, likin tlw earth, that it does upon a fluid mass. Hut tlie fact that the earth has made an oppruximation to the spheroid ^ {equilibrium, is an indication that iither the entire mass was originally fluid, from whatever cause ; or the repeated waste and reconsolidation of the parts near the surface has gradually produced the spheroidal flgure. In either of these modes the power of cohesion, which in the solid hotly resists the effects of the centrifugal force, may have been overcome. However irregular a body, whose surface is composed of laud ond water, may be in its primitive form ; by tlie process of constant waste, the more prominent parts are gradually worn down, and the matter which composed them is deposited In the lower parts which are occupied by the water : here it acquires a horizontal strati- fli'utlon ; ond having, by certain minerol operations, under the transforming hand of nature, been consolidated into stone, the water being removed, it may again form a part of the ■olid crust of the earth. In this manner the primitive irregular form will gradually dis- appear, and the surface in the course of ages acquire a position at right angles to the direction of gravity ; so that, by the action of the centrifugal force, there will be a constant approximation made to the spheroid of equilibrium. The irregular distribution of the heterogeneous materials which compose this terraqueous globe may, perhaps, prevent the co- incidence tVom ever being complete. •1H8. It admits of being demonstrated, that iflheearth were a perfect sphere, and composed of mutter of uniform density at equal distances from its centre, the action of the solnr and liniar attraction upon it would be the same as if the whole terraqueous riiass were condensed into a point at the centre. Hence the position of its axis would not, in that case, be in the ieait degree affected by its gravitation towards the sun and moon, but would remain parallel to itnelf while the earth performed its annual revolution. In consequence of the spheroidal figure, however, the cartli may be considered as composed of a spliere of which the radius is half the polar axis, and of a quuntity of redundant matter, which is distributed over it in such n manner as to swell out the equatorial regions. The action of the solar and lunar attraction on this redundant matter produces the precession of the equinoxes and the nutation of the iHirtli's axis. The complete explanation of these phenomena aflbrds one of the happiest illustrations of the Newtonian doctrine of attraction ; but requires at the same time the aid of some of the most abstruse theories both in pure mathematics and mechanics. Chap. XVII. THB TIDES. 489. The alternate rise and fM of the surface of the sea, or its flux and reflux, known by the name of the tides, is a phenomenon whicli has attracted the attention of mankind from the earliest periods. Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus take notice of the daily flux and reflux of the waters of the Red Sea or Arabian Gulf, the latter historian describing it as a great and rapid tide ; but neither of these writers form any conjecture respecting its cause. Observ- ntluti must soon have shown, that this periodical ebbing and flowing of the waters of the ocean had an intimate connection with the position of the sun and moon in the heavens ; and, accordingly, we find that Pliny not only describes the phenomena of tides, but expressly ultrilmtes them to the action of these luminaries. 4!K). It was not, however, until Newton applied the principle of universal gravitation to ex/Mn these phenomena that the theory of the tides was fully understood. The weight of a body on the surface of the cartli arises from the tendency which the particles composiii<; it have to the centre (or to a point near tliecentrej, in obedience to the law of gravity, llut ns every object on the earth's surface gravitates towards the sun and moon, as well as towards the earth, it follows that the solar and lunar attraction must affect the weight of terrestrial ol)jecls. Upon solid bodies, between the particles of which adhesive force is powerful, no discernible ell'ects are produced by this attraction. But the case is altogether different nitli regard to the waters of the ocean, the component particles of which yield to the slightest impulse I so that any alteration in their weight that does not equally affect the whole must lie followed immediately by a motion of the parts of the fluid mass, which will continue until, by a new arrangement of the particles, the equilibrium is restored. ♦01. To lee inhnl ,nust be the general effect, arising from the action of tlie «un, if the whole Burfacc of the globe were covered with water; let ACBObe the watery sphere, iS the sun, and £ the centre of the earth. Let the gravitation of the central particle £ to the sun be represented by the lines E S, and tli« PA»T II. }gure qftheeartht ton a solid bwly, u-th has made an 3 entire mass w«» isolidation of the I citlicr of these of the centrifugal :e is composed of it waste, the more them is deposited horizontal strati- ig hand of nature, brm a part of the vill gradually dis- ight angles to the will be a constant listribution of the ips, prevent the co- kcre, and composed in of the solar and BBS were condensed that case, be in the uld remain parallel :e of the spheroidal which the radius is uted over it in such and lunar attraction the nutation of the )ne of the happiest le same time the aid shanics. Book I, THE TIDES. Ill •rtvltatlon of any other pirtlclc M by the line MSD. " M H equal anil parallel reflux, known by the f mankind from the daily flux and reflux ling it as a great niid its cause. Observ- of the waters of tlie in the heavens ; ami, tides, but expressly niversal gravitation to The weiglit of a rticles composing it aw of gravity. Unt n, as well as towards weight of terrestrial force is powerful, no gether different with yield to the slightest ict the whole must lie I will continue until) the whole surface of llic ind E the centre ol t ic ly the lines E S, anU m .*, I/!t the rorre Rl D be reiolved Into two tntvM, to KS, and MO. The force M H ilwi not hi IhM leant dcKree aflfK't the Kravitutlon of the particle M toward* the eenlru Ij j ami M O \i, therefore, the imly ilinlurbing force. If S M be iirixlured In niuut Iht) circle AC UO In the |iouiti/i, the action of the aun on a iiarticlu lilimltjd ttl tn it leaa than Ita action on the central particle E: aothat il mri rvpru.unt llip gravitation of the particle »i towarda the aun, the iwlnt t/wlll fall nil llip oppoaite aide of S from the point I); and the force ni if belnu reaolved lii^i two forcca, mh equal and parallel to KS, and the iliaturbinu force tug, It \» evident that the tendency of the force mg la to dlminUh the gravity iif |he particle m, in like manner aa the force M dlminiahea the gravity of thti paF< tide M. When the point M coincidva wi M = S M' : S E'^ i therefore, alnce S E and S N may be conildered ei)MKl| DM= |-^'. ButSN = SM+MN, therefore SN3 = 8M3 + 38M» X M V + 3 .S M X M N^ + M N\ The quantity M N la ao small, compared with S III, I hat the two laat terma of tlila expression for S N' n .iy be neglected i WP have, ihcrcfore, S N3 = S »P + 3S M'^ x M N, and ^~ = 8 M + 8 M N i S M* whcrefort, alto, DM= SM + 3MN; and taking SM iVom each, wa And S t> = J M N. Now, since G IJ may be conaldereil equal to L » + H U, (tntl E S is by construction equal to G IJ, it ia evident that E H = 1. 8 + H I), of taking L S from each, E L = S D. Hence E L = 3 M N, and the dUlurbtll|| force for any (mint M ia determined both in direction and magnitude. 4!)2. Suppose now that A C B O {Jig. 40.) la the terraqueoua gliiho, E 8 a lino directed to the aun, and A E It a section by that circle which separolei the enlightened fVoin the dark hemiaphere. Let M beany particle on or with, in the mass. Through the point M draw a straight lino M N perpendicular to the plane .\ E B, and In E S take E L, equal to 3 M N : Join L M : then I, M represents the direction and intensity of the disturbing force which the lUll exerts on tlic iKirticle M. Let the force L M be resolved Into two forcei, nilf| M E, directed towarda the centre of the earth, and the other, M It, lending fVoiD the plane A E B towards the sun. Suppose the lame construction to be mudS for every point of the sphere, the whole being auppoaed covered with waifl'i it ia evident that the forcca re|>resentcd by M E will t>alance one another, Ann therefore iienl not be considered. But the force represented by M It will diminish the gravity of every |>artlc1c M, reckoned in the direction of a line neniendicular to the plane of that great circle of the earth which separates the illuminated from the dlirk iicinliphcrc. The force tbu> diminishing the gravity will be proportional to three timea the dlitance of th« iiarticic from the same plane; for It M ia etjuiil tn L E or 3 M N. Every p.^rticle In any column MN being tliiis acted on by a force which eviiluntly tends to destroy the cqul. librium of the fluid mass, the water ill that coluirn cannot remain at rest. Its equilibrium may be re- stored, however, by the addition of a small jiortion Mm, which, by rc^ storing the weight of the column, enables it to resist the pressure of the adjacent columns. A similar addition may be made to each co. lumn, jwrpendicular to the plane A E II : and the result will be that, from being spherical, the figure of the globe will be changed into that of art oblong elliptical spheroid, having its axis directed towarda the sun, and ita poles in those giointa of the surface wliich have the sun In tile zenith and nadir. 4il.i. Lrl Iheftnurc into which the watery sphere would he tran.«formed by the solar action be represented by the v\\\\yic a c b o (JigAl.) : tlie points o and c are the poles of the spheroid; and at these points the waters are highest above the sphere A C B O of equal capacity, while all round the circumference B E A the waters arc below their natural level. By calculation it Is found that the diHl-rence between Ec and Ea is about twenty-four and a half inches ; so that the deviation from the spherical figure Is not great 494. The figure which the watery spheroid assumes must be in a slight degree influenced by the spheroidal figure of the cartli; bat the deviation from the spherical ll« PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II. fi|;urc ii no small, that its cflV'ct in clianginf^ tlie spheroidal figure of the waters on the sur- face of the earth must be (jiiite inconttideruhle. If the eurtli were at rent, tlie watery spheroid would acquire that form whicli would produce an e(|iiilihrium among all its par- ticles. This, however, can never happen under the actual circumhtanccH of the case, becuuHU some time must elapse before an accelerating force can produce a finite change in the di.t- position of the waters ; but, by the motion of the earth on its axis, the dinturbing force is every instant applied to a dift'erent part of the surface, so tlint the position of equilibrium can never actually be attained. Such, then, is the general effect which the solar action would produce if the whole globe were fluid, or a spherical nucleus covered with a fluid of equal density. To explain the phenomena of the tides, however, it is indispensably neces- sary to take into account the action of the moon. 495. /{ is with the moon that the tides are principalli/ connected i and the sun's in- fluence is known only by its increasing or diminishing the- efl'ects of her more powerful action. This greater influence of the moon in producing the tides arises from her vicinity to the earth, when compared with the sun, her distance being only about ;^ part of his. It must be carefully kept in view, that it is not the mere action of the sun anti moon that pro> duces the tides in the ocean, but tlie inequalitiet in the action of each : and the gravitation of the waters of the ocean to the moon is much more unequal tlian their gravitation to the sun. Whatever has been proved with regard to the influence of tlic sun in producing tides in tlie ocean is equally applicable to the moon. The waters will be accumulated iiiiinc- diately under her, and on the opposite side of the globe, producing a spheroid of the same kind with that which we have shown must be produced by the uneijual action of the sun, but more elongated ; and this spheroid, directed toward the moon, will follow her in her apparent daily revolution about the earth. In consequence of this simultaneous gravi- tation towards both luminaries, the ocean must assume a figure different from both of these spheroids; which will become blended and undistinguishable. The resulting figure resem. bles each of the spheroids in being elongated, and its most elevated parts arc found to follow the more powerful of the disturbing bodies, namely, the moon, in her apparent diurnal revo- lution about the earth. We may, without sensible error, suppose that the change produced in any part of the ocean by the combined action of the sun and moon, is the sum or the dif- ference of the changes which they would have produced if acting separately. 496. We have cUready remarked that the rapid motion of the waters, in consequence of the diurnal motion, prevents them 'from ever assuming the figure which would be requisite for the equilibrium of the forces acting on them ; so that they oscillate continually, alternately approaching to that figure and receding from it. The motion thus communicated to them is one not of transference, but of undulation, one part rising and another sinking, unless when from want of depth of water the balance between the adjacent columns is destroyed. We may, therefore, regard the two elevations produced in the ocean by the inequalities in the solar and lunar actions as two vast waves which .follow the moon in her apparent diurnal motion. The line joining the tops of these two waves is not directed to the moon, as would be the case if the earth and moon were at rest, but is directed to a point about 50^ to the eastward of the moon. This arises from the inertia of the water, which causes it, when once put in motion, to continue to rise for o time after the imjiulse communicated has ceased. If we consider the tides relatively to the wiiole surface of the globe, there is a meridian, therefore, about S0° eastward of the moon where it is always high watek, both in the hemisphere where the moon is, and the ojiposite hemisphere. On the west side of this meridian the tide inflowing, and on the east side of it the tide is ebbing. On the meridian which is at rifjlit angles to the former, it is every where low watek. If we suppose, then, the sun and moon to be in the equator, and an observer to be situated on the surface of the water under tlic equator ; when the moon has risen 30° above his horizon, the state of the tide to that observer will be low water. As the moon advances towards his zenith, the tide will flow ; and when she has reached a point about 30° to the westward of his zenith, the summit of the wave will reach him, and then the state of the tide will be high water. As the moon approaches tlic western horizon, the observer will see the water gradually subside as it had formerly risen ; and when she lias descended 30° below the horizon, it is again low water. As the innoii continues her course below the horizon, the waters again gradually rise by the approach uf the other wave until its summit arrives at the observer, and again produces high water ; w lii'ii the moon has passed the opposite meridian, and reached a point 30° beyond it, the tide again begins to ebb as the wave rolls on, and the same phenomena arc repeated in the same order. Thus, in the space of time in which the moon performs her diurnal revolution, which may be called a lunar day, and consists of nearly 24" 50"', there occur two tides of flood and two of ebb. Tlie time between one high water to the next is about 12'' 25"', muI the instant of low water is nearly but not exactly the middle of this interval, the tide in general taking about nine or ten minutes more in ebbing than in flowing. 497. Sjning and neap tides> As the magnitude of the two waves which produce the rise and fall of the tide depends on the action of the sun as well as on that of tlie moon, it is evident tlint the height to which the water riseb and falls must be ail'ectcd by the relative position of the Part II. on the »iir- llio watery nil its pi'f- ise, because . in the din- ling force i» i-ijuilihr'"'"* solar action ilh a fluiil "' isably neces- iie »un's in- ure powerful ler vicinity to t of his. 1' oon that i)ro. lie gravitation (itatiou to the •oilucinp; tides lulttteil iinme- il of the siuno ju of the siui, jw her in her taneous gruvi- n both of these U figure resein. ounil to follow It diurnal revo- lange produced sum or the dif- consequence of uld be requisite lally, alternately jinicated to them sinking, unleM .ms is destroyed. c inequalities in qiparcnt diurnal I moon, as would [j to the eastward hen once put in ceased. K "C ridian, therefore, the hemisphere .leridian the title [vhich is at rifjlit le sun and moo" [water under tlio to that observer flow ; and when |of the wave will approaches the formerly risen ; As the mo'>» the approach of igh water; when yond it, the tulc lated in the same irnal revohiiion, icur two tides of |ut 12" 25"', i''!"! prval, the tide m Iduce the rise ami 1 it is evident that position of the Hook I. TIIK TIDES. 117 two iiiminarie*. At now niiMin and f\ill ninnn (he actions of the sun and moon nro eomliincd, but at theqiiadraluri'K they connleraet each other. In the former case, the two spheroid', pi mluccd by the solar and lunar aetioMs have their axes coincident or nearly so; in the latter, il iraxeii are at right angles to eucli other. I lence, nt new and fnll moon the flood tide will rise higher, and the ehbtidu will sink lower, than usual. The reverse of this will hap|ien when the moon is in either of her quadrutureN ; the Hood tide will not rise so high as usual, nor will the ebb tide sink so low. Tills is exiielly coincident with experience; and we here perceive tlie cause of what are called sphino tiukh and nkap Tittm. About the time of full moon and change the tides rise higher than when the moon presents any other phnsis. The highest tide do«s not hiippen, however, the flrst nl^er the opposition or conjunction, though the disturbing forces are then united, but sumo time after ; niid the cause of this is the same which prevents the time of high water of nnv one tide coinciding with the time of the moon being on that meridian under which the tiile happens ; namely, the inertia of the water, or that tendency which all matter has to retain Its stale whether of rest or nu>tion. At lirest, where an accurate register was kept of the phenomeuA of the tidis about the beginning of the last century, it was found tiiiit the highest tide happened about n day and a half after the new and full moon. If the time of high water coincide with the very lime of conjunction or op|iosition, the third high water after that is the highest of all. This is called the sphinu tide. From this period the tides gradually decrease, until the third high water after the moon's quadrature, which is the lowest of all, and is called the nkap Tiiir. liiit having reached their utmost depression, the tides again increase until the occurrence of tlic next spring tide ; and so on continually. The higher the tide of AimmI rises, the lower the ebb tide generally sinks on that day. The total magnitude of the tide is esliuialed by the dillerence between high and low water. At lirest the medium spring tide is about I!) feet, and the medium neap tide about 3 feet. •MH, r.ffcft ill iliffi-ifHl Af Hi/«/i/i('ir,«. Let im next suppose tlio sun and moon to be situated in one of the tropics ; the t^^o waves raised in the ocean by their actions on opposite sides of the globe will now roll along under the tropics. If an jbserver be placed on the surface of the water, and inider the same tropic in which the sun and moon arc situated, lie will still see two tides of flood and two of ebb | but they will not correspond in all their circumstances, as they did on the former supposiiioii. The depth of the high water produced by the wave situated in the same hendsphere with the moon, will evidently be greater than that of the high water produced by the wave which rolls ahmg under the other tropic in the opposite lieniisphere front the moon j for the observer will see the very summit of the one wave, and only the sloping side of the other. To an observer situated under the tropic on the opposite side of the equator from the sun and moon, the case would be reversed ; and if he were so far removed from the e(|ualor as to ho situated under the polar circle, no part of the wave accunudated in the same hemisphere with the moon would reach him ; so that he wuidd sec only one tide of AoihI and one lido of ebb daily produced by the motion of the other wave. 499. This aim is conmli-nt w'illi what we know respecting the tides from observation. All tlic phenomena are fmmd to be ntiHlifled by the latitude of the place of observation ; and some phenomena are found to occur in high latitudes, which arc not at all seen when the place of observation is under the equator. In particidar when the moon and the observer arc on the same side of the equat(U', that lido in which the moon is above the horizon is greater tliaii the other tide of the same tiny which happens when the moon is below the horizon. The contrary takes |)lace when Ihu moon and the observer are on opposite sides of the eqiuitor : in this latter case, if the polar distance of tlic observer be equal to the moon's (It'dination, he will see but one lido in the day, continuing to flow for twelve hours and to el)h for twelve hours, W'v have M|ip|iosod for simplicity the sun and moon to be in the equator, or in one of the tr(i|iics ; but it is evident that tins can seldom be the case. The two luMiinarics are capable of an inflnile variety of positions in reference to each other, as well as in reference to any particular |ioint of the earth's surface. The phenomena with regard to particular places must, therefore, be endlessly diversifled ; but by tracing the general features, till' principles liecomo apparent upon which all the phenomena depend. .)()(). T/ic iiijliieiire of the mm iiixl wkmih i'»i imiduviiig tides in the ocean will evidently be ni(;;iiieiiletl wlif)! these hoilirs nii' neiiii't' to llie earth, and diminished when their distances are increased. I<'rum this cause it arises, that when the moon is in that part of her orbit where she approaches nearest to the earth, the spring tide which happens at that time is the highest, and the next spring tide is the smallest ; because the moon is then nearly at her greatest distance from the cartli, This makoM a ditlereiice of 'J| feet from the mean height of the si)iin;r tide at Hrest ; and cnnse(|uenlly of double that quantity, or 5J feet, between the greatest spring tide and the least. The neap tide which happens between these two very unequal spring tides is regular, because the moon Is then nearly at her mean distance. The reverse of this takes place when the moon is at her monn distance at the time of the change ; the spring tide is regular, but the two neap tides tlifler considerably in height. The increased distance of till' sun is the reason why the spring tides in our sinnmer are not so great as in our winter. At the mean intensities of the tlistinhing forccN, the sun tends to raise the waters about '24i la ' 118 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part 11. inches, and the moon about 58. Hence the spring tide should be about J8+ 241 = 82 J inches, and the neap tide about 58 — 24^ = 3ii'^ inches. 501. Variations caused b;i continents,' islands, tjc. AVe have hitherto supposed the two waves which produce the phenomena of the tides to meet with no interruption in their pro- gress round the world. This is, however, far from being the case ; they are interrupted by continents and islands, and may be propelled or retarded by tlie action of the wind; their velocity and direction may also be changed by irregularities in tlie bed of the ocean : so that, to explain all the phenomena at ai'y particular place, the effect of local circumstances, which is often great, must be taken into tlie account. The great Pacific Ocean is, perhaps, tlie only part of the terraqueous globe in which all tlie forces have room to operate. Hut the wave wliich they form nust, in rolling westward, encounter the coasts of Asia and New Holland, with the interjacent islands ; and amidst these obstacles it must force its way to the Indian Ocean. Its figure will thus be changed, and the phenomena of the tides, which it jiroduces, powerfully modified. On its eastern side the Pacific is bounded by a vast stretch of coast, extending without interruption from Cape Horn to Behring's Straits. This barrier prevents all supply from the eastward for making up the watery spheroid, and must be equally ciTectual in arresting the progress of the waters accumulated to the cast- ward of tlie American continent. So far as we have information respecting the tides in tlie Pacific Ocean, they appear to be very unlike the European tides, until we readi about 40° or 50° west fron the coast of America. In the neighbourhood of that coast, scarcely any tide occurs when the moon is below the horizon. Even in the middle of the Pacific Ocean the tides are very small, but at the same time very regular. 502. As a great extent of surface is necessary in order that the sea should be sensibly affected by the inequalities in the actions of the sun and moon, the tides which are ex- perienced in narrow seas, and on shores far removed from the main body of the ocean, are not produced in those seas, but are wavrs propagated from the great diurnal undulation, and moving with much less velocity. The tides which visit our own coasts must, in a great measure, be supplied from the accumulation of water in the Indian and £thio))ic Ocean, from the c-istward, and by what is brought or kept back from the South Sea. The undulations will be diffused as proceeding from a collection coming round the Cape of Good Hope, and round Cape Horn, Consistently with this sujipositinn, it is found that high water, which occurs at the Cape of Good Hope at new and full moon about three o'clock, is later and later as we proceed northward along the coast of Africa ; later and later still as we follow it along the western coasts of Sp.iin and France, until we reach the mouth of the English Channel, The wave now divides itself into three branches; one part passing up St. George's Channel, another proceeding northward along the western coast of Ireland, and the third passing up the Englisli Channel, between the Ilritish and French coasts. The two branches that proceed along the east and west sides of Ireland unite and form one ridge or wiive, which continues its progress along the western coasts and islands of Scotland, and then diffuses itself eastward towards Norway and Denmark, and circling round the eastern coasts of Britain, comes southward through the German Ocean, until it reaches Dover, where It meets the branch which passes up the English Channel, It is to be remarked, however, that this tide which comes up the channel is not the same with that which meets it from (lie north, but is a whole tide earlier if not two, as appears from the fact of the spring tide at Rye being a tide earlier than the spring tide at the Nore ; it even seems two tides earlier, for it appears the one as often as the otlier. By tracing the hour of high water from the Lizard up St. George's Channel, and along the west coasts of Scotland, it appear., that the two tides which pass along the east and west sides of Ireland, and unite into one wave to the north of it, travel round Britain in about twenty-eight hours, in which time the primitive tide has gone round the whole circumference of the earth, and nearly 45 degrees more. By attending also to the successive hours of high water along the western coasts of Africa and Europe, it appears that the wave, wliich divides into three branches at the mouth of the English Channel, takes up nearly two days, or between four and five tiiile ilireetioii ; so that the re-action of the conflicting waves produces an elevation of the wilier till' aliove the natural level. The surge formed in this manner rolls up the river with iiii'-.|>.liltle force, overwhelming every thing which it encounters; until, exhausted by the resUlaoi'e which it has to overcome, it at length sinks into a feeble undulation. The violence ami elevation with which the bore rustics along in some rivers is almost incredible : at the iiiiiiilli III' the Severn the flood comes up in one head about ten feet in height; but in the ^I'eiit rivet's of America, and particularly in the Amazon, it becomes a rolling mountain of wilier, which is said to attain the height of ISO feet. .10(1. Ill vnii/liit-il seas of small extent, such as the Caspian, the Euxine, the Baltic, and the ({I'i'iit lakes ol North America, the tides must necessarily be almost insensible; the dis- liii'liinij; foices in such situations have not room to act to any extent: the greatest height III wliieli the waters of the Caspian can rise above their level on the shore, in consequence ol'iisphcroiilal shape being given to them by the lunar action, does not exceed seven inches; an aci'iiiiiiilalion which a slight breeze of wind is suflicient to counteract. Even in cases wlii'ie a coiilined sea is C(miiected with the ocean by a narrow channel no sensible tide can < liiippeii ; I'lir the tide in the ocean cannot difl'use itself tlirough the contracted inlet during llie period that elapses between two consecutive tides. .WU The Mi'ililt'iru:.can is a cniifiiwd sea of considefnhle extent ; and the tides there might lie viiy Keiisilile if the cllicts of the solar and lunar actions were not diminished by its distance rnnii llie eipiator. As the moon approaches the meridian of the eastern part of the Medi- Irniineim, there is » considerable elevation of the waters on the Syrian coast, and a con- hiilnalile ilepression at (iibraltar, In the middle of the length the water is at the mean lii'i|{lil i in Ihe Atlantic Ocean, an open and extensive surface of water, the regular spheroidal I'm III is nearly attained, and the water stands considerably higher on the outside of the •'tniiiH llian on the inside ; it is nearly low water within, while it is about one third or one IkiII' lliiod without. Notwithstanding this accumulation, the communication is too narrow III iilliiw the tide of the ocean to diil'use itself in a regular manner into the basin of the ]\leililen'aneiin. As the moon moves westward, toward Gibraltar, the water will begin to \vv, but slowly, within the straits, while without it is flowing very rapidly. The accu- niiiliitiiin within increases with the progress of the moon westward, until it reaches high Wilier i hut by this time the tide has been ebbing for some hours without the straits. It wilt MOW' lii< low water on the coast of Syria; and during all this time the water at tlie mif'd'u latw ecu Ihe eastern and western extremities will not have sensibly altered its depth. I 4 190 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Fart II. 508. The singular currents which prevail in the Straits of Gibraltar appear in n urcnt measure cxpliiined by these peculiarities with reganl to the tides iu the Mt'dltt lunar or solar time. If we suppose the sun and moon to be in the equator, and tho wutiiry Nphuruid to attain instantaneously the form suited to its equilibrium, then the lino joiiiinti tliu muninit^ of the two waves produced in the ocean by their combined actions will alwuyit bu diructwd to a point situated between their centres ; except in the case of the sun and moon beliijj in con- junction or opposition, when it will be directed towards their centres. The followiiim tahli', calculated on the above supposition, and for the mean distances of the sun and nuion (Voin the earth, cxhibiu the minutes of solar time that the moment of high water precedcit or fol- lows the moon's southing, corresponding to every tenth degree of tho moon's elongation (ennt- ward) from the sun or from the point opposite to the sun. It shows hUu tho lionr ntid minute of the day, nearly, when it is high water j and the height of the tide, NuppoHlng tliu height of a spring tide to be 1000 : — § .» s s Time of High Water. HeiKht TiJc. Time of High Wutor, l' Before Moon's southing. Anernoon or Midniglit. Aftcnioon or Midniglit. Aftw M in 38 6 049 9(>23 15350 2G-998 3. Satellites of Saturk. t Mean distance ;S Sidereal in semidiame. Qi Revolution. ters of Saturn's !x Equator. D. II. II. 1 22 38 sa'ii 9 1 8 53 r.m 3 1 21 18 fi"284 4 2 17 45 6'819 5 4 12 25 9-.524 6 15 22 41 22 081 7 79 7 .55 ftf359 4. Satellites of Uranus. s Mean distance Sidereal in semidiame- OJ Revolution. ters of Uriu Si iius's Equator. D. n. M. 1 5 21 25 13'12f» 2 8 16 68 17-0'.'2 3 10 23 4 19845 4 13 10 56 22752 5 38 1 48 45.'i07 6 107 16 40 91008 19S PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Pari II. Q < H < c 1 II 04 p »i 10 ■,» - 91 ' $ " S i3 ''S S O08I 71 9 s 2 10 p SP: 9» ?> 9< Ji co^^d*o^o^6^w)GlOl & 52 !* ^ "^ |0 O wS I'- w- < I - ol ^ ^ t CM «fp 01 t^ I i CI w t2 r-? in 55 to 2 K l«3os3l|i ■=d «« I £9 n (OrHrlOOOO 1^ g S U5 IJO S CO o ,a "5 -< e o \ S o U CI a X d ■" s ° 8 a gi I a '- jaas;a*s§lTK ^ o 1-4 « fi t; ® to • ^ o o o "5 w . • ;i, ,-t ©I ^ipliii o o »-^ o II, 3 -a 3 i a 8 ll POOK 1. FIGURE AND MAGNITUDE OF THE EARTH. 123 Chap. XIX. i2s4S!S5g rlQUnC AKU MAONITt-UE or THK EARTH. 51S. ll^t have a>{fflcienllif eflnblkhtnl the important proposition that the earth is a round bodi/s ao'l ''"ve int'erri'd tVoin tliu llgiiru of its nlmilow, as seen on the moon's disc in lunar eclipses, that it must bo a Rplierv, orut IvAHt that it approaches to that figure. Tlie hypothesis of its being exactly spherical is Nufllcicnt to explain, in a satisfactory manner, the general appearance of the heavens, ns oveit tVom diflercnt points of its surface ; and before the true doctrine of motion and the law of gravitation, which connects the most remote bodies in the universe, were discovered, n sphere was considered to be an exact representation of its shape, and the ingenuity of mathemuticinns was exerted to discover its magnitude. .516. The deter mi naliim of the ntagintudc of the earth might appear, to one altogether ig- norant of mathematical science, as a problem of insuperable difficulty, and, indeed, as too sublime to be resolved by a luunnn being. If, however, we suppose the earth an exact sphere, the theory of the solution is by no means difficult ; it is within the bounds of ele- mi'iitary geometry, and has been known from the earliest ages : but the case is very dif> furcnt with the practice. In thu actual resolution, instruments of the greatest nicety are re(|uircd ; and to produce these, the ingenuity of man has been tasked to the utmost during the last two hundred years ; besides, the application of them demands, in addition to the principles of geometry, some of tiie most rcHned theories in physics : so that, on the whole, t'cw problems present a muro ample Held for the exertion of the mind of man, or have more extensively called fortli the assistancu of arts and sciences. li 1 7. /< IS mm about two thousand years since Eratosthenes attempted to resolve this important problem. He knew tliat on the day of the summer solstice the sun illu- minated the bottom of a well at Syen^. At the same instant he observed at Alexandria that the sun was 7° 12' A'om the zeiiilh : and it was supposed that Syen^ was due south fi'oni that place, and therefore that both were under the same meridian. Let C {Jig. 42.) be the earth's centre, A Alexandria, Z its zenith m the heavens, B Syen^, and 8 thu sun at the instant when it illuminated the bottom of the well, and consequently was in the zenith of that place. The angular measure of the celestial arc Z S, or the cor- responcling terrestrial arc A B, is the angle Z C S at the earth's centre. Eratosthenes observed the angle Z A S, which, by the elements of geometry, is less than the former by the angle ASC. However, this difference is so small, that it may be altogether neglected in the present case ; and thus the angle A C B will be nearly 7' 1 2', that is, one fiftieth part of 360° ; and consequently the arc A li of the terrestrial meridian one fiftieth of the earth's circumference. The distance between Alexandria and Syen6 had been determined to he .5000 stadia. Hence it innnediately followed that the earth's circumference was SjOjOOO stadia. As it could not bo suppost-d that this result was very accurate, Eratos- thi'iii's reckoned the circumference to be '.*.')'.*,000 stadia, which give in round numbers 700 stadia to the length of a degree. 518. The geometrical principle litre employed was quite correct, and indeed was the same which is used at this time ; but the data were very inaccurate and uncertain, for Syen^-, in- sitcad of being exactly south iVtini Alexandria, lies considerably to tlie east ; and it may well be supposed that the assigned distance between Alexandria and Syen£ was not an accurate measurement, but merely a rude approximation. It is impossible, however, now to deter- mine how near Eratosthenes came to the truth, for want of a knowledge of the exact length of the stadium by which the distance was reckoned. .519. The principles h\f which Eratosthenes was directed in his measurement of the earth n\)\m\r to have been afterwanls employed by Posidonius. This astronomer hacf remarked, that nt Uliodcs the star CanopuH was just visible in the horizon, but never rose above it ; wliile at Alexandria it attained an altitude of 7J°, or ^Jjth part of the circumference of a groat circle. The direct distance between these two places, which were supposed to be on thu same meridian, was accounted to be HOOO stadia ; and therefore, according to this observation, the circumference should have been 240,000 : but here the uncertainty of a distance reckoned by a sea-voyage, not to speak of otlier causes of error, renders the con- clusion of no value. 5-'0. About the year BOO of the Christian era, the caliph Almaman directed that his astro. iionicrs should measure a 'degree of the meridian in the jilnins of Mesopotamio. I'he method which they employed was susceptible of greater accuracy than that of the Greeks. 124 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II. Tliey divided themselves into two parties; after observing the nhitude of the pole, one went directly north and tlie other south, measuring as they proceeded, and taking from time to time the altitude of the pole, until each party had changed its latitude by a degree. Tims the measure of two degrees was obtained ; but, at tlie present time, our ignorance of tlie exact length of the unit of measure renders all their labour useless to us, even if (what is very unliliely) its accuracy might have been relied on. It appears, however, that their estimation of the earth's magnitude was less accurate than that of the astronomer of Alexandria. 521. The method of Eratosthenes was practised tn modern times, first by Fernel, a Flemish physician. He travelled from Paris towards Amiens, which places are nearly under the same meridian, until he had passed over a degree of latitude; and, by a contrivance attached to the wheel of his carriage, he ascertained the number of revolutions it made in that distance. In this way he found the lengtli of the degree to be 57,070 Frencli toises. 522. The same degree tvas ajierwards measured by La Caille, and found to be 57,074 toises. The near agreement of Fernel's result with this last, obtained by a more accurate and scientific process, is very remarkable. 52;). 3'A« Dutch astronomer Snellius was the first who attempted to resolve this most interesting and difficult problem in practical geometry with those scientific aids which its importance required. In the year 1617 he published his Eratosthenes Batavm, in which lie has detailed the whole process. The extreme points of his meridional arc are termi. nated in the parallels of Alcmaer, in lat. 52° 40J', and Bergen-op-Zoom, lat. 51'^ 29', the arc between them being 1° 11^. He formed a series of triangles between these places along the earth's surface, and determined (as well as the imperfect instruments of the time enabled him to detennine) their angles ; and by several base lines, actually measured, he found their sides. He reduced the positions of his stations to the meridian ; and he concluded that a degree of the meridian was 28,500 perches, which were equivalent to 55,100 toises of that period; which, however, were rather longer than the toise as it is now estimated. The error of Snellius appears to have been about 2000 toises on the length of a degree, of which 1900 may have arisen from the error in measuring the celcv tial arc, and the rest from the imperfection of his geodetical measurements. Snellius measured his original base over again, and corrected his conclusion : he died, however, before he could publish the result. Cassini made certain corrections in his calculations, by which the length of the degree came out 56,675 toises ; and Sluschenbroek, by an exa- mination of Snellius's papers, found that the degree ought to have been reckoned 57,033 toises. 524. Our countryman Richard Norwood made a remarkable approximation to the true length of a degree in 1635, by apparently inadequate means. He measured the distance between London and York, observing the bearings as he proceeded, and reducing ail to the direction of the meridian and the horizontal plane. He determined the diiTerencc of latitude to l>e 2° 28'; and from the whole distance he determined the degree to be 367,176 feet English, or 57,800 toises. 525. As far as pure mathematical theory ivas concerned, the method of Snellius was excel. lent ; the chief imperfection was in his instruments : but an immense improvement was made by Picard, in the application of the telescope and the micrometer to the measurement of angles ; and, with the assistance of instruments constructed on the new principle, tills astronomer, by the direction of the French Academy, began the measurement of an arc of the meridian, taking for its extremities the parallels of Sourdon near Amiens, and Malvoi. sine. His general manner of conducting the process was the same as that of Snellius. He con- nected the extreme parallels by a series of triangles, the sides of which were determined from a base of 5663 toises, measured twice with great care at one extremity of the series. There was a base of verification of 3902 toises measured at the other extremity. The horizonlul angles were measured by a quadrant of thirty-eight inches' radius ; and the celestial arc, which was about 1" 12', by a sector ten feet in radius. He concluded the length of a de- gree to be 57,060 toises. 526. This was thi^ first measurement in which confidence could be placed. It is true there were several elements wanting in the detennination of the celestial arc, owing to the imper- fect state of astronomical science at that time ; but, by a fortunate compensation, the eriors thence arising corrected each other. This measurement of Picard was of service to Newton, in verifying his happy tliought of the law of universal gravitation. 527. IVie measurement begun by Picard was continued northward to Dunkirk by La Hirei and in the opposite direction, as far as Perpignan, by the second Cassini, who publislied the whole in 1718, in a work on the m,ignltude and figure of the earth. 528. The labours FIGURE AND MAGNITUDE OF THE EARTH. 127 repeating circles, long rules of platina for the measurement of the bases, and a shorter lulc ; jlso, balls of platina and gold for the pendulum observations. 542. About the middle of the year 1792, Cassini and Borda began a scries of experiments on tlie pendulum ; and, in the following year, Lavoisier was engaged in experiments on the expansion of metals. And about the same time Mechain began his operations for the determination of tlie portion of the meridian between Uodez and Barcelona, an extent of 170,000 toiscs, Delambrc had undertaken the portion of the arc between Dunkirk and Rodcz, 38,000 toises in extent. This, however, had been twice measured before ; and for this reason the labour was expected to be less than was required for the other portion, which ivas entirely new. Besides the privations and hardships, the ordinary accompaniments of a service which requires those who perform it to live in elevated situations, with little shelter, witli few of the comforts to which they have been accustomed, and exposed to the vicis- siiuilos of heat and cold, and the influence of the nocturnal dews, they had to encounter the perils arising from a disorganised state of society. Mechain was stopped in the neighbour- hood of Paris ; but when he pursued his labours at a distance from the capital, he met with no farther interruption ; while Delambre, in tlie north of France, was often exposed to the most imminent danger. In the heat of the French revolution, the people were jealous of what they did not understand ; and the astronomers were at once exposed to the machi- nations of their enemies at Paris, and to tlie brutality of the ignorant peasants in the provinces. 5-):!. Til the course of their operations they vieasured two bates, on the accurate deter- mination of which the utility of all their labours was to depend. One base, of C075'9 toises, was measured by Delambre at Melun; and the other, of 6006-2478 toises, at Per- pignan. The distance between them was 360,330 toises, about 436 English miles. They were connected by a chain of triangles, the sides and angles of which were all known ; so that the length of one base being known, that of the other might be found by computation. It \i a remarkable fact, that when the base of Perpignan was inferred by calculation from that of Melun, the result was found to be only about ten or eleven inches less than that obtained by actual measurement. This striking agreement aflbrds a strong presumptive proof of the accuracy with which the operations had been conducted. 5H. The determination of the latitudes of the tivo extremities of tlie arc was also a matter of tlie utmost importance. The pains which the astronomers took to arrive at true results arc almost incredible. Delambre made 800 observations to ascertain the true latitude of the Dunkirk extremity; and a corresponding degree of attention was bestowed on difierent intermediate points. 545. This most important undertaking was at last, after seven years' labour, brought to 3 conclusion in the year 1799. Although the result was, in its first application, to be ilirectcd to the establishment of a standard unit of lineal measure for the French nation, yet the advantages which may be deduced from it extended much farther, and were avail- able to every nation enlightened by science. For this reason, the states living in peace v'ith France had been invited to send eminent mathematicians and astronomers to assist in a rigorous examination of every step of the operation. Tlie astronomical and geodetical observations, in particular, were subjected to the examination of Tralles, the deputy of the Helvetian republic ; Van Swinden, the Batavian deputy ; and the two French philosophers Laplarj and Legendre. They entered into all the details of the measurement of the bases-, and tlicy examined the three angles of every triangle, and determined their values. The calculations were then separately performed by four difierent persons — Tralles, Van Snini'en, Legendre, and Delambre ; and this last astronomer calculated the length of the meridian by four different and independent methods ; and a report was made to the National Institute at Paris, in June 1799, in the name of the Class of Physical and Mathe- matical Sciences, on the Measure of the Meridian of France, and its Results. 541). The general fact, that the degrees of the meridian increase as we recede from the quator towards the pole, was again fully confirmed ; so that the oblateness of the earth in the direction of the polar axis is a truth now placed beyond all controversy. Notwith- standing, however, the almost incredible care with which the operations were conducted, the exact quantity of this compression was still left in some uncertainty. The limits between which the true measure of the oblateness is contained are, however, narrower ; and it is likely that the problem, What is the exact proportion of the polar to the equatorial asis? does not, from its nature, admit of a nearer approximation to the truth than has been already obtained. 547. If we could supiwse the measurements of lines and angles to be perfectly correct, it would follow, that although on the whole, taking considerable intervals, the length of arcs of the meridian corresponding to equal celestial arcs go on increasing from south to north, yet the law of the increase is irregular, and not that which ought to result from an exact elliptic meridian. The result of the measurement will be seen in tiie following table : — IflR PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II. Latitude!. Intervali. Interval! In 'I'oiac!. LcnRth of a Ucgrcc. Mean Latitude. Arc of one Second. Dunkirk 51 8 O'SO O / It 8 11 19-83 1S>49M8 ToUc!. 57082-63 O / tf 49 56 29-30 Tolsci, 15-856283 I'mitlicun 48 50 49-37 2 40 6-83 152293-1 67069-31 47 30 4591 15-852586 Evirnx 40 10 42'54 8 57 48-24 1G8846-7 56977'80 44 41 48-37 15-827167 CnrcAiioniio 43 12 54-30 1 51 9-34 105499-0 56!>I6-G8 48 17 19-60 15-818508 Muiitjoujr 41 21 4496 Fruin tills table we sec that the length of a degree in the four mean latitudes goes on invrenHing. AIho, from the column of mean latitudes, and that of the length of a degree, it ati|ieiirs that a diminution of 2° 25' 43"-39 in the first mean latitude corresponcis to a lllniinulioi) of I.'S'IS toiscs in the terrestrial meridian: this gives 5-5 toises to a degree. Again, that a farther diminution of 2° 48' 57"'54 produces a diminution of OI-.'jl toises, which is ut the rate of 32-4 toises to a degree. Lastly, that a third diminution of 2° 24' 28"-77 ulvts a diminution of 31*17 toises, which is at the rate of about 12*9 toises to a degree. These changes of H-H, 32-4, and 31 "I? toises in the length of a degree in going southward t'viilently du tint follow a regular law, such as should result from a continuous increase of rurvnttire. We may, therefore, reasonably suppose that all the observations have not been l'(|ually perfect, or that, in addition to unavoidable errors in the estimation of lines and nilgles, Huinu disturbing cause must have operated : probably, an inequality of density, in tlio deii!iity uf the strata over which the measurement was perfonned, may have had great in> Hueiice in producing the irregularity. .'548. The small discrepancies in the results of the observations must produce corresponding lllicvrtainty in the detenninution of the great objects to be attained. On the whole, how- I'ver, it was concluded that the length of the terrestrial meridian between the pole and the V(|ualur was iJ, I. '30,740 toises; and hence the metre, or ten millionth part of the meridian, was '513074 of a toisc, which is 443-29.')986 lines. .'5'I9. Another most important resuft, tteducihle from these observations, wn«, the ratio of the ;ii)/(ir aris of the earth to the equatorial axis. This must partake of the uncertainty of the tialu by which it is to be determined. We may, however, .-issume, without sensible error, that llie ciiuutorial oxis is to the polar as 334 to 333. Tlie diflerence, therefore, of the Rcnii-axes, compared with the equatorial radius, will be one part in 334. The fraction jJjt — that is, the ditt'erence of the semi-axes divided by the equatorial radius, — is called the com- Jiivsmn of the earth at the poles. 5!>0, The astronomer Mcchain had contemplated the extension of the measurement of the meridian beyond the limit at first proposed ; but he did not live to carry his views into cxecdlion. However, the undertaking was resumed, after a cessation of three years, by liliit and Arago, French itstronomers, with whom were associated MM. Chaix and Ho- drigue>!| Spaniards, all eminently distinguished for their talent and devotedness to the ubji'ct to be accomplished. By their exertions, a train of triangles was carried southward (Voni the point where Mechain and Delanibre had stopped, to Formentera, a small island near Ivica, in the Mediterranean. This is the southern limit of a most interesting labour: but, if ever European civilisation extends into Africa, the measurement may be extended to Ciipu de Gata, and thence across the Mediterranean to the coast of Africa, and continued to the city of Algiers, which is nearly in the meridian of Paris ; so that in time the southern extremity may l)e actually carried to the summit of Mount Ath-is. ,').'! 1 . The other measurement of a considerable portion of the earth, to which we have alluded, was liegun under the auspices and ot the expense of the British government as long ago as the year 1784. At that time a memoir, drawn up by Cassini de Thury, was presented to our mmister (Mr. Fox) by the French ambassador. It stated the advantages which would ni'criie to geography and astronomy by determining the difference of longitude between the (iliHerviitories of Greenwich and Paris, by means of a series of triangles from the fonner to Dunkirk, to which place the meridian of I'uris had previously been extended. The proi)osal WHS ronununicated to the Royal Society ; ond, liaving been approved of, the execution was committed to general Roy. Tlie first step w-as to measure a base, from the length of which the sides of all the triangles might be inferred; and a line rather more than five miles ill K'tigth was traced out on Iluunslow Heath, and measured with the most scrupulous cnre. It may at first sight appear a very simple matter to measure a straight line on the Brnuiul ; but if the utmost exactness is required, the operation must be performed with insitriiments constructed with the greatest ingenuity, and the application of much physical Fam II. Book I* FIGURE AND MAGNITUDE OF THE EARTH. 1U» Arcornnc Second. Toiscg. 30 15'856283 91 15-852586 37 15827lb7 60 15'818508 latitudes goes on ;tli of a degree, it corresponds to a ises to a degree. 1 of 91 ■.'51 toises inof2°24'28"-77 toises to a degree. going southward inuous increase of ons have not been ition of lines and y of density, in the lave had great in- ure corresponding In the whole, how- ■n the pole and the rt of the meridian, ?s the ratio of the uncertainty of the out sensible error, ', therefore, of the The fraction jjp- - is called the com- neasiirement af the ,rry his views into of three years, hy I. Chaix and llo- levotedness to the carried southward era, a small island nteresting labour; tiay be extended to ica, and continued time the southern ■h wehavealludid, lent as long ago as , was presented to tages which would ;itude between the Tom the fonncr to ided. The proposal the execution was rem the length of jore than five miles e most scrupuUjiis traight line on the be performed with of much physical knowledge. Oent.r«lly all solid bodies expand by heat, and contract by cold ; and, more* over, some change their dimensions by moisture and dryness. To counteract or to etthnHtu precisely these changes, so as to allow for them in the Anal result, is a matter of great dif« iiculty, and only to be accomplished by infinite care and perseverance. 552. The measurement of the hose was first undertaken with deal rods, twenty feet In length. These, however, were found to be much affected by the changes in the atmosphere from moisture to dryness : they were therefore laid aside ; and instead of them glass rudsi of the same length in frames, were employed. Tliis substance was chosen, from a belief that it was less affected by changes of temperature than the metals. The measurement, whleb had been begun about the middle of June, was completed in the end of October ; and it wAfi found that the base measured exactly 27404-08 feet, or 5']9 miles. 553. The work in the field was not carried fitrlhcr at titat time t it was, however, re» sumcd in 1787. A theodolite of greater dimensions than had ever been employed In guodetical operations was constructed by the celebrated artist Ilamsden. The series of observations was begun at the base in the beginning of August, by General Roy, assisted hy Isaac Dalby, an excellent mathematician, and most veracious astronomical observer. After continuing to a certain length, it was judged to be expedient to break off', and proceed with the instruments to Dover. A series of observations was there made, in conjimction with tlie French academicians Cassini, Mechain, and Legcndre, by which the triangulatinn between Paris and Dunkirk might be connected with that. between Dover and Greenwich, As a check on the operations, a base of verification was also measured on Romney Marsh \ and in this, instead of the glass rods, a steel chain, constructed fur the purpose by Itamsdeni was employed ; it having been found by experience that there was no sensible ditl'eruneu in point of accuracy between this and the glass rods, while the chain manifestly was moru convenient. Afterwards, when the two bases were connected by calculating the sides of llm trinngks, it was found that the measured base differed from its computed value by only twenty-eight inches, although Romney Marsh is more than sixty miles from Hounslow Heath. The junction of the observatories of Greenwich and Paris, by a scries of triangles, was completed in 1788, and an account of the operations communicated to I'le Kuyal Society; but the death of General Roy again suspended the survey until the year 1701. 554. Jl this lime, hi/ the exertions of the Duke of llichmond. Master-general of the Ordnance, the survey was resunied with great vigour. A new theodolite, and various other instrumental in addition to those formerly employed, were liberally supplied, and placed under the direction of Captain (afterwards Colonel) Mudge of the Royal Artillery, and Mr. Dalby, Doginning their labours by a re-measurement of the base on Hounslow Heath with steel chains, they found the difference between this and the former, in which glass rods were employed, to be no more than two inches aiid three quarters. They also measured another base of verification, 36574-4 feet in length, on Salisbury Plain. When this was connected by a chain of triunglu* with the base on Hounslow Heath, and its length computed, the xo, suit did not differ more than an inch from the actual measurement | a convincing proof of the accuracy with which all the operations lia4 been conducted. 555. Although an accurate survey of tlie island was the man) object for which all this labour was undertaken, yet, as its com* pk'tc accomplishment requires a knowledge of the figure and dimon< sions of the earth, no opportunity of solving this grand problem is to be neglected. The two stations of Reachy Head in Sussex, and Dunnose in the Isle of Wight, are visible from each other, and more than sixty-four miles asunder, nearly in a direction from east to west : theif exact distance was found by the gcodetical opera* tions to be 339397 feet. The azimuth, or bearing of the line be* tween them with respect to the meridian, also the latitude of Beachy Head, were determined by astronomical observations. From these data the length of a degree perpendicular to the meridian was cum* puted ; and this, compared with the length of a meridional degree in the same latitude, gave the proportion of the polar to the equatorial axis, 556. The result thus (Plained, however, differed considerably from that obtained by meridional degrees. It has been found impossible to explain the want of agreement in a satisfactory way ; and, for this reason, it has been thought better to rest the solution of the problem entirely on the measurement of degrees of the meridian in different latitudes, which, on the whole, give results more con* sistent with one another. 557. Without noticing in detail all the steps by winch the sun>eif hai advanced, we shall next advert to the measurement of an arc of the meridian between Dunnose, in the Isle of Wight, and Clifton, near Doncastert tho K 110 rniNCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHV. Vam It former in lat. 50° 37' 5", and the latter in 5il° 27 ' no^. To nccompIUh tliU, thu inge. nuity of tho artist Ilamsdcn was again vxcrcixvd in the constriictiun of an instrument, a (enitli scc'or, for finding the latitude of the different points of tliu arc : this wat almost the last work of a man to whose genius astronomy and geography are highly indebted ; •nd it was superior to any thing of the kind ever before constructed. 558. To give the reader a distinct notion of tliia most important operation, we here pre. ■cnt u sketch (fig. 44.) of the series of triangles, twenty-two in number, which con. nect thu extreme points, together with the angles contained by the straight lines which join the different stations, and the length of their sides. 'I'lit' numbers marked on the din. gram indicate the names of the staliuni, by referring to the following table. The northern extremity of the base. Beacon Hill, or Clifton, is marked No. :). ; and the southern extremity, Dunnosei is 23. Tho names of the intermediate points may be seen in the table. No. of Triaiiglvt, Namciorstatloni. Angles corrected fur CalcuUtiuii. Distance; Feet 1. Butscr Hill . • (22) Dean Hill . ■ (21) Dunnoio - - (23) o / // 76 12 215 48 4 3175 55 43 fi-75 From Duiinos!! to Butscr Hill to Dean Hill 1405804 I8349C-S 8. Dean Hill • • (21) BuUerHill - . (22) Highclerc - . (19) 62 22 47 ♦S 28 40 69 8 33 Deun Hill from Butscr Hill Highclerc 1561221 12508* -a a Butscr Hill . . (22) Hind Head . . (2U) Highclerc . - (19) 81 31 41'5 66 15 54-25 29 12 2125 Butscr Hill from Hind Head Highclerc 780057 148031-0 4. Highclerc . . (19) Hind Head . - (20) Bagshot Heath - (18) 3* Hi 15 ' 83 20 14 61 53 31 Highclcre from Bagshot Heath Hind Head 142S52-6 160972-2 5. Bagshot Heath . (18) Highclerc - - (19) Nuffield . . (10) 55 32 25i5 4fi 1.0 1-75 78 17 17 Nuffield from Bagshot Ikath Highclerc 105321-2 120374- 6. . White Horse Hill - (17) Highclcro . . (19) Nuffield . - (16) 63 7 535 6J 18 17 53 33 49-5 White Horse Hill from Nuffield Higliclcre 12a'>577 108563-1 7. White Horse Hill - (17) Nuffield . - (16) Brill . . - (15) 38 48 125 86 4 15 55 7 32-5 Brill from White Horse Hill . . Nuffield 146603^ 92805-5 & Brill . . - (15) White Horse Hill . (17) Stow on the Weld . (14) 50 14 45 64 45 42-5 at 59 Vi-5 Stow ftrom White Horse Hill Hrill 124365-6 146JS6-3 a BriU . - (15) Stow on the Weld - (14) Epwell - - (13) 32 m 42-25 60 56 5-5 86 2D 12-25 Epwell from Stow Brill . 78938-2 128U0 10. Brill . ■ • (15) Epwell . • (13) ArburyHill . (12) 34 23 57-5 85 17-5 60 35 45 Arbury Hill from Epwell Brill 83098-4 146530 n. Arbury Hill . . (12) Epwell . • (13) Corley . - (11) 89 57 5-5 54 45 18-25 35 17 36-25 Corley from Arbury Hill Epwell 117463 142827 8 559. The distance of Tiulser Hill {22.) from Dunnose, 140580 -4 feet, had been previously found, by a series of tri.-\iigles connecting these places with thu bases measured on Hounslon Heath and Salisbury Plain ; but, for greater security against error, a new base of 26342-7 feet was measured on RLsterton Carr, in the northern part of Lincolnshire. From this the sides of the triangles proceeding from tbc north to tlie south were computed] as^eshibitcd in the remainder of the table. Book I. FroUIlE AND MAGNITUDE OF THE EARTH. in 1 WOISG* 183490-2 • 1.0fil221 12J(»*-0 No. or TrUnglM. N iinei uf Nt«IUiiii. Auglr« I'orriM'titl rur I iili'ulutluii. Dlttanco. Fe«i IZ Beacon mil . (.1) North villi »r Kmo (I) Houth villi or lUio ■ (2) V f ff 20 47 20 (10 17 1.1 W M 27 Beacon 1 1 HI (Vom North end or Bate . Houth end or Baie . 644017 733219 IX ItMCon mil . . (;l) North ciiil or lluio • (1) (Irliiyli'y • . (4) 31 44 42 74 40 M 70 2H 22 Urlnglcy riroin North end or Bate Beacon Hill 4i''>382 7.1068'0 14. lU-iii'iin 11 III . • (3) (iriiidli'y . • l4) Soiilli t'liil ori'iito • (2) 1) .17 2) r.l II r> 114 Al .12 Orlngley (Vom Beacon Hill 7iOfi8-2 15. llcathcr«i«l(|o . (ft) lli'iicon mil . . (3) Uriiigli'y . . (0 18 40 38 1.18 U 10 23 111 (1 McatlicricdKC rroin Beacon Hill (iringlcy 92227'2 1.103848 10. Mutton Anhtli'lU . (II) l|pAllivrH' (A) (JriiiKioy . . (4) 78 47 1 A4 m ;a 40 20 24 Sutton Aihiivia Iron) (Irliiglcy - . - Hcathcnedge l.'M.'»J-7 1153390 17. Orjiit . . (7) lieitthcriii'dKii . (/)) .Sutton Anlitlvlil . ^Ii 80 2H .17 31) 8 38 no 22 2.1 Or|>it rrom Hcathericdge Sutton AshHcId . lOlfiCO'3 73820 18. Hollan mil . . (N) Sutton Athflvia . (II) OrpU . . . (7) 44 43 31 113 40 7 21 27 22 Hollan Hill trom Sutton Ashflcid Orpit 3&37S-2 D-5975-3 19. llnrilon Hill . . (In) Hullri mil . . ^N) Or|ilt • . . (7) 42 m M 74 A2 :n (ii li 24 Bariloii Hill rrom Hollan Hill Or|iit 124454-7 lJ589iV3 20. Cattlu llliig . . (II) Bardon lllll . . (Ill) Oriilt . . . (7) A.1 32 43 ftS 24 3 All 3 14 C'aitlc Ring rrom OrpIt Bardon Hill 1532.11-2 130717-8 21. Corley . . (||) dutio King . . (II) Uarilim lllll . . (Id) 72 32 40 47 A4 42 All 32 32 Corley ftrora Bardon Hill . Caatle Ring 100,117-3 123539-7 22. Arbury Hill . . (12) Corlcy . . (II) Banlun IIIU . . (Id) 34 14 .33 107 20 14 38 2} 13 Arbury Hill rrom Bardon Hill Corlcy . • . 180420-0 117457-1 .WO. From this last Irliittfth (lii< iHhIiihci! hvlwccn Corlcy and Arbury Hill comes out UlA^T'l feet, TlilB ri'Hiill liitH lirrii roiiicl fmtn the base on Mistcrton Carr; but tlie same distnnco, cti'diivvd tVuiii Iho biisi's (>ii Ilniiiislow Heath and Salisbury Plain, vitlicr of which is more tliun 150 iniliin distiiDl iVom Mintcrton Corr, was found (stc triangle II.) to le 117,463 foot, only nIx fcut dilVi'i't'iit. Huru we have a remorkable proof of the extreme accuracy with which the 0|li'riill(iliH hitvu been eondiicted ; so that, from whatever cause any uncertainty in the cuncliiNluii Nought inny proccfcd, it can hardly be found cither in the vant of I crfectioit in tliu ii)NtriiineiitN, or of care in those who used them. 561. lly observalimt on thif fiiitt' iilar, tliu exact bearing of Butser Hill from Dunnosc (that is, the azimuth or iinglv wiiich the line joining them makes with the meridian,) was found : and by like ob:iervutUii\N |Ik> lieiiring of the station at Gringley from Clifton was deter* mined. By these dntn, and by ihu known lengthx of the sides of the triangles, the portions of tlie meridian intercepted by purpendlciiliirKon It from the stations was obtained, llicir sum gave 1,036,537 feet for tlio iiu'ridioiml distance on the surface of the earth, between Dun- nose and Clifton, Moreover, by the Kciiith sector, the arc of the celestial meridian be- tween them was found to bu !i" 50' 'J:J"'!)S, or 'J'8398 degrees of diflbrence of latitude. The length of the menHiired arc iif the meridian, vii. 1 ,036,337 feet, divided by this number, gives 364,933 feet, or (iOH'J fiillioinH for the length of a degree in the parallel midway between Uunnoso and ClitUni, which is SS° W SO". 562. In the tame way llmt the A'ti^tA n/* a ilvuree, nt the middle point between Clifton and Dunnose, was dotcrniinvd, tliu leimtli uf degrees at other intermediate points was found. 133 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Paot II. The latitude of the station at Arbury Hill was carefully observed with the sector. The latitude of Greenwich was well known ; and that of Blenheim, an observatory belonging to the Duke of Marlborough, !iad been determined from five years' observations. The two observatories were assumed as stations, in additioft to those in the meridional chain of triangles, and their position in respect of the others was found. 563. By companng the celestial nith the terrestrial arcs, the length of degrees in various parallels was determined, as in the following table : — Latitude of Middle Point Fathoms. Arbury Hill and Clifton _ - . Blenheim and Clifton - - - - Greenwich and Clifton . - - - Dunnosc and Clifton . - - - Arbury Hill and Greenwich - . - Durmose and Arbury Hill ... Blenheim and Dunnose - - - - Dunnose and Greenwich _ - . 52° 50' 29"-8 52 38 56-1 52 28 5-7 52 2 19-8 51 51 4-1 51 35 18-2 51 13 18-2 51 2 54-2 60,766 60,769 60,794 60,820 60,849 60,864 60,890 60,884 This table presents a singular deviation from the common rule ; for, instead of the degrees increasing as we proceed from north to south, they appear to decrease, as if the earth were an oblong instead of an oblate spheroid. The oblateness of the earth at the poles is, how> ever, a fact so well established by more extensive measurements, that we must suppose either that some error has been committed in the observations, — a thing, however, not probable ; or else, what is more probable, that by inequality in the density of the strata, producing a local attraction, the plumb-line of the sector has suSered a deflection at some of the stations. 564. Nottcilhstanding the discrepancy of the results of the measurements in this particular arc, tlie length of a degree at the middle station (viz. lat. 52° 2' 20") agrees very well with the measurements of the meridian in France and other places. Indeed, the measurements uf the small arcs of the meridian in other countries have presented similar anomalies, althotigli in general not so remarkable. It is, therefore, only by comparison of the measures of extensive arcs at considerable intervals that we can arrive at certain conclusions. The British survey has now been exte.nded from the southern parts of the island to Unst, the northernmost of the Shetland Islands. For some years the officers who carried it on have bi ''n employed in the survey of Ireland ; but we may expect that at no remote period they will resume the British survey, and supply the observations still wanting. When this is done, and the complete triangulation is published, it will then appear how far local attrac- tion may have disturbed the plummet in passing over the variety of rocks throughout the island. 565. Although the compression of the earth he small, yet an exact knowledge of its quantity is of great importance, because of the deductions which are to be made from it. It has houii explained, that the direction of a plumb-line is always perpendicular to the earth's surface ; therefore, and because of the continual change of cur\'ature uf the meridian in going from north to south, the direction of gravity can only pass through the earth's centre at tht poles and equator. Thus it appears that there is a necessary connection between the form of the earth and terrestrial gravity ; so that the small variations in the latter, which un: owing to the deviations from the exact spherical figure, being known, that deviation itself may be determined. 566. If the earth were spherical and homogeneous, the attraction of its mass upon dilTcriMU points of its surface, or the force which solicits every particle of matter at its sii.r.ire towards the centre, would be every where the same. But the elliptic form produces a siimll deviation from this equality, which increases in going from the equator towards the pules, as the square of the sine of the latitude ; and this would be true even if the earth were iit rest : but, by its revolution about its shorter axis, there is produced a centrifugal furci', which acts in a direction perpendicular to that axis, and therefore diminishes the force of gravity most of all at the equator, because there the two forces act in contrary dircctiuiis. At the pole its direction is perpendicular to the direction of gravity, and produces nu eiitct. 567. By the united operation of these two lauces, in going from the equator towords the poles, is produced a variation in the degree of <|uickncss of descent of a heavy body, which incrciises as the scjuare of the sine of the latitude. 568. The oscillations of a pend'dum afford a simple means of verifying this fiict. The in- crease of weiglit in a heavy body, — that is, the force of gravity in proceeding from the equator Fam II. ector. The y belonging s. The two lal chidn of ei in various Cook L FlOUnE AND MAGNITUDE OF THE EARTH. m: Fathonu. 60,766 60,769 60,794 60,820 60,849 60,864 60,890 60,884 of the degrees he earth were poles is, how- must suppose however, not r of the strain, iection at some t particular arc, y well with the easuremcnts of lalies, although le measures of elusions. The id to Unst, the tried it on have ate period they When this is local attrnc- throughout the of its quantity It has been earth's surfiice j in going from centre at thL tween the form itter, which nri; deviation itbulf upon diirircnt _, at its suiiiice produces a smuU mrds the poles, le earth were "t 'ntrifugal forci', hes the force i)l trary directions, id produces nu tor towards tlio avy body, which /irf. Tlic ill- Prom the ctween Dunkirk and Formentera ; and committed the labour to MM. Biot, Arago, Ma- Ihieu, Duuvard, and Chaix : subsequently, Biot extended his observations to the northern vxtrvinity of the British islands. These operations were begun in the year 1807. At a tuiiu'wliut Inter period the British government, with the assistance of the Royal Society, eiiiployuil Captain Kater, an eminent observer and experimenter, in the same labour; and al»u H'ut Coptain Sabine, a British artillery officer, witli invariable pendulums to the equator on the ono hand, and the highest accessible latitudes of the northern hemisphere on the utlier. It waitexpccted that, by thus multiplying the places of observation, the combination ufrvHultN would destroy the irregular influences of local density, and give the true variations uf lliv force of gravity, wliich are owing to the earth's ellipticity. From a mean of all the uliscrvalluns made by the British and French experimenters, it was found that the compres- HJiin or iOlipticlty of ihe earth was about ^y^.,, or jg|:j^. Laplace had previously concluded, from Ihu combined measurements of terrestrial degrees and pendulum experiments, and the lininr lntrent values of the earth's compression at the poles. Tliu iiiu'crlaiiity of this important element, in all questions of geography and astronomy, is nil liu'onveiticncu which cannot yet be got rid of. In 'riihlcN II. and III,, the dimensions of the degrees of latitude and longitude are given ill niinuteit uf the equator. To change tliese into feet or fathoms, we must know the number ul' tlii'in in n degree of the equator. According to Puissant and Svanberg, the equatorial degree, or 60 geo^.i.phical miles, U (i(),Hii4 .32 .00-883 .00-927 62 28-1(18 «N'V;I7 3 59918 59 918 33 50-320 50-;i(>7 63 27-28(1 SVM 4 59-8,04 .ro-M.-. 34 49742 49791 64 eo-.-Kw 2(l:l(i|l 5 .W-772 .')9-773 ;h 49149 49-199 65 26-,'i57 2,0'4V2 6 59-671 .W67J ■M 48.041 4N593 .53 rm-JM 37 471U8 47-972 OT 23-444 8;l'.'iO'.y\m 41 4.i-iS3 4.0-,)43 71 l9-,0.-!4 IHMI 12 S8li89 58-697 42 44'.089 41-fi.OI 72 IH-,041 INMM 13 58^47li 57 IWJ 46 41-ii80 41747 76 1451.1 I4'55N 17 .57-378 57-394 47 4()-!h.'0 4II9N8 77 13-497 I;lftl7 18 57-<»i.-l 57-080 4H 40148 4()-217 78 12'47fi 12512 19 56-731 56 7.00 49 39 3iH S9-4J4 79 1I44U lr4H;l 20 Sfi-r.si 5iVI02 .00 EHTiin 38-638 80 10-419 wm> 21 56-1)15 B&im 51 ari:>'i .37-831 81 9 .'186 II'4I4 it ,W 6-Jl r>r>(K> .02 ,3(i-94'l .37 -(111 82 8-.-I50 N 37(1 23 65-2.W .W-2.57 .0.) ai-l()9 36-181 83 7-312 7'.™ 24 54-813 54-841 .'.4 ,35 -2(17 .30;i.-i9 84 0272 6'292 25 .M-a/S 54 409 55 3fH5 34-487 85 5-229 A'Vtil 26 53-!l28 5i'.m .0(i ,-,3-a02 33-624 86 4185 41111 r Bnm .M-495 .17 .'>2(i78 32-7.0O 87 3140 .'114(1 Sb mmrj fti-013 .08 31 •795 3I-866 88 sm y-KHI 29 52477 52-(l()2 .0!) .30 902 anim 89 1(147 urn 9U 51962 52-002 (iO 30 -COO 30-070 U) u-ooo {)m Book I. LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. Table III. 135 Equntor, iin lh« n niigrM on e. snwi «i)i i» «H'«!17 VI 'M Vll'.'liill ii.V+Vll 84'4ilH Bt.MKi vn-M UI'MK 1«I-()7H Kl'fiHIl iHMi;i 1 17ftlW 1 KKiHd 1 \m* 1 14-ftfiH J l;l'/).i7 1 urn 1 um 1) 10--IWI 11 (Nil (1 h;i7ii i I'lm i ivm II tiim 5 4IIII !II4(I 14 UIIHI 7 MIIHI 10 U'UVU The Measures of different Arci of the Meridian in the Spheroid from the Equator to the Pole; and also the respective Degrees of Latitude in Minutes of the Equator. Compression = jlj. o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0000 59-628 119-257 178 887 218-518 298-l!)0 357-784 417-420 477-058 536-699 59-628 59 629 S96J0 69-(i3I 59-632 59-634 59-636 59-638 59-641 59644 59-647 59 651 59 6.55 mrm 59-(«J .59-(>(» 69-673 59-6/9 59-685 59091 59-697 59-703 .59-710 59-717 69-724 59-732 59 739 .'-.9-747 .59-7.55 59-761 o 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 / 1790-302 18.W-074 1909-855 19(i9-644 2029-442 2089-249 2149 065 2208-891 2263-726 2328-570 / 59-772 .59-781 .W789 .19-798 59-807 59-816 .59-826 59-835 69-844 69-854 69-863 69-873 59-883 69-893 .59-9-912 .69-922 .59-931 59-941 59-951 59960 .59-970 59-979 69-989 .59998 60-007 60-016 60-025 . 60-034 60-042 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 a587-515 3647.566 3707-625 3707 692 3827-767 3887-849 5947-9,39 4008-036 4068-140 4128-251 60051 oo-aw 60-067 60075 60-082 600(0 60()97 60-1(14 60-111 60-117 60-124 60-130 60-135 60-141 60-146 60-151 60-1.155 60-160 60-164 60-167 60-171 6i)-174 60-176 60-179 »-181 50-182 60-184 60-185 00185 60-186 10 11 12 13 11 <-, 16 17 18 19 5!l6-343 655-990 715 611 775-296 8;!4-955 891-618 951-286 mavm 10-3-6.'38 113J-323 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 2388-424 2448-287 2.'i08-160 2568-(l43 2027-936 21)87-838 2747-7.'iO 2807-672 28(r7 «03 2927-514 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 4188-368 4248-492 4308-622 4368-757 4428-898 4489-041 4549-195 4609-350 4fi69-510 4729-674 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1193-014 ]i52-711 1312-414 1)72-124 14.-il 841 1491 .OTo 1551-297 llill-OW 1670-783 17.'JO-5.!8 1790-302 50 51 .ra .53 54 55 na 57 .w .59 60 29S7-495 3047 455 3107-425 3167-404 3227-3'i3 3287-391 33t7-;i!)8 3407-414 34»)7-4i9 a-)2--473 3587-515 SO 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 4789-841 49'')-I8o 49.-'-.'!i,,- 50.-J0 . ■ ' 50907'. 51.50 i 5211V 5271 -2<3 5331-458 5391-644 Table IV. Tlic Measure of each Degree of Latitude and of a Degree of Longitude In each Tarallel of Latitude | from the Equator to either Pole. Compression jj, rnr. Degree of Degree of Par. Degree of Degree of Par Degree of Degree of or Latitude in LiOiigituilc in of Latitude in Longitude in of Latitude in Longitude in IM. K.ithoms. Fatiioms. Lat Fathoms. Fathoms. l^t. Fathoms. Fathoms. 604.58-6 f)OR57-I o .■;o 60607-4 52716-9 o 60 60906-7 30.503-5 1 r.04">88 ()( 1847-8 31 60lil6'5 622100 61 60915-7 29578-2 2 604.W-8 6('82(l2 ,32 60625-8 610;-.72 62 60924-5 28643-8 3 6(M6(|-3 60774-2 33 606,352 51088-6 63 60933-1 27700-6 4 60461-5 607(;9-8 34 01644 8 BmtfS 64 60941-4 26748-8 6 6046! 2 60627-0 .3,5 604-4 49290 -2 66 609;77'5 248207 7 (i0467-5 r>04(Ki-4 ,37 60674-3 48660-3 67 60965-3 238450 8 604701 602686 ;)8 60684 4 4H015 6 68 60972-7 22861 -g 9 611473-2 60112-6 39 00li94-6 47.-J55-2 69 60979-8 218717 in 00476-5 699.38-4 40 60704-8 46682-4 70 609867 20874-8 11 60480-3 59746-1 41 607151 4.5994-2 71 6099,3-4 11*871-4 12 60184-3 .'•.9.V35-6 42 60725-4 . 4^)292-0 72 60999-7 18861-8 13 604887 .'i!Wl7 1 43 6li7.-i5-8 44,576-0 73 61(KI5-7 17846-4 U 6(493-4 .59060-6 44 (-.07463 4,38462 74 61011-5 16825-4 1.1 60498-4 .W796 3 45 607.W-7 4.-5I030 75 61016-8 1.5799-3 Hi mrms .58514-1 46 607(i7-2 42,i4«-6 76 610220 147682 17 6(l,-.09-4 .58214-2 47 60777-6 41,577-3 77 61026-7 1.3732-6 IH 60515-4 67896 6 48 (i07S81) 40795 1 78 610312 12(>927 111 60.021 -6 67561-4 49 60798-4 400005 79 61035-3 116189 to r^'^28-2 .57208-8 ,50 60808-7 391935 80 610391 10601-4 21 ■»l,535-0 .56838-9 51 608190 S8.-!745 SI 6UH2-S 9.5507 22 •^1.542-0 ,564.516 m 60829-2 ,37543-7 82 61045 6 84970 23 611549-4 .56(«7 2 .53 (!0S;l9-3 36701-4 H3 61048-3 7440-6 21 fiOW-O .5.5625-8 .54 6llR4"-3 3:-.847-8 84 610,50-7 63820 25 rio.'-.ii4-a 55187-5 ,55 (Hia'ili-3 ,34!W3-1 a5 610.'i27 63214 2li nano .547;i2-4 ,56 6(MI9-0 34107-6 86 610,54-3 42.59-1 27 II05S1-2 54260-6 57 (i()S7K-7 ,33221-5 87 610.55-6 3195-5 28 (!i1'p89-7 .53772'4 ,58 6IIKS82 ,32.32;V5 88 61056-5 21.30 9 29 60598-4 53267 -8 .5!i (i0897-5 3I4I94 89 610,57-1 10650 ;'0 mw* 52740-9 (iO. (iWKKi-O 30503-5 M) 610572 OOOOO K 4 136 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II. Chap. XX. DETERMINATION OP LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. '. 571. There are three important problents in geography which require for their solution the doclrino ofttitronomy. The first requires to find the direction of the meridian at any point of tho earth's surface ; the second, to find the latitude of any place ; and the third, to find tho longitude. Problem I. To determine the Meridian, or to draw a Meridian Line. 573. Thi* problem, Hie many others inpracticd astronomy, admits of a comparatively easy lolution, if no greot degree of accuracy is required ; but to obtain a very accurate result much care, and instruments of the most perfect construction, are indispensable. 573. The general principle oftlte solution is the fact, that the celestial bodies which do not Bunsibly change their declination in the course of a day, have the same apparent altitude at tqual intervals of time before and after passing the meridian : also, that their altitude is greatest or least when in the plane of the meridian ; that is, when they are due south or due north. 574. ^bout the time of the summer and winter solstice, the sun changes his declination very little in the course of a day : and hence it happens that the shadow of an upriglit rod or gnomon is almost exactly of the same length when the sun is at equal distances from tliu meridian. To determine the position of the meridian, then, let a number of concentric circles be described on a horizontal plane, and let a wire or rod be placed directly over their common centre, and perpendicular to the plane ; and, the sun shining on the plane, let the two points in which the extremity of the shadow of the wire crosses each circle be exactly noted. Then, through any point of the plane which is at equal distances, from each pair of intersections draw a straight line through the centre of the circle ; and this will bo in the plane of the meridian, or will be a meridian line. It is easy to see that one circle, und one pair of intersections of the path of the extremity of the shadow and the circle, would 1)0 suftlcivnt : but several circles will fulfil the object with greater accuracy and more cer- tainty i because a mean position of the meridian line may be found among all the results ; and besides, one of a pair, or both, may be lost by clouds intercepting the light of the sun. .?7.5. The imperfeclion of this method of finding the meridian arises from the indistinctness of the termination of the shadow of tlic upright wire, and from the change of the sun's declination between the observations. There is, however, another as simple and exact as can bo expected, without the assistance of a telescope. It is known that the pole star and the star Aliutli, or c of tlie Great Bear, pass the meridian within about nine minutes of each other. It, tJicrefore, we suspend two plummets by threads to the ends of a rod which turns liorliuntally on a pivot, and by moving tlic rod, keep the two plumb-lines exactly between the eye and Alioth when near the meridian, then, at the moment when the pole star is also Keen otong the two plumb-lines, the two stars and the plumb-lines will be all nearly in the plane of the meridian. To keep tlic plumb-lines steady in the vertical plane, the plummets may hang in vessels filled with water. .17(1. If we could determine the position of a star when Us altitude is greatest or least, we would then have a point of the heavens in the plane of the meridian : but that position cnnnot be found witli certainty, because the change of altitude is imperceptible to a sen- silile distance on each side of the meridian. m7. The exact detcrminatvm of the meridian requires the aid of the telescope, a well-regu- luti'd clock, and an instrument for determining the altitude of the sun or a star : Hudiey's itextunt, or a reflecting circle, are the proper instruments for this purpose. By the sextant we can determine two instants of time when the star has the same altitude ; the clock will give the interval of time between them : and half this interval will be the time between each observation and the passage of the star over the meridian. If we next day note the time by the clock whi^n the star again attains that altitude, and add to that time the above-mentioned half interval, we shall have the time by the clock when tlic star will be on the meridian. If At that instant a telescope, moveable in a vertical plane, be directed to the star, so that in pasMhig the meridian the star may be in the axis of the telescope, the position of the plane of the meridian will be obtained : and if the telescope be fixed to a horizontal axis which is perpendicular to that plane, it will have a vertical motion in the plane of the meridian, and will be what is called a transit instrument. By this instrument the exact instant when any reU'Htial phenomenon is on the meridian is known. It is, therefore, one of the most essen- tial inHtrunivnts in an observatory. 57H. In a variable climate liA-e Jiritain, it may happen that the observations necessary to determine the meridian may be interrupted by cloudy weather. This, however, is an incon- venience to which all astronomical observations are liable. It must also be observed, that n single set of observations will not give so perfect a result as a considerable number of sett, IVom which a mean inav be deduced. Book I> LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. Itf 579. If (he eekslial o^t change its /mmi'/i'oh otherwise than by the diurrud motions of the earth, as happena when it is tli« nun, still the problem may be resolved, as has been ex- plained, by making allowiu>c« for tlie change of position, by applying the principles of spherical trigonometry to the laws of the motion. Proilcm II. To determine the Latitude. 580. In treating of the doctrine of the tphere, it has been shown (§ 268.) that the distance of the pole of tho world (that is, the point of the heavens about which all the stars turn) from the horizon of any place is ctjual to its latitude. Now, in the course of twenty-four hours, every star passes tho meridian twice, at equal distances from the pole, and on opposite sides of it. When tho star passes the meridian below the pole, — that is, between the pole and the horizon, — its altitude is the leatt possible ; and when it crosses the meridian above the pole, or between tho polo and tho south point of the horizon, its distance from the north point of the horizon will bo tho greatest possible. If, therefore, with a suitable instrument, (a quadrant for instance,) wo take tho star's altitude when it is least, and also when it is greatest, and correct these for rcfVaction, it is manifest that half their sum will be the latitude of the place where the observations were niadc. 58i. ire have sup/iosed the star (o/mim the meridian between the pole and the xenith, and then its greatest altitude will be its distance from the north point of the horizon : but it may pass to the south of tho zenith, and then its altitude, reckoned from the south, must be subtracted from 180° to get its distance fWnn tho north point of the horizon ; and half the sum of the two distances, as before, will bo tho latitude. 582. Jni/ one star that never sets, the polo star for instance, will serve to determine the latitude : but it will ho proper, if circumstances allow, to observe various stars, and the mean of all tho observations may be expected to be more correct than a single pair. 583. If, instead of the greatest and least altitudes of a star, its greatest and least distances from the zenith bo Aiund, then half tlieir sum will be the complement of the latitude ; that is, the difference between the latitude and ninety degrees. 584. For examjtle, by observations made on the pole star at Dublin Observatory it was found that Its greatest zenith distance, corrected for refraction, was - 38° 1 9^ 43"-l 1 Least - - - - - - 34 53 49-55 The sum . . . - Half the sum, or co.latitudo of observatory The latitude .... 585. When the latitude of one place is known, the latitude of another place may be fQund by observing with a quacfrunt, or other suitable instrument, the zenith distances of any star at both places. The dilVervnvu of these zenith distances, when corrected for refraction, will be the difference of latitude of the two places. 586. Thus, for example, to deterniine the difference between the latitudes of Greenwich Observatory and Dunnose in tho Isle of Wight, it was found that At Dunnose tho I. D, of 3 Dnu-onis was . - 1° 50* 5"'24 And at Greenwich - - . . 58 33-1.1 73 13 32 '66 36 36 46-33 53 23 13-67 Difference of latitude The latitude of Gri>enw!cli wat known to be The latitude of Dunnose is O 51 32-11 51 28 40-5 50 .37 8-39 587. The navigator has daily occasion to determine his latitude at sea. For this purpose, he fiiulv the sun's zenith distance, or its altitude at noon, by Hadley's sextant. The Nautical Ahimnac gives him tho sun's declination, or distance from the equator at the time he makes Ills observation : the sum or (liff'erenco of these is his latitude, according as the ship and the sun arc on the same or opposite sides of the equator. 588. Ex. On July '24. 1783, at a place in longitude 54° (3* 36") west of Greenwich, the altitude of the sun's lower limb, when cleared from refraction and parallax, was ob- served by a sextant to bo 59° 15' 30". lly the Nautical Almanac, the sun's semidiametcr \\m 15' 48", and his declination at the time of noon in that longitude 19° 51' N. The calculation for the latitude will stand thu'j s — m PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY Part II. 59 90 31. 18 30 19 28 51 42 30 19 42 II Altitude of sun's lower limb - - - - 59' 15' 30" Add sun's scmidiametcr - - - - 15 48 Subtract altitude of sun's centre From _ . - - - To sun's zenith distance •. - - Add sun's declination ... Tlie latitude of the place is - 589. The navigator cannot always obtain an observation of the sun or a star when on the meridian. He may, however, be able to observe two altitudes out of the meridian, and tlie interval of time between them. With these data, and the aid of spherical trigonometry and the Nautical Almanac, he may find his latitude by rules given by writers on navigation and astronomy. It is, in general, by one or other of tliese methods that the recorded latitudes of nil places have been obtained, and arranged in a table for the use of the geographer and navigator. Problem III. To determine the Longitude. SSO. The interval nftime between two successive passages of the sun over the meridian of an;/ place is twenty-faur hours. If, therefore, we suppose a number of meridians to be drawn at equal intervals, — that is, to form successively with each other equal angles at the poles, then, in the course of twenty-four hours, each of these meridians (supposing their planes produced) will pass through the sun. Therefore twenty-four hours of mean solar time will correspond to 360 degrees of longitude ; for the whole scale of longitude must be contained between the eastern and western sides of the meridian of the same place. At places situated on the meridian opposite that on which the sun was at 0\ or, in civil reckoning, at 12 at noon, the time would be 12", or 12 at night ; and 12* would correspond to 180 degrees of longitude. At places situated on the meridian at right angles to the former, the time would be 6" or IS", or, in civil reckoning, six in the morning or six in the evening ; and, ac- cordingly, six hours and eighteen hours of mean solar time will correspond to 90° or 270° of longitude ; and so on for intermediate meridians. 591. The selection of a meridian, from tvhich the longitude is to be reckoned, is entirely ar- bitrary. The English take the meridian passing through Greenwich Observatory for the first meriilian, and reckon its longitude to be 0° or 0". The first meridian of the French is that which passes through the observatory of Paris. An interval of 9"' 21* elapses between the passages of the sun over the meridians of Paris and Greenwich : the longitude of Paris Observatory is, therefore, by English geographers, accounted to be 9"" 21* east, in time ; or in degrees, 2° 20' 15". 592. Since it is noon at aU places on the meridian of Greenwich from pole to pole at the same instant, it will be an hour post noon, or 1", at all places on the meridian 15° to the east of that of Greenwich ; and two hours past noon, or 2'', ot all places on the meridian 30° cast from that of Greenwich ; and so on. On the other hand, it will want an hour to noon, or will be 11 1", at all places on the meridian 15° west from that of Greenwich; and it will be two hours before noon, or lO", at places on the meridian 30° west from that of Greenwich ; atid so on, reckoning an hour, or sixty minutes of time, to correspond to fifteen degrees, and four minutes of time to one degree. 593. Since it appears that all places an the same meridian have noon, or any assumed hour, at the same instant, and that the instant of noon is difTerent at places on different meridians, — being earlier or later on meridians having west longitude, according as they are nearer to or farther from the first meridian, and the reverse on meridians having cast longitude ; and moreo%'er, that the dilFerence between the time of noon on two mcri- dians is proportional to the diffl-rcnce of their longitude, and therefore a measure of that difference ; it follows that if, knowing the hour of the day at any place, we can at the same instant by ony means know the hour at a place on any other meridian, then we can deter- mine the difference of longitude between the meridians: for it will be the diflTerence between the times of the day, as estimated on the two meridians, reckoned in hours, minutes, &c. ; and this may be converted into degrees, minutes, and seconds, by reckoning fifteen degrees to an hour, and proportionally for minutes and seconds of time. 594. The practical methods of determining the longitude ore the following; — 1. Uy a Chronometer or Tinie-keejjcr. Let us suppose that a traveller departs from any place, (St. Paul's, London, for example,) and carries with him a watch regulated to mean solar time, and which indicates 12" at the instant of mean noon at London : then, supposing the watch to go with perfect regularity, if he go to Edinburgh, and compare the estimated solar time there with that shown by Book T. LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. 139 >9 31. IS 9 28 51 42 )0 ID 42 his watch, he will find that they differ by twelve minutes twenty-one seconds ; so that when it is 12'> at Edinburgli Observatory, it will be 12" 12"' 21' by his watch. He may therefore conclude, that the difference of longitude between London and Edinburgh is 12" 21* west; and since St. Paul's is twenty-three seconds of time west from Greenwich, the longitude of Edinburgh Observatory is 12"" 44' west, which corresponds to 3° 11'. If, leaving London, he had gone to Paris, he would there have found the estimated time to be g"' 44' earlier than tliat shown by his watch : hence the difference between the meridians of I-ondon and Paris is 9*" 44', and the longitude of Paris (from Greenwich) 9™ 21' east. 595. In the same way the navigator at sea mat/ determine his longitude by a good chronometer. He can determine the hour of the day by the sun's altitude, and the principles of spherical trigonometry. Or he may take equal altitudes, noting the times ; the middle point of time between tliem will be the instant of noon, as shown by the watch : he must, however, make a correction for the change of the sun's declination, and the distance run by the ship in the interval. Supposing now the chronometer to have been set to the true time at the port from whence iiC sailed, and to have gone uniformly with a small known daily accele- ration or retardation, cal led its rate ; this correction being applied, he will have the time at the port corresponding to his observed time of noon, and their difference will be the longitude of the ship eastward or westward from the meridian whence she sailed. 596. The longitude of any point on the earth, either at sea or on land, may be determined by a good chronometer ; in the latter case, however, the jolting it must suffer by carriage will disturb its motion, and render the result sought uncertain. At sea, the mode of transport is not so liable to sudden jerks ; and, therefore, the chronometer may be expected to go with more regularity. If several be employed, considerable accuracy may be ob- tained. The Board of Admiralty sent ten or twelve chronometers from Greenwich to Falmoiitl., and thence in a vessel to Madeira, and in this way determined the longitude of I-'iinchal from a mean of their results. 597. The facility of this mode of determining the longitude makes perfection in the con- struction of chronometers an object of high importance in a maritime nation like Britain. It was, therefore, for many years encouraged by acts of parliament offering high rewards for prescribed degrees of excellence. These, however, are now repealed ; but the government has not lost sight of this important subject. 2. Tlie Longitude by Eclipses of Jupiter's Satellites, 598. If a celestial phenomenon can be seen at the same absolute instant of time in two dif- ferent places of the earth, this appearance gives the means of determining the difference of tlieir longitudes ; for if the phenomenon be seen at both places, and the times, according to their reckoning, be noted, it is manifest that their difference will be the difl'erence of longi- tude, in time, of the two places. 599. Ainu the eclipses of Jupiter's vioons are phenomena of this hind. They may be seen, almoHt at tlic same instant, every where in the hemisphere m which Jupiter is visible: and sucli is the perfection of astronomy, that the times at which they will happen can be pre- dicted with considerable accuracy. These are computed according to Greenwich time, and published, along with various other matters, in the Nautical Almanac several years before tliey happen, for the benefit of travellers. This method of finding the longitude can, how- ever, only be applied on land ; for at sea the rolling of the sliip makes it next to impossible to direct a telescope so steadily to Jupiter as to view the eclipse of a satellite. ()00. Example. — Suppose an immersion nf the first sntellite should be observed at the Cape of Good Hope April 16". 1805, at \ii') 25"' ii5' mean time; the predicted time given by the Kphenieris being IS"" 12"' 2' at Greenwich. Here the difference is l" 13"' 33'; whence the longitude of the Cape should be 18° 23' 15" east of Greenwich. GOI. In this example, the observed time at the Cape is compared with the computed lime of the eclipse at Greenwich. If, instead of this, the observed time at Greenwich had heen used, greater accuracy might have been expected. 60'J. T/i(f method is easy, and therefore much practised ; but it is liable to uncertainty : for two observers in tlic same room, but using diff'erent telescopes, will sometimes differ in noting the time of an eclipse of the first satellite by as much as fifteen or twenty seconds. Del.'unlirc thinks that the time of an eclipse of the fourth satellite may be doubtful to the amount of four minutes. S. Longitude by an Eclipse of the Moon. 603. An eclipse of the moon has exactly the same appearance, at the same instant, wherever seen ; but it is impossible to be quite sure, by observation, of the exact time of their begin- ning or end, because of the penumbra which bounds the earth's shadow. The results to be obtained from them arc therefore uncertain, to perhaps two minutes of time ; and there- tore only to be regarded as approximations to the truth. <140 PRINCIPLES OF geography; Pari II. 604. Example. —' An eclipse of the moon was observed Aug. 28. 1729, by the astronomn Cassini at Paris, and by Mr. Stvphcnson at Barbadoes. At Paris, Imm. T) - 12'» ig" 13' Emer. J - 13" 59"" At Barbadoes, Iinm. J 8 11 Emer. J - 9 51 4 8 13 4 8 By the mean of tlie two, the difference of longitude is 4'' 8"" 6'*5; that is, Barbadoes is 62° I' 30" west of Paris. 4. Longitude ly Lunar Distances, or by Occultationi of Stars by the Moon. 605. The moon is, of all the celestial bodies, the most convenient for determining the Ion- gitude, because of the greater quicliness of her apparent motion among the stars. She makes the complete circuit of the heavens in 27* 7" 43 " 4'*7 (this is lier mean sidereal tevolution) : therefore she changes her place among the stars more than half a degree, or her own apparent diameter, in an hour ; su tliat in two minutes of time she passes over one minute of a degree. This, or even its half, is quite a measurable quantity by a good sextant. 606. By the theory of the moon's motion, her place among the stars is known at any time: that is, knowing the tmie of the day at Greenwich, the place of the moon is known ; and, on the other hand, knowing the place of the moon, the time at Greenwich is known. The Nautical Almanac gives the distances of the moon's centre from the sun, and some of the brighter stars, as it would be seen from the earth's centre, for every third hour of the day, Greenwich time. If, therefore, the Almanac show that the moon, considered as seen from the earth's centre, will be 10° from a certain fixed star at six o'clock in the evening at Greenwich ; and we make an observation at a distant place, and find that the moon's dis- tance from the same star, reduced by computation to what it would be if seen at the earth's centre, is 10°, we immediately conclude that at that instant it is sis o'clock at Greenwich. Thus the moon, with the brighter fixed stars near her path, serves the purpose of a chronometer. 607. To determine the longitude in this way, one observer measures the moon's distance from the sun or a bright star (one of those in the Ephemeris) ; another observer at the same time finds the altitudes of the moon and star ; and a third should observe the exact time hy a chronometer or good watch at which the observations were made. These observations, corrected for refraction, give data for finding what would be the apparent place of the moon in the heavens, if it could be seen from the centre of the earth at that time. The Nautical Almanac enables the observer to find the hour at Greenwich, when the position of the moon in the heavens was such as he observed it, and the interval between the Greenwich time and his own gives him his longitude. 608. 7'his method of finding the longitude is commonly practised in the service of the East India Company, and in the navy. By it the longitude may be generally known to within twenty miles, and very often much nearer. This, although less accurate than the latitude, is yet an invaluable acquisition to the navigator. A striking proof how much it may be depended on has been given bya distinguished navigator (Capt. Basil Hall, R. N.). After a voyage of 8000 miles, occupying eighty-nine days, he arrived off Rio de Janeiro, having passed through the Pacific Ocean, rounded Cape Horn, and crossed the South Atlantic, without making any land. VVhen within a week's sail of Rio, he set about determining, by lunar observations, the ship's course and place at a determinate moment ; and having found this, within from five to ten miles, he trusted to the ordinary and more compendious way of finding his position, such as is used in short trips, for the remainder of his voyage. When he arrived witliin fifteen or twenty miles of the coast (according to his estima. tion), he hove to at four in the morning, waiting for day-break. lie then proceeded, although the weather was hazy ; but about eight it became so foggy tlint he did not like to stand in farther. The fog suddenly cleared off, and then he hail the satisfaction to see the Great Sugar-loaf Rock, which stands on one side of the harbour, so nearly right a-licad, that he had not to alter his course above a point in order to hit the entrance of Rio. 609. Occultationi of stars by the moon serve exactly the same purpose as a distance of tlie moon from a star : these, however, are not so generally observed at sea as on land. They give the distance of the moon from the star with almost perfect accuracy, and therefore arc nn excellent method of determining the longitude. When an occultation has been observed, we can by the lunar tables or the Nautical Almanac, which is a species of lunar and solar tables, compute the distance between the centre of the moon and star as it would appear at the earth's centre at the moment the occultation was observed, provided we know the longitude of the place where the observation was made : but this longitude is the very thing we want ; therefore we cannot proceed by a direct process. However, we may know the longitude nearly by some other means ; an eclipse of one of Jupiter's satellites, for Pari II. the astronomei >i 8 is, Barbadoes is ' Moon. rminini; the lon- the stars. She ler mean sidereal aalf a degree, or : she passes over lantity by a good own at any time: 1 is known ; and, 1 is known. The , and some of the I hour of the day, ered as seen from in the evening at sit the moon's dis- secn at the earth's ick at Greenwich, the purpose of a e moon's distance iserver at the same the exact time by 'hese observations, place of tlic moon e. The Nautical le position of the en the Greenwidi service of the East f known to within than the latitude, w much it may be 11, 11. N.). After le Janeiro, having le South Atlantic, bout determining, nent ; and having more compendious der of his voyage, ing to his cstima- e then proceeded, ; he did not like to isfaction to see the early right a-hcad, ce of Uio. is a distance of the as on land. They icy, and therefore cultation has been a species of lunar [id star as it would provided we know ngitude is the very •ver, we may know ter's satellites, fu' Book L REPRESENTATION OP THE EARTH. Mt example. With this, as if it were the true longitude, we may calculate the apparent dii. cance between the star and centre of the moon reduced to the earth's centre at the time the occultation was seen. If the longitude had been correctly assumed, this would have been exactly the moon's semidiameter ; but it will diifer more or less, according to the magnitude of the error we have made in the assumed longitude. There will, however, be such a determinate connection between the error of the longitude and the difference between the moon's semidiameter and computed distance of the star and moon's centre, that the one will be deducible from the other by calculation. In this way, then, the error may be estimated, and a nearer approximation to the longitude obtained ; and a repetition of the process will give a still more correct result. 5. Longitude by the Transit of the Moon over llie Meridianm ' (itO Let T be the time by the clock when the moon ii observed on the meridian of any place, ( the time of transit of a known Hxcd star, H + x the interval between two successive transits of the same star : then 21+ x-T -t •■■■ 3li0° : difl'crcnce of right ascension of the moon and star at the instant the moon was on the meridian ; to which adding the known right ascension of the star, the right ascension (A) of the moon when on the meridian is determined. Now the moon's right ascension when on tlie meridian of Greenwich ii given in the Nautical Almanac for every day of the year, from whence the daily increment of her right ascension may be determined : let, tlicrefore, a be the moon's right ascension when on the meridian of Orecn. wich, K the Increment of right ascension in the time between two successive transits over the Mine meridian } then, considering the change of right ascension as uniform, E : a - A : : 3G0° : the required longitude. 6. Longittule by Signals. 611. The most accurate way of determining small differences of longitude is by signals made on the earth's surface. A rocket tired from an elevated spot on a clear night may be seen distinctly with a telescope at the distance of twenty or thirty miles : therefore, by observing tlie times at which the same explosion is seen at two places, the diff'erence of lon- gitude of the places may be found. 61'J. The same method will apply to places at any distance, if they be connected by a chain of stations sufficiently near to each other to admit of a rocket to be seen from every two adjoining stations. The diiTerence of longitude between Greenwich and Paris was deter- mined in 1825 in this way. Rockets were exploded at Wrotham, and seen simultaneously at Greenwich and Fairlight Down : also at La Canche on the French coast, tvhich were seen at Fairlight and Ligniers ; and at Mont Javoult, which were observed at Ligniers and Paris. 613. In the same way the diff'erence of longitude between Geneva and Milan lias been determined by signals made by illumination on the tops of intermediate mountains. 614. Tlie intensely brilliant light which Lieutenant Drummond, of the Royal Engineers, lias proposed for light-houses, and which is produced by placing a ball of lime, about the size of a pea, in a flame supported by oxygen gas, may be employed in determining dif- ferences of longitude. We believe that, in favourable weather, this light exhibited on the top of Ben Lomond may be seen at the same time at Edinburgh and in Ireland : indeed, we know that it has actually been seen in the north of Ireland. Here, then, we have the means of determinitig with great exactness the difference between the longitude of Dublin and Edinburgh. 7. Longitude by Triangulation* 615. The trigonometrical survey of Britain has determined the longitude of all the prin- cipal points on the coast, as well as the mountains and cities in the interior, particularly in England. At present the survey is suspended in Britain, but is going on in Ireland. When this is completed, th } British survey will doubtless be resumed, and the geography 0^ the northern part of the island made as perfect in its minute details as the southern, wliich, from its proximity to the Continent, is more necessary to be known in preparing plans of national defence. Chap. XXL BEFRESEKTATION OF THE EARTH. 616. The most natural and correct representation which can be given of the geographical divisions of the earth's surface is that which is made on a sphere or globe. In this way the different countries may be truly delineated, so as to exhibit perfectly to the eye their relative position, their magnitude, and boundaries ; and by such a representation of the earth, all the problems in geography may be resolved with elegance and facility. 617. But although the surface of a solid having the exact figure of the earth, or diff'ering but little from it, t&brds in theory the most complete and tlie only perfect representation of m PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Tamt it. •ny con»tden»ble tract of country, yet there is a limit in practice to this precious advantoge. A globa of a moderate size serves very well to give a distinct notion of the figure, the magniiudc, the position, and general features of tlie great continents and islands: but the largest glolw tliat can conveniently be constructed i"" insufficient for minute details ; and then we must liave recourse to tlie more simple, although less perfect, representations of Maps. fllH. ttia impossible to represent on a plane a large extent of the earth's surface, so that th« disUnccs of places in the plane map shall have to each other precisely the same propor. tion as their distances on the globe. To obviate this difficulty, geographers have had rvcourse to dillcrent methods of representing portions of the globe on a plane. 619. J}if one method the countries are represented by the rules of perspective, as they Would appear to an eye that should view them on the surface of a sphere from a given point. The different positions which may be assumed for the point from which the sphere It viewed give rise to different pnyections, which all answer very well when the surface to b« represented is of small extent, and tlie point of view, or prijecling point, is nearly over its centre. However, when the surface is of great extent, a whole hemisphere fur instance, thoKC places which lie near the border of the projection are in them all much distorted. (i'JO. According to another method, tlie spherical surface to be represented is supposed to be n cone whose vertex is somewhere in the polar axis produced, and its curved surface cither touches the splicrc at the middle parallel of the map, or falls within the sphere at tlie intdille parallel, and without it at tlie extreme parallels. The surface of the cone is then «iip|iosed to be extended into u plane. This way of constructing maps is called the ini'tliml of develupmcnt. (i'Jl. There are other mathematical hypotheses according to which maps arc delineated, and one ill particular by which marine charts are constructed. In this, the parallels of latitude and circles of longitude are all represented by straight lines (that is, a line making always the same angle with the meridian), and the course of a ship sailing always on the siiiie rhomb is also a straight line. A representation of the earth in this way is comnioniy called Mercalors chart, although the invention is due to an English niatliematician, Edward AVright. Charts of this construction are of great importance in navigation. I. CONSTRUCTION OF MAPS BV PROJECTION. d'll. There are two pmjeclions of the sphere by which portions of its surface moy be truly delineated by the rules of perspective : the ortiiografhic and the stereoghafhic. In cucli, the plane on wliich the projection is made is called the plane of pryection, 1. orthographic projection. C23. To project any point in space orlhographically on a plane, a pcrpcndiculor is to he drawn from the point on the plane and the bottom of the perpendicular ; that is, the point in which it meets the plane is the orthographic projection of the point. d'Ji, The orthographic projection of a line of any kind on a plane is found by supposing perpendiculars to be drawn from every point in the line, and that line on the plane which passes through the bottom of all the perpendiculars is the orthographic projection of the proposed line. (i'J5, It is easy to see that the orthographic projection of a straight line must be a straight line, because the perpendiculars drawn from every point in it to the plane of projection will all lie in a plane, and the common section of two planes is a straight line. It is also appa- rent that the projection of a rectilineal figure will be a rectilineal figure. CSfi. If a circle be parallel to the plane of projection, its orthographic projection or rcprc ictilalion will be a circle : for the perpendiculars supposed to be drawn from every puint In the circle to the plane of projection will all be on tlic curve surface of a cylinder, and lliuy may be considered as constituting that surface. The circle and its projection will he the top and bottom of the cylinder ; and since they are parallel, they will be alike and equal, Cv!7. //* the plane in u^-—J'r-Js Jk \ "*"*' *"■"'«'" ''"«'» E A, E B, E C, ED, Ac. be |"[ xA I j i? j \ drawn to A, B, C, D, any points on the surface of \\ \<*', j / / \ the sphere, the points a, b,c, d, &c. in which tliese '"■^i^^— 'i '■ ! " ■ a=^=A lines meet the plane p r, will be the projections of the corresponding points on the surface of tliu sphere. Let A D B be any circle of the sphere; conceive a straight line to be drawn from E, the place of the eye, to I), any point in the cireuiii. ference. If D, the end of this line, be now carried round the circle, supiiosing it always to pass through the fixed point E, the line will gene- rate the surface of n cone whose l)asc is the circle, and ertcx the place of the eye ; and llii; curve line adb, which is the common section of the pi. .ie ]>r, and the surface of the cone will be the pri/jtrlion of the circle. 644. It will now be sufficiently obvious, 1. That every circle which passes through the eye will be projected into or represented by a itraighl line on the plane of projection. 2. That every circle whose plane is parallel to the plane of tlie circle will be projected into a circle. 645. These tivo properties hold true wherever the eye be situated. Tlie assumption, bow- ever, that it is in the surface of the sphere gives rise to geometrical properties which are peculiar to this projection, and which by their siinplicity and elegance give it great vuliie. 646. One geometrical property is this : whatever be the position of the circle ADB (or base of the cone) on the surface of the sphere, the portion of the cone between the pro- jecting point E and the plane of projection p r is always similar to the whole cone. If tliu plane of the base be parallel to the plane of projection, the truth of this proposition is obvious ; but writers on geometry prove, that when it is oblique, still the cones whose bases are A D B and a db, and common vertex E, are similar ; only they have contrary positions. From the similarity of the whole cone to the part cut oH', it follows that, 3. In the stereographical prrgection of the sphere, the representation of any circle that d'lei not pass through the eye will always be a circle. 647. There is another proposition demonstrated by writers on spherical geometry which is of great importance in this projection ; viz. if two straight lines be drawn from any point on the surfa^'e of the sphere to touch it in that point, their representation on the plane of projection will contain an angle exactly equal to the angle contained by the lines themselves. Since streight lines touching the surface of a sphere at any point may be regarded as Ian- gents to any circles of tlie sphere passing through tliat point, we have this otlier remarkable property : — • 4. The angle made on the surface of the sphere by two circles which cut each other, and the angle made by circles which are their rejiresentations, are in all cases egual. 648. This pryeclion is extremely convenient in practice, because a circle may be easily described when three points in its circumference are given, or when two points and its radius are known ; also, the property of lines making angles at their intersection on the surface of the sphere equal tp those formed by their projections, is of great value in the Part U. ;les arc to bo lie latter 2^^'> N E 8 Q, are itt there is uny appearance uit \ point in tlie i the plane uf eye: hence it ivever, we mi\y :ontinent!i, \c. be drawn from t!i the plune uf it circle of tlic ugh its centre, le great circle; lerpendiculnr lu ic plane of pro- •, may bo taken ing point. If, ;, E D, &c. be 1 the surfiice of in which tlitse e projections of surface of the of the sphere: vn from E, the in the cireuin- >, be now carried c line will gcnc- the eye ; and the face of the cone represented by (i I projected iiilo a ssumption, how- [jcrties which are great value. circle A I) U (or l)ctwccn the pro- le cone. If tlie lis proposition is ones whose bases >ntrary positions. ti/ circle that dies eometry whicli is from any point on the plane of lines themselves, regarded as tan- otlier remarkable ;ach other, and the :le may be easily vo points and its itersection on tlie ■reat value in the Book I. REPRESENTATION OF THE EARTH. 145 •IH reprcsenlntion of the iiirfnce of tli« uplivro on • plans. Moreover, the contraction of the map towards tlio eitremirivK of nn livniiaphirru is not so great as in the oriho;{raphical projec- tion ; on all theiie occountSi the stervograplilcal projection deserves a preference. 649. Supfoiing E (u 6« tho pni)i>cti»n puint, or place of the eye, and pr the plane of projec- tion, let C bo the point of the •!; Iu '<» represent the meridian on which the pri Jectiun is to be made; which should be so t'hoHeii as to include nearly one of the conti- nents, — the eastern, for instance : this will be accomplished if N E S be the meridian 20° west from London. Draw the diameter N C S, which will represent the meridian that passes through the projecting point, and therefore is perpendicular to the plane of projection. Then N will represent the north, and S the south pole ! draw another diameter, £ C Q, which will represent the equator. Cin. Sihce, by the nature of the pryection, all the meridians will be represented by circles which pass through the poles N, S, it will be sufllcieiit if we determine the points in which they cut the equator: we shall suppose the meridians to pass through every tenth degree of longitude : the points where they cut the equator will be found by dividing one of the qiuidrantal arcs, N Q> into nlue equal parts,_ as at 10, 20, 30, fie,, and drawing itraluht lines from 8 to the points of division, meeting C Q in 1,2, 3, &c. Then, a circle «lescribed through the points N 1 S will represent the meridian which cuts the equator 10" fVoni Q, and a circle through N 2 S will be tlie meri- dian tliat cuts the cijuator 20" (Voni Q. The remaining meridians N 3 8, &c. will be deter- mined exactly in the same way { nnti It appears from the construction, that the centres of the circles will be in the diain';ier E Q nnd its prolongation, and their distances from the centre will be the tanaenti of 10'\ 90^, &c. \ vi«. the inclination of the circles to the plane of the primitive i also, tliat tlieir rnUii will be the secants of the same inclinations. L UG PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Pari II. 654. To describe the parallels of latitude, divide tlie four quadrants each into nine equal parts, as at 80, 70, 60, Ac, and draw straight lines from E, one end of the diameter E Q, to tlie points of division, meeting N S in 8, 7, 6, &c. Tlien circles described through 80, 8, 80; 70, 7, 70, &c., will represent the parallels of 80°, 70", &c. Tlie centres of all the circles will be in the line N S, and distant from it by the secants of the distances of the parallels from the pole: also, the radii will be the tangents of the same distances. The polar circles and tropics being described by the same rules at tlie distances 23-^° and 66 j" from the poles, the projection will be completed. (C.) To project the Sphere stereographicalli/ on the Plane of the Horizoti/ur a gtvm Latitude, 655. Ill ihii projection, the eye is supposed to be in the nadir of the place for which the projection is made. On C {jig. 50.) and C {fig. 51.) as centres with any radius, describe circles W N E S, W'N'E'S', of which j?i'. 50. is to be the primitive or horizon; the other, fig, 51., is to serve for determining the position of the circles to be described on fig. 50. Draw tlic diameters N S, W E, N'S', WE' in both circles perpendicular to one another ; then N S in fig. 50. will be the projection of the meridian, and W E the projection of the circle passing through the east and west points of the horizon and the zenith, — that is, the prime vertical ; N will be the north point of the horizon, S the south, and E and W the cast and west points. Make the arc N' P', or the angle N' C V\fig. 51., equal to the latitude of the place; join VV'P' cutting C N' in P; make C P mfig. 50. equal to C P iii,^> .'il., and V,fi«. 50., will be the projection of the north pole. Draw the diameter E Q., /!g, 51., perpendicular to 1" C p' ; join W'Q meeting C S' in Q'. Take C Q, fig. 50., equal to C Q', fig. 51. ; describe a circle through the points W, Q, E, and the arc W Q E will represent the eqiiatdr. Next, to project the parallels of latitude, — for examjile, those which are 40" and 20° from llie pole, — from P', fig. 51 ., take P' 40 and P' 40, each arcs of 40° on opposite sides of P ; also, P' 20, P 20. ares of 20'^. .Join W 40, W 40, meeting C N' in m and n ; also W 20, W L'O, meeting C N' in r and s. In N C S,fig. 50., take C m, C n, C ;•, C s, equal to C m, C ii- C r, C.I, fig. 51.; describe circles on m n, rs as diameters, and these will be projections of par.>ileU of latitude at the distances of 40° and 20° from the pole. In this way may all the parallels, also the tropics and polar circle, be pi oji^cted, 656. Tit pnijcct Ihj meriitians ; in jig. 51. draw S' H perpendicular to N S', meeting P'^ produced in 15; take C A, fig. 50,," equal to S' \),fig. ,<'.., and through A draw a perpen- dicular to C A. Let us siip|)ose that the meridians are to make with each other angles of 15° : at P, in the line P A, draw P 15 and P )5 on each side of P A, making angles ^^itll it of 15'^; and, in like manner, PSO, P HO, making angles of 30', and so on to anj;les of 75^ On A, as a centre, describe a circle to pass through P; this will pass through W ami E, and wi!i be the projection of the six o'clock hour circle in the heavens, or that meridinn on the globe that is perpendicular to the meridian of the place for which the projection i« made. On the points 15, 15 descrilu' arcs a Pa', a V a' to pass through P, and meet the projection of the horizon in a, »' ; a, a ; and in like manner on 30, 30 as centres describe tlif nooK !• REPRESENTATION OF THE EARTH. 147 Mcn b PI)', bVlf, &c. all passing through Pi these will be the projections of meridians on tlu< U'rri'Ntriul Nplien*, or of hour circles on tlie celestial sphere. In this way, the projection iiiiiy bu couipU'tcil. 3. GLOBULAR FROJECIION. (i,'!7. Tn the orthographic prqjeclion, equal portions of the earth's spherical surface are rrpi'i'Ni'iitutl by unei|ual plane surfaces ; and the deviation from equality in the surface to be n<|in'wiitv(l| and its plane representation, increases from the centre to the circumference of till' pntji'Ction. (i.lH. The same is trtie of the ilereographic prqjeclion, but with this difference, that the dis- lortiiin ill the representation of the figure of any portion of the spherical surfaces proceeds ii) a contrary direction : in the former case, the degrees of longitude and latitude are gra- liniilly cuittrncted from the centre to the circumference ; but in the latter, they are enlarged. (i,'!!). tn the ilcreographic prqjeclion, the projecting point, or point of view, is the pole of lliv I'il'clo on which tlic projection is made ; and in the orthographic, it may be supposed in till' iixIn, and nt a very great, or rather indefinitely great, distance. It is this change of posi> liiili of the point of view that produces tlie change in the direction in which the degrees of lalitiido ui' longitude arc contracted. Hence it may be supposed, that, by taking a point of vK'w at KOine finite distance greater than the radius of the spliere, a perspective representation will lie (iblained, in which the degrees in the representation will be nearly equal, and the lU'viiilion iVotti equality in the representation of equal portions of the spherical surface in Mime nieusure corrected. 660. Zet A D B (Jig.52.) be a section of the sphere by a plane passing through £, the point of view, and C the centre ; draw the diameter F D to pass through E, and draw A C B per- pendicular to D F. Since the wliole quadrant A F is to be projected into the radius A C, if it be possible to make the representations of equal portions of it nearly equal, its halves A K and K F may be assumed as represented by A H and H C, halves of the radius : there- fore, 'V line drawn from K to E must bisect the radius in H. This determines D E, the distance of the projecting point, to be equal to " G, a perpendicular from the middle of lite quadrant, , (idl. To prove this eeomelricnt proposition, Arnv A F 'amIKCi ■ " - . ■ —r. _ -_ / B «2 / t>J 11/ c \ J icsr -^ n. To prove this (feometricnl propositim . C intcrscctinR m I, and Join H I. Then A I = I F and A 1 : 1 F : : A H : H C i tlicrefore H I Is parallel to C I' : hence, KI:1C:;KH:HE::GC: 1C:;KH:HE::GC:CE. Now, K 1 = I'G and I C = O C i therefore F G : O C : : G C : C E : hence F G • C E ^ G C^ = K G2= F G ■ G D; therefore C E = G I), and, taking away the line C D coritnon to both, D E is equal to C O or to K G. 662. Hence it appears that the distance D E is the sine of 45° ; and therefore nearly 7 1 of such parts as the radius C A contains 100. This projection was first suggested by M. Delahire, and is now commonly called till' Gliibliliir Pl'iijuction. If we suppose the quadrant A F divided into ten equal parts, llii'U llic pi'iijoctitihs of the arcs of 9^ reckoning from F to A, will be as in this table, in v'liicli the radius C A is supposed to be 10. Ai c. lU'prescntation. 1 Arc. Representation. 0^. . 0° •991 45°... 54° roi7 .. 18 •994 54 ... G3 1'020 IN .. '21 •999 63 ... 72 1-015 U7 .. :)6 1-004 72 ... 81 •997 !)« . ^5 1-013 81 ... 90 •950 rroin lliiN „iblu It appears, that the approximation to equality in the (>rojcction of equal iirt'N (if It circle perpendicular to the plane of projection is considerable. I'd;). Javrtling tu the principles of pcnfjiective, in this projection tlie circles of the sphere L 2 \ . 148 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II. will be represented by ellipses; and they have been so delineated iu two hemiitphere*, pro- jected, drawn, and beautifully engraved by Mr. Joseph Lowry, of London, llo haH pllU'ud London at tlic centre of the northern hemisphere, and instead of -707, Dvlahiru'* dlNtailco of the projecting point, he has made it -68 of the radius. 664. Ill general, lioivever, the projection is made on a meridian, and the circle* of tho sphere arc represented by circles, and without any regard to the distance of a point of vluw. Also, the degrees of longitude on the equator, and of latitude on a meridian, nro made nil equal. Witli tliese simplifications, the meridians and parallels on u hcmibplieru of tho eartll't surface may be represented by the following construction : — 665. Let us suppose the parallels of latitude to be traced tlirough every tenth degree, and tliat the meridians are to be an hour' from each other. Describe a circle, ENQS (/^, 53.), for the representation of tho meridian. Draw the diameters EQ.NS perpendicular to eaeli other ; one, E Q, to represent the eciiintor, and the other, N S, the meridian,' which U !»0^ from that on which the projection in inadu) N being the north, and S the south pole. Divide the quadrants EN, Q N, and the radius C N, each into nine equal parts | Ivt N 80, 80, 70, &c. be tho equal diviitionN of -jQ the quadrants, and N c, erf, &c. tho equal dlvj. sions of the radius : describe a circle (hrou)i{li the tliree points 80, c, 80, and it will bo the ru- presentation of the parallel of 80*^ of latitude | in like manner a circle described tin'ougli the pollllii 70, d, 70 will represent the parallelof 70" t llie remaining parallels, the tropics and polar cir- cles, on both sides of E Q, the equator, ore to be found in tlie same manner. 66G. Next for the meridiunit divide the rmlil C E, C Q each into six equal parts at the poliiti a, b, &c. ; describe circles through the points N a S, N 4 S, &c. and tlicKu will bo the repre- sentations of the meridians, any one of which, in laying down tiio positions of place* hy tlieir latitude and longitude, may be assumed as the first meridian. II. CONSTRUCTION OF MAPS BY DEVELOPEMENT. 667. The three methods of projection wliich have been explained are usually employed in the representation of a hemisplierc, but are seldom used in delineating the geugrapliU'nt features of a single country. For these, the method of developement is commonly employed. 668. A jKifect geographical rcjn-cscntation of a countri/ should represent all its parlit In jiiil proportion, and should exhil)it its true figure. This is exactly done on tho spliere ) but it can only be nearly accomplished on a plane surface. 669. The puriwses of civil government require maps that give tho true figure and diinetl* sions of territory. Military aQinrs require such as give co~rcct distances; and navlgalloil demands the exact bearing of one place from another. Ordinary maps fiillll approxlniately the two first purposes. Tlie last is completely satisfied by a map of a peculiar convtruclioii, called Mercator's cl^art ; but this is not immediately applicable to tho other purposcN. 670. It is a known jnroperty of a cone that its curve surface can bo expanded Into ii plane! hence any figure delineated on it can always be exhibited exactly in all its dimen >iih on a plane surCtce. Now, a part of the surface of a sphere contained between two paralU'ln iif latitude, not very remote, will not ditt'er much from the surface of a frustum of a cone lliiit touches the sphere in the parallel midway between them ; and this will aUo be true if it pass along the ciiord, or pass partly within and partly without the spliere, cuttin)( it lie- tween the middle and extreme parallels : in each case, the length of tliu shint side of llio frustum must be supposed equal to the length of the meridian between tho extreme paratk'N. On this principle, diti'erent constructions have been given for representing tho >iurface iif a sphere on a plane. 1 . Conical Developement. 67 1 . /,(■< P A Q {fig..''>4.) be a section of the meridian, P Q the axis, C tho centre, F. C llio radius of tiie equator, Ii D any arc of tlie meridian, and A the middle point lietueen II and D: draw tiic tangent A O, meeting the axis in O. Suppose now the plane ll)(iirii U A E to revolve about the axis 1' Q ; the semicircle P A Q will generate a sphere, nnil the tangent O A will generate the surface of a cone which touches tlio sphere In A. 'riin points B, A, 1) will generate the parallels of latitude IW>, A U a, l)r/, of which the inidilli) parallel Alia will be a section of the cone pcrpendi<:ular to its axis. Book !■ REPRESENTATION OF THE EARTH. 149 1 I "^ r\ — p-^—j '-'^^ ^^^_^--^\ m 11 A 'K (' y v_ _y 672* Take H ant/ point m s of the lines are to be taken. Tlitrefore, as before, tho radius of the sphere, of whicli a portion of tho spherical surface is to be represented, will be 3'137-7 minutes. 689. Let O A C D (Jig. 56.) he assiuned as the axis or middle meridian of the map; and let AD, H E be tho halves of llio \n\n of tiie extreme parallels of latitude to be repre- sented, and C tlie point in whicli tho middle parallel (5a" 30') cuts the axis; also, let O be the centre of tho circles, arcs of which nro to represent the parallels. 690. JJi/ the nature of the /iiYj/cc/i'dM, O C must be taken equal totlie cotangent of 52° 30' ; this, to radius = 1, is '7<»73a, and to a radius expressed by minutes, we have O C ' •7(i7;i;J X 3437-7 = 'J637'-8. 691. Having found O C, the radius tf the middle parallel, the radius of any other parallel may be found by adding or Hubtracting its distance in minutes of the meridian from the middle parallel. Thus we ihid the rtulii of [itu'ullels ditlering by 5°, as in the following table : — 1 Pttrallcl. Radius. Parallel. Radius. .13° 10 45 50 3(i87'8 ;);IS7-8 nOH7-8 a787-8 55° CO 65 70 2487-8 2187-8 1887-8 1587-8 Next, %1'e must Jtnd the mints in which some one meridian cuts all the parallels. II suppose it to bo :)0" oi longit.udo (Vom O C, the axis of the map. 692. We siiall 693. From the nature of the (/(-irA>/«-mt'ii<, tho arc of longitude on any parallel in the map is equal to the arc of tho parallel on the sphere which it represents. This has to au arc of the same numlicr of degrees of the meridian the proportion of the cosine of the latitude of tlio parallel to tho radius. Therefore, an arc of 30° = 1800' on a parallel whose latitude is L will bo in minutes, 18(X)x cosine L. 694, Hi/ this formula, tho lengths of the arcs may be easily computed liy a table of logarithmic sines : but, for a priiclicul construction, it will be more convenient to have the chords of the arcs. Now, in arcs not exceeding 30", the arc diminished by a fraction whose numerator is the cube of the arc, nnd deiioniiiuitor 24 times the square of the radius, is very iR'nr equal to the chord ; that is, a being put fur any arc, and r its radius, chord «™« — it !! 1 r* nearly. 695. From thisformula, tho chords may easily bo deduced from the arcs. G96. jIs an cxamnle, let tho arc of SO ' of longitude, and its chord on the parallel 35°, be required. Tor fncilily of calcultttiun, wo sliuU use logarithms. L4 ut PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II. Calculation of Arc. Calculation of Log. of 247*. 30°=1800' Cosine 35" - Arca=I474'-5 From log. of cube of arc Subtract Log. 24 r« - Differ, of arc and chord 9' -8 Logarithms. - 3-25527 - 9 -91 330 Radius of arc 687-8 Log. of square of radius 24 Logarithms 24 r* Logaritlima. - 3-56677 2 . 3-168C3 3 - 7-13354 . 1-38021 . 9-50589 . 8-51375 - 8-51375 . 0-99214 Thus, by an easy logaritlimic calculation, we have found the arc to be 1474' -5, and its excess above the chord to be 9' -8. Thorefore, the chord is 1464'-6 of the meridian. 15y a like process, we have found the arcs of 30° of longitude, and their chords on the parallels to every fifth degree, as in this table. Par.ofLat. Arcs, Cliord of Arc. 35 1474-5 1464-7 40 1378-9 13G9-4 45 1272-8 126:3-8 50 1157-0 1148-7 55 1032-4 1025-0 CO 900-0 893-6 65 7GO-7 7.55-5 70 615-6 611-8 697. Having now found the chord of .30° of longitude on the parallel of 35' to be 1464'-7 of the meridian, we must, with compasses, place that distance taiien from a scale of minutes from B to E, and to e ; and the points E, e will be in the representations of meridians 30"^ of longitude from the axis on each side. In the same way, the intersections of these meri- dians with the other parallels are found. Curve lines £ D, c ri must now be tract. 1 through all the intersections, and these will be the meridians in the map. 698. 2'he intersections of the intermediate meridians with the parallels may be found by dividing each parallel into thirty equal parts, from the axis both ways ; and as many meri- dian lines may be exhibited as may be thought necessary. In the figure here given tlicy •re traced to every tenth degree. 699. If the map is to extend further than 30' on each side of its middle meridian, the divisions of the parallels may be repeated on each, and meridians drawn. 700. This const met im of a map is memorable, because it was adopted by the general depot of war of France, about the year ISO,"?, as the groundwork of a system of geographical charts which should exhibit the French original territory, as well as the additions which had been made, and were expected to be made, by conquest or negotiation. Developemenl of the Curve Surface of a Cylinder. 701. The mariner, in navigating a ship between remote points on the globe, directs his course by the compass; steering as nearly as possible always in the same direction, supposing tlirrc arc no obstacles to prevent him. If the place from which he sets out, and that of his destination, be due north and south from each other, the ship's path will evidently be a great circle, viz, the meridian passing through them. If, again, they have the same latitude, he must sail on a parallel of latitude ; that is, his course must be due east or west. But if the places dilfer both in latitude and longitude, then it becomes a question, what is the nature of the line on the globe along which a ship must sail, with her head always in the same direction, as indicated by the compass, so as to pass from one to the other? 702. The line iu question, which is called a rhumb line or loxodromic line, has manifestly this property, ^ it cuts all the 7neridians on the globe at the came angle. By this property, a ship sailing along it will move always in the same direction, as shown by a compass : but it will not be a great circle ; for the equator is the only great circle that cuts all the nicri- diiins at the same angle ; and hence it appeal's that the line on the globe by which a ship passes from one place to another is never the shortest possible, except when Uiey are on the ume meridian, or on the equator. Book I. REPRESENTATION OF THE EARTH. 153 703. Supposing a navigator had a perfect delineation of the earth on a sphere, it is by no means evident how he should find the course lie ought to steer to reach a remote port. By due consideration, however, lie would see that the path must be a spiral. It would also be represented by a spiral curve on a map, formed by the developcraent of a cone ; but navi> gators required charts before the theory of such curves was understood ; therefore at that period his art must have been imperfect. 704. The wants of the navigator, accordingly, gave rise to the construction of a chart, in which the meridians and parallels were straight lines ; and in this the developement of the curve surface of a cylinder was employed. Let us conceive that a zone of the earth's sur- face, of no great extent in latitude, is inscribed in or circumscribed about a right cylinder, whose axis coincides with that of the globe : the planes of the meridians will cut the curve surface of the cylinder in straight lines, parallel to the axis ; and the planes of the parallels will cut it in sections perpendicular to the axis, which will be circles equal to the base of the cylinder. But in supposing the surface of the cylinder developed into a plane, these circles will become straight lines, perpendicular to the meridians. This developement has received the name of the plane chart ; its invention is attributed to Henry, son of John king of Portugal. This kind of chart has nothing but its simplicity to recommend it; for the degrees of longitude have, indeed, their just proportion to the degrees of latitude in the parallel common to the cylinder and sphere, but in no other parallel. 705. In the developement of a cylinder circumscribing the whole sphere, the area of any zone in the sphere is exactly equal to that of its representation in the chart ; and indeed the same equality may be observed in all cases, by a proper assumption of a ^>arallel of latitude as the base of the cylinder. The developement, however, has this great fault, — the degrees of longitude always err in excess towards the north and in defect towards the south of the mean parallel, which is assumed as the base of the cylinder. 70G. There is a construction, described in books of navigation under the name of a plane chart, the principle of which is somewhat different from that just described. In the sea- man's plane chart the meridians are parallel straight lines, and so also are the parallels of latitude ; and both are so laid down that a degree of latitude and a degree of longitude are equal in all latitudes. A chart of this kind, extending from SOP to 71" of nortli latitude, is given in Robertson's N'avigation. It may easily be conceived how incompetent such a representation must be to the purposes of navigation or geography. Mercalor's Chart. 707. The viler inadequacy of the old plane charts to the wants of geography and navigation induced ingenious men to consider whether a chart might not be so constructed as to repre- sent tlie meridians and parallels by straight lines, and at the same time readily show the true bearings of places from one another. The first tint gave a true solution — at least an approximate one — of this important problem was Gekard Mercator, who was born at liuremond, in Upper Guclderland, in the year 1512, and published a chart in 1556, wherein the rlmmbs, whicli on the globe are spirals, were represented by straight lines, as in the plane chart ; and so also were the meridians and parallels. It is not known by what prin- ciple Mercator constructed his chart ; it has been supposed that he observed on a globe furnihiied with rhumbs what meridians the rhumbs passed in each degree of latitude : it is certain he did not know the true principles of the construction ; for these were first found by Edward Wright, of Caius College, in Cambridge, who communicated his invention to liis friend Thomas Blundeville, with a short table, showing the correct distances of the parallels of latitude from the equator, which was published in 1594 by Blundeville, among ills ICxcrcises. The truth of the divisions of Mercator's chart was then tried by the numbers glvm by Wright, and they were found to be inaccurate: hence it appears that Mercator did not understand the principles of the map bearing his name, and that this important invention is due to Wright, who explained it himself, in his treatise entitled The Correction of certain Ju-rors in A^avigation, published 1599, but written many years before. 708. Although Wright's numbers were sufficiently correct for all nautical purposes, and miglit lie carried to any degree of accuracy, yet, in the progress of mathematical science, an improvement was made in his theory. Napier's invention of logarithms had proved an intstintablc advantage to navigation and geography, by shortening calculations : this, how- ever, was not the only advantage that the navigator derived from the invention ; fur, about the y:ar 1645, Henry Bond showed that the division of the meridian in Wright's chart was altogether analogous to the logarithmic tangents of half the complements of the latitudes, and might be cxi)ressed by them. He seems to have found this by chance : such accidental discoveries are, however, never made but by men of genius. He could not demonstrate his important theorem. At last James Gregory proved its truth in his Excrcitationes Geometric^, puhlishcd in I6C8. The construction of the chart was now made perfect. 709. The inivnlimi of Mercator's, or rather Wright's, chart, one of the most important in tlie IGtIi century, atlbrds a notable instance of the slowness with whicli men adopt improve- 154 MERCATOIVS CHART. 1 Book I< REPRESENTATION OF THE EARTH. 155 ^ » I " :' o i •? i I 1 ^ i ,"^,1, ti u 3 D O L"*-^'^ >m u o monts in science. AltliouRli designed for tlie use of sailors, it was at first by no means cencrally used by them. William Uurrougli, a celebrated navigator, wlio liad entered on his profession at the age of fifteen, and risen by his merit to tlie rank of controller of Queen Elizabeth's navy, objected to its usefulness. He said — " lly Mercator's augmenting liis decrees of latitude towards the poles, the same is more fit for such to behold as study in cosino"r«|)hy, by reading outhors upon the land, than to be used in navigation at the sea." It is curious to observe that logarithms, the other grand auxiliary of navigation, met with a like reception from the German mathematicians that were somewhat advanced in years. 710. Mercalars chart maybe produced by dcvelopement, as follows; — Conceive that a snliere, with the meridians and parallels and countries delineated on it, is enclosed in a liollow' cylinder, and that the axis of the sphere coincides with that of the cylinder. Imagine now that the sphere is expanded in its dimensions, just as a soap bubble is produced by |)lowiii" air into it, or u? a bladder would swell in all directions by inflation, the parts al«ays''stietching uniformly ; the meridians will lengthen in the same proportion as the naraliels, till every point of the expanding spherical surface comes into contact witli the concave surface of the cylinder: the meridians will at last become straight lines, and the parallels, circles on that surface ; the former in the direction of its length, and the latter parallel to its base, which is the equator. Suppose now the surface of the cylinder to be cut open along one of tlie meridians, and spread into a plane ; the surface thus produced will lie Mercator's chart. 711. Mercntors chart is constructed, then, on the following geometrical principles: — 1, The meridians are parallel straight lines at equal distances, for equal differences of longitude ; and the parallels of latitude are also straight lines, perpendicular to the meri- dians. 2. Supposing a meridian on the globe be divided into minutes of a degree ; one of these, at any parallel of latitude, will be to a minute of longitude taken on that parallel in tlie proportion of the radius of the equator to the radius of the parallel, which is the cosine of tlie latitude ; that is, as the secant of the latitude to radius. Now the same holds true in the chart ; that is, a minute of the meridian, at any parallel, has to a minute of longitude in that parallel the proportion of the secant of the latitude of the parallel to radius. 712. Sy the first of these properties a minute of longitude in the map is represented by a line of the some length in every parallel ; therefore, by the second the minutes of the meri- dian will be represented by lines which go on increasing from the equator towards the poles. From this it follows that, if a minute on the equator be taken as the unit of a scale, and that unit be considered as the radius of a circle, then the representation of a minute of the meridian, at any latitude, will be expressed by the number in the trigonometrical tables which is the secant of that latitude. Thus it appears that, while the degrees of longitude on the equator form a scale of which the divisions are all equal in the map, the degrees of lati- tude marked on a meridian form a scale of which the divisions go on increasing from the equator towards both poles, each being the sum of the secants of all the minutes in the dcfsree. 71.'!. The tiumbers which result from the addition of the secants of 1 minute, 2 minutes, and so on to the last minute of any arc of the meridian, reckoned from the equator, are given in books on navigation. They form the table of meridional parts, and serve for laying down the jiosition of any place in the chart. The addition of the secants is, however, only an approximation to the true length of the enlarged meridian in the chart ; but it is sufficiently near the truth for nautical or geographical purposes. In strictness, also, it must be consi- dered that the earth is not a sphere, but a spheroid, and on that account allowance ought to be made for its compression at the poles. Tlie following short table shows the length of the enlarged meridian, both on the sphere and the spheroid, to every fifth degree of latitude. The compression is assumed to be §5^. Lat. Mcriilional Parts. Lat Meridional Farts. Sphere. Spheroid. Sjihcro. Spheroid. 0° 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0-00 300-38 003-07 910-46 1225-14 l.';49-99 1888 -.38 2244-29 2622-69 3029-94 00 298-37 599-01 905-28 1217-69 I,';4I-17 1877-99 2232-09 2608-35 301441 50' 55 00 65 70 75 80 85 90 3474-47 3967-97 4527-37 5178-81 5905-92 6970-.34 8375 20 10764-62 Infinite. 3457-39 3950-57 4509-41 5159-93 5945-51 6951-07 8352-24 10741-75 Infinite. lit PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Paki IT. 714. To const nicl Afercator's chart (Jig. 57.), draw two straight lines W E, N S nt right W • N M) A . ua ^ — ' 1 quator will be no meridian for proper direc- int thus found inal parts ; and ship ouRlitto points, and the (f the Island o( ! the course on dering that the jridional parts), angle, of « liiih ute angles, viz. assing tlirouRh uigled triangle, le bide, and the of all places on ijn, Edinburgh, [c of meridional Ic figure of the Ihowever, wbich Biich it was firit w 158 SCIENCE or GEOGRAPHY. Part II. BOOK II. OEOIOGICAL I'lllNCIPLES. 725. Geologi/ is that branch of natural history which treats of the otmonplicrc, the watcri of the globe, unci of the mountain-rocks of « liich tlic earth is composed. No ilepartment of natural history abounds more in important fads and interesting conclusions ; and therefore we shall lay before our readers a short view, l-.f, Of the natural history of the atmosphere, or mctcmilojii/ i lidly, Of the natural history of the waters of the globe, or lii/diologj/ / and, 3dly, 0»' the solid niaterials of wliidi the earth is comj)osid, or ncn^nusi/. Chap. I. METKOKOLOCIi'. 72G. This beautiful deparlnwiU nf science makes us acquainted with all the pre. ertics and relations of tlie H/.yio>yi/if;<; which surrounds our planet. Although in general but little stu.lied by geologists, a knowledge of it is, nevertheless, most useful in a geological i)oint of view, oi wliieh tlie details wo shall now lay before our readers will allbrd ample proof. Skct. I, I'ressure, Jleiglit, Form, and Tcmjycriilurc of the Almusphere. 727. The air in which we breathe, with the clouds and vapours floating in it, surround the earth on all sides to an unkn-jwn height, and form a moveable envelope denominated tiie almonphere. The human species, and other land animals, being thus entirely immersed in this fluid, may with some propriety be said to inhabit an ocean as really as the fishes which live in th;; great deep, liut the hater have the advantage in being able to mount up, remain, or descend at pleasure in their element : whereas, witiiuut some additional aid, «c must content ourselves with tlie more humble allotment of remaiiung on the bottom of uiir ocean. The winged tribes, doubtless, have the power of ascending to great heights ; still they can never reach the summit. There is nothing more essential to the existence or health of man himself, or of the various inferior animals and vegetables which live on our globe, than ihe air or atmosphere ; nor has any agent a greater share in the innunienible changes which are daily taking |daie on the inanimate materials composing our planet, h is not wonderful, then, that the composition and properties of the atmosphere should huie so often e::cited eiKpiiry. To give an account of these, and of their relations to otlicr bodies, particularly to the various substances which are dill'used in the atmosphere, and really or apparently deposited from it, constitutes the science of meteorology. MliiUi engaging in this task, so far as our limits permit, it will be fully as instructive, and smrtily more tedious, occasionally to introduce a very brief sketch of the mode in \\ Inch some of ll:e leading facts were first discovered ; but there is reason to think that a few of the more obvious properties of air have been known, as it were instinctively, from the rdnotest antiquity. 728, That air is a Inxlj/ or siihstunce possessing the essential properties of matter, appears from the resistance which it offers to the occuiiation of its place by other bodies. Thus, if an apparently empty glass jar be first inverted, and tlu'ii immersed in a vessel of water, that liquid will oidy enter a very little way into the jar, the rest being occupied by the air. This familiar experiment shows that air is a body, by its resisting the entry of the water. At the same time it shows the air to be an elastic or compressible substance, otherwise it should have completely excluded the water. That it is a fluid is evident from Ihe ease with wliidi bodies move in it, from its pressing equally in every direction, and passing with great hieilil}' through extremely minute openings. 72!). 'The ancients must liave been aware of these properties, or at least some of tliiir practical applications, otherwise they could not h.ave constructed their powerful air-j,'uns, nor availed themselves of the principle of the diving-bell : for, in those early ages, the adventurers who dived in search of pearls, &c. were accustomed to hold large pots or kellhs inverted on their heads. The air wliich these ojien vessels contained both excluded tin' water, and for a short time supported respiration j thus forming diving-bells in a purtabli' shape. The ancients likewise, in some of their mechanical contrivances, availed themselves of that property of air by which it expands with heat and contracts with cold. It was on this principle that, in more modern times, Sanctorio constructed the air thermometer. 7.'50. Il'eighl and irrcssure are properties of the air as of all other bodier. : it |)resses on the earth's surface, and on every other body with which it comes into contact. This was conjic- turcd even by the ancients. Uut the effects which are now known to result from the weigbl and elasticity of tue air were for a long time ascribed to a principle called fu;j:a viicid, or nature's abhorrence of a vacuum. • So late as the beginning of the seventeenth ceiitur), • Many rrinciples laiil down l)y our pliilnsoplicrs Imvc been fount! false or imjwrfect ; but they were truly the general esiiression of the iihenonicna then known. Aristotle saw, for exani|ile, solid or tluid hotlics fall towanls llie ground wluii lliiy ceased to be supiMirleil, gaseous limlies rise from the liottoni towards Ihe sur- iacp uf 111.' water, and flame direet itself tuwuids the sky ; and lie concluded thai air and lire had a teiiilcJicy Fart II. Book II> MKIEOUOLOOY. 159 crc, the wotcr* ik'partmcnt of and tlii'rvfure lio iitniosplicrc, ijdrobgifi and, ; jin.,crtic(i and iniTuI but little )lu);ical point of iiplo proof. in it, surround ilunominati'd the (dy itnuiursfd in the lislu's »liidi f to mount lip, Idilional aid, we 10 bottom of our .■at litiglits ; still llio I'xihtciice or iliitdi livo on our tliu iniuuiu'ruldu r our plantt. It lIllTC slioidd IWM! Iidatioiis to olhiT atmosplicro, and [)rolo(^y. NVliilst jtivc', aiiil siariTiy hich some of tlie tlio more obvious li'st autini of wntiT in pump* was owing to tliis pnnclpio, und that by meaim of iiuftlon lluiilit mJKlit hu ruineil to any beJKlit wliatover. Hut Galileo, tluniKli still in( liiiinn In llio old iipinliin, remarked that water did not rise in a common pinnii imless tho suekur or liuiket riiudieil within 111 feet of im Hurfacu in thu well. Ileiieo iif was forced to eonjeelure, that not the power of itietion, but the pressure of the ntmosphero (wi the surface of tlio well, wilt llio caiiso «)f the wiiter'n ascent ; that a column of water ;l I feet high was a counter|ioine to onu of uir on an equal liiiHe, but reacliin){ to the top of the atmosphere i and that, for IIiIn reiiMin, water could not follow the sucker any farther. 7:)1. TurriiYlli, a disciplo of (iallKo, piollted by iIiIn hint. It occurred to him that the samo force wliicli supported water lo the hel){ht of 111 feet would sustain a column of any other thiid which weiK'n'd iih iiiiicIi on an eipial Iiiiho | and therefore mercury, being ll)'6 times iw heavy as 'vater, should only be MUxpended lo the lieif^lit of 'J9 or 30 inches. Accordingly, he took a glass lube iVoin lliree lo four feet long, and closed at one end ; this he filled with nieieiiry; then, stopping lis iiniiilli with his linger, he inverted the tube, and on re-opening its inoiitli in a vessel of ipileksilver llii> result verilled liis expectation. The mercury, oheying the laws of hydroslallcH, ileNcended in llie tube till the vertical column was aliout :)U inclies above the level of Iho cistern, leaving the remaining space at the top empty or nearly a vacuum, lleneo lie inferred that it was only the weight or pressure of the This fttinosiihere on the mercury in lliu clNlern which balanced the column in the tube, ij usually called the Torricellian experlineni, and is the foundation of the barometer. 711'.'. The mean fmnurv is evi'ry where the Hiime at the level of the se-., and eipial to about M^lhs. on the sipiaro inch. It becomes less iis the jdiice is elevated above the sea, and greater if below its level. The preptsure of the ainiosphere, as measured by the mercurial column, varies soiuewliat lit every place on lliu earth's surface. Generally speaking, its variations are greatest in Ihu leiiiperiilu mines, decreasing towards the equator and poles. The annual range rarely exceeds half an inch in the torrid zone. It is about two inches at Lundiin, and Ihu same nt St, I'elertbiirg, but ritlher less at Melville Island. It nowhere exceeds •A\ inches. Thu annual riingtkis more considerable at the level of the tea than on mountains; and iiniUr Ihu sumu lutilllile it is less, as Iho height of the place above the sea is greater. The barometer has a lemleiu'y lo rise from 4 P.M. to 10 P.M.; to full from 10 I'.M. to 4 A.M. ; lo rise from •! A, M. lo 10 A.M. ; and again to fall from 10 A.M. to 4 P.M. Different uulhors, however, diller n Utile both as lo the hours and Iho amount of the diurnal variation, which appears lo be greater as the latitude is lower. The barometer is likewise elevated a little at the i|uarlers of the moon, und depressed at the new and full. The range of this instrument Is greater In winter than in summer. 7:1;!. The baromfter ranne» higher in proportion as the weother is more serene and settled; calm weather, with a tendency lo rain, depresses it ; high winds have a similar effect, espe- cially from the west und south, during which it smnelimes sinks very low without rain. On (he other hand, the barometer generally rises with northerly and easterly winds, even though accompanied with rain, In exira-lroplcal climates, n full in the barometer, without a change or rise of wind, is usually followed by ruin. 7;H. The law which renulalea the I'tiinlieili) of the air fonn'?d the next important step, oflcr the discovery of the pressure. It was iiiiule liy Doyle in Ki, gland, and Mariottc in France, who discovered, much ubout the same lime, that the temperature being the same, the pressure or clastic force of air is directly as ils density, or inversely as ihc space it occupies. This law, though received as correct at the lime of ils discovery, came 'o be frequently called in question during more than a eenliiry iil\er> In making experiments c.-! this subject, there .ire many sources of error lo be guarded against ; and it wouUI have been nothing reinark- ahlc though the first conchiNioiiH had been a little inaccurate. Indeed thu law continued to be suspected till within these few years. Uut MM. Diilong and Petit have more recently examined it through u wide range of tem|ieralure, Professor Oersted has tried it under a great variety of pressures ; and within the llinils of their experiments the law was found to hold good. The writers of certain popular works just publishing do not seem aware of this, as they siill state the old doubts in nil their force. 73j. The variiihle ra/xinli/fni' henl forms another property of air of no less importance, but which seems to have been little known or ntlelided lo till towards the end of the last cen- tury. When air undergoes a change of volume, it at the same time changes its capacity for loaMTiiil, earth nml water to aeacena. \Vi> now know tliiil thrne inolinnn, althoush inverse, arc the result Ola siiiK'li' pinver j l)ut we have «i riveil ill tliU illnidvery alter the liisiillli'ieiu'y of the lirst explanations were reiidirud manliest by new Cai'ts. 'I'lie unnie rcinai k iipplles to the much vitiipcratcd prinriple of the horror of a vacuum. Aristotle An\ not tKlnlilinh it I'l prim I, he only auiiounri'il it as the Keneral expression of (he facts then known. If hu hail seen water «tii|iplni( In nnnips nt n height of thirty-two feet, .-ind mercury risiiif; to Inenly.eiKlit inches in the'rorricellliin lube, perliaps on conipariiiK tlie speci lie weights, ana the height of the two ciilumns, he woulil have lieni leil to ili«ciiver the true eniise of the phenomenon. We may remark, that solnng as experiment had nut shown the I'lmlrary, It was just as rational to suppose that botlics had a aisposi. tiontucairy themselves wherever a vacuum temli'd In loiin, as toadinil that tliey attract each other, as is now believeil. The principle of thu Imrnir oj' a I'liruiiin is fonna false ; tint it lias nothing absura in itself, anrt can only seem so to persons who take In Ihe llliral sense a (Iguratlve expression, (an expression perfectly limilar to many others wliisb WW employ without lUtUplv,) bucuuiu language doca not furniin lu with any tba\ ire (icrfectly rigoruun. 160 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part 11. heat: becoming hotter by compression, and colder by rarefaction. The want of acquaintance with this circumstance led Nci' i an, u:id mony others after him, into the mistake of concluding, that the particles of ela-itic fluids repel each other witli forces inversely as their central distances; which cann'.U be tiie case if the capacity be attected, no matter in what manner or degree, by a change o;' density. Hut very extensive experiments, made by some of tlio most eminent scitutilic men in France, and repeated in this country, are favourable to tlio idea that the particles of air observe the same law 'as magnetism and electricity, repelling each other with force? inversely as the squares of their distances. 736. There is a gradation of density in the air. Being, as already stated, a compressive body, it is obvious that the lower parts of the atmosphere, by sustaining the greater wdgln or pressure of the air above them, must be so much tlie more condensed j and therefore, as we ascend in the atmosphere, the density will continually diminish. Accordingly, it may bo shown from the principles already laid down, that were the temperature and the force of gravity uniform at all heights above the earth's surface, the densities of the strata would decrease in geometrical progression for altitudes taken in arithmetical progression, so as nearly to halve the density for every 3-5 miles of ascent. 13ut, independently of a trilling change in the forte of gravity, this is not exactly the law of nature ; for it is found tliat the temperature generally decreases as we go upward, ard that not according to any fixed law, Hence the relation between the density and altitude is not of a steady characier, and can only be obtained in any particular case from observing the pressure, temperature, and liygro. metric state of J.\e air. This is a rcKearch to which many eminent men liave turned tjii'ir attention ; and their successive labours have led to the fi^nnation of convenient rules, by which the heights of mountains can be obtained to a considerable degree of accuracy, and with great facility, by means of the barometer, ■tc. 737. The height and form of the atmosphere are olyects of interest. With an uniform temperature, tlic law of Uoyle ^^ould involve the notion that its l";ight is infinite ; but this is an idea which has scarcely any supporters, nnd is generally believed to be incompatible with the laws of motion. Dr. Wollaston, whose opinion is entitled to great deference, maintains that the atmosphere must terminate at the height where the repulsive force between its particles equals their tendency to gravitate towards the earth. The law of gravity may be aii.nitlcd as known, but the same can hardly bn affirmed of the law wliich regulates the r-jpulsive force, so long as the temperature at great heights is unknown ; and this circumstance leaves the boundary undetermined. A doubt of a more serious nature, how- ever, attaches to this speculation, on the ground that we are totally ignorant with what materials the air may be mixed at great ele\ations. The atmosphere is generally suiiposcd to be higher at the equator than at the poles ; but we have neither data for computing tlie heights, nor the jjroportion in which they diHer ; so that the oblate spheroidal figure which some give to the atmosphere can be considered as little else than an ingenious conjecture. V38 The temperature of the atmosphere has great influence on most meteorological plic nomena ; but it is exceedingly variable, and can as yet be determined only hy ntliial observation on the spot. Nothing would tend to throw greater light on many of the unresolved questions in meteorology, than a ready mode of computing with certainly the temperature which obtains at any instant in a point of the atmosphere remote from the con- tact of the eai th's surface, and at any point on the surface remote from the observer ; but these are likely to continue desiderata. The very little that is known of the temperature ul' air remote *roni the cai-th's surface has iicen derived from a few aeronautic excursions, par. ticularly tlir unexampled ascent of M. Gay-Lus5;ac to the height of 7G30 yards. 739. Mr. Dalton, about the commencement of the present century, proposed a theory of gradation of heat in the atmosphere, on the supposition that the same weight of air, taken anywhere in a vertical column, contains the same quantity of heat ; and hence he coneludeJ that the temperature ought to be regulated solely by the capacity of the air for heat at the particular density. This theory seemed very plausible at the time, was embraced l>y sonic of the first sages of the age, and appeared to agree sufficiently with what was then supposed to be known of the variahle capacity of air for heat. Hut simpler and more accurate experiments have since shown, that the decrease of temperature due to rarefaction far exceeds that observed in aeronautic ascents ; and therefore, if such observations arc to be depended on, there must be other causes which interfere with Ualton's law. lio. The heat of the air in one shape or other is no doubt greatly derived from the snn, cither immediately, by intercepting the solar rays, or indirectly, from its contact with the earth's surface, which is more or less heated according as it is turned more or less towards the sun ; l)ut whether heat, in return, be projected from the c^arth or its atmosphere towards other regions of space, is a disputed question. Professor Leslie maintains that heat, which is not accompanied with or rather in the state of light, caimot pass through a vacuinii, niul, of course, that it cannot pass the boundary of the atmo.sphere. If so, it would follow that tlie atmosphere docs not contii.ually draw olV heat from the earth, but may oftener be the warmer of the two, M;uiy philosophers, however, are of a different opinion, among whom was tin) late ingenious Dr. Wells, with most of those who embraced his theory of dew. These allege, DUOK II> METEOROLOGY. 161 of acquaintance e of concluding, as tlieir central what manner or by some of the iivourublc to the tricity, repelling , a compressible e greater weight inii tlierefore, as ingly, it may be ind the force of ;lie strata woulil rogressiori, so as iitly of a trifling is found that the o any fixed law, laracier, and can iturc, and lijgro. ave turned their vcnieiit rules, by of accuracy, aud With an uniform infinite ; but this be incompatible great deference, > repulsive force til. The law of of the law which nknown ; and this ious nature, bow- lorant with what encrally supposed or computing tlie )idal figure wiiich ous conjecture, ctcorological phe- only by actual on many of the with certainty the otc from the con- thc observer ; but he temperature of excursions, par- ards. )posed a theory of ight of nir, taken ince he concluded ir for heat at the mbraccd by some •as then s\i)>posc(l id more accurate action far exceeds re to be depended ul( that lient in conHtnntty projected from the earth and atmosphere tonrards the boundless regions of Kpaei). ObNervntiuii hIiows, that much h^at posses upward from the earth's surface, espe- cially wlii'ii llio air Ih clear. In this way, the stratum of air in contact with the surface is cooled iiiorv thiui that which is somewhat higher. It is probable that there exists a natural tendency in tlio utniuiiphcrc, as in most other bodies, towards an uniform temperature tlirou){liiiut itH wliulo height ; and since currents in its upper regions usually come from a wurniei' (|Uiirtiir, nitd the lower currents from a colder, there is upon the whole, independently of a'eroimuliu olnturvations, some ground for supposing that the decrease of temperature on iisecndln|{ in tlio ntinosphcre should be slower than the law of capacity as increased by dihitaliun rviiiiirvN. Til. The /(ilhwhig Hit of temperatures, chief y observed at stations employed in the hiiriinivtrlciil invnitiireincnts of heights, is taken ji'rom M. Ramond's work on that subject. Only n few of tlienu tncasuremcnts embrace the whole heights of the mountains on which tlicy weru iniuUs niid the first case is of a different ci .ss. We have reduced the temperatures to l''ahri'iilii'it'N walo : — I'lurw, llclRtll. at l»|. Temp, at (Oil. Places. HelKht Temi). atbol. Temp, at toil. Yard.. e e Yanlj. o e nnv.I.uanne'a aicciit ■ • 78.10 87.4 14.9 Pic d'Eyr^, Tarl.es Vic du Montaign 2.'547 79.3 51.8 CliholHiriun (iK7 77.5 29.1 2244 58.1 37.6 Miini Itlnne, (lenuva 478s; 8a.9 26.8 Pic du Midi, Uarigcs ■ - 1808 80.1 61.5 nillo ^ 81.7 29.1 Ditto ^ 71.4 464 I'ii'de TenorinV . 4077 7e,8 47.1 IJitto .... ^ 70 3 46.8 Moni lllaiH', Clmmouny 4070 73.4 26.8 Ditto ^ &-..3 42.8 Ktim • ... 3340 73.6 39.9 Ditto .... -M 50.6 36.5 Mnni I'erilu, T«rlie« . S'tOH 78.1 44.4 Ditto — 640 44.6 Ccilihi 0 42.4 Maliidi'llo ,')174 KtA 38.1 Ditto mm. 6-1.1 41.4 I'lcilu Midi, Tnrbvi . ■ i;8;58 8I..5 52.9 Puy de D'me, Clermont . Ditto .... 1163 70.3 .57.9 Dlllii ^ 67.3 47..'; ^ 64.0 51.4 Dlilci .... ^ T2.5 'Ml. 6 Ditto ^ fti-LS 5.3.1 OHIO «. 71.3 50.7 Ditto . . . • ^ 76.6 59.4 Dilln .... _ (W.8 46.6 Ditto •■» 91.2 74.1 Dlllo ^ 66.4 39.2 Btdat du Bagn^rcs, Tarl>cs . 611 51.6 4Pi Dili -» r,H.r, 39.7 Pont du Dcrgcs, Clermont . r>si 32.5 ■..6.8 Tdl weri> regulated solely by the density, it would be (448° + /) ["(j)* — !• T Ml. '/'//(' invinliii/t tnhk contains the temperatures of the air ot different heights for one or a lew (iiu'lii'ular instants ; but we shall now add o table from Baron Humboldt of the tiiinii Icm/H'mliit'i's of I'lovatcd situations, as deduced from several years' observations. The iloKives luc lliONO of' l''alirenlieit's scale. 713. 1'rom Ihii tabh it appears, that, in the mean state of the atmosphere, the temperature does not decrease uniformly fur a uniform ascent. At the equator, the then meter falls 10° in the first 1000 yards of ascent, or about 1° for 310 feet. In the next 1000 yards, it is only 1° for 524 feet ; but in the third and fourth stages there is a remarkable acceleration, which, having attained, its ma>im-im rate, is diminished again in the fiftli stage to s'v.ne- v*hat less than it was in the first, or to 1° in 320 feet. The mean rate in the variation of temper- ature, throughout the whole height of 15965 feet, at the limit of |)crpetual snow, is 1° for every 341 it'i'l, 'J'lio Niniiller rale of decrease in the second and third stages is ascribed by Humboldt to the larifi' deiiMi i'IuuiIh which are suspended in this region, aud which, he alleges, nave the triple illvilof iiliHoi'hiiig iIh' sun's riiys, fi)rmiiig rain, ami intercepting the radiation of heat from tho M'lillil III Kiuili.li Ik- 1. h'liiialiiifiiil wiic friiiii im, ir III III" Teinntrnle tone (Volll Inl. 43" 10 47". .Mfrtll 'IdIMJIi IllllVr- KlU't'. Mrftil Temp. DilllT. eiice. .■11 111 !l'iS7 l.ilHi.'i liVj ft? 7 44 II .■14,7 IO,.'t lU 7,4 III 11,11 41.01 milt o , 12,6 ( 9.4 J 8.2 I 162 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Pakt ri. earth. In the temperate zone, the decrease is at the rate of 1° for 253 feot, clurlii(( tliu flritt 1000 yards of ascent. But throughout tlie whole height of 9587 feet, to the limit of |ivr|H>timl snow, wliere the mean temperature is 23'4'', tlie decrease is 1° for 317 feet, or nlinoHt I" fur 100 yards. As already remarked, observations made in tlie free regions of the atinoNplu'ru have not yet been so numerous as to warrant any certain conclusion regarding tliv tuinpei'- ature ; but, so far as such observations go, they do not difler very widely ft'om the inwm of those observed on the sides and summits of mountains. 13ut generally in the temppratu m\u; a diflerence of 1000 yards in height will produce a difierence of 12° of temperature ; luul no on in proportion for smaller heights. In higher regions, the difference between tliv heiilN of day and night, summer and winter, seem to be less than at the level of the sea i tliiiii(;ll (Voiii this there are some exceptions. Extensive table-lands are usually wanner than iiiNuliiU'il peaks of the same height. Humboldt calculates that, in the temperate zone an UNCeill of 110 yards diminishes the temperature as much as an additional degree of latitude. 746". Temperature of air in mines. Having thus noticed the lower lemperattircH wlilcji obtain in more elevated situations, we shall now give some account of the inereuNvd leni. perature which generally prevails in air occupying deep caverns and mines. 'I'lieie I'Hii liu no doubt OS to such facts, but the source of the heat is still a subject of contruverky, 'I'lieiu are so.ne mines intensely cold; and as these were first observed, the expluniitiuu olllred miik, that tlie colder portions of air had, by their greater weight, descended inlo (he niinen i liiil this solution entirely vanished when it was known that mines are generally hot. 'J'lie liciit of the workmen, their fires and lights, have been stated as sources of heat ; hh likewise ilio chemical action of uir and water on the minerals. Some again allege that a liigh lenipcr- aturc obtains in the interior of our globe, and consequently that the heat wih itlwayit lit< greater as we penetrate farther. However, it is found that on boring into the holiil htriila in the bottom of warm mines, and letting down a thermometer, the teni|)eniture, no fur IVtiin increasing, comes short of that in the mine. This suflicicntly proves that, whatever lie (liu sources of heat, some of them at least must operate in or be situated about the mine itni'll', That a high temperature obtains in the interior, is in many instances evident from the tilt'eiiiiiit of hot water and vapour which issue from fissures in the strata : but in many warn) niinin nothing of this is observ.able. Professor Leslie, Dr. I'orbes, and afterwiuils Mr. MiiKJii'W Miller, have suggested the heat evolved by a current of air, while it undergocH nil Iiu'iviimi of pressure in descending into the mine. T!io first two of these philusoplierH did not di'ilii this an adeipiate source of heat; and iNIr. IMiller seems to entertain simihir iIoiiIiIn, lliil from what is now known of the great heat evolved by the com|iression of air, llieie iiiii liv little room to question that this furnishes a considerable supply, wherever tlnre is n Nullii'iciU current of air. Thus, if air at the temperature of (i'J'-' F. have its density suddenly iiictviiNiMJ by the I'Oth part, the temperature will be raised 1°; supposing no heat to be Uiit on the hlikit of the shaft. This would give 1'" for a descent of 170 feet, which is still short of the ruli' iit which the temperature is observed to increase in liritish mines ; but when adiled lo llie liriit caused by the presence of tlie workmen and horses, their lights,blasting of rocks, fires, \e. togi'< ther with i^onie increase uf temperature belonging to the deeper strata, there does not wvm; 'iiiy mystery in the heat of some, although probably not of all, mines. Those inilieH, ugalii, in which 'It. t is almost nociicuhitionof air, and which present a wide mouth to u clear i.ky. iiiiiy have the 1 tcinjieratuie reduced In' radiating heat upwards, in the same way that philllx iii'u sU'ii ved with . olii I ly being too mulie'ii hygrinneter Indieiited dryiU'ni) N.I .Jarrow Colliery, County ((/ llurliiim, Air at the surface ..... I'lJ Water at surface . - ■ .411 Air at depth of Sft'J feet . . • Vo Water it tame depth . • . . (IH The engine pit of Jarrow is the deepest perpendicular shaft in Itritain, being DtH) IVet In the foot of the pumps, w here the temperature of the air was (j4''. KillinKWorlli Colliery, Sorlhumoerlonit. Water at most distant rurulicnd ailil I'.'liO Air at surface 4S'-J F. ,. I'et below Rurlacu Water nt surface . . . . 4'l A. r at same depth , „ , , Air at bottom of shaft ViX) feet deep . . .M At lhi» depth, distilled water boiled lit Air at depth of '.Kid licl, anil a mile and half from kuttoni uf down-cast pit 70 When at Mirlacc it hoilcil at 71" K •/7 vi;l k'liin iRT lit Iio Oritt »r|M>tiiul It l" lor lUNphvru U'llllK'f" imnn uf an wnv, I IU\(I Mt lii'iilK of iltli iVoitt liiNtiliiU'd nvi'utit of rcN wliit'li tNvd ll'lll- u viti) liu . Tlii'io liH'i* 1 tml 'I'liu luiit kvwlHV Ihi' I) ti'iniM'i'- 1(1 Htl'llllt ill o fill' fit'iii vwr Ih' tliu mini) llKi'lf- (ln>Mi'i'mii« (irm iiiiiu" Ir. MiiUliiw nil iiii'i'viiKi' 111 i\((t (U'Hii llllllN. lUit Ihi'ii' t'liii III' ^ a HUlllvii'iit ly lia'iviiHi'il on tlu' '■iili'* I' \\W lull' III ,) III ilu' ll>'Ht vii.iSii'. Iii«f lilt *vv\<: 'iiiy ii'K, iiKiiiiii ill (If -.ky. limy It iiliiiilt iii'i! ii)uvU'iii'il*y' nmy U' •"'•'" inliiT of •!"' Mr, lliilil'i . Ill' I'. . . \M |jl'l/(IHl'. . rJ . 411 lovil III' lliu lll'lt . ';ii . llM |iy»i'«» Hi 1'"'"""' u,l '. Ill . 'ill . IIH L (MH» fiv't '" 111* W'" ..,.v . 'i1 lit -^'l''. Book IL METEOROLOGY. 10S 748, The temperature of springs and caverns, in many places, coinciiles ivith the mean annual teinperatiire of tlii; air : but Humboldt alleges that, in latitudes above 45°, the mean heat of s|>rings and caves exceeds that of the atmosphere. As connected with this subject, JNlr. Fer,;uson, of Ilaith; had four large thermometers sunk in his garden, to the respective depths of 1, 2, 4, und 8 feet, in lat. 56° 10', and 50 feet above the sea. The stems and scales rose above ground, and indicated the following monthly mean temperatures : January . . - 181(i. 1817. 1 Foot. 2 Feet. 4 Feet. 8 Feet. 1 Foot. 2 Feet. 4 Feet 8 Feet. 3.i.00 St)..;" 40.7'' 43.0" 3.>.()» 38.7" 40.50 45.1° I'L'hriiary . - - 33.7 3(1 39.0 42.0 37.0 40.0 41.fi 42.7 March 3.')0 36.7 S'J.ti 42.3 39.4 40.2 41.7 42.5 April 39.7 38.4 41.4 4,!.8 4.5.0 42.4 4'.'.fi 42.fi Jlay .... 40.0 4.S..3 4,!.). 4-40 ■W).8 44.7 44.G 44.2 June ... .ll.fi 50.0 47.1 *).8 51 1 ■19.4 47.fi 47.8 July 51.0 52.5 50.4 47.7 55.2 .5.50 51.4 4!l.(i August rA).0 .52 5 .5(l.fi 49.4 5,i.4 .53.9 .W.O 50.0 Scptcmljcr 5I.fi 51.3 51.8 .OO.O 5.i.0 .52 7 52.0 .W.7 October ♦7.0 4!».3 497 49.fi 4 -..7 49.4 49.4 49.8 November 40.8 43.8 4ii.3 45.fi 41.0 44.7 47.0 47.0 December Mean of the "Vear 35.7 40 43 4<>.0 35.9 40.8 44.9 4t>.4 43.8 44.1 4,5.1 46.0 44. 'J 45.9 4fi.2 46.6 Lat. Old World. New World. I Diir. 0" to 30 40 .|;o 60 70 81.5" 81. .5" 779 77.9 T07 67.1 6'i.5 54.5 .loo 38.3 41.0 2.1.0 33.0 0.0 0" 3rt 9.0 12.fi IfiO 33.0 Had the thermometers been sunk considerably deeper, they might have been expected to liave indicated 47° 7', which is the constant temperature of a neighbouring spring issuing from a tr;ip rock. 749. Tlie local temperature or climate of a country depends very much upon its distance from the equator, and its height above tl\e level of the sea ; but tlie nature of the surface, tlie proportion of humidity, the distance ■ ■f the sea, of lakes, of mountains, of arid or frozen plains, and perhap.s, also, the infernal he-.t of the earth, have each their share in the fertility or salubrity of a country. The ilecrea^ j of heat as we recede from the equator follows dif- leitiit laws in the two hemispheres, being greater in the southern tlian in the northern, and is also atl'ected by the longitude. On the west of Eurojie, the cold increases less with 'the latitude tlian in any other quarter. Under meri- dians which are 90° eitlier east or west of London, the increase of cold, as we go northward, is more rapid than in England. According to Iluinl)oldt, continents and large islands are wanner on their western sides than on the eastern. The annexed table shows the mean temperatures of western Kiirope and North America continued to the equator. 750. Isothermal lines have been consiilered as measuring the heat and cold of the earth. The climate of Eastern Asia comes nearer to that of Eastern America tlian of Western Eu- rope. Thus the latitudes of Naples, Pekin, and Philadelphia are respectively 41 ", 40°, and 40°, whilst their mean temperatures are (;;i.3°, 54.8", and 5:^4°. Such difl'erences are ren- ik'n il more sensilile when we connect the places having the same mean temperature by lines uliicli Humboldt denominates isutliermal lines. Thus, the isothermal line of 59° P. traverses the latitude of 43° in Europe, but descends to lat. :!G" in America; the isothermal line of 41° r. passes from lat. C0° in Europe to lat. 48° in .\nierica: but since the western coast of Ndilli America is warmer than the eastern, the isothermal lines, being traced round the iiiii'lliern hemisphere, would have concave summits at the east side of both worlds, and minex at the west. 7,)!. Tlw iliffireiice between the mean temperature of summer anil winter is nothing at the i'i)iniUir, and increases continually with the latitude. lint the extretnc difference of the swisons is comparatively small in Western Europe, and great where the mean annual tem- IH'iatiire is low, as on the east coasts of Asia and America. If we draw a line in a niirth- I'tisl direction from Uourdeaux to Warsaw, and continue it to the Wolga, in lat, 5.')°, then nil phiies under this line, at the same elevntion, will have nearly the same summer temper- iiliiie of ()9° or 70° P. The lines of equal winter temperature decline in an opposite liiii'ilioii. Thus a straight line drawn from Edinburgh to Milan, almost at right angles to the former line, would pass over places which, if equally elevated, would have nearly the Hiiiiie winter temperature of 37° or 38° P. 7,')'J. The eitremcs of leirp'-ralure are experienced chiefly in large inland tracks, and little fill ill small islands remote from continents. In the United States intense cold is felt when the wind blows from the frozen regions round Hudson's Hay. Pioni snow-clad mountains, IJiisIs of cold wind, called snoiu winds, rush down and cool the adjacent plains. The heat ni'tiimulates to uii astonishing degree when the wind passes over extensive deserts of burning UI 'J 164 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II. Miul, which arc oaid, in some instances in Africa, to be heated to the boiling point. This «t II Lat. lOTg. light. V,ear. Winter. 1 Spring. Summer. Autumn, nioiith. nioiith. o » e / Feel. o ° o o o - o ft' MrUllle tiland ■ 7147 liniHw II — 2.00 -31. .15 - 6 60 .1.1-78 - 3.S1 ,19.08 -.15.52 w Niilii ■ 57 8 (il Ww +26.42 — ll.liO 23,91) 48.18 3.1.1 1 51.8U — 11.20 a Al'liiittilpklp. - OH.IU an 17 B. 1356 26.'I6 0.68 21.98 51.86 27..12 59.44 — 0.58 llm|Mi'>'ik'HI.(Ja-1 llmnl - J 4(;30 8 2.1 >. 63U0 30.8 18.12 20.12 4196 31.82 46.22 + 15.118 Norlli Onlw • 71 85 .50 «. '...OO 2.1.72 29.66 43,31 32.08 46.5S 22.10 i *l'lc» . • «,') .1 a5 V(i a. .15.08 11.81 27.14 57.71 ,1.5.96 01. .52 7.70 £ •I'MlfH • - (i.T m VII ICb. 33.26 12.92 .13.80 .51.86 ,13.14 62.00 11.18 •a oxi. I't'icnliuriili - ■>:.■ .6 .10 1'Jh. 38.8.1 17.06 .18 12 02.116 38.60 05.06 8.60 1 Prunlhvhu • a u 10 2a a. .Tl.l)2 23.72 .15.21 61.21 40.10 01.91 I9..'.8 A Mmcuw .'..■. 1.', .17 .12 K. 970 40.10 10.78 41.110 (17.10 38 .,10 70.52 6.118 Mm •M W7 22 18 K. 40.28 2n.si 18 30 01.88 40.64 • I'li.nl . . . Wil 17.1S«. 42.118 21.98 ,19.38 00.26 42,80 02.12 22.16 AShHkluiIrn - - .v.) an IS .la. II 12.26 25.52 .18 ..10 61.88 13.16 61.04 22.82 nii.lrr ■(Ii47 71 10, V. 41.71 11.18 ,18.81 68.1 K) 40.01 <3.4I) 1.1,81 t'lirl.nnitl'i • - *l'iii(vi'iil of Peyi -l wnltitrah • J 5U i.) 1018 a. 42.80 28.78 39.112 62.60 41.18 66.71 28.1 1 i a 47 47 10 .11 I. 3066 42.9S 28,58 42.08 58.46 42.9S 69..16 .10.20 ArcilirntiitMen - . 5141 12.15«. n 45.68 .10.71 41.18 62.61) 48..18 05.66 27.11 *K.'ii.|iil .'.1 17 V Hi «. 46.22 .10,86 4.5.11 .56.84 40.22 ,58.10 .11.S8 * Mnhlulil Islaiuli ■ Jl 1h .5'J .V.I IV. II 46.',I4 39,56 46..'>8 ..3.116 48.16 5.5.76 37.111 q> * I'l nunc M.ililhm'll - m .; 1124 b. 4'.I.I6 31.16 47.66 6S.1H) ,511.18 1 M yi 11 5.1 B. 4,56 46.111 .10..18 41.24 01. 76 48.74 06.3S 29.66 */itt(r|| 47 Ti « .12 a. Lvm 47 81 29.66 48.20 61 .Ol 48.92 05.00 2C.7S itKilliiliurKh • ■ 51 .'>7 ,1 10 \l-. 1511 47.81 38.60 46.40 .58.28 48. .56 ,59.,16 ,18„KI 1 VI«r.BW .vni 21 2 a. 18..',6 28.70 47.48 09.08 49.40 7(l..14 27.11 & *rniii. 46 M ;i .yi a. IS7li 48.92 32.36 ,50 .IM) 03.32 .50.30 04.58 29.1S n Huiiiiii ■ 'i.l al fi i'.i«. 411.10 .-9.211 47..10 59.51 50.00 61-10 .1.5.42 licftii? 4(i .'i 7 26 E. IG.VI 49.28 32 no 48.92 06.56 49.82 67.28 .111.56 ^(it'Mpva 411 U 6 Hi. loso 19.28 .11.70 47.66 01.111 511.(81 66.56 31,16 ^Mniittpliit A'i 'i'.t 8 28 a. 132 50.18 38.80 49 111 07.111 49.82 (18.72 3,1.1 1 N'li'Mim 4sri 16 22 a. 4211 511.54 32.72 51.26 69.20 50.51 70.52 26,(1(1 *l'lrliliK>, I'.K. • It V, 71 .i «'. .VI..16 .13.98 47.66 7II.7U 49.82 72.80 29.81 l! *r«rl. . 4S .50 2 20 B. 222 5I.08 38.66 19,28 61.58 51,11 05,.K! .16.11 *J.onilnti 51 .K) 5 m-. .50.36 39.,'i6 48..50 03.11 .50.18 64.41) 37.76 { lluiiklik 51 'I 2 22 a. II .511.51 .18.18 48.56 64, (14 .50.90 61.70 .17.711 5i Aiti.tprilHiti - ■ t'i •i'l 4 .Ml a. 51.62 36.86 51.62 05.81 51.62 06.92 35,12 llriUMl. 5(1 5(( 4 22 a. 51.80 .16,68 53.24 66.20 51.08 07.28 ,15.611 • Kmni-kiT .'ft .in 6 22 a, II 51.80 .16.68 51.08 67-28 ,51. .12 69.IIS 32.11(1 jl riilmili'liihla - ■ •Ti .',n 75 16 ». ,53.12 ,12.18 51.41 73.91 56.18 77,(8) 32.;v £ Ni'W Vork . It) in 7.1 5S ,v. .53.78 29.81 5I.2« 79.16 .51.60 80.711 25..1I ■a *rtttittin.i(l .TI 1, 82 111 n . 510 .53.78 32.18) .54,11 72.86 ,51.86 74. .11) 3(>.'.'(l 1 Ht. Mfllo 4S .W 2 1 11. II 51.14 4226 52.10 60.112 55.70 66.92 11,71 A NdiHc^ 47 1.1 1 .12 « . 51.68 40.16 51, .50 68.54 55.58 70..52 .Tl.dJ I'l-kln • .1!I5I 116 27 a. .51.86 26.12 511 ..10 82.58 ,51,32 81 ,38 21.1.2 *Mtlnn 15 an U 1 1 a 3'.I0 55.76 36.32 .56.12 71,01 .56.S 1 71.66 .1(1.11 IV llounU-AiiK - 44 aj 34 w. 56.18 12.08 50.18 70.88 .56..10 73.04 4I.(HI Mnro'llln . . 4.117 5 22 a. ,1 59(10 15„V) 57,50 72..50 00.08 71.66 41,12 Ijc niiitii|H?iiipr • • 4.1 .If! 3 52 a. .59.36 41.011 56.11'; 75.71 00.98 78.08 1-;.('S «3 "■ "nimip . 41 .W 12 27 b. (i0.14 15,86 .57.71 75.20 02,78 77.110 42.'^(i 1. 'I'otllMit NniiHrt^nkl ■ ♦ NbIcIh/ 4.1 7 5, VI a. 62,116 48,n8 611.80 75.02 61,10 77,18) 4(1.1(1 h .Ti 45 121) ,55 b. 611. SO 39.38 57..50 82.94 01.22 86.90 .17.1(1 31 m UO 30 H 180 61.76 4S„5fl 65,18 79.16 66.02 79.70 16.111 ««• III *K.iiuiial M V 16,56w, II 68.51 61.10 6581 72.,'K) 72..12 75.56 61 '11 It ' .1G4H .1 I a. 69.98 61. .',2 65 66 80.21 72,.'iO 82,76 ('MIS *Vi*ra ('ni« • *IUvatuia . TiMltHMA y) -i .Ill IS a. 72.32 58.46 73.5S .8.'.. 10 -1.12 85.82 56,12 I|f: I'.m !lli 1 »'. II 77.-2 71.96 77.90 Kl.,'.(l (8.62 81.86 71,ll(i ».i in S2 13 w. 78.0S 71.21 78.9S R3.,1() 78.98 8,1.8 1 6'l.llS lua? h.'i 15»'. 81.86 80.21 8306 82,01 80.21 81.38 711.111 I; •am II' Book II> METEOROLOGY. 165 t. This jnicating ilated by ter great and thus intensity lerated by ing of the juld liave orizon for to animals ft proved has been heir tem- smperature f research, and. The loned from been most inTeinVCTatureofl armi»t onth< ColllKt Munlh. -;; „ jl.Sl) 'MM -MM _ 11. ill 46.22 + 15.118 4r,..'i8 f.L.Vi C.'i.liB fi4.04 70.52 22.10 7.TI1 IMS H.lill I'.L.'.S li.lIK fi2.42 (M.1I4 J.1.411 U(..71 59.36 B.').66 58. 10 5.'). 76 m.js r,.'..(iG .V.I. 36 7II..M lit..' 61.16 67.28 6(i..M I.S.72 70.52 22.16 22.S2 1.1.S1 2S.U 30.10 I 27.14 .■Vl.SS 37.40 ii).li6 26.78 38.30 27.14 2il.4S 35.42 30..'i6 31.16 33.4 1 85.82 hi. 86 754. Ill treating on the mean annual temperature which obtains at different places, it is customary to give a tablu which makes the temperature depend entirely oil the latitude. But observation sliuws, that tho teinpcrnturu is usually higher at the same latitude in the old world than in tho new, and in north latitude than in south ; and, as was already mentioned, it (lillers in the same continent uitdor diOercnt meridians. So that more than one table would bo required for each quarter of the globe ; or else one very extensive table, involving the longitude as well as latitude, which is the case with Humboldt's table, so far as it goes. 755. yts the earth and its atntMi^hert) are continnaili/ receiving heat from the sun, it is plain tliiit their mean annual tompcraturo must be continually on tlie increase, if no heat be thrown otr by thcin into surrounding m|nicv. Professor Leslie accordingly alleges, that the increase of tcmpcraturo is at the rate of about 1° in 80 years. This would Iielp to explain some of tlic changes of climate which soeni to have been gradually taking place during successive !iitor, which embrace every variety of climate between tlicir summit and base, at least in sit far as temperature is concerned. In point of atmo- spheric pressure, however, tho two situations differ essentially ; and some naturalists allege, that pressure is of vital im(HirtaiH'e to the growth of plants. Professor Dobcreiner is of opinion that the diminutive sixo of plants, in elevated situations, dc|x>nds more on the diminution of pri .ssuro than of temperature. To ascertain this, he put equal quantities of barley and moist earth into two tipial receivers : the air in the one had a pressure of 14 inches of mercury, and the other Hit; germination commenced in both at the same time, niul the leaves had tjie siune green tint. At the end of tifteen days, the shoots in the rarefied air were G inches long, and in the other from !) to 10. The first were expanded and soft and wet on the surface, especially towards their extremities ; the others were firm, rolled rminil the stem, and nearly dry. In some respects, this accords with what Humboldt ob- served of tho trees on the Andes, that water transpires from them even in the driest weather, lint such experiments are inconclusive, unless there were some contrivance employed to renew the coiittned air <\vqueiilly. Indepeiulently of pressure, the barley in the condensed iiir had the use of four times the ipianltty of air in the other vessel. 7.57. Plants are must nnrnvroiis, ni'd iw/iitiit tin; greatest varieti/ of species, and the most luxuriant growth, within tho ttopics, lieyond which they gradually diminish. In the r- tic regions, and in the north of Ulissia, .iie vegetable kingdom has dwindled to almost n 'iMiig. The lines which limit the growth of certain iilants depend on the average summer temper- ature, I'd.- plants which re(|uire a long and moderate heat ; on the temperature of the warmest month, for those which requirt> a short but great heat ; and on the temperature of the coldest inoiitli, for those which cannot bear cold. The transparency of the air is also of importance to many |)lunts ; but our limits will not admit of enlarging, and tlieicfore we shall confine ourselves to a short account of the climates of cultivated plants. The plantain, which is a primary article of footl in tropical .America, requires a temperature from 82° to 7;l° F., nhii'h occurs between hit. 0" and '-'7": but, in the equinoctial zone (hit. 0° to 10°), its fruit does not ripen at a greater altit'.oU' ;liaa ;J;KK) feet. The sugar-cane has ne.irly the same range, but is cultivatedi though with less advantage, in the old world to lat. 3fi° 5', wliere the mean temperature is about (i7°. The severity of the North American winter |inveuts the cultivation of tlu> sugar-ciine lieyond lat. :il° ; but it succeeds at an altitude ut' .1700 feia on the table laud of iMOxico. The fuvourite climate of the cotton plant lies lietiveen lat. 0° and .'M° ; but it smceeds with a mean summer heat of 7.')° or 7.'3° 1'"., if that of winter do not descend below !Ui° or ;18". In America, it is cultiv.ited at lat. :!7'^; in Europe, lat. 40° ; and in Aslrucau at lat. 4(i". The ilate palm thrives best bet.vceii lat. '_>i)° and ;t.')° ; but, when sheltered from the north wind, it is cultivated on tho shores of Italy to lat. '11°. The citron has nearly the same range, but is cultivated at Nice, at altitudes of 40() feet. This tree, with the swiH-t orniige, grows in Louisiana to lat, ,'50°, but beyond that it is injuri.'d by the cold. The olive raiiges in Fiiiropo between lat. ;!G° and 44°5' ; it succeeds wherever, with a mean aiiiuuil temperatinv IVom »i()° to 58" F., that of summer is not below 71°, nor that of the coldest mouth behiw !•_'", which excludes all North America beyond lat. 1)4^-'. The fiivmuite climate of the vine in the old world is between lat. 3G° and 48° ; but it thrives wherever the mean leinperalure is from (i'J" to 47'5°, provided that of winter is not below 03°, nor sunimer under GG" or GH". Such is the case on he shores of Europe M 3 I6C SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II. to lat. 47°, and in the interior to lat. 50', but only to lat. 40° in North America. Tlio cerealia or common grain, as wlieat, rye, barley, ami oats, thrive where the mean annual temperature descends to L'8° F., provided that of summer rise to 52° or 53°. In Lapland, barley ripens wherevei- the mean temperature of sununer rises to 47° or 48°. The rapid growth of barley and oats adapts them to the sliort summers of the north : they are found as higli as lat. 69^*^ in Lapland, aloM whether the air be from the polar or tropical regions, from the level of the sea or a uiomit:.in tO|), from the most healthy or insalubrious countries Hut Dr. Prout, guided by the l.iws of delinite proportions, alleges, that if the two gases of which air principally consists be really combined, they ought to be L'O oxygen to 8t) azote; and it must be allowed t lat siinijar conjectures of the same enrnent cliemist have been verified regarding the composition oi" other bodies, which had a iparenlly deviated farther from the atomic system. 750. 'I'he inveslifialiod if the eo7ii/ioiuiit putts (f the atmosphere did not keep pace with that of its mechanical properties. IJoyle, however, and his coteiiiporaries, put it beyond doiilit that it contained an elastic fluid and water in the state of vajioiir. 'J'liey also conjectured that it contained various other substances, which rose from the earth in the form of vai)(ims, and often altered its properties, lendering it noxious or fatal. Since the discovery of car- bonic acid by Dr. HIack, it has been ascertained that this elastic fluid always constitutes a uart, though a very minute one, of the atmosphere. 760. li'iih ."f'swiV to moisliire, or the stale in which water exists in air, two opinions have been formed : 1. Water may be dissolved in air, in the same manner lieiiomena agree with l!i,i' theory. The second opinion seems to have oriu;iiiated with Mr. Deluc ; but it is 'r Wr. Daltun and M. Gay Lussac that we are indebted for subjecting this theory to the test of experiment. 76 1 . Evoporniion from the waters on the surface of the earth is imdoubtedly the source whence the moisture which exists in air is deriveil. Accoriliiigly we find that water exposed to the air sullers a gradual diminution of bulk, till it entirely disappears. It is then said, in coiiinion language, to have dried up, or to have eKiporaled. L'uder an exhausted reciivir, water diminishes even more rapiilly than in the open air. Were this owing to solution, the very reverse onjilit to follow; because, in place ol vapour being caused by the (iresenie id' air, it goes on more rapidly in its absence. 1{\ comparing a set of experiments made id CJeiieva, villi a similar set on the ('ol-dii-(ii ant, IU,;),j() fett higher, ."Saussure found tlial. supposing llie temperature and dryness of the air the same at both ))laces, the evapoialion ;u the upper would bo to tliat at the lower Ileal ly as 7 to :! ; so that a iliiiiinillioii of about one third in the t!eiisily of tin air moii' than doubled ihe rate of evapoialion. Jt is well known, tliat cold is always generated during spontaneous e\apoialioii ; that is to say, that water, as Part II. ncrica. Tlic mean annual In Lapland, , The rapid liey arc found istcrn Russia, ttle cultivated mperate zone, lore than 16°, at a height of tight on Cau- In the west I the cast. In itr. to the lakes I suited to the 13" in Norway, us silvestris, or above the level issia, the larch, 5 Bay, all trees fanciful notions pie elements, of Lh, air, fire, and s a question on ; sliown that tlie ntial, component its otlier ingre- iidered as foroij;n )und it to consist icnsibly tlic si.nu. ca or a mount!. in led by tlie '..i"s of consists be really iwed tiat similar ic composition ol" k ■cp pace with tliat it beyond doubt also conjectiiicd form of vapoms discovery of lar- ways constitutes a wo opinions have ill is held in sol- - bour, after havi ko, and afterwr.. i [ion, amoufi; win''' jna agree «illi I -' luc ; but it is < theory to the tot Book II> METEOROLOGY. 167 lubtedly tlie source Ithat water exposal It is then said, ii> [•xhausted rectiur, |iig to solution, tlic ll)^ the presence dI' Iperiinents made at liiissure lomul tliat. tlie cva\)oraliiin -i utioii of about line It is well kiiii"". say, that water, as it disappears, carries off a quantity of heat. Dr. Black has rendered it probable, that the quantity of heat which disappears during spontaneous evaporation is as great as that which is recuiired to form water into steam. A wet body is always cooled by exposure to dry air, o»'iiig to the evaporation from its surface. Hence, in warm countries, liquors are cooled by wrapping wet cloths round the bottles and exposing them to the air. M. Saussure observed, that the evaporation from the surface of melting snow caused it to freeze again, when the temperature of the air was 4° or 5° above the freezing point. The simplest mode of illus- trating the cooling influence of evaporation, is to cover the ball of a tiicrmomctcr with wet clotli and expose it to the air, when it will be found to indicate a greater or less degree of cold. This, it is true, docs not take place if the air be very damp, because there is then no evaporation. Wind tends to promote evaporation, both by commimicating its heat to the colder evaporating surface, and also by sweeping away the vapour as it is formed. On the contrary, there is scarcely any evaporation in perfectly still air, unless some substance be present which absorbs the vapour as it forms. 7Gt'. On tliis principle. Professor Leslie contrived an elegant morle of producing ice in any cliiitate. A cup with water is placed within the receiver of an air pump, along with some substance which absorbs the vapour. The rate of evaporation is then increased in an astonishing degree, by exhausting the air from the receiver ; and the portion of the water which is converted into vapour abstracts so much beat from the remainder, that the latter is speedily converted into ice. 7(i,'). J)ciu is a remarkable product of atmospheric moisture. The quantity of aqueous vapour which can exist in a given sj)ace, as a cubic foot, is pretty generally believed to be the same, whether thei j be air present in the space, or nothing but the vapour alone. The quantity is always [cect. par.) the same at the same temperature, but it is greater as the tem- peraliirc is higher; and therefore, supposing the space to be saturated with vapour at v p.irticjlar temperature, a portion of this will return into drops of water whenever the tem- perature falls. It is on this principle that a cold body, such as a bottle of liquor, being carried into a warm moist apartment, becomes bedewed on the outside, till, perhaps, the water trickles down its sides : the contact of the cold surface chills the air, which in return deposits a portion of its moisture. Now this is similar to the mode in which moisture is insensibly deposited from the atmos|ihcre on bodies at the earth's surface, and which is known by the name of dew. All bodies, placed in still air and exposed to the aspect of .i clear sky, are found to become colder than they would be if some screen or awning were interposed between them and the sky. In such circumstances, bodies often become much colder than the surrounding air, which, if sufficiently moist, deposits on them a portion of its moisture or dew. When the temperature is low, the dew is frozen, and forms hoar frost. Tfil. Tlie radiation of heal also deserves notice. About the commencement of the present ceiitiuy, Professor Leslie discovered that bodies possess very ditt'e ut powers ot radiating lieat ; and that this depends on the nature and coiulition of their su. aces. INIetals possess this quality in a degree inferior to vitreous bodies, and it is diminished in all of them by piilisliing the surface. IMost fibrous and fdamentous vegetable substances are good radiators, as are likewise bodies in general which are bad conductors or bad reflectors of heat. Now the degrees of cooling, which dilleient bodies iniilergo when ex|iosed to/^elher to flie aspect of the sky, is observed to follow the saiiu! order as that of their radialiuf; |)owers ; and, of course, the order in which they begin to acipiire dew, as also the quantity acqtu'red, is regu- lated by a similar law, as will be seen from what follows. T()V). For the invcxIifinliDii of the causes if ilrw we are chiefly indebted to the late ingenious Dr. Wells. The ancients mainlained, that dew appears only on calm and clear nights. Dr. Wells tbimd that, in oiiposito eireumstanccs, very little is ever dei)osited, and tliat little only 'vlur tile I'.ouds are very high. Dew never occurs in nights both cloudy and windy; and il m liie c )■': c of the night, the weather, from being serene, should become dark and stormy, lii n wliiili Had been deposited will disappear. In calm weather, more dew will appear if the sky lie partially covered with clouds, than if it were quite clear. It often happens, that even liel'ure suusot, dew begins to adhere to grass in spots w liicb are sheltered from both sun and H iiul ; tor, in clear weather, such spots sutler much from the chilling aspect of the sky, and niay otleii continue to acquire dew during the whole night, .•uid for some time after sunrise. I'lie (juantily of dew depends on the moistness of the air, being greater after rain than after liiiii^-cor.'inued dry weather. It is more abuiulant, in Europe, with southerly and westerly "iiiils, than with those which blow from the opposite points. The reason of this seems to be tlie ilirectioii of the sea rendering the wiiul moist; for, in Egypt, dew rarely occurs unless the wir.d come from the sea. But with a southerly wind, which has passed along the Hoods III' the Nile, dew is usually observed in the Delta five or six days before the intnulation. Alur a long p^iiod of drought. Dr. Wells exposed to the clear sky, 'J8 minutes before sunset 111 a ealiii evening, kiiowii weights of wool and swan-down, upon a smooth, uiipainted, dry fir talile alMiut ;i tVet in height, and >« liich had been jjlaced an hour before in the sunshine in a lan;e grass field. At I'J minutes after sunset the wool w.is 11° colder than the air, bn Iwd gained no weight, The swan-down was I. 'J'' colder ilian the air, but had got no addU JNI 4 IP •M» SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II. tional weight ; nor was it any heavier at the end of 20 minutes longer, but it liad then be- come 14 J" colder than the air; whilst the grass was 15° colder than the air four feet above ground. — From these, and many similar experiments, Dr. Wells concluded that bodies become colder than the neighbouring air bifore they are dewed. — He bent a sheet of paste- board into the form of a penthouse, making the angle of flexure 90°, and leaving both ends open. This was placed one evening, with its ridge uppermost, upon a grass-plat, and, as nearly as could be guessed, in the direction of the wind. On the middle of the spot of grass, sheltered by the roof, was placed 10 grains of wool, and an equal quantity on a spot of the grass fully exposed to the sky. In the morning, the first 10 grains were only 2 grains heavier, whilst the other had gained 16. Tlie wool docs not here acquire moisture from the grass by capillary attraction, for the same effect happens if it be placed in a saucer ; nor is it by liygrometric attraction, for in a cloudy night, wool placed on an elevated board scarcely gained any weight. 766. The quantity of dew varies according to circumstances. When wool is placed upon a bad conductor of heat, as a deal board, a few feet from the ground, it will become colder and acquire more dew than if laid on the grass. At the windward end of the board, it is less bedewed than at the sheltered end ; because, in the former cose, the wind keeps up the temperature nearer to thot of the atmosphere. Hough and porous surfaces, as shavings of wood, straw, &c. take more deiv than smooth and solid bodies. Raw silk and fine cotton collect more than even wool. Glass, being a good radiator of heat, is much more quickly coated with dew than bright metals, which, indeed, receive it less readily than many other bodies. Tliis circumstance has given rise to the strange idea that metals absorb dew, though they be the most compact bodies known. If we coat a piece of glass partially with briglit tin-foil, or silver leaf, the uncovered portion of the glass quickly becomes cold by radiation, on exposure to a clear nocturnal sky, and acquires moisture ; which, beginning on those parts most remote from the metal, gradually approaches it. Thus, also, if we coat a part of the outside of a window pane with tin-foil in a clear night, then moisture will be deposited inside, on every part but that opposite to the metal ; but if the metal be inside, then the outside of the coated part of the pane will be sooner and more copiously bedewed. In tlic first case, the tin-foil prevents the glass under it from dissipating its heat, and therefore it can receive no dew ; in the second case, the tin-fuil prevents the part of the glass whicli it coats from receiving the calorific influence of the apartment, and hence it is sooner cooled on the outside than the rest of the pane. When the night, after having been clear, becomes cloudy, tliough there be no change with respect to calmness, a rise in the temperature of the glass always ensues. In clear nights the temperature always falls, but, unless the air ho sufficiently moist, dew does not necessarily follow ; from which it is evident, that the cold cannot be the effect of dew, I'or a more particular account of these interesting phenomena, we mus. refer the reader to Dr. Wells's elegant Essiiy on Dew. 767. O. >tds. The various forms of cluiols were first successfully attempted to be arranged under a fesv ircneral modifications by Mr. Luke Howard, and published in the 16th and 17th vols, of the Phil. Mag. Tlic system is very simple, and has been extensively adopted both here and on the Continent. In giving a summary of it in " The Climate of London" Mr. Howard thus expresses himself: — " After the experience of eighteen years, I do not find a necessity either to make additions to this little system, or to retrench any of its parts. Some subordinate diNtinctions ina_,, indeed, at a future ]>eriod be found useful ; but until the classification, as it is, be generally adopted, its simplicity must fonn its most powerful recommendation, and its conformity to nature. It is in the ybrw and structure, carefully considered with due reference to situation, that he will find the basis of a correct judgment; and he will do well to wait, at first, for several successive appearances of each modification, to which he will thus at length find the definition apply in all its parts. " 76H. The modif cations of clouds is a term used to express the structure or manner of aggregation, in which the influence of certain constant laws is sufficiently evident amidst the endless subordinate diversities resulting from occasional causes. Hence the principal ni). difications are as distinguishable from each other, as a tree from a hill, or the latter from a lake; although clouds, in the same modification, compared with each other, have often only the common resemblance which exists among trees, hills, and lakes, taken generally. 769. There are three sitnple and distinct modifications, which are thus named and defined by Mr. Howard : — (1.) Cirrtts. A cloud resembling a lock of hair or a feather. Parallel, flcxous, or di- verging fibres, unlimited in their extent or direction. (2.) Cumulus. A cloud which increases from alKivc in dense convex or conical heaps. (3.) Stratus. An extended continuous level sheet of cloud, increasing from beneath. 770. There are two modifications whicli appear to be of an intermediate nature : these are — (4.) Cirro-cumulus. A connected system of si;mU roiuidisli clouds, in close order or contact. (5.) Cirro-stratus. A horizontal or slightly inclined sheet, attenuated at its circtnnfercnce, concave downward, or undulated. Groups or patches have these characters. DooK n« METEOROLOGY. 169 771. latere are two modijicalioni which exhibit a compound structure, vii. : -^ le.) Citmiilo-stralus. A cloud in whicli tlie structure of the cumulus is mixed with that of tliu ciiro-slratus or cirro-cumului' The cumulus flattened at top, and overhanging its (7.) Ximbus, A dense cloud spreading out into a crown o{ cirrus, and passing beneath into a sliower. 77'i. ^fr^ Howard began his observations about twenty-five years ago, and Dr. Thomas Fonter Ims been for many years employed in making similar observations. From all these, tliiTc lias resulted at length a theory of the formation and changes of the clouds, which has been deduced entirely from the phenomena they have been observed to exhibit during their furmation, changes, and eventual resolution into rain. To avoid, as much as possible, any particular hypothesis as premature, we shall merely give an account of the phenomena obsei'ved ; contenting ourselves with a description of the distinct modifications of form which aiiucous vapour is found to assume during the progress of the formation, changes, and reso- lution of clouds. 773. Regarding the mode in which clouds are suspended in the air, philosophers are not a'rreed. About the commencement of the last century, it was supposed that the aqueous |iarlicles of clouds were in the form of hollow shells, specifically lighter than the air in which (hoy float. But as no evidence or probability could be adduced in favour of this theory, it has given place to other speculations ; and, at present, mu.iv consider the suspension of clouds as an electrical phenomena. On attentively observing the forms of clouds, it will be found that they have a tendency to assume one or other of the seven distinct modifications above mentioned ; the peculiar characters of which may be discovered in all the endless cunligurations exhibited by clouds under difl'erent circumstances. It may be observed I'artlier, that the most indefinite and shapeless masses of clouds, if attentively watched, will sooner or later show a tendency to assume the form of some of these modifications ; a cir- cumstance which shows not only their distinct nature, but also proves that there are some general causes, as yet undiscovered, why aqueous vapour, suspended in the air, should assume certain definable and constant modifications. 774. A more minute description of the formation and changes of tlie clouds, and of the progno'itics of the weather to be deduced from their peculiar appearances, shall now be attempted. ''!). The cirrus or curl-cloud* may be distinguished from every other by the lightness of its nature, its fibrous structure, and the great and perpetually changing variety of figures wliicli it presents to the eye. It is generally the most elevated of clouds, occupying the lii;;ber regions of the atmosphere. As this cloud, under different circumstances, presents considerable varieties of a|)pearances, it will be proper to consider these separately, with ri'ferencc to the particular kind of weather in which they prevail. After a continuance of clear tine weather, a whitish line of cloud may often be observed at a great height, like a «liite thread stretched across the sky, the ends seeming lost in each horizon : this is often tlie first indication of a change to wet weather. To this line of cirrus, others are added laterally, and suinetimes, as it were, propagated from the sides of the line in an oblique or transverse direction ; the whole having the appearance of net-work. At other times the lines become grnduiUly denser ; descend lower in the atmosphere ; and, uniting with others below, produce rain without exhibiting the above-mentioned transverse reticulations. The aliove-described varieties of cloud, though composed of straight lines, are ranged under the feneral head of cirrus, from their resemblance to this cloud when it appeors under curved ami contorted forms. The comoid cirrus, popularly known under the name of the grei/ mare's (ill/, is llie proper cirrus. It somewhat resembles a distended lock of white hair, or a bimch of comliid wool, and from this it got the name carnoi:!. It usually occurs in variable "latlier, and is reckoned a precursor of wind and rain. In changeable weather it varies CDihiilerably in a few hours; but when the librcs have a constant direction to the same point of the comjiass for any considerable time, a gale of wind generally springs up from that fiaiter. Dining warm changeable weather, when there are light breezes of wind, long and olili((uely descending bands of cirrus are often observed in the air, and sometimes seem to iiiiHiect distant clouds. Frequently, by means of the interposition of these cirri between a timuihis and some other cloud, as, for instance, cirro-stratus, the cumulo-stratus, and ulti- mately the nimbus or rain-cloud, is formed. The cirrus, when attentively examined, is found tube in constant motion, not merely changing its form, but often exhibiting an internal com- motion in tiie substance of the cloud, especially in the larger end of it. Every particle seems alive and in motion, while the whole mass scarcely changes its place. This motion, on a iiiiimie examination, often appears to consist of the fibres which compose the cirrus, gently waving to and from each other ; frequently, however, it seeins like nliiuite specks all in com- molion. This takes place more frequently in those large and lofty cirri, with rounded heads ami long pointed tails, so common in dry easterly winds during summer and autumn. * This, and the other ailditional terms wliich rullow, have been proposed as English names by Or. Thomai furster. 170 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Pari II. 77B. The formation of the cumulus is best viewed in fine scttlvd weather, nbout simrixc or li liltic nl\i'r. Small" specks of cloud are seen here and there in the atniospliere. '1 hese Hei'Mi to he the result of hiikiII gatherings of the stratus or evening mist, which rising in tlie morning grows into small masses of cloud, while the rest of the sky becomes clearer, Alumt HMUi'iHe these clouds increase ; two or more of them unite, till n large cloud be formed, which, nKxtmiing n cunudated and irregularly hemispherical shape, has received the name of cumulus or flntki'ii-chuil. This is properly the cloud of day, as it usually subsides in the evening by retracing the steps of its formation in the morning. It separates ii-.id small fragnitnls nnd evaporates, giving place to the stratus or fall-cloud, whidi is ther'.ibrc styled the cloml of night. 777. .S'(inii» varieties in the forms of the cumulus deserve particular notice, as they are sup. itowd to be connected with electrical phenomena. The hemispherical form is more perftct in line than in changeable weather. Wlien such well-formed cumuli prevail during many nuccesslve days, the weather is settled, and the electrometer pretty steady in its indications. They arc whitish coloured, and when o)>posed to the sun reflect a silvery light. Cumuli which occur during intervals between showers are nior- fleecy, and variable in form nnd colour. Sometimes they are blackish, and may at any time increase till they obscure tliu iiky, or assume the form of the twain-doud or cumulo-stratus. 77H. The stratus or fall-cloud comprehends fogs, and all those creeping mists which, toward'* evenin;? fill llie valleys, and disappear in the morning. The cunudi whicli have prevailed during « hot summer's day decrease towards evening, and by degrees there is formed a white mist near the ground, increasing in density till midnight or even till niornini;, nnd generally disappearing after sunrise. In autumn, thi cloud sometimes l.tsts longer in the morning. In winter it becomes still more dense, and sometimes continues a whole day or many successivt: days. A remarkable instance of this occurred in January, 1H14, when a •lenso fog prevailed for about a forini^lit, extending over a great part of the south and west of Ijngland. It was particularly felt at London, where the stagnation and subsidence of the smoke more than doubled the dismal visitation. The stratus is often positively electrilied, nnd its component parts no not wet leaves or other substances connected with the earth. On this, however, it in.iy be remarked that dry bodies, which continue warmer than the Uv^, '("".I remain dry on the ordinary principles of evaporation. The stratus may be disiin- f(ui! vari-itions in the size and fijTure of the orbicular masses of wliich it is composed, and in tlieii ilitruii'cs fro.'ii ouili other. About the time of tliunder storms, the component parts are denser in tli.'ir structure, roiindtr in their form, and closer together than usual. This has been fri-niently noticed by ])oets as It prognostic of thi'""'erand tempestuous weather. In rainy changeable wealiier, this doinl lias a light fleecy t. •" and is very irregular in the form of its comjionent jjarls ; so that it ; *" ♦.he cirro-stratus. Sometimes, indeed, it consists of iiclwciiln; so I ' ■' scarcely discernible. In fine summer weather, the cirro- ■^ . ^ stormy variety, nor so light as the one last described; its <■'■ "imity. Dnriiig fine dry weather, with light breezes from ents of cirroi umulus rapidly form and sid)side, wliich do r arrnngement i'. commonly horizontal. The cirro-cunuiliis then a|i small an i ■'(, i cimudus . . nciti parts vary in siz»'. u the north nnd eait, sm. not lie in one plane ; bui KOtnetimes commences in the clear sky. At other times the cirrus, the cirio-stratus. or some other cloud, changes into cirro-cumulus, an'l ince versa. In siunniei-, this cloud forebodes heat 1 in winter, the breaking up of frost, a id mild wet weather. 7H0, The cirro-stratus is remarkable for its shallowness, compared with its horizontal oxtenl ; so that when any other cloud ass imes this form, it seldom fails to end in a cirro- Ntratus. This cloud is constantly changing its form, and gradually subsiding ; hence it has been called the wane-cloud. There are many varieties in its figure ; sotnetimes it is (lispiisid in waving bars or streaks, varying almost infinitely in size and shape. A flat horizoniul cloml, consisting of such streaks, frequently occurs during changeable summer weather; its bars are generally confused in the middle, but more distinct towards the edges. ,'\ variciy of this sort constitutes what is called the mackerel-back sky. It is often very high in llie iittnosphere, as is proved from its still appearing high when viewed from the top of a loliy mountain. The cumulus, on the contrary, may be seen on a level with, or even lower than, the observer. The cirro-stratus often ajjpears in the fonn of a long ])lain streak, tapi-'ririg towards the extremities. Sometimes such a figure seems to alight on the cumulo-stratus ; anil, in these c.ises, the density of the latter increiises in proportion as the former alternaltly appears and cvnpor.-ites again on its summits. The usual result is the fornnition of ilic nimbus, nnd a fall of rain. Another principal vjiriety of the cirro-stratus consists of small rows of little clouds, curved in a peculiar manner: it is called the ci/vtoid cirro-stratus, and Is a sure indication of approaching storms. The last variety of this cloud wliich wo shall now notice, is that large and shallow veil of cloud which covers a large portion of the sky, iwrticidarly towards night, and through which the sun and moon are iiidistint'tly seen Book IL METEOROLOGY. 171 ThofC peculiar refractions of tho light of these luminaries, called hatos and mock suns, usuiilly nppi'H'' in 'l>>!> cloud. IVv ^e uro the most certain signs, yet known, of approaching rain or snow. 7H1. The cumulo-slratns or tiriin-ctoud is a stage towards ''le production of roin, and is frequently formed in the following manner : — The cumulus, > liich usually passes along in the wind, seems retarded in its progress, '^rows den- er, spreads out laterally till it overhangs the Imsf in dark and irregular protuberimt'es. This change often takes place in all tho cmniili wliich arc near to each other ; their hases unite, whilst the superstructure remains i(ler, rising up like so many mountain summits or masses of rocks. The cumulcstratl, ill wliicli hail showers and thunder ■)rms occur, look extremely black ond menacing hcfora the mill eummenccs. Sometimes the cuinulo-stratus evaporates, or changes again to cumulus, but it ofteiicr ends in the nimbus and rain, TH'J. Tlif nimbus remains to be described ; a cloud which always precedes the fall of rain, snow, or liiul. Any of tho others above described may increase so much as to obscure the sky, without ending in rain, before which the peculiar characteristic of the rain-cloud miiy always he distinguished. The best way of obtaining a clear idea of the formation of the nimbus or ruin-cloud is to observe a distant shower in proflle, from its first formal ion to its tail in rain. The cumulus seems first arrested in its progress ; then a cirrus or cirro- mists whidi, B stratus may appear to alight on tho top of it. The change to cumulo-stratus then goes on rapidly , and this cloud, increasing in density, assumes that black and threatening aspect which is a known indication of rain. This blackness is soon changed for a more grey obscurity j and tliis is tlie criterion of the actual fonnation of roin drops, which now begin to i ill, while a cirriform crown of fibres extends from the upper parts of the clouds, and small cumuli cnter'into the under part. After the shower has spent itself, the different modifi- cations appear again in their several stations : the cirrus, the cirro-stratus, or perhaps llio cirro-cumulus, ap|iear in the upper regions of the air ; while the remaining part of the broken nimbus assumes the fonn of fl jcky cumuli, and sails along in the lower current of wind. Tiie reai)pearaiice of large cumulo-strati indicates a return of the rain. In showery weatlier, the alternate formation and destruction of rain-clouds goes on rapidly, and is attended by the other modifications in succession, as above described. From its connection with local >,hoH'er.s, the nimbus is distinguished almost exclusively by bearing in its broad field of sable the honours of tlie rainbow. 78:!. Itdiii. Theories ofr.tin have been founded on the above observations. Since, as already montioucd, a greater quantity of moisture can exist in a given space as the temperature is lii}!lier, it is plain that there is a certain temperature at which air containing some moisture will just be saturated, and which is called the point of deposition, or the dewing point ; for, if cooled in the least below this, the air will deposit moisture. When the cooling in the body of air below the dew point is very slight, the effect is merely to disturb the trans|)arency, or proiiuce nfog- In the case of dew, formerly considered, the transparency is not aH'ected ; because it is not the mass of air that is cooled below the point of deposition, but only a niiiuite portion of it which comes into contact with surfaces cooled by radiation. When lliu cooling in a body of air below the dewing point is considerable, the water is deposited more copiously, and, collecting into drops, descends to the eorth in the form of rain ; or if the temperature be sufliciently low, the drops are partially frozen, and form sleel ; if fully frozen, SHrjw; and if such drops be large and compact, they receive the appellation of hail. 7HI. nr. James Ilutton of Edinbur^li made the first attempt to account for the phenomena of rain, Sec. on known principles. Without deciding whether moisture be simply mixed or chemically combined in the air, he conjectured from the phenomena, as is now established by i xpirimciit, that the quantity of aqueous vapour which can exist in air varies in a higher ratio t!ian the temperature. Hence he inferreil, that whenever two volumes of air saturated »hli moi'.ture are mixed at different temperatures, a precipitation of moisture must ensue, ill consetjuencc of the mean temperature not being able tQ support the mean quantity of vapour. liut if the air, before mixture, was not fully saturated with moisture, then a sm ilk'r quantity, or none at nil, may be deposited. This theory has been adopted by various meteorologists, jiarticuLirly Professor Leslie and Mr. Dalton ; but Mr. Luke Howard has jiKtIy remarked, that it involves the assumption that the mixture should have the mean umperature, — a point which was then, and is even yet, not quite settled ; although, so far M experiment goes, it is fully more favourable to the theory than the mean would be. 'H.i. Mv. Howard accordingly rejects Dr. Hutton's tlieor;/, and alleges, that rain is almost ill every instance the result of the electrical action of clouds upon each other. This idea, lie tliinks, is confirmed by observations made in various ways upon the electrical state of the clinids and rain ; and he supposes that a thunder storm is only a more sudden and sensible display of those energies which are incessantly operating for more general purposes. "Hfi. There are lim circumstances deserving of notice irt the formation of the nimbus or rain- doml, the spreading of the superior masses of cloud in all directions, until Ihey become, iik> the stratus, one uniform sheet; and the rapid motion and visible decrease of the IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) <^Af .V ' ^ <° !.0 I.I 1.25 *^ Ui 12.2 KJ U |16 A" U V y r .^ ;» 9. » >. Hiotographic Sciences Corporation 7i WIST MAIN STMET WIISTU, N.Y. MStO (716)l73-4)03 o <5? .W fe e l^ P <^ ^ 179 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Pam II. cumulus, when brought under the latter. The cirri, also, which so frequently stretch from the superior sheet upwards, like so many bristles, are supposed by some to be temporary conductors for the electricity evolved by the union of minute particles of vapour into the larger drops which form the rain. In an experiment of Cavallo's with a kite sent up 360 feet, in an interval between two showers, and kept up during rain, it seems that the superior clouds were positively electrified before the rain ; but on the anival of a large cumulus, a strong negative electricity took place, which lasted while the cumulus was passing over the kite. We are not, however, warranted to conclude that the cumulus which brings on rain is always negative ; as the same effect might ensue from a positive cumulus uniting with a negative stratus : yet the general negative state of the lower atmosphere during rain, and the positive indications commonly given by the true stratus, render this the more probable opinion. It is not, however, absolutely necessary to determine the several states of the clouds which appear during rain ; since there is sufficient evidence in favour of the conclu> sion, that clouds formed in different parts of the atmosphere operate on each other when brought near enough, so as to occasion their partial or entire destruction, — an effect which can be attributed only to their possessing beforehand, or acquiring at t'.ie moment, the oppo. site electricities. Such is Mr. Howard's view of the subject ; but until electricity itself, and in particular the electricity of the atmosphere, be better understood, it is doubtful if the phe- nomena of rain be brought any nearer home by being ascribed to electricity. In the present state of science. Dr. Hutton's theory has rather the advantage of depending on principles which are better known, though there is some uncertainty regarding their fitness for the purpose. 787. Rain is very unequalty distributed to the different regions of the globe ; but nature has so arranged it, that it is most copious in those latitudes where evaporation is most rapid, There are, however, exceptions to this rule ; for on several tracks on the earth's surface it hardly ever rains. These are usually far inland, and are generally extensive plains utterly sterile and uninhabitable. The want of rain is in some places partially supplied by the copious deposition of dew. On the contrary, there are some spots where it always rains, and which are mostly on the sea. As the whole atmosphere, when fully charged with humidity, is calculated to hold no more water than would form a sheet 5 inches in depth, while the mean aimual deposit is about 35 r 40 inches, it is plain that the supply must be frequently renewed. Rain is more nbundr^.it toward the equator than the poles, at the sea coast than towards the interior, and on elevated situations than on plains. 788. From the most authentic sources, Mr. JDatton has constructed the following table, show- ing the mean monthly and annual quantities of rain which have fallen at several places, being tlie average for many years : — Is ii Ii Ig •-J E ^t Ii it §^ >>< K>> c>« §>• J8>t G>* n^ '>>" as 3S £s 2s u:a ES ^S a.,n >s Inch. Inch. Inch. Inch. Inch. Inch. Inch Inch. Fr. Inch. Kr. Inch. January sijio 2-177 2-I!Hi 3-461 S299 3-09) 1-595 l-4(>4 1-228 2-477 February . 2-Sfi8 1-847 l->o2 2-995 5-126 2-837 1-741 i-aw 12'!2 1-7(0 March . - 2-()»8 1-523 l-,-K'2 1-7-3 3151 2-164 1-184 I 172 1-190 IIW April . . fi'UlO 2-104 2-078 2-180 2-986 2-017 0-979 1-279 1-185 2-|!») May . . 2895 2,073 2-118 2-4(i0 3-480 2-563 1-641 1-636 1-767 2 Ml Juue . . 3-S02 2-816 2-2S6 2-512 2-722 2t»74 1-313 17.-i8 l-6't7 2-:Vf2 July . . 3Ga7 S-fxi-l S-(i06 4140 4-9;")9 3-2.56 2-303 2-448 1-800 l-!i«i August 3-665 3-311 2-435 4-.'>81 5-039 3199 2746 1-807 1900 2317 Septcmlier . 3-281 36;;4 2-2«9 3-751 4-874 4-350 1-617 T842 1-.5.0O 4-14() Octoljer . . 3-922 3-724 3-079 4151 S-439 4-143 2-297 2-0!'2 1-780 4741 Novnnljer . 3-360 3441 2-634 3-775 4-78,5 3-174 1904 21122 1-720 4-187 Uecemlwr . 3-832 3-288 2-569 3955 fi-064 3-142 1-981 1-736 1-600 2-J!»7 36-140 34-118 27-i«4 39-714 53-944 36-919 21-331 20C86 18649 3J<)-7 789. The depth of rain, according to Humboldt, at the latitudes of 0°, 19°, 45% and 60°, is, respectively, 96, 80, 'J9, and 17 inches. In the torrid zone, a small thick rain falls iilmost every day on that side of the equator where the sun is ; but it generally intermits during the night. In many places, there are two wet and two dry seasons in the year ; and in some regions, from the effect of mountains and peculiar winds, places under the same parallel have their wet and dry seasons at opposite periods. Ttiough the annual depth of rain be greatest toward the equator, the number of rainy days increases with the latitude. 790. Aqueous meteors, so essential to vegetation, have their salutary effects modified liy the chemical qualities of the moisture in the atmosphere. Tiic salt rain and dew in the vii-i- nity of the Caspian Sea, owing to the vapours which are exhaled from the soil, probably contribute to those saline e'''orcscences which arc said to be gradually overspreading the once fertile soil of Persia. The salt fogs in the west of Jutland are very injurious to 5ie foliage Part II. r stretch from be temporary ipour into the e sent up 360 It the superior ge cumulus, a issing over the brings on rain uniting with a iring rain, and more probable 1 states of the of the conclu- ich other when in effect which ncnt, the oppo- ■icity itself, and tful if the phe- In the present g on principles r fitness for tho ibe ; but nature n is most rapid, arth's surface it e plains utterly supplied by the Iways rains, and . with humidity, Icpth, while the ist be frequently e sea coast than dng table, show- ral places, being Book II> METEOROLOGY. 173 arts. Years. ' ii *^2 >S Kt. Inch. Fr. Inrh. I!i28 2'+77 12.32 l-7(l« 1190 HW 1185 2fi8(i 1-767 2 Ml lfi.<»7 2-X 1800 vm 1900 '2 -Ml 1\150 4'IW 1-7H0 4741 1720 4'W l-fiOO 2;J!I7 18549 3J!)77 1°, 45", and 60", rain falU almost rmite during the ar ; and in some me parallt'l Imve rain be greatest ccts modified by (lew in the vIcU le soil, probably reading the once us to the foliage of trees, without being hurtful to grass. Rain has also been known to be impregnated with sulphur, and with various substances approaching to that of animal and vegetable matters, Some of tlieso communicate to the rain a peculiar colour, as that of blood, &c. On the othor liAiul, fogs occur in which little or no moisture is present: such are called tlryfogut and ntv supiwsod to bo the vapours and ashes ejected by volcanoes, and diifUscd In the ntmoNphvrv by the winds. Their occurring about the time of great eruptions itrengthcns thin coi\jvcture. 7>)l . lUnderS' Ice and snow absorb a large portion of heat during liquefaction, which they oivu out Agitiit on fh>exlng ; for, in the ordinary process of nature, water does not cool below tjoo jr, till tliu whole be (Vosen ; nor does its temperature rise abovs that point, while in contact wUh ico or snow,— that is, till the whole be melted. This property has an important eff'ect on thv tenipi'rature of snowy districts. It retards and often prevents the occurrence of extreme cold, and it opposes a sudden rise of temperature above the freezing point. The cold in the Atmosphere, as was formerly stated, continually increases with the elevation ; and, at a certain livi)(ht, dvpciuling on the climate or latitude, perpetual frost prevails. Where the earth's surfiire attains this height, it is, with the exception of some steep or vertical cliffs, continually cuvvre Newton ascribed this phenomenon to the greater refrangibility of the blue rays ; and some consider it the effect of vapour. The appearance of the sky, when viewed from a high mountain, is of a deep blue, approaching to black. But this must bo in some way illusory ; liccause the upper atmosphere is highly transparent, as tlie heavenly budiei sliinu witli increased splendour. Skct. IV. LununoM Meteors. 79.?, i'he TffmeHon and reflection uanied. Some consider these balls to be great masses of electric matter, passing frotn one place to another. Others suppose them to be the same with the aerolites. 808. Aerolites, or meteoric stones, have frequently descended from the atmosphere from the remotest antiquity. Both the above opinions may be in so far correct ; because the fire-balls cxliil)it very different appearances. Philosophers are very much divided regarding the origin of meteoric stones. Some imagine them to be ejected from volcanos on the earth's surface; others from volcanos on the moon. A third class maintain, that they are generated by the romhination and condensation of their component parts, previously diffiised in the atmo- sphere in the gaseous form. Others allege, that they are detached stones moving through the boundless regions of space, and which casually come into contact with our planet. All these are little else than conjecture, although their formation in the atmosphere is the most phiusihie. A numerous list of the most authentic falls of such bodies is given iu Phil. Mag. vol. Ixvii. 809. Falling stars are very ordinary phenoiViena every where, but still they belong to a class which is not well understood. Near the place of tlieir apparent descent, a foetid gela- tinous substance has frequently been found, of a whitish yellow colour.* 810. 7'iie zodiacal light is a luminous appearance, seen after sunset, or before sunrise, somewliat similar to the milky way, but of a fainter light, in the figure of an inverted cone or pyramid, with its base towards the sun. Its axis is variously inclined to the horizon, and makes nn angle of nearly 7° with the plane of the ecliptic. The earliest distinct account of it was given by Cassini in 1683; but this affords no ground for supposing that it had not existed or been seen prior to that date : it is always observable, when the sky is clear, in the torrid zone ; but is more rarely to be found as we recede from the equator. The season most favourable for observing it is about the beginning of March : it is much brighter in some years than others, and was particularly brilliant at Paris, 16th February, 1769. The zodiacal light lies in the plane of the sun's equator, and is therefore supposed by some to be connected with his rotation. • Prormsnr nrnndes, of Rrcslau, has publiihed a curioui TreatUe on Falling Stars, to which wc may direct Iho attention of our readers. 176 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II. S«CT, V. Wind*. 811. iyi>icU are currents of air occasioned by the disturbance of the equilibrium of the atmosphere by the unequal distribution of heat. The general tendency, in such circum- stances, is for the heavier columns to displace the lighter ; and for the air at the earth's sur- face to move from the poles toward the equator : in consequence of the rotation of the earth on its axis, another motion is combined with the currents just described. The air, which is constantly moving from points where the earth's motion on its axis is slower to those where it is quicker, cannot have precisely tlie same motion eastward with the part of the surface over which it is passing, and therefore must, relatively to that surface, acquire a motiun somewhat westerly. The two currents, therefore, from the opposite hemispheres, will, on meeting, about the equator, destroy that part of each other's motion which is in the direction of the meridian, leaving nothing but their united motion towards the west. Such is the cause of the tmde-xdnd, as proposed and rejected by Dr. Halley : it was shortly after revived by Hadley, and is pretty generally received. The trade-wind (with certain exceptions) blows constantly from the east, between the latitudes of 30° N. and 30° S. ; it declines somewhat from due east, towards the parallel to which the sun is vertical at diflPerent seasons of the year. The only supply for the air constantly abstracted from the higher latitudes must be made by a counter current, in the upper regions of the atmosphere, carrying back the air from the equator towards the poles. In a zone of variable breadth, within the region of trade-winds, calms and rains prevail, caused probably by the mingling and ascending of the opposite currents. High lands change or interrupt the course of the trade-winds : thus, under the Ice of the African shore, calms and variable winds prevail near the Cape Verd islands, while an eddy, or counter current of air from the south-west, is generated under the coast of Guinea, The lofty barrier of the Andes shelters the sea on the Peruvian shores from the trade-winds, which are not felt till a ship has sailed eighty leagues westward ; but the intervening space is occupied by a wind from the south. In the Indian ocean, the trade-wind is curiously modified by the surrounding land : the southern trade-wind blows regularly from the cost and south-east, from 10'^ to 23° south latitude ; but between 10° south and tlie equator north- west winds prevail from October to April, and south-west the rest of the year ; while north of the equator, tlie wind is south-west in summer, and north-cast in winter : these are called monsoons, but are not fully understood. 812. As lo the parts of tlie globe that lie beyond the region of trade -tvinds, calms prevail pretty generally over a narrow space ; beyond which, the region of variable winds extends probahly to the poles. Mr. Forster observes, that beyond the tropics the west winds are most common. He also supposes tliat east winds have an ascendancy within the antarctic circle. According to Robins, a westerly wind almost constantly prevails about latitude 60° S. in tlic Pacific Ocean. In Hudson's Bay, westerly winds prevail during three fourths of the year, as also in Kamschatka. At Melville island, the north and north-west winds prevail : on account of these winds, the Atlantic may be crossed eastward in about half the time of returning westward. 813. Sea and land breezes arise from the same general principle which chiefly occasions the trade-winds : during the day, when the sun renders the surface of tlie land warmer than that of the sea, the warmer rarified air of the land ascends, being buoyed up and displaced by the heavier air rushing from the sea, and thus forming the sea breeze « but the reverse often happens during the night, when the surface of the land becomes colder than the sea, and occasions a wind from the land, or a land breeze. Winds of this sort are more frequent about islands and small peninsulas than in other situations ; but they are not confined to any particular latitude. 814. A variett/ of local winds have also been observed. The etesian, which is a northerly or north-easterly wind, prevails very much in summer all over Europe. Pliny describes it as blowing regularly in Italy for forty days after the summer solstice. It is supposed to be a part of the great lower current moving towards the equator. Another northern wind, which often continues about a month in February and March, is called the omilhian wind, because some birds of passage then make their appearance in the south of Europe. A squall, or sudden gust of wind, is common in many places; and when is impetuosity is sufHcient to bear along trees, buildings, &c, it is called a hurricane: such winds have frequently a whirling motion, and are accompanied with torrents of rain or hail, and even thunder; these are sometimes called tornadoes : they are principally confined to the torrid zone. The sirocco is a hot southern wind, known on the shores of the Mediterranean ; when it reaches Naples and Sicily, it is very moist and relaxing to the human frame. Some warm climates arc occasionally visited by excessively hot pestilential winds, generally from the south, and known under a great variety of names in different quarters. Such are the kamsin of Egypt, tlie simoom or samiel of Arabia and the Desert. The deleterious effects, which frequently cut off whole hordes or caravans, are sometimes ascribed to the predominance of one of the com- ponent gases of the air, or to a mixture of nitrous gas, &c. ; but this is not well ascertained, The very arid state of the air, bearing along vast quantities of burning sand and dust, must of themselves be very prejudicial to aii..nal life. The harmattan is a warm, dry, east wind, which occurs in Guinea, and is also of an unwiiulvsoinc description. Book II. HYDROLOGY. 177 rium of the ach circum- earth's sur- of the earth air, which ii those where f the surface ire a motiun eres, will, on the direction Such is tha afler revived ptious) blows nes somewhat Mof the year. St be made by ! air from the if trade-winds, f the opposite , under the lee lands, while an last of Guinea. le trade-winds, ervening space id is curiously y from the cast > equator north- ir ; while north these are called IS prevail pretty xtends probably B most common. cle. According 5. in the Pacific • year, as also in account of these iiing westward. jhiefly occasions [nd warmer than p and displaced but the reverse ler than the sea, :e more frequent coniined to any 815. The velocitif of the wind varies from nothing up to 100 miles in an hour; but tho maximum is variously stated by ditturent authors. According to Smeaton, a gentle breeze moves between 4 and 5 miles per hour, mid has a force of about 2 ounces on a foot ; a brisk pleasant gale moves from 10 tu 15 miles, with n force of 12 ounces ; a high wind, ,'30 to 35 miles, with a force of 5 or G pounds; a hurricane, bearing along trees, houses, &c. has a velocity of 100 miles, and a force of -ID pounds on the 8(|uare foot. 816. The force of the mnd is nearly o» the square of the velocity multiplied by the density of the air. Some interesting experiments are described by Colonel Beaufoy, Annals Phil. vol. viii. p. 94. 817. The atmoifihere \$ the vehicle of sound, and we shall close this brief sketch by noticing this property. Till lately, the velocity of sound used to be greatly over-rated. From the experiments of Dr. INIull, in the plains of Utrecht, in 1823, it appears, that the mean velocity of sound is nearly 1 100 feet per second ; but it varies a little with the temperature and hu- midity of the air. See Phil. Tmiu. for 18'J4. Chav. II. iivniioi.oaY. 818. This branch of natural Mstori/ makes us acquainted with the varioxu jrrojKrties and relations of the waters of the uluhe. Any definition of water is unnecessary ; but mankind must have remarked, at a very early period, that the waters distributed over the globe differ considerably in their fitness for drinking, for preparing food, and for other domestic pur- poses. These differences arc ocvasioneil by the foreign bodies which this liquid holds in u state of solution or suspension ; fur water is capable of dissolving a greater number of sub- stances than any other fluid, llencu it is scarcely ever found native in a state of absolute purity : in some cases, the quantity of foreign matter is so minute, as to have little influence on the taste or other properties ; but in other instances they are so abundant, as to render it unfit fur common use, or even noxious; while at other times it is medicinal, &c., according to the nature of the substances with which it is impregnatcrl. Native water, free from colour, is almost never poisonous, especially if it be nt the same time tasteless ; but if blue from copper, green from iron, or brown from vegetable impregnation, it is unfit for the use of man. Water performs the most important functions in the vegetable and animal king- doms, and enters largely into their cunipoKitions, as a constituent part. 819. The substance of water presents itself under three differetit forms of aggregation. If under sufficient pressure, it is li(|uid at all temperatures above S'J°, so far as is known. It is densest at the temperature of 40°, When cooled down to 32"', it ordinarily assumes the solid form of ice; but if great care be taken to ttvuid agitation, it may be cooled almost to zero, without freezing. Congelation commences in the form of prismatic crystals, crossing each other at angles of 60° or 120°, and the temperature, however low before, instantly rises to ?i'f. During this process, the moss expands with a prodigious force, the volume suddenly increasing about a ninth part. Glass buttles filled with water, and properly stopped, are burst during its congelation, and the same has happened to a strong bomb-shell. Water passes into vapour at all temperatures, and \inder any pressure ; when the elasticity of the vapour equals or exceeds the incumbent pressure, the process proceeds with violence, and is called boiling. Under the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere, this takes place at about 212° of Fahrcniieit's scale ; but the boiling tompvi;ature varies with the pressure : hence, water boils at a lower temperature on a moiuitain top, and at a higher in a deep pit. 820. 7'he relations of water to heat are very reimtrkable. With the exception of hydrogen pt, it absorbs more heat in warming, and parts with more in cooling, than other bodies J,j. jlcncc, large bodies of water have a powerful influence in checking or retarding sudden aherations of temperature in the surrounding air. Ice, in melting, absorbs as much heat as HouKl raise its temperature 1 40' ', and gives out the like quantity again in freezing, — a property tliat enables it to resist or retard sudden alterations of temperature in cold climates, in a more remarkable degree than the other ; which, however, exerts its influence in the torrid and temperate its well as in the frigid zone, Lastly, water, in assuming the elastic form, absorbs licit suHicient to raise its temperature 1000", imd parts with as much during re-condensing into water ; so that water possesses an idmost boundless influence in tempering climate, 821. Water, as to Us composition, was long ranked among the simple elements; but the researches of modern chemistry have ascertained that it is a compound of 88 ■<) of oxygen, ami 11 '1 hydrogen; or its composition by volinne and weight may he thus stated: one volume of oxygen combined with two of hydrogen, or eight parts by weight of oxygen, nitli one of hydrogen. It is composed and decomposed, (luring many of the operations of nature, and its chemical agency is almost universal. It is an ingredient in most bodies uiiicli appear under the crystalline form. N 173 SCIENCE OF OEOCnAPIIY. Part II. SicT. I. The Ocean, 822. TAe ocean in tho origin and fuuiilnin of nil llie other waters which occur, in whatever form, on the face of the glul)e. Aci'urdiiig to some naturalists, it forms the remains of the menstruum or chaotic fluid, in whii'li all Kolid bodies were originally held in a state of solu. tion, and from which they have been precipitated or crystallized, in short, brought to their present state, during tho countless ages which these processes arc supposed to have occupied, anterior to the creation of man : bu this as it may, we are certain, that it is from the vapours exhaled by the ocean that the atmosphere is furnished with sufficient moisture to support and refresh the organised beings wliich inhabit the eurtli. All nature languislies when the atmo. sphere withholds its rain and dews ; plants fade and droop ; animals feel their strength failing ; even man himself, breathing nothing but green water. The blue water contains few animalcules, and is un- commonly transparent. The surface of the Mediterranean sometimes appears of a purjile tint In the Gulf of Guinea, the sea is sometimes white ; and around the Maldivc islands, black. The Vermilion Sea, near California, is so named from its red appearance. 834. The tramparency of the tea may in many ploccs be very great, without such pro- perty being readily noticed. Thus, where the water is sufficiently deep to bo dark at the bottom, it moy seem quite opaque, unless some fish or other object happen to come within view. Agitation of the surface will likewise tend to conceal the transparency. In general, the sea is more transparent as we recede from the shore, and in cold climates than hut ; owing, perhaps, to the smaller quantity of organic matter dilTused in the waters of high latitudes. From this, however, there are exceptions ; as in the opacity of the Arctic Sea just noticed, and in the case of the Caribbean Sea, which is often remarkably transparent. Admiral Milne observed the bottom at a depth of \50 feet in the Caribbean Sea. Aiithura are not agreed to what depth the solar rays penetrate ; and indeed we have every reason to suppose thut this must depend upon and be as various as the transparency. Some limit the penetration to a depth of 100 yards; while others more than double that quantity,, The light should surely penetrate to at least double the depth to which an observer can sue from the surface. 835. The temperature of tlie sea has probably a tendency to follow the mean temperature of the climate; but many powerful causes must interfere and modify it. Thus, between the tropics, the mean temperature of the surface of the ocean is about 80°, and generally ranges between 77"^ and 81°. Beyond the tropics, it begins to decrease, but without observing a]iy strict connection with the latitude; because, on account of the great specific heat of water, powerful currents cannot fail partially to ])reserve, for some time, the temperature of the place from which they come. Hence, currents from the torrid zone, on passing into higher latitudes, raise the temperature of the sea above what usually belongs to such parallels; the reverse holds of cold icy currents from the arctic regions. The temperature of the ocean is miicli more steady than that of the superincumbent air, and has likewise a smaller annual range: unless where very shallow, it has scarcely any diurnal range. 836. The temperature if the sca on ttescendiiif; below the surface generally decreases, but not according to any uniform or known law. Thus, at a depth of five fathoms, it is some- times 1° colder, while in other instances it requires 100 fathoms for 1'^. Sometimes the cold attains its maximum at a depth of 100 fathoms, and sometimes it requires 400 ur .'iOO fathoms. According to an experiment related by Capt. Subine, the temperature of tlio Caribbean Sea was 45-5° at a depth of 1000 fathoms, while its surface was 83'^. But the enormous pressure at the bottom probably compressed the ball of the thermometer, and kcjjt the apparent temperature 45.5'' above the truth. In the Arctic Sea, however, the tciniicr- ature increases with the depth. ]Mr. Scoresby, who first ascertained this, found an incrvusc of 6.0° and 8° at the respective depths of liiO and 730 fathoms; Capt. Parry, 6 at'JIO fathoms; Capt. Sabine, 7. 5" at 680 fathoms; Lieut. Beechy, 10^ at 700 fathoms; and Mr. Fisher, 9.5° at a depth of 188 fathoms. Thus, the rate of increase of temperature in the Arctic Sea has as inconstant a connection with the depth as the decrease in the tcm|)i'ratu and torrid zones. Sea water freezes about 28° ; after which, the ice has been observed to cool down to — 55'^ ; but we cannot thence infer, that a lower temperature does not occur in the polar regions. 837. The phosphorescence of the sea is a common but very remarkable phcnomennn, concerning the cause of which authors are not agreed. But most probably, as Newton con- jectured, it proceeds from a variety of causes. Since his time, it has engaged the attention of many eminent philosophers. Tlie appearance of these lights is by no means unHurm. Sometimes a vessel, in traversing the ocean, seems to mark out a trace of fire; while ciuh stroke of an oar emits a light, sometimes brilliant and dazzling, at other times tranquil niui pearly. These lights are grouped in endless variety. Perhaps, ut one time, innumerable shining points float on the surface, and then unite into one extensive sheet of light. At another time, the spectator fancies he sees large sparkling figures, like animals in pursuit of each other, incessantly vanishing and re-appearing. Such lights have been ascribed to lumin- ous animals, and to the phosphorescence of semiputrescent matter diflused in the ocean. It is well known, that various fishes and other marine animals emit light, which docs not in ever)- instance appear to be voluntary, or to depend on the vital principle, as, in some of tiiem, it continues, and perhaps increases, after death ; but motion seems to be either a principal cause, or at least an exciting one; for this light more rarely occurs, and is much fainter, in still water, whilst it becomes more and more brilliant as the motion increases. It is also more abundant immediately before and during storms. In vol. v. p, .S03. of llie Edin. Phil. Joiir., Dr. Francis Buchanan has given a very interesting account of ^ i extraordinary shining of the ser., which he observed, 31st Ju"^, 1785, in longitude Hook 1T> iiydholocy. 181 guch pro- lark at the tme witliin [n general I I than liot ; era of high tic Sea just ransparvnt. , Authors y reason to ne limit the ntity.. The ;an sec from temperature between the icroUy rungi'3 )bserving any icat of water, c of the place 'her latitudes, I • the reverse }cean is much rnnual range; decreases, but , ms, it is some- Sometimes the Ires 400 or SOO fcrature of the 83 \ But the leter, and kept ;r, the teinpcr- md an incrtiisc irry, C at 210 foms ; and Mr. Ipcrature in the [i the temperate •en observed to docs not occur Cl°25' E., latitude 6" .12' N. " About a quarter past novon p. m.," wyH lie, "llio rca wan ohserveil ti> be remarkably white. The sky was every wliero clear, except around tlio horizon, where, for about 15'\ it was covered with a dark haxe, at is usual la mich latiliides. The whiteness gradually increased till past eight. Tlio lea wan then an liigh-coluiired a« milk, nut uidikc the milky way, the luminous appearance very much rvMeiiiblinff tlio hrigliter stars in that constellation. It continued in this state till past inidnighl, and only (iinappearetl as daylight advanced. The whiteness prevented uh from Iwliig able to ico cither the break or the swell of the sea, although both were cunNiderablv, as wo knew from the motion of the ship and the noise. There was much light upon deck, ns wo could discern all the ropes much more distinctly than usual. We drew Mvvral buckets of water, in whicli, even when at rest, there appeared a great number of luminouii bodies. Tho bulk r)r them did not appear to bo more than one quarter of an inch in length, and nearly as intich ill breadth. Some, however, were one inch and a half long, and uf the name breadth as tlio others. These were seen to move in tho samo manner as n worm does in water. When taken up on the finger, they retained their sliining faculty oven when dry. When brought near a candle, their light disappeared ; but, by ininutu attention, an ex- tremely fine white filament could be observed and lifted upon the point of a pin, It was of a uniform sliiniiig colour and form, and about the thickness uf a spider's thread. In a Gallon of water there might be about 400 of these animals emitting light. The water itself, when in the bucket, had a natural appearance. Tho atuiusphvro was Meeiningly ft'co from fug. The stars were bright, and there was no moonlight. Tho night before, tho same appearance was observed at ten p. H. ; it lasted only 20 minutes ; but as I was below, I did not hear of it till it was over." — "Tho animalcules which occomIou tlio unusual lumiiiousness of the sea emit light only when strongly agitated, and lieiice appear close by the sides of tlie ship, or when any larger fish passes swiAly, or when « bucket uf water is drawn and suddenly poured out." — " In the year 1805, on returning ft-om St. Helena to England, a little north from the equinoctial line, and near tho coast uf Africa, I hud an oppurtuiiity of seeing a still more splendid appearance of the luminous animalcules. Soon alter dark in the evening, it being nearly calm, we saw numerous lights at a distance, like tlic lamps of a great city. The lights gradually approached tho frigate, and on reaching us appeared to arise from a great many large fishes (albicores) sporting in the water, ana agitating the animalcules, so as to excite their luminous powers." 8;iS. The depth of the sea is a question on which our information is very imperfect, and there is little likelihood that much accurate information will ever be obtiu:ie(t on the subject, so far as regards the wide ocean. According to the speculations of the lale celebrutiHl ^Iari]iiis I^a|)lacc, the depth of the ocean is comparatively small, and nearly uniforin. If, luiwuvor, it be recollected that the bottom of the sea is still a part uf tho earth's surfiice, niiil liy nuicli tlie greater |)art too, one would be apt to ask, why that larger part of the surface should he more level than what appears as dry land? The soundings which liuvobeen iiiadu in till" ocean are quite inadequate to decide the question. They, however, often indicate great iiii-qiialitii's in the depth ; but how fur hollows may have been filled with ih'hm, or asperi- ties worn down, it is not easy to say ; though it is more likely that (ho sumniitH of moun- tains exposed to the alternate or combined actions of air and moisture sutler a moro rapid abrasion than those whicli are wholly under water. In general, the slope of the a(\jacent shore is continued downward for a good way underwater ; that is, tho sen is usually shallow where the sliore is flat, while its depth increases rapidly by the side of n dill' or steep moun- tain. It is therefore probable, that some islands, though very small, may be the tops uf suli-marine mountains as large, perhaps, as the highest which occur on the earth's surface. In many instances, no bottom has been found ; but this might proceed either IVtim tho sliortncss of the line, or from its being borne aside by rapid currents. We have nln>ady mmlioni'd a sounding of 6003 feet in the Caribbean sea ; but Lord Mutgrave's lino of 4ri80 feet did not reach the bottom of the Northern Ocean. In the entrance of the (leriiiou or North Sta, at the Straits of Dover, the central depth is "20 fathoms. This extensive basin contains various shallows and sand-banks ; yet, generally speaking, the depth increases in going northward, and near to Burgen in Norway it amounts to 1!X) thuliums. A very inleri'sting account of the bed of the German Sea is given by Mr. Stevenson, Kdhi. P/iU. Jimr. iii. 4'.', ; and in the third volume of the Memoirs of the Ifernerian SucHijf. «30. The level of the open sea is believed, (generally speaking, to he eiuri/ when' the same t or to form a portion of the surface of an oblate spheroid, to which the N'.irfaco of tho land approaches with less accuracy. Some gulfs and inland seas appear to deviate in sonic measure from the general rule. Tliis is more particularly the case wlieru tho com- munication of such seas with the ocean is narrow ; and there are a few other exceptions,* When the general motion of the ocean or of the trade-winds is directed into (liu mouth of an inland sea, it has a tendency to raise its level above that of the ocean. On this account it is that the Arabian Gulf or Red Sea is higher tlian the ocean, and still higher (linn the Jlcditcrraiu-aii, which, from the opposite action of the wind and the great evapor- • Siribo says the level of the Gulf of Corinth is liighcr tlian that of thf Gulf of Conoliwr. N 3 IM SCIENCE OF GEOORAPIIY. Part II. •tlon, Ih »u|ipo!iC(I to lie n little bvlow the general level.* Some gulfi and inland tea*, ai the Baltic and liluck Sea, riite in spring, from the copious inllux of river water, and are lowered in summer by evoporation and the ettlux at tlieir mouths. Of late years, there lias been considerable discussion regarding the sidisidence of the Uultic below the level it had formerly maintained. Whilst some support this opinion, and venture to explain the cause of the subsidence, others deny the fact altogether. The trade>winds and general westward motion of the ocean force in the water into the Gulf of Florida, so as to maintain a higher level there than on the western coast of the Isthmus of Darien.f The consenuence of this accumulation of water is, that it generates a current moving northwards ; and which, after various windings through the Atlantic, at length reaches the western shores of Europe, as will be more particularly noticed hereafter. Some naturalists allege, that the (U'bris, or alluvial matters daily abraded by the action of the weather on the surface of the land, and swept into the ocean by the rain and rivers, must, at length, raise the level of the ocean till it cover the whole globe, and restore the reign of ancient chaos. Unless there be some com- pensating process, which either makes up for the exhausted materials, or gradually elevates the entire continents above the water, it is not very easy to guess at an alternative. A com- pensating power is situated deep in the crust of tlie earth. 840. The taste of sea water is disagreeable and bitter, at least when taken from the surfiirc or near the shore; but when drawn from great depths, its taste is only saline. It would therefore seem that the bitterness is owing to the greater abundance of animal and vegetable matter near the surface. I^Ian, in a civilised state, cannot make use of sea water as drink ; yet it is said that the inhabitants of the Isle of Paques, in the Pacific Ocean, make it their usual beverage. Some of the lower animals occasionally travel far to drink sea water; Sheep are very fond of licking the dry salt ; and so are many horses and cattle. With them it is a cure for various complaints. Several attempts have been made to render sea water potable, or to free it from salt. Distillation is the most cfl'ectual ; but the expense of fuel is a serious objection to this method at sea, and, after all, it does not divest it of all its biu teniRss. Thus, in the midst of water, mariners are frequently in danger of dying of thirst, when they run short of fresh water. Si'a ice, when melted, aflurds nearly fresh water ; hut being devoid of air, its taste is not very agreeable, though it would be highly prized in time of need. A temporary, and in some degree an imaginary, relief may be obtained, by holding ■alt water in the mouth. 841. The inline contents nf the waters of the wide ocean do not, so far as experience has gone, differ much in different latitudes and under different meridians, altliough we ought to find the sea fresher in the spaces occupied by the internal limits of the trade-wind, and also in those tracts of the ocean where calms and a high temperature prevail, as on tlic west coast of Africa. The mean is about 3'5 per cent, in the weight of the water ; but the saltness is more or less affected by currents and storms. It is diminished at the surface during heavy rains, and by the discharge of rivers ; but increased by evaporation, which carries off' the water fresh, ond leaves the salt behind ; hence there is often little consistency in detached observations. From a great variety of experiments. Dr. Marcet concludes: 1. That the Southern Ocean contains more salt than the Northern, in the ratio of 1-0291 to 1-02757. 2. That the mean specific gravity of sea water near the equator is 1.02777, intermciliatB between those of the northern and southern hemispheres. S. Tliat there is no notable dif- ference in sea water under different meridians. 4. That there is no satisfactory evidence that the sea at great depths is more salt than at the surface. 5. That the sea, in general, contains more salt where it is deepest and most remote from land ; and that its saltness is always diminished in the vicinity of large masses of ice. 6. That small inland seas, though communicating with the ocean, ore much less salt than the open ocean. 7. That the IMccli- tcrranean contains rather larger proportions of salt than the ocean. This last is explained from the fact, that a pretty strong current from the Atlantic always flows inward at the mouth of the Mediterranean, to supply, as was supposed, the water which escaped by evaporation, and left its salt behind. So great, however, is the influx, that this inland sea ought to have become perfect brine, or perhaps to have deposited beds of salt, if there were no efflux t and accordingly it is maintained that there is an outward current at the bottom, very deep, which carries off* this excess of salt, and prevents its deposition in the vast hollows in the bottom. The water drawn up from this lower current is saltcr, in a small degree, than at the surface. 842. The following are the mean specific gravities of the waters of different seas, acconling to Dr. Marcel's experiments : — Arctic Ocean . . . 102fif)4 Northern Hemisphere . . i-tmnn Soutliern Hemisphere - . itr.'ssij Yellow Sea , . 1-0'A«J1 Mediterranean , ^ l-OiiiWO Sea of Marmora . . 1-01915 Black Sea . White Sea Daltic I.ake Ourmia, in Persia, Dead Sea . 101418 . 1-01901 . l-Ol.-.JJ - l-llw07 . iiuno • ride Maclarcn on the level of the Red Sea, in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal i I he mean height of tlic PaciHc above the Atlantic ii said to be 352 feet. 11 II. id are re has it had ) cauHO «twnrd hinlicr of thiit h, after rope, a« ibris, or nd, and ccan till nc coin- fluvatcs A com- e surfiice It would vegctnlile an drink ; M it lliiir ca water; .Villi tliom sea water ise of fiii'l all its bit- g of thirst, water; hut zed in time by holding icriencc has we ought to ind, and also e west coast ic saltnt'ss is luring heavy •ries otV the in detached 1. That the I to 1'0'2757. linternicdiatc I notable dif- lory evidence I, in general, |ts saltness is seas, though lat the We'l'- is explained liward at the escaped hy |is inland sea [if there were , the bottom, vast hollows small degree, I according to . 101418 . ruigoi . i-«i.«2 . lUlOO DooK IL HYDROLOGY. 183 kn»l 843> The tallness of inland teas ii subject to many varieties. In the entrance to the Black Sen, tlic water is much Salter at the bottom than the surface. To account fur this, it is said thiit an under current enters from the Mediterranean. It is well known that there is an oulwurd current at the surface, which brings with it the less salt water of the lihick Sea. The saltness of inland seas is often ati'ected by the direction and strength of the wind, cither forcing in, or retarding the entrance of, water from tlie ocean. Accordingly, from the expe- riments of Wilckc, it appears that the saltness of the Daltic is increased by a west wind, and atill more so by a north-west wind ; but it undergoes a diminution when the wind is from the cast. Thus, the ipeciflc gravities are, fur a Wind at VV. .... iiXXrj Storm at W. . . . . I'OllS Ditto at N.W. .... 11)098 Wind at E. . ... IWlB Hence, the proportion of natt in the Baltic depends in no small degree on the different winds; a proof that the salt is not only derived from the neighbouring ocean, but that storms have a much greater effect on it than has been commonly supposed. 8't't. The constituent parts of sea water have been an object of examination to many che- mists, and various sets of experiments made to determine them. The late Dr. Murray of Kiiiiihurgh was of opinion that there were various sources of fallacy in analysing sea water; and that dilfercnt modes of operating on the same water gave very different results. Two reasons are assigned for this ; viz. that some of the different salts mutually decompose each oilier in the process, and that a part is lost altogether by evaporation, especially if the tem- perature be high. According to this eminent cliemist, 10,000 parts of water from the Firth of Forth, which is not sensibly different from that of the ocean, contain 220 parts of common salt, .in of sulphate of soda, 42 of muriate of magnesia, and 8 of muriate of lime. On analysing sea water from N. latitude 25° 30', W. longitude 32° 30', Dr. Marcet made the numbers respectively 2CG, 47, 52, and 12. According to Bladli, the saltness is greater about the tropics than at the equator. Dr. Trail maintains the contrary ; and also that the saltness increases with the depth. 845. Ice is/ormed on the sea, though its saltness enables it to resist the process of conge- lation at the ordinary freezing point of fresh water. This quality does not withstand the rigour of the Arctic regions, where the temperature of the air has been observed so low as 55° F. Sea water freezes about 28^, but the temperature varies a little with the saltness.— It is a curious circumstance, that sea water parts with its salt in freezing.* Hence compact transparent sea ice affords fresh water on being melted. When, however, the ice is of a loose or cellular texture, its pores sometimes contain liquid brine; and therefore, on being melted, it affords brackish water. It is supposed to be the affinity between the water and salt which retards the congelation of sea water ; because the greater the saltness, the lower is tlie freezing temperature. Detached masses of ice are occasionally met with, floating in tlic ocean at so low a parallel of latitude as 40^ in both hemispheres ; having been conveyed tliitlier by currents from the polar regions.^ At the parallel of 50'' they are more abundant; and there it is common, in winter, to see the shallow edges of the sea covered with ice. At G0° N. latitude, the gulfs and inland seas arc frequently frozen over their whole surface. As u'c proceed toward the poles, ;he ice becomes more and more abundant, and of larger dimensions, till at length we come to Jields of ice, and icebergs or mountains of ice. 'fhc process of congelation commences at the surface of the sea, with the formation of slender prismatic crystals resembling wet snow : this the seamen call sludge, 'llie surface is at first rough ; but, by the union of the crystals and the accumulation of the sludge, the surface becomes smooth and forms a continued sheet, which is next broken, by the agitation of the water, into fragments of about three inches diameter ; these again coalesce into a continued sheet of a stronger texture, which is in its turn broken as before, but into larger fragments oAkA p:tncake ice. Where the water is free from all agitation, the congelation goes on more regularly, and some allege more rapidly. During 24 hours of keen frost, the ice frequently attains a thickness of from two to three inches, and is soon fit for walking on : it is then called bui/ ice. When the thickness is about a foot, it is called li<;ht ice ; and when three feet tliick, heav;/ ice. The term Jield is given to a sheet of ice so extensive that its farther end cannot be seen from a mast-head. Very large loosened pieces, whose boundaries may be seen readily, are called Jioes.' Fragments of thick ice floating together are called brash ice. Floating ice of any sort, sufficiently loose to allow a vessel to ])ass through, is called open or drift ice. Indeed, there is no end to the terms which seamen apply to diflTerent sorts of ice. The sudden disruption of extensive fields is sometimes produced by that powerful tendency to undulation of the surface, communicated by the motions of the adjoining liquid surface of tlic ocean during a continued storm, which is denominated agroi.nd stvell- The ice, when thin, merely yields ; but, if thick and little flexible, it is broken with tremendous noise. A * Althfliigli some hnvc assumed 38° Fahrenheit, which is the melting point of sea ice, ns the mean tem- perature uf the pole, it is evident from the observations of Parry, Scorcsby, and others, that it is about zero of Fahrenheit's scale. t Horsburgh mentions icebergs having been met with in South lat. 35° 54}', and East lonp. 17° .W. — Phil. Mag. N 4 184 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. r.RTlI. very intcrvslin|{ ncoount of nucIi n phenomenon is given by a party of missionaries wlio pnssi'il along the coast of Labrr.dor in sleilgcs drawn by dogs. They narrowly escaped destruction ; l)ut were near enough to witness all its grandeur. " The missionaries met a bledgc with Ks<|uiniau)c turning in from the sea, who threw out some hints that it might be as well for them to return. AlK'ith all haste towards the shore; niul as tliey approached it, the prospect before them was tremendous. The ice, having burst loose from the rooks, was tossed to and fro, and broketi in a thousand pieces against tliu precipices with a dreadful noise; which, added to the raging of the sea, the roaring of the wind, and the driving of the snow, . .. completely overpowered them as almost to deprive them of the use both of their eyes and ears. To make the land was now the only resource that remained ; but it was with the utmost difficulty that the frightened dogs couUI be driven forward; and as the whole body of the ice freipiently sunk below the summits of the rucks, and then rose above them, the only time for landing was the moment it gained the level of the coast, — a circumstance which rendered the attempt extremely nice and hazardous. lioth sledges, however, succeeded in gaining the shore, and were drawn up on the beach, though not without great dilllcully. Scarcely had they reached it, when that part of the ice frum which they had jusi escaped burst asunder, and the water, rushing up from beneath, instantly precipilateil it into the oeenn. In a moment, as if by signal, the whole mass of ice for several nules along the coast, and extending us far as the eye could reach, began to break and to be overwhelmed with the waves. Tlie spectacle was awfully grand. The immense fields of ice rising out of the ocean, clashing against one another, and then plunging into the deep with a violence which no language can describe, and a noise like the discharge of n thousand cannon, was a sight which must have struck the most imreflecting mind with solemn awe, 'I'lie brelinen were overwhelmed with amazement at their miraculous escape; and even the pagan E>«piiinaux expressed gratitude to God for their deliverance."* 8-l(). The ti-rm ivchirii is applied to huge masses of ice resembling mountains, whether resting on the land or lloaling on the sea. Tlie latter sort appear to be sometimes furnini in the sea itself, by the accunudation of ice and snow ; at other times to be fragments of land icebergs or glaciers, which have been piling up on shore till quite overgrown, and ulti- mately broken and laimched into the ocean by their own weight. Masses of this sort abound in liatlin's Day, where they are sometimes two miles long, and half or one third as liruad. They are bristled with various spires, rising, perhaps, 100 feet above the surface, and de- scending half as much below it. When compact ice floats in water, the part under the surface is about nine times as great as that above it; and hence the icebergs may sometimes descend to a great depth, though tliiy should be far from consisting of very compact iic. Icebergs of an even surface, rising 90 feet above the sea, and having an area of five or six square miles, are very common. Those of East Greenland are of inferior size, and they arc still smaller around Spitdiergen, where some of enormous dimensions occur on shore. The reason which ISIr. Scoresby assigns for this is, that, owing to the shallowness of the water into which the huge IVagments are precipitated, they are all shattered against the bottom into a thousand pieces before they are fairly launche(l into deep water. " On an excursion to one of the Seven Icebergs, in .Fuly I HIS," says Mr. Scoresby, " I was particularly for- tunate in witnessing one of the grandest ellects which these jjolar glaciers ever present. A strong north-westerly swell, having for sonic hours been beating on the shore, had loosened a iHiml>er of fr>igmeuts attached to the iceberg, and various heaps of broken ice denoted recent shoots of the scawartl edge. As we rowed towards it, with a view of proceediiii,' close to its base, I observed a few little pieces fall from the top; and while my eye was fixed upon the place, an imnu'tise eoliimn, probably 50 feet square and 150 feet high, began to leave the parent ice at the lop ; and leaning majestically forward, with an accelerated veloeily fell with an awful crash into the sea. The water into which it plunged was converted into aw appearance of vapour or snioko, like that from a furious cannonading. The noise was ecpial to llial of ihumlel', which it nearly resembled, 'llie column which fell was nearly sipiai'c, and in magnitude resembled u church. It broke into a thousand pieces. This cir- • Urown'n lli!tnry of the Prupsgation of Christianity, vol. ii. |>. ; Book II> HYDROLOGY. 185 cumstance was a happy caution ; for we might have inadvertently gone to the very base of tlic icy clift", from which masses of considerable magnitude were continually falling." In IGli) a huge mass of this sort fell on a Russian ship. It broke the fore and main masts, sprung the howsprit, and flung the ship over with such violence that a piece of ordnance was tlirown overboard from under the half-deck, and the captain and some of the crew were pro- jected in the same manner. Tlie captain, however, escaped unhurt ; but the mate and two otliers were killed, and many were wounded. 847. Icebergs variously affect navigal'wn. Tliey are often highly useful, by protecting navigators from gales, as well as from the concussions of drift ice, which moves more quickly wlit'n acted on by the wind than the massy iceberg. To the latter, ships are sometimes moored, but not without danger ; for these floating masses are sometimes so nicely balanced as to be easily overturned, should they happen to catch the bottom of the sea. The concus> sion produced in this way sometimes detaches large fragments ; and sometimes the iceberg rolls forward, to the imminent danger of the vessel, though perhaps 100 yards distant, — so crcat arc the waves and whirls caused by such an occurrence. Many dangers and discou- ra^einciUs attend the navigation of the polar seas : but the recent attempts to discover a noTtli-west passage through the Arctic Sea have rendered the ice a subject of considerable interest. These attempts have not yet been crowned with success : but different navigators have brought such different accounts of the state of the ice, that it is probably very change- able, and very difRcuIt to examine. It is not quite agreed that any navigator has been within d' of the North Pole ; althougii some accounts pretend to a still nearer approach. Captain Parry, in his last voyage, reached to 82" 45' N. lat. The failure of Captain Cook's attempt to penetrate to tlie South Pole gave rise to an idea, which has been pretty generally enter- tained since his time, tliat tlie South Pole is surrounded with fixed ice to the distance of 18° or 19^; and a more recent Russian expedition gave still worse hopes, as they could not get bejoiid the latitude of 70" S. Mr. Weddell, however, has since reached 255 miles nearer the pole, and met with no such obstruction : this enterprising navigator contends strenuously that the South Pole must be free from ice, and might be reached by sea. Some of his nrjrunients are rather plausible; but the question is involved in so many uncertainties, that nothing less than actual trial can decide it. 818. The expansion and contraction of ice has imjjortant efl'eets. Though water under- goes a great expansion in the act of freezing, yet ice obeys the ordinary law of solids, — that of expanding by heat and contracting by cold. The effect, therefore, of intense cold is to contract ice, which, if of large dimensions, or fixed all around, has no alternative but to rend where it is contracting most. This is often attended with a tremendous report. On the contrary, a rise of temperature may not only bring the parts to meet again, but often makes them lap over, or burst up with great violence.* 849, The motion of the watei's of the ocean is almost perpetual ; and it is believed, that witliout this provision in the economy of nature, the sea, in place of tempering and purifying the air, would both become putrid and exhale noxious vapours. 850. Heaves. The motions which first present themselves to our notice are the partial and alternate rising and falling of the surface, known by the name of undulations or waves. This sort of motion is caused by the wind, which, by dislodging or depressing a certain portion of the waters, has destroyed the equilibrium or level, which they naturally endeavour to recover. Waves may be compared to the reciprocations of water in a syphon or bent tube. It was in this way that Newton deduced the velocity of waves, and the time required to an undulation. II' water ascend and descend alternately in th« legs of a bent tube, and a pendulum be con- slructei< whose length between the point of suspension and centre of oscillation is equal to half the length of the water in the tube, then this fluid wilt ascend and descend during each oscillation of the pendulum. Hence tlie velocity of waves is as the square roots of their hreailtbs ; the breadth bein;; the distance between the tops of the ridges. In the same way, it may be shown that the apparent progressive motions of waves through spaces equal to their breadtlis arc performed in the times in which pendulums oscillate whose lengths arc equal to these lireadtlis. Hence waves, whose breadth is 39j inches, will seem to pass over that space in one second. Waves are scarcely ever without progressive motion ; but the real progress (if the surface of the water is generally small, compared to the apparent motion of the waves ; as is easily proved from any floating body which does not rise above the surface so as to be hurried forward by the wind. Waves are distinguished into natural and accidental. The natural are proportional to the strength of the wind producing them : — the accidental arc occasioned by repercussion of the wind from hills and bold coasts, and by the dashing of the waves on rocks and shoals. Divers, it is said, find the water perfectly still at the depth of thirty yards, during the greatest tempest. But this can only be known of some sheltered spots ; for when draltar, and forms the upper and middle current wliich prevails in that strait. Another branch of the great tropical current sets along the cuii^t of Brazil, and at length passes through the Straits of JVIagellun. In the Pacific Ocraii the waters have a general westward motion from the coast of Peru, which must be partly sup- plied by the last-mentioned current after doubling Cape Horn. The current from the coast of Peru is less perceptible, till it enters the Indian Ocean ; when, strengthened by the northerly currents there, it flows along the eastern coast of Africa, and doubles the Cape of Good Hope, in a rapid stream, 1 30 miles broad, and from 7° to 8° warmer than the conti- guous sea. A current from the South Pole sets along the west side of New Holluiul into the Bay of Bengal : it is supposed that other portions of the general polar current deflect the greot westerly current northward, after it' has passed the southern promontories of Africa and America. In the Northern Ocean, in the space comprised between Greenland aiul the coasts of Britain and Norway, and between Labrador and Sjiitzbergen, a great body of waters, acted on by three or four lateral currents, is supposed to perform a perpetual circuit. These waters receive their impulse eastward from a branch of the Gulf Stream, which passes from Newfoundland along the north-west coasts of Scotland and Norway. At the Nurtii Cape in Lapland, a great westerly current from Nova Zembia turns the waters north-west- ward along both sides of Spitzbergcn. Beyond this island, being met by a current from the pole, tlicy turn south-westward, and pass along the coast of Greenland to Davis's Straits, where they arc deflected southward by a fourth current from Baffin's Bay; and haviiiff re- turned to Newfoundland, recommence their revolution, Thus two great whirlpools, con- nected with one another, touch at the Bank of Newfoundland, which seems to be ii bar cast up by their conflicting waters ; and revolving in opposite directions, occupy four (ll'tlis of the North Atlantic. The small current which sets from the Bay of Biscay across the iiiiiulh of the English Channel, and through St. George's Channel, is most probably a branch of the Gulf Stream which had come off at the Azores. Were other parts of the ocean ns minutely examined as the North Atlantic, it is to be expected that other great vortices would be discovered. 852. J.octtl or lempurari/ currents are produced by winds, the discharge of rivers, the nii'lliiij,' of Ice, S:c. In general, ciM'reiits wliltli do not descend to a great depth are liable locliniii^c with the winds, particularly whin they blow for a long time with equal force, as llie moii- Paut II. netimcs the ics impetu- taclf, when The surf is n the snmc the oocan, waters west- is plain that positc (lirec- the ice from which fall in [uator. The trade winds, ^ to u certain at continents, ititude. Ac- he Atlantic it This branch ^^erd I'.ilands: >en Cuba and ;hanncl ; then (tates to New- t from Baffin's nto itself, and atitudcs of 11° tcs in about 31 breadth is 51 1 hour. In its es, and velocity less water, 140 it sends off one leposits tropical Book H HYDROLOGY. IW Lers, the nieUiiiR 1 liable to I'lw"!!'' Vce, as the i"""- loono do. ThcKC whids give by turns entirely opposite directions to the current* which prc« viiil (*on\ the Maldivia Islands to Arabia and Zanguebar. When the supply of fresh water in an inland sen falls short of what is carried off by evaporation, its level will have a tend- ency to fall below that of the ocean ; and hence the water will flow into it from the ocean. Hut, as formerly noticed, a continual influx of salt water, to be concentrated by evaporation, niiist have u tendency to render such inland sea Salter than the ocean ; and the saltcr water bvmn tbu heavier, naturally endeavours to keep under the lighter, which enters fVom the oounn. In lliia way, it forms an outward current in the bottom of the entrance. Such U ituid to be the c»ho with the Mediterranean, as was first hinted by Dr. Hudson in 1724. The reverse of all this takes place wliere the supply of fresh water in an inland sea exceeds the eviiporation, as is the case with the Baltic, the Black Sea, and the Sea of Asoph. In these the uiitwartl iVesher current is uppermost, while the heavier Salter current enters below. Since llie mean quantity of salt brought in must equal what is carried out, if no permanent cimnxe lake place in the saltness of the inland sea, it follows that the saltcr current is the smiiller of the two. However, the weather sometimes produces temporary exceptions to this tfeneral rule. The current which flows into the Mediterranean by the Straits of Gibraltar sets along the shores of .\fi-ica and Egypt to Syria, where it turns north-westward ; and, joined by the current fh)ni the Dardanelles, it makes the circuit of the Adriatic, then of the coasts of 'i'uHcany, I'Vnnce, and Spain, and ultimately returns to the Straits. In the Cattegat, a northern current proceeds from the Baltic along the coasts of Sweden ; and another, a southern current, enters into the Baltic along the coasts of Jutland. In the German Sea, a nurtli current sets fVotn the Straits of Dover along the continental shore, while a south current comes iW>in the Orkneys along the British coast. 85;). ir/ii'iV/mo/j or edtlies arc produced by the meeting of currents which come in dif. fcKMit (liri'Clions. These, by encountering :n a narrow passage, turn, as it were, about a centre, which is sometimes spiral, till they unite or one of them escapes. The most cele- hriued whirlpimls Are the Euripi s near the coast of Ncgropont, the Charybdis in the Straits of Sicily, and the Malstrocm on the northern coast of Norway. Such eddies sometimes nu);n)ent their foive by means of two contrary high tides, or by the action of the winds. In certain states of the tide some of them cease altogether ; but they do not fail to make up for this nfterwartls. Their danger to navigation is well known ; but is, perhaps, inferior to the drciul which thoy inspire. They draw vessels along, and dash them against the rocks, or cnjiulf them in the eddies. The wrecks, perhaps, do not appear till some time atYerwards ; or, indeed, they may never be heard of at all. This has given rise to the notion that they have no bottom. The phenomena and dread of whirlpools have afforded excellent matter fur marvellous fables both to the ancient poets and more modern writers. S'>4. 7'At^ fi(/c.« form a remarkable phenomenon, consisting in the alternate rise and fall of the siu'face of the sea twice in the course of a lunar day, or at a mean rate every \'2 h. i'nw. and Ms. The instant of low water is nearly, but not exactly, in the middle of the interval between two high waters. The tide generally takes nine or ten minutes longer in clibin); than flowing. At the new and full moon the tides attain the greatest height, and the interval iHtwcen two high waters is least, viz. _12h. 1 9 m. 28 s. At the quarters of the miM)n the tides arc the least, and the interval the greatest, viz. 12 h. 30 m. 7 s. The time of lii;;li water is mostly regidated by the moon ; and in general, in the open sea, i . from two to ilirce hours uOer that planet pitsses the meridian, cither above or under the horizon. On tlie shores of large continents, and where there are shallows and obstructions, great irre- gularities lake place in this respect ; and when these exceed six hours, it may seem as if the liigli water preceded the moon's passage over the meridian. Though the tides seem to bo n'!;iduteil chiefly by the moon, tliey appear also in a certain degree to be under the influence lit' the sun. Tlius, at the syiigics, when the sun and moon come to the meridian together, ilu' tides, every thing else considered, are the highest. At the quarters, when the sun and moon are UO" distinit, the tides arc least. The former arc called the spring, the latter the imp tides, The highest of the spring tides is not that immediately after the new or full moon ; but is in general the third, and in some cases the fourth. The lowest of the neap lilies occurs much altout the same time after the quarters. The total magnitude of the tide U cstinntted by the diHerencc between the heights of high and low water. The higher the HikhI tide rises, the lower the ebb tide generally sinks on the same day. At Brest, tho mnliuin spring tide is about 19 feet, and the mean neap tide about 9. On other parts of iho coast uf France opposite to England, the waters, being confined, rise to a great height, aril do so un both sides of the Chaimel. At St. Malo it is from 45 to .liO feet. Still higher tides are said to occur at Annapolis Iloyal, in Nova Scotia ; though there is sonic- thing extraordinary in their being alleged to exceed 100 feet. It is the obstruction which the land presents to tlic motions of the waters which occasions tides of any consequence at •II; were the globe entirely coveretl with water, the tides would be very insignificant. Thus, 111 the Pacific Ocean, the spring tide amounts only to 5 feet, and the neap from to 2 to 2*5 "I'l. On the other haiitl, n tVee cotnmunirntion with tho ocean is indispensable, to produce 188 SCIENCE OF GEOGIIAPIIY. 1*A»T II. a liigh tide. Tlius, in inland seas, tlic tides are very trifling, because the luminaries act nearly equally over the whole surface at the same time. 855. The height of the tide increases as the sun or moon is nearer the earth, but in a higlicr ratio. The rise of tlie tides is likewise greater when the sun or moon is in the equator, and less as they decline from it. When the observer and the moon are on the same side of the equator, the tide which happens when the moon is above the horizon is greater than when she is below it. The reverse occurs when the observer and the moon are on opposite sides of the equator. If the tides be considered relatively to the whole globe and to the open sea, it appears that there is a meridian about .^0^ eastward of the moon, where it is always high water, both in the hemisphere where the moon is and in the opposite. On the west sidu of this circle the tide is flowing ; on the east it is ebbing ; and on the meridian, w hich is at right angles to the same, it is every where low water. These meridian circles move west- ward, keeping nearly at the same distance from the moon : only approaching nearer to her when new or full, and withdrawing at the quarters. In high latitudes the tides are very inconsiderable. It is probable that at the poles there are no diurnal tides ; but there is some ground for thinking that the wate:' will rise lugher at the pole to which the luminaries arc at any time nearest, tlian at the opposite. 856. The great wave which follows the moon as above described, and constitutes the tide, is to be considered as an undulation or reciprocation of the waters of the ocean ; in which there is, except when it passes over shallows or approaches the shore, Tery little progressive motion. In all this we are as yet overlooking tlie operation of local causes, winds, currents, &c., by which these general laws are modified, over-ruled, or even reversed. INIost people find little difficulty in conceiving how the waters should rise on the side of the globe which is next the moon ; but there can scarcely be a harder task than bringing many to see «7iy the u'aters should at the same time rise tm the side which is turned from the vioon. AV'e niiist, however, confine ourselves to a very brief and palpable explanation. The force by which the moon draws any particle of our globe towards her is greater when it is nearer to her and less when more remote. The force, therefore, with which tlie moon attracts the iir.rticlcs on the side nearest her is greater than the average force which she exerts on the whole glohc. These particles, therefore, rise or entleavour to tome near the moon. On the other liiiiid, the force by which the moon draws the particles which are farthest from her being less than the average force, these particles endeavour to recede from the moon, and in so doing they also rece of about .50 miles an hour, so as to pass through the Straits of Dover, and to reaili the Nore about midnight at the time of spring tide. The second, being in a more open sea, moves more rapidly, re.iching the north of Ireland by six p. m. ; about nine it has got to tlic Orkneys, and fvjrms a wave or ridge stretching due north ; at twelve, the smnmit of the saiiu: wave extends from the coast of Uuchan eastward to the Naze of Norway ; and in twelve hours more it passes southward through the Gorman Sea and reaches the Nore, where it meets tlio morning tide that left the mouth of the Channel only eight hours before. Tims, these t»o tides travel round Uritain in 28 hours ; iti which time the primitive tide has gone quite round the globe, and nearly 45 degrees more. Various curious anomalies are observed in the tides of ))urlieular places ; such as their ceasing allogellier for a day or two, at a certain age of the moon ; while til other times they become consideiable, though perhaps occurring' Tabt II. iiinarics net in a higher !quator, and side uf the r than wlien ppositc sides he open sea, always high west side of which is at I move west- learcr to her di's are very there is some inaries arc at utes the tide, an ; in winch le progressive nils, currents, Most people e globe which tny to sec «■/»/ I. We must, jrce by which s nearer to her its tlie pr.rticlcs e whole globe. lie other liaml, being less than . so doing they •ul level. The hundred times iiarios act togo- nal, and before stices. At the nenp titles m [ficient to show lie ])rinciple of ,11 moving from in the moon is •ason, when the behind her, he sea should he jquality of smh 1 n narrow seas, jd by the direct nal undulation. able examples. tween three awl orth-west, so as tself into three est side of Ire- , these flows at er, and to reaili more open sea, it has got to th>; unit of the saim: in twelve hours [lere it meets thi; iThiis, these two lias gone q'ii;>^ arc observed in |two, at a eerlain irliaps occurring Book II. HYDROLOGY. 189 only once a-day. It is said that on some coasts there is never more tlian one tide in the course of a lunar day, which is probably owing to some oversight : but it may be shown from theory, tlmt if the observer's distance from the pole be equal to the moon's declination, he will sue but one tide in the day. Small tides occur six times a-day on the shore of the Isle of Negropont.* 8.58. T/ie agency of the tides is probably very extensive in many of the operations of nature, and in particular in those which regard geology. Tlie late Professor Robison suggested how experiments might be made to determine the mean density of the globe, from the tem- porary change which is undoubtedly caused on the direction of gravity by the great body of water brought to Annapolis Royal, and then withdrawn by the stream tides. Sect. II. Springs, f 859. Springs are composed of the waters issuing from crevices in the earth. Of such there are great varieties. Some of the principal distinctions, independently of the qualities of tlieir waters, are, — temporary springs, which only flow during a certain season of the year ; nercHiiid, which always run ; intermitting, which alternately run and cease, either wholly or in part, at short intervals ; periodical, which flow and ebb regularly at particular periods ; spotiliiig, which issue with considerable force, forming, perhaps, a jet of water. The mag- nitude of springs passes through every gradation, from being scarcely perceptible, to con- siderable rivulets. They have, likewise, a wide range of temperature ; but necessarily limited between the freezing and boiling points. It is most usual for springs which are large, and which appear to issue from a considerable depth, to have nearly the mean tempe- rature of the place ; and in some instances the temperature is remarkably steady, — not the sli:lraulics.+ 863. Various have been the opinions of philosophers concerning the origin of springs. Some suppose that sea water is conveyed through subterraneous ducts or canals to the places where the springs flow out of the earth : but in this way fresh-water springs could not be produced ; because sea water cannot be freed from its salt by filtration. It is, besides, dif- ficult to conceive how the water should filter upwards. In order to overcome these objec- tions, recourse has been had to subterranean heat, by which the water is conceived to rise upwards in vapour through certain fissures and cavities of the mountains where it is col- lected, and issues forth, as we sec, in springs. Others vary the hypothesis a little, by saying that the sea water is raised through the mountains by capillary action : but here we ought still to have salt springs ; and it has been further objected that a current cannot be produced by capillary action. 864. The most probable theory is that proposed by Dr. Halley, who maintained that springs are nothing more than a part of the water which falls on higher ground filtrating through, and afterwards issuing forth at a lower level. This, it is true, does not at first sight appear to account for the permanent flow of springs during dry weather. To complete the theory, it is supposed tliat the water at first collects in large subterranean cavities, from which it afterwards filtrates slowly, and passes towards the springs. The disposition of the rocks in strata contributes much to the collecting of the waters under the surface, and con- veying them without waste, as if in close pipes, till they are united in fountains, lakes, rivers, &c. Dr. Halley showed that the evaporation from the sea alone is a su>nt supply for all the waters that the rivers carry into it. His calculation was founded on u very com- plex view of the subject, and liable to several objections. Uuffbn took a more simple view of the matter, by selecting one of those lakes that send out no stream to the ocean, and show- ing that the probable evaporation from the surface of the lake is equal to all the water carried into it 865. Tlie theory of hot springs is deserving of consideration. It has been ascertained that the greater number of warm and hot springs occur in volcanic countries — where volcanoes formerly burnt or are still in a state of activity ; and of those that do not occur in volcanic districts, some are associated with trap and granite rocks to which most geologists assign an igneous origin. Hence it is inferred that they owe their temperature to the same cause or causes as gave rise to volcanic and ignigenous rocks. That the heat of such springs is often connected with volcanic action cannot admit of doubt ; for, from the Geyser of Iceland, the transition is almost uninterrupted to the hot springs in the dormant volcano of the island of Ischia, and from thence to those connected with the processes which formerly took place in the now extinct volcanoes of Hungary and Auvergne. The hot and warm springs of Bath and Bristol, however, occur in a limestone country where no igneous rocks are visible ; but these may be under the limestone. This opinion is further countenanced by the fact that many of the hot springs met with in primitive, and also in secondary, formations, occur in spots where the strata appear to have been disturbed by igneous agency. Of this there is a striking example at the hot springs of Carlsbad in Bohemia ; the hot springs of • Vide Ell. New I'hil. Journal, vol. Ix. for observations on spouting springs and Altedan wells. t Vide Ed. New Fhil, Journal, vol viiL for an account of intermitting springs. Book 11. HYDROLOGY. in Clifton iuuc from a limestone which nppcani, at an early period, to have been disturbed by igneous action : the hot g]iring!t of PfvUvrs, in the Grisons, gush from a ravine from 400 to 654 fiiet in depth, and so perpendicular that the provisions required for the inmates of the batli lire lowered from ropes attoched to the summit of the cliff, and so narrow that the rocks in some places touch overhead, and nowhere, perhaps, are more than 30 feet apart. The most obvious explanation of such a phenomenon is to be found in some convulsion of nature, such as that caused by an carth<|uake, or the sudden elevation of a large tract of country. Tlie other hot springs in SwitKcrlund appear in circumstances for the most part similar. Those of Weissenburg, in the cnntun of lierno, rise out of a gorge of the same kind as that of Pfeflvrs : those of Loucchi appear at the fort of the mural precipice of the Gemmi ; whilst the spring of Uaden, in the canton of Argovie, from which the only remaining one, that of Schinzath, is not far removed, lies near the point where, in consequence of the two moun- tains of StaiTelcgg and I^agcrn having been severed asunder by some great convulsion, tlie waters of the Rhine and of the other rivers, — which appear to have once constituted a single lake extending from Coiro in the Orisons to this mountain ridge, including the lakes of Zurich and of Wollenstadt, with the intermediate country, — in one continuous sheet of water, flowed off by tlie channel now taken by one of the rivers, the Limmat alone. Thus tlie Kliinc, says Dr. Daubeny, may bo supposed to owe its original direction to the event wliich produced the hot spring, and its present course to that which occasioned r >otner. 8G6. Some sjmngs apparentlif emit vfflammable mailer s for when a light is applied, it seems to take fire like ardent spirits. But it is not so much the water that is inflammable, OS some gas which it exhales, or bituminous matter floating on its surface. 8G7. Si>rbigs in the sea. Puwerfid springs are occasionally met with boiling up in the bottom of the sea, so as, in some instances, to rise above the surface. From some of them navigators cun draw up fresh water lit for taking on board as store. The natives, in certain places, know where to dive under the surface of the sea for fresh water ; which, perhaps, may be the only source whence they could obtain it. 868. Mineral waters, anil the qunnlili/ of vialler they deposit. Springs in their course through strata convey along with them portions of tlie strata, not only from higher to lower situations, but also from beluw upwards. They contain salts, earths, acids, metals, and in> flammable matters, of very varied nature : the variety depending sometimes on the nature of the strata through which they pass ; at other times, as in those that rise upwards in volcanic districts, on igneous agency. IloHinann remarks, that when warm and hot springs, and those richly impregnated with mineral matters, occur in countries at a distance from active and extinct volcanoes, wo observe the strata from which they issue to be much deranged, thus intimating that formerly earthquakes and other igneous agencies were at work in the districts where these springs now flow. The qtnintity of mineral matter brought from the interior of the earth by springs is very great j whether that matter is abstracted from the strata traversed by the springs, or is brought by them from a great depth, as in volcanic countries. Even some calcareous springs in Uritain deposit annually vast quantities of calcareous tufTa und calcareous sinter. In the neighbourhood of Edinburgh there arc great calcareous deposits from calcareous springs that flow through limestone rocks ; and appearances of the same description abound around all the cidcarcous springs in England. Near to Clermont, in France, some calcareous springs, rising through rocks of granite and gneiss, have formed a mound or hill 2<10 feet high. Many of the grt>at edifices in Rome are built of calcareous deposits from calcareous springs. The hot springs of Carlsbad annually deposit much cal- careous tufl'a and sinter. Other springs, as, the hot springs in Iceland and in the Azores, deposit nnnually great quantities of silica. Salt springs also bring from the interior of the earth, and spread over their vicinity, much salt, which suit may be derived from the saline clays and salt beds through which they puss; in other instances the salt may come from a great depth as an igneous production. 869. Chemicid nature of spring waterst The water of springs, when very pure, is named soft; if impregnated with calcareous salts, hardi ond if impregnated with various mineral matters, mineral. It was long believed that hard water was unfit for brewing and dis- tillation ; and hence sof\ water was often procured for these operations, at great expense ; hut it is now found that water which owes its hardness to lime is the most proper of all for the t'eruienfation of worts. A time will, however, be necessary to remove the popular pre- judice in favour of soft water. We have, in the following Table, given a view of the com- position of the most celebrated mineral springs, 870. According to some chemists the salts found by chemical analysis in springs are considered as existing in the wtitcrs ; the lute Dr. Murray considers tlie compound existing before concentration of the water as, in all cases, the most soluble salts that can be formed out of the ingredients present. But, in reality, so fur from our having determined in any given case the nature of the existing combinations between the ingredients, we are ignorant even ufany metliud by which such knowledge is attainable. If, says Berzelius, the physician enquires of the chemist, what the proportion these salts bear to each other in any given case ■nay be, the latter must reply, that tliis is u question as to which wo are at present entirely 192 SCIKNCE OF OEOORAPIIY. Part If. Si •1. I 31 I tmt I I I I I I I I I I I I • I I I I I (J «r u Q u U u o u s H u. o ?; o o u u s H b O U iJ n •S ii ' 'ic IS2J • MP P «•»••' 96 P 6, ig . I H ij . . . . 1^ I' s. :, oi '1 0. « « « jjj ^ r^ '.'^ -5 Q ill 3l S S 'S — g '5. "3 », fc 3 rt O a Sj< , 'J' ='55 ■ 9 lis c So. 3 C O HCfiH « 3r « « 3 5 s: 'i ^2S = t: .t: s x: Book II> HYDROLOGY 193 •J" • "I 1^ c o l-c S .■= £ la ix ill tlic (lark ; as the proportion dupcnda not only on tliu quantity of tko acids and bases pre- sent, which admits being ascertained, but also of the relative force of affinity subsisting between the one and the otlier, fur detunnining which wo have as yet no data whatever. SiCT. III. Lakei. 871. jt lake is a body of water which doet not communicate with the ocean. Independently of the qualities of their waters, lakes are distinguished into several sorts: — 1. Those which receive streams of water, and have an outlet, are the class of lakes best known. It is rare fur a lake to give rise to more than one river, which often bears the name of the principal strenm which flows into it, though these two rivers may difl'ur materially in every respect. 2. Tliose which receive streams of water, and often great rivers, without having any visible outlet. This class is less numerous than the former, and is confined to warm climates ; but the largest of all lakes, the Caspian Sea, belongs to it. 3. Those wliicli receive no running water, but have an outlet, — circumstances which imply that such lakes are fed with springs from beneath, or with small imperceptible streams from the adjacent land. 4. Those which receive no running water, and have no visible outlet. Lakes of this class, exclusive of marshes, are for the most part small, and merit little attention. Without regarding the furogoing distinctions, some writers subdivide lakes into two kinds, according to the general cimracter of the surface in which their basins arc situated : viz. those which are formed in deep hollows between the ridges or at the foot of mountains, and fed by springs or torrents ; mid those which arc formed in low and level countries for want of a general declivity, or dammed up by a mere accumulation of alluvial matter. 872. Subterranean lakes form a class of lakes differing remarkably from all the preceding, and lire bodies of water contained in cavities quite covered over by earthy strata. It is only when such cavities ore laid open by earthquakes, liy the falling asunder of mountains, by the action of tiic weather or of rivers, by the operations of mining, or when the roof fulls in, that their situation becomes known. But they are probably very numerous, though perhaps utU'n of small size. It is not easy to account for Uie permanent and uniform flow of many springs oil any other supposition. Some of them appear to give rise to rivers, while others are known to receive very considerable streams which lose themselves in the interior. Such are the numerous cavities of the Julian Alps. It is to similar reservoirs that we must attri- bute tlie periodical disappearance of certain lakes situated above ground. There arc some caverns in Norway which aflbrd a passage to rapid currents of water, as appears from the sound heard through their roofs. It is natural to suppose that many streams, finding no readier outlet, flow into subterranean cavities, are absorbed by the earth, or discharge them- si'ivcs under ground into the sea. In this way may be explained the origin of those springs of fresh water that are to be seen spouting up even in the midst of the waves of tlie ocean. The waters tlirown up by volcanoes, the sudden and terrible inundation of mines, the num- ber of rivers which disappear, the mountains which arc suddenly engulfed in the bosom of now hikes, — all these facts leave no doubt of the existence of < xtensivc subterranean cavities containing large bodies of water. The digging of wells has supplied a fact still more in- teresting to physical geography. It appears that there are lakes, or riither sheets of water, which extend under ground to considerable distances. In digging wells near Aire, in the jirovinee of Artois, \\\cy always come to a clayey bed ; which being pierced, the water gushes forth ill large bubbles, and forms permanent springs. In the country of Modeux, we find every where, at the depth of twenty yards, a bed of clay five feet thick ; which being pierced, the water spouts up witli considerable force— indicating that it is connected with a reservoir »hich stands at a higher level. There is a district in the interior of Algiers, where the in- liiibitants, after digging to a depth of about ^00 fathoms, invariably come to water, which Hows up in such abundance that they call it the subterranean sea. 87:1. Lakes which receive much water, hut haw no outlet, .were long believed necessarily to dmimunicate with the ocean by some subterraneous channel. The great distance of some of them from the ocean seemed to stand in the way of such an explanation ; but doubts ini'irht still have remained, were it not for the discovery of the remarkable fact, that some of the principal lakes of this description have their surfaces fur depressed below the level of tlio ocean. Thus the surface of the Caspian Sea, which is the largest known lake, and with- out an outlet, was found by Eiigelliardt and I'urrot to be 334 feet beneuth the level of the ISIack Sea. A similar depression has been ascertained of the level of the famous Dead Sea, ill Judea, which is also a lake without an outlet. Its surface is below that of the Mediter- ranean ill its neighbourhood, and consequently still further below the higher level of the Hid Sea. The true cxpluimtion as to the consumption of the waters of such lakes seems to uc, that it is carried otf by evaporation. The climates in which the two last-mentioned are situated accord well with this supposition. The level of these lakes, however, varies with llie weather, and with the abundance or scarcity of the waters discharged into them by rivers at partieiilur seasons of the year. The variation in the height of the Caspian Sea is from four to eight feet; but the level, at n particular point of its shore, must be affected by the direction of the wind, and probably by a very trilling tide. When the banks of lakes are O 194 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II. vcrv porous, thoy cannot fail, dtiring very dry weather, to absorb a large portion of the walvr, and to throw it oT by evaporation. ST4. TIte dejlh of great lakes has been seldom ascertained with much exactness. Tlic general depth of tliu Caspian Sea is from 60 to 70 futlioins ; but this increases towards tlic soutli end to sucli a degree, that no bottom can be found with a line of 380 fathoms. In lulies, as in the ocean, tlie slope of the bank is continued downward for a considerable way below the water; that is, deep lakes are to be found in mountainous districts, and shallow marshy ones in flatter countries. The depth of Loch Ness, in the Highlands of Scotlund, is in some places 130 fathoms, which is four times the mean depth of the German Scu; and its bottom is actually 30 fathoms below the deepest part of that sea, between the lati. tudes of Dover and Inverness.* The Lake of Geneva attains the still greater depth of irji fathoms. Many other lakes arc known to be exceedingly deep, without the amount being ascertained. Several have passed f the mountains, tears up notonly alluvial substances, but frequently portions of rtH'ks, which are scattered over the plain below. Tlius villages and fertile Helds are almost instantly con- verted into deep hollows and heaps of rubbish. Tliese cavities perhaps continue fliled with water, forming small lakes. 880. There are certain lakes which (lisapjiear tnd re-appear iH-nmhcallff, without regard to the rainy season. Such are supposed to be fi'led and emptied in a manner similar to the cavities of intermitting springs, or to communicate with some subterranean lake which undergoes such periodical changes. That any lakes, remote ft'om the sea, shuuld communi- cate with it under ground, so as to rise and fall with the tide, is very iniprubnhle. In Portugal there is a small lake near I3eja, which emits a loud noise on the approach of a storm. Other lakes appear agitated by the disengagement of gases. Near Uoleslaw, in llohemia, a lake of unfathomable depth sometimes emits blasts of wind which raise up )iii'ces of ice. Some of the Scottish lakes, and the Wetter in Sweden, experience violent agitations even during serene weather. A coincidence of dates has given ground fur believ> ing that tlicse agitations are connected with earthquakes in distant countries. S«CT. IV. Rivers, 881. The origin and progress of nvcrs has been compared by Pliny to the life of man. ■< Its beginnings are insignificant, and its infancy is frivolous ; it plays among the flowers of a meadow, it waters a garden, or turns a little mill. Gathering strength, in its youth it Iwcomes wild and impetuous. Impatient of the restraints which it still nieets will) in the liollows among the motmtains, it is restless and fretful ; quick in its turning, and unsteady in its course. Now it is a roaring cataract, tearing up and overturning wliatever opposes its progress, and it shoots headlong down from a rock ; then it becomes a sullen niul gloomy piH)l, buried in the bottom of a glen. Recovering breath by repose, it again dashes along, till, tired of uproar and mischief, it quits all that it has swept along, anti leaves the opening of the valley strev.'cd with the rtjected waste. Now quitting its retirement, it ctnnes abroad into the world, journeying with more prudence and discretion, through cultivated fields, yielding to circumstances, and winding roimd what would trouble it to overwhelm or remove. It passes through the populous cities, and all the busy haunts of man, tendering its services on every side, and becomes the support and ornament of the country. Increased by numerous allinnces, and advanced in its course, it becomes grave and stately in its motions, luvcs peace and quiet, and in majestic silence rolls on its mighty woters till it is laid to rest ill the vast abyss." Tlic sun and the host of heaven have, in all ages and nations, been olijt'cts of sincere worship. Next to them, the rivers seem to have attracted the grateful aoknowledgnients of the inhabitants of the neighbouring countiies. They have every Klure been considi-red as a sort of tutelar deities, and each little district, every retired valley, had its rivci- god, who was preferred to the others. The expostulation of Ntuminn tlie Syrian, who was offended with the prophet for enjoining him to wash in the river Jordan, was the natural effusion of this attachment. " What (said he), are not Abana niid I'harpar, rivers of Damascus, more excellent than all the waters of Jiiden? Might I not «ash in them and be clean? so he went away wroth." In those countries particularly Hlicrc the labours of the husbandman and shepherd depended on what took place in n far distant country by the fulling of periodical rains, or the melting of the collected snows, the Nile, the Ganges, the Indus, were the sensible agents of nature in procuring to the inhabit- ants of their fertile banks all their abundance, and they became objects of grate<\il adoration. Tlieir sources were sought for even by conquering princes, and when found were worshipped »ith tlie most affectionate devotion. These rivers preserve to this day the fond udoratioit of the inhabitants of the countries through which they pass, and their waters arc still held sacred. 2 IN SCIENCE OF GEOOBAPIIY. Pabt II. 882. The term river \* npplied to any liirgc current of water which is not in tlie ocean or its branches, and wliich may discliargu itself into tlie ocean, into lakes, marshes, or into other rivers ; for the waters of some rivers never reach the ocean ; as is the case witli the Wulga, the Jordan, and others, whicli discharge themselves into salt lakes, having usually the name o($ea$. When the atmosphere supplies a country with more water than it has an opportunity of carrying oil' again by evaporation, the surplus either penetrates through the surfuce ur collects into small streams, which, afterwards uniting and receiving the water of spring,, gradually form larger and larger currents, which, if al'owed to proceed increasing, at length become rivers. Some rivers proceed from lakes or marshes, but ntme come immediately (rum the sea. They invoriably occupy the lowest ports of the districts from which their waters are derived, and these districts arc called their haiini. The basins are usually bounded by high lands, and sometimes by mountains. They form natural divisions in physical geograpliy, Those of the Khone, Caroline, Loire, Seine, and part of the basin of the Uhine,comprehin(l the greatest part of France. In some cases, the boundaries of basins are not well dk'lliu'tl- as where the surface becomes flat or marshy. This is the case between the basins of thv Amazons and Orinoco, whicli are connected by a natural and navigable communieutiuii, In Europe, the sources of the Dwina, of the Niemen, and of the liorysthenes, are nearly united in a marshy plain. It is evident that the deep ravines through which rivers flow could not in many instances be the work of the rivers themselves ; because the margins uf such ravines are often higlier than other places of the district, through which the rivers ought to have llowed before such valleys were cut, as some fancy, out of solid rock, A more rational cx|ilanatioii is, that a crack or rent, — the eflecl of some earthquake or subsidence, — had taken place ; and that the water, getting through such rent, had gradually widened it hv the attrition of its sand and gravel : the still more corroding action of the weather would mate, rially assist in widening tlie upper part uf the ravine. Many rivers appear to have lieeri at first a series of lakes and cataracts alternately, through whicli the water was conveyed from higlier to lower gidiiiid. The bottoms of these lakes arc gradually filled up with debris, the outlets arc by degrees deepened, or the basins rent through as above described. The lakes at length become dry plains, traversed by the river ; the cataracts, clefts or deep ravines : and the river acquires, upon llie whole, a pretty uniform descent. There are traces of these changes every where : the parallel roads of Lochaber, as they are called, seem to be nothing else than tlie horizontal slielves with which lakes are usually surrounded. From these it appears that the valleys of Glen Gliioy, Glen Uoy, and Glen Spean, have formerly been the lKl^ills of lakes, which are now cut through and emptied, 'i'hree distinct basins are observed in the course of the llliinc ; first, that of the Lake of C(mstance ; the second reaches I'nnn Basle to liingen ; and the third from this to the sea. They are separated from each ollnr by rocky straits. In many cases, the subsidence of ijie water, at successive stages, ran he traced from one level to another, by means of the different horizontal shelves still visible on the sides of tlie valleys. Sir Thoin.is I^auder re.narked this, in the above named glens in the Highlands of Scotland. In the valley of the Rhine, Professor I'layfair distiriguislicd four or five such terraces, at the successive heights of twenty, thirty, or forty feet above one another. The same thing occurs on the banks in the great chain of North American lakes wl ich are not yet empty. 883, The larger riivrs are, their fall or declivilt/ is pcneralfy so much the smaller. The reason of this is, that large rivers necessarily occupy the lowest parts of the country ; and also, that there arc no materials of which beds of rivers arc ordinarily formed, that could have resisted the action of a great river, having a rapid fall, during the lapse of ages. In the last L'OO leagues of the Amazons, the fall is only lO',? feet ; and in the fiOOO miles above that, the mean fall is only five inches \wr mile. The Si'ine, between Valvins and Sevres, has a Call cf about 0'5 inches per mile. The Loire, between Hriaire and Orleans, has only one foot on \^,!iW. Uetween the Himalaya chain and the sea, the Ganges has only four inchi's pit mile. The entire fall of the AVolga is M7 French feet, or five inches per mile. Notwith- standing the rapidity of the Khine, it has only a fall of four feet per mile between Scliull'hausen and Strasburg ; and of two feet between that and Schcnckenschantz. Sometimes a river falling into another with great rapidity, and at an acute angle, will at the time of a IImhI force the latter to flow back for a short way. Such is sometimes the elTect of the Arveon the lUione, which is forced back into the Lake of Gencv.i. 884, The bore is a phenomenon which occurs on some great rivers, which enter the sea with considerable velocity, and experience a sudden check or obstruction from the flow of the tide : the consequence is, that an enormous wave, known by the term bore, and various ulliir names, is generated and sent backward or up the river with great velocity, to the no small danger of the navigation. The principle on which this phenomenon depends is nearly allud to that of the hydraulic ram : at the spring tides, it appears of a correspondingly grealir magnitude. In the Amazons, the height of this wave is estimated at 180 feet. 885, liivers are subject to imimlalion. In the .Sacred Writings, some allusions arc niadi'lo the overflowings of the Nile; but those of the Jordan are distinctly mentioned, as covering ttll the banks during harvest, and expelling the lions which lurked in the tliickels, so as to : Fam II. lie ocean or r into other thv NVolga, ly tlie imine opportunity ! Hurfuce or of HpringH, ig, at leiiKtIi liiutvly I'rom tlicir wutvra bounili'd by I gt>onr»pli,'. coinprc'lii'iid vfll dcliiii'd; )ii!tiiis of lhi> ninunii'utiuii. .•B, are lii'iirly cli rivvrH flow ic inurgiiis uf u rivers ought ick. A more buliHidiiii'v, — widc'iii'd it by •r would niatc- u Imvo lM.'vn at conveyed from ip witli di'bris, l)e(l. Tbelttl(c8 ;p ravines ; ami trates of tliesc I to be nothing I'roni llii'sc it rmerly been the ns are ol)si'rviii lul rcnclies from oin each oiIht stages, ran he . still visible un named glens in distinguishiil , fiet above one American lakes DooK II. II YD no LOGY. ItT 'le •r. The reason , and ulso.tliat lid have resisted In the last 'iOO above that, the ■res, has a fall of iiily one foot on four inches )>tt iiile. Notwitli- en Schnll'hausi'n metimes a river time of a tknl of the Arve on ich enter the sea .1 the How of the iiul various olhtr , to the no small Is is nearly allinl londingly groat^r Veet. lions arc made to tncd, as covering Ttliickets,hoaslo drive them infuriated tlirougli the country, I^Iodern trnvcllvrn, however, a.ssi>rt that thi* river (lucH not now overflow ; and they allege ai a renNon, that ItH channel is become ■ "<'p enough 10 hold the Hoodn. It is as likely that the banks have been raised by tlio depositiun (jf mud and till* growth of vegetableR : |H.>rliapii the full of snow and rain upon Mount lA>banon, friiin which the tloods came, is not so abundant sinco itH forests of cedars were cut down ; for tome travellers are of opinion that this river must, from the accounts of the ancients, have been formerly of much greater magnitude, at all seasons of the year, tlian it now appears to be. HH6. The fxceuiiie rains which full in tropical regions, during a certain season of the year, (K'casion the inundation or overflowing of tiiu rivers which originate in the torrid zone. The following is nearly the general rule for the rainy season ; viz., that pcrioilical rains every where prevail from the equator to the parallel of latitude over which the sun is vertical. Ilumliuldt mentions as another pretty correct and still more general rule, applying likewise to the frigid zonr, that the season of AcmmIs fulls within four months of midsummer. The Houds of rivers originating in high latitudes proceetl principally from the melting of the ice and snow on the mountains, by means of the summer's licat. Such floods are violent, but of short duration, and occur in the four months preceding tlic summer solstice. Some of these rivers have two, or perhaps three, successive floods, corresponding to the seasons of thaw in the low ground, on the sides of mountains, and on their summits. 887. The ancicnti were quite aware that some rivers derived their floods from the sources we have just mentioned ; but the overflowings of the Nile, in a country reinotu from both rain and snow, excited their surprise. The mystery was, however, dispelled, when once it \m known that the Nile prin>.'ipally draws its waters from the tropical regions, where the excessive periodical rains cause other rivers to overflow. The Nile begins to swell in June, and continues to do so till the middle of August, when it has reached its maximum height of from 'i4 to 20 feet. With the exception of a few elevated spots, and some of the higher accumulations of alluvial matter, on the margin of the river, the whole of the Delta and the long valley of Kgypt is then covered with water. The rising of the Ganges, which is partly owing to the melting of snow and partly to the rainy season, commences in April, and, like the Nile, attains its maximum of about 31 or .'i'J feet in the middle of August. Tropical rivers which move parallel to the cipiator spread their waters pretty uniformly over the low ground: such is the case with the Orinoco and the Senegal. In rivers which descend from );reat elevations, or move at right angles to the equator, the action of the tropical rains is extremely unequal ; for the surplus water only overflows the low and flat districts. This is exactly what happens with the Nile : but it is sufKcient here to mention the general princi- ples ; as the inundations of particular rivers will be described along with their respective countries. 888. n'ater/allitt or cascailes and cataracts, ore often formed by rivers in descending from primitive moimtains into secondary countries. Compact durable rocks arc requisite for pro> ducing a pennanent ctt'ect of this kind: such are the cataracts of the Nile, of the Ganges, and various other rivers. Some cataracts, like those of Zunguska, in Siberia, have gradually lobt their elevation by the wearing away of the rocks, and have now only a rapid descent. According to Humboldt, the height of the great cataract of the Uio de liogota, in South America, long estimated at 1500 feet, is about 800 feet; that of Staubbach is about 900 feet, The small river Ache, in Bavaria, which rises in the cavern of the glacier of Mount Taurcn, runs through the valley of Achenthal, and, after reaching the Gulf of Taiiren, throws Itself over an clevatioi> of 200O feet. It has five great fulls ; the last of which forms a most magnilicent arch of waters, which is resolved into spray before it reaches the ground. The noise of the waters is so terrible, tluit it is heard at the distance of more than a league ; and the current of air produced by the descent of the water is so violent, that it drives back tho^e who attempt to advance towards the gulf: it is necessary, therefore, to approach it by walking backwards. The fall of Gurispa in India is 1000 feet. One of the most consider- ahle known falls takes place on the river Niagara, which connects Lakes Eric and Ontario. The river here, just before the full, is divided by Gout Island into two parts : the one, 600 feet iiroad, falls to the depth of 150 feet; while the other, ^5 yards broad, falls IC4 feet in per- l>endiciilar height. In Scotland the most considerable falls are those on the river Clyde, near Lanark, where the river is precipitated down three successive precipices of red sand- stone. In the upper full, that of litmniton, the whole river throws itself over a precipice 30 frt't high : lower down, at Corra Linn, it is precipitated from a height of 84 feet. The lowest fall, that of Stonebyres, consists of three stages, being broken by two projecting rocks ; its fall is 80 feet. In the course of the river Foyers, on the side of Loch Ness, there are two fills; the upper full is 40 feet high, the lower 90 feet. In the mincralogical report of Lap- land, presented to the Swedish government, the discovery of a great waterfall in the river Lulea Is particularly mentioned. It is said to be one eighth of a mile broad, and to fall 400 feet; if the mile be German, as is most likely (equal to four and a half English miles), the breadth exceeds half an English mile. O « 198 SCIKNCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II. Chap. III. OEOONOSr. 889. Thi$ brnnvh 1/ nalurat history malces us acquainted with the structure, materials, relative position, and moth if formation, of the great miiieral masses of which the crust of the earth it compuseit. HOU, Jn coiHH'i/iiig to our readers a short vuw of this important subject, we shall adopt the following iimuiKviiiviit ; — I. Doscribo lliu pliyniognnniy of the earth's surface. I I. Give nn ucvouiit of the action of water and air on that surface. III. Give nil ni'couiit of the action of volcanoes and earthquakes on the earth's surfncc, I V. Dviicribu the diHerciit structures observable in the solid mass of the globe. V. Uv'lhio iiiul describe the ditlerent classes and species of rocks of which the crust of the earth is cumiiUMcd. Skct. I. I'hysiognowi/ if the Earth's Surface, 8!) I. 7^);// /((»((/. The t'ry land, or the land above the level of the sea, is arran^red into masses of various inngnitudes and forms. It is not equally distributed ; for a much larger |iurlion uf it occurs to the north than to the soutli of the equator ; and the dif- fereiu'e in this respect is so great, that the southern half of the globe is principally water, while the norlheri) is chielly land. About the middle of the last century, it was asserted that a great continent must exist towards the south pole, in order to counterbalance the mass of land in the nurthern hemisphere ; but by the voyages of Cook and Bellinghausen, and par- ticularly the lulu enterprise of Weddel, it has been shown that in high southern latitudes, in place of a continent, there are but a few groups of islands. The absence of a continent near the south pule does iu)t itself prove that there is less land there than in the north, since it is possible tliiU Iho land in general may be only rather more depressed in the south, and conse(|ueiillv iho ocean is spread more extensively over the surface of the earth in that quarter. '1 he dry land is arranged into two grand divisions named worlds, viz. the OlA H'iirld and Iho iVi'ic World- The Old World, in the eastern hemisphere, extends from S. W, to N.K., and comprehends the three continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa. The Xew World, in the western hemisphere, extends from N. to S., and is composed of two conliiients, vi/, Norili and South America. 80'J. Till' Krm'iid diivi'lion of the land in the two worlds is different. In America, it is from N. to S, ; in the Old World', it is S.W. to N. E. ; and, if we omit Africa, it is almost parallel with llie eijuator. The longest straight line that can be drawn on the Old World commences on the western coast of Africa, from about Cape Verd, and extends to Ileliring's Strait, on the norlh-eust coast of Asia: it is about 1 1,000 miles in length. A similar line traced iiliing the New World from the Strait of Terra del Fuego to the northern shore of North America measures nearly iKXX) miles. 8!);1. V'/iif Old mid \vw ll'orlds have the following features m common: northern and southern halves, ctmnecling isthmuses, a peninsula on the one side, and a group of islands on the other. This arrangement will appear evident from the following details. 89 I, The old world WKii/ lie considered as composed of tteo great halves : the one, the western, includes Europe and AlVica; the other, the eastern, Asia and New Holland. In Ihc western half, llie two conliiients, viz. Europe and Africa, are connected together by the islluniis of SiK'Hi and liiive on the one hand the islands of the Mediterranean, and on the oilier the peninsula of Arabia. In the eastern half, the two continents of Asia and New Holland are, to u cel'tiiin extent, connected together by the islands of Java, Sumatra, &c.; and in front of this broh-n hlhmns is Papua and other islands, and on the other side the peiiinsida of India. '/'/((• Xcw World is composed of two halves, a northern and a southern', these are connecleil together by the isthmus of Darien; and on the front arc Bitiiati'd the West Indiii islands, and behind the peninsula of California. «!),). Another gfiii'ralfioluiv in the general distribntion of the dry land, is the tapering of all the great peninsulas to tlie south. This, for example, is the case with the continent of Africa, with Arabia, Iiiilia, South America, Scandinavia, Spain, Italy, Greece, Coren, Alnslika, Kainscliatka, California, Florida, and Greenland, 8!"i. Ilesiilis the Did and Xew ll'orlds, as above described, there occur, dispersed through the ocean, nuinerous smaller masses of land, forming islands of various magnitudes and forms. 'Iliose islands situated near to the continents are considered as belonging to them. Thus the Itritisli isles belong to Europe, those of Japan to Asia, the West India islands to America, and Madagascar to Africo. Hut besides these there ai ; other islands and groups of isliuids, situated at a distance from continents, and which cannot be referred to any of the preceding divisions, but to the ocei; .s in which they occur ; as, for example, tht Simdwieh Ihlmids, in the Ninth IVilic Ocenu. '^•^mmm,- 19$ Look II. GEOGNOSY. thus, the mountainous Sc of /'" '""y' ""'>ven, a„7wiZv"".' &V»g'-«P''«'rs term £ Cape is a high Jand. z„, °/ 7"""-^ extending from thl v^ "*'"/"'"'' '"«*"*'« oHaT ai.d European Russia form v .»""'*'' Holland, part ofrJ!! "' countries: thus tl« lower, and less Vugged. UfTT ^"'"««' tl-osewl^erbo??"'"""" generally the most l>art AUly. The ag.e p„rJJf 'Tf ^ " ""'"'^'l Sw tl"! °" '"" '"»' '»"d. "re mountiuns, named the' JnLJ j.^^' ^""d is composed of« "T" ""'^ «''« exterior or lesser number of 7aleZ ' °''-'"^''' "fountain c/ml ft , "'*^""'''' ""^ '0% chrn'r^f l-igh mountain cluJn Wmf u.V'"""""' ' ""^ ^om he e w '''"^'' "'«'« 'e„dV«^" " luws that traverse the up;:r ttT^r'-"'"/*'""-"" «7'-"lX' .1" V'''-'''^ ^'-insf X one sule to another of the J, ," '''!» ''"''/' arc named 1,'^ £t'"'A'' ^"'^ »''« l.o . ».„en„es across a comparaS'v 7l ' T '*" "°' "''^"^s Sthri^' k °" ''•"""""g «•<"'' */'"''/*■ In crossing from V "■""''' '"""y 10.1.^0^;! ^''" P"^'' "•• «/, but iarici; also i„ traymiJfZv^"'^y'° ^'^e^'en, «e pa "..^ ''"™'' '*"'••'• »'•'-> '« 0.1 Hliicli the later-,1 nZ .">era Cruz by Mcxc^t.^^T '" ,«°me parts across a Hi «.//,*. of the h g ; i:s'"':;!;'^ -'j -boS; d ain^7"'?^- .;^''- '"& Va t: s" netnnes /,-„,„„,„, ,„ ^ w o 1''^ '"i'"'^'P»' chains are named " "'"^'' °''"' «-•« , ««9- (2.) «r«^CX" w'V •" /" "- ■-- centliror'lf: '" »"- "'"riandTrf '■l"at„ above the level of tl^';,,^"-'" '""^ is formed princbalfcf P^^'^f'-e '"gl. la,^' undulations of the surfi,n V . '■ '" '*''"'^'> we occasio„„?i'^Y'^^'"^"s've plains liiv f?"n the limits •.etwee^n\ "bL^rf" ''^'"''' '" ^^^S^^^ S™"*^ "•'-''S aS : "%"P -"?'y and suddS""';"^ T""'- ^°'^ '•""' ^e„ con c^' T'^ ''°"'«"''"es "^- I''? P'ains of the low iLlliT,"'"'''^' "" ■'' the case wftb v I "'•'' ""*'e-sl.aped fconcavuies, which are named ' '^'••'"■»«erised by the "re^nn^ r'*-'"""^ "•"J igneous '^■'>"lS..and then the ndghbourW ^' ■'""'' '" "« -spe t ""^.^ ,•" •"■ ""= °'^«'«". '>as -;on.,y blown^ir ; -iL-'' ■'^ •" "°"'">''. t"o co:s?is'^otT;d a"„dT"^ VT °'- ">'^ WI. C„,w. These are cavities «f „ . ^' "'"' "'« "and is ysmre : such are nami'd ""-Hke S he w te'r t" *^'" "'"'"» "-a-S 'I' to 'J" ''^y. '••""'. varies in form r "'"«. occ., £pT; e^teJ'"'"*'' "''•!' "- -""1 !«/, [:r h'"''" ^■"^""' ""J tar lo "*■»"<' "--e cither doc , ^ ^2T '" •"""•■"■■"''^ /'% the e , lu"-" °' ^'"""•"^'^ Z'^'-'- « e o ' 200 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Tart 1 1. Sect. II. Effects of Water and the Atmosphere on the Surface of the Land. 903. Water is a very active agent in altering and variously modifying tlie surrueo of the eartli, and its energy is increased when it carries along with it mechanical matter, as sand, gravel, &c., and particularly when aided by the gnawing influence of the atmosphuro. Through these agents the whole surface of the dry land is kept more or less in a state of motion, by their breaking up th.> strata, and removing with greater or less rapidity, tho broken rocky matters from point to point, and often into lakes and the sea. 904. Water acts mechanically and cliemically : it acts mechanicalli/ when it removes part of the soil or broken rocky matter over which it passes, or corrodes the channel in which it flows, or the reservoirs in which it is contained ; it also acts mechanically, when, on being imbibed by rocks, it increases their weight, and thus favours their rending, slipping, and overturning; and, lastly, it acts mechanically, when, by its freezing in fissures, it breaks up mountain masses and rocks. It acts chemically, when it dissolves particular mineral substances, as rock-salt, out of the rocks through which it percolates. SuBSECT. 1. Mechanical destroying Effects of Water. 905. (1.) Itivult'ls and rivers. Running waters, in their course from the higher to the lower parts of a country, carry along with them the debris already prepared by the avtiun of the weather on exposed rocks, and also more or less considerable portions of the strata of the basin in which they flow. The quantity of abraded matter dejiends in a grcut degree on the quantity of sand or gravel the river carries along with it ; it being a fact, that running water, when pure, acts but feebly on compact strata, and displays its scooping or excavating power only when carrying along with it sand, gravel, and such other matters, which communicate to it a nieclianical destroying action. As the velocity of the rivvr diminishes its carrying power diminishes ; and frequently, long before it has reached the marsh, lake, or the sea into which it disembogues itself, it carries only slime and sleccli, leaving the gravels and larger solid masses in higher parts of its course. The transporting power of water is much greater than many arc aware of: it is strikingly shown by the enormous quantities of rubbish, and great blocks of stone, which are swept along hy rivulets when in the state of flood or swollen. This transporting power is materially assisted by the diminished specific gravity of the rocks wlien immersed in the water, by which their weight is often diminished one third, and even one half. The trans- porting of heavy stones by water in situations where ice occurs is assisted by the ice which adheres to them, and which dimiin'shcs the specific gravity of the mass. Some curious details in regard to this subject are given in one of the volumes of the Mcmoin of the Wcrnerian Katural History Society, The late Professor Iloliison, the most profound and learned teacher of natural philosophy Scotland ever produced, in his admirable article on llivcrs, in the Encychptcdia Britaniiica, has discussed with great ability many circinn- stances connected with the progress of rivers, but which our limited space prevents us from noticing. !>0G. (2.) Lakes. Around the margins of many lakes we observe a beach, formed of the fragments of the neighbouring strata, broken off in part by the waters of the lake. The bursting of lakes also occasions great changes in the neighbouring country, which changes are of a mechanical destroying nature. 907. (3.) Ocean. The waters of the ocean exercise a powerful destroying effect on coasts. If the coasts are bold and rugged, they are violently assaulted by the waves of the ocean; the crags and cliffs split and tumble down, in frightful and irregular succession. The 2)eif'orated rock, the Doreholm, on the west coast of Shetland ; the perforated rocks de- scribed by Captain Cook near New Zealand; the stalks, holms, and skerries on the coasts of Shetland, Scotland, and Norway, are effects of the destroying power of the waves of llie ocean, conjoined with the gnawing action of the weather. The various inroads of the sea on the east and west cdasts of Scotland are well detailed in Mr. Stevenson's memoir, rend before the Wernerian Society ; those on tlie east and west coasts of England arc also considered by Stevenson, and by Young and Phillips, in tlieir Geologies of Yorkshire; by Taylor, in his Geology of East Norfolk. On those rocky coasts where the strata are of uneijual harilness, the softer portions, and olso part of the surrounding harder mass, are removed by the action of the waves ; and thus sea-caves are formed. 90K. The luaters of the ocean often olso cause dreadful ravages in low countries exposed to their fun/. Holland furnishes many striking examples of its devastating power. In the year 1225 the waters of the ocean, agitated by a violent tempest, inundated the country; the Rhine, swollen at the time by extraordinary floods, and retained at a great height, partly by the waters of the ocean, and partly by the wind blowing in a contrary direction to its course, spread over the neiglibouring country : but, ths tempest having suddenly subsided, the highly elevated waters retired, with such velocity and force as to carry with them a con- siderable portion of the soil, and left in its place the sea now named the Zuyder Sea, In DooK IT. GEOGNOSY. 801 llu> yi>nr MSli n great inundntion submerged the southern part of the province of Ilolluiidi (howiu'il (iO.tXX) persons, und on retiring formed the Jiies-IioHS. !H)!I. The nflian of the sea on the submarine land is niso ivorlhy of notice. Stevenson siii'iiks of iigitntions of the sea reaching to a depth of upwards of aoo ft ; stating that, at a ciiiisiilernhlv depth tlie power of the ocean is so considerable as to break rucks in pieces, iind tliMiw tlieni upon the coasts in masses, of various sizes and forms. Tims he says, '< numerous proofs of the sea being disturbed to a considerable depth have also occurrc pliiyoil on It grand scale. In the history of northern countries we meet with many accounts of llio noises and rendings of rocks, occasioned by the expansion of water during its I'lvi'iiing in the fissures of rocks. Terrible disasters take place in alpine countries by the liiiistiiig and fall of great masses of rock, split by the freezing of the water in rents. !il;l. (til) Jhsliityiiig effects of ice andsnon: TVater in the form of ice causes consider- nliK' I'liunges on the surface of the earth. Tlur , when floated along in great masses by rivi'i's, it breaks up their banks, and thus affords them an opportunity of devastating Ihu lower cmintry ( imd the masses are often so great, that enormous heaps of the ftrala are tlionliy lorn off and carried to a distance. When sea ice is drifted against the clili's and )in'i'i|iices on the coast, the breaking and destruction it occasions sometimes almost pass lu'lii'l'. I'or the breaking up and moving of large masses of rock, one of the most power- liil iiijjines employed by nature ore the glaciers. These masses of congealed water and Miow, ill their course downward, push before lliem enormous quantities of broken rocky iniiller, which form great mounds, named, as formerly mentioned, moraine. SuusECT. 2. Chemical destroying Effects of Water. !M'I. Atmospheric water enters into the fissures of rocks in a pure state, but issues forth KKiiin more or less impregnated with mineral matters of various kinds abraded from the sti'.ilii tlii'inigh which they pass, Tlie most abundant substance brought out in this way IVoin the interior of the crust of the earth is lime, wliich is deposited from these calcareous waters in the form of tullii. Many of the excavations in limestone arc partly owing • Vlilo Wcriicrian Soc. Mcmoira, vol, ill. 202 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II. to this destroying effect of water. Spring wators, in passing through beds of gypsum and rock salt, dissolve a portion of them, and in this way sometimes occasion considerable changes in the interior and even the surface of the earth, by the superincumbent strata yielding over the hollows formed by the removal of the salt and gypsum, SuBSECT. 3. Mechanical firming 'Effects of Water, 915. (1.) Forming effects of springs. Springs bring from the interior of the earth rauddy matter of various descriptions; and in the course of time, if the springs are spouting, springs, hillocks and hills of considerable magnitude are thus formed. 9I(>. (2.) Lakes. When lakes are Ailed up, or are emptied, we find the space formerly occupied by them covered, to a greater or less depth, with the alluvial matter brought into them by the rivers tliat flow into them. When lakes burst their barriers, at different times, they leave on their sides a series of natural terraces or platforms, of which we have a splendid example in Glen Roy. In Glen Iloy these terraces are known under the name I'arattel Roads of Glen Uoyt because some have fancied they were not natural arrangements, but works of art, — roads formed by the ancient inhabitants. 917. (3.) Rivers. When rivers are in a state of flood they often overflow their banks, and cover tlic neighbouring country with their waters. Thus the Ganges, near its mouth, in the rainy season overflows tlie country to the breadth of one hundred miles, and to a depth of nearly twelve feet ; and the Indus, during its peri, .u of inundation, extends thirty or forty miles from its banks. This flood water carries with it muddy and other matters, and deposits them upon the land. Gerard says that the annual floods of the Nile had raised the surface of Upper Egypt about six feet four inches, English measure, since the commencement of the Christian cm, or four inches in a century. In other countries extensive deposits, extending along the sides of rivers, are formed by the overflowing of their waters. Where rivers enter lakes and the sea, they form triangular pieces of land named deltas, from their resemblance in form to the triangular-shaped Greek letter A. These deltas arc mure strongly marked in lakes than in nearly enclosed seas, as the Mediterranean ; and in these seas than in the ocean, where the depositions are much interrupted by currents. The most famous in history of these delf"" 's that of the Nile. This delta has been considerably enlarged since the time of Heroaotus, but not to the extent stated by many writers. At no great distance from the shore of the delta the depth of the Mediterranean is about seventy-two feet, and further out the sea suddenly deepens to 2000 feet, — a depth very probably beyond reach of the delta, and whic may be conjectured to be the original dejith of this part of the Mediterranean sea. The deltas of the other rivers that flow into tlie Mediterranean, as the llhone and the Po, exhibit phenomena similar to those observed in the delta of Egypt; and by their considerable extent, and annual growth, furnish ample proofs of the forming power of rivers, and of the resemblance of alluvial matters to strata of an older date. The great sea-deltas, or those formed where rivers flow into the ocean, are sometimes on a great scale, as is the case with the Ganges, of which a most interesting account has been given by Ilennel and some other writers. A full description of this magniflcent delta, as also of the vast deposites at the mouths of the Mississippi, Orinoco, and other great rivers, will be given in the body of this work. At present, however, we may remark, that the quantity of matter carried into the sea by all the rivers of the globe is very great, and fully as considerable as that stated by some authors, who have been held as exaggerating the amount of this earthy matter carried from the dry land to the shores of the ocean. The alluvial mutter brought down by rivers not only forms great tracts of land at their mouths, but also, through the agency of currents, assisted by the waves of the ocean, gives rise to extensive tracts of low and flat land, which extend along the coasts. 91 K. JJowns. When the sea-coast is low, and the bottom consists of sand, the wares push this sand towards the shore, where, at every reflux of the tide, it becomes partially dried, and the winds, which often blow from the sea, drift up some portions of it upon the beach. Uy this forming action of the ocean, sandy flats and doivns, or ranges of sand-hills, are farmed along the coast. When this sand is moved about by the wind, it forms what is called the sand-Jlood. Westward from the mouth of the river Findhorn, in Morayshire, a district consisting of upwards of ten square miles of land, which, owing to its fertility, was once named the Granary of Moray, has been depopulated, and rendered utterly unproductive by the sand-flood. This barren waste may be characterised as hilly ; the accumulations of sand composing these hills frequently varying in their height, and likewiscin their situations. The sand hills of Barry, at the mouth of the Tay, composed of blown sand, are from '200 to 300 feet high. Bclhelvie links, in Aberdeenshire, and the extensive sandy tracts in the Shetland and VVestern Islands, are of the same description. These blowmg sands some- times block up the mouths of rivers and rivulets : thus, many years ago, the mouth of the river Findhorn in Moray having become blocked up with blowing sand, it cut out for itself its present channel, which conducts it by a more direct course to the sea. In consequence of tliis the old town of Findhorn had changed its situation, from the east to the west side of the river, and its site has since been covered by the sea. The lake at Strathbeg, whieli covifl from coarse t BCOK II« GEOGNOSY fl08 s square mile of country, on the coast of Aberdeenshire, about ten miles north from Peter- liead, was formed about 170 years ago, by the choking up by blowing sand of a small stream that fell into the sea. These barriers sometimes give way, when the tract is again, for a time, covered by the sea ; a new barrier again rises, and the sea is excluded a second time. These operations, on a great scale, would afford alternation of productions of the land and of tlie sea. The sands of the African deserts may be sea sands, or land sands, or both to- gether. Dr. Oudney, Major Denham, and Captain Clapperton have added to our know. ledge of tlie blowing sands of the African deserts. Tlie coloured engraving of tlie sand-hills of the African desert in Denham, Oudney. and Clapperton's Narrative, is a striking and interesting representation of the form of the n'oving sand-hills of Africa. 919. Sand banks. The bed of the Germs'.i Ocean supports many accumulations of sand, called sand-banks. One of these extenc's from the Firth of Forth, in a north-easterly direction, to a distance of 110 miles, whili another, the Dogger Bank, extends, north and suiith, for upwards of HSO miles. The average height of these submarine sand-banks is estimated at about seventy-eight feet: the whole surface of the various shoals in this soa laid uown in charts, according to Stevenson, is equal to about one fifth of the wliolc area of the German Ocean, or about one third of the whole extent of England and Scotland. These banks are composed of quartz sand, varying in the size of the grain, from coarse to fine, which is abundantly mixed with broken shells and fragments of corals. These banks are conjectured to owe their origin to the action of currents and the tides. SuBSECT. 4. CItemical forming Effects of Jfater. 920. (1.) Springs. Many spring waters, after dissolving, by means of the superabundant carhonic acid with which they are impregnated, calcareous matter abraded from limestone ruc'lis, or rocks containing lime, allow the carbonate of lime to crystallise, in consequence of the escape of the acid, and in this way form depositions of calc-sinter, or calcareous alabaster, on the roofs, sides, and floors of caves ; or fill up fissures in rocks, and form veins ; or when tlowing over the surface of rocks, form, if tlie surface is horizontal, horizontal beds — if in- clined, inclined beds — of calcareous sinter and calcareous tulfa. These beds sometimes extend very far, and with a thickness of 200 or 300 feet, '^ iie water of such springs, when cullected into hollows so as to form lakes, often dep< sits vast quantities of calcareous sinters and tufiiis; and hence such lakes, wlien emptied, present extensive calcareous deposits. The travertine employed at Rome for building is a lake or spring calcareous (li'iwsit of sinter and tull'a ; and the town of Guancavelica in Soutii America is built of a compact calcareous tuflii from the calcareous springs in the neighbourhood. In the moun- tain limestone districts in England, also in the lias districts botli in England and Scotland, llic roofs, walls, and floors of caves arc often elegantly ornamented by numerous varieties of I'lilcareous sinter. In Persia, as mentioned by Sir John Malcolm, there arc great deposits of a very fine calc sinter, which is extensively employed for ornamental purposes; and in tlie marshes of the great plain of the vast circular valley of Hungary, according to Bendant, ihere is a constant deposition of horizontal strata of calcareous tuft'a and sinter, which are so hard as to be used for building, all the houses of Czelea being constructed of these minerals. The pea-stone, a beautiful calcareous carbonate, is formed in very considerable iilinndance from the waters of calcareous hot springs, as those at Carlsbad in Bohemia. As these calcareous springs often flow into rivers, and these rivers terminate in the sea, it is evident th.it in this way ii vast quantity of carbonate of lime must reach the ocean, where it will be deposited in the various forms of sinter, tult'a, and limestone. The Geysers, or hot spriojis of Iceland, and those of St. Michael's in tlie Azores, deposit on the dry land vast ijuantities of siliceous sinter. This siliceous mineral, which is sometimes like opal, although ;!inerally (lure, is not always so, being occasionally intermixed with other earths, and thus giving ris>> to particular mineral substances. Such springs also pour their waters into the uft-an, and even rise from the bottom of the sea sometimes a considerable way upwards, or even jet iiliove the surface level of the sea, all the time throwing out much water impregnated "itii silica, which is deposited on the submarine land in various forms and states, depending 111! a variety of circumstances which our limits prevent our noticing. Iii'l. ('.'.) Lakes. Having already noticed the calcareous depositions from the waters of swne hikes, we may now mention some other deposits that appear to owe their origin to l.ikis. The bog iron-ore, or hydro-phosphate of iron, is often found in such situations as to siiiiw that it has been deposited from the waters of lakes ; and in some countries it is col- lided from the sides and bottoms of lakes once in a certain immber of years; thus showing lliat it is still forming in such situations. In salt lakes considerable depositions of salt take place ; and when such collections of water dry up, or are drained off', the sides and bottoms of the hollows are found incrustcd with salt, which is sometimes disposed in beds alternately "itii beds of clay. 9i!2. (Ii.) Marine incrustations. Collections of perfect and broken sea-shells and of corals aio sometimes found agglutinated by calcareous, clayey, or ferruginous matters, forming banks or liL'dsuf considerable extent. Beds of this kind, particularly those formed of shells, ore 204 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Pim II. met with in many parts of the coasts of this island. In otlier countries, as in the West Indies, a solid conglomerate of shells and corals lines a considerable extent of const on several of the islands. The human skeleton from the island of Guudaloupe, in the Uritish Museum, is imbedded in a rock of this description. SuBSECT. 5. Effects of the Atmosphere, ^c. 923. Effects of the atmosphere. The air and moisture of the atmosphere effect great changes on the rocks at the surface of the earth. They cither simply disintegrate the rock, or not only break it down, but also occasion a change in its chemical constitution. Sand- stone, and other rocks of tlie same general description, often yield very readily to the weather ; their basis or ground is washed away, and the quartz, mica, and other particles remain in the form of sund and gravel. When trap veins ititcrscct strata, it frequently happens that tlie softer parts of the rock arc destroyed, while the harder trap appears rising several feet or yards above the neighbouring surface, and crossing the country like walls; hence, in Scotland, they are named dykes. The variously shaped summits of mountains and hills owe much of their form to the destroying influence of the weather. Some caves, as cer- tain open caves in sandstones and limestones, are also fonned by the destroying powers of tlie • atmosphere. The various changes in the form of rocks, by which they assume columnar, globular, tabular, and indeterminate angular forms, and fall into scales, crusts, layers, gnwcis and sands, arc, to a certain extent, efl'ects of the destroying )iowers of the atnios|ilii'rc. Valleys owe much of their form and extent to the destroying influence of the atmosplicre. Their sides and summits, every where exposed to its action, become covered with debris • and in this way valleys experience greater changes than are produced on their bottom hy the passage of the river, and on its sides by the rushing of the torrent. The chemical destroying efl'ects are to be traced to the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, and to the vast quantities of the same matter which rise from the interior of the earth : this acid dissolves lime, abstracts alkaline matters from granite and other similar rocks, and by combining uitli iron, converts that universally distributed substance into a soluble carbonate. The oxygen of the atmosphere also, by its action on the iron and other constituents of rocks, assists in breaking them down. 924. Ejects of electricity on rocks. Electricity, as a chemical agent, may be considered not only as directly producing an inflnity of changes, but also as influencing almost all that take place. There are not two substances on the surface of the globe that arc not in different ele.irical relations to each other ; and chemical attraction itself seems to lie a peculiar for.n of the exhibition of electric attraction ; ond whenever the atmosiiliere, or water, or any part of the surface of the earth, gains accumulated electricity of a dillcrcnt kind from the contiguous surfaces, the tendency of this electricity is to produce new arrangements of the parts of those surfaces. Thus, a positively electrifled cloud, acting even at a great distance on a moistened stone, tends to attract its oxygenous, or acidifonn, or acid ingredients ; and a negatively electrifled cloud has the same effect upoti its earthy, alkaline, or metallic matter ; and the silent and slow operation of electricity is much more important in the economy of nature than its grand and impressive operation in liglitniiig and thunder. Sect. III. On Volcanoes, and the Changes they produce on the Land and the Bottom of Ike Sea. 925. The agents which the globe conceals in its interior, and « hose existence is manifesled at its suil'ace, are made known to us by the phenomena of volcarioes and earthquakes. We shall first describe these phenomena, and afterwards add some observations on their causes. SuBSECT, 1, Distribution of Volcanoes. 92f). Volcanoes, as is welt known, arc openings in the crnsl of the earth, whence issue from time to time jets of burning substances and currents of melted matters i ■'' bear the name o{ lavas. These openings are generally on the summit uf isolated moun: tliey have the form of a funnel, and tuke the name of craters. 927. Position if volcanoes. Volcanoes occur in all quarters of the globe, and are often distributed in a linear direction. 928. Distribution. — Kurope contains but few burning volcanoes. On the coast of Sicilvj we see JEtna rising like a colossus to a height of 10,870 English feet. On tiie opposite coast of Italy we have Vesuvius, which does not attain more than the third of tliis elevation, viz. 3932 feet. Between them, in the Lipari islands, we find the small vol- cano of Stromboli, and the volcanoes of Volcano and Vulcanello, which still smoke. Tlie islands of the Archipelago, at Milo and Santorino, contain mountains which, during an early historic period, produced terrible igneous phenomena. Iceland in the north, in the midst of snow and ice, presents to our view many volcanoes, of which the most prominent, Uecla, rises to a heiglit of 5000 feet. I'arthcr to the north, in the desolate and dreary PVRT II. the West ' const on he Uritish ffect great ! the rock, n. Sand, lily to the ir particles frequently jcars rising like walls ; Lintaiiis and ives, as ccr- )wers of tlic I columnar, lers, grovels, utinospherc. Btmosplicrc. vith debris; r bottom hy he chemical 1 to the vast icid dissolves nbining with The oxygen rocks, asbists 1)0 considered ng almost all hut are not in eeins to lie a mosplierc, or of a dilVerent produce new cloud, acting or acidiforin, i)on its earthy, is niueh more |n in liglitiiiiig BoUoM of the is manifested Ihrjiiakcs. ^Ve their causes. J whence I matters \ ' ■ led inoui; I and are often In the coast of Ifcet. On llie L third of tins 1 the small vol- J smoke. Tbe Ich, during a" le north, in tlie lost proniini'iit, Ite and dreary Book H. OKOCNOSY. S05 .Tan Mayen'a Island, extending l>utwvcn north latitude 70° 49' and 71° 8', is the volcano of Csk Mount, wliich rises to a hcif(lit of l.'iOO feet above the sea-beach in Jameson's Bay. The continent of /ilia, as far as is known nt present, exhibits but few volcanoes. We can scarcely reckon three or four on its eastern shoreH, or on the edges of the Caspian : there are none in its northern part: some but vaguely known exist in Central Asia : in the cast, the peninsula uf Kamtschatka contains Ave or six ; but in the islands which surround this continent their number is great. The islands on the coast of ylfrica, such as liourl>on, Madagascar, the Capo do Verd IiilandH, the Caiuiries, and the Azores, also contain several volcanoes. In America, if we except those of the West India islands, we observe the greater part of them on the ridge of that great Cordillera, which, like an immense wall or lofty terrace, borders the western part of that continent. They are remarkable not only on account of their position, but sAm fur their colossal form, the nature of the masses of ivliieh they are composed, and the materials they throw out. Torrents of fire rarely issue from them, but streams of water and mud are of frequent occurrence : the total number of American volcanoes is about eighty>six ; they are placed as it were in groups. The kingdom of OMatimala presents about twenty; in Mexico there are six, in the number of which is the JoruUo, so well known from the account of Ilinubohit. But it is in Peru that the greatest occur: there are seven in that coimtry, of which we shall mention I'ichinchu, nearly 15,931 feet high; Cotopaxi, which rises to the height of 18,H(i7 feet; and Antisana, which attains a height of 19,1.36 feet. On a rough estiinnto, we state the number of burning volcanoes including soH'aturas at .30:); of these 1 91 are in islands, and the other 109 are on the continents : the most distiuit from the sea arc those of America and Asia ; in Peru there are volcanoes thirty leagues from the sea ; and that of Popocatopcc near Mexico, which, how- ever, is now only a smoking volcano, is iilYy-six leagues; and they occur in the very cen- tre of .'Vsi.i. The circumstance uf the most active volcanoes being situated in the vicinity of the sea, is a fact worthy of being recollected ; it becomes still more so when wc observe, that there are submarine volcanoes burning in the midst of the waters. The islands, and the phenomena which they hitvo been observed to produce, nt Santorino, on the coast of Iceland, in the Azores, &c., leave no doid>t respecting their existence. 929. Independently of volcamies in a state nf aelirili/, the interior of our continents con- tains a great number of extinct valcanot's, but which still present their original form, or incontestable remains of that form : perhaps no country contuins more numerous and siilondid displays of them than France ; there are more than a hundred in Auvergne, Vivarais, and Cevennes. They are conical mountains, composed of luvos, scoria;, and volcanic ashes heaped upon each other ; many of them present a crater, which has retained its fonn in a greater or less degree ; and sometimes there are seen as it were issuing from their bases lavas »hicli extend to a distance of several thousand yards, and which have perfectly preserved the form of currents: the matter of which they are composed resembles that of lava trap. We may further remark, that volcanoes are never or scarcely ever isolated ; they are collected into groups. This is the case with the American volcanoes ; those of Asia, and the different Archipelagoes arc similarly sitiuited : in Europe, the Greek islands and southern Italy present distinct groups. Sometimes volcanoes are urrimged one af\er the other in the same line, as is the case in South America, and in the extinct volcanoes in the neighbourhood of the Puy dc Dome. SuusECT. 2. I'henomena and Theory of Volcanoes. 930. Volcanoes do »io/ incessantli/ emit Jlamrs, nor do lavas constantly flow from them ; thi'V remain for ages in a state of inactivity. Vesuvius was extinct from time immemorial, wlien, awakening from its slumber, it suddenly re-kindled, in the reign of Titus, and buried the cities of Pompeii, Ilerciilaneiiin, and Stabit'v under its ashes. It became quiet again at the end ot the fifteenth century ; and in I(i3l), when it resinned its action, its summit was in- liabitcd, and covered with wood. The inhabitants of Catania regarded as fables the accounts nf liistory respecting eruptions of ^ICtna, till the period when their city was ravaged, and in part destroyed, by the fires of that volcano, 9Hl. Subterranean tioises, and the a|)pearanro or increase of smoke, which issues from the crater, a'" I'onerally the first symptoms tif volciuiic action. Presently the noise becoines lonJi', the : ..rth trembles, it experiences shocks, antl every thing proclaims that it is in lahoiir. The smoke increases, thickens, ami becontes charged with ashes. When the air is tranquil, the smoke is seen rising, under tlie form of an immense column, to a very great height. There, finding itself in a rarer atmosphere, it ceases to rise; its upper part dilating, forms as it were an exjianded summit, placed upon a lengthened shaft. The cloud, with the supporting column, in favourable circumstaiiccH, has the figure of an immense umbrella, or of the Italian pine, to which Pliny the P.lder ctnnpnred that of the eruption of Vesuvius in A.D. 79, and which was accurately represented in October, 1822. At other times the smoke disperses in the air: it there forms thick and vast clouds which obscure the day, and cover the surrounding country with darkness. These columns nnd clouds arc often traversed by 806 SCIENCE OF OEOORAPIIY. Paiw n. enormous jeU of red-hot sand, rcscmltling flumes, and rising to extraordinary heights. Some- times they are traversed by flushes of lightning, and on nil sides loud explosions arc heard.' Then there are projected red-hot stones and niasNes in fusion. They issue from the volcano with a noise which is frequently very loud, llioy rise into the air, spreading out in their progress, and fall around the mouth of the volcano under the form of showers of ashes, scoriee, or stones. The shocks and quukings of the ground continue and increase in violence. In the midst of these convulsions, and on tliese accessions, the melted matter which filled tlie subterranean furnaces, already carried into the moiuitain, is raised up by elastic fluids ; it ascends to the crater, fills it up, and pnising over the least elevated part of this enormous cavity, spreads out upon the flnnks of the volcano. It then descends, sometimes wry quickly; sometimes, and more frequently, as a ntigcstic river, quietly rolling along its peace- ful woters. Very frequently, when the lava rises, the walls which contain it being unable to resist its immense pressure or its heat, give way niul burst asunder. It rushes forth like an impetuous torrent through this new a)ierture ; rivers and torrents of fire make their way to the foot of the mountain ; they spread out upon the neighbouring ground, carrymg along or burning all that they find in their way, breaking down or overthrowing every obstacle tliut opposes their passage. In the midst of torrents of fire, enormous currents of water and mud sometimes issue from volcanoes, and deluges falling from the atmosphere increase tlie ravages, lay waste fields which lavas had spared, and carry desolation into places which lind already thought tlicmselves happy in having escaped the scourges of the eruption. Mephitic gases and noxious exhalations sometimes arise, particularly in low situations; they destroy animals and blast vegetation, anti thus complete the scene of misery and desolation. 932. jijlcr the emission of the lavns the I'arth sivms freed of the evil which agitated it, tlie earthquakes cease, the explosions and ejections diminish for some time, and the volcano en- joys a moment of rest: but presently it new accession takes place, reproducing in a still more terrible manner the same phenomena ; and this state of things continues during a variable period of time. At length thu crisis ceases, and the volcano finally resum( GEOGNOSY. lor . Some- ire heard.' le volcuiio t in tlii'ir of aslivs, I violence. I filled the fluids; it enormous ;imcs very ; its peace- ,ng unable 9 forth like > their way ying along bstacle that water and ncrcase llie , which had Alepliitic hey destroy on. lated it, the volcano en- ng in a still les during a resumes its treat of the lavas which canic bombs. n the crater, ipour. This ydrogen gas, so given out. and then the real quantity io of the lava [cmt'ly minute Imixcd with a ley sometinu'S le ashes along I sometimes so tion of lliila uimba, whiih their way by listant, iiioiilo kolcanic ashts lolc of Barba- |one could not •cd at the dis- fare carried by St. Vincent's, the ashes of tancc of '250 , earthy beds, irm some kind [Uent accoiint, p ejected into [ry small sized umerotis smou crystals of augite and felspar, or with fragmcnta of these crystals. The quantity of these sands which volcanoes eject is immense. They form the greater part of the ejections, and nf tlie mass of mony volcanic mountains, of Mlna for example, according to M. Dolomicu. The finest mingle with the ashes, and form part of the clouds already mentioned. Others, accumulating in too great quantity to be sustained upon the acclivities of the mountain, slide down and spread out at its base. In the eruption in Vesuvius of 1 823, a current of sand of this description, still red-hot, was taken at a distance for a torrent of lava. (4.) Scoriee, The gases which come from the deptlis of the volcano, passing through tlic mass of melted lava with great force and velocity, carry oiT some parts of that viscid matter, and bear them along with them into the atmosphere. They arc there further divided, in consequence of the resistance which the air opposes to them ; and, in cooling, they assume the intumcsced and slaggy appearance which the scoria: of forges so frequently have. (5.) Volcanic bombs. When the matter of lavas is projected in a soft state, as is most commonly the case, it sometimes on cooling in the air assumes the form of drops, tciirs, or elongated spheroids, to which the name of volcanic bombs is given. They abound in the extinct volcanoes of Auvergnc. (6.) Unaltered yected masses. Volcanoes sometimes eject stones, many of which l)car no marks of common fusion. These, by some, arc considered as fragments of rocks, which form the walls of internal cavities, and which may have been torn off and projected by some current of elastic fluids ; others, again, maintain that they are fragments of rocks, which have been formed by igneous solution and crystallisation. Fragments of these dubious masses are found in great ninnbers on the Monte Somma. There tliey arc of granular limestone, containing mica, and many other minerals besides. 935. Projectile power of volcanoes. Did our space allow of it, it would be interesting to enquire what is the intensity of that force which throws such quantities of matter to so great a lieii'ht. We can only remark, that the greatest velocity in the cases of JEtpa and Vesuvius was found to be equal to that of a cannon-hall at the moment when it issues from a cannon, the velocity being from four to flve hundred yards per second. The gigantic Cotopaxi pro- jected a piece of rock about an hundred cubic yarib in magnitude to tlie distance of three leagues. b. Laval. 93S. Eruptions of lavas. When we have an opportunity of seeing the liquid lava in tlic crater, it resembles the melted matter in our furnaces, and appears as it were boiling with greater or less violence. Jets of the melted matter are thrown up from the liquid sur- face, through the agency of elastic fluids. It is by these elastic fluids that the lava is raised upwards in the crater. When the mountain is high, as Tcneriife or ^tna, these fluids arc not sufficiently powerful to raise *hc lava to the summit, or rather the sides of the mountain arc not sufficiently strong to resist the weight and force of the long and heavy column of lava; it tliercfore presses or melts the walls which surroimd it, and thus forms an opening, through which it issues with great rapidity. When, on the contrary, the mountains arc comparatively low, as Vesuvius for example, the lava reaches the mouth of the crater and flows over its lips, and from thence downwards along the acclivities of the mountain. On reaching the bottom they divide into several branches, according to the nature and slope of the ground over which they flow. The currents or streams of lava vary much in regard to the velocity with which they move. This velocity depends upon the slope of the ground upon wliicli it flows, as well as upon the quantity and viscidity of the lava. At Vesuvius, M. de la Torre saw currents passing over a space of about 800 yards in an hour. Sir William Hamilton observed one which traversed' 1 800 yards in the same time. The eruption of 1776 p/esentcd another, which moved more than 2000 yards in 14 minutes. Buchk observed, during the eruption of 1805, a torrent flow from tlu! summit to the sea-shore, a distance, in a straight line, of about 7000 y.irds. Those we have mentioned, however, are extraordinary velocities ; for in general lavas move slowly. Those of iEtna, flowing upon an inclined plane, are ct.isidered quick when they traverse a space of 400 yards in an hour. In flat grounds they sometimes occupy whole days in advancing a few yards. 937. The slowness with which lavas cool is not less remarkable than that with which they move. If their surface is quickly cooled and consolidated, the case is different with the interior; the heat concentrates there, and is retained for whole years. Currents are mentioned which were flowing ten years af\cr emerging from the crater, and lavas were seen smoking in iEtna twenty years after an eruption. 938. The heat of liquid lava is nearly that of liquid trap, as greenstone or basalt. The particular temperatures are given by Dr. Kennedy, Sir James Hall, and Professor Jameson. 939. The magnitude of lava currents varies much. The largest current which has ever issued from Vesuvius was about 14,000 yards long; tiiat of the eruption of 1805 was 8000; that of 1794 was in length 4200 yiu-ds, in breadth from 100 to 400 yards, and in depth from eight to ten yards; timt which issued from /Etna in 1787 was four times SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II. larger ; and Dulomivu rvlutcs tlmt that volcano rurnishcd one mure than ten leagues in length, I3ui the largest current known is that which in Iceland, in 1T8D, covered un extent of twenty leagues in length by four in breadth. 940. These currents, by being superinduced on each other, and having interposed between them other products of eruptions, as sand, ashes, and scoriae, form a series of inclined beds that give rise to the cone of the mountain. In short, the cone is composed of u series of concentric layers or coats of lava, scoriae, &c. ; the outgoings of which are sonic* times well seen in natural sections in the mountain. c. Different Kinds nf Eniptioti, 941. Waten/ and muddi/ eniplions. In the accounts of volcanic eruptions, mention is often made of torrents of water ond mud vomited forth by volcanoes. Many of these watery and muddy eruptions are external actions, as is the case with those mentioncii as having taken place in Vesuvius, iEtna, and Ilecia ; others arc internal, as those uf Quito. 942. (I.) External aqueous and muddy erujiliuns. These are owing to great rains, which frequently take place by the condensation of the great volumes of aqueous vapour lliat risi; from the craters during volcanic action. This rain, on mixing with the ashes and saiuU, forms currents, more or less charged with earthy matters, which descend on the sides uf tliu mountain, spread themselves at its base, and sometimes to a distance in the low country. 'i'lie melting of bodies of snow by the lavas also occasions great floods of water and mud. Of this a striking instance is related as having taken place on Mount i'Etna in 1 755, when', by the sudden melting of a great body of snow by n stream of liquid lava, a terrible inuiuia- lion was produced, which devastated the sides of the mountain for eight miles in length, nnd afterwards covered the lower parts of ^l^tna, together with tlie plains near the sea, with great de|)osites of sand, ashes, scoris, and fragments of lava. Similar floods of ashes and suiul are mentioned by authors as taking place in Iceland and in America, where the summits reneli above the snow line. 943. (2.) Internal aqueous and natddy en/plions. The waters also frequently make tlioir way into the mountain by infiltrntion. They there collect in particular reservoirs ; uiid at the period of explosion, or when the .-noiintain happens to split in consequence of some shock, they issue forth, and cover the neighbouring countries. During the eartliijiink' which overturned Lima in 174G, four volcanoes opened at Lucanos and in the mountains o,' Conception, and occasioned a frightful inundation. The mountains of Quito somutiuies present the same phenomena ; but it is there accompanied with extraordinary circum- stances. The enormous cones of Cutopaxi, I'ichincha, Tuugouragoua, &c. are but in some measure the summits of the volcanoes to which they belong, and whose acclivities arc pro- bably encased in the great mass of the Andes, No true lavas, within the memory of man, have been vomited forth by these volcanoes ; yet Humboldt saw consolidated lavu currents on Sanguay, and even on Antisana. It might be said, says Humboldt, that the volcanic agents, which seldom h.tvc force suflUcicnt to raise the column of lava to the snnnuitof ^tna and of the Peak of TeneriflTo, would still less be able to raise it in volcanoes of nearly double the height. In iEtna and Teneriflc, the lava may force an opening at the lower part of the mou'itains, and thus burst out; but this could not happen in volcanoes whose sides are strengthened, to a height of nearly 3000 yards, by the whole breadth of ihc Cor- dilleras. These volcanoes confine themselves to the emission of ashes, scoria;, and pumice. They also vomit immense quantities of water and mud, but much more frequently by open- ings which take place on the sides of the cone than by the craters. These muddy waters form, as it were, great lakes in the difFerent cavities which these enormous mountains con- tain. They issue from these cavities, as we have said, when a commimication is opened with the exterior. Thus, in 1698 the volcano of Carguara2o, which is in the neighbourhood of Chimborazo, and perhaps forms a part of it, broke down, and covered with mini eighteen square leagues of country. Similar muddy waters are still contained in parts iil' the same country, which are of volcanic origin, but which no longer present any indication of fire; and they are equally vomited forth during great commotions of the ground. In Peru and Quito it is not by fire and currents of burning mutters that the volcanoes commit their ravages, but by the water and enormous streams of mud. This substance is mud wliich is at first of a soft consistence, soon hardens, and bears the name of moi/a. It \m- Rents two curious phenomena. Sometimes, as in the nioya which inundated the country of Pilielo, and which destroyed the village of that name during the earthquake of 1797. it con- tains a combustible matter, which renders it blackish and soiling, and which exists in so large a quantity in it that the inhabitants make use of this moya as a kind of fuel. I'Vc- quently the same muddy wafers, issuing from subterranean caverns, carry with them a great quantity of small fishes. These fishes are a species of pimeludes ( P. cyclopum). Most of them are not more than four inches long. Their number is sometimes so great that disease? arc occasioned in the country by their putrefaction. They are the same as those which live in the brooks of the country. What, then, has introduced them into these subterranean Book U- GEOGNOSY. t rnins, which .pour that r'w, cs and sniuU, liu sides of the low country. Iter anil mud. II n.'J.';, whcro, irriblc inumla- in li;nj;th> "ml sea, witli gaat cs and sand nrv suniniits rtuch ntly make their crvoirs j and at jucnce of some the eartli' he mountains 0'' tuito sometii.ics rdinary circum- are but in some •Uvities arc pro- .iiemory of ina"i red lavu current* [hat the volcanic . the smuniltof icunocs of nearly ng at the lower volcanoes whose idth of ilic Cor- •io!, and iiumice, fluently by oiicn- [se muddy waters mountains con- ication is opened ie neighbourhood ,ered witli mud lidned in parts "f lit any iudicaliou [the ground. 1" Lolcanoes commit [uhstance is m"'' •d the country ol of 1797, it con. ,hich exists m so ,d of full- ^'''■ ^viththemagrM' Uum). >!"*'»' treat that diseases 1 those which hve iicbc subleiraiiian lakeo? It would appear that theru are some communicatiunt betwevn Uio upper and lower level of thetie lakes and the surface of the ground ; but what could have rnlNvd thcni flrom the level of this surface to the summit of the volcanoes, for thvy sometime* issue ft-om th« crater? It is very difficult to give any explanation of this. From all thut hus been said above, it does not appear that the mud which issues from these volcanoes ruines fi-om Iha luhturranean caverns where the volcanic fires have tlieir focus, unU prepare the matter of lava. 944. ^ir and mwi volcanoet. In some countries we observe issuing fVom the ground ids impelled by gases and charged with earth, which, on being deposited in the form of mud, in the neighbourhood of and chiefly around the apertures which have vomited them, form cones, which represent on a very small scale volcanic cones, and which are ttiervfurc named nir volcanoes. One of the most remarkable of these is that of Macaluuba in Sicily. It consists of a hill of dried mud about ICO feet high. Its upper part, which is 'iCiX) feet in circumference, presents a multitude of small cones of which the largest are not above a yard In diameter. They have a small crater full of soft clay, which is every instant traversed by large bubbles of gas, which burst with an exploding noise, and scatter the clay around. Some of these explosions have been seen tlirowing jets of mud to the height of lUU feet. In the neighbourhood of Modena tlicre are many of these small mud volcanoes, where they ara called uls-^t on account of the saltness of the water they scatter about. The gas which occssioni 'he phenomena is hydrogen gas charge i with petroleum and carbonic acid. Similar ntiid volcanoes occur in the Crimea, Jav«, Trinidad, and America. d. Periods of Activity of Volcanoes, and the Theory of their Furnin/jnn. 945. Periods of activity of volcanoes. The periods of activity of volcanoes are but transi- tory and of short duration. They are followed by years, or even ages, of rest. Humboldt is of opinion that the frequency of eruptions seems to be in the inverse ratio of the site of the volcano. The smallest of them, Stromboli, is continually throwing up volcanic motter; the eruptions of Vesuvius are less frequent, there having been but eighteen recorded since 1 701 { those of £tna are much rarer ; those of the Pe ik of Teneriff'e still more so ; and the colossal summits of Cotopaxi and Tungouragoua scarcely exhibit one in thu course of a hundred years. To periods of activity there sometimes succeed periods of repose. The crater is filled up and becomes covered with forests. These burning furnaces, whence ton'cnts of tire have issued, become the reservoirs of subterranean lakes, whose waters are (icopled witli fishes, and in elevated situations the sides and summits of the ninuntains become covered with snow and ice. But most commonly the statu of rest is not complete { the crater remains open, and there is exhaled from it n greater or less quantity uf vupuum, which attack the masses that lie in their way. Sometimes they produce ditU>rent saline anil nietatlic incrustations. Volcanic districts in which, however, no eruption has taken place since tlie commencement of our history, and in which the volcanic cones are nearly elliiced, still beUay by their vapours and exhalations the fire which formerly ravaged them, and which is not yet extinct. Such are the PIdegrean Fields, on the coast uf I'uxzoli, in the kingdom of Naples. 946. Cause of volcanoes. This is an obscure subject. A conjecture, hnxarded many years ago, may "be stated. There being no decided proof of a central heat, in the com- moniy received sense, it may be assumed that the matter of lavas is seated deep in thu crust of the earth, in spaces of greater or less extent, from whence it is seitt up from tiiuu to time among tlie previously existing strata, by the agency of clastic fluids. Sect. IV. Earthquakes. 947. Ol earthquakes, and the changes they produce on the earth's surface, Werner distin- guishes two kinds of earthquakes. Some, he says, appear to be connected with i\ particular volcano, and to have their focus in the same region as it. They are only felt lu the distance uf afew leagues around, and their paroxysms are almost always connected with those of the volcano. Others, which appear to have their focus at a much greater depth, and whose effects are much greater, are propagated to immense distances with incredible celerity, and are felt almost at the same time at points thousands of miles distant from ench other. Some of the latter however approach the former, and are still connected witli volcanic phenomena. Thus, during the cartliquake which overturned Lima in ll-iG, and whieli wim one of the most tcrril)le that has been recorded, four volcanoes opened in one night, and the agitation of the earth ceased. 948. Universality of earthquakes. If in the more violent we include the sllghier agitations of tlie eartli's surface in particular places, earthquakes may be said to bo universal or general, wd we may affirm that no considerable country is entirely exempted from them. Sandy dwerts and fertile regions, primitive, secondary, and tertiary hills, extensive plains, and even marshy districts but little elevated above the level of the sea, afVord no protection oguitist these destructive phenomena, which are equally prevalent in cold, in tentpcrute, and in tropical climates. They are, however, generally considered more frequent near to coasts ; thus, r 210 SCIENCE OF OEOOIIAI'HY, Part II. Syria, tliu cuiists unil IsIhikIh of Akui, Aiikiu'ii, tlio Eurupi'nii cuasU of tliu Mi'ditrrrunran, niul Iccliiiul, nru most subject to tlii-m; wliilu the plains of Africa, Aaiu, and thu N'urlli of Europe nru least exposed. Viewing the whole earth, and including every slighter agitation, eurthqitakes appear to be exceedingly nuinerouK, and it may be maintained that not a wiH passes in which the earth's snrfiice in some place or otiier is not more or less agitated. The great number of concussions observed in civilised countries, and the fact that some districts are constantly agitated by them, entitles us to draw the conclusion. Their return in thv places most subject to them, and in the places where they are less frequent, is not regulutnl by any precise period of time. Their appearance is not connected with any particular season of the year or state of the atinosphere, and tliey take place by day us well an by night. 949. Phenomena of EaHhnuakes. Tlie i)henomciitt peculiar to earth(|uakes are in them- selves sufficiently simple. They consist in tremblings and oscillations of the earth's surface, called shocks ; extending over greater or smaller tracts of country, and frequently fulluuiiig u particular direction. 'J'he shocks appear at first chiefly as perpendicular heavings ; ilicn us horizontal undulations or oscillations ; lastly, in some instances, there is a violent agitation : the motion is more or less rotatory. If to these we add the rending, slip|)ing, rising and sink- ing of the ground, the violent agitations of the sea, lakes, rivers, und springs ; consisting, in springs, in their drying up or bursting forth with great violence ; in lakes, rivers, utui tliu ocean, in tlieir falling und rising, and rushing backwards and forwards, owing to the sinking atid rising of the land, we obtain an cnumerution of the principal phenomena. As the suli- ji'ct is very interesting, we shall view it somewhat in detail, und under the following lieuils : — \. Shocks. 2, L'xteiil ofearl/iyuakta. 'A. Ihtrnlion of shocks, 'I. Magnitude of rents formed, and the phenomena connected with them. 5. FJevntion and iuhsidencc of the land. t>. /Igila- tiuns in the sea. 7. A'olice if particular earthquakes. 9.J0. (1.) Shocks, The slighter shocks of an earthquake, consisting of perpcndicuini heavings and horizontal undulations, commonly produce rents in houses, moving light objects in them, as articles of furniture. Persons unacquainted with the phenomenon, or who do not perceive it from the subterraneous noise resembling thunder which accompanies it, feci unsteady while in their beds, but particularly when sitting, and believe themselves seized uitli a sudden giddiness. Tlie shocks proceed gradually to be more violent, and then they are very easily perceived even by the inexperienced. Then the most substantial buildings art shuttered to pieces, and the iidiubitunts buried beneath their ruins; while buildings of ulfj^lilir construction are only rent, and very slender reed huts are least of uU exposed to destruction. In some cases the fracturing, or us it were trituration, surpasses descri|>tion. Hence, for the plaiiiibt reasons, it is most dangerous to remain in houses or inhabited places ; but even the fields and mountains themselves ull'ord no perfect security, inasmuch as the fields frequently in some places open into fissures, and are rent asunder ; w bile moimtains are not only rent, hut slide down into the valle)s, dum up rivers, form lakes, and cause inundations. Although tlie desolation produced by these convulsions exceeds all description, this is much more the case with the rotatory motions ; a species of motion, however, the existence of w hich has been denied by some geologists In proof of it, however, it may be mentioned, that during the earthquake of Catania, v.hose general direction was from S. E. to N. W., many statues were turned round, and a large mass of rock was turned 'J.'° from South to East. I3ut tlie rotatory motion was more strikingly exemplified in the earthquake at Valparaiso, on the I Dili November, I8'J'J, by which many houses were turned round, and three palm trees were found twisted round one another like willows. These rotatory motions of masses of rock are particularly interesting when viewed in connection with phenomena coiuicctcd nitli faults or shifts among strata in non-volcanic districts. It is only the slighter earth- quakes that pass by with a single shock ; in most of them more shocks follow at short intervals, and for the most part the number is proportioned to the violence of the concussion. The first shock is sometimes the most powerful, but the second id as often, if not ofteiier, equally violent. Further, the concussions are also repeated after longer intervals, as the earthquakes in Syria, that sometimes continue for a number of months with longer or shorter intermissions ; but the first catastrophe is generally the most violent and destructive. 9.'>1. {'2,) Extent of earlhfjuakes. It is the agitation of the sea that points out the great extent of the tracts of land convulsed by earthquakes. In this respect, the earthquake at Lisbon, in 1 7.55, was the most remarkable and most violent that ever visited Europe. In conscijuencc of it, by the concussion on the bottom,or momentary rising or upheaving of the sub-marine land, the sea overflowed the coasts of Sweden, England, and Spain, and of the islands of Antigua, Barbadoes, and Martinii|ue in America. In liarbadoes tlie tide, which rises only 'J8 inches, rose 'JU feet in the bay of Carlisle, and the water appeared as black as ink, owing probably to bituminous matter thrown up from the bed of the ocean. On the 1st of November, when the concussion was most violent, the water at Guadaloupe retreated twice, and on its return rose in the chuiinel of the island to a height of from 10 to 12 feet. Similar appearances were witnessed at Murtini()ue. A wave of the sea, CO feet high, overflowed a part of the city of Cadiz ; and the lakes of Switzerland, such us Geneva, were observed to he m commotion six hours after the first shock. It is also remarkable that agitations were noticed in lake Oiitar of the sea rose H-i feel in I 7N:i, the sea not oi so niiali agilutud that inches, <).)'.'. (;l.) Slipping 0) inentioru'd, others occu less frequently. To ll in 1. 11.;, and the fallin of a river was dammed many plantations ; the of KKX) acres fell in, v '):iX{-t.) Duration of often after greater or sr numerous; and in tolci years, are then followe jears. In regard to (li .\nliocii, Damascus, an eintnrv, although no re llianlliatcoiintry. It is, j doubteilly brief in gencn swjuently observed with greater convulsions, for llie time is reckoned fn from n kvi minutes to llie attention is when tl means of a watch, but h\ habit of reckoning time' conclude that the duratioi affirm tliat, at the most, i| 954. (5.) AfagnituUe oj lalhoms in extent. Tliey "inding, or they run in al iiuakes of 1 78:J, rents wei lasformedarenthalfami district of I'laisrtno, a rent thirty feet deep opened ; un ofa mile long, onohundrei nearly a quarter of a miU fot deep. Ulloa relates th i»o miles and a lialf long, ilius,in the year 1692, in t a boiling sen, and was tra often seen at a time openir !'J.'(C.) E/eoation and i, IS Iraeturcd and then tru' «ill in some places sink ai pLice. Ill the year 1 772, ground began to sink, and tsiimated to be fifteen mil earthfjuake at Lisbon in labitants had taken shelte. «lien suddenly the quay su tad bodies ever floated to a Tact of land about a thoi niiniediately took its place "liule population were sm tl'otisand acres. Numeroud f'-en; we shall enumerate 'Wliquake visited the coast "' »"" thousand two hundi Piraiso was examined on t «, for the distance of m( "'fa over which this upraii "l«i the rise upon the ce •-^asestimated from five to '^'"scorai, some miles fron DuoK M GEOGNOSY. 911 noticed ill lake Ontario, in October, 1755. During the oarthqiiukc nt Limn, I58f>, a wuvc oftliu Hi'i> fo^^ '*'' ^*'*'*' '"K'' '■■ *'■« liarbuur of Culliio. During Hit- curtli(|uaki'H in Culabria in 1 7K:I, till' xva not only overflowed the roast and drowned nmiiy \)eo|)lu, but » as in generul SI) niiicli agituted that the guns on »liip-bourd sprang from tho ii'ck to a lieiglit uf Hevernl im'lii'». (),)'.'. (!'•) Slipping of Mountnhis. BeNidcs the common operations of earthquakes already nu'iiti»"i' and the falling togetlier of two mountains in Jamaica in l(i9'J, by whicli the bed of ii river was dammed up. In the latter ploce, a part of a mountain slid down and covered many pluntations ; the city of Port Iluyal sunk to the depth of eight fathoms ; and a plain uf l(KM) acres fell in, with all the buildings upon it. 05:). (4.) Duriilion of shocks. Singleshocksfreqiientlysucreedoncanotliervery rapidly, and ofti'ii ul'tiT greater or smaller intervals of time ; they are occasionally single, frequently very nimii'rous; and in volcanic districts, shocks sometimes happen after a lapse of months or years, are then followed by longer or shorter intervals, and even periods of 10 or a 100 tears. In regard to this, it is remarkable that since the earthquake which in I'.'04 shook Antiocli, Damascus, and Tripoli, Syria was spared till the latter half of the seventeenth antiiry, althmigh no region of the earth sutlers more from these destructive phenomena tliaiilliatcoiintry. It is, in short, difficult to define the duration of a single shock. It is un- doulitwlly brief in general ; and in slighter shocks, witnessed by tranquil spectators and con- seijuently observed with greater attention, it is not longer than a few seconds. In the greater convulsions, for instance at Lima, Caraccas, Calabria, Catania, Zante, Antioch, &c. (lie time is reckoned from fifty seconds to one minute and five seconds, or indefinitely from a few minutes to a few seconds. When we consider how exceedingly distracted the attention is when the shock is first perceived, the duration cannot be measured by means of a watch, but by supposition, and by such a mode of computation we are in the habit uf reckoning time much longer than it really is, so wc may with great probability conclude tliat the duration of a single shock does not go beyond a few seconds, and we may affirin tliat, at the most, it rarely exceeds half a minute. 954. (5.) Magnitude of reiUs formed hi/ earthquakes. These vary from a few feet to many I'allioins in extent. They have either a direction which is nearly straight or more or less ivindiii),', or they run in all directions from u centre. During the terrible Calabrian carth- (|uakes of 178;}, rents were formed of great dimensions ; in the territory of San Fill there »as formed a rent half a mile long, two feet and a half broad, and twenty-five feet deep ; in the district of Plaisano, a rent, of nearly a mile in length, one hundred and five feet broad, and thirty feet deep opened ; and in the same district two gulfs arose, one at Cerzulli, three quarters of a mile long, one hundred and fifty feet broad, and about one hundred feet deep ; and another, nearly a quarter of a mile long, about thirty feet broad, and two hundred and twenty-five feet deep. Ullua relates that in the earthquake of 1 746, in Peru, a rent took place, which was two miles and a half long, and four or five feet wide. These rents sometimes close again ; thus, in the year 1 692, in the island of Jamaica, during an earthquake, the ground heaved like a boiling sea, and was traversed by numerous rents, two or three hundred of which were often seen at a time opening and closing rapidly again. !)J5. (G. ) E/eoation and subsidence of land during earthquakes. It is evident that if the land is fractured and then traversed with vast rents, by earthquakes, that portion of the land »ill in some places sink and in others rise, and this not once but several times in the same place. Ill the year 1772, during an eruption of one of the loftiest mountains in Java, the ground began to sink, and a great part of the volcano, and part of the neighbouring country, btimated to be fifteen miles long and six miles broad, was swallowed up. During the earthquake at Lisbon in 1 755, a new quay entirely disappeared ; thousands of the in- habitants had taken shelter on it, to be out of the reach of the tottering and falling buildings, »hen suddenly the quay sunk down with its thousands of human beings, and not one of their ilead bodies ever floated to the surface. In the year 1692, during an earthquake in Jamaica, a tract of land about a thousand acres in extent siank down in than less a minute, and the sea immediately took its place. On the north side of tlie island several large tracts with their uliule iiopulation were swallowed up, and a lake appeared in their place covering above a lliousand acres. Numerous examples of the upraising of the land by earthquakes might be fiven; we sliall ei^umerate a few of them. On the 19th of November, 1822, a most dreadful eartlKjuake visited the coast of Chili ; the shock was felt at the same time throughout a space of one thousand two hundred miles from north to south. When the country around V'al- paraiso was examined on the morning after the shock, it was found that the entire line of coast, for the distance of more than a hundred miles, was raised above its former level. The area over which this upraising took place was estimated at one hundred thousand square piiles; the rise upon the coast was from two to four feet ; at the distance of a mile inland, it vras estimated from five to seven feet. On the 1 8th of March in the year 1 790, at St. Maria Ji Niscomi, some miles from Terranuovo, near the south coast of Sicily, a loud subterranean P '.' 'Ui M 9IS SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II. nolso wttH lii'rtrtl inuliT the town just mentioned, and the day after earthquakes were felt i tlien tito ground uriuhmlly sunk down for a circumference of tliree Italian miles, durinit Heven HhookH, and in one i)lace to a depth of thirty feet ; as the subsidence was unequal, rents were funned, some of whicli were so wide that they could not be leaped over: this urndual sinking continued to tlie end of the month. About the middle of this period nn openinn lOok place in the subsiding land, about three feet in diameter ; through these contimied to How, for three hours, a stream of mud, which covered a space sixty feet long and thirty feel broad ; the muil was saltish and composed of chalky marl and a viscid clay, with fra),i;mentsofer)Htidlinelime*tonej it smelt ofsulphur and petroleum. On the 16th June, I8I9, at Culch in lionibiiy, a violent earthquake took place, during which, independent of other changes, the eastern and almost abandoned channel of tlie Indus was much altered : this estuary was, before the earthquake, fordablc at Luckput, being only a foot deep when the tide was at ebb, and at Hood tide never more than six feet ; but it was deepened at the fort of I^uckput, after the earthquake, to more than eighteen feet at low water, showing that a con- siderable depn>SHi(m had taken place. The channel of the river Kunn was so much sunk that, instead of being dry as before, during that period of the year, it was no longer fordable except at one place; and it is remarked by Captain Macmurdoch, — and the observation is of high geolu;;ical intport, as connected with the formation of valleys, of river districts, &c. — " should the water continue throughout the year, we may perhaps see an inland navigation along the northern shore of Cuteh ; '.vhich, from stone anchors, &c. still to be seen, and the tradition of the country, I believe to have existed at some former period." Sindrcc, a small mud fort nnd village belonging to the Cutcli government, situated where the llunn joins the Indus, was overflowed at the time of the shock. The people escaped with dilliculty, and the tops of the houses and walls arc now alone seen above water. In the year 17tK), in the Caraccas, during an earthquake, a portion of granite soil sunk, and loft a lake 8tK) yards in diameter, and from eighty to an hundred feet deep : it was 3 part of (lie forest of .Vripao whi<:h sunk, and the trees remained green for several months under water. O.IO". (7.) j'l/iUnli(»l)i of the sea. We have already noticed, in a general way, the agita- lions observi'il in the wa during earthquakes; we shall now add some particulars iilus- Irative of these nuilions, During the Lisbon earthquake of 1755, the sea rose along the coast of Kpain ; (\nd at Cadiz it advanced in the form of vast waves sixty feet high. At Lisbon about sixty thousand persons perished. The sea first retired, and laid the bar dry ; it then rushed in, rising upwards of fifty feet above its ordinary level. At Kinsale, in Ireland, the sea ruslied into the harbour, and invaded the land. At Tangier, in Africa, it rose and fell eighli'eii times on the coast. At ruiichal, in Madeira, it rose iirtecn feet above high-water mark ; although the tide, which ebbs and flows there seven feet, was then half-ebb. Even ships at sea, a considerable distance from land, felt, in the midst of these convidsive motions, as if hurried across a ridge of rocks. This took place, to u distance of !(>() or 'JTO nautical miles from tlie coast, during the earthquake at Lisbon in INlfi. During the Lisbon earthquake of 1765, the shock was felt at sea, on the deck of a ship to the west of Lisbon, and produced nearly the same feeling as on land. At San Lucar, the captain of the Nancy frigate felt his ship so violei :, y agitated that he thought he had struck on the groiinil ; but, on heaving the lead, found be was in deep water. ('a|)tain ("lark, from Derina, in N. hit. 36° 24', between nine and ten in the morning, had lu°s ship shaken as if she had struck upon a rock, so that the seams of the deck opened. Dr. Shaw relates, that In l7'J-i, being on board the Gazello, an Algerine ship of 50 guns, they felt such violent shocks, one after another, as if the weight of twenty or thirty tons had been let fall from a good height on the l)allast. Schouten, speaking of an earthquake which hap- pened in the Moluccas, says, that the mountains were shaken, and ships that were at anchor in thirty or forty fathonts' water were jerked as if they had run ashore, or come foul of rocks. Le (lenil says, " that ships at sea and at anchor sulFer, during earthquakes, such violent agilatioUN that they seem to be falling asunder; their guns break loose, and their nuists spring." !)57. (H, ) Kiitiivmifparliculur Earthquakes. A full account of all the principal earthquakes that are known would much exceed our limits; we shall, therefore, select only a few of the more interesting, !)5H. A'i( /Kirt »f liiirojH' is vwre visited by earthquakes than Italy and the iieighbourin^ isluiitts. The flrst earlhqtuike particularly worthy of notice was that which, in the ycarCfl, destroyed Ilerculaueiun and I'onipeii. Since that period they have frequently visited Italy and .Sicily, but much seldonier from A. D. 63 to the twelfth century, than from that period till modern times, that is, till the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Of these wc sliail describe one of the most recent in Calabria, and another of still later date in Sicily. n.'i!). linrthquiikv of I7S3. Tlie eartli(|uake that so much affected Calabria, and destroyed the city of* Messina, raged at unequal periods from the 5th of February till the 'JSlli of March, 1 7H3. According to Sorcia, its principal seat was the small town of Oppido in the neighbuurliuod of Atramonte, a snow-covered peak of the Apennines. Part II. iiakcs were ilian miles, iidence was caped over ; r this period trough these ity feet long ;id clay, with h June, 1819, lent of otlicr altered : this ;ep when the at the fort of ig that a con- ch sunk that, rdable except ion is of high ;c.— "should igation along seen, and the " Sindrce, a ed where the B escaped with »e water. In lite soil sunk, Icep ; it was a several months vray, the agila- irticulars illus- sea rose along sixty feet high, lid laid the bar I. At Kinsale, igier, in Africa, I it rose iiftcen |iere seven feet, nd, felt, in the lis took place, to \c at Lisbon in >n the deck of a land. At San [that he thought in deep water, ae morning, had k opened. Dr. if SO guns, they ty tons had been Lake which hap- t were at andior [or come foul of rtluiuakes, such loose, and their Jilial earthquakes Inly a few of the \he neighbouring 1 in the year 63, ttly visited Italy trom that period If these we shall li Sicily. 1 Calabria, and M February till 1 small town of ■the Apennines. Book II. GEOGNOSY. 21,5 From this point, says Sir William Hamilton, around to a distance of twenty-five miles, comprehends the surface of country which suffered most, and where all the towns and villages were destroyed. If we describe the circle with a nidius of seventy-two miles, it will include the whole country which was in any way aflected by the earthquake. The first shock, on the 5th February, in two minutes threw down the greatest part of the houses in all the cities, towns, and villages fro n the Western acclivities of the Apennines, in Calabria Ultrn, to Messina in Sicily, and convulsed the whole surface of the country. Another shock, which took place on the 2.5th of March, was nearly equally violent. The granite chain' wliich extends through Calabria from north to south was but slightly agitated, the prin- cipal shocks being propagated with a wave-like motion through the tertiary sands, sand- stones, and clfiys, from west to east. It was remarked that the violence of the shock was greatest at the line of junction of the granite and tertiary rocks, occasioned probably by the interruption of the undulatory movement of the softer strata by the harder granite. The granite range also prevented the passage of the shocks to the countries on the opposite side of the mountain-range. About 200 towns and villages were destroyed, more than one hundred hills slid down, fell together, dammed up rivers, and formed lakes : numerous rents, often of vast magnitude, were formed ; many subsidences and also upraisings of the ground took place ; and the general features of the country were so much changed Uiat they could scarcely be recognised. Thus, in a very short space of time the whole country was as much changed as if it had been exposed to common in- fluences for many thousand years. The total number of human beings that perished was estimated at 100,000, and it was difficult to find even distant relations to succeed to the property of some families. 960. Earthquake of Lisbon in 1 755. In no part of southern Europe has so tremendous an earthquake occurred as that which began on the 1st of November, 1755. On the morning of that day, at thirty-five minutes after nine, without the least warning, except a noise like thunder heard under ground, a most dreadful earthquake shook, by short but quick vibra- tions, the foundations of Lisbon, so that many of the principal edifices fell to the ground in an instant : then, with a scarcely perceptible pause, the nature of the motion changed, now resembling that of a waggon driven violently over rough stones, which laid in ruins almost every house, church, convent, and public building, with an incredible destruc- tion of the people. It continued in all about six minutes. At the moment of its be- ginning, some persons on the Tagus, near a mile from the city, heard their boat make a noise as if it had run aground, though then in deep water, and saw at the same time houses falling on both sides of the river. Four or five minutes after,the boat made the like noise, caused l)y another shock, which brought down more houses. The bed of the I'agus was in many places raised to Us surface. Ships were driven from their anchors, and jostled together with great violence ; and the masters did not know if they were afloat or aground. The large quay called Ctti/s de Prada, was overturned, crowded with people, and sunk to an unfathomable! depth in the water, not so much as one body afterwards appearing. The bar u!* wlik'li itl'v iiL'cussary for tlic subsistence and manufuctures of a ffmut city. libtcml of lite mutual syniputliy which might comfort and assist the distretised, they dreud- t'lillv experience llic vices and passions which are released from the fear of punislnuent ! the lolU'iinn hoUHCs are pillaged by intrepid avarice; revenge embraces the moment, and selects llio vii'lini ; and the earth often swallows the assassin or the ravisher in the consummation of llirir ci'intes. Superstition involves the present danger with invisible terrors ; and if the iiiwtti' til' tlealb i>i«y sometimes be subservient to the virtue or repentance of individuals, an ullViulili'd people is more forcibly moved to expect the end of the world, or to deprecate with sorviU' iioiiiage the wrath of an avenging Deity." In 1169 single shucks continued for four iiiiiiiiIh, ixxI i" 1'-!^^ another earthquake destroyed many cities, filled up the valleys of Lebanon, mill xhiittored the basuUic districts of Hauran, so that, according to the expression then current, il ii'ii.t >ii) liiiif',i'r pomblc to sai/, Here stood this or that city. A dreadful earthquake took place ill I7.'>!>; the shocks continued for six months. At the first shock the cities of Antioch, Hiill'i'i', Acre, Tripoli, &c. were laid in ruins, and 30,000 persons killed. The most recent I'liriliqiiitke, of IH'J'J, lusted still longer, and committed dreadful ravages. On the l!ltli of Aiih'iiKl, iu one horrible night, Aleppo, Antioch, Biha, Cesser, indeed every single village 1111(1 oiilliigo within the pashalic of Aleppo, was, within ten or twelve seconds, com))letvly iK'^ii'oyedi and converted into a heap of rubbisli ; no less than 20,000 people lost their lives, ;iii(| ii'iiiiiy more were mutilated ; a very great number, considering the low population of lIu'M' places. %{>, Africa is very little known, and we are therefore ignorant of any earthquakes in its iiitk'i'iiir, where they may occur as frequently as in other places. The southern extremity of this I'liiilinent is rarely visited by slight shocks, but they are more numerous in tlie north, nlu'iv, ill March, 1 8'.','), they did considerable damage to Algiers and lilida. On the contrary, hwricn, particularly in the southern parts, is inferior to no part of the world for the magni- iiulo, mnnlKM', and duration of its earthquakes. We shall now mention a few of the greatest rv'i'onlod liy naturalists. To these belong the earthquake of 1 746, which, within five minutes, (Kslroyctl the greater part of Lima; Callao was inundated; and of 4000 persons, 200 only w'tipi'il. Tilt' destruction of New Andalusia, on the 21st of October, 1766, was eqiuilly lorrilik'. 'I'lie shocks extended over Cumana, Caraccas, Maracaibo, the shores of the Casannr, ilio Motii. Ilio Orinoco, and Ventures; and the granite districts in the mission of Gncuranada Mi'iv aUo shaken by tlieir violence. An earthquake, in 1797, destroyed a great part of IVni. It proceeded from the volcano Tungouragoue, continued with slight shocks iliiiiiijt the whole of February and March, and returned on the I.'ill! of April, with iiuTi'iiM-il violence. Many places were filled up by the summits of mountains tumbling lUii; nuulily water flowed from the volcano; and, spreading over the country, became allorwurds an indiu'ated crust of clay. The entire number of persons who perished on iliU (ici'aslon was 16,000. No earthquake could well be more destructive to nny |)laco iliiinllwt which destroyed the Caraccas in 1812, and of which Huml)oldt has given an excellent ilocrlpiion. The Caraccas was thought secure on account of its primitive mountains, although inliill, lTl);l,and 1778, violent earthquakes were experienced, and o slighter shock in 1802. IIiiiiiImiUIi, fi'on) actual inspection, had no doubt but this country, from being in a volcanic ii'^ion, must he liable to such disasters. In December, 1811, various shocks were felt ; on the 1 Jill of March, IHI'J, the city of Caraccas was destroyed. Tlie sky was clear, and in W'Di'iiiu'la then' had not been a drop of rain for five months, there was no forewarning |lro^'m)^lil■, for the first shock at seven minutes past four in the afternoon came on unex- |ii'i'ii'illy, and set the bells a-ringing. This was immediately succeeded by a second shock, \\\\\A\ I'uiised A waving and rolling motion in the earth, then a subterraneous rumbling noise was luaiil.inid there waHO third shock, in which tile motion was perpendicular and sometimes tiilliii); lull i.'onlally, with a violence which nothing could withstand. The people, in place iif llviiij; illi'eclly to the <)pcn fields, flocked in crowds to tlie churches, where itrrangeinents liail lii'i'ii made for it procession ; and the multitudes assembled there were buried beneath iln' ruint. 'l\vo churches 150 feet high, and supported by columns of from twelve to lilU'cn I'at ill ilianieler, fell in a mass of rubbish, and were for the most part groiuul into ilii^i. Tlie Caserne el (^uartel vanished almost entirely, and n regiment of soldiers stationed iliiri. mill ahout to join the procession, disappeared at the same time along with it; a few iiulMiiuals only escaped ; nine tenths of the city were completely destroyed, and most of the liousos (liat remained were rendered uninhabitable; the niunber of people killed was trtkoiK'il al nearly 10,000, without including those who perished afterwarils from bruises and vrniit of Misienance. The clouds of dust liaving fallen, were succeeded by a serene night, "liii'li fiirmoil a friglitfltl contrast with the destruction on the e.irth, and with the dead boilies Iviii).' vi'iittcivd among the ruins. The duration of each particular shock was reckoned by somi' M soinuds, by others 1 minute 12 seconds. These shocks extended over the provinces of Yi'iuviu'la, Varinas, Maracaibo, and into the mountains in the interior. La (Jiiyara, Mayiiii.iiia, I,a Vegu, St. Felipe and Merida, were almost entirely destroyed. In Guyara iiiil Si. I-Vlipe the numbci' of persons killed was about 5000. On the 5th f April another viulviit eai'lliquake (uuk place, during which enormous fragments were detached from thu P 4 it a\r, SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. 1'art II. mountains. It was said that the mountain Sllla !ost from aSO to 360 feet of its height by sinking. 967. Cause of earthquakes. — The original hypothesis, which attributed volcanic eruptions and earthquakes to the operation of central fire, was at first attacked chiefly by Stukcly who, from the phenomena of two earthquakes observed at London on the 8th February and 8th of March, 1749, endeavoured to prove that they were caused by a highly over- charged state of the electric fluid. Andrew i3ena affirms, that they are sudden explosions, caused by gas in the interior of the earth, which he believes would be found there enclosed in reservoirs of sulphur and bitumen. Beccaria, as is known, endeavoured to attribute to electricity every thing that had any probable aflfinity for it ; hence he believed that an accumulation of it in the crust of tlie earth produced concussions with the clouds, and then exhibited the appearance of earthquakes. Humboldt found it to be a prevailing opinion in America that earthquakes are electrical phenomena ; but observes, that this must be excused by reason of the partiality entertained for Franklin. The invention of the Vol. taic pile, and the observation of its singular operations, induced many philosophers, at least those naturalists who were perfectly intimate with the nature of this remarkable apparatus, to consider the whole earth as a column or pile of this description, or that it contains an apparatus of this description in its interior. These fancies, however, lead to nothing satis- factory. Where then can we seek for the cause or causes of earthquakes ? The sub- ject is entirely hypothetical, as we have no means of reaching the seat of these remarkable phenomena. The theory of the earthquake is the same as that of the volcano. The agitations may be produced by the motions of the liquid and gaseous matter at a great dejith in the crust of the earth endeavouring to escape. Sect. V. Account of the different Structures observable in the Crust of the Earth. 968. Before tlie time of Werner, little had been accomplished in regard to the deter- mination of the structures that occur in the crust of the earth. Some maintained that every where irregularity prevailed, and that it was in vain to look for order or regularity in the coarse rocky masses of which mountains, hills, and plains are composed. Werner, however, on general grounds, assumed, that if determinate structures and arrangements occurred in the vcgetabU' and animal kingdoms, the same must be the case in the mineral kingdom, not only in simple minerals, but also in the great and more generally distributed masses of wh.ch the crust of the earth is principally composed. His investi- gations fully confirmed the truth of this opinion, for minerals he found as well characterised OS plants and animals ; and the following details will show that there exists among mountain rocks, or those great masses of which the crust of the earth is composed, a beautiful scries of structure, from that of hand specimens to the general arrangements of the great rock formations. We shall consider these structures in the following order, beginning with the smallest and terminating with the greatest. SuBSECT. 1. Different Structures. 1. Structure of moimtain rocks in hand-specimens. 2. Structure of strata and beds. 3. Structure of formations. 4. Arrangements of formations in regard to each other. 5. Structure of veins. 969. (1.) Structure (f mountain rocks. The kinds of structure occurring in mountain rocks are the following: — 1. Compact. 2. Slaty. 3. Granular. 4. Porphyritic. 5. Ainyg- daloidal. 6. Conglomerated. In the compact structure, the mass is uniform, without slaty or any other arrangement, and when broken exhibits various fractures, as earthy, splin- tery, conchoidal, even, &c. Common compact quartz is an example of this kind of structure In the slaly structure the rocks split readily into thin layers or slates, as in common roofing- slate. Rocks having the gramdar structure are composed of granular concretions ur imperfect crystals, as in primitive limestone or statuary marble. In the porjihyrUic struc- ture there is a basis or ground with imbedded crystals, generally of felspar or quartz, or both, as in por])hyry : in the amygdaloidal structure there is also a basis or ground ; but here the base docs not contain imbedded crystals, but amygdaloidal cavities, wliich are either nearly empty, half filled, or completely filled with minerals. The rock named amygdaloid exhibits this kind of structure. Lastly, the conglomerated structure is that which we observe in the rock named conglomerate, which is composed of fragments imbedded in a basis or ground. 970. [9„) Structure of strata and beds. When a mountain or hill is composed of tabular masses of the sanrK> kind of rock, as of sandstone, that extend throughout the liill, it is said to bo stratified, and tlie individual tabular masses are named strata, as infg. 58. If among these strata there occur tabular masses of a different rock, the masses are named beits ; a, jig. 58. Book II- GEOGNOSY. 217 ivuresvnts i bed ( f limestone in the cliff of stratified sandstone. Tliese strata and beds vary 58 \n portion 1 sometimes they are flat or horizontal, or they are more or less inclined until they become vertical, or are set on their edges. They also vary in the point of the compass towards which they are indined or dip ; but it is worthy of remark, that the dip is always at right angles to the range or direction of the strata ; and that if the dip is given, we know the direction : but a knowledge of the direction will not give us the dip. Their direction also varies. In this country the primitive and transition rocks often range or have their direction from N.E. to S.W. The position of strata is determined by a well Inowii instrument, the clinometer, which is a compass with an attached quadrant. When ne examine the structure of individual strata and beds, several varieties may be discovered : thus, in some beds, the rock is arranged in columns, as in basalt ; in others, the arrange- ment is in tables, as in porphyry ; or in balls, as in granite and greenstone. 971. (3.) Structure of Jformations. The idea of formations was first clearly brought out bv Werner. To his views on this most important subject we can trace the new character of geology, and the great progress made in geognosy within these last thirty years. But this is not the place for discussing the subject. AH those rocks which appear to have been formed at the same time, and in the same or similar circumstances, and which agree in position, structure, mass, petrifactions, imbedded minerals, &c. are said to belong to the same formation. These formations are divided into simple and compound. Simple formations are those principally composed of one rock ; compound formations, of more than one species of rock : granite is m example of a simple formation ; the first secondary sandstone, or the great coal formation, of a compound formation, because it contains several rocks ; viz. sandstone, slate, limestone, coal, and ironstone. 972. (4.) Arrangement of formations in regard to each other. When two formations occur together, and the one rests upon the other, the subjacent formation is namod the/wnda- mm/a/ rock, and that which covers or lies upon the other, the superincumbent, llie line where the two rocks or formations meet is called the line of separation or line of junction. In &. 59. a is the fundamental rock, and 6 the superimposed rock, and c c the line of junction. When the strata of the superimposed formation is parallel with the strata of the fundamental or subjacent rock, the stratification is said to be conformable, d&fig, 60., where a formation a. »c shall say of limestone, rests on 6, of sandstone. If the strata of the superimposed fonnation are disposed as at c, fg. 61., they arc said to be unconformable. Lastly, if the 11 m <' I'll m I mm ft i 818 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part I|, strata lie over the ends of the strata of the funilainental rock, as at b, ii>,^'. 59., tlicy arc said to be unconformable and overlying. If the strata rest on the fundamental rock, as represented in Jig 62., they are said to be saddlc-ihaped t if as represented in Jig. 6.3., they arc said lo be mantk-shaped ! if disposed in a bason>shaped hollow, as in_^. 64., they arc said lo In 64 bttson-sliaped ! if in a lengtliencd or trough-like hollow, as in Jig. 65., they are said to h: 65 Irovgh-shaped. In a mountain, or natural section of Neptunian or aquatic rocks, as lime- stone, sandstone, slate, &c., the undermost or lowest-lying strata are considered toheilie oldest; therefore, on ascending a mountain, as that wjig 66., from o to b, we pass from b the newer to the older rocks ; but if from c to b, from the older to the newer. Formations | were formerly more continuous than at present, portions only remaining of extensive deposits. The remaining portions occupying different situations have received iiarticular I names, according to the situations in which they occur. When in patches on thesumtnitsof j hills, as represented at a a a injig. 67., they are called mountain-caps. When in hollows, a* j at b b, they are named vpJiUings. 67 973. (.I.) Structure nf veins. These are tabular masses that intersect the strata and bcdsl of the mountain or tract in which they occur. The tabular mosses of trap or whinstonc veiiisl that cut across the strata of this country are popularly known under the name whin (/j/toj Veins, like strata, vary in position, being sometimes vertical, at other times not much incliiioilf to the horizon ; their direction, inclination, and dip arc determined in the same manner as ml strata. These intersecting masses vary in breadth from an inch or less to many fathoms; ml kngih, from a few inches to several miles ; and in depth, from a few inches to an unknown Book H- GROG NOSY. 219 arc said to lie and 7ast di'ptli. Veins appear to linve been ori{(inully open rents or fissures traversing the strata, wliich liave been filled by an uftvr-process with the mineral matters they now contain. 68 Tliis being the case, we naturally expect to find tlie strata on the walls of veins exhibiting the same plienomena as occur in the walls of u>nts. When rents cut across strata, they some- liiiies, as inTi^'. 68., at a, 6, produce no dvrangemiMit ; while, in other cases, the strata on the opposite sides of tlie rent do not correspond, owing to the strata on one side sinking down, B represented in Jig. 69. : this derangement is called a shift, slip, or fault. Siicli, then, are the dillcrent structures observable in tlie great masses of which the crust of the earth is composed. We next proceed to give — Sect. VI. An Mcuunt of the diffi'iTnt Classes ami Species of Rocks of which the Crust of the Earth is Ci>mposeredominant constituent part. These rocks sometimes appear arranged like the steps of n stair ; hence the name trap, from the Swedish word trappa, a siair. 981. (3.) Gneiss is a granular slaty compound of felspar, mica, and quartz. 982. (4.) Mica slale is a i;laty compound of mica and quartz. Talc slate and nncaceom talc rocks may be arranged under this head. 983. (5, ) Claif state is a slaty rock, frequently entirely composed of minute scales of mica. 984. (6.) Quartz rock. This rock is almost entirely composed of quartz, either in granular concretions or in the compact fonn; and grains of felspar and scales of mica not unfrequently occur in it. When the felspar increases in (|uantity, the compound at length passes into granite. When the scales of niicik increase and the felspar disappears, mica slate is formed. 985. (7. ) Limestone. This rock has generally a wliite or grey colour, is composed of shining granular concretions, and is more or less translucent. It frequently contains scales of mica and grains of quartz, seldom or never grains and crystals of felspar. SuBsicT. S, I'tutontan or Tgnigenous Primitive Recks. 986. f 1.) Granite. Tho structure and composition of this granite is in general the same as that of the Neptunian kind already noticed. It differs from it in occurring in vast and often widely extended nmsses, which form the central parts of mountain groups, and appear to have come from below after the deposition of the Neptunian rocks that rest upon tliem. The highly inclined position of the primitive strata is considered to have been occasioned by tliis granite, with its syenites and porphyries. 987. (2. ) Syenite is a compound of felspar, hornblende, and quartz ; in short, it is a granite in which the mica is replaced by hornblende. Some of the primitive traps belong to this head, 988. (3.) Porjihi/ryh a rock with u felsnar basis, including grains and crystals of t'clspar and quartz, and sometimes scales of mica. This porphyry is a mere modification of granite. 989. (4.) Protogine is a granular compound of felspar, quartz, and chlorite. It differs from granite in the mica being replaced by chlorite. 990. (S. ) Serpentine is a simple green-coioured rock, with a compact fracture, feeble trans- lucency on the edges, which yields readily to the knife, and feels greasy. 991 . (6, ) Diallage rock is a compound of felspar and diallage. It belongs probably to the j primitive trap scries. SrcT. Vn. Transition Rocks. 992. The mcksofthis elms, in the regular smcession, rest immediately upon those ot the! GEOGNOSY. Book U. sicondary, but a lower on^?i" ^^ '" "'" countru /a , «W !•/ «l.e absence of fo 'ilti.'"'''^'- ^hey a're 7' r"^ •" »" examX of i'" l^''"""''" «« of ocnirrcnee of cerLin fin «"'"« ""nai'VInd ^r'""''^ distinguS ftn ^''?'"'''«'' grey. mountains. '^'""'- Tins rock very m„.i. ""^ vaneties met , ««7- (5.) Z.V««,<,„,. I, - , ^ •"•"='' '^^-"""''s the kind, met with • ">«'ones, and often t^hnlL^T^y occurs with Io« I '" P""»"'ve llisisissesssss Snllte^ Tbfs rock doe; noM.r" ''''"""''"' ^-*- * ''"' ''-""guished by rbeTnlSL^^^f a"y from that of th • "r '"^ "-"S^de " ?e'r^ '■"'"« SK "r'lS ""f -S„ges"o;r "■'"?' «'°"?^ iti ^ reeks' I live irvu m. Secv. VI I r „ <"> 'ocks. 2-22 SCIENCE OF OEOGRAI'HY. Part II. arc the following : — 1. Sandstone. 'J. Slate. 3. Limestone. 4. Gypsum. .'5. Coal. TIib Plutonian are, 1 . Granite. 2. Porphyry. 3. Trap. SuusECT. 1. NeiHunian Secmidary Rocki> 1005. In the primitive and transition classes geologists have not hitherto observed any very determinate arrangement among tlie Neptunian deposits; whereas in the present class a determinate order has been discovered throughout the whole series. In our sketch wo shall follow the order of succession, beginning with the oldest, and finishing our account with a description of the newest formation. The whole Neptunian series is divided into formations of sandstone and formations of limestone; the other members of the scries, as the slate, gypsum, coal, and ironstone, occurring subordinate to these. loos. First secondary furmution i or i\vi old red sandstone- This formation is a sandstunu of a red colour, and, being the oldest of the sandstones, is named the old red sandstone. It is composed of particles of qiinriz, with occasional scales of mica and fragments of felspar, held together by an iron shot basis or ground. Sometimes it is associated with a can- glomerate made up of fragments of transition and primitive rocks. 1007. Second secondary formation, or mountain limestone, or metalliferous limestone, or car- boniferous limestone of geologists. This deposit rests, generally conformably, sometimes also unconforniahly, on the old red sandstone. It is distinctly stratified, and the strata are frequently mure or less inclined. Its colours are generally grey ; the fracture is compact. Sometimes it has a granular foliated structure, particularly where it occurs in contact with trap rocks. Some varieties, viz. those named lucnllile, tiave a black colour. It contains fossil organic remains of animals of various descriptions. Of these the most characteristic are genera of the trilobile tribe. It is much to be wished that those natiiraliils who have the opportunity would institute a rigid comparison of the mountain limestone, or the limestone immediately below the great coal formation, and the transition limestone which alternates with greywacke. 1008. Third secondary formation ; or the second secondary sandstone, or the great coal firm- ntion. This very important deposit is a compound formation, therefore consists of ditlerent rocks. Of these rocks the predominating one is sandstone. The rocks of the formation are the following; — 1. Sandstone. 2. Slate. 3. Clay. 4. Limestone. 5. Coal. 6. Iron- stone. 1. Sandstone. The general coloui>. are white and grey ; sometimes also it is reddish, and then it much resembles the old red sandstone. Some varieties are entirely com- posed of particles of quartz, lield together by a very inconsiderable basis or ground ; others contain besides quartz also felspar and mica ; these are by some geologists named arhse. It frequently contains coaly matter, and casts and impressions of plants. — 2. Stale. Of tlie slate tliere are two kinds, named slate clay and bituminous shale, both of which are mere modifications of clay with the slaty structure. These also contain fossil organic remains,— 3. Clay. This is compact clay without the slaty structure, and from its use in the arts is named fire clay. — 4. J.imestone. This limestone very much resembles the mountain line- stone which lies below the coal ; but hitherto no trilobites have been found in it. It alternates in beds with the other rocks of this formation. Some geologists refer it to the mountain limestone, and consequently that limestone to the coal formation ; an opinion which luay be correct. — 5. Coal. The coal in this formation occurs in beds that alternate with tlie slates, sandstone, and limestones. The coal is bituminous or black coal. — 6. Ironstone. This iron- stone is the common grey clay ironstone of mineralogists. It is an aluminous carbonate of iron, and is the species of ironstone which affords most of the iron manufactured in tiiis island. It occurs in beds or imbedded, and most frequently in the slate of this formation. 1009. Fourth secondary formation i the second secondary limestotwi the magncsian and alpine limestone of authors. This formation, in the regular succession, rests immediately upon the coal formation. It contains several varieties of limestone. One of these, which fre- quently occupies the lowest part of the deposit, has a brownish black colour, a thick slaty fracture, and emits an animal bituminous smell, and is named bituminous marl date. Another variety has a yellowish grey, or even at times an ochre yellow colour, with a compact or small granular foliated structure, with a low degree of lustre, and is named i magnesinn limestone. Another variety has a brownish or yellowish colour, is sometimes compact, sometimes granular or cavernous, impregnated with sparry iron, forms the upper j part of the dqiosit, and is called cnlcaire ferrifh-e. When this variety becomes charged j with bitumen and cavernous, it is named by German miners rauchwacke. It abounds j in the fossil shell named Productus aculeatus. This formation does not abound in fossill organic remains. No true ferns, but fossil fuci and zosterce, occur in it. Uemains ofj the monitor, and it is said also of the crocodile, have been met with in it. Fishes of thel genus chietodon and of other tribes, and numerous remains of shells and corals, occur morM or less frequently in different varieties of the limestone. The Irilobile tribe, so abundant in^ the transition period, and also in the first secondary limestone, occur here along v/itUortho- ceratiles. It is the species named trilobites bituminosus. Entrochi and pcntacrini ot grcai to til Uh Oooic II. GEOGNOSY. size also occur in it. Ti.p „i„„ Out ra,l.er occur i„ par.ic^.a ^^7 ''^r\ff\]'-^^'i ehro..^,.,, ,. . , ''' Or,noccra,Ues, very rare """'""« "'" "- "ik.|(1'!'I'"''^' """« «"' «l.e bc-d*. Simjcralalus. '''erebrj rock. The Oxford clay is a bluish argillaceous marl, which becomes brown on exposure to the air. It contains subordinate beds of calcnreous marl, and also the calcareous clayey nodules, named scptaria. Underneath is the Kelloway rock, a particular kind of calcareous rock. The marls sometimes contain bones of the ieli- thyosaurus. Tlie fossil shells arc pretty numerous, but our limited space will not allow an enumeration of them. (4.) Coral rag is a loosely aggregated calcareous rock, abounding in different specii'i of madrepores ; the rock is sometimes marly, and of a grey colour. Ilelow the coral rag ij a bed of ferruginous siliceous sand, containing a calcareous grit or sandstone, and silicco- calcarvous concretions. It is in this part that the fossil organic remains are most abundant ond most perfectly preserved. Fossil Cycadacete occur ; also, as in the calcareous grit, bones of saurian animals. Nearly all the madrejiorcs belong to the genera /Istrea, Caryophyllea, and Meandrina. Echinites of the genera Cidaris and Ctypeus are met with. The fossil shells have not been thorouglily examined. (5.) Kimmeridge day. The lower beds of the preceding deposit alternate with a blue or yellowish grey marl, which is more or less slaty, ond contains beds of a very bitumi- nous slate, and even true lignite or brown coal, sometimes forming beds of eonsiderul)le thickness. An ichthyosaurus different fro ,i t.iat in the lias is found here ; also remains of the plesiosaurus, and bones of whales, it is suid, have been found in the Kimmeridge clay ; also fine impressions of fishes. Serputa, also species of cidaris and asterias, occur in this form- ation. Many species of different genera of marine sl-.elis are enumerated as occurring in it, particularly aniNiout/ej, belemnites, &c. It would appear that the prevailing fossil sliells in the whole oolite formation are ammonites and belemnites. The belemnites do not occur lower down in the series than the lias. (6.) Portland oolite. This is a limestone which is frequently loosely aggregated, sometimes oolitic, forming the last deposit of secondary limestone with this structure, none of tlie superior or newer secondary limestones possessing it. It contains petrified monocoty- Icdonous and dicotyledonous plants. Remains of large saurian animals, and also of fishes, are met with in it. Ammonites, trigonia, and gryphites, are abundant . The most character- istic shells are the Ammonites triplicatus and the Pecten lamellosus. A cidaris and madrepore have also been discovered in it. 1014. Ninth secondary formation. Wealden clay and Purbeck stone. This remarkable form- ation abounds in fresh water shells and land plants ; but, in Engla.id at least, contams no marine species ; hence it is an example of a fresh water deposite between two marine depositi's, viz. the oolite and chalk. It is probable, however, that future observations will prow that even in England it contains marine shells. There are two members of this formatiun, viz. the Weold cloy, and Purbeck stone. il.) Weald clay. Tliis is a bluish or greyish coloured clay, containing subordinate s of argillaceous limestone. The limestone abounds in shells belonging to the frt'sh- water genus paludinesj also a great quantity of the crustaccous tribe named cypris. Urou-n iroti ore, beds of lignite, and beds of sandstone much resembling some of tlie varieties of the coal formation, also occur in it. It contains impressions of ferns, but of different species from those in the coal formation. (2. ) Purbeck stone is a clayey limestone, which alternates with marls. It abounds in pdudiiuB, also contains beautiful impressions of fresh-water fishes, and of tortoises and crocodiles. DOOK 1I> GEOGNOSY. Its 1015. Tontli iecondnri/ formation, or < halk formation. T/iiiformntion i* well cImractcriMid. I|icr; but tliu fossil orgnnic rcmuinn urc less ubundunt. Tlio sliclls are uuunoiiitcs, tcrchriitulites, trigouiii, &c. Ill this isliind the trigonia altiformi.i is considered as cliaractL'ri:ilic uf this lower ){reen saud. (2.) Ganit, 'I'lie green sund is divided into two liy a very thick bed of bluish grey chiy, known in many of the districts where it occurs under the name uf gault. It cuntuiiia ammonites oiid other shells, particularly the Inocerainiis siilcatua. (;l.) Up/jer green sand. The lower part of the tulliiceous chalk, containing a pro- digious quantity of fossils and of iron pyrites, becomes more and more charged with green points, and we reach a mass composed of a green sand more or less marly, and often u green coloured calcareous sandstone, l-'ragments of silicilied wood, and also parts of shells pene- tnited with silica ; teeth of fishes, but parts of no other verteltrated auinuils, occur in it. The fossil shells arc very numerous: Hpecies of the generu cidaria and spatatigus aru met with, and also corals of various kinds. (4.) TiiffaceoKS chalk, which is generally composed of a cretaceous matter, clay and sand. It is softer than chalk, and towards the lower part of the mass the clay predominates, and slaty flay marl is found. When the sand pr>.'d(>minates, a loosely aggregate greyish sandstone h formed. No flints occur in this tulliiceous ^-halk, their ])lace being taken by chert. Fossil vegetables, even lignite, arc found in it. Fossils arc most abundant in the lower part of this deposit. The chief arc bclemnitcs, ammonites, uautititcs, hamiles, baculitcs, tur- rililo, echiiiiles, with madrepores and encrinites- (,5.) The uppermost is the chalx jiropcrly so called, of which there arc two principal kinds, viz. the upper or soft or common chalk, which abounds in flints in beds, veins, and imbedded masses; and the lower or hard chalk, in which flint is more rarely met with. These chalks also contain iron pyrites and calcareous spar. The fossils arc vertehrai and teeth o( fifties ; numerous fc/i(iiifi's and <6'r(.'&ra/M/(s occur throughout the whole mass; and in the dericcnding order, ammonites and belemnites first make their appearance in the lower part of the chalk. SuBSECT. 2. Plutonian or Igneous Secondary liocks. 1016. Igneoui rocks appear, at difl'erent determinate periods, to have broken in among the Neptunian rocks of this class, and also to have forced up through them older rocks of various descriptions, forming mountains, mountain ranges, and groups of mountains. The igneous rocks arc porphyry, trap, and sometimes also granite and syenite. Sbct. IV. Tertiary Itocks> SuBSECT. 1. Neptunian Tertiary Rocks. 1017. The rocks of this class were first pointed out by Werner; but it was not until the pub- lication of the excellent work of Cuvier and Brongniart on the geology of Paris that their importance was felt and acknowledged by geologists. In the regular succession they rest immediately upon the chalk or uppermost member of the secondary class. Although the rocks are looser in texture than those of the secondary class, yet among them beds occur equally compact with those of the secondary class. They abound in fossil remains of the aiiiina' and vegetable kingdoms; although many species are different from the present ones, many of the genera are the same. The following arc the Neptunian rocks in the order of their occurrence, from below upwards : — 1. Plastic clay. 2. Calcaire grossicr, or London clay. 3. Gypsum with bones. 4. Superior marine sandstones and sands, sandstone of Fontainebleaii. 5. Upper ficsh-water formation. 1018. (1.) Plastic clay. Tliis clay is frequently divided into two beds by a bed of sand ; the upper bed is more or less mixed with the sand, the lower bed is pure, kneads completely with water, and is infusible in the porcelain furnace. The upper bed abounds in fossil remains; the lower bed contains none. Jet and brown coat, which are fossilised remains of dicotyledonous and monocotylcdonous plants, occur in it. Remains of the palm tribe are very frequent ; but ferns have not been met with. Insects well preserved in amber are also met with. The fossil shells are piutly fresh-water, partly marine, which are some- times separate, sometimes mixed together. 1019. (2.) Calcaire grassier, or h cerites of French authors, the London clay of English geologists. This deposit is sometimes separated from the plastic clay by a bed of sand, which occasionally contains pure and solid sandstone, but no petrifactions. Resting upon this sand is a bed of shelly limestone, abounding in green coloured grains of silicate of iron, and which sometimes passes into a kind of sand ; it is in this limestone that the num- mulite shells are so abundant, and which are mixed with corals and numerous shells in a liigh state of preservation. Immediately above this lies the great bed of true calcaire grossier. It is so compact, that in the Paris basin, where it abounds, it is used extensively &} a building stone. It is the common building stone in Paris. It contains marine shells Q IM SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part U. well prciurvodi mid bIso remains of plants. In some districts it is divided into two beds by au interposed bud of lignite or Irown coal, which is intermixed with frcsh-watcr shells. It is interesting to notice, that here a limestone abounding in marine shells is separated into two beds by an interposed mass of coal, filled with fresh-water shells. Around London there is a great deposit of clay abounding in the same shells as occur in tlie culcttire grossier \ hence, for this and other reasons, it is considered as the equivalent of the Purls cnlcairu grossier. Tliu uppermost part of tliis formation consists of sand, horn- ■tone, and sundstone, with alternating beds of limestone. It sometimes abounds in cerites. luilUi (.'!•) Offpmin with bones. This deposit may be considered as consisting of tliruc stages ; n lower, a middle, and an upper. Tlie lower part, or that which rests immediately upon the cnlculrc grossier, consists of grey and white limestone, more or less coni|)act, Jionetruted in ttll directions by silica. Tiiis silica, when it finds its way into cavities in the imestune, linus them with chalcedony or with quartz crystals. It contains species of tliu flresh-wuter goncrit Lymnca and Planorbii. The middle part is composed of gypsum, which ttUernalus with layers of marl. It is in this gypsum that remains of the genera Palirollimum, Anaptollieritim, of various carnivora, also diflerent species of birds and of eauty, the grandeur and perpetual verdure will gradually diminish in the ascent, until a soil and climate be found on the higher summits similar in respect to climate aiul productions to those in the vicinity of the poles, 1038. In regard to climate and vegetable productions, our globe has been aptly com. pared, in its two hemispheres, to two immense mountains, placed base to base, the circuiii. ference of which at the foot is constituted by the equator, and the two poles represent tliu sumnu'ts, crowned with ])erpetual glaciers. 1039. That almost ever;/ country possesses a vegetation peculiar to itself, is also well known ; and this is particularly the case witli countries whose natural boundaries arc formed liy mountains, seas, or deserts, even in the same or diHerent degrees of latitude. Europe exhibits a widely different class of plants from that part of North America which lies inmie- diately opposite to it. The botany of Southern Africa has little or no resemblance tu tlmt of the same parallels in South America, or to that of New Holland. Nay, in our own country of Britain, we have some plants that are confined to the eastern and some to tlio western side of the kingdom. In Scotland, the Tulsane and the Isle of Man Cabbage are never found but on the western side of the country, and the same is the case with the jxite liutterwort (Pinguicula Lusitanico), both in England and Scotland. Nature has con- stituted the barrier, for by art they may be cultivated as well on one as the other side of llio island. 1040. Dolanical geography is constituted by considering plants in relation to their habitation, region, or the country in which tlicy grow, and in regard to their locality or particiiliir station, and forming a collection of facts, deduced from these circumstances, from wlilcli general laws may be derived : nor is this a science destitute of advantages ; such, we mean, as are immediately manifest; for there are few, in the present age, who will be disposed tu deny that the study of the works of nature, like every thing that can exalt and refine the mind, is highly deserving of our attention. Vegetable geography is intimately connected with horticulture. Our gardens will be better stocked with vegetables and fruits, our forests with trees, our fields with corn, and our pastures with grasses, in proportion to our know, ledge of the relation of jdants with the exterior elements. Nay, Scliouw has justly observeil, that a good chart of the distribution of the vegetable forms over any given country will afford a far more correct idea of the productive strength of that country than many stalislieiil tables. The systematic botanist may thence derive benefit ; for by it Im will be better atilo to determine whether certain kinds of plants are species or varieties ; he will consider thiit a different local situation produces different effects upon them ; that those growing in wet places are less hairy or downy than those growing in dry ; that at great elevations plants nru more dwarf in their stature, with fewer leaves, but with larger and more brilliant (lowers tlian those found at lesser heights. The station, too, of certain plants, or groupes of planis, frequently leads to a discovery of characters diverse from other individuals of other coin\- tries with which they had been associated. Thus the Canadian Strawberry and the CnnadiiiH chickweed H'inlergreen (Tricntalis), though long confounded with our Strawberry and willi our Trienlalis, are found to be quite distinct. The regions, too, and the linuts of tliohu regions, of very important medicinal drugs, are determined by vegetable geography. Sect. I. Progress of Botanical Geography. 1041. nis branch of science had been, however,far a long time, wholly neglected' Linria'ii«, indeed, with whom originated so many improvements in botany, besides what related to systematic arrangement, was the first writer who gave stations for plants, as he called tlieni, or rather habitations, or frequently both combined, and this plan has been followed by every succeeding systematic botanist. Yet although these stations or habitations are frequently consulted in the geographical arrangement of plants, they are too vague and uncertain tu Book III* IN ITS RELATION TO BOTANY. S29 )h) generally depended upon ; and they must be employed with caution. Wu are not, how. I'vcr, to fur|;ett with regard to Linnieus, that he has, in some of his writings, entered far inoR' fully into the subject than any of liis predecessors. In his beautiful memoir entitled Slaliiines I'lantarum, he divides all, primarily, into Aquatic, Alpine, those growing in ahadi/ ;i/iiri'J {Umbrosai), those growing in open ground (Campeilres), Mountain-plants, and Para- tilicali and these again are subdivided into fresh-water, maritiHie, marsh-plants, healh- planta, &c. ; and in his oration entitled " De tetluris habitabilis incremento," ho has published tliitt ingenious if not correct theory of the origin and distribution of all plants as well as aiiiinnis ; namely, that, at the beginning, the whole earth was covered with sea, except one inliiiul, large enough to contain ^1 the animals and vegetables ; that this island was situated williiii the tropics, and was crowned with a very high mountain, which, in consequence of its varied soil and climate, might contain one or more of every vegetable and animal. He IJH'ii proceeds to show how, by means of the amazing fertility of plants from seed, they iiii)(lit, at an after period, be scattered all over the globe in the soil and situation best H(l»|itcd to them ; and, lastly, in his Flora Lapponica, he pays particular attention to the (lillvrenccs of plants as influenced by the variety of stations, and especially by their altitude nliovo the level of the sea. Tournefort, indeed, is said previously to have found upon Mount Ararat, at its base, the plants of Armenia; a little way up, those of Italy; higher \\p\\\\, tlinsu which grow about Paris ; afterwards, the Swedish plants ; and lastly, on the lii|), tlie Lapland alpine ones. Du Saussure, who so assiduously studied vegetable physio- lojty, was particularly attentive, on tliat account, to the elevation at which plants grow above llio'lovel of the sea ; and appears to have been the first to ascertain that elevation barome- trii'iilly. St. Pierre did not leave this subject unnoticed in his Studies of Nature i but he was f[\ UhI away b<; his genius, that hp bci. -'ed tncre was not a square league upon the surface of till' globe which did not include ■wit '• ^.rea some one vegetable, at least, which does luit exist any where else. Mr. Youi , c 'ebrated agriculturist, in his Travels upon the (\mliiirnt, determined with consideral .1 ai <: -.: 1 :y the northern boundaries of several of the lutiht important cultivated plants, the u^vc, the Vine, and the Maize 1 whilst Girand Suulavie, ill tliu south of France, has characterised the limits of them, and of the Orange and Chestnut/ 1111(1 these two men have, no doubt, excited a spirit of enquiry into the geographical distri- liiilion of other vegetable productions. These, and several other authors of less note, |)n<|i{tri'(l the way, during the last century, for the more important labours of the present, wIkm) the study lias begun to rank as a science. Stromeyer, in 1 800, described, to a certain I'Xtoiit, the boundaries of the vegetable kingdom, in a work entitled " A Specimen of the llislii)'if of VejielaMe Geography," which appeared at Guttingen. The work of Kielniann, t'llitiHl at Tubingen, ) 804, entitled " A Dissertation concerning Vegetation in the Alpine Iti'shiit," was followed by that of Treviranus, named " liiologie," which seems to he t'.ie first wlKtviii attention was paid to the distribution of plants according to their natural families; tlii< lutlor author dividing the globe into regions or distinct Floras ; and De Candolle, about lliv Niitiie time, partitioned France into regions in the same way, and wrote on the influence n( lii'i|{lit upon vegetation. To the celebrated M. de Humboldt, however, we arc indebted Tor the most valuable writings on vegetable geography, and those which have first given it Iho irm> character of a science. His " Essai sur la Giographie des I'lanles, in 1807, and his lii'iintil\il " Tableau de la Nature," contained his first ideas on the subject ; while his celebrated " Vnili'iiomena de distribulionc geographica Plantarum secundum coeli tempcriem et altitudinem mniiliiim," forming the introductory chapter to the botanical part of his travels ; his invaluable iiu'iiiiiir on isothermal lines and the distriliution of heat over the globe, published in the Mi'inolres d'Arcueil, and translated into Brewster's and Jameson's Philosophical .fournal, V( I. iii. p. I, ^c; together with his latest work on the subject, " New Enquiries into the I, avis ir'iiV'i an' observed in the Distribution of Vegetable Forms," likewise inserted in the Edin. I'liil. Journal, vol. vi. p. 27:) : these may justly be considered as the most important dissert- iitioiis on a comprehensive scale that have yet appeared. In the mean time, other eminent n.'iturtili.sts, by their well-directed labours, contributed materially to extend tho science : Walili'iiherg, fur example, in his admirable Flora Lapponica, and in that of a portion of Switucrlunil, and of the Carpathian Alps; whilst Von Buch, in his travels in Norway, iK'tiiili'd many curiour« fittts respecting the distribution of vegetables in that climate, and iImi in his iiitircsting Voi/age to the Canaries, made in company with the lamented Pro- rc»Mir ('liristian Stnitli. Mr, R. Brown, who treats with the must masterly hand what- vviT is t'untiected with the study of botany, has much increased his already eminent fame l)y those nienioirs in which this subject is entered upon ; and his profound knowledge >il' llio natural orders, his possession of the richest herbarium and the finest library in the woi'lil, both of which he has turned to tlie best possible account, together with the advan> lull's arising IVom his extensive travels; these have enabled him to publish memoim which H'ill hu studied with infinite advantage, and which will rank among the most valuable that Iwve ever nppeanKl. We particularly allude to his " Remarks, Geographical and Systematic, nil //lit liiitanff if Terra Austratis, 1814," and " Observations on the Herbarium collected by I'lvfcwr Christ, Smith, in the Vicinity of the Congo, 1818." Mr, limi, n foreigner, but for Q3 l-^'i 230 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II. & long time a resident in Scotland, published a pamphlet at Edinburgh, entitled " Be Methodo Florum cifjusdam regionis conducendi," and Mr. Winch of Newcastle, an " Eisny on the Geographical Distribution of Plants through the County of Northumberland." Taking advantage of what others had done, Dr. Schouw compiled, in 1824, an admirable history of the science, of which some portions have been translated into Brewster's and Jameson's Journals ; and we regret that, to our knowledge at least, this valuable work exists, in an entire state, in no other language but the Danish and the German. It has the merit of being accompanied by an Atlas of several maps of the world ; each exhibiting the geographical extent of certain tribes or families of vegetables, indicated by different colours. This plan of the maps has been successfully followed by Dr. Von Martins, in his History of the natural order Amaranthacea, in the thirteenth volume of the Nova Acta Acad. Caesar.-Leopold. ; so that we see, at one view, upon a plan of the world, the countries in which these plants are found, their boundaries, and the comparative abundance, indicated by the greater or less depth of colour employed. De Candollc, again, in the " Nouvcau Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelles," has given an admirable risumi of all these writers, and has added much important original information. A somewhat similar plan is adopted by M. Brongniart in the " Dictionnaire Classique d'Histoire Nalurelle," vol. vii. p. 275. Mr. Allan Cunningham, both in Mr. Barron Field's " Memoirs of New South Wales," and in the second volume of " Captain Alng's Survey of the Intertropical Coasts of -Australia," hsa furnished some further and very excellent remarks upon the distribution of vegetables, espe- cially of the less frequented parts of New Holland. The " Mimoires du Museum d'Histoire Nalurelle " contain some important papers on this subject, particularly that of Mirbel, " Sur la Gcographie des Coniferes," a tribe of plants valuable for its economical uses; and hisi " Recherches sur la Distribution G^ographique des Vigkaux phanirogames dans Vancien Monde, dcpuis tEquatetir jusqu'au Pole Arctique: and, lastly, we shall only name a useful little manual, entitled a " Lecture on the Geagra]>hy of Plants," by Mr. J. Barton. 1042. We might yet have swelled this list to a considerable extent; but enough has been said to show that the subject has merited and received the attention of some of the ablest naturalists; and that it is a science which gives an increased degree of interest both to geography and botany. Sect. II. On the Influence of the Elements on Plants. 1043. In regarding the limits to which certain plants are circumscribed upon the surfucc of the globe, wc shall see that it is with them as with the mighty ocean ; they are equally subject to that fiat of the Almighty, " Thus far shalt thou go, and no farther." The Palms, the Tree- Ferns, the parasitical Orchidea;, are ever confined to the tropics ; the Cruciferous and Umbelliferous plants almost exclusively to the temperate regions; while the Coniferous plants, and many of the Amentaceous tribes, flourish in those of the north : and since these are all affected by physical agents, wc must consider, before proceeding any farther, the in- fluences which the elements or exterior agents exercise upon plants. These M. de Candulle considers to be Heat, Light, Moisture, Soil, Atmosphere. SuBSECT. 1. On the Influence of Heat. 1044. Heat is the most obvious and powerful agent in affecting the existence and growth of plants: and of this wc have continual experience before our eyes. In winter all vegeta- tion is at a stand, and wc can only cultivate those plants which arc in a continued state of vegetation, by artificial heat. Plants are nourished either by water alone, or by substances dissolved or suspended in the watei. Hence vegr.tation is arrested when the temperature is below the freezing point ; fur the water, becoming solid, cannot enter the vegetable tissue. Again, as in the great deserts of many countries, the heat may be so great that the earth is dried up, and cannot part with its nutritive properties. These effects, however, it is but reasonable to suppose, are more remarkable upon the surface of the earth than at a consider- able depth : hence it happens that trees which have long tap-roots resist both the extremes of temperature better than those whose roots arc nearer to the surface ; their fibres penetrate into a soil whose temperature is greater in winter than that of the outer air, so that the fluids imbibe and keep the interior of large trees, as has been ascertained by experiment, at a degree of heat pretty nearly the same as that indicated by a thermometer placed at the roots of siirh trees. Hence, the greater the thickness of the stem or branch, and the greater the numlicr of layers interposed between the pith (the softest part being the moistest and the most sus- ceptible of cold) and the exterior air, the better arc they able to resist the severity of the cold. It is a well known fact that a shrub or tree as it grows older becomes more hardened against frost. De Candollc relates, that at Montpellicr the Pride cf India (Melia Azcdarach) when young is destroyed by a moderate degree of cold ; but that when it attains a more advanced age it will endure, in the garden at Geneva, an intensity of atmosphere four times as severe OS that which killed the young plant in the south of France. 1045. Again, in proportion as the exterior layers are deprived of tap or watery fluid, and for- DOOK III. IN ITS RELATION TO BOTANY. 231 tified by a deposit of carbon and resinoui matter, the more powerfully they withstand the cold. £vcry gardener and cultivator is acquainted with the fact, that in cold and wet summers, when the sun and heat have been insufficient to produce good bark upon the new shoots of the fruit-trees, tliey are liable to be aflected by a very moderate frost in the ensuing winter. Succulent plants and Monocotyledonous plants, in general, which have no distinct bark, are lijirhly susceptible of cold ; whilst the Birch, which is fenced around with numerous layers of old and dry bark, and the JFtr, whose bark abounds with resin, endure an intense degree of it without injury. At Fort Enterprise, in North America, lat. 64° 30'', Dr. Richardson has ascertained that the Banksian Pine (Pinus Banksiana), the white, the red, and blach Si>ruce, the small-fruited Larch, and other Amentaceous trees, bear a degree of cold equal to 44'' below zero of Fahrenheit ; and in Siberia, lat. 65° 28", the common Larch, the Siberian Stone Pine, the Mder, Birch, and Juniper, &c. attain their greatest size, and are not affected by the extremest cold of tliat severe climate. 1046. Powerful summer heats are capable of causing trees and shrubs to endure the most trying effects ot cold in the ensuing winter, as we find in innumerable instances ; and vice versd. Ilvncc, in Britain, so many vegetables, fruit-trees in particular, for want of a sufficiently powerful sun in summer, are aflected by our comparatively moderate frosts in winter ;, whilst upon continents in the same degrees of latitude the same trees arrive at the highest degree of purl'ection. Even in the climate of Paris the Pistacia tree and the Oleander will not bear the winter. Yet the winters there are mild in comparison with those which prevail in the environs of Pekin, where the Oleander was found by Lord Macartney to remain abroad the wliolc year ; and at Casbin in Persia, where Chardin assures us that the Pistacia Nuts, pro- (hiced in the open air, are larger than those of Syria. On the other hand, the heat of these two countries in summer is infinitely greater than that at Paris ; the summer temperature of Pekin especially nearly equals that of Cairo, and surpasses that of Algiers. For the »amc reason, too, tlie lyecping WUlow becomes a large tree in England ; while in Scotland, where the winters are at least as mild, but where the summer affords much less warmth, this beautiful tree can only be cultivated in highly favoured situations, and even there its vegetation is exceedingly languid : its young shoots, not ripened by the summer sun, are destroyed even by a slight frost. 1047. Hence the influence of temperature upon the geography of plants is ably pointed out by M. de Condolle under three points of view : — 1. The mean temperature of the year. '2. The extreme of temperature, whether in regard to cold or heat. 3. The distribution of temperature in the diflTerent months of the year. 1048. The mean temperature, that point which it has for a long time been the great object of the physician to ascertain, is in reality what is of the least importance in re- gard to the geograpliy of plants. In a general view, it may be useful to take it into con- sideration ; but the mean temperature is often determined by circumstances so widely dif- ferent, that the consequences and the analogies to be deduced from it relative to vegetables would be very erroneous. 1049. By attending to the extreme points of temperature, results more limited, but far more exact, are to be obtained. Thus, every locality which, though at only short intervals, affords a degree of cold or heat of certain intensity, cannot but produce plants which are capable (if supporting those extreme degrees. When, however, these widely different temperatures recur at very long intervals, man may cultivate in such a country a vegetable which cannot exist in a wild state ; cither because, when destroyed by the rigour of the season, he restores it by seeds or by plants derived from a more temperate country ; or because he shelters it from the inclemency of the air ; or, as is, too often the case in our climate, because he is sati: lied with the product of the plant, although it should not bring its seeds to perfection. And tluis it is that, in the south of Europe, the Vine, and Olive, and Orange trees often vege- tate exceedingly well for all the purposes for which they are required, though, if leil to them- "elves, tiicy could not propagate themselves, nor sustain the winter. Thus we see a wide ilill'erencc in the geography of plants ; between those in a state of nature, and those indi- viihiais whose growth is artificially encouraged by man. 1050. This, indeed, is a subject closely connected with the acclimatation of plants, or the power which man is supposed to exert over them in inuring them by degrees to a climate not originally natural to them. This power is, however, denied by very able vegetable plij'sidiogists. Ivlirbel, in particular, declares that he iius known many species indeed whose wants have been, to a certain degree, artificially supplied ; but not one whose con- stitution has been changed. " If," he says, " from time to time, exotics mingle themselves with our indigenous tribes, propagate as they do, and even dispute the very possession of the 3oil wi Ji the native inhabitants ; this, assuredly, is not the work of man, but it is the climate which dispenses this faculty of naturalisation." Cultivators, however, maintain that seedlings from Myrtles, which had ripened their fruit in Devonshire in the open air, are better able to endure the cold of our climate than those seeds perfected by artificial heat, or that have come from the warmer parts of Europe. It is true, the power of so acclimating itself already exists in the vegetable ; but it is man that calls it into action, for naturally tlie Q 4 m IM li n 232 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAniY. Part II. myrtle would never extend itself to our latitudes. Nny, something of the same kind M. Mirbel himself allows, where he says, " When we consider that the Vine is cultivated in the plains of Ilindostan and Arabia, between the l:Uh and 15tli parallels; that it is cultivated on the banks of the Rhine and Maine, in lat. 51° ; in Thibet, at an elevation above the level of the sea of from 9,000 to nearly 11,000 feet, under the 32d degree of latitude; what astoni^ilies and interests us thr. most is, not that the vine inhabits countries so remote from ont anotiier, or that it grows r.t so great an elevation above the sea, but that it possesses in so eminent a degree the property of accommodating Uielf to different climates ; a property, indeed, much more restricted in a great number of vegetables, which extend from the equator to the tropics on both sides, without ever crossing them ; for notwithstanding the greater distance between the 2.'3d degree of southern parallel and the 2nd degree of northern parallel, the climatic differences are much less from one tropic to the other than from the plains of Hindostan to the banks of the Maine." 1051. The distribulio7i of lieat at different months of the year is wliat we shall find te \>c of the most importance in regard to vegetable geography. Some climates are eminently uni- form ; a certain mean temperature is produced by a mild winter and a moderate degree of warmth in summer. This is frequently the case on tlie sea-coasts, because the extremes of heat arc continually modified by the sea ; that vast reservoir of nearly equal temperature, which therefore imparts heat in winter and cold in summer, and enables even tropical plants to subsist in some situations of the temperate zone. Such are the western shores of Europe and America, and a great portion of the soutliern hemisphere. A similar mean temperature may indeed be produced by a combination of very severe winters and very hot summers, as in the great continents compared with islands ; or the shores of those conti. nents, or the eastern side of continents, as compared with the western ; or the northern with the southern hemisphere ; but these two climates, as may be expected, will produce a very ditferent vegetation. 105*2. Annual plants, which require heat during the summer to ripen their seeds, and %vhich pass tliu winter, so to say, in torpidity, in the state of grain, indifferent to the intensity of cold*, abound most in tliose regions wiiere the extremes are the greatest; whilst the perennial plants, which can better dispense with the maturing of their seeds, and which arc injured by the severities of winter, affect the temperate climates. Of these, again, those kinds which have deciduous leaves accommodate themselves best to unequal temperatures ; whilst the individuals on which the foliage remains, or evergreensi give tiic pref'erenre to districts where the temperature is more constantly equal. 1053. Mirbel reckons that there are about 150 or 160 natural groups or families of plants in the Old World, types of all which exist in the tropical parts of it. Beyond these limits, a great number become gradually extinct. In the '18th degree of latitude, scarcely one half of t!iat number appear ; in the C5th, not 40 ; and but 1 7 in the vicinity of the polar regions. He furtlier estimates, that within the tropics the proportion of woody species, trees and shrubs, equals, if it does not exceed, that of herbaceous, annual, biennial, and perennial plants. The relative number of the woody species with the herbaceous, annual, biennial, and perennial, decreases from the equator to the poles; but, as an equivalent, the proportion of perennial to annual or biennial ])lants goes on increasing. Near the extreme limits of vegetation these are, at least, as twenty to one. 1054. Il'e must, however, by no jncans conclude that the same elevation in corresponding degrees of latitude is necessarily suited to the vegetation of the same plants. A number of circumstances may exist to modify the degree of heat at the same elevation. In Switzerland, for example, an investigation of the temperature that prevails in districts situated at only a short distance from each other among the mountains will produce very dissimilar results; and on this subject we find some interesting remarks, extracted from Kasthofer, " Voi/af't dans les jtctits Cantons et dans les Atjx-s Uhk'wnnes," in the first number of the Foreign lieview and Continental Miscellany. The elevation of the valley of Untersee, we are there told, is the same as that of Gestein ; yet the tliermonieter, in 18'22-:5, fell only to 8° below zero in the former spot ; whereas at Gestein it fell to 10^°, and at Berne to IC. The depth of the valleys influences vegetation ; the deeper they are, tiie more intense is the cold on the summits of the surrounding mountains. Thus, the pine does not thrive on the Bragel,ata height of 5100 feet; whereas it succeeds perfectly, at the same elevation, on the Klietian Alps, the valleys of the Linth, the IMuotta, and Kloen being deeper than those of the latter districts. In like manner, in the valley of the Davos, agricultural produce is certain in places much more elevated than the Bernese valleys, because the latter arc deeper. The warm winds from Italy have a perceptible power over the vegetation of the contiguous parts of Switzurland ; but the degrees of that influence depend upon circumstances. In the valley of the Inn, barley and flax are cultivated with success at an elevation of more than 5400 feet ; whereas at Laret, in the valley of Davos, though the height is only 4900 feet, * Sccdi licing.m general, furnished with few nrg.ma which iitjound in moiaturc.arc in a degree insensilili tn the extremes ut' heat and cold ; whence it arises that, in conveying them flrom one country to another, Ihiy IMUi through a variety or climate uninjured. Book III> IN ITS RELATION TO BOTANY. 233 no grain will thrive. Yot thuRO vnllcyH arc nlikc in most respects, and are surrounded bjr mouiitnins of similar altitudes ; they are both Hhcltercd from the north-east wind ; their soil is of the same nature; hut in the vulley of the Inn, the warm winds from Italy are inter- cepted only by a single chain of mountains, whereas two chains lie between Italy and the valley of Davos : and, bcHides, the latter being of smaller extent than the former, it admits of the reception of less solar beat. In the Oberland of Berne, an increase in heiglit of 2000 feet diminishes the crop one third.* SuMtCT. 2. Onllie Influence nf Light. 1055. The influence of the solar light upon vegetation De C He Cu. . 'to be as im- portant as that of temperature ; and although it acts less pow . ' 'y upon geographical liistrihutiun of plants, it nevertlieless merits a particular notice. 10.56. Light is that agent which operates in producing the greatest number of phenomena in YOffi'tnhIc life. It determines, in a great measure, the absorption ; for plants imbibe less humidity during the night and in darkness. It completely influences the watery exhala- tions of the green parts of |)lnnts ; fur thesu parts do not exhale during the night or in obscurity, whilst these exhaltitions are very considerable during the day, and especially under the direct influence of the rays of the sun. The light afl'ects, in most cases, the dccom- positiuii of the carbonic acid ; and consequently the deposition of carbon in vegetables, their substance and their growth, the intensity of their sensible properties, and the direction of many organs. It is tlie principal, and perhaps the only, cause of those singular move- ments known by the name of the slrcii iiffilants ; and, lastly, during the absence of light the green ])nrts absorb a certain (juantity of oxygen gas. Although these different causes affect all vent'tal)les, yet they arc not affected in the same degree. 1057. Light is more rqualli/ tUstribuletl than heat upon the surface of the globe ; but its mode of diil'usion iiuliii'cs son)e very important consequences. In the countries situated under the equator, an intense light, sinrc it acts more perpendicularly, influences vegetables nearly i'(|unlly, (luring twelve hours each day, throughout the whole year. In proportion as »f recede from the e(]iiator and approach the poles, the intensity of the more oblique rays gradmilly diuiiniKhes ; but in regard to the distribution of these rays, the light is com- pletely wanting diiring the winter, when the id>sence of vegetation indeed renders it nearly useless to plants ; and it is coiitinued during almost the whole period of vegetation, in such a manner that its lengthened 'influence compensates wholly or in part for its want of intensity. Thus we see that, independently of what concerns the temperature, plants which lose their leaves can better exist in northern countries, and that those whose vegetation is continued have need of the southern regions. And another beautiful and just remark is made liy De Candolle, in reference to the distribution of light ; namely, that those plants whose foliage and flowers maintain lialiilually and constantly the same position, can live in northern cliinutes, wliere the light is almost continued in summer; whilst it is in the regions of the south that we Hnd, as might naturally be expected, those species which arc remarkable for the alternate closing and expanding, or sleeping and waking, of their flowers, a motion wliicii has an intimate connexion with the alternation of days and nights. Thus we see why it is found so diffictdt in our country to ctdtivate many of the tropical vegetables, or, at any rate, to bring them to perfection. M. de Humboldt has proved that it is less owing to llie uhsence of heat limn to the want of sufficient solar light that the I'iiie does not ripen its fruit hencath t)ie foggy skies of Norninndy ; and M. Mirbcl has satisfied himself that the uninterrupted action of the sini's rays, during a great number of days, is the cause of tlie astonishingly rapid developeinent of alpine plants in high northern regions. f Dr. Richardson, too, states that the sugiir-boilers in the Canadian forests observe that the flow of sap in the Sugar Maj>lc (Negundo fraxinifolium) is not so immediately influenced by a high mean tei.iperature as by the power of the direct rays of the sun. The greatest quantity of sap is collected when a smart frost during night is succeeded by a warm sunshiny day. • The same .luthor, too, nuMillnnn n rurioiu fnct nf veKctntInn resting iipnn a liasis of ice. The glacier of Ilmwci'co, uliich fornm one of llie lirnnchci of tliv llernerln, has on its summit a nearly horicontal vulley tillcil with ice ; and on llila the avalanelicH have lirouxlit iliiwn masira of earth. This cartii produces a num. Iht of alpine (ilants, that alllird atnunlant and nourlahing I'ikhI to the tlorks of the inhabitants nf Samadcn. i'licre are (Inciimciils whicli prove that this ulngidar pasture lia> liccn used ever since the year I5.'i(i. t " Vi(!elal)le»," says M. Mirliel, in his Kli'Hiin.i iw J'/iysiiiloifie IVni'lali; " when secluded from the light, 'ciul out long, thin, and whitish shoots; their •id)slancc liiTomes lax, and without firmness; in fact, they 111' bicarlicd. 'I'hc o|>vration of the luminous lieams on these organistnl liodies consists cliiefly in sejuirating the constituent |>artt of water and carlHnile acid whirl) they contain, and in disengaging the oxygen of the Litter, i he carbonic acid, with the hydrogen ami oxygen of the water, produce those gums, resins, and oils, whii'liflowinthe vessels and which till the eells. These juices nourish the membranes, and bring them into the lieni'oiis state; a result whieli ImMJines more markiHl as the light Is strongest and its action most protracted. l/arkni'ss and light produce, therefore, diametrically opposite elll'cts on vegetation. Darkness, by keeping up tliosnrtne'is nf the vegetal>le parts, favours their increase in length; light, bv ministering to their nourish. meat, consolidates them, ami arrests their growth, Hence it I'ullows that a line state of vegetation, such aa uiiiici in just prii|>orliims siie anil strength, must depend, in a nteasure, on the nicely balanced alternation of (lay and night. Now, the hyperborean plants iprlng up at a period when the sun is constantly aliovc the horiioii, and the light which Ineessantlv nets u|Hin them conllrms and perfects them before tlicy have time to Miin a cunsidcrable degree of length. Their vt'ijetatioii Is active, but toon over ; they arc robust, but tmalL" *f»l#- S34 SCIENCK OF OEOOUAPIIY. Part II. Again, Humboldt nssurvH iix, that in nil plncoH wlicro tlic mean temperature is below 62° 6', the revivui of nature tukcH pliii'e in Nprii))^ in Hint month uliosc mean temperature reaches 42° 8', or 4G° 4'. At Cumberland IIouho, I)r. lllehardson found vernation to begin in May, when the mean temperature wan only 49°, nearly 3° below that which Baron IIi:mljo|(|t considered neceswiry for the evolution of deciduous leaves ; but he adds, " the influence of the direct rays of the »«« «i'n,i nt llii» time very Rreat, and the high temperature of the last decade of the month compensati', which, having few pores or organs of evaporation, need a stimulus to determine their action, all which have a tissue abounding in carbon, or which contain very resinous or oily juices, or which oiler a great extent of green surface, require much light, and are generally found in exposed places; the rest, according as they are more or less distinguishetl by these properties, exist either under the slight shadow of bushes, or beneath the more powerful shelter of hedges and walls, or of forests ; or, as is tlie case with many Fiin/;i, in caves and darkness. These last are, indeed, destitute of any green colour ; but Mosses, Ferns, and even some evergreens, such as the Ivy, flourish best beneath the shade of dense forests, if the trees of those forests have deciduous leaves; and in situ- ations where plants that vegetate only during the summer could scarcely live. 1059. The subject, however, of the arliun of light upon vegetation, has not yet received the attention which it deserves. Many mure observations and experiments arc required before we can employ it with certainty in connection with botanical geography. St'i^KCT. :(. On the Ii\Jlucncc of Moisture. lOGO. Water being the rchick by means if which nourishment is conveyed into the plant, and, indeed, itself yielding a large proportion or even the whole of the nutriment of many ve. getables, it follows tliat this element is not only of the highest importance in vcgetabli> economy, but one of tlie causeH which atl'ects most powerfully the geographical distribution of plants upon the surface of the globe. 1061. Those vegetables, in parlieular, neecssnrily absorb a great quantity if water, which have a large and spongy celliilin' tissue ; those which possess broadly expanded soft leaves, fur- nished with a great ninulier of cortical pores ; those having few or no hairs on their surface; those whose growth is very rapid, which deposit but little oily or resinous matter ; those of which the texture is not subject (o be changed or corrupted by humidity ; those, in fine, whose roots are very numerous, generally need to absorb much moisture, and cannot live but in places where they find naturally a large proportion of it. On the other hand, those plants which are of a llriii and compact cellular tissue, which have small or rigid leaves, furnislied with very few pores, which are abundantly clothed with hairs, of which the growth is slow, and which deposit, during the progress of their vegetation, much oily or rosinouii matter ; those whose cellular tissue is liable to be changed and decayed by too much moist- ure, and of which the roots are not numerous, require little water, and prefer, for their na- tural situation, dry places, (ireat dillerences, however, arc produced, according to tht nature of the water that is absorbed; the less it is charged with the nutritive principle, the more necessary is it that the vegetable shall absorb, in a given time, enough to suffice for its support. Again, the more the water abounds with substances which alter its fluidity or triinsparency, and which, inasmucli as they are solid particles, tend to obstruct the orKia's of the pores, or to impede absorption by their viscosity, the less do such vegetables imbibe in a given time. lOli'i. The very nature even nf those subslnncci dissolved or suspended in the water has a great influence upon the topographical distribution or the locality of plants. The ma*' i dis- solved arc, 1. Carbonic acid. U*. Atmospheric air. 3. Animal and vegetable sub. „ 4. Alkaline principles or earths. 'J'hiise plants whose cellular tissue is found to co. n much carbon, such as trees producing hard wood, avoid, more than others, the vicinity of waters which are extremely pure, and which contain but little carbonic acid gas. Plants which ex- hibit much aiotc in their chemical composition, such as the Cruciferous Plants and the Fungi, seek those spots where there is much animal matter in solution. Those, again, which pre- sent, when chemically analysed, a considerable quantity of certain earthy substances, such as silica* in the Monocotyledonous Plants, gypsum in the Leguminosee, &c., will require it in a * This Hillra, wc know, nhoiiiiili hi llie itrnMi'ii, nil well ni in other mnnocotyleilnnous plants ; anil M, ilc Canilolli-nbiiiTvek, tliat It in III niiiaciiiiciiei' iil Itii exIiteiiiT in the (trashes, Sic.., anil or the coin|iaralive imlii. lolubility whieh in Iho remit, that It lit iiri'lVrrisI liy almost all nations ortiic worlit Tor a coveriiiK lotliclr houses. The |u>o|ili< ol' the Niirlh llms ein|iloy ttraw for that |iuriio8c on the same iirinciplc that those of tlic Tropics UK the leaves of tliu pnlina, Part II. low 62" 6', lire reachet ;in ill INIay, Ilr.mlioldt influence of of the last es of many lur days are tit ill winter Hedi/sarun distribution ertain quan- :h evaporate evaporation, n carbon, or recn surface, 'ding as they lit shadow of ; or, as is tlie > of any green I best beneath ; and in situ- let received the ;quirvd before the plant, and, t of many ve- c in vegetable :al distribution for, wliit'h have ift leaves, fur- tlicir surface; atter ; those of dity ; those, in ire, and oiiniiot he other hand, or rigid Icancs, lich the growtli oily or resinous GO much inoist- _ for their na- ccording to tht principle, the to suffice for its its fluidity or ;ruct the orilices rgetables imbibe •atcr has a great ma«' ~> di*- sub. ■• ''• to CO. 11 iniif'' /icinily of waters LMants which cx- Is and the I'lmai, .gain, which prc- bstancos, such us 11 require it in a plants; anilM'l* comparative iiulis. u: a covering to lliint pic that those of Hit Book HI. IN ITS RELAnON TO BOTANY. flW greater or less proportion in the soil where they grow ; and If it does not exist there naturally, the agriculturist must supply it artificially ; mid those species which yield, when burned, • niore abundant portion of alkaliiio substances than usual, cnn only flourish or even live where these matters abound. Tliu species which have need of carbonate of soda will only grow successfully near tliu sea or saline lakes or springs. Thus the different property ot the substances dissolved in the water ia evidently one of the many causes which determine tliu stations of the vegetable species. Si;b8kct. 4. Oil tfte Ii\fluenee of the Soil. IOC)?,. The influence of soil M. do Candolle considers as perhaps more complicated than tliat of the preceding agents. lie reduces it to three principal heads : — 10(i4. (1.) The soil serves as a means of support to vegetables, and consequently its consist- ence or tenacity ought to possess, in this point of view, a peculiar fitness for sustaining, in a greater or less degree, plants exhibiting very various forms. Thus, soils composed of blow- ing sand can only serve as a support to vegetables which arc of very humble stature and prostrate growth, so that the wintls may not overturn them ; or to trees, furnished with very deep niul branching roots, which may attach them into this moveable matrix. The contrary holds good ill regard to very compact soils. Smnll-rooted plants may thus be firmly enough fixed, and they may subsist ; but the very large roots are incapable of penetrating into soils that are very tenacious. The two extremes of these soils present nn equally sterile vegeta- tion. Sands which arc not suflicicntly stationary (as those very remarkable ones on the iHirilicrn shores of the Moray Firth », water which is suiiject to very rapid currents, clay of an extremely compact nature, or rocks of great hardness, arc equally unfriendly to the growth of plonts. 1065. ('2. ) The chemical nature of the earths or stones of which the soil is composed, affects the clioice of vegetables, as regarth their flourishing in such situations. But this subjecti simple as it appears nt first sight, is in reality very complicated. For the different earths act upon vegetation by physical circumstances ; as, for example, according as they absorb the surrounding water with more or less facility, retain it with more or less force, or part with it more or less easily. Now, the celebrated Kirwan ascertained by a comparative analysis of ewths which were reckoned excellent for the growth of wheat in various countries, that tliey contain jnore silica if the climate is more subject to rain, more alumine if the contrary hetliecase; in short, that the soil, to be good for any given vegetable, ought to have the power of ai>sorbiiig more moisture in n dry climate, less in an humid atmosphere: whence it Is plain that in ditl'erent localities the same species of vegetable may be found in different soils. lOGfi. (.1.) Eneri/ kinii of rock has a certain degree of tenacity, and a certain disposition to (k'coinpose or become |iulveriscd : wlience results the gre.iter or less facility of particular soils to be I'ormed either of siind or gravel, uiul to be composed of fragments of a nearly determined furui and size. Certain vegetables, from causes which we shall presently indicate, will pre* fiT such or such of this sand or gravel ; but the peculiar nature of the soil does not act here iinuiediatcly ; thus, when we find calcareous rocks which decompose like argillaceous schist, the same species of vegetation is observed. These two considerations are particularly appliciible to lichens. 10C7. (4.) liocks, according to their cnlonr or their nature, are more susceptible of being liialed l)y the direct rays of the sun ; and consequently they may, in some degree, modify the temperature of a given place; and iiilluence also, though slightly, the choice of plants tapable of succeeding upon them. lOd'H. lint, iudepeiulently of all these physical causes, it may be asked, whether the chemical nature if nwks has any ell'ect upon vegetal)les? It is generally considered to be so ; but it must be allowed that this notion has been frequently very much exaggerated. Bory de St. Viueeiit, indeed, has assured us that calamine, or native carbonate of zinc, in the vicinity of Aix-ia-Cliapelle, is always indicated, to a certainly, by particular plants ; and the fact is fonlinned by a little work, since published, called A Flora of the Environs of Spa. The vi//.)ii' lieiirlseasi; a siniill variety of the comvioii Ei/chright (Euphrasia officinalis), the tvhite Ciiuqmii (Sileiie inlla(a), n Sandwort (Arenaria), a shrubby Lichen, a species of Jtromut (lironie-grass), constitute this poor but constant vegetation. These, however, no doubt, LTow ill greater abundance and perfection in other soils : the wonder is that they do not al- iD^ellier perish here ; for even the gallinaceous birds, which eat gravel to triturate their food, ilie from swallowing fragments of calamine. It must be remarked, in reality, that plants iluiiot often live upon pure rock, but among the decomposed matter of that rock ; that the rocks, even tliough very circumscribed, often present very different natures ; that vegetable iiumld is not only formed by the rocks which immediately surround it, but also by the ad- mixture of earthy substances carried by the waters, transported by the winds, or by the re- mains of animals and vegetables which have before existed there. Hence it will be understood how the vegetable earths differ much less in themselves, than the rocks which [iroduce them or serve to support them ; and that the greater number of plants yield, in most 11 i I S36 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Pari II. ■ituations, the alimentary cartha which arc necessary for them. Indeed, after various bo. tanicaljourneys made through France, M. de Candolle has found nearly the some plants vege. fating spontaneously in almost all the diflbrent rocky substances. It has been said that the Box ( Buxus sempervirens) grows only in calcareous soils, and it certainly prefers tliem ; but it is found abundantly in the argillaceous calcareous schistose rocks of the Pyrenees; and it is even seen among the granite of Brittany and upon the volcanic parts of Auvergne. The C/ieitnut has been said to avoid a calcareous country ; but there are beautiful chestnuts on both sides of the Lake of Geneva, at the foot of the calcareous mountains of Jura and Chablais. 1069. Pure magnesia, M. Carradori has found, by chemical experiment, acts as a poison on most plants ; yet M. Dunal, in visiting a portion of the environs of Lunel, where the soil presents u great quantity of almost pure magnesia, found there the same plants as in the surrounding calcareous soil, and the roots flourishing in the clefts of this magnesian rock. Thus we must be careful not to attach too much importance to the nature of the earth, which is frequently acted upon by causes purely physical. SuBSECT. 5. Atmospheric Iiifluence. 1070. The atmosphere, taken in its pure state, we know to be composed, at all times, of the same proportions of azote and oxygen ; and in such cases we may suppose its action to be similar upon all vegetables, 13ut the atmosphere also is of diiierent degrees of transparency or density ; it holds in solution other matters or substances, wliich mix with it in curtain places, and render it more or less suitable to certain species of plants. In mines, for instance, the quantity of carbonic acid gas, or of hydrogen, may be so great as to preclude vegetation altogether ; or to allow only of the growth of such individuals as are very strong and vigorous, or particularly absorbent of these substances. Then, too, the air charged with saline emanations from the sea injures some plants, and on the other hand encourages the devclopeinent of such as require carbonate of soda ; as may be seen in the valleys of the south of Europe, where maritime plants affording soda may be cultivated at a considerable distance from the ocean, provided that they lie open towards the sea, and are exposed to the winds that blow from it, 1071. We cultivate in our inland gardens, languidly and but for a year or two, many of the viaritime plants, such as the Lilhospcrmum maritimum. The Nitraria Schoberi is improved by employing salt where it is grown. Many of the Statices may be, however, easily cu!ti> vated, and one of them, the common Thrift (S. Armeria) even succeeds in crowded towns, whence its English name ; yet its native country is either on tJio shores of the sea or in salt marshes, or upon the summits of the highest mountains. 1072. The most general influence, however, exercised by the atmosphere, is its power of containing and parting with moisture, or its hygroscopic action. The atmosphere is habitually charged with moisture ; sometimes in such a maimer as to be invisible, and then only ascertainable by the hygrometer; at other times visible in a state of vapour or dew; and we find that vegetables in general succeed better in a climate where, at a given degree of temperature, the air is moderately moist, than in another where it is cither too much saturated with moisture or too dry. This is a circumstance which cannot well be imitated in the cultivation of plants in the open air : but in our stoves, and especially by the aid of steam, the various degrees of humidity necessary to a vigorous vegetation may be produced to the greatest nicety. Thus, in the magnificent stoves of the Messrs. Loddiges, at Hackney, near I^ondon, by an ingenious but simple contrivance, a gently falling dew is imitated; and with what success will best be seen by an inspection of the healthy and beautiful state of those |ilants which delight in a warm and moist atmosphere. 1073. The agitation or movement of the air by winds and otlier causes exercises some power over vegetation ; but we arc too little acquainted with this subject to be able to deduce any particular theory from it. 1074. Of all the almos])lieric influences, the most difficult to reduce to its proper value k that of (tensity ; or, what is the same thing, the influence of height or elevation above the level of the sea. This M. de Candolle has made the subject of a mciiiuir in tlie volume of the Society of Arcueil, and we shall here give his general ideas upon it. 107.'). In proportion as me are elevated in the air, the temperature as well as the moisture continue to diminish ; a circumstance which appears to depend upon this, that the rare uir has more capacity for heat than dense air. The facts that go to prove that the diminution of the temperature upon high mountains is one of the causes which most uffcct the distri. butiun of vegetables, are the following :^ (1.) The natural situation of each plant at a determined elevation above the level of the sea is so much the greater in proportion as the country is nearer the equator, and less in more temperate regions; that is to say, the farther we recede from the equator, the greater influence has the exposure upon the temperature. (2.) In temperate climates, as France, for instance, those plants which are but little afiected by temperature, and which grow in all its latitudes, are found also at all those Book II elevation summits law; the sea, and c (3.) 11 degree of where the the northc (4.) D correspond imliftiirentl no tiirlher plains, is c o/iVi;, which feet. (5.) Tlu seasons, est llie equator cases, /a j air, that thi in the line continuance elevated, (6.) Inp, to indicate a tlie equator t 107tt. On moistened wi unfriendly, m wlien they arc 1077, Itw locality of pli butalilc to t M. de Cando air bears in it» « greater or U iloubtcd that mucli rarefied always clothei the air may i must say that 'laps unattaina judgment on ti 1078. Thes Tliey are both slaiices, and the liosition. Wli, or upon mounts w mount;iins, v •America, the ha in systematic b< 1079. Theu liand of nature : "f'liat particul and surroundinj Ijiirly, some sixl fircumstanccs, Ponth, and, t< I surface of the « '"■ing in societj ^'lide Sedge (C'l '"Marram* ' (A I '""ntliecirgumitai nan Paet II. rarious bo- ilanU vege- lid that th« , tliem ; but ;nees ; and i;rgne. The liegtnuts on >f Jura and 1 as a poison >1, where the plants as in A magnesian lature of the at all times, )osu its action at degrees of :h mix with it s. In mines, lo great as to ividuals as are sn, too, tlie air tlie other hand be seen in the y be cultivated ds the sea, and vo, many of the leri is improved cr, easily culti- crowded towns, lie sea or in salt , is its power of atmosphtre is jisiblc, and then vapour or dew ; L a given degree [cither too much 111 be imitated in Ily by the aid of lay be produced ;es, at Hackney, Jew is imitated ; [d beautiful state exercises some tt to be able to Is proper value is Ivation above the lir in tlie volume . as the moisture that the rare uir Lt thP diminution [unect the distri- liovc the level of Iquator, wi l«s [the equator, the lich are but lif.le I also at all tltose Book III> IN ITS RELATION TO BOTANY. w elevations where the earth is not covered by eternal move's ; fl-om the level of the «•• to tho summits of the mountains. M. du Candolle has detected about 7(X> uxnmpUi of thi« law ; the oimmon Heath, the Juniper, tho Hirch, &c. grow indillvrvntly at the level of tho sea, and at a lieight of 10,000 feet. (3.) If plants which, according to their nature, avoid either too high or too low a degree of temperature, yet grow at difierent latitudes, we may observe that It is at hvightx where tlie eiTect of elevation may compensate tliat of latitude i thus the native |ilants of the northern plains will be seen to grow upon the mountains of the soulh. (4,) Plants which are cultivated upon a large scale are guided by laws which entirely correspond with the preceding : those which are cultivated in variiius latitudes will grow iiidlHereiitly at various heights; those which are only fuunu at certiUu latitudes will extend 110 farther than to proportional elevations. Tho polatoe, which Hucceeds so well in our plains, is cultivated in Peru at an elevation of 10,000 feet above the level of the sen: the ^iVi;, which nowhere passes 44° north latitude, will not grow at a height exceeding 1250 feet. (5.) Tiie elevation above the level of the sea, when wo compare the tentpernture of the seasons, establishes effects very analogous to those which result from the distance from tlie equator; su that there is the more analogy between tho results on vegetation in the two cases. Ill proportion as we rise in a direct Hue, it follows, fi-oni the lessened density of the air, that the intenseness of the solar light continues to increase ; this elll'ct is represented in the line of distances from the equator, because the perpetuity of light during the continuance of vegetation is so much the greater in proportion us the latitude is more elevated. (6.) In proportion lo the greater height upon the mountains, to will the hygrometer be seen to indicate a less degree of humidity ; the same general ellVct takes place us we recede from the equator towards the poles. 107(i. On tnountiiins, covered with perpetual snow, where tho plants nre conotantly moistened with water in a freezing state, those species, to which a wiurin tcinpcruturc is unfriendly, will live at inferior heights to those which they bravo In the same latitude, when they are not watered from those cold sources. 1077. /( would appear, therefore, from all these considerations, tlint the siluation or flxc.l locality of plants at certain heights depends mainly on the fall of the temperature attri. butalile to that elevation. Now, the only purely theoretical point of view, says M. dc Candolle, according to which we can comprehend how the rurefuctiuii of the air hears in itself a direct influence upon vegetation, is this; that plunts require to absorb a greater or less degree of oxygen gas in their green or their coloured parts. It cannot be doubted that there is a certain point of elevation whore the ntmos|ihere becomes too much rarefied to supply the wants of plants ; but where this is the case the mountains are nluays clothed with snow. M. de Humboldt, too, inclines to think lliut the pressure of the air niny act in encouraging and increasing the quantity of evapurnliun. Uut we must say that direct experiment is still wanting to confirm these opinions (and this is pcr« liaps unattainable in the present state of science), in order that we moy form a conclusive judgment on their value. Sect. III. Station and Hahilation of Plants, 1078. Thu station and habitation of plants must next engage a portion of our ottention. Tliey are both important: the former implicit their situation us regarding local circum- stances, and the action of physical causes upon vegetables ; the latter iiii|ilies the geographical {lobition. When we say, that such a plant is found in marshes, on the Kea>slioiv, in woods, orupnii mountains, in England, in France, in North America ; by the marshes, shore, woodsi ur mountxiins, we mean what we here term the station ; and by England, France, or North America, the habitation ; such is the sense, at least, in which we shall here use the terms j for in systematic botiiiiical writings the meaning is by no means always thus restricted. 1079. The seeds of plants, by varied and beautiful means, ore wiilelj/ disjifrscd by the liberal liand of nature : whilst some, however, fall upon barren ground, or a soil unlit for the imturo of that particular vegetable, others take root in situations, both with regard to the earth and surrounding medium, which are in harmony with their growth, oiul produce, "some thirty, some sixty, and some an hundred-fold." There arc, again, tribes which, under these circumstances, increase so prodigiously that they destroy vegetables of a less vigorous growth, and, to the exclusion of others, appropriate to tliemselves a great extent of the surface of the earth. Such are termed by M. de Humboldt "pluntvs suviulus," plants liiing in society. In this way, and notwithstanding the extreme poverty of the soil, the Staside Sedge (Carcx arenaria), the upright Sea Li/megrass (ElymusareiiuriuN), and the S't'a-rce, he says, Fuci and other Algce are attached to whales, mussels, and tiariiacU'S. Hut in this case tlie |il.inis manit'estly adhere to a dead portion of tlie animal ; like those vegetables which exist iijioii the outer ami ilcsJ part of the bark of trees. I have seen a bee which was brought IVom Sicily. It liad been capturwl alive, with a substance attached to its bead which had all the ap|>carancc of a fungus, and from its slia|ie, to ll).it particular genus of Fungi called CInuaria. Many persona were ileceivwl into a liclief that this vcKel.iMc substance was growing on the living insect j but an eminent naturalist, well acquaintcil with the sirinturcir the parts of fructification in the Orchideous plants, immediately detected that the su|>|K)sed fungus was iiotliiiiB more than the pollen.mass, which had attached itself to the nose of the bee by means of its glutinous glaiiJ, while the busy insect was thrusting its head into the flower to gather its honeyed sweets. 5 llaymond certainlv observed, in the I'vrenees, a sjiccies of Crmifool, the Walrr I'rutufont (IlaniiTiculii5.n(|ii.i- tilis), proy tliu Imrid of man. 7. Ruck plnnta, wliiili may incliido tlio iiutlvvH of vtry stuny spot**, and sucli aH grow npon walls, Wulls, altliougli ortitlcia! structiircM, aru liiiDnn to produce many plants in greater perfectiim than natural rock ; yet we nuiHt not ,i,.,[,osc that any vegetable is exclusively confined to this habitat. The Itnloitcum umbel- Mum and Draba muratia may be cited as examples of this tribe in I''.ngland; and amongnt mosses, the Orimmia jmlvinala, Torlula miiratis, Ac. K. Saiiil plants. 9. Plants if itri/ moors, where our heaths (Ericae) abound. These seem to be included aitinng the plantes itcs lieui slcrilcs of De Candollc; a very heterogeneous groupe it must be omfessed, and by no mi'iiiis eosy to characterise, 10. Plants which attach themselves to the vicinity of places inhdiled l»j man. Such are the Sock, Nettle, &c, ; these species follow every where the liuiiiiiii footsteps, even to the huts and cabins of the highest mountains ; encouraged, perhaps, by the presence of animal substances, and the azote which in such substances is known to alwuiul, 11. Forest plants, consisting of such trees as live in society, I'i. Plants if the hJ"es, OS are many of our climbing plants, the Honeysuckle, the Traveller's joy, the Ilryony, &c',° 1:1- Subterranean plants. Those that live in mines and caves, and which, though lolcralily numerous and important, arc yet mostly cryptogamous. One species, a fungus, yii'lds a pale phosphoric light of considerable intensity. 14, Mpine or mountain plants, for it is very dilHcult to draw the limit, and indeed they will depend much upon latitude, A plant wliich grows upon a hill of inconsiderable elevation in Norway, Lapland, and Iceland, will of course inhabit the loftiest Alps of the south of Europe. Again, upon mountains that have no perpetual snow lying on them, alpine plants will be found much hi'liiT than on such as have continued streams of cold snow-water descending, which all'ucts the state of the atmosphere at much lower regions. 15, Parasitic plants, such as the MissellM, the various species of I.oranthus, &c,, and that most wonderful of all vegetable pru- (luc'tiuns, the liafflesia Arnoldii: these, as their name implies, derive nourishment from a living portion of the vegetable to which they attach themselves. This is the case, too, with many Fungi which subsist upon the living foliage of plants ; some exclusively on the uppiT, others as invariably on the lower side of these leaves ; and, lastly, the name of IG. Vsemto-parasiles has been given to a very extensive tribe, which subsist upon the decayed norlioiis of tlie trunk or branches of the trees to which they are nitachcd, as many of the Lichens, Mosses, fee. ; or which arc simply attached by the surface of their roots to tro- pical trees, obtaining no nourishment from them, but from the surrounding element. Amonj; this number may be reckoned that numerous and singular family of the Orrhi'terc, called, from their nature and property, " air plants." Greatly as this list might be swelled, vishM find that even here there is a gradation and an approximation of one tribe to another ; but these are amply sufficient for our purpose, 10!<4, ire have been able to account in some measure for the stations of plants, affected as tliesc arc by local circumstances; hut the study of the succeeding part, which refers to their Uilations, considered in their most extensive scale, for instance, as belonging to certain r(';;ions or countries, we shall find to be much more ditli''nlt ; and wc must frequently be ciiiilent to study and to admire the amazing variety of ve^, .able forms which the beneficent liaiiil uf nature has scattered over the diticrcnt ])arts of our world, without being able to ncouuni for these important phenomena. In New Holland wc find, almost exclusively, all the species of Hanksia, Goodenia, and Epacris, and the curious Acaciee without leaves, but with latioles so much enlarged as to amusse the shape and perform the functions of leaves. At the I'jpe of Good Hope, the Fin Marigolds ( Mesembryanthcma), the Slapelite, the numerous kinds cil' Ina, Gladiolus, Pelargonium, and Prolca abound. The Aurantiaccee, the family of plants to which the Orange and Lemon belong, are of Asiatic origin ; as the Camellia and Thca are of Cliliii'sc, Those curious plants, the Mutisiee, the various species of Fuchsia, the Cinchona; or neJiciiial barks, the Cacti, are all peculiar to South America. If a few of them are found ill utiier countries, such circumstances are of very rare occurrence, and do not overturn the general laws for the exclusive existence of many plants in certain countries. We have in the leinpcratu parts of Europe one species of Ixia, one of Gladiolus, and in the north of Africa and south of Europe a few kinds of Fig Marigold, Within the tropics the genera of plants, llirua;;liotit Asia, Africa, and America, are similar, but rarely are the species the same. This rule nearly liolds good on the opposite continents in tem)>erate climates. Wc have the Vrimtal Plane (Flatanus orientalis) in the old world, and the Americans have the Occidental Vtaiie (1*. occidentalis}. Even in the two hemispheres, in similar parallels of latitude, the genera uf plants have a great affini'.y : the southern extremity of the great continent of f'lr bringinK "'t? male and female flowers in conjaet "i'hc plant is dioDcioiis. The female flower is attached to iheiurcnt plant by means of a very long stalk, spirally twisted like a corkscrew, so that when it is in |>crrcc- tin, it rises to the surface by the untwisting of the stalk. The male flowers, upon a separate plant, arc Elmosl H'Siiile, borne on a very snort straiglit stem, which never could reach the surface without detaching them. iplvei from the plant This they do at the proi>er season j they float upon the top of the water along with the female flowers, scatter their pollen, and die. The female blossoms, uu the contrary, by the spiral twisting of their btiilks, retire, and ripen their seeds under water. <\.'m S40 SCIENCE OF GEOGHAPHY. Part II. AmorivA hat inaity In common with the north of Europe; and the plants of our rcgiuns tranHpurtcd thither, huhcccI extremely well. 1085. To what extent iilants migrate, unaided by man, it is not easy to say ; but that such migration U going on, by various means and causes, cannot be questioned. Islands wliicli Ho near to cunlinunts, and which evidently appear at one period to have been joined with thorn, us England for example, although they may contain a vegetation similar to timt of the neighbouring continental shores, have always a smaller number of species; and this can (H)ly bu uccomtted for by the interruption which straits or seas occasion to the pro< grc«ii of tho NeedHi 108(), Tlw FiM F.iynfio (Eryngium campestre), to which we have already alluded, tlie Venui\ ftwkii>n-tilim (Campanula Speculum), and many other plants of France and Germany, ■eom to Htop at the line formed by the sea in approaching our shores; yet these, and many other vvgetahlcN of France, reach a limit upon the same continent more northern than any part of England. 1087. T/ie Irainmifivnlion of plants may be reckoned to be facilitated by the following causes. I . The sea and Us currents, but to a very limited extent ; for if the seed be of sudi a nature that the water |)enetrates its integuments and reaches the embryo, life is destroyed. Yet to such a dislanee are they carried by this medium, fhat upon the coasts of Britain, of Iceland, and Norway, the scods of the West Indies are frequently cast, and it is said some- times even in a lit nUHv for vegetation. 2. liivers, by the continual movement of thtir waters, convey many plants to a considerable distance from their original place of growth; and the banks of streams are generally adorned with a vegetation of a more varied kind tlian the districts reinutu from them. Thus, too, the different species of Saxifrage and other alpine idanis ari.s in mountainous regions, brought down from the higher situations, and nourish in thu valleys. .1. Winds, which waft the light, winged, and pappose seeds to immense distances, and by means of which they are widely dispersed. 4. Animals, which, in wandering from place to place, often carry on their coats those seeds wliicli have hooked bristles, &c. 5, Hirds, which, swallowing berries and other fruits, pass tlic seeds in a perfect slate, ond, it is even said, sometimes better fitted for germination than before. In this maimer the seeds are often deposited in the places necessary for tlieir growt'i, and to which they could not otherwise have reached ; of which a familiar instance is found in the Misseltoe, 1088. Man is hitwerer the most active agent in the dinpersion of plants, and we must not overlook the iinportimt consequences. Sometimes, indeed, the causes are accidental, but more IVe(|iielltly intentional. The shipwreck of a vessel on the island of Guernsey, having some btdhs on hoard from the Cape of Good Hope, caused a plant to propagate in thu sands upon the shores of that mild climate, to which has been since given the name of Amaryllis Surniennis or (lucrnscy Lilt/, and a branch of trade of some importance is carried on in the side of this very root. At Buenos Ayres, a species of Artichoke (Cynara Cardun- culus) has increased so nuich by seeds imported from Europe, that Mr. Head, in his amusing " Sketches of u Journey across the Pampas," &c. tells us that " there are three regions of vegclittion between Buenos Ayres and the base of the Cordilleras; a space of OOO miles: the first of which is covered, for 180 miles, with clover and th'istles. This region," the author continues, " varies with the seasons of the year in a most extraordinary manner. In winter, the leaves of the thistles * are large and luxuriant, and the whole surface of the country has the rough appearance of a turnep field. The clover in this season is ex- tremely rich and strong j and the sight of the wild cattle grazing in full liberty on such pasture is very beautiful. In s))ring the clover has vanished, the leaves of the thistles have extendeil along the ground, anil the country still looks like a rough crop of turneps. In less than a muntli the change is most extraordinary ; the whole region becomes a luxuriant wood of enormous thistles, which have suddeidy shot up to a height of ten or eleven feet, and aro all in full bluutn, The road or path is hemmed in on both sides ; the view is com- pletely obstructed ; not an animal is to be seen ; and the stems of the thistles arc so close to each other, nitd so strung, that, independent of the prickles with which they are armed, tliev form an impenetrable barrier. The sudden growth of these plants is quite astonisln'nj; ; and though it wimid be an unusual misfortune '<-\ military history, yet it is really possihlc that an invading army, unacquainted with this country, might be imprisoned by these thistles befurv it had timu to escape from them. The summer is not over before the scene undergoes another rapid change : tho thistles suddenly lose their sap and verdure, their heads dronp, the leaves shrink and fade, the stems become black and dead ; and they remain, rattling witli tho breeie, onu af^.'inst another, until the violence of the pampero or hurricane levels them with thu uroiind, wlien they rapidly decompose and disappei.r, the clover rushes up, and tho scene u again verdant." 108!). The ttrong-scented Everlasting (Elichrysum foctidum, vid. Bot. Mag. t. 1987), a • Krom aiioelmciit In our Itvrlmrlum. wc have ascertained that thii thistle i» the Carrfooii (Cynara Car. duneului^ hitrntliu'cil no Uoubt from KuroiH; ai an article of food, tut now growing wild, useless, nno Vcrnleluui, Book HI- IN ITS RELATION '^O BOTANY. 241 native of the Cape of Good Hope, has found a soil and climate equally suited to its growth on the shores of Brest, where it covers a great portion of the sands, to the exclusion of thernceai and Junci, diminish near the equator and increase towards the north. Nevertheless, tlicro are exceptions to this rule ; for the grasses are very rare upon the coasts of Greenland, In wlittt we have now said, we allude to the grasses, &c. in a wild state ; having no reference- to those regions where so many of the grass tribe, as the Wheat, Barley, Oat, Maine, Hue, llice, &c., are found simply in a state of cultivation. 1096. The dicotvledonous plants are the most extensively distributed, and we must oiler some further remarks upon them. The Compound or Syngenesious plants (Composite), ns every one knows, form a very extensive natural family. They are diffused throughout the whole earth, but they are most abundant in the temperate and tropical climates. Fewer however, of them are found in the warm regions of equinoctial America than in the sul). alpine and tetn)ieratc districts of the same country. At the Congo and Sierra Leone in Africa, in the East Indies and New Holland, they exist in comparatively smaller nuniliers than in other regions situated in similar parallels, but which afford situations more congenial to their growth. Again, in the frozen zone, in Kamtschatka and Lapland, the relative proportion of plants of this family is one half less than in the temperate climates. 1097. The Leguminotis plants (to which the Pea, the Bean, ^c. belong, and such as bear pai)i. lionaceous flowers,) abound most in the equinoctial regions: they diminish gradually in each hemisphere in diverging from the equator, except indeed in certain countries where particular genera, by the multiplicity of their species, give a peculiar feature to the vegetation, ns in Siberia anossess a peculiar vegetation, and that numerous impediments prevent emigration ; seeing, too, that certain forms or tribes are incompatible with certain climates. M. De Canilolle has constituted twenty of those regions ; but although each is, to a certain degree, peculiar in its vegetable productions, it would require more space than we can devote to such a subjeci to characterise them. We must, therefore, content ourselves with giving a bare list. 1. Hyperborean region. This district includes the northern extremity of Asia, Europe, and America ; and gradually merges into the following. 2. European ir^'wii; comprising all Europe, except the part bordering upon the pole, and the southern distriets approaching the Mediterranean. To the east ' extends to the Altaic mountains. 3. Sibman region, comprehending the great plains of Silieria and Tartary, 4. Mediterranean npoiii comprising all the basin of this great inland sea ; that is, Africa on this side the Sahara, and that part of Europe which is sheltered from the north by a more or less contiiuied range of mountains. 5. Oriental region ; thus called relatively to southern Europe, and containing the countries bordering upon the Black and Caspian Seas. 6. India, with its archipelago. 7. China, Cochinchina, and Japan. 8. New Ilutland. 9. The Cape of Good Hope, or southern extremity of Africa, beyond the tropics, 10, Abysmiia, Nubia, and the IMozani- bique Coast (imperfectly known). 11, Equinoctial Africa! viz. the neighbourhood of tlif Congo, the Senegal, and Niger, 12, The Canary Isles. Ui, The United States of A'ciri/i America. 14, The IVcstcrn and Temperate Coasts of Xorth America. 1.5. The If'est Imtian Isles. 16. Mexico. 17. Tropical South America. 18. Chili. 19. Southern Uracil and Viicnos Ayres. 'JO. The Straits of Magellan. 1 101. Many of the prndmlinns of these regions will be considered somewhat at large vi oikr parti of this irork ! .nnd we sliall tonilude our introductory sketch of Botanical (ieograiiliy by a liotiee iif Professor .Siliouw's I'liyln-Hcograpliic or General Botanical Division of tin ^N ITS RELATION TO BOTANY 94il M. Dm uooK in. "■" t-v -OUTANY Gliild'. 'I'liis is illustrated bv a CaiKlolli', IVofessorSclioiiu,^! ""*''' '^''"'cli accomnani.>« .1.: .,W.no,.a,K.ptin«cotr„fe^^^^^^^^^ (liviMoii „( tlit. farth ought to constit^ff^i^-"™' '"™s »n'y where JiT,. ''■■"""■" «"'«''i''"r will, its |ir..,luctior.s to determ!^? S * " '''*""<:' '"egion butt. ! "«''"''^^''"'"t " ctrtui,, ».• Lis ^Kions .0 depend onXTe'S'^'fi"'' '"''''• f"™'' H mLTu^ '"'I'S IKVHii"'' to that region , secoSy, St = r''/''"*' "' ^"'^^ onr£; In n?'''' ■•''*''■'-• '"'"""••e MVi'ly 10 It, or at luast have there « llf-^ J*""' " "Ju^'w of the ZLZ 'l"'"-''' x''""''! I)e i..i,«lit nioivly be considered as tL^ "''"^ "naximum, so tha tE """''' "'^''"'"K exclu' |.l"...s I,, either peeullr to the /'^'^''^''t^tives ; a..d" tS J t .«}'•" r 'I °"'^-- d'str s «l.on this last characteristic is wan,-'-*''""' "^ «'»e have th2,^' !'•"'' ''V''^"'""' '"".ilies ,(• o.ubi.li.iHhle,itmnyyetbea,m7,?i'"^' '^'"'^ »''« diflerenec ■.?'""• ''"•''"''J "evertheliss .;X' L'-) >««V/&Ja"~J"?°"^ twe„ty.two regions: - • «ly. Lapland, the „or^ °of'"n'* <=o-nprehends allCclumrif T;,- ^'""^ ""''•■"•Ponds (.^vnl,,n,l, and Iceland b" Prnf '"o ^"'^ Liberia, Kamtsoh ^t '"';^' ""■' I'"''"" «•■ rcle ■ .S....i.l, aiul Scandinawl . m^u'. «£"/ r"'""" '"^•''' '" '^ "'," rmud? ur^""'*''''' ^-'""d-.' '""un.ains in the southern m,d central na?'" '''/^"^ <■"" ^'^'-n I.TahWirr'-'^' '""' "'■""■' 'll'""' '•'■K")n'«. It is clmracteri^P,) r F,^'^^ °^ ^mope, inasmurh „ '^''«''""' "" a'"" the ;;;]r"-.^.u^pUts.^r-S--;-^^^^ /l"^'- C^'.) «.'^,W e/-M.^^„.fc„,., '^ """'"""""«' generally or a , ale S^teK^;^^^^ in .he Silu™, .nul the countr;"X'ut Mo;"??"''- »'«' ''- "ortro^'^^^^Vj- JV^^^^^^^^^ ^'"■' •"-"- '7 I'" ^'"-1 of it, that F....i al ',„T '■'"^''^ '''■'^""g-ishedfroTnttn *-'?""'.' '"' ^orth lliiniimii iioiw). tin. ^.. , . ""oiind more, that tli?. i?^ ""'« tiie next retf on • |„„ :. Tlii«ilMnlK.s), ,,, J," „.I ■' °/ '" """''^■■•n Asia 'V'P"'"'"'"'"'*'^^-) "'"ch prcU'" ,""'"' '"•"" Ivs. A ft'>v trim .^/^^''"^^' "'■'-• '"-■'•e '■•> consideral f ^ '"'"f '^"•''"•' ''/"'/'/.•/•, .S;.. ) ,'''"■':""•/ vA,..i;;y::nt':v'''';r'"j'"-juaisaSt:^^^^^^^ "'■ '>/v,,,,,,., AwAA^rt A / S I ' '''\^'''^*'"'*«'^''«^(Pistaci, * \ ' ""^''"I'P™'-; oneor two 'rr^' '"" v^'rilimt in.. ,i ,7; , f" "^° i Evergreens a/e n.n ,"'0.^ ""' ^^'"''' ""'^'S an rr''^>''':«''.'.«Md iir tr •"'•^'"'" ^««a- iv'^t^ '■■*'.^'«.l'--"'-tree, the Horsc-chcstiiMt, &c.) and with pinnated leaves (the Gledilschiie, Robinia, Acacia, &c.). 1 108. (7.) Regionofthe Cacti, Pcpjiers, and ifelastomas .• a very extensive region, including the lower districts of Mexico, the ''-Vest Indies, New Granada, Guiana, and Peru, perhaps also a part of Brazil ; in short, all intertropical America. The three families here mentioned ap- pear peculiarly to characterise these countries ; for the first belongs exclusively to America, and of the other two there exist comparatively few species out of these districts. Palms, the Ru. biaceev, the Solanets (in which are classed the ^^iglUshades and Potatoe), the rovgh-leavcd plants (Boragiiiea>), the Passion-flowers and Composite, are here very common. It may admit of several provinces, as that"of the Ferns and Orchidea (in the West India islands) ; of the Palms (the continent of South America). Brazil ought certainly to constitute a peculiar province, if indeed it be not a distinct region ; and the works of Spix and Martius, Si, Ililaire, the Prince do Neuwied, &c., will soon enable us to characterise its vegetable forms. The Melaslomce and Palms appear to belong to the more numerous inmates of this region. 1 109. {9.)Region oftheCinchonre (or ^Icdicinal Barks). ^It appears fro;n Humboldi'- works that the middle districts (such at least in respect to their altitude) of South America should form a distinct region from that last mentioned, as they differ considerably from the low lands ; and the name now proposed seems to be characteristic of their vegetation, at least of Peru and New Granada, tliough certainly not of Mexico, where the species of Cinchona are wanting. 1 1 10. (9.) Region of Escalloni(B, Vaccinia (Whortleberries), and U'interet (Winter's Harks), —These, according to Humboldt, occupy the highest parts of South America. Besides the ])laMts mentioned, there belong to this region ninny species of Lobelia, Gentian, AVi/j/wruwi (Calceolaria), Sage, several European genera of Grasses, Rrome, Feslucn and Poa, the CiclwracC'i, as IlypoctuBris and Apargia; as well as the more strictly speaking alpine plants [Surifmin, Whitlow-grasses, Sandivorts, and Sedges), Perhaps also tliose parts of the high lands where the species of Oak and Fir flourish belong to the same region, though in all probability thty constitute a peculiar province. 1111. (10.) Chilian region. — It appears that Chili should form a distinct region; for amongst the genera which appear tiiere, not one half are found in the low districts of South America, Its character, perhaps, most resembles that of the mountainous country, in its Slippenvorli, Escalloniee, lyeinntannice, Bcea, Bcllflowers, and Buddlete ; but yet the difl'erence is scarcely suf- tu'ient to constitute it a province. The Floro of this country appears to be essentially distinct from that of New Holland, the Cape, and New Zealand ; though an approach to them is observable in Goodenia, Araucaria (Cliilian pine), the Protea family, Gunncra, and Ancistrum. 1112. (11^ Region of arborescent Compnsitis (syngenesious plants with tree-like stems).— This takes in Buenos Ayres, and in general the eastern side of the temperate part of Soutli America. It has l)een already remarked, tlmt the Flora of this district of the world agrees to a considerable degree with tlmt of Europe ; amongst 109 genera, TO arc likewise European, and 85 in the north temperate zone. On the other hand, it tlilFers considerably from the Floras of Part II. iurupean ; 'ardamom, tliat thcru idja. The insidurable B correctly ds).-The ' arctic dis- ■'s Flora of livisions of ithcrn ; but 1 north and I'orgia, and ctcriscs this lie great va- arocephalai of the allied irtsof Korth s which horc L'l of the old :ea:, Melmt't- urther distiii- more trees of ^orse-cliestiiMt, ion, including , perhaps also ncntioned ap- y to America, 'dims, the Bii- h-leavcd planii may admit of lands) ; of the utc a peculiar , Martius, St. i its vegetable ninatcs of lliis nboldi'. works merica should frotn the low [ion, at least of \i Cinchona are [inter's Harks), . Besides tlic \t\\eCichoracC'T, nts (i'«.rifr(ii.'«) fcnds where the [robability they 1 ; for anionRst louth America, lis Slipimr'forli; lis scarcely sut- 1 l)e essentially |an approach to L Gunncra, »"" Like stems). -- \ part of South Jorldagreestoa lEuropean, aiwi ^1 the Flo"' "' Dock III- IN ITS RELATION TO BOTANY. 245 the Cape and of New Holland, for the Proteas, the Jl/yr/fe tribe, and the Afimosas are either wliolly wanting, or are seen but sparingly ; and there are no Epacrideee, Heaths, Iridea, Mesem- htyanthetna, or Geraniums. Nor can iit be compared with the Flora of the north-west coast of America; for amongst 189 genera mentioned, only 35 are found In Cliili. The character- istics of this region seem to lie in the great number of Arborescent Synnenesite (particularly of the sub-family .Boopi(fe«), which, however, do not exclusively appertain to it, but are also seen at the Cape. 1113. ( I ii.) Antarctic region This includes the countries near the Straits of Magellan. There is a considerable affinity between the vegetation here and what is seen in the north temperate zone ; for, amongst 82 known genera from thence, there are 59 of them which have species in the northern hemisphere. The arctic polar forms also appear, such us Sedges (Carices), Saxifrages, Gentians, Arbutus, and Primroses. Some resemblance to tlie highlands of South America and to Chili is also shown in the Slipperworts, Ouritia, Beea, Bolax, Wintera, EscaUonia; to the Cape, in tlie genera Gladiolus, Witsenia, Gunnera, Ancistrum, Oralis i and to JJew Holland, in Proteaceli ; comprehending the temperate parts of New Holland, togetlier witli Van Diemen's Land. — This region is very marked. The families of Sliickliouscie and Tremandreie ate quite peculiar to New Holland, the Epacridcce nearly so. Pnleaccw, Acacia, Aphylla;, and the greater number of the Myrtle family (especially of the ^mia Eucalyptus, Leptospcrmum, Melaleuca) ; the Stylideee, Resliaciee, Casuarine'peracea!), with the peculiar genus ^^/an- mk [the Baobab, which is the largest known tree in the world), belong to the characteristics otiliis country. The interior of Africa is unknown to us. 1 1118. {11,) Region of Eastern Africa, — Of the coast of this side of Africa and the adjacent islands our knowledge is imperfect. We are tolerably acquainted with the islands of I Bourbon and France ; of Madagascar we know but little ; and of the east coast itself I mrccly any thing. The Flora of the two first-named islands has a considerable resemblance Itotbtof India. Amongst 290 known genera, 196 of them (equal to two thirds) are found lil^inlndia; and of the species, not a few are likewise Indian; many of these, however liaiiliave been introduced by the constant intercourse that takes place between these two Ifwtsof the globe. The genera Eugenia, Ficus ((ig), tTrtica (nettle), Euj)horbia (spurge), jJ(i/jiarNm, Panicum, Andropogon, Sida, Pandanus (screw-pine), Dracama (dragon-wood) ICi'ip, arc very numerous in species, as are the same genera in India. In ferns, these liiiiidsarc peculiarly rich. Again, their flora dillcrs considerably from the South African ; In analogy existing, however, in their possessing single representatives of the Cupe genera Ifeifoa, Gladiolus, Blcria, Mesembryanthemum, Scrijihium, and several arborescent 6)i/?i^(7- U 3 S46 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II. ne:d(C. Still less is the affinity to the extra-tropical parts of New Holland. The similarity is stronger to the tropical portion of that country, of which the flora also approaches that of India. Single genera are all that it seems to possess in common with .America ; for instanci', Melicocca, liuizia, Dodoneca, Dichondra. The following are, perhaps, peculiar to this region, Lalania, Huherlia, Foupartia, Tristemma, Fissiiity Cordylina, Mionia, Fernalia, Lubinia, ani others. The flora of Madagascar seems very peculiar. It agrees with the islands last men- tioned ; and several genera are seen no where else than in them and Madagascar ; for example, Danais, Amh'>ra, Dombeya, Dnfourea, Didymnimlcs, Seiiacca; several species also are common to both ; as Didymomclcs Matlanascariemis, Danais fragrant, Cinchona Afro-inda, Still, among the 161 known genera from Madagascar, 54 only are found in the Isles of France and Mour- bon ; so that there might be good grounds for forming a separate region of the first ; unless, perhaps, the east coast of Africa should come under the same. With New Holland and the Cape, Madagascar has probably still less in common than the two other islands. 1119. (18.) Scilaminean region (of the Turmeric, Zedoary, Cardamom, Indian-shot, &c ), or the Indian Florii. .— To this appertain India, east and west of the Ganges, together with the islands between India and New Holland ; perhaps, also, that division of New Hollnnd which falls within the tropics. The Scilaminece are here in far greater numbers than in America ; also, though to a less degree, the Leguminosce, Cucurbitacece, Tiliacecc. The [jre- viously mentioned South American forms are rare, or ehe wanting. This region sIihuKI be separated into several provinces ; but as yet we know too little to undertake sudi a division with any degree of certainty. 1 1 20. (19.) The Indian highlands ought to form one or perhaps two regions, their vegetation being very dissimilar to that of the lowlands : in the middle region, Mdastoma, Orchidex, and Filices, appc-tr to prevail ; in the higher, the vegetation is more like the European and North Asiiitic, and probably the Japanese : these districts perhaps constitute one region with the whole of Central Asia ; but of all these countries we shall know much more when the Flora of India by Roxburgh and Wallich is completed. 1121. (20. ) The Flora of the South of China and of Cochinchina partly resembles that of India, especially in regard to families ; but still Loureiro's Flora contains a great many peculiar genera. It is true that perhaps the number of these genera might be reduced ; but even then, the vegetation of this tract will probably prove sufficiently peculiar to constitute a distinct region. 1122. (21.) The region of the Cassia! and Mimosa, which prevail particularly in Arabia and Persia, seems likewise to have a good right to be separated from India, as it is already sufficiently distinct from the Mediterranean region (No. 3.) ; for, of 281 genera men- tioned by Forskiil, 109 only are found in the south of Europe. It is more probable that the Flora of Nubia ai.d part of Central Africa appertains to this region. Abyssinia per- haps forms a distinct region, its elevated parts possessing such a different climate. 1123. (22.) The islands in the South Sea which lie within the tropics form perhaps a separate region ; though with but a slender degree of peculiarity. Among 214 genera, 173 arc found in India ; most of the remainder are in common witli America; for instunci;, Chiococca, IFeinmannia, Guajacum, Of the species which exist equally in them and Asia, arc Zopania nodijiora, A't/llingia monocephah, Fimbristylisdichotoma, Toumefortia argcntea, Plim bago zei/lanica, Morinda umbellata, Sophora tomentosa. In common with America, Dodoiuen viscosa, Sapindiis saponaria (soap-berry! : with both, Rhizophora Mangle (mangrove tree); il | has also some in common with New Holland, as Daphne iiidica (a species of Spurge Laurel). Peculiar families, or such as have there a decided maximum, can scarcely be cited ; thougli, i on the other hand, most of the species are peculiar. The Bread-fruit is among the chorac- 1 teristics of these islands ; though this tree is not confined to the South Seas. 1 1 24. The limit ^the present essay does not allow of the intended introduction of the gcogra-l pliical situation of many of our more useful and important plants, which Professor Schou»| has so ably delineated ; such as that of the Beech, the Vine, the Fir tribes, the Heaths, Ct/rn, aii:l| such fruits or vegetables as are employed as bread : the Palms, tlie Proteaceie, which fun so remarkably striking a feature in the Cape of Good Hope and in New Holland; tld Composite, which are perhaps more universally diffused than any other kind of plant; tlil Crucifera, to which the Cabbage, Tumep, Mustard, Scurvy-grass, &c. appertain ; and thi leguminous tribes, whose seeds (as the Pea and Bean) are so valuable for man, and whosf foliage, as the Lninne and Trefoil, &c. affords most of the nourishment to cattle. We mu^ endeavour to incorporate these with the vegetation of the variou^s regions where they i found in the greatest abundance. UOOK III. IN ITS RELATION TO MAN. 247 similarity i» nches tlmt oV for instami', ) this region, Lublnia, awA ids last mcn- fov example, o are common , Still, among ICC and Bour- e first ; unless, V Holland and ilands. ,rt-sfto«, &«).'>' , together with f New HoUanil umbers tlian i" iacea. The i.re- s region should ndertake such a i, their vegetation stoma, Orchulet, lie European and e one region with :h more when the jblesthatofli* eat many pecuhai reduced; but even iar to consUtute » :ticularly in Arabia dia, as it is already 281 aewrn men- ^ore probable that \n. Abyssima per- ht climate. ics form perhaps a ' .mong 'iH g"""' ,^riea; for instance, , them and Asia, ar. ,rtiaareenlea,nm-\ America, 2Jo.ta.;' 1 ions where they > Chap. II. aRoonArHv coksidrrkd in relation to thk oisTaiBUTioN or man and animals. 1 125. The geographic distribution of animated beings is afbrancli of natural history which only of hue years has engaged the attention of philosophers. Tlic celebrated lilumenbach WHS the (irst, we lielievci who generalised the numerous facts connected with the physiology of man, and proved that all the varieties may be referred to certain types of form, equally distinct In their physical structure and in their geographic distribution. Nearly nt the same tiiiiu, the geography of the vegetable kingdom engaged the attention of Baron Humboldt, tliu most aeeoinplished traveller of the age ; while, in our own country, tli<< researches of Itohvrt Brown have c<|iially contributed to place Botanical Gcograpliy on a better footing tlinn formerly. In this, as in other respects, Botany has taken precedence of Zoology; although it would he difficult to show why beings, so confessedly inferior in the scale of crc'iUiun, should be deemed more worthy of attention than those belonging to the animal kingdom. AVhvtlior from this prejudice, or from the more varied and comprehensive sphere of /oology, which renders the subject too vast for the power of any one mind, certain it is that aiilinai geography has been utmost neglected. Isolated details, relative to particular countries, cIiins .s, or families, have been successfully investigated ; but no one has yet attempted to geucralisc these materials, and use them towards the discovery of the laws of creation. It may be urged tlmt the Fauna Suecica of the great Swedish naturalist is an exception ; and that the writings of our acute and observing countryman White evince, on this subject, a patience and accuracy of observation hitherto unequalled : but without depreciating the merits of such works, we cannot consider them otiicrwise than as local lists, highly interesting indeed, so far as their limits extend, but totally distinct, in their object and nature, from such enquiries as regard the laws of geographic distribution. And here wc may observe, it has of late become a fashion with certain writers to apply this term in much too general a sense. Any attempt to ascertain the range of particular species simply within a certain district or kingdom, is merely an enquiry into their local dis- tribution i but if our views are extended beyond such confines, and we embrace vortebrated orders, it is very questionable whether even one species is truly indigenous to tropical Africa nnd to America; so totally dilTerent are the zoological features of these continents, even at their nearest approximation : and yet, in the above number of plants, no less than twenty-two species are rnumerated, as common to equinoctial Africa, India, and America. These facts, while tliey strengthen the belief that zoology is a more favourable lield than botany fur (liscoverlng the laws of natural distribution, lead us to consider the nodes by which such enquiries arc most beneficially prosecuted. 11 4 848 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part 11. Skit. I. Modes of investigating tht SutjecU 1 1 27. The pmt'erful fffi'ct ^traduced on animals by temperature, food, and locality, are known to all: whetl'iT im ri'tfiii'ds tliu range of any particuJar species, or the numbers of which it may bo composed. The ellect of these agencies is indeed so great, that some writers have looked upon tliem ns primary I'uusi's, and have imagined that by such laws alone has nature regulated the distribution of the whole animal creation. Very many instances, no doubt, from among the diversities of nnimul structure, may be urged in support of this theory ; but how far it can be reconciled with oilier and more general facts, which will be apparent on a wider view of the subject, we shall hcranfler investigate. It is clear that, by whatever laws Nature may have been guided, numerous exceptions will be found, proportionate to the vast and almost inflnite variety shu has displayed in her productions. There is, perhaps, no theory professing to explain the laws of Nu(ure,whether on animal distribution or natural affinities, which the wit of man could possibly devise, that might not be supported with great plausibility, by certain facts, presented by those radiating threads of connection, and those apparent dcvi< ations from her general laws, which are everywhere apparent : yet these will frequently he opposed to other facts ; and thus it becomes necessary, before determining on whidi side the preponderance of evidence lies, that we take as wide a survey of the gcncrul distribution of animals as the existing state of knowledge will admit. To set out with tlie belief tliat the laws of geographic distribution are fully ascertained, and that nothing remains but to make ourselves acquainted with the range of individual species, is a doctrine which can only bo compared to those principles of classification insisted upon by the methodists of the last age in natural history, who considered all the generic groups had been discovered, and that future naturalists had nothing left but to appropriate to them the newly discovered spe- cies, in the best manner they could. 1 128. 2'uwards the discovery of the natural geography of animals there is, however, anotlicr mode uf investigation, analogous to that we now pursue, in searching after the true scries of their aflinities ; this is, to lay aside all preconceived theories, and to begin with considering the primary causes of geographic distribution to be, wliat in trutli they really are, totally unknown. Wu are thus compelled to take a general survey of all the existing animals yet discovered, and now centrated in modern Europe, evince the superiority of this race in all that ennobles the immaterial part of man, and all that renders him formidable to his fellow creatures ; while every age witnesses a progressive but a surprising advance in all those qualities which in- dicate intellectual endowment. 1137. The original seat of the Caucasian race is supposed, as the name implies, to hava bMH that lofly chain of mountains between the Black and Caspian Seas. This supposi- tion, as Lawrence observes, is in unison with all that can be traced of the original abode of our 250 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II, fint parents ; niul is further confirmed by the natUes of these regions being, to tills duy the most beaiitil'ully formed of all the inhnbitants of the earth. From tlie Caucasian Alps diH'ercnt branches of this race diverge in ;.'Very direction, as from a common centre ; the peculiarities of each being modified, altered, and finally lost, in proportion as they recede from the original seat of their tribe. 1138. Of llie branches of the Caucasian rare, the most powerful is the Pelasgic, wjijcli spreads over the greater part of Europe and Western Asia at its most northern limits, while it blends with the Mongolian race by means of the Fins and Laplanders. From this branch sprang the powerful nations of Greece and Rome, which have been succeeded by the miirhty kingdoms of modern Europe. _ The next is the Syrian, which takes a southerly direction- and includes that portion of Asia formerly inhabited by the Assyrians, Clmldeuns, and the ancient Egyptians. The Indian branch, by some thought to be the same with the Pelasnk-, passes to the East, and loses itself among the inferior castes of Hindostan, A fourth branch is llie Scythian or Tartaric, which spread over the more northern parts of Asia ; and gave birtli to those wandering and ruthless hordes who, by the physical power of numbers devastated and finally overthrew the polished empires of Greece and Home. The waiukr- ing and pastoral habits of this tribe have consj)ircd to preserve their peculiarities uninixi'd with those of the neighbouring nations ; except, indeed, in Lesser Tarlary , where this branch of the Caucasian race loses itself in the Mongolian. 1 1 39. (2. ) The Mongolian variety (Jig. 71. ) has these characteristics : — The skin, instead 71 of white or fair, is olive yellow ; the hair thin, coarse, and straight ; little or no beard ; broaa, flattened face, with the features running together ; small and low forehead ; square-sliapcd cranium ; wide and small nose ; very oblique eyes ; and thick lips. Stature inferior to the Caucasian. In this race the moral and intellectual energies have been developed in an inferior degree. Tradition, indeed, has assigned to their most powerful nation, the Chinese, a lii^h degree of civilisation, at a period when Europe was in a state of barbarism. Yet there arc many circumstances which throw considerable suspicion on this fact t and even if it be allowed, a stronger proof could not possibly be produced to show the limited intellectual powers of this race ; for while the European Caucasian nations have advanced from rude savages to become masters of the world, the Chinese, after reaching a certain state of civilisation, have rcmaincil stationary, in every respect, through a long series of ages. Solitary exceptions cannot in- validate the fact ; and while we know that, not only in our own times, but so fur buck a« history informs us, neither the sciences, the inventions, nor the improvements of the last three centuiies have changed the Mongolian nations from what they then were, we can come to no other conclusion than tlut they are nationally incapacitated from further improve- ment. Cuvier supposes that tlie origin of the Mongolian race may have been in the moun- tains of Altai. From thence it has spread over the whole of central and northern Asia, where it is lost among the Esquimaux on the one hand, and the Caucasian Tartars on the other. It further extends to the Eastern Ocean, and includes the Japanese, the Coreans, and a large proportion of the Siberians. Its limits to the south appears to extend n» farther than to that part of Hindostan north of the Ganges, while the Mongolian fea- tures only predominate over those of the Indo-Caucasian in the lower castes of the Eastern Peninsula. 1140. The origin of the Esquimaux and other polaric nations found on the most northern limits of Europe and America, has given rise to great diversity of opinion. Arguments uf nearly equal weight, but of opposite tendency, have been employed to show, on the one hand, that the Esquimaux belong to tlie American variety ; and on the other, to prove their structure more in unison with that of the Mongolian. The latter opinion has been sup- ported by Mr. Lawrence ; and although we consider the weight of argument to be on this side, it appears not at all improbable that both these suppositions are in part correct. Wc have before observed, that the characters of each race become less and less apparent, tl]c farther they are removed from their particular type. The proximity of the northern regions UOOK III. IN ITS RELATION TO MAN. ar,\ (if Asia to tliose of America, rcndon it liiglily prolinlilu vitlior timt thvir rmpectivc inhabit- ant»i mitiKlod tlieir rnccs at a remote periuil, or tliut lliu northern Moni^oliunii, kIiosb civilii* ntion in tiipposed to be of ko great antiijuily, weru thu Ural to emigrate, and people the iiortlicrn regions of America. At all eventx, it appeiirn certain tImt the EHquimaux nations unite ill themselves many of the charaeterH uf two dlnllnet raccit; and the only theory by wlilch we can reconcile these doubts or tlieir true iirigln, is that of supposing them to form thu link of connection between the Mot rutian nnd that race which spreoas over the re- maining portion of the new world. The brief notice we have now taken of the two most powerful races or varieties of the human form is MulHclent to kIiow their marked superiorii over all others, whether as regards the Hyminetry or beauty of their physical structure, or tlie still more striking dcvelopement uf their moral powers. Hence they both become typical, although in diflerent degrees, of that perfection which thu Creator has bestowed upun man, in this his probatory state of existence. 1141. T/ie third priinari/ dimiun or leading variety of the human race, according to the views of the illustrious Cuvicr, is the Negro or Ktliioplan. Thin, again, presents three variutions, considered by Cuvier as secondary, luid by Dlunienlmcli ns primary. Although these variations arc not so great as those between either the Cancusian, the Mongolian, or the African (the latter being considered the type of the Ethiopian variety), still ihey are sufficiently important to merit a particular specification under distinct names; and they are accordingly termed the American, the Ethiopian, and the Malay varieties. 1 1 42. In the American variety (,Jig-T2. ) the skin is dui'k, and more or less red ; the hair black. straight, and strong, with the beard small ; face and skull vevy similar to the Mongolian, but tlic former not so flattened ; eyes sunk ; forehead low : the nose and other features being somewhat projecting. The moral and intellectual eharnoter of this race is in unison with the great difference it presents in outward form tVom the Caucasian. Like tho Mongolian, it lias remained stationary; but stopped at a point very much lielow tiiat id which the Asiatics have reached. The ancient and now extinct empires of Mexico and the Incas may be considered analogous to those of China and India, exhibiting the highest poin*. or civilisation to which the two races have over reached { but farther than this the compari- son cannot be carried. Arts, sciences, and all tlioso intellectual endowments which have fullowed the progress of the Caucasian race, and to a certain extent belong also to the Asiatics, appear to have made little or no progress among the Americans, even in the gorgeous court of Montezuma.' When that monarch despatched messengers to bring him an account of the first Spaniards who landed on his territories, so ignorant were the Mexi- cans of figures or of writing, that their report was mode in complicated hieroglyphics, mixed with rude figures of the horses and persons of these unknown invaders. Their idol- atrous worship enjoined no moral duties, like those of the superstition of Fo; and its riles were celebrated by human sacrifices of such a revolting nature as to be worthy only of (ii'mons. It deserves attention, that while the cuntml portion of America presented in its original inhabitants such a degraded picture of the human mind, the northern nations uf the new world, partaking more of the Mongolian aspect, uvinend a higher degree of intellect. It is true they were oidy wandering tribes of hunters, yet they appear to have had a full belief in the existence of one " Great Spirit," and in a blissful immortality for them- selves. The American race, blending with the Mongolian to the north, spreads over the whole of the new world ; but whether any traces of this typo exist beyond these limits, is a question which has not hitherto been investigated. 1143. In the Ethiopinn variety (7^.73.), the skin Is black ; hnir short, black, and woolly ; skull compressed on the sides, and elongated towards the fVont { forehead low, narrow, and slant- ing ; cheekbones very prominent ; jaws projecting, so n« to render the upper front teeth oblique ; eyes prominent ; nose broad and flat ; lips (ospeeiiUly the upper one) particularly thick. The African or Ethiopian race has ever remiiined in a rude and comparatively barbarous state. Tlieir cities are but congregations of huts ; their laws, (he despotic whim of Uie reigning i tn SCIENCE OP OEOORAPHY Paiit ri . chief. Incessantly occupied in war or in tliu chase, they seek iinl to perpetuate thtir ideas. They iiavc no written language, nor even a code of hiero^Iyp!iics. Abundantly supplied by nature with every nccesfuu-y of life, they have retained their character unchangv(l, after centuries of intercourse with the most enlightened nations. Uifl'erent brancliis uf this typo spread over the whole of the Africai continent, excepting those parts bordvriii)( the north and east of the Great Desert, which arc occupied by the Caucasian Syrians, anj where all traces of the negro formation disappear. 1 144. The Malay variety (Jiff, 74.) varies in the colour of the skin from a light tawny to n deep brown, approaching to black ; hair l>hick, inure or less curled, and abundant ; head ratlicr narrow; bones of the face large and prominent ; nose full and broad towards the tip. Under this variety, observes Mr. Lawrence, are included races of men very dilTervnt in organisation and qualities. They nevertheless present certain general points of resemblancv, which forbid their association with cither of the foregoing varieties. Under this head nro, therefore, included the inhabitants of Malacca, of Sumatra, and of the innumerable islands of the Indian Archipelago and the great Pacific Ocean. Most of these tribes are stated to speak the Malay langua{re, which may be traced, in the various ramifications of this divtrsi- fied race, from Madagascar to Easter Island. Their moral character is no less various tlmn their outward form. In such as, by the colour of their skin and their woolly hair, show a general approximation to the African type, tlic mental powers are little developed. Thuir language, however, is stated to be peculiar, and they appear to have a copious bushy board. [Lawrence, 489.] Branches of tliis division of the Malay race spread over the great ibiands of Sumatra, Borneo, and Andaman ; and they oppcar olso to occupy the Molucca and Philippine Islands. They arc described as living in the same state of wild and savage barbarity as do the Bushmen of Southern Africa, and such other branches of the Ethiopian variety as ajipcar the lowest in the scale of form and intellect. There is, however, a lighter- coloured and superior race, inhabiting some of the Indian islands, where an oval coun- tenance, longer hair, and finer form, evince a much greater affinity with the Indo-Caucasian type on one side, and a strong analogy to the New Zealanders and Pacific tribes on the other. Proceeding along the same insular chain, wc meet with " negro-like men " having curly hair, in the immense island of New Guinea, and in those south-western groups denominated New Ireland, New Hebrides, and New Caledonia. The natives of the vast continent of New Holland show strong indications of the same origin, and of the same untameable barbarism; yet their features are described as not unpleasant, their skin is ratlicr copper-coloured than black, and their hair either curling or straight. The natives of the interior have been described as somewhat more civilised, and as speaking a language DiHiic III. IN ITS RELATION TO MAN. MS (litl'erciit from tlmt used on tho coast. In the neighbouring island of New Zculand a con- sidtTublu chungv from the bincic Malayan tribes tulcvs plaee. The superior castes of tliese ishiiKliTs in their persons arc tall, active, and well made ; their skin is brown, and their long |)lack hoir is sometimes straight, sometimes curling. A degree of intellect, superior to all till.' trilicH we liuve enumerated.accompanics these personal advantages. Uetaining many of the liarlxiruus customs of their neighbours, the New Zealandert have, nevertheless, made some |ji'o;;rc'^s in the arts of life since their intercourse with Europeans : they believe in a Supreme lli'iii^, nnd in a happy immortality ; and evince, in various ways, a desire to improve their roiiilition. Tho natives of the Friendly Islands have the dark complexion of the New ZiMlaiiders, but are a much superior race. They arc of the ordinary European stature, tli(iii;{h some are above six feet high ; their colour is a deep brown, verging in the better ilu'.M's on a light olive ; their features, like those of the New Zealunders, are various, ap- |iro\iinating in some respects to them, and also to the true Europeans, Their progress in civilisation and in intellectual developement is considerable ; os a proof of which, it is nH'iitit)iieil that they have terms to express numbers up to 100,000. The Otaheitians have liiii^ lioen celebrated for their personal beauty ; the lower orders, indeed, are of the same hruwn tint so generally prevalent in the Friendly Islands, but in those of a superior c:iste this is graduiiily lost until we find in the higher ranks a skin nearly white, or at least litit silj^htly tinged with brown : and although the usual colour of their hair is black, yi't it is of a fine texture, and frequent instances occur in which it is brown, flaxen, and I'viMi ri'd. Their persons are well made, their features sometimes even beautiful, and a blush may bi> readily observed on the check of the women. The harmony of their language, and ilii'ir simple though refined manners, have been universally remarked. These national cliarncteristics extend to the Society Islands. Lastly, Tho natives of the Mar(|uesas have k'l'ii described as the finest race in the Southern Ocean : " in form they are, perhaps, tho liiii'st ill tlic world." Their skin is naturally " very fair," and the colour of their hair I'xiiiliits all the varied shades (excepting red), which are found in the difi'ercnt tribes of the Cuucnsiun race. Sect. III. On the Causes of these Varieties. 1145. The following questions naturally arise from considering these characteristics of the most prominent varieties of the human race ; founded as they are on the concurrent testimony of tmvi'llcrs, and generalised by the most eminent physiologists: — I. Whether these races, so (li>siinil»r in their typical peculiarities, have originally proceeded from one, or from distinct siiii'lis? 'i. Are they so strongly marked as not to present many and great deviations? and, ;). To what causes are they to be attributed ? II'IO. III. regard to thefrstoriginof thehumanrace,ti\creha\enotbeenwAntingthose,v/ho, iliibi'liuving the evidences of the IVfosoic history, have attempted to establish tlie hypothesis tliat these races have each sprung from ditFerent stocks ; or, that they are, in fact, so many lic'cii's. Now, this, at the best, is but an assumption perfectly gratuitous ; not only because t'tcry record from which it could receive any support is expressly opposed to it, but because it i'l ill direct violation of a primary and universal law of nature : a law by which the lowest being of the animal creation shrinks instinctively from intermixing its species with that of another. It hus, moreover, been fully ascertained tlint, however great the variations of the human I'uini may be, such variations among different breeds of the same species of animal are even ;:reatei'. Unless, therefore, it can be proved that the laws of nature with respect to man and miniuU are contradictory, we shall, by attaching the least weight to the above theory, openly violate every principle of philosophic reasoning, as well as renounce all belief in revealed religion. On this head the Mosaic records are clear and explicit ; and however the sceptic may deny their inspiration, he cannot bring forward, on his side, any testimony of such re- mote antiquity, or of such generally admitted credibility. As to the second questio' it must not be understood that, in arranging the varieties of man under a certain number of divisions, and assigning to each a peculiar character, there docs not occur many and very remarkable exceptions in each. So much, indeed, is this the case, that there are nut want- in;; instniices of native African tribes having the light skin of Europeans, Caucasians com- liining the Mongolian with the Malay structure, Americans resembling whites, and Africans with the copper-coloured skin of the American ; nay, even in the same island or province, n ;;reat diversity both in language and in physical structure, is sometimes apparent, and lliis between tribes bordering close upon each other ; so that, with the exception of a com- paratively small portion of each principal race, we find so much diversity in the remain- ing or aberrant branches — the typical peculiarities become so modified, altered, or evanes- cent, tlmt it is totally impossible to draw an absolute line of demarcation between them. This point has frequently been adverted to by a well-known physiologist, who says, " There is no circumstance, whether of corporeal structure or of mental endowment, wliich does not |>us by imperceptible gradations into the opposite character, rendering all those distinctions merely relative, and reducing them toditi'erences in degree. It is concIuded,tlierefore, that ivery arrangement of thcie varieties must be in a great measure arbitrary." (Lawrence'^ I I I 1I5-I SCIENCE OF GEOGllAPHY. PilftTlI. l,«ict< ))• 47'J.) Yl>() admitting tliis variation to tlie fullest extent, it cannot alter the corrcct- noHH of llu< iiriliciplc on which these distinctions are founded. Whatever might have been furuu riy thought ns to the nature of terms employed by naturalists to designate particular unMipK of nnlntnis, it is now generally admitted that, throughout nature, there are no isolat- ing AiNtinctlon : for ns we find that all natural groups, both in the animal and vegetable worlds.are Kuhjed to tiiu same variations, they arc tlierefore liable to the same objections. In sliL.t, if Nticll roi.^oning is valid, the distinction between plants and animals can no longer be main- tained ; tar it is to this day unsettled at what point the peculiarities of one are lost, and those of the other assumed. 1 1 'I?. Til'- cnuncs that may have led to these variations in the human species, form the only i|lu>f life. Mail, in remote oges, must have lived pretty nearly the same life in every region; whether as shepherds, hunters, or tillers of the field, their food, habits, and modes of life, must hnvebeen simple and regular. Whence comes it, then, that nations which still retain a great portion of what nuiy be conceived their primitive simjdicity, do not exhibit a corresponding reNend)lance in physical structure ? If food, raiment, and moral ini)>rovement have such a powerful elli'Ct in modifying the human frame, it would naturally follow that tribes living nearly in a state of nature would all show a close approximation to one common type ; tliat they would, in short, retain more of the lineaments and characters which must have belonged lo our I'rst parents, than if they had deviated from their primitive simplicity : yet the very revt'rse of this is the fact. The apparent aborigines of every nation are those in wliich tlie leading characters of their own tril>c are most conspicuous; and which exhibit the strongest conlriist lo those of others. It is oidy when they have made some progress in the arts of life, when cotupiest or commerce has led to a union with other races, that the national charucleristics, both personal and mental, give way, and begin either to blend or be lost in other nuxlillcations. These reasons, did they more immediately concern the ])ur])oses of this essay, might be nuich enlarged upon, more particularly as they have been offered by some deservedly eminent wvitors as a satisfactory solution of the question we are now dis- Clissing. Yet, allowing to all these causes the full effect they are known to have produced, we must yet confess they appear to us totally inadequate to explain the origin of the races of Ulini. ,\ writer intimately versed on this subject has well observed, that " external agen- cies, whether physical or moral, will not account for the bodily and mental dilferences which characterise the several tribes of mankind." (Lawreticc's Lectures, p. 4.'tl.) We have, in shorl, now brought the enquiry to a point where human reason is balHed : there is neither history nor tradition to guid-> us in a research which carries us bock to the obscurity of ages; to I lint remote period "heu the earth, for a second time, was again peopled, if not by n single pair, yet by tin :rcc scms of a single family. Book HI. IN ITS RELATION TO MAN. iS5 1148. We are now to VKW the question in another light. It has been generally admitted, even by those who reject tlie Mosaic testimony, that the diversity in the human structure can in no way be accounted for by any known combination of natural causes : are we, tlierefore, 10 suppose, in a question which concerns the most perfect earthly being made by Omnipotence, that nothing supernatural is to enter? that causes which effect the developement not only of the material but of the spiritual essence of man, have been left to chance ? Is it not more reasonable to conclude, that, for purposes unknown to us, a supernatural agency was employed? and that the immediate descendants of the sons of Noali were as distinctly marked in their outward form as they were in their moral character? The sacred writings, it is true, are silent on this particular point ; but it has been well observed that the Mosaic records vt ere not written to answer pliiiosophic enquiries. Those who, in the present age, have been the most profoimd investigators of nature, discover in every part of creation a symbolic rela- tionship J a mysterious system of types and symbols, which extends from the most compi ;x to the most simple cf organised beings: and when we know, for instance, that even the colours of a '"ird or an insect have a direct reference to such a system, and are employed as typical indicaiic^ s of its station in nature, can it be supposed that such a system docs not extend to man ? That this will not, in the present infancy of our enquiries, admit of such direct and unanswerable proof as amoinits to mathematical demonstration, we do not attempt to deny ; but that such a supposition is in harmony with that perfection which belongs to the «orI 1 of Omnipotence, every reasonable person must admit. Nor are there wanting circumstances which give some degree of sanction to this belief. The curse pronounced upon Canaan as the son of Ham has unquestionably been fulfilled. Learned commentators agree ii considering that central Africa was peopled by his descendants, and these have been foi -.ges, and still continue to be, "a servant of servants," to their more favoured brethren. piveii their own despotic governments render the subjects but slaves. In them the human I'orm 's most debased, the divinity of mind least developed. They still exhibit those leading resemblances which rendered Cain a type of Canaan : with few exceptions, they are, to this (lay, but " wanderers and vagabonds " on the earth. The blessings pronounced on the two remaining sons of Noah, it has been well observed, are of a very difl'erent nature : Shem was more peculiarly favoured than his brother ; from his race not only the great patriarchs who lypilied Christ, but even Christ himself, descended. The peculiarity of the Jewish polity, wliich preserved the physical peculiarities of their race pure and unmixed through successive ly detected to the animal kingdom, will yet be found to exercise a very important inHueiu'e (iii the present ejuestion ; we allude to the circular theory of MacLeay. It is the opinion iil' this learned naturalist that every group of organised beings divides itself, as it wuri', into two branches of afiinities, wliich, finally uniting again at their opposite cxtreniitii'!i, form a circle ; and that this disposition of affinities holds good, not only in every groiii), of wtiatcvcr magnitude or denomination, hut througliout the animal and the ve){i'tiililu world. It has been further sho.vn that as such a circular arrangement of beings ciiniuil, of necessity, present any absolute or isolated divisions, (for it could not then be conliniuiiN and circular), yet, that there may be traced, in eacli circle, five deviations or varieticH uf structure ; which, however conspicuous in their typical examples, are blended and lost the nearer they approximate to each other. Now, so far as regards the affinities of nnininl!i, this circular theory has been demonstrated ; but it long remained a matter of douht wliilt number of primary divisions every group contained. Mr. MacLeay considers there are (Ivv; and this accords with Blumenbach's arrangement of tlie human species. M. CiiviiT, and Dr. Pritchard, as we have before stated, limit the leading varieties of man to thret', In our arrangement of the order Inscssores {North. Zoology, vol. ii.), one of the most coin. prehensive divisions in ornithology, we have shown that the primary divisions of I'vcry natural group are only three ; one of which, by forming a circle of its own, inclmk'slliruoiir those pointed out by Mr. MacLeay, — thus making the number yjoe. Now, this theory, oii the natural divisions of birds, rests upon no speculative assumption ; it is founded on the most rigorous and minute r .alysis, and has thus been capable of mathematicdemnnslmtion. The question, whether this theory is applicable to one part only of the animal creation, iir whether there is presumptive evidence to conclude that it pervades all nature, has been (lis. cussed at some length in the " Introductory Observations on the Natural System," pri'flxi'il to the same work. In some respects the triiiary and the quinary theory of divisionH iiiiiy be tliought virtually the same ; and so lar as regards our present subject, considcreil iiU stractly, this observation may be true. Ve ca*-. analyze a group of insects, of birds, onif other animals, but how are we to analyze llio different modifications of man ? The tlmiK is utterly imi)ossiblo. Now, as every true theory must rest upon analysis, our present vii'«» on this subject would be purely speculative, did they not so strikingly and wonderl'nily to. inelde with those in other departments of nature, into which we can prosecute niumtu research, and attain lon;ical demonstration. Besides, by supposing that there are /I'lv |iiiii- cijml variatior-.s in man, each equally important with the other, we entirely destroy tin' beautiful analo{;y between these variations and the s.icred writings. Hut without enleriiijt farlher upon this question, it will be sufficient for our present pur])ose to repeat, llial, iii regard to man, tlie views of lilumenbaeh and Cuvier are virtually the same; for il', with the former, we reckon five, there will be two groups more conspicuously typical of [ii'ifi'i'- tioii, and tliree others, which, however distinct in many respects, possess several cliu'in'liw in common. If, on the other hand, we follow Cuvier and Prhchard, and restrict llii' nuinber to three, we have the Caucasian and the Mongolian as the two principal groups while there is a third, typically represented indeed by the Ethiopian, but still so iliviN- fied as to admit of a threefold division, into the American, the .\f'rican, and the Miiliiy varieties. 1151. Thai the variation of man has hen rc^u/nto/ by similar laws to those which Iwvo been traced throughout nature, is a conclusion supported by strong and presumptive evi- dence ; drawn both from the sacred writings, and from inferences in zoological sciciui', which no one has ventured to dispute. In establishing this point, I have htudii)iisly cdii- fined myself to such facts, connected with the physical history of man, asrvst u.i hi^li iiiul indisputable authority. On a subject so vast and intricate, illustrated by the united liiboiin of the most acute philosophers now living, little that is new could have been said, and tlitt little might have been suspected of being brought forward to favour a particular llu'orv. In the preceding sketch of the principal differences in man, we have, therefore, iiu'rv'ly condensed the observations and fi'.cts detailed in the writings of lilunienbach, Ciivit'i'i Pritchard, Lawrence, and Sumner; rather wishing, that, whatever inferences are iliw" from such sources, the facts themselves should rest on testimonies of so much weight, Book II. IN ITS RELATION TO MAN. 997 1 153. The order in vihkh these races are here placed leadft ua to otiicr cormidcratioiiR. Blumciibncli is of opinion tliat the American form is intermediate between tlio Cnuciisiuii ami Mongolian ; but we have failed to discover any assigned reason for such a disposition, H'hicli also seems at variance with the progression of devclopvment. The geographical iltuAlion of the two continents, as we have before observed, renders it higlily probable that ihc American variety is more immediately connected with the Mongolian ; and the simple fact, that the Esquimaux have been by some considered as of Asiatic origin, while by others Ihcv nre thought to exhibit more of the American type, is, perhaps, the strongest proof of llioir intimate relationship to both. Neither does the American race exhibit any direct iHinity to the Caucasian ; while, on the contrary, both their physical structure and mental Jevi'iopement seem to place them in close approximation to the Africans. For these and fubsvi|uvnt reasons, we have felt no hesitation in adopting the scries intimated in the liigne itnimal. We must now advert to another peculiarity in this arrangement, which renders lis similitude to the xoological series still more remarkable. This is the progressive series of allinities, resulting from placing the five leading varieties in the order in which they liMo boon here noticed. The Caucasian and the Mongolian races present the highest (loi;iw of civilisation, although in very different degrees when compared with each other : Ik ri'gions they respectively inhabit, in like manner, approximate so closely as not to be divided by water. Yet the configuration of these races is so remarkable, that they cwnut be mistaken or confounded. In the third race, comprehending the American, the Miiliiy, nnd the Ethiopian, very marked deviations from the typieul endowments of the two fomuT lire manifest. This inferiority is first shown in the American, whose outward form mill moral capacity is nevertheless superior to the African, Yet, as nature in the animal Uiigdom is ever prone to retrace her steps, and to return again to her original type ; so wc nliscrvv that, alter exhibiting, in some of the African hordes, the lowest debasement of the hiiiimn form, and the least capacity for mental improvement, she begins, as DIumenbach liM'rvi's, in the diversified races of the Malay variety, to show a progressive but a very markiHl inclination to return through them to the Caucasian type. So strong, indeed, ilm this appear in many tribes of the South Sea Islanders, not only in the beauty of Ihvlr forms, but in the advance they are continually making towards intellectual im> ll)n'liaiiN, fur these are, in some degree, common to brutes ; but in self privation, coni|>iis- m, aiul heroic love of their country. Are tliey incapable of learning European arts, I* nl' inventing others suitable to their wants or habits? To deny them such qualities I Viukl lie preposterous : they possess the germs of others infmitely higher, which, under I 'iviiiinible circumstances, have produced expert artisans, skilful physicians, ))ious divines, nnd ]fk«iilillu> lidiculous. The learned and eloquent Bishop Sumner forcibly observes, " There S fe i 358 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II. is nothing philosophical in the comparison of a being poscessed of improvable reason, with one that is governed by natural instinct, because there is no just attinity between the talents which are compared." {Recordi of Creation, vol. i. p. 23) We consider this argument as conclusive. To class man, therefore, in the so rue zoological division with apes, merely because both have a hyoid bone, is, to our appr'.'hension, as glaring a violation of natural affinities as to arrange bats with birds, because bctb fly in the air, and possess a crest to tlicir sternum. So far, indeed, from considering man iis the type of a zoological order of brutes, we cannot allow that he evi;n belongs to the s&ine system in which they are arranged. It may be, that the deviations of his structure are regulated by those laws which govern the universe; yet, nevertheless, by his nobler qualities (which in fact are his true distinctions) he belongs to a higher order of beings : that he is, in short, a link between matter and spirit; ttot he carries this evidence, through revelation, within himself; and will hereafter be most assuredly rewarded or punished, according as be Buffers his spiritual or his earthly nature to preponderate. Sect. IV. On the Geographic Distributi(m of Anmali» I U-'J. The geographic distribution of animal) over the globe, is the next subject of enquiry. In the general outline of the variations in man which has been given above, we have deemed it more important to seek after general results than to enter upon minute details. Our atten- tion has been fixed, not so much on those ramifications which shoot out near the extremities of every branch, and become too indistinct for clear elucidation, but rather to the leading branches themselves, on the nature of which there has been little diversity of opinion. 1153. In the enquiry regarding the geographic distribution of animals, on which we now enter, the same mode will be adopted, but with this difference, that whereas we have hitherto drawn our inferences solely from the facta and general opinions of others, we shall now put aside all theories heretofore promulgated on the distribution of animals, and merely depend oil simple facts for the support of those inferences which they may appear to sanction. We shall first briefly notice those principles which have been applied to elucidate the phenomena of animal distribution, and then enquire how far they appear conducive to that end. 1156. That climate, temperature, soil, and food, exercise a paramount influence on the distribution of animals, has been generally believed ; and on this assumption naturalists have divided the world into climates, zones, or provinces regulated by degrees of longitude or latitude. Such has been the favourite theory not only of physiologists, but of professed naturalists, whose knowledge of details might have furnished them with insuperable objec- tions against such views. Thus, the celebrated entomologist Fabricius conceived that tlic insect world could be naturally divided into eight climates : one of which is made to com- prehend all those mountains, in every part of the world, whose summits are covered by eternal snow. It is, tlierefore, not surprising that M. Latreille should consider such a theory as altogether vague in some respects, and arbitrary in others. But will not the latter ob- jection be equally applicable to the distribution which this eminent naturalist has himself proposed for this part of the creation ? At least, such is the opinion of one fully com- petent to judge the question. " A chart of animal geography," says Mr. Kirby, " which is divided into climates of 24° of longitude and 12° of latitude, wears upon its face ths stamp of an artificial and arbitrary system, rather than of one according with nature." On muck the same principles another theory has been built, by which thf earth is divided into seven zoological provinces, or zones, mainly dependent on the respective degrees of latitude they occupy. Now, so far as regards one of these pr vinces — that comprehended within the arctic circle ^ this view of the subject, at first sight, appears perfectly just: for there is not only a strong analogy between the groups of animals inhabiting such parts of the twn continents as enter into this circle, but there is also an absolute affinity between them ; inas- much as the arctic regions contain not only genera, but numerous species, common to both continents. This theory, however, loses all its force when applied to such divisions as are made to include the tropical regions of Africa, America, and Asia, in one province, and the southern extremities of America and Africa in another. The zoologist immediately per- ceives that the only relation which these countries bear to each other in their animal pro- ductions, is purely analogical ; and we are thus compelled to relinquish a theory which appears correct only in one point of view. These and other less eminent writjrs appear to have erred in the very foundation of their methods. They assume as granted, what has never yet been proved, that temperature exercises a primary influence on animal distribution. Were such the case, it would naturally follow that the animals of such parts of America, Africa, and Asia, as are placed in corresponding degrees of latitude, would be nearly of similar species ; or, ot least, of the same natural genera. Yet such, as we shall liercafti'r show, is not the fact. Betwern the animals of these regions there is, indeed, in very many instances, a strong analogy ; such, for instance, as is apparent between the Trochilidir of tlic New World, the Cinni/ridtr of Asia and Africa, ntid the Afcltijihn^idiTodUc Australian islands, Such, -igain, is that lietwein the Toucans of America (fp. '.'>. a), and the Ilornl'ill:. ui' A^ii Book HI- IN ITS RELATION TO ANIMALS. 259 I &. 15. b). Yet not one species of these birds occur in any two of these countries. Ncver> "" theless it cannot be denied, that the temperature and con- figuration of a country exercises a powerful influence on tiic distribution of animals. But these effects are of a secondary nature, and totally fail when employed to elu- cidate those general principles which appear to regulate tlie whole system of animal geography. Such agencies, however, may be safely allowed to possess much weight, when we descend to details, and investigate the local Fauna of any particular country or district. It has been ob- served by the celebrated Humboldt, and confirmed by an authority of nearly equal weight, that, with regard to cer- tain tribes of insects, their geographical distribution docs not appear to depend solely on the degree of heat or humidity to which they are exposed, or on the particular situation they inhabit ; " but rather on local circumstances, that are difficult to characterise." This opinion is in unison with the whole tenor of the facts to «hich wc shall hereafter advert. We must, therefore, agree with Mr. Kirby, and con- sider tlitit the distribution, not only of insects, but of animals in general, is " fixed by the will of the Creator, rather than certainly regulated by any isothermal lines." (Introductioit II Entomology, vol. iv. p. 484.) 1157. The distribitlion of animals, in connection with that of the human race, remains to be amidcred' From what has been already stated, there appears strong reason to believe, that ilie vsriations in the structure of man and of animals are regulated by similar laws ; and ihis supposition will receive considerable weight, should it appear, upon investigation, ihat those divisions of our globe which have been apportioned to the ditferent varieties of man, are equally characterised by certain peculiarities in their animal tribes. Now, to ((talilish the truth of such a theory, it is necessary to wave all general abstract reasoning, and to draw deductions from known facts. And it is equally obvious that, if such facts are 10 be collected from th;; whole animal kingdom, this essay must be extended to several (olumes, even admitting that our materials were sufficiently extensive for such a purpose. Bat the truth is, that the data for such a comprehensive investigation are so few, so meagre, md so unsatisfactory when compared with the diversity and vastness of the subject, tliat they sink into insignificance. Nor will this appear surprising, if wo ' ,.isider the astonishing number of animals that have been already described by naturalists, or are known to exist in cabinets ; sttdng aside the hosts of species yet unknown, which, in many departments, may ])ossibly imount to double or treble the number we are acquainted with. Yet, as details of some sort must be gone into, it becomes absolutely necessary to select for such a jnirpose some one department of nature ; and the results which might follow, we may fairly presume, nould be in unison with those that would attend tlie investigation of other divisions of the mimal world, could they be investigated upon the same jirinciples. Nature, in all her operations, is uniform : and it cannot be supposed that the distribution of quadrupeds, birds, insects, or reptiles, would each be regulated by dilTerent laws. 1158. In choosing, therefore, from the animal kingdom some one order of beings for par- ticular investigation, it might be thought that "■•• distribution of quadrupeds wuuld present tlie best field of enquii y. It possibly might, uiu not their investigation involve certain points of controversy connected with geology, which, however important, are not so intimately connected with our present object as to render their discussion necessary in this place. The division of reptiles is subject to the same objection, and is not sufficiently extensive for our ptirjmse. The annulosc animals, on the other hand, are so ninnerous that they appear to bilile our enquiries ; nor can we hope, while yet in the infancy of geographic natural his- lory, to do more than has been ab-eudy done by the genius of Latreille. Birds alone remain. It bis, indeed, been argued, that no very certain results can attend the study of their dis- Irilniiion; because, from pot-scssing the powersof locomotion, and the instinct of migration,in ! iii(;Ii degree, they appear more widely dispersed than any other class of animals. How far this liiay be true has never, indeed, been made apparent ; yet, allowing the assertion its I weight, we may safely conclude, that if, under these disadvantages, fiiy definite notions of geographic distribution can be gathered from the study of such volatile beings, the results wuuld be materially strengthened if found to harmonise with what is already known on ibe distribution of other orders of animals, which, from their physical construction, are less capable of extending their geographic range. It is here, however, necessary to premise, Ihat in this, as in all other branches of natural history, the accounts and relations of tra- vellers, not in themselves zoologists, must be received witu great caution. Unacquainted »ilh those nice distinctions upon which not only the difTerences of species, but of genera >nd families, are now known to i',v.pend, they perpetually contradict, by a hasty application of well-known names, some of the most acknowUdged truths in animal geography. Nor tin the facts detailed in the compilations of more acientlfic writers be always depended upon. The voluminoits works of a most industrious and xealous ornithologist of the Linna:an school S'.' 260 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II. abound with mistakes of this nature ; wherein not only species but genera arc said to in. habit countries where they have never been found except in the vague and erroneous narratives of travellers. It is the misfortune of those who complain against the multiplicity and regret the adoption, of modern divisions, that by so doing they debar themselves from studying the variations of physical structure, and neglect the main clew to enlarged concvp. tions of zoological science. It is necessary to make these allusions, that the reader may br apprised of our adoption, in this place, of the principal modern genera ; and our rejection of many of the localities erroneously given to certain species in the general histories of birds, I, The Caucasian or European Province. 1159. The ornithological features of the Caucasian range, or of the regions over which the Caucasian variety of the luiraan species is said to be distributed, will first claim our atten- tion. It has been already shown that this range comprises such portion of Africa as lies north of the Great Desert, nearly the whole of Europe, and a considerable extent of Western Asia. The ornithology of the countries bordering upon this region has been but Tr)rti.-JIy invcntlgated ; yet sufficient is known to show that it presents a mixture of those )]jc'<;ies \'liic!i have their chief metropolis in other countries. It has been thought that the ani:>wls of the arctic circle are so peculiar, as to justify us in considering that icgion in tb" ';pe is characterised by a decided TiiKwiuMBBKi. superii'i'y in tl • 'iiiml^'r of its own peculiar species. 1162. The rapacious birds, 7iext to II, 'uatii r-uV/.*, are thouglit to be the most widely distributed ; particularly the nocturnal s.ic'cies. It is very remarkable, that out of thir- teen different owls inhabiting Europe, f c only are pwuliar tr ;' ■. continent; and two of these more particularly frequent the arcu -'gions. Of the rest, five occur in America, two ill Southern Africa, and one both in Asia and Amer'ca. The FakoniiUr, or diurnal birds of prey, in regard to their species, have a more restricted distribution ; yet, of these, the eagles enjoy no inconsiderable range. Out of eift'it discovered in Europe, one is more properly arctic, three have been found in several parts -f .Vfrica, and one occurs in America; leaving three only to Europe. It is singular that those rai)aeious birds which, from tlie peculiar structure of their wings, have been supposed to enjoy the greatest powers of flij^lit among their congeners, are those most restricted in their geographic limiis. This is proved by llie fact, that out of eight genuine falcons occurring in Europe and Northern Africa, two only have been discovered in America. It has, however, recently been stated that the Faico l>eregrinus of Australia is identically the same as that of Europe: neither does Southern Africa, \vc believe, possess a single European species, or not one of those inhabiting llic northern extremity of that peninsula ; the Mniiln^nnrd of Le Vii'ilnnt, long coiiCouiuW with llie European Kestril, luiiig a decidedly distinct species. I'poii the whole, the DdokHI. distribution of tlu Arctic, eleven arc .America ; leaving 77 Asia. We consider nearly all tlie species Many of tlio meridi r-rrulus, &c., might or Southern Africa. out of twenty-scven li lioned : five extend ti are dispersed in Centri 1164. riicFimrost, torous tribes, most coi 78 llCi. The Acansorial mV\Kmn ill other rogim l"f/"f the principal on f "'iiuniing-binls in the liiiii islands, would alone 1^1^ >■• To what cause w i>po>verofflig|,t(whiel i»ele,s be go strictly coiili »»!ym. his place illustrate »l furdus, Sylvia, I'arus, "I' of course include thos. •«'a; fur iliesc regions, i 'mcewciircnow troatinir J«cd in parts &;j,o„rf ,1 He other, they will nmoui oniiihology of Europe. fenarkcd, that three only "i™iityofo„eofthese(I», I ■> "'7 questionable, . I'«". The Omnivorous b[ I wot these appear widely P'W, ,uc left to charaeu DooK III- IN ITS IIELATION TO ANIMALS. 261 Tfia aniAT hustarpi (listril)iition of tlio forty-four upocius of Euro))i>an Baptorcs will stand thus: three are Ari'tii'i I'li'viii arc fuiiiul also in America, two in Asia and Africa, and one in Asia and America ; leaving twenty-seven, or more than one half, peculiar to European ornithology. 1 1 (53. The Galliiuiccous genera are few ; and their wide dispersion is decidedly a^^'tinst the theory, that all birds with heavy bodies and short wings arc more limited in their geographic range tlmn other terrestrial tribes. Tliis argu- ment has been ingeniously used to account for the very restricted limits within which many of the Indian parrots have been found ; one or two species being frequently con- lined to a particular island. Ornithologists, however, need not be told that the wings of the Psiliacidts are peculiarly adapted for strong and vigorous flight ; an^l those who have seen these birds in their native regic.is cannot fail to have remarked that their flight is peculiarli/ rapid ; many genera, in this respect, passing through the air with the celerity of the hawk. The wide dispersion of the GaUinaceotis order is very evident. The range of the great bustard {Jig. T7.) extends from one extremity of temperate Europe to the conflnes of Asia ; and the quail, remarkable for its heavy body and short wings, performs two annual migrations, from and to Northern Africa, over Europe and Western Asia. We consider very few of the European Gallinaceous birds as truly arctic; for nearly all tlie species appear to occur as plentifully beyond those regions as within them. Many of tlie meridional European birds, us Upupa Epops, Oriolus galbula, Coraceas garrulua, &c., might with equal justice be classed as peculiarly characteristic of Central or Southern Africa. It nevertheless appears that, even among the Gallinaceic, fourteen out of twenty-seven have their principal seat in Europe. The remainder are thus appor- tioned ; five extend to Western Asia, five to the confines of the great African desert, two arc dispersed in Central Asia and Africa, while two only occur in North America. 1164. The Fissirottral liirdt, typically represented by the swallow, are, of all the insecti- vorous tribes, most conspicuous for their powers of flight. With but one exception, the European Kingfisher (Alcedo curopeea, ^. 78. )> they are all migratory: hence we find that most of the species occur beyond tlie limits of the European Fauna. The propirtion of those wliich appear confined to Europe and Northern Africa is as one to three. 1 1 (i.'i. The small Grnnivorous birds not only present a great iiiversity in 'iielr species, but a considerable preponderance in their numerical amount. Forty-one are included in the Eu- ropean list ; two of which, at certain seasons, frequent the polar regi'ins in great numlors, but are nevertheless abundant in all the ortliern latitudes ; seven inhabit North America, and three extend both to Asia and Africa ; so that Europe may be iiiuM'iHN ius(ii'i«n>u. considered the metropolis of nearly thirty peculiar species. IIGG. The licansorial Mrd.i are few ; yet eight out of the fifteen recorded as European are unhiown ill other regions. It is among the liiscclivorous and soft-billed birds that we must Wk I'tii the principal onililiological features of any particular region. The immense family PI Uiiminiiig-birils in the New World, anti of Melliphagida;, or Honcy-sucki^rs, in the Austra- lian islands, would alone he siiflicienl to m«ik these regions with a distinct zoological clia- rackr, To what cause we are to attribute the fact that these birds, by no means deficient in the power of flight (which, indeed, in many of them is considerably developed), should nevcr- lllek^^ lie BO strictly confined within certain geographic liinits, remains ui uxplaiiied. We can onl; ill this place illustrate the fact. Of eighty-five species belonging to tlie Linntean genera I ol'Tiirdus, Sylvia, Parus, and Muscieiiiw, eighty-two are st ictly European. In this number »t'of course include those which migrate, at certain seasons, to Northern Africa and Western Asia; for these regions, it must ho always remembered, tome within the zoological pro- I vince Hcare now treating of: yet, if we deduct the number ' f those which have actually been Ittected ill parts beyond the shoreH of the Mediterranean on one side, and Western Asia on I (lie otlii'r, tliey will amount only to ten ; leaving seventy-two as a marked peculiarity in the oniiihology of Europe. In further proof of the limited range of these families, it may be remarked, that three only out of eiglity-five have been detected in America; and that the iiientity of one of these (I'arus atricnpillus /,.) with an European species (Farus palustris L.) I is ifry questionable. 1 1(>T. The Omnivorous buds, as the Sturnida; CorvidiB, At., are the last requiring notice. A I f™ of these appear widely dispersed ; but upon the whole, several species, bnd even peculiar piiera, arc left to characterise this (lortion of the world. We may state their number at s a i [fv 11 sog SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II. twunty-a)H< ; tliirtcoii oF which, or moru thiin one half, habitually reside in Europe ; fuur occur in Nurtlivrn nnti Ci'Utral Africa ; one (Pastor roseus T.) inhabits both the tublu land of AmIu and the dcHcrtH of Central Africa ; and three have been found in America. IKiH. Then.' ildailii, twliouH perhaptt to the general reader, but interesting to the man of science, it beuouies necesHnry to dwell upon, before any valid deductions can be drawn from the fncts they exhibit. In this difficult and somewhat laborious investigation we have been much assisted by the writings of Wilson, Temminck, and Lc Vaillant ; but more than all by the liberality which throws the magniflcent collections of the French Museum open tu the use of all scientillc enquirers, whatever their object or their nation may be.* It cannot, however, be supposed tliat, even with greater sources of information, some inaccu> racies may not have occurred. Such calculations, in short, from their very nature, can never bo perfect! because tliey are founded upon present knowledge, and that is perpetually extending. Tliu most tluit can be done is to make as near an approximation to the trutli as circumstances will admit; and having done this, the result may be entitled to some degree of confldcnce. 11C9. ^/s a fifncral ri'capiliilalinil of the European birds, we may state the total number, exclusive of u few which occasionally appear at remote intervals as stragglers, at 388. Of these, thirty-one are more peculiar to the arctic regions of Europe, America, and probably of Asia ; the proportion being as one to thirteen. Sixty-eight (forty being aquatic) occur also in temperate America ', nine are dispersed over four divisions of the globe, to neither of which can they be particularly appropriated ; and either one (Numcnius Phoepus) or two extend to Australia. With these deductions, the number will thus be reduced to about 280. If from these wo nbstract such others as may possibly have a partial range beyond the limits already dellned, the number may be further reduced to about '250 ; so that, even with tills allowance, nearly two thirds of the birds of Europe, Northern Africa, and Western Asia may safely be considered as zoologically characteristic of those countries. 1170. /tmilher character in Eurapcaii ornithohgt/ deserves attention. This regards the superior nundier of generic types which it exhibits, in proportion to the number of species. These genera amount to I OK, omitting those which have not been generally adopted, or which, from the modilications of form being but slight, should more properly be termed sections. Tiie proportion which these genera bear to the number of species (estimated before at HHH) amounts to more than two to seven ; or, in other words, does not give seven birds to two genera. It is fiirtlicr reniiukable, that most of these exhibit in their structure the ti'valfst i>fifivli:m of those orders or families to which they respectively belong; and which groups are denominated by naturalists ti/pical. True it is that such genera are widely dispersed j but in no divisioi\ of the world do they appear so numerous, in proportion to the species, as in ICiirope. This nunark not oidy applies to the typical genera, but is frequently applicable to the number of species they respectively contain. One instance may sulHce. The noble falcons, or those to whom the generic name of Falco is now restricted, are generally considered the most typical group of their family: of these, the Kestril (fig. 7!). ) and live oHhts have their metropolis in Europe and Northern Africa. The whole of North America has hitherto produced but four. Le Vaillant enumerates the same number from Southern and Central Africa. Those of Central Asia are not known; but only two have been recently described as [leculiar to the vast regions of Australia. Now, if we merely look at these respective numbers, the difference does not appear very remarkable ; but when the great inferiority between the Caucasian regions and those of America, Africa, and Australia, in point of extent, is taken into the account. it will be immediately seen that the proportion of the>orniissioii to in.iko uko nl' llioir Munoain.tor c'lioral auientitic iuirjinso«,wlio U not a member. BouK III> IN ITS UELATION TO ANIMALS. 26S singiilar that, in speaking of the leading varieties of the Caucasian race, a writer, whose tcatiinuny is no mean autliorlty, observes, " tliat the tribes among tlie Caucasians are more numcruus than in any other." And again — " Wlietlier we consider tlie several nations or the individuals in each, bodily diH'ercnccs ore much more numerous in the highly civilised Caucasian variety tlian in either of tlie other divisions of mankind." (Lauiretice, p. 442. 475.) When wo glance over the list of those nations generally supposed to have sprung from this tyi>e, we are struck with the justice of tliese observations. It is the more remark- able, OS the regions they occupy are disproportionably small, when compared with those jieopli'd by the Mongolian and Ethiopian races. That there are instances wherein typical fonns of higher groups tliun genera do not occur within tlie European range, is a circum- stance which will not materially affect tlie question. Thus the only bird we possess belonging tn the Tcnuirostres of M, Cuvier is the European Hoopoe {Upupa Epops), which is cer- tainly not a typical example ; but this, so far as trilies are concerned, is the only exception tu tliu rule. It is curious, also, that this exception should occur in that division which comprises the smallest and weakest of birds. If we descend to families, there is scarcely one pre-eminentli/ typical of its own perfection which is not European. A further objection may possibly be urged, that, altliough such forms are indeed abundant in this Fauna, they arc nevertheless found in nearly every other part of the world ; and cannot, therefore, be looked upon as characterising Europe more tlian any other country : but this will not be a just conclusion, unless it is first shown that the proportion of such types to the total number ot' European species is not decidedly greater than in any other region. Now the facts we hare already stated prove tliis beyond doubt. 1171. These results, obtained from unquestionable data, are so important to our present enquiry, that their hasty notice would not have been sufficient. The materials for illustrating the ornithology of Europe are naturally more numerous than can be expected for other portions of the globe ; and it became very desirable to ascertain how far the ornithology of those regions, occupied by the Caucasian race, presented a peculiarity of character sufliciontly strong to show a mutual relationship with the geographic distribution of this variety of man. VVe arc, I think, sufficiently authorised to consider that both are in unison. At least, there are so many singular points of analogy, as to render it highly probable that there exists an intimate relationship between the distribution of one race of mankind and one of the principal geographic divisions of birds. 1172. How far this view of European orniihulogi/ would be borne out by an extended {iivcsiig.ition of other orders of animals, it is impossible to say. Yet e.'en if our present hmits would permit the enquiry, we should have to rely more upon theory than facts. Many of the quadrupeds of Europe have long been slowly but certainly disoppearing, in proportion us culture a..d civilisation has advanced ; and any conclusions drawn "rom those which btill remain in a wild state would be open to great objections, particularly as the question must necessarily embrace the nature of those no longer existing, but whose bones occur in a fossil state throughout Europe. We think it may fairly be presumed that, in all those convulsions which have agitated our globe, birds have suffered less than any other vertcbratt-d animals. Their fossil remains are few, and of rare occurrence ; while evtcnsive deposits of bones and skeletons, belonging to quadrupeds, reptiles, and fish, occur more or less abundantly in almost every region, and attest the wide destruction to which such animals were exposed. It naturally follows that, in tracing the distribution of the feathered creation, we are left unshackled by geological controversy. II Vn. 7'licfew observations on the Ichthyology, Entomolog)/, and Conchology of the Mediter- niieait we shall hereafter make, in conjunction with those of Britain, will be found in unison with those features in the geographic distribution of birds we have already traced ; and will equally evince the propriety of including the whole under one zoological division. This I e propose to name the European. Such a designation is, indeed, somewhat objectionable, inasmuch as it embraces not only Europe, but Northern Africa and Western Asia: yet it will, perhaps, convey more definite ideas than if the name were adopted from the particular race of men belonging to these regions. 2. The Mongolian or Asiatic Province. 1171. The birds of the Mongolian ran/re will be now adverted to. The typical nations of this variety of man occupy the remaining portion of the vast continent of Asia; while their characteristic peculiuritics appear blended with the Malays in the more eastern islands of the Indian Archipelago. The ornithology of such a vast proportion of Asia is as varied as it is remarkable ; but the very imperfect nature of the materials hitherto fur- nished for its elucidation, renders it impossible for us to give those satisfactory data which liave been furnished by writers on the birds of Europe. Naturalists look forward with the greatest interest to the speedy termination of the zoological researches of General Ilard- wicke, as likely to supply these deficiencies. The vast stores of knowledge which a long residence in the East, and an ardent passion for natural history,haveplaced at the command of this naturalist, render him peculiarly qualified for such an undertaking. S 4 ml H '' "Mi It HkI p'Bf am ■i •04 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II. 1175. For our present imrfHise, miituic tietail is not, liuwevcr, essential. Whatever doubts might «t first have arisen on the propriety of considering Europe as tlic centre of an oriii thdiogicat province, there can be none with respect to Asia. It is in these regions that i.;ic ciiitf seat of the typical Gallinaceae is placed ; they abound in China, Thibet, the Indian I'eninsiib, and even extend to those islands which are considered the confines of the Mon- golian race. The larger species, nr- ranged in tlie genera Pavo and /',,/y. plectron, appear to characterise tiie more cievatea and central parts of the continent; while those of the genu Gall us are more numerous in Sumatra, Java, and the adjacent islands. The pheasants of China and Thibet furm n no less striking feature in Asiatic or- nithology ; five species of magnilici'nt riiB .ii.vBH piiBAiAKT. plumagc arc peculiar : one of tlitse, the elegant Silver Pheasant {NyUhcmcrus ar<^enUUus) {Jig. 80.), has been long domesticated in our aviaries. Three otiier superb species represent a group (Lophophorut Tern.), disco- vered only upon the contii.'-nt. The whole of these Gallinaceous genera are totally nn. known in Africa, Australia, oi in tlie New World. When to these we add the Hornbills (Ducerida;), the Sun-birds (^Cinnjrida;), tlic short-legged Thrushes (G. Brachypus), the short- tailed Thrushes (Pitlic), certain groups among the Pdttacidee, and many others totally unknown in Europe, Northern Africa, and Western Asia, yet abounding in the Mongolian nations, no further details appear necessary to mark the ornithological peculiarities of Asia, as distinct from those of Europe. 1 1 76. From the Asiatic islands it would, perhaps, be more natural if we proceeded nt once to notice the Malay or Australian range, as it is here that the Faunas of these divi- sions of the globe evidently meet. But as ttiis would interfere with the order obseivcd in the early portion of this essay, we shall pass from the northern regions of Asia to those of the New World ; particularly as both present a mixed race of men, probably origiiwting from the Asiatic continent. 3. The American Province, II "7. fl^e proceed to a rapid I kcich cif American ornithology. It has already been shown that, excepting Uu \atntor;al birfl;-, there are fewer species conunon alike to NortliiTn America and to EurojiO tiisti might, pcvhaps, have been supposed; yet, were the proportion much greater, the .:;ircumstancc woulu only prove that nature knows no abrupt distinc- tion. It is not to the remote ramifications which she employs to connect her chain of opur- ations that our attention is to be fixed ; for they are too subtile to be unravelled by hvinf^s A-ith faculties so limited. But as soon as she quits these inexplicable mazes, and again displays herself in a new but dec:ideil form, we may hope to gain some acquaintance with her laws. It is not, therefore, from either extremity of the New World that we must form our opinion on its zoological peculiarities. The ornithology of the Northern latitudes h evidently blended with that of Europe, and in all probability many of these species exist in Northern Asia ; yet those of the more southern parts of America, beyond the Ilio de la Plata rnd Paraguay, are nearly unknown. It is only within the last feu years tliat the provinces, elevated on the Mexican Cordilleras, and now constituting a great republic, have been opened to the naturalist ; and although, as yet, but superficially explored, there is perhaps po region in the New World which promises to yield more interesting facts, as connected with the animal geography of tliat hemisphere. Even the configuration of the continent, at the junction of its two great divisions, is typical of this distribution. It appears as if nature, elevated as on a throne upon this vast table land, 7200 feet above the level of tlie sea, had dispensed her forms to the right hand and to the left, retaining immediately around her a typical representation of every group. To the north she has given innumerable flocks of slender-billed insectivorous birds (SyMcolcc, Sec), which annually depart to breed in those more temperate climes. These are accompanied by particular species of Flycatchers, Thrushes, Pigeons, and Hangnests {Icterina) ; the two latter in such countless numbers as to darken the air. To Southern America lias been more particularly assigned the Macaws, Toucans, Scansorial Creepers (Dendrocolaptes), Ant Thrushes (^Myuthcrim), Ground Doves {Chamwpelia), Tanagers (Tanagra), Trogons, Fruit-eaters [Ampelide], and the numerous and splendid race of Humming-birds. Yet of all these groups, save one (AmpelideB), typical examples are concentrated on the table land of Mexico. These, moreover, are accompanied by some peculiar forms, not yet discovered in cither portion of America, and by species among the natatorial tjibes hitherto found oidy in the more northern latitudes. 1178. The typical Gallinaceous birds begin to show themselves adjoining the E(|uator, nearly in the same parallel of latitude as they occur in Asia : they belong, however, to distinct and DooK III* IN ITS RELATION TO ANIMALS. '265 in'MuiNn Binn. peculiar types; as the gvnvra MvK'ugrU, Crax, IVnvlopc, Ourax, Phosphea, Ortnlida, and OpiNthucuiniiH. Thviiu And their represent- atives, for the most part, in tliu ancient cuntinunts, l>ut not one species has been detected beyond the New World. A large collection of Mexican birds, now in the posuvsitlon of John Taylor, Esq., F. R.S. &c., and which he obligingly suhntittud to our examination, have proved valuable materials to illustrate this part of inir subject. The foregoing remark applies to tho two great divisions of the Simitt, or Monkeys, so accurately illustrated by thuso distinguished naturalists, MM. Cuvier and GeoflVoy St. Hilairc. 1179. The Melliphanoui grouiu of ilnurica, at tho head of whicli shine the splendid family of Humming-birds I jig, HI .), form the chief peculiarity of its ornithology ; other races, scarcely less beautiful, occur in Africa, Asia, am) Austritlin; yet the natural gvncra ii:>' totally distinct. The numlier of species, and the variety nf forms, amoiif; the frugivorous birds is another striking feiiture in the productions of tlie New World. Under this term we must include the richly coloured Chatterers {Amjiel'ultF S» and Miuiakins (Piprirue Sw.) j together with tlic whole family of Tanagers {Tanagrina), Hangncsts (Iclerinee), and Parrots ( Psitlacidie). The first four belong solely to this continent, wliicli more than any other abounds in vast forests of loi>y trees, ailurding a perpetual and countless variety of fruits and berries, adapted to nourish all the families of hard and soft-billed frugivorous birds. If we turn to the other orders of vertebratcd animals, the Mdlusca, Annulosie, or Rndiatte, each ai d all conspire to stamp certain peculiar features on the zoology of the New World, and to mark it as a distinct loologivol empire. 4. The Ethiopian or African l*rovinc«> 1180. The chief seat of the Ethiopian variety of our species is central AfVica ; while most nriters agree in thinking that its northern limits do not pass tho Great Desert. The pesti- lential atmosphere of tropical Africa has been on insuperablu bar to the researches of Europeans ; and all the ideas that can bo formed on tho 100I0K7 of such regions must be gathered from the partial gleanings made by travcllcra on tho shores of Senegal and of Sierra Leone. The ornithological productions received ttom these districts evince a total ilissimilarity from those of Northern Africa, but intimately accord, both in species and genera, with the ornithology of the south : to Uds, however, there arc several exceptions. The Flantain-catcrs (Musnphagidte), and tho bristle-neckcd Thrushes (Trichophorus Tcm.), are among the groups hitherto found only towards Sierra Leone. The Guinea Fowl, as its name implies, is most abundant in the interior of that country, where three species have been discovered. The common Bee-eater and tho Golden Oriole are the only spe- cies among the land birds of Western Africa tliat occur iit tho European range ; and these eitend southward to the Cape of Good Hope. Tho whole extettt of Africa south of the desert exhibits, in short, a marked difTerence in its ornithological groups and species from those belonging to Europe, Northern Africa, and Western Asia. The comparatively few eiccptions of birds common to Europe and the Capo cannot diminish the general force of this remark, but merely shows that a few exceptions must never bo token as the groundwork of any particular theory. It is to one of the greatest ornithologists that France, or indeed any other nation, has produced, that we are indebted for the most perfect account of South African ornithology yet published ; but it must ever bo regretted that this portion of M. le Vaillaiit's labours terminated abruptly ; leaving the Gallinaceous, Wading, and Swimming orders to be completed by some other, who, with equal enterprise oiul observation, should visit the same regions, and record their manners witli tho same veracity. Such a naturalist ou' own country has produced ; and although an ardent thirst fur knowledge lias now taken him to the New World, wo may yet hope that Mr. BurclioU will givu to science some furtlier memorials of his African discoveries. 1181. Between the omilhnlogt/ of Africa and of America there is, within the same parallels of latitude, a very strong analogy, although (in the sense whicli we apply the term) there is none of affinity. We know not, in short, a single perching bird romnion to both continents ; although in the rapacious order, which among terrestrial birds are well known to have nearly the widest range, two or three species occur whicli likcwisv inhabit both extremities of Africa no less than Northern America. IIS2. The otiier verlebrated animals, and the insects of Southern Africa, furnish similar results. On examining the large collection of insects formed by Mr. IlurchcU, in the territories of the Cape of Good Hope, we could not discover one out of many hundreds nhich was to be found in a much more considerable collection brought l>y us from South America, although many generic groups, particularly among tho Lepiduptera, appeared common to both continents. ll.s;i. /iriwccn the faunas of Africa and America the dilTcrciici' is unqtiesllonably strik- ing; )xl there are several points of connection between tliu ornitliology of Africa, Asiia, IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 ! I.I 21 12.5 If I 1^ I2£ 122 iifl 111112.0 11.25 i 1.4 1.6 Z. / ■•'V r>^ ^^^.^-^ ^» '/ Photographic Sdences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 145S0 (716) 872-4503 4. \ 6^ % ws SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Paw II. and Australia ; tnd these appeiur not merely in generic group*, but even in species, 1^ Drongo Shrikes (G. Eddiua), the Larva-caters (G. CebUtym), the typical Fiycatch«n (G. Musdpatih C.)> the CrabUaters (G. Halcyon), the Orules {Lamprotonia), the AfVicsn Saxicols, the two groups of tropical Finches {EHrelda Amadina Sw.), are all genera com. mon to these three regions, — to neither of which, in a geographic division, can they be exclusively assigned. But we need not dwell further on such resemblances, which, after i||, are but so many points of connection between geographic divisions, sufficiently distinct in their more prominent characters. S, The Malay or Australian Province- 1184. The regions peopled by the Malay tribes is the last zoological division requiring elucidation. We have tdready adverted to the great diversity of tribes comprised under this variety of the human race, and the little authentic information yet collected concerning their origin or history. The zoological results, however, are more definite. ] 185. On looking to the Indian Archipelago, as to that region where physiologists concur in thinking that the Malayan form is first apparent, we are told that several of these itUndi are peopled by two different races of men {Lawrence, p. 489. and Cuvier, p. 187.) ; the one frequently confined to the inland tracts, while the other people the maritime districts : their respective origins, however, are so little known, that it is still a matter of doubt which hw usurped the territories of the other. {Marsden's Sumatra, 326, 327. ) We confine theie remarks to Sumatra and Java ; for, with regard to the vast islands of Borneo, Celebes, and those smaller groups to the eastward, we know little or nothing of their productions or of their people. 1186. That the isthmtu of Malacca and the adjacent islands exhibit the first indicatmiof a peeuUar race ofpeoiAe, is a fact upon which ail writers appear to agree ; and that we hera begin to discern the indications of a new zoological region is equally certain : yet it would be altogether rash, with our present limited information, to hazard any theory which would re> spectively assign to these islands a definite character in its inhabitants or productions. But the zoology of Java and Sumatra have been of late so zealously and ably investigated not only by two distinguished British naturalists *, but by others f sent from France, that we sliail in this place attempt to draw some results from their labours. The ornithology of these islands, with some few peculiarities, differs in no very decided manner from that of southern India, In both, the Gallinaceous genera, when they occur, are the same, although some of the Ja^ vanese species differ. Of the more typical Stxirmla:, common to the Old World, but as yet unknown to the Australian or Oceanic islands, no less than three inhabit Java. To these groups must be added, Pariis, Silta, Bucco, Cursorius, Glareota, Buceros, Oriolus, Brachyput, and many other genera characteristic of the ancient continents. The number of typical Scansorial birds within the narrow limits of these two islands is truly remarkable. Eight species of Picu$ are described by Dr. Horsfield, and four or five others ; one, the Malacolophus Concretus, Sw. (_/ig. 82.), of a remarkably small size, have been sent to France by M. Diord. \ The total absence of tliis family throughout the whole Austra- lian range, is a circumstance in itself sufficiently strong to place the ornithology of Java and Sumatra beyond such limits; to which, nevertheless, it approximates very closely. 1 187. The birds of Java and Sumatra, which indicate an approximation to the Australian province, belong to certain genera common to both regions; but unknown in Africa or India : these are. Pitta, Centropus, Ocypterus, Prinea, Pogardus, Craleropus, Dacelo, &c. In the Suctorial birds (the Tenuirostres of M. Cuvier), we find in Java an evident departu.'e frokn the typical form of Cinnyris iowards the Melliphagida of Australia, in the genus Dicmtnt four of the known species being Javanese, and three Australian. What little is yet known of the birds of New Guinea, and its surrounding islands, exhibits a still greater deviation from the ornithological features of India. These enchanting regions, long the fairy-land of naturalists, remained nearly unknown until visited by learned Frenchmen, to one of whom has been assigned the distinguished honour of giving to the world the fruits of their scientillc and important discoveries. ^ It is in these islands that the Melliphagoos genera begin to be * Sir Sunirord Raffles and Dr. HorsAeld. t MM. A. Duvaucel and Diard. By the untimely death of the first, an amiable and enthuiiaitic lu. tiirulist, France was deprived of talents which, even at an early age, were of no common promise. The rami and most twautifUl Javanese birds in the galleriee of the Jardin des Plantei attest the seal, and record Ihi name, nf M. Duvaucel. t We believe this enterprising naturalist is still prosecuting his researches in the East Again muil wt attest the liberality of a foreign nation in Airtherlne the objects of this essay. When in Paris, we wer< allowed nill and unrestrained permission to examine the entire collections of birds (whether arranged or not) made by M. Diard. The same permission was asked for those brought home by the late and lamented Sir S. Raffles, and deposited in the museum of the Zoological Society, but this permiiaion was reAued. S H. Lesson, voyage autour du Monde, now in course of publication. MAf.ACn|.OPHU« OOKCRRTUfl. Book IU. ITS RELATION TO ANIMALS. 267 d«Vi'lupeeculiar creHtlun of animals ; whose limits on one side we have already traced, and whose runge on the other extends over the innumerable islands scattered in the great Pacific Ocean. The Menura Superba {Jtg. 83.) is the most remarkable gallinaceous bird of this range. The Australian province is thus in full ac- cordance with the distribution assigned _jr,j dingwuatK^- *" *'*® Malay variety of our species : ^^ -^^JW^aSSt its connection with Asiatic loology is unquestionable; but we have no means of judging into which of the three remaining divisions it blends, at its opposite extremity. Of the birds peculiar to those remote clusters of islands adjoining the north-west coast of America we are completely ig- norant; nor are our materials sufii- miruRA itiPFiinA. cient to furnish even a plausible con- jecture on the subject. Whether the Australian province, at its northern limits, unites again with the Asiatic, the American, or the Furopean, must therefore be left to future discovery. llROi We have now completed a general survey of the distribution of birds over the globe. The t»et% we have stated show the propriety of arranging the whole under five great divisions or provinces, which may be distinguished as the European, the Asiatic, the American, the AlWcAii, aiul the Australian : each of these corresponds, with little variation, to the geographic (IlktrllmtJon assigned by others to the difierent races of man. We must, therefore, now adopt one out of the two following conclusions: either that there is just and sufficient grounds for lielleving that the distribution of man and animals in general has been regulated by the same Idwi I or, that man and birds have been distributed alike, and all other animals differently. To ui, at least, the latter conclusion appears highly improbable ; not only as being unsup- portt'il liy the least shadow of evidence, but as opposed to that harmony in creation, which is more apparent the more it is viewed in all its relations. SicT. V. General Summary of the Sulgect- 1 1!X). Tn ojfMng these elucidations of a subject so vast in itself, and so important in all its U'arings, it will be readily perceived that two different relations between animal groups are Dlliidetl 10 1 one we have considered as of affinity, the other of analogy : and as the truth or ritlUcy of these views will mainly depend on the justness of these distinctions, a few observ- •liflitH u|H)n them appear necessary. Naturalists, in general, have considered those resem- hlitnvi'tt which exist between certain groups placed in different regions, but in the same IWHlleU of latitude, as indicating affinities ; and on this supposition, as before stated, have (Wmtil thetirlcs by which animal geography has been divided into zones or provinces, limited ninre or lest by certain degrees of latitude. It must be confessed that, upon a superficial vi«w, there are many circumstances which appear to justify such a theory. Confining our Mti'ittion to that department of nature which we have throughout selected, we shall partly m'apitiilAte our former observations. I Mill The arctic regions, in one sense, may be considered an ornithological zone ; for not nnl,v the same groups, but the same species, are found in such parts of Europe, America, m^" • "y I" ■iiMiiviii-iaiure uviuillfs | utx'liuae gruum, lll bui^ii a wuik as »ic Mivf^nc animut* iiiuB. ui licvvMi.j uv flcnnnl hiuI urlhttd long beibre they can be publiilied. At ill evenu, greater merit for the diitinction belongs I" • iiAlursllrit whose pcnetrstton enabled him to lelie characters flrom external itructure, than to him who M the llvtnji ot^eeti nonitantly before hit eyes : for these reasons, we dp not adopt the new name of JVopi- w'rWNrAM (vigors), but Join the Continental naturalisU in retaining PMMon (Cuvier) to that group of *hl«Ji ihv lyiteTs Mtrttps tomlatlatiis of Dr. Latham (White's Voy. pL at f. IStt). t Ituelggleal llluitratlont, vol. 111. pi. U7. ZooL Journ. L p, 30& Book III. ITS RELATION TO ANIMALS. 867 devi'lopc<) in the most novel forms, and the most sumptuous plumage. The grand Piro- mtroix of Now Guinea can only be likened to the Australian PtUorit. Several topical uilliiiluigidtt are in M. Lesson's collections. To these we can now add two species of ninuintt PhUedum* (Cuvier), and two of the genus Vanga. The group of which *'^ America we are completely ig- fjl,»-*^^^^^«^^^3^.i — f7^^^iJei=^ norant; nor are our materials sufii- '^^ auuHA arrFKiiA. cient to fumish even a plausible con- jccliire on the subject Whether the Australian province, at its northern limits, unites again villi the Asiatic, the American, or the European, must therefore be left to future discovery. 1 189. We have now completed a general survey of the distribution of birds over the globe. The (hclR wo have stated show the propriety of arranging the whole under five great divisions iir provinces, which may be distinguished as the European, the Asiatic, the Ameri can, the AlVleall. and iht) AllHtrnlinn • rnrh nftUrm rnri-^nnnri^a iirUV ^-■"'- - SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part H. and probably Asia, as enter within its limits. But, admitting tliis to the full extent, let ui ask if these regions^ by the number, variety, or peculiarity of their animals — are entitled to hold a primary rank with the great geographic groups already mentioned ? Is there to be met with among the arctic bii^ numerous species which are not distributed far beyond such limits? Are there any generic or sub-generic groups which do not occur even towards the central parts of Europe, Asia, and America? These questionv^ which must be answered in the negative, suflSciently prove that the arctic regions do not <;x>ssess the characteristics of a primary division ; they must rather be looked upon as a point of junction, where the orni- thology of the three northern continents blend and harmonise together. 1 192. The tropical regions ^the Old and the New Worlds have likewise been united in one province. How widely the ornithology of these countries really differs, has been already ex- plained. True it is, that in numerous instances one group typifies another, as in the case of the American Humming-birds ( Trochitida) being represented in the Old World by the Sun. birds {Cinnyrida); and such relationship, in one sense, is certainly an affinity, inasmuch as in the natural system they appear to follow one another ; but if we admit such a degree of affinity to be a sufficient guide to a distribution of birds, we must also do the same with regard to the varieties of man, since both appear dispersed upon the same plan. The red Indian of America as certainly represents the black negro of Africa as the latter does the sooty inha- bitant of New Guinea ; yet no one would think of classing them in the same race, merely because they inhabited countries under rimilar degrees of latitude. The dispersion of par- ticular groups and of their species, upon the whole, is more in a longitudinal than in a lati- tudinal direction. This is exemplified in a remarkable manner by the migratory birds, which invariably proceed from north to south, or from south to north. It would, indeed, appear, that if animal distribution is to be regulated by geographic degrees, as accurate notions might result from making the divisions of longitude as of latitude :%oth, however, would be clearly artificial. 1 1 93. These parotid rdations of analogy, which every where present themselves in the animal kingdom, nevertheless deserve our greatest attention, as fraught with peculiar interest to the reflecting; mind. There are throughout nature so many immediate and remote relations, so many unexplained ties of connection, that the most careful of her students are perpetually misled in attempting to trace her footsteps. In ordinary cases, the admirable distinction that has been drawn between affinity and analogy {Hor. Etit.) is, perhaps, the best that can be given ; yet instances might be named, in which even this is totally inadequate to the end proposed : Natural relations are so complicated, that series of affinities apparently incon- testable, will frequently, upon rigid analysis, turn out completely erroneous ; proving no more than that nature, liowever diversified, presents so many points of general resemblance and of connection, that partial harmony will result even from a false combination of parts. Let us not therefore conclude, as is now too generally done, that by synthesis alone we can exhibit the true affinities of nature ; that we may henceforward, without hesitation, assign to each of her productions its true station in the scale of being ; that we have sud- denly, and as if by magic, got full possession of that migb*y secret which at once ex- plains her laws, and expounds all that has perplexed the wise, and confounded the learned since science first dawned upon man. That the circular system is the nearest approach yet made to the true disposition which pervades nature, — a system which, from the perfections of its Creator, must be replete with order and beauty surpassing our utmost comprehension, —is indisputable, because none other has attempted to explain the relations of parts and the unity of the whole ; but farther than this its pretensions must not be carried : it still involves questions of great weight, since by one theory the number of its primary divi- sions is stated to be jfivet while by another, founded on much more extensive analysis, it is maintained to be threes The searcher after truth will give to these his patient inves- tigation, his cool and unprejudiced judgment : he may then hope to make one step nearer to truth ; for science, in all ages, has ever remained most stationary when the advocates of any system have been most prejudiced. 1194. /( M luUh these qualifications that the views here taken on the distribution of man and animals are given to the reader. It has been our desire to trace a connection, and a unity of plan, in both, and to simplify a subject hitherto involved in much intricacy. How for this object may have been attained, it is not for us to determine ; but he who draws proofs of a Divine Creator from the harmony and desigu apparent in his works, has surely not written in vain. Book III* IN ITS RELATION TO MAN IN SOCIETY. S60: Chap. III. aiOORAFHT C0N8ID1EID IN ITS RKLATION TO HAN IN SOCUtTY. 1 1 95. ^fan, when considered not as a mere animal, but as a being endowed with thought, reason, and contrivance, capable of social intercourse and union, must be regarded as the most conspicuous object in the delineation of the globe. These attributes raise him to the first rank in this lower world ; and in every region occupied and improved by him, the com- munities which he has formed become the most prominent characteristic ; all other beings are there subordinate and subservient to him. The description therefore which, in the suc- CLtding part of the work, will be given of the different regions of the globe, must be chiefly employed in delineating die aspects which man, as an active and social being, presents. At present, however, it would be premature to enter into the numerous details which this sub- ject embraces. We can do little more than indicate the following general heads, under which it will be treated : — I. Historical Geography. 2. Political Constitution of the differ- «nt countries. 3. Productive Industry. 4. Civil and Social State of Man. 5. Languages. Sect. I. Historical Geography. 1196. A survey of the history of man is necessary for enabling us accurately to under- stand, and duly to estimate his present condition. Not only inanimate nature, but even the animal and vegetable kingdoms, if left to themselves, would remain constantly in the same situation : the changes and modifications undergone by them have been produced entirely by man's interposition. That improved and civilised form under which he now appears, is the result of a continued succession of changes, which have been taking place from the earliest periods of authentic history. All the revolutions, both of ancient and modem times, have had a greater or less influence in producing the present moral, political, and social condition of man in the more improved quarters of the globe. SuBSRCT. I. Ancient History. 1197. Ancient history is generally considered as comprehending the period which elapsed from the earliest authentic records, and particularly from the rise of the great monarchies, to tlie downfall of the Roman empire. The various forms which government and society assumed during that long period, though they were instrumental in preparing those which have existed in the modem worl ', did not bear any exact resemblance to them. Through the conquest of Rome by the barbarous nations, with which the first of these eras clos^, almost every connection between them was cut off, except those of record and tradition. 1198. The rise of the great monarchies, Egypt, Assyria, and Babylon, constitutes the first grand epoch in ancient history. It nearly coincides with that of the great commercial republics. Tyre and Carthage. Human society, which had before existed in a very rude and imperfect shape, began to assume a regular, orderly, and even splendid character. All the arts which contribute to man's support and accommodation were carried to a considerable degree of improvement ; and the foundation was laid of those intellectual attainments, which were to constitute his highest honour. Alphabetic writing was invented and widely diffused ; the arts of painting, sculpture, and architecture, mode a considerable progress ; tlicre were even formed some elements of science and philosophy. During this period, too^ while the world generally was buried in the darkest superstition, a divine revelation, prepara- tory for another more perfect, having been first communicated to the patriarchs, was more formally disclosed to the legislator of the Jewish nation. 1199. The Persian empire embraced a wider extent of the globe than any that had pre- viously existed, and comprehended those countries which had been most remarkable as the seats of improvement and civilisation. Although, however, it thus became instrumental ill linking distant nations together, it bore chiefly the character of empty and barbarous pomp, and does not appear to have produced any material advance in knowledge and im- provement. 1200. The rise ofthe Grecian States formed, perhaps, the proudest era in the history of the human race. The constitutions then formed afforded a degree of political liberty, and a developement of the higher energies of the human mind, which could not be attained in extensive empires, subjected to the arbitrary rule of a single individual. The military ex- ploits of the Grecian people, by which they baffled the force of almost the whole known world united under the sway of Persia, were the most splendid that had hitherto illustrated the annals of mankind. Genius was exerted with nearly unrivalled power in every depart- ment ; the historic page unfolded its utmost degree of energy and beauty ; and many sub- lime lessons of morality were taught by the Grecian sages. The fine arts, poetry, painting, and architecture, reached an eminence which they have scarcely since regained, and in each the purest models were lefl for future imitation. After Greece had long maintained a glo- n'uus defensive war against Persia, her arms were directed to conquost. The reign and 970 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II. triumphs of Alexander, while they lubverted her admired forms of civil polity, diffuted her language, her arts, her knowledge, over a wide extent of the eastern world, and thiu spread a circle of civilisation, the traces of which have never been wholly obliterated. 1201. The dominion of Rome, which succeeded and overpowered that of Greece, extended over a still greater variety of countries and people, than had been comprehended under any former empire. Her character, at first stem and austere, was gradually softened ; and on arriving at her highest pinnacle of wealth and power, she made at the same time an unri- valled display of the pomp and refinement of polished life. She emulated, without fully equalling, what was most brilliant in the arts and intellectual attainments of Greece. But the most signal service which Rome rendered to the cause of civilisation, was by extending its empire over wide regions in northern and western Europe, which had previously been the seat of almost complete barbarism ; though they now form the most enlightened and im- proved portion of the globe. Sdkcct. 2. Modern Hittory. 1202. The downfaUofthe Roman Empire, which marked the commencement of modern history, formed one of the most remarkable and disastrous eras in the destiny of tlie world. During the fourth and fifth centuries, a succession of barbarous hordes from Germany, Scandinavia, Russia, and even the remotest extremities of northern Asia, poured in up states formed out listributed the ter> any service. These is, holding at their ral of weakness in They reduced private wars with turbulent era, all rstition erected an which were then ,ty and refinement period was also ravaged all the rable districts and ns into the East, }Ccasioning much European policy knowledge, arts, his change, which ct during the fif- was then broken lonarchies, along istitutional man- ut being opposed of dreadful and sphere of human ion of maritime those formerly lowever, a some- in the East, by verted, and very anges which had I centuries, when Book III. IN ITS RELATION TO MAN IN SOCIETY. S7I It pNvailed, civillMtlon mado very remarkable advances. The manners of social life became more pollnhed and ruflned. The arts and sciences were carried nearer to perfection, and more widely dIffUwHl through the great body of mankind. Amicable relations, jefore un< known, were wtablislivd between the different nations of Europe ; fixed laws were agreed upon for regiiUtinu their intercourse ( and war, when it did occur, was carried on with greatly dimiidshvd ntnn'Uy. The system of colonisation in the other quarters of the globe w»i«liiO carried ton vustvxtent, particularly in America; and though its first establishment wu sttvuJvd with muiiy circumstances of injustice and tyranny, it had the cfi'ect of bringing ihoMi quarters of the world into a more improved and civilised condition. liftMi. The t>m «f poHUcal revolution, which commenced towards the end of the eighteenth century, being llmt which is still in progress, cannot be characterised in so decided a man- ner. The formation of the great monarchies had' delivered Europe from the turbuient tway of the fvudnl chlvfkultts ; yet the almost absolute power with which the sovereign was then InvvDtvd, was found productive of many evils. The hereditary nobles, exchanging their rural wats for a resldi'DCU In the great capitals, and indulging in ease and luxury, lost all influence over tlie btnly of the people. The diffusion of intelligence and wealth through the middling niiil, In sumo degree, even the lower ranks, was followed by a demand, on their part, to ho admitted tt) sumc share in the administration of public affairs. This spirit, after fennenting fur some time, and being diffused by the exertions of many distinguished writers, produced the French revolution, and the extraordinary series of events which have thence arisen. 'I'hnt great vrluls did not merely agitate the interior of France, but by exposing it to foreign Interference, and then Impelling its own rulers to schemes of conquest, it changed fur some time, lit an extraortllnary manner, the aspect of all Europe. Then, how- ever, by a srand re-netiun, France was driven back within her original boundaries, and the political relations of the Continent were re-established nearly on their former footing. Con- tiderablc agitations, however, still prevail in the interior of diflPerent kingdoms, and their political cunstitutloni have suflered, and are likely to suffer, material alterations. Skct. II. Politkal Conttitulioru 1207. The poUlieal comlitution under which any community subsists, forms a most import- tnt element in their social condition. Beina usually established within certain local bound- •riet, and accompanied with a similarity in manners, religion, and other characteristic circumstances, It U the leading agent in constituting a country or state. In distributing, therefore, the four qinirtem of the globe into their smaller portions, the geographer uses chiefly poliiiral divisions. Me finds states which have made any progress in civilisation ar- nnged into kingdoms, empires, and republics. The elements of political power appear to consist of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy ; while the public functions, to be exercised within any htate, are the executive, legislative, and judicial. I'iOS. /I liWgito»» is n slate of considerable though not vast extent, governed by a single person, as France, Spain, Prussia. The subjects are usually united by a similarity of language and manners, and pervaded by n national spirit. The power of the sovereign is commonly extensive, though controlled in some instances by national assemblies ; and Uicre i) almost always a iKxIy uftioblcs possessed of high privileges and immunities. 1209. An empire generally consists of a number of detached kingdoms, which have been united by conquest under one head, as the Turkish, Persian, and Chinese. Being thus fonned of an aggregation of diflbrent states, empires are usually of very great extent ; and as military force ha* been the instrument of their combination, the sovereigns exercise almost always an unlimited authority. The diflTerent members having been brought into union by force only, rarely feel united by any national tie, and remain very dissimilar in manners, religion, and social institutions. 1210. Sepublict consist of states which own the supremacy of no king or sovereign, but are governed by a senate, an assembly of the people, or by both conjoint!. Though these governments have acted a conspicuous part in the history of the world, they have been gcnerallv of small extent, consiHting, In many instances, of not more than a single city, with a limited circle of territory. Where this form of government has been diffused over a great surface of country, it has consisted usually of a number of states, joined in a federal union. This ia remarkably the ease with the United States of America, where such a govern- ment has been introiluccd on a scale of greater magnitude than in any other quarter of the globe, 1211. ifomrehjf, among the elements which compose the political system, holds the most conspicuous place, and Is the most generally prevalent. In some cases, the power of the monarch is whollv or very nearly absolute. In a majority of instances, however, it is more or less controlled by the Influence of certain powerful and privileged bodies. In some constitutions the power of the monarch is combined with that of aristocratic and popular IxKlies, which share with the sovereign all the higher functions of government. These are ciilled liinili'd monarchies, and are now generally considered of all others best adapted for llic pretcrvntiun of n great people in a state of peace and prosperity. This form of govern- via PRINCIPLES OF OEOORAPHY. Pam II. ment, after being for a long time confined to Britain, ii now ipreading, though with wmt difficulty and confusion, over the rest of Europe. 1212. Amtocra^, ot the power vested in a distinguished and privileged class, is found existing much less Avquently as ii distinct and decided form of government, than as sn element combined with monarchy and democracy. Venice, perhaps, affbrded almost ih« only example in which aristocracy subsisted for a series of ages pure and unmixed. In monarchies, the aristocracy consists of a body of nobility, posMSsing various gradations of personal and hereditary titles and rights ; while in a republic it is formed into a deliberative body, or senate, exercising or sharing the powers of tlie state. In mixed monarchies, both these privilejifes are usually held by the nobles. 1213. Democracy is the name given to the government in which the sovereignty resides in the great body of the citisens. They exercise it, either in a general assvmMy of the whole nation, or by means of persons elected, during a certain period, to act for thu body of Uieir constituents. The former was the mode usual among the ancient republics ; tlie latter U more prevalent in modem times, and is alone compatible with the great extent of territory occupied by the leading republics of the present day. Popular government has Inien very generally combined in a greater or less degree with aristocracy, though there Kidom fails to be an almost incessant opposition between the two parties. 1214. The legislative, among the different functions of the body politic, is Justly considerad supreme; it establishes the laws and regulations, according to which all public affairs are to be administered, and to which the persons exercising the other functions are bound to con- form. Countries in which the legislative as well as the executive power is exercised by one man, form absolute monarchies, where every thing depends upon the arbitrary will of that single individual. Even a purely aristocratic legislature is commonly felt to be severe and oppressive by the great body of the people. A government cannot be considcmd as fVee, unless the various classes of which the nation is composed have a voice in legislative arrange- ments. Those political systems, however, in which the laws are enacted by the whole body of the assembled people, are fitted only for a single city with a territory of limited extent. Of such a nature and scale were the ancient republics of Greece, and also that of Rome, during the earlier periods of her history. But when the whole of a great people are convened into one place, they form a mere tumultuary crowd, incapable of aiiv regular or effectual exercise of legislative functions. This disadvantage has, among modem nations, been studiously remedied by the representative system, under which the inhabitants of each different district elect an individual understood to possess their confidence, who exercises in their stead the popular part of the legislative function. Upon this basis have been founded tlic British constitution, and others that have been considered as exhibiting the most perfect forms of civil polity. 1215. The judicial power provides for the security of person and property among all ranks of individuals composing the political body, and forms thus one of tlic arrangements most essential to general prosperity and well-being. The institutions for this purpose vary greatly in diffi;rent nations and stages of society. Among very rude tribes, the individual has only his own strength and that of his kindred to aid in repelling aggression. As society advances, the administration of justice between man and man becomes a leading object of public concern. In the earlier forms of polity, however, the executive and legislative functions are usually blended ; the monarch, or his deputy, sits on the tribunal of judgment, and tlic forms of procedure are exceedingly simple. The parties appear, and ptcau their cause vivd voce; while the judge decides promptly and on the spot In the further progress of improvement, it is discovered that this branch of public economy cannot bo duly executed, without being entirely separated from the legislative and judicial departments, and made independent of them. Hence arise the different orders, judges, lawyers, and agents, by whom the different stages of procedure are conducted ; written and voluminous codes of law are formed, with the view of providing for every particular case. Yet the cxjicnsc and delay consequent upon these complicated arrangements sometimes cause the scen very icre seldom fails to Is Justly considered mblic affairs are to •re bound to con. is exercised by one titrary will of that It to be severe and considcK'd as free, legislative arrange- by the whole body limited extent. Of St of Rome, during B are convened into >r effectual excrclM IS, been studiously icli different district cs in their stead the founded the British ost perfect forms of iropcrty among all if Uie arrangements ir this purpose vary ibes, the individual !Ssion, As society I a leading object of [ive and legislative [bunal of judgment, ir, and plead their :he ftirther progress It bo duly executed, tments, and made (rs, and agents, by jiuminous codes of 'ot the cxitcnse and [the society to look icir rude ancestors. ite of a society •. — Iduals ; the mi/iVnry [h compose it ; and embraces also the which it is levied b, the co.ivcniences, the name of wfo/lA. Ind well-being. Iwgriculturc, msnu- Book III. IN ITS RELATION TO MAN IN SOCIETY. 27S (lelures, and commerce ; «u:1i of these is divisible into several distinct branches ; Dor can th« catalogue be completed without including the two occupations of mining and fishing. MM, Agriculture, including the means of procuring every part of tlie produce of land, and of augmenting its amount, is unquestionably the grand source of human subsistence and accommodation. Hence chiefly are derived the materials used in manufacture ; the objects, in the exchange of which commerce consists. The modes in which support and tlie means of enjoyment are obtained from lund may be divided into three ; hunting, pas- turage, and tillage, which last being the only form in which labour is employed upon the ground itself, is inore^ specially considered as agriculture. The collection of the spontaneous iTuit) of the earth, being confined to a few tribes in the lowest stage of improvement, scarcely requires to be taken into consideration. |2'2a Hunting, or the chase of wild animals, to obtain their flesh as food, and their sliiiis IS raiment, is the earliest and rudest mode of procuring human support. This employment requires art and contrivance as well as bold adventure ; but is usually accompanied with rude and turbulent habits, and, combined with them, constitutes what is called the savage stale. As culture advances, and the greater proportion of the soil is devoted to the plough, or to the support of tame animals, its range is greatly limited, and in a high state of cultivation iMomcs little more than the amusement of the opulent. Tlie chase of the fur-bearing animals, however, still affords one of the most valuable materials of commerce. 12'il. Pasturage, or the deriving of subsistence from lierds and flocks, tamed and trained 30 as to be subservient to the use of man, forms a more improved and comfortable occupation than hunting. Peculiar habits of life usually distinguish nations subsisting solely by pas- turage. They are of^en destitute of any fixed abodes, movi ig from place to place in large bands or encampments, living within their tents in patriarchal simplicity, but towards other ni lions practising on a great scale war and robbery. These habits constitute what is called the barbarous state, still prevalent among the Arabs, Tartars, and other nations occupying an extensive portion of the earth's surface. 1222. Tillage, or the culture of the soil by the processes of ploughing or sowing, is em- ployed, by all the more improved nations, as the most efficacious means of drawing subsist- ence from the earth. In proportion to the general improvement which any people have attained, is usually the skill and diligence with which this most important art is practised. The community which derives its chief subsistence from the culture of the soil, merits gene- rally, to a great extent, the character of civilised. Some of the oriental people, as the Hindoo and Chinese, practise this important art with an indefatigable industry applied to every available portion of their soil, which is scarcely to be paralleled elsewhere ; but in Europe, and especially in Britain, the use of machinery, the skilful rotation of crops, and various improved processes, render the same measure of industry much more productive. The objects of culture vary exceedingly, and for the most part according to the varieties of soil and climate. Grain, the main staff of human subsistence, forms every where the most citensivc and important object of tillage. Climate chiefly determines the grain cultivxt^d in any particular region. In the tropical countries it is rice ; in the best part of the "'..'!• perate zone, wheat and barley ; in the colder tracts, oats and rye. Of luxuries, wine aM oil are the most grateful, and in the most general demand ; they have their almost exclusive l^rowth in the warmer tracts of the temperate lone. The delicate fruits, from which they arc produced, do not flourish in the excessively luxuriant soil of the tropics. There, however, the fragrant aromatic plants, and those filled with rich and saccharine juices, produce valuable substances, which are eagerly sought afler by the natives of less genial climates. Flax, hemp, cotton, &c. afford the chief materials of manufacture. 1323. Fishery, by which subsistence and wealth are derived from the waters, forms a peculiar branch of industry, which flourishes in every stage of society. Even the rudest taragcs, wherever their situation admits, conjoin it with hunting, as a means of affording an immediate supply to their wants. They practise it often with a great degree of diligence and contrivance ; but the progress of industry leads to various processes for extending and improving this branch. By the operations of salting and drying, fish is rendered fit to be conveyed as merchandise to the most distant countries. Some of the great maritime nations send large fleets into remote seas, where they find situations favourable to this punuit. The whale and the herring fisheries have, in this manner, been raised to the rank of great national concerns. 1224. Mining, or the extraction of valuable subtances (him beneath the surface of the earth, can be extensively practised only in a somewhat advanced state of human industry. Yet nature has lodged in these dark repositories objects the most essentially conducive to the use and comfort of mankind, and others which afford his most brilliant ornaments. Here are found the bright and at;iractive metals of gold and silver ; there the solidly useful ores of iron and copper ; here glitter the diamond, the ruby, and the amethyst ; there eitciid vast beds of coal, lime, and freestone. Gold, the roost precious of the metals, is often the most easily accessible ; but we can scarcely give the name of mining to the oper- ation by which the savage merely collects its grains in the sands of the rivers, or even T 374 PUINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. PAftt III. extracts it by pounding, when mechanically combined with other subttancet. But metili, in general, when lodged in the bowels of the earth, exist in the form of ore, intimately and even chemically united with other materials, from which they can be separated only by •melting, refining, and other elaborate and even scientific processes. From the toilaoDM nature of these operations, and fW>m the gloomy depths in which they arc conducted, it !• often difficult to procure a supply of workmen ; hence slaves and individuals condemnd for crimes have been employed to a later period in tliis than in most other species of lubuur. Whatever skill may be employed in mining, it is necessarily a local occupation, nature having irregularly and almost capriciously distributed its objects over the diflercnt regions of the globe. Even the experiments made to discover whether metals are lodged in any particular sput, are often attended with considerable cost and even peril. 1225. Mauu/acturei may bo regarded as a process by which man creates, as it were, s value for himself. He cannot, indeed, make any new substance ; he can seldom even alter essentially the quality of that which is furnished to him ; but he can altogether change iti character and quality, can convert a rude and shapeless substance into one eminently con- ducive to benefit, convenience, or ornament. The excrescence shorn from an animal, the pod hanging from a shrub, objects in themselves neither useful nor beautiful, are converted into commoopulalion, or the number of individunis, of whom any community is composed, forms, if not the most important, at least the most prominent circumstance in its social con- dition, and one on which its mngnltudv, and its place in the scale of nations, intimately depend. The ancient statesmen ronHidvrcd the IncrviiHC of the numbers of a people as one ofthe most important of national ubjocis, with a view both to its prosperity in peace and its tirength in war. Politicians of the present dav take a ditl'crcnt view of the subject ; observ. ing that population In all circumstances of tufvrablo peace and prosperity easily maintains iiscif on a level with the menns of sultHlHtencc, lins even a tendency to rise higher, and liy its superabundance to produce n dlHlressIng degree of national poverty : they have with- drawn all cncuuragcment to tlio multiplication of the species ; some have even suggested uliemcs fur checking its progress. Still it miiNt be admitted to be desirable that the earth should contain as many rational and intelligent beings as can subsist upon it with ease and comfort. I'.'.W. The actual amount of the population \n nny particular period or country, has been involviil in considerable uncertidnty. It is only in modern Europe, and in the United States of North America, and there very rvcently, that general or careful enumerations have been made. But in all the other quarters of the globe, the estimates are formed upon very nguc observation, founded on the density with which, on a superficial view, the districts ippear to be peopled. 1231. A naiion(U character is fiiund to pervade every community. The particulars have heen often exaggerated, fancifully delineated, and rashly and indiscriminately applied to individuals; but to a certain extent such a variation may bo always traced between one peo- ple and another. The grand distinction, founded upon the progress of arts, letters, know- ii-dge, and refinement, is into snvngo, barbarous, and civilised : the first being marked by the total absence of these improvements ; the second, by the possession of them in only an im- jKrfect and progressive degree ; the tliini, by their having arrived at a certain maturity. The wage state prevails among the natives of America, and the islanders of the South Sea; the former, however, being now in a great measure supplanted by European colonists. The barbarous state is general througlunit Afk-icn, and extends over a great part of Asia. The civilised state is found in tlio great empires of Eastern Asia, and in a higher degree, as well K under ditl'erent characters, among the nations of Europe. In these last, too, civilisation appears to continue in a progressive and advancing state, while over the rest of the world it is nearly stationary. 1232. The religion professed hy any people is n remarkable and most important feature in their social condition. Religious opinions do not come directly under the cogniiance of the geographer ; but he is calleilw degree in which knowledge ii diSUwd tluroughout the community, — the eetabiiihnwnu formed for public and private education. 1334. 7Vk«yiMarl«,--which are intimately connected with the more elevated and intell«clu«l part of man's nature, and of which the eucceetAil cultivation confen glory on a people, and polishet and improves their manner*, — merit to be coneidvred eimilarly, and under the urn* general heads, as their intellectual attainments. 1335. There are variout itoinlt tfminar importance, which yet are distinctive and cha. ractcristic of a people, and excite thus a Just and natural curiosity. Such are the amuHcmenu in which they chiefly delight, the peculiar costume in which they are attired, the ipcciet of food on which they subsist, and the liquor by which they are exhilarated, as well aa thg mode in which these articles are prepared for their use. 8icT. V. The Language* IN ITS RELATION TO MAN IN SOCIETY. nd under the umt 1339. Eihno:iraphu ii the tenn which hu been employed to deiignata this branch of geo< gnphicnl icience. It diitinguithei natloni by their languagvii, and prorvMCt tu clam tlivni in kingdoms, genera, tpcciiti, and varieties ; but thi« syHtvnialic arrangvmviit in an yet tar from being completed. Of the numerous languages that are or have been spoken on the («rth, mnny are so imperfectly known that it is difficult to determine to what family they belong. For this and other reasons it has been deemed eipedient by a modern writer, wito •ppvars to have collatetl the labours of his predecessors on the subject*, to adopt • geo- graphical arrangement, and consider languages in their relation to the five great divisions of the globe ; the Atiatie, the Furo/Knn, the African, the Oceanic, and the American. It is ob> nous, however, that the ethnographical and geographical limits of a nation and its language msy be widely diflerent; the Spanish and the liritish, for instance, extend ethnogrupliiciilly to the remotest regions of both the Indivs. Adopting this arrangement, not only as must convenient in regard to a branrh of knowledge still in its infancy, but an most suitable to a leograpliical treatise, we shall proceed, without pausing to discuss the merits of any particular theory, to ofler, in this and subsequent parts of the present work, such a succinct view of (he known languages of mankind as its just proportions will allow. r.' • Dr. Balbl, Atlat Ethnographique du ClIobA Fsiii, MSS. T 3 87 S PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. l'*ai II. ditioM accord with the Mosaic history ; and indet<{ tae affinities of language, which are itill evident among all the nations of the Japhethian family, fully confirm the relation of the •acred writer : yet the meaning assigned to the patriarch's name in the Sanscrit language Yapati, " lord of the eart'.i," tells for nothing unless we can suppose the namo Japheth to be thence derived. 1 245. To Gomer, the eldest of Japheth' » tons, is ascribed, on the authority of Josephui, the distinction of being ancestor of the Celts. Magog may have been the founder of some Scythian nation. Madai is recognised as the ancestor of the Medes. The posterity of Javan and Tubal, and Meshech and Tiras, may be traced from Ararat, always called Masis by its inhabitants, through Phrygia into Europe. Tubal and Meshech left their names to the Tibareni and Moschi, Armenian tribes, whose early emigrations appear to have extended into Moesia. In like manner the Thracians may have owed their origin to Tiras. 1246. That the progeny of Japheth peopled Europe, seems apparent on another ground, which we shall explain, after mentioning the remaining branches of his posterity. Askkenaz the son of Gomer, is thought to be that Ascanius whose name so frequently occurs in the ancient topography of Phrygia, and from whom probably the Euxine, at first the Aiine, Sea derived its appellation, " In Togannah," observes this writer, " we see the proper ancestor of the Armenian nation, and it is even asserted by the Turks." 1 247. "Javan was the Ion if the Greeks, the father of the lonians. In the names of his sons we find fresh proofs of (!ie consistency of the Mosaic history. In Elishah we seethe origin of Elis or Hellas. The name of Tarshish is supposed, with little foundation, to refer to Tars'-° in Cilicia. Kittim is said to mean Cyprus; and Dodanim, or Rodanim, is under, stood to apply to the island Rhodes." Here we may remark, that the sacred text contains a most important record relative to the descendants of Japheth : " By these were the Uks of the Gentiles divided in their lands, every one after his tongue, after their /ami/i««, in their nations." Now, if the Oriental latitude of expression be allowed in this instance, the iiktot the Gentiles must include not only tlie isles of the Mediterranean and other European seas, but the FENiKsuLiB of jisia Minor, of Greece, of Ilpfu, and of Sjiain. 1248. To the Phoenicians must be partly ascribed the discovery of those territories col. lectively called " The isles of the Gentiles," and the earliest intercourse with them. Unfor. tunately those early navigators have left no records of their discoveries ; and the little we know of their enterprises is derived from Scripture, and from the scattered notices of the Greek and Latin authors. They were, as elsewhere observed, the pilots of Solomon's fleet ; and as often as the fleets of Egypt are mentioned by ancient historians, we find them manned and guided by Phoenicians. Their commercial enterprises had contributed to aug. ment the wealth of tliat kingdom, which had attained a high degree of social order and economy seven hundred years before the Greeks became acquainted with the use of money. The numerous colonies which they planted along the shores of the Euxine, the Meditcr. ranean, and the Atlantic, beyond the Straits of Gibraltar, attest the extent of their early voyages. Those of Utica, Carthage, and Gades or Cadiz, were founded between twelve and eight hundred years before the Christian era ; but the seas of the west were probably explored for ages before settlements were formed at such a distance from the parent state. Their geographical knowledge, even in the fabulous times of Greece, probably embraced aj large a portion of the earth as that of the Romans in the time of Augustus ; but, with the caution characteristic of a mercantile people, they forbore to communicate that knowledge to the rest of mankind. The silence of these descendants of Ham leaves us in uncertainty as to the progress of those of Xipheth in peopling the continent, the peninsula;, and the islet ot Eu: ''De. In still deeper mystery is involved the descent of the negro tribes of Africa from the father of Canaan. Having thus briefly characterised the Shemitic, Hamitic, and Ja- phetic races, we leave to the consideration of the curious tlie theories that have been framed upon them in respect to the diiTerent idioms of mankind, and revert to the geographical ar- rangement which we proposed to adopt. 1249. Separating all the knoum languages of the globe into five grand divisions, we name them the /Ixialic, the European, the African, the Oceanic, and the American, according to tlie part of the world in which they are spoken. Then tracing, according to the best author- ities, the several languages by tlicir affinities, we class those which appear to be sister idioms in one group, assigning to it a distinctive name ; as the Mongolian family, the Celtic family,or the Sanscrit family, conformably, in most cases, to the name of the principal people of each of those families. But here a difficulty arises from the variance between geographic and ethnographic limits. Several nations included in one of these groups have dwelt from time immemorial at once in Asia, Africa, and Europe ; others in regions partly European, partly Asiatic : to which part of the world then must the family be assigned to which those nations belong? Two reasons influence the decision ; the historical importance of the people, and its mass, or relative number, as may be better understood from one or two examples. 1250. That the Chaldeans, the Assyrians, tlie Arabs, the Hebrews, and other nations of the great Shemitic ftmily, were from tlie earliest times inhabitants of Western Asia, wc know from the writings of Moses, with wliich the results of the most eminent philologers and arith- Pahi III- DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 279 Dieticians wonderfully agree. These nations, therefore, belong unquestionably to Asia. The comparison of the Gheea and Amharic vocabularies having demonstrated an indisputable affinity between them and the people of Abyssinia, who speak the idioms comprehended in the branch called Abyssinian, their languages also are classed in the Asiatic branch, though in all epochs, even anterior to historical tradition, those nations have dwelt in Africa. 1251. The great tneuM of the Malay people occupies almost all the isles of the Indian Archi- pelago, all those of Polynesia, and some of Australia. Hence we regard the Malay family iu Oceanic, and class all the people characterised by this idiom as belonging to that great ethnographical group. Thus, besides the Malays of the peninsula of Malacca, whose settle- ment in the extremity of Asia is of no remote date, this division includes the Si De'ia or Fonnosans of Asia, and the Madecasses of the African isle Madagascar. 1252. The Uralian natiutu belong equally to Europe and Asia ; because, from the little ve know of them, they have inhabited, time out of mind, the north-east and east of Europe, ind the north-west and west of Asia. Following the demarcation prescribed by M. Malte Brun, we find that the great mass of the Uralian or Finnish nations belongs to Europe. We therefore regard the Finnish family as European, and class among them all the ancient and ni(xlorn nations who, from striking analogies in their respective idioms, seem to belong to tlicm. 1256. The Esquimaux have firom time immemorial extended over all the north of the Ncir World ; while the sedentary Chutchkis, who speak a language evidently related to the idioms of those American tribes, occupy only the extreme north-east of Asia. The Chutchkis we therefore consider as American colonies, «nd, following the precedent of Dr. Baibi, nyunitc them as such to the other nations of America who form the family of the Es- quimaux. 1254. Under a perfect ethnographical arrangement, the languages of the Indo-Germanio nations, extending from Ceylon and the Ganges to the extreme west of Europe, and even to Iceland, would form, not a single family, but rather an ethnographic kingdom divided into sii families. 1255. In subiequent parts of this work, the languages of the earth will be considered as divided into live principal branches: the European, the Asiatic, the African, the American, and the Oceanic. PART III. GEOGRAPHY CONSIDERED IN RELATION TO THE VARIOUS REGIONS OF THE GLOBE. 1256. Ik the second part of this work, the principles of geography have been treated of IS founded upon a general survey of the globe. The most extensive portion of our task viill remains. We must delineate the leading objects of nature, art, and human life, as they appear successively in each different region into wliich the earth is divided. 1257. Five great general divisions of the earth are now usually recognised : 1. Europe. 2. Asia. 3. Africa. 4. America. 5. The extensive and numerous islands of the South Sea, to which the French give the name of Oceania, the English those of Australasia and Polynesia, to which we may add the islands of the Polar Sea. Each of these will form the object of a separate book. BOOK I. EUROPE. 1258. Europe is the smallest in extent of the four great continents, and yet, without being liable to any suspicion of partiality, we may pronounce it the most important of all the divisions of the globe. Asia, indeed, was the cradle of civilisation and knowledge ; but her empires soon became, and have ever since continued, stationary ; while Europe has carried Uicjcicnoes, arts, and refinement, with almost uninterrupted progress, to the comparatively elevated state at which they have now arrived. All the branches of industry are conducted with a skill and to an extent unattaiiied in any other part of the earth. European vessels ctrry on the .ommeroc of the most distant regions. The military and political influence of hurope IS now of a magnitude with which Uie most powerful and populous empires of the other continents can no longer be compared. European colonists have now peopled, and T 4 II. MAP OF EUROPE — w«sT part. fin, as. ^*''|^^AIw' r^ p. I- \ ' ii^\ .'."" I mil I! 41 . ,J . . *. I A^^'ji'^'fi ""tjlu 1 1" llilfufy Wmiv af,,' :\.> liougitiide We;-nV~s M>lii dern geographers ; for even a river limit is here wanting. The chain of the Urals, run- ning from north to south, forms so important a feature, that it has been taken as the grand line of division ; and is protracted to the Black Sea by means of continuous portions uf great rivers Kama, Volga, and Don. 1 260. The form, of this continent is singularly broken and varied- While Asia, Africa, and the two Americas are each formed into a vast inland expanse, Europe is split into many dis- tinct portions ; peninsulas, large islands, and kingdoms, with extended and winding coasts. This form arises chiefly out of its inland seas, which penetrate farther, and are more References to the Map of Europe. — West Part. ENGLAND. 1. Durham 1. Momth 3. Carlisle 4. Kendal e. York 6. Mancheiter 7. Lincoln 8. Chester 9. St. Asaph 10. Cardlcan 11. LUncIair IK. Worcester 13. Gloucester 14. PetcrborouKn 15. Norwich 16. Cambridge 17. Canterbury 15. Dorer 19. Ix-ndon 10. AUnchesler HI. BriMc4 SS. Poole S3. Exeler. SCOTLAND. 1. Thurso 8. Inreniesi 3. Banff" 4. Aberdeen 5. Perth 6. KdinhUTKh 7. Selkirk 8. A;r, IRELAND. 1. Londondcrr)' S. SliKO 3. Galwai 4. r.imerfck ■'.. Cork K. Wriford 7. Dublin K. Ihrogheda 9. Ueinut. NORWAV. 1 . Saltdalcn t. Seines 3. Kts Vand 4. SrevuK .*>. Drontnclm f). Itiimsdal 7. F.irde 8. Ardat 9. I.oerl« 10. Ihreen 11. Tondal 11. Staranger 13. Chrtbtian&and 14. Tonslierg 1.^. Kongberff 16. (hiel 17. ChrlMlanl.i 15. Faaldlierii 19. Tonesinffer to FridcricEsball. SWEDEN. I. Tama «. Tnsjo 3. U&a 4. Ostersund b. Sundswall 6. Hede 7. Tarm 8. Sama 9. Iludiksrall 10. Hoderhamn ll.lfusb; 12. Mala 13. Urebro 14. C.nrlsbad I.). Grille 16. Njkoplng 17. LInkoplnfi 18. .Fonkoplnit 19. Gottenbui-g SO. Folkenberit 81. Malmo ti. Chrlrfianatad •a. Kalmar 14. L'mln. DENMARK. 1. Aalljorg 5. Niborg 3. Vdle 4. Ripen a. sii-iwlck 6. Kiel 7.('o|H?n1iagcn. ICELAND. I.Holar 3. IleuHiled 3. Sandfall. PRUSSIA. I . Colberg 8. Stamard 3. .Sliitln 4 IIPTlin 5. Fr..iikforl 6. Posen 7. (InrsnA 8. I.lsu 9. Hreslau 111. lilali II. Sagan IK. Torgiu 13. Magdcliurg. AIISTHIA. 1. Oliimtx 'i. Itnuin 3. Tal»r 4. Prngup '•. I'lUm 6. LInti 7. Krems 8. Presburg 9. Vienna 10. Soirron 11. Grata n. nruck 13. Vlllach 14. Saluburg 15. Hall 16. Briien 17. Milan 18. Mantua 19. Padua !0. Venice il. Belluno 22. Rimini 2.3. Lajbaih 24. A gram 25. Carlstiilt 26. Zara 87. Spalatro. ITALY. 1. Genoa 2. Turin 3. Alessandria 4. Parma fi. Bologna 6. Florence 7. Leghorn 8. Orbelello 9. Home in. Netlunp 11. Naples 12. Polirastro 1.3. Taraiilo 11. Illtonio I.*!. Foagia 16. Pesca"a 17. Ani-ona 18. Pesaro. GERMANY. 1. Siralsimd 2. Il.inilmrg 3. Brenirn 4. Oldenburg !), Ofinahurg 6. Hanover 7. Brunswick 8. Tassel 9. Fulda in. D.innstndt 11. Vunnt 12. Hrillrnnn 13. Frejburg H.Ulm 1.1. Augsburg 16. Munich 17. Nuremburg 18. Hof I'l. I.elprig 20. Dresden. 8WITZERI-AND 41. AnrUlae ». AlmerU 1. Constanc* 44. Prirai 56. Malaga 2. Heme 4.1. Chamberrjr S7. Bclja 3. Genera. 46. Grenoble 58. Carmona 47. IMgne 59. Huebla WEST PRUSSIA . 48. Draguinon 49. Toulon 60. Seville I. Munater 61. Gibraltar 8. Wesel 50. ATlgnon 62. CadU. 3. Clerea SI. Nismet. 4. Cologne PORTUGAL. ». Coblentj SPAIN. I. Molgaco 6. Frujm. l.Ferrol 8. Braganga 2. SanUago 3. Almeida NETHERLANDS .3. Vigo *. ^iJorto I. Amsterdam 4. Orente 5. Areyro 2. Rollerdam 5. Lugo 6. Guarda 3. Antwerp G. Astorga 7. Colmbra 4. Ghent 7. Leon 8. Lerto b. BrusseU 8. Orledo 9. Lisbon 6. Liege 9. Lanes in. Obldot 7. Luxemburg. In. Sanunder 11. Abrantet II. Bllboa 12. Erora FRANCE. 12. I'amprluna 13. Alrits I. Cal.ils 1.1. VlttorU 14. Ourique 2. Amiens 14. BurgTM IS.Lagoi 3. St. Quinlln 15. Palencia 16. Faro. 4. Rouen 16. Zamora fi. Erreux 17. Salamanri Iliierr and Lakt*. 6. Caen 18. Ciudad Kudrlgo a Dal, H. 7. St. ly) 19. A Vila b Molsen, L. 8. St. Brieul 20. SegorU c Wener, L. 9. Bmit 2I..Sorla d Wetter, L. 10. Onlmrcr Il.Vannn 82. Tudela t Oder, R. 23. Ituesca r Ellie, R. 12. Rennn 84. Ago f Weser, R. Ii Rhine, R. 13. Alenfon 2.1. Barcelona 14. Chartrei 86. Tarragona 1 Meu^e, R. 16. Paris 27. r.erlda J Seine, R. k Ixilie, R. 16. Snlsaons 28. Peniscola 17. Me« 29. Saragossa 1 Garonne, R. 18. Straslmrg .3n. Teruel m Douro, R. 19. Epinal 20. Chaumont 3I.Utrllla n Tagus, R. 32. (iuadaxara Guadlana, R. 2I.cli»Ullon 22. Trojes 33. Iluete 31. Toledo p Guadalquivir, II. q Ebro, H. 23. nrleuns .3,1. Madrid r Rhone, R. 24. Tours 36. PlacenllB 1 Genera, L.of 2.'.. Angers 26. Nantes .37. Truxlllo .38. Badajo. t Constance, L. of u Po, K. 87. La Roche 39. Moura T Drare, R. 8S. Pi.iti.-r» 40. Zafta w Danube, R. 29. (iuerel 41. CordoTi .3n. Moulins 42. Anduflir CORSICA. 3I.Ix>ns ay. l.>oni 33. Mn5on 43. Cliulad lUal 44. Torrenuera 1. Tone 2. Porto Verchlo. *». Alracete SARDINM. M. Clieni'ont 46, Vllle de Canaa l.Sassari 3.1. Pcrignux 36. Borileaux 47. Munrledro 48. Valencia 2. Orlstagnl 3. CagUarl. .37. Dai 49. Vlllencia 3N. Pau .10. Alfuenle SICILY. 39. Toulouse Al. Murcla I. Messina 40. Albv 41. Roilei 52. Vera 2. Palermo 53. Ilata 3. Sclacra 42. Agen at. Granada 4. S>rai-uie. Part III. r the earth ; I, the whole Book !■ EUROPE. S8S the Allmtie, 1 the Grecian , the Euxine retnity of the and, forming ^ would per- marked, and lie absence of mrrassed nio> e Urals, run- as the grand s portions of a, Africa, and nto many dis- inding coasts, and are more deeply embayed, than those of any other port of the globe. Numerous gulfs, scarcely Mcondary in magnitude and importance, branch out from them. The Mediterranean, which forms, as it were, a little ocean, separating Europe, Asia, and Africa, is con- nected with the Atlantic only by the celebrated Straits of Gibraltar, twenty miles in breadth. Its great enclosed branches of the Adriatic and the Black Sea penetrate, gnd render maritime, some of the most inland districts of the continent. In the north, the Baltic, with its great gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, is neither indeed so extensive nor so accessible ; but it is of the highest commercial value, as affording a channel by which the rude necessaries, the metals and woods of the north, may be exchanged for the wines, the silks, and other luxuries of the south. The British isles, by their varied configuration, enclose between themselves and the opposite continent several important seas and channels. We may add, that the mountains and the plains of Europe do not display those immense unbroken groups, or those level and almost endless expanses, wliich give so vast and monotonous a character to the interior regions of Asia and Africa. In general they are separated into smaller portions, and are happily and commodiously interchanged. They have kept Europe divided into a number of separate nations, holding easy intercourse. Probably, this relative position has been one great cause of that intellectual activity, and those vigorous exertions in all liberal and ingenious arts, which have raised this part of the globe to so high a pre-eminence. The immense inland plains of Russia and Poland, pre- senting an aspect wholly Asiatic, remained, even after the civilisation and improvement of all western Europe, sunk in the deepest barbarism, from which they are but slowly and with difficulty emerging. Sect. I. Natural Feature), 1261. The surface of Europe, as we have observed, is very diversified. Its mountains do not reach that stupciulous height, nor stretch in such unbroken chains, as those of Asia and America : neverthck'ss, we may trace pretty distinctly two highlands, the northern and southern, and an intermediate lowland. The southern highland comprises the most elevated a. AlmerU )6. MaluRa >7. Eclja Mt. Carmona S9. Huebia M. 8«Ule Bl. Ulbriltai Bi. Cadli. rOBTUGAI,. l.Molfiua 1. Bngan;a 3. Almeida ■.. C-,»rto 6. ATtyro 6. (tuarda 7. Colmbra a. Leria 9. LUboti 10, Obidoa 1, Abrantct i, Evora 3. AlTlto 14. Ourique 15. l,affM l5. Faro. , Rivtn and Laktt* a Dal, H. I b Molten, I,. 1 c Wener, L. d Wetter, L. a Oder, R. r Ell«, R. RWeser, R. Rblne, H. 1 i Meute, R. I J 8elne, R. II l,oirr, R. 1 1 Garonne, R. J m Douro, n. I n T,iKUii, R. 1 o Uuadlana, R. 1 p Ouadalquivir, K, I q Gbro, K. I r Rhone, R. 1 i Oenera, L.of 1 t Conslance, L. of u Po, R. I T Drare, R. I w Danube, R. , CORSICA. 1 1. Cone I 3. Porto Verchlo. , SARDINIA. 1 1. Sauarl I v. OrlrtaRnl I 3. Cagllail. BICILY. I I. Mi-ssina I y. Palermo 1 .1. Kclacra I 4, S)m'UW. SWEDEN. 1. Altenipiird !.Juli.ia Jcrvl J, (iflllTare I. Of Kalil 5. (iorjan 6. At>i)lo|{ T. Lulea S. Filea 9. Lvckaele I'l. Iflfaiij-t-n II. L'iiii'a li. San«» 13. ['I'M! II. Stockholm. RUSSIA. I. En.ire i. KoU ,VVi)roiic/k.i;a }. r«ioi .\ Palilza (■. Oiimti.t :. Kkw lniv>k.i: o H. lumlnlskiiv.i ". S.«|jnkyl.l li>. Klltlla II. Keniitra.k ]t llovamcini I.T. Tiirwa I'l. rfeaborij lii. Knst Novolok l;. Knunic ij. .\n(loiero tX SoUamo 11. Kajana tt llrakf'^ted 13. Catlcbj tt. he FUjarvl a I'iells it. Kjhelln r. I'unmala K Kuovesr t>. ««a v. ( hrisUnr^t.id il. Uinmeburi; !1. Abo S3 Kllkala Jl. Tavaftthuj J^ liorjio *i. VllKltJ !:.Sl. Pelers.burg n.nionetz K.l'rtroiatodsk 10. Pof ienetz 11. Vauv&kava 13. ATrnanocI II. Rimut «. Slamlsblsche 11. Mezcne IT. Uhavko IV Nikllii l!.Uua Refcrencei to the Map of Europe. — Eail Part, 179. Voronei ISO. Phatei IHl. Uvnl Mi. Kraplvna 183. Holchor 181. Orel IHS. Saral 1S6. Kosloirl 187. MoKhilew 188, KoKalchcT ■ 89. Slouuk 19(). UorlKT 191. Mimk 19'i. Wilna 193. (irodno 191. Nowo};rad 19.5. Warsaw 196. Rawa 197. VidaT.1 198. Lublin 199. Mienjinell •iOn. Urmt LitoY iHll.liielsk iioa. Kobrln »).1. Plnik »ll. Viaolzk a).'). Ovroutch WJli. Moztr 207. Cholmllih ais. Tiheinlwn 209. N, llieleli.1 211). Uil>k 211. SoumI 212. Koursk 21.-;. Oakol 214. Vuloulkl 21.5. Bobror 21li. Pavlonk 217. Zatoyhkaya 218. Kainishin 219. Ilollnskara 220. Tinritiin 321. Tilkba 322. Kotlhi 323. Sheslibalotch- kaya 224. Tcherkaak 22.5. Ihinetsk 321!. Iziuna 227. CharkoT 2'iS. Poltava 229. Novomoskovsk 2311. Krenent 231. Zolatonosha 2.12. Korclcli 3.13. Kiev 334. Padomiat 33.5. .Iltomir 3.16. Ilovno 237. Kameli 338. Dalta 2.19. Oalain 24U. Tcherk 341. Nnvomirsorod 343. (llvlo|>ol 343. NovofpigoivvBh SO. Ovinnika 115. Narva Sl.tielova 116. Revel 52. SStcheinaM 117. Derpl A3. Itorovskaya S4. MoiuleUakaya lis. Luga 119. Novgorod 120. ValiTal .5,5. Pinega 30. Verkouskei 121. (Htlshkal) 123. Horovitihl S7. ShestdielJkoi S8. ChalcheUkaya 39. Karthakovaka 123. Visbnei Volo- tchoki 60. Makaoovska 134. Ouglltch CI. Krainobosk 12S. Petrovsk 63. Mitvenkava 126. Kovtov 63. Varemk 127. Nliney Nov. 64. Ouat SlKlsk fforod 6.5. Kal 138. Boulnak 66. Tcherdin 129. SInbirsk 67. Solikamsk 130. Singiiel 68. Viirenskoc 131. Sizzan 69. Ortova 132. Kanader 70. Obva 133. Ardotov 71. (tarshkova 134. Polcbhikl 73. Mlahamuvskava 135. Norovtuhat 73. Ivolovaka 136. Temnikov 74. Aksenterskoc 137. Murom 73. VclikoustunK 1.18. Kudouda 76. Vielsk 139. Kaaniov 77. Pudog 110. Jloscow 78. Vitexra 111. Pokov 79. Illelozersk 142. T«r 80. Kirilov 143. Majaisk 81. Vologda 144. Zutitzov 82. Tolma 143. Iliil.iz 83. Tchuihlotna 146. Vc'ikie I.ukI 84. Kologhiv 8.5. NikoKk 147. Cholm 118. Pskov 86. SerKievitra 119. Ostrov 87. KoHnllch 1.50. 1.ullzin 88. KlnhocUkov 151. Valk 89. Vialka 152. Penau 90. Nolinsk 153. Riga gl.lilaioT 1.54. Mitau 92. Ochansk 155. MlMu 93. Perm 1.56. Memel 94. Iha 157. Svenlzianl 95. Krnahaifunsk 1.5S. Vileika 96. Uirsk 159. Oriaaa 97. Saraiwul 98. Klabouga 160. Pololrk 161. Witcpkk 99. Malmlsh 162. Veliz too. Katane 163. Smolensk 01. Sviaisk 161. Dorouoliui (12. Kozlnalciniaiisk 16.5. Kalouua 03. Varnnak 166. Kaloiima 04. Velloujia U5. VamaAti 167. Toola 168. Kiataiu 106. Somenov 169. Kozlov tU7. Inreveli Povol. 170. Tambov skou 171.Tchembal 108. Kostroma 173. Penza 1119. Jaroslav 173. Petrovsk 110, Hibinak 174.Vol»k lll.Poshechon 175. Saratov 112. Ostlujna 113. Tikvln 176. Ralashcv 177. Novokhoiwk 114. YomburK ns.Uunaii 344. Aleksandrovsk 10. Tchemets 345. Ekalerinoslavl 11. Jogodina 12. UaVtza 346. Oriekbov 347. Alethkl 13. .Seraievo 348. Chenoii 14. Mostal 319. Tiraaiiol 3.50. Nov lyottbauri 15. Catlaro 16. Novlba/ar 351. Illllzl 17. Scopia 252. Binder 18. NIsU 353. Akerraann 19. WIdin 254. IlmaU. 20. Sophia 31. Orfava PRUSSIA. 23. Mcopoll 1. Srzueryn 2. Konlgsburg 3. Heils&rg 33. ShutAls 34. Burgos 35. MliUeh 4. Marienburg 36. Constanlinonl* 5. Pantzlc 37. llodoslo 6. (inesna 38. Adrianople 7. Calm 39. Cavalla 8. I'hom 30. 1'hiUppoll 9. I'lolsk 31. Isbar 10. I'osen 83. Petolla ll.Rleradi 33. Salonira 12, Uatibor. 34. Scutari. AUSTRIA. GREECE. I. Treulaen l.Berat 3. Sclicmnlcl 2. Batrinlo 3. (^tln 4. Ifusa 3. Jannina 4. Ana A. Dcbreczcn 5. Lepanto 6. Ttlpolitia 7. Corinth 6. Agria 7. Hant 8. Uuda 8. Athena 9. Solt 9. Zeitoun 10. Pets 10. Lariua. 11. St. Maria 13. Ilaccs Riwrt and jAktt 13. Belgrade 14. Ti'ineatval « Dwina, R. b Mezene, R. 15. Arad c Pllchova, R. d Kama, R. 16. Bihar 17. Clansenburg e Viatka, R. f Volga, h. 18. Catlaburg 19. Ilcrmanaiadt K Oka, n. h Don.H. 30 Kutl 21, Tamop: 1 Donetz, R. 22. gtr. J Dnieper, R. k Dniester, R. 33. Semlxar 24. Umberg 1 Pnitll, R. 23. Sandcfl m Danube, R. 26, Sendomirie n Vistula, R. 37. Cracow. o Nlemen, R. p Dwina, R. TURKEY, q Tchudtkoe, L. I. .Tasav 3, BUtlal 3, Adgrad 4. (talati r I1men,L. a Ladoga,!,. t Onega. L. n Puruveai, L. 6. Ibraila 6. Sitlstria w vSo.L, 7. Bukarat X Top, L. 8. Slalina 7 Imandra,L. 9. Craiova E Enare. L. S84 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pam in. mountains of the continent, the Alps and the Pyrenees connected together by the low chain of the Cevennes. Inferior branches from the Pyrenees extend through the Spanish penin- sula ; while from the Alps branch forth the Apennines, which range through all Italy, and spread their lower slopes over the greater part of southern Germany, "Die extremity of the Julian Alps, and the mountains of Dalmatia, connect the range with the great Turkish chains of Hiemus and Rhodope ; parallel to which, though with a large group intervening, stretches the circuit of the Carpathian mountains. North of this, the gnat European lowland comprises the largest part of France, the south of EngUnd, the Netherlands, Northern Germany, all Poland, and the greater part of Russia. In the extreme north of Europe the mountainous character again prevails. The Dofrines reach through Scandinavia ; while the north of England and nearly all Scotland is covered with mountains of secondary magnitude. Of all the European mountains the Alps are by much the highest, and perhaps may rank fourth to the Himalayah, the Andes, and Caucasus, among the mountain chains of the globe. Mont Blanc and Monte Rosa exceed 15,000 feet above . the sea. The numerous other summits of this chain exemplify all the descending grades of elevaUon. The Apennines vary from 3000 to 6000 feet ; but £tna, at their utmost extremity, is nearly 11,000. The most elevated of the Pyrenees rises somewhat above that height. The Spanish summits are in general of the level of the Apennine, except the Guadarrama, which exceeds 8000 feet, and the Sierra Nevada, which equals the Pyrenees. The Thracion chains have not yet been subjected to survey ; but they doubtless exceed those of Greece, which ascend to 6000 or 7000 feet. The Dofrines, notwithstanding their snowy and terrible aspect, are not of first-rate elevation. The great Norwegian chain does not quite reach 9000 feet; Ben Nevis is only 4300 feet; and none of the English mountains reach that altitude. 1262. The rivers of Europe are numerous, but none of them of tlie very first magnitude. The two largest flow through the great eastern plain, a semi-Asiatic region, and terminate in distant and interior seas, where they contribute little to commercial intercourse. The Volga, which alone can come into rivalry with the great rivers of Asia, passes the Asiatic limit, where it spreads into the great interior expanse of the Caspian. The Black Sea absorbs the other rivers from the great plain of Russia and Poland : it receives also the noble stream of the Danube, which belongs indeed to the central region of Europe; but directing its lower course through barbarous and uncultivated regions, and terminating in this distant receptacle, it conduces only in a secondary degree to the distribution of wealth and plenty through the continent Western Europe is too much broken into separate portions, and crossed by high mountain barriers, to allow to its rivers a length of more than from 400 to 600 miles ; and they have usually their entire course through a single country, — the Rhine, the Elbe, and the Oder, through Germany ; the Loire, the Rhone, and the Garonne, through France ; the Po through Italy ; the Ebro, the Douro, tlie Tagus, and the Guadalquivir, through Spain. The northern rivers of Britain and Scandinavia, restricted to a still nar- rower field, seldom accomplish so long a course as 200 miles. Yet, though Europe does not present the grand rivers which distinguish the greater continents, it is on the wliole happily and commodiously watered. Almost every part of it enjoys the benefit of river communication ; it is neither overspread by the dreary swamps of America, nor the sandy deserts which render uninhabitable so great a part of Asia and Africa. 1263. The lakes nf Eurojte are numerous, chiefly enclosed within its mountain regions; but few of them are of sufficient magnitude to rank as inland seas. Those alone entitled to this distinction are the Ladoga and the Onega, which, forming a sort of continuation of the Gulf of Finland, and being situated in '.eak and frozen regions, minister very little to internal intercourse. Finland is covered with similar lakes. The Wencr and Wetter of Sweden rank next in magnitude, and, surrounded by immense woods and iron mines, possess considerable beauty and value. Switzerland, with its Italian border, is tlie chief lake-region of Europe : its waters, particularly those of Geneva and Lucerne, en- closed between the loftiest snowy pinnacles of the Alps, present scenes of grandeur and beauty almost unrivalled ; but they are not on such a scale or so situated as to aiTord any important inland navigation. Those of England and Ireland are merely small picturesrjue features. Those of Scotland are larger and more numerous ; and a chain of tliem, having been connected by a broad canal,was expected to form a great naval route across the island, 1 264. The European soil is distinguished for productions, perhaps surpassing in value those of any other quarter of the globe. It does not, indeed, possess that brilliant luxuriance of ve- getation which adorns the equatorial regions of Asia and America. But com and wine, tiie most substantial and most agreeable articles of human diet, are nowhere produced on so great a scale or in such high perfection. Grain, of one description or other, is raised over its whole surface, excepting in the extreme north ; wines throughout all its southern kingdoms. In hemp, flax, and wool, those staple materials of clothing, Europe is equally pre-eminent. Silk, another valuable commodity, it produces copiously, though not so as to be independent of supplies from India and China, Cotton is the only great material which the immense manufactures of Europe derive almost entirely from the regions within the tropic. If we OOOK Ii EUROPE. 388 first magnitude, n, «nd terminate itercourse. The )asse8 the Asiatic 31ack Sea absorbs the noble stream but directing its ig in this distant realth and plenty •ate portions, and than from 400 to jtry, — the Rhine, Saronne, through Guadalquivir, ted to a still nar- ugh Europe does is on the whole benefit of river ca, nor the sandy •xcopt tho hone and th« cftmul, for which Asia is renowned, Europe contains the most vahmblo a* wvll m tliu most numerous breeds of domestic animals. Its northern forests produce tho Hn«it timber In the world, with the exception of the teak ; and its iron, the most uaeftil of melals, •urpamei that of the rest of the world : but all the more precious sub> •lances, gold, tllveri mmIs, Jewels, exist in an extent so limited as scarcely to be deserving of mention. The cultivation of the soil is carried on with much greater diligence than in any countries except In the south east of Asia ; while in science, skill, and the extent of capital eniployiHl upon It, European agriculture is quite unrivalled. I'i65, In manufitcluring induitri/, this quarter of the world has, within these few centuries, ht surpassed all 'the others of the globe. Asia, indeed, has long boasted some fabrics of extrHordlnary beauty, — silks, muslins, carpets, and porcelain, — which are not yet altogether eqiinllod i but the looms and workshops of Europe now yield a variety of fine and beautiful fabrics, In such prutViston, and at so cheap a rote, as to place them within the reach of almost every class of society. Tills continent thus clothes all the young nations which have issued from her own bosom, and which fill nearly two entire quarters of the habitable earth. ViCtG, Cimmerce, on so great a scale as to connect together the distant quarters of the world, cannot be said to exist out of Europe. European vessels are found in the utmost bounds of Asia and AineHca, In the snowy regions of either pole, and crowding the ports of tho Auhttal continent. There is not now a place on earth, however remote, affording any scope for the employment of commercial c-^pital, which is not immediately filled with the same promptiltide as If it hod been situateu in the heart of Europe. The ships of that continent exceed those of all the others in number and dimensions : they are also the most ikilfuUy coiiutructed, and navigated by the only seamen who are qualified to guide a vessel across the great oceans. All these observations are liable to one slight exception : the new An.crican Ktates are beulnnlng to form a commercial and maritime system, modelled on that of Europe— a syslem wliicli, though existing yet on a very small scale, may one day, perhaps, lurpasH the original. SiCT. II. Inhabitants, 1367. Thti jwimMion ofEurofv, though more closely calculated than that of any other quarter of the globe, Is yet far ttom being ascertained on data that are very precise. In regard to some districts, and in particular to the whole of the Turkish empire, no census has ever been lnstiliile • . . . 3,683,000 3,530,000 Hwiidun and Norway ... States of Ibu Church . . . 3,468,0(10 4,060,000 2,374,000 2,679,000 Nwliierland . . . . 1,729,000 2,013,000 Denmark .... l,6l8,tK)0 2,030,000 Tuioany ..... 1,179,000 1,421,000 ?arma, I.ucett, Moilena, Son Marino - 892,000 975,000 Cracow 96,000 111,000 180,702,000 827.869.000 1369. The peopl* q/* Ktinipt are divided chiefly into three great races, which differ, to a very marked degree, in language, political situation, and habits of life. These are the Sclavonic, who occupy most of its eastern regions ; the Teutonic, situated mostly in the iniddic and north t and a third, which Ilnssel calls the Romish, as occupying the chief of those countries which onoo composed tho Western Empire. There are besides several small detached roeos in difllirent quarters. 1269. Th«i Selavonio raett cover the greater extent of Europe, since they occupy the whole of the eastern plain bordering on Alia, which it resembles. The people have a similar SB6 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P*«T 111. reiemblance to those of that continent ; and were ronHidvrcd uhnost m beyond the noviul niid political pale of Europe, till within the last half century. They Imvo now forcibly tlirutt themselves into the European system, and rank among its most influonllHl members. The Sclavonic people consist of about twenty-five millions of Russians, ten millions of Polcj, Lithuanians, and Letts, and about ten millions of other races, known under the iincoulh names of Windes, Tchcchcs, Slawakes, Croats, Morluchians, which have found their way into eastern Germany, Hungary, and Illyria. Without wishing to consider intvliectuil and moral qualities as necessarily belonging to any particular race exclusiyvly, we may notice it as a fact, that the Sclavoninns arc, in both respects, lots improved than oilier Europeans. They have only some infant forms of art and literature, which have sprung uu from the imitation of those of the eastern nations. They are generally subjected to absuliitu monarchy, and the greater part of them arc only beginning to emerge from the doKrnih'iiir condition of personal slavery. All the habits of life which connect them with polislivd society have been recently and studiously imported from the west, and are still intermiuKJcJ with deep remnants of barbarism. The majority profess that superstitious form of Chris- tianity acknowledged by the Greek church. Yet they are a brave, enterprising, ati(l per. severing race, and have established themselves as a ruling and conquering people, in rcfvrviir« to all the contiguous nations of Europe and Asia. 1270. The Teutonic race occupies generally the centre and north of Europe; besides Germany, their original seat, they have filled the greater part of Scnndinavin, the Nether- lands, and Great Britain, and may be reckoned at upwards of fifty millions. Under the limitations above stated, we may describe the Teutonic people generally as brave, hiirdv, intelligent, and industrious, though somewhat blunt and unpolished. All the sciences, aiui even the arts, both useful and ornamental, have been carried among them to the highest perfection; yet they are accused of wanting some of the graces and afirtUiwiia which embellish the courts and fashionable circles of the south, by whom they arc treated os senu-barbiiriaiis, A great majority of the Teutonic nations are Protestants ; and that enlightened profession in in a great measure confined to them, and to the nations in the other parts of the world who have sprung from them. 1271. The race called Romish, which comprehends the modern inhabitants of France, Italy, and Spain, has only a very imperfect claim to that title. Tho Teutonic nations, in conquering these countries, poured into them a vast massof their own population; but Itoinan manners and the Roman langimge had taken such deep root in coimtries which once con- stituted the main body of the western empire, that tlic latter forms still the chief basis of the dialects spoken in this part of Europe. The Romish were the most early civilised of the modem nations. They have carried the polish of manners and the cultivation of the elegant arts to a higher pitch tlmn any other known nation. In solid energy and intelligence, they scarcely maintain their ground against the Teutonic nations, who despise them as servile, artificial, and efl^eminate. If France has fully vindicated herself IVoiii some of these reproaches, it has been after imbibing a copious infusion of northern ideas, especially from Britain, upon whose political system she has studied to model her own. The Roman Catholic is tlie ruling religion in all these countries, and has among them her metropolitan sent. Previously to the rise of the spirit of philosophy, it was bigoted and persecuting in tho extreme ; nor is this temper thoroughly banished from some of its dark and benighted regions. 1272. Certain interesting and antique races inhabit the rude and mountainous extre- mities of Europe. The Celts were the most numerous people, and at a period of high anti- quity, the possessors of all Western Europe. Subdued and disarmed by tho Romans, thry rapidly declined when the falling empire could no longer protect them, and became the iiel|). less victims of that mighty torrent of barbarous invasion which poured in from the remotest extremities of Europe and Asia. At this dreadful period they sought or found a refuge, partly in Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland, where they exist under the name of Gael; partly in Wales and Britany, where they are called Cymri ; and partly in the north of Spain, where they arc termed Basques. Ages of adversity have completely baiiislied those tame and eiTcminate habits which rendered them the prey of the invader. They are now the most rough and hardy of all the races, and those among whom civilisation has made tlik least progress. Having retained their condition unaltered during so many ages, they elieri>h a fond attachment to antiquity, and trace their pedigree higher than any of the Romish or Teutonic nobles. They have a traditional poetry celebrating the exploits of their nncestors to which they are fondly attached ; but in general they have, in the rapid progress nuuie b; the more modern races, been left somewhat behind ; though individual emigrants liuve raised themselves to eminence in every department. Ilasscl calculates tho Gnel at 3,720,000, wliich, from the last census of Ireland, must be much too low; the Cymri at 1,610,000 ; the Basques at 630,000. The Greeks, once the most illustrious of all the races, no longer plant their colonies along the shores of the Mediterranean, but still occupy their old seats, and are spread through diifcrent parts of the Turkish empire. Depressed by two thousand years of slavery, they had ceased to display those high attributes which excited the Book. I. EUROPE. 887 idmiration of mankind ; but the independence which a considerable portion of them hava no* achieved, affords a hope that tUey may regain their place in the scale of nations. Their number may be about 2,100,000. The Jew$, that singularly interesti.ig people, are spread through all Europe, but especially the eastern countries, Poland, Russia, and Turkey. They are supposed rather to exceed 2,000,000. The Giptiei, in an humbler sphere, are itrangely scattered over all Europe to the supposed number of 340,000 ; a wild, roaming demi-savage race, of unknown origin, but probably Asiatic rather than Egyptian. 1273. Several Atiatic nnlioiu have penetrated by conquest or migration into the east of Eu- rope. These are chiefly Tartars, whom Hasscl estimates at 3,250,000 heads. The most prominent branch is that of the Turks, the ruling people in the Ottoman empire, though tlicy form in a few districts only the minority of the population. It seems doubtful, how> ever, if all the Tartars who wander over the southern steppes of Russia can be considered as Asiatic in their origin. The Magyars, who, to the number of 3,000,000, prevail in Hungary and Transylvania, appear to be also Asiatic, or at least to have sprung from that most eastern border of European Russia, which can scarcely be distinguished from Asia. 1274. T>ie religiun of Eurojte is almost entirely monotheistic. A mere handful of pagans, the Siimoiudes, are found in its north-eastern extremity, on the shores of the Icy Sea. Eu- rope is almost entirely Christian ; and the small population of Mahomedans who have found tliuir way into it consist of Asiatic races, Turks, and Tartars. The Jews, however generally diffused, have nowhere a national church, nor are they in any nation fully identi- iicd with the body of the people. The Christians of Europe are divided into three great rhurches, the Greek, the Latin, or Roman Catholic, and the Protestant. 137.'). The Greek or Eastern church, which was that of the Constantinopolitan empire, was severed from the Latin by the great schism in the ninth century, caused by some abstruse questions respecting the nature and person of Christ. It is still professed by the modern Greeks, is the established religion of Russia, and has votaries in Hungary and all its appendant territories. Hasscl reckons its numbers at 32,000,000; Malte-Brun at 50,000,000 — a strange discrepancy. We should think the former much nearer the truth, though perhaps somewhat under it. This religion, having been long prevalent among un- enlightened and degraded nations, has become encumbered with empty pomp and childish ceremonies ; and many of its clergy are ill-informed and of irregular lives. 1276. The lioman Catholic religion, which reigned so long with supreme sway over Europe, embraces still ti numerical majority of its people. In Italy, Spain, France, and the dominions of the house of Austria, it is dominant and almost exclusive. It still holds attached to it a large portion of the smaller states of Germany, and of the Cantons of Switzerland. The greater part of Ireland and of Russian Poland continue attached to it, without regard to the opposite systems supported by the state. That deep intolerance which gave birth to so many struggles in attempting to extirpate the Protestant faith, has been greatly mitigated, and, except in Italy and Spain, all professions enjoy an almost com- plete toleration. The number of Roman Catholics seems to be fairly estimated at between 90,000,000 and 100,000,000. The absolute authority of the Pope in matters of faith and worship, auricular confession, the prohibition of the Scriptures in the vulgar tongue, and a splendid ritual calculated to dazzle the eyes of the multitude, form the peculiar characters of the lloinan Catholic system. The monstrous pretensions once advanced to excommuni- cate and depose kings, and to grant indulgences to commit crime, seem now to be generally withdrawn. 1277. The Protestant or Iteformed religion raised its standard early in the fifteenth cen- tury, and made most rapid progress, especially in the north of Europe. It sought to purge Christianity from the superstitious observances which had enveloped it during many ages of darkness ; to introduce a more spiritual and simple form of worship ; to break up the insti- tutions devoted to celibacy ; to deny human authority in matters of doctrine, and rest it solely on the foundation of Scripture. It had to maintain .a dreadful struggle against the Romish sec, which armed in its cause all the great monarchs of Europe ; and in France and Bo- hemia, after taking deep root, it was nearly extirpated. It has been finally established, however, in Great Britain, in the Netherlands, the north of Germany, and the Scandinavian peninsula. Notwithstanding its numerical inferiority, it now ranks among its votaries the most powerful, the most opulent, and the most intelligent nations of Europe and the globe. Its rejection of human authority and direct appeal to the Scriptures, has caused it to be split into numerous sects and divisions. The most prominent is into Lutherans and Calvinists ; the Lu- therans retaining still many of the Romish rites and doctrines, to which, in every point, the Cal- vinists place themselves in the most decided opposition. The English church may be consi- dered a sort of medium between the two, inclining nearer to the Lutheran. In the Protestant countries, numerous smaller sects have asserted the right of private judgment, on which the lleformation was founded. Among these are the Anabaptists, chiefly in Germany, the Nether- lands, and England, whom Hasscl perhaps under-rates at 240,000 ; Methodists and Qi .iV era iu Britain, estimated at 190,000 ; the Moravian brethren in Germany, 40,000. Tlie Unita- 988 DESCRIPTIVE OEOOllAPIIY. P*«T III. rian« have an established church in Transylvania, cninprising 40,000 bouli, and are diffuicj, opuuly uriecretly, through the other European countries, especially Britain. 1278. In leariwig, art, icience, nl\ the pursuiu which develope the intellectual nature uf man, which refine and enlarge hit ideas, Europe has far surpassed every other continent The empires of Southern and Eastern Asia alone have an ancient traditional literature, ef which the remains are yet preserved. But, besides being now in a very decayed state, it never included any authentic history, sound philosophy, or accurate knowledge of nature. An extravagant though sometimes poetical mythology, proverbial maxims of wisdom, and a poetry replete with bold and hyperbolical images, compose almost iu entire circle. The science of Europe has been employed with equal success in exploring the most distant regions of the universe, and in improving the condition of man in society. Astronomy, which elsewhere is a mere mass of superstition and wild conjecture, has hero not only delineated with perfect precision the situation and movements of the heavenly bodies, but has disclosed numberless systems of worlds, of which without her aid the existence could never have been suspected. Chemistry, which was formerly a mere collection of empirical receipts and chimeras, is become a mighty science, which analyses the most secret operations of nature, and discovers important, and before unknown, substances. A similarly sound and compre- hensive character marks her attainments in physical science, and in every branch of natural history. In regard to poetic fancy, although some natural flights may be found among thu rudest tribes, and though the Orientals possess a peculiar vein of learned and studied urna- ment, it is in Europe, during either ancient or modern times, that the polislied and dussiic models of poetical composition have been exclusively produced. 1279. The invention of printing, and the consequent general diflusiun of information among all classes, are features especially European. By their means, in its eniigliivned countries, the essential branches of knowledge arc now placed within the reach of tlie humblest classes, and even the highest are not absolutely beyond their attainment. The endowments for the support of learning arc very extensive, founded in a great measure during the middle ages, and bearing some stamp of the then infant state of literature ; but they are now adapting themselves to modern improvements. The extensive and extending institutions for the instruction of the lower orders have produced a general difl'usion of intelligence, to which in the other parts of the world there is nothing analogous. 1 2H0. The jiolilical stale of Europe is also peculiarly fortunate. Elsewhere a turbulent anarchy prevails, or vast empires are subjected to the absolute sway of a single despot. It ij in this continent only that the secret has been found of establishing a regular and constitutiunal liberty, in which the extremes of tyranny and licentiousness arc equally avoided. Even the absolute monarchies are generally administci-cd with mildness, according to legal forms, anil afibrd to the bulk of the people a tolerable security of person and property. The Europtan states have also established among themselves a balance of power, which sets bounds to the encroachments of any particular state, and has repeatedly rescued the whole continent from the imminent danger of universal subjugation. This military and naval power has Iicen raised to a height, to which none of the other continents can ofler any effectual resistance. A great proportion of them has now been conquered, occupied, or colonised by Europe ; and if the whole is not reduced under this condition, it is only through distance and extensive deserts that many great countries still preserve their independence. 1281. 77ed to ourselves, to mention the to give a more ither from their r some circum- in a very general tion, we cannot 1 boundaries of many of what are gradually khe other. The Jng countries, is |erent regions of ain vegetables. If certain plants, vement. Tim- |ieralurc, which has so |M>werfiil an ellVct ii|ion thcin, varies in a regular progression upon I Idfty mountain ; hut it is nut so In all situations, and with the same regularity, especially on the great continents, upon the plains and low grounds. " Sometimes," says the eloquent Mirbel, " a chain of mountains t'unns a barrier against the frcciing wiiuls uf the north *, and receives and refVacIs upon the plants the heat which it derives fVom the solar rays ; lometimcs a (wrching sirtK'vo iVoin the sinith raises the temperature ; in some places, the winters are tempered by the pruxiinitv to Ihu sen; whilst at other times all these causes combined, produce a climate so ndlil, that, to Judge uf its geographical position only by the imilcation of the thcmnomoler, we stiuiild sup|Mtse its latitude to be much nearer the tropics ihaii it actually is. Again, continued plains uf vast extent, exactly on a level with the sea, are of rare occurrence ; and if there be but un elevation of 1000 or 1 100 feet, it suflices to produce a considerable reduction uf temperature. This, in its turn, obtains an influence over the vegetable creation { it changes the line of the progress of plants in their migration ; it an^sts them, and limits their iMiunduries, Suniutimes the northern species proceed jontliward towards the tropics; sometimes those of the soutli migrate northwards; and sonietimes groups belonging to both of these trik's exchange countries, passing one another ; each about to establish colonies in privileged stations, in the midst of a vegetable population to which they are no less strangars by their phyNiugnoiny than by their temperament." I '.'84. Nvtteilhslanding, however, lhemanj)a Mimalies which m uit exist in consequence of these and other circumstances of a similar nature, Europe being, to us especially, the most important division of the globe, the one with which wu are most concerned, and being also that of which the botany has been best explored, we shall be pardoned if we enter a little mure into detail with relation to it than to the other i|uarterH uf the world. But we shall con- line, as much ns possible, our observations to a most interesting table, by M. Mirbel, of the phxnogumous (or flivwering) plants of Europe ; to which have been added, with great jiidltinent, and for reasons already alluded to, part of those of Asia and of Northern Africa. We introduce this table with the mure pleasure, because, the work in which it Is inserted {Mcmoircs du Muiium ifHisluirc Nuturelte de Paris) being n foreign one, and botli voluminous and very costly, it cannot be expected to be accessible to the general reader. I'JH5. In the present instance, our nnthor divides the northern hemi- sphere into imaginary belts or zones ; tlie equatorial, the transition tem- {lerate, the temjierate, the transition fntxen, ond X\\cfroxen zones. Wherever Uicse xones arc not interrupted by nny natural limits, he compares them to the hues of the prism, which melt gradually one into another at their point of union; in such a man- ner as that the eye cannot separate them, though it distinguishes them perfectly. In what concerns the table in question, the equatorial transition, where European vegetation com- mences, is limited, to the north, by the disappearance of the Olivet the lemiierate xone by the cessation of the Oak ; and the^^sen transition by that of the Fir {IHntis si/lvestris) in the west, mid of the Spruce ( P. Mies) in the cast. The fnizen zone is divided into two bands ; the lower or southern, and the upiicr or northern. Both are entirely destitute of trees; but in the Arst bund are many shrubs and suffru- " ticosc plants f : whilst in the second scarcely nny thing is found but small * A itriking clrcunuUncc, oorrolxirativo ol tliU Aict, has l)Con stated to ui upon the most unquestionabin luihoTity : it U, that In one spot, In the extreme noutli of Hwmleii, facing the «ca, and backed by lofty hills, ttitei have surcecdcU in the cipcn air, and iliwiied Ibelr ftrulti while, nt the distance of six Swedish miles northward, the liihabiUnU clothe thcmiclvciwilh fViri in the winter, to protect themselves from the severity uf the cold. f The .ihrubby or iuRVuticosc plants of the «nulh«rn bard of the froien lonc, arc flflccn willows : the n»irf Birch IBetula nana), the Humble Ilireh ^ll. iii(»»i/«i), the White Jllreh (//. alba) — this last is only found m ll.o southern coiiats cf Greenland ; the Ilunry Ilireh [It. Imanii), (be Juni|icr wmuperui cofnmtinis), the invAHV r«i Ml 890 DESCniPTIVK OROORAPIIY. Pam III. IwrlMccoui plant! ; and tliMe crane whero lli« line of pcrpcluul mow commence*.* ||,,y too, another Important fact muft boconniilvrcd, — that, in the ftroienor arctic rvgioni, ahiiiHi exactly the «amc flora ii cxhiliite, Aiia, and America. IUN6. /n M««J'/«ihliiis) and Aruini (Arolileiu) Granaci (Uraminrv) ScdKCD (Cyperacce) Ituitio (Kvstlacca!) Itimhc* (Juncpo!] Water.l'loiitnlni (Aliamaceic] Atraragui (AsparaRra-) Colclilcumi (Colchicanes) Mlle«(Llliacpa>) Narciwua (Narcisacs) Iria (lriby plants of the northern band of the (Voicn sone, are the little Arctic Willo* [SbIU polarit), the reticulated Willow (& reticiUata), and the four-iided Andromeda (il. Ktragona). Pakt hi. nencM.* |Iit», c regions, ■Idimi •ly applicable, iht ifero), (Hg. H6.;, I, and wiiicl) ire, plant which ii which, there it , ii the ValmtUa Third Voyagin), ic navigaturi, Xw- nd which will be In speaking of ccpt tile contrury nic plants are not re are at prctent r extent or limits, Ii general interest, le Traniition Zone he north of Africa ate Zone (Central Tartary bordering iberia, and Kam- lew World. Ex- UoUK !• Frotin Ii ii Zom. if •gfc If. f ^ , a 37 OtlW 617 33 OWl il65 11 0-OJfi 52 S otxa •Si , , . 31 8 0-005 lli 1 0002 SW , , „ , 4'^ ■ • _ 70 6 0012 ISS - - m w » . . . - 1 a . . • 3 1 0-002 3S SO o-o« U a H a ■ ^ ^ , , 21 ^ , , . w • - . . 16 . . - - 18 • « . - 5^ _ . _ 1 omi W> _ , let) _ _ , 18 3 0*0(17 73 1 0-002 1 7] . . 1 . - 1 i Ire anil Z. latifolium, Whortleberry (r.K/J- Kalinia, right spccici ly Fotentllla, and the little Arctic Willow it. telragona). EunorE. Tablr — contlnmil m\ Niiiwt *t NMunI ruUllw. (llobiiUria (OlobuUrcB) l'rimro«o(l'riinulace«B) ButtirworKLcntibularUf) KiK»i)rl (SirouhularliUB) Nll(ht«tiaclc (Solanew) (!i'iili.iii (OontianoiD) • Swallowwort (A|)Ocyne«) AraiUliui (Acaiithacece) Polcmaiiium (PoleinonlarcB) Bindweed (ConvolvuUcea!) . llorage (Boraglncm) Ijihlalc (Lablat*) Vcrvaliii (Verbenace*) Jaimino yaamlne*) Hcithi (Ericinctal - llhododendrona (RhodoraccaD) Elony (EbcnaccB) - - Hi'Uliowcra (Campanulaccic) I'anlintl.llowcri (Ix>bellacco) . C-ompuund (Synalhcrcae) Tcaicli (llliiiacc*) VaU'riani(valeriaiic«) MaddtTi (HubiaceiB) - Honeyaucklei (CaprifolUcen) Urabcllifcroui (Umbcllifer*) Saxlflragct(8axiftage8B) hir«Une« (Vortulace») Knawi'U (paronychia!) Hciiiiflfckj (CraaiulcBJ) CiitranU (Rlbealaj) Priciily Pcari (Opuntiacec) FiB-Marigolda (Flcoldcas) Oourd) (Cucurbltacete) Willuw.hcrbi (Onagraris) Myrtle* (Myrt«co«) Lytlirum (SalicarlB) Rwea (lti«aceiE) U'gumiiioui plants I Leguminous) Sumachs (TcreblnthaccB) Uuckthdrns (Khamnea) t'uriaria (Coriares) Ilue lltutacca!) Wuudsorrcls (Uxalidca) Balumi (Balumineie) Geraniums (Ocranlaces) Vines (Ampelldea) Aiedarach (Meliacea) Hors«'hestnut(Hippoc«>tanea!) M«ulc(Accrincm) St. John's Wort (llyperlclncte) Orange (Aurantiaccoe) I/mdun (Tiliarcffi) Mallow (Malvaeee) Flax (LincO!) - ■ - Pinks (Caryophyllcae) Frankcnia (Frankciiiaces) Milkworts (PolygalctB) Sundews (Droseracex) Violets (Violcip) Gum Cistus (CistiivSK) Caper (Capparideioi Cruciferous plants (Cruciferie) Fumitory (Fumaria;) Poppy (l'a|>averacca>) VValerlily (Nymphicaceie) Berberry (Brrberideic) Moonseed (Mcniipcrmrn) Ranunculus (Ranunculacea) Tfltnumila Tfaiulllun taurn. t if 1^ 10 tiS 10 2U8 78 41 4 1 48 m 4J1 4 ID 37 8 123 um 8(1 4U 112 27 37 OUOl OOW 0-010 0-005 OOOJ 0-005 0fl23 0-052 0008 0004 0«IS 0148 0-010 0-003 0-014 0-003 0-04.5 0-008 0-001 0-004 0-009 OflOl 0-001 0-001 0003 0002 01)24 0119 0-002 0-003 0004 0-009 0-001 0-004 0-005 0-003 0-046 0-001 0008 0002 0-018 0-004 0-06S 0(X):) 0004 0001 OWl 0023 ZOIMT. II 3 56 8 ISO 38 50 8 1 It 80 135 1 8 88 56 520 35 20 6t 19 182 49 8 14 36 7 11 283 2 13 4 13 17 180 3 7- 4 24 21 4 252 12 15 5 8 126 ,'5fl82 0«01 00014 U-OOi 0-007 0-0(19 0-013 0-008 0-003 0-020 0-033 0007 0-014 0131 0-008 0-005 0016 0-005 0«45 0-013 0(101 o-oa-j 0-009 OflOl 0001 0-005 0-003 0-0.18 0-070 0-003 0-001 0-008 0-001 0-003 0-goi 0fl03 0-004 0045 0-002 0-001 0-006 0005 0001 0063 0-003 0-004 0-001 0-031 Fr.n«l TrMt /f> /one. 30 9 93 10 36 3 38 16 883 11 6 S3 13 74 31 5 3 15 8 18 7 108 1.55 1 6 4 125 140 16 6 3 8 1 116 2129 0-013 0-0O4 0-(W3 0-(X>t 0016 ODOl 0-001 0-003 0-022 0-036 0-0015 0-007 0-104 O-OOS 0-003 0-010 0005 0-030 0014 0tX)3 0«01 0007 0003 0-008 0-003 0-050 0-072 ODOl 0-007 0-001 0-002 0-003 0003 0058 0-002 0-009 0065 0007 0-003 0-001 o-ooi MMW. If 11 s 83 87 ■•I »; 0-085 omii 0-054 0-009* 0-004 ooai 0-002 0063 0-007 0-097 0-005 0007 0-059 0-009 0«14 0-061 0-038 0-002 0-080 0-054 .00 1 2 21 438 0-005 0-118 0-002 0-005 0050 i* II 10 log 14 3*15 Dli 83 85 « a 58 8.58 473 4 10 61 146 14.5<) IH 48 140 34 44.1 16' 38 91 12 1 13 8(i 3 SI 29,5 nag 16 3& 1 39 5 1 76 1 1 1 10 41 a fi 60 .Vi 535 8 22 .5 39 1.H 35 717 37 40 7 8 8 272 In the temperate transition zone, out of 8 1 93 species, 1262 have been ascertained to be woody, and 6898 herbaceous ; and of these latter 3861 are known to have perennial, and 2373 annual or biennial roots. * This solitary Cactut is introduced from America. U 2 963 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRArUY. I'AKi III. In the temperate zone, out of:}98'2 species, there are 357 woody, and ;i()25 herbaceous; ol which 2610 are understood to have perennial, nnd 944 annual or biennial roots. In the frozen transition zone, out of 2129 species, arc 19.') woody plants, and 193$ herbaceous; of which 511 ore supposed to have perennial, and 363 annual or biennial roots. In the frozen zone, of tlie 438 species, 46 are woody, and 392 herbaceous; of which 371 are estimated to have perennial roots, and only 15 annual or biennial roots. 1 287. We have already stated that in thefroxen or polar region the vegetation is very similar throughout the north of Europe, Asia, and America ; which may in part arise from its limited extent, and from the continents approaching comparatively so near to each other. There must necessarily, too, be a greater equality of temperature than in the other zones; the vegetation every where a])pearing nearly upon a level with the sea. In Greenland, Si'hoiiw estimates that there is hardly one sixth of the plants that are not equally found in Lapland, Of the genera of Greenland only two are not found in Lapland [Strcplopus anACoptis), and both occur in North America. \Ve shall, by and by, notice how analogous is the vegetation discovered during Captain Parry's arctic voyages to that both of the European and American continents, in corresponding latitudes. Even in Kamtschatka, one half of the plants t'ouiul by Wormskiold are European ; and of the genera only eight or ten are not European, and thi'y are North American, liut, as we proceed from tlie Arctic Regions to the south, we find the vegetation gradually becoming more and more dissimilar between America and Europe ; except, indeed, when tiie high mountains in the respective countries arc examined, and then the resemblance again appears. Pursh, whose flora comprises, to a very limited extent, the plants of the arctic or sub-arctic regions, or of the lofty mountains of North America, hut is i>rincipally confined to Canada, and to those districts of the United States whose latituilv corresponds pretty nearly with tliut of the more temperate parts of the European continent, has about one seventh of his species only European ; and if the doubtful natives, those probalih/ introduced from the Old World, be taken into account, only one tenth : out of 716 gcnirii of North American plants, 480, or two thirds, also occur in Europe, or in Northern ACricn. 1288. Schouiu cslimales the most striking disparities between the vegetation of the western parts of tlie Old World, and the eastern parts of the New, to be as follows : — 1. The Criirifirm (Jig. 88. a) and UmbcUiferotis families (6) : those of the Pinks (c) and Labiate flowers (osila;), the groups of the Endives (Us), and buth s tlic vegetntiiin n and Amcricnn the plants t'ouiul ropcan, and they le south, we find 'ica and Europe ; iniined, and then initcd extent, the -th America, but ;s whose latitiide lan continent, lias cs, those prolxihl;) lut of 71(> genera Northern AlVlcn. on of the western the Pinks (f ) and he first, in North lies may be classed lark. i ndivcs ((■) (Ci ho- ), and of the Ar- >kcs and Tliistk's arocCfhalcc), are abundant in Ku- whilst, on the hand, North A- ca possesses such mbcr of species iif iai'lmasl)iusy(//,! and Golden Uod ia^o), that tl'.cy titute one third if :ompound flowers at country, forin- strikingfoaturein getiition of the ;cd States, and ing the prcpon- iicc in favour tif America. The family of Bowers (/)(r«ni- ^.Mbeliaccte), in the Book !■ EUROPE. MS h while, in the oiii, labytheWliortlc- ly the families of (he Cone-bearing (Coni/er*) and Amentaceous {AmetUaceee) trees; but in America they fur viceed those of Europe in respect to the number of species. (i. In North America we find the types or representatives of many tropical families; us, for example, of the Cactuses, Scitamincous plaiils, the Sago {0/caUcinum) and the Moonwort Fern {^Dotrychium luvaria) tiist in tne Banksian herbarium, which were gathered in the extreme parts of South Ame- rica: UTUi the same accurate writer observed 45 European phicnogamous plants in Terra Australia, of which 23 are dicotyledonous and 21 monocotyledonous, and 121 acotyledonous or Cryptogamia; namely, 2 of the Fern family, 25 Mosses, 14 Ilepatico;, .S8 Lichens, 10 Fungi, 12 Algie,* The very general distribution of plants of this class over the surface of the globe, we have before, indeed, had occasion to notice. Sect. IV. Zoology. 129». The xoological features of Eurojie, e\i\\o\.i^\\ sufficiently important to render this continent a primary division of geographic natural history, are neither so extensive nor so varied as those of more genial regions. We have already shown the propriety of including within this range the southern parts of Africa bordering the Great Desert ; while the western jirovinces of Asia appear to partake both of the European and the Oriental zoology. It might he imagined that such a division, including countries suffering by the extremes of cold and heat, would present animals of the most diversified nature : liiit such is by no means the case, at least to any great extent. The chief seat of this zoological province appears to be on the southern side of Central Europe, towards the Alps, or those countries lying between the latitudes of 40" and 50" N. ; as within these parallels tlie greatest propor- tionate number of species appear to be found. It may, however, be more natural to consider this zoological region as presenting three minor divisions : 1. The arctic; 2. The central ; and, % The southern. l'J9L'. The arctic division will include Greenland, the islands of Spitzbergen and Iceland, and a considerable part of Norway, Sweden, and Northern Russia. The central division may be said to commence towards the northern limits of Scotland, and to reach the shores uf Northern Italy ; or, more properly, to about the 45th degree of north latitude. The Milhern nuige includes the whole of' the Mediterranean countries, Northern Africa, and Asia Minor. l'J93. The animals more particularly belonging to tlte arctic circle are few in species, lliose dreary and inhospitable regions afl'onl but little sustenance to ruminating quadrupeds, or to insectivorous land birds ; while the intense cold is as inimical to vegetation as to the pro- duction of insects. Yet these undisturbed solitudes are instinctively chosen by multitudes of marine animals, as secure retreats from the interruption of man, for breeding and pro- viding fur their young. The i)olar seas abound with iniuiineralile water fowl ; they con- ga'gate and build among the rocks, whose surface they almost cover by their numbers. ISH Of ttu related so circumttnn* natonli rapid tially br Pennantt has, nercTtheless, been quntfon«l hj irther ilUu, • * ' TOJI fish, def sprinfffto . . dently amrrta that Pennant's account has no exisiteTK-e in nature who suppoH that ft U incapable d making such a ihortat' ' * " '"" A, mcrrtj ceek Kifiigr dui erpai depodt their spawn. A modem wrtter* indeed, confi. Ume; and they ftirther toppose that during winter Tojan In so fish, like tha mackard, merrtj ceek r^an In the depths of the ocean, and return to the shallower parts in that there are manv circumstances to be explained before a denial so unqualified ran be impllcitiv admitted. That her* rinfis may be ocautmuilljf found, nt all seasons, about some of Rtreat PTARHIOAIr. Th.t h«. , - — - - „ -- -— - — - — , ^t lome of Eurapean coasts, is by no means conclusive against the arctic eat or the greater number ; for among other animals, whua migratory nature Is unquestionable, occasional stragglers are cun Unaally occmrring In places far beyond their general haunls,anU at - seasotu the moat unusual. but we im by no means disposed to go such a length, considering 1296. The xoologt/ of arctic Europe has received much less attention than that of Northern America ; we must, therefore, be somewhat concise on this head. Among the fuw original writers who have treated on the fauna of arctic Europe, the learned and acute Otho Fabricius, many years a resident in those dreary regions, deservedly ranks foremost. He enumerates thirty-two species of Mammalia as natives of Greenland, nine of which belong to the genera of Walrus and Seal (Trichecu) and Phoca), and fifteen to the cetaceous order ; thus leaving but eight species of terrestrial qua- drupeds, a proportion at once explained by the wild and desolate nature of these regions. The number of birds, comprehending such as are occasional visiters, amount to fifty-two. Seven of these are rapacious, and five are referable to the families of Warblers and Finches (Sijl- viada and FnngiUides) ; the remainder, with the solitary exception of the Ptarmigan (Jig. 90.), or Lagojrus miilus, belong to the wading and swimming orders, to whose nourishment and increase the arctic solitudes are par- ticularly congenial. Nevertheless, by far the greater number of these birds occur abundantly in more southern latitudes ; and many extend their flight to the warm shores of the Mediterranean. Those species, in fact, which habitually live within the arctic circle, as if by preference, are remarkably few, and offer no good foundation to ground a belief that these regions constitute one of the primary groups in animal geography. 1 297. The xoology of Central Europe may be said to commence towards the 60th degree of northern latitude, where a sensible change in the number and species of animals may he perceived ; vegetation assumes a marked and decisive character ; and those animals which depend for their support both on the produce of the earth and on the insect world are greatly increased, at once in number and in species. Vegetables furnisli nutrition to insects, and seeds to birds : tlie former, again, become the prey of the latter ; aiitl thus tiic supplies of nature are nicely and accurately balanced, with a just regard to the preservation of all her creatures. The dark pine forests of Norway, Sweden, and Lapland arc the most northern bound- aries of the Woodpeckers; one of which {Apternus tridacti/lus Sw.) is remarkable for having but three toes to its feet (Jig. 91.), and is more peculiarly a native of these high latitudes. The insectivorous and omnivorous tribes begin, also, to be common ; while the wading and natatorial birds diminish in numbers, tliough not in species; I'or as they congregate at certain seasons in the polar seas, so during winter they disperse themselves on the shores of Great Britain and the Continent. Wc have no very precise information as to the extreme northern range of those birds whose chief metropolis is in Central Europe ; and we are still deficient in a Fauna Scotica. 1 298. Moil of the Arctic birds occur in the northern shores of Scotland, the islands of Ork- ney and Zetland, and on the coasts of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. Miiller, in his Zoologia Danica, enumerates 57 species of JV/anim«Wn, and 131 of birds, as natives of thiit kingdom. Among Uie former, 3 only are marine, and 14 are Cclacece : wliile the land liirds amount to 87, exclusive of 2G belonging to the rapacious genera of Eagles, Falcons, and Un Is. On comparing these numbers with those of the Greenland fauna, wc ol)servc, on the one hand, a considerable diminution of marine Mammalia, and a very large adtlition to the list of terrestrial birds ; this l.ttter circumstance is easily accounted for, — they arc not formed lu endure extreme cold; and being dependent upon insects and seeds for their support, their dispersion is naturally limited by the facilities afTordcd by nature for supporting life. Pro- ceeding to those countries which lie towards the centre of Europe, there is a gradual augment- ation of animal life ; wc may even trace this change in the local distribution of the animals peculiar to our own islands. Many species, in every department of zoology, are common in the southern and western counties of England, but which are tottiliy unknown in the northern counties and in Scotland. The Red-backed Shrike breeds in the southern parts of Britain, hut seems not to reach Scotland, where several of our most common summer visiters anionjithc warblers and soft-billed birds appear to be eijual strangers. The same may be said of I'unie TIIIIBB'TOSD WOOUrnrKBR UuuK !• EUROPE. 895 IMnK lUMraAN »UM> rou* ln«wU Ami a vnrk'ty of inartne animals. Even among the domesticated races, a greater d«v('lii|H'na>Mt of ittructurc under a more genial climate is apparent in the Horse, the Sheep, und (h« Ox ul' Drltnln, when compared to those of the islands and mountains of Scotland ; wiillo Amonjlt birds the gallinaceous genera, which, in our more southern climates, breed and live nt all Heniions in the open air, are reared and preserved with great difficulty in coun- trioH fitrthiT north ( of tlicsc the Peacock and Guinea Fowl may be cited as eiamples. !.!)!)• The louihem part ^central Europe is, then, the field best calculated for studying lliti |)ticiiliaritliiHU'iioril)vd nit natives of France and the adjacent kingdoms, seven of which have been unumi'rntvd among Uritinh quadrupeds. The great white Bear, which is perhaps more truly on arctk' anininl than any other, disappears on the southern shores of the Polar Sea, and is re- jilnml In Ivinpyrnto Europe by the common brown species, once a native of our own islands, «n«l •till found In the solitary seclusions of central Europe and Asia. Of this genus there are, iKCordinK to Ciivler, but two recent species belonging to Europe, the brown (fig, 92.) and the lilHvkliunri Others imagine, with some show of reason, that there are more ; as Ihe varieties I'rum tlw flmt , re very remarkable. The second is the black bear of Europe, difiering fVoin lliat of America In many important points of structure: only one living example A|)|H!Ar» to have been seen and dissected ; and this, having died in confinement, afforded no clue to a knowledge of its haunts or manners. 1 300. The tVolf and the For, under different varieties or species, appear generally distributed over Europe : to these we must add the Lynx and the Wild Cat, as the only true rapacious or carnivorous animals that have been appro- priated to this division of the globe. The Lynx, once com- mon in central Europe, has for some time been extirpated, and is now only known in some parts of Spain, the Apen- nines, and in the northern kingdoms. The mountaineers of Sicily have frequently described to us a ferocious animal as still occasionally met with in that island. This, in all probability, is a lynx, as the Sicilians are well acquainted will) the Willi', Ihe only beast with which, by the vulgar, the animal they describe could be con- I'oundud. The wild cat is still said to be a native of Britain, and is spread over other kingdoms on the Continent A recent author includes among the " extinct animals" of Britain the liywnA anil tiger whose bones have been found in the caves of Kirkdalc, as forming part of the modern gvugrAphlc distribution of animals. This hypothesis no doubt is ingenious, but lies opi'n lu nmiiy and great objections. If such formidable and terrific carnivorous animals have (liitiiil in Europe nince the last revolution of our globe, what others constituted their prey? Thi'lr fiHid buliitt Hcsh alone, what wpie the other races of quadrupeds destined by nature to AirnUh llieu) wUli subsistence? Tnese questions must be first considered, before we can Aucnt to on opitdon so confidently advanced. Whatever might have been the character of Kiiriipean loology before the deluge, certain it is, that in its present state it exhibits that linrmony mid ronslstency which peculiarly marks a wise provision for all created things. As the number of Kunipean Mammalia are so disproportionably small, when compared with those of Asia, AlVii'A, and America, so ore the species which are to keep their own class under sub- ji'Ctitin IVehle and few { and this law is not only apparent among quadrupeds, but is equally oliacrvnliie in every other division of animals. Now, as birds are much more numerous, we find lliut in ndditlon to the natural enemies in their own class, there is a group of quadru- |iihU niiire particularly destructive to the feathered tribes. These are the Mustelee, or Weasels ; fi'w perliapH in species, but important in their numbers, and in their powers of destruction. No li'iiit limn eight species inhabit different parts of Europe. Like the monkeys of the tropics, man}' tif llieni climb trees and suck eggs ; and by thus destroying birds in every stage of life, fVoin the e){g to the adult, arc peculiarly adapted to prevent an undue increase of numbers. I:I0I, 0)1 the grmiivorotii quadrupeds it maybe observed, that although the woods of F.iiri)|ie are deficient in that variety of pulpy fruits so abundant in tropical countries, and U|iun wliieh the numerous monkeys, bats, and other animals of those regions principally \Y,\ live, yet there is a great diversity of nuts and grain. ■y-f'j^ r'^J^It^A / Hence we find a proportionate number of small qua- '' -"" i^'*^^^'' ' drupcds, whose subsistence entirely depends upon these bountiful supplies of nature : under this head may be enumerated the Hedgehog, Squirrel, and the various Mice, of which seven species belong to Europe. The .^'^Mf — if^^ ~^'am£.- Ueaver {f\g, 93.), unknown now to our own fauna, V'''^9!?»ik. ^^^\^HBk appears recorded by our early historians as a British animal ; and is still found in the vicinity of the lllione, the Danube, the Ilhine, and other of the larger Eu- ropeiui rivers. If naturalists are correct in considering U 4 296 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pakt III. this to bo identical with the American beaver, it is one of the very few instances of the name species of animal inhabiting the temperate parts of the old and the new continents. The black bear of Europe was long confounded with that of America; and a similar diiTercnce may possibly exist between the beavers of the two continents. 1302. The different sptxus of Mice, Sic, now arranged under many genera, form an important part of European zoology ; as will appear from the following list, furnished by Mr. Griffith from the valuable Mammalogie of M. Desmarest : — Arvicola amphlbiua — ^ arvalU — fulvuf ' argcntoratensU Water Rat. Mus muscului Fivld Mouie. — meuariut Fulvous ditto. — minutua Strasburg ditto. The Lemming. — suricinua Land dittu ^— diclirurus Field Mouie. — iaiandicua Plain ditta - Houie Mouse. . Harvcat ditto. - Small dit(o. . Sotnic ditto. . Shrcw.likc ditta - rartycoloured Hal • Iceland ditto. Georycliua Norvcglcus -^— — ^ terrcatria Mua sylvaticua —i~ campestria Tlie Hamsters, remarkable for their cheek pouches, and belonging to the same natural family as the mice, have their chief metropolis in Siberia ; yet one species (C'ricehis vulgaris) extends to central and northern Europe. The Marmots {Arctomys Marmotla, Ilubac) are likcwiie nucivorous, and occur on the mountains of central and northern Europe, together with the .'.jiermophiltis citillus, or Soulisk of the Germans. Of the Hare, four species are European, the snowy, the common, the calling, and the ralibit; and these complete the list of European Glires. 130.'?. Among ruminating quadrupeds, the Elk ond the Reindeer are well known inha- bitants of the northern countries ; the latter giving place to the Fallow-deer, the Stag, and the Roebuck, in the midland parts of Europe. In the lofly mountains and inaccessible pre- cipices of the Alps and Pyrenees, the Chamois, Yzard, and Ibex still live in partial security, notwithstanding the daring intrepidity of their hunters. Tlie Musmon is another European quadruped deserving particular notice, as being generally considered the origin of all our domestic breeds of sheep. It appears still to exist in a state of nature among the higli mountains of Corsica and Sardinia ; and although now extirpated upon the continent, is well oscertamuu to have formerly been common in the mountains of Asturia in Spain. Lastly, it appears incontestable that the ox, one of the most valuable of nature's gifts to man, originally existed in a wild state over the whole of Europe, but whether as a distinct species or mere variety is still uncertain. The white ox of Scotland is a peculiar breed, still pre- served in some few parks of the nobility, and will be noticed hereafter. But a much larger race, distinguished by Hamilton Smith under the name of the Fossil Urus {Griff. Cuv. iv, 414.), although, probably, in existence long after the invasion of Cmsar, is now only known, like the elk of Ireland, l>y its gigantic bones. 1304. From this brief enumeration of the European quadrupeds it will be perceived that their numbers are too few, and their original dispersion too obscure, to allow of any correct notions being formed as to their natural distribution. With regard to the origin of our domestic animals, and the several races, breeds, or varieties tliat have apparently sprung from them, the reader must be referred to the writings of F. Cuvier, ond the extensive researches of Hamilton Smith, whose acquaint^mce with the order of ruminating animals, more par- ticularly, is, perhaps, superior to that of any other living zoologist. 1305. The omitholonical features of the zoological province to which Europe belongs, have already claimed our attention. We shall, therefore; now merely notice a few circumstances connected with the ornithology of central Eu- rope. On the highest summits of the Alps, and in the vast forests whicli clothe their sides in Hungary, Switzerland, and the Tyrol, are found all the four species of European Vultures : only one of these, VuUurfulvus (J{^. 94.), appears to have a range in countries farther north ; yet all are distributed over the soutliern kingdoms, and two are again met with on the northern limits of Africa and western Asia. The Iceland or gyr Falcon, long sup- posed to be peculiar to the high northern latitudes, is now con- sidered the same with the Falco candicana of the northern parts of Germany. The wide geographic range of the rapacious order has already been adverted to ; nor do we find any species besides the Vultures which serve to mark the ornithology of central Europe. The forests of Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and France appear to contain all the European Woodpeckers, which, notwithstanding their wide dispersion, are but thinly and partially scattered in the northentand southern kingdoms. 13t^(;. Tlu; range of the small insectivorous birds, or warblers, requires much investigation; nor are we at this moment aware of any species in Germany whicFi does not occur in France or towards northern Italy. The few gallinaceous birds of Europe are nearly all found towards its centre, although the different species of grouse seem to affect the more northern latitudes. The warm covering of feathers which protects their feet, is peculiarly adapted as VL'I.VOUI Vl'lTCRR. Pakt III. s of the Hame iiients. The lar difference era, form an furnished by ise Mouse, vest ditto. 11 ditto, lie ditto. BW-likc ditla tycolourcd Kat land ditto. same natural cetvs vulgaris) notta, liobac) hern Europe, lie Hare, four it; and these 1 known inha- the Stag, and iccessible pre- artial security, ther European gin of all our long the high ilinent, is well pain. Lastly, gifts to man, listinct species reed, still pre- a mucli larger Griff. Cm: iv. w only known, perceived that of any correct origin of our ly sprung from iive rcsearclii's als, more par- irope belongs, notice a few central Eu- , in the vast rland, and the Cultures ; only ave a range in the southern ;hern limits of :on, long sup- , is now con- northern parts ipaeious order jpccics besides gy of central itzcrland, and 'ckcrs, which, and partially investigation; ;cur in France irly all found nore norlhertl rly adapted as Book I. EUROPE. MT a defence from the intense cold of the polar regions. Tlie Bustards, on the contrary, occupy the middle regions of Europe, and extend latitudinally from the confines of Asia to the shores of the Atlantic. The Bee-eater {Merops apiaster), the Roller, the Hoopoe, and the Golden Oriole, in their annual migrations from Africa, visit all the central parts of the Continent, but become progressively scarce as we advance northward. 1307. In the third portim of the Eurojiean range, we comprehend the south of France, the whole of Spain, Jtaly, and Turkey, together with the coasts and islands of the Mediter- ranean Sea bordering Asia Minor and Northern Africa. 1308. On the geographic range of the quadrupeds more pecuUar to these countries, little can be said ; as the r.iaterials to be gathered from the relations of travellers unacquainted with zoology are generally most imperfect. There is no evidence of the great northern ruminating animalr, such as the Elk and the Reindeer, being found wild in any of the countries which border the Mediterranean Sea, although a small species, probably tlie faU low deer or the roebuck, is represented as still to be met with in the extensive forests of Calabria. The Porcupine, now wild in those countries, is supposed (but with a slight show of reason) to have been introduced from Africa ; but for what purpose we are unin- formed. The Buffalo is domesticated in Greece and Turkey, and some parts of southern Italy ; where it is sometimes, though rarely, used for draught. 1309. The ornithologi/ of the countries bordering upon the Mediterranean presents many interesting peculiarities. The vultures, which are seldom found northward of the Alps, occur more frequently as the climate becomes warmer. This tribe appears to follow the course of the Apennines in Italy, and of the higher mountains of Spain and Greece, from whence they extend their range to Asia Minor and northern Africa. The Imperial Eagle {Falco imperialis Tem.) is chiefly found in southern Europe, while the Golden Eagle is much more numerous in the colder latitudes. The gigantic Owls of the polar regions are here unknown ; but two or three horned species, of diminutive size, follow the migratory troops of smaller birds in their annual journeys across the Mediterranean. Two of these small owls have not yet been described. In the extensive family of the warblers, many ap- pear peculiar to Italy, Spain, Sicily, and Sardinia ; and in the latter island there has recently been discovered a second species of European Starling {Stumus utUcolor Tem.) (Jig. 95.). The grouse of northern Europe are rarely, if ever, seen. But two species of bustard (Olis Tetrao and Houbara) sel- dom met with farther north, arc common in Spain, Italy, and Turkey. Here also we first meet with the African and Asiatic genera Cursorius and Hevtipodius ; birds which delight in the dry and arid plains of those continents, where they run with amazing swiftness. The rocky and uncultivated wastes of Spain, Turkey, and Asia Minor furnish two species of rock grouse {Plerocles) long con- founded with that northern genus, of which it is the repre- sentative in warm climates. The beautiful Wall-creeper, witli its bright rosy wings, although rare in other parts of Fiiro|)c, is not uncommon in Italy ; while the Golden Oriole, the Bee-eater, the Hoopoe, and ilie Holler, four of the most beautiful European birds, are so abundant in the two Sicilicg (luring the spring and autumnal migrations, that they may occasionally be seen hanging in liie poulterers* shops of Naples and Palermo. The union of the African, European, and Asiatic ornithology on the coasts of the Mediterranean is further apparent among the iiater-birds. The Pelican, the Spoon-bill, and the Flamingo are still to be met with in these itiiintries ; although, from their large site attracting the sportsmen, they are never seen in 311}' considerable numbers. 1:110. The European reptiles are loo few to afford any material illustration of animal dis- ■ tribution. The most remarkable forms and the greatest numerical proportion occur in southern Europe, particularly in Italy and Greece, and the islands of Sicily and Malta : some of these, as the Gecko, or house lizards of Naples and Sicily, belong to genera not mot with farther north, but common on the opposite shores of Africa and Asia Minor. 1311. Thejish and other marine animals of the Spanish and Portuguese coasts bordering on the Atlantic have not been well investigated, and our slight acquaintance with them is insuflicient to give us any correct idea of their nature; but, on entering the Mediterranean, hc find, at Gibraltar, many of those peculiar to much more southern latitudes. Spain and Portugal cannot be said, like England, France, or Holland, to have national fisheries ; but no sooner do we pass Gibraltar, than these natural sources of prosperity and plenty arc again opened to the industry and support of man. The enormous shoals of An- chovies (_/i^'. 96.) annually employ, in their capture and preparation, a great number of 9g ^(gjgi persons : and the exportation of this highly flavoured little fish, to all parts of the world, creates an im- "iTr» vvri V -ci jfttiOM t-^ portaut bmncli of permanent commerce. The Hcr- .-::fcliK^<:^jAiggtri»-'--' |.j||^ j^ijjj^ ^^, believe, the Pilchard, are not unknown in the fish-markets of Sii'tly and Malta ; but, notwitli- ITURNUI UNICOLOR. it9B DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paht III, li LOQGBRHBAD TURTl.B* Standing their abundance in northern Europe, they are scarce in the Mediterranean, and never seen in any considerable numbers. The tunny fishery is peculiar to Sicily, although there is very litde doubt that the same fish frequents the shores and islands of the Peloponnesus ■ yet the total disregard of the Turks to all sources of national wealth blinds them to thi^ and to every other advantage which Nature has placed within their grasp. The Ichthyo- logy of southern Europe is certainly of a more marked and peculiar character than any other department of European zoology. It is at all times hazardous to venture upon numerical estimates, but it can be safely stated, that of nearly 150 species observed by us in the Mediterranean Sea, not more than one third belonged to the Ichthyology of Great Britain and northern Europe. 1312. Tke Turtle of the Mediterranean is that described by authors under the name of Tettuio caretta : writers have uniformly copied each other in asserting that this is the ssme as the Loggerhead Turtle of the West Ir dies ; and that its flesh is coarse, rank, oily, and hot edible. Tlie accuracy of both these statements may be questioned. Whatever may be the qualities of the West Indian Loggerhead, we know, from personal eiperience, that the flesh of the Mediter- ranean species is delicious. We were once becalmed off the Isle of Elba, and in one morning captured a suiiicient number of small turtle to supply the cabin table for a week. They made exquisite soup ; and although one of the company was ill, it arose from repletion. We omitted to draw and describe the animal, from a belief that it was the Hawk's-bill Turtle, the only species described as inhabiting the Mediterranean ; the figure given by Gott. wold {Jig. 97.) has been considered, by Dr. Shaw, as representing the Teitudo caretta. 1313. 0/ European insect), a bare enumeration of the genera would alone fill a volume ; and in the lialf-arti. ficial, half-natural, arrangement in which our entomological systems at this moment remain, it is impouibic to form any precise idea even on the natural distribution of the families. As we approach the province! of southern Italy and the Peloponnesus, we find many genera which more proiii>rly characterise Western Asia and Africa ; while, in Sicily and Malta, the geodephagous groups, particularly the Linnsan Carabii, are diminished ; apparently in 8|>ocies, but certainly in numbers. It is in these countries that the Ants, those universal sca- vengers of nature in tropical countries, begin to appear in almost every situation, and to perform those offices which in more temperate regioui have been assigned to the Geodephngn, Brachelytra, and Necrophaga among coleopterous insects. Most of the northern Butterflies ( Papiliu. nea Sw.) are common even in Sicily, where, notwithstanding a dissimilar vegetation and a more heated atmosphere, we find only three or four species unknown to the British fauna : among these, the Gmepteryx Cl/o. palra (^«.!)H.), or Cleopatra's Butterfly, much resembles a British species, cLiorATRA's BuTTuri.v. Dut hiii the middle of the anterior wings of a rich orange. 1314. The Radiated animals of the Mediterranean are particularly numerous; the many 99 harbours, coves, and sub-immersed rocks, sheltered from those violent commotions which agitate the mighty Atlantic, atTord them secure protection, and contribute to their rapid increase. Their investigation, hitherto much neglected, offers a wide field for the discoveries of naturalists who can study them in their native seas. Numerous species of Sea Anemone, or animal flowers, unfold themselves in the crevices of the rocks; one of these (Jig. 99- ), ornamented with rich purple, is parti- cularly common on all the shores of Sicily. 1315. The tubular and cellular palypes, whose habitations ar termed corals and corallinrs, are , loO generally abundant in war' "ati- tudes. Among these a va"^ ' Ti- ber of species occur on tht ,'■< -es AMMAi »Li.w«M. of Sicily, Italy, and the eek islands, which do not inhabit the British coasts, Sicily, for many ages, has been celebrated for its fisheries of the true red coral {Jig. 100.) ; and it still aflbrds employment at certain seasons t'''i4'"fc- - •-''i^ M to many fishermen : but the produce of tlie old grounds of late ^XtfwF ffib^ ^lJ^ years has materially diminished, through want of care and due preservation. The Bay of Naples likewise produces this beautiful substance, but the pieces usually found are small, and in no great abundance. 1316. TAe Jl/offt/scoi/s ammo/* or s/ieH_^/j of southern Eu- hbd co»ai.. rope are in great variety ; and are much more prized by all classes there, as general articles of food, than among us. This may, in part, be accounted for by tlie people being Catlmiicsj and compelled, by the tenets of tlieir religion, to abstain from meat twice a week, exclu- sive of the longer and more important fasts. Why, however, fisli and cockles arc not l» \\f Bati. Rlnn'iihus - Piefotin . , , Ve^pe^ilio . 13 *Vu\l[iT Auet. *'ivp»l(is Star, hrophrm Snv, hmon S,n\ N^ifitiij Sun, Boot !• EUROPE. »0 ise liabitationsar WI.IIN ITilloll ATVI. be lermed mcnt, or nntmni food, doct not exactly appear. Nature has given au abundant supply of l)oth ; and although the Italians do not possess tliu Urttish uystur, their seas produce a much greater variety in other species than we can boast of. It is no uncommon thing to sec from twelve to iifteen different sorts of shei!- fliih, none of a small size, exposed in the principal market at Naples; and we have been assured that double this number aro not unfrequently served at the tables of the higher ecclesiastics and nobility of Tarentum during Lent, that city being highly celebrated for its shell-fish. The Sulen $lrigitaluf (Jig. 101.) is abundant at Naples, and considered must delicate food. t]l7. On comparina thf tonehuhiftft nt Ihc Mnlltcrrancan with that of Britain, there doe« not appear lo murh dlffi'miru at at flrat inliilit hnvi> livpn ImnKliuHl ; nor arc we aware of more than three or four genera in ihoic ioiilhorn latiliiilt>i of which exam|ilt'i have not been found in our own. Yet, on dcacending to ape- m, the (lltll'rcnce In niiicli |ir> 'ili Hiivlntllv i<|n'i'le« arc moat numeroua in central Euro|x>, where the heat of summer ii leu calc'ulateil to dry up Ihimo aiiiiill pniila and ahaltow atreams, in which moat of thcae univalve molluaca delight to dwell, The Hilvlnlllu lilvnivca arc IVw i but are of apeclea which aecm peculiar to the European nage, liuio|ieiideiilly of thoiii> ciiiiiiiiiiii alike to llritaiii and the Continent, there are others in France and Ihe louth ul' Uiirn|i« {Jiu, \{H). (IdId lllhralia (x) and the true U. batava (A) are common in the Seine; and ic have received another ihvll from n«ar Gibraltar, which we suapect to lie a new apeciea, intermediate between the latter and ovatia ; we name it proviaionally Vnio intermedius (c, c), 1318, The Cephalopoda, or cuttlc-flah of the Mediterranean, though not of many apeciea, are sometimes found in prodigious numbers, and ficequently grow to an enormoua aize. The zoology of the Black and Caspian Seas is very little known. 1319. The phosphorescence qf Ihe Mediter. ranean is at times so brilliant, that it excites the admiration of all voyagers ; it therefore deaervea to be particularly mentioned. This phenomenon, frequently to be witnessed, in a leas degree, in the British seas, is en. tirely produced by various marine animals. Spix, the Bavaritin naturalist and traveller, in his passage down the Mediterranean, caused acveral buckets to be filled with this luminous water ; and the following results •ivu aivAi.vK aiiiit La, attended his experiments : — IIICO, These lumintmt animalevto adhered In whatever was wetted with the water, and continued to ahine ihtieiin ; the bucketa, when ahnkpn, np|it>HrlliR flili of luminous luirtlcica. The water, examined by a micro. icope, was fillul with little liiHltva, »iiiiii> riiuiunsh, aomc ubiong, and generally about the size of a poppy-seed ; ucnor thvao had, atoneeiiil, a mniill nnveUIIko n|)cniiig, encircled by fVom six to nine delicate hiaments ihieh float within the lilailder, niid with which the nnimal seems to attach itself to other bodies, ,ind to seize iU nourishment. In Ihe ilialdo lit' tlicac lilnildcra there were many other small darker points, crowded to- (tihrr on one side, or here and lhcri> aoine larger ones, which might be either the remains of smaller animals «hirh thoy had swallowed, iir Ihclr own npnwn. These globular animalcuin (which Spix considers to be of denature of Medusn) have lietMi iinineil liy I'Ciron and I,cchenault Arethusa i lagica, and by Savigny Kocti. Im n:iliaris. They swim III greater iir leaa numbera ac night, but in the sui line they appear to the naked ttelikc Utile drops nf grease, When put into a vcaacl they aoon die and fall tu the bottom ; when they come neartogct' er, they appear liivohiiiliirlly to attract each other, ao that they form whole groups. The same phenomeiioii is anmetimea olwvrviHl ill the day.tlinc, when the aky ia dark, which rarely happens : as thest mimali arc seldom I'uuiiil in water taken up In the day-time, it is probable they then sink to the depths of the ocean, anil only return iivar the aiirfttce towards night. {Spit, Trav.) nsi. other hminimi Artffli-4 r««Dnililif ImlU Hi Wigig M n tint t nnd whlrh rise sinsly above Ihe water ; and the strikinK of two waves rm wave MrlkInK a khin. whvn ItlltH) wlltl lhPM>nnlttinln, liahta together procures a shallow bluish streak of V%m, reseinblinK m all hunrouiiillnti til)|eris, It^klilfs lln>«t)| lliert* Ale aonielhnes tlie rellection of UfjhtninH on the water, {Spur, Trav. i. 44. ui'iiaitil lutiiiiioui bladileni llkt* tivry IihIIr, h Aiot In tllanieter, 47.) 13C2. The quadrupeds nf KHrnpf, acennltng to the moit recent distribution of the species (Grj/f Cat).), under Ihe modern diviaions, comprise alimit nliicty iiwcles, arranged under the following genera and sub-genera. To ifcescmiist be added the nah.qilHilru|ieil«, or Cctai^eie, chicHy inhabiting the high northern latitudes : — Dull. Bino'iihus • Pitfaliu . Vppenilio Mores . ■ N IMyiials ■ • » T»ll« . ■ 1 Wrsui ■ « MelM • • 1 (lull! . 1 Pulorliii ■ . 4 Martet • « l.iilra Myoius - - 2 lystTix • rnnla Mus . 8 Lefius VnhiM Crii-etun • - li Jjnfiomys Kella • l.,»IH (lerMllus • • 1 Cervus An|inlax - - 1 Antilo)ie t^mlnr . Arctomys • - 3 Rupricapra Arvlccila • Ndurus - - 'i Cnpra OvU llettryiltua I'teroniys . 1 Taunu Marine. Trlchecus Otarta Miiuunga - Uiif (fiMiruptdi, Erinacuiu - -8 1^1 The t;enera i\f KnrofH'aH Ai'i-rf*, In reference to our former remarks on the geographic distribution of wiimals, deaerves partiuulnr nllvntlnn, Thoso mnrktHl * are tvpical of families or aub^families ; those t in- cluiIeauh-Renera, or Butmnllnrtto VHrlrttloim of strui'turc to which we shall not ".tt.ich a distinct patronymic Dame; either because tlui hiKhi*P nroup« hftvc hot been sufficiently analysed, or iMJcause these subordinate fnrmghavc been mistaken (br K^'titTft' Dwided BtrftBglors are excluded j other genera, of uncertain rank, iTc not marked. The lyplcttl yvnvrA of the wading birds have not yet been ascertained. RdforiditJ liirdu *VulluF^rif*. Nfophron Sup, rinuion .Villi. Hilimiu .Suit, Aquila Rill/, ilia Arriiiller * fftlni t Hiitmi v\m\t \ MrlK. Fitairnitvfit Canrtm til toil* * llirunilii I rviMphiR tIL ftirfii'lM I y;l«inii III. 2 ' "l"«nm Un, * Hi«ni« I., 1 i)iilit«itlruma rL • l.uni. I,. ' I.MItl> III, J'niMll.ri* i, I ulllnu H»ii, Sect. V. Languages. 1 324. Europe, comidered in regard to Us languages, comprehends the whnle flobc, througli those immense colonies which have been founded by the nations of tliis continent in every other quarter of the world. . 1325. The European langtiages, ancient and modem, form tit families t — I. Tlic faniiiy of the Iberian languages; 2. That of the Cfltic languages; 3. That of the Thracn- I'dasfiic or Grteco-Latin languages; 4. The family of the Germanic languages; 5. Tlint of tliu Sclavonic languages ; 6. The family of the Uralian languages, commonly colled the I'm. nish or Chudic. SUBSECT. I. 1326. The Iberian or Basque famity has been divided into the two following branchca ; — 1. Ancient languages long extinct, under which aie classed the idioms spokvn by the Iberians in the greater part of the Spanish peninsula, in southern Guul, and in Home parts of Italy and its three great islands. 2. Ancient languages slill living ; of wliivli tliv tiiily one remaining is the Escuara or Basque, formerly spoken in a large portion of Spiiin and of southern Gaul, and now spoken only by the Vascongailos or Basques in the Spanish pro. vinccs of Biscay and Navarre, and in some parts of the south of France. The lliis(|iir8 nrc the descendants of the ancient Vasconcs. Their language, which resiniblcs nu other Euro- pean idiom, though it has adopted several Latin and soMie German words, appears to hnvu a certain affinity to the Sbemitic languages, and, in its conjugations, some analogy (g the languages of Ainerica. SuBSKCT. 2. 1 327. The Celtic family exhibits, lUte the Basque, two branches ; — I . Ancient languages long extinct, among which are classed the idioms spoken by the numerous Celtic imtiona iu Gaul, in Belgium, in the British Isles, in parts of Germany, Italy, and also Giilntia in Asia Minor. 2. Ancient languages still living, of which there are two : 1. The G'a//ic, (tV/i'C|Or Celtic Proper, spoken in different dialects by the descendants of the true Celts, in a liirgc portion of Ireland, in the Highlands of Scotland, in the Hebrides, and in the Isle of Man, 2. The Cambrian or Celto-Belgic, formerly spoken by the Cymri or Belgu in Delgium ami Britain, and now confined to a part of England and France. In this language are distin. guished three principal dialects : the IFelsh, spoken and written by the people of that name descended from the ancient Britons ; the Cornish, formerly spoken throughout Cornwall, but extinct since about the middle of the last century ; and the Bas-Breton, called also liy French writers the Celto-Breton, spoken in the part of Fraiice formerly called Lower Uretngne, liy the descendants of those British fugitives who, in the fifth century, sought refuge and settkd in Armorica. The BaS'Bretun has many sub-dialects and varieties. SuBSECT. 3. 1328. The numerous family of the Graco-Latin languages may be divided into four branches: I. The Illyrian/ II. TheEtruscan; III. The Het/eiiic .■ IV. The //h/ic iniluding the Latin, the Romanic or Romano- Rustic, the modern Itolian, the French, the Spanish or Castilian, the Portuguese, and the Valaque or Wallachian. 1329. I. The Thraco-Hlyrian branch includes all those Thracian and Illyriun nations once seated in Asia Minor west of the river Ilalys, and in Europe all over its cnNtern portion, from Noricum, occupied by Celtic tribes, to the mouths of the Danube and the Dnieper, and even beyond. Of those nations, long extinct, or confounded with others, the principal were the Phrygians, the Trojans, tlie Bithynians, the Lydians, the Carinns, the Lycinns, the Cimmerii, the Tauri, the Thracians properly so called, the Mks!, the Geta>, the Wiicc- donians, the ancient Illyria.is, among whom were the Dahnati and the Istri, the I'nnno- nians or Psones, the Vencti, and tlie Siculi. In this branch, according to M. Mallo-Urun, may be not improperly placed — 1330. The Albanian, spoken in Albania and other countries by the (Utipatar, nnmrd Ar- nauts by the Turks, and generally known under the name of Albanians, They form the jjrincipal population of Albania, and are scattered throughout European Turkey, especially in Roumelia, Bulgaria, and Macedonia ; others on the Slavonic military confines uf the Austrian empire, and others in various parts of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. This Scyp, or Albanian language, ocrording to M. Multe-Brun, n|)|ienrs to he formed of one third of ancient Greek, especially the ^olicdiuUct, one third Latin, one third of iin idiom Part III lUrta Mtmiton Iff. llnllruittt. * VvllH'AKUR tJn, * Slunu I., * l.utu. I., * l«n of S|iiiin and tlio Spanish pro- The UiisiiuM nre i>8 nu other Euru> 9, npiicnrs to hnvu iu uuulogy (0 tlie int langtingM long Celtic nntiona iu HO Giilntia in Asia L> Uallk, (iWii'iOr Celts, in n liirnc thu InIv of Moil. ill llulgium anil hgun)(u are distin- U)lc of tlint name lout Cornwall, but li'd also hy French (WIT Uri'iugne, by DUght rvfugc and lividcd into four le Italic, including |h, the Spanish ur [rrian nations once iMistorn portiiiii, land the Dnii'iicr, V>r», the principal lins, the Lycinns, iGi'ta-, the Mace- llstri, the I'nniio- M. Maltc-Urun, (j/nr, named Ar- They form llio ^urkey, especially coiitines of the III Sicilies. This lo formed nf «"<-■ Ihiid of nil idiw" DuuK I- £UUOPE. 301 not yet ascertained, probably the Illyrian. The Albanians have three diflercnt alphabet»t one sacred or hieratic, now fallen into disuse ; another, the Greek alphabet; a third the modern Italian or Latin. I;)<)1, II. 3'Ae Etruscan, (we are here reminded of the Osci and Heteroici, quasi Eiruia f) iiiokcn by the Etrurians, called also Tyrrhenians by the Greeks. This nation, according to Hinie, appears to have been a mixture of llhictian Celts with the Aborigines of Italy. The Etruscan alphabet was the same with the primitive alphabet of the Greeks ; it had sixteen Ictlersi and was written from right to left. i:)33. III. The Pelasgo- Hellenic, including the idioms in ancient times spoken by the fjmnus Pelasgi and Hellenes, long since incorporated with other nations. The people of early oiiiiin who may with probability be classed under this branch arc, the Pelasgi, the Leleges, iiul other tribes enumerated by ancient geographers among the population of Greece and \u isles, especially the Graeci, originally a small community of Thessaly, but remarkable for baving given name to the whole of that celebrated nation, whose language was— 133:!. The Hellenic, or anci^it Greek, formerly spoken in Greece and its dependencies, and 111 later period in a great part of Sicily, Lower Italy, Asia Minor, Egypt, and its depend- encies, in part of Gallia Narboncnsis, and in other districts bordering on the Mediterranean. I3:)4. During the Macedonian empire the Hellenic wa)> spoken at all the courts of the de< icendants of Alexander, and by persons of distinction in all the countries subject to the Ma- (((lunians. In a subsequent age, it was studied by all the most distinguished subjects of the Roman empire, and was the prevailing idiom in the East until the fall of Constantinople, at (hich period it was studied with renewed ardour in the West. In this language, 270 years kt'iire Christ, was written the famous version of the Hebrew Scriptures called the Septuagint ; in tills language also was the Gospel promulgated by the Apostles ; and it thus became for ever sacred. It appears not the least wonderful among the dispensations of Providence, that the light of Christianity should have been originally diffused under the most powerful empire mil in the most cultivated language of the ancient world, and that it should prevail notwith- lUiiding the power of the one, and the learning and philosophy for which the other was so proudly distinguished. The literature of the Greeks, comprehending some of tlie finest pro- ductions of the human mind, is, perhaps, the richest in the world, and presents an unparalleled strics of eminent writers, extending from the age of Homer to the middle of the fifteenth (tntury. The language is one of the most flexible, harmonious, and copious that have ever (lisicd ; its grammatical forms are almost identical with those of the Latin, to the form- iiion of which it has greatly contributed, but in many essential points it is superior, and espe- tiilly in the unlimited faculty of making as many compounds as can be required. M. Malte- Bnin distinguishes in the ancient Greek two different idioms : — 1 . The primitive Hellenic, iliich he subdivides into three principal dialects — the Arcadian, the Thessalian, with the udcnt Macedonian, and the (Enotrian, transported into Italy and mingled with the Latin ; !, nil! 'Jdlenic of the historical times, divided into four principal dialects and several niicties. 1335. III. The Romaic, or modernGreek, spoken by the Greeks of our own times, espe- ciilly in the Morca, in Livadia, Thessaly, the isle of Candia, the Archipelago, part of Al- liinia, Macedonia, Roumclia, Thrace, Asia Minor, Cyprus, and by the Greeks established in Wallnchia, Moldavia, Syria, and Egypt. The Romaic is also spoken by the inhabitants of the Ionian Isles, by considerable numbers of Greeks in the Austrian and Russian empires, and some hundred of Mainotes in Corsica, near Ajaccio. It is divided into two principal dialects, the Romaic and the .£olo- Dorian, each including various sub-dialects. 1336. IV. The Italic branch, so called, as including the languages of the aborigines of Inly, which form the stem of the modem idioms comprised in this branch. Those afio*^'- pnnwerc, the Euganei, the Ausones, the Lucani, the Brutti, the Piceni, tiie Marsi, the Urini, >lie Sabincs, and the Samnites. From a mixture of the three last idioms, primarily itiili the original Hellenic, afterwards with the old .Xolian and ancient Doric, was formed, kM. Malte-Brun inclines to think, the language spoken by the Romans, and called the Uin language. The languages included in that branch are, — 1:137. The Latin, which was the written and current language of the higher classes in Inly and throughout the Roman empire. It was very different from the lingua pl^eia or I niku, spoken in the rural districts of the peninsula, and by the lower classes in Spain, i Gaul, and the other provinces. Its grammatical forms are similar to the Greek, though less perfect. Latin literature, formed on that of Greece, is very rich in all branches of know- ledge, and, together with the Greek, is the source from which flows the literature of the mo- dern nations of Europe. Its most brilliant epoch was the Augustan age. In this language St Jerome wrote the Vulgate, or Latin translation of the Bible which is used in the Romish I ihurch. The overthrow of the Roman empire in the fifth century gave birth to a corrupt Uin, mingled with a great number of barbarous words, and named low Latin, which, mill thu fourteenth, was, almost exclusively, the written language throughout the West. In Uie two succeeding centuries,, Latin literature again flourished, especially in Italy ; but iln'as only to contribute to the improvement of modern languages, which being diligently act DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paiit III. !: and §iicccs!tfully cultivated, the Latin vras restricted to works of erudition alone. It, phraseology has had a marked influence on that of the most polite nations of Europe, h j. now a dead ianf^uoge, except in Poland and Hungary, where some educated persons spealc it in ordinary life with considerable purity, and with the Continental pronunciation, of course almost unintelligible to travpllers from the English universities, who cannot or will not re- linquish the Suxon diphthongal sounds of the vowels A, I, and U, the chief causes of their embarrassment. Latin is no longer employed except in the Catholic liturgy, in medicine in the diplomacy of the court of Rome, and partially in the literature of all the civilised nations of Europe. The alphabet, of twenty-three letters, having been improved in its charactirs by the Italians and French, is used by all the people of Europe, except the Greeks, the Russians, and some other nations who have particular alphabets. This same Latin alphabet with the Gothic forms it assumed under the pen of the writers of the middle ages, is used by the Germans and Danes, and by the Bohemians, and other Slavonic nations ; and according to some authors, its capital letters, truncated and squared to facilitate the inscrip. tion of them in wood or stone, constitute the Runic alphabet, formerly used in the north of Europe. I:i:i8. T/ie liomana, or Romana Rustica, spoken in the brightest ages of Rome by the lower classes in the south of the empire, excepting Greece, and some other countries. After various modifications more or less con^iiderable it appears still to subsist among the vulgnr dialects spoken throughout a great part of Spain, France, Switcerland, and some districts of Italy, The chief of those dialects, according to M. Champollion Figeac, are the foUowi i).-, classed with reference to those four regions :— In Spain, Sardinia, and the Balearic Isles, tlit> Catalan the Valcncian, the Majorcan. In France, the Languedociun, the Provencal, u^c Dau- pliinois, the Lyonnais, the Auvergnat, the Limousin, and the Gascon. In Switzerland, the Romanic, or Celto- Romanic, (frequently called Romance, Churwelsh, and Rhtctish,) the Valaisan in the Valais. In the states of the king of Sardinia are spoken the Savoisian ; and the Vaudois in the vales of Lucerne, Perosa, and part of Piedmont. To these might he added the jargon call lingua Franca, in which Catalan, Limousin, Sicilian, and Arabic are the principal ingredients. The Romance literature is also called that of the Troubadours, From the mixture of this language with the dilTcrent Germanic, Slavonic, and other idioms, were formed, in the tenth century, the following languages : — 1339. 2'/ie Italian, spoken by the Italians in almost all Italy, in the isles geographically connected with that peninsula, and in various Alpine territor'i>s ; also frequent in Dalmatia and the isle of Tino ; very common at Constantinople, and i ( ■ uveral mercantile towns of the Ottoman empire. The written language, which is nowhere generally spoken, is common with all well-educated Italians, and diflcrs little from the vulgar tongue, which is subdi- vided into a great number of dialects. The principal of these are, the Piedmontcse and Genoese ; the Milanese, or Lombard proper ; the Low Lombard ; the Bolognese, the Bcr- gamosc ; the Venetian, the Friulian, the Tyrolean, the vulgar Tuscan ; the Roman ; the Sabine and Abruzzan ; the Calabrian and Apulian ; the Tarentine ; the Neapolitan ; the Sicilian, and the Sardinian. 1340. T/ie French language, spoken by the French almost throughout the north of France ; by the Walloons and Flemings in various Netherlandish provinces ; by the Swiss, in several of their cantons ; by the people of Jersey and Guernsey ; also in some parts of tlic Austrian and Russian empires, and of the Prussian monarchy; by the French colonists in Asia, Africa, and America. In its infancy there were two idioms respectively designated by tlieir word of affirmation, their " Yes," the langue d'oc, which was used in the southern provinces, and the langue d'otn in the northern. This prevailed, and became the Frencli tongue ; the other was commemorated in the name o( Langvedoc, given to the province where it was most current. Without entering into farther detail respecting the French language, or analysing its structure, we may distinguish, after M. Champollion, the following as prin- cipal dialects : — the Picard, the Flemish, the Norman, the IValloon or Uounchi, tlic vulgar French, the Breton French, tlie Champinois, the Lorraine, the liurgundian, the Franchc-Comte, the Neufchatelain, the OrUannois, the Angevin, and the Manceau. To these might, perhaps, be added the jargon spoken by the negroes and Creoles in the Frencli West Indies. 1341. The Spanish or Castilian language, spoken by the Spaniards in the greater part of Spain, and, with some variation and admixture, by their descendants in Oceania, Africa, and America ; also by the numerous Spanish Jews established in the Ottoman empire, and in other states of Europe, and of North Africa ; in the isle of Trinidad belonging to the crown of Great Britain ; in the Floridas and some part of Louisiana ; and in the eastern part of Hispaniola or St. Domingo. This language is also common to all the inhabitants of the towns of Spain where the Basque and Romance languages are spoken. The written and polished language is almost identical in its grammatical forms with the Romance and the Portuguese ; and differs little from the Italian ; it is very rich and harmonious, notwithstand- ing some guttural and aspirate sounds taken from the Arabic, from which it has boirowed many words. It is singular to remark, that the German is characterised by similar gutturals or aspirates. The reigns of the emperor Charles V. and of bis son Philip II. were th» Boor l- EUROPE. 9M colden nitc of Spanixh literature | nflvr which it Aill into decay, but partiallv i till! Uuurbuii kings I'hilip V. And Clinrlvi III. Of the dialects, which dif ^' revived under „ . iflfer little from I'licli otlicr, the following are the principal :— the dialect of Toledo ; that of Leon and the Asturios; the Andalusian ; the Murclan | the Ualician, or Oallego ( and the Transatlantic, spoken in America ; where, next to the English, the Spanish language is spoken by the ffrcatoit number of inhabitants. I343> The Portu/fuea lanfiuagf, spoken by the Portuguese in Portugal and the Azores, andi with some dillerences, by the PurtugucHe Jews settled in Hamburg, Amsterdam, the Tyrul, Slid other parts of Europe, Asiai and AlVica ; also by the descendants of the Portu liuew in their Asiatic, African, Oceanic, and American colonies. The Portuguese h as ricl guest" rich and concise as its sister languages; it has borrowed some words from the Arabic and the French ; to the French it seems indebted for the soil sound ofg, and for the nasal syllables ; It is sonoroux, soft, and unimpeded by the aspirates and gutturals of the Spanish; but the fretiucncy of hiatus, and of tiie modern nasal no, ecpiisonant with the French am or an, injure tlic Imrniony of the language. Its origin, like that of the Spanish, is dated in the eleventh century; and it had attained its maturity in the sixteenth. The Portuguese literature, which (?nmoens illustrated with one of the llnest epics in existence, is as varied and rich as tlie Spanish, tliough less known. It revived in the memorable reign of Joseph. The language may be said to exhibit no dilfurcnces of dialect ; there are only varieties : those which differ most from the written language are, the Minho, Algarve, and Aiores varieties in Europe ; the Drazilian in America; *hose of Congo aiul Moianibi(|ue in Africa; and of Goa and Macao in Asia. Some, hb.;ever, regard as n dialect of the Portuguese, the jargon called tinma geral, spoken along the east and west ciNists of Africa, especially in the region called by the French Senfgambia, and in Guinea ; also lUung the coasts of Ceylon and the Indian peninsula. In Africa, as well as in Asia, it presents the phenomenon offered by the lingua Fmca in the Mediterranean, and attests ttie power formerly held by the Portuguese in those regions. I34S. The Valaqxie or tl'allachtan, spukoit by the Rumai\jc or Roumouni, better known as Volaqucs, .a people apparently descended nvm the ancient Roman colonists settled in Dacia and Thrace, and the Slavonic and other nations dwelling there. Its literature is very meagre. Among its numerous dialects the more remarkable arc the Iloumounic or Valaque proper, spoken in Wallachia, Moldavia, and Hessarabia; the Hungarian Valaque, the Macedo-Vnlaque, and the Kutzo- Valaque, spoken it: various sub-dialects, in several parts of Europeau Turkey, south of the Dniiubv. SuusioT. 4. 1344. Thefamilit of the Germanic laugiiagfii next clidms our notice. Without entering into tlic liistory of the Germanic nations, which rivals in importance that of the Grsco- Latin, ire may class these different idioms, according to M. Malle-Hrun's theory, in four branches; the Teutonic, the Sojcoh or Cimbrk, the Scandinavian or Normanno- Gothic, and the Anglo- Mannic. 1345. The Teutonic branch, which compriNCS the idioms of the various ancient nations ami tribes recognised as German by the Itoinnn historians and writers ; as the Bastarme, the Suevi, the Marcomanni, the Ilermuiulurl, and the Franci, presents the following idioms t — 1346. The ancient high German {alt hiwh IhiHlich), formerly spoken in different dialects lliroughout South Germany, Stvitiecilandi AInik-c, Ilesse, Thuriiigia, Wetteravia, and a great part of tliu countries once subjected to the Franks. It has been extinct for several centu- ries: its three principal dialects were, the Fraiu'ic, and the Alemannic, which are of con* tci'iporary origin, and cont4un the most oiicient productions of that language, and the Midilk High German, which succeeded thcin. The Francic or Ttidesgue was the language (if (lie Franks; it was spoken at the court of the Merovingian and Carlovingian sovereigns, until CImrlcs the Bold ; after whose reign it gave way to the old French in France, but roniinucd to be the court language in (iermnny until the times of the Hohenstaufen. The Middle High German, according to the erudite Dr. Grimm, is the language in which were composed the numerous works of the Sunbiat), Ihtvariim, Austrian, and Swiss writers, and a'veral other authors in Middle and Lower Germany, from the eleventh to the fifteenth centuries. Its finest productions are dated in the period of the Hohenstaufen, from 1136 to l'-'54, called also the Minneiilngfr, the trouvetirs and troubadours of Germony. The Nibelungeii-licd, the finest epic in tlds language, is supposed by Winter t" have been com- posed in 1290, by Conrad of Wlirtxburg. 1347. The German, called also neu hovh Deulsch, in which distinction must be made between the written and the spoken language. The latter is divided into a great number of Tcry different dialects, subdivided into several sub-dialects and varieties. The written language is nowhere spoken by the people ; it was formed at tlie period when Luther, reject- ing the M(j(/te High and the Middle Low llermnn, adopted in preference the dialect of Misnia or Meissen, which had begun to be written much later. This Misnian dialect, ably employed DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPIIY. Pv«T III. ut multiiiiili' by that grent innn nnd Ins niiiiivroiiH rulluwvrii, iwM)n In'oiinif, an thv langiingv uf Uniks nnd of good society, fuinimin to nil wi'lUi'ilucntfti Oennanit, nnd alitu rnnki'd oh tlio Icamitl languBgu of the north nnnrt of the vnNt of Europe. The liternturo of Germany in regard to the quality of itn protluitionN, rivaU those of France and England, and surpassei them in uhundance. The (ierinnn Is the richest in worfls of any Innguuge in Europu ' and this distinction it owes to the grent ninnher of its nionosyllnbic roots, with which it trcatts new terms a vinces of the North, nnd in some l>ordering districts of the South : with certnin changes and admixtures it is also spoken, or at lenst un(lerstoor cIimhi'h in thu Fvrbo IsIch, and in Iceland. It hi) two principal dialects, each hnviiiK '-. vcral suh-diulecU and varieties: the Danith pptiier, which includes the insular Uuniili. the ancient sub-dialect of Bornholm, the nicMlern Sorwi'gian, and the idiuiii (>f Scania. I'lu Juttanilisli, or moilvrn Jutic, including the Nor- Diaiino-Jutic, the Danu-Jutic, and thu Anglo-Jutic. I:IJ)K. The Aiifflo-iirilanmc (nut to be confounded with the liritish, which i» Weltit,) (oiiiimMi'sonly two idixniii. 1:1.;!). The An^lo- Saxon, fomied by a mixture of the idioms spoken by the Angli, the Saxons, md the Jutes, who, invited by thu liritons against the I'icts, finally took possession of tlio (uuiitry, where their language was successively preserved in three dialects, until the eighth M'liry. During the invasions and ti'inporary ascendency of the Danes, it was so modifled uto become Daiio-Saxon, or rather this inuy be called a dialect of the Anglo-Saxon. For sfvoriil ci'iiliiries tliis language has been totally deud ; but from its literary importance it n Htuiiiol in the Kiiglish universities, and has uf late attracted much attention. |;l()0. The KiifilM, spoken in Kngland, in the east and south-cast uf .Scotland, in part of Iri'lami luul uf Wales ; in the Shetland Isles, in the isles of Jersey and Guernsey, in the British colonies of Asia, Oceania, Africa, and America. It is the national language of thu L'nlU'd States of America. It is also cidtivated and spoken by a great number of persons of ilillcreiit nations in all parts of the world on account of its literary, political, and com> Dwri'iul importance : the two latter considerations render it very current in the kingdom of Hanuvcr, in the Ionian Isles and Malta, in Portugal and Brazil, and in tlic republic of llayti. The Knglish language is a mixture of the Anglo-Saxon and the Neustrian French or Fruiu'o- Norman, with some Celtic words, and a few of ancient British origin. It has ini{>urti'(l largely from the Greek and Latin, as knowledge and culture advanced in the ution. If the number of words in the language be taken at thirty-eight thousand, those of Siiuii or northern origin will be found limited to about eight thousand, the rest being prin- (ipally Greek .nd I..atin derivatives. Copious and energetic, the English language is the amplest and most monosyllabic of all European idioms ; aiul it is that also of wliich the (tonuiiciation diflers most from the orthography. It did not become the language of the dal(ui\tii the reign of Edward III., since which time it has rapidly improved. Towards I tln'oimiu'iicemeiit of the seventeenth century may l)e dated its regular developement, and in die iH'^intiing of the eighteenth it took its fixed and invariable form. Tlie English language ivi'upic's one of the most eminent places in European literature ; it is comparable with any oftlu'ni in elegance, imd perhaps, surpasses them all in energy. It is no less graceful than nk'isc ; its poetry is at once manly and harmoiu'uus ; and, like that of the cognate languages gf llii' nurtli, is admirably adapted to depict the sublimities of nature and portray the stronger pissioiis : as the language of political and parliamentary eloquence, il is without a rival. Of e iiumlier of its dialects it might be ditticult to speak with precision ; foreign philologers I fciinf!iiish four as the principal ; — the English proper; tUe Nort/iitmbrian English, caUtid I ilm Daiiii- English from the great number of Danish words retained in it, and spoken in wiuuri siib-dialects in Yorkshire, Lancashire, Cumberland, and Westmoreland : the Scottish In .iiiilo-Scandinuvian, including the Lowland Scottish, with the Border language ; and lastly liiil'Ura-Kurujwan English, prevalent in all the English colonies and in the American I liiili'd Stales. It has been observed that the English language is spoken by the greatest I mbt-r of the inhabitants of the New World. SUBSECT. 5. 1361. The family of the Slavonic languages is widely diffused. From the neighbourhood I (( L'dina in Italy, from Sillian in the Tyrol, and froni the centre of Gennany to the remotest 1 iiiremilies of Europe and of Asia, and even to the north-west coast of America, arc nations I ^.Slavonic origin to be found ; the tract of country over which they hold sway amounting to I tot a sixth part of the habitable surface of the globe. These nations exhibit almost all the I'lHctii's of the human race, both physical and moral, if not from the most exalted, at lea.st to pn.ubt degraded. I3(i'j. The Slavonic languages, so far as is at present known, may be ri>;,'iirded as forming tw branches : 1. The Kusso-Illyrian. 2. The Bohemo-Polish. J. The Wendo- I liihuaniun. \%'i. (1.) The Uiisso-Illvkian is so called from its chief people, the Russians, and from I lie general appellation Illyrian given to most of the nations who sjjcak Servian or Croate. I He languages comprised in this branch are : — 13C4. The Slavonic, Servian, Serbe, or Illyriun, called also by some authors Rutena, spoken Id iliH'crent dialects by the more southern Slavi, generally denominated Illyrians. They ll'ell in tlie Austrian and Ottoman empires, excepting a small number, settled as colonists I«iouth Russia. The dialects differing most from each other, and from the ancient Sla- Iwicart, the Servian or Serblin, with various sub-dialects ; the Jtaliano-Slavonic, spoken on p coast of Dalmatia ; the Uskoke, spoken b tiic wanderii.g tribes in Scrvia, Bosnia, Dal- 306 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pari III. M matia, Croatia, Maritime Hungary, and Carniola. It is mixed with many Turkish words. Lastly, the Bulgarian, spoken in Bulgaria, in the Ottoman empire. 1365. The Russian, Rusid, or modem Russian, spoken throughout the Russian empire by the Russians, who are the ruling nation ; also spoken in a great part of Gallicia and part of Hungary in the Austrian empire. Since the reign of the Czar Peter, when the Slavvenski was abandoned for the Ruski, it became the language of literature and of business through- out Russia. It has the following dialects, which differ little from each other, the felUti' Ruski, or Russian of Great Russia; the Malo-Ruski, or Russian of Little Russia; the Suz> dalian ; the Olonetzian, and the Rusniac. 1366. The Create, spoken by the Croates or Khorbates, who delight to call it the Illyrian. 1367. The Ifende or Winde, spoken by several Slavonic nations subject to the Austrian empire, and known by different names in the countries they inhabit. In the Wende ap- pear to be distinguished three principal dialects, the Carniolan, the Carinthian, and the Styrian. 1 368. (2.) The Bohemo- Polish, named from its two principal nations, the Bohemians and the Poles. The languages belonging to this branch are, the Bohemian or Chekhe, including the Bohemian proper and certain idioms, bearing the character of principal dialects, and spoken in the Austrian empire. 1369. The Bohemian proper, or Chekhe, is spoken in several very different sub-dialects by the Chekhcs or Czecks, better known by the appellation of Bohemians. The dialvct of Prague is the most elegant and pure. The others are the Slowac, the Hannac, the Straniac, the Passekarsk, the Saliashac, and the Szotac, 1370. The Polish is spoken by the Poles, called, in the middle ages, Lechen or Liachy. They form more than three fourths of the population of the present Russian kingdom of Poland, almost the whole population of the republic of Cracow, and of the western part of Gallicia, in the empire of Austria. They also form three fourths of the population of the grand duchy of Posen, two thirds of that of West Prussia, and part of that of Silesia. The Polish is also the national language of the nobility and part of the commonalty in all tlie countries formerly belonging to the kingdom of Poland ; and is spoken by thousands of colonists in Russia. Its principal dialects are those of Great Poland, of Little Poland, of West Prussia, of Mazovia, of Polish Silesia, of the Geralys or highlanders, belonging to part of the Crapacks in Gallicia. The preference given in Poland to the Latin, long retarded the progress of this national language. 1371. The Serbe or Sorabe, spoken until the fourteenth century by the Serbes or Sserske. It has two dialects ; the Upper Lusatian, and the Lower Lusatian. 1372. (3.) The Wendo-Lithuaniam, called also the Germano- Slavonic. This branch comprises the following idioms : — 1.373. The Wenrf, spoken until the fourteenth century in different dialects throngliout the north of Germany, from Holstein to Pomerania, by various nations, as the Wagriam, the Polabes, the Wilzians, the Obotriles, the "ugians, and the Pomeranians, Since the fourteenth century it has been extinct, with the exception of the Linonish, improperly called the i'o/ii- bish dialect, which subsisted in some districts until the latter half of the eighteenth. 1 374. The Prucxe or ancient Prussian, formerly spoken in eleven very different dialects, by the tribes forming the powerful nation of the Prucii, dwelling between the Vistula and the Pregel. It is almost eriirely extinct. 1 375. The Lithuanian or Littauish, formerly spoken by those powerful nations the Lithua- nians and Kriwitschi, and now current only among the common people ; as the higher classes speak Polish, with Russian or German, according to their different countries. Its principal dialects have been thus classed : — The Lithuanian proper, the SamogUian, the Kriioitsh, and the Prusso- Lithuanian. 1 376. The Lelte, Lettwa, Leilonian, or Lettish, spoken by the Letts or Lettons, forming the bulk of the population in the government of Mittau, a large part of that of Riga, a small portion of that of Witepsk in Russia, and of the province of East Prussia. It has tivc prin- cipal dialects, subdivided into a multitude of very different sub-dialects. The former, according to Mr. Watson, are, the Lette proper ; the Semgallian or SemgaUish ; the Letlo- Livunian or Lieflandish ; the Seelian, spoken by the Seeles in Courland : the lyeniie, by the Wendes, in tho north-east of that duchy, particularly in the neighbourhood of Windau. This language abounds with German phrases and expressions. 1 377. The SlavotUc nations employ five dtWeretU alphabets : — 1. The Cyrillian, invented by St. Cyril in 865, called also the Siirvian or Ruthenian. 2. The Gtagolilic, Sbimnic, Xruh- u y. I'tiienilttHlll ill. KtfTfimuil II. H««i>iilw I J. I Ivpi^imt l.v Kmiliil II. Kotolrk li. IV'nriih III. .\y)M'f Is. lutliiiiililll lit. limli<(m 111. ^^lllllll Unit VI. MiHkllMI n- Miikt^>lr.V Uiiiii.lKmiiitili «). Hliiili; ■ix ritkpTiHii Kti. TlHr.k »7. Niitih Allcrtim »». Il.i».. VII. Hi|i(iii .Nl. KritilHl M. |.4iii4.liir 3V. UdNitllu J.l. I'millwi .11. Ilia,lii.r,l .vs. Kki|. KiidriutHiriKtuh V. I.ml. H N... Mtllnii iiiull (V. (irval lUilMil iX I|iinup4 II. Il«l.ii iX KlU|l. \i«i.,.ri III. KLillMll ti7. lliinml I'S III I III I'll. .\.l.iMivini ;». I 111 .urn. Ill •\\U I'M VI. .\IIV.i„ii IV N.illlilylirtlll !i. UHi.iii .Miiwlimy TV I1t<(ii|S,iiii III. Nr»«rli '! M««liit,| !' J i";« ■I liiiiilltuN *|| »,;i. Ill 1 Itiinrr nv. VdiiiiKiiili U, jliH . \m HI. HiiliLititi f^X Niirw it li U< lIlTllllMI nr. NH, Kll, IMI, III. W(. M.I. lit. nil. U7. tin. nil. mi. III. »K. 11.1, lit, Ikl. im. II?. m. iw. Ill, 11. \t. \x It. 1/1. Ill, 17. IK. III. Wl. «l, Ui. ux 'vt, .»n, !"■ Kll, Inn, 1,111, 1,11, I.K, 1,1,1. I,1t. I,T1, 1,111. l.v. I. IN. I.1U. Ull. 141. ItV, lt.1, 141, 14.1, 1411. |{{; 1411. 1,111. I.M. \m. I. It. I.M. i.Ml. \!>h t.lN, m- iim, III. IIV. Ii.1. 111. 11.1. lid. II?. llN. rtii, Kmi tivnham iitus TlwUfanl Itlnirli I'rtpt-liord nil IHiiiille htitmfViitt tlarlHiniuitti liflrtHitulr I'ltiretitry 'I'nhiwortti l.li lilli'lil Itlrnilnglintii ItrlilKvttorlti Klireo aliurji riviilliuinon l.uillow Tenburj l«nittltiHter llnilnrutd 'i'pwhiHilmi7 WohT?*ter ' Ak-wter W^nvlrk l^vmtttiitl *l tm(T«ler Ntirltiiiiiililnn HqTerences to the Map of the British Iilands. Vl%. Honlum 173, Brlghlm 174, Arundel 175, Pulborouffh I7n. UullilforiT 177, (tmlalmlng 178, t'etworth I7». ClilcliMter IHO. I'ortnniuuth IKl, Soiithanniton IBS. IVhltfliurcli 1H.1. Andover 1N4, HalJibur; IS.'i, Lvmintfton iHli. Poole 1117. Hhaneaburv 188. Balli ISy. Uibrlilile I Wl. Wells till, (llastonbury Mi. Ikhester t'J.1. Taunton IU4. I'urlock lUA. Mouth Barn- fttnule 1%. HIdelbrd 197, TorrinKfon 11)8. I.auncettton i.tiniiniiiiiinn i»n> iiBullcehl ^t'ullln^llorull^h I'J'I. Ilodniin rlira|i«li;n HiKI. st. Aunea lluiilltiiid ItiHliimV I'niHlil-ltlKe .Mililenliall llufj Mt, Kd- iiiundi rYauillhfthani Alillmrouf(li lluvtlrh Midliurj Mrtfttlfll I'lilrluMer l'ii|ill.»liall itlH.lllll lllnluiii'i htorl- «mf llurlltint M, Alliaiit AylenbutT Wlii.lo* jIuikliMliam WumlMiKk lllltliinl llliminler llenltml ItUM I iilt'iinl IttlMllI MeUsham Malinnlitiry rinmrwiiif MwhldiHt llutiKerlbrd Kptuifi Aliliiitilim lliliint U'nllliilifnnl J Imiiit' W'liuUiir I'lbrlilai' tCihtt^tiiii I'tihtlillt lltwtmtoll l.iitiiliin rliethlBfbld Mntiliin MnliUitme I 'aiiti'tliurji MatKate ItaniNiiatc Ikiver II vp llaMllilK NpallitiV Itntlli! V,M\ llrlntlgiKl . Itul|{nte 1^(11. IVnzance Wi. Ktilmouth S(l.1. Tregony WI4. Tavlitocli VtlA. IMyinoutti KUfl. Modbury 1MI7. Darlinouth illW. Asbburtun Villi. Chuinleiiih KtO. Tiverton »11. Klelcr ni. Hidniouth K1.1. Iloniton Vt4. Lyme Kegtt m.'). IhircheMer Vlli. Weymouth. Riitrt. a Tvne b Tie. c llerwent d Swale p Wliarft f Aire Rllun Trent I (luse i'l'liainea Avon 1 Hevem m Dee. WALEN. I, Flint •i. Ml. Asniih ,1. tlenblKh 4, Alien onway a. ItaiiKur •' (i. Iteaiiinarig 7. It.ilyhead H. raeniarvnn U. I.Ian llalam in. Ht. Mary'a II. Harlech \t. Ilala 1.1. Corwen t4. MuntKomery l.^. IHnaBntowd til. Towyn 17, AlivrMtwIth 18. ttlial'nder tU, llualt VI). 'I'nttarron ill. lilaliliear tt. Carilliiaii V.I. NewiHirt V4. FUcanl 2£. St. Davld'i 86. Pembroke 57. Caermarthen V8. Cwyrgryg V». Brecon ,1U. Monmouth SI. Uike 32. Chepilow 33. Newport 34. Cardlfl- 36. l.andatf ,16. Llantrisscnt 37. Hwaniea. Rttwrl. a Towey b Tlevy c Dee. SCOTLAND. 1. IhimeM i. Tongue 3. Heay 4. Thuno ,1. Wick 6. Dunlieath 7. Helmsdale 8. Dornoch 'J. Tain 1". Portlnlclk 11. Ullapool IV. Poolew 13. Torrldon 14. Loch Carron Id. Dingwall 16. Ikauly 17. Inverness 15. (iraiuown 1«. Nairn VO. Elgin VI. Inveraven VV. (Mullen 83. Banir 84. Huntley 85. Turreir VG. Fraienburgh 87. Peterhead 88. Newburgh 8!t. Abeideen 3u. Stonehaven 31. Uervie 3V. Tulloch 33. Braemar 34. Fort Augustus 35. (ilenelg 36. Arasaig 37. Ai.pln ,18. Fort WUltam 31). Perth 4(1. Dunkeld 4I.lllairw\thol 4V. Ilru bin 43. Montrose 44. Furfar 45. Arbroatli 46. Dundee 47. St. Andrews 48. Anitrutlier 49. Kinroas 50. Inverkeithing 51. ('larkinannan 58. IMulhUI 53. Stirling 54. Inverary .15. Oban 56. Dumbarton 57. ttrt«nock 58. Paisley 51). Irvine m. Hamilton Tit. tila^gow 68. Falkirk 63. Linlithgow 64. Wbllbum (t5. Peebles 66. Killnburgh 67. Haddington X 3 68. North Berwick 69. Dunbar 70. Berwick 71. Kelso 78. .ledburgh 73. Hawick 74. Ashkirk 75. BIggar 76. Molf'at 77. Sanquhar 78. Lanark 79. Kilmarnock 80. Ayr Sl.GIrran 88. Balllntrae 83. Stranraer 84. Port Patrick 85. Wigton 86. Kircudbright 87. New Galloway 88. Monlhive 89. Dumfries 90. Langholm 91. Annan. Rit«r<. b l£? c Dee d Tay e Clyde f Ken zNith n Aiman i Tweed. IRELAND. I. Bel&st 8. Antrim 3. l.«me 4. Olenarm 5. Bally(3astle €. Ballymoney 7. Coluriiln., 8. Tubliennole 9. Straliane 10. IxinUonderry 11. White Castle 18. Kaiihoe 13. Lirfbrd 14. 1.etterkenny 15. Killyliegs 16. Donegal 17. Baliyliory 18. Om,igh 19. Pomeroy 80. Clogher 21. Dutigannon 88. .\ rmagh 23. Lurgan 84. Donatfhadee 25. Portaferry 26. Downpntrick 87. Strevoy 88. Ncwry 89. Dundalk 30. Munaghall 31. C'avan 38. Callahill 33. Ennlskillen 34. Churchill .15. Sllgo 36. Drumelm 37. Ballvmore 38. Culooney 39. Balllna 40. Killa'.a 41. Rillvglast 48. riatfgan 4.1. Newport 44. West port 45. Kumor 46. Itallinrobe 47. t'astle llarr 48. Kiliolman 49. Tuani 50. Elphbl 51. Roscommon 58. Leitrlm 53. Longford 54. Moynalty 55. Carrickmacross 56. Dunleer 57. Droghetla 58. Balbriggan 59. Dublbi 60. Screen 61. Trim 6V. Maynooth 63. Naas 64. Tullamore 65. Mulllngal 66. Athlone 67. Eyrecourt 68. Ballyforan 69. Newton Bellew 70. Loughrea 71. Ommore 78. Ougntera 73. GaTway 74.Gort 75. Innlstymon 76. Kilrush 77. Clare 78. Ennls 79. Limerick 80. Portumna 81. Nenagh 88. KillaToe 83. Thurles 84. Roscre* 85. Durrow 86. Ath 87. Kildare 88. Carlow 89. Tullow go, Baltlnglast 91. Blessington 98. Toshet 93. Wfcklow 94. Oorey 95. Ballycanoe 96. Ennlscorthy 97. Weiford 98. Fethatd 99. Waterfonl 100. Thomas Town Ifll. Kilkenny 108. ('arrick on Hulr« 103. Clonmel 104. Ballvporpen lo,'!. TIpperary 106. Killmallock 1U7. Askeyton 108. Ilnllylongfoid 1119. Trnlee 11(1. Castle Ford 111. Killaniey 118. Kenmare 113. Castletown 114. Hantry US. Castletown 116. Klnsale 117. Cork 118. Kiliady 119. Tuchgeela 180. Mallow 181. Hatbcormlick Vl'i. Kildorery 183. Llsniore 184. Vougball 185. Dungarvan 186. Tramore. Aitvrs. a Ban b .Cariln^ford c Iloyne d Itarrow e Nore f Suire g ItUukwater 11 Shannon 1 Suck 910 MAP OF ENGLAND -.NORTH. Fig. 10,".. I «*• SIS DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pam III. almost said to face the unexplored expanse of the Polar Sea. Exclusive of the northern insulu apiiendages, it may be considered as situated l>etwcen the fiftieth and fifty-ninth degrees of north latitude, and between the second degree of east and tiic tenth of west longitude. It Is geographically divided into two islands of unequal magnitude, Great Britain and Ireland ' the latter being inferior to the sister isle in length by more than half, though nearly equal' ill average breadth. Britain, again, is divided into two unequal parts : England, which, in. eluding Wales, contains 57,960 British square miles ; and Scotland, which contains .')0,500 ' and the three, though now united into one kingdom, under one legislature, respectively exhibit peculiarities which characterise them as distinct countries. It wiU, therefore, be requisite to describe each separately, commencing with England, which cannot by the strongest national partialities be denied to be foremost in wealth, population, and power. Being also the seat of empire and legislation, the chapter which treats of England will afford the proptn* place for many details, particularly of a political nature, which are alike applicable to her with the two sister countries. Book I. ms. The surface of KH Sect. I. General Outline and Aspect. 1393. England is bounded on the south by the English Channel, interposed between its coast and that of France ; on the east by the German Sea, on the north by Scotland, from which it is separated by the Tweed, the Cheviot hills, and the Frith of Solway ; on the west by the Irish Sea and St. George's Channel : the promontory of the Land's- End, formini; its south-western extremity, faces tlie vast expanse of the Atlantic. 1394. Tlie greatest dimension of England is from south to north, between the Lizard Point, 49° 58' N., and Berwick on Tweed, 55° 45' N. ; making five degrees and three quarters, or four hundred miles, in length. The points of extreme breadth are the Land's- End {fig. 104,), in 5° 41' W., and LowcstolTe, in 1° 44' E., forming a space which maybe estimated in this latitude at 280 miles. There is no point, however, where a line of this extent can be carried across the island, and the northern part docs not on an av rage exceed one hundred miles in breadtb. The area, as already stated, in a late parliamentary report, is computed at 57,960 square miles. Btferences to the Map qf England, — Korth Part. NORTH SERIES. I. Herwick i. MrlAnim 8. lleirord 4. N. Charlton 5. Alnwirk UliltUnKhain 7. Uswayfora 8. KImIoh 9. Kolhbury 10. Warkworih It. Morpeth 18. HiTthe W. Clifton 14. Stamfoi^am 15. Kirk Harle 16. llarlinfrton 17. Ifeliinjjhain IS. Biiiter.liaugh V.I. Shlllbum Sn. Ktmiiel VI. Hcwcastle VU. Ixxigtown jf.1. Hraiiipton SI. Hallwhistle in, Slnimilmm W. Heiham V7. HIrkle; 3H. Newcastle S9. .Nonh Shleldl 30. Tjrnemouth 31. South Shield! yi. Sunderland 33. Shutton 34. Durham 35. Chesterle. Street 3f). LanchiMer 37. WoUhiKham 38. Stanhope 39. Acton 40. Aldi-one 41. CroHKill 4i. Kirk Oswald 43. lAumhj 44. Hutton 45. Carlisle 46. Orton 47. Wlgton 48. Ahbe^holme 49. .MarT))ort 50. Workington 51. Cockermouth 5!. Irebjr 53. Knwick 54. Matterdale 55. I'enrith 5fi. Rliflon 57. Atipleby 58. Milbiim U. Bnu«h Slackholin Miilillelon KfOtl*»ton Harnard Castle Staindrop West Auckland Bishop Auckland Seiuth 126. Llangollen 9. Keiuhlej 10. Hrnilfoni 67. Salllleel 127. Kllesmcre 68. Sutton 128. Won 11. Dewiiliurir 69. Alford 129. Whitchurch 12. Wakelield 711. llurih 71. Walnfleet 1.10. Malpaa 13. I«ed> 131. Drayton 1 1. ronlefract 72. SplUby 73. Homcastle 132. Ercleshall 15. Snailh 1.13. Stone 16. Selby ;4. Tallenhall 134.Newcastle'Under- 17. Ilowden 75. Ih^nston Line 18. Burton 76. Narenbj 13.5. Burslem 19. South Cove 77. Lincoln l.Vi. Cheadle 20. Hull 78. Thocnej 137. Uttoieter 138, .\shbome 1,19. Derby 140. Helper 141. Nottingham 142. nollisford 1 (3. (iraiitham 144. SIcal'oril 145. FolkinKb.im 116. Doniiingtun 147. Baston 148. Burnliam .Market 149. Castle Kiainfi 1.10. Fakenhain 151. New WaUing. ham 152. Holt 1.53, Oonicr 154, N, WaUliam, ISLE OF MAN, 1, Ramsey 2, Peel 3, Douulas 4, Castletown, Hivcrt. a Till b AIn c Cotjuet d Weiislieck e BIyth f Tvne KU'e.ir Tees I Ksk 1 Itye k Dprwent I lluse m Swale n I'le o Wharf p Air q Caldcr r I^in t Bother t Derwent u Dove T Trent w Ankholin X Witham y Conttay ■ Clwyd a* Dee b* Weaver c* Mersey d* Rlhlile e* l.une f* Ik'rwcnl g* Eden. .S'llllTH SKRIEH I. rallytiflut iMntJiy ?. DinasinowiUly (. Iltiulre S. Umfjllm Mlanfair *. shrewsliury . j,(l.ir(^try I L li'elIini:ton !l..\e«JHirt I itSufroni llCmiimk I lUihlirl'l !'..l;ilAii'« Uroinley , ;:. Burton I t:..tihbydela I Zitufli I KKttltfWorlh !.<.lAu,'lilN>ri)iiffh I :\ Mmint Sorrel I »lsiid I N >j4lilmg f HollmiTl I '• Wi.iie.lch . .vtrnj J 'il-inii Ke^'is I "Vlrliurough '4i;;.h,lril - ' 'vsiriiam I I F.i,t Iteerh.im I > .ii[.hsm I IS'nlch _ llVmnouth lltLownloft ll'lkiles iHLalilan I f.Biiiiitay I f Hirlralon I r.VriltiK'kinKhaiii llvliimondliain lfi.Hmi;harn I )l Wittoii li. Esil llarliiiK jillwfonl ^Krmdon I I lltlhvold ;■ ritwiihaiii |>.Er "Much I X RaniM-y J.v.^^rnley lii'rt rtonniifh I ' Xoriiiai) ( russ J Uligdle ■ flKakii>(,.hain ■ SlBinijIiain J(!.I,fl,T.ter ■ iVirinllar. I ttqxMigh irUiterwiirlh I^Hi'lckley f .Vuneitni) _ 'IthtTilime ITTiititrnrllt IJi'msMII _.>ill»iiC„ldfield ■ ,l>ilkill 1 iBiriiiiiii;ti.i,n ■ filVvrrh.unpton ■ ^ DmlL'enDrlh ■ ^ltn]lrIft ■S.»«rhVlVnlock |«fch«,,'.C.u,|, ■ fc-Voflltturiicry I'-Vlown Ji.l.infjir l;»»lniilli.lh 86. Aliervsi 87. Almrllm 88. Simllv \ 89. I.Ulill, 90. Hh,i,adi 91. Llandiui "i- .Vew h" »»• KnlBhio »4, Clunn 95, Ludltiw Uti. Clciilmry «. . ""'"f 97, lli'wdioj 08. Klild.riii 99, Siiiurlirii 100. Ilarlesow 101. llrninuiri 102. DrullWlH 103. Ilenlev In ".. Warwick 105. 1 ovenlry llHi. Ia)aiiiinj{| 107. Daveulry III''. Hudhy ' ll'J). Roihwell 110. Norlliaiiii 111. Kelleiiiig 112. Thr-tiiatoi 3, KImlMli,, •14, St. .\e„,., 1 5. llunlliiKd ll'i. St. IvM 17. WllllnKha .I;.' ^•«'"|«r^ 119 Liitlo||,,r 120. liurv Ni. 1 122. Uwiirih 123. Diss"" laL Kye '"• IM«"ham 1,5' J.*'""''"''' 1»7. Wamlhiali 128. Souihwoid }*•■<■ Dunwii'h Lyi. Saiimiiulh I.II.AIill.irouul 32. H'..«I1„|4 .14. lUdlelHh •"• JJ h,«l""lil 136. Bildeslon .17. Nee,lham '39, Sudbury 40. Ilaverhfll J 11. Linton J'12. CamlirldiM 1 .l.laiion "^ 144. Iliivslou 115. j'olloi, 116. Bedford 117. Olney 1 18. NewiKiri Pa ll9.1;oii,i, |i|„, l.io, lowcesler [''}.■ I'l" klnilliail 152. Ilraekley 15.1. Baiulliliry 1.54. Kinelon 155. Shlp.i.ni U|u , ,. Slour LIB. CaniiKlDii 1.'7. Struifiird on 158. .Vlicier 159. Kvcshiim 160. Wiircesler 161. IVrshore 162. Upton 163. I.eiliiury 161. Broinvhitl iip.i. l«nHilnhiev 1116. Woihlv 167. Ilerefonl Dooit I. ENGLAND. tin U95. T/iesurfuceqfEuithHil\»otaAisot»li\eAc\Mracteritheea»tetn districts are in general , * ••>. level, and there are several directions in w liich hundreds of miles may be travelled without seeing a hill. Along the whole western side of the island are large tracts, not only hilly, but sometimes rising even to mountain grandeur. Such are the counties of Cumberland and Westmoreland, the bleak ridge of Ingleborough, extending like a spine through the north of England : of the same character are Derbyshire, the whole principality of W^es, and a great part of the counties of Devon and Cornwall. These tracts exhibit Ai/i'iyNCfK III Mf Stiiimr England. — South Part. vmTH SEUIES. i.TilljI'Oul iwci'y ,, J, DinasinowtUly S. UmfjlUn i..|ire«»liu'J lilVellinKton liSutToril I y ,\A*A* Uromlejl I ;. Burton 1 i:,.liJ>biniela Zoufli !..lmalil»"ini|!ll .'.Mount Sorrel iSltll"nMo»braj I t:J>ikham I iitrtlij I II Bourn I l^Siunfonl I flMirtMlVfiilni! I i;,Oro.Iami I NVJlJinij t.HaIt*ach tWMieach !;. Winston iiimn RfBl* &\'uliurtiugh MUirhaii) Iv.«all'ham V.Ei-tlleeThain r.F«iliham ? .iilihain J v:r»lch KWroih.iin tl.Vinnoulh ltLev*f»toft IBinIn tiBunitay f Hiriralon I'.NrwIliirkiilKliain (^WinicnUliam (i.Hint!>iain jUVuton •.EnlllarUiiK ^vHrmilon 1 \l(lh«olil i' i^iKtihaiu «.B. ::.»llch |».P.iniey ti'rtrtoroHKh '..SoTtnai) ('rter iMiTlin liar- b(irou|{h jr.ktterworlh UU:iickli) )f .Vuntatiin '^Allwwone ITimvortli |ir.»i.!ail S>»llnn('.ildlitlll llllktil |'R.nniiii:lia'n .!j'>ri'vi-rh.iiiipton J Btiiltetuirtll MtiMlrv •!««h ft-TOlock l«h\nlli'tli HA, H7. NN, »U. !H). 91. m. B.l. S4. 05, aii, 07. OH. . 14l>. 147. IIH. 111). l.'ill. I'll. l.^V. I.'i.l. l.Vl, 15,'), l,"*, l,i7, 1,'.«. I.V.I. IIKI. nil. ir,'i. iii.i. ini. lli5. Kill. Hi?, IliK KM. Alwryuwlih 1711, AUirllQwjit 171. Niiuin V.iwlih 17', l.lanlilliiei 17,1. HhiisfiiluTHwy 171 l,laiulf||lDy 175. .Now Hailnor I7ili Knltjltlun niuiiii 177, l.iirtliiw I7X. L'kHiliiirjf Mur. l/i). llllKf I Nil. Ili'Willtiy IHI, Kiilili'miln^tur Ihv, Htnurlirhl,4t) IN.I. llarlv.itwt,n 1H4, HrniiiHirovD ]H\ Druliwl.'h INII, Hunlev in Anlpn IN7i Warwick Hk, (Nivfiiiry IN'I, l.tiaiii)MKIoit Kltl, Uavtiiiiry )ll|, lUiulij \n. Ilnlimiill lll.l, N'nrlltainiilon Kll. KvllvriiiK Kl^, Thnii.lxn Kill, Khnlixh.iii 11)7, Hi. .Neui', KiH, lluitllnt^diilt I'i'l HI, IVM UINI, Wlllliiiiliain W\, Newinarkol Vllv, l.iiilu lUriiiii 'jn iliillllli i,aiiiliilM 'rrt'itrtnin MllllllWIMt Ni>i» initle Kliilyn I'linlliiiin vpwjiKrt HI, liitvlil'a llAvirfiird Wcti .MIIIWil ri.tiit'i'i.iie "IVlltlV Nallwtllt Nl.rlpM'n l.aitvfriiMi'h rnvrtiinrilitn l,rtl(lt|.|ile I.dllUltlld^ i«mii»vpify 'rui'i.lli! Illl'ClItt rrlcliliimcll Mieritiivcitttv Nl. Wnmnttl'i MllchvidmH ,\ptt i.((t Itl.Kd'f.lpr 'Icwkwiiurji i'ti|.|li>tilintil NiirthlMnch HIllW III llw W'did Mdrpldit III Ute IMrtrNit riiarlmrir VN'diMl.llH'tl llpdiiiulitti llli'i..|pr NVIii.ldw AvlMlmry Wpiiddvpr IVhlUlKW .VllllllMI Hut. HAird l.iildti HIpvpltlUM IMIdlH'k ll«lll|.|d IIMldii ll(>HHilnl lll>hii|l'a Nltirl- Bii' lIlltl.ddKV 'I'linklnl Hritiiiirpe ('..UiloltiUI MAl.irnd I'tili'lmlM Hitrwlcli Hi,ii.,«ih lli^ndwcll lld.'M\(id Middiid riitt|i((«(lird hiurtit<.(dn« lldrdddh lldidiUnl I1il|>|iliiu l>ii||(ir r<(irii!ill Nl, AlhltllS Wnin.Hl lli'ikhiKdtiMtHtd VllU'l'.hrthl MrtlldW U'lilliiiKnml llM\(ihl ,M(ld|Kl(i» \\',iiila|t« VVIiiliwy lliiiltint l4>('hlrtilp I iMii'Mlpr Maliiinliiir) )5V. Wolion under Edse V53. Mlncnltthamp* ton «,14.Rtroiid vni, llerkeley «,1fi, lllacliney V57. Moninuuth VAS, I'sk »5!1. i:liet)itow V(i(>, Newport ■J(il. Mcrtlivr Tjdvll VIIV. Mnntrliu.'nt Vii,1. Mimilnir Vlll. nnwlirldite Vli5. I'vle Villi. Ncnth VII7. Aliemant VliX. ronlnrilylail Vim, Kiduelly V7U. I'enrlce. Nnltrii sERlKs. 1. 'ri'driilKirv V, Clilinilnii fiodbury .1, llriJidI 4. WriiiKlon 5, 1'mnflirtl (1. Marshlii'ld 7. Ilrndrord N. Chlpitenhnin D. I'aldt' 111, Wottim llaowt 11. MarllHitduKh ly, lltiTiKprforci 1.1, l,aidl)niirne II. K, Haley 1,1, llendlnfi III. WipkiiiKnam 17, Miiideiiliead In. U'ldilsor 111. I'xhrldiii! VII, KldRiton VI, Kwell pii HI, TrdWltridKC liV. Wwiliury n.i, luih (11. Ilnilon 05. Mlwidon Mnlirt 66. 67, 68. 69. 70, 71. 7». 73. 74, 75. 76. 77. 7S. 7(1, \n. SI. HV. 8.1, 81. 85. 8fi. 87, 8S, S!), at). 01, ort Somerton Ilchi-ster Milhom Port (^aatleCary Wincaunton Slmflcsbury .Mere Warminster Hiiidon Wilton .Salisbury llownton Komsey .Sttx-kbridge Winchester Hranidean Fetersfieltl Midburst I'etworth Haslemcro llnrshain Curklield Uikfield Tunbridfp. Weill Wadhurst (loudhurst Cranbrnoke -Aiiplwlore New Kodiney live winchelsea llatde Hailsham K. Itoume Seaford I«wes Britthton N. Shoreham SteyninK Worttiing Arunilel Chichester Havant Fart-ham Southampton NewtoMfn Newport Vnrniouth I.vniiiimon Chrtstrnurch KinKwoud I*04>ie Wimbom Min- ster HIandford I^r Ileitis Wareham Corfe Castle MeU-onitte Rcftii Weymouth PonheNtcr Cenie Abbas ItrlUport Lyme 1^e^i» 162. Axmlnstv 153. Chard 154. Honlton 155. Colyton 156. Htdmouth 157. Exmouth 158. Hllverton l.']?. Collumpton 160. Crediton 161. Chumleigh Ifi'^. Crockemwell 16.1. Oakl^amiiton ttil. HathcrlelKh Ifi'i. Shecpwaan UHj. Holsworthy 167. Siratton 1C8. Jarobstow KiU. Canieltonl 170. Lnunceston Ul.CallitiKton 17'i. TaTistock 173. Stanford Splncj 174. Moreton Ilarop* den 175. Exeter 176. Chudlelgh 177. Nfwlon Bushel 17S. A»)iburton 179. Totness ISO. I>artinouth 181. Klngsbridge lH•^, MtHlbury 1S3. I'lynipton Earl 181. 1" outh IH5. Sai, >h 186. St. (iermam 187. Uskeard 188. I»oe 189. Fo«ey 190. Lostwlthiel 191.11rsliin>, which, uniting at Cricklade, form a stream which is about nine feet broad in sumniur, mid is called the Thame. At Lechdale, being joined by the Lech and the Coin, it bvcomcs navigable for barges of ninety tons. Near the classic haunts of Oxford it rccvivvs the Charwell and the Isis, aosuming on its junction with the latter river the com|K)und nunie of Tunesis, which has been abbreviated into Thames. After a course almost Houtliwaril to Reading, it winds northward through the wooded vale of Henley and Maidenhead, and thence by the castellated heights of Windsor. Its onward course to London is by ClivrtKcy, Hampton, Twickenham, and Richmond, among the magnificent woods and palaces of thit paradise of England. Near Teddington its current is slightly acted upon by the vxtrcmp ebb and flow of the tide, which rises higher in tliis than in any other river of Europe, Before reaching London, it attains a magnitude corresponding with the capital of the empire, which it divides i-ito two unequal parts, having on its northern bank the cities of London and Westminster, and on its southern the borough of Southwark, Ueluw London bridge it is navigable for vessels of large burthen ; its ample channel, and the spacious adjoining docks connected with it, are there constantly filled with forests of masts, and seem to conlain, as it were, ihe wealth of the world. It winds its way to the ocean through n country hy no means remarkable for picturesque scenery, and presenting few objects of interest, except the vast naval establishments situated on the south bunk of tlic river. WiM>lwirli chiiins particular attention, not only on account of the royal dockyard, and the national depot u( artillery, but for its military academy, which ranks as the first in the empire. Tlie great estuary of the Medway opening into the river from Kent aflbrds connnodious sites fur the naval stations of Chatham and Shecrness. The entire course of the Thames is ahout 220 miles. 1398. The Trent, though superior in length, cannot rival the imperial magnificence of the Thames ; yet the national advantages derived from il are of a very high order. Together with its tributary, tlie northern Ouse, it traverses the whole midland territory of England, and several of its principal manufacturing districts, to which it aiTords a communication with the eastern, and by canals with the western, ocean. It springs from several sottrccs among the low StaflTordshirc hills, and does not attain any considerable magnitude till it reaciie!) the thriving town of Burton, where it becomes navigable for vessels of moderate size. i''or some extent it rolls its silver stream through fertile meadows, receiving the Dove and Derwcnt; which, after dashing through the dark and rocky recesses of Derbyshire, have already Hulnidcil into peacef\il streams. As the Trent passes xVottingham, and flows toward Newark, it pene- trates a range of bolder scenery, through banks overhung with high swelling knolls uiul grn'ii feathered cliffs. At Gainsborough it becomes navigable for steam-boats, and other vessels ul' large burthen. After & farther course of about thirty miles, it flows into the Humber, already rendered a broad estuary by the Ouse, which has collected the principal streams of Yorkjihirc, The Ouse, formed originally by the confluence of the Aire and the Swale from the uplands of the North Riding, is subsequently augmented by the Wharfe. The Aire, with its tiiliutaries the Calder and I)on, enable it to communicate with all the great manufacttiring towns of the West Hiding, and the confluence of tlie Derwent from the East Riding rviulcrs it equal in magnitude to the Tliames. The Ouse, with its branches, forms one of the most useful and least beautiful of English rivers. It winds a sluggish course throiigli inanu. factoring districts and rich arable fields without any diversity of scenery. The Humber, formed by the junction of the Trent and Ouse, resembles an arm of the sea ; and its trade contributes mainly to the commercial prosperity of Hull. 1.399. The Severn is not inferior in magnitude to any of the rivers already named, and is the only great stream which runs from north to south for a considerolilu part of its course; too far to the westward, however, to attain the length which that direction might have given, Rising in Wales, near the foot of Plinlimmon, it flows first north, and then cast tlirougli the vales of Montgomery ; receives another mountain stream, the Vyriiwy, and, after winding round the ancient town of Shrewsbury, directs its course to tlie southward, tliroiigb some of Boon I. ENGLAND. 915 the richest and most beautiful plains of England, passing by the fine and ancient cities of Worcester, Tewkesbury, and Gloucester. In commercial importance it also ranks high, since it flows through Colebrook Dale, and other principal seats of the iron trade ; while the tracts on its lower course have for ages been distinguished for the manufacture of fine woollens. Its navigation is not so easy, nor so free from obstruction, as that of the rivers already mentioned ; but much has been done to obviate these disadvantages, and to connect the Severn by canals with the other great rivers. In approaching Bristol, it receives the Wye, which, rising in Wales from a source near its own, flows in a contrary direction through scenery which renders it the most picturesque of English rivers. The Severn then expands into the grand estuary of the Bristol Channel, equally important as a geographical feature, and as tlie haven of a commerce once second only to that of the metropolis, but now surpassed by that of the northern emporium, Liverpool. :«0. ne other rivers qf Etiffland are to be reRarded aa little more than local fcaturei. We cannot omit to inciilioii the Kilcn, the beautiful river of Cumberland, which forms the Solway ; the Mersey of I^ncashire, whirh, with Us tributary the Irwell, is important, not for its magnitude, but for the mass of cummoditiet Rliicli it conveys from the great manufacturing districts to Liverpool, now the second commercial l>ort in the kiiigiloin i tlic southern Ouse, which, after a considerable course through the counties of Buckingham, Bed. fonl, andCambridgc, combines with theWithamof Lincolnshire in forming that broad, shallow, marshy cstiiarycalled the Wash, through which is exiwrtcd a considerable quantity of grain from the agricultural district*. Nor must wc overlook the parallel streams of the Tyne and the Tecs in the north of England, which tiic in a mile mountain district ) but, on reaching the plain, acquire a considerable volume of waters, and be- come llie channels of extensive trade ; the Tyne, in particular, which carries down the product of the vast coal mines of Newcastle A system of canals, the most extensive that exists in any country, connects together all tlic'se rivers, and prodigiously augments their utility and value. The description, however, of these artificial means of lommunication may properly be reserved for another section, IWI. Vie lakes of Eniflatui occur principally in the north. western counties of Cumberland and Westmore. land, which arc .sjK'cially denominated the <>ountry of the lakes. These, of which Windermere, the largest, li only twelve mill s long and one broad, may be regarded as objects which have l)een raised to distinction by the lasicof the afte for picturesque beauty, rather ihan as geographical features of the country. Their number, which is consiilerabic, entitles them to notice ; and a detailid description of them will accompany that of the districts to which they belong. Sect. II. Natural Geographi/, 1403. This subject will be treated under the heads of Geology, Botany, and Zoology. SiJBSECT. 1. Geology qf EnglantU 1403. England is eminentli/ distinguished from Scotland in geognostical constitution: nhilc in Scotland the prevailing formations belong to the jnimitive and transition classes, in England the deposits that most abound are the secondary, tertiary, and alluvial. Hence, also, it is that Scotland appears lofty and rugged, when contrasted with the hilly, flat, and low land of England. 1404. Nearly all the accurate infor-nation in regard to the geology of England we owe to the zeal and activity of the members of the Geological Society of London ; who, in following out the mode of investigation of the Wernerian school, and not neglecting the views and facts of Hutton, have, in a comparatively short period, brought together a very Interesting series of facts. A short view of these will enable our readers to form a general conception of the geognostical structure of England. We shall consider the mineral formations in the following order : — I. Primitive and TVansition, II. Secondary, III. Ter- liaiy. IV. Alluvial. 1405. I. Primitive and Transition, These rocks are principally canflned to the more mountainous parts of England, and appear most abundantly, in the north, in Cumberland and some neighbouring counties ; in the middle and west, in Wales ; and on the south and south-west, in Cornwall and Devon. 1406. (I.) Cumberland district. This district is bounded to the west and the south by the Irish dea and Morecoml>e Bay ; towards the north it descends into the plain of the new red sandstone, within the basin of the Eden ; and on the east it is bounded by the central carboniferous chain of the north. Within these limits there are the two sets of rocks, viz. Plutonian and Neptunian ; the more central parts being Plutonian, and the others Neptunian. The order in which they occur, according to Otiey and Sedgwick, is as follows : — 1. Granite and Syenite. They form the geognostical ans of all this region, and extend from the centre of the Skiddaw range to the neighbourhood of Egremont. There is a fine display of the granite in the bed of the Calden, near its source on the north-east side of Skid- daw, where it is intersected by veins of quartz, and contains, beudes other minerals, molyb- dcna, tungsten, wolfram, and phosphate of lime. 2. A series of crystalline slaty deposits, forming, for example, the centre of the Skiddaw region, viz. Skiddaw, Saddleback, Grisdale Peak, and Grasmere, with most of the New> lands mountains, and extending across Cromack lake, and by the foot of Ennerdale, as fur as Denthill, is composed of gneiss, mica slate, hornblende slate, and chiastolite slate, These seem irregularly grouped : this irregularity is probably only apparent, because, when tlie primitive and transition rocks have been as well examined as the secondary, >iicy also may be found to exhibit determinate arrangements. In some parts of Skiddaw md Saddleback the curious uineral named chiastolite occurs : veins of quarti and galena tie DKSCIUFTIVE OEOOllAPHY. 1'abt III. occur in Thornthwaitc, Ncwlands, Loweswater, and otiior places ; a copper-mine was for. tncrly worked in Ncwlands, The itdl ijmngi of Borrowdale issue from these rocks. 3. Deposit of clay slate. 4. An enormous formation of a green felspathose slate, intimately associated with porphyry, like tliat of Snowdonia in WScs, and the Needle's Eye in Scosition. Professor Sedgwick, in a paper read before the Geological Society, but not yet published, after describing, at greot length, a range of transition limestone, which extends from Mellam in Cumberland to the neigh- bourhood of Wasdule Mead in Westmoreland, nearly across the whole region we arc now describing, states, that it is finally cut off* by a protruding mass of granite, wliich he regards as newer than tlie liinesloiie. On the phenomena exhibited in the Cumberland district the following conclusions liuvc been founded : — 1st, Great cracks and fissures were formed at a very ancient perioil, diverging from the central regions, and intersecting the line of bearing of the strata. All tiii. great valleys in the district are scooped out in the prolongation of thi'se breaks: which were, in all cases, accompanied with internal movements; the present |M>siti()ii of the systems of strata on the opposite sides of a transverse valley sometimes indicating a lelutive lateral movement of more than a mile in extent. These singular changes of position arc referred partly to a true lateral shift, and partly to a subsidence, Keasoning from analogy, Professor Sedgwick concludes, that all the great diverging valleys of the Lake mountains took their origin in fissures, probably formed during the period of the protrusion of the central granite and syenite, t^dly, The upper and lower systems of Nei)tunian strata, the slaty crystalline rocks, and the greywacke, are often violently contorted ; while the central system, or clay slate, though traversed by numerous rents, hardly ever exhibits the indications of any flexures. This is ex])lained by the pre- sence of enormous unbending masses of compact felspar porphyry, &c., which are so intimately associated with the middle division of the slate, tliat the formations cannot be separated. The appearance is explained by referring the felspathic rocks to some mudili- cation of sub-marine volcanic action ; by supposing that igneous and aqueous causes acted together, and tliat the operations were many times repeated. 3dly, The mean line of bearing of the different sets of Neptunian strata appears to be N. E. by £., and S. W. by W. 'litis makes them, one after the other, to abut against the carboniferous zone wiiere they meet with it: from which it follotvs that they must also be unconformable to it. Professor Sedgwick concludes from tlie whole evidence, that the central Lake mountains were placed in their present position, not by a long continued, but by a sudden move- ment of elevation, before or during the period of the old red sandstone. 1407. ('2.) Wales, including the hie of Anjilesea. The Neptunian and Plutonian rocks in this extensive district are arranged as follows : — 1st, Granite rising among the clay slate strata in the Isle of Anglesea. 2dly, A grouji of slaty rocks consisting of mica slate, chlorite slate, and quartz rock. These appear u|)heaved by the subjacent granite. Tliey occur in the Isle of Anglesea. In this island are the great Mona marble and Paris copper 'nines, in wliich the ore is common copper pyrites. The Mona marble, a beautiful compound of marble and serpentine, occurs among these rocks. 3dly, A great group, differing from the oriliiiary characters of the Welsh mountains, in containing a very large proportion of fels|)iitliose rocks and porphyries. Of these the grand district of Snowdonia are probulily the lowest ])ortion. Some of the slates of the Snowdon range contain organic remains, principally of shells, some of which appear referrible to the geims Producla, 4tlily, A vast deposit of clay slate. .'Jtlily, Greywacke, which forms the uppermost or newest member of the great series of deposits. Connected with these series are great beds of Book I. ENGLAND. S17 limestone. Fossil organic reinalni aro mut with in tliiit Bvrics, and muvli more abundantly than in the deeper-seated slates. iWah of various kinds, crinoid animals, shells, and cruilaci'c occur among these roi'lis, in a fossil slulo. Of ft.ih, the remains of bones, teeth, and the defensive fin-bones named ichthyiiiitirtUilc», are met with. The most curious of these remains, the Crusl(tcea, ulM)und in vast nuinhcrH in some parts of Wales ; as the Aiitvhus Vebucliii. In the lists of orguide remains of these slates we find extinct genera, and genera that still exist : and, Judging tVoni the nature of tlie remains, we infer that some of the animals were inhabitants of deep, others of shallow, seas. The o.fjanic remains in nrcywocke rocks are rare, and therefore furiii a very small proportion to 'lie extent of the ruck. ^^'» ^o riOt remember of any fossil plants having been met wiili in the slates of Wales; although, from their occurrence iu similar slates in other couiiti.':">; it is probable they will also be found there. 1408. (3.) Cornwall and Devon> In this district of England the rocks of the pri- mitive class are arranged in tlie following order : — 1st, Graiiite. There are four great pro- jecting masses of granite rising through the humuling slaty strata; they send arms or veins among the Neptunian strata, antl have upraised and variously modified them. Tlie irranite is traversed by contemporaneous veins of granite, and also encloses contemporaneous masses and veins of a compound of quarti and schorl, named schorl-rock. It is also tra- versed by veins of porphyrv. called etvan. Udly, Uesting upon, or a^acent to, the granite there is a vast deposit of clay slate, named, in the county, killai. It abounds in ores, hence, is sometimes named metnllifvnxiii itala. Where in the vicinity of granite, there is interposed gneiss or mica slate, or both : and in many parts it contains subordinate beds of greenstone, felspathuse slate, &c. ddly, Apparently above the preceding slates ther* occurs, in two places, a formation of n'rjHintine, which, in the Lizard, contains diallage mck, talc ilate, hornbletide state, and »tica slale, and appears to occur below tlie greywacke. 'Ithly, Greywacke. This, which appears to form a great mass, is the uppermost and newest member of the stratified seriei^. It contains considerable beds of limestone, including various organic remains. HU9. Mines in Cornwall and JJewn, Cornwall and Devonshire present three principal mining districts. 1. The part of Cornwall situated in the vicinity and to the southward of Truro, the neighbourhood of St. Aiistle, and the neighbourhood of Tavistock. The first of these districts is the most important of the three, iVoin tlie number and richness of iu mines, in which copper, tin, and lead are ulitained. The ores of copper, which are prin- cipally copper pyrites and grey cupper, form regular veins, having a direction nearly from E. to W. in the rock named kittas ; and sometimes in the granite which projects amongst the slaty strata. The tin occurs principally in veins, which, like the preceding, traverse the killas and granite. They have also, very often, a direction nearly fk-om E. to W. ; they have a different inclination from that of the copper veins, which interNoct and interrupt them, and which are, consequently, newer. The tin also occurs in contemporaneous masses and veins, and dis- seminated through the granite. Some veins all'ord, at the same time, copper and tin ; but most of them produce only one of these metals in any quantity. There are also in Corn- mil cross mns, that intersect the veins both of copper and tin ; these contain argentiferous galena, native silver, and ores of silver. Near to Tavistock there are veins of copper, tin, and lead. Mines of antimony occur at Iluel lioys in Devonsliire, and at Ssiltash in Corn- wall. The tin and copper ores of Cornwall are iiccoinpnnii.'d with arsenical pyrites, which is turned to profit by manufacturing oxide of arsenic tVuin it. 1410. II. Secmidary Rocks. The rocks of this class form the largest portion of the surface of England, and the districts composed of theivi are generally flat or hilly; never assuming the mountainous cliaracter, iiiiU'ss where llie old red sandstone or nioiintuiii limestone appears. We shall now describe the difi'erent formalions in the oriler in which they occur, beginning with thedeeper seated or oldest (the old red sandstone), and finish our view with un account of the newest or chalk. HII. (I.) OUl red sandstone. This sandstone, which is distinguished from those newer in the series by its greater hardness and red colour, occurs in greatest abundance in Hereford- shire and Brecknockshire. Smaller portions occur in some neighbouring districts, and in the Cumberland district in the north. The Islu of Man and the Isle of Anglesea also iffurd deposits of this oldest member of the secondary class. 1412. (2. ) Mountain limestone, metalliferous limetlime, or carboni^ous limestone. This rock in the regular succession, rests upon the old red sandstone. It is generally grey coloured; wmetimes, however, it exhibits various tints when it is worked as an inferior kind of marble. Its fracture is compact, lustre glimmering, and opiupie or translucent on the edges. Its itmcture is sometimes oolitic, as is the case in the vicinity of Bristol. Veins of calcareous ipar frequently traverse it, and occasionally contribute to the beauty of the varieties used as mirble. Sometimes remains of the oncrimis are so abundant in it, that it is named encrinal &neitone. Its name carboniferuus is from its sometimes occurring along with coal, as that of wlidlifirous from its, in some districts, abounding in ores. It abounds in organic remains of various genera of corals, radiaria, and shells i also suine genera of crujifacea and JMes, These 81S DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pa»t in. beara strong rcicmblancc to the ibuilH of tliu traimitiun limestoiic in llie greywacke districli. Derbyshiri', NorthuinU-rland, and Ciimbvrlnnil iiH'ord fine dUpliys of thin firmatiun. 1413. Mines in muiintnin limeilime. 'i'lie mountain iiinvitone forms svvrral mountninouN (lis. tricts in England and Walw ; in wliicli tlii-rv arv thrvv di»trictii rich in lead inincK. 'fUvJint uf these comprehends the upper parts of the valleys of the 'ry"i'> ♦'"•' Wear, and the Tees, in tlic counties of Cumberland, Durham, and York. Its principal mines are situated near tu the ■mall town of Aldston ISIoor in Cumberland. Tliu veins of sulphuret of lead or galena, wliidi form the principal object of the workn, traverse alternately bely con. nected with some electro-magnetic action. Hie lead obtained is poor in silver, and tlieri' is, 'we believe, only a single furnace in which that metal is extracted by ciipellatioii. It also contains a copper mine some miles to the S. W. of Aldston INIuor. The ore is cuniiimn yellow copper pyrites, which is asswiatetl with galena in a vein of great extent, and uliiih does not seem to belong to the same /onnation as the otiier veinti in this county, The irun mines of Ulverston are in tliis district. The ore is red hematite, wliicli traverses the liinv. stone in the fonn of veins ; some of which are said to be :)0 yards wide. Near \Vhitelinvi'ii great masses of reniform hematite nltcrnatc with red beds of mountain limeHloni>. Tliv second metalliferoui district is situated in the northern port of Derbyshire, and tlie '.'ontigiious parts of the neighbouring counties. The districts culled I'eak :ind Kingstield are the richest in ore. The minei, although numerous, are not of great extent. Tlic guk'na contains no silver, at least no silver is attempted to l>e extracted from it. The blviKJv, associated wiili the lead, is worked as an ore, and linc is obtained from it. A vein of copper pyrites occurs at Ecton in StaHbrdslure, on the borders of Derbyshiie. The Dir. byshire viins have been long famous on account of the beautiful minerals they pro'luce, especially^tiur ipara, and also from the interruption which the metalliferous veins experii'iice on meeting with triip rocks, called loadstone, which occurs alternately with the limestone. Thiitliird nietallifen us ilialrict hniUiutvd in Flintshire and Denbighshire, which form the N.E. part of Wales. It is the most productive next to Aldston Moor. Besides lead, it fuiiiishis also calamine or true ore of line. The mines are situated partly in the mountain limestone, partly in various rocks of older formation. To the S. W. of this district there arv ulso leu|iar and fluor spar. 1414. (3.) Cualformatiijri. This, which is the most important of the secondary deposits, follo'vs in the regular succession the mountain limestone, on which it therefore rests. Tlic lower beds of this deposit sometimes alternate with the upper strata of the mountain lime- stone. The rocks of which it is composed arc shale, sartdstone, clay ironstone, indurated clay, and coal, alternating in various ways with each other. The shale, sandstones, iron stones, and clays contain numerous fossil remains of extinct species of plants, rarely of aiiiinuls, the animal remains occurring principally in the limestone. No country of the same size in the world aflbrds so much coal as England, and nowhere has its natural and ccononiu-a! history been so well examined as in this island. Messrs. Conybearc and Phillips arrange tlie ditferent coal districts in the following manner : — 1. Coal district jiorth of Trent, or grand Penine chain. — 1. Northumberland and Durham. 2. North of Yorksliire. 3. South Yoi.k, Nottingham, and Derby. 4. South of Derby. 5. North Stafford. 6. South Lancashire. 7. North Lancashire. 8. Cumber- land and Wliitehaven. 9. Foot of Crossfell. 2. Central coal district. — 1. Ashby do la Zoucl.. 2. Warwickshire. 3, South StufTurd or Dudley. 4. Indications near (he Lickey hill, &c. 3. It'i'stem coat district, divided into, 1. Ko,th W^estem or Nort/i Wif/s/i. — 1. Isle of Anglesea. 2, Flintshire. 4. Middle western or Slimpshire, — I. Plain of Shrewsbury. 2. Colebrook-dale. 3. The dee hills and South Shropshire. 4. Near the Abberley hill. 5. South lyeitern.— I. South Wales. 2. Forest of Dean. 3. South Gloucester and Somerset. These difierent districts are accurately described in Conybeare and Phillips's Geolo^ of England and Wales, to which valuable work we refer our readers, our limits not allowing us to enter into details. 1415. Changes of the coat fields from the Bristol Channel to the Tweed. The great coal fielils in England experience a great change of structure in their range from the Bristol Channel to the valley of the Tweed : tlicse chongcB we shall now enumerate, using the view Pam III. ke districts, tion. itainouH tlii- 'thvfn' of T«cii> ill •'"' , near to the uk'iiB, wliii'li d snnilstoiic. thiiniif ami robM'ly con- er, niul lliiTi; lullutioii. It ru is cuiiimon It, »nd wliii'h y. The iron rsi's the lime ir Whitalmvtii icKlont>. 'I'lie the continuous ;sfleld arc tlic The (galena The blende, it. A vein of i«. The Dir. s they proiluce, ^eins ejperiencc 1 the limestone. I» form the N.E. ead, it furnishes mtain limestone, :t there are also in limestone and mines of galena iouth of Bristol ; minerals are met the vein stones, jou» spar in Uer- rland, heavy sjiar condary deposits, efore rests. The e mountain linie- instoHf, indurated sandstones, irop. rarely of animals, of the same size A and economieal Phillips arrange thumberland and by. 4. South of re. 8. Cumber. 3. South Stafford i)ok-dale. '3. The Gloucester and liUips's Geologj)oj nits not allowuig The great coal i from the Bristol kte, using tlw view Book I ENGLAND ;il» given hy Sedgwick. In the various coal basins on the Bristol Channel, the limeitnn* •(rata are developed only in the lower, and the coal beds in the upper, part of the series | and the two members are separated by nearly unprotiuctivo de|>osits of millstoiie-urit and shale. The arrangement in Derbyshire is nearly the same; there, however, the niiilHtone. grit is more varied, and is of very great thickness, and subordinate to the great deposit of shale, and, here and there, very thick masses of a p';culiar argillaceous sandstone, disposed in n tabular manner. On the re-appearance of the carboniferous limestone, at the base of the Yorkshire chain, we still And the some general analogies of structure ; enormous de- posits of limestone form the lowest part, and the coal fields the highest part of the wholii si'fies ; and, as in tlie former instances, we also find the millstone-grit occupying an inter- mediate position. The millstone-grit, however, becomes a very complex deposit, with several subordinate beds of coal ; and is separated from the great inferior calcareous group (the scar limestone), not merely by the great shale and shale-limestone, as in Derby- shire, but by a still more complex deposit, in some places not less than 1000 feet thick ; in which five groups of limestone strata alternate with great masses of sandstone and shale, ahoiinil in impressions of coal plants, and three or four thin beds of good coal extensively worked for domestic use. Ha6. In the range of the cnrboniferou* chnin from Stainmoor, through the ridge of Cross- fell totiic confines of Northumberland, wo have a repetition of the same general phenomena. On its eastern flanks, and superior to all its component groups, is the coal field of Durham. Under the coal field, we have, in a regular descending order, the millstone-grit, the alter- nations of limestone and coal measures nearly identical with those of the Yorkshire chain, and at the base of all is the great scar limestone. The scar limestone begins, however, to lie subdivided by thick masses of sandstone and carbonaceous shale, of which we had hardly a trace in Yorkshire ; and gradually passes into a complex deposit, not distinguishabltt from the next superior division of the series. Along with this gradual change is a great de- velopement of the inferior coal beds alternating with the limestone ; some of which on the north-eastern skirts of Cumberland, are three or four feet in thickness, and are now worked for domestic use. HI 7. The alternating beds of sandstone and shale expand more and more as we ad- vance towards the north, at the expense of all the calcareous groups, which gradually thin olf and cease to produce any impress on the features of the country. And thus it is, that the lowest portion of the whole carboniferous system, from Bewcastle Forest, along tho skirts of the Cheviot Hills, to the valley of the Tweed, has hardly a single feature in common with the inferior part of the Yorkshire chain ; but, on the contrary, has almost all the most ordinary external characters of a coal formation. Corresponding to this change, is also a gradual thickening of carbonaceous matter in some of the lower groups. Many coal vorks have been opened upon this line ; and near the right bank of the Tweed (almost on a parallel with the great scar limestone) is a coal field, with five or six good seams, somn of niiich are pretty extensively worked. The beds of sandstone, shale, and limestone, forming the base in the carboniferous system in the basin of the Tweed, arc often deeply tinged with oiide of iron ; and have been compared sometimes with the new, sometimes with the old, red sandstone: to the new red sandstone they have no relations ; "and I would rather compare them," says Sedgwick, " especially as the old red sandstone of the north of England, seldom ciist but as a conglomerate, and is seen in that form on the flanks of the Cheviot Hills, with the red beds of mountain limestone and sandstone, which, both in Cumberland and Lancashire, sometimes form the base of the whole carboniferous series." 1418. These coat fields are traversed and variowly deranged by great vaults ; interesting descriptions of which, particularly those in the northern fields, have been published by Meisrs. Phillips and Sedgwick. 1419. Economical importance of the coalformation. The coal strata, or metals as they are sometimes called, are in some parts of England affected by Plutonian trap rocks, but in a very inferior degree to what takes place in Scotland. The principal trap rock is green- stone, which appears in the form of overlying masses, as at Clee Hill and at Dudley; in the form of intersecting tabular masses or dikes (veins), as in Northumberland and Dur- ham. Sometimes the trap mass has been forced between the strata, when it has the character of a bed, or these bed-like masses may be some of the rocks of the coal formation softened and recrystallised in situ by heat from below, llie great whin sill of Northumberland, and the loadstone beds of Derbyshire, are examples of these trap beds- The strata near the trap frequently appear changed, the clays hardened, the limestone rendered crystalline and mag- nesian, the coal charred, and the sandstone hardened, &c. ; and these strata are either moved from their original position, or are unchanged. Although rather foreign to our subject, we may, as an illustration of the importance of the coal formation to England, mention the quantity of iron manufactured, and of coal consumed, in the carboniferous district of Wales. 1420. The quantity of iron, according to Mr. Forster, annually manufactured in Wales, has been calculated at 270,000 tons. Of this quantity a proportion of about three-fourths is made into bars, and one-fourth sold as pigs and castings. The quantity of coal required for 820 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY Part III. its manufacture on the average of the whole, including that used by engines, workmen, &c. will be about 5J tons for each ton of iron ; the annual consumption of coal by the ironworks will, therefore, be about 1,500,000 tons. The quantity used in the smelting of copper ore imported into Wales from Cornwall, in the manufacture of tin-plate, forging of iron fur various purposes, and for domestic uses, may be calculated at 350,000, which makes alto, gether the annual consumption in Wales, 1,850,000 tons. The annual quantity of iron manufactured in Great Britain is 690,000 tons. From this statement it will be observed that the quantity of iron smelted in Wales is upwards of one-third of the total, quantity made in Great Britain. The manufacture of the Welsh iron is in the hands of a few extensive capitalists, and is carried on with great spirit and attention to improvement. 1421. (4.) MagJiesian limestone foTtnalion, The upper part of the coal formation has sometimes a red colour with an arenaceous and conglomerated character, when it is named by the German miners lodliegendes. Above or resting upon it we have the magnesian limestone deposit. Ihis deposit extends through Yorkshire and Durham. Its lower part is baid to be separated from the coal formation by a deposit of sand and sandstone, with occasional red marl and gypsum. The magnesian limestone itself consists in its lower part of a bituminous marl slate, abounding in fossil fishes of the genus Paleeothrissum i the middle and upper parts being a yellowish small granular or glimmering magnesian limestone. The organic character of tliis limestone approaches nearly to that of the mountain limestone already described. It contains Prutluctee, which, however, do not occur higher in the series ; also SpirifirtB, a tribe found as high as the oolite. 1422. (5.) Variegated or ww red sandstone, ivilh the red variegated mnrl dejtosil' As tlie shell limestone is wanting in England, the variegated sandstone and the red and variegated marls come together, and may here, therefore, be viewed as one formation. They rest immediately upon the magnesian limestone, but of the two sets the marl appears in general to be the uppermost or newest. The sandstone is of a looser texture than that of the old red sandstone deposit, has a red or variegated colour, and the strata are generally horizontal. The marls are red or variegated in colour. In these sandstones and marls, beds and great masses or nodules of gypsum occur, as in Derbyshire, Staffordshire, &c. All the salt viiiies in England are situated in this deposit. At Northwich tliere is an extensive deposit of solid rock salt, forming two beds, together not less than 60 feet in thickness. These beds are supposed to form large insulated masses of this mineral, extending in length about a mile and a half, and in breadth about 1300 yards. The salt tvorks at Droitwich in Worcester- shire are also in this red marl deposit. Iron-sand and iserine are said to occur in this sand- stone on the banks of the Mersey opposite Liverpool ; and in other pim'es sulphuret of cup- per, grey oxide of cobalt, and black oxide of manganese occur in the sandstone or its niurls, It forms the surface of vast tracts extending with little interruption from the northern bank of the Tees in Durham to the southern coast of Devonshire. We find a tract in the great plain in the centre of England of about 80 miles in length and sixty in breadth, principally covered with this deposit ; several islands of the older rocks, however, rising, in variuus places, through it. I'hese are, 1st, the syenite, greenstone, and slate district of Clmrn- wood forest in Leicestershire ; 2dly, the coal district surrounding Ashby du la Zoucli in the same county ; connected with which are several patches of the carboniferous magnesian limestone, and a patch of millstone grit at Stunton-L-ridge on the Trent ; 3dly, the cuaU field uf Warwickshire ; 4thly, the coalfield in the soutli of Staffordshire, with the tran^itiun limestone on which it rests ; 5thly, the lower and northern range of the Lickey hill, ne:ir Bromsgrove in Worcestershire, which exhibits strata, probably of transition quurtz ruck. Some trap rocks occur in 'his formation at Upton Pyne, a village five miles nortli of Exeter, and at other points near thai town. I42.'>. (fi.) Lias and oolite formation. This great formation in the regular succession rests upon the new red sandstones and marls. In no country are its various members so beautifully displayed as in England, where it was first accurately described by u remarkable man, William Smith, author of the first great geugnostical map of England, and who, be- sides otiu I merits, was, in England one uf the first to direct the attention uf observers to I'ossil organic remains as a means of distinguishing beds of rock. Three great clay or marl deposits divide the series into three natural groups, as already explained at pages 2S^3. and 22-). In England it occupies n cone having nearly 30 miles in average breadth, extending across the island from Yorkshire on the north-east, to Devonshire on the south-west. It is eminently remarkable on account of the number and variety of fossil organic remains which it contains, and its wide distribution not only in England, but aUo in many other parts of the wuricl. It is not likely that this vast limestone deposit was funned from organic remains. Whence then do we derive the calcareous matter? Werner remarked, that new mutter appeared from time to time in the waters of the ocean — the calcareous carbonate appears to have been one of these matters, and may have come from the interior of the earth. It is in this formation, at Stunesfleld, that the first or earliest remains of mammiferous animals were found. Crocodiles and many vast and strangely organised reptiles occur in this deposit, with a v. posit contains a mixture of freshwater and marine shells. The upjier marine formation, — Tliis deposit of calcareous beds abounds with freshwater shells in the lower part, but in llio upper part we find marine shells ; hence it is conjectured to have been formed in an estuary. Upper freshwater formation. — This consists principally of yellowish white marls. 'I'lio organic remains are either freshwater or land. The geological history of the tertiary depositH in England has not yet been placed in direct connection with that of similar deposits on llie continent of Europe. No trap or granite rocks have hitherto been met witli iu Eiigiwil ony how connected with the tertiary strata. H'J8. IV, Allmnal rocks. Nearly the whole of England is more or less covered wiili alluvium, or debris of previously existing rocks: thus it occurs on mountain ridges, and on the sides and bottoms of valleys ; it is spread over plains, fills up, wholly or partially, fissiiri'a in rocks, and caves, and caverns, and forms beaches and other accumulations of grcatiT i r lesser extent on the sea coast. It varies in age, from the oldest, called r/t/iivjuni, whicli standu in immediate connection with the crag or upper tertiary deposit, to the newest, those forinii))t at present through the agency of the atmosphere, springs, lakes, rivers, and the wavi's and currents of tiic ocean. It encloses numerous remains of plants and animals, either incire iir less mineralised, or simply bleached : those of tlin oldest deposits appear to be of animals, anil sometimes of plants, which are apparently extinct ; while the newer enclose remains on!' >f living animal and vegetable species. Although our limits do not allow us to enter iiiiu details on this very important and curie us department of geology, we may remark, that \\w characters and modes of distribution of these alluvia are, in many instances, inthnati ly connected with risings and depressions of the land; and consequently with apparent siiikinjl and rising of llie waters of the ocean, and the violent agitations sometimes induced in Ihu great mass of the ocean, and also in lakes, by changes in the level of the solid t>artii of (li< globe. Part III. UUOK 1. ENGLAND. 32a lester ; on tlio hton ; and un ^epting wlicro The dlfll'rcut , London clmi, — Plastic clny, )f sand (wunu. marine iila'IlN, ish clay, sonu'- lompact nmrl, it. It is tlio h of 700 IVf t i iligli lU'ncli in ;li ; Itichmond d. It n\iouiid» m. Croeotliles, compared will) red, frequently if recent shells c character ia rcquent in tlio m clay, ntlbnU d to have I'ol- luplicate», ni\d are conjectuntl rmenta of wood ; a fact which These rest mum •iously coloini'd Frcshwalir/orm' de of Wight nru iiarine remiiinH, nt to the hiiikU 'reshu'Oter depciiiit •eshwater shells, herium and two quarries at Hin- animals, and llu r part of this de- ine /orrnalinn. — ■ part, but in llio ed in an estuary. ite marls. 'I'liu tertiary deposit" deposits on tlio witli in England CSS covered with n rid(?es, and on partially, flssiirii ons of gicHler t r :m, which stands ■8t, those fornting id the waves ami Js, either more or )e of animals, and remains onlv 'i us to enter into remark, thivl tlio ances, intiinaliiy apparent siiikins cs induced in llio solid parts of tin SuBSECT. 2. Bolany> 14-J!). The botany of the different parts of tlie British empire is so similar, that it is pro- posed to treat under one head that of England, Scotland, Ireland, andtheir adjacent islands, 1 4,10. The British Islands, as regards their vegetable productions, are possessed of consider- nlile interest, partly on account of their situation, their variety of soil and exposure, their great extent of coast, the height of many of the mountains ; whicli, though of small elevation, m compared with those of the continent of Europe, yet, from their northern latitude, almost iiltain the elevation at which perpetual snow is found ; and, above all, on account of the ciirvfnl manner in which their botany has been explored. Were certain tribes of the Cryptognmin, especially the Fungi and the AlgiE, more satisfactorily studied and described, wo should possess, in the works of Sir James Smith, the most correct flora, of any country ill llic world. Yet, with all these advantages, few countries have been less known in respect lu the distribution or peculiar localities of these plants. Turner and Dillwyn, in their work called the Botanist's Guide, have, indeed, done much towards making known the liiirlii'ular stations, especially of the rare plants of England and Wales. M. Bou^, in his inaugural thesis, printed at Edinburgh in 1817, on the botany of Scotland, has been llii> llrst to ofler any remarks on a geographical arrangement, however partial, of the vi'gvlnhlcs of that portion of the kingdom ; and this was followed by the very useful Essay III' Mr. Winch, on the geographical distribution of plants throughout the counties of Niii'lluiinbcrland, Cumberland, and Durham; and by Mr. Atkinson on that of Yorkshire, imlilislied in the Transactions itf the \Fernerian Society. Aided by these, and some viiliiahle communications that have been made to us by our friends, and by our per> soiml observations, made during various excursions in difierent parts of the British do- irciiie northern point, where it is broken into a number of smaller islands, be taken into consideration, to N. lat. 61°: it thus, necessarily, even in its plains, includes a con- Kiili'i'nblti variety of climate, but every where, more or less, tempered by the surrounding iK'i'iili ; so as, in no part of the island, except on the mountains, or high table-lands, can the tciii|icrature be compared, in point of climate, to similar latitudes upon the European, IDlli'h loss upon the American continents. Yet, from the proximity of the whole group to lliv fortner, the vegetation is, with a very few exceptions, hereafter to be mentioned, alto> jtotlior similar to that of the adjacent districts of Europe. In one point of view, indeed, mil' insular situation affects vegetation in a way which could hardly be expected in so higl] It liilitiide ; and if, on the one hand, in consequence of our unfavourable summers, the IVvi|iioiit obscurity of the sun, our damp and foggy atmosphere, we are not permitted, with- uiil nrlillcinl heat and protection, to bring many of the fruits of more favoured climates to IH'i'lV'i'liun ( yet the mildness of our winter enables us to introduce and to naturalise plants III' iiiiich more southern latitudes : so that our gardens, our parks, our shrubberies, and won niir forests, are adorned with a vegetation the most varied that can be imagined, or |ii'Oiliii'ing the most beautiful flowers, or the most valued of the timbers. I'l;)'i. If there be a s]>ot in our island which may be designated "a land of the cypress mill iiiyitle, the cedar and vine," it is on the extreme southern coast of England and Ireland, yi'l not assuredly " where the trees ever blossom, the beams ever shine ;" but in a spot, cer- liiiiily, where the native vegetables of the warmer temperate zone are successfully grown in llio iipon air, and where tlu.>y come to considerable perfection. We have ourselves seen, in llio Miiitli of Devonshire, the orange and lemon trees loaded with fruit of the finest kind ; li'iillioil, indeed, to a wall, but without protection, and only provided with it during a very ulioi'l |iiirtlon of the winter months ; the Lcmon-scented Vervain [Lippia cilriodora, formerly I'lilU'il Vvrln'na triphylla) becomes quite a tree, withoutany artificial protection ; the American ,\p\\\.\ tiio Creeping Cereus, the Prickly Pear, the former having twice flowered in the KI'iiiiiiiIh of the same gentleman, Mr. Yates of Woodville, near Salcomhe. The account III' llio liillor of these is recorded in the Tratuactiont nf the Horticultural Society of London, t'lir [H'iJ; and the plant -itself is of that extraordinary character and the circumstance of iti liliissoinitig at such an early age is so characteristic of the climate, tliat we shall here rvoiii'il siiine of the most important particulars respecting it. It was planted in the open (imiiiiil, in 1H04, when only three years old, and about 6 inches high, within a few yards of tlio soH-sluire, nf an elevation of about 40 or 50 feet above the level of the sea ; and it was iiovoi', ill any way, artificially sheltered, nor aided by manure or any cultivation. In eight Vi'iii's I'rtiin that period, it had attained the height of 5 feet, and during the summer of 1813, II (ii'ow nearly I of an inch daily. In 1820, it was 11 feet high, and covered a space, tha tliiiiiiolor of which was IG feet; the leaves, close to the stem, being nearly 9 inches thick. During that year it threw up its flowering stem, at first resembling a great head of Y2 SS4 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pari III. asparagus, which, for six weeks, rose at the rate of 3 inches a day. By the end of Sep. tember the flower-stalk attained the height of 27 feet, sending out side branches, and blossoming throughout the whole of the montlis of September and October, Tlie number of flowering branches was 40, the lowest projecting 2 feet in horizontal length from the stem, gradually diminishing upwards to about a foot or 9 inches at the top ; each of them had between 300 and 400 flowers ; and in all, there were above 16,000 blossoms. The base of the flowering stalk was 20 inches in circumference.* 1433. Myrtki, from the south of Europe, the Tea, Cirmellias and other Chinese ar.d Japanese plants, thrive well In the open air, as well as the Magnolias, and many other trees, from the southern states of North America, whose native latitudes lie many degrees nearer to the tropics than the highly favoured line of coast in question. 1434. A beautiful picture of the exotic vegetation of the island of Guenisey is given by Dr. Macculloch, in the Memoirt of lite Caledonian Horticultural Societi/, He justly states, that the Guernsey Lily {Amaryllis sarniensis) is not a native of that island, but, as it is supposed, was introduced by accident or design from Japan, and cultivated there to a vast extent to supply the London market. The climate seems to be peculiarly favourable to its growth and mcrcase, as it is for those of other species of the same genus; the Amaryllis vittata, Belladonna undulata and formosissima natives of the Cape or South America. The Magnolia grandiflora is as certain to flower yearly, as it is remarkable for the luxuriance of its growth. The Garden Hydrangea (ff. hortensis), the Scarlet Fuchsia (/•'. coccinea), the Horseshoe Geranium (G. zonale, G. inquinans, G. radula, and G- glu- liiinsum,) emulate in summer the luxuriance which they display in their native climates. Every rustic cottage is covered with Geraniums, and adorned with numerous kinds of Pinks, such as are rarely seen in the rest of Britain, except among careful florists. The Lemon. scented Vervain here, too, flourishes perfectly exposed, and grows to 20 feet high and upwards, spreading in a circle of which the diameter equals its height, with its long branches reaching down to the ground on all sides. Its growth, indeed, is so luxuriant, that it is necessary to keep it from becoming troublesome, by perpetually cutting it about the root, from which fresh shoots, 1 4 feet long, resembling those of the Osier Willow, are annually produced. The Celtis micrantha, a stove plant, flourishes, with little care, out of doors ; the double and single Camellias, some species of Olive, as well as many Proteas, several kinds of Cistus, particulary C. crispifolius and formosus. Yuccas, the Azorian Jessamine (Jasininuni azoricum], the Oleander (AVriMm Oleander), the Daphne odora, Clethra arborea, Corrica alba, Melaleuca hypcricifolia, Galardia rigcns, with numerous Ixias and Heaths, all equally requiring the protection of the green-house during the severer winters of our own island, and many of them liable to perish, in spite of our greatest care, — all these, as well as the Myrtle, brave the utmost rigour of a Guernsey climate, and flourish in the greatest luxuriance. 1435. The Indian Shot (Canna indica) has become thoroughly habituated to the climate of Guernsey, and scatters its seeds, every year, so as to prove a weed in the gardens where it has been introduced. The effect of this delightful climate is visible, too, on fruits of various kinds. Both the Seville and the Sweet Oranges, standing under the shelter of a wall, and only protected by a mat in winter, produce fruit in abundance every year. 1436. ffhat we have been itating of the climate of the extreme south of Brittin is, however, a remarkable exception to that of the rest of this kingdom ; and even in thai part such productions are only witnessed upon the very verge, as it were, of the ocean. A few miles inland, and the climate, rather than the natural vegetation, undergoes a consider- able change. The lines which constitute the northern boundaries in Europe of the Maize and tlie Vine (the former especially), are considerably to the south of England ; nor is there a chance of these two valuable products ever being cultivated with success in such high latitudes as the British isles ; and especially when the fickle character of the summer is taken into account. It is only by art that the fruits of southern climes can, generally speaking, be brought to perfection with us; and such are the skill and assiduity of our gardeners, and such the encouragement given to them by public institutions, and by the nobility and men of large fortune, that in no part of the world is better fruit to be met with, either with regard to size or to flavour. * III Spain, cipcrially near the ahnroa of the Me, .is we are antureil liy a friend who has recently rotuniod Irani lliat country ; and they nave all the appearance of a forest of ships' masts. In South America, tlicy are ap|i1icU to many valuable pur|>nscj ; cut into slices, they arc employed in various parts of the country u razor strops, and are sold at Hio Janeiro for that puiiKise. Like many other monocotvle called "the plant that flowcri once in a hundred Tears." Part III. 1 end of Sep> i)ranclics, and The number iigth from the each of them ms. The base r Chinese aiid ny other trees, degrees nearer msey is given y. He justly iland, but, as it ited there to a arly favourable me genus; the Cape or South remarkable for Scarlet Fuchsia la, and G. glu- native climates, kinds of Pinks, The Lcmon- 3 feet high and ts long branches uriant, that it is t about the root, )w, are annually e, out of doors ; Proteas, several eorian Jessamine Clethra arborea, lias and Heaths, Iters of our own all these, as well ih in the greatest cd to the climate le gardens where too, on fruits of the shelter of a lery year. li of Britain is, ind even in thai if the ocean. A rgoes a considcr- »pe of the Maize Sngland ; nor is success in such ■r of the summer les can, generally assiduity of our lions, and by the r fruit to be met Book I. ENGLAND. SS5 1437. Before, however, we tpeak further of the eiotic productions, which are affected by the different latitudes or by the different elevations in Great Britain, we must be per- mitted to offer a few remarks on its native vegetation ; which (exclusive of cryptogemia) has been so admirably described by Sir James £. Smith, in his Engli$h Flora, the last, and, wc may add, too, the best, of the many excellent works of that learned botanist. 1438. The general nature of the vegetation of the BrUitli isles will be best seen by a table of the different natural families, accompanied by columns, referring to the number of species in each of these groups ; and the proportion wliich each of these latter bears to the wholes 1439. So witlely different as is our flora, and, indeed, that of the greater part of Europe, from that of America, in the same latitude, the comparison of the vegetable productions of the two countries would be attended with no interesting results ; nor do we think that, to institute a comparison between that of Britain and of any country on tlie continent of Europe, either to the north or south of our own islands, would repay the labour of the investigation ; but, did our space allow us, we should gladly have scrutinised the relation between the vegetation of our own islands, and that of an equal space of territory, as far as it would be possible, in the same degrees of latitude ; in Germany and Denmark, and a part of Sweden, for example. But this would, doubtless, be attended with great labour. Many floras would have to be consulted, and only such plants selected as belong to the given space of country. Nor would the comparison be exactly fair, .unless the two districts contained, and in nearly the same parallels of latitude, similar mountains and similar plains. A great obstacle, too, to the obtaining of correct results would arise from the very different opinions wliicli different botanists entertain as to what are species, and what varieties ; and what are aboriginal natives, and what imported from other countries ; so that no two naturalists, even publishing at the same time the flora of the same region, would at all approximate in what >:oncerns the number of native species in that region, more especially if each uses his own eyes, and is unbiassed by the opinion of his fellow^Iabourer in the same studies. Nees von Esenbeck and Homschuch's Sri/ologia Germanica, contains, in the first volume, but few genera, and comprises 68 species : the same group of genera in Mohr's Flora Germanica has only half that number. In our own country. Smith reckons 17 saxifrages of Scotland, 59 willows, and 14 roses; Hooker, in his Flora Scoticii, enumerates but 13 saxifrages, 10 roses, and 43 willows ; and the same holds good with many other genera in different writers. At present, we can only guess, from a tolerable acquaintance with the vegetable productions, at the relative proportions ; and whatever may be our partiality to our native land, we must, nevertheless, express our opinion that the result of such an investigation would be greatly in favour of the Continent. The soil, we apprehend, is more varied, the quantity of uncultivated ground is greater, and the very circumstance of its continuity of land, extending north and south and eastward, would naturally aid the migration of plants from great distances, which must materially increase the number of species. Thus it is, that, on landing on the shores of France or Holland, we find many plants which have reached their limits in those directions, simply in consequence of the barrier afforded by the sea ; whereas the same individual species passes on to Germany, Holland, and even to Denmark and Sweden, to enrich those more northern floras. 1440. T/ie only two floras of Great Britain, which are so complete as to demand our particular attention, arc Smith's work, above alluded to the (English Flora), and Gray's Arrangement of British Plants: the fonncr classed according to the Linnsean system, citcnding, however, only to the end of the class Polygamia, and the first order of the c'ass Cryptogamia Filices. Gray's Flora includes the whole of the British vegetables, arranged according to the natural method, and is the only one that approaches, however deficient it may still be, to any thing like a catalogue of our present state of knowledge of the Cryp- togamia. Among the Phaenogamous plants, however, Mr. Gray has included a great number that are only known in a state of cultivation, as has been done by De Candolle, in his Flore Franfaise, and many other continental botanists. We have, therefore, deemed it convenient thus to give a list of the plants, according to each of these authors ; and the increased number in the columns of species, according to Mr. Gray, will be thus easily accounted for. lie Agave amerlcana ha recently returned fouth America, they lt« of tlic country ai lloiiouB plant*, lli«c t young stalks arc »o Ire manufaclureil, at linth or teiilli yra' i wen at sclilom as an jvca 1 ''^r, as wc have It of fcnglanil, in tlic Irs once mahuiwiral Y3 «M DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY Part III, Comparative Tablc A List of the Number of Species of British Plants, arranged according to the Classes and principal Families to which they belong ; exiiibiting the relative proportion which these latter bear to the whole of the respective Classes.* l4. ■s^ ^ ^ 3 WJS a St.- COS III Proportion of Nat Orders to Phcno mous, per Graj Kamn of the Nataral FamlUeii Species In Smith Engluh Flora. ■ Proportion of Orders to Phi mous, per S Spocioi in Oray'i Arriingement of Britith Plant: 23 = < ft. Fungi . . - — m . . . . . - 800 - . 1 to 2 1 to2 Algae - - - - • - - • > - - 40D - . 4 4 Lichenes . . . - . . • . . - - 400 • . ' 4 4 Hepatics, by Hooker - - - 90 - - J6A - - 97 - - 16? n 27A 1 11 Musci, by Hooker . . . 290 « - 4 - - 290 - . K Filices . . . 58 . > 26 . . 58 - - 28i AcOTYLSnONES - - - - - - - - ■ . - - - • 2045 1 Graminea; • 121 - - • - 12i 170 ■ . > . n Cypcraccie . 92 - - - - 17 91 - - • . 18 17| 48t Juncece and Restiaccse . 32 - . > • 47 93 . . • • 49i Glumacea' . . . 245 . - 6i . - 294 • H 5} 45 Orchideae - - . 37 • - 408 . • 33 . _ 49^ Monocotylcdones cactera; - - V3 - - - - 89 - - . . MoNOCOTVLEDONES - - . - • 355 ' ^ . - . . 416 3^ 4 Conifcrae • • - 4 - - 376 . - 7 234 105 Amentaceae - . 78 - - 19i . - 72 - . 22J 21 Euphorbiuccae . - . 16 . - 94 . - 16 • 102| 98 Scrophul. ami OrobancheaD - - 52 - - 28^ - - 55 • . 29J 29 1 Labiatffi and Vcrbenae - - - 56 - - 26J - - 69 - - 23| 25i Boragineoe - - - 23 - - 1 to 65J - - 23 - - lto7li 1 to 681 Ericinex and Pyroleas - . . 22 - - 67 - • 22 . . 74J 705 Campanulaccae - - - 14 - - 107 J - - 15 - . 109 I08| Cumpositas - - - 137 - - 11 - - 144 - . Hi ll| Ilubiaceae - • • 21 - - 7'i - - 19 • . 86 78i Umbelliferae • - - 64 - - 23^ - - 69 - . 23| 235 IlosacciE - - - 81 - - 18i _ 81 - . 20j 19| LeguminosaB - - - 66 - - 22j 69 • . 23| 23:^ Malvaceae - - - 6 - - 250^ - - 6 - - 272^ 261J Caryopliylleas - - - 59 - - 25A - - 60 - - svft 2fi,1i CruciferiE - - - 71 - ■ 2lj - - 73 . . 22^ 2It!i Ranunculaceae - - - 36 - - 4l| - - 42 . . 39 403 Dicotylcdoncs caeterae - - - 342 - - - - - - 378 . . . DlCOTYLEnONES - - - - - 1148 •J - - - - 1220 n n lUl. ScollantI, comprising the northern extremity of the island, commencing in latitude 55°, ar.d its flora having l>cen tolerably satislactorily invcBtigaled, we here suhjoin a similar list, drawn up by Mr. Arnnlt. The Pha.'nogamous plantii arc taken from the Flwa Scolica of Dr. Hooker ; the CryptoKainia from the Horn Sruliia, the Flora Edinensii, and Cryptogamic Flora of Dr. Grcvillc, and from the lalo Captain Carmicimil's maimscriiits. t It will lie observed that the Musci, Filices, Lichenes, and He|iaticie have of late years received comparatively few additiuns ; while the Algae and l''ungi have increased so enormously, that more aro now reckoned fur each order than Gray has state n 11 dc MO, ar.d its flor» up by Mr. Ariinit, iinia from the Horn aptain Carmioliati's liavu of latP years ously, that niuroart k:otlaiul tlian those tc researches which ael; particularly by I two Rroups, in one in were previously h Niunoinrilio NntUMl t'cinillvt. Speclei. Hi §2^ Names of the Natural Families, Speclci. |l |l II' Fungi 974 _ 1 to 11 Scrophularinic • _ •37 . 1 to 29 J Al^a. 463 ■• Labiatee • 39 « 28i Licliviiex 260 Boragincas . lUputivw 73 H. iricincas - - _ Miiiici 264 . 4 Oampaniilacco: - . 9 Filii'es 48 - 22, Coinposita! . 105 • loj AciiTvi.i:nuNii • 2084 Rubiaceee • - • 16 Or»iniiK'«i 04 Umbclliferae . 44 . 24i Cj'in'niveio «(} RosacciE - - . 52 • 20| Juiici'w •JH LcguminosiG • 43 . 25 (iliiiniiren) 188 . H MalvaceiE . 5 Ordiiiiew 19 Curyophylleic • 45 . 24 Moiiocotyl.t'wtvritt 53 Cruciferse - . 56 . 19i M»Nui'u'rvi,Kii. m 260 ^ Ranunculacea; • . 25 ConitViw 3 Dicotyled. cieter. . 245 AmeitiicoiP .16 DlC0TVLED0N=S « • 823 1ft Eu|iliorliiiu'i>w 7 1:211 1: 4 1: l| IW'J, Jl tllHll tuf rfmarM, that In Cyperacea; Juncear, Salii, Saiifraga, Rosa. Rubus, and some others, the iiiirim ure lint llirimsl iiii the same rules as In Smith's English Flora ; and therefore, before drawing a patalltil liolwt't'll tlli'Mi orilorii in Mviillniid, and in the whole of Britain, a considerable number of species ought til lie nilileil, To liinkc this I'lmijinrlson, then, about twenty species may be added to the Monocotylcttones, and alHiiil llltv (»»y Hirly.si'Vt'llJ, to the Vicnt.i/hdoiwua plints, making these two, 280 and 870 j whence the Moiiii('i>lyliHliint four 1(1 llvo | siiil (he DIcolyliMliincs as eight to eleven. IW. hflnml iiiwtiiiiiifs n Hum which partakes of the nature of those of England and Scotland. A list of the rilia'iir vegetntiun than its sister island, including only 934 species ; of which there are, 41 Fillucs. 211 Monucotyledoncs, and 682 Dicotyledonct. So llml the iirnihiitluil uf l''lllcps tn f hicnogamous plants is as Mutiuciitylcdunes tn Fhu:nogamou8 plants DIcutyluuoiics to l'h(eiiugainous plants 1444. The propmhiH of Irish Munocntyledonrs to British Monocotylcdones (according to the species of Smith) la ns . . I to 11, or as 3 to 5. llflrliih I)lcotyleiciilyli'doi>DK MuntH'oiyK>iloiuiit 2H 36 20 26 17 21 19 25 I44R Fciii, iH(tfetl,(\f Ihf .lldt) (taking them In round numbers) species of plants now enumerated as natives of KiiRlaiiU, Ni'iitlmiili mill Iri'loml, niid the ailjaccnt islets, can be considered as exclusively belonging to these ruuiittiet, Kur ihoii^h there are iiiaiiy which are not referred to as species in the works of other authors, yet 898 DESCIUPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. / they are, for the moit part, aiming such ramlllef u are not well underitnod, and about which there will alwavi fxiat a dintrence of opinion ) as among the nrasici, Willowi, Bramblvt, Ac. The Mi-oltUli and ('(irnltli Lovaget {LirusUcum tcolicum and cornubieme Sm.) were long conildcrnl to bo |iccullar to tlic llrltlih domlnloni ; the one In the extreme aouth, the other in the north ; hut the lorincr li now well known tu be nn /nhabitant of maritime places in M the arctic and subarctic rcKiMna, an that It liui (iidy In Hcjiland and the north of England found in southern limits ) whilst tlie latter, which we haw received iVoni Italy, and wlilcii urowi alio in Greece and Portugal, has, in Cornwall, reached Its ext.emu northern boundary. The iil.nru of Ihe Bird's-eve Primrose {Primulii farinosa), so abundant in pastures in Ihe north and west ul' Knglanil, Is siipiilietl by the Primula scotica in the northern districts of Scotland, and In the Orkney Islanils : it Is uni|UeiNi»i//ni'iVi poli/gimiiliim) i •T««iv»»nny TBp.B. and Swcet Sedge (Acorui Calamuii)\ the Yrllow.wort (CA/wa ncrfolinla)' the MesereuHi \Uuphne Mexen-um) ; the I' lowering Rush (Hulomut umbrlliilUM) ; the Yellow Marsh Saxiiyagc {Smifraga Hirculua^ ; though on the Continent a very arctic iilant, tlie Clove Pink {Dianlhui ,,,B _ caryophyllus) \ and I), prolirer, several Catchflyi ""' * - (S'tnir) i Kuphorblai, Clstuses, Anemones, the Tra. vcUcr's Joy {Cttmalit rUatba); the llround I'inc K^uga Ckamaptlyt) j the woad.8age (reurr/ii»i ScorodoHia) ; the crested and field Cow- wheat (.Vc. tampyrum crittalum and arvfiue) ) some Orobanches, the Vella annua, Uraba alioidei, and Ibcrls amara, some Fumitories (FumarUi talida, Intra, and patvi. flora) ; the yellow and crimson Vetchlliigi [iMhyrm Apbaca and NUiolia) ; the VIcIa hyhrlda, lirvigatn, and bithynica, iIip|iocrepli conu)sai Orchis Muilof, iiyramidalis, ustuluU, ftisca, mllitarls, teplirosanlhoa, hircinai Aeeras aiilhroiMiphnra, llerminium nidiior. chis j all the species of Ophrys, 10pi|iai:tis rubra, Ms. laxis Loesclll j the bcautlt\il and rare Lady's .Slipper {Cypripeilium Calcrolut) \ the Uirthwort [Ariiluluchia ClematUU); the Koman Nettle (Vrliea piluliffra); the Xanthluin itrumarlum and Amaranthus lliiluni: the Spanish Chestnut Tree (Fagui cattaiiea) ; and Misscltoe (fVscwm album) i the Sea Buckthorn {Hip. coamiH iisith. rtiuTBo iisAtii. pophae rkuntnuMe$)\ and White Poplar (ftvm/Ki eanetcens) ; these are some among the most striking of the British plants, which do not reach the middle of the kingdom, and fail below the south of Scotland. l+.il. The moti interesting of Ihe Scottish plants arc, principally, such whose types are found on the continent of Europe, in high northern latitudes, or In the cstrcmc arctic regions of iMith Asia and America j K)!> a, SCOTTISH PHIMHOSB. C, .lN(jLB-rM)WKIIEll WA I RR-UHR8N. A, KfMTK imRPION riRAflS. ifiSMAII. ALPINRUBMIAM. such as Veronica IVuticulota, saxatllli, and alpina, several al|ilno Bratsei, and other glumaceoui plants ; such as Phlcuin alpinum and Al.ijiecuriis alplnus, ICriophorum alpinum \ Juncns c,i»l,i. neus, arcticii?, and blglumis; and Luiula nn-. Ilea, Primula sciliea [Jtg.W.\, n), the Myo«oli^ alpcstrls ((<}, Aialva procumbens, Ocntiana ni. vails (r), Siblialdia pnH'umlH'us, i'onv.illan.i verticill.ita, Epiloliinm alpinum. Arbutus al- pina, Pyrula uniHora (ft), Saxil^aga nivaht and rivularli, Stcllaria scapigvra (the latter is exclusively British), Arenaria ruliella niul fasligiata, the Cherleria setlnides, Lvchnis Vis- caria and ainlna, Spergula saginuliies, Poteii- tllla o|>aca, Nuphar Kaliniana, llanunculus .il. pest "' \Iuga pyramldalls, Cardamlne bellidi. flc ,ibui nlgcr, Astragalus tralensis ami ca. s, Erigeron alpinum, Corallorhiia in- nai jhiUa!atomcnti>sa, Ooudyera reiions ; the most alpine Carlccs and Bailees, and the Dwarf Birch [Belula mm). 14.0'.'. There are turn plants which deserve |iar. tlcular notice, as natives of Great Britain, niK* found nowhere else In Eurn|ie| but these arc again met with In North America i the one i> Putcntilla tridcntata {Jig. 110, a) abundant in arctic America and uikiii the Kocky and White * Mr. Mackay measured a trunk of this icvcral t'atohllyj lenionca, the Tra. Ihc Urounil I'ino l-Sage (Teuciium 1 Cow-wheat (.Vc •oinc Orohnnchm, mil Ibcri) amara, Mfa, ami parvi- tchltnu {lallitjrut hybrlila, lirvigata, ai Orchil Mwlot, irlii te|ihro>«nthM, ilcrmlnlnm niunor- )lnactli rubra, M«. rare l.«(ly'« Shppcr hwort {Ariatolocliia Urtica pilulifera) ; MralithuiUlilum: cailttHca) ; and Uuckthotn (Hi>>- . Poplar {Po/tului each the mlUUIc uf are found on tlic Ula and America ; ixatllli,andal|>ina, other glumaccoui im anil A'..i|>ei«"'» in I Junciu rast.u and Luiula ate. , a), the MyoiotK )cni, Ocntlana nl- ibeim, lonvallana mm, Arbutus al- Saxlrtaga nivalis ilgera Uhc lattiT iiaria ruliella and ililei, Lychnit Vii- laglnoldci, I'oteii- a, UanunculuB ill- 'ardainine belliili- ilui iralcnilt anJ Kt, Corallorhlia In- xlvcra rcncns ; the ci, and the Dwarf vhlch dcacrvc imr- Jrcat nntain, and hwi but tlieie ate icrlca i the one is ). a) abundant ni Uoeky and While oaltc O'Sullivan'a liven ai » nn*l" "' Book I. ENGLAND. 8M MoiintaiiM,theothcf the Eriocaulon icjitaucularc {jig. 110. b). ThU latter gcnui ii mostly tropical.or a native of the wurm temocrntc lonca in America, the Eait Indiei, and Australia. The only exception! to thia rule are the Erlncaiilon pcllucidum of Michaux, and the plant In (juci. tlon i the former being found In North America aa high af Canada ; and, upon examination, the two spcclea prove idcn. tical. In these inatancca, the Eriocaulon and the I'otcntilla ■ecm to have overcome many obstacles In their migration, and to have reached their eastern boundary. The Kriocaiilon Is confined to a few lakes in the Hebrides, where we liavo been surprised in the month of September at the high temper, ature of the water, which probably never flrecxei ; and In some •iiots in the aouth and west of Ireland : the Fotentllla Is only found on one hill in Angusshire. 1153. /( is worthy uf remark, that the genus Pedlculnris, which is so numerous in species, in the eastern and southern parts of Euro|ie, almost wholly disappears in Drilain ; fur, notwithstanding the vast numlxjrs of it which are found In Siberia, the aouth of Riiaaia, Switicrland, extending even to the Pyrcneca, and Germany, our country poaacsses but two, which arc equally abundant upon thcContinent; and although almoat wholly an alpine genus, yet our mountains possess not one really alpine species. It would appear that the climate ii peculiarly unaiiited to their nurture ; for In North America, In the same and especially In still higher northern latitudei, they again become anundant. KA. Irrlatia, again, exhibits a few striking |H?cullaritics in some of ita vegetable productions. Besides the Siiawlierry tree (Arbutus unciio) already mentioncil, it can boast of Pingiiicula grandiRora ifig. 111. a), a Itautiful flower, native of France and the Pyreneeb; Mcnziesia polit'olia (A), a sjiccics belonging to Ihc latter country and to S|iain, and found In a wild state In no other parts of the world : it is, too, a most Imely one : also St. Patrick's Cabbage (Saxifrnga umbrosa) and the London Priife (S. Geum, c) anil their varieties, which are scarcely known to exist but in Switzerlond and the Pyrenees: Arenaria (iliata, a native of the mountains on the continent of Kuropc ; and to these rarities have lately been laded, by Professor Uieseck6, the Yellow Poppy (Papaver nuKIV>lRAVRD aAXIPaAOC. 'i; both of them peculiarly arctic productions, and plentinil on the northern extremity of Amerif-a mil (irecniand ; and with theie we must lie permitted to number, though Crypto^amic plants, the Trichomanca brevisetura (Jig. 112. A\ which scarcely grows '(V-'y any where else In the world but in Madeira and in York. ihire (if it be not now extinct in the latter habitat), the Adiantum Capillus Veneris (o), whose only locality In the British dominions is the west of Ireland, and one spot in Wales, but which is frequent in the south of Europe, and even In the tropical parti of America; and two moues, Hookcria latevircns, and Daltonia iplachnoidei, entirely peculiar to Ireland. 1455. Hibemia, again, possesies three remarkable vegetable productions, which arc now, wc believe, pretty generally distributed in our gardens and shrubberies throughout the kingdom, and are universally known by the names of the Irish Uroom, Irish Furze, and Irish Yew. The former, wc believe to be the Sparticum patens of Linnieua, a Spanish ■pccies, with very hairy pods ; and it is, probably, not wild in tliat country. The Irish Furze has an appearance very dlf. ferent from that of the Kiiro|ican or Dwarf Furxei [Vlex europaiis and nanus), having very erect ihort branchea, and closely placed spines; so that the whole plant hai a re. markably dense and comi>act habit, appearing almost ai it it were kept close clipnca with shears. It bloMonu rare, ly, but wc have seen both flowers and seed- vessels, which do not difl'er in any material point from those of Ulcx nanus. In some gardens It is called U. curopnus var. itrictui ; but Mr. Mackay, perhaps with justice, conslderi it to be quIK i>, THi'i iLMUKSHAin. a distliict spccics, and he has called it, in his " Catalogue of I; iicipi.r-«nr.Kii nnisTiB-pRRit. (lie Indigenous Plants of Ireland," Ulex strictus. Still, the 330 only lUtioni for (hit plant aro DESCRIPTIVE GEOGUArilY. P*»T III, 113 in the Marqucu of l^]n(ionilcrry'« park ami ilirubbcrlcs, at Mount Sicwan county of Down, where there arc «nnic very Urge busheg • but whence It came, no one can tril. 'i'hli wouKl, however, be a'verv v.iliinble plant to the auricuHiirist i for, ^iecor(hnK to Mr SlcuVrl Mnrray, it ha« been plnnlol (for it ini'rea»c» reailily liy cuttiniMlIn dry hilly paatiirea in the north of Scutlanil, and in the e,-,riy ,[,„'. ,1 throws up an abundant crop of (ucculent ihootii, which are arcnlilv e iten by the sheep, when there is little or no urass to«up|Hirt them 14."Hi. '/'/«• IhiiH liith hiilahical curinsliy !■ the Irisli Yew /»» 1 1 J\ or Klnrence-C'ourt Yew, as it is calliil In that countrv from il< being Hrst discoverctl at Florence Court, the seat ii'f'l/in Eniiisklllcn, Mr. Markay doeii not consider it to be wili|. but Mr. Hervcy.in the Agriculturul Majinxinr for October, ISCH sayi that it is an undoubted native, and plentiful in the nelKhbou'rhcxxi of Antrim, where there are trees at lea»l a century old. |t i^ ,|i. tinginshcd by its upright branches, which give the whole plant •omcwhat the habit of a Cypress } by the leaves growing, not in » distichous manner, but (torn all sides of the stem : the ilruiK' or berry, too, Mr. Mackay says, is of a ditTercnt form Oom that uV the common Yew, 1*57. If uie had room here for ill insertion, we would gladly hive drawn up a full li>t of those plants which are exclusively peculiar to the east or to the west sides of this kingdom, or which have al lenst, their maximum in either one, and are very rare or altogcliicr wanting on the opposite side. We are sure it would be i)ro(luctive of highly interesting results. Tlie hasty catalogue which followi though made without the accurate care which the subject woulii require, if it received the srrupulous attention which it merit) will, nevertheless, sulllce to show that the plants of the east cuit' generally, have the character of those which are natives of dryer and warmer climates ; whereas those of the west are, in most Instances, types of the subalpinc plants of more southern latitudes or exhibit a vegetation analogous to that of the more loutherii coasts of France and the Me«literranean. It must be observed however, that it is extremely ditlUult to define the limits of the' verge of the plants on the cast or west coast, for want of more full stations than we are yet possessed of, and more ample local floras ; and it must be clearly understood that the annexed lUt must lie considereil only as an approximation to the truth, crcn upon its own limited scale. lljS. Plantt which are either wholly conflncd to thcratf sideof England, or have their maximum there, rarely extending to tlis centre of the kingdom : — Veronica triphylla ■ ■■ verna Dactylis stricta PolyiKigon monspclicnsii — — ^— littoralis Alojiecurus bulbosus Panicum sanguinalc Agrostis Spica venti Dipsacus pilosus Hdlo.steum umbellatum Uentiana verna Tillxa muscosa Ilupleurum tenuitsimum i rotundifolium Menyanthes nymphxoides Pimpinella maj^na Myosurus minimus Vcrba-'ca Campanula patula — — Hapunculus Thesium linophyllum Salsola fruticosa Statiec reticulata (diffbrs from the plant so ealle hamnspityi Melampyrum cristatum ^^-^— — arvense sylvaticum Orobanche minor — — ^— — ramosa Turritis glabra? Orchis fusca militaris — — taphrosanthos ^~ ustulata — ^ hircina Ophryt muscifera — — apifera ^— ^ arachnites aranifera Aristolochia clematitis Hippophae rliamiioidcs Urtica pilulifera Atriplex {leduiiculata. 14;i9. Plants which arc cithe( wholly confined to the western side of England, or to Wales, or which have their maximum there, rarely extending beyond the centre of the kingdom : — Pinguicula lusitanica Polycarpon tetranhyllum Knappia agrostiilea Scirpus Huloschainui Rubia |>eregrina Lysimarhia thyrsiflora ( Yorkshire aiid .Scotland) Campanula hederacea I..obelia Dortmanna urens (but not so in Scotland) Pulmonaria maritima, (found as far south as Devonshire*! not con- fined to either coast of Scotland) Primula farinosa (most a- 1 bundant inCumbcrland ; in Scotland confined to the east, and rare) Impatiens noli tungere Rentiana cam|ieatris Corriginla littorali* Exaruin filiforme Eryiigiuin camiiestrc Slum vcrtlcillatum Silithor|iia curopxa Kiipleurum Odontites llleccbrum verticillatum Anthericum serotinum Scilla verna autumnalis Rumcx digynus Juncus niiformis Saxifraga nivalis (Wales and Yorkshire) Cotyledon UinbillcUi Oxalis cornieiilata Andromeila polifolia Areiiaria tcnuifolia Cotoncaster vulgaris Piipaver cambricum Cistus polifolius guttatus — — marifulius Aetata spicata Melittis mclissonhyllum — — — grandinorum nartsia viscosa llrassica oleracea -^— — moneiisis Oraba aizoides Cheiranthus sinuatus (Anglesea) Arabis bispida Erodium moschatum Vieia bitliynica Lotus diilusus Chrysocoma aurc Euphorbia Peplis Asplenium septentrionalo (Uenbighshirci in Scot- land, cast ?) AdiaiitumCa]iil1usVeneris. | 14G0. In general, with regard to such of the plants above mentioned as arc found in Scotland, the sanii' j rule, as to locality, holds good in that country also. There are, however, some difTcrenees, and a few iiiiox. pected peculiarities, which we shall shortly notice ; and Scotland being of so much smaller extent, and jirr- . naps more thoroughly iiiTCstigatcd, than England, we can sjieak with more certainty as to the rang» of these vegetables. 1461. Plants found on the west tide of Scotland almost exclusively : — Pinguicula lusitanica Lysimachia Nummularia Convolvulus Seplum Campanula hederacea Jasionc montana Selinum palustrc Sison verticillatum (Enanthe pimpinclloides Statice Limonium Drosera longifolia Epilobium tetragonum Uianthusdeltoidcus Cotyledon Uinbilicui Lytnruin Salicaria ' According to Turner and Uillwyn's Botanist's Guide. Glaucium luteum Thalictrum flavuni ISartsia viscosa lirassica monensis Ervum telrasiiermum Hypericum Androssmum — elodes Picris hicracloid Inula crithmoides Epipactis latifulia (iymnadenia rnnopsca j (very rare on the ea»l | coast). Mi. riauli fuuml Phlcuin arenarlum fMtuca loliarea b'hiuiii viil^aro (di fully wild on the w Primula veris - elallor (nnvdlvuhis arvrnsii Uciitiaiia ainarclla I*jj. The t,-ee$ thai llie llcech, the Ash, I Ointniil (») i the Al Mountain Ash, which hrc'h, and Scotch Fir fonnlng vast forests, unquritiiinahly to be drgrce, in theehalk an Ihough there may be III northern limit Is sci and W in Norway j a ofihelterandof sultab m. The Pine (Pit lie Peach, Nt-ctariiK rircunistanecs, ripen ligh north as Inverii 91' sun must ever be i I Scullaiul. UtiC. Ofthevarm Barley, Here, IJigg, C iiions ncit too much Inverness, beyond wl sou'h of Inverness, t "lieat is almost who! feirict for pasture. H67. In regard to «a, the southern and sufficiently lofty scale parts of England posss II lias fortunately Impp I'lants throughout tliu tlic lat. 55" may be cor country, which, from i Jtiivecri the more noi litvote the room that v 'mible and less knowi ""'•'"■''r wliat concerns '^C8. The Oak, in I gradually becomes of a I and 1 TOO feet. HC9. The Cummon DOOK I> T!Nni,ANn. SSI msi. PlaiHi ruuiul on the ra^l ilite of SriilUiiil «liiiuit i-Ki'Uiatvvly : -• Fhlt'uin arriiArlum fHluca lolliicva Ecliium viilRaro (iloulit. fully Willi oil the wvat) Priiiiul.i vcrl« _ clntior (niivolvuliii nrvpiuil lleiiliaiia ainarclla HnxllYnKn Irlilnilyllti'l Nlloiiu iiiH'llUiiru Kuplidriila Kaiilii rxlipia Ari'iinrla vcrn* I'otvntlllA v('ianrl)iiri'a Anlriignlui RlyrytihylUii . hy|HiKlnttla 'rrlliillum rr.iKiri'rum — — ^ <>rnllh(i|>otllulilet ■ Kubrum Vicia liitca Ciiicui Erio|ihorut (Jno|iordnn Acanthlum Artpmlnia mnrltlma Kpipaclii pnli'iilrlt Anptcniutn ecptcntrionale. 8|ilriv« Fllliu'iKliila HtB. The t.rn thai arc aht'rignul noHvfi .s were built of the exeellent timlicr which it nffbrdcd. One individual waa then felled, which aflbrdcd a plank, which we liavo Hecn at tochabcra : it is;'^ feet in diameter, and IVec IVum every kind of Imperfection. Hfi,'). Of the fruit trees which are suc- ccHHfully cultivated in tlie open air, tlie mtiDbcr h litnitei}. In the south, exclu- HJvi-ly, or, perhaps, as far as the centre of the kingdom, under favourable circuin> Ntaiiccs, tho Vine, the Fig, the Quince, the Mulberry, Cheotnut, Walnut, and Medlar may be advantageously planted. The Apple, Pear, the Plum of various kinds, I ibc Peach, Nectarine, and Apricot ; ivll, according to soil, exposure, and other local :ircunistnnccs, ripen their fruit In tho open air, it' alFordcd the protection of a wall, as Ugh north as Inverness, and some of tho most hardy ones much higher : but tiie want of sun must ever be a hinderaiico to tho thoruugh perfecting of good fruit in the north of Scotland. 14iiC. Of the variout kinds of Corn, which are used as food for man or cattle, Wheat, Barley, Here, Bigg, Outs, and Ityu are the universal crops ; and these all succeed in situ- iiions nut too much elevated ahovti tho level of the sea, as far to the northward as iterncss, beyond which the wheat becon)CN u very uncertain crop; and even considerably iou'h of Inverness, to the north of the Forth and Clyde, in lat. 56°, the cultivation of wheat is almost wholly conlinod to tho t'lmtern sido of the country, tlic west being the I district fur pasture. 1167. In regard to the heifihl at which certain plants will grow above the level of the ia, the southern and midland parts of Great Hritain do not contain mountains upon a I safficiently lofty scale to render their investigiition particularly interesting. The northern I parts of Unglnnd possscss moimtains of coiiNiderahle elevation, upwards of .'^000 feet ; and ilias fortunately happened that Mr. Winch's " Kssay on the Geographical Distribution of Plants tliruiighout tliu Counties of Northuinlierlaiul, Cumberland, and Durham," of which iliclttt. 55" may be considered tho medium, embraces a very great proportion of this very iountry, which, from its situation, may, in point of climate, be roiisidcrcd as intermediate k'tnccn the more northern and suutliern floras of Great Itritain ; and though we caimot devote tlie room that would be necessary to introducing the whole of his remarks upon the liunibic and less known vegetables, yet we gladly select from the writings of so accurate an I ol)scr\cr what concerns the more valuable and, more striking vegetable productions, I-IG8. The Oak, in lat. 55", attains u large mv in the valleys ; it ascends the hills, but I gradually becomes of stunted growth in Weardale and Tecsdale, to the elevation of 1600 I md 170O feet. HCa. The Cummtin Elm {lUmus cawjHVlriH) is not indigenous north of the Tecs; ^1 3.Vi DEscuirnvK ueuoiiapiiy. Pam hi ' itt place being tnkcn hy tliv Wyvli Elm ( U, mnntana), which skirt* the mountoini at ■ heiglit of 'JOOO foot. 1470. The lieech nnd /ttpen arc truly natiTcii, flourishing beautifully in the low theltervil spots, but not climbing the hills to equal heights with the oak. The White and Black Poplars {Populin alba Jind tiijira) are doubtful natives of the north of England, as of Scot. land i though the White Poplar is rvinarkablo for withstanding the north-eostcrly windi, wliicli arc no destructive to vegetation in the counties of Northumberland and Uiirliam. The Lime {Tilia europtTa), the Chestnut {Cattanea vesca), and the Hornbeam {Carpinut IMiitiis), stand in the same predicament. 1471. Holli/ trees are among the chief ornaments of the woods in Durham, Nortlium. bcrland, and Cumberland, as is the Yew (Tams baccala). The Uirch {lletula alba) equals . in size the birches of Norway and Sweden ; but is not found on the mountains at a grvuter elevation than the Sycamore (jlccr Pscudo-plalanua), which in the subalpine regions serms to be as vigorous, and to attain as great a siie as it does near the sea-coast. Tl'.e Mountain Abh (Pyrusaucuvaria) is foi.nd on the hills; the White Ream {Pi/ru$ Aria) may be traced from the High-I'orce of the river Tecs to thecoact; the Alder {Alnut glutinoia) and the Guelder Rose ( Viburnum Opiiliis) accompany our streams ; and the Hazel, Black Cherry {Primus Ccrasus), Bird Cherry {Prunus Pailus), the Spiiidle-trve {Euonymus etiropteus),\\\t Baspbcrry {liubus idirus), and the common Elder (Sambucut vigra), are found in all the woods from the sea-shore to those situated on an elevation of ICOO feet: but the cunimun . Maple {Acer camiteslrii) occurs oidy in the hedges, in some parts of the flat country. 1472. The Ash tree {Fraxinus excelsior), the White Thorn {Mespilus Oxi/acantha), the Crab tree, or Wild Apple (Pi/rua Malus), and Black Thorn {Prunus spinosa), aliound throughout the district in question. The Bullare (Prunus insititia) is rare; and tlic Plum- tree (Prunus domesticn), Pear {Pyrus communis), Red Currant (liibes rubrum), the Ber- berry {^Berberis vulgaris), and Gooseberry {liibes Grossularia), though of frequent occurrence, appear not to be original natives of the soil. But the Rock Currant (^Ribes pelrteum), the Acid Mountain Currant ( Ribes spicatum), Alpine Currant (Ribes alpinum). Black Currant {Ribes nigrum), and Privet {J.iguslrum vulgare), are indigenous, and not unfrequent. 1473. On the derated moors, and even on the mountain of Crossfell, at an elevatiun uf nearly ."3000 feet, the roots and trimks of very large Pines (Piniis syluestris) are seen pro- truding from the black peat moss ; but the tree is no longer indigenous to tiie country ; nor does the same trt-e now attain the siic of the ancient Pine, though planted in similar moorland situntioiu, though the young trees be protected, and even the plantations situatt^d at a lower level. 1471. The Furxe (Ulex europtrus) attalni loan cIcTSlinn of 9000 feet in lequettcrcd ipotji, accompanied by the Ilramblp. .lunlpcr may uc traced friim the vout to the ticlght of 15UU feet. The Cloudberry [liubus Clmmiemunis), the Hearlwrry [Arliulut tJm urti), and Suiul Willow {Sali'x arenarUi), attain the >.ime ele- vation ; while the Dwarf Willow (.Siilix hrrbaeen), but without it< uaual attendant the Heticulated Willow {S. ri-ticiilatn), rcachei to the tops of the loflieat mountains, upwards ofodOO feet above the level of the ica. 147.'>. Coitrse (Irnsses, Sedges, ami lliiahet too often cover the wet moors with a scanty and almost uscleii vegetation, 'i'othe agriculturist the dilll'rent Heaths arc scarcely more acceptable ; but they arc unqiiei- tionably amooR the most beautiful of our native plants, and their abundance and the vast extent of ground which thoy clothe, give a |ieculiar char.ictcr to very many parts of Great Britain, cspecially.in the North. In the districts in question, the common Heather {Callimn vulgaris'', the Fir-leaved Heath {Erica cinrrfa\ and the Cross.lcaved Heath [Erica Titnilix), the latter, however, less fYaerant, and prc'°rring moist situ- ations; theic flourish in various situatiims, from KKK) to 3UM feet above the level of the sea, but never in calcareous soil ; which circumstance, Mr. Winch nlMerves, occasions the striking diflbrence between the heaths of Durham and Northumtwrland, and the Yorkshire Wolds aa they are called, where the substratum is chalk, 1476. The mott considerable elevation to which the cultivation of wheat extends in the north of England docs not exceed 1000 feet above the level of the sea. Oats grow at nearly double that height ; but in unfavourable years the sheaves may often be seen standing among the snow, which not uncommonly covers tlie tops of the mountains in October, and is never later in falling than the middle of November. The limits of Barley and Rye are between those of wheat and oats ; but Bigg, a more hardy kind of grain than either of the former, is no longer cultivated. Turnips, though of small size, and Potatoes, grow at the same height as Oats. On the soil of the moors being ploughed for the first time, and lime applied, White Clover ( Trifiilium rcpens) comes up in abundance ; and the same circum- stance is noticed by Mr. I'ursh to occur in North America when the woods are cleared away, and the ground tirst broken up. 1477. Observations, similar to those we have now exhibited, in a suitable part of Scot- land were still a desideratum; and wo have been fortunate enough, through the medium of Dr. Alexander Murray of Aberdeen, to obtain them from the Rev. James Farqiiharson, minister of Alford, Aberdc diirc; a gentleman, as his remarks will show, of much scientific knowledge, and great and patient research. It is to be hoped he may be induced to continue his investigations on these interesting subjects : and this may encourage others possessed of sL-nilar acquirements, and equal facilities, in different parts of SrDtiand, to collect a series of observations, which would be of the greatest service in fornang a complete system of the Fegelabie Geography of these islands. With this communication of Mr. Farquharson, which Dool !• ENGLAND. 9HH yie nliall give III lih own words, wc Ehall cloitc our remarks, already perhaps too much I'ttviided I'ur tlie natiirv of tliis work, on Jlriliah nolany. 1 178. " The district," Mr. Farquharson writes, " to which the following ubservaliuiis chiefly refer, is near the middle of Aberdceii^hire, about lat. 57° 15'; and may bo termed a table land, elevated 400 to fMO feet above the seo, studded with many irregular ridges niul pm\n of mountains, of dill'erent elevations, up to 1800 feet from the level of the sea. Tie siibHtratum is every where what is nanitd primitive rock, granite, gneiss, and mica> ci'ous slate ; the soil generally a friable, dark, vegetable mould, passing in some places into 1 lijriiter-coloured and more tenacious clay, and all containing many fragments of Iho primitive rock. A debris of clay and broken stones sometimes intervenes between the rock anil the soil ; hut the many operations of road-making, draining, enclosing, and quarrying, whii'h have of late years been performed within the district, show that this debris is not very (itcnsive nor very deep, excepting at the edges of some of the more precipitous elevations, A valley in this district, about eight miles long and seven broad, nearly rectang"lar, and sunuunded by ridges of the mountains, has furnished most of the phenomena lu'. j staled. The mean temperature of the air has not been determined ; but two fine perennial springs, at an elevation of 500 feet aliove the level of the sea, on the 20th of November, 182H, gava \T of Fahrenheit. 1479. List of plants, stating in feet the elevation above the sea which they reach, in the dis- trict of Alfurd, Aberdeenshire ; and beyond which they do not grow, or cannot bo cu. ivated successfully. Lotitiide 57° 15'; 25 miles inland ; — " I. 400 feet. Wheat, This grain has been repeatedly cultivated in the valley, from this licijzht u:i to 600 or C50 feet, within the last thirty years, by persons from the south country, well acquainted with its mode of culture, and on a large scale ; but the result, owing to its frequently failing to ripen well, has not justified the extension, or even the continuance, of it* growth here ; and it is now rarely attempted. When it did ripen, in favourable seosoni, the croji was abundant. It succeeds tolerably well nearer to the coast, about 150 feet lower. " 2. 400 feet. Barley {Hordeiim distkhum). This has often been attempted, in place of tlie Bi;,'g (Hordeum heraslichiim).* It proved late, and frequently failed. " An early variety, named Corsican Barley, succeeded admirably in situations as elevated as the Uigg, over which it had the great advantage of not being liable to lodge ; but its cul- ture has been discontinued, owing to the impolitic regulations of the Excise, which prohibit the malting of Bigg and Barley on the same premises; and as the maltsters generally use l)i)!g, our common grain, they could not, owing to this regulation, purchase Barley. " 3. 950 feet. Bigg succeeds quite well up to this height, and often ripens in the more inland districts about 100 feet higher, where oats frequently fail. " 4. 9.')0 feet. Oats fui> . 115, b), the latter the Hordeum hcxastichum Linn., or six-ranked barley (C. In both there arc six rows or ranks of seeds ; but in the Mordeum vulgnre (llurrleum hixnalichum of (Jray's llri. Ilsh Flora), two opimsite pairs of rows have the sccils more erect, imbricated, and compressed, appearing to constllule liiit two single rows ; the other two or lateral rows of seeds are much more prominent. In Hordeum hcxastichum the seeds arrange themselves in six distinct and prominent rows. 'I'heso ■re the two most hardy kinds, and such as arc generally eiiltl. vated ill the northern and mountainous reeions. In the snulli of Scotland, and in England generally, the Hordeum dlstlchuni of Mnnieus, common or two-ranked barley (n), is cultivated. In this kind the two opposite double rows arc abortive, ami nothing but small empty bushels npiicar instead of seeds. Thfl name of Bigg, or Here, or Dear, is u'.ually given to the foul, sided barley, and that of six-sided Bigg or Here, and Barley Uigg, (■,' rZiJ^ik^im^i^Kln. '" »'t-»i<'ed ; but in common language they have often no dll- <. 'ii-RAMBo atmn. (Insuishing appellation.— Ed. 334 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part IIJ. I this valley, will, perhaps, enable him to push Ills cultivation a little higher ; where, at many points, there is yet good soil untouched. *' 6. 950 feet. White Norfollc Pea. I introduced these in the lower part of the valley, about seven years ago, where they have always done well ; and two years since I gave some for sowing in some of the highest cultivated lands of the district, where they have been equally successful, ripening before the Uigg. Grey Peas so often fail to ripen here, tliat they are seldom sown. " 7. 600 feet. English Winter Tares ( Ficto sativa). I began to plant these eight years ago, as a spring crop, and they have answered admirably in damp land. I have always been enabled from a portion of the crop to secure seed for a succeeding one. When sown in Alay they arc heaviest to be cut from September to November. " 8. 950 feet. Potatoes sticceed with the oats here ; but often fail to come to perfection in the Highland glens, even a very little more elevated than this. " 9. 950 feet. Turnips become a valuable crop. The Red and White varieties are only for autumn use, as they often perish in winter ; but we have a hardy Yellow variety, which I have never seen materially injured by cold, except in the unusually severe frosts uf 1813 and 1814. Rutabaga is not planted; and as its produce is of much less weight, and OS we have this valuable yellow sort, we do not require any which is more hardy. "10. 950 feet. Rye Grass (Loltiimperenne). "II. 950 feet, lied C\o\cr (Trifoliiini pratense), " 12. 950 feet. White Clover {fiifolium repcns). " These three plants form our usual sown-grass fields for hay and pasture, and tlicy answer well at this height. Tlie last is a native, even In'gher. Tlius we see that, to the most elevated points where oats, the principal crop, ripen, the cultivator gets up along with them all the plants necoss.iry for a judicious rotation of crops : Turnips, Uigg, Rye-grass, and the Red and White Clovers. "13. 450 feet. Sainfoin {Hedysamm Oiwhrychis), I made an experiment on a small scale, three years ago, to introduce this on a piece of very dry, sandy, but rich and welUlimcd land, at this altitude : tlie plants came up freely, and many of them were remaining on the second year, but in the third year they had almost entirely disappeared, none having ever flowered. "14. 400 feet. Field Bean {^Vicia Faba) does not ripen : a broad Spanish bean cuines to perfection in gardens often. "15. 450 feet. Jerusalem Artichoke (^Hcliuntltus luherasui) never flowers, but is pro- pagated by tubers. " 16. 450 feet. Tlic S(|uash, recently introduced, named Vegetable Marrow (Ciicurbila Succado, in Loudon's Encychpeedia of Gardening), perfects its seeds when sown uiidiTa hand-glass, till the second leaf expands, and then it may bear transplantation into tlic opi'ii ground. " 17. 670 feet. Nasturtium {Trop.o to have l)cen, recently, a native of this ilistrirt ; and a tradition, uliieh may l>c relied on, |M)iiit!> ont the s|x>ts which furnished tlio tind)ernl' the »lit church at Kurlics, situated within the valley, the only liuilding constructed uf oak in the nei^hliourlioed. The native Oaks liavc all disai>pearcd ; unleiis a solitary small tree, remote from any others of ei|ual aRe, andKrowJiii; amidst an unprotected Ilazcl coiise, within a mile of the ahove-mcntioned s]x)t, and on similar ijiiiunil, m.iy be considered as such. There are a great many planted Oaks in the valley, some of them at (he above ele. vation, but their autumnal shoots (this tree sending out two shoots in a season) arc generally killed in (lie sun eeitiUR winter. " ai ~iM feet, licech {Fagtis fylintica) becomes a very fine tree in the lower part of the valley, hut a few reaching this elevation are miserably stunted. " i.'2. .000 feet. Hazel [Coryhn Avcllana), is wild here, and rijiens Its nuts well : tills rannot lie roniiilfreil as the farthest limit uf its growth ; but the progress of cultivation has prol>ably exterminated it in higher 8IH>tS, " Si). 9.50 feet. Aider {Alnus gliitinoia), in a natural state, skirts every where the streams in the low grounds : a few very smalt 0 feet, apiiears sickly, and would not prob.ibly succeed any farther up. ":!'.'. SIX) feet Cnerries produced very fine and abundant crops, at New, in Strathdow. "o3. 800 feet. Apples arc here a verj; uncertain crop; but at Castle I'orbes, 500 feet high, they do not olton fail. Auchintoul, the Ilihstoii Pippin generally ripens well. " Ji. SlHJ feet Pears, the Jargonelle ripens hero j but at 450 feet, the Auchen Pear scUloms comes to pctfcction. " I'd !KX) feel. Gooseberries. This valley is the region of most delicious gooseberries ; and when our best l^imis, c.-pecialiy the Ked Walnut, are in season, we neeil TiKifeet Honeysuckle (toniccro /'I'/'i'r/y clumciium) will flower, if nailed to a wall. ' W. (KXi feet Kvorgrecn Thorn {Mespylua Pi/rncanlhn), when attached to a wall, flowers in June, and ii|«ns its dense branches of fine scarlet berries in October, which continue till it is again in blossom. It it Olio of our most ornamental shrubs. " 41, liiO feet. The Lilac {Suringa vulgaris) flowers here, but the inflorescence is always abortive. " i'l 450 feet. Evergreen oak (duercus Ilex). Some years ago I obtained a few plants of this : they died (Innntutlie ground in winter; sending up new shoots from the root in spring, for two or three years, and ihcii |*ris:ied. " 4i. 41) feet. Common osier {Salix viminalis) was given to me several years ago ; but it does not thrive, diiiii; very rrequently in winter, especially the preceding year's shoots, and often indeed the whole plant "44. 4.)0 feet Herbcrry (Uerberis vulgaris) riiiens its fruit '' 4."i. kiO feet Daphne Mezereum ripens its berries. " 4il. 450 feet. The Hop {llumutus l.upulm) rarely produces any catkins. " N. D. Ligustrum vulgare, Cornus sanguinea, and Louicera Xylosleum blossom at 4.50 feet ; but I have no; scon them produce berries, except in the favourable season of 1827, succeeding the still warmer one of b'2ii. The Ligustrum and Cornus bore many berries on thi:t year, and even the Loniccra had a I'ew, all of »imh appeared to be fully ripe. Artemisia Abrotanum never flowers." To some further queries which wc addressed to Mr. Farquharson, respecting tlic influ- ence of soil and situation, he obligingly communicated to us the following replies : — " It is quite evident, from many indications, that the richness or poverty of the soil pos- sesses considerable influence in extending or limiting the upper boundaries of tlie growtli ol'all vegetables! In regard to the t'crbaceous Plants and Gramincic, tlic power of these circumstances becomes quite apparent in any field where a portion has been put into better order tlian the rest, by recent manv • g, &c. In tlie manured part, the crops arc much mure luxtiriniit, and always somew. .>t earlier. This advantage would be again coiuiter- acted by a slightly increased elevation. Another condition of soil, its wetness or dryness, las much more ellect in checking or extending the' boundaries of these vegetables. It is i.ilv on dry laiuls that the different grains ripen at their respective highest elevations ; and liie retarding influence of a wet soil is so great as to make the crops in some of the lowest ilistricis of the valley perhaps equally late with those in the highest. In regard to trees, it i*a|iiiarciit nt luaiiy ])oints in this country, that poverty of soil has prevented them from atliiiiiing their usual limit of altitude. The ellect of a wet or dry soil varies upon trees, according to the habits of the diflerciit ''•nds, and cannot be defined. " .\s to exposure, I have never been able to ascertain that this modifies the attainable cleratiun of any of the herbaceous or annual tribes, * Almost every variety of situation, ' " .Ki the position, that exposure docs not moilify the attainable elevation of the herbaoemis and annual Inlit's, may appear r.ifher startling ; it seems necessary, in support of it, to refer to several localities, where llif iiKist satistaitory proofs of it weur. And first, in respect of aspect. In the lower part of the valley, the llirre imiiits where tlie earliest crops uniformly occur almost every season are, TulhH'h, In the parish of KriKj Mnntgarry, in the parish of Tullyncssic ; and some north fields in the riallnwhill, in the piirish of AliiTil. The first of these Mas a direct west as|M>ct ; the second, a direct south one ; and the last has an as|ieet »iliMn one point of the north, on a steep descent The carliness is owing to the dryness of the soil. Next in "filiT to these, in point of carliness, are some fields on Upper Auchintoul, having an aspect a little to the wulli of east In the higher cultivated lands, the south-lying fields of Upper Halfour, in the parish of liirlK's 1 the east.lying llelils of Tiverchindy ; and the west-lying fields, on thi- opiMisile side of the iliiigle at Int'uime place, in the |iarish u( Alfotd { and the fields near the top of the hill at Canipficld, lurish ul Luin* 936 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. I'ART III. I ' II both of aspect and shelter, occurs witliin this valley at all elevations ; and it does not appear that in sheltered grounds the crops are earlier than on those which are open, or the contrary or that the produce of fields having a northerly aspect is earlier or later than that of grouni\ lying to the south. The circumstance of elevation, with respect to these plants, quiie counterbalances the conditions both of aspect and shelter. It is true, indeed, that in the spring the vegetation is often much e.irlier in fields lying open to the south, than those which face the north ; and pastures which have the former exposure are valuable on account of their early herbage. But for the final maturing of the ordinary crops, the disadvantnocs attendant on a north-lying field is compensated when the sun reaches the northern tropic • and these situations then enjoy all the benefit of his morntug and especially his evenin;; rays, which is generally considerable. In exact conformity with this view, it docs not an. pear that farther inland, where the glens are narrower, and more nrotectcd by high inouri- tains, the grain ripens at higher elevations than here. Certainly cuu ■ ^»ed spots arc founj somewhat higher than any in Alford: but tlien the culture is not conducted solely with a view to the grain, but chielly for the winter fodder necessary to support numerous hcid, of small cattle, which feed on the extensive mountain pastures in summer ; and it is a com- mon saying among persons possessed of these lofty spots, that if their grain ripens once in three years, it is all that they expect. *' On Trees and Shrubs, however, which are of loftier growth than the annual and herbaceous plants, and have to endure the severity of winter storms, the exposure has a most powerful influence. The numerous and extensive plantations in this valley t'lnnisli the most decisive evidence on this point. Many stations occur where the Scotch Fir, for instance, is dwarfish, and even killed, much below its natural limit; owing evidently to an unfavourable exposure, and not to any deficiency or unfitness of the soil ; for in some ot' these places, corn crops of good growth are mingled with the plantations, or pass aloiier i|n, sides of them, and the trees have succeeded quite well in spots that are incidentally slitliirid, It is, indeed, from its circumstances of shelter, and not of aspect, that exposure ext'rtiM>s such a powerful influence ; for if the trees, planted in ground having a westerly or nurlh. westerly aspect generally sufler most, and are most limited in their elevations, it is becauM' our severest storms come from the west and north-west, and the trees so situated aic exposed to their full violence. It may be concluded, therefore, that if we could comniaml more shelter, trees, at least our native ones, woidd succeed at higher points than they lure reach ; and accordingly, I have been given to understand that at Bracmar, in the upper part of this country, which is sheltered by the loftiest and most extensive masses of tnonn. tains in all Scotland, attaining a height of ;?000 and -1000 feet and upwards, the Scotch Fir and White Birch grow at a much higher elevation than any I have named. Of this, hu». ever I cannot give the exact particulars, but I believe the general fact. " I can say nothing, from personal knowledge, of the dilierent circumstances atlen(linj» the extension of plants on the east and west coasts of Scotland ; and I would not, tlierel'ori', have referred to the subject, except to bri;;g forword a remark made in a work, not profess. cdly scientific, and therefore, pe.haps, lial)le to be overlooked : it is in Dr. MikcuIIocIi'v interesting Lctlcnfrum the Higlitatids and ]l'cstcrn Islands of Scotland. Ho states the fail, that grain ripens l)ctter in the outer Hebrides than in the islands nearer the nialnlanil, or on the west coast of the mainland itself; and the cause which he assigns for this strikin' circumstance is, that in these outer islands there is not sufficient elevation or contijiuitv ui land to lifY up the atmosphere, and thus arrest and condense the vapours with hIiIcIi our prevailing westerly winds come loaded from the Atlantic. These islands, therefore, urtiii, in summer, cni'v clear weather, when the inner islands and mountains are deluged wiih rain, or obscureil by a heavy cloud." SiJBSECT. 3. Zoology of Great Britain. 1480. The history of our native animils is naturally more interesting, to the generality of j readers, than of such as do not come under their own immediate observation ; while to In' ( ignorant of the names and properties of beings which every where surround us, is nelilur i a proof of wisdom nor of a well-informed mind. Those who take an interest in the Hork» of j nature begin by examining objects immediately witliin their reach ; and as few can estiml their emiuiries beyond such limits, the productions of every country will be best known, la I proportion to the taste for such enquiries among its iidiahitants. I4SI. Vic xno/iiu!/ (if Hiitnin was first invoatiKntril by Itay, the Rrcat father of natural history, sirirpllioj revival of lc'a^llirl^ niter the darkness of tile middle nges. 1 liis vinilerftil man must bo also roiisiiliTcl llii' I true fouiiiler uf natural history in Kritain ; and by his instruction and assistance, the name hil ■ tered fields aboiit Ilaufthton, in the parihh of Alford, ap^iear to have no ailvniitaKO, in point orearhncssinrr I the entirely open grounds of" the farm of Muckleindovie, in the same parish ; ulthouffh many of tluni .itul equally dry with the latter; these arc in the lower part of the valley : and about 3(K) feet hiiilnr, llic uill. I sheltered and dry fields of CraiKicvan, in the parish of Leochhill, arc no earlier than many quite open liiiili, I at the same elevation, in the immediate neighuurhoiKl. In the spring months, however, the p,istureeriority mentioned in the text," Boiiic F. ENGLAND. SS7 iiiilrDii NIr l''rniu'lii WlltoiiKliby uliarci a portion of the same immortal Tame. But our nativ at llinl lit'CliHl, nituiiKcil tliv iittviitioii uf another labourer. The name of Lister must thcrefoi ill itinjiilii'lloii with timt iit' Kay, as havinK licvii the first who undertook to investigate the i ' native zoology, even efore be honoured, ho extensive order III' iiiiilliiiii'iius Mnlnmis! these lie arraiigi'tl with such an admiraiile perception of natural allinities, con. liili'fiiiK III'' jil'ili"! Ill wlili'h he wrote, that we know not which to admire most, the acutencss of his views, or jlii' iimtjliilinli' nl' his uiidertakhif;. It would have been well I'or the fame of liinno-us, had he paid more il>li'l'lil">ll III the wriliUKs of these philofophic observers, one of whom hits justly been called his master; ttlilli' llii' oilier was no less his nu|ierior in n correct knowledge of the testaciHius animals. To these we must ailil Hit' niinie of Mils, whose work on Corallines, printetl in 17.'>5, has continued until the present day to be lhi< liii»l eliilHiriite and vnhiubic publication on this class of animals that has yet ap|)cared : a long interval llli'li fiiiTcediHl, dlirliiu which naturalists cmploye> limiii, IVw IViilii all scielitilU" arrangement, has Ijccome, from that very cause, of great and general service. A ri'lill'ii III II inore necurate observation of natural group first appeared in the Lepidoptera Brilannica of llnwiirlli. mill In the elid>orafe work upon our native bees by Mr. Kirby ; from these we may date tlie revival of iiiiliiritl liUtory in Itritalii, IVom a vocabulary of words, to an intellectual science. Although not absolutely iHiiiiii'i'liil with our more Inimediatc purpose, we deem this rapid glance over the history of the science in llTilniii will not bt< nti uiiwelcoine preface to the following remarks. IIS'J, 'the nwtlogu of the United Empire might be treated of under the three kingdoms of whicli it it COltltlUMi'u ; were our materials sufficiently ample to mark the peculiarities of each. Dill it iinrurtuiuttely Imppens, that although every year witnesses an accession of new species I'lii'tillt'll ill llii' uiiualsuf our native fauna, no attempt has yet been made to generalise these ili«('ovoi'ii'N» with reference to the geographic range of groups or species. Local catalogues of lilt) niiiiiinU foiimt in a few counties have, indeed, been drawn up; but these, however valunlilu III llieitiHulvei*, arc too scanty to allow of more than a partial insight into the general iiilijet'l. Tla> xoulogy of Ireland has been sadly neglected, and we arc still without a Fauna St'iilicii. TliUD emhnrraHsed, wc must consider the natural history of Dritain in the aggregate ; nutii'iitg Htii*li ftpeciv!! m more particularly belong to the northern and the southern extremities. l-)H!l, Of Quadfuimii, the most recc'* catalogue contains sixty living species, including ilic wl\itU< tribe i besuloH those which progressive civilisation, and the effects of the chase, have now I xiirpiited iVoni our islands. Nine species of liats have been detected, four of which liitvti alioe biitii, so iianied, from their nostrils being furnished with a complicated membrane, liko It liDi'HU'iiliue ; an appendage which is probably intended to act as a sucker to assist the iiiiimiil ill rvtulliiitg its prey. Another, the Vespertilio murinus, or common bat, as we are iiiliiniieil by While, hits been so fur tamed as to take Hies out of its master's hand, carefully iliriiwlii)! iiNitle the wings. Our woods and he.iths still shelter the Hedgehog {Rg. 116.), I Ir! a harmless and a most useful animal in destroymg snails, V ''X<5^\ i>MrM»iiii slugs, and worms; but persecuted by the vulgar for a long list of imaginary and nonsensical properties. These pre- judices have been extended to the Mole, whose little hillocks form the best top-dressing, as a sensible farmer once assuretl us, to poor lands, that can possibly be given : their soft fur ., — rw- ■ . -- --3^^-- lias long been mixed with that of the Beaver, in the making ' -■^-~^«-- - pf hats. Allied to the Mole, in general conformation, are the Shrew Mice, of which two species are natives, the com- mon and the Water Shrew {Sorrx araiieu* and fodiens) : both nmiuanuu. tlicse appear to be widely distributed. Of true Mice we |uiMi'vH Ihive (llMlltict sorts; the Common or House Mouse, tlie Field Mouse, and the lliirvt'1.1 Moutie j lite latter being as destructive to the farmer as the first is to the house- •■"'■ The Hrttwn and the Ulack Rat infest our dwellings, ond are equally injurious : the tvil'e. Iitllcr is known by ihe tail Ijcing longer than the body ; whereas, in the Hrown Ilat, both lliiiif imi'lH me et|Uitl. The pretty little Dormouse [^fyorus avellanariiis) is a general I'll oiiiili', anil, like Ihe >Sc|uirrel and Jerboa, eats its food in an erect attitude, sitting on its liiiiiiii'hes, anil UMing its forefeet as hands. The Water Ilat and Short-tailed Mouse of IVimiiitl (now placed in the geiuis Arvicola) occur in England : but the former is stated iiol 111 hitve been ftnind in the northern islands ; the latter is a most destructive little animal ill k:ii(I( Its, when' it grubs up seeds, particularly peas, just after they have began to geimi- iiiilo. A few yeiirs back, Ihe short-tailed mouse suildeuly appeared in immense numbers in lilt' New I'Virt'tl, iind iiolwitlistniuling every artifice emphiycd to sto)) their ravages, they ili'Mriiyiil many tlltiiisatitls of young trees, uiid devastated whole acres of young planlnliuns, Uij, 7'A(' WiMfcti'c was liiniucds are very few, ano fr] In thii ttate the skin 118 not been preserved as a beast of the chacc since the eitirpation of more formidable game. Pennant mentions three varieties of tliis animal found in Wales and other mountainous partj of Britain : — 1 The Mili^, or Greyhound Fox, is the largest, Ullest, and boldest, and is distinguished by a white tag or tip to the tail. 2. The Mastiff' Fox, which is less, but more strongly built 3. The Curgi, or Cur Fox, of a still smaller size, and having the tip of the tail black. (Brit. Zoul. i. 87.) The varieties do not appear, however, to have fallen undtr the actual observation of subsequent naturalists, either British or continental. 1486. Tlie Ferret irilic comprehends the Polecat, Weasel, Stoat or Ermine, the Common Marten, and the Pine Marten. 1487. The Polecat (Putorius t/algarin Cuv.1, called also the Fitchet, Fitchew, or Foumart, measures, with the tail, about twenty-three inches. Its fetid smell is proverbial Although included in the list of Kritish quadru peds, it .ipiwars. according to Strabo, to have t)ccn imported fVom the north of Africa. Like all its congeners! 117 its habits arc sanguinary: for it will destroy and suck the blood of many victims, beibrc it attempts to carry off their bodies. The well-known Ferret Is considered only a variety of this species. The Weasel is much smaller and although repulsive (Vom its odour, is yet an elegant^ shaped animal. It feeds on mice and small birds but will occasionally attack animals of a much largcr'size Few persons suspect that the skins they see nailed against farm out-houses frequently belong to an animal uliose fUr, in another state, forms a most elegant and exiwiisive ornament to female ilress. This animal, despised in one state, and valued in another, is the Stoat {Jig, 117.) the pest of the farmer, and the destroyer of his (raultry.' In the temiierate and southern parts of Europe, its fur is """■ yellowish-brown aljo»o, and pale yellow beneath) yet so Hx>n as its geographic range enters on the more northern countries, as Russia, Norway, and Siberia, these colours vanish, leaving the fUr of a pure white in every part but the tail, which is tipjied with deep black • is called ermine. In Scotland the animal, during winter, is fVed Mr. Pennant justly calls it the Britisli tigor. In its savage state it appears to be much larger timn the ordinary domestic cat ; and tlie teeth and claws, for the size of the animal, are tremendous. It is still found, altliuiigh rarely, in the mountainous and woody parts of Great Britain, and some few years ago we saw a very fine skin of one tliat had been killed among the mountains of Westmore- land, near Windermere. Formerly they appear to have been much more numerous, and to have been considered a beast of chace. The best authorities agree in considering this species, common to the forests of Europe, as the origin of our domestic breed, tlic usual varieties of whicli are well known. Another, which seems more peculiar to Cornwall, has been noticed by Dr. Leach: it is without any visible tail, and is stated to be un hereditary variety. {Cuv, ii. 489.) 1491. To enumerate the varieties of the Dog now domesticated in Britain would be tedious, particularly after the luminous m.inncr in which this subject lias been treated by Pennant {Brit. Zool. i. 70.). Britain has been famous for her dogs from remote antiquity. Our mastills were held in such estimation by the Romans, tliat their einpcTors appointed uii uiliccr in this island, with the name of Procurator Ci/iieaii, whose sole business was to l)recd and transmit from hence such as would prove equal to the ferocious combats of the aniphitheutre, Strabo also mentions that the mastifls of Britain were in great repute, being trained for war, and used by the Gauls in their battles. M[yl The Hloori/loiinil, during the tronblceculiar rise from their root, at the side of the above crest, upwards, and then bending outwards, then for- ward and inward ; no domestic race shows this turn." The true />«.« w:is furtlier distinguished by a mane, which is still observed about two inches long, in old bulls of the Scottish race [Jig. 119). When this breed was extorminateen forests is not known j but it was conflneen first domt^licattfl liy ttie uura»an nations of weKtem Asia. It is stated tn have fuurtevn Buflficlently important to sanction thelwlicf of a specific dilTerence. Wbetlier or not this parent of our domestic races ever eiListetl in these islands in a state of nature, is very doubtful. The various breeds for which llritain has lon^ tie«n .iustiy celebrated will be noticed under the head of domestic animals. lib), wliGieas Uiose of the fl. Vru* ore but twelve; a (lislinction 1498. 7'he marine and cetaceous mammalia are few, and are not very generally dispersed. Two species of Seal have been noticed by Pfnnant. The Manahis borealis, or Sea Cow, has only oiice been found on the northern coasts of Scotland ; and the Walrus, at remote intervals, his been recorded as a visiter to our seas. The Piked Whales (Valamaptera muscxtlus and }«)/«), tlie Kazor-bick Whale, and several others of the great northern tetacea, wander near ilie Heljrides and Orkney islands, and occasionally visit the shores of Nortluimbcrland and Yorkshire. The Porpoise and the Grampus have a wider range, and large shoals roam un- molested near all our coasts. Tliere can be no doubt that whales, of several species, were much more common in the northern seas of Britain formerly, tlian they are at present; but llic persecution they have suiiered, from the establishment of our fisheries, has long since (liiven them to the polar regions. 1499. Exterminated native animals. In every country the increase of civilisation and agriculture is marked by the progressive diminution and final extirpation of the larger qua- drupeds, particularly of such as are injurious to man. Among those which history clearly informs us were once living in Uritain, the most remarkable are the Bear, the Wolf, the Beaver, and the wild Boar. To the writings of Pennant and Hamilton Smith we are inilehted for the following notes on these lost inhabitants of our forests. 15C0. // appears that UMrs, in the lime of Plutarch, were transported from Britain to Home, where they were much admired. Ancient Welsh manuscripts attest their existence in lliat country as beasts of chace ; a fact further corroborated, says Pennant, by the frequent Z '_> 340 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGUAPHy. P*M III. 1 ! name of Pennartli given to places in the principality : they appear to liave been extinct in Britain long before Queen Elizabctli's time ; but tliere is proof of the bear infesting Scotland in 1057. 1501. iVolvea, It seems to have been a vulgar error that the wolf was extirpated in Britain by the salutary edicts of King Edgar, who accepted their tongues and heads as tribute, or as a commutation for certain crimes : for in the reign of Edward I, these animals had again increased to such a degree, that officers were appointed to promote their destruction, and lands were held by hunting and destroying them. Wolves infested Ireland many ecu. turies after their extinction in England; some having been killed so late as 1710. In Scotland, the last on record was destroyed in 1680. 1502. The Heaver was still an inhabitant of the Welsh rivers in 1188, as is attested, according to Pennant, by Giraldns Cambrensis: but even at that remote period they must have considerably diminished, as the historian only mentions their being found on the river Teivi. Local names of other waters in tlie principality attest their existence in otlier i)laces. Fossil remains of tliis species are stated to have been found in beds of marl, under peat mow, in Berkshire ; and similar bones have occurred in Perthshire and Berwickshire. l.Wl The Wild Boar, to which we ate indebted for our domestic breeds of swine, must be rM'koncil amniii. indigenous quadrupeds, altliough uow extinct in ISritaia Pennant quotes the laws of Howcldd.i, uliu |kt- mittod liis grand liuntsman during part of Novcmlwr and December to chase that anim&L William the Conqueror punishcil, witli ttnrbaric cruelty, tliose wlio liilled the Wild Hoar, the Stag, and the Roeliuck, \n the loss of their eyes. I'ltz-Stcplicn altirins that the vast forest, which in his time stiKul on the north siiic of London, was the retreat of Stags, Tallow Deer, Wild Hoars, and Hulls. At a more recent peri»J, Charles the First turned out Wild Hoars in the New Forest ; but tlicy were destroyed during the civil wars. 1 504. Fossil quadrupeds. The splendid discoveries that have resulted from the investiga- tionsof Dr. Buckland, Mantell, Conybeure, and other eminent geologists of our own country, have opened a native field of research, whicli, in Britain, had long been overlooked ur neglected. Without entering into the question whctlier these fossil remains belong to animals which did or did not at some period inhabit the spots wherein their bones have been found, it is sufficient to confine ourselves to simple facts. The remains of the cave bear of Dr. Buckland occur in several of our caverns, and arc sufficient to prove tlie living animal must have equalled a horse in size. The Kirkdale and Plymouth caves abound witli the bones of an extinct hya:na, somewhat resembling in its osteology that now existing in South Africa ; with these have been found the bones of a tiger, which must have been as large as the Bengal species. The tusks, teeth, and other fragments of an extinct species of elephant, totally different from those now in existence, have been detected in marl clay, \-,'. joined with those of two otlier gigantic quadrupeds, :i rliinoceros and a hippopotamus ; while 120 the jaw of a marsupial animal, unknown among the existing ,,\ ^_, race of beings, has been found in the Stonesfield slate " * '" quarries (/^i;. 120.). 1505. Domestic quadrupeds. No nation, perhaps, luis been more solicitous to improve their originally poor breeds of domesticated quadrupeds than the British ; und hence their present superiority over most of those on the Continent. Under this head we commence with the ruminating animals, as the ox, the sheep, and the goat, so essential in supplying food and clothing to man ; while the horse, the ass, and the dog assist him in his labour, or protect his property. 1 506. The jtrincipal breeds of oxen more peculiar to Great Britain have been arrangeil by Major Hamilton Smith under nine divisions. Of these, three belong to England, three to Scotland, two to Wales, and one to Guernsey. 1j07. The longJiomed or Lancaster breed (Jlg.li\.), as the name implies, is remarkable for long horns : they have firm thick hides, long close hair, large hcM)fs, and pvc in uro|><>rtion li*s inilk, but more crcaia They arc of various colours, but are in general finchcd, that is, with a white streak above the »i)ine, and a white spot inside the houghs. The improved I.A.'icestcr is a slight variety, originally bred near Coventry. I5()8. The short-homed breed includes those that arc n.imeii the (Inldcrnexs, Tecswatcr, Yorkshire, Durham, and North. umberland. This has been the most improve VViwI I lluhlaiiil, Argyle, or 8kye, and the Kyloc flrom the Hebrides. The Norlands is another varii'lVi with I'liune lililen, Iiiiik leg*, tiiiil ul'a narrow make. The Orkney or Zetland are very dimimitive : an ox weiKhiiig iilHillt IHIIIk ii miarter, anil a ni\v40lb8. Theircolours are various, and their slia|M-s bad; but they give nil aliiiiiilnlii'i' iil' exei'llelit milk, anil fatten rapidly, 'i'lie I'ifeshirc appears an improved breed of the tlighlandi, eriwuinl with llii> Caiillirldgi'ahire) they are black, 8|>otteil with grey ; the horns small, white, and very erifl i a variety iK'i'lirn In AbenleeiiBlilre. Id'.'. Till' II iVnA him' livii tircfilt : the lirst is large, dark brown, with some white ; the legs long and tleiiiler \ the hnnia while, and liiriiiil upwards : these, next to the Devon, arc the best in yoke, and arc a uross III' the loiiH'hiirned i the iitH'iilid Is lower, well formi-d, black with little white, and arc good milkers, 'i'he AliliTiiey or (lueriiiiey raee I* proverbially small : their colour is mostly yellow or light red ; marked with white aliciiit the l^e«i and llnilm, and with crumpled horna. The true breed Is known by being yellow within tlie ears, and at the rwit of the tall and Its tun. I ,') 1 :)■ lietfH'Clittn ilrnugtit Oxen, wc cannot refrain from here inserting an excellent and judi- cious reinurk (if I'liniiiinli '* It In now," observes this sensible writer, " generally allowed, that in iniiny ciinuh, oxvii nrv more profltablc in tJie draught than horses : their food, harness, and Khues being i'h(>npt>r | iiiul NJiould they be lamed or grow old, an old working beast will he as good inwit, Ikiitl fatten as well, as a young one." (Bnt. Zool. i. 28.) 1.')I4. The fihmi U warfelv inferior in utility to the ox -. and the breeds now cultivated in Driiain, taking all tlitdr qualities into consideration, are perhaps the most valuable in the world. It is K turioiiN but little known fact, corroborated by history, that the famed Merino sheep of Spain orjgiiinti'il IVoin the English breed, sent to that country by Edward IV. as a present to King iloliit of Arrngon. Uiak. Cliron. p. 20(5.) Major H. Smith estimates the present .innuni valiio of wool (IB2(>) shorn in England, and no longer exported, at five millioiiH i.lcrliiig I wlik'h, together with about G00,000/. of Spanish wool and some Saxou imported, in worth about twenty millions sterling per annum. 151.5. 7*0 liriliih Shuep, according to Mr. Culley, may be arranged under fourteen dif- I'oreiit lirecdN, anil noiiic others might also be enumerated. These may be classed under two principiil dIviiilonHi tluwe derived from the ancient race being furnished witli Iwrns, wliilc tliu utliem in gvncrnl linvu none, IJlii. (ifOu! AtiHtU brfdh, the limst aiielont Is the black.faccd {Jig. 122.), still met with in some hcatiiy partt of Yorkshire, and the adjacent northern counties : the wool is coarse niid shaggy. The Norfolk and Suffolk sheep, also, have the hori\s large and sitiral, with the face black, but the wool is short and fine : they have a voracious apiictite, aud a restless disposition. In tlic Dorset the toce is no longer black, but Itoth sexes arc usually horned. This breiHl is reiiuirkabic for |iroducing Iambs ai almost every season, and is therefore highly valuable for supplying the 'ondon marketa with house lamb. The Wiltshire is a much larger vailoiy, having no wool on the belly. The Hertfordshire is a fine productive variety, Hilh short tails. The Exmoor comes tVom Devonshire: it Is small, the wool long, and the face and legs white. Scotland fUr. lilshes three breeds of horned sheep ; thcDun.faccd, the Zetland, and the llelirldcan. 1517. The horniest race may be divided into nine other breeils. The Mncolii has long wool and a white faci^ : in the Tecswatcr the wiHil is shorter and lighter, and the Icga loi,ger. The Dishley, or new Leirester, i* ilUlliiKillsliml hy A clean head, and the excellency of its flesh. The Devonshire Nots, like the three preceiling, are long.woolled ; they have white faces and legs, thick necks, short legs, and large hones. The sliorUwoolletl hornless breeds are the following : — The Hereford {Jiff. 123.) have very tine woid, wtilch grows close to their eyes, the legs and face being white : the store sheep of this county are callwl Collings or Rylands. The South Down, principally cultivated on the chalky downs of Sussex, jmve the face and legs grey, and are highly esteemed for the table. The Cheviot have the head bare and clean, and arc sometimes siiottcd with grey or dun j the Heece is very short and (inc. The Hardwieke 1m iKHUiliar to the rocky districts of Cumberland, and is spcckletl on the face and legs. 1518. The Goat, which in some parts of Italy supplies the oidy milk and butter known to the inhabitants, is of little utility in a etnintry iibouiiding in sheep and oxen. But to the Welsh mountaineers it i» a valtiablo aniniul i the suet will make excellent candles ; the meat is little inferior to venison, and thow who, like us, have habitually feasted upon mountain kid, know how superior its (lavour In to laiiili. I.'il!!. Thi' Uiimt (/ lUMnin, Improved as they have been by the most sedulous care, next to the Arabian nro tla' llntmt In the world. Our breeds originally but ill adapted for the swlille, have piogrewdvely Improved ; and the crossing of our indigenous kind with those of oilier countricH Idin nroiliiced four principal classes of horses, —the Racer, the Hunter, the lloadstcr, ami llio Uiny Horse ( to these may be added the Poney, one of our original breeds; but tlio liCHt liiformetl xoologists agree in thinking it is now impossible to trace the native regions of tliu orlglniil wild stock from which all these have descended. Horses were so niiincroiis iimoiig im In the retgii of King Stephen, that London, as Fitz-Stephen relates, iniild I'lirniNh V!1),(XH> eitvaliy t l>iit in Queen Elizabeth's reign they seem to have greatly •liiiiiiiished, HH the wlioU' kingdom could not supply 2000 horses for that purpose. V.A». The Au IS llltle iisiil, iiml null less esleemctl, in Dritaiii j but in Siiain, Italy, and oihermountainous lurls ill lliiriipe, ii* iiiuilliles inii highly valucil, and much care is taken to preserve the best breed*, llic Uoa we have alremly im'iilioiu!il, l 3 TMH HIAI'K fAIHII »llltlO*. «H>|UW IXIK TiiH hhhiii'mhii •Hum'. 342 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. I'ARt ni. I P i <;()riil-:M EAiii.B. 15'2\. Tlte Ornilhologi/ of Great Dritain, after tliu gfiiiTuI oliRcrvntinns already mu\v on tliiit of Europe, will be here but briefly dwelt upon. Our nntivo liirdx inuy be ariiinsiHl under three natural divisions: — 1. the rapacious; 2. the perching ; and !i, the wulking ru'iuing, and swimming orders. \:>2'2. The rapaciuus birds, as in all other countries, are the smallcut in number, hut the most formidable in strength. Among these the Gulden Eaglo (/lijuila chri/ani'los, fin, |'J4,) l'J4 stands foremost, as being the largest fiiiuwii in our islands : this noblo bird weighs twelve ponndu, and is still found among the highest of our Wvlsh and Cumberland mountains; it is said alKotulirvnl in Orkney. The Erno or Sea Eagle is Mine. what smaller, and is principally confined to the maritime rocks of Wales and North Uritain, The Falcon tribe is more numerous in spci'lvs- but the destruction to which tlicv arc douini'd hy game preservers has long been diminishing tlivir numbers : some species are almost extirpated, and nearly all are now become rare. Tlic Osprey [Pamlion Halieetus), or Fishing Eagle, is now seldom met with. Our two spctjes af Henharrie (Circuii cyancus and cinerascens) were first discriminated by tliat excellent orni. thologist Colonel Montagu. The Owls are similar to those of the Continent, but the great Snowy Owl has only of late years been detected in the north of Scotland as a iiHtivc iiird. Tlie Eagle or great horned Owl is of the same size ; the former hunting by day, the Inttcr by night. The Barn or White Owl is known to every fiu-mer, and appeors to be distrlhutsd over the whole habitable globe. 15'2.1. The toolhcd-bill or perching birds (Dentirostres Sw.) arc those furnished with n iiolcii to their bill, by which their food is held firm before it is swallowed. Some are formed to climb, others to hop on the ground, and a few catch their fooccn seen, it ia saiil, since 17iiU. I 1526. Our domeslicated birdH uro v/i'\\ known. The] Pheasant originally came from Asia Minor; tlicl Guinea Hen from Africa; the Peacock and Fowl! from India ; and the Turkey from America. 1527. Thejlshes, both marine and freshwater, orcj numerous : most are edible, and many highly esteemed, The Whale and other cetacea, as before remarked, are I mostly confined to the northern shores: but those nrl the west arc famous for the herring and pilclianlf fisheries, 'J'lie John Doree is as renwukahle for ilsl 125 •«v.iii<»ri0M roilAl., Book I> ENGLAND. 943 grotesque furrn as for its exquisite flavour. WARTv irr. L'UHMUN VIPRX. The Turbot, Cod, Sule, &c. arc well linown. Our chief river iisli arc the Salmon, Trout, and Char j and these ore principally furniiilied by the nortlicrn counties. The salmon fisheries arc hif?lily important, and have long engaged the Mtention of the legislature: the eggs of one fish will often exceed 15,000. The Char i) confined to the lakes of Cumberland and Westmoreland ; those of Windermere are the best, and vihcn jiolled become a great delicacy. The Herring and Sprat supply the |X)or, during winter, with a wholesome dish; while the citizens of London consider 1 36 another species, called the White Doit, as possessing a fKf^ ^^^jWi peculiarly fine flavour. The Anchovy is not unknown — ..^fiw^r in some of our estuaries ; and even the Flying-fish has occasionally wandered to the Welsh coast. 1528. The rcpliles nf Britain, known in a living state, arc very few. The Hawks-bill Turtle is a rare visitant. Besides the Warty Eft {Lacerta paluatris Lin,, Jig, 126.), we have two other water liunls, and probably as many species inhabiting the land. Of the Frog and Toad two 127 sorts of each occur, Tlie snakes and the blind-worm are harmless; the Common Viper (^g, 127.) being the only venomous reptile : yet this species varies so much in its co- lours, that naturalists have described it under several names. The Great or Gigantic Frog of Pennant is no other than a variety of the common toad. Dr. Leach ascertained this fact by examining 600 specimens, collected by himself and a friend, near Loch Ranza. 15'.'!). Extinct reptiles- The researches of geologists have brought to light the remains of such gigantic and extraordinary reptiles that, but for such indubitable proofs, their exist- we might be thought fabulous. At the head of these we may place the Megalosaunts, resembling both a lizard and a crocodile, whose probable length was near 40 feet ! The Ichthyosaurus, uniting the characters of a lizard with the snout of a dolphin, the teeth of I crocodile, the fins of a turtle, and the vertebra; of a fish, is scarcely less wonderful. The ?lmsaurus is still more extraordinary ; for with the fins of a turtle, it had the head at a lizard, and a long neck, formed like the body of a serpent. Lastly, the remains tf several distinct species of crocodiles have been ^scovered in similar strata. All these litest the existence, at some unknown period, of a stupendous race of aquatic monsters, thich have long been swept away from the existing animal creation. 15:!0. The other marine animah of our seas are more numerous than might be expected I in latitudes so far north. And although their strange and often grotesque forms awaken not the attention of the illiterate fisherman, the observer of nature will be struck by the Angularity of their construction, and the brilliancy of their colouring. Among the radi- 128 ated animals, vast shoals of transparent Medusa wander about the coast during summer, and are frequently by a sudden change of wind cast up on the beach in great numbers. But the deep recesses of the ocean frequently give to the nets of the fisherman animals still more singular. The Block Line Worm, or Seo Long Worm {Linnceus longissimus Sow., Jig. 128.), whose mouth is hardly a quarter <>f an inch wide, is said, by the fishermen of Newliaven, frequently to measure twelve fathoms in length : it is soft, and so fragile, that the entire STACK UK« WOB.1. auimal seems not yet to have been procured. I Mr. Symmonds, by whom it was first particularly described, measured a detached piece, I Khicli was twelve feet long. The warm shores of the Cornish and Devonshire coast furnished the celebrated Montagu with constant employment, in the investigation of those new or little known marine animals, which daily rewarded his assiduous research. 1531. Nor are our corals and corallines devoid of interest or beauty. With the invaluable work of Ellis upon these animals, and a common microscope, what an excitement is held out to the frequenters of watering-places, for exercise in collecting, and curiosity in examining, these wonderful little creatures! They would exhibit congregations, or societies, united together, as if conspiring to form their habitations into the beautiful representations of leaves or mosses. Our celebrated countryman Ellis was the first to make known the true nature of those plant-like productions geneially termed corallines. Of Corals, we have few native species ; the largest and most elegant is the May-blossom coral {Caryo^jhi/Uia ramca), {Jig- 129.), common in the Mediterranean, and occasionally ■AV-NUMWIM rORAL. 944 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. I'art III. I i fuund upon tin- CuniiHh roiiHt : it Ih ciiinnmon-coluuruU ; anil retain!), fur many years, u uliglit scent, lilte 'hat of luiHtliurn. i!iH'2, The conclioliigi/ of Uritain, in the luimher and interest of its species, conipcnKntca fur its (lelicieney in lar^u or richly coloured uhjeets. 'I'he henutiful varieties of iVr/cu o/iercularh are, nevertheless, an exception ; for they are freipiently vuriegateme hundreds still remain undiscovered. Yit the bee may be reckoned the only insect whose services are immediately and obviously beneficial to man. Among the butterflies, we have many of great beauty ; while Eurymus Europome, or the Clouded Sulphur {fij^. 132.), is considered one of the rarest Urit.'ah insects. From the st;itemc'nts ciwMD .m»Hi «. which have been published, it seems not unreason- able to hope, that the efforts now making in Devonshire and Ireland for introducing the 1:(3 MSA UKUUII. silk-worm m.iy eventually be successful. l.'»35. Scotland. T/ie zoolopi/ of Scotland exhib'itfi many of the arctic animals as common inhabitants, whicli arc oidy known as rare visitants, to the western shores of England ; in other respects it does not m.iterially ditl'ir from that of South Uritain. The northern islands are peculiarly interesting to tlie naturalist, as giving shelter to innumerable wild fowl, and to many peculiar land birds, as the Ptarmigan and the Golden Eagle. I'liose seas, moreover, are occasionally visited by many of llii' large whales, whose usual resort is in the polar regions. Tlie great horned or Eagle Owl, one of our rarest birds, inrrilH uH>vn Buoic I. ENGLAND. 345 ;•, fouiid t() brc-fil in Orkiivy. The lllKlilitndH nro faiiiutiR for an al;nnilunce of Grouse, the riKl spci'ii'H {Laf(opu» tcoticu), ,fiM- I'M.) iH'ing lliv only V.M |ii'rnliiir to (iivat liritain. 'Hic H'oir H|i|H'urs to linvu lii'on ('Xtir|iuli'U in UiNOt Init tliu Rovlinck ix still found wild in til'i'shiri'. The tiliori'Hand rivvrH abound with vxcvllvnt lUli ; and largt quantitien of Salmon ari- Ki'iit to tliu Knglitili market. liki 7'*<'rfi)«ici//<^'iii<»Mn'*ili»rllciil«rly thooxrn mxlihcrp, h mluht licoxpcct»l fVoni the temperature ol ii,(< climutc, aiul the dlinliilaliitt luxiirlniiiv (if uwt uro. Hri< nil iil' ■ tiiinll ilie ; In uthcr rcniMX'ti they are hlRhly valimlili'' ''"' |x>llerhli'«a t'little, w 'i iliii IIIhIiIiiiiiI iiiiiI the I'll'i'iihlre, have alri'iiily Ihh'D particularly niiliopil. 'I'he Kj/lik' hreinl are mi iiametl, iHiauiic In their prtiRreu ■• "— "- ■" "-^ .s-.-i ._. .■ thcliylcicii nii'P ol' Ihi" liinKilomiiprliiK from llirt'c prini'liuil lirenlii i the |iii niNVi _• iK>llercnt •ucuesaioiM yearly, two ol which reaenilile lung hair more than winiI, and arc called l''ora and Scudda. The wool ia nl' varioua coloiira. The llehrldlan ahcen la the amallMt animal of Ita kind ; Ita hiirna are tianally ahort and atrai)|ht, the face and lega while, the tall very ahort, and the wolami; luit others consider it the siiine breed iw the French niAtin (Cams laniariusL.) It ii a noble animal, standing nmr four feet in height, and seems to have been mainly instrumental in clearing the country of the nuineruus wolves which once over-ran it. Its particular ser^'ices being no longer in re- quest, the breed has been neglected, and probably, v>i\\ be soon extinct. The Horses si>em to be of a small and unim- proved breed ; and where agriculture lias been so little attended to, we may presume the cattle and sheep arc much inferior to tlioso of Britain. Yet Ire- land exports vast quantities of salted provisions, besides the supplies fur- nished to our navy and shipping inter- est. The Fossil Elk of this country has long excited the attention of naturalists; and its remains are of fre- quent occurrence in beds uf shell marl, beneath peat. Its antlers are vnurinoiis, measuring, from the extreme tip of each, no less than ten feet ten inches, and from the tip of the right horn to its root, live feet two inches. Remains of the Name animal have been also found in England, and a very perfect specimen in the Isle of Man. It deserves notice, that several well-known sliellH of the West Indies, with tropical seeds and nuts, are occasionally found on the Irish shores; these lucalitieH also furnish the conchologist with several native shells, seldom seen on the liritish coasts, particularly the Iso- cardia cor, or Heart Cockle {fig, 137.), not unfrcquently fished lip in the Day of Dublin, M'OTriail UHKVIIIIirNIl roiiii. ii.R. ifg. m.) RIART CCTKI.R. DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHY. Part hi. SicT. III. Jlitlorkal Geography, 1540. nrilain, according to tliu foiicurrcnt tvntimony of all ancient writcra, wai orwimttu fcopledfrom Gaui, and it* varlicit inhabitant* bclongvd to the samo Celtic race who occunie(| that country and Spain. It wa» one of the (tarts of the vorld last known to the Grcvlni nnd Uoinans. For a long time it appear* to liavc bein notictid only as a country supplying tin • a rare and useful metal, not then found in any other part of Europe, or in Wcsti'rn Aaia! The Cassiteride*, or islands of tin, of which mention is made by Herodotus, included iii Mi^jor Renneir* approliensinn, a vague idea of the whole group of the liritish islands • though the appellation might originally Ih> restricted to the Scilly Islands, and to the south- western promontory of England, from the Lizard Point to the Land's-end, where aluno tin was to be found. To obtain this vnltiablu mineral, the coasts of Uritain were nt an early period sought by the Hhips of various mercantile slates, especially the Carthaginians ; and the tin of Tarshish, mentioned by Eiekiel, was doubtless brought from the minus uf Corn- wall.. Voyages were made thither by Ilimiico, and by Pytheas, who even penctroted to the northern extremity of Scotland ; but of the observations made by these navigators, few notices are found m the works of ancient writers. 1541. Britain was iiwadtil hi/ the Homana, about fifYy-flve years before the Christian era. Of the thirty tribes of liarbarians among whom the country was then divided, the most considerable were the Belgaj in the west, the Urigantcs in the north, the Silures in South Wales, the Iceni in Norfolk and Suffolk, and the Cantii, who occupied Kent and part of Middlesex. The latter had made some progress in agriculture and the arts of civilised life- but the other inhabitants derived their subsistence from flocks and herds, clothed themselves in skins, and painted their bodies ; they had another custom similar to that of the natives of Otaheitc, by which a number of their chiefs held their wives in common. To these rulers a people turbulent by disposition, and warlike by habit, would be little disposed to pay uniform obedience ; but their precarious authority derived effective support from the in- fluence exercised by the Druids, in one of the most terrible forms of superstition that ever enslaved the human mind. This influence might at times be beneflcially employed in ap. peasing the animosities that arose between one state and another, and in diffusing among them that spirit of concord which was soon to bo awakened by a sense of common danger. When that crisis arrived, the Dritons were by no means unprepared ; besides all the ordinary implements of war, they had armed chariots, which they managed with surprising dexterity, and they were all united in a species of political confederacy, of which Cassivclaunus was the head. With all these advantages, however, they cotdd not prevent the landing of Julius Caesar, or keep the field against him : but that powerful conqueror encountered a fierce resistance from foes whom he had expected to overawe by the terror of his name, and was prevented by more urgent aiTairs from prosecuting an enterprise of which the difficulties were not likely to be compensated by its glury. Under the first emperors the Britons were held in a state of subjection rather nominal than real. It was in the otherwise inactive reign of Claudius that an expedition on a, great scale was first attempted. The hardihood of Coractacus, and the hemic desperation of Boadicea, failed of exciting an effectual resist- ance to the disciplined legions of Rome, whose victorious progress was continued during the reign of Nero. In that of Domitian, the most timid of all the emperors, their dominion was extended by the wisdom and valour of Agricola, who defeated the Caledonians under Galgacus, at the foot of the Grampians ; and the only part of the island which remained unsubdued was the region which um north of that natural rampart. 1542. Tlie Briton* now suhjected to the Roman em]nre were compelled to cultivate the habits and arts of peace : but this change, which might have been beneficial, proved in- jurious, when that empire, weakened, distracted, nnd verging to its decline was compelled to withdraw its protection from its distant provinces. The Scots and Picts, emerging from their mountain fastnesses, then broke in, and committed dreadful devastations among their unwarlike neighbours. The Romans, for the protection of their suffering vassals, had recourse to the feeble expedient of frontier walls ; first, one between the Forth and Clyde, called the Wall of Antoninc, and afterwards a similar rampart between the Tyne and Sol- way, called the Wall of Scverus, These bulwarks proving inefficient against such daring invaders, the degenerate Dritons made the most earnest and piteous appeals to Home for protection. This was occasionally afforded ; but the exigencies of the empire became continually more urgent; and about the middle of the fifth century, the Roman forces stationed in the island were entirely withdrawn, and the Britons were warned that they must thenceforward depend entirely on their own resources. 1543. Tlie Saxon* were called in as allies, ahout forty years ajler the dissolution of the Roman government. These hardy adventurers, originating from the north of Germany, and occupying the line of coast from the mouth of the Rhine to Jutland, were equally formidable as warriors and as mariners, and had long infested by their piracies the neigh- bouring parts of Britain and Gaul. They eagerly accepted an invitation to a country which they knew to be in all respects superior to their own. In the year 450 they setit 1600 men under their chiefs Hengist and Horsa ; who having with this small force obtained Book I. ENGLAND. M7 an my victory over the Scoti and PIcts, diti'rmiiii'd to dUpoMCM the Brituni of a territory uliii'h lliiy I'uuht not defend against so contemptible a foe. The siiccesseii that attended ilio ititerprise of the two brothcra attracted numerous bands of their countrymen ; and in ilic coiinie of a century, colonies arrived from the mouths of the £ll>c, the Wescr, and tho Hhirie, chiefly composed of three valiant tribes, the Jutei, tho Olit Sarom, and the ^iiglgi, ly Old Sojoni claimed precedency as leaders of the enterprise, and in after-times as founder* gf tilt! monarchy ; the Jutea claimeil the merit of erecting in Kent the first independent liiniidoin; and the Angles, distinguished for their numbers and success, liad the honour of l,t.ttiiHiiig a permanent name on the country. After a long and sanguinary struggle of onti huiidriil iiiid fifty years, they compelled the liritons to retire into Wales and ('ornwall, and «ial)S()lute was the change, that not a trace of the Celtic name and language has been left In the fiiircst portion of the island. 15H. TliiLi was establiahed the Heptarchy, or Seven Saxon kingihmh in Britain ; vis. I, Kent ; '2, Sushcx, including Surrey ; ». East Englas, including Norfolk, SuH'olk, tha I>loul' Kly, and Cambridgeshire; 4. Wessex, including all tho southern counties from Bi'rksliirv to Cornwall ; .5. Northumberland, including all the northern counties of England, ind the southern counties of Scotland to the Frith of Forth ; 6. Essex, including Essex, Middli-MX, and part of Mertfordshirc; 7. Mercryc, orMercia, tho largest division, including the midliind districts of England to the confines of Wales. I.i4.5. About the year 800 thete amall slatet were united into one kingdom, under the name of Eiifhnil, l>y Egbert king of Wessex, a descendant of the first Saxon invaders. On assum- ing! ''"^ sovereignty, he endeavoured to introduce tho improvements which he had learned to ippri'date during his residence at the court of Charlemagne. The Anglo-Saxon dynasty ilt'rivt'd its chief lustre from Alfred, justly revered as the founder of tho English constitu- tion, and one of the wisest and most virtuous monarch* that have appeared in any age or country. The judicious division of the kingdom into shires, hundreds, tithings, and decen- naricH ; the establishment of a general system of mutual responsibility among his subjects, hynhicii life and property were rendered secure, without any restraint on liberty; the insti- tution of courts for the i<.dministrution of justice ; and the formation of a code for their jTuldancc, embodying the laws derived by the Saxons from their German progenitors, and still recognised as the basi> of the cnmnton law of England ; — these and other measures of pnllly might have require'', and would have illustrated, a reign of uninterrupted tranquillity. But Alfred shone as a warrior no less than as a legislator : he delivered his country from the tnii'l and overwhelming thraldom of the Danes ; and in creating a navy to encounter those pirates on their own element, he may be said to have laid the foundation of the maritime supremacy of Great Britain. In the course of the ensuing century, however, the Danes ri.,-aini'd the ascendency; and in 1017, Canute king of Denmark and Norway, the most powerful monarch of his time, added England to his dominions. It was held successively bvtwo of his sons, Harold and Hardiranute ; but on the death of the latter, it was restored to the Saxon dynasty, and Edward, called the Confessor, ascended the throne. 1546. The conquest by William of Normandy, in 1066, overthrew for a time the liberties of the people of England. Claiming the crown by virtue of a pretended grant from Edward the ConfeMor, and acquiring it by victory over Harold II., himself an usurper, to the prejudice of Edgar Atheling the rightful heir, he maintained by tyranny a dominion gained by fraud and violence. He punished all persons who had taken up arms against him hy the forfeiture of their estates, which he conferred on his Norman vassals ; and he com- pelled all those who were not found in arms against him to take out patents to hold their lands of himself. Having ordered a general survey of all the lands in the kingdom, he changed the nature of the tenure from allodial tofeudal, to be holdeii of him by knight's service ; thus enthralling the people by a military despotism. He endeavoured to supplant the English language by that of the Normans, which was employed at court, in council, and in all public proceedings ; and it was a fixed maxim of his reign, that no native of the island should ever Ije advanced to any dignity, civil, religious, or military. The natural antipathy of tlie English to their oppressors was strengthened by this partiality, and many ages elapsed ere the two nations were thoroughly incorporated. One o*" the consequencs o" the acquisition of the English crown by William was to convey to the kings his successors certain claims on the French territory, which led to long, expensive, and sanguinary wors. The second of those successors, his son Henry the First, by his marriage with Matilda, daughter of Mal- colm king of Scotland, and niece of Edgar Atheling, conciliated a people zealous for the rights of their native princes, and anxious for their re-establishment. 1547. The Saxon line was restored in the person of Henry the Second, surnamed Planta- genet, son of Geoflry of Anjou, who married Matilda, daughter of Henry I. This prince, in the right of his father, was master of Anjou and Touraine ; in that of his mother, of Normaniiy and Maine ; in that of his wife, of Guienne, Poitou, Xaintongc, Auvergne, Perigord, Angoumois, and the I^imousin. To these states he afterwards annexed that of Bre- tagne. The possession of provinces composing above one third of the French monarchy, and luperior in opulence to the rest of the territory, rendered this vassal more powerful than hit S-18 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pakt III, liege lord, and contributed, witli other causes, to provolce that rivalry which for arr is existed be. tween England and France. The princes of the house of Plantagenet exhibited an energy of spirit, some in goo csting in the history of England, of Europe, and of the world. The invention of printing, the navigation to India, the discovery of America, the reformation in Germany, the balance oi power among European states, the changes in the mode of warfare caused by t'"> introduction of fire-arms, co-operated to produce a progressive and permanent change ii\ the social and political condition of mankind. England participated most Inigcly in all the advantages resulting from the new order of things ; and though the emancipation of the kingdom from papal tyranny was effected by the sovereign in rather an irregidnr manner, without much deference to the inclinations of the people, it accorded too well with their independent spirit not to gain their hearty support and concurrence. In ihe reign of Elizabeth, various causes contributed to accelerate the revolution of public opinion j and after the destruction of the Spanish armada, wliicli the Roman pontilT had presumed lo call invincible, the thunders of the Vatican lost all tlieir terrors. The most strennoiis exertions were made to strengthen the maritime power of England, as well as to employ it in liberating other states from the oppressions under which they had long groaned, and in ex- tending her commercial intercourse with them. The result of these measures was to raise the nation to a very prosperous and flourishing condition, and to overturn the lawless dominatinn of the nobles, substituting for it, however, an authority almost absolute on the part of ihc sovereign. 15'19. The union of the two crowns on the accession of James the Sixth of Scothiid to the throne of England, terminated those dissensions and animosities, which had proved alike inju- rious to both countries. The reign of James was peaceful ; but that of his successor was marked by troubles which a sort of fatality seems to have allotted to the house of Stuart. The impolitic and despotic conduct of Charles the First, coming into collision with the rising spirit of freedom, led to a struggle in which he lost both his crown and his life. In the interregnum which ensued under the Commonwealth, the vigilant, energetic, and decisive policy of Oliver Cromwell exercised n commanding influence over every cabinet in Europe. Restored by the predilections of the people for a monarchical government, Charles the Second suffered England to lose the ascendency which she had attained ; but the apathy of (his luxurious, unprincipled, and venal prince was at least favourable to the growth of popular iniluence, and to the establishment of important securities for the liberty of the subject. The infatuated conduct of James the Second, under the insidious direction of priests and Jesuits, led to the revolution of 1 688, from which glorious eiocli may be dated that happy cquililirium of the different powers, and that admirable system of public right, which have rendered the Uritish constitution the envy and admiration of the civilised world. 1550. From the revoliilion of 1688 to the present time. Great Britain has had frefjuent occasions to rejoice in the stability of her constitution amidst the convulsions which h!(\e agitated all Europe. During this period, her industry, commerce, and wealth rapidly rose to a height unparalleled in any other nation ancient or modern ; but her political power sus- tii'ned various fluctuations. Slie nc<)nired in the East and in the West two empires, each I'lir more extensive than her own territory, and tlie one far more populous. That in the Kiust she retains, and is continually extending j that in the West, having become independent hy the aid of France and Spain, is her rival in commerce, and manifests a disposition to dispute, at no distant periofi/rkr, belongs the care of all who arc unable to take care of themselves ; he has an original right to superintend the disposal of charities ; and in all such cases the a|)plication is to the Court uf Chancery, He has, in certoin cases, the high prerogative of pardoning, and likewise that uf issuli'i^ ;-.pecial proclamations for the prevention of ofl'ences. The power of making war or poact is lodged singly in the king. In virtue of his prerogative, the administration and rules of law differ between him and a private person ; he is lield to be incapable of doing wrong, and if an unlay virtue of his prerogative the kmg may make grants and letters patent, conferring various rights and privileges. Lastly, the king cannot III' attainted, and is never a minor; though when the crown h.is devolved to a very young lii'ir, it lias been thought prudent to appoint u regent, or council of regency. The same d50 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paw 111. expedient has been adopted when, by reason of grievous illness, the exercise of the royal functions has been interrupted. 1555. The revenues of the crown are, in a legal sense, very extensive; for all supplies granted by parliament are given to the Icing. But of these much the largest proportion belonirs to the public or its creditors ; that which pertains to the king in his distinct capacity, and which is called the Civil List, amounts to but a moderate provision (out of a revenue of ilAy or sixty millions) for the support of the honour and dignity of the crown. In I8I3-14 when a detailed report was made on the subject, the entire allowance, which in the begin^ liing of the reign was 800,OOOA, had been raised to 1,000,000/. Besides this, the debts of the civil list had been paid at different periods during the iifiy-four years of the reign of George III., to the amount of 3,1 13,000/. His majesty during that period had also drawn 172,000/, from the 4J per cent. West India, and sums from the droits of the admiralty, augmenting it to 1,653,000/. ; raising the whole to 4,866,000/., and forming an annual addition of about 90,000/. The civil list comprised not only the provision for ihe personal expenses of the royal family, but that which was allotted for various branches of the public service. From it were paid the salaries of the judges, amounting to 33,000/. ; those of ministers at foreign courts, 90,000/., with equipage, presents, &c. ; extraordinary disbursements, 153,000/, ; pen. sions, 151,000/. ; small salaries and offices of the treasury department, 60,000/. ; secret service money, 100,000/. All these deductions being made, the sum remaining applicable to tliu private expenditure of the royal family was little more than half a million. Of this only 60,000/., the allowance for the privy purse, was at the immediate disposal of his majesty. The rest, including all the branches of state and expenditure, was paid by the steward, tlio chamberlain, the master of the horse, and other officers specially appointed for the purpose, and accountable to parliament. 1556. On the commencement of the reign of William IV., the civil list was entirely new. modelled. It was now limited to the personal expenses of the sovereign, and the mninte- nance of his state ; while the branches of administration hitherto defrayed out of it were charged upon the Consolidated Fund. The sum of 510,000/. was granted, under tlie fol- lowing heads : — Privy purse, King's, - - £60,000 Salaries in the department of Queen's - - 50,000 Royal bounty - £9,500 Maintenance of royal establish- Churches - - 3,'JOO ment - - - - 171,000 Poor of London - 1,000 Salaries in the department of Home secret service 1 0,(XX) Chamberlain - 64,450 Pensions - - 75,000 Steward - - 36,500 Master of the horse S8,500 £510,000 Master of the robes 850 1557. Thus the royal prerogative, which would otherwise preponderate, is counterbalanced hi the control which the representatives of the people in parliament exercise over the public pursi:. The king, without a grant from his people, has scarcely any revenue. He lias the prero- gative of commanding armies and equipping fleets ; but without the concurrence of liis par liament he cannot maintain them. He can confer appointments to offices ; but without his parliament he cannot pay the salaries. He can declare war ; but without the aid of iiarlla- nient he cannot carry it on. He has the exclusive right of assembling parliaments; but hy law he must assemble a parliament every three years, if necessity obliged him not to convuku it much oftcner. Though head of the church, he cannot alter the cstublislied religion, or call individuals to account for their religious opinions. He cannot create any new otHi'i.' inconsi tent with the constitution or prejudicial to the subject. He has tlie privilege of coining money ; but he cannot alter the standard. He has the power of pardoning oHendors ; but he cannot exempt them from making compensation to tlie injured parties. Even with tlie military power he is not absolute, since it is declared in the Bill of Rights that a standing army without the consent of parliament is illegal. The king himself cannot be arruigneii ; but if any abuse of power be committed, those who were either the advisers or the instru- ments of the measure may be impeached and tried before the House of Lords; in which case it is of no avail to plead the king's command, or to produce his pardon, A dissoiiitiou of parliament does nut pbate an impeachment, neither can the royal authority interpose tu stay or suspend its course. Other ri>straints on the prerogative exist in the uncontrolled freedoui of speech in parliament, secured by the Bill of Rights, and in the important provisions hy which, during the reign of George III., the independence of the judges was establisiivd, 1558. The House of Lords is composed of the lords spiritual and temporal of Knglundi sixteen temporal peers of Scotland ; one archbishop, three bishops, and twenty-eight tem- poral |)eers of Ireland. The roll of the lords spiritual and temporal forming the House ol Peers, in the session of 183:1, exhibits 426 lords, including the catholic peers of Englawl' They are thus distinguished : — DooK !• lldjiil tliikM Att'libiKlH'l'" Pukv» witli Engliali tittei K«rU ViH'oimiN ENGLAND. - 4 Bishops • 3 Barons • 21 Peers of Scotland - 19 of Ireland - 109 • 18 « 351 Total - 27 - 181 - 16 . 28 - 426 I.Vli 7'Ai* LoMn Spiri'tHal arc, fnr EnRlanil, two archbishopa and twenty-four bishopa ; and for Ireland, one Dti'hlili'liiil) <*Mil llircc lilaliotM i the English hold their seats for life, the Irish by rotation. The arclibishoiw milk dIhivv «II dukM except the princes of the blood ; the bishops next below viscounti. 1,'StiO. The Limti Tetnporal are not limited in number, it being the prerogative of the kiii|| 10 rnlHU lo thv peerage any of his subjects whom he thinks deserving. The creation is liilhvr l)y writ or pntent, tlic former mode being the most an:ient, and the latter the most M'lMirv itiid honourable. The temporal peers consist of dukes., marquesses, earls, viscounts, unit IxiroiiHi The title of duke did not exist in England until the reign of Edward the 'rhii'd ) tlint of marquess was introduced in the reign of Richard the Second ; that of earl U III' vi'ry iiiicieitt origin, corresponding in dignity with the French title of count. Viscounts well' I'i'uuli'tl ill the time of Henry the Sixth. In iormer times the title of baron was ge- mi'iil union)! the nubility, and every peer of superior rank held also a barony ; but in the I'lUiiiic of u iuw gcnvrBtiuns the two titles migiit be divided, the one continuing to the male ik'u'i'iiiliiiiti*, the other passing to the heirs-general : in later times, earls and viscounts have tii'i'ii I'lviili'tl Nvilhout annexing a barony to their higher honours; wherefore all peers are not bitniiiN. Altliougli the right of adding indefinitely to the number of peers forms part of the ruynl |iivi'ogiitivi,-| it has been very sparingly and cautiously exercised. IM I , /'*r' ti-rlftn Pfcn nf Scollnmt arc, by the articles of union, elected by the peers of that country fi-om jiliiiiiill llu'lini'lvun 1 ami In emu of a vacancy by death or legal incapacity, recourse is had to election for sup. iilyliiu till' jiiiuv «ntmtiHl. The election of the sixteen |>ecrs is renewed for cvcrjr parliament l.'Hi >, M'/M iretuvl (it Ihe I'l'ers f{f Ireland, it waa established by the act of union that four lords spiritual by tulitlioii III' Ktiialiinii, and twcnty-ei^ht lords temporal elected for life by the peers uf Ireland, shall be the Uiimlii'V III nil iinil'Viile on the part ot Ireland in the House of Ix)rds of the parliament of the United Kingdom. I'kU M (I tHiifi'me amtl qfjtulicnlure, the House of Ix)rds exercises jurisdiction in civil causes uimn ap|)cala lit »(ll« I'l' I'i'liir IVoin tile Inferior courts ; and in criminal questions, when brought before them, by present. nii'iil I'l'llio lliiliKC ofOommims, in the form of an impeachment l:i(ii All miinlh'n i\f ftarliameni have ll,c privilege J'or themselves and their menial servants qf being freed fixtm itih'»lii or iHiiirlsoniiienl fur debt or trespass ; but not trom arrests for treason, felony, or breach of the 'm 111', rill' (ii'i'iK li 'Ve other privileges peculiar to themselves. In all eases of treason, felony, or misprision, ollWimv, a liiililenmn In trlwl iiy his peers ; but in misdemeanours, as lil)el8, riots, perjury, and conspiracy, he i> niiil liki' rt I'liliinioner by a jury. In judicial proceedings, a peer gives his verdict not upon oath, but upon ill. hiiiiiiiir I III' iiimwcrs also to bills in cliauccrv upon his honour, and not upon his oath ; but when examined niiiuiliii'Nii III llic Inn'rior courts or in the high court of parliament, either ni civil or criminal cases, he must Ih' ■iviiiii, .Sliuiilcr nualnst a |iecr subjects the offender to very heavy punishment, being branded by the law Mitli (III' li'l'iii .vi'iiNi/ii/NiH Hiagnaltini. Every Peer, by licence fVom the king, may make a proxy to vote for liiiii ill III' iilwi'lHV, ft privilege which cannot bo held by a member of the lower housa He has f 'i;o ,• : ight, by Iravi' III llii' lliiiliii', when a vole passes contrary to his opinion, to enter his dissent, with the rea.iLin>i ^jr it, on till' jitiiniiil* III llli' hiiuse : this is usually railed ]m protest. The privilege of tVanking letters is < .ivnved by iiu'iiilH'i'a III' liiitli liiiuses, with restrictions as tu number and weight, and by certain oftlcers of stai^ mu: .ithcr liiiiiiiiiiiiirii'K 111 iin unlimited extent As private individuals, the |>eers enjoy none of those inju; \>m . and i'|i|'[r< fmm II. il,ii»iiiiiii i iiliii llley lU'lVay their share of the public burdens in common with the humblest indivi ,uait In [.■•liivl III llii'ir U'gliiliitive capacity, It is however to be observed, that all billswliich may in the.r .i.iiscqutnccs III Diiv w iv iilll'Cl llic rights of the {leerage, are, by the custom of parliament, lo originate in the il' use of Peers, ami lutuul'i' III) chnnge* or amendments in the lower house. l.Ki.'i, Till- IfoHHf nf Commons, as a distinct branch of the legislature, h the peculiar lioiht III' llu' UritiNh constitution. Tlirough this representative assem'j'y, .rlile a!l the ollii'i' )>i'cut kiliftdottis of Europe were subject to the arbitrary rule of a monarcli, or to the vi'xiiiiiiiiH iloiiiiiiallon of an oligarchy, the people acquired their due share in the national I'omii'ils, Hiiil cHlablinhed, among other rights, that of regulating the collection and distri- liiiliiiii of llio public niiiney ; causing it to be recognised as a principle, that tliey shall not be liitcl liut liy tlioir own consent. The period when the commons of England liegan to take II hliiirv ill U'giNlaliiin is too remote to be exactly ascertained. In the earliest times of Mliii'li liny rt'coht exislH in English history, there appear to have been assemblies of the ii.ilioii, '.'oiiviiki'il lo deliberate on occasions of great emergency. These, however, were ^'^1 rrc(|iii'iil after the Norman conquest, and it was not until the 49th of Henry III. (.•\. I), lyii(i), nrter the overthrow of Simon Montfort, earl of Leicester, tliat the people wi're ri'uulm'iy Hiiininoned by the king to send representatives to the great council of the niitiim, Tliii chiwii, little apprehensive of the fonnidabic character which the House of Ciiiiiiniiim witN afterwards to assume, favoured all the steps of its early progress, hoping by lliiHiii iiii'iins Id eotillterpi)ise the oveibearing sway of the great barons, and at the same time III iililiiiii niipiilioK of money from the growing wealth of the people. The decline of the li'iiiliil hyili'iii liiiil for Noiiiu time favoured such a system of policy. Baronies escheated by I'liil'ciliire or for want of issue had been subdivided ; hence arose a class of men called minor liiinins, lioliliiig by kiii^*ieth, — received each the right of electing two meinbersj while twenty smaller towns, ■^ Ashton-under- Line, Bury, Chatham, Cheltenham, DiKllejT Frome, Gateshead, Huddersfleld, Kidderminster, Kendal, Rochdale, Sidford, South Shielill Tyncmouth, Wakefield, Walsall, Warrington, Whitby, Whitehaven, and Mertlijr TyiWif ^acquired the right of nominating one member each. At the same time twenty-sev counties acquired the power of sending each two additional members, and seven that of sendiii one additional member. 1567. T/ie rvi>rescnlalion of Great Britain now stands as follows:— English members for counties universities cities and boroughs Welsh members for counties cities and boroughs Scotch members for counties cities and boroughs Irish members for counties university cities and boroughs 471 29 53 105 Making in all 6.18 Book I> ENGLAND. M9 1568. The qnalificatimi reguuile for a member of the House of Commons, in respect to property, are these : — A person to be eligible as member for a county must ha\e a freehold or copyhold, or must have been mortgagee in possession at least seven years, of a clear estate of the value of 600/. per annum ; and to be pligible for a city, borough, or other place, except the universities, of the value of 300/. per annum. The person so qualified is also to be of mature age, and must take the oaths imposed as indispensable to a member of the legislature. The disqualiKcations are very numerous, since among the persons ivlio cannot sit in the House of Commons are judges, clergymen, persons holding certain oiccs under the crown, and persons having pensions under the crown during pleasure or for any term of years. Sheriffs of counties, and mayors, and bailiti's of boroughs, are ineligible in their respective jurisdictions ; but a sheriff of one county is eligible as knigtit for another. 1,56.1. The quatificalions required in electors differ, as they relate to counties or to boroughs. In the election of county members every voter must have a freehold of the clear yearly value of forty shillings, over and above all rents and charges payable out of and in resjiect of the same, and must have been in the actual possession of it for twelve calendar months, unless it came to him within that time by descent, marriage settlement, devise, or promotion to a benefice in the cluirch, or to an office. To these freeholders the new bill Ills midtd all persons holding property to the amount of ten pounds on copyhold, or on lease of not less than sixty years ; and also those occupying lands or tenements for any period, at a rent of not less than .'30/. per annum. Ij70. The quatificalions of electors for cities anil boroughs were, previous to the present act, eitrcmely various. The right of voting in different places resided variously in the free- lioldcrs, tlie corporations, the burgage tenants, and sometimes in the whole body of resident liouseholders. The new act, however, admits only the simple qualification of occupying a tdusc rated at not less than 10/. perani>um. Those, however, who were freemen under the (mier system are still entitled to vote, although not possessed of the 10/. qualification, pro- lidcd they reside witliin the borough. 1571. The mode of proceeding to an election for a county and for a borough is nearly the lufflf. On a dissolution of parliament, writs, pursuant to a warrant from the king, are I isued under the great seal, addressed to the sheriffs of counties, directing them to sum- Ison the people to elect two knights for each county, and one or two burgtsses for lachhurough. To supply a vacancy while parliament is sitting, the warrant for the writ [[focecJs from the House of Commons. A certain day after, the tlate or teste of the lirit is fixed for the election to commence; and on tliat day the cHndid;i'io or car dictates lire put in nomination, at the place appointed, in the presence of the returning ofKcer. Ilga county election, the sheriff or the under-sheriff is the returning of^cer; in a city lulioruugli, the mayor or bailiff. If there be rival candidates put in nomination, the liHurning ofKcer calls on the voters for a decision by a show of hands, alter A-hich the Ifend of any candidate, if dissatisfied, may demand a poll. The roll was formerly laien only at one place, and mi'.'.'t last for fifteen days; but under the new act, the iBliesKiid "ounties are divided in:- iistricts, with separate booths, or polling-places, appro- Ijiiati'tl to each. The poll is allowxHl to continue only for two days, which must be suc- Iftsivo, and it must close at four o'clock in the afternoon of the second day. Poll clerks Itftral, to record the names of the voters, and tlieir accuracy is watched by inspectors IwiiiiiMtcd on each side. Tlie returning officer who presides must, if required, oblige lie candidates to swear to their qualifications. At the close of the election, or on lie following day, the returning otiicer declares the names of the persons who have lie m;ijority of votes; and, unless a scrutiny b.e demanded, he forthwith makes his I mum, 13"-. The person thus elected and relumed becomes the reprcse/itatiie if the Commons of ttmilcd kingdom of Croat Ilritain and Ireland, and not the deli'jiate or agent of the par- h:iiltir i>l(ue for which he taJiVS Itis scat. Petitions, comjMiiing if undue elections, may be Iffesiiiled to the House of Commons; and rules for deciding upon them have been laid lie»n iu certain specific sti" I'.tes. Against bribery, either by means of money, ofeiitertain- lueiils, iir of promises of places or favours, the strictest laws have been enacted ; and, fcoiii recent examples, there is reason to believe that they will henceforward be rigorously Inforccd. liTli. The duration of a Parliament has, for • ')re than a century, been extended to the lirm lifMviii years, from that of three, to which it was formerly limited. The king, however, Ib-tlic power of dissolving parliament at any time, and he usually does dissolve it a year or two lltfiirctheexpiraticm of its term. He can also prorogue it at any time and for any period ; and, Ifc'iuch prorogation concludes the session, it puts an vnd to all bills or other proceedings fcpending in either house, which must in the next session be again instituted, as if they had ■Kurhcen begun. Either house, or both houses, may ailjourn of their own accord, and, at l-'fir mectiMg again, may take up the bills and other proceedings in the state of advancement "liivli tliry were left. A session of parliament usually commences in January or Fe- A a s; 'U 984 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paut in. bruary, and continues until June or July. If it commence before Christmas, an adjourn- ment takes place for the holidays ; the houses adjourn also at Easter for about fourteen days, and for shorter periods on any extraordinary occasion. 1574. The attendanc; of members is in general by no means full, and some of the ordi- nary though very important business of the nation is transacted in very thin houses. In fact, no means of enforcing attendance are adopted except a call of the house, which always precedes the discussion uf very important questions, and is also required by act of parliament •jefore taking into consideration any petition relative to a controverted election. Parties neglecting to attend on sucli call are liable to be taken into custody of the Serjeant at arms, and to incur payment of the consequent fees, which amount to no inconsiderable tine. If forty members be not present at four o'clock in the afternoon, the speaker immediately ad- journs the house to the day following, or to any other day which had been previously tixcil for the nE played ; yet the speeches, especially thor>e of members in opposition, seem intended for th« public rather than for the members, and of course call forth a corresponding tone in those of the speakers on the side of administration. The publication of debates, however, is so f.-,r from being authorised, that a standing order exists for the exclusion of strangers, which may :x any moment be enforced by a simple intimation from any member to the speaker, that tlicrc are strangers in the house. The speaker proclaims that strangers must withdraw, and ' iie gallery is instantly cleared. It is also cleared on every division, that the votes of the several mem- bers may not incur the imputation of beinp- influenced by publii- opinion ; yet lists of majorities and minorities are easily procured, and the part which any member has taken on any great public question becomes univen>ally known. 1575. The general business of Parliament during a session consists in passing various pub- He and private acts, and in making that provision for the service of the year, which the interests of the nation require. Proceedings of general or particular legislation may orighiatc in either house, but the House of Commons hold the sole and exclusive right of granting aid'- and supplies to the crown. At the commencement of every session committees of thewhoL house arc appointed ; one called the Committee of Supply, to consider the amount required by the crown for the service of the army, navy, ordnance, and other departments ; and the other tlie Committee cf Ways and Means, to devise modes of raising, by taxes or loans, the sums which the house, on resolutions reported from the committee of supply, and agreed to, have granted to his majesty. In this committee of ways and means, the chancellor of the exchequer, in an exposition technically called the Budget, demonstrates to llie house in detail that the sums voted are sufKcient 'o justify the committee in imposing such taxes, or sanctioning such loans, as are then rccomni.Mided. When the two committees are closed, the House of Commons pass a bill in which tlie several grants made in the committee of ways and means, by land-tax, nialt-tax, loan, sinking fund, and other resources, are recapitulated, and directed to be applied to the services voted in that session in the committee of supply, specifying the particular sums granted for each service. The sums on account of llie army, ordnance, militia, and foreign subsidies art; in the bills of appropriation specifically applied to those services ; but the sums voted for the navy are not appropriated specitiially hut generally, in consideration of circumstances arising out of the peculiar nature of that servlci'. 1576". Parliament have th ■>te rif>' i nf making, altering, and amending nil the Inii^ ,\f llie kingdom, and by (heir autlii aloi.. ^an taxes be imposed or levied. An annual . ''i' of the House of Connnons is ixpiisite to maintain t!.^' land and sea forces at the deptree of strength which is every y cm fxed and cK'terminei' 'on. By lliesi' niiit oilier privilegLs, the annual meeting of par" ■ jnt is secuivd without any express slipuhilioii to that idkl. By withholding these aniiuul votes tlie • may testily their disapprobation of tlu' iiieasiiiis of government, and even conipil it to change its ministers ; indeed, the principle has now lieiome indisputable, that the minister ^vho cannot ivly on a majority of votes in parlianu iit is ilis. abled from coiidiietiiig the ail'al. , of the nation. Privileges so extensive seem at (ir-t siiilit to threaten with annilillation the it>yal prerogative, and establish the absolute doniiiiion uf the two estates ill parlianieiit. In fact, however, 'he case is otherwise. The power possessed ] by the king of appointing to all otiices civil and military, secures to him immense iriHueiuv. i If the nu'iubcis of parliament have notliiMg to fear, they have so much to hope, that a ^reat j proportion of them are tl'iiriuifthly disposed to support the measures of the crown. M:iny i of the pi( r-., Old of their relatives and connections who hold seats in the other house, consider j the inuicst. of tlk' sovereign as in some imasure identiliei with their own: and their votes, j with tliosu on which the Treasury can always calciilato, generally contributes to niaiiitaiiij the e(piipoise of parties, or rather to secure the preponderance of that w hich is entrusteil witlil the ccnuhict of affairs. Some politicians, indeed, entertain great deference for the warning of| n late eminent statesman, that the influence of the crown lias increased, is increasing, aiiJi ought to be diminished ; yet, on evamiiiulion, it will probably be found that this intluetu'ej DooK I. ittMn no great c, debate, the lib«rtj dal guaranties, wli loss of its lihertie* l.'77. TlwlMv, lingdoin, it is cu to immher, wh(» ar with all the fidelity or conceal from, ii has a select council liis majesty dulurnil Tlie king with the 1 ject, hut they aru u of the council is, t( oireiiders to safe eu« are entitled to their justice of the peace. causes, which arixe « lunacy. When queH( " '*^' *'«A' in vounet iovtwigntyj he also or province founded, of the crown exceptin IS vested in the ;Wm "hole privy council, , in council, by whom pinds on the pleasure ilieu/ioleof ,|a.m, «„ fe/DOMthedemiboofti «jier the demise, unJo, oftiife'land IS capably, «"iyoftheguver„, ebeonlynprivutfuu, taronets, and t|,u .„« I '"'W''/"/ asabodij *"*« <-"inpo,i„j, u ;;,, M rest on their honn i^^'J.io them as conii.i wt HI their sim,,|„ ,,„ 'k" are opposed to ,heu '7"^" by the eoiistiln ■^tnoHlcd^r,,! , „,^ ■'"'"lie course of, n.K.' '«icil usually consists I "'lij'jus functions of (lu fc'"p plenum,,. ,„„, f''l""ly. asconstitullnL •fc^Mif state; yet,,, I;-''. ...ay hold In-H 1} |'f>".le.ire,hosoenume. fm I^rilofthoTr.. , p-njChaMcoIlur '""' /'Hi I'rivy Seal. si!"''''" '"'tho Camel! Jiiritary (,(■ Statu (iirih. pT'l <'liainl)orl«jiL ™..T.,| ,|,„ „ 'rea.urer„(thpNnvy OOOK I> ENGLAND. 8^5 js pub- ich the riginatc ing aid"^ le whoL- required and the Mns, the 1 agreed lancellor house ■li taxes, closed, of ways itulated, supply. lie nvmy, applit'd iilly hut SlTvil'l'. .,■,,>/' l/ll' 1 , >tf of (\c'j;reo uf iii\ile|;os ul died. ■ilsllfiS (ll vlieeomt' lit is cli>- t'li-.t •'i^hl iiniiiio""' J possessed jintluence. ll. M-'"!' 1., consider j Bicir votes, I) niaiiit.iiii j lusteilwitl'L Laruiug"! lasing, ai"l! iiitlueiM'H nllurd-H iiu grout cnuMi of itlitrint unil tlint thu odium of increased taxation, the publicity of debate, thu libortv of thu \»iiiM, mid the indupundencc of tiie tribunals, constitute 8ubstan> tial guaranties, whivh uiiKht to relieve the nation from every reasonable apprehension for the loss uf its libertiuH. 1.577. The IVwy Cmneil holiU a primary h fluence in directing the civil government of the kiiigduin. It is cuinp< eorfum ns iiitich as if they had been committed by an ordinary justice of the peace, 'i'liu privy council is a court of appeal in plantation and admiralty causes, which oriiiU out uf the Jurlndictiun of the kingdom, as also in cases of idiotcy and lunacy. When questions arise between two colonies respecting the extent of their charter, " tk king in cuioir.'iV" vxerciMeit original jurisdiction in them, on the principles of feodal dovereigiity ; hu also delerniines, on the same principles, the validity of claims to an island or province founded upon grant IVom thu king or his ancestors. But from all the dominions of tlie crown excepting Oreat tiriiain and Ireland, an appellate jurisdiction, in the last resort, invested in the privi/ (!uum'il> 'I'lii' judicial authority is exercised in a committee of the nliule privy council, wtiu heitr allegiUions and proofs, and make their report to liis iiwjesty in council, by whom Judgment is Anally given. The dissolution of the privy council de- pends on tlie pleasure uf the kin^, who may at his own discretion discharge any member, or the whole uf tliem, and appoint anulher council. By the common law it is dissolved ipso ficto on the demise of the crown, but by the statute 6 Anne, c. 7. it is to continue six mouths ifter tlie demise, unless suoner determined by the successor. Any natural-bom subject of England is capablu uf being a member of the privy council, taking the proper oaths fur security of the government and lent for the security of the church. A privy counsellor, if hi' be only » private gentleman, In styled right honourable, and takes precedence of all knights, baronets, and thu younger sons of all barons and viwcuunts. 1578. W cabinet vuiini'il in hdI, alrivtljf upeaking, recognised by the constitution, hut bi/ usage i is rennrded as a both) seti>clt^t hi) the soivrcign to conduct the business of the stale ; and the fimbtrs composing it am held to k' the responsible aduisers (f the crown. This responsibility iTiust rest un their huniuir -, fur it is by no means evident that any advice could be legally iiaced to them as contiduntial NurvHnlusiil liy thu cuiiiititiiiiuiial ina^int that " the king can do no wrong;" and it is virtually 1 icl;noHleil(ut Saretary of State liir the I'lirvlMli l)i'|iiirlluelit (Ufl)Vr» Install .forming the Cabinet. .Secretary of .State for Colonics and War. I'haiH'cllor of the Kxchequer. Klr»t Lord of the Admiralty. Mantcr-Kcncral of the Ordnance. I'enident nf the Board of Control Chaneellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. Lord Clmmliorlain. I/jril Steward. Mm, .■nil till) Hui'ai). .VTrrlary at War. Treasurer of the Navy, I'rcsiilciit uf the lliiiiiil iit FayiiLuter of the l'iiriH'», 'I'rndi (U/lfi'ii ilf Slatf noi nflhe Cabinet. Vice. President of the Board of Trade. Poalninater Oencral. LleutenanUtiencral of the Ordnance. Kimt Cuininisaioncr of the Land Kcvenuc; Attorney.tieneral. 8olieltor-Ueneral. I.»ril Lieutenant of Irelaiiil, Ixiril Clmiieelliir. ('nmiiuiiiiii.r uf the Koreea, ll;:er -S'.eretary. \m\ Ireland. VIce.Ttoasurcr. Attorney-Oeneral. HoUcltor.tJeneral. A a '2 DESCUIPTIVE OEOORAPIIY. I'AKt W. 1581. 77iat officer of slate wJii> holds tlie appointment of First l.onl if the Trt'nsiirjf, is b^ tminence the minister. In the went of a change of niinittry, the penon who in diruvU'd hy the king to form another, receives, in such royal command, an implivd olU'r of that high office, and is generally placed at the head of the adminiHtration. The (Irst lord of the treasury, that is, the first of the five lords comniissionen
s> for the following account of the progress of the national debt, from the llevolulion to the presviit time : — Debt at the Revolution in 168!) Excess of debt contracted during the reign of William 1 1 1. alwvc debt liaid oflT - - - ... Debt at the accession of Queen Anne in IIVH Debt contracted during ijuecn Anne's reign • ... I'tlni'liwl. InUTMI. tili4,2R3 l.'),7.i().43!) 1,271,(187 IU,;l!l4,7llV ■sj,-,M,mi l,.'llil,l)W 2,0«l,Uli Debt at the accession of George I. in 17U Debt paid oU'during the reign of George I. above debt contracted 64,U.'>,,Ka 3,:i.'-.l,.iiS l,13.),Mi7 Debt at the accession of George II. in 17'/7 Debt contracted from the accission of George 11. till the iwacc of I'arls in 17133, 3 years after the accession of George III. Debt in 1703 ...... Paid during peace - - • . fi«,oaii,vi3B «n.77.'),I!)2 2,217„'i.-.l 2,(l,!4„'i(0 l:iH,»>,'i,4.)i) 1IV.'H1,7!I'> ♦,8:ii:,ll.jl ;i8(l,4t^0 : Debt at the commencement of the American war in 177i 1 Debt contracted during the American war ... I4!l,i.'li7,!»!i3 4,47 1,. IT 1 4,!)8(i,v'lll Debt »t the conclusion of the American war in 1784 Paid during peace, from 1784 to 1793 li4!l,H.'.l,tii>l m,,i()i,;W() !I,4>1,7V2 243,'J77 Debt at the commencement of the French war in 171)3 Debt contracted during the French war !i3!l,;i,'i( 1,148 lillK,!l;l,i,:lt2!l !),2llH,i:i:, 24,fi4,1,!17l Total funded and unfunded debt, 5th of January, 1817, when the ICnglinli and Irish Kxchequers were conHolidatcd Hl8,'i8«,477 .'i.'i.sr.j.ifiii i 1584. Since 1817, a deduction has been maricof about m/y millions fnini the iiriiiripnl of thodclit, .in(l.nli<»:i ftiie millions from the annual charge on its account. This diminution has liceii pnticlpally edW'tcil liv l;iki's advantage of the fall in the rate of interest since the peace, and ollbring to |wy oil' the holder* oi^llm i stocks, unless they consented to accept a reduced payment. 158' Tlie St/stem qffmttliiii!, by which the debt has been remleri-d national, rcjln on the principle (ilas-ipii. ing for the amount of a loan, an equivalent amount of nominal cn|)ital, beiiriiig interest iliarg«l on the natiniijl revenue in half-yearly payments called dividend.s, or of terminiiljle aiimiltli^s also payalile liall-yeaily An. nuities granted for an indetinite period arc called redecmnhle debt, being r<'(leemaiile at tlie ciplinn (li'KdviTiiimnl i when at par ; those granted for a limited period are called irredieiiiahle debt j thev exist only tor a iirtaiii | numlier of years, and a portion of the capital is ainiually absorbed in the interest, '('he luniU are resiniliirl designated accoiding to the rate per cent, they licar ; and the share which a public eredilor holds in aiivcf I them, being transferable by sale under the name of stoek, they constitute a kind of circulating canil il. tlie I prices of stock vary according to the fluctuations of public opinion relative to |Hilitlcal allliirs, and are ILiblc i be influenced by other causes, so that their rise and fall aflbrd a constant subject of connnerclal siK'iiilatiim I/Vf). The rate of interest granted on certain portions of the nati il ilebt, though nominally lower thnii ihii I cf flve per cent allowed by law, has lieen rendered advantageous to the lender by being ch.nrge>« rnledlnt nineteen and ^ .v.'.mo.'jiii il,+ il,"Vi 'Ztd,'J7" 24,64r>,!'71 :lH.Hrit.4''Ji ' lie ilcW, ami al»»" li.m..'te.l l)V t;(ki' ? loUlersoliVlli'f"' lrincll>U">f •';"!;"; |wl oil the unuuul 1 |i»U'.yeatl>. All. lioncifnoviTiiin"'' ■only for a '•''"•"" ■>lA arc resi"'""', lor lioUlH m ail . ' Is'andareli.*'.'' iclal siwculatui". Illy lower Iba" I"' Ihnrgedonabni'' 1 capital, a"'' f* I We.con.UU«l i«tock;totnuiiaDl'l oil!.. Tims"" I '.nuniloneoiii "I ll t, stalfiiu'-"' 'I Dkbt. Amount. Charge. .South Sea Debt • - - • 3 per cent. _ Annuities • • - — _ New Annuities . . _ _ 17S1 . . . . _ DfUt to Hank . . . . _ Bank Annuities, 1726 ... — Consolidated Annultios . . . _ Ueduced Annuities • • • . — Annuities, 181H .. . . . 3) per cent, _ Iteduced .... — _ New - . . . _ Annuities •• • . 8 per cent. British Debt '- .... IrlsliUebt - • ... Long Annuities, expire IH-V) .... _ _ JHCT .... _ various dates • ... _ Life .... . Total Payments - ... . Managemwt ...... £ t. d. 3,662,784 8 6i 3,497,879 2 7 2,460,830 2 10 523,100 11,01.5,100 82A,333 lA 857,708,6.57 7* 12A,U28,428 3 4 10,«>3A,868 16 4 :66,228,3A0 1 11 146,944,491 . 6 8 427,088 11 4 £ *. a. 32,988,322 8 0« 1, 176.918 17 7| 728,857,902 11 IJ 33,417,286 8 3 ^02,275,W8 19 4J 24,lh fi,ll>7,'^01 rrerenlire H«r»lce, f-anil Milt \flyiMo tiiiard. Revenue Police, Ho|» 308,906 Crulura and Hailwur Veueli 570,189 8,058,1711 Wliw 1,«46/)A7 8Umpa . - • 151,813 AueiMcd Taiei . 809,81 i3 Huffar and MoIomcn 4,893,6114 Other Ordinary RcTcnue* Superannuation and iither AU • 58,813 Ten Cofflw 684,979 lowanc-ca Total Rcrenue 374,401 8,848,.'>IIO TolMcco and SnufT 3,MI,ai« Puhllc DrU. 87,8.'i|,198 Interest of Permanvnt Debt - Tt'Tmtnalile Annuiliea 84,818,580 4,183,966 Buiur Ctmm U1,6C3 113,907 Management 13.3,566 88,530,118 300,8'« Intereit on Exchequer flilli Total jMil 780,'J88 nn i\ ^ i A 1 * Currnntt and Raiili.'. 3!)t9''>itOlO Com 1S«,760 ClTll Llil -l>ri.j Purje i Cotton Wool and Nhc ''a tin. Salarie* at the Haui.ehuld, ported 7'^MIi Tradesmen's Uilta The AHowanres to the serer.il .171,800 Hllk «M,874 llranchea ofthu Koval Kanillv, and to his itoyal llluhneitA HIdeiandSklni 61,47» LeoiNilil Prince of Cultuurff liinw Klne.>fthellel|!lan«) ■ The Ixird LieulenAiit of Ire- .3OS,00t) Paper S41,78R Innd's Kstablihlnnen' 33,869 Soap . . . 1 810,813 The Halaries and [''ipemea of the lliiUfteK of P.irlta>iient (in- 1 Candim nnd 1'allow 183,669 chidinK Trlnting) Civil Ileiiartmentt. Including 143,195 Coali, sen>liome 7,fl3» Superannuation AlIow,incw • Olher Annuities, Pensions, and 460,064 UlaM 68S,8.W on the Consolidated Fund^ Bricki, Tiles, and Slate* 418,.-3i and on the (iross Revenue 3.'>7,5;6 Timber l,S7ie,fil8 PcMlona Civil l,i>t 681 Total Civil (fowmmcnt • 1 ,674,185 A'.u* -mt S8i,ISfi Jmlic. Courts of Justice 454, ')08 Ei-l.-i Lictii.'.PH l,(>'i1,W!i Police, and Criminal Proae- cutiona 568,191 Mlsreilanemu nulicH of Cus- tutna and Excise Total CtutaniH and EicIm - 1,596,366 Corrt^ction Total .Justice Dililitmatie. Foreign Ministers' Salaries and Pensions 465,666 9,(l'«,403 188.088 1,488,359 - 3f ,874/95 Consuls' Salariea anil Sui>er- Stamp; annuation Allowances 148,606 Defds and other InAtninicnis - l/i63,7!» Disbursements, Outfll, Ate. Total DiplomaUc ■ 68,198 .39'i,S.W Prnbato and Leftacln 2,1112,831 l-'tircri, A.— ytfleiiivei Charge '*"">tNon.cirectivei Charge *,ir,x,Ml 1 I,«uranc.{J,|;ri„e . . UillsofKxchan^JIanberii'NoteN !.'Vl,8.'ifi 891,704 734,109 8,558,1(81 Total Army N'.r. f Effkitivei Charge •'*'» INon-ellective; CharKe 6,815,641 3,(H6,):67 Vtfw&papen and AdTertisements Stofte roiches 311,974 l,473„5(il 494,2>;4 Total NaT 4,580,488 P«t HoTMm Receipt! Sll,8fi8 :)rd- r Effective i Charge nance t N'on-ellective ; Charge Total nnlnance • Tiifnl t*nr..na 1,819,6.33 165,018 lJ,7a0,7,V) 1 173,8M 1,381,681 Other Sump Dntlcs 468,784 1 uiai r orcca Army and Oidnance, Insur- A$WM*tA and Land Taxtt. 7,15,3,753 re«ilon In Canada Bounties, &c. for promoting " .'jOO/XIO I 13,451 Land TaK« 1,181,830 Public Worka '- - '. Paymenta out of the Revenue - 388,'.:i9 i Window. . l,SB'i,«il of Crown l.anda, for Imiirnve. meiita and various Public Servants 801,018 Serrlcc. Post OIHce; Chargea of col- • 144,7.11 Hones 377,477 lection and other ttaymenU - Quarantine and Warehoualng " 676,834 CaiTl8fti-a 418,757 EstablisUmenta Miscellaneous Services not 1.34,531 Do«. . - . 156,800 claiwed under the foregoing Heads - 1,559,048 [ Other AucMed Tatet 878,818 ToUl Eiiienditure . 51,7'80,;47 Poit Office Crown Landi 3,901,085 8,316,878 .3SS,r,18 Surplus Memorandum : • — : : 51.781),-47 Other Revenues and HeMmrces - 318..575 The Amount of Terminable Annuitiea on ,5th January wa» . . . Total Income . 51 ,878,988 4,8)3,173 Eicess of K^iiMfiiditure over In corresponding PerpetuitlM, as estimated by Mr. Finlaison Uillerence incumi|)ortaiit act 'he goods of 1 verimient; pa •Iso txteiuled 1.W9. T/ie. 'iidependcnec i f'f the setts, iiii ill the most tli, «!ertloiis of liL_ and well merit BUOK I. ENGLAND. 359 l.'il.SI.I 374,101 U,S48r^no •iU,«.''1.010 I,674,1M i,48a;iw ,i!n,u« n,;sn,75n I Mm,aon j H4,7S1 I 676,836 1.14 ,i34 1 I,5.'>9,IMH 1 L Sl,7in,747 5l.7il).747 4,SW,1" I ,S3l),fiSl 1 ).. i.461,519 _ the liOKinnlna of I7tia In IHIO, llin AiiKiimt nililinl to' of the iiimilici riilit'il within llin vnar miiiiiintKil, fi nbsorvi'i Mr. I.iiwii, In Ilia viiluitfilii work on lhf> I \m. The rrpfiHtnl qf li'mporarv vmr-lcutt lor tho purpoie of rnlilng ■ largo proportion of the iuppliu within the year, hai been Inlulv mloptml to n grent extent. The moit coniiderahle Impoit of thii kind (luring tho late war wai the pronerty tax. which jircHliiccil iliirhiH tho lait two year« of that war more than flfleen mllllinu per annum, Of the total •imi of ulcvrn hinxIri'iT mllllona i-xpvnded during twunty-thrcu years ttom ... „,|„f ,,pf,n„np„t ,|„i,, „j, 4(;,|(Ki„_(HK)/^,„tl,i,t tl„. nggfpgme for the whole war, to (HO,00(l,n(X)/. \ " a iurprltlng nurn," nbs(irvt'« Mr. l.owe, In hU viilualilii work on the State of F.nHland, to be obtained hy a mode of taxation almutt nnknowu In forelxn iMiiiutrlea, anil carried In former wara to a very llirlted extent among ooraelvea. Durinu earh of the laat two yeara of the war, vln. |h|.| mid INIft, the taxua ralaed from Great llrltaln alone, exclusive of Irelaiiil, eX( dmi aevenly mllllona. anil a loan of forty millions with the alil of excheiiiier bills and other expudlenla, niiiile up the iinpreeedeiited amiiimt of one hundred and twenty iiilllions of annual (lUtlnv. .Since the reatoratlon of peace a very loiialderahlu reduction of taxation ban lieen olfectrd. The whole of the properly tax, part of the aaneaaed taxea, the ilutica on aalt, beer, leather, coala, caiullea, and printed gooiU, Imve been taken olT. In 1H,1H, the nott produce of all tho branches of rcK iiuo had been reduced to 4s,'^lKl,44,'i'„ a auni atlll wllhiml liarallul hi the lliiaiicoa of any other country. X't'Mt. Number of fitriimi ilrrivimj inc3 2,102 1,421 820 239 82 90,209 31, per cent. He. (luced Annultlea Oct,l0.1HiMI |0,(I7H 4fit<3 ll.'KiO 3,41)1 a,ii() 775 455 222 85 32 33,361 3/. ini.iiercent. Ho. iluced Annuitlua ditto (i,iia.i 4..1HI lo,3^l.^ !,!)7H 1,013 428 201 124 39 16 27,167 3(.lii,«. percent. An. nultlea, IHIH . . ditto va IHI! 4H9 I!I3 158 53 40 32 7 7 1,383 4/. 00- cent. Annul* tlca IHJfi . . ditto \,m\ iM l,4HA 431) 200 80 71 29 8 A 4,379 Long Annuities • ditto 11,1)77 1 4,(I0S U.'ilO \, c.ti'li portion of the einpire what mny be considered its proper share of the total rxpeiiditiire. liut the following Table shows how much each contributes to the revenue. Ili'vunuo collected In 1838, In Kngland, Scotland, and Ireland, respectively ; distinguishing the Cuatomi, Dxclae, Ntunipa, Aaaeaaetl Taxes, and Post OHlce. Flacn. Cuiiomi. Ksolat, 11,059,080 4 i.VA.'.va III o l,US2,2Utl 13 8 15,493,310 14 .-1) Hialiipi. Land and Aiaetftcd- Taxn. Poit.office. Total. England Scollanil Ireland Total - £ 1. d 19,592,810 13 r> l,Cli6,:i9S 2 10 1,951,030 8 4 £ 1. d. 0,401 ,88,1 5 549,1177 17 9* 470,199 14 \\\ 7,428,000 17 9i £ a. d. .•1,070,883 15 7 236,379 17 4J £ «. d. 1,989,290 14 5 223,491 1 5i 254,434 18 5 £ 1. d. 42,713,991 12 11) 5,127,874 15 51 4,664,867 li .5} 23,210,881 1 7 3.907,264 12 11^ 2,467,216 14 3i 52,.'i00,734 3 10} 1.5i)R. The euitumt ami t.iciiip form tho two main branches in the collection of the revenue ; the former imposed on goods imporlril, the latter on those produced and manufactured within the country. 'I'liis diviKioii was esMentiully modified by Mr. Pitt, who, finding the excise, survey the most eflectivo and economical, transferred to it wine, tea, spirits, and tobacco, the iimst productive branchus of imported )(oods. Under a late parliamen ary commission liowover, those branches have been a^^iiin transferred to the customs, and the original dis- tinction of the two liruiiehcs lias been cumpleteiy re-established ; it being considered that the new regulations introduced into the Hoard of Customs will obviate former objections. Under the same coniniission great exertions have been made to regulate and economise all tlie revenue departments. Those of the three kingdoms have been incorporated together, and each department ruled by one general board resident in London. Among the most important accommodation* to trade, established by Mr. Pitt, is the bonding system, by which tlie Koods of merchants are warehoused under the joint custody of the proprietor and of go- vernment J payment of duty not being demanded until a sale is effected. This has been also extended to liritlsh spirits, I,')!)!). 2'Ae navy is the force on which Great Britain mainly relies for nriaintaining her own in(ie|icndence iind her ascenduney over foreign nations. By it she has acquired the sovereignty of the seas, and the advantages which that sovereignty confers, of securing her possessions in the most distant niiarters of the globe, of protecting her commerce, and sustaining the I'Eertions of her arinies during war, 'I'lie achievements by which she has won this arduous and well merited asceiidei'cy arc itlike honourable to the heroes who commanded her fleets, Aa4 ,.'^.. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) 1.0 ^^l I.I 2.5 1^ m Sf 144 "^ us 140 1^ m 1= 1= ^ % < 6" ► vV# 7 Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WIST MAIN STRUT WiBSTER.N.Y. MSIO (716) •72-4503 3«(> DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. •nd to the brave men who fought under them ; especially in the late war, when she lriuni|ihcd over the niivieN of Europet united under the direction of France. The match- l>:u valour of Uritiiih Ncamen, diiiplayed on that and on other occasions, is the more tu Ih) admired, since a large proportion of them are procured by means which only extreme necessity Can Justify ; wo allude to impressment, the only mode of conscription practised in tikis country, if ounscriution that can be called, which is attended with circumstances su violent and irroguliur. It appears, however, to have been discontinued except in urgent cases, when a sudden augmentation of the naval force is required. During the most active period of the Inst maritime war, the number of seamen in employment amounted to 140,000; and there were in commission 160 sail of the line, and 150 frigates, with 30,000 marines, Uefore the termination of the contest, however, such was the humbled condition of the foreign navies opposed to us, that our superiority was maintained with a much ■mailer force. The vote fur the «ea service of 1H15 was limited to 55,000 seamen and 15,000 marines. After the ratification of peace, the establishment was rapidly reduced; in 1817 it amounted to no mure than 1S,000 seamen and 6000 marines. This number, however, was considered too small to mointain the proper authority of Great Britiiin, in the then disturbed state of nlfairs on the Continent. The estimate for 1839-40 comprehended 9.'),165 seamen, and <)000 marines. The pay and wages of men and officers amounted to 1,0H5,7(XV. ! subsistence to 54(>,b''J5/. ; Admiralty Office, 113,900/.; scientific establish, mcnts, '.'(>„'>97A ; naval yards, hos)>italN, &c., at home, 468,000/. ; the same abroad, 27,430/. ; naval stores 856,600/. ; new works and repairs, 159,990/. ; freights, &c., 217,000/. ;— these, with some smaller items raised the estimate for effective services to 3,709,300/. : the non- effbetive consisted of half-pay, 78'J,200/. ; pensions to disabled seamen, widows, meritorious officers &o., 706,(XX)/. ; —making the grand total 5,197,500/. 1600, The Britiih (trmy always fought with glory, and maintamed a reputation for valour rarely equalled and never surpassed by that of any other nation. Early in the last century, under Marlborough, it lo«ik the lead in the great European confederacy, and was mainly in- •trumental in luunbling the overgrown alarming power of Louis XIV. In subsequent wars on the Conti'* lit. Great Urituin fought as an auxiliary, and often against unequal numlK>rs. Her .oops never lost their reputation; but the cause in which they were en- gaged, however meritorious, was often unfortunate. This ill success particularly marked their ctturis in the outset of the French revolutionary war, when the levies en masse, called fortli by the republican government, constituted a force too numerous active, impetuous, and enthusiastic to be resisted by the regular armies of Europe. So distressing were the reverses of the Uritish arms at that period, and so mortifying when contrasted with our naval glories under Howe, Duncan, Jervis, and Nelson, as to create a very general opinion that Great liritain ought to reliniiuish further exertions on the Continent, and reserve her resiHirees exclusively for markune warfare. The campaign in Egypt rekindled the hopes of military glory ; but a considerable period elapsed ere they could be strengtliencd by opportunities of more extended warfare. At length the patriotic and inflexible resistance of the Spanish nation to the foulest usurpation on scord, opened as fair a field as could be desired for an army comparatively little inured to active warfare ; — a peninsuls where the land forces of a power holding the supremacy of the sea could rely on tlie co. operation and support of their fleets, and whera an invading enemy might be harassed in small engagements, until the development of liis tactics rendered it less difficult to defeat him in greater Imttles. The campaigns in tlie Peninsula, and the unexpectedly rapid success of the northern alliance, gradually drew on Great Britain to the full production of her military energies on the Continetit ; and they terminated the war by a victory at Waterlou, under the Duke of Wellington, which may rank among the most brilliant and memorable achievenieiits of the British arms. The military force of the nation, at this time, amo'inted tu *J(X),(K)() regular troops exclusive of obout 100,000 embodied militia, a large amount nf local militia and volunteers, to which might also Im added a number of regiments em- p1oye«i in the territories of tlie East India Company, and in its pay. As the militia, how- ever, did not leave the kingdom, and a great part of the regular troops was dispersed in colonies aiul giirrisons, the force in Flanders, at the outset of this memorable campaign, scarcely am(mnted to 50,000 men ; forming, indeed, a central host, round which rallied an e<|ually numerous force composed of Germans, Dutch, and Flemings. After the abdication and exile of tjio enemy of Europe, which were the consequences of that decisive victory, a rapid reduction of our military establishment was effected. Tlie militia were disem- boilied; the regular force was reduced, in 1B17, to 92,000 men, and in 1819 to 69,000. Various eiroumsianees led to successive augmentations; and in 1839 the estimates were for 10<),800 mei\ ; of whom 92,640 were infinitry of the line, 5700 foot guards 1300 dragoon guards 10,580 dragoons. This was iu(le|)endent of 20,460 men employed in India, and paid by the Conqmny. The charge fur these forces was 6,199,800/. ; but of this sum S,.'iH7,0t)0/, eonsisted of half pay (598,500/.), retired allowances (177,000/.), pensions (1, 45 9,000/,), and other charges consequent on the former immense establishment. Of tli# total •i|Hin«e, ;i,li<9,U00/. wu for pay and daily allowances; 89,000/. annual allowancei Book T. ENGLAND. m 'or, when she The match. I is the more I only extreme sn practised in 'cuinstanccs so cept in urgent he most active : amounted to ss, with 30,000 ibled condition I with a much 90 seamen and lly reduced ; in This number, t Britain, in the ) comprehended rs amounted to ntific establish' broad, 27,430/. ; 7,000/. ;— these, 300/. : the non- >ws, meritorious tation for valour the last century, i was mainly in- In subsequent against unequal :h they were en- ticu'arly marked I en masse, called ;tive, impetuous, tressing were the itrasted with our ' general opinion ent, and reserve pt rekindled the be strengthened lexible resistance a field as could _ a peninsula, rely on the co- be harassed in lifficult to defeat idly rapid success \ttction of her ory at Waterlou, and memorable time, amo'intcd jlarge amount of regiments ein- ;he militia, how- as dispersed in pble campaign, 'liich rallied an ir the abdication decisive victory, :ia were disem- 819 to 69,000. estimates were Js, 1300 dragoon Id in India, and lut of this sum /, ), pensions ^blishment. Of mual allowancM to field officers, %c. ; 32,600/. agency; 309^600/. clothing; Recruiting, lI3,470iL; pro- visions, 319,900. ; forage, 30,000/. ; performance of divine service, 10,870/, ; medicines, &c., I'^^'^^O/. Postage and stationery, 11,000/^; barrack libraries, 2000/.; regimental schools, ]4.?0/. The Royal Military College costs 17,900/., but is defrayed by the sub- scription of the cadets. The volunteers, so numerous during the war, comprise now only 8 few corps of yeomanry, estimated to csot 79,000/. 1 601 . The lawi of England, ettahlished during ten centuries of legislation, constitute the most txtensive, if not the most perfect, system of jurisprudence which human wisdom has ever con- strveied. The municipal law, justly estimated as the most valuable inheritance of the jiectile, is divided into two kinds, the unwritten or cummon law ; and the written or statute law. Tlie common law derives its force from long and immemorial usage ; and its evidences exist in the records of the several courts of justice, as well as in books of reports and judicial decisions. It includes not only the system by which the ordinary courts of justice are guided and directed ; but certain portions of the ancient civil and canon laws which are used in the ecclesiastical courts, the military courts, the court of admiralty, and the courts of the two universities. The written laws are those made by the king, lords, and commons, in parliament assembled ; they are judicially called Statutes, and are either de- claratory of the common law, or remedial of some of its defects. The statutes are also dis- tinguished as either gei:eral or special, public or private. 1 603. The high Court of Parliament, independently of its legislative functions, is the supreme court of judicature in the kingdom. The House of Lords exercise jurisdiction in civil causes upon appeals or writs of error from the interior courts, and in criminal questions, when brought before them by presentment of the House of Commons, in the form of an impeachment. 1603. The high Court of Chancery derives its name from the j>tdge who presides in it, and uho is called the Lord High Chancellor. It has two distinct tribunals: the one ordinary, being a court of common law ; the other extraordinary, being a court of equity. From the ordinary or legal court issue all original writs that pass the great seal, all commissions of charitable uses ; us also of bankruptcy, idiotcy, and lunacy : for such writs it is always open to the subject, who may there demand and have them, ex debitojustitia. In the extraordinary court, or court of equity, the chancellor exercises a most extensive jurisdiction, determining causes beyond the reach of the ordinary tribunals, and others in which reason and justice require that the rigorous application of the rules of common law should be tnitigated. These decisions emanate from the judgment of the lord chancellor alone. The affairs of this court, however, having been found too extensive for one man to execute, an assistant judge has been appointed, pursuant to an act passed in the 53 Geo. III. He is called Vice-chancellor of England, and has power to hear and determine all causes depending in the court ; all his decrees are valid and effectual, subject, however, to reversal by the lord chancellor, and not to be enrolled until signed by him ; nor are they to discharge, re- verse, ur alter any decree of the lord chancellor or of the Master of the Rolls. The vice-chancellor holds bis office during good behaviour. The Master of the Rolls, who ranks next to him in dignity, and holds his office for life, acts in a judicial capacity as assistant to the lord chancellor, and also hears and determines causes on certain ap- pointed dayf) ; but his orders and decrees cannot be enrolled until signed by the lord chan- cellor, who has the power to discharge or alter them. The Masters in Chancery are twelve in number, including the Master of the Rolls, who is their chief, and also including the Accountant- General, They are assistants and associates of the lord chancellor and the Master of the Rolls, and sit with them in court by turns, two at a time. To the masters in chancery are directed references touching accounts, and matters of practice, upon which they make their reports. They also administer oaths to those who swear to answer ; and take affidavits and acknowledgments of deeds and recognisances. The increase of business in this conrt has of late years been astonl. hing. In 1756, the property of suitors in chancery amounted to only 2,264,000/. ; in 1776, to 6,602,000/. ; in 1796, to 14,550,000/. ; in 1816, to 31,950,000/. ; and in 1826, to more than 40,000,000/. Formerly each master in chan- cery kept in his hands all monies paid into court in the causes referred to him ; but to remedy certain inconveniences thence arising to suitors, an act of parliament was passed appointing an accountant-general. On the passing of this act, the masters made up their accounts with him, and thenceforward have paid into the Bank of England all monies remaining in their hands, to be placed to his account, and have also transferred to him all securities which they held in trust for suitors. The accountant-general cannot, however, meddle with the actual receipt and custody of the suitors* money and effects but only keep the account with the bank. The governor and company of the Bank of England are answerable for such monies, and not the accountant-general. 1604. T/ie Court {\t King's Bench is the supreme court of common law in the kingdom. It takes cognisance iHitli of crhnioal and civil causes ; the former In what U called the crown side or crown office ; the latter in the pica tide uf tlie court, wl;«rc, liy a Action of law, actions are brought which may render a defendant answer- able to the King as well at to the injured party. The Court of King's Dench is also a conrt of appeal. Into which may be removed, by writ of error, detcrminatloni of all the courts of record In England. The court conslttt of a chief justice, and three puisnt judges, who are, by their office, sovereign consenraton of the pcMc and supreme coroners of the laud. S6S DKSt'UII'TIVE OEOORAPHY. Part III. I60S. The Court qf Common Pleat tikket fugniiantit nf all et»tl arUoni depending between $ulifect and lut- ■ iiil (>('"' ' ■ •■•• .. . ■ • of the p«rll»i r Ant) lli leie court* liAVti Dtlitli' three Dui'mifjudgei. feel. Han* queitlnna, however, mny, by W$m tHmtrlv«ne«i, tto brought Into thia or Into the Court of Klniri Bench at the option of the parllei \ una t\w MnuUllon thui excited h conildcred to be one chief cauu of the eminence to which theie court* liAVti atlitlntMli The Court of Common Pleaa coniliti of a chief juitice. and 166a The Court qfSxckequer hniJm'MMiim ItMh In low itnd enully. In It are tried all queatlona relp ini to the reTCnue, and, by Actluna of Uw. viirluui elvll HCilunt and tioraonal suiti. The Judgea are four ^ ' chief baron and three puitnt barona, mn. Trial by jury, an iuatltutUm cnevAl wllh th« nrlKin nf llie conitltution/anil Justly valued by the iienple aa the bulwark of their liborllea, li eni|il(iyts rolulorum, who is generally the lord lieutenant of the county, nominated by the kliiji's sign umtiual. Tliiia the sovereign authority extends through just gradations to every part of the nuirHcal mliric, and tierpotuatcl the characters Impressed upon it by the wiadom and virtue of Ita immnrtal founder Skct. v. Pnklutihe Induitry, I6I0. The productive induttry i\f Knuland, at thU mumcnt, fur surpasses that of any other country, either ancient or moiWrn. Ilur Ibbrici oluthu the most distant nations ; her vessels travc le alike the polar anil Qtiuntoriul ituaNi This pre-eminence has been attained too without any sacrifice of national «|)lrit niid enurity ; and the issue of the late war fully re- futed the a.spersion thrown on thti liritUli, itM a mere nation of shopkeepers. 161 !• During the early periml* nf Ace hitliiry, Eti^tlaiid could not be said to have attained to a state of prosperity. I'liv nutliiiti iiKk'i'di was always brave, but poor; the ground was rudely cultivated by aorfh d^pentWllt on tlivir feudal lords ; its wool was purchased by the Flemings, and returned in ii inuiuifitutiiri'd stnte for the clothing of the indolent natives. The downfall of the feudul powtir, tliu civil and social advantages which the people acquiri;d under the last Ilenriuo, and, almvu nil, the Npirit of enterprise diffused among them under Elizabeth, gave a groat impulMi to viiininvri'e and Industry. It was not, however, till the era of the Uevolution, that the natliiit uiilyrvd upon that grand career of prosperity, in which ahe has ever since prooeeded with nvovlvrated activity. 1612. Agriculture, as the grvnttuit Riiil tiio mciits in machinery have enabled the manulhcturer to produce theu) stuflli almost equally well from snorter wool. The short wool is fitted for cloth and hats ; but all that is produced in England is of secondary flne- DMi. Efforts were mndo about the close of the last century, especially by George III., to introduce the merino breed from Spain, and not without success ; but the flesh, which in this country is the most valuable part, being in this species bad, and incapable of Improvement, the farmers gave It up, and devoting themselves to the improvement of the carcase, have allowed the wool even to degenerate, though the increased quantity i> iuppoaed to Indemnify them. The best short wool Is that of Suatex (Southdown) and Norfolk ; the beat long wool that of lilncoln. According to Measrs. Luccock and Hubbard, the number of ahort-woolled aheep throughout England, in 1828, amounted to about 14,850,000, that of long-woollcd to 4,150,000; and the pro- duce was 204,000 packs of long, and 120,000 packs of short wool ; to which might be added 09,000 packs of lamb's wool, and 9000 for Wales : making In all 463,000. Wool, before it Is used, must be tcrted, or divided into p.irts of dilTerent quality. The best English wool Is sorted into ten parts, of varying fineness. That formni Into cloth is flrrt carded, and after being spun and woven is subjected to the Iblling mill, which gives it tho proper consistence. The long wool, to be formed Into worsted or stuff, is acted upon by red-hot iron combs, which bestow Its peculiar texture. The defect of English wool renders It necessary to import a large quantity from abroad, which, after being discouraged for some time by a high duty, is now allowed at the rate of 2d. to Id. per lb. Thelleecechlrllyvalued is that of the merino, long confined to Spain; and Spanish wool, In the early part of this century, was Introduced to the e;;tent of 6,000,000 lbs. annually, but In 1827 It fell short of 4,000,000 lbs., and In 1837 did not exceed 2,626,000 lbs. It has been supplanted by the wool of Saxony, and other parts of northern Germany, where the merino breed has t>een introduced and propagated with the greatest success. The importation from Germany, which in 1810 was only 778,000 lbs., rose in 1830 to 26,073,000 lbs., and in 1836 to 31,766,000 lbs., though In 1837 it was only 19,700,000 lbs. : New Holland and Van Dlemen's Land in that year fUmlshed 7,060,000 lbs. of very fine wool ; and the supply is increasing. The entire import amounted In 1830 and 1831 to about 32,000,000 lbs. ; In 1836, to 64,000,000 lbs.; but in 1837 to only 42,000,000 lbs. 1621. ne entire produce qf the woollen mamtfacture, and the number of hands employed, has been variously and sometimes extravagantly estimated ; but, by the Judicious calculations of Stevenson and M'Cul- loch, their annual value appears to be 22,SOO,000{. sterling, and the persons employed between 400,000 and 900,000. British woollens are exported to every quarter of the world, chiefly to Germany, to the value. In 1837, of 725,000/. : Netherlands, 410,000/.; Russia, I03,00W.; Portugal, IM.OOW. ; Spain, 36,000/. ; Gibraltar, 47,000/. ; Italy, 178,000/. ; France, 46,000/. ; East Indies and China, 476,000/. ; Brittah America, 892,000/. ; Brl> tish West Indies, 126,000/. ; Foreign ditto, 68,000/. ; United Statea, 1,046,000/. ; Brasll, 605,000/. ; Mexico and Stales of South America, 365,000/. It was exported in the forms of 387,788 pieces cloth ; 23,605 pieces napped coatings, duflfcls, &c. ; 22,9,% pieces kerseymeres; 43,477 pieces balse ; 1,041,036 stuBk or worsted; 1,685,457 yards flannels ; 2,451 ,683 yards blanketing ; 753,964 yards carpeting ; 1 ,051 ,972 yards woollen and cotton mixed ; 74,947 dozens stockings. There were exported also 2,648,000 lbs. of British wool, and 2,514,000 lbs. woollen yam. 169,2. The cotton numufaeture is of much more recent introduction. Although early mention is made of fustians, it appears proved that these were originally woollen imitations of the cotton stuff bearing that name. In 1641, however, a decided mention is made of cotton imported from the Levant through London, and not unfrequently sent abroad in a manufactured state. For a long period the progress of this branch of industry was slow. In 1705, the import was only 1,170,000 lbs. ; abouta hundredth part of the preoent amount. Even in 1760, Dr. Percival estimated the value of the fabric at only 200,0002. Soon after, an extraordinary excitement was raised in the minds of the persons connected with this manufacture, and machines of the most wonderful power were invented by common work- men. Cotton could not be spun in quantity sufficient to supply the looms. In 1767, James Hargreaves, a common Lancashire weaver, invented the spinning Jenny, by which at first 8, and finally 120 spindles were moved bjr^i single spinner. Hargreaves became exposed to the blind persecution of the working people employed in this operation ; was obliged to flee to Nottingham ; and, to the disgrace of the nation, died in poverty. Richard Arkwright, a barber of Nottingham, invented the water-twist, or " perpetual twist," spinning frame, in which the whole process was performed by the machine, and the workman had only to supply the material, and watch its progress. Arkwright struggled with accumulated obstacles in his own ignorance of mechanism, the difficulty of procuring advances for the purposes of experiment, and the persecutiyn of the mob ; but at length he triumphed over all, and raised a large fortune by his invention. This frame, however, was not fitted for the finer manufactures. Mr. Samuel Crompton, in 1775, produced the machine called the muk, a combination of the two preceding, which soon superseded both in the finer and more valuable articles. Mr. Crompton did not take out a patent ; but near the close of his life, more than thirty years after his invention had been carried into full effect, he applied to parliament for remuneration, when it was stated, that his machine set at work 4,000,000 spindles, employed 70,000 spinners, and 150,000 weavers ; worked up 40,000,000 lbs. of cotton ; and that the building and machinery connected with it had cost between 3,000,000f. and 4,000,000/. He received the miserable pittance of 500021 1623. That ntachinery thoM weave a$ wett a$ spin, was necessary to consummate the triumph of art. This was accomplished by the Rev. Mr. Cartwright, a clergyman of Kent, who, seeing a machine play chess, saw no reason why one might not also weave cloth. He accordingly invented one by which cloth was woven ; but the first trial made at Doncaster was unsuccessful as to profit. The scheme was revived at Glasgow ; and notwithstanding some abortive attempts, it made progress : but its introduction into Lancashire was slow und gradual. Two thousand power-looms, which existed in 1818, were reduced to one thousand in the following year ; and an impression prevailed that cottons could be woven cheaper by the hand. Within the lost few years, however, the system of power-loom weaving has been adopted to an immense extent ; Mr. R. H. Greg estimates that there are in Britain H66 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGUAPHY. Pa»t III. 80,000, absorbing IO,niX),OOOli of fixed and 5,000,000/. of floating capital, employing 160,000 operativus, and workinf{ up 124,800,000 lbs. of cotton. 16'J4. The iteam-engme, the moving power, the greatest of all these discoveries, remaiiu to be mentioned IMacliinps moved by horses and water, originally employed in manufac- turing and other processes, were cumbrous, expensive, and often unmanageable Tlie steam-engine, brought to perfection by Watt, became at once the moving power of all this rauchincry, and the principal cause to which its vast results may be attributed. Ifi'iA. The cotton moot imported into Britain, which in 17H1 little exceeded K.OOO.nOOIbi., roie In I7i» >. 3»,000,000i in 1809, to 03,000,000; in 1817, to 126,000,000 ; in 1831, to 280,000,n00i and In IKir, to 407,000(100 The flneit ia tliiit callud Sea Uland, a name jiven to what !• grown on the coast of GeorKln and c'aruilna' The bowed Gcnrgia, produced in the Interior, is not of equal value. Next to the Sea Island rank the Weti India and Brntll. The common sort from the East Indies is the worst, and only use89.'.<)n/., mixed goods, 2,495,000/. Notwithstanding the removal of the prohibitory duties on the import.ttlon of foreign silks, the British manufacture has main- tained Its'ground, and gone on increasing. While the average importation of raw and thrown silk In the five years eudlng 1818 was only 1 ,286,000 lbs., In 1837 it was 5,310,000 lbs. ; of which 3,062,000 lbs. were from the Book I. ENGLAND. 367 ■ chief lource of the to the welfare of ne» WBi conslderabljr im- rer» Into thli country, employa about w.mw number occupictl In ii f, came again into use B wealth. The entire nOO,00(W.. of which, iu KM. Notwithstanding lanufacture has ma^n- thrown .Ilk III the flw molbi. were from the Eut Indlei and China t 1,430,000 Ibi. ttom France) 39l,00Qlbi. firom Italy i 383,000 Ibi. from Turkey. The eiports amounted in 1837 to 503,6001. They were to all parti of the world, but chiefljp North America and the West Indiei — The linen manitfachire is that In which England la most deficient i Ibr though ahe Is sup> posed to produce the value of l,0(Xl,OOW. a year, thia does not supersede the nocessity of large Imports from ikotland and Ireland. Of late, the elegant manWacture of lace has been carried to great perfection by means of bobbin net frames, invented in 1790, perfected by Mr. Heathcoat .n IHO), and brought into general opera- tion about 1830. By this manufacture a value of l60,000f. In silk and Sea Island cotton Is wrought Into lace. citlmated, according to Mr. M'Culloch, at 1,890,000/., and employing 308,000 persons. 1639. The following list of the mills and persons employed in each branch of manufac- turc is drawn up from a voluminous Heport on this subject, presented by the Factory Com- irissioiicrs in the beginning of 1839. CounUei. Cotton. Woollen. Wontsd. Flai, btlk. Mllli. Panont, MIIU. Pmons, Mills. I'enons. MIIU. , Penou. MUli. Ptnoni. Lancaster York Chester ... Derby - Stafford ... Nottingham Leicester ... Gloucester Worcester Somerset ... Wilts - Devon ... Dorset ... Hants - . MIdillesex Surrey ... F-isex Crmherland Other English counties Wales England ... Scotland ... Ireland . - 1,135 169 154 85 15 13 a ' li 3 " 13 6 5 307,144 14,038 38,860 10,463 3,078 1,580 344 38 530 197 " 1,849 318 1,010 101 606 15 3 • • ' 96 9 30 50 39 3 3 4 4 1 14 19 135 6,574 38,060 338 196 " 6,515 693 3,133 4,713 1,610 58 14 30 70 13 379 430 980 13 348 36 6 l,34Si 36,764 1 51 116 38 194 75*7 16 91 i • ■ 8 " 13 3 18 3 3 1 9 14 4,373 11319 98 141 487 io"i 686 85 64 41 510 1,593 31 16 93 30 11 4 3 10 34 6 3 fi 3 1 7 35 7,718 1,084 11,853 3,316 1,494 33 70 1,438 3,105 350 305 333 333 164 66 1,441 1,411 1,613 193 34 378,348 38,576 6,411 1,181 113 31 51,785 400 5,076 - - 1,593 1 . . 39,303 174 - 183 40 19,304 17,897 ;3,537 359 1 33,381 5 763 I'oited Empire 1,839 330,335 1,374 { 58,454 400 i 30,303 397 50,738 ' 364 | 34,044 Total for England .... Scotland . • . ■ Ireland ... Mills Fmoni. 8,577 493 95 411,931 59,913 31,631 ToU 1 - - - 4,164 493,864 1630. fn the manitfaclure of earthmware and porcelain, England has of late made vast advances, and brought its various products to a high degree of beauty and elegance. Burslem In StaSbrdshire had, for cen. lurles, been noted for its fabrication of a coarse kind of ware, which, in the last 300 years, was gradually ex. lendetl ; but it was reserved for Mr. Wedgwood tu carry this art to perfection by a full combination of elegance ind cheapness. Fine white clay from the south-western counties, and grouncl flint, are the chief materials of ibii celebrated ware, which bears the name of its Inventor. Burslem, with Mr. Wedgwood's seat of Etruria, hai now become the centre of n long range of villages, spread over a district which bears the name of the Volierlcs. The white ware of Derby and the porcelain of Worcester, though on a smaller scale, are still finer pTdduciiuns. The latter is composed of a mixture of 13 dllRirent materials, and each cup passes through 33 bands. Earthenware pays no duty, so that Its amount cajnot be officially ascertained ; but it is estimated by Mr. M'Culloch at about 3,300,000<. a year, of which a value of 563,000/. Is exported. Ifj3l . Although hides and leather have never been ranked among the national staples, their amount must, notwithstanding, be very extensive. Hides are imported from all quarters of the world ; the entire quantity in m^ was 3H,0(,0 cwt., besides about 3,400,000 skins, value l,005,00a'. The number of hides tanned, or otherwise worked up, Is estimated by Mr. M'Culloch iit 65,000,000 lbs., which at 1>. 6d per lb., will be worth 4.A;.^ooo/. ; and as the value of the finished article is supposed to be at least three times that of the material, it ,O0fl(. Soap. — 'Vbe manufacture, in IH37, was 145,000,000 lbs., which, at 7Jrf., would be 4,.'ai,000/. Distilled liquors or spirits, too, though thry produce a revenue of 2,000,000/., are neither equal In quality nor amount to those of the sister countries of Scotland and Ireland, whoso produce, if It had not been excluded by national jealousy, would probably by this time have driven that of England out of the market. The quantity distilled in tlic I wo years 1836 and iS37 nveraif'Hl 7,.'M10,000 gallons. ifSi. Mines form one of the moat copious sources of the wealth of England. Those brilliant substances Indeed, which have been Identified with wealth Itself, — gold, silver, diamonds, pearls, — can be oltained only in exchange for the produce of her Industry. But the substantially usellil metals and minerals, those which aObiil the instruments of manufacture and are subservient to the dally purposes of life, are now drawn from the earth more copiously here than in any other counrry. Her most valuable metals are iron, copper, and tin i her principal minerals are cool and salt. Mt DESCRIPTIVE OEOUllAPHY. I'art III. 1634. Iron, tliu mjtvriul of so important '• clam of manufacture, alioundi in England particularly in WuIch, Staffordshire, and Derbyshire. While it was supposed, liowuver,' that the blast furnaces could l>e composed only of charcoal, the limited and always di- minishing supply of wood depressed the produce, and even threatened to annihilate it. In the middle of the last century, the iron made in England from Afty new furnaces did not exceed 1 7,000 tons. It was then found, however, that, principally by the operation of thv steam-engine, furnaces filled with coke might be heated to the same degree as those uf charcoal, and the inexhaustible supply of coal might be employed in bringing the iron ininv^ into value. Hence, in 1788, they yielded above (j8,(XK} tons, of which three fourths weru smelted in coke furnaces. The increased production has l>een astonishingly rapid. In 1796, it amounted to 125,000 tonai in 1806, to 2.50,000 tons; in 1820, to 690,000 tons. It is now supposed to be about 800,000 tons, valued at 7,000,000{., and employing 22(),()0U workmen. The export in 1838 consisted of 128,715 tons bar iron; 13,207 bolt und rod i 48,554 pig ; 14,942 cast ; 545 wire ; also iron wrought into the forms of anchors, grapnels, &0., 2849 tons ; hoops, 12,842 ; nails, 6692; others, 24,381. There were also (!!),'! tons old iron, and 2946 unwrought steel. The value of the whole was declared at 2,5;10,0U()/. There is also a small import, chiefly of Swedish iron for steel, valued at 220.000/, 163A. Copper, alio, has rlien to Importance in the courie or the lait hair century. It Is rounU chirlly In Cornwall, to th« amount. In 1833, or 1 1 ,!)47 torn, and li curried thence to Swaniea, to In imnlted with tho mil nr North Walei, which itaeir produced 13'i() turn or copper. That of Dpvon wo* 'Ml ton> i Anglciey, 7ii.i . Staflbrdfhtre, [!)2; In all, 14,449 tona, which, at Wl. per ton, will be 1,300,410/. Thtt cximrl. In IKIs, was 147,173 cwt. ; or which, unwrought, 136.3M ; aheets, niiili. &c., 102,901 ; wire, 69 ; otlicr forma, UI1I7 ; coin olO, The value was declared at 1,22I,00W. About Ml.OUOcwt. were imported, of which 1 in.lWO cwt. «i>ri' smelted In the United Kingdom. 1636. Tin, a rare and peculiar metal, is found only in Cornwall and part of Devon, So early waa it known, that we find the British Islands first recognised by its name, nnd it is enumerated among the articles with which the Carthaginians supplied tho markets of Tyre. As Cornwall, with the exception of the Indian island of Banca, is the only tract known to produce tin in large quantities, there is a considerable export to most countrii'i of Europe, particularly France and Italy. The produce of the mines in 1831 was 81,622 cwt., which, at 3/. 10s., would be worth 285,600/. The cxpoit in 1838 amountvd to 25,085 cwt. British tin, besides which 30,723 cwt. had been imported, chiefly from Sin- gapore ; but of this, 29,033 cwt. were re-exported. 1637. Lead is found in Cumberland, Derbyshire, and Northumlicrland, to the su|)|)osed amount of about 45,000 tons annually ; which, at 201. per ton, will be worth 900,00(V. In the year ending the 5th of January, 1839, the British lead exported was 9404 tons, value 154,100f. Of this there was, pig and rolled, 7.350 tons; litharge, 459; red lead, ,!m ; white lead, 773 ; lead ore, 278. There had been imported 6260 tons, of which aiH9 were re-exported. 1 638. Coal is the most valuable of all the mmeral substances from which Britain derives her prosperity. This precious product, which exists in almost inexhaustible quantities in the counties of Northumberland, Derby, and StaRbrd, and in that of Glamorgan in Suiilh Wales, may be regarded as the main support of the whole system of British production. It fuses the metals, produces the steam which sets the machinery in motion, and is, inilevd, iustrumental in bringing almost every substance into a useful and merchantable furni. liy superseding also the necessity of extensive plantations for fuel, it enables a much creator proportion of the soil to be devoted to cultivation. The Northumberland and Durliinn Held has been estimated at 732 square miles, the South Wales field At 1200; which, nlloiviiifsfor the average depth, will, it is calculated, be sufficient to supply all England for 1 70(1 or '.'(XX) years. At all events, it seems certain that she is secure for many centuries against anj' de- ficiency. The mines in South Wales are equally abundant. Mr. M-Culluch reckons tin- entire quantity consumed in Great Britain at above 24,000,000 tons, besides more than 2,000,000 sent to Ireland and abroad. The oppressive and unequal tax on coal importtnl into London has now been removed. In 1838, the total quantity shipped was 7,I!)(),'i:l^ tons; of which, from the Tyne and Wear, 4,628,000; South Wales, 1,228,300; Wliitv- haven, 395,000. The export was 1,313,700 tons, chiefly to France, Holland, Germnnr, Denmark, British America, and the United States. The imports into London in 18;|'8 amounted to 2,582,770 tons, brought by 7500 vessels. 1639. Qftall, an Indlapeniable necoaaarjr or lire, and an article of eaaentlal use In the flihorloa, llrtliilii fortunately posieiies an immenie supply. Her stores of coal would enable her to procure It to any xitnit from sea-water ; but the finest and moat valuable kind la the rock salt found at Northwich and MIdiliowicli, in the county or Cheater. It ia drawn from mines and rrom brine apringa, Imth or which were dlioivorni only 140 yeara ago, on the estate of Mr. Marbury. As these were worked, new veins worn always IramI, till the abundance proved such, as to remove all alarm of exhaustion. The salt, at first ctiarse, imil or the colour of augar-candy, is refined by Ixing boiled along with the brine of the apringa, and la then called white salt. Till of late, rock salt was burdened with the enormous duty of \ht. n bushel: but tliia iiu l)een taken oir. In IRS.'i, the produce of these mines, carried down tho Weaver to Liverpool, umuiiiitwl tii KM.AOO tons of white, and 6l,.'iOO of rock salt. Mr. M'Culloch estimatca the interna! cor-'>iii|iti(in ut 177,000 tons. About 10,000,000 of bushels, or 280,000 tons, are exported, chiefly to North Anu i, the Ne- therlandi, and Kuaaia. 1640. Qoat itonc /or building Is not to bu found in many parts of England. Tho Portland and Ihc Batli flUoon And Hnnii WuHll'ork JtrtruMlAItt • OinH Jinil c'onper Buitmuid (nt-tw 1 wis VM,\m, die. i'«liXt IMery,.Vc. . I TuMniitl Yam ^hfnwarv - Tnh, Kctrlnin iHu * . I jjvdm will Culler; ilm and Ntwl I ,IhiI itntt StuA JnthtT I lemx j riiTNd A»tl Hnial I Vwn Whhinmi, Ac. pntrn'Ooiouri ffliif.Jfwtllcry, &c. Nft . . Wl Mmmfjicfuroi !>«|i JihlCaiiillw Tiii.untnHiiiht [ ri.UB.JItX. . mooi V,>m ' Uuiufirinrcs ' Htwlm.j^c. I AllotKm I'AkT 111. I* in England, )se\)!i tons I at ■2„'>;I0,00(V, 0.00(M. t li founil chirty In inlted with Iho civil It I Angloinv, 7x;i ; iport. In IKlH, wna rorina, ably, but a small proportion of that which circulates through England both within and without. Her exports and her import*, and Avr internal trade, arc all on a scale of equal magnitude. liU'J. The txjtortt of Britain conaiat almost wholly of her manufactured produce; for grain and other parts of the produce of land have been prevented only by prohibition from being largely introduced from abroad ; and, even when the home price was complained of u not sufficient to remunerate the grower, it was still better than any that could be obtained on the Continent. As to manufactures, so far as foreign demand is concerned, those of cotton have more and more taken the precedence of all others. They are sent to every country, but most especially to those from which the raw material is imported. Woollens rank next in importance, followed by hardware, cutlery, silk, leather, and various other fabrics. The metals, iron, copper, lead, and tin are exported to a considerable extent, mostly in a wrought state ; to which are added the minerals, coal and salt. I()43. ThefitUowinff i» a Liit of the quantities and value of the different articles of British produce exported in 1837, with the value of those exported in 1838 (the quantities for that yeiir not being yet published). We have annexed the countries to which the articles were chiefly sent, arranged according to th« magnitude of the transactions with each : — 'Apiurd Ar. ;AniuimlAmnmnltion titx and llnmt ■ cwt, fcdiHil'ork - tamli BRtinlAU ■ - tuni bAi cwt. Qlniiiaml('or)wr • — 'fciiw •ndt nwM! • — ^Mb, Culm, &c. • ton, I'lnUdl ■ cwt Oatira ■ • juili Hater;,. Vr. T«Ut nnd Yarn • Uii. MlMivtrv • plecct TU, Hnrlnin ■ kureli (Jl4 ■ ■ cut. Hinliirff And (Cutlery - — Kw • • - tlol. Urai ind Sici'l ■ - Ions jMdinlKhiil - JMthfT . • IIm. Ixmi • ' jrwrds ThMd nul Small Wares • Ito. \ Mmiirnrtura Np aiKK'aiidkt ht», ri HnnI rin,un*ruuitht nain, iic. • ll'igl Yun Minufarlum Hixim, ,Vc. Alloltim |ileciit yanlH 1837. Uuanthle*' ll,3l« 4H,r>m 13,5118 7,180 y.')0,iu4 60,031 1,113,610 13,763 331,373,663 MI3,4»5,r3« 48,366,137 134hV>1 1164,789 i7,433 37,178 7,834 1,647,0110 38,426,333 8,373,100 9,961,881 1.1,864 ,ni23 W7,8t Indies, Austrnlia. 10,709,1.16 United fltates. East Indies, Hraull, Uennan>, &C. See >tcl. 7,431,848 flcrmany, Utilti-d States, llelgluni, France. 631,093 I'. Ntates, Ilrnill, British America, W. Indies, (Jermany, Holland. 208,6111 I'russia, Weit Indies, Italy, (iermanr. .173,8.'i9 East Indies, Ilrltlsh America, West Indies, Unitinl States, Rraill. 1,497,383 U. Stales, W. Indies, Ilrltlsh America, K. Indies, France, Germany. 138,8101 West Indies, Ilrllish America, La I'InIa, (;n)>e, Australia. V>.K'>8'4.1 1'nlted States, llidland, France, E. Indies, Italv, Ilrltlsh America. l.'i4,IU8'Hussia, East and West Indies, China, Hritish America. ^SjoImiI i **''' '"'""> ll'»>*l> America, AusUalla, Brazil, United Statea. 8,78.;,836 Unltetl States, West Indies, Brazil, Spain, Franc* 887,891 France, IlclKlum, Holland, (lermnn;. 637.1 16 West Indies, Italv, France, Ilelftium, Holland, (lermany. 177,678, United Stittes, West Indies, British America, Germany. 840,193 Unile.1 Stales, West and East Imllcs, .\ustralla, Ilrltlsh Ameilca. 881,111 777,873 331,848 818,176 .'i.'i3,838 101,800 4.')8,798 381 3-W 381,333 United States, British America, Kussia, IlelKlum, Prussia. United St.^tes, British America, France, Australia, Holland, Ca|«. West Indies, British America, Brazil, t'ai>e, (ierm.-my. E. and W. Indies, British America, Australia, U. States, Germany. Italy, Turlley, British America, liuskla, Germany- France, Hussia, Turkey, Italy. Unitetl States, Italy, Germany, Drillsh America. Belgium, France. Germany, Holland, Rujsla, United Statea. 3,793,417 Germany, United Suiea, Holland, British America. 1,84 1,369 West Indiei, United States, British America, E. Indies, Germany. I 49,610/1961 1044. Among our import; a large proportion consists of raw materials, brought in vast quantities to bn mMiufartiircd, In many instances for tne use of the regions fl-om which they come. Under the head of manu- fKturei, wc hnvc enumerated the principal of these articles, and the countries ttam whence imported. They «re chiefly rottun. wool, silk, and hides ; to which mav be added, bark, ashes, and barilla ; cochlueal, indigo, madder, ami other dyeing stufls. Although grain and provisions are now prciduccd in sufficient quantity for Inlrrnnl consumption, there Is much want of the raw produce of uncultivated land. Under this head a pro- mlncnt rank may be assigned to timber and naval stores. 1649, 7'Ai' inifmrt trade of consumption Is, after all, the most extensive : It consists chiefly In obtaining from toiilkem reirliins, nnd those warmed by tropical suns, the accommodations and luxuries which cannot tie msliirpd umlcr our less genial sky. Wine, the most delicate and wholesome of fermented liquors, has tieen Inlmiiiri'il to a great extent, though loaded with very heavy duties. Brandy also, still accounted the flnest cf iptrltoiis liquors, forces itself, to a certain extent, into the circle of our Imports. But the saccharine an<] iinnutic products of the tropical plains are those for which our climates can yield no substitute. They fonn Ihr basil of an immense commerce, which even the adherents uf the mercantile system cherish, unifer the Urstiut much of it is carried on with our own colonies. The Iciiling articles a.-d sugar, tea, colTec, tolMCCo, Mill iiilrrs. Notwithstanding the immense cotton manufacture of Britain, the piece goods of India, by their rnuliar excellence, still find their way into her markets. I64C. The following Table exhibits the quantities and value of the articles imported in I^HT, with the value of those in 1R38, and the countries from which they were chiefly 'liiiwn. Wo add the value re-exported in 18:SR : - Bb . ' 870 DKSCHIPTIVE OEOORAPHY, Pah III. Uooi I. lni|M>rtul In lUT, Artl ItarllU.fcc. - But . . . — fani'lan > ■ »»< llmuw • — IlrlimUM • • ««!•' llncilM ■ • l>"- lluiiti • • ■ cwu. I'hwM • • •««' i'lovn • • "• CtKhliMal • • — I'acos • • • ^ Ciill^ « . . — t:ii|»iMr "* • cwlx. Cork • • • — Caln {•amomand Orangn ■ packun Llnana • Taui* Uquarlca > cwu. Mac* . • - IlK. Madder, and Hoot cwu. MollMI — Nulmagt lU UU, CwMt - gux CWU. tuns llx. Palm • Train Fcppor I'imonio - • QuickillTcl Ran Kabint Haiw Soad and Cakia Hhubarb ■ Rica ■ - • SaJHower Haao HallDetrt, tic. Saxb (CloTcr) (Flax, IU|ir,&c.) ■ ralua owu* (wto. bUKh. lb» Hhumao - cwu. SUk.raw • ■ Ibt. Thrown • — Manufkcturaa ( Europe) — (India) pitcca Skim . . . 8|ial>ar cwti. 8plriu( Brandy) (Gan«Ta> (Hum) 117 ..1W IW.ISI ;M,;aii i,«v.i,;fM iMi,ii;4 KST.TM IIIA,I«7 4U1l,1tM ),IIM,IIUII ».4I«,4H n,»M Mi.li; I 4&MIA IIT,»UU 4I6,4«4 ao,;iu iiepMM 364,V4II tihvto A,M6 w.tat I,00I),m64 111,64(1 «,>l7,«7tt 773,611 (IMhAl 6AiM73 I9,«;il 1,1106 l,l.u,!>«a 3M)/I00 T/S4 S«,3M MI,W« S17,WI4 9.'M,«73 1,781,914 S,«9I.9U3 M,3(« 1,9711.1 19 ' I69,JW» ' 1«S,749 Huiar, Haw - cwu. Tallow Tar - • laMi Tea Iba. Timhar (Fir, Oiikl loadi (OUicT 8or») Tin - - . ewU. Tobacco and Rnufl* • lb«. Tarpcntlna - cwts. VakMa . . . _ Wai.Ban — WhaWdm • ■ ^ Wkw - (allt. Wooda(MalHiiianj) torn (l.oir'ncdl . — (Funic Bar and IHtwoap— Wool . . na. Woollen Yarn, Linen - cwla.1 4,610 AUoOMTAltlcia - 7,U6 *IS,.1I3 349,993 103,143 4,470/100 3al,A34 l«9,(M6 3,0(19,7611 131 ,W3 IS<,3i8 39l,9lt» 94,3'l6 894,019 4,ei3/)9» 4,488,3711 1,314,649 11,478 36,973,981 660,100 89,101 87,780,440 480,831 118,878 8,198 7,067 8,033,480 88,640 14,699 48,379,708 L. 81,71.1 I4.t,l84 .MI.IUO 84.1,«.'M 4(M,oeo 86,69(1 396,707 73,9114 M8,638 807,869 46,888 307,7(3 63,997 t,848,7HI 81,773 SIAM 1 ,490,96* JW,»«7 8e,'.>i» I3,483,1K' 888,479 34,931 14,448 1,968,813 831,803 I 831,913 634,783 IflOi.im 844,100 187,339 88,091 3Ih388 68,tW1 3(!J«3 3.3,310 83,8(M 036/177 888,988 63,480 93,818 883,9.M 883,337 411,997 188J7I 34JOO 399,684 38,.16(l 113,313 19.1,134 101,718 348,889 36,418 81,496 1109,774 66,698 8«0,.167 88/183 36,916 1,811,733 897,184 3.14,987 3611/183 19IA10 833,661 883,103 18,970 S»3,8S3 8,884,737 lJOr,,UOS 1ICA14 3,374,648 443,587 337, WO 143,313 868^06 810,116 80,343 38,988 33,933 830,933 877,198 170,881 148,189 l/t88,838 173,137 84,363 S.lll,8!0 18W. Valua. L. 168/148 11,486 I8I,<8,9tll 43,3,18 493,808 V3,.134 «,43t/U3 79,818 41,409 t,8«9,93(> 183,788 . 91,968 16/IM,737 177,936 89,313 10,466 3,880,783 818,883 187,337 601,0.18 1/136,883 9.16,433 888,416 49,488 88/184 48,676 74,448 80,869 16,189 718,188 434,807 47/118 84 086 860,087 879,781 618,607 ei,.i78 84/134 890/176 47,343 183,318 838,306 74/M3 116,807 37,1.17 86/164 183,49(1 67/>73 471,786 38/138 63,687 1,688,088 338/133 7.19,148 801,434 830,448 868,717 883,483 .16.0.10 418,.'i89 6,609,488 1,137,683 149,391 3/)','6/163 309,7.18 834,813 133,609 898,948 813,938 83,933 84 A» 84,498 893,388 880,996 198/418 101,168 1,480,118 833/184 81,389 8,160,846 IMMih Amtrlca. Ranis Npaln, Canarlaa, llal< Holalnni, Holland, (Mmany, Italy. Faru,L'hUl • ■ • Italy, Franca* Huula, PruHla, llarmany, BdidUBb lloKand, Uormany, llrnmark. Kaat Indlaaand Itlanda HolUml, Ilalji. Kaat Indifi, Franca Franca, Vnllnl Hum, liaM Indin, Italy Wm Indlo, Unltad Watai, Maiica . Won Indlaa, Colombia, Braill, I'oni • Woat and Kaat Indlaa Braill, ilaya Turkey, Chill, United H Portugal, France. Praaala, Oarmany, Ruaala, Daninaik, llolhuid Eaat Indlaa, China (lermany. Franca, Holland United Ntatea, Kau Indiea, Braill, Buypt (Ireece, Turkey Weatem AfHca, Eaat Indiea. Oreece, Turkey, luly. RuaaU. Holland, lleliilom, Praaala UrliUh America, Unltad Stalea, Uannany, La Plata. Eaat Indlaa, Barbaiy, Daly. Roiala, Eaat Indiea ... La PUU, Eaat Indite, United HIataa, Cape Eaat and Wcat Indiea, Colombia, Uuatlmala . Hweden, Ruaala Si • gpaln rrana 33,884,874 39/i;8,9(» Axurea, flpaln, PortuRal. France. Kuaiia, Uermsny IUI«,Npi>ln. Baai Indlaa, Cape. Holland France, Turkey, Italy, Bart Indiea. Waal Indiea. Cape, Holland .... Em Indi». Italy, Spain, rortu«al. Barbery Weatem Africa. FUicrlm. Australia Eaat Indln, Mam, Weatem AArlea Weat Indiea Bpatai .... Rpnin, Turkey Denmark, Uermany, Pruasla. Eaat Indiea, China, I'nlled Sutea United Sutea, Baal Indiea Eaat Indiea. Eaat Indiea. Eaat Indiea. Peru, Chill, United Sutea - Oetroany, Holland, Kr.wce. Ruaala, Vruaata, Uemiany, Denmark, luly, Tnrkey. Eaat Indleh ligypl. Italy. China, Eaat Indiea, France, Italy, Turkey France, China .... France, Holland Eaat Indiea, China, United Sutea. BarlMry, France, Caps, PortUKal, Italy Pruaala, (lermany, BelKlum France, Pruaaia ... Hoiianil, Uermany Weat Indiea, Braiil - .•„..• Weal lndl«, Mauritius, East Indies, BratU Ruaala. LaPlau ... Ruaala. China \ Bnllth America, Uermany, Norway, Ruaala Eaat Indiea. Holland, United Sulea,Feru United sutea, HoUand, Colombia United Statea. Turkey, Italy Weaum AMca, Eaat Indies. Auatrailan Flaherlea. Ponuaal. Spain, Franc*. Cape. Italy WcatlndltarHayU. Weat Indiea, Meslco Weal Indiea, Colombia Uermany, Australia, Huaala, Spain, La Flau RoaaU. Holland, Uermany I3,7W 36 770 lil(l,«H| tu.m 109,6111 8,M0 N7MI 438/K'l '.3,1H« 8/UI.1(!i l«,IM 40,311 iw.ini 9IU,'JII n.iwi siw SJ,OIJ <,««; 40,071 41W l(.,Vlt I6c,i;u l.Mt? .«,w 851,731 161,98; «0,»l 3ll,lil> 70,1 K» 7SW !7'J,VS l31Ai9 ,1J.W SKM 3SC/.ti 1M,T19 8111,516 89i,rJ l«,19l 130,119 M,ili 1,11II,IK 18,;O'i,6«0J 1647. The artielei re-exported may be generally observed to b» tropical productions par- ticularly those of our settlements and colonies in the East and West Indies, transmitted to Germany, the North of Europe, and partly the Mediterranean. On the other hand, the wine:;, brandies, and other luxurious productions of the North of Europe, are sent out to these colonies. 1648. T^ following Table exhibits a progressive view of the British exporU and imporU since 1800; — Vt'ara rlHllllg 3|I INIM IMUt IMIO . INIft INW IHIil i*n INtt INM IHSS IHIM IHIIT IHW INW IMIO INSI ins IHS4 inas INM KV lUH iNaii 1649. Th* ihi Htenaive. The turiiec, on the ,<) umpluyed, 178,,! 95,000 torn, li 1793, to 1,186)0 1837. 1515 8hl|) clearances for ti 10,660,000 loni. 16^0, The fill with thu diflbrer Countrlaa. 'KimU . Sacdiai * < .Vwway • . ! Defimark • . hiuda • (tcfmany . , Hollaiul llMliuiii . Prince ■ « Pgnugal, Pro|ier • — Aiiirea ■ — Madeira • Spaiit and KUnda , - I'anarlca > Oiteailar luly and Iilandt MilU Ionian liiaiHla Tatkey .Moi« and Ureek lilaods . . Tjfoli. Barbary. and Wmam Afrlra l-mortSoiHl Hone . Jllican Kiandi, ike. . I ;.«t Iiuliei ladlan Jiianib (-hina Sooth Sea BHiuh N'onhem Co. tonita . Billlih Weat liuUta MmIco ''uatemala . MumbU K»delaPlM» I*wu . ' [ The Whale Fiiherlea l>uanuai,Jeraoy,ftc. Total . Hool I. RNOLAND S7I Vilw. I. a,3«t •ui 46T7I) IW,IIHt 4;,im »76,Hffl TOt.Kll M7,UI 43WJ '.J,«*l tt,m I4,1M 40^11 6,1161 vim U,M, mm •a,m, 1S,8BT H,WJ M,«t MI,6IM 7(l,i««l 7S,W V%Vi\ I3I,V'9 xaM DK.m v,m ltt,7H ■atfiM ui,r> 69,mi 1,71«,1W "l7,7W,6tOJ Minmn Yi'Mi riHllim tUi or JwiuMty. ikIlMi ■•raliu*. Fanlfn Pmlur*. £ je £ IHflO aMHKI.HAO 7,m,)rT..'wo 0,1M,30S 43,660,OA4 IHW m,Mifiu IO,flfl6,BOa 8C,I74,3A0 IHW i|ll,»U4 HIT 9,806,343 48,480,346 INW !MI,IM)„1T0 0,928,05A 43,Sa6,187 i«ao 8N-ill,N/3 10,006,441 43,811,649 lUI SN,0 59,878,008 1649. Th$ thl/^ng by which no ttxtenntvo • trade is carried on, must necessarily be very HleiMive, The numlnir of vctivla belonging to the ditterent ports in England was re- turnee, on the ill St D«ceinK>r, 18:18, at 'Je.eog; their tonnage at 2,890,601 tons; men cmpluyed, 178,583, An immense progress is exhibited since 1663, when it was only 95,000 tons. It ru«>, In 1701, to >J7:),000 ( in 1751, to 609,000; in 1774, to 901,000; in 1792, to 1,186,000, The numltcr of ships built in 1836, was 1150, 156,240 tons; in 1837, 1515 ships, 907,298 tonst in 1858, 1490 ships, 207,270 tons. The entries and denraneea for the ctMstlng trade, amounted, in 1835, respectively to 10,188,000 and 10,660,000 tons. 1650. Th0 fillowinff ta tho i. mount of the thipi, tonnage, and men employed in the trade with tliv dilfbrent oountrlos of the globe, in the year 18S7 : — knd imporU limaidi, Uutwaidi. UriUih, romim. BtlUih. Foreign. 1 t J.. si},iiTii i } J 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 ! Kuiilt l,MI 14,1 MS * 9 S7,M7 3,873 i,«'i3 8M,64H 11,613 887 46,6:6 8,668 Sicdun • * 47 ,ttlM ,1H« ( 1 4l.fi»ll 1,9,W »« 9,174 4.10 183 31,666 1,4»0 ,Nol«lj l| ,I).U 7* S 1 SN,IKM 4,7411 «0 8.169 167 648 99,108 4.1flS Dcnnurk 4* i,».M %w ?S .Ift.lKll 3,8(10 m »3,^61 8,643 1,8.10 110.86.1 6,363 Pnula Sn? 1,1114 MTMUt ,1,tlW I4A,74V «,6ia mt 61,803 8,646 6.18 114,091 4,164 (tffntaiiy • • J.IH.II.'MI 1,11.17 K5 A4,II74 8,707 714 140,098 8,009 988 64,110 4.061 8,'*! »1I,»BII 3,fil3 l/»A 160,676 8,104 649 80,696 3,618 IMiluni M4 AT.lmi (V,»N7 4M 4U,4.'U 3,091 Am 68,181 3,666 371 48,683 .8,744 Prince «,««» HDtl.WI |II,.VM1 l,87n 131,07,1 I3,ifi9 «,3«6 861,701 80,040 1,814 186,741 18,146 1 Fonu^l, Proiier * itim M.hlU *,*1!t 7(1 T,UH7 644 MH 38,866 ?'4'I 81 10.679 736 — A«itr«ft vii.mm I,4IM 4IS 4i 837 16,688 1,308 18 1,184 119 1.1 »,U4.1 IM 116 6,846 898 Spilii >ml liUndi 4M 4U,«.'>it SfiU 8,l7it AST S94 31,883 3,694 68 8,698 474 - Caiiarlw 81 .i,.irit l?1l lUC 4 XS 8,348 1.17 4 608 88 OllinllaT M iiuuti 1X14 194 89,983 8,030 A 988 43 lull mi liUndt iW WAW ScW IO,l«S AAO 333 68,151 8,949 47 9,763 488 ■i! ii,vn! mi 74 13,964 709 3 1,048 44 loilu hlamta Avr , , . 40 6,678 368 8 690 80 Tukf) Mom Mid UiMk ilt,l43 DM • • 147 84,386 1,384 6 1,634 78 lil«i»U . w Ml« I4» , . ta 4,481 <16 1 S8< 18 W». Bubarr. •»! w 4,MII SIU ■ • 60 18,838 616 8 680 40 1* iliftl M ^ _ \ _ S4 3,188 179 84 6,744 308 Wnmn Ahira ISV l,4IW 469 36 136 34,886 1,986 1 »» 10 Cimiir,itui iUtm 62 67 14,699 18,386 888 960 I 1,000 49 Kut lulie. . . . 231 106,987 6,637 tiullui lilaniU ii 4,.'tU 8«,«i« v» «I7 4a 10 861 31 Chlu Ntw Holland (od l,IKM • ■ S6 17,694 1,176 8 873 83 South Sia . . Biiiisli Norihtm Co. IM 1»,«M i,noT • • ■ 188 47,840 8,838 Imlci BritUh Vfmt IimUm . Mi,4«; »««,4.'ith the vessel* cleared out, and the customs duty paid in 1S37, arc exhibited in the following Table: OwiMd in 183». CIcond out in IR37. POBTl Shipi. Torn. Shipi. Toni. London ... 2,8'J8 »(H!,l»a 4,460 902,922 Jfl2,l66,279 Liverpool ... 996 207,833 2,984 80.'i,053 4,460.426 Bristol • - . ■ 281 42,013 299 70,262 1,112,812 Newcaitic l.or.! 208,100 1,287 162,695 307,274 Hull .... Aua 63,524 1,334 226,289 801,628 Sunderland ... 713 132,070 IA<8 193,133 78,126 Plymouth 373 30,701 278 30,276 103,423 Portimouth . . . 201 11,968 103 9,783 46,873 Whiteharen 443 6.\879 812 32,927 88,291 Falmouth 86 6,732 62 8,654 23,624 Poole . ... IA3 15,113 113 10,267 12,000 IpiwlGb Southampton ... Yarmouth ... 154 11,308 46 6,670 37,881 177 8,303 296 ,16,288 49,1.19 577 43,.VI3 154 23,714 63.783 1652. TheJUheritM do not seem to have been so much cultivated in Britain, as the hardy enterprise of the nation might have led us to expect. The Dutch were allowed for a lung period to carry off the produce of the rich banks surrounding the British Islands. Of late, the attention of the nation has been more and niure directed to this object. The wliale fishery has been pursued to a great extent ; and it was considered so valuable, both fur its products, and as a nursery for S-iTnen, that, till 1824, a bounty was granted in proportion to the tonnage of the vessels employed. They have found their way to the antarctic polar bea, in search of an oil which, though not superior for burning, is better adapted to the pur. poses of manufacture, than that drawn from the arctic regions. The northern fishery, within the last twelve years, has considerably diminished both in amount and in the value of its pro- ducts, partly owing to the use of gas, and the greater cheapness of rape-oil for manufacture. The whales, too, have in a great measuro left the Greenland sea, as well as the most ac- cessible part of Davis's Straits, and must be pursued into remoter stations, where the danger of shipwreck is greatly increased. In 1831, nineteen vessels suffered. A greater proportion of the trade, also, has been transferred to Scotland ; so that of 76 vessels in 1 834 engaged in the northern fishery, only 36 were from England, tonnage 11,510. Of these, 27 were firom Hull, 3 London, 3 Newcastle, 2 Whitby, 1 Berwick. The entire produce of the fisheries in 1837 is stated at 3065 tuns of spermaceti, and 2047 of other oil; 1708 tons of wlulebonc ; 10,502 seal skins. Tlie value of oil imported in tliat year is stated in the finance accounts at 412,0001., of bone at 56,000/. ; but this includes imports from the North American and Anstralian colonies. 1653. Of thefiiheries in the British teas, that of Hcrringr,, the most important, belongs mostly to Scotland. A considerable quantity, however, is taken near Yarmouth, and sent to liondon partially smoked, under the title of " Bloaters." Next to this rafiks that of Pilchards, on the coast of Cornwall and part of Devon. The fish is found there in such immease shoals, that it forms the chief food of the people during the greater part of the year, and is also largely salted for exportation. The value annually taken is reckoned at 50,000/. or 60,000/. Considerable activ ity is used in these counties in taking pilchards for immediate consumption. Similar exertions are not made elsewhere in England, unless at the mouth of the Thames, and on the coast of Suffolk, where a considerable numbei u( vessels, fitted with wells and other apparatus, convey to the capital a great quantity of ex- cellent fish in perfect preservation; but the price is too high to bring it within reach of the great body of the citizens. Essex has likewise a valuable oyster fishery, producing 14,000 or 15,000 bushels. 1654. The interior navigation rf England is justly regarded as one of the prime sources of ber prosperity. Smith had long ago renlarked, that, important as were the advantages of foreign commerce, they were not equal to that carried on by the different parts of a great country within itself; and that all the countries distinguished by wealth and civilisation had been remarkable for the extent of their inland means of conveyance, either bestowed by nature or formed by art. China, Holland, and Lombardy had afforded striking instances of canal navigation and its advantages ; but in those countries, vast flat pkins, of soft ma- terials, and already traversed by numerous rivers, invited to this operation, which could be eflTectcd by mere mechanical section. The territory of England, on the contrary, is diver> sified by many rugged tracts ; and its eastern and westc< '\ : >.->-s and their tributaries, which it was the main object to unite, were separated by ' < -r- ,i considerable and somewhat rugged hills. Till the middle of lost century, the maki". of canals did not enter into the system of English economy. In 1755, was formed the SuiiKey canal, a line of twelve mites, to supply Liverpool with coal from the pits at St. Helen's. The grand example then set by the Duke of Bridgewater gave a general impulse to the nation. Since that time, upwards of 30,000,000/. sterling have been expended in this object. Twentyono canals liave been carried aci'oss the central chain of hills, by processes in which no cost has been spared ; all Book I. ENGLAND. 378 ime sources advantages s of a great civilisiition acstowed by "iig instances of soft ma- ch could be ry, is diver- ;aries, which 1 somewhat Iter into the ivelve milcS) then set by ne, upwan'' Is liavc been spared; all the resources of art and genius have been employed ; and there has arisen a professional body of civil engineers, whose sole occupation is to plan these great public works, and con- trive the means of their accomplishment. Every obstacle, however formidable, which na- ture could present, has been van(|uished. By locks, and by inclined planes, the vessels are conveyed up and down the most rugged steeps ; they are even carried across navigable rivers by bridges. When other means fail, the enginetfr has not hesitated to cut through the heart of rocks and hills a subterraneous passage. Of these tunnels, as they are called, there are said to be forty-eight, the entire length of which is at least forty miles. I6.V). The opcraliotu qf Ihe Duke qf BrM^ewater gave the great impulse to the syatem of inland navigation. That nobleman for]nn expense of 2,0(KI,000. was carried by a line of ninetv miles to the neightraurhood of Coventry. Near Daventry, the Grand Union strikes off, and joins the Grand Trunk, thus securing for Lon- (li)nan inland communication with Liverpool, and with all the great manufacturing cttici of the west. A great system of canals was formed round Birmingham, of which one result was to connect the Grand Trunk with tlie Severn, and thus to form a counection between all the four great rivers of F.ngland, and all Its commercial and manufacturing cities. Tlint from Itirmingham to Wolverhampton has, within those few years, been remarlw.ibly improved by Mr. Telford. A canal has already been formed from Coventry to Ox- ford. That of the Thames and Severn joined tliese two main rivers at the liighcst navigable point of the fonner. The Gloucester and Berkeley Is a l.tteral ctnal to the Severn, newly completed, by means of which Gloucester is connected with the British Chiinnel by a direct line, avoiding tne sinuosity and obstructions of the river. The canals to tlie south of the Thames are not so Important, nor is the commercial intercourse upon them so extensive. The principal are the Kcnnet and Avon canal, and the Berks and Wilts canal, through which a communication is formed from the Thames near Abingdon to the cities of Bath and Bristol. The total length of canals in Great Britain, excluding those under five miles, was 2581 miles. le.W. The names' and length in miles of the principal canals in England are exhibited in the fiillowing Table, for which we are indebted to Mr. M'Culloch : — Ashby-de-la-Zouch Ashtiui and Oldham Harnsley iliuhigstoke Oirmingliain Birmingiiam and Liver- pool junction lliiltim and Bury. Breeknock and Aberga- venny . - . Uriilgewater and Tauii ton - - ■ Calder iind Hobble Carlisle I'helmcr anil Blackwa- ter riiesterlioid Coventry L'rin.m - - . Cromi'ord Croydon - - - Derby ... Dudley Klh'smere and Chester - Frewasli I'orth ,ind Clyde Gliimorgiinshlro Miles. 2(4 18 II 37 22i 39 3;) 4li 27 13 3S| 2.'> Grand Junction Grand Surrey Ci'uiid Union Grand Western Grantliam Hereford and Gloucester Hudder-sfield Ivel and Ouse Beds Kenuct and Avon Kensington, LancasttT - - . Lel>ds and Liverpool Leicester ... Leicester and Northamp- ton . - - Loughborough Macclesfield Melton Mowlrray. Mersey and Irwcll Monkland Monmouthshire! Montgomcrysliirc North Walsham ami Dll- ham. Neath Nottlngliam Nutbrook Oakham Miln. 'JM 12 4A 3.') 30 ■P 57 711 130 17 "•'♦ 20] 50 12 ■n 27 M 15 5 15 Oxford Peak Forest I'ortsmouth and Arun- del . . . Regent's Rochdale • • Shrewsbury Shropshire - Somerset Coal Staflbrd and Worcester ■ Stourbridge Stratford-on-Avon Stroudwater Swansea Tavistock Thames and Medway - Thames and Severn, New . . . Trent and Mersey Warwick and Birming- mingham Warwick and Napton • Wey and A run Wilts and Berks Wisbeoch Worcester and Birming- ham . - . Wyrloy nnd Esslngton • Miles. 84 21 13 9 31 5 4, !| I3U 2ft 15 in 52 G 29 27 (iloucester and Berkley . IGU'J. Uailwni/s form another contrivance, by which the conveyance of goods is wonder- fully facilitated. By causing the wheels to roll over a smooth surface, first of wood, but now must commonly of iron, a single horse could draw a long file of loaded waggons, weighing from ten to twelve tons. Tlic vehicles both for goods and passengers are now chiefly drawn by locomotive steam-engines. Railways were at first used only on a small scale, cliieHy in the coal mines round Newcastle, for conveying the mineral from the interior Bb 3 S74 DKSCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHY. Part III to the turfliGu, muI tlicnou to thu (ilacu of thipping ; and it is reckoned that round that city thuro is ait extent of alM>ut three hundred tnilex of thcw railways, lliey were gradually employed on • greater icali!, piirticularly in Wales, where the county of Glamorgan has one twenty-flvo miles long, and in all two hundred miles of railway. But the first important passenger railwny was that between Manchester and Liverpool, opened on the 15th of Sep- tember, lH;iO. It extends thirty-one miles, and in carried over sixty -three bridges, thirty of which pass over the turnpike roud, and a spacious and handsome one over the river Irwell. ilic entire cost was about 8'iO,0(X)/. ; but the intercourse has been so extensive as to promise an ample remuneration. Tlie annual revenue, which in 1832 was only 135,500/., had risen in I HUG to 227,!)00/. ; and that in the first half year of 1839 was I23,800f. Notwithstanding, therefore, many extra expenses, a dividend of about 10 per cant, has been easily paid. 1660. ruri'oM* other railwayi, prompted by this success, have been undertaken, and are now in progress for tinitiiuf all the principal cities of England. The main Trunk now com- pleted and stretching in a northerly direction, consists, first, of the line from London, by Watford, llngby. And Coventry, to Dirmingham ; whence the Grand Junction leads by Wolverhampton, ^tnllurd, and Warrington to Newton, on the Liverpool and Manchester railway, thus connecting the metropolis with those two great cities. The first line, esti- mated at 2,5CK),00U{., has cost 5,oa),000/. ; yet, as the revenue in the first half of 1839 reached 270,800/., there seems the prospect of a fair return. The Grand Junction, est!. mated ot Al>out 1,(XX),000/., has cost 1,800,000/^ ; but the revenue in the same period has reached 191,900/. This lino has l>ecn continued northwards to Preston, and is in progress thence to I.tmcaster. Again, another northern line has been formed from Birmingham, by Tamworth and Burton, to Derby ; thence it is prolonged through the " North Midland," by Chesterfield and llolhcrham, to Leeds. Near that city a branch connects it with York; whence the "Great North of England" carries on the lin^, by Darlington and Durham, to Newcastle. All these lines are in active progress, and will shortly place that city in direct commimication with London. In another direction the " Great Western " leads from the capital, by Windsor, Reading, and Batli, to Bristol ; whence the line is continued, by Bridge- water and TaiuUon, to Exeter. The "South-western" goes by Kingston, Basingstoke, and Winchester, to Southampton, with a branch to Gosport and Portsmouth. More directly south runs the Brighton, by Croydon and Reigate, near which it gives off a branch I.HT or Hailways. Nwne of Cumiianjr. Mllei. Capital. Loan. Total. JB £ JS Ayleilmry .... 7 »o,noo 16,000 Ofi,noo liMllochnry .... mi 18,431 20,000 38,431 Blrmlnghitm snti Durby Junction 630,000 200,000 830,(K10 Rlrnihighsin And tlloucciitcr BO 950,000 316,fi66 1,206,6(16 Blrmlngtmni, llrlttol, luiil Tlmmei Junction - 8 lM),0fl0 60,000 200,000 Bolton Hiiil I.rlKh T 4I,A00 85,000 12li,5(IO Bolton snti Hroalon . . - lA 380,000 126,500 506,100 Bristol luid Kxi'ter 7fi 1,B00,000 600,000 ifrnfrn Clipltcnlium anil ISreat Wcittrn 37 760,000 250,000 .1,000,000 Chritvr and Cri-wo ... iil 2.tO,(X)0 83,333 333,333 KoiUrn Cmititivt •9^1 1,000,000 833 "33? 2,133,333 Ornnd Junction - . . 1,040,000 860,000 l,UOti,(KI0 (ir«at North of Rngland ... 70' 1,000,000 150,000 1,150,(100 On-Jit Wvitvrn ... IIH 2,5(X),000 833,333 3,333,333 Hull and Srlliy ... 80» 400,000 133,3.13 53:1,333 Kcnyon and l.i'iRh ... '''] 2«,fl00 6,250 i\;m I.anrattcr and I'rontort iinl 250,000 83,000 vafm Lornln and Solliy ... ao' 210,000 130,000 340,000 I.vlceiter anil SwannlnRtnn itu 140,000 35,000 175,000 I.ivil and ManiliontiT ... »i^ 637,B00 827,500 1,405,(100 I.Diiilon and lllnntiiHliaeen in a miserable state. Mr. Young was then of opinion that, for a great part of the year, thewhole north of England should be considered as sea, and that a man should as soon thinli of driving into the German Ocean. He avers, " that in one of the most frequented roads of Lancashire, he had seen ruts four feet deep ; and three carts overturned in the course of eigntecn miles." The roads of England arc now, perhaps, the best in the world, chiefly through the appli- cation of the turnpilte system, under which they are made and repaired by tolls levied upon the traveUera, and administered by countv trustees. This system, wliich the populace at first Mindly endeavoured to op- pose, even by demolishing tnc turnpikes, has been found much more efficacious than that by which govern- ments undertake to repair the roads iVom the public revenue, or by the exaction of personal service flrom the subjects. There are a few cases, however, where roads are to be carried through poor provinces, or form grand lines of national communication, in which government judges it exped'ent to assist, or even to under- take tlie entire construction of tliem. The principal instance in England was that of the high road from London to Holyhead, whence the packets sail for Dublin, a great part of which passed through the most barren and rugged districts ot Wales. For the improvement of this road, Parliament granted a large sum, by the judicious application of which, it has been rendered one of the finest in the world. In 1829, the turn- pike roads extended in all to 19,798 miles in length. The amount of tolls was 1,300,000/., which, with pariah rates and other incidents, raised the income to 1,455,000<. : but this was burdened with a debt of ft,200,0fl0/. There are 95,000 miles of by .roads, and others not turnpike, the maintenance of which by county rates and personal service costs alraut i,.'iOO,000/. It would be unjust to withhold from Mr. Macadam due praise for tbat j idicious method of structure by which the hisb-roads of England hove been brought to a state of im- provement in an eminent degree conducive to rapidity and safety of travelling, and to that frequency rf communication which is invaluable in a commercial country. Farther improvements have been made hf Mr. Telford and Sir Henry Parnell ; but some of the main lines are now likely to be superseded by the formation of railways. I6ii2. i^t'id'gfj, in a country im'ersected Iw numerous and often broad rivers, neceMarilr attracted a^eat share of attention ; and the '.igenuity and wealth of England have been employed in making extensive im- provements in this branch of architecture. The very situation of the metropolis, divided into two parts by • river a quarter of a mile broad, demanded that every resource for this purpose should be employed. From London Bridge, built in the twelfth century, with narrow and unequal arches placed upon huge masses, which left oxSy a difficult and dangerous passage for the waters beneath, a successive improvement may be traced to the bridges of Westminster, Blackfriars, to that of Waterloo or the Strand, and finally to the new London Bridge, in which all the principles of construction seem to have been carried to the highest perfec- tion. Southwark Bridge is the most complete of any yet formed of iron. This species of brulge has the advantage of being lighter, and of requiring much few«r arches, than those of atone. The first example In this country was that of Colebrook Dale, over the Severn; next, that of Sunderland,, on a much greater scale, but each consisting of a single arch. That of Vauxhail far exceeded both, but has been itsetf much surpassed by Soutiiwark Bridge, in which height and strength have been united In a degree hitherto unex- ampled. A still more daring form has been given to this material by bridges of suspension, formed by iron chains stretched across, and sup|>orted bv fixed points on each side. It is remarkable that this construction, on a certain scale, has existed in China from the earliest ages. The Americans were the first to adopt it, of any modern nation. Captain Brown, in 1819 and 1820, constructed over the Tweed, near Kelso, a flying bridge, by which loaded waggons can pass in perfect security, and with only the feeling of a slight oscillation. The same able engineer afterwards constructed bridges of embarkation at Newhaven and at Brighton. But the greatest undertalUng of this kind yet executed is the Menai Bridge (.Jig. 138.), over the strait which 138 MIlfAl MUDOC separates Wales flrom Anglesey. After building arches of masonry on each side, Mr. Telford united them, though separated by the distance of 560 feet, by a bridge of suspension, composed of iron ciiaink These bridge* recfimmend themsives by their ecoojmy, and by their occasioning no interrup- tion to the navigation of the rivers beneath. Sect. VI. Civil and Social State. 1663. The popylation of England in former times was imperfectly known, being cal- culated only from very vague surveys and estimates. In I iMl, the results of a poll-tax were given as 2,300,000 ; but from the many evasions to which such a census would give rise, that number was prolmbly below the truth. In the reign of Elizabeth, during the alarm of a menaced Spanish invasion in 1575, a pretty careful survey was made, the result of which gave 4,.50O,O0O. At the time of the Revolution, the increase appeared to be about a million. From the commencement of the present century, decennial enumerations have been made, of which the following are the results : — Kngland Wales . - Army, Navy, &c. Total PontilRUon, kKOI. Increue lier Cent. Fopiilatioa, II8I1. Incrcaw per Cent. Population, Increaw percent. fopiilalkm, 8,331,434 641,546 470,59S 13 9,.551,888 611,788 640,500 -"! 11,261,437 717.438 319.300 16 12 18,()• «np uf the leMt equivocal. In I7H0, the tieathi In KnKlnnil Hliil Wam'ii HmiiiititiHl to ntmiit I In 40 of the population, In 1790, the rate of mortality wu> rviluceil til ahunl I III 't^i III I Nil, It «vai I in ri'ii and at nn average of the Ave years eiidins with IKlO.lt wai I ih M I 'I'liu illl|iriivirtiiblc situation of ali claiiei, the greater attention paid to cluaiilliioiii, Me, 'I'lm piiiiiortliili iil' marriage* to the population liai reteiitly declined. In I7li0, there woa I inurrlago fur tivt'ry I III lllillvldilHlt, In I7H0, the proportion had dc. dined to I in l\H. During the Hvn yearn tinding witll INIIl, II wila it* I to IV2 i ami during the 6ve years end- ing with IH30, it was as I to lau. Hut tliia diH'ri'i»t< la In litl iini'f Ihed whollv to the greater prevalence of moral restraint, the proportion ol illegUiiiiulu hirtli* lint liii«',llH ItU'ri'ilscd. i'he number of births to a mar' riage in England Is estimated at about 4. Ciiiisuiiipllnu In Ww innit rnlal disease, and next to it are fcveis. apoplexies. &c. The small-pox has been aluiiiat whnllv I'HIerililimliMl t but the measlct are said, we know not with what truth, to have latterly beenmu inuru dMslriii'tlvti limn formerly 1664. The national character of the HngUth tixhlltttN NOltiu vury buld and marked features. Of these, the must conipiciious U thnt lovt> of lllwrty, wlilvh \n butli a cause and an etrect of their free constitution, and which |)urvnilvi« nil cIiinm'n. 'J'lit* Itherty fur which the English have Successfully contended, includiui tht) ri^llt of tllllikltlf(, saying, writing, and doing most things which opinion inny divtiltu llllil ilK'llimtloil |irottipt. The knowledge that the highest offices nnd dignities in the Htiitv iirv iu<«i, ni> Inrge n proportion of individuals living in habitual and open violation uf nil priueiple, iiiiil fVi>i|iiently in contempt of legal ordinances. Amidst numerous cxamplvN of Jtiilli'loim ecoiloiny, we llnd some instances of sordid avarice ; and too many of inoonNidurntti mill liouuilless vxtrnviigaiicc. Domestic life is cultivated by the English inuru sedulouiily tliiiii by any of the continental nations; the sanctity of marriage is more carefully guarded) nilil I'lhlNtitv in the female sex more strictly observed. The French, before the revolution, nvt'UNed the biigliNli ns deficient in the minor courtesies, — as blunt, rude, and untutored in Ihu iirtN which render society agreeable ; hut they themselves have lost, in eonsei|uence of thnt revolution, much of the refinement on which they formerly prided themselves, Iu lit lultlor feiiturcN, the English character has undergone various changes. The vices of dl'inklug iiiul NWeiiring, once so prevalent among country squires, among officers uf the uriuy null iinvy, iin well as in what is called the gay world, are happily no longer fushionablu \ even the liiboiiriiig classes, imitating the example of their betters, begin to be ashamed of llieiil, I loi'>ie.|'iu.'illg, hunting, and rural sports, are carried to excess by some uf the country gentlvuieu ) nnd the more barbarous practice of boxing still has its zealous cultivators. IVi'linpN llu! must estimable quality of the English is their love of justice; the source of ull houoiu'nbk' dealing uinong the higher classes, and of what is emphatically called /m'r filiiii, in tliii liniiNiiclioUN of humbler life. The principle, that a man's word should be his lianil, is neU'il U|ioll most rigorously where the greatest interests are at stake; ns on its oliservam'e, inoiv llwiii on llmt of niiy law that huslieen or can be devised, the commercial and lluiiueiill pro»pel'ity of the country depends. The P^iiglish are the most provident people in (lit) woi'lil. hi Ih;'U, (here were, throughout the kingdom, 6S,S9 friendly benefit societies, thy coutiillutioUN to wliifh ainouuted to 871,.500;.; and there were in the savings buiikN, iUiurnum< iiU'oriU nnother proof of this laudable disposition. The English also deserve lo be eiilled n liiinmne people, zealous, both from feeling and from principle, for the promotion of everyllilug that tenils to the welfare of tlieir fi'llow-creatures. In that cause tliuy linve vver bui'U I'oi'eoiost \ nnd, indeed, tlie character of a philanthropist, a man devoting his whole lll'e lo (lie wfviee of his follow-mcn, seems peculiar to this nation. — Crime in Eiigliinil Iimn uudergoiiv m very I'unsiderahle change. Highway roL'iery, .so jirevident towanU lliu liegluulllg nnd iniddlu of last century, is now nearly unknown, and all surts of criinus of violeui'c hnve been materially lessened. On the other hand, there has lieen u very rapid liU'reiiw, pnrllcularly within the last sixteen or twenty years, of crimes against properly, In point of fiiet, liowevvr, this increase has not been so great ns it appears ; for, owing to Ihti t"i(nltllNlunt.n I8:):M. The amount paid in that year for the immediate relief and maintenance of the poor was 4.W.; 11/. ; for removals, law charges, &c., 'J3,982/., I>elng a decrease of C4 per cent. ; for other purposes than piior rc'lii'f, .')07,!)29/., decrease 4ft per cent. IMi. The English are, in general, a people soberly religimu, though the nation, among its other exeet$es, hat pramU'd ilrikiiig displays ofinjidelity and fanaticism, rlie Churcli of England was established in the reign of ijnci'n Klizaheth, when the reforma*'on was completed which had been begun in that of Henry VIII. It Is an InteKral part of the constltntlon, 1 'ig for its head the king, who is declared to be, " in all causes, ecclesiastical as well as civil, within theb:- i.is dominions, supreme. Ily virtue of his authority, as head of tlic church, he nominates to vacant bishoprics and certain other preferments, constitutes or restritins eccle- tiastlonl jurisdictions, inflicts ecclesiastical censures, and decides in the last resort in all ecclesiastical causes, —an iippcil lying ultim,itcly to him in chancery, from the sentence of every ecclesiastical judge. In respect to Its cinirch government, I'.ngland is primarily divided Into two provinces or archbishoprics, Canterbury and York. Each province coiitains various dioceses or seats of sulfraga'n bishops,— Canterbury including twenty-one, .ind \ork three, besiiios tlic bishopric of Sodor and Man, uhich was annexed to it by Henry till. Every diocese is dividi^d into archdeaconries, of which the whole number amounts to sixty; each arrhdcacniiry into rural do.inerics, which are the circuits of the archdeacon's and rural dean's Jurlstliction ; and eai'li deanery Into narislies, towns or villages, townships, and bamlets. The principal ihurch of each m Is appropriately called the ni/Arr/rn/ church ; it is possessed by a spiritual body corporate, called a dean ,iiid cliaptcr, wlio are the eouniil of the bishop, but derile their corporate capacity from the crown. Chap- liTS arc usually composed of canons and prebendaries ; the maintenance or stipend of a cinon as well as of a preliendary being a ;»'<-Ai7 iitlier funds, which are supposed to raise their entire income to upwards of 3,1U7,(J00/. IGfiV. The entire number of benefices is stated at 10,540; and 5,230 curates arc employed, whose average salary is 80/. per annum. Complaints ha-c been made of the inequality of the clergymen's iiivomes, and of the practices of ]ilurality and uon-resideiiec. To remedy tlii'se, acts liave been piLssed by which the livings of the bishops, with the exception of the primate and two or three others, have been C(|ualised at 5,000/, a year. It is proposed also to ubnlish some of the canons and prebends, and employ the .savings in augmenting the incnines of the poorer clergy. Ilesidencc is also to be enforced, and pluralities prevented, unless in some cases, whore the livings are considered inadequate. As the church accom- modation was found insuftieient for the increased population, very considerable sums have licen voted for additional places of worship, liy the 19th Ueport of the Commissioners a|i|iuiiiteil for this object, there had been built by August 1839, 243 churches, making provision fur 314,412 persons, including 174,270 free seats for the use of the poor. Eigh- teen others were in course of being erected. Liberal private subscriptions have likewise been opened for this purpose. There is also a numerous and in many cases very respect- 378 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. able body of diiiiicntcrs, consisting chiefly of Methodists, Indvpendeiits, Baptists, Presby- terians, and Roman Catholics. Mr. M'Culloch quotes an estimate, by which the places of worship belonging to these different bodies, amount to 8,446, while those of the establish- ment are 1 1 ,825 ; yet he does not suppose that the whole number of dissenters can exceed three millions. 1668. /n her iiUdkelwtl charaeter, England may l>c justly considered as standing proudly eminent. Bacon, Boyle, Locke, Newton, Davy, with a long train of coadjutors, have dis. closed to mankind perhaps a greater sum of important truths than the philosophs^rs uf any other country. Strong, clear, sound sense appears to be the quality peculiarly £n);lish ; and her reasoners were the tirst to explode those scholastic subtleties which, having usurped the name of philosophy, so long reigned in the schools. It was their merit to discover and establish true philosophy, and apply it to objects of real interest and utility ; and that merit is the greater, since the patronage bestowed on science has always been scanty, and the most illustrious of its cultivators have had to endure, and even to calculate upon, the indifference of the public. Their energies seem to have been roused, rather by the general stir and movement which was taking place around them among a great and free people, than by the prospect of any high personal reward» for their exertions. 16'69. /n workt of imagination, the genius of the English is bold, original, and vigorous. In the drama, Shakspeare stands unrivalled among ancient and modern poets, by his pro- found and extensive knowledge of mankind, his boundless range of observation throughout all nature, his exquisite play of fancy, and his irresistible power in every province of thought and feeling, the sublime and the pathetic, the terrible and the humorous. England has to boast of other dramatic poets, whose works entitle them to eminence, although tinctured by that dissolute tone of manners which followed the overthrow of puritanic austerity on the restoration of the monarchy. In epic poetry, Milton is acknowledged by common consent (o stand first among the moderns. Spenser and Dryden are alike eminent, the one for r weetness, the other for versatility ; while in correctness of taste, and the polished harmony of numbers. Pope has no rival among the poets of any modern nation. The style of English poetry which prevailed in the age of Elizabeth, and which was principally distinguished by a bold irregularity, has in modern times been revived. The works of Byron, Campbell, Soott, Moore, and Southcy amply sustain the ancient poetical renown of England, in an age when originality seems to have been stifled by criticism throughout the rest of Europe. 1 670. In historical writing, England has many illustrious names, among which that of Gibbon, notwithstanding all his faults, deserves an honourable place. In oratory, some of her statesmen have acquired great renown, though the general taste both in the senate and ut the bar seems to delight rather in plain seniie and in cogency of argument, than in those elabo- rate, ornate, and declamatory flights by which the great speakers of antiquity acted on the imagination and passions of their hearers. 1671. 7^ institutions for public education in England are extensive and splendidly en- dowed. The two universities of Oxford and Cambridge are not only the wealthiest but the most ancient in Europe They enjoy, among other privileges, that of returning each twn members to parliament, arid of holding courts for the decision of causes in which members of their own body are interested. They were certainly of ecclesiastic origin ; and, in common with every university in Europe, conferred degrees in all the faculties, by authority derived from a papal bull ; but they have long been considered as lay corporations. Their posses- sions and resources have been augmented by the munificence of successive sovereigns, as well as by the grateful bequests of opulent individuals, llie establishmr is com|)osing them are distinguished into colleges and halls ; the latter being academical houses not in- corporated or endowed, though they have had considerable benefactions, which are dispcascd to the students in exhibitions limited to a stated period. Oxford has nineteen colleges and five halls ; Cambridge has thirteen colleges and four halls, — which last, however, possess the same privileges as the former. Each university is under the government of a chancellor, high steward, vice-chancellor, and other officers ; the persons who preside over the different establishments as masters, wardens, rectors, principals, or provosts, bear the general deno- mination of heads of colleges. Their appointments are on a liberal scale; and each college has a number of ftdlowsliips to which large emoluments and easy duties are attached. They possess also extensive patronage in church livings, to which their own members may naturally aspire, and a number of exhibitions or scholarships bestowed, some through favour, and others as the rewards of successful competition. These, though of considerable value, are not supposed adequate to defray the expense of a residence at a university, which, at the lowest, is calculated to amount to 150/. a year. The number of students on the books at Oxford amounted in 1835 to 5'J51, of whom 2551 were members of convocation; those of Cambridge were 5399, among whom 2459 were members of the senate. Students, accord- ing to their proficiency in learning, arc entitled to the degrees of bachelor and master of arts, bachelor and doctor in divinity, and bachelor and doctor in the faculties of physic and law. The time required by the statutes to be occupied in study before each student can be qualified for taking those degrees is three years for a bachelor, and about four years more for a master of arts ; seven years after that, he may commence bachelor of divinity, and then Book I. ENGLAND. S7f five years more entitle him to take the degree of doctor in divinity. In law, a student may commence bachelor after six years', and in physic after five years', standing. Only one year's attendance and the hearmg of a single course of lectures are required as preparatory for entering into holy orders ; a preparation much less arduous than that which is required in universities under presbyterian discipline ; but the lowness of the inferior church livings, and the expense of residence, may render it difficult to exact more from the greater number of candidates for ordination. The qualifications for a bishop exact a longer attendance and higher attainments, as they include the degree of doctor in divinity. 1672. Whether highly endowed imtitutioni be t/ie moil useful and efficient, is a question often raised. It is said, that a teacher who has no dependence on the contributions of his pupils is apt to sink into indolence ; and that, in an age remarkable not only for the rapid advance- ment but for the extensive diffusion of knowledge, such great establishments are liable to be outstripped, their progress being retarded by their adherence to antiquated studies and systems. Such a charge has certainly been made against the English universities, whose forms vf instruction are in many respects peculiar to themselves. They can scarcely be said to include public lectures, an essential branch of instruction in most other universities. A few, indeed, have lately been founded ; and others arc sometimes given voluntarily by active members; but they are rather incidental appendages than constituent parts of a regular system. The established mode of instruction is by private tutors, who teach clas- sical literature and the mathematics ; the latter branch of study being particularly cultivated at Cambridge. The public examinations are conducted with great diligence and impar- tiality, and excite high emulation. The numerous lucrative fellowships may sometimes tempt their possessors to indulge in luxurious ease ; but to those who are seriously disposed to study tliey aiford a learned and dignified leisure, with all facilities for research, to an extent hardly attainable in any other sphere. The professorships, also, and the various annual prizes, present many honourable incentives to excellence, admirably adapted to awaken the sluggish, to encourage the timid, to confirm the hesitating, and give a salutary tone to that sensibility which always accompanies true genius, and often impedes its progress. 1673. Two new leminariet have, within the last ten years, been formed in the metropolis ; the London University, called now University College, and King's College. Tliese have not as yet attracted above 600 or 700 students each, chiefly in the medical and clas- sical departments ; but the preparatory schools attached to them are well attended. In 1836, the London University was chartered, for the purpose of examining students educated at these two institutions, and granting degrees to them. A university has been founded at Durham, chiefly by the clergy, with the view of preparing students for holy orders. Tlie College of St. David's, at Lampeter, in Wales, proposes the same object. 1674. Of thepuUic tchooU of England, the most distinguished are those of Westminster, Eton, Winchester, and Harrow, Although originally founded as charity-schools, yet being now appropriated to the education of boys of the first families, the habits formed in them are very expensive. Greek and Latin are almost exclusively taught there by masters emi- nently qualified ; and Englishmen of education generally excel in the knowledge of both languages. Notwithstanding some disorders incident to these schools the general training established in them is supposed to be hardy, independent, republican, and well adapted for the future legislators of a free state. For boys pf the middle rank, and those destined for commercial pursuits, there are numerous private academies, commonly well conducted, and tome of them entitled to very high commendation. 1675. Colleges for the particular study of law and equity have long been- established iu the metropolis, under the names of inns of court and inns of chancery. The principal of these are the Middle and Inner Temple, Lincoln's Inn, and Gray's Inn. Before any ).erson can be admitted to practise as an advocate, be must be regularly entered in, and be a member of, one of the inns of court for five years, and must have kept his commons in such inn, twelve terms. In favour of those who have taken a degree of master of arts or bachelor of lavs at an English university, three years are allowed as sufficient to be a member of the inn, but the twelve terms must be duly kept. .After complying with these conditions, and paying the regular fees, the student may be called to the bar without having been required to make any public demonstration of his proficiency or ability. 1676. Of primary schools for the great body of the people, the deficiency is still great. Tlie metropolis, indeed, contains several, of which the most considerable is Christ-church Hospital, or the Blue-coat School, in which about 1 100 children are maintained and edu- cated. This institution, founded by Edward VL, has been enriched by various benefactions, until its income amounts to 44,625/. From the report of a late parliamentary commission, also, it appears that the number of charitable foundations in different parts of the country amounts to 3898, yielding an income of 65,395^ Of these, however, many give also board and lodging, so that their advantages can extend to only a small number ; others have been neglected, and left exposed to those abuses to which old establishments are generally liable. So greatly was the influenc9 of these institutions on the great body of the lower orders diminished, tliat within the last 30 years the larger portion of labouring people wero S80 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. p*M in. unable to read. The evils arising from want of education among them have, at tvngth, been strongly full ; nnd wry great exertions have been inailv, chiefly by the bcnuvolunce of private individuals, to remedy the defect. Tlie system of mutual instruction, introduced by Lancaster and Bell, nflurdcd tlie means of bringing knowledge within the reach of all classvs at a moderate expense. The British and Foreign School Society founded, in 1808, a model school on a large scale, and an establishment for the instruction of teachers. They support, also, a number of schools in different parts of the country. No distinction is inadv be- tween the religious sects by whom they are attended. In 1811 was founded the Nutioiial Society, on the plan of Dr. Bell, and under the patronage of the Church of England. In 1835, it was reported that they had 3642 Sunday and daily schools, attended by 178,740 boys and 145,305 girls, with 1698 Sunday schools only, attended by 03,92!) buys and 98,207 girls ; in all, 5559 schools, with 516,181 scholars. In 1833, there were reported to be in England 2985 infant schools, with 89,005 scholars; 35,986 daily, with 1,187,942; 16,828 Sunday, with 1,548,8(X). These numbers, however, arc suspected of exaggeration. Government have for some years made a grant of 20,000/. in aid of education, chiefly ills. tributed between the two above-mentioned societies. In 1839, it was raised to .10,000/., but some discussions have arisen as to its dispos.il. 1677. Of the tcientijic inttitutiom of England, the foremost is " the Royal Society of London for improving Natural Knowledge'' In its infancy it owed much to the protiH;. tion of Oliver Cromwell ; and, having «urvived the Commonwealth, was incorporated b; royal charter, in 1663. Under its illustrious president. Sir Isaac Newton,^ it soon rose to great splendour, being the medium through which his grand discoveries were first com- municated to the world. Under subsequent presidents. Sir John Pringic, Sir Joseph Banks, and Sir Humphry Davy, it maintained, in several respects, its former reputation, though the objects of pursuit were somewhat varied, and though numerous other establish. meuts withdrew from it much of the public attention. The Society still publish an unnual volume, in two parts, under the name of Philoaophical Tranaactiont. In the carver of mathematics and astronomy it was surpassed by the National Institute of France ; and it appears to have lost the spirit of emulation by which it was formerly animated. Its otKvcrs are a president, two secretaries, and a council of twenty-one. New members arc balloted fur, on a recommendation of three, and are elected if there be a majority of two thirds in their favour. The Society of Antiquaries traces its origin to the reign of Queen Elizabeth, but was not incorporated until 1821. It has published some interesting papers, amidst a mass of miscellaneous matter, in a scries of volumes entitled Archteoloyiu. Several private societies have been tormed for the cultivation of particular branches of knowledge, by tho union of individuals distinguished for their attaiunicuts in or devotion to those brandies. Such arc the Linnatan, instituted about twenty years ago ; the Geological and the Astroauniical, which have made im|>ortant contributions to these sciences ; the Zoological, with a museum and an extensive collection of living specimens in the Regent's Park. A Royal Botanical Society, with a garden in the same quarter, is in progress of formation. Besides these and other institutions in the metropolis, most of the great provincial towns, as nianvliester, Bristol, Derby, Liverpool, and Newcastle, have formed literary and philosophical societies, which have had to boast jnany distinguished names, and have made some important con- tributions to science and literature in their Transactions. 1678. Public librariis, and those auxiliary repositories called museums, have long been regarded as objects of ]>rimary interest among the enlightened nations of Europe. England, after having for a long period been reproached for coldness nnd apathy on this subject, be- came sensible of its importance, and made great exertions to repair the deficiencies caused by her neglect. The principal collections a|)propriated to public use have owed their origin to the spirit and enterprise of private individuals. Thus, the Bodleian Library at Oxford was the bequest of Sir Thomas Bodley, and was enriched by successive donations : it owes to government no contribution, except that arising from thcst.itute securing to it a copy of every new work published in the united kingdom. The British Museum derived its first treasures from the collections of Sir Robert Cotton nnd Sir Hans Sloane ; but in providing additions to them, the national funds have been liberally employed. It has acquired, through pur- chase by parliament, the Ilarleiun and I^ansdowne MSS., the libraries of Major Edwards and Dr. Burney, and several valuable collections of coins and minerals. It has also l)een enriched by gifts from Dr. Birch, Mr. Crucherode, and many other gentlemen. But the most superb donation ever bestowed on this or any other library is that of the entire collec- tion of George III., presented to the nation by his late majesty. With this accession, the library, which previously consisted of 12.5,000 volumes, has been augmented by one half, and may take its place, thpugh not the first place, iimong the great national libraries of Europe. The Museum is also very rich in sjiecimcns of natural history, partictdarly of miner logy. It has likewise acquired a large collection of Egyptian and of Greek sculp- ture, of which the most valuable part consists in the Elgin marbles. I(j7!). Institutions of an humbler but highly useful character have sprung from the ge- neral desire of knowledge which pnarks tlie present ; ge. Their object is to commnnicat.' iii Book I. ENGLAND. Hfc knowledge to the commercial classes, as well as to persons who bnve not opportunities for a- regular course of study ; and the chief means employed for this purpose are, a library, a rciding- room, and courses of lectures. Of these establishments, the first in eminence is the Koyal Institution, founded in 1800, which has now an excellent library, and at which annual lectures are given by distinguished men of science. "Vhe London Institution, founded five years afterwards, has of late been conducted with renovated spirit, and may at length answer the expectations and intentions of its founders. The Russell and other institutions difVbse the benefits of instruction through the city and suburbs. All the great commercial cities and most of the manufacturing towns have now their public libraries; indeed, Liverpool may claim the merit of having given the example to the metropolis in the foundation of her Athcnieum and Lyceum. 1680. Of the Fine Arti, that of painting was, during a long period, greatly neglected in Enfflnnd, to the astonishment of those who expected that a nation eminoat in intellectual attainments would have favoured so congenial a pursuit. Portrait painting, indeed, always met with encouragement. Yet Vandyke, the leader in this branch of iirt, was a foreigner. It was only toward the close of the lust century that Reynolds furmed a style decidedly English, and of distinguished excellence. Thenceforward the patronage of liis late mi^esty, inviting by its example the co-operation of private individuals, giive a decided impulse to the art, and the enterprising liberality of Alderman Boydell, in particular, called forth the dormant talents of native professors who had been deterred from emulating those of the fbrcign schools. In history. West, Stothard, Fuseli, and Northcote; in landscape, the unrivnllGd Wilson, and after him Turner, Collins, Callcott ; in familiar life, Wilkic and Mulready ; and in other departments, men of diirercnt degrees of genius ; raised the British school to at least an equal rank with those of continental nations in modern times. The department of portrait painting, in particular, enjoys a large share of public favour, and is regaining the ascendancy over that of history, the taste fur which seems to be on the decline. IflBl. The Royal Academy, under the immediate patronage of the king, consists of forty artists, including the president, while a number of others are attached in expectancy as associates. There are four professors, viz. of painting, of architecture, of anatomy, and of |j(rs|iective, who annually read public lectures on the subjects of their several departments. To the schools of this academy free admission is given to all students properly qualified for rcciiving instruction, and there is an annual exhibition of paintings, sculpture, and architec- tural designs, to which all artists may send their works fur admission, if approved by the committee appointed to judge them. For the farther encouragement of n.itivc talent, the British Institution was founded in 1805 ; it has a gallery in Pall Mall, which is annually opened, during a fixed period, for the exhibition and sale of the works of British artists. Subsequent to this annual exhibition, an assemblage of works by ancient masters is usually formed, to which students have access, and which is exhibited to the ])ublic for a limited time. 1G82. Public collections ofpaintingn arc of national advantage, as tliey ailbrd the means of judging by comparison the merits of the ancient and modern schools. In England, at an early period, some splendid collections had been formed, particularly that of Charles I. ; but when the nation came under the sway of austere men who " cared for none of these things," the pictures contained in it were dispersed, and the greater part of them conveyed abroad. Tlie palaces, however, still retaineds even of the twelve cartoons of Ilaphoel, and some master- pieces of the Italian schools. At later periods, some private collections gained celebrity : that formed at Houghton by Sir Robert W.-ilpole was the most valuable, but it was pur- chased, at his death, by the Empress of Russia. It was not until the convulsions caused on the Continent by the French revolution, that England gained an opportunity of accumu- lating treasures which she had at length learned to appreciate. Works of art, preserved from the wreck of princely fortunes, and consigned for sale to relievo the distresses of their pissessors, became objects, of eager competition among the noble and the opulent of this favoured country. The splendid collection formed by .the regent Duke of Orleans was im- ported entire, and the greater part of it now embellishes the gallery of Lord Francis Egvrtcn. The nobles of Italy, also, on the devastation of that country, were obliged to strip their palaces of these valued ornaments, and to dispose of them at low rates to English speculators. From those sources were formed the Grosvenor, the Angerstein, and many other rich private collections : thus the trcasuri>s of art in England, according to Mr. Buchanan, were more than doubled. Still the nation looked on with indifference ; and it was not until 1824, when, on the death of Mr. Angerstein, the valuable assemblage of pic- tures left by that gentleman was likely to be dispersed, that ministers proposed to parliament to purchase it, and make it the basis of a national gallery. The time was past when such an establishment on a much grander scale might have been at once furmed at a compara- tively small expense, and enriched with the choicest treasures of France, Italy, and Spain. The National Gallery, however, has received important additions, both by bequest or gift from Mr. Ilolwell Carr, Lord Farnborough, and others, and by purchase from the Mar- quess of Londonderry, Mr. Beckford, &c. ; so that it is beginning to attoin a magnitude accordant with the wishes and greatness of the nation. To contain these works of art, an ass DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P*M III. •diSee hM lately been built of coniiderable eiteiit, and the portiooi at leaat, of which i^ _^ «Ief(anoo ; but a lari^c portion is aa vet appropriated to the eshibitiona of the Rojral Academy! 1683. Sculpture is another of the flne arts which Engiand waa tardy in promoting* but It has now attained to great eminence, though confined to what may lie called the Kulpturcd portrait, and to monumental and historic memorials. 1684. Architecture has been Judiciously patronised by the successive sovereigns and the principal nobility of England j and many recent specimens, both in the Grecian and the Gothic style, reflect honour on the living professors of the art. 1685. Engraving necessarily followed as a subsidiary to the arts of painting, sculpture, and architecture. The first masters of this art in England who rose to high enunence were Woollctt, Strange, and Vivares ; with them, among later artists, may be ranked Sharpe, Bartoloisi, Schiavonetti, Landseer, Bromley, Findcn, Burnet, and Scott, whose productions have gained for them a welUmerited and lasting reputation. In tcientiflc engraving, Wilson Lowry stood unrivalled ; he may indeed be said to have carried this useful branch of the graphic art to perfection. 1686. Music was at all times admired rather than systematically cultivated in England. If not permitted to claim Handel as her own, she can boast few native compositions com- parable with those of Italy and Germany ; though Furccl and Matthew Lock may rank among the first masters. Her cathedral music is indeed admirable for sublimity and palhoi • but her lighter productions, consisting chiefly of songs, ballads, and glees, are suited only to enliven the theatre or the convivial assembly. An impulse, however, was given to the culti. vation of the art in its higher departments, by the institution of the Philharmonic Society in 1813. Native composers and performers of the first eminence have arisen in England, and her wealth has attracted the most distinguished professors from foreign countries. £i. hibitions of musical skill on a comprehensive scale have not been confined to the mutropolia; for in different provincial cities periodical festivals have been held, in which, at vast eipense, the chief instrumental and voctd talent in the kingdom has been concentrated. By thew means, and by others which fashionable refinement has devised, or which public charity hia called to its aid, a taste for music has been very widely diffused. 1687. The literature of England is eminently prolific ; and as the public taste for novelties especially in the lighter departments, is insatiable, the publishing and selling of books formi one of the principal branches of her productive industry. The number annually published may be calculated from data afforded by existing regulations relative to the supply of a copy of every new work to each of the national libraries. In 1817, the British Museum received eight folios, eighty quartos, seven hundred and sixty-one octavos, and two hundred and eighty-seven duodecimos. There being also a considerable number not entered at Stationers' Hall, or not delivered, the entire value could scarcely be less than 600/. ; and allowing an average sale of seven hundred and fifty of etch work, the produce would fall little short of half a million. The number of old books sold in each year might perhaps be valued at half that amount. The proverbial complaint of the poverty of authors may now be consi. dered as in a great measure redressed ; at least it may be observed, that a popular writer often obtains an amount of copyright suflicient to maintain him in comfort, if not in afflu- ence. Periodical literature has a very extensive circulation. In the metropolis nearly siity magaxines and reviews are published, of which the monthly value has been estimated at 6000/. Another important characteristic of the national spirit may be remarked in th« immense circulation of newspapers, notwithstanding a heavy stamp-duty, the policy of which is very questionable. There arc in Loni'.on eight daily morning papers, and five daily evening papers ; seven papers published tliricr a week ; and upwards of forty weekly papers. Of the latter species of newspaper, every provincial city has two or three, and every town of consequence has one. Tlicse journals contain debates in parliament, public and domestic news, prices of funds, of grain and other cimmodities, anecdotes and miscellaneous noticei of every kind : their chief profit arises f^om the advertisements. The total number of stamps issued for the London newspapers in 1832 was 21,432,882. The total produce of the duty in tliat year was 490,451/. 6s. Sd. I6S8. The favourite amutementt of the Engliah are thou which combine the advantages of air and exerciir. The (tage, though eminently rich in dramu, and supplied with actors of high talent, is not here, aa on the Con- tinent, the habitual reaort of the people. In former timet hunting waa almost the sole butiiiess of lil'e amoni the English squire* ; and though their tastes are now much varied, thia original pastime, in all ita forma, con- tinues to be eagerly followed. By the nobility and gentry, horse-racing la aupported with equal aidour. and no country rivals England in the high excellence to which she hat brought the breed of animalt employed in thia diversion. The racet of Doncatter, of York, and above all of Newmarket, are attended by tne most dii. Unguithed persona in the country for rank and opulence ; and other race-courses attract great multitudes of mitceltaneout spectatort. The deep stake*, however, and the practice of laying high beta on favourite horact, operate too atrongly at an Incentive to gambling. Among the common people Iwxing matchea present a similar occasion of laying wagers : but their popularity has been on the decline since certain unexuccted retults excited doubt* respecting the good Calth of tome combatant*, and luapicion* of the corruptibility of othen. Bull.balting, thougn a ttill more bariiaroui amutement, wa* put down only by (tatute ; and a legUlator of tome note argued earnestly agaiiut it* abolitioa The amutementt of thote who con*titute the fluMonable world ti* nearly the tame which prevail elsewhere among peraon* of that claaa. The French, in their criticisms on our national habits and manners, say that our'tocialentertainment* ore formed let* for the enjoyment of the guettt than for the dttplay of thewealto and importance of the hoit : that our balls are too crowded for dancing, our iouvertaxionei for conversation, and even our dinner parties for eating in comfort. Of the national out-door BookL lames, Ihute of ci tiiil Invigorate th< I6KI, h their ha coiniwml with the ariety. In regal oulil bt> incnti ninlornli'ly, even i pltliiciit iimmicr, a brIiiK, iHTliniM, an love ti> lii, Portugal, an durti of the Kren ,«Uon<, hut bccumi 1690. Englan Edward I., was inferior magnitu iiilional peculiar 1691. The dill Each county is u and quorum, whi England is forty, table, collected f extent, populatioi CanUas. II H lU 'mim . *M ^kt ■ - W 'bucIu - - 748 Ciiiil)ridge 686 Chester (ii) 1.017 Corowall - l.«7 Cumberland 1.497 S IX'rtyi*) - 1.077 S Deron UnnM . _ S,48S 1 lou IS Durli«m(c) 1,010 4 £Hci(d) Gloucc*. ) ter(f) j 'Hereford • Hcnrorri • iHuntlngdon l/)«5| 6 1,138 9 I »71 1 608 3 345, |K«n»(/) . |1,«2 16 l1 l"lMtiTll«U . »,T7.'i NtlliK'k »,wt DOOK I- ENGLAND. 30S nniMi (haw of cricket and tennii detenre eipeclal commendMion, flrom their tendenry to enliven the iptrltt iiM InvlKorate the (Vun& 168!). M "Mr kaiilt and modn <\f orihurg Hfi, the Kngllih may bo called a domntic people, npcclally when (oiniwrt'd with the French. Their dreii la not remarkable for any thins but Iti general neatneu, aptitude, and nnwrlctv. Ill reward to fixKl. their toitc it perha|w ti» much Inclined to that which l» lolld ami lutelantlal, though II iniiulii be mentioned to tnclr crnlit, that, aa they require no rich •aucrs to itlniiilate appetite, they eat mora mmU'rati'ly, even ol' animal fond, than the I'reiich and the Germana. liouat beef or other vlanda cooked In the pUliivtt Miaiiiivr, accord with the unaouhlatlcated taale of the Knallah, and the rcpaat la not alowly dcapatchej, briiig, |K'rlm|», uii object of leaa conaiucratlon here, than It la with our continental nelghboura. The Kngllah love ti> tlliic toKcllicr In large coiupanlca on any public occaaiun which can aHhrd a plaualblv pretext for auch III riilcrtaliinieiit. A great dinner, followed by a long train of toaata, forma the bond of union to all political ntlli't, and to ail (latrlotlc, iH'nevoiciit, and even rellgioua aaaociatlona. In the mctro|xilta, varioui anniver. uriiii arc celcbratnl by |ieraona who are natlvea of the aamc county, or who have been educated at the aamo iHitillc ■('hull, or at the aame college In either unlveraity. It la not the moat uncommon thing In the world till the Klcwimla or committee of theae meetlnga to dine together on aome day iirevioua to the dinner, for th« pumwi' III' ordering It, and again on aome day after it, for that of diacharging tnc bill In coimnon with other liurtlicrn natlona, the Engllan retain a taatu for fermented or diatllled llquora, which, however, haa been In ■ irrat ini'iuure corrected and aubdued among the higher and middle claaaea. lieer and |iortcr conatltute the iU|ili> ilriiik of the great body of the people ; but malt aplrit of a cheap and very pemicloua kind la atlU con. luinnl In too great quantitiea by the lowcat of the lower ordera, eapcclally In the metro|iolla, where, to the niiriMi-h nf the leglalature. It la rapidly accelerating their degeneracy. Among the middle claaaea the wlnci of ^itln, I'urtugal, and Madeira arc In general uae j but the cellara of the rich are atored with the cholceat pro. ilurti of the French vincyarda. Convivial exceaa, ao long the reproach of the Engliah among foreign .itlioni, hiu become comparatively rare, and la wholly dlacountcnanced in all rellncd and elegant (oclety. Sccrr. VII, Local Geography^ 1690. England and WaUi arc divided into counties or shires. Wales, until the time of Edward I.« was an independent principality, but is now an appendent territory, of very inferior magnitude. It has still, however, its own courts of judicature, and retains some iitiional peculiarities. 1691. The dimion of England into counties o- shiret was originally made by Alfred. Each county is undei the jurisdiction of a lord lieutenant, a sheriff', and justices of the peace and quorum, who hold sessions for the trial of petty offences. The number of counties in England is forty, and in Wales twelve ; making in all fifty-two. The following statistical table, collected Arom various sources, will be found to concentrate a general view of the cttent, population, employment, and wealth of each county : — Mllml ■ Wilu ■ - 1 Web . . Cunbrldgc Chatcr (a) ConiwaU - lumlMrland •iVrby;*) . Devon DoiNt . . Durham (c) EiKl(d) . Gloucca- 4li0 7+* 748 686 1,017 1,W7 1,497 1,077 S,483 1.129 1,010 Homaa IIK. and uiiwaida. Ranul ofHouaaa, let if) j i'>'**| 971 608 MS, Kerrford Hcrtfont iHuntingdon ,K«it(/) 723 3.7U 1,894 8,645 1.784 8,858 3,400 S.S87 12.397 a,051 4,869 6,884 9.080 1,794 8.490 945 1,462 16,189 18,619 83,578 35,655 49,781 98,854 48.117 48,040 45.633 837.000 57.868 69.471 139.806 851.974 30.484 70,899 16.791 347.110 Popula- llon lUl. Income in 1814-15 arlaing fh>m 95,383 145,889 146,529 143,955 331.410 303,440 169,681 837.170 494,168 159,352 853.827 317,233 3(U,876 719,889 663,872 705,371 1,114,927 922,358 737.438 883,370 1,924,912 786.863 885.580 1,584.108 386.904 110,976 143,341 53,149 479.155 1,315,723 629,15fi 583,tiS7 325.694 1,687,442 Trade. £ 94,796 899,703 322,981 839,687 889,309 230,118 179,752 810,583 754.'4U 841,634 853,631 603,935 367,843 61,851 Sfi8,989 68,401 1,686,288 Offlcaa. £ 1,481 3,217 1,998 5,109 4,807 3,233 3,«7 8,908 9,471 4,003 3,771 8,630 8.897 8,790 4,319 4.156 19,318 ^1 26,eos 77.! 46,297 43,000 38,800 52,300 52,248 Poor Halea 1830. Cities and Towna. £ 96,994 129,533 158,483 115,163 1^,102 ,986|121,202 58,850 108,3(13 250,713 104,888 100,616 320,541 201,408 70,000 115,098 50,098 399,686 Bedford • 6,959 C Reading • 15,595 \ Wlndaor • 7,103 C Newbury . 5,959 r Buckingham - 3,610 I Ayleabury . 5,021 r Cambridge. 20,917 lEIy . - 6,189 r Chester . 21,363 I Maccleaaeld - 23,129 r Launceaton • 8,831 I Falmouth • 4,760 r Carlisle • 80,006 } Whitehaven • 11,393 Derby . "'"'" r Exeter {Plymouth . 40,651 I Uuvoniiort . 34,883 r Weymouth } Poole ( Sherborne r Durham . \ Sunderland rColcheater i Harwich }Sa«VonWalden4,7fi8 ( Gloucester • 11,93.')| jBrlatol . - 1 Tcwkeabury ■ (CIrenceater . Hereford - Hertford . Huntingdon C Canterbury ■ 1 Oentford and 1 Greenwich . 44,348 (Malditone - 15,387 7.656 6,459 4,075 10,135 17,060 16,167 4,897 ,93'1| 59,07* 5,780 5,4ao| 10,388i 5,247 3,267 13,648 lilNinnrlch • <,«IM1 |(«) Oataaliraa -15,177 1 Stocklon - • W I'hnUtnild ■ ft,77S Btdiop Wear- South Bhielda NtUiKt i,t6t moulh • 14,46a (J) Chalnuiant 7,763 I (<) Chcllenham ■ 8H,94!i 9,074 Htroud - • 8,607 M39 I/) Kootatatei . 8,891 Deal - . 7,i68 Maniata - .10,3.19 KaniigaU 7,»8S >m DESCRirTIVC GEOGRAPHY. Tablk — eontinuttl. Pa»i III. Income In 1814-15 arlaing ttam - Coun7 Norwich . 61,11,; Yiirmnuth . ai.ll.'i North, ainpton 1)65 2,237 40,327 179,276 9»7,.778 I85,2W 1,431 - - 173,018 NDrlhnnipton l.,,ij| I'eliTboroiigh . ,V«i Northum-' l>erlnnd(>/) l,80!l 6,140 120,424 222,912 1,291412 436,404 5,76.'! 5!l,!)00 88,035 Newcastle . 4^,1^)1 .Berwick . . %iK« Nottingham 774 3,597 71,3(16 225,320 751,626 314,.WI 2,07:! . ■ 106,707 Nottingham .5(i,(i8(i Newark . '\'y,; Oxfurd. ■ 7« 3,628 r,l,Hfi!» 151,72(1 7!lO,8(Vi 312,809 4,H1,1 . 151,235 Oxford . . 2u,(Mi riliith . . 3N,ii(i'i Somerict {e^ 1,HU 16,568 512,909 403,908 2,.308,753 1,.329,265 13,827 20,100 2O!),560 < llridgcwHtcr . 7,8!/; (Tiiuiiton . ll,l,i|i 8'>uthamp' > ton -J l,r.33 9,3ti2 198,321 314,313 1,210,547 923,713 10,751 8,700 'i39,122 (•Southamirton. l!»,|J| ■ \ l'or(Hmoii(h . ;i\:i,f) tWinchestor . 8,7lv fStallhrd - (i,!«i; Ncwc.istlc . S.lliS ( Lichflvlil . n,l!«.< Staflbrd (/) i,i'.in 6,122 108..W7 410,485 lji00,)24 .036,720 10,826 (8,600 171,578 r liiswich . SivJM SuflbU. • l,5fi(i 3,573 61,909 296,304 1,151,301 4.V},484 11,972 • - 299,684 lllury St. Ell. C inunds . ll,l;Vi Surrey - - 811 33,865 964,438 486,326 1,589,701 1,.')61,532 J1,02.T - • 321,304 rSouthwark . lil,,*] (.(iiiildfurd . :l,ti|i; c llriglUon . 4(i,c.H • I I,cwe« . 8/i!1 6,818 802,837 272,328 919,350 372,058 4,01(1 . . 289,051 I'llirmingliam ll<;,!iMi , Coventry . 27,(Cii C Warwick . U,ll 14,411 83,167 312,.776 I9,tr77 305 . 41,139 Denbigh - . 3,786 Flint in) . . . 176 3,W. 60,012 17i,llS 11,6(>6 795 15,400 25,513 Holywell - 8,S69 Merioneth . • 292 4,578 35,609; 112,516 7,261 68 . 16,760 Dolgclly . 4,087 38,665 Wcrshimol . S,ffiS Montgomery • - 8. \fk\.%a. 605 7,971 66,4H5| 212,083 18,748 794 " - Brecknock • - 460 7,599 47,763' 161,989 22,783 560 . 20,928 Brecknock - 5,0ai Cardigan (o) 736 74 94aironl - Hochilale ■ Pmum ■ Oldham • PllklnijOin Cronipton Bladtlmm Tniii!tt, Park Chorllon Ha« Wanrlimlon . 41, !» ■ 4(I,7HK . Vj,7.Vi ■ 33,111 • 3'.V'WI . II,l)0fi . 7,(K»t . 27,091 ■ ai,IWi7 . ai).',r,» . I6,iiia Hiiry . I'roHcot (6) liOUuhbo. Tough (r) Lynn KfKis * (>J) Tjrnomoulh ■ Nurlh Miields - Hfxiinm - MnriHfth • (O Wi-11» 1.'>,08fi b,Ob!) 10,800 13,.170 \U,Wi fi,7'll 6,1X2 3,h;((i 6,04!) (/) WolTcrliamp- ton llllilon . ((flHa«tin(j« (A) {.eaminKton - Kmllwvrth (() Duilley Kiildt'niiliuter Honihriilfic Evi^sham 44,7.12 14, m2 10,097 .VIS 6,209 3,097 23,043 11,981 6,118 3,991 Droilwlch {k) Whiib; - SrartKiruutfll Jleverlf; IKmcaiter Huddmfleld IlaHfax . Itradford BarniWy • Kt|K)n I'unlWract S,487 11,725 8,760 8,302 I0,H01 19,03A 1S,.382 23,233 lOAlO .'i,OHO 4,8,32 (0 Bangor . (m) Wri'Xhom • Maneolltm (nlMord . (lint . . (0) Abervitwith ■ (|i) Mertliyl Tjd- vil I'ardlfr - • (ft Havinfordweit Tenhy 4,H1 S,4U 8,630 8,0M !,il6 4,ltll 2S,0«3 6,1 »7 .1,»IS 2,l«!l Imt Canterbury r cross, and interscc were early iiitrodi of the great towiit nuuK I UNOI.ANU. -^»5 •niTg«iu. HIIT Mm ll . lil.-),17.1 at . VifiU m ai,77J r . a>,ji«i . • ILHI • ii,';4o ll . . 5.8,!: London iiiid ninatvr. Jth . \,m (ii.in; ih'. '.'1,113 iplon 1.0,151 roiixh . 5/«i Ic . viyim • . SJWI lam 50,tiWl . xvn • ■ 9u,m ury ■ 'il,495 k . I7,4.i; urth . 5,'.W . s.iT,) 3H,l»Vi filter . •,w, 1 - \\,\» npton ■ 19,1J» nith ■ M,m -StlT ■ n,-\i - ti,!tt(i tic . 8,1W ll . cm' - 2i),aii St. Ell. U ■ 11,4.« ark . iil.Sll ril . li.iiii; n - MKM . H^.h Iter . S,Ko {Iiani H 26,*i» • • m^ • 3(),293 d ■ 511,111 iris i,m att ■ « - . 4,7SI Jiam . 5,483 Urn . 8,630 , . »,0«6 . . 8,«16 •twilh . 4,1«S )»<•«»• Ak'ii/ loiMHraiihkiU iWlnih nf Knuliiutl, of which wc are nnw to give a I \h! I'uiivi'iilviltly ilialrlhiili'd iiiiilvr Iho iuMowiiiK iiibneclions : — 1. .'^nitherii l(i!('.'. Th<- iiHim-i r«piil uliiUh, may 1 ^ ^ (ountii'ii; '.'. Kuxturii I'uuulitw) :l. MIdhind couiitiv*; 4. Nurthvni couiitivt ; 5. W^tvru couiitii'i. 8lJ MNKI'T. Simlkern Counlie$. Ib'KI. Under tlti$ htail, A'tHi, Surrru, Swuft, Ikrkthire, Ilamtuhirc, H'Utiliire, and Dorsel, ilie I'tiiiiitii'H Kuiith ui' thv ThniiK'*, aiul iiluiig tliu Chnnnul, will l)c> coinprthvnded. Thi« fliiu diHirict 'i», ill Kviivrul, uf timt U'Vi'l i-lmrnctvr which is coininun to tliu greater part uf Eng- lanil. It in travvrN«Hl, huwvvvr, by raiigaa uf low hill* or downi, which, witliout producing the gri'iilvr vllcctH of hiiidiictipt'i aUv li> it n varied and picturesque aspect. Chalk is a prc- iiiiiniimiit feature in itode ; a handsome bathing-houjc a row of fine lime trees, and a covered jwrtico running along the principal promenade; an orchestra, theatre &C. The town has also a thriving little manufacture of wnat is called Tunbridge ware, consisting of various wooden ornaments, snuffboxes, tea-chests, dressing-cases, and children's toys. 1697. But the chief places qf Kent are maritime, the most ancient being those called the Cinque Ports. At an early period, they were considered the most important stations for tnc defence of the kingdom, and In. vested with corresponding duties and privileges. They were Iwund to fVirnish and equip fifty-seven vessels" each manned with twenty-one sailors; in return for which, their citizens held the rank of barons, occupied a distinguished place at the ceremony of the coronation, and sent two members to parliament from each iiort Their greatness is now departed. Of their harbours, some have liecn filled up by an accumulation of sand • and allthe great naval dcpAts of the kingdom have been established In other quartern. two 1698. The Kentish Cinque Ports are Dover, Sandwich, Hulhe, and Romney. The first, as the point at which 'o mighty and long hostile kingdoms directly face each other, is still a place of considerable note. The spa. spa. clous castle on a commanding eminence, the white and towering clifft, present to the approaching mariner an imposing spectacle As the main channel of communication with France, it maintains twenty-seven paikcU in constant service. Considerable exertions have been made to repair and improve the harbour, which admits vessels of 40 > or SCO tons. Dover shi res also in the general resort from London for the purirase of bathinir Folkestone, its dependency, has a coiisiderablo fishery of mackareL Komncy and Hythe are now of little maritime importance, though the former is noted for its adjacent territory of^ 50,000 acres, preserved by era. bankment firom inundation, and now covered with the richest pasture. Sandwich, situated on the east coast' though retaining itill about 8000 tons of shipping, unquestionably yields in importance to its nominal de' 140 DOVUl CAITLI. Baltic, and supplies the metropolis with grain and flsh. pendencies. Deal, Margate, and Hams, gate. Deal derives its prosperity from the vicinity of that fine anchorage, the Downs, where the outward-bound 6ects of England usually remain for a certain period, when they obtain supplies and rctVeshments from Deal It is a bustling, crowded, dirty sea. port Margate, of all the bathing. places to which the citizens of London resort, is the most crowded, thoujib not the most fashionable. If its vi. cinity does not abound in pictureaque beauty, its pier affords an agreeable marine promenade, and the establish, ment of stram-packets allows daily and speedy intercourse with the metropolii. It carries on also some trade with the Having risen within the last half century, it is built with regularity and elegance, and contains twelve marble baths, into which the sea-water is admitted for those wTio prefer that mode of bathing. Ramsgate, situated on the isle or rather peninsula of Thanet, is also frequented with the same view, possessing the advantage of a very smooth and extensive beach. Considerable improvements have been made in the hartwur at the expense of government, with the view to its yielding protection to vessels navigating this coast, where the dangerous shoals of the Goodwin Sands have otiten proved fatal Between IVlnrgate and Kamsgate is Broad Stairs, also a considerable waterin);. placa Proceeding up the Thames, we come to those vast works and depots belonging to that navy which has rendered Britain the mistress of the seas ; these are— 169!). Deptford, tf'oolwich, Chatham, and Sheemess ; the grand establishments for the construction of ships of war. Dcptford contains also the Victualling Office, a de|>artment of immense extent in time of war. Woolwich i is the dop6t of arKllery, and the theatre of all the operations connected with its construction and preparation. The first view of its grand park, and a large plain completely paved with cannon, strikes every beholder Willi astonishment Here is also the Itoyal Military Academy, in which about an hundred young men of resni'ctable family are trained in all the branches of knowlcHlge necessary for the engineering department ; and v, no, after a st'ict examination, are appointed to commissions in the service. Chatham is the grand magazine of naval stores, which are kept in the most perfect order in its immense warehouses. The ro|)e-housc is ll'J8 feet Ions, in which cables 101 fathoms in length, and upwards of two feet in circumference, arc constructed. Twenty forges arc constantly employed in the fabrication of anchors, some of which are five tons in weight Grest labour and expense have been employed in fortifying this important post, which, with the exception of I'orti. mouth, is now the strongest in Britain. Sheemess. on the Isle of Sheppey, is a smaller station, chiefly employed in the repair of shattered vessels, for receiving which its situation at the mouth of the Mcdway is very com. modinus. 1700. Greenwich, about two miles below Dcptford, is celebrated for its superb and extensive hospital {Jig. HI.) ... 1 [^ ... for disabled and superannuated ma. '■" 1 A ' ilj.^f^, riners. This edifice was begun by I Charles II., on a design of Inigo I Jones, as a royal palace, in which character it may be said to possea a grandeur which has not gicrhapi yet been equalled. It remained unll- 1 nished and neglected, until the reign I of William III., when government I determined to convert it into a naval I hospital ; in which view another I wing was added, upon the design of I Sir Christopher Wren. 'IVo othen I were built by Queen M.-iry and I Queen Anne, and the whole four I now enclose a grand and cxtentive I square. The hospital, enriched by i successive dr r, itiona from govern. I ment and (Vom Individuals, and hy 1 1 tax of (irf. a month from every seaman, I now su|>ports 3000 boarders, and payi I pensions to .5400 in difl'errnt quarters of the kingdom. On a hill in the centre of Ureenwich park stand* the I celebrated observatory, ftiriiished with the best iubtruments that can be obtained for perfecting those obscrv. I ations by which British vessels arc guided through the most distant seas. Nor has it served only this practical I OHUINWICH BlifFITAt.. Book I. ENGLAND. alaco I Milt by his lute majesty, in this favourite spot, has been tlie subject of controversy as to its architectural I Qslei but none can withhold flom it the praise of agreeable variety of effect, and all must acknowledge the iplemlour with which i.. has been fXirnished. Towards the sea, the chain pier is the distinguishing feature of Bnghton, and aflbrds great convenience to the packets betwetu this port and those of France. Arundel, on te.^ruii, is rather a thriving port, whence a good deal of timber is exported. In all the iwrts of Sussex, I Mc is a considerable fishery, particularly of mackarel, for the Ix)ndon market 1704. Siirrei/ fills up tlie inland space between Sussex and the Thames. Its aspect is I iirioiis. The rough downs and bleak heaths which cover so much of the south of England, I lie licre peculiarly extensive. These rude and often bold features, contrasted with the nume- I rous fine parks and wooded districts, give to its scenery a striking and picturesque character. I Tbeir influence, however, on its productiveness, is much less favourable ; and, notwith- I {landing the encouragement aflbrded by the vicinity of the metropolis, the agriculture is sup- I posed to be less advanced than in other pak-'s of the kingdom. Though the great impulse I of the last thirty years has had the effect os reclaiming a considerable portion, there are Impposed to be still upwards of seventy thousand acres almost entirely waste. Southwark is I in Surrey ; but it is too entirely a part of London to be treated separately from the rest of I that capital. Guildford, Godalming, Croydon, Kyegate, Dorking, are neat pleasant little I turns. The last in particular, placed in the most variegated part of the downs amidst emi> litnces crowned with fine seats, is one of the pleasantest retreats in England. Along the Iwthem bank of the Thames are likewise many fine spots : Kew, with its palace and jiDc gardens, containing valuable and curious plants from every quarter of the world ; Rich- and its hill, which commands so expansive and magnificent a view of the Thames I linding among wooded parks and palaces. Camberwell, Clapham, and other villages in I ilic immediate vicinity of the capital, wear a very gay aspect, being entirely composed of the liniamcntvd villas of opulent citizens. Surrey has also for the supply uf London a great Iment of garden ground, and many acres covered with various medicinal and aromatic Iflants. The seals arc numerous and fine, but none very prominent, except the royal resi> lienccs already mentioned, with Claremont Park, so interesting as the favourite abode of the ' t Princess Charlotte, and St. Anne's Hill, a beautiful villa on the Thames, where Mr. Fox jjissed many of the latter years of his life in literary retirement. 1705. Berkshire, continued westward from Surrey, occupies the whole southern bank of likTIiamus as far as Lechlade, where that river first assumes an important character. The linWi range is continued tarough the southern part of this county, rendering it fit only for Itop pasture ; and a great expanse of its eastern border is occupied by forests, the principal li^vhich is that of Windsor. Notwithstanding these deductions, more than half its e\tent lionsists of fine arable land. It sends to London a great quantity of excellent flour, and also of liialt. The sheep fair of Ilsley is reckoned the most considerable in the kingdom, the annual liiimbcr sold averaging two hundred and fifty thousand. The hogs also of this county are Ikbigh repute. Berkshire has the advantage of being watered by the Kennpt and several Itibutaries to the Thames, and also of being traversed by two canals, the Berks and Wilts, Iffid th'j Kennet and Avon. The cloth fabrics, however, which a century ago were consider- liilc, have disappeared ; and it is now only remarkable for the manufacture of copper into lilxets and bolts, by mills, which are esteemed the most complete and powerful in the :dom. The metal is brought from Swansea to the annual extent of six hundred to one linusand tons. J K Reading, the capital of Berkshire, is a place somewhat remarkable in history, as several parliaments ■me held there, and a siege of considerable length was sustained during the period of the civil war. It still laioyskomc prosiierity, through the residence of a number of wealthy lunilies, and the export of the rich pro. ItoenI the fertile surrounding district |1>" Ifiiirfjor, however. Is the pride of Berkshire, both from the lieauty of its site, on an eminence near the Pmies, anr the magnificcnco of Its royal castle (Jig. 142.), which crowns the summit and forms a commanding Cc 2 3AR DESC11I1»TIVK CJKOORAPHY. I'aut III. rcniiiro III llio |)r alto iMitli ul' town and cnstlc wcrp KrantcU oy Edwanl tlu' ('oiil'vuur til the HbtH'y iit Wi'klinlimti'ri but VVillliiiii I. oxclinntsvd It fur loim- lamb in bjucx, and cuiibtnictcd HIMiiHill CAMTLII* lueriineiilal fanning. I7(i.s, •/'/((• oMi »• lowHt (it /liikahiir arc small, but ancient and noal. Abingdon, Farringdon, Newbury, once the sent of a great woollen maniilacture, and where two obstinate luittles were fought in 1(>I3 and 1611. Maidenhead llbriiivrly Mauiliithe^ on the Thames, is beautil^illy encircled with villas. ITii'i. >S't'(i/,v. Froginore, the neat small p.ilaee of the late Uueen Charlotte, siirroundeil by fine retirc^l gardens. I'ark I'iace, near llenluy on Thames, the gruuinls of which arc very beautiful. There arc also llllnlc^llu^ line villas on a ■mailer scale 1710. Ifiimpihire, bi'twooi) Herks mid tlio sea, In a fine and important count)'. Ileto iiro the uxtoiiMivo roiniiiiis of tliosu Kriiiid t'orctt* wliicli once overspread so great a part of KiiXlaiid. 'I'lu' principal is tliu New l-'orcst, covering the whole south-western part of tliu eoufity, horderiiiR mi tlie ("hniinel and the hay of Soulhampton. From this tract of about !»'.',;l(),'i acre», the ruthless tyranny of William the Conqueror drove out all the wretched inliahitants, and deinoliHiied the puri.sh churches, that the royal sports might he carried on uiidisturhed. The forests of Hex, Holt, Alice, Ac, containing upwards of .10,000 acres, heloiig also to the crown. The wood is chiefly nak and beach ; the former with a short thick Hunk and stron(j crooked branches, rendering it of excellent service as knee timber for the navy. The extent of these forests, with their many-coloured foliage, and the deep gladw and oiillivnted tractK intervening, exhibit all the varieties and beauties of forest seeiiery. Numerous herds of royal iloor travers*.- their recesses ; while its masts, acorns, and other pro- Dj^k !• ENGLAND. 389 WINCI1S5TRII CATHUDRAI.. ducc, are most btiiioficially appropriated to feeding hogs in great number and of vast size, wcigliing sometimes eight liundred pounds, and producing the bust bacon in the king- dom. The chalky downs that traverse the county are not such as to render it rugged or sterile ; they every virhere afford excellent pasture for sheep, and are even capable, with good management, of being brought under the plough. Many of the valleys are very rich, and tlie system of management is good ; so that Hampshire is altogether a very productive province. 1711. Winc/iester c\a.\m> precedence over Southampton as capital of Hampshire; and is, perhaps, the most aiu'iciit and venerable of all the cities in England. During the ^eatcr part of the Saxon period, it ranJiwl as the niL'tropolis of the Icingdom. It had at one time upwards of nnicty ehurnhes and chapels, with colleges and monasteries attached to them. Being fVequented on account of its fairs, and chosen as one of the staples for wool, it became at one neriod the seat of a very extensive commerce. After tlie Norman conquest, when London became gradually the royal residence, the decline of Winchester commenced, and was accelerate(l nhtiup of thu Donvtiihlre breed. On the north of these downs, however, arc luxuriant mi>tuluw8, tiup|K)rtlng Vttluablo breeds of horses and cattle ; while on the south are Aiie arable plitinN, yluldlitg grain muiii beyond tlie con- sumption of the island. Tlie myrtle and viiig Hourlith in tlie open air, which is renderi>d fragrant by numerous other plants and flowers. Tlu< Ulnnd, however, is chiefly celebrated for its striking and peculiar scenery ; the grand vltiWH of land and sen enjoyed from its high open downs ; the deep and dp- k ravines of il« suutlivrn Kliure, and the bold romantic cliffs which it there presents to the expanse of the EiigliMJi (lliitiihel. One of the most conspi. cuous features is the range c coast called the Uudi^ri'liir. " Bold clilfj," says Mr. Wind- ham, " low lands or declining shores, are the UNiial liouttdarieB of the ocean ; but here a wall-like precipice of lofty rock extends about tt uiilij iVotn the sen t in this interval of rock and water, colossal fragments of stone, torn or sunk (ViMn the precipice, are scattered below in the most irregular confusion. These masse*) are of niii'Ii ponderous magnitude, that tliey form high eminences of the most capricious shapes, whilu their intermediate spaces become deep valleys, in which houses are built, and even nith treeN and elms are seen to flourish, sheltered from the storms and spray of the sea by tliu liuspltablo and lofty shades of the fragments." This district, when viewed fVoi" the Men, presents the appearance of a series of gigantic steps rising from the shore. Itself Ntvvpi to the summit of the great per- pendicular wall. The chines, or chasms, with torrviitit bursting through them, are also characteristic features. The most picturesque is that of Shnnltlln, the opposite sides of which, about three hundred feet high, approach eneli other till they leave scarcely space for the rivulet to penetrate ; and are grotesipiely llnt'd with shrubs, bushes, and a fevt- trees. Farther to the east, immediately under St. C'utherliiv'» 1 1 ill, the highest spot on the island, is Blackgang Chine. Two rapid torrents here roll through separate chasms, till, uniting, they form a stream of much greater breadth, nnd at a short distance the whole body of water rushes down a rock forty feet high. This chine Imi notliing of the gay and ornamented appearance of that of Shanklin. Not a shrub elotheit Its sides, composed only of rugged and mouldering rocks ; the whole <■< u is dark, grand, and nwt\it. 1716. The western part of the Isle of Wight preNVDlM also verv striking objects. At its farthest extremity rises a succession o^ rugged and nointed clitlti, called the Needles; an object of some danger to the mariner, though of admirallun to the curious spectator. Fifty years ago, one of these, which rose to the height of iWO fvet, fell, with a crash which shook the whole island, and was felt as far as Southaniptun ) and no vestige of it has ever since been seen above the waves. Westward extends Allunt or Freshwater Bay, presenting a range of magnificent white clifls, rising pcrpendU'ularly to the height of 500 or GOO feet. These dreadful precipices are inhabited by gulls and pulFliiNi the eggs of which arc taken by the daring islander, suspended in a basket, which is tlxvtl by n rope to the summit. Several large cavities occur, particularly that called I'VeHliwatiT (!ave, which opens with great mag- nificence, and forms two arches having their sidk-s cuveryd with muss and weeds, and the entrance obstructed by large fragments of rock. 1717. The eastern shore of the isle, where it faces the CIibiuigI, presents the Culver Cliffs, a range of precipices which, in grandeur and rugg^dnemt, are not surpassed by any other on the island. The coast, however, which ranges along thu bay of Spithead is diversified only with gentle hills; and the chief interest is In viewing those immense ranges of shipping which fill that road and the opposite haven of PurtNUUitilli. 1718. The caatte qf Carisbrook, in the very centre of the l»li»nil, l» on Hticlcnt nllflcc, In which the unfortu. nate Chailcs L was for some time imprisoned. It a|i|)eitr' to hHVt< ImMl Imllt bv William FItz Osborne, about the time of the Conqueror, but was unlargeil by lucctissivti (iwntim, nml imttluumrly by Klljabcth. I'lio walls were at one time three quarters of a mile in clrciimt'vrcncii, mirriiiniili'il by n ilecp illtch, and considered in those days as impregnable. Even in Us statu of pro|(ncen much frequented, especially since George III. made it his favouri'o rerort during the season. 1722. The principal seals. Sherborne Castle, the reside nee of the Earl of Digby ; rather a fine old mansion : formerly occupied by Sir Walter Italeigh. Lulworth C istle Milton Abbey, the residence of the earls of Dorchester Corfe Castle, an ancient fortress of great sfrength and extent, where Edward, king of the West Saxons, fell a victim to his mother-in.Iaw, ElfVida. It is now uninhabited, and a complete ruin, having t>cen blown up by order of Oliver Cromwell 1723. initshire, which concludes our southern list, is a large and fine county, which almost approaches to the character of the western manufacturing districts. The long range of chalk hills here terminating, forms that large table land which separates the county into two divisions, called North and South Wilts, and is termed Salisbury Plain ; a vast, naked, undulating surface, which aflbrds pasturage for sheep. The northern part of Wilt- shire, watered by the Thames, is chiefly underwood and pasture, and supports a valuable breed of cattle, from whose milk is made the excellent cheese bearing the name of the pro- fince. The arable land does not much exceed a fifth of the whole extent. Wiltshire is a manufacturing county. The woollen fabrics, in quitting the southern districts, where they once generally flourished, have remained here to a considerable extent. There is not, as in the north, any metropolitan seat of the manufacture ; but a number of flourishing little towns carry it on separately. The produce is of the finest description ; superfine broad- cloth, kerseymeres, and what are called fancy articles ; to which we may add, fine flannels at Salisbury, and at Wilton the carpets which bear its name, and rank next to those of oriental manufacture. There are also, in detached places, some cutlery, linen, and cotton, though not on a great scale. 1724. Salisbury, the capital of Wiltshire, though not of very great extent, is a handsome and well-built town. The streets are spacious and regular, crossing each other at right angles, and kept extremely clean by streams of water, derived from the river Avon, running through each. These channels were formerly open, but are now mostly covered ji". The pride of Salisbury is its cathedral {Jig. 145.) commenced in 1219, and completed in 1258, which, though it may not possess the imposing grandeur of York Minster, is considered the most elegant and finished Gothic structure in the kingdom, and at tlic same time the most regularly built, having been founded after the demolition of the very ancient cathedral of Old Sarum. It has also the loftiest spire, rising to the height of four hundred and ten feet. The chapter-house is universally admired, and contains some curious specimens of antique carving in stone. Salisbury was formerly noted for its flannels and cutlery, but both these have declined. It is a place of much resort, not only from its importance as the county town, but from the vicinity of nu- merous seats of the nobility and gentry. 1725. Old Sarum, or the locally denominated OldCastle, exhibits on the summit of a hill traces of the ancient fortress of the carls of Salisbury, which have a very singular and imposing appearance, though scarcely a fragment of the walls has been left. 1726. Wiltshire has a number of neat thriving little towns, in which fine woollen manu- factures are carried on with activity : Devizes, Marlborough, Chippenham, Malmsbury, Warminster, Wilton, &c. Most of them are pretty ancient, and adorned with fine old churches, 1727. Stonehenge (fg. 146.), near the little town of Amesbury, in a comer of Salisbury, Plain, is the most remarkable monument of antiquity in the island, and now supposed to be the remnant of a temple of the Druids. " It consists," says Mr. Sullivan, " of th« remains of two circular and two oval ranges, having one common centre. The outer circle Cc 4 iALIIBURV OATHBDRAL. aw DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. ITOT(inSK0B. is one hundrei] and eight feet in diameter, and in its perfection consisted of thirty upright 146 stones. The upright stones are from eighteen to twenty feet high, from six to seven broad, and about three fei't thick ; and being placed at the distance of three fcvc and a half from each other, arc joined at the top by imposts or stones laid across. The inner circle is somewhat more than eight feet from the inside of the outward one, and consisted originally of forty smaller stones ; of which there are abou* nineteen left, and of these only eleven standing. The walk between these circles is three hundred feet in circumference; and from this walk the structure has a surprising and awful etTect," In the interior of all are two oval ranges, supposed to be the principal part of the work, composing the cell or adytum. The stones that form it ore stupendous, some of tlitm measuring thirty feet in height. The whole number is computed to have been originally one hundred and forty. 17CS. No count]/ in England, perhaps, is adorned with so many ami luch flnc seals as It'Ulshire. Wilton House, " Pembroke's proud domain, * with a tine front by I.iiRO JaiK'8, ia classed by Mr. Young as one of the four which might rank a< palacn. It contains th . flnest iwivale collection of ancient sculpture in the kiiiK. dom, alio numerous paintings, of which some arc valuable. Corsham House and Longford Castle conbiin celebrated collections of pictures. Warilour Castle is distinguished for its grand terrace, commanding a noble view ; and Stourhead for the romantic beauty of the grounds : Imth these residences contain valunl)lo paint. ings. Longleat is a superb seat, adorned with a must extensive collectinn of English iwitraits. liowood is an cl^ant mansion and park, with fine works of art. Funthill is now a ruin. SuBSECT. 2. The Easlim Counties. 1729. Under this title are comprehended the counties of Essex, Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridge, Huntingdon, and Lincoln- Level as the surface of England generally is, that of these dis- tricts is, beyond all others, flat and unvaried. This great lowland of England scarcely rises above the sea in its eastern boundaries. The mariner discerns its existence only by a dark line, above which a tower or steeple occasionally rears it head. Its sluggish streams unite in the shallow morshy estuary of the Wash, which divides this region into two unequal parts. A great proportion of its waters, however, never reach that receptacle ; but, spreading and stagnating over vhe land, form what is called the Fens, a tract which is not unproductive to the husbandman, but sends forth pestilential vapours, subjecting the inhabitants of the sur- rounding districts to perpetual attacks of fever and ague. It must not be omitted, however, that the active spirit of modern husbandry has done much to drain these waste tracts, ren- dering them at once more productive and healthy. These districts contain wide portions of good arable land, which are well cultivated by skilful fanners with large capitals, wlio find a ready market in the metropolis. Generally speaking, the district is most noted fur its breeds of caUle, some of which are very valuable, and for the protUicts of butter and cheese. There are seats, and some of the greatest magnificence, but they are not so numerous as in the south, and rather attached to property tlian chosen for felicity of situation. IT.'iO. Essex, situated along the north of the Thames, is, perhaps, the richest of the English counties. It is not a dead or swampy bed, but diversified by gentle uiidiilations, which do not interrupt the careful culture given ' its rich alluvial soil. Its wheat, »ilii that of Kent, is reckoned the best in England ; but the districts closely approaching the metropolis are chiefly in pasture, or artificial grass, for supplying calves to the Lundon market, or for fattening the cattle brought up from the north. There are some woollen manufactures, but of no great consequence. At the mouth of the Colne, Blackwater, and other rivers, about 200 vessels are employed in dredging for oysters, of which they are sup posed to send to London about 20,000 bushels annually. n.'il. The towns of Essex are not very conspicuous. Chelmsford, the ctunty town, i- a small rocni.irly uuilt place, with a handsome town-hall. Colchester, nearly triple in siic, \ ENGLAND. 393 The rnbbit, the pigeon, the turkey, also flourish in Suffolk. Tlie county is almost purely aKricultural, there being neither trade nor manufactures of any importance. 17^ Anwttg the loumi qf Snffiitk, Ipswich is ntill considerable, thouKh it has lust its once flourishing woollen maiiufucture, and its employment is conflneil to sendini; down the Orwell mult and grain, the produce of the riiunty. Kury St Edmund's is an ancient town, delightl'ully situated, and rendered venerable by sonic flue nltl churches. Iiowcstoff', the most easterly point of England, and the most conspicuous feature in the county tianils somewhat romantically on a cliff overlooking the sea, where a large lighthouse has been erected. It li I'lioled seat of the herring fishery. \W Seals. There is a great division of property in Suffolk, and consequently it has few scats of the first mik. We may, however, mention Ickworth Hall, the unfinished mansion of the Earl of Bristol Henning. him Hall, a noble scat, is adorned with good Dutch pictures. M'iG. Norfolk; though inferior in fertility to the two counties now described, has, by its industry, rendered itself more flourishing than either. The sea and the coast of the Wash make a' great sweep round it on the north, giving it a large extent of coast. The fens en* croiich only to a limited extent on its western district; where the soil generally is a light Hand, scarcely fit, originally, for any thing but sheep. Beneath, however, is a bed of rich soapy marl, which the farmers, with great labour, dig cut, and spread over the ground. Thus was effected a wonderful change ; " for," says Mr. Young, " instead of boundless wilds, and uncultivated wastes, inhabited by scarcely any thing but sheep, the country is all cut into indusurcs, cultivated in a most husband-like manner, richly manured, well peopled, and yielding an hundred times the produce that it did in its former state." The light sandy loam thus formed is peculiarly favourable to the growth of barley, in which grain two tliirds of the country is laid out. The farmers carry on their business on a great scale, and have introduced all the most improved and economical modes of culture. Nor do the <' North folk " limit their exertions to the culture of the ground ; they carry on with spirit ivi'ry branch of industry. Norfolk is the only eastern county that has extensive manu- factures; it produces various ornamental fabrics of silk and worsted. The ports carry on a very considerable export of grain, and a very spirited fishery. I '.'37. Norwich is the finest city in the east of England. It may be called a seaport, [icing £0 near the mouth of the river Wensom that large vessels can come up to its walls. Within the last few years most extensive improvements have been made in this navigation. Tiic chief industry of Norwich, however, consists in manufactures. Towards the end of the sistccntli century, a large colony of Flemings settled there, and established the fabric of woollens, which soon reached an unprecedented height. The light and ornamented forms liccamu the staples ; bombasines, crapes, fine camblets, and worsted damask. Tlie woollen manufacture, while it declined in every other part of the east and south of England, con- tinued to advance in this city, though not with the same rapid steps as in the north. Its only severe check was sustained during the late war, from the shutting of the continental ports, forwhicli the Norwich goods had been chiefly destined. Between 178G and 1801, its popu- luion fell from 40,000 to 36,800; but since the peace it has revived very rapidly, having risen, as above stated, to 61,116. Yet there have been recent complaints of want of em- ployment, chiefly owing, we are informed, to combinations among the workmen. In ith general structure, it has the defects of an old town, the streets being narrow and winding, though those recently built are in a more improved style. The chief ornaments, how- ever, are its ancient structures, erected at the , earliest eras of British history. The cathedral (Jig. 147.), founded in the eleventh century, ranks among the very first ecclesiastical edi- fices in the Kingdom. Its style of architec- ture is the Saxon, of that broad and massive character which prevailed before the intro- duction of the pointed arch and the light ornamented style. The eflfect is grand and imposing, though somewhat injured through unfortunate additions made by modern hands. The castle, placed in the centre, is consider- ably more ancient still, since antiquaries now generally agree in referring it to the reign of Canute. Its style is Saxon ; the keep remains entire. i:i8. Yarmouth, by commerce and fishery, has nttaincil a prosperity almost equal to th.it of Norwich. S luatcd at the mouth of the Yare, it is the chief channel by which the manufactures of that city arc Irans- IKirlcsl to foreign parts. A more im|K)rtant resource is the herring fishery, of which Yarmouth h.it always Ihtii n granil centre j which employs six thousand seamen, and produces annually upwards of fifty liiciiuanil harrcls. It even derives advantage from the dreadful iwrils incident to a coast encinnbeml »illi saiulbaiiks, that leave only narrow mA precarious passages. This induces the small cratt from New ■ NURWICII CATIIBDEAL. 994 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P*M III. castle and other northern port* to leek shelter In that of Yarmouth, which li excellent and Derfcctiv Mb Itl Quay, upwariU of a mile long, it said to be second only to that of Seville; but the maintenance ol the iillci (» which it is protected, involves an annual expense of ^OOU/. Yarmouth is also much fVequcnted as a watering place. The church dedicatea ij "'. Nicholas is regularly built, and has an organ said to bo superior to Hn other In this country. ""' 1739. (if other towns in NorfoUt, the chief is Lynn Regis, a flourishing seaport on the Wash at Ihs mouth ot the Ouse, which, with its tributaries, brings down the agricultural produce of many rich rnnmi!,. Cromer and Wells arc tolerable fishing ports. vuuniicj. 1740. Seats. Though Nort'ulk is not generally an ornamented county, it contains several of the most sunerb ■eats in England, l-orcmost stands Holkham, built by Lord Leicester on a design of Inigo Jones and uartL cularly noted for a gallery room which is considered afmont matchless. It is richly adornciT with sculpture and paintings, particularly by Claude, and has also a very extensive library, to which the present n'uiiillcoBl possessor is daily adding. Houghton is ntill a magnificent seat, though the collection of paintings formed bt Sir Robert Walpole, and considered the lirst in the kingdom, was purchased for the Gmpren of Kuisla, 1741. Cambridgeshire presents a very considerable variety of surface. Its northern dis. trict, called the Isle of Ely, intersected by the lower channels of the Ouse and the Nen exists almost in an intermediate state between land and sea. Their full waters ovcrflowinz this dead flat, part of the great Bedford level, a shallow swampy inundation is produced called ^n, unfavourable to every produce, except a rank luxuriance of pasture, and causing among the inhabitants severe fever and ague. Drainage, however, to a great extent has been effected during the late period pf improvement; many tracts have been converted into 6ne meadow, or made to yield large crops of oats, though the danger of inundation can never be wholly averted. The classic stream of the Cam or Granta, in descending to join the Ouse, waters a valley called " the Dairies," where some good cheeses and long rolls of excellent butter are prepared for the tables of the Cambridge students. The southern and western districts of Cambridge are encroached upon by the downs from the south, which are filled with calcareous substances, and only fit for the pasture of sheep. 1742. The cn])Uat of Cambridgeshire is the seat of one of the two great U7tiversities, The first origin of this institution is a subject of antiquarian controversy ; but, from a deed of Henry III., it appears to have assumed its regular character and functions in 1229. Since that time, have been built the thirteen colleges and four halls, in which the masters, tutors, and students, not only teach and are taught, but are lodged and boarded. Some of tlie largest of these endowments are stated to be for " poor and indigent scholars ;" but tliis destination is entirely changed, and they are filled with the sons of the most opulent families in the kingdom, who cannot live there but at a very considerable expense. Yet the resort continues to increase, and the existing colleges are insufficient to contain the applicants, who must often wait several years previously to admission. These colleges are large, and generally fine and handsome buildings ; yet they do not produce the same noble and im- posing effect as those in the sister university. They are not arranged along two grand streets, but dispersed through those of a secondary class, sometimes almost in by-lanes, Cambridge is a busy stirring place, dealing largely in corn, malt, butter, solid and useful objects, not quite in harmony with the refined purposes of this great institution ; yet it can boast two single structures such as its rival cannot match. The first of these is the chapel of King's College, {Jg. 143.), built between the reigns of Henry VI. and Henry VIII. 148 ^ Its interior has been called matchless ; and though we could not consider it in sublimity as rivalling that of York, it is certainly more beautiful and more brilliant. The roof is of the most perfect workmanship, and its support without pillars has been viewed as an architectural mystery. But the most striking characteristic is the prodi- gious blaze of painted glass, on each side, from twelve brilliantly tinted windows fifty feet high, giving to tlie fabric the appearance of being walled with painted glass. The whole has the aspect, less, perhaps, of a solemn religious edifice, than of a fairy palace called up by the wand of an eastern enchanter. The other very fine edifice is Trinity College, particularly admired for its library, two hundred feet long, designed by Sir Christopher Wren, and perhaps the most elegant library room in the kingdom. The hall is also the largest in Cambridge ; and tlie roof is ornamented with fine specimens of old wood-work. Its chapel is marked by a beautiful simplicity, and contains Roubiliac's statue of Sir Isaac Newton, supposed the best resemblance that exists of that great man. It would be impossible to give even a cursory list of the admiranda of Cambridge ; but it must not be omitted that great exertions are now making to extend its beauties, and to clear away the obstructions by which they have been hidden from the public eye. King's College, in particular, will, it is said, be completed in all its parts, according to the grand original plan, hitherto carried into effect only in regard ta the chapel. KINO I COLLHm CIIAPKL. Book I. ENGLAND. 395 1743. Among public eotteetiont, the principal library, though it cannot rank with the Bodleian, contains 100,000 volumes, many of which are scarce nnd valuable. Trinity College, in its ornamented hall, has 40,000. Earl Fitzwilliam, from his seat near Rich- iDond, presented lately a handsome library, some fine pictures, and a large collection of enjiraviiigfii to receive which an elegant museum has been erected. Valuable manuscripts aiKJ antiquities have been presented to the university by its alumni who have travelled into liin'if^n countries. The botanic garden is reckoned inferior only to those of Kew and Liverpool. 1744. The great men who have issued from this university are too numerous for our limits tu ttdinit any attempt an enumeration. Since it was adorned by the immortal name of Newton, mathematics and natural philosophy have been the ruling pursuits ; and, not- niihstanding the lustre reflected on it by Milton, as well as by Bentley and Forson, it has |(n to Oxford the foremost place in classical knowledge. Among the statesmen who studied here, Crumwell and Pitt may be particularly noted. Cambridge has produced a number of idvcnturuus and distinguished travellers, among whom Browne and Clarke deserve par- ticular mention. 1745. The population of Cambridge, amounting, as above stated, to 20,971, is double that in 1801. The resident members of the university in 1801 were 811 ; in 1811 were 814 ; but in the two last enumerations they have not been distinguished, 174f>. Cambridgeshire, l)C9UlC9 its scenes uf sober industry and high intellectual exertion, displays others of a itrydiUl'rcnt kind, yet equally characteristic of EnKland : for it is ut Newmarket that horte.racing has chosen Iti most fuvourito ground. This town lies on the SuHnlk tmrder, and within the county of that name, amid bletii liilln, that have, however, a sutticicnt extent of level heath to make the finest course in the kingdonh Ttie amusonieiit, animating in itself, and deriving some elegance tiom the beauty of the animals enRagcdin it, nilihl, without blame, be pursued in mond somewhat bleak, not very well fitted for grain. The rearing of live stock forms the chief occupation ; and Lincoln has breeds of every description that are held in high estim- ition. The :'.icep, which are very numerous, amounting, it is said, to upwards of 2,000,000, produce that species of wool called long wool, which, from the length of its staple, ischiefly fitted for worsted, baize, and other fabrics. Rabbits, almost innumerable, are bred in the upper districts ; and the unreclaimed fens, during the wet season, swarm with teal, ducks, geese, and aquatic game of every form and description, with which London and many other parts of England are chiefly supplied from this county. Manufactures have entirely de- scried it ; even its own wool, since the late inventions in machinery, is no longer spun or carded niihin itself. The internal inte rcoiirse is considerable, as the Witham and Axebolme, streams of some importance, flow, respectively, to the Wash and the Humber ; while the Trent, during all its course through this county, is navigable for large vessels. Artificial channels unite tliesc streoms, particularly the Foss Dyke, between the Witham and the Trent. Foreign commerce, however, is much limited by the increasing sand-banks, by which the I toasts and harbours are obstructed. 1750. The city of Lincoln was, during the middle ages, one of the most conspicuous and 30(1 DESJRII'TIVE GEOOllAPHV. J'ahc III, UNCOLH OATIIIPftAU splendid capituU of Kiiglund. The cathvdrnl {Jig, N'J.) Htill IioUIh tliu very first rnni, I4,j among religious edifices. I'rom ii ' distance its three towers uppvar con- spicuous ; two of them I HO, uiul mm 300, feet high, and ornainenii'd with various pillars and tracery ; and us the structure stands on a hill, i„ the midst of a vast surrouiuliiii; Hnt, it has the most cuniinundiii" site in tlic county. The most in" bellished part is considered to l)c the western. When pUmduri'il, with devout rapacity, in l.'i'lu, liy Henry VIII., it was found lo eon- tain an extraordinary tri'iisnrc, not only in gold and silver, Ixit in pearls, diamonds, and other preciuiii stones, gifts of the fuithl'iil (inrin); many ages. Lincoln having I'ullen from its high estate, is supported only hy its county trade, and by the remaining opuk'nii' of the cathedral ; it holds » moderate rank among provincial towns. Its fifty elMirclics ore reduced to eleven ; and the fragments of the others are dispersed throughout tlic tnwii, many ordinary houses being adorned with Gothic arches, doorways, and windowsi, 1751. 0/ other towm, Boston on the William, near its junction with the Wash, catriison the trade of Holland, or southern Lincolnshire. After declining from early prosjicrily, it has considerably revived since the fens have become productive. It now ex|)urts ilu' grain, and affords a great market for the cattle reared in them, and has thus d()ul)k'(l its population. A fine Gothic church attests the original prosperity of Boston. S|iiil(liii|,' and Holbcoch are small towns among the fens. Gainsborough has some trade hy tlie Trent, which is navigable thus far for vessels of 150 tons. Louth, from tlie interior, sends by a canal corn and wool. Great Grimsby, the chief eastern port, after seeing nearly all its commerce transferred to Hull, has uf lute somewhat revived. Stamford and Oriintliain are respectable old towns, a good deal decayed ; but the revival of their importance is fiwuured by their position on the great north road. SuBSKCT. 3. Central Counties. 1 752. Under lids term we shall comprehewl that part of the interior of England wliicli is bounded on the south and south-west by the two divisions already described ; on the nnrtli and north-west by Yorkshire and Lancashire ; and on the west by the counties of Sulup, Worcester, and Gloucester, which will be ranked among the western counties. 1 753. In a description of this portion of the country, LoNnuN claims a distinct uiul separate notice. As the metropolis of the united kingdom, it is the seat of legislation, jnrlspru- dence, and government ; the principal residence of the sovereign, at which afl'airs of state arc transacted, and relations maintained with foreign courts ; the centre of all iinportant Operations whether of commerce or finance, and of correspondence with every quarter uf the globe. 1 754. London, in its comprehensive sense, includes the city and liberties of London, llie city of Westminster and its liberties, the borough of Southwark, and the parishes and pre- cincts contiguous to those three component parts of the metropolis. Its extent, from Poplar in the east to Belgrave-square in the west, is nearly eight miles ; its breadth, from Isliiigtuii in the north to Walworth in the south, exceeds five miles. The circumference, allowing tor inequalities, is computed at thirty miles. The buildings, streets, squares, and other spaces, including that taken up by the river Thames, winding from the eastern to the western extremity, about seven miles on an average breadth of a quarter of a mile, occupy an areu of eighteen square miles. 1755. By a more convenient topographical arrangement, London has been divided into six grand portions: 1st, the City, which is the central division; 2d, the western division, including Westminster; 3d, the north-west division, including the district north of Oxford- street and west of Tottenham-court-road, — these two divisions make the west-end of tlie town ; 4th, the northern division, comprising the whole district north of Holborn and the City from Tottenham-court-road on the west to Slioreditch and Kingsl and -road on the cast, incliifling St. Fancros, Somers-town, Pentonville, Islington, Hoxton, and Kingsland; .■^tb, the eastern division, including the whole district east of the city and of Shoreditch ; 6th, the southern division, comprising the borough of Southwark, and the moss of build- ings extending from Rotherhithe to Vauxhall, and ranging southward for more than two miles. The divisions north and south of the Thames communicate by five bridges, — London Bridge, Soutlnvark Bridge, Blackfriars, Waterloo, and Westminster bridges. UlHIK I. ENGLAND. MT IT.'!)!. The port of London cxtciuU from Lunduii liridgc to Di-ptfonI, a distance of iiliout ftiiir inilos, with uii uvvni|;u lirviidth uf t'ruin four huiulrod to Ave liundred yardn. \U (livisloim aru tliu Upper, Middle, and Lower FooIh, and tlic Hpace lietween Liine- lunisv uiid IK-ptford. Connected witli it arc certain spacious doclts, wliich will be hereafter iiotii'i'il- 115'. The pojiulation of London, according to the returns in 1831 of the census in l.silO, is thus stated ; — Penoni. City of London within tlio walls ..... 57,69,1 . — ^— without the walls (including the Inns of Court) - 67,878 llorough of Southwark ..... . 01,501 t ity of Westminster . ..... 202,080 I'lirislivN within the hills of mortality .... 761,348 Adjai'ont parishes not within the bills . - - . 29:),567 Total - 1,474,069 IT/iS, 7/io ■'iiirth division of London, as viewed from the most central nnd elevated point, ri«os {{t'titly fmn the Thome.s, and extends to the foot of a range of hills on which are viiiinti'd the V!l!(i<;es of Hampstead and Highgatc. On the east and west arc fertile plains t^li'iuliiig "t l"ast twenty miles, and watered by the winding and gently flowing Thames. On llio south, Uic distant view is bounded by the high grounds of Itichmond, Wimbledon, Kjisuin, Norwood, and Bhickheath, terminating in the horizon by Leith Hill, Buxhill, and ilic lU'ignte and Wrotham Hills. Shooter's Hill is a conspicuous object to the east. ward ; nnd, in a more northerly direction, parts of Epping Forest and other wooded uplands of Essex. 1159. London retains in its name an evidence of its Gothic origin. Its founders were ilic Trinohantes, by whose name geographers have distitiguished it from the more ancient capitni of Scanin, still designated, in the works printed at its university, Londinum Gothonim.* S(i oarly ns the reign of Nero, London had become a place of considerable traffic, as appears from Tacitus, the earliest of tlie Roman historians who mention it by name. The Romans fiiriitU'd it with a wall, and made it one of their principal stations. At the beginning (if tliv lliird century, in the reign of the emperor Severus, it is represented as a great and wcaliliy city, and considered to be the metropolis of Britain. Such was the extent of its riiiniiu'rce, that we are told, by the historian Zosimus, that, in the year 359, 800 vessels |iolon);iiig to this place were employed in the exportation of grain. In the end of the sixtii contury, it became the capital of the East Saxons, whose king, Sebert, is generally rt'putvd the founder of the cathedral church dedicated to Saint Paul, and of the abbey and alility cliurch of Westminster. After the union of the seven kingdoms, Egbert, in 833, lic'ld liore his first wtUenngemotc, or council : but London was not constituted the capital of Kii|{lnnd until its recovery from the Danes by Alfred, who laid the foundation of its pre- ti'iit inmiicipal government. William of Normandy, whose interest it was to conciliate the riiizi'iis, though he built the fortress called the Tower, to keep them in awe, confirmed the |irivili>gi-s and immunities which they had enjoyed under his patron Edward the Confessor ; sulisi'quent sovereigns augmentttd and extended them by various charters, one of which, granti'ii by King John, authorised " the barons " of London to choose a mayor annually, or aiiiliinu' the same person in that office from year to year, at their pleasure. The city altaiiii'd lo great splendour under Edward III., who held frequent tournays in Smithfield niul otliur places ; and its architecture at that period exhibited every variety of the richest si}'li< of Gothic, both in public and private edifices. The cathedral of St. Paul held the pre. riiiini'iico ; nnd its spire is said to have been five hundred and twenty feet high. The streets ui'iv mostly narrow, and the higher stories of the houses projected over the lower. There won- no glass windows ; and on the ground floors the wares of tradesmen were openly dis- playi-d. Notwithstanding several visitations of fire and pestilence, London continued to iiicri'rtse, especially after the accession of the Tudqrs, when the overthrow of feudal vas- siilngo, nnd the more frequent resort to the capital, caused an augmentation so rapid as to alarm the government, 'llie dissolution of monasteries, of which London contained so large a |iri)|Hii'tinn, accelerated this increase, while it gave an impulse to industry and commerce. In the reign of Elizabeth, the influx of strangers driven from the Netherlands, by the IHTsi'i'iitions of the Duke of Alva, heightened the alarm, and the queen was even induced to issue the absurd and futile decree that no more dwelling-houses should be built; a pro- * Vow I.unil, In Sclioncn, the southernmost province of Sweden, the scat of a university founded hy Clmrlt's XI. It is said to have liccn a flourishing city at the birth of our Saviour, though its prcfcnt i«i|iiilntinii srnn'i'ly oxcccd« 800. The similarity of the modern names and the identity of the Latin iplx'Uatiuns lire atrtkinc. ^i I h "I .198 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part Iir. hibition whicli doet not wcra for a moment to have retarded tlic growth of the city. Her public ipirit was more seniiibly manifested after Sir Thomas Grcsliam had erectetl u bouru for the merchants, wliich ohc visited in great state, and caused to be proclaimed ■■ Tho Royal Eichange." In this reign the luxury of coaches was introduced from IIi)llond, kv William Boones, a Dutchman, who was appointed coachman to the queen. It was an epoch alike intellectual and prosperous, adorned with the names of Bacon, Cecil, ond Walsingham ; of Raleigh and Drake ; of Shakspeare, Spenser, and Jonvm. Some of these great men also illustrated the pacific reign of Jnmes I., scarcely disturbed except bv one singular event ; the discovery of a conspiracy of fanatic Jesuits and papists to blow up the king and both houses of Parliament. In le.lG, tlie refinements of Piuis and Madrid were emulated in London by the introduction of hackney coaches and sedan chain. During the civil wars, the capital participated in the troubles that afflicted the country, and also in the advantages accruing from the famous navigation act passed in lG5l, durinv the interregnum. The citizens, secretly alienated from Cromwell and his council by the execution of the king, hailed with enthusiasm the restoration of Charles II,, and aduutcd with indiscriminate eagerness the change of manners introduced by his court and fullowers from <■ ranee. 1 7G0. The reinn of Charles II. includes the most memorable epoch in the history of London, In IG65, a plague swept away 1(K),0(X) persons. In September, IGCC, broke out that great and awful fire which destroyed 400 streets, 13,000 houses, 89 churches, including the vene. rable cathedral of St. Paul, the Guildhall, the Herald's College, the Royal Exchange, and many other structures. For the rebuilding of the city, an admirable plan was presented by Sir Christopher Wren, the architect ; but the regard due to private property, and the difij. culty of reconciling conflicting interests, allowed it to be but very partially adopted. He rebuilt the cathedral of St. Paul and most of the parish churches in the Grecian style, and the front of Guildhall in the original Gothic, of Portland stone. Instead of wood and plaster, the chief materials of the former city, the new dwelling-houses and the halls of the city companies were built of brick, in the substantial though heavy style then in vogue; with greater regard to convenience than to external display : ornament, however, of a certain kind was not wanting. In the streets occupied by traders, gaudy signs with various devices, in iron and gilded brasswork, hung over every door or projected from every house ■ the simple distinction of numbering not having been adopted, or perhaps thought of. There were no flagged footpaths ; the streets were ill-paved ; and as there was no system of drainage by sewers, and no distribution of pure water by pipes, they were in some places far from endurable. The city, however, had gained greatly by the change, though with the sacrifice of maAy interesting memorials of its ancient state, and of its most glorious times. In 1687, the revocation of the edict of Nantes by Louis XIV. gave to London its colony of silk weavers. The revolution of 1688 was effected without the slightest public commotion ill London, except that which ensued on the sudden return of James II. to Whitehall, pre- viously to his Anal departure from the kingdom. The first years of the reign of William and Mary were signalised by the establishment of the Bank of England, the institution of the funding system, and the introduction of those changes in the operations of commerce by which it was necessarily accomoanied. 1761. irestmimler, though founded in the time of the Saxons, and chosen at an early period OS a royal residence, did not at first keep pace with London. The abbey and its church, founded by Sebert, gave place to a grander structure raised by Edward the Con- fessor ; and afterwards enlarged, if not wholly rebuilt, by the accomplished architects who reared so many splendid fabrics of Gothic masonry in the reigns of Henry III. nnd Ed- ward I. The celebrated hall was built by William Rufus in 1097 arid 109H, Having become ruinous in that of Richard II., it underwent a thorough repair, and received the a..- dition of a new roof, and a stately portal at the western entrance. That monarch made it a scene of luxurious banqueting, which provoked the severe but unavailing censures of his uncle, John of Gaunt. In the reign of Elizabeth, Westminster consisted only of a few streets adjoining the hall and the abbey. On the dissolution of monasteries, Henry VIII, converted this religious establishment into a college, appointing William Benson the abljot to be its first dean. He afterwards converted it into a bishopric, assigning all Middlesex except Fulham as its diocese. Westminster thus became a city, and has ever since retained that rank by courtesy, though it never had but one bishop, having been, in 1550, transferred jy Edward VI. to the see of London. Its valued rental is 1,3.'33,000/, 1 762, The eity of Weitminster is comprised in the united parishes of St. Margaret and St. John ; the liberties include seven other parishes, St, Martin's in the Fields, St. James's, St. Ann's, St, Clement Dane's St. Mary's le Strand, St. George's Hanover Square, nnd St. Paul's Covent Garden, with the precinct of the Savoy and that of St. Martin's le Grand. Several of the parishes westward of Temple Bar had each its church and contiguous village, communicating with each other by roads and footpaths. The Strand was originally a high road connecting London with Westminster by the village of Charing. A range of man. sions, among which the Savoy Palace was conspicuous, extended along its south side ; n con« DoOK I ENGLAND. 990 tcniviit lite, fVom itt pruxlmily to tlii< rlvvr, at • tiino »licn that was the princi|ial commu. nicatiun with l^ondoii, Wvf thiMW itmnniunii have boon conveyed to tliu streets slncu erected ilitrv; a« EhhvXi Nurt'ulk, Suincrnvti Itcmirtirt, lluckiiiglmm, Cecil, ^'raven, and Nurthum- beriand. On the north Hide of the Htrnnd, • coiiNiderablo extent of ground, formerly belonf^. iiiit to a religioui Iioumv, Itevitnie the |iro|H(rty of tlie family of Uussull at tlie Ileformation i In the rciRu of (iuien Annu thlit nunrter wan the cciitrc of fashion, and wan aAerwards chosen an the Hitu of the two untioiml theatreis I :rury Lane and Covent Garden. After the llcstoration, the weKt end of the town rapidly increased; and its inhabitants affecting suucrior rcliuvnient of mnnner*, vlniiniti to Iw considered as a distinct class of beings from ihc induatrious mervhantH east uf Tviuple liar, liy degrees, as the vacant ground was built uiiun, tiK-' two cities and their Miburlts were united t the Helds near St. Martin's and Leicester llouiu were covered with strewts i and at length the distant villages of Mary-le-bone and St, I'lincriis lH!uame integral (Mtrts of the metropolis, A splendid <|uartcr, now occupied by ilic most fashionable phrt of the cuntmiinity, has Iwcii built to the west of St. James's Park anil the now palace. All the villages surrounding London, formerly at some distance, have sti'i'lled into large towns, and lHIU,200 were fVom the 1'yne and Wear; 2'2,700 (Vom Scotlanil i Xi.m) from Mwnnsoa, and other paris of Wales; 21,200 from Hull, &c. In Vorksliire ; and only I'M) liy the Ornnd Jiinrtloii rnnal. On the 5th January, 1835, there were lodged in the tiundcd warehouses of t.andon, eolU<«>, U^.OCi.OOOIbs.) cocoa, S,(ill],000; cloves, l.OIO.OtX)-, cinnamon and ristla. tnj.OflO ; grain, 47I ,000 1 iMMiwr, IO,;H!ii,IMKI ; pimento, 1,591,000; raw silk, 1,123,000; India »i\k goods, M"ll"i>«l hraudv, l,4!>5,0— " I'upulAtlon, Keiital. Population BethnsI Green • • • tW.om S S7,WH. CamlKrwcll . 28,231 rheliea . . ■ . !W.,17I MN,UH) Berniondscy • 89,741 Httknsy ... • 31,047 VOH.NOI) Krcenwich ■ «*>l«3 HaniMtcad • , • • « H,.'iH8 St Psiicras, IncludlngCaw-l den and Kentish Towns, { I0.1,M« sndHighgsts • • J 4»,<7U IKntford I'addlngton - 19,795 - 14,,540 4IK),'II9 Islington ... - 37,316 Kensington • ^^ Stepney ... . 7,;»4 } KKt.niX) Clapham ... Htoko Ncwlngton g,5so . 3,480 I'opUr and BUckwaU • . lll,N4U «7N,0U0 W,(«in pieces ; mm, l.tKHl.tMlO i.tMIOt sugar, 705,000 cwts. : tea, 4(>,772,noO lbs. ; timber. Itnooinads; tobacco, IH.g'.tMKIU lbs. ; winv, 4,4!KI,llOO gallons; cotton, 8,820,000 Um. ; wool, 5,155,000. rm. Tlif Port 1/ Lonriim has already been ileseril)o«l as extending from London Uridgc to Deptford, a diiiance of four miles ; the averagv hrwtdtli lieing l\illy a quarter of a mile. Even these limits were far fVom aflbrdins adequate aecommotlatlon to the shliiplngi and the example of Improvement exhibited l)y Liverpool at length roused the merchants of Loiulxn In (tirin companies for constructing docks, with commodious quays mj warehouses. The H'eil Imlia Dixilf, stretching across the isthmus formingthelsleof Dogson theMiddle- tex side of the river, were o|H'h(sl In IHOV,' Tliey consisted originally of an import and an export dock, the former containing .thout 30 and tho latter alHuit tH acros of water, excUiaivc of basins. To these have recently been added the south dock, formerly the I'lly ('anal. The warehouses at the West India Docks arc of vast extent, and are, in all rej|>e<'ts, most ciimniodliuit, Tho /.ONrfim Dockt, also of very great extent, arc situated at Wapping. 'Ilie tobacco warehouse belonging tolhein Is the largest and finest building of its kind in the world. Il covers a space of near .'• acres I Thv vatiltt \indornpath the ground arc 18} acres in exten , and, excluding There arc also the S<. A.'n/Amne a Oocitrj, adjoining . h.we stowage Hir fid.tKlO pipes of wine I , . , the East Inilia liiflu, at lllaeKwall i and the OimmrrciVr/ Docks, on the Surrey side of the river. gangways, Sic. InC lower, till; ^.(.Ji jrfifit. •-.(unj. n, iiin.'nwH,, , n,,„ i,,v % ,,rr*rnf rLriii ^^xnna, uii .,ic k,ui.i:j oiuc ui kiik ■i*»* Owing to the competition of the dillkrenl companies, nil sorts of dock charges arc now reduced to the lowest Ictel, and hardly one of the concerns ran Ih< said to Iw profitable. I'he dividend on London Dock stock in I'oS was only 2) per cent : and it is snp|HHi«> I u m i 11' iOO DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pam IH Borough, and ns such returning two members to parliament), is situated on the soutli bank of the Thames. It is considered at least coeval with London, if not more ancient ; and the Romans are said to have raised the large embankment by which it is protected from the river. The Borough was governed by its own bailiffs until the year 1 327, when a grant wsi obtained by wiiich the lord mayor was constituted bailiff, and empowered to act by deputy. The inhabitants afterwards recovered their former privileges, and enjoyed them until Eti. ward VI. granted Southwark to the city of London for a sum of money; after which it became one of the city wards, by the name of Bridge Ward Without. Southwark is much frequented by agriculturists from Kent, Surrey, and Sussex ; and is the principal hop.market in the kingdom. Numerous streets in every direction connect it with the surrounding vi|. lages ; and by the five magnificent bridges it communicates with every quarter of London and Westminster. Yet, having never been the centre either of commerce or of fashion it has always held a subordinate rank ; and at present the number of inhabitants docs not equal a tenth of the entire population of the capital. Valued rental, 247,000/. 17C6. London, though not the most splendid, is the cleanest, the healthiest, and most commodious metropolis in the world. It is well built, well paved, well lighted, and abundantly supplied with water for domestic purposes, and for the all-important object of preventing conflagration. Foreigners who visit it for the first time soon discover that utility, not ornainent, is the main characteristic of the town, and that business, not amusement, occupies the minds of its inhabitants. Tlie main streets are spacious ; and all the streets have the advantage of flagged foot-pavements on each side. The houses are of brick ; and though in the most populous streets discoloured by smoke, have by no means a gloomv appearance. Having been built at various periods, and chiefly on the site of old streets or along the lines of roads, the metropolis can lay no claim to regularity of plan ; suinc parts are regular, others irregular : but it is for that reason more agreeable than if it had been a parallelogram of streets intersecting each other at right angles, than which nothing can be more wearisome to the eye, especially if, as in the new town of Edinburgh, tlie walls be built, and the streets paved, with stone of the same grey colour, producing an effect whieli may truly be called dismal. The charm of London, as a great city, is its variety. Those ivho dislike the high -piled and narrow streets of the city, shady in summer, and sheltered from cold winds in winter, may delight in the spacious streets and squares of the west end of tlie town ; those who desire to contemplate what Dr. Johnson called " the full tide of human existence," may visit Cheapside, Fleet Street, or the Strand ; Pall Mall, and St. James's Street, look light and cheerful ; Bond Street is the resort of gaiety and fashion. Waterloo Place, the Quadrant, and Regent Street, form a new and splendid range of edifices, scarcely equalled in Europe. Great improvements have been made on the north side of the Strand, from Charing Cross to Burleigh Street, by taking down an immense mass of small and old houses, partly in narrow streets and courts, and erecting others of large dimensions, and forming wide and handsome streets. Here also has been erected the elegant and commo- dious structure of Hungerford Market. King William Street, now completed, and connected by Princes Street with the City and New roads, forms with them a spaci jus line from London Bridge to Hyde Park. Other very extensive improvements are in contemplation. 1767. The public buildings of London would many of them require a great sacrifice of private property to expose them advantageously to view. But here the remark so often made by foreigners again suggests itself, — that business, and not display, occupies the minds of the inhabitants. They want no grand avenue to afford a prospect of St. Paul's, —no range of quays for promenading along the river. Though not utterly indilFerent to public walks, they regard even them rather as spectacles, than as ])laccs of recreation ; and in Hjde i Park all the company in '^^ » carriages, on horseback. or on foot, are crowded along the eastern line, as if the sole purpose of the many were to see and tohe seen. Munificent in con- tributing to the expense of constructing public edifices, they regard the deniolllion of property for the purpose of displaying them as mere extravagance. 1768. St. Paul's Calk- dral {fig. 150.), the master- piece of Sir Clirisloplier Wren, is allowed to he the finest specimen of niudorn anliitecture in the kingdom, and, after St. Petei's ot Home, may rank as the DOOK 1. finest ecclesia the beauty of justness of pn priatod (or Cb architecture wi from the early philosophers, and Henry VII, in h and its exterior hi 1770. Amotig I distinguished for Frticoof St.Mari that of the new clii of the Temple oft liiiildiiigg are too satisfaction. The fur plainness than 1.52 "" '"I'gorical painti ine apartment has I las been rebuilt in tl pillars. It is 276 ptTsons have dined. "eiifh, Common P| rtancellor. The adj, 'dreadful conflagrati Imiporary use ; and, i, feigned by Barry ha (I8'i9). The Royal J '"rebuild it on an en wious parts, mostly "'tl)' made by Mr. C I ""If portico in front, il .rtUI Book I> ENGLAND. 401 ith bank ut ; and from the ;rant was r deputy, intil Ed- wliich it I is much ip-market iiding vil. f London Pasliion, It does not and inost ;lited, and t objt'ct of hat utility, muscmcnt, the streets brick; and I a gloomy 1 streets or some parts liad been a liing can be he walls be effect whltli Bty. Those nd sheltered the west end ; full tide of id St. James's 1, Waterloo ices, scarcely f the Strand, imall and old icnsions, and [and commo- Ind connected Ifrom London [ion. Ircat sacrifice lark so often jics the minds Iraul's,— ™ ■nt to public [and in Hyde company i" liorscback, ire crowded [tern line, as Irpose of till' |scc and to be iccnt in con- L expense of I iblic edifices, |e dcmoliliu" ! the purpose | hem as mere \>anl's Calltc- I), tlio master- Christoplicr] lowed to 1"^^ Ipecimen otj I rank as tliej wMTMiNfTEH Annvv finest ecclesiastical structure in Christendom. But it is so surrounded with buildings that tlie beauty of its exterior cannot be appreciated. The style unites grandeur of design with justness of proportion ; but being Grecian, it suggests the idea of a pagan temple appro- priated for Christian worship rather than that of a temple founded by Christians. That architecture which is called Gothic is essentially more grand and solemn : it dates its origin from the early propagation of the Gospel ; implants in all its ground-plans the symbol of . till *'*^ cross ; and may be said *** /AAA i Al Ai to have grown with the growth of Christianity. The interior of St. Paul's is too bare of ornament ; but the defect is partly supplied by marble monuments, of the merits of which, as works of sculpture, various opinions are entertained. 1769. Westminster Abbey {fig, 151.) is a very noble ' specimen of Gothic archi- tecture. The interior is grand in design and rich in detail, and the interest which it excites is enhanced by the numerous monuments of kings, warriors, statesmen, philosophers, and poets, which it encloses. The chapel built at the western extremity by Henry VI L in honour of the blessed Virgin, is in the richest style of the later Gothic, and its exterior has been skilfully renovated. 1770. Among the parish churches of the metropolis, that of St. Stephen's, Walbrook, is distinguished for the fine proportions and finished elegance of its interior. The stately portico of St. Martin's, Charing Cross, excites universal admiration ; next to which may rank tliat of the new church of St Fancras ; the steeple of which edifice, constructed on the model of the Temple of the Winds at Athens, has a very airy and pleasing effect. The other public buildings are too numerous to be described, and a bare mention of them would give little iatisfaction. The principal inns of court, and their subsidiary inns, are remiikable rather fur plainness than magnificence of architecture. The pile called Somerset House (Jig. 152.) would have a grand 1.52 , .. •-•■■-' effect if its eastern wing were completed; and this desideratum is partly sup- plied by the buildings assigned to " King's Col- lege, London." The Man. sion House attracts the notice of travellers, from its accordance in style of architecture with a palace in Italy. The Banqueting House at Whitehall is a memorial of the fine taste of Inigo Jones; and its ceiling is decorated with an allegorical painting from the pencil of Rubens, which is still exposed to view, though tilt apartment has been converted into a chapel. Westminster Hall, of which the portal liK been rebuilt in the original style, is reputed the longest hall in Europe unsupported by liillars. It is 276 feet long by 76 broad. Within it, on coronation festivals, 10,000 persons have dined. On its south side are entrances to the new law courts, the Queen's licnch. Common Pleas, Exchequer, and Chancery, with an additional court for the vice- chancellor. The adjoining Houses of Pariiament wore, on the 16th of October, 1834, by a dreadful conflagration, almost completely burnt to the ground : they have been refitted for iimporary use ; and, after an extensive competition among architects, the magnificent plan designed by Barry has been determined upon, and the foundation laid in the present year (I8;)9). The lloyal Exchange recently shared the same fate; but preparations are making to rebuild it on an enlarged scale. The Bimk of England is an edifice of great extent and larious parts mostly erected by the late Sir John Soime ; but some additions have been lately made by Mr. Cockertll. The East India House, in Loadenliall Street, has a hand- wine portico in front, completed in 1799. The Tower is the most considerable relic of D a SoMMH^Ur HOUIB- 403 DESCIIIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. niitiqiiity in (hi- oiisl of Iho inotropolis ; it liiiii still an nrscnal and a garrison, beins tlu" ilvpusitory dI" iIio ri-giilia ot tlio Uniti'il Kingdom. The Trinity House, and the Kvw I. Ill TMH MONL-MINTi Mint, both situated on Tower Hill, arc handsome edifices. The niiparatus for coining;, in the Mint, exhibits one of the most ingenious specimens of machinery moved by steam power tliat has ever been contrived. The new Post Office, in St. MarlinVle-Grand, near St. Paul's, is a structure highly honourable to the talents and taste of Mr. Kobert Smirke. The New Palace in St. James's Park has disappointed expectation. The United Service and other club houses display architectural ornament as well as interior elegance. The Goldsmiths' and Fishmongers' halls, recently erected, arc costly and handsome structures. 1771. The column called The Monument {fig, 15.1.) is one of the most conspicuous ornaments of the metropolis. The IS I EiTl^Hl ^^^^^m 1'^''''-"'*''*' '" '''-^ *'■''•''• •'"-' "''"'^ "'" ""* column 120 feet, the cone \h.\ ||ljBPS^''JUil^J at the top with the blazing urn of gilt brass 40 feet, making '*"-'^5*"" ' .'EiS^H ibo total height of the monument 20a feet ; which considerably exceeds that of the Trajan and Antoninc columns at Rome. It WHS erected by Sir Christopher Wren, to commemorate the lire of London, in lOb'b'. A column and colossal statue of the late Duke of York now nilorns Waterloo Place. An equestrian statue of George 111., hy Wyatt, recently placed In Pall Mali, is admired for the sculpture of the horse. Other monuments are preparing in honour of the Duke of Wellington and Lord Nelson. 17"'i. The lirulgtn of Lomtiin attract attention by their beauty and utility. Until the year 1740, the only one existing was London liridge, built in the twelfth century, with Hrelii's so narrow, unequal, and ill-placed, as to form a sort of breakwater, oceasioninj; n r<(/)i(/, or full of the stream, highly dangerous to boats and barges. The corporation, after considering various plans for a new bridge, adopted that proposed by Mr. Rennie. That celebrated architect dying(llth Oct. IHal,) before the work had been begun, the execution of it was entrusted to his son. Sir John Rennie, tinder whom Messrs. Jolifte and Ranks were employetl as building contractors. The government agreed to contribute 200,000/, According to Mr. Reiuiie's original design, the new bridge was to have been built on the site of the <»ld one, a temporary structure of wood being provided to prevent interruption of traffic; but the corporation, not sulHcicntly mindfid of the expenses attending new .approaches, decided it to be 1 80 feet higher up the strwun. Mr. Reiuiie's estimate for the new bridge was 430,000/., with nit additional '-'0,000/. for the temporary bridge ; and in regard to the structure itself, that sum proves to have been very little exceeded. The change in the site, with the new approaches chosen by the corporation, added 45ti,0(X)/. to the estimate. " But in consequence .... - IJ4 hHVt II1NIH)N HNItviR. of the injudicious nature of these approaches," it is observed, in a professional survey, " others had to be suhstitute^.) was complete. On the Kt of August in that year, it was opened, in the presence of King Williiim 1 V.,liis Queen, nnd the royal family, and a vast eonciiiirse of spectators. The bridge consists of five semi- elliptical aiehes ; the centre arch I .Vi feet span, with a rise above high-water mark of 29 feet li inches i the two next the centre arch, 140 feet span, rise 'J7 feet (i inches; the two abut- HuoK I. nient arches, 130 of the abutment between the part this width the fo ITT.X Southwi Mr. John Wyatt in September, 18 others 210 feel cf is the most stupe 1774. Blackfn has 8 piers and 9 lively m, 80, and tbjiged footways 1775. Waterloo liy .■\Jr George I i'Oiii|iaiiy, the exc: -p.in ; the piers arc of Cornish granite. loen piers snpportii "6 feet ; that of the is the fiiiesi, and u 1,000,000/. ; hut th ^llareholders. 177(1'. The giga liflow London Uri interrupted by the I'vcr, by governme sidered certain. 1777. The mun fcivecl from time t< The city is divided ilio twenty-sixth. -oils collectively fo i< elected annually, liie (jreat body of dieting four mem liouseho.'ders payii mayor belonged to ''"' hy an net of t ""^Icil in the lonl ilio master, wardei t'linn a sort of pa 'ouiicil as the comi iioMil, very importj "I'llieeity formerly ^iniciits of militia ai iii.v, nor can its ow power is very great 'ii'iiiise or abdicatio llio Lord Mayor of '"0 sheriffs, one foi •'it' Kfant of the sin ''ii"i dies, the offie minster can award 'III' <"haiiil)erlaiii, DOOK I. ENGLAND. ■I0:» ineiit urclics, 130 feet span, the 24 fvct 6 inches, Thu lungth of the bridge from tlieoxlrciiiliies of the abutments is 928 feet ; within the abutments 782 feet. Tlie roadway is 53 feet between the parapets, being eight feet wider than any other bridge on tl'^ Thames. Of this width the footways occupy 9 feet eacli, and the carriage-way 35 feet. 1773. Southwark Jiridye, from Queenhithc to Bankside, Soutliwark, was projected by Mr. John Wyatt ; but the work was commenced under the direction of tlie late Air. Uennie, ill September, 1814. Of its three arches of cast iron, the central one is 240 feet span; the others 210 feet each. The piers and abutments are of stone, the rest of the work iron : tliis is tlie most stupendous bridge of these materials in the world. 1774. Blackfriars Bridge, built by Mr. Robert Mylnc, between the years 17G0and 1769, liiis 8 ])iers and 9 elliptical archc£; the centre one 100 feet span ; those on each side respec- tively 93, 80, and 70 ; the length is 995 feet, the breadth of the carriage-way 28 feet, tlie llagged footways 7 feet each. 1775. Waterloo Bridge (Jig. 155.), begun in 1811, and completed in 1817, was planned W.iri(ltl.uU IIHlliuB. Iiy Mr George Dodd ; but, in consequence of a misunderstanding between him and the lompaiiy, tlie execution was entrusted to 3Ir. Ileimio. It has 9 arches, each 120 feet Np.'in ; the piers arc 20 feet thick. The balustrades are of Aberdeen granite, the other p.irts of Cornish granite. — If'estininsler Bridge, built between the years 1739 and 1759, lias four- teen iiicrs supporting thirteen large and two small arches. The width of the middle arch is 76 feet ; that of the two next, 72 ; that of the last, 52. Of these structures, Waterloo Bridge is the finest, and may be regarded as the best masonry in Europe. The expc.se exceeded 1,00<),000/. ; but the returns, it is painful to add, have as yet disappointed the hopes of the ^liarehuldcrs. ITTi;. The gigantic undertaking of a tu»H(7 below the Thames, about a mile and a half below London Bridge, has been in progress for some years ; but it has been repeatedly interrupted by the water breaking in, on one occasion with loss of life. Being aided, how- ever, hy government, it is brouglit nearly to low-water mark, and its completion is con- sidered certain. 1777. TVie municipal institutions of London are venerable for their antiquity, and have re- ceived from time to time such modiheations as were requisite to preserve and improve them. The eity is divided into twenty-five wards, the Borough, as Bridge Ward Without, making ilie tweiity-sixth. Each has for its magistrate an alderman chosen for life ; and those per- >ons collectively form the Court of Aldermen. Tlie chief magistrate, styled Lord Mayor, i< elected annually, and generally in the order of rotation, from the Court of Aldermen, by llie great body of freemen called the Livery, in whom was likewise vested the right of electing four members to represent the city jn parliament, but this is now shared by all li(iuselio!ders paying 10/. a year. PreviousHy to 1475, the right of electing the lord mayor belonged to the Common Council, an elective body representing the several wards ; liut by an act of the council then made, the election of the mayor and two sheriffs was vested in the lord mayor for the lime being, the aldermen, the common council, and ilie master, wardens, and livery of each of the city companies. These public bodies fiirm a sort of parliament, the court of aldermen ranking as peers, tliat of common louneil as the commons. On pulilic occasions when a petition to the throne has been pni- IKiseil, very importimt questions have been discussed in tluse assemblies. The military force 111' the city formerly consisted of the Train Bands; but under an act passed in 1794, fwore- ;;imciits of militia are raised by ballot, each consisting of 2200 men. No troops can enter the eily, nor can its own militia depart from it, without permission of the lord mayor. His power is very great ; and though his office be elective, his authority does not cease on the ileniise or abdication of the king, as that of the commission officers docs; and in such cases ilie Lord IMayor of London is said to be the principal officer of the kingdom. There are two slierifl's, one for London and one for Middlesex ; but, from a peculiarity originating in the j^rant of the slieriffwicks, they regularly make but one officer ; and therefore, if one of ilieiii (lies, the office is at an end until a successor to him is chosen, and the courts of Wesl- iniiisler can aw,ird no process to the other. The next chief officers in rank are, the Uecordei'. llie Chatiilierlaiii, and the Comiuon Serjeant. Dil 2 •104 DESCRIPTIVE OEOOIIAPIIY. Pa%j III. 1778. T^ police of the metropoUt has not been broiiijht ti> « viiry hl||h il«irr«« orefflclenejr, but ii rontlnuallt undergoing imiiroveincnU. There arc clcvi'n ollci^a i the MHiiitliin liiiuae ) the Oulldhnll t Dow Strecli Oueen Square, Wcntniinatcr j Marlborough Streol ; High Hlri'i'l, Miiry.U'.lHillo | Matton Uprden; Worshiu Street! Lambeth Street, in Whitechapel ; High Hlreel, Nhiidwoll i Kllliill Ntreet, Hoiithwark ; and Wapiiini New Stairs, for oflenccs ronneffed with tlie iilii|i|iinK anil |M)rt, I'lm How Hireel I'ollce t)tHfc is wliolly i,i,ii(? the direction and management of the Secretary ol' Ninlii liir lh|i lliiinc Ui'|iiirtineiit. All the magistratii belonging to it are In the commission uf the |icsco liir the (Hiilhtliatrolc by winch the roads widiin ten miles of the nititro|iollit Hrv watt'hcil and guarded during a con iiidcrulde part of the night. In a..other department of p»lliointeil byditniriMil |i»rl«luii< wllhtmt I'liHcerl or co-operation, a cos. 8TABIILAHY POLICE FoHcK, rcgulaHy organised, and subjci'l to iilllci'm Hpp(illite indlvMlUHls I'lnnpoilng this protective force 177!'. The gaolt and vriwns i^ the metroputU present a «hIiJi'i( which, however painful, cannot be passed tvithout notice. The king's Bench prison, in Soulhwark, In Ulidtir th(< particular authiirity of the Court of King's Bench. The liberties, or rule), comprehend an ama cuiillguiiuii In the prison, three miles in circum- ference, within any part of which debtors may reside on iiaying t'vrlalii fees. The Klcct I'rison, rhicHy for debtors, is situated on the east side of Karringdnn Street i iu rulv* wuru fiiniivrly buundcil by that street, fleet Lane, the Uld Bailey, and Ludgate Street ; but they were iinlHrgnl, In 1HU4, tiv an order of the Court of Common Pleas. Whitecross-street prison was erected In IMlfii— |Nl7, Ibr Iho recvptlun of such debtors as were liable to be confined in the city gaiiU of Newgate and the Conniteri 17M0. Newgale, now a place of conllnemeiit for prUonera iHinili) itliil Altpr trial, has been placed under new regulations, through the cflbrts of several henevolenl iktiuiis HllXlnns lo reiuler It as cHl-ctual a place of reform as a prison can be. Bridewell, Blackfriars, tliiiiigh a prisiiii, is utiliilly ranked among the hospitals. The Middlesex House of Correction, in Colilb.ith I'lelils, ererled ul IMI Pltpi'llNenf HO,(KIU/. has long been the terror nf delinquents, through the double punishment of incarcoriiliiilt and hard lalNmr, The Penitentiary at Mil. bank, erected by government at an expense of Ml,i»»ll,, wan dt'SlllKHl fur (he reception of such convicts as might be selected fVom those sentenced to lrans|iurtatiiili or lo ciMilllU'intnt iMi board the hulks for a certain term of years. They arc confined here to hard labour for a •hiirtfr term, part of which Is remitted if they behave veil. Tothiluficlds Bridewell is a large pile of building, IhilshtHi in Viiil. A new House of Correction has l>een erected at Brixton, in Surrey ; and there, as well a> at Coldhalh t''lplda prison, a treadmill has been erected for the occupation and punishment ofprUoDeri senteiii'iHl lit hard InlHiiir, 17H1. T>ie charilable inslitulwiu of VondonvoK. i rcqiiiru a volume Ibr their description. The terra hospital, applicdtoinany of them, however appropriate, seems so general n» lo lie fnlher vague. Chelsea and Greenwich hospitals arc asylums provided by national gratitude lo sniiiinrl lh(> Hgeil or Inllrin who have devnteil their best days to the service of their country by land and sea. riiiler till) tyiitpli' of charity ascribeil to Kilward the Sixth, by which the poor were dislinguisheil into iliiasea, Nt. Ilnrlholoinew's and SI. Thomas's hospitals were assigned to the maimed and discised. Bridewell Hospital In Hie ciiiployhienl and correction of the idlc,aiia Christ's Hospital to the supiiort and euncatiiin of the young anil helplrss, I'lir the cure of diseases, and for the prompt relief of accidental injuries, there are various inslilllllonii of the nu'lro|Kilis ; such are the London, Middlesex, St. George's and Westminster hospitals i Nt. llarlhololilfW's, Ml, Thiiinas's, and Guy's are also celebrated as schools of surgery ; the hospitals of llellilehi'in and SI, Luke's are appropriated lo insane patients : there are sixteen medical charities for parliculnr lilir|HMt I'lillaiitliropii' and Humane Societies, the Heftige for the Destitute, the Foumlling Hospital, the MagdMlen A«ylutn, and the Female Penitentiary, To the iMbss of charitable liiundations belong also the alms-lioiiaes of Itiu various city companies. Besides national swietics, such as ti.e Caleflli(> melroimlli, tlio most considerable are the Royal Society; the Society of Anti(]u.trit<«| tliv Hodi'ly Cor the Eiicourageinetit of Arts and Manufactures; the Royul Institution for IUt'llltnlih)( tliu introduction of useful in. vcntionsand Imi>rovemcnts; the London, uiul tliii Utiaitt'l In^litiilions, The College of Pliy. biciaiis, and the Royal College of Surgcona, lU'i'idti Oil llit> mlinis>iion of inenihers to practise in cacli of those professions. For the ciillivntiuii of Nt'lviict's connected with them, four eminent societies exist, and lectures are estaltliahtiil lit varloiln thuntrcs of anatomy and lios. pitals. Of institutions for particular braiicliMa of kiu>wl«dgi>, the more eminent are the Linncan, the Geological, the Horticultural, tho OiiO)|rn|iliicul, ntut the Zoological societies. As a national repository of literature, of antiqullit)*! Hiid uf olijects belonging tc natural his- tory, the Efritish Museum, elsewhere descrilivdi In ilnily rising in public estimation. 1784. London is tlie principal literari/ emporium ifltw kiitffdonu Almost all books of im. portance are there printed and published ; mid tlieiii't> dlNlrihuted over the kingdom, forming a considerible branch of commerce. The aiuiliul viiliui aold Is estimated at from 1 ,000,000/. to 2,000,000A sterling. Being also the centrt> of Intt'lligi'tice relative to public afl'airs at home and abroad, the metropolis gives circultitiuii lu it priidigioui number of newspapers and periodical journals. Some of the newspiiperii cirt'iiliitv upwards of 8000 a day; and by the profil derived from such extunslvu nhIm, niiil from advertisements, they are en. abled to maintain complete and costly OHtabliahinoiila for iihlHliiing curly political intelligence, and for reporting trials and parliamentary jtrucvtMllii^Si Tliu number uf single papers pub- lished annually in London, as calculated from tliv nUiiii|i reliirns, exceeds 16,000,(XX). The metropolis is also the chief market for collections of ritru nild curious books ; and these lite- rary treasures, that have been accumulating uliii't) lliu iitvetilloii of printing, present a fund of interesting research and speculation, which (Uiiiiot liu piirulk'k'd in any other European capital. Book !• ENGLAND. 405 1785. In London, also, the Engltsk school of art may be considered as established ; and it h here that the must eminent professors of painting, sculpture, and architecture fix their per- manent abode. In all that concerns the drama, the sanction of a London audience is deci« slve both as to authors and actors ; and the same remark may apply with respect to music, both vocal and instrumental. It is a subject of regret, however, that the profits of opera and concert should be chiefly appropriated by foreign professors, to tlie great discouragement of native talent. 1786. TAe »nanu/ac seals ij Ihe nohility ; but it contains Hampton Court (Jig. 156.) bj[ Cardinal WoUcy, anil enlarged I 15(i built by Sir ilAWPTUN COl'Rr. ny .. „--- -. -.. tliristophor Wren, and forming one of Uic largest of the English palac ». Here are displayed many flnc and cui'ous pictures, among which arc seven of the cartoons ol Raphael, regarded as the master-pieces nl that renowned painter. They are shown tn the public, l)y late rogulatlons, with thai full freedom which visitants of taste wouM desire. The gardens of this palate arc formally disposed ; but they harmonise with the style of the edifice. Bushy I'ark, the scat of William IV. while IJuke of Clarence, is surrounded with magnificent woods. Chiswick, the highly ornameiitccl villa of the Duke of Devonshire, and Os- tcricy Park, are both in this vicinity, ami contain fine |>aintings. Syon House is the seat of tlie Duke of Northumberland. Hut the chief ornaments of Middlesex arc it.< villas, wholly composed of the embellished retirements of the wealthy citizens of London. At Twickenham, indeed, barbarous hands have demolished Pope's villa i but the stranger may still wander on the ornamented ground.*, sloping down to the river, on which the eye of the jwct was accustomed to rest. Strawberry Hill is a light fantastic fabric, built by Horaee Walpolc. The villas which cover the sister hills of Hampstead and Highgatc command l>cautiful prospects. 1795. The other midland counties, if we except the outer border formed by those of War- wick, Stanford, Derby, and Nottingham, which have each a marked distinctive character, so mucii resemble each other, that they may he considered in close connection. These counties are, Hertford, Bedford, Hiickinghai.i, Oxford, Northampton, Leicester. This great inland tract consists generally of a va.st plain, not of the same wide exposed flats as in the eastern counties ; but varied by gentle undulations, which, in a region of bolder features, could not aspire to the name of hills. The surface is not subject to swamp or inundation ; the air is healtiiy and pure ; the agriculturists are of the old steady English character, careful and laborious, but without that great activity and inventive spirit usually excited among farmers who have greater difficulties to struggle with. One exception must, indeed, be made, in the breed of horses and black cattle, to which the annual shows once held at Woburn Abbey gave a great impulse, and which Mr. Rakewell of Leicestershire carried to such perfection as to make the breed of that county famous throughout the kingdom. The whole tract is almost destitute of manufactures. Bedford and Berks have some fabrics of shawls, straw hats, and bone lace, but scarcely amounting to a national object. Silk and woollen hosiery have fuuiul their way into Leicester and Oxford shires, and Coventry has for centuries been renowned for its silk manufacture. There are in this district several respectable and ancient towns; but few cull aspire to rank with or rival the large manufacturing towns of the north. I79fi. Oxford justly claims the first rank ntiiong the midland cities. Its university, the most richly endowed in Europe, and the nursery of so nuiny great men ; the numcrou-' UouK !■ ENGLAND. 407 moil STRBBT, OEVORD' and extensive eilificus connected with it, arranged in such a manner as to produce a truly noble effect, render it one of tlie most interesting places in England. The visiter, as ha parses along either of tlic two main streets (Jig. 157.), beholds at every step some antique and majestic structure ; ho feels as if he belonged to another and a greater age. Even the houses of private individuals, though not perhaps in strict harmony with the rest, presenting, the aspect of ornamenteil cottages rising one above the other, have a better effect than the usual com- mon-place and mechanical lines of street. This beauti- ful city is supported almost entirely by the uii'.versity, which is of great antiquity, having been founded by Alfred, and the principal buildings which now ornament it built between the times of Henry VI. and Elizabeth. Oxford, in the reign of Charles I., was a place of considerable political importance ; parliaments were summoned to meet there, and the king maintained it long as his last sirong-liuld. At present it is solely distinguished as the tranquil scat of the muses. It lias nineteen colleges and four halls, in which reside above three thousand persons, of whom about a third arc maintained out of the funds of the colleges ; and many, under the character uf m.' sters, fellows, and other functionaries, enjoy liberal incomes. Oxford, like Cambridge, Improves its students rather by private tutorship, with strict and impartial public examination, than by lectureships ; for thougli these are numerous on the foundation, they have fallen into desuetude, with the exception of a few, which have of late been revived with success. 1797. Oxford is richly endowed : it possesses the Bodleian Library, which was the most exten- sive in England, till that of the British Museum was increased by the library of his majesty George III. It was founded by the bequest of Sir Thomas Bodley, and enriched by subse- quent donations, particularly that made by Mr. Gough of his immense collection of British topography. It has also a right to claim a copy of every new book entered at Stationers' Hall. The volumes arc commodiously cont.-uncd in a spacious apartment, and, as our ex- perience can testify, the freest admission and most liberal aid are afforded to the literary en- ijuirer. In tlic spacious quadrangle which contains this library are also 'the public schools ; a large gallery of portraits having reference to the university ; the Arundel marbles, well classed and arranged ; and the Pomfret statues, which, though much mutilated, present some fine specimens of ancient sculpture. The Iladcliffe Library is a lofty and noble rotunda, ilic finest library room in Oxford ; but it labours under a deficiency of books, 1798. In resjiect to striking tingle objects, we have already observed that Oxford has not quite so many as Cambridge. Christ-church, however, is an ample and venerable edifice, adorned nitli some fine old painted glass. In an adjoining apartment is the collection of pictures bequeathed by General Guise, which, though of unequal merit, contains some specimens of unquestioned excellence. New College chapel attracts admiration by its fine series of paintings on glass, executed by Jervis, after tlie designs of Sir Joshua Reynolds. All-Souls College, likewise ningdalcn College, and Quecti's College (of recent erection), display orchi- icctural beauties of no common order. ITW Among t/ie othi'r I owns nf this extensive district, Woodstock has a gay aspect, and really interesting fiatiiros in lOnglish liist( ry and romance, to which it iulds tlic solid benefit nf a large manuracturc of leather (.Invra. ])ucliinKliain, Stony Strn.t!'nr(l, 'I'oweestcr, and Daventry are small antique towns, the last three ihu'lly siipportitl by til nr situation on tiic high road from London to the north-west of England. The streets (ifStony .Stratford have .i ver; bad reputation for their rugged and dangerous character, which the utmost Hiiliavciurs of the parliamentary commissioners have not thoroughly cured. Newport I'agnell, in ]etical ideas. A more refined modern taste has rejected many of these accessories, as breaking in u|>on the idea of simple nature, to which it seeks to make the nearest possible approach ; yet, a space of four hundred acres, tilled with groves, temples, and meandering strriims, must present many beatitifiil sites. " The rich landsraiies," Waliiole, " occasionni by the multiplicity of temples and obelisks, and various pictures that present says m themselves as we shift our situation ; occasion surprise and pleasure, sometimes recalling Alhano's landscape:! to our mind, and oftener to our fancy the idolatrous and luxurious vales nf Daphne and Tem|ie." The house also is handsome and richly ornamented, and contains some fine paintings. Woburn Abbey, where the house of Russel, by princely shows ami festivals, have thrown a new lustre on British agriculture, is a magnificent edifice. '1 he stables, experimental farm, and other apiiendages of the most usefulof arts, excite the admiration of every farmer and even amateur ; nor is this residence deficient in the lighter embellish. ments of painting and statuary. Althorp, near Northampton, where the black-letter sages held their festival, is adorned with many rare and valuable works of art ; but it is in London chiefly that Larl S|>encer keeps his library, the first in the kingdom. Opposite to Stamford is Burleigh, a noble old residence of Cecil, Elizabeth's minister. It contains a fine library ot books and manuscripts ; and the Exeter family have enriched it with a collection of paintings, generally sup|>osed to be the most extensive in England. They arc chiefly of the Italian school, and illustrate the beauties of its greatest masters ; and if too many are by artists of a modern and even secondary class, even these, being fine specimens, are not without their value. Twelve miles west, near Oakham, is another Huriclgh on the hill, a Doric mansion, one of the finest in England, and niicc the seat of the gay revels of Buckingham. It has a noble terrace in fi-ont, and contains a good library, with some curious paintings. At Amptbill Park, the collection of portraits is interesting. In Hertfordshire, Cashiobury Park, and Nuneham Wim|iolc arc fine seats, well adorned with works of art ; and the same may lie s,.id u( Luton Hoo, in Bnlfordshire. On the border of Leicestershire, and half claimed by Lincolnshire, stands the Duke of Rutland's proud castellated edifice of Bclvoir. From a lofty height, it overlooks avast extent of coun- try, including the vale of the same name, one of the richest and most beautiful in England. The coiieotion of paintings, made chiefly by a late duke, is of great value, including a series of the Seven Sacraments by I'oussin. ISvOI. Four counties, those of \yarwick, St<\ffbrd, Derby, and Nottingham, border on the north this great midland region ; but all these jiossess striking and peculiar features, which will require a special notice. 1802. traru'ick is a noble county. Its woodlands, the remains of the wide ancient forest of Arden, are still extensive, and a great part lies in fine natural grass. The extensive plains are so diversified by hills and rivers as to improve the picturesque aspect of the country, and harmonise with the grand objects of art which it contains. Pasturage predominates greatly over agriculture, occupying nearly two thirds. 1803. Of the towns, the first in rank is Warwick, ancient and well built, and still prcservhift a portion of its prosperity by the manufacture of woollens. It has some good buildings ancient and modern : and its chief ornament is the castle, of which a description will elsewhere l>c found. Of much greater importance is Coventry, a large old town, built very irregularly without rule or line, and many 'f the nouies exhibiting tlic uncouth architecture of a distant peri(Ml Its ecclesiastical monuments, however, are of im|>ortaiice. Of the three churches, Trinity, St. Johii's, and St Michael's, the last, the only one which displays much Iicauty, is a very light and elegant structure. At some ;>oints, however, where all the three arc seen, forming a continuous line of vast extent, the efl'ect is extremely grand. The spire rises to three hundred feet : a per|iendicular height which is almost sublime. Coventry has not slumlieretl on its antique distinctions. The fabric of silk, intro. duced more than a century ago by the French ref\igees, has made most rapid progress, so that in 1819 it em- ployed 'J81'J looms. In the making of watches, also, this city now rivals London. Leamington, though its spa IS mentioned by Camden, never Itecamc a scene of crowded resort, till the beginning of this century ; yet so great since that period has been its attraction, that it has risen from a mere village to be a flourishing place. There arc twth hot and cold baths : and the waters are used eithe for drinking or bathing. I.camington now possesses, on a handsome scale, baths, inns, a theatre, an assembly-room, — all the accommodation for tlie sick and the gay. Stratford is a considerable town on the Avon, to which the deathless muse has given a nami? that may proudly vie with any other in England. It is the undoubted birthplace of Shakspiare, the unrivalled master of the English drama. Many things are shown as memorials of the bard, which the severe antiquary may sus|)ect as apocryphal ; but the poetical pilgrim is sure that he beholds the genuine tomb of the poet, and the site uf the house chosen by him for his final residence : though the house itself a barbarous hand has demolished He tees the early scenery on which the eye of shakspeare dwelt, and which without any bold features presents an agreeable variety ; while the vicinity of the castles of Warwick and Kenilworth, displaying feudal life in all its grandeur, must have wonderfully opened the mind of the youthful bard. Birmingham is in Warwickshire, according to the record : but as its actual position is clearly that of the capital of the iron country, wliich is almost wholly in Stallbrdshirc, we propose, though against law and statute, to class it with the great towns devoted to the working of that material. 1804. There arc two cattellated seuts ill this county, Keiiilwoitli and Warwick, both of UoOK I- ENGLAND. 409 KKKll-WnRTII CABTLB. almost matchless grandeur; but the former presents only the picturesque and antique remains of its pristine state {Jig. 159.)- Founded in the reign of Henry I., it was chiefly extended and adorned by John of Gaunt; and remained with the princes of the house of Lancaster till wrested from them by the triumph of the house of York. It , ■■trcJWTJi- • •."^^wiBi- c: *•'"**""**' '''enceforth a royal 'SMwr^ST^ . ^Sa. i i H^i'lrm m ^^HmsBOiii^^^^Xf^' appanage; and was bestowed by Elizabeth on her hand- some favourite, Leicester, whose residence here, and the splendid (itea and ro- mantic incidents connected with it, have been so happily worked up by the greatest romance writer of the age. At the close of the civil wars, it was given up wholly by Cromwell to his soldiers for plunder; a destination consummated with such eagerness, and so combined with that love of wanton destruction in which vulgar minds delight, that Kenilworth was reduced to the totally fallen state in which it now appears. The walls are indeed entire, but completely imketl, and every where roofless ; and the visiter who stands at the interior foot of the tower can trace only by chimneys, and other slight marks, the successive apartments rising above each other till they are terminated by the dome of the sky. Seated on an eminence, and cxhihitint; in solemn profusion mouldering walls, dismantled towers, shattered staircases, ami broken battlements ; the endless apartments, tlie grandeur of some, the studied conceal- ment of others, — the wilderness of galleries,— staircases in every direction,— cells built in the solid wall,— dungeons impervious to the light of day, — caverns and confessionals, — ramparts, tun'ets, and buttresses, — cause it to exhibit traces of all that is most magiiiiic«nt, as well as awful and mysterious, in the castles of the feudal age. This stupendous pile is now abandoned to total neglect ; and when the present writer visited it, hogs were wallowing in the mire, in the court of this once almost regal scat of Lancaster and Dudley, Kenilworth etiiibits the feudal age in its total downfall ; but the traveller has only to proceed a few miles in order to see it entire and in full glory. This is in the proud mansion once inhabited by the liing-making Earl of Warwick (Jig. 160.). In the reign of Edward the Confessor, this castle was a fortress of the crown ; 'CO J_ jjut having been demo- lished in the course of civil contests, its present exist- ence is due to Thomas Beauchamp, Earl of War- wick, who, in the four- teenth century,distinguish- ed himself at the battles of Cressy and Poitiers. It remained in the hands of that powerful house till the reign of Edward IV., who seited an opportunity of annexing it to the crown. It was afterwards be- stowed by King James on Lord Brooke, who spent a large sum in restoring it from a.sta^e of decay ; and when it had again suill-red from time, Francis, the late earl, repaired it so judiciously, and made even liis additions in such harmony with the original pile, that he may be considered almost the creator of the edifice in its present state. It is scarcely possible to give to those who have not seen it an idea of this range of mighty clustering towers, their walls richly mantled «'itti ivy, and overlooking a per}iendicular rock which rises from the Avon; while vast (roods embosom it on every other side. The entrance, cut through a rock, and opening at nnce on tliree of the loftiest towers, has an eflTect truly striking. The interior is equally Rrand and interesting. First is a passage or corridor upwards of 300 feet in extent, seen from end to end, and along which the state apartments are arranged. The grand hall, 62 feet long, is wainscotted with oak, hung with armour, and maintained in full feudal keeping. lliere are many fine pictures ; but, perhaps, the best productions of tlie mimic art scarcely produce their due impression, on first view at least, in the presence of such mighty realities of nature and art. 1K05. Staffimhhire has a somewhat bleak and uninviting aspect. A great part of its eastern surface is composed of moorland hills, some of them above a thousand feet high. WARWICK CAITM. 410 DESCRIl'TIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. and aiTording only scanty unsturage ; yet, ns these hills give rise to the Trent, niu! to numerous smaller rivers which feed the great canals, they ore liighly serviceable to Hriiish Inland commerce. Of the cultivated part of the county, the greater part is arable, thoiiyli there are rich pastures along the rivers ; but, on the whole, the farms are smaller, and improve, merits less advanced, than in the other midland counties. Other sources of wealth, om\n[ within the last fifty years, appear to have, in a great measure, absorbed ottontion : its mineral stores are immense. The region of coal U supposed to bo about ,50,000 acres in extent, and cannot be exhausted for ages. Besides its economical uses, this mincrul is tliu main basis of the works and manufactures of the county, and of all those in the north-west of England, which, but for tliis ample supply of fuel, could never have attained their present astonishing height. Iron, the most useful of metals, exists in equal abundance ; and since the discovery that it could be worked with coke, iron works have been established on nn immense scale. The whole district from Wolverhampton to Birmingham may be cnllcil ii Cyclopean land, where furnaces without number arc continually pouring out fire and smukc, Even in the darkest night, the flames are visible in the distance, and the horizon appears in a glow. Staffordshire is also traversed by limestone rocks, some of which approadi tu the quality of marble. The clays are more valuable, as they afl'ord the material of tlie potterv which forms the other great StaHbrdshire manufacture. It is long since some coarse vessels were made at Burslem ; where, in the course of last century, some improvements in the art of pottery were made. But it was Mr. V'edgwood who, by a series of happy inventions raised this fabric at once to the highest perfection, and rendered it an object of national hn- portancc. Not content with the native materials, he imported the finest white clays and best Hints from the southern counties; and formed that variety of articles called Wedgwood's ware, applicable to all purposes of use and ornament, and superior in some respects to the best porcelain. Hence h.-ts sprung up a range of villages forming a district called the Pot- teries, of which Burslem is the centre, and which contain about 60,000 inhabitants. 1806. The principal cluster of large towns in Staffttrdsliirc consists of those in the southerii quarter wliich arc employed in making iron, and manufacturing it into various forms, Of this district Birmingham is undoubtedly the capital ; and we therefore reserved for this placi' the description of that great emporium of British industry. 1807. Birmingham is named in history so early as tlie reign of Alfred; and at the re- motest periods iron is mentioned as its staple. In the time of the civil wars, it naturally took part with the parliament against the king ; and was besieged and taken by Prince Rupert. The Restoration, though not a wel^-ome event to Birmingham, gave a beginning to her prosperity, by the market which it aflbrded to the toys and ornamental articles for which it became more and more noted. But the grand impulse given was early in the last century, when John Taylor Esq., the founder of the wealthy family of that name, Matthew Boulton Esq., and other individuals, by the magnificence and spirit of their undertakings, and by their liberal patronage of skill and ingenuity in every line, contributed greatly to the establishment of the manufacturing fame of the town. Mr. Boulton, having secured the celebrated Mr. Watt, established, in conjunction with him,' at Soho, near Birmingham, their immense manufactory, in which talent, science, capital, experience, united every thing which could raise hardware articles to perfection. Pre-eminent above all is the steam. engine, which Mr. Watt, its great improver, not only applied to the use of his works hare, but constructed for the rest of England. The copper coinage executed at Soho by sU.'am power for the use of government has been greatly admired. Under the impulse of such an example, the citizens of Birmingham soon produced their standard articles of a cheapness aiul excellence which defied all competition. Th? articles manufactured in nirmingham consist, in great measure, of such as Individually npiic.ir unworthy of being named, yet astonish and dazilc by their magnitude, when half the world is to lie 8ii|i|ilml with Ihcm ; such as pins, buttons, nails, pa|>cr trays, liligrce, and tovs. The buckle manufacture, now n\mm\ extinct, was the source of employment tu man^' hundreds during the latter half of the century. Thoroare not wanting, however, fal>rics of greater magnitude, taken even singly, such as that of flrcarms, &c. Duriiii; the last war, the gunsmiths of Birmingham met the demand witli such energy, that, on one oecasinn, they delivered to government 14,IKK) muskets in a week. Of imndcrous machinery, none, iwrhaps, 13 more hitereit- ing than that of the metnl rolling-mills. Steel pens are recently produced to the supjwscd amount of 1U,IIIKI,0(IU. Mr. M'Culloch estimates its manufactures altogether at 3,U0U,(XKJ/. Birmingham, at least that lutgeat |uiit which is new, is fairly and commodiously built, with suitable churches and other edifices, but without .my \ thing prominent in architecture, or any antique monuments. The town can lioast of enlightened citiieii), ' under whose auspices letters and the arts have been cultivated with ardour. The institutions for the educa- tion of the i>oor arc not, pcrhai>s, 6urp.issed by any in tlic kingdom for extent and ctficacy. Like all other great scats of manufacture, the place has sullercd deeply by vicissitudes in trade ; yet the conduct of IM citizens h.is liecn generally good. 1S( 8. Tke other great manufacturing tmons, almost all in Staffordshire, are, Wvlverhampton, a very impuloui place, of considerable antiquity, with a very tine old church; but indebted for its present grcitnivis to the I making of locks and keys in a manner superior to any town in the world. VVednesbury must be still iiiiiro ' ancient, if it derives its name from Woden : it has a very fine old Gothic church ; but its main boast at iirciciit is, the making all the hard m.itcriaU of co.ich harness in an unrivalled manner. Walsall Huurislics liy llic I making of every thing connected with saddlery ; Duilley by its nails ; but it has also a castle of some note iii j history, commanding a view of seven counties, and seated on vast excavated limestone rocks. Bilston, in tliu j very centre of the coal and iron mines, is busily employcrd, is yet to lie noticed ; an undent but small town, of neat appMr.mci', ornamented with the usual county buildings. The Grand Trunk Canal, however, passing by it, has given iiu Hook I. ENGLAND. 411 miuilir l» It* Ixiliiitry i nnil It carriea nn a cniialilcrublv mnnuracturc of bonti and ilioci. Newcattlc-undvr- Liiii', mill Tuinwiirlh, arc tiiith coniiidtralilc towim un one nl' tlic great I,iiiii'itl equal to uiiy thing of the kind in Itritain, or even in Kurope : such are the [lortiro, richly adorneit itli xulpliire; the choir; and St. Mary's chaiicl. It contains also the monuments of eminent characlem ■ ' ' " " The society fixed thereby this richly endowed establishment, together with the neat- ,Biiil'llic town, and Its pleasant situation, have induced many of the gentry in this quarter to make it their mulviii'c. 'I'lu'se circumstances mav have contributed to give to LichHeld that Intellectual ' ' Kii'(iii>|iit'uiius, and has made It almost the literary metri>|iolit of south-western England. The birth and Intellectual character which atl; iiliicatioii of Jnhnson anil (i.irrick arc alone sutticicnt to immortalise It. More recently, Miss .Seward iixlhfr friends have xealously cultlvateiili'ti'>{i)ls arc not |mrtlcularly numerous in Staftbrdihirc. Trentham Park is a noble mansion of the * of Sluffbrtl, lately very much embellished. Leightnn Beau Desert, the seat of the Maniiicai of liilil,n')'. KIrurIa, erected by Mr. Wedgwood, h- ' ' — ■ -■— ■ j— .— .. . ... .iihciurruundlnK manufactures. , has been rendered classic and splendid, even amid the smoke 18 1 'J. DerityMrc, in its natural features, is perhaps the most remarkable of any county I »f Hiiglniul. Except in the lower and southern districts on tlie Trent, the whole county is tnvom'd by ranges of rugged and rocky hills, penetrated by vast excavations, and separated bi narrow valleys. In these bleak and high districts, an inferior agriculture is necessarily •rariised. Oats are the chief grain ; and the sheep and cattle are often diminutive. Lead I it aliunilant and characteristic, occurring chiefly in the form of galena, with a very small I siniixtiire of silver. Iron is also worked very plentifully. This county is also celebrated I'oi ihe variety and beauty of its calcareous substances, particularly the kind called Blue Jiilm (liiior spar), which, by the skilful application of a gentle heat, is made to exhibit the I nost brilliiint colours. Lastly, there are numerous hot springs variously impregnated ; and I k county contains two of the most remarkable watering-places in the kingdom, Matlock |ind Buxton. 181:). The scenery and the wonders of Derbyshire have attracted much attention. The I Donli-eastern (quarter, in particular, called the <■ High Peak," exhibits an aspect altogether Imiiliiir. In proceeding to Castleton, the traveller passes throiv'h the Winyats, or gates of »inil«, a narrow road of about a mile in length, between precipices a thousand feet liljli, (iiirk, rugged, and perpendicular. At the end of this road opens on one side Mam llor, urtlie Siiivering Mountain, I.'iOO feet high, shattered, and precipitous ; on the other I'Jk High I'eak itself crowned with the ruiiis of a Saxon fortress; and at its foot, the wonder of wonders " the Peak Ca- vern" (fig. 161.)' This is a huge gulf, 42'ft. high and 120 long, at the foot of perpendicular cliffs of amaz- ing height. Gilpin considers it as the only cavern which can be called sublime, most others resembling mere holes. The visiter is thence guided through a succession of dark ca- vernous apartments, and is ferried along a subterraneous river ; above which the rocks rise so close, that he must lie flat on his face. At the end of somewhat above 2000 feet the cavern terminates, or, at least, becomes no longer passable. Elden Hole is an object of a still more awful character. It is a fissure near Buxton, which descends perpendicularly to an luliiown depth. A line of 2652 feet has been let down without finding a bottom. llii|u.nU'(l suspicions having arisen of persons murdered by being thrown into this hole, lnoiliiring parties caused themselves to be let down ; but at the depth of 1000 feet the lights liipiwl, and they were obliged to return. Poole's Hole, near Buxton, is chiefly remarkable Ifcrilio large mosses of staloctite, and other petrifactions with which it is filled. 1811. On descending into the Low Peak, a milder grandeur presents itself. The most IntRiil chains of Derby .^hire are interspersed with beautiful valleys ; but none equals that III .Mullock, where the banks of the Derwent are bordered by extensive woods, interspersed Iiiili the boldest and most varied forms of rock. Dovedale (fig. 162.) is a vrilder scene, l)(ai)t. It Imii extensive mnnufactiiroH : timt of silk, introduced at the cominencvmrnt of the last century, ban continued to flourish i and the silk mill of Derliy was considered r|uitv MtonUhing, till it was surpusH-d by the machinery of the cotton ma- nufacture. In the principal vsta- blishment, a single watcr-whi'd produces upwards of 1 00,000 dif. ferent movements, by which the silk is converted from the skein, ur raw state, to a form tit for the wvaviT, Porcelain is also maiiiifacturid here ; and what is called its white ware is considered almost unrl. vailed. A considerable number of workmen are employed In °°''"°*''*' cutting and polishing marble; and the Derbyshire spar is fashioned into a variety of beautiful forms by a machine, the varied movements of which are produced by one water>wheel. 1816. The waterinif-placet In Derhyiiliirc linvc the next real claim to notier. Matlock contains mineral •prliiKa, aomcwhat aimilar to thoac of llrittol, and reckoned elticncloua in coiiiumptive and rheuinatli; com- plaint*. Tlic accommodations arc koim! and cheap ; and the tccnery, as already I'.eicrlhcd, lieautifui. Iluxton, In the High Peak, surrounded by naked mountainii, attracts a much greater multitude ; and its waters are considered very iwwerfUl in rheumatism, gout, and other diacusei. The Uuke of Devonshire h:is here nm. •tructcd a most superb crescent, occupied by inni, sl;op>, balUrooms, and every thing that can contribute to tlie accommodation and gaiety of the visitants. 1817. Other towns. Chestcrfleld is neat and respectable, participating in the trade of Yorkshire, on whlcli it turders. Hei|)cr is a considerable t.)wn ; and Cromford, a thriving village, in which Sir Richard Arkwriglii lirst applied his wonderful invcntiuns, to be emplovftl .)n tlu- great scale in a diHcrent quarter. Aslib^jurni; ii a tolerable town, whence travellers visit Dovetldle; Custleton and Tideswell arc villages in the Il'gii Peak, supported by the mining employment I8IN. 0/ seals, Chatsworth has sometimes liccn considernl the finest in England. It was built by William Orst duke of Devonshire, in 17IK> ; and is 1!)I fiH;t square, of the Ionic order, richly ornamcntett Ixith witliin and without There arc curious water-works, but in a sty'.e now considered antiquated. Formerly it was not distinguished by works of urt ; but the present duke, alter making considerable additions, has luith enlarged the mansion, and, we understand, de|iositcd in It a pretty extensive collection of antiquities. It h,is hrcn almost eclipsed by Kcddlestunc House, whose tine Doric flront, ^iO feet long, by Adams, is considered one of the linest arcnitectural features in England Within are some very tine paintini^s. Sir Richard Arkwright built a fine modern seat near Cromford. Hardwicke Hall is viewed with emotion, as long the residence of the uii. fortunate Mary ; the nirniture and the portraits remain. In many respects, in the same state as during her residence 1819. NotUn/'ham, the last of these limitary counties, ia likewise fine and extensive. The southern portion is watered by the broud stream of the Trent, its tributaries, and numerous cannls. The Vale of Belvoir, t'j the suuth-cast, ranks with the richest tracts in theiiiland. Tlie north-western part, on the contrary, contains the remnant of the great forest of Slier- wood, famed for the revelries of the merry outlaw Rol '.r .Hood. Being covered, also, iti a great measure, with the ornamented grounds of noblemen of high rank, it is called the " dukeries." There is coal only upon the Derbyshire border. The manufactures of hosiery in this county, Leicester, and Derby, employ, according to Mr. Falkin, 33,000 frames and T.'J.OOO operatives, producing in cotton 880,000/., worsted 870,000/., silk 241,000/. The lace trade has become of vast importance, employing, it is said, 150,000 embroiderers in this county. 1820. NoUinghavi is a large town, boldly and picturesquely situated upon the Trent. Its streets are arranged along the face of a hill so steep, that the ground floors of the street behind, in some instances, rise higher than the roofs of those in front. The rocky niateriuU of this hill are so sof( and yielding, that they are cut to a great extent into cellars and ware- houses. The castle of Nottingham, once of great strength, was demolished by Charles II. ; and its churches suffered during the civil wars. The making of stockings, now of various materials, has always been the staple of Nottingliam. They are worked on frames, wliicb, in tiie middle of last century, scarcely exceeded 1 200, and at present amount to 10,000. The lace trade recently added is of very great importance. There are stated to be 1240 niacliinesin the town, and 1070 in the neighbourhood ; and the lace sold in its market is valued at 130,000^ Nottingham has also a great inland trade by the Trent and canals connected with it. 1821. There are ftw other large towiu. Newark is renowned in history fr: its castle, founded by King Slephen, still venerable in ruin; and for a parish church, said to be the finest in the kingdom, almost meriting the rank of a cathedral. Mansfie/d, on a small scale, has the same manufactures as Nottingham. IVorktop may be called the capital of the dukeries : it is a pleasant little town, with a very fine old abliey church. 1822. Noltinghatmhire may boast some sptemlid seals, particularly those around Worksop. Worksop Manor, built but half a century ago by the Duke of Norfolk, contains fine portraits of the Howard family. Clumber Park, nearly of the same date, is fitted up in a magnificent style by the Duke of Newcastle, iviln a very valuable collection of pictures. Welbeck Abbey, a seat of the Duke of Portland, is noted for its nnc stables, Thorcsby Manor has extensive and beautiful grounds. In all these, and particularly the last, a'e iuund interesting and decaying remains of the trees of .ShcrwmHl, Ncwstead Al)t)cy had been stripiHil of lli line furniture and paintings before it came to the lute Lord liyrun, by whom it was sold. \\15. The cnuHliei nf Bool I- K NO LAND. 419 SuHiidrT •!. The S'nrlht'm CountUt. IA2:). The northern cuunlw* nf /'.'N^Aiitrf iimy he di-itcribi'cl, generally, as rcacliinf( from the lluiiiluT Hiid the RliTM'y tollie St'iilliKJi liortlvr. They include the wide extent of Yorhhire, iliviilfd into three ritlinnH, iiiui «if l.nnrnthire, Durham, Norlhumberland, Cumberland, and IMnwrfliiiKl. They form ulnuiit nn outer kingVhvn the king repaired to York, nil the pure and untainted ^er.iry uf the north ranged Iheinselves round his standard, and rendered him for some time jupriior in tl.e Held, Strange revolution I Not two centuries have elapsed, and this rude portion of the kingdom has, in wealth, arts, and the immense products of its manufacturing industry, nearly eclipsed those Mtvt southern portions, by which it was then considered as Kmi-barborouc. IS'.'J. Xiirthem Kitgland mnjf txi divided into three fxtrlionsi the eastern, containing prcttj' (i!i'n'ulky, and usefUl commtNlltivs. 'I'ho i.outh-wcstem, comprising Lancashire and ihe west riding of Yorkshire, is the district which, by the vast produce of its manufactories, iL'v.n fur lichind it every other, not only in England, but in the whole world. Lastly, there is till' nr>rth-western, C'undterlnnd nnd Westmoreland, or the country of the Lakes, to ■bich Niiturc, iiaving denied wvnilh, lins granted a higher degree of beauty than any other pirt of Engiondi lifts. TH'- couHliei of NorlkHmhertimd (iNrf Durhiim nro nf the flnt rsnk. Tnc whole of their interior is itt) hilly and I'levstetli lh«t uf Diirliitin, liiilttMl, sIihik lhi> upiwr courics of the Tco and Wear, riaet into muntaina. Tht> I'all or lht< 'I'l'V* | NorthtinilH'rlnnil Ihnnori have happily availed themKlvea, by introducing all the iiHitt iniprovwl (iroceaaea, ami lhi> iM'at lirtSHia of ircvali'jit on this co^ Scarborough, Tonti watcring.place of th 18.34. For*, th of the North and that are only of t England. Ebora vcrus each resided puled with Londo give lip this clain poivcrs of trade i bireels narrow ; yei iinie and magnificc pin. The choir of i liands of a maniac j •lie -uincd abbey of w also deserving no ilie assembly room, < Eiifc'land ; the count >liire Philosophical i I jentry, particularly a "liii'li passes through m In this part qf Yo ,«'lofmunici|)alcai>italo RHst and pleasantest toy ..0 p casant, surroundtni oi,s derable distance. Sc y.*^>.'J'''omasof Lan. ™ par uiment, during th n* completely demolisffed. lS;io. Leeds is the countv. Although it Jiidol the most rapid 11' J 8;! I tolS.'l.SOa; I »"se has been observ '"•'I'lvtl by the vast , Book I. ENGLAND. 415 out lowcriiif! ml the bridge nder its vault iiirablc tiling, Kceat rivers ! narrow space 1 industry." IB hamlsomcly rcnth century, ation, ranging )a»e. The sec jcndariCb, and fig. ir>3.). Tins 's, when kings ippcars to have It (!|;urcs Tirst in :ii Malcolm III. n attempting to Kres, and is dc. rudely adorned tone, of warriors 08. All expense rcti in coiivcrtini^ »1 castle into tlio mansions. Tlio scnts a most liril. coration ; haviiij was consid^TLd ind other cathc. le, another groat tains its antii)uc ,1 very iiitcrcstins age ill its neipti. I entire its augusi 1 fine and highly he North Bidiiip, ] ■ which rise ol^cn can exist only in Cleveland. Tlic I St Riding, wliitli LvenotheciKitilc to the ailjoiiiing jften precipitous letrated by ditp | nglish landscape. . tortile plain, tia- 'eastern, amllij | ■use inaiiiifacli.r- it-icxtrenu'we-l | lior()Ugli,\Vh,m;- K), of bleak liMvj nay be genorallj been so active ai in 177", are ii« I which forinitlj I has lately declined. In 1834 it sent 27 vessels, wliich procured 2,(i96 tons of oil. In 1836 it owned 503 vessels, 63,.500 tons; and there entered its port 1853 vessels, tonnage 277,010, iif wliicli more than two-thirds were British. From Russia, the tonnage was 85,600 , Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, 37,000 ; Prussia, 29,000 ; Germany, 87,000 ; Holland 26,000; British America, 39,000. The merchants of Hull have usefully displayed their spirit by the construction of spacious docks for shipping. The Old Dock, completed in 1778, the Humber Dock in 1809, and the Junction Dock in 1829, contain a space of iiventy-three acres. Hull, besides ship-building, carries on manufactures of soap, iron, &c. George Street, Charlotte Street, with other parts of the town, are very handsomely built. Ciiole, on the Ouse, a little above its junction with the Humber, is beginning to share with Hull in the exportation of woollens. Tliough a few years ago a mere village, and still, in 1831, containing only 1670 inhabitants, it has two spacious docks, and in 1836 the customs csceedcd 60,000/., and there belonged to it 167 ships, tonnage 12,580. As it is unsafe, however, for large vessels to ascend so high, it cannot rival Hull as a shipping por^ n'liilb!/ is a very ancient town, with the rcmaini of a fine abbey built soon after the Conquest. Its modern importance is derived from large mines of alum discovered in it' vicinity two centuries ago The export of their prmlucc forms a considerable trade, to which Whitby soon added the other branches prevalent on this coast, and became second only to Hull. Scarborough, romantically situated on a promontory between two rocks overlooking the sea, is the chief watering-place of the north of England. 1834. York, the capital, is the first object that strikes us as we proceed into the interior of the North and West Ridings. This celebrated city, though so much eclipsed by several that »i'c only of to-day, still boasts a dignity superior to them, and to almost any other in England. Eboracum was a distinguished Roman station ; the emperors Hadrian and Sc- verus each resided in it occasionally, and the latter died there. For some time York dis- puted with London the distinction of being the capital of England ; and when obliged to give up this claim, continued the unquestioned metropolis of the north, till the creative powers of trade raised up rivals to it in the north-west. The houses arc high, and the bircets narrow ; yet, altogether, York is a handsome, respectable-looking old city. It boasts one feature of almost unrivalled beauty, — it* cathedral, [fig, 164.) On the exterior all the richness and elegance of Gothic ornament has been lavished, particularly upon the western front and the large window in the eastern. But the interior is without a rival in the empire; its cflcct is altogether sublime : it seems almost to rise above the works of art, and to rival the grandeur of nature. The numerous windows of painted glass have here nothing gay and fantas- tic ; but shed that dim, solemn, reli- gious light, which is in full accord- ance with the character of the edifice. The chapter-house is of singular ele- idice nnd magnificence ; and, though of great extent, has its roof supported by a single pin, The choir of this splendid edifice suiTered severe injury from a fire kindled by the hands of a maniac ; but by great exertion^ has been fully repaired. The small remains of the -uined abbey of St. Mary, and those of several of tlie twenty-three churches of York, ire also deserving notice. There are likewise some elegant modern edifices, particularly ilie assembly room, designed by the Earl of Burlington, and considered once the finest in England ; the county hall, guUdhall, the mansion-house, and the museum of the York- >liire Philosophical Society. York is still a gay town, visited by many of the northern I fcntry, particularly at the time of its races. It carries on some inland trade by the Oiise, I »hicli passes through it. 163.i. In thitpart cf Yorkshire are a number qf handtome smaller towns. Heverloy is a well-built place, a iort of municipal caiiital of the East Hiding; and sends a good deal of grain to Hull. Doncastcr is one ol the favest and pleasantcst towns in the North, and much frequented during the time of iU races. I'ontcfract is I iiio pleasant, surrounded by a great extent of garden and nursery ground, the produce of which is sent to a (oiiiulerablc distance. Scaicel" a vestige remains of that immense and powerftil keep, covering seven acres, inwlmh Thomas of Lancaster, Richard II., and many other fallen chiefs and statesmen, were immured. The parliament, during the civil wan, having taken it after three successive and arduous sieges, caused it to I Wciimpletely demolished. lS;i6. Leeds is the capital of western Yoikshire, and, in a commercial sense, of the whole [count;'. Although it was of some note even in early times, its present greatness is modern, Imdot the most rapid growth. The population, which in 1775 was only 17,117, amounU'd I ill 18;)1 to 123,393 ; being thus nearly quintupled. A peculiar activity and spirit of enter- I "rise has been observed among the inanufnctiirers of I.eids: it was, doubtless, greatly jiavouivd by the vast extent of inland navigation, which sccmid to centre here, coimecling il TOSK CATREOaAI.. 416 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. with the onpital, wltli ImHIi noiis, and with tlic counties to the south, from which it derives invxhauatiblw tupplivH of tinu coitl. The woollen manufacture is not carried on wholly in largo towns ( the cloth is wrought to u certain state of forwardness in the numerous villages, thence sent into Leeds, where it is purchased and worked up into a saleable state, llie cloths thus sent in nre sold in weekly markets, which were originally held on the open parapet of the bridge of the Aire, a most disadvantageous situation, exposed to weather and passengers. This inconvenience, after tMiing little improved by the raising of temporary stalls in one of the open streets, was at length fully redressed by the erection of the cloth halls, the must remarkable feature in Leeds. That for mixed cloths was built in 1758, that i(>r white cloth in 1775. They form quadrangular edifices round an open area, and nre divided into stands, of which, in the first hall are 1800, and in the second 1210. These are let at a moderate rent to the owners of the cloth, who, on the ringing of a bell, occupy their stands, and, though the market remains open only nn hour, goods to an immense value are often dis|>osed of. Leeds, in 1895, contained 77 factories for woollens, 10 for worsted, S5 for flax, and 'J for silk. In these were employed 9912 men and boys, and 7861 females. The West Riding altogether contains 402 woollen and 199 worsted factories; 126 for cotton, 64 for flax, and 8 for silk i employing 30,860 men and boys, and 31,497 females. The town of Leeds is mostly well built, with several broad and spacious streets ; and the theatre, the new court-house, the corn exchange, and the commercial buildings, finished in 1829, ore elegant structures. Kirkstall Abbey, three miles distant, presents, in a beautiful situation, the most complete specimen of the architecture of the 12th century that is extant. Before the late parliamentary commission was instituted, it had only five parish churches. Tlie people of Leeds have shown a laudable anxiety to avoid the reproach of neglecting higher and more refined objects in the pursuit of wealth. They have formed a literary and philosophical society, an institution for the fine arts, fur which a very handsome and com- modious edifice has lieen erected; ii literary institution, and botanic and zoological gardens; and meritorious exertions have also been made fur the education of the poor. 1837. (If (Ac utkcr lowiig iff thf liothing ditln'cl, which cluiter round Leeda, Waktjield a well built, and IwaulitXllly •ituntnl un the Ciildur. It liaii a tine Ootliie church, and a curious bridge, built in the reign ol Kdwitrd 111. It haa a vlulli market, on a amaller acale, resembling that uf Lecila, factories employing lloo IRHipIv, mill, M the aurroiindiiig ciiiiiitry la rich and bvautilXil, great grain and cattle markets. Haltfat, and tile whole diatrii't alMiut twenty niilea round It, haa been converted from a desert into a populous ami pros- |ivMuaKene, with llii,lKIU inhibllunta. lis ttiiplca are what are properly called stufl's; shalloons, serges, baiio, morv< na, keraeya ; and lately roltoiis. It haa >iH wikiIIcii rartories, 4J worsted, and Ul cotton, enipluying !),7(l() (ivoplc. liuddcrallcld la alao a very thriving town, emuloyol nearly in the same branches ; and its market-hall la aupiMMCit, next In liiat of Lcedi, to prisviit the greatest snow of woollens in the kingdom. Bradford and KelKhiey are largo lii» na, which carry on to a great extent the manufacture of worsted : besides which, HradfurtI fiaa great iron I'uiimlrloa In ita iieighlM)urhood. In the southern part of this riding, the ma- iiufartiirca of iron and cutlery take place of those of woollen ; and flourish to such an extent, that they are iiKiind only to the great iron district aroiinil llirmlngham. 1 8:)H. Shuffirld Is the undisputed capital of this district. It appears to have derived early and oinisiderable importance from the fubrication of arm*, an article in universal demand during the days of ancient foud. It has, however, reached a much higher degree of griat- nosH since it quitted this deadly trade, and betook itself to the more ussful fabrics uf knives, forks, raxors, snutfers, scissors, files, buttons, saws, sickleu, and various instruments of huslMtndry. The art of plating goods with silver, introduced in 1758, by Mr. Thomas Hancock, has l>een carried to a vast extent. The silver is soldered upon the copper; and the articles are wrought by tha hand or stamped. The cutlers of Sheffield keep many hundred patterns of knives, of which some arc of the value of seven or eight guineas, containing twenty-eight binilos within the handle; while others, after passing through a multitude of diiferenl hands, are sold for u penny each. In 18*)!) the following statement was made of the staple trades, and hands employed : — Table knives and forks, 3689 ; pen and pocket knives, 26KO; razors, 754 ; scissors, 600 ; files 1768; saws, 563; edge tool^ 70,i; stove-grates, fenders, &o. 1530; white metal, 643 ; silver plated goods, 500; in all, I3,4(X). The rapid growth of Shcffluld commenced about 1750, when the Don was ren- dered navigable. The houses are chiefly modern, and well built ; and the town makes a tolerable appearance, notwithstanding the smoke of the forges in which it is involved. The military barracks erected here form an extensive pile of building. The infirmary is cun- aidereii ctpial to any in the kingdom ; and great credit is due to Sheffield for the excellenve of its schools for tile education of the lower orders. It supports also many public charities; liiM a literary society, a horticultural society, a mechanics' institute, and a library. IKR). TAi* ri'valt i' are sii many, that to enumerate even the most ilistingiiiihed ran with diinciilly suit our limits. Near the eaaterii roast is Skilniere, remarkable for having coiitaineil llie v >t eiiiiii'tliiniil linnks, cnriiiBllies.nnil works id art of the late Sir Mark Masterman Sykes. Castle lliiwnrdiol Canal ; while, In the southern border, the Grand Trunk connects it with London and the whole centre of England. A most important additional communication has recently been opened by the grand railway lietween Liverpool and Manchester. The (Ir.iiid Junction Hallway now connects it with London, and other lines are forming in every direction. In WSi, by the report of the factory commissioners, it contained 834 manufacturing cstublishmcnts, in which were ■ii.lW engines driven by steam, and 2,578 by water. These gave employment to 65,796 men and boys ; 69,420 women and girls. There were in the county 51,250 power looms for cotton, 757 for wool, and 366 for silk. 1843, Manchester, the centre of Britisli industry, and the munufacturing capital of, the empire, .'s favourably situated on the irw 'i ; though this stream, navigable for barges, scarcely makes any figure beside the vb 1 br' '*.-:' lines formed from its waters. Although the cotton manufacture is now widely dih hrjughout England, Manchester continues the centre of the trade ; receiving and di . a./.°'-.:j' the raw material, collecting the produce worked up in numerous town and villa^^;., aua transmitting it to the various markets. Though a Roman station, and consequently of high antiquity, no monument of importance dates earlier than the fourteenth century. Even at that era it is recorded as an industrious town, carrying on diligently woollen and linen fabrics, the staples of that day. As soon, liun-oter, as cotton appeared, Manchester seems to have grasped it as her own, and to have comparatively neglected most other branches. From the middle of last century she has advanced with amazing and accelerated rapidity ; and the system of inland navigation having aforded copious channels by which the material can be introduced and the manufactured article exported, every obstacle to the absorption of the whole into this centre was removed. Tlio discoveries of Hargreaves, of Arkwright, and of Crompton, though made in different and distant quarters, may be said to form the basis of the cotton manufacture; and are thus, in fact, the foundations of the greatness of Manchester. Its manufacture, however, does not consist exclusively in the finer muslins and other delicate fabrics, in which Scotland takes, perhaps, the lead ; but embraces the plain and useful forms of dimities, fustians, velveteens, checks, shirtings, ginghams, diapers, cambric muslins, figured muslins, calicoes for printing, ami various fancy goods. The different cotton fabrics generally denominated Manchester ^'ouds, arc not all manufactured within the town itself, but in the neighbouring towns and districts ; and, after being bleached, and some of them printed, are sent in a finished state to .Manchester to be sold ; the chief market days being Tuesdays and Saturdays. Thus Mar.seillus quiltings, cambric muslins, calicoes for printing, bed quilts and counterpanes, checks, fustians, and shirtings, are brougitt in from the surrounding towns and villages. A vast deal of yarn is also spun for exportation. Manchester has extensive establishments for printing and dyeing ; also, for constructing and keeping in repair stcam-engiues, as well as other machines employed in manufacture. Even iron foundries are necessary to supply the materials. Other important branches have recently been added. Manchester now rivals Macclesticld and Norwich in the manufacture of silks, and Nottingham in that of lace. In 1835, it contained 127 cotton mills, including 6,205 steam-engines, and employing 16,9^1 males, and 1 8,920 females ; 17 silk mills, employing 1,106 males, and 2,848 females; 6 woollen and flax, emp'jyi)>g 507 persons. There were 12,708 power-looms for calicoes, 3,38 i for fustian, and 54,5 for small cotton wares, 306 for silk, and 20 for wool. Through this prevalence of power weaving, the handloom workers have much diminished, and are found chiefly in the surroundiiig country. In the year 1834, they were stated to the Commons' Committee not to exceed 3,000 or 4,000. The wages paid to them make about 9s. 9d. of average weekly earningstoeach individual. Mule spinners earn lOi. 6d. each per week ; spin- ners uf a higher class, 1/. 8i. 4d. ; piecers' scavengers S*. 6d. In the power looms, women receive 8a. to 12t. ; men 13«. to 16*. lOd. ; dressers, 28«. to 30(. per week. Manchester is not generally an elegant town ; some parts of its interior are narrow, crowded, full of ware* houH's and factories in huge masses. The entrances however, have been made handsome ; ind, in the extremities of the town, streets of elegant houses have been built for the £ u ■MS nESCUIl'TIVK OEOOllAI'liY. 1'ahi III. accoinniuilation of the opulent morol)unt>t. It liM oiia hniiilMtmc Gutliic collegiutt- clmrcli of the fifteenth century, and sovtirul inorv niudttrili that ittu creditable to the taste of tlie town. The exchange, which includeN » iivwit-riHim Hild u good library, is n fine and spacious building. Still more elegant diaplayN uf iirclilti'Oturu lire made in the Infirmary (whicli in one year received above l'J,00() pMtiunt«)i tliu Town tlull, and the Uoyal Institution. Tlic llall, costing 50,00(M., has one of the mot>t Niik>n puofi Thu Athenvum, a new and splendid cdiKce, is in course of erection. The cslabliihment callvd Chei'tluun's Hospital, besides maintaining eighty poor children, has a library of I8|(XX) or U0,000 volumes, containing rare and valuable works. In 1781, a literary and phlloMtphlual sooictv was formed at Manchester, and produced several valuable volumes of TraniiaotlonSi enriched by the contributions of Percival, Ferriar, Dalton, Henry, and other enilnynl gentlemen there resident. In 1585, Manchester was estimated to contain 10,000 pernuns, doubled in 1635, and in 1774 still only 41,000. Since that lime, the progreNK linit Itven continued and rapid. The amount ol 14S,000 for 1831 by no means coimirehenilN the large towns which form really its suburbs, and raise the whole to 270,000, The muNt Important are Salford, immediately contiguous, now a borough; and Chorltnn Row, which In 1601 contained HIS inhabitants; in 1831, as elsewhere stated, 20,565. 184*. Huge lownt, reumbliHg cilien, derived Irom the l,>m\» Slid Mvcrimul Lnnal uaMing close by it. In 1833, it contained 2ij factories, wltli 845 steain-eiigintx, and »iii|ihiyltig .'),!tl2 men and boys, and 3,107 females. There were then 4007 power looms for calicnei, and tiili l^ir fliillHlt, /MIiih la a tor n anciently of tome strength, but now supported entirely by industry. Home of lh« |trii> place. In IfU^ it was stated to conUin 44 mills, with l.ltN'^ t'M|iint<<, Hlld «iniilnylng 3,H8fi males, and 3,734 females, bosidej 481 in flax. The power looms were only l,liN7| thntf worked by fmild being still prevalent here, and estimated by Mr. Makin, in 1834. at 7,000 or H.OUU. Pri-tlim wnn only cniialdered a genteel retired town till within these last forty years, when the single exerliona of Mr, iliilin iliiiriK'ks mwle it a flourishing seat of manufac- ture. It continues, however, to be diitlngiilahed anionjiill lhi< vollnn towns, as a say handsome place. It hasl.'i cotton factories, employing .VSI!) |ieople i and 7 of nnx, rtniiliiVlMg t,'in.i The power luoma were stated at 3,350, the hand at 3,000 ; but Mr. Crawrorit aupiHwea HUNKI of llip latter to be spread through the country round. irigan is a large town of some note in history, II liHii w Oii'lorlfii, ptnploylng 47'.i4 iicranns ; 1.500 power looms; alao some brass and |iewter fabrics. Bmy, very iiDar Mmii'lU'slet', iias !iH mills, employing l'2,nu(l people, and 2,170 power-looms. Oldham early carried nii a h4r||t< Ihlirii' of hats i but the Introduction of cotton ha.s caused it to make an astonishing progress, so that in Ihirly years It has nearly trebled its population, and tlic - ■ •■ nialns (17,ft(HMnhal)itants. In 183,% there were Alhton contained 54tactoriC8, emplo.vinf;.\l:;9 U'hiilli'lf, a cluster of villages, has 82 cotton 'factories, parish, including Pilkmgtou, Crnmptnn, and other towns, cuiilalns II7,AII0 Inhabitants. here 98 factories, employing 7,270 males, and li.ftm fti|n«lt'» " '" " " males, and 4558 females; also 4,018 |iower looms. employing 7,139 persons ; also 29 of worsted and winillen, I'lnjiloylnK IlilUi and 4737 power looms for calio', 287 for fustian, and 4.'i7 for wool. To this liinii ll>l nmy lie iiililef a parish, and had 5,000 inhabit- ants. Since that time it has advanced with rapid ami iiceelvrated steps; in 17.'W, it had 12,000; in 1760, 26,000; in 1790, ,1(i,(MX) iiiliahitilltlst but the moNt rapid growth has been between 1811 and 1N2I, when it um IVoin Il4,;l7(i to 141,48". The increase to 165,000, in 1831, appears less rapid; hill In Hit'l the ponuliltion during this period has overflowed into the adjacent villages, mill awtilleil tliein into large towns. Toxtcth-park (increased from 2069 in 1801, to a4,0fiV ill I Hill), We«it Derby, Kirkdale, Evertoii, form in fact the suburbs of Liver|H)ol, and, added tu It, make an amount of 2O.'),0O0. There must always have been a considerablu port at the Ittoiilh of the Mersey; but this estuary, in its natural navigation, could never cinnv in eiintpi'tltloii with the Humlier or the Severn \Vhen, however, its disadvantages as a M>aport wero |Mrlly removed, by the formation of Bom. I. ENGLAND. 419 (jucks> — and, much more, when it became the basis of a canal system reaching eastward to tlie German Ocean, and southward to the Tliamcs, — Liverpool could communicate with an immense interior circle. It derived benefit, above all. from the cotton manufacture established, on such an extensive scale, in the country immediately behind ; the matcrialR of irhlch were brought to Liverpool from the opposite side of the Atlantic, and the finished fabric thence exported, partly to the same quarter. At the same time Liverpool imported, for a great part of England at least, articles of consumption from America and the West Indies. It found also a most extensive employment in bringing grain and provisions from Ireland, and returning salt, coals, and pottery. The merchants of Liverpool, meanwhile, irere most active in improving these circumstances, particularly by the construction of that immense line of docks, which M. Dupin has described with such admiration. A dock, or space enclosed all round, and fed with sluices, in which the vessels, while they receive or dis- charge their cargoes, are kept regularly afloat, without being exposed to swell, tide, or cur- rent, is an obvious improvement upon the best natural harbour. The expense, however, is great; and it was not till 1710 that Liverpool began the first dock in Britain, called the Old Dock, which has recently been filled up. Twenty years were employed in its com- pletion : and a still longer time in that of the next, or the Salthouse Dock. The others were, however, constructed on»a more extensive scale, and with greater rapidity : — George's (11.) Dock ; the King's Dock, for Greenland ships and tobacco ; the Queen's Dock, directly for the Baltic and North American trade. On a still larger scale have been constructed the Prince Regent Dock, opened in 1821, and the Clarence Dock, in 1830. The Brunswick Dock, intended for the accommodation of vessels with cargoes of timber, Is in progress, and will nearly complete the present plan, when the whole area of water in the docks will ex- ceed 90 acres. The dock dues in 1837, amounted to 191,000?. In 1836, there belonged to it 906 registered vessels, of the burthen of 207,833 tons. The customs paid at the port amounted, in 1733, to 92,466/. ; in 176.5, to 269,000/. ; in 1785, to 680,000/. ; in 1810, to 2,675,000/.; and in 1836, to 4,272,800/. In 1837, there entered the port 11,160 ves- kIs; tonnage, 1,704,000. Of these, 159,000 tons were from foreign Europe; 298,000 United States; 146,300 British North America; 52,000 West Indies; 48,000 South America ; 48,000 Asia. Of these 78,000 from Europe, and 233,000 from the United States were foreign ; all the rest British. In the home trade there were 466,000 frotn Ireland, 456,000 coasting trade. In 1835, there were imported 847,747 cwts. sugar; .'70,000,000 lbs. cotton; 2,573,000 lbs. tobacco. The value of agricultural produce imported from Ireland, was 4,444,000/. In 1837, that of live cattle alone was 3,397,000/. ; being 84,700 cows, 3,414 horses, 225,000 sheep, 24.600 lambs, 595,000 pigs. Livcr|>ool has nunnerous lines of packets to all the princiiMil fareiRii imrts. Every month four sail to Se« Yorli, two to Philailclphia. one to Boston, two respectively to Rio Janeiro, Genoa, and Leghorn, and to LiilMnj one every three weeks to O|)orto. The New York packets are first-rate vessels, containing ifilcniliil accommodations for passengers, and the value of goods conveyed in one of them has been known toevcecil UU,le is connccteil with a general spirit, which displays itself mvariou-cslalilishmeiits on a liberal ."cde for iheaiirusioii of knowledge. We may particularly meiinon the bceuin ami the Athenicum, two public libraries and literary institutions, supported by siib.'.criiitioii ; and a Ixilaiiic garden, at least the third as to eminence in the kingdom, A loological one ha* been ailded. A me. (hanics' institute was opened in 1S,J7, which cost 1 1,0(10/. An elegant structure lot a medical institution was P. .• 2 TOWH-HAIX* UVRUv'Oni.. if' tli i 420 DESCniPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. lAlfCAITBR CAITLB complvteil ill 18J8. 'Die flnt |irovliiviul cvini'tcry wm* thou rormcil. The Athensum and bolnnic garilciiowo their rouiulutioii to the public apirit and the imiiilHcunt example of Mr. Itoacoo, who had also the inasnan^^ niit'y tu exert hia |iowortul talciila for the aliolition ol' the alave trade, in a town long devoted to tlint traffic 1847. I.ancasti^, though the county town, hiu been almost overlooked amid the new and vast oliiwti wliich have sprung up within its domain. Vet it is a line, handsome, small town, built of a beautil\il frw •tone, which never moulders or blackens, like that of Portland and Edinburgh. The Town.hall and somri other buildings are handsome; but the castle ( fig. l(*t.) forms one of the grandest monuments of the feudal age. Its vast extent; its commamlinB 166 '"*> the greatness of all iu features even now, when three of its seven towcra are fallen into ruin ; produce the most powerf\il impression. It has been cm verted into a well.arrangcd prison for tht- county. Lancaster, though no lonner the chief seat of commerce on this comt and though its river, the Lunc, is rioi navigable for vessels of more than iV) tons, still possesses 73 sail. It builds some ship. It makes sailcloth, and even a little cotton. About a mile from it, the Lancaster Canal is carried over the Lune by a very noble aqueduct bridga 1848. The counties qf Cumbertmi and Westmoreland, or the country i/ the Lakes, form a bold and (lecuHar region to complete the i)icture of the iiorlli of England. It presents a striking contrast to those recently survevecnetratcd slowly; the lands being, in a great measure, divided amoni> cstalesmen, or small early proprietors, like Scottish lairds, some of whom even trace their possession to a date anterior to the Conquest. Still, the iiride of these regions consists in the beauty with which nature, in the absence of more solid gifts, has lavishly ailorned them. The multitude of mountains crowded together, tlieir bold, perpendicular, and often projecting forms ; the pleasing though not extensive lakes, and soft pastoral valleys, which the^ enclose, with the rich shadows and varied tints that adorn them ; all these, whicli mark a region of alpine wildness, mingled with features of cultivated nature, render this the most beautiful country of England, and the favourite resort of all the admirers of the picturesque and sublime. 184y. Three divisions arc distinctly seen in these counties, reaching fVom north to south. I. A plain cut- ward of the mountains, through which the high road runs by Kendal and Carlisle to London. II. 'I'he mountains and lakes, occupying the larger portion of their surface. III. A sea-coast, containing some harbours of importance. 1850. The Jirstpart consists ofa plain, which, though narrow, la in many places fertile : and contains some large towns. In the northern part is " merry Carlisle," long distinguislietl in tlic bonier annals, and tiie scene of interesting events in the contest of 1745. Carlisle being a military post of the first conse<|Ucnce, iti castle and walls were considered a model of strength, according to the ideas of the middle ages; and, though of no importance at present, they arc still maintained The cathedral is an ancient elaborate nlilice, still nearly entire ; but in which the heavy Saxon style ton much prevails. Carlisle is tinely situated on a hciglit overlooking a verdant plain, in which the Eden and the Caldew unite tlieir waters. It has of Into begun to carry on some manufacture, chiefly cotton ; also woollen, linen, and a few minor articles. A rainil con. iiects it with the Solway, and enables it to employ some shipping, t^stward from Carlisle is the great debate. able line ; and near lirainptnn is Naworth Castle, that powerful station where Lord William Howard uiiclti. took to bridle the licence of the border. Yet, however strong, it I'nrnis rather a dark bonier ke<'|i, than a display of feudal grandeur. Ixird Howard's apartments, which, with their books, furniture, and armour, remain almost undisturbiHl, are separated by four strong doors from the rest of the castle ; and secret passages lead to every part, and to the dungeons liencath. The high road fVom ('arlisle southward has, parallel lo It, the beautiful and rural valley oi the Eosed to be greater tliaii any other in the wnrhl ; and uniic extend several miles beneath the sea. The total quantity worked is i'>iiiiiati'd at 1(XI,(XX) chaldrons, chiefly exported to Ireland : l pushed its trade >» vrriiM, America, and the West Indies ; and carries on much ship-biiilding. Workinginn combines a con. K e ;{ WINIIEUMUHB LAKMt m lis 123 DESCIUPTIVE OEOOKAPHY. Pa*! III. ilrterable extent of the tame cdal tinilc, with inme Mil-cloth, and a flahcry of lalmoii, which li lent even lu Lonrioii, Cockermoulh, luincwhjt inland, at the confluence of the Dorwent, hai ■ manufuctory of coaiic woollena and linens. Mary|>nrt has some cotton manufacture, as well as some trade and a flshery, 1853. 0/ tfie -'als, Urrystokc Castle is a nolile mansion, originally built by the Danes, from whom it rfescended to the Duke of Norfolk, and contains line imrtraits, and memorials ot Mary of ^icotUlll|. I.nwthcr Hall is celebrated for the noble woods which surround it. Armathwaite and Corby Castle, to tht latter ol which adjoins Wctherall Priory, are admired fur the extreme beauty of their situation on the Lden. SuBSECT. 5. Wetttrn Counliet. 1 854. The western counties form the last divisiun of England Proper. The term is of somewhat vague application ; but wc here use it as applying to all the counties south of the Mersey, which form the western boundary of England. This extensive line has scarcely any character which can be said generally to apply to it. We mention CheMre, Shropihire, Hereford, and Monmouth, as bordering on Wales, and the last three partaking somewhat of its rude and romantic character; Worcester, Gloucester, and Somerset, occupying the tine valley of the Severn,— a region filled with commerce and cultivation, and containing .ortance. On the extreme eastern border arc Stockport and .Macclesfield, two large lowrii, which have flouri8he the Wi'Uli) ami fur nortlicrii expeditions. It is well sitiiuled on a peninsular eminence, uvcrluoldng tlie Severn, of wliivli, and of the fine country watered by it, a noble view i« cuinmaiiiled from the ramparts. Though a striliiiiK, it cannot be said to be a well-built city, as iimiiy of the streets are narrow, winding, and irregular, and the old and new buildings too I'lusi'ly intermingled. Only a small part of the castle remains; giving, however, an idea of jM gruet strength in former times. St. Mary's church is elegant and entire. One of the most reniarkubltt objects is the free school, founded by Edward VI. and Queen Elizabeth; J spacious and lofty structure, which has produced several eminent teachers and pupils. Sliri'H'shury is praised for its house of industry, and for the arrangement of its county gaol. Placed at the entrance of Wales, it formerly carried on all the trade of that princi- pality, and has still a considerable share of it, as well as of the river navigation down the Sevi'iii. Itkil. S/inipihire has also l.uillou; an ancient and memorable town, not unlVcquently the residence ol' ■ ■■ ■ " ■■ ildcnta of the Mar I'sreat extent, and placed on a wooded rock overhanging oiii'df the atronKeat places In tlie kln8[doin. In ita vicinity occurred many of tne most diatlngiiiahed events in royalty, and tlic rcKUlar atntion of thoac powerftil olticcra the I.<>rda Prealdenta of t dcrcniliMl liy thick walii ofRreat extent, and placed on a wooded rock overhanging the Terne, was conaidered ! Marches. The coatle, It was afterwarda dlamantlcd: yet remained flrat performed, and where Butler wrote a part of I for overawing the ('(iiitcKt between the huuacs of York and I.aiu'aatcr. fpk'iidixl private manaion, in which Milton's " Cnmua " waa flrat performed, and where isutlcr wrote a part of hi! "IIii(lit)riui." It la now entirely roofless and covered with ivy, but atill adorns the town, which is well built snil |>li'.is«iitly aituatcd, ISii.'. Tlic other towns arc not very rnnark.iblc^ but we may mention Drosclcy, In the centre of the coal and iron works ; llridKcnorth, which carries on a runsulerablc trade on the Severn ; and Wellington, agooil market lown Mi'ar the Wrekin. Klleamere and Oswestry arc agreeable towns on the Welsh IVontler, and carry on a thriving trade hy means of a canal which connnunicatcs with tlie Urund Trunk, 181):!. Hereford and Monmoulh, two demi- Welsh counties, fill the interval from Shrop- shire stic rciiiaini This arises, not RYXr AND MIHRF. riNI PUN AMIIPV. t'ii DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. PamIIi 17.1 RADl.AM) CAm'I.K. merely IVnin lit pxtrni anil lio.iiitv, nlthough llicw 1)0 grcaC i liut flrom iti ronflpsi nnil rulncil iUte, whencctha walU, biith within Biid without, arc nver grown with luxuriant Ivjr, and ilecnylnii ari .... «nrt nature iirr blended together, 'llii'iiti ..ilA'.jV* atlon U beaiilifully acqueitercd, and «ur rounded by the moat romantic olilc«'ta In another direction la Kagland Cattle, the loot of the duket of Heaufort (Jig. if.) ), „|„, ronaidered one of the itrongett of the amU'iit fortreaaptj but, after the gallant dcfi'iifc made by the marqueit of Worreatcr lor Charlei 1., " Cromwell," aayi Oilpin, " laid hia iron hand upon it, and ahattprwl li ti) ruini; to which It owct Itt prravnt iiir. tureaquc form." Chcpttow, at the inmitli of the Wye, It a neat town, anil iVom \u aituation carrlea on tome thriving Iriulr. it la chiefly intereating, however, Oinn ilic remainaofitt caatlc.nncof the innut tlrlkliiv of all the mighty fortreaaea of VValea. i'lv" or aix Inige towcra still remain, with the outer walU of a magniliceni cliaix'!: wlilch being overgrown with Ivy, niid alinoai united with the lofty cliff on which it itanili, pretentt an apiiearance venerably aublimc, not only (Vom the town, but for many milea round. Smi CheiMtow arc the grounds of I'eraHeld, the views IVom which over the >Vyp, bordered by immense wouils and priripicea, the Severn and ita rich valley, and the many pictiiri'squc objects which (111 the laiiilscaiie nii eviry side, arc conaidcrcil almost unrivalled. Farther to the weat la Caerleon, once the celebratcil caiiili'i| town, surrounded by fine scenery. Newport, near the mouth of this river, hat a little trade In artlolci brought down its course. Ponl.y.|iool, further west, hot lost, in a great measure, its tin and Japan falirlci : but it is in the centre of the great coal and iron works in the western part of the county. 1 8G6. Worcester and Gloucester, two fine counties, lie eastward of the above. They oc- cupy the lower valley of the Severn, wliich there becomes a river of the first magnitude, This valley is broad, smooth, and fertile, yet nowhere degenerates into a dead uhvarlcii level. Worcester has, on the west, the Malvern Hills, of whose waving summits some rise to the height of nearly 1500 feet, and afford prospects, rarely equalled, over an extent of rich and cultivated country, bounded by distant hills. Gloucestershire, again, has to the ciist the Cotswold Hills, more rugged, though not so elevated ; while to the west arc the rugged remains of the Forest of Dean. Worcestershire has, besides, the valley of the Lower Avon and of Eveshitm, which, especially the last, are famed over the kingdom for their Iwauly and fertility. The vales of these fine counties are fitted for produce of every description,— grain, fruits, pa.sturage, with some preference of the two latter. Cider and perry arc produced every where in the utmost abundance, and often of superior excellence, thou|;linnt quite equalling that of Hereford. Gloucester, however, is particularly distinguished I'orits dairies, which produce that rich cheese well known under its name. Tlie best, or duulilv Gloucester, is produced in the vale of Berkeley, situated along the lowest part of the course of the Severn. The mineral productions arc not extensive ; they are chiefly the salt <>'' Droitwich, and a considerable quantity of coal, and even of iron in the forest of Dcaii. Uoth counties have flourishing manufactures, though not on the vast scale of the iiorthcni districts. Gloucester, in particular, has a very extensive fabric of fine woollens, carried on through numberless villages, in what are called " the Dotloms," a range of territory Rlung the lower part of the Cotswold Mills. Its scarlet and blue woollens arc in particidar repute. There arc besides a number of detached manufactures, which will be noticed under tlic places in which they are carried on. 1867. H'orcfiter it a considerable and very handsome city, the principal ttrectt being tpacloui and roRiilar, with many gooil houtes, and presenting a general air of neatness and comfort It is of high antii|Uity, llii' cathedral (Jiff. 174.^ having lieen founded in the Ttli century, l>y Ethelred, king of Mereia. The unnirial edifice sustained various disasters; ami (lie present structure was almost, entirely erected in ] the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. It li nl' great extent, simple and august, without tiii' rich ornament which distinguishes someiitlicrt. It contains the tomb of King John, one of tlic most ancient in England: also that of Prime Arthur. Worcettcr It chiefly notiHl in history for the great battle In which Cromwell totally routed theScott army,andcomiK'llwlC'luirli'«ll. I to quit Kngland at a fugitive. The city has hist I ita woollen manufacture; but hat still one oil porcelain, the finest in the kingdom. I'in«'ii J diftrent materialt are used, chiefly whitol granite, and steatite from Cornwall j and every I piece passes through twenty-threc hands Iwliirc I it it brought to perfection. Mr. Warner, in hii I tour, mentions atct of collfcccupstheninnkiii«liir| the Grand Seignior, and represctitinu the battlci of the Nile, each of which was of the value nri 10 guineas i yet of tuch surpassing lieauly, Ihati the price appeared moderate. (Jloves are »lwl made ; and there It a considerable trade up mill down the Severn, ^■v.«i.jvi,,i iiiwn Of grej Mtochlal churchci In the WOHCWTEII ".ATHNimA'. RoDK I- ENGLAND. 4'J5 Klildcrminttcr U Urge and flouriihing, In eonicquence of ■ very [(grove carrlcn on the making of naila and needlea ; and Stourbridge alt tprlnga. 'they are covered with a deep atratum of aypium : and INtiH, (\folhrr lotimi in Woretilerihire. rxtt'iitlvrmaiuil'ai-toryofcarpcti. Bronug Ihit nr'KlOH*. IJrnltwich ti noted Tor Itt lalt tprlnga. 'lliey are covered with a deep atratum of gypium : and ror > loXK lln>» *-^o ""'t waa made only flrom the brine which penetrated thia b«l ; but, about a century iipi, It wiia lH)rcd through, when the brine ruahed up in vaal quantitiea, and a large aalt river waa found to ilnw iH-tienth. Thui the aalt can now be procured in any quantity, and aupplict a great part of England. Kvotliini and Perahore are large vlllagea, noted for the beauty of their aituation. \m>. (Iloucfiler la alao an ancient and flne city, though not quite ao large aa Worceatcr. It bcara, in the iiraiiRomciit uf ita atreeta, the marka of having been a Uoman atatlon. It was formerly, alao, a place of great ilti'iiKtIi' The manner In which It frequently baffled the utmoat eflbrtj cf Charlea I. waa one of the circum. mnn-* which contributed moat to the downfall of the royal cau|e. The moat conapicuoua feature at prcaent ii ihc o.ith»lral, built in the Saxon and Norman atylea, bctwMvn the Ilth and 13th centurie*. 'i'he beautinil linhtiii'M (if ita lower ; ita eaat window, aald to be the largeit in the kingdom ; and ita whiapering gallery i ailract (XH-ullar niiticc. The gaol, built at an expcnae of 10,0001., aObrded one of the flrat ajpplicatlona of the briu'llri'iit principlca of Howard. Plna are the chief manufacture of Olouceater ; and, small aa the article ia, ihr mil- i» '<> grvut oa to render the amount it returna conalderable. Its trade haa been much ohatructed by Ihoboil navigation of the Severn ; but aince the parallel line of the Berkeley Canal haa Juat been completed, by tlili'li laruv ahipa can come up Arom the Channel, Olouceater is placed almost on a footing with RrlatoL ISTii. CMlenMm, by the ftime of Ita waters, and its attractions as a place of faahlonable resort, haa become 1 grrator and more crowded place than Gloucester. The virtue of these waters had been repeatedly noticed : but II I) niily within the last fbrty years that they have attracted such crowds of visiters. In 1780 there were iintalmvc Imrty Iiidging.houaes; now there arc several thousanda. The waters are at once saline and chalybeate; and, being thiia Imtn tunic and aperient, are cfllcacioua in Indigeation, biliary nflbctlons, and similar disorders. There arc nevcral aprlnga in diftcrcnt parts of the town, the proprietors of which vie with each other in the Hiitamc (>f the rmms, and the accommodationa. The town, though of brick, and without any striking fralurn, ia liitlit. gay, and commodious. The immediate vicinity la level ; but, at a little distance, a branch of Iho (dltwuld llllla givva variety to the scenery. U|x>n the whole, Cheltenham aeems now to rank aecond only III Hath, iKith aa a resort for invalids and a gay rendesvous of the fashionable world. IS"!. There arc other interesting towns in Gloucestershire. Tewkesbury has in close vicinity the " Bloody Mnilnw," nn which was fought the great battle which Anally crushed the fortunes of the house of Lancaster. flaoiil ut the junction of the Severn and Avon, it ia a venerable old town, containing in the Abbey church a [I'mimnt of timt grand monastery, of which the aupcrior, being a mitred abbot, aat in the Houae of Peers. rirciirotcr, a town of great historical name, covers only part of Its ancient site, but contains one of the Hnest luriiclilal churches In the kingdom. Stroud la tlic centre of the woollen manuitacture carried on, not in itself, bill III the aurrnundiiig valleya, and raiaing the population of the pariah to 4!,000. It ia carried on alao at Uley, Dunlcy, and Wotton under Eilge. Rriatol we conaider as belonging to Someraet Wn. (If the seats in this part of England, the must interesting Is Haglc^, the grounds of which Lord l,)lt('ltnii adorned with cios.'iic taato ; while he enriched the interior with portraits of his illustrious flriends, and iilh other paintings. Near it is the smaller, but equally interesting, spot of the Leasowes, cmlwliished by Shmiloiie with all the taste of a iioct Berkeley Castle is a grand castellated cdiAcc, almost as old as the Cun. ijiiiat, iiihI IIic scene nf Giiwanl II. 's death ; retaining still ita antique character. Crome Park, Oakley Park, mil IJailinliiton Hall arc suiierb mansions, in which are some interesting works of art 1R7:)> Someriet is a large county, wliose coast commences where the Severn opens into the liristol Channel, the windings of which it follows in a westward direction. The county (iteiids also to a considerable depth inland. Its surface is exceedingly varied ; and con> uins copious specimens uf the best and the worst, the smoothest and most rugged, situations ind soils. It has vales almost ns extensive as those of Gloucester, yet is crossed by long ranges of those steep and rugged hills which pervade all the extreme west of England. The most easterly are the Mendip Hills, dark and barren, but rich in mineral stores ; broken ilso at dillerunt points into deep chasms and caverns. Farther west are the Quantock Hills, -sepnratcti, however, by fine valleys or coombs ; while on the borders uf Devon lies Ex- moor Forest, the most elevated of all these tracts — its highest point, Dunkerry Beacon, king 1(J68 feet high. There are, besides, between the hills and along the coast, marshes of gn'at extent frequented by clouds of wild geese, the feathers of which ore a staple product ; but, by extensive drainage, many of these marshes have now been converted into rich pasture. Somersetshire contains many fine arable tracts, yielding in the lower grounds wheat, in the higlivr, oats and flux. The prevailing husbandry is pasturage, chiefly of rich natural gmss ; and, besides it number of cattle sent to the London markets, the dairy is a great branch of industry. Cheddcr cheese is considered equal to any in England ; and a great quantity of what is called Gloucester is produced in Somerset. Bath and Bristol are also well supplied with excellent butter. The orchards are extensive, and cider and perry nearly u abundant as in the counties on the Severn. The Mendip Hills yield excellent coal, lead of liue ijiinlity, and calamine. The manufactures are considerable, both woollen and linen ; the funner chiefly of the finer sorts ; the latter, mostly dowlas, tickens, and sail-cloth. IK7'I. Bristol, since it is here attached to Somerset, must hold the first place. Tliis city, ilrtady distinguished in the reign of Henry IL, ranked long as second to the metropolis in commercial importance ; but in the course of the last century, it has remained nearly sta- tionary in extent and population, though not in wealth. In 1736, it had 80,000 inhabitants ; ill IKl'I, H7,77I, but in 1831, with its suburbs, 104,886. It has still a very extensive trade, thiolly with Wales, Ireland, and the West Indies. Nor does its spirit seem abated ; since. in I80<), it completed, at an expense of 60,000/., a series of extensive improvements, by (liicli tile rivers Avon and Frome were spread out into two vast basins, for the commodious FKcptiun of vessels. The manufactures of Bristul are very considerable ; the glass-works arc twenty in number ; its brass fuunderies the most extensive in the kingdom ; to which it adds pstcnt shot, pottery, &c. In 18,^6 there belonged to it 281 ships, of the burthen of 42,900 tons. Ihe nmoimt of customs, in 1836, was 1,177,700/., chiefly from duties on West India pro- duce; and there entered its port 349 vessels, of the burthen of 65,300 tons. It has still llicrcmnins of a tiiagnificeiit cathedral, and the beautiful church of St. Mary Redcliffe, with Utf mm 426 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHY. p*Ki in. many intureiting inomimenU. The old interior is ill built ; but »he merchants in the new quarters have rcare, a gayer scene, noit attracts our notice. lu name impliis iho %i-. ''hc(l hy ^ f cathedral {Jig. \7tV, which raiiliK ultfi 176 . , . . , the flncst in Englaiid. Various st\l« prevail ; hot the western front, liuilt in the 13th century hy bislioj) Jiwelyn, i< niic of the moat uplcndid Kpeoimens cxi^i. ing of the light and higlily orimnienlnl (iotliic. In the interior, a chajK'l tie. iliraled to the Virgin is much ail- inireil ; the rest is Saxon, and heavy. ri)c place it«elf is smail, hut neat ai«( handsome. Almiit two miles distant is Wiwkoy Hole, n natural cavern, nnc nf the gri- ■ t of Knglish curiosities, llie apcrtuU', at first, merely allows one man to pass ; but it soon o|)Cii8 into a surce*. sion of large apartments, tilled with «par», concretions, jietrifactinns of the ino»t fantastic forms, to which the people nt' the county .issign strange names .nml WRi II ' AltlKlih4l. ::=^'^wsm^- Pool !• ENGLAND. 497 limlliluiU' A iiihlvrrminiiu rivpr (irrvvxti nirllicr lulvancc. A fvw milci ilUliiit arc Chctlilvr Cllffli, furmiiiK '•» owfUl I'hiiaiii nf linikvii |H'r|i('iiilli'nljir riivki, ri'icmlilliiK ruinni lowers and bHttli'inviitu, aihI iiciu'lrMi'il llv<'|i I'Hvi'riK. tllMttiiiliiiry ninliilii) llir niiiall rvinaliii iif the inntt vxliMiilve nioiiaati'ry in Ih* linilili'ii' i wiiU'li, will) lla VHrliiiia )t«rili'li> mill olHrra, nivrriil ilxly Herri, r.ii|>purltHl M> iiuiiikii.aiiil ciijoyiil , Tt'vi'i»»' <>!' V-''.!'*'*''' '''*>'<* !'«' I'loiri'li nllai'liiil In It rlvallrtl the greatent iif the KiikIIiIi intliMlrala. piuiiil-ri'il liy ll'u ri'l\iriulii|(avlillly iiC lliMirv VIII., It wna miirriiivi'ly ilrmolUhc-di ami onlva IVw fraiimcnti oi'i'Xtri'iiii' licauly arv li'lt. Ilrliltii'wnlt'r iinil 'I'liiiiiliiii nri' Imlh rniiiliU'ralilu tnwiii i>( iiiiti' In lilitnry, whicli ctrry on tuiiiu lraili> anil iiiamilUi'tiirca, \Vi>llln)|luii glvi't ■ tltlu In tliv Krcalrat commander of the aRc, In «liu;.<' hiiiiiinr a iilllnr la llii>rt> rreiitil. I''riiiiii< ta a largp ami flourUliIng town, employiil in the wiHilIeii maiiurai'tiiru i wliiih Shi'|iliin Malli'l, iii'ar It, rairtei mi ii|inn ■ imaller icale. Ilcheiter, llnitnii, and Caitle City are iileaaanlly allualitl In Ihv llliv pailvni valea ot Muincract. MInchead and Porlock are pivluretque wMtrlnK-I'law mi llin llrUtiil Clmiuiel, 1HV7 '/V «i'rt/ji «ri'./i«', |iriiiiiiiillil vulliwlloii o( |Hilntliiga, including the Altierl Claudet. IH7H. /)i^(>oii«AiV« U llio inimt wvNtvrlv county eicupt one, and likewiie one of tlie niostvxtviiHivo, Hllintt thu K<'^'<)ti'r iwrt of the apace between the Briitol and the English chuniit'l". The Niirfiico is iiiiil'nnii, without being level. It is traversed by great ridges of hilN, toH', broad, niid Hiil, whivlii nvcii iVoni a height, appear ofien as one uninterrupted plain ; Init on ininuler lnN|K'clliin are found itepnrated by deep valleys called coomht, It) wiillcd in by the alvep aidea of the hills, ilml they would often appear inaccessible, ditl nut the iippeariiiH'u of culture and linbilalion prove the contrary. This structure produces many Hi'ijueatered and roliiiuillo nIIun, of a character peculiar to Devonshire. It renders, hoivL'ver, many of tho roiuU )iU>i'|i and cirriiiloiis, and in some places, where they are not carvfiilly niiule, scarcely paMHublci unless for a Devonian. The forest of Dartmoor, an rxlensivv iliMrict on Iho weat of lliu county, is of a character peculiarly rugged, broken liitu I'antuslic suininils, and the valleys chielly under wmid or lying waste. On the other liunii, the Vale of Kxeter, and what are called the Ilains, in the southern districts, are dislin- guii>lH'(l lor ferlility, which Is rather heighleiied than injured by the moderate inequalities of thu siirtk-e. Grain, cattle, alivep, polatoes, excellent cider, are raised according to the uituation, ami are all generally good. The cattle are of a very superior breed, both for feeding and ilranglil. Mr. Marshall coiiilders thu charge of an inordinate self-esteem as established against the Uuvoniini'* ; inspired iierhaps by their liaving preceded central England in civilis- ation, yi't being unwilling In iiilopt its now improved practices. Much good has, how- ever, lieen done by an agricultural society established nt Exeter. Devonshire does not rank high lis a inanuiactiiring county \ yet woollens are made to some extent in Exeter and several other places, I'ishing Is carried on with spirit and success, both in the sea and in ihe rivers; of which laxl, the Kxe and the Tamar are the principal. The Western Canal, juiiiiiig the two channels, pasM s chielly through Devonshire. ISTil. Ejciii-r, Ihe caiiilal, la an anelelit and (itraaantly attiiatcd town, near the mouth of the Exe. In conae. qiii'iiie of lla iidvaiitaKr^ jiir I'd iM'nt loll and aiH'iety, many of the gentry fVom ditlcrent parti of the county nave inmle it their rrnlilriMi'. lla niunulhiliiro and exiKirt of serges and kerseys have declined, but are still coiislileralile) the Kual India Ciiiepaiiy Inking them to the annual value of 44X),(KXI/. The cathedral holds a high rank amiing i'i'i'le»in»lli'nl aiilli|Ullli>ii. Niiine part tiflt Is traced to tile ni'"h century ; but the greater propor- tion lielmip to the thirteenth and liilirteenlh. The palnte«l east window id the bell of ISiSUOlbs. weight, the gin ui lllaliop C'ourteiiny, are particularly iiullced. Nome miKlern embcl..shmcntB have been added 1880. Pli/inoulh is the most iinporlant of the towns of Devonshire, and one of the great naval arsenals of Hrilain. 'I'he main and central depots lie at Portsmouth and on the Thames; but it is important that the Heets should have this exterior station, where they may rciiileivuiis, ii.vl receive their llnal eijuipment and supplies before leaving the Channel ; where also, when exIiauHledi they may put in aiu! relit. The Plym and the Tamar, at their junciiun, fui'in an estuary of nearly two miles broad, composing a harbour, or rather a series of harbours, capable of containing U(KX) vessels in a state of perfect security. In that of Hamoaie, on the Tamar, l(X) sail of the line may be safely moored. Catwater (properly Cudwater, from the rivulet Cad, which flows into it), the port nt the mouth of the Plym ; and Sutton Pool, inmiediately niyoining the town ; are both excellent and extensive. I'lyinouth Hay forms ttlsu an excellent roadstead, though exposed to the. heavy swell whicli came in from the Atlantic. To remedy this, government undertook that stupendous work the Ilreakwater, a mole formed by iminensc stones heaped upon eayh other, stretching across the entrance, and at n certaiii itititance from cither shore (Jin. 177.). The estimated 177 rrvutnira '.irkakwatbr. expense was l,170,(XX)/. j and the (|uantity of stone, -2,000,000 tons. It has completely answered expectation ; anil, in proportion as it has advanced, has rendered the roadstead "lure secure. As the approach was also rendered dangerous by the Eddystone rocks, a lighthouse has, aUer much ditilciilty and several unsuccessful trials, been erected there by |bp;'f 1'2S DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pam III. Mr. Sineaton, sufficiently firm to withstand the furious assaults of the Atlantic waves to which it is exposed. Plymouth is now divided into two nearly equal parts — Plymoiuli and Plymouth Dock, at the mouth of the Tamar, recently called Dcvonport, and raised to the dignity of a separate borough. The dock-yard is most superb ; 3500 yards in length, and from 1000 to 1600 in breadth. All the establishments connected witli it, the ropery smithy, saw-pits, mast-houses, as also the victualling departments, are on the most extensive scale, yet conducted in the most regular order. Plymouth is not, on the whole, a well-built town : but it contains some handsome edifices ; as the government-house ; the theatre chiefly of cast-iron, and said to be the handsomest country theatre in England ; the piihiic library, an elegant and classical structure. The charitable institutions are numerous. 1881, Demmihire hat bex'det a number of imall towns, of fVom 2000 to 5000 inhabitantt. Rarnstaulc U a sort of capital of North Devon, situatnil on a rich plain, rctiining still a few manufactured, and tYequciititl by some fashionable six^icty. liidtlcford is a dirty seaport, with, however, some little trade, llfracomb i8 a decayed sca|>ort, surrounded by some of the wildest and most |»culiar scenery in Devon. To tlie cast between th.; villaKi's of t'oomb Murtin and I.inton, is the Valley of Stones, a dreary abyss, in wliich ixiintcii rocks and piles of IcKue stones present tlicnisclves under every wild and ru|{Ke the cast by Devon, and on the other sides by the sea. The hills, although nut more lofly tlian those of Devon, are much more sterile and rocky : they form a bleak central ridge, diminishing in height as it exti'nds westward, and terminating in the rugged and obtuse point called the Land's End. In figure, this county has been said to resemble a cor- nucopia; a resemblance which well accords with its ancient British name, Cfrn^tc, originally signifying a horn, and aptly applied to designate a headland or promontory. The vapuurs hurne from the Atlantic by the prevailing westerly winds, render this, perhaps, the most rainy district of England. The sterility of the hills is incircased by the frequent rains that wash down the vegetable soil ; but some of the narrow valleys, from the same cause, constantly wear the aspect of smiling fertility. Almost the only lands under cultivation are in those situations, or in others equally sheltered, near the sea-coast. Oats, barley, and especially potatoes, are grown there in abundance ; but wheat is imported. In some secluded spots the climate is so genial, that the myrtle and other shrubs peculiar to the south of Europe flourish in the open air. The principal rivers are the Tamar, the Lynker, the Looe, tlic Fowey, the Camel or Alan, and the Fale ; besides which there are numerous streams, and springs of excellent water. The county is seventy-eight miles in length ; at the castini boundary its breadth exceeds korty-tliree miles, but continually diminishes toward the west: its area is computed at 1327 square miles; and the mines give occupation to more than 16,000 of its inhabitants. 1884. Cornwall has from the earliest ages been renowned for its mineral products. Thoy were the objects of a considerable coinmeree in times when only the western parts of Britain and the Isles of Scilly were obscurely known to the Greeks, under the name of Cussitcrides. In the reign of Henry III., the mines, with tlie Jews who farmed them, were placed by that sovereign at the disposal of his brother Richard earl of Cornwall and king of the Romans, wlio enjoyed nearly the entire profit of supplying all Europe with tin, as the mining districts of Spain had been brought under subjection of the Moors. In the eleventh year of Edward III., this earldom was constituted a duchy by a charter; which is distin- guished as the first ever issued for creating a duke in England. Edwart! the Hluck I'riiue was declared Duke of Cornwall, to hold to himself and his heirs, kings of England, and tu thexr first-horn sons: at the same time, lands in other counties, as well as in Cornwall, were constituted parts of the duchy ; and a grant was made by patent of the staimaries in Corn- wall, together with the coinage of tin, and all the issue' and profits thence arising ; as also the profits and |>erquisites of the court of stannaries, witn certain reservations. The duke of Cornwall has the power of appointing a chancellor, a lord warden, a receiver-general, and other ofTicers for the administration und management of the afl'airs of the duchy. 188'). The mineral products of Cornwall are principally tin and copper; it also yields some lead. These metals occ.'r in the granite chain, extending eastward as far as Dart- moor in Devon ; but at preseiit the principal mining district is that between the Lund's End and St. Austel. The most celebrated are the tin mines of Palgooth *, about two miles west of that town : in these there are no fewer than fifty shafts, of which twenty or thirty are constantly in use. The principal vein of ore, whicli is about six feet thick, runs from east to west, and dips to the north with an inclination of about six feet in a fnlhoiii. The Dr Maton's Observations on the Western Counties. Book !• ENGLAND. •429 ore is of the vitreous kind, but rarely found in crystals ; the colour for the most part greyish-hrowii ; the country of the ore is a grey killas. About fifty or sixty feet below the surface of this mine, the water that percolates through the difl'erent strata begins to rorm small streams, which would soon overflow the lower part if not constantly carried away. Tiiis operation is performed by a stupendous steam-engine, which raises up to the adit, and discharges at each movement a column of water fifty-six fathoms deep and fifteen inches in diameter. Steam power has also been substituted for that of horses in moving the machinery employed for raising, washing, and stamping the ore ; after which last operation it is carried to the smelting-house. Tin cannot be sold until it is assayed and stamped with the duchy seal ; for which purpose meetings are usually held tour times a year. The annual produce is estimated at 20,000 or 25,000 blocks, each block weighing from 2} to 3| cwt., and valued on the average at ten guineas. Grain tin, nhicli is obtained from stream ore, is deemed superior' in value to the common metal, and lias been procured to the amount of 200O or 2400 blocks annually. In some of the stream-works native gold has been occasionally found. The annual produce of copper is about 13,000 tons, estimated at 1,300,000/. The lead mines, being considered as not pro- ductive, are not much worked, although the ores are understood to be rich in silver. The tinners are in many respects a distinct body of men ; they have a court and parliament of their own. The stannary laws, by which the mines and the operations connected with them are regulated, do not appear to have undergone any change since the reign of Charles 11. 1886. The pilchard Jishery affords another source of wealth to Cornwall. The pilchards appear annually in vast shoals about the middle of July ; and are taken in large nets of a piKuliar form, called scans, each sean managed by three boats, containing eighteen mun. In productive seasons, nearly 30,000 hogsheads have been brought into the port of Fowey alone. After lying salted in store for six weeks, the fish are packed in hogsheads, so closely that the whole contents, when turned out, appear in a compact state. The oil expressed from them is so considerable in quantity as to liave become an article of trade. The principal export of piltliurds is to the catholic countries on the shores of the Mediterranean. Tlie average price is from ;i.5s. to 42* per hogshead. The total quantity annually exported from the Curnisli coast may be worth 50,000/., including the receipts for oil. The number of persons employed in this fishery is about 5000. 1887. The Cornish men, especially the miners, are a peculiar race, whose origin is said to be Celtic. Their language, now extinct, was reputed to be more harmonious than either the Welsh ur the Armorir language uf Bretagne. Traces of it are found in the names of ancient towns and castles, as well as in those of rivers and mountains, and in the technical terms relative to the arts of mining, fishing, and husbandry. 1888. Of the preponclerar, 'II now possessed bi/ Cornwall inthe national representation, througli the return of 44 members to parliament, a vague notion is entertained by some per- sons, that it resulted from a state manoeuvre of Charles 1 1. Its real origin indeed is not very ancient, and is ascribed to the large revenue yielded by the duchy to the crown, or to the heir apparent. In the time of Edward I., only the county, and the five boroughs of Laun- cesloii, Liskeard, Truro, Bodmin, and Helston, had the right of returning members. In llic reign of Edward II., Lestmthiel was enfranchised; and it was not until that of Ed- ward VI. that this privilege was extended to Canielford, West J.oue, Grampoimd, Jiossiney, and Xaifort. In the first year of Queen Mary, Penri/n was added to the list of boroughs ; and about three years afterwards, St. Ives. A short time subsequent to the accession of Klizabetli, Tre^ony xvas enfranchised ; in the fifth year of her reign, St. German's and SI. Mawe's ; in the thiiteenth, East Looe and Fowey ; and in the twenty-seventh, Caltinglnn i by whieh addition the boroughs were increased to twenty-one. By the Reform Bill thir- teen of these — St. Michael's, Dossiney, St. Mawe's, West I.ooe, St. Germain's, Newport, Camelfoid, East Looe, Tregony, Cntlington, Saltash, Fowey, Lostwilhiel, were disfranchised, leaving only seven. ISSlV T/ic towns of Cornwall arc nnall. Launccslon, situated on the Tamar, at the very border at Dcvonsliire, extendi up the side of a liill, on llic summit of whirh are tlie remains of a small fortress callcil Castle Terrible, where a vigorous stand was made to sustain the sinking fortunes of Charles I. Its rhiireh, liuilt in the reign of Henry VIII., exhiliits aspecimen of the meretricious finery which disgrn'-cd the liiilliic nrohitecturc of that period. Truro is a neat thriving town, the trade of which consists in a consider, able export of tin. At Bodmin, a place of ancient note, tlie summer nssiies are still held. Redruth is a impulnus town, in the heart of the mining district. I'cnryn flouiishes by the pilchard fishery. Penzance, mar the I.and's End, participates in the same source of wealth, and has of late years acquired distinction and prosperity trom other causes. The mild salubrity of its air has been found highly beneficial to |)ersona of deli- rale inn.stitutions, particularly of a consumptive tendency ; and those who take up their residence nt I'cniance irt Sftrerably surprised by the lovely scenery in its neighlHiurhood. Its market is well sup|>lieea|iort no earlier than the reign of James I., and did not re- wive its present name until that of Charles II, II 4:)0 DliSClllPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paiit hi. SuBSKCT. 5, Wales. IR90. Waks is a territory which, thouKli united to England by early conquest, still retains the title of n sepnrnto principality, and possesseH a national aspect, and even forms of social existence peculiar to itiielf. The verdant and extensive plains of western England lu're give place to the lot\y mountain, the deep valley, the roaring torrent, and the friglit- fid precipice. Wales, like Cuniberland, is a mountain region, and still more elevated ' but it is not a country of lakes. About sixty have, indeed, been numbered : but tlicy are mere lakelets or tarns, rocky basins formed in the acclivity of steep hills ; not those smiling expanses, which give a soft grandeur to the Cumbrian scenery. Wales, on the other hand, has rivers and torrents without number, which roll through its mountain valleys, and whose hanks, adorned with verdure and cultivation, combine in the most striking manner with the lofty and varied siiimnits which tower al>ove tliem. Sometimes these streams force their way through deep rocky recesses, the perpendicular sides of which rise to a wonderful height; and occasionally a bridge thrown across from one to the other, overa torrent roar- ing deep beneath, pror its advancement, the improvement of the roads, and the formation of canals, arc beginning to priHluce happy effects. Manufactures are nearly confined to the comfortable article of flannel, which has been always a fabric of the Welsh, in which they still excel their Yorkshire rivals. It is made in almost every farm-house, and under the various forms of webs, iiose, gloves, wigs, and socks. It is to mining, however, that the industry of Wales has been chielly attracted, by the profusion of miiteral wealth which nature has lodged in the bowels of its mountains. Silver is little more than an object of curiosity, thougli a part of Cardigan once assumed the name of the Welsh Putosi. But the lead of Flint, Caernarvon, and other cutiuties of North Wales, the copper of Anglesey, and, above all, the iron of Glamorgan and other counties in the llritish Channel, are o1)jects of real and extensive importance, ('oal is found almost every where, and is employed either for domestic purposes, or in fusing and refining the metallic ores. 1891. Tlie H'l'ltli nrca Celtic race, the geimine descendants of the ancient Britons, who, in these mountain recesses, sought refuge from the destroying sword of the Saxons, which so completely dispossessed them of the low coimtry of England. They had entirely shaken off the elleminacy of their ancestors ; yet could not resist the overwhelming power of Ed- ward I., who annexed Wales to the English crown. In order to hold it in subjection, Iiowever, he was obliged to construct, not only on its frontier, but in its interior, castles of immense extent and strength. These castles now form one of the most striking and characteristic features of Wales, Conway, Caernarvon, and perhaps Caerphilly. Yet they did not prevent fonniduble insurrections, in one of which Owen Glendower maintained himself fur years as an independent prince. Within the last ."BOO years, the Welsh have been as peaceable as any other sidi)"Cls of the empire. Like the Highlanders, they have retained, of their feudal habits, only venial aiul amiable failings. Among these is national pride, through which the genuine Cambrian holds his country and his nation superior to all others; and regards the Saeioneg, .Saxon, as a lower race of yesterday. With this is connected, in n high degree, the pride of pedigree ; even the Innnblest Welshman tracing his origin far above any lowland genealogy. Strong ties of l'> udship subsist between the landuH-ner: aiul their tenantK: manifested, on mie side, by indulgence and protecting kindness ; on the other, by a profound veneration fur the representatives of the ancient chiefs of their race. The Welsh have many superstitious, mixed with much genuine religious feeling. They are hardy, active, lively, hospitable, kin(Uhearted ; only a little hot and quarrelsome. Their English neighbours complain that they have not yet attained that pitch of industry and cleanliness in which the former place their pride. IH!)'i. Il'utvi, as we have already observed, ?'* le.iey. The whole might be comprised within tlie limits of a very large English county. The characteristic feature of this division consists in Ihu very elevated chains of niounlniiiH which cross it from north to smith, facing the Irish Chatiiiel. The chef or chief is .Siiowdon, which raises its head to the height of :i70() feet ; yet it is only the most elevated of a croud of summits, called the Snowdonia (Jin- I'K.), many of which rear peaks almost as high. They cover n great part of the county of Caer- imrvtiii, III the norllieni pai1 of wliicli thiy |iieseiil to the iUy of Beaumaris the lul'iy sleep |!(XIK I- WALES. 4;n „f I'l'iiinanmitwr, whose broken fragini-nts threaten to bury him who travuls tlie difficult |.g path which lias been formed along its almost perpendicular sides. - ' ;■ -^ Snowdonia encloses in its rocky basins many clear little lakes, full of delicate fish, of wliich the prin- cipal is Bala, which gives rise to the Dee. Merioneth is chiefly covered with inferior, but still very lofty and rugged mountains, bcar> ing the names of Ferwyn, Arren, and Arrenig; till, towards the southern extremity, they tower into Cader Idris, the second summit of Wales. It is every where steep, ■irownoK. craggy, and precipitous, piercing to the sky by three loft} ninnacles. Lastly, in the heart of Montgomery, towers the huge mass of I'liiiliinnion, wii:. .: crowd of attendant mountains. 189 1. The vales which intervene between these heights diversify bleak and barren regions, otherwise calculated to inspire only impressions of dreary sublimity. The most extensive is that of Clwyd, in the county of Denbigh, where the mountain chains gradually sink. It is about twenty miles in length, and four or five of average breadth ; and presents a more brilliant picture of fertility, heightened, doubtless, by contrast, than almost any other spot in the island. The narrower vales, however, present more of picturesque beauty, particu- larly tliat of Llangollen, where the Dee, winding through cultivated and pastoral scenes, overhung by high rocks and cliffs, presents at every step a varying landscape. Even in the heart of Snowdonia, the little verdant and wooded vale of Festiniog, with numerous streams uniting at the bottom into a little river, forms a scene of almost unrivalled beauty. The island of Anglesey is generally level, and its scenery presents few striking features, except tlie rocks of its western shore. It has happened, fortunately for the improvement of this formidable range of territory, that it lies on the highway from London towards Dublin ; and with the view of facilitating the intercourse between the kingdoms, government, at the national expense, has formed one of the finest roads in the world ; among the principal features of whicli is the stupendous iron suspension-bridge, formed across the arm of the sea, called the Menai Channel. 170 CAKHNAHVON CAHTr.l'.. 180 The chief centre of the flannel manufacture is in Montgomery and Merioneth. The lead mines of Holywell and the copper mines of Anglesey possess an importance scarcely inferior to those of South Wales. 18115. Caemarvomliire Includca the grandest and most characteristic features of North Wales. The capital, Caernar- von, is a handsome, well.litiilt town, and, for its situation, considerable. Its chief ornament is the castle, a miglity and stately edifice (Jig. 179. >, built by Edward I. to curb the spirit of tht newly subdued Welsh, and also to iiKillic llinn l)y the ciicumsfance of liis queen, Elinor, Kiving birth within its walls to the heir of the monarchy. It encloses an area of two acres and a half; the towers are of stupendous magnitude, and crowned by light and beautiflil turrets To the soutli of Cncrna!'. von is the steep ascent of Snowdon, whence a view of astonishing extent Is commanded J tliough only to be seen in those nirtunatc days when the veil of mist, which usually wrans it, has Iwen dissipated. On its declivity is the wild and rocky lake of I.lanberis, with the ruined castle of Dolliadcrn overhanging its l)uiiks. Nearly at the opposite extremity of the county is Conway j rather a poor town, but containing the walls of a still morcmagnilicent castle (Jig. 180.), also erwted by I'Alwarif I. The interior is in a »tate of total ruin ; hut the view, from a little distance, of its eight inigbtv towers, ranging along the sunnnit of a lofty rock, which over. "M«»v rmnii. looks tlic broad surface of the I!ay DESCRIPTIVE OEOOUAPHY. Paki' III 4SS of Beaumarli, prcscnU an image of graiiilour whli'h ivnriivly ttnyotHercBitellattHl structure in the Jdnmlmn can rival. About midway between these Iwii I'lwllwl niltiil In MiuiKiir, » |iluasniit little town, vlewiiiuon m? tide the awhil grandeur of Siiuwdonia, and nn Ihi'iilhiT lht< lihi' ckliAlitv uf Ileaunmrls Kay. Bangor llti m the high road to Holyhead and Dublin ; and aUmt twit inlliia illsliiiit Is the sui|ieiisluii bridge over the Miua already mentioned. Here, and at Penryn, is » ||rv«t shliiiiivMt of staltHi, brought iVom the steep sides of tlie neighlwuring mountains. 1896. Meiionetht though it caniutl bunat n Huinnilt vtiiml to Snowilon, displays scenery still more unifonnly wild and rugK^'l' It hnit n IVw Inrgu vtllaguB, each enclosed by a circuit of lofty and almost inaccesHiblu iniuiiUulnit. Curwi'ii Is a pleasant little town, on the high road, and on the eastern border. Ualu in Niip|Mtrtud by n small manufacture of knit ' 181 gluvvN nitd stockings, and by the vicinity uf tliu lurgtist uf the little lakes of Wales, which liw* viviir witter and abounds in fisli. Duj. gvllyi iibuut midway between Snowdon and Cndur IdrU {^1^, I HI.), is seated in the very iH'itrt uf itll the grandest scenery of Wales. 'I'll tliv luirlli are u siiccessiun of beautiful cus. Vm\v*, pni'licillill'ly those of the j^Iouddacli, the villi* ut l<\'fililtiugi with the pleasing village of Mlliilltwriig Ut Its foot. Pont Aberglahslyn tlllhrtU (iliu uf the grandest examples of tlje brillgi' Hi'i'llt'rv uf Wales. On the south arise lliti sli'i'im ul Cndcr Idris, on the opposite nIiIv uf wlili'li is the little maritime town of 'I'uwyii. On the coast, the castle of Harlech, built also by Edward, bears marks of greut i ycl, tin the wlitile, iifaMillilcr uspect. It has some tine valle)'«, particularly tnat of the Severn j unci nuiiiy nt lis liillii ntv gtwu to the summit. The manufacture of flannel is carried on with considerable s|iirit. 'I'lie liiwn iif MdUlgiiinery Is small, pleasantly situatnl on tlie declivity of a hill, crowned with the rums o'' a once nnlilv cniilli', WelnlipiiDl is an lll.built straggling town, but has a great market for flannels ; and cdnminiili'uli's by H tniinl Willi Clu'ster and Kllcsmere. IWi. In proceeding to Denbigh antt Flint, whii'li borili'r nil llic Irlnli Hea, we quit the thoroughly alpine region of North Wales, and come to briwler VHllcya, itiiil hllU (irHillililly illtnltilshlng down to the level plain of western England. Denbigh, a pleasant, anrienl, liltlu liiwii, l< i'IiiwiiihI by a cnilTe, seated on a high rock, looking down to the vale of Clwyd, proverbial I'm' Us tnilliiiK h'rtlllty, l''nrtlier down the vale is the thriving little town of Ruthin. In the valley of the IVe, hiuI on llit< I'Olilliiis of ( lieshlre, to which it almost lielongs, is the considerable town of Wrexham, iiotixl lor lU ftiirs, III wlilili WcUli ftniiiiel is the staple commodity. But the chief ornament of Denbigh is I.laiigolliin Vitlit, iili lllii U|<|i('r tli'C, where the mixture of culture anil CAPIB IDaiS. wildness produces the most striking variety of scenery, AllliiiiH lis IcitilliiK leiitures are the ruined oaiitle ol '■■ s Bran, crowning the steep summit of one of the |irliii'ipiil lilllii i niiil llie remains of the Aliliey i Crucis. This last is situated in a valley eiiniiected with lllid of l.laiigiilleii, enclosed by lofty mo Dinas 1 f of Valie - ,. , , . r.ountaiita verdant to the summit, and sprinkled willi trees. 'I'lie (idillre liiis lieeii In the simplest style of Saxon arilii. tccture ; but the situation, the (Vagmenis that lie strewed nfimiiil, illid the trees iiiiil shrubs which grow, ivin in its interior, render it one of tlu< must pictiiretijiiii iiNrta in liiiulaiiil, Chirk, an agreeable village, has near it a castle, one of the most perfect of the many with which Wiilus l» Bdiiriied. Near it also is the very tine aqueduct of Pont-y.Cysiltc, by which Mr. Telford tiaa enniliii'lMt the Ijlleslnere Canal over the Vcv, restini- ■'■< 18 piers, 1UU7 feet in length, and V2Ci feet alxive the level oflliii river, 18119. Flint is a small county, diversitiiHl by rocky llllh (if lower eli'Vnfloli, but rich in lead and other mineral stores. The couiity town of Flint, and its castle, have entirely lust Hie linjiortance they imssesseJ when they were the prison of Richard II. ; and the glory of ('aorwys, the Hiieient scene of musical and imetical contest, has entirely passed away. The chief interest of the coiiiily eiMlslits In the industrious town of Holywell, which, besides its extensive lead mine, carries on works in brass mid eoliper, and even some cuttun falirio. Here the sacred well of St Winifrede, from which it ileriven Us imilie, Is bein-flclally applied to the purposci of industry. Hawarden flourishes by a foiiiiilery for oriliiitiice, Hliil by extensive works in earthenware.earriiii Oh in the neighbouring hill nf Ilulkley. The lead mine of l.lan.y.l'niider Islliemost extensive in the kiiiKilom, and employs four vast steamengines in clearing olt the wilier, Molil Is u pretty large town, in the centre of a rich plain of the same name. St. Asaph altrucis iiiiliio by lis ■iiinll liiit very neat cathedral. IINX). TAf /s/afldn//ln^/i'S of prei'lpltous rocks, hollowetl into deep CHVtirnSi and echoing with the clang of numbcrlcti •valliwl. 'I'he town itself ha< been rapidly ex- IviiiImI anil Inipiuvcd, liol ^ IIFAI' Book I> WALEa 433 1101. The seal! In Korih Wales, though not extremely numcrotia, are yet more than we ran well recount. Bacilli Hill, in Anglciey, has been mentioned for its beautiful views. Plas Newydd and Penrhyn Castle, Aricly situated on the Menai Strait, are both castellated mansions, modernised and highly ornamented. Wviinstay Park, near Llangollen, is the ancient domain of the Wynns. In Flintshire are Hawarden Castle, lufrouiided by extensive woods, and Mostyn Hall, near Holywell, presenting varied specimens of the different stvlcs of architecture successively prevalent from the reign of Henry V .. Near Montgomery is Powis Castle, vliich dates ft'om the twelfth century, and was long one of the proudest fortresses In Wales : It is still a lupcrli miKlern seat ; though the principal residence of the Powis family has been transfierred to Walcot House, in Shropshire. I<)02. South Wales comprises the counties of Radnor, Cardigan, Brecknock, Cacrmarthen, l>(.>inl)ruke, and Glamorgan. Its general character has been already noticed in comparison with that of North Wales. Though its features are not on so vast a scale, it presents scenery equally romantic, mingled with a greater degree of softness and cultivation ; and its agricultural and mining products are of considerably greater value. igoa Radnor, the flrat county that presents itself as we proceed from the north, is one of the least con. iidcrable. It is composed of bleak ranges of mountains, in some parts almost impassable. The Wye, in Irsvi-rsing it, forms a valley in which there is some cultivation ; but the greater part is only fitted to aflbrd pasture for sheep, the wool of which is valuable. New Radnor, once a fortified city, is dwindled into a village. Presteign, though not meriting any higher title, is neater and more flourishing. 1M4. Cardigan is a much more interesting county. Its mountains, though not of stupendous eleva- tion, arc varied, broken, interspersctl with deep valleys and ravines, through which a numlwr of small rivers dash towards the bay of Cardigan. The county thus includes some of the boldest features of Welsh scenery. The domain of Hafod, in particular, has been covered with extensive plantations, so happily disposed as to render it almost a scene of encnantment At a few miles' distance is an object which, from its sublime and terrific aspect, is called " the Devil's Bridge;" an arch thrown over a deep and narrow rocky chasm, overgrown with wood, at the bottom of which rolls the Mynach, after rushing down three lofty cascades ; rurmiiig ultngcther the grandest scene of the kind in the kingdom. The lead mines of Cardiganshire are very extensive, though the want of f\icl has caused the working of many of ' Iiem to be discontinued. Cardigan ii a small old town, which carries on a considerable coasting trade, having nearly 300 small vessels belonging to it. There is great resort to Aberystwyth, an agreeable bathing place, which commands an extensive viewt>f the range of the northern mountains. Its trade is also considerable, extending even to Bristol and Liverpool. 1903. Brecon, or Brecknock, in the interior from Cardigan, is, like the rest of Wales, mountainous and nigged, but has some fertile lands in the valleys uf the Uske and the Wye. There, chiefly through the exertions of a county society, agriculture is conducted in a more skilftil manner than in most other parts of Wales. Brecon is an ancient town on the Uske, amid lofty mountains, and surrounded by delightful walks. Like every other place in Wales, it has the remains of a castle, which was once strong, and held by Buck. inghain, the favourite and afterwards the victim of Richard III. igiX). Cacrmarthen is a more favoured province ; and though it includes an ample proportion of bleak and tiarren lulls, these are intermixed with large fertile valleys, particularly that of the Towey, which traverses the whole extent of the county. It thus produces, not wheat indeed, but oats and barley, of^which quantities are cximrtcd to Bristol There are also abundance of coal, and some iron works on the Glninorgan border The capital, situated on the Towey, which admits to it vessels of 300 tons, is one of the most flourishing and best built towns in Wales, Its antiquities are almost eSteed ; but it has a handsome town hall and modern tburch. 19117. Pembroke, the most remote extremity of Wales, consists of a peninsula branching out between the Irish and Bristol channels. The great range of the Welsh mountains here terminates ; and, with the exception orafew detached summits, the country presents merely an undulating surface, rising at most to elevations of 91) or ^Xl feet. Hence, notwithstanding a rude and aiiti<|uatitl system of agriculture, it is made to yield considerable quantities of oats, of barley, and even of wheat. Its breed of cattle is also in high repute. Its wide and indented coasts contain some of the finest harbours in Britain : yet it does not excel either in trade or manufactures. The mineral field also here terminates ; and the coal that occurs is of inferior qualitv. Two Roman rnads, in diftbrcnt directions, cross this county, which is also very rich both in druidical and feudal monuments. The ancient city of Pembroke is strikingly situated on an almost insulated neck of land on the bav of Millord Haven, the highest part of which presents the vast remains of its castle, one of the most mag. nil'lccnt structures of which Wales or England could boast It was built in 10112, upon the site of a more anrient British fort, and was consUlered almost impregnable till, after an obstinate resistance, it was reduced by Oliver Cromwell. The town contains some churches, ancient, but not elegant. The large bay comixwing liiltoril Haven is now generally allowed to form the most capacious and secure harbour in Britain. Hence governineiit have been induced, at the new towns of Milford and Haberstone, on its north-^rn shore, to form diK'kyards and establish packets for the south of Ireland. The largest town of Pembroke, however, ia Haiert'ordwcst, situated on a small river which falls into St Bride's Bay, and admits vc>ssels of^ 1(10 tons. It continues to sup|Kirt itself by some trade and industry. Fiahguard is a flsliing town on a very fine bay of the iame name. St David's, the ecclesiastical capital of South Wales, is now only a large difty village, adorned, however, with venerable ancient structures. Narberth is a neat town with some striking remains of a castle, taliruke is crowded with castles, among which stands, in solitary grandeur, Kilgarran, on the borders of Cardigan, where its massy towers and lYaginents present a most imposing spectacle. It commands also a fine view alinig the course of the Towey. Carew Castle, near a small village of the same name, ebowa, likewise, iO)ne magnificent remains. I'M. (ilamorgan is the finest county In South Wales, arid, as to wealth, superior to any other in the princi. nlitf. Its coast, along the Bristol Channel, and for some miles inland, is leveL and fertile in the extreme. Tlieiirc the ground rises into hills of continually increasing elevation, till, on the fVontier, they rise to the luiliht of upwards of 2IXX) feet, and unite with the Brecon chains. I'roih tliese heights descend numerous tliiams, which, in their progress to the sea, produce all the varieties of ravines, wooded vales, falls, and cataracts; which, with the beauty of the plains lielow, and the fine views over the Bristol Channel, render 'dainorgan c<|ual in plcturesoue beauty to any other county in Wales. Notwithstanding, also, too close an ailberence to the old system ot exhausting the ground, and leaving it to recruit, and the eniploynieiit of huge and useless teams of oxen, the crops of every description of grain are ample ; and there are good breeds both of rattle and sheep. But all these objects are trifling, when compared with the mineral treasures of Glamorgan. ll t'orms the centre of a vast field of coal and iron, from which branches extend into the neiglibouring counties. Since it was found that iron could be smelted with coke, the working of this metal has prcxligioualy increased, and the town of Merthyr "rydvil, near which it ia most abundant, has grown from a mere village to be tlie nrnt ixipulous place in all Wales. In cnnseouence also of the abundance of fuel, the copper ore dug out in Anglesey, Cornwall, and Irelaiid. Is brought hither to be smelted and refined. The plating of iron with tin ia alio an extensive occupation. The iron is reduced by immense rollers to the requisite thinness, and is then cut by enormous sciasora into plates, which afterwards require little more than simple immersion into the nneltcd tin. The coal, besides its essential use in these various works, is in itself a most extensive object of exportation, amounting in some years to 1,0(X),000 tons. 'I'he rivers of Glamorgan are very imi>erfectly navigable ; but this defect has been supplied by industry. From Neath, Cardift', and Swansea, canals reach lit into the interior ; and their benefits being extended by railways, a channel has been opened for conveying to the sea the produce even of the most interior mines. Cardift' ranks as the county town, but is now miicn milUHeil by utherti Yet it carries on a coiuiderable trader having a commodious harbour, and betnf r f : iifl ■134 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. CABRPIIII.LT CAITLR. cimnected by a ikiinilly conductcil canal with the interior worku at Merthyr Tydvil. It lenda out sjso 130,000 tons of coal ; but Newport, in it> vicinity, exports a much l.irgcr quuntily, exceeding 40f) OW) tons Swansea has risen to its present high imimrtuncc by immense works in iron and copper, and by the eximrt ation ot'coal, to the extent of nearly 400,000 tons; a large vessel may enter at one tide, and go out loailod at the next. Its pleasant situation on a fine bay has also made it an extensive resort for sea.bathint and led to the erection of many elegant buildings. Swansea has thus risen into a sort of capital of .South Wales; yet it Is not so large as Merthyr 'I'ydvil has been rendered by the extensive iron works in and round it. There arc near it seventeen furnaces, in one of which 11,000 tons of pig iron and 12,000 tons of liar iron arc prixtuccd annually. Neath, on a river of the same name, flourishes by the ordinary staijics of tlie county. The scenery on the upper Neath, and particularly on its tributaries the Kelddta and Hcnstc ii extrenieljr romantic. Caerphilly, a thriving little town, with some manufactures, deserves notice chiefly from the rcmanis of its immense castle {fig. IttJ.), which present a most stupendous scene of ruins. It is stated to have been a mile and a quarter in circum. fercnce, and capable of containing a garri' I a) the British government, with a view to the prevention of smuggling, and to the establish- ment of a free trade. The coasts of Man arc generally susceptible of culture, and are much enriched by the quantity of sea-weed thrown upon them ; which, with late improve- ments in agriculture, enable it to produce large crops of barley »nd other grain ; and there is a great exportation of cattle and butter. The herring-fishery is now much decayed. The natives are shown to be a Celtic race by their language, which bears a close affinity to the Welsh and Gaelic. 1912. Casllelown.tbe capital and teat of the courts, is the neatest town in the Island; and in its centre, Castle Rushen, the ancient palace of the kings of Man, rears its gloomy and majestic brow. Dougl.is, how- ever, as licing the >pot in which the whole trade circulates, is now of suiierior importance, and has atlracleda great number of Krigiish settlers. I'ccl and Itamsay are both much decayed ; but the former still preser^t; (he venerable ruins of its castle, once deemed impregnable. 1913. Scilli/ is the name given to a group of islands, or rather islets, situated at soine distance from the western extremity of Cornwall. They were celebrated in antiquity, under the appellation of Cassiterides, or the Islands of Tin ; under which, however, Corn- wall, and sometimes even the whole British Isles, were confessedly included. At present they are only tenanted by 2000 poor inhabitants, who raise a little grain, but depend chiefly upon fishing, pilotage, and the making of kelp. St. Mary, the largest town, has a popula- tion of 700 inhabitants, and is defended by a small garrison ; while on Sampson, the smallest place, there resides only one family. 1914. Jersey, Guernsey, and AUemey, with Sark, form a group naturally French, and originally part of the patrimony of the Norman kings, which the naval superiority of England has enabled her to retain. They enjoy certain privileges and immunities, founded on tills distinction, as laid down hy Coke, that, " though parcel of the dominion of the crown of England, they are not, nor ever were, parcel of the realm of England." The climate is mild and agreeable, and the sdil generally fertile. Jersey, the finest of the group, Book I. is beautifuDj the chief obj during the w favourable sti Jersey, was © 1915. Thep in the introduc important, tliou 1916. Scotlan drawn along tJie comer faces the e scarcely exceeds 1( Mient of Scotland 1917. Scotland, I ine Lowlands and friths of Fortli and tltvaleil than the n «s (brining any tie I "f 'he Clyde, the 1, mist, the Lowland J forfar, Kincardine,! "lountain territory.! "fAberdeen, andall Itrritory, and cnioyi comprehend quite lioundless plains wh. slill more the westeJ "'"great measure.! "1 broad flat vallevj »;<■ much famed foS w Scotland. T '91H. TheHighlA f°"naregionofver1 ;™n south-west to f '•"11, hut leaving beJ .^-'I'y dip, almost p1 ""'■nor valleys are o,| "■e culture of the cof 7.""'"rly the grel I f "asily defe„,|od 1 "i"r recesses a priuul Book I. SCOTLAND is beautifully diversified with hill imd dale, and is ro abundant in orchards, that cider forms the chief object of exportation. These islands, especially Jersey, flourished remarkably during the war, from the naval depots and fortifications formed upon them, and from the favourable stations which they afforded for privateering. Hence St. Helier, the capital of Jursey, was converted from a mere village to a handsome and agreeable town. ClIAF. III. SCOTLAND. MULIi or OALLOWAV. 1915. The place which Scotland holds as part of Great Britain, has already been exhibited in the introduction to the chapter on England. It is now time to describe in detail this important, though secondary, member of the empire. Sect. I. Geographical Outline. 1916. Scotland is bounded on the south by England, from which it is separated by a line drawn along the Tweed, the Cheviot Hills, and thence to the Solway Frith. Its soutli-west comer faces the coast of Ireland. On every other side it is bounded by vast and stormy seas ; the Atlantic and the Northern oceans, 1^^ which extend to America, Greenland, and the Pole. The length of Scotl and be- tween north and south, from the Mull of Galloway {fig. 184.), in about 54° 40 to Dunnet Head, Caithness, in 58° 4t and centre of northern Scotland, form a region of very bleak and rugged aspect. A chain of long and lofty ridges extends from south-west to north-east, not reaching, however, the German Ocean or the Moray Frith, hut leaving between them the level interval of the northern lowland. These mountains usually dip, almost perpendicularly, into the lakes and seas on which they border ; and even the intt'riar valleys arc on so high a level that in this climate they admit only in scattered patches the culture of the coarser kinds of grain, particularly oats and bigg. These mountains, particuliirly the great Grampian barrier, wliich extends across from Ben Lomond to Blair. Athol, lock in closely with each other, and can be entered only by formidable ind easily defended passes. The consequence has been, that they have preserved within iJieir recesses a priutitive people, who, in dress, language, and the whole train of their sodul F f a 436 MAP OF SCOTLAND. 5 4 'Tc-iu. Book I. ideas, difTer c characteristirS) Great Uritain. 1919. jinoli Scotland, sepa Aberdeen and in both respect 1920. The J On the cost, i and naked roc dered by the h Jura, are separ considered as I by the two ranj but at some dia to excessive mo English nor Cc dating from tlie western states o 1921. Amon( wliich is given applied more p and comprising elevated ridge these approach, of 4315 feet. I NORTH PART. J. Ilunnet % Cannnltf 3. Fmwick 4. H'Ick V I'llxttr 6. Kaita; 7 Thuno t. HrMhr; 9. Strathr 10. Fan kirk II.KlTle.(.n It Toiiguti 13. Inch Keanloch 11. Loch Ktiboll IS.IIrailejr II). Drumacray 17. Scourii! IM. Coluireme m. Infer Baxatlr 10. Loch Narer !l. Loch llailen Ir. Achnahoe U. l.atheron i4.)kTniUle Hi. HchtiHlalg i6. Cl;m tl, Achjntran i*. Dalmoi W.Uim 3U. Tulloch 3I.Lo(h>illiii Zt. Auyot S.I. Sioir 31. Pomef 3.V CnnnajioulUb St. I'llaiiool 3;. PoniUlck .W. lira 3'J. (iolslile 411. IVimoch <1. Tarliat ^t. rroiiiartv 4.1. Tain 41. tntcrf^ordon 45. Kincartlina 4(>. Ktlilriinore 47. Ilcn W.vvii 4H. liKlihruom 4S. I*c'h Fuir 50. TlnaHdliw il. MelTnr 51. Krrid.ile 33. (Jairloch 34. l.och Maree 35. 1.octi Faiinich » [«h Luichanl 37. Kiltcitni 31. Fonri)« W.Fonlirorge 60. Nairn 61. ForiM 6!. Kl«,n 63. H(m the Lowlanden, and have retained antique and striking I'haracteristirst both physical and moral, that are obliterated in almost every other part of Great Britain. 1919. Another very unial though somewhat vague dulinction is into the north and south of Scotland, separated by the friths of Tuy and Clyde. The northern lowlands, particularly Aberdeen and Moray, though they are highland neither in aspect nor population, are yet, in both respects, considerably dissimilar to the southern lowlands. 1920. The Idei may be considered as comprising the remaining third part of Scotland. On the cost, indeed, and even on great part of the south>west coast, only a few bold and naked rocks rise perpendicularly from the ocean. But the western highlands are bor. dered by the Hebrides, an extensive range of large islands, some of which, Skye, Mull, Jura, are separated from the continent by such narrow channels, that they may almost be considered as forming part of it. Again, the northern extremity of Scotland is prolonged by the two ranges of the Orkney and Shetland islands, in a continuous line with each other, but at some distance. These islands are not higliland ; they are rocky and bare, exposed to excessive moisture and the perpetual storms of the Atlantic. The population is neither English nor Celtic : it bears, in language and features, the marks of a Scandinavian origin, dating from tlie period when the piratical rovers of the north made extensive inroads on the western slates of Europe. 1921. Among the Scottish mounttdni, the most considerable are the Grampians, a name which is given very generally to all those which cover the surface of the Highlands, but applied more particularly to the chain running across the counties of Perth and Argyle, and comprising Ben Lomond, Bon Ledi, ,Ben More, Ben Lawers, and others of Uiat elevated ridge which directly face the low country of Stirling and Perth. Several of these approach, and even exceed, the altitude of 4000 feet. Ben Nevis rises to the height of 4315 feet. On the borders of Inverness and Ross-shire, Ben Wyvis, Mealfourvounie, S^erencei to the Map qf Scotland. NORTH PART. 1. Dunnet i. CnnnvttiT 3. FrawicK 4. Wick y I'lMtl e. Kuki; 7 Thuno I. BiMhr; 9. simhY 10. Fan Kirk II. HIrterf.B 18. Toiiguf 13. Inch Keanloch ll.LochKrlboU l.'i. liraile; If). Drumacray 17. ScouriK ID. Colwreme 19. Iirnr HaRUlT 80. Lot h NftTCT il. La h lUdcn 1^. Achnahoe V.1. linttieron tl. Ilinvdale ti. HilinHlilla S6. Chne lt7. Acliintran n. tlilmot w.Uim 30. Tulloc'h Sl.loihSUm It AUTDt 3,1. Stoir 31. Domey ii. CnnnahoulUb Se. I'lJiijool 3*. PoTtL'ilUk .W. llM 3'J. (ial>lil6 411. llunioch 41. Tatliit 411. 1'roinutj 4.1. Tiln 44. InvcrKordon 4.^. Kirictmline 4(i. Kildriinore 47. lien «>»!• (t. IjKhbroom 49. 1.O.I1 Kuir Hi. Tinafldiua il. Melnv S». Krrid,ile M. (iairliH'h M. l^-h Mare« b'l, IxK'h Faiinich M. IxH-h Luicbanl 67. Kiltcnm iH. FonrD>« 6^* Furt (ivonce 60. N«lrn «1. FotTM 6!. ElKin 63. HMhn 64. Fochalcn M. Cullen (CMimocli 67. Panu; ex.Btnte 69. TufrcfT 70. Abetdoul 71. Fraientiurgh li. Strichen 73. FeMthcad 74. Cnidm 79. Kllon 76. Hothi* 77. Meldrum 78. Cusalmtutd 79. Klnnethinail 80. Achindon 81. Huntle; Hi. KinnacoU S3. Aberlour 84. Grantown Si. EdeiuUUe 86. DrmcT 87. Calnnlchjle 88. Inveraeis 89. Dues 90. Obriachan 91. KUmutat 9<. Brsulj 93, Mucrich 94. Kilnacrow »i. Atladale 96. Torridon 97. Vonebanc 98. AnntecroM 99. KlllUan 100. Ulen Shiel 101. Affluie 101. Dundraon 103. IxKh Nea 104. Bellaloln 105. Aberaider 106. Avlemore 107. Kincaidlne 108. AbemeOir 109. Achenraw 110. Suathdon Itl.Towla lllt.nunj 113. Klntora 114. InTCTun 115. Fflveran 116. Flntrajr 117. OldAbcidem 118. New Alienlaan 119. Stonehafen IHO. Teman liil. Bine littt. Ilalinoral 18,1. Braeinai UA. Inch i'iA. InTemahaTcn 186. lA«an 187. Furt Auguitui 188. lAKh (iarrjr J 89, LochLochjp 130. Clunei 131. tjKti ArkM 138. Hosarj ISS. Huddtwb 134. Loch Monte; 13A. AraulR 136. Smlnaiar; 137. Loch Shlel 138. Croniel 139. Sirane 140. Ben Neirto 141. Fori Willldm 148. Aberaider 143. Loch Lastfan 144. Dalwhlnnte 145. Elrbh 146. Clacha; 147. Clo»a 148. Mennuir 149. Crateour 150. (ilenbenia 151. Betvle 158. Monirote 1.53. Brechin 154. Lunan 155. Oathlaw 156. (ilenlila 157. Moulin 158. Blalr-Alhol 159. Ualnacardoch 160. 8ch*challlon 161. 1.och Hannoch 168, Loch Kricht 163. I,ach Tmg 164. Klnlochniore 165. Catrnierlch 166. Ar;houlan 167. Seamadale 168. Lanaall 169. Uddadale 170. KInlochallna 171. Morven 178. Ardnamurchan. SOUTH PART. 1. Appln i. Ardchaitan 3. Glcncoe 4. lAKh KUre i. Kinii'i HoUM £. Fingnit 7. Ben lawert 8. Killin 9. 1/och Tay 10. Kenmoiv 11, Aberfeld; 18. Amubrle 13. Ihinkeld 14. BlairKOWTle 1.5. Cupar'Anjnia 16. Melgle 17. Arbroath 18. Mulrdrum 19. Dundee »0, Kllmen? 81. Cupar 88. Newbttrifa S3. Perth 84. Crieir 85. Comrie *6. Lscb Earn 87. Craagan 88. Loch Voll 89. Loch Lochait SO. Olenurchaj 31. CladU'k 88. Kllmore 33. Ardmaddjf 34. CralgnUh 35. Kllmartin 36. Inverary 37. Htrachur 38. KilinorUh 39. Ben Lomond 40. l.och Katrin* 41. 1«ch Lubnaic 48. Doune 43. WllllaimtowD 44. lUuchart 45. ForteTlot 46. Klnrou 47. Falkland 48. St. Andrawa 49. Aiutnithar 50. l«Ten 51. Klnithom 58. Dunflerinllne 53. Clackmannan 54, Alrth M, SUrllni 56. Dumblana 57. Milton 58 . Cani)iflle 59, 1,och liomond 60. Tarbat 61. Kllmodan 68. Glliihead 63. Achaholih 64. Cammore 65. Klllarraw 66. Kllchenil* 67. Southend 68. Camnbelton . 69. Huddala 70. (torton 71. Skliineu 78. Ruban 73. Greenock 74. Kllblmla 7,'*. Dumbarton 76. Faille; 77. Renfrew 78. (ilauow 79. Bothwell 80. Alrdrle Sl.miltbum 88, Falkirk 83. Linlithgow 84. BorrowatownneM 8,V Kdlnburib 86. Dalkeith 87. Muaaelbunth 88. Haddington 89. North dSnvlck 9(1. Dunbar Ol.Scaleraw 98. Bunkit 93. Duma f 3 94. Paxtcn 95. Eccles 96. (lordon 97. ChannelUtk 98. Lauder 99. Middleton 100. Linton 101. Peeblei 108. Camwath 103. l«Mrk 101, Hamilton 105. Gagleaham 106. Stewarton 107. Dalr; 108, Itrlna 109. Air 110. Mauchllna 111. Kilmaniock 118, StraUiaren 113. Dougiaia 114. Crawfordlohn 115. Crawford^ 116. Culler FeU ll7.GnlaUileli 118. Melroie 119. Selkirk 180. Kelio 181. Vetholm ISi.Hownam 183. Soullidean 184. Jcdburiih 185. Hawlrf 186. Bedford Green 187. Klrkpalrlik 188. Sanquhar 189. lUrkronnel iX. Ochiltree 131, Dalrympla LM.Girvin IXI. Ilalllntra* 134. Balloch 135, Garrj 138. Stranraer 153. Portpattlck 1.54, Maldenkirk 155. Ardwell 156. Gientuce 157. Morhrum 158. Mnillehoni l.W. WIgton IGOi Lauiietton 161. Kirkcudbright 168. Colreiul. Aiivrf. ■ NaTer Water b Thuno Watte OIkei d Orrin e Nairn f Findhom n Itaveran 1 Don I Ile« kEak 1 Tay m Earn n Forth Tweed p Annan 4 NIth 1 Ken a A jr _ t Cfjde. • SKVE ISLB I. Dig 3. Totnacrach 4. Snizort 5. Stein 6. Roag 7. Itracadale 8. Druniah O.Glllan 10, BroadTold 11. Kyle. MULL ISLB 1. Kllnlnlan 8. Tobermorle 3. Keallan 4. Aroa 5. Athnacraig 6. Cimtius 7. Moj 8. FIddm. JURA ISIJi. 1. 1.eaiihatl I8LAY ISLE. 1, Snnnig 9. Kilchoman 3. Bolsha 4. Aiknig ft. Bowmore 6. Klldalton 7. KIntra. ARRAN ISIX. I. (Iran 8. CoiTie 5. Kilbride «. KUnwry 4S8 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pi»»TlII. and !>onnc others, arc of nearly equal vlwation. Tlic south of Scotland it also very ||j||y . but its heighta arc seldom more tlian iZOOO feet, green and pastoral. The most remnrkiible are the boundary chain of the Cheviot, celebrated in the nnnnls of early feud, hunting, and border warfare. The Lowthers, a steep high ridge, including valuable lead mines ; the pastoral hills of Ettrick and Yarrow ; Crifl'el and Cairnsmuir, in Galloway, form important uhjectN : the lower ranges of thu Pentlaiid and Lammermoor border the Lothians. lOL'S. The rivers of Scotland are not so much distinguished for their length or magnitude as for the pastoral scenery through which they wind their early course, and for the magni. ficent estuaries which they form at their junction with the sea. 1 923. The Forth derives from this last circumstance a higher distinction than the others. It nses near the foot of Ben Lomond, flows due west towards Stirling, near which it is swelled liy thu larger stream of the Teith ; whence, after many windings through the beau- tiful plain overlooked by Stirling castle, it opens into tlie great frith on which the capital of Scotland is sitiiutod. 1924. T/ie Clyde has a course marked by still more striking objects. It rises from a hill in Lanarkshire, on the borders of DumfrivH-shire; flows for a considerable space throii|;|| a wild pastoral valley ; then winding neur Tinto, it descends, by a succession of must pic- turesque cascades, into the lower region of Lanarkshire. After passing through a tract which may be denominated the garden of Scotland, and adjoining to the proud walls of Hamilton and Bothwell, it enters Glasgow ; then, totally changing its pastoral charai'trr, it becomes a broad stream, and the channel of a most extensive commerce. In its lower course, it expands into a winding frith, not so broad as the Forth, but the scene of a much more active trade. Here also its shores are rendered highly picturesque by the proud castle of Dumbarton, the beautiful coast of Bute, and the lofty heights of Arran and Argylc. 192.5. The Tweed rises from the siime chain as the Clyde, and pursues, for some time, a parallel course, separated only by the high ridge of Culler Fell. It then turns eastward, and waters the most beautiful and classic of the pastoral districts of Scotland, in whose vi-ritc Tweed is the favourite name. Of similar fame are its tributaries, the Yarrow, the Gnlii, tlic Teviot ; swelled by whose waters it rolls, i^ broad stream, by Melrose and Kelso ; and on reaching Berwick affords a capacious harbour for the trade of that port. 1926. The Tay rises in the central Highlands, out of tliO ukc of the same name, encom- passed by some of the loftiest of the Grampians, It early receives the mountain streams of the Lyon, the Tummel, the Bran ; and, after sweeping under the picturesque and wuwled hills of Dunkeld, descends into the lowlands of Pertlishire. Having winded beautil'ully round the city of Perth, it expands into the Frith of Tay, on the norther i shore of which swells the luxuriant tract called the Carsc of Gowrie, Finally, the Tay brms the Imrhour of Dundee, and becomes the channel through which the trade of that thriving place and the interior districts is carried on. 1927. The Spey, though last ia rank, has a longer course than any other; but, rising in the midst of the Perthshire highlands, and rolling northward through the wild recesses of Athul and Braemar, its line is comparatively obscure, and seldom visited even by the admirers of mountain scenery. Its rude banks are bordered, however, by the extensive fsr wooy the nortlierii tVoiitiur of England ; un the north and west, by the comparatively Hut country lietweun the I'urth and the Clyde ; and un the east by the sea. It is traversed I'loin St. Abb'H Head on the cast coast to I'ortpatrick un tlic west coast by a high land, niinii'd llie f(reat touthern high laud of Scotland, in which are siti ited the highest mountain* in this division of Scotland. This lol^y range sends out bran., los in ditterunt directions, mitiiy o'' which reach the sea-coast, while others terminate in the lower and Hatter parts of tlu'i'ouiilry that lies around them. The ]>rincipal rivers of the south of Scotland rise from (Ills high land, us the Tweed, which flows towards the east ; the Clyde, towards the north- ivi'st ; the rivers of Ayrshire, tlmt flow towards the west ; those of Dumfrics-shirc, towards till' south ; and (he rivers of the Lothians, towards the north. Although thus abundantly sii|i|ilii'd with rivers, the southern division contains but few lakes, in this respect forming usii'ilviiig contrast with the middle and northern divisions. The only lakes wortliy of being iiunu'ii are Loch Ken in Galloway, and St. Mary's Loch and the Loch of the Lows in Si'lkirkshiro. Springs are sufliciently numerous; but their nature and chemical history have nut hitherto enga^fi'd much of the attention of observers. lU,i:), In this (liiwon nf Scotland rocks of the primitive class arc wanting ; but transition, tcc'oiidary, and alluvial formations abound. The mountainous regions arc composed of tninsition rocks, while the lower and flatter consist principally of secondary and alluvial fornrntionfi HUM. I. Ttamition rocks. The predominating rocks of the Neptunian class are grey wacke, uith subordinate beds of clay slate, flinty slate, and transition limestone; the Plutonian .sliirc, &c. In the districts where it occurs, it is frequently (juarried and used as a liuilding-stono. 2. .Viii(iiil)lic works in tlmt city and its suburbs, 4(ilfi49 tons. It may also be noticed, as connected with coal, that in Glasgow, during twenty-four hours in the winter months, the gas company umke upwards of 500,000 cubic feet of gas from coal ; and during the same period in the suinnier months, about li>0,000. The pipes extend to more than 100 miles through streets. The great iron-works at Carroa are supplied with the ore from which the iron is obtiiined, from the coulflclds of this and the middle division of Scotland. The ore or stoue, which is V f 4 11 DESCH1PT!VE GEOGRAPHY. P*«T 111 an nrgillitceouii carbonate of iron, occur* in beds and «ml>edded maaiieK, and principally in the ■tiatv of tliL> coal deposit. Tlic admirable building-stone around Edinburgh and Glasgow is a sandstone wliirh occurs in beds in the coal formation. 4. Neiv red samlstune. This formation in the regular succession rests upon the coal formation, in which position it is to be seen in the neighlH>urhoud of Cainioby in I)uin> fries>sliire. 5. Trap and porphyry rocks. These Plutonian or ignigcnoiis masses occur in great quantity in many parts : they abound, for instance, all around Edinburgh ; forming purt of the Calton Mill, Castle Mill, Salisbury Craigs, Arthur Seat, Corstorphine Hill, Uluckl'urd and Braid hills, the Pentlands, &c. : the beautiful conical hill named North Berwick Liiw the Bass Kock, the Isle of May, Traprain Law, are also of igneous origin, and fornicil uf trap and porjihyry rocks. Uenfrewslure and Ayrshire also abound in splendid and interptit. ing displays of trap and porphyry ; and there, as in all other parts of Scotland where they appear, exhibit numerous relations illustrative of their igneous origin, and the changes llicy have occasioned in the Neptuiiian strata in their progress from the interior of the earth. In many parts of the country these Plutonian rocks are used as building.stoncs, and the greenstone of the trap series aflbrds an admirable material for road-making. The splendid causeways and roads around Edinburgh are of greenstone. 19^6. III. Alluvial rto"«> ami at a pavvnuMit-ilonv. The Kiiiguddle tandttone and the Arbroath ptveini'iit-stone, flruin old rvd «aiid»tun« localilieii, are well known. '2. Cual firinatioH. Th« ihmI liirumtiun in the middle diviilon of Scotland has not been met with 'iHrllivr north than Kil'vahlre. The counties of Fife, Clackmannan, and Stir- ling, abound in cual | of these cuunlius Fife is that which contains the greatest fields of thit valuable mineral. D. iSVw retl tandMow occurs apparently in some points on the east coast, and also on the north cimiit lietwevn Cullvn and the Cromarty Frith. 4. Lias formation. Near tu Uanll' tlivru are beds of ciny, which, from the organic remains coniaiiii'd in them, may turn out to belong Tliese, by some, are considered as alluvial, ind foreign lo Scotland ) while others are opinion that they are remains of the chalk form- ttion, formerly distrlbutetl in stmte of the tracts where the flints are found. 1941. (3.) Norlhennlii'hiim- Thisdivlsion is bounded on the south by the chain of lakes which forms the northern limit of the middle division; and on the north, the east, and the west, by the ocean. It is even more rugged, mountainous, and hilly than the middle division. The high land ranges throughout its whole length, kVom south-west to north-east. The western acclivity is steep and short { the eastern comparatively gently inclined and long. The principal rivers, none of which, however, are cornparable in magnitude with the Tay ind the Spey, flow down the eastern acclivity to the sea ; others, of less size, flow down the northern acclivity, in the northern part of the country, to the sea; and the least considerable dow down the western ucvlivitv to the western sea. There are a good many lakes, as Loch Shin, and others, inentlonetl in the geographical account of the country. The springs are numerous, but hitherto oliservers have passed them by without examination. The whole of this division, nearly, is composed of primitive and transition rocks, the second- ary occurring principally along the east coast and a small extent of the north-west coast. 1942. I. l*rimUm ami lrait»ilhn rocAi. The Neptunian species are disposed in strata that often range ft'om south-west to north-east, are of gneiss, mica slate, clay slate, quarti rock, talc slate, limestone, and areywackc. The Plutonian rocks are less abun- dant than in the middle ttntunian slates, are most in- structive, and aniiuiilly attract to Arran visiters from all parts of Britain, and even from distant continental countries. Reposing on these rocks is a de|)osit of the old red sand- stone, on which rests the coal formation ; and the whole are covered, more or less ((nn. pletely, with new red sandstone. Tliese Neptunian secondur) rocks are traversed in all directions by Plutonian rocks of the porphyry and trap scries, allbrding an admirable study to the geologist interested in the natural history of ignigenous fonnations. 1952. ^//mmo/ f/e/JosiVs occur all round the coast, and covering, more or less deeply, the bottom ar.J sides of valleys. Both old and new alluvium are met with in Arran. 1 953. Crais of Ailsa. This splendid rock which forms so striking an object from ihu coast of Ayshire, is 900 feet high, and is composed of secondary syenite, in several illfl's disposed in magnificent colinnns, and traversed by veins of secondary greenstone, &e. 1954. (3.) Hebrides ur Western I stands. Tliese lie along the west coast of the mainland of Scotloid, and may be di'scribe I'oinposi'd of basalt, amygdaloid, and trap tutlii, has been Ion)! celebrated on account of its splendid columnar basaltic cave, the Fiiigal's Cave of travellers, Book 1> SCOTLAND. 44S EigK '5 principally composed of trap rocks, occasionally intermingled with lias limestones. The Scure Egg is a remarkable columnar ridge of pitchstone porphyry (which we first described miiny years ago), presenting the most splendid display of the natural columnar structure to " b met with any where in the British islands. Canna is entirely composed of secondary trap rocks ; and Rum, a wild, rugged, and hilly island, besides red sandstone, which forms a prominent constituent part, also contains many varieties of trap, some of which are remarkable from their containing agates, bloodstone, opal, &c. Ski/e, the largest of the Inner Hebrides, exhibits great variety of scenery and of geological arrangement. The scenery of Coruisk is the most savage any where to be seen in Britain. The southern part of the island is composed of primitive and transition rocks, principally of the Neptunian (^.rits i namely, mica slate, clay slate, chlorite slate, horublentle rock, quartz rock, greywacke, and limestone. I'/ie miUdle part or divuion aflbrds magnificent displays of Plutonian rocks, as syenite, porphyry, and trap, which are frequently observed intermixed with lias limestone, iiliich in many places is seen converted into marble through the agency of those ignigenous rocks : the northern division of the island is principally composed of various trap rocks, olU'n aboundin" in z olite and other curious minerals, and intermingled wUh lias limestone anil coal. The - .uvium here exhibits its usual characters. Rasa)/. The southern and mid- dle parts of this island are of secondary formation, principally of old red sandstone and lias anilstonej the northern extremity is of primitive rocks, principally gneiss. Rona, This isl.iiui, which appears formerly to .jve been a part of Rasay, is entirely of primitive form- ation, the prevailing rock being gncias, with subordinate mica slate, quartz rock, hornblende rocli, &e., traversed by splendid veins of granite. 19.16. Outer Hebrides. This group, which lies in a north-east and south-west direc- lion, consists of the following islands; viz. Lewis, Harris, North Uist, South Uist, and Barra. The whole rauj,-' of islands is nearly of primitive formation, and the predo- minatin;:! rocks, which are gneiss and mica slate, range generally from north-east to soutlt- rest Tlie following rocks, which are generally subordinate to those just mentioned, viz. iiuartz rock, clay slate, chlorite slate, hornblende rock of various kinds, limestone (?), serpen- tine, with masses and veins of granite, syenite, and porphyry, present many interesting plienomcni. 1351. {i- ) Orknei/ Islands. This group of islands is distinguished from all the otiiers that lie around the coasts of Scotland, by the uniformity of its structure and composition. With the exception of a small extent of transition rocks near Stromness in the island of Pomona, the largest of the Orkneys, that island and all the others are composed of the old red sandstone, with some rare appearances of secondary trap. 1958. Fair Isle. Judging from the specimens sent to us, never having landed on that vccludcd spot, it appears to be entirely composed of old red sandstone. 1959. (5.) Shetland Islands. This very interesting group of islands exhibits great variety in its gco<;nostical structure and composition, and affords an admirable field to the student of fwlogy for the study of the older rocks of which the crust of the earth is composed. The I'olluwing arc the principal islands of the group : Mainland, the largest island, Unst, Fetlar, Yi'll, Whalscy, Bressay, Barra, Mousa, Papa Stour, and Foula. 19G0. Mainland. With the exception of a band of old red sandstone extending from ihe line of Suniburgh Head to llovcy Head, on the east coast, the whole of this island is formed of primitive rocks. Tliese are partly Neptunian, partly Plutonian. The Nep- tunian strata are gneiss, with subordinate mica slale, clay slate, quartz rock, limestone, and hornblende rocks ; the Plutonian rocks, which frequently alter and upraise the Nep- tunian strata, are granite, syenite, porphyry, greenstone, and epidotic syenite. lf)i)l. Yell. This island, next in size to the Mainland, is almost entirely composed of gneiss, variously intersected by veins of granite. 1962. Unst, This interesting island, the next in magnitude to Yell, is composed of gneiss, mica slale, talc slate, chlorite slate, and liinnstone, which are variously intermixed with icr]ii'ntinc .ind diallage rocks. Hermaness, the most northern point of the British dominions in Europe, is composed of gneiss ; while the Land's End of Cornwall, the most south-westerly cape of Britain, is formed of granite. Unst and the neigbouring island of Fetlar abound in chrotnate of iron. This valuable ore we met with in Unst many years a.'u ; afterwards it was found in great quantities by Dr. Hibbert, and has afforded a large aiii.iial income to some of the proprietors. Hydrate of magnesia, grenatite, precious garnet, aiiil otlier beautiful minerals, occur in this island. 191)3. Fetlar. This island is smaller than Unst It is composed of serpentine as the predominating rock, with diallage rock, gneiss, mica slutc, chlorite slate, and quartz rock. liiG'l. Whalsey, which is still less extensive than Fetlar, is composed of gneiss. l'JG5. liressay, Noss, and Mousa. Bressay, whic!; wUh the mainland forms the famous \a\ of Lerwick, as also the isle of Noss, are coiniioscd of old red sandstone ; and tho island of Mousa, some miles to the south of Lerw ick, is composed of the same sandstomi fomiaiiuii. 444 L^ESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. 1966. Barra, Haute, and Papa Stour. The two fi rat-mentioned islands are composed of gnciu and mica iilate, with subordinate limestone ; while Papa Stour is a mass of por. phyry. In tlie porphyry of this island we, many years ago, found, in drusy cavities of the rocki crystals of a mineral very abundant in England, but very rare in Scotland viz fluor spar. ' 1967. Foula. This isle, the UUima Thukot some authors, is the most western and moat remote of the Slivtland islands. Its coast scenery, on the west side, facinir the ■torms of the Atlantic Ocean, is most magnificent. The predominating rock is old red aondstune t at one point there is a limited display of primitive rocks of granite, gneiss, mica •late, and clay slate. Sici. III. HUtoricai Survey. 1 968. To the Greek and Roman writers, Scotland was less known than, perhaps, any other part of EuroiM!, if wo except Scandinavia. It was not, indeed, recognised as a distinct country under that or any other nuine. Albion, or Britain, was viewed as one region, par- celled out among a multitude of (litlercnt tribes. Agricola first penetrated into that part of Britain which we now call Scotland, lie easily over-ran the low country, but encountered • most obstinate resistance when he approached the Caledonians, who appear then to have held all the northern districts. An obstinate battle, the precise place of which has never been ascertained, was fought at the foot of the Grampians. AH the rude valour of Cale- donia could not match the skill of Agricola and the discipline of the Roman legions. Tiie whole open country was abandoned to the invaders, whose progress, however, was stayed by what they termed the Caledonian forest, under which they seem to have vaguely compre. hended the vast pine woods of Gienmore and the steep barrier of the Grampians. Tlic'r military occupation, however, is attested by the formation of numerous camps, of which tiiat at Ardoch {Jig. 186.), tun miles north of Stirling, is the most extensive and complete. From these mountain bulwarks, liow- ever, our ancestora rushed down, and made their name terrible to the con- querors of the world. The Romans endeavoured to resist their incursions by rearing, at diflferent periods, two walls, one between the Forth and Clyde, and the other south of the low country of Scotland, between the Solway and the Tync. The northern tribes, how. ever, continued their inroads, now chiefly under the name of Picts, who seem clearly to have been the same people with the Caledonians. In the fifth century, Britain was abandoned by the Romans, and over-run by the Saxons, who occupied the eastern part of the south of Scotland as far as the Forth. 1969. The western part was formed itito the kingdom of Strathduyd, It flourished for about 300 years, and was '■'"' *■' »«'«'"• rendered illustrious by the name and ciploitsof Arthur and his knights, whoso power, from 508 to 542, is represented by tradition as having been predominant over the south of Scotland and the north of England. The capital and bulwark of this kingdom was Alcluyd, called afterwards Dun Briton and Duin- liarttm, sonted on an insulated precipitous rock at the mouth of the Clyde. The Struthduyd liritons, closely pressetl by their Saxon neighbours, endeavoured to defend thumselves hy a lengthened fiste, of which the traces have l)een supposed to remain in the Catroil or I*icls'>.wi>rk Ditch, drawn across the counties of Selkirk and Roxburgh. Such feeble defences could not support a sinking monarchy ; in 757, Alcluyd was taken by the Saions, and the kingdom subverted. 1970. The Scots, before tliis time, had come from Ireland, their original scat, which, in the fourth century, was often called Scotland. Even Iwforc tlie departure of tlie Itomajis, the Scots, joined with the Picts, are mentioned as the ravagers of defenceless Britain. Tlivy appear at one time to have been driven back into Ireland ; but in 503 they again landed in Canlyre, and during the next four centuries spread gradually over tlie kingdom. At lengUii under the victorious reign of Keimeth, which commenced in 836, they wrested the sceptre fVom Wred the Pictisli king, and established supreme sway over ttie whole of that country, which, from them, was ever afterwards called Scotland. 1971. Thv Scuto'Saxon era, a* Mr. Chalmers colls it, is uienioroblu rattier fur on insenuiblu Book I< SCOTLAND. 445 change, than for any sudden revolution. After the subvenioD of the kingdom of Strath- cluyd, by the Saions, that people had colonised and filled the whole south ; and the Scottish kings, though of Celtic origin, having established themselves in this more fertile part of their territories, soon began to imbibe the spirit of its occupants. From this or other causes the whole lowlands of Scotland is in language and manners Teutonic, and the Gael or Celts were again confined within their mountain boundary. 1972. An, era of ditputed tuccettion arose out of the contending claims of Bruce and Baliol, after the death of Margaret of Norway. Edward I., availing himself of this dissen- sion, succeeded in introducing himself under the character of an arbiter, and having esta- blished Baliol on the throne by an armed interference, sought to rule Scotland as a vassal kingdom. The result was a struggle, calamitous to Scotland, but which, however, placed in a conspicuous light the energy and heroism of the nation, and brought forward the names of Wallace and Bruce, ever afterwards the foremost in her annals. The result was glorious ; tlie concentrated force of the English was finally defeated in a pitched battle at Bannock- burn ; they were compelled to renounce their ambitious pretensions, and allow the kingdom to be governed by its native princes. 1973. Under the turbulent and unfortunate twat/ of the Stuarts, Scotland continued for several centuries without any prominent revolution, though with a continued tendency to internal commotion. This dynasty, ti-om their connection with the French and English courts, had acquired the idea of more polished manners, and habits of greater subordination as due from the nobles. Such views were ill suited to the power and temper of a Douglas, and many other powerful chieftains, through whose resistance the attempts of the monarchs were followed with disaster, and often with violent death. The introduction of the reformed religion especially, in open opposition to the court, which granted only a reluctant and pre- carious toleration, was unfavourable to the crown, and fatal to a princess whose beauty and mistbrtunes have rendered her an object of enthusiasm to the gay and chivalric part of the Scottish nation. 1974. 2'he union of the crowns, by the accession of James VI. in 1603, to the English throne, produced a great change, in itself flattering to Scotland, whose race of princes now held sway over all the three kingdoms. As, however, they immediately transferred their residence to the wealthy capital of England, the actual result was to reduce Scotland some- what to the condition of a province ; but these disanvantages were finally incalculably over- balanced by subsequent benefits. 1975. The struggle bettueen presbytery and prelacy, which formed the first instance of this interference, gave rise to a conflict which is still deeply remembered, and powerfully influences the temper and character of the Scots. Presbytery, their favourite form of church government was supported by the nation with an enthusiastic determination which strongly influenced the general destinies of the empire. The efforts of the presbyterians, acting under the bond of their League and Covenant, first enabled the English parliament to rear its head, and had a great effect in turning the scale of contest against the crown. The Scots revolted, however, at the violent excesses of the independents, and endeavoured to rear again, on a covennnted basis, the fallen crown of the Stuarts. These breve but unsuc- cessful efforts were very ill requited by Charles II., on his restoration, by an embittered persecution against all the adherents of presbytery. They maintained its cause with unequal means, till the Revolution finally fixed that system as the established religion of Scotland. 1976. The union of the kingdoms, in 1707, placed Scotland in that political position which she has ever since maintained ; and, by allaying internal contest, and opening a free trade with the sister kingdom, this union has produced results highly beneficial. Some clouds still lowered over the political horizon of Scotland. The devoted attachment of her moun- tain tribes to the exiled Stuar*s repeatedly impelled them to make brave though misguided attempts to replace that house on the throne ; attempts which, at one critical moment, spread alarm into the heart of England. In other respects, the mfgority of the nation have been distinguished for their loyalty, and have even been accused by their opponents of an excess of subserviency to the views of the crown. Some temporary effervescence at the commence* ment of the Frencii revolution, and during the period of manufacturing distress, can scarcely amount to an exception to this general remark. SicT. IV. Political Constitution. 1977. The fwlitical system of Scotland being now almost completely incorporated with that of England, little is to be added to the statements given under the head of the sister king- dom. A few peculiarities, however, may be deserving of notice. 1978. The representation allmved to Scotland at the union was somewhat scanty. It con- sisted, fur the House of Commons, of forty-five members, fifteen from the boroughs, and ihitlyfroin the countii». The boroughs, however, amounting by the ancient constitution to siity-six, were divided into classes of four or five, one member beinf* returned by the majority of each class. Edinburgh alone returned one member. The friends of '-'frty were the less disposed to murmur at so small an allotment, as the constitution of these boroughs was far 1 *'. 446 DESCUIPTIVE OKOOUAl'HY. Pari lu, I il from popular. The ini-mbcrs v/vre i>)i>ctti
  • wr», nnd nit In their personal right. 1979. By the Reforn Bill of 183'-', tliu power of returning members to the House of Commons is vested in i le following cUles unil burghs i — Edinburgh - • • • - Glasgow - .... Aberdeen - . . . . Paisley . - . . Dundee - .... Greenock - - . • - Perth ... . . Leith, PortobcUo, Musselburgh .... Kirkwall, Wick, Dornoch, Dhigwall, Tiiln, Cioumrty Fortrose, Inverness, Nairn, Forres . - - Elgin, CuUen, Banlf, Inverury, Kiniore, I'elerliend Inverbervie, Montrose, Arbroath, Hn'rhin, l''ot'('iu' Cupar, St. Andrew's, Anstrutlier Kuiter inul Wenler, Cniil, Kilrenny, Pittenwecn - ... .Jysart, Kirkaldy, Kinghorn, Iliirnlliilinid Inverkeithing, Dumferinline, KinrohN, (ineennlVrry. Cnlross, titirling - Renfrew, Ilutherglen, Dumburlon, Kibnarnock, I'oi't Glasgow Haddington, Dunbar, North Berwick, Liuider, Jedburgh Linlithgow, Lanark, Falkirk, Airdriv, llitntllloii Ayr, Irvine, Campbcllton, Inverury, OImn Dumfries, Sanquhar, Aiuian, Lci'loniibeni Kitkeudbrlght Wigton, New Galloway, Stranraer, Wiiiiborn . - - Members. - 2 - 2 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - I - 1 . 1 . 1 1 ■:] 1 - 1 - I 1 1 1 1 '.'3 These membess arc returned, not, as formerly, by ibe town councils of the respective l)urglis, but by every inhabitant paying rent to the vnUie of 10/. nnd upwards. The counties con- tinue each to elect a member, except that only one in eoi^junrtion is returned by Elgin ami I Nairn, one by Ross and Cromarty | and one by CInekntnnnnn nnd Kinross. The |ionor { of voting, too, is attached not to feudal supeiiorllleN, that wer often fictitious, but to iliu possession of actual property yielding 10/. of yenrly rem. 1980. The juditieU administration nf Scollnwl bilH always continued distinct from that of I the sister kingdom. The supreme court, or Court of Session, consisted, until lately, of fifteen [ members, sitting together, and deciding in all civil eausei, while six of these constituted a Justiciary Court for the trial of criminal mw*. The trial liy jury was employed only in the ] Justiciary Court, nnd in revenue (|ui-NtiunH, which are tried before the Court of Exchequer. There lies an appeal, in every civil case, to (be House of Lords, whose judgment is supposed I to be almost always guided by the upiniini of the Lord ( hnncellor. Wliethcr from some defect in tlic Scottish system, or from un opinion that cnuscs would be tried in England on different legal principles, the number of appeals increased to an enormous amount, occasioning a most inconvenient expense and ilebty. For the remedy of tlicsc evil; as well as with a view to econoinyi eonslilei'iible chani{pn have, within the last few y^ars, been introduced, chiefly tending to nsslinllaie (he procedure to that of tlie English | courts. 1981. TIte supreme court was divided Into two elminbers, one of seven and the other of I eight members ; and these have been recently reiluced to six nnd seven ; making the whole I number thirteen. Trial by jury, in civil cnxes, was Introduced, and conducted before a I separate court, called Ihi' Jury Com I, prciiidi'd by n lord chief commissioner. This, too, has I been recently abolishey separate boards [ placed under the direct treat measure incorpor The Scoi Customs Stamps Assessed Post.offi( 1983. The branche$ o Auctions Bricks . . . (ilass ... Licences Malt I0S4. The principal b Rills of Exctinngc Probates of Wills. &c Legacies liiiuranccs. Fire Insurances, Sea 1985. Under the head Windows Sirvanls Carriages Horses 198G. The chief bram 1987. The army and I Kingdom. There are, Ixon originally raised, a k; Scotsmen. The Hi lulional dress, and foi Scntland, being little e I small prop'irtion of ea lf)8H. Sctftland has al I ml surface must have ; lliis character. For a h impediments. The Sc klt'iue and enterprise ; I a; a national character knour, nnd when im) I ilii' Scots have entered .n its prosecution have I liours. 108!). The agriculture I «licn we look at its rug( iHT, the jjrogress of Sco j ik' empire. The farms > I torses, four of which wi tnliivatcd or left waste, lihe groat f./st< m of ngri I Scouisli farmers not only I Hitched ill .in almost sii I Mil liieii forefathers. Booc I. SCOTLAND. 447 Srst reduced to three, and it is now so far abolished, that, on the death or retirement of the present members, it is no longer to have any judges of its own, but one lord of session is ^, devote one day of the week to the trial of causes belonging to its jurisdiction. The Con- jistory and the Admiralty Courts have also been abolished, and their jurisdiction transferred 10 the Court of Session. ^ 1982. The revenue of Scotland has been hitherto collected separately from that of England, I Bid hy separate boards for each branch ; but, under recent regulations, the whole has been placed under the direction of boards resident in London, and the systems have been in a jreat measure incorporated together. In the year ending Stb January, 1 839 — The Scottish excise was Customs Stamps Assessed taxes Post-ofiice lilS3. The Iranchei of the excite duty were £ 2,451,900 1,664,700 549,600 236,300 223,500 5,127,000 Auctions Bricks (ilass I.icotices Malt £ 23,600 8,000 65,400 10S,400 583,300 Paper Post-horses Soap Spirits, BritisI) Vin inegar lf)S4. The principal branches of stamp duty were mils of Exthnngo - . 95,300 Probates of Wills, &c. . . 55,700 Legacies .... 74,;«X) Insurances, Fire - . . 50,(X)0 Insurances, Sea ... 29,500 1985. Under the head of taxes came, chiefly — Windows . . . 88,800 Servants .... 15,000 Carriages .... 32,900 Horses - - . . 23,000 Receipts Newspapers Advertisements Stage-coachet Dogs Game duties Armorial bearings £ 97,900 19,900 86,-200 l,437,40(t 174 15,800 20,800 in,2(X) 31,600 11,400 9,500 5,000 198G. The chief brandies of the customs will be given under the head of trade. 1987. The army and navy in Scotland aie entirely under tlie general system of the United I Kingdom. There are, however, a number of regiments bearing Scottish names, as having twn originally raised, and usually, though not always, recruited, in Scotland, and officered k; Scotsmen. The Highland regiments are even allowed to retain soinc remnant of their lulional dress, and fought with signal glory in the British ranks during the late war. Scotland, being little exposed to external ilanger, has usually stationed within itself only I small prop'irtion of each force, particularly the naval. Sect. V. Productive Industry, I98H. Sa/tlantt has always ranked as a poor country; and, indeed, our survey of its outline I mil surface must have shown how very diflicult it must be for her to avoid coining under iliis character. For a long time, unfortunately, natural obstacles were enhanced hv moral I iin|)c(liments. The Scots showed an extreme aptitude to embark in all schcnies'of tur- jit'uii.' and enterprise ; but indolence, and dislike of plain hard work, might be recognised I a? a national characteristic. Since the age arrived, however, when industry came into biiour, and when improved processes were studiously apill.'d to all the useful arts, I I'll' .Scots have entered with peculiar spirit and intelligence into this new career; and its prosecution have been more successful, in some respects, than their southern neigh- I bours, 108!). The agriculture of Scotland has to contend with obstacles which must be manifest, I »licn we look at its rugged aspect, and its vast hills and morasses. Forty years ago, more- I our, the progress of Scotland in this primary art was very generally behind that of the rest of ifc empire. 'Fhe farms were mostly small, and tilled in a slovenly manner, with half-starved J torses, four of which were yoked in the plough ; while parts of each farm were alternately Itnliivafcd or left waste, upon the rude plan of infield and ontlield. A^ soon, however, as I (he great f./sti;m of agricultural improvement was adopted throughout the kingdom, the I Scuuisli farmers not only shared in it, but carried it farther than those of England, who were I 111: died in ,m almost superstitious degree to that routine which had enriched themselves |willhcii rorefalhers. The fanners of the Lotliians, of the Carse of Cowrie, and even of 448 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pari in. tike district on the Moray Frith, made a rapid and complete reform in the whole train of agricultural operations. The; brought extensive tracts of common and waste under cultivt tion, reduced the number of cattle and improved the breed, cultivated the artificial irrassea! dismissed superfluous hands, and adopted the use of machinery, of which the most hn portant, the threshing machine, was entirely of Scottish invention. The consequence was! that considerable fortunes were made by successful fiurmcrs, and that rents were in alniMt every instance trebled, and in some cases raised to eight or ten times their former amount In the mountainous districts, also, the numerous little farms hitherto held by tenants or vassals, were thrown into extensive sheep-walks, causing some temporary depopulation The great fall of prices at the end of the war gave a great check to the agricultural interest •' rents fell great'.y, and for some time were little more than nominal ; but the opcnine of new markets, and other ' luscs, have restored it to a healthy state, and culture has even hem greatly extended ; yet neither rent nor farming profits are so high as they once were. 4990. The cultivated land* of Scotland, and the amount of its produce, after all these improvements, are still limited. Of the 1 8,944,000 acres, its computed extent o( land, only 5,043,000 ere reported as under regular cultivation. The Bo.:rd of Agriculture, in' their report above 20 years ago, did not calculate more than 1 ,800,000 acres ;xtually under grain, Of these only HO.iXO nroiluccd wheat, though this is considered the most profita'jie crop' and is raised of ^i; covers 1,260,000 acres. Barley occupies 280,000 acres, being raised chiefly *>r ti .! piirpuM.' of distillation; but in the higher districts it is not barley proper, but that rU'.i.r 5; cios t;.i:led bear or (i^. Flax is raised in some of the upper districts, but not Pearly siitRduiit f>i- ^he national manufacture. The chief exportable produce consists in cittle and shin ;>. ' '"h !>re sent in great numbers to the English markets, great numbers being now con' ' - u> London by the steam packets, either alive, or 'heir flesh after beiii" killed. The hw of cattle in Aberdeen, Fife, Ayr, and Galloway are valuable. The sheep are not equal lo the flne English breeds, and the fleeces of Scotland are not pecu- liarly valuable ; but the mutton produced on the steep sides of the Grampians and Cheviots is of exquisite flavour. 1991. The manufacturing induttry of Scotland has niso, within the last half century, advanced with prodigious rapidity, being quite equal, compared with the extent and popu- lation of the country, to that of England. The Scots, indeed, never showed any want oi d'.igcnce in fabricating their national stuflTs; but th>): means used were chiefly the old and Simple implements, the spindle, distaff, and single loom of the village weavur. Now, hov. ever, the use of skilfully constructed and extensive machinery, and the division of labour produced by assembling the working classes in large factories, have immensely increased the productive powers of industry. 1992. ttoollen, in the foim of cloth, the grand original staple of England, has never obtained more than a very partial footing in Scotland, 'ilie knittinfr of woollen stockings is now almost superseded by the English looms, though the Shetland hose siill maintain a liigh reputation. Coarse woollens are produci-d en a considerable scale at Aberdeen and Galashiels i hose at Hawicke ; carpets at Kilmarnock and Castnns, at Sterling, and in the Highland dis- tricts. The number of woollen factories in I8S5 was 90, einpluying 3505 workmen. 1993. Linen, with other products ■f flax, is the old original staple of Scotland. It was throughout the country a household manufactur?, and fur household use. Flax, in almost every family, was diligently spun into yurn, which was then sent out to be woven and bleached. In Forfarshire, and other northern lowland counties, the coarser goods, sail- cloth, sackcloth, canvas &c., have always been pro'.,?ed in (■'■eat quantities; wliile in Glasgow and Paisley, the material was wrought into r finer l> iiamcntcd forms of lawns, cambrics, &c. This last manufacture, however, has no^ riitirely given place to limt of cotton, which is almost exclusively carried on in the west of fo'land. The coarser ';;'.'.'. of linen, still form the staple of the eastern counties, though D.:><^'.'rmline excels in fine sheeting and diaper. The average value is not supposed to exceed onv shilling 'jcr yard. Since 1727, a board has been established at Edinburgh for the encouragement of this branch of industry, and formerly all the cloth made for sale was required to lv> stamped bv their authority ; but now their functions extend to little more than the granting, of premiums. The linen made in Scotland was estimated, in 1730, nt 3,755,mX) yards, value 131,(X)0/. ; and in 1810, at 36,457,000 yards, value 1,265,000/. The increase in the manufacture hbs since been so great, that on an average of 1836-7-8, Dundee alone exported to the value oi" l,4ll,(XXX. ' By far the greater proportion of the raw n^aterial is imported in almost all the foi.ncr, and more than half the latter, from Russia ; the rest of tl:'! fl jx from Holland, Flanders, and Germany. In 1834, there were stated to bcI70 flax mills, employing 13,400 hands. 1994. The cotton manufacture, though of comparatively recent introduction, has, in Scot- Book I. SCOTLAND. 449 of labour increased \\as never stockings iitain a high Galashiels i gliland dls- nu'ii. It was in almost wovti\ and ;o> itself with all the common ncccfsaries of life. In regard to malt liquors, it cannot indeed rival London in porter ; but (he ale of Edin- l)urgli and of tome Scottish towns enjoys reputalion even out of Scotl.ind. In 18*29, there were brewed in Scotland, 110,0(10 gallons of strong beer, and 2i.>y,(H)U of table beer. Glass is made to the extent of nearly double the rontumjjtion of the country ; the surplus being exported, chiefly to Ireland Salt, whicli docs not cxiit in a mineral form, is largely extracted from sea-water by boiling; and though not equal in quality to English rocli salt, nor lit for use in the fisheries, its cheapness recmnmcnds it for common culinary purposes. Caiiillcs, soap, starch, leather, pa|>cr, are produced in every large town and its ncighlmurhood, in quantity tulticicnt for the supply ot the inhabitants. In I83(>, there was produced 71,500 cwt. of glass ; IO,()77,000 11)8. hard soap, and 3,676,000 lbs. soft soap ; 12,200 lbs. paper. Uricks are also made ; but from the abundance of fine freestone and granite, they are little employed unless fOr party walls, lu 1836, there were made 31,213,000. 1997. The mineral wealth of Scotland is chieHy of an humble and useful description. Its mountains are not metalliferous. Throughout the whole of the grand Highland range there arc scarcely any Veins worth working. The less elevated southern ranges have a better reputation. On the high border of the ounties or Lanark and Dumfries is a large depository of lead mixed with silver, which, together with some smaller mines in the Hebrides, is supposed to yield 136,000/. in the former metal, and 10,000/. in the latter. Ironstone occurs extensively in the u))|H-r coal districts. In 1825, the annual production of pig iron in Scotland was as follows: — At Clyde works At ('aider ditto At Shotts ditto At AVilsontown ditto At Oiium ditto At Muirkirk ditio ■\t Devon ditto At Carron ditto In ,funo, 1835, there were :i9 furnaces in blast, yielding about 7,'),000 ton.s. At Carron Is an exteasive casting of ordnance, grates, and culinary vessels ; but Scotland dofts not pretend to rival her neighbour in the fine and varied forms of hardware. Coal, lime, and stone ei)in|iusc the solid mineral wealth of Scotland. The great coalfield extends in a diagonal line of UK) miles along the friths of Clyde and Forth; beginning south of the former, and ending north of tne latter : it is supposed to cover 6(X),000 acres, is immensely rich, tliongh not equal to the best English. In 1836, there were shipped coastways ,5'18,OOt) tons ; to foreign parts, 7 1 ,7iK1. From the west, much is exported to Ireland, l.ime is furnished abundantly, both for building and manure ; the annual value l)eii)g estimated at i!5,000/. Freestone, chiefly on both sides of the Forth; granite, in Aberdeen- Gg Ulnst Furnaces. Tons. Laiiarksliire - . 3 - - 4500 ditto - • 4 . - 4000 ditto . - 2 - - 2000 ditto . - •> . - 3500 ditto - - . 2 . - 1500 Ayrshire - - 3 - - 5000 Clackinannnnsl ire . 3 . - 3700 Stirlingshire - . - 5 - - 500O :'4 - - 29,200 ch in blast . . 17 n■^ •JJO DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paut III. iiuuK I, xhiro i slate, in tlio Hebrides and Argyleshire, atfbrd copious and cxeellcnt materials for building. 199H. The Jt$heritt form a eonsideraI)le branch of industry in Scotland, and one for which her situation is peculiarly favourable. The great entcnt of the coasts, the deep sounds iind bays by which they are every where indented, afford largo scope for iu exercise. Scotland is not celebrated for any rare or delicate kinds of fish ; but the herrinir cod, and haddock ftbound on Various parts of its shores. The Dutch long monopolised the great northern herring bank ; and, by a superior mode of cure, obtain«l a preference in all markets. The British government, however, has for some time mode great exertions for the promotion of the Scottish fisheries ; and there has been a wonderfbl increase in the quantity caught, and a corresponding improvement in the processes of cure. The former which in 1815 was only 160,000 barrels, had risen in 1836 to 398,000; of which !2<)<),0(X) were cured, gutted, and packed within 24 hours after being caught ; this despatch being considered essential to their good quality. There were exported 182,000 to Ireland Germany, Italy, and the West Indies. In the same year, 66,976 cwt. of cod were cured in a dry state, and 7273 barrels in pickle; of the former, 10,200 were exported. In 1834 these fisheries employed 11,384 boats, and 40,200 men. Haddocks to the supposed value of 20,000/. or 30,000/. are taken on the north coast, and slightly cured for the use of the neighbourhood. Salmon taken in the Tweed, the Tay, the Dee, and all the considerable rivers, and kept fresh by being packed in ice, chiefly supplies the London market, The whale fishery in Greenland and Davis's Straits has for some time been prosecuted by Scotland with great and increased activity ; while that carried on by England has declined. In the nine years ending in 1818, she sent at an average only 40 ships: in 1836, she sent 46 ; the produce of which was 4962 tuns of oil. The sea ftshing, for the supply of the capital {ind other towns in the south, is not very active. Kelp, a product obtained by the incineration of common sea-weed, and employed in the manufacture of soap and glass, was in extensive demand during the late war. Its produce in Scotland was estimated at 16,000 tons, worth about 20/. a ton. But the repeal of the duty on salt, and the reduction of the duty on barilla, have ruined this branch of industry. The price of kelp has fallen to 4/^ per ton, and the manufacture has been nearly put an end to. 1 999. Some idea may be formed of the principal foreign articles used in Scotland by the amount of customs duties levied on each in the year to the 1st January, 1839; though much Is imported direct from England : — SuKar Tobacco Wind Uum Kraiuly Geneva Timber Molossea Corn CoBbc Hides Oitton wool £ 477.000 Sli.OOO 121,000 39,000 3fi,000 S,200 123,900 118,000 1!),500 23,500 700 S4,000 SccdH .Mahogany Cheese Fallow Lcnoiit and oranevs Cork Liquorice Madder Pepjicr RaiaiiK Flax . . . £ 16,000 4,400 19,300 1(),()U0 2,!Ky) 2,800 4,000 3,200 3,'JOO 4.400 4,300 SOOO. The following exhibits the ships and tonnage belonging to the different ports, and the amount of customs paid in the year 1836 : — Bdonnlng «o. " 1 Amount of ('UHlniiUi Pom. Ships. Tons. Mm. Aliordoen . 359 41,746 3,095 £ 53,h;i.^ Ayr . 128 13,393 889 I,ih;i Hanir . 7» 4,214 .322 i,ir; Bc'iii'ss • 121 t»,4.'i2 48H 3.7W) Oundfi' - 3H7 44,H'9 3,002 4ft,r,ii9 (ilasiiuw . . « 312 f)8,478 4,321 311,7111 • ir,■lll^"■mouth - . IHI 22,887 1,239 21,3.'.'i (ircciKirk - 3r,7 42,723 2,723 448,i;r,i Invpriu'ss - . • liiO 7,597 630 m Kirk.ilily . 179 13,iai 1,301 \'m I.i'llli . 227 23,.\W 1,781! 4S!i,s.'il Monrrosd . 181 18,012 1,133 0,h27 I'lirt (iUv'w . .'lO 7,.'>00 400 i2,Mr,2 StdrtiiH.iy - • - f.6 2,302 231 i,'X\ Dumfrli'ii ' 1»2 11.798 779 2(X)1. Commerce, till the union of the crowns, and even of the kingdoms, could scarcely l>c considered .as existing in Scotland ; but it has since been cultivated with an ardour and enterprise almost excessive. The latter measure was at first strongly opposed, and indeed gi'iierally unpopular ; but it was siwn acknowledf^ed as extremely heiielicial. Tliis mms chiefly in a commerci.il view ; since Scotland, while existing as a separate kingdom, w.i«sul)- jeclid to many Injurious resU'ictions. These were removed by the Union, and tlic whole woi Id thrown open to her euturpriic. One branch of commercial intercourse from which the UuuK I . SCOTLAND. 451 country of course derives the greatest advantage, is tlint with her opulent sister kingdom. In England she finds a marlcut for cnttic, her chief agricultural surplus; fur her wool, such as it is ; for her sail-oloth and other coarse fabrics from flax and hemp ; for part of her ftnu calicoes and muslins ; for the salmon of her rivers, nnd some part of the fish cured on her ahoru!). In return, she receives almost all the woollen cloth, and a great part of the silk consumed by her ; hardware and cutlery of every kind ; tea an(} other East India goods ; and part of all the foreign luxuries which she requires. Tlie trade with Ireland is chiefly tlie exchange of coal and iron for oats and cattle. From the Baltic, the eastern coasts de^ rive hemj), flax, timber, iron, and other bulky and useful staples. The flourishing trade carried on from the west coast with America and the West Indies, is sup)>orted by the ex- port of cottons, linen, wearing apparel, and other commodities; and by the import of cuttun, sugar, rum, and the various luxuries of those fertile regions. The Mediterranean and India trades are not neglected. Scotland took an early and active part in introducing steam navigation. Between 1814 and 1836, she built 181 vessels, tonnage 22,850; and in IH.tT slio owned 109, of 13,508 tons. The most numerous are those proceeding from Glas- gow to every part of the western coasts and islands, as well as to Liverpool, Dublin, and other Irish ports ; but the largest are those that sail fVom Leith and other eactern ports (u London. 'i(X)'J. The communieatum by roadt and eanab, which half a century ago was remarkably defective in Scotland, it> now wonderfully improved. The roads, then almost impassable, are now, through all the Lowlands, conducted upon the turnpike system, and have become very little inferior to those of England. Railways have been formed from Dundee into Strutlimore, and from Glasgow to Airdric ; aad they are in progress from Edinburgh to Glu.s)tow, and thence to Paisley and Greenock. The plans for connecting these cities with the English lines are not yet matured. ■JOCJ. Artificial navigation meets with peculiar dbstructiimi, from the ruggednesa of the surface; and hence canals have never become very numerous. At an early period, hon'ever, a public work of this class, on a most extensive scale, was undertaken by some citizens of Glasgow and Edinburgh. In 17G8, they obtained an act of parliament to form the " Great Canal," by which vessels of considerable size might pass from the Frith of Forth to that of Clyde, and thus unite the German and Atlantic oceans. Like some other Scottish undertakings, it was on a scale rather beyond the means of the spirited speculators ; re- jieated pauses, occasioned by want of funds, interrupted its progress ; and the returns were lung very scanty. In 1778, government gave a loan of 50,000^, and in 1790, the commu- iiiciition was completed from sea to sea. Its revenue then advanced rapidly, and now amounts to about GO.OUO/. n year ; being 25 per cent, on the original capital. Branches to Gliisj(ow and to the fine coalfield at Monkland were advantageously opened. A grand sul>- sidiary has lately been formed, in the Union Canal, commenced in 1822, and rapidly com- plotcd, though at an expense of nearly 400,000/. It connects the Great Canal, near its lasturn point, with Edinburgh, by a line of thirty miles through a, country very rich in coal and lime. A tunnel of about three <|uarters of a mile, and three large acjueduct bridges, have been required; but, by a somewhat winding route, all lockage has been avoided. The produce, unfortunately, has not fulfilled the hopes of its proprietors. 2004. Southern Scotland was thus enabled to supply her own wants ; but the northern cmmuniciitione, loading through a poor country, intersected in almost every direction by mountains, ravines, and torrents, could not be carried to perfection by mere local resources. After the rebellion of 1745, government constructed excellent roads into the heart of the Highlands as far as Inverness ; and these, though formed with a military view, served other valuable purposes. In 1803, with exclusive regard to the commercial interests of the HIgliliinds, a body of commissioners was appointed by government, and a considerable sum placed at their disposal, to be employed in improving the roiids of the north of Scot- laiul. They proceeded upon the wise principle, that half the expense must in every c.isc be defray .'d by the county proprietors. The latter concurred with great ardour in the views of administration ; and in eighteen years good roads were formed into the remotest tracts of Inverness, Skye, Ross, and even to the farthest point of Caithness. The total sum expended in 1821 was 454,000/., nnd the length of road upwards of 900 miles; for the cuni|)letiun of which were constructed 1117 bridges ; most of them, uideed, of only one arch. 'iOOS. The Caledonian Canal is a more magnificent, but hitherto less useful undertaking. file chain of lakes which crosses Scotland diagonally through the counties of Inverness and Argyle. suggested the idea of a water communication, by which large merchant vessels, and even ships of war, from the cast coast, might pass into the Atlantic, without encounter- in;,' the perils of the Pentland Frith anil Cape Wrath. This great work was accordingly 'ii'gun in 1803, and finished in 1822, at an expense of nearly 1,000,000/. sterling, entirely defrayed by government. Very great diilicultics occurred in its prosecution, from the nature of the ground, and the diflcrent levels and currents of the lakes; but all the resources of art were employed by the engineers. As, from circumstances occasioned by the war, wlhkI uf sulliclent strength could scarcely be procured fur the immense gates of the locks, Gg2 R 45si DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P*«TllI. I iron was substituted with success; tliougii the expense of cacli lock was thus roiseii to 9000A The locks were twenty-three in all, eight of which, looking down from Loch Eil, where it opens into the western sea, are called by sailors tlie " stair of Neptune." The canal was made fifty feet broad : its length was about twenty-two miles, which, added to nearly forty miles of lake navigation, made an entire passage of somewhat more than sixty mileH, Un- fortunately the supposed danger of navigating large vessels through a channel of this pecu- liar nature has, hitherto, prevented its use from becoming general ; but it is hoped timt means may be found to remove tliis apprehension. SicT. VI. Civil and Social Slate. 2006. Of flic population of Scotland an estimate was first attempted in the year 1755, when it was computed to be l,265,3HO. The reports of the clergy for the " Statistical Account," between 1792 and 1798, gave 1,526,492; which was raised by the government eninncniliun of 1801 to 1,599,000. The census of 181 1 gave 1,805,000; which was raised by that of l»'j\ to 2,093,456. In 1831, it was 2,363,842. 2007. In point e of the Scottish church. ■iOIO. The ilissettters from the Scottish church consist cliicfly of persons zealously attached to presliytery, and who have seceded because they considered its principles as not maintained ill suflicient purity within the establishment. Their jliicf complaint is against the system of patronage exercised by the landed interest, who present generally to the vacant parishes. Two j^reut btxlies, into which they were formerly divided on the subject of the burgher oath, linvc, since the alxjlition of that test, been united into what is culled the Associate Si/iioU. A cuiisiderable proportion, especially of the higher ranks, is attached to episco- pacy, either as it was established in Scotland under the Stuarts, or as it now exists in l'',n;;laii(l ; indeed, an union has been recently formed between these once separate branches. None of the other sects, iudv|)eadents, baptists, mctliodists, &c. are numerous ; and the Ito- iimii catholics consist vlixfly of emi^unts from Ireland, though their form of reUgion still prevails In some of the remote highland districts. 'JOII. Liteniture, soon after its revival in Europe, was cultivated in Scotland with pe- culiar ardour. Even in the age of scholastic pursuits. Duns Scotiis and Crichton were pre- eminently fumed throughout the Continent. When the sounder taste for classical know- ii'dj^e followed, Buchanan acquired the reputation of writing Latin with greater ease and purity than any modern scholar. Letters were almost entirely suppressed during the sub- sc(|iient period,unfortunately marked by a conflict between a licentious tyranny and an austere ri'ligiotis party, who condemned or despised the exertions of intellect and the creations of fancy. Even ufter the settlement at the Revolution the same spirit prevailed ; and literature lay (lurniant till the middle of the last century, when it was revived with extraordinary ardour, chieliy by a class of Scottish clergy, who sought to redeem their fraternity from the charge of ignorance and extravagant zeal. This country, far from opulent, with a church and uni- versities nlikc poorly endowed, produced as illustrious a constellation of writers as had been called i'urth by the most lavish patronage in the great European capitals. We shall only mention, in history, Robertson and Hume; in moral and political philosophy, Hume, lleid, Smith, Ferguson, Karnes, Stewart, Brown ; divinity, I^eighton, Blair, Campbell, Macknight ; poetry. Home, Thomson, Buattie, Burns, Scott ; physical science, Gregory, Black, Playfair, Leslie. The character was that of a grave, respectable, and dignifled literature, in which the lighter branches were overlooked or despised. If this last was a reproach, it has been wholly removed in the present generation, when the most popular of fletitiuns writing, and one of the most able and widely circulated periodical works known ill niiHlern times, have issued from the Edinburgh prcss< By the authors of these, and by several others, of the first class in the physical and natural sciences, Scotland continues to make herself and her capital be regarded as a species of litcriiry metropolis. 'JO I 'J. The universities of Scotland have been, perhaps, the most powerful instrument ill supporting her literary fame, lliough not more richly endowed than the church, the fees of well-attended classes aHbrd a more liberal income, and have enabled them to attract the most learned among the clergy ; while, in England, a wealthy church draws cininent scholars from the universities. Tlie Scottish colleges present scarcely any traces of lliat strict and almost monastic discipline which regulates those of the sister kingdom. Tlio students live generally in the towns, without any check on their private conduct, or even any obligation to attendance, except what arises from the dread of the refusal of a certificate «l tlie close. The chief exertion of the professors is bestowed on their lectures, by which they liupe to attract students to their class and seminary. The more diligent combine with them exniiiiiiutions and exorcises, but not on the sjime systematic and searching plan as in England ; and the degrees are conferred, in many instances, with culpable laxity. A much greater pro- Gg 3 *^..^ .0>*.\^' ^N3 > IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 4 ..^ ^^. :/. I.I ^121 125 1.0 jfs- ■ Ui 1^ 12.2 2.0 L8 - 6" L25 IIIIIU IIIIII.6 v: ^^- ^>/> ^>.v 7 /^ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MS80 (716) 873-4503 4M DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. PA«t III. portion of the people recuWe a college education than in England. The church exacts an attendance of eight years ; four for languages and philosophy, and four for divinity : the faculty of medicine requires also sevend years ; and the gentry and higher grades of the middle ranks in general consider an attendance on the elementary classes as an essential part of education. S013. The public Ivories, when conudered in rehtion to the country, may be accounted rich. That belonging to Uie advocates or barristers of Edinburgh contains upwards of 100,000 volumes, among which there are ample materials, both printed and in ma- nuscript, for elucidating the national history. The university library is, at least, half as large ; and those of Glasgow^ King's College Aberdeen, and St. Andrew's, are highly re- spectable. Each of these universities can claim a copy of every new work. Although the Scots are a writing and reading people, they are not the chief buyers of the works even of their native favourites ; nor are there many examples of those magnificent private libraries which enrich so many of the English seats. 2014. To the fine arts Scotland has been considered unpropitious ; yet painting could early boast the respectable names of Runciman and Jamieson. A considerable time elapsed till Raebum and Nasmyth rose to eminence in portrait and landscape. In that branch of historical painting which illustrates the habits and feelings of common life, Scot- land can boast the greatest name in the present day, that of Wilkie. Even its higher branches have found votaries decidedly successful, though few. Two annual exhibitions, maintained with some interruptions, at Edinburgh, have continued to produce a favourable opinion of the talents of its artists. With the exception of Hamilton Palace, the Scottish seats do not contain grand collections of pictures ; yet in this, as in other respects, the taste for the fine arts is making a somewhat rapid progress. 2015. Scotland lias a native musict simple and pathetic, expressive of rural feelings and emotions, to which she is fondly attached. The ardent cultivators of that beautiful art complain that the pasuon of the Scots for these national airs shuts their ears against loftier and more varied beauties in the works of Italian and German composers. A sort of musical warfa' has been waged ; the issue of which has been, that the latter have made their way, t!'../Ugh without expelling their domestic rival. The highest strains of Handel, Mozart, and other eminent masters, have been sung to crowded audience^, in Edinburgh ; while in concerts and private societies, Scottish songs are still listened to with delight. Music, as a branch of education, has certainly been very much extended in Scotland within the last twenty or thirty years. 2016. The Scots are not a people of pastimes, nor arc their sporting annals so copious as those of the English. Golf and foot-ball are the only amusements that can be deemed strictly national. Skating, and curling, or the rolling of smooth stones upon the ice, are also pursued with great fudour during the season that admits of those amusements. The recreations of the higher ranks are nearly the same as in England. Dancing is practised with peculiar ardour, especially by the Highlanders, who have favourite national steps and movements. 2017. The lowland dress has nothing peculiar; though even the poorest ranks are, in general, decently and substantially clothed. The Highlanders, however, retain still the remnants of a national costume altogether peculiar to themselves ; the tartan, a mixture of woollen and linen cloth, adorned with brilliant stripes variously crossing each other, and marking the distinctions of the clans ; the kilt, or short petticoat, worn by the men, the hose fastened below the knee, which is left bare ; and the bonnet, which in another shape is also still worn by the shepherds of the border. 2018. In regard to food, the Scots, in general, are temperate. Even the rich attach less importance than their southern neighbours to the gratifications of the palate. The peasantry previously to the rise of wages, which took place about thirty years ago, were content with the hardest fare. Neither wheaten bread nor animal food formed part uf their ordinary diet. Oatmeal, not accounted in the south of England an article of food for human beings, was prepared here under the forms of cakes or porridge, and constituted the chief means of subsistence. To this was occasionally added barley broth, with greens or kail, tlic chief produce of their little gardens. The Scots have some dishes which they cherish with national enthusiasm, and among which the haggu holds the foremost phice. This is a mixture of oatmeal, fat, liver, and onion, boiled up in the bag which composed the stomacii of the animal. They have, moreover, hotch-potch, and other soups, the merit of which has beeu acknowledged by English palates. Ross and Cro UOOK I. SCOTLAND. 4S5 Sbct. VII. Local Geograpl^. 0)1 9. "nefoUowine ** a Tabkofthe extent, population, and rental in the different couiUii* ol bcotland, derived from agricultural reports and parliamentary returns : — Counlict. Aberdeen - Argyle Ayr nanff Berwick ■ Bute Caithneas Clackmao, Uursturton . Dumfries Edinburgh . Elgin Fife Forfar Haddington ■ Inverneas ■ Kincardine - Kinross Kirkcudbright Lanark Linlithgow ■ Nairn Orkney and Zetland Feeble* Perth RcnlVew Ross and Cromarty Roxburgh ■ Selkirk Stirling Sutherland ■ Wigton Square Mllei. Acm under Cul' Uvatloo. 1,9I» 3.189 1,039 ets 448 161 687 48 888 354 473 467 «8 4.054 380 72 8811 948 120 195 1.880 319 2.588 2.885 715 263 489 1.754 451i 451.000 270.000 325,000 123,000 137.000 89.000 92.000 23.000 54.000 232.000 145.000 181,000 809,000 369,000 139.000 844,U00 98.000 27.000 168.000 271.000 S1,000 46.000 24.000 580.000 •jajooo 170,000 206.000 10,000 195,000 63.000 101,000 Rcntalln ism. Housei ?!*»!•■ In 18X1.1 ^g™ 301.000 207,000 969,000 85,000 886,000 20,000 32,000 39,000 63,000 864,000 713,000 66.000 378,000 386,000 213.000 172,000 88,000 24,000 192,000 616,000 91,000 12,000 20,000 60,000 518,000 834,000 111,000 842,000 41,000 207,(HK) 88,000 131,000 27,579 16,059 17,848 8,971 5,803 2,805 5,319 2,145 3,536 12,248 19,077 6,668 18,944 16,818 6,230 17,055 5,894 6,44*1 47,016 3,302 9.176 1,750 26,718 10,400 13,638 6,587 1,081 8,984 4,654 5,819 177,651 101.425 145,055 48,604 34,048 14,151 34,529 14,729 33,811 73,770 819,598 31,231 188,839 139,606 36,145 94,797 31,431 9,072 4039 316,819 23,291 9454 58,239 10,578 148,894 133,443 74,820 43,663 6,883 78,681 25,518 36,218 Towm vlUi Fapulalkii la lUI. Aberdeen Campbellton . f Ayr . I Irvine . Banff . Dunie . . Rothesay Thurso - Clackmannan . Dumbarton ■ DumfHea I Edinburgh {Dalkeith Qgin . ( Cupar . I Kirkaldy (Dundee i Forfar . Haddington ■ Inverness Bervie . Kinross Kirkcudbright ( Glasgow (Lanark . Linlithgow Nairn - Kirkwall Peebles . Perth - f Paisley . (.Port Glasgow (Dingwall ( Cromarty (Kelso . ( Hawick Selkirk . Stirling ■ Dornoch . . ( Wigton (Portpatrick . ■ 58,019 Peterhead . 9,472 Inverary . • 7,606 Kilmarnock . 5,800 ■ 3,711 Cullen . ' 3,469 Lauder . 4.819 ' 4,679 Wick . . 4,266 Alloa . ' 3,683 11,606 Sanquhar 136,303 LeiUt . ' 5,686 Musselburgh ' 6,190 Forres . . 6,493 St Andrew's ' 5,034 Dunfennlinc 45,355 Montrose . 7,949 Arbroath 5,883 Dunbar . 15,324 1,137 2,917 3,511 208,486 Hamilton ■ 7,672 • 4,874 3,266 ' 3,065 Lerwick . ■ 2,750 . 80,016 Dumblane ' 57,466 Greenock 6,198 ReniVcw . 2,184 Tain . 2,901 4,Ui9 Jedburgh 4,,37y 3,268 2.5,873 8,961 3,89,'i 5,621 17,068 . 12,05.5 ' b,6fiO 4,735 • 9,503 - 2,750 - 3,2'.'S - 27,.07l - 2,I3;J - 3,078 . 5,647 12,74.3 3,321 I 2020. In treating of Scotland in detail, we shall divide it into its three constituent parta ■. — 1. The Lowland counties ; 2. The Highland counties ; 3. The Islands. SuBSECT. 1. The Lowland Counties, 2021. The whole of the south ^Scotland, though diversified by elevated ranges of hills, is always considered as belonging to the Lowlands. It presents, however, three districts of opposite cliaracter: — 1. The agricultural counties along the German Ocean and the Frith of Forth ; 2. The southern pastoral counties; 3. The manufacturing counties of the west. 2022. The agricultural district of southern Scotland consists of the counties of Berwick (formerly the Merse), of Haddington, Edinburgh, and Linlithgow (fully as familiar under the appellations of East, Mid, and West Lothian), and of Stirling, which touches westward on the highland boundary. Even of this range, the cultivated part is closely hemmed in by Lam- inermoor, a low, broad, moorish ridge, which fills all the eastern interior of this tract. It reaches even a considerable extent along the shore of the German Ocean, to which it presents the bold promontories of St. Abb's Head and Fast Castle. In Mid Lothian, its highest pinnacle of Soutra nearly locks in with the Pentlands, which are succeeded to the westward by a long bleak table land reaching as far as Glasgow, and reducing to the breadth of a few miles the beautiful carses of Falkirk and Stirling. 8023. The cuUitated pari qf Berteickshire consists of the Merse, extending chiefly along the Tweed, and reaching to the sea. lu improvement, though scarcely commenced half a century ago, has been carried on with the greatest industry, and there is no part of Scotland which can boast of more skiliUI and prosperous farmers. Almve it is Lauderdale, or the Valley of the Lauder, which is fitted chiefly for grailng, and touches closely on the heaths of Lanunermoor, 2024. Berwick, by position as well as name, belongs naturally to this county, though after a long series of bloody contests for its possessii ' "" •••' '- ' j __.. .r,_-_.«_,. , »_ . - .. designated but by calling it Ei to it of about 5000 acres, called injury ttom the action of the river, yet, as the Tweed here receives large vessels, Berwick is the chief channel for exiwrting the valuable produce of the Merse, to the annual amount, it is said, of 80,000 bolls of grain. A quantity of the Tweed salmon, preserved in ice. Is also sent to the London market The strong wall and deep nitch, which once dciended Berwick, still remain, though neglected ; and large barracks have been erected. Og 4 456 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. S0S5; 0/lhe totnu in Berwtckthirt, Greenlaw u the ieat of county butineu, tliough It and Lauder, the onll borough, are but nnall placei in the upper diitrlct Dunac, In the heart of the agricultural traot, li iha moat tlirlving and proi|icroui. Colditream, a large pleasant village on the banki of the Tweid, U noteil «• t| a •cene of Monk'a retirement Eyemouth i« a (mall leaport, where there !• some fishery. 2026. Haddingtonshire, or East Lothian, runs along the mouth of the Frith of Farlh, between which and the range of Lammermoor extends a plain about twenty miles ir Ivngtji and twelve in breadth, perhaps the largest in Scotland, and all under high cultivation. Tlio East Lothian farmers are considered as thoroughly acqiutinted with the science of Agrlcul- ture» and practically skilled in its most improved processes. Some of them have nuds considerable fortunes ; though the rise of rents, and subsequently the fall of prices, linvp caused a certain reverse in this'particular. Grain and artificial grasses of every dcH'riptiun are raised in perfection ; scarcely a spot, unless on pleasure grounds, being \eh under nntural grass. Edinburgh is chiefly supplied with wheat from the market at Haddington, which ii considered one of the first in the country. 2027. The toums in East Lothian, which is in no degree a manufacturing county, nrv of secondary importance. Haddington is neat and pleasant, supported only by the markvt and by its court for legal proceedings. Dunbar has a little trade and fishery. Its cnstlv, Ihu ruins of which extend over a promontory of brokeo locks, stretching out into the sen, forint a truly grand object. North Berwick, though a royal burgh, is, in fact, only a pU'wiaiU village, near the foot of the insulated eminence, or law, which bears its name. Opponltv U a range of rocky islets, of which the most remarkable is the Bass, " that sea rock immvnitv," tlie steep sides of which rise to the height of 400 feet. The side facing the ocean fornm n perpendicular precipice, on which build crowds of that rare species of seafowl called Solnii goose. Tlieir young, whose down is of some value, are taken by the perilous exortionii of fishermen, suspended by ropes from the top of the cliff. There are still some remnlni) of the fortified prison which was in ancient times reserved for state offenders, and In wliich some of the most eminent covenanters were confined for several years. On tho shore lm> mediately opposite, crowning n perpendicular cliff, appears Tantallon, a strong castle of Ihu Doiiglases, now in a ruinous state, and bearing marks of exchanges of artillery with (ho Bass, while the latter was in possession of the English. Frestonpans, a long dirty villagv, has some manufactures of salt and vitriol. Soes. Mid Ljthian, or Edinburghshire, the next in order, is the metropolitan county of Scotland. The same system of agriculture prevails here as in East Lotliian j and somv of the field% copiously supplied with manure from the capital, bear very heavy crops. On thu whole, however, this county does not afford the same extent of surface fit for the plough. It is penetrated by a branch of the Lammermoor, and by the long range of the Pentlunufi i and at the distance of a few miles south from Edinburgh, a general high level begins, wliicli is favourable only to the production of oats and barley. A great part of this county It IaJiI out in garden ground for the supply of the metropolis, in nursery grounds, and in potalo fieldrj. There are no manufactures of any consequence, the county being entirely supiiurtod by the metropolis and its appendages. 2029. Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland (^. 1 89. ), is a city of no very high antiquity, Tliu Castle Hill, indeed, whose rocky and precipitous sides support on the summit a level apnvo 189 BUIMlUAUa. of some extent, accessible only by a narrow ridge at one point, must always have been of importance in a military age. It is named in the Fictish annals under the title of Cm- trum I'ucllai'um, which is supposed to have originated from the custom of placing tho |)rin> cesses and ladies of rank to be educated there, as in a place of security. In the iuntli century, mention is first made of the town of Edini but David I., in tho twollUi century, founded the abbey and palace of Holyrood ; and, under the sway of the Stuarts, Gilin- burgh became gradually the undisputed capital of Scotland. 2030. Edinburgh is built upon three ridges, running from east to west, and separate A'um Book I. SCOTLAND. 457 Mcli oUicr by deep ravines. The Old Town, which, dll the last half century, formed the whole of Edinburgh, is situated on the middle ridge, extending nearly a mile of gradual descent fVum the Castle to the palace of Holyrood. With a view to secure the protection afforded by this site, the houses have been crowded into the very smallest possible space ; tliey are rtisvd six or seven stories on the side facing the street, which from the acclivity of the ground, gives to that facing the ravine a height of ten or even fourte«n stories. From this cvntral street, there descend on each side closet or lanes about six feet broad, and sloping olti'ti nt an angle of forty-five degrees, so that some experience is required to descend with Mfvty. The Cowgate, a poor street, inhabited by small tradesmen, extends along the bottum of the ravine, and terminates in a spacious Grau-market, completing old Edin- bui'uh. Although it contains many excellent houses, it is now entirely desert«l, unless by llie Inferior orders of tradesmen, who occupy spacious apartments, at very low rents. All the citisens of better rank have migrated to two towns, built on the opposite sides of the Old Town I one on the south side, or St. Leonard's Hill, occupied by citizens of the middle class, tlioac connected with the university, or such as are fond of retirement : the other, called (iropcrly the New Town, is on the north ; and at present comprises the residence of almost all the opulent and fashionable classes. Being built on a regular, perhaps somewhat too untfurm plan, and of the fine freestone found in Craigleith and other neighbouring quarries, it ranks, generally, as one of the most elegant towns in Britain. Extensive improvements are now In progress ; one consisting of a new bridge, between the Old Town and the MUlhern districts, and the other of a south-west approach, carried along the lower declivity of the Castle Hill. The inhabitants, however, who defray the expense by an assessment on the house rents, have begun to complain heavily of the amount far exceeding the estimate uf tlic sum required to complete these works. 8031. TIte beauty of Edinburgh is greatly enhanced by its situation; being overlooked uit one side by the proud eminence of the Castle, and its fine ancient towers, though Mmewiint marred by modem additions j and on the other, by a range of bold hills, the highest of which is called Arthur's Seat. The lowest, the Calton Hill, round which walks nf easy access have been formed, commands a view of Edinburgh, the Frith of Forth, and lU aurrounding shores, which attracts the admiration of every stranger. 303K. The general effect, rather than that of any particular edifices, constitutes the merit of Edinburgh. Of antique structures, there is nothing very fine, except the large hospital for boys, erected from the funds bequeathed by George Heriot, the celebrated goldsmith. The great catliedral of St. Giles has been adm'.'ed almost solely for its spire, and Holy- rood I'ttlace, a comparatively modern structure, for its little ancient chapeL "The former, however, has been now externally rebuilt on a very handsome plan, and the latter has undergone a thorough repair. Four miles south, in a very commanding situation, are the remains of Queen Mary's pleasant country palace of Craigmillar. The Register 0£Sce is an elegant and classic edifice. Forty years ago, a new college was undertaken by national subscription, and a noble front was erected on the design of Mr. Adam ; but the funds hi'ing exhausted, it remained long in a state almost of ruin, nearly concealed from view by a street of shops run up immediately opposite. In this exigency, government liberally (amo furward with an annual vote of 10,000/., to be continued till its completion, which It now nearly effected, under Mr. Playfair's judicious modification of the original design. The new High School is an extremely elegant structure ; but the National Monument, on tho Calton Hill, begun on the model of the Parthenon, is stopped for want of funds, 3033. Few cities have increased more rapidly than Edinburgh, both in extent and popu- lation. Its inhabitants in 1801, including Leith, were 82,560; in 1831, they hod increased to 162,156. The principal support is derived from the law, to which belong judges, to the number of about 20 ; adyocates 500 ; writers to the signet 700 ; and a variety of inferior praclliiuners. The professors of the university, and private lecturers, &c. constitute a con- titlerable number ; and genteel families are attracted from every part of Scotland by the opportunities of education and agreeable society. U034. Edinburgh is a city emiruntly scientific and literary, and has even become known under the appellation of the "modem Athens." Connected with these pur:iuit3, an exten- sive trade in printing and publishing books is carried on by some enterprising indivi- duals. W35. There aiv few manufactures, with the above exception. A great quantity of ale is l)rcwcd, which has attained to a high reputation ; and there are in the neighbourhood some considerable distilleries. Shawls are manufactured equal, if not superior, to any in tlic empire. There are very extensive banking establishments, both public and private Hilk Ims been recently attempted on a large scale. 'iOM, The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1581, has risen to great fame, both as an institution for teaching, and a nursery for eminent men. The medical school, in particular, atlrnets students from all the three kingdoms; and the degree of M.D., bestowed here after ilrict examination, is reckoned to confer peculiar distinction. Debating societies, formed iiuioiig the students tliemselves, have been the means of eliciting much talent. The annual 458 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHY. PamIII. number of students at the university is considerably below aooo. They are lod((cd In the town, and are subject to no discipline, except attendance on the lectures, Edinburgh hsi its Royal Society for physical and literary researches, Ito Antiquarian and Horticultural Societies, an Institution for the promotion of the Fine Arts, and an Academy for Paintlnir. 2037. Ltitk i$ the port of Edinburgh, and carries on a considerable import trade for the supply of that capital and of all the interior country. During the last war, the traiio of I cniiscd the fiiilure of several of the first houses, and threw the town into a languid state, iVum which it is but very gradually reviving. Her trade is chiefly with a view to the supply of the capital, for wluch purpose she carries on a constant intercourse with London and otlicr porU on the eastern eoast Hen mtercourse with the Battle la very ntensivc i and that with the West Indies eonsidorable, though not equal to what it earricd on flrom the Clyde. The harbour of L«th is formed by the small river of the same name, coming down tnm the western side of the Pentlands, passing on the north of Edinburgh, and dlvloing the town itself into North and South Leith ; the latter of which is the larger division. Tiic hnrbour is not good ; but the town of Edinburgh, which possesses a municipal Jurisdiction over Lcitli, has expended very large sums in the construction of an extensive range of docks for the accommodation of its shipping ; and a pier, which, stretching far into the sea, no as to enable vessels to enter at all times of the tide, with a breakwater opposite, has l>ecn lately completed. The roads, at the distance of about a mile, afford excellent anchorage, Leith, originally 3 collection of rather ugly and dirty 'anes, is now everywhere skirted by excellent utreett, and ranges of villas, erected by the opulent inhabitants. A new harbour hits been formd .it Trinity, two miles west, having deep water at all tides, and thcnoo much UKd by steamers. S038. Betides these great towni. Mid Lothiim contains only some large plesMUit vlllsiios. Porlnbell&iklhc principal bathing pisce of Edintwrgb. Miuaelburglu Fiiherrow, Invercik, are ohulereil together near the mouth of the Esk, the acene of the battle of Pinker. Muuelburgh hat now a gnod turf, whieh haa lunnlaiilM Leith lands for the annual Edinburgh racea. Dalkeith, an agreeable rural little town, liaa IhelJnt oat market in Scotland. The vallejr of the Eak hence upward! to Roalin cnntaint the flneit iecncry In the Lothiana. The loftjr iMUiks on each aide, either overhung by vaat wooila, broken Into ateeii lirerliilrm nr opening into romantic dclla, present continual change of prospect Roslln rha|iel, though not nii aii ckirii Bive scale, exhibits some exquisite specimens of Gothic sculpture ) and the ruins of the eastic iH'nr mnrkii nf great strength. On a precipice, rising above the river, stands Hawthorndon, an Mllllrc not eorrpaiHinilliii to Its site ; but the votary of the muse, seated in the chair of Drummond, roust ft>el no ronimiiii emmiim (ni lieholding the same scene of the Esk rolling through flnciy wooded banks, on which the |ioet's eye rciMimL All the south and west of this county consists of wild, hilly, and pastoral scenery, In the heart uf which ii a pleasingly retired spot, chosen by Ramsay as the scene of his Oenllf Shtpkertl, 2039. Linlithgow or fFest Lothian consists, in its upper part, of a bleak table-lnnd ; in its lower, of an extensive plain, beautiful and fertile, which the farmers cultivate with nil the skill and success peculiar to the best parts of Scotland. It abounds with coal, frveHtonc, lime, and marl. There are no manufactures of any consequence. The Union CannI passing though this county has afforded an improved conveyance for its mineral and agri- cultural produce. 204a Thetoumtin /Au county are small ; lint Linlithgow rclainn (till somewhat of the 1 00 aspect of grandeur suited to a once roynl residence. The palace (fig. 1!M).), situaletl on n hill behind the town, and overlnoking a lienutiful little hike, fomtn one uf the grandest ancient etlit'ices in the kingdom. There is iilso a Gothic church of some k-nuty. UorrowstownnoHN, ofteit nbriilgnl Bo'ness, once carrietl on nil the trade of the upper Fortli; but tlie great canal terminating at Grungcinouth has now attracted the larger proportion of it to that port. Queensferry is a pleasantly situated vill.-.gc, at « hich is tlie main passage across the Forth. 204 1 . StirUng, an extensive and beautiful county, the link between the Highlands and Low- lands, extends for thirty-five miles along the Forth, which, in tlio course of that >|Mce, passes from a river into a frith. Few counties present a greater variety of soil and surface ; it encloses several of- the richest caraes in Scotland ; but the greater part is hilly nnj pas. toral, while many of the lower grounds consist of fine meadows, adorned by the l>eautiful meanderings of the Forth. It even encroaches on the Highlands, since its western extre- mity includes Ben Lomond. This county is traversed by the celebrated Roman wall be- tween the Forth and Clyde, usually ascribed to Antoninus, though IVom tlie account of Tacitus it would appear to have been first formed by Agricola. It seems to have reached from near the church of Old Kilpatrick, al>out four miles above Dumlwrton, to rnrriilcn, near Bo'ness, rather morL than thirty-six miles. Stirling is also croNMcd by another feature as grand, and more useful, — the great canal between the Forth aiul ('lyde. UKLITHOOW TALACB. DoOK I. SCOTLAND. 459 wnrntaa curhm* mi. The town <^ MrliM can boait a iltuatlon as noble and commanding a* anjr In Scotland. The new tram lU cutle, which Include! entire the principal ranse of the Oramplam, the meadowi or link* through which the Forth wind*, and apart of thirteen countiei, )• generally considered the finest In the oountnr. 11i« msin itreet, like that of Edinburgh, descends gradu^illj down the ridge of the hill on which the castle lUiidi (Jig- 191)' '!''<'• fortress, In feudal times, was accounted one of the bulwarks of the kingdom ; and Stirling was the frequent seat of royalty, and the scene of many of the most memorable and tragic events In Scottish history. The town has now lost this distinction, and owes its present limited pros, pcrity chiefly to its position on the main Und route Into the Highlands, and to som^ spirited attempts to Introduce the carpet manufkotuie and other branches of Industry. Falkirk Is a larger town, situated in a broad and beautiftil carte, through which the Forth flows like a broad rlTer, backed by the considerable range of the Ochils. Tlie three gnat annual trgtit exhibit an immenie show of highland cattle and sheep brought up for the supply of the southern dls- trlcts. Near Falkirk Is Carron, accounted only a village, but the seat of the grMtest Iron-works In Scotland, in which, during war, 8000 men were employed. It particularly excels in grates, and In that species of artillery first cut here, and hence denominated carronades. Orangemouth, at the cov necting point of the great canal with the Frith of Forth, derives from this situation a cor.:iderabIe trade. iM3. Tke teaU in the great agricuUural dittrict now surveyed arc numerous and handsome, though few are on a very great scaler At the western extremity of Berwick, Lord Buchan has Dryburgh Abbeys beautlml Gothic edifice, of great antiquity. The Ute Earl of Wemyss built in East Lothian Amitfleld and Oosford, the bitter onthecoastof the Forth, andof great extent, but now used only as a gallery for containing an extensive collection of pictures, some of which are very fine. In Mid Lothian, Dalkeith House aspires to the name of pabce, chiefiy in coniequence of the great extent of beautiftil grounds and lawns that surround it The Marquess of Lothian's Kit of Newbattle Abbey Is surrounded by noble trees. The beauty of its site, and its ceilings painted by Run- cin an, give merited celebrity to Pennyculk House. In West Lothian, Hopetoun House is a truly superb man. lion, overlooking a spacious lawn which slopes down to the Forth. Dalmeny Castle has also a great extent of (ineljr wooded grounds extending for several miles along the coast In Stirlingshire, Callender House is a fine Kst, including most of the country round Falkirk. Craigforth is happily situated on a clIiT above the river, at the point where its windings are the most varied and beautiftil On the western Imrder, the Duke of Montrose lias the beautiftil scat of Buchanan, near the banks of Voch Lomond, and on the immediate brink of the Highlands. 2044. The next district, including the counties of Roxburgh, Selkirk, Peebles, Dumfries, and part of Lanark, may most properly bear the appellation of pastoral Scotland. It is covered with long ranges of hills, not in general heathy or ruggeid like those of the High- lands ; but from one to two thousand feet high, clothed with pasturage to their summits. This may be justly held the region of Scottish poetry. The events of border war and feud, which kept it for ages in perpetual excitation and alarm, gave birth to strong feelings and passions, and inspired strains which are still fondly recited. To these succeeded love songs dictated by nature, and often inspired by refined feelings. It was amid these scenes that Thomson and Scott caught that inspiration which has rendered their poetry the delight of their country. The chief occupation in all this tract is.sheep-farming ; only detached districts being fit for the plough, or having meadows sufficiently rich for rearing cattle of a large breed; and there are scarcely any traces of manufacturing industry. SMS. The towns in this tract are generally small and agreeable. Kelso is considered one of the most beautiftil in Scotland, being surrounded by ornamented villas and extensive woods, which cause it almost to resemble a town in the south of England. The abbey is not without some griuideur ; and the ruins of the castle of Roxburgh are striking. Kelso has a gay and literary circle of society. Hawick Is a tolerably sixed country town, pleasantly surrounded by hills, and has a little cariiet manufactory. The village of Melrose is only dis. tinguiahed by its abbey {/Ig. 19S.), founded by David I., In the twelfth century, and the finest edifice ever erected In the south of Scotland. All the elegance of that architeb ture which we call Gothic has been lavished on this pile, and is displayed in the proftision of the ornaments, and the beauty of the sculptures, which remain nearly en. tire, and liave rendered It the study of the painter and the theme of the poet Selicirk and Peebles, capitals of their respective little counties, are only pleasant vilhwes, bordering onthegreat pastoral vdesofEtterlck and Yarrow. These do not contain even a village; and on the western side of them we enter Dumfties-shire^ and find Moflht, a small town In a picturesqlie site amid rocky hills, and containing a mineral spring of some repute Proceeding southwards, we discover on the shores of the Solway the principal towns of the county : Dumfries itself, a well-built, gay-looking city, is a sort of southern Scottisli capital, and it has been so dis. linguishcd from an early period; but no traces remain cither of the castle, or of the monastery In which Cumming fell by the hand of Bruce. To the west and south, the country Is fine, watered by the Nith and Mher rivers ; but to the east, there are only the vast mosses of the Solway. The town carries on some trade by the Nith, which admiU vessels of one hundred and twenty tons, and It has two great annual markets for the cattle from the west; but It Is chiefiy supported by the many neighbouring gentry who make it their residence Annan ia agreeably situated at the mouth of the river of that name. Lochmaben, ancient, and distinguished by 1 ?-..*^ jj ' -■ MBLKOIS ABMV. ell 460 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pam III. DHUMLANKIO CAITLS the niint of • itiong cutle, Thornhill and Sanquhar on the umier coune of the Nith t Langholm, in the centra of the paMoral vale* of the Eik and the LIddle } may all rank ai Uttle town* or lane vlUuci. A amall ipot, (kmed in the annaii of gallantry, it Orelna Green, clow on the EngUih border ) whitheri^ maiiT • (bnd matrimonial pair, to eacane tlie Jfaloiuy of pannti and guardlani, and avail thenuelTci of the danmroiii Ikcillty of Scottlih marriage. On the bleak northern boundary, and on an abnoit mountainoui level it Wanlockhead i and nearly eontlguoui to it LeadhllU, In Lanarkthire Wanlockhead belong* to the Duke of Buccleugh, and yiekb annually lead to the amount of abuut VifiOO bar*, of nine *tone( each i while Leadhilli belonging to the Earl of Hopetoun, yield* about 18,00a The workmen form a lltle (oclety, dittlngulihcd for order and good conduct, and*upport among themiclTC* a imall lubtcriptlon library. fi04& SeaU. A vait extent of thoie 1 93 <^ , paatoral region* belong to the now united . ..,\<4 .-> home* of Buccleugh and QucenilierrT The Duke ha* numerou* leatt in tlie dUtrict, of which the chief I* Drumlanri* Caatle Uig. 193.), amagniflcent edifice, on an eminence aoove the Nith, and lur rounded by extenaive park* and planu atlon*. At the mouth of the Nith it Caerlavcrock Cutle, long the leat of the Maxwell flmlly, now only an exieiuive and plcturetaue ruin. Among many other* round Kelio, i* Fleur*, the splendid *eat of the Roxburgh (kmlly, Minto HkUie, near KeUo, 1* lurrounded by Hue ground*, to which a range of Infly per. pendicular crag* giTC* a.grand character AbboUford, flrom the many addition* made by it* iUuitriou* proprietor, ha* become a atrlklrtg and picturcique (44ect 2047. Tlie three counties of Aifr, IVigton, and GaUomay compose what has been specially called Uie West of Scotland. Like the southern counties, they are chiefly under pastUK ; but the cultivators are much less occupied in the breeding of sheep than in the rearing of cattle. The surface is very various. The range of mountains, indeed, which separates Ayr •nd Galloway is almost as elevated as any in Scotland ; but the upland country of the latter is, in general, diversified only with steep rocky eminences of two or three hundred feet high. In Ayr, too, though the southern district of Carrick be very mountainous, the middle one of Kyle has a level coast ; while Cunningham, the most northerly, consists almost entirely of a fertile plain. Both counties, from the boundary line of mountains, are watered by fine rivers ; in one, the Ayr, the Doon, and the Irvine ; in the other, the Dee and the Crce. The Ayrshire breed of horses, called also the Clydesdale, is highly esteemed ; and generally supplies the markets in the east of Scotland ; but tlie little active breed cidled galloways are now become scarce. It is in horned cattle that both districts place their chief boast. The kine of Ayrshire are valued chiefly for the dairy, which produces the only cl'ecscs in Scotland that have acquired celebrity. The Galloway bullock without horns produces beef of a peculiar excellence, which often reaches the London market. In general, though the farmers have quitted their alternation of three arable crops for six of ;...sture, and have adopted some modern improvements, their agriculture is much behind that in the Lotlilans; tlie farms are small, and have little capital vested in them. The northern division of Ayr, where it borders on Lanarkshire, participates to a certain extent in the flourishing manu- factures of that great county. It has also an extensive iron-work at Muirkirk, and im- mense beds of valuable coal, which not only serve for the supply of the inhabitants, but are exported to Ireland in such quantities as to form the chief trade of this county. To facilitate the transport, the Duke of Portland has formed a fine harbour at Troon, and has connected it by a railroad with Kilmarnock. A still grander project was that of Lord Eglinton, who undertook to form a harbour at Ardrossan, which would have been one of the finest in the west of Scotland ; and to connect it with Glasgow by a canal. Ar- drossan, as the port of Glasgow, would then, probably, have superseded Greenock, since it would have allowed vessels to enter at once upon the open sea without passing the winding channels of the Frith of Clyde. The difficulties of the times, however, and the prior esta- blishment of Greenock and Port Glasgow, were unfavourable to this project ; only a third part of the canal was completed, and Uie whole design is now relinquished. 2048. Tl.< : are leveral cotuiderable totens in Aynhire. Ayr, at the point where the rivers Doon and Ayr fall united hit:o the sea, Is a gay place, forming a sort of capital for the gentry of a considerable part of Scou land. In ancient times it was still more important, as the principal scene of some great historical cvent< in the time of Wallace and Bruce ; and, at a much later period, as an important military station, having Iwen carefully fortified by Oliver Cromwell Its trade, also, was greater, rivalling that of the ports on the Clyde ; but the bar at the mouth of the harliour, completely obstructing the entrance of the Doon, has been unfavourable to its progress. It exports, however, chiefly to Ireland, a considerable quantity of coal, brought by railways. The town is irregularly built, but ha* one handsome principal ttrect Its theatre, its academy, and some charitable inititutions, are on a greater scale than the e.te of the town might lead u8toex|iect Proceeding northwards flrom Ayr, occur the port* of Troon, Irvi.ie, Saltcoats, and Ardrossan, which send large quantities of coal to Ireland : whence tney receive grain ijr the supply of the great interior towni Saltcoats, which has sprung up within the last century, is als.- . :cted for the manufacture of salt ; and Ardroi. san 1* now a watering place of increasing resort The sa'r.o irmy be said of I.ecn specially ider pasture; the rearing of separates Ayr y of the latter hundred feet us, the middle Imost entii^ly 'atered by fine ind the Crce. and generally led galloways ir chief boast. ily cheeses in ms produces •n'.ral, though re, and have he Lothians; ision of Ayr, shing manu- irk, and im- abitants, but county. To Troon, and was thst of Id have been canal. Ar- lock, since it the winding e prior esta> only a third I Doon and Ayr LlepartofScoU Irical cvcnt< in y having been I on the Clyde ; loon, has been |f coal, brought c, its academy, d us to exjicet In, which send interior towns. 1 ; and Ardroi. led scene of the bll occasionally fin the interior irnolien stnfTs, ■otton weaving 111 and decayed > Scotland, in Ifew fk'agnients I by Mr. Ualc. Book SCOTLAND. Ml Stranraer also i« nearest point of Great become the main channel Dunlon Is merely • hilly Ulilrltl, wllh rli'h |iHlure, where the cheese of that name, the best In Scotland, ia woduccd. In the south Maybwl*. Olrvan, and Halllntrae are only villages. soon OaUiMmn It hAmmI fnHr*fli « imf»f itlHrttl. Its capitals, WIgton and Kirkcudbright, are pleasant country towns, and th« Uttefi havlni * | Its rapid rise to greatness, however, commenced with the union, which opened to it the tradu with America and the West Indies, hitherto mo- nopolised by the English ports. In I71H, for the first time, a vessel from the Clyde sailed across the Atlantic. Uy the middle of the century, the merchants of Glasgow carried on an active trade with Virginia and Maryland, then the richest of the American colonies. They imported more than half the entire amount of tobacco which came into Great Britain ; and to them the French tknneni-Kenvral chiefly looked for their supply of this important article. The trade of Glaauow apjivared likely to suffi-r from the American war, and the independence of the United States, which enabled the latter to send the produce of their plantations direct to France. The merchants of that town, however, soon showed that they possessed all the energy neeeitary to redeem these losses. In New England and the other northern states they found an ample vent for their manufactures ; for the sale of which commission houses were opened In all the principal towns. Their intercourse also wiU) the West Indies, which had hitherto been very limited, was now carrie'd on to a vast extent. In 177.1, there were Imported thence 4600 hogsheads of sugar, and 1150 puncheons of rum; in IHI4, 40,000 hogilicads and 13,000 puncheons. iOSi ThefollowiHeitat 1 40«milt of th* prtnetpul tmporti Into the Clyde, for the years 1831 and 1838 :— Arttrlaa Pacliages. hhda. impiwMi NlaelH an hsntl Jllni litMnilwt. ArUcles. Packaxcs. Imports. Slocks on hand 31u Dccemlicr. AniCins I83J, 88,0(M ?8,lll|> 1H3I, IH.11.' 1831. 1838. 107 1831. 187 1838. none. Sugar, British ( Plantation J ''& F'ustic tons 147 tierces 9,iW -^iKIll IM Nicaragua Wood ditto 6S 88 none. brls.,fte, 8,IHt) a,itiiH 41 It) 4Alt LIgtiumvltie . ditto . - 40 Mauritius, &c. bags imjiflo 18,437 6.flj[;i l.lklB Mahogany logs 1.178 8,383 671 914 Foreign bxa., He. 1,07« IA m «|I9 Indigo . [ chests . . . • uncer. Molassef casks u,(m 17,7M .1,/I.H|) S,9fll serons - . . _ da Colfte . J tiercel 889 1)1.1 Ifki aitH Saltpetre bags 3.»10 5,900 do. bags,Ao. l,l«l 1,7(11 41/1 1 Tobacco, Virgin. hhda. 8» 701 710 600 Cocoa ditto «8 Kill A Ashes barrels 10,016 5,113 6,674 3.560 Pimento ditto DID II7A 8 MO HIee tierces 148 833 6 11 Ginger . . ditto A) 74 9 13 East India bags 1,S2S 9,0.'» none. 30 Pepper . . bag! 8,4U $jm 1)1.1 1,M3 Flour barrels R6,«fi0 6,eii0 uncer. uncer. Rum, Jamaica puna, hhds. i,4ia m ],l«4 l,«7 m 1,111 330 Tar Hark, Quercitron ditto casks 9,748 800 9,600 55 leeward - puns, hhdi. 1,031 ]^ mi m H)dea . . number 8,161 4,8.''4 am iM Iflll Madder Hoots bales 3,757 4.698 Wine . . pipes,lk« i,m ditto m \,m) 1,IN3 Oil, Whale • casks 1,180 8,580 Brandy . . liDlW fl7 700 Cod and Seal ditto 5.631 6,500 Oeneva • ditto 48g 4nii im flo raltow . • ditto 3,407 3,661 900 too I^)gwoad . Itons 1 7101 ^71 Ml \36 Khumae ■ ■ bags 5.784 WylBO uncer. _, m 4m DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Imiwrl y CtoMim tTaolMh Seolkmi, in lUI tmi ISM. PamIII. V«Mh VMVnl fflAIMi J J 1 m i 1 1 1 H 1 1 33,966 33,90)) H 1 i 1881 i8sa S;:SS is,fMn n,i«ts 4M I.MII 496 104 18,768 10,177 l,OM) 5,1 3«,a7l 17,413 A itill greater Muro* of woalth wm opened at home. Glasgow had, in the course of thv century, become a great manufkcturing city, employing her industry on the old ataple of linen of the flner deKrlptloni, u oambrioi, lawns, gauses ; also in the making of atocklngi and of shoes for exportation i but its product in these branches never exceeded 400,00(V. Affiiirs were conducted on a ver* dkflbrent scale when cotton was extensively introduced into Britain ; and Glasgow, soon relinquishing her former occupations, devoted herself entirdy to this new manuAicturo. She became the rival of Manchester ; and if circumstanceo did not allow her to manuflioturo so largely, she produced some finer fabrics, and as promptly availed herself of every Improved process. Scotland was soon astonished by the mag- nitude and power of the imwhines constructed ; immense fortunes were realised, and an an- nual value of nearly 4,000,0001. sterling produced. Glasgow was one of the first places which adopted the invention of (rawer looms. In 1835 she had 1 3,253, whence the number of hands a specimen of the light and ornamental Gothic, but as a massive struc- ture, producing a powerful and solemn eiTect, much heightened by its striking insu- lated situation, with a wooded hill closely aiyoining, on the top of which a monument has recently been erected to the memory of John Knox. The modem edifices are alio handsome, and designed by the best archi- tects : the Lunatic Asylum, and a building containing the court-houses and prison, by Mr. Stark ; the Assembly-rooms and the Infirmary, by Mr. Adorns ; the spacious Roman catholic chapel, a fine specimen of the modem Gothic, by Mr. Gillespie. The very elegant theatre wa& some years ago burned to the ground ; but the new Exchangj) Reading-rooms, recently erected, form one of the most splen- did edifices in the country. The bridewell for the county and city has been erected on the most approved principle, and is esteemed the moKt perfect in Scotland, both in point of con- struction and management. Glasgow is not a mere commercial town ; its university is an interesting and distinguished establishment. Founded in 1450 by Bishop Turab ", it has been adorned by a long succession of illustrious teachers, of whom Simson, HutchesL a, Reid, Smith, Millar, would bo alone luHicient to ensure iu celeCrity. It is at present attended OMMOW CATIIII«AI,> OookI. SCOTLAND. itiH bT 1400 (tudenti, and ita name stands at least a* high as at any fonnar period. Th« adilka hu nothing striliing ; but with tlie houses of the profeHon, built in a square attachad to it, fonm an extensive range. The library contains 30,000 volumes, many of which ara valuable, ind even rare. A splendid bequest was made some years ago, in the Museum formed by (he late Dr. Hunter, particuUrfy rich in anatomical preparations, shells, insects, fossils, as Willi as in coins and medals, the collection of which is considered the most complete in Europe. An elegant Grecian edifice, designed by Stark, has been erected for their reception. Auiilisry to the University is the Andersonian Institution, founded with the view of com- municating to the commercial classes a knowledge of the first elements of physical science; for which purpose it has been found highly eflScadous. The intellectual spirit of tha dtiiens is also proved by three libraries, and a botanic garden, all supported by public sub- icription. 2053. Paiiley, though in Renfrewshire, may be considered next, in order to connect together the great seats of manufacture. Tliis town is also ancient, deriving its distinction from its ecclesiastical character. The abbey, founded in 1160, was gradually enriched, having much landed property attached to it, and drawing the tithes of twenty-eight different parishes. At the end of the fifteenth century, man^ ornaments were added ; but soon after occurred the Reformation, in consequence of which the edifice was in a great measure demuiished, and the revenues converted into a temporal lordship, in favour of a son of the Dulie of Chatelherault Several of the windows, however, still afford fine specimens of the ornamented Gothic ; and, at the Reformation, the nave was left so far entire that it has ever since served as a place of worship, and is now called the Abbey Church. Yet, amid the lustre derived from this establishment, Paisley was a very small town until the middle of tha last century, when it contained little more than 4000 inhabitants. Soon after, its manufac- tures, w'lich were already begun, made most rapid advances. Down to the year 1783, they consisted chiefly of linen, fine thread, gauzes, both of linen and silk, and other delicate and elegant fabrics. On the introduction of cotton, the manufacturers of Paisley, like those of Glasgow, cultivated this branch almost exclusively, preferring its most elegant species. Mualin, the finest of all the productions of the loom, became the staple of Paisley. These delicate and fancy fabrics cannot be executed by the mechanical processes of power looms, vhicb have scarcely been at all introduced at Paisley;' in 1835 there were only 140. They must be performed by that higher class technically called harness weavers ; of whom, in 1834, there were 5.000 or 6,000. In 1838 there were 13 mills, employing 1557 per- loiM. The entire value of the produce was rated, even in 1805, at 1,250,0007. By the improved navigation of the river Cart, and by means of a small canal where that improve- ment was impracticable, this town has now r communication with the Clyde, receiving vessels of forty tons. The canal from Glasgow likewise, destined for Ardrossan, has been carried as fat as Paisley. These communications have been of great use for the disposal of its produce ; but it has remuned always a purely manufacturing town. It is divided into two parts, the old and the new ; the former on the western, and the other on the eastern side of the river Cart. Yet, even of what is termed the old town, the greater part has been recently built on a regular plan, and contains many good houses. The county gaol and bridewell form one of the finest structures of the kind in the kingdom ; the town-hall and several of the churches are very handsome. The operative weavers of Pauley are reported to be equal, if not superior in intelligence to any class of the same rank elsewhere; and this spirit has led to the formation among them of a number of book societies, reading rooms, and subscription libraries. 2054. Greenock is entirely a commercial and maritime station; it b the only great western port of Scotland, and ranks somewhat superior to any on the east coast. At the oeginning of the last century it was only an inconsiderable fishing village. The commerce with the colonies, for which alone it' was happily situated, was then still monopolised by England. Even after the union had removed this barrier, the commerce of Greenock was connected with and dependent on that of Glasgow, the merchants of which were the pro- prietors of almost all the vessels in ito port By degrees the energy and enterprise of the natives of Greenock enabled them to form a shipping interest of tbeir own ; and the same may be said of their commercial undertakings. Still, by far the larger proportion of the vessels belong to Glasgow. The principal trade consists in importing the_ produce of the West Indiqs, to which is added a very extensive herring fishery, and a considerable share of the cod fisheries of Newfoundland and Cape Breton. The sum of 90,0001. has been lately expended in the improvement of the harbour, which can now contain 500 sail. A very handsome custom house, facing the river and the quay, has been lately built by government. In 1886 there entered its port 240 vessels, tonnage 67,257. Greenock is not an elegant town ; but the hills behind it command a noble view of the river, the shipping, and the vast range of the mountains of Argyle on the opposite coast. 8065. Port G/«««w about thwe miles higher than Greenock, -and a "«h «"»"" P»jj'.«fn"ll?'|f„^ •crvic»lto01..gSw;receiving such veaeu"belonglng tothf..""? »""*?» S^Sf.n'S ^1\ of Shteh^ this capacity, iti trade U very considerable. Here waa buUt the flrit dock u> RcotlaDd, in front of wWeb a 481 DESCRIPTIVE GEOOKAi'HY. n*«T III. Ih* extenilT* countv of Lanark, nt i •paeioui quay cxIcmU aloni Ihc Clyde, for the aecommodalloii or thoM veMtli which dn not require lu miter the bailii. The envlroni of iN>rt Olaagow are ilniularly plcturpique and igrrcablo. Little can be Mid or RenfVew, the nominal capital orthli flourlihlni county : II li an old town, which hai not thared In the nnw! perlly of It* neighbour!. The InhaMtanti, however, receive a little employment nrom the manuflKturen oi Olaigow. 909A TItt bantu qfihe Cltdt abott Okugow, whote vicinity forme only a imall nart, however Importinl of " KtlUtobtiurveyed. FlrftoccunBolhwelljAr' lW')>oneortho|irinclu>l ■eat* orthe IkiuglaiM. HcreEdward I. placedihcchli' Itarriaon,whlch was Intended to hold Scotland In iiilk GCtloa It I* now n bold and itrlklng ruin, rlilni above the river Imnka A little above I* llolhwcll Ilrldge, ID noted a* the diiaitroui Kencorihc rmit u( the covenanting army. Farther up It Hamilton a pleaiant handaome town In a Ane country : it ia ,»•, iwrtcd by the reiidence of the Aunliy of llainlltoli' and bv a branch of the cotton maniifiu'ture. rroui Hamilton the road lead* through a ranKc uf nrclmrdi and the moet beautlfol •ccnvry, tn lanark. Thu town, though bearing the name ol the county |i only a largo atraggling village) but about a mile distant I* Mow Lanark, noted for the I'xtcnaivc cnllon manufoctory MtabUihcd by the lato Mr. Uule, and lately conducted by Mr. Owen. Whatpvcr may Iw thought of the •peculatlve tenet* of the latter gentle. man, the attention paid to the behaviour and comforta ofthoae employed |>re*cnted,ccrtalnly, in many rniiccti, a model worthv of imitation. But Lanark hot a itlli neater attraction In the fall* of Clyde, Ilonlluii, Corra. Stonebyrc*, dtuatcd above and Inilow It, at nlmut two BovnwaLL cAiri.1. mllca' diitancc ttoni each other. Their lioiglit doci not exceed eighty or ninety foet ; but the mai* of water, with the grandeur of the rocky wall* and hunnni)) wixxla, render them one of the flnnt example* of thi* deecription of •cciicry. The atpcct of iipiwr cir mountalnou* Clydcidale ha* already been noticed ) a* have the lead mine* alio, on tlie extreme loutlicrn point, where It border* on Dumftie*. 2057. Tlw northern Lowlands, as they may be called, now claim our attention. Grand and prominent as is the natural boundary of the Friths of Forth and Clyde, it docs not se- parate the Lowlands and Highlands. The former, beyond the Forth, form a belt of about twenty miles in breadth, which reaches to tlie northern promontory of Aberdeen, and tlivncu along the shores of the Moray Frith. The coast is generally level and fertile ; but a great part of the interior, though not mountainous, is bleak and moorish. This district contains, however, several cities and seaports of considerable magnitude and importance, 9058. F^e I* a large county, which, with it* appendage* of Kinrou and Clackmannan, All* up all the interval between the Krith* of Forth and Tay. It wa* anciently the mo*t flourUhing part of the kingdom, being pro. lected by the Forth ftrom EnglUh Invaaion and border Inroad, and lecured by ita diatancc fh>m the ipreaght of the highland freebooter. Under theie circumatancc*, Fife became dittinguUnitl as the centre of induatry ; and oneofit* citie* form* the cccleaiaatical capital of Scotland. All the foreign commerce of the country was carried on In It* port*; and le** than two centuries ago Ita rental amounted to a tenth part of that of the whole king. dom. Since Scotland ha* ceaaed to be agitated by war, Edinburgh and the opposite side of the Forth have attracted all theae advantage* ; and Fife exhibits generally an aapect of decay. In particular, the numerous •eaport* which, at abort Interval*, range along the whole northern coast of the Forth, have dwindled into Ibhing vUlageiL Fife I*, In general, a level country, yet dlver*lfied by ranges of low eminences, and by a tc\t hill* of conaiderable elevation, a* the Lomond Hill*, and Largo Law. A great part of the interior is bleak ami unproductive; the farm* areamall, and farming. In general, lea* advanced than In the Lothian* ; but it has (till made considerable progreia In regard to manufacture*, this county adhere* to the old Scottish staple ul' the spinning and weaving of flax, carried on chiefly for domeatic use, unleu at Dunfermline, where there ia a large fabric of fine sheeting and diaper. The western coast abound* in coal of various quality, and in very fine limestone, which i* worked and exported to a very great extent The county town 1* Cupar, a place of moderate (iae, neat, with (ome *tir and gaiety. A much greater interest attache* to St Andrew's from iu former greatness, (torn the remarkable scenes there acted, and flrom it* *plendid edifices, of which fragment* still remaia It is seated on ,^^^ a bold coast, fteing a wide bay of the Ocrman 1 96 ^^H Ocean j and ha* two fine, broad, parallel atreet*, of which one I* now almost deserted. The castle and cathedral (Jig. 196.) have been completely demolished: of the flni there remain only some naked walls, and of the other only s high square tower, and a gable of the chapel of St Rule, which attests the great elegance of the entire structure: The unlversi^ conslstt of three colleges, two of which are now united : it contains a com. Rlete school of theology and philosophy, but u no cUisse* in law or medicine. Founded under the auipice* of Buchanan, it can boaat many eminent profoasor* and pupils ; though, fVom it* almost insulated situation, it docs not attract so great a concourse as Edin. •T. AHBBiw's eannsaAi. burgh. Of the numerous coast towns, Anstruther in the east, and Kirkaldv in Ihc we*t, are the nrincipal ; the latter ha* even recovered lome foreign trade, and haa a considerable Unen manufacture There are two great ferries aero** the Forth, one at Pettycur, which It i* propowd to remove to Burntisland ; the other at North Queensferry, where, alone, cattle are transported aero**. In the Interior ttom thi* ferry, I* Dunfermline, now the mo*t flourishing town in Fife. In ancient time* it was a place of importance, and the firequent residence of royalty. Malcobn Canmore founded here an abbey, which bccune one of the lichett and moat apaciou* in the kingdom ; being, if we may believe Matthew of Westmmater, sufficient to contain the retinue of three court*. It wa* nearly demolished by the barbarous policy of bl- ward I., and auObred ttill more at the Reformation : yet iU ruin* evince its former *plendouri and part DooK U SCOTLAND. 4W tOCIIUVIUI OlITtl. •r lh«m hu bten tfiprapnaUd u the paruh church. On a qnt ImnMdiudy cMitlfUout, while a foundation ■u dlggliifl Cor a ntw church, the tomb of Bruce wu lately dlwovered. A ilngle wall )• all that rrmalni of ih'i once nwinlflcent palace. DunAtrmllne, no Ion ^r the fay realdence oT the 8coltUh court, li more UMftilljp dtitlDiulihed by a very extenilve manultetory of < \maik, diaper, and other flne linen Abrlce, which employ 1300 loomi, and yield an ntlmated annual produce of ISO,0UV. mM Kinrou, almott encloted by the western boundary of Fift), It icarcely entitled to rank at a leparate nuiitT. The caplUl, of the lame name, li a pitaiant little town, chiefly noted for lU iltuatlon on the ihoret oT iflchleTcn. Thl( If • Uttle lake, ofconddarabla beauty, haTlng, on an liland In Iti centre, a caitle ifig- 1!<7.)> anciently of treat iirentth, and noted "~ In hittory, even before (i acquired the romantic Intareit derived llrom the tmprlwnmenl of Mary, and her adven. turout cMape. Only a iquare tunetcd building and one of the walla of the chapel now remain. On another laland ai« the tracei of a very ancient and con> •Iderablts priory. tOBO. CfactHMMunwA/rf, a itlll •mailer appendage to Ftfo, extendi about eight milei along the upper ihore of the Forth, reaching flmott to Stirling, and backed by the high ridge of the OchUi : It li • pfeaiant little county, with a conildcr. able extent of flne cane land, and great quantltlei of coal and lime. The town of Clackmannan li chiefly dlittnguUhcd for the lieauty of Ita iltuatlon on a hill doping down to the ica. Cloac to it li an ancient tower, built by Hobcrt the Bruce, which commandi a very tut view. Alioa, two mllvi farther down, li a buiy and thriving little place, in whoic vicinity are large and wrikonductcd minei of coal, of which about 35,0U0 lona are annually exported. In Clackmannanihire are alao IheviUigci of Kennet-pani and Kllbagle, which have been long the leat of rm extenilve dlitlllerlen H6I. For/ar, more uiually termed Angui, It on the northern tide of the Tay : it it of tomewhat rou^h upect, the wcitern border being encroached upon by lower branchet of the Orampiani, while the SIdlaw Hilli, a range of contiderable height, traverte the centre. Between thote It • portion of the great valley ot iilrathniore, which it here fertile and beautlfbl, at it alio the plain between Sldiaw and the coait. 'llio agri- culture of Angut hat made contiderable progrett, though It It ttill behind that of the Lothlant. Ittprot- pnlly dependi chiefly upon manulkcturei, commerce, and flihery. The flrit it almoit entirely employed upon ill, chiefly In coarte fonnt i while the flihery It moitly of talmon, fbr the London market 2062. Dundti, though not the seat of the courts, is undoubtedly the first tonm in Forfar- ibire; and, indeed, ranks fourth in Scotland as to population and wealth. It was of early importance and strength, deriving its origin from Malcolm Caiunore ; and it obtained a filial celebrity through the sieges, first by Edward I., then by the Marquis of Montrose, and Ittt, by Monk, who gave it up to indiscrimate pillage. Dundee, however, has recovered from all these disasters, and is become one of the most flourishing commercial towns in Scotland. The t'lnploymcnt consists chiefly in importing flax and hemp; working up and exporting them in the shape of coarse manufactures. In the three years ending 31st May 1838, thi! average value of the imports was 1,205,7301, the leading articles being flax and codillo, m,890/.; hemp, 104,539/.; coals, 98,008/.; timber, 51,197/.; iron, 56,963/1; wheat, 28,532/.; lime, 11,179/. The average value of exports was 1,411,325/. : leading articles^ shwtlngs, 466,894/.; cotton bagging, 194,237/.; dowlas, 173,381/.; osnaburgs, 172,126/.; sail-cloth, 162,919/.; sacking, 126,791/.; barley, 39,649/. In 1792 the port owned 116 resscls, tonnage 8550. In 1838, they had increased to 318, tonnage 41,750. Nine vessels, of 3,177 tons, are engiiged in the Greenland fishery, ten snaacks in the Leith and Glasgow, and ten in the London trade, which employs also two magnificent steam vessels of GOO tons' burden each. The harbour, formerly tomewhat defective, has, tlnce 1816, been greatly enlarged by wet dorkt and other additiuni ; which, in May 18SS. had cott 865,00(W. The ferry hu been remarkably improved, par. liculatly by the use of twin tteam'boatt. In which loaded waggont can be forrled without unyoking iht horses. Above forty tpinnlng-millt are driven by tteam, andnew onet forming. A railway openi a communication Into the valley of Strathmore. The population, above itated at exceeding 45,000, thowi a rcmatiiable increase lince 1881, when It wat only 30,600. Dundee it agreeably tltuated on an emlnenceabove ihc Tay ; the old itrcett are narrow and iteep, but new and handiome one* are liullt and building in every dlrect'on ; and the vicinity it adorned with elegant viUat. There it an academy, dlttinguithed by the tclen> tific altainmenti of tome of itt teachers. iOGl Angut Mat other contideraUe and thriving towM. Arbroath carriei on, upon a imaller icale, the same l)ranches as Dundee ; and It adorned with the ruint of a magniflcent abbey. Montrose It prettily lituated at the mouth of a river, bearing, in common with many othert, the name of Etk. Itt trade and induitry arc con. lidcrable ; and it hat a lafe harbour. A number of the neighbouring gentry have been attracted by ita agree. able situation, which rendert it the gayett and moit faimonable place in the county. Forfar, the county ,„» town, but the tmalleit yet named. *^^ and lituated in the interior valley of Strathmore, ia chiefly lupported by the buiinett of the courtt : there It also a manufacture of brown llncnt, Brechin, another Inland town, lict in the midst of a rich country, adorned with flne scats ; and ita manufiuturct are considerable. Cupar Angus, to called though partly in Perthshire, ia a small town,agrecablvtltuated on the Itia, and is a great thoroughfare for travellert proceeding to and IVom the north. The village of Olammis it dli. tinguishcd by the magnificent castle (Jig. 19&) placed in lu immediate vb cinity. Hh GLAHMI8 CAtri.l. 466 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pjrt III. DUNHoTTAa CAtrra. 8064. KineariUnt, north of Angui, !• a county clcseW hsmmed In b; the Crampiani on the wnt ■ it -on taina, however, in ita louthcrn dlitrict, the termination of the great valley of Strathmore, which ii here called the " How of the Mearns ;" and, being sheltered by the mountain!, formi a tract equally fertile and delightftil. The 1 09 northern part, on the contrary, coniiin chiefly of mountains and moors of the most bleak and dreary aspect The coast is of great extent and very bold, presen'- ing in many parU high precipitous clifri covered with innumerable flocks of tea birds i on one of these, formed almost into an island, the extensive remains of the castle of Dnnnottar (fig. I99.), con- aidered formerly as imprcKnable, where the regalia of the kingdom were at one time dc|iositcd, look down on the stormv waves of the North Sea. Stonehaven, the county town, is a cheerful seaport; and besides being the seat of the courts, carries on some trade, and has a manufacture ol brown linen. Bervie is only a flihing village, but with the privileges of a royal burgh. Laurencekirk is a neatly built village in the interior, created by Lord Oardcnstone, who endowed it with a unall public library. It contains a manufacture of flnc snuff-boxes. Finnan, and other villages on the coast, are famed for haddocks, cured in a peculiar manner, many of which are expiorted. 2065. .Aberdeen is a large and important northern county. It has a very considerable line of coast, both to the east and to the north, and extends, with increasing breadth, far into the interior. There it forr>!i Mar, or Braemar, a highland district, one of the most elevated in the kingdom, some of the mountains rising to above 4000 feet, and containing extensive forests of ancient pines, with large fluclcs of wild deer, in the deep glens or valleys. From the heights of Braemar descend the Dee and the Don, the first of which forms some very pic. turesque falls in its early course ; they afterwards pursue yery different directions, but nearly meet at the town of Aberdeen. Even the Lowland districts are in general bleak and moorish, adapted only to the cultivation of inferior species of grain, and the rearing of cattle. Amid these disadvantages, the people of Aberdeenshire are, in general, stirring and indus- trious. The old staple fabric of knitting worsted stockings, which, it is said, brought once 120,000/. into the county, has been greatly injured by the cheapness with which these are now produced elsewhere by the aid of machinery ; but in its room other woollen branches, to- gether with those of linen and cotton, the latter to a considerable extent, have been introduced. The beautiful rock crystals called cnimgurms, and also the topaz and the beryl, are found in the mountains of Braemar ; and the fine granite which abounds near Aberdeen, the cutting of which is considered by Dakin as an art peculiarly Scottish, not only affords a valuable material for domestic use, but yields 12,000 tons to be annually shipped to London and elsewhere, for pavement, bridges, and other works which require peculiar strength, llie fisheries also constitute a leading occupation. That of salmon in the Don and Dec, and the whale-fishery, are extensive branches ; and from the German Ocean, haddocks, cod, ling, turbot, and shell-fish, are taken in great quantities. 2066. Aberdeen, " the queen of the North," and the largest city beyond the Forth, is situated between the Dee and the Don, where these rivers fall into the sea, at about two miles' distance from each other. Old Aberdeen is situated near the Don, whose banks here are highly picturesque ; but its entrance is obstructed by a natural bar, which rendered this harbour inadequate for the town, when it had entered on the career of commerce and industry. The mass of population had early settled on the banks of the Dee, the narrow entrance of which opens into a basin, forming an excellent harbour. It had, however, the serious disadvantage of a bar at its mouth, liable to continual increase by the saud blawn from the beach which extends along the coast. To obviate this, a mole of I '200 feet in length was carried out into the sea, under the direction of Smeaton and Telford ; and a channel has been formed, by which vessels of 700 tons may enter. Yet the swell of the ocean and the current of the Dee produced diflficulties which a steam tug-boat has re- medied. New Aberdeen is a handsome city, especially the principal street, composed of a long range of new and good houses, built of its fine granite. Its commerce, manufactures, and fishery are those of the county, all these branches centering in Aberdeen. This city is now the principal ship-building port in Scotland, possessing, in 1 836, 359 ships of 4 1 ,745 tons burden. The old town has rather the aspect of a village, if we except the detached houses of the professors of the university, and a range of villas, the opulent tenants of which have been attracted by the agreeable situation. It is adorned by the fine old edifice of King's College, from which rises a square tower, with a light and elegant crown. This seminar)', founded in 1494, by Bishop Elphinston, had for its first president Hector Boethius, and for some time it numbered Dr. Reid among its professors. The salaries are moderate, but thi! bursaries for poor schools arc very extensive. Attached to it is a library of considerable value. Marischal College, founded by the Earl Marischal, nearly a century later, is situated in the heart of New Aberdeen. It is not so well endowed as King's College ; hut m boast the distinguished names of Beattie, Campbell, and Gerard : it has an excellent cabinet »f natural philosophy, and a well-furnished observatory. Book I. SCOTLAND. 467 S067. The other toumi ttf Aberdeen are neither very large nor very Important. Peterhead !• an Improving pUce, being much flrequented both for (ea-bathlng and for a mineral water In Ita vicinity ; it has two naturd Wlwura, for the improvement of which government have contributed conaiderable sums, in consideration of Ihe shelter which they aflbrd to vessels navigating these stormy seas. It sends thirteen ships to the whale bhery, and carries on that of herrings with conslderdble spirit To the south is a range of precipitous cllffk, called the Bullers of Buchan, against which the waves dasn with perpetual fUry, Frascrsburgh, near the high promontory of Kinnaird's Head, where the coast turns westward, is a small port with some linen manufacture, liuntly, in the interior, and on the borders of Banff, Is a thriving and considerable place. Inverury, though the chief town in the heart of the county. Is decayed and poor ; but is expected to revive by means of tne canal, vhich connects it with Aberdeen. Kincardine O'NcU is only a pleasant village, looking up toward the moun. lain district of Har. 2068. Three counties, Banff", Moray, and Nairn, occupy that long range of coast, which, after passing, the limit of Aberdeen, continues to run westward, till it forms, ultimately, the northern shore of the Moray Frith. As in Aberdeenshire, interior districts border on tlie loftiest highlands ; but the coast, only diversified by gentle hills, is extremely agreeable and fertile. The whole of this coast constitutes the ancient province of Moray, which the early Scottish writers describe with admiration as the most fruitful part of Scotland, and as en- joying fifteen days more of summer than any other district. Even now, the climate is eitremely mild, and the soil excellent ; but being far surpassed in agricultural improve- ment by the Lothians and other lowland tracts, this province has lost its ancient pre- eminence. Modern improvements, however, are advancing, and will, probably, soon render it equally productive with any other in Scotland. It is watered by the three large rivers, the Deveron, the Spey, and the Findhom ; the two last rising in the distant recesses of Inverness-shire. They do not bring down from these barren tracts any article of trade except timber ; but they aiford ample fisheries of salmon, which is exported to the com- puted annual value of 25,000/. The herring fishery alsois now prosecuted with consider- able success. Then: are no considerable manufactures. WS. The toatu qf thii dittrict are not qf any great magnitude. Elgin, the principal, which sometimes gives it( name to the county of Moray, is an ancient town, not 111 built, situated on the Lossie, and has, at Lossie- mnuth, a tolerable little harbour ; but its chief distinction rests on its cathedral, which, even in ruin, may dispute with Melrose the glory of being the finest Gothic edifice in Scotland. After having been destroyed hy Alexander of Badenoch, it was rebuilt with high additional splendour, in 1414 ; but in 1568 the privy council ordcrcfl its leaden roof to be taken off for the payment of the army. From that time it gradually decayed; and in 1711 the great tower fell down. In a deep neighbouring valley are also the remains of the fine priory of Pluscardine. Banff is a somewhat larger and more thriving place, situated at the mouth of the Deveron ; carrying on some linen manufactures, and a considerable herring fishery. Portsoy, Cullen, Fochabers, all in BaiifTKhire, arc tolerable fishing towns ; the last carrying on all the trade of the Spey. The same cha- racter may be applied to Findhom, at the mouth of the river of that name. Nairn is a neat little county town, also at the moutli of a river of its own name, possessing some industry, and frequented for sea- bathing. SiiBSECT. 2. The Higtiland Countiet. 207O. T/ie Highlands of Scotland form a very extensive territory, comprising somewhat more than half the surface of Scotland. They include the whole region north of the Forth and Clyde, except the belt on the eastern coast, between the friths of Forth and Moray, vhich has just been described. The Highlands, in their aspect, differ from the Lowlands ; to a greater degree, indeed, than the Lowlands differ from England. This region consists altogether of continuous ranges of lofty mountains, which, on the borders, leave between them some of the fine and broad valleys called straths, but in the interior only the deep •nd ofVen rocky intervals called glens. They are peopled by a race totally distinct from tha Lowlanders. These mountaineers wear a costume, already described, quite peculiar to themselves ; they speak a Celtic dialect, deep, strong, and guttural, bearing no resem- blance to the Teutonic speech of the Lowlands and of England. They have ever main- tained that valour, which, under Galgacus, set bounds to the career of Roman conquest, and preserved their mountains untouched by the invader ; and they have since been con- verttd from formidable foes into gallant defenders of the rest of the empire. Down to the year 1745, they acted in clans, led by hereditary chiefs, to whom they were entirely devoted, and who exercised over them a paternal but absolute sway. This spirit of clanship led them to attach themselves strongly to the hereditary right of tlie Stuarts, of which, under Montrose, they gave powerful proofs, which had nearly turned the tide of war in its f^^vour. Afterwards, in 1745, they suddenly invaded England; and, in the absence of the army ments, allowing even a limited use of the appropriate dress ; and they have since ranked *'ith the bravest and most distinguished troops in the British army. Out of the forfeited estates and other funds voted by government, vast sums have been expended on the Cale- donian Canal, roads, bridges, and other great works for the improvrnivnt of this rude Hh 2 468 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paet 111. territory. The lairds, deprived of their absolute power, and attracted by the gaieties and luxuries of cities, soon accustomed themselves to view their estates only as <> material capitals, to be worked according to the great principles of political economy." The mul- titude of little spots, divided among vassals, in whose numbers they placed their strcnsth were thrown into large sheep-farms ; and the tenants, whose ancestors had occupied the soil since the days, perhaps, of Agricola, were driven out to seek, wherever they could find it a home, or at least a shelter. Some migrated to the lowland manufacturing cities, and a great proportion wjnt to America ; yet it is remarkable that, in consequence of the advance of commerce and fisheries, even the highland counties augmented their population durine this period, though not in the same proportipn as the Lowlands. Between 1801 and 1821 it increased from 434,000 to 513,000. There is one great manufacture, generally diffused throughout this region, which, unfortunately, tends rather to disturb the peace than to improve the condition of the community ; this is whiskey, which tlie people prepare in small stills from their bere, or coarse barley, and give it a flavour superior to any other spirit made in England or Scotland. But, besides the inflaming quality of the article itself the absurd fiscal regulations of the government, rendering it penal to make it on tlie small scale which alone suited the manufacturer, and prohibiting its admission into the low country gave rise to a most extensive system of contraband, carried on sometimes by large bodies of men, in open defiance of the power of government. A more liberal system, however, in both these respects, has now been adopted, and has already been attended with the happiest effects. 2071. 7%« Highlands are composed of two greal districts,-^ the west and the north. The former comprehends the shires of Dumbarton, Argyle, Bute, and part of Perth ; the latter embraces the counties of Inverness, Ross, Sutherland, &c. The Hebrides, or Western Isles, belong to the counties' of Bute, Argyle, Ross, and Inverness. The extent of the con- tinental district, from Dumbarton to the border of Caithness, is above 200 miles. 2072. Perth is a noble and extensive county, forming the link, as it were, between the Lowlands and Highlands ; in its different parts uniting the utmost beauty and fertility of the one with the highest grandeur of the other. The former qualities are conspicuous in the carse of Gowrie ; a broad sloping plain, on the north bank of the Tay, profusely covered with orchards and cultivated fields. The upper part of Stratheam, also, between Perth and Crieff, varied with gentle hills, cultivated valleys, and the windings of two great rivers, may almost be called ihe gardei. of Scotland. As we proceed to the north and west, the Grampians, appearing first as ilue distant masses, gradually swell, and constitute a mag- nificent back-ground to every landscape. At length they are found occupying the whole interior of the county, in a line from north-east to south-west, and comprehending the mighty summits of Ben Lawers, Benmore, Bengloe, Schehallion, Ben Voirlich, Bcniedi, Benvenue ; all from 3000 to upwards of 4000 feet high, and thus exceeding the boasted heights of Snowdon and Helvellyn. Within their recesses they enclose the three large lochs, Tay, Earn, and Katrine. As these lakes, though Iiemmed in by such vast mountain boundaries, do not present, generally, a desolate aspect, but are varied with woods and verdure, they exhibit in many parts scenes of almost magical grandeur and beauty. In the lowlands of Perth, agriculture is carried to great perfection ; and the rents in the carse of Gowrie are higher than in any other merely rural district. The highland tracts, on the contrary, are in general fit only for pasturage, or, in some favoured spots, for crops .of bere, oats, and flax. They are, however, covered with the remains of ancient forests, to which the great proprietors have been making very extensive additions. The towns of Perthshire participate in the different national manufactures : the bleachfields and print- fields are numerous ; but this can in no view be generally regarded as a manufacturing county. 2073. Perth is well built, and, as to situation, one of the most beautiful cities in the kingdom. The view of it from the north, in particular, in the heart of a finely wooded plain, with the Tay winding round it, and the Hill of Moncrieff rising above, is almost without a rival in the kingdom. Perth has always been an important place, and^ indeed, for a long time, might claim to be considered the capital of Scotland. It was tlie fre- quent residence of the kings. Parliaments and General Assemblies met there oflcncr tlian in any other place ; and, in the civil contests, the possession of Perth was considered of vital importance by the contending parties. At present it has declined to a rank decidedly provincial ; and its commerce, once considerable, has been almost wholly transferred to Dundee. Yet Perth is still a thriving and considerable place : it has linen and other ntu. nufactures, which produce an annual value of about 200,000/. ; while its advantageous site, and the excellent education afforded by the grammar school and academy, attract u number of the neighbouring gentry, and render it gay and fashionable. S074. The other tounu ()f Perlhthire arc ■mall, but dlitingulshcd for the grand and picturesque scenery amid which they are lituated. Dunkcid, in this respect, is generally considcrod tlic pride of Scotland. It cannot iKwut highland scenery on its greatest scale ; but the various forms of the finely wooded ami rncky liill) through which the Tay meanders, with the valleys and glens opening on every si Jo, produce a diversity of land. H'a|ic Karcely equalled elsewhere. The late Duke of Athul,whrse spaciousdomains tover this part of I'ertliihirc, Rook I. SCOTLAND. 469 VALr. or riRuAll* wa< indeed, moat active in rctpcct to plantationa, since tlioae of Dunkeld alone are itated by Dr. Maccul. loch to cover 11,000 acrca ; and the wliole number of treea planted by his grace to amount to ijO,000,000. A goo route of twenty miles, directly north, passing opposite to the fine mountain village of Loglerait, and through the bold pass of KiUlkrankie, leada to Blair, also part of the Athol territory, and one of the moat picturesque apota in Scotland. Ita striking features conaist in the lofty mountain Bengloe, the glena of the Tilt and the Garry, and the singularly picturesque rocky falla of the Bruar {flg. 900.). Westward ia Loch Rannoch, aurrounded' by extensive forests of flr, and overhung by Schehalllon, on whose lofty summit Dr. Maakelyne performed some of hla operations for the measurement of the earth. Out of it ilowa the Tumcl, a rapid stream, which forms a small lake, and some romantic cascades. From the bridge of the Tumel, a mili- tary road leads southward to Loch Tay, the largcat of the lakes, and aurrounded by the loftleat mountalna of Perth. ahlre. Ben Lawera, with a chain, acarcely aecondary, of attendant mountains, overhanga it txom the north : while Benmore shuts it in on the west ; and perhaps there ia no lake in Britain enclosed by so grand a circuit. The sides of the mountains are aomewnat naked : but the grounda of Taymoutb at the head of the loch, form a rich fureground. £075. Farther touth is the tale nf SIratheam, at one end of which, Crieff, a thrivins little town, tooka up on the windings of the river, and the vast mountains fVom amid which It issues. Farther up is the beautlfUl village of Comrle, presenting some Roman antiquities, and expoaed to slight ahocks of earthquake. Immediately beyond thla, the tiavcller finds himself enclosed by dark and rocky passes, leading to Loch Earn, a small lake, the waters of nliioh arc v.^ry clear and transparent, and which Is bounded on the south by grand ranges of very lofty wnR. The upper valleys of the Forth and the Teith have aome very remarkable scenery, particularly the Forth, whichj above Stirling, is the more considcahle stream. On its tributary, the Allan, is Dumblane ; a pleasantly situated little town, with the remains of a fine cathedral; and now rendered an object of considerable reaort bv a mineral spring recen>',- discovered at Airthrle in its vicinity. Up the river is Doune, with a cotton nianufarture, and the rei lains of a castle. Callender may be considered a highland village, being overhung by Ilcnicdi, along whose side the pass of Lenle leads into the interior highlands : it ia chiefly frequented as the key of IxKh Katrine, situated about ten miles to the westward, and approached by a narrow road along the small lakes of Venacnoir and Achray. The acenes of fairy beauty and grandeur which adorn the eastern ex- tremity of this lake, the mighty cliffs of Benvenuc, the wild wooded glen of the Trosacha, and the beautiful little island in the centre of the scene, are now familiar to the eyea of Scotsmen, celebrated as they have been in the verse of their favourite bard. Farther south, the Forth, rising from Ben Lomond, rolls through a pastoral mountain valley, once the seat of the power and the scene of the adventures of the outlaw Macgregor. It forms several little lakes, of which Loch Ard is the largest and most bcautif\il. On joining the Teith, near SlirlinR, the Forth, though every way inferior, has the fortune to give ita name to the united stream. It may be i-topcr to notice, that Perthshire shoots a narrow stripe between Fife and Clackmannan down to the Forth, on which stands Culross, properly a Fife town, near which are considerable minca of coal, not found in any other part of Perthshire. 2077. The county of Inverness, to the north of Perth, fills a vast mass of the central highlands, reaching at one point from sea to sea. It nowhere borders on any of the lower parts of the kingdom, but is purely and completely highland, presenting range after range of mountains, of which Ben Nevis, Cairngorm, and several others, are the most elevated in the United Kingdom. The intervals between them are filled either by long lakes, or by^ narrow glens, the level space of which does not usually exceed a mile in breath. The prin- cipal one, that called the Great Caledonian Glen, reaches from Inverness in an oblique di- rection across the kingdom, filled with an almost unbroken chii i of lakes,.— Lrch Ness, Locli Oich, Loch Lochy, and Loch Linnhe ; which last opens by the Sound of Mull into the western sea ; a continuity which suggested and facilitated the formation of the grand navigable line of the Caledonian Canal. The tracts reaching westward to the sea are, if nossible, still more vast and desolate ; glens, which run generally from east to west, are often tilled by these long arms of the sea called in Scotland lochs. In the east, the most re- markable district is that along the upper course of the Spey, bearing the name of Strathspey, and comprising an unusual extent of level land. In general only about a fortieth part of the county is understood to be capable of cultivation ; but that fortieth, composed of liatigh or alluvial land, on the banks of the rivers, or at the head of the lakes, is extremely fertile. By far tlic greatest branch of industry consists in the rearing of black cattle, sheep, and goats. Game of all kinds, including deer, abounds so much as to render the county a desirable resort for the adventurous sportsman ; and many of this class, even from England, take up tlicir summer residence in its mountain recesses. There are still considerable remains of the great Caledonian forest, composed chiefly of fir ; but the greater part is fallen, and its traces are found in the mosses which cover a great part of the county. Unlike most mountain tracts, this district does not yield minerals of any value ; and there is little to be said as to manufactures, if we except whiskey, for which some districts arc famous. 2078. Inverness, the gay capital of the Highlands, is of a very different character from that of the wild region over which it holds a sort of dominion. Seated on a bay, at the head of the Moray Frith, it partakes in a great measure of the mild and fertile character of its shores, and stands at some little distance from the awful ranges of mountains by which it is enclosed. After Nuflcriiig a considerable decline from its ancient importance, it has, within the last II h 3 470 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pam III. FALL ur rVBBS. thirty years, nearly tripled its extent and population. This is owing to the great resort of the neighbouring gentry, who are more than a hundred mile^ distant from any other city ; to the many tourists, who make this the centre of their excursions ; and to excellent institutions for fducation, which cannot elsewhere be found in the Highlands. In general, a consider, able polish of manners is observable ; and it has been remarked that the English language it spoken in greater purity than in any other part of Scotland ; a circumstance wliicli hat been ascribed to the residence of English officers after the battle of CuUoden. Inver- ness has a town house, infirmary, assembly-rooms, theatre,— all the appendages of a lowland city. Manufactures of hemp, flax, and tartanihave been established. The views, both of sea and land, in its vicinity, are almost unrivalled. 2079. Invernesi-shire has scarcely another place which can make much pretention to the name even of a village. The most prominent objects consist in the chain of forti which, after the alarm of 1745, were erected with the view of holding thcHighlands in check. FortOeorKP 201 cast of Invernesa, on a peninsula at the end of tlic Moray Frith, is of great strength, and regularly ---.. '• constructed. Fort Augustus and Fort William are ■ituated on the chain of lakes, the one at the opnu. site end of Loch Ness, and the other on Ix)ch I^y The garrisons have now hccn withdrawn, and ar! raiigcraents liad l)een made entirely to dismantle the forts ; but this last measure has hecii stcmncd The villages formed around these fnrts still siipiily with imported goods a vast extent of ill-inhaliiteil country. Near Fort William rises Ben Nevii usually considered the loftiest mountain in Scot.' land and in the United Kingdom, being 4,i7(| rect above the level of the sea. This momitain, how. ever, though steep and so lofty, is not picturesnuc in its form ; its summit is a naked plain strewed with rocks ; but the view is very extensive, cm. bracing a great portion of the Hebrides. To (lie east of Loch Ness, the rivulet of Fyers or I'oyeri (.fig. 201.), forms the greatest waterfall in Scotland: the lower or principal fall descends from a licight of 212 feet. The stream is not very copious ; Hul the accompaniment of rocks, either precipitoui or covered with birches, plants, and shrubs, renders the scene highly picturesque. The western coast, opposite to Skyc, is indented with several larL'c inlets or lochs, on which villages have been built, and the herring flshcry is prosecuted with considcralUe ipirit 2080. Avgi/lc, the next rfjw'sion, is very commonly called the Western Highlands. It is a wide and irregular territory, stretching into long promontories, and indented by deep arms of tlie sea, so us to form a coast of very great extent. In general, however, the shore is bordered by high hills and steeps, and the interior covered with ranges of rugged and iiwful mountains, similar to those of Inverness and the interior of Perth. Its industry, therefore, is almost entirely pastoral ; herds of black cattle and vast flocks of sheep are fed on the sides of its mountain;.. The manufactures are trifling ; and if Argyle possesses mines, they have not been worked with any vigour or success. But this county has actively improved the opportunities of fishery, which the wide range of its coasts affords. The herring of the west coast, and especially of Loch Fyne, enjoys a higher reputation than any other variic)* of that numerous and valuable species. It has been supposed that the spirit of clanship is felt in this county with greater ardour than in any other part even of the Scottish liigh- lands. The county is chiefly tenanted by Campbells, who were wont to rally round the Maccallummorc, a designation of their cliief the duke of Argyle, with all the ardour of kindred and national attachment; and several of the house of Argyle have exercised n peculiarly powerful and auspicious influence on the fortunes of Scotland. 2081. Uumbarlun forms a county which must be mentioned before wc enter into tlie 202 details of Argyle. Tlie greater part of it is properly a part of the same district ; yet it has a lowland stripe extending along the northern banks of the Clyde. The western part, though somewhat bleak, is marked by two grand features: the Great Canal, joining the Clyde at the village of Dunglass ; and the almost parallel line of the wall of Antoninus, called by the Scottish vulgar " Graham's dike." The ap- proach to Dumbarton affords one of the most striking prospects in Scotland ; the broad bosom of the Clyde covered with numerous vessels, and its castle f_^g.202.), the ancient and mighty hold of the Britons, towering on the summit of a perpendicular rock, and still maintaining its importance as a fortress. Dumbarton lias a largo manufactory of crown glass, which DirHHAmON rABTLR. llllOK li SCOTLAND. 471 torn i4iM0Nn> i« I'xporli'tl to ttll quartcra of the kingdom, as well as to foreign parts ; and on the banks of llm liovvti Ihvre are extensive printfields. Here terminates the lowland of Dumbarton, mill tliu rvHt forms naturally a part of Argyle, or the Western Highlands. aOH'J. /.ut'A Liitiiond (fg. 203.), the first great feature, both by its extent and beauty, forms the pride of Scotland, and is ^^5^ '203 r^^ celebrated through Britain. Other , ^liiC^ ', lakes may present picturesque ob- jects which it wants, and may have even a grander mountain curtain than that around its head ; but in the vast expanse of its waters, and the many beautiful islands with which it is studded, it can have no rival. From its foot, bordered by cultivated hills and ornamented villas, to its mountain head, there is a con- tinued transition from beauty to grandeur, and at the central point of \xm llit'y nru romnrkiihly united. The numerous and beautiful islands, and the long Hdiiik'il piHtinoiilorics stretching into tlie water, with the majestic form of Den Lomond in llii' liiu'k ground, produce a combination of landscape which perhaps no other spot in llrlliihi cnn t'qiml. Luss is a mere village ; and there is no other place on Loch Lomond mIiIi'Ii ciiii (li'iii'rve even that name, though there are inns at convenient distances. SHIH;). On ttmiing the head of Loch Long at Arrochar, a fine retired and tranquil scene, lli« vU'w opi'iiit Oh the romantic valley of GJcncroe. On entering it, the traveller is en- clow*! between two ranges of mountains rising almost perpendicularly to an amazing lid|(lit> iind lenvlng between them only a narrow vale, through which a rivulet flows. The i;ri'UtiieNN of nil the surrounding objects fills the traveller with sublime emotions, sometimes i'vvi) inliiuleil with terror; especially when, arrived at the hill which bounds thisestraor- iliimty viiU', he looks back and sees all its enormous features concentrated round him. The viili< lit' (iloiillnglas Is then passed, whose high sloping sides covered with innumerable flocks iiitplre plenvlng pastoral images, and at the termination of which appears the grand estuary ofl.ofh l'"yne. Inwmry) the capital of the Western Highlands, is situated near the head of Loch !i04 Fyne. Its environs are not moun- tainous ; but its noble castle {Jig- 204.), surrounded by wooded hills and wide lawns, the open extent of its prospects, with the lofty mountains which shut in the distant view, render it a magnificent and delightful spot. The other lakes inspire ideas of peace, retirement, and seclusion ; this delights by the display of almost regal pomp. The town itself is small and neat, without any employment, except that arising from the herring fishery, mill the vinllit of numerous strangers, whq are now conveyed by the steam packets in It'll or twelve luuirs from Glasgow. About ten miles below Inverary, the Crinan Canal joins [•oi'li )''yiie to the western sea, and has made Lochgilphead a place of some consequence. I'lii'tlier tlowti is West Tarbct, a pleasing little town, situated on a rocky isthmus in the toiitolii Inliiy. 8(18,1, 7'*i> tHlftht' (iMif Ihc \mlem coast of Areyleshire are in many respects interestine. Parallel to Loch Fyiii', nnlii< illKtniit'c nf tpii nr twelve milca, is the long line of lyoch Awe^ an interior lake, over wlioie head 20H-I, INVBRAIIV CARTMI. liiwem ItiMi Cnini'linii, the loltlcit summit in Argyle. The castle of Kilchurn, riling on one of the ialands, |>riiiliii'iit> Inliirliir, tl* lipnd is enrlnsed by ranges of high and steen mountains, and its lower part displays the |iluiiiiiiiiii' itml It liiiiD trnin at white billows. This fall appears only at low water, when it is six feet high, but ii riivi'Titl liver liy the sea on the rising of the tide. At a corner of this lake is Bunawe, where a Lancashire rnmiiHiiy miine years Hgn eslnblished an iron foundery, now nearly abandoned. " ""'■'■ "'iiehKtlv " • "■ ..... I III Oren t preelnlcps I at the tmttnm of which, in a deep chi Mnm It the < imih nf Osninn, lielicved the favourite haunt of that celebrated Caledonian bard. The vale has also . , , rs Hgn established an iron foundery, now nearly abandoned. Climbing the high mountains •I Hie lieitd of Ijich Ktive, we come to an awfUl recess, Glencoe, which in terrific grandeur surpasses perhaps rvtiry oilier siiiit In Orent llrltaln. This effect is produced by its bold and broken mountain rormi, Its spiry rm'ki, mill lilnek preelnlces i at the bottom of which, in a deep chasm or ravine, flows the rivulet of Coe, This ilrenm It the < imih nf Osninn, lielicved the favourite haunt of that celebrated Caledonian bard. The vale has also « (lliniiiiy reeiillei'lliiM attached to It, fVom the massacre of 1691, which was inspired by private vengeance, but III wlili'li the untielliiii of William III. was surreptitiously obtained : but the enquiry into this transaction never Mllilleil the liAlliili, Emerging fVnm this gloomy scene, the traveller is cheered with the gay aspect of Loch l iiimrrles nf slate, VM, thf n><<»*liiif ami vnrltii v beautiftil dUtrict, diTcriifled with fine wooda, rich paaturaoe, and more culture than li uiual In ArayrMhlM: On the oppodte aide of the Linnhe Loch ia a wide, triangurar, and pcniniular diatrict called Anlnoiniirtihiiii acparated only by a narrow aound ttom the laland of MuIL It preienta the uaual highland •oenery. wllhnui any thing bold or peculiar; but the central diatrict of Strontian, betidea the earth bearing Ka name, cnnlilni nnt near ao lofty aa In central Argyle, and there ia a greater proportion of level land. Campbclllown, near Ita aouthcrn extremity, ia a thriving port, now the largeat on thia coaat, ^nd aervlng In partlvular aa a general rcndeivoua for the herring fiahery. 2087. The three extreme counties, Ross, Cromarty, and Sutherland, form tho most rvmoto and northerly portion of the Highlands, and, Caithness excepted, of all tho mainlaiul. The |)rla. tors, or the Board for the Encouragement of the Fisheries, have erected vilTogcs, with tlio view of employing in the herring fishery the natives ejected in consequence of the modern Kyutcm of sheep-farming ; and the success has been very considerable. Tho principal of llivso stations is Ullapool on Loch Broom, a considerable village, with an excellent and Hpncious harbour. The most picturesque of the western lakes is Loch Maree, which is almost oncloted by land, with a fine circuit of mountain, and in the number of its wooded islands rcneiuhiei Loch Lomond, Cnpc Wrath, the north-eastern point of Scotland, is a lofVy pyraniidnl rtH'k, standing in fVont of a vast rniiKo of 206 broken cliffs, and breasting tho whole wide expanse of the ocean. On the northern coast in Loch Erilral) a wide inlet, bordered by limcstono rocki, perforated by caves of groat extent and remarkable form. Sutlivrlniid presents numerous Duns, or onciont forts of peculiar struct .'O, of which the most remarkable is Dun Dorna- dilla (Jig. 208.), situated on tlio lofty sides of Bon Hope, not fiur tVom Loch Eribol. HL'N JJORN&llILr.A. 3. Of the small lov-ns in this northern region, Cromarty, the capital of the little county of the aanio iiamp, ! at the foot of its own filth ; while Dingwall, the county town of Roaa, la aituatcd at the hi-nd, Tliln lYIlh a noble and secure bay, which would be or the greatest value In a commercial imrt of the khiKilnin, ««8. atands a forma a noble and secure bay, „ .... , . , . , Cromarty is now a very considerable fishing station ; and Dingwall has done a good deal to improve \tt iiwii harbour. On the south side of the Dornoch Frith ia Tain, where a good academy hiu lately liceii enlalillnlliil i and on the north ia Dornoch, an ancient town, once the aeat of the Bishop of Caithness, of whose i'«lli«lr«l aome part atill remalna. 2089. Caithness forms the north-eastern angle of Scotland, connecting it with tho nortliern islands. Though enclosed by the Highlands, it is scarcely a highland county, being tra- versed indeed by ranges of low hills ; but only the Paps of Coithness, as they are callwl, rise to the character of mountains. Its surface is moist, bleak, and bare, filled with little liikcn, and covered with extensive moors. There are, however, about 50,000 acres of arable land, on which are raised oats and here sufficient for internal consumption. Tho chief brnncli of industry is now the herring fishery, upon an immense scale, and on tho very ground formerly monopolised by the Dutch. Kelp to a considerable extent is also made from the sea-weed thrown on its shores. Thurso, the county town, is a handsome and improving place, in the midst of a cultivated country. Its bay affbrds a safe roadstead, peculiarly valuable for ships, which, in rounding the north of Scotland, must pass through tho I'ontlund Frith, rendered dnngerous by its violent and rapid currents. Wick, tho grand rcndcivoub of Book I. Pam III. Book f. SCOTLAND. 479 the herring fishery, attracts vessels even from remote parts of Scotland, and owes to this advaiw tase a very rapid increase. The north-eastern point of Caithness and of Scotland bears the familiar appellation of John O'Groat's house ; though Dr. Macculloch assures us that there is not even the vestige of a house to correspond to this title, which is founded on a mere tradilionary story. SuBBicT. 3. ScotHA Iilandt. J209O. The ulandt ap}>endant on Scotland form one of its most extensive and conspicuous features. Though neither rich nor fertile in proportion to their extent, they exhibit a great variety of bold and striking scenery, and are peopled by a race whose habits of life and forms of society are peculiar to themselves, and more inartificial than those of perhaps any other people of Europe. They may be divided into the islands at the mouth of the Clyde, the Hebrides, or Western Islands, and the Northern Islands, or those of Orkney and Shetland. •J091. The islands of the Clyde are chiefly Bute and Arran, with the smaller ones of the Cutnbrays and Ailsa. Bute is of beautiful aspect, green, rocky, and hilly, with a climate accounted the mildest in Scotland, and for that reason resorted to by consumptive and other invalids. It has not within itself any alpine features, yet has in full view the high ranges of Argylcshire and the spiry summits of Arran. Extensive plantations have been formed by the Marquess of Bute ; and a considerable part of the surface is arable and well cultivated. Roth- say is a gay pretty town, on the route of all the steam-packets which proceed to the Western Isles, much frequented for sea-bathing, and enriched by a considerable herring .ishery. Arran presents much bold alpine scenery, the central mountain of Goatfield rising to nearly the height of 3000 feet, while the glen of Sunox at its base has the highest character of savage and romantic grandeur. The agriculture of Arran, which labours under many obstacles, and was long in a backward state, has lately been much improved. Lamlash, the principal town, pos- sesses an excellent harbour, formed chiefly by the island opposite to it, in which there was onrc a large monastery, and which is valuable from the safe refuge it aiTords to the shipping of the Clyde. 2092. OS tmaller iilandt may lie noticed, almost immediately at the mouth of the flrith, the two Cumbrayi, the larger of which presents to the sea a sloping and fertile surface ; the smaller ia rocky, containing only a lightliouic. Ailta, off the Ayrshire coast, is a rock 1000 feet high : and its lofty basaltic cliSk, formed into columns several hundred feet in height, and covered with clouds of sea fowl, render it a striking and rtmarkalilc object 2093. The Hebrides, or Western Islands, are a much more extensive and varied group. From nearly the southern point of Argyle, they extend along the western coast of Scotland, and stretch pretty far into the Atlantic. Their general aspect is highland in the extreme, with rude rocks and mountains, deep and dark valleys, large expanses of peat moss, hill pas- tures and scanty harvests ; yet they have some peculiarities. The mountains ascend rather in single peaks than in long ranges ; and the rocky clifTs which face the sea assume, in many places, columnar forms of peculiar grandeur. There are none of the extended lochs pecu- liar to the Highlands ; but the little lakes, or large pcnds, are almost innumerable. Con- siderable tracts of sandy soil occur, in some parts tolerably fertile, though liable to be blown by the winds ; and several tracts are covered with a profusion of beautiful flowers. The climate is extremely moist ; yet it is milder, and the seasons are somewhat earlier, than on the mainland. These islands have passed through several vicissitudes. The earliest possessors seem to have been Celtic. About the eleventh century, they were conquered, along with Orkney, Shetland, and Man, by Harold Harfager, and were governed for several centuries by a Norwegian dynasty, which appears to have included able and enlightened princes. Their power, however, was broken by the battle of Largs ; soon after which the Hebi'ides owned the nominal sovereignty of the Scottish kings, but fell really under the sway of the Macdonalds, lords of the Isles, partly of Norwegian descent. Their territory, in- cluding a great part of the west coast of Scotland, formed a considerable power, till the severe check sustained at Harlaw in 1411 ; after which time it fell partly under the dominion of the Scottish crown, and was partly divided among a number of petty chiefs, whose feuds and conflicts deform the subsequent pages of Hebridean history. At present these islands may be considered as retaining more of the spirit of clanship, and of the genuine original highland habits and feelings, than any part of the mainland. 2094. The Hebrides may be divided into two mdn ranges. One of them consists of the large islands of Islay, Jura, Mull, and Skye, with several minor attendants, which are nearly contiguous to the west coast, and separated from it only by narrow straits and sounds ; the other is composed of North and South Uist, Harris, Lewis, which are considerably out at sea, and arc classed, with no very strict propriety, under the general appellation of Long Island. S09S, May has an aspect somewhat diflbrent fVom that of the other Hebrides : it contains a good deal of level and fertile territory, with mountains neither very lofty nor very rugged. These advantages, though attended with a diminution of picturesque efffect, were sufficient to induce the lords of the Isles to make Islay their residence ; so that " the kings that in Islay kept state " are enumerated as at the head of the insular potentates. More recently an active spirit of improvement has visited Islay. Opulent tenants have Introduced improved modes of cultivation ; good crops of barley, oats, and even wheat, are raised ; and the black cattle, 474 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGBAPHY. Pam in. which fomi the main cx|iort, arc held in great cttimation. It hat even a manufacture of Itncni which >» exported to the value uf ubout MMl. and contalna lead minei, though of no great value. The ruined churchn are pretty numeroua : but upon the whole there are no lemaini to attett the icat of any iplcndld monarcliv Bowmore i< a large village, or even (mall town, at the extremity of the largeit loch, Uaal, well fVequcntcd bv •hipping. ' 'MM Jura is icparatcd flrom lalay only by a aound, the onpoaitc aides of which correapond so exactly as to lURgcat the idea ul' their having been diajoincd by some violent shock. The laland ilacIA extending twcnty.iix miles along the parallel coast of KnaiHlalc, is bleak and bare, even beyond most of the Highlands ' it is "one continued tract of bruwn and roi'ky mountain pasture." Its mountains fonn a long continuous ridge which rises at the southern |H)int into three detached and conical summits, called I'aps : these make an iniixitiiiii appearance from a distance ; but in the interior no striking object occurs, though the view from the summit is very extensive. The western coast consists of rugged ruck* traversed by torrents, and often broken into caves but has scarcely any inhabitants. The eastern snore, as it slopes down Arom the mountains, has some level and inhabited tracts ; though all the inhabitants, if collected, wculd scarcclv people a Urge village. In a line with Jura, fur several miles, extends Scarba, consisting of a single conical mountain broken into rocky i>re eipices, and forming on the eastern side a very striking and romantic object Between Jura and Scarba ii the iwrilous strait of Corry vrekan, a whirliHX)! noted for shipwreck, t'olonsay and Oronsay, considerably to the north-west of Jura, form one long small island, the channel between them being passable at low water The former, in the interior at least, has rather a peculiarly vcrdunt and smiling appearance ; while at Uronsay are seen the remains of a priory, ranking as the lincst in the Hi^hlanils next to that of lona. 2U!)7. MuU is a large, round, rough, stormy island, with winding and deeply indented shores, separated by a long narrow scund from the rudest part of the Argyleshirc coast, ^he interior la a confused troubled hcapof mountains, destitute, in general, of any thing striking or picturesque. The shores arc almost every where rocky and precipitous, presenting, es|ieciallyon the western coast, Intcrcating varieticj, rocky iabyrintlis deep recesses, and ravines clothed with shrubs. The two once mighty holds of iJuart and Aros crown rocliy cliHk on ditterent iiointa of its eastern shore. The great keep of tlie former, with its walls nine feet thick, encloses an area of tliirty-six feet by twelve. The industry of the people of Mull consists chiefly in rearing a small breed of black cattle, and black-faced sheep, celebrated for tncir delicate mutton. Of the former al)out 1,'iOO and of the latter VM), are exported ; also OM tons of kelp, and a considerable quantitv of herrings. The IloarJ of Trustees for Scottish flshcriea have built at Tobermory rather a handsome and rapidly increasing little town. But Mull is chiefly remarkable for its amall inaular apiendages on the west, Stanit and luna, 2098. Slaffit is a small island, or rather large rock, about a mile and a half roimd, and encircled by cliffs, which, according to Dr. MaccuUoch, nowhere exceed in height 144 feet but contain a wonder of nature, to which she has scarcely produced elsewhere a parallel. This is the Cave of Fingal (Jig. 207.), as it is called, which remained unobserved, amid its rocky barriers and stormy seas, till 1772, when Mr. Leash, an Irish gentleman, on a fishing excursion, Discovered this cave, and gave notice of it to Sir Joseph Banks, who visited Staifa, and made it known to the world. Almost all the rocks of the island are basaltic 207 riKOALS CAYS. and columnar ; but here they are arranged so as to produce the most singular and magnificent efl'ect. An opening, sixty-six feet high and forty-two wide, formed by perpendicular walls terminated by an arch at the top, admits into a natural hall, more than two hun- dred feet long, and bounded on each side by basaltic columns rising in regular symmetrical sutcession. The above dimensions are those given by Dr. MaccuUoch, and considerably lower than the result of the original measurement by Sir Joseph Banks. Two other caves, the Connorants' Cave and the Boats' Cave, present similar scenes, but with interesting varieties. Of the columnar rocks, which extend over a great part of the island, many are bent and twisted in a remarkable and very beautiful manner. 2099. lona (Jig. 208.) is a small island near StafTa, of greater extent, with some cul- ture, and a scanty population, b-it no natural features that deserve notice. Yet it excites the deepest interest by ■■.-'' ^" the venerable ruins which attest, in this secluded comer, the early existence of religion and learning, at a time when the rest of the kingdom was buried in barbarism. Amid all the uncertainty of our early liistory, it appears certain that St. Columba, about the middle of the sixth century, founded here a monastery, and made it a centre whence he en- deavoured to diflTuse the Book 1. (it'OTI.ANl). 475 light of Christianity. Tliii roligiuuii etlftbllilimont wm enriched and extended, and • nunnery wai afterwards instituted under the sanM auspires. Tiie Culdees, or foliowen of Columba, appear to have rendered very Krvnt svrvlcei to llritain, and even to the whole North. Teachers were often drawn iVoin auiung tht'in for seuiinnries in England ; and they undertooli missionary expeditions to Norwny, and evvit lo Utinsln. They taught, in a gnat measure, the pure principles of primitive Christianity, rt tacter, and only rcinarkalilu for tlio riM'ky »\\v iil'llii< riiliifd caitlu of Calriibury. About twenty miles west. ward of Mull are the two long narrow slrljiuii iif Cull nnil 'I'Irve, M'lmratcd IVoin each other by one of the usual narrow sounds. Tiree presents a very strlKliiK I'lmlrttst to Ihu other Isles, being so low and Hat, that it a|ipeari {u if the waves would sweep across it. TIid siiII U KHiiily. hut In Kcnerul very fertile in the highland grains, mti and bear : it carries on a cnnslderHlilu llsht'ry | itntl lins veins of flue marble. Coll presents a quite dilTerciit aspect, being composeil of riM'ky hills, Willi tirimd lUt topi t so that from a height it appears a mere unvaried plain of roek. Aotween these lilllsi hiiwthiire exhibits an almost continuous range of per]icndicular cliffs, about am feet high, with only (leeiislniml oiit'iiliiiis, tiilsnil, almvc this, rises the Stcrr, consisting of rows of basaltic columns, in many plaeus taller llinii IIiimc of Ntallh, though they nowhere form the same regular and majestic dome. Still mure niarkeil Hrt< llie Ciu'liullln llllls, on the south-eastern coast, which piescnt crowds of rugged and broken suniinlls, niiire resenihlliig the Alps than those of any other part of mitain. Within their recesses. Dr. Maceiilineh trHceil t.tH'h Ncavlg and Olen Coruisk, which lost he considers as superior in gloomy grandeur even to llleiii'iiiv In Nlriithnlril, nnproaching to the southern point, is the celebrated spar cave; it is about S.'iO IVet IVoiii tllt< I'lilriilii'c to the extre.nlty ) but a great part of^ the passage li gloomy and rocky, and only in its most inlerinr piirt ihi tlieslnlnetltes begin to branch out into that variety of intricate and brilliant ornaments which nmk^ lh|i envp so lienutliUl, The great body of the island is described as a hilly moorland, barren, brown, and ruggetl I Hh' lieski bring generally tVom £(X) to ItJOO feet high. The eastern coast of Sleat or Slate, the most sinitlieril peiillislilH, and In the north, the shores of Loch Bracadale and Loch Sniaort, and the jilaln of Klliniilr, Hrt> level mid arable. Almost the sole occupation is the rcarini; of cuttle, which are ot^giKxl nuallty, and lll« eHjiiirtHtlon uf which, with that of a considerable quantity of kelp, forms the chief trade of the islanil i Uriio iiUHlilllles of herrings are also taken, and cured by flsnermen who carry on this branch of coinmoree un a siimll senle. The only places which can be called towns are Broailford and Portree, on the eastern euait, which limlnlitlti the communication with the continent The nro|)erty of Skyeis almost shared between the lUnilly of l.4iril Macdonald, who claims descent fVom the ancient lords of the Isles, and that shores, large quantities of kelp are produced, which yield considerable profit. 211)4. Lewis is the largest of all the Hehri'les, lielng imwsrdl of eighty miles fVom north-west to south-east, and at some points more than twenty In breadth, It Is nut, however, favoured by nature, but presents the general bleak aspect of the western Hebrides, with only A grti#tl belt alona the coast. Of its inhabitants, those occupy. ing its most northern imint, called the llult of liewls, A|i|ieNr to tic Danish ; the remnant of that colony who once ruled the island. The |ieo|ile are Indiialrliiuil In cull Iviitliig their rudu soil, and in the fisheries, which have rendered Stornowuy, the eapitul uf Lewis, H place nrsuine consideration, even in this remote region. It «rt DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paut hi. mce. ' atpecl qf Long liland, of who«c length two in breadth,!! flat and •andy, nrmluniiK I nKWt dreary oipect : In the middle, l»i(« Ml mada a borough by Jamft VI., and III |iment prmpcrUy li markod by the fbundatlon of a niw town or fcwiand aipect ' iilOS. Lewlt km tome imall hul $trikln$ nppfn^agfi. To tho cut arc the Shiant hiandi, the largcit of which Qarlvellan, prewnti to the tea a ranxv of cnliiinnar cim mnr« than half a mile lonft, and varylnR in heiuht firom 300 to 'iuu Aict, one of I ho niiMt nia|inllli'ir, with xinio rich verdure, but chiefly remarkable for the iwarmi nf aca. fowl which All tho air with miiUlludlnoui clamour, About ilxtcen mllei to the north li Rona, luiipoaed the •xtrcme north.wett |iolnt of Brltnln. It It almul a mile Ioor, and. In high leaa, the tpray of the Allaiilic iwecpi entirely over It Yet It hai green and IV>rtll« land, occuiilcd and cultivated by a (ingle tenant SlWi. Harrii, a pcniniula on the Miuthvrn imlnt nf Lewli, and almoit ranked ai a leparate Itland, la of rerv different aipect, coniUtlng of a niau of ruggwl mc ki, whict project In long promontorlet Into the ica, givitiK to the ihore a very pIctureMue ai|ievt The arable iiatohei are imall, and In luch Inacceuible titct that the? cannot in general lie reached without great lalMiur, and can bo cultivated only by the ipade. Shccu arc more numeroui than black cattle, being better ailanteil to thin rugged (urflice. filU7. Norik and South I'M. vitk Hfnhfi'Mla, etUhIt Iht gmrral atpt they compote about eighty inllca. The wolcrn tliorc. ftir a mile or two ' in tummcr tolerable cro|it of oat* and bear, l>ut wearing In winter a md , peat-mowei, laket, and |iandt, without ninnlM nV loch*. The cattle are imali, and not rx|Mirtccndicularly IVom the aummit to the baac. " I)iiiy heighta, fVom which the eye uioka down over Jutting rraga t n Imlllng aea below, without a boundary ; dark cllHli beaten by a foaming atirge. and lual In the ulm opposite sides. The Pcntland Frith, in particular, between Orkney and tlio Mainlandi is a most formidable passage. The opposing *Har, V^*' »•? ^,»» N..iiiirij'HiiM.i«., ^i^ gironintu N, R»nalJa«yTth, ■■<■«, llolniaaf l^M^^^ "'" •••lapi '•■loft D, •l' Itnhn hil n Mmna* ^iirnm lid, l.ninhlld. «plMiha > llurnty I. _^'<'rininru H*' ¥niiili Itaiialilshay "nnitliy Mil, Be/ercncft lu Ihf Map ntlhe Orkney tilandi. NORTH RONALD- WBSTRAV. V. Klrklm.tcr n, Hibn Ifi. Bursal !. Bring KHAY. 1. Nawark ». Holland. 7. Kirkwall 17. niru .1. Air 1. Holland. a. Htnonuy 3. Pjniwall, a. Kirlh IS. Marwlck 4. S. Walbj. POMONA nr MAINLAND. n. Ncapa ig. Kirknm SANDAY. U. Wank m. Holorow SOUTH RONALD. 1. Tattsneu ROUSAV. 1. HI, AmIrvwV I.Oriildr HI. Nanilwick KHAY. S, R»il 1. 8a'*= -■''' ' iiauil Nin, '< Dili '^ lluuliiirKh •> V.ky 4 -S^>^ ""•«/, ifttW^'Voe -Fiihliu»^jj„,„y "'H'll.StVI. kumkit \ GrMholm 'BRESSAVh J'fc'NaM I. ^S^nianl ol' UnM>T 1 9^5-'""''" New -Orfciiimlty NcM "he I'uol M»>™'"* tAllh, sheep Cray Eiigllth Milei 10 _L_ improved. It has a good natural harbour, unimproved however by art. Stromnesi has one of the baX harbours in the kingdom, and since it was emancipated flrom the thraldom in which It had been held by Kirkwall, it hat rapidly extended, and become the favouritt resort of vessels which seek on this coast for shelter and reflreshment Near Stromness Is that remarkable piece of antiquity the " stand, ing stones of Stennis," which in magnltudeand singular character almost rivals Stonehenge. Shaplnshay, Stronsay, Rousay, Eday.Westray, Papa, and Sanday, are small Islands stretching to the north-east Barra and South Ronald, shay are towards Caithness ; and to the west the long bland of Hoy, which, diffbring ttom the rest, presents a series of bold and rugged promontories to the mariner who has paued through the Pentland Frith, and who, in quitting Hoyhcad, plunges into the boundless waste of the Atlantic. 2113. The Zetland or Shetland Islands, called by the natives Hialt> land, must close our survey of Britain. Though not, as imagined by the ancients, the remotest boundary of the habitable world, yet they form one of the boldest extremities of Europe, encircled by the illimitable extent of the Arctic and Atlantic oceans. Placed thus far north, and amid so wide a waste of waters, the climate of Zetland is cold, bleak, swept by furious winds, and deluged by tor- rents of rain. The surface is rugged, without being mountainous; it is every where penetrated, not by the mountain lakes of the Highlands and Isles, but by long lagoons with flat shores, called voes, by which even the largest islands are so intersected, that there is scarcely a spot in them two miles distant from the sea. The ex- tensive mosses, and the trunks of trees dug out of them, prove that a vast I'lpaiue was once covered with natural forests ; but these are now totally eradicated, and the violence of the winds and sea-spray has rendered abortive every attempt to replace them, UNST. 1. Norwich 8. Vesuarth '■ New Kirk. VEM,. 1 WiniUiuiuu 9. Manso 3. S.indwick 4. ttucja. MAINLAND. 1. Skea Btferences to the Map qfthe Shetland Islands, 3. Orbusta 4. Stennesa 5. Hutherhouie fi. Deal 7. Urough 9. Berllld 10. Mdln 11. Mucklura It. Culswirk 13. SanUMiDK 15. Dingwall 16. Lerwick 17. St. Haul's 18. Maywick lU. UlKtown SO. Quendal. BRESSAY. 1. (iardli i. St. Andnw^ i: 47S DESCRIPTIVE OEOUHAPIIY. J'aut 111. •o that th« Mpect of (ha country it now completely naked, icarccly producing even u •hrub. The coaita are peculiarly iteep, rocky, and bold, the rocki being tiollowed into deep cavernt, and broken into precipices and cliffii of the moit variud formt. The anpect uf thiiw thoree, against which tlie wave* of the great lurrounding ocean davh with almott perpviud Airy, it equally grand and terrible. The author of "The Pirate "drawt a nimt liwU picture of thcHO " deep and dangerous teas of the north, their precipices and headlands many hundred feet in height — thi'ir perilous straits, and currents, and eddies — long sunken reefs of rock, over which the vivid ocean foams and boils, — dark cavernn, to whose eitrcmitlcs neither man nor skiff has ever ventured, — lonely ar.d often uninhabited iitjefi, and occasionally the ruins of ancient northern fastnesses, dimly teen by the feeble light uf the arctic winter," The dangers of the navigation, however, are considerably mitigated by the spacious and commodious havens, formed by the deep bays and voe$, or by the sounds ind clianneli, between different islands, • 9114. At to induilry awl produce, the Shetland IiUndi remain in a low state. The; contain about 90000 acres of arable land, and nearly a> many of Rood meadow ) but thit cnmprtMS little more than a twentieth I'lart of the turt'oce, all the rcit conalntlng of waalc or common, on which the horiet, cattle, and ihecp arc luriicd oat, to And pailuret as belt Ihcv may. The horaoi are of a very amall liie, with a huge mane, but aillve and hardy. The cowi are equally dimlnutiTe, and rIvc very little milk, but twth the milk and the ncah are (jf ucmhI auallly. The therp are moit numc-rout of all, iH'ing reckonetl at •cvpnty or eiKhty Ihnunand ; they arc ■tuiiti'd ke the other anlmala, and their wool very icanty ; but tome of it ia peculiarlv tine, aWirdlns the material of almoit the only manuracture of Shetland, and one of the tineit in the world, — that ol knit hoaiery, nf a texture •o cloip, inn, and warm, as to render it* uie quite a luxury. The Krcateit branch of Shetland induatry, lidw. ever, ii the nihery : not nf herrinKi, but of cihI and ling for aaltlnit and drylns. All the coanta nb-iuiul with theie fish ; and, within the laiit few yean, a [>eculiarly rich and extenaive bank ha> been dlacovered In the witi ward. At the pro|ier waioii, fleet* of InwIi iaiue fVom all the bay* and vuex to tlie hanf or deep.sr,i tUhcry which i* carrieil nn, nut without ueril, ut the dlitunce of from twenty to thirty miles fVnm the most. The flshcrmcn arc supplied bv the landlord* with boat* and Implements, on condition of deliveriOK to tliem the llib at a stipulated rate ) and as their farms are held at will, they are, fVom this natural comblimtiiin of rlrrum. stances, iilaccd In a state of vassalage more complete, perhaps, than any other cloaa In the I'niti'd Kliindom 81 15. the annaU qf Shelland are Norwegian. Those ialands, according to the earliest tradition, were iHxipied from Norway. In the ninth century they were cnmiueretl by Harold Harfoger, or the Kair-halriil, the moit powerful and formidable of all the aeo-kings of the north. The Norwegian sway extendefl for aeverai ccntutiei over all the Scottish island* ; but in the Shetlands it was undisputed, till the cession of them, along with those of Orkney, as the dowry of a princess of Norway married to .lame* III., In the end of the lineenlh century. SI lAi The topographical ilelailt of S/ielland arc not of great magnitude. I.erwlck, Its capital, would In the Lowland* be coniioered rather a thriving village, ill and irregidarly built, but improving. The npnwite Island of Ilresaay fiirni* llressay Sound, one of the lincat hnrlmuia in the world, and the rendeivous of all the vessels destined for the north and the whale tishcry. Ulf Bre.'say Is the most remarkable of the rock iihciio. „, , menaofShctlanditheNoss(rtff.SU.l,a9mallhiKh *t» island, with a flat summit, girt on all ildcaliviwr. pcndlcular walls of rock. The communication with the coast of lirearay itself is mninlainwl by strong ropes stretched across, along uhich s cratlle is run, In which the passenger la seated. The promontories of Sumburgb and Fitful Head, at the southern extremity of the Muliilaiul, arc also distinguished by the boldness of t lieir aspect and the perils with which they threaten the mariner. Scalloway, notwithstanding its ex. cellent harbour, and its lm|mrtancc In early times, has dwindled Into an InsigniHrant tithing village. The number of the Shetkinda haa been variously estimated, according to the Kriulatlorii of islets and rocks included ; but only alHJUt forty arc Inhabited. Of these. Yell and l/iist, stretch. ing northwards fVom the Mainland, are alone of any magnitude. The Inst, though the niott northerly, is rather the most fertile of any, and distinguished by its numerous caves. Ad. jacent to Yell is Ketlar j on the eaat of the Mainland arc W'halsay and Dressay ; to the weit, Burra, Housa, Frondray, Papa Stour, Mlckle and Little Rhoe, all so close as to be little more than peninaulai. Considerably out at sea, Foula, a small rocky Islet, faces the Atlantic, with high cliflk covered with nuinbcrleu flocks of sealfowL iroas HOLM, SftVTLANP. Chap. IV. 2117. Ireland u a fine and extensuv island, situated to the west of England, and forming one of the three grand portions of the United Kingdom. Sect. 1. General Outline and Aspect. 21 18. The greatest dimension nf Ireland is from Cape Clear, in 51° 19', to Mnlin Head, in 55° 23' N. latitude ; making 4" 4', or about 280 miles. The utmost breadth, if reckoned from the most easterly point of the county of Down (opposite Bur Island) to Dunmore Head in Kerry, will be 5° 9', or 218 miles; but it is nowhere so broad under tlie same parallel of latitude. The island, according to Beaufort, contains more than 30,000 English I**»T 111. B<><>|< I' IRELAND. 179 Mjuor* milM. or nearly 30,000,000 ocrM ; but, till tha lurvey be cuinpletvd, |>rociiion on thii tubject c»nnot be attained. i{| 19. The surface qf Ireland cannot on the whole he ealkd mounlainoiu ; its central di trictt compoaing one va»t plain, which crotte* the kingdom from east to wt '. It i», huwivvr, diversiBed by ranges of mountaini, superior in extent, and, with the cxi.i|i|jiin of thotie of Walts, equal in elevation, to any in England. Wicklow, in the vicinity of Uiililin, may ti* cliisted as an alpine region. On the borders of Leinsler and Munster, the Slievo-IiUioin, lliu Knockmcle Down, and the Galties, form long and lofty ranges, commanding an exten- live view over the wide plains that stretch beneath them. All these, however, are much lurpoDwd by the extreme south-west county of Kerry, which presents a complete cliaos of lofty nnd rocky summits. 1'he most elevated are those which encloiie the beautiful and finely wooded lakes of Killarney, Mangerton and Macgillicuddy's Reeks, the lost of which » connidvrnbly more than 3000 feet high. At the opposite or north-eastern extremity of In-iand, Antrim presents to the Scottish seas a barrier of rocky cliffs, less lofty, but of a very bold and peculiar character ; precipitous, and formed into long columnar ranges ; a phenomenon which the Giant's Causeway exhibits on a greater scale than any other spot in the known world. The Mourne mountains, a lofty granite range in the south of the county of Down ; those of Carlingford, which extend into the county of Armagh ; with consider, able ranges in Tyrone, Derry, and Donegal, may dispute the pre-eminence with those of the south. In Connaught there are also some considerable detached mountains, of which Croagh-patrick in Mayo has been reckoned by some to exceed even Macgillicuddy's Recks; but Ireland has no extended table lands like those which cover a considerable part of England. The most elevated part of the Bog of Allen, in that central point where the rivers divide, is not more than 270 feet above the level of the sea. i2l'J0. The rii-ert and bays of Ireland /urm a noble feature, and would be the theatre of a moHt extensive commerce, did the regions through which they flow afford more ample mate- riak The Sliannon is without a rival in the three kingdoms. It rises far in the north, from Lough Allen in the province of Connaught, and has a course of 170 miles, throughout the whole of which it is more or less navigable, the only obstruction which existed having been removed. Below Limerick it expands into an estuary about sixty miles in length, by wliich the largest vessels have access to that city. The Barrow is also an important river, wliich runs southward through the greater part of Leinster, receives from the west the Nore and the Suire, and finally forms the harbour of Waterford. The Boync, so celebrated for the victory gained on its banks ; the Foyle, which, after passing Londonderry, forms Lough Foj'le ; the Bann, which passes through Lough Ncagh, and affords a flourishing salmon fi»liery ; and the Blackwater, which terminates in the bay and port of Youghal, are also deserving of mention. The other rivers are rather numerous than of long course ; but they ahnost all terminate in wide estuaries and loughs, which dilfuse through Ireland the means of water communication, and aff'ord a multiplicity of spacious and secure harbours. The western coast, in particular, exposed to the perpetual action of the waves of the Atlantic, has, according to Mr. Young's expression, been completely sawn into bays; which, if the country were in a more advanced state of improvement, would afford ample facilities to it* commerce. ■il2I. Lakes or loughs are a conspicuous feature in Ireland, where this last name, like the similar one used in Scotland, is in many instances applied to arms of the sea. Lough Neagli is the largest lake in the United Kingdom, covering nearly 100,000 acres. Its banks are flat, tame, and in many places marshy and inundated. Lough Erne, also in Ulster, is divided into two reaches, the united length of which is about thirty miles, while its circuit includes a great variety of rich and ornamented scencr}'. Lough Foyle, Lough Swilly, and Belfast Lough, are properly bays. The Shannon forms several lakes, of which Lough Itee is the principal ; and the whole of its course downwards from Limerick resembles more a lough or bay than a river. Connaughthas several extensive lakes. Tliat of Killarney, In C.ie south, is famed, not for its extent, but for the singular grandeur and beauty of its shores. A fuller description of this and some others now mentioned will be found under the local section. SicT. II. Xatural Geography. 2133. The Botany and Zoology of Ireland, as connected with that of (he United King- dom, having been treated of under the head of England, the subdivisions of this section will be confined to Geology. SuasBCT. I. Geology of Ireland. 2123. The geology of this important part of the Bi-Uish empire is not so well known as that of Great Britain, "^o a distinguished scholar of the Freyberg school, Mr. Weaver, we are indebted for the most interesting series of geological observations ; Hamilton, Richardtion, Stephens, Berger, Griffith, Sir Charles Gicscckd, Buckland, Conybcare, and 480 MAP OP IRELAND. 8 » ^ig. 212. -I 1 I !> Ijnngit'jde Weit 6 from Grcentvlili 7 Book I. IRELAND. 481 Fitton have also communicated much that is important in regard to the geology of the sister isle. For full and detailed accounts of the geognosy, we refer to the authors just men* tioned, our space allowing only of such a sketch as will enable our readers to form a general conception of the gcognostical structure of those parts of the island which have been already surveyed ; viz. — 1. North of Ireland ; 2. Connaught coal district; 3. East of Ireland ; 4. South, and part of the west of Ireland. 21'i4. (1.) North of Ireland. This district maybe described as limited by Dundalk Bay on the south-east, and by Lough Foyle on the north-west, including towards the south the counties of Down, Armagh, and the north-east angle of Louth, lying between Dundalk and Car- lingford Bay ; and on the north Antrim and Derry ; that portion of Tyrone which extends along the north-west shore of Lough Neagh, between Derry and Armagh, being also com> preliended as falling within the same general outline. This district is marked by three distinct systems or groups of mountains, one of which occupies the more southern counties ; while the more northern are divided between the two others. L'I25. 1st system. The Moume mountains. The Mourne mountains form a well-defined group, extending from Dundrum Bay to Carlingford Bay, in the southern extremity of Down. Slieve Donard is the highest summit of this group, and rises about 2654 feet above the level of the sea. The north-west of the main group, the Fathom Hill, Slieve Girken, or the Newry mountains, and Slieve Gullen, are situated in the south-east of Armagh; and tlie Uiivensdale and Carlingford mountains, in the north of Louth, may be considered as its appendages. Granite, which is the prevailing rock of these mountains, contains beautiful rock crystals, also felspar and mica crystals, and in the cavities that aflfbrd these topaz and beryl in fine crystals also occur. To the north of the Mourne mountains Slieve Croob, composed of syenite, and Slieve Anisky, of hornblende rock, both situated in the county of Donii and barony of Lower Iveagh, form an elevated tract, dependent upon, but placed at some distance from, the main group. Hornblende rock, greenstone, and porphyry are said to he abundant on the skirts of this granite district. These Plutonian granite and syenite liills rise through strata of transition rocks, which are greywacke, greywacke slate, transition i'l:iy slate, and transition limestone. The Plutonian rocks bear but a small proportion in euperticiul extent to those of the transition class, these latter advancing far to the west and Iteferencei to the Map qf Ireland, NORTH PART. 1. Newlornleiu i. !Ullvriutltt 3. ( Liu'iil. 4. Kaslinrkan 6> Ilallyinnny a. Colurame "■ liarvatih H. (iiaiii's Sconce 9. Ilillvkelly Id. .Mutt' M. Il:><. iiMiksidwn V. Frwlcriikstown 3^. .Vtwiini Sitwart 3;i. Hi'MiU'il 1''. IkTH IttidffC 'a *;. Ti'li'n iX KilljlKm 41. Invcr 4>. l)ont.Ka1 41). It.tllysliannon 47. (Jarriwm 4''.('lmrrlilll 49. Cioiilj M. Kixh il.(lm.ii!h .VA (ilnpfiemy M. Itairvgawli'y .■il. Illacku.ilor i>'f. Dintfannon M. KlninuiUll 81. Mai" M. Utifall .W. Itolywoo*! 61). l>uiiauli?.lee CI. (iray .\l l>ey &i, rortarerry C.^. Dnwnitatrlck fi'l. Killlnoliy Cj. Hillsborough (lO. Dundrum 67. Kathfrilnnd CS. liOUKlilirickland 6!). Lur^an 70. Arniafjh 71. Newtownllamll. ton 72. Monashan 73. Auuhtif 74. CloKher 7.'j. Klve Mile Town 76. Donnuuh 77. I.lanaskea 78. CallnwhIII ;'J. EnnUkillen 80, T.argay HI. Siridoch M. Kllgo 8.'!. Diuiatra R4. Huiira Kt. Killala He. llaltlKlaa 87. Inver 88. Cloiian 89. Ilallina unmore 1.19. (ilanainoddy 110. Ilalllntolcr 141. Itoscominon 142. Tarmanbarry 14.1. Ixingfurd 144. Kenaiili 145. Kdiiswiirthltown 47, Klllany 146. .Tohmtown 48, Klllf'ciuira 21. Ilall>demot 22. lx)n^woad 23, Cloncurry 24, Clane S.*!, Maynooth 26. Haloath 27. Haihioule 28. Duhlln 29. Killuolibin .10, Innlskerry .11. Wtcklow 32, Donard .13. niesslngton 31. Naas 35, Old Kilcullen .16. Kildare 37. PnrtarlinRton .18. Mountmelii'k 39. Birr 40. Hanglier 41. Eyre Court 42. Punumna 43. Auphrim 44. LouKtirca 45. (;aruam4irt 46. (inrt 147. IMnllingar 14.1. Clonmellun 119. Trim 1.50. Hummerliitl 151. Navan l.'i2, Skrvne 1.53. Droglieda 151. Naut 155, Kwords. SOUTH PAUT. 1. Kllkcrran 2. Inveran 3. Sunna 4. Killameen fi, (iaiway 6. Heatlford 7. Ik'ldare 8. Allunry ». Mnnitia 10. Tnam 11. Ciuilc Hlarkney 12. llallinailoe 13. Halllnamore 14. Kiinrkruughry 15. ..\ltdone 16. Maystown 17. Moal aUrcnogue 76. Klllcnaule 1 i 49. Inntslymon 50. Ennii 51. Clare 62, Talla r>3, SrarrilV SI. Killaloe .55, Nenagh 56. HumM.er .Mine 80. Newport 81. I.imeiick 82. Hridgetown 83. Six nlile Bridge 84. l'aranorth-west of the external chains of the first system. It forms a large tract, bounded on the cast by the river Roe, on the south by a line ex. tending from Tubermore by Omagh to Ballentra, and on the west and south by the occnn ■ thus including the counties of Londonderry and Donegal. One of the highest points in this district is Sawell, said to be 2357 feet above the level of the sea. This great tract of country is principally composed of mica slate, with various subordinate beds, as limestone, quartz, &c. On the eastern bank of the Roe, these mica slate hills and mountains are succeeded by a range of secondary hills covered by a great platform of secondary trap, and forming a part of the third system of hills, afterwards to be described. Tliese newer rocks repose upon and conceal the mica slate in the eastern part of Derry, but the mica slate again emerges from beneath this covering, after an interval of about 30 miles, on the nortli-east coast of Antrim, and rises into hills, which break down abruptly towards the coast between Tor Point and Cushcnden Bay. Tlie mica slate rocks on this part of the Irish coast may be considered a continuation of those that occur on the opposite coast of Scotland at the Mull of Cantyre, or, on a more general view, as a continuation of the great Grampian range, which may, in this way, be said to extend from the north-east coast of Scotland to tlie western shores of Ireland, on the coasts of Donegal. In the eastern part of Tyrone, which intervenes between the transition mountains and the mica slate mountains, a coal formation occurs associated with that kind of limestone which is usually found below coal in Great Britain. The position of this coalfield offers another analogy with Scotland, where the space between the southern and northern mountains is principally occupied by rocks of the coal formation. 2127. 3d system of mountains. The Trap group. This group maybe described as separated into two chains, bounding on the east and west the trough or valley through which the river Bann flows from Lough Neagh to the ocean. The eastern chain lies in the county of Antrim, being comprehended between the valley of the Bann and the northern channel. It presents an abrupt declivity towards the sea, falling with a gentle slope towards the west, in which direction the beds composing its mass incline. Tlie hills oi which it is composed arc generally detached and distinct, yet so closely grouped together, that there can bie no impropriety in considering them as parts of a single chain. Accordihg to Dr. Berger, Knock-lead, in the northern extremity of the chain, is the highest summit: it rises 1820 feet above the level of the sea; but the basis of this hill is occu])ied to tlm height of 500 feet by primitive mica slate rock, leaving only 1320 feet for the thickness of the secondary strata peculiar to this system. Diris Hill, near the southern extremity of the chain, is wholly composed of secondary strata, and attains an elevation of 1475 feet above the level of the sea ; it is situated about two miles to the west of Belfast. The western part of the chain included between the Roe and tlie Bann forms the exact counterpart of the former ; but the strata here dip nearly in a contrary direction, viz. towards the north-east ; the full of the hills being gradually in this direction, while they front the west and south witli abrupt and precipitous cliffs. Cragnashoack, at the southern extremity, rises 1864 feet above the sea, and is the highest summit of the group. The geological nature of this third system is very different from that of the two former; all the principal formations belonging to the secondary class of rocks. These rocks are partly Plutonian and partly Neptunian. The Neptunian rocks are generally covered with an enormous mass of secondary trap, which ap- pears to attain its greatest thickness on the north ; the trap cap of Beny- Avenagh, the must northern summit of the western chain, measuring more than 900 feet : the average dcptli of this superimposed mass may tliercfore be estimated at 545 feet, and its superficial extent at 800 square miles. The trap rocks are greenstone, basalt, amygdaloid, wacke, and red bole ; occasionally associated with them, forming isolated tracts, as in the Sandybrca dis- trict, there are porphyries of difTerent kinds, as pitchstonc and pearl-stone porphyries. The amygdaloid and also some of the ether rocks of this series contain calc spar and white calcedony, semiopal, felspar, and steatite, or serpentine. The basalt contains olivine. Iron pyrites is a mineral frequently disseminated In the greenstone. Wood coal occurs in seams varying from two inches to four or five feet in thickness, alternating witJi trap rocks, near Book I« IRELAND. 483 Ballcutoy ; also in the clifTs of PortuofTer on the cast of the Giant's Causeway, at Killymoris near the centre of the trap area, and at Portinaoc, and otlier places on the eastern sliore of Lough Ncagh. 2128. Veitts of trap. Trap veins exhibit many interesting phenomena, particularly in their passage through chalk, which they sometimes convert into a kind of marble. They traverse not only the Neptunian strata, as chalk, lias, and coal formation, but also trap itself. The most interesting and splendid displays of the trap rocks occur at the Giant's Causeway and Fairliuad, so well known to travellers ; andtheclifisof Kenbaan exhibit very interesting dii^plnys of tli>! commingling of the trap and chalk. 2129. Underneath and sometimes intermingled with this vast mass of trap are the following Keptunian formations : — Chalk, which is frequently very compact, and sometimes, as ulicre in immediate contact with tlie Plutonian rocks, changed into a granular limestone resembling marble : the average thickness docs not amount to more than 200 feet. Underiicnth the chalk occurs the deposit known imdcr the name mulatto stone, the green sand uf English geologists, which is a calcareous sandstone with disseminated spots of green earth. The next member of the secondary series is the oolite, which, however, docs not appear any where in this di' trict ; for the green sand is found lying upon the lias limestone. Underneath the lias occur 'jeds of red and variegated marl, variegated sandstone villi gypsum, and from these issue sail springs. These four formations, which, together with the trap, form the whole mass of the hills belonging to the third system, cannot be estimated as possessing a less average thickness than from 800 to 1000 feet. The whole system appears at the north-eastern and south-western extremities to repose upon the coal formal ion and its accompanying rocks, and these on the transition or primitive rocks.* Coal oecurs in Tyrone, at Coal Island and Dungannon, and in Antrim, near Bally- castle. Of tliese, the collieries at Ballycastlc, which occupy an extent of not less than one English mile along the coast, are the most considerable. They have been long wrought, and were once in a more prosperous state than at present, as they used formerly to send from 10,000 to 15,000 tons of coal to the market yearly ; whereas now the quantity exported docs not amount to more than 1500 or 2000 tons. The coal of these districts is almost entirely what Berger calls slate coal. In one of the works, however, in Coal Island, a bed of cannel coal, six feet thick, is said to have been wrought. 2130. T/ie most remarkable minerals of the alluvial kind found in this part of Ireland arc the fossil woods of Lough Ncagh, a sheet of water 132 feet above the level of the sea, about nineteen miles six furlongs long from N.W. to S.E., and forty-five feet deep at its centre. The wood is silicified, and in some specimens one extremity will be petrified, while tlie other remains in a ligneous state. The oak, the holly, and the hazel appear to have been the trees thus affected. It occurs in alluvium in the neighbourhood of the lake. 2131. {3.) Connaught Coal DLitrict. This district occupies a portion of the counties of Uoscommon, Sligo and Leitrim, in the province of Connaught, and part of the county Cavaii in the province of Ulster. Lough Allen, situated near the head of the river Shannon, forms a basin in the centre of the district. 2132. A range of primary mountains, varying in breadth from three miles to a quarter of a mile, extends from Foxford in the county of Mayo, to Colooney in tlie county of Sligo, and terminates two miles to the north-east of Manor-Hamilton, which may be viewed as the liaseon which the newer formation of this part of Ireland rests. This range of country is |irineipally composed of mica slate, with some subordinate rocks. Benbo Mountain, near Manor- Hamilton, 1403 feet above the sea, may be cited as exhibiting an interesting display of the various primitive rocks. The summit, and about 800 feet immediately be- liiw it, are composed of a fine granular granite; the granite is covered on both sides of the nmuntnin with gneiss, dipping in the direction of its declivity at an angle of 50". At tlie bas'! of the mountain, mica slate, with garnets, hornblende rock and hornblende slate, arc seen. Large blocks of beautiful syenite, also of serpentine with embedded garnets, wore found in a stream at the base of the mountain near Lurganboy. The western side of Ucnbo is traversed by a vein of copper pyrites, which was formerly wrought, but apparently to no great extent. Veins of iron pyrites also occur there. 2133. Resting vpon these old rocks in many places, we observe the first or old red sandstone formation. A tract of this sandstone extends in Roscommon from west to cast, from Derryna- slievc to Caslicarrigans, and in greatest breadth in a southerly and northerly direction, from Leitrim to the neighbourhood of Drumshambo. Resting upon this sandstone, forming the hasc of the coal district, and encircling it, is the mountain or carboniferous limestone. This limestone exhibits the usual character of the formotions. The coal formations rests upon the limestone, and is the uppermost or newest of the secondary deposits met with in this part of Ireland. The external aspect of this coal district is described as being hilly ond dreary, and as extending in greatest length in a north and south direction, from Down Alountain to Keddue, • Patchca of old red sandstone occur on the cast coast between Baliygclly and Olcnarm Boyj and alio on the Mine coajt to the southward of Gcrron Point li 2 i 484 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pari IH. about sixteen miles, and in greatest breadth from the hills above Swadlinbar to Killargy, six. teen miles. The area of the wliole coal country within the edge of the limestont! is about 114,000 Irish acres; exclusive of Slieve Russel, which is detached from the great district by tlic limestone valley of Swadlinbar. The centre of the coal district is occupied by Lough AUen, and ditferent tributary streams besides the Shannon, which flow into the lake, run in straight but deep valleys, and divide the district into four parts. "The rocks which form the coal series in tlic Connaught coal district are simitar to those met with in other coal. fields. Besides coal, which is the black bituminovt sjiecies, the formation contains sandstone flag, slate clay, bituminous slate, clay ironstone, and tire clay. Some kinds of the coal aflbrd in the 100 parts, 71'42 carbon, 23'.')7 bitumen, fand 5*21 grey ashes. The entire produce per annum of the collieries of the southern and western divisions of the Connaught coal district is about 1300 tons. In these divisions there are but three beds of coal, only one of which is worth working. Yet this single bed, though but three feet in thickness, is, from its great superficial extent, sufficient to supply tiie county with fuel for many centuries ; tlic estimated quantity of coal in tlie southern and western divisions being upwards of 30,000,000 tons. 2134. The coal in the northern and eastern divisions of the district is also bituminous. It occurs in beds which are by no means so considerable, nor is the coal so good, as in the western and southern divisions. 2135. Iron-tvorks. The beds of clay ironstone that occur in all parts of the Connaught coal district appear, at an early period, to have attracted the attention of miners ; and works, on a very small scale, called bloomeries, were carried on in various parts of the adjoininj; country, as long as any wood remained to supply them with charcoal : at that time coal had not been discovered. The iron.works of Drumshambo were the last that continued to be worked ; they were given up about the year 1 766. The ironstone to supply thvm was chiefly collected from the eastern shore of Lough Allen. The ironstone was con. veyed by boats to the works ; and charcoal, from the extensive woods which at one time flourished in all the valleys, was conveyed by the same means. Limestone for smelting the iron was quarried close to *>>o works. The smelted iron from Drumshambo works was carried to the neighbouring village, where it was forged into bars. In 1 788, iron-works were established at Arigna. At that time the practicability of smelting iron with charred pit coal, or coke, instead of wood charcoal, was well known in England and Scotland. Tiie Arigna iron- works, being the only ones ever erected in Ireland to smelt iron with pit coal, attracted great attention ; and their want of success has in consequence been regretted. From a minute examination made on the spot, the quality of all the requisite materials was found excellent of their kind ; and, although the cost of each, when delivered at the works, was greater than might have been by better management, still cast iron of the very bcsit quality could have been manufactured at Arigna for 3/. 4s. per ton ; while cast iron, called pig-iron, greatly inferior in quality, sells in Dublin at the rate of 10{, per ton. In better times these mines will be resumed. 2136. (8.) East of Ireland. This district extends nearly 100 miles from north to south, and between sixty and ninety miles from east to west, comprehending about a third part of the island. It is bounded on the east by the Irish Channel, on the south and west by the mountains which confine the Suire and the Shannon, and on the north by the clay slate hills of Louth and the mountain limestone hills of Meath, the clay slate hills of Cavan and the moun- tain limestone of Longford, and by a line produced from thence to the bay of Galway, In the landscape of Ireland there is one very remarkable feature, which cannot fail to strike every observer : in traversing most parts of the island, wc meet with ranges and groups of bold mountainous and hilly tracts, in some degree isolated, while the interval between them is generally occupied by a surface that appears nearly level, when viewed on the great scale, but which is found, on a nearer view, to present a gently waved outline : a considerable expansion of the plain occupies the central counties of Ireland, and extends across the island from Dublin Bay on the east, to Galway Bay on the west; and in general, where a simlkr plain surface occurs, the immediately subjacent rock is mountain limestone ; to the abund- ance of which mineral, next to the mild temperature and general moisture of the climate, the soil of Ireland is probably more indebted for its superior fertility than to any other cause. It is a fact deserving of notice, that, witli the solitary exception of Wicklow, there is no county in the island in which, limestone rock, cither secondary, transition, or primary, is not to be found ; but the primary limestone appears in a great measure to be confined to the coun- ties of Sligo and Galway on the west, and to Donegal, Derry, Tyrone, and Antrim on the north. 21 37. In this district mountainous and hilly tracts arise above the surface of the limestone plain, on the east, the south, the west, the centre, and the north. The eastern chain cxtcndt from the north side of Dublin Bay to the confluence of the Barrow with the Suire on the south. The highest point is Lugnaquilla, which is 3070 feet above low water-mark in Dublin Bay. It consists almost wholly of primitive and transition rocks, of which the follow* fldOK !• IRELAND. 48J kg Kliecltf* occur i granite, mica slate, quartz rocic, c]»y slate, greywacke, trap and porphyry, Mkitiulll'cruUH minerals are wanting on the west side of the granite chain, but abound on the t>iiiit nMv, In the granite and mica slate districts there are veins of galena or lead ttlitiicvt of these the most considerable are in Glenmalur; in the clay slate tract eleven (liliWviit iiiutallic substances have been met with, viz. gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, iliii'i lilt, tungsten, manganese, arsenic, and antimony. , when several hundred.' of people might be seen daily assembled, digging and hi'iiivIiImk for gold in the bank and bed of the stream. Considerable quantities were thus I'lilU'Clvil) till'* uetng, as it afterwards proved, the most productive spot ; and the country |ii'ii|iki rciititlttud in the undisturbed possession of the place for nearly six weeks, when lliivi'niiiivnt di'termincd to commence operations. Regular stream- works were soon csta- liliilii'd I mid up to the period of the rebellion in May, 1798, when the works were destroyed, )|iivi'nniii'iU hud been fully reimbursed its outlay, and left a surplus in hand. In the year IkOI, ri')(ulHr mining was commenced, but which, on the whole, did not lead to any important iv>iill» ; mill iil^i-'r a time, as no gold was found in the solid strata, and as the alluvial deposits iilllinU'il iiti return sufficient to defray expenses, the working was given up. The gold of I'rdXiiiill Killslielu occurred in grains and masses from the smallest size to lumps of consider- nlilu wi>l|(lit ; one piece weighed twenty-two ounces, another eighteen ounces, a third nine iiunci'i*! mill n Tuurth seven ounces. The gold was found in alluvium, accompanied with ollu'r ini'litlltc substances, as magnetic iron ore, iron glance, red iron ore, brown iron ore, iriili pyi'iti'N, tittstone, wolfram, grey manganese ore, and fragments of quartz and chlorite. In HUim< Npecimcns the gold was observed ramified in slender tlu-eads through the wolfram, 1111(1 III ullii'rs Incorporated with iron ochre : some of the gold was crystallised in octahedrons, Miul iiUi) in the elongated garnet dodecahedral form. 'Jl;t!l> Thf Mai amount of gold collected by government amounted to 944 ounces, 4 |H'nH)'wt'igllts, and IS grains; of which 58 ounces, 16 pennyweights, and 1 grain were wild itt '{/> per ounce, amounting in value to 236/. \6s. ed. The remaining 885 ounces H |ii'linywi'lglits, 14 grains was melted into ingots, which weighed 848 ounces, 18 penny- uciiiliti, n grains: hence the loss in melting was 36 ounces, 10 pennyweights, 9 grains; or lU'urly 'I I \tvr cettt., which arose from the disseminated particles of grain. The ingots pro- illli'i'il tVoin U\i to 'J\l carats of fine gold, the alloy being silver; and they were bought by lliu Itmik of Ireland at prices varying from 41. Os, 6d. per ounce to 41. '2s. per ounce, luniiiinlliig ill value to 3438/. 17j. 3^d. Hence the aggregate value of the native and ingot )|oiil wiM WOT 51, It, llhd. Native gold was also found in Croghan Moira mine, about seven iiiili'M illNlmit IVunt the former mountain, but in small quantity. '.'I lO, The cnmtr mines nf Cronbane and Tigroni/, in this district, are situated in clay slate mill t|iini'l«osu clay slate. The ores, which are copper pyrites and black copper ore, are lomH'liik'ii with iron |)yrites, and rarely with galena; and auriferous silver occurs in beds in tliv Kliity htralu. In llic twelve years ending in 1799 the mines of Cronbane had yielded 7.1ll;l liiiiN nf ore, which produced 670 tons 11 cwt of copper. In the next twelve years, i'Milliig ill IHI I, the produce was 19,342 tons 13 cwt. of ore; yielding 1046 tons 10 cwt. iil'('ii|i|K'r. The mineral waters flowing from the mines are impregnated with blue vitriol or xliliiliiite of copper. These waters are received into tanks, in which the muddy particles mi' iillowi'il to BllbHidc. The clear waters arc then passed into pits filled with plate and ri'mp iroM, which occasions n precipitation of the copper. In this way 442 tons 11 cwt. of lliiH |ii%'('lpllitled copper (mixed with oxide of iron) have been obtained, which sold on an iivi'i'i,t(u fur 'J?/. H». !)(/. per ton, being in aggregate value 12,126/. 18«. l^d. ; while the con- MiiiijilioM (if iron was only 429 tons 14 cwt, or less than one ton of iron to the ton of |iit'i'i|iiliilu| lii'ing in aggregate value 2620/. I8s. 2d. Sulphur was extracted on the spot iViim the cii|tper pyrites, and during the war sold at the rate of between 20/. and 30/. per Ion, '.' 111. 27(f o(/ic*»' tracts of this district are composed of secondary rocks, more or less deeply I'livcri'il with diluvial ond alluvial deposits. The secondory rocks are old red sandstone, immiihiin limestone, (or, as it is called in Ireland, Iri:jh limestone,) and the coal formation. or llii'ii' fiirmations the mountain limestone is by far the most abundant; indeed, with the I'M'i'plioil of the counties of Derry and Antrim in the north, and Wieklow in the east, there i'> nil I'ltilllly in the island in which it does not prevail more or less. The coul formation, the iiiiihI inlei'csting of tliu secondary deposits, occurs in what is called the Leinsler coal district. 'I'liu Nmulstoile, sliile, Ironstone, clny, and coal, which constitute the series, alternate with viwU oilier, aiul the whole rests on the mountain limestone, and is frequently disposed in the ImihIii slirtiie. The coal of this district is glance coal, the blind coal of miners, the an- tlirm'lto of French geologists, the Kilkenny coal of some authors (so named because the li 3 486 DESCKIPTIVE G£OGUAFIIY. TAKt III. town of Kilkenny is situated in tliis coalfield). Leinstvr coal tract. Fire-damp is unknown tlirou|{liout ilia 21 43. The most inleresling alluvial phenomena arc those exhibited by the limi>«tono xmvvl, iIiq granite blocks, and the vast peat bogs. Tlic great limestone field abounds in hijluvks mul ridges of limestone gravel. Sometimes these ridges appear like regular niounds, the work ol'iirt forming a continued line of several miles in extent. That which passes by Aluryhoruiiitli, in the Queen's County, is a remarkable instance of this kind ; and similar mounds, liilluckN, mill ridges occur also in the counties of Meath, Westmeath, Kildare, Carlow, ond other purlioimuf the limestone field, in which the limestone gravel and sand frequently exhibit n Mtnilillvd arrangement, the alternate beds being very distinct from each other. The ini><|iiiiliiy u|' surface thus produced, as Mr. Weaver remarks, si/ems to have occasioned the formiiiioii uf those extensive tracts of peat bog which cover so considerable a portion of the limvstunu pliiiu of Ireland.* The natural course of springs and streams being obstructed, stagnant liikvs and pools of water were formed ; thus promoting the growth of those j^Q'tutiu reeds, griisHi'H, nnd ruslies, which, by their constant increase and decay, appear to compose the ninss iif iliu bogs of Ireland. In tliis manner it is conceivable that shallow lakes may In pruvehs of time have become entirely filled with peat; and that peat bogs may thus have griitliiiiljy acquired a convexity of surface, or at least that greater declivity by which their boi'ders iiru distinguished. The average depth of these bogs is commonly from sixteen to tweiitv.llvo feet, but some reach from tliirty to thirty-five feet, and the extreme depth observed is Itirly. seven feet. In the same manner we may conceive the gradual growth of peat bog Id Iuivu f'uccessively extended from the higher regions to the flanks, and thence to the feet, of niiiiin. tains. That fallen forests were not tlie primary origin of these peat bogs seems evidviil from the circumstance that two and even three successive growths of trees have been obsvi'veit itt dill'erent depths in a section of the same bog. In these instances, the trees lie horiniiiitiijlv, fre(|uently crossing each other, and either attached to their roots or broken over ; and in the latter case the stumps usually stand erect where they grew. The prostration of trees, how. ever, may to a certain extent have acted as an auxiliary in promoting the growth uf pinit bogs ; and this prostration appears in general to have taken place either IVom natural (lo> cay, or from trees possessing little hold of a wet spongy soil having been ovvrtiu'iled liy storms. This may partly account for trees of all ages being found in the bogs uf Ireliimf, whether these bogs be situated in plains, or form the immediate cover of high inoiintiiiii tracts. That Ireland was once coM'red by extensive forests, even in the more vleviilt>il chains, can scarcely be doubted ; fur, independently of the evidence preserved in the \\vM bogs themselves of the growth of trees, numerous stools of trunks lung since cut down yet remain i.i most of the mountain districts, which require only protection from ciitllv lu produce vigorous shoots. The universal destruction of the forests of Ireland is priiui|iiilly to be attributed to the general introduction of iron furnaces, as the most prolitalile iiioile of consuming tlie timber, then a material esteemed of little value ; and hence the silinost total neglect of copsing those tracts in which tlie woods had been felled. Uemains uf (lio ancient charcoal hearths are still plainly to be distinguished by their verdure and level cir> cular surface, scattered over the rapidly shelving sides of Glendalough, Glcnmaliir, nml other glens, when we look down upon them from a considerable elevation. The marl lieils, so frequently met with in these peat bogs are curious in a zoological view, from their iicciw sionally containing remains of that splendid animal the fossil elk But the remains uf tliu extinct species are not, according to Mr. Hart, confined to the marl, but occur also in tlio gravel ; and the late Mr. Edgeworth observed the remains of the red deer in the miiiiv marl as that which contained the extinct species. 2143. (4.) South of Ireland. Under this di' !sion we comi>rise the coimties of Cork, Kerry, Clare, Waterford, Tipperary, and part of Galway. 2144. This mountainous, hilly, and diversified region is chiefly composed of cliainH Inv- ing generally a direction from cast to west, and attaining their greatest elevation in mountains of Kerry, where Gurrane Tual, one of Macgillicuddy's Reeks, near Killir . v (the highest land in Ireland), is 3410 feet above the sea. The rocks in this elevated cui <'ity are chiefly of the transition class: they decline gradually towards the north, nnd fi>:'>' pass under the old red sandstone and mountain limestone of the midland counties, 'i'liu following may be considered a general estimate of the gecgnostical relations of the suiitli of Ireland ; — 2145. Transition rocks. In Kerry, the transition strata range from east to west, nnd dip to the north and south, with vertical beds in the axes of the ranges : the strata, as they ili- minish in inclination on each side, form a succession of troughs. The rocks are cliiolly Neptunian, the Plutonian being comparatively rare. The Neptunian are either siniple or compound ; the simple arc clay slate, quartz rock, hornslone, Lydian stone, and limestoiii' : the compound ore, greywacke, greywacke slate, sandstone. The I'lutoniun rocks are ^ci-i'm- stone and porphyry. Organic remains occur in the limestone, slate, and greywacke. hut more frequently and abundantly in the limestone than in the other rocks. In Kvniimiu ♦ Teat is cstimntwl to extend over a tenth of the whole isUinil. Book I. IRELAND. 4&7 these fossils consist of a few bivalves, and some crinoidal remains ; and these also are must numerous in the Mucruss and Killarney limestones. At the foot of the Slievo- ineesh range tliis limestone includes asaphus caudatus, calamine macrophthalma, with orthoceratites, ellipsolites ovatus, ammonites, euomphalites, turbinites, neritites, mclanites, and several species of terebratula, spirifer, and producta. Near Smerwick harbour aimilur organic remains are abundant in slate and greywacke, together with hysterolites, mul many genera of polyparia. 2146. TrattsUion coal. All the coal of the province of Munster, except that of the county of Clare, is referable to the transition class. At Knockasartnet, near Killarney, and un tlic north of Tralec, there are three beds of glance coal, alternating with strata of greywacke and slate. In the county of Cork this glance coal is more abundant, particularly near Kanturk, extending from the north of the Ulackwater to the AUord. The ravines of the latter river, and various other defiles, expose clay slate, greywacke, talc, and sandstone, in nearly vertical strata, ranging from west to east. This transition tract extends to the river Shannon on the north-west. As the strata range from west to east, in a series of pa- rallel narrow troughs, the strata exhibit great variety of inclination, dipping rapidly either to the north or south, and becoming horizontal between the ridges. The glance coat is riii.scd in suflicicnt quantities for the purpose of burning the limestone of the adjacent dis- tricts ; the most considerable collieries, those of Dromagh, have yielded 25,000 tons yearly, at from lOi. to 1 5s. per ton. 2147. The coal and the strata with which it is accompanied abound with impressions of cquiseto! and catamites, and afford some traces of fucoides. Beds of glance coal also occur in the county of Limerick, on the left bank of the Shannon, north of Abbeyfeale, and at Longliill ; and on the right bank of the river at Labbasheada. The transition rocks of Kerry and Limerick extend into Cork and Waterford. 2148. Mines. Copper mines occur in limestone in Ross Island in the lake of Kil- larney. In the county of Cork, there are copper mines at Allihies, Audley, and Bally- dcliul ; and others, producing lead, at Doneen and Rinabelly. The mine at Allihies is one of the richest mines in Ireland; it was discovered only in 1812, and has already yielded more than 2000 tons of copper ore annually. The ore occurs in a large quartz vein, which generally intersects the slaty rocks of the country from north to south, but in some places runs parallel to the strata. It is remarked that alt this portion of the county of Cork indi- cates a very general dillusion of cupreous particles, so much so that, in the year 1812, there eilstcd a cupriferous peat-bog on the east side of Glandore harbour, forty or fifty tons of the dried peat producing when burnt one ton of ashes, containing from ten to fifteen per cent, of copper. The lead mines of Doneen and Rinabelly are in slate. 2149. Coal farmntioH of Clare. The transition clay slate of this county is bordered by a zone of old red sandstone, to which succeeds, in ascending order and conformable position, the mountain limestone and coat formation, both of which occupy flat and un- dulating hills, and the strata are nearly horizontal. The best sections are seen in the cliff's on the west coast, where bituminous shale, slate clay, sandstone, and sandstone flag rest upon limestone. Coal, however, is of rare occurrence, and when found is of indifferent quality. 21, ')0. As in every other part of Ireland, the district abounds wUh alluvial deposits. In regard to the distribution of the older of these, or the diluvium in the south of Ireland, It is remarked, — 1. That boulders, gravel, and sand, derived from the transition rocks, are illstriliuted along the borders and sides of the mountains in Kerry. 2. In a small district of Limerick and Tipperary, situated between the Gaultees and Slieve-na-muck, the rolled masses consist not only of portions of contiguous rocks, but contain also porphyry, which is not to be found in situ near the vicinity of Pallis Hill. 3. In the peninsula of Nenville, near G.'lway, the surface of the mountain limestone is strewed over with numerous boulders of "red and grey granite, syenite, greenstone, and sandstone, which must apparently havu been conveyed from tlio opposite side of the bay of Galway. Sect. III. Historical Geograpfit/. -i/i^ The earliest inha itants of Ireland may undoubtedly be regarded as the original 1 ilk irom wliicli the iiafivo race now existing lias sprung; for that country, though subdued, has never been exposed to those desolating migratory inroads which have changed the face of the rest of Europe. This race, by the language still spoken, appears to have lH.>eii Celtic. It is highly probable that tlic Carthaginians may have founded colonics ".here ; this conjecture being much supported by the remarkable circumstance, that a frag- in.."t of the Funic language preserved in Plautus coincides almost exactly with the modern Irish dialect. 2152. The Romans, in occupying all Britain, could not fait to acquire mucli information relative to Ireland ; and accordingly we find that the map of that country by Ptolemy is less defective than the one which he gives of Scotland, Tacitus even mentions the scheme I i i 498 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pam III. formed by Agricola to conquer Ireland, that every tempting image of liberty might be removed from the view of tlie Britons. The pressure of mure urgent concerns prevented the execution of this siveeping scheme of subjection ; and no monuments of the Romans in Ireland give iiiuiii.-'.'ion that their mighty empire ever extended over any of the boundaries of leme. About the fourth century, we find Ireland bearing the name of Scotland, from the leading people on its eastern shore, who, afterwards passing into Argylc, and makhig themselves masters of all Caledonia, communicated to it the name of Scotland, finally withdrawn from the country to which it originally belonged. 215!). The Danes, during the height of their power, from the ninth to the twelfth cen- turies, not only ravaged but possessed almost the whole eastern coast of Ireland, makinir Dublin their capital. Before this time Ireland had been converted to Christianity, and a number of celebrated monasteries had been founded, the tenants of which were distinguished, even over Europe, for their piety and learning. 2154. The English sivat/ commenced in 1170. Richard Strongbow, carl of Pembroke, as a private individual formed the first settlement; but Henry II, soon assumed the title of " lord of Ireland." The range of dominion was long restricted to a portion of the kinn. dom enclosed within what is called the English pale, without which the Irish remainiil still under the rule of their native chieftains. Henry VIII. assumed the title of *■ king of Ireland," but without any material extension of his authority over that kingdom. 2155. The Irish maisacre was a dreadful outrage, to which attachment to popery and zi'nl for national independence united in impelling a proud and fierce people. Forty thousaiul English settlers are supposed to have perished, and the rest were driven into Dul)liii. Cromwell, however, afterwards crossed the Channel, and made cruel reprisals ; he took the principal fortified towns, and reduced Ireland under more full subjection than ever. Yet the disposition of the people remained the same ; and when James 1 1, was driven from the English throne, he was received with enthusiasm in Ireland, and became for some time its muster. The battle of the Boyne, followed next year by that of Aughrim, decided the fate of the em- pire, and more especially of Ireland, which then felt for the first time tlic miseries of a con- quered country. The estates of many principal native proprietors were confiscated ; and SVilliam, who introduced into Britain the system of full toleration, adopted an opposite code with respect to Ireland. The Catholics were deprived of all political privileges; they were rendered incapable of holding any office or employment in the state ; they were debarred even from holding land, from devising property, and from exercising other important func- tions of civil society. Under these severities they pertinaciously retained their political attachments together with their religious creed ; and a continual ferment prevailed, wliich broke out from time to time into partial rebellions. 2156. The gradual emancipation of Ireland commenced at the period of the American war. Till that era England had denied to her the right of trading directly with any foreign nation ; and had compelled her to export and import every commodity through the channel of Great Britain. The extremity, however, to which Britain was reduced, when all the leading powers of Europe leagued with America against her, enabled the Irish to place themselves in a formidable attitude ; and by forming armed associations, and adopting otiicr threatening measures, they induced parliament to grant them free trade with all nations. From this time also the most obnoxious of the restrictions on the Catholics were gradually repealed, or fell into disuse ; and before the end of last century, they had obtained almost every political privilege, except that of sitting in parliament, and of holding the very highest offices of state. The propriety of conceding these also became one of the leading questions which long divided the public mind. 2157. ^ very formidable rebellion broke forth, in spite of these concessions. The French revolution, which caused a general ferment in Europe, was intensely felt throughout Ireland. A society was formed of " United Irishmen ; " and secret meetings were hi-'ld, having in view the entire separation from England, and the formation of the kingdom into an independent republic. The vigilance of government, and the failure of the Frencli in their attempts to land a force of any magnitude, prevented matters from coming to tlic la^t extremity, till 1798, when a violent insurrection arose in four of the counties nearest Dublin. The rebels, though zealous and brave, being without discipline, were routed in successive encounters with much inferior bodies of regulars and militia ; and being imsiip- ported by French aid, were completely put down in a few months. Tlie exasperation, however, produced by the tragical events of this short period continued long to rankle in the minds of the Irish, and to aggravate the evils under which they laboured. To soothe this irritation, another expedient was employed, which materially afl'ected the situation of Ireland. 2158. The difficult and reluctant union of the two kingdoms was ciTected in 1800 by Mr. Pitt. Ireland gained thus considerable commercial advantages ; and, from the example of Scotland, it was hoped that a gradual tran(|uillity would be the result. Tliis expectation has not yet been fulfilled. The peasantry of the south, inflamed by national jealousy, by religious animosity, and by the severe privations under which they labour, have continued, Book I> una AND. 480 if not in open rebellion, at lonit In n ulntt) of tiirbiili-ncc constantly tending towards it ; and their discontents have been iiicrvanwl by lli« IndiNcrcvt luil ui' the Protestant party. 9159. The bill for Culholk vnmncifmiiun, «u unexpectedly introduced, in 18'J8, by the Duke of Wellington, and carrlud after siivli a violent ferment of parties, has made a re- markable change in the uulitical cunittltmlun of Ireland. The political disabilities under which the Catholics had hitliertit labuurud have been Anally removed. They are made admissible to the highest offlces of statVi with the exception of that of lord chancellor ; an cjcluiiion decided upon, not so muoli on auoutmt of the dignity of that office, as the exten> give church patronage attached to It, Uonmn Catholics are also made admissible to sit in both houses of parliameiit, and to evary otiittr political privilege enjoyed by their fellow countrymen. SiiOV. IV. Polllkat Geography. 2IC0. *rhe political eviU under wliU'li Ireland labours will sufficiently appear from the foregoing survey of her history, From the uarllttst times she has been in the situation of a conquered country, without ever bvctiining reconciled to the yoke, or assimilated to the ruling nation. Within the last two ceiiturlus, her devoted adherence to a religion which had been renounced by her rulers, has had a inu'^t iUtal tendency, which we may however hope to see much mitigated by the lieallnu niuasiires that have now been adopted. In con- sequence, also, of repeated scenes of rebviiiun and forfeiture, by much the greater part of tlie lands are in the possession of Knglisli ami I'roteslant proprietors, who, having no natural influence over tlie occupiers of their eslutUM. hold tlieir place only by the hated tenure of dominion and law. Being connectvy Britain must bo conKidercd an prominent. Mr. Newenimm han given ■ sad catalogue of the measures taken to supjjrtss tho riHing industry of the sister country. In 1698, on a petition of parliament, King William was pleased lo say: " Gentlemen, I will do all in my power to discourage the woollen manufacture of Ireland." Accordingly, after several milder expedients had proved ineirectual, it was absolutely pro- hibited, under the penalty of 500/., and forfeiture of the ship and cargo, to export woollens to foreign countries. Similar measures were taken with regard to glass, hops, and every branch in respect to which any rivalry was apprehended. There was one article, however, the production of a large surplus of which could by no means be avoided. This was black cattle and sheep ; but the value of these was efl'cctually cut down by the prohibition to import them into England, the only accessible market. Under these regulations, all the eiertions of Ireland to better her condition were cramped, and while Britain was making the most rapid advances, Ireland continued in the same state of depression. However, in consequence of her spirited cflTorts at the end of the American war, and of the embarrass- ments of the British government, the most odious and pernicious of these restrictions were repealed. Further advantages were obtained at the time of the Union ; and at present, when just and liberal principles on this subject have gained a full ascendency, every ex- ertion is making to place the two countries in a state of perfect reciprocity. The conse- flucnce lias been, that in the course of forty years, Ireland has made a rapid progress in indu ■iry and commerce ; yet some of her greatest evils are so deeply seated, that they liavc scarcely yet begun to give way to the influence c'a more auspicious system. •il EJ. Agriculture, that primary art, has been long in a backward and very depressed state. Ihc funns were, for tho most part, small, managed Ly the farmer himself and his family, destUate of capital, with wretched implements, and with a pertinacious adherence to all the obsolete I'rnctices of a rude age. Tho plough was generally of the most imperfect con- struction ; the mould-board straight, the coulter blunt ; in its movement it raised continual obstructions to itself, to remove which required the incessant labour of the ploughman and of one or even two assistants. It is mentioned as tho mark of a peculiarly inartificial state of things, that all over Ireland there was only one description of plough, while in England a great variety had been invented to suit the diflferent species of soil. Four horses or bullocks were employed in some districts ; but the animals were of deficient strength. The best soils exhausted a great portion of their strength in throwing up weeds, which no effective measures were taken to extirpate. The system ^so of infield and outfield was strictly adhered to, the ground being heavily cropped as long as it would yield any thing, and afterwards of necessity allowed two or three years to recruit. Although these defects still exist to a considerable extent, yet in all parts of the country, but particularly in the east and north, improved practices and implements arc beginning to be introduced. The only obstacles, in fact, to the rapid improvement of Irish agriculture, are the disturbed state of the country, and the habits, so general amongst tho occupiers of land, of subdividing their farms into minute portions. But there is reason to hope that the foundations of good order have been laid ; and the landlords seem at length to have opened their eyes to the destructive consequences of thj continued subdivision of the land, and are exerting themselves to counteract the practice. 2170. The Iruih tenures are long, some of them perpetual, in which case they may be considered as property, the rent being a mere trifle ; a lease of thirty-one years and three lives is very common. Tliesc long leases are attended with scarcely any of the be- nefits which might be naturally expected. As the farmer commences usually without any capital, trusting for the payment of the first year's rent to the produce of his farm, he almost always fulls more or less into arrear, and thus lies at the mercy of his landlord. This would i)c less pernicious, were it the landlord himself with whom he had to deal ; but the lanulords of Ireland, holding usually properties of immense extent, and being mostly resident out of the couniry, cannot or will not undertake the task of dealing with this impovcrislicd multitude of small tenants. They devolve it upon the intermediate agents and middlemen. The latter, a class peculiar to Ireland, take a large extent of ground, which they let out in small portions to the real cultivator. They grant leases, indeed ; but as tlic tenant, fi-om the circumstances above mentioned, soon comes under their power, they and the agents treat him with the greatest harshness, exact personal services, presents, bribes ; and draw from the land as much as they possibly can, without the least regard to its permanent welfare. The only use to which the latter turns his long IcttKe, is to divide and subdivide the lands among his children, till an overgrown population is fixed upon the farm. An attempt to let ground on a different footing can only be cHected by the ejection of more than half its existing occupants, who in that case are apt to fly to violent and revenge- ful courses, being a main cause of the existing disturbed state. Although this course is carrying on to a great extent, and producing much general improvement, it is distressing to find, that, in the first instance, it aggravates the poverty of the Irish labourers, by throwing many out of employment. The railway commissioners distinguish three gradations. Those in the north arc comparatively frugal, industrious, and intelligent. They earn Is. a day; 493 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPIIY. P*»T III. •re tolerably lodged, clothed, and fvd on meal, potntocit, and milk ; their lands, thoii|;li U-i* fertile, are liettcr cultivated, and n higher rent paid for them. 'I'hose in the nii(li|li> and iouth arc inferior, living mostly on putatocx and milk, without mciil ; yet they are nthlciic and active ; ignorant, yet docile. Those in the west are indigent in the extreme, eiirniii){ only 6d. a day ; feeding on potatoes, with scarcely any milk ; living in hovels, with strnw beds ; cultivating small farms in a miserable manner, and seemingly destitute of all cntcrprisu and energy. S171. 7YM< was one of the evils of which the Irish cultivator most grievously complained. Although it must in all cases fall ultimately on the landlord, yet to take it direct rrnm the peasant was an act peculiarly discouraging and i/ritating. The exemption of grass Innds tended also to discourage tillage. Measures were taken by parliament to promote the conimiit- alion of tithes, and were attended with considerable success ; and by a lute act, passed in IRiih, the commutation was directed to be made over the whole kingdom ; when the church rail's, in. stead of being taken out of the farmer's produce, will be paid by the landlord out of his rent. 2172. T^e extent of conntry, and the ohjecti of culture in Ireland, vary considerably frnni tho'-j of the sister kingdom. Its superficial extent is computed at 12,000,000 Irish, or 1 9,278,760 English acres. Of this, notwithstanding the considerable amount to be (li'dncUii fur mountain, lakes, and bogs, Mr. Young calculates that there is a greater proportion of productive land than in England. The soil of Ireland is shallow, consisting most gencrnllv of a thin sprinkling of earth over a rocky ground ; but the copious moisture waAed frmii the Atlantic, produces a rapid vegetation, and a brilliancy of verdure highly fav(iuial)lL' tu pasturage; iind as this pursuit is suited to the imperfect stages of culture, it is chii'lly pnr. sued throughout the limestone tracts, wnich, according to the railway commission, I'unn two-thirds of Ireland ; while the slate and granite districts, less productive in thenisvivi's, are mostly brought under the plough. From these luxuriant p.tstures is derived tliv very large quantity of salted provisions shipped from the southern ports. This trade convidi'rnhly decreased after the the peace ; but has since become more extensive than ever ; and tu it hns been added a great export of live cattle. Great facilities have been lately afforded fur it by the steam packets. The dairy is also a great branch of industry in Ireland. Nunc of its cheeses, indeed, have acquired a reputation ; but butter of excellent quality is made and largely exported. Another species of live stock is an essential article in the economy of an Irish cultivator. The pig usually shares his cabin, and is fed, like himself, on potatoes. It Is too great a luxury to be killed for his own consumption ; but is sold, and driven tu the ports to be salted for exportation. Sheep are bred extensively on the mountain tracts, which nre unfit for rearing any other stock. In many places they are bred for the wool and milk. In this last respect, however, goats are more productive ; and they are reared in immense qnaii. titles in the mountain districts in the north. The Irish know little of the powerful draught horses of England, and do not esteem them equal to their own breed, which is small, linrdv, and capable of doing much work upon little food. Poultry are fed in great numbers m and round all the cabins, the interior of which they are admitted to share; a practice ex- tremely favourable to their increase. Great quantities of geese are kept for the sake of the feathers, which are cruelly plucked from the animals . In mpect lo manufactures, the state of Ireland cannot Iw described as flourishing; a iiilstortiine for which it has appeared that she may justly accuse the oppressive policy of Kiiiiland. One species of fabric, however, she has been allowed and even encouraged to cultivate', mid it has attained to a very considerable magnitude. •JlTli. The linen manufacture was Jirst inlroilucetl by the Jiarl of Strafford, who brought llii-sii'd tViim Holland, and workmen from France and the Netherlands. He expende I 3i),00(V. of his private fortune in this patriotic object. His attainder, and the subsequent troubles, suspended the undertaking ; but it was revived by the Duke of Ormond, who tslalilislied near Dublin a colony from Brussels, Jersey, and Uochello ; gave lands on ad> vantiigi'Oiis terms to those willing to embark in the business ; and, though he had to struggle against indolence and inveterate prejudice, had the satisfaction to leave it in a promising state. Alter the Ilevolution, the English parliament, as linen was not supposed to interfere ivitli »ny branch of English inti jstry, created a board for its promotion ; they also, in con- formity with the spirit of the times, granted bounties both on the raising of flax and the (iport of linen. These exertions have met with great success; and the manufacture has becuiiiu general throughout Ireland, and particularly in Ulster. The following, according to 8 liiie parliamentory report, was the reputed value of brown or unbleached linens sold in the markets of Ireland in the year 1824 : — Ulster .... i?2,109,30!)"» Leinster - - - '92>888 \-„ .-(,»-- Munstcr .... 110,421 f*2,480,708 Connaiight . - • . 168,090 J No more recent estimate has been made, but the fabric must have greatly increased, linoa the export alone, in 1835, amounted to nearly foitr miUions sterling. 2177. The mode nf conducting this manufacture is, however, in several respects, very rude and imperfect. It is generally practised by individuals holding little spots of ground, the culture of whicli they combine with that of weaving. The same person, or at least the same fuuily, in many cases raises the flax, dresses it, spins it into yarn, and weaves it into cloth. lliere is too much anxiety to obtain the greatest possible quantity of yarn out of a given i|uaritily of iiax, without regard to the quality ; and the sorting of the yarn, so that it may be of an iiiiifurm texture, suited to the kind of linen intended to be woven, is almost wholly noglected. In some instances, however, it is worked to a most extraordinary degree of liiK-ness. Anne M'Qiiillin, in the county of Down, could spin 105 hanks to the pound, nhii'li would reach 214 English miles. Exertions have lately been made to introduce mill. N{iiniiiii}r, which, it is supposed, would generally improve the quality of the yarn, though it could nut produce it of such extreme fineness as some of that jspun by the hand. Twenty years ago the mill could not produce above fifteen cuts to a pound; now it can make Hourly lil'ty. SITS. Thr erpori qftinen from Treland, In the year 1824, amounted In all to 49,491,037 yards, of which H+iiii,!!^) wore to Great Ilritain ; and ;J,()ii4,()87 to forciKn parts. 'I'hc real value of the whole was i,i\i,TMl. Ill that sent to Great Britain, 31,;)14,53.') yards were retained for home consumption j the rest were re-expcucd tcj the aainu quarters as iScoteh linen. This great manufacture is chiefly supiwrted by its own growth of Ulx, Irdunil, however, imports S5,(KX) tons of hemp n-om abroad, and 3300 IVom Britain ; also about 7500 tons mid liiOO tons of linen yarn ; of all which materials the value falls short of 45,000/. 2179. Distillation is another branch of industry characteristic of Ireland, but by no means attended with the same happy cfiects. It has hitherto been carried on chiefly in defiance of the revenue and government, and has given birth to a vast system of contraband, equally destructive of piorals and of public order. All the mountains, bogs, and deep valleys of the north and west abound with illicit stills, in spots where the most diligent search can scarcely discover them ; and where detected, they can scarcely be seized without the aid of an armed force. When the troops are seen advancing, concerted signals arc made, and the small light stills are soon conveyed to a distant quarter, The farmers and proprietors en. courage illicit distillation as the most ready mode of affording a market for their grains 494 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pa«t III. The quality of the spirit was long much superior to that produced by the legal distillers owing to the injudicious restrictions imposed on the latter ; so that, in selling, it was con- sidered the highest possible recommendation to give assurance that it " never paid duty." Even in the regular distilleries established in tlie great cities, Mr, Wakefield gives reason to think that, through a purchased collusion on the part of the officers, not more than half the produce paid duty. He calculates the entire loss on them to be 856,000/., and that on the illicit distillation nearly as much ; so that, instead of a revenue of 2,280,000/., which ought to have entered into the treasury, the amount was only 664,000/. The most rigorous laws were enacted in vain, for they only rendered the people concerned in this practice more desperate and determined. Of late, however, the system has been entirely new-modelled • the duty, as in Scotland, has been reduced to'2«. a gallon, and free exportation permitted' and the strictest measures have been taken to put a stop to abuses in the collection of the revenue. The eifect has been remarkable ; the quantity of spirits paying duty, which from 1818 to 1822 varied from 3,000,000 to 4,000,000, rose in 1824 to 7,800,000, and in 1836 to 1 2,246,000; tlius warranting a presumption, that the contraband fabrication of this article has been greatly diminished; yet doubts may be entertained if the cheap, ncss of a commodity of which the excess is so pernicious be on the whole beneficial to the country. 2180. I%e kilting and salting of beef and poric for sale forms a great branch of Irish com- merce. During the American war, the number of oxen and cows slaughtered amounted to about 50,000 annually; but Mr. Wakefield supposes them reduced in 1808 to about 18,000; partly owing to the extended tillage, and partly to the great increase in the export of live cattle. Each animal is found to produce upwards of six cwt. of beef, seven stones of tallow, and nearly one cwt. of hide. The despatch with which the animals are slaughtered, the meat cut up and salted, and afterwards packed, is astonishing. The beef is packed in three different forms, called planter's beef, India beef, and common bed'; the first two, having the coarse pieces taken out, and charged 4s. additional per cwt. While the export of salt beef has diminished, that of pork has of late been much extended. 2181. The cotton manufacture, after 1822, had spread through Ireland in a very sur- prising manner, particularly in the counties of Antrim, Down, Louth, and part of Dublin. The coarser linen fabrics were disappearing before it, and proceeding to the westward and southward, retaining still aii equal hold of the kingdom in general. More recently this fabric has again declined, and linen has regained the ascendency. 2182. The other manufactures are not of primary importance. A great quantity of wool is, indeed, worked up by the peasantry into frieze, linscys, and flannels, for their domestic use ; but the only fabrics on a great scale, which are those of broadcloth at Carrick-on- Shannon, and of flannels at Kilkenny, are on the decline. Breweries have been established in the principal towns, and are rather in a flourishing state. Notwithstanding the great surplus of hides, the want of bark and of skill prevents tanning from being carried to any great extent, and they arc chiefly exported raw. 2183. In the distribution of minerals, Ireland has by no means been neglected ; but some unpropitious circumstances have prevented any of them from being turned to great account. Of these impediments the most material is the want of a sufficient supply of good coal. The most extensive depository is that of Kilkenny, which extends also into Queen's County ; but, besides the great expense of working, the sulphureous quality and carbonic acid gas evolved during ignition render it both disagreeable and unwholesome ; and it is used fur fuel only by the peasantry. It is fitted, howev^-i, for the use of blacksmiths and maltsters, The principal work is at Castle- Comer, where about 40,000 tons arc annually raised. The coal of Leitrim has absorbed a large capital, but does not promise to be very productive. The fuel of Ireland is in general either coal imported from England and Scotland, or the turf dug out of its immense bogs ; but the latter has not yet been found applicable to the fusion of metals. From these causes the veins of ii on ore, which are very extensively dif- fused through the island, have not yet been turned to any important use. The copper, also of fine quality, wliicli is found in the counties of Wicklow and Cork, must be sent over to Swansea to be smelted. The lead, however, of Wicklow is worked to a considerable extent with imported coal. 2184. Fishery in a branch of industry for which the extended shores and deep bays of Ireland would be peculiarly >.daptcd. Nor do the inland waters, the rivers and hikes, less abound in the species of fish appropriate to them. The diligence of the Irish in taking fish for immediate consumption is considerable, being urged on by the frequent abstinence from other food which their Catholic profession enjoins. Their trout and salmon are distin- guished both for size and taste : the salmon arc caught by weirs, stake-nets, and ntlier contrivances, but with so little precaution that their number has been sensibly diminished. The eels also are delicate, and attain a great size; and the use of eel-weirs, a practice but partially known on this side of the Channel, is very gener.il. These processes, however, do considerable injury by flooding the adjoining lands. DubliO; and the other great towns, Paw III. gal distillers, ;, it was con. r paid duly." ives reason to ore than half '., and that on ),000/., which most rigorous practice more ew-modclled ; »n permitted ; ! collection of ; duty, which ■,800,000, and nd fabrication if the cheap, incficial to the af Irish com- Tcd amounted 80fl to about i ill the export if beef, seven lie animals are ig. The beef ommon beef; onal per cwt, uch extended. in a very sur. art of Dublin. I westward and re recently this lantity of wool their domestic at Carrick-on. •en established ing the great carried to any fed ; but some Teat account. [of good coal, len's County j bonic acid gas it is used for md maltsters, raised. The productive, itland, or the )licablc to the [tensivcly dif. |e coi)per, also sent over to Icrabic extent J deep bays of lid lakes, less Tin taking lish ^tineiicu from are dlstin- |s, and other • diminished. . practice hut I however, do I great towns, Book II. IRELAND. 495 obtain a regular supply of sea-fish, though at prices so high as to place the consumption beyond the reach of the lower orders. Tlio curing of lisli has made very little progresu, when compared witli the opportunities which the coasts of Ireland afford. In 1809, Par- liament appointed a board of commissioners for the promotion of Irish fisheries, placing >iAOG 238,101 176,072 30,933 Coiton yarn . - lbs. 37s,ay7 1,114,879 813,878 2,702,523 882,900 40,400 wool - - — 1,200,192 5,576,088 2,472,8.54 4,065,930 2,646,000 146,000 Silk, raw and thrown - — 00,034 82,415 60,069 62,128 1,205,700 64,400 CoHeo - - — 283,780 689,316 739,808 338,921 Spi.it!, brandy, and geneva Imp. gals. 379,438 184,2.38 4,134 9,166 37,349 18,419 rum - — 1,1.')2,H28 1,106,044 124,458 33,295 189,600 575,200 Sug,nr, raw • - cwt. 290,2.'i8 369,049 245,012 280,634 43,900 199,700 rvtlned • • — 4,209 18,510 28,204 66,392 4,794,300 . 972,500 Tea - - . lbs. 3,499,801 3,391,063 3,141,035 3,889,0.58 4.467.700 743,100 Tiihiicco . • - — 0,941,916 8,O47,0,')2 4,465,790 3,904,034 304,000 160,300 Wines of all sorts - Imp. gals. 1,172,100 1,316,104 386,4.'>8 908,940 87,800 129,100 Tallow ... cwt. 21,188 !5,.391 13,397 186,147 1,001,000 502,700 Coals ... tons 315,345 402,040 712,988 738,4.53 Uthor articles . • value £1,099,767 1,709,099 1,690,072 2,021,973 4,365,200 Aggregate official value 'Of which from/uriri/^n parts .£4,621,344 6,896,821 8,646,863 8,.596,785 10,91 8,000 .£l,3,'iO,994 1,880,264 923.797 1,. 547,849 Among the numerous o(A«r articles in 1835 arc the following, either wanting or too small to he distinguished in former years : — Linen yarn, 2,652,000 lbs., value 1,217,900/. ; wool, 81 1,500 lbs., 304,300/. ; herrings, 11 1,500 barrels, 124,000/.; hops, 13,944 cwts., 92,600/.; oak bark, 6,866 tons, 57,600/. ; salt, 1,646,000 bushels, 65,700/. ; British spirits, 388,600 gallons, 101,000/. ; slate, 18,800 tons, 50,600/. ; machinery, 79,200/. ; hides, 74,800 cwta. 163,200/. .496 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 2187. Exports. Pam III Artidiis bcinc the Produce or Manufacture* of 1 the United Kingdom. 1801. ISOi). 1817. 18U 183S. Value. To AIL PaRT!I. ■ Com and meal, vli.— £ Barlev ... qri. - 2fi,r)8H 39,114 154,822 168,900 210,700 Oats - - - — 129 828,4.'->8 (}46,036 1,503,204 1,. 575,900 l,<:6i,-y7 30,810 25,381 14,791 Flax, undressed • - — 1,6119 6,J507 44,239 64,898 163,900 402,700 Spirits, Irish • - Imp. gals. 178,602 (iO,437 37.884 629,529 4.59,000 75,,500 Cotton manufactures,— entered by the yard - • yards l,2.'iG 34,998 549,261 10,567,458 ■ 103,900) 13I.600J of other descriptions - value .£4,824 31,923 2li,2.50 301 116,!)(0 Linen manufactures - yards .17,91 1,(;()2 37,l(i 4,992,840 6,447,424 9,101,950 16,6U3,(i00 Value exported to foreign parts .^^426,076 62.5.415 .177,9.59 097,667 Of the other articles in 1835 are, lead .ind copper ore, 477,600 cwts., value 179,300/. ; eggs, 52,24i («i(i 87,200/. ; beer2,68fi,000 gallons, 138,900/. i feathers, 6,400 cwts., 45,800/. j foreign and colonial produce, 1 Wjmi. 2188. The following Table, extracted from voluminous statements' in the Report of tlie Railway Commission, exhibits, for each port, the tonnage inwards and outwards, the value of imports and exports, with the chief heads of the latter, all for the year 18,15 : — Tonnaiie Enured. Cleare Out. Imports. Eiports, Com. CalUc. Horses rro»|. luons. Linen. Flax. L. L. L. i. L. L. L. L. AnlitlaM «ir, Under 1 KUIough llNewry J 2,970 35,101 21,770 3,275 17,553 0,702 3,077 - . . . • 2,803/ copper. HalJInggar . Arlilow 11,391 5,417 5,117 Hallini .; 7,795 7,71* 13,532 70,508 51,000 . . 19,108 Kallvram j London- i l.etterkenny) derry }■• 5,770 20,834 20,083 Ullyiliannon !SM>t 3,025 9,584 11,130 1I,1.KI Ballimore ■ 1 1 .OfiS 21,952 17,707 37,111 32,872 B.intry Creek Uartimore - . 17,2!'3 0,212 8,21'2 llereliaven • Id. ■ .K 1,081 77,3lilP l,^.^ . 9,000 • . 03,16n;. copiier. 7,»U0/. Irail. Kelfau 3ni,8r.9 191,199 3,095,437 4,311,791 118,597 13,020 ,15/i80 906,597 2,091,008 180,884 Coleralne 14,(150 10,901 05,01 H) I05,(f85 40,9.51 . 42,5'27 5,1'20 4,950 Cork 209,31,'j 105,191 2,751,084 2,9l)9,81i; 172,851 •12,300 '2,100 2,019,810 60,100 203,IG'2/. hogi. l>onaffhadee - S,«< I9,l'^8 7.571) 02,181 . 50,179 5,620 DonegalCreek 2,911 3,031 11,331 ll,.1(i3 in,.',8i Droglieda ■ Uulilin .5l,S.Tll 7N,fi43 2.59,»,'>4 7iiii,iia; 250,852 130,210 2,2.50 . 30,000 . 215,8,58/. hnsl. 47.-),2IO •i(iH,.Wi 4.430,321 2/128513 178,921 107,056 2,190 276,801 731,300 . I'2.~,9(i1/. hiHn. Ilundalk 4.'.,M1 4.'>fi^e^ 107,953 4.-.2,SI3 279,713 20,00(1 . 10,160 • 12,000 10(1,1 l(KP(.,lin,|i, Duntfarvon • 1.S821 11, 582 lfi,3la 69,180 25,800 . . 18,311 * 2,0OU( i-uiiixi. Kialtray l6,(i.Ti 18,79« 88,208 25l,8lil 217,319 - . 3O,01X) Klllala .1,551 3,1183 3,188 20,39i; 23,09'2 • . 2,704 Kllr.uih 2,7li8 30,158 35,4.'.8 Kin»alel>eek '1,1,815 5,098 18,202 1,1.179 9,987 l.ame Creelt - 15,S51 9,078 7,'2.'i5 (,0,.1l)9 10,372 - . S,380 40,000 l.lmerirk . S6,.1(i7 .55,100 325,740 720,1,10 18(1,10(1 • . 317,200 87,137 75,117 708,05 1 1,01(1,918 I20,(i70 . 273,566 .114,749 212,910 Newry 90,S90 81,519 5(i«,7 1 1 010,8.10 201,837 i 7,7.55 8,980 81,620 1S4,311 . 15,52.5/. ho«i. Rou a3,'^i3 14,130 28,007 .')9,(I71 17,280 . . 3,l(i8 ■S'trangford • Newry - - 211,198 79,li.11 ,VJ,'2,2(I 1,618 . , . . 16,e4ll.|Wlslon Slign «5,7-a 20,747 121 ,|■,'J^^ .169,191! 185,411 . 181,830 'Iralee (1,S49 7.010 i;i7i) 42,115 40,072 ■ Waterford . 14(l,fitl l,i6,«9; 1,271, l.'il 1,821,215 770,027 5J,!)I0 . 712,017 . . 1.12,160/. hop. W'etford 34,317 31,.173 021,117 3 12,1. Hi 175,180 30,000 51,01H) . - 15,000/. (.hwp. W'cKttxirt 7,483 ll.I.'iS 28,517 87,8(15 83,517 \Vlc',400 1(H) 10(1 82»,lno 723,!IIKI tHJd 8.31(i,3(l() 2UU ,182,000 900 402,700 000 not 75,,')00 H8,o(fl i lU,G'J3,(i00 2,1,'i,S,'iS/, hn;t. l'^r>,Mi,'/. lurescnt a memorial to thcgrand jury of the county, showing the necessity of a new road, and If this presentment he approved, the work immediately proceeds. The only railway yet established is from Dublin to its port of Kingston, which has \Kxn very eucccuAil ; but others on a great scale arc now in preparation. Sect. VI. Civil and Social State. 2192. The popidalion of Ireland, from its great amount and rapid increase, is considered as one of the chief causes of the severe poverty which presses upon the body of tlie people. Till the census of 1821, the data upon which it was calculated appear to have been somewhat conjectural. In 1672, Sir William Petty, who had been employed on a survey of the country, estimated it at 1,100,000. Mr. Dobbs, between 1712 and 1726, upon a calcu- lation from the number of houses, at six to a house, represented it as varying from 2,000,000 to 2,300,000. Calculations founded on tlie produce of the hearth duty gave, in 1754, 2,372,000; in 1785, 2,845,000; and in 1788,4,040,040. In 1812, a census was insti- tuted, but could not, from various obstacles, be made complete ; however, by calculating what was deficient, it was estimated at 5,937,000. In 1821, a more complete and effective census gave 6,801,000. That of 1831 amounted to 7,767,401, of whom 3,794,880 are male, and 3,972,521 female. 2193. T/it Irish character presents very marked features, many of which are amiable, and even admiriible. They are brave ; hospitable to such a degree, that in some counties the door is regularly kept open during meals. " Hospitality is an universal trait, and exists in the nortii as well as in the south ; in the mountain and in the dale." It is much enhanced by the scantiness of the portion which is thus liberally shared with the passing stranger. The Irish are lively, merry, and witty ; and even the lowest ranks have a courteous and polite address. They are celebrated for warmth of heart, and for strong attachments of kindred and friendship, which leads them, out of their scanty means, to support their aged relations with the purest kindness. Benevolence is a distinguishing fea<:ire of the higher ranks. They are curious, intelligent, and eager for information. With so many good qualities, it were too mucli to expect that there should not be some faults. They are deficient in clean- liness ; have little taste for conveniences or luxuries ; and are destitute of that sober and steady spirit of enterprise wliich distinguishes the English. The love of fighting seems a rooted infirmity. Among all nations not wholly civilised, this is, indeed, a favourite mode of terminating differences ; but the Irish may be said to surpass every other people in the extreme promptitude with which they resort to it. Fighting appears their native element, into which they plunge whenever their spirits are roused. It would seem, indeed, to have been formerly almost a regular termination of the social board. The fairs, which, in every town and village of Ireland, are regular and of long duration, afford the grand theatres, first of unbounded mirth, and ultimately of bloody conflict. The Irish do not fight single- handed, but in bands, and on a great scale. On receiving a supposed injury, they go round to their companions, friends, and townsmen, and collect a multitude, with which they make a joint attack on the objects of their wrath. It need scarcely be added, that they show no reluctance to engage in schemes of general and national conflict ; and it is remarked that, when these are in contemplation, there is a pause of casual and private battle. The other blemishes of the Irish are rather frailties than sins. They are repre- sented as vain, talkative, prompt to speak as well as act without deliberation : this dispo- sition, with their thoughtless gaiety, betrays them into that peculiar blunder called a bulli which their neighbours have so long held forth as a national characteristic. 2194. The eccle$iattical state of Ireland is well known as having been one of the chief causes of its unsettled condition. The native Irish did not share in any degree the reform- ation so unanimously adopted in England and Scotland. When, therefore, the English church was introduced as the established religion, it threw out, as dissenters, the bulk of the Iiish population. Even of the protestant part, a large proportion, introduced as colonists from Scotland, were attached to the presbyterian form. The discussions as to the relative number of each seem to be set at rest by the official statements in the Lords' report of June, 1825. It there appears that, of the 6,801,000 which constituted, in 1821, the entire population, 4,980,000 were catholic, and 1,769,000 protestant; of which last there were 1,135,000 belonging to the established church ; 577,000 presbyterians (with the exception of about 10,000, all in Ulster) ; 57,000 of other denominations, chiefly in the same province. The proportion of Protestants to Catholics is, in Ulster, as 1 to 1 ; in Leinster, as I to 4} ; in Muiister, as 1 to 9^ ; in Connaught, as 1 to 71) : over all Ireland, ns I to 21 kk 49.S DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pa»» 111. 2195. The Homan Catholic clergi/ rcceiyo no stipend from government, but arc entirely supported by their flocks. They are formed, however, into a regular hierarchy, at the head of which are four archbishops ; Armagh (the primate), Tuam, Cashelrand Dublin. Under them are twenty-two bishops, with a vicar-general, dean, and archdeacon in each diocese. The number of catholic priests has been stated at 1400, besides several hundred friars! Their income arises less from any fixed allowance, than from dues, offerings, and presents '■ and the bishops, to make up their incomes, receive from the parish priests a portion of what they have collected. Mr. Wakefield has attempted an estimate, according to which Christmas and Easter offerings amount to 337,000/. ; marriages produce, in licences, fees' and collections, 78,500/. ; christenings, 12,500/. ; burials, 12,500/. : in all, 440,500/. Accord,' ing to Archbishop Curteis, the income of a bishop is about 500/. a year ; that of a prirst varies from 100/ to 400/. Although a congi is asked from the pope, the real election to vacant places rests with the clergy themselves ; but as their incomes depend entirely un the favour of their hearers, they are subject to a necessity of choosing popular priests, which is not felt by the established catholic churches. Hence the influence of the priests, always so remarkable under the catliolic system, exists in Ireland to an extent perhaps uncqunlled. On the other hand, many, especially among the bishops, are remarked for their exemplary life, and for the diligent discharge of their functions. They are even sometimes instru. mental in preventing riot, in discovering theft, and procuring restitution. The recent ad- mission of Roman catholics to all political privileges, though it does not make any change in the condition of the clergy, has been hailed by the body in general with peculiar satisfac- tion. It is hoped that it will either make them more friendly to the established government, or diminish their influence in estranging from it the minds of the people. 21 96. The Presbyterians, as already observed, are nearly confined to Ulster, where they are the most numerous sect. The synod of Ulster is formed into a sort of establishment consisting of 201 congregations besides which there are 110 congregations in communion with the Scottish seceders. The ministers receive a royal gift of 14,000/. annually, which affords from 50/. to 100/. to each. The Presbyterians form the most industrious, thriving, and intelligent portion of the people ; yet a great proportion have imbibed republican ideas, and they emigrate to America more leadily than any other class. 2197. The Established Church of Ireland is in union with that of England, and every way similar. It consists of four archbishoprics and twenty-eight bishoprics ; but hy un act recently passed, two archbishoprics are to be converted into bishoprics ; and ten bishoprics are to be abolished. The entire revenue of the Irish church has been ascertained not to exceed 130,000/. for the bishoprics, and 602,200/. for other benefices. Tlte lands belon{;ing to the bishops are of far greater value ; but, in consequence of being let on old leases re- newed from time to time on payment of fines, and never coming to a termination, the rent derived from them was greatly under the real value. It is proposed now to offer these leases to the present incumbent, in perpetuity, on payment of six years' purchase of their estimated value, which, it is calculated, will produce aliout 3,000,000/. A tax, moreover, varying, ac- cording to the amount of income, from five to fifteen per cent., is to be laid on all livings above 200/. ; and its produce to be applied to the augmentation of the poorer livings, and the building of glebe, houses and of new churches. Hence the parochial tax, called the vestry cess, or church rate, amounting to about 90,000/. a year, is no longer to be levied. 2198. The literature oi Ireland, in modern times, cannot boast any very distinguished pre-eminence ; yet she has maintained her station in the literary world. In wit and elo- quence, indeed, she has excelled both the sister kingdoms. In the former quality, Swift and Sheridan shine unrivalled ; and in the latter, Burke, Grattan, and Curran have displayed daring and brilliant flights. In her graver pursuits, Ireland has not been so happy ; tliougli Usher attained the first eminence in theological learning, and Berkeley was the author of a highly ingenious system of philosophy. 2199. The Irish establishments/or education are scarcely adequate to the magnitude of the country. There is only one university, that of Dublin, founded by Elizabeth on the model of those of England, but not on so great a scale. Of it and of other Irish literary institu- tions, an account will be found under the head of Dublin. As the constitution of this university is strictly protestant, and does not allow the teaching of catholic theology, the students of that faith must have been all educated abroad, had not government endowed for their use the College of Maynooth. It is supported by a revenue of about 9000/. a year, and contains a president, vice-president, and eleven professors, all with moderate appoint- ments. The students receive board and education ; and the whole annual expense of each is not supposed to exceed 20/. The students of the north resort chiefly to Glai:gow for theology, and to Edinburgh for medicine ; though there has been an attempt to obviate this necessity by the formation of an institution at Belfast. 2200. The education of the poor in Ireland is a subject which excites the deepest interest in all the friends of that country. It appears that, by the 8th of Henry VIII., every clergy- man, on his induction, becomes bound to keep or cause to be kept an English school. This act, however, is either obsolete, or so liu- evaded that only 23,000 cliildren arc now UOUK t. IIIELAND. 499 iHliKlit In tliL'"'-' pttrocliial schools. The greatest cfFort at Irish education, however, is tliat liliulu liy lite Chiirter Schools, instituted in 1 733, which by parliamentary grants and private liBKi'lin tlons hove engoyed an income of SO.OOOt a year. But this sum, which might almost fiintlnli neliuols to the half of Ireland, is spent upon 2000 boys, who receive board as well lilt liulmctlon. Although the act recites no other object than instruction in the English l(iM|{iii', pi'owlytism has become almost the sole aim. The Hibernian Society, the Baptist Siiiii'ly, imd thul for discountenancing vice, support ^hools to a very considerable extent. ihu Klltliire Street Society, founded in 1812, founded numerous schools, in which they ctiili'iivoili'i'd to induce the Catholics to attend by renouncing all attempts to gain proselytes ; hut IVom the entire Scriptures being lead in these schools, and other alleged causes, the Crtlliollt'i were supposed to view them with jealousy. The allowance made to this society \w\, llii'ri'fore, withdrawn, and a new plan instituted, in which the moral and literary is ni'linrittiHl from the religious education, and is communicated to the youth of both religions iliiriiiK four or five days of the week, while, in the remaining period, religious instruction In I'Klii'i'leil to bo administered by the clergy of the respective chuichcs. Extracts only iVdin till' Sirlpture, approved by the leading catholic clergy, are read in the common school. 1,(111(1 I'tiiuls, to a certain extent, are required to be contributed. Although this system him mi>t «ith many opponents, yet, in the beginning of 1833 there had been established iinili'r it between 500 and 600 schools, calculated for the education of about 90,000 mluiliirii. Ill 1824, the number of schools in Ireland was 11,823, and scholars 560,549. or ihi'BC sfiioliirs 394,742 paid for their own instruction, and among this number were :l07,tXK) Ciitliolics, who thus showed no small ardour in obtaining the benefiu of knowledge. D'JOI. fhcfne arts do not appear to have attained any great excellence in Ireland. Her Ik'hI iiiiilitvrs have sought for patronage in the British metropolis ; and the attempts to i'iitillili»li nil minuttl exhibition in Dublin have not succeeded. The Irish harp and native Irluli iiU'liidies el\joy considerable reputation. The ecclesiastical structures have not that «|ili'll(ltiur iiiul richness which so strongly mark many of those in England ; but the modern iililU'cHi ("i|ii>('ially in Dublin, display a taste as well as magnificence which render that ('n|iltiil iilinust pre-eminent. WIS. tn fiiiifinli, mnrriages, and similar solemnities, the Irish retain several old national customs. The iiMi'lli'i' »( liirwl hiiwUng women at fUncrals, called ululates, is very prevalent ; a considerable sum is paid to lliimi I'liiiilnyt'il, th«UKh,1n cases of necessity, they howl gratis. A still more unfortunate custom is that of the uiiki'i, ulii'ri' thirty or forty nvighliours assemble, are entertained with meat and drink, and indulge in tvi'tymiH iiffiin. Marriages in many parts of the country are marked by some real, or at least apparent, vliili'lii'i' t lhi> lirlilegroom collects a large |>arty of friends, seizes and carries oflf'thescemingly reluctant bride. AlliiilliiUlKlhliCiistoni, her going to her husband's house, even in ordinary cases, is called the "hauling liuiiio." Till" I" nut prompted by any peculiar shyness on the part of the fair sex ; on the contrary, the mothers, Willi whiilii Iho iitlhir chiefly rests, display even a feverish anxiety that their oRkpring should not remain long III It pinlv III' uliiglv liU'ssedncss. The fair sex arc treated amon^ the higher ranks with a gay and romantic |i«llltlilry I nmiMig the lower almost as slaves, tieing sulyected to the most degradiiig labour. ^Iotwithstanding ililt I'lri'iiiiinliiiii't'. and although improvident marriages are general among all ranks, while those of aflbctinn itrf ilci'imil li)' flit. Wakclicld to be very uncommon, Irish wives are said to be extremely faithfUl ; and the ■I'll, nitllil iill ill Irnnkncss, to maintain a character for chastity. it'iiil, .Imiini'iiirHl liirms a copious'clement in the existence of an Irishman. Ample scope is afibrded to the I'nlliiilli'i by their numerous holidays, in which diversion and devotion arc considered as quite consistent ; and llii' I'riilolsiilii, however contrary their views in other respects may be, vie with them in this particular. The IMl* Altlird n grand and unlicensed theatre for f\in of every description. The chief bodily exercise is hurling, whii'li roiiiiUli in driving a ball to opiKMite goals, the same known in Scotland by the name of jAt'nn^ or sAin/^. Ti> lliln iniilisi'inrlit they add horse-racing, cock-fighting, cudgelling, leaping, and dancing; to say nothing u( ilrilililliK mill lluhtlng, Their conversation also affords them much amusement ; it is distinguished liy loud iiilrlli, M'itM>iii'irnlt( liii'lliicil to asi'rilie much of their distressed state, as well as of the backward state of the country III ui'lii'ml, Not lieing obliged to contribute any thing to their support, the landlords and occupiers, have, jU'lii'mlly ipcnkiiig, manifested great indifference to the condition of the peasantry. Few among them liitvi' hi'ullnli'il to allow their estates to be subdivided into minute portions to advance their |iolitical inter- |'>I>, III III nlilulii an increase of rent, Dut it is abundantly certain that they would have paused before vriiliirlim on such a course of proceeding had they licen made responsible, in all time to come, for the liinilirl' llii'V were thus introducing uiwn their properties. The question as to the institution of a compul- liiry iinivlKliiii Is now freely agitate iilllre niiiiilig the lowest class, is its lamentable deficiency ; in many instances it covers little more than liitlliil' the iwniin, anil, liciiig defaced by rueful and unseemly gaps, presents an image of extreme |)overty. WIh'ii IIiIh ilclli'lciicy dia's not exist, the Irishman loves to display the extent of his wardrobe ; when going to • lltir, lip iitila on all the cnnts he has, though the season be midsummer. IVI'i Hffml of Uie Irish |ieasant is no less scanty than his dress and habitation. It is almost wholly com« ||fl>t'il III Ihi' iioliitii, wlthmit any other vegetable (for he is a stranger to the luxury of a garden!, and only in lliviiliriilile clrrtinistances Is it accompanied with milk. As this fowl, however, according to tlic observation K k 2 500 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paiit in. long ago made by Smith, la lufflcient to preurve him In ftill health and vigour, the lamentallont over II hiv« Serhapt, been carried too Tar. In the north, the uie of oatmeal in the form of cakei and potlaM hu lylT.' erived ftom Scotland. ^ """ Sect. VII. Local Geography, 8208. Ireland is divided into four great province!, or rather regions : Leinitor In tlio vnat Muniter in the south, Connaught in the west, and Ulster in the north. This is indviivntlviit of the minuter English division into counties, a number of which are comprised in viich of the four provinces. These last^ indeed, when Ireland was ruled bv native guveriu ments, formed separate kingdoms. They are still distinguished by marked boundaricH, by • different aspect of nature, and by a considerable variation of manners and customs. 8!09. The following Table exhihlti the leading provincial statiitici of Ireland. The population ilitpmonti diflfer coniiderably firom those hitherto publiahM ; hut they have been obligingly furnlthed to ut by Mr VuHvt of the Board of Trade, a> the reault of the latest and most accurate digest of the returns ft>r IHal, ProTincet and Countlet. Leiiuter. Dublin • Louth Meath Wicklow ■ Wexford ■ Longford - Weatmeath King's Co. Queen's Co. Rildare • Kilkep.iy . Carlow VUier. Down Antrim . Londonderr. Donegal - Fermanagh Cavan Monaghan Armagh ■ Tyrone Mumler. Clare Kerry Cork Wsterford Tippcrary - Limerick ■ CoHHaughl. Leitrim ■ -Sllgo - - Mayo • ■ Galway Roscommon S21 473 512 486 535 a09 361 440 367 214 4,356 Imi ted Acres 237,819 191,345 561,527 400,704 545,079 192,506 313,935 394,569 335,838 325,988 417,117 19(>,833 4,113,260 544 605 479 \Ofil 440 478 280 283 724 4,8»» 744 1,012 1,638 410 867 60t 5,275 400 386 1,235 1,546 541 4,108 18,633 502,677 483,106 372,667 520,736 320,^911 421,462 309,968 267,317 550,820 3,749,352 524,113 581,189 1,068,803 353,247 819,658 588,842 3,935,852 266,640 257,217 871,!«4 955,713 453,455 2,805,009 Unlm- prafcd Acrai* 10,812 14,916 5,600 94,000 18,500 55,247 55,982 133,349 60,972 66,447 96,569 23,030 635,424 108,569 225,970 136,038 6t4,37l 101,952 30,000 9,236 42,472 171,314 1,469,922 259,584 552,362 700,760 118,034 182,147 91,981 1,905,368 123,167 168,711 42.<>,124 476,957 131,063 1,330,022 14.603,473 .VW).736 Eatimaud Annual Value. 250,211 164,765 510.414 296,822 395,134 151,595 851,063 317,019 2r/,7e7 255,082 437,693 164,895 3,472,460 489,123 569,159 310,962 349,501 259,291 307,741 812,581 178,955 528,065 3,205,778 441,293 344,616 Houacs ISil. 35,740 21,302 27,942 i-,r-- 29,159 18,967 23,015 22,561 23,105 16,478 29,789 13,028 278,.'?98 59,747 48,028 34,691 44,800 22,585 34,148 32,378 36,260 47,164 Pouu- latlon, 1831. Ilea and Towna, «IUt Uitlr PoiiuMin. 1,909,713 352,012 325,615 222,012 289,' 149,763 227,933 195,536 330,134 304,468 359,801 2,286,622 35,373 35,597 1,203,926 n4,459 295,364 886,539 629,932 3,801,670 306,995 210,187 237,443 550,018 868,794 379,628 2,236.070 12,715,.',7a 23,860 55,297 42,409 258,322 263,126 810,732 177,054 402,563 380,167 Dublin - 804,155 124,846 Drogheda 17,365 Oundalk 176,826 Trim . - 8,470 12l,r.r.7 Wicklow - 2,(«(i Arklow 182,713 Wexford . 8,31.'ti 112,558 Longfurd . S,7H3 New How EnniH-orthy 3,557 136,873 Mullingar ■ 4,100 Alhlune 144,225 Philipstown 1,!I31 Hlrr Tullamore ■ 5,517 145,851 Portarlington 8,877 Maryborouith 108,424 Athy . . 3,69kJ Naai Kildare . 1,516 193,686 Kilkenny . 83,741 81,988 Carlow ■ 8,033 Newry Donaghadee Belfast • Antrim Londonderry 149|Ballyshannon Enniskillen Cavan Monaghan • Armagh Omagn 10.013 Downiwtrliik 8,7t'5 53,0(K> CarrifhlVrum 3.485 Ualmrn . 9,313 CHloralue . 3,831 Ultbnl . . 8,399 8.32« 3.738 8.493 8,093 Uungannnn vm 4,47* ll,.M 3,(17,1 4,li,'i H.7I16 4,(«4 m S,Hi 315,355 Ennis . Tralee Dingle Cork Kinaale Fennoy Waterford Clonmel Tipperary Roscrea Limerick 2,227,152 21,762 27,059 53,051 58,137 37,399 - 0,701 • 7.647 Klllarnoy . 7,014 107,016 Han(1nn . U),m • 7,0t!H Youghal . NiKji . 6,703 Mallow . 4114 S8.H21 Llanioro . y ;|,)ii - 15/.!l0C«,hol . . CM . e,3»8 Csrr,.on.8ulr 7,4«6 ■ 66,5M 141,524 Carrlck-on.Sh. 1,673 17l,765:siigo . . 9.883 S66,3V8 Caatlebar . .5.404 414,684 Gaiway . • 33,130 Twini {Ballinaaloe 1,8U 249,613 Roscummon £,018 4,S71 197,4081,343,914 1,142,6027.767.401 SuBSBCT. I. Letnster. 2210. Leiniter is the richest and most cultivated of the four great diviitoni, and, itit con- taining the capital and the seat of government, the most important theatre of polittcnl te deprived of the public buildings, which form iti chief cmament. Among these, indeed, its ancient structures Jo not stand foremost The Castle, the residence of the lord lieutenant, Is extensive; but its architectural beauty is almost confined to a modem Gothic chapel, erected fl'om the design of Bb, John> stone, an eminent architect The cathedral of St Patrick {fie- 313.}. and Christ Church have a venerable aspect; but they can rank only secondary to those fine specimens of the Gothic found in the metropolis and other large cities of England : they seem even ecIipiM by Mr. John, stone's modem edifice of St George's church. The splendid structure, formerly the parliament, house of Ireland, and now the national bank {fig. 214.), was built between 17!9 and 1739, ftom a design of Cussels ; but an eastern iVont waa added in 1785, fVom a design of Gandon ; and a western flront, (Tom one of Parke, shortly alter : the whole costing 95,00OA The portico is 147 feet in length, supported by very lofty Ionic columns ; the whole covering an acre and a hidf or ground. The directors of the l)ank purchased it for 4O,000<. ; and have since, under Mr. Johnstone's dlrec tlons, exwndcd a considerable sum in alterations and additions. The Royal Exchange (Jig. 815.), situated almost In the highest part of the city, was built by the merchants, assisted with 13,omu. fVom government It forms a iiquare of 100 feet, and its principal trout has a richly decorated portico of six Corinthian columiu K k ^1 ' FArnlCK** CAmiDIUI., DOBMH. 509 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. RANK or IRRLANDi OUHMN. RlCnANOR. nUIlLIN. Ac the buiinoM traniaclol there, however, \t, seemingly without any very koinI reason, limited to the purchaut of bills on I/iiKloii, extensive " C'ommcrclil RuildiMKs" have lieen crcclcil elsewhere f™ general transactions. The Four Law CoiirfcL situateil on the north bank of the river ( jl? 81(i), form also one of the noblest structures iri Dublin : It was constructed between HHTi ami 18(10, at an exjiense of ax),UOO/., anil consists of a s(|uare of 1-XI feet, presenting a front of six Corinthian pillars, supimrting a circular lantern and magnillccnt dome. The quay is oriiamciitod by the Custom-house, commenced by govern ' meiit In 1781, and completed in 17')l, at an ex' Dense of ai(),0(XV. The front is entirely ,if Portland stone, embelli.shed with a Doric eiilnn nade, and extends S7r> feet. The I'ost Oltlce In .SackvilleStrect,is extensive and ma/niliccnL with a front of SM feet, adorned with an lonio portico, the pillan composmg which arc the highest in the metroimlis : It is of Portland stone, while the main ttructurcii of fine mountain granite. At no great distance, in the centre of Sackvllle Street, is the monument erected to Nelson j an object hv no means ornamental The inns of court, the theatre, the half-finished Koninn catholic mc- troix)litan chajiel, and several other churches and chaiiels, with many of the hospitals, may be mentioncil as adding to the architectural 8|>lcn(lour of Dublin. The citiicns display rather a peculiar zeal in forwarding patriiitic and benevolent objects. All the usual asxi- ciations for the relief of distress are siip|>(>rtcolh their central boards in this city. The Bible and Missionary societies arc chieflv branches of those in Lotidon. Great zeal is shown in favour of all Institutions for the promotion of know. ledge. Trinity College was foundcti in l.l'.i.!; and its students, who, thirty years ago, did iint exceetl 500, now amount to 1600. There arc seven senior and eighteen junior fellowships, which are said tn be bestowed alter very strict examination ; and the livings In the gift nl° the university, which are considerable in numt>er and value, are offered to the fellows gig .^ET'Sii. in the order of seniority. The general const!. ^^ ^^ tution seems to be on the English model; though the fellows are leu numerous, and the lecturing is more fVequcnt. There are gr.idations of rank, indicater rated in 174!t, for the promotion of husbandry and the useful arts, have eiJarged their sphere by a most extensive botanic garden ; by purchasing and extendnig the Ix'ckean museum of natnral history ; by instituting a school ofdrawing, with miKlcIs ; and by ap|x>inting teachers in all these department'. The Royal Irish Academy, incorjioratcd in 1782, have publi»hcd many estimable volumes of Transactions. The Dublin Institution has l)een formed on the model of that of I.ondon, and a city library establishril, on which 8000A has l>ecn expended. Although a great literary spirit prevails in Dublin, there are few books printed there, and the art of printing is in a backward state. The works of Irish authors issue fVon. the London presses. 2214. Dublin, unlike London, has very lillle Jbreign trade; but she has a consideral)le trade with England, particularly with Liverpool. The bay is spacious, and has good anchorage ; but the entrance is beset with formidable sand-banks, particularly those cnlleil the North and South Bulls, threatening continually to encroach on the channel of the river, which is, strictly speaking, the harbour. It is a still more serious evil that these hanks cannot be passed by large vessels at low w» ter; so that vessels embayed at that time of the tide, and attacked by strong ca.stcrly gales, can scarcely escape being driven upon one of them ; and many have consequently perished. To avert these evils, works have been un- dertaken, the magnitude of which is scarcely paralleled in the United Kingdom or any part of the world. After having in vain endeavoured to form a bulwark of frames and piles, which could not be kept in repair without constant expense, a double wall has been constructed three miles in length, composed of enormous blocks of granite, dovetailed into each other, the interval tilled with gravel ; and a light-house erected at the end. Another pier, also of great extent, has been built at Diinlcary, now Kingstown, on the opposite 01 southern side of the bay, which some years ago was connected by a railway with the capital. To these advantages Dublin unites that of being placed at the tcriniiiatiuu Book I< IRELAND. 503 of the two principal Irlnh runnli, the Grniul Cunnl on tlie soulli, and the Iloyal Canal on the north, which ponetrnto liy *iini>n>iit lini'H to tliu Shannon and the interior of Ireland. In )g<,<), Dublin paid tlie Hum of N!)H,(XX)/. of duty on imported goods, while that paid at all the other ports of Ireland aniuunlvtl only to y,0:i6,000/. The environs are celebrated for their beauty. Tiiu vaiit niunhvr ut' villait and villages which cover the adjacent districts, and ore rendered conspicuous liy thu K<^*>i>*>tl sloping down to the bay ; the foreground of the Dublin mountains, and Ihii pvciillnrly picturesque summits of those of Wicklow in tlie background, render the situtttiun «trlklng and delightful. To the west, Phoenix Park, a royal demesne of suvernl ndltitt in ulrcuinfercnce, affords an agreeable promenade, and has lately been adorned with an obelisk, 310 feet high, in honour of the Duke of Wellington. n\5. The reit (if Ike eounlfi i\f HMMiH fnnttln* only vUtsRcii. nml the Interior poMetiei few intereating ob' _. .« ..... ..... I ...I. lowiml VVlt'klow, include manv striking sitcs) and the On thit coaat Kingatnn and DIackrock form agreeable iMti Tlie shores of the liay, hiiwever, nlri'li'lilno towiml view f^omthc Hill of Kllllney la hImi>mI mHli'lili' hailiing.placo s and the furnier, IVoni llii< (irvnt rcevnt iinprnvcinentt, ii likely to increase rapidly. borilorof Wicklow the Duld' — ■ ' ' " - "- " • '- sranitc rock teiim hero riven aaiinili'r, lia inivrnni utruclurc is disclosed in a manner almost appa „ , . the enormous and irregular msues uii ««vh tldtt tppruach each other lo closely a* to leave only space for a Wicklow the Dulilln niniintnlns srv r«nt liy a very singular chasm, called the Scalp. hero riven aaiinili'r, Ita IlitvrnnI structure Is disclosed in a manner almost appalling ; and . On the An immense narrow road 2316. jncklow, though it contaiim fioina stripes of fertile territory, is in general composed of bog, forest, and mountain, and contributes little to the wealth of Ireland. It is, how- ever, one of the spots in the tliruu kingdoms most celebrated for picturesque beauty. This fll7 POWBUCOuaT WATaaiTAI. consists not in lakes, like Cumberland or Scotland; for those which it contains are only tarns or lakelets ; nor in rivers, though it gives rise to the Liffey and the Ovoca. Its coast, vHiversified by hills, broken into gluns, and richly wooded, is almost covered with the seat'] of the gentry and opulent citizens of Dublin, These varigated and embellished grounds, having on one side the expanse of the Irish Channel, and on the other the lofty mountains in the interior, produce a number of picturesque and beauti- ful sites peculiar to itself. The demesne of Powcrscourt is pre-eminent. The waterfall ( A^.2I7.), descending 360 feet down a steep hill, amid vast hanging woods ; and the Dargle, a deep, dark, narrow and wooded glen, through which there is scarcely room for a torrent to struggle, are among the most striking scenes in Ireland. The interior of the county presents features of a very different description ; glens between lofly mountains, naked and desolate. Among these arc noted Glcnmalure, running along tlie fool of Lugltaquilll^ the loftiest mountain of Wicklow, obove 3000 feet high; and Jtill ^'" ' ' more Glendalough {fg. 218.), which is surrounded by a most majestic circuit of mountains, and contains some remarkable ecclesiastical monu- ments attributed to St. Kevin, a greot patron saint of Ireland in the seventh century. One of his disciples had founded at Glendalough a little city, long celebrated as a seat of religion and learning. Only its site can now be traced; but there are distinct remains of seven churches, among which the catlicdral and St. Kevin's kitchen are the most entire. They are small and rude ; but their high antiquity, and the character of the sunounding scenery, produce a deep and solemn impression. Loughs Dan and Bray, situated in the bosom of the wllduNt itiouiitains, and enclosed by dark and lofly rocks, present nature under an aspect tlie must rudely sublime. Wicklow has veins of copper, lead, and even of gold, which waH eolleeted tn one year to the value of 10,000/. ; but the vein was soon exhausted. The townit of Wicklow und Arklow, though well built, arc Kk -I ai.lNI>AM)UUH< 504 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pa»t III inconsiderable ; yot tlio Intlvr, ut the moiilli of the Ovoca, has a little trade, and was once the residence of the kings of Ireland. It was the scene of a memorable action in 1798 when the insurgents, al)ove :I0,(X)() strong, were defeated by a small British detachment. 8S17. Wetford, tn the •diilli »a'* Ctmuli) extend north-west from Kilkenny into the interior ol Irelaim Though bordered by the range ul' liilla i^ailiHl Mlleve-llliHim, their general surface is flat, forming a table land ul very moderate elevation. I'art of the great cliiiiii of liiiga crosses tliese counties, and renders a large proportion of them unproductive, though it suiipllea them with cheaii and abundant fuel. The remaining 'surface ii higlily fertile Queens County is alliiated aliinii the heairs of the Barrow and the Nore; King's County reaches to the Shannuii ; and both cominunicate by canals with Dublin. These counties have, however, few manufactures except diatillery, anil 'iii trade besides the <'X|iortatloii of their raw produce. The towns arc not of much im|Kirlance; Marytxiroiigh, the ahire town of Uueen's County, it small; and Philipstown, that ol King's County, still smaller. The liliwt prninliient place is I'ortarlington, on the Imrders of the two countiei, though chiefly belonging tnlho lirat | awvll-l'UlIt place, with goo(< Khools.andthc residence of a considerable numl>er of gentry. Tiillauinrc, on the great canal, and Uirr or Paraunttown, are the mott |iopulous and thriving towns in King'a Ciiuiity, 2.'il. Kildare forms a long i.lripe (Voin north In aiii.th, separating the two lost-mentioned counties from that of Dublin. With the exieptiiin nf ubnul a alxth pari of bog, it lurinsa plain of the finest arublc soil, well cul. tivatcd, and whence the capital lachli'lly aiinplled wllh grain. The (iraiul ami Koyal Canals, which both iross its northern border, aflbril the niuaiir nl' reiidy conveyance tn Dublin. Klldare-town, though presenlinga lofty round tower and some other vealigis of paal inuHirtance, has dwindled into a paltry village. It is only supi>orted by the racca held on the eurragli nl Kllifare,an expanse of several thousand acres of the very tincAt turf. Naas and Athy, both larger towns, and the niternate seat of (he astizea, arc still not of great magnitude, though the lolly caatlc of the fnriner heart teeing consldereil one of the keys of Irelniiil. In the time of the great reiiellion of IIHI, it stood a long ticgc against .Sir Fhelim O'Neil, but was ancrwards token by Cromwell, who punished its resistance by a most barbarous massacre of the garrison. I n Ittttl, twn tnllen above Drogheda, was fought the battle of the Ho) ne, that memorable Held which catablishiHl the civil and religious liberties of the empire. The tbrtiflcations ol' Drogheda still remain ; but, being of nlNiiilete structure, ami commanded on several sides, they would make no effectual resistance to modern artillery. The place hat now a better distinction from its excellent harlmur and extensive commerce in grain brniight down the river In conaiderable quantities for exiiortation ; in return for which, cools and other commiHllllea are lm|Hirled. 2225. Wrilmeath ami 7.»»^'/iir<( nccuiiy the Inlerinr from the two counties last described, reaching westward a« far as the Sliannon. They cnnalat clilelly iif a very extensive plain considerably encumbered with lakes, bogs, and morasses, and aulijei't In |«irt In the overllnwing of the Shannon, but including tracts of great extent that are extremely fertile, partiiuliirly in oata. The northern boundary of Longford is somewhat rugged and mountiiinous. Athlone, the largest inland town of Ireland, Is aituate i'ro8ii('ortation. There is some fine woodland scenery along the banks of its rivers ; Imt the chief iinportancc of the county is derivelablishmcnts usual in great cities on a liberal scale. 500 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pam hi. S!3I. Other imporlnnl iotnu arc cnntniiioil in thif rnunly. Klniale, on ■ Rno Imy at the mnulh nfthc Han don, wan much inure friHiiifntnl than Cork by the early Kiigllth miiiiarchi, who iHttownl on the iilace extcii' live prlvileKeii, anil viewed it aH the key of r lUthcrn Irelunil. It hoa now, however, auiik uniler tnc aiiiierlnr Imiiortanec of ita nelKhlKiur ) it< ixirt la eoni|>aratlvcly little fVniiienteil except aa a wntoriiiK.placc; and It ii chiefly lupixirteil hy a tiahery. Yoiiuhal, at the mouth nf the lllackwater, the largeat river ol'ihe eiiunty hoi a Rooil harbour, thnutih obatructcil by a bar i anil carrica on anmo trade and nianuracturc. Kcminy, Tur'thi'r up the river, ha*, through the patriotic cxertlona of one liHlividual, become thriving and protpcroua. Mallow conlainf a mineral iprliig, whicn attracta nunieroua invalida, Sftii Kerry, wcat of Cork, la alao an extenaive county, but very diffl'rcnt In aapcct from the reat of Ireland • Inateail of theuaual verdant level. It preaenta an aaiemblage ofmountaina wild, rocky, anddeaolatc. Theae are interaiwracd with valleya anil narrow plaint which might even be aulij<«te Kcnmare, and Tralee. There arc alao numcroua iaianda, miwt nf them covered uitli Immenae HIghIa ofara- fowl, which the nativea take by the uaual adventurnua practice nf deacending the preciplcca by a roiie. A cnnaiderable quantity of herringa la caught in theao l)aya. 'I'ralee, the county town, could not in Ihia linrrcii region riac to much importance; it exhibita, however, the remaint of a very atrong caatle, once the pniud realdencc of the I'^arlt of Deamond, when, under the title of Palatine, they exerclaed the real aovc. rcignty over thii part of Ireland ; a away which terminated with their attainder under the reign of Ell. labeth. 2233. KUlarney and iti laics form the pride of Kerry, and, indeed, as to scenery, have no rival in Ireland, scarcely in the British islands. Hoth Kngland and Scotland possess nii. merous lakes and of varied beauty ; the mountains that enclose them, however, have in general been stripped of the ancient forests which once crowned them, and only detached trees and brushwood now grow along their sides. liut in Killarney the mountains of Tomies and Glena are covered to a vast height with the most majestic woods ; while the arbutus and other shrubs display a bright verdure peculiar to western Ireland. This feature, however, has of late somewhat suffered from the ravages committed by tlic axe. Killarney presents, at the same time, all the usual accompaniments of precipices, cascades, deep rocky glens, and long ranges iv 219 o( varied summits. There is only one body of water, to which, iiow- ever, the term lakes is usually ap. plied ; so completely is it divided into three bays united only by narrow straits, and presenting each a different aspect. The lower lake, immediately adjoining Killarney (_fig. 219.), forms the main expanse of water, and presents all the features on tlie greatest scale. On the eastern shore rise the mountains known by the uncouth Irish name of Macgillicuddy's Reeks, the highest of which rises to 3400 feet, the most elevated point in ?>' '.and. On this side also are the mountains of I'omics and Glena, with their immense toriists. Near the western bank is 220 Innisfallen, usually reckoned the most beautiful island in Europe. At the most southern point of the lower lake a much smaller bay branches off* from it, through channels formed by Dinis Island. This bay, called Turk Lake, is over- hung on one side by the precipitous sides of the lofVy mountain of that name, and bordered on the other by the long wooded and winding peninsula of Mucruss. Tic vener- able ruin of Mucruss Albey {^fig. 220.) adds greatly to th: interest of this part of the scenery. From Dinis Island, a long winding channel of more than two miles leads to the Upper Lake. The scenery seen in this passage is of surpassing grandeur and beauty. The most sinking spot is at the Eagle's Crag (Jig. 221.), a stupendous and rugged cliff", which bursts suddenly on the view, rising in a pyramidal form from the water. Throughout aU the rocks of Killarney, but here most particulariy, the effect of echoes is most powerful and striking. The Upper Lake, the least extensive but the most sublime, exhibits all the loftiest mountains under the most imposing point of view, lu shores are winding and varied with numerous islands, whose rocky sides contrast with the brilliant green of the arbutus. The ascent of the highest mountains, Mangerton to the LAKMB or aiM.AaKir. Mt'CRUM ABHbV. DooK r IRELAND. Mf ■ AUI.I'I tRAO. iiortli, and Glicran Tiial, the highest uf thv reek* to the noutli-raiit, iHwIoms rwAiI range* of riiggvd pri'cipii'vs and of dark and rocky ravinci ; and their tummit* command an •itonisliing view of tlio moun- tain glens and rocky shorca of Kerry, the pxpansu of tlie Atlantic, and the distant plains of Cork and Limerick. i2'J34. Limerick, to the north of Cork and Kerry, is one of the largest and finest counties of Ireland. Its borders in- clude some branches from the high mountains of Kerry and Tipperary ; but the main iMxiy of the county consiNts of a VHHt plain, of peculiar fertility. An alluvial tract, two or three miles broad, along the Shannon, is quite exuberant. That noble river, now expanded into nn estuary or bay sixty miles in length, runs along the whole northern l)order of Limerick. '2'2S5. Tlie city of Limerick, till it was outstripped by Cork, was considered the second in Iri'laiid, and is now the third. Its situation, in the centre of the grand internal navigation of the kingdoir , must always secure to it an extensive trade ; and, notwithstanding its distance from the sea, tiic largest vessels can ascend to the harbour. Limerick is one of the great marts for the export of grain and provisions ; thu value of those shipped from it in 18^.9, having been estimated at 726,600/. It was anciently considered the strongest fortress in Ire- land, and has always stood out to the last extremity for the Catholic cause. Ireton, CromweU's Ik'iitenant, reduced it only after a long siege, aided by a party within the place. In 1690-1, it Htood two long sieges, and yielded only upon those advantageous terms called the •■ capitulation of Limerick." Its capture was considered as closing the contest in support of the Stuarts. At this day, not more than a twelfth part of the population of Limerick is protestant. The spacious monasteries are almost cntirelly demolished, nor dues the city present any monument commensurate with its grandeur or religious character. Thu streets, as in most ancient towns, especially in fortified cities, are narrow, crowded, and gloomy ; but since the fortifications were demolished, half a century ago, they have been carefully widened, and the new streets laid out on quite a different plan. In a large quarter built by Lord I'erry, and bearing his name, they are spacious and regular ; and the houses, though only of brick, built in the most handsome modern style. The assembly rooms, theatre, and other modern structures, are elegant and commodious. ?J.% Clare county, to the north and wc.i. Killala, a pleasant straggling village, on a bay of the same name, is chiefly noted for the landing eftbcted in 1798 by a body of French troops under General Humbert, who penetratcd than is usual in Ireland. The waters of all the nigh grounds flow down into Ixiugh Erne, a noble lake, forming the pride of Fermanagh. It extends upwards of twenty miles, being the whole length of the county, and is divided into two parts, connn'tcd by a long narrow channel. Iliith portions arc studded with numerous islands, covered with fine woods, which seem to dip into the water ; and In sallina through them the lake continually changes its aspect, assuming successively the apjiearancc of a river and of a bay. At other places, long wooded promontories arc seen stretching far into the waters ; and, fiOOK I. IRELAND. 509 thounh the Immediate borders of the lake are not mountainoui, lofty dittant eminences fonn the general background to it« prospects. Castle Caldwell, Belturbct, and BeUeUlc are the spoU in which its beauties are nMuliarly concentrated. The latter is an island of SOO acres, adorned with every variety of hill, dale, and wood. The chief and almost only town is Enniskiilen. delightftillv situated on an island in the channel that connecU the two lakes. This site, accessible only by two opposite bridges, renders it very defensible, and enabled it to make its noble stand against the army of James 11. ITiis led to the formation of the regiment of cavalry celebrated in our military annals by the appellation of the Enniskiilen dragoons. 42W. Donegal includes a great extent of the north-western coast of Ireland, fiillof deep bays and fine harbours. In its interior, however, it is the least favoured of the Ulster provinces, and consisU almost entirely of mounUin, moss, and moor, with only a few productive valleys. It is often called, with some adjoining districts, " the black north of Ireland." It abounds in the bold and rude features of nature. This county is tolerably inhabited and cultivated, considering iU natural disadvantages j but distillation on an illicit basis forms too active a branch of its mdustry. There are great opportunities for fishery: and consi- derable elTorts have been made, with some success, to promote that employment Lifibrd, its very small county town, stands on the Foyle, upon the borders of Derrv. Ballvshannon, almost at the opposite extremity, is a thriving town, beautiftiUy situated on the channel by which Lough Erne pours itf waters into the Atlantic. Raphoc is a celebrated episcopal see, but now only a decayed village. The place bearing the name of Donegal u no longer of any importance. , , _. „ 2247. Derry, or Londondeny.li a large and fine county, one of the most northerly In Ireland. It Is crossed by a long range of mountains, whose principiJ peaks are fVom 1000 to 1300 feet high, and a considerable part of whose surface consists of heath and bog. There are, however, fine valleys, and even extensive plains, which .ire cultivated with some diligence, but according to that system of minute subdivision which is the bane of Irish agriculture. The linen manufacture flourishes in ftjH vigour, chiefly, according to the Irish system, among the little farmers and cotters, who combine it with the cultivation of a few acres. The county abounds with granite, basalt, fVccstone, and lime ; it has some fine rock crystal, and veins of coal, but they are not worlicd to any extent Londonderry is a fine city, situated at the |ioint where the broad river Foyle, after traversing a great part of this county and that of IVonc, falls .nto the broad basin of Lough Fovie; It is ancient, being the theatre of remarkable events even in the time of the Danes. In 1608, after the ctt linder of U'Neale, it was granted by James L to the citizens of London, whence it derived the first part of lU .lanie. But \U chief distinction was n-om the siege sustained by the city in 1690-1, against the united forces of Ireland under James 1 1., when, after being given up by the regular commanders, the defence was taken up and nobly maintained by a clergyman of the established church, of the name of Walker. Londonderry is now a hand- some town, composed of four main streets crossing each other at right angles, and surrounded still by its old walls in full repair, serving rather for ornament than defence. It has an ancient Gothic cathedral, and some handsome modern edifices. It is now supported by an extensive commerce, for which Lough Foyle, though its entrance is somewhat impeded by a bar, afibrds a spacious and secure harbour. Its chief intercourse is with America and the West Indies, to which it exports the linen manufacture in this part of the country. Colcrainc it a well-built agreeable town on the Bann, which flows ft'om Lough Neagh, and on which is the most cxtcns vc salmon fishery in the island ; but the rapidity of the stream otwtructs the navigation upwards, 2248. Antrim, occupying the north-eastern corner of the kingdom, opposite the coast of Scotland, is one of the most remarkable districts of Ireland, in regard to natural features as well as to commerce and industry. It is not, indeed, peculiarlv favourable to agriculture. A great part of the surface is composed of mountains, not very lofty, but rugged, composed chicHy of ro^;k and moss, and even its he»t soils are scarcely available for agricultural purposes till improved by tlic use of the lime with which the country abounds. In the interior the mountains have nothing peculiar in form or a8|icct ; but where they face the waves of the ocean, they arc lirokcn into vast perpendicular precipices, exhibiting the basaltic columnar form on a grander scale than exists in any other part of the world. 2249. Of these objects, the Giant's Causeway (Jig. 222. ) is beyond comparison the most cele- brated and magnificent. Three nutural piers or moles, 400 feet in height, here stretch out into the sea, and are visible above the water for about 300 yards. The walls are composed of dark basaltic columns, of the most regular form, and so closely united, that only the blade of a knife can be thrust be- tween them. Each column is distinct from the others, and divided into jointed portions, as perfect as if art had formed them ; there being in each part a projection, which is lodged in a corresponding concavity or socket of the one contiguous. The coast eastward of the causeway is composed of a succession of capes, presenting the most sublime scenery ; dark precipitous cliffs, rising regularly in gradually retiring strata, and formed into various broken colonnades which might suggest the idea of palaces overwhelmed in ruins. 2250. Other stri/ting features distinguish the coast of Antrim. Conspicuous above all otiiers is Fairhead, called also Benmore ; a promontory which forms nearly the north-eastern point of Ireland. It consists of a vast mass of columnar greenstone, composing a mural precipice, rudely columnar, and 250 feet high. At its feet lies a chaos of huge masses of rock, heaped together in the wildest confusion, and forming a scene of ruin tlie awful grandeur of which has scarcely a parallel. Against this the sea heaves in a solemn m{gestic swell, the peculiar attribute of the Atlantic waters. Carrick-a-Rede (fg. 223.) is a small island composed of a mass of basalt, imperfectly formed into columns, separated from the continent by a chasm of sixty feet. The fishermen, however, have occasion to resort to it with the view of placing nets to intercept the salmon ; to reach it, therefore, they have constructed a daring and singular bridge, formed of two strong parallel cables fixed to each side, with planks inserted between them. This slight pontage is subject to violent move. meiits, and, if not judiciously trodden, may precipitate the passenger into the abyss; but the fislicrmcn, accustomed to tread it, carry great loads across without the slightest appre- 222 TUB OlAim CAUUWAV. ftlO DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part IH, 823 DUMLUCI CAKTLl. nension. Several of the precipitous cliffs are adorned with the ruins of ancient castles, the grandest of which is Dunluce (Jig. 224.), whose extensive area covers the long ridge of an almost insulated rock, which presents its perpendicular face to the ocean. The walls enclose the entire surface of the rock, and rise up as a con> tinuation of its precipitous sides In one place, tlie rocky base having given way, the apartment above actually overhangs the sea. But leaving these wild and romantic scenes of nature, let us proceed cAniiiGK-A-aiDi. to the towns of Antrim, which are no less remarkable as the scenes of busy industry and crowded population. 2251. Belfast, the grand cm- - '^ porium of the north of Ireland, has risen to greatness by recent and very rapid steps. It is scarcely mentioned before the be- ginning of the sixteenth century. It was made a borough in the fifth of James I., when a castle had been built, which gave it some consequence in the subse- quent civil wars ; but it was burnt in the year 1 708. Carrickfergus, by means of peculiar privileges, was then enabled to monopolise all the trade of this part of Ireland, till these privileges were bought up by the Earl of Str.iflbrd. The career of competition was then opened to Belfast, and she gradually outstripped all her rivals. In IGb'O, the town contained five streets ; and, as is supposed, about 6500 inhabitants. At present there are considerably above 100 streets, and the population in 1831 was about 53,0(X}, exclusive of a large suburb in the county of Down. The linen manufacture is very flourishing at Belfast, and that of cotton is still carried on ; besides which there are various minor fabrics. Commerce, however, is the main source of its wealth. The linen fabrics of the north are largely exported, along with oats, oatmeal, and salted provisions ; the entire valur: of which, in 1810, amounted to 4,341,000/. The duties of customs, which in 1801 were 182,314/., had risen in 1829 to 259,000/. Belfast Lough forms a noble and secure bay, and though the channel at the mouth of the Lagan was originally rather shallow, it has l>een so deepened by art that vessels drawing thirteen feet water can come close to the wharfs. Belfast is mostly built of brick ; but several public edifices, recently erected, the Commercial Buildings, the Museum, St. George's Church, &c., are handsomely orna- mented with pillars of freestone. The bridge over the Lagan, remarkable for its length, is otherwise defective ; but a new one is erecting. Belfast has several commercial and literary institutions ; and in 1810, the Royal Academical College, a seminary on an exten- sive scale, was founded. 2253. The other towns qf Antrim can boaossesB little of interest or beauty ; and its overflowings have converted into bog about 'M,(>IM acres round it This lake abounds in Hsh, among which arc char, chad, and other rare siwcies. Carrickfergus, at the mouth of Belfast I^>ugh, is a very ancient town, once the cm|H>rium and key of northern Ireland. It was here, in {larticular, that the Scots made their inroads : and in 131ii, after a very long and obstinate defence, it was taken bv Kolwrt Bruce. In l(iN!i, after all Ireland had embraced the cause uf James, Marshal Schomberg landed with a force of lO.lKiU men, destined to re-establish the English and pro- tcstant supremacy. Since that time, Carrickfergus has yielded the (ulm of commerce entirely to Belfast, and is supported only by being the countv town and resorted to as a watering-place. Lisburn is a |)ros|ierous town, with a manufacture of damask. Ballycastic is a small town in the north of Antrim, distingui8heosite island of Ita^hery baffles such an attempt. Mr. Boyd, the pro- prietor, obtained i3,U0U/. from government lor the erection of a pier ; but it was overthrown iij the waves, and lies now in ruins. Ballymena, in the heart of the county, is a thriving place, with a good linen imirket, 3253. Dovn is a fine county, commencing on the south bank of llellast Lough, and iienctrated by several large lakes, as those of Strangford and Carlingford. The last of thi'so receives the Newry, which connnuni- cates by a canal with L.ough Keagh. The Mournc mountains, on the southern border, exceed '2()UU feet in height, and form a conspicuous object ; and there arc a number of detached hills; but a large extent of the county is level, and a greater pro|iortion is under tillage than pasturage. The combination of farming and weaving exists in a remarkable degree ; and the linen fabrics arc not only extensive, but some of them very fine. Of late, however, those of cotton have gained a preference in many districts. Down, or l)uwn|>atriek, celebrated in tradition as the burial-place of the iiatrun saint, is uf moderate dimenaluns, and its publio Book !• FRANCE. Jll buildings rcspcctiblc. Ncwry it larger and more flourishing. Thno advantages arc owing to lt< aituation in the bay of Carlingford, and Ita canal communication with Lough Neagh, which enable it to export the linen manufactures and provisions produced in an extensive district It is ancient, but has been repeatedly destroyed, and in 1689 was reduced to ashes by Marshal Berwick ; so that it is now quite a new town. Donaghadcc, a considerable port, with a large substantial quay, is chiefly remarkable for the ferry between it an,) I'ortpatrick, the shortest sea communication with Britain, and by which packeto are despatched and Uve slock in very great quantities conveyed over. ^A, Armagh immediately in the interior from Doum Is also a fine and agreeable county. A range of high mountains runs through it, but In general it is only pleasingly diversifled with little hills, the bogs are no more than requisite for supplying fUel, and only a small part is left unproductive Both culture and manufacture are prosecuted with great acUvity. The linens produced in 1824 were reputed at S68,000i, being more than ihose in any other county, and exceeding a Bfth of the produce of the whole kingdom. Armagh, the capital, w,is celebrated in the early history of Ireland as one of its most extensive and populous cities, and has always been the ecclesiastical metropolis of the kingdom. The Augustine monastery, and the college attached to it, taiikwl for a long time among the most celebrated institutions in Europe fbr religion and learning; the latter, it is said, could once boast of 7000 students. It sunk, however, under successive ravages by the Danes, the Kiiul'sb, and, linally, the Irish insurgents under O'Neale, and not being supported either by foreign oommerce ur the residence of a government, it fell into great decay ; but by good fortune had for its primate Dr. Richard liobiiison, to whose munificent exertions is ascribed its revival and its having become one of the prettiest little cities in Ireland. To him Armagh is indebted for the repair of its large ancient cathedral, for a library, and an observatory. The linen market is well suptwrted by the flourishing state of the manufacture in Armagh. The only o'lief l>''"^o of consequence is Lurgan, near Lough Neagh, a very thriving manufacturing town. aw. Tlie three counties tif Tyrone, Monaghan, and Cavan occupy a great proportion of the interior of Ulster, ami present a very uniform aspect ; a considerable extent of mountain and Dog, fertile plains, rude lullivation, and the linen manufacture. O'Neale, Earl of Tyrone, was long one of the most formidable enemies of the English power ; but being attainted and vanquished, the title and estates were forfeited, and belong now to the house of Bercsford. Omagh is the county town of Tyrone, but is not so considerable as Dunganniiii, a large, impulous, and handsome place, once the chief scat of the O'Nealcs j but this powerful castle w:us deniolislied by the parliamentary forces. Strabane is also a populous place, finely situated on the Kojie. Monaghan and Cavan are both tolerable county towns, which alone possess any importance in their respective shires. Chap. V. 2'.',5fi. France u a great and poti -f .igdom, placed, as it were, in the centre of the civilised world, and fur several centuries distinguished by the conspicuous part which it has acted on the theatre of Europe. Its contiguity to Britain, and even the jealousy and enmity which liavu so long subsisted between these mighty rivals, renders it peculiarly deserving of an attentive survey. Sect. I. General Outline arul Aspect. 2257. France is bounded on the north by tlie Channel, which separates it from England, and by part of the frontier of the Netherlands. On the east it is bounded by Germany, from which it is divided by the Rhine, and by Switzerland and Italy, which lie on the other side of the mighty barrier of the Alps. Its southern limits are the Mediterrane'^n and the broad isthmus tilled by the Pyrenees, on the other side of which extends the Spanish penin- sula. On the west is the Atlantic, and more especially that vast gulf called the Bay of Bis- cay. Tlie southern extremity, on the line of the Pyrenees, falls in 42° 4' N. lat, the northern beyond Dunkirk in 51° 10', making in length eight and a half degrees of latitude. The breadth may be from 8° 2' £. long., to 4° 4' W. long, making thirteen degrees of longitude. Tin's will give dimensions nearly square of 595 miles from north to south, and 550 from cast to west. The superficial extent according to a report presented to the minis- ter of finance by the royal commission appointed to survey the kingdom, is 26,218 square leagues, or about 209,000 square English miles, containing 51,910,062 hectares (about 1^^9,000,000 acres). 2258. The surface of this very extensive territory is in general level, although it borders and is encroached upon by the greatest mountain ranges of Europe. The Alps cover the fi.ll half of its eastern frontier, and their branches extending into Dauphine and Provence, render them very rugged and romantic regions. The Pyrenees, which rank second among the chains of the Continent, range along the southern border, and cover with their branches Uoussiliun and Gascony. On the east, where France reaches to the Rhine, are the Vosges and oilier chains of moderate height, parallel to that river. The only range exclusively French, is tliat uf Auvcrgr. ;, in the centre of the kingdom, which not only includes all that province where it rkes to the height of 5000 or 6000 feet, but stretches by a winding line ajong the left bank of the Allicr to Languedoc, parallel to the coast of the Mediterranean, where it is called tlic Cevcnnrs. But by far the greater part of France, including the whole north and the whole cost, is one widely extended plain, which yields in very liigh perfection all the fruits and products of the temperate zone. 2259. The rivers of France, tliough not of the first magnitude, are noble and commodious. Traversiiiir almost every part of the kingdom, they afford ample means of internal navigation ; and the bruad plains wliich border on them yield the most luxuriant harvests. The Loire, 519 MAP OF FRANCE — wtsT part. 4 s a I Ftg- '■i'JS, >y liVVi Vtr^ii •i< «iS« l)«\ / jT" •^ * tJ '* \* i^ ■n r 4* *•' i> ,| ■•'« r": 5 Ungttudi' Wm 4 lyMOitnwick i I Luiiglluilv I'jiil J^tS- ^'iS. fV|. \IM- ''■ Tr^. IS, I''', i°'-6-jir.. ■■0 «i» J lllf -■' , O.Vi %^ TV-? ■ t,7o ' '"^ 0(13 ■411 -M Foil I 1 1 '''5\ <; •40 •45 LuilKIIitdti l'^*t MAP OK PRANCE— EAST PART. 8 4 » e 7 SIS VK "1 514 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. PAkt III. which is the principal, rises in the south, on the borders of Provence, and flows for lome time ntorly north, parallel to the course of the Rhone and the Sadne, though in an opposito dlrvo. tion. Near Nevcrs it receives the AUier, which in a parallel and nearly equal stream hu hitherto accompanied it ; it now gradually bends round into a westerly course, which it fol. lows through the plains of Orleannois and Touraine, the garden of Franco, till, after a course of 700 miles, it falls into the sea a little below the great commercial city of Nantvs, Tlio Rhone is not at first a French river : it rises in the heart of Switzerland, amid the eternal snows and glaciers of the Grimsel and the Schreckhorn, and rolls its earliest course lieiienth the mighty mountain walls of St Gothard, Monte Rosa, and the Simplon. It now expands into the Leman lake, from which it emerges near Geneva, when it soon enters France, and rolls direct towards Lyons. At that great city it receives the Sa6ne, bringing down an am* pie stream from the Vosgits, swelled by that of the Doubs from the Jura. The Rhone now, following the direction of its tributary, turns direclly south, and, after a rapid course tliruugli Dauphin^ and Provence, enters the Mediterranean by several mouths. In this course, the Reference! to the Map qf France. — n'etl Part NORTH PART. Province of ARTOIS. DtpartmfKtqf 1. 8'.nlt of CaUll. 1. Calato 2. Boulogne 3. Samer 4. MontreuU. ProTince of PICARDV. Dtpartmenlqf 11. Sorame. 5. Creuf S. Rue 7. St. Valler; S. AbtwTille 9. Airainei* Province of the ISLE OF FRANCE, Dtpartmenit, Ill.Obe IV. Seine and OiM. 10. (irand'Ulen 11. St. Clair 18. Meulan 13. HambouUlet 14. Houdan 16. Mantel. Province of NORMANDY. Dtpartmerda, V. Lower Beina VI. Eure VII Ome VIII. Calvados IX. The Channel. Ifi. Vcmon 17. Andfleys 18. Ooumay 19. Neufchltel 50. Blangii 51. Eu 55. Dienpe iS. St. Vallery U. F^amp ii. Havre de Grace 56. Ilolhec 57. Vvelot 58. Rouen SO. Ellxxiif 30. liouvlers 31. Rrionne 39. Pont Audemer 3.1. Pont I'Evtque 31. Mileui M. Caen 3fi. liayeux 37. Isitmv 38. St. 1.0 39. rarentan 40. Valoinea 41. Barlfeur 4'i. CherlmurR 4.1. Ixs Fieux 41. namcville 4.^. Crtfance 4Ct, Coutanret 47. firnnvllle 48. Villedieu •9. Vire fio. ThoriRny fit. St. . Belnme 65. Alencon 66. Doniiront 67. Tinchebta; 68. Mortain 69. Avranche* 70. Pontonon* Province of BRETAONE. DevarlmeiUi. Dtvartmtnti, XVI. Mavenne XVII. Sarthe. 1S9. Craon 1.10. Chat Oontier 131. Sable 1,13. La Fl«che 133. Chateau du Loir 134. 81. Caloi) 1,15. Le Mans 136. Vaifiei 137. Uval 138. iluvigne X. Illeand Vilaine ivn' Mavrane XI. North Coaat Mt gK™ XII. FIniiterre XIII. Morblhan XIV. Lower Loire. 71. Antrain 7». St. Malo 73. Dinan 74. St. Brieux 75. Uuingamp 76. Palmpol 77. I.annlon 78. Belle He 79. Morlaix 80. Lannilit Sl.Breit 8S. I.andemeau 8.1. ChAteaulin 84. Andlerne 85. Quimper ' 86. Quimperle 87. flfourln 88. Carhaix 89. Kostxenen 90. Uiel 91. 1.oudeae 92. Broons 93. MonUbrt 94. Hetle 95. Kennes 96. St. Aubin 97. Fougim 98. Vitre 99. I.a Ouerche ion. Chlieaubriant lOI.Cervin 103. Carentoire 101. Redon lot. Maletroil \m. Floermel 106. Band 107. Pontivy 108. HMlnebon 109. L'Orient 110. V'annes 141. Prei en Fail 143. Frena; 143. Mamera 144. La Ferte Ber- nard 145. Montmirail. Province of ORLEANNOIS. DevartmtntM. XVIIirkurc and Loir XIX. Ixtiret XX. Loir and Cher, 146. Rron 147. NotrentleRotrou 148. Allien 149. Dreux 150. Maintenon 151. Chanrea 153. Bonneval 1,5.1. Toury 1.^4. Arlenaj 1.55. Ch.iteaudun 1.56. Mondoubledu 157. Vendame 158. Blois 159. Melun 160. Orl^ana 161. Cosson 163. Chamliord 161. Romorantin 164. St. Aignan 165. Chaumont Province of TOURAINE. titparimnit of XXf. Indre and Loire 166. Chat Reinault 167. Toura 184. '.* Roche Potay 185. Chatellerault 186. Loudun 187. Moncontour 188. Thouan 189. BrcKure \m. ChlUllon »ul 8«vre 191. Pouzanffe 193. MonUlSu 193. BeauvoFr 194. St. OiUei iur Vie 38. Thivlera 195. Sablet d'Oionne 39, Nnnlran 196. Taltnont 40. BranlAm* 197. Bourbon-Vend6e41. Ptfrifueul 198. Lu<;an 43. Maretiil 199. Fontenaj 43. Rllierao 300. ChatalKnemve 44. Mucldan SOI.Parthenav 303. Vivonne 303. Poitiers 301. St. Savin 30.'). Montmorlllon ^:>. mruuv 306. L'Isle .Tourdaln 50. Lesinrre 807. Chivray 51. ra«t«ln«u 308. Melle - - _. 309. Niort 810. Mauie 311. Sauze. Province of OUIKNNH. OflMlrhMNlj. VI. fol VII. Tarn and (la, ronne VIII. Ixit and Ga- ronne IX. Dordoipie X. IhmUaui. 45. Lihoume 46. i^ouiraa 47. RIaye 48. Bourn 49. Medoo 53. La T«te dt Ouch 53. I.e Barp 54. Castrea .M. Roideaui 56. Creon 57. La Heolle 58. Mannande SOUTH PART Provincp of i'.T. t.inniiaiiuv SAINTOXOE AND 59. Ca>tllUmea 'AU.NZS. 60. Ikrwrao Tttjtartment t^f 61. [41 Linde I. Inferior Chareate. 63. Mlremonl I.Marans K' Si''*' 3. La Rocheiie §;!• }?";"1" 3. Rochefort *•'• ;,"",„„ 4. St. Jean d'Angely 5S' i'l "Vif 5. Salnm ^ ' 67. RIarlel 5. Saintes 6. Marennes 7. Royan 8. Pons 9. Jonrac 10. Miramtieau 11. Monlieu. Province of ANtiOU.MOIS. Deptiriment rif II. Charente. 111. Hoche-Bemard 168. Savlgn^ 113. Noiay 169. Laniteala 13. Aubetene M. Rarbezleux 14. Cognac 15. Angoulfme ?;• S"'™ „ , 16. M Rochefoucauld :?' f;«>li'l-<'«lo«i 17. Mansle "!• !'""" 68. Si. Cere 69. Flgeao 70. (^oncDts 71. St. Anionin 73. Cahon 7,1. Cauftsade 74. M'.jniauban 75. Vertliin 76. Casteisarailn 77. Molswu 78. Moncuq 79. Kumel 80. VllleneUTf d'Afien 81. A|t«r 89. N,irao 1 13. Ancenls 114. Nantes 115. Savenay 116. (iuerrande 117. Palmbn-uf 118. Bourganeuf 119. Cliuon. Province of AN.IOU. DrnaHmtnt nf XV. Nf ayenne and Loire. 130. Beauprcflu 131. Chollcf 1^3. Chalonnfl 133 Vihicrs 121. Saumur 135. Baiige 136. Angers 137. Ingrande 138. SegTo Province of MAINE AND PKRCHB. 170. Chlnon 171. I.allave 173. Montluizon 173. l/)ches 174. Beaulieu. Province of HERRI. Dftiartmeiit of XXII. Indiv. 175. Chtllllon sur Indre 176. lievroux 177. Valenoay 178. \'aian 179. ('h^tpauroux 180. La(:h.itre 181. Argenton 183. SI. Benolt 183. Le Blanc Province of POITOU. fVnarffWiiCr. XXIlt. Viinne XXIV. Two Sivrci XXV. Vendue 18. Ruflee 19. Confolens. Provinces of MAIlniE AND LI.MOUSIN. DepitrimeniJ. III. ITpper Vienne IV. Chmie V. Creuse. 30. Bellac 81. 1x Dorat 33. Soulerrajne 31. Ilueret 81. li^iiirganeuf 25. KviiiuntJers 36, Si. l«onard 87. Limoges 38. Si. .lunl™ 29. Rnclicchouart .10. Chains 31. SI. Vrieux 33. Pierre Bufflire .13. U/erche 31. Treignac 35, Tulle ,16. Turenne 37. Donxenac. 85. Caplleux. Province of (lASCONV. IVp'lrftwafl, XI. Landn XII. Ijiwer l*y. n <>anid|i|'au. Book L FRANCE. 51$ Alps transmit to it the Isdre, and the classical stream of the Durance : its entire length may be 500 milei. The Seine, though of inferior magnitude, claims distinction, as flowing by the metropolis : it rises on the frontier of Burgundy, and runs almost due north till it rc- Btfereueei to the Map qf France. — East Part. ■nntnne A vivnn I*™'. ... ■•ndtI'Dtt' NORTH PART. ProTtnceof fLANDERS. rtimnlilf Bnart I. The Noltb. I. Maubeun* J. AtBiM i. Landrec; 4. le riteiu b. Ciniliral e.VtIaiclenna r.Bouaj 8. SI. Amand 9. IJlle 10. Hartbrouck ll.Ca»el II. Dunkirk 13. Gra«Iines. ProTinceof AKTOIS. Jjtparlmtf^ flf the Il.SlraltofCalala. HAnlret 15. St. Omer Ifi. ALre 17. Fauqnembcrg H. Hewln 19. St. Pol 50. Bethune 51. Arraa it Bapaume. Province of PICARDY. tttwtrimfmi (if in. Somme. 8.1. Doulpns •i\, Amiens Vi. P^onne J6. Roje S7. .Montdi? 174. Clalievaui 173. Lona le Saulnier 176. Dortan 177. 81. Claude. ProTince of BURGUNDY. l>0lNlrynicn/«. XXIirAIn XXIII. Sa6ne and Ixin XXIV. 06te dOr XXV. Vonne 178. Ntntim 233. Sanccfte 834. VIenon (33. Bouriica J|3S. Chlteauneur 837. Chat MeUlanl 838. St. Amand 839. Blet 840. Sancerguea. ProTlnceof NIVERNOie Dtvartmen* i\f XXVIII. N. 841. Nerera 848. La CharlM 843. Coane 844. Clamecj 843. Cbampleml 84G. Corbign; 48. Rknn 43. Thiera. Province of LVQNN0I8. i)r0arMi.fnJf. VI. Loire VII. Rhone. 44. VV- 43. r 46. 1:. 47. AigUA " Thlll j9. Vlllettai. . 18. Thli 36. Ljoiu 31. Iseron S8. Montbrlsson _... 33. 8t. Rambert 847. Chtteau Chiiion 34- ^'- Btlenne 848. Moullna en Oil. 33. .St. Chamond bert 849. Decize 830. 8t. Pitrre le Mont. Province of B0URBONN0I8. Dtforlmeni of XXIX. Alller. 831. Bourbon-l'Ar- chambault 838. Moulina 8.03. Donjon 834. Varninea 833. La Pelisse 836. Caaaet S«.Bri«naU Province of DAUPHINE'. Devartmmt of Vni. Mre IX. Upper AIM 37. Vienne 38. Peage 39. CAte St. Andrd 60. Bourzoin 61. Cremlen Province of LANUUED(M% XVTGard XVI. Ardirhe XVII. Upper Loire XVIII. Lo£re Xli;. HAault XX. Tarn XXI. Aude. 188. Ai|pies*mortM 183. 8ommi«m 184. NUmee l83.Uiea 186. Pont St. Esprli 187. Barjac 188. Alda 189. (ienoilhac l.m. Vllkfort 131. L'Ariientiin' 1.18. Vivim 1.13. Aubenaa 134. Privaa 1.15. Toumon 136. Annonav 137. St. A|ir«ve 138. Vsaiiufeaux 139. SI. Jullen dc Chap 140. Le Piv 141. Brioude 148. Lanoeao 143. Chery d'Ap 144. Jovola 143. Lang 180. Sepael jsg, Kt, Pourcain 104. Sleneville 105. PlombUret 106. Epinal 107. Remiremont 108. Gerardmer 109. St. Die 110. Rembertlller VI. Seine and Oiae 111. Mirecourt VII. Seine and 118. Neulbhiteau 113. Gondrecourt 114. Bar le Due 113. Vaucouleura 116. Commemy 117. Toul 118. Nancy 119. Luneville 180. Raon 181. Sanebourg Province of THE ISLK OP FRANCE. /VMrtm/nti. IV. Olse V.Seine Mame VIII. AUne. S9. Breluell 7H. Beauvais Al.Clemiont Si. Nojon .«. Compiigne 54. Cresuy - - •lis .IS. Senll 36. Mem .17. Pontoise in. St. IMnis .19. Lutarchca 40. Dammartin 41. Meaus it. routommler 43. Mnro'.lta 44. Pans 4.1. Sci!aul 46. Versaillea 47. Corbeil 48. Ktampcs 49. Melun JtO. Pontalnehleau .M.Xemours 51. Monterenu Fault Vonne .M. Rosoy .')4. ''roTins .vt. ( hiioau Thleiy .16. I.a Ferte Mllon 57. Vlllers Cotereta •A. Soissons ■'>9. Iaoo no. I.a F*rc 61. Si.Quen;ln 61. (iulse 63. SIssonne 64. Vervlns. 'Province of CHA.MPAdNE. Gtmrtmenia. IX. Anlennea X. M.ime XI. Auhe XII. U|)per Mame. 6.5. Rocroy 66. rharlevllle (>7. Mezidies 6H. Sedan 69. Urand Pr< 188. Chat Salina 183. Nomeny 184. Gone 185. Prenea 186. SI. Mihiel 187. Vaubecoult 188. Verdun 129. Varennea 1,10. Estain 131. Montmedy 133 Longwy 133. Brley 134. M«i 1.15. Thionville 1.16. St. Avoid 1.17. Sarreuueminea 138. Bilche. Province of ALSACE. VII. IxivTcr Rh:ne VIII. Upper Rhine. 1.19. Weissemburg 140. Haguenau 141. Bouquenon 148. Saveme 143. Strasburg 144. Molnheim 145. Schelstat 146. St. Marie al» Minea 147. Colmar 148. Neuf Brisach 149. Mulhausen 150. Allklich 131. Chann 138. Giromagny. 181. Belley 188. Poncin 183. Mount Luel 184. Tr^voux 183. Chaiamont 186. Bouig 187. Majon 188. Port deVaux 189. Cluny 190. Semur en Brion noia 191. Corollea 198. Bourlion-Lanry 193. M. St. Vincent 194. Toumua 193. Romeiuiy 196. Louluna 197. Chiionne 198. Chilona 199. Nolay 800. Monlcenia 801. Autun 808. Saulleu 803. Amay le Due 804. Beaune 805. Nuiu 806. Dllon 807. iKur Til 808. Semur 809. Avalon 810. Coulange lea Vincea 211. Auxert« 818. Vermanton 213. Ravlirea 8l4.Montbard 815. Balitneux 816. Ch&llllon lur Seine 217. Tonnerre 818. St. FlorenUn 9.19. Joluny 8,59. Heriason 860. Mont Luson SOUTH PART. Province of MAKCHE, Deaarimnt of 1. Creuse. 1. Boussac 2. Jamage 3. Chambon 4. Auxance 5. Aubusaon 6. Felietin 7. Courtine. Province of LIMOUSIN. DepartmenI itf If. Corriz*. 8. Ussel 9. Bort 10. Egtetons. Province of OUIENNE. DfwiTtmmt of 111. Aveyron. 11. Fig^ac 12. I.iviunnc 13. VllleOranche 14. St. Sernin 15. St. Afri(|iie 16. St. Home 17. Milhnu 18. Rodez 19. Severac 80, St, (ienlel 81, (inlolle 82, Entralguea 61. Cremien }"• Langogno 62. 1.a Tour du Pin !*S' Marvefols 63, Voiron }*!■ Mende 64, St. Barraux 65, Urenobie 66, Marceilin 67, La Mure 68, Bonrg d'Aysans 69, Briancon 70, Montdauphin 71, St, Bonnet 72, Die 73, Beaufort 74, St. Jean de Roi 75, Is«te 76, St, Valuer 77, Valence 78, Crat 79, Monteiinian 80, Mons Sl.Largu 82. Argencon 83. Gap 84. Embtun. 220, Vlllcneuve I'Ar. «3, EspaH™ ch^v£que 221, Sens 222, Pont Bur Vonne 223, SI, Jullen, Province of ORLEANNOIS, Detiartmetii qf XXVI, Loiret 224, Courtenay 225, ChUillon 226, Montargis 827. Bojne 828, Pithiviers 229. Comhreux 8.10. Sully (31. Glen, Province of FRANCHE. COMTE, Dtparimentl. XlXf Upper SaDne 838. Aubigny Province of BERRI. Dtvartment of XXVII. Cher. 84. Ville Contal. Province of AUVEHGNE. Demrtmevti' IV, Cantal V, Dome, 85, Mount Saivy 26, Maurs 87, Aurillac 88. Chauiles Aiguea 29, St, Flour 30, Masaiac 31, Murat 38, Muriac 33, Seignet 34, BoSe 35, laaoire 36, Ambert 37, Blllom ,18, Clerninnt ,19, RoclieTort 40, Pont (ilhauti 41. Montaigu Province of PROVENCE. Devartmentt, XI. Vaucluse XII. Lower AIM XIII. Var XIV. Mouiha of the Rhone. 83. Barceloiuielle 86. Colmao 87. Digne 88. Sisteron 89. FoTcalquler go. Jauit 91. Vaison 92. f>rangc 93. Car|>entraa 94. Avignon 95. Orgon 96. Cavaillon 97. Lambese 98. Apt 99. Afonosque im, IM Meea 101. Riex 108. Castellane 103, Entrevaux 104, St. Anban 105, Vence 106, Antlbee 107, Graiae 108, Draguignan 109, Fr^hia 1 10, SI. Trnpex lll,I,eLuc 112.Hi«m 113, Brlgnolle 114. SI,Maiirain 113. Toulon 116. LaCiolat 117. Mimelllea 118. Aix 119. Martinuea 120. Salon l81.Arlea. 148. Cano innje 149. Florae 150. .Mevruei. 151. UVigan 158, Anduae 153, Ganges 154, Montp^Uer 135. Balaruc 156. Peienaa 157. UAtn 198. Bedarrieui 159. LaCaune llifl, Alby 161, Castrcs 168, Puis Laurena 163. Maxanwt 164. St, Pona 165. Beiiera 166. Narbonne 167. Caunea 168. Carcaasonne 169. St. Papoul 170. Fanjeaux 171.Alet 172. RodAme 173, QuiUan .La 174. Grasae. Province of ROUSSILLON, Department iif XaII, Eastern Pyrenees, 179, Rivesalta 176, Prades 177, Ml, Louis 178, Prau de Molo 179, Cetet 180, Ptrjilgnan. Rivers, a Rhine b Moselle c Meuse d Aisne e Escnul f Somme r oOlse 11 Mame i Seine i Aube k Serain I Vonne m l,oire n Alller o I.e Cher p fiot q Tarn r Aude a Rhone t Durance u Isdre V Ain w Sftflne X dgnon y Doutis r Loue. LI 2 5IS DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pam 111. ceives the parallel and nearly equal Aube, when their united waters flow west and north-west llefore reaching Paris, it receives from the south the Yonne, and from the north, almost under the walls of the capital, its greatest tributary, the Mame. At Paris it is navigable for vessels of considerable burden. Beyond Paris, the Seine makes some extensive windings, and is augmented from the north by the waters of the Oise bringing those of the Aisne. It then passes the fine and flourishing city of Rouen, and, spreading into an estuary, joins the English Channel at the thriving po- ' of Havre. The Garonne has a course of still less ei. tent, though its broad navigable stream, flowing through a magnificent plain, the most pro- ' ductive in valuable wine of any in France, gives it a high commercial importance. It rises near the eastern Pyrenees, and flows northward to Toulouse, where it aasumes a steady north- west course, during which, swelled from tlie north by the Aveyron, the Lot, and the Dor. dogne, and passing the great haven of Bordeaux, it becomes an estuary, capable of receiving the largest vessels. The Rhine is to France only a limitary river for somewhat above 100 miles ; but its ipreat tributaries t'le Moselle, and the Meusc rise and have most of their early bourse within its territory. The important Belgic river, the Scheldt, also rises within the French territory. 2260. France has no lakes wliich, in a general view, seem worthy of mention. Sect. 1 1. Natural Geography. SuBSECT. 1. Geology. 2261. Primitive and transition districts. In France there are six districts where the older rocks, or those of the primitive and transition classes, prevail : viz. Western Normandy, witli Britany and Anjou ; the northern side of tlie Pyrenees ; the provinces of the Lower Alps, l''pper Alps, and part of the Isere ; Central France, or the table-land of France ; central port of the Vosges ; and the Ardennes. 2262. ( 1 . ) irestem Normandy, Britany, and Anjou. In this region the rocks are partly Nep- tunian, partly Plutonian : the Neptunian strata are gneiss, mica slate, clay slate, greywacke, quartz rock, and limestone ; the Plutonian rocks are granite, syenite, greenstone, and por- phyry. 2263. (2.) Northern side of the Pyrenees. On the French side of the Pyrenees the central rocks are of primitive formation, and consist of mica slate, clay slate, limestone, or marble : repos- ing upon these, and forming the great body of the range, arc rocks of the transition class; viz. clay slate^ greywacke, and transition limestone. 2264. (3.) Province of the Lower and Upper Alps, and part of Isire. In this mountainous region there are magnificent displays of many of the more interesting formations of the primitive and transition classes. 2265. (4.) Centrtd table-land or plateau of France. The centre of France is occupied by a vast table-land or plateau of old rocks, in general granite, which forms the mountains of Bourgogne, the Limousin, Aveyron, Ardeche, and the Cevennes. It is more than eighty leagues in breadth from the heights of Limoges ; but in proceeding towards the south, it gra- dually thins off, and terminates in a point wliich connects it with the Montague Noire. This latter group of old rocks forms a kind of peninsula, which is separated from the Pyrenees, by a longitudinal basin of secondary and tertiary formations. The acclivities of this central granitic table-land, and some of its hollows, are covered more or less densely with newer rocks of various descriptions. Besides these, there occur on its eastern part a splendid display of volcanic rocks. The primitive and transition rocks of this table-land are the following ; viz. granite, porphyry, talc slate, serpentine, gneiss, clay slate, greywacke, and limestone. 2266. (5. ) Central part of the Vosges. The oldest rocks in tltis range of mountains, and wliich are s^d to belong to the transition class, are the following : granite, syenite, horn- blende rocks, greenstone, red quartziferous porphyry, augitic porphyry, dolomite, dialla;<;< rock, serpentine, talc slate, clay slate, greywacke, with anthracite, granular and compact marble or limestones. 2267. (6. ) Ardennet. That part of this range of mountains included within the limits of France, which belongs to the older part of the geognostical series, is composed of various clay slates, with greywacke, all of which seem to belong to the transition class. 2268. Secondary ditlrictt. The lower and flatter parts of France which extend from the primitive and transition districts, are composed of secondary and tertiary deposits, more or less covered with alluvial matters ; and in some quarters intermingled with volca-' 'ocks, Tlie secondary formations are arranged in the same order, and exhibit similar re with those already described in our account of Britain. The mountain limestone and . form- ations form, when contrasted with their abundance in Britain, but a small portion of the sur- face of France ; wlule the new red sandstones, with the series of the Jura limestone, including the oolites, form great tracts of country. Chalk, or uppermost rock of the secondary series, occurs in vast abundance, forming two basins, the one the northern, extending in length from the northern extremity of Artois to the southern limit of Tourainc, and in breadth from Havre de Grace to near Bar le Due. The northern side of the southern basin extends Book !• FtlANCE. 517 from Rochefort to Cahorii nnd tho «outhern lide ranges along the northern face by the Francs It mniMrkable on account of the great extent of its ter- Pyrenecs. 2269. Tertiatv di$tric!i> tiory depositx i of these thti ftilluwtiig umv be coniiidered us the principal ones : — 1. That of which Paris forms the vtintral poiiiti which extends towards tlie nortli as high as Laon, and southward to Dials | whils It stniluhm across fVoin Pontoise on the west to Epernay on the east 3< The great southern dvpusll, which extends from the south side of the river Gironde to the south bank of tho river Adour. i). The south-eastern deposit, which covers part of the provinces of IIerault« Qanli lliiUclitHt dc Illiune, Var, and Vaucluse. 4. The deposit in the valley of tlie river Alller, Mid tlint In the upper part of the course of the Loire. 5. The great deposit in the course uf tlio Illilne and Saune, extending from about Valence to D\jon. e. The tract along tho lllduvi extvntling tVom Basle to the neighbourhood of Carlsrhue. ' 2270. Volcanic dUtrkli> Triio volcanic rocks occur in France only in the great central table-land or plateau | in tlio urovincvs uf Loire, Haut Loire, Cantal, and Puy de Dome. The volcanic rocks are basalt anil bMnlt ttillU | trachyte with its tuffa; and lava, with its tuffas, scoriic, &c. The newest of lliesu rocks are the lavas ; while the basalt and trachytes appear of more ancient date, nitliuugli itill not very old, as we find tliem breaking through rocks ofthe tertiary class. 2271. Alluvial tli»Mcli> Alluvia of every description occur in France. Diluvium or the old alluvium forms extensive tracts in many quarters of the kingdom, where it contains remains of extant species uf animals, of which the most characteristic are those belonging to the order pocliydurnia, as the elephant, rhinoceros, &c. Diluvium is also found in caves along with liunes uf extinct animals, particularly of the carnivorous genera , and rents and Assures In strata aru sometimes filled up with a diluvium also containing remains of extinct animals, uf which the most characteristic are the small herbivora. Bone caves and bone breccia occur at St. Antonin and St. Julien near Montpelier; at Bil- largues, Vendargues, and I'eienas-Iterault} at Anduze and St. Hippolyte, in Card; at Ail, in the department nf the mouths of tho Rhone ; at Villefranche and Lauraguais, in the Upper Garonne i and at Perplgnan, In the Eastern Pyrenees. This diluvium is covered, to a greater or less depth, with thu various well known kinds of modern alluvium and of vegetable soils. Mine) and Quarries, 2273. Coal mines. Coal of various dnscriptlons, as glance, bituminous, and brown coal, are mined in the following provinces In France, aflbrding annually but a small return for so vast a country : — Alller, Avvyrun, mouths of the tthone, Calvados, Card, Ilerault, Isfere, Haut Loire, Loire InDSrleure, Mayenne and Loire, Moselle, Nievre, Nord, Pas de Calais, Puy de D6me, Haut Rhin, Uas Uhln, Haut Sa6ne, and Tarn. 2273. Iron min«i. Iron mines, some uf them of considerable importance, occur in the following provinces i— Ardennes, Cliarcntc, Cher, C6te d'Or, Dordogne, Doubs, Eure, Eure and Loir, Forets, Indro, Indru and Loire, Is^re, Jura, Loire Infrrieure, Haut Mame, Moselle, Nievre, Nord, Orne, Ourtliu, Haut Rhin, Bas Rhin, Roer, Haut Soone, Saone and Loire, and Voages, 2274. Mines of silver ami Imti The principal lead mines and silver mines are the following ; — Mine* sf Quintals of Lead. Marcs of Silver. I'millaueii - about 8,000 - 1200 Iluelgoet ■ • 3,000 - 1600 Uleyberg,&c. - - 16,000 - — Vllleforl - - 18,000 - 1500 Vionno - - 1,500 - — Those ar« situated In the following provinces : — High Alps, Rhone, Finisterro Ditto Ro'e'r Lozdre Isere 2275. Copper mines. Rhine and Moselle. 2276. Zinc mines. Calami lie Is found in dilTcrent ports of France, but is only mined in the provinces of Ourtho and UoUr. 2277. Mines of manganese. Tills metal is mined at Roman^che and St. Micaud, in the province of the SaAno and Loire ) at Suquet In Dordogne ; in the mountain of Tholey in Moselle ; at Lavelino, near Salnl DIer, in the Vosges ; and at Saint Jean de Gardonenque in the Cevennos, 2278. Mines of antimoHj/, Antimony occurs in the provinces of Chorente, Haut Loire, La Vendee, Cantal, Alller, Sard, and Puy de Ddme. 2279. Mines of vitriol anil alum, Tlia principal mines of sulphate of iron or vitriol are those uf Samt Julien de Valuargue, near Alais, which furnishes annually 30,000 quintals ; and that of Becqiiet anil ot Ooincourt, near Beauvais, which in some years aflbrds 15,000 quintals | that uf Ural, In the province of Aisne, and ofGersdorf, in the province of Bas Rhin, The must considerable alum mines are those on the banks of the Meuse, in the province uf Ourlhe. There ore also celebrated manufactories of alum at Montpelier, and at Javolle near Parts, Some considerable beds of rock salt have been dis- Ll » 518 DESCRIPTIVE OBOGKAPHV. Part Hi. covered at Vic, in the dupurtnivnt of Muurtliv. One of these is upwards of fourteen yards thicic, and nnothvr hax nut ax yi<> Wvw ctit througli. Altliough cobalt, arsenic, nickel and tin also occur in Fruncis no conitiduralilu mines of those minerals have been established. 2280. Quatrie»- The muMt vxtensivu ijiiBrries are those uf marble, building.stone, slate gypsum, millstone, and Hint. Dillvrvnt kinds of marble are raised at Givet, Drabancon, Mons, Namur, Uoulogne sur Mvr, Caen, Troycs, Montbar, Cosne, Tournus, Narbonnei Aix, Marseilles, 'I'lu-b, and in many valleyi in the Pyrenees. There are quarries of excellent building^aone in the deportments uf La Manchc, Calvados, Moselle, Cute d'Or, Yonne, Oise, Seine, Loire, Dordogne, and in nnuiy departments in the south. Vast slate quarries are worked in the provinces uf La Munclie, Meusv, Ardetmes, Maine and Loire, and at the foot of the Pyrenees. In many other places, and particularly in Champagne, &c., there are quarries and pits of ciny fur brick and tile making, The gypsum of the neighbiaurhood of Paris, the chalk of the departments of Marno and Seine, tlie talc named chalk of Driancan, the millstone or buhr'UloMO of Ferto sous Jouorre, are objects of considerable commercial importance. The departments of Yonne, Cher, and Lower Charente, supply all France and different foreign nations with gun-llints. Among the clays met uith in France, that uf Forges les Eaux, was formerly in great repute in Holland for the manufacture of pipes ; the clay or earth of Uelbccuf, near Uouen, is considered an excellent material in the purifying of sugar • and thii potters' clav of the viclnily uf lieauvois and Montereau, and the porcelain earth or kao-lin of Saint Yriex, near LiniogeN, are higlily esteemed. StMisRcr. 'J. Botany. 2281. Having devoltil ativmly m gtvat a iwrtion of our space to preliminary remarks upon vegetable geography on its more extended scale, and to that of Great Uritain in particular, we must content ourselves with a more limited account of the plants of other countries, other, wise we should greatly overstep the bounds prescribed to us by the nature of the present work. Following the plan here odopted for the arrangement of the different countries France comes next under uiir notice \ and n more interesting field for the geographical botanist does not exist in Europe ; not only because of its extent and vast variety of surface, the great height of its mountains, and its geological structure ; but because, by the labours of its naturalists, especially Lamarck and IX' Camtulle, the vegetable productions of France have been better explored than those of nlinost any other country in the world. All that we can do here, however, is to notice in general those that are the most interesting, from their utility, their beauty, or some circumst4)nces connected with their history ; or as showing how vege- table fonns or groupes are situated, In regard to their distribution, upon the surface of the earth. 2282. France, extending, as it does, from lat. 42° 8' to 51° N., or nearly to the latitude of London, am! fVom 9° east longitmie, 'o 5" west, is bounded by the Mediterranean, and the great chain uf the Pyrenees on the south; by the Atlantic on the west; by tlie British Channel and the NethcrlantU on the north ; and on the east by Savoy, Switzerland, and Germany, which funn, for its entire length, a vast mountain barrier. Such an alpine region cannot fail to exert n manifest InlUience on the vegetation of a country ; not only because of its own peculiar productions, depending in part on their elevation, and in part on their soil and geological structure, but by their exposure, even at the same elevation, on two opposite sides; that of the south will bu found to exhibit very different vegetable forms fiom that of the north ; and such mountains often exercise a more powerful influence in limiting the surrounding vegetation, than even seas and rivers. 2283. Lamarck and lie CaniMti',\n a very interesting Botanical Map which accompanies their Flore Franqaise, M edit., have divided France into five regions : — 2284. (1.) The region of immtimf plant), which of course extends everywhere along the coast, from Ostcnd to liayonne on the north and west, and from Perpignan to Oueiile on the Mediterranean ; tugetlier with the Salines in the interior of Dieuse and Chateau Salins near Nancy, and those of Diirkheim and Frankensthal near Mayence. Thus we find that a vegetation similar to that uf the sea-shore exists in the interior, whenever that interior yields a sufficient quantity of marine salt. All the maritime plants of the north of France, ac- cording to M, de Candullo (anil they have the greatest affinity with those of England), are equally found in the south ; but the reverse does not hold good ; for a very large proportion of the French Mediterranean plants of the seo-shore grow very sparingly, if at all, upon tlie shores of the Ocean, principally Indeed on the coast of Gascony, and reach no higher than the mouth of the Loire, or at nutst to the middle of Dritany. 2285. (2.) The re){ion of mountain and almna plants. When the French, by their con- quests, included the PyrenecN, the Alps, and Savoy within the range of the floras of their own country, this region couHtituted the very richest of any flora in Europe ; for it included a country, not only of considerable extent, but mountains, and in very southern latitudes, many of whose crests rise greatly beyond the line of perpetual snow. As France is now limited, the mountains of the Vosges near >Stritsburg, and of the Cevennes, and those of Auvergne, whose origin is volcanic, exhibit its most alpine scenery : among the latter, the Puy de Siisi, one of the Monts d'Or rises to an elevation of C;K)C feet above the level of the sea. The BuuK I. FRANCE. 519 Plomb du Caiital U estimated at G200, and the Puy du D6mc at 5000 fvvt. If the summits of the Pyrenees and of the Jura be considered as forming the natural barrier of France, as constituting her line of separation from the ai^acent territories, she will still possess an ex- ceedingly rich alpine flora in the northern side of the former and the western side of the latter mountains. But the line of demarcation of this region is nevertheless not so dis. tinctly marked as in the preceding region. The valleys exposed to the sun ofteu participate in the vegetation of the southern provinces, while the cooler valleys exhibit a growth which has more in common with the vast plain in the north and centre of France. However, it is undi!nii>ble that these same districts do contain a very considerable number of plants which are peculiar to them, and found on almost all the more elevated mountains of France ; for whatever diiTerences the chain of the Vosges and the Jura may present from those of Au- vergne, the Cevennes, and the Pyrenees in the south, it is allowed that the aspect of their vej;etation offers considerable traits of similarity, and tliat the greater part of the mountain iiluiits are alike found on the diirerent chains. 'i286'. (3.) A third region, and a very important and interesting one, is that of the Mediterra- nean plants : this, of course, is bounded on the south by the Mediterranean Sea, and stretches inland till you come to the foot of the mountains, or following the course of the Rhone, extending north as far as Montelimart on that river ; or it may be said to occupy or constitute the great basin of the mouth of the Rhone. S'iliT. (4.) A vast region is occupied by the plains, whose vegetation is very uniform. This comprises more than one half of France, and especially all the plain country situated to the north of the chains of mountains. Many of these plants are found in other regions already indicated ; but it wants the species which are peculiar to each of those respectively. 2'288. (5.) and lastly — MM. Lamarck and De CandoUe indicate an intermediate region, which includes plants partaking of the nature of the plains of the north and the provinces of the south. This occupies a large portion of the south>west of France, and some districts up the valley of the Rhone between Montelimart and Lyons. 2289. The map just aUuded to has these different regions represented in different colours, and is attended with this advantage, that, by the slightest inspection, a general idea is con- veyed of the prevailing nature of vegetation in any given district. We see that the plants of the southern provinces resemble more those of the north as you advance by the west side of France tlian by the east ; how that the floras of Mans on the border of, Normandy, and of Nantes upon the Loire, in lat. 47° and 48°, scarcely diiTer from those of Dax and Agen, be> tween lat. 43° and 44° ; whilst on the east side of France, the productions of Dijon and Stras- burg vary considerably from those of Montpelicr and Aix, situated at nearly similar relative distances from each other. All this is accounted for on the principles we have already laid down, namely, that the stations of plants are mainly influenced by temperature ; and that the mean temperature of a place is greatly determined by distance from the equator, and elevation above the level of the sea. According to M. de Candolle, an altitude of 460 feet above the level of the sea aiTects the temperature nearly to the same extent as a degree of lati- tude nearer to the north in our hemisphere. 2290. By comparing the western provinces of France with the eastern, we see that the sur- face of the former is but little raised above the level of the sea ; for, even at a considerable distance from the coast, the hills scarcely exceed 300 feet ; whilst, on the other hand, upon the western side, in the midst of a mountainous region, the plain has generally an elevation of from 1300 to 1600 feet. This height diminishes, it is true, on the Belgian frontier; but there the temperature is sensibly affected by the second cause adduced, namely, the distance from the equator. Thus, there is nothing but what is conformable to physical laws, in tlie southern plants having a greater resemblance to those of the north upon the west, than on the east side of France. 2291. But even where the mean temperature is the same, the distribution of plants between these two parts of France may yet be very different, on account of the different degrees of ten |ierature at particular seasons of the' year. We have already stated that, the latitudes being the same, maritime countries enjoy a more equal temperature than districts removed from the sea ; in other words, that the summers are less warm, the winters less cold : thus, tlie provinces of the west of France, which are all maritime, experience this degree of uni- formity ; which cannot take place in the east, being far from the sea, and in the vicinity of the mountains. 2292. Plants now, in what concerns climate, may be divided into two classes : those which suffer from a severe winter cold, but which, during summer, do not require an excess of heat; and those which can endure great severity of cold in winter, but, during summer, re- quire a great proportion of heat. In the first class, M. de Candolle places all those trees which, without being resinous, preserve their leaves, and consequently their sap, through the winter ; in fact, the greater proportion of the trees of the south being found, whether in- digenous or naturalised, towards the north in the maritime provinces ; such as the Live Oak, the Cork Tree, the Kermes Oak, the Strawberry Tree {Arbutus), the Bay, the Fig, the Pliillyreo, &c. On the other hand, iu the second class, tliat is to say, among such as can LI 4 590 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pakt III. brave n great degree of cold, and do lo because the moTement of the sap is interrupted by the fall' of the foliagv, is the Vine, &c., and those that avoid cold because the plants, or at least their stems, are annual, such as Maize. It may be readily supposed that tliu individuals be. longing to the second class will flourish better, and become more easily naturalised on tlia cast than on the west coast of France. 239!). Let u$ apply this law to » peculiarity in regard to the cultivation of those most pre- cious vegetable productions of France, namely, the Olive (Jig, 237.), the Maiie, and the Vine (Jig. 328.). Mr. Arthur Young, during his travels in France, paid great attention to agri- 328 .d^^ VHI OLtTS. culture and the mode jf cultivation adopted there, and published a map of the country, in which he represent*.., by three nearly parallel lines, the northern limits of the three plant» just alluded to, the Olive, the Muize, and the Vine. It excited the surprise of many, tiiut the lines should ascend most to the north on the east side of the country, or, in other words, that the plants in question should grow farther nortli in the eastern than in the western districts ; directly the reverse of what takes place in regard to the aboriginal native produc- tions of the soil. Tills apparent contradiction is reconciled by the twofold comparison of the physical nature of the cast and west of France, and of the character of the plants culti- vated, as compared with the wild species. 2294. The nature of the cultivated productions in question forms a striking feature, which cannot fail to arrest the attention of a traveller while journeying through the districts thus appropriated, and forcibly to exhibit their agricultural riches. In the extreme south of France, between a line drawn from Narbonne, in lat. 4.3° N. and in the meridian of Paris, to a little below Grenoble, he will find the plains, parched and dry as they naturally are, ren- dered still more melancholy by the lurid green of the olive-groves. Between that line and another drawn from the mouth of the Garonne rather below 46°, to near Strasburg, in the north-west, he will observe, together with the vine, which is by no means wanting in all the southern provinces, fields where the gigantic maize (Jig. 229.) takes the place of what we usually term bread-corn ; again, between it and a Une extending from the mouth of the Loire to the Rhine, passing at about an equal distance between the Meuse and the Moselle, he will find, intermingled with vineyards, fertile fields of corn, wheat (Jig. 260. a), oats (b) ; and barley (c), whilst, north of that line, there exists a most perfect smiilarity in agriculture with that which prevails tliroughout the greater part of England. Fruit trees of all the kinds that are grown with us, there attain a much greater degree of perfection than in our country, because of tlie increased heat of the summers. 2295. Thus, in what concerns a great portion of the territory of France, its vegetable productions much resemble those of the southern parts of C'l at Britain. 2296. /( is not, perhaps, generally knoum that that most u.m:.u1 root, the Potato, was cul- tivated in aknost every i>art of Europe before its value was appreciated, and its culture Book FRANCE. 891 (Kcune general, nciu- tho capital of France. it upon nil HAiii. To England ii due the credit of flrtt growing a large scale. Upon the Continent it wan introduced between the yean 1714 and 17i<4 into Swabio, AImco, and the Palatinate ; and in 1 730 to the vicinity of Berne. In 1774, potatoes were known on the mountains of the Cevennes, where they now con- stitute a main portion of the food of the people : but it is principally to the famous M. Parmentier that France owes the general use of potatoes. The following anecdote may give some idea of the assiduity with which this philanthropic individual laboured to gene- ralise their culture : it is well attested that he fanned some spots of ground in the vicinity of Paris for this sole purpose, though the prejudice against potatoes was then so strong, that few of the poor persons to whom he oflTercd the roota would accept of them. However, M. Parmentier soon suspected that people occasionally stole his potatoes to eat them : he was well pleased at this, and continued to plant what he hoped would be purloined, rightly concluding that the experience of tho thieves would contribute to diminish the established prejudice. After much trouble and many years, he had succeeded in propagating potatoes in several situations, when the dreadful scarcity, the consequence and eflTect of the revolutionary disturbances, suddenly rendered their cultivation universal ; and now they form so con- stant an article of food, that the common people gene- rally believe them to be aboriginal natives of the country. 8SJ97. T/ie mountains of France exhibit our alpine plants, with many others that are sno WMAT, OAn, AND BAIIUT peculiar to themselves, and which they possess in common with the higher Alps of Switzer- land, Savoy, Germany, and the Pyrenees. 229H. Of the intermediate region, as De CandoUe '.erms it, a great porti< n lying in the soutli-west of France, embraces a country called the Landes, where the shepherd-peasantry, whether walking, or at rest during the day, live upon stilts (xcangues, in the language of the country) : tliis custom gives them the opportunity of viewing tlie land around in search of tlicir sheep, for a great extent, of wading through the numerous shallow lakes of water; and by these means it is said they can traverse triple the space of ground they could do by the ordinary mode of walking ; when they stop, they support themselves by a long stick behind. In this same district a vast extent of flat land near the ocean, and extending from Bayonne in the south to the Tete de Buch in the north, and for a distance of from four to twelve leagues inland, is occupied by forests of Pine {Pinui marUima) (Jig. 231.): these are called I'ignadas, and they give a remarkable feature to the Landes, in coiyunction with 5« DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III, Book !• the habits of the people and their dress, the latter consisting entirely of sheep-skins with the hair outwards, little different in outward appear- ance from the (locks which it is the great object of their lives to tend. Tlie resinous substances of the pine are extracted in immense quan. titles; in doing which, one man takes care of 3000 trees. The country being so dry, these pignadas are Uable to alarming conflagrations; one of them that took place in 1 803, continued burning for two months. The mode adopted for extinguishing them is re- markable : when one part of the forest is in flames, it is customary to set fire to another spot, at a greater or less dis- tance, according to the magni- tude of the evil ; a current of air soon takes place between the burning masses, which drives the conflagration from both sides on the intermediate trees ; these are shortly con- sumed, the fire dies out for want of fuel, and the rest of the forest is preserved. 2299. Sut the Mediterra- nean region, wliicb we have already mentioned, and whose vegetation partakes of what is found to characterise tlie whole shores of that vast inland sea, has many plants so different from those of the rest of France, that it would be un- pardonable did we not par- ticularise some of them. 2300. Almost every where in this region, the soil is described as consisting of the secondary limestone of the Jura, extending to the very brink of the sea, firming arid coasts, often utterly destitute of vegetation, or clothed with Wild Olives and the Aleppo Pine [I'inui halepensis), with Evergreen Oak, Pistachio- Nut, Myrtles, and numerous species of Cistus. Here too, is found one species of Palm, the Chamairops humilis (Palmetto or Dwarf Palm); but it grows principally in the environs of Nice. At the opposite uxtremity of the Medi- terranean region, namely, about Roussillon and Provence, and there only in the hotter parts, are seen Indian Fig {Cactus Tuna), and the American Aloe (Agave americana) : the intro- duction of these is due to the Spaniards, who brought them to Europe from the New World. Schouw regards tlie Mediterranean shores in general as the kingdom of the Caryophylleae and Labiatte ; this latter family especially abounds in the south of France, and particularly the genera Phlomis, Teucrium, Thymus, Lavandula, and others, remarkable for their aromatic qualities. In the same places, and always on ve. y stony ground, the elegant Coris monspo liensis excels the heaths of our own country in beauty. The mulberry is cultivated through- out tills territory ; and among other useful fruits, the Fig, the Jujube, the Pomegranate, the Date, and the Pistachio, all arrive at great perfection. The Orange can scarcely be said to be cultivated without shelter in any part of France. It is grown, however, and somewhat extensively, at the Isles d'Hicres, and in the vicinity of Nice, that happy climate wliicb is probably unequalled by any part of Europe : — " There summer rcignj with one eternal ■mile, SuccecdinK harvests bless the happy soil ; Fair, fertile fields, to whom indulgent Heaven Has every charm of every sciisun given. No killing cold dnforins the beauteous year ; I'he springing flowers no coming winter fear : But, as the parent rose decays and dies, The infant buds with livelier colours rise, And with fyesh sweets tlie molhcr'a scent suppUei." TUB PINE. Boort I. FRANCE. 523 Corn which is but a secondary article of culture, ripens at a very early period ; so much so that it is not unfrequent to carry barley which has been reaped on the coast into the moun- ttins, where the seed is sown, and a second crop is produced the same year. Many plants may be here enumerated which this country possesses in common with Greece and Italy, and even the Spanish peninsula, and which seem to accompany the Olive. Mirbel has drawn up the following list of woody kinds, which inhabit these provinces : — Pinus Pinaster and Pinea, Juniperus phoenicea and Oxycedrus, Quercus Ilex, Suber and coccifera, Celtis australis, Ficus Carica, Osyris alba, Laurus nobilis, Fraxinus Ornus, Phillyrea latifolia and angusti- fulia, Jasminam fruticans, Vitcx Agnus-castus, Nerium Oleander, Diospyros Lotos, Styrax officinale, Arbutus Unedo, Viburnum Tinus, Tamarix gallica and africana, Myrtus com- munis, Punica Granatum, Fhiladelphus coronarius, Crataegus Azarolus, Mespilus pyracantha, Ccratoniasiliqua, Cercis Siliquastrum, Rhus Cotinus and Coriaria; Pistacia Lentiscus, T^ro- binthus, and vera ; Rharanus Alatemus, oleoides, and infectoria ; Zizyphus vulgaris, Faliuruti australis, Capparis spinosa, Melia Azedarach, Acer monspessulanum, &c. 230). Hitherto the attention of naturalists in the study of vegetable geography has been directed to those plants that grow upon the surface of the earth : Humboldt alone, in his Carte Geographique des Plantet, has indicated the station of some subterranean Fungi, and in a general way has marked the ocean as the habitat of Ulvae and Fuci (^g. 232.). It 232 remained for M. d'Orbigny to describe, to a certain extent at least, the Zones and Bands in- habited by the marine Algas (Sea- Weeds). This he accom- plished upon the coasts in the Gulfof Gascony,and particularly on the shores of La Vendee and the Charente Inf^rieure, partly by diving to considerable depths in the sea, and partly by means by drag-nets fixed to graduated cords; and the result of his observations are given in the Mimoires du Musdum dCHiatoire Naturelle, vol. vi. With extracts from this, as we shall scarcely have again the opportunity of touching on this beautiful and interesting tribe of plants, we shall conclude this sketch, already too much extended, of the vegetable geography of France. Maritime plants, says M. d'Orbigny, grow in the most opposite temperatures : every country, every latitude, and every situation possessing some which are peculiar to itself. Still, climate and temperature appear almost alike to «>w>y of these productions, which are found by voyagers in every diSerent ocean, while others require particular spots and climes ; some few preferring the mouths of rivers, and *he brackish waters of salt marshes, where the bitterness of the sea is modified by the admixture of fresh water, and in such situations attaining to an enormous size, as Ulva lactuca var. altissima, while to the greater number of these plants, fresh water proves absolutely destructive. 2302. As fur those kinds which grow indifferently every where in the sea, they seem to be increased without any attachment to solid bodies, as Fucusnatans, &c. Banks of great extent formed by this plant, are often found within the tropics, of such dimensions as to re- tard the progress of navigation. Some individuals among these groupes may frequently be seen whicli bear the appearance of having been originally fixed to rocks, their flattened, disc- likt stem yet retaining a portion of such substance. There seems to be ground for the supposition that, tliough these sea-weeds are capable of living and growing in the water, unattbchcd to any soil, yet that they must primarily spring from some solid body, as no young plants of this kind are ever found between the tropics. 2303. Some of the Algte prefer the southern sides of rocks, others affect an eastern western, or northern exposure ; but they change their position according to the difference of latitude : those which are found on the southern side in cold climates, being generally seen on the northern in the warm or temperate regions. Certain species live near the sur- face, and close to the sea-beach : others, at various degrees of depth : the first would seem to enjoy the regular exposure to light and heat which they experience during the turnings of the tide ; the second, on the contrary, shun the influences of the atmosphere ; and, growing and fructifying in depths where the light can scarcely ever penetrate, they bear, without receiving any injury, both the enormous column of water which constantly presses upon them, and the severe cold which exists in those regions. Tliere are even parasitical Algie, which grow indificrently upon all the others, and some which only affect peculiar species. vhrm AND ruci. 584 UESCIlimVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. • 2304. Many sea-nxcds prefer such spots as are exposed to the fury of the waves and the action of the currents, wliere they are perpetually floating in an agitated medium : others dwell in the hollows of rocks, or in marine gulfs, where the water is generally calm. The lapse of a few days puts a period to the existence of some kinds, whilst the tempests of successive winters fail to destroy others. The general aspect is apt to change in several individuals, so that, were it not for more stable characters, derivable from their fructification texture, &c. they might be mistaken for novel species. ' 2305. 4 number of the more delicate marine plants are quickly destroyed by a removal from their native place of growth ; but the greater proportion, being coriaceous, and insoluble in salt-water, live for a length of time in different situations ; and it is not uncommon to find, upon our own shores, the Algce of the most distant regions, wliich have traversed the ocean, and yet remain unchanged in their general appearance. From these circumstances it becomes a necessary inference, that it is not all the Alg ranea ; Diatoma rigidum, fiocculosum, &c. 3d Zone, from fifteen to thirty-five feet below the medium surface. Ulva ocellata, pal> mata, lingulata, polypodioides, caulescens ; Fucus longifructus, lumbricalis, bifurcatus, ericoides, barbatus, abrotanifolius, vermicularis, norvcgicus, obtusus, asparagoides, Wigghii, verrucosus, helminthocortos ; Ceramium simplicifolium, casuarina, cancellatum, coccineum, incnrvum, elongatum, polymorphum, forcipatum, filum, capil'.ure, glomeratum, elegans, &c. 4M Zone, from twenty to forty feet below the medium surface : — Ulva Fhyllitis, saccharina, digitata, bulbosa, ciliata, edulis ; Fucus nodosus, uvarius, furcatus, ciliatus, alatus, ploca* mium, plumosus, corneus, gigartinus, aculeatus, plicatus; Ceramium verticillatum, equisetifulium, sericeum, scoparium, &c. 5M Zone, from thirty to sixty feet : — Fucus siliquosus var. a, purpurascens, ligulatus, pistillatus ; Ceramium coccineum, segagropilum, &c. 6th Zone, from forty to a hundred feet : — The flattened Fuel ; F. siliquosus var. 0, loreus, sanguineus, fibrosus, coronopifolius, &c., and Ulva tomeutosa, which b, in fact, a poljpus. SUBSKCT. 3. Zoology. 2314. The zoologt/ of France assimilates less to that of central than of southern Europe. Notwithstanding the narrowness of its separation from Great Britain, it possesses many animals unknown as natives, or even as visiters, of our island. With regard to quadrupecU this circumstance is not surprising ; for any channel of tlie sea, however narrow, forms an insunnountabli' obstacle to the wanderings or migration of purely terrestrial species : while others, of a semiaquatic nature, are too small and feeble to eflPect the passage. These con- i!Si siderations, however, are insufiicient to explain the limited range of the smaller birds, hitherto found only upon the Continent The distribution of insects is dependent, in a great degree, upon that of plants ; and the numbers of both common in France, but un> known in Britain, are nearly proportionate; on the calculation tliat has been made of six species of insects to one of plants. 9315. Among the wild quadrupeds of France is the wolf (j^. 233.), which is still not uncommon in the wooded and mountainous districts : when pressed by liungcr, it descends to the farms, and even attacks the TH. woiF. inhabitants. The beaver is said still to exist in the soutliern parts; and, probably, the wild boar may not be wholly extirpated from the existing forests. Bears were once common, while three or four of the smtdler quadrupeds appear peculiar to France. UaiC. Several interesting and beautiful birds unknown, or but rarely met with, in Britain, are here not uncommon ; such as the wood-chat (fig. 234.), shrike (Lanius rufus T.), the grossbeak o- hawfinch, the blue-throated warbler,' and several others of the same fanuly. Inshort, from the connection of this country with the central and southern kingdoms of Europe, the ornithologist might, probably, discover in France more than three fourths of all the continental birds. 586 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P*»t HI, TUB WOOD-LHAT '>^f PAPtLIO POnAtlRt'l 2317. rAemariw ^rorfwrfion* of those provinces borderingontheChannel,as may be cipcctcd do not offer any marked difference from thoiie of our own coasts ; but on the warm shores of Nice and Marseilles the naturalist meets with numeroui productions, indicative of the rich stores of the Mediterranean Sea. The entomology of these southern provinces, in like manner, presents ua with many of those more striking insects which properly belong to the fauna of Italy. The beautiful fl. fnlio Podalirius (Jig. 235.) so rare in England that Its existence with us is still doubted, is here a common' insect. France has long stood foremost in promoting and illustrating the study of nature ; iind a society comprising some of her most able zoologists are at this moment engaged in -^ 235 publishing a Fawut Gallica. An able and indefatigable natu- ralist, M. Risso, has particularly illustrated the fishes and Crustacea of Nice. It was near this place that one of the rarest and most beautiful shells of Europe, the MUra zonata {Jtg,236,) was fished up by the anchor of a vessel : only one specimen is known to exist in collections. 2318. Among the domestic animals, the French horses are not very excellent; yet those used in the public stages are strong, active, and compactly made ; nor have their masters copied our ridiculous and barbarous custom of disfiguring these animals, by cutting off* their tails or ears. The stallluns of England are much prized, and have been judiciously used to improve the native breeds. 2319. The oxen are of two races i the one caWed bctufi de haul cr& are of a middle or small size, vrith a fierce look, thick hide, and coarse hair ; they are 236 prii.^tpally bred on the mountainous provinces of Gascony, Auvergne, &c. The others are called bceufs de nature, and are larger, with a mild aspect, thin hide, and soft hair : tliey fatten easily, and belong to the plains. 2320. Tlie native breeds of sheep, not in themselves good, have been of late sedulously and successfully improved. The Flemish breed, common both to France and the Netherlands, is generally hornless, with long legs, and is derived from an intermixture with those of Barbary. The Solognot are mostly without horns, and the wool is curled only at the ends. The Berichonne are likewise hornless, but are known by their long neck : the face is covered with wool ; that on the body being fine, white, close, short, and curled. The Roussillonne is derived fi ii the merino race ; and has very fine wool, the filaments of the piles being twisted spirally. Lastly, the Ardennoise is horned, and bears a very fine fleece : this breed likewise extends over part of the Netherlands. {Ham. Smith.) 2321. A large and elegant variety of the Domestic Cat is very common in some parts of France ; it is nearly double the size of ours, and is bearded much in the same manner as the lynx. SccT. III. Historical Geography. 2322. The Gauls, the ancient inhabitants of France, and the chief among the Celtic nations, were an active, powerful, and ambitious people. Their emigrant hordes repeatedly crossed the Alps, possessed the whole north of Italy, once sacked the imperial city, and even penetrated into Greece and Asia Minor. Both Switzerland and Belgium were then included as part of Gaul. The people, though still barbarous, had made some steps towards civilisation. The nobles and Druids enjoyed high power and influence, and had reduced the body of the nation almost to a state of vassalage. They combated with obstinacy, and made a long resistance to the progress of the Roman arms ; but being opposed to Ca-sar, the greatest of the Roman captains, aflter a war of twenty years, they were entirely and permanently subjected. .^323. The conversion of Gaul into a Roman province, though it humbled the chiefs and quellod the martial spirit of the people, was attended with many beneficial changes. Peace was established ; cultivation and industry promoted ; Roman and even Greek literature introduced ; and the people finally converted to the Christian faith. 2324. The irruption efthe Teutonic tribes, on the decline of the Roman empire, was early felt in Gaul, where the Goths, the Heruli, the Burgundtans, and the confederacy called the Franks, overwhelmed and ravaged the whole kingdom, and drove the Celtic population and language into its remote and mountainous comers. From amid a chaos of convulsions, HITKA SONATA* UauK I FRANCE. ^07 th« vlitoroui hand of Clovis established the undisputed supremacy of (he l^rankkt'ilidl ^^ tamM lh« monarchy of France. ' '' d:i>2/l. 'i'A« reign of CharUmagnt, son and successor to Pepin, who from mayor of the imImu had occupica the throne, formed the most brilliant period in French history. That Lniitvnt ntui powerful prince not only placed on his head the iron crown of Lombardy, but riHluwd to his dominion, after a long and obstinate resistance, the intractable tribes of Ger- niRny who had dcfled the utmost efforts of the Roman eagle. He penetrated also into Siiitl'u hut the flerce encounter of the Saracens, and the disastrous adventure of Ronces- lilk'i oil 'il» return, completely stopped his career in that direction, Charlemagne, though \\\\\w\( iliitvrate, made some eiSbrts to rekindle the declining light of science and letters in Eur«|ii'' a;)'J(ii Tlu> conteali among the succes$ors of Charlemagne were attended with the most vliili'tit niiii hloudv convulsions, and with continual changes in the position of the three urt'itt kliiU'lDini* which composed his empire. At length it fell entirely to pieces. Germany n»\>wd till' title of empire, and the claim to the dominion of Italy ; and in France the Car- iovliiiilitti dynasty, or that of Charlemagne, having become extinct under Louis Outremer, Ihv Ihrunu was seised by the Cnpets, the most powerful among the noble French families. 'i'Mli IMt Capet, having in 987 assumed the title of king, the real power attached to wliltli 111*' nTri'uily been exercised by his father, Hugh the Great, founded the present dyiwiyi 'l^lio administration, however, was long marked by a strong feudal character, and « liliili Hlildt of Independence among the great nobles, of whom the counts of Provence and Iti'llHiiyi and the dukes of Burgundy, ranked altogether as separate and often hostile nriiii'i'it) 'I'iio feudal age of France was also marked by chivalric and eventful wars with bnulimil) wlilclt long held several of the finest provinces, and whose king, Henry V., M* crowiaul ot Paris; but from that seemingly approaching downfall, the monarchy, lliniiiKti tlio romantic exploits of the Maid of Orleans, suddenly revived, and became more mlnlily timn befora. y;)'J». Tlie establishment of monarchical power in its plenitude was chiefly eCTected by the nriil'ouml Dtul Insidious policy of Louis XL, favoured by the circumstances of the age. All I'Vaiicv was united under the sway of the kings, who were thus enabled to form great m\\oh wliicli) under Charles VIIL and Louis XII., over-ran nearly the whole of Italy. liul It WAM under the gay and enterprising reign of Francis 1. that its energies were fully dtvi'lupi'il. It then, however, came into collision with the house of Austria, whose exten- ilvu lUMH'Hiuns in Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Italy, wielded by a powerful lumli tM'urvd to it during this period a decided, though not overwhelming, ascendant. S;I'J9. tlw civil wan arising out of the persecution of the protestants agitated France for » very long time, and produced scenes of the most bloody and calamitous description. They lutcil Tor a hundred years ; for the popular reign of Henry IV. could scarcely be considered M mori' tImn a truce. At length Richelieu, by the reduction of Rochelle, terminated the long ttruggle of the protestants for religious liberty, which in France alone, of all the rounlrii'i wlivre it was maintained upon a great scale, had this fatal issue. At the same llnu'i thU (luring and despotic minister finally crushed the power and pretensions of the niiblcit) lUiil I'ui'med France into a simple monarchy. 'i'W, The reign of Louis XIV,, during which a single hand wielded all the energies mlli'il fortli (luring the prior struggles, exhibited France more powerful than she had l^n kliu'c (IJiiirli'tnagnei The house of Austria, now divided into the German and Spanish brnni'lic*) of winch the latter had become weak and inert, was humbled by repeated blows, wlili'h itt Ivngtii almost threatened her existence. France seemed advancing in the career of Moivurmil monarchy, when the interposition of England and the victories of Marlborough liiriivil till' tide of success, and rendered the last days of Louis humiliating and disastrous. ' The llniil lutuu, however, by which a Bourbon was placed on the throne of Spain, and the ('on«('i|uunt I'umily alliance, gave to France an 'increased weight, especially in the maritimr coiii'i'niK (if Europe. '.';l:lli The French revolution was an event attended with awful and mighty vicissitudes. Ml iVculi In the memory of the world, that it would be quite superfluous to attempt to enu- incriilc tlk'tu. After tearing up France by the roots, and holding all Europe in chains ; after inliililllng (luring twenty years the vicissitudes of republicanism, total anarchy, and pure (l(iii|i(itln iVoin liiH throne, which was filled by Louis- Philippe, head of the collateral line of Ork'tnH, imder the title of King of the French. Sect. IV. Political Geography. J:l!l'J. The fmlitical comtitution of France, prior to the Revolution, was almost purely ijidlici Tlio privileges of the nobles consisted nearly altogether in unjust exemptions 528 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P*M in. firom taxation, and in eorvhi, or iniquitous and opprossivo olaimi upon tbo Inlmur of tin peasantry. The only very salutary limit to the royal authority oonslKtud in the pnrliumcnta, hereditary bodies, by whom the laws were very fairly and honourably adminlfiturvd t and the parliament of Paris had even the important privilege of registering evvry nuw tax [ttton it could become legal. The exorbitant powers vested in the Mverclgn lM appeal livH to the rindiction over the t liold tlu'ir ofHces ,w« ! — Tliero were the furincr, 1971 ftlw preaent, there uunced upon \i^\ lioniOIC ^vm^c■ l)lclt).1cot1dvnlned for naaoNKt nation ; urder accompanied flro-roiaingi tfor Jioir untenctt corn- Boot !• PRANCE. 529 muted. Of the 4475, 2827 could neither read not write ; 1 160 could read and write im- perfectly ; 404 could read and write well ; 81 had superior information ; 3 unknown. 2335. Financial system. During the Revolution, France shook, oif her heavy burden of debt. The amount of taxes had not exceeded 22,000,000/., but was levied in arbitrary and injudicious modes. Napoleon laid ou large additional taxes, chiefly on land, and con- tracted, besides 1 23,000,000/. sterling of debt. This was augmented by the events of 1815, and temporary occupation of the French territory. The debt is expressed In the form of nn/M or annuities, which, amounting to 230,000,000 francs ('J,68 3,000/.), may nt 5 per cent, represent a capital of 193,660,000/. 2336. The estimate of receipt and expenditure for the year 1838 was as follows ; — Receipt. Tjx on land , • . , " Income and nioTeaWcs door* and windows p.iccnti., &c. - Stmnii* luid roBlstratlon - - Sale of domains and other etrecta Produce of rojul forests Customs . . - Salt . . • - Liquors - - - Sale of tobacco and gunpowder Ilcvcnues of Algiers Sundries ... Receipt in francs sterling . Expenditure. Debt, interest, annuities Siiiliinii fund . . - Military pensions IViTaKC pensions (llliiT jienslons . . - Civil list ... Cliainber of Peers I)e|iutlcs . . . I.fdion of Honour justice . - . . lUligion— Catholic - 261,852,000 . 50,289,000 . 29,279,000 . 35,006,000 • 20S,H96,000 . 5,650,000 - 32,279,000 . 105,126,000 ■ 65,534,000 . 85,040,000 . 82,570,000 - 11,435,000 - 1,700,000 - 56,084,000 • 1,0153,340,000 • £43,889,000 - 230,333,000 - 46,283,000 . 43,900,000 962,000 . 7,078,000 . 13,000,000 720,000 680,000 . 1,805,000 . 18,685,000 . 34,429,000 Carried forward - 397,875,000 Brought forward . 397,875,000 Other rcligioni ... 1,010,000 Foreign affairs . . . 7,370,000 Public instruction, management . . 1,836,000 superior .... 1,972,000 secondary .... 1,655,000 primary .... 6,300,000 Learned societies, &c. ... 2,233,000 Fine arts ..... 2,564,000 Telegraphic lines . - . 939,000 Public buildings and raouumentt . • 1,630,000 Aid to refugee foreigners ... 2,000,000 Charitable establishments, &c. . • 1,748,000 Interior administration - • . 65,844,000 Encouragements to agriculture . . 3,381,000 to fislieries .... 3,000,000 manufactures »nd commerce . - 1,493,000 Aids to agriculturists ... 2,792,000 Interior navigation ... 8,7.50,000 Roads, bridges, mines > • 30,269,000 Harbours, &c. .... 4,385,000 Military expenditure . . . 202,980,000 occupation of Algiers . . 25,743,000 Marino and colonies ... 66,000,000 Finance administration - • • 21, .554,000 Collection of the revenue . • .119,870,000 Bounties, premiums, &c. - . 7.500,000 Drawbacks, repayments, &c. • . 46,328,000 Sundries ..... 667,000 Expenditure in francs . 1,037,288,000 sterling - ,£43,220,000 Expected surplus 669,000 2337. The army of France is no longer that vast and terrible mass, which for so many years held tlic whole of continental Europe in thrall. The events of 1815 having proved Ion clearly the attachment of the old troops to their former master, they were nearly all disbanded, and their place supplied by fresh conscription. The government has the power of levying 60,000 men, to serve for seven years. By a regulation, breathing still the republican spirit, one tbird of the ofl^ccrs must be raised from the ranks. The army in the year 183G amounted to 278,000 cflTective men, being 186,000 infantry, 38,600 cavalry, iiT.'JOO artillery, &c. 2338. The French navy, wliich, in 1791, amounted to seventy-four sail of the line and sixty-two frigates, lost half during the war ; and those which remained, having never ven- tured fur many years to stir out of port, lost all their experience and efficiency. At present, they linvc forty ships of the line, fifty frigates, and upwards of two hundred smaller vessels ; butoftlic two first classes, only half are afloat, the rest remaining unflnished. About fifty thousand men are employed in the service. Sect. V. Productive Industry. 2339. France, with regard to internal economy, is one of the richest and most flourishing countries in the world. In point of industry she ranks third afler Britain and the Nether. Luuls ; while she possesses a greater extent and more natural advantages than either of those great seat.s of commerce and manufacture. 2340. AgiicullHre is the most flourishing branch, yet is not in so advanced a state as in Great Hrituin. It has gained greatly by the French revolution, in consequence of the alHililion of feudal rights, cori'£es, and tithes. The great possessions of the nobility were tlien broken up, and during the grand emigration, the farmers, or neighbouring little pro. prietnrs and capitalists, were able to purchase at a very cheap rate portions of the forfeited doniains. It has become u nige in France for every one to possess a little spot of land ; and (ho division of a mtn's property among his children, which the law enforces, tends to split it |ierpetually mure and more into minute portions. Travellers have even observed three or four proprietors obliged to join in keeping a common plough. In vineyards and other garden cultures, where nioc care and diligence are chiefly requisite, this minute partition seems M m 530 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pam III. advantageous. Chaptal even calculates, that a small vineyard cultivated by the proprietor will yield double. But in corn lands, a considerable capital, good machinery, strong and wulUfed cattle are necessary. The little occupants, also, are by no means prompt in discoverinp; any improved processes, or in adopting those discovered elsewhere. Artificial grasses, and the rotation of crops which they facilitate, are by no means generally diffused ; and an old vicious circle, of wheat, oats, and fallow, is still very generally adhered to. 2341. According to fhe cadaitre, or survey, of 1836, France contains 52,768 square leni;ucs of land, of which there is fit for tillage 25,550; meadow, 4834 ; vineyard, 2134 ; forest, 7422; orchards, gardens, &c., 708; otherwise cultivated, 952; pasture grounds, heaths, ilc,, 7780; ponds, reservoirs, canals, 211 ; area of buildings, 242. These arc all subject to land-tax; besides which arc the following, fre«;— roads, streets, &c., 1225; rivers, lakes, &c., 453; unproductive forests, 1204; cemeteries, churches, public buildings, 18. 2342. Grain, notwithstanding thn imperfections in its cultivation, is produced with such diligence as to yield enough in ordinary years to supply the extensive ))opulation of France with food. The only exception is in part of its southern coast, which, when permitted, draws a supply from Odessa. France is not distinguished for any very superior quality uf grain, nor is it an exporting country. It seems to have attended less than most other countries of Europe to the culture of potatoes, which arc still planted only in gardens, along borders, or in tracts unfit for grain. Maize is mixed with wheat in the southern departments. Chaptnl has given the following statement, calculated on an average of twelve years, from IHOO to IRI 2, of the entire products of this branch of French agriculture : — Hectolitres. Wheat - - - - 51,500,200 Rye - - - 30,290,161 M.iize - . . - 6,302,316 Buck-wheat - - - 8,409,473 Barley ... 12,576,603 Potatoes ... 19,800,741 Oats - ... 32,066,587 160,946,081 A more recent estimate, in a memoir read to the Society of Statistics in 1 830, maki"- the average produce of the years 1 825 to 1 828 amount to 60,553,000 hectolitres of wheat ; 1 14,733,000 of other grains : 46.238.000 of potatoes and chestnuts. 234.S. nine ranks next in importance to grain, and forms o most valuable part of French industry. The wines of France, though not so strong as those of more southern climates, are generally accounted the most delicate in the world. Those of Burgundy and Champagne are without a rival, if we except a few rare specimens of Tokay. The wines of the Garonne do not rank quite so high ; but, from their light, safe, and agreeable qualities, are drank more freely, and exported on a larger scale. The finest and strongest of these nines are cultivated cliiefly to supply the consumption of Britain and the other northern nations. The interior consumption of France consists chiefly of the light wines, drank at table, nearly as our beer. Two elaborate attempts have been made to estimate tlic pro- duce of the French vineyards ; one by Chaptal, in his " General Tre.itise on French Industry," and the other in the report of a committee of the Chamber of Peers, presented in 1824 by the Due de Dodeauville. They dlfl'cr pretty considerably. Chaptal supposes tliat 1,631,000 hectares are employed in producing wine to the average annual amount of 35,500,000 hectolitres. The table, however, given by the duke, of the produce of each department does not exceed 31,630,000 hectolitres. The difference as to value is still more remarkable. Chaptal, afler leaving out a sixth, as made into brandy, estimates the re- mainder at 678,000,000 francs (28,000,000/. sterling) : he supposes that there are 800,000 worth each 200 francs; 1,600,000 worth 50; gradually descending till he comes to 10,500,000 worth only 7 J francs. Dodeauville does not bring the amount to more than 480,000,000 (20,000,000/. sterling). The highest average value he assigns to the wines of any department is to those of the Oise (champagne), 36 francs ; those of the Marne, Yonne, and Cote d'Or (burgundy), 26 to 24 ; of the Gironde, and Lot et Garonne (claret), 19 to 21 ; the rest from 17 to 9. His estimate, however, seems too low ; since M. Dupin (Forces Productives, ^c. de la France) calculates the value, according to the tax paid to government, at 543,155,078 francs (about 23,000,000/. sterling). The brandy info wliich one sixth of the above produce is made, is, like the wine, the finest in the world, and a grand staple of French trade. Chaptal estimates the value distilled at 40,000,000 francs (1,750,000/.). M. Dupin states the quantity at 469,817 hectolitres ; that of other spiriu at 90,000. He calculates also 8,868,218 hectolitres of cider, worth 2,760,000/., and 2,965,022 hectolitres of strong beer. 2344. Live stock does not form the most approved part of French husbandry. Chaptal considers that the animals arc too few, whether for culture, for use, or for the production tf Book I> KUANCE. ,531 manure ; and al»o that lliu inenii(irv» (ukiMi tu improve the breed liavv been very partial and defective. The number uf hunm, Incliullng mules, in 18i27, was '2,550,000. Of these it viia rccl(oned tliat 300,000 w«r« i'm|)loyi«, IM yet, very partial. Pure merinos are valued at thirty francs, mixed at twelve (VuncN, and native sheep at only five francs. The number of swine Ml France is estimated by liullil, in 1 HUO, at 4,000,000. The ass is considered by M. Senac to be, I'rom the poverty uf his owiivrit, lit an almost hopeless state of degradation ; and the fowls, the bees, and the pigeon* tu demand a thoroughly improved system of rearing. Chaptal has not attempted to ettthnatu the wiitgcd species, but has guessed their entire value at above 2,000,000/. sterling. 2345. Among the materitti* itf mtiiiijfaetiin quite visionary. The entire consumption of sugar in France amounts, at present, iiteltiNlve of that fVom the beet-root, to about 72,000 tons a year; being not much mure than n third part of the consumption of Great Britain and Ireland, which amounts to about lfK),(M)0 tons. Tobacco, after the removal of the regie, or royal monopoly, rose to 50,(X)0,(HX) IIin, { but aince the restoration of this system, in 181 2, it has fallen to 5,000,000. 2347. It'oal is an important nrtielv, i'*ipeelally in a country which is nearly destitute of any other fuel. Chaptal estimated tho wooillaiulu at 7,072,000 hectares (about 1 7,500,000 acres) ; liut according to a more recent inMnurlal, In 1 H34, by M. Horbin dc Halle, sub-administra- tor of the forests, it is only e PvreiieeN, niid along the Rhine, the Moselle, the Saone, the Marne, and other eastern rlverN, l'ha|itiil CNtliniites the value of the annual cuttings at about 6,000,000/. sterling ; l)ut If till t be rediioetl according to M. de Halle's estimate, it will give only five and n half. Fruit trei'Pi are iitno of importance, especially chestnuts, cultivated on a largo scale in several provlneeN, and valued liv Chaptal at about 400,000/. He estimates the fruit growing open lit orchardN at |ltX),tKK)/., and that on walls, or in rows as single trees, at '.',750,000/. He is aftald tinit thin last will be thought too low; we should rather apprehend nn opposite error in tliU iiiNtailce, as well as in that of reckoning the herbs which grow in 328,000 hectares of garden ground, at 8,000,000/. sterling. M in 2 599 DK8CUIPTIVE OEOOIIAPHY. Pa» hi. 9948. 0»» the whole, Cha/itttt laliiilalei tlmt in tlio 52,000,000 hectares of which France consist!!, twenty-tlirvv uru nrublu ; tun wooilii, vincii, fruit trees; seven pasturage; the rest waters, roa'ls, buiUlin)(H, wnhIu, IIo innkcn tlic annual average produce of nn acre 28 franca ( W. 3.«. nperable obstacles to the further progress of the manufacture, li is It present in a very d( pressed state, and the following account shows tliat it has been nearly : ilionary 53,.500 75,322,200 fi 1, 37 1, 600 !)6,()52,200 1827 1828 1829 1830 1831 lbs. 87,185,100 61,839,600 72,669,000 84,825,600 65,517,&00 BookI. FRANCE. 593 23,<;4. Of the iecondary ohJetU of manufacture, that of leather U perhaps the moit ex- tcnsivi*. though not peculiarly French. It is supposed that in Franco he annual product amounts to 857,000 cow-hides ; 110,000 horse-hides, and 2,032,000 cai.-skins. There are 31 OUO slioi'makers in Paris, who make upwards of eight millions of pair', of shoes yearly, not only fur the city itself, but the provinces, and even foreign countries. Chaptal reckons the whole produce of tanning, currying, shoemaking, and all processes connected with loAtlier, at 6,000,000/. Hard soap was formerly supplied by Marseilles to all France and the colonies ; but its produce of 225,000 quintals is now reduced by a third ; owing partly )o the reduction of the colonial demand, and partly i the more general diffusion of the nianufnctnrc. It is thought still to amount to I,250,C KV,, with 12U,0OOi!, value of soft soap made in the northern departments. Starch, including huir-powder, may amount to 1 8,000,000 pounds, uiid its value to 250,000/. There arc sundry little matters of jewellery, trinkets, furniture, perfumery, scented waters, volatile salts, which elsewhere are only petty trades, 'jitt which taste and fashion in France raise to the dignity of manufactures, the whole produce of which is reckoned at upwards of 4,000,000/. sterling. Crystal, glass, and pottery arc branches in which the French have recently made great progress; and, after being dependent on furi'igners for these articles, are now able to export them. The first two branches are estimated at 850,000/. ; porcelain made at Sevres and other places, at 2(X},000/.; pottcrv in imitation of English, n little more; coarse pottery for the lower ranks, 600,000/. 23,)j yiinfral kingdom. I'ranccyiiliU in abundance the moat useful of mctala. Iron. She had, in 1834, fur. nacci lor piK iron 5li2 ; forges for wroUKht iron 1H88 ; for steel Kti. They are chiefly In the I'yrcnean and Alpine ilo|>.irlinuiits, and alonK the heads of the Marne, the Moselle, and tlic Sa6ne. •y/i. The- proiluce, which M. Chaptal reckoned iioly 81,(HXI,000 kil(«jrammes, had, according to M. Dupin, ris'cn in ISilfi to l(il,nOO,(X)0 (about Ifil.lXiO tons). In IHiJ-J, the ore extracted amounted to 1,804,(100 tons, the ran- iron proiluceci to 2(i9,(X)0 j the value was estimated.nt 4,'.'!)i),()UV. The number of men directly emuloyed wa>S8,S(ll>. Nearly all the copper and lead employed in France is imported from abroad. Co.d, includmg linnilcainl anthracite, is produced mostly on the Loire and S^ifme, in the departments of Le Noril and Aneyron, to the extent, in 18)4, of !2,4 paid a duty of 1,H(H),0(X)/. Other mineral products, with their suppoaca value, arc, alum, lGU,00O<. ; saltpetre, hW "' i "'"■''^ '"''''> '!4O,00O/. : muriatic acid, 10,00(1/. " 2357. The total value of the products of the mines and manufactures of France is estimated b; Chaptal at 75,835,000/. sterling. The particulars arc, about 17 millions of home raw materials ; 8 millions of foreign raw materials ; 35 millions of workmanship ; 8 millions of general expenses, as implements, repairs, lighting, interest of fixed capital; 7^ millions for the profit of the manufacturer. 2358, The commerce of France, while all the other branches of industry were thus advanc- ing;, perceptibly declined. It was reduced, indeed, to a state of temporary annihilation by the violent policy of Napoleon, who absolutely lined the coast with troops, that not a single vessel might enter. Thus all the commercial ties of France were broken, every channel closed by which she was accustomed to exchange her commodities with those of foreign countries. Indeed, the anti-commercial spirit seems to have become rooted in the mind of the n.ation; when we find even the enlightened mind of Chaptal extolling the prohibitory system. That writer considers the year 1789 as the most flourishing period of French cuMiinerce; when the exports amounted to 18,200.000/. sterling, and the imports to 'lii,500,000l. He has, with grief, declined to give any record of the feeble efforts at revival. Since his work, however, it has considerably improved. In the four years ending 1820, the average exports of French produce were 1 9,700,000/, ; in the same period ending 1 836, they were 'Ji.',9(X),000/. The imports, in 1 825, were valued at 21 ,344,000/. ; in 1 836, at 36,2123,000/. Of these last 23,117,000/. were by sea, 12,105,000/. by land. In that year there entered innard.s 14,630 ships, tonnage 1,353,000, of which 408,000 was French ; outwards, 14,624, ships; 1,410,000 tons, of which ^02,000 French ; there belonged to French ports 15,249 ships ; tonnage 685,000. 2359. The following shows the shipping entered, the imports and exports, for the chief foreign countries in 1836: — Countries, Tonnage. Imiwrts. Exports. Countries, Tonnage. Imports. 1 Esports, i £ £ £ £ Britain 402,000 2,72.'i,0(10 4,010,000 Barbary 39,000 301,000 093,000 Spain 101,000 1,777,(«I0 3,729,(KIII Kgypt 9,000 26.'i,0ll0 195,000 Sardinian States - 70,000 2,44.'i,IIOO 2,l(i,'>,(KKl ICast Indies 15,000 1,520,000 2» 1,000 Switzerland (Land) .')„Hail,0(10 H,0.')il,000 United States l«l,flOO 4,431,000 9,.'i50,(i00 Belgium 10,000 S,;!.'!?,"!!!) l,S:i0,(K)0 Brazil 14,(KI0 401,000 1,009,000 Gurmany Hanse Town! (Land) 2,801,00(1 l,,V.IO,0()li Siiiuiish ^lexlco 17.0(10 401,000 59r),o(io 211,000 (!77,()O0 828,000 7,000 318,000 380,000 Italian States 144.1100 1,720,000 1,213,000 Ilayti 9,(KI0 2(K),(100 18«,0(I0 Austria 38,000 1,72.'>,(I(HI 3!l.'i,000 Chili and La Plata 10,000 378,000 7.M!,000 liussla 4S,OflO 1,112,000 4'i«,flOO C'oloiiies.W. Indies 81,000 1,784,000 1,545,(H10 Prussia 40,000 1,172,000 334,(MI0 Africa - 27,000 7S 1,000 ,M7,000 Holland I'J.OOO 331,000 612,000 Flsherli's 6I),()00 3110,000 210.000 Turkey 17,000 787,000 091,000 Other quartert - Total 193,000 1,1M,()00 974,000 l..V.>7,000 :i6,223,0OO 38.4.'.l,0OO M ma [♦real*"' 5fH DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. PART HI. 'J360. The fulhwUg wai the value of the leading articles of import and export in 183C, 'riicy are given under somewhat fanciful headR, which wo have uttcniptcd to ciplain. LItc anlmalt Animal produce, (hidei, ) wool, ran ullk.idc.i -J Prixlurv of fliherlei • Furinacooui food Krult> - - Colonial pro cotton ?) -J Impoiti, Kiporti, W5,000 £ 450,000 7,032,000 2,909,000 Ml, 000 l.VKl.OOO 1,193,000 4,131 000 1,371,000 1,374,000 225,000 128,000 1,190,000 339,000 1,228,000 6()9,(K)0 257,0.^.olJO 5,914,000 17,158.000 76,000 5.V;,IKlll 1,701,000 4,206,000 2361. TktfoUowing exhibiti the thipping that entered, in 1836, the principal ports, &c. Ports. Foreiitn Trade. Covtlng. FlllMriM. Cod uughl. Value hnnaed In Ilt37. Marielllej Havre Hourdeaux Houcn 1 Nantes - La Hochclle Dunkirk liayunno Mniitpelller Uouloxne L'Orlcnt Toulon Brojt St. Malo Cherbourg Perplgnan Other porti Total Shipa. 2.805 1,277 610 5,Vj 348 .312 •714 l„587 555 2,149 117 371 22G 371 1,185 438 1,366 Tom. 401,000 280,000 119,000 46,000 52,000 31,000 44,000 27,000 36,000 161,000 IVXK) 24,000 18,(H)0 26,000 45,000 14,000 119,000 Shif.. 4,f!IO 2,882 2,.5.I3 2,668 2.616 14,000 755 512 1,419 2.57 19,.5O0 2,82;» 12,000 4,179 4,131 1,028 25,047 Tom. 241,000 206,(KX) 121,000 220,000 124.000 408,000 SI.IKK) 28,000 91,000 12,000 3I8,0(X) 136,000 ir,o,ooo 119,000 128,000 35,000 687,000 31 34 ■ 8 57 133 8 19 8 ■ t'o 46 24 Tana, 8,000 9,9,2 l,fi!)7,701 Were il legit WM '.','} per '1 -11 of till people sinci 2l.'35 by sii 2368. 3V UOOK L FRANCE. 53a port In 18.1(1. explain. loru. Riportt e .e 7,000 «i.^,000 1,0(10 mm) 1,000 Mii.iioa 4i,IKI0 !»7,IKI(I »,000 IWM,0(iO 7,000 2,933.000 2,000 804,000 H.OOO 1W,(II10 4,000 17,lM,lltl« ro.noo 5:.'i,(i(i, Aries. The estimuti's for completing these twelve canals were within a trifle of to iiiilliiiiis sterling, of which, in March, 1829, there hod been expended 6 millions. Several luiuils, uM u still more magnificent scale, have been recently contemplated ; but no part of the works bus yet been commenced. '.>:!(i'l. Tlie rwuh of France, at least the high ronds, have been chiefly supported by governineiit. They arc broader, more spacious, more direct, and on the whole of grander fls|iett ttmii the Knglish roads ; but they have not been kept in such good condition for travelling. Koads have been made and repaired rather for political ond military purposes, fruin sullcitntiun and favour, than for objects of real utility. The system seems to have lik'eii, tu neglect (hum as long as possible, till the clamour of the district became irresistible, and then to give them a thorou,';h repoir ; to which Diipin Juctly prefers our system, of kivping roads constantly in a good Ktate by small repairs as the necessity arises. The French ruads, however, have been greatly improved since 1810, and the maintenance of a great liruportiuii of them has been undertaken by the departments ; so that they are now divided into ruyal and departmental. The royal roads, in 1836, extended 8631 leagues, and th^re vns expended upon them about 1,!?50,000/. ; but only 6179 leagues were in full repair. The (lepartmuntul were 9500 leagues, but only 5500 were in perfect condition. The vicinal or hye roads, 575,000 leagues in length, \i;.re in a miserable condition. I'lid'j. Kailwnya form an important improvement, in which France is not far advanced. She Ims at present only five; 1. from Pari) to St. Germain, 5^ leagues; 2. St. Etienne to Lyons, h\\; 3. same to the Loire, 16J; 4. Epinai to the canal of Burgundy; 7. Of those only the first and part of the second (-.lone admit locomotive engines ; the others ore mere tramroads usual in mines. In 1838, however, a great movement took place upon thSt Mihject. The government proposed a vast system, to connect Paris with all the great ports, and with the Belgian, Spanish, and German frontiers. It was to extend 1 100 leagues, and to cost 4U millions sterling. The chambers, however, rejected this costly scheme, and intimated a wish that the airuir should be left to individual cnterpri.se and capital. Of this there appeared no «aiit; and, after much di.scussion, it was agreed that one should be undertaken to Belgium, liraiichiiiK from Lisle to Dunkirk ; one to Havre, one to Orleans, and several smaller ones, I'siiiiiated to cost in all 8,000,000/. sterling. We have understood, however, that great diffi> riilties have been experienced in these extensive undertakings, and that private funds have liceii fomul inadequate to their execution ; and it is reported that government will still be obliged to come forward, at least with liberal aid, in order that their completion may be illl'ctcd. 'I'MWu Of the bridges of France, several arc handsome, as those over the Loire at Orleans, Tours, and Nantes ; over the Seine at Paris, Neuilly, and Rouen ; over the Rhone and .Saiiiic at Lyons ; and over the Garonne at Bourdeaux. Bridges of suspension have been ('(imnionced at Paris in front of the Hotel des Invalides, and over the Rhone, between Tain and Tournon. These operations have been entirely in the hands of government. According to the report of M. Rcgnay, the support of bridges and aqueducts constructed would be 'JfiO.OOO/. ; that of repairs, 340,000/. ; completion, 300,000/. ; new works contem- plated, .,650,000/. Sect. VI. Ci»i7 and Social State. 3367. The population of France, which in 1780, by ihc inquiries of Neckcr, appeared to he 24,8(X),tX)0, was found by the census of 1791 to amount to 26,363,000; by that of 1817, to upwards of 29,000,000 ; and by that of 1820-21, to !iO,616,000. In 1827, it amounted to;! 1, 85 1, 5-1 5; in 1831, to 32,509,223 ; and by the census of 1836, hod risen to 33,540,910, King l'2.'>n (o a squorc league. Of these 1 6,460,701 were males, 17,080,209 females. Of the former, (),2l;),247 were married, and 740,160 widowers; of the latter, 6,195,097 married, and l,fi!)7,701 widows. The marriages in 1 835 were 275,508 ; the births 993,833. Of these 74,727 were illegitimate, being 7^ per cent, on the whole ; but in the large towns the proportion was 'JH per cent. ; in the country only 4J. The deaths amounted to 816,413, being only 1 in 41 of the whole population. This marked a great improvement in the condition of the people since 1 780, when the proportion was 1 in 30. Of this number 5859 were by accident, 2L'.'i5 by suicide, and 4 1 by legal execution. 23GH, The French national character has very marked features, and has been the object M ni 4 SK DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHY. Part III, of mingled admiration and contempt to the neighbouring nations. In the eyes of French'. men, especially of the old school, la belle France is the centre of all that is reflned and polished in human existence, and whatever lies beyond its sphere is marked with a di'cp taint of barbarism ; while their rougher neighbours brand them as artificial, effeminate and fantastic. Tlie art of living in society seems certainly carried to greater perfection than in any other country ; and tlic manners are characterised by a peculiar gaiety, amenity and courtesy. The polish of the higher ranks seems to have descended even to the lowest circles. " The man who breaks stones upon the road takes off* his hat to the woman that leads her cow in a string ; the tinker and the shoeblack whip off their hats to each other," A certain openness and kindness of disposition, called bonhommie, is certainly evinced in the custom of whole families, with married sons and daughters, continuing to dwell under the paternal roof. The Frenchman lives as it' were in public : his house, for a part of the day is open to a large circle of acquaintance. He enjoys society without expense and ceremony. He resorts habitually to the theatre, spectacles, and scenes of public amusement. In more serious points of view, the French possess estimable qualities. Intoxication is a vice con- fined to the lowest ranks ; and swearing is repelled at least as a mark of barbarism. The French are ingenious, acute, active, and intelligent. If they have not what can strictly be railed patriotism, they have at least a vc'ry strong national feeling. To exalt the glory and promote tht influence ot la granite nation, is the prevailing impulse which actuates the mind of almost evcy Frenchman. After all, we on this side of the Chanucl alles^e, that there is a want of that sterling principle, that openness and integrity, which forms the boast of the English character. Dissimulation and insincerity seem widely diffused through the intercourse of the higher circles. The honesty of the lower classes is, however, rcmarkahic ; and that system of higgling in shops, so offensive to ar Englishman, is a consequence of tli*^ contracted state of commerce ; and was, at no distant period, quite as common in Scot- hind. The deportment of the female sex, however embellished by tcurnure and the graces, does not acci I'd with our ideas of social and domestic propriety. Tlic young ladies are otrictly watched, and held in almost monastic seclusion ; but the era of marriage is tlie signal, if not of positive irregularity, at least of a system of regular flirtation, which we cannot reconcile to the conjugal and matronly character. It is probable, however, that the impres- sion of the general dissoli'tencss of French manners has been chiefly derived from the opulent circles of the capitil ; while, as a late writer has observed, Paris and the provinces form entirely separate worlds. Among the peasantry, and even among the trading class in tlic cities, there appears to be much that is respectable and amiable. The great activity and promi- nent station of the female sex is every where conspicuous : they are seen managing the shops, carrying on great manufactories, and joining in the hardest toils of the loom and the field. It is not at all uncommon upon a farm to sec the master sowing, his wife guidingj; the plough, and a line girl filling the dung cart. Such avocations divest the fair sex in the provinces of any great portion of beauty. Indeed, the gay hilarity of the French character does not seem quite so universal as is generally supposed in England. Travellers in the south, from Arthur Young to those of later date, complain rather of a singular gravity and taciturnity. Mr. Matthews remarks, in his " Diary of an Invalid," that a very con- siderable ch.inge of manners has taken place since the Ilevolution. AH the distiticiions cf rank have been cut down like the old trees of the forest, and the new generation, like the coppice, are all on a level. " You will seek in vuin," he says, " for that high-bred polish of manners which has been so much boasted as peculiar to the haxU-ton of France. A re- publican sjiirit p.evails, and shows itself in an independent roughness of manner, savouring of sans-culottism." Tin tone of society among the body of the people has even been com- pared to that in the United States of America. 2369. The Roman catholic has been the ruling religion in France, ever since the fatal issue of the long struggle for religious liberty. Previously to the Ilevolution, however, a general scepticism pervaded all the well-informed classes, both as to the catholic tenets, and as to religion in general. This was doubtless one great cause both of the Revolution and of many of the fatal and disastrous aspects which it assumed. A furious anti-religions fanaticism reigned ; all form of public worship was suspended, and even prohibited; the churches were rifled and defaced in a barbarous manner. At this time, the vast domains of the church, by wliich so many dignitaries and so many convents were supported in splen- «lour, were voted the property of the nation, and sold at a low price to supply its necessities. Napoleon had the merit of re-establishing religious worship, and on a very liberal footing; an allowance being made for the support of the protestant clergy, proportioned to the number who still liold that faith, and who amount to about 1,500,000. As all the former funds however had disappeared, the establishment is si'pported out of the public revenue, and is frugal, and even scanty, both as to numbers and salary. There are five cardinals, \vith 1 300/. a year ; eighteen archbishops, with an annual income of 800/. ; seventy-four bishops, 600/. After the intermediate classes of vicars and canons come the curh, or parish priests, amounting to 3000, with incomes of 40/. to GO/. ; but the chief labour devolves \ipon as.OOO liistermns, or acting curates, who starve upon 20/. or 30/. a year, with the addition of only Book I. FRANCE. S»7 yes of French. is refined and ;ed with a dcop :i8l, effeminate, later perfection [aiety, amenity, in to the lowest he woman that to each othi-r." evinced in the Iwell under tlie part of the day, and ceremony. lent. In more I is a vice con- irbarism. Tiie can strictly be t the glory and tuatcs the mind , tliat there is a s the boast of id through the »r, rcmarkalilc; consequence of mmon in Scot- irnure and the ic young ladies narriage is the ■hich we cannot hat the imprcs- rived from the d the provinces ing class in tlic vity and promi- ging the shops, n and the field. fe guiding the fair sex in the encli character avcllers in the lar gravity and a very con- istliictions of ration, like tlie •bred polish of ancc. A re- ner, savouring vcn been coni- somcimaU fees. The whole church expenditure, In 1823, amounted to 1,575,000 Hvres; but in 1832 was reduced by a third; and the church has been in a somewhat unsettled state. The Bourbons were supposed to aim at restoring it to all its former power, splendour, and privilege ; a course viewed with extreme jealousy by the republican paity, who are imbued with a considerable tincture of that scepticism which was generally allied with republican principles. The high church party endeavoured to remedy the deficiency of the establishment by sending round missionaries, who were listened to by the people with enthusiasuc delight. The autlior of " Four Years in France " mentions one who in departing from a city had his cassock torn off his back, and cut into pieces to be distributed as relics. The liberals deride them as ignorant fanatics ; but some travellers, who cannot be charged with superstition, report them as displaying a good deal of natural eloquence, and that their doctrines appeared really very edifying, since many who had been guilty of thefts, even at remote periods, were induced by them to come forward and make confession and restitution. 2370. The itUellectual character of the French has been brilliant, and since the age of Louis XIV. has had a powerful influence, in matters of taste, on the general literature of Europe : that princr, ambitious of glory in every form, extended a munificent patronage to letters and arts. I'he French Academy, though its endowments were not very splendid, and though intrigi j often influenced its admissions, gave a fixed and high place in society to men of letters ; v ho, amid all the frivolity of French character, were received even among tho highest ranks with a Jistinction not accorded to them in any other modern country. The aim of Louis to make the French a sort of universal language was in a great measure suc- cessful ; it became the established dialect at all the courts, and the cliicf medium by which the diiri"-ent nations communicated with each other. The departments in which the writers of that age excelled, were chiefly pulpit eloquence, poetry of a light and satirical character, and the drama in a somewhat fettered and artificial form. The writers of the following age took a bolder and more varied flight, and sought to turn the opinion of mankind into new channels jpon all subjects. The wit and varied talent of Voltaire, the eloquence of Butfon and Rousseau, the comprehensive views of Montesquieu, and the science of D' Alembert, gave a new turn to the ideas of the thinking world throughout Europe. These writers, with their successors of the same school, had a powerful influence in bringing on this revolution, in the ruins of which several of them were buried. Learning was for some time almost cxtin- guislied in France ; but as soon as the revolutionary frenzy abated, the National Assembly constituted a new body called the National Institute, round which, under the changed appeU ladons of Imperial and Royal, all the highest names in science have since continued to rally. The French during this period did not shine in poetry or general literature ; but in mathe- matics, physics, and chemistry, the labours of Lavoisier, Laplace, Lalande, Chaptal, and a number of others, have, notwithstanding the powerful rivalry on this side the Channel, raised them ]icrlmps tu tlie very first place. Recently, however, France has produced some very eminent historians, and popular poets of a peculiar character ; there has been also a remarkable extension of the habits of reading. The periodical sheets printed were in 1814 only 4,5,000 ; in 1826, they were 144,000. The most solid and useful branches also are tliose which have most increased, as appears from the following table, formed by M. Dupin : — Theolngy ... LoKii^Kiture Sck'nces I'hilnsn|ihy Political Kconomy 1814. 1826. Military SubJecU ■ Fine Arts Ilcllcs Lcttrcs History, Travels, &c. - Varieties, Almanacka, &c. 1814. 1826. 4,974,000 1,374,(KX) 2,.'i4fi,(X)0 75:i,(XX) 1,634,000 23,2fi8,(X)0 18,Ha"i,(XX) 12,IfiO,(KX) 3,032,(XX) 2,097,000 441,000 773,000 13,a52,0OO 16,22fi,(KK) 3,600,000 1,*4.-,,000 i,y!»;),(xx) 27,7(H,000 4fi,St.'>,()flO 7,699,000 2371. The literary and scientific collections of Paris are the most splendid in Europe : the royal library contoiiis 360,000 printed volumes, besides 70,000 manuscripts, and 5000 volumes of engravings. There are several othcl- large libraries in Paris. The Museum of Natural History and the Jardin des Plantes are equally copious in their respective departments. All these are opened to the public in the most liberal manner. The provincial collections are aUo respectable, though they do not equal those of the minor princes of Germany ; and France is, on the whole, less rich in tliis species of treasure. 2,'i7'-'. Among the establishments for public education in France, the universities, which are twenty-six in number, hold the first rank. That of Paris is perhaps the most celebrated in Europe, and was, cvnn in the dark ages, the grand theatre of those dialectic combats, which then usurped the honours of science. Though destroyed during the fury of the Revolution, it has been re-established on a grea* --cale, and with a larger appointment of professors than any other in Europe; it attracts st-. 'dents from every part of the kingdom, as none of the rest enjoy eqiml repute, and indeed bear at present only tho name of academies. The Lycies, now called royal colleges, arc an institution of Napoleon, and correspond nearly to our gram- mar schools, the expense of board and education being from 15/. to 30/. a year; but they enjoy a very unwarrantable monopoly of the rig.it to te.ich Latin ;tlu.'yweruattended, in 182.5, by 10,000 pupils. Primary schools intended for the ;.^'ncrul instruction of the people DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part HI. amounted in 1H25 to 22,900, and were attended by, 1 16,000 scbolars, Lancasterian schools have since been introduced, and amounted in 1820 to 800, attended by 80,000 scholars. M. Dupin remarks striking local differences in this respect. In the north, 1 3,000,000 of inhabitants send to school 740,000 children; while in the south, 18,000,000 send only 375,000 : even in the south, the proportion is largest in the districts least favoured by nature, the Upper Alps and the Upper Pyrenees; while in Tourainc, emphatically called the garden of Franco, it is only one in 229. All these establishments are under the patronage and control of the government, which does not, however, exhaust its finances upon them, since the whole amount in 1823 was not more than 95,000/. 2373. The fine arts were zealously promoted by the regent duke of Orleans, and by Louis XIV. ; and though they never reached the splendour of the Italian or even of the Flemish schools, yet they could boast several masters of the first class ; the Poussins anci Claude Lorraine having fixed th^ir residence and even found their scenery in Italy, became half Italian. Le Brun and Lc Sueur were the chief artists decidedly French : of whom the former enjoyed the favour of the king, and the chief direction of the great works ; but the latter has been pronounced by posterity to be his superior. Afler this, the French school sunk greatly, and was employed in delineating only the artificial forms of court society ; but witliin the last thirty years a new school has sprung up, in which David, Gerard, Guerin Girodet, and their followers have sought, not without success, to imitate the highest classical models. The French school has produced a series of very eminent engravers ; and the names of Desuoyers, Bervic, and Massard still support its reputation, though it no longer surpasses, or perhaps equals, those of England and Italy. The French galleries of art have passed through many vicissitudes : before the revolution they were certainly the first out of Italy. During that convulsion, all the collections of the princes and nobles were put up (o sale ; the entire Orleans collection w.is brought over to England ; the Crozat went to llus- sia; various minor collections shared the same fate. When the French, however, over-ran Italy and the Netherlands, tlicy were seized with the desire of enriching Paris with trea- sures of art, fnd seized on whatever could be removed from among the masterpieces of the Flemish and Italian masters, and of ancient sculpture. Thus was assembled in the Louvre a display of all that is most brilliant in art, such as nothing before existing in the world could have rivalled. But a dire reverse awaited the nation. Tlic allied armies who conquered at Waterloo, and thence advanced to occupy Paris, determined to exact full restitution of all this brilliant booty. Tlie Venus, Apollo, and Transfiguration were sent oft' for Rome • the Descent from the Cross for Antwerp ; and numberless other masterpieces were restored to their ancient possessors. The unseemly gaps thus left were filled up by native produc- tions, and others taken from the palaces ; and the galler)' presents a coup d'oeil almost as bril- liant as ever ; the intrinsic value, however, is vastly diminished ; though since the purcliase of the Borghese collection it still comprises some of the finest specimens of ancient sculpture. 2374. The houses in France under the former r<''gimc presented a great variety ; for while the mansions of the nobles displayed a profuse splendour and luxury, and might be charac- terised as palaces, those of the body of the people, compared with the English, were very deficient in neatness and comfort ; the rooms being dark, the passages straggling, the floors of stone, the doors and wiTulows l)y no means well finished. The palaces, however, can no longer be maintained as such by their impoverished owners ; and many fine old chatcaus througlumt France arc converted into barracks, prisons, or manufactories. On the other hand, the lialiit- ntions of the peasantry, as well as their general condition, appear to be sensibly improved. 2,'!75. Amusement used to form as it were the life of a Frenchman, and was sought for in every various and possible shape ; but since the Revolution a very great change has taken place in this respect. Paris still claims to be, as it were, the centre of gaiety to the civilised world. The Parisians go from home in search of amusement mudi more than their nclgli- hours; almost all their leisure is spent in places of public resort, which are open on terms that render them accessible to all classes. The attendance on the theatres is not occasional, as with us, but constant and habitual ; and dancing is an exercise peculiarly French, in which, as to agility, and perhaps grace, they excel most nations. Much of their time is also spent in the o)ien air ; and the extensive ranges of gardens in Paris are provided with every recreation suited to the tastes of its citizens. Although many improprieties doubtless mingle with these entertainments, especially in Paris, there is less of intoxication, turbulence, or quarrelling, than in the amusements of the lower orders with us : so far, even, as concerns the public places, there are fewer open violations of decorum. 237G. Dress is a particular in which the Frencli long claimed, and were allowed, to give the law to the rest of Europe. Paris has been for ages the grand magasin des modes. In that capital seems to have originated the system which is termed fashion, and which consists in the continual change, according to o pi escribed model, of the form and construction of every part of the human attire. Such liglit and constant changes, however, while they indicate an inordinate attention to the ol)ject, seem as inconsistent with the formation of a piiri niul elegant taste, as the immutable costumes of our ancestors and of the East. The empire tif Paris seems considerably shaken by the extinction of its brilliant societies, and its long scjiiir- Uoul I- FRANCE. ation by war from the other countries ; but its influence remains still very considerable in tliis department, 2377. In the preparation of food, the French equally boast of a refinement and recherche superior to that of the other European nations. Instead of plain joints, presented in their natural form> French cookery delights in what are called made dishes, stews, fricassees, and ragouts, wliich retain few traces of the original material. On the merits of this system various opinions have been entertained ; but at present the fashion of this cookery out of FranvC is on the decline, and the time seems past when it was considered a matter of state that the tables of the great should be covered with French dishes. Sect. VII. Local Geography, 2378. The local divisions of France, prior to the Revolution, were provinces, thirty.two in number, most of which had formed independent states, and even little kingdoms, when they were merged into the mass of the French monarchy. The National Assembly, however, superseded this division by one much more minute, into departments ; which has been retained by the Bourbons, and is the basis of all administrative operations. It is indeed vcrj- convenient, being founded upon natural divisions of rivers and mountains : all the de- partments are tolerably equal as to magnitude, and each has its seat of administration nearly in the centre. All the exclusive privileges and restraints upon internal communication, which norc attached to the arrangement into provinces, have been happily removed. Yet these divisions must still be kept in view, not only because they are necessary for the understanding of liis- lory, but because they remain rooted in the mind of the nation, and often mark striking Jillcrences of race, of manners, and even of language. It would not consist with our limits, or be interesting to readers out of France, to enter into a detailed description of each de- partment ; but the following tables will exhibit a very comprehensive view of their respective statistical details. The first exhibits the departments in their relation to the ancient provinces, their extent according to the report of the commission of the Cadastre, their population ac- cording to the census of 1827, and their chief cities and towns. Tlie square French league may be reduced to the square English mile by multiplying by 8, or, more closely, 7'84. 2!)79. The following table exlubits both the provinces and the departments as nearly as possible in tlicir relation to each other, with their extent in square leagues, and the popu- lation of the capital and principal towns, according to the estimate formed by the French government in 1827 : — 1 rroTiiiM! aiul ni'partir.enU. Sfjuiire Liagues. I'opulatfon, D«., I83G. Cities ami Towns, with Ihelr Population, in 19J6 . i t Fland.TS - Nord 287 !1,026,417 rLillo I Dunkirk . 72,005 - 23,808 Cambral - 17,846 Valenciennes 19,499 Douay Turcoing . f9,173 19,966 Artois Pas do Calais - 333 664,654 VArras ISt. Omer . 23,48.'i . 19,ft32 Boulogne - 25,732 Azincour - vill. Calais 108,66 Picardy - Sommo 311 6.52,706 Amiens . 46,129 Abbeville - 18,247 Crccy vitt. ■■ Seine Infer. 305 720,,526 Rouen . 92,083 Havre . 25,(118 Dieppe Honlleur - 16,820 Calvados 281 601,775 Caen - 41,876 Hayeux - 9,676 9,130 iNormandy ■ Manclie 300 694,382 St. Lo - . 9,065 Cherbourg - 19,316 Avranche . ?.'!)0| Orne 309 443,688 Alcnfon • «13,934 L'Aigle - 5,4.>4 1 - Kuro 295 424,762 Evreux - 10,287 Louviers - 9,927 t r Seino - 24 1,106,891 Paris . 909,126 St. D^nls - 9,332 Montmartre 6,842 Seine ct Marne 283 447,382 Mclun . 6,846 Kontainebleau 8,021 Meaux • 7,809 Wfclc Oiso 295 398,641 Beauvais - 13,082 Senlis . .5,616 Compiigne • 889 1 France - Seine ct Olse - 285 32.5,881 VersalUei 29.209 St. Germain 10,951 Sevres 3,9; 9 ' Alsno 369 527,995 Laon - 8,A-tO St. Quentin 20,570 Soissons 8,1 'A j ' Marne - 413 34.5,245 :chftl0B9 - 12,962 Rhclms . 38,3.59 Ardennes 262 306,861 IMezliires . 4,08.'i Sedan . 13.719 Rocroy 3,tej Champagne Aiih(! 308 2.53,870 Troyes . 25,.563 Bar-8ur-Aul)e 3,940 ■ Marne Haute - 316 265,960 iChaumont - 6,318lLangres - 7,677 St. Dizier . C,366 Meuse • 314 317,701 Uar.lc-duc . 12,38;* Verdun - 10,.577 (I/irraine • Mosolle 269 327,250 Met 2 . 42,793 Thionville - 8,080 Meurthe 308 424,360 Nancy . 31,445 Luneville . 12,798 ' . Vdsges 297 411,034 Eiiinal . 9,000 ,Alsaco r Ilhin Haute - 205 447,019 Coimar . 15, oris Mulhausen - 16,932 Rhin na» 235 Nil, 8.50 Stiasburg . 57,88.^ Hagucnan - 9,694 Schelestadt 9,700 1 r I«lc et Vllaine - 338 647,249 1 Reunes . 35,5.'>2 Kougtrn? . 9,384 St. Mulo - 9,744 Cfttes du Nord - 840 605,583 St. Brloux . 11,382 DInant - 7.366 iBretagne - ■ Flnlsterro 337 516,955; It rest - . 29,773 Quimper - .-,715 MorlaU ■ 9,740 ! Mnrbllian 354 449,743 Vannei ■ 11,62.') L'Grlent - 18,975 • Loire Infer. 345 ■170,768 Nantes . 75,895; Guerande - 8,239 ! Maine ct \ Mayenne [ Sartho 260 361,765 Laval . - 17,810 Mayenne - 9,782 1 I'orche ■■ 319 466,888 1 Le Muna - 23,164 La Ficche - 6,440 'Anjou Maine et Loire - 365 477,270: Angers - 3.5,901 .Saumur - 1,192 I'l'ouralne - Indre et Loire - 309 304,271 {Tours • - 26,669lAmbol8e - 4,695 Loches 4,753 Lolrct . 3;i8 316,180 Orleans - 40.272 Monfargis . 7,7.57 Orlcannoli Euro et Loir - 279 285,0.')8! Chart res - 14,7.50 Chateaudun 6,776 Dreux C,379 Loir et Cher - 317 244.043 niols - . 13,628 VcMiddme - 8,206 .ncrrl Indre Clier - 349 2.57,3.50 Cliatcauroux . 13,847 Valencay - 3,289 .161 276.8,53 Hourges - 2.5,324 St. Amand . 7,;t82 Xivernoii - NlDvro 370 2',l7.5.')l)!Ncver8 - 16,967 Cosno - 6,212 Yonno 369 3,55.2,t7!Auxcrre . ll,.57.'-i Lena - 9,095 llurgundy . CMed'Or 4.^1 385,624 Dijon - 24,817 llcauno . IO,678|ChatllIon • 4,430 SaOine et Loire . 433 6,38,507 ; Macon - 11,944 Autun . 10,4.15|Chalon8 12,400 AIn 300 346,188 Dourg - 9,.530 Nantua - 3,700 Trevoux . 2,660 540 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Tabib — contmued. P*M III, Provinces and DepartmenU. Franehe. I oomto Poitou rS.-iAnc Haute < Uoubs "tJiira " * Vondi^o ■jlMix 1 t Vicnno AunU. SaiiUongc Levres , icnno f Crcuze I Vienne Haute „„ „>, < Correze Angoumois I Charuntc *• Charente Infer, f Vuy dc DAmo . " i Cantal 5 .{hone - "fLoire ruire -< Alpcs Hautcs . C Drdme f Dordogne Gironde Lot et Garonne Lot Avcyron L Ger« Bourbonnois Allicr .andc9 reniies Hautcs 'nees Bacsi's Foix • ArriOge Koussillon - I'j runces Orient ^Garonne Haute Aude Tarn Tarn ct Garonne Herault Gard Lo2i!re Loire Haute Ardtclie Aljw Basses Bouches du ) Uhone - i Var Vaucliisn Corsica • Auvergno Lyonnois Dauphinc Ouiniuio Gascony and Ucarn IS AIIICI jf Land CPyrei Languedoc IProvenco -{: Corsica Square I'oputatlon, Leagues. Dec., 183(3. 2i;9 2r>lj 2Sl 34.5 307 342 2H2 280 29.i 305 331 403 2'J5 111 249 420 280 331 4fi3 493 209 2110 419 317 SfiG 403 229 379 230 208 3.V( 307 290 IMfl 316 299 2fiO 2.^)2 273 315 2.59 .W8 146 403 fiUet and Tawm,irUh theit Population, In lUfl. Vesoul - 6, llcsanfon - 29. Lons l" Saulnier 7, Dourbon- Vendue 2, 343,298 278,274 315,355 341,312 304,105 288,002 27«,234 293,011 202,l.)3 305, 12() 34U,fi40 589,43s 2(i2.1l7 482,024 412,497 573,643 131,102 305,490 487,.'i02 555,^09 340,400 287,003 370,951 312,882 309,270 284,918 214,170 446,.T,IS 200,.WO i(;4.;i2.'i 4.'i4,727 2s 1, 088 34l'>,in4 242,184 217,340 300.2.V.t 141,7,33 29r.,384 3.">:t,7;i2 '.■19,(145 302,325 325,404 Toulon 210,071 Avignon 207,880 Ajaccio Nlort - I'oiticrj (5neret Limogei Tulle - Angoulcme La Uochella Clermont .\urillac Lyons >luntbris8on Grenoble Gap - Valence I'^rigueux Bordeaux Agen Caliors Ithodez Auch • Moullns Mont dc Marsan Tarbes Hau - I'oix I'crpignan Toulouse t'arcassonno Alby IMontauhan Montpclliur Nisines Mcnde Le Puy I'rivas - Uigne - Marseilles ,887 Gray . 0,535 ,7l8Montbelliard 5,1 17 084 Dole - 10,317 " l'ontcn,ay J , ..„ ^ leComtej^'"™ 18,197' St. Maixent 4,214 22.000 CliAtellerault 9.095 4,790 Aubusson - 5,G31 29,70fi| 9,700iBreTd . 8,843, 10,910 Cognac . 3,83o' 14,8.57! Ilochcfort ■ 15411 32,427, Kiom - 11,473 10,889|St. Flour - 5,010 160,814, Villefrancho 7,.Vi3 6,200, St. Etlenue 41,534 28,909i Vienno . 10,484 7,8.54'Kmbrun - 3,109 10,907 Montcllmart 7,906 ll,.572Bergerac - 9,285 98,705 Libourne . 9,714 13,399 Villeneuvo . 11,222 12,4171 9,685 Villefrancho 8,738 10,401 15,000 Monthecon - .5,000 4,082 Dax - 4,770 12,020 Bagnfres - 8, 1 OS 12,007 Bayonne . 15,912 4,700 Famiera - 0,900 17,018|Ceret - 3,302 77,372 Muret - 3,970 18,907 Ni..bonno - 10,792| 11.8011 23,s05|Mol8sac - 10,018 35,.500;Bezier8 . 10,223 43.0301 Beaucoire • 9,601 5,999 14.924!Brioude • 5,247 4,22»iAnnonay .. 9,030 6,365, .Sisteron • 4,.540 Salini Jarnno Sainlet Thiers Mllhan Baregea Olerr ■, 0,?(«J 3,3311 il,'J» Drlan?on . j.ijj > \0,i% t/'m - 140,239 Aix - 24,600 35,322, DraguJgnan 9,794 3;, 7s0' Orange . 8,874 9,003, Bastia - 13,061 fCaitel. },„,,: I imuUary J '"■''*, Cctto Alais Aries . Antlhcs Carpentrai ' II, nil , I3,i(/j 90,011 6,!* Km 2380. Thefollowinsr statislkal table exhibits a comparative view of the state of culture nml production in the diH'eront dep.irtmcnts of France. Tlio amounts of grain, cattle, and wunl are furnished by CJiaptal. The wine is drawn from the report presented to llie peers liy the Due de Dodeauville, and the forests from the memorial of the suli-adiniin\lnilnr, M. Herbin 2S8,(»X1 17 l(Xi,(XXI H,'J.l8,l««l Alps, l,pi)or 180,IJ I«(i,(KKI l.i.OOO M,(XH) y;i8,(xxi 1(II,(XX1 k; 74,(XKI .'l,(i(il,li(l(r 18,1,(10" 108,0(«) 7St),(Kl(l 11, (XX) ,5.")li,(Kl0 9!I,(XX) Hi lil>,(XXI 4,(i.'i4,iK«l Ardftchc ll)8,l«)0 a'H,m) .'J9,(X»1 .'i4,(KXI .■W4,.XXI 77,(XXl 18 28,(XX) Il,7ri7,'l(l(l Ardennes ri(U,lKI(l 4,")8,()(X) 2,00(1 80,(XX) -.5.'i7,(XX) ,'i.VXXl 20 l.'ill,(XXl l'.','JII,'l,ll(l(l Arriige llH,(KPO I8!VKKf 224,(K»I .54,(XX) 222,(XXI 117,c ... 4'i:i,(Kio (iJl,()(X) I47,0,(XX) l(W,(XKl .5-2,0(Xi 17 77,IXX) l,l,(i,S.'l,l«l'l Audc 1,2!)0,(KI(I IS.VKKl .•i0,()(|0 .'>|1,(XX) 1,442,I)(KI 001,(»XI 10 'jli,0(XI l7,'.'lii,(H«l .Avoyron .) 12,(10(1 4.'3.!,l)()'i 27S,(K((I 71,(XX» n20,,(XX) fiUO.OOO 14 .5t,(XXI I7,'.'.ii,ii(i(i Calv.idos 1,1.V..',(XM) 2'.M,(KKI 24'1,II(K1 fUVXX) a^K'xxi .'!2,(X«I H,iil7,(K«i ( antal .W.IIOO .57S,'KXI 12.VX1'1 lo.i.ixx) 42.-),(KXl 4,000 10 .'!(I,(XXI l(l,(i'JJ,l««l t harcnte 291,110(1 2H,(KHJ i)(i2,(l .liitit tjlllllO! l,iilriiiiilClii.'r l,i>lii' liiiiic, t)|i|icr l,uwcr Ij.lti'l l,..l l.iil mill Uaroniio tmiw • Mniiir mill Lulro Miimlii' Miiriit' I'liju'r MiiVrmiu \li'iii(li(.' Mi'inc \liitliilinil MiKi'lIc SiriK. Sohl OlH' (Imp . I'll" lie fiiliils I'll* ill' Di'iiii' I'jreiiiT", (jiwur IppiT I'ia^li'l'll llliliip, l.iiwi'r l'li|it'r - MitllMC Nv iir, I'lipiT ^if'iirmiil Liiiru Siillie (H'illl' IiiHvtir 'd'iiii' mill Jlnnie Villi.' mil! I)li,(> xni'i. Deux Kiiiiihiii I'lirii Ifltii mill (Inrnliiic Viir Vlllll'JUML' \l'liilOl' ViriMii' t'l'lior )ii«lli'ii Inline Wheat 5,000 138,000 223,000 621,000 162,000 479,0(H) 134,000 47,000 115,000 333,000 87,IK)0 450,000 2r>5,(XX) 315,000 1,025,000 ]17,(XK) 2.'")4,00« 279,000 3),(KX) 6.10,000 2(r7,0OO 227,000 15!l,l)00 21,S,U)( ;i5,(KH S10,(M)0 1,I25,00( 122,IK»I 7«0,(HK»l,118,(Ki() HIH.OOO !).');"j,(XXI 48(),(XI0 I,1(X),(X)0 709,(KiO 511,0(HI 8.")(I,(KK) £!I4,()(XI 1,53(>,(XI0 1,217,(KHI 54I1,(XH» 2,019,0(K) (i25,(X«) ,'»15,(KK) 122,(»I0 120,(XX) (i(l2,(K«) rxx^otK) I I'll 1,00(1 5!I3,(KHI 8(iO,(XXI 487,(XK) 88,000 l,4!ll,(l(« ,.i(il,(KX) l,;i2li,(K)(l 3'«1,(HXI 882,01X1 840,(XXI 720,I)(KI ■W8,(KK) 279,(KK) 5(i;!,(KX) 517,(XK) 7(:,(KX) 5(17,(KXI 401,000 Oats. Hectol. 12(-,000 £4,000 22,0(X) 42,IKXI 30,(KX) 277,000 202,000 696,000 444,000 75,00(1 76,(X)0 115,000 73,000 638,000 375,000 24a,(XXI 210,000 142,000 16,000 569,(K)0 29,0(XI l(i8,(HK) 88,IKI0 853,(XXI 40,000 31,000 lli.WlO 114,000 124,00( 3.iO,000 71,0(X) 32,(I(X1 5!XI,(KI0 310,11110 231,1X10 Cattle. No. I04,(X)0 lftJ,(i(X) 95,000 120,000 1(H,000 10,(XX) 43,000 56,000 200,000 6,000 7(>,000 81,000 89,000 7,000 164,W)0 l(i2,0(X) 6;>,(KX) 113,000 113,000 58,(XX) 69,000 72,000 50,(XI0 13.3,(XX) 72,000 54,0(X) .'38,(KX) 33,000 161,000 l.S4,li(«l 150,1.(X) 685,000 44(i,00( l,0y4,(XX 453,0(10 284,(i01i ,5(Xi,0(X) 2,;o,(X)0 50I,(IOII11,178,0(KI 75(),(KK)1:,147,(XK) 152,IH«) 3(I7,IXXJ 1,022,(XXI 17,0(XI 88,000 120,(XHI 155,0(K) 109,1.00 217,0(X1 l!l4,tXK) .W7,(XXI 377,000 79,(XX) 189,(K)0 244,0(X) 3;!;"),0(X) 37.i,(XiO 1,3(-,000 (i50,(KXl 8+J,(i(X) 13,(XI0 l,iO,000 379,(KI0 297,000 .OftVKKl l(i8,(KHI 439.000 l,497,(KKI 13(i,(KKI 59,1 K 10 82,01,0 (ki.OOO 6;JI,(:(XI 35,(KKI £!)7,(.(KI 421,(mo 178,(«)ii 02,000 3(KI,(I(XI 189,IKXI 84,01KI 243,IXH) 2(i4,(XX) 60,(KXI 60,(KH) 1,039,0(H) 728,(K)0 28,(XI0 23 (KK) 3oi»|oooj in4;(xio 72,0(X) 42,(KI0 766,(HK) W,(K)0 l,181,0(Kl! 10(i,(KK) 613,000! 57,(100 (i,i,(KX) 81,0(K) 12!i,(i(X) 45,000 174,000 711,(100 9)|,1K0 172,000 74,(.(X) 101,000 14(i,0(X) 104,010 iOi;,oo(i 49,000 15,000 107,(KX) •• i.:HIO li, :,(K) .,),(XIO 113,000 108,000 12,(KI0 60,(l"<' 78,IKI() 117,000 r).!,000 5(i,(XI0 39,(HI0 11,(KI0 -(.IXK) Wool. Kilo- grammes, 2 I-Alh lU. each. Wlnc. Forests. Hectol i> tres, 2(54 gal- loiu each. 240,000 136,0(«) 331,000 462,000 53,000 963,(HX; 413,(XH) 917,000 46,0(X) 703,000] 550,000 190,000 438,(X)0| 9I8,(.'(I0 (H8,(l(.ll 86,000 182,(HXI 93,000 121,(XK: 76,(XI0 193,(KXi 68,(HiO (i40,(.(Kl l.t'HVKKl 1, -■2,0(H. .".t7,000 276,0(X) RSiOIK) 710,(X.iO 693,000 24O,0(K) 401,(X.(1 14,(KKI 493,000 422,000 509,000 688,000 546,(XX) 2riO,(XX) 33,(XX) 85,000 3in,(KiO 15|l,(HX) 27ci,0(Kl 70,000 •Ki-MlOO ;)+7,iii'ii 4,"i8,i01l 78,(1(,'0 408,(XX) 148,000 .■i.-i7,000 849,000 2(4 (KKl 6(X1 4,33,(KiO| 2ii4,(K10 (■i93,(KX) .'iOd.OOOi 336,000 435,(1(X) 21, (KK) 101,l»0 !X 17 ,1100 42 16 18 18 22 20 10 14 9 19 10 12 13 16 21 17 12 12 19 14 10 16 17 £1 18 16 26 14 13 16 17 20 36 22 17 11 16 18 14 16 20 19 15 5 17 12 20 12 8 11 18 10 11 17 18 26 228,000 18,000 39,000 (i7,(XXI 113,(K)0 92,(XX) 97,0W1 44,0(;0 12,(X10 81, 0(H) 50,000 11,000 y'l Royal {Ji^. 'j;)S.) is no Innjicr t's- elusively a palace, lint is in |iiirt leased out to sundry persiins, Tor purposes partly ul' IniHiiii'ss, liui much more of iileasiire ; it is lilKd with shops, colVee-honseH, tuMrns, p*t»t« BnvM.. gnniing-tabU'H, and every I'min of gaiety and dissipation which can Imd acceptance in sudi a city. Notre Dami', tlu' amiiiil cathedral of Paris, is soniewliat lieavy and niassi >■ but U- ■ iMterior is richly dci'nralcil. The modern church of St. GcriLvii'^vc', called during <■ jlevoL.i.on the Pantheon, was liinlilyoi. tolled during its erection, as destined to eclipse bi. h .'it. Peter's and St. Pauls' :ind such was tlic expectation entertained in France, till, the scaffbli'i;!,.^ being leniov, d and t';; ■ : ; iinl (hiMH imi|u'11, its inleriority beeaine »|ipaiviil ; ho vever, it is still an edillccol' ii high class (^/iti. 'J:l!».) St, Sulpiiv is id>^o a nuHlcrn strnctniv, I'arii has no line streets, nor any of those ample s(|inuv» wliicli aiv so great an (ivnaiiient of Li'iidnn, ll boasts, however, of its /ilturs, wl'ic!i, without having the regular form or dinicnsiiins iil' a iciiinH. coniinand adiiiiratiiin liy tia' riiii;{cs of noble buildings that surround them. In parliciilai'. ilie l'/(ur lMiii.\ tiiii.'iu; slaiidinn ill a ceniriil siliialinll luiiung tliv a;!9 UKNBVI«VE> Book !• FRANCE. 543 palaces, presents one of the most brilliant points of view to be found in any city. This capital possesses also great advantages in the wide ornamented open spaces which lie in the very heart of the city. The lioulevards, the ancient rampart of Paris, when it was circumscribed within a much narrower compass, are now converted into a walk adorned with rows of trees, and filled with numerous exhibitors and venders of every thing that can conduce to public amusement. The gardens of the Tuiieries, and the embellished spot called the Champs Elys6es, are also open to the public. 2a8,'). The statistics of Paris have been carefully illustrated in a series of interesting works by the Count de Chabrol. The population, in 1821, amounted to 71. '),966, but has now risen to 890, '131. '-rix^ births, in the three years ended 1821, averaged 24,700 ; the deaths 22,680 ; leaving thus 2000 as the annual excess of births. A third of all the births were illegitimate, and of these only a third were acknowledged by the parents. The still-born children were averaged 1365. The average of marridges in the three years was about 6000. In the lliree years 732 died of small-pox, and only one child out of twenty-five xas vaccinated. Tlic violent deaths averaged 350, half of whom were married persons, and the most common cause was domestic chagrin. Drowning was the most fiequent mode: 170 persons were drowned annually by accident. The consumption of Paris consisted, in 182.S, of 76,689 oxen; 8142 cows; 74,759 calves; 361,946 sheep. The taxes paid in Paris amount to 3 150,000/., which is 4/. 6s. for each inhabitant ; while the rest of France pays only at the rate of \l. 2s. 6d. House rent amounts to 2,500,000/. ; being 31, 15s. for each inhabitant. Tlie number of houses, in 1821, was 27,000, with an average of tliirty-four doors and windows in each. There is an average of 209 ''inkruptcies, the amount of which, in 1819, was lictwcen 250,000/. and 300,000/. The loans made on pledges by the charitable estahlishment called the Mont de Piiti were 7.';0,000/., upon 1,000,000 articles, of which MO.OOO/. was redeemed. There are fourteen hospitals for the sick, and eight hospices for the infirm. The former received annually 42,500, of whom about 40,000 went out cured ; the latter 1 8,500. The annual expense is about 280,000/, There is besides an office of charity in each of the twelve arrondissemetis, the aids of which arc administered by " sisters of charity," who divide the poor among themselves, make regular lists of them, and pay frequent visits. They make an annual collection in their district, the produce of which is transmitted to the office. The annual distributions made by the offices of charity amount to 50,000/. in money ; 747,000 quartern loaves ; 270,000 lbs. meat ; 1 9,000 ells of cloth, &c. The manufactures of Paris are considerable. The principal arc of works in gold and silver, which employ 7000 or 8000 workmen, and yield a value, according to M. Dupin, ihove 5,000,000/. sterling. There are manufactured also, by 2000 workmen, 80,000 gold and -10,000 silver watches, with 15,000 clocks, which may be worth 750,000/. Sugar refinery is also supposed to produce 20,000,000 lbs., worth 1,300,000/. There were eighty printing-offices, employing 600 presses and 3000 workmen, and using annually 280,000 ronms of paper ; supposed value, 350,000/. Of tl'.t! various articles above enumerated there are cxi)orted to the value of nearly 2,000,000/. sterling;. Paris is visited by 12,000 or I3,(X)0 boats, of which 1000 from the lower Seine, and tlie rest from the upper. Twenty arc steani-boiits. The city has 1000 boats of its own. 238-1. The environs of Paris are not covered \.iih those numerous villas and country rcsidc'Mci's wliieli have been constructed to gratify the rural taste of the citizens of London. Innnidhilely beyond the gates they present a flat open corn country. They are chiefly marked liy the royal palaces ; superb fabrics, the works of successive kings, and on which millions liiivc been cxpendetl. 'I'he most elaborate and most splendid is Versailles (Jig, 240.;. It 210 CIIATKAl' AT VBRSAtT.I* was begun by Louis XIIL who found it little more than a village; but its chief orna- niints are due to Louis XIV., who, during twelve years, expended immense sums in Mirrounding it with c ery kind of m.igni licence. The front is highly elegant, built of ])olislied stone, an I approached by three great avenues. The interior consists of spacious apartments or bellished in the most costly manner, and many parts of them, and of llie staircases an covered with frescoes executed by eminent French painters. The interior and tin gardens are filled with crowds of statues, partly antique and partly the work of French sculptors. Water was at first deficient : but it has been conveyed in such ab indancc a.s to be lavished in fanciful and fantastic forms, — fountains, 544 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P*M in !' i jets d'cau, cascaJus, with which Versailles is more profusely embellished than any other royal residence. Tlic two palaces, called the Great and Little Trianon, are in the vicinity and arc celebrated, particularly the last, fur gardens laid out in the English styl.. The long residence of the court at Versailles assembled round it a splendid city formed by the courtiers and great nobles, who considered il, necessary to have nt least a mansion there. Since the tragic scenes of October, 1 789, the palace has never been inhabited ; though the Bourbons, after their return, placed it in repair. Hence the city has declined in population and the late mansions of the nobles are in a great measure occupied by English residents, St. Cloud, four or live miles distant from Paris, is particularly admired for its gardens and extensive woods, an excursion to which fonn^ a popular amusement, especially on festival days. It was the favourite residence of Napoleon, whose court was thence called the cabinet of St. Cloud. Fontainebleau is the hunting-seat of the monarchy, being sur- rounded by a forest of nearly 30,000 acres. The palace, built by successive monarchs, from Francis I. to Louis XV., is chiefly noted for its long and numerous galleries. Among the few towns in this country, Meaux is distinguished not only by the beautiful choir of its cathedral, but by having been the see of the celebrated Bussuet, whose tomb it contains. IMelun is a considerable, but ill-built and gloomy, old town. 23S5. The northern departments, comprising the provinces of French Flanders, Picardy, and Nor.-nandy, compose together an extensive plain, the richest, most flourishing, and most highly cultivated in the kingdom. The farms, though of various size, are generally larger than in the rest of France ; the improved English processes are gaining ground, and the introduction of nrtiiicial grasses has in a great measure supplanted the routine of wheat, oats, and fallow. 'J'liis region is also the chief seat of manufactures. These provinces have produced many men of distinguished talent, and knowledge is very generally difl'uscd in them. The Flemings retain their national character, distinct from that of the Frencli ; heavy, phlegmatic, industrious, addicted to pretty close drinking and long rustic festivals. The Norman still partakes the adventurous spirit of his forefathers; he loves expeditions and journeys, readily engages in any enterprise, and eagerly pursues it, 23H6. The cities throughout all this part of France are large and flourishing. Those of French Flanders, or the XorU, rank among the strongest fortresses in Europe, and are the bulwarks of the monarchy. Lille perhaps holds among these the very first place, being considered the master-piece of Vauban. It wiis reduced by Marlborough only after a long blockade, and is considered in any other way almost impregnable. It is also well and regularly built, and tlie line lioi/alc is a very splendid street. Lille has also a very considerable variety both of inaniilacturing and commercial industry, with institutions both for literature and the arts, Uouay is an ancient and strong town on the Scarpe, and enjoys some celebrity as a seat of rather antiquated and scliolastic learning. Its university consists of three colleges, now united, one of which is called the English college, and is resorted to from all the three kingdoms as a place of citholic education. Cambrai is a very ancient and celebrated city, tlie ciipital of the Nervii in Cicsar's time, and afterwards of the kingdom of the Franks. Here was concluded, in I,j97, the league of Cambrai, which caused the downfall of Venice; and it Wius the scene of other important diplomatic transactions ; but perhaps the name is best known from its having formed the archiepiscopal see of F^nclon. It ranks still as a 2J1 fortress of the first class, and was one of those ' held by the army of occupation, after the peace of Paris, in 1815. Valenciennes is another ancient bulwark of the kingdom, which yielded iV'iEfl JlQ^EIifl I to the allies in 1793, after a long siege; hut they (lid not derive any advantage from their success. It has some fine manufactures of lace, gauze, and cambric. 2387. In Picardy and the part of the Isle of France lordering on it, there are several large and flourishing cities. Amiens has long been cele. brated for its manufacture of coarse woollens, as serges, plush, velvets for furniture, and carpets; also coarse linens. Here was concluded the peace of 1801, between Britain and France. Its cathedral {fg. 241.) is one of the most spacious and most li'iglily ornamented in France or in Eu- rope. Abbeville is celebrated as one of the few scats of the manufacture of very fine woollen cloth, which surpasses even the English ; il deals most extensively in sailcloth, sheeting, and other coarse fabrics from hemp and flai. St. Quentin, the scene of the great victory of Philip II,, enjoys a more humble and useful AMIfl^S GATHBriHAL* Book I< PRANCE. 545 han any other in the vicinity, ih styl. The formed by tlie mansion there, ed ; though the I in population, glish residents, its gardens and ially on festival unce called the :hy, being sur- ssive monnrchs, lerous galleries. by the beautiful net, whose tomb andcrs, Picardy, flourishing, and ze, are generally gaining ground, supplanted the of manufactures. nowledge is very ter, distinct from osc drinking and f his forefathers 1 lagerly pursues it. . Those of French I are the bulwarks being considered r a long blockade, nd regularly built, ierable variety both literature and the some celebrity as a of three colleges, from all the three and celebrated city, am of the Franks. ownfall of Venice; ■rliaps the name is It ranks still as a was one of those on, after the peace iennes is another lom, which yielded jng siege ; but they from their success. of lace, gauze, and pnrt of the Isle of ire several large and las long been cclc- of coarse woollens, rniture, and carpets; was concluded the in and France. Its if the most spacious in France or in Eii- ■d as one of the few very fine woollen the English; it sailcloth, sheeting, jm hemp and flai. the great victory o humble and useful distinction as one of lh(i moU lhrlvlnf( nmntifncturing places of France. Its mpnufacturcs consist in lawns, cambrk'N, nnti Htlll more of late In the spinning and weaving uf cotton ; all wliii'h employ In tho town niitl tit'l)(lihoiirliood upwards of .50,(X)0 persons. The citizens of St. Quentin Jispltty an t)nti)rpi'Ui< itiiil iiti iictivity in pushing every new and promising l)ranch of industry, which In not iiN\iitl in France. A canal is here cut from the Disc to that of Uouay, reinarkablu fur itN vxlvnitlvu tunnels. Laon is an ancient town, with a stately cntliedrnl. Suissons in ilUlln|(iil)ila)il hi French history, and its bishop had, second to that of Ulicims, thu right uf rruwninu the Una of France. It does not now present any striking features. lieiiuvtilN In tlii'ivlufn and industrious. 'jllHH. Tlie }mrn tif I'kiirtly (lint Fmni'h tHanders arc also very deserving of notice. Dun- kirk, being thu onfy unu wliii'li opons into the North Sea, was always considered of great importancu. LuuIn XIV. Iinviti|( dvlliilllvely obtained this place in 1C62, made it one of the strongest hurbourN in Ktirnpi<, It soon l)ccainu so annoying to British trade, that ad- vantage wus tnkun of thu IrliiinpliN of (he war of succession, to require, at the treaty of I'treclit, its entire demulilloiii Ity I'liiiitis and other means, the French contrived always to replace it in an elll'Ctivu Nliitii | Ittit Ity sucvussivc treaties, the demolition of the fortifications on die :>ide of the sen whh u)(iilii nitil iignin stipulated, till the circumstances of the peace of 1783 uliliged Kngland to cvunv IVoiii exacting it. From that time Dunkirk became the niiiin centre of thu ))rlvnlei>rln)( NyNlein. It has also a considerable share of fishery and of the llaltie trade. A muinornlilo WW In Its history was its siege by the British in 1793. They were compelled ahi'itplly It) riilse it, and this formed the commencement of a long series of reverses suHtHineil l)v lht< allied arms. Dunkirk has a good harbour in the centre of the city, entered by a caiiHl of >i tnltc nnd n half; it is rather well built, but for want of springs tliu inhnhilaiita urti (ihli)(iH iVuin Uritain, whence it received its name. After being long a separate duchy, it was united lu Franco by the marriage of its heiress with Louis XII. It retained, however, down to tilt' era of the Uevululion, its t'etnlal states, which assembled every two years. The Has lii L't(ji> is a Celtic dialect. Tlie p( iii>ie are very numerous and very poor. The country is dividc'.l inlii hu','m\ iiioperiiet hery. Morliiix and (^iiiniper arc rather good towns in the eastern departments : but I he finest city in liritany is undoubtedly Nantes, which seems almost to belong to tlierich province on the Loire ; it in situated on a hill above that river, twenty-seven miles from its mouth, and liiis the advantage of delightful walks and environs. Its situation, at the mouth of the greatest river in France, is very favourable to commerce, which was carriedon to a vast extent, till ruined by the disastrous influence of Napoleon's continental system; but Nantes is beginning again to rear its bead. The West India trade and the cod fishery \N ere the most exteiiKive branches. Much ship-building is carried on for the merchant ser- vice, and vessels of 1(MX) tons are occasionally built. Its manufactures arc various, and were formerly extensive, especially sugar refinery, cotton, woollen, and linen cloths, and earthenware. It is coiineeled with the opposite side of the river by a noble bridge, which, uniting live dill'erent islands, extends in its entire length more than two miles. In its con- struction Nantes exhibits tlie usual fiiults of old cities; the most agreeable parts are the suburbs, ond tl\e islanils thickly planted with trees and houses. 239'J. Jhr.sl, on the western const of Uritany, is the chief naval station of France on the ocean, as Toulon is on the Mediterranean. It was selected for this purpose in 1631 by Cardinal Richelieu, in consideration of its harbour, which is secure from every wind, and of a spacious roadstead, all'ording anchorage to 500 ships of war. I'rom Brest issued the fleet which was totally defeated, in 1791. by Lord Howe; and during the whole of the subsequent war between ICnglanil and France, this iiort, with the navy which it contained, was held i" almost eoiihtant blockade. The works of Brest arc very strong, and the attempt made in Paht lit. Book I- FRANCE. 447 but as this bad itcd. At Elbceuf, ,ouvien. Caen it William the Con- bUU a considerable ndsome castle, the s manufactures are ves employment to some eminence as a lity of considerable stored in full lustre. most active seats of hat above a million )ric of the town and cets narrow, and the ppe, St. Valery, F^- however, carried on mmense elforts made early abortive. The 9 of cones, with the and retain no vestige cli Bonaparte in vaia wo millions had been • an interior basin and itures from the re; t cf ts, and heaths, cnalfleil , but to give shelter to ig a separate duchy, it It retained, howevor, every two years. The ■ry poor. The countrj icres, cultivated by the Iful processes, to wliich • in small huts, gloomy, It and superstitious, but )s, and faithful to their pld sailors. fe Ilhedones, is the drst itinuance of which has t city, having been re- [ter is adorned with lofty n a museum of natural some trade by the river nt capital of the Vencti, lives it some commerce istern departments: but ,st to belong to the neb ity-seven miles from its I Its situation, at the ce.which was carried on in's continental system; Ue and the cod fishery ,n for the merchant set- ictures are various, and n, and linen cloths, anJ V a noble bridge, which, '%wo miles. In Its con- agreeable parts are the [station of France on 'he ■this purpose in !63i "^ lfrom%verywm.^ndo^ lom Brest issued the tiert lewholeofthesubseque [it contained, was held land the attempt made in 1694 to carry them by itorm, was repulsed with considerable disaster. The town, though modem, having been built in haste, and with a sole view to utility, is crowded and dirty ; b'lt within the last half century there has been built a liandaome suburb, called La Xecou- vrcnce. Brest, be' Jes its naval importance, carries on a considerable fishery. 2393. There are other maritime atatiom of considerable magnitude in Brilany. L'Orient has been made a dep6t for naval stores, and strongly fortified : it derived much importance from being the almost exclusive seat of the commerce of the East India Company ; but since that trade has been nearly annihilated, this port has greatly declined. St. Malo contains a race nf bold and hardy mariners, actively employed in the Newfoundland and other fisheries ; and who, in time of war, exercised briskly the trade of privateering. Morlaiz carries on a considerable trade with th« north of Europe. Quimper, though ranking above Brest, as capital of the department of Finisterre, is now only an old town of little importance. !2394. The provinces on the Loire, in its course from oast to west, comprehending Orleannoib, Tourainc, Anjou, to which may be added those of Muine and Perche, acyoining on the north, are the most central and perhaps tlie richest in the kingdom. A great part, indeed, especially of Anjou and Maine, is covered with those wide wastes, overgrown with brush- wood and heath, which occupy so much of the French soil. But the banks of the Loire around Orleans are generally considered the garden of France ; they consist of unbounded plains, through which the magnificent Loire winds its stately course, and which are tiu riegated with rich meadows, vineyards, gardens, and forests. On this theatre were acted many of the greatest events in the lustory of the monarchy, particularly its rise from the apparent peril of total subjection, through the inspiring influence of Joan the Maid of Orleans. 2395. The cities of this region are celebrated and magnificent. Orleans, in former times, ranked almost as a second capital : though it exhibits the usual characters of antiquity, it is a superb and beautiful city. A very fine stone bridge of nine arches opens to the rue royak, spacious and handsome, which extends to the fine square in the centre : here is placed a statue of Joan, the sculpture of which is not altogether so elegant as might be desired. The cathe- dral is a very fine edifice, the choir of which was raised by Henry IV. From its steeple is an almost unbounded view over the magnificent plain of the Loire. Situated in the centre of France, and dividing as it were the Lower from the Upper Loire, Orleans enjoys a great transit trade. Bids is almost equal to Orleans in historical celebrity ; its ancient edifices, jlaced on a liill above the Loire, have a most commanding appearance. The castle, on a rock overhanging the river, is an immense and lofty pile, full of windows of all shapes and sizes, balconies, galleries, buttresses, and *< a strange incongruous assemblage of buildings destined for ornament in peace and defence in war." All the parts arc little ; but the whole is so vast as to be almost sublime. In this edifice the states-general once assembled. The glory of Blois has now entirely passed away ; its streets are narrow, gloomy, and dismally dirty. Tours, equally ancient, is now much more flourishing ; its plain is pre-eminent, even among the other districts on the banks of the Loire. The silk manufacture, first introduced here, has been in a great measure transferred to Lyons, but it still employs 7000 or 800U persons, Happily for the beauty of the city, a great part of it was consumed 50 years age, and occasion was taken to build a new street, running its whole length, of fine hewn stone, broad, and on an elegant design ; it is, perhaps, the finest in France. It is connected nith a bridge of 14 arches, which till of late was considered equally unrivalled; and also with a fine promenade bordered with trees. The metropolitan church was almost entirely demolished during the revolutionary excesses ; only two of its lofty spires remain. The heauty and abundance of the country around Tours has attracted such numbers of English residents, that Mrs. Carey was asked on the road what great convulsion was agitating Eng- land, that her people were flying from it in siich crowds. Saumur, once highly tiourishing and indiistrious, lost two thirds of its population by the revocation of the edict of Nantes. Angers is a large, old, steep, ill-built town, but has a considerable trade ; its monuments have been dreadfully shattered during the Revolution. Le Mans, capital of Maine, on the Sarthe, is very old, but large and clean, with a spacious market-place, and some considerable manufactures, 2396. The provinces between the Loire and the Garonne, Poitou, Berri, Limousin, and the Marche, are of diversified and somewhat peculiar aspect: they present none of those houndless plains which characterise France north of the Loire ; they are every where tra- versed by valleys and ridges of hills, never rising into mountains, but giving to the country a broken and variegated aspect. This, according to the nature of the soil, is sometimes rude and dreary, sometimes gay and smiling. Mr. Young ranks the Limousin as the most beautiful district in all France, such is the variety of hills, dales, streams and woods which compose its landscape. Mrs. Carey describes Marche, beyond Argenton, as singularly pas- the hills covered with sheep, go^tts, kids, and lambs, the last of which at evening come toral; down bleating, and are received into the houses. Poitou, a part of which is so fatally cele- brated under its new name of La Vendee, is a rough country, a great part of which is covered with a forest called tlie Bocage. All these districts arc more productive of cattle Nn 2 ..^... IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // A r/. % 1.0 II 11.25 ■ 50 ^^™ 1^ 125 12.2 1 U£ i 2.0 U 11.6 "'^/^ '/ Photographic Sciences Corporation v ^^ ^ k s? <^ ^ 33 WIST MAIN STRUT WItSTIR.N.Y. MSSO (71«) •73-4503 V 1^ F.^ '/. ^ > ;948 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. than of grain, though they are cultivated by a simple peasantry with hardihood and vigour but quite in the antique style, and with a strong antipathy to all modern improvements. In Poitou, the proprietors, being small, and residing much on their estates, excited feudal feel, ings and attachments, that were extinct in the rest of France ; hence the formidable war which they waged single-handed in defence of the ancient regime. 2397. The cities in this range of provinces, though ancient, are neither large, nor distin- guished by much industry. Poitiers is of high antiquity, and presents some interesting Roman remains ; in modem times it is distinguished by the signal victory gained here by the Black Prince. The city is of great extent, but comprises many empty spaces and gardens. Limoges is an ill-buiit town, with many houses of timber, roofed with tiles, and projecting eaves, but there are several handsome squares and fountains, and the public walks command a beautiful view of the Vienne flowing down a charming valley. Its cathedral, said to liave been built by the English during their temporary possession of this part of France, suffered much during the revolution, and has only one tower left standing. Bourges, the ancient Biturigte, is v«.y ill built, but adorned with a fine cathedral, and dis. tinguished for its university, and as the birth-place of Bourdaloue, and of the Jesuit, Father d'Orl^ans. Ch4teauroux is gloomy, but has a large woollen manufacture. 2398. The two departments of the Charente, watered by the fine river of that name, form a region different in character from those now described ; level, and extremely fertile, though in some parts marshy and unhealthful. A great part of the produce of its rich vineyards is at Cognac converted into brandy, which bears an unrivalled reputation, though, probably, the name is applied with a fraudulent latitude to inferior liquors. The yellow tinge so generally given to brandy is the consequence of a local custom at Cognac. Saintes is ancient even as a French city. An ample theatre, an aqueduct, and a triumphal arch of white marble, attest its ancient importance as a Roman city ; and the cathedral is said to belong to the age of Charlemagne. But the most conspicuous features of the Charente are Rochelie and Rochefort. The former is renowned as the grand and last bulwark of the protestant cause, and its reduction, effected by the almost incredible efforts of Cardinal Richelieu, fixed the downfall of civil and religious liberty in France. Though no longera :iaven of the first magnitude, its colonial trade, prior at least to the late war, was very con- siderable. The town is handsome, with broad streets, many of the houses built on arcades, with shops beneath, as in Chester. Rochefort has little trade, but is one of the principal French naval stations. It has a secure harbour, witii very safe and extensive docks. Being one of the few towns in France that arc not much more than a century and a half old, it is built on a regular plan, with broad open streets. Angouleme, in the interior, stands on a rock in the centre of a charming valley, through which winds the silver stream of the Charente. It is a clean well-built town, having a cathedral with five cupolas, and displaying other marks of historical importance. There is a large manufacture of paper. 2899- Guienne is a most important province, which for several ages formed an appanage of the English crown. It consists of a magnificent and highly cultivated plain, watered ij; the Garonne, whose broad si. .-am here resembles an arm of the sea, and by its ample tributaries, the Tarn, the Lot, and the Dordogne. It is distinguished bv various rich pro- ductions, but more especially by the wines bearing the name of claret, which though not quite so rich and highly flavoured as some, are so light and agreeable that a greater quantity is drunk at the tables of the opulent, than of any other. M. Frank, in a late work pub- lished at Bordeaux, estimates the entire produce of claret at 250,000 tuns. The wines ol' the farms Laffitte and Chiteau- Margaux are the most esteemed ; but much is sold under these names which has no title to them. 2400. Bordeaux (_/ig. 244.), near the mouth of the Garonne, is one of the grandest emporia in France, and, indeed, in Europe. Situated at the mouth of the Gt. ronne, which here allows the largest vessels to ascend ' "* -'', to its port, it exports all the ; valuable produce of this great southern plain, o( which the wines are said to an' junt to 100,000, and brandy to 20,000 pipes an- nually. It is engaged also in colonial trade, and in tlie cod and whale fishcriei. Recent travellers remark i loasiAux greater display of wealili and prosperity in this than in any other of the Frpnch commercial cities. Every thing ison 244 BookL FRANCE. 549 t grand scale, and buildings are in progress which, when finished, will leave it without a rival in France. The theatre, designed after that of Milan, is considered a model of architectural beauty. Many of the ecclesiastical structures were founded by the English. A very republican spirit is said to prevail at Bordeaux. 2401. The other towm of Guienne are not of the Jirit magnitude. Montauban embraced with ardour the protestant cause, and had a distinguished university, which was suppressed, when the place was taken in 1629, by Louis XIII., and the fortifications razed. This seminary, however, was restored by Napoleon in 1810. Montauban, is well built, of painted brick, with wide and clean streets; and an elevated walk, which commands a most extensive view, reaching to the Pyrenees. Agen is a very dirty ill-built town, but famous for the plums raised in its vicinity. Cahors has some thriving manufactures, and its vicinity produces the vin de Grave, which is held in high estimation. Rhodez, on the Aveyron, is a gloomy old town, but the seat of a distinguished bishopric. 2402. Gascon^ is a large province, extending to the Pyrenees, and consisting chiefly of a wide level surface, of peculiar character, called the landes. These are plains of sand, in some places loose and blowing, but mostly covered with pine trees, sometimes affording pasturage for sheep, and more rarely detached tracts fit for cultivation. The Gascons, long an inde- pendent people under their dukes, are a peculiar race, fiery, ardent, impetuous, and prO" verbially addicted to boasting ; hence the term gasconade. Bayonne, though not very large, is one of the strongest and prettiest towns in France. Situated at the broad mouth of the Ado'u-r. it has a considerable traffic in exporting the timber of the Pyrenees and the Landes, and sends also vessels to the cod and whale fisheries. Mont de Marsan, the capital of the Landes, is but a small and poor place. 2403. The Pyrenean departmenti comprehend some interesting features. Beam, the little original principality of Henry IV., which he governed with paternal kindness ; and Roussillon, which underwent several revolutions, alternately belonging to France and to Spain, before it was finally annexed to the former. Young gives a delightful view of the state of this mountain district. It is divided into a number of small properties, which are well enclosed, well cultivated, each comfortable cottage being surrounded by its garden well stocked with fruit trees ; the inhabitants snugly dressed, like Highlanders, in red caps. The subdivision of property, though great, seems not to have gone so far as to lead to misery. Pau is a considerable town, in a romantic situation, and celebrated as the birth-place of Henry IV., whose cradle is still shown in the ancient palace, now converted into a prison. It makes a good deal of linen, and is noted for its excellent hams, which are exported from Bayonne. Tarbes, capital cf the upper Pyrenees, and Bagn^res, with its mineral hot springs, a place of crowded and fashionable resort, are delightfully situated, affording an approach to the fine valleys of the highest Pyrenees. The slopes of the neigh- bouring mountains are richly cultivated, and often well enclosed. Roussillon is Spanish as to language and customs ; but the magnificent roads effected in defiance of natural obstacles, and the thriving industry of the people, mark the influence of a more active and enlightened government. The extensive fortifications of Perpignan render it a barrier of the kingdom. It is gloomy and ill built, but has some manufactures. 2404. Langtiedoc, the ancient Gallia Narbonensis, and afterwards the domain of the counts of Toulouse, is the pride of France in regard to climate, soil, and scenery. The air along its coasts is generally considered the most salubrious in Europe. The plains of Lan- guedoc are celebrated ; yet they are encroached upon not only by the Pyrenees on the east, but by the Cevennes, which form their constant northern boundary, and in many places reduce them to a breadth of a few miles. But on the line from Beziers by Montpelier to Nismes, the plain is of much greater breadth, and displays a luxuriant fertility scarcely rivalled in any other part even of this happy region. Every thing flourishes here, even what is most strictly denied to other provinces ; not only grain aAd the vine, but the silk* worm and the olive. 2'i05. The cities ofLanguedjoc are not of the very first magnitude ; but they are handsome and finely situated ; and they present some interesting Roman monuments. Toulouse covers a great extent of ground, but it has suffered in consequence of the discontinuance of its par- liament, which was one of the most important in France. The cathedral is very large, but not very beautiful ; and many of the churches were destroyed during the Revolution. There is an university attended by 1500 students, and two large libraries open to the public. Castres is a well-built, industrious, large town, the birth-place of Rapin and of Mens. Dacier. Carcassonne still retains some of the bastions and towers of the castle on its hill ; but this ancient quarter is almost deserted in favour of the neat pleasant town built beneath. Beziers is ugly and dirty, but has a handsome cathedral, and is important from its site on the canal of Languedoc. Narbonne, though celebrated as a Roman capital, presents few monuments of that people ; these are said to have been taken down at the building of the walls. Mout- pelier enjoys an umivalled fame for its mild and salubrious air; but our late travellers, Mr. Matthews and Mrs. Carey, have declared themselves unable to discover On what that re- Nn 3 8S0 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P4« III nown IS founded. It is subject to alternations of heat and cold; cloth peUstes muit k. worn the whole winter, and fires cannot be discontinued till May. It is, however . agreeable residence; the public walk commands a view over the Mediterrmnean and'.h surrounding country, scarcely equalled in Europe: tiiere is a flourishing medical seh«;i with good practitioners, and a library of 40,000 volumes. Montpelier is not uniformlt well built; but It presenU a noble Roman aqueduct, a fine cathedral, and other dS buildings. Nismes is one of tiie greatest and most flourishing cities in the somhTf France. The silk manufacture, as already noticed, flourishes ti-ere to a ereat eitent More tiian half tiie mhabitante are protestant, who, as may be well remembered, were m the restoration of the Bourbons, exposed to violent outrages on the part of their catholic 'fcl low ciUzens. The catholic author of « Four Years in France " alleges that the protestanti had somewhat too freely used their superiority during the revolution ; but these disord*). were disavowed by the French court, and have ceased. The city is ill built, ill paved ill laid out ; but there is a fine boulevard bordered with trees; and it is particularly illustri'ou. for the magnificence of its Roman monuments. The amphitheatre is nearly entire and tiiough wtiier nnaller than tiiat of Verona, from its massive grandeur, and the enoimou. stones of which it is constructed, suggests Uie idea of an imperishable fabric. But the edifice celled the Maison carrfe, supposed to have been a temple of Augustus, is that which Km OV OABBI. has excited the admiration of all travellers, from its extreme elegance and graceful oro- portions, which render it almost a perfect model of arehitectural beauty. It remains irfter so many ages quite entire, " as if savage and saint had been alike awed by iu superlative beauty.' Near Nismes is the Pont du Garde {Jig. 245.), an ancient bridge, oVrather aqueduct, forming one of the most remarkable monuments now extant of Roman gnn. deur. 2406. Provence is one of the most celebrated and in- teresting of the French pro- vinces, first, as the earliest seat of wealth, civilisation, and poetry; next, as containing the ecclesiastical capital, Avignon, near which is Vau- cluse, the favourite residence of Petrarch ; lastly, as in- cluding Toulon and Marseilles, the greatest naval and the greatest commercial dty in the kingdom. The classic stream of the Durance, though it crosses the whole region from its alpine boundary to the Rhone, and too often overflows its banks, does not preserve the ei. tensive tracts covered with rude calcareous hills from the evils of aridity. Although, then- fore, the products of this province are various, and many of them fine, it does not yield corn sufficient for its own consumption, nor can it boast of extensivp manufactures, but depends chiefiy upon commerce. 2407. The cities of Provence rank, in all respects, among the greatest and most interest- ing of the kingdom. Aix is not the largest, but is reckoned the capiul, and was formerly the seat of the parliaments of Provence. Its name is contracted from that of Aquae Sexti», given to it by the Romans from the copious warm baths, in whose vicinity numerous medals and in- scriptions have been discovered. It is pleasant, airy, well built, in a fine plain encircled bjr lofty mountains. The cours is very beautiful, formed by two rows of trees, with hot fountains bubbling up, at which women are seen washing clothes. Greater celebrity attaches to the name of Avignon, for some time an ecclesiastical capital, and still more illustrious b; association with the names of Laura and Petrarch. It is finely situated on the Rhone, with many handsome houses ; but tiie streets are crowded and ill paved. In the centre rises an insulated rock, separated by the river from a range of hills on the other side, and in which are the remains of the palace of the popes, now converted into barracks and prisons. The cathedral had accumulated immense wealth in silver and other oiTerings, of all which it was rifled at the Revolution ; an event more fatal to Avignon than to any other city, except Lyons. Avignon is surrounded by a wall built only for fiscal purposes, and the Rhone is crossed by a handsome bridge built by St. Benezet in the twelftii century from the produce of alms, and which yields 50,000 francs of annual toll. It would be profane for a traveller to leave Avignon without visiting the tomb of Laura in the church of the Fran- ciscans, and making an excursion to the beautiful fountain of Vaucluse (Jig. 246.), the scene of inspiration to Petrareh. Aries was, in early times, one of the most important cities in the south of France ; under the Romans it was the seat of the praetorian prefect ; in the ninth century it was the capital of a separate kingdom, and afterwards the seat of an archbishop, and of thirteen successive councils. It is still a large city, and presents the vestiges of > Roman amphitheatre (of which the interior area is now built upon), once capable of Book I> FRANCE. 551 containing 30,000 pewons. 246 ffOVNTAIM or VAUOLUM* Tarascon is still a flourisliing place, abovo which rint the ancient caitic of the countu of Provence, now converted —-'■'■ 1 , _ into a prlion. On the op- ponitv bank of the Rhone is Beaucairo, diitlnguiihed for its great annual Our, at which are still told goods of various descriptions to the value of about 300|000{. DIgne and Carpuntrai are of some im- portance as capitals of dis- tricts. 9108. Marttilkt and Tou- lon, the two great southern havens, form now the most important features of Provence. Tlie commercial fame of Marsvilles dates fVom early antiquity, when it was a Greek colony, and carried on almost all the commerce of Oaul. In modern times it has been the chief centre of the trade to the Levant ( and though its prosperity suffered a total eclipse under the regime of Napoleon, it hat linco regained much of its former splendour. The harbour is spacious and secure, but is somewhat narrow at the entrance, and shallow. It is bordered by eitensive quays of hewn stone, witli spacious warehouses; and is filled with all the shipping peculiar to the Mediterranean, among which are galleys, and beautiful pleasure-boats with silk awnings { It it crk,)wde(i with aU the nations of that sea, Greeks, Turks, Jews, Spaniards, Italians, and loaded with the pro- duce of Asia and Africa. It is compared by a late writer to Liverpool : tlio districts round the port area nucleus of trade and dirt; but in the exterior, the ttreett are handsome, airy, and well built. Among other fine public buildingt it the Mtel ile viUet with its magnificent marble staircase. The cours is formed by two rows of fine treet bordered bv handsome houses, and the central walk is crowded like a fair. The neighbouring plain is finely cultivated, but is bounded by bold and rugged mountains that rite above the range of vegetation. Toulon, though not a seat of commerce, it the chief naval station of France on the Mediterranean. It has two ports, the old and tlie new : the latter alone receiver sliips of war, and is bordered by most extensive arsenals, in which 5000 men are constantly employed. This port can contain iiOO sail of the line ; and without is a very spacious and well-sheltered roadstead. It is defended by two strong forti, which, however, were occupied in 1793 by the Briti.ii, who, at the end of the year, wero obliged tu evacuate the place. This was the first occasion on which Bonaparte's military talents became con- spicuous. Toulon is a clean, pleasant town, refreshed by streams of water, running through the streets. The adjacent country is wild and romantic, and interspersed with tome cultivated valleys. 2409. DaupUni is a region complete^ alpine, the two departmentt of tlie Higher and Lower Alps occupying the greater part of its surface. The mountains are chiefly calcareous, and broken into the most picturesque, peculiar, and romantic forms. Young even coniiidcrs the scenery of Dauphin^', particularly along the Isdre, as surpntting that of any other part of the Alps. In one of the most awful recesses of these rocks and wilds, at a distance from all the smiling scenes of earth, St. Bruno erected the monastery of the Chartreuse {fg. 247.), of which Gray has drawn so sublime and imposing a picture. There are other scenes emphatically termed the wonders of Dauphin^ ; as the burning fountain, the grottoes of Sassenage, &c. Although this part of the Jiingdom cannot be coniiderod at productive, yet great numbers of cattle and sheep are reared on its high slopes by a simple race of men resembling the mountaineers of Switzerland; and even the silk-worm is bred in ita lower valleys. 2410. The cities do not rtquirt very f)ar- ticular notice, Grenoble is a coniiderable place, not ill built, with a library of C0,000 volumes, and some other literary establishments. It took a conspicuous part in promoting the com- mencement of the Revolution, and was also the first town that opened its gates to Napoleon on his return fVom Elba. Gap it a pretty large but poor old town, in a deep hollow, amid barren mountains. Vienne it a Roman city, and presents a temple, with several other interesting remaint of that people. It hat also a fine N n 4 247 OBAIfDS eHARTABUIB. MS DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pa»t III. 248 modem cathedral with u very lofty spire. Valence has a military school, at which Bonaparte was educated. Near Tain is produced the celebrated wine called Htrmitagc. 2411. The Lyonnois is a smalt territory, penetrated by branches of the Alps, in some places rough and stony, in others finely diversified with hill and dale. Its chief interest, however, centres in tlie great city which is its capital. 2412. Lyons {Jig. 2A9.) is generally considered as the second city in France, and as foremost in regard to commerce and in. dustry. It is on the whole a noble city. The quays along the Rhone are superb; the hStel de ville is held to be second only to that of Amsterdam ; the cathedral is highly orna^ mented in the florid Gothic style ; and the squares, cspe. daily the Place de Bellecour, with its fountains and statues, are nowhere surpassed. On the other hand, the oia streets are narrow, bordered by lofty and gloomy walls, and divided by a muddy stream. To turn into them from the quays has been compared to entering subterraneous passages, watered by the sluices of Cocytus. Lyons suffered dreadfully under the sway of the jacobins, who made it a chief theatre of those atrocities that rendered tliem the horror of mankind. To say nothing of the massacres perpetrated under the appellations of fusillades and noyades, they studiously broke in pieces all the manufacturing machinery, while with barbarous hands they defaced all the orna- ments of the city, filled up the fountains, broke the statues in pieces, and demolished the whole of the cathedral except the walls. Her citizens have made diligent efforts to restore her prosperity, and not without success ; still, the want of capital and the stagnation of trade are serious obstructions, and cause the evils of poverty among a large population to be severely felt. The Lyonnese have the propensities usually observed in manufacturing places ; they dislike the Bourbons, and the sight of an Englishman is wormwood to them. 2413. Auvergne, to the west of the Lyonnois, is the only mountainous and pastoral tract which France has peculiarly its own. It consists of a continuous range of mountains which have evidently been in a state of volcanic action, the country being covered with lava, and the houses built of it. From an elevated and extensive plain rises the great Puy de D6me, nearly 5000 feet high, with about sixty attendant mountains, called in the country the giantess and her children. The country is diversified with many rugged and precipitous rocks, having castles and even towns built on them. Yet Auvergne is not a barren country. The Fuys are mostly covered with herbage, and have large level plains. The natives are laborious, and rear large herds of cattle, which are almost wild ; they are even said to beat off the wolf, the low of the animal attacked summoning all the rest to its assistance ; but, in return, they cannot be milked unless the calf be on the other side. The people are homely, and very republican ; they form themselves into a number of societies, of which the principle is a common table, attended hov/ever by the men only. In winter they take up their abode under the same roof with the cattle, which occupy each end, and by their heat save fuel, which is scarce. Clermont is a considerable town, perched on the top of a hill, and built of lava. It is extremely dirty, and Mr. Young compares several of its streets to channels cut in a dunghill ; however, the mountain breezes purify the air. The cathedral, which was fine, was nearly destroyed during the Revolution. In the surrounding country are many curious ca>'erns, petrifying wells, warm springs, cascades, &c. Aurillac also, Riom, and Thiers are elevated towns, commanding striking views of the rocks and cones of this remarkable chain. Towards Puy en Velay, which naturally belongs to Auvergne, the rocks become still more •teep and romantic, and among the castles seated in them, Mr. Young especially distin- guishes that of Polignac {fig. 249.), the form and site of which appears to him so itriking, as to cause all the feudal ages, by a sort of magic influence, to rise before the mind. St. Michael's church, in the centre of the town of Puy itself, stands on the top of a very striking, almost pre- cipitous rock, of tower-like form. 2414. Burgundy and Champagne, with the small adjoining provinces of Bourbonnois and 349 CAtTLH ur PIIIJ iKAO* Book I> FRANCK. 553 Mivemois, form a vMt plain vxteiuliitK north of the provlncn lost described. Burgundy, however, is traversed by branvhm IVoin thv VoKgeN, forming hilly tracts of mmlerate elevation. This is the great eoiintry «)f wlno, producing the finest in France, and, witli very few exceptions, in thu whulu world. The surface of the vine-distJct is (Imfly red sandstone rock, with very liltiv soil. Thu vineyards arc cultivated by small proprietors, who do not usually holtl inuru limn twenty or thirty arpints. It costs 21A to plant DM arpent in vines, and I/. 6m. Hnnuully to kuep it in repair. Three years elapse before it yields any wine, and six beforu it yiulds good wine. Common vineyards sell at GO/, an acre ; and there are some that sell m high ns 400/. The precariousness of the crop, however, and the want of capital, render this brunch of industry a poor employment ; and the cultivators of liurgundy are the least flourishing of any in Kraiico. Few now vineyards arc now laid down; though thu CHiiital invested in the old ones is a suf- fliient reason fur keeping them up. iiiin, (If the cliltf tmmu, the first in dignity is llhvlniN, It noble ond ancient city, the ecclesiastical capital of France, where the kings were crowned and anointed, Tliu cathedral {Jig. 250.) has been con- sidered the most splendid specimen of Gothic archi> tocturu existing, though some of iti ornaments are not In thu purest taste. The Hotel de Ville is also flnu I and the streets, unlike what is usual in old towns, are broad, straight, and well-built. Rhcims is still thu chief mart of that favourite wine called cimmpiignu, and from thence the connoisseurs of Paris tuku care to procure their supplies. Troyes, oncu cuU'bratud for its great fairs, and noted as having given its name to the Troy weight, ranks as cnpitiil of Champagne, and is still a large and flou- rishing town on the Heine. Chdlons sur Morne is also conNiuernble, and, by a seemingly capricious choice, is tliu ciipiUtI of the department of the Marnc, instead of llliuims. Mexi^res and Sedan are strong frontier towns I the latter celebrated for its manufacture of fine woollen cloth, us well ar for one of arms. Rocroy is only distinguished for the signal victorv of KH'A, which first established the superiority of the French arms. In Burgundy, Djun (Jig, ^51,), with its numerous and lofty spires. rATHSnilAl. Ar niiRlHi. jf Bourbonnois and presents a noble appearance to the approaching traveller t but it has lost much of its anden importance. Its churches, now ton iiunieruuH for the place In its reduced state, were dread. fully defaced and mutilated during the Revolution t one has been converted into a market 1^ 2^2 ''*" ''*'*> another into one for com. The streets, however, are wide and clean. Dijon has a distinguished university, and can boast of giving birth to Bossuet, Buffon, and Cr^billon. Autun attracts notice by a temple and other remains, which indicate Its importance as a Roman city, also by a line modern cathedral (fig. 252.). Auxerre slill flourishes by the excellent wine pro- duced in its neighbourhood, and is adorned with a cathedral and several lofly spires. kimm oATH«D»u.. Ch&lons sur Suone is a good country town. 344 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pam III. Sens, the see of an archbishop, and foimerly the seat of several councils, presents still lonu noble monuments in decay. Moulins, capital of the rich plain of the Bourbonnois, though not handsome, is busy and cheerful, having a considerable traffic upon the Seine. Neven, in Nivemois, is 6nely situated on the Loire, but is an ill-built and dirty town. 2416. The provinces of Lorraine, Franche-comte, and AUace are less an integral part of France than a series of appendages obtained by conquest chiefly during the reign of Louis XIV. They remain still in many points connected with Germany. They are watered by the Meuse and the Moselle, tributaries of the Rhine ; they are traversed by the chain of the Vosges, connected with the Swiss Alps and the Blacic Forest ; their surface is rude and irregular ; their wines have the same agreeable acid quality as the Rhenish, Even yet Alsi^ce, both as to language and manners, is altogether German. 2417. The citits are, — Nancy, capital of the dukes of Lorraine, a race of gallant and ■ocompllshed princes. It is said to be the most elegant city in France, especially tlie new town, built in the sixteenth century. The gates appear almost like triumphal arches ; the public buildings are numerous ; the place royak and the a^oining area are superb. The place is lighted in the English manner. Metz is a larger town, and now more important, being one of the strongest of the French fortresses. It is nearly enclosed by the Moselle and the Seille, and entered by successive drawbridges. The usual complement of its garrison is 10^000 men. Metz is celebrated for its long and triumphant defence under the Duke of Guise against the army of Charles V. It is still a flourishing town, with numerous manufactures, and contains a library of 60,000 volumes. Luneville was for some time the residence of Stanislaus, the ex-king of Poland, who considerably embellished it; and it was the scene of Bonaparte's first triumphant treaty in 1801. It is now rather a poor place, having few manufactures. Another strong fortress is Verdun, a name but too familiar to English ears, as the scene of the iniquitous detention of our countrymen in 1803. It ie well situated on the Meuse. Salins flourishes by means of the salt extracted from the brine- springs, which are found also in other parts of this territory. Besan9on, in Franche- comt^, was a city of the German empire till the treaty of Westphalia, when it was ceded to the Spaniards, from whom it was wrested by Louis XIV. It is a large and industrious place, particularly distinguished by a manufacture of clocks and watches, introduced towards the end of the last century, and employing about 1800 persons. It has also valuable scientific and literary establishments. Dole is likewise a very ancient town, once the capital of Franche-comt£. Vesoul and Lons Ie Saulnier are pretty good towns, and capitals of departments. In approaching Switzerland, the country becomes elevated, and the towns occupy picturesque sites. Ornans lies in a deep dell, skirted by green rocky hills, like Matlock, Pontarlier stands on a height having a strong castle which guards the passage into Switzer- land. Nantua is placed in a nook between two enormo.'errol 61. I'aleniuela 71.Malagon 14. Feira t XUooa L sir I^^H y Mm 61* AIlM 78. Lchomla. 15. Arelro u Douro a TjB' "of ^^^H I.UKO 6>. Varnaa Nm Ciumi. 16. Colmbra T Arlania sSf •Wjf ^^1 1.1 UflU 17. Oaudalu|« .4itdaluila. 17. Vlieu w Arlanfon ^1 *^ ^^H 8. Santiago 64. Otduna. 18. Atutan 73. ]>emacar 18. Trancoio I Flsueisa <-3 ill ^H 9.VI|o ^^H ll.HltddaTia 19. Oroims 20. TaUTem de la 74. Andujar 19. Ouarda ; Carrion •^1 BiKau, 75. Llnarea SO. SalvaUem I Ella eS.BUlKM Hcjrna 76. Baeia SI. Casiello Branca a* Orrlrgo ^3% ^' ^^^1 ]!. Atilbldcs 66. DtrlM SI. Toledo 77. Ilueicar 88. Sardoal b* Tormct J5v/ ^^^1 i3.0niue 67. Toloaa S8. Cajocca S3. Kl Pr.ido 78. Aboi S3.Abrantei. • c* Coa ^^1 H.URul. 68. 8t. Kebutlan 79. Cullar d*Zeiera 69. Vltlorli S4. Moslolet 80. Jodar IV. SUrmaJura. r* AtSerehe oC f^ I *i\ ^^^1 Jlituriati Tl. Madrid 81. Monaaterlo S4. Arega ^^M \i. Illlno Navarre. S6. Kl Escurlal 88. J.ien S5. P.irt« g* Emma l>* HenarM •l/^^s o *1 ^^^ d ^^1 It. (WfdD 70. Pampeluna 71.Tudala. S7. Kl Pnido 83. Monlllla S6. Ulria ,j^J">ifj^ ^Cjj/ ^^H IT. Gijon S8. Uuadalaura 81. Bujolance S7. Santarem 1* Tictar !? s^ fe*i ^r^*'wff ^^1 m. Khaldicelll 89. AraiOuei 30. La Klola d« 8.^. Cordora 88. Obldoa J* Ouadiana LOf, Z-a J^ "^ " Vm\ ^^1 19. Lanei. ^nuoii. 86. Ossuna 89. VUlalranca TJ^f/j ~ SJL 1 ^ ■ 7«. Verdun Belmont 87. ('armona 30. Bcnevente 1* TInto r^ $L fsf ^^^B Leon. 73. Jac» 31. Secadon 88. Kdla 31. CIntra m* Gnndalqulvir ^^H 'iO. AeuiLv de 74. Alms 3S. Canavara 89. Aracena 38. Liabon n* iTandula klj^ 1 ^^^1 Cainpo. 97. Tortou. 54. Xlzana 118. Furchena Rivera qf Spain* X ^ 55. Alicante. 113. Mujacar. a Tambre BALEARIC ■i ^^1 Old Catlilt. b una ISLANDS. J u ^^1 It. ArcTnlo SOUTH PART. Murda. PORTUGAL. c Mlnho /t;f found in diflTerent parts of Spain, both in the interior and on the coast, and ut different heights. The calcareous breccia, generally with a ferruginous basis, which occurs principally in the south-west, where it is widely distributed, belongs to the latest of the antediluvian deposits. It not only incrusts limestone rocks of different formations more or less thickly, but also fills up rents and fissures in them : thus it abounds among the calcareous rocks of Gibraltar, where it sometimes contains bones of quadrupeds no longer met with there. The formation of the breccia is ascribed to a catastrophe which affected different parts of the coast of the Mediterranean sea. As Professor Hausmann, to irhom we owe the preceding details, had not an opportunity of travelling in Murcia, he was not able to confirm or reject the accounts of Spanish geologists, who maintain that it con- tains true volcanic rocks. The occurrence of other rocks, which are conjectured to have come from below, has been noticed in but few places. Characteristic basalt occurs in Ca- talonia. The porphyritic and basaltic-looking rocks extending from Cabo dc Gata, and from Avila, on the north side of the Guadarrama range, are still problematical. Hy- persthene rock has been found by Professor Garcia in the vicinity of Salinas de Poza, in Old Castile, in contact with Jura limestone. Professor Hausmann found) In the mountains of Jaen, near to variegated marl containing masses of gypsum, rocks of greenstone. Col. Silvcrtop describes tertiary deposits in Granada in the Edin. New Phil, Joum. 3429. It may not be improper, from Professor Hausmann, to point out the influence of soil and climate on the other departments of nature, as also on the peculiarities and occu* pa*'ons of man. A glance at the whole nature of Spain discovers a threefold principal difference. The northern zone, which extends to the Ebro, differs entirely in its characters from the middle zone ; and this again is completely different from the soiHhem zone, which is bounded on the north by the Sierra Morena, and a part of the Ostrandes. The northern lone, which includes Galicia, Austurias, the Biscayan provinces, Navarre, the northern part of Aragon, and Catalonia, is a widely extended mountainous and hilly country. The snow fields and glaciers of the Pyrenees on the one side ; and on the other the north and north-west winds, have a marked influence in lowering the temperature of the atmosphere, and in increas- ing the supply of water. The increased humidity is favourable for vegetation, which, on the wliole, very much resembles that of the south of France ; and the variety of rocks containing lime, clay, and sand, and also their frequent alternations, operate beneficially on the soil. The soil every where invites to cultivation, and the Catalonians and Biscayans are active cul- tivators of the ground. The middle part of Spain, to which belongs Old and New Castile, a part of Aragon, Leon, and Estremadura, is not so favourably circumstanced. In general, we rarely meet with either beauty or variety of aspect. The extensive and lofty table-lands, destitute of trees, are dull and tiresome ; their uniform and monotonous surface, formed by vact deposits of horizontally disposed secondary strata, is swept across by the wind, and burnt up by the sun's rays. Whichever way the eye turns, it meets with scarcely any thing but Wretchedly cultivated cornfields and desert heaths of cistus. Seldom, in general, more in the southern than in the northern districts, plantations of olive trees afford a meagre shelter, and vary the scenery, although i~. an inconsiderable degree. Nothing, certainly, has so great an influence on tbese properties of nature, with which many of the peculiarities and 560 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III, modes of life of man harmonise, than the lilgh situation of the widely extended table-lands, and the uniformity of the rock whicli forms the support of the soil. It is owing princi. f tally to the horizontal stratification, and the want of water, that the great Spanish table. ands are so widely extended, and so little intersoctcire had been every where more abundant. The deficiency of moisture is the principal cause not only of the striking meagreness of phenogamous vegetation, on the most of the moun- tain acclivities, but also of tlie remarkable paucity of lichens and mosses on the mountains on the coast ; and in connection with this is the fact, that the weatliering of the rocks, and the reforming of the original surface nf the mountains, assume there a somewhat different course from what is observed in places which are moister, and provided with a more powerful vegetation. SuBSKCT. 3. Botany, " Oh I Christ t It Is a ftootlly sight to arc What Heaven hath done fur thl» tlelU-Unis land t What flruits of friigraiioc liUmh on vvory tree I What goodly prosiiccts n'cr the hills ox|>and I (But man would mar them with an Impious hand). " 2430. " European Spain," says M. de Humboldt, " situated in latitudes under which Palm trees {Phoenix dactylifera and Chattunrops hiimilU) grow upon the plains, presents the majestic spectacle of a chain of mountains, the tops of which shoot up into the region of everlasting snow. By a levelling survey executed with the greatest care, it has been ascer- tained that in the Sierra Nevada of Granada, the Pico de Venleta rises 1781 fathoms (or about 11,353 English feet}, and the Mulahasen 1824 fiithoins (or 11,628 English feet), alMve the level of the ocean. None of the mountains of the I'yrences are of so great a height; for Mont Perdu, the loftiest of the Simnish Pyrenees, is only 17G3 fathoms, and the highest of the French Pyrenees only 1 722 fathoms. The peak of Mulahasen, in tlic Sierra Nevada of Granada, wants only "JG fatlioms of being as high as the Peak of Teneriffe. Yet even this summit, if situated in tlie some latitude as the town of Mexico, would not he perpetually covered with snow : for the never-melting snows begin under the equator at 2460 fathoms ; under the twentieth degree of latitude at 2350 fathoms ; under the furty-lifth, at 1300 fathoms; and under the sixty-second, at 900 fathoms." 2431. Thus circumstanced in regard to climate, and the elevation of its mountains, how greatly is it to be regretted that no country in Europe has been so little investigated in regard to its botanical productions ! Enough, however, is known for our purpose, which may be collected from the different travels in, and accounts of, Spain and Portugal, and from the Secherches sur la Distribution GAigraphigue des Vt'gi'lnux I'ham'rogames dans tAnden Monde, already alluded to, by M. de Alirbel. This author considers the whole of tliis pen- insula, with the exception of the northern part of Spnin, which forms the shores of tlic Gulf of Gascony, and which belongs to the temperate zone, as entering into the transition zone. If, therefore, its vegetation has any affinity with that of France, it is only where its moun- tainous parts, especially the Pyrenees, resemble the mountains of France, and its warm districts are like the extreme south of France. In East Valencia and Miircia, in tlie south of Andalusia and the Algarves, in AVestern Alenitejo and South Estretnadura, the ricli and varied vegetation calls to mind the fertile plains of Syria. In Andalusia, frosts are un- known, and the snow, if it ever fulls, melts the niuinent it touches the soil : so that it is not surprising that, in the cultivated parts, the Spaniards, long famous for their voyages, nooK I. SPAIN. Mt TMR ORANOB. ihould have introduced many vegetables from remote parts of the world ; thus giving a per- fectly tropical appearance to the country. 2432. The Erylhnna CoraUodendron, or Coral tree, with its brilliant scarlet blossoms, the Sckinus Molle, with its graceful^ pinnated foliage, and the Phytolacca dioica, are introduced, with many other plants, from South America. Even the Bananas are common to the soutli of the Guadalquivir ; as are also Mic Cayenne Pepper; and, in gardens, the Convolvulus Ba- tatas or Sweet Potato. Every where about the rural habitations of the Spanish peasantry, the Date, the Oranj^e (Jig. 255. ), the Lemon, the Olive, the Pomegranate, the Fig (Jig. 256. ), and the Mulberry, flourish nearly as well as in the native soil. Link notices the trees growing about Lisbon ; " they are chiefly," he says, " Olive and Orange trees. Cypress, Judas trees: Ehns Slid Poplars appear too. But of Oaks, Beeches, and Lime there are none, and very few 'iVIIIows ; so that one may instantly perceive how diiferent is the character of a Lisbon view from that of Germany." The Orange is the most striking of these ; for there are many plant- ations in quintas, where they form compact groves, and also scattered in open spots. These trees require much artificial watering, and they arc propagated by seed, and afterwards by graft- in;^ upon those seedling trees. In December and January the fruit begins to turn yellow ; and at the end of January and in February, before they are ripe and sweet, they are gathered for exportation. Towards the end of March and April, the oranges are very good, but they arc not in perfection till early in May. In July and August they are scarce, and over ripe. At the end of April and May, the new flowers appear, the fragrance of which extends far and wide, and at this time the quantity of glittering fruit embosomed amid the dark foliage, " like golden lamps in a green night," relieved still more by the snowy blossoms, presents an object which contitmally excites new admiration, though it is one of daily occurrence. One single tree frequently bears 1500 oranges, and examples are not wanting of their bearing 2000, and sometimes, though rarely, 2.500. In the provinces they sell for half a farthing apiece. Figs are exported largely from the city of Faro ; they are the most important produce of the Algarve, and are brought down by the country people to the merchants in immense quantities. They are thrown in heaps in a building prepared for the purpose, where a syrup flows from them, which is used to advantage in making brandy. They are then spread to dry in the sun, in an open situation, where they are left for a few days in pro- portion to the heat of the weather ; afler which they arc packed into small baskets made of the leaves of the Fan Palm, and exported. " Greece and the AU garves," M. Link observes, " are the only countries where caprification is practised ; for in the latter country are some varieties of Figs, and those very excellent, that fall to the ground immature, unless punctured by gnats." Two ideas prevail respecting the effect of this operation; the general opinion being, that the little insect, on entering the Fig, (which is known by botanists, to be a fleshy receptacle, includ- ing many, and often only barren flowers,) carries with it, from other figs that it has visited, and from which it comes loaded, the farina necessary for fertilisation : while others maintain, and among them M. Link, that the puncture caused by the insect gives a fresh stimulus and a new movement to the sjip or juices of the fruit, thereby not only preventing the fall of the fruit, but rendering it sweeter and better flavoured ; and it is certain that many of our common fruits, when pierced by insects, acquire the sweetest flavour. The ancients perfected the figs in the Archipelago by means of an insect, a species of Cynips (C. Ficus. ) In Algarve, besides the cultivated kind, another wild sort is grown ; in which the insects abound. These trees are recalled Fyoscle tora; and branches of them are, at the proper season, broken off, and suspended over those intended to be fertilised, when the little animals come forth, alighr upon the fruits, puncture them, and aid their ripening. 24.13. Formidable fences are made of the Cactus Tuna (Ji^. 257.), and the Agave ameri- cana,or American aloe. The former is oflen mixed with the Pomegranate, but of itself it Oo 56*i DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paht III. OAOTUI TUNA. constitutes a hedge almost impervious to cattle. In Portuguese it is called, on account of iu prickles, Fijo do ittfemo : the flowers are yellow and the fruit esculent ; the latter is by no means unpalatable, and is regularly sold in Lisbon. Of the Agave atnericana we have already spoken, and shall, therefore, simply mention here that its leaves undergo a process by which a valuable thread is extracted, known in Portugal by the name of Filo da pita The largest and most perfect leaves are cut off, laid upon a board, and scraped with a square iron bar, which is held in both hands, until all the juices and pulp are pressed out; the nerves only remaining, wlien these are found easily separable into threads. Where pasturage is scarce, as in Algarve, tiie cattle eat the foliage of this plant, if cut into thin transverse slices. 24.14. In La Mancha grows the Esparto grcle {Stipa lena. cissinia), of which cords are made, and the Ullage is sent in large quantities into Portugal for this purpose. To pre. vent the careless destruction of these valuable plants penalties are inflicted on any person who ventures to gathci' them before the month of May, when tliey arc in perfection 2435. The Carob tree {fig. 258.) Link reckons the most beautiful of European trees. It attains a considerable height, forming, with its large evergreen pinnated foliage, a head of considerable dimensions, and yielding a welcome shade. Among the foliage hang down the numerous long pods' which, when ripe, are used as fodder for cattle, especially the mules, and as meat for swine, though inferior to the acorns of the Evergreen Oak. Before the expulsion of the Moors, the Sugar Cane was cultivated to a considerable ci. tent, and lately it has been re-introduced^ at San Lucar, into a garden " d'acclimation," together with Coffee, Indigo, and Gum Arabic. A vast extent of country is covered by the Chamaerops humilis {Dwarf Pahn or Putmetto), growing in waste places. This vegetation, in part exotic, follows the coasts of the Spanish peninsula, to the east and ' to the west. It is diffused in all its luxury in the delicious territory of Valencia, where tlie agriculture of the Moors is still held in respect. With the species already named, are here cultimicd the Aloe perfoliata, Yucca aloifolia, Cassia tomentosa, l\Icdia Azedaracb, many kinds of Mimosa, Annona, &c. In the en- virons of Alicant the Date harvest is very abundant. This Palm there grows in large plantations, and oi^en attains the height of 120 feet. It reaches along the entire coast, to tlic 40th degree, and perhaps higher. The Agave abounds in the i.AIN, 567 and direction of tho monarch, tlioy fitrin lltitu itioru nf a check upon absolute power than ilic Turkisli divan. 2452. Two alteinptt to rettore a rvpmvHtaUm form of guvernment have lately been made, under circuinstancei) which inuiit Im fiiinlllnr tu Our reudem. Unluckily, the leading Dr liberal party were hurried, on thU ovuiwlunt Into an opposite extreme ; adopting the system o( universal sufiHrage, one hou«e, nnd uthur democratic arrangements, 'fhis system was frum the first decidedly unpopular ; niul Ferdinand found it cosy, first without, and after- wards with, foreign aid, tu re-CNtaltlUli duspotlo sway. On the commencement of the present struggle, Isobollu, ubli|;ed to court the body of the people, called the Cortes, and jrranted a liberal constitution | the durntiuii of which must depend upon the issue of the contest, as Carlos is understood to favour the nlwolutc regime. 2453. The grandeei and other prMltj/td ordirt hi Spain are distinguished for their pride lioyond any others in Europe. Kvuii CharloN V. was baffled in his attempt to retrench the right of wearing the hat in the roynl pruNuncu, Tliu Spanish nobles impair their fortunes less by extravagance than those of the suinv rank elsewhere ; and ns they intermarry only n'ith each other, the number of titles, or Ari(«, IM they are called, continually accumulates upon single heads. The dukes of Medina- Cvli, of Albo, of Infuntado, of San Estevan, of Ossuna, and some others, hold posHcssioim truly iniincime, covering whole provinces. They are administered, indeed, in tho worst noislblu manner, being kept in their own hands, managed l,y tribes of factors or intendants, u( whom NOino nobles keep 300 ; so that it is truly astonish- ing that they should sometimes J^luhl IH),(HM, or (10,000/. a year. As these grandees, liiivevcr, live not on their estates, but in tho oit.'.s, ill secluded pomp, they have lost all their feudal influence, and the ties whioli united tlium with the greater body of the people. The hidalgos, claiming nobility by descent tVoiii the members of great families, are much more numerous, and form, in tome provinvus, n large iiroportioii or the inhabitants. They arc {iften reduced to great poverty ; in whiuli they ilisplay that union of pride and indolence which has been supposed charaoteristlu of the Spaniard. Mr. White mentions a species of illustrious birth quite peculiar to thin coiintrv, consisting in npurc Christian descent, with- out any mixture of Jewish or Moorish bliUKl, which last is supposed to produce so deep a slain, that no time can efface it. The clergy, moreover, exercise a paramount influence over tlie minds, particularly of the lower urdurs, nitd have been the main spring in all the move- ments, good Or bad, which for a long tinw past linvo taken place in the Peninsula. 2454. The revenue of Spain, though Itfvlcd with little tegard to the comfort and well- being of tlie subject, has never risen to any gruot amount. Vet she is the only power which ever derived any from her colonies ) ns the quUtlu, or royol fifth, of the mines of Mexico and I'cru, after every deduction, brought lioin«i cuiiildcrablc treasure : but this source of wealth is now withdrawn. The Other taxes were the most ruinous to industry and trade ever contrived by any government. The ulcnvala, or impost upon each transference of com- modities from one hand to another, weini expressly destined to impose fetters upon com- merce; while the royal moiiopoUes of salt, lend, powder, tobacco, and other articles in general use, have the usual pernicious oflVctSi Combined with those prohibitory clauses, by which Spain endeavoured without success to prevent her industrious neighbours from supply- ing the wants of her American colonies, they gave rise to a vast contraband, carried on in almost open defiance of government. Hence the taxation of Spain, though highly oppressive to the nation, yields very little to tlie orowii | being lit a great measure absorbed by the support of the individuals employed in its oolleutioii, who are said to amount to 16,650. Although, thererorc, the entire sum taken iVain the people has been suspected not to fall short of 12,000,000/. sterling, tho receipt by governmoiit in IH28 did not exceed 5,980,000/. The expenditure in that year was, for the army, '2,n!i(UKiOL ; navy, 400,000/. ; marine, 1,445,000/. ; justice, 145,000/. ; state, 108,0(X)/. ; royal household, 505,00(5/. At the same time, Spain is burdened with a debt of I60,000,(KX)/. sterling, of which tho revenue would be wholly inadequate to defray the interest, had not more iiion half consisted of the royal vales, which ilo not hear any. Under the oonslitiitioiial government a considerable addition of debt was incurred, wiiicli Ferdinand cleareil oil' by refiisiiig to acknowledge it. Amid the present disorders, the revenue niiiHt be little more than nominal. 2455. The navy, at the eominenccmeiit of the late war, was at least respectable, and a formidable auxiliary to France. 'I'hp fatal days of St. Vincent and Trafalgar, and tho fruitless expeditions to South America, have reifiiced it to absolutely nothing. In 1823, there was only a single ship of tho line, tho Asia, which being sent out to South America, surrendered to the Peruvian government, 2456. The army nf Spain, which, lliulor Charles V. and Philip, was the bravest and most for- midablc in Eurojie, lias for a century and u half enabled her to rank very low among military nations. It is, however, at present the best orgimised part of her establishment. According to the author of " A Year in Spain," it consisted in 1 Hill of 25,000 royal guards, and 5.5,000 troops of the line and provincial militia, which, being eninmandcd by experienced officers, formed during a period of protracted warfare, poniHensed n considerable degree of eflSciency ; •nd their discontent being an object of dreail, every olliirt was made to pay them regularly. (> o I ■ KM DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part It I. A large force is inaiiitaiiicd by ciicli party in the preacnt contest, and commanded by hiavc but Terocious cliiefis ; but it is of vague and varying amount, and in a great measure com- posed of irregular levies. Sbct. V. Productive Induntry. 2157. In respect to ituiustry and wealth, Spain, which liad every opportunity within and without of becoming the foremost nation of Europe, is, in fact, the poorest and the most uncultivated. The insecurity of property, and the multiplied restraints imposed by an unenlightened government, appear to be the main causes which have paralysed all branches of industry. The furious bigotry of its monarchs, in particular, led to the most suicidal acts against the public weal. At the commencement of the Afleenth century, the country contained a numerous population of Jews and Moors, who formed its most industrious and wealthy inhabitants, and rendered it the most flourishing kingdom in Europe. Tlie Jews unless in the alternative of feigned conversion, were expelled from the kingdom by Ferdinand and Isabella, the Moors by Philip III. Although it appears to be upon exaggerated estimates that Spain has ever been supposed to have previously contained 20,000,000 o( people, yet it cannot be doubted that the emigration of mercantile communities, with their capital and machinery, must have struck deeply at the root of the national prosperity, 2458. Spanish agricidture, it must be confessed, has some obstacles to struggle against. The territory, as we have had occasion to observe, is traversed in every direction by chains of rugged, and often barren, mountains. Yet these elevated provinces being the seats of comparative liberty and industry, are, on the whole, the best cultivated and the most populous. The great extent and continuity of these chains certainly present serious diffi. culties to the transport of grain. When government were bringing a supply from Old Castile to the capital, it was found that 30,000 beasts of burden were necessary to convey 2000 quarters. Another great impediment to effective agriculture consists in the habit, partly oriental, partly formed during a long internal warfare, which leads the farmers to crowd into towns, and thus live often at many miles' distance from the fields which they cultivate. In many cases tlicy merely pitch their tents during seed-time and harvest, and at other seasons pay only occasional visits. They are also very poor, destitute of capital, and oppressed by the burden of tithes and other exactions. 2459. TVie^ratn produced in Spain is of admirable quality; the wheat of Andalusia bearing a price ten or fifteen per cent, higher than that of any foreign wheat brought to the markets of Cadiz. But a deplorable defect appears, when it is stated that Spain, a country purely ngricultural, does not grow corn for her own use, but makes a regular importation. This, however, according to Bourgoing, amounts only to 2,000,000 fanegas or 400,000 quar- ters ; a small proportion of the entire consumption, which may be estimated at 1 2,000,000 ot quarters. The agriculture of Spain, however, produces three valuable articles ; wool, wine, and barilla. 2460. The wool of the merino is of almost unrivalled fineness, though dearly purchased by the system upon which it is produced. Vast flocks, amounting to 20,000, 30,000, or even 60,000, belong to the grandees, convents, and dignitaries of Spain. After being pastured, during summer, on the sides of the mountains of Leon and Old Castile, they descend, in winter, chiefly to the plains of Estremadura. According to the rules of the powerful society of the mesta, composed of the above high members, they must pass freely, and be it'lowed, on payment of a very inadequate rent, to pasture upon all the unenclosed lands, which form tlie bulk of those in Spain. The entire number of sheep in all these wander- ing flocks is reckoned at 5,000,000 ; and there are a great number which remain stationary, and enjoy privileges nearly similar. The annual shearing takes place on a great scale, anil with much celebration ; and the wool is carefully sorted into three kinds, according to the part of the body from which it is taken. 3461. The mnet of Spain are produced on the fine plains of the southern piovinccs. The most important is the Xeres, or sherry, which has come into such general use with the English nation. Mr. Jacob reckons that 40,000 pipes are produced in the plain of Xeres ; of which I5,0(X) are exported, almost the whole to England. Around Malaga is made wine still more valued, though not in such quantity ; which when white is called motintain, whin red, tent (tinto). The northern and central provinces yield wine only of inferior value. 2462. Barilla, the finest known species of ashes, and highly useful in gluss-makinj,', bleaching, and other processes, is procured by burning various species of saline and aromatic plants in the provinces of Murcia and Valencia, and is one of the few articles which other nations can nowhere else pr»>cure of equally good quality. Silk and oil, in the Mediter- ranean provinces, are only limited by the want of culture or demand, 2463. TIte manufactures of Spain Imve been of little importance since the expulsion of the Moors. That industrious people introduced the silk manufacture ; a branch entirely suited to a country where the material is produced in the greatest perfection ; but it is now generally de- cayed, unless in Valencia, where it was supposed lately to employ 3000 people. The blades of Toledo were once famous over Europe, and the city has still a royal manufactory of swords, though of little importtmce. The Spanish government has devoted rather an extraordinary atten- tion to manufactures, but unfortunately seeks to promote them by the king beconniig himself Iho Book I. SPAIN. .909 producer. He lias established a great fabric of broad cloth at Guadalaxara, which, having line materials at hand, is rather thriving. Yet Spain docs not supply herself with fine cloth. Other royal works are, those of porcelain, at San Ildefonso ; paper, in Segovia ; cards and UpHfy "' Madrid : all rather for show than use. 24C4. The Commerce of Spain suffered severely from the government attempting to absorb within it the entire treasures of Mexico and Peru. The gold and silver of those regions irere to be brought exclusively thither, and only her produce and manufactures to be sent in exchange. By a sad fatality, the commerce of the colonies was carried on almost entirely I'y French and English merchants; nearly all the goods exported thither were foreign ; and Spain, of all her neighbours, was the most destitute of the wealth aecruing Iroin this trade. These colonies, with the exception of Cuba and the Philippines are now gone, and with them the greatness of Cadii, which, by the absurd monopoly granted to her, became one of the principal emporia of Ei:rope. The trade of Spain consists now, in the export of wines, fruits, brandies, wool, silk raw and manufactured, lead, quicksilver, barilla, and a few other articles ; her imports, of sugar, cocoa, salt iish, spices, wood, rice, butter ami cheese, hides, cotton wool, and almost every manufactured commodity. The exports from Britain to Spain were officially valued in 1 834, at 549,000). ; the imports at 972,000/. The chief of the former were, in 1836, apparel, value 16,000/. ; arms. See., 37,500/. ; cottons, '2i,500l.i hardware and wrought iron, 30,500/.; leather and saddlery, 16,300/.; linens, 305,500/.; woollens, 64,000/.; cinnamon and cassia, 190,000 lbs. The chief heads of lni|)ort were, barilla, 19,400 cwts. ; figs, 1226 cwts. ; lemons and oranges, 18,700 boxes; i]iiicl(siivcr, 1,439,000 lbs. ; raisins, 104,000 cwts. ; wool, 2,818,000 lbs. ; wine, 3,053,600 gallons. The exports to France in 1836, were valued at 1,777,000/. ; imports, 3,729,000/. : the ciports to Leghorn were nearly 400,000/. Spain suffers much from her restrictive system, which has created an immense contraband, the actors in which are estimated at 80,000 or 90,000. From the coast of Catalonia, it is carried on by a multitude of small vessels, and in the southern provinces by large parties, well armed, and mounted on fine horses, who render themselves formidable even to the government. SViS. Mental communication is a particular In which Spain actually labours under natural disadvantages, from the ol»trurl«l navigation of its rivers, and its long and steep chains of mountain!. These obstacle* the goTcriimcnt lias endeavoured to surmount by vast but ill-executed projects of improveitient. lliey had mii'civcd tiic |>lan of a grand canal, which, passing through Asturias, Ola Castile, and Aragon, might join the Mnliterrancin with the Day uf liiscay. Of this mighty undertaking only two small portions exist ; the canal of Aragon, running parallel to the Ebro from Saragos>a, and that ot Old Castile along the Pisiicrga and Carrion by Placcncia ; but as neither of them makes any approach tu the sea, their benefit is very limited. The main roads maintained by government between Madrid and the other great cities are good, and the mails veil conducted ; but most of the other communications are mere tracks worn by the feet of mules, which art chicHy employed in the conveyance of goods. Sect. VI. Civil and Social Slate. 2i66. The populalion of Sjyain, according to a census made in 1798, amounted to 10,351,000. It was generally understood, however, that the jealousy of the people, and all the obstacles usually encountered in such undertakings, operated to a peculiar extent in di- minisliing the amount. The census, in 1787-8, gave only 10,268,000, of which 188,600 were churchmen; and among these, 61,000 were monks, and 32,500 nuns. There were 480,000 hidalgos; 34,000 merchants; 40,000 manufacturers; 271,000 artisans; 907,000 peasants, 960,000 day-labourers ; 280,000 domestic male servants. A census was undertaken in 1826, which was not fully completed, but carried so far as to prove that the number of inhabitants must be considerably greater than the above : it is estimated by Miiianoat 13,732,000; by Hassel at 13,953,000. 2467. The national characler of the Spaniard is marked by striking features. The ge. nuine Spiniard is grave, proud, adventurous, romantic, honourable, and generous. It has lieeii insinuated that this is the Spaniard of the fifteenth century, of whom the Spaniard of the present day is only as it were tlie shadow. But though the higher ranks have certainly lust the original stamp, and become frivolous and dissipated, the body of the people, and esjiccially the peasantry, form a very fine race. Even among the former, the late troubles lirouglit forward signal displays of heroism, though, as too often happens in such cases, tqiially base examples of treachery. In the virtue and wisdom of the best Spaniards, there is apt to be something speculative and theoretical, not applicable to the practical pur- poses of life ; a want of the wisdom of action. In prosperous circumstances they readily give way to supincness and false confidence ; but in sudden and overwhelming vicissitudes, which sink the spirit of others, their latent energies are roused, and they display unexpected and surprising resources. Although assassination, which was once the reproach of Spain, is greatly diminished, yet a promptitude to fight and to shed blood, characteristic of all na- tions imperfectly civilised, is still prevalent. It is accompanied witli a readiness to rise in tumultuary insurrections, and an unwillingness to submit to the restraints of discipline. The jealousy which was wont to dwell so deep and dark in the mind of the -Spanish husband, has been superseded by a general laxity of morals. The custom is saia to p)re- .570 UESCUIITIVE GEOORAI'IIY. P^m m. vail, that every married lady Hhould liavc a corlyo or gallant, curreRpundliig to the Italian cicUbeoi and though the uaage may not be so decidedly criminal as it appears to stranffm it is certainly inconsistent with those habits and feelings which form the felicity of thg matrimonial state. In this singular relation fixed rules are observed, and a certain fidelity is exacted ; tlie jealousy of the husband is assumed by the corlyo ; and the lady who changes, at least with any frequency, this object of attachment, loses caile in the eyes of the public. 2'iCH. 2710 religiout Hate of Spain need only be mentioned to suggest the dark and gloomy fe.itures by which it is marked. That bigotry and superstition which the Uoinish fuitli con- tracted during ages of darkness, and which.in all other countries is so much abated, retains nearly its full force in Spain. The Inquisition, that frightful tribunal, the disgrace of inoUvrn Europe, which here held its central scat, kept alive its fires against all who exercised thvir reason on a subject connected with the national faith. The order of Jesuits, who have been called the militia of the Rumish church, originated also in this country. The Inquisition pe. rislied in the late struggle ; yet a numerous body still call aloud for its re-establishment ; and the most liberal rulers, wliom the revolution raised to power, durst not attempt any approach to to. leration, or to trench upon the " catholic religion one and indivisible." This spirit of bigotry and superstition is deeply dilfused through the nation, who, if they no longer demand that heretics shall be committed to the flames, never doubt at least of the future tortures to which they are destined. All the childish and absurd customs which marked its prevalence durins the dark ages, are preserved nearly unaltered ; the processions and exhibitions, in which the events of sacred history are represented, often in a familiar and ludicrous manner ; the endless festivals, which impoverish the nation, and favour its natural indolence ; and the zeal of multitudes, who arc induced by mistaken piety to withdraw themselves from their familiesand the world. Mr. Blanco White has given astrikingaccountof the artifices by which the young female is led to make the irrevocable sacrifice ; the respect and importance attached to her during the period of noviciate ; the ceremonies, which resemble those of marriage, even the name of bride being given to her ; and the disgrace attached to a retractation. Yet it appears evident, from the same author, that this profession is often deeply sincere ; that it aids in producing that strong moral feeling which prevails throughout the nation ; that many arc even tormented by minute conscientious scruples ; and that, with such persons, absolution, founded on false pretensions to penitence, is considered as aggravating the guilt. At the same time, there is a combination of deep devotion and dissolute conduct, which not only rapidly succeed, but actually coexist, in a manner never seen in any protestant society. It may be observed, that amid this thick darkness which covers the nation, a body of men has lately arisen, of active and enquiring minds, who have discerned the errors of the national creed, and have passed to the opposite extreme. They are comparatively small in number, however ; and, as already observed, even in their greatest triumph, although they consider- ably reduced the conventual establishments of Spain, they never durst attempt to introduce the toleration of any form of worslup diflerent from the catholic. '2469. SfKinUh literature, during the era of the national glory, supported itself at least on a le- vel with that of any other nation in Europe. Spain had, as it were, a literature to itself, scarcely any of the productions of which, if we except the inimitable satire of Cervantes, became familiar to the rest of Europe. During the middle age, she was rich in chivalric romance, the taste for which, however, was banished by the appearance of Don Quixote, a change which some lament, as having 'ed to the decline of the national spirit. The poetry of Spain, roused by so many vicis- situdes of internal revolution and transmarine triumph, took a somewhat lofty flight. The Araticanttof Ercilla, celebrating her conquests in the New World, is named together, tliough not on a level, with the best modern epics. Garcilasso de la Vega, Villegas, Mendoza, and others, cliefly officers in the army of Charles V., introduced a style formed on the Italian mo- del ; and, having the advantage of a noble and sonorous language, worked up their verses to the liighest polish. But it is in the drama that the Spaniards have been chiefly distinguished. Lope de Vega and Calderon, indeed, construct their plots witli an entire disregard of the unities, filled with extravagant incidents, and strained and artificial sentiments. But they display an inexhaustible fertility of invention, and often strong traits of character ; so that, though they never could be transferred entire to any other stage, they ftirnislicd useful hints both to the French and English dramatists. Mariana's History of Spain ranks among classical productions ; while Herrera and Soils, though of inferior merit, have produced valuable histories of the Spanish transactions in the New World. To Don Antonio de Soils the Spaniards are willing to ascribe that inimitable satire on human character and man- ners, Gil Bias, which must, they say, have been written by a Spaniard and a courtier, As such, he might rejoice that it had amply fulfilled his intentions without compromising his security, ''nd could very well aflTord to dispense with tJic fame which redounded to its reputed author, Lc Sage. These writers belong to the classic age of Spain, wliicli ia',irly expired with the seventeenth century ; but of late the intellectual spirit which h:is s| SPAIN. 471 '265 manct, UsUirii, Jovcltanos, and Arguellcs, havo cndcavoun'il to trace the causes which have paralysvil Spanish industry, and to discover the means of reviving it; Feyjoo has done much 10 ruusc a spirit of ruHection ; Yriartc, Isia, and Melcndez Valdez liavc produced agreeable initci'lliineuus writings ; and Moratin has adopted a more regular drama, formed on the French miHltl. Tlicrc '"■«' extensive public libraries } one, the royal library in Madrid, consisting of 130,000 volumes, with valuable manuscripts, and a rich collection of medals ; and others in the great provincial towns ; but the prevalence of monkish legends, and the prohibition of oiany of the most important standard works, greatly limit their value. The universities are numerous, and that of Salamanca once perhaps the most celebrated in Europe ; but educulion being conducted upon obsolete and scholastic principles, and impregnated with tk national bigotry, they have long ceased to attract students from any place out of Spain. Sonic of the younger members were supposed to have embraced novel ideas in regard to religion Biul government j whence they have become objects of jealousy to the government, uhii'li will probably be little anxious to rescue them from that decay into which they were thrown 1))' (lie events of the revolution. 'IW. The fine arts, especially painting, could boast in Spain of a distinguished school, iiiaiki'd by features strikingly national and original. It is characterised by depth, force, great truth of nature, and a warm expression of devotional feeling. Murillo, Uibeira (self-named Spagnoletto), and Velasquez, arc those alone whose works are difluscd through- out Europe; but by those who have visited Spain, Cano, .Tuaiies, Uibalta, and Morales arc mentioned in terms of iMjunl praise. The Escuriul and other royal palaces arc like- wise adorned by some of the finest pieces of Itapliael, Titian, and Rubens. This taste seems to have declined witli that of literature ; and Townshend observed that the nobles set little value on the magnificent collections with which their palaces were adorned. Of late the ellbrts to revive painting have been considerable, but without producing any artists of much celebrity. The Spaniards are fond of music, but delight rather in detached airs for the serenade and ball, than in that higher class in which the Italians and Germans excel. The guitar (fig. '265. ) as an accompaniment for song, and the castanets for the national dance, are characteristic Spanish instruments. 'J'I7I. The Spaniards have favourite anil peculiar diversioiis. They are most passionately atlaclii'il to tlie bull-fight: a large space is enclosed, sometimes the great square of the city, aruunii wliicli the people sit as in an amphitheatre. The bull, being introduced, is first altackcd by the picmlorcs, or horsemen armed with spears ; a desperate conflict ensues ; the liursc is frequently killed, or overturned with his rider, when persons on foot run in, and dis- tract the aiiinml, by holding tip different kinds of coloured stuflTs. He is next attacked by limiterilleros, or footmen armed with arrows ; and not only their skill, but their dexterity in ocape, ure tlie subjects of admiration : at last, when the animal is completely covered with nounds, tliu matador or slayer appears, and closes the scene. Tumultuous applause or liissing from the populace accompanies every part of this savage performance, according to llio respective merits of the bull or his assailants. The comparative excellence of diflerent matadores becomes often a party question, and the subject of keenly agitated discussion in the circles of Madrid. Wounds frequently, and death sometimes, are the result to tlie actora in this exhibition, for whose benefit a priest with holy water is in regular attendance. Not less is the fondness for the dance, particularly under its national forms of the fandango (fig. 266.), the bolero, and the guanaclio, per- formed with the Castanet in the hands ; and the two former especially consisting chiefly in movements expressive of passion, but so little consonant to the rules of decorum, that tlie in- dulgence shown to these amusements by the church cannot but be regarded as matter of surprise. "^V'2. The dress of the Spaniards is antique, and varies much according to the different pi'oviaccs ; that of the ladies consists chiefly of a petticoat and a large mantilla or veil, cover- ing the ii])pcr part of the person. The grandees, and the opulent in generul, display a pro- fusion of jewels ; the dress of the men is slight, and closely fitted to the body, with the ex- ception of a looso cloak thrown over the whole. The minister, Sijuillace, under Charles III., mm auiTAR. TUB rANl>AI«UO. 5Tf DESCKIPTIVE OEOOKAPHY. P*«T III. I having conceived llmt these cluaki, by concealing tlie person, served as a cover to deeds of viulcnc«i stationed persons at the corners of tlie streets, who seised the passengers, and ford. biy cut down this part of their dress to tlie legal dimensions { but this measure rai««d lo violent and general a clamour, that the king was forced to appease it by the sacrifice of ihi minister who had attempted such an obnoilous curtailment. 8473. Both in eating and drinking tlio S|)aniards are temperate ; the only noted niiionsl dish is the olla podrid", in wliich various meats, vegetables, and herbs are mixed together in u manner which even foreigners admit to be palataBle. The pleasures of society arc chieHi sousht at tertxtUat, or evening parties, where only slight refreshment is presented ; but refreicot or dinner parties are given on a large scale upon very special occasions. SicT. VII. Local Geography. S474. Of the diuiriont of Spain, the most prominent is into kingdoms or principaliiiei, each of which, at some period of its eventful history, ci^oyed an independent existence, though they are now merged into one monarchy. More recently the country has been split into s number of smaller departments or jurisdictions ; but the original distinction into kitigdumi, being founded upon natural limits, and maintained by feelings and impressions derived from former independence, is still the most interesting. The kingdoms arc New Castile, £stre. madura. Old Castile, Leon, Galicia, Asturias, Biscay, Navarre, Catatonia, Aragon, Vs. lencia, Murcia, Granada, and Andalusia. 2475. The foUowing table exhibits the divisions and subdivisions of Spain, with the ei- tent and population of each, according to Hassel : — Hquut i-uru- Intlon. ,B(|Uit Popu. fMsdrid Lmsuci. Aiturlas Utgan. lallKi. no 2 > • 1003 l,li6,(JU) Cueii^a !H5 3rti,m) Navarre - > • 205 mfui LLa Mancha 631 257,()0(> 1 Biicay 100 I45,l«« Eitrcmadura tl'W 55fi,()()(l BiKay . ' Ouipiiicoa - 52 138,1m) rBurgoi ets ()11I,(K)0 . Alava 'J02 93,(1(10 oidctiieji^;;'',,. •. : Ml ■iin,m) Aragon - 12,322 856,000 S9() 22I,(XJt) Valencia > • « ■ 613 l,4M,000 CAvila 215 I.M.IKHI Murcia . ■ « - 659 49.1,0(10 fU-on - 410 Jll,(J(JtJ Granada - • 805 l.» - ■ I^Xduiic ■ - : lfi.5 12n,(»K) Aiidaluiia Jacn 268 wM S71 aw.ooo ( Cordova 348 32i,000j Zamora 133 93,(l«)0 .Salamanca 471 273,000 1 2476. M't'f/i AVui CastUe, the central and metropolitan province, we commence our survey: it consists chiefly of an extensive plain enclosed between two of the long parallel mountain ranges, the Sierra de Guadarrama and the Sierra de Toledo. Along this plain, and parsllel to both ranges, the Tagus flows in a deep rocky bed. Beyond the Sierra de Toledo, the district of La Mancha, which we include also in New Castile, extends to a third parallel mountain range, the Sierra Moreno, dividing it from Andalusia and the southern pro- vinces. The plain of Castile Proper is elevated and naked ; and being thus exposed to the sun's direct rays, presents a bare and parched appearance. It includes, however, fertile valleys, producing wine, oil, grain, and fruits of various kinds ; but the inhabitants are ex- tremely deficient iii every species of industry. 2477. Madrid {Jig. 267. ), the capital of Castile, and of " all the Spains," stands on several low hills on the immense Castilian plain, which on the north appears bounded by the high dis- tant range of the Guadarrama, but on every other side has no visible termination. A small rivulet, the Manzanares, flows past the city, and falls into the Tagus. Madrid is a superb but somewhat gloomy capital ; the houses arc high, well built of good stone, not defaced by 267 Paut III. I cover to dcvdi of Mvngen, and forcU ineature raised lo the Micrifice of iht inly notvil national i mixed together in ' society arc chi(fl) L-nted ; but refnscot It or principalitiei, nt existence, though as been split into a tion into kingdumi, ssions derived from Mew Castile, V.An. Ionia, Aragon, Va- Spain, with the ei- Book !■ SPAIN. 47S ,8<|u>n ropu. Lmkih. lUlui. ; .-VWf 563,0(]0 1330 \jm,m 10(13 i,n6,uio 205 mm lUti 1«,U10 58 ia<,(ioo 90S 93,(IU) 1S,3S8 85(i,UJ0 (U3 \,m,m 659 49.1,(100 805 \mm 75« 970,(1(10: 2(18 2n,iioo! 3« 325,U»| immencc our survey: ng parallel mountsin lis plitin, and parallel ierra de Toledo, the I to a third parallel d the southern pro- r thus exposed to the des, however, fertile le inhabitants are ei- IS," stands on several nded by the high dis- rmination. A small Madrid is a superb stone, not defaced by unokc; the strwts arc well paved, and have iirond footpaths. The main street of Alcalii, long, spacious, and iMrdcrvu on each side by a r w of princely iioiises, attracts particular idmiration. The Prado, a wide public walk, burdi i il by trees, and coiiiivctcd with gardens ,11 open to the public, is equally conducive to ornament and pleasure, 'i'lierp are many public fuunlains, supplied with pure, light, and talubriuu:ovemment has established a manufacture of fine cloth on a great scale. It is of course an ill-conducted and unprofitable concern ; yet it supports tlie population of 12,000 or 14,000 in a degree of comfort not usual in Spanish towns. To the east, Cuenga is the capital of a mountain district of the same name, interposed between Valencia and the plain of Castile. It is a small ancient city, distinguished by a cathedral and some other monuments. 2480. La Mancha, sometimes reckoned a separate province, is the most southern part of Castile, from which it is separated by the Sierra de Toledo. It is an immense table plain, inte.-sccted by diiTerent ridges of low hills and rocks, without a tree, except a few dwarf evergreen oaks; or an enclosure, except mud walls round the villages. All this vast tract of open country is cultivated, and produces corn or vines : its wine, especially that of Val de Penas, enjoys a high repute. Its name, however, is chiefly familiar to the public as having given an appellation to the celebrated hero of Cervantes. The names of Don Quixote and Sancho Panza are familiar to the district ; and the dress of the peasantry presents still an exact model of that of the doughty squire. There are a number of large villages ; and Ciudad Real, the capital, is well built in a fine plain, though it has lost much of its former prosperity. Almagro and Ocafia arc also pretty considerable towns. 2481. Etlremadura forms a continuation to the west of the same plain as Mew Castile, traversed like it by the Tagus, and bounded by the same ranges of mountains. It is : fine, wide, wild province, diversified by rugged mountains, deep valleys, and almost boundless plains. The depopulation generally complained of in Spain seems more remarkable here than in any other province ; and vast tracts may be passed without seeing a human habitation. This seems chiefly owing to the pernicious laws of the Mesta, which assign it almost entirely for the occupation of the merino flocks, when they descend from the mountains of Leon. Estremadura, therefore, forms a vast pastoral district ; only a small proportion of its surface being necessary to furnish grain for its scattered population. Yet Book I> SPAIN. 579 ,gu)kc; the itmts wo well pnvcd, and have liroad footpaths. The main iircel of Alcalii, longi ipaciou*! and Iwrdcrvd on each tide by a r w of priiicel) lioiises, attracts particular ulniiration. The I'rado, a wide public walk, buriU i il by trees, and connected with garden* ill opvn to the public, it equally conducive to ornament and pleasure, 'i'herp are maiiy public fountains, supplied with pure, light, and salubrious water. Altered through hfds of gravel and sand, from a distance of seven or eight leagues. The gatot built by Charli'sIIlM ore uncommonly beautiful, particularly that of Alcala ; though Mr. Semple (rliiciMn their position in a miserable wall which might be battered down by a three-pounder in half an liour. The royal palace, built by Philip V., is a spacious and magniflccnt struc- lurci though the taste displayed in it is a subject of controversy. It contains numerous lino nuintiiig^i tliuugh not equalling those of the Escurial. Tlie llctiro with its fine gardens, wjj ili'faccd by the French, who made it a military post ; an extensive and costly menagerie, however, is now forming within its precincts, llic museum nf statuary and painting, a new md clegont building, has recently been enriched with some of the flnest pictures from the royal palaces. The cabinet of natural history, supported by the government, is also a hand- wmc structure, and its contents valuable. The environs of Madrid are not remarkable for heaut)'; they arc mucli broken into hills and hollows; so that, of the iXX) villages situated in ihem, only three or four can be seen at once. '.M78. Toledo, even in its present decay, excites an interest equal or superior to Madrid. Once the proud capital of .Spain, it has a commanding site on a lofty rock, almost insulated bv the Tagus. A position so strong rendered it a grand national bulwark during the long iget of internal warfare, but occasioned its desertion during peace, when it wa» felt as ex- tremely inconvenient, the streets being so steep that a carriage can scarcely drive safely through them. Its manufactures of wool and silk, which are said once to have employed nearly 40,000 men, have disappeared ; and government has in vain attempted to revive that of swords, of which those formerly manufactured at Toledo were valued above all others. lu population of 200,000 has been reduced to 25,000 ; and it presents a mere mass of nanow, deserted, winding, and dirty streets. Toledo, however, still exhibits two grand monuments ; the Alcaiar or palace, and the cathedral. The former is a noble and exten- sive pile, in a pure style of architecture, and the granite columns of the Corinthian order which adorn the inner court are particularly admired. The grand staircase and spacious gallery, no longer crowded with guards and courtiers, are now dirty, deserted, and silent. Tliis edifice, however, though neglected and decaying, still wears a stately and imposing aspect ; " and its handsome front, immense quadrangle, and elegant colonnade, declare it to have bfen the pride and ornament of a happier period." The cathedral is also one of the grandest edifices in the Peninsula. It was originally a mosque, built in a grand style ; but its simplicity has been much impaired by tasteless additions, and by the profusion of gild- ing, relics, and statues, with which its interior has been filled. It retained its wealth and splendour, however, till the late war, when its treasures became the prey of the invader, and its six hundred ecclesiastics were dispersed, leaving only a few to perform the sacred functions. 2479. T^oo other considerable toumt in New Castile are Guadalaxara, to the west of Madrid, where the government has established a manufacture of fine cloth on a great scale. It is of course an ill-conducted and unprofitable concern ; yet it supports tlie population of 12,000 or 14,000 in a degree of comfort not usual in Spanish towns. To the east, Cuenfa is the capital of a mountain district of the same name, interposed between Valencia and the plain of Castile. It is a small ancient city, distinguished by a cathedral and some other monuments. 2480. La Afancha, sometimes reckoned a separate province, is the most southern part of Castile, from which it is separated by the Sierra de Toledo. It is an immense table plain, inte.-sected by diiTerent ridges of low hills and rocks, without a tree, except a few dwarf evergreen oaks; or an enclosure, except mud walls round the villages. All this vast tract of open country is cultivated, and produces corn or vines : its wine, especially that of Val dc Pefias, enjoys a high repute. Its name, however, is chiefly familiar to the public as having given an appellation to the celebrated hero of Cervantes. The names of Don Quiiote and Sancho Panza are familiar to the district ; and the dress of the peasantry presents still an exact model of that of the doughty squire. There are a number of large villages ; and Ciudad Real, the capital, is well built in a fine plain, though it has lost much of its former prosperity. Almagro and Ocaua arc also pretty considerable towns. 2481. Estremadura forms a continuation to the west of the same plain as New Castile, traversed like it by the Tagus, and bounded by the same ranges of mountains. It is : fine, wide, wild province, diversified by nigged mountains, deep valleys, and almost boundless plains. The depopulation generally complained of in Spain seems more remarkable here than in any other province ; and vast tracts may be passed without seeing a human habitation. This seems chiefly owing to the pernicious laws of the Mesta, which isiign it almost entirely for the occupation of the merino flocks, when they descend from the mountains of Leon. Estremadura, therefore, forms a vast pastoral district ; only a small proportion of its surface being necessary to furnish grain for its scattered population. Yet fi74 DESCRIPTIVE GEOOIIAPHY. Part m, aliiccs of the EscurittI (fig. 'Jfi!).) and .San Ildefonso are striking objects in Old Castile. The " royal monastery '' of the Escurial was founded by Philip II. on a plan entirely congenial to bis gloomy mind. It unites the characters of a palace and a convcnl, and has the form of a grii'iron, the instrument of the martyrdom of St. Lorenzo, to whom it is dedicated. Attached to it is the Pantheon, a classic and sontewhat profane Mriicture, in which, however, are interred all the crowned kings and queens of Spain since Charles V. j 'Jb'8 Pam III. {)art of the Peninsula rhe Estremenos also ince, during the late B strange corruption , but much shattered ilington. Merida, the remains whicli it pre. riumphal arch, three lents, and in wonder- irth-place of Pizarro, iphies of his conquest, ining to it, TaWra lustre from being the var. In the extensive I Placencia ; tlie latter ■les V. In the ttioun- m, of '-he most savage Tiountains which forms id table-land, separated are rugged ; but it is, !ro in its early course. for the growth of com. re most striking. The ivated ; and of the fine supported by the aid of Id and central seat; the r proportion than in anj tile, and the highest In ?, not containing above !vv, towers the catlicdral, iiropc, and the form of ['he strong ancient castle, the French, that it sue- interesting monunitiitsut II imd Moorish grandeur. queduct (/«. '.^fiS.). «t rchcs, neariy half a mile ^nA in one place 94 feel is a stupendous Uoinaii ranked by Swinburne the Pont du Gard. The ar, or royal castle, »as il by the Moors on a rock oking a wide range of ry. After it came rate issession of the Christians, ■mployed as a state prison, , now a military scliool, ;enturies .tgo, S.-ovmhaa Iff the honour of liuviiiythc a, capital of a small pro- lassy walls, its towers, lU A a distance; but it is in L'turcs of cloth and coHon nautia, on the right bank i ital of one of the small.i so are striking objects in Ml by Philip n-'»"'l''»° f a palace and ;i i""vmi, of St. Lorenzo, u> «lion newhat profane Mrudure. of Spain since Charles \. Booit I. SPAIN. 973 269 The wealth of the Spanish monarchs has been continually employed In adding new oma- nts to this favourite residence, which is considered by the nation as the eighth wonder of ""^ the world; and large volumes have been filled with descriptions of it. The church and the great altar have scarcely a rival for magnificence and grandeur of effect The library is not exten- sive, but contains manuscripts, especially Arabic, that arc of ga'at value. The collection of paint> ings, it is probable, yields only to that which covers the walls of the Vatican. Besides select pro ductions of Murillo and otlicr BscuniAi. masters of the Spanish school, it contains several of the greatest works of Raphael, Titian, and others of the first Italian masters. The environs are wild and naked in the extreme, without shelter from the cold blasts of winter, or the intense heats of summer. On the opposite declivity of the same moun- tains, looking towards the north, San Ildefonso, witliout any pretensions to equal magnifi- cence, is fiiit'y surrounded by woods, gardens, and beautiful jets d'eau. Aranjuez stands in quite a (liirerent situation, on the lowest plain of Castile, at the junction uf the Tagus and the Xarama, It is cliicfly admired for its magnificent woods and gardens ; the former carried in long and spacious avenues, the latter containing in profusion the finest native and exotic plants. '.'487. Leon forms a continuation of the plain uf Old Castile, along the lower course uf the Duero, ani hounded by the same ranges of mountains. For several centuries it was the seat of a kingdom, comprising the chief Christian power in Spain, until it was united to that of Castile, It is almost entirely within the domain of the mesla, and thus devoted principally to pasturage. The consequent depopulation has been very great ; insomuch that, according toTownshend, the bishopric of Salamanca, which once contained 748 townships, is now re- duced to 3.S3. The vast extent of open plain which forms the centre of this province has been found highly favourable to an invader who possessed superior cavalry ; such as the Moors once, and more latterly the French. 2488. The cities of Leon are almost solely interesting from the traces which they preseitt of ancient grandeur. Leon itself, by its highly ornamented cathedral, its nine convents, and its ancient palace, testifies the remote period when it was the seat of royalty ; but a hetero- geneous assemblage of dirty streets filled with beggars, splendid churches, and half ruined family mansions, are ail that it now presents. Salamanca, by its university, has acquired a much greater fume. Tliis seminary, one of the first in Europe, was founded in 1200, and estended during the same century by Alfonso the Wise, celebrated for the progress which astronomy made under his auspices. From the medical knowledge of Aviccnna, Averroes, and other Arabian sages, it derived a character superior to those of the other monkish tini- vorsities during tlie middle ages. Salamanca, however, remained stationary in the four- teenth century ; and, while sound science was spreading through tlie rest of Europe, con- tinued to occupy its students with dogmatic theology, and with the worship of Aristotle and .'kquinas. Its students, once reckoned at 16,000, have been reduced to less than 2000. Salamanca is crowded with sacred edifices, to enrich which, all the four corners of the world have been made to contribute ; and on days of high festival the display of silver and precious stones was altogether dazzling. The cathedral and the principal square arc very magnificent, but the streets are narrow and gloomy. Captain Shercr, in 1813, found Salamanca quite a deserted city ; only a few of the old professors and youthful students still lingered in the lolleges, or paced the spacious aisles of the elegant cathedral. Of the latter, some, as I appears from Mr. White, notwithstanding the antiquated course of instruction, had adopted I modern and liberal ideas, and in the late crisis obeyed the call of their country and of liberty. The French having made Salamanca a military position, a great part of the place w.is levelled or battered down ; and subsequent events have not been fa- 1 vuurubic to its restoration. We must not, however, dismiss Salamanca without noticing I the new lustre it has derived from giving name to one of the most splendid of Wellington's I victories. 'J489, Valladolid has a great name in history. Charles V. made it his capital, and it con- Itinued to l)e the residence of the Spanish court until Philip IV, removed it to Madrid, In Ithcsc splendid days Valladolid was supposed, perhaps with some exaggeration, to contain 1200,000 inhabitants, now reduced to a tenth of that number. Yet it covers a very large space lof ground; and the numberless spires, domes, and turrets of its sacred edifices give it still ■the appearance of a large m'itropolis. Its university is attended by 2000 students, and Itaught by forty-two professors and fifty doctors. After a very marked period of decay. 8f6 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III, Valladulid experienced lately a considerable revival. Its environs are particularly healtl and agreeable. '' 24 90. Several other large ilecayed towns attest the farmer grandeur of Leon. Zamora and Torn both on the Duero, arc capitals of two of the small provinces. Benavente is distin^uislicd b ' its castle, which has been described as one of the grandest monuments of the age of cliivalrv^ and Tordesillas was a royal residence in the reign of Charles V. Astorga, once capital of the Asturias, and one of the bulwarks of the Peninsula, has lost its strength and magnitude Palencia is also a small capital, pleasantly situated on the Carrion, having a littlv jnlau i trade. Ciudad Rodrigo is a national barrier on the Portuguese frontier, still kept up as i strong fortress, which sustained successive sieges during the peninsular war, 2491. Galicia, separated by its mountain boundary from Leon, forms the south-western corner of the Peninsula. It is entirely a highland and alpine region, broken into neaeA rocks and narrow passes, though witlj valleys of great fertility and of peculiar beauty inter- s])ersed. The Gallegos arc industrious ; and the country is better peopled than many of the more favoured regions of the Peninsula. They are hardy and enterprising, and often leave this barren territory to seek employment in the cities of Spain and Portugal, where, like the Scottish highlanders, they act chiefly as porters and servants. The shores and ports of Galicia arc celebrated in naval history, forming as it were the outer coasts of Europe bcitcn by the waves of a tempestuous ocean, and where fleets from the distant quarters of the globe often made their first appearance in Europe, and met with hostile fleets on the watch for them. 2492. T/ie interior towns nl is a I'on- lording to Townshend, Iplcte harbour, carries I villages, giving their le consequence, in the lope of the Pyrenees. ■ channel of the Upptr Book I> SPAIN vn Ebro. "The Basques are a peculiar race, preserving the only remnant which revolutions have left in the Peninsula, of Celtic language and aspect. Under the name of Cantabria, this reeion presented a barrier even to Roman conquest ; and though the Saracens penetrated through it into the plains of France, it is still boasted that they never could reach the moun. tains of High Cantabria. The Basques, amid the general slavery of Spain, have still pre- served some portion of their original rights. They have a cortes of their own ; and the tales levied by provincial authority are presented to the sovereign in the form of a free gift. Every native Biscayan is an hidalgo or noble, scarcely owning a superiority of birth in the nroudest Castilian. With all this they are excessively industrious ; the mountain declivities ^e cultivated as high as the plough can reach ; and while the finest plains of Castile arc nearly a desert, Biscay's rude vales ore covered with a numerous population. ^497. Tlie cities in such a district cannot be large : yet Bilboa, the capital, situated on the Ybaizabal, which admits large vessels up to the town, is one of the most commercial places in Spain. Most of the merino wool from the plains of Castile is brought hither for exportation. Biscay Proper contains also Orduna, a neat little city, and numerous villages. Cuipuscoa is another district, lying more to the east, and in closer contact with France. Its capital is St. Sebastian, an indifferent port, but a neat, tolerably large city, and so strongly fortified as to be considered one of the four keys of the kingdom ; the others being Pamplona, Darcelona, and Figueras, Fontarahia, close to the frontier, has a great name in history, but little else now left. The small village of Irun stands on the immediate bank of the Bi- dassoa, whose broad clear stream, descen ding from the Pyrenees, forms the boundary between two rival and long hostile nations. More in the interior, and on a lower level, is the district of Ahva, having for its capital VUtoria, a somewhat well-built modem town, and celebrated as the theatre of the complete victory there gained by the Duke of Wellington over the French army under Joseph Bonaparte, which was thence finally expelled from the Peninsula. 2498. Navarre is a small province or kingdom, lying immediately beneath the highest and steepest Pyrenees. Eight very difficult passes penetrate through them into France, but scarcely any one passable for the artillery and train of an army. The principal is that of St. Jean Pied de Port ; on the French side of which is Roncesvalles, or Roncevaux, celebrated in history, and still more in romance, for die disaster which there befell Charle- magne and his knights. For many centuries it formed a separate little kingdom connected with France, until Ferdinand the Catholic succeeded in annexing to Spain all the part south of the Pyrenees. Navarre retains, however, privileges and customs peculiar to itself, and its governor bears the title of viceroy. The population is active, hardy, and brave. The bands of guerrillas under Mina proved the most formidable irregular force with which the French had to contend in the Peninsula. Pamplona, the capital, the foundation of which is ascribed to Pompey, is one of the chief bulwarks of the Peninsula, and one of the strongest fortresses in Europe. It was reduced by the Duke of Wellington, and by the French, in their last invasion, after a long blockade. There are also Tudela and Calahorra, little towns on the Ebro. 2499. Aragon, south from Navarre, is an extensive province, extending along the greater part of the course of the Ebro ; whence it reaches on one side to the Pyrenees, and on the other to the chains which shut in the Castiles and Valencia. A great part of it is rugged and barren ; though other tracts in the central plains, and along the rivers, are very sus- ceptible of culture. Aragon, during the middle ages, was a powerful kingdom, comprising Catalonia and Valencia, forming the half of Christian Spain, then divided between it and Castile. Even after the union of the crowns under Ferdinand and Isabellr, it still enjoyed iu constitution and its cortes, which exercised higher prerogatives, and kept the power of the kings under stricter limitations, than any similar assembly in Europe. Of these it was deprived by the unfortunate issue of the civil war under Charles V., and more completely bv the Bourbon succession, at\er Aragon had espoused the cause of Charles of Austria. Tlie peasantry of this province are a fine body of men, stout, brave, and honest. Culture and population are generally in a backward state ; yet the canal of Aragon, conducted parallel to the course of the Ebro, though it has not yet reached the sea, according to its destination, has given a considerable impulse to the agriculture of the district through which it is led. 3500. Saragassa, or Zaragoza, the capital of Aragon, is a large and celebrated city, situated amid a fine plain, on the banks of the Ebro and of the canal of Aragon. From Augustus, who enlarged and improved it, the city was called Ciesar- Augusta, corrupted into Saragossa. It is not well built, the streets being narrow and crooked ; but thore are several open market- places, and some very splendid religious edifices. The principal is that dedicated to the Virgin, under the title of " Our Lady of the Pillar ;" an object of the most profound vener- ation to the citizens, and enriched by offerings from every part of Spain. The church of St. Engracia is also filled with relics and gifts ; and each of the forty convents of Saragossa I'as its peculiar boast. A stone bridge, and the finest wooden bridge in Europe, arc thrown over the Ebro. The university has 2000 students, but not much literature. Sara- gusta has earned an immortal name by her heroic resistance against the unprincipled in- Pp i 578 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part IU. i i i vasion of Napoleon, in 1 808. Witliout walls, cxcupt an old one of earth, which could not resi for an hour an attack conducted on nionlity merged. The Catalans, however, bore more imp.itiently than other Spaniards the loss of their privileges; and during the war of the succession, on receiving a pledge for their restitution, espoused with extraordinary ardour the cause of the Archduke diaries. Even after its unfortunate issue, when deserted by Britain and all the other powers, they made a last dreadful struggle, which ended, however, in the loss of all those rights for which they had so nobly contended. In the lost two wars, Catalonia acted a most conspicuous part ; maintaining an unremitted resistance to France, notwithstanding the close vicinity of that kingdom, and in the late constitutional struggle making efforts, both for and against liberty much greater than any other province. 2503. Barcelona is, after the capital, the largest city, and at the same time the most in- dustrious and flourishing, of all Spain. It is situated about the centre of the Catalonian coast, and draws its subsistence from a fertile and extensive plain behind. It is said to have been originally a Carthaginian town, founded by Hamilcar Barcas ; but rose to little dis. tinction under the Romans, who made Tarraco the capital of all eastern Spain. It was not till the twelfth century that Barcelona began to be distinguished for its commercial spirit It suffered severely during successive wars, particularly that of the succcssior ; but in the course of the last century, the exertions of its patriotic governor, the Marquis of Mina, enabled it to retrieve all its losses, and become more prosperous than ever. The port is artificial, formed by solid and convenient moles, but has a bar at its entrance, which ». eludes vessels drawing more than twelve feet of water. It carried on a great and various traffic ; had woollen, silk, and cotton manufactories, all on a considerable scale ; about a thousand vessels annually entered its port ; and the whole amount of exports was reckoned by Laborde at 1,750,000/. Though decayed, it is still considerable; in 1831, there woro imported, cotton to the value of 218,000/. ; sugar, 160,000/.; fish, 76,800/.; hides, 56,'.W,; cinnamon, 40,000/. ; indigo, 36,000/. ; cocoa, 41,000/. ; staves, 11,000/. ; dye-woods, 9,600/. .Among other articles, there were exported from Catalonia, 30,000 pipes of wine, value 120,000/. ; 1 1,000 brandy, 88,000/. ; 30,000 bags of nuts, 45,000/. The ecclesiastical edi. ficcs of Barcelona arc handsome, particularly the cathedral, though not of so grand a character as those in some other parts of Spain. The convent of the Dominicans has a singular scrio of ornaments, the sentences of five hundred heretics decreed by the Inquisition, and under each soitencc a representation of the sufTcrer, whom the demons, in various shapes, arc tor- turing and devouring. The walls of Barcelona arc strong, but its chief dependence is upon the citadel of Montjuich, which commands it, and is coasidercd almost impregnable, tlioujih j the Eorl of Peterborough took it by surprise. At the close of the war of the succession, when i Barcelona was besieged by the Duke of Berwick, a terrible and almost frantic resistance**! made in the streets, not by troops, but by priests, students, tradesmen, and even women; tiie consequences were terrible. Bonaparte, in 1808, obtained by treachery and threats tlic cession of this and the other keys of the kingdom ; but it was afterwards restored. | 2504. There are severiil other large, ancient, and strong towns in Catalonia. Tarragoni, the Roman capital of the east of Spain, has fallen into great comparative decay. It is I situated on a rocky peninsula, and presents many traces of Roman antiquity, as of the pi- lace of Augustus, the amphitheatre, and an extensive aqueduct. More recently, the harlxwi I has been improved, and some new streets built ; and in the war of 1 808, the fort-ficaliom I were restored, and the city made a brave defence against Marshal Suchct, who at lenpl I carried it by storm, with circumstances of great cruelty. Tortosa is also a considerable aal | ancient city near the mouth of the Ebro, which is there broad and navigable. Itmadeil distinguished figure during the wars with the Moors, chiefly through the exploits ufinl Boo« I- SPAIN. 579 same time the most in- entre of the Catalonian liind. It is stud to have . but rose to UtUe dis- rtem Spain. It was not ror its commerciai spint succcssior ; but in the the Marquis of Mina, IS tlian ever. The port 1 its entrance, wliich n- d on a great and various nsiderable scale; about a of exports was recknnri Lie; in 1831, there wm ?6.800/.-, hides 56,i00U ,; . aye- woods, 9,6001. DOO 'pipes of wine, value [i The ecclesiastical cdi. Ltofsograndachatactei icans has a singular M.« he Inquisition, and undet ■-.a various shapes, are tor. I chief dependence IS upon Lost impregnable, thou^ l,ar of the succession, wta most frantic resistance .« U, and even women ;tbe P; and threats the ccssto. Is restored, 'comparative decay. 1<» .of%08,thefort=ca.« ,,°aS«chct,whoatlcog is also 8 considerable a»l kud navigable. ltn>af tough the explo.« of.. 270 heroines, to commemorate whose valour o military order wns iitHliltUi'd by Hiiymond Bc- rcnKcr. Its [Misition on the river aHbrds scope for i\ voniiidvrnblo liiidoj and iliiring the last war its fortifications were restored by the Spuniiirdx. Uotwvon the two Inst-mentioned cities has arisen, within the last half century, Hihih, a largv fluiiriitliinu induxlriotis town, carrying on various manufactures, particularly of bnuidy and leather. All tlicsc are on the coast west of Barcelona. To the east the chief place in Ueronn, n Inrno gloomy town, in li fine situation. It is well fortified ; and its resistjmce, prutrnvted for more than half a year, (0 the unremitted eflbrts of Bonaparte's generals, formed one of the iHo«tt glorious events of the peninsular war. Rosas, a little town, prettily situntetl in n tine bay, exports cork and other timber. In the interior, Lerida, distinguished as n Rnmun Mnlion under the name of Ilerdi is a large and strong town, situated in a most delightf\il country on the banks of the Scare. A considerable stand was made hero l)y the piitrlotie iirinlcM tensive coast running from north to south, and is the tirst of the southern provinces. The plain ranks as the garden of Spain, and almost of Europe. The fields of corn j the yellow green of the mulberry plantations, the pale hue of the olive; the woods, villages, and convents, thickly scattered over this great expanse, with numl)erless slender steeples, present, when united, an inimitable landscape. The country Is finely watcivd by the Xucar, the Guadalaviar, and other rivers, numeroim though not of Umg course. A great extent of artificial navigation was formed by the Moors, and is still kept ui>, though not in a very complete state. The province yields, in nbundiinee, the usual pitHlucts, corn, wine, oil, silk; with rice enough to supply the greater part i)f Spain, and hitrllln for exportation. Tlie Valencia.ns are very industrious, and of a gay disposition. Colonies fVom the south of France, introduced by the first Christian conqueror, brought with them a portion of the spirit of that nation. 3506. Valencia, at the mouth of the Guadalaviar, is one of the largest and moKt flourisliing towns of the kingdom. It is of Roman origin, but its fame dates (Voni the eleventh cen- tury, when it was conquered by the Cid from the Moors, and ruled os a lief by that greatest of the Spanish heroes. It was the scene, however, of long-continued contest; ond its final annexation to Christian Spain did not take place until a century and t\ half later. The lofty Halls and towers of Valencia are now nearly demolished, and in the war of liherty neitlicr it nor the province made any very conspicuous figure. The silk nmnufiicture is one of the most extensive in Spain, though checked by an absurd prohibition against the exportation of its produce. In a levy during the late war, exemption was granted to upwards of ;K)00 iilli-wcavcrs, that the trade might not be interrupted. There are also nianufnctures of woollens and paper. The Grau, or port of Valencia, is only an indltrerent roadstead, and the commerce not nearly equal to that of Alicant. The citv, though large and rich, is not handsome ; the streets bein^r narrow and winding, and borilered by high old houses. The I churches and convents arc of course numerous, and many of them richly ontnmrnted, but I none very prominent in architectural beauty. They are adorned, h(»wever, with nume- rous |)icturcs by some of the most eminent Spanish |)aintcrH, natives of Valencia ; Juanes, Uihaltn, and others, whose works arc unknown in this country, but tiro admired by those I who have visited Spain, The religious festivals of Valencia are celebraletl w ith a childish pomp, in some degree disused in other parts even of this coinilry. On these occasions, I all the most memorable events and most illustrious charactei'K in sniptuiv history on) P 1. i ' 580 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pam III. represented either by figures in wicker-work, or by citizens fantastically attired. The exhibitions of this kind, amounting annually to a hundred and fifty, give great occasion to idleness and dissipation ; yet the attempts to reduce their number have been hitherto un. successful. S507. Alieant, situated at the bottom of a bay on the southern frontier, ranks high as an industrious and commercial town. Its prosperity is modern, chiefly owing to the refuge which its lofty castle afforded horn the dreadful irruptions of the Barbary corsairs. Even since this danger ceased, Alieant has continued to be a fortified town ; and none of the invadinir armies in the late war were able to obtain possession of it. In consequence of the disordered state of the country, its population has declined, from 20,000 in 1820, to 14,000 in 1830. In 1831, however, there still entered its port 970 vessels; and there were exported, almonds to the value of 19,5701, ; barilla, 47,400/. ; wine, 16,270/. The chief imports consisted of, sardinas, valued at 44,300/. ; linen, 34,800/. ; codfish, 19,100/. -, tobacco, 4,380/. The her! ring and other fisheries are coiriej on with considerable activity on thb coast. 2508. Among other important tctms may be mentioned Elche and Orihuela, large and flourishing places, in the very finest part of the plain of Valencia. Segorbc and Liria are pleasant interior towns towards the frontier of Aragon. San Felipe, under the name of Xativa, made a distinguished figure in the war of the succession; when, after beine demolished, it was rebuilt by Philip V. under its present name. Denia and Gandia in the south, and Peniscola in the north, are sea-ports on a smaller scale. But all these places yield in ancient fame to Murviedro, occupying the rocky site of the ancient Saguntum, the siege of which formed the commencement of the career of Hannibal. The long resistance of this powerful and unfortunate city forms the first of the many remarkable sieges which have distinguished the Spanish annals, ancient or modem. The Romans restored and made it a great colony, and the Moors erected a range of fortifications on the summit of the hill • so that its mountain site is now covered with ruins of various dates and descriptions. Half- way up the eminence, the outline of a theatre capable of containing 9000 persons may still be traced ; and a few ropemakers plying their trade alone break the silence of this august ruin. Murviedro is a small town still fortified, though the resistance made by it in the last war was not formidable. 2509. Murcia is a small province, partly bounded on the south-east by the coast, which here changes its direction from southerly to westerly. Its vale is almost without a rival for beauty and fertility, even in southern Europe. Its natural fruitfulness is greatly aided by the numerous canals of irrigation which the Moors drew from the river Segura. These advantages are little improved by the present inhabitants, who are noted as exhi- biting, in a peculiar degree, all the blemishes of the Spanish character ; its pride, its bigotry, and its laziness. Even the song and the dance do not inspire gaiety in its vales, as in all the rest of Spain ; almost the whole time of the people being spent in eating, sleeping, and making cigars. A sullen and vindictive spirit is said to lurk under this outward apathy. Few Murcians have made a figure in literature, in the arts, or in public life. 2510. The cities of Murcia, if we except its port of Carthagena, do not merit particular notice. The capital, bearing its name, is an irregular, ill-built, ill-paved large town. The ecclesiastical edifices, however, are very costly, and the front of the cathedral, according to Mr. Townshend, produces a splendid effect with its sixteen Corinthian columns of mar- ble, and thirty-two images as large as life. The interior does not possess equal elegance, but is chiefly distinguished by the proportion of gold, silver, and jewels, not to mention the relics, which are accounted by the faithful as of much superior value. Lorca is a large town, built with some elegance, and surrounded by fine promenades. It had extensive fabrics of silk and saltpetre, which were reviving, when a singular accident arrested their progress. A speculati.e individual had collected all the waters of the neighbourhood into an immense leservoir, whence he supplied them to the cultivators for purposes of irrigation; but this receptacle, not being fully secured, burst at one point, destroyed part of the ;^uburbs of Lorca, desolated a great 1. stent of country, and reached even Murcia. Totana, a populous village, is enriched by the copious production of barilla in its i .Ij;' hourlood. The castle of Ali -irza \Jig. 271.), pic- turesquely seated on a height, is cele- brated as the spot near which, in 1707, jvas fought the celebrated battle which decided the Spanish succession in favi>ot of the house of Bourbon. 2511. Carthagena, situated in Murda, though scarcely belonging to it, forms one of the few great Spanish emporia. This celebrated capital of ancient Spain was founded by As- driibal ; and when taken by Scipio, in the year of Rome 550, was considered one of the most Part III. lally attired. The e great occasion to e been hitherto un. Ti ranks high as an to the rcfiige which rsairs. Even since 3ne of the invading ice of the disordered , to 14,000 in 1830. e exported, almonds mports consisted of, 3,4,380/. The her. is coast. Orihuela, large and gorbe and Liria are under the name of when, after being inia and Gandia in But all these places :ient Saguntum, the The long resistance irkable sieges which IS restored and made summit of the hill ; descriptions. Half- 100 persons may still ilence of this august nade by it in the last t by the coast, which most without a rival Iness is greatly aided I the river Segura. 3 are noted as exhi. acter ; its pride, its gaiety in its vales, as It in eating, sleeping, this outward apathy. c life. not merit particular >d large town. The ihedral, according to an columns of mar- issess equal elegance, not to mention the le. Lorca is a large had extensive fabrics rested their progress. lod into an immense irrigation ; but this X fully secured, burst ^royed part of the desolated a great and reached even a populous village, copious production ;^vhourI-ood. The ;a' Jig. 271.), !)ic- in a height, is cole- lear which, in 1707, ;brated battle which succes^on in favmit lurbon. it, forms one of the was founded by As- Icred one of the most Boot I. SPAIN 581 omilcnt cities in the world. It wm nowly destrovcd by the Vandals, but was restored by Philip II'i "O'i '"*" <'^*" *'"'"' ountliiiiuti to fluurisii. It ci^joys one of the finest ports in Europe, consisting of a bay Nhelterud bv high mountains from almost every wind. Tho stapks arc the same as at Aliunnt. Ihe pupiilntion in 1830 had fallen from 30,000 to 27000. In 1831 there entered iU port 701 «liip», tonnage 28,400. The fishery is also considcVablc. There ore few Muroiuii runldeiitH, and tho trade is carried on chiefly by Enzlish, French, and Italian liouNeN. The streets are wide, and the houses ogrteable, with terraced roofs, commanding a view uf tho wa ) but ninthcr here nur at Alicant are there any structures, even ccclesiastieal, ut all worthy uf notice. 2512. Andalusia, takon in Its inoMt cuinprehcnsive sense, is the largest of the Spanish iiruvinces, and, we may add, tho flnust and most remarkable, both as to nature and art. The Guadalquivir, with numerous and large tributaries, waters its whole extent. Its mountains, covered in many places with perpetual snow, are the Jofliest, its valleys the most fruitful, in Siiain. Andalusia, indeed, comprises four celebrated kingdoms; Granada, Seville, Cor- dova and Juen. They contain also grent capitals founded by the conquering Moors, which were the seats of science and splunduur, wliuti (he greater part of Europe was plunged in rudeness and barbarism. 2313. Granada, which is somotlinvs called Upper Andalusia, was the central seat of Moorish power and magnificence, li^ven amid the general decline of that power in Spain, Granada was still supported by the niulliliitics who resorted thither from the subdued pro- vinces. Its fall, in 1493, was conHldered tho most deadly blow which Islamism ever received; and in all tho raosqucM prayers are put up every Friday for its restoration. Gra- nada presents a wonderful coinblnatiun *;f all that is most wild and sublime, with what is most soft and beautiful in natural scenery. North from the capital rises the Sierra Ne- vada, covered, as its name imports, with perpetual snow to a great depth. Mula Hascen, the most elevated peak, is stated by Mr. Jaeult to be 12,762 feet above the sea; while the line of pen'ctui'l snow begins ot about 10,000 feet. The Alpujarras, a lower range, arc cultivated with considerable ilillgeiice, by descendants of the Moors, a remnant of whom found refuge here, amid tho general itroscrlptlun of their race and nation. The Vega or plain of Granada, watered by nuinoruuM streams descending from the high regions, displays nature in her utmost pomp and beauty. 2514. The city of Granada m in the heart of the Vega, beneath the loftiest heights of the Sierra Nevada. This city still displays ninplo monuments to attest the period when it was the great western capital of tho Moslem world. Nothing can exceed the beauty of its approach. " The rich and populous cotnitry well supplied with trees, the clear rivulets descending from the mountains, and nrtifielully contrived to intersect it in every part ; the splendid city extending in a half-moon tVoin tho river, on the gradual ascent of a hill ; the streets rising above each other | the pri)l\iKion of turrets and gilded cupolas ; the summit crowned with the Allmmbra; tho hnikgroiuid composed of the majestic Sierra Nevada, with its summit covered with snow ; complete n scene to which no description can do justice." Mr. Jacob, who thus describes tho scene, cutiKlders it not too much to have travelled two hundred miles of bad rood to see It. The Interior, ns in most Spanish and especially Mo- hammedan cities, docs not correspond to the approach. The streets are narrow, the walls high and gloomy ; many quarters are now deserted ; and marks of decay and splendid poverty are every where visible. But the eye of the curious trav lur is soon attracted towards the Alhambra [fig, 272.), the ancient iiulace niid fortress ot the kings of Granada. It is the noblest specimen existing of Moorish architecture ; and nothing perhaps in Europe, out of Italy and Greece, can come into competition with it. The site is fine, resembling that of Wind- sor, on a hill above the river. Its exterior structure, however, is the reverse of beautiful : a huge heap of ugly buildings huddled together, with- out the least seeming intention of forming one habitation ; the walls only gravel and pebbles daubed over with plaster. On entering the threshold, however, the visiter seems transported into a fairy scene. He passes through a range of apartments ; the baths, the Court of the Lions ; the Hall of the Abencerrages ( fig. 27!».) i the Golden Saloon, or Hall of the Ambassadors ; the Gate of the Sanctuary of tlie Koran (fid., 274. ) j ihe Tower of the Two Sisters ; with others, in which the various resources of Oriental pomp ore disploycd, olong with all that can refresh the eye or the sense in a sultry climate. The courts are all paved with marble, andsur- l» p ;> Tun AI.IUMSS*. XS-2 OESCRll'TIVE OEOORAPHY, Pam III. rounded with marble pillarii, in u puru nntl l)caiitif\il taste ; nnd the walls and pnvfmcnt atv 273 ""^^"""^ 274 RAM or Tltn ARRNCBHIUUIW. QATB OV TUB lANCTUARV Or THB KORAN. profusely ornamented with gilded arabesque and mosaic (Jig. 275.), the colours of which, by an ort wliich seems to have l)een lost witli the Moors, are as brilliant as when they were first laid on, five hundred years ago. Water is made to spout into the air, or, in smooth sheets 275 ^ ^^^^^^ ^mW" ^^^ ain&2SWm nypM p@R^ ^ 1 vj ^^B M m . HMAIO PAVBMB!«T. bordered with llowers, rcfreslies the interior of the apartments. After the expulsion of the Moors, Charles V. built on part of its site a new palace, the external architecture of which was much superior; but it was never finished. The Generalife is another Moorish palace, in a more elevated and finer situation ; but its interior splendour, though great, is quite eclipsed by that of its neighbour. The cathedral, though it must yield to these Moorish structures, is yet of considerable extent and beauty. Granada is the seat of one of the two high courts of chancery, and of other tribunals of high jurisdiction. It retains a certain proportion of its former immense silk manufactures, with some of woollen and leather ; and a considerable number of persons are employed in extracting the nitre with which the neighbouring soil is copiously impregnated. 25IJ. Malaga bus in modern times attained a greater importance, and is reckoned the third poit in the kingdom, ranking next to those of ('adiz and Barcelona. The chief Pam III. lU and pnvvinent .i^ Booitl- SPAIN. 58S '4 Any or thb Koran. colours of which, by when they were first or, in smooth sheets he expulsion of the chitecture of which ler Moorish palace, ough great, is quite i to these Moorish t of one of the two It retains a certain jn and leather ; and re with which the nd is reckoned the Mlona. The chief r niulatioii of its trade Is tliu fine wliic called Malaga or mountain, |>roduc«d in the nuincrouH I Ills behind it. It is raised at very great ex))L>nse, and oidy upon the declivities which have ^,,pusuru to the sun. The country produces also very flnc raisins and other fruits ; nnd nchovies are caught and cured on tlic coast. The exports from January to Novemberi I8i)4i consinted of, raisins, 4:)7,42r> arrolns (of 25 lbs. each); lemons, 115,550; wine, 4jO')73i brandy, I5,2G0; oil, 16',532 ; orange and lemon peel, 34,730; figs, 13,866 cwts. Malaga has a very secure, though not extensive harbour, formed by artificial moles. It lien in a deep hay, on a little plain overhung by lofty and craggy cliffs, which at a distance appear nuite naked, but on approaching, every crevice is found to be filled with vines. This: situation riniders the heat very severe, and has aided in exposing the inhabitants to the destructive ravages of pestilential fever. The streets are close, narrow, and dirty ; but the cathedral is an ancient and very noble pile, and contains, likewise, paintings by eminent Spanish masters. 2516. Other very considerable loimis occur in Granada. Five leagues to the east of Malaga is Velvz-Malaga, most delightfully situated in a plain diversified by numerous irentle hills, clothed to the summit with vines, while the plains below wave with luxuriant harvests of grain. Farther cast are the small ports of Motril and Almeria ; the latter ancient, and celebrated in the history of the Aloors, under whom it was highly prosperous and IJourishiiig. Near it is the rock of Filabrcs, 2000 feet high, composed of a single block of white marble ; and beyond it stretches into the sea the bold and huge promontory of Cabo (le Gato. Giiadix, Baza, and Purchena, are considerable interior towns, in the eastern part of this province, seated in valleys enclosed by the numerous ranges of hills which intersect it. Santa I'Y", two leagues west of Granada, is remarkably exposed to earthquakes, which have split its cathedral in two, and laid open the cells of one of the convents ; yet the citizens still inhabit an 1 keep it in repair. Alhama is strikingly situated amid a circuit of pre- tipitous rocks, through which dashes a rapid stream. It is frequented for the salubrity of its air, and for its medicinal springs and baths. Antequera is very ancient; filled with Itoinan and Moorish monuments, and still large; the adjacent country is very fertile, and distinguished for the variety both of its vegetable and mineral productions. Ronda, (fig, 27(5. ) capital of a wide mountain 276 / ^ J district, is singularly situated on a rock with perpendicular cliffs and broken crags, through a deep fissure in which the river flows, and surrounds the city on three sides. It is crossed by a stupendous bridge 1 10 feet in diameter, and 280 feet in height. Stairs of 350 steps lead down to the river, and gardens have been formed "'""'*• on some level projecting points of the precipice. The mountaineers of Ronda are an honest, active, hardy race ; and so healthy as to make it a proverb, that " at Ronda a man is a boy at eighty." The vicinity of Gibraltir gives them great opportunities for snmggling, which they carry on in large bands, and In open resistance to government, without, however, incurring any imputation on their general loyalty. 2517. The kingdom of Seville, east of Granada, is a still finer region, and perhaps superior to any other in the Peninsula. Its plains arc the most productive in wine, oil, and fruits ; tlie noble river Guadalquivir conveys its products to the sea ; and Seville and Cadiz are, in some respects, superior to all other Spanish cities. 251K. Sei'ille {fig 277.) is situated in the midst uf a fertile and delightful plain, and near the mouth of the Guadalquivir, 277 iiS>,, which formerly admitted vessels of large size : it was a great city from the earliest period. By the Romans it was celebrated under the appella- tion of Hispalis : its foundation was ascribed to Hercules ; and, with the neighbouring colony of Italica, it formed the capital of Baetica. Un- der the Moors it became an inde- '^^^^>J^'^J^3^^^^^'"':^^'^-^^~' pendent kingdom ; and if it be true ~~^ that, on its capture by Ferdinand the Catholic, 400,000 Moors marched out at one of its gates, it must indued have been an immense city. Notwithstanding the depo- pulation thus occtsioned by bigotry and treachery, it soon became more splendid than ever. In consequence of lieconiing the emporium of the wealth which flowed in from the western hemisphere. Its manufacturing industry was then also very flourishing. By a return made 1' i> J 584 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 1'art III. \m 278 to government in 1601, Seville was said to contain 16,000 silk looms, giving employment (o 130,000 workmen. It frequently received an increasie of splendour by becoming a royal residence. Since the above period, Seville has not only declined with the gradual decline of Spain, but has suffered by the filling up of the channel of the Guadalquivir, which has rendered it navigable only for small ships, and has transferred to Cadii the commerce of America. Seville is now a solemn, inert, gloomy city. Like other Spanish places, particularly those of Moorish origin, its streets arc narrow, winding, and dirty ; but it contains aoine splendid publii; edifices. Foremost stands the cathedral, the largest ecclesiastical structure in the Peninsula, 420 feet long within, and 373 broad ; but the most striking feature is its tower, originally erected by the learned Oeber or Guever, and used as an observatory, but raised by the Christians tu the height of 350 feet. Many of the convents also are 'very splendid, and previous to the late invasion by the French contained numerous works of the greatest Spanish artists, of whom Seville wa , the chief nurse. There was, above all, a splendid collection of the works of Murillo, the prince of these artists, and a native of Seville. Of these treasures the city has been in a great measure despoiled by the ravages of the invader • Marshal Soult, in particular, has in his collection numerous master-pieces of Murillo, by which the convents of Seville were formerly adorned. Seville has still 2500 silk looms ■ and government maintains a cannon foundcry and a tobacco manufactory. The £i! change and the Marine Academy are also handsome edifices. i2519. Cadi* (Jig. 278.) is, in an equal degree with Seville, the boast o," Spain. In the commercial unnnls of the world no city is o( I ighcr antiquity, Tortessus, cocvipying a site in its vicinity, wtis one of the earliest and most flourisliiug Phoenician culonies. Afterwards Gadeira, or Gadt-s, was rccog. nised by the Greeks and Romans as one of the chief European emporia. In modern times, when commerce did not form part of the European system, Cadiz declined into a secondary rank ; and the intercourse with America was at first nearly monopolised by Seville. The circumstances which transferred it from that city to Cadiz took place early in the last century, when the latter rose to be h . chief theatre of Spanish commerce, It enjoyed for some time the entire monopoly of the American trade ; and even when, in 1778, it was tlirown open to the whole kingdom, it had taken such deep root in Cadiz as to frustrate all competition. In 1784, when the entire imports from America were 12,630,000/, that city, for its share, had 1 1 ,280,000/. ; and of the whole exports, amounting to 4,300,000/,, it had 3,600,000/. Notwithstanding severe shocks, in consequence of political revo- lutions, and the war with England, it always revived, and derived a temporary greatness from becoming the capital of the constitutional government. It received, however, lis mortal blow by the separation of the colonies. Still, in 1835, there entered its port 29'! vessels, tonnage 40,300 ; and there cleared out 298 vessels, tonnage 40,300. The imporia were estimated at 141,100/., the exports at 1«222,500/. There is believed also to be a great contraband trade, much aided by the vicinity of Gibraltar. Tlie city is situated on a small neck of land, at the point of the long Isle of Leon. It does not boast any remarkable structures, but the whole is elegantly built in regular squares, and streets with a square court in the centre and an awning over it. 'J520. Gibraltar (Jig. 279.), though no longer Spanish, forms also a striking and important feature in this province. This rock is celebrated from the earliest antiquity as one of the two " Pil- lars of Hercules," which guarded the entrance into the Mediterra- nean ; though Mount Calpc, on the opposite side, is considerably loftier. In 1704, Sir George Rooke and Sir Cloudesley Shovel carried this fortress by a coup it mains since which time Spain oinRAiTA.. ^^ ^^^jy gjtgnjpted ,0 jjgain possession of it. Her grand effort was towards the close of the American war, when the fleets of France and Spain rode masters of the sea. A combined attack was made on the 13th of September, 1782, by the two powers, with fifty sail of the line, 30,000 troops, and ten mighty floating batteries, which were expected to demolish all opposed to them. They kept up a tremendous fire from ten in the morning till mid. Doot I- SPAIN. ving employment to y becoming a royal the gradual decline lalquivir, which has lii the commerce of ti places, particularly lit it contains aome iclesiastical structure triking feature is iti I an observatory, but nvents also are very mcrous works of the above all, a splendid > of Seville. Of these kges of the invader; pieces of Murillo, by itill 2500 silk looms; mfactory. The £x. St o? Spain. In the \ annals of the world o( I igher antiquity, coctipying a site in y, WB3 one of the nd most flourishing I culonies. Afterwards or GaduH, was rccog. le Greeks and Romans ' the chief European In modern times, amerce did not form lie European system, irica was at ftrst nearly that city to Cadiz took > of Spanish commerce, ic ; and even when, in eep root in Cadiz as to Brica were 12,630,000/. mnting to 4,3OO,O00(,, ice of political revo- a temporary greatness received, however, its entered its port SM 40,300. The imports cved also to be a great is situated on a small boast ony remarkable streets with a square striking and important this province. This irated from the earliest one of the two " Pil- cules," which guarded e into the Mcditcrra- igh Mount Calpc, on side, is considerably ,1 1704, Sir George Sir Cloudesley Shovel fortress by a coup dt e which time Spain attempted to regain American war, when jombined attack was fifty sail of the line, ected to demolish all ;he morning till raid- night, at which time imokc and Arc were seen rising from the batteries, which before next morning were reduced to ashes, with a dreadful destruction of the assailanbi. No subxt)- qucnt attempt has been made ; nature, in fact, has rendered Gibraltar almost impregnable. The rock is precipitous on all sides, and is connected with the continent only by a narrow neck of marshy ground. The western front alone towards the sea is in any degree accessible | and this is defended by batteries cut in the solid rook, and by other extensive works. Gibraltar has one handsome street, the houses of which are l>uilt in the English style, with trees and Havers skilfully planted in scanty fragments of soil. Tho rest of the town is close, crowded, and dirty, inhabited by about 20,000 people, chiefly' Moors and Jews, the latter of whom lind refuge from Spanish bigotry, and have four synagogues. The expense of maintaining Gibraltar is considerable : but it forms an important naval station, a depot for the commorco of the Mediterranean, and a channel for introducing into Spain goods declared contraband by its jealous policy. In 1836, there were sent out thither British produce to tho valuo gf 756,000/., of which 600,000/. were cotton manufactures. 3521. Among other placet of some importance it Tarifa, the most southern part of Spaini ind even of Europe, and the probable place of the landing of Tarik, with tho Saracen army destined for the conquest of that country. Seated on an almost insulated rock, it is still a fortress of some strength. Algesiras, on the opposite side of the bay, has grown up as a small rival to Gibraltar ; its popuhition consists chiefly of smugglers and adventurers. In the interior is the flourishing and populous town of Xeres, situated in a wide region of vineyards, producing the wine called Sherry, the consumption of which is so general in thiscounuy. Mr Jacob supposes the entire produce to be 40,000 pipes, of which 15,000 are eiportcd, one half to Britain. Ecija, a large town, was famous as a scene of contest between the Christians and Saracens, and afterwards as tlie head quarters of a most fonnidable band of robbers ; but its walls are now in ruin. Lebrija and Carmona are ancient towns, containing Roman monuments of considerable grandeur. The districts to the north and west of the Guadalquivir ore mountainous and rugged ; though Huelva and Moguer, at the mouth of the Tinto, and Ayamonte, at the mouth of the Giudiana, derive tome importance from their situation, and carry on a little fishery. i52i, Cordova (Jig. 280.), on the upper part of the course of the Guadalquivir, is another 280 kingdom of Andalusia, de- riving its chief interest from the celebrated capital of the same name. Corduba, founded by the Romans, was not only a provincial capital, but the seat of an university, which could boast the great names of co»novA. Seneca and Lucan. It displayed, however, a far higher pomp, when, afWr the Saracen conquest, it became the first capital of Uie Mohammedan empire in Spain. Under Abdelrahman and Alman- sor, it is represented as containing 1600 mosques, and nearly 1,000,000 people. Ad- mitting a certain exaggeration, its past greatness it clearly attested by the vast and now almost empty circuit enclosed by its walls, in a great measure filled with palm trees and gardens, and by the astonishing re. mains of its mosque. This vast edifice presents nothing very striking in its exterior, which is in a great measure hid by the surrounding streets. But when the stranger enters any one of its nineteen gates, he is astonished and bewildered by the endless labyrinth of columns which stretch before him in every direction (J^. 281.). These columns have almost defied the attempts to number them j by one writer they have been estimated at 1400, but are generally stated as exceeding 400, dividing the mosque into nineteen aisles, and producing a perpetual and sur- prising change of scene to the visiter. The edifice, how- ever, though it astonishes by its immensity, docs not equal in elegance those erected during that more refined age when Granada became the capita.. The Christians have converted it into a church, and erected in the centre a choir of great beauty, but quite out of harmony with the Saracenic part of the structure. Cordova, though its days of splendour are long departed, still enjoys delightful .»T.»,o. „, «„«,„, „ CO.DOT*. environs, producing a breed of horses the finest in Spain, I of which a splendid stud was lately kept by the government. There is also some rem- «8« DESCRIl'TIVE UEOOHAPHY. P*M HI. iiunl of it« once cxtciitivo inaniiructuri-R, particularly of that fliic upcvivn of leather c»llt<(l t'ruiii it Cordovan. The population in iiu|i| Cambossedes values the entire produce of the isle, in 18i20, at 53,000,000 reals, about 660,000/. Of this, about 34,000,000 are in grain and pulse, 5,000,000 in oil, end 2,500,000 in wine, 1,500,000 in fruits, 3,000,000 In hops, and 2,000,000 in sheep. Palma, the capital of Majorca, is a considerable town, slightly fortified, inhabited chiefly by the nobles, who possess the greater part of the isle, and have rarely sufficient activity or curiosity to visit their estates. In no Spanish city are indolence and superstition more prevalent. There are thirty convents, some of which enjoy a revenue of more than 2000/. a year. Processions and religious festivals, celebrated often with great tumult, form the chief amusements. In these it is customary to deck up figures of Judas, with tablets containing the enumeration of his crimes, among which that of being " chief of the liberals " was lately included ! 2525> Minorca is a much smaller island, more barren, covered with bare and rocky mountains, and destitute of any trees at all lofty, the gruwtli being prevented by the violent winds from the sea. But it is distinguished for one of the finest harbours in Europe, Port Mahon, which being strongly fortified, has been a subject of eager contest to the maritime nations. Having been taken by England in the Succession War, it was recovered by tlic French in 1756, notwithstanding Byng's attempt to relieve it. After several other vicissi- tudes, it remained with Spain. The harbour is extensive, possesses deep water, and is sheltered by hills on each side from every wind. The town has nothing of a Spanish aspect ; the streets being broad, the houses small but neat, the people a stirring and active race, who scarcely allow themselves to be called Spaniards. During the late French war, being protected by the English navy, they made considerable wealth by privateering. Cividadella, though of smaller extent, is the nominal capital, and the residence of the nobility. Iviga, or Iviza, is a small isle, of rugged surface, which forms one immense mountain, shooting up into a variety of summits. The island is thus refreshed hy cool breezes and numerous streams, and yields readily all the productions of this climate, parti- cularly figs. In the quarter called Los Salinas, salt is evaporated by the heat of the sun, and exported to the extent of 15,000 tons. Chap. VII. rOKTUOAL. 2526. Portugal has by political causes alone been separated from Spain. Tlicre is no physical peculiarity by which the two kingdoms arc distinguished. On the contrary, all tlic grand natural features of Spain arc prolonged into Portugal, and become Portuguese. 2527. Sect. I. General Outline and Aspect. The boundaries of Portugal are the Atlantic Ocean on the west throughout its whole extent, and also on the south ; on the north the Spanish kingdom of Galicia ; and un the east those of Estremadura and Leon. The greatest dimension is from north to south, or from 37° 3' to 42° 12' north latitude, and from 6° 15' to 8° 55' west longitude. Its surface has been reckoned at 40,875 square leagues. 2528. The vwunlaiiu of Porlunnl may be considered as prolongations of those of Spain, I Book !■ PORTUGAL. nn s of those of Spain, chii'Hy uf tlic cliiuni of Ousdarrama and Toledo, and tho«o in the north of Oallida. ThoM rangiiii ai'lilom rising to thu Aral magnitude, cover ulmoit tho wliolo country, leaving between iliein niiiiiy picturesque and fertile valleys. Tiieru are only two eitensivo plaint, one on tlia louth of thu Togus, and thu other between the Moiidego and the Douro. 23'.'!)- The river$ (jf Port u I Ml conAtt chiefly of tho spacious temninationi of tho greatest itreami of Spain, in their progress to tho ocean. The Douro forms the great maritime emporium uf Oporto, and the Tagus that of Lisbon. Tho Ouadiana, also, in its lower course, l*ows along thu eastern frontier of Portugal. Tho Minho, a much smaller stream, comes down from Oalicia ; and the M ondego, alone, is entirely PortuguoM, flowing nearly icrou the breadth of the kingdom. SicT. IL Natural Gtography, SuasccT. 1. Gedogy, 2530, This kingdom ha* the lane general geognotikal Uructure and compotilion as Sp.iin. The mountainous parts of thu country are generally of gneiss, mica slate, and other Neptunian primitive strata, occasionally intermingled witli Plutonian rocks of granite and pur|)hyry. Secondary fonnutiunH of limestone occur in tho Sierra d'Estrclla, and in ilio vicinity of ('a|)u St. Vincent, and all around Lisbon and at Cape St, Vincent tho strata are of rucks of iliu tertiary class, more or less intormingled with trap rocks. 2531. Mines, It appears that the Carthaginians wrought tin mines in this part of thu Peninsula. It is asserted that there were formerly mines of tinstone in the granitic moun. loins uf thu nvi^lilKoirhood of Viseu, in the province of Beira, at the place called Burraco do Sunno, Lead ores were worked in the last century, not far from Mogadouro, on the banks of the Sal)our, in the province of Tras los Montus, and near Longroiva, on the banks of the Rio Frisco. Near Mogadouro, mines of graphite or plumbago occur. Iron mines also occur in the sannu country, near Fulguiera and Torre dc Moncorvo. They supply the iron forge of Chapaciinha. Two very old establishments of the same kind occur in Portuguese Estre- madura, one in the district of Thomar, the other in that of Figuero dos Vinhos. They arc supplied by mines of red oiide of iron, situated in tho frontier of that province and of tho province of Beira. There is a deposit of cinnabar at Couna. Tho mountains of the neigh- bourhood of Oporto every where present indications of copper snd of other ores. In Por. lugal, as in Spain, the sands of rivers were washed for the gold they contain ; and it is said in this way large quantities of the precious metal were collected. At present there is but one gold mine in I'urtiignl, at a place called Adissa, in the district of St. Ubes. Its annual produce ib triHing : in the year 1815 it was 41 lbs. of pure gold; 1816, ISlbs.; 1817, Il'bs.; 1318, I2lbs. ; 1819, 13lbs.; 1820, 12lbs. ; and in 1821, ISlbs. Beds of coal occur at Vialongo, to the N. N. £. of Oporto ; and there is a mine of coal at Cabo de Buarcos In the province uf Bvira. SuBSECT. 2. Botany. , ?j32. The Botany at Portugal is included under that of Spain. SuBsECT. 3. Zoology. 2533, The zoology cannot be very different from that of Spain ; but no documents have appeared to illustrate either the one or the other. The horses are rather small, and alto- gether infurior ; but the mules are fine, and nearly equal to those of Spain. Improvement, however, is neglected : nor have thu indolent Portuguese profited by crossing their sheep from the merinos of Spain. A long-legged race of swine is common to both kingdoms, and furnishes excellent hams. Sect. III. Historical Geography. 2534. The Carthaginians and Romans, who occupied tho Peninsula, did not recognise Portugal as a distinct country. Their Lusitania included a part of Spain, and did not comprise the whole of Portugal : Merida, in Estremadura, was its capital. Portugal, like Spain, submitted successively to the formidable irruptions of the Goths and of the Moors. 2535, The existence of Portugal as a distinct kingdom dates from the termination of the cicventli century. At that time, Henry, duke of burgundy, having married the daughter of the duke of Castile, obtained as her dowry thi> riorthern part of Portugal, which had been rescued from the Moors. The capital, at that time, was Porto, or Oporto, whence the modern name of the kingdom appears to be derived. His successors gained a scries of conquests, and obtained possession of Lisbon and the southern provinces, carrying their conquests to the frontier of Seville. 2536. The fifteenth century, and the reigns of John and Emanuel, formed the true era of the greatness of Portugal, when it outshone all the other kingdoms of Europe. Confined on the land side within narrow limits, it opened for itself a vast career of maritime discovery and conquest. Spain, indeed, shared this pursuit ; but her first acquisitions were made by private individuals, partly foreign, with only faint assistance from the government ; while 188 DESCRIPTIVE OEOGRAPHY. P*»T III. the Portuguese expeditions were planned, fitted out, and all the resources for them supplied by the government. Their flag, at one time, floated victorious over all the eastern seas ■ while in the west, by the possession of Braiil, they came into some competition with Spain.' 2537. A disastrous eclipse of the Portuguese tnonarc/it/ took place in the sixteenth century, in consequence of the rash and romantic expc<{ition undertaken by king Sebastian into Mo- rocco, where he himself and the flower of liis troops were cut ofT. Hereupon Philip H, of Spain, a powerful and ambitious prince, raised a claim to the succession, which the superiority of his arms cniibled him to secure. Portugal, with all her eastern and western possessions, then became an appanage to the crown of Spain. The connection was cvery way unfortunate. Not only did she luso her political and civil liberty, but many of her finest foreign possessions were wrested from her by the Dutch, the spirited and active enemies of Philip. 3538. The restoration of the monarchy, in \G^0, was still more sudden than its fall. The deei^rooted indignation of the people was combined into extensive conspiracy, which, havinz been concealed to the last moment, burst forth at once : the Spaniards were driven out, and , the duke of Bragania raised to the throne, under the title of John IV. Yet Portugal did not thus achieve any revival of her ancient glory. Tiie new monarch soon re-estahlislied absolute power : a sluggish and indolent character pervaded all the departments of govern- ment ; its foreign possessions were lost or neglected { and Portugal continued a stranger to all the improvements and energies which raisetl Britain and France to the first place in the ■ystem of Europe. Yet, during this period, the elevation of our enemies, the Bourbons, to the Spanish throne, led to a very intimate alliance between this country and Portugal, the natural foe of Spain. It was cemented, in 1703, by a commercial treaty, in which Portugal ■ecured an exclusive market for her wines, while Britain obtained a market for her woollens, and an arrangement by which the gold of Broiil might find its way into her ports. 2539. The recent convulsions of the Peninsula have been very amply shared by Portugal. Regardless of the neutrality which she had strictly maintained, Bonaparte, by a most unprovoked aggression, sent Junut, in 1 807, to take possession of Lisbon. The king did not attempt a vain resistance, but sailed for Braiil, and established his court at Rio de Janeiro, The British arms, and the glorious achievements of Wellington, drove the French out of this part of the Peninsula, and finally out of the whole. Afterwards Portugal imitated the example of Spain in compelling her monarch to grant a representative constitution ; but again, by a counter-revolution, she re-established an absolute monarchy. More recently, on the death of the late king, Don Pedro proclaimed the separation of Brazil from Portugal, reserving the former to himself, but granting to the latter a charter, the observance of which was made the condition of holding the throne. This charter has been rendered nugatory by the successful usurpation of Miguel, brother to Pedro, who, however, having occupied 0|>orto, has endeavoured to support the claims of his daughter, Maria de Gloria. Sect. IV. Political Geography. 2540. Portugal, after the downfall of the feudal system, and especially after her subjection to Philip II. became one of the most absolute of European governments. The will of the sovereign, and a constant system of intrigue, directed all its operations. The Marquis of Pombal and one or two more enlightened men found their w.iy into the ministry ; but, in general, measures were as ill conducted as possible, and corruption prevailed in every de- partment of the state. The course of justice was equally polluted ; and, no adequate salaries being allowed to the judges, they were under an olmost irresistible temptation to accept bribes. The pride of the nobles was nearly as great as in Spain, without being accompanied by the same lofty sentiments. They arc divided into two branches, the tilulados and the hidalgos, and have held the peasantry in a subjection little short of slavery. 2541. The army i^ Portugal, prior to the mxtlulion, though composed nominally of 30,000 men, was in a most meflicient state, not through want of physical courage or discipline in the men, but from the incapacity of the oflicers, and the general defects of the military system. When the French, however, iiad been driven out of Portugal, un army of 40,000 men was levied, and disciplined by British oflicers, under the superintendence of Lord Bercsford ; and thus prepared, the Portuguese acted, during the eventful war which followed, in a manner tliat would not have disgraceil any troops in Europe. The army is still maintained ; and though the new government will not brook British command, yet, under its influence, Por- tuguese oflicers of merit have been formed. 2542. The navy, which was never considerable, was corricd out with the royal family to Braiil, and has never been restored. Skct. V. Productive Industry. 2543. The industry and commerce of Portugal, wliich presented so brilliant an aspect during her era of prosperity, have sunk lower than those of almost any other European nation. Book I- PORTUGAL. 589 e royal family to 2544. Agriculture did not, until very lately, experience any of the improvements which have become general in the rest of Europe. The plough is composed of three pieces of wood awlcwardly put together, and imperfectly aided by the clumsy machinery of wheels. Though generally very fertile, this country did not produce a third of the grain necessary for the supply of its inhabitants. Of late some improvement has taken place, especially by the introduction of potatoes ; and the dependence upon foreigr supply has been considerably diminished. The chief object of attention is the vine, which, with the olive and other fruit trees, h cultivated with the utmost diligence in the valleys and on the sides of the hills, in the elevated province of Entre Douro e Minho. Here is produced abundantly the port wine, which forms the main basis of Portuguese trade, and finds so copious a market in Britain. The entire produce is estimated at 80,000 pipes. Of white wine Portugal produces about 60,000 pipes ; but this is of inferior quality, and chiefly consumed at home. Sheep are bred on the hills, to a pretty large extent ; but not so abundantly as in Spain, neither is their wool so fine. 2545. The manufactures of Portugal scarcely deserve to be named. Little is known be- Tond the working of their wool for domestic use by each family or neighbourhood ; all their finer fabrics are imported. According to a late obser/ant traveller, ignorance, or at least an imperfect knowledge of the commonest arts, is conspicuous among the Portuguese. Their carpenters arc the most awkward and clumsy artisans that can be imagined, spoiling every thing they attempt ; the wood-work even of good houses being finished in a manner that would scarcely have been tolerated in the rudest ages. Their carriages of all kinds, their agricultural implements, locks, keys, &c., are ludicrously bad. Working in gold and silver plate forms almost the only exception ; cambrics also are well made in some places ; and a few other local objects might be enumerated. 2546. Of mines andfsheries, the former is not at all cultivated, though great materials for it Are said to exist ; but in the absence of trial this may be only conjecture. Fish of th« finest kinds, particularly tunny and sardinias, are caught in considerable quantity for immediate consumption ; but the salt which tlie kingdom so abundantly produces is not used for preserving them ; and a large import of salted fish is still necessary to meet tlit wants of a population so rigidly catholic. 2547. The commerce which formed the greatness of Portugal when her portt inter- changed the products of the East and the West, is now a mere shadow. The loss of her Indian possessions, and the separation of Brazil, have reduced her to the common routine of export and import. The staple of the former is port wine, for which the market of England was secured, Krst by favouring duties, and now seemingly by an established predilection. It is raised almost solely for this market, and the best is bought up by English merchants at Oporto. Salt, formed at St. Ubes by solar evaporation, and wool inferior to Spanish, are also exported. 2548. The exports from Britain to Portugal in 1834, were officially valued at 4,051,000/. ; the imports at 691,000/. Of the former the chief heads were, in 1836, — apparel, value 11,000/.; butter and cheese, 61,700/.; cottons, 28,000,000 yards, &c., value 615,000/.; yarn and twist, 23,600/. ; hardware and wrought iron, 75,000/. ; linens, 16,700/. ; silks 6,600/. ; woollens, 186,000/. ; grain, 9400 quarters; rice, 87,000 cwts. ; tobacco, 205,000 lbs. The chief imports into Britain in the same year were, cork, 54,581 cwts, ; lemons and oranges, 61,000 boxes; goat and kid skins, 37,000 ; wool, 1 ,653,000 lbs. ; wine, 4,pi5,000 gallons. In the same year the exports of Portugal to France were 66,500/. ; imports 150,000/. 2549. The internal eommunications of Portugal consist of the several noble rivers which traverse her territory, and which are navigable throughout. The intercourse by land is ren- dered very difficult by chains of mountains extending in the same direction. Nothing has been attempted on any important scale,- either to improve these advantages, or to amend the defects ; so that travelling is worse in Portugal than in any other European country. SxcT. VL Civil and Social Slate. 2550. The population of Portugal, according to the last census which was taken in 1798, amounted to 3,683,000; calculating at the somewhat high estimate of five to a family. Upon a surface of 40,000 square miles, this gives a density of about ninety-two to the square mile, which is remarkable, as exceeding that of Spain nearly in the proportion of three to two The exemption from the mesta, and the high cultivation of the province of Entre Douro u Minho, appear to be the redeeming circumstances in her case. 2551. No nation, as to character, owes less to the opinion of the world than the Portuguese. They arc described as indolent, dissembling, cowardly, destitute of public spirit, and at tlio same time fierce and deeply revengeful. In Spain it is said, strip a Spaniard of his virtues and he becomes a good Portuguese. From a late minute inspection, however, the peasantry (/17. 282.) have been pronounced to be a fine people; and, on repeated occasions during the late war, they displayed energies not unworthy of their ancestors, in an ago when their glory resounded throughout both hemispheres. Almost all, however, that Hoatu SSK) DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P*M III. on the surface is base and degenerate. There cannot be a doubt that this may be taem] 282 ascribed to priestcraft, to the stupifying infli^c of a sluggish and tyrannical government, and to the general corruption which has pervaded all the branches of administration. 2552. The established and exclusive religion is the catholic, in its extreme and most degrading excess- and the body of the people are almost entirely under the thraldom of the priesthood. The burn- ing of Jews continued till within the last half century. The physiognomy of a large proportion of the people shows their descent from this hatei! race, whose teneta many, it is probable, still cherish in secret. There are, in Portugal, about 550 religious houses, of which 150 are nunneries The number of two archbishops and thirteen bibhops is not so disproportionate rOHTUOVUH riAlANTRT. {.fig- 283.). 2S3 FBIAK AHD IfDN. 2553. The literature of Portugal, during the period of its glory, was by no means contemptible. The genius and fate of Camoens spread his name throughout Europe, and entitled him to rank among the few modern epic poets. By the students of Portuguese literature, however, Saa Miranda and Antonio Ferreyra arc reckoned scarcely second to him; and Rodriguez Lobo held the nation long enchanted by the sweetness of his pastorals. At the same time Di Barros Castanheda, and Fana y Sousa, recorded, in mag. nificent though somewhat inflated historical nar- rative, the mighty exploits of their countrymen in I he African and Indian seas. The subjection to Spain gradually divested Portuguese literature ofits manly and energetic character. The muse of history was silent ; poetry assumed the form only of the sonnet, and Gongora infected it wholly with a strain of false and meretricious ornament. The house of Braganza for some time did little for knowledge ; but in the be- ginning of the last century, the Conde de Ericeyra introduced the French literature, and founded a royal academy. In the course of the century, Barros Pereyra, Antonio da Lima, Manuel da Costa, a Brazilian, Correa Garcas, and Paulino Cabral, a bishop, made not unsuccessful eiTorts to revive the ancient Portuguese poetry, and to introduce that of Italy. Portugal has two universities. That of Coimbra, founded at Lisbon in 1 290, was transferred to Coimbra in 1 308. It enjoys some celebrity, is divided into eighteen colleges, and is still attended by several hundred students; but the course of study is of that obsolete description which prevailed during the middle ages, A smaller university was founded at Evora in 1578. 2554. For the minor particulars of amusement, dress, food, &c., reference may be made to Spain, as Portugal has no peculiarities that are more than provincial. Sect. VII. Local Geography. 2555. Portugal is diviiled into the following six provinces, several of which, like those of Spain, in reference to events in their past history, are sometimes called kingdoms : — Estremadura - Alemtejo • Algarvc - - Beira . . . Entre Douro c Miiilio Tras OS Montes 2556. Estremadura occupies a Tagus, without ever penetrating and picturesque surface. It is capital. 2557. Lisbon (Jig. 284.) is si almost considered an arm of the and the swell often tempestuous, than that of perhaps any other Square Leagues. 823 883 232 753 291 455 Extent in English Acres. 5,450,880 5,848,320 1,536,000 4,994,600 1,927,040 3,007,760 Population. 826,860 380,480 127,613 1,121,595 907,965 318,665 great extent of coast, both to the north and soutli of the very deep into the interior. It presents a rocky, varied, chiefly important, however, as containing I>isbon, tlii' tuated near the mouth of the Tagus, which may here ht sea, since not only the tide flows up, but the water is salt. The approach to it presents a more magnificent spectacle city of Europe. The city rises direct from the water, P*M III. this may be gKmly ! "ui"»ymg influence ■' government, and to i has pervaded all the exclusive reli^n is the lost degrading excess; •■ are almost entirely lesthood. The burn. within the last half of a large proportion icent from this hatet! probable, still cherish Portugal, about 550 150 are nunneries ; so disproportionate. Portugal, during the means contemptible, oens spread his name ntitled him to rank )ic poets. By the ature, however, Saa •reyra are reckoned id Rodriguez Lobo ted by the sweetness ime time Di Barros, «, recorded, in mag. iflated historical nar- their countrymen in Portuguese literature poetry assumed the alse and meretricious ;dge ; but in the be- rench literature, and 1, Antonio da Lima. a bishop, made not 3 introduce that of isbon in 1290, was to eighteen colleges, f study is of that aller university was ice may be made to I'hich, like those of kingdoms : — Population. 826,860 380,480 127,613 1,121,595 907,965 318,665 h and soutli of the Its a rocky, varied, Jning Lisbon, the which may here be ut the water is salt, agnificent spcctaric :t from the water. Book I- PORTUGAL. 591 |)e described. croffning the sides and summits of several hills ; which, according to the Portuguese, are leven in number, like those of Rome. The palaces, convents, and churches, which crown 2g^ this amphitheatre of buildings; the dazzling whiteness of the houses; the light appearance of the windows and balconies ; the tasteful arrange- ment of plants, shrubs, and flower* on their roofs and terraces ; thv golden orange groves which adorn the suburbs, and the stately speci' mens of Indian or American botany which are scattered through the "■""*"'• scene, produce an effect that cannot The noble harbour, also, crowded with vessels; the numerous pilot and fishing-boats, with their large, handsome lateen sails, ascending or descending the river ; and, nearer the shore, hundreds of small neat boats, with white or painted .iwnings, finely vary the scene. The moment, however, that the stranger lands, and enters the place, he finds that he has been imposed upon by a brilliant illusion ; and the guy and glittering city is found to resemble a painted sepulchre. The streets are narrow and ill paved ; the houses gloomy, with here and there a latticed window ; filth and nuisances assault him at every turn. Lisbon does, indeed, appear to be the dirtiest and most noisome city on the face of the earth. In passing through the streets, a stranger encounters at every tum the most disgusting effluvia. Every species of vermin destined to punish in- dolence and slovenliness, the mosquito, the scolopendra, and a species of red ant, multiply to an extraordinary degree. Nor is Lisbon found, on inspection, to exhibit that architectural beauty whic'i it promises on a distant view. It might have been expected, among forty churches and seventy-five convents, built by a superstitious people, that there would have been some signal display of this kind ; but this is not found even in the cathedral. The defect seems partly owing to the mean taste of the Marquis of Pombal, who ordered them to be all built on a line with the street, to preserve a dull uniformity. Two handsome squares, however, have been formed, the Commercial and the Roscio, which are connected by nell-built streets ; but the absence of trees, or even shrubs, and the blinding sand that drifts through them, combine to produce a disagreeable effect. Lisbon derives an awful interest from the ruins still left of the great earthquake of 1 755, the most dreadful catastrophe which ever befell a modern European city. Six thousand houses were thrown down, 30,000 in- habitants killed; and a conflagation kindled which spread a still wider destruction. The ruins are the more dismal, as they portend similar disasters, which the earth, still heaving from time to time, perpetually threatens. Meantime Lisbon displays one very grand fea- ture; the aqueduct, to the construction of which, though it conveys the water only half a mile, peculiar obstacles were presented. It is carried in one place through a tunnel, and in another over a defile 230 feet deep, by arches, which are said to be the highest in the world. Tlie widtli of the centre arch is 107 feet. It was built in 1738, by Manuel de Maya ; and is of such solidity that it withstood the shock of tbo great earthquake. The population was reckoned in 1820 at 240,000, but in 1830 only 200,000. 3558. The viciniti/ of Lisbon presents some beautiful sites and palaces. Cintra is the must striking, consisting of an immense mountain, partly covered with scanty herbage, partly with broken, huge, and varied piles of rock, elsewhere presenting thick groves of cork, elm, oak, hazel, and other trees. It includes many lovely and fr^'-ivlc spots ; but the view from it i» naked and dreary. The town, at the bottom, with its old palace, has nothing remarkable ; but the sides are covered with delightful villas, one of which is notorious for the signature of the unhappy convention of Cintra. Mnfra is a royal convent iiuilt by John V., in emulation of the Escurial ; but though a stupendous pile, 700 feet square, and containing numberless suites of ill-furnished apartments, it ranks far below its model. Only five miles below Lisbon, of which it is considered a suburb, is Belem, the site of a palace and a very magnificent monastery, founded by Emanuel, and in which many of the royal family have been interred. 2559. There are several other towns of some note in Portuguese Estremadura. St. Ubes, or Setubal, lios sixteen miles from Lisbon, on the coast south of the Tagus, on a long interior bay, the waters of which, evaporated by the heat of the sun, leave the excellent bay- mlt, one of the national staples. The town is considerable, having been well rebuilt since the earthquake of 1 755, when it was almost totally overthrown. The mountain of Ursabida, here extending into the sea, forms a bold and striking promontory, covered with trees and various vegetation. Ascending the Tagus, we come to Santarcm, a considerable and ancient town, the Froisidiuin Julium of the Romans. It has an academy of history, established in 1747. Here the great French army, under Massena, remained long posted, iinablo to penetrate to Lisbon. Abrantos, higher up, is an important military position, situated on a height whence it commands the passage of the Tagus. Leiria, to the north, 399 DESCrUPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part lit ill is an ancient town, in a most productive territory, and where a great annual fair is HpW r the supply of the peasantry of the neighbouring country round. At Batalha is a ch i! (fg. 285)., and monastery which, united, form the Hnest structures in all Portugal i. • 541 feet by 416, and is considered by Mr. Murphy to be one of the noblest existing " cimens of the Norman Gothic. It is constructed entirely of marble, and the front ann '""fi" to him almost unrivalled in chaste and delicate ornament Among the different van^^T mausoleum erected in honour of King John, is pre-eminently beautiful {Jig. 286) Vim W5 CRUHOn OF HATAtRA. HAUtOLIVM or CIHO lOHIf. is only a village, but celebrated for the signal victory gained by the British over the army of Junot. Three miles distant is Torres Vedras, a tolerable old town, but chiefly noted as the centre of the grand fortified lines formed by Wellington in 1810, which so completely baffled all the manoeuvres by which the French had hoped to reconquer Portugal. 2560. Akmtejo is an extensive province, comprising the greater part of Portugal south of the Tagus. The interior presents an extensive plain ; but the frontier towards Spain is iinely diversified with hills, wooded mountains, and deep valleys extremely well watered, and very fertile. It contains some large towns. Evora, the third in the kingdom, is situated on an eminence in a fine country, and is of great antiquity. Its origin has even been dated seven centuries before the Christian era. It is more clearly ascertained that the Romans made it a municipal town, and adorned it with some of their finest structures. There is a noble aqueduct, of which the piers are nine feet broad, and supported by buttresses; also a Temple cf Diana built by Sertorius, in which great elegance is displayed. Elvas, on the Spanish frontier, immediately facing Badajos, is the strongest fortress in Portugal, and designed as the barrier of the kingdom. To render it so, Portugal seems to have exerted all her strength, " as if, by this outward rind, she could conceal her interior weakness." The works were constructed under the directions of the celebrated Count Schaumburg. Lippe ; and the fort, bearing his name, is considered a master-piece of the art. Olivenza, still closer to the frontier, is also a fortreas, though not so strong. In this neighbour- hood are also Villa Vi9osa, a pleasant town, and a favourite country residence of the Por- tuguese monarchs, who have here a handsome hunting-park ; and Portalegre, a handsome little town in a delightful country, with a good cathedral. Southward, in the interior, is Beja, a Roman colony, and subse'^uently a strong Moorish fortress. After being nearly demolished, it was rebuilt by Alfonso III., and fortified by King Diniz, and is still a considerable town. 2561. Algarve forms the extreme south of Portugal ; and is a maritime province, bearing in an especial sense, the appellation of kingdom, since it long remained independent, and was a celebrated theatre of war between the Moors and the Christians. It is toleroblji fertile in wine, fruits, and oil. Taro, the largest town, is also the principal scat of trade, and has a regular packet to Gibraltar. Lagos and Silves are also old little towns, the former on the sea-coast, with some shipping. Cape St. Vincent, the extreme point of Algarve, and the most south-westerly of the Peninsula, is celebrated for the signal victory gained by the British fleet over the Spanish, on the 14th of February, 1797. 2562. Bcira is a very extensive province or kingdom, filling nearly the whole centre of Portugal, between the Tagus and the Douro. Its surface presents considerable variety; the interior part has the usual mountainous character of Portugal, being traversed hy the great chain called the Sierra d'Estrclln. On the sea-coast, however, there are plains of Book I. PORTUGAL. 599 considrrable extent. The province produces plenty of wino, olli nnd clicstnuts, and has extensive pastures ; but the grain is not sufficient for its conNuniption. 2563. Coimbra {fig. 287.], the capital, is beautifully »ltunt(Ml un tUa dcclivityof a hill, which rUei above the Mon- *S?"!llC5l/t,..— .^ di'Ko; but the streets, as in other old Portuguese towns, nrii rrowded, dirty, and very iteep. In former times a re- sidence of the kings of Por- tugal, it was strongly fortified, iind lins stood obstinate sieges; but the remains of its walls .nul tower* are no longer suffi- cient to constitute it a fortress. It has been called the Athens of Portugal, from its extensive univerNily, contitining eighteen colleges, with forty professors, and about eight hundred NtiidviitN. Attached to it is a library of nearly 40,000 volumes, including numerous MSS. ; liul the actual value both of ihese and tlic printed works does not seem to have been lUlly invvslignted. 2564. Beira kits other towtis of some importance. Among these Is Almeida, the northern barrier of the kingdom and a fortress of consequence, though not possessing the great .trength of Elvas. It was twice taken in the last war, tlrst by the French under Massena, md then by the British under Wellington. Castello Urnnco, on the southern frontier, .lotwithstaniiing its commanding situation, retains little Importtuicu. Lamego, near the .outhem bcnk of the Douro, is an ancient city, nnd the cradle of the Portuguese monarchy. Here, in 1143, the states-general for the first time met, rtiragnisvd the Anidameiital laws, mi acknowledged the sovereignty of Alfonso. Viseu, in the centra of the kingdom, is, like Lamego, an episcopal see, and has the greatest annual full' in Portugal. 2565. Entre Douro e Minho forms the maritime part of Porliigol, north of the Douro. Though the smallest, it is considered the moat valuable, populous, and productive of all the provinces. Its peasantry have done much to redeem tlie reproach of torpor and sluggishness generally urged against their countrymen, Thii ilistrict is entirely covered with mountains, partly rugged and barren, but generally separated by fertile and well- watered valleys, cultivated to the utmost possible extent ; and which, besides oil, fruit, and flax, are made to produce most copiously tlie wine called pwt, for which so ample a market exists in England. 2566. Oporto, or Porto {Jig. 288. ), the ancient capital, and still the Ncvond city of the kingdom, is situated near the mouth of the Douro on the northern bank, though un Uie southern are two extensive suburbs, supposed to have constituted tlie nnvlent city. Thti modern town is well built, especially when compared with most others in the Penlnsulii. The river aiTords a tolerably secure harbour, without any artificial aid, except Mi elevated and walled quay, to whii'h the ships' cables may be fastened during the floods. Those ol\en come down witli such force, that, without such a support, the vessels would l>e inevittkbly carried out into the sea. The chief dependence of Oporto is its trade with England, which remains unimpaired amid the general diminution of that with America. There are about ihirtv English houses regularly settled here, besides a number of merchants who pay ftrvnueitt visits to the place: The exportation of port wine, however, on which its trade restit, ii generally cramped by Q<1 594 DE8.RIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. 1 f ! (K'in(^ plncod in tin- liiimls of iin oxohifiivu com)mny. Tliu export in 1837 wn« 25,4;)o nin. and rose in 1S;18 to ;li),()7-t: ol'tlii'su 'i(>,li)<> wore fo (iro.it Uritnin ; 7181 to llr'nzil- 'v"' to the United States; 80H to IIinnl»iir}?li. Tlio avcrnj?e annual value of wine, hraniiv'ai" l vinofjar, exported from the Duuro, is stated at 1 ,09i>,(XKV. • ' ' 2.'i(i7. lirngii, farther uortli, ranks as the capital of the province; and though now f outstripped by Oporto, is of inueli more aiu-ient fame. Under the Itoiniuis it was tl" metropolis of an extensive district, and its former ^reatnoBs is still attested by luniiuro"' antitpiities. It has made a distinpiished liRure in the ecelosiastical history of I'ortucal in l is the see of an arehhishop, who is primate of the kingdom. liraga is a handsDino town well built, well paved, the streets spacious and clean, with some industry, pnrtiruliirjy a ' niifarlure of small beaver hats. The country is hilly, but populous and pleasant. Valenc is a small town, agreeably situated ou tlie Minho, which separates it from Oalivi.i. •iMiH. Tiit.1 ().« Mmitef, or the province l)eyoiul the mountains, is of great extent, occiipvin » the whole interior of Portugal north of the Douro. 'I'he Caulabrian chain, after travmini Asturias and (iaiioia, throws out branches which not only separate that torritorv from th rest of Portugal, but cover almost its whole surlace. They leave oidy rm ilefensible military positions, liraganza is a city of ancient note, niid gave the title of Duke to the fust nobleman in the kingdom, even before he was raiM'il to tlio throne, by the appellation of .lohn IV. The kings of Portugal still retain the title of Dukes of Braganza. Chaves, the Aqua: Flaviic of the Romans, still exhibits two hatlis and a magnificent bridge constructed by that people. Chaves j^ ivos the title of IManpiis to ji family, one of whom was the most active opponent of the French during their invasion ■ while another has lately been at the head of the anti-constitutional uriny, of which the licail. quarters were always in Tras os IVJontos. '_' j70. T/if Arabs in S/iain, like vhe Saxons in England, established a lasting memorial of their dominion by engrafting their own language on that of the country which they siilxlucd. Of this, the topography of the Peninsula exhibits innumerable instances. The names of rivers, mountains, towns, luul places, were either totally or partially changed, by thg victorious invaders ; and, after the expulsion of their descendants, those names were ikt. petu.ited, though with alterations in some instances as arbitrary as those which were niadvin the ancient topography of the country : thus, the Roman station, y'«.r Augusta, was trans. formed by the .\rabs into linlnlio, and afterwards by the Spaniards into Hiiihijin ; Cccsnr Augusta, by an abbreviation less violent, became Sanigossa ; and Eincrita Augusii Ha> contracted into Mt'rida. 2,)7I. The Arabic term ^ft•(lilta (city) survives in two eminent instances nniong the titles of the Spanish nobility : Afcilina Selim (the city of Selim) is recognised in the dukedom of Mfdina-Cfl: ; and the colony probably called New Sidon, is that of Mcdiiia-SiUdiiin. 257'i. From the generic term guail, a river, and volcz or vfleil, a landed estate or district, m.my names may be explained which at first view appear capricious and arbitrary : — Ei. Guad-al-aviar. The white river. Guadal-qnivir. The great river. Giiad-al-higiara, now Gnadahixara. The river of rocks. IV/cs and Vehul are of\en conjoinwl with proper names, Veli's ^Maga, Vclcd Vlid, now Val. Indolid ; thus Navarre, Leon, and their confines never having boon occupi<.'d by tlic Ar,ili«, were callwi by them Tc/tvi Arroiim, the land of the liamniis. '-'.^73. Gozira was applied indifTcrently fo an island or a peninsula ; he.ice Al;;r.irn. 2.574. AldM means what is comprehended imder the English term n fmiu. It is of conmion occurrence in itineraries, as AUka del Rio, Aldi'a GaUr^n, Aldens dc Foiisso. '-'.■17.5. From cdntiira, a bridge, we account for the emphatic naine Alcanlara. CnlanlOj^ castle, enters more or less prominently into the composition of various names; as Caliini Wy"', the castle of .Vyat, is now Ciilatnyud ; Cali'iat lM>ah, the castle of Uabali, is now Calttlrava ; Al Catdat, simply the castle, is now Alcald, 2,';7fi. Alcaznr, a word of freciuent occurrence in S))anish topography, is a fortified liouss or small castle ; Almeria is an observatory. 2.577. .Sie Descriptum if Spain, by Gerif Alhedris, in the translation of Don Jo'! Vntonio Coiule, whose llislori/ of the Domination of the Arabs in Spain is esteemed one of llic most luiisterly works that have appeared in the present age. lloix I. ITALY. «95 V.HkV. VIII. 2,i7S. U'll;/ '"* "" I'll^'i'^'vo riiukin in llic wnilli of Kiiropc, one of tlio finest !m llio world II, soil mill I'liiiiult', mill nolt'il im tlii> tlit'iilro of iniitiy of tlio grentcst cvoiits in lilstoiy. Ii Is MOW ill II Hiati' of west, by tin- vast niul contin inuit ^i,i„,, of (hf liiglii'sl AI|iHi wliii'li H('|iiirii(i' liiT from wimt hIh- disdiiinfiilly terms the iiltrii- iiiiinliine ri'^'i'iii" of l''niin'e, lliily, iind Nwil/erlinid, All the roKt of her eireuit is cncliiscil liy tlie IMi'diternineiin iind Its great ^^\^\fH, of which the Adrlntio, in the east, soiiiiraK's luT fiDiii llie o|i|iimlti' Hhort'M of (iieeee and Illyriii. On the west she liorderg nil till' lii'ii'i'l^"^' l*"''i" **'' *'"' M>'i>i' '" f^i'voy and the Ison/o, lies between fi° and 13'^ west loii/itude, anil iiiav irtii'l"''''"'"'' '''''*' 1''"K"'''' "III*'"' 'I'l'li ii|i|ilieM only to the broad lielt of Northern Itiily, as iill till" rt'st of the territory Ntrelclies oliliijiiely in the form of a long narrow boot, the avira"i' brwiillh of which iIocn not exceed 1(H) miles. 'I'he whole extent may be reckoned ai ii7,0S|, neriuiril, the Simpliin, St Golhard, Splugun, are within ilio Sniss torrltory ; but their white HunimilH are seen amid the clouds in continuous gran> iK'iir alon^' the whole extent of the plains of Iiombardy and Piedmont. The Apenninc is a iliaiii luiri'ly lialiaii. It brani'licH nil' (Irst from the Maritime Alps on the western frcmtier, aiul runs I'lir a lnii^; space eiislwai'il, leaving on the south only a narrow plain between it ami (lie Mcilili'rriuiuan ; while on the north it forms the boundary of Pi'-'jinont and Lom- harily. On tlie Tuscan border It griidnally bends round to the south and south-east, fullowinp!, or rather prescribing the form of the I'eninsnia, of which it occupies the centre in one unbroken line, ll does not aspire to the awful height, or wrap itself in the perpetual snows, of the Alps. Its liigheHl pinnacle in the Abruz/o, cidled the great rock of Italy, docs not rise nliovo !)iiOO feel. Tliene tuddtitain's are consequently, i this climate, throughout, cimri'd with liixiiriaiil foliage I on the lower slopes are the vine luid the olive, higher up, tlio various t'urest lives, aniuiig which llic chestnut afliirds copious food to the inhabitants. i'lioy enclose tiiiely cullivaled valleyN, and are full of dee]), intricate, and wooded defiles. .\> their liranclies, dividing into low IiIIIh of varied form, touch ujmn the fine plains along liie .\U'(literrniu'nn, they produce ii variety of bright and smiling scenes, which entitle Italy to he ronsiilercil as the peculiar regliin of landHcape. In the southern quarter they assume a very I'orniiiluliK' mill volcanic character, punriug deluges of burning lava from the cimc of \'tsuvius, anil ciiiiviilsing Calabiiii with the most terrible earthquakes, llieir aspect in that coinitiyis peculiarly I'orniidiible and rugged (//^r. UH!). ), Deyond the straits of Messina, hy, is a fortified liouv; AVHNNIKM* ih UAIUIHk'A Ulj f 596 MAP OF ITALY — NORTH fart. %29a MAP OF ITALY — SOOTH pari. \\\ ni'MII'IM K iiMMtll \IMIV >•'«• III tvltiiv tll>'» (<(>v» itu |«.((li>(i» U'lii. 11* MiAlliil(i, (luiy ('»,,,, Hi\il.\ «mI» »um»»*mi<, •xx.'tm Hlilih (lie i.l(i»(i>l [>i->\> kI I tllii (I,; -Mr.) 1 il.,,, („ ,, .i Y> Ui'intit »i.iil« Kiilt (ii.> \i|„ ,„„ ,11^' iCvl' ' ("t". "Iilli' M Ultimo nut, .niiiil n,, " •unit a. MlliiMlll i'ttt|illi>ll> iia \x<\\\.»i, itlili' ita Ilium' III \'iHimii», v) iMl l\, ,J,„.., ^^ \u,l., „(,, ,„,,, lllilt t'«lll'llli> lii.iiil^ ,„ j^^ TV -" i Mi '-' i'^T^^^^^^^^^'t f^ ''"' KX'tlXl •(<>" ll't llti >i Itl'iiiilriii, III, 4HM||Fv«ll8!Ms!^M|||||v I'sti'Muiii' \« iiii' ,„ „| :zru-wK\ ^^jUt^^^^^^^^^mr^^s^i i ,.,„i,.„,i,, Imuuvh tii» .vi| ,,| Vi>i iiiiiiii >, itliiili, liiiii^ |>iiii\i>,i, 11 !!■ II >l. 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I III' 11111,111 I ll'ltll|„ll,pl I, V||al^l ^a (»>>l i>l lllvHi' llltti tilii |iu>.»il ».tll>'\a, ll„tai. it| I Inuiltl' ,111,1 ill I'ili,!,,,, U»<' ^\»»yv\>'>l Nrt)il»^a, 111!' >,iIihHii,iih ilitlliHI" nl I '.t|i||.t, ,l|i|ii ,li In llltlli' ,il| il,, \«%)t»«'>a s«l \ \l|ttlMlils >Mtlt i«a|li'^la lllllill mills' «,tlli'il 'tllil |ili llilt"it|llt', illltl ,lli' iKit.iUi ,,,|, alllslssi lilt' lll%S>t lIvllilllllVll ISltttllt^ III l''ltt%<|l<>. Ml lltla allll' l>l ll'tU, lltllll'lil, |, ||||.|,,| t\i * itl\.«>IUll ON'lttssS I'll' "XI'N ''4«4.« III )i ,,i,,| a«.«IIHi\ V rtl»' ISnilllU' \|.tl«lt,< .lis' III llll> l,a|t,,t ail ll,tll()t ttilli, llt.ll 111 llli' |,„1 »>v*a\>\t >i^ Vi*t« av>«t>vl^ IS' H>v»a»'»|, >'>>'tt ll.kalllt, Mlllliittt lilt' (Iftll ,ll llllttll. )l||| n„ .V. <'v*,».l (V «> \t^ ^ »lv».> v,,-.* n«i* ! I \ y'iw^'>.»> yi i*..,kM U ^,'^v * \|S- Vf. »5av,' <\ Vi..v>i».' I* v. 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W |lt|U4 a I t.,„tU av Ml i\.««,«, »» h.s»l a' |\t>.l »a t\>,ti a-' N Mwi «^ \Vw «i l\,.,-Mv,<;.i '< XttUtl. A4»^S^,..■ *» tti,>w«,« *.* Vmm.i,* A* \t .«.IV«l..>' *^ ,Vtv«V^V «' V.».i>i». 1^ t'WM«t«„ ,'ltl l.a' J''l i>».it,t I'',; tt^lt^t.., t'.i 1 tiT.mv ''I t «,,. I," vHv I'M ivn t'" i.<«v j'". Si,.* l'*' I\J,.U 111' ■" ,„«H III t. ^ IK 111 M.,„; 11.1 „„,w,. llli ..l,v 11' t\ Ji t ,'llalt I t\,«H. t'»,i > t Vl".. * a, ta^wl a Iu.it4 I IVItl,^t« I Itlttiv, I. t,.,h. t l''.t,. a I *>, •1 ri"K' I'l \ ,.,. II i.^i'in,. It' II.,.. I> Iw'.i II \l„u..,,,„. «■,... a I vl, t'tm,,.' I. I\,., . Il'v„l. .1 l.l.,v » IV I IV .. t I'l. I IlllNM I l..'l,>. \ t\,:M I I-. .,v. ,„ K.", ,. ».-..« ,. |..«„v I. tS\,,.«(. 4 fi;« I tV.,Nt.4W • Vt.v < I » \. I...V < KN%.. 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( I lllll, in If. 'iMI VVi,' /;i',i/!Miiii/ III' lliln rnilllliy lliin, nl' lilli' yi'iiiii, iill, i> /HlA.. .WilfMl/ Ihlhl K.'Klh I'llll Mill 1 11 run I U.ali» .1 I ...11 r l'A'i'«iitii.i '1 .11.. 4 1..I I I ll.l I,' 1 .1... 11.. II ll.l S|.|,|,.l.| It l'.l.l„.ll H Siiii II \ N.H.I.. I., Ml li.iiuiii.. ll. 1 if.ll I- M ...li..l.ml.> II Ii„.i4 \x\ 1'UmmI.i i\ ^^»Hh. tv l^-iiiht i',^ M tirilMrtllti i\ \\yuw <\ Viitill V(« \llmii.i V. t tilt-niit i> .SivM. \'^ r>«;lUlti> N' I't'li iiiilA M Km.H >i liAiA VI s^^ M r.t»*v\ii M lUsuMi-iil.i .V* Tt^VA 11. 1''..,llll.l I'l 1 lllullill., I'l 11.111.11.1 III .lllill., llil., II ll.llll \l III I.I it jLill II M.,iii.|i..ll I I IMlliil III 1 1. Niii I If . I |.||V|.|«1III.I I'l IHllllll III .tliiiiiiiiiit .11 II1.11I11.1 II \ I'll. lilt M I .ilKil It uii„,,hiiii .'I I .(ilIIIIIi, '''' l'.IM.|lll III, I .l|l|l', .IJ, Nn|.|M .^N >i,tl .■"I Mi.i.i Ml .M.I, lllll Niiva III. I'.ili.inn I'l r,i.rtii.i l,,t. IMHl„irt I.I M..l,.l,i l.V «l,i.l l.li lliliiilM 1.; I III.! 1,1, I ,, 1,1 l.'l, \'|.n|i|> Til Olmiilii 71 I'li'iHii (■' Mi,ii.i,.|..,i I' I I .L.ll.ll. u .11 1 II.1.1I1,, ) nil, I . lllll T'J, iinlli|iiill 7,1 N»ii(ii nl, .1111.1 N.1,1.1 M'l I .1 I'.ill.i nl I- nl I..1.I11.11.1 ni l',.ii.ii.ii.i «n, M. .1.111,1 n(. N.ni..., nn riii.iii. nil i'.iu,iiiii nil ll.l.MIII.I III. |ii>ii|ii.,ii,i lit H, N|,i,,„ 11,1 I'll., .,1,1,1 III lihiiiii 111 r,Mi.ii#., Uil lli,.,i>n Ml. Iliiil.il Ill I'nil.iM Ull. MI,„,iH,ill IIHI I'lihiiliii llil liilin \>yi. Iliitiiui,,, lii,i Nl, .1.11.1 till r.t.iiHU.iiii, 1111 n. I'liill'inl,, IIHI I II, 1.111,11, 1 III] Ni|iillliii II nil, Tiiiiiiin Ill'l. 1.1,1 till l.n lliiK.II,, III Hliliiiiii, II'' lU'ln,,. III. 11, III.I II! fcit 1111..11 n '1 111,11,, ll llili.iiiii I l'..l.iii. it I ll.llll,, ., Ii.,..i,.i.l„ r Inn U lllllllll II 1 l.lll I Hi.li. v Nil II. V t Itli.M ». H, aliilln ^. MHiixii 4 I' n II M 411,1 II IMUIiulU I.rultilii n. t Lllllllll II I'iiIkiiiiii III, Itl iiliw 11 .tl. ,1 IV 'ri,i|,rtii,i \^ Mn,..il.l It. Itlnoni,! II, Niliii,.i III, r„rli.iHiii II I'lullii Nik. In Viiml III I'll!) 1 iiiii.li 'Jii 1 .i.lt-ll,, llliimii. ll n |l ''1 III, ,,.1.1 " r,»„,i,i Ji III il,»i„ 1" (iH'ill VI 'ln„iiilliil II lllllll,, 'it 1 iilMiiln I'j ii'iiiiiii 'I'l Kill. mil |i ii,„i„iii ■ill, |,i.iiiiii| ll ii.ii 'II M ■.„ )', IHllllll ■m \'i.,„„ In 1 iiulii'fl 1/ IIiUmiii, |n 'li,|l„iil,i m 1 „li,ii,u,iin :1ll 'lllll in ^1 l|iiiii< III (Inl Ull MmiiiI,» »>, rnliiin (1,1, Nii.ii 'Jl llnum M ll VV 1 l.iiil ,l'i 'luii.i N„.,i •'1 IhIlIiw ■i\ rMliiia ,111, 1 lil.iiiii„iilii .1/ M n ■ill. 1 llllllnll :ln, h, illul m N„ii, llllnl. III, h, III, 11.14 n 'I'li.l 41. AiiHiimn. 1, Aliii.nil /III..X. , In, l'„i„„ it MniiNu, n lli,ll.ii ll I'l.illiin , hnUii. I IHINH ,1 1 '1', ri,ii>f the Apennines is very -.itnuje • th mountains of that division of the range being composed of a white limestone which rarely c ^ tains foreign beds, and but seldom fossil organic remains. It is there, too, that the ranin>''' loftiest, and is also the broadest Uut this simplicity of construction does not continue throuirli' out the whole Apennine ranse ; for, from the point wliere it rises from the Alps to the countr' of Florence, it is composed of strata and beds of slate, limestone, and a magnvaian rock' named in Tuscany gabbro and granileUo. The summits of the mountains of the country of Ge' noa, which overlook the Gulf of Spcwia, are principally formed of this latter substance, which is the euphotide of geologists. Some geologists consider this part of the range as of |ir'imitivo formation ; while others, as Professor Ilausmann, view it as belonging to the transitiun class of rocks, because he finds it containing, intermingled with the rocks just mentioned, exten. sive de|M>sits of greywacke. A limestone, resembling that of the Jura, forms all the mouni tains extending from Florence to Abruzzo, and from Abruzzo to Calabria. It is only in the latter province that the central part of the chain is formed of granite, gneiss, raica slate and otlier primitive rocks ; resung upon which, in the lower parts of the country, there arv deposits of tertiary rocks. 2.^86. The tub-Apennine hills belong to the tertiary series, and are composed of marls slate clays, gravel, sands, and conglomerates. Wc observe also in these hills, but less frequently, gypsum, calcareous tutTus, and volcanic tuftas, A limestone of modern fonii- ation abounds in the neighbourhood of Rome, and is known under the name Iruverlino and of which the principal monuments of that city are built. 2587. The Apennine/ are not rich in metaU. The most considerable mines are thoiic of inn which occur in Tuscany, and chietly in the island of Elba, a tract com|)08cd of primitive rocks. I'he coal, mines in this chain are of but little importance, but there are great deposits of sail in the province of Cosenzn. 'i'he principal mineral treasures of the Apenniiu's arc the marbies, of which the most celebrated are those of Carrara, Seravczza, and Slvnnu. 9.58S. Ancient volcanoes do not occur in the central part of the Apennines; all of thvm, with one exception, the hill of Voltore, near to the town of Melfi, in the provinie of Busilicata, are situated on the south-western declivity of the chain. They form an inter- rupted chain, which is passed over on the roud from Sienna to Home. The must ilcvated spots of thio district, such as the Monte Cimini near Viterho, and the Monte Aniiata, a[ii>ear composed of trachyte. It is asstK'iated with basalt at Viterbo, where it is columnar, and rests on a bed of pumice and tuflii, containing the bones of quadrupeds. Near Viterho is a small lake which is in a constant state of agitation, owing to the emission of sulphuretted hydrogen gas ; and a little nearer, on the road to Rome, is the Lake of Vico, formerly the Lacus Cimini, which has all the appearance of a crater. The Lake of Bolscna, between Viterbo and Sienna, i^'issesses the shape of an ancient crater, and its being bounded by volcanic rocks is cor si oc-nt with this opinion. The country around Home, and also the hills on which the city is built, is composed of tertiary marls, clays, and sandstones, intcnniie] with a preponderating quantity of granular and lithoidal volcanic tuff'as. The marls and sandstones are partly lacustrine, partly marine. The many lakes around Rome, such as those of Albano and Nemi, are formed by craters of ancient volcanoes. In the vicinity of Modena there are many small mud volcanoes, called salsei, which throw out salt water. These volcanoes give out carbonated hydrogen, which, sometimes catching lire, gives rise to the nalurat fires mentioned by travellers, of which there are examples at Velleja, Pietra Mala, and Uarigazza. On the road between Rome and Naples, the first indi- cation of volcanic action, after ])assing the Pontine Marshes, occurs a little to the south- west of Mola de Gaeta. We there find ourselves between two chains of hills, — that to our right, the Monte Massico, composed of Jura limestone ; the other, on the left, of vol- canic marls. The town of Sessa stands oi\ volcanic tuifa. Several couUes, or streams of lava, which seem connectc>d with the volcanic hill of Rocca Monfina, also occur near Sessa. Rocca Monfina retains the vestiges of the j;reat crater from whence these coulees flowed. A few miles west of the Mola de Gaeta lie tlie Ponza Islands, four of which are composed of trachyte ; in the fifth, Giannone, the tractiyte overlies limestone. 2^89. Vesuvius. — The only active volcano in Italy is Vesuvius, which shoots up in a country where the surrounding Neptunian strata belong to the tertiary class. It is composed of an older part, named Monte Somma, and the more modern Vesuvius properly so called. Somma is composed of alternating coulees, or streams of lava, and beds of volcanic tuflos, which are traversed by veins or dykes of lava. The modern part of the mountain is Vesuvius, exhibiting rocks of the same general description. Tlie earliest recorded eruption of Vesuvius is that of 79, during wluch so vast a shower of ashes and scoria; was thrown out, that the cities of Stahiw, Pompeii, and llerculancum were covered up, indeed fairl; buried, by it. Many eruptions have taken place since that period, and they still continue. Part III. •re smonn Uie mo« 1 history of Italy »nd vatiunit will convey « estiiig country, .•»i. very MitipUj the one which rarely con- too, that the range i> not continue through, he AlpH to the country nd a niagneaian rock, of the country of Ge. atter subntance, which 1 range as of primitive to the transition class ust mentioned, exten. ., forms all the moun- labria. It is only in itf, gneiss, roica slate, the country, there are e composed of marls, these hills, but less [>ne uf modern fonn. e name Iravertino, and nines are thoi^c of ir„n, omiMised of primitive there are great deposits i of the Apennines are •tza, and Sienna, enninvs ; all of them, Ifi, in the province of They form an inter- . The most tievafed IVIontc Amiata, appear e it is coluiiiiiiir, and Near Vilerbo is a ission of siilplmretti'd of Vice, formerly the of Bolscna, between being bounded by i)nu>, and also the hiljs andstones, intermiiel ffas. The marls snd ound Rome, snth as In the vicinity of brow out suit water, catching lire, gives examples at Velleja, pies, the first inji- little to the south- hills, — that to our or. the lefi, of vol- coulies, or streams of Iso occur near Sessa. these coulees Howed. which are composed hich shoots up in a :lass. It is composed IS properly so called, ds of volcanic tuffas, of the mountain is est recorded eruption scoria: was thrown red uj), indeed fairly d they still continue. Book I 111 llll! ITALY. 601 ^ country around Naples the land is by no means stable, ai is proved by the sub- '". 'ircnce and emergence of the Temple of Serapis, near the town of Puiiuol! ; and the rise T new mountain, on the northern side of the bay, in the sixteenth century. Vesuvius had that time been fur a long interval tranquil, but a succession of earthquakes had taken '' > in tlifl country for two years previously : at length, on the 28th of September, of the 15:)B Hames broke out from the ground between Lake Avernus, Monte Barbaro, and |)lact i I . SolfatirHi followed by several rents of the earth f^om which water sprung, while the i eded 'iOO feet from the shore, leaving it quite dry. At last, on the i29th, about two houra ' . ,unsct, there opened near the sea a gulf, from which smoke, flames, ptimice and ' l' stones, and mud, were thrown up with the noise of thunder. In about two days the 1'ecti'il nnu^es, formed a hill 413 feet high, and 8000 feet in circumference. The eruption 'I jIIv ceased on the Md uf October. On this day the hill was accessible, and those who "ended it reported that they found a funnel-shaped opening on the summit — a crater a uarter of a mile in circumference. This hill, named Monte Nuovo, is composed of fVag- nicnM of scorifurm matter, or of a compact rock of an ash grey colour, sometimes resembling trachyte, and at other times approaching to porphyry and calx.* 2590. The nearest approach to the phenomena of Vetnivius is exhibited in a hill between Munit Nuovo and Puzzuoli, called the Solfatara, which, though considered an extinct voU canu is continually giving oil' gaseous exhalations mixed with aqueous vapour. The gases art! sulpliuretted hydrogen and muriatic acid. The rock of the hill is trachyte, A vast coult'e of truchytic lava appears extending from the Solfatara to the sea, forming the pro- montory called the Monte Olibano, on the road between Naples and Puzzuoli. The whole of t!iis stream rests upon the extensive formation which reaches from Puzzuoli to Cumtc, and uiipears tu he continuous with the rock found in the immediate neighbourhood of Naples. This nhii'li ha-i long been known by thu name of Puzzuolana, is a formation of volcanic tuD'a. The height of the tutTo, in many places near Naples, is very considerable ; the pile of the Camaldulo, the loftiest eminence next to Vesuvius in the whole country, is composed of it and to the west of Naples it forms a sort of wall, so lofty and abrupt, that the former inhabitants of the country apparently found it easier to avail themselves of the soft and friable nature of the stone, and to cut through, than to make a road over it. This is the origin of the celebrated Grotto of I'osilippo i a cavern 2178 feet in length, 50 feet in height, and 1 1 in breadth. The Lake Agnano occupies the crater of an old volcano. The famous C,nUo (Id Cane, situated on its borders, is perpetually giving out carbonic acid gas, containing ill coinbinatiun much aqueous vapour, which is condensed by the coldness of the external air; thus proving the higher temperature of the place from whence it proceeded. The niouili of the cavern being rather more elevated than its interior, a stratum of carbonic acid goes on constantly accumulating at the bottom, but, upon rising above the level of its moutii, flows like so much water over the brim. Hence the upper part of the cavern is free from any noxious vapour ; but the air of that below is so fully impregnated, that it proves speedily fatal ti> any animal that is immersed in it, as is shown to all strangers by the experiment with the dog. The Lake of Avernus Taa,y likewise have been the crater of a volcano. The Monte Barbaro is probably the most elevated volcanic hill on this side of Naples: it Ims a crater on its summit, and its great antiquity is shown by the circumstance of its surface being covered with verdure. The perfect condition of the crater of Astroni has caused it to be selected by the King of Naples as a preserve for his wild boars and other animals destined for the chase : it is a circular cavity, nearly a mile in diameter, the walls of which are formed of a congeries of scoriss, pumice, and other ejected materials. According to Breislac, the number of craters of which indications occur in the neighbourhood of Naples will amount to not less than 27 ; but we suspect the amount is much over-rated. '.'591. The middle and lower parts of the rioer district of the Po is formed of tertiary rocks more or less deeply covered with diluvium. The tertiary deposits are intermingled in a very interesting manner, on the southern foot of the Lombard Alps, with various trap rocks. These arrangements are best seen at the following places : — in the Val Nera, Val Ronca, Monteccliio Maggiore, Monte Viale, and Monte Bolca. South of Padua lie the Euganean iiills, an isolated track of high ground, in the midst of a level tertiary country ; consisting of a trachyte formation, not unlike that of Hungary, which, from its vesicular structure in some cases, and its scmivitreous appearance in others, would at once be taken for a volcanic pro- duct. The tertiary deposits contain remains of whales of extinct species, also of the elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, &c. ; and fossil animal remains of the same description occur more abundantly in the diluvium. Tertiary and diluvial deposits also extend from Ancona along the coast uf the Adrintic, with but little interruption, to the extremity of the Peninsula. 2592. Italian Islaiuls. — Islands ofProcida and Ischia, These islands are situated a short distance from Naples, and are entirely of volcanic formation. Procida consists of an alternation of beds of tufl'a and of slaggy lava. Ischia is composed for the most part of a rock which seems to consist of finely comminuted pumice, re-aggregated so as to form a tuiiii. • Daul)eny. C03 DESCRIPTIVE GEOOUAPHV. Part III. cam. '2593, Lipari lalaiuls. Tho Lipari InIriuU, between Naples and Sicily, are also c . posed of volcanic rocks Tho inland of StromboU consists of a single conical mountain' having on one side of it several small crntors, one of which is in a state of activity tliv »' t extinct. This volcano is remarkable, not for the intensity of its action, but for the' circuni stance of rarely enjoying periods of repose, no cessation in its operations having been ob' served from a period antecedent to the Christian era. Its action consists in ejections' repeated at very short intervals, of stones, scoriw, and ashes, which cither fall I>ack within the crater, or are carried in another direction, according to the drift of the wind. The island abounds in volcanic tufla, which is traversed by dikes of slaggy lava. The island of Livar' is remarkable for its s]>lendid displays of tho beautifiil volcanic glass named obsidian ■ and for a profusion of pumice. The pumice of commerce is principally obtained in that island Another isle of the Lipari group is Volcano, which appears, prior to the Christian era tn have been in a state of activity at least e(|ual to that of Stromboli, and which still emits caseous exhalations from the interior, as well as from several parts of the external surface of a crater situated in the highest part of the islaiul. These vapours, acting upon the rock thev penetrate, decompose it, and form with its constituents large quantities of aluvi and otlitr sulphuric salts. This island also aflbrds a very rare substance, viz., the boracic acid, wliich lines the sides of the cavities in beautiful white silky crystals, and combined, it is snid, with anunonia. Sal ammonia also occurs in this curious spot ; and in a mixture of this salt with sulphur the substance nament, and on the cast coast, to the north uf the Gulf of Porto Vecchio. No volcanoes occur in this island ; and the ancient lavas men- tioned by some authors are bi'ds of euphotide. Hot springs, however, occur in Corsita; the principal ones being those of Orezxa, St. Antonio di Gungno, and Fium' Orbo. The only mines are those of iron, copper, antimony; and argentiferous galena is also met witli, but not in such quantity as to be of any importance in an economical view. Considerable deposits of diluvium occur in ditl'erent parts uf the island ; and these, like other furmation^, are more or less deeply covered with idluvium. 2595. Sardinia. '1 he predominating formations in this island are primitive nnd transition ; the rocks being granite, mica slato, clay slate, and limestone. On the north-western part uf the island there is a considerable deposit of terti;iry limestone, and one of much greater dimensions in the southern division. Trachyte and other volcimic rocks appear in connec- tion withtlie tertiary deposits ; and Mr. de la Rlarmora observed extinct volcanoes on various points, and principally in the chain of mountains which extends across from the canton of Marghinefrom Mills to UoUotaint. All these districts, of igneous origin, exhale pestilential vapours, which may assist in explaining the remarkable unhealthiness of this island. Caves occur in tho limestone ; and these, with the rents that traverse it, contain, generally embedded in a kind of breccia, bones of various kinds of ijuadrupcds, some of living species, but the greater number of animals which appear to be extinct. Metals are rare ; there arc but feeble traces of silver, copper, and mercury. Many mines, however, of lead and iron occur. 259(i. Sicili/. In this remarkable island the predominating rocks arc tertiary, secondary, nnd volcanic ; the older ones, or those of the primitive class, being less abundant. The primitive rocks are found at the north-east corner of the island, near Messina, where the prevailing kind appears to be gneiss. The transition constitute a chain of hills extending obliquely from Mela?,?.! on the north coast, to Tnormina on the cast. They consist chiefly of mica shite, clay slate, with beds of glance coal, tpiartz rock, greywacke, sandstone, and limestone. Nearer than these is a great deposit of sandsloni; with a few subordinate beds of marl and limestone, which occupies a great part of tlie central chain of the island, and extends along part of the northern coast. It first occurs to the east of Palermo, near the river Pilato, a few miles from Cefalu. It is older thim the Jura or Apennine limestone. Resting ap- parently upon this sandstone is a fonnation of limestone and dolomite, composing the north- western part of the island, and which appears as the etpiivalent of the Jura or Apennine limestone. Caves containing bones occur in it. Resting upon this formation is a deposit uf marls and limestones, containing nimunulites and hippurites, which appear to belong to the chalk ami green sand of Englisli geologists. Upon these rest a series of cretaceous limestona and marls of the older tertiary epoch. The fifth formation is an extensive tertiary limestone, found both north and south of the grand central range. Above this rests a still newer deposit of a conglomerate, containing shells of species now existing in the Mediterranean : it is well seen on ilie north coast, and to the south of Syracuse. Of the same age with this deposit is 1)(IUK !• ITALY. 603 io,t« l/reccia which (arms beds lying upon the preceding, and also occurs in caves ; and in Iwtli situations contains bones of the elephant, hippopotamus, and deer, with a few of a car- nivorous animal of the genus Canis. Still newer than this bone conglomerate is a diluvial deposit; of which there are two kinds: the oldest occupies considerable height)), the newest covers the bottom of valleys. The tertiary rocks, so abundant in the island, con- tain bods o( common salt, mlphur, gypsum, alum, aJong with beautifully crystallised sulphate ofstrontites. Volcanic action appears to have been in operation from a very remote period in this island, as is evinced by the different sets of volcanic rocks which Etna affords. The ulilcst volcanic rocks of Etna are those in the Valle di Bove, where there is a magnificent display of trachyte, porphyry, and tuff'a : the next in point of age are the basaltic rocks , and the newest of all are the coulees or streams of modem lava, with their tufl'as, ashes, sands and scoria;. The trachyte and basalt seem to have been produced before the com- liicncement of the present order of things, the couldes, &c. are the matters which have flown within tlie period of human history, and which still continue. It is probable that this mountain was burning at a period antecedent to the time of Homer. At Macaluba, a hill near Girgenti, consisting of blue tertiary clay, tliere is a continual disengagement of carbonic acid and carbonated hydrogen, from small cavities, shaped like craters, which are filled with muddy water mixed with mineral ail. When the quantity of gas emitted is i-reat, it throws up the mud to the height of 200 feet : these are called air volcanoes. '.'597. Skill/ is not rich in metals : the mountains to the N.W. of Taormina present traces of a gold mine, said to have been worked at a very remote period. Some mines of sillier, copper, lead, and iron are mentioned. Beds of ju/^^Aur occur abundantly in the blue tertiary day ; and though Sicily 1ms long supplied Europe with that mineral, its stori"< are yet far from being exhausted. The blue clay also contains beds of rock salt, of which the most consideri ble are at Alimina, N. E. of Castro Giovanni, where this substance is found both massive and crystallised. 2,598. Malta and Gozo. These isles consist entirely of tertiary rocks, closely resembling those of the sunth-eustern part of Sicily. The most common rock is a fine-grained straw- coloured limestone, which is often so soft as to be worn down rapidly by the weather; but in other instances, it is sufHciently hard to form an excellent building stone, to which cir- cumstance these islands have been in a great measure indebted for the elegance of the numerous cliurches and palaces which are seen in every town and village. Harder and inore crystalline limestones arc also met with, but all of tliemare nearly of the same colour. lioth these islands are of trifling elevation ; the highest point of Malta, which is one of the hills to the west of Civita Vecchia, being only 590 feet above the level of the sea. SuBSECT. 2. Botany- " The garden of the world, fair Italy ! Thy very weeds arc l}eautifUI,^tny waste More rich than otiicr climes' fertility ! " 25')9. Italy and Sicily. — These countries partake very considerably of the general character and aspect of the vegetation of the south of Prance ; and the geographical distri- bution of the plants is well depicted by M. Mirbel. 'JO'OO. Tke Sicilians cultivate, with more or less success, the Sugar-cane, the Custard- apple, the Date, &c. Tlie different enclosures are surrounded by the Agave ame- ricaiia, which forms an impenetrable fence. By the side of the Plane, Poplar, and Willow, jrrow the Cactus Tuna or Prickly Fig, the Orange, Citron, and Olive, tlie .Myrtle {Jig. W^.), Laurel, Carob tree, and Pomegranate (_^'. 294.); while Arbutus VOMBQHANArn. ind Tamarisk abound upon the coasts. The Dates of the environs of Girgenti, situated 01) the southern coast, arc said by Mirbel to be excellent ; not so in the vicinity of I'alerino, where the Date Palin is unknown except in gardens. 604 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part HI. 2601. OfaUthe mountains of Sicily, Etna, whose enormous volcanic nuss rises to the height of more than 10,900 feet, is the most celebrated. Its base, whose circuit exceeds 80 miles, exhibits all the fruit trees peculiar to the transition zone : higher up is the forest region. It is said that two or three centuries ago this region ascended to the very summit- however this may have been, it now ceases at a considerable distance from it. The most remarkable trees there are the Oak {Qjuerciu Sobur), the Beech, the Ash, Horsechestnuts in the greatest abundance, and Plum trees : higher up are woods of Birch. These last, which form the upper zone, are scanty on the southern side, and very numerous on that exposure of the mountain which looks towards the north. Beyond this region every thin? green disappears, and the only shrub is Spartium etnense Bivona. Mount Etna has no perpetual snow, unless we so consider^those masses which lodge in shaded crevices, and there resist the heat of summer, at an elevation of nearly 9000 feet. 2602. /( is well ascertained In/ geological facts, that Sicili/ and Itali/ once composed but a single continent, and that the mountains which cover so large a (portion of the former are but a continuation of the southern chain of the Apennines, which, interrupted by the Straits of Messina, re-appears in Calabria, and lifts its loftiest summits in the kingdom of Naples, Though some of these rise to 8000 feet, the snow nowhere remains permanently upon them. It is only in the southern part of Italy that the Apennines can boast of a rich vegetation' every where else this chain is of an arid and sterile character. 2603. The temperature of Calabria has much affinity with that of Sicily : its summers are intolerably hot, and frost is scarcely known during the winter. The numerous rivers and brooks which gush from the hills, abundant dews, and an astonishingly fertile soil, maintain during almost all the year, in these favoured countries, a fresh and brilliant verdure. The plains, the slopes and eminences, produce Olives, Tamarisk, Arbutus, Myrtle, Jujube, Pistachios of both kinds, and Oleander (only in dry beds of torrents), the Sweet Bar, and Corob, the Palmetto, Bhamnus, and Phillyrea; the Finns Pinea or Stone Pine {fig, 295.), — tiie tree, whose picturesque outline and dark hue have recommended it so much to the artist, that it forms a striking feature in almost allClau^e Lorraine's and Gaspar Poussin's celebrated Italian landscapes ; Manna Ash, Chestnut, Mulberry (Jig. 296.), Plane, Willow, and Poplars, &c. In the warmer spots there are large groves of Orange and I«mon trees • those of the vicinity of Reggio being most esteemed. In the fifteenth century, thccultivation of the Sugar-cane was carried on with spirit inCalabria, and even on the coasts of Samniura : now, the red and white mulberry, which are grown for the silkworms. The barren rocks are covered with Agave, Cactus, and Capers. 2604. That portion of the Apennines which intersects Calabria is clothed ft-om the base to the very summit with umbrageous forests of Oaks and Coniferous trees : especially con- sisting of the Common Oak, the Cork tree, the Quercus Cerris, Horsechestnut, and Yew, the Larch and Wild Scotch Fir, with tlie Pinaster, &c. 295 296 iTONB PIM.. ftUI.UBIlRV •ioOS. ifost of the vegetable productions of Calabria follow the line of the coast, and adorn the shores of tlie bays of Naples and of Gaiita. The Orange and Liinon reach the Gulf of Genoa, but the climate refuses to perfect the Sugar-cane. The French tried in vain to naturalise it, during the period of their sway in Italy. Snow rarely falls in Naples ; still, instances of its having been seen for a few days are not unknown, Judging by the state of vegetation, the average heat at Naples is about one degree higher than at Rome. Winter begins in December ; the first spring flowers are expanded by February ; and in May the summer heats are already felt. Book I. ITALY. 605 298 ■: CO..-. Ata. '■" arcg. ployeo 2606. Throughout the country in general, besides Maize, and Millet {fig. 297.)) here, as in all the warmer parts of the northern hemisphere, Rice (fig, 298.) is extensively cultivated, especially in low flat lands, where the fields can be temporarily inundated. This operation, as may be sup- posed, occasions much pestilential fever ; so that, in many districts of Italy, laws are enacted pro- hibiting rice-grounds within the distance of five miles from the large towns. Arundo Donax {fig. 299.) is a gigantic grass, frequent in Italy, which seems to take the place of our Common Reed (A. Phragmites). Of the A. Donax, fences are made, also walking-canes, fishing-rods, and a variety of articles which require strength combined with lightness. The Caper {fig, 300. ) "'"'"■ of commerce, too, is an object ■<>1-.7 value. It is the Capparis spinosa of Linnaeus, the Cappai or Kappai of the . <' . ows upon old walls, and in dry rocky situations. The buds of the flowers n ^t; '>re expansion, put into vinegar, and, as is well known, are extensively em- . yiiing for various dishes. AHUNOO DONAX. 2607. There is a wide difference between the temperature of the more northerly and the southern provinces of Italy ; owing as much to the increased height of the Apennines and tlHjir broader bases, as to the actual elevation of latitude. Beyond Samnium, the Orange and Lemon can no longer endure the climate. The plains of Abruzzo sometimes experience cold winters ; and though the Oaks are seen on the sides of the mountains, they no longer reach their tops, and the Coniferous trees are as scarce here as they are abundant in Calabria. The Piuus Pumilio, which of all the genus is the one that grows at the greatest height, stops at 4800 feet ; beyond it are only seen such shrubs, plants, and herbs as are peculiar to regions where the snow regularly falls during the whole winter. 2608. The Olive tree, and its common accompaniments, reaches to Rimini on the eastern coast, where the salt-marshes, perhaps, arrest its further progress equally with the colder temperature ; on the western side it attains to the bases of the Pyrenees ; and near Padua, in latitude 45°, and in sheltered spots about the lakes of Garda and Como, it also grows. At Verona, this tree is no longer seen ; but the Pistachio, Pomegranate, Zizyphus vulgaris, Diospyros Lotos, Celtis australis, and Ostrya vulgaris are in abundance. 606 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pj^RT III. SlIBSECT. 3. Zoofogt/* 2(i09. Tfie zoology of Itafy, the garden of Europe, is peculiarly interesting both to the classic traveller and the scientific naturalist : its rich and sunny plains, intersected by wooded hills, and backed by the noble chain of the Apennines, terminated only by the sea, presents that diversity of temperature and situation so well suited to display a rich and varied assem- blage of native animals. Hitherto this zoological field has been but imperfectly explored ■ hence it becomes extremely difficult, if not impossible, to give more than a slight and very general sketch of its leading peculiarities. 2610. The native quadrupeds have never been particularly enumerated ; but wolves arc still found among the Apennines, and the wild boar is not unknown in the forests of Calabria. The buffalo was once employed as a beast of burden, but is now rarely if ever seen ; nor can it be numbered among the native animals. 261 1. The ornithology of central Italy has very recently been ably illustrated by the Prince of Musignano (Ch. L. Bonaparte). Information from such a source is so highly valuable as throwing so much light on the general distribution of the European l)irds, that we shall here introduce the results furnished by this eminent ornithologist. stationary near Rome 4^ ; permanent residents, but occasionally chauKing their station, 37 j summer visiters 4U ; winter visiters, 57 ; transitory visiters, 26 ; accidental visiters, or stragglers, 44. '^ni3. Thffoltomttg lilt 1^ Roman Airt/^. unknown a* naUvcsof Hriuin, will materiaLy illustratt; tlie^eofo^aphic ornithology of tliL' two countries ; those marked * have occasionally been foun(]> as stragf;lt-rs only, in our islands : — Cathartes percnopterus. Faico n(Eviu&. Fal co-brachydac ty luSt ■. Cencnri> Hvnap. rufii>ei Tcm. Striz Aluco. ranter ro^eua.* tHiulus Gall>u1a>* t'oracias Karnila.* t^'pselus int'ttia. MuHcicapa nltilrollU. Lanius muridioiialis. —- -- minor. — ruUlus.* MtTula CNOiiea. — -.■■ jwintilin. Curruoa turdoides Sw, Sylvia iKnIcapilla. Nylvta Cetti Tern. Kvlvia melanocfphala tu/ft. Sylvia cUtiLola Tein. Sylvia itaMLTina Tnn. Tif "■ ~ Slender-billed Vulture, llough-footpd Eagle L>ith, Short-clawed Falcon- Little Kestrel. Hufous-thighed Falcon. Ra<«-coiaurrd Ousel. (loIdL-n Oriole. Europc.n Holler. Aljiine Switt. White-coll.ired Flycatrher. Southern Shrike. ltali^iro|>e.-in lluipoe. I'endulous Titmouse. Createil l.ark. Short-clawed Lark. Rock r:irtric!ce. I.itile IMcvpr. While Stork. Itlack Stork Purp'e Heron. Kail Heron. European Ibis. Slender -III I Itxl Curlew. Pond Sandpiper Spoonbill. Flamingo. White-winged Tern. White Pelican. 2fill. // mutt neverthflrit be remembrretl, that thig list, r\Mmim» as it LSf exhiliits but :t partial statement of Italian omiilii>lo|:T; as the liirdB rif the western and southern provinces, .is Napl«, Calabria, and Taranto, still remain to t>e inve^tif^Htnl. rithys* Tern. Bibillauix. rufa. Saxicola 8tTap:izina. aurita. Anthusanuatlnis. 21)15. A brief notice qf the most remarkable birds will satisfy the Rcneral reader: these appear to ;»' the Sk'nder-billed Vulture, the Uosc-coloured Starling, the Blue 'llirush, the Hooixw, and the Wall CrceiMjr. Sfilfi. The SlerultrMM Vulture (Cat hnrtrs percnt>pfrrm]nntir two feet and a (lunrter long : its principal food is i arrion : hme the bill is not ailaptcd for vigorous otfence ayainst iisinjt ani- mals ; the face is bare of feathers, while those on the nnk arr pointwl. The general i)lumage is pure white, except the quill. feathers, which are black. In Europe, this vuiture is confimil lo the soiilheni kingttoins, but is abundant in Eyypt, wlitrc it ii of essential um^ in devouring all putrid substances, which niijhl otherwise infect the air. The Hote-cx>loureersed over the greater part of Europe, it is nowhere *o plentiful as in Asiatic Russia. 'J'he Blue and Kock Thnishei are sweet songsters, and on that account are niuih pniwi, wl>«i In captivity, by the Italians. The Hoopoe.so rnnly spenwith us, Is one of the common migratory birds ; it usually arrivM from nosKacuMtrnrn fTAni ino. the African coast very flat and we can, from em^-rience, stairil to !>edfIiciousealinir when rook(d in the ItalLm mode. The r.itlle tViilt-crprfer, IMchodroma murarla, with its crimson winp, is one of the rarest hirds, but Is occasionally seen on the l(.fty uiilli ofSt.PiUrl Church. 26 celeb: s 1 7. ^mun^ the tnsects of Ilali/, Ihe Tarantula Spider and the Silkworm are equally ited. So much of fiiblc and exaggeration has been mixed up with the history of the first, -. 30.J /^J^i^'^ that it is difficult to separate truth from falsehood; ,c .^^yj 0^'- ^^^ it is even doubtful whether any spider of a decidedly -' venomous character truly exists in the counln. During a residence of many years in diflerent slates of Italy, we never met with one answering such n description ; and it is well known that the cominoii people give this name indiscriminately to every large spider they happen to meet with. Mmli more real danger may be apprehended from a species of true Scorpion, which is by no means Part III. teresting both to the ntcrsectcd by wooded t by the sea, presents ich and varied assem- mperfectly explored : han a slight and very »ted ; but wolves arc :lie forests of Calabria. if ever seen; nor can Ltstrated by the Prince is so highly Vitluabic, in birds, that we shall ily includes nearly all those nerica; leaving IKTascx. Icr tlic following heads :— tion, 37 i summer visiti'rs, nuf >iis Titlark. U'ooil Titlark. iVall Creeper. Ktiro|iean ilufipoe. rendutouH Titmouse. rresteit Lark. Short-clawetl Lark. nock PmriilRe. I.ittic I'ldver. Wliite Stork. lliai'k Sloik Purp'e Heron. Kail Heron. European tlils. Slenuer-lHlktl Curlew. Tend Sandpiper Spoonbill. Flamingo. WWIe-winRed Tern. While Pelican. Book I. ITALY. 607 TrtefflArrftf, that thin litt, n\im>r luark. 1 M m llrltain, and, althou^ll »iilth irt of Europe, II Is i'»»t|n« ™ ■^ The Blue and Hock Thnisho „ account are muih pnieil, whw 'he Hoopoe.so rnnl» sienolltiBi, on birila! It usually amvej from i «« can, from eipcrienre, Mm mkid in the Italiin mode. Tk linurarin, with Its crimson »iii«;, occasionally seen on theliH.v .sIil Silkworm are equally h the history of the first, truth from falsehood ; ny spider of a decidedly exists in the country. years in (lifl'ercntsUit(?s Ji one answering such « nown that the common liscriminately to every meet with. Jhi'li c apprchcndeil from » rhifh is l>y "o "'^*" iincominon in damp houses; and our own spcclmon (Jig, HQS.) wu nrtnnlly found one evening within our bed : its sting is vcnoiiious, and, wo Tinvu honni, tlnngvrous. May not the qualities of this insect have been exaggerated, and trunHfvrrud to n spider ? Tlie Silk- norm is too well known to require description. In twnic proviiit'iiit, as Lower Calabria, ^'C. the insect is fed more upon the leaves of the wA tlinn on Iho white mulberry. It is not generally known that a species of true Termiles, or Whitu Ant, Inhabits Sicily ; it is found only in old houses : upon one occasion wo dl«cuvt)rt.Hl u nest vstablished in a portmanteau of clothes, most of which had been dvfitroyud by tlio perforated labyrinths of these dcstiuctive creatures. iW. The domestic animals are not verv remarkable; the I'llmntu, fi'um its heat, being ill aihiiited for grazing. The common breed of oxen are among the largest known, and are furnished with horns of an immense size ; but the animnU nrv gentle, and much used for ilniiiolit : there is also another race, principally found in Tusvnny, much smaller, and esteemed lor ii°s line form and pure white colour ; and these aro exportvd both to Cuba and Jamaica. The iiisufliciency of pasture accounts fur the scarcity of shcvp j and this Is so remarkable, that in some of the distant provinces mutton is considered rnlhvr iniwliolesomc, and is rarely, if ever, brought to market During mony years' resident'c In Huulliern Italy, we never saw !|jis meat exposed for sale ; and in the island of Sicily sheep am nviU'ly unknown. In the :,outlicrn provinces the cheese, butter, and milk is derivetl IVom gtiats, which are kept in iloelisof lOOor 150: they are driven out in the morning by lliu gtmlliurd, and conducted 10 their pens towards sunset. The pigs are all of the lung-leggi'd, tinimprovcd breed, and no care is tiiken in their fattening. 2G19. SinVy. The zoology of Sicily has been hitherto so little known, thot wc shall take this opportunity of briefly illustrating its peculiarities. The following remarks have been the result of p .M-sonul observations, made during a long residence in tliU celebrated island. 2(;20. 7'/ii; native quadrupeds, in former times, .ippear to have been much more numerous ilian they arc ut present : this diminution has not originnteil in the increase of population or of aj;rii.ulttirc, for both of these, it is well known, have enormtnisly retrograded since the s]iieii(Ud epoch of Sicilian history. The diminution of the Iiu'oer nnimids originates in two causes; Hrst, tlie scarcity of wood and shelter; luid, secondly, tliQ universal passion for sliooting. Tlie ancient forests of Sicily, which once sheltered Ihu larger game, have been ;!radually diminishing ; and the next ccntui-y may possibly wituesi« their total disappearance. I'he only fuel burnt throughout the island is wood and cimrciml. Now, a Sicilian landed {iroprietor nc\'er thinks of planting any other trees than vinei* or ulivvN ; to benefit his estate for the sake of those who are to inherit it afterwards, never cnterH Ills imaglnntion. With such a constant and universal demand for fuel, and with no mensures being liiken to provide a future supply, it may therefore be easily imagined that wood U tilrvndy scarce. The vast forests of Etna, of which so much has been said, and which originally belteil that stupendous iiiouniain, have been so diminished in modern times, that they litirdly exist but In name. In these regions immense quantities of charcoal are made, and sunt to all pitrts of the island. Trees .uc felled every day, but not one is ever planted ; in short, even in iHl.'ii, after the Ihitlsh troops had been in the island ten years, wood begun to be so scarce, that their rations of fuel were principally brought from the opposite Kliures of Citlabrin. CiHI. r*!' senrciVvo/ifliWanimnfo originates also in another came ! ovtry SIt'lllaii |it*niinnt carries hiii gun as constantly iipun'his shoulder, as he does his cap upon hia heail i anil he uliiiiitii at every thing, With but little shelter for retreat, or for breeding, and periictnally exposed totU'strtlclliili liy llu>)(Uli, It Is not surprising that Sicily in general should l>c as remarkable i°or its paucity of resilient birds «liil i|imtlriipcds, na It is for its naketl unwooded appearance. Its scenery is grand and magnldeent ; but every where It ii tlcfleicnt in wood and water tii'.'.'. In former times, it appears titat several wild animalu, now seldnni If ev(>r setMi. were met with in almndance Autlioritics cited by Mongitore {Sicilia Kieercala, Kii' , 171'.'! "llow Unit the NViilf Was always a ■larce animal, and is now probalily extinct The Wild Itoar was funnel ly ciimmott, ami much hiiiiled : and liiearlicst historians mention I'orcupincs (Ji^^ .lO.!.^ or Spined I'lgs (jki)i'i' sutmmt, armiiti'ilt ii/iitic^, as being 303 wild in tlie forests of Klna i thai this milliml shnulil not have licen originally a native of I'Turnpv appear*, llicrenire. highly impro- bable. Fanello, one of tlio enrllett NU'llluil writeia, asserts that Fallow Deer (Damn) were fliniiil wild In nbunilancc nn the lolty mountainous chain of the Madiinlii o/i>« Ni'brodpsi,nnil nn that of Oinamiire {olim Neptunl), l''riim Hie latter, owing to its vicinity to Messina, Imth deer and Ibresli have lung since dirap|ienrctl. We do not believe, indeed, Ihnt tills iiiible animal Is any longer wild in this i.slaiul i but largo hei'd< Hri> alittiHl to exist In the woods of Mliniano, belniigiiiH to tlip I'rineo of I'atel'lio ami the Duke de Montalto, where they are \irt'»ervtr8, hoopoes are then land, and are pursued It the whole disappear Fhe African Flamingo le solitary marshes of is an occasional visiter. ilight Heron, the Little , the Glossy Ibis, thu European species, aru Sicily an interest which ected from the bare and s decidedly more allied nera which delight in a Trox, Pimelia, Scarites, s very rich in hymenop- 'ered near thirty species ly be expected, are few; oology of these detached ! believe, there are none Quails, for a short time, iole {Ji4- 306.), and the ire sometimes to be met le large b'rd called the expunged from our sys- m the Alpine Vultun ■m.) in a young sute; from Africa, or the lofty hese birds could find no elterin theflatcultivatBi ittle island of Lampidosa habitual residence of the A birds, and one, also, corded as such : this is awonia Lin.): several of a alive. To this solitaij ing birds of Africa occa. I, arliii THUNcliMil. 6i Mumil llll«NR«IIUI< r, MTHUDOmii IIACrVM'l. 2629. Thejiih are In grout vnrluty, nnd nt all timet affbrd a plentiful supply for the table ; yet the spncit'H are, fur the moitt twrt, similar to those of Sicily. The inhabitants, being catholics, consume groat i|iiaiitltiim of ilivlUflsh. The oyster is, indeed, unknown; but the harbour and coast* round La Vnlulta supply abundance of Murex truncultu (Jig. 307. o), M, braudanut (ft), both much better tasted than our whelks. Immense quantities of the LUhodomiu (/a.;Cyu4, or Boring Muscle (c), are annually consumed. Indeed, the whole island, from its geological nature, I ' ut a vast nidui for this singular shell-fish, which orates the soft rock, below t^e wate", with the » 'hness and regularity of v,i »<.^r. In the It. . . diets and recesses of the cr(....s and harbours, tnnv be found a great variety of radiated Mollusca, which, from the pellucid nature of the water, may bo clearly discerned at a depth of eight or even ten foot. 2630. The domeilkalml tmimali, and the uses they are applied to, excite the attention of Englislnneu on firtt viiiitin){ tlio Utand. The oxen arc large, and have enormous horns, being the same breed as that of Hicily i ull the honvy draught work is performed by them, both in town and country. The horitot are mostly imported from Barbary ; and the breed of asses is not inferior to that of Spain. Tlio tnulo is universally employed for lighter purposes ; and the old Maltese families still odlierotu the ancient custom of using them in carriages, in pre- ference to horses. Cows aro rarvly soon, the artificial soil being too valuable for agriculture ; but goats abound, as they thrive on the scanty herbage of the rocks, and supply all the milk and fresh butter which is requlredi Sheep may be considered a curiosity both in Sicily and Malta; for mutton is rarely toon, oven at the highest tables. The Maltese dog is nearly eitinct, the common breed being inoro like the iiomtcr, and half spaniel. Rats are so large and numerous, that, during the ilimuus siogc of La Valetta, they became delicious food to the starving Maltese, and lulaiu a liigli price. StiCT. IIL IliHlnrkal Geography. 2631. The history of Jtaly U iiitrivallod in the magnitude of its events, and their influence upon the general destinies of the world. Our limits and plan can allow only a very hasty sketch of the mighty revnltitionK of which this country has been the centre. 2632. Of the early nnlloH) of Ittilu but liltli' is known. The Etruscans, by the works of art handed down by them, cspiciully III the form of terracottas, appear to have been a civilised as well as a powerful nnd fHoo people. The south, colonised from Greece, and even denominated Magna Orwcin, was the scat of the must celebrated of the early schools of science : Pythagoras taught at I'rotoiin ( nnd the Samnites, by their gallant and long suc- cessful resistance to the lluinunN, oKtnbtishcd their name as a military nation. 2638. Home sprung tip amid Iheie natlont rather as a band of refugees than as a regular stote. The Itomans thou siilijei'led, one aWvt another, first the neighbouring tribes, then the whole of Itnly ; and afterwnnU I'rossoil the seas, to conquer all the known world. Among their high and energetic virtues nnd during exploits, they retained still a character of rudeness: and the first influence of their conquests was to extinguish in the subject nations the degree of civilisation they already posBvsHed. Etruria lost her early arts, and Carthage that immense commerce which embraced all the known seas of the globe. But as the hardy captains of Rome penetrated to the ritips of Greece, and saw the matchless works of architecture and sculpture with which they were embellished, their nigged pride was softened, and they were smitten with the love of tlicse beautiful arts. The orators of the Forum sought next to transfer the tipleitdid iiowers of eloquence wliich had given dignity and splendour to Athens. At Inst Cicero undertook to transplant the Grecian philosophy. Unfortunately, at the same time, the chiefs who returned laden with the spoils of so many nations introduced an unbounded luxury, which vitiated altogether the truth and simplicity of ancient mannerit. 2634. The empire of Rome, the most extensive and opulent ever established, was, after dreadful convulsions, erected Oil the mighty ruins of the senate and the republic; and the world became as It were the Inheritance of a single man. On such a trying and perilous eminence, examples wore presented of the most unbounded cruelty and dis- soluteness ; yet also of the must wUo nnd enliuhtened humanity. During the Augustan age, poetry and all the fine arts weru patronlM'iT and cultivated with ardour after the Grecian model, and carried almost to an equal pitch of perfection. The oppressive sway, however, of successive tyrants, and the brntui licence of the preetorian guards, soon left little more than that barbarous voluptuouRiiesK whivh generally characterises a purely despotic govern, ment. 26SS. The decU.te of the Jioman emiilre wns attended with calamities to Italy and to man- H r 910 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. ^^•t III. kind, ttill more drcadftil than those with which its rise had been attended. The barboriaiii of the north and east of Europe, allured by the reported wealth and weakness of the empire, pressed continually closer on its frontier. They were kept in check for some time by the Danube and the Alps, and by the remaining strength of the legions. At lensth they burst all these barriers, and ravaged the beautiful plains of Italy. The transference to the East of the seat of empire left this portion with an unequal share of the common defence. Rome itself, the imperial capital of the world, became the prey of barbarians t it was successively sacked by the Goths under Alaric, and the Vandals under Oenseric. 2636. The sceptre was malclied from the feeble hands of Augusttiius, and the western empire was extinguished. The kingdom felt a gleam of reviving prosperity under Theodoric tlie Ostrogoth and Thcodosius the Great) but was soon overwhelmed by fresh swanm o( barbarians, among whom the Lombards were tlie most conspicuous, and have given their name to the northern plain watered by the Po. S2637. TIte empire of Charlemagne suspended the troubles of Italy, but formed the com- mencement of that long series of ultramontane dominion, to which she has been subjected. When the members of that empire, France and Germany, separated from each other, Italy fell to the lot of Germany, which retained the imperial name and dignity, but ever afterwards found this country a turbulent and precarious appanage. 2638. The spiritual authority of the Popes formed a new species of empire, which seemed to invest Rome with a grandeur almost equal to that which she had displayed under the CaDsars. After a gradual progress, it rose, under Gregory VII., to such a height, that Henry IV., the most able and powerful prince of his time, was fain to present himself bare, headed and barefooted, and on his knees implore forgiveness for having ventured to dispute the spiritual authority. From this time these proud pontiffs not only claimed the right of disposing absolutely, throughout the Christian world, of all the officers and ministers of religion, and of exacting from it the regular tribute of " Peter's pence," but even of ex- communicating and deposing the greatest kings. As the emperors, however, did not tamely submit to these usurpations from a power which they considered in a temporal sense as subordinate, a series of struggles ensued, which scandalised the church and distracted Europe. 2639. The rise of the commercial repjiiftc*, Venice, Genoa, and Florence, formed a brilliant era for Italy, enabling her almost to equal the most splendid ages of antiquity. Their navies, both for war and commerce, covered the seas, and set bounds to the all-grasping ambition of the Ottoman, which threatened to overwhelm the whole western world. By degrees, also, the lamp of learning, which had shed for ages only a dim light over Europe, broke forth here into full effulgence. The remains of Greek literature were conveyed over by the learned men who fled before the sword of the Turks ; the writings of the ancients were drawn from the depth of convents, and eagerly studied and circulated. What was of more consequence, a race of enlightened princes and nobles arose, who sought glory in patronising knowledge, while a general taste for it was diffused among a wealthy and re- fined community. The arts of painting, architecture, and music, on wltich the wealth of the noble citizens was lavishly expended, rose to an eminence equalling, perhaps, that of the ancients, and surpassing that of any other modern nation. 2640. Tlie decline and degradation of Italy rapidly ensued after this brilliant era. Her great republics lost the liberty which had rendered them so flourishing ; their arts and com- merce were transferred to the northern maritime states. The great monarchical powers, after long struggles, reduced her territory to a state either of subjection or vassalage ; while they continued at the same time to make her soil one of the great theatres of contention. Italy had reason more and more to deplore " her fatal gift of beauty," which became so fruitful " a source of present woes and past;" she was branded even with the appellation of *' slave of slaves." Home herself lost her spiritual greatness, which was withered even in catholic countries by the progress of reformation. The late revolutions of Europe, though they produced in Itiily many eventful scenes, can scarcely be considered as forming an era ill her destiny. They had only the effect of sealing her degraoation, by extinguishing what remained of the independence of her once great republics, Venice and Genoa. The Italians nre said to regret the lost name of the kingdom of Itn'v given by Bonaparte to the northern districts, though accompanied not with any por -f political freedom, but with some beneficial regulations of law and police. In gt .a great body of the Italian people manifest a deep sense of the fallen state of their ^./antry, and an eager desire to seize any favourable occasion to revive its ancient glories ; but as yet the iron hand of Austrian mili- tary power has crushed in the bud every tendency of this nature. Sect. IV. Political Geography, 2641. Tlie political state of Italy presents nothin;:; on which the wellwishers of that country can look with much satisfaction. It is divided among (ivo potentates : the Emperor of Austria, ^vho holds Lunihardy nnd Venice, to which may lie added Pnrma and Flii. Pa«t hi. 1. Thu barbariaiit i weakness of the heck for some time tgions. At length The transference to ire of the common >y of barbarians ; it ler Ocnseric. I, and the western ity under Theodoric ly fresh swarmii ot id have given their [It formed the corn- has been subjected, im each other, Italy but ever aftcrwarija ipire, which seemed displayed under the such a height, that resent himself bare- ventured to dispute claimed the right of rs and ministers of e," but even of ex. ever, did not tamely a temporal sense as urch and distracted ce, formed a brilliant }f antiquity. Their Is to the all-grasping western world. By n light over Europe, were conveyed over ngs of the ancients ated. What was of vho sought glory in a wealthy and re- hich the wealth of perhaps, that of the brilliant era. Her their arts and com- nonarchical powers, or vassulagc ; while jatres of contention. ," which became so th the appellation of 'as withered even in of Europe, though :d as forming an era extinguishing what enoa. The Italiani larte to the northern lorn, but with some the Italian people r desire to seize any id of Austrian mili- wellwishers of that itates : the Emperor Id Parma .ind PIv DooK I- ITALY. «lt centia, the appanage of Miuria>LouiM ; the King of Sardinia, who has Piedmont, Savoy, and Genoa ; the Grand Duko of Tuscany ; the Pope, temporal ruler of the States of the Chureh; the King of Naples and Sicily. The constitutions of all these sovereignties possess an unhappy simplicity ; the will of the ruler operating unchecked by any legal or constitutional limit. Neither the great civic nobles of the commercial states nor the feudal nobility of the country have any eflective influence in the administration. They only exercise, by their immense fortunes, a pernicious influence in checking the operations of police, throwing the public burdens on the industrious classes, and depriving them of the just protection of the laws. The police over all Lower Italy is in the most imperfect state. Bands of almost licensed robbers occupy the mountain districts, and make frequent iiin»ds into the plain ; thus rendering a great part of their territory unfit for the residence of the cultivator. %42. Tlie only tie between the separate governments of which Italy it romfiosed consists in the paramount influence of Austria ; the power of all others which sets itself in the most filed opposition to political reform. The Emperor of Austria has his brother Grand Ouke of Tuscany, his father-in-law King of Naples, one of his daughters Duchess of Parma and Placentia, and the family of Sardinia bound to him by close ties of consanguinity. What is of more consequence, hh troops also are in a position to overcome any one of them which should adopt measures contrary to the views of this high potentate. Being otherwise un- connected with each other, and none of them powers of the first rank, they present no [lolitical features which may not be exhibited in describing the local divisions of Italy. SfCT. V. Productive Industry. 2G43. The productive wealth of Italy has suflercd greatly in tlio decline of ber other sources of prosperity. Yet such is the felicity of her soil and climate, and so considerable arc the remains of her industry, that the entire produce of her land and labour is still ample and valuable. 2644. Agriculture, as Smith has observed, is one of those plants which take such deep root, that only extreme tyranny and misrule, and scarcely even these, can eradicate them. Italy is riuw dependent upon other countries for the superb fabrics with which she formerly supplied them ; her ships no longer cover the Mediterranean ; her merchtints, who were once her nobles and her princes, retain only the shadow of mighty names. But the plains of the Po, the Amo, and the Garigliano arc still cultivated like gardens ; and the agri> cultural produce, after supplying a very dense population, affords a large surplus for export, 2645. Culture in Italy is conducted by a class of farmers to whom we have nothing analogous in our part of the world. The stock is furnished half by the landlord, and half by the tenant ; and the produce is equally divided between them. The lease is only from year to year ; but a tenant who pays his rent, and does not give any serious oR'ence, is never removed; Mr. Forsyth considers the productiveness as being invariably in proportion to the smallness of the property ; a result the reverse of what obtains in this country ; but the cause probably is, that, under a system of management where the landlord co-operates, the port of those holding large estates committed to stewards and substitutes is commonly very ill done, and their avidity for money shows itself only in extortion. The property of the great ecclesiastical nobles of Rome has thus been converted into a pestilential desert. In Lombardy and Tuscany, however, the mercantile intelligence of the opulent owners has been employed in important rural improvements ; die wealtih of these districts is chiefly due to the astonishing works constructed at' an early period for the purpose of irrigation. Several of them were executed at periods prior to the era of authentic record ; others in the twclfih, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries. The aqueducts, sluices, and other works con- nccte'l with them, are still the admiration of engineers. Tliey are now so divided and sub- divided, as to convey the means of irrigation almost into every field ; and in this southern clime, where nothing almost but water is wanted, the increase of fertility is almost incredible. The produce is sometimes more than tripled ; and grass may be mown three, four, and five times in the year. The property of water, tlius the grand instrument of cultivation, is fixed and distributed by the minutest regulations. Every spring newly discovered belongs to the proprietor of tlic ground, and is by him immediately converted into a little canal. The enclosures are small, and surrounded, for the sake of shade, by poplars and mulberry trees, which give the country a rich wooded appearance. The farm-steadings are kept very neat and clean. In the Tuscan vale of the Amo, the irrigating system is practised on a diiferent and still more elaborate method. The steeps of the Apennine, from which the waters poured down only in irregular torrents, seemed incompatible with such a process. Recourse was liad to the terrace system, which, though not uncommon in Asia, is in Europe almost exclusively Italian. The processes by wliich level spots have been formed on the sides of the steepest muuntiiins, naked rocks covered with earth, torrents confined within walls, and guided in little canals along almost every field, could only have been ciTccted by the Rr 2 61S DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY Part III. Florentine merchants in their greatest prosperity. The people of the present age with dif Acuity support the heavy expenses of repairing and keeping up these most uselui worlci.' The cultivation in Naples docs not require such elaborate processes. All that is tliere wanted is shade, which is procured by dividing the country into very small fields of less than •n acre, and planting each side with high trees round which vines are trained. The land is almost entirely tilled with the spade ; but the poor cultivator is obliged to give two thirrit. instead of one half, to the pro|)rietor. The Neapolitan Apenninc is not cultivated with the same elaborate care as the Tuscan ; but nature profusely covers it with the chestnut and the olive. An entirely different system prevails in the great maremmas or plains nlune the sea coast, which, from some cause not fully ascertained, arc filled at u certain season with air so pestilential, that human beings cannot remain for any length of time without the Inn of health, and even of life. These wide plains, surrounding the greatest cities of Italy, pre. sent a scene of the most dreary desolation, and are covered merely with wandering herds. watched by a few mounted shepherds who, however habituated to the climate, labour under constant debility. Once in about six years each spot is brought under the plough, for which purpose numerous bodies of labourers are brought from Rome and Sienna; and aometimes a hundred ploughs are employed at once, in order to get over as soon as possible this dangerous operation. The farmers arc few in number, not more than eighty in the whole Roman state. They reside constantly in the cities have large capitals, and long leases; and some of them have live stock worth 16,0001, •2646. 7%e objtctt of agriculture in Italy are numerous and important. Tliey include grain of all the most valuable descriptions. The wheat of Sicily, and still more of Sardinia is reckoned the finest in Europe. Maize is a prevalent grain, chiefly for the ftwd of the lower orders ; and even rice is raised with success and to a considerable extent, in the in. undated tracts of Lombardy. Silk is an universal staple, and of very fine quality. The annual produce is estimated at 11,850,000 lbs, value 1 '2,000,000£ ; that of Lombardy being 7 millions; Sardinian States 2; Two Sicilies 1. The export from Lombardy is worth 3 to 4 millions sterling. Tlie vine finds almost every where a favourable situation, and is cultivated ; but the juice no longer preserves the fomc of the ancient Fidcrnian. It is in general too sweet, and too imperfectly fermented, to admit of exportation. Mr. Eus- tace endeavours to turn this circumstance to the honour of the national character, concoiving that the sober Italian, who drinks to quench thirst, has no motive to study the preparation of a delicate wine. The wines of Naples and Sicily arc the best, and arc sometimes seen at the tables of the great in foreign countries The Muscatel and other Sicilian wines are so extremely luscious, that only one or two glasses can be taken at a time. That island, how- ever, has another kind, the Marsalu, often sent to America and the West Indies, where it passes for Madeira. The olive grows in very great luxuriance in Naples, on the eastern slope of the Apennines ; and the oil exported from Gallipoli is esteemed above any other, at least for the finer woollens. In 18,36, it amounted to above 6,000,000 gallons, of n-hich 3,700,000 went to France, and 900,000 to Britain. Cattle are not particularly numerous; but nutny of them, from their qualities, are singularly valuable. Pre-eminent among these arc the cows fed in the pastures of the Parmesim, and the country around Lodi, which ])roresent age with dlf. most uwifiil worki, . All that is there lall fields of less than trained. The lund •d to give two thirds, t cultivated with the 'itii the chestnut and s or plains alunj; the certain season with ime without the losi it citii's of Italy, pre- ith wandering herds, slimate, labour under nder the plough, for ne and Sienna; and er as soon as possible 'e than eighty in the ;c capitals, and long rtant. Tliey include itill more of Sardinia, f for the fiHid of the }lc extent, in the in- y fine quality. The it of Lombardy being Lombardy is worth 'able situation, and is icicnt Pidernian. It )ortation. Mr. Eus- I character, conceiving study the preparation arc sometimes seen at r Sicilian wines are so f!. That island, how- est Indies, wlicre it Naples, on the ciistern mod above any other, 000 gallons, of n'hich ularly numerous; but nent among these are Lodi, which produce he world. The cattle the stall, upon mown ntains 450,000 cattle, of a small grey kind, they give little milk, to be fattened for the their wool is gcnc- lerino, been rendered hough not so fine, is oven undyed, for the at numbers amid the d by the cultivators, eat perfection : they )ods, where they feed ,d sprightly animals. luxury. The fruits estnuts, which in the s, who even dry and oak and chestnut, is a which rivals that of provinces of Naples, c hemp of Bologai, es from a species of and variety, arc now Uooxl. ITALY. Ota ..very where in a state of decay, and present only speoitncns on a small Rcalo of what formerly existed. The great and opulent citiiens, after the military revolutions which deprived thorn (if inllucncc and security, seem svtiry where to have retired to the country, and investe fncture of straw hats, which affords a most valuable employment to the country girls in that neighbourhood, and yields a produce of about 130,000/. a year. In general, Italian statistics are in so low a state, as to make it scarcely possible even to conjecture the amount of thew various articles. '264fl. Minerals, especially metals, arc deficient to a degree remarkable for a country ao very mountainous. The Alps, which arc so rich on the side of Germany, produce on that u( Italy only iron in the districts of Brescia and Bergamo, and copper in that of Belluno. Tlio Brcscian iron has been worked with considerable diligence, being formed into tho steel celebrated under the name of Brescian, and into various descriptions of hardware, which, however, have shared the general decline of Italian industry. Notwithstanding the boaat* of some native writers, no mines of importance seem to exist in any part of the Apennines, or of tlie rest of Italy, except the island of Elba, long celebrated for its fine iron. Tho clifis of this great calcareous chain, however, produce valuable stone, and particularly several species of Iteautiful marble, among which that of Carrara is conspicuous ; nor are there want« ing agates and other ornamental stones. The sulphur of Sicily is an article of importance. 'J649. The mercantile transactions of Italy have declined in a still more remarkable degree. The discovery of America, and the passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope, transferred the most valuable trade of the world into channels from which she was excluded, lite restrictive, and in many respects oppressive system adopted by the Spanish and German princes, chilled the spirit of enterprise ; and the great capitalists of Venice and Genoa pre« ierred investing their money at high interest in foreign funds. The only great commercial activity now existing is at Leghorn, which carries on not only the commerce of Tuscany, but that of Naples and Sicily, and keeps even a regular depot of all the commodities of the Leant. The exports from Italy consist almost entirely of her raw produce, raw and thrown silk and olive oil ; Parmesan cheese ; marble ; almonds, and raisins, from Sicily and Lij)ari ; Bologna hemp, barilla, sulphur, liquorice, paste, straw hats, and a great quantity of rags. The exports from Britain to Italy, in I K36, were officially estimated at 8,050,000/, ; the imports at 1 , 1 99,000/. Of the former, the chief articles were, brass and copper, 1 8,200/. i coals, 9,100/. ; cottons, 57,440,000 yards, value 1,4.54,000/. ; twist ond yarn, 524,000/. } earthenware and glass, 12,800/. ; herrings, 27,800/. ; hardware and wrought iron, 149,800/, \ linens, 46,500/. ; machinery, 22,500/. ; sugar, refined, 289,000/. ; tin, 28,000/. : woollens, 241,000/. ; cinnamon and cassia, 152,500 lbs. ; coffee, 2,060,000 lbs. ; gum, 232,00011)8, j indigo, 295,OOOlhs. ; pepper and pimento, 521,000 lbs; rum, 47,300 gallons ; tobacco, 4,396,000 lbs. ; cotton, 2,97 1 ,000 lbs. llie imports into Britain in that year were, barilla, 22,200 lbs.; hark, 54,700 lbs. ; sulphur, 625,000 lbs. ; currants, .%1 84 cwts.; straw hats, 7,473} lemons and oranges, 53,400 boxes ; madder, 1 0,672 cwts.; olive oil, 1, 8 18,700 gallons ; shumaOf 154,414 cwts. ; silk, raw, 467,000 lbs., thrown, 12,000 lbs. ; skins, kid and Iamb, 2,31 3,000 ; tallow, 14,000 cwts. ; cotton, 2,799,000 lbs. ; wool, 2,825,000 lbs. ; wine, 392,600 gallons. Her exports to France in that year were valued at 4,165,500/. ; imports, 3,562,000/. 2650. Fishing is a pursuit lor which the extensive coasts of Italy, as well as its lakes and rivers, furnish ample scope,^ as they abound with fish of the most excellent quality. It is Rr 3 614 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. l'*HT HI, carried on with luffldenl cUllgoncu for tmmvdlatc cunnuinptiun, but not lo m either to furnith object* of Imdu, or to diipense with a largo importation. Ancliovivs, however, are shiuwd in large quantitien from Sicily for Leghorn ; and it geems to be from lome defect in the mode of cure that they do not equal the Gorgona anchovies. On the western coast uf tlic same island is a considerable coral fishery. Amber, as a marine production, may also bv mentioned us found more abundantly on the Sicilian than on any other coast. The tunny fishery of Sardinia is the most extensive in the Mediterranean. 2651. The canals, constructed during the period of the glory of Italy, arc very numcruiis and valuable. The plain of Lombardy is intersected by twelve on a large scale, connected by innumerable minor channels. Rut though many of these are navigable, their primary object has been to communicate to the c6untry on both banks of the Po its unrivalled fertility. This is still more decidedly the case in the Florentine canals, which are mei«ly broad ditches cut along the terraced sides of the mountains. The only canals of the south appear to be those which have been formed at different times with a view to the droinini; of the Pontine marshes. Commercial canals do not seem to have yet entered into the system of Italian economy. 2652. TA« roads of liafy were carried to the highest perfection under the ancient Roman empire and republic. From Rome, as a centre, five great ways branched off' to the ditfercnt frontiers. All obstacles were removed, rocks levelled, hollows arched over, in order to form routes the most direct, level, and commodious. Thev were constructed in a peculiar manner with large blocks of stone wedged together so ns almost to resemble a flat surface o( rock ; and such is the durability thus produced, that several large portions remain, nfter the lapse of two thousand years, in as entire a state as at their first formation. Tliu lines uf these great roads still continue, and are kept by the existing governments in very tuleralile condition; so that travelling in Italy is obstructed only by the occasional inundations of the rivers, and the still more perilous assaults of banditti, who occupy many of the Apen- nine recesses. Srct. VI. avil and Social State. 2653. The ttational character and the state of society in Italy are marked by prominent and striking features. The people, in some respects, are perhaps the most polished and refined of any in the world. While the German and many English nobles placed their enjoyment in hunting and the pleasures of the table, music, painting, poetry, and assemblies for con- versation formed the delight of the Italians. The one spends much of his fortune in keeping a splendid table, stud, and pack of hounds; the other in building palaces, and adorning them with masterpieces of painting and sculpture. The French ure, perhaps, still more gay and social ; but their gaiety is more of a noisy, empty, and animal liind ; while the Italian derives his delight from objects of taste, and feels them with deeper sensi- bility. The nobles of this country were from the first civic ; and all their haibits hare continued to be those of a city. What they call the chase has no resemblance to the bold adventurous field-sports of England, but consists merely in driving a number of animals into an enclosed place, and shooting them at their ease. No pains ore bestowed on tlie improvement of their estates, which are managed according to a mechanicil routine, under the care of stewards, who often embezzle a great part of the produce. Being excluded also (W>m all concern in public aflfairs, and from the administration of the state, they have become estranged from habits of manly and energetic exertion. They pass their lives in a listless and lounging apathy, making it their sole object to while away the hour in the most ea&y and agpx-eablc manner. Their day is spent in a regular routine of attendance on mass, on their lady, on the theatre, the Casino, and the Corso. As the title and rank of • noble descends to all his posterity, the great increase in their number, by reducing them to a miserable and proud poverty, tends still more to degrade them in the public eye. Certain remains of mercantile habits are offensive to English observers. Ostentatious magnificence is com- bined with sordid economy ; the most superb equipages and apartments are let out to foreigners, who arc not even quite sure of honest dealing. Attached to many of the Flo- lentine palaces is a little shop, where wine is retailed in the smallest quantities. But the deepest reproach of Italian manners seems to be the established system of cicisbeism, b; which every married lady must have her lover or cavaliere servente, who imposes on himself the duty, wherever she is or goes, to dangle after her as her devoted slave. This con- nection is said to be not decidedly, or at least certainly, criminal, as our manners would lead us to suppose ; but rather to form an ^tal into which it is necessary to enter, on pain of expulsion from the fashionable circles, and which is continued according to a routine of almost mechanical observa.^j ; the gallant speaking not of the mistress whom he loves, but of her whom he serves. It is obvious, however, that it must, at the very least, imply the sacrifice of all tliat is happy or respectable in domestic life, attended as it is with as anathema against the married pair, if they show the slightest symptoms of respecter regard fur each other. Still charity and humanity appear conspicuous virtues in tlicsc nobles. Book It ITALY. 015 OM cither lofurniih lowever, aru iliipp«d I some defect in th« westfrn coast of the Auction, may also be r coast. The tunnv ked by prominent and t polished and refined )laced their enjoyment nd assemblies for con- ceit of bis fortune in )uilding palaces, and French are, perhaps, ty, and animal kind ; em with deeper sensi- all their habits hsTC semblance to the bold number of animals are bestowed on tlie lanicil routine, under Being excluded also Ate, they have become their lives in a listless in the most easy and jnce on mass, on their k of • noble descends >m to a miserable and Certain remains of magnificence is com- ments are let out to to many of the Flo- quantities, But the :em of cicisbcism, by o imposes on himself ed slave. Thiscon- is our manners would ^ to enter, on pwn of ding to a routine of IS whom he loves, but very least, imply the dcd ns it is with an sof respect or regard ucs in tlicsc noblei. The ftUierico'^^ "" Institution diffused throughout Tuscany, consixts In Plorcncu of four hundred persons, many of high rank, who devote themselves to personal attendance un thv ick superintending the hospitals, distributing food to the patients, nnd watching the manner in which they are treated. These duties, indeed, they perform under the disguiso of long Utck vestments, which cover and conceal the face. There is another society for searching out and relieving the poor who have seen bttter days, and are ashamed to beg : but in Mr, Fonvth's time their zeal had so far relaxed, that they bestowed alms only upon application } and Mr. V'illiamH considers tlieir original object as wholly lost sight of. Tlie charitable institutions of Naples, Rome, Milan, and Genoa, ajipear also to be most extensive ; and the bounty bestowed, especially at the convents, is considered as one of the chief causes of the idleness and mendicity which prevails in the great cities. Temperance must be admitted as another virtue oftlie Italians, Notwithstanding the abundance and cheapness of wine, intoiication is scarcely known, even among the lowest ranks, Englis!< visiters comphun that, amid the profusion of other forms of courtesy, little food or drink is vouchsafed to them even by the most opulent. A dinner is an event of the rarest o- irrence ; and the amusements of the evening are only those of intellect or society, witliout any refVeshmen' whatever. The accompaniment of real politeness and civility, however, shows tltal iliis proceeds not from want of hospitable feelings, but of that importance which is ni 'ached '•• fgooA cheer by the English nation. 2654. The lower ranks form the maia of the Italian poptUation, with scarcely any intervL.- , i^ class between them ana the nobles. They share, in some degree, the refined tastes mid manners of the higher ranks. The common shopkeepers of Florence and Uoine possess a taste in the fine arts, and sometimes even in poetry, which is unknown in the most polixlied circles beyoi d the Alps, They delight also in conversation, which they support with peculiar animation, and with gesticulations the most varied and expressive of any European ]■. •:^.)'.-. The peasantry are, on the whole, a poor, quiet, contented orderly race; spending, m.t very wisely, all their little savings in finery for their wives and daughters, liut the popufce ot the great towns display a character peculiarly idle, tumultuary, and unlicensed. They seem to combine the characters of citizens, beggars, and bandits. The lazzaroni of Naples, in particular, form a numerous body, who exist almost wholly out of tlie pale of regular society. The climate enables them to live without houses, — almost without clothes, u'ld with only a doily handful of maccaroni. Having obtained this by theft, by begging, or some little occasional work, they abandon themselves to luxurious indolence, or Uie indul- gence of wayward humours. They are a set of wild merry rogues, with all the rude < jatholic church, maintains an establishment rather suited to his fonncr supremacy, than to the limited and almost nominal jurisdiction which he now exercises. The great council of the church consists of the college of cardinals, who, according to the regular establishment, amount to seventy : they are chosen by the pope, and on their part they eleci. him out of their body. Every fortnight they ore assembled in a consistory, to uellberate on the general aiTairs of the church. I'articular departments are also administered by congregations, which have not the signification which we attach to them, but signify public boards. There is a congregation ile propagandu Jide, for missions to foreign ports and the conversion of heretics ; the congregation of the index, for making up the list of prohibited books. The Jesuits, since their re-establishment in 1817, have also their heail- quarters at Rome, where their general resides. The inquisition, now much mitigated in its rigour, forms one of these congregations. There are thirty-eight archbishops in Italy ; and the number of suli'ragans varies according to the pleasure of tlie pope. The clergy, Rr 4 616 DESCIUPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pxai HI. I I both secular and regular, were, prior to the Revolution, very numerous ; and their posses, sions were immense, consisting chiefly in land. The titlies were not very severe, and in Tuscany liad been altogether abolished. During tlie French revolutionary sway there was an extensive confiscation of ecclesiastical, and especially of conventual property and though tliis has been partly restored, much still remains in the hands of the lay purchasers It is said that not much beneflt has thence accrued to the cultivators, who have merely found a new and often more rigid landlord. Another means of support to the church is from alms ; and the two most powerful modern orders, the Dominicans and Franciscans have expressly announced themselves as mendicant ; but the spirit of the times renders this source of wealth much less productive than formerly. 2656. The ceremoniei of the Roman catholic church are exhibited at Rome in all their im. posing splendour. Mr. Eustace considers the pontiflcal service at St. Peter's, and the pro- cession on Corpus Christi day, as, perhaps, the most magnificent spectacles that are exhibited in the universe. All the parade of dress, the blaze of light, and the pomp of music are united in the magnificent hall of the Vatican, and the vast area of the church of St. Peter to produce the most imposing and brilliant effect : one of tlie most striking scenes is said to be in St. Peter's, on the night of Good Friday, when the hundred lamps that burn over tlic tomb of the Apostle are at once extinguished, and in their stead a stupendous cross of light appears suspended from the dome : in one part of the ceremonies the Pope maices a show of washing the feet of pilgrims, while in another he bestows his benediction on the assembled multitude. These great days are precetletl by periods of severe fasting, and fol- lowed by a carnival, or interval of almost unbuuniled licence. The gloom of the first period is described by Lady Morgan as enlivened by busy preparation in draping the churches, clotliing altars, and forming festoons ; also in preparing dresses, crowns, necklaces, and cradles for the Madonna and Child of tlie respective churches. Sometimes the Virgin blazes in pearls and diamonds ; sometimes she can only get a tin crown, set o£F with gilt paper and glass beads. Mary, according to Mrs, Graham, is the goddess of Italy : even the robbers, who are generally devout, never go forth on a marauding expedition, without her image carefully tied round the neck ; they consider it even as a spiritual benefit to be hanged, as they then get absolution immediately before they drop, and can commit no further sin. We can scarcely, however, believe, with Mrs. Graliara, that it is customary with the Italians to commit capital offences with the sole view of securing their salvation. According to Mr. Matthews, there appears to be some good preaching in Rome : one friar he compares to Dr. Chalmers for vehemence and enthusiasm, tliougli without the same rich variety of know- ledge and illustration ; but he employs himself very laudably in attacking the prevalent faults, and particularly that attachment to the outward forms of religion which is here so generally substituted for its essential duties. 2657. In literature anil science, tlie world is deeply indebted to Italy ; first for the clas- sical works which she produced during her Augustan age ; and then for the brilliant re . of literature, under her auspices, after a long night of ignorance. In the fifteenth and six. teenth centuries she could boast of Petrarch, Dante, Tasso, and Ariosto, as standing in the first class of poets ; Guicciardini, Fra Paolo, Machiavel, unrivalled among the historians of their own and several succeeding ,iges ; and Galileo as attaining the highest distinction in astronomy and physical science. Along with tiio political ascendency of Italy, her literary greatness has suffered decay ; the magnificent patronage of the Medici and the Estes was no longer extended to it ; and the national enthusiasm, by which it had been fed, was depressed by slavery and adversity. Italy, however, has not ceased from time to time to produce dis- Anguished works. The lyrics of Giridi, Chiabrera, Filicaju, have attracted admiration ; and the drama, which had been wanting in its fortunate age, was brought forward in a very im- posing manner by Alficri and IMonti, At the same time the political works of Filangieri, Reccaria, and Verri, have displayed highly enlightened views; and Spallanzani, Fontana, and others have acquired distinction in medical and physical science, 26.S8, The literary collections of Italy are of singular value : the library of the Vatican, if not the most extvnsive, is probably the most valuable, in Europe ; the number of volumes (a simple fact, which might be easily ascertained,) hasl>een left to conjecture, which fluctuates, according to ^Ir. Eustace, between 200,(X)0 and 1,(XX),IX)0: he advises to take the middle, which makes k very vague kind of estimate. The niani. oripts, the most curious and valuable part, ore reckoned by him ot 50,000, but by Mr. Ciidell only at .^0,000. They comprise very early copies of the gospels, the classics, and writers of the middle age. The French extorted the surrender of 5(X), to Iw selected by tlieniselvcs ; but if (as reported by Lad; Morgan) the choice was caiiriciuusly made by illiterate officers, it may not have materially rmluced the value of the collection. The Uiociardi and Magliubecchi libraries, li;in tlie ruins of Herculaneum, present still one of the greatest modem literary curiosities. 2559, Tlie fine arts in Italy have attained a splendour quite unrivalled in any modem country, and have even flourished in that region as their chosen and peculiar soil. An aristocracy living in cities, and estranged from rural habits, naturally centered their pride and gratification in covering their country with this species of embellishment. The houses of the Medici and of Este, with the nobles and senate of Venice, vied with each other in raising such monuments. 2660. Fainting, in the sixteenth century, and in the Roman and Florentine schools, reached a iieight of perfection unequalled, perhaps, even in ancient times. In all the qualities of form design, and expression, which constitute the highest excellence of the art, no names can yet rival those of Michael Angelo and Raphael. A school nearly contemporaneous was fonned at Venice, which, as to tlie beauty of colouring, stands unrivalled. It is remarkable that, ever since tliis early period, the art has been in a state of gradual decline. The school of Bologna, however, which immediately '.ucceeded, attained to very great excellence, just below that of its predecessor. But, for more than a century, though Italy has had some showy and popular painters, there have been none who could establish any classic reputation i at present, notwithstanding the respectable names of Camuccini and Naldi, the general cha- racter of art is very secondary. An ingenious writer complains of the cold, glaring, hard style adopted by those who have the opportunity of studying the most masterly of die ancient works. Indeed, Mr. Williams suspects that the constant copying of these works, and ofttn for the mere purpose of sale, deadens the invention of the Roman and Florentine painters. 2661. The sculpture of Italy, even during its happiest ages, did not equal that of the ancient schools ; though Michael Angelo and Bandinelli, combining it with painting, pro- duced sone very splendid specimens. In the present age the genius of Canova has burst forth with a brilliancy which has enabled modern times in this art almost to rival antiquity. Tliorwaldscn, also, though a Dane, having been completely formed and fixed at Rome, has generally been considered as Italian. 2662. Engraving is an art subsidiary to painting and sculpture, and naturally following in their train. Notwithstanding the interesting school formed by Raphael, and the valuable etchings by the Bolognese painters, Italy seems, in this department, to have long remained behind France and Flanders. This reproach has been removed in the present age, when the patronage afforded by an association of nobles has produced Volpato, Bettelini, Gan- dolli, and above all Morghen, justly, perhaps, considered as the greatest engraver that ever I'listed. The talent of these artists also having been employed solely on the finest pieces of the early masters, has rendered their engravings of peculiar interest and value. 2663. Jrchileclure is another art in which Italy has no modern rival. Though some of the northern nations may have erected more huge and more costly structures, none of them display the same high, pure, and classical taste. Besides Palladio and Bramante, who hold the foremost place among professed architects, Michael Angelo employed himself in designing several great edifices, which are stamped with all the grandeur of his genius. Hence, notwithstanding the astonishing magnificence of the architectural rem<<.ins of ancient Rome, they are completely matched by St. Peter's, the Lateran, S. Maria Maggiore, and other modern churches. 2664. The collections of art in Italy are of a splendour surpassing even that which might be inferred from the great works produced by its artists. Of tlie masterpieces of the ancients which were either saved from the desolation of the Eastern empire, or dug up from the ruins of temples and palaces, by far the greater part were either found in Italy, or brought into it ; and tijat country became the grand depository alike of ancient and modem art. Even at the time when French rapacity had stripped it x>f all its moveable treasures, the grand productions 0*' Michael Angelo, Raphael, Caracci, and Titian, painted upon the walls of temples and palaces, remained immutably fixed. Italian pictures form still the brightest ornament of all the collections beyond the Alps ; yet the multitudes which have been purchased out of Italyi seem scarcely missed amid the profusion of those which remain. Rome continues still the great studia of all the nations of Europe : no painter is considered fully accomplished until he Ims spent a year or two in that capital ; and many from the most remote countries, ejmnioured of its beauties and advantages, make it their residence for life. 2665. In music, Italy Ims boasted a similar pre-eminence ; and for a long time all the great composers in the high style of art, Pasicllo, Cimarosa, and Salieri, were exclusively Italian. Of late, however, Germany has come forward as a powerful rival ; Vienna vspe- cially has produced several composers of the first class. Yet Italy seems still to be regarded OS the chief home of the musical art ; thither all the students repair ; and its vocal per- formers are considered over all Europe as superior to those of any other country. 2666. The amusements of Italy have l)een already touched upon, in estimating tlie cliarac- ter of n people, of whom so large a proportion live only for amusement. The arts now 018 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P*M HI. enumerated ; as brought to such perfection, furnish a great part of their daily recreation • which they add a still more refined one, improvisatory poetry. In all the societies of Itli'*' there are bards who are ready to recite a crowd of verses, upon any subject proposed on tif' s|)ot; and many have been celebrated as of great excellence. We are not aware hows ' that any of the productions of these improvisator! have obtained the notice of the world''* general ; and it seems on the whole to be rather a process for the display of quickness ' r fancy, than one by which works of superior merit run be produced. 2667. The mansiotu of Italy arc celebrated for the splendour and art displayed both ' their form and interior decoration. Those built by the nobility in Rome, Florence GcniM! and Venice, are usually dignified with the name of palaces ; and their classic exterior ^ cious apartments, and the works of painting and sculpture with which they are ado'med* r«!nder them often more interesting to the spectator than those of the greatest monarch' beyond the Alps. They are maintained, however, rather for show than use ; all the finm 308 ^.^st^ua,.>. ' apartmente being employed as galleries of exhibition, while those in which the family reside are of small dimension, in the upper stories, and destitute of many of the comforts which, to an English gentleman, appear in. dispensable : in short, to him they appear little better than garrets. The taste for architectural beauty descends even to the lower ranks. The houses of the little farm- ers in Tuscany and Lombsrdy are adorned with porticoes and colonnades, and often dis- play a classic aspect (jig, 308.). 2668. The dress of the Italians docs not seem to have any features peculiar or strictlv national. Among the upper ranks, French fashions prevail ; many of those in the country and especially of the hilly districts, display a picturesque variety, which, being not unaccom' panied with taste, produces often a very pleasing effect {Jig. 309.). TUKAK COTTAQR. ITALIAIf CMTUHI. 2CG9. In the jbod of the Italians, who are generally very temperate, we know not any very characteristic article, except maccaroni. In the rest of £uro|)e it has not been generally adopted as an article of diet, but it is presented as a delicacy at the tables of the opulent. Srct. VII. Local Geography. 2670. Tk' local divisions of Italy are more than vsuully prominent ; for though tlie country is united by name, by a common language, and by a strong national feeling, it jjas yet been partitioned into a number of states, politically independent of each other. The numerous little republics, indeed, which once made so brilliant a figure, and disputed for supremacy, have, in the late convulsions, lost the feeble remains of their existence, and merged into the great states. Italy is thus divided into five great portions: 1. Tlie Eccle- siastical States ; 2. Tuscany ; 3. Lombardy, or the Austrian States ; 4. Tlie States of the King of Sardinia ; 5. Naples and Sicily. SuBSKCT. 1. Ecclesiastical States. 2671. The Ecclesiastical Slates have lost that paramount importance which t'ley once |<» sessed, and are the least flourishing and powerful of all tlie divisions of Italy. Nevertheleu, as they contain Rome, with all its stupendous monuments, andw<.L'u the central theatre of all the ancient grandeur of Italy, they still excite un interest suiwriur to tliat of any other of these Book I. ITALY. 619 I >brsted rogtuiiD. They form a central band, extending entirely across the country, and DamtinK the north from tlie south of Italy. Since the acquisition of T'errara, their tern portion shoots a large branch northwards as far as the Po. They arc thus in **ntact on one side with Tuscany and Lombardy, on the other with Naples, llie Apen- ■ pgj, entirely through them, producing on their borders some of the most beautiful stencry in Europe, — the lake of Perugia, the falls of Terni, the magic scenes of Tivoli and Froiicati. These mountains divide the status into two unequal plains, of which the western . ,Lg ^ost extensive, and contains the city of Home ; but it is in a great measure w<-Lste and oestilential. The eastern, comprising the Bolognese and the March of Ancona, is more ^Ue and better cultivated, but much narrower, being clasely hemmed in by the Apennines and the Adriatic. The mountains produce timber, chestnuts, fruits, and even silk, wine, and ui') though not equal in quality to those of the Florentine and Neapolitan territories. There is very little manufacturing industry. Tlie exports and imports by Civita Vecchia, the port of Home, are stated by Mr. M'Cullocli at from 650,000/. to 700,000/. The trade ij carried on by 7200 ships, tonnage 331,000; but this includes the Adriatic ports. The Pope maintains about 6000 or 7000 troops, which arc little better than a species of militia. 2672. The population is about '2,680,000. Principal towns : — Rome, 153,600 ; Bologna, gj'oooj Ancona, 30,000; Perugia, 30,000; Ferrara, 24,000; Ravenna, 24,0(K); Forli, leioOO; Pcsaro, 14,000; Benevento (in Naples), 14,000; Ascoli, 12,000; Viterbo, 12,000; Macera'ta, 12,000; Urbino, 11,000 ; Loretto, 8000 ; Civita Vecchia, 7000. 2673. The revenue in 1836 was 9,300,000 scudi (4s. 4d. each); but the expense of collection l)eing 2,220,000, the net was 7,880,000. Tlie branches were, land taxes, 3,280,000 ; customs, monopolies, &c., 4,120,000; stamps, &c., 550; post, 250,000; lotteries, 1,100,000. The eipenditure was, on sacred palaces, college, &c., 500,000 ; public debt, 2,680,000 ; state government, 530,000; justice, 920,000; instruction, art, 110,000; charities, 280,000; public works, 580,000 ; with many festivals, &c., 44,000 ; in all 7,834,000 crowns. 2674. i'ome (Jig. 310.) b the capital of the Ecclesiastical States. Tliis ancient city, itill great in its decline, prc^scnts to the reflecting mind a more interesting spectacle than 310 the proudest capitals of the modem world. It holds enshrined, as it were, all tlic sub- limcst monuments of history and antiquity. Every spot is rendered sacred by awful names and heroic actions. The memory of those who rose in genius and glory above the rest of mankind, and of those whose nod fixed the destinies of the world, seems to hover around the "eternal city." Gibbon, while he disclaims enthusiasm as a part of his character, admits that it never lefl him during the weeks which he spent in wandering through the 8tt«ets and monuments of Rome. Independent even of these high associations, Rome contains the most perfect works in architecture, painting, and sculpture, produced in the ages both ancient and modem, when those arts had reached their proudest height. Even now, all who wish to attain taste or perfect skill in those refined and beautiful arts, flock to Rome as their school. To celebrate Rome as it was, and as it is, libraries have been written ; but we can merely mention those grand features which render it the admiration of the world. 2675. The mitlinet of ancient Rome, and its relation to the modem city, may be distinctly traced. Forsyth distinguishes three cities called Rome ; that which the Gauls destroyed, that which Nero burned, and that which Nero rebuilt. The walls begun by Servius Tuliius, and completed by Aurelian, present specimens of all the successive forms of construc- tion which prevailed in Rome. The modern city is still enclosed by them ; but it covers only a portion of the vast site occupied by the mistress of the world. It extends chiefly over the Campus Martius and along the Tiber, forming a curve round the base of the Capitol. The spectator must turn to the other side of that hill before lie is met by the genius of ancient Rome. There, scattered in vast and shapeless masses over the s^ven 690 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paut 111 311 hills, appear its ruins. They stand in lonely majesty, with groves of funereal cypress wavino over them. Its palaces, its tombs, its baths, its temples with their pointed obelisks, stand m^estic but solitary monuments amid the extensive waste of time and desolation. The Palatine, which originally contained the whole city, which remained always its chief and most populous quarter, and is represented by Cicero as crowded with the senate the orders, and with all Italy, presents a mere landscape with two solitary villas and a convent. The temples, palaces, and porticoes lie in such shapeless heaps, that the utmost learnine of the modern architect and antiquary have been wasted in fruitless attempts to discover ttieir plan and their site. Of the imperial palace only some vaulted subterraneous chambers of one wing remain. In general, it may be observed, that, with the exception of a few grand objects, the details of ancient Rome have escaped the most anxious researches of the learned We cannot tell the site of many of the objects even most famous in antiquity, wi- cannot say, " Here stood the house of Maecenas, of Cicero, of Horace." However the Capitol, the Forum, the hills, are stamped with those characters of antiquity that cannot be mistaken : " a walk from the Capitol to the Coliseum comprises the history of ages.'' The leading features in Rome are the ancient edifices ; the modern edifices ; the works ol painting ; and the works of sculpture. 267C. Of the ancient edifices, though many retain only their rude foundations, and others liave been so shattered, that their original form cannot now be traced, enough yet remains to inspire the most solemn emotions, and to give a full idea of the perfection of ancient architectural design. The monuments of Rome are divided by Forsyth into the works of the kings, of the republic, and of the empire. The first are of the solid and rude Tuscan order, with large uncemcnted blocks ; but only a few detached specimens of them can now be traced. The works of the republic were almost strictly limited to objects of utility and power, — aqueducts, bridges, roads. It was not until the period of the empire, or at least until the liberties of Rome, undermined by the vast wealth of conquered kingdoms, were rapidly falling, that the arts of Greece, admired and imitated, enabled Rome to produce her perfect specimens of architecture. The orders were Grecian ; but it is remarkable that, while the Doric and Ionic predominate in the original country, in Rome the highly oma- monted Corinthian, of which the Composite is only a variety, was employed in all the principal edifices. Of these, the Pantheon and Coliseum remain nearly entire, or with only such touches of ruin as render them more awful and picturesque. Tlie Pantheon {fig. 31 1.), whose portico, it is said, " shines inimitable on earth," preserves uninjured this feature, its graceful dome and its pavement, and the rich fluted marble pillars that line its walls ; while the deep tints of age only serve to render it more venerable. Yet Mr. Eustace laments it as shorn of its beams by the dis- astrous twilight of eighteen centuries ; he ri. rets its proud elevation, the statues that graced its cornice, the bronze that blazed en its dome, the silver that lined the compart- ments of its roof within : but, on the whole, ,.„...^^. j^^^ Forsyth conceives no monument of equal antiquity to be so well preserved ; which seems owing to its fortune in having been converted into a Christian church. The amphitheatre, called the Coliseum {jig. 312.), that spacious structure " Which, in its public days, uniwopled Rome, And held uncrowdcd iiationa in Its womb," presents still the most gigantic monument of the Roman world. Fifly thousand peofle could find seats in it ; yet this huge space was, it appears, some- times insufficient for the mul- titudes who thronged to witness the cruel spectacles there exhi- bited. This edifice, by its cir> cular form, and the solidity of its materials, was enabled to defy the effects of barbarism ; but it fell t victim to tlie hand of taste. The modern nobles, in seeking to adorn Rome with pal.trcs, used the Coliseum as a quarry out of cutiMUK. which the materials might he drawn. The Farncse palace, one of its most boasted structures, is entirely built out of it Pabt 111 ereal cypress waving inted obelisks, stand id desolation. The ilways ite chief and vith the senate, the irillas and a convent. ! utmost learning of pts to discover Sieir aneous chambers of ption of a few grand rches of the learned. in antiquity. We ice." However, the tntiquity that cannot lie history of ages.'' difices ; the works ot indations, and otiiers , enough yet remains perfection of ancient yth into the works of >lid and rude Tuscan ens of them can now objects of utility and he empire, or at least lered kingdoms, were Rome to produce her t is remarkable that, :ome the highly oma- employed in all the learly entire, or with ruin as render them sque. Tlie Pantheon CO, it is said, " shines irves uninjured this le and its pavement, lie pillars that line its ants of age only serve lie. Yet Mr. EusUce |its beams by the dis- rhteen centuries ; he ^on, the statues that ironze that blazed en [at lined the compart- but, on the whole, ID monument of equal laving been converted . 312.), that spaciout Fifly thousand peoyle ^eats in it ; yet this ^as, it appears, some- Hcicnt for the mul- I thronged to witness uectacles there cihi- |s edifice, by its cir- \nd the solidity of its ^s enabled to defy the Irbarism ; but it fell t 1 hand uf taste. The [>le8, in seeking to with palaces, used . as a quarry out of ImateriaU might Ik Itirely built out of it> Book I- ITALY. 691 The work of spoliation was arrested before it had atrlpiivd ofl' moro than half of this august diiice ■ and from the frequeiit repetition of its partH vnoiigli rt'iiinittK to enable the architect u> design a complete restoration. Some criticisms have hwn iniuiu on ttii details ; but on the whole it is allowed to be the most magnificent, and to vxcito thu most solemn emotions, of nv existing monument of antiquity. Baths form another moit superb class of Roman monuments. Those of Caracalla resemble the ruina of a city rather than of any single structure. They afforded, in fact, every variety of recreation \ containing temples, porticoes, libraries, and theatre. It is supposed that there might Ite aeeonimodatlon for three thousand persons to bathe at a time. The numerous column*, palntlngit, and statues, have been obliterated; though, of the latter, the Hercules and the Turo Farnese were dug up from beneath. But the walls and many spacious apartments remain, an*l the general outline may still be distinguished. There are traces of a monaic pnveinciit, which appears to have extended over the whole. The baths of Diocletian are aliiioitt c<|ually vast, but show a decline of the art ; a considerable portion of them is now converted Into a convent of Car- thusians. The baths of Titus are smaller than either ; but they appear to have been con- structed in a purer taste, and beneath them was found tlie I. 2680. The villas in tlie vicinity of Rome form an additional ornament to the city, especially the extensive gardens which surroundr them. The gardens of Lucullus, of Miccenas of Sallust, were peculiarly spacious and magnificent ; and those of the modern pulaces, thouirh on a scale less vast, partake of the same character. Several command extensive views over Rome, anciently adorned with those stupendous edifices which were the wonder of the world but now, perhaps, more interesting when the same edifices arc lying on the ground and overgrown with cypress. No spot commands so fine a view over these awful and immortal remains as the Farnese gar- 317 dens on the Palatine Mount. Of these villas, the Villa Borghcse {fig. 317.) is the finest and most urnamentcd, and its walks, which, however are too much in the old formal style, are open for the rccre- ation of the public. The Villa Ludovisi contains the Aurora of Guercino ; and the Villa Aldobrandini has the representation of a Marriage, which is viewed as the finest relic of ancient painting. 2681. The more distant environs of Rome consist, in the first instance, of that wide cam- pagna or plain, which its pestilential air has devoted to almost total desolation. In ap- praiching, however, to tlie branches of the Apcnninc, a singular variety of picturesque scenery begins to open. Gentle hills, with little lakes embosomed in them, and swelling into bold and lofty mountains, crowned with extensive forests ; cascades dashing down their steeps, and smiling plains intervening ; — these, with brilliant skies and balmy airs, arc com- mon to this region with many others ; but it derives peculiar interest from the cdiiic'cs noble in ruin, which adorn the brow of almost every hill, and from the rccolloclion of the many illustrious ancients who in these shades wooed the Muses, and sought recreation from the toils of war and of empire. These features render this the peculiar ri-;;ion of the grand landscape, the scenes in which Poussin and Claude found the materials of their sub- lime compositions. An ingenious lady observes, that when she viewed these in England, she only exclaimed, " How grand ! " but after seeing Italy, slie added, " How natural ! " Tivoll, a I n (Jig. 318.) the ancient Tiliur.the re- sidence of Mscenas, and Horace's favourite haunt, is celebrated over all Italy for its natural beauties. They consist chiefly in the wind- ings and falls of the Anio, now Teverone, particularly the great fall, whose summit is crowned by the Temple of the Sibyl, a small edifice, but one of the most elegant and finely proportioned, which has been transmitted from an- tiquity. The river pouring down in two broad sheets, the rocks fringed with shrubs, and crowned with forests, and with this l>eautiful ruin, produce a com- bination scarcely to be equalled. The temple stands, not very appropriately, in the court-yard of the inn, and the late Lord Bristol had made arrangements for purchasing and conveying it to England, when tiie Roman government prohibited the removal. The range of smaller falls, ( /!^>.3 1 9.) called Cascatclle, are equally beautiful, and adorned with the ruins of Ma-ccnos'svilla, which still presents traces of its former magnificence. The country round Tivoli is as fertile f stone plastiTfd with a to our minds the mhib against Rome is its «,. lulatcd even in presence iroachable to a nation so it around the Pantheon !>f pigs, or piles of stale tai7 to the ancient city, and is adorned with the ea a profuse display of It in consequence of the jnt to the city, especially iculliis, of Maecenas, of modern palaces, though ind extensive views over the wonder of the world, 'ing on the ground, and lese awful and immortal tins as the Farncse gar- on the Palatine Mount. these villas, the Villa Shcse {Jig. 317.) is the it and most urnamcnted, its walks,wliich, however, 00 much in the old formal f, are open for the rccre- 1 of the public. The a Ludovisi contains the oraof Guercino; and the a Aldobrandini has the i!sentation of a Marriage, h is viewed as the finest of ancient painting. tancc, of that wide cam- >tal desolation. In ap. r variety of picturestiue 1 in them, and swelling ades dashing down their nd balmy airs, are com- ;rest from the edifices the recollection uf the and sought recreation '. peculiar region of the materials of their sub- i these in England, she How natural ! " Tivoli, thcancientTibur,therc- Mfficenas, and Horace's launt, is celebrated over *or its natural beauties. iist chiefly in the wind- falls of the Anio, now particularly the great _ summit is crowned by le of the Sibyl, a small oncof the most elegant J proportioned, which transmitted from an- he river pouring down }ad sheets, the rocks 1 ruin, produce a com- tely, in the court-yard asing and conveying it ! range of smaller falls, insofMa-cenas'svilia, ind Tivoli is as fertile Bitot i- ITALY. «S« CAIX'ADK AT lIVi u beautiful' and still supports in the town a population of about 10,000 souls. There gre several fiiiv villas round it ; but the Italians in general have little taste fur rural scenery. Horace's villa stands higher up the river, amid the 3li/f recesses of Mount Lucretilis, which Mr. Eustace considers so beautiful a combination of groves, rocks, hills, flocks and herds, as Arcadia itseif could scarcely rival. Only part of a wall and some mosaic pavement indicate the spot. In a diflTerent direction is Frascati, on a hill near which Cicero had erected that beautiful villa, which was boasted as one of the eyes of Italy : it commanded a noble view of the plain uf Rome, with tlie conspicuous and majestic feature of the Alban Mount rising behind. Not a vestige remains, except some pillars, which have been employed to adorn a monastery built on its site. Tliu ruins of Tusculum appear scattered in long lines of wall, and of shattered arches intermingled with shrubs and bushes over the summit and along the sides of a mountain, on the lower declivity of which stands the modern town of Frascati. In this vicinity is the Lake of Albano, with waters clear as crystal, flnely surrounded with strep and rielily wooded banks, and adorned by the noble ediflce of Castel Gandolfo. Farther on is n solemn scene, the Lake of Ncmi, anciently Nemus Dianoi, from the grove sacred to lliat goddess : it is small, seated in a deep hollow of the mountain, ivhicli it parti,' fills; the banks are not only wooded, but highly cultivated. In the centre of this lake, Trajan had moored a floating palace in the form of a ship, of which some l'ra<;nienls were dug up in the sixteenth century. We may also cl.iss with Roman picturesque scenery, tlion<;li nt a greater distance, the fall of Terni on the declivity of the Apennines. Here, as generally in Apennine scenery, the bold and grand are finely combined with the suft and the beautiful ; the steep and rugged rocks being mixed with the verdure of the acacia, the lahurnum, and a variety of other trees. The whole valley of the Nar, with (lie neigliltouring one of Clitumnus, presents the Apennine in its mildest form, adorned v.itli ricli vej,^'tation and beauty. The ruins of the ancient colony of Narni stand most rumanticnlly bosomed in groves on the top of a very high and steep hill, at the foot of which arc some fragments of the proud arches thrown over it by Augustus. 'J68I. Bolofina is by much the most important city uf the Ecclesiastical State east of the Apennines. It is one of the most ancient and venerable places in Italy: its university, once said to have contained 10,000 students, and its school of painting, scarcely second to those of Itumcnnd Venice, have raised it to distinction as a seat of learning and art. After pasting in its republican state through many turbulent revolutions, it voluntarily, in the tliirtecnth century, united itself to the Roman state ; stipulating, however, for the preserv- ation of many of its privileges. It had still a senate of forty hereditary nobles, presided by a gonralonierc, besides a popular body, which superintended matters of revenue and police. A repuhliean spirit, however, always prevailed in Bologna; and in 1796, it gave to the Frejich army a welcome, which met with the usual return ; the city being deprived of all its constitutional rights, niul assimilated to the despotic sway established in the kingdom of Italy. The I'ope, in 181.5, was reinstiitcd in possession of it by the arms of the Allies; but, to the just discontent of tlic city, he declined restoring any of its privileges, and continued the same absolute sway which had been established by Na)H>lcon, However, though op- pressed and fallen, it retains still many features of the learned and opulent Bologna of the middl ' ages. Its territory forms a continuation of the great plain of Lombardy reaching to the Apennines ; and it is as laboriously cultivated, and the peasantry are apparently in a more joyous and happy condition. The city is well built, with long lines of arches and co- lumns, affording beneath a paved walk to foot passengers ; an accommodation rare in It, v, and an object of envy. The principal church is that of St. Petronius, a spacious, thoui liot a beautiful Gothic edifice. That of St. Dominic is celebrated for its shrine, whicik occupied the chisel of Michael Atigelo and Nicolo ; and for a collection of pictures, which have since, however, been transferred to the Institute. There is also a highly ornamented church, dedicated to the Virgin, situated about five miles from the C'ty. The palaces are spacious, and distinguished both for their architectural beauty and the works of art which they contain ; but those of the Zampieri, the richest of all, have been transferred to the Brera collection at Milan. The university does not at present number more than SOO stu- dents ; yet its professors are still eminent, and most of the science which still exists in Italy centres at Bologna. But the great modern boast of this city is the Institute, formed in the seventeenth century, chiefly through the exertions of two of its noble citizens, Count Mar- agli, a general in the imperial service, and Count Manfrcdi. At their instance, the city Ss 898 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P*w III. purchaseli(i construction, tliiit this lofty vdiHce lias not only ruinuincd firm for so long ■ n„ "''i but does not even now give the le&st menace of ruin. '^ '""'■ i2(>RH. Sienna, after acquiring a great name among the Italian rcpuhlic!i, sunlained af i . similar to that uf I'isa. It is situated in a hilly and even mountainous country • 1^1,;^ however, yields nhuiulantly the olive, the vine, and in many places grain, '('he M Pulciano and Chianti grapes give a wine superior to what is usually found in Italy "n!" southern district, however, consists uf maremmn, connected with the great Uoman . The nohles reside chiefly in the city, in the usual effeminate manner, and still retalnin'"'' remnant of those deadly feuds by which their order was formerly rent. It has some rem ^ ' of the once extensive silk manufactory. Sienna had a respectable secondary 8choor"f painting, ol which Vanni and PeruMi^were the heads; but its most remarkable inonum is the pavement of its cathedral, the work of Micariiio and other artists, who, by the np"! combination uf white and grey marble, hatched with mastic, produced the effect of thelin^ , mosaic. '2689. Leghorn is almost the only m(*dern and prosperous town in the compass of il Tuscan territory. When ceded by Genoa in 14iJl, it was only a petty village; but il"! able arrangements of the Medici raised it to the rank it liiM since held as the first 'coiniii' ^ cial city of Italy, and the great centre of Mediterranean commerce. It is airy and «• 11 built, with broad streets, fourteen churches, one Armenian, and two Greek vliupcU an! even a magnificent synagogue; the necessary toleration of commerce ovcrcomine'cvim Italir" "" — ■ •- '■" • :-• -:• — ^ .. .. or I tonnage 1 U ^ Neapolitan, 54 Russian, 32 American. The exports to Britain, on an average of lo years to 18;},>, were 231,000/., chiefly, straw and platting 65,0(K)l., corals 20,000/., silk 20,000/ objects of ort 20,000/., skins 24,CXX)/., oil 19,000/., marble 7000/., Siena earth S,OO0t' firiigs 10,000/. Wheat annually imported, 228,000 qrs. ' ' '-'I'lll'). In Ihr rest qf Ttifrnni/ ire mny rrmnrk Corlona, the nnripiit rspitnl of Ktniria, siipponctl to lie tho nimt .iiK'iciit city uf Italy. 'rhi> »ntii|uc walla still rt'iiuiii as the nubHtriictioii nf tlic modern ones ' and their vast unccmcntcd blocks, which have sulislsteil for attcs, mark the solidity of Etruscan niaaonry! Corlnni Is now rnluenl to 4(1(111 inhabitants ; but it is distinguished by the Tuscan Society, which has tloiie much lo illustrate the anti(|nitics of Kiruria. I'rrUKi.i, also an ancient lOtruri.in sl.ite, is still a clean nrctty torn dcliglitfully situated on the lake of that name, Arcizo is u name rendered elassic by the birth of Petrarch aiid of lledi. Bibliiena is a thriving little town, in the rcnirc of the Cascrtiiu', inhabited by an inilustriout ricuantry, who are reekoned to have the best hogs and the best chestnuts of all Italy. Adjacent to thcTusoan roast is the island of Kiba, celebrated as the tem|>orary retreat of Na|H>lcon, and valuable for its iron minci which, with fishery, support 'J(),(MIO inhabitanti. ' iiiiM. Lucca, ti>"':S" on Etruscan city, is now governe• 2697. JMin is a noble city, which ranks almost as the modirii capital of Italy. Its si- lualion in the middle of a superlatively rich and beautiful plain, watered by the Po, at a point where ail t'le great canals meet, and on the high road from Germany by tlie lakes Magiiiorc and Coino, render it a sort of key to the northern part of this kingdom. Its modern greatness preceded that of most of the other cities ; und under the Sforzus and Visconfis il iiecaiiie the grand theatre of debate between France and Austria. Its greatest sjilendour, hcwcver, was attained under the n'gime of France, when it became the capital, first of the Ita'ian republic, and then of the kingdom of Italy. Napoleon spared no ex- pense in erecting edifices which might dazzle the eyes of his new vassals. 'I'he Duomo, dig, 321 ) l".gun in the filteenlh century, 321 under Htl.A*. rAniKPllAl.. tlie Viscontis, and slowly carried on by successive benefactiims, had been le^t more than half unlinislied ; so that the French bad the greater part of its mag- nificent front to execiilt'. It is the only very superb edifice of this description whicli may be said lo belong to the present age. In extent and pomp it ranks second lo St. Peter's ; though the design lias been criticised, especially as to the four hundred statues which are ranged along the facade. It is 454 feet long, 270 wide, the height of the cupola is 232, and that of the tower 335 feet. The French have also erected a very magnificent amphitheatre, com- pletely on the antique model, in which from 30,000 to 40,000 spectators can be accommodated. Cliariot races niul national games have been repeatedly performed within us precincts. A superb triumphal arch was commenced on the Simplon road, in conimcniuration of the stupendous labours by which tliat passage over the Alps was formed ; hut since ti.e fall of Napoleon no further progress has been made. Tlie theatre Delia Scula is tlic only very fine one in Italy, as it was only in Milan, and di'-ing the last century, timt the Italian drama acquired any degree of splendour. The ope' a of this city is accounted inferior to that of Naples ; but the ballet is the finest in Italy, and consequently in the world. A more interesting and classical scene is presented by the Brcra, or palace, formed out of the ancient convent of the Huiniliati. Here the French deposited the finest puiut- iogs which could be procured by purchase or otlierwise from every part of Italy, including those brilliant productions of tiie Bolognese schoohi, which hud adorned the Zampieri pa- lace. Tlie Last Supper of Leonardo da Vinci, one of the greatest masterpieces of modern art, and long tlie pride of Milan, is now almost entirely faded, and scarcely known but by engravings, and by a very fine copy, in mosaic, made by the French. The Ambrosiun li- brary, formed b)t Cardinal Frederic Borromeo, on the ba.sis of the Benedictine collection, consists of IK),000 volumes and 15,000 manuscripts, and is well known to the world by the learned researches uiid discoveries of Angelo Mai. Milan has an infirmary for 3b'00 sick, S s 3 ! 1 I 830 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. PartIII and a foundling hospital for 4000 children. It covers a great space of ground, and hts Boino very spacious squares ; but the streets in general, ike those of other old cities arc- narrow and crooked, and fur from handsome. Several of tliose called corsos, however which form the entrance into the city, have been greatly improved. ' 2698. Vniicc (Jig. 3'2'J.), tliough now reduced to a secondary rank, compared witli Milan go.2 ^^^^^ *' "^ more celebrated and still a much more beautiful city. This once great republic, into which flowed the commerce and wealth of the East, which ruled the Me. diurranean, sacked the imperial city, and set bounds to the Ottoman power, at a moment when it seemed ready to over- whelm all Europe, is now, after 11 duration of thirteen cef.iurios, for ever extinguished. Its fall without a struggle was, doubt- less, prepared by a deca; ofiu **""'■ moral energies. The nobles who once swayed the councils of Venice, ond commanded her fleets, had no longer any object but to attend public processions, to pay court to their lady, to while away the evening at her casinos, and to heighten the gny licence of the carniv.il. The people, cnKlavcd, had lost all national spirit. The republic of Venice, with all its bright scries of triumphs, is now an empty name ; it remains, however, next to Rome, the finest of nil the Italian cities. It cannot, indeed, boast of any classic monuments, nor arc itschurches built in so lofty a style ; but its palaces, the gay architecture of Pi.'t reach the grand design and expression of the Iloinan. Vi'nict is the birth-place of Canova, the greatest of modern scidptors, and contains sonic of his works. 'J(i9!). T/ie Vini'tinn tfrrilori/ can boast several renowned cities. Padua, which is saidio have been fuuiuled by Anteiuir, and to have attained considerable magnitude before tin existence of Rome, gained celebrity in modern times us a seat of learning. Its unlveriilr | was oidy rivalled by that of liologna, and attracted 18,000 students; yet, though il hii I still forty-five professors, aiul attbrilN ample means of acquiring knowle(|ge, the scholin were m Eustace's time reduced to GOO; and, according to Hassel, in 1817 they did not «. I cued .SOO. Galileo, Vcsulius, and Morgagni were among its professors; Livy and the modal I Book I- ITALY. «S1 liistorian Davila were born there ; and Petrarch is buried at Arquik, in the vicinity. Tlie citv is divided into two parts : the old, composed of dark narrow streets, and liigh old puhices t and the modern, adorned with the splendid arcliitecture of Palladio. The university, and the church of Justina belong to the latter, and arc fine edifices. Vicenza, the birth>pluce of PaiyiO) l>i>^ '"-*'-'" ourchase, to adorn the Dresden gallery. The te-ritory of Massa-Currara, held at present by tliu Arcli- duchess Maria iieatrix, will on her deat!i fall in to Modena. SuBSECT. 4. States of the Kutg of Sardinia. 2702. The Sardinian States are of very dissimilar character, but united by political cir- cumstances under one government. The dukes of Savoy, founders of the Sardinian family, made a conspicuous figure in European history, especially during the war of the Spanish succession. In return for their services to the cause of the allies, they were recom- pensed with the island of Sicily. That island was afterwards, in consequence, it should seem, of .■» very bad bargain, exchanged for Sardinia, from which the house assumed the royal title. Under the domination of Napoleon, the king was expelled from all his Italian territories, and owed to British protection alone the preservation of Sardinia. After the Iriinnpli of llio allies, he was not only repliiced in all bis former possessions in Italy ; but the state of Genoa, instead of being restored to its lost independence, was subjected to his sway. The kini^dom of Sardinia consists, therefore, of four distinct parts, — Piedmont, Gi.ioa, Savoy, Sardinia. hiivoy I'icdniont Genoa dinia IVpiilalion. 4lT7,()aO 2,3iU,l"0 4iil,il."iO 3,831,350 rtlnclpnl Townl. Cliambery, 12,000. Anneey, 5r.OO. Morlcnne, 2.100. Turin, 114,000. Alcssanilrin, 80,000. A«ti, 20,(HX). Momlovi, 17,000. Vcrcelll, lti,(KH). Nice, \Um. Ni)var«, 13,(V)0. Voghera, 10,000. ConI, UOOU Genoa, t(0,(KK). Savona, 10,000. Novl, 8000. Cngllari, 27,000. Sauari, 19,000. S « 4 «ss DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pam III. 2703. Piedtnont, or " the foot of the mountains," is the most valuable possession of th' crown. It forms a continuation of the plain of Lombardy, somewhat narrowed and m ' closely bounded by the mightiest ranges of the Alps and Apennines ; the fonner on tlT north and west, the latter on the south. The Po, running through its centre, divides it into two nearly equal parts, and receives here all its early tributaries ; which, being so near th >' mountain sources, are liable to sudden and terrible inundations, distressing to the aitricul turist and dangerous to the traveller. The chief produce is silk, which is reckoned superio' to any other in Italy, and consequently in Europe ; and in Turin and some other cities re. mains exist of very extensive silk manufactures ; but the greater part of the produce i exported raw. The government is absolute, but tolerably mild ; and a recent attempt to establish a constitutional form was speedily crushed by Austrian interference. 2704. Turin maintains its place among the beautiful cities of Italy. Its situation is as fine us possible, amid the rich valley of the Po, surrounded by an amphitheatre of vine- covered hills ; while lofty mountains, with their si mmits clad in perpetual snow, tower in th > distance. The streets are long and regular, ornamented with lines of porticoes, and openini; at their terminations to fine views over the surrounding country : it is a little city of pa. laces. The churches and mansions are spaciou8,and of rich materials ; but few display rw classic taste in which real beauty consists, and which ennobles the Roman and Venetian structures ; the vases of pure gold, the silver images, and the crosses of ruby, were all con. verted by French avidity into current coin. The most striking edifice is tiie church of the Superga, built on the steepest hill which crowns the city. The ancient palace of the dukes of Savoy is a huge brick edifice, resembling a fortress rather than a palace. Turin lias ■^ considerable number of paintings, not marking any particular school, as none ever arose iii this part of Italy, but chiefly composed of Flemish and other ultra-montane productions. The university is very extensive, and contains important collections, among which those of natural history, natural philosophy, medals, and antiques, arc particularly no'lccd. Tl]i> library is also rich in curious works and valuable nmnuscripts. The citadel of Turin forms a very strong fortress. 270.5. The other cities of Piedmont are chiefly remarkable for their strength, having been erected when this country was a seat of almost perpetual war. The strongest is Alessf.n. dria, built in the twelfth century, at the junction of the Bormida and the Tanaro. It is large and very strong ; b<.>sides which, the town is the sent of extensive fairs. Near it is the celebrated field of IVIarengo. The once strong fortifications of Tortona have been de- molished, Vercclli, the former capital of this part of Italy, and distinguislicd by some fine structures, is now thinly inhabited and dreary. Novara is a gloomy antique frontier town towards Lombardy. Coni, among the Alps, is considered the bulwurk of the kini;. dom on the side of France. Susa, once the capital of Piedmont under its marquises, is a retired pleasant little town, on the immediate frontier of France. Nice is the capital of a little country scarcely Italian, being beyond the Alps. Tiiough it cannot be said to he well built, it is agreeable; and, as the environs are beautiful, and the air mild, it is a frequent resort of Englisli invalids. 2706. The territory of Genoa is situated on the slopi.ig steeps of the Apcnnine, where it separates from the Maritime Alps, and stretches eastwards; not separated from the sea by a broad plain, as in the rest of its line, but presenting to it narrow valleys and mountain declivities facing the south. These steep barriers arc passable only at a few points; and the Uuchetta, a very steep and lofty defile, forms the only practicable approach to Genoa from the interior. This district, the coimtry of the ancient Ligiirians, is not favourable fur the operations of the plough ; but olives in abundance, silk, and tolerable wine, are advan- tageously produced from it. 2707. Genoa {Jig. 3'J3.), siimained the Superb, the great naval republic which, in the aa3 annuls of Italian wealth, commerce, and splendour, ranked only and scarcely second to Venice, present) "■ but a shadow of her former greatness. Ilcr navigators were of a peculiarly bold and adventurous character; and she was the native city of Christopher Columbus. Her settlements in the re. mote peninsula of the Crimea enabled her to bring into Europe, by a peculiar and circuitous route, the com.nodities of India. Depressed by a once haughty and now indolent aristocracy, and eclipsed by the rivalry of the northern nations, Gcnou had lost all her principles of prosperity, before her independence was crushed by the revolutionary arms of France. Vet it seema impossible to applaud tlic conduct of the Allies, •i^ UookI- ITAL\. le possession of this larrowcd, and more the former on the entre, divides it into , being so near their jsing to the agricul- is reckoned superior lome other cities re- t of the produce is a recent attempt to irence. Its situation is as iphitheatre of vine- il snow, tower in the rticoes, and opening s a little city of pa- l)ut few display t'lat .Oman and Venetian ruby, were all con. is the church of the palace of the dukes alacc. Turin has a ,s none ever arose in ontanc productions, among which those ilarly noticed. The adel of Turin forms . ...jinff licr to Sardinia, though with permission to preserve her senate and outward fonn« "I (-.jnistration. The wealth of the great days of Genoa was, as usual, embodied in " I .pj. These are arranged in one continuous line of street, extending under three dif> f. It names through the city, all the rest of which is a mere chaos of dark and dirty lanes. Tl -se oalaces are boasted as being, for richness of materials and profuse ornament, the most Icndid in Italyi ond many of them are every way fit to be the residence of the greatest narchs. They have one ornament peculiar to themselves, which consiHts in fresco paint* . ^ t|,g exterior of the walls, many by masters of some eminence ; and, in this fine cli- mate the^e remain unimpaired for centuries. The design, however, both here and in the churches, wants that elegance and purity of taste by which the structures of Venice have been rendered so admirable. Ornament and glare seem to have been the ruling passion of the Genoese. Her nobles, though all sunk, and many reduced to poverty, would spend their last farthing in supporting the pomp of their ancient mansions. Hence these have , g jiignt and desolate aspect, and have been compared to the ruined monuments of an cscavatcd city. They are filled with pictures, gilding, arabesques, frescoes, dust, moths, and dirt- exhibiting a combination of ancient splendour and present decay. Genoa has not altogether the magical ett'ect produced by the long lines of canal which intersect Venice ; but her position, occupying one side of the spacious amphitheatre which forms the harbour, and spreading her streets and churches, and then her suburbs and villas, over a vast semi- circular tract of crags, rocks, and declivities, gives her, towards the sea, a highly magni- ficent and imposing aspect. The city has also the disadvantage of being so closely bounded by rocks, that no level spot is left on which a carriage can drive ; and the neighbouring villas can be reached only in chairs carried by a species of porters, endowed with singular asiiity and alertness. Genoa, though fallen from her ancient greatness, is still considerable, and has of late even somewhat increased. Shu manufactures rich velvets, damasks, and satins, to the value of from '200,000/. to 300,000/. ; and she carries on the trade of the Sardinian dominions in Italy, and partly that of Switzerland. She exports her own manu- factures, olive oil in abundance, rice, cheese, thrown silk, and Swiss printed cottons. The nrodnctions of the Levant and of Southern Italy are fotmd in her warehouses. She imports salt fish, British cottons and woollens, grain, wool, cotton, and colonial produce. Among the chief articles imported in 1832, were 57,500 quintals of salt fish, 8(>,'100 hides, 75,000 lbs. cochineal, 10,600 bales cotton, 15.600 boxes, 35,300 bags sugar, 16,200 pigs of lead. The late removal of the interior customs duties will be favourable to lier improvement. 2iOS. Sami/ is a province of considerable extent, which in its surface and aspect is mucli more analogoui to Svitierlaiid tlian to Italy : it consists of rugged rot^ks, and mouiit.iin8 rising into tlic regions of perpetual (iiow; interspersed, however, with a number of fertile and agreeable valleys. Some of the principal passes (jierlhe Alps into Itjily arc through Savoy, which till lately was the onlyonc fr' . \ . 'i mcc or Switzerland that wii passable for carriages. 'I'he Little St. Bernard, by which Hannibal is now g'.nerally s'jpposed to have psnl, is also situated in Suvoy. It was much improved by Nai>ulcon. Afauy .f these rocks, composed of imc limestone strat.i, arc i>eri>etuallv crumbling. In 1248, a great part of Mont O t ricr, nc.ir Chamberry, I'eil, burying a village .ind church, and oversprcadi; , ^ho si-rfaco of Hve parishes, vt!.;.n arc still covered with the liagments piled in small conical hillocks. Mont liiia.ic, the lullicM maintain ,ii ICuropc, if within the liinils of Savoy ; but as it is approached by way of Geneva, and forms pa> i . -t the m. si ric" at^d lange of the AI|H of Switzerland, we prefer including it in the description of that country. Th: Saia/arda are brave, in- dustrious, poor, laurc social than the Swiss, though less notci!s .'or tins its rude appanage. The want of roads, and tlie extensive commons, were consul'ied the two chief causes which perpetuated its evils. A plan was, therefore, traced to form one great road across the kingdom from north to south, between the two leading points of Cagliari and Sassari, from which eight cross roads might branch oil' so as to embrace the most important points in the east r.nd west. The principal road was begun in November, 1822, and was expected to bo completed in December, 1826. Ijaws were also passed to authorise and encouinge the division of commons. The good vifects of these measures, how- «34 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P*M III. ever, are at yet only ni-o'^puctive. At present, Sardinia has tlie tunny fishery, the prodim of which variej much with the state of the wind, and other circumstances. In ISie"^ amounted to 17,500 fish ; in 1822, to only 3500 ; in 1823, to 1 1,000 ; and in 1 824, to 5300 Sea salt, evapo.-ated by the heat of the sun in the shallow bays near Cagliari, Palmas and Oristano, is einployed in salting both meat and fish, and as an object of direct exportation Grain, produced to the amount of nearly 3,000,000 bushels, was formerly the princinal object of export ; but its value has, of late, been greatly reduced by the competition of Odessa. The horses are of a good breed : according to M. Cibrario, 32,000 only »re tame and 20,000 wild. He gives a still more striking picture of the rude state of the country nher he adds, that of the cattle, 120,000 are tame, aud 350,000 wild ; and that, of 840,000 sheep, the whole belong to the latter closu. There is, however, a considerable export of salted meat and cheese. About a tliird of the 'Surface consists of forest, a considerable portion of which is oak, and well adapted for shipbuilding. Cagliari and Sassari arc both considerable cities- the former having a considerable trade, but crowded, ill built, and ill paved ; the latter smaller, but more elegant : both have universities, with tolerable libraries . Oristano has a fine harbour, and flourishes by the tunny fishery, an'^ by the cultiure of -vine in its nelch- bourhood. Sdmbct. 5. Slate* of the Kingdom ofNaplet. 2710. The kingdom ofNaplet, or, as it is called, of the Two Sicilies, is the most consider. able in Italy for extent and population ; in which respects it approaches to the rank of the great monarchies ; but the supine and indolent character of its government almost prevents it from having any weight in the political system. Neapolis, though a place of some con- sequence under the Romans, was not until the middle ages a kingdom, in which tlie republican spirit, so active in the north of Italy, was early subdued. Naples was siicccs- sivfly governed by brancl'^s of the house of Austria, and of the Spanish Bourbons, whicli last is now on the throne. On the approach of the French revolutionary army in 1795 Naples yielded without any resistance, except that spontaneously made by tlia despised laz. zaroni. During the greater part of the revolutionary war, the king was supported in Sicily by a British fleet and army, and on the triumph of the allied cause, was reinstated in ail his territories. With the exception of a short and abortive attempt to establish a constitutional system, the government lias always been absolute ; yet the people suffer less from the oppres- sion of the crown, tlian tVum the exorbitant privileges of the nobles. The accession of Sicily in exchange for Sardinia, effected in 1720 through Austrian influence, rendered the kingdom much more valuable and compact. These two members are, however, so very distinct, llial it will be necessary to consider tiiem separately. 2711. Naples, the southern extremity of Italy, after forming for some space a conlinu- ation of the long narrow peninsula which comprises most part of that country, branches finally into the two smaller peninsulas of Otranto and Calabria. The Apennines till its interior, shooting out branches to its bounding promontories ; they in many places spread wider, and assume still more rugged and awful forms than in the northern part of their line; and they harbour the most formidable troops of banditti whicl. infest Italy. They leave, how- ever, along the coast, wide plains and extended valleys, blessed with the most geniui tliinale, and the richest soil of any couniiy in Europe, or, perhaps, in the world. The culture, also, notwithstanding ■ prions administrative defects, is so diligent as to support a very numerous and very dense population. 2712. Naples is divided as follows : — Popiilallon. rrincipnl Towm. Kapoli . 819,000. NapIoB, 354,000. Cafctellamarc, I-i,(KVl Terra dlfjivoraaVi.OOO. Terra del Orcco, I.I.IKX). Caima, 8000. Avcran, 13,000. Gaita, 15,00ft. Avcllino, 13,(KW. Salerno, 11,000. Nocera, UOOO Aquila, l:i,(IOO. Cliicti, 11,000. Koggia, 21,000. Campobasso, 800. Hari, 15,(K)(). llarlctta, 17,000. Tt..ni, H.OOO. 'rareiito, 18,000. Locce, 14,000. Oallipoli, WMH). Otranto, AtOO. Kcggiu, 10,000. Cataii2.iro, U.oa). I'osenza, 10,(j(X). 27 1 3. Naples (^fig.32'i. ) is the largest cily in Italy, and fully maintains its place among the mod beautiful European capitals : this is not owing to its arcliitectiiro ; for tlioii);li the cdilim are lofty and solid, the streets tolerably wide, particularly the Strada de Toledo, which is a mile in length, yet all the particular buildings are characterised by that had taste which Im always ruled at Naples, and to compensate for which, marbles, gilding, and decoration, have been vainly lavished on its churches and palaces. Taken collectively, however, Naples pri'- sents to the sea an immense line of lofty edifices, producing a general pomp of eflect, and forming a conmianding feature in the matchless landscape. Its l)ay, occupying a wide circiiit of sixteen miles, every where bounded with vineyards, hills, woods, convents, villaps; the golden shores of Baio;, the beautifully varii'f;ated islands of Iscliia and ProciiLi, »iili the verdant sides and lofty cone of Vesuvius; all these, viewed luuler a brighter sun ihffl Principato - 1,086,000. Abruizo . 716,000. CapiUnaU . 289,000. Moliie . 234,1X10. Bari . 37.1,000. Otranto . 324,(XI0. Calabria . I,4.'i3,000. P*M III. y fishery, the produce istances. In 1816, it and in 1824, to 5300. Cagliari, Palmas, and of direct exportation. innerly the principal :ompetition of Odessa, only ere tame, and B of the country when hat, of 840,000 sheep, 1 export of salted meat rable portion of which (th considerable cities • I ill paved; the latter ■arieE , Oristano has a 8 of '.vine in its neigh- IS, is the most consider- dies to the rank of the 'nment almost prevents h a place of some con- ingdom, in which the 1. Naples was siicces- uiish Bourbons, which utionary army in 1795, deby tlia despised laz- was supported in Sicily was reinstated in all his stablish a constitutional er less from the oppres- The accession of Sicily, !, rendered the kingdom ;r, so very distinct, that some space a continu- that country, branches pennines fill its interior, places spread wider, part of their line; and ily. Tlicy leave, how- he most genial climate, rid. The culture, also, pport a very numerous ,000. Gaita, It.OOO. Jtranto, ^iOOO. (K). its place among the mo the guitar ; or listening to old tales." The higher claHseH are generally accused of licentiousness, though Eustace thinks the I'hargo htinu'wiiiit exaggerated, A very liierary spirit prevails; the Neapolitans boast timt an many books arc published at Naples as at Paris ; and that, if the world would judge iinpHrllally, they would find the one as good as the other : but this opinion does not prevail in ttlu"' countries. Most ample opportunities of study are certainly afforded, by four libraiiuM open to the public ; one of iiliich, compounded of the Farnese and other libritrleN transported from Home, comprises many curious and valuable works. With these were conveyed ntiiiie of the fiuest specimens of iiiicicnt sculpture, tho Torso, the Herculi"., the Uruniit ; and some tine specimens have been appendod tVmn the greatest Italian schools ; hiil Naplci could liimst no great painters of its OHO, and has, tlierel'Drv, no frescoes of any luiporliinee. One bright reileeming quality intlie Neapolitans is cliarity : their hospitals are iiiinieroiis, richly endowed, and supported hy ample benefactions ; and persons of the tirst rank, assuming the dress of religious frater- nities, not only superintend these establishnuMits, but watch the sick-bed of the patient. The Neapolitans set an example, which seems worthy of imitiition, in having n rural liospital for recovering the health of invalids. They have aUn ti>nwval<>ni or schools, ^^■here the cliildren of the lower ranks are initiated in trades. Iiy which they may gain their subsistence. A great i' of these is devoted to the teaching of music; and is unfortunately combined ivithth,' !:orricl mode of attaining oxcelleiu'e in it which ih peculiar to Italy, and wliich, though proliibiteil hy the government, continues still to be practised. Naples may be considoruil as tlie nuisical capital of Italy: the greatest eoiii|iosers have been its citizens; and its opera is ui' .ailed. 27 H. The enrinms nf Xaples present a coniliinalion of all that is most beautiful and al! that is most terrible in nature; they extend along the western shore ft'oni Naples to Miscno, which foniis (lio lennination of the hay. One of the chief onuuneuts is the mountain of I'osilippo (//^, !!•.','!.!, which spreads its varie.i outline for several miles along these enchanting shores, Its proumntoi'y is variously broken into bays, islanilN, nmt cavuiis; hut the object which above all aluacts the traveller, is the (irotto. 111 one of the wildest and most pic- tnresiiue reeesHes of lis rouumtic deliles opens this lamouH artillcial excavation, which pene- trates through the mountain for three qiuuters of a mile ^w the way 'i> I'li/zunli. Uai.v, viewed liy the Ktnnans as the most rnclianting spot on earth, was idisoliitely crowded with the villas of their great men. Here was the academy of Ciceiii, the faviiurite haunt of Virgil, the palace of Liiculhis, and aherwards, unfor- tnnalelyi the scene of the hriit.il volnptuonsncss of Tiberius and Nero. The lal(c of Avernun, ''^''.A* \ 1 696 DESCIIIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pam hi. TIHOILf TOHIk and the Elysian fields are neither so dreadful nor so beautiful as their naines would import. The tomb of Virgil (Jg. 326.), on one of the most beautiful heights of I>„si -JSQ ^.'^'<' ''PP°.' **'['^*' P"'«»l«. stroneer ...^■/.■^--f emotions than any other of these objects. This, however, is the sub. ject of a serious controversy ; Addi- son, Forsyth, and Matthews reject it as wholly apocryphal ; but Eustace contends that the long and constant chain of tradition cannot be dis. proved by the doubtful authority vhich places it on the opposite side jf the bay. Farther on, tlie village of Puzzuoli occupies the celebrated ^ site of the ancient Piitooli, where the remains of an ainplijtlieatre and of a temple of Jupiter almost vie with tlie monuments of Home. The beauty of this region, iiowever, is gloomily mingled v ih tho terrible indications of ancient conflagration. The Solfatara, a naked plain, surrounded by a rampart of shattered hills, is evidently heated by a suhterraneoiis fire, sensible to those who pass over it, by whom the workings of the furnace beneath are distinctly heard. When struck, it re-bellows in hollow murmurs ; sulplm. reous exlmlntions rise from the crevices ; and a pale i)hie Hame is seen issuing by night from ar, orifice in this ever-burning plain (fig. ;i'J7.), The quarries of the peculiar stone called Puzzo- lana, which is used in several manufactures, pre. sent a striking and picturesque aspect (fg. 328.), The Grotto del Cane is a small aperture, whence issues a vapour so strongly imprcgniitcd with carbonic acid as to be deadly to all who breathe in it. Near it are several natural vapour baths, used with success in the cure of diseases. Tlie I.ucrine Lake, on which the ancients had erected several magnificent edifices, was nearly filled tip in one night by the Monte Niiovo, a black mass of scoria: and ashes, which rose suddenly from the bosom of the waters. The city of Cuma; is now a inistrable village; hut the celebrated grotto of the Sibyl may still \k discovered, with some remains of those sub- ti-Traneous g;illeries, by which she wa? cnablid to form the awful sounds which in the niuinint of inspiration issued from the (kptlis of the cavern. Sorrento (Jig. fi'Jit. ), a lilllu port on the extieniity of the bay, is ndinircil for ils beautiful scenery, and the striking aspect of its volcanic rocks. '2715. I'csmiiis, about eight miles from Naples, with an arm of the bay iutcrpostd, rears her niiuestic cone, the only vohanio uiouiUuiii on the continent of Europe, and one of the most active in the world. From the earliest ages on record, its eruptions havo occurred at intervals of i few years ; and those of \TM and 18'i'2 caused a considerable dimi- nution of its heiji'it, large |iortions from the sides of the crater having fallen in. On thu'.c occasions the lava issues forth in vast streams, ovcrsprciiiinig the country for miles, and burj- iiig even cities. The town of Torre del Greco "as overwhelmed in 1794; hut ibe most memorable catastrophe of this natuio was that which, in the first century, befell the two cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii, which were completely buried beneath torrents of l.iva. They remained entombed for ages, till the l>eginiiing of the last century, when a peasant, in digging a well, discovered some fragments of marble, and by degrees a small temple, and some statues; but this observation was neglected till the king, in 1736, designing to erect a palace at Portici, purchased the ground, and began to make large excavations, in consequence of which the entire subterranean city appeared beneath ( fig. 330.). Numcroui paintings, in perfect preservation, and manuscripts written on papyrus, have been found WARM aPRINO or tOLFATAHA. — t- 328 %^ QUAftftV OV PUiaOlANA* Pam III. as their names would itiful heights of I'osi. es, perhaps, stronger an any other of these is, however, is the sub- JUS controversy : Adili- , and Matthews reject it ocryphnl ; but Eustace it tlie long and constant tdition cannot be dis- the doubtful authority i it on tlie opposite side Farther on, the village occupies the celebrated ancient Piiteoli, wliere of an amphitheatre and if Jupiter almost vie with cnts of Rome. The le indications of ancient lart of shattered hills, is ittrraneous lire, sensible by whom the workings distinctly heard. When How murnuirs ; sulplm. im the crevices ; and a ssuing by night from an ing plain {fi^. I!'27,), liiir stone culled Puzzo- 'eral manufactures, pre. •esque aspect (fg. 328,), 1 small aperture, whence ingly impregnated with L'adly to all who breathe al natural vapour balhs, [ cure of diseases. The the ancients had erected by the Monte Nuovo, a lom of the waters. The miserable village; but the Sibyl may still be remains of those sub- which she wa;^ enabld which in the niomiiit )m the (k'ptlis of tlic i'JIi.), a link' port on bay, is admiivd for ils he striking aspect of ils \it eight miles from of the bay interposed, the only volcanic nt of Europe, and one world. From tlie d, its eruptions bavo I few years ; and lliosc . a considerable dinii- g fallen in. On these try for miles, ami Imrj- 1794 ; hut the must enlury, befell the t«o uried beneath torrents he last century, when a and by degrees a small ing, in 1736, designing cc large excovations, in fig. 'MO.), Numerous rus, have been fimiid Don* I- le, th 657 amid the ruins. The opermloiiH Imvo been limited by the depth of the lava, and by the ciiv of Portici being ItiilU iibuvi*. About 1730, Pompeii was discovered ; and being found ■ ■* much more accessible, very extensive excavations have been effected, par- ticularly by the French ; and travel- lers moy now walk throi'.gh a great ex- tent of the ancient Pompeii {Jig. 331.). It exhibits the full picture of what a Roman city was : habitations, tem- ples, theatres, baths^ the shops of the different trades, the implements they used, 'ind even the materials ' ' HimriiiAHiuM. * ~' on which they were employed. 2716. Sali'rm (fig- fill9.)» oil tho oi)poiiilc side of the bay, is a pretty large town, in a beautiful and fertile territory, unclosed by ranges of lofty mountains. Consider- giji ably to the south, on a plain " near the sea, appear the > remains of Paestum, the ancient capital of Lucania. They consist of three tem- ples, which form perhaps the purest and most perfect spe- cimen extant of the Grecian Doric order. They stand solitary nes the sea-shore, without the least remains of Posidonium, tlie city to which ^^,,..^. . . ,Mi II.. .1. . -.1 ,1 .T ,.■,..... they belongeJ. 2717. !%■ vorllun, pari of S„,>l<'»i*i\Wu\.A between the Campagna F'-""";^ f *^ "f |"^*' now Terr:, cli I.avorn, an.l ihe iomkI. ntountain territory of the Abrvmo, *''« ^"";"; .^"^; nium. Campania is Htill both IVuilful and highly cultivated, though it no longer produces 3ua -A the Falernian wine, w bi)«Hti-(> of by the voluptuous poets of Borne. Capu^ wl.iel. .dmosl disputed the title of ciipilal of lluly, '""» whose voluptuotis pleasures ruined tin. .imv of Uauuilml, al'ier i( liad viuniuiMied all the armies of Koine, is r.ow only a coiibiUi.- 9M DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. q;i3 M4 !•*" III. able but dirty town, with a strong castle. Gaeta has derived great importance from it< position on an ahnust peninsular neck of land, the approaches to which are so stroni?! fortified, as to render it almost impregnable. Benevento, a town of ancient cuii-brh ^ afterwards the seat of a Lombard dukedom, which extended over almost all Naples, is fillip with monuments interesting to the antiquary. Tlic people of the Ahruzzi, lijJlu.r g^j lower, the descendants of the ancient Saninites, who mode such a formidul)lu rvsistance Rome, and repeatedly sent her armies under the yoke, are still a brave and laborious race* The capitals, Aquila and Chieti, are considerable country towns, without any tliini; re' markable. Foggia, in Capitanata, is a considerable market for wool and com, which are exported at Manfredonia. In the southern provinces, the mountains take an castcrlv ill rection towards Calabria, and have between them and the Adriatic the plains Ijcariiiir the clauic appellation of Magna Griecia. This region, once the combined seat uf Icarninir greatness, and voluptuous iffc.' minacy, is now imost unknown to the rest of Kuropc. Yet tlic scenery possesses a softness and beauty, mingled with grandeur, tlittt is scarcely equalled else' where; and the towns, though they cannot be compared with the great capitals o; Italy, present TAR.vni. striking and intorcsling monu. ments. Tarento ( ^g. ;)33.), once rival to Rome, is still a considerable sea-port. BrindisI retains only a sniall remnant of tlie imimrtance which it derived from b ing the port of passage from Itidy into Greece. Uari and Barletta are modern and rather hand- some and flourishing sea-ports. Polignano, to the south of Bari, is also considuruble, and its vicinity is marked by some very singular and beautiful grottoes (Jig. 3;!4.). Gallipoliis the chief mart of the oil produced in this region, which is esteemed above every other for the manufacture of fine woollen clolh. Corigliano (Jig. 335.), nearly on the site of Sybaris, presents an aspect strikingly pic. turcsque. The plain of Sybaris, lioliind it, the abode of a people noted for voluptuous indulgence, appears, by the description and deli- nc-ition of St. \on, to he of almost unrivalled beauty. It is diversified with ricli groves ol orange and citron, above which ribi; finely cultivated hills; wliile the distance is formed by the moun- tains of Calabria, capped with almost perpetual snow {Jift. 3;JC.). 2718. Otranlo {fig. .'WT^.thean. cient Mydruntum, is a sniall town, (listiiigiiislu'd only by its spacious castle, which has been celebrated even in romance. 27 1 9. Calabria, on the op|i,isile side of this southern cxtreniily of r.ini,,] lA^.i. Italy, is o striking ami singular region. The Apennines here tower to a stupendous height, and leave lietHoen lliim and the sea only a narrow but extremely fertile plain. The inhabitants bear in a great 336 OKf)TT<)KH nr FOLKINANO. pr.AiN f^r fivnARi(>< , labria possesses a fatal distinction, in having cxliibitcd the phenomena of eartliquuke on a more lerril)lB scale than in any other part of Europe, or perhaps of the old world. Dur- ini! siicccsivc weeks the whole ground hcavewcstorn extremity of Italy, thisisland extends westward ill an lrrej;uhir triangle, about 1 80 miles long and 1 50 broad. Immediately beyond the narrow strait wliii'h si'paratos it from the continent, the surface begins to rise into the lofty heights of Etna, a mountain higher than any of the Apennines, and which strikes admiration and terror by tliu streams of volcanic fire which issue from it. Its branches overspread nearly the hIioIu island, but on the northern and southern coasts they descend into gentle and cultivated hills. From these elevated regions descend numerous and rapid streams, which profusi'ly water every part of the territory. Sicily possesses thus all the beauties and be- nefits of a warm climate, without even the partial aridity to which it is exposed. Its soil yields ahiindaiitly all the products of the finest temperate and even tropical climates. Its most uncultivated s])ots are covered with groves of fruit trees, and decked with beauti- fu' llowcrs, such as elsewhere are carefully reared in gardens. L'T'.'l, III Us historical character, Sicily possessed anciently the highest distinction; and perliaps no country in the world has suffered a greater reverse. Greece early established here the most Hourisliing of her colonies ; Syracuse and Agrigentum vied in power, Icarn- ing, and wealth, with the mother country. Even when no longer able to maintain her own independence, she became the brightest prize for which Carthaginian and Roman con- tended. Rele cfForts to f " comnnuniention by roads; but this has been entirely iieojlr .'ed, and a line of twcnt' ■iii'i''' into the interior from Palermo is the only route practiuable for carriages. Sicily h,, ,,'' produces some wines that are esteemed ; her raw silk is also fine, and with copious mines 'f sulphur, olive oil, fruits, and sidt, affords some materials for exportation. In 1836 1° exports amounted to 1,908,000/. ; imports, 9;}J,000/. Of the first, the chief heads we'r" c'ivc oil, 442,000/.; shumac, 273,000/.; sulphur, 2I2,(XX)/. ; wines, 1 90,000/. ; orana'' and lemons, 1;M,000/. ; other preserved fruits, 1 18,000/. ; rain, 1 14,000/. ; barilla,' 4'^0(S' Thechief imports were, woollens, 1:52,000/. ; cottons, rJ!),(HH)/. ; cotton yarn, 10.'),000/"' J.i boards, 82,000/. ; sugars, 70,0(X)/. ; eofFee, 28,000/. Of these, 566,0001. were from Grii't Uritain. Sicily in 1 835 owned 20.58 vessels, tonnage 44,800. Tliere entered inwards 5650 vessel.s, 41,'>,000 tons; outwards, .T . "J 1 vessels, 403,(XX) tons. 272.3. Sieili/ is divided into the following intendancies : — Fopulatlon, 1S33. Population, 183S. Inten'lancy. <'lty. Inlmdaiicy. i;iiy. Palermo . 4ti«,S!)l - 17;5,4(K> (ii.'Kcntt 220.107 . 17,700 Messina - .'ll.'i.ilO - K),7()0 Caltuniiiptta- 1«,012 . livKIO C'iilania . - aVJ,.i8'2 • 47,700 Syracuse aJ8,JUl - 15,8(10 Maraula - 21,0(JO 2724. Palermo, though it can boast neither monuments of antiquity nor classic modern edifices, such as adorn the cities of Italy, is yet a spacious and handsome city. It is tr.i. versed by broad streets crossing each other, and producing at their point of junction a strik- ing cHecc. Many of the quarters, however, are ugly and dirty. The cathedral is a. large ancient edifice, with some striking features ; but the different styles of architecture are in- judiciously blended. The palace of the viceroy is a splendid building, but not in good taste; its most interesting object is the ancient chapel of king Uoger. Some of the country SL-ats in the vicinity commanil delightful views. Tlir favourite resort of the Palermitani is a public garden called the Flora, which is not well -.irrunged, but is rich in flowers and fruit. In 1835, there entered inwards 1049 vessels, tonnage 4;),Gf;8. Of these 901 were native 29 American, 1 1 Sardinian, 7 Austrian. There Siuled outwards 1025, tonnage 45,288, The exports in 183G were valued at 623,384/., and included most of the shumac, with much of the oil, grain, and wine; the imports at 261,105/. 272,'). Messina Ulf. 339.), though smaller, is fully equal in commercial importan',;c. In 1835 there entcroi in port 1000 vessels, tonnage 172,81!) Of ihcw ♦.38 were Sicilian, 202 British, 102 Sardinian, 80 Austrian, 53American, .3:5 Daniih. Inl83ii, the exports were 605,13W. ; leading articlcf, oils, fruits, and silk; imi)oit3,fk07,27W, Ithu also a considerable silk manufactory. The city is beautifully situated no a bay, formiHi by the opiKisito coasts of Sicily and Calabri,i, and enclosed by lofty bills on cipssina was much greater and more tlouristiing ; but it ha.s paused since through calamities almost unparalleled. In 1743, the plague swept off'half its |)0|>ulation; and in 1783, the great earthquake, whicli was ilcsulating Calabria. cru.sscd the strait, and in a few minutes converted Messina into a heap of ruins. Most of the inhabi. tants effected their escape; but the finest streets were overthrown j precious com- modities, libraries, and works of art, oere destroynl in vast numbers. Krnm tliis fatal blow Messina has only im)ierrecli; ^^ covered. the couKt begins to display the remains of great an- cient cities, which were huilt chiefly on the ea.stern and soutliern coast, Taormina, the ancient Tauromc- num, now a small place, contains, among other ruins, a theatre, con- sidered one of the most perfect monuments of antiquity, and in a most conunanding site, Iwtween the mountains and the sea. Catania (Jig. 340.), at the foot of Etna, is the finest city in the island. It Is filled with Greek, Saracenic, and modern structures, all handsome. Yet it has passed through fearfiil vicissitudtw. Overwhelmed hy the volcano of 1669, almost lic- 2726. Southueard POHT OP MFJ.«I.\A, from Meairina, 310 Part ill. iipRcd surface of the rable etForts to fom, I line of twcntv •iiilra ?cs. Sicily, li., ever, with copious mines of tation. In 1836, her the chief heads were, », 1 90,000/. ; oranges fVy hills on e,ich side, A ina was much greater and but it has iiasscd sinre almost unparalleled. In opt ofl'half its i>o)iulatii)n; great earthquake, which labria. crossed the itrait, lutes converted Messina Most of the inhabi. r escape ; but the finest thrown j precious corn- ami works of art, »erc lumbers. From this fatal only imiicrfectly re- remains of great an- pich were built chiefly and smitliern coast, |e ancient Tatiromc- nail place, contains, kuins, a theatre, con- |f the most perfect antiquity, and in a kding site, lietwcen >nd the sea. Catania the foot of Etna, ly in the island. It ireek, Saracenic, and lircs, all handsome, ed through fearful 1 Overwhelmed by 1669, almost de- Boon I> ITALY. fl4l j_^,jl,ythe earthquake of 1693, it has riien from these disaiiten with uiidiininiiilivd be&uty. 37'J7. Proavding southward along the coast of the Vul de Noto, we reach Siraguia ( Sy- racuse). T'>>» ancient capital, so celebrated for power, learning, and splendour, presviitit ^j, J striking example of the changeful character of human things. Of its vakt ruins only some imperfect fragments can with diiflculty be traced, scattered amid vineyards, or« cliards, and cornfields. The present town, which contains nothing remarkable, oi-cupivs only a very small portion of the ancient site. Near the south-eastern capo of I'uusaro iiru Nolo and Modica, two large towns, one well built, the other very indifferently, 'iV2i. On the soutlwrn coaU, Girgenti (/?;'. 341.), now a large poor village, prvsi'iils monuments wortliy of the ancient Agrl- (reiitum, »lieii it was the greatest cily i)f Siii' md fit to contend with Ciirthai,, "'lo temple of Jupiter Olympus 2.), an immense ktruc- tiire, 3(> lung by 188 brond, is almost qui ui ruins. It has been cnl led the Temple of Giants, from huge forms of this description that are lying cither entire or in fragments. The Temple of Concord {Jig. 34:).), with its thirty-futir columns, is considered one of the inost perfect specimens extant of the Doric order, FartI er lo the east at Seliiuinti, the ruins of Selinus present a scene still more striking and awful. Here may be distinctly traced three noble temples, of v.hich the :M;t BNVIRON, OP oiHdBnri, Tl Mri.R or CONCORD. iiaterials still remain, but only a few solitary columns are stonfive miles northward from the Sicilian coast, are entirely volcanic, and appear to have been thrown up from the sea by the action of fire. Lipari itself contains a hill of white pumice, which forms an article of trade, and its crater displays various specimens of beautifully crystallised sulphur. Stromboli has a volcano, remarkable for being in perpetual activity. Every day at short intervals, the eruptions issue forth like great discharges of artillery, and the sides of the mountain are covered with the red-hot stones that are ejected, and rush down into the sea. The inhabitants of these islands are a bold, active, and industrious race. The activity of submarine fires has been manifested on another side of Sicily, by the recent rise of Graham's Island ; only, indeed, a volcanic rock, which has again sunk under water. 2732. Malta (Jig. 347.), an islet in the Mediterranean, about fifty-four miles to the south of Sicily, though imperfectly connected with Italy, belongs more to it than to any other 347 countiy. It obtained little notice in antiquity ; and, when St. Paul was ship- wrecked there, is described as inhabited by a barbarous people. Its importance began in the sixteenth centuiy, when it was ceded by Charles V. to the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, as a com- pensation for the loss of Rhodes. Its fortifications were then greatly strength- ened, and it was considered the last MALTA. maritime bulwark against the Turks. In 1 565, Solyman sent against Malta a most formidable fleet and army ; and the siege which ensued is one of the most celebrated in history. AiVer prodigious eiTorts, the Ottoman armament was completely repulsed, and the knights were left in the unmolested possession of the island, till 1 798. Napoleon then, with the expedition destined for Egypt, suddenly appeared before La Valetta, and took possession of it without resistance. Britain afterwards reduced it by blockade ; and, notwithstanding a stipulation in the treaty of Amiens, has since retained possession of it In 1 825, the native population of Malta amounted to 99,600 ; the garrison and strangers to 3200. On the neighbouring smaller island of Gozo there were 16,800. The people are industrious; and, notwithstanding the barrenness of their soil, raise grain, cotton, and excellent fruits, particularly oranges. 2733. La Valella, the capital and port of Malta, being situated on a narrow tongue of land, with a noblo harbour on each tide, forma an admirable naval station, deriving great importance fl-om its position in \hi heart of the Mediterranean. It serves also, Mpecially during war, aa a commercial depAt, whence gooda may be introduced into Italy and the Levant The exporU fl-om Britain, in 1829, amounted to m!i,'MX)l. wliile the imports were only 20,780/. Chap. IX. SWITZEHI.AND. 2734. Switzerland forms a mountainous territory in the centre of Europe, occupying the west of the great range of the Alps, which divides France and Germany from Italy. It is remarkable for the grandeur of its natural features and scenery, and for the freedom of lis political institutions. Sect. I. General Outline and Atpeci- 2735. Switxerland is bounded by the great kinfidoms of France, Germany, and My,^^'!^ frontiers enclose it on all sides; France on the west ; Germany, and more particularly Swabu and the Tyrol, on the north and east ; the Italian states, Milan, Piedmont and Savoy, on the Book I- switzerlanh. 643 south. In general, Switzerland terminates where its mighty mountain heights slope down to the vast plains which extend over the surrounding regions; but on the side of the Tyrol on the east, and of Savoy on the south-west, the line is dt»wn across the crest of the Alps themselves, which stretch away with almost undiminished grandeur towards opposite seas. Its position is nearly between 46° and 48° north latitude ; and 6° and 1 1° east longitude. It may be about 200 miles in length, and 140 in breadth, and comprises an area of 19,000 square miles. 2736. The surface of Switzerland, bounded and traversed as it is by the highest rangen in Europe, consists almost wholly of mountains and lakes. The Alpine ciiains, however, do not swell, like those of America r,nd Asia, into mighty and continuous table-lands ; they are separated by deep valleys or narrow plains, which form the basin of large rivers, or the bed of extensive lakes : hence arises a singular variety of climate and aspect ; for while the valleys beneath are scorched by the intensest rays of the sun, perpetual winter reigns in the heights above, and the vegetation of the arctic circle passes into the snows of the polar world. 2737. Of the mountains of Switzerland, Mont Blanc stands at the head; being the loftiest in Europe, and supposed, before the late observations on those of Asia, to surpass all tl.u heights of the old continent. Ti°^ Mont Blanc is within the limits of Savoy: but ibnninB,a8 it were, the key of the great Alpine chain, . nd all its approaches being on the side of Switzerland, it has always been regarded by Europeans as decidedly Swiss. The scenery to the west of Mont Blanc, in the approach flrom Geneva, presents tne most itriliini! >liii])lay that is to be found in Europe, of whatever is wild, nonderf\il, and sublime in Alpine scenery. The Valley of Chamouni, the Glacier of Bossons, and the Mer de Glace, present, in particular, scenes of the molt astonishing grandeur. The upper regions of the mountain were long considered as inaccessible to the foot of mortals ; but Suussurc first, and several English travellers since, have, by fearless enterprise and adventure, succeeded in penetrating across the steeps covered with ice and snow, the perilous chasms, the narrow and slipiwry paths along precipices, and all the other dangers which lieset this daring ascent North- east from Mont Bianc extends the line of those amazing Alps which form the Italu\n boundary : the Great St Bernard ; Monte Uosa, which ranks second in height to Afont Blanc ; the Simplon, across which such an astonishing military road has been excavated ; Mount St Gothard, the route over which, however rugged and dreary, was, previous to the formation of that of the Simplon, the most flrequented of any fVom Switzerland into Italy. Beneath this range extends the deep valley of the Rhone, fVom the northern side of which again shoots up another series of peaks, or horns, as they are here termed, which, though they nowhere attain the unrivalled height of Mont Blanc, present a more continuous elevation, and a more imposing mass, than even those which border on Italy. Among these peaks, the most memorable are the Schreckhorn or Peak of Terror, the VVetterhorn or Peak of Storms, the Gletscherhorn or Glacier Peak ; and, peering alMve all, the Finstcr-Aar.horn, which ranks third in height after Mont Blanc and Monte Rosa. Down tlie prodigious steeps which these present to the plain of Berne, descend the glaciers, or great fields and plains of ice, which, sliding down from the upper region of the mountains, reach the lower valleys, where they remain unmelted, and even accumulate in successive seasons, and are often seen iMrdering on the cornfields and vineyards. The whole of southern Switzerland is covered by these great ranges ; but the northern part presents a some- what (lift^rcnt aspect In the east, the territory of the Four Cantons is diversified, indeed, by several very high and picturesque single peaks, as Mount Highi and Mount Pilate ; but the general ranges which enclose its lake vary fVom 20(10 to 4000 feet. The north-west district, consisting of the canton of Fnburg, with great part oftliose of Berne and Soleure, composes an extensive plain, the only one which exists in SwitierTand, and from which the mountains are only seen in white and distant lines ; but the whole firontier of this side towards France is liarred by the steep though not very lofty ridge of the Jura. 2739. The great rivers which water the surrounding regions either take their rise in Switzerland, or are swelled by tributaries from that country. The Rhine and the Rhone have both a long course, and have risen to streams of the first magnitude before they pass its fron- tier. These, with the Aar, the Reuss, and the Tesino, rise from the vicinity of each other, where the two great chains nearly unite, and where the Schreckhorn, the Finster- Aar-horn, and St. Guthard tower above the wild valleys of Urseren and the Upper Valais. 3740. Tlie Rhone flows through the deep valley between the Italian chain and that of the central peaks, and is swelled at every step by numberless torrents dashing down their sides. At length, emerging flrom this mountain region, it diKbses the huge mass of waters thus col. lected into the ample expanse of the Lake of Geneva, At the opposite extremity, near the city of that name, it bursts out, and rolling towards the frontier, becomes finally a French river. The Rhine has its first course along the most obscure Grison and Tyrolese frontiers, but on touching the German plain it spreads into the wide and beautlAil Lake of Constance. Thence emerging, it flows nearly due west, forming the almost continuous northern Iwundary of Switzerland on the side of Ciermany ; till, at Basle coming into contact with France, it strikes suddenly to the north, and bids a final adieu to its parent country. The Aar, the only large river exclusively Swiss, descencfs from the Finster-Aarhorn, rolls alongthefoot of the glaciers, collecting all their waters, which it distributes among the lakes of Thun and Brienti ; after which it passes by a circuitous course along the level tracts of Switzerland, till it joins the Rhine on the Germun frontier. Almost im- mediately before this Junction, it has received the Reuss (Jig, 348.), ttom a source in the heart of the wildest scenery of St. Gothard, and which in its northern course has formed the ip-eat Lake of the Forest Cantons. The Limmat, also, after forming the Lake of Zurich, enters nearly at the same point To the Danube Switzerland also contributes the Inn, through the vallry of Engadine, while it gives to the Po the Adda flrom the Valteline, and the Ticino (torn the heights of St Gothard. 2741. Lakes form a conspicuous feature in the physical structure and scenery of Switzerland. Its rivers, after rolling for a considerable space through mighty mountain valleys, accumulate a mass of Tt 2 •«1|« « 0» TniT uwvn' 044 MAP OF SWITZERLAND. Fig- 3« Booi I> I. Ilniuu 5. L'maichcn 3. Appcnzell 4. TniiHl. Cimmtf SI, Oall. b. MtMOm 6. DMiolilsiu -. Kobelwici S.Siln 9. IVUdenhlUi II).tV«deiibei8 Il.Sirguu K.ValUi II. WHWaimen 14. Moll 13. tValieniudt le. Staikcnbach 17. Quintan 15. Knimenau 19. 1'mach 80. mppmdiwvl il.nidhaiu 83. Lichtpnttcft SJ.Dielfurt !l. Wjl U.Uoisaii 86. Si. Gall. faatmi of Ctnuiaiice. 87. Arbon is. l'i.,| 89. HscMull .W. ronitance .ILWelnfelilen 38. ScliSnIiolzer- MTllWy) M. DuMlinger .M. Fraumfeld Vi. St-tinvktioro 36. l)l*«,lliifi!ii. Cfln/fflt nf Sehnff: hautm, 37. Sifin 3S..Jchairh.ujBi yj. ihrcm 4". N'puiikirch ll.(KletfinK«l. '■''"/««'!/• Zurfc*. 4«. Kuliiau 43. Tnilllkon 44. Flacli 43. Hulach 4fi. U'tnterthur Jj-^hrAltorf 4«. Ilaiienilaif 49. Zurich 30. Ahtetirn 31.«i»lflMl 58. Pftmkon 33. Hchenlhal »'. '■ninlngen 3.^. Me^len •J6. Adlix-hwjl 57. Olltnlach CaMmt it 7.tm, 39. Zu, * * 6". Kutrt. Book I> SWITZERLAND 645 water* which, when they reach the plains, no longer find a channel capable of con- uining them, but spread into wide watery expanses. The lakes of Switierland are large, though none of them have that vast extent which could entitle them to be classed at inland seas. The smiling valleys and cultivated hills which form their immediate border, with the mighty mountains which tower behind in successive ranges, till they terminate in icy pinnacles rising above the clouds, produce a union of the sublime and beautiful which no other part of Europe, or perhaps of the world, can rival. 274i2. ne Laie of Geneva, or Leman Lake, is the most extensive, being about fifty miles in length, and twelve in its greatest breadth. The varied beauties of its northern bank, the opposite heights of Mcillerie, and Mont Blanc rising behind in the distance, render it perhaps the most beautiful lake in the world. The Lake of Lucerne, or of the Four Forest Cantons, has, from its winding form, and the great variety of its scenery, sometimes been considered as superior. The Lake of Zurich does not ofl!er the same sublime beauties ; but the gentle ele- vations by which it is diversified form many scenes of extreme beauty. That of Constance has none of the mountain grandeur of interior Switzerland, but its extended banks present many pleasing cultivated and pastoral scenes. The southern lakes, Maggiore, Como, Lu- miRo, which half belong to Italy, exhibit many magical scenes, combining the gay splendour of the Italian plain with the grandeur of its mountain boundary ; yet they do not possess that deep stillness and solemnity which gives a peculiar charm to the lakes that are entirely enclosed within the Alpine barrier. Rtferences to lite Map (if Switxerltmd. NORIH PART. 1. Ilnisiu %. L'ma«:h«n % Appenzell 4.Tlii|l«n. CatlmitSI.Oan. i. ALIUnUn 6. Mtliolduu ;. KotKlwin S.Siln 9. WUdmluui 10. WerdHlberg ll.Sirgana li. VatUi 13. WtiHUluien 14. MoJi IJ. Wallenitadl 16. Surkenbach 11. Quintan 18. Rnimenau 19. 1'mach SO. RAppenchwjl 21. RiMhalu n. Uchtmitcg !]. Piilfuit !1. Wjl 23.(iotsau 86. 81. (Jail. Tdnfffl of CmttaiKt, n.Arbon 15. I'twjl 1'S. lll>cMu>ll 7A. Cnmtance Jl. Wrinfeldm yt, Sclientiolier- tcliwyl Wi. Iluulliiirep M. Frauenftia Vi. St'tirpckhoro X. II!e&.'nhor3n. Canlm pf Sthi\ff'. Aniiiffi. .17. Stpin 31. .Schairhaujen .VJ. IlirEcn 40. Npuiikirch l«n ,16, Adiiwhwil ST, (himliach ii< HuKn. M. Zu|i Canton qf SehtveiiM. 61. Elnsledeln G'i. Schweiti a. MuolU 64. Hutll 63. Waggilhal. Canton of (Harut* 66. Bad 67. Molllt 68. Ulaiua 69. Schwtndm -0. Elm 71. Wichlen 78. Matt. Canton (if t'l-i. 73. Untanchai'lien 74. /.Itdotf 79. EntMd 76. Anutait 77. Ourtnellen 78. Goschenen 70. Andermatt 8U. Hcain IJl. Fernlgen. Canton )leT. Canton tif Artcovia, 105. 8ln> 106. Wlerd 107. llremKarten IIW. MellinKen l(lrba 15. Viinelle 16. Vverdun 17. Molondin IS. I'eU'rUnfien 19. Moudon 80. Canouffe 81. Ewertine 88. La Surra 83. (irancy 84. Morges 85. I.autanne 86. Vetay 87. Moiilreus 88. Revllla 89. Dei 30, Se|>e> 31. Venl'b'Kll»e .18, Klivai 33. Rout;eniont. Canton of FriLurg. 34. Atlieuve 35. ChltelS.IMnU .V>. St. Martin 37. (Ireyen 38. Tour la Jogne 39. CreHUt 40. Hulle 41. llomont 48. Autlgni 43. Pont 44. (iinen 45. Friburg 46. Wunewii 47. Moral. Canton tif NetdiMtel. 48. I^udrefin 49. Kii'arayer 50. Boudr; 51. Travni 58. St. Sulpice 53. Brevlne 54. he Ixich 55. 1.ea l.ogea 56. Neufchatel. Canton qfB*rnt. 87. AneU 58. Njdau 59. Bum 60. Buellgen 61. BucluM 68. Burgdorf 63. Seeberg 64. Wangen 65. Wlttlliiwch 66. Arwangen 67. Hutwtl 68. Wvnlgen 69. Sumetwald 70. Ijin^tau 71. Siftniiu 78. llolllKen 73. Un'm^arten 74. Arberu 75. Cauiiclen 76. HIederen 77. Bema 78. tienen 79. Ulesbach 80. Tschangnau 81. Schwaraeiiettg 82. Thun 83. (iuggUberg «4.01«r«,l " 85. Reutioen 86. lUlliipn 87. Unlencen 88. Kriena 89. Miihliihal 90. (tadmen gl.Biider •18. Ha>n 93. Iseltwald U4. (irlndelwald 95. WildcrKhwjl 90. Kleiilhal 97. Kjindcnteg 98. Fmllgen 99. nieintliien 10(1. Weluenbach nil. Schwanden 108. (iestade 103. Im (trung 104. Anilrr Ixiik lO.'j. l.aiienen 106. OLerreid. Canton ofValaht 107. Ferden 108. Turtia 109. 1.euk liaSalgewh 111. Nliove 118.Uradeu 11.1. Lena lU.SIon 115. Heremence 116. AtUon 117. Rlddea 118. Martinach 119. Cologne 180. St. Maurice 181.Murat 188. Plnio 183. Trient 184. St. Brancliler 185. Ferret 186. St. Pierre 187. Morgn* 188. BartheUmi 189. Erolena 130. Zmult 131. Matt 138. Ajer 133. Grubcn 134. Slalden 135. Hollerbuel 136. Almengal 1.37. Slinplon 138. Vlipiuh 139. BrlfT 140. Na^ 141. Lax 148. Aemen 143. Blel 144. Im Ixicll. Canton <\f Teuin. 145. Ronco 146.Alrola 147. Amiiri 148. Faido 149. Ollron* 150. Lotigna lai.Chlgglognm 158. Lavorgo 153. Fuiio 1.54. ('eke WallenHtadI I Upwr Rhine, II. a* Alliuin, R. b* Inn, R. c* Lake Lugano A* TIcino, R. e* Maggla, H. f* Lake Mtigglora, Tt 3 MS DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Skct. II. A'atiiral Geography. SumiicT. 1. Geologt/t P*»T III, The geognosy of this magnificent country, although it has engaged the alteniion I a from the time of Saussurc up to the present period, is far from being wvll uii I > 8743. geologists from the time of Saussurc up to the present period, is far from being wvll uii I > ■tood. We cannot here enter into the discussions connected with the age, characters ^''i distributions of its formations, which now occupy the talents of so many distiiiDuj|,ii»',i 'i servers; but refer our readers to the writings of Saussure, Ebel, Escher, Von \\u\ Neclcer, Dou£, Keflerstein, Brongniart, Murchison, Buckland, Sedgwick, Brochnnt ll/i' Studer, and others. Switzerland is principally composed of Neptunian deposits : thn ii| tonian rocks occupying a comparatively small portion of the country. "' i2744. I. Primilive and tratuition rocks. (\,) Neptunian. These form the mure cvninil part of the country, and consist of the following rocks : — 1. Gneiss, 2, Ji/j( teresting statement, which appeared in an early number of Black and Young's Foreign Review, "upon die state of cultivated and spontaneous vegetation in the higher parts of Switzerland." The elevation above the level of the sea is given in French feet : — Buckwheat 0^. 351.), lown after Rye i> reaped, rlpeni : at Hans it does not come to maturity j and a little higher the forty-davi Maize Imarantino), a variety of the Zea Maya, is very precarioua : at tne same height, in tne valley of the Upper Rhine, the vegetation of this plant ceases altogether. At this place, near the borders of Lombardy, is the limit of the cultivation of the White Mulberry; at a greater elevation, neither this tree nor silk, worms are seen. The last Walnut trees (fig. 352.) are seen : it is remarked that this tree thrives Iwtter In valleys with an east exposure, than in those with a north, even though elevation and other circumstances are the same. ,352 lUICKWniAT, .NtiiU Msria I'urtii . Churwaldvn Vllo . . 2750. S810. 3fioa ■ 38oa The growth of Cbsstnut trees ceases near this place. The limit between the vegetation of the northern and southern districts is generally fixed here: a Tittle higher, towards Bergonovo, a few stroKgiiud and stunted Walnut trees are seen, while at the base of the rock whereon the ancient and lofty town of Porta is built. Walnut and Chestnut trees flourish In luxuriant flruitflilness : and at a snort distance ft-om Porta, the Fig adorns and enriches the gardens, and the flanks of the mountains are clothed with the Cytisus and Broom. Here Flax, Hemp, and Barley are grown with success j Winter.Rye is not so certain a crop. Cherries ripen, but fruit with pips [Applet, Peart, &c.) is not grown. At Parpau, a village 600 or 700 ttmt higher than Churwalden, the inhabitants do not cultivate any species of grain : many kinds of trees, as the Italian Poplar (fig. 353.), Ash, and Wild Cherry, which grow at Churwalden, will not vegetate at Parpau ; the only cultivated herb at this latter place is a variety of the Rumex alplnus, or SorreL Diftferent kinds of Firs compose the entire and exclusive vcgetatioa A little lower. Larches, intermixed with some of the Pinus Ccmbra {fig' 354.), or Siberian Pine, commonly called Alvler, are seen : all the more common species of grain are sown, and Potatoes generally dlOUsed. Halse, which Tt 4 (MN DESrillPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. I'Wt' KtrnUam IwiU . xm. A'hMvli 4«HI. P*M III. lUOoMU pwlMly • Ultto lowtr. rlpeiM here alio In nrdlnin mu<»,. . •nuther |Nirt, however, our Mlhor ieeini to flx nn elevMInn «r <«!!>. .'" Awt M Ihe bMiHlarjr of the productive culllvktlon <>' WW nr «S(u •r Malm. He aim remark*, thai a height of ."KIUO flwl, with a loutherD ei|MMur«, will allow the cul. tlvatlon of nuokwheat {6U tumuHi), even after the WInter.Rjre hat been reaped. It will be cu. rloui, and ma* be Imtrucllve, to compare the limit. In point of elevation, that boundt the profllabia Srowth of malM In IhU oart of Hwltierland, with le limit, luteeiieet to latitude, that arreita lt« pro. fltable culture In Franco. According to A. Young, the line ofieparatton between malie and no main li rint Men on the wcitern tide of the klngdum, In going IVom the Angoumoli, and entering Poltou at v^rao, near Kuflfcc : In croMlng I^orraine, It li flnt met with between Nancjr and Lunevllb : In MHlng ttma AUaco to Auvcrgne, the limit li t( DlJon. Hence It a|i|ieari that the boundary of the malio culture !• two degrcei and a half farther north on the eaitern than on the weitern ilde ur Kranfo ) the northern boundary on the w«t lido being about 4tM degrcei, and on the cait ildv about 49 degreei. From thli ilwt, connected with the two other fkcli, that the northern llmlti of the vine and ollvu culiuru In France are parallel to the northern limit of the main culture. Mr, Young Inferred that the eaitern dlitrleti of France are it} degree! of latltuilo hotter (or. If not hotter, more flrlcndly to vegetation) than the wMtorn. Pntatori aro At to lie taken up, and liarley to be rraiwd, here, a month earlier than In the Oborland, where the elevation li only U400 feot. but where ■'•■i'n r,„u,, there li a northern oxpoiure. Flax and llemii luocrcd here ; and In iin, ,„ ,, ihollered encloiurei the Sunflower oxpandi in all iti magnMccncc whii the meadowi the Maple and Aih exhibit every lymptom of hiilth, .,',!l luxuriant vogeUllon. Our author luitly remarki, that the rlpenlM of T •eedi oftrcM li a luror criterion of the comparative teniueriturabrdinhnni •Ituatloni and chmalei, than the maturing of grain or cultivated vneiihb, ilnce the perA-ctlon of theie muit oftun depend on fbrtultoui circuinituiM' ai on the iklll, labour, manure, ftc. beitowcd on them. '•"ni; Near thli village, on the declivity of a mountain Itelng louth, K>c uimctimn arrive* at maturity, iirovlded It li town Immeillalvly ider huveit u^ Hemp nut uniyequrntly luccccdi. ' ■IISMIAK riM(- •*w III. WWortsw Mil Boon I- ('iMCl'll VilleyofAu Siiuitni swrrzEiiLANU. 04» einallon. . 4aoA . 4ina . S«7ft . A.100. • •HI- f ■ SL Maurice . 5501. liiitheimall iicr, while in SciiU - . . 6i80. healthy aiui penlngofthe robfdiflbrent COTlifet, U'twi-cii AUO. iind S70a iil luxuriant At thia high elevation the only plant cultivated la the Rumex alpinut, a tpecio of .Surrcl much grown In tncto mountain diatrictt, for fattening twine In winter. The roota are prc|iared by twiating them till the cellular tiatue It detached : then they are nut. with a tmall quantity of talt, into a trench, lined and covered with planki, over which ttonct are placed. About 300 feet lower, the Siberian Pine and I.arch prcaent a healthy and vigorout appearance ; the aecd of the former rl|>cnitiR early In Octolicr. Thit tree, the Pinut Cembrn, or Siberian I'inc, la one iif the moat uacAil in Switxerland, though Itt growth la an alow, that one of them, almut 1!) liiclica In diameter, Ereaentcd, when cut down, .S.'i.'l cimccntric circle*. Itt uaual Increaie of eight It a ipan in tix ycara. The timber of thir tree hat a moat agreeable perfume, and la mui-n employed for dnmeatlt. punxMca, at well at for wainacoting rooma. When our author viaitcd the cliMcau of Taratp, he wat ttruck. In almoat every apartment, with the acvnt of thia wood ; and ho remarki it at a alngular and Inexplicable clrcumatancc, that it thould have thut exhaled Itt flragrance for aome centurica in undlminlthed atreni^h, and without the wood Itaelf having auflbred any dccreatc of weight Thit timber pottettct the additional recommendation that itt perftime It an efilcctual prcaervative agalnit bug* or motht. The aeedt of the Siberian Pine are cttccmcd a delicacy, and eaten in great quantitict during the winter fettivalt : yet thia uac of them la conaldcrcd pemlciout to health, and the writer rather recommendt apulylng them to the tame purpote at in Siberia, where, according to Pallat, a valuable oil it extracted from them, which it eaten at table, and might be employed In manufacturing toap. Thit apccic* of pine it unfortunately becoming very acarcc, and Itt cultivation la therefore ttrongly recommended. In order to tecuro and expedite itt growth, and thut remove the principal objection to Itt culture. It would be deiirable that the tcedi were depoalted In a compott made of earth and the clippingt and teavet of the plnaater or larch, or that thit com|)ott tic laid round the roota of the young plantt. The I^Arch It ali.o a valuable tree to Switierland ; not only for the purpote of aRbrdIng manure, but becauac of ita durable timber, Thit laitt four tbnet longer than common pine timber grown at an equal elevation. If, therefore, the larch be planted where the common pine now growl, It it evident that much of the forett ground might bo gained, and applied to patturc. The foliage of the larch, Siberian pine, and teveral other 650 ri« Eltvatlon. DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHY. treea, !• carcftilly collected by the HwIm j 1**M III. put Into large bui for winter lb , i thli meani the unpleaunt IniecU that •ometlmva harlHiiir In 'nil mZ,\.!} are destroyed, a* they get fiutened to the glutlnoua MirftHii nriliK 1,1.1,1 "' Though neither the toll nor expoiurowero tlivoiirHlili>, (.nri'lii,. i J, j ..j halfln diameter, and ilxty ftet high, grew heroi llii. Hi\.hI,ii, I'iL .,, 1,,""' mon Fir abo flourlihed t 6UI feet higher, Mnie nf IIim.i' tnV. w„ ! "' growing on the top of a rock, probably the loltlmil iihiI nl wlili'h lliov vegeUte. Neither the Alpine Pino nor Aquatic Altlcr wi,tii in \Zl here ; only lomc wild Medlar treei. None of thoe, wuii lliii tinrnillc trw. wen, tnn 'y »lll iivrv j uiiiy auiiiv wnu iuvumm imvp. i^uiiv ui (iitnp, wild lllli PkPPtlllii,, .'r the larch, appeared degenerated; while on the imiuiilnliia nr lliinip n ,«., tree* grow ituntcd; and perl«h gradually, In pr«|Hirlliiii to ||m hiLlii . which they are found " ' " 7400. At the highest point of the Pium iif FluclU, ftimat vi'iii'tnlliiu hml i-™,™! Abundance of Poa alpliia, however, was grnwIiiK I "Millliln l> liivnliulZ, 1 , a country where, owing to the mountainous nntiirti iiflliii |,ni|iit|,> ii,., '„ of fodder is always small and precarious, anil cu'ry lilwli, nl' unKa'tutt i,, '' collected with the utmost care. It is common In |ilaiil lhi«ii Kii„|, „, ,,ir whose foliage and young branches altbrd the most niiiirltliliiK DhhI In uiZj Inaccessible to cattle, the Swiss peasants may be sumvliiiuo >i,|.|i innkliw h.. with crampons (hooks to prevent them Arom ikUing) mi tlicir IWi. ' S27-I9. The grass is cut, not three inches high, in some places three tinu's n yviir, niul In tht valleys the lields are as close shaven as a howllnu-itrvvn, all ihy inequalities being cut as with a pair of acissors. 111 HwitivrJand as in Norway, for the same reason, the art of ninltlng hw seems to be carried to its highest stal« of pttrlVt'linii, In [^l land, the poor people are often seen on tlifir kii vit wnuplug out the grass with a clasp-knife, iVoin htttwcvii ili(< Inivrnili'M of the rocks. A little below the hlghvst point of ihv Vmut Fluellu, in a southern aspect, the flrst Firs, iniKkMl wlili Junl|i(r plants, were to be seen ; wherew, on the niirtlivrii nltlv, onl« Azaleas grew, whose rusty-coloured foliage liiilUiiivil tlie n. treme severity of the climate. 2750. The distance which usually Intorveium on ihv Alpi between the growth of trees and the limits of pvriivlunliiimw, is 2700 feet ; the tree that is found nearest thv niiuw lii'lng the Finns Abies, or Spruce Fir. The Ericinew nnil IthtHytii. dron ferrugineum (Jig. 3S5 ), commonly vnlloti lliv Al|t How, do not attain a greater height than 70U0 IVvt, iiiiil iliii dli. tance between the snow and the culture of ciirii U 4'JOO rm, Plantations on mountains in England iwUloiii siiccswi >t 1 -"■ ""■"• greater elevation than 1200 feet. SuBSKCT. 3. Zoologjf, 2751. The xoology of Switzerland participates in the singularity of its gi'OKin|iliii' fMtum, and exhibiu several native animals designed by Providence to live only III llii< wild mma of mountainous districts. Ainunu tliew, Ihi Ibex (Copra Ibex) {Jig, 0,1(1.) i* tlm ittwl singular, and deserves pArtlciiliir nollct. Al- though not much larger tliiiii n duinciiic goat, its horns are cnormoiiii, incMurlni sometimes two feet anil a half h^\ wtd are so formidably ' robuNi, thnt llm olumn wonders how an animal apiinrviilly \m liMvlly encumbered, oan at the s«mv llniv b« pun. sessed of such surprising nctivlly. Around these horns are cross ridges, or knotii (be number of which generally ImlU'iiU'i llie «j« of the animal. The SwInm Imnlk'n hwK that the horns do not rvHcli llu'ir l\ill ilu until the t ifth year. The I htm liwiiltonl; among thi. highest and iiioiit iniu'i'wlblt precipices of the Alps, pArilviiliirly lliwtrf Ilool I- SWITZERLAND. «5I . |<,rol, «iul appMTt to delight in frequenting the frightful regions of vternal mow ; yel here they are pursued by their adventurous hunters ; and their numbers both in Savojr "j gwiiieriand arc much diminishing, while they are almost extinct in the Pyrenees. The 'Itmoi'i somewhat less wild, yet apparently formed for more activity, inhabits tlie same ' gmiuinouj ridges. The descent of the domestic goat from the Ibex has been asserted '"'tl, too mucli confidence : it rests, like many other similar questions, on mere tupposi* lion, j-o The Aluhte Marmot {Arclomyi marmotta) U another ot the mott remarkable Eurnncsn qusdrupedi. . .h'Lh thiik 311(1 ungraceAil In appearance, It !• endowed with lurprlilng Inillnct. 'ITiew anImaU live * „. il.c inniintainJ In famlllei, and form uniler.ground burrowt ; when they quit these retrcatu for |irociirlng iHj Snp of the number, at a guard, aKends an elevated iinot near their common habitation. If this lentlnel J '.« in enemy, or any unuiual object, he utteri a •hrlll cry, upon which the whole company run to their I or If too far, Instantly seek a hiding-place In an adjacent cleft or hole. Such and ao rnrlout are the ' J Vh« which Almighty Providence cnublei lU weakest creatures to guard against dangeri they are other. '" !. nnilils to c«capc from. Then* marmots pass the whole winter In a deep lethargy, during which time they ui;5!onourl"hm'i!t The ^r Is thick, warm, and well knownai a valuable artlcTe of dress. - ' they The wolves of any HFARDBP VUI.TL'Ra. ,iie unable to c«capc iii'"^AIhii'ai'c buth numerous and formidable, arid the foxes live undliturbed by the huntsman. iT53. The ornithology of SwUterland hoi received much attention from the naturalists of Geneva ; among whom Professor Bonelliismost celebrated. The large vultures of Germany are occasionally seen ; but there is another, called the Uearded Vulture, or Vulture of tlip Alp* (M- 357- )> '"°'® peculiar to this country. It is a noble bird, partaking more of the courage and sanguinary nature of the true falcons, than of the vultures, to which group, from the struc> tureof thebill, it nevertheless more strictly bi longs. Its length is above four feet seven inches ; the neck is covered with pointed feathers, and under the bill there is a tuft of stiff* setaceous feathers, not unlike a brush. Its strength is so great, that it attacks sheep, lambs, and young stags, und even the chamois and ibex full victims to its rapacity. It builds in such inaccessible precipices that its nest is very rarely seen. A smaller species of the same family, the Vultur percnopterus, although more properly an inhabitant of the south, extends its range to Geneva, where it is not uncommon. 37J4. The insects of Switzerland are more numerous than the face of the country, so thinly clothed with wood, might lead us to suppose ; and many peculiar species of trout and ulmon abound in the lak. <). 'iT5S. Of the domestic animals, there is a good race of draught horses, some being not unlit tor the carriage. They are generally compactly made, vigorous, and sober ; while, to fit ilicm fur enduring the severe cold they are so frequently exposed to, nature clothes the head, limbs and feet with an unusual quantity of long hair. The cattle are said to be of a large site, but the particular breed has not been mentioned. illid. The alpine Spaniel (Jig. 353.) is a remarkable variety of the Spanish breed, pre- -ij served with much care by the humane ■ ■ ^ monastics on Mount St. Bernard. These beautiful dogs are generally two feet high, and full six feet long; the eyes have a peculiar appearance, attributed by some to the snow, and the high windy regions they inhabit They are kept for the preservation of those unfortunate travellers who are so often lost in crossing the patliless snows of these dangerous mountains. Two of these dogs are sent out in severe weather, to scour the nioun> tains, one with a warm cloak fastened to its back, the other with a basket holding a cordial and provisions. Their instinct and sagacity is so great, that it is said they nil! discover persons perishing with cold and fatigue ; and if too exhausted to proceed, they will lie close to these unfortunate travellers, to afford them warmth from their own bodies, and assist their resuscitation. Al.ptNK ■PA:«tKl. Sect. III. Historical Geography. 2757. Ancient Helvetia was celebraUd among the Romans for the boldness of its naturitl features, and the rude valour of its people. The Helvetians were fully made known by the grand expedition undertaken with a view to make themselves masters of Gaul, and the discomfiture of which formed the first military exploit of Caesar. They were soon nfter- •ra DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. !•*»» 111. wart!* rvducmi to the lUte of • conquered people, wheni like the re«t of their nkighbo thvv found com|iwnMtlun for the loia of their valour and liberty by a culture and ciWliut^?' which had beibre Iteen unknown to them. I ciWiiiMion over wa* fl75H> Jhtriitg IA« midille ag*s, Switierland shared the fate of the rett of Europe bci er-run by the Hunt, Bursundiant, Franki, and other barbarous invaders. Uy'ihtm"''' IK funned into a number offeudal possessions, under the supremacy, first of Charlemun" then of the house of Uurgundy, and lastly of the house of Hapsburg, which h*^'' seated itsalf on the imperial tlirone, rendered Switierland an appanage of the Gertntn "^ piru. These invasions, and this degree of subjection, were, however, chiefly confined to*th' plain wut of the Aar, on which are situated the cities of Berne and Friburg; wlijle the ' giona of the Forest Cantons and the higher mountain valleys remained in a state of rud* and pattoral Independence, and their vassalage to the empire was little more than nominal ' tt759> Th« tra of Swiu independence iiad been prepared by the rise of the free citin. Uerne, Friburg, and Glarus, which, surrounded by walls began to defy the power of their liege lord. While the emperors, however, proceeded with discretion, their rights of fi^uilai supremacy were not contested ; but the violence of Albert, who endeavoured to in»)ie th whole of Switsvrlnnd an hereditary domain of his family, brought on a crisis. The most lieruir resistance was made by the Forest Cantons, under the impulse received from the dar ing cour,i<|te of Tell. A long struggle ensued ; but the battle of Morgarten, in which the Austrian forces were completely routed by the mountaineers, secured the independence of Swiiierland, though an hundred years elapsed before a full recognition of it could be ei. turled. A confederacy of thirteen cantons was formed ; and the Swiss, engaged in wars among themselves, and with the neighbouring powers, soon acquired a high military ruu. taliun. Their infantry, an arm hitherto of little account, established its character a> the flrst in Europe i and the battle of Morat, in which the duke of Burgundy was defeated and slain, spread the terror of their name throughout Europe. When they came into col. lislon, however, with the great powers, and especially France, united and organising its force Into regular armies, they could not maintain their ground ; and in the battle mth Francis I., at Marignano, their military strength was completely broken. Their reputation fur valour, however, and the jealousy of powerful neighbours, secured them from any foreign invasion, till that great convulsion which shook the whole of Europe. )i7(iO. The French revolution agitated all the monarchical states, to which it was in open and entiro op|)osition ; but Switzerland, which hod so long presented to Europe a model of the purest forms of liberty, had seoiningly nothing to fear. The Directory, however, soon allowed that they employed the name of liberty chiefly with a view to the general subjection of Europe. They presented to the cantons a new form of constitution, which was called vnitaire, and whicli the latter were required to adopt. As the Swiss clung to their old and veneraled forms of fhicdom, an army was led into their territory, which, after a brave and even enthusiastic resistance on the part of the Forest Cantons, succeeded in compelling the whole to submit to French dictation. Switierland became a new theatre of war between the French, Austrians, and Russians ; but the first were finally triumphant. After the ac- cession of Na|)uleon, the cantons made an attempt to regain their independence, wliich was repressed, though witli some popular concessions ; but the country was held as a vassal state ! and Geneva and the Valais were incorporated with France. On the downfall of Napoleon's power, Switierland again became an independent state, though the new division into twenty-two cantons has been retained, and the distinction of sovereign and subject states, certainly an odious feature of the old system, has not been resumed. SiCT. IV. Political Geography. 97GI. ThatJVee constilutton, which formed the boast of the cantons, was, in Berne, Fri- burg, and some others, modified by a large and somewhat severe mixture of aristocracy. AdiniHslon to public offices was limited to a few privileged families ; and tlie sway over the Pays do Vaud, the Orisons, and other subject states, was somewhat rigorous. This distinc- tion of sovereign and subject territories has now been happily obliterated, and even the inte- rior prv SWITZERLAND. «5S J769. Tin ami!/ n,000 24 918 61,000 16 466 32,000 20 972 64,000 80 2630 170,000 280 1600 90,000 72 2410 180,000 32 1.520 90,000 30 960 64,000 360 2773. Geneva (Jig. 360.), though a small canton, is the most interesting of any, from ilie intellectual culture of its citizens, and the moral in- fluence which they have exercised over Europe. It is situated at the western extremity of the lake bear- ing its name, where the llhone, which has entered as a turbulent mountain torrent, issues a broad and pellucid stream. Geneva "*'•''"'*• is not a handsome or well- built town : the lower streets arc shabby, dirty, and ill paved ; and the houses, four or or five stories high, are overshadowed by awkward projections supported by wooden props. In the upper quarters there are some ranges of good houses ; but the Genevans bestow their chief study on their country residences, which, commanding the most magnificent views of the lake and the Alps, are their constant abode, unless during the depth of winter. The government of Geneva is less democratic than formerly, the elections being no longer direct, but taking place by two stages : the aristocratic party also maintain their point of keeping up a small garrison, and shutting the gates of the city nightly, though the last is attended with considerable inconvenience. Geneva is a sort of literary capital, not only of Switzerland, but of this part of Europe. Both sciences and arts are cultivated with peculiar ardour. Even the ladies attend lectures, read, and draw, more than in any other city of Europe. Tlie names of Calvin, De Luc, Saussure, Bonnet, Tissot, and other eminent men, adorn its literary annals. 2774. The approaches to Mont Blanc, through the districts of Chablais and the Faucigny, belong politically to Savoy ; but as they are usually made from the side of Geneva, the idea ' of Switzerland is invariably excited by this mountain and its mighty appendages. A jour- ney of eighteen leagues leads the traveller to the Vale of Chamouni, one of the most re- markable spots in Europe, and 361 , ,.....v,s^^^'».- where the fullest display is made of all the features of savage and Alpine grandeur. This valley was only discovered in 1741, by Pococke and Windham, but has since been visited by numerous admirers of the sublime in nature. It forms a long and narrow dell, through which the Aveyron (Jig. 361.) dashes its impetuous waves, and above which rises, like a stupendous wall, Mont Blanc, with all its train .of attendant mountains. Number- less glaciers, which have descended >ni:iici' "v TiiK AwiiiiiN. in successive ages, hang from its 6«« DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pam lU tides in the most varied and irregular forms. The valley being only 3000 feet ahn the sea, Mont Blanc towers more than 12,000 feet perpendicularly above it, and wUh " attendants of Ddme du Gout^, Col de G^ant, and La Cote, shooU numberless pinnacl "* needles into the region of clouds, which alternately hide and disclose this awful ransc *'r' these gigantic objecU Chamouni is as it were enclosed from the rest of the world. The fi object of the traveller is to ascend Montanvert, where he enjoys a comprehensive view f these extraordinary scenes, and is on the borders of the " sea of ice," which spreads f " this point for many leagues, with its surface broken like the waves of a stotniv oc""" The bold traveller, exerting alike hands and feet, traverses these rugged masses and*"' so doing, enjoys a variety of the most striking scenery. To behold, however, Mont Blan" In all its glory, it is necessary, by a rugged and even somewhat perilous route, to ascend th Breven ; from which this loftiest of the European summits appears in full view, and its sn shine with a lustre which the eye can scarcely endure. The neighbouring summits of 1? Col de Balme and the Buet afford also fine views of Mont Blanc. For a few darine tA venturers, a mightier task remains, that of scaling the sides of this king of mountain and reaching its long unapproached pinnacle. It was not till about 1760 that Sau*" sure, having his attention strongly directed towards Alpine phenomena, formed th" daring conception of passing those walls of ice, those immense glaciers and unfathomable snows, by which it was guarded. He offered a reward to those who should trace before him this arduous path, or should even make an attempt, though abortive. Repeated efforts were made, but in vain, till 1786, when Dr. Paccard and James Balmat, hav ing left Chamouni on the morning of the 7th of August, and spent the night on the mountain of La Cote, happily reached the summit at half past six on the following evenjiij At eight on the ensuing morning they reached Chamouni, with their faces and eyes swelled, and overwhelmed with fatigue. Saussure then determined, under the guidance of Balmat, to undertake the expedition in person. On the 1st of August, 1787, he formed a caravan of eighteen, furnished with provisions, poles, ropes, ladders, and scientific instni. mente (fig. 3'!2.). They left Chamouni at seven in the morning, spent their first night on the mountain of La Cote, and the second on the D6me du Goute 1 1,970 feet above the level of the sea. Next dny the declivity was found so steep, and the snow so hard, that they were obliged to cut steps in it with hatchets; but at eleven they had reached the summit, in the view of all the in- habitants of Chamouni, among whom Madame Saussure and her two sisters were observing them through a telescope; at which moment all the bells of the vi|. lage were rung. The travellers near this highest point felt a quickening of the pulse, a burn- ing thirst, extreme debility, and difficulty of respiration. At every ten or twelve steps they were obliged to pause for breath, and spent two hours in going over the last 150 paces. These unpleasant symp- toms have always been experienced by those who encountered the very rarefied air of the higher atmosphere. The next ascent was made by Colonel Bcaufoy, and the most recent is that by Mr. Auldjo, who has published an interesting narrative of his route. 2775. The canton of Vaud formed originally part of the duchy of Savoy, from which, about the time of the Reformation, it was conquered by Berne ; but that state, imbued with aristocratic ideas, communicated to its new acquisition few of the privileges which it had acquired for itself. It ruled the Pays de Vaud as a subject state, and with some degree of severity. In the shock occasioned by the French invasion, this territory obtained its eman- cipation, and exists now as a separate and independent canton. It occupies the whole northern border of the Lake of Geneva, which does not, like the southern, consist of Alps piled on Alps, but of gentle hills and smiling valleys, gradually sloping upward to the mo- derate elevation of the Jura. The vines of this region are considered equal to any in Europe ; and the wine made from them has a very considerable reputation. Lausanne, the capital, enjoys perhaps the finest site of any city in the world. Placed in the very centre of the Leman Lake, it commands a full view over that noble expanse, and those rangesof mightiest Alps, on the opposite shore, which are terminated by the awful and snow-clad pin- nacles of Mont Blanc. These attractions, heightened by those derived from the adute, to ascend the view, and its snows ng summits of the a few daring ad- .ing of mountains, It 1760 that Saus- mena, formed the and unfathomable should trace before )ortive. Repeated ames Balmat, hav. t the night on the ! following evening. leir faces and eyes ider the guidance of , 1787, he formed a rnd scientific instru. it their first night on of La Cote, and the e DAme du Goute, bove the level of the d?.y the declivity was iep, and the snow so ley were obliged to t with hatchets; but ley had reached the view of all the in- Chamouni, among Saussure and her were observing them »lescope; at which the bells of the viU The travellers ghest point felt a the pulse, a bum- utreme debility, and ibliged to pause for unpleasant symp- rarefied air of the and the most recent is route. Savoy, from which, that state, imbued ivileges which it had with some degree of obtained its eman- ; occupies the whole lern, consist of Alps upward to the mo- 'ed equal to any in ion. Lausanne, the . in the very centre and those rangesof and snow-clad pin- .Tom the adventuiB lisiters ai\d residentt retirement. T* Bout !• SWITZERLAND. Wl le ne ry ■ 363 COI*VU(T OV «T. BEBMAID. loim however, is neither large nor well built, though it has a Rne Gothic cathedral. The house of Gibbon, and the cabinet where he wrote the last lines of his history, are visited by travellers. Vevay, farther up the lake, is a somewhat thriving little village, almost equal in beauty to Lausanne, and commanding singularly fine views towards the head of the lake. The house where Ludlow resided and died, the Castle of Chillon, and tlie Clarcns of Rousseau, give to this place a classic character. 3776. The canton of the Valais extends from the head of the Lake of Geneva along the upper valley of the Ithone, which almost wholly composes it. The Valais is one of the j|g( singular, picturesque, and romantic regions that are to be found on the globe. It con- sists of a deep valley, 100 miles long, and from two to twelve in breadth, shut in on both (ides by the most enormous mountains that are to be found in Europe ; on the south by the luliancbain, St. Bernard (fg. 363.), Monte Rosa, the Simplon, and St. Gothnrd; on the north by the Schreckhorn, the Wet- terhom, the Grimscl, the Gemmi. The lower districts, extending along the Rhone, are sheltered from every wind, and sometimes exposed to a scorching heat, like that of the centre of Africa. Their plains pro- duce grain, rich pastures, and even luxuriant vines ; but these gifts of nature are not improved with the same diligence as in the neighbouring cantons of Berne and Vaud. Till lately there was no road by which a carriage or waggon could pass, except one from the west, which, at i. Maurice is so straitened, as to leave barely room for the river ; and the gate of the Roman bridge there might shut in the whole Valais ; but Napoleon formed a magnificent route by Meillerie, to lead to his great military line over the Simplon, which will favour indeed the commerce of the Valais, but will expose it to become the theatre of war. This territory is exposed above all others in Switzerland to the goitre, that dreadful and disgust- ing malady, which at once deforms the body and destroys the faculties of the mind. The Valais is quite a rural district ; yet its little capital, Sion, affords a market where its pea- ianiry can exchange their cattle and the produce of their fields. This place, the Sedunum of the Romans, is picturesque and antique ; its castle is perched on a pyramidal rock ; and its old-fasbioned walls, tovvers, and gates, suggest the idea of a fortified monastery. The baths of Leuk are situated 5000 feet up the declivity of the Gemmi. They are considered of great virtue in cutaneous disorders, "nd are therefore frequented, though little provi- sion has been made for the comfort and accommodation of the visiters ; nor do they find any of the usual amusements of watering-places ; but they may enjoy the extraordinary gray — — * — »~ .1 1- At-- -i.— •Fn — »•.....; — _j» r% « .. trees which I Switzer- :'ll in full "s. is said was, a literary town; yet it has" a public library, to which some vafuiible' coUMtlnn *"' attached. '""* "fe 2779. The region of the glaciers, extending along the southern border of the canton is to Mont Blanc, that where Alpine scenery is displayed on the grandest scale, and in th '"*" Bwfui and picturesque forms : the approach is by Thun, situated on the lake of th * """' name. This little city, more ancient than Berne, and still showing its strong castle sca^t !?"" a rock, is interesting only by its vicinity to these sublime phenomena of nature which f^" valleys of Lauterbrunn and Grindelwald (fg. 365.) afford the most favourable opportunit 365 of viewing. These valleys con! tarn rich pastures, and a consi. derable population ; good roads carried through every part of the canton of Berne, extend a considerable way up the moun- tains. They thus afford advan. tageous spots for viewing those vast scenes of ice, snow, and desolation, which are in their immediate vicinity. Here woods aid meadows border close on immense glaciers, which, des- cending from the upper regions, cover an extent of about K'oo square miles of territory. From various points are descried those gigantic peaks which overlook this part of Switzerland, the Jungfrauhorn or Virgin Peak, the two Eighers, the Wetterhorn, the Schreckhorn, the Finster- Aar-horn, and many others almost as lofty, Oc- casionally only, amid the clouds and mists which float continually around them, these mountains show the grandeur of their forms, and the pure white of the eternal snows with which they are covered. The scene is rendered more awful by the sound of the avalanche which, in the higher Alps, is repeated at short intervals, like peals of thunder. Numerous and lofty cascades dash continually down these immense steeps ; of which the most celebrated is the Staubbacb {^fig, 366.), formed by the Luschine, a tributary of the Aar: the stream falls from the height of 800 feet, but as the mass of water is not very great, it spreads out in its descent into a species of white vapour, which, when iliu. mined by the rising sun, produces very brilliant effects. Other falls in the interior of the mountains are represented as equal or superior to the Staub- bach. Two passages from this canton lead into Uie Valais ; that over the Gemmi is one of the most remarkable of the Alpine passes. A great part of the road is cut in the face of a perpendi- cular rock 1600 feet high, and so smooth, that from below no vestige of a track can be discovered. Strangers, who are carried in a litter, must bate their eyes bandaged, to prevent their growing gidd; by looking down upon so fearful and diizji i height. The passage of the Griinsel is not so perpendicular, but it is longer and more generally rugged, through a wondrous succession of peab : and glaciers. Near the summit is erected an kipict, i where a man is stationed, with an allowance for receiving and entertaining travellers. 2780. The Four Forest Cantons, Schweitz, Uri, Unterwalden, and Lucerne, the cradle of I Swiss liberty, form a territory situated to the east of Berne, and north of tlie Valais. Here NV [ lure begins to lay aside that awful and rugged character which she wears in the southern chaiiu; I and in those enclosing the Rhone. The mountains are not so continuous, or so lofty; ihdr I upper regions are not covered with eternal snow, nor do fields of ice, descending from thdt I sides, cover the surrounding plains. The two cliief heights, those of Pilate and the Riglii f rise solitary, like columns, to the height of 6000 or 7000 feet, above ranges which do not ei- j ceed half tiiat elevation. This country is crossed in all directions by the Lake of LuccmeiOl Book I. yALr op tTAL-nnAcn. bng lalte Pari III. fountains by r trees which : in Switzer- is still in full lations, is said not, nor ever :ollcctions are canton, is, neit nd in the most te of the same :astle seated on ure, which the l)le opportunity ese valleys con- 3, and a consU on ; good roads, every part of 3crne, extend a ^ tip the mouH' us otford advan- )r viewing those ice, snow, and ch are in their cinity. Here lows border close ciers, which, dcs. le upper regions, It of about I'.'OO ^tic peaks which two Eighers, the ist as loi^y. Oc- lund them, these ternal snows with of the avalanche, idcr. Numerous II! most celebrated Aar : the stream lut as the mass of out in its descent ■hich, when illii. ;es very brilliant of the mountains ■ior to the Staub- canton lead into imi is one of the [passes. A great ;e of a perpendl- smooth, that from in be discoverei litter, must have jir growing gidd; ■ful and diziy i Irimsel is not so ]d more generally Iccession of peab irected an hoiptfi tn allowance for erne, the cradW Calais. Here NV ^e southern chain!, or so lofty I to tending from thiit I lite and Uie Rigki. J which do not (!• lake of Luccme,!! I Boo»I- SWITZERLAND. 659 oftbe Four Forest Cantons, of great extent, and shooting branches in every direction, which rnrm 0>cb as it were a separate lake. Although the objects are not so grand as in the valleys f Qiianiouni or of the Rhone, yet the great variety of aspects, the interchange of rural ■ai Alpine scenery, the numerous villages and farm-houses perched on the clifTs, render the banks of tliis lake, in the opinion of many, the most pleasing portion of Swiss landscape. Some of the mountains, from their solitary elevation, and the crumbling materials of irhich they are composed, inspire a constant apprehension of their breaking down ; a dread nliich was realised about twelve years ago, by the fall of the Rossberg, which covered eieht or ten leagues of territory with a chaos of ruins, and buried several villages, with 457 of the inhabitants, who were unable to effect tlieir escape. AH this territory is marked with snots memorable in the annals of history and patriotism ; the scene of the exploits of Tell, and of tlie glorious resistance made by the little cantons to the overwhelming power of the house of Austria. Among the mountains, the most lofty and remarkable is Mount Pilate, about 7000 feet high, rising in seven peaks around a little lake, in which, according to the fanciful tradition of the country, Pontius Pilate drowned himself. It contains calcareous substances, with numerous shells and petrifactions. The Righi, however, though little more than JCOO feet high, is the summit most frequently ascended by travellers. From its southern position, between the lakes of Lucerne and Zug, it forms a sort of outpost of the treat body of the Alps, whence the entire middle chain of snowy peaks is seen from end to end and behind them many summits of the Italian range, though tliose of Mont Blanc and Monte Rosa are hidden by the enormous masses in front of them. To the west appear the plains and lower vales of Switzerland, stretching away to the frontiers of France and Italy ; and the view is so extensive, that from a cottage recently erected on tliis summit, the sun may be seen every day to rise and set over all Switzerland. 2781. Tlie cities in this pasturtU region do not attain to any important magnitude. Schweitz, the cradle of the Helvetic confederacy, to which it has given its name, is little more than a handsome village, situated amid the finest mountain pastoral scenery, rich meadows, and verdant knolls, embosomed amid rugged cliffs and Alpine peaks, tinkling with the sound of innumerable cow-bells, and echoing with the tune of the Ranz des Vaches. Lucerne, on the west, is considerably larger, and may be considered the capital of the Forest Cantons. It is nobly situated on an arm of the lake enclosed by Mount Pilate, and others of the loftiest heights in this part of Switzerland. The city itself is adorned by some ancient and venerable structures, and its diiTerent parts, separated by branches of the lake, are connected by wooden bridges of remarkable length and peculiar structure. The cabinets of Lucerne contiun some interesting Swiss antiquities ; but the object which espe- cially attracts the attention of strangers, is the great model of the Four Cantons and the bordering tracts of Switzerland, which the late General Pfefier spent a laborious life in framing. On a scale of fifteen inches to the square league, and of ten inches to the height of 9700 feet, he has modelled in relief all the objects of nature and art, every valley, every mountain and mountain path, every village, steeple, and even every cottage. The traveller here sees beneath his eye, in a narrow compass, all thuse mysteries of the Alps which it has cost him so much labour personally to trace. 2782. The canton of Unterwalden is likewise entirely mountainous and pastoral, enclosed by the high chain of the Surren Alps which surrouiid it with an almost inaccessible ram- part. They form a decided contrast to the soft pastoral valleys of the interior, particularly that which surrounds the little lake of Samen. Here all that is gloomy and rugged in Alpine scenery, its peaks of naked rock, its glaciers, its snowy mountains, and roaring tor- rents, disappear, and are succeeded by rounded hills of the most graceful form, covered with woods and the freshest verdure, and interspersed with rural abodes, which soften with- out impairing that character of stillness and solitude which reigns through every part of this romantic valley. Sarncn is the capital of what is called the Obwald; but Stantz, in the Nedwald, is the chief city of the canton. Uri, which only touches the lake at the south- I east point by its little capital of Altorf, composes the fourth democratic canton. It extends to the south over a wild and awful range of the loftiest Alps, including that mass named Mont St. Gothard, which was supposed, till within this half century, to contain the most elevated peaks in Europe. 27S:). Zug is a tittle lake, with an encircling canton, the smallest and least populous in Switzerland. The lake, whose waters are the deepest of any except Constance, is sur- I rounded by pleasing pastoral hills, of but moderate elevation ; on the south, however, the I colossal heights of Righi and Pilate are reflected in its waters, and the dim forms of the I glaciers appear in the distance. The town is seated on a hill so immediately above the lake, ■that in 1435, a whole street fell in, with its walls and towers, and sixty persons perished. IThe place is ancient, and has produced many warriors, who distinguished themselves both lin the native and foreign service. S784, Zurich, to the north-east of Zug, and approaching to the German border, is one of lie most interesting of all the cantons, by its intelligence, industry, and prosperity. The long lake on which it is situated partakes not of the grand and awful character which Uu 2 6C0 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paht III, marks the scenery of the High Alps. Its hills, green to the summit, are covered wlili villages, culture, and habitations ; nature appears only under a soft and pleating mw\ though still, to the south, a dim view is obtained of the snowy ranges of the iligli AlpL The city of Zurich is situated on the Limmat, where it issues out of the northern extr«milv of the lake. Zurich is the literary capital of German Switzerland. Even in the inlddlu ages it was called " the learned ; " and the exertions of Zuinglius at that era to realorv llio lost rights of religion, reason, and humanity, threw a lustre on its name. In modern tlnm its fame has been chiefly poetical and imaginative ; and the works of Bodmer, Qewiii'r Zimmermann, and Lavater have excited interest throughout Europe. Painthig and inuMC have also been cultivated with greater ardour and success than in any other part of Swititf land. Zurich possesses a library of 40,000 volumes, with some manuscripts of importance ; it has also valuable collections in the different branches of natural history, 2785. The three cantons of Glarus, St, Gall, oTid A}rpenwU, which extend (dons iho eastern frontier towards Germany, present a somewhat diiferent aspect from tliOHe of the west and centre. They are covered to a great extent with mountain ranges, wliich, rinlnv to the height of 7000 or 8000 feet, do not reach the regions of perpetual snow, or pour down avalanches or glaciers into the plains beneath ; but rise in varied shapes, darki ruffgeil and awful. One of the leading features is the Lake of Wallenstadt, twelve miles long and three broad, where the naked cliffs rise in picturesque grandeur to an amaiing lieighi and dip so perpendicularly into the water, as to leave very few points at which a bont can approach. These mountain walls elsewhere enclose luxuriant valleys, which open na they proceed north toward the Lake of Constance ; and a great part of St. Gall and Appenicll presents alevel surface. Into these cantons the cotton manufacture has been introduced on a great scale, and has converted the hardy huntsmen and husbandmen of the Alp« Into weavers and embroiderers. Fur some time a great increase of wealth was thus produced, On the return of peace, however, the stagnation of demand, and tlie formidable rivalry of Britain, threw a great number out of employment. When M. Simond passed through In 1817, he witnessed extreme distress ; beggars swarmed every where, and many were kui. pected to have died of famine, or at least of deficient nourishment. A considcrabicr revival, however, is said to have recently taken place. At the same time, the original simplicity and honesty of the Swiss is supposed to have been greatly impaired by this change of Imbil. 2786. Among the tmall capitals of those three cantons, St. Gall is the most important and the most ancient. During the ninth and tenth centuries, it was considered ns the greatett seat of learning in Europe, This ray of light emanated, it is said, from Icolmkill in S(Ql> land, of which the patron saint of this place was a native. Many of the manuficriptu uicd in the early editions of the classics were drawn from the archives of its monantery. IK abbots were princes of the German empire, through whom and its nobles the city wai l\\. volved in war and politics ; and, being eclipsed by more modern schools, lost its fame fur learning. The monastery was suppressed in 1798 ; and the canton is divided between Ca< tholics and Protestants, the former being 99,000, and the latter 58,000, Appentell hai adopted the manufacturing system in its fullest extent ; and on its limited territory maintain* the most dense population of any part of Switzerland. Though removed beyond the domain of the Higher Alps, it has several steep summits, which command extensive views over lli« neighbouring territories of Tyrol and Swabia. The population of Appcnzcll la divided into two quite distinct portions : the rural which is almost all catholic ; the manufacturing and commercial, almost wholly protestant. Glarus is situated among the most rugged and rocky tracts of this part of Switzerland. The town lies deep in a valley, overhung by ramparts of rock so elevated, that the sun in winter is seen only for four hours of the ilayi Tliis buried situation, narrow crooked streets, its diminutive and antiquated houneiii with low entrances, heavy doors, and walls punted in fresco, the silence and stillness which pre- vails, unite in suggesting the idea of a city dug out of the earth, like Pompeii or Hercu- laneum. Near the place is a mass of rocky fragments, which fell in 1593 from the top of the Glamisk, a height of about 8000 feet. 2787. Thurgovia, or Thurgau, which stands on the Lake of Constance, and on the Swabian border, is a tract in which Switzerland loses almost entirely its peculiar character! Only to the south, on the side of the Tockenburg, rise hills of 2000 or 3000 feet high, covered with rich meadows and Alpine pastures. The rest consists of valleys and plains of ettremc fertility, covered with vines and rich harvests. Two crops of flax are raised in the yWi and an extent of several leagues is covered with plantations of pears and nppleii iVeni wliich excellent cider is made. There are manufactures of very fine linen, which areilill carried on, though the trade is injured by the general use of cotton stuff's. This lertitotyi previous to the late revolution, was in a very oppressed state. Eight of the other cantoni had possessions within it, which they ruled by bailiffs with great severity ; and numcreui lords and convents had seignorial rights, rendering those liable to them little lietter tbM slaves. It is now erected into a separate and independent canton, of which the little city of Frankenfeld, the ancient residence of the bailiffs, is the capital. 2788. The city of Constance, though now belonging to the Grand Duchy of Btdcni 1) Duol I< SWITZERLAND. luctlly attached to Thurgau and to Switzerland. Constance, during the middle ages, was line i>( llie great imperial cities, possessing a population of 36,000 souls, extensive linen nmnufactiirva, and a great inland trade. In the fourteenth century it became more celebrated b« the great council, which attracted 2300 princes and nobles, 18,000 ecclesiastics, 80,000 lA^mcn, and, it is added, 1500 courtesans. The Romish church was then in its utmost lii'lalit o( power ; the archduke of Austria was put to the ban of the empire ; John Hus« •nil ji'rome of Prague, the early movers of the Reformation, after having appeared under a ufe-ronduct from tlie emperor, were ignominiously kicked out of the council, and hurried to the ntnku. This spiritual tumult seems to have banished from Constance the industry by «|ilch it Imd flourished ; and when, in 1549, it fell under the yoke of Austria, its decline bi'Oiiic itill more rapid, and its population is now reduced to 2000 souls : the grass grows III the atrvcts, the iron doors turn on plated hinges, and have the figures of warriors nirvcti 01) tlicm ; and the great hall, 153 feet long and 60 broad, in which the council met, is now ein|iloyed as a yarn market. Constance is, however, beautifully situated on the lake of ihnt name, called by the Germans the Boden See. This wide expanse appears divested of nil the awful grandeur which marks the interior regions ; but the wide circuit of its cultivated tiiorvii, dwelling into gentle hills, bears an aspect peculiarly soft and pleasing. Although tills hike Ik! every where surrounded with level country, it has the deepest water of any in SniUerland. il7H9. Schaffhausen is a small canton, whic^. situated entirely on the north or German iilile uf the knine, scarcely belongs to Switzerland, unless through political ties arising out uf jieculiar circumstances. The capital was originally an imperial town ; its burghers ex- leiuled their possessions till, with a view to security, they sought and found admittance into llie Helvetic League. The territory of SchaiThausen is diversified by hills of moderate I'li'vntion, thickly planted with vines, the produce of which is held in estimation. The town of Scliall'imusen was distinguished by a magnificent wooden bridge over the Rhine, con> itrui'ted in 1758 by an artist of the canton of Appenzell; but this celebrated erection was burned down by the French in April, 1 799, when tlie Austrians obtained possession of Schaif> liaueast to south- west, separates Switzerland from France, does not reach that immense height, nor exhibit those rugged and broken forms, which give to the southern chains so grand an aspect. It rises in the form of a steep high terrace, resembling, from a distance, a lofty wall. Tlie summit commands the most extensive and delightful views over the plain of Switzerland, and the vast ranges of Alps beyond. The sides being neither covered with perpetual snow, nor subject to the inroad of glaciers, are clothed with large and dense forests of fir in the upper regions, and below chiefly of walnut trees ; groves of which enclose almost every village. The political constitution of Neufchatel presents several anomalies : it has long been subject to the King of Prussia, a sovereign absolute elsewhere, but here strictly limited, exercising tlie executive power by his governor, but leaving the legislative functions in the hands of the people. Neufch&tel has another relation, by which it forms one of the confederated cantons of Switzerland. On the whole, the people of this district have long enjoyed civil and political rights more ample than in most other parts even of Switzerland ; and they ac- cordingly drew numerous emigrants from the aristocratic cantons. Thus encouraged, and stimulated by the difficulties with which they had to contend, they have displayed an industry and ingenuity worthy of admiration. Not only the ground is carefully cultivated, but manufactures, especially watchmaking, have been carried to great perfection. 2794. T/ie interior details of the Jura possess considerable interest. The long lake of Neufchatel, twenty-seven by six miles, extends along its base, overhung by the rocks and woods of the mountain ranges above. A good deal of timber, floated down from the heights is conveyed along this lake and the smaller one of Bienne, which is prolonged in the same direction to the Aar and the Rhine. Neufchatel is a small, well-built town, finely situated above the lake near its northern extremity, and commanding delightful views over a great part of Switzerland. A Mr. David Pury, one of its citizens, who made a fortune of 6,000,000 livres, left the whole to be employed in the improvement of his native city. There are still remains of the now ancient castle fVom which it derives its name. Yverdun, at the opposite end of the lake, is also an ancient and agreeable town. The inhabitants are dis- tinguished by intellectual culture, and their city by the residence of Pestalozzi, and by the Book I- SWITZERLAND. 603 ichoolt formed according to hU ingenious tyitem. The liigh valleyi of Locle and Cliaus , pupj consist almost entirely of rocks scattered with the wildest rnd rudest irregularity ; vet they ore covered with a thriving and industrious population, employed in the making of lice and watclies. The natives of these valle)s have distinguished themselves by many important inventions in the latter art. A remarkable object near Locle consists in a deep hollow sunk into the heart of a mountain, near the dark bottom of which are three mills, niaced vertically one above the other. In the valley of Travers is Mutlers, celebrated by the temporary residence of Rousseau, who has also given distinction to the little lake of Bienne and its island of St. Pierre ; though it does not, in M. Simond's opinion, display any DJcturesque beauty corresponding to the enthusiasm with which he describes it. 2795. The Grisons form an extensive canton in the south-east, bordering on Italy and the Tyrol. They ranked, till lately, rather ps allies than members of the Swiss confederation, being formed into a league, or rather two leagues, called the Grey League, and the League of the House of God, to which was even added another, called the League of the Ten Juris* dictions. They are now incorporated with the rest of Switzerland under the character of a canton, and form a very extensive one. The district is altogether mountainous and pastoral, though nowhere rising to that extraordinary elevation which is attained by the more westerly chains. Mount Splugen, however, almost rivals the rugged horrors of the valley of Schel- lenen : the Rhine in its early course flows along its northern border. A road, passable in summer for carriages, has lately been, with great labour, constructed over the Splugen, and forms one of the principal passages into Italy. The people are rather a peculiar lace, com- posed in a great measure of the descendants of the ancient Rhsetians, who speak singular dialects, called Roman and Ladin ; being compounded of the Latin with that of the original native tribes. The Grisons have an interior government entirely popular, divided into Iventy-six jurisdictions, each of which is a little republic in itself: the towns are small, situated along the course of the Rhine. Coire or Chur, the capital of the canton, and the original seat of the League of God's House, is an ancient episcopal city, still containing some Roman monuments, and a catliedral of the eighth century. Dissentis and Truns, at which latter the Grey League was signed, are only agreeable and picturesque villages. 2796. The new canton of Tesino, extending along the Italian border, includes the southern slo|)eof that loftiest range of the Alps by v.hich Italy is separated from Switzerland. It is composed of a succession of about thirty Alpine valleys, among which the chief are Levan- till, Riviera, Brenna, and Bcllinzone, which, though of great elevation, enjoy, in conse- quence of their fine southern exposure, a much milder climate, and produce groin on sites more elevated, than can be done on the northern side of the mountains. Their pastures, indeed, are less rich, not being fed by those numerous streams, which descend from the snows and glaciers of the higher Alps. The whole country, however, and particularly the shores of the great lakes of Maggiore and Lugano, with their ornamented islands, present almost an Elysian aspect. Yet this, the most favoured by nature of all the cantons, is debased by a poverty, an indolence, and a neglect of culture unknown in any other part of Switzerland. The meanest races in German Switzerland are superior to those of this district ; it has even been said tliat not a hog exists there which would content itself with the habitations in which the peasantry reside. The people are in fact of Italian origin, and never enjoyed that independence which is the genuine birthright of the Swiss peasant. Their different valleys were respectively subject to Unterwald and the other cantons, who, as too often happens with democratic states, proved the most oppressive of all masters. Under the last arrangement, however, this yoke was broken ; and Tesino, being now formed into an indt'pendent canton, may gradually emerge from its present depression. 2797. The local features of this canton are varied and singularly beautiflil. The three Jikes of Maggiore, Como, and Lugano, though partly belonging to Italy, are in a great mea- sure included within it, and they combine Alpine sublimity with all that is soft and rich in Italian landscape. The Lago Maggiore, which extends forty-four miles in a winding line from north to south, with a breadth nowhere exceeding seven miles, presents many enchant- ing spots, among which the Borromean Islands are particularly admired. Originally masses of naked rock, they were, by the care of Prince Borromeo of Milan, formed into terraces, and covered with the most brilliant vegetation : they command magnificent views, on one side upon the chain of the Alps, and on the other upon the plains of Italy. Locarno, a small town, finely situated at the northern head of the lake, serves as a market to the inhabitants of the numerous Alpine valleys wliich open into it. Lugano, on the lake of the same name, is the largest town in the canton, and has a considerable number of churches and convents. The Lake of Lugano is broken into several gulfs, all of which display the most picturesque and enchant- ing scenes. It abounds remarkably in fish, of which 20,000 to 30,000 quintals are sent weekly to Milan. This territory has given birth to many eminent architects. The northern head of the Lake of Como is enclosed by some of the rudest mountains of the Grso'is, where the scene passes gradually into the rich and ornamented plain of Lombardy. Meantime the dignity of capital of the canton is given to Bellinzone ; a pleasant small town, commanding the Val d'Airolo, and consequently the passage over die St. Gothard. By this road there Uu 4 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHY. ••*" III, ■ -•" III, in a constant conveyance of cuttle and honieN, of which an uxtunalve niiluiiiiml iimrkvt U I 1 1 near Uullinxone. A romorkablu batUo waa fought here in UiJti, IhiIwuvii tilu Hwlw uul it Duke of Milan. ""' CUAV. X. OIRUANT. 2798. Oermany U an extensive country, situated in Iho centre of Euriiiw, mid uxi-ni,!,,^ a most powerful influence in the political aflTairs of that continent. Thvi'v lit n iii'iullnr complication in its geography ; for not only is it divided into nuiiieruUH Ntitlvx, of i-viry vn. lied dimension and description, but several of these have large purtlunit uf lliu lU'luliliuurimi countries, particularly of Poland and Italy, incorporated into their tenilory, Wi< iiroiimi' however, in our description, to preserve that of Germany as much its p(iiiNiliU< iliiiiliict smi entire, only exhibiting, under the political section, the general JurlixUvtiuii and rviourcvi of the great states, from whatever source these may be derived. Skct. I. General Outline atul AtpecU 2799. Germany proj)er is bowuled on the north by the German Ocean or Noflli 8i'« by Denmark and the Baltic ; on the east by Poland and Hungary i on the wtiitli by Itiily'tiiid Switzerland, from which it is separated by the vast chain of the Alim | uu tliu went hy France, Belgium, and Holland. It lies nearly between 43° and fl/l* iiorlh liitlttidv, b' and 19^ cast longitude; extending about 700 miles from north to Nouth, nnd ,1,10 iVom wsi to west. Its entire dimension is estimated by Ilassel at ll,CO-> Gvriviuii Mitiiirv itillm equal to about 25G,O0O British. ' 2800. In its surface, Germany, in different parts, presents remarkithly cmilwiiti. Tliu southern border is i'urmed by the Alps, the loftiest and steepCHt chitln In Kiirutii'. i'liu Oerteles and the Groat Olockner, in the Rhaetiaii or Tyrolese Alps, are rv)i|ivi'livvly |'|,4(H) and 12,000 feet high; scarcely inferior to the highest in Switaerlund. I'Voiit tlili main southern barrier, lower branches descend and cover a great part of the Interior cuiiiilry | tliu Block Forest in Swabia; the Seven Mountains on the Rhino } the metullifiiroihvliniiiur tliu Ilartz in Bohemia and Saxony ; and the forest of Thuringla. Of tlivkv, Imwivcr. I'l'W riw higher than from 3000 to 4000 feet. They terminate obout the middle of Ovf mmiy, mul iIk whole north forms a portion of that vast continuous plain which rencheu fVuiu tlK> tliiy tit' Ilium to the frontier of Asia, On the extreme north it falls so low thatdikvN nnii otln'r \im\m ore necessary to prevent it from being overwhelmed by the ocean. ThU wry lovul m(m, and the greot extent of sand impregnated with marine exuvite, suggeitt lliv iili'it tliiit tliU region had emerged from the sea more recently thon the southern divUlon. Nntwltlinliiiiii. ing the disadvantages occasioned by rugged mountains in the south, and tutiidy pliilnn In ilu< west, Germany is on the whole a very productive region. Its flnest soiU itri' I'lmiiil in tlic intermediate tracts, between the steep elevations of the south and the (U'liti lliilit ul' the north. The latter are best fitted for com ; while vines and (Vuits cuvvr tliu divlivitiij and va!'<.>ys of the southern territory. 2801. J'he greatest rivers of Eurojie roll through Germany in vnrloiw dlitH'tliiiiK, The sovereign Danube rises in its furthest westernborder, from the heart of llio llliick I'tiK'nttin the ducliy of Badeii. Formed by the union of three small streaniM, it IIiiwn lU'iirl) duo east through the whole breadth of southern Germany, watering tlie tluniliiloiiN ol' iVmtiit. berg, Bavaria, and Austria ; and then continuing through Hungary mid 'I'lirki'}', llll It tur. minates in the Black Sea. Its course through Germany is estiniotid ut •Itl'J iiilk'N. It liicoiiKa navigable at Ulm ; but the current being afterwards obstructed by catiiriivlHi it I'liiitfilmlM less to internal commerce thon any of the great German rivers. From llie ^l'nlu| Al|iiiie boundary on the south it receives important streams, the Lech, the Uer, IIh< Iiim, liiv V.m\ but on the opposite side the Bohemian mountains press it too cloNely. mill iliivel iiil tlii'lr waters northwards. The great Illyrian tributaries, the Save and the l)riivi<, iIiiiiikIi |iiirtljr German, do not enter the Danube till afler passing the Hungnrlim IVniiller. Tlu' Itliiiiii rises in the heart of Switzerland, from the rocky pinnacles of St. Outliiiril | iiiitl in ii|i> pronching Germony passes through tlie Lake of Constance, where for NOiiie t'lii'lliit kihu'c it divides Germany from Switzerland, and afterwards from France. Nt'tir l.miiliiii it I'lilcn Germany, within wliose borders it pursues its course, till, passing into llie Ni'IIkii'IiiiiiIi. it spreads into several broad estuaries, and reaches the ocean. Its largest eiiHterii in- (u'l'inim tiibutary is the Main, which tlows through Franconia, and by its junction iiiiii'ltii tliiu-um* mencemcnt of the Lower Illiinc. From the same side coino the siniiller Htri'imiii of llic Neckar, tlie Lahn, the lluhr, and the Lippe. The Moselle and the MeiiNi'. wliiili |taur iu large accessions from the west, belong more to France than to Qvrnmiiy, Tlu' illiiiieii Bool I- OEKMANY. €95 luvigihle from the point where it leaves Switf erland, and is of lignal bcneilt to internal commerce. The other great rivers are altogether Ocnnan, The Elbe rises on the f^nticn ,)f Siletist Bnd follows a winding course through Uohumia, where, by iu tributaries tha Muldau and the Eger, it drains all the waters of that mountainous region. Thence it enters Suony i aod i'^^"' pouring a broad stream through the various territories of northern Germany, flowx, by a wide estuary, into the German Ocean. Its entire course Is reckoned by lliissvl at 5'.'3 miles. It receives fllty-three tributaries ; of which the principal, besides thoM! already mentioned, are the Saale, bringing the waters of the Unsttut, and the Havel bringing those of the Spree. The Elbe is a navigable river of vast benefit to German com- nwrce. The Oder, a Prussian river, rises in Moravia, flows through Silesia, Brandenburg, Hid I'umcrania, and enters the Baltic by three mouths, afler a course of 392 miles. It re> cfivcs the Neisac and the Bobcr. The Wescr, the river of Westphalia, is formed by the uniuii of the Werra and the Fulda. From that point, under the name of Weser, it has a course of 200 miles ; the previous course of the Werra had been 126 miles. The naviga- iluii is good both on the Wescr and its tributaries. 2802. Few lakes of any consequence are formed by the German waters. The Lake of Con- sianiv, indeed, called by the Germans the Boden Sec, has the greater part of its circuit in Gimiany ; but it may be more properly classed with the lakes of Switserland. The Lakeof Gardii, ihoiigh it touches the Tyrol, is more than half Italian. All the others arc small mil lucal features. On the coast of the Baltic there are some haffi, which are, strictly tucaliiiig, bays, being connected with the sea by narrow channels. S^CT. II. KcUural Geographtft SuBsiCT. 1. Geology. 2803. I. I'rimUive and transition districts. The primitive and transition districts in Ger- many are the following : — 1 . The more central parts of the Alps, from the east of Switzerland to Ihi' plains of 11 ungary. 2. The western, or the ranges on the west side of the Rhine, wliich indudi's much of the Black Forest (Schwarzwald), the Odenwald, and the Spessart. 3. Rlicnish slate mountains, in north-western Germany, wliich extend from W. N. W. to E. N. E i Ilartz mountains, in the kingdom of Hanover. 5. The great eastern primitive and Imnsition country, including the mountainous parts of Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Saxony, mill part of Bavaria ; bounded on the south by the Danube ; on the west by the flat country of Itcgcnsburg, Ambcrg, Bayrcuth, Coburg, Meiningcn, Bcrka ; on the north by tho (ihiinsuf Tliuringia, Saxony, Lower Lusatia, and Silesia, in the neighbourhood of Eisenach, Ituduistadt, Altenburg, Leipzig, Wurzcn, Grosscnheim, Giirlitz, Laubon, Lignitz, and lirniau ; on tho east by the flat country on the Oder and on the Lausitz ; and forming a great connucted system. 2804. I'rimUive rocks. Tite chief Neptunian rocks of this division are gneiss and mica tiatc, with subordinate clay slate, whitestonei limestone, and hornblende rock ; the Plutonian m granite, syenite, &c. 1. Gneiss. Sometimes the felspar in tho gneiss is in the slate of kao-lin or porcelain earth, as at Hofnerzell, on the Danube. Occasionally it contains talc, or crystals of horn- blende ; more rarely the mica is supplanted by graphite or black lead, or the graphite is dis- |io!icd in veins, as at Hofnerzell, Ruderding, Langensdorf, Leitzcrbcrg, and Zwiezcl, in Bavaria ; and in different parts in Lower Austria. In the western Buhmcrwold, the mica in till' gneiss is replaced by iron mica, small contemporaneous veins of the Neptunian granite of the Schwarzwald, and other ranges. 2. Mica slate. This rock exhibits its usual characters ; is observed passing into gneiss, and also alternating in beds with that rock. 280.5. Subordinate primitive rocks. Clay slate, limestone, and hornblende rock, are the principal subordinate primitive rocks. 1. Clat/ slule. Tliis rock, wliich is almost entirely composed of minute scales of nuca, rents upon the mica slate, and also alternates with it. These three rocks occur more or less distinctly stratified ; and in many parts in Germany the direction of the strata is from N. E. to S. W. 2. Limestone. Tliis rock, which is in the state of marble, occurs not in regular, continuous, and extensive beds, but also in comparatively short beds, many of which are sometimes observed in the same mountain following each other in interrupted succession for miles. 3. Uornhknde rocks. Fine displays of these rocks occur in the gneiss of the Bohmer- nald ; and enclose, as is the case in Scandinavia, repositories of magnetic iron ore. There is a remarkable resemblance in the primitive Neptunian rocks of both countries. In the Uijiunenvnld wc find not only the same varieties of gneiss, but also the same subordinate beds, as occur in Scandinavia ; also similar veins and masses of granite, containing many dili'erent minerals of the same species as those which were formerly considered as character- istic of the northern primitive region. Thus we find in the western part of the Bohmer- wald, in the true primitive centre of Germany, the albite, triphane, fietalite, lantalite/ and ill the eastern half of that chain, on the Moravian frontier, the red and green Norwegian ganu'f, tlie epidote of Arendal, and the some black auffle and coccolile as in Scandinavia. MAP OP UERMANY^win rAH. 4 « • >• ^'"' and cyanite ; less frequently of hornblende, mica, quartz, and copper pyrites. It geifcHT rests iinon gneiss, and is observed uassinir into that rock, and nisn intn « Irln.l »r xi^. . . ^ rests upon gneiss, and is observed passing into that rock, and also into a kind of Neptun' granite. It is a more abundant rock in Germany than in any other conntry. Saxony • I?" southern Buhmerwald-Gebirge, on the Austrian and Moravian frontier ; the Alps of Salzliu '^ of Styria, and Lower Austria, contain deposits of this rock, ^' 5. Serpentiite. Some varieties of tliis rock occur embedded in limestone in Neptunian strata, and therefore these are probably of aquatic origin. asoe. II. Tranntion rocks. Neptunian. These are clay slate, with quartzo-talcy n micaceous rocks, and older greywacke ; newer greywacke, with newer clay slate ; transitio'^ Rtferences to the Map qf Germany. — Wat Part. PRUSSIA. !• DamKarten •i. Straliuiul 3 (Irl&walile 4. Ix>IM A. Treptow C. Anklam 7. Pasewalk H. Lvchen 9. Netui Eben- walde 10. Uebmwalde 11. N. Hupiiin Iti. HeinalKlK 13. WitUtock 14. Terlelwrg I.). I.enzen 16. Saliwnlel 17. (VstcrburK IH. Wa&terhauscn l'.l. Nauen VO. Oraniciiburf( SI. Siianilau Ij. Iferlin K3. MUnchL-nln-Trt V4. Mliumwalde Ht. rntslaiii yii. Wcnien U7. HranUenburK 88. lienlhun V9. Hunt .11). (I.trtli'lbura 411. KMeben ■M). r.ilula .M.Moiuttfi-hau&en .Vi. tS'ordliausen .M. nuiidtTiUilt .')!. Ildlliti-mladt .^'v. Mablhauwn A(i. KIscnach. MRCKLBNUURU. I. Illbnili ■i. Tl»ln 3. ll. lU'bna -. Hnift N. liustntw W. l.lliDtl! 10. IVtnmin 11. Ht.ivi'uhnjpil 11. N. Hrandctiburx 1.1. MIrciw 14. N. NUlilltl 1.-1. Iloliel Hi. ri.iu 17. I'archlin 18. Sihwerin l!l. l,ml»l|tJuit to. HnilMnburR. ni.DKNDURO. I. Jmr S.VaKl 3. OidenbUFR 4. Wildeshaiuen 5. Vechta 6. Cloppenburg. HANOVER AND BKUN.SWICK. 1. A-irich i. Embden 5. Detem 4. Papenburff 6. Haselinu 7. Nor{&om 5. Benlhelm 9. PUnten.iu 10. Quakenbrilck 11. OsnabiUck 11. Bobmte 13. UitvlmU 14. BasiiURl 16. BrL'mea 16. Stotel 17. Bremer Leclw 18. Cuxhaven 19. Bremervorde 80. Stade 81. Haarburi) 81. Tustedt 83. Winsen 84. Blekede 8.5. Dannenburg 86. Bodenteich 87. UUien 88. Kbstorf 89. Uerxen 30. HudemUhlni 31. Soltau 31. Verden S3. Hoya 34. Nienburg 3.5. HanoTer 36. Celle 37. Kschcde 38. Worsfelde 39. Helmstadt 411. llruiowick 41. WUIfenbuttel 41. Hllilesheiin 43. Ahlfelill 41. SiirinKe 4.5. llameln 46. llolzmUnden 47. liUllingen 48. Khiibeck 49. Uoslar. ANIIAI.T. 1. PeHsau 1. Cmhen 3. Thlefolde 4. Brackenburg. DETMOND. 1. Hiiilela 8. Detmold 3. Bloinbergi WEST PRUSSIA 1. Minden 8. llerfcird 3. WlMlenbruck 4. Warendorf 5. Mttnster 6. Ibbenbuhren 7. (^oeHfeldt 8. Biirken 9. Dulmen 10. Wewl 11. CI6v« II. (lueldm 13. CrcTtldt 14. nusseldorf 15. Muhlheiin 16. Dortmund 17. LUnen 18. Lipnstadt 19. Paderborn 80. LIchtenau 81. Biitun 88. Arensberg 83. Iierlohn 84. Hagen 86 Elbeiftldt 86. Lenneu 87. Attendom 88. Winlerbuig 89. Siexen 30. Altenklrchen .11. Homburg 31. Bonn 33. Cologne 34. Jullen 36. Alx la CbapeUe 36. Eupen 37. Blankenhclm 88. Ahreweiler 39. Coblentz 40. Bacarach 4 1 . Traerbach 41. Moselle 43. Dhaun 44. Pruym 46. Bittburg 46. Trtvei 47. Sarreburg 48. Tholey 49. Sarrebruck. NASSAU. 1. Wellburg 8. Nassau 3. l.lmburg 4. WUluden 6. Frankfort. HESSE. 1. Volkmarsen 8. <:a.«sel 3. Arolsen 4. Waldei'k A. (remander 6. Melsungen 7. Eiichwejfe 8. liothenimrg ». Henfeldt 10. Alhfeldt 11. Marburg 11. (ilessen 13. Fulda 1 1, iielnhausen 16. Homburg 16. OHenbaih 17. DarmHtadt 18. Eriacli 19. Worms 80. Maj-encc. n.WARIA. 1. KalserslAutem 8. Frankenthal 3. Spire 4. Landau A. Pfrmasen^ 6. Deui Fonts 7. MeUsenheim to Hesse g. Ilirkenrrld la Oldenburg. .1ADEN. 1. Werthelm 8. Blschofshelm 3. Morsbach 4. Heidelberg A. Mannheim 6. Carlsruhe 7. Pfonheim 8. Baden 9. Offbnburg 10. Frondenstadt 11. Haslach 18. Frejburg 13. Lorrach 14. Wailshult 16. Vlllingen 16. Donaueschingen 17. Stockach BAVARIA. I. Bruckenau 8. Neusudt 3. Umunden 4. Aschatfbnburg A. Essclbach 6. WUrtzburg 7. SchweinAirth 8. Burglein 9. Bainlierg 10. LiohtenFcldl 11. Bayreuth 18. Hof 13. KudwIU 14. Marschencit 16. WaldmUnchen 16. Tumbach 17. Ambeig 18. Grafunburg 19. Neustadt 80. M. Bibert 81. Kolenburg 88. Dunkelsbuhl 83. Anspach 84. Etlingen 86. Koth 86. Nuremburg 87. Neumarkt 88. Bellingriet 89. Schwanilorf 30. Hur^ilengefiildl 31. ('ham 31. Hegen 33. HraPenau 34. Vllshofin 36, Deggendorf 36. Straublng 37. lUtlslion 38. I.andshut 39. Neustadt 40. IfairiTihnfen 41. Ingolstadt 41, Neuliui;g 43, KIchstadI 44, Donanwerth 46, Nordllngen 46, Dlllingcn 47, llurgau 48, SchwabmUnchen 4U, Mlndelheim 60, Augsburg 61, DnL-bau 61, Munich A3, Freislng 64, Mosburg 66, Muhldotf 66, M:irkl 67, Ilur(;bnusen AH, Wavserburg 6!(. Frnuensteln 60. Albllng 61. Tegemsee 61. VolkraUiauien 63. Korhel 64. Wellhdm 65. Kauriieuren 66. Memitungcn 67. Fussen 68. Kempten 69. Lindau. WIRTEMBERO. I.Halle 8. Hellbronn 3. Dunkelsbuhl 4. Omund A. Esllngen 6. Ludwtgsburg 7. Stutgard 8. Tubingen 9. KeuUingen 10. Ulm 11. Ehlngen 18. Biberach 13. Leulklrch 14. RaTensburg 16, HiedliiiKen 16, SiKinarlngen in Hohentollem 17. Hechlngen in Hohenzolltm 18. Holweil 19, TutUngen 8AX0N STATES I. Eisenach 8. Uotha 9. Amstadt 4. Weimar A. Jena 6. Oera 7. Altmburg 8. Oreiti 9. Neustadt 10. Rudolstadt 1 1 . Lobenstein II. Sonnenburg 13. Coburg 14. Schlensingen lA. Meiningen. SAXONV. 1. 1.eip7.ig 8. lloriia 5. Waldlielm 4, Oschau 6. Grossenhayn 6. Dresden 7. Freyhurg 8. Marienburg 9. Tschopnu 10. Ulaucli,iu 11. Plauen 18. Scbneeberg. AUSTRIA. 1. I^ltneriu 8. Topliti 3. Ijaun 4. Saaz 6. llakonllz 6. l.uilllz 7. Carlsbad 8. Kllenbogen 9. Tepl 10. Plau 11, BIschofsteinltl 11. Mil's 13. Pilsden 14. Beraun 16. Prziliram 16. Hnraullowiti 17. KlautL-iu 15. Wlnterburg 19. Prachalitz 80. Hohrbach 81. Passau 88. Scharding 83. Wels 84. Schwanitadi «•'. Vollbrock 16. Ried 87. llraunau 11. llialijau 19. Satiliurit 30. Hallfin 31. HuOitadl 31. Haus 3.1. .Murau 34. (inland 3.5. Hnf 36. Jlillmill 37. Kuf,uin 35. Kallciitors S9.8ch«ai '■ 40. lnm[inick 4). Imu 41. (iries 4.1. Htwn 4I.Kcliiklrch 45. Vaduz 46. Uludsn 47. Flnslomuni 48. Pruz 49. SterUiu 60, Meraii 61, (ilunis ■ 61, Latscli 63. Male 61, Lavii 66. Kiva 56. Rovercdo 57. Trent 58. IloriiadcViisi, nana 69. CavaleM 6". Botien 61. Ilrllnncke 61. Llcnt 61. .lIotMy 61. (Jreifenbuni 65, Siiiial 66, Villach 67, Toloinina 68, (lotlli 69, Monfalcons 70, Trieste 71, Iwia 71. 1'isino 73, 1'ola. RivfTi in Prwjw. a Hard b Kllie c Muiila d Unstrut, Rivnt in HVrf Pniuia, a Kins b I.ijtiie c KoiT d Sifir e llbine f Mosdie. Aiivrl jn Gmiuij. a Knit b FulJl c I.fine d l.ahn e .1(a\n f llhi'ne g .V.,k„ ll I.ax i ILinulie iKraun Salia I Inn in IstT n Arniner o Ixs'h p lllcr. Boo« !■ linMstone, flint the talcy rocks and clay slate, clay slate somet The fossils fron or brown ironst dreporitei: fossi Some plants are !i607. The li tribution as in tl 2808. (3.) L nearly to the prii beautiful brecciat Limestone of tlu in frequently coii rallies, madrepori and are highly v; the limestone. 4. FliiUi/ stale clay slate. It is flinty slate occur, with the moile of 5. met slate t some districts in t 6. Anthracite, Eohemia. PRUSSIA. L.tlcmei t i'rokuts y Heideknig 4. M'lnie .•,. Gil«ii 6. Tilut ;. Ka«nlt 8. S«silacken y. Mehlaucken 10. Taplau 11. Laliiau 1'^. I'ran/kuhren 1,1. Ki>rlihauscn It. Ktinie^lHTg 1,'). llraiiiJenburg IC. I'illau r.HeiliKcnlcn IK. Kicntzburg 19. Kriau !l). .\Ilenbiirg Si.Insterburg 23. Oumliinen U. Stalluuohnen tl. Ilarkehmcn ». (iolila|>p 'iti. .Arcenliiirg i:. Schiiwibell 2S. ltar(en.(tein !'J. lleiUluTu ^1. Muhlhnusen 31. Tolkomit .12. KIbing 3.1. Dantzic 31. ileia 3.1. Cartbaus 31;. Neustadt 37. Jlflmrow .IS. Uuenburg 39. Stoi(ie 40. Lupow 41. Kufft'nwalde 42. Z,iii,iw 43. CoMin 44. ilelBrade 4.1. iiaklt'nburg 4G. Kuinmelsburg 47. liutow 48. Kussabnde 49. Ithrend •ly. Schoncrk 61. Star^nrdt 62. Mewc 53. .Marienburg M.Saalfieldt M. Uitistailt M. (iuttstadt 57. Kossei 58. Rastenburg 59. niicin M. I«tzm Ct.dletzko C2. 1.jck 63. Arys 6). 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71.] 71.1 73.! 74.1 76.1 76. ( 77. ( 78.1 79. J 8(1.! 81. I 81. • 83. 1 84. i 85. I 86. I 87.1 88.1 89.1 90, i 91. ( 91. ( 93." 94, ( 96,1 9li. I 97, f 98, C 99, 1 100. 1 101. 1 101. ! 103.1 101.1 105. J 106. .1 107. I 108. t 109. I 110.1 111. I HI. I 113. > 114.1 115. C 116.fi 117. < 118,1 119, f 180,1 181. I 111, E 113. > 114.1 11,5, S 116, I 117.1 Book I. GERMANY. «89 limestone, flinty slate or Lydian stone, whet slate, anthracite. 1. The older greywacke and the talcy rocks connect the transition and primitive deposits with the newer greywacke and clay slate, the transition and secondary rocks. 2. The newer or true greywacke and its clay slate sometimes contain organic remains, as in the Hartz, Bohemia, Uhine district, &c. The fossils from the animal kingdom are generally casls, or they are changed into limestone or brown ironstone. The most frequent are trilobites, or fragments of encrinites and ma- dreporites ■■ fossil bivalve shells also occur, such as terebratuliles, ammoniles, orthoceratites, &c. Some plants are likewise met with, and are generally calamites. 'ifffl. The limestone occurs in interrupted beds, thus exhibiting the same mode of dis- tribution as in tlie primitive deposits. 2808. (3.) Limestone of the talcy quartz rockS' This in general aspect approaches more nearly to the primitive limestone than any of the others of the transition class. Many of the heautiful brecciated marbles of commerce belong to this part of the geological arrangement. lime'tone of the true greywacke is more compact than the former, and also diflTers from it infrequently containing fossil organic remains, viz., trilobites, ctUymenites, asaphiles, orthoce- rallies, madreporites, &c. Many of these limestones, when cut, have a beautiful appearance, anil arc highly valued as marbles. Caves, containing remains of extinct animals, occur in the limestone. 4. Flinty slate and Lydian stone. These minerals occur in beds in the greywacke and clay slate. It is remaikcd that the greywacke and clay slates, in districts where the beds of dinty slate occur, are sometimes highly impregnated with silica, a fact intimately connected villi the mode of formation of all tlicse rocks. 5. ll'het slate or whetstone. This slate, so well known in the arts, occurs in small beds in some districts in the clay slate. 6. AnlhracUc, or glance coal. Beds of this coal occur in the Hartz, Westphalia, and Bohemia. Btferences to the Map qf Germany, — East Part. \-ldkirch PRUSSIA. 'aduz l.Slemel lludsn 1. ProkuU 'instermuiii 3. Ilrfdekruil 'ruz l.Wlnge imlng J. liilix It!raii 6. TiUI ilunis T.Ragnit ■atjch 8. Seszlacken Male 9. Melilaucken .avU 111. Tainau i\\i II. Lablau tovercdo 1'^. Traiizkuhrcn rrcnt 13. FiM:lihauscn UoWdeViki. 11. Kiiniisbcnt jBiia .'avaluie IG. Pillau Itolzen 17.Heiligenl«ll IMnncke Lieiiz 1«. Kimlzburg 19. KvMu Motray »l. .\Ilmburil ireifcnbunt !1. IiulerbuiK SjliUI Villach n, (iumbinen M. Stallupohnen !fl. Darkehmcn Tolomina loritz !5. (iolJapp Monfalcona '^(i. ArL-eiibiirp «. Schliwnbell rrleste Isola !S. Ijarteattein I'lsini) S'J. HeilslHTg I'ola, 311. Muhlhausen Jl.Tolkorall 'fri (n Prwiii. Si. Elbini attl 3,3. Dantzic ll« , 31.Hela [iilda 33. Canhaus Jnstrul. %. Neustadt 3;. llrborow Rivfrt in Will 3S. Lauenburg Pmm. 39. Slol|>e im 40. Luiww iin« 41. Kuf^'nwalde loiT t'i. Z.WUW ieff 43. r.ivlin hinc 44. Ilelerade losdie. 4,'i. Haldmburg 4fi. Kuiiimelsburg ivil in Gmwij. 47. Hutow 'ini 48. K>»s.ibude 'ulda 49. 11,'hrcml ii'iiie at. Schonock .ahn 61. Starin\rdt i!a\n 6'i. Jlewc llii'ne S3. Marienburg VivkB it.Saalfcldt ■.ai a. Udisladt laiiuli« SC. (lullsladt 'raim 37. HoMcl iaiza M. lUstnibunt rm 59. Hliciii Iscr CO. I/itzen ^iiimel Cl.oictzko en 107. Dramburg lllH. Callica 109. I)rt Crone 110. Tastrow 111. KIntow 112. Wiisliz 113. Vandsburg 114. Poln Crono 115. Culm 116. Htrniburg lU.Uollup 118. Thorn 119. Fordcn 120. Bromberg 121. Inowraeliiw 182. Szubln 123. Wongrovlu 124. Margonln 125. SchneldemUhl 126. Uset 127. Ctomlkow 128. Fitchne 129. Drlesen 1.30. Woldcnburg 131. Soldin 1.12. Pyritt 133. Flddichow 134. Klinigtberg 135. ('uilrln 136. Frankfort 137. Keppen 138. Wietze 139. LaniUberg 140. Zellcniig 141. Meseritz 142. Bimbaum 143. Sainter 144. 1'inne 145. Poscn 146. Hoi{a«cn 147. Unesen 118. Mogilno 149. Kruswtce 150. Wrcschen 151. Siroda 152. N'eusladt 153. Vleszew 154. Schrim 155. Moezym 156. Koten 157. (irati 158. Bomst 159. Zullichau 160 UrUnberg 161. Orossen 162. FUrstuiburg 163. Luberose 164. Coltbasc 165. 8premberg 166. Uutien 167. Koran 168. IMebui 169. Sagan 170. Neustp^n 20.3. (iutlcnlag 204. (ireat SuelUz 205. Tost 206. (ilclwitt 207. I'less 808. Sohrau 209. Itililior 210. LobschUtx 811. Krappitz 812. Neisse 213. Muniterb 814. (ilali 815. Kcinen. SAXONY. 1. Bautzen 8. Lobau 3. Zittau. AUSTRIA. 1. Trautetiau 8. Ultsi'hin 3. JungBunzlau 4. Kiechenburg 5. Bohm Lelpa 6. Builln 7. Melnik R. Schlan 9, Prague 10. Brandiet 11. Nitnburg 12. BUhmisch Brod 13. Koundm 14. Czaslau 15. Crudlm 16. Cliluinetl 17. JoM>phatadt 18. KUnlgingratz 19. Hohcnniauth 20. Senftenberg 21. Alstadt 22. Friedlirrg 23. Jagenulorf 24. Freudinthal 85. Tropi>au 26, TeKhcn 87. Mlltek 88, Ulpnik 29, Ohnull 30. Littau 31, Zwiltau 32. LeutomlKhel .33. Ueutsch Brod 34. Kaciow 35. Kmln 36. Sedletl 37. Plsek 38. Nauhnus 39. Pilgratn 4(1. TeUch 41* Iglau 48. Great Meaerltsch 43. Trtbitch 44. Budwitz 45. Bibenschll 46. 1.ettowjtz 47. Brunn 48. Austerlilz 49. Wischau dlf. Hradisch 51. I'rerau 52. Ung Brod 53. Goding 54. Auspitz 55. Fcld&lwrg 56. Nicolsburg 57. Jazddorf 58. Znaim 59. Ilardeck 6(1. Allt'iidslelg 61. Vltlej 6i. Zwettel 63. Gmund 64. Budneia 65. Knitnau 66. l.lri 67. Steyereck 68. Prielt 89. Friullicrg 90. Hnrtlierg 91. Murzuschlag 92. KIndberg 93. Bruck 94. Hottenmann 95. Murau 96. Knitlelfeldl 97. Jadenburg 98. FtiMU* 99. R. Andr# 100. Schwanberg 101. Voltsherg 102. Gralz 103. FUrslcnR.ldt 104. Hadker^burK 105. Friedau 106. Pcttau 107. Ganowitz 108. Marburg 109. Wlldon 1 10. Lavamudc lll.Blejburg 112. VOlkennatkt 113. Klagenfbrt 114. Neumarkt 1 15. Grainburg 116. Laybach 117. Littau 118. ClIU 119. Ran 120. I.andstrags 121. Neustadt 122. Gutschee 123. Zirknilz 124. AdeUburg 125. Vrcni 126. AUwna 127. Fiume 128. Novl 129. VerboTko IM. Moiling 131. CatlMladt 132. Jaazka. Rtrert in Pnutia, a Niemen b Pregel c A lie d Passarge e Drewenz f Vistula K Brake h KUddow 1 Drage J Netze li Warta 1 Obers m Oder n Neisse o Bober p Neisse. Rirert in Gtrmamt, q Kibe ■^ r Aloldau > Igia t March u T^ja T Danube w Ens X Miir y DraTe B Have 670 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. I P*«i III 2809. Plutotuan primilive and tramition rocks. — Granite. Those great bodies of nites, which are intermixed with the Neptunian primitive strata at their junction and km! also send out branches or arms among those strata, may be considered as of prim'.' formation ; while the granites, which are confined to transition rocks, and affect them i h same manner as the primitive does the primitive strata, may be viewed as bclonKiui; t!! Ii transition class. The Alps, Reisengebirge, the Erzgebirge, the Bbhraerwald-gebiree th Harzgebirge, afford examples of these granites. 6 i articularly complicated, chiefly through the I great number and variety of the states of which it consists, partly also through the common bond of union which is attempted to be maintained among them. It will therefore be re- quisite to consider, first, the Germanic body, as represented in the Diet, which is entitled to exercise certain general functions ; and, next, the political form, power, and relations of I tlie particular state*. SuBSEcr. I. Germanic lindy. 2839. Tlie Diet has for its office to preserve the external and internal security of Germany, las well as the independence and safety of its particular states. It professes to regulate all I the foreign relations of the empire, and the disputes which may arise between one state and linother, without interfering with the interior administration of any. 28-10. The Diet consists of deputies from each particular state. The number of votes Ipossessed by each varies, according to its extent and power, though not in any exact or uniform iproportion. In the full meeting the aggregate number of votes is seventy, which are thus iistributed ;— Austria, Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria, Hanover, and Wirtemberg, have each /our ; iBaden, Hesse-Cassel, Hesso- Darmstadt, Holstein, Luxemburg, each three; Brunswick, X X 674 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P*w III Mecklenburg-Schivfrin, Nassau, each twos al' I'le rest, Saxe* Weimar, SaKv-tioiha. 1 Coburg, Saxc-Mciniiigen, Saxc-Hildeburghausen, Mecklenburg- Streliti, HoliieliMJii"^ burg, AnhaluDessau, Anhalt-Bamburg, Anhalt- Kbthen, Schwartaburg-Soiidurihu 7' Schwartzburg-Itudolstadt, Hohenzollcrn-Hcchingen, Lichtenstein, Holieniollwn-SliHn i'"' gen, Waldeck, Ileussold and new, Schaumburg.Lippe, Lippe-Detmold, HuMe-Huinl" '" foreign sovereigns, who have a Lubeck, Frankfort, Bremen, Hamburg, have each only one. Several of thene htilon a vote in virtue of territories which they hold h) Oenniui'" matters relating to those territories ; as the khig of (J / Britain for Hanover, the king of Holland for Luxemburg, the king of Denmark'T' Holstein. The full assembly of the Diet resolves itself into a smaller asavinhly or •' mittee of seventeen, in which only the great powers have each a vote, and tliu oilier vm!" are res|>ectively assigned to two, three, or four of the smaller powers united. Tlilti pii ^' mittee prepares all the business of the full Diet, and puts it in a form to be voted uiion, Til sittings of the Diet are perpetual, though, when all their business is disposed of, tlivy inn ' allow tlicmselves a vacation of not more than four months. ' 2841. TIte emperor of Austria no longer claims his ancient prerogatives as emperor nf Germany, of which title he was divested by Napoleon ; he professes himself only ,„.,., inter pares I but he is president of the Diet, and submits to it the subjects on wliiuli it \"!1 deliberate. He cannot, however, withhold propositions made by any other mcmU'rH Imi must bring them forward in proper time and place. He has also a casting vote in the I'ani. mittee. There being no longer an emperor, the functions of the nine vleclors Iii)v« croiieil ' SuBSECT. 2. Tlie Austrian Umpire, 2842. T/ie empire of Austria is not only the first power in Germany, but by its posneiiiiioin, both within and without, it has long ranked among the foremost st.ites in the gonernl NViitdii of Europe. By the last war, indeed, it lost the Netherlands, a rich and important territiirv though too much detached from the rest. But by means, lawful or unlawful, it olilu|ii|i|| accessions which were nearly an equivalent; and its possessions are now furniud iiitii u \m connected dominion in the centre of Europe. In Germany, they comprise Upiivr iiiid Lower Austria, Bohemia, Moravia, with the Alpine regions of Styria, Curiiitliiii, niul ilm Tyrol ; in Poland several provinces, which have been wrested by successive partitinnn, mi to which it gives the name of Gallicia; the entire kingdom of Hungary! nnil, in liiilv Venice, Milan, Mantua, and other territories, which have been united under the iinme of ll'iii Lombardo- Venetian kingdom. The German territories, with Hungary, are known umivr the appellation of "the Hereditary States." The Austrian monnrchy is huuiuied on llm east by those of Turkey and Russia ; on the north by those of Prussia and Suxony ; un lli« west chiefly by Bavaria, Switzerland, and Piedmont ; on the south by Tuscany mill i|i« Ecclesiastical States. The whole territory amounts, according to Liclitunt,tein, to 'JdH.Jflil square miles. The number of inh.tbitants, in 1815, was reckoned by Ithiincnlmdi « 38,182,336 ; by Lichtenstein at 2?,C17,500. 2843. The following is Professor Rohrer's estim,itc of the extent and population in \i% to which we add the population according to recent information. Square Populallon. .,«^aj,hicM Cities. Towns. Villain. Houses. Loiiibardy • 18116. I'retent, alioul 17,892 42 281 5,401 542,543 4,237,301 4,lillll,IHill Dalmntia - - \7*9 89 14 !I88 49,175 323,112 31111,11110 Tyrol Ilfyria 10,845 21 32 1,.V)8 98,68!) 789,835 9IMI,lllHI 10,'JIS .54 57 6,848 167,012 1,121.240 l,»'lll,IKNI Styria 8,388 20 96 1''39 163,0.50 824,.'i05 UII(I,(I(HI Austria ;H,88l M 3.'i2 ■6 274,997 2,008,970 2,2.'in,llllll Kohcmia - - 20,013 286 275 'J 641,074 3,698,506 4,IIIHI,IIIHI Moravia - 10,112 119 178 288,905 1,968 J 13 4,293?n8 2,|.'ill,IKWI Gallicia 32,508 95 194 i 633,709 4,.MII),lllin HuiiKary - 100,636 62 644 1 ■ i 1,026,007 9,471,263 m.lKNI.IMIU Transylvania - J 23,288 13 64 9,566 2.'>6,629 2,000,015 2,IHMI,(llHI 1 1 Military Frontier 121 13 715 89,699 907.:';; l,i(y'(HKl 1 1 1 2M,29G 785 2200 73,075 4,131,959 3i,u.-: Ml 3-l,(HJ. nians; 4,000,000 Magyars, the ruling people in Hungary ; 4,.5OO,O00 Itiillnns; Ik rest Wallachians, Jews, gipsies, Greeks, and Armenians. In regard tii religiuiii uIhwI 27,800,000 are Roman c.itholics; 3,000,000 Greeks; 2,200,000 Protcstnnttt j 130,000 Jews. If we except the mountain borders, the whole empire enjoys the happiest e\mU, and is fitted to produce corn, wine, silk, and other valuable articles in the liiitli"! j perfection. Except, however, Lombardy, part of Bohemia and Silesia, and tlie Al|w i tracts, cultivation is nowhere carried to the height of which it is susceptilile, M \ P*»T III «f-Ooih«, Said. HoUiuin-Oldvn. !-8oiidor«h«iiinin, ollvrn-SI|{marln. tle»«e-Hum\nirg, f these hvlouK <•■ loUl In Oennimy, )e king of (irt'iii of Uenmnrk kv oaaumldy or I'oin. id the utiivr vuivi lited. Tlilo mw' voted upon. Th« wed of, tliey \m) 'en nit emperor iil' nsclf only pinim s on wliifli It 1h tu iliur mcnilH'rH, hui g vote In the conw ctors Imve smm\. It liy its poHiie«»ion», II the gi'ncrftl nyittm iinportnnt tei'i'itiiry, ilawtuli it olituliii'il fornic- IMiiiiiMit nrc estimated at 54,000,000. The debt is estimated by Malchus at 76 to 80 itilllliiiis, mill the government paper at about 5 millions. 1|H,W, The Austrian military eitablishnent consists, in peace, of 286,000 men : 1 96,000 infaii- 11), '1.1,000 cnvnlry, 31,000 artillery, engineers, poineers, 14,000 guards, &c. Tliese are aug- iiK'liti'd in wiir bv the militia, called the /anrfweAr ; which in 18llwere, fur Bohemia, 21,590; Miiniviii nnd Silicia, 11,770; Austrian circles, 10,000; Styria and Clagenfurt, 6,650; mill for Oullii'in, 21,500; making in all, 71,510; but they are now supposed 100,000, mill, with niidltiuns to the regular legions, form an extra force of 214,000 men, Besides lliw, tlii'rc is the Hungarian levy, called often the insurrection levy, led by the nobles, who III lilt' wvi'ii yonrs' war replaced Maria Theresa on the throne, f nd who in the last war re- jK'iili'illy ciiiiie forward in great force. In 1797 they mustered 35,000 foot and 18,000 horse. .Vintrlii Inn nil excellent body of cavalry, both of heavy dragoons for charging in the field, iiiiil uf li)(lit irregular bands of Croats, I'andours, and other tribes from the military frontier. Kwli ri'Klmunt, except the Iluiigariuii and Transylvanian, bus assigned to it a district of li'wii !l(X>iOOO to 6tK),000 inhabitants, out of which to recruit, each man from the age of IN to S)7 being obliged to serve in the army, and till the age of 50 in the landwehr. 'ITiere i» nil I'ttnlillNlimeiit of 8 field marshals and 239 inferior general officers. X X 2 vn DESCUIPTIVE GEOGllAPHY. Paht mi. S851. Though a maritinte Jbrce is ill suited to the situation of Austria, yet she has fonneU a small navy at Venice, consisting of three ships of the line, two frigates, and twenty.four •loops ; and she maintains an armed flotilla on the Danube. SuBSECT. 3. Kingdom of Pruttia. 2852. The kingdom of Prussia, which at the beginning of the last century had neither name nor place among the states of Europe, has by rapid advances bicomc one of its most powerful monarchies. The basis was formed by (he territory of Brandenburg, the ruler of which ranked as elector, and was one of the chivf of the second-rate princes of the empire About the begiiming of the seventeenth century, the elector acquired the Grand Duchy of Prussia, a territory held for some time by the knights of the Teutonic order, who beini! unsuccessful against the Turks in Palestine, turned their eiTorts to the conversion and con- quest of the northern borders of Europe. The united state, however, did not iniike any great figure till the middle of the seventeenth century, when Frederick I. not unly assumed the title of king, but spent his life in forming an army, and raising its discipline to the highest pitch. This army devolved on his son, the great Frederick, whose durinir and enterprising spirit was not lung of employing it in the extension of the monarchy. From the house of Austria he wrested Silesia, one of the finest of its provinces. By the partition of Poland, an iniquitous proceeding, in which he seconded Catherine, he not only extended, but connected together, many of his scattered possessions. In 180G, the battle of Jena seemed to have fur ever prostrated the monarchy ; but the disastrous campaign of the French in Russia, and subsequently the patriotic and universal rising of the people completely expelled the usurping power, and not only re-established the kingdom in its ancient rights and possessions, but acquired several new provinces. 2853. The parts of the Prussian monarchy are so various and detached, that it is difficult to connect them under any general view. In Germany, she has the entire territory of Brandenburg, by far the greater part of Silesia, and Pomerania, of which Sweden is now entirely stripped. Her Saxon possessions consist of Magdeburg, Mersehurg, and Erfurt, In Westphalia, she has Minden, Milnster, and Arensberg ; on the Hhine, Diisseldorf Cologne, Cloves, Coblentz, and Triers. East of Germany, she has the duchies of East and West Prussia, from which she takes her name. In Switzerland, she has the princi- pality of Neufchatel ; and in Poland that of Posen. The two Prussias, with Posen and the eastern German provinces, fonn nearly a connected territory, which comprises the main body of the monarchy. The Westphalian and Rhenish provinces form a detached western portion, separated from the rest by Hanover, Hesse, and Saxony. 3854. The following it a statement of the extent of the different parts of the Prussian monarchy, with its population, according to enumerations made in 1827 and in 18,'M. Supposing the number to increase at the same rate, it must by this time somewhat exceed Iburteen millions. C-ut Prussia West Prussia Posen Pomerania Brandenburg Silesia Saxony . Wtfitphalia Rhenish pro- vinces . . ■{ ■1 T Knnigsbcrg numl)inncn Uantzig - • Maricnwerdcr Posen Bromberg - Stettin Kolin Stralsund Berlin and Potsdam Fraiiklbrt Breslau 0|ipeln Iteichenbach* . Lignitz Magdeburg Merseburg Krfurt Munstcr Mii!dcn Arensberg Cologne Uusseldorf Coblentz Trfves Aix la Chapelle Keutchitel (iermaii Square Population. I)C,7. 4(U'(IS S07"87 150-80 31506 327'« 21107 23313 S.78'49 74-89 . 371-53 172-73 S38-4;? 120-46 188-40 S04-70 187-01 66-23 128-63 9'l-73 1*3-70 61-77 95 (i6 126-87 66-55 13-95 4,934-87 702,100) 408,440 f 525,8681 446,7093 720,112) 331,025] 409,992) 312,710 J 147,3563 855,670 } 6iil,333] 93u,1941 679,601 f 751,1543 539,807 J 581,059 ( 275,374 i 388,S98l 382,108 5 439.7063 377,451 675,- 409, 361 3*4;317 52,800 18.-VI. 12,605,078 13,566,0'» 2,073,378 l,120,6t.8 941,1113 1,651,520 2,547,579 1,490.583 1,292.51)6 2,.'!92,743 56,000 * Lately merged into the other Siletlan diitrictt. Book !• GERMANY. en 2(55. The productlont of this large territory are aa various ns its constituent parts. Accord* inilo HofTinann, the total area is 107,765,000 Magdeburg acres. Of these, 42,7fi7,000 are awble; 4:Vi.000 garden ground; 54,000 vineyard; 20,436,000 pasturage; 25,754,000 woods; 18,:<3i2,000 rock, water, and waste. The annual revenue derived trom it is calcu- ,j,jj 1^ follows : arable, 50,656,000 rix-dollars; pasturage, 19,652,000; woods, 6,500,000; mrdens, 2,782,000; wines, 300,000; fishery, 749,000; hunting, 74.5,000; in all, 5l :)o;,000 rix-dollars. The capital value is estimated at 2,032,600,000 rix-dollars. IViissis is not, on the whole, a manufacturing country, though the linen» of Silesia are lijirhly distinguished ; its woollen manufacture is also extensive, and Berlin has some line fabrics uf glass and porcelain. In 1805, the whole manufactures of Prussia were valued cnvmy, being occupied solely in maintaining internal peace and security, 2861. A maritime foret has never been an object of attention in IVuhvIh, thuiigli ulig pn«. sessen a considerable extent of sea-coast. SuBSKCT. 4. Smiiller Statet. 28(>2. Tht numerous ttatrt into which the German confederntinn U divldoti Imve nil in. ternal arrangements peculiar to themselves. Only the eonatitutiou of lliu niiiNt JMilIng states will here be delineated, leaving any peculiarities in the minor aww to In* iiotlcud in the next section. 2863. Bavaria very long ranked as the second state in UerTniiny | she wiin oiirn tlic mic. cessful rival of Austria, and as such beheld her princes seated on tlio iiniivrtHl lhrnti«, Napoleon, in the view of employing the elector against the ho\iso of lliipsliiirg, gnnily huk^ mented his dominions, and invested him with the title of king. As hu rult'd lilio, liiiwwtr, with a rod of iron, the new king seized the first opportunity of Joining tliv iHMid'dvrncv •gainst the French emperor ; in virtue of which, though obliged tii rvNturo thi» Tyrol iinil .^Itzburg to Austria, he received elsewhere an ample compensation, llitvnrin now jiiiNHitH'* a territory of 1437 German, or al passed, no new tax imposed, without having first been Totcd by tliein, TIk< rcvvmiv of Bavaria amounted, in 1830, to 29,200,000 florins (3,050,000/.), of whii'h ,t,H(MI, IW rtiadit and bridges; 750,000 for public instruction; 1,240,000 for ministry of the intvrlor) l,70H,()(IU for justice; 152,000 for public health; pen<'ions, 4,500,000; public di infantry of the line, and 7334 light infantry ; 6408 cavalry ; 3357 artillery, TIh'I'v la idin a reserve to fill up the ranks of the regular army, and a landwehr for iniernul dt'lViU'v, 2865. Saxony always ranked as one of the most powerful of the Ui'nnitii t'li'Vliirak'*, until the ascendency gained by Prussia, The elector of Saxony receivett fi'oni NiiimliHin not only the title of king, but an addition of territory doubling that which ho loniU'rly |iaii- sessed. He adhered to the last to that once powerful benefactor, on whoso llill lu< \vni nut iiiily stripped of all the newly acquired territories, but obliged to surrender soino of I1I1 rurinit possessions. The extent of his present dominions is only 7276 square iniWs) lull llie|iu. pulation being very dense, amounts to 1,595,668 inhabitants. The goverilinvilt In nut i|iuli' absolute, but has old feudal states, which must concur in the making of Ihwn unit tliv iiii|Hi- sition of taxes. As they represent, however, only the privileged orders nnd tlio «'ol|ioi'iitliHi«i the peasantry and small proprietors are entirely thrown out, and have to bii»r nil inii'iiuiil share of the public burdens. The revenue is now computed at 11,000,0(X) Hoi'iim i till? tli'lit 36,000,000. The army, which in 1813 contained 37,000 troops, is now rcilllViiil to U),U00i with a reserve, however, of the young men, between the ages of eighteen and tlilrly*0H«, who may be called upon to recruit its ranks. 2866. Wirtemberg, originally a secondary German state, owed its aggrniullfivilll'llt mill l>* kingly rank to Napoleon, and has been allowed to retain both. It contHlim 1W^ Mjiiniv miles, with a population, in 1835, of 1,631, 770. Wirtembcrg has tukeii tlivlviulainoHilllil Book L GERMANY. 879 conntitutiuiwl itatfsi of Germany. On the Hdof May, 1817, the king granted a ciwrtcr, by which ihv alatcs, composed of two chambcm, the nobles and the commons, are to be ■»• K'nibli'd every two years, and to possess all the privileges enjoyed under the best regulated limited monurcliies. The king has a revenue of 9,224,000 florins, which somewhat exceeds the expenditure, but is burdened with a debt of 27,000,000. He mainuins an army o» h'lOOO infantry, a600 cavalry, akid 2500 artillery. 'J867. The ether principal states belong to monarchies out of Germany, of which they are only appendages. •2mn. Hanover, on the accession of its elector to the throne of Great Dritain in 1714, saw this title and that of Brunswick-Luneburg merged in the greater name conveyed by this inheritance. It has always, however, been held as politically a foreign country. The llanuverian has not the rights of a Briton, nor the Briton tliose of a Hanoverian. Britain limy make war with all the world, and Hanover remain in profound peace. The converse (if this proposition has not been found practically true, and Hanover has frequently drawn tliis country into the vortex of continental war and policy. The kingdom of Hanover has an extent of 15,180 square miles, and a population of 1,550,000. There arc provincial utatrs in its several districts, and also a general assembly of the states, which shares with the wvereign tlie power of making laws and imposing taxes. The elections to the lower chamber, however, are made by the magistrates, who are themselvea often elected in a man- ner independent of the citizens. The revenue is 10,800,000 florins, with a debt of ■J6,000,0OO, whic causes an annual expense of 1,200,000. The army consists of 12,940 men, of wlioin about a third are cavalry ; besides a landus. 'I'liis amount* to only one half of what Hungary, and one sixth of what I'r ItnMlticus. It does not obviate the necessity of an extensive importation from Fra'"? Hpaiii, and Hungary, The wine made on the £ll>e and the Oder is of little usv vt "^ ' for vinegar. ' "''" VH74. fn tM/Mtft In live liock, the peculiar eminence of Germany consists in tlie iioif i f which Ilassi'l cninputi's that 8,000,000 are annually slaughtered. Pork is, iiickud || . moat favourite fnoi any ship touch at the northern ports without taking in a stock of tlusu German (uppltes. Horned cattle also form the chief branch of rural industry in tin- muuimUnaii dislricls of the south, Ilavario, Swabia, and the Tyrol. In the great northern plain thev are iinimI chivllv for labour, except in East Friesland, Holstein, and other manhy tracts whoni tlicy yield milk more abundantly than the hill-cows of the south, but it is >>( Inl'erior quiility. Cattle are imported from Poland and Hungary, but not nearly to such extent as the snltcd and dried meat exported to otiier countries. Hassel estimates the collective ninnlter of the oxen, cows, and cnlves of Germany at from 1 '.',000,000 to 14,oooooo According to |iositivu enumerations, excluding calves, the proportions are, for Austria! y,«lXVKX>j Prussia on this side the Elbe, 1,!128,00O; Saxony, 710,000; Westnlialia! ,10H,(XK) [ Wirtcniberg, ri00,000 ; Baden, 3;)3,000 ; besides a great part of the empire in which no account has been taken. Germany is supposed to contain nearly 2,00()0()0 hintoN, which are not handsrme, but well-built, strong, and useful. They are'|)ai'iicularly adaptvi' for heavy dragoons, and for that purpose are sent into France and the Netherlands' but the German states cannot keep up their light cavalry without iniportatloM from the w»stern cotintries. Sheep ore numerous, not in the southern, but diiefly in the middle Mates, ns Silesia and Saxony. The wool has been so mucli improved by crosses with merino and other breeds, as to have superseded the importation of S|>auish wo(d, and even to have, in n great measure, supplanted it in tlie British market. There arc sniipused to Ih> 'JOiOtX^OOO sheep in Germany. Prussia numbered 3,768,000 after a war wliich had diminished her flocks by a full third. Becs'-wax and honey were a great ancient staple conunmlity of Germany ; but since sugar has been introduced, and the Reformation, by diminishing the consumption of candles in churches, has reduced tlie demand tor wax, this staple has greatly fallen ; yet Lusatia, I^uneburg, and some other districts, produce man than is wanted for Germany itself. a87.'5. The /w.iM of Oermany are very nolile, and are supposed to cover not less than a third «if its suVfaco. 'They are of every description, and for every use. It is complained, however, that, of late years, great neglect, combined with profuse consumption of wood, either for luxury or maiuifacture, has considerably diminished the abundance of tliis article, which has risen in many |)laccs to six, eight, or even ten times its former price. Still a great quantitv is carrieil down the rivers to the Netherlands and Britain, and pot and pearl aslws are nuule in the forests. Recently, the German princes, considering that the mines and many of the manufactures absolutely depend on a supply of wood, have made regula- tions to prevent its wanton consumption, and to ensure fresh plantations. Tliey have even formed institutions, and founded lectures in the universities, for teaching the management and promoting tlic growth of wood ; so that there is, perhaps, no country in which so much is done for securing to posterity a supply of this valuable article. 'J87(!, In mnnufachires, Germany docs not retain that prominent place which she once heldi Formerly tiie Hansc towns clothed all the north ; but since the sjiirit of industry has been awakened, first in Holland, then in P"y that of Great Britain. Her cotton fabrics, as already observed, have nearly fallen to the ground, and her manufacture of silk was never considerable. The following may be enumerated as minor articles : — sugar-refinery, wax, oil, musical and mathematical instruments, clocks, watches, and woodworit toys, Tlio German mechanics are usually formed into corporations, and are very skilful, holding the next rank to thote of England. In cutlery they claim the pre-eminence. ii~S, Milling is one of the sources of wealth in which Germany may be said to surpass every country in Europe. Nowhere has the science of mining been more studied, or hrought to greater perfection. Metals and minerals are produced in remarkable variety ; gold; silver, not very abundant, but superior to that of the other European countries, at least if Hungary be included ; mercury and cobnlt, also superior ; iron, more abimdant, and of better quality, than that of any other country, except Sweden ; lead and tin, unrivalled, except in Great Britain ; h profusion of salt ond cool. The |)rliicipal mining ilistricis are Styria and Curinthia, Silesia, the Erzgebirgc in Saxony, the Ilartz in Hanover. The entire products of Gennan mining have been thus estimated: — gold, 18'J marks; silver, 12,1,0(X) murks; copper, 39,000 cwt. ; lead, 191,200 cwt. j tin, 7980 cwt. ; iron, •.^^00,000 cwt,; mercury and cinnabar, 13,980 cwt.; cobalt, 16,500 cwt.; calamine, 8'.',8(X) cwt,; arsenic, 10,600 cwt.; bismuth, 1500 cwt.; antimony, 2,400 cwt.; man. ganesc, IHOO cwt. ; salt, .3,150,000 cwt. ; coal, 20,000,000 cwt. '.'S79. The commerce of Germany, though extensive, is not equal to that which formerly existed, or tu the advantages arising from her situation in the heart of Europe and of the civilised world. She was, after Italy, the first European country in which commerce revived; nnd the Hanseatic league once engrossed the whole trade of the north. In recent limes, Germany has been outstripped ,by Holland, by Britain, and even by France. The Gennan writers ascribe this decay to the want of unity consequent on the number of little states into which their country is split, which deprives its ships of a national flag, and of a powerful protection while navigating remote seas. Their shipping is chiefly confined to 11,'unburgli, Lulieck, and Bremen, the remnant of the Ilanse towns. Her political disunion has been especially injurious to her internal trade, which would otherwise be immense. Each petty prince laid imder contribution the commerce passing through his terri- tory. A boat which performed the whole navigation of the Uhinc paid toll at twenty- seven stations : on the Wcscr, twenty-three ; on the Elbe thirty-two. Prussia, however, h.'is succeeded in forming an extensive commercial league, entbracing Bavaria, Saxony, Wirtemburg, Hesse, and other smaller states, containing in all a population of twenty-five millions, llirougliout all these, free transit is allowed under some trifling restrictions. 'llie duties on foreign goods are uniform, but somewhat heavy ; and being imposed per quintal or hundred weight, without regard to fineness, arc almost prohibitory against coarse manufactures; being for cottons, 7/. 10«. ; hardware, toys, earthenware, W. 10*.; woollens, \l lOj. 2880. The txportt of Germany include grain ; salted provisions, especially hams ; live cattle and hogs ; wool ; timber ; iron, steel, lead, salt, linen, linen yarns and rags ; some woollens to the north of Europe ; porcelain, glass, ashes. In return she receives the manufacturer of Britain, the wines of France, the sweets and iiromatics cf tba East and West; also dye- stuffs, and all the cotton and silk which are necessary for htr own manufactures. The exports from Britain in 1834 were officially eatimnted at 10,4.'>4,(X)0/. ; the imports at 1,43H,0(10/, Of the I'ormer, tlie chief articles were, books, value ll,4(Mi/. j brass and copper, W.OOO/. ; coals, lfi,(l(Xl/. ; cottons, 37,»00,(K)0 yards, &c., value 1,I7'J,000/.; twist anu yarn, 31,«K),0001bs., value l,tT.O,0«0/. ; carthcn- tare and glass, 27,000/. ; herrinps, 1H,.'>(K)/. ; linens, 24,00(1/.; y.irii, 20,000/. ; refined sunar, OK.OOO/. ; tin wares, 15,000/.; woollens, 084,000/, ; yarn, 221 ,0(X)/. ; gums, 203,0001bs.; iniligo, 14,920>i001bs. ; pepper, l,il''l,0«X>l'as. ; pimento, 1,342,000 lbs. ; Indian silks, 18,00(1 pieces ; nnn, 104,01 galluiis ; wine, 30,000 gallons ; cotton, 11,225,(10(1 lbs. In the same yo.-ir, Uie chief imports Into llritain were 72,030 cwts. bark ; G4,(i32 cwts. butter; 1(10,200 quarters wheat; 97,600 cwts. fiour; (il,000 quarters other grain; 70,000 peas and beans: cottons, viUue 4-l,(X»;. ; hides, 26,000 cwts.; linen, 36,000 pieces and 78,(l(K) yards ; seeds, clover, flax, and """ "" "' ■ ■ 144,000; »pi Iter, !j.">,000 cwt. ; wool, 31,766,000 lbs. ; wine, 30,900 rape, 2C.5,0O0 bushels ; go.it and lamb skins, \ gallons. This trade is ctrried on chieHy by _^ Hamburg, and toaamaller extent by Uremeo; the cue com- manding the navigation of the Elbe, tlie other of the Weser. tms DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAl'HY. Part III, 2881. The internal commerce of CkrinaHy, notwithstanding all tlio obstrtictions under which it labours, is extensive. It owes this advantage chiefly to its noble rivers, on which vessels of large burden can pass nearly from one extremity to the other. TI12 Danulic though the largest, and of longest course, is not the most beneficial. Its navigation is so difficult that vessels cannot make use of the sail, and must be dragged along by horses - rapids and cataracts obstruct it in several places ; and its tributaries, the Inn and the Ens' descend only from the rugged heights of Styria and the T}rrol. It has a triple navivaliun' the ships of Ulm unlading their goods at Uatisbon, those of Ratisbon at Vienna, wlience tney are carried downwards through Hungary. The Rhine has a much more valuable navig.ition, continued from Switzerland to Holland and the Netherlands, and communi. eating by its great tributaries with tlie most fertile territories and the most industrious cities ill the interior of Germany. It has of late been greatly facilitated by the employment of steam- vessels, which go up as far as Strasburg. The navigation of the Elbe is also very valuable. It begins at the junction of the river with the Moldau in the interior of Doliemia and constantly improves, till at Hamburg the Elbe is capable of receiving the largest vessels.' liy means of the Spree and its canal, it communicates with the Oder, and brings down to Hamburg tlie productions of Silesia and Brandenburg. The commerce of the Oder itself flows chiefly in this channel. The Westphalian streams of the Weser and the Ems, thougli not of flrst-rate magnitude, are very commercial, giving support at their mouths to tlie ports of Bremen and Emden. The system of annual fairs for internal trade is still kept up in Germany to a much greater extent than in any other country. The grand fairs are those of Frankfort on the Main, for France and the Netherlands ; Leipzig, for Russia, Poland and the North ; and also fur the book trade ; Bautzen, or Bolzano, for Italy. There are smaller fairs at Naumburg, Cassel, and Magdeburg; and a most extensive trade esists without fairs at Vienna, Augsburg, Nuremberg, Berlin, Cologne, and Breslau. Through these different channels is carried on an extensive interior trade, and a great foreign land. trade to Russia, Poland, Hungary, Italy, Switzerland, France, and the Netherlands, i2882. Canals have not been extensively introduced to improve the interior trade of Germany, though no country affords greater scope for them ; as, by joining the Danube, the Rhine, and the Elbe, the most distant seas of Europe might be made to communicate. To such undertakings, indeed, the disunited state of the empire must be a great discourage- ment. A few only have been executed on a small scale, and chiefly in the north. Such are the Holstein canal, which joins the Eyder to the Baltic, and opens a communication l)ctween it and the North Sea ; the Plaunsche canal, from the Havel to the Elbe, serving, with Frederick- William's canal from the Spree to the Oder, to connect the two great r- crs of northern Germany, the Oder and the IHbe. The Vienna canal, completed to Noustacll, is intended to connect the Danube with the Adriatic. SiCT. VI. Civil and Social Slate. 2883. The population of Germany, according to official data collected in 1818 by the Diet, amounted to .')0,37.5',C79. The enumerations since made have generally exhibited a certain increase; and in IS.SO, a careful estimate, in the Bulletin VniverseU from the works of Crome, Mold, &c. rates it at ."}4,393,O0O. They inhabit 2433 cities, 2071 market towns, and 88,619 villages and farms, independently of single houses. Germany has no great capital, like France and England, in which the wealth, power, and civilisation of the state are as it were concentrated. On the other hand, no country in Europe has so many cities and towns of from 3000 to 5000 inhabitants. 2884. The people who inhabit Germany are distinguished into two races, the German and Sclavonian. The Germans are estimated at 24,700,000, and are divided into two families, High and Low German, distinguished less by physical differences, than by character, and particularly by the mode of pronouncing the language. The High Germans inhabit most of the territory south of the Hartz and its branches. Upper Saxony, Franconia, the Rhine, Swabia, Bavaria, all the Austrian dominions, and Silesia. The Low Germans arc in Lower Saxony, Westphalia, Holstein, Mecklenburg, Brandenburg, and Pomcrania, The Scla- vonic races are reckoned at 5,040,000, and constitute the greater part of the popidation in Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia. They are much inferior in civilisation to the Germans hut are a laborious race, formerly almost all in a state of bondage, hut now mostly eman' cipated, and many of them possessing considerable wealth. Besides these leading races, there are about 175,000 Italians; from 20,000 to 25,000 French, and 2,50,000 Jews. 2885. The social state in Germany exhibits two very distinct portions, not running into, or blending with each other, as in most of the civilised modern states. The class of noble liirtli hold themselves as separated by the most marked and decided line from the body of the nation. They have divided themselves into high and low nobility. The high nobles arc those who eithei possess sovereign sway, or are descended from those who did, and are called mediatised princes. The low, or feudatory nobles, arc those who cannot boast thai any sovereign power ever resided in their family. Tliere is another distinction, tliatofihf ft Book I' old nobility, who 1 or short nobility. OT as imperial citi nobles. The pett habits, and tlieir co the polish and eleg they have prodiicec and that tlieir sway the body of the hardest-working na have always been ( habits are simple ittiuns. Rigidly 1 homely ; and Germt Yet their poetry ir feeling and high the universal taste military; a quality! been the theatre of i sounds," says Mr, the ringing of iron I character is said to 1 288fi, In regard I modern times. In i iDDst formidable of the other finally prev the country. Speak protestant. Of the protestant, in Prussi *hcre granted to eve 18,000,000, the Pro and some smaller sec '.'887. In literatim perhaps the most lei character of hard at other departments. want some of the ligh biblical criticism, anc them; and since, in medicine, Haller ani triumph over them in made a great moven followers almost as d( only faint glimpses ol think, with Madame < metaphysicians. TIm Wn, seems proved b dare not add the profi itptury, Germany ha( guage and genius wei however, Klopstock, '. poetical names, and iiiaile a strong sensati liberation have been s sketch, forget Hiimbc modem travellers, 2888. The inttituti thieflearned societie the impulse of a natio London. The univei } «'e catholic ; that of ' Lanishut, 640 ; Frey |«'th60,') students; 1 •'22 1 Giesseii, 241 ; ] I 'liere are two of di\ i I'M ■100; in all. twc 'nstruction is given, t Biio(I< GERMANY. 683 old nobilitVi who must be able to count a line of sixteen noble ancestorsi and of the young or short nobility. The cities, too, especially those that once ranked either as Hanse towns or as imperial cities, contain a class enjoying hereditary distinction a- patricians or city i^les. Tlie petty princes and great nobles of Germany thus retain much of the feudal habits, and tlieir courts display rather rude baronial pride, and forms of empty pomp, than the polish and elegance of the great European courts. It must be owned, however, that they have produced many individuals of the greatest ability and most enlightened minds , anJthat tlieir sway, though lofty, is generally mild, and even popular. The character of ihe body of the German people, has many estimable features. They are, perhaps, the liardest-working nation in Europe ; slow, heavy, and laborious ; and, through these qualities, ha\e always been esteemed the most valuable colonists in newly settled districts. Their habits are simple and domestic ; and plain honesty and fidelity usually mark their trans- artiuns, Rigidly excluded from court intercourse, their manners are somewhat plain and homely; and German wit, according to Madame de Staiil, is the dullest of all possible things. Vi't thi'ir poetry makes it evident that under this outward crust there is a vein of deep faling and high fancy ; partaking, indeed, too largely of mysticism ; but we may add the universal taste for the highest class of music. The character of the Germans is very military ; a quality derived from their feudal ancestors, and partly from their country having been the theatre of all the great wars which have been waged in Europe. " The common sounds," says Mr. Sherer, " in the cities of Germany are the clangor of military bands, the ringing of iron boot-heels, and the measured tread of stately soldiers : " hence the military character is said to rank higher there than in the neighbouring countries. :.>88G. In regard to religion, Germany has been the scene of the greatest revolution in modern times. In its bosom the Reformation sprung up ; and within it were carried on the most fonnidable of the conflicts between the old and the new system. Elsewhere, one or the other finally prevailed ; but in Germany they have settled into a pretty equal division of the country. Speaking generally, the whole south may be called catholic ; the whole north, jinitestant. Of the greater states, the catholic religion rules in Austria and Bavaria; the jirotestant, in Prussia, Saxony, Hesse, and Hanover. A complete toleration is now every where granted to every profession. The Catholics still hold the majority, being reckoned at 18,000,000, the Protestants only at 12,000,000. Jews, Moravians, Mennonitcs, Hussites, and some smaller sects, make up the rest of the population. '2887. In literature and science, Gennany has been particularly distinguished, and is perhaps the most learned and reading country in the world. Her writers exhibit that character of hard and somewhat mechanical labour, which distinguishes her workmen in other departments. They are voluminous, and eminent for profound research ; while they want some of the lighter graces of composition. In editing and illustrating the classics, in biblical criticism, and in statistical researches, no nation can come into competition with tiiem; and since, in abstract science, they can name Leibnitz, Kepler, and Eulcr; in medicine, Haller and Van Swieten ; in mineralogy, Werner and Miihs, no nation can triumph over them in these pursuits. In the metaphysical world also they have recently made a great movement ; and Kant, Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel are ranked by their followers almost as demigods. We confess ourselves among those who are able to discover only faint glimpses of meaning in the works of these learned persons, and are inclined to think, with Madame de Staiil, that " the empire of the oir " has been the portion of German metaphysicians. Tliat accurate thinking is not the function which works best in the national brain, seems proved by the recent general prevalence of animal magnetism ; to which we ilare not add the profound sciences of cranioscopy and craniology. Till within the last half ecntury, Germany had no existence in regard to the belles-lettres, and the Teutonic lan- guage and genius were considered alien to every thing like fancy and poetry. Suddenly, however, Klopstock, Lessing, Wieland, Gfithe, Schiller, claimed a place among the first poetical names, and distinguished themselves by bold and lofty flights of genius, wliich Mile a strong sensation throughout Europe. More recently the exploits of the wai of liberation liave been sung in very lofty strains by Kilmer. We must not, even in this liasty sketch, forget Humboldt, who hos established his name as the most learned and eloquent of modem travellers. 2888, Tlie imtitutioni for the promotion of learning are very numerous in Germany. The chief learned societies are those of Munich, Berlin, Prague, and Giittingen ; but, wanting the impulse of a national metropolis, none of them vie in celebrity with those of Paris and London. The universities are very numerous and very distinguished. Only five ot them : «re catholic ; that of Vienna is attended by 1103 students; Prague, 879; Weisburg, 331 ; Landshut, 640 ; Freyburg, 837. There are thirteen protestant universities : Heiilelberg, «'th 60,1 students; Leipzig, 8Hd; RLstock, 100; Greilswaldc, 55 ; Marburg, 197; Jena, ;'22| GiL'sseii,241 ; Kiel, 107 ; Halle, J50; Giittingen, 760 ; Erlangen, 143; Beriin, 1752. liiere are two of divided religion ; Tiibingen, which lias 500 students ; and Bonn, which j has 400; in all, twenty universities, which in 1817 were attended by 10,481 students. Instruction is given, as in the Scottish universities, entirelv by lectures; the students Hv« in 684 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY Part III. the towns, and arc not subjected to any compulsory attendance on lectures; yettheva ' general diligent in their studies, but somewhat disorderly in their private conduct. l)u ir '" is practised in a systematic manner, and formed almost into a regular science ; hard drink'"^ is alleged to be "prevalent ; and an ardent, but somewhat irregular patriotism l^d'lgth^ formation of secret political associations, which, however, have been entirely suppressed I the German sovereigns. The lectures are public and private, of which the latter only a remunerated with fc^s, and are hence usually the most valuable. ^ 2889. There are also inslihilions called Lyceums, which are numerous, especially in Austria, where lectures are delivered, but no degrees conferred. Common schools are al sufficiently numerous ; and those for the instruction of the lower orders are so muitiDlir I that out of a thousand scarcely one will be found, it is said, who cannot read, or fifty ^u cannot write. In no country has education been more the object of study ; and the systems of Basedow, Salzmann, Pestalozzi, and Jahn have attracted general attention. 2890. The literary and scientific collections of Germany are the most numerous and valuable that exist in any country. The imperial library at Vienna contains t?00,(XX) printed volumes, 25,000 manuscripts, and about 70,000 pamphlets; that of Munich, 400 om volumes ; that of Giittingen, the most useful perhaps in the world, 280,000 volumes, juoo manuscripts, and about 110,000 pamphlets ; Dresden has 250,000 voliunes; Wulfenbiitiel has 190,000, including a rich store of ancient works, and 6000 bibles; Stutgard, ITOooo volumes, and 12,000 bibles. Berl nhasn00,000 volumes in her public libraries; of which the king's contains 160,000. Weimar, Prague, Frankfort on the Main, Hamburg, Brcslau Mentz, Darmstadt, have each about 100,000. Marburg, Gotha, Jena, and many of tlie smaller cities, have very considerable libraries ; and upon the whole it is calculated tliat in Germany four millions of volumes are accessible to the public. The cabinets of natural history, and especially of mineralogy, are numerous and valuable. The botanical garden of Schbnbrunn, near Vienna, and that of Gottingcn, are celebrated ; as are tlie observatories of Vienna, Berlin, and Gbttingen, The cabinet of medals at Vienna is the richest in Europe. 289 1 . The book trade of Germany, in unison with the general taste for reading, has reached an extent which equals, perhaps, that of all the rest of the world. The nation numlicrs about ten thousand authors, who not only produce original writings, but translate imme- diately every foreign work of any celebrity. The works thus produced are brought annuallv to the Easter fair at Leipzig, to be distributed among the booksellers of Germany, The new works annually produced amount to about 4000. The want of any literary metropolis where there could exist a permanent de|)ot seems to have occasioned this arrangcnunl, which appears in many respects cumbrous and inconvenient. 2892. ()f the fine arts, painting was very early and successfully cultivated in Gerraanv; though the works of Durer and Cranack have a rude ami Gothic character, compared wiih those of the great Italian masters. In recent times, none of her painters have ranked in the first class, certainly that honour cannot be assigned to Mengs and Dietricy. Yet lier princes have formed collections of i>aintings to which there is nothing equal out of Iiair, The Dresden gallery holds the foremost rank; after which may he named the Bclvidereat Vienna: the galleries of Munich, Berlin, Cassel, Augsburg, not to mention many private collections, especially at Vienna, which rival those of princes. To these are also atlached very extensive collections of drawings and engravings. Music is the rage all over the nation ; and the German composers, Haiulel, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Weber, and Spohr, seem almost to Imve eclipsed the masters of Italy. In almost every village a concert cf amateurs is to be found. Architectural genius has nut shone with very great lustre. Yen' splendid edifices have been reared in the great capitals, and in the free cities during the dajs of their glory ; but these have been chlcHy formed upon Italian models. Sculpture lias never risen above mediocrity. Engraving was early carried to great perfection by Allien Durer and others, called "the little masters," in a small and highly finished style; and in recent times, Frey, Wille, Schmidt, and Miiller have maintained the reputation of Ga- many on a level with that of any other country. 2893. Amusements, dress, food. The amusements of the Germans are rather of a more | gay and elegant description than their character would lead us to expect. We have ahead; noticed the extreme ardour witli which music is cultivated. Equally frequent is \k I kindred amusement of dancing. The waltz, the national German dance, has not ohtained I the approbation of tlic moralists of other countries, and indeed appears liable to semi objections ; yet Mr, Sherer assures us that in its native laiul, and performed in its geniiiiit style, it appeared to him sufficiently innocent. The dress of the Germans has now !ti distinctions from that which has become general over civilised Europe. The pomp of ami | among the Austrian and Hungarian nobles, and the blaze of jewels which tliey displii, i dazzle the other nations of Europe. In food, the Germans have some hard and liiisli | articles, which are national favourites ; ham, sausage, raw herring, sauer kraut, acid wint; and these they contrive to prepare in a manner which renders them agreeable to the paliloii I the neighbouring nations. Booil- GERMANY. b'83 Sect. VII. Local Ceograplii/. J894. Tlie details of German geonraphtf are of immense extent, and extremely intricate ; from the vast number of sovereignties, great and small, into which the empire has been split ; iIk manner in which those are intermingled with each other, and the numerous transferences of territory which have taken place. It must be confessed that some degree of sim- plilicatioD was effected by numerous arromlissemens made during the war of the French revolution, and the absorption of many of tlie minor powers into the domain of their greater neighbours. |)895. The tlwision into circles, made by Wenceslaus in 1 307, and by JVfaximilian in 1 500, witii reference to the different regions as parts of an elective empire, formed long the basis upon which every geographical description of Germany was founded. Its importance gradually declined, as Germany was broken up into entirely independent parts ; and since the empire iwlfhasbeen abolished, and the dignity of elector has ceased, the circles have no longer any political existence. Hence Hassel, in his recent description of Germany, has not even em- ployed them as a principle of division, but has distributed the different parts solely according to the princes who actually hold sway over them. Yet the circles hold so great a place in history, and are still so frequently mentioned as recognised portions of Germany, that it may be advantageous to take a rapid sketch of their contents. 289(i. (1.) ^"i'^io. (2.) Bohemia. [H.) Bavaria. The two first of these form the principal part of the hereditary dominions of the house of Austria ; the last includes those of Bava- na,»ith little or no intermixture. 2897. (4.) Swabia. This circle is distinguished by its grand and bold aspect, produced by tlie Black Forest, the bordering mountains of Switzerland, and the upper course of the Rhine and tlie Danube. The dukes of Swabia, who for some time held the empire, have long l)een extinct This circle comprises the kingdom of Wirtembcrg, the Grand Duchy ot Baden, and the great imperial cities of Augsburg and Ulm. 2898. (5.) Franconia. The dukes of Franconia, who once also ruled Germany, are nearly forgotten in that duchy. It has not been the seat of any considerable sovereign state, since the principalities of Anspach and Bayreuth were occupied by Prussia, who was obliged to cede them to Bavaria. This circle is chiefly distinguished by its great imperial cities, of vhicli the principal are those of Nuremberg and Frankfort on the Mayn ; the latter still re- taining its nominal freedom, and its extensive home trade. 2899. (6.) The circles of the Upper and Lower Rhine comprise the most fertile and beauti- ful portion of Germany, the choicest vineyards of which are on its hills. Since the fall of the elector palatine, from whom a great part of it was called the Palatinate, it has been split into various parts, and occupied to a great extent by powers without the circle. Hesse- Casseland Hesse- Darmstadt are considerable states, whose dominions lie chiefly within the Upjier Rhine ; while Prussia possesses the most valuable part of the Lower Rhine. This circle has been much distinguished by its sovereign bishops, those of Mentz, Treves, Cologne, IIBN> and the rural palace of Sclibnbrunn, from its fine gardens. The cathedral of St. Stephen (fig, 37.5.) is the largest church in Germany, and unites all that is lofty, imposing, and sublime in Gothic architecture. A colossal and equestrian monu- ment of Joseph II., by the German sculptor Zauner, adorns the square which bears that empe- ror's name. In other instances Austria has with- held this mark of gratitude from her great men : hence the relict of the great Marshal Laudohn, having placed a monument of him at his country scat, inscribed on it : — " Erected not by his country, not by his sovereign ; but by his widow." Vienna has a number of other churches that are highly ornamental, particularly that of St. Lorenzo (Ji/i. 376.), a Gothic structure of great elegance. By the census of 1815, Vienna was found to contain 7150 houses, in wliich were 50,749 families, and 2;j8,177 persons ; of whom 1 1 1 ,340 were male and 136,831 female. According to an official state- ment in 1829, the population was 289,785; 142,654 iiiji.c, and 147,137 female. It is now supposed 3.30,000. In 1810, 9,000,000 florins were paid fov house-rent, and the value of private houses was cstiniuted at 150,000,000. In 1815, the year's consumption for the city was thus stated :— 84,000 oxen, 93,000 calves; 70,000 sheep; 356,000 eimers of Austrian wine, 40,000 Hungarian, only 600 foreign; 571,000 eimers of beer; 3,210,000 bushels of grain. Vienna is the most manufacturing city in the monarchy. In 1811 there were 10,800 looms, and about 60,000 people employed on them. The tradesmen of Vienna are also reckoned the best in Germany. There are 6000 masters, 23,000 journeymen, 6000 J ^ ___ ^^^ ai)prentices, and 24,000 females employed. Shoes ilKiiH^hm^H^HH^^^K **'' Vienna manufacture are in request all over Germany. The city is also very commercial ; and the bustle in its streets is not equalled even in an English trading town. The art of cflecting a safe passage through them on foot, amid the crowd of carriages, hackney coaches, loaded waggons, and wheelbarrows, there being only a slight indication of foot-pavement, is said to remain a mystery even I for those who have had the most extensive London experience. The driving a coach ilirougli with speed and safety is an attainment which the most skilful coachmen from other citips cannot attain without very long practice. 2909. Vienna is not a literary city, and is perhaps the largest that exists without an I academy citlicr of science or belles lettres. Yet there are few that contain more exten- I m collcctiuns of books, paintings, and objects of natural history, both in the royal palaces 111(1 the houses of the nobles. The censorship of the press is maintained with the utmost rigour ; and the great object of the court seems to be, that nothing shall appear which can in the smallest degree reflect upon the imperial house or government. Mr. Russell even reports of the late emperor, that, when treating of some seminary of education, he ob- I served, " I do not want learned men ; I want men that will do what I bid them." The I drama in Vienna, as over all Germany, is a favourite amusement ; but none of the leading I dramatic writers belong to that city, which ranks, however, as the musical capital of Ger- I many, and even of the world. If some of those whose names distinguish its harmonic I annals were not native, at least they found there the patronage by which their exertions I irere txcitcd, and their talents developed. 2910. The manners of the people of Vienna are the subject only of qualified encomium. I Tiny are described as a more eating, drinking, good-natured, ill-educated, laughing, and llinspitable people, than any other of Germany, or perhaps of Europe. In regard to them- I selves, they are distinguished by a love of pleasure ; in regard to strangers, by great kind- Iness and hospitality. The pleasures of the table seem to be prized in a very especial I manner. The most profound skill is attributed to the cooks of Vienna ; and Dr. Townson [even expresses apprehension that a scarcity of the livers of geese, their favourite dish. CATUBDHAl. or ST. LOIlhNZU. 688 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. I •'*Ht 111. might endanger the tranquillity of the empire. The citizens are seen in crowded pitriloi ( pleasure on the ramparts, and in the fine wooded public walk called the Pratvr, Inii, ,? the city and the Danube. This eager pursuit of pleasure is unfurtunnti'ly nut idw ^'" confined within the bounds of innocence. The dancing balls, to wiiich pvrhoiiH of icrn and VVagram arc villages opposite to Vienna, only distinguibhed for tlio grtiit |i«|| I fought there in 18()9. guished for the baths, from which it derives it4 name, and which attract from UIIUU to MM uiiniiiil vUiin from Vienna. The springs, strongly impregnated with sulnhur and carbonic acid gas, are icmsliU'rcd ,111'? 1 in cutaneous diseases, and useful in many others. The bathers sit or walk for an hour considerable imperial manufactory of woollen. Wels, the capital of one of the circles, is snialli r, Imi iiirtiii on some trade. Steyer, at tha confluence of the Traun and the Steycr, is a very thriving plan', ll\ii iii|,i bitants of which have increased, since \Wo, from 7UIKI to 10,(X)0. It flouriishes by its ironwuiks nml liy ihn manufacture of various articles; also by that of mixed woollen and linen cloths. Hrauiiuii, a iimij im irery strong place, on t lie frontier stream of the Inn, has been considered the bulwark of the munarchVi lliouiih It did not, in any of the late wars, arrest the tide of invasion. ' 2914. Tlie bishopric of Saltzburg forms a detached district of Upper Auslrin, cpiltil (or a time to Bavaria, but restored at the peace of 1814. It is a completely alpine ri'){iuii, iinv, senting all the Swiss features of rocks, glaciers;, torrents, and mountains covered uiili eternal snow. The Noric and Rha-tian Alps approximate, leaving between iIimii iIic broad valley of the Salza, connected with many others, which present the uiunI bi, ;I77,) 377 ranks with the most pictiir('S(|ii« cities in Europe, being biilli on several irregular hills, with lli.i loftiest alpine suniniils lunirliiij behind. Its cdilices t'orn'K|iiinil altogether to the grunilciir of llw surrounding scenery. 'I'liu slrniiij castle, with the arseimi, the liliiliu|i'i palace, and the callieilnil, nri' liiill in tiie grandest style !>f iirvlillit. ture, and placed in ilic nioii lofty and commaiuling kiluiilloiii, Several other line liuilillngs vtw consumed by fire in I RI8, Siilli. Durg has a lyceum, with eleven professors; two libraries, containing together .%',IX>0 volumes, and a school of medicine. S915. Steyermark, which we call Styria, is a considerable inland territory, immediately to the iiiutli nl I > in Austria, once governed by its own dukes, but long since absorbed in the empire. It is diviiled iiitn 1|>m and Lower Styria : the former of which, being the western part, is altogether alpine ; while llic eailcni Jit tricis decline into lower mountains, then into gentle hills, and finally into almott a level plain, uii tlit> tHUiltii of Hungary. The mountains are not so elevated as those of Switzerland ; and though some gluiiiii riMii in the valleys throughout the summer, they do not regularly attain the limit of per|>etual snow. TliehltliM wo, the Grosienberg,8S8l feet ; the Eisenhut, Tbltij the Grimming, once accounted the loll Irtl, only m lALr/BURO. IlllOk t. GEllMANY. CH'J lclyti)tlu'touiliiil'li'»ii iho Siniiic AI|H<, 7141). The Mur, which croaies Styria from west to east, .nnd pastei through HiiiiKary into I Umiubp, In It litnnil and rapitl stream ; but its naviRatioii is to obstructed, that it is only useful Tor floating lii»ii llio timlii'r made into rafts, whicli arc often dashed to |>ieccs. The Uravc, the Save, the Kaal>, and the ill! wstcr iwrlicular parts of Styria. Of the .",8(K),0()O jochs of which it consists, alxiut 1,5()(),(H)0 are woodland ; IIWIUUI jinntiirv, feeding 4S,(XK) horses, 303,0(IU horned cattle, and I^.HOil (heep; only 558,000 arable i 'j'l 11(1 vineyard. The grain is chiefly maize (used both for cattle and bread), rye and buclc-wlieat : the nrnhcc I* estimated, by Kindermann, at 7,800,0(10 bushels. I'lax, hemn, and (lolatocs arc general. The liiu' I) rrckDHeil at l,0(X),(XX) eimers, and is stronger and more fiery than the Austrian. Tlut the most iiliiablo iiriHluce is that of the mines in the upper province, which are various j but chiefly ri,000 tons ni vorr Hue iron, peculiarly fit for being formed into steel. Besides the numerous furnaces employed in ttimtliig thiMire, there are large manufactures of of scythes, siclcles, and chopping.l(nives ; a great part 111 llic Iron also is worked up in Austria, and is even exported to England and France. Of the eastern m'Vliicc, a considerable extent is occupied, not by German inhaliitants, but by the Winden, a rude Scla- tniiltti race, who do not understand the language of the Germans, and live in a much poorer and rude' ' 'ilii, llf the town! of Siyria, Grati, the ancient residence of the dukes, is the capital : it is situated on the Miir, ill a lli«! valley, on the Imrders of the lower district. It is a handsome, bustling, and prosperous town, iiiil coliUiiis m.iny nouses which may be called palaces. Indeed, it ranks the tliird in the liereditary domi' iii,mi,aiulo(>ntaincd, in 1810, a population of i9,57ti, now supposed 40,000. Its old walls and castle, situated piisIiIkIi rm'k, no longer sutlice to render it a fortified city. The church of St. Catherine, and the monu- miiil of Ferdinand II., are its chief ornaments. Its lyceum, the only one that exists in the province, has licnty-ilx professors, and a library of 70,000 volumes. It carries on a considerable trade, particularly in lioii, anil has two yearly fairs. The female population of Gratz arc celebrated for their beauty. Bruck, the raiiilal nf a (ilitrlct in bp|K>r Styria, is a small and dull town. Mosburg is a larger place, carrying on some Iriilc Cllly, Judcnburg, capitals of particular districts, and Leoben, where the preliminaries of 1798 were iiiinni, arc only large villages. Marriaiell, a village on the Austrian frontier, attracts crowds to view an iiiii'oulli imauc of the Virgin there deposited. It was once enriched by many precious donations, among vhirh were the images, in silver, of the Empress Maria Theresa, and all her family ; but her son, Joseph II., Ivtiig iireiicd bv financial difficulties, not only melted down his mother, and ail his brothers and sisters, into mill, but seized a great part of the other treasures. 'J!)17. The kingdom of Ulyria was formed by Napoleon, after the peace of Presburg, when lie luid compelled Austria to cede to him the \rIiole south-eastern angle of Germany, i'lirintlii I, Cnrniuta, and Friuli ; to which he annexed part of Croatia, and the Tyrol. When all these territories returned under the dominion of Austria, she still retained the iion'ly created kingdom, only severing from it tht- lost two appendages. The kingdom, Ihiii iniiilllied, contains a superficial extent of 13,,>90 square miles, according to Blumcn- Wi, Imt only l;),480, according to LIchtenstcin, who states the population at 1,065,000. Iliiwl. luiwever, calculates it at 1,165,197; but Col. Traux gives 1,138,000 as the result of the lati'i' enumeration in 1 829. This region is extremely mountainous and rugged, tli>iii|tli tlie highest chains are on the frontier of Upper Austria and Styria, where Illyria cl;iini:i a part of the stupendous mass of the Gross Glockner. Its own proper chains are lliiiw uf the Cnrniolan and Julian Alps, which cover the greater part of the territory, (if which till! loftiest pinnacles do not in general rise above 6500 feet. The large Mmin of the Dravc passes through Carinthia, and that of the Save through Carniola, into lhiii)tiiry, Tlie rugged surface of Illyria is, in many places, very ill-fitted for nirn, uf which it, however, produces 9,000,000 bushels, chiefly o^ the coarser kinds, rye and uats. There is a good deal of flax, and a little hemp and silk. Cattle are fed to llio mimbcr of 378,000, horses 47,000, and 539,000 sheep in the more bare and rocky tracts. iicut is prudiiccd more copiously than in any other part of the empire (about 2000 tons), ami inuri'iiry more abundantly than in any part of Europe (200 tons) ; iron 23,000 tons, iiiiit eimtlderuhle quantities of antimony, alum, vitriol, coal, and salt. The chief branch of nianufacture is that of working in metals, iron poles, wire, scissors, sickles, hooks, &c. I'lu'ri' is alsd a good deal of linen, and some woollen. Hie foreign commerce is con- fiilti'iilik' : the only Austro-Gcrman sea-ports being Trieste and Fiume, in Illyria. '.'1118, The physical structure of this country is very singular, its mountains being com- jimeil uf that soft and porous limestone which is subject to extensive perforation. Illyria 1^ said to contiiin upwards of 1000 caverns, many of which receive and send forth sub- torraiieouH rivers. The most considerable is the LaybacK, which issues at once a broad Mreiim ft'oin the bosom of a mountain. Its caverned course is accessible by a majestic iinliiral ({iitewiiy, forty feet high, and regularly arched. This leads into a spacious cavern, liciicatli the gigantic walls and vaulted roof of which the river is seen flowing. The raurn ciinnol be traced far up ; but the river is still heard rolling over its rocky bed in the iiiicriur of the earth. Of all the caverns, the most extensive is that of Adelsberg. The ciilraiia' is hy (wo large apertures, into one of which a river flows, and accompanies the vidter ill liii) progress through this dark passage. At length it reaches an extensive natural I'liU'rii, nnd having penetrated a ledge of rock, plunges under ground, and is seen no more. Ilvfe n precipitous rocky wall formerly arrested all further advance; but, about ten years I iijliii It WHS Kcukd, and found to lead to a double range of most magniflcent caverns, or ; iwUimI pnlnecs, supported by pillars, and fretted with cornices of the purest stalactite. I l'IH!C(iluinn>i nre, in some places, so nicely clustered together, and so reguliirly arranged, as to U'cmlile the nave of a Gothic cathedral. The roof is in part so lofty as not to be discoverable I Irom ln'iienth. Nut a sound is heard beyond the occasional dropping of the water, except I (iilce II year, when a ball is given by the peasantry in one of the most spacious caverns. j lli.'1'i'. many hundred feet beneath the surface of the earth, and a mile distant from the [liitlil ul diiy, Hiv! simple music of the Carniolan rustics resounds through more magniii. Y y 690 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. cent halls than ever were built for inonarchs. At the end of six miles, the range termi- nates in a tleep, clear, und cold subterraneous lake. The lake of Zirknitz is cclebrntvd for the flux and reflux of ita waters, covering six miles by three in winter, but at raidsummir dry, when grass and even rye grow upon it. 8919. The citiei qftUyria are ;— Laybach, an ancient place, the c' Inclpal leat of goveinmenl, containin. about 10,000 InhabitanU, a lyceum, and »ome manufacturei of silk and porcelain. It ii dlilinouiihwl .? having been the aeat of that congrcM In which the Holy Alliance decided the fate of luiy. On a liiii au " it standi the ttrong ca«tle of Sublana, the place of conflnement for the Italian liberals. Clagciirurt ! town of equal «ize, has also a lyceum, some manufactures of cloth, and a considerable transit triu VlltnAh ljl nr'" ~*.....* knif !#■ a^tnn* Kitt hua ..nnal.larallla fraffln in thn nfn.li.nn nf »!.» »: . ^'"W< conveyance ( century, la n risen to .OKOOO. In 1836. there were employed in the foreiKn ...„..,. „, ..n:i.ic u,>waras oi iij,5u vewii tonnage SB-dOO j in the coasting ViW, tonnage 209,000. Of these IM, and £7,000 loi», are Brillih Th» imports in 1836 wore valued at ti.Sl.'i.OOO/. These were mostly, from Britain ,59S,000;., Kussia SgciOflu France 236,000/., Roman States 124,.5(K)/., Sicily ftlO.OOO/., Greece 147,700/., Turkey 990,(I0(J/,, Eoynt 736'mJ' United States 319,000/., Braiil 854.000/., South America 205,000/. The exports were 4,5J6,(HX)/. ; of wK' from Great Britain 559,000/., from other Austrian porta 2,033,400/.. from Turkey 680,000/., from other fotoiim' ports less considerable. The leading articles of importa in 1835 were, sugar, value t»j,()(K)/., cotton-wS 593,700/., coflfee 457,000/.. olive oil 300,000/., hides and leather 105,000/.. cotton and woollen maiiufact Z 419.(X)0/.. wool 63.600/,, raw silk 43,r)00/., wheat 89,000/. other grains 64.000/.. wax 60,000/., dyeinii.woiil 21,000/. Fiume, at the head of a more easterly bay, is to Hungary what Trieste Is to Germany ; hut Z trade not being so important, supports only a population of about 8000. In 1836, there were ernplovcd in its trade 280 vjsscls, tonnage 32,000. The imiiorts were estimated at 126,600/. j the exports at 'i47i«iu The latter "Dnsisted chiefly of, timber 73,800/., tobacco 82,500/., rags 37,500/., wax 9000/. Kagusa, on ihn same coast, carries on also a trade of some importance ; employing 54 vessels, and nearly 10,000 tons jm ports in 1835, 55,500/ » exports 45,900/. The latter were chiefly, wool 17,400/., wax 6,700/., hides (i,m, 2920. Tlie Tyrol, Including Vorarlberg, is the most westerly of the German territories of the empire, and borders upon Bavaria and Switzerland. It is also the most lofty and rugnj of all the alpine regions of Austria. It is, indeed, a sort of projection from Switzeriand. which it entirely resembles, except in the absence of extensive lakes. It presents mountains reaching to the skies, and crowned with eternal snows, or with rocky pinnacles ; awful abysses, with thundering waterfalls ; fields of ice stretching miles in extent ; avalanches rush- ing down the steep sides, — the whole aspect of nature presenting a scene of awful majesty and fearful beauty. The Oerteles, the highest peak yet measured, has been found to reach an altitude of 14,416 feet; and there are others, particularly in the Ocstal, whicli might also stand by the side of Mont Blanc and Monte Rosa ; but their height has not yet been asccr- tained. The Schernomand is 11,645 feet, the Phalleyhugel 9756, the SoUstcin 9106. Some of the chief tributaries of the Danube (the Inn, the Lech, the Iser,) pour down from the heights of the Tyrol. Agricultural industry cannot flourish on such a surface ; as, of l,5(X.,'y>0 jochs, only a tenth can be subjected to the plough, and then only rye, wheat, and i;arley can be grown. The Tyrolese, however, have made all that was possible out of their rugged soil. They have a great store of horned cattle and sheep ; valuable gardens, from which apples are sent even to Russia ; good wine, though it will not keep ; some tobacco ; wood, and salt in abundance. The other mineral productions are in considerable Tariety, but of no great amount. The national character of the Tyrolese is excellent. They are honest, sincere, and open-hearted. Their attachment to their country, to its independence, and to the house of Austria, has been displayed in the most heroic manner, The exploits which their undisciplined and almost unarmed bands performed iu the last war, form one of the brightest pages of modem history. They are almost all Catholics; but their religion, according to this creed, is genuine and sincere. Their enterprising industry is strikingly displayed by the boldness with which they mount the steepest clifis, and are thence let down by ropes, in order to cultivate like a garden a little spot that to i stranger would appear inaccessible. 2921. The towtu qf the Tyrol are Innspruck, the capital ; an ancient, well built, and considerable plact, commanding the valley of the Inn. and the most direct passage from Germany into Italy. Halle, fartliei down on the same, flourishes by '.arge mines of salt. Kuffttein is im|>ortant as a militiiry position. Trent, on the Adigc. and near the borders of Italy, is a fine old city, celebrated for the ecclesiastical council held there in 1545—1562, which had so signal an influence on the jwlitical destinies of Kurope. Koveredo, Hill further down, and almost Italian, carries on some silk manufactures. Botzcn, or Bolsano, has a croidnl market, where the German and Italian merchants exchange the commodities of their respective countriet Brixen, Bregenz, Feldkircli, (the last two in the Vorarlberg, and on the borders of Switzerland,) are alio of some consequence. 2922. Bohemia is the most considerable and most valuable of all the Austrian territoriei in Germany. It consists of an extensive plain, completely enclosed by a ring of mouii. tains, of which the Riesengebirge separate it from Silesia, the Erzgebirge from Saioni, those of the Bohemian forest from Austria and Franconia. These chains run from 30W to 5000 feet, and none of them shoot up those awful pinnacles, covered with eternal snoi, which range along the Swiss and Italian borders. Bohemia is the most completely inld coimtry of Germany, being nearly equidistant from the North Sea and the Adriatic; With the former, however, it communicates by the great stream of the Elbe, which lises in and rolls through all Bohemia, receiving its great tributary, the Moldau, and all its oihs waters. There is, perhaps, no country on earth more amply stocked witli all kinds of soU and useful commodities than Bohemia. Grain, cattle, timber, metals, are all in such pleot;, that it is difficult to say which predominates. Of 7,769,000 jochs, 3,608,000 are anbkj Part 111, the range tcriiii. I is celvbratd for lUt at midsummer Dvcvnment, conlalnini; It la diitinguiihed u taly. On n liilUlwvc Berals. Clagcnfurt, j lUlerabIc transit trade, the minoi, and in the the close of the lait i 3(i,a0U, but hai ainw wards of K.'.W veweli, lo'ta, arc Britiah. The mi., uussia m,mi., ),ymi., ERypt736,00W, I 4,536,(1(1(1/. ; of wliich, (Xl/., from o'hcr fareim ■ t)8+,(KHW., cotton-wnol d woollen iTianufact:ir« ( (iO,(XKl/., d)cirj|{-w(KHl 9 to Germany ; liut thii there were employed in he exports at 'iij,im. . iXKXlt. Kagusa, on the nearly IO,(XIU tons. Im. 6,700/., hides fi,9()(V. jerman territories of tost lofty and rugged in from Switzerland, t presents mountains :ky pinnacles; awful L'nt ; avalanches rush- cne of awful majesty 3 been found to reach ital, which might also IS not yet been ascer- tollstcin 9106. Some pour down from the uch a surface ; as, of then only rye, wheat, It was possible out of p ; valuable gardens, will not keep ; some iS are in considerable yrolese is excellent their country, to its lOst heroic manner. lerformed in the last .Imost all Catholics; Their enterprising t the steepest cliffs, little spot that tot 1 and considerable place, Eo Italy. Halle, farther Inilitary position. Trent, Iclesiasticiil council held Europe. Ilovercdo, (till J^Bolsano, has a crowJol lelr roapcctivc countiiei \t Switzerland,) are alio ' Austrian tcrritorits [by a ring of moun. Lbirge from Saiony, liEuns run from 3000 ^ with eternal snow, l^t completely inland and the Adriatic he Elbe, which iis« Bau, andallitsotte Itli all kinds of scW leallinsuchplent;. 1,608,000 are ani* Book I. GERMANY. G91 which, in 1785, produced 52,000,000 quarters; the prupoTtions of which were, 17,000,000 rye, 14,000,000 oat.s, 17,000,000 barley, 2,500,000 wheat; and the amount is now sup, oscd to be from 50,000,000 to 60,000,000. Flax is raised to the amount of 8000 tons, which yet is not sufficient fur the manufactures of the country. Horned cattle, though very numerous, have been somewhat diminished of late years ; but the breed both of horses and sheep has been much improved. In 1817, there was a census, which returned 1^1,000 horses, 241,000 oxen, 601 ,000 cows, and 907,000 sheep. The hops arc the best in the world, and there is a profusion of apples and pears ; but the wines are in small imantity, nnd scarcely drinkable. From the mines arc drawn various metals, of which the most peculiar is tin, to the amount of 275 tons. Even fishing is carried on very actively In this inland situation, by means of ponds, which are said to exceed 20,000 in number. The manufactures of Bohemia are also most extensive. That of linen is the staple, including not only the common fabrics, but the finer ones of damask, cambric, lawn, and tape. This great manufacture is said to employ 500,000 spinners and 55,000 weavers, and to yield 1,200,OOOA That of wool is said to employ 50,000 spinners, 20,000 weavers, and other workmen, and to yield a value of 600,000/. Cotton, lately introduced, is believed to employ 40,000 men, its produce being worth 150,000/. Bohemian glass has been always celebrated as cheap, light, and durable, and though declined in amount, still employs 4000 hands. Potashes, leather, and paper arc also considerable. Yet it is remarked, that there is little appearance of the wealth which Bohemia actually contains. The nobles, indeed, possess immense estates, the value of which is estimated at nearly 4.i,00O,OOO/. sterling, firmly secured by entails and other legal provisions ; but they spend their fortunes chiefly in profuse pomp and luxury at Vienna. The population, in 1775, wasunly 2,531,000. In 1817, it had increased to 3,236,000; but by the census in 1827, to 3,783,630 ; it now amounts to abou^. 4,000,000. Two thirds arc of Sclavonit race, and there are about 50,000 Jews. The Bohemians, beyond any other German people, made an early and noble stand in the cause of civil and religious liberty. Not only after Luther, but long before, the stanilard of tho Ileformation was reared, afVer the death of John Huss and Jerome of Prague ; but these glorious eflforts had a fatal issue. Over- whelmed by the arms of Austria, the Protestants were either driven out of the kingdom, or compelled to renounce their worship ; and it was not until the end of last century when the principles of toleration began to influence even the Austrian cabinet, that about 34,000 Protestants resumed the exorcise of tlieir religion. Amid the same convulsions, the civil rights for which Bohemia had so nobly contended were all wrested from her, and she retains oidy a semblance of national states. liSaa I'rai/ue (Jiff. 378. ), the capital, is situated in the very centre of the great plain of Bohemia. Its bridge, its old Gothic cathedral on a hill, the vast and de- caying palaces of the ancient nobles, the old style of architecture in the l>rivate mansions, unite to give it an antique and characteristic grandeur. In the cathedral is particularly dis- tinguished the magnificent silver shrine, which has survived the wars of centuries. Among the vast for- saken palaces may be distinguished that of Wallenstein, the frescoes of which are still bright ; and that of Czemim, still more vast, but quite """"•^ dilapidated. Prague appeared, on the whole, to Mr. Sherer, more picturesque and more impressive than Vienna. The popu. latinn, in 1817, amounted to 79,606, of which 6783 were Jews; but, by documents col- lated in 1826, Dr. Suhig estimates it at 105,000 independent of 12,000 troops in garrison. Balbi supposes the amount to have now risen to 120,000. There is o consi- derable spirit of literature, and of making literary collections in Prague. It has an aca- demy of sciences, an university with 44 professors and 879 students, and a library of 100,000 volumes. There is a national museum, an academy of painting, fifteen good pic- ture galleries, and a conservatory of music. The trade of the kingdom centres very much in Prague ; and three great aimual fairs are held there. Tlte city is kept very clean, but indifferently lighted, and some of the streets are unpavcd. S954. Hohemia hai a number of little towna of IVom aXM to .WOO Inhabitants, but no prcat cltiea, except itg capital. Wc may mention Budweis, Pilien ; Konijisgratr, a strong place on the Silesian frontier j Egcr, a military position on the side of Franconia; Tabor, founded by the Hussites, who gave it this scriptural name j Tiipliti, celebrated for its baths. The manufactures arc chiefly carried on in small towns and villages, '"H" ""' accumulate in the larger cities. iSM. Moravia, in which we shall include the small part of Silesia which remains to Austria, is a country If less extent than Bohemia, but of nearly ilmilar aspect, and equally fertile. It has also a fiontier of high mmintaiiii •, liemg hounded on the one side by those which separate it from Bohemia, on the other by the Yy 2 C92 UESCKIl'TIVE OKOGU.M'IIY. I'aui lit C,it|>»tlii>ii inoiintnliis, iH'ydiiil which arc Polaiul ami Hungary. Hinnllvr I'hulim |ii'm Uw luuii .uiU riiidcr the full hiill of it mouiitninnua ; but broad and flrultnil nilluvi liitiirviloylnu v'iI.ohi In'm,, k, , - ... igivcs employment to l(MXK) |ii.'.i|iUm »lld "luMln.lory,,lu;'^^^^^ ItU.iHJO woollens, and 140,000 cotton stockings. Moravia and Austrian Hlliisla, in |NI7, < inij,,.,! 71V" inhabitanU; of whom 4S0,0U0 were of German, and 1,250,000 of Hclavunio ru«t), with VHJldO Ji.wa ii„i cei:sus of 18S5 they hail increasnl to 1,nl)urKi ''i^' ••tiginiil liuHUnr the monarchy ; of Pomerania and Silesia; and of tcrritoriuH In Suxuny, in VVi<>.i|i|iiiliii,„m| on the Rhine. 2928. Brandenburg forms a great mass of territory in tlio eiistern |)iii't itf Iho iiorih nf (i^r. many, bordering on Poland. Jt is usually culled the Mark of lii'iiiiiUj|, inhabitants in 1827 : it is neither the most fertile nor tho most lii>iiutit\ll |iiii'| nl' thin utl^/,^ country. It consists of a vast plain of sand, in some iiliiues preNDiitliig a lUviil UiiMit|y rkli for them. Sheep are bred in great numbers on the sand-hills 1 and tlivir wool, itii|ii'iivilng fnvimrcil liy the great rivers which pass through the province. Tlie Elbe, indeed, only Iiiii(,'|kiiliur|i Gate {fig, nHO.) in cimp.liWi'i..l tlio most simple and iiiiJi'kiIc iHirtnl in Europe. On the ynliihlrtliiri' MiiikIi a bronie figure of Vii'Uiiy.oiii'ol'ilio trophies carried oil' by iln' l-Viuli, but which PruNKlaii vlt'lnriis km now rostoreil In llit pliici'. Tliij matchless gate forinx the I'litniiuii into the Linden.KtrttNHv, wliidi, iis » street, is perhaps aUo willmiit n riiol. It is divided, by di)iilik> •■own of linden or lime trees, IniD llm- iillu)!, which afl'urd dvll|jlill\il wiilk^ ami along which ore ranged imIIHcb of the most majestic and classical character. Among these are chiefly renini'ki'd, Ik' iniliicc situated on the Place de Gendarmes {fig. 381.), seen along a lino of lofty fin,iiiU', oria. mented with porticoes, statues, and every variety of sculptural decoralioiii »lie lliiliiiii«|itr,i. Iiouse, the churches, and the theatre, built with the intention of eclipsing all llii' iillii't productions of Prussian architectural taste. Mr. Russell, however, cnni|ilalnN lliiil llariii sometJung monotonous in the design, which is uniformly that of un Ionic porllt'ii tiii i> viry rJniple front. The same fault he imputes to the other streets and squaies, tlinngli liny ok broad, spacious, and regular. The Spree, wliich divides Berlin, has only the a|t|niiMiiit' of 8 broad ditch, navigated by flat-bottomed boats. On the opposite tide is (lit old loftii, 1 BRANllBMtUlKI GATK. Hook 1. OEUMANV. fi9.1 scciic of trnflic with little pretension to buuiity. 1^/?, l!i!3,520; in 18;H it was 247,000. Out PLAOB DM OBItOARMFI* nini.IN. The iinpuliition in 172(> was 94,41!); in oP every hundred, fifteen were military. Uerlin is n busy city, carrying on various munufacturuv of woollen, linen, and par- ticularly silk, with a royal manufactory of porcelain, employing 300 hands, and the products of which have been |)referred by some to those of Dresden. There are numerous trakers of surgical and ma> thematica^ mstruments. The trade of Berlin is ilso extensive, ai it communi- cates by ti " Spree, and its canals, both with tht £i!ic and the Oder. An uni- versity has lately been founded, which in 1834 i.'ontained 1832 students and 149 teacher.:, ranking second only to Giittin- gen. Tliis capital has also royal aciide- mics of science and the fine arts ; a splendid public library ; cabinets of natural history ; a bo- tanic garden, containing 1 2,000 exotic plants ; a picture gallery ; not so rich, however, as that of Poldain, the pictures of which, by the last accounts, were to be added to thiK collecti(m. •2930. Thi' other towns of Brnndenburg arc not of first-rate importance. Potsdam, designed liy Frederick tlie Great as a military residence, is regularly and very handsomely built ; yet, according to a late writer, it suggests no other idea than that of a barrack. On every side arc si'cn stilT figures of recruits moving slowly to the marching step, under smart and severe instructors. Frederick's palace of Sans Souci is remarkable for the extreme sim- plicity uf those apartments which were occupied by himself: it contains a very fine picture gallery. Population, 24,(XX). Frankfort on the Oder cannot challenge a comparison with its namesake on the Mayn : it is still a considerable town of 22,300 inhabitants, witii a strong bridge over ine Oder, which is here abroad and spacious stream. It has some manufaotures, and a considerable trade, holding five yearly markets, much frequented by Uimians and Poles. Brandenburg, the old capital, is still a city of 12,800 inhabitants. Kuslriu and Spandau are little fortified towns, the former of great strength ; each 5,000. 2931. Pomerania is a long line of narrow, sandy coast, lying along the Baltic. The Oder here enters that sea, forming at its mouth a large and winding haff, or bay, on the opposite side of which are the large islands of Usedom and Wollin. It is divided into the governments of Stettin, Stralsund, ond Koslin, containing a population of 941,193. The soil is in many parts not productive ; yet in others is made by industry to yield good liarvests. There are few manufactures ; but the commodities of Brandenburg and Silesia arc brought down the Oder, and exported from Stettin, Stralsund, and other |H>rts. Stettin, the capital, is not only one of the strongest fortresses, but one of the most flou- risliing commercial cities in the monarchy, containing a population cf 29,000, including the military. In 1834, the imports amounted to 714,0002.; in 1835, to 81 1,000/. The values flf the chief articles in the latter year were — sugar 143,000/., wine 87,800/., train oil lOSi-lOO/., other oils 38,000/., herrings 63,000/., potashes 29,000/., linseed 37,800/., copper 2%000l., dye-wood 20,000/., rice 19,000/., coffee 14,000/., &c. The exports in 1834 were ;t74,00O/. ; in 1 835, 280,000/. Chief articles : timber 1 1 8,000/. , spelter 68,000/. , rye 1 7,000/. , wool 14,0(X)/., brandy 11,000/. Stralsund, the former capital of Swedish Pomerania, lies in a wide flat territory, separated by a narrow channel from the great island of llugen, and so enclosed by bays and lakes that it can communicate with the continent only by bridges. It ranked as one of the most celebrated fortresses in Europe, and bade defiance to tiie utmost efibrts of Wallenstein ; but the walls are now suffered to go to ruin. The trade is considerable: population, 14,700. Anklam (7600), Stolpe (6900), Stargard (9900), Kos- lin (6700), and Greifswold (9500), are also ports and towns deserving of mention. "9,32. Silesia is an extensive oblong tract between Bohemia and Poland. It was ori- ginally a Polish province ; but German settlers have now occupied the greater part of it, and introduced industry and prosperity. From its fertility, and the industry of its inha- bitants, it is considered the brightest jewel in the Prussian crown. The Oder, rising on its southern border, divides it into two nearly equal parts, of which the western is mountainous or hilly : its population is altogether German, and it is the seat of the principal manufactures while the eastern consists in a great measure of flat and sandy plains, and is partly occupied by Sclavonic races. The principal mountains are the ttiesengebirge and the Sudetes, on the borders of Bohemia and Moravia. Of the Iliesengebirge, the most elevated summit is the Schneekopfe, 5000 feet high ; and though not adorned by lakes, it exhibits very picturesque scenery, which has gained it the appellation of " German Switzerland." Silesia contains 15,600 sfjuarc miles, and is divided into the governments of Breslou, Oppcln, and Lignitz, which, in 1827, comprised a population of 2,362,562 persons; the number of inhabitants inl817 was 1,992,598. Of 12,400,000 acres, excluding tracts altogether naked and moun- Yy 3 094 DESCRIPTIVE OEOOIIAPHY. f*«T III. talnuun, •apilsl, liiiwi'vpr, in ItWi, containcti Pli,(XJ() pcoplr, bciidcj tlic mlhlarv, ami in llie (.'ciitrcofthc wtinlptraiUor Ihr |irnvliit'c. It hat aim) a flourialiing university, an cxtvnaivu library, and oilier valualilv cnlU'ction* Ni'liwi'lilnili wait cnntlilcriHl of iniinensc strength, and was made by Frederick hia chief place ol arms during the ai'ver. yeata' war ) but when NaiK)leon obtained poaseaaion of it in 18(17, he demciliched the f(irlilir,ilinn< which have never lHr\ Ihero iralnnl by Kreiierick over the Austrian army in 17iiO. Hir8chb<:rK, aituatnl umid the most romaiiiic acenea of mn.nitiiin .Silealn. ia crnwded in summer with admiring visiianta. The other fortress towiii of jm. IMiriance aie, tIrixaUlogau, on the (Kler, and Nelaac, on tlierivcr of that name, in a marshy country, sur- ronnditl by a aimi'inna wet ditch. Population : Schweidnitt, U,'iOO; Olati, (;,rin() ; l.iitnilz, lu,7(K)i HIrschlwrri Il,lill0i tltogau, n,4i'«; Neiaac IO,(iO()i Giirlili, l'i,300i Hrieg, \{),(m. The two laat open towns. Vll \\. I'ruMUn Saxvny forma a large extent oi' atraggling territory, consisting of lurlions severed at varirut llu'va NtMl In Viirloua uaya iVom all the neighbouring states, great and amall, sometimes having fragmiiiti ca- rlnanl within them, and aninetimca enclosing within itself fragmcnto of them. Oencraily speaking, it may be vlt'wnl Ka nearly ■ iuuare terrltorv, extending on both sides of the Elbe, between Iloyal Saxony, llruiideii. Inirv, niul llinnver. It iadividetl Into the government of Magdeburg, Merseberg, aiid Krfiirt, cnntaliiini: I,*!if),.'Ht.'l liiiiabllanta. It belongs generally to the vast, wide, flat plain of northern ticnnany, though on Its wealeni aide it bonlfrs on the Harti and the forest of Thuringia. There arc considerable sandy anil inanhy Irarta, but liiNm the whole it is abundantly productive of grain, which is cultivated with particular Kkill anil diligence, f'lax and tol).icco, with rape and linseed, are also iii great plenty. Horses, and horncil cnlile are kepi up merely lor the purpose of cuUivation, but aheep are in number about I,()(K),i 00, and the Saxon wml ranks with the very beat in Kuro|x<. The mineral wealth is considerable, es|H|i|H)rtunityor a very active trade. The territory is rated at 10,u7<> squares miles, and ili jiopnlalion in INI7 wa« oik1 the grand scat of I.uthcr's reformation. WHft. 7V ti»m» arf not gitwrallii very large, but numerous, ancient, well fortified, and celebrated in the lilafory of Herman warthre. MagDeburg, wnich may rank a^ the capital, has always been considered one of liiCKtronueKt placeain IOuro|ic; and, for its noble defence against Charles V. and Tilly, was regarded as the buL wark of the Proleatant cauae. Its works are of immense extent, bounded on moat of its circuit by the Elbe, lind nil the real by a ditch, nut wet, but very broad, and carefully unilermined. 'I'hc horrible sacking of Ma{i- ileburK bv the linnerlallsta, in 1R3I, is still vividly remembered there, with execrations on theinimorirof I'nunt 'lllly, by wlnnn it waa sanctioned. It is a flue old city ; the houses large and massive : it has a i]m'mt innrkct'place, adorned with the atatiic of Otho the Great,' and an irregular but very brii.ul principal itnet. tllico a (HiwerlUI IVee city, it now contains 40,000 inhabitants, a number of manufactures, and enjoys ac«n. alderablo trade up and down the Elbe. Erfurt, formerly one of the princi|>ul cities, and a central marl, in the north of Gcnnany, has now comoletely yielded the |nlm to Leipzig ; and, instead of TjO.uUO, contains onl; nlaml V.I.IMHI Inhabitanta. It is still a strong fortress, forming the key between Saxony and Fraiicnnia. Wit. lenlM'rg, liirinerly adialingiiished Saxon capital, where the atandard of the Iteformation was first reared, is no* only n aiimll but alrong town. Halle is a large dry of 25,(X)0 inhabitanta, with one of the most flourishing and erowdiM iiniveraltlea of Gcnnany, and enriched 'ij extensive saltworks in its iieighbourliood. Hallicrjiailt la ul>i> « largo open old town, of l<'i,000 inhabitanta. Quedlinburg waa once distinguished for the unbounded wealth of lla nunnery, the abbess of which had thepriicipal seat and vote on the bench of prelates : but sinct llitm Ita wealth and privileges have been vastly curtai.ed. Muhlhauscn, Mcrseburg, Weissenfcis, Naumburi;, Torgaii, Strildahl, Saliwcitcl, arc also conaiderable towns, of from 7II0U to ll,(iO(l inhabitants. Luticn is only a vlllagv I but lla site Is distinguished by the victory and fall uf Oustavus Adolphus, the great protestani hero. llOwl /'m.oks IVenffihalia is alao an aggregate of a number of small di'tacbeoiiit reaches the sea, or even a- leiida to the Ithine, *.iV. f^e tkitftouiha Iff Prussian Westphalia are the capitals of its three diitricts, Munster, Mindcn,snd I'art III. in, tlitt it is oDiy In uf the iii'0|ilc. n,, !nsu inanufacturv of orable productions, , with thf vxccptioii mn been liroiiKlit to urc Mi|ifiH(lin({ (In. uring country in»|| ror pliancy, brillmm iiinu in viiliie about ^alry of Irelniid anil Jt from 7,000,000 10 hiilf of ttie iiiliiil)ii. oi' liolieiniiiii clulh ill ilie monntuiiioiii ;lily fuvuurablc to its )ys HtSW) looms, and is very productive, L'r, lead, arsenic, \c. cfly by tlie jxirts of 111 I'uluiid and Mol- ivny of Hamburgh. vliiK iilalc. Brcilau, thi> trcollhi" whcjle trade of iiT vnlualrto colli'ctioin. icf place of arms ilurlnit lichci'n towns, rlioiis severed at various K'H havinR fraRnitiiti en. rally siHMking, itiimvbc llnyal Saxony, Ilruiilcn. and Erfurt, I'ontainini: n Germany, though on erable sinuly anil marshy with particular »kill ami •a, and horneil entile are OU, and the Saxon wool dt, of which a great vein id woollen are gcnorriliji the province into two If} squares miles, anil iu \n and Protestants, iNi and celebrated in the been considered one of I'as ri'gardeilasthebiil Its circuit by the Elbe, brrible sacking of Mag- linns on themimor^of »sivc : it has a <|>aeioui liro.ul prinoiiia! :!recl. lures, and enjiiys a eon. I a central mart, in the f fiO.DlX), contains onlj r and Krancnnia. Wit. |was first reared, is nov ~ the most flouriihing turiiood. Halberslaill led for the uiibouiiileil of prelates : but aimi feissenfels. Naumburg. ants. Luticn is only a freat protestant hero. : but by cessions anil lanover and Holland, and its three govern- i. The Lipi« diviilM ihy, but altiirds some im the Hart/, which 'I'he staple to which Iprovinces, producing pd salt are also «r) that of liner qualili. ling these prmluctions the sea, or even a- lunster, Mindcn.aiiil Bo«« I. GERMANY. 595 Arenibi'rK. Muiistcr, once tho leat of ■ •overcign bishop, anil too well known firnin the cxccuci commiltad by Ihe Ansbai'llsts during their lcin|K>rary iHissesslon of It, is still a HnuriahInK place, which lictwccn INtlV anu l^'jH imrcanol its |Mipulution IVnni I'J,7!I7 to IM.fiOd The jH-ace of Munster, In liiiN, fnrnis one of the great irii or Kurnjiean history. Mlndeii, celeliratnl for the signal victory achieved by the llrlllsh amis In 175)1, liri on the Wcser, and carries on a considerable traile. A tM-autlf\il lanilscapo Is liere fornieil by the river, iu numerous little tributaries, anil a range of woodeil mountains, lietween which theWeser opens Ihe pauagc called I'drtaWeitphalica Arenslierg, once the seat of a count of that name, and I'ailerlinrn, the sec of a lilshop. were iliilinguiihiil places In the middle ages, hut have greatly divllneii, Bielefeld Is the centre of Westpnitlian nuiiuracture, cs|ieclnlly Ihiit of damask, and of other kliidi of fine linen. In IHIl there were ex|M»e>l In Its nurliet u|iwards of 'J,litMI,lllll) ells. In the surrounding niei,.lowlievcntccn bleachHelds employ i'ltl latKiiirers. There ii also a sur|irlsliig number uf httle towns, of flroiii i>(KKl to 71X10 people : Ituckllnghauaen, Knsfeld, Htelii. flirt, Hcrfiirilen, Ilrakel, Wasburg, LIppstadt, .Soat, Hainm, I>nrtmund, Hagen, lierlon, Altona, and Miegen, i»U8. The lihenish pravlnret qf Pruuia conilit of two parti | one bearing the comnounu ap|icllatlon of Jiillch. (Itrc-Derg, and the other that of the Lower Rhine. The population of the whole amounU to 2,3n'.2,743, 29^19. Julkh-Cleve-nerg coitsists of the three grand duchies of those names, incorporated with tho city and part of the bishopric of Cologne, the Prussian part of Guvlderland, tho iblacies uf Essen and Werden, anti a few other small places. It occupies almost ninety miles of the course of the Ilhlne, extending on both sides of that river. Of all the Prussian temtories it is the least favoured by nature. On the eastern bank extends a continuous ran|;e of muuiitains, including the remarkable group called the Siebengebirge, or Seven Hills; not, indeed, exceeding the height of 2000 feet, but naked and rugged. The opposite bank is, indeed, level, but consists almost entirely of sandy plains and wide morasses : the country, therefore, does not produce com sufficient for its own consumption, nor any thing in abundance except flax. Under these natural disadvantages, however, the inhabitants ciert -x manufacturing industry beyond what is found in any other part of Prus.sia, or even iif Germany. The grand duchy of Berg has been called England in miniature, such is the variety of fubricpulation between the years 1787 and I8(H hac fallen fVom 12,1112 to 11.844, it has again risen as high as 24,(XX). Cl^vea, a much smaller town, is situated two miles from the Rhine, with which it oonimunicatcs bya canaL The late palace of the grand duke is still surrounded by extensive gardens, which are open to the piililic. Iloiin, a well-built imperial city, of 12,S|X) inhabitants, has a strong castle, f u or .nn ""*' '" " great moiiaure neglected. Elber- fM 2j,4(X), and Krefeld 20,000, are flouriahing places ; Its chief aeata of manulacture, Hees, Soliiigen, Muhl- 'iu'i r;""''' "' "''" •'"crving of mention. «H1. n, province qf the Lower Rhine occupies a eonaiderably greater extent of the course of the rivej nisner u|i, than that last described. The principal part of it belonged formerly to the archbishopric of Treves, »mcn, with various little stateepnd cities, has now mergetl int.i the Prussian dominion. The Rhine flows iiTOugii the miiidle of this tract, receiving on one aide the Moselle, and on the other the Lahn and the Lieg. r»K " *'"""' wholly mountainous, the principal chain in the west lieing the Hundsruck, a rocky han. .h'"^''"'!'.''' "i;!*'y extei"'"'. but not more than Itm feet high, and from whose sides vast womls ovcr- rhZ. h 1 . "•. • " '''"'^' "f Ardennes aLso touches the extreme frontier ; anil on the east, the principal hM lifri "f ? ' . ^V««8a"- Tbe banks of the rivers are gcnerallv planted with vines, and present the most 0111 ■ w .1 l';f'"'"B *"<;« tbat arc to be found in any part of Germany. The soil and climate are very vari- R>V»,,H .11.""" """y tracts are doomed to inevitable sterility, a very great part is under careful cultivation. iiri«<.„fULl.*.""' -"J*'"'' «■■"'"« ! ^"' ""-' "><"t chariicteristic objects are the wines of the Rhine, particularly >»i 01 Hockheim (denominated Old Hock), and those of the Moselle and Ahr : they are celebrated over Y y 4 \ • -itjfl- ir 6S6 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGUAPHV. Part III. Kuropc, and ftom 26.000 to 28,000 acre* are occupied In producing them. .,...„».., „... -„.„,„ , . — . - ^' " manufacturing district ih prearnt by no means rlvali that above dencribed ; yet there U in Aachen a very extensive fabric of clblhr tome of which are exporte art: they are adorned wit), ricireirl, I!'-'"' ings on glass, and .elect works bvffi'- Durer, a native of the town ami mu "^^ S«:hsens, Behair;,, and I'ircffiyme "v^'kr berg is above all famed for its inv.m '"• those of the watch, the n,aking'of& copperi>latc engraving, the pedal thl ™' ket, the trumpet, the clarionetX' a i IS for one or otfier of iu citizen', The' S are broad, with many fine old ho L. T** not r^ularly built. The town ho S' ,''„''> several of the churches, arc distinSff "°""«°- the latter e,,KH:ially for" their pS "^l f."a'S{T'^.tLr"!: ' T""' """dUtinguished by iU ^tre^il'^tJlT^U^it^:,^'^^'^ Is a citjr of similar character, celebrated ai a strong fortress, and possessing an university tlie i,!^ '^ 386 RATISIIUI* CATIIKURAI.. I Strong fortress, and possessing an university tlie rno,i ^ schoolof which is distinguished all over Germany Srh»'' ftirt was likewise distinguished, during the thirty v. war, as a grand military position. Uegensburg, which u-a?!m Ratisbon. was a Roman city, and, in modern times vem,,,!, as the seat of the Germanic diet : the house used for Jh S purpose still remains, but bears few marks of that (him Li destination. IU chief ornament is the cathedral »E forms an ancient and noble Gothic structure {jig %cl) ih Blrceto are narrow and winding, but clean, consistinnof hil' well-built houses. It sufftred severely during the fiverfii ■ battle in 1809, between the Austrians and the French It im i flourishes by a very extensive trade on the Danube bcin. the chief Intermediate port between Ulm and ViwiM Landshut is a neat small town, with an extensive anil vm curious library. Nordlingen, only a moderate town ii cti/ brated in military history for several remarkable baltiM Anspach and Bayrcuth, once the seat of little couru iiiii hold a place as the capitals of circles, Passau is d-'iiii guished for its antiq> y, its romantic site, and the trcai? signed there, in 1532, between the Catliolics and ProiM anti. 2949. IVirtemberg does not follow Bavaria in the order of magnitude ; but we shall here notice it as completing the principal southern states. WIrieni. berg occupies the greater part of the circle of Swabia ; having Bavaria on the east, and Baden on the west. It is entirely traversed, from north to south, by the Neckar, which, rising in the Black Forest, and flowing due north, falls into the Rhine at Mannheim ; and by the Upper Danube, which, rising from nearly tlie same source, directs its course north-east, till it passes Ulm and enters Bavaria. The mountains nowhere rise to an alpine height : on the western border is the Black Forest; but none of its branches within Wirtemberg reach above the height of 3000 feet. There it no part of the kingdom to which the name of plain can apply ; hut there are very broad and productive valleys ; rendering Wirtemberg, on the whole, one of the most fertile countries in Germany. It is reckoned to contain 1,840,392 acres of arable land, 620,477 pasture, 79,296 of vineyard, and 1,735,466 woodland. The produce of grain of every kind, including maize, is computed at 6,000,000 bushels; of wine, 160,000 eimers: apples, pears, potat, es, and garden stufls are plentiful and eicellent. The rearing of cattle, vith that of sheep, holds a very prominent place in the agriculture of Wirtemberg, and has ialel; been much improved both by new breeds and by artificial grasses and stall-feeding. In horses, hogs, and bees, this country is below the general level of Germany. Gecscare reared in surprising numbers, and are sent even to Vienna and Italy. The extensite forests are valuable not only by their timber, but for producing cherries and several lindi of berries, which are a considerable resource to the poor as food, and from which spirituoui liquors are extracted. The mines consist chiefly of iron, to the extent of 3000 tons, and of some salt. The manufactures arc limited : they consist chiefly of linen or woollen, carried on by the rural population for home use. There arc, however, 104,000 incorporated tradesmen. The commerce is brisk. The export consists in a large r|uantiiT of cattle, some grain and timber, some coarse woollen and linen stufls, and mnnufactiind tobacco. The returns are in colonial goods, cotton, silk, and other manufactures. Hit government is now the most decidedly constitutional of any in Germany ; the nation beini; represented by states, which assemble every two years, are freely elected, and enjoy all llx attributes proper to such institutions. The king of Wirtemberg has always been the most intractable in regard to the arbitrary measures of Austria and the Diet. In no countrjji there a more general diflTusion of knowledge. It has one flourishing university ; and in Booil- GERMANY. 699 jthools and seminaries of other descriptions are said, by Hasse'i, to be more numerous than . jj, other countrjj of the same dimensions. 2950. Wirtemherg is divided into four circles, marked by natural features. 1. Circle of the Seckar, comprising the course of that river, the finest part of Wirtemberg. 2. Circle of I'lic Black Forest, the territory containing that range of mountains. 3. Circle of the Danube. 4 Circle of the Jaxt, so named from a small river, and occupying the south-east part of the todom. Population in 183.5, 1,631,779} that of Stutgard, 22,400; Ulm, 12,000; Halle, j,600;Heilbronn, 7,600 J Ludwigsburg, 5,900; Tiibingen, 7,700; Reutlingen, 10,000. m\ Slulgard, the capital, is iltuatcd on an exteinivo plain, 700 feel above the level of the tea. and sur. Jjded on three sides by mountains. It is described as large and dull ; but the streets arc broad and well urtd. esiiecially tlic principai one, called the Konigstrasse In ite nine squares and eighty.seven streeU KLTaie a number of handsome houses, and the new royal palace is elegant ; but there are no monumenU of mliouity, 110 objects calling up any grand historical recollections. There is, however, a library of 200,000 Jjuinei, including 12,(K)0 bibles, and a celebrated gymnasium, attended by 515 scholars. The manufactures ui iraiic are of little conscijuence. ffli Among Ihe other cities, Ulm, in the circle of the Danube, may take the lead. This once great impe- ml city is happily situated in an exceedingly rich and bcautiftil plain, at the point where the Danube, «1M by the 111" a»d '"«,''1*".> hccomcs a great navigable stream. It retains, however, but a shadow of its im fxlensive industry, chiefly in linen manufactures, which now employ only 3H) persons. The houses are lilt in the old German style, with high gables; the streets are irregular, but well paved. The chief orna. jienlofUlm is the cathedral {fig JISl.), one o» the grandest structures of the kind in Euroiic. It is described by Mr. Dibdin as " Englisb-looking;^' broad, bold, and lofty, in a massive and imposing style of architecture. It is 416 feet long, IfX) broad, and the tower 337 feet high. The interior is very noble, and adorned with many pictures of the o'd German masters. Ulm derives a dark celebrity flrom the overthrow and surrender of the Austrian army, under Mack, in 1805. There are still remains of the strong walls by which it was once defended. Halle is another tVee city of Swabia, diflbrent from one of the same name in Saxony. It is strongly fortified, and its town-house and the cathedral of St. Michael are greatly admired. There are very extensive saltworks, yielding 500U tons of rock salt ; also a trade in corn, cattle, and wood. Heilbronn is a strong little town, situated on the Nefkar, in a fine wine country, and carrviiig on some branches of industry. Ludwigs. burg, pleasantly situated on the same river, is the occasional residence of the royal family. Tiibingen, in the Black Forest, contains the national university, with five faculties, attended by 557 students. 2953. The grand duchy of Baden consists of the long valley of the Rhine, ttom Dasle to Mannheim, sloping down from the Black Forest, which borders it like a ring. Its surface, of about (MHO square miles, contains no plain, but a numl)er of broad fine valleys subordinate to the great valley, among which the Murgthal and the Kinzigthnl arc the most important The mountains of the Black Forest nowhere rise much alMve 4ttance is the majestic circuit made by I the Rhine along the whole southern and western Imrder. The lower course <-'t the Ncckar also flows through Baden; and numerous small but fertilising streams descend from the Black Forest into the Rhine. Grain is produced so abundantly as to aflbrd a surplus for exportation : the wheat yields a very fine flour, to which le may add the finest hemp in Germany, and excellent tobacco. Pulse, flax, and hoiis are less productive. Fruits are very abundant, tnough not in the same vast profusion as in ^\ irtemberg. The vineyards along the Rhine anil the Ncckar are extensive, and ei\joy a high reputation ; but the produce of the territory on the Uke of Constance, or liodcnsce, caile, iiatwithstaiiding considerable emigrations to Russia and America. There are supposed to be OiSfW Catholics, 'JM.tKlO Lutherans, 82,(X)0 Calviiiists, and 15,(X)0 Jews. Since 1817, Baden has had a repre- lenlativc constitution nearly similar to that of Bavaria and Wirtemberg. The revenue may amount to between .'i,(Xill,(KIO and 6,(K)0,(XX) guilders ; but it Is bur(lene h»°. "' baths, which make it at once the resort of the sicK, the fashionable, and the cav. Ki'hi .........u. .*.."' *' is an important military position. Freyburg, a considerable town, in ved university. Constance, situated on the lake of the 8am( K'""pc, hashce,,,!,' baths, which moke it at once the resort of the sicTs, the'fashionaWe, and the cay, Kehl imVMVfiiV.^t"L'" ^'^'"i ■ ■ ' ' "- '-.-t ot:the niacKes^ht;^t£ liaia good ! cndowe L' of the same name, where the Hhinc issues fr'. ml. f'"- little trade and shippmg, raises a great deal of pulse and vegetables in its suburbs, and in iu mwHIH ' ""^ deal of indiflfcrcut wine. "" ™'"ity a gooj 2957. T/ie possessions 'le kingdom of Saxony now consists of a much diminished part of the form of that great house, which once held the chief sway in northern Germany 'x? policy of Napoleon, indeed, raised it to a greater magnitude than it had ever before ' sessed, by annexing part of the Prussian territory, with a considerable portion of Poi''°j" under the title of the duchy of Warsaw. But of all these acquisitions Saxony was strlDii" 1 in consequence of her adherence to Napoleon at the time of his downfall. The kins I ' now consists of the plain of the Elbe, extending along its course for about a hundred m'l"' after it forces for itself a channel through the mighty rock wall of the Erzgcbirac wl'? separates it from Bohemia. On this line it receives several line tributaries ; the Mulda a^ I the White Elster from the west, the Black Elster from the east. The eastern borders ' r Saxony are watered by the Neissc and the Spree : on its frontiers are several cliains f fully supply with bread the dense manufacturing and mining population. A great part if the surface also is covered with flocks of sheep, to the number of 1 ,;i(X),OC)0, the wool nf which has been raised to high perfection by the introduction of the merino breed. The woods are extensive ; but, since the loss of the vast forests of Lusatia and Tlmringia, they arc not adequate to the supply of the mines and manufactures. The mining operations, thouirji in the hands of government, are conducted with a science and a diligence not equalled in any other part of the world. Their products are, silver, 48,000 marks; lead, lOj-lOO c«t.- cobalt, 8900; tin, 2400 ; copper, 600; iron, 24,000 tons. Saxony surpasses all the ri'stol' Germany in manufacturing industry, which is supposed to occupy three-fifths of the inlia. bitants. The staples of linei> and woollen are both considerable ; but it is in cottons tliai this country excels all the rest of Germany. Hassel hesitates not to assert that the Saion ginghams and muslins are equal in every respect to the English, and that, if they cannot support the competition, it is only because the latter are more slight and showy. There is a great deal of paper manufactured, and printing is conducted upon a large scale, The metals of Germany are smelted with tl-.e same skill with which they are extracted ; and tlic porcelain of Dresden and Meissen rivals that of China. The commerce of Saxony is par. ticularly active, not only in its own productions, but as it contains in Leipzig tlie I grand centre of all the commercial movements of Germany. The whole book trade of | this vast country is carried on there; independent of which, the other goods brought to its three fairs are estimated at 18,000,000 rix-dollars. The trade of Leipzig, and of Saxony in general, is carried on chiefly by waggons, though a good deal also goes along the Elbe. 2958. The population of Saxony, in 183.^, was rated at 1,595,000. Lutheranism, which wos first established here, is almost universal, there being only 40,000 Catholics; though, by a singular anomaly, the king himself is of that persuasion, and lias ohiained, since 1811, complete equality for those of his own creed. The difliision of knowledge is general ; but there is only one university, that of Leipzig : and the schools are said to be on a contracted scale, and the attempt to improve them has been hitherto ineffectual. Saxonj ; retains still an ancient constitution, but on the feudal model, and the states consist merely of the nobles and corporations : the peasantry are not represented, and are encumbered with a very disproportionate share of the public burdens. 2959, Dresden (fig. .'588.), though not one of the largest, is generally reckoned the mosi ! elegant of the German cities : it has even been called the Florence of Germany. It is almost unrivalled in situation, tht country around presenting a miilure of romantic natural scenery, with the richest possible cultivation. The banks of the Elbe are on one sidt | abrupt, rocky, woody, picturesque; on the other, they swell into grace- 1 fill and verdant eminences. Tin streets of the old town are some- what narrow, but bordered by man; lofty palaces of the Saxon nobles, built in a simple luid austere style of architecture. I'ht royal palw is of great extent, and contains n"'i 588 B*)S GERMANY. 701 . |\,ature.s ; t>ut thcsu nrc so various nnci scuttcred, as to produce nothing striking as u l, The new town, on the opposite bank, is built in a ligbtur and more regular style, J has one very fine street ; but it cannot vie with the magnificence of the opposite city, "!. , ,j^ains still the seat of the court and the fashionable circles. The stone bridge, of • arches, over the Elbe, is the finest structure of the kind in Germany. Dresden is tTrtrious for its collections in literature and the arts. Tlie royal library is one of the first fVrmaiiy, and the picture gallery has no rival on this side of the Alps. There is also " 'ramense and valuable collection of prints, casts, and antiquities. Population 66,000. " ■ 1- ««-i . i!..i. -I... .1 "—""">, which gives name to the circle, adorni.- I on a rock of granite. It is now converted «oi Amoue other towns l» Meissen, a little city, above the Elbe, which gives name to the circle, adorned K huidsome cathedral, and a ducal castle, majestically seated ( " ihi> foval manufactory of iwrcvlain, producing the finest specimens or mat article in fiurope. f'reyberg, ""^ iial of the mining district in the Erzgebirgc, the scene of the most extensive mineral operations, is '''L'*'-«l illustrious by the residence and instructions of Werner, the founder of the modern school of mi- wt Chemnitz, the manufacturing cfipital of the same district, employs I6()0 looms in linen and cotton, ! "I'Sj! atlOOO dozen stockings. Bautzen, or Budissin, the capital of Saxon Lusatia, is well built and ifiLii with manufactures of stockings, gloves, hats, woollen cloth, &c. Zitlau is the centre of the yam •"IfJln trade Kiiiiigstcin, on a high rock over the Elbe, is the strongest Saxon Ibrtress. Meissen, in 1835, [j-OOinhaWiants; Freyberg, 11,000; Chemnitz, 21,000; Bautzen, 8300 ; Zittau, 8500. i%\. Le>P"9 claims distinguished notice, as the grand centre of com.nerce, not only for Saony, but for all Germany. The scene which it presents of btistlc and business, though jmiiliar to an English eye, has no parallel on the Continent. " Such mountains of wool- jacks, such firmtiments of mirrors, such processions of porters and carters, are to the Cerinaii a new world." In its structure, it presents a mixture of the old and new style of building, which is singular, but not unpleasing. The whole wears an air of comfort and substantiality, which accords with the character of the place. The surrounding country is fcrtilt' and well cultivated, but fiat and monotonous. It has, however, been the scene of soinc of tlie most signal events in European military history. Here Gustavus Adolphus I taincil that signal victory which turned the tide of fortune in the great protcstant war ; and it Lutzcn, iiur fur distant, he fell, crowned with victory. A number of unhewn stones, standing horizontally, mark the spot, on one of* which Is rudely carved, " Gustavus Adol- plius, king of Sweden, fell here, for liberty of conscience." This "stone of the Swede," IS it is called, though in a field by the road, has remained untouched. Round and in Leipzig, too, was fought that mighty battle which liberated Germany, and drove Napoleon btvoml tlie Rhine. The inhabitants, who call this " the battle of the people," have care- liillv preserved the traces of the cannon and musket-balls with which many of the buildings lire struck or perforated. Population 55,000. '^l The kingdom qf Hanover, which, for more than a century has been an appendage to the crown of I tat'Britiiin, nei'ii|iics, with some intervals, the whole north-western angle of Germany, fVom the Elbe to I the lYonticr of Holland. It contains a surfac; of about l.'j,180 square miles. The Hartz, a long chain of Mthcd mountain masses, extending for more than 100 miles along its southern border, is covered with nttniive womis, and rich in mines. Its highest innnacic, the Brocken, docs not fall within Hanover ; but lliere are several heights somewhat exceeding 3000 lect. The rest of the kingdom forms the commencement o( ihat imnionsc plain which extends across Europe to the Urals, or mountain boundary of Asia. This pUIn consists of a continuous basis of sand, interspersed with blocks of granite, which seem to have been cirried thither by some ancient revolution of the globe. The land, where it is not brought under cultivation, ijonlyan expanse of heath and gloomy pine. The only fertile tracts are along the banks of the rivers, and «{ the Hat coast of the sea, where artificial mounds have rescued from its ravages an expanse of very rich ndimi. The country has the Elbe for its eastern boundary, and is traversed by the navigable streams of the Ems, the Wescr, and their tributaries; so that it enjoys great advantages for trade. The disadvantages ofntluTcaic not redeemed by human diligence to the same degree as in some other parts of Germany, It is true, that in (iiittingen, Hlldesheim, flrubenhagen, and some of the marshy tracts redeemed from the rirmand from the sea, both skill and diligence are displayed ; but others, which might at least be greatly inprovcd, arc left a dreary and savage waste. After all, grain is raised sutticieiit fur internal consumption, anil cabhagc and other vegetables more than sufficient. Great quantities of flax are reared for its linen inanu- ficliirci. The immense heaths of LUnebcrg are uscti chiefly as sheep-walks, and for obtaining honey, the mnual returns of which are said to be 40,0(HV. With resfiect to live stock,. Hanover is only distinguisheil fill its hogs, which possess a peculiar excellence, rendering Westphalia hams famous over the globe. The nipiily of timber is large, and in some provinces there is great abundance nf turf. The mines of the Hartz I arc very valuable, being in annual amount about 3,000,000 rix-dollars; of which silver averages 410,000 ; I Itid, 2JS,i<)0i copiwr, 44,000; iron, 396,000; brass, iH.OOO: zinc, 4.^,000 j Siilt, 548,000; and some coal. Cmse and household linen is the staple manufacture, to which is added some fine linen, and a good deal of hailcloth. BrcwinR, which was formerly very extensive, is now much fallen oflT, and distillery has sprung J up ill its itead. The commerce for which this |>art of Germany is favourably situateil lias been cliicfly mgribicd by the Hante towns of Hamburg and Bremen j while most of the interior trade passes by Brunmick. Kmdcn, in East Friesland, is almost the only port from which there is any foreign trade ; vhile the waggon traffic passes chicflv through Luiiebcrg and Miinden. The impulation of Hanover innintnl in 1838 to l,370,(K)O. It was occupied by Bonaparte during the war; and, on its restoration, in J l!|j,«aa erected into a kingdom. The union which has subsisted between the crowns of Great Britain I and Hanover since 1714, was dissolved in 1837, on the death of William IV. ; the succession to the latter j being limited to the male line. The government, in 1815, received a constitutional form; and states were I organised : they are comiiosed of 101 deputies, of whom 10 are prelates, 41) nobles, and 42 deputies from the I cities. This representation was considered not sufficiently liberal, and was afterwards altered i but King I Ernest, on succeeding, in 1837, introduced a new change, which has caused much discussion. Each of the I numerous and once separate districts of which Hanover is now composed, has also a constitution of its own, I Slid I'ociili.ir iniKles of administering justice. I sea. Among the cilifs, Hanover, the eaiiilal, is a plain, ordin.iry town, situated in the midst of the wide lund)' |ilain, and neither very largo, nor containing any thing very remarkable. It is supported by the resi. Iilenccof the court and military, and the occasional assemblage of the states ; and, notwithstanding the close Iconiicctioii with England, English manners have not made much progress. There is a library, and collecUnn |ol |iaiiitiiigi, but botii on a small scale. GUttingen (lossesses a greater interest, as the seat of the most flourish- |iii(|iroteilaiit university of Germany, supported by the Hanoverian government with an almost unrivalled liilicrality. The number of students in ltii28 Mnounted to l&OO, but has now greatly declined; it is the 70S DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 1'aht 111, With a number of private leachert and tutors. Luncbcrg, on the Elmenau, where that rlvvr i> ■ aui "'.'""1, 1 vcueln of tixty or neventy tons, has a pretty brisk trade, especially by land, employjna 7u (XJd hijr'i i '"' I waggons daily. MUnden, at the junction of the Weser, Fulda, and Wcrra, receives annually ikmi !i'^,Jt '""» I Clausihal la an industrious manufacturing place, situated in the heart of the miiiinii dlatri 'i '"" '" I port. briick, on the Hase, which gave the title of Bishop to the late Uuke of York, carries on urvat irliH !'i V'""' S9ti4. Heue-Ciusel is asmaller state than those hitherto described, comprising only «5) «iii/,r',, ! .i" '""" a population of 700,927. It borders on iSaxony, Hanover, Bavaria, and a crowd of little atatua ilii! !! ' *'"l I almott entirely filled with hills and woods, presenting a very picturesque aspect i thnugli, nitiui '"""''* I range* the Thuringian forest docs not rise above 3ri00 feet, nor the Fulda range above iriddVcH I un""i' *'"'' I covered with extensive forests. The Fulda and Werra, tributaries of he Weter, are the cliiefrivVri 1 1" ,*'* touches also on the Mayn. The land is cultivated witli diligence, but not in an cnliglitciicil nr liinir'nl,"i"'" " I ner.being too much subdivided among a poor iieasantry, - •■ wants, with lar^c quantities of flax, and a profusion -' -" ::!.tes!K ■asantry. . It yields gram, however, somcwhiit liiv m,l i .'"' ion of valuable wood. It has \m,m\ sliueii, an' 7 i ''*" ally iron, with some silver and coiiiwr. 'riie oiilv «',,,,i .'!"' The produce of the mines is considerable, especially iron, witn some silver and copiicr. The kiiIv h'mV V'l""' I manufacture is that of coarse linen, which is generally difnised throughout the district. I low> carrloi > '? n""' trade beyond the export of the articles already mentioned, but it is situated on the patiaKu liinwroii ihiii i trade of southern and of northern Germany, on which it is thus enabled to levy considerable lolk ii"' Caisel, which formed the central iwrtion of Jerome Bonaparte's cplicmcral kingdom of Wesliilisll/i' h, '*' been restored to the elector, who represents the ancient imwerful and warlike landgraves (if ||i"ub i' ""? In 1831 it received a constitution which is one of the most liberal in Germany. 'I'iie revcmiB ii V* Cassel is Wilhelmshohe, an Ionic palace, with a long, lofty, simple front, very beautiriilly illiialul i,i> i slope of a wooded hill. Its waterworks display great taste and variety. Hanuu, at the jiiiietiuii ui iliu m i and the Kintzig, is a large, well built, open town, carrying on a considerable trade, Fulda j, ,„ iZS\ little city, finely situated on the river of that name, over which there is a handsomo stone liriduc, ^ *""« 2966. Hette-Dannstaiit, called the Grand Duchy qf Heaie, is composed of two portions, rt'iichini t\m\i ik Hhine from the Prussian to the Bavarian frontier. It is entirely enclosed by the Odciiwalil, lliii VciuBl.lJr the Westerwald, and other mountains of this (urt of Germany, not lolly, but steep iiiid wihhIoiI. 'ifioi, I valley of the Rhine, however, with others branching fVom it, enclose a great extent of fertile tiitiiiiiiv v productive, especially in wine, of which f>t,(>CXI tuns, according to HasscI, are annually iiriHlui'iil i liul i'? are the only grain foi which its high tracts are suited. Besides the Rhine, this duchy iiieluilea ilm \mm i « of the course of the Main, and even touches the Ncckar. The entire surface does nut oxiioil ll>(i ,(,,|„ miles. In addition to the abi>ve productions, tobacco and flax are raised in consiileraljlu qimiiliiln'i tiidii hills are covered with large herds of cattie. There is a little copper, iron, and salt. Tlie linijulmjdn i, , ',' ' mated at 7l>(l,f>!H, of which only 140,(X)U are Catholics. Hesse-Darmstadt has a cciiiatitullon, whlili ii)» some difficulty, the grand duke was prevailed on to make sufficiently liberal. The revenue la about i,<erial city, formerly the residence (jl an /,u' 1 bishop, which is now annexed to its territory. The fortifications of Mciitz, which arc of iinnienae alri'iiiiii , , extent, have been put in repair, and are now held by the diet as one of the great bulwarks ofllie uiimin. Ik troops of Austria and Prussia, therefore, occupy the forts in front of Meiitz, and those of Caaaol iiu ijiiiiiu site bank j while the duke governs the interior of the town. The Rhine is here crosai'd by a briiluc ii|' m\'C pontoons. Mcntz has now few manufactures, but a very considerable trade in wine ami cnluhiHi jici'li I' Worms, another once great imiwrial city, exhibits only the ruins of its former sintc, and Is almnit rliiikiiililiih rubbish, the fruit of successive desolating wars. It has still the remains of some fine eililicea, nml a ikkkI Zi and corn market. Ulibnbach, a thriving little town, is the only place in the diicliy where iiiaimiiiii /I flourish. PopuUtion: Darmstodt, 21,400 ; Mentz, 34.400 ; Wonns, 7900 ; Ofllnliaeh, 74110. "'"™™"™ 38a 2968. A variety of little states and prinapalities are clustered in diflvrcnt pttrtsofllif tiorth and west of Germany. These, in extent, and even in revenue, are often iiili.>iiiii' loll* estates of English nobles even of a secondary class ; yet the petty princeH liy whom lliuy m I ruled maintain all the form and state of sovereigns. Thoy have states, ininisterH, an eiiflu'i|il«, a public debt, an army, all in miniature. Yet, small as these princes are, cirfmiistiiiiii'i lii\( occurred to draw them into considerable notice in the eyes of Europe. Several, in lltttli. sence of wealth and power, have endeavoured to distinguish themselves by porsuiwl iw'rii, and particularly by military talent: Brunswick and other houses have proiliiceil wiiwof the greatest European generals. The obligation, also, imposed upon the Uritish rnyiil liiiiiily, of marrying only into protestant houses, with the inconveniences which might lie prudiid *•*" III, >lKI 01,0 (Hill, ,„. ' ' or Dii imw „| ,1 ' I ''"f' ttniwmt I u ,, ' '«">.»»> ;:'.;;;"' » Ijrm I,,* ,„ ■ nowhiUu!,HHl| * 'I'" "Illy dmiri.hi , >Kcl.,.lwwi||,n, iiili-'raUlB (oik I "'" '■ wci.i,.i,.iM ; ri>vc.ui ii..;.,.c,;!:,j illlllVHluul ill ^,|„ *" 1 «»wii,i.)itnuliiis£ lie«ci'iUMifu«l1|" ■ ; ' iihiMtcTOh.|il,ii,li(ii '•.yrctlislliMi, I tl!\illy.itu„„|',M l'iiliaU«n»|(w,i||, 1110 IrtlUgc. 1.1 W(HHl«l. ■|i|„„,|',|j i (I'rtilo lotrildry, v,„ illv jircHliu'cil , 1,11, J incliiilw 111,, (,nn, . , mit OXTOlHlliai I ' i)ijuiliiaiililii..|liiii||||, Ihe po|imi„ii,n|,,,.., intitulioii, whli'li, niiH ienuelMli««4,i«i.(« iihamlinmeaiiilinu. arnislmll (IcrivrtTiirt i"siilt'iiutMir«iHta„,„| iiiinieiui.ilfi.lilllli, «f (amelmi ijn,, Hiy a liriilKc. iif |||\,,V,„ niiil ciiliniiiil ||,„||„,|, . (li««lin(iiirli(ii(„|»|||| lilii'i'ii, aiiiUjjiiiiiiiigii y wlicro iiwiimiwiii,^ GERMANY. 708 rent parn iif il« ten iiilV'iiorlotlii ly whom ihtyw urs, III) t'xi'liiiiwr, ri'iimstimi'm liw .'vt'rul, inlln'il). |icrsuiuil ii.viiii iroiliiccd M)iw(i( I Itisli royal liiiiiil*, iglit liv jiriKliift^ Dooil. iA\\»nee with the great monarchies, has caused these smaller houses to be almost in- fiibly rcMirtcd to when a matrimonial alliance was projected. Several of them have J II iiiiiwiii to Great Britain ; one of the smallest, but for a recent fatal event, would have r" n niRtrimonial king. Similar connections have been formed with Russia and other !!rthcrii courts. The following table, of the extent, population, &c. of these states, in 1835, tJi bwn dfW" "P *"''"™ 8°**** authorities : — !|i,„.OWeiiburgh Oldeiibiifgl' - j,i,i,.i;dburg-Oollitt ii„.Mi!liil»K''i' , ■ MnklfnliiirK-Schwerln MBklpribiirg-Strellti (mniwlcli • _ • __ • _ S(!hrM'prlncl|iaIltieB) - |l,iu»(twi>l"-lnHpamio») - i.i,„„i«ll>irii (two nrlncipalitles) HohciK""*!"' tlwo prlnclpalilles) Wnldetk UnM.DctllKiliI lj»M.Scliaiii'iiliurg Hfiifllomburg Uchlpiiiteln limibiirg rHnkfort Wwli ■ llwfflcn Ucrman Square Mlln. ropulatlon 6R'82 238,600 23-4a 115,000 -16- 2.'»,000 48-88 136,000 H-72 146,324 88 460.000 87,000 70-37 260,000 82-70 373,601 4723 142,132 36- 116,000 28- 93,B26 23-37 60,000 21-66 60,000 20-60 82,000 9-75 26,000 7-84 24,000 2-50 8,000 7-10 150,000 n- 60,000 6-75 55,000 a- 67,800 RereiiUeln Florlni. 2,245,000 725,000 1,500,000 I.ISO.OOO 1. , 2. '".';■;'• 7(i.. JO 3,089,000 2,967,000 1,668,000 650,000 608,000 270,000 480,000 680,000 240,000 110.000 20,500 1,800,000 760,000 480,000 480,000 S9()9' Tlic gratul duchy of Saxe- Weimar, must rank with the small states, though it takes the |(t(l ninong tlicm. It stands chiefly upon the Thuringian forest, and is diversified with wooded lilliof vurlous height, form, and aspect. The soil is in many parts ungrateful, but is diligently {ullintli'iii though by a poor peasantry, and in too minutely divided portions ; notwithstanding nbk'li) It yiulds corn more than is sufficient for its own supply, and breeds sheep with very bliihly iinprovi'd wool, which, under the name of electoral, is in request even in England. But \k itlury of Weimar consists in its intellectual eminence, which has rendered it the literary (iniluli tho Athens, of Germany. While the other princes disdainfully neglected men of learn* \\\f, or cotiliiied their patronage to the French, the grand duke of Saxe- Weimar, by tiiri'mc lihcrulity and courtesy, drew round him all the great men by whom ihe annals (f Oerman literature have been illustrated during the last half century. Wieland, Herder, Scliillir, Oiithe, and a crowd of secondary name, have, successively or together, made Wdimr tlii'ir residence. This German 'Athens is little more than a spacious village, with 11,000 Inhnhitants : only the palace and house of assembly can be called spacious edifices. Il k<, Imwivcr, a library of 1 10,000 volumes, liberally thrown open to the public. Every I 4'|im.' uf freedom is given to the press that the great monarchs will allow ; but to them the picu uf Wi'imnr is an object of continual jealousy. The grand duke, the most liberal and |w|mliir of 111! the German princes, was the first to give his subjectti a representative con- ililiitiiiii 1 yt't so well were they before satisfied with his government, that attendance on the ■inU'i wnn conaidercd by some as an unnecessary burden. Jena, a small town, is distinguished livdiicuf t)iu most flourishing universities of Germany, and as the theatre of the great battle mliicli overthrew for a time the Prussian monarchy. 'i9'0, Mecklenhurg is a territory of the most northerly part of Germany, north-east of Hniiiivor, ntid bordering on Fomerania, of whose character it in a great measure partakes. Il ciiitiiiiitH to n great extent of lake and forest ; and the cultivation is comparatively rude ; I yi't n viirivty of gentle hills give it a picturesque aspect. It is divided into the two grand iliichk'« of Schwcrln and Strelitz ; the former is much the more extensive ; and Schwcrin, till' cnpitnl, U a pretty considerable town, with a handsome palace, situated on a lake, and MiiliiiiiiH){ a good gallery of pictures. Rostock is a larger town, situated on the Baltic, and fiiiiirliiiK itrnln to the value of from 150,000/. to 200,000/. Mecklcnburg-Strelitz is ex> ewilin^tly atimll, not containing quite 80,000 people, and its capital being little more than II liiriti' vlllngc ; yet it is interesting to Britain, as having given to her Caroline, wife of (ieiirHc It,, nnd Charlotte, wife of George III., two of the most respected British :|U«!iiii, J 11971, llrunfwiek is the appanage of one of the greatest and most ancient houses of Gcr- I runv, timt of Gucif; whose head, Henry the Lion, contended with the house of Swabia IfortW omnire, but was worsted, and put under the imperial ban. Since that time, the lOutlf fnitilly has held only a secondary place in Germany. The branch of Brunswick- '<-'■,*(« II™ 704 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. p*»Tni, LUnubur((, however, luis risen to the dignity, first of kings of Hanover, and then nf i- of Great Britain. That of Wolfenbiittel holds onljr the small domain called thu d i ""^^ I Brunswick. It is rather a productive territory, situated partly on the declivities'" fi"p Hartz, partly on the plain of Saxony. The city of Brunswick is larger than in proMrt' ' to the state, containing a population of about 30,000. It is a considerable seat «f "i" inland trade of Germany, its fairs ranking next to those of Frankfort and LciuzJi, ti government was nearly absolute till very lately, when the people, by 3 violent n^l dynasty, effected for themselves a representative constitution, 12972. Branchei of the house of Saxony, once the ruling family in northern Germany h a cluster of small principalities to the west of Sixony royal. Saxe-Coburg-Gotha hw I lately formed by the union of these two branches, on the extinction of that of Gotha. "^i" i comprehends a great part of the territory of Thuringia, and is rather productive. Th • containing about 13,000 inhabitants, is the channel of a considerable trade connected "'h ! the fair of Leipzig. It is somewhat a learned city ; containing a library of 60,000 volu*" with valuable manuscripts. Saxe-Coburg is a mountainous territory, comprising part 'f I the Thuringian forest. It contains good pasturage, and some valuable mines. ti • territory bos been raised to distinction by the good fortune of one of its younger nicmbe"^ now king of the Belgians. Saxe-Meiningen, on the Werra, is a little tract, enriched T mines of salt at Salzungen, and by somn of coal, iron, and cobalt. Saxe-Hildburgliauscn '' the most complete example of one of these petty principalities. With a population '■• 32,000, and a revenue of 20,0002., it has all the appendages of a great state ; a public d* an army of 100 men, and a vote in the Germanic diet. ' 2!)73. OUenburgh is distinguished by the high rank of its princes, connixti"' oy famil alliances with all the great powers of the north, particularly Russia. Th" Duke lias posseL sions in different parts of the north of Germany ; but the moin part of tiiem is situated the Weser, to the west of Hanover ; a flat, marshy district, but abounding in rich pastures" and somewhat resembling Holland. ' 2974. /.'iuniu is a dukedom, which, by the union of the territories held by several branches of the same family, has attained to some tolerable magnitude. Sit\iated In tlic I southern part of Franconia, forming a hilly country on the banks of the Rhine and th Main, it produces those valuable wines. Hock, RUdcsbeim, Johannisbcrg, &c., and h fitudded witl< towns, nearly all of which annually attract thousands of visiters to enjoy their famed mineral waters. Wiesbaden Cthc capital), Schwalbach, Ems, are the chief. 2975. The other principalitiee are all very small. Anhalt, on the Elbe, between Sai and Brandenburg, has its population, of 142,000, divided between thu three branclir r Dessau, Bernburg, and Kothen. The family is ancient, and has produced some men f eminence. Schwarttenhurg, a district of Franconia, hos 1 16,000 people, divided between tl two branches of Sondershausen and Rudulstadt, both of great anti(|uity, and deriving moi! importance from their great estates in Bohemia and other parts of the Austrian territotv Reuse, in Upper Saxony, has 93,500 inhabitants, divided between the elder and younir I branches. Lippe-Dettmld imd Lippe- Schauenburg arc situated to the soutli of Hanover' the one hilly and wooded, the other flat and fertile. A former prince of Lippu-Sehauen! burg made a distinguished figure in the service of Portugal. Tliere are two i)rinces o( I Hohcnzollem, Sigmaringen and Hechingen, having between them 60,000 people. Tlici form the only petty states in the south of Germany, being situated in Swabia, betweeJ Baden and Wirtemburg. Waldeck-l'ynnont, composed of two hilly coinitries between Hew and Hanover, derives almost its sole importance from the mineral baths of Pyrniont, which are among the most celebrated in Europe. Hesse-IIomburg is a small mountainous principa. lity, near Frankfort, possessed by a branch of the family of Hesse- Darmstadt. Thoujh, I by the favour of the house of Austria, its possessions have been tripled, they do nut exceed those of u rich English squire. Homburg, the capital, is a small town, in a very pieturesque situation. Finally, the minimum of principalities is found in Lichtenstein, a district in the Saxon Erzegebirgc, with only 8000 inhabitints ; but the prince, as an Austrian nobleniag, is extremely opulent, and his family well informed and intelligent. 2976. The four free cities of Germany, Hamburg, Liibeck, Bremen, and Frankfort, furni still an interesting feature, necessary to close the picture of this great country. Hicy ^ the sole remnant of the Hnnse Towns and imperial cities ; illustrious confcderacies, whicli I during the middle ages, acted a most conspicuous ]>art in the ii.iprovement of the Europeu system. The members of the congress of Vienna, though little friendly to any tliinj! re. publican, considered these so fully established, and so venerable by antiquity, that ilw sanctioned them as a part of the Germanic body. 2977. /Aint/mrjT is the most importiuit c<)nnne» ity of Germany. It forms the tin. porium of Saxony, Bohemia, and other fertile and ...austrious regioas watered by the Kll« I and its tributaries. It is, at the same time, a grand medium of communication Ijetweii I the northern and middle states of Europe ; and a species of depot for the commodities of cad [ The city is of great antiquity, having been founded by Charlemagne, us a bulwark iijjainstllii I rude northern tribes, by whom it was repeatedly sacked, particularly by the \'endes, in W]. \ Ijood GERMANY 7. ^L, the basis of tlie celebrated Hanseatic league. It continued in a state of uninterrupted ice, while other members of the confederacy declined. In 1618 it became a free im- riil ci'tyi »"<' '" ' "^^^ independent of Denmark. It suflTured deeply during the domi- Mtion of Napoleon ; but on his downfall was restored to all its rights, and since that time has ),T'-'*''y 'c^'**''* ^" '*'''^ there entered its port 2,497 vessels, of which 772 were from «l^l„, 3,55 Holland, 154 France, 172 Bremen, 142 Oldenburg, 87 Denmark, 42 Spain, MlfsiSt 17 Hussia, 101 West Indies, ,';4 United States. The articles imported were very iatious but the following are the principal : — coals from Britain, 326 shiploads ; sugar lalpOO chests; collee M,0()0,000 lbs. ; rum 1607 puncheons; wine 18,281 bhds., 10.39 ■^dc. ; train oil 7,596 tons; herrings 27,280 tons; wool, raw and manufactured, Kel bales; cotton .55,841 bales; calico 11,668 bales; linen 17,776 chests; also, largo oiiitities of tobacco, brandy, drugs, spices, ornamental and dye woods, and a good deal of mill i 29'* of *'"' vessels employed belonged to the port, 727 to Britain. Of these last (he tonnage was 14?, 1.34, of which 64,566 belonged to steamers, 31,762 to sailing vessels rith eencral cargoes ; 25,02 1 were laden with coals ; the rest carried on trade with New- foundland. Tliere were exported in that year 102,400 qrs. wheat; 82,000 of other grain. The innni>''<>etiircs of Hamburg are various, though none very considerable, except the ^nery of sugar. _ _ 0977. Humhiiijr IS not a well-built town ; the streets being in general narrow and jj[i,pilar, the houses constructed of brick or wood. The churches of .St. Michael's and St. Fi'icr's have elegant spires, and the new exchange is handsome; but there is no edifice distinguished for its splendour. The hospital, however, completed in 1 823, is most spacious and cummoilious ; being 700 feet in front, and each wing .300 feet long. It is extremely fcil managed, and l)elieved to contain 2500 beds. The executive in Hamburg consists asclf-clectcil senate of twenty-eight members, who, however, are checked by popular coun- cils chosen by all who have 240/. of property within the city. According to Dr. Buch, the average population between 1817 and 1826 was 122.H1,<;; while Crome estimates that of tlic whole territory at 150,000. 297R. Liihech, as a Hansc town, rose to distinction as early as Hamburg, and possessed even a pre-eminence ; the maritime law by which the concerns of that great confederacy were regulated having derived its name from this city. Its situation, however, within the Baltic, and nut commanding the navigation of any great river, rendered it impossible for it to compete with Hamburg. It actiuired celebrity by the retreat of Blucher, who, after the disastrous battle of Jena, made there a desperate stand against a superior force of French troops, in which Liibeck suffered severely. By the treaty of Vienna it regain vl its privileges as a free city, and a place in the Germanic diet. The small depth oi water in the Trave, upon which it is situ.ited, obliges vessels drawing more than ten feet to stop It Travemuiulc What remains of its commerce is chiefly with the countries on the Baltic; anil steam vessels now run from it to Copenh.igen and St. Petersburg. In the Hotel deVillc are kept the records of the Hanseatic le.igue. Liibeck, for an old town, is well built of stone, and the church of St. Mary is elegantly itdorned with a series of paintings called the Dance of Death. Tlie fortresses, once of great strength, were demolished by the French. The population is about 28,0(X). 2979 Urcmen, at the mouth of the Weser, is enriched by the commerce of that important river, down which are brought the productions of Westphalia and part of Franconia ; countries I eitensivc and valuable, though not nearly ecjual to those watered by the £lbe. The city is situated on both r>ides of the river. The old town consists of narrow streets, bordered by high gloomy houses, built in the fashion of the middle ages : but there is a new town, in a much more elegant style. The government, which once approached to an oligarchy, is now almost purely dcinocnitic. In 1 829 there entered Bremen 881 vessels; of which 66 »crc from the United States; 45, West Indies, chiefly Spanish; 14, South America; 110, Great llritain ; 37, France; 80, Russia; 11, Sweden; 11, Norway; 66, Denmark; 321, North of Germany ; 41, Prussia; 70, Netherl.iiids, &c. In 18,35 the imports were valued-at 1,835,000/.; the chief articles being, sugar, 251,000/. ; tobacco, 545,000/. ; coffee, 263,1 38/. ; jtrain oil, 106,440/.; cotton, 31,404/. ; iron, 47,.325/. ; rice, 33,924/.; butter, 23,003/.; I linseed, 22,878/. ; rum, 15,720/. A handsome port has been formed .it Bremcrhagen, 12 I leagues below, and only light vessels can arrive to the city. The population is about 146,000. 2980. Frankfort on the Main is an ancient and venerable city, the seat of the Ger- Imanic diet. Its chief importance, however, is derived from being one of the great centres «f the German inland trade ; its fairs, which are held twice in the year, being second only ) those of Leipzig. Its situation on the Main, near its junction with the Rhine, and at lie meeting of the great ro.ids, which traverse Germany, is extremely favour.ible for this ibjcot. Tliougb the houses are built of wood, there are several spacious squares and streets; I numerous large mansions, which recall solenni historical recollections. The fortiiicationii 109 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P*Kt III are no longer of any 'mportancp. The main body of the city U on 1I19 Dnrih •aic ..u ■»■■);<.-■ K,, a,,} •■■|>viu>iii.i.-. Alio iiiiuii uuiijr Ul IIIO Cliy || Qll 1119 DDhh ||||||i f fiver; but a portion, called Sachsenhausen, itandii on llm north nJiUi, nml j, ..,,,, " . " - tone bridge. The inhabitants are, in general, well inliirinixl i mui! nmny nfivir i !'.' uals poiscas valuable libraries, and collections relating to thu line ni'lit, 'niu t ' very numerous, were formerly confined to a particular quitrter, whvrs'nivy wiiro*'l' *'■"' ry night; but since 179G this illiberal system has been discuiitlnuvd. '" Chap. XI. HOLLAND AND UKLGIUU. 2981. The Netherlands, comprising now the two kingdomi of Ifiitlaml mul fl.; form a maritime territory, which, situated almost in the eeiiti'it lielwui'ii ilio norilf"""! the south of Europe, and penetrated by the Uliine and iln trlliiitiiiU'N, jiiinhisiiuii ", natural advantages for industry and commerce. They huvu, iu'cor(lll)||iy, (Vimi n votv'^'T' period of modern history, ranked as one of the most proitpiTuiis and lliitii'MiInu imrt" f Europe. The union of the Batavian and Belgic Netherlands inlo ow kJiiKiiiiiii Hi,,' i in fact only a renewal of that which subsisted at a former iierlotl, was fiuil(K>ii|y ii.riiiii,,,'.' | in 1830, by a revolution of the Oelgians. The separate existence, liowvyjir, of lliillmuij I Belgium being yet recent, and the statistical information retipvcllng llaini liiivhiii ( , number of yeors been collected with reference always to the entire Niillivriitml*, llicy wiin* still treated most advantageously in combination. It may he kiitllcli'iit tu olmcrw ih t' since the revolution of 1830, Belgium has been erected into a sviiuriilM htonniihy, tliroiiV the mediation of the five great powers of Europe; and the crown, with (lu'ir cuiiwnt if been conferred on Prince Leopold, formerly of Saxe-Coburg. ' " Bqfcrences to the Map of Holland ami Dul^lnm, HOLLAND. I> PniULAKO* 1. Paaseni 1j. Huitl'DIHMt 3. Dukkum 4. !«u warden 5. St. Jacob 3, Fanckir 7. Harliiiften S. Kcimwurt 9. IMiward 10. Workum 11. Hindeloiien IV. Htavoren 13. Slotcn 14. Kuinder 1.'.. Tcrkapiml '16. (irnuw 17. Schoat IH. NoordwcMc .in. neaxa Zwang to. UonkertxKk. It. (inONIIfOIW. SI. Manim %'i. Orymkerke ^3. Zoitkainp tl. U>km SA. f.opiM>nunl S6. Dtlfijl 97. Wiiucholen 88. Fort llnunaniK S!>. Ter Awl 30. Ter Maanch 31. Kolhoin 3V. (iroi)lnf{en. III. Drbntiii. 33. lloon 31. Gasteren .3.'). Assen 3r>. NinllUc 37. Dieverburu 3H. Westerttorg 3!). Odoom 40. Schoonebcek 41. Koevonleii A'l. Hulnen 43. Mepiiel. IV. Ox-nvuBi.. 41. Steenwvk 4.'>. Hlockz.l 4fi. VoUenhnTcn 47. ZwartesluU 48. Kampen 49. Hattem 50. Zwoll 01. (ienemutden 3V. Ofnmvn A.I. Hardenlierg M. Dm Ham M. Almelo A6. Oolmartiim ST. Oldenrjial AS. Kn«chede M. Pclden 60. Haaxbergen At. . lie WoMt Hoet 86. Amheim 87. Htiissm KH. Ilerrald 89. Wagi-ininn 90. TliiJl 91. Kuilenbuig. VI. Utriiciit 95. Wjk 93. Venendaal 94. lui-Ulein 9.'i. Montfoorl 96. Utrecht 97. Nlcuwcrtluli 98. Naarden. VII. Nohtii Hol- land. 99. Anuterdani too. I)e Knog 101. Monnikendam 107. 1'unnerend 10.1. Kdam 101. Iloom lo.'i. Knkhuiren \m. MedeiiHck 107. Kolhorn 108. The Welder 109. CalandMiaK liO. Petten 111. llruck \\i, Alkmaar ... 113. Kginondaan Zee 175. Gulpen. 114. UevcTwyk 11.5. ZandToort 116. Iluilein. 187. MerM'h 188. Kllelliiui k 189. DIeklrch 190. Kchlenaih 191. Uri-venma- cheren. nBLOIU.\l. I. Aktwrhp. 1. Arenilnnck 2. Tiirnhiiul 3. Mlndurhiml 4. Goring 5. Oo.l Malle 6. Hiiiii Vllel 7. Port l.llln 8. Port SI. I'hillp 9. Antweqi 10. llerKeiinout 1 1 . Iferchi'in U. Iliinin North Dra RANT. 142. Bergen op Zoon 13. Mechlin 1 13. Ka2enda.M II. I.ier 144. Wiliiamilad 15. Vnsdonrkm 145. Itreda 16. llerenthaU 116. nh.iam 17. Gmul 147. Tdiiurg 18. Lununul. 148. Geertruidenberg 149. Ileusdon II. LiMHiiRn. 150. Ilonimel 19. Ileick Teten 151. Port St. AndrlM 80. Pi 15'2. (trave 153. Vechel 1.54. llolileDuc l.'>5. IlouTel 156. Keiuel l.'>7. 1.uikiGntel 158. Kerjel l.VJ. Leetide 160. Asten 16I.HelniQnt 168. Wanroy 163. Verlingbeck X. LlHRURO. 1.11. Vellen 165. PeliTwerth 166. Vonio 167. He'den 168. Mejel 169. \V«;rt 170. Hurcmonde 171. Wvssen 178. Oinbeeck 173. Boilduc 174. MaestTlcht 55, Talrildll .}ii. MmilM'B 07. lluH'lilTfl*Biiml Yan .J8, f«lp,|sPlitl„lK» fiK, l<:uv>'hlt> lit, Kli I.AUrtllll, y Wm fitkiiniii, fl'i, I kllHllltl 6.1, lll,Mlll|)||tlltfg 61. Ilruiii'4 65. il.ivnd 66. NiiJinittil 67. Tlimiilil 68. IlitniMil (III, liui 711 lliiti.ll«n(Mui> 71. IWihijiliti 7^, \V>tfiieiuii ■■ 3. ViirM 71. Mm\y\ 75, t'uurirai }6, ItmiwvlMK 7, Thi«ll, VI, llAINAIir, ?». I'llll« JO, |i»|irti| 80, TtMMP I IJUVI* 81, 'I'ltunirtj 81 pMDitiniiy 81. '.'ainoni 88. Mateyck 83. Auh 84. Heckein 85. lla>ieit 86. Illlien 87. H.intongret 88. Alaiuhuven. III. South IIra. RAP.T. 89. Tirleinoni 30. Incourt 31. Mouillur 38. Nirellei .,„ .13. U Ifclla Alllann U5. lUiiun 8.1. 'IVntt'viilii 81. Uiitvrnlo 85 liTan »«, Mom 87t Leiii 88, Alh 89, KiMhlen 181, Hm ill t'llAIMII 94. lleiiiiMiiiitl VIII. South H»i. LAND. 117. Llm 118. Uimuden 1 19. I.*!lden 180. The Hagiie 181. GrflT.Tande 188. Wil»»een 183. UoudR 31. lUiiu .1.5. Waterloo 36. Ilruueli 37. Vlanden 38. Lnuvaine 39. Maerien 40. I)ie>t 41. AeiM-hot 48. Kriufee 43. Donderieel 44. Aiche. XI. LURRHBURO. ,-.,„,. ,^,„„ 176, Wle» Wampach IV. Kait Fi.anhrri. 106. NiHIiim 177. rier»«ux 4.5. Alnt 1117, lieuiiiili ,,.,„._.._ 46. Ninov. lOM, llhi,,,! 47. Granimont |0U, .liuillinllnR JS.Pariike 110. Ilemi lUliiy 49. OudenarilB IILIlHllnnti. 5*) l.t«uweruliein 51. DencniRk VIII, Lmim, .5a.ll.inw 118, N|, Million 53. (.hem ilS, ll««ll>8lnl» 44. Wcieren ill. Mwcis U6, CIllllllU. „ VII, Nami'r, 1)7. AUilwilHiiifii "8, |'hlllp»Mli> 100, 'I'liil llAiiilliin 101, Grain 108, Ndiiiiir 103. Geiiihloiii 101, |i!«liii(wi 105, ArillillllM 178. Vienden 17'l. Kichdorf ISO. Marlt'liinfce 181. Niderl'alien 188. Luxemburg 183. Euh 184. Friunge 185. t^anach 186. N. Anwen 115. MarmuM II"; fit'" jmisi-urviii, ".'iiiiiiii !*li .IhK V.I. Vlw ''"• l.iniliiiii '" "l.l«plnl .1;. ilii^ii,,,, I'll. Viel 8«l III, Jl' Imiln .Vj. lla.hHni, .ir, Nf.iiiB I lyi.iUiiiii 1 I 11. Vltliin '•• Wl'tmliir. (. rrpiiwii ■^ II" 11 J. IIMilm,,,! II. .(ill,,. 11". iliii,™ IK. NmrdiiiTO „ , "''TO, » fllllhltll II ...til t' KlllllltFt (I Itltll 5 IHnlpI f UhIiI fiW I'liXr"' i llliliie I \\m\ III iMp|I.« II lllMl ,tll II ll'iliiltui || Mpik 1| Hi IipIiM 1 yiiciiit • \,)t I Npiiiie II Mnllip v Hiiiiiiite w tltlp » |i(>iiipr » l.illlp lillin I lilP«ll.((lin HAIIiiM li« Out ."* 8iiw »l* '.nlmj p* l,p.># r* iMwIlp t" Mwllf PAHtUi irih iii(l« nf iiic H voiitivrU'd liy iiy |irlvat« liuli. 'hie Jews, will) vy Mvrti timt in fif. i» MAF OF HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. 71)7 Hit aiul nelgim, II the iiortli nnd ( iHrtHi'witii ({ttal IViiiil It very early iiui'lililiig iHirliuf klii)tiliim, tliiiiiKli lileiily lerniiiiiiliHl, f) iif llollitiuUnd lliem liitvini; fur i IaiuIh, lliey will be I to olwerve, lliat, itoitnn'hy, tiiruu|tli tlivlr ruimcnt, li» 11. Mwrmtt . J ii.llnmlMMiil nmill IIT. '|'»h'«ne nilrw (III, lirm Il7.'r»h.« llll.lint If". NlWlf Villi! Wl.llllMl 1^4. tmlrn M. Klriiialle Wll. Lliiiliun 1«, llwm " ". Il™r«)i CI. N|H .AM. ii.iiiiini J.AI. iHniiUiiK I.VI, M|ii„lrt I Al. riii«ii.n I.M. Viei Kalin, IX. t.I'lRtlJIllq. IW. rrnllln I. Ml. [Ixl'iim IM.NkIIIi. I.AI.I'liwildlo'iTt 1S'1.,\ Him ' 111. Vitli.li ill. Mll'l''..nlii|.i 1 IV. IVl-fiiwrl 1 1^. llmllllM lll.llhl>lm.inl 1 1.^. ,\n\m tlfl.ltHivi.r ll).NeuAl.,\liM. niKil. n N.luniHi li llo.rii |. UliliiiWt ll llml P liinbl f WmIiI fiW I rlUl.lmrli ) llrllii.| \ Ilium I »'»nl III Mpiiw It IllrrtI H It llotllhlll || M«tk l| Kllwl|l| t \\m\kf K !.\« I i^piiiie II Mmiif » HMii'.ire » liiit t lltrinpr I l.llll»Ullin I HlMI Lilfcn n* Hull ll* IHll f*i l»il« ll* »»|.|lin| f * I.K* f« ,\1>»IH 1(1 Mwtlll' Itin 4 . Loiigitudo Eut 'i from Gruinwich "j Zz2 DESCRIPTIVE OEOGRAl'IIY. StfT. I. General Outline and Aspect. P*«T IlL fl9H9. Hiiltauil and Jlflgiutn mny bo regarded as a large cornvr or Rogmont cut off f Kniiu'i' mid (K'tinany, which form round it a spccicH of irri'gidur arc. Arbitrary lini.« i"" cunformnbly to trvaties, mark all eiccpt its maritime boundarieii ; for, tliough it«v«r«|' m" grt>nleHt rlvem of Eiiropi' cross its territory, none of them have any limitary cluiractiT Ti ' inikritime boundary, which, like the inland, extends from north-east to south -west, is t||o v 7 &••, or (lerniau Ocean, wliich is formed here into a s])ecies of large gulf by the opuoiiit ■ of part of the English Channel. '/tw. The whole territory cxtc (3" ,YH' E. long, i making about '.j _ _ i'xteiil, Nccordiiig to the best calculations, amounts to '24,670 xquare miles, or iV'souchvi inel. Holland is also penetrated by the deep inlet of tlic Xm i Zee. The whole territory extends between 49":iO'and 5^ ii4' N. lat., and 2" M a ■ ■ ■ ny> Clan niiles in Icnirth. and 2'iO niilna in lir..ii.l>l. 'n. '!"' (3" ,W' I''., long, i making about 280 miles in length, and 220 miles in breadth. Til e t'litire Eiigllsli acres. aUHil. /m renitect to surface, this country includes the lowest portion of the great low U i of the European continent. The northern parts, composing the new kingdom of Ilollon'l' are mostly below the level to which the bordering sea rises during high tides or swi'll' ' Hence originated an imminent danger of inundation, till the Dutch constructed ihou' mighty dikes, by which the sea is excludetl, and which form so extraordinary n monutiK'ni of theiv industry. Holland is humorously described by Dutler as " a country that draw ttrty feet of water." The Belgic provinces are also flat, but not lower than tliu surface of file sea, nor much exposed to river inundation. In the south-eastern district of Li^ffeaml Nainur, briincheH of the Ilhenish mountains render the surface irregular, and somvtimi' hilly, particularly in the tract forming part of the ancient forest of Ardennes. aOH-l. Several rivers, which rank among the grcitest in Europe, and are derived from distant sources, pass through this territory ; and, separating into numerous clmuncls, fonn broad eittuariea nt their entrance into the ocean. They all unite in the channel of the niu- jestic Uhiiie i yet, by a singular fortune, this great name is not retained by the main hranili of the river, wliich, in turning to the westward, receives tht nome of Waal, and oi\erwanU that of its important tributary the Maese, under which designation it flows Into the svu Iwlow Rotterdam. The Yssel, another considerable branch, runs northward into the /uvder Zee ; while the name of Rhine is retained by another, comparntively a rivulet, which passes through the provinces of Gueldres and Utrecht. The Maese is tlie only enut river which has the larger part of its course through the Netherlands, traversing the initrinr of Uelgliiin fi-oin south to north. Its main tributaries, the Sambre on the west, and the U(H' UrusscU. It In composed |)rinei|mlly of HiindH, ferriferous uiid-lones, white Hiindstoiu s, Hint, limeHtone, nnd cliiyey marl. I'liese tertiary deposits nr« ,Mved more or less deeply covered with Muviuni t and at the imiullm of the inheldt, )|iuse, »"'' H'''"*'> 'here are vast deposits of river altuvium, wliicli alluvium fonus also ilic isUnd of Zeeland, nnd the greater part of Holland. SuBSEi-T. 2. liolani/. 5988. Tlie liotany of this country has been alreoily noticed under that of Germany. SURSECT. 2989. The Xcilive Zju/ogy olT'ers tiotliiiij; VUTCU HOHif. Z'olof;!/, peculiar front that of the adjacent kingdoms. The Dutch horses {J«if. !)!)!.) are only valuable for draught: those of Friesland, Berg, nnd the country of Jidiern, are the best ; but their feet are generally large, they eat much, and have little endurance. Tlie Flemish sheep are of a breed < >inmon to France and the Netherlands, being I: general hornless, high on the legs, and derived from an intermixture with the Barbary long-legged sheep. The Dutch oxen are of an immense size, Major Smith having seen one which weighed 'JOOO lbs. This race nppenrs to have been derived *rom Denmark, and to have produced the Holstein, which was the parent of tlic old unimproved English breeds. Sect. III. Historical Geography, 2990. The Netherlands formed, in ancient times, the principal part of Gallia Belgica, The Belgie were the rudest, the bravest, and the fiercest of the three nations of Gaul, A desperate ilruggle was maintained before they yielded to the genius of CsDsar, and the superior disci> pline of the Roman armies. At length the country within the Rhine was reduced to the condition of a Roman i>rovince ; but the Batavi, the ancient Hollanders, united themselveg to Rome rather as allies than subjects. 2991. During the middle ages the Netherlands passed through a series of vicissitudes. So parly as the era of Charlemagne, they had acquired distinction in the pursuits of industry ; and some of their fabrics were sent by that monarch to the caliph Haroun Alraschid, as specimens of the arts and industry of Europe. When the umpire of Charlemagne fell to pieces, these states were divided into a number of separate principalities, all successively united, by marriage contract or inheritances, under the sway of the house of Burgundy. It ivas It this time that the Flemish provinces rose to the highest pitch of manufacturing and commercial prosperity. They .'ceived all the raw materials of France and England, countries then rude and agricultural, and returned them in a manufactured state. Ghent alone is said to have employed 40,000 looms ; though this is most probably much exaggerated. Bruges first, and then Antwerp, formed the grand depot for the commerce of the northern and middle states of Europe. 2992. The house of Austria, by the intermarriage of Maximilian I. and Mat; , J- lieiress of llurgundy, succeeded to the rich dowry of the Seventeen Provinces. They for;ned one of the chief sources of the power of Charles V., who transmitted them, with Spain and his iLilian dominions, to his son I'hilip JI. L'993. The Reformatian was early introduced into the Netherlands, oivd had a most powerful intlucnce upon their destiny. Being suited to the sober nnd thinking habits of a manufacturing population, it was soon embraced by a majority of tli-.' people, who were thus placed in direct collision with the fierce and gloomy bigotrv ol Philip II. The In- quisition being introduced, in its most unrelenting severity, with n view to the suppression of the new doctrine, drove the people into open rebellion ; and a contest of fifty years' duration arose, thf niost fierce, bloody, and Important in its consi'juences, of all those to which difl'er- cnces of religion liave given rise. The duke of Alva, who boasted that, during his govern- ment in t!ie Low Countries, 1 8,000 persons had perished on the scallbld, was, however, unahle to subdue the indepeintent spirit and determined enmity to Spanish dominion which lie bad been instrumental in kindling. The more moderate conduct of his successors, and, above all, of Alex!^nder Farnese, succeeded in re-establishing the Spanish sway over tlie Belgic provinces wliich were not defended by any natural barriers. Even the Dutch were reduced to the disastrous necessity of opening their dikes, and allowing a great part of their lerritory to be inundated. Their courage and perseverance, however, the great talent of the first two princes of the house of Orange, and the uid allbrded bv Elizabeth, enabled them Z z 3 710 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P«Tin finally to achieve their independence. The union of Utrecht, when they constituted th selves into an independent state, by the title of the Seven United Provinces was ™' eluded in 1597. ' """• 2994. From this period the destiny of the United Provinces, called more commonly bvth name oi' Holland, the chief province among them, wos entirely different from that f Belgium. They speedily attracted many of the manufactures, and all the commerce which had raised the Flemish cities to prosperity. The Dutch conquered from Portugal 'at tl time under the dominion of Spain, the finest of her possessions in the East Indies- obtained a temporary footing in Brazil ; and rendered Amsterdam the centre of a flourish'ine trad with India : they carried on the fisheries, especially those of herrings, upon an unprecedented scale ; and became the first maritime people in the world. The commercial greatness of Holland presents so re.narkable a phenomenon, that we cannot forbear avaiUng ourselves of some part of that luminous illustration of it, which has been afforded by the researches of Mr. M'Culloch. That able writer observes : — " Between the years 1651 ond 1672, when the territories of the republic were invaded by the French, the commerce of Holland seems to have reached its greatest height. Dt Witt estimates its increase from the treaty with Spain, concluded at Munster in 1643 to 1669, ot fully a half. He adds, that, during the war with Holland, Spain lost the greatest port of her naval power ; that since the peace, the Dutch had obtained most of the trade to that country, which had been previously carried on by the Hanseatic merchants and the English ; that almost all the coasting trade of Spain was carried on by Dutch shipping ■ that Spain had even been forced to hire Dutch ships to sail to her American possessions' and that so great was the exportation of goods from Holland to Spain, that all the mer- chandise brought from the Spanish West Indies was not sufficient to make returns for them. " At this period, indeed, the Dutch engrossed, not by means of any artificial monopoly. but by the greater number of their ships, and their superior skill and economy in all that regarded navigation, almost the whole carrying trade of Europe. Tiie value of the goods eiported from France in Dutch bottoms, towards the middle of the fourteenth century ei. ceeded 40,000,000 livres ; and the commerce of England with the Low Countries wa^ for a very long period, almost entirely carried on in them. " The business of marine insurance was largely and successfully prosecuted at Amster. dam ; and the ordinances published in 1551, 1563, and 1570, contain the most j>idicious regulations for the settlement of such disputes as might arise in conducting this difficult but highly useful business. It is singular, however, notwithstanding the sagacity of the Dutch and their desire to strengthen industrious habits, that they should have prohibited insurar upon lives. It was reserved for England to show the advantages that might be derived j from this beautiful application of the science of probabilities. : " In 1690, Sir William Petty estimated the shipping of Europe at about 2,000,000 tons, which he supposed to be distributed as follows ; — viz. England, 500,000 ; France, 100,000' Hamburgh, Denmark, Sweden, and Dantzic, 250,000 : Spain, Portugal, and Italy, 250,000' that of the Seven United Pnv inces amounting, according to him, to 900,000 tons, or to I nearly one half of the whole tonnage of Europe ! No great dependence can, of course, I be placed upon these estimates ; but the probability is, that, had they been more accunle, I the preponderance in favour of Holland would have been greater than it appears to be; for] the official returns to the circulars addressed in 1701 by the commissioners of customs to | the officers at the differer>t ports, show that the whole mercantile navy of Englend amounted I at that period to only 261,222 tons, carrying 27,196 men. (Macphersotii AnnaliofCoA merce, anno 1701.) I " It may, therefore, be fairly concluded, that, during tlie seventeenth century the foreijil commerce and navigation of Holland was greater than that of all Europe besides; andytil the country which was the seat of this vast commerce had no native produce to export, norl even a piece ' f timber fit for ship-building. All had been the fruit of industry, cconoinf,l and a fortunate combination of circumstances. I •' Holland owed this vast commerce to a variety of causes : partly to her peculiar sli»l ation, the industry and economy of her inhabitants, the comparatively liberal and enlighi'l cned system of civil as well as of commercial policy adopted by the republic ; and partly ilail to the wars and disturbances that prevailed in most European countries in the sixteenth dl seventeenth centuries, and prevented them from emulating the successful career of the DuKlJ " Many dissertations have been written to account for the decline of the commerce iT Holland. But, if we mistake not, its leading causes may be classed under two proniini heads, viz. first, the natural growth of commerce and navigation in other countries; second, the weight of taxation at home. During the period when the ri;publio rose tog eminence as a commercial state, England, France, and Spain, distracted by civil and r gious dissensions, or engrossed wholly by schemes of foreign conquest, were unahlel apply their energies to the cultivation of comniv-rce, or to withstand the conipetitionofi industriU'iK a people ns the Dutch. They, therefore, were under the necessity of alUia the greater part of their foreign, and even of their coasting trade, to be carried on in Duii Mill. id them, vas con- ly by the I that of cc, which il, at that ; obtained ling trade ecedentcil eatness of arselves of learchcs of re invaded sight. De in 1643, to the greatest the trade to nts and the II shipping; possessions; lU the mer- ns for them. k\ monopoly, ly in aU that of the goods 1 century, ei. itrics was, for id at Amster- nost j'idicious is difficult but of the Dutcli, 1 jited insurer ;ht be derived ] ,000,000 tons, I ance, 100,000; taly, 250,000; tons, or to I an, of course, I more accurate, f iearstobe;foi| of customs 10 1 knd amounted I lAnnali oJC» I lury the foreign I Icsides; and jet I • to export, noi I jstry, cconrnnjil tr ^jcculiar sit* I tal and enlighvl 1 and partly al»l he sixteenth di [■roftheDutdJ |hR commerce f r two prominal I countries;! |)Uc rose to g civil and r [were unable H^ Lmpctitionot* lisily of alluH Vied on in Di" Boox I. HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. 711 bottoms, and under the superintendence of Dutch factors. But after the accession of Louis XIV. and the ascendency of Cromwell had put an end to internal commotions in France and England, the energies of these two great nations began to be directed to pur- suits of which the Dutch had liitherto enjoyed almost a monopoly. It was not to be sup> posed that, when tranquillity and a regular system of government had been established in France and England, their active and enterprising inhabitants would submit to see one of their most valuable branches of industry in the hands of foreigners. The Dutch ceased to be tlie carriers of Europe, without any fault of their own. Their performance of that function necessarily terminated as soon as other nations became possessed of a mercantile marine, and were able to do for themselves what had previously been done for tliem by their neighbours. >' Whatever, therefore, might have been the condition of Holland in other respects, the natural advance of rival nations must inevitably have stripped her of a large portion of the commerce she once possessed. But the progress of decline seems to have been considerably accelerated, or rather, perhaps, the efforts to arrest it were rendered ineffectual, by the ex> ircmely heavy taxation to which she was subjected, occasioned by the unavoidable expenses incurred in the revolutionary struggle with Spain, and the subsequent wars with France and Cnsland. The necessities of the state led to the imposition of taxes on corn, on flour nlien it was ground at the mill, and on bread when it came from the oven ; on butter, and i;>h, and fruit ; on income and legacies; the sale of houses; and, in short, almost every article either of necessity or convenience. Sir William Temple mentions that in his time —and taxes were greatly increased aflerwards — one fish sauce was in common use, which directly paid no fewer than tliirti/ different duties of excise ; and it was a common saying at Amsterdam, that every dish of fish brought to table was paid for once to the fisherman, and lii times to the state. ■• In consequence principally of the oppressiveness of taxation, but partly, too, of the excessive accumulation of capital that had taken place while the Dutch engrossed the carry- in" trade of Europe, profits in Holland were reduced towards the middle of the seventeenth century, and have ever since continued extremely low. This circumstance would of itself have sapped the foundations of her commercial greatness. Her capitalists, who could hardly expect to clear more than two or three per cent of nett profit by any sort of under- taking carried on at home, were tempted to vest their capital in other countries, and to speculate in loans to foreign governments. There are the best reasons for thinking that the Dutch were, until very lately, the largest creditors of any nation in Europe. It is impos- sible, indeed, to form any accurate estimate of what the sums owing them by foreigners previously to the late French war, or at present, may amount to ; but there can be no doubt that at the former period the amount was immense, and that it is still very considerable. M. Demeunier {Dictionnaire de V Economie Politique, tome iii. p. 720.) states the amount of capital lent by tlie Dutch to foreign govurnments, exclusive of the large sums lent to France during the American war, at seventy-three millions sterling. According to the author of the Sichesse de la Hollande (ii. p. 292.), the sums lent to France and England only, previously to 1778, amounted to 1,500,000 livres tournois, or sixty millions sterling. And besides these, vast sums were lent to private individuals in foreign countries, both regularly as loans at interest, and in the shape of goods advanced at long credits. So great was the difficulty 1 of finding an advantageous investment for money in Holland, that Sir William Temple mentions, that the payment of any part of the national debt was looked upon by the creditors I as an evil of the first magnitude. ' They receive it,' says he, ' with tears, not knowing how to dispose of it to interest with such safety and ease.* " Among the subordinate causes which contributed to the decline of Dutch commerce, or which have, at all events, prevented its growth, we may reckon the circumstance of the I commerco with India having been subjected to the trammels of monopoly. De Witt ex- I presses his firm conviction, that the abolition of the East India Company would have addeiis levied upon her were in u great measure em- ployed in restoring the fortresses to their original condition. The present revenue and army being on a war establishment, and in a fluctuating con- dition, caiiiiut be stated with precision. ;!003. In tuioal affairs, Holland, no longer the maritime rival, but the close ally of Britain, mailo only faint attempts to raise lier navy from the low stute to which it was reduced by the disasters of the revolutionary war. Its present force does not exceed sixteen ships of the I line, and ten frigates; 'lliose in active service, in 1829, carried 720 f;uns, and4:n4 men. 3004. The foreign possessions of Holland, after being entirely wrested from her during the I ifar, were, with the exception of Ceylon, the Cape of GootI Hope, Demerara, and Berbiee, restored in 1814. In the Ea-st Indies, she possesses the Moluccas, the extensive and fertile island of Java, with settlements on Sumatra, Celelies, and Borneo ; and some factories on J the coast of Malabar and Coromandel. In Africa, she retains El Mina, and other factories on the Gold Coast. Her West India colonies are not, and never were, very considerable, unless as commercial depots. Both the navy and the colonial possessions, on the separation of the two kingdoms, remained with Holland. Sect. V. Productive Industry. 3005. There is no country, perhaps, which, in proportion to its extent and original I resources, produces so great an amount of valuable and useful commodities as Holland I and Uelgium. * The expenses of canals, dikes, and nnvitintion in Keneral. t The charges fur education arc now includiHl under the lieud ol " Interior." «ll DESCllIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P"i III. 3006. Tlie agriculture of the Bulgic provinces, though, contrary to the usual courw ■ was founded upon their manufactures and commerce, being exempted from the viciss^li " which befell them, continues to form the most ample source of wealth. The whole tcrr'"t of Flanders is cultivated like a garden. A great proportion consisted originally of ha"? barren sands, producing nothing but heath and fir ; yet by the application of manure th were gradually reclaimed, and brought into their present state of high fertility. The cul/^ of artificial grasses, and especially of clover, is the characteristic process of Flemish h"'^ bandry, which it has taught to the rest of Europe. The core of the Flemish farmcm"''" collecting manure was early conspicuous, and as naturally grew out of the use of artifi °"l grasses, and consequent stall-feeding. The use of liquid manure, collected in I reservoirs, is common to this country with China, and not known in any other part of F rope, except, perhaps, Norway. Turf ashes, especially tliose imported from Holland m ^' high estimation, and are said to produce an almost magical eflfect on the veseta'tion f clover. In general, the Flemish agriculture is conducted on a careful, economical antini practice ; the farmers not having adopted many modern improvements in tlic arrangement'^ of husbandry, such as the crossing of the breeds of cattle, and the use of machinery whi h have been adopted in England with such happy effect. But this system of agricultur after supplying the most dense population in Europe with the standard productions of \C soil, yields several articles, such as madder, rape, clover, and mustard seeds, hops, &c. for exportation. 3007. The objects of culture in the Dutch provinces, in consequence of their humid climate, and of the demand for animal food for the great cities, are almost entirely con. nected with pasturage. Holland is as it were one great meadow, intersected hy canals mj traversed by rows and groups of trees. The cattle are stalled in the winter, and fed on liav turnips, &c. ; but in summer they are kept constantly grazing in the open air. The produce of the dairy has been brought to such a state of improvement as to be an object of export- j ation ; Dutch butter enjoys a high reputation, and their cheese is in good repute over all Europe. 3008. Horticulture, which elsewhere is only a recreation, has in the Netherlands attained such importance, as to become a national object. Besides amply supplying its ownmarlels I with culinary vegetables, Holland exports them in large quantities to Norway, and other districts, where the growth is prevented by the rigorous climate. Ornamental gardeninj has been cultivated with peculiar ardour, especially its floral department. When the tulipo. mania reigned in Holland, it was carried to such an excess, that lots of 120 tulip.roots sold in 1637, for 82,'iO/. ; and particular specimens have brought 733/. and 825A In point of I fact, however, these roots formed a kind of imaginary currency, or medium for a systcmatised I species of gambling. They were never actually transferred from one individual to anollicf but, like the shares in our bubble companies in 1825, were a sort of stock whose whole value I was derived from caprice. The government . i length put down this species of gamblin;, I and the prices of tulips fell to their natural level. — Careful enquiries carried on by the govern. I ment of the Netherlands, are considered as having proved that the agricultural capital of I the whole country amounted to 10,395,000,000 livres, about 433,000,000/. sterling. Thef following estimate was made of the growth and produce : — Hectares. Value in Francs. Wheat 350,000 154,000,000 Rye 700,000 168,000,000 Buckwheat 200,000 32,0ce of their humid almost entirely con- ected hy canals, mi Iter, and fed on liay, 1 air. Theproiluce an object of export. good repute over ail I Netherlands attained ying its own marliets J Norway, and other rnamcntal gardening It. When the tulipo. ' 120 tulip-roots sold, I id 825?. In point of I im for a systtmatised j Individual to another; k whose whole valiie I species of gamMing, I ied on by the govern. Igricultural capital of I 0/. sterling. The| kc in Francs. loOOjOOO looo.ooo l,0(H),000 looo.ooo looo.ooo lo(X),000 looo.ooo looo,(xx) 1000,000 l000,000 l(XX),000 lo(X),000 |ooo,ooo Unccs formerly insl ]ee centuries ago, thl I the higher ranksiil ± and England hml ll so well adapttdnl Iculty maintain ilwl Tiuitc unable to A| Book I. HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. 715 itaud British competition. There are still, however, some iina linen fabrics, laces, lawns, ambries, in which the manufacturers of Mechlin, Brussels, &c. continue unrivalled, and wliich, though so much superseded by muslin and Nottingham lace, still enjoy a certain demand throughout Europe. The fine laces have been sold for seventy or eighty Napoleons yard. The Flemish breweries are also very extensive. jOlO. The manufacturing industry of Holland is not on so great a scale as her commerce. The pottery ware ot Delft has lost most of its ancient reputation, and even in Holland is super- jfded by the earthenware of England. The spirit called gin, geneva, or Hollands, is produced It Schiedam) Amsterdam, and other towns, of an excellence which is universally acknowledged. The refining of sugar, and the manufacture of snuff, are continued on a great scale, chiefly in Amsterdam and Rotterdam, and the making of tobacco-pipes at Gouda is said to employ 5000 persons. Silk, leather, woollens, are still manufactured, though not to such an extent IS formerly, nor much with a view to exportation. The general value of Dutch and Belgian manufactures has been estimated as follows : — Iron, 46,000,000 francs ; copper, 5,000,000 ; woollens, 80,000,000 ; linens, 95,000,000 ; lace, 25,000,000 ; cottons, 50,000,000 ; refined snw, 14,000,000; salt, 10,000,000; spirits, 40,000,000; beer, 110,000,000; tobacco, 2jjX«,00O ; oil, 30,000,000 ; sonp, 1 0,000,000 ; leather, 28,000,000 ; earthenware, 4,000,000 ; bricks, 6,000,000; books, 15,000,000; bleaching, 10,000,000; dyeing, 10,000,000; paper, 8000,000: in all, 675,000,000 francs, or 28,000,125/. sterling. '3011. Tlie commerce of the Netherlands has declined, both absolutely and relatively, but in a less remarkable degree. The causes have appeared in the historical survey. The total suspension of all maritime intercourse with other countries during the subjection of Holland to France, and the conquest of the Dutch colonies by England, rendered it necessary, as it were, to begin every thing afresh at the restoration of peace in 1815. But the large capitals in the hands of the Dutch merchants, their commodious situation in the centre of the most improved states of Europe, the recovery of some of the most valuable of their foreign possessions, and the considerable surplus of native commodities which their country 18'ords for exportation, secured for them, as soon as the ports were open, a considerable trade. Since the peace, it has been continually increasing ; and, previously to the late revo- lution, was more equally distributed than before among the Belgic as well as the Dutch ports, Holland exports, of its own produce, butter, cheese, geneva, tobacco-pipes ; of the produce of its fishery, herrings, stockfish, whalebone, whale oil ; from its foreign possessions, colTee, sugar, rum, cotton wool, cloves, nutmegs, mace, pepper ; with linens, wool, and larious articles from Germany and the Baltic. Belgium exports madder, vegetable oils, lice, lawn, and fine linen. 3013. Tlic official details of imports and exports are not quite so full as could be wished ; hosevcr wc give the following. 'ITie principal articles of Dutch produce exported in 1836 fere — butter, 160,000 cwts. ; cheese, 330,000; flax, 148,000; cakes, 290,000; linseed, «OOtons; bark, 18,000tons; madder, 125,000cwts. ; Geneva, 1,900,000 gal 'ons. In that year there entered the ports of Great Britain from Holland 1026 British vessels, 143,285 tons, 7533 men ; 555 foreign vessels, 48,953 tons, 3139 men. There sailed thence for Hol- land 945 ships, 139,172 tons, 7263 men; 576 ships, 51,853 tons, 3515 men. In 1834 the official value of the exports of British produce amounted to 3,864,000/. ; foreign, 1,300,000;. ; the imports 1,105,000/. In 1836, the chief articles exported from this country brass and copper, 37,543/. ; coals, &c., 41,744/. ; cot- earthenware and glass, 24,306/. ; iron and steel, lead and shot, 15,841/. ; machinery, 18,209/. ; silks, 47,929/. The tonnage employed in the trade with the East India possessions, in 18.35, was 115,794 inwards, 152,401 outwards. Of this 61,141 aid 83,507 were Dutch, 24,463 and 26,778 British, 21 1"' 8 and 31,240 American. Tlie jvalue of exports thither was 2,670,797/. ; imports, 1,442,539/. iiOlS. The commerce of Belgium was carried on, in 1834, by 1670 ships inwards, ton- iagel95,8M; of which 44,291 were Belgian, 151,563 foreign, 36,662 being British; out- l,fi55ships, tonnage 197,229; of which 47,771 were Belgian, 149,458 foreign, 42,930 ing British. The imports amounted to 7,952,000/. ; of which 2,162,000/. from Britain; ,426,000/. France; 1,073,000/. Holland; 1,065,000/. Germany; 76,000/. Spain; 180,000/. "ii«sLi; 711,000/. United States; 711,000/. Cuba; 298,000/. Hayti; 166,000/. Brazil; 199,000/. rest of South America; 144,000/. East Indies. Of the whole amount ,073,000/. were brought by sea, 2,879,000/. by land ; the latter from France, Germany, Bd Holland, The exports amounted to 5,878,000/. ; of which 4,741,000/. was of Belgian iroduce. They were, to France, 3,121,000/, ; Germany, 1,484,000/. ; Britain, 324,000/. The port by land was 4,330,000/., by sea 1,547,000/. There wa« besides a transit trade of 0,000/. In 1836, the chief articles of British produce exported to Belgium were brass «l copper, declared value 22,242/. ; cottons, 259,000/. ; hardware, &c., 21,500/. ; iron and «1, 39,000/. ; linens, 11,600/. ; salt, 15,000/. ; silks, 14,000/. ; wool, 189,000/. ; woollens, in.«00f. ; yarn, 22,000/. 30H. Thefiihery, which once formed so ample a source of Dutch wealth (though in this I «re— books, declared value 4,823/. Itons, 60'.',963/. ; twist 1,191,229/.: 1112,446/. I hardware, &c., 36,225/.; 1 24305/. ; woollens, 237,943/. ; yam, 716 DESCllIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. rmiiect its importance has bet-ii greatly exaggerated), was almost nnnl)iil«t#rt (lurlii war ; and the ground liaving since iMjen occupied by nciglihours and rivnN, Il(il|i,|iy ' been alJe to recover only a (mail portion. Instead of 1500 herring lmsK«ti| in ihiu j sent out only 200. Not more than sixty ships go annually to the whale niul wul fl i cries ; and, during the late war, the English undertook the task of supplvliiB tli..!. markets with fresh fish; in which business, however, the Dutch still •cmnliiviilii.,..M,'!" I ..- riiu_ *: !..-» .^r »!.« M»>i.,..i ;. <:.!.„.:.„ :.. ^ i j. ' ' ."""»i (rfXllI um,{w\i boats. The entire produce of the Netherlands fisheries is not reckoned to vxcvuil I sterling. 3015. Mines. The south-eastern provinces in the neighbourhood of Monfi, ('lui.i , ■ and Liftgc, are said to contain 350 mines of coal, employing 20,000 men ; but tliu nui i|" ' we should think, must be a good deal exaggerated. Turf is the ftiel chiefly tiaii,|, (jkh Ji n'' in Holland. There are also in the southern district ironworks, supposed by Mr, JhhiI i yield about 1000 tons. Clay suited for the manufacture of porcelain is fountl In 1|«||' i' and there arc stone quarries in the south. , "" > 3016. Canal* form one of the most remarkable features in the economical nrrnnin>n).ii of Holland, and a leading source of her prosperity. From the structure of the ponntrv ih ! are formed with peculiar facility, and it is every where intersected with tluMU i iivury'tim'"" every village, being connected by canals of greater or less dimensions. They run tlinm j|| ii"! streets of the cities, enabling vessels to load and unload under the eye of tlio nHircliitnr When frozen, they serve as highways, en which the Dutch females, heavily \M\m, am\\ . themselves along on skates with surprising rapidity. In general, fVom the lliitnm tif i]'! country, and the abundance of water, canals may be made without much exertion of m " skill. There is an exception, however, in the canal of Pannerdcn, construi'tuil *it|| iin view of draining off the superfluous water of the Rhine, by whioli a great extent (if irniuinl was converted into a marsh. It is two miles long, and 200 feet below the levul nf tjui m the waters being received into three different sets of sluices. It is coMsidcred ii initslurhl,. J and completely answered its object. Another, on a most magnificent sciile, tMinnt'tliiw Amsterdam with the Helder, wits commenced in 1819, and finished in 1825, nt «n mxnm of about 750,000/. It is 50 miles long, 125 feet wide at the surface, 38 feet wi(l« m |||g bottom, and 20 feet deep. It is calculated to admit ships of war of 46 guns, and merfhiini, men of 1000 tons' burden. It was constructed to avoid the troublesome nnvlgiitlim l» iiml from Amsterdam through the Zuyder Zee, and the necessity of lightening liirui' v(.i,m,|, before crossing the Pampus. We understand it has answered the cxpcctatuinii iif ilk nr,,, jectors. The canals in Belgium are spacious and commodious, connecting all the grwii (|ti,.i though not nearly in equal number, nor uniting every village, as in Holland. 3017. Railways are an improvement adopted in Belgium with peculiar activity mid mic cess. The government also possesses a merit above that of other countriuN, in Imvinu iit,.|f origin- 'ed all the plans, and carried them into execution with combined I'coniimv ml efliiciency. In 1834, they, after a careful survey, fixed upon four great lines rndiiitiiin'ft Mechlin as their centre: 1, North to Antweri'; 2, East, by Louvain and Wti^v tiiilif Prussian frontier; 3, South, through Brussels to the French frontier; -I, Went, liy (lliiiii and Bruges to Ostend. The whole extent is 239 miles, of which 160 were executwlm mi expense of about 1,400,000/. The first and fourth lines are thus completed, I'dnni'tlinn ||| the principal cities ; and in ten months of 1838, the number of passengers lietwwil \\nvt<^li\ Mechlin, and Antwerp amounted to 1,148,000, being more than double tliut uii tliv Livtr. pool and Manchester line. Sect. VI. Civil and Social State, 3018. 7%e pop«/a iiitcwid l,(XX),(Hy)t j^, ,. HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. 717 Table i>f tlio Movement of the Population in Holland and Uclgiumfor Ten Years, rrovinrM> twliiol (lueklen North Hr» >»" S„ilh Ho land Mill llollBi"' , limlit Frtdlanil - ll|nl«lof Mewlne* I'lmr Hi'linula . . . . VklmUM'iiofCharitjr l)i|i'itaorMFii(licity Snlrtlci of lli'ncflcencc for the Colonies blAbllilimcnts for the Deaf and Dumb Totalt MnllU l|p l'll is at- tached to the opposite interest. There arc about 300 or 400 catholic congregations, in general 1 very small. The Arminians, who originated in Holland, have only about forty or fifty nii- nisters ; but their tenets are preached in many of the presbytcrian churches. The ana- baptists, called here Mennonists, have about 100 congregations, composed of many opubgt I and respectable members. The Lutherans have fifty or sixty churches ; and the French protestants about thirty. 3035. In Belgium, the catholic clergy have shown a very rooted spirit of intolerance I with the bishop of Ghent at their bead, and vehemently objected to the indulgent treatment of tlie other sects. The bishop was iraprLsoned for two years by Napoleon, on account of I his obstinacy in tliis particular. The great possessions of the church, however, havcbeeg} forfeited, and the clergy receive \ery moderate salaries from government. The monasteries I have been rooted out, and generally also the nunneries, though that of Ghent still retain)] all its pomp. 3026. Learning in the Netlierlands no longer boasts such names as Erasmus, Grotlus, i Bocrhaavc ; but the institutions for its diffusion continue to be very ample. Holland retainl its two famous universities of Leyden and Utrecht. The former, which, under Boorhaatt^l had once the reputation of the first medical school in Europe, is still highly respectable,! though attended only by about 300 students. The professors, who are twenty-one in nun-f ber, receive salaries of 255/., independent of fees ; and this being a better income than mn of the ecclesiastical livings, the university draws from the church its most learned meDi.r bers. The professors are still considered the most eminent medical men in Holland; andj while other physicians receive only a fee of 20s., they are paid 10/. or 12/. The medio education, however, cannot be completed unless at Amsterdam, which affords the ailni> tage of hospitals and other accommodations peculiar to a large city. The university Utrecht is not so considerable as that of Leyden ; and that of Griiningen is still infetiori| In 1827, the number of students was, in Leyden, 588; in Utrecht, 498 ; in Grbning 287. 3027. TAe universities of Belgium, of which the most celebrated were Ghent and Lourai were partially stripped of their ample endowments, first by Joseph II., and then b; I French, who in their room substituted lyceums, which are now continued nearly the same footing, under the name of colleges. Only the languages, and some geoei branches, are taught ; education for professional purposes being received in separate apj propriate seminaries. Ghent and Brussels have the highest reputation; but thesalar;o professors in the former does not exceed 60/. The three universities of Louvain, Liegi and Ghent, have lately been restored ; and in 1827 the first was attended by 678 studeDUJ the second by 506; and the third by 4U4 students. Besides athenseumii, which arec ' colleges on a smaller scale, Holland has primary schools in every village, by wliicb t benefits of education are communicated to the lowest ranks. Belgium is at present n deficient in institutions for popular education. But at an average of the Netherii Booir. lie propoi 95; a pro Friiisia. 3028. : MAjm lieinj indu( oucli in tov ijence. An lit Flemish cliisic taste, of its nobles. liiireTer, ma ligur of colon I lien eminent J of common li I Mlliant etTect I It) failed in I Kldom emploj J W Berghem, I oasl natural i I nods, and tiie J SOl'9. Jmus I of ilie diversion I inlour. A gre Jiiiepipe out of I opportunity of ( I 303O. Thegr. I itill as festivals, I M happily illu! JliarintheDutcl IjMuliar local cc IWes; but the 3031. Thefallo if Belgium and H i rTorinccit Ei h« Swih Brabant Aotnerp . . Evl Flanilcrs Wcit Flanders Hiinault . . Xsmur - m, . . Umttatg, . . tuieinliurg . 32 S8 28 31 37 34 S8J 46( S,67< Holland, South S87 245 158 133, 501, 509, 326, 263, 328,1 SM,i Holland, Northj I Zealand - . llrecht . . ,Xorlli Brabant ("ucldera Drenthe . . friMland |Orery!(eI "ronihgen . 'arts or 1 Liraburg j Luxemburg 650,( |3,fiHt 'f.h« refused to^iS ench .„ 1795, andihe »e not comparatively 50° D'c'., art. Am„er,li. ^nt intercourse withr haracter.andtop.^:; "isation, to compare the Netherlands wouhlh Holland, the police is of Belgium is almost 'a rooted dislike e„,et Dutch Imve the honour ration. Even popery *;t,wa8 allowed to be a liberality a step fa, ry of every pe«ua,i„„: •rs- The latter retail,, bells. Theyamoum .however, respects the te. 250/. in the pea, c divided, as in Scot. ire said to be the most thatof Leydenisat.! ngregations, in general I ibout forty or fifty mi. I churches. The ana. I osedof many opulent f :hesj and the French! spirit of intolerance,! e indulgent treatment I oleon, on account of J h, however, have been I nt. The monastcriol )f Ghent still retaiml HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. n at '.-I I . -....„„ «^„ BELGIUM tie proportion of children at school to ,h ■ 9^5) .proportion not exceeded iranv P. *"""' Populati'on, fn iftg, l^""*- ^ European country. wi,h .i. ' "' "» ""'K'' « 1 to „.?l?f.I'!!>f.-(? -«?? cultivated W.-.H ,„.. ._ . *"' """''■'"'• P^C^! ol ri9 -r ..«!. exceeued in anv p. ^"' »™PU'ation, in Ifto^ l^""*- ^ European country, with tu' "'"« " •"«»» M 1 tn 3028. 2%.>* „rl, were cultivatprf • u '^ *"epdon, p„h«^iu rf RWthymerihants liberally ""'^"'f''!^"'' ^««' and success in h.,u tog induced by the conln^t ^^^ 'S'^t'i:?* "^ «»«"?"; anK/""*"^"'*' Ne.l.erlands f"rf"» (owns, acquired more Sd°L?'^^. ">« ^ow* CoumriS „?*"'!? ""'' '-ndhowS iQucea uy tiie constar^t war, 7^ T.""* *" "es'gn : andVh„ " '"* «e«lierland. f"rf"» (owns, acquired more Sd°L?'^^. ">« ^ow* CoumriS „?*"'!? ""'' 'andhoSr toce. Antwerp, durinir its nZ • ^*** 'ban could Jiav« i. , *'* 'be theatre to i:J Ml, and Dutch pfinKeCSt^tH' '" --"^i'TBl '" V°""Vr ^- tiBsjc taste, which was formed Jr. i. i "^"^<' *bat irrandeiir «? j • °^ktc Athens. vL A nobles. The FlemisK^l ^'j' "^^ ">« *tudyof,hJ° .''"''«"' '"«' «bat JureaS »o«rer, many e«clle„«l^f ri""d^' •»^«reat ma'^te™ ^^^^ toNemisn and Uutch pi„te„ never aitZTl' '" *«"»« measure I B, '" V°"""y resi tiBsjc taste, which was formed Jr. i. i "^"^<' *bat irrandeiir «? j • °^ktc Athens. vL A nobles. The FlemisK^l ^'j' "^^ ">« *tudyof,hJ° .''"''«"' '"«' «bat JureaS tamer, many excel lenws in Ti' """ '*' S'^"' tasters B.,Z ''""'.''"'' "'« 'esK^^f tarof colouring, gni„d?Jr'of ^omSioT '"'r°' ♦" -"/ » bt^"!!''"''^''-. cl^aS ten eminently successful in » , "'"Position, and forconfJ..^ modern times. ..,1 ' rfcommon life and vuiffw h.'i"'^*' "Ph^re. Under r2J'''T°"- ^hc Du ^^ h„„'^ k"' taltot effects of light a„^ 1 "^""f ^"''^ ''««ed witj f Z-""^' «"«« bis disciples S ^ *m employed their pencils u^„ .1 ^""'^ delineation Th i ^Y Popular, thoush it most natural and pleasinir «»i . ™a,Vandeveldp «nj .7 ^ I'laude and P/.....- alias festivals, at whiVh .I.-* '^.^"■*>*houirhnn Inn™ . Ipcniiar local costume • as f ha ^' ^^ Peasantry both of H^ii j **«ms nothinir nrri. Isoulh Brabant ■jAoi»erp . . I Ext Flanders I ;k| Flanders IHliMult fVimur - Ifiise . ILinburj, . Iluiemt/urg •^"'•Wl Towni, • 72,800 :Ji;^Vervier. - 4,000 - 16,000 '"'"'""» ■ 10,980 ■ li.30O Vprc. . 10.070 Spa ■ Holland, South, Iflolland, North, IfMland ~. . lUrccht . Jftrlh Brabant luuelders jnrentlie . Friraland lOreryssel TJronihgen Tiruof f • liraburg J ■Luxemburg '■"Mi. I HOUAND. 137,000 132,000 350.000 315,000 „e5.M0 212,800 181,300 162,100 181,000 151.000 792,900 I J|o«eraa_m .^,^ I I^uwarden . is'm neventer . M Groningen . S8 M? Maestrlcht . e,,'ooo Luxemburg . ]o,2SO » : Haarlem Hoorn . flushing Amertrort Breda Arnheim - 18.453 Za«nrt.J * '"•568 - 8,755 "''"" - 9.016 - 6,380 - 9,395 -, 13.000 Bergen.op.Zoom. 780 DESCRIPTIVE OEOOnAPIlY. P*»T III. 3039. South Brahant, which nearly coincidvi with wimt w«« Torinvrly iho Aiii,i|.|„ of that large province, forms a rich plain in the heart of Ut'lKiuni itiul Ih ihu wiUof'"i'* finest manufactures carried on in that country 3033. Bru»sel» (fig. 392.) is the capital of Oelgium ,.„. „, „„,„, „ ,, yet it is one of the gayest and most elegant cities of Euritpti, lis Nituiilioii i2 """ ' ' ' " ' Consldvruil nn midi, ii | VHlley wnicrvil hy ||,„ g,, nnc iHiil tlu. ciuini lo Amw„n; Th.AII/..V.r,o.,,i5 ol hrvi. rowH of ir^, )„« •U'l-ing tilt. c«t.«l, ,n«ki,a iH'miilftil iiiiiiniiiWi. 'flic •ii(itk.'t.|ilm.i. mui thopjrk HIV HK.twogn.«tornami.m, I't llruNwlH, iiiu f„„n„ Uol KU'nl«.xti.nt,nmi,ur. riiliiiilril hy tliv town hall, Gothic structures in Europe, adorned with a tower, !118 fuct high, nnil liy ihi> ulil liajf"'! the different corporations. The park f'onns an exteiuivo ruiigt. (if iiUtivdi,. ki-iuuuI* tersperscd with rows of lofty trees, and pleasing lawns, ornmnvnled wlid I'.miuiili,, '„!'j sutues ; and it is surrounded by all the most kiiiuIous tiiul NuitnitiMMiH tililln., T| church and chapel of St. Gudule are olso distinguiMlivil fur lliv tiivginu'i. „(' Hn,},. „ '* ments. Brussels has an ocademy of painting, oltended hy -KK) or .lOt) Hliiilviit.c and ■" the palace tliere is a library of J 2,000 volumes, and » sinull but vulunhie collictiun If paintings. "' 303-f. Another ancient and impurlant cilif is Mnlini's, or IMi'i'hlll; (now lit tin- province of Antwerp), still retaining traces of tlie prosperity derived IVoin the liti'li beMfltig IIh iinini', wliid, is considered the strongest, though not the finest, nuuleiii the NellivrllMldN, Aliotl.ir lirancliol' industry consists in the making of excellent brown beer. The lioUMit ftru itmiiiit, and very spacious, often constructed in a curious and grotesque manner, nnil iiiimt iiiwly whiti' washed. The tower of the cathedral is highly finished, and rlmw It) tlit> liclglit of ,'H8 feet' The other churches contain many of the masterpieces of Ituhuiis and Viiiiiiyku. Louvniii is equally fallen from the period when its extensive clt>tli miiniirilvtureN iitid Its iiiiivi'mitv one of the first in Europe, gave it a population of l,?(),i (H). It U n liti'gu llUliiiJlt town' whose bulky walls, seven miles in circumference, are hiitv fnlliiiu In ili'i'iiy, Iih callmlic university, an attendance on which was once required us a qiinrillcttllill) fiir holding any office under the Austrian govei ament, perished in the I'Veneli revoliitittii, nnil wns ri'pjnccil by what could only be calltJ a lyceuin ; but the ancient iiiHlittiliun Imi uliac Ixcn restored. The town hall, enriched by numerous carved figures, iinil llie colk'Kliitecliurtli whose spire, before its fall, at the beginning of the sevcnteontit century, rtwy lo llii! blghi of 500 feet, are the chief ornament of Louvain. 3035. Antxeerp {fig. 393.), formerly the port of llrnlmnl, has now n provliici', to wliitli it gives its name. This territory is situated along the Lower Si'liclill, iniil ii covcnil tn i grvat t>xti'iii with idi'isurt. groiiiitiN itnil liouitm, crccleil y tlu' rich nicrcliani! during the pvriod wlun Aniwern wim In Its glor;. Tlint city, down to the clone of Ihu lllU. Antwerp em. bi'HVi'tl with nrdour the *""'"" refonnid i'iium', In wpiioii of which it suffered the most dreadful calamities. In 15 1 . ' wns NHvketl by tlii' S|miu.itil<; and being afterwards wrested from them, surrendered on favourable terniM, iilU'r hcliig lie- sieged for more than a year, to the Prince of Parma. Su:>jected lo the bigoted mid Ijtraiiiik «way of Spain, and oppressed by the active rivalry of Holland, it loitt all ItN conniierce, and presented the mere shadow of its former greatness. Its renewed proNpeiity tliiti's IVoinil! occupation by the French. Bonaparte made it one of his grand nnvnl iu'Hi vesseiro? SSeha^n '''•*' """«"•"'» nun,erau, stately buildJng,, LothTrivate a„d"n... r"'*^*"? '■""'•" « noblfi''"'' ""'"''• iiKiis of Goilijc architecture existing '?-if ''."'''"'• ^-hich includ« J ..''">'• "ontainJnir i> c..|.bra.ed over Europe. utZi fSl „""''«''•'• -hich "r ut.Trrv "'' ?"""' «P«^* tet iNgh, of extreuiu beauty. and^„ l'""«' ^Sp wide. H„d 360 hji?" '^.T '".''""''"•g. mndingsof the Scheldt, , ii the dirntl """I' '" °'"«''n<--d a n £;,« ^''^ *?"''= '"» -"fifi (trior IS adorned with th- nrreatl.? '"'**" "f Ghent. Malin "'"""'"cent view of tho >mg c^ricd off to Paris h^ve bcU""'*"-'"''^*^^'' "^ Rubens «^dV"i ^''^''- Tl.« in. Mschool are found in Z o^r cChr'"'''- ^.11^^,^. "'"■'"'• ""^^ as always been the centre of Remtr!' "*'"*""«'■" Private Z„r'''"*'"' "^ «'•« Wacns, eniers. u„d all it, great'Tt L". ' ""* '''"^-pC of Xt"'- ,^'*«'P ujion tlie art; an academy i« «,..,^f J masters. ZeaIoii>i\,„. «"ben«, Vandvko laurneyiiig along the ?oad, the " L 1. i*"^ appUcaUon of «ll^^T °^ "niform l,,x„. sMwliilc beyond the hedJL "I" ""'''' '^e wheels of h^ ""d. capital. Kven „ /■/.emost ftrtife district is c^edt.r^'l "d". the soil coSisU of"'.h""T ""^ing ^t ." .W7. G^«^ even in its SstJte Ys"'?.,'" ^'- Nicholas "^ *'"' "'""'" Wackmould! /Iiat vast circu t of wall« u,k- i ' '* *'"' one of the nnM<..> ^ . '■rc-l by magnificent quays, and connerfV. ''"'i'"" '«""y-seven iSnH.' "''' ™"'«'" "" ''•« c.«c.ep„o„s, are spacious and E'"'' ''^ ""•«« ''"ndred brid jes %h "*' ""^ "'«'» ''»'- gmt cathedral does not disolav ♦! L ?^^' ""•* t''««-e are manv fU u ^^^ *"■««'«. with a 'nierior i, rich in the extreme L »rchitectural grandeur of .h . ^/'i' '=''"'<^''««' i b"t he ".e u.lier churches, as iXtUeTJ ""''^ ""'"^'o'" pK of thf. ^"'^^"•"' «''»"«' o "'«'■"• Ghent, though t can no ?""^' '=""'"'■'' numerous oai^t^ ^ T"""'''^'' '^''» «nrf ""oof tlie most manufact .rf„ ".".'""ger send its 40000 l*^'"?* ''J' "'«> «>ld Flemish «rted lace; but since th * "^'"^ °*" Belgium pl^/T"" '"*« t»'e field is ^ .- Ghei't is the centre of th»Ti '?'"'''«'» and of some con»Jl '. ""■' '^^"'""•e of the Wn.., l;''!^".SStSVLT*^^^^^ '"'■.'• *e now, ■}d,ZeX""'-'°"'"""''V^SLT'T ''•'■' «■"■>"" "»i c.n«, ,hmj ■ Ul ,, " ""■ «« •iinmsed i,r» , " '^""Wo". and cot fcr t" ^f "^ '"tirs/s ?^: r^."""- » thiSTts fo^ ''■^■'' 7" ^''" ''""^^ full L'EsCaU'TIVE OEOCIIAIMIY. l'*M III !WWJ. OthtT larni) fortiJU-d ptnce», ct'li'l)rntc«l in tliu iiiilltnry ntinulH nf Kiiroii. fimiitl ill Went Klaiiili'm. Courtray, YprifN, aiitl Mi'itin liuvu the uhiiiiI cliorniivr'ul' V\l ^l lowiiK, 'I'lii'y arc lurgi.-, ratliur wvll built, with liandwiiii- cliurclii'H niiil iohh T'i! I'ltlli'ii iViiiii tlii'ir aiii-iviit pr(M|H'rity, yvt rctHiiiing coiihiiliTablc muiiufuctiiri'!. ol' liiu'ii i boi'r I aiiil baviiig in tlio luii); cuurHV of thv Low Country wars bven rupvati'dly lak 'i ^" i rvtulii'ii. I'uurtray '\* nutvri (lir thu vvty fine flax grown in its nvigbbuurlioud. OuiU,' "i' tliv Ri'i'iiu ot' onu of Marlborough's victoriis; Dixniuydu, and ruriivs, pri'st'iit ik> "' ' chnriu'ti'rt on n nmulliT wale. Nivuport is rather u noted fiNJiing and tradiiiir idmi,'^'"'' ruiinikil l>v sluice*, by means of which the neighbouring country can be inuiidutui, V'"i und Dunkirk have lH;vn finally included by France within her buundarivs. ' '' •MH,\, llniiiaiill, to the west of Flanders and the south of llrus^els, presents a I ruiige of tnilitary frontier to the once hostile frontier of Fraiue. It is watered livTl'^ upiKir courses of the Scheldt and the Sainbrv ; and, instead of presenting the same Vii level with Flaiidem, in varied by gentle undulations, still highly cultivated, yet nut witlui , KUinv extreme cure or ample expenditure. In tliis province are rich mines of cual '^ liiinerul not found in any other part of the Low Countries; and tliungli Ilairmuit iua'. formed any of the great seats of manufacture, it is by no means detieient in this brmi'i of industry. ^' :l()'H. Alotis, Tuurwiy, and Charleroi ore the chief towns of llainault. The descripiiu,, given of the secondary cities of Flanders may apply to them. Mons, called unce llan luiniUi is very ancient ; it is well built, but appears often almost buried under the sinuki' i \ the kteniii-«nginus employed in working the neighbouring cual mines. It lias u very u. lelisive foundling hospital. Tournay, a fine, large, old city, with a hund^uine cathedral' liiw stnud many sieges. Charleroi, besides its military reputation, has that uf nmkini; virv line nails, with which it supplies all Uelgium. In front of Mons is Geiiii|ipe, and riijiii liiiles ei'st of Charleroi is Fleurus, both celebrated for signal victiries gained by the Krindi during the revolutionary war. The large and strong cities of Co.idt!' and Vulcncienncs vi' now niinexed to France. 'MHS, Is'amur, to the east of llainault, presents a striking variety from the tamo ami flat hlirfacu which covers the greater part of the Low Countries. Cunsisting uf the vallnur the Meuse, which traverses the whole province from north to south, it contuiiis nuimruus rugged eminences, which give to it a varied and |)icturesquu character. 'I'lie bunks of the river, IVuni Namur to Liige, overhung by wooded rucks, and opening into deep vallttt iibounil in the most romantic scenes. lliMli. AmoHH the cities, iVaniiir is one of the most ancient in the Low Countries, its orljiH lii'iiig traced to the time of the ancient Germans. It lies in a beautiful valley hurdird by high mountains, at tlie confluence of the Sambre and Meuse. The castle, on a lii^h ruck, was formerly considervtl almost impregnable, and stood many sieges, till Joseph II, dij. niuntled, niiil the French afterwards almost entirely demolished it. The cathedral aiidlW .leNiiits* church are fine edifices, and, unlike the other churches of the Low Countries, ol I (ireciun arcliitecturc. Namur bus in its neighbourhood extensive iron mines, uliich iinplov many of the inhabitimts ; the manufactures of the city consist in working up this ini'tal iiitii j fiie-niins, cutlery, &c. Ascending the Meuse towards the French frontier, we comclothe sii ml fnrtilied towns of Diiiant and Cliarlemont :K)'I7. 7'A* firovmces <>/ Liige and Limburg, which ore much intermiM}r|ed with eacli other, form the caster i frontier of Uelgium. They run from north to south alungthe Muuse, fronting Uermany, and are, indeed, half German. On the banks of the Mvusc, and ill NUinu |Mrticulur districts, the territory is broken and rocky ; but most of it consists of u vkU^ttded and highly cultivated plain. The eastern district is distinguished by thi' peculiar I rivliiWHH of its pastures, which produce butter and cheese of great value. Its manufacluMi ( hIho, especially those of fine woollens, are very flourishing. ;|04H. Of the citiei in these two provinces, Li^ge, once the scat of a sovereign bishop, ill anciuiit and large, but upon the whole ill built and gloomy ; and though some of its build. I ingH uru large, they do not display the taste conspicuous in other Ilelgic cities. The chunk I of 8t. Paul isi however, admired, as was that of St. Lambert, till it was destroyed duriif I the revolution. Lidge has a inanufacturv of fine woollen cloths, which sell at a high prin f The town of Limburg, now included in Li^ge, has lost much of its population and indusin; I und n griMtt part of its precincts is in ruinj. Spa, situated amid romantic rocks, isoneoll the iiiost celebrated watering places in Europe. The resort, though much diminishi!d,ii| still etinsideruble, and com|>osed of persons of distinguished rank. The inhabitants worl I iho 1m.'vcIiwoo''• "<• low, that k ! I "r"".' ""^ ^''''> '•• 't- „„„J«c. .he whole eerritory 'jL "'" = '^''^■" "'t'He uyl^Z'f'""^^" ""'y '-y me«, s .«ly any « here nohjece^ .„ tie IT'? '^Z""'. '" fa". o,.oT;.t w J,"'""" '""'' '"• "> („„H..n.lor„„,„e..t. 'iJut the chief £{*'''. "'""«'' ^"^'^'n-'vc «Inlen, Ir^'rV'' ""•'«'"»•. 1 394 ' y" """^ °'" «''o Zuyder '^'^ * 'ong. 4« 40- ^ j-^> **'"" a considerable own-n the fourteenth century ; but it w«, "°t till the »i„,,^,^ •century, when the per. secutions of the Sp«. Proved fatal to* the ''•ndc and navigation , - — *" Antwerp and the Juinfil to the distinction wh.V.h i southern provinces, lta«(rtk first co,n.„eni..,l city of P .'r ''"•"'^*"' "" "^out the miHHI» / .^"""terdam at- l-eligion, was receive.. *ith "!„ ^^ ^ "ndividual. whatever Lw^JtS^r '"'"'' P^'^'^^''^''^'- Iwincnl, the rii-ht of citi».n.i.- ? "' Amsterdam • n,,^ „ ? \ •*" '"* country or his fju,licin.iiU:[ Sea Kd?" -'J"» of"„n tl'Sf ''V >"-- of a trifliSg |j.«ry in oikr countries wer?i" '" P""""""" commerce ."•" P"" '^g?" »f « native. Ali Inly foe. When n.ost ^ osjerous^tl'' ^ P™'"'>i"-onsri;. PlilanS T" ''''™ '"^' «"«» liiatantsj hut at present Tl,„T ' . "^'""<'«'" '« supposed ♦« k^ '^'-'^ «■«"« compara- l;.nars.., .,.e /-ou-.^rsiXSTer-r ^PpS '^^^^^^^^^^^ '^^^ty,S,0^ Ikousecosts as much beinu, «= u ^ "'^ ''»"' on piles . opH j. . ° 200,000. Bemg built U other, and are n„ Sv " , '"'°'"' e'-0""'>- Tht thre» n • '"■" ?""""" "^o-nplaint that U; manv of w.^.h^^ *",'"' ""»'«-''«l for leneth h, !i'l'""P"' *''«««» »« parallel f„ t Tk/^i^^: 2; ;a antique, are s^fd,'';^/''. «"d the magnificeSrjth: B »« „„j I < ""h"'«^cted by an imiv,o.,„„ _. . ' ""<• arc kent in >hn i.„,* _. ..." *Hiriiiiii4„ ^' I™ f »*r, and in clearing »!.». ^, "■«>«• The exDencl! • °^}^^ "'"*'"" = 'hese canals royal palace is the finest build" o^o"fth/ 1?' ""'' •■"' ''«'«'^i one of the noblest any where to be ■r"-'t wuh : it is o*- large dimen s.ons andis ado.r.ed with p Hars and with sculptures embleltTci of commerce and navigation Above 1.'J,000 piles are Taid o mve been employed in forming __ ts foundation. The harbour i^ . , , , •"- •"■ -"«»....— ■— oblwlH "r'V '"■■«" "'">* being >lli of the V and »l,n „ • ^ . '" ''K'"**" before thev can h™Wes,\ri e,"''"^^ ZuyderZee is T *'^P«'nP"« or ba aHh" t'^'"''^^'^'^^^^^^^^^^ ToremedytVi f^^' ^-^ver:-a-":>ein«suppii^^^ [^•'-''1. »l>out five n^ ''•';" 'T" ''«■'•■"« supplied witffr"*"'^^""' "«' ""« 3 A 2 "**' cisterns, > ■ < where the 73> rain- water is collected. DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part Hi, There is a national museum of pictui js, which contains maiiv fi specimens of tlie Dutch scliool. Tlie various prisons and houses of correction and ind ' at Amsterdam are said to be managed on more approved principles than similar instil t'*'"^ in most parts of Europe. Tlie police is excellent ; crimes rare ; and no besiFan »n i m mat 19 Men moTTRBnAM. the streets. The inhabitants seem vigorous and healthy ; but the mortality th \ terially diminished within the last thirty or forty years, is still greater than in ° European cities ; a consequence, probably, of the humidity of the climate, and of the cflT"^' arising, in summer, from the canals. "^'^ 3052. Rotterdam (Jig. 396.), the second city in Holland, is more conveniently sit ated for commerce Han Amsterdam, having a readier 396 /\x. access to the sea; and the Maese, on which it is situ. atcd, being so veiy deep as to admit vessels of tlie lorgest draught of wi-er to lie close to the quays. Is commerce is rapidly increas. iiig. Its principal exports are geneva and madder ; and it carries on the business of sugar-refining on a large scale. Ithasallthecharac. tcristics of a Dutch town; being neat, clean, uniform; the hous. 3 high, and built of I very small bricks. The canals intersecting it are numerous, deep, and, unless in a few of the most crowded streets, connected by draw-bridges. Rotterdam boasts of being the I birth-place of Erasmus ; to perpetuate whose memory she has erected n handsome statue | (Jig. .197.). 3053. Other large and important cities ore included within (lie | limits of the province of Holland. 3054. The Hague (Jig. 398.), though ranking only as aril. lage, is, in fact, one of the handsomest cities in Europe. Tbt I streets and squares arc well built, bordered with fine wailts and I avenues of trees. Neither the old nor the new palace can boast of I any splendid architecture; but the former is large, and contain! | some valuable collections. An avenue of two miles leads to the | neat fishing town of Scheveling, whence the dealers a. i daily seto I bringing their commodities in little certs drawn by large dogs, [ Leyden (Jig. 399.) is a fine old city, situated in the heartoftiKJ Rhineland, where this ancient bed of the river is cut into a I infinity of canals, which render this the richest meadow land of I Holland. The beer, the butter, and the bread of tliis district an | held ill the highest estimation. Leyden, during the war with Spain, was the most ini|Hit.| ant city in Holland, and on the event of its siege the fate of that country was sup| tTATUU "r mAIHVI. 398 -i-ii'*«3sa®3®?5i^g^2; to depend. Tlic Spanianliil by a lengthened and stiidl blockade, reduced it to lit I last extremity; while Ihl Dutch could muster nofonel adequate to its relief. Itnl then that they formed liit| magnanimous resolution (^1 breaking down their ditnf and .-idmitting the ocean. Ill was some time before the full eflcct was produced) bunl length, impelled by a violent wind, the sea rushed in, overwhelmed all the works of ilil besiegers, and forced them to a jireclpitatc flight. The little fleet of boats, which b.1 l)ecn prepared for the relief of Leyden, immediately sailed over the mwiy formed oT pause, and triumphantly entered the city. The Prince of Orange ofl'ered to LejMj the option of two benefits, — an immunity from taxes for a certain period, or the foiu*! alion of a university in the city. The citizens crowned their former glory by cmfl the latter alwrnative, and a university was accordingly founded, which speeJil; becml one of the most eminent schools in Eurojie ; .ind, though much injured by the nunw*! rivals which have since sprung up, it continues to maintain a high reputation, pariicalKfl Tna HAUUB. Boo«I> HOLLAND AND BELGFUM. 735 I«ssical school Leyden is still a handsome and flourishing town ; carries on the '"'ii^Miufacturc with success, though on a diminished scale ; and is a great market for ,oolleumanuia«urc b butter and cheese. Haarlem (Jig. 400.) is another city of ancient importance. In the great struggle for independ- ence, it stood a memorable siege of seven months ; when it surrendered upon hon- ourabK' te^-ms, which were basely violated by the Duke of Alva. Haarlem is still spacious and flourishing, and excels peculiarly in the bleach- ing of linen and cambric, which it performs for all the neighbouring provinces. The matchless and brilliant white- cjof the Haarlem linens has been imputed to a peculiar quality in the water, but is more I probably the result of the extreme skill of the inhabitants, acquired by long practice. I ' Flowers are prinei- ^ pally raised for sale in the vicinity of Haarlem. Delft, an ancient gloomy town, was formerly cele- brated for the manu- facture of the ware which bears its name ; but this, as already observed, has been al- most entirely sup- planted by English ilicnwarc. Durt, or Dordrecht, enclosed by branches of the Macse, was the ancient capital of Holland, while the main commerce of that country continued to centre in this its fnost natural quarter. It still retains very considerable traces of this early importance. lie tuwn-hall and great church are magnificent structures. There is a considerable trade 1 goods coming down the Rhine, particularly floats of timber, so large that one of them ■ been valued at 30,000/. Gouda is a large flourisliing village, in a rich country, and iarriiis on an extensive manufactory of tobacco-pipes. It is celebrated for the excellence of 3055. North Holland forms a considerable peninsula, almost cntirclv encircled by the |uyder Zee and the North Sea, and bordered by sand-hills of some elevation ; but the in- lior is covered with rich pastures, on which are fed largs herds of cattle. The ancient and lot ungraceful costumes (Jig. 401.) of the Dutch peasantry are preserved with greater exact* s ill tliis sequestered part of Holland, than in any other ; and the fishery, for which their iliiation is peculiarly adapted, is carried on with great activity. Alkmaar is an agreeable 401 _ ^^ ^^ town, with a great traffic in butter nnd cheese, and a manufacture of nets. The most important places in North Holland are the Helder and the Texel, two grand naval stations ; the one a strong fort, commanding the entrance of the Zuyder Zee ; the other an island opposite, in which tlic Dutch fleets used to rendezvous, from the facility it ufTorded for tlieir getting to sea Along the coast of the Zuyder Zee are the considerable Jus of Hoorn ami Enkhuysen, and the smaller ones of Edam and Purmerendc. t056. Zealand is a region more completely enclosed by, and sunk below, the level of tlie Icr, than .-my other part of the United Provinces. It consists of nine isla.ids, formed oiid nroncd hy brandies of the Maesc and the Scheldt, as, passing from the state of rivers info p,they unite with the ocean. The mariner, in approaching, sees only points of the spires Jiing nhove the immense dikes whicli defend them from inundation. The soil is moist I nch, peculiarly adapted to the cultivation of madder. The damp air, however, nnd the Illations from llie waters, render these islands unhealthy, and even falcd to foreigners, •J A a r, ASX-'THY OF HOLLAND. 726 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P*M III. as was too dreadfully experienced by our troops while quartered at Walcheren • h i i, I natives do not experience the same pernicious eflSects. Middleburg is a considciibl ' r with a town-hall and several churches, which afford fine specimens of Gothic archit't"*^' Flushing, with its attendant town of Ulyssingen, is an eminent naval station, and ha "' I sidcrable trade and fishery. The island of Schowen has Zieriksec, the ancient caDital"" I the counts of Zealand ; and South Beveland has Goes, or Tergoes, with a considerable h' I in salt. ™' ' 3057. Utrecht, a more inland province than Holland, forms a continuation of the tract of flat meadow land, interspersed with gardens and country residences. Utrccirrl capital, is a remarkably agreeable city, and being a, little elevated, the view from its ram' I and the top of its cathedral over the vast plains and broad waters of Holland is cxtensiv '""hi delightful. The Romans called it Ulpii Tra^ectum, ns commanding an important vL \ over the Rhine ; and in the middle ages it was held by the warlike bishops of Utrecht ^'1 this city was concluded the treaty of confederation, in 1597, by which the United Provi I were constituted, and also the celebrated treaty of 1715, which terminated the lone v ""^I the Spanish succession. Amersfort, pleasantly situated on the Ems, and noted as il I birthplace of Bamcveldt, has considerable fabrics of dimity and bombazeen, and eitcnsi 1 bleaching grounds. Naarden, a small town, forms the key of all the water communication J of Holland. I 3058. North Brabant, comprising that which was the Dutch part of the province is J flat, sandy, marshy tract, not distinguished by cither the natural fertility or manufaclurinj industry so conspicuous in the rest of Holland and Belgium. Forming, however \h\ barrier by which the Dutch maintained their independence, it contains several of thestrontKtl fortresses in Europe, which have indeed the reputation of being almost impregnable I Breda is one of the most conspicuous. After Prince Maurice of Nassau took it bysurJ prise, in 1590, its fortifications were greatly extended, and the surrounding country bdnJ intersected by rivers and marshes, can^ be laid under water. It is an agreeable city con^l manding from the ramparts a fine view, and both its church and its town-liall arc admin Gothic edifices, Bois le Due, on the Dommel, so named from an old hunting-wood of ihe Dukes of Brabant, is a large town, and equally strong. It is so intersected by cannii liut eighty bridges are required to cross them ; in winter the place is entirely surronndi'd bi water, and can be approached only in boats. Bcrgcn-op-Zoum, farther to the nest il similar as to strength, and was esteemed the masterpiece of the celebrated ColionJ The glorious but disastrous attack made upon it by the British in tlic last war is ntJl remembered. J 3059. The outer provinces of Gueldcrland, Fricsland, Overyssel, Drenthc, and GrbningeJ which lie between the Zuydcr Zee and the Ems, are rather appendages than integral ponid of Holland, nnd form by their situation part of the great level plain of northern Genrnnii The country is similar to Holland, however, in its aspect and the general state ofcuitivatia though a somewhat greater proportion of the land is employed in the raising of j Fricsland has a very fine breed of horses and horned cattle; and tlie linen inaiiufac flourishes to a considerable extent. In these provinces, however, particularly in Ouclikl land and Overyssel, there is a large extent of sandy and marshy ground, which is not forci into cultivation with the same minute care as in the central ])rovinccs. l\Iurh benefit, tioij ever, is expected from the pauper colonies lately established there. 30G0. The towns of this region are pretty numerous and considerable, tliougli noneii of the first class. Nimegucn, in Gueldcrland, is ancient, strong, and hanjsome, cogl manding a noble view over the Rhine. Zutphcn is an old imperial city, dreadfoli pillaged in 1572 by the Duke of Alva. It has a magnificent church ; and tlie fens rouiiiil have been so completely drained, as to render the air no longer unwholesome, Amlieiiil a large and beautiful town, at the foot of the hills of Veluwe, and forming a great thon)iijl{ fare into Germany. Deventer, in Overyssel, is an ancient member of the Ilanseatic iei^i and has a venerable cathedral, 2woll, on the Yssel, is strong, large, and well buill. Assi though capital of the new province of Drenthe, is only a village. In Fricsland, Leuwai on the Ee, is a large and populous town, in a country surrounded and intersected with c which enable it to communicate with the sea, and to carry on a considerable trade, pen, an ancient Ilanse town, has lost its importance, the harbour being nowclioM^ llarlingen, Franeker, Dokum, Bolswaert, arc ports on the Zuydcr Zee, and manufvu ing places of some importance. Griiuingen, capital of the province of the wncninKjl the most important of all the towns cast of the Zuydcr Zee. It is well buill, and ih\ with noble edifices ; and its university was once a distinguished place among Diilcli s naries, but is now seldom attended by more t.ian 100 students. Large vessels cant the Hunse from the Zuyder Zee. 3061. Luicmhurfi, »n cxtcnsiye province, though political revolutions attached it to Netherlands, and now to Holland, forms part of Germany, entitling the king toavoleiii Germanic diet. Its character is every way in decided constra.st to the rest of llulUit Belgium, Instead of a dead, rich flat, traversed by navigable streams mid cmiaKLiid Book I- HUNGARY. 7V7 hure presents almost throughout high mountains and woods, foi-iiiiiig scenes of savnge inandeur, similar, though on a smaller scale, to those of Switzerlai\(l. Tlie country is dKtitute of water communications, is imperfectly cultivated, aad does not contain a popu- lation of mure than sixty-six to the square mile. Its breeds of cattle and sheep are of small I but as usual in mountain pastures, of delicate flavour. The horses are active and hard'v ' <^^ ^^^ ^'^'^*' ^'*''^'> borders on the Moselle produces valuable wine. SoVi. 1'l>e cUiei and towns are by no means on l!:o same scale as those in the rest of the kinitdom. Luxemburg, the capital, situated on two rocits, whose steep sides form a glacis, •bile tlie river Else, at their feet, serves as a wet ditch, is one of the strongest fortresses in Europe. The horse and cattle markets are ccnsiderablj. Theux has in its neighbourhooa minea of a beautiful black marble; and Stavelot carries on a considerable trade In leather. Mai'Stricht, the principal town of Limburg, has, along with all the part of that province cast of llie Meusc, been assigned to Holland. It is large, handsome, and well fortified. Kurcmonde and Venio, also neat towns of some strength, are included in the suniu dittrict Chap. XII. HUMOART. 3063. Hungary, called by the Germans Vngarn, with Transylvania, Sclavonia, Croatia, and the Baiinat, forms a wide range of territory. Long the grand field of conflict between the Ottoman and Christian powers, it was finally possessed by the latter, and has for several centuries formed an integral and important part of the hereditary states of the house of Austria; which has recently annexed to it the portion -" nnJmatia obtained from Venice. Sect. I. General Outline and Aspect. 3064. Hungary is bounded on the west by Germany ; on the south and ewst by the tri- butary Turkish provinces of Bosnia, Servia, Wallachia, and Moldavia; on li c rurth, by the Carpathian mountains, which separate it from Poland. It forms nearly a '(jjare of 40(i I miles in each direction, cumprehending, with all its appendant states, an ar'ii t^i 133,000 square miles, inhabited by upwards of 12,000,000 people. 306,1. Surface. The great mountain girdle of the Carpathians rangts .'it'arly ii; !\ M-Tiiicirtie I round the northern and eastern border of Hungary. Several connected chairs \n ncirutc into ibc heart of tlie country, of whicli the most elevated arc those of Tatrn ;tnd Matra ; the Julian Alps, and the mountains of the Bannat, on the southern border, reiiuor a great part I of the country at least very hilly. On the other hand, there are plains '^f almost boundless Intent, such as that to the east of the Danube, watered by the Teiss'-,. « iich covers a space I of upwards uf 2U,0(X) square miles ; and another to the west of that river, reaching to the I borders of Styriu. Hungary, protected by the Carpathians from the blasts of the north, and Isloping downwards to the south, enjoys a milder climate than any part of Germany. On Itlie Carpathian terraces, particularly, the richest wines, and the choicest productions of Isouthern Europe, are raised in perfection. There is a vast variety of country, however; ■many tracts heing naked and rocky, others covered with marshes, and some even form- ling deserts of barren sand. :!0C6. The rivirs of Hungary are very important. The Danube, making a grand circuit, lis thruugli it, chiefly from north to south, and receives here its mightiest tributaries. T)ie IDrave and t.'ie Save, from the east, bring to it all the waters of the great alpine border of Muihcrn Germany. The Teisse, after collecting, in a course of 4(X) miles;, nearly all the lireams whicli flow from the Carpathians, falls in from the east, near the southern frontier The Maros is the greatest tributary of the Teisse ; and the Gran and the Waag are consider- il)lo streams, which flow into the Danube itself. 'WC7, The lakes uf Hungary are numerous, but only two are large ; the Flatten or IJa- ■lun, which receives the waters of nine streams, and is supposed to pour them under ground pthe Danube; and the Neusiedler, the water of which is salt. The long and sluggish Irtanis of the Teisse and the Maros spread into wide morasses, which, acted on by the Ivsul a burning sun, exhale pestilential vapours, often inure fatal than the sword to the mm which have been led into their vicinity. :i (\ 4 738 lA MAP OF HUNGARY. IS '.'0 n Pin, 402. NORTH PART. I. Illa>a «. I'iKlhrail 7>. Okailnia 4. Hudatin i. Trebedo* fi. Moines 7< Szucian 8. Arva 9- llotcntmrft 10 Froxno M.llatiuk li licutsenau 1.1. Korolnok 14. Kperiei 15. IVibra in. .MIiiTO 17. Dubrinll? IS. Polena 19. Ja>n. (tolszoci SA. Kaichau S7. Ijemea Sfl. Melicn S9. flMnjo W. Tonia SI. Tlitoltta US. Newiol !a. AlUol 34. .Vchonnill SI). Tola 3fi. Kr«mnltz »7. Trcinwit 88. N. TopitWmny 39. I.eopcifilsl.'uU 40. N. Zznmb.-ith 41. HanclprfiiWc 4». V. KIb.Ur 43. Si. .Tanoa 44. Alalalaka 45. Hrtaburtt 46. Hamor 47. Sinrilahcly 48. Krv'ii 4tl. Harlo in. I Ian 61. (Mfaln 6S. Jamto 6S. Honi 54. HAlaahagyarmath 65. Torlnn ifi. (iaicz ■67. Kazekai •■iH. ( inzlctc 59. Paract fill. MUhkott 61. Mutl'iBizo m. Tokaj ri.1. Semiilln fi4. Mi>nitok fi5. Kernzkut (Ili. Tar|>a fi7. Katzoni 68. N. Szolloi B9. Ojlincj 70. "uizt 71. .V. Tama 7S. Ilocik 7.1. Akno 71. Hanja 75. ITjvaros 7fi. Szalhman 77. Dobra 78. KorolfC 79. Kr Semjcn 80. l.tiEoi HI. N. Kallo 83. I)ori)({ 83. Trene 81. Pnlmr 85. M.Ki'rnilet 8fi. Aitria 87. Kaiwla 88. Mat fan 89. I'ala 90. VarKg 91. P«t 93. An Snfrnil 93. K^tpri^iDf or (Iran 91. Iluila 9'». Soinlyo 91',, All 97. Komom IIH. (Ivor, or lla.ili 99. ('s<,nia KKI. Valla 101. Moson }0'i. Mrifleshrun lin. Si/i-z Int. (Kileiilutrt? In.'i. K(»^^•^^ urn. S;onil.aihil> 107. IliclvfH lOH. Haal VfV. Tiiruvc IIU. .MUki- Heferences to the Map qf Ilungnri/, 111. Vaahcrhelj 113. (jyanmatb 113. Vwzprim 114. Politarll U.V Sz Fejfrran 1 16. Tetenn; 117. Soroki 118. lioczhaza 119. Ocia ISO. Sulj 13I.PIIJI 13". C«(il«l 1 '. Ahiiiy 134. T. S. Mlklni 135. ni» Rinhatnia 136. Kards.i2 147. Turkevi 138. Xsaka 139. Komaili 1.10 (ireat Warailin 131. Tones 1.13. ILihar 13.1. Hzckfljhed 131. Somlja 13'). N. Uar«l 136. Sibo 137. Ko»,ir 1.18. Kacika 139. Ilcei. SOUTH PAIIT. 1. Va-iarbely 3. Alaros 3. Clauu-nburi{ 4. Torda 5. K. Aranj.u 6. Rralka 7. KelcHl 8. Kerlet 9. Okrosi 10. Mlbcia 11. N. ^alimia 13. KIlIcm.-i 13, N.i.lab 11. lli'kn 15. Sz-irraa 16. Huiiii nf the Templii of Kciter 17. .Monor 18. r^ongrad 19. Ui{h 311. AInar VI, I/sak 33. Kl» Rartu 33. K. liana SI. Sou 35. MiklM 36. Paki 87. Kolesd 28. Ozora 89. Sio Kok .10. T. Ko|.p;inj 33. Mtrcz-ily 33. Knzlhelj 31. Pak 35. KorpoTo 36. Ht Peter 37. Cfzztrcu m. Sz (iollJiard 39. Martyam-z 40. I.endva 41. Varasd 43. Krapina 43. Klaiiyecz 41. Popovacz 4.'). Kmitl 46. Virii. 47. Knprdnltz 48. lli'iiesd 49. (lalosta 50. Si [.orinez 51. I)omb..Tar 53. P«u 53. Siekeso 51. Szezard 55. II;\Ja 56. tlankovaez 57. Halai 58. Malna 59. Kis Telck 60. Sicotil 61. Si.Tviarla 63. K. Kanisa 63. Joit'pbeva 61. Vaurhrly 65. It.itoiiya 66. M. (:a^anad 67. Ariul fiS. Va Kr Anna 69. MunoriMlva 70. SolKirsin 71. Szlrb 73. 7.!un 73. Iluda 74. Henc*^! 75. CarKtmrB 76. N. Kn.eft 77. l.ipad 711. Moill.u 79. Schaesburff 80. SIkloil 81. Udiarhely 83. riajl 83. Cronstadt 1:4. Sankany 85. Knbalon 86. Sloltzenhtirff 87. HtTnianstailt 88. Mublenbach 89. I.unkani 110. Rca 91. Marffa 93. l)»va 93. Dohra 91. \ . Facset 95. Tho 96. Allies 97. Itcnkcnau 98. Kncz 99. Koinlos 100. Ilnxira 101. Melencze 102. llocze 103. Topolva ml Oz Szivalt 105. KaRK^a 106. llezd.in 107. Hlur.u! 118. Verdal/ka 119. Petrovina 130. rarlst.TiU 131. Tula '.33. Nara 133, ZciiR 131. CarloiMKO 135. OnalsTl 136. 1'ernlJl.Ol 137. nttmhal 13S. llru.inik 139. Iliirin 1.10. Zrin 111. Sls/eR 1.13. IKtniM-ti 133. N. (.ia7, Vciikirflm 1.5S, l„i(;tnl«( l.'iO, IluliOtjri 160, llalvani.iii 161, 1'anfwu 163. Deklucw lfi.1 S, I'a/ni 161, SfrTilm IS'', I'roean 11,11. KIrnak ir.;. Iloma I'll. Telernn,!! lr,'l. .Miro.ick 17(1, S^jianf, nimi, ,1f, a Ilanuk, K. Ii WmX c (tT.ln, K. .1 ,lattu,ll. f rnj, II. f Ifiw^K, u Suiiiot, K. Ii Kotia.R I Maroi.H. 1 Save, It. I llraif, K. I IClali, K. 171 Ittnai'jri II llrrjiM'ali' I, lUiii- ,, N,a,-rl Fin, 402. Boo« !• 24 '24 liurft 134. rosfw I3.'>.(ira(listi lel; isr.. llrod l.lT.Varm lilt 13H. VinkovKu ly Wl. Kiuk m 140. Iloduk nhurs nstaiTl 14l.llari Its. U. Viilft nbach M.^. Iletl; llt.N.llKltitrt nj M.-i. \M.,t 1 l(i. Yina 117. Frai 1 IS. 7^1x1 set M'J. Ilema l.'iil. Siet,\. l.M.JcnieB nail l.'.'i. Rum 1,1?. Mchidil A l/il.Musoti 1,','.. N™.M«:iii t'78 l.'.f). Msidan l,'i7. Veiitifftifl vail l.H. IJi«.rJ«( l.'iO. Duliorai a ICO. KalviUhlJC n lfil.P«iic»n Wi. DeWutas! (t ir..1. S. Puni ■zc 161. Srnilin 1'^'.. IVoKW iliU 11,1.. Klcnll If.T. Hums ' ItiH, I'elftnn^.i lh9, M.rotich s'h i;(l.S«li»nf. I'llii ;r.Kl nii«r(,,lt. l/ka a Ilaniik, K. li Wa.v, R. ina iuU c (itan.H. .I.laiiu,ll. f I'm, 11. n>i«.R. nno 1! Sian](a. R. v. K«i», R l»h 1 MarovR. j S.ive,R. \ l)i,nf,R. nt ik HUNGARY. Skct. II. Natural Geographif, 729 ludihkn ri HCTlJM.'Mfc o lial.ii,"liii 1 SnBSECT. 1. Geology. vXjS. !• rrimitive rocks. Primitive rocks are not abundant, and they do not occupy great incis in the districts where they occur. They form the group of Prcsburg, the group of N'yimi) that of Tatra, to the south of which are situated the mountains of Gomor, of vhicii I'hcy form the principal mass. They re-appear in Transylvania on tlie frontiers of Buckovina uilMoldavia ; to the south, in the chain of Fagaras, which ranges into the Uannat ; to the jest in tlie mountains of Gaina and Bibar. They re-appcar at Peterwaradin, and on the frontitrs of Styria. A central granite appears to form the group of Prcsburg ; the Krivan ia the group of Ostrosky ; of Polana, a little farther to the north ; and the Tatra. Gneiss, contiiining beds of granite, of mica slate, &c., occurs in the mountainous parts of the county of Gomor, at the foot of the Tatra, on the frontiers of Buckovina, in the group of Fagaras, in tiic Bannat. Mica state and clay slate occur on the acclivities of all the groups, the rocks of which liavc been already enumerated. Mica slate forms the group of Nyitra ; it is very abundant in the mountains of Zeleznik, Jolsva, Rosenau (in the county of Gomor), where n observe it passing into clay slate, which rock often alternates with it, and at length becomes predominant, forming the wliole superior part of the deposit. 3069. il/(TCHry occurs at Szlana, in unctuous mica slate: rlwmboidal iron ore, or iron glance, in the mountains of Ensiedel and Golnitz ; prismatic iron ore, or hydrate of iron, in beds in clay slate at Zeleznik, anJ in the vicinity of Iluscnau. 3070. EupholidCyOT diallnge rock, and serjwnline, are found at Dobschau, and in the moun- tains which ibrin tlic eastern point of Esclavoiiia and Peterwaradin. 3071. rorplii/rilic greenstone is met witli in the upper part of the valley of Tiszolcz, where ilic rastle is situated. ,1072. II- Transition rocks. The rocks of this class begin at Prcsburg, where they rest on ilic primitive group : they range from S. W. to N.E. into Gallicia, in their course passing be. Iiinii the Tatra ; tlioy cover a considerable space from north to south, where they join the group ofNvitra, the mountains of Zolyom and Gomor. They form the small group of Diosgyor to ihe.iortli of Erlau ; they appear in different points of tlie chain of sandstone which extends fum Tatra into Transylvania ; they become more abuiuiaiit in Marmaros, on the eastern fron- tier of Transylvania, where they join again with the chain of Fagaras. We meet witli them ag,iiii ill the countries of Nagy- Ag and Oflenbanya, in the Bannat ; and, lastly, in Croatia. ;i073. Jkimsils of transition quarlzy siindslone, and compact limestone, witli grey wacke, occur ntar to Ncusolil, in the group of Tatra, and on the borders of Duiiajcc, towards the frontiers of Gallieia ; but this compact limestone occurs alone in a great number of places, iiiicre it also terminates the transition deposits. 3074. Transilion syenite and purphjrilic greenstone are found at Pila near to Konigsberg, ai Schemnitz, Kremnitz, in the niuuiitains of Borsony, of Karancs, on the northern foot of the JIatra. It re-appears in the mountains of Kapnick, of Nagy-Ag, Zalathna, Voros- Patak; and it appears also to occur in the Bannat. 3075. III. Sea lii.iy rocks. The following secondary deposits are described as occurring in Hungary: — 1. Tk coal formation rests upon transition strata .it Jablunicza and Steurdorf, near to Oravicza, in the Bannat ; and ^he same formation occurs at Fiinfkirchen, '.'. The Jura limestone fortiicttion occurs principally in the stnith- western parts of Hungary. 3. A Sandstone formation, containing coal, the sandstone of the Carjiathians, which, in the regular succession, lies upon the Jura limestone, and below the chalk formation, forms the whole chain extending from the foot of the Tatra into INIoldavia; it also penetrates into Transylvania, of which it occupies all the central part ; it also forms the Kahlengebirge, nt'.v to \'ienna, where it appears to be connected witli the coal formation and old red sand- stone of Moravia. 4. The chalk formation also occurs in Hungary : thus a remarkable kind of this deposit a|ipeais at Ofen and Buda Oros, and a particular compact marly limestone, abounding in pccn talcy disseminated parts, which may be referred to this chalk, occurs in Transylvania. 3076. \\. Tertiary rocks. Molasso, or sandstone with lignite, is the most abundant of the Hungarian tertiary rocks, and covers at the same time the secondary rocks and the coiigloiiicratos belonging to trachyte. It covers the southern declivity of all the moun- tains which hinii the north-western part of Hungary ; it extends into Gallicia, at the foot of the Carpathians ; it is fount, in the centre of Transylvania, at Clauscnburg, Carlsburg, nemianstailt, and Cronstadt. It covers, towards the west, the foot of the mountains which I lonii the western limit of that principality, and extends even into the Bannat ; it forms nearly I the whole south-western part of Hungary, from whence it extends into Croatia. The i Ciiarsc imtiite limestone of Paris occurs in the neighbtmrhoid of Buda and CEdcnburg, on j the hanks of the Lake Balaton, and at Fiiiifkirchcn, It occurs also in Buckovina, and in I Eastern Giillitin. The limestone coninining lymncte occurs at N«gy-Vasony, and in the marshes »f the great plain of Hungary. 730 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P*«TlI|. 3077. Tertiary Plutonian rocks. Trachyte. This Plutonian rock appoan to rinu tl the tertiary deposits, and is therefore to be considered as having been si'iit (Vom |,,,| ""•('' the deposition of these strata. It forms five groups ; one occupies the (liittrictH (((''jTi" ' nitz, Krcmnitz, and Kiinigsberg ; the second occurs to the north of tliu 1)iiiui|,m wI , '"■' forms the mountains of Drcgeley and Visscgrade ; a third forms tlie nMumtdlim Iil' ll'/' " on the northern border of the great plain ; a fourth includes the mountains hutvvimn l'' !'i"' and Tokay ; lastly, a fifth occurs at Vihorlet, and extends into the countips oC Uiwl'" i Beregh. The same formation forms a considerable group in Transylvania, on i|,p iv I ,'1'" of Moldavia ; and every thing seems to indicate that it will also bo found in tliv (I|»|H .| ■ Nagy-Ag and Zalathna. The porphyritic variety of trachyte is the most laiinulnnii tl"' other varieties occur only in the Schemnitz group. Pitchstone, pcarlstoiu', \m\\Wv \ obsidian occur, associated v»ith the trachyte, around the trachyte hills j and, I'xtuntliiiu ft" them into the plains, there are vast beds of trachyte conglomerates or tutliw, Tlmmi .?,| 1"" merates are formed of debris, often transported and triturated in water, Nv«r to tliu r 1" tliey are composed of very large blocks, but in the plains of scoriaceous and enriliy iiiutl" . and, lastly, of a pumiceous matter, sometimes, ground down into an earthy lurm, '1'^,^' deposits contain fossil organic remains; viz., opaline wood, impressions of plmitu und I'T of various kinds. The trachytic conglomerates are ihe principal repository of prfcimum ' and the pumiceous conglomerates that of jasper-opal fid wood-opal. The conulmnir 1 , composed of broken down and decomposed pi mice are very abundant bctwi'en TokHvili'i Tolesva. The porphyroidal varieties form the mountains between Ki-du-Bunyi' luitl 'rifll they appear again in the county of Beregh, where they contain conHidtraliUi niiiH„,/"f aluminous rock. The auriferous deposits of the trachyte formation are found In iiiiimi..! the pumiceous conglomerate, or in veins in the vesicular variety of trachyto wlildi In n ,'j for mill-stones. 3078. V. Alluvial rocks. Old alluvial rocks, and also those of modern formalion, alioiinil li Hungary. Of these, the most Interesting are the calcareous tuft'as, somo of wlilcJi «,' diluvial, others modern, and daily forming. " SuBSECT. 2. and 3. Botany and Zoology. 3079. The Botany and Zoology of Hungary are similar to those of Germany. Sect. Ill, Historical (^.ograpUy- 3080. To the Romans Hungary was known under the name of Pannonin, niid mm (hi domain of tribes still more rude, wild, and wandering than those of anciuiit (ii'minm.^ The Romans formed out of it the province of Dacia, including the district IvIiil' mhhIi ,1 the Danube, whicli, for a lengthened period, was the bulwark and boundary ot llii'lr umiii", in tills quarter. Tlie fatal step of allowing a passage, in the fourth cuntiii y, In iho ||vi, 1 Ostrogoths, laid open the defenceless empire ; and, from time to time, a c'(inliiim>i| UmJL of b^irbarous invaders poured in from the extremities of eastern Kiiropi', iniil ckmi f central Asia. 3081. Tlie Huns, in a. n. 433, established themselves in this country, whifli (Viiin llicin Im, ever since retijined the name of Hungary, Attila, whom Gibbon has Kty|i'(| |||i> hiiiiiini. monarch of the biirliuiians, established his court and camp on llui 'IVIiiim imd ii,, Danube, In the ninth lentury followed the Magyars, whose piisliiiiy ruiin ,,\\\\ (i,, ruling body in the nation. 3082. Hungary was erected into a kingdom, partly hereditary, and |mrtlv I'lcciin., in \, 1 1000, Its most powerful monarch was Louis the Great, who, in the I'uurlt'inlli {mum carried his an;:* nto It .! .. 3083. The J ■« xiHih Austria took place in, 1438, through the marriogf of Allicil nf Austria with i.izabcth, heiress of the 1'. casi'd king, Tlu- I'rown was al'teiw ukIh Im<|<| i;„ a time by Ltv;"."ius king of Poland, and by the gallant cliiefs Huniaili'i, iiml M;illliiii> Corvinus; bui ' ultimately reverted to, and remained with, the house of Auslria. Divmlinl wars were, however, wagtil with the Turks, who repeatedly ravaged thi' wlioK' kiiiKili and even laid siege to Vienna; but, for more than a century, that iliiliniiin |Hiwirlw< been completely exiielled from Hungary, and has considered it quite emmgh In (irtwrn' ilv own borders from Austrian invasion. Sect. I V Political Geography. 3084. The political relations of Hungary, considered as a member of llio Auilrlmi empire, have been already considered. It has, however, some features pi'fiiliar to llwll', The kingdom is now hereditary in the Austrian dynasty ; but, in case tliat hlanilil luiniiif extinct, the right of choice would return to the nation. The Hungarian Diet pi)HKi>i,Ht'i, hiijli prerogatives. Without their vote the kin/; cannot make or change the laws, iniiiiiw linv<, or even levy troops. Evvry new king, before his coronation, must lake an imlli In iiiuiii tain the constitution of Hungary The diet consists of four stutcs or uiiU'ii ; — I, Hi l**M III. fi. niul \m till' flit (u'ciiimiy, 'yiiiK Noiiiii .1)' '•' llM'il'l'IU|iih' •i' llu' llyiii« iliiiiii'il tdriviii 1111(1 I'Vl'll „i IVoni tliiiii li,ii |ll I III' >ill|llrliii' l'>«' mill III! U'liiiii 1(111 ilii <>l' AIIh'ii iif I mils lii'lil I'lir liliiil Miilllii.h DivikII'iiI iiU' kln)(il , III priwrvr ill |liii Aiiiinnii Jliar 111 llwli: ■Dlllll llt'i'linir Itiitht'Mi'H lili;!! JIIIKIW liivo, linlli III niiiiii -I, 11.1 Book I. HUNGARY. 731 bishopa and abboU. 2. The magistrates or great nobles. 3. The knights. 4. The free cities. Tlie two former appear in person, and constitute what is called the magnate table, the two lotter, who form what is called the state table, appear by their representatives. The diet assembles every three years, at Presburg or Buda, and sits during the king's pleasure. If three of the orders agree 'o any proposition, the fourth must give its consent. 3085. /'« "'« administration, the body of the people, with the exception of those who form part of the corporations in the free cities, have no share : a circumstance of which iidvantage is taken to throw upon them the whole burden of taxation, from which the nobles and clergy hold themselves exempt. The peasantry, though nominally emanci- patwi, arc still really held in a state of predial slavery. They are allowed, indeed, a con- siderable extent of ground ; from thirty to forty acres each. Out of the produce, however, llic occupant has to pay one tenth to the church, and one-ninth to his landlord, who also claims one hundred and four days' labour in the year, besides sundry other little gifts and services, which arc liable to indefinite overcharge. They are also required to co-operate in the making and repairing the roads, and have troops quartered upon them. On the whole, llieir condition appears decidedly the worse for the privileges enjoyed by a proud and tur- bulent aristocracy, who have always resisted every measure proposed by tlie sovereign to ameliorate the condition of the ^jreat body of the people. ;108fi. The army, in lime of peace, amounts to about 100,000 men, and in time of war it is increased to about 235,000. The expense is defrayed by a peculiar tax, called kriegs- tiever, or war-tax. The revenue is supposed to amount to about 20,000,000 florins. Sect. V. Productive Industry- 3087. The agriculture ' Hungary, notwithstanding the rude manner in which it is conducted, and the extent of unfavourable soil, yields very copious products, out of which n large surplus arises for the supply of the neighbouring countries. According to an estimate which Grcllman has founded on the carfasf re instituted by Joseph II., it contains 1!3,90S,OC)0 jochs of productive land, out of an entire surface of 39,329,000 ; the rest being waste, water, and morass, or otherwise useless. Among these are about 5,000,003 arable, 7,500,000 pasture, 9,000,000 woodland, 1,000,000 vines, and 600,000 garden ground. tSclinartncr and Blumenbach agree in rating the produce in grain at 105,000,000 bushels. A little maize and rice is grown in the Bannat ; otherwise the kinds of grain are those used in Germany. The agriculture is very rude. Light carts ; a plough, of which the share is almost horizontal, and which seldom penetrates above three inches ; and meagre cattle, pre- sent themselves in the dirty farm-yard {fig. 403.). In the rotation of crops, every third ..^ , year is fallow. Cattle and --'^-.-:--.. ■" V!^ lltNUAHIAN PAHr-rARD* sheep are bred, and even exported, in vast numbers; though the breeds, before late improvements, were by no means distinguished. The horned < • ttle, how- ever, are largi , vigorous, and active, of a dirty white colour, and excellently adapted for the plough. The breed of horses had fallen into total disrepute, till it was imjiroved by the pains bestowed upon llii' imperial stud. The nitive Hungarian sheep bears very coarse wool ; but in all the «i".li'ni districts it is much improved by crosses with the Spanish. Some of it is now very lim, and is even imported into England as the best Saxon wool. In 1810, there "ere found 451,000 horses, 2,400,000 oxen and cows, and 8,000,000 sheep; now liriiliubly more. Besides the ample supply of bacon, which is found at the table of iilmost I'very peasant, tlie number of hogs annually exported is from 200,000 to 250,000. W ine in o special object of Hungarian culture. That which bears the name of Tokay, and is produced there, and in a number of surrounding districts, is most celebrated. It i' swiciish, luscious, and does not attain to perfection till it is very old. A good deal of the superior richness of the finer sorts is derived, according to Dr. Townson, from mixing the essiMue or juice of a small number of half-dried and shrivelled grapes with the orili- nary wine of the country. Two sorts are produced in this way, ausbruch and mazchlap ; the only dilltTBnce between them being, that for each pint of essence put into the mazchlap, two uro put into into the ausbruch. Tokay is consumed chiefly at the tables of the great lliingariiui, Polish, and Austrian nobles. The total annual produce tif the Hungarian vine- yards is estimated at about 18,0(X),000 eimcrs. The Hungarians make their wines a subject i^ii" 732 DESCRIFTIVE OEOORAPHY. P*M HI. of especial pride, absurdly pretending that the worst is superior to the best French wine Tobacco is cultivated to a greater extent than in any other European country, and is larirelv exported. Hemp, flax, and madder are also staple products. Bees are very extensively reared ; and the exports of honey and wax are estimated at about 25O,O0(y. To these anicin may be added, though no longer to the same great extent as formerly, cabbage and other garden products, with some fruits, as plums and melons. 3088. Manufactures, in the sense understood in England, con scarcely be said to exist in Hungary. There are, however, coarse domestic fabrics of linen and woollen for home consumption. Hides and skins are tanned, after a simple process, and on a small scale chiefly by the peasants. 3089. The subterraneous wealth of Hungary is equally copious with that which iu surface yields. Gold and silver, in particular, the most brilliant and precious of the metals are raised from the mines of Schemnitz and Kremnitz in greater abundance than in any other part of Europe. The mines are chiefly royal property, or, where private individuals are allowed to collect the ore, they must, at least, give it to the royal smclting.liouses at a fixed rate. The annual quantity is stated by Hassel at 1050 lbs. of gold, and 11,600 lbs, of silver. There is a great reduction of the former quantity, partly owing to the eiliaus. tion of the mines, and partly to the poverty of the Austrian government, which can no longer aflbrd to make the same exertions. According to Dclius, the value of the gold and silver extracted between 1740 and 1773 was upwards of ten millions sterling. The engine employed at Schemnitz {jig. 404.), for drawing up 'he ore, and letting down machinery, is moved by water, and was considered the finest existing, before the invention of tlie steam-engine. The mines of Hungary yield also 10,000 tons of iron, 1 9,000 tons of copper, 1225 tons of lead, besides a great quantity of coal and salt. According to Hassel, the entire number of miners and labourers cniploytd amounts to 45,000. 3090. Fishery. The rivers and lakes of Hungary are full of fish ; and the fishery is of considerable importance and value. The Teisse is ^aid by the inhabitants to consist of two parts, one of fish and one of water. In 1810, the importations of fish from Hun- gary into Lower Austria were estimated at 86,000/. 3091. The commerce of Hungary, notwithstanding its fine rivers, labours under great disadvantages, from the want of sco-coast, from the navigation of the Danube being frequently impeded, and from its embouchure being in the possession of the Turks, whose barbarism has hitherto baflled every attempt to open a cummunication with the Black Sea. The inland traflSc is tolerably brisk, and the roads are continually covered with animals, and with waggons, driven by the Jews, gipsies, and other foreign races, to the '2000 fairs which are annually held throughout the country. The great centres of this internal traffic urc Pesth and Debretzcn. The exterior commerce of Hungary consists in the exchange of rude for manufactured produce. In 1802, the leading exports were, cattle, H,48;i,00« florins ; grain, 2,367,000 ; wine, 2,381,000 j wool, 5,039,000; leather, 1,245,000; whicli, with minor articles, made '24,5 1 5,000. The leading imports were, woo"_.. «.'. 'h, 4,668,000; cottons, 1,611,000; linens, '2,692,000; silk, 1,223,000; """■,.>, &c. 2,790,000; ..."Iwart, SiC, 1,299,000; making, with minor articles, 1 8,390.'' jO florins. HACHINB rOR WOmCIHO MINBI Sect. VI. Civil and Social State- H092. The following is a statement of the progressive population of Hungary and its dcjieudencics, as deduced from the conscription lists : — Plarw. Date. ro])ulQtinn. D.ti'. I'tipuhillon. Dale. PopulaUoii. Dait. roimlatiLin Hungary 'l"raiisylv,iiiia Miliurv limits Dalmutia - 17a'; 1786 18(13 1807 7,0>J8,.W4 l,41fi,0,M «7I,ttl7 Mfi,8(i,1 IWK I81I 1807 7,!«il 414 l,.WI,40fi 911,760 1(1,374,580 1817 1817 181.0 1817 8,()ty,ti8() l,fi(H,8()0 y4<),.';'j8 3(«,0.M I0,!l73,l;i3 18211 'J.'V'll.iWi 'i'.'4,i|j 11,642,709 \VM,n Part III. French wine, and is krgelji ry extensively ) these articles >agc and other said to exist in illen for home 1 a small scale, hich its surface the metals, are in in any other individuals are ting-houses at a and '11,60011)8. g to the cxliaus- t, which can no to make the same :ording to Dclius, le gold and silver ween 1740 and upwards of ten ing. The engine Schemnitz (Jig, iwing uj) 'he ore, down machinery, ( water, and was he finest existing, invention of tht B. The mines of ield also 10,000 in, 19,000 tons of 25 tons of lead, Ijreat quantity of lit. According to entire nuinhcr oi abourers employed JS.OOO. d the fishery is of tants to consist of )f fish from Hun- pours under great he Danube being I the Turks, whose litli the Black Sea. ■ered with animals, ■to the '2000 fairs Ithis internal traffic (in the exchange of cattle, H,'18;i,0(Xi 1,245,000; wlA ♦h. 4,668,000; 0,000; .. "Iwarn Booxl- HUNGARY. TM Hungary iinil il^ I Dale. Vopulation i;,lli!7,5i«'i jQj<), Jf these relurni may be depended upon, they fihow a gradual and considerable jugmentation. The apparent diminution of the population within tho military limits wan occasioned, we believe, by a transference of territory. 3094. The Hutigariana constat chiefly of two races, the Magyars, or ruling race, who ore estimated by Csaplovicz at 3,500,000; and the Sclavonians, the subject people, at 4,050,000. There are also 640,(XX) Wallachians ; 577,000 Germans; 170,000 Jews; 50,000 gipsies ; l^ides Arnauts, Greeks, Armenians, &c. There is no middle class in Hungary. Society consists of haughty nobles, poor peasants, and peddling tra£9ckers. The nobles arc a brave, wnerous, and hardy race. To thcin applies Voltaire's character of the Hungarians, as . iHliiy. Alimuilii. fooiof tin. t'n ll.i HliVk't'llI Mlwti i.xu,,|J upon ihu riv.'r. ()„i, uf ,1,^, mini ri fi'iuiiriH ion- •ti»lM dl' Ilu. hatim, wlilci, „rt, lun'li'iil, mill of Tiirkisli m\. utriitllim. Till. I'liljuiiH ri'surt to tliKiii III crowiN, i.xliil)iiii,g themselves in a ^ery unscrupulous state uf nudity, Pestli, on lliv oppiiNllk. hunk, W a liiruJr anil r.ow more important city, forming the centre of the iiiliiiKl trmU'iif Iliiiiunry, lour h,,, mense tuirs are held there, which present an epitome both of tlio pooplu lllia prodiu'ljuiiHuf the counti-y. The native products are chiefly sold without the city, on both i«lik>i> of ii long rmiil. as they arrive in tlie waggons, disposed for that purpose su im to liinii ii Npuclpn of mmtv enclosure. An inimense space is covered with horses, sheep, Hi\d t'liliti., the Imtor ofit,,, amounting tj .SO,OJO. The goods brought down from Vienna lire illNiiliiyed In n liirgvuiK'n space within the town, and in ranges of hootlis, which are peneirtttcil by two liniiKl Ninth crossing each othir at right angles, and by other smaller streets anil nnmiiigi'N, Tlu' Uiiiiubo also, for the space of half amile, is covered with boats and barges, wlilrll, with Itie liunkH, servo as a market-plnre for the goods. For recreation are prepiirvd viirliiiiN HlghiN, piippotH.sliu\VH fruits, especially water melons in immense quantities, unit relVekliineiilM ciioked nml \ik. sented by the gipsies. Great commercial roads branch ulf IViim I'vHlli tliriiiiuli vvitv iinrt of the country, and towards Austria, Moravia, Gallicia, TranHylvniilNi Ci'iiiitiii, mul Italv, Pesth contains 61,502 inhabitants, and Buda 27,470; milking III nil HH,!l7U. IVstli's chiefly modern, and well built ; containing many good strevtH iiiul IiiiiiiImiiiii. Immisi's, Ik. sides cfmrchcii. There is considerable mugniliccnce in the ureimtllerN' t'liM.niei liiiilt \n Chiulus VL, and in a large unfinished edifice, raised by Joseph II., wlilili TiiwiiMin calls a P".l!icc ; but Hright does not think it possible to say what it It. Tlu. liiillutiiil iitiivprsity, ii'lready ment'oned, is in Pesth. The city is without walls, and |i> eoniu'i'led with lliidaby a bridge of forty-seven boats, which are moveable, and through wlileli, lit ntiiti'd liim's, an opening is made to allow the passage of vessels and rafts. In winter it U titkeit down, onil the two cities communicate over the ice. 3101. I'he mining capitals, Schemnitz, Kremnitz, and Neusatx, urv Nltiiiitcil on the de- clivities of a bold and mountainous country, forming a lower ridge of the (^irpntliians, Schemnitz, the great centre of the mining operations, is in n piiHliToii piu'iiliiirly ruggi'd, the streets being built along the sides of hills, and separated (Vuiii ciii'li other liy'ililt'sniul woods : of its 17,000 inhabitants, 8500 are employed in the mines, Thi) town wiiit fuundt'd in 745; but it was Maria Theresa who established the mining college, which Ih comliirtcd on a very liberal footing; comprehends lectures on every brunch of niltlll'iil knuwliulgo; itnd is attended, even in bad times, by 200 or 300 students. The IIiIiicn liiive licen iilri'iidy noticed. The wiiii'i- U drained 4()() off by It mibterriiiu'iitis stream -•*5Jt . - -■ -- < ■' "f «'••»•* twelvu mills In lengdi, '^^.^ -^,,i' which einptlen llnvlf into the riverdriiii, Kreniiiltz (/I'A'.'loe.i is only ulmiit half tln'si/e, nml has n niori* Hli'iigglin^ and neg- lected tippenritiu'c ; Ihoiigli one of Its cluiri'lieN N very pnd'usely orniimeiited. NeiiNtil,iilmuttlie site of Ornii, UNiipporii'clliythc copper-mltieN, niiil Iiuh n large mamiftii'lory of iiinis in in vicinity. 3 102. There are also oilier tnjims of some importance in this dlvUloii of Lower I tuiigiiry. Criiii, on the Danube, was once a military post of the first importance, tllOllgll itK Mrong cnstle it now in ruins; but it is still the ecclesiastical capital, its nichbiiihop being the prinmleanJ chancellor of the kingdom. Mineral waters, resendding those of EpNoni, Imve rIw bwn lately discovered there, from which a manufactory of inugnugiti hai buvn viilablialicd. Thii Doot I> HUNGARY. 7.S.> iiully brought tu its >•»■ produced in its Tvtzki, that thu jiuuisly of this be- which yii'Ids iiboui aitiriit citcnds also along the lower counie of the Danube, on itseoHtern liank, where it up- uriiiicli>^ the Turkish frontier. Here occur several large towns. Thi-resopol, named ul\t'i Miiria TlicrcHa, in a »'i(X)0 inhabitants, and a couKiderable trade with 'I'urkcy; Zunibor, not fur I'rum tliti Fruni canal, with 18,776 inhabitants, and a large trade in corn and cattle. The liulkofthe inhabitants in ull these three towns consists of Greeks and Serviuns. ,1IU3. That part of Lower Hungary which liei to the south'uvit of the Danube, enclosed liclH'ci'ii timt river and the Austriun and Illyrian frontiers, contains also u number of places III' cunsiderable importance. U^denburg, sometimes spelt and pronounced Edinburg, is finely situated in a country variegated with wooded and vine-covered hills, which surround the great lake of the Neusiedler See. Of 11, 487 inhabitants, 4C0O are l'rotei>tant». 'I'heru is mure manufacturing industry tlian in most Hungarian towns ; but still it owes its main prosperity 10 its position ; being the route by which supplies of provisions arc conveyed from Hungary 10 Vienna. For this purpose, 40,000 cattle, and 80,000 Hogs ni marki'ts. 'i'hero is also a great trade ir wine, of which l)'J,()0() ^ . neighbuurhood ; and we trust there is little ground fur the ullei;uti<> young lacli>':> who are employed in the sale of it partake rather itrage. (Edenburg has also in its neighbgurhood a mine of it 12,000 tons annually. Raab, on the river of the same name, neur its jtmction with the Uiniibe, once celebrated as a fortress, is now more noted for its fairs and markets. Of its |ii,000 inhabitants, more than half live in the suburbs. Comorn, at the junction of thu Danube and the VVaag, is still more celebrated for its ancient strength ; and so curly us thu uar 1273 it was c Jiisidcred one of the bulwarks of the Austriun monarchy. Its situation gives it still a considerable trade ; which, since the year 1805, hus cuused its population to increase from 93(X) to 11,000. It sufl'ercd severely by shocks of eurthquukc in I7C:1 and 1:k3, Stuhlweisscmberg, in the heart of this marshy district, was anciently a splendid town and a royal residence, called Alba Ilegalis. For five centuries the kings of Hungary were crowned and their remains deposited here. Since the beginning of thu last century, it lias been entirely neglected ; and though there are a number of buildings which bear the ttamp ut' grandeur, it is but a poor and mean place. It has a population of 18,776. A little 10 the west of Stuhhveissemberg is the great lake of Balaton or I'lutten, about eighty miles in length and twelve in breadth, surrounded by vast woods, and by precipitous tliougli not lul'ty banks. Vcsprim, Guns, and Sturamger arc small country towns, the last only remarkable by being the seat of a bishop and of u clerical academy. Fiinfkirchen is an ancient city, which makes a somewhat magnificent appearance by its ecclesiastical edifices, and its university, which was once attended by 2000 students, and hus produced a number III' eminent men. The bishop has a good library, of 20,000 volumes, to which the citizens are allowed access ; an advantage, however, of which they rarely avail themselves. There are, moreover, a great quantity of hogs and cattle brought for sale to Fiinfkirchen. I'o])u- latiun above 1 1,000. Mohatz, on the Danube, is only a large assemblage of cottages ; but it is celebrated as the scene of the great battle gained by the Turks in 1526, when Louis II. perished, with twenty-eight magnates, 50O nobles, seven bishops, and 22,000 troops. Szigetb is a strong post, celebrated in Hungarian warfare, situated on the Aliwis, near its junction with the Danube. .'ilO'). Lower Hungary consists of a vast range of territory, extending from the Danube tu the eastern boundaries of the kingdom. The hills and mountains of tlie northern part, being finely watered, produce in the highest perfection those delicious wines for which Hungary is so famous. The southern part consists of one unvaried and almost unlimited plain, through which flows the Teisse, which traverses Upper Hungary from north to soutli. This plain consists, in some places, of barren sand blown into liillocks ; in others, of ■ immense expanses jf fine pasturage covered with numberless flocks and herds ; vhilc a great part of the tract immediately bordering on the Teisse is marshy and inundated. 3105. Debretzin, or Debrecxin, for extent and importance, takes decidedly tlie lead of all places in Upper or Eastern Hungary ; yet it may be called an enormous village, rather than a city, or even a town. Population about 40,000. The houses, with scarcely any ex- ceptions, are mere cottages, one story high, roofed with thatch, and arranged on no regular plan. There is no pavement, and in the most frequented quarters the passenger flounders througli sand and mud. Instead of a wall, it is surrounded by a hedge, and the town-gates are, like our field-gates, stuck with thorns and brambles. The greater part of the inha- bitants are Calvinists ; and by tlieir plain attire, their simple deportment, the stillness and earnestness which sits upon every countenance, give a character to the place very diilerent from that of a gay cupitid ; yet, next to Pesth, it is the most commercial town in the king- ilom. Every quarter of a year there is a market, when a space of ground which the eye can scarcely command is covered with flocks a.id waggons, bales and cases, tents and huts. A fine species of soap made here is considered a luxury even at 'Vienna ; and a great deal of saltpetre is manufactured. The Calvinists have an extensive college, attended by 550 students, and possessing a library of 20,000 volumes. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) Z/^.*^!-^ 1.0 l^|28 |2.5 |5o ■^~ H^H ■^ Uii 12.2 Photographic Sciences Corporation 33 WIST MAIN STRUT WEBSTER, N.Y. 14SS0 (716)873-4503 736 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHY. Paw III. 3106. Among other lowm of Upper Hungary mutt bo mentioned Orosswaradin to the east of Debretzin. It is a pretty frontier town of the district of Hungary inhabited by the Wallachians. The inhabitants, unlilce tlioso of Dvbrotiin, are particularly gay ; music and dancing are heard in every house ; and there are four warm baths, to which the inhabiunti resort for pleasure as well as health. Kaschan, in the northern hilly country, is called by Townson the metropolis of Upper Hungary, but does not leem to be at present considered in that light, nor can it any way rival Oebrctiin ; it Conl«int 15,500 inhabitants. The principal street is broad and pretty regular, adorned with some good houses of the nobility an elegant coffee>house, and a fine Gothic church. At about a day's journey is a mountain' which produces that fine stone the true opal, which, as some suspect, is found nowhere else in the world ; those called the oriental being alleged to be all brought from this mine. Erlau, or Agria, a larger town, but ill-built, is the teit of a richly endowed archbishopric; one of the late incumbents of which, otherwise not much extolled by Townson, founded a very handsome college. Mischkoks is also a largo town in the same neighbourhood, in a rich wine and fruit country, of which it collects the products; with a population of 21,400. Tokay is only a village; and the surrouiuUng district is only one of a number producing the celebrated wine already mentioned, which bears its name. Szegcdin, farther down the Teisse, at its junction witli the great tributary of the Maros, is a large and strong city, with 30,000 inhabitants, and a fluurisliing trade in wool and tobacco, of which 60,000 cwt. are sent down the Danube ; sidt fVom Transylvania, and cotton from Mace- donia. A Greek protopapa resides here ; and there are several seminaries and convents. Temeswar, in the south, the capital of tlie Bannat, is one of the strongest, and also of the most beautiful, towns in the kingdom. It has a number of public buildings which are admired ; as the Gothic cathedral, the Greek church, the synagogue, the military ar.d burgher hospitals. There are some manufactiiras, and a considerable trade on the fiega canal. 3107. Croatia ' a district which, though poisotsing a people and language of its own, has for some ..me been attached to Hungary, and sends deputies to Die Hungarian diet Since the re-annexation of Carlstadt, which a long time formed part of the kingdom of Illyria, its extends over 3356 square miles, and contains about 370,000 inhabitants. Tht district of Carlstadt, on the lllyriun iVontier, is mountainous; but westward the country de- clines into a level plain, traversed by the Sitvo. Corn, cattle of small size, and tobacco of good quality, are its staples. The Croats form bodies of light horse rather distinguished in irregular warfare. Agram is a large and strong town, on the Save, without manufuctures, but with a good deal of trade, both on the river and between Hungary and the Adriatic. Popu- lation, 17,000. Varesdin and Carlstadt are smaller places, deriving some importance (nm being in Uiis last line of commerce. 3108. Sclavonia is a district to the east of Croatia, and the only one bearing the name of a nation whose colonies and language are so wi(l..y dilTuscd. It ei^joys a mild climate and fertile territory, yet more than half of its surface, of 3478 square miles, is covered with wood, and the rest is by no means cultivated to the extent of which it is capable. Its political relations are in many respects tlie same as those of Croatia; its products and trade similar, and it is equally destitute of manufacturing industry, Posega is accounted the capital ; but Essek, a strong place on the Druvo, near its junction with the Danube, is of more importance. 3109. Transylvania, meaning the country beyond the Carpathian hill forests, and called by the Germans SiebenbUrgm, (a name brought by German colonists from Siebengebirge, near the Rhine,) is a very elevated territory ; the Carpathians, which enclose it in the fonn of a half morn, present summits of 7000 or 8000 feet. To the height of 5000 feet they are covered with wood, but beyond that altitude they are rugged and alpine. The moun- tains are perforated by numerous raves. There are many little lakes ; and the morass of Kovaszna is remarkable fur its almost unfathomable depth. Notwithstanding its rugged surface, Transylvania has a mild climate, and is well cultivated. Its produce in grain is reckoned about 17,000,000 bushels. Cattle form n principal staple: the flesh of the oxen is good ; but the milch cows are not of great excellence, and the wool of the sheep is coarse. Wine is produced in abundance, to tho extent of 3,640,000 cimers, according to Blumenbach ; but, as it does not keep, it is not an object of trade. Transylvania is rich in minerals, particularly gold, of which it yields S750 marks ; also 3500 tons of iron. Ii might supply the whole empire with salt ; and sends, in fact, 35,000 tons into Hungm. The miners, chiefly German, amounted, in 171)1, to 4328. There are no manufactures, except the most common fabrics. Tho people consist almost entirely of strangers, who bin immigrated from the neighbouring and distiuit countries. Jdchtenstein reckons 828,l(i Magyars, 302,000 Saxons, and 507,700 Wallachians ; which, with other small sects, mult up, in 1817, a population of 1,664,800. In 1820, the number appears to have riienu 2,027,566. The Protestants predominate in Transylvania ; amounting, by Hassel'i enu- meration, to 348,000, with 40,000 Unitarians; while the Catholics are 1I0,(XX), and lb Greeks 150,000. These, we presume, arc heads of families, as otherwise they wouldnotuwlT Pam III. waradin to the inhabited by the gay; music and I the inhabitant! itry, is called by 'esent considered ihabitants. The >9 of tlie nobility, ey is a mountain, is found nowhere it from this mine, ed archbishopric ; wnson, founded a !ighbourhood, in a 1 a population of r one of a number Szegedin, farther OS, is a large and I tobacco, of which cotton from Mace- aries and convents, est, and also of the luildings which ate e, the military arl e trade on the Bega inguage of its own, die Hungarian diet of the kingdom of )0 iiiliabitants. Tht ward the country de- i size, and tobacco of rther distinguished in out manufactures, but the Adriatic. Popu- lomo importance from p bearing the name of fys a mild climate and I, is covered with wood, tapable. Its political [ucts and trade similar, intedthecapiul;but Danube, is of more Mil forests, and called g from Siebengebirge, /enclose it in the fora liahtof SOOO feet they Td alpine. Themoun- lakes; and the moras lithstandingitsfuggw llts produce in grain's Iple •. the flesh of the Vewool of the sheep w fc cimers, according w I Transylvania is nch in SSOO tons of iron. « tons into Hungary are no manufactures, , of strangers, who tore Ltein reckons 8!^ lother small sects, ma* Uantohaven«nt« inrc 110,000, and th Ltheywouldnotn^l! Book I. HUNOAUY. 737 compose the amount of the population. The religiout profimtiont have each seminaries for rearing their respective studenta ; and ther« are two locleliet for the culture of the Hungarian language and history, both eatabliahcd by Count George Banky. Hermanstadt, situated in the Saxon district, and considered the capitnl, U turrounded with a double wall, and contains 16,000 inhabitants, an extensive Lutheran mminary, two public libraries, com- prising 20,000 volumes, a picture gallerv, and • national museum. Cronstadt, however, also Saxon, and on the most eastern IVontler, it a ttill larger place, containing 25,000 inha- bitants, with various little manuiUoturea, and Qi\juying veiy extensive intercourse with Turkey and Greece, to the amount of IflOOfifOOf, aterling. Clausenburg, near the western frontier, is a large open town, containing three wmlnariet, catholic, Lutheran, and uni- tarian, attended by about 1300 students. CnrUburg is a smaller town, defended by a strong castle on a hill above the Maros, and honoured by tlie tombs of the Huniades. 3110. The military frotiHer is a long range of territory, appropriated from the southern border of Croatia, Sclavonia, Hungary, and Tran»ylvanla, and placed under a peculiar r^me, in the view of forming a barrier upon this aide against the inroads of the Turks. For this purpose it is pl) is a larger town, on a Tittle peninsula, strong by 0AI.ATM. Qfi f^YiA nature. It contains a number of large old houses, forming narrow and irregular streets ( but It is chiefly distin- guished by the remains of the superb palace of Diocletian, one of tlie grandest mouumenU of ancient architecture. Pola, once a great and splendid citv, is reduced to a vil- lage, but still contains a most magnificent amphi- tlicatre (/g.409.;, in high preservation, one of the must celebrated remains of Roman antiquity. Svbenico, Ragusa, and Cnttaro are tolerable seaports, with good har- bours ; and the latter, on the Turkish border, i« an important military position. AMpnirniUTftp ov roiJk, i) u 758 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paut III Chap. XIII. POLAND, WKB DUCAL PRUSSIA. 31 19. Poland is a large country, which, though it has been so studiously expunged from the map of Europe, seems still to retain its claim to be considered as separate and distinct The same physical aspect characterises it, and the people, in their character, their language and all their natiqnal feelings, are still Poles. We do not annex Lombardy to Austria, nor Hanover to Great Britain, because they are ruled by the respective sovereigns of these countries ; neither, it should seem, ought the partitioned members of the Polish monarchy to be yet viewed as actually incorporated into the territory of their successful invaders. We shall include Ducal Prussia, as being entirely enclosed by Poland, and participating in all its natural features. Sect. I. General Outline and AspecU - SI 13. Poland forms a vast level expanse of territory, the most easterly in Europe, except Russia. On the north it is bounded by the Baltic ; on the east it has Russia, from whicli it is divided chiefly by the courses of the Dwina and the Dnieper. On the west it has Germany, mostly the Prussian territories ; while on the south it is separated by the Car- pathian mountains from Hungary and Transylvania ; and it borders also on the tributary provinces of the Turkish empire. 3114. The surface of Poland forms part of that immense and unvaried plain whicj covers the northern portion of all the central European countries. This plain, which incluies only about half of France and of Germany, occupies the entire extent of Poland. Even the Carpathian and the Silesian mountains, which border upon it, and shoot branches into it, make scarcely any sensible change in its level immensity. A great portion of tlus plain is overspread with a deep layer of sand, alternating, however, with large clayey tracb snd extensive marshes. A cold and humid atmosphere, a winter nearly as severe as that of Sweden, and violent winds, blowing uninterruptedly over this wide open region, are conse- quences of this physical structure and position. 31 15. The rivers of Poland are large, long, and navigable ; seldom obstructed by rocks or C'.^Jiracts. They frequently overflow their low banks, and convert the neighbouring pro- vinces into a sea, communicating to them a luxuriant fertility. They rise, generally, not from mountain chains, but from marshy plains in the interior of the kingdom ; and a pla- teau of almost insensible elevation separates those which direct their courses to the Baltic, from those which flow to the Black Sea. The Vistula, however, the most important and the most decidedly Polish, rises in the mountainous frontier of Silesia, passes Cracow, and, by a wind- ing course to the east and north, reaches Warsaw, where it is augmented by the copious united streams of the Bug and the Narew, flowing from the rich plains to the eastward. Ii then holds a course almost due north ; and, after passing Thorn, enters the sea by tro mouths, one of which forms the Frische Hafl^, the other the great commercial port of Dantzic. The Vistula has a course of upwards of 500 miles, and is one of the most com- mercial rivers in Europe, being the main channel through which all the produce of Po- land passes. The Niemen, more easterly, has almost as long a course ; but the poor tncts of Lithuania, through which it flows, afford a much smaller amount of valuable commodi- ties to l)e brought down to the port of Memel. The Dwina, tliough not quite so long, isi more valuable river, but, with its port of Riga, is almost entirely Russian. The Dniepa rises amid the marshes in the heart of Poland, and communicates, during the flood, iriii some of the tributaries of the Vistula ; but the greater part of its long course is through Russia. The Dniester also rises from the Carpathians, and waters part of Austrian Polinl before it becomes Russian. Even the Prutb, the present boundary of the Russian and Turkish empires, takes its rise in Poland. 3116. The marshes of Poland can scarcely be dignified with the name of lakes; I they are extensive, and in the wet season some of the interior provinces almost rcs«niblti j sea. Several extensive haffa, partaking of the character of lake and bay, occur on the limra | of the Baltic, at the mouths of the great rivers. Sect. II. Katural Geographt), SOBSKCT. 1. Geologjf. SI 17. The Geology of this country is described with that of Rusna. ^ SuBSECT. 2. Botany, 8118. Po&inrf, from its situation, and, as may be judged, also, from the nature of the» I face of that country, has no peculiar vegetation. The plants it produces are scarttlti> I any way diflTerent from those of the territories which circumscribe it ; of Gernianyoo ^ I BokI. POLAND. 739 It may have political, but it baa no natural one hand, and of Russia on the other. |)oundtries. SuBsiCT. 3. Zooliigy. 3119. The mologtf of Poland is essentially the same as that of central Europe, and need not therefore be here dwelt upon. The pigs, like those of -Russia, are generally very mill, and of a reddish colour. Sect. III. HistoriaU Geography. 3120. Poland, in ancient times, formed the chief portion of that vast plain, called by the Romans Sarmatia, and viewed by them as a still ruder and more barbarous region than Gennany. Sarmatia and Scythia are, in their descriptions, always combined together, us the abode of nomadic and savage tribes. Tlic Roman arms penetrated to no part of tliis im- mense plain. From the earliest era to which our records ascend, it appears to havo been peopled by the tribes called Sclavonic ; a race widely diflused, distinguished by a peculiar language, by a strong national feeling, and by a particular train of superstitious ideas. Though shepherds, they do not seem to partake the migratory character of either the Teu- tonic or the Tartar nations. The impulses which actuated them were derived chiefly from the Huns, the Goths, and other nations of Asia, for whom their country was a path to the conquest of western Europe. The Sclavonic tribes were long held in tlie most cruel bond- age by these eastern invaders ; and their name was employed even to designate the most de- graded state to which human nature can be reduced ; but many ages have elapsed since Uicy shook off this ignominious yoke. 3121. Tlie early annals of Poland are obscure, and possess little interest. In 999, Boleslaus assumed the title of king. The Poles continued a powerful and warlike nation, though dreadfully harassed, for several centuries, by the inroads of the Tartars. In the end of the fourteenth century, the country obtained a most important accession. Hedwig, the heiress of the crown, married Jagellon, grand duke of Lithuania, on condition of that prince em- bracing Christianity, and incorporating his dominions with those of Poland. Poland thus united, became one of the most powerful monarchies of Ei lOpe, and its martial character gaveit acommanding influence. The exploits of Sigismund and Sobieski hold a conspicuous place in military history ; and Poland, for two centuries, was the main bulwark of Christen- dom against the alarming progress of Turkish invasion. 3122. The decline of Poland may be dated from the beginning of the last century, and may be ascribed, partly to the improvement and augmented influence of Russia and Prussia, but in afar greater degree to the incurable defects in the constitution of the state. I The nobles, about 500,000 in number, formed the nation ; the rest of the inhabitants being slaves, incapable of acquiring any property in land, without any privileges, and sold, like ■ cattle, with the estates to which they belonged. After the extinction of the princes of the I Jagellon line, the power of the nobles became quite illimitable : each of them might aspire I to the throne, the sovereign being merely the frst citisen of the order. Among themselves ithey formed a perfect democracy, the poorest being, in respect of privileges, quite on a level Imth the most opulent. They were authorised to maintain troops and fortresses ; and Iwete rather, indeed, a sort of independent princes than the subjects of a constitutional mon- archy. By a singular absurdity, any one noble might, by interposing his veto, suspend the ^hoie deliberations of the diet, and prevent the possibility of their coming to any conclu- 1>o>>- Hence the country was the constant theatre of intestine commotion ; and foreign bfluence and corruption had unbounded scope, not only at the election of sovereigns, but P the whole proceedings of the diets. How much soever we may detest the means by phich it was effected, no one can regret the abolition of a system of government which bmbiued all the mischiefs of anarchy without its stimulus to enterprise ; which made ^ery landlord a petty despot, and every cultivator a slave. I 8123. The partition of Poland, justly regarded as one of the most iniquitous measures Ibich have disgraced modern times, was begun in 1773, by Frederick II. of Prussia, id the Empress Catherine II., chiefly, it is believed, at tlie suggestion of the latter ; while lustna was reluctantly dragged into the league. At this time, however, each cut off only ^rner, to round their own territories, and Poland remained still extensive, and nearly [I*. But nothing was done to repair the defects in the constitution j and the weakness I disunion that prevailed left the country as open as ever to foreign aggression. In 1792, ' three powers again joined, and made a fresh partition, which reduced Poland to little |re than half her original dimensions. She now roused herself, and made a glorious effort I her deliverance. She saw, and endeavoured, though too late, to obviate, those abuses in [system of government of which she had been the victim. But the partitioning powers jgone too far to recede, and were not to be disappointed of their prey. The Poles, under ^ hero Kosciuzko, made the most gallant eflbrta to preserve their independence and r newly acquired liberties. Unfortunately, however, their exertions were unavailing. 3 B 3 Ptg. 410 Book I. POLAND. 741 They were overpowered by the energies of Suwarrow, and the valour and number of his troops. Tho Russian general marrhed direct upon the capital, and, storming the fortress of Praga, to which the patriots had retired as their last hold, extinguished, apparently for ever, the rights and glories of Poland. An entire and final partition was then made, in which Russia had by far the most extensive portion ; Prussia, the best situated and most commercial ; Austria, on the whole, the most productive. 3124. Contiderable vicissitudes have befaUen Poland since this attempt finally to fix its des- tiny. Napoleon, after his great victory at Jena, penetrated into the country, and obtained the cession of all which had been given to Prussia at the period of the partition. He erected it into the Duchy of Warsaw, and vested it in the house of Saxony, who had reigned for a considerable time as elective kings of Poland. In his next grand expedition, destined fiaaliy to humble the power of Russia, the design of restoring Poland to its existence as a kingdom was openly proclaimed. It was ha;Ted by the Poles, and even by their hero Kosciuzko ; and, in supporting it, they displayed, on several occasions, a valour worthy of the most glorious eras of their monarchy. Napoleon, had he conquered, might here have found cordial and attached subjects of his empire. Amid the downfall of his whole usurped power, and the liberation of Europe from the universal monarchy with which it vas threatened, the relapse of Poland under its old oppressors was a solitary evil, which M-as scarcely perceived. The spirit which had been displayed by the Polish nation procured some melioration of its lot. The sovereigns felt that they could not trample with impunity on the feelings of so great and brave a people. Alexander formed the central regions on the Vistula and Bug into a separate state, to which he gave the lost, but still fondly cherished, name of the kingdom of Poland. Austria and Prussia were forced to grant to their portions certain privileges, and a form of representative government before withheld. A recent and gallant attempt of Poland to regain her independence has had a disastrous issue. Sect. IV. Political Geography. • 3125. The political existence of Poland as a great independent kingdom was finally ex- tinguished by the last fatal partition. The name of the country, however, and the memory of its ancient glories, still live among the people of Poland ; and an opportunity to renew its political existence would, it has appeared, be eagerly embraced. NORTH PART. 1. Llpna i.Naalt 3. BelUnoTO 4. Malnovo 5. Liutzin 6. ReJItu 7. Glaimans 8. Frnleilckltadt 9. Haiuk 10. Dckijof ll.Tukum 12. UKentzem 13. Wliidju U. rillm 15. Mdlniien 16. Taienpvl 17. Ubiu 18. Memd 19.Tsl>h to. Shavli •a. Jmiihk; 82. BirJI a. StUotU !4.Vesm 25. Dinaburs 26. PrMruisI 2T. Drltvi iS.ZapoIiUa 30. Yazna 31. Nncl Si.Vdelka 33. VIelK 34. Suriz JS. Vilcptk 36. Gonxtnck .37. Kurilov 38. Pololzk 39. 1'JIno 40. Gluliakoe 41. Brajlav «. Zimlzlanl 43.Utzlan ♦4.Vllkomlr 45. Ponc^iea 46. K Wan 47. Pakoim 48. Ra!>gien 49. iVWona 41. Tilsit * 52. MehUucken M.CurlsclwHnir M. Dinchkelm M. K«nlc)!b«ii ''•>. InitaberR H^erences to the Map qf Poland. 67. Kuisen AS. Szakj S9. Neuitadt 61). Kovno 61. Nov TroU 62. n«ha 6.1. Wllna 64. Smorffonl 65. Velelica 66. Retchkl 67. N. Lepel 68. Slenno 69. BablnoTllchl 70. OnhB 71. Koplt Tt. MalliUvI 73. KllmoTitchi 74. Tcherikov 7A* Tchausi 76. MoKhileT 77. Vakshltd 78. Igunien 79. Ka.Hlchlnl 80. Hadoskowlcl 81. Uomdow H-i. Minsk S3. KoldanoT 84. Loak 85. Uda 86. Daugl 87. MarTenpol 88. Ka|>«zewo 89. Przecozlen 00. Lotzen 91.niakun> 129. UUtcher 130. Vinilia 131. BralilaT 132. Ualsin 133. Lipovetl 134. JirotoT 135. Plaligori 136. Sokolofkl 137. ZvenigoroilkA 138. Ollahana 139. Tcherkaak 140. Tchixrin 141. Slipola 142. Ouman 143. (loIoTanevsk 144. Bogopol 145. Sanali 146. Balu 147. Olgopol 148. Yampol 149. MogflCT 150. Verbovcti 151. Kainenetl 152. Zaleulck 153. Sniatln 154. KuU 155. Deialyn 156. Staniilawow Rivert a Dwina b Ulaha c Soz d Dnieper e Bertaina f Pllltch K Prliiet h r- ■ Stnuhod I Siir j Balavaka k Stoutch I Telcio m Boug, or Bug n Dnieater o San p I'ilica « AVarta r ViatuI* ■ Hug t Narew u Wukra » Niemin w Windau. !1 U 3 748 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAl'HY. P*M III. S1S6. Among the Ihne partUhning pou>tri, JivMlakvailod hurMlfof har own itrangtband fitTounble circumstances to seiie » moit unsqual antl prw|ioniknint sh«re. Initmctcd. however, by the events of the lost war, and thu iplrit ditpUyad liy the Polish people, i^ afterwards aiTccted to pursue a liberal and oonclllfttory counw. Tha follen and proscribed name of Poland was revived, and the shadow of thvir anclant diat was still fondly cbe> rished, 3 1 27. The modem kingdom on which Aleiandsr voucliiukftid to conAtr the name of PolaniL comprises only a small, but fine and fertile, portion of that onoa mightv monarchy ; the rich and cultivated banks of the Vistula, the Bug, and the Naraw. In 18U9 it contained, on a lur. face of 2270 German square miles, a population of 4,088,(X)(X A certain form of repi«. sentation was granted to this kingdom, Including «van urovlnolal assemblies, which send their deputies to the general diets } but a body WMch dalitturatas under the eye of 30,Qoo foreign troops can enjoy only a precarious oxerciw of Us functions. Yet they did not hesitate to break forth into daring flights, such u thuir proud ancestors were wont to indulge in ; occurrences which soon gave disguitt to thu am|>«ror, who had granted tiiew privileges under the hope of tlieir being exerviitv«l In n very dlilvrent spirit. The free- dom of the press, also, which he at first made a thow of granting, was soon employed in a manner so little congenial to his vivwsi that liu duturminvd to withdraw it, and restore the abolished censorship. Upon the whole, however, in connvciiivnce of this imperfect free- dom, the privileges of the different orders were better respuvtud, and property moru secure, than in any other part of Poland. It is Impossllile us yet to furvwu what may be the con- sequence of the late abortive attempt to shake oil' tliu yokui The revenue is esthnated at 1,300,000/. ; and the army, when at its full complvntunt, has been Axed at 30,000 infantry, and 20,000 cavalry. 3128. GalUdth the name which Austria gives to Iwr portluti of Poland, bos also a form of representation, though, in compliance with thu tvnnier of the Austrian government, it rests on a much narrower basis. The states consist of tuur orders t the clergy, the nobles, the knights, and the representatives of cities i they meet nnnunlty ( but the imposition of taxes, and the making of laws, the two primary functions of a nntlonul assembly, do not lie within their competence. They are allowed, however, some concern in the distribuiion of the land-tax, and the mode of levying the troops t though the imtount of both '.. fixed by the sole will of the sovereign. The revenues of Oulllclu nru ustlinutwl at obout l(«,0OO,0J0 guilders, of which the uxtensive salt mines furnish one of thu most copious source i. 3129. Prussian Poland is now reduced to thu graiul duchy of Pr^cn, by no means the most fertile or productive part of the kingdom, but vulimblu from POLAND. 749 thciDwlves from cmbarraMment, they adopted a tystein of over^cropptiig, which Mr. Jacob luspecti has seriously ii^ured the fertility of many of the lands. But, latterly, the exports from Poland to Britain have again become very great. In 1 830 no fewer than 404,000 quarters of wheat were exported from Dantiic, of which 3 II, 000 were for England j and during 1831 the amount was still more considerable. SI 38. Manufactures are in a state decidedly inferior to that of agriculture. Even the nidc fabrics which are almost every where else carried on for domestic use, are wanting in tome districts. In others, however, they are conducted with some diligence ; particularly in tbe countries on the Vistula, and those belonging to Prussia. In them, coarse but good linen is made, to an extent which affords a surplus for exportation. Within the last few vears the manufacture of wopUen cloth has remarkably increased in the new kingdom of Poland. In 1830, it proditaM|7,000,000 yards, part of which was sent as far as China. The timber, with which tii9^4tall}itry is so largely covered, affords ample materials for cabinet and wood-work ; arid tW, in the mountain districts, is carried on under its ruder forms ; but in the cities are fab^cated articles of a more elegant and splendid nature. The manufacture of coaches at Warsaw is extensive, finding a ready market Arom the pomp and profusion of the Polish nobles. 3133. The chief and almost only minerM ■production of Poland is salt, the deposit of which in tbe southern provinces is the most copious in Europe, and the mines are more extensively woriied than any other in the world. The Carpathian mountains contain also rome iron ; but the metallic wealth of Poland is, on the whole, unimportant 3134. Comnurce in Poland is carried on with some activity, in consequence of tbe large surplus of rude produce to be disposed of, and the many foreign fabrics and luxuries of which tlie country stands in need. Its grain and timber are transported along the rivers ; — > by tbe Dwina, to Riga ; by the Niemen, to Memel and T.icbau ; and, above all, by the Vistula, to Dantzic and Elbing. Dantzic is the great emporium of Polish grain, of which it usually contains large magazines. There is a large monied interest in Poland, entirely in theliandsof the Jews, who have made such large advances to the distressed nobles, that they may be considurcd the real proprietors of a great part of the lands. They carry on, also, most of the little trade and handicraft which exists throughout Poland. han that of any other 1. )y which alone Poland Imost every part of the of the Upper Vistula, ic, liowcvtr, is not the ipitol. The cultivators, Imcn fixed to the glebe, Though now raised to srmanent interest in the , but continue nearly in ich peasant is a species ^ing the rent partly in I speculation, to supply It is produced, the body oland can scarcely, un. ;raln almost exclusively iarket, though at a loj" Ing any price at all. It. tacob's opinion, occupy [ho grandees almost ei- anufacturcs andforcip Ion for some years from iaiid.lnordcrtortto Sect. VI. Civil and Social State. 3135. The extent and population of Poland, in 1825, were estimated, in Plater's elaborate Geography of the East of Eitfope, as follows : they have since somewhat increased s — German Square Hilea. 1. Old Polish Prussia ... SCO 2. Grand Duchy of Posen - - 540 a. Gallicia .... 1500 Uepublic of Cracow - • - 20 Kingdom of Poland - • - 2270 Uussian Poland . - - 7600 Courland - • - 450 4. 5. 6. 7. Inhabitant!. 800,000 980,000 4,000,000 110,000 3,700,000 8,800,000 600,000 12,980 18,990,000 3136. The Poles, as already observed, belong to the Sclavonic race, which occupies nearly the whole extent of the vast plains of eastern Europe. They have emerged more than the others from the geiiemlly rude and unimproved state which characterises this race; remaining, however, far in arrcar of the Teutonic and other western nations. The feudal system, broken up in the greater part of western Europe, exists here in almost undiminished operation. Society consists altogether of two distinct and distant orders, the nobles and the peasantry, without any intermediate degrees. Ttie nobles, who are more numerous than in any other country in Europe, have always, in the eye of the public, formed the people of Poland. They are brave, prompt, frank, hospitable, and gay. Tliey have been called the French of the north, and, both from habits and political connection, are attached to that nation. On the contrary, they regard the Germans <>'ith mingled contempt and aversion, calling them Niemic, or dumb, in contrast with their own fluency and loquacity. Before their fall, their neighbours called them " the proud Poles." They consider it the deepest disgrace to practise any profession, even law or medicine ; and, in case of utmost necessity, even prefer the plough. The luxury of modem times, and the variations in the price of grain, have very generally involved them in pecuniary embarrassments, and placed many of their fortunes in the hands of Jews. The Jews, sober, industrious, parsimonious, crafty, form a numerous and separate people in the heart of Poland. Once a year occur what are called the Polish contracts, when the ; nobles repair to the principal towns, Kiev, Minsk, Warsaw, Wilua, Novogrodek, &c. to I tell their lands, pay their interest, and negotiate all thei' money transactions. Hither their 3 B 4 744 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P*M III. wives and daushtert resort for omuscment ; speculators bring tliuir wares • usuk musicians, strolling-players, sharpers, courtesans, come to ply their rcsjicctive trad'*' The Poles, in personal appearance, are handsome and vigorous, though subject to tlTt loathsome and sometimes dangerous disorder called the plica polonica. The Polish ladi are celebrated for their beauty, and are considered also more intelligent and ajireeabr than those of Russia. I1ie peasantry are not absolute slaves, but they are raiwd little above that degrading condition ; an estate being usually estimated by the number of iu peasants. 3137. The religion of Poland, contrary to that which prevails in the great body of the Sclavonic nations, is Roman catholic. This is, perhaps, one main cause of hishe civilisation ; for the catholic religion, though, in comparison with the protestant, it be unfavourable to intelligence and improvement, has an opposite character when compared with that of the Greek church. Preaching has always fonned an essential part of its worship which gives it a decided superiority over a system which excludes that mode of instruction and deals merely in a round of childish ceremonies. There is a considerable number or Greek Christians on the eastern and southern frontiers of Poland ; and the numerous body of the Jews, of course, profess their national faith. '' 31:18. Knowledge has made grecUer progress in Poland than in any otlier of the Sclavonic nations. In the brilliant eras of Cusimir and Sobieski, she produced men eminent in science ; among whom we distinguish Copernicus, the discoverer of the true system uf the world. Hosius, advanced to the dignity of president of the Council of Trent enjoyed, in his own day, a high reputation. Strangers to the language of tlie more enlightened western nations, the Poles have acquired the talent of speaking and writint Latin with peculiar facility. Nowhere has national history been more diligentl' cultivated. Every great family keeps a chronicle, in which it records the public and private incidents Uiat have come under its observation, and bequeaths them as a legacy to future generations. A very poetical spirit animates the Pules, and is diffused through all ranks. The peasant sings the beauties of rural nature ; while the noble bards celebrate the fortunes and glories of their country. Poland, however, within the last two centuries, has not kept pace with the rapid strides which other nations have taken in science and lite. rature. The authorities of Aristotle and of Albertus Magnus still predominate in its schools of pliilosophy: its separation from Germany, and its distance from the other literary nations, prevent it from fully imbibing their spirit. Yet the Poles enumerate several living authors, whom they consider as vying with the classic names of the westem countries, though their fame has not yet mode its way beyond the limits of Poland itself. 3139. The vniuersilies of Poland have enjoyed considerable reputation: that of Cracov three centuries ago, was one of the most flourishing in Europe : it not only attracipj crowds of native students, but drew others from all the neighbouring kingdoms. The distracted state of the country, with the rising reputation of the German seminaries, gra- dually thinned their number ; and the final blow was struck by its subjection to Austria, which introduced the German language, of all other things the most abhorrent to the Poles. A revival seemed to be promised, by the arrangement which fixed Cracow as an independent republic ; but this expectation has not yet been fulfilled. The emperor Alei. ander founded, in 1821, a university at Warsaw, which he endowed with a revenue of 35,200 Polish florins, supporting an establishment of fo- ty-two professors. It was attended, in 1830, by 589 students. Another, in 1820, had been formed at Wilna,also well endowed and regulated; and containing, in its dependent gymnasia, no less than 433 teachers. The university of Leopol, in Gallicia, is entirely German. Amid all these aids, however, know- ledge is still far from being widely diffused among the body of the people. 3140. The fine arts of architecture, painting, and statuary, can scarcely be said to exist in Poland. Some of the carvings in the middle ages are said to possess a degree of merit; but no modern artist has given lustre to the kingdom. Music, on the contrary, is cul- tivated with ardour and success ; though it is the performers, rather than the composeis, of Poland that have attained distinction. 3141. The amusements and mode of life among the higher ranks are chiefly copied from the other nations of Europe, particularly the French. The Polish dances, however, an strictly national, and very graceful. That, especially, called the Polonaise is marked by i slow majesty of movement, which has been remarked as worthy of a nation who elecini their kings. The Poles have a singular manner of shaving the head, leaving only a tuft of hair on the crown, and mustacbios are generally worn. Sect. VII. Locurg, near the mouth of the Passarge, exports a large <|uantlty of linen yarn '*''h masts and corn. TiUit, on the Niemen, is rather a handsome and considerable town* *''!h some manufactures; but is chiefly remarkable for the treaty of 1807, between NaiKileon i Alexander. Gumbinnen and Insterburg, both on the Pregel, are considerable tow" l-'riedland and Preuss- Eyiau deserve mention, naostly for the great battles fuusht tlii>r "'" the campaigns of 1806 and 1807. ' '" 3148. Dantxie, the grand emporium of Poland, stands undoubtedly foremost amonir th towns of Western Prussia. It lies on the western branch of the Vistula, imnicdiatelv hv! fore its entrance into the sea, and is divided into the old city, ill built, with narrow, sAoon- angular streets; the "high city," more modern, but still far from handsome; the"! '' city," divided into the Long Garden, which contains the licst, and the Magazine Island with the chief, warehouses of the merchants. The suburbs were, till lately, extensive, onu of the l>eing named Old Scotland, from a colony of that nation established at an early Durioil 'I'hese suburbs were buih?d, however, in the sieges by the French, in 1807, and tii« Hyj sians, in 1813; and, though piirtly rebuilt, their population has been reduced froni 786o to 1788. The only handsome building is the Lutheran church, with a celebrated picture of the Lost Judgment. 'ITie commerce of Daiitiic is very great, the fine wheat producd in the interior of Poland being sent thither to be exported. The amount in 1830 wu 404,000 quarters, of which three fourth* were for England. In 1835, there entered and left its ports 621 vessels, tonnage aliout 95,000. The imports were in value 495,9 lilion of 7934, half compoicd of Jews. Uromberg, on the canul wliich bean iU name, ei^joya (considerable trade. SuaatCT. 9. AuMrtan Poland, 3153. The portion ijf Poland annexed to Auitria la erected into a kingdom, under the titles of Gallicia and Lodomiria. Theae name* are derived fVom the ancient llUHian principalities of Halici and Wlodomir. Its surfacu is considerably dislinguiahed fVom that flat marshy level which coven almost the whole of Poland. A great part of it is situated upon the slope of the Carpathian chain, which separatet it fVom Ilunganr. I'hi* is, indeed, only t border range, all whose lofUest peaks are Hungarian ; but branches or spun firom it cover t great part of Gallicia, liefore they descend to the great Polish level. The country is thui of very various character. A considerable |)art consists of mountain forest, the eleva* tions of which do not, however, rise to more than 40(X) or 5W0 feet i many of tlie ploina ire sandy ; but the greater portion, divenificd bv gentle hills, is of the most exuberant fer- tility; and, notwithstanding ito imperfect cultivation, forms a sort of granary of the surround- iog countries. aiJ4. Thevarioui changes which thi* touthem part ot Poland has undergone have rendered it not so strictly Polish as some of the others. About the twelfth century it farmed part of the Russian kingdom of Kiev, and bore in great part the name of lied Uussia. When Kiev became Uussian, Hungary, once united, but now separated firum it, laid claim to the Polish provinces ; but it had to contend with the Polish monarchy, then in the xunilli of its power, under Boleslausand his succeasors. After a struggle of several centuries, Hungary irts compelled to cede these districts ; tliough still, by a singular clause, reserving a certain claim to them. Maria Theresa, therefore, when she achievinl tlie |>nrtilion, could boast of a certain ancient right ; and Hungary even claimed the incorporation of these new provinces, and * seat for their nobles in the diet ; but tlie Austrian cabinet, however much disposed to avail themselves of the claim, did not choose to press it to this concliitiion. 'I1iu extent of Aus- trian Poland has not been materially altered since the flnal partition in 1793. Austria has given to Gallicia a form of states, but without allowing them any voice in the making of lairs, or in fixing the amount of taxes, though they have some control over their distribution. The states arc composed of four orden ; the clergy, tlie nobles, the knights and the cities : but the Gallicion House of Commons consists merely of two deputies iVom I.emberg, no other place having yet been raised to the rank of city. 3155. The different branches of industry are in a leu advanced state in Gallicia than in any other part even of Poland, flie peasantry are no longer in the legal condition of serfs ; but the general poverty, sluggishness, and apathy, which prevail uinung this order, render them nearly as much as ever enthralled to their landlords, and strangers to every kind of improvement Still the produce of com on these fine plains is very considerable, being estimated hy Blumenbach at 34,000,000 metzen, a large proportion of which ia sent partly by the Vistula to Dantzic, and partly to the neighbouring districts of Hungary and Silesia. Although a great portion of Gallicia is peculiarly adapted to pasturage, yet the diligence of the people in rearing cattle, &c. is so slender, that not only the breeds are poor, but their amount does not correspond to the extent of pastures. The number of horses in 1817 was 31 1,000, which, unless in some studs formed by governmeAt, had few properties of the noble Polish breeds ; horned cattle 1,1 16,0(X), and sheep 480,000 ; not so many as are found in some of the small Saxori provinces. Tlic woods are of considerable value, and some coane articles of furniture are made out of them and exported. The hills enclose several thousand little lakes, or ponds, remarkably well stocked with fish. The country is infested with wild animals, which the Austrian government has lieun at great poina to extirpate. In 1812, premiums were paid on the bodies of 10 bears and 2046 wolvca. Moniifactiircs even of the coarsest and most necessary articles are almost unknown to the native Giillician, who follows nothing but his plough and his horse, and leaves the care of clothing liiin to the Jews, who have multiplied in this kingdcm more than in any other part even of Poland. They eiceed 200,000, and have 294 synagogues. It is but fair to state that the Austrian influ- ence, however violently and utyustly established, has been employed to introduce a certain improvement in all the above particulars. 3156. The mineral kingdom affords one branch of industry in which Gallicia excels every other part of Europe, and of the world itself. I'he whole soil at n certain depth contains a mineral layer variously impregnated with salt. The ti.o grand works are nt Uoclima and Wieliczca, the former of which produces the finest salt ; but the hitter are the most extensive I of any in Poland, or, indeed, perhaps in the world. They extend (i'OO klui^ern in length, 1100 in breadth, and reach to a depth of 750. The alleys uiul pasHiiges cut out in the solid salt present a brilliant and magical appearance. Some elegant little chapels, adorned I with saints and crucifixes, are also cut out in the mineral { but it is said there is no truth in 748 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part 1H, the current report that there are habitations for the workmen, thouah there are stabim f the horses employed. Of tlie different kinds and qualities of salt, the purest ia cill»l crystal salt, appearing in the shape of cubes and prisms ; another, called green salt, contain a large proportion of earth ; while the most inferior kind is fit only for cattle. Theu tw* great salt mines produce annually upwards of 800,000 cwt. ; besides which titerc are twenty^ six on a smaller scale, yielding about 900,000 cwt. '' 3157. The commerce of Gallicia is necessarily inland. Occupying, however, the hetttUofihe Dniester and the Vistula, it sends a considerable quantity of commodities down tlioso riven. It has also a great inland carrying trade, being the principal channel by which intorcourw is maintained between Germany and Prussia. The exports consist of grain, mXt some wood, and honey ; in exchange for which are received manufactured goods of every descrio* tion, and exotic luxuries of every denomination. The quantity of these must 1h! somcwhM strictly limited by the means of purchase, and the small number who consume more than the absolute necessaries of life ; yet the German politicians labour under some dread of in unfavourable balance. 3158. The social Hate of Gallicia presents an aspect less altered from the feudal >ys(em and habits, than that of almost any other European region. The census of I81H inivi! 3,760,000, while in 1829 it is stated by Colonel Traux at 4,3a5,0(X). These inhsliited ninety-five cities, 191 market towns, and 6009 villages. The nobles amounted in 1817 to the enormous number of 31,006 ; some of them possessing immense property, cvvn whole provinces ; though, in consequence of trusting the management of their aiVnin to stewards, they are f^enerally embarrassed. But a great proportion are in a state of extr«>me poverty and even cultivate their fields with their own hands. The burghers were reported at the singularly small number of 11,513; while the country labourers are supposed to be rated too low at 353,419. The Jews constitute every where the most flourishing port of the citizens. The Christians are divided between the Romish and Onsek 'persuasions: tlie former have 1066, the latter 2800 cathedrals. There are about 5000 Armenians, ami thirty protestant congregations scattered through the kingdom. Knowledge is in n most defec- tive state ; and the few institutions which exist for its difltision have been introttiiced by the Austrians. They have made great exertions to improve the university nt Lemberg, which has twenty-six professors, and a good library. The Oorales, or inhabitants of the mountains, form an entirely different race from the Maxurakes, who cH'cupy the level districts ; and an old enmity reigns between these two tribes. Tlic Gurales are a flcrte highland race, constantly armed with the axe, with which they can strike nn oliieet at the distance of forty yards; and they brandish this weapon even at their dances and foslivals, Till repressed by the vigorous measures of the Austrian government, they were nceustonied to make most formidable raids upon the low country adjoining. The inhnliilnntH of tlic eastern part of the kingdom are of Rousniak or Russian origin : they spenk a Inngtia^ compounded of the Russian and Polish ; they are more industrious than tliu Poles, and employ themselves in the fabrication of coarse linen. A considerable number of \Val. lachians, of Magyars, the prevailing people in Hungary, and Germans to the number of 72,000, have found their way into Gallicia. 3159. The cities and tottms in this part of Poland are neither very ample nor elegant, Lemberg, however, called by the Poles Leopol, or the city of Leo, founded in the tucKth century, though its interior streets be narrow and old-fashioned, has four hnndsonic suburin, In 1808 it contained 41,500 inhabitants ; of whom 12,700 were Jews. By the small river Pelleir it communicates with t)ie Bug ; but its chief trade is bv land with Turkey aiul Russia. The intercouse with this last country, however, is chiefly carried on by the Urgt but ill-built frontier town of Brody, containing from 16,000 to 20,000 inhabituiits, of whom more than a third are Jews. The other towns contain only about 5000 or (i(XH) inliHliitanK Among these may be mentioned Przemyzl, once the seat of a principality ; destitute of walls but still defended by a strong castle, and having in its vicinity large manufactures of wood, Jaroslaw, the city of Prince Czartoryski, has a fine cathedral, and may boost of some induslir, the Austrians having introduced a fine cloth manufacture. ZIncxuw borders on Itussia, amid extensive woods and numerous ponds. Sambor and Drohobitx, on the Dniester, h.m some manufacture and trade, chiefly carried on by Jews. Tnrnopul, fturther to the north, is tolerably flourishing. Stanislaus, in the south, is a handsome town, which the Austriaiu propose to convert into an important fortress. Stry is situated In tlio heart of llic numniiin district, amid woods, streams, and torrents. Cultivation is extremely rude ; vet the hn have introduced nomc slight branches of industry, Halici, from which Gallicia derives its name, is now a small place, chiefly occupied by a particular sect of Jews, lluclinis u^ Wieliczca, entirely supported by the salt mines, do not contain more tlion 3000 people, SuBSECT. 3. The Kingdom of Poland' 3 1 60. The partial revival of the kingdom is an act of Russian policy. The name of Pd W even after the downfall of the great power which it once designuteil, nnd the division of ilw country among the surrounding potentates, was still grateful to the ear of every ginuint P*w III, ro uo M«bl«8 for punnt ia c»IM o«n salt, contains ttle. These two U\era ore twenty. >r, the heads of the :lowii tlioso rivers, wliirh intercourse grain, salt, some s of every descrip. must Ih> somewhat jnsumo mure than ' 801110 dread of on tiio feudal system DHua of 18IB gave These inhabited nounted in 1817 to •operty, even whole AflUira to stewards, if oxtmnc (wverty, 'vru reported at the ii|))K>!ied to be rated rialting port of the !k persuasions: the rmunianH, and thirty ia in a most dcfcc- been introduced by vorsity at Lemberg, >r inhabitants of the 10 occupy the level Ourales are « flcm.', piko an obiect at the tluncvH and festivals. [icy were accustomed inlinbitants of tlie , apeak a langutge than the I'oles, and tie number of W«|. ns to the number of _ ample nor clogsnt, lunded in the twelfth ir hnndsonte suburlis. By the small river id with Turkey and ativA on by the large inliubitants, of whom I or (itXX) inhabilanK ty 5 destitute of walls anufacttiKs of wood. oast of 8un«r of every pnm Pole. This disposition was manifested in a manner not to be mistaken, when Napoleon over-ran Poland, and proclaimed its erection again into a kingdom. Although the Folct could not, under his sway, hope for much civil liberty, they rallied round him ; and, had not his ambition overleapt itself, by urging him into the frozen and hostile regions of Muscovy, his dominion over Poland might have become stable and permanent Napoleon fell ; and Alexander, in reward of his own achievements in the common cause, grasped the regions of the Vistula, including the capital, which had formerly belonged to Prussia, and had been erected by Napoleon into the Duchy of Warsaw. These, with the country on the Bug and the Narew, he formed into the kingdom of Poland, containing only a small portion of what that country had been in her glory, but yet comprising its most improved districts, and those most decidedly Polish. 3161. The kingdom of Poland confauns an extent of 2270 German square miles, of fifteen to the degree, belonging generally to the vast Polish level, except its southern border, along thewaiwodats of Cracow and Sandomir; along which is an extensive and steep, though not lofty, branch of the Carpathians. The highest point is called the Sysa Gora. The plain, of which the greater part of the newly erected kingdom consists, is rather of a sandy character, and the overflowing of its large rivers often converts it into marsh. It does not possess the exuberant fertility of the Ukraine, and yet it is a good grain country, and under tolerable cultivation. In 1833, it contained 3,914,000 inhabitants; and there were 286,000 horses, 942,000 cattle, 2,1 87,000 sheep, 645,000 pigs. The manufactures of linen and woollen cloth for domestic consumption are considerable, though they produce none of line quality, In the capital, the making of carriages and harness is of such extent as to assume almost a national importance. Minerals are not a leading feature, though there are iron mines of some value in the southern range of hills. There is a great transit trade of grain down the Vistula, partly the produce of the kingdom itself, but chiefly of the more fertile regions to the south; but the new Poland labours under a severe disadvantage in not possessing the mouth of that river, and its port of Dantzic. which has been annexed to the Prussian temtory. 3162. A representative eonstitution, as already observed, was granted by Alexander, in his quality of king of Poland. The new diet was divided into two chambers, one of which is elected by the nobles and the provincial assemblies, while the senate consists of ten waiwodes appointed by the emperor in his character of king of Poland, ten castellans nominated by the senate, and ten bishops. This constitution, however, granted in a liberal and conciliatory spirit, was not found to work so agreeably as a sovereign elsewhere despotic could have desired. It became the aim of the prince to abridge the privileges which appeared to him to be too liberally used. The diet was less frequently assembled; the liberty of the press, at first granted, has been withdrawn. These encroachments kindled a discontent, which broke out in the late strenuous effort to effect an entire emancipation from Russia, the un- fortunate issue of which, it is to be feared, will for the present deprive Poland of many of the advantages she has hitherto eigoyed. 3163. Warsaw, capital alike of old and of new Poland, is finely situated on the Vistula. During the war which terminated in the subjugation of Poland, Warsaw stood the heaviest brunt ; and its population in 1782 was reduced to 75,000 ; but since that time it has rapidly improved, and in 1833 it oontuned 134,000, exclusive of tne troops that were in garrison. Among these are 30,000 Jews. The whole city consists of one long street, with others branching from it ; but these are narrow and dirty, and, as is usual in aristocratic cities, no provision is made for the comfort and accom- modation of foot passengers. The new town is biult in a better style ; the government palace (Jig. 411.), and the palace of the minister of fi- nance (fig. 412.), are both splendid buildings ; but the finest part of Warsaw consists of its four subiu-bs having separate rights and jurisdictions. That of Praga, once a strong citadel, was almost destroyed in the dreadful assault by Suwarrow, in 1795: it is now, however, rebuilding. Warsaw origin- ally consisted almost entirely of 412 .^ woioden houses ; but that material is -^"'"^ — now prohibited ; and out of its 4000 houses,8000 are constructedof stone. During the period of its calamities, Warsaw lost the finest collections made by its former sovereigns. The gallery of paintings formed by king Stanislaus, and the Za> ooynxMiNT rkhkcM at wariaw. PALArl nr THI HIKIRTKR or ri^fAMCB. 750 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHY. P*M III toudd library, wero trannportcd to Pvtonburgh i and another library, of more than 45Mn Volumes, was transferred to Volhynia. Alexander, however, in 1821, founded, or n^ re-endowed, the university. 3164. The other toumt in the kiitgdom of Poland are only of secondary importance Lublin, which ranks second, cuntnins 1 9,700 inhabitants. It is situated on the Bue in on' of the most fertile districts of tlio kingdom, and communicating on the south with othe^ still more fertile. It is distinguiNhLHl by the castle of Casimir the Great, the palace of Sobieski, some fine churches, and the largest synagogue of Poland. Zamosc, in the same vicinity, is an important fortress, while Pulawa^, a seat of Count Czartoryski, and KIcmerzon the residence of the Zamoiski, are adomiHi with some elegant and classic edifices. Kalisch' on the Proswa, is rather a well-built town, with II, 600inhabitants, a military school, and some manufactures. The voivoditt of Sandomir contains a city of the same name, with a fortified castle, but only 8700 inhabitants ; and Radow, also a small town, ranks as its capital. Kielce, capital of the mining district, in the voivodat of Cracow, has a school of mines, and about 5000 inhabitauts. 3165. The republic of Cracow, in dufnult of any place more strictly appropriate, may be here introduced. The three great powers who decided on the destinies of Poland by a species of caprice, established at a central point between tlicra this free and neutral city, an ancient and venerable capital of Poland. The degree of freedom which it enjoys, though only by sulferancOi has rendered its environs more fertile and smiling than those.of the rest of Poland. Its surface contains 2360 square leagues ; and in 1819 the popula. tion of the city amounted to S4,8(X), that of the territory to 71,000; of which 12,000 were Jews. The university, once the great school of the north, and frequented by crowds of students, was broken up during the civil commotions, and the attempts to restore it have been fruitless. It has at present thirty professors, but not more than 276 students. Cracpw is decidedly a catholic city, and contains eighty-seven monasteries and 164 nunneries. Tue revenues of the republic amour..' to 1,379,000 ilurins. The cathedral is remarkable for the tomb of St Stanislaus, the monument of Sobicbki, and other venerated mausoleums. SuBSECT. 4. Rtmian Province!. 3166. The Lithuanian provinces form an extensive portion of Poland, th;> character of which i.' materially ditierent iVom that of the rest The two states, after being entirely separate, were united, as already mentionepropriatc, may be ies of Poland, by I free and neutral freedom which it e and smiling than inl819thepopula. which 12,000 were crowds of students, ; have been fruitless. 'aCQW is decidedly a I. Tue revenues of Ale for the tomb of ind, thc> character of aftrr being entirely , by the marriage of lish monarchy. This lion ; the kings filing at Grodno. Tliey made no movement very generally either istures are excellent, productions. Tbe .J ; and specimens of >wer in industry and sin the hands of tin le appearance of the hed merely in sheep. ash, joined together of the more eastern 'onquered at an early nt in a more decided nd marshes arc more a ruder state. The 1, women, and cattle, , Witepsk, Mcislaw, ;k Russia was a name leither numerous noi theWiUa,alargetii. inhabiunts are stated ;ander bestowed con- the university, which, igulated. IthasalKi ery vreVL placed. Tbe rodno, once a capital lo«t its silk, «l»el, Bulation is reduced to ,tg. Mohilow.onthe the communication rf DookI. DENMARK. 751 jiese provinces with tho Dlavk Sm ) whilo Witopak, on tho Dwina, communicates with Riga, ind has a population of about 1,1,000. Matiilawl and Dubrowna are rude towns, built almost entirely of wood. Minak, tliouffh amall, ia the capital of an extensive province, in the south of which are Slonim tuid Rinak, Uio latter situated in the district called anciently Polesiu, still almost entirely uvvritprvttd with forests, lakes, and marshes, which in the wet ynsoa convert its surfikce nearly into a aea. It yields, however, fish, honey, timber, and iron. Brzcst Litow, in ita eastvrn border, hna a atrong castle on tlie Bug, and contains a Jewish academy, the resort of Ntmleuta iVom every part of Poland, and even of Europe. Bialystock, situated near the western vxtrvniitv of the Russian empire, is a rather modern town, with a fine castle, and several public buildings. 3168. The Polish Ukraine, vomprehending tho provinces of Fodolia and Volhynia, forms a rich extensive level, producing the ilnvNt grain and pasture of all the Polish provinces. This vast tract of tho Ukridnei divided by the Dnieper into two nearly equal parts, formed the ancient and flourishiuj; kingdoni of Kiev, the eastern side of which was afterwards an. neied to Russia ; while tho wvulern, the most fk-uitful nnd valuable, was attached to Poland. All, however, has now been ubsurbetl in the widc-spreading dominion of the former empire. Volhynia is a vast, almost unvuriutl, low level { but I'odolia has, along the banks of the Dnieper and its tributaries, ranges of liillt of aniull vltvntion, forming romantic vales and cascades, without, however, interrupting the general level character. Though the climate is com- paratively mild, the southern protluvis (!:' wine and oil cannot be brought to perfection; but there is a great surplu:i of grain of the llnest quality, and of cattle and sheep. According to the tables of M. Murciinski, there wtv in Podulia 9.1,000 nobles, 1.16,000 Jews, 197,000 Latin, and 838,000 Greek ClirisUuni. lie reckons also 781,000 peasants bound to the glebe. 3169. Tlie towns, in a dintrict to Ueciilmify agricHlturat, are not of much importance. In Podolia, Kainiiiiec, once the mighty iMrrier of CliriKtendom, has lost its importance, since the limit of tlie llussiun ntonnrcliy lina been extended so fur beyond it. The provincial authorit-'^s still reside there, und it retaina itH strong castle seated on a rock. The commerce of th'i province is chiefly carried on in Mogliilev und Sxiirnygrod, which are of about the same dimensions. Uuu and Targonltn, Uiu scats of two political confederations, possess a gloomy celebrity in the history of Poland. lierdycxew, the largest town in Volhynia, is ill built, and tilled with crowds of .lewish tralHckers. The nobility carry on their contracts at Dubno, a smaller town, nnd Irluinilii, atill smaller, yet holding at present the rank of a metropolis. Wlodomir, a celobratiHl citv, which gives name to a kingdom, is now only a colony of Jews ; and Ostrog, with a district round it, has been assigned as the laat refuge of the knights of Malta. . Ciup. XIV. BRNMAHK. 3170. Denmark is an ancient kingtium, (brincrly very powerful, liolding sway over the 1 surrounding regions, and, at a pretUktory state, tli terror of all Fdrope. Though now I reduced to the secondary rank, her situation renders her of iiiiportance in the general system I of the Continent. SccT. I. Geneml OuHint and AspecU 3171. Denmark consist$ maiitlj/ i^an eJtimvnM fieninsula, shooting out from the north-west I comer of Gennany, and . a cluster of large inlands to the east of the peninsula. The I northern shores of Denmark appronvh cloae to the southern point of the Scandinavian pen- I insula, bounding the great interior si>a of the Baltic. She commands the only channel by Jvhich the countries aroimd this sea can transmit their products to the rest of Europe; a icircumstance which gives her some consideration as a maritime state, at the same time that Ithe toll she imposes on ships passing and repassing the Sound is productive of revenue. ■The Danish peninsula is termed Jutland ( and the islands in the interior of the Baltic, linierposcd between Jutland and Scandinavia, are Zealand, Funen, Odensee, and a few others ■of smaller note. Denmark holds also the German territories of Sleswick and Holstein ; Ivith Iceland, the Faroe Islands, and some settlements on the coast of Greenland, remnants |of her former maritime power. 3172. The extent of the dominiofu of a (Hfuntrjf broken Into such a variety of detached por- pions can with difticulty be estimated. The only compact mass consists of Jutland, Sleswick, knd Holstein ; bounded on the west and north by the North Sea or German Ocean ; on the W by the suimds which form the entrance of tho Baltic ; on the south by the Elbe. This tract lies generally between 5'^° aitd ST^'^ north latitude, and 8° and 1 1° east longitude. 189 MAP OF DENMAUK. y' Ixinglluile Eul iO' from (irMnwlch 11' I. Ljknuhpiu 1 njoring JHanhili •.Tomml J.Slijni r. AalM '■FUditnnd J.Sllb;I 10. Kokhuiu 11. Tolslnip tt.Tkm ".BjiJrt ".Bmttd IJ.Vur i;. nittd II. Hall IS. Sundbn ». Alitor, *I. WfttOf M.Koflfnin «. Kioiup Pre. ittRaart ».Ko!b;eIlemi- „ ,(tMni B.Tlittd K-Furhje ».lta,ey gBundmled K.Ain M.Kll«L, ■ :hH" «. Wnilnni X-Boldrvp «.Ka« »!■ I«inl| I Book I< DENMARK. 7B9 We have thus a length of 980 miles, and a bread Ji of 120. The toul area is estimated, In ^e Weimar Geographical Almanack for 1832, at 1012*76 square miles, of fifteen to the deffice* 3173. The lurfiice of Denmark hne»x\y (Itit I forming, with the exception of Holland, tha lowest part of the great plain of Norilicrn Germany. The islands, in particular, in many places, rise only a fow feet above the level of the sea. The soil, as in the rest of this plain, jj frequently sandy and marsliy ; the climate humid, though not liable to those severe frosts which prevail in the interior uf Scandinavia. Hence it affords good pasturage, and its soil is fiTourable to the growth of the coarser species of grain. 3174. The waters ^Denmark consist chiefly of its numerous sounds and bays ; the Skager- nck, which comes in from tlie North Sea, and separates Jutland from Norway ; the Catte- gat, which, running southward nearly at right angles to the Skagerrack, separates that peninsula from Sweden ; the Sound, a narrow strait at the extremity of the Cattegat, between Zealand and Sweden, and which forms the main entrance into the Baltic. The insular and peninsular character of her territory gives Denmark an extent of coast which certainly does not fall short of 600 miles ; and there is said to be no part of the land m'ore than ten miles distant from the sea. This structure leaves no room for the formation of any rivers of the least consequence, except the Eyder in Holstel.i, and the canal of Kiel, by which an im> portant communication is formed between the ocean and the Baltic. Jutland contains a number of shallow but extensive lakes, closely bordering on the sea, with which they in many places communicate, and may hence be regarded as bays. Sect. II. Natural Geography, SuBSECT. I. Geologt/. 3175. Denmark. The geology of this low and flat country has not been completely as- certained. .\s far as is known at present, it contains neither primitive nor transition rocks : the only secondary deposits are Weald clay, and the various members of the chalk formation ; both of which are generally covered up with tertiary soils ; which, in their turn, arc as deeply covered with diluvium of sand, and calcareous loam ; which latter are occasionally concealed b; newer alluvial deposits. 3176. Iceland- This island, so far as is known to geologists, is entirely composed of ignigenous rocks. These are of two classes; viz. Plutonian and volcanic. The Plutonian KiifereHces to the Map qf Denmark. KORTH PART. I. Likcnihuus t Hjoring 3. Hinhui 4.ToerAner ! ».\SL 19. Mb; 30. nw 1 31. N^kiDbing I 33. Strandbje 34. .Malle I 35. (iundmted I 3*1. Aan I 3;. Hiiln IM-Etehoj I 39. Konnwy ho.Slera I (I. \'ite Iti.Sodringholm 1 43. .Mdnnirer 1 41. Holm 145. I^imtum |4S. Uoldnip hMlbltr. |«i.8klTe |49. Ku |l!:K? M. Hmba» On A3. Nm« M. Ullwn JU. Vrinnllwiw m. Iloliibrot «7. HmUiun SN. Sorup d9. Knuditnip OtCT SO. Wlbolg 61. Skienw 68. Laurbira (13. iUndart (i4, Hoinlni ei. Oented 66. Uliitnip 67. (ilertlil CH. (jreenuM 69. Albojie 70. EMtotl 71. HelironaM 79. ArHo 73. Thonagar 74. Hornftlat 7i. Kkelhy* 76. AarhuuU 77. ItoviT 78. nallerup 79. Mlditnip 81). Afi«ika« 81. Bngiiranff Sa.Hundi 83. Aranburfl 81. N'orommc 8.^. Sondervans 86. Itlnkloiiliia 87. niJlKmluml 88. Hcnilntrtholm 89. Faurgaard 90. Hrandhohn SI.SnM 93. (live 93. (iri'ndKtnip 94. Hcanili'Tliois 95. Tmntrup 96. Ilaldrup 97. Horsens 98. Aastnip 99. Knailin 100. Veila 101. HlnRnlva 1118. tireene 103. Oddain 104. FmmipgMrd loft. Lunda^ ins. North Bork 107. llauralK 108. Kltrgnaid. SOUTH PART. I.llua ». Varda 5. Jtme 4. Hndda ». Ulonlinc 6. Foldhm 7. Vaarbaaa 8. (Mited> 9. Kinldttrup 10. Fnderira ll.roldlnR U. Chrhllaiuliild* 1.3. Aaroe 14. Iladenlabcn 1.1. drain 16. Ilvam 17. Illortland 18. HIlHK 19. Halahva yo. Ilallum SI. Iloynr W. I.vium KlMUT «3. lloUi VI. Soliru(litr\ip S.I. AlHinrada W, Orawmtuln ti7. llolclHll 118. IVka «!>. 'I'lmder .30. Enibidmll 31. Imk .38. (Vkhidm .M. llnHlsiwII .31. M«Mburg .3,1. Jorl 36. Arenholl 37. FInuborg .38. Ninnin .39. (Mtlns 40. Kaupcl 41. Windrmark «t. KckcmAinIa 4.3. Wnwlrk 44. HolllnilUfdt 4.3. Tn-ja 46. Hunum 47. MIIiImhI 48. FmlrrirklladI 49. UardlnK SO, Tonnliwen Al. Wettllnglmten M. Telllniptedl M. HendsHurit M. Ilarlnh 5.1. Schnelm M. Kiel 67. Kumor as. Heeadorf «9. I'tMU 60. IMom 61. Slewn 68. Krakan G3. Dransan 64. I.ulffenburg 63. Halciidorf 66, Oldenliurg 67. Kuril 68. liellTKmhaftn 69. Oromtila 70, Neuitadt 71, Eiitin 78, Sarau 73, Si'hnmentlorf 74, Neumuntter 7,1, Wlldcn^charcn 76, Oitersled 77, (triblwm 78, Meldorf 79, Marne 8(1, llninibuttel Kl. Itxchoe 88. Krcntne 83. (iluiksUdt 84. Uitenen M. Itarmatcdt 86. Ilohenhont 87. Oldesloh H8. Neal varieties of greenstone ; one porphyritic, with crystals of glassy felspar th' other without the porphyritic structure. In some of the islands there are beds of piirLnd associated with fire clay, slate clay, and sphsrosiderite, resting upon the trap, and covered b it. The beds of greenstone and slate clay are often traversed by veins or dikes of basah/ and porphyritic greenstone, which, however, do not appear to occasion any change in them ' but the greenstones are changed in position and direction by the invasion from below of ' conglomerated rock, a kind of trap tuffa. The trap rocks of the Faroes have been I celebrated, on account of the splendid zeolites they afford : family appear to be daily forming, productions of this insular group. some species of this beautiful The chloropceite, peridote, and precious opal, are also SuBsicT. 2. Botany. ' 3178. Denmark and Sweden, Norway and Lapland, the Faroe Islands, ana Iceland,— \hii latter giving a name, indeed, to a plant equally common in the other countries, Lichen islandicus, or Iceland Moss {Jig. 414. }, — may be considered under one head, so far as regards 414 . JS4. their vegetable productions ; for it is difficult to draw an exact line of demarcation, and even of these the very nature of our work does not allow us to treat much at large : this is the less to be regretted, because the das. sical works of Linnaeus and Wahlenberg are in the hands of every botanical student ; and they contain a mine of valuable information, in the Flora Lapponica and Suecica of both these authors, and a fund of interesting and delight- ful narrative in tlie Lachesis Lapponica of the great Swedish naturalist. The various writings of CEder, Vahl, and Homemann afford much useful matter relative (o the plants of Denmark. The vegetation of a great por- tion of these countries may also be considered the sane as that of the more northern and mountainous parts of Great Britain already detailed. Yet, as the northern regions of the continent of Europe present an alpine and arctic vegetation, in a much more perfect degree ihao islands, we shr jld scarcely do justice to our iiubjed, did we not offer some remarks on the distribution of the vegetable productions of a portion of tliat more interesting and extreme northern European territory; namely, Lapland, The natural boundaries of this country are represented by Wahlenberg as formed by some low mountains, about 500 feet in height, at a distance of from five to eight Swedish miles from the extremity of the Gulf of Bothnia. They present no naked summits, but ait covered with forests of Spruce Fir* {JigAXS.) : these may be considered as the last of tin subalpine ranges in northern Europe. Commencing in the south-east, a little beyond lie lake Kemistrask, in lat. 67°, it tends towards Upper Tomea, and near to Ofover Calii ii j the west ; stretches south to Edifers, in Lulea ; and reaches its soutliemmost point at tit | Tafvelsjon, in Umean Lapland, lat. 64°. This mountain chain exhibits Calls palusini 1 {Jig. 416.), (a plant of a poisonous family, closely allied to our Arum maculatum or Wale, robin, and to the Caladium esculentum of the tropics ; and, as with them, a kind of brad | called Missenbrod, or the bread of famine, is made by the Laplanders from the root;); Sweet gale*, common Speedwell *, Ox-eye *, Meadow Fescue-grass •, and Carex stellulait' I The Birch * there produces its leaves in the beginning of June. 3179. The inferior and woody district of Lapland has iU upper limit at Sondanlyli ii I Kemean Lapland, between Kengis and Munoniska in Tornea, at Jockmock in Lulei,iid ICSLAMO MWI. * The names marked with an ailcrisk arc those or plants alio found in Biituiii. Pam III. is assodttod tuffos lat which contaiiu gpwsuethemoit en, and in Iceland en large inhnbited ie inhabited islands 1 is in the isluud of wo prevailing rocks basaltic, sometimn id green. It alter- ;rcenstone and cla^. group, rendering it urface of the green- olution. There are f glassy felspar, the ire beds of pUckcoal, trap, and covered by ) or dikes of basaltic my change in them ; don from below of a iroes have been long cies of this beautiful irecioiu opal, are also is, and Iceland,— the ;her countries. Lichen head, so far as regards is difficult to draw an en of these the ver; ' us to treat much at :ted, because the clas- nberg are in the hands ley contain a mine of apponica and Suecka of nteresting and delight- pponica of the great ritings of (Eder, Valil, ful matter relative to elation of a great por- considered the same mountainous parts of Yet, as the northern present an alpine aod J perfect degree thio ice to our subject, did ■oductions of a poitioo ry; namely, Lapland, lerg as formed by some to eight Swedish miles ilced summits, but ate dered as the last of the jast, a little beyond lie ear to Ofover Calii in liemmost point at the | exhibits CttUa palusttii . maculatumorWake. them, a kind of bte«l nders from the roots); '.andCarexstclluki' limit at Sondankyliii ockmockinLule«,i«i | iidinBritiUU Book I- DENMARK. 755 „ Falitrak, in Umean LapUnd ; and it yfvlda, besides, the Spruce Fir, the Meadow Trefoil *! the Lysimachia thyraiflora*, Lily of the Valley*, and White Water Lily*, vhich grow abundantly. Some plants which are peculiarly subalpine begin to appear, as Tofieldia palustris* and Serratula alpina.* 3180. The upper woodt/ dU- trict is distinguished by the absence of the last-mentioned plants ; but the forests of Spruce still abound. Where the Spruce ceases, in places of warm exposure, the upper limit of this region is indi< cated. Its boundary in Ke- mean, Tornean, and Pitean Lapland, is more distinctly marked, because the country ia flatter, and destitute of deep valleys ; but in such situations, in Lulea and Umea, thu Spruce Fir approaches nearer to the Alps, and the sides of the mountains are covered with it. There its utmost northern limits are found to be at Kyro, near the great Lake of Enare, in lat. 69° north. Here, too, is the most northern boundary of many well known plants, such as Trifolium repens*, Festuca rubra*, Rumex a- quaticus*, the Yellow Water Lily*, and several other aqua- tics. Many alpine plants commence, as Salix glauca*, extending south to the middle of this region, Salix hastata *, confined to the north, and Bartsia alpina *, with Lychnis ■r*i CM fiM alpina * on the banks of the alrcams. The culture of barley still succeeds ; but scarcely beyond this line. 416 3181. The subalpine moun- 417 tains in this region are very dry and remarkably gravelly and stony ; abounding in that >i{ fKJJKMUfi^ ^'i^l '^ plant which Linnieus has so Y\Wain.W'l^'mi^^''^ beautifully described, in his ^st^WjMifM\wr'Vj^'^tjX Flora Lapponica, as the main \ill[wW| (B^i^J^-Y/^^ support of the Hein-deer, and Jj| l| \||| \^^ff // _ji^ consequently of the Laplander, Lichen rangiferinus * {jig. 4 1 7. ), or Rein-deer Moss. Ill could the Laplander subsist without the supplies afTorded by that useful animal ; it is his sole wealth. It yields him almost every necessary of life : it serves him instead of horse, cow, and sheep : the rein-deer supplies him with milk, butter, and cheese; draws him in sledges with great speed from place to place, over ice and snow ; gires his flesh for food, his skin for clothing, his tendons for bowstrings, and, when slit, for ; thread, his horns for glue, and his bones for spoons. And the almost only winter food of this serviceable animal is the moss we have just mentioned, and which the deer are so fond of, that though it is commonly buried at that season under a great depth of snow, yet, by scratching with their feet, and digging with their antlers, they never fail to get at it. In I short, without this lichen, both the rein-deer and the Laplander must perish. " Thiis," adds Lfnnsus, " things which are often deemed the most insignificant and contemptible by ignorant men, are, by the good providence of God, made the means of the greatest birss. 3 C 2 -'»4«l.l-«'' RIIN-UBBR null. CILLA riMIITRM. 756 DESCIIIPTIVE 0£OORAPHY. f *M lU. ing* to hi* creaturei." Linnwuii miuki hi timt tlili UsImii growi so luxuriantly in LtoU h M to be found lonietimei a foot In halifht. '^ "^ 3183. Sul M the hilli tcarcvly rUa to tho llmlta of psrpetual mow, about SOO or soof higher tlian the woods are found. Ih«y ara Atrllle in such plants as flourish in a dry a*^ barren soil ; vii., Mfniionia cwrulva •, Arbutuit nlpina*, Juncus trilidug*, Lycopodium i pinum *, Azalea procumbons *, and) Ihoiigh rarely, Diapensiu lapponica. Here the LicI * tartareus {Jig. 418.), or Cudbear, abuundu, and U, both here and in Sweden and Norwa" 418 collcctwl, and exported to the dye-manufacturei' Wahlsniwrg dtsttnguishes by the term " Redo J^, ivlvatli'n," or partially wooded region, that where th« Scotch Fir grows, but not the Spruce. This is more cuiitrnctcd than the othrr regions, and more difficult to bo dullnvd. It is not unfrequently eight Swedish milu* broad In northern Lapland; in Kemca extend ing to nearly 70'' of lat. Before the Scotch Fir ceases' tho tJarox globularis disappears, and, in the more nurllivrn parts, Prunella vulgaris. Witliin the Fir i„„.,.. rfglttn, the beautiful Pedicularis lapponica appcan si'ttttvrud through the woods ; Viola bifolia, and Thalictrum alpinum * following tho courso of the streams ; Salix lanata *, with its splendid golden catkins, at the margins of marshes and springs, and also Ranunculus lapponicus. The cultivation of barley scarcely succve^s, and the colonists are miserably poor. The Birch comes into leaf at the summer solstice. Tho lakes and rivers have an elevation ot about 1000 feet above the level of tho sea. Tliti subalplne region still yields the Birch* {Betuta alba), though other trees will not grow. Its upper boundary is marked by the dwarf stature of these, where they Hcarcoly attain a height of six feet. The Aspen • {PopuJus tremula) and the liird-clivrry {I'runui Padui) cease before the Birch; the Sorbus Aucuparia *, or Mountain Ash, extends as fkr. The Birch always in Lapland reaches to a much greater elevation and more northern latitude than the Scotch and Spruce Firs. Its limits are more easily duterniinotl ; yet, on a geographical map, they are with difficulty expressed, because thv Ulrch nsconds to the alpine regions, circumscribes all the mountains, and penetrates all tho losHor valleys i thus it extends almost to lat. 71° in Western Finmark, and stops but little short of tho colehrated North Cape. The dry portion of this region is again the habitation of the Lichen ranglferinus, and of Azalea procumbens* Luzula spicata *, and Juncus trifldii't.* On tho borders of Russia, the Birch as well as the Scotch Fir extend even to the Northern Ocean. 3183. The lower alpine region, or tho Lower Alps, commence where the Birch ceases to exist, and where the snow, not of puronnial duration, except in caves and hollows, melts before the middle of July. There ihu DInpontia lapponica, Silene acaulis *, and Andro- meda hypnoides are found, The Sallx inyrsinitos * and Dwarf Birch still grow erect. It is under the description of this latter plant. In the Flora Lapponica, tliat Linnoius has drawn so admirable a picture of the felicity of tho natives of that country : — " Oh happy Lap. lander," he says, " who thus livest in clioeri\ilncRS and innocence, at the extrennity of the habitable world ! thou neither fearoKt tlearnoss of provisions, nor cruel wars, which cannot reach thy shores ; but which often lay waste and destroy the most flourishing provinces and cities of Europe. Here thou liest down to rest, beneath a covering of skins, free from every care, free from strife and disputes ; unconscious of the very existence of envy ; fearless of every thing but tlie thunders of tho Almighty. Thou passest thy days in innocence, fre- quently till thou attainest the age of nn hundred years ( and that, too, with a happy old age, and in the enjoyment of the highest houlih. A thousand diseases, common to the natives of Europe, are unknown to thee. Thou llvost in wuods, like the birds; like them, thou neither sowest nor reapcst, yet an all-bountlfol Providence sustoineth thee. Thy dwelling is among the trembling foliage of the trees, and in grassy thickets ; thy drink is water, pure as crjsiai, which neither causes intoxication, nor those Jugular swellings which aiTect theuativesof other Alps. Thy food is cither iVvsli flsli In spring, or curd produced from milk in summer, or n.oorfowl in autumn ; or, in winter, tho flesh of the newly slain rein-deer, without bread or salt, one dish being an ample feast to thool When thou risest in the morning, and hunger assails thee, thus it is satisflcd, without Incurring the danger of those poisons which lurk in our highly-seasoned dainties, Neither M'urbutic diseases, nor intermittent fevers, nor cor- pulence, nor gout, destroy thy constitution ; but thou possessest, to thy last moments, vigour both of body and mind ! Oh, sacred Innocence, is not thy throne erected here, among ibe wilds of the extreme North, and in tho most desolate parts of the earth ? And dost thou not appear to prefer a couch made of tho slondcr branches of the birch, to the softest domi, with coverings of silk?" — Nearly tho sumo vcgvtutiun as is met with on the Lower Alpi exists upon die maritime alps of Finmark, to the most northern promontory, with thisdi9(^ ence only, that the steep and precipitous rocks harbour more moisture and snow, and (Ik affinity is greater with the alpine range in the higher mountain*, which retain the snuwdurin; Bool !• DENMARK. / 737 Dut 200or300fe«t lurish in a dry and •, Lycopodium al- Here Uie Lichen reden and Norway, dye-manufacturers, term " Regio «ub- ;ion, that where the ice. This i% more ind more difficult to fitly eight Swedish ; in Kemca extend, he Scotch Fir ceases, and, in the more a. AVitliin the Fir I lapponica appears Viola bifolia, and «•, with its splendid lunculus lapponicus. liserably poor. The have an elevation ot II yields the Birch • >ry is marked by the feet. The Aspen* fore the Birch; the 1 always in Lapland le Scotch and Spruce I map, they are with , circumscribes all the tolat. 71° in Western 'lie dry portion of this Azalea procumbens*, he Birch as well as the ,]m whole summer, the partial melting of which creatct • moiit and even • boggy soil. Here, therefore, are seen the little Dwarf Willow* (fg. 419.) {Salix herbacea), Ranunculu* 419 glacial!* and nivalis, Pedicularis hirsute and flammea, Stellaria biflora, and Erigeron uniflorum * ; plants eminently alpine, and peculiar to those situations. 3184. Bejfond theie if the region ^perpetual tnow. Towards the Norwegian Ocean, another form of the alps presents itself; lofty mountains without any plains, circumscribed with very narrow tones, which Wahlen- berg defines as the more elevated tides of the alps, reaching nearly to the limits of perpetual snow, conse- quently always irrigated with snow water : they nourish a few, and those marshy, plants. The Ranunculi (Crowfoots) nrincipally abound. DirA»wiLu>w. 3185. The lower, or leu elevated, tidet ^ the alpi, lenerally destitute of perpetual snow, yield the Dwarf Birch * in the moister spots ; and, on the drier, Andromeda hypnoides, the Alpine Speedwell •, Juncus bifidus *, and the Procumbent Azalea.* 3186. The bases of the alps are where the Birch grows, but no Pines. Among tlie Birches, scarcely six feet high, the Purple alpine Saxifrage *, with Saxifraga nivalis and cemua, abound in the moist and precipitous places, and, in those that are more dry, Aspi- dium Lonchitis, The lower portion of this zone affords tall birches, such as are found in the more northern regions, only in the inmost recesses of the deep bays, and, beneath them, Aspidium Filix Mas *, Osmunda Struthiopteris, the Blue Alpine Sowthistle *, and the Red Currant* 3187. The maritime alps include the islands and promontories ; so exposed to the winds that they derive their alpme character more from their peculiar situation than from their elevation above the level of the sea : and so bare are they of trees and shrubs, that even the Juniper will not succeed there. They are almost equally destitute of the more alpine shrubs, such as Androraedas ; but they are adorned with succulent alpine plants, such as Saxifraga oppositifulia *, Silene acaulis *, and Dryas octopetala. Near the shore occur some produc- tions of the alps of the south of Europe, such as Erigeron alpinum *, Sedum villosum * and Gentlana involucrata, which in Lapland are found nowhere inland. The Norwegian tips nourish numerous annual plants ; but the dryer ones of Sweden, remote from the sea, are remarkable for the little alpine shrubs, particularly Azalea lapponica, which scarcely occurs in Norway ; Salices alone, such as S. myrsinites *, occupying their place. 3188. The subalpiw spots and valleys are marked by the presence of the Fine; but the most extended Fir forests are only found at the heads of the deep inlets of the sea, in narrow ravines, sheltered by the lofUest mountains. These valleys enjoy a much milder climate than all the rest of Lapland : there are found the Cunvallaria verticillata *, Campanula latifolla* and Fragaria vesca *, in abundance; but no alpine plants will grow, except the Starry Saxifrage • (Saxifraga slellaris) *long the margins of the rills. 3189. J more interesting account of the vegetation of Lapland, at different elevations, is published by Sir J. £. Smith, in the Appendix to the Lachesis Lapponica of Linnaeus. It is translated from the Swedish of Dr. Wahlenberg ; his " Observations made with a view to determine the height of the Lapland Alps." (1.) On approaching the Lapponese moun- tains (^jdll), we first reach the line where the Spruce Fir ceases to grow. This tree had previously assumed an unusual appear- ance ; that of a tell slender pole, covered from the ground with short, drooping, dark branches: a gloomy object in these desolate forests! The Arctic Raspberry* (fig. 420.) (Rubta arcticus) had already, before we arrived at this point, ceased to bring its fruit to maturity. With the Spruce we lose the Cinnamon Rose (Rosa cinnamomea*), and the Twin-leaved Solomon's Seal (^ConvaUaria bifolia), &c. ; and the borders of the lakes are stripped of their ornaments of Reeds (Arundo Pkragmites*), Lysimachia thyrsiflora *, Galium boreale*, and Carex globularis. Here is the true stetion of the Arctic Colts- foot ( TustUago nivea). The last beaver-houses are seen in the rivulets ; and no pike nor perch is to be found in the lakes higher up. The boundary of the Spruce Fir is 3200 feet below the line nf perpetual snow, and the mean temperature 37° of FahreMieit. 3190. (2.) Scotch Firs* (Finns st/lvestris) are still found, but not near so tell as in the lower country. Their stems here are low, and their branches widely extended. Here are sitn 3 C 3 tm iiiCTio MiMuiir. 7SS the DESCBimVE GEOOItAI'HY. P*M III. laHt of Ledum paluitre*, Salix pcntnndra*, Veronica lerpyllifolia •, ftc. Th Ixigs liave already a very sterile appearance. Near the utnioiit boundary of the Scotch v* growg Pliaca alpina. Higher up, hardly any bean arc to be met with ; and the fruit of tii" Billierry * does not ripen well. The Uwiniad and Gravling, two ipecies of the Sal tribe, loon after disappear from the lake*. The upper limit of tliiN lonc, at which the ScTt Firs ceaie, is 2800 feet below the line of perpetual snow, and the mean temp«rnture abn*^ :i6° Fahrenheit. A little short of this point, or about SOOO feet before we come to pcn»t "i snow, Barley will not ripen ; but small farms, the occupiers of which live by irraziiv^ " i Ashing, are met with as far as 400 feet higher ; for instance, Naimaka in Enontvkis, and far also potatoes and turnips grow large enough to be worth cultivating. *" B191. (3.) Beyond this, the dwarf and ttunted fore$ti consist only of Birch.* thick stem, and stiff, widely-spreading, knotty branches, seem prepared to resist the atron winds from the Alps : its lively light green hue is delightful to the eye, but evinces a wea/ ness of vegetation. The birch forests soon become so low, that they may be entirely rni nuinded from the smallest eminence. Their uppermost boundary, where the tallest of thi- * do not equal the height of a man, is 2000 feet below the line of perpetual snuw. Ti ' lone is therefore much wider than the preceding. Long before its termination, theAldtr* (Alnu> incana), the Bird-cherry* {Pruntu Padiis , and the Aspen {Populua tremula') were no more to be seen. A little before the Birch ceases, we miss the Mountain Ash* which for some time had not presented us with any fruit ; the Arctic Bramble * IJiui, ' urcticus) was already likewise barren; the Ling* {Erica vulgaris), Aconitum Lycoctonum &c. Where the birch forest becomes thinner, the reflection of the heat from the sidva of tliv mountains is the strongest. Here, in many spots, we find the vegetation of Sonchusalpi. nus *, Struthiopteris, and Aconitum Lycoctoiium remarkably luxuriant. The drier spots now become covered with the Iceland Moss* (Lichen rangiferimit) : Tussilago frigidaand Pedicularis sceptrum-carolinum extend to the utmost boundary of the Birch. Thus far only the Char (Salmo alpinui) is found in the lakes, and higher up all fishing ccaKs. 319'J. (4.) y/tt mountains above this limit are called Fjiill (alps). Near rivulets, and on the margin of bogs only, is found a little brushwood, consisting of Salix glauca *, whoise grey hue aflbrds but little ornament to the landscape. Tlie lower country is covered with the dark-looking Dwarf Birch* {Betula nana), which still retains its upright position. A few Juniper bushes *, and some plants of Salix hastata *, are found scattered about. Evm hill is covered with Arbutus alpina *, variegated with Andromeda cairulea*, and the Viiu tergreen • ( Trientalis europaa). The more boggy ground is decorated with Andromeda polifolia * in its greatest beauty, and Pedicularis lapponica. On the sides of the moun- tains, where the reflected heat bears most power, grow Veronica alpina*, Viola biflora* Pteris crispa *, and Angelica archangelica.* This zone extends within 1 400 feet of the line of perpetual snow. The glutton (il/M«<(;/a Cu/o) goes no higher than this. Theberrieiof the Cloudberry {Rubu* Chanuenwnu) still ripen here, but not at a greater elevation. 3193. (5.) Now no more brushwood is to be seen. The white Salix lanata* is not above two fett high, even about the rividets, and Salix myrsinites * is of still humbler growth. Tlie Dwarf Birch • occupies the dry spots, and creeps entirely upon the ground, 'llehilli are clothed with the rather brown than green Azalea procumbens *, and A. lapponica, which give this zone its most peculiar feature. Verdant spots between the precipices, where the sun has the greatest power, produce Lychnis apetala *, Erigerun uniflorum *, Astragalui leontinus and montanus, with Ophrys alpina. In boggy places, Aira alpina*, Cam ustulata*, and Vaccinium uliginosum * are observable. The only berries, however, which ripen at this .legree of elevation are those of the Crowberry * ( Empelrum nigrum) ', but these are twee as large as what grow in the woodlands, and better flavoured. Hie upper boundary of this zone is «00 feet below the line of perpetual snow. The Laplanders scarcely ever fix their tents higher up, as the pasture for tlieir rein-deer ceases a very little way above this point. The mean temperature is about 34° Fahrenheit. 3194. (6.] Next come the S7iowif Alps, where are patches of snow that never melt The bare places between still produce a few dark shrubl>y plants, such as the Crowberry *, its. titute, however of fruit ; Andromeda tetragona and hypnoides, and Diapensia lapponici. Green precipices, exposed to the sun, are decorated with the vivid azure tints of Gentiani tenella and nivalis *, and Campanula uniflora, accompanied by the yellow Draba alplnt Colder and marshy situations, where there is no reflected heat, produce Pedicularis kirsuii, and Dryas octopetola.* This zone reaches to within 200 feet of the limits of perpetual and almost uninterrupted snow. 3195. (7.) Beyond it, the eternal snows begin to cover the ground, and we soon anite all point where only a few dark spots are here and there to be seen. This takes place on ih alps of Quickjock at the elevation of 4100 feet above the sea; but nearer the highest ridgt, and particularly on the Norway side of that ridge, at 3100 feet. Some few plants «iil succulent leaves arc thinly scattered over the spongy brown surface of the earth, whertilie j reflected beat is strongest, quite up to the line of uninterrupted snow ; these are Saiifnp j stellaris*, rivularis *, and oppositifolia*; BanunculuE n'valis and glacialis; Runwiiliiir- P*M 111. Iia», &c. Th. if the Scotch Fir d the fruit of the > of the Stlinon which the Scotch .■mpcrnture about come to perpetual e by gruiing and Bnontekis, and no rch.» Iti short, > reitist the ttrong It evinces a weak- r be entirely com. he tallest of them tual snow. This ation, the Alder • opulua Iremvta'], > Mountain Ash*, Bramble* {Rubu, itum Lycuctonum, um the sides of tim n of Sunchusalpi. , The drier spots iBsilago ftigida and rch. Thus far only ceases. ear rivulets, and on lix glauca *, whose itry is covered with priglit position. A ered about. Every ilea *, and the Win. lA with Andromedi sides uf the moun- la*, Viola hiflora', 1 400 feet of the line . The berries of elevation, lanata • is not above humbler growth. ground, 'llieliilli and A. lapponica, he precipices, where lorum*, As.tragalui alpina*, Carei rie«i however, which trum nigrum) j but oured. The upper The Laplanden ceases a very little never melt. The Crowberry ', des- )iapensis lapponin. ire tints of GentiiM ellow Draba alpina, I'cdicularis liirsuu, its of perpetual anl _ wc soonanivesli is takes place on th •er the highest ridp, me few plants 'ill the earth, where tin these are Stjiftip | ialis; Bumei*!!!'- Book I- DENMARK. 7511 gui*, Juncus arcuatu* *, and Sllene acaulii. Th« mean temperature, at the boundary of perpetual snow, is !»«}" of Fahrenheit. 3196, (8.) ^lifiove (A« /m0o^p«»}ie(ua/melting snow. These are the extremes of vegetation, where the mean temperature seems to be 30° Fahrenheit. The Snow Bunting (Emberixa mWu) ■> '''* ""'y ''^'"S being that visits this elevated spot. SuisiCT. !). Zoology. 3197. The native Zoology, in conjunction with that of Norway, has been ably illustrated by the celebrated Danish naturalist Miiller, and shows that the fauna of those kingdoms is much Hcher than their northern and ungenial climate would lead us to imagine. The total number of land quadrupeds, including the domestic species, is forty-one. Among these we lind the lynx, the glutton, the beaver, the leming, and the flying squirrel ; together with four of the largest deer inhabiting Europe ; namely, the elk, the stag, the rein-deer, aneen given to the world by that enterprising traveller. Dr. Richardson. The Wolverine of America, generally considered the same with the European Glutton, feeds chiefly upon beasts that have been accidentally killed; but it will hunt mailer animals, as meadow.mice, marmota, &C. and occasionally attack disabled animals of a larger size. In Hi mil it resembles the bear ; and, although not fleet, is very industrious. Mr. Graham observes, that it does morcdam.TKC to the small tur trade than all the other rapacious animals coniointly j as it will follow the martin. iiuntcr'j pSh round a line of traps extending sixty miles, and render the whole unserviceable, merely to get at the baits. Yet it flies from the face of man, and may be killed with a stick. lU total length la not more than two feet and a half. 3200. The Birds, according to Miiller, amount to 232 species : the greater part of these are common to the northern countries of Europe ; but the Mocking Jay {Corvus infaustus Lin.) (Jig. 422.}, and the Nutcracker {N'ucyraga caryocatactes) are unknown in Britain and more soutiieVn lati- tudes : the bill of the latter is shaped much like that of a woodpecker, and is said to be used for breaking the shells of nuts : whence its name. The species of fish, from the maritime nature of the region, are numerous. 3201. Domestic animals. It appears that the breeds called the lesser and greater Danish Dogs are much more common in otiicr countries than in that from which they have been named. The horses and cattle are of very large-sized breeds, generally called the Holstvin. The greatest num. her of oxen seem to be bred in Jutland : they are fattened, during summer, in the rich marshes of Holstcin, and driven, in tlie autumn, to Hamburg. Sect. III. Historical Geography. 3202. During the early period of the middle ages, the swarms of pirates sent forth by Denmark spread desolation and terror to the remotest extremities of Europe. Canute king of Denmark even ascended the English throne in 1017 ; upon which, however, his posterity were unable to support themselves; but, during the whole of the Anglo-Saxon period, the kingdom had to maintain a hard and doubtful struggle against the Danish invaders. Den- in.irk, at tlie same time, carried on frequent wars against the contiguous districts of Germany 3C4 ^mM, 422 THR MOCKINU lAV. 760 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPIIY. p«T m. and PolMid, and oAen held iwajr over large portiont of them. But her mott brillitnt WM the reign of Margarvtof Walilvmar, (urnamcd thaScmlrainitorihe North, who bv h* courage, popularity, and addrcu, luccecdctl in effecting tlie union of Caimar, which dU II on her head, and on that of her nephew Eric, the crown of the three northern kinad of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. * '"''* 3'M'3. The decline of Denmark began in the fifteenth century, under the violent and tyrannical reign of Clirlslian I. Tlie mnguinary course by which he sought to punish u inturrvction of the Swede* roused all the dormant spirit of that brave people, who found deliverer in Oustavus Vasa, and were Anally freed from the Daninh yoke. During the tw* following centuries, 8w«"len, led to victory by a succession of heroic monarch*, ruav to tlw highest pilch of military glory ; while Denmark, always defeated, was stripped of many of her most important territories, and sunk into the rank of a secondary state. SiiJI the lu cessfully cultivated muritime commerce and shipping, and obtained some valuable potitii! sions in the East and West Indies. 3i204. In the great critii produced by the conquetti of Napoleon, Denmark wak thrown into an unfortunate predicament. Placed, ax it were, at the point of collision between France and Russia, she could with difficulty escape bcina crusheid between them. Circumstancea of peculiar hardship threw her into the amis of 1' ranee, to whose cause she nclhercd, and at the great contest which ended in the downfall of Napoleon, she became a victim, First the was deprived of Norway, that it might be ceded to Sweden, and that Russia might retain Finland. Denmark received in return Swedish Pomeraiiia as an inadequate coinpvnsaiion Next, she was required to exchange Pomerania for I^uenburg, a territory of still inferior extent and value ; but, as it borders on Sleswick and Holstein, it has rendered her dominion more compact, and extended her frontier to the Elbe, so that stie is perhaps rather a gainer by the cxcliange. SfCT. IV. Productive Induitry, .S205. The agriculture of Denmark is conducted under considerable disadvantages both of climate and soil. The climate, though not subject to severe frost or intense cold, is chill and damp ; and the land consists in a great measure of sand and marsh. Every part uf the kingdom, however, is capable of some cultivation, and occasional tracts of luxuriant fertility occur. Such are the islands of Zealand, Laaland, and Falster ; and, in a still greaivr degree, the sea-coast of Sleswick and Holstein ; for the interior is arid and i.andy. The industry of the peasant in Denmark Proper suffers many severe checks; he lias betn but recently emancipated from personal bondage, and is still subjected to many feudal usages. Life-leases, under which the payment is made in produce or personal services, an common. The proprietors are generally embarrassed, and unuble to expend much on the improvement of their lant^s. The farmers of Holstein and Sleswick carry on the process of cultivation with great skill and activity, and are considered almost on a level witli those of England. Tlie chill moisture of the climate is less favourable to the cidtivaiion of wheat than of barley, rye, and oats ; all of which afford a large surplus for exportation, The rearing of cattle is also an extensive branch of industry, though too little attention liu been paid to the improvement of the breeds, unless on the west coast of Sleswick, on whose moist and rich meadows is produced what bears a high reputation under the name of " Hamburg lieef." Over all Denmark, the produce of the dairy forms the basis of a large export trade. The value of all the land in Denmark, according to Mr. Smith, has ken lated officially at 104,000,000 dollars. Denmark is estimated to contain 13,7-tO,000acri>i, of which about 10,400,000 are productive. This amount includes 8,600,000 arable, 604,000 in meadows, 470,000 posture, &c., and 590,000 woods and forests. The average produce is estimated at about 300,000 quarters wheat, 1,400,000 rye, 4,450,000 oats, 2,000,000 barley, 2,200,000 tons potatoes. Flax, hemp, tobacco, are alsu raised for internal consumption. The stock of horses, including general good breeds, is rated at 550,000; horned cattle, 1,607,000; sheep, 1,900,000, yielding about 4,880,000 lbs, of wool ; hogs, 450,000. Poultry, particularly geese, and bees, are reared in abundance, The number of persons supported by agriculture was returned at 750,500, being upwards of a third of the whole. 3'206. Manufacluret, notwithtcinding considerable encouragement by government, continue small, nide, aA aRbrding no articlea for export. In 1S35, tliere were stamped at llic cloth hall, Copenhagen, Ti.lldUfardi woollen cloth, 35,(XI0 flannels, l.OSO.OOO cotton cloth, besides hosiery, nankeens, &c. There are 3(XX) diitillniei 24 paper-mills, with many other small brnnchet. The niimbar of persons supported by maniifacture and handicraft was returned In 1834-5, at 3tK),UOa The fisheries, particularly of herrings, arc considerable, inil give support to 57,U0O of the Inhabitants. 3207. 7Ke commerce of Denmark consists almost wholly in the exportation of her agri- cultural produce in exchange for foreign commodities. The average of grain for the list ten years ending 1830, was, 111,000 quarters wheat; 174,700 rye; 2SO,000 baile]r; 196,000 oats. In 1833 it was, 124,000 qrs. wheat and flour, value 124,700/. ; 126,600 iin rye, &c., 99,!}00/. ; 463,500 qrs. barley, Ac, 273,700/.; 191,000 qrs. oats, tuck-wheat, &e., 56,700/.; 31,300 qrs. peas and lieans, 19,300/.; 112,000 qrs. rape-seed, 201,1001,; ' Pam III. moit brilliant m urth, wlio, bv h«r lar, which plired irthern Itingdoma r the violent and ight to punish «» iple, who found a During the two mrchd, ro»c to the •ippi'd of many of tc. Slill the suc- 10 valuable poiwh k wak thrown into etwcen France and Circumitancn of ulhercd, and at the trictiin. First, »he lussia might retain uatc compensation, ury of still inferior dcrcd her dominion laps rather a gainer disadvantages both intense cold, it cliill Every part of the of luxuriant fertility d, in a still greater d and sandy. The lecks; he has betn Itcd to mtuiy feudal tvrsonal services, are xpend much on the icarry on the process in a level with those the cultivation of lus for exportation. . little attention has Slcawick, on whose inder the name of the basis of a large ir. Smith, lias been in 13,740,000 acre, 8,600,000 arable, isnd forests. The 000 rye, 4,450,000 \co, are also raised breeds, is rated at it 4,880,000 lbs. of ired in abundance. 100, being upwardi Intlnuc small, nide, ud iDenhagen, 78,1100 jsnil ^^arcSUdOitiiliUniei ■j by manufacture m are coniiderable, m kation of her agri- ■ grain for the last ^ 230,000 barley I loo/.; 126,600(11* \ oats, tuck-wheat, L-secd, 201,1001.; Book I- DENMARK. 7«l 49000 barreli of buttor, a77,000». t OOOO horwtH .IT.tXX) head of cMllc. ISl.OOO owU. Dork, 9.000 of bcof, 8,600 of ehtMO, HH,000 hidea, aw,00o cwl*. hnnea \ all theae valued at 431 ooof. ; »i(l the whole, including tha colonies, »\ MH4,000/. I .i I H31 the amount had l,««n only 1,295,000/. Thero ia no auoh preoiiio , '"iiint of tho imporl* | but in 1835 thaw into Copenhagen, almoat the cxcluiivo svat of lurvigti trnilu, included 9,750,000 lbs. ofiuitar, 2.600,000 lbs. eofleo, 10,000 Itoxea orange* and lutnont, 42,000 cwts. iron, 29,O0O l^rri'lstar. 'lliero wer* added 14,900 Iwrrvli train oil, 20,000 owta. dried and salt Dah, tqjOO barrels herrings; apparently the produce of Ui own flshcrica. Value of British nriiduce exported to Denmark in that year, 108,000/. Chief heads i coals, 20,658/. ; iron, i\,O00l-i ■»!(> 10,000/. ; cottons, 10,000/. | woollens, 17,000/. ; glaaa, 4,700/. France, in the Mine yt-'or, sent her own produce to th« amount of 74,400/, In 18:15 thero entered the port of Copenhagen 1361 vessels, with a tonnage of 1 1 2,447 1 vis. Danish, 36,000 tons ; British, 18,795; Prussian, 26,000; Uussian, 1 1,684; Swedish, 10,000; Norwegian, 6,000; L'niied States, 2,000; Dutch, 968; French, 295; Austrian, 310; German States, 292. A British tonnage of 3454 also entered the lesser port*. Tlio Sound, commanded by EUinore, forms the key of the Baltic ; but the only advantage accruing iVom it to Den. mark consists in the tolls fVom vessels pnssinu through. Greater benefit arises from the communication between the two seas furmod by tha 8leiwick> Holstein canal, through which, in 1836, there passed 2,524 vesH-ls. Skct. V. Polilieal Gwgraphjf. 11308. Vie eonttilution ofDenmarh, originally feudal, and the monarchy itself alectUe, was, in 1660 rendered by Frederick III. hereditary and absolute. The government has been mild, however; and in 1834 the kingdom was divided Into four districts, to each of which was granted a provincial assembly, having power to propose laws, and without whose con- sent no new law can be imposed, 'flie nobles consist of one duke, 19 counts, and 12 barons. 3209. The following exhibit the revenue and ox|)«nditurt, with their chief head* in 1 835 1— BBviNua. _ BxriNDrrvaa. Und-lax Hiiuie-las ... Cuitomi and Excise • • Fnreiti and other crown property Salci of ditto Sound toll ... Lottcriei ... Other branches • 3310. The regular establishment of the Danish army U fixed at about 39,000 men, being 31,000 infantry, 3,300 cavalry, 4,700 artillery, &o. Of these, however, only 6,000 are em- bodied within the country, though arrangements nro mado by which the number could bo speedily raised to 25,000. Thero are also 49,000 militia. The navy consists of sis or seven ships of the line, and as many frigates, bvsidct amaller veitels. They are easily manned, the sailors being all registered. Skct. VI. Civil and Soeinl State. 3211. Tk» population of Denmark, by a census hold In 1834, for the old monarchy, and another in 1835, for Schleiwick Holilein, was found to bo 2,095,600. In 1828, it was onlv 1,992,700, making an increase of 102,900, Of this number, 50,800 were for Iceland, 11,300 for Greenland and the Faroe Islands, 3212, The Danti are generatly quiet and induitHoM, • good deal resembling the Dutch. The peasantry, long much oppressed, are beginning to rear their heads. The number of persons annually arraigned for crimes in Denmark, on an average of seven years, ending 1834, was 1716; being' 1 in 781 of the population, a proportion not much differing from that of Britain. Of these 1 .S08 were convicted. The ulfuncos were mostly against property, and comparatively few against the person. Atrocious crime* are extremely rare. In seven years only 58 had been condemned to death, of whom not more than 1 2 suffered. Tha number of marriages, in 1833, was 10,394: of births, 41,105 ; of deaths, 30,135. Of the births, .<1586, or about I in 11 ^ were illegitimate. The number of paupers, in 1834, waa 43,576, or 35 out of 1000. 321.1. The Lutheran rtligUm was early and soalouily adopted In Denmark, to the extent. Indeed, of granting toleration to no other ; but the liberal principle! now dlllUied throughout Kumpe have made their way hilly into that country. Science was at one era somewhat brilliantly patronUed In Denmark. The observatory at Onenliaum waa the theatre of many of the most Important modern nbiervatloni | and Tvcho Braht ranlii as oneorthe fathcn of modern astronomy. The fiime of Denmark In this study ha* dimlniahod ; but her writers, though little known to the rest of Europe, are taid to have dii|ilayed coiisldsrable activity In investigating the antiquities of the North. More recently, (Eaohenslsgor snd other writers have Introduced a school nf poetry and dramatic literature, founded upon that of the modern Gorman. Tho government ha* bestowed a very laudable attention on the general education of It* people, and has evsn ;ia**M a law rooulring every child of a certain age to be tent to acnuol. The common schools amount to iffOO, and there are ao gymnsila or classical leralnarici. £3tajm Royal ontalillthment Hiibllc d«|Mrlmeiils . ;filS8,50O M,«IO . . 147,300 4(HI,IKIU Army . . . . • S00.6UO W7,*M1 Navy Public works and trade ■ 128,000 lUliUUO - 69,000 vn,!m Art* and tclsneoi . . S8,70O n3,«(io Inlereatnfdebt • . S33.800 lnlmfti,oriiic " merchant port,") the capital of Denmark, is situateil on tha east coast of Zenlimd, with the island of Amak opposite to it, and several little lakes in its vicinity. Its walls enclose a circuit of five miles, a great part of which, however, is covered with open spaecs.and with the harltour .iiid iImcIis. The houses, with a few ex- ceptions are built of brick, plastered over, and painted in diiTerent colours, The number oF houses is estimated at 3300, and the inhabitants at about 120,000, which implies thitt the houses are lofty, and contain many families in each. The city is divided iitto thK>c parts : the old town, which contains the greater part of the popiilatiun ; the new town in which are all the finest edifices; and the port, or Christian's Haven. In the midst of the principal square is the lironze statue of Frederick V,, weighing 45,OCOlhs,, and wliich cost 400,000 rix dollars. This square, with the adjoining one called the King's Mark Place, surrounded by the palace of Charlottenburg, the theatre, the prinei|Ml hotel, nnii other stately buildings, forms the handsomest part of Copenhagen. The eathetlral was destroyed during the bombardment by the English, and is left in ruins ; hut the Frue Kirke is an elegant Grecian edifice, 215 feet by 180, with a Doric portico, and for which Tlior- waldsen is preparing statues of the apostles and evangelists. The palace of Itosunliurg wiu built from a design of Inigo Jones ; and, though now unoccupied, contains nn vxtrnonlinarv display of jewels, precious stones, and porcelain. The collections in science and art niii equal to those of the greatest capitals. The king has a library of 2>W,0()0 volumes with numerous manuscripts illustrative of the history and literature of the North, ns well its those brought by Niebuhr from the East; an extensive museum of northern antiiitiities; ngiillery of pictures, comprising some fine specimens of the greatest masters, and a laimcrous ctilloc. tion of engravings. The arsenal is said to equal that of Venice in beautv, m\d to surpass it in extent. The mint, on the plan of Boulton and Watt, throws off 200 puH.'es in • inimiti', 3217. The other towru in Zealand and the island! are of com|>aratlvcly imall maiinlltiile. Itwikllilr, the ancient rapital of Denmark, wliirh contained once thirty convent* and thirty ohnrohes, In now mnaryilr (inly for its Gothic cathedral, in whose vaults arc (le|)oaited the remains ol'Ihe kinit* nl Deiiiiinrk, Mcvcrnl nf the monuments are line. Elsinore, with its castle of Croiibori;. is Important lYoni its sittmtinu nn Ihr Smiiul, which being commanded by the castle, the government is enabled to levy what are -hIUM the Siiuuvl dun. llic passage to Hclsinborg, in Sweden, may be made in half an hour. Klsinore, Oom its t^vour.ilile itluitliHi an many lltiliih, and also many Jews, and even Mahometans. It has a handsome cathedral, with some tliie lonilii'. IH)|iuIorts some grain. Colding derives some Importance IVom Ita vicinity tu the |ms( lliiii (III the Smiiiil, I tile Snuiiil dun, Ivinirslilc iltuilliHi lilt* many lltltlih, |i|lll». IHmuUtuni 1 'riil« I'iHtV fi«i. I (hini whloli tliw Iry U »tlll |mv.iM Itiiiia (he tinntitiil It a tlirlvliiu town, lerlve liii|HirtM» Ihe l.ittio llrlt. \cHitloii nf lb«« [exlteiiilly,ll>t << I lie iia«>«|« "f lilt Ll.wlthnunwniiii |«Hf,iirl>«!f,»llli le iiiinmuwM'i" Tiiii'atrt *itli 11" ilk-. 1M0 HobleiH, the rooit loutbem prOTine* of Denmark, ranki as part of th« Qemun empirv, to which it imw belniiKnl, and givei to the king of Denmark a vote in the diet. Readiinc to the Elbe, and Iwing mora in the commercia' circle, it liaa a considerably briaker trade than the northern or peniniular territory. Altnna a tew milei below Hamburgh, is a repetition of that cl^ on a iraallar icale ; having 26,000 inhabit* ints I'xsi'y '■ni|>l»>'ed in tlie commerce of the Ellw, iu shipbuilding, and In several manufactures. Cluck. ■udt alKiiit twenty miles lower, though Inferior in extent, is a handsome and regular town, with considerable nival cttiiblishmeiits. Kiel, on the eastern or Baltic coast, has an excellent harbour, and derives importance from 111 iituatlon at the extremity of the canal which connects the eastern and western teas. Lauenburg, ■ letel tr.ict, intersected with several small lakes, though it rounds the Danish borders, does not possess much imiKirtance, either in itself or its little capital. till. Iciiand, an appendage of the Danish crown, anmiportant in a political view, but very mteresting from its physical and moral aspect, is situated in the Northern Ocean, on the border of the arctic circle, ana , the I'arthest verge of the civilisedlworld. It is a large Island, 220 miles in length, and 210 in breadth ; ronkiiniiiK alwiit 3H,(HH) square miles/ Iceland belongs, by its situation, to the polar world, and the mountain clisini, friiin 3000 to GOOO feet high, with which it Is every where intersected, give it a still more severe and ttern chariuter. Barlev is the only grain that can l>e raised, and this only in patches ; cabbages, and a few ciher I'.niHirted vegetables, may be produced, but by no means in perfection. The dependence of the inha> liitsnti is chiefly upon the abundance of fish which the surrounding seas allbrd ; so that the interior, coro> prising about half of the Island, is a desert of the most dreary character. S'J'J'i. The mountain phenomena of Iceland are very striking, and have excited the wonder of all Europe. According to Glietnan, the jokuls, or hills covered with ice, rise to the following heights: Oerefe, 6240 feet ; Snafell, 4572 ; Findfiall, 5.')68 ; Hecla,5210; Eyafiall Oester, .^TOI. AH these mountains are, at the same time, glaciers capped with ice which never melts ; but these glaciers consist not, like those of Switzerland, of great masses sloping down from upper regions of the mountains to the valleys ; they are the snows of winter melteil and frozen where they fall. Beneath this mantle of ice and snow burns a perpetual lire, which in every part of the island bursts forth in the most strange and fearful phenomena. Hecia (/i^.424.), with its flaming volcano, is the most celebrated ; but its eruptions, of which 4'_4 ,- ... six have occurred in the course of a century, are at present suspended. The crater, when reached by Sir George Mackenzie, was found not to be more than 100 feet in depth, with a large mass of snow in the bottom, and the thermometer stood at 39°. In many places in the vicinity, however, the beat was much higher, and in some rose to 144°. " Fantastic groups of hills, craters and lava, leading the eye to distant snow-covered jokuls ; the mist rising from a ^-aterfall ; lakes embosomed amid bare bleak mountains ; an awful and profound silence; lowering clouds; marks all around of the furious action of the most destructive of the elements, gave to the region a character of desolation scarcely to be paralleled." There are six other volcanoes, which, in the course of a century, have emitted twenty eruptions ; but no great quantity of lava has ever issued from any one orifice. 33'J3. The Geysers form a phenomenon strikingly characteristic of Iceland, and rank with the most extraordinary that arc produced on any part of the globe. They consist of fountains, which throw up br''ing water, spray, and vapour, to a great height into the air. The eruptions are not continuous, but announce their approach by a sound like that of sub- lerraneous thunder ; immediately after which, a column of water, accompanied with pro- 425 digious volumes of steam, bursts forth, and rushes up to the height of fifty, sixty, ninety, or even a hundred and fifty feet The water soon ceases ; but the spray and vapour continue to play in the air for several hours, and, when illuminated by the sun, produce the most brilliant rainbows. The largest stones, when thrown into the orifice, are instantly propelled to an amazing height, and, remaining often for some minutes within the influence of the steam, rise and fall in singular alternation. Stones thrown into the fountain have the remarkable effect of acting as a stimulus to the eruption, and causing it to burst from a state of tran(|uillity. The basin of the Great Geyser {fig. 425.) is of an oval form, with diameters of fifty-eight and sixty-four feet. Every spot around the Geysers is covered with variegated and beautiful petrifactions. Leaves, grass, rushes, are con- verted into white stone, preserving entire every fibre, 3224. The Sulphur Mountains, with their caldrons of boiling mud, present another phenomenon which the traveller beholds with the utmost astonishment. These consist chielly of clny, covered with a crust, which is hot to the touch, and of sulphur, from TZ^^ U'tPAT OKMWIl. 764 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHY. P*" III. V2S almost every part of which, gai and ttcam are perpetually escaping. Sometimes a loud noise guides the traveller to a spot where caldrons of black boiling mud (Jig, 42s.) largely impregnated with thil mineral substance, are throw. ing up, at short intervals, their eruptions. That on the Krabla, observed by Mr. Henderson, had a diameter equal to that of the Great Geyser, and rose to the height of thirty feet. The situation of the spectator here is not only awful, but even danger- ous ; standing, as Sir George Mackenzie observes, " on a support which feebly sustains him, over an abyss where fire and brimstone are in dreadful etuiMK o> MiMKa Hi'D. and incessaut action ; having oefore him tremendous proofk of what is going on beneath ; enveloped in thick mists, and stunned with thundering noises." S225. The civil and social state of Iceland presents features no less interesting. It was discovered about the year 840, by Nndod, a Danish pirate. After its settlement, it became a little independent republic ; and the arts and literature, driven before the tide of barbarism, which then overwhelmed the reat of Europe, took refuge in this remote and frozen clime. Iceland had its divines, its annalists, its poets, and was for so-ne time the most enlightened country then perhaps existing in the world. Subjected first to Norway, in 1261, and afterwards to Denmark, it lost the spirit and energy of an independent republic. Yet the difi\islon of knowledge, even among the lowest class, which took place during its prosperous period, still exists in a degree not paralleled in the most enlightened of other nations. Men, whose outward accommodations nu'ght denote them to be little removed from the savage state, and who, in their little barks, seek, amid the storms of the surrounding ocean, a scanty provision for their families, possess an acquaintance with the classical writings of antiquity, and a sense of their beauty. The traveller finds the guide whom he has hired able to hold a conversation with him in Latin, and on his arrival at his miserable place of rest for the night, is addressed with fluency and elegance in the same language. " The instruction of his children," says Dr. Holland, " forms one of the stated occupations of tlie Icelander ; and while the little hut which he inhabits is almost buried in the snow, and while darkness and desolation are spread universally around, the light of an oil-lamp illumines the page from which he reads to his family the lessons of knowledge, religion, and virtue." S236. The Faroe Itlands coronote* Broup In th«> Nnrlhcm Occan.bctween 61° 15' and 62° 30' N. Iat.,totheN.F. of Shetland, which they rctcmble, The prlncliwl are Stromioc, Oatcroe, Suderoe, and Norderoe, with the •mailer islanda of Nalioe, Viiiiae, and Snnduo. 1'hctr only wealth \% produced by the rearing of sliccp, fiihing, and catching the numeroui binii which rluitcr round the rockt. With the surplus of these articles the; supply their deficiency of grain, Thonharn, on Siromtoc, Is the only place that can be called a town. Chap. XV. aWKHKN AND NORWAY. 3S27. Sweden and Norwai/, now united into one kingdom, form an extensive region, stretching from the utmost verge of the temperate xone far into the frozen range of the arctic circle. Along the north and west stretch the wide shores of the Frozen Ocean, so far as yet known. The south-west point of the kingdom borders on the North Sea or Ccr. man Ocean. The Baltic and the Gulf of Hulhnia enclose it on the south and cast ; so that it forms an immense peninsula. The isthmus by which it is joined to Russia is above 200 miles broad, but so closely barred by mountains and frozen plains, tlutt the kingdom is nearly inaccessible, except l)y sea. Srct. I. Gtntrtd Outlini and Atpttt. .3228. This kingdom isof vast *gt*nt. Its length, from the extreme point of Scania to the North Cape, is seventeen degrees of latitude, or 1200 miles. Its breadth is by no means proportionate, and, taken flrom the extreme points of the provinces of Stock- holm on the east, and Bergen on the west, will little exceed 350 miles. Of this large Book I- SWEDEN AND NOItWAY. 765 territoiyi scarcely « half can Im conitderad at belonging to the civilised world. Tlie Laplander, who derivei hii whole iubiti«tcnce fVom the rein-deer, can hardly be included within the pale of dviliied aociety. Even the southern districts have a rugged and repul- sive aspect, when compared to alniont any other European state. Forests of tall and gloomy pine stretch over the plainit, or hang on the sides of the mountains; the ground for £ve months in the year is burietl under itnow ; cultivation appears only in scattered patches, ud was long quite insufficient to t\irnlKh bread to the inhabitants. 3229. The mowUaim consist vhivlly of tiie dark and lofty chain of the DoiUnes, which were for ages a barrier between tlie two separate and hostile states of Sweden and Norway but are now included within the unitinl kingdom. It commences near Gottenburg, on a low scale, and becomes much more elevated In passing through Norway, where some of its pinnacles exceed 8000 feet. ChainM of secondary elevation run through Lapland ; but, in approaching the North Cape, they again rise aa high as before, and face the polar seas with cliffs of prodigious magnitude. 3230. The rit>ert are nunmrous, Sweden being a country profusely watered ; but, as they rise in the Dofrines, and traverse llio divided breadth of the peninsula, they seldom attain any material length of course. The largest Is the Dalil, which crosses Dalecarlia, and falls into the sea at Geffle, aAer a courtte of !i(>0 miles. The most important as to navigation are those which f'^rm the outlet of tlie lakes, particularly the Gotha, reaching from the lake Wener to Gotter -urg. The Olommo and the Dramme are pretty considerable rivers, running from north to soutli, and down which considerable quantities of timber are floated. Lapland pours a number of large streams into the head of the Gulf of Uotlmia ; but these are usually chained in ice, and at no time can be subservient to the purposes of agri- cuhure or navigation. 3231. Lakei form the grand deiMwitary of the surplus waters of Sweden. Tlie Wener bears almost the character of an inland sea, and the completion of the canal of Trblhatta, by enabling its coasts to communicate by the Gotha with Gottenburg, has given them almost tlie full advantages of a maritime site. The Wetter, though equal in length, covers not nearly so great an extent of ground. Mitler, or Malar, is a narrow, wind- ing loch, or, more strictly, a Iwy, running sixty miles into the interior from Stockholm, to whose environs its vatiegate, with beds of copper and iron ore. 3234. Mica slate abounds nut only in the principal, but also in the subordinate chiuns, and contains the greater number of the metalliferous beds met with in Sweden. It often alternates with vast beds of ftrimilit'e limmtune, quartz, &c. In the high mountain ndges, it is said, the strata of this rock, particularly in Jiiintland, are generally disposed at an angle of 43° ; while in the subordinate chains they are vertical. In many places it abounds in garnets, when it is known under the name M()or*«, or murkstein, the garMt rock of geologists. 3235. C% slale. This rock occurs sparingly s talc slate, in several quarters, occurs in considerable abundance. 3236. Vorpliyry occurs only in Sinaland, where the basis is a quartzy hornstone (hattefiinta) with embedded crystals of feUpiir, nnd grains of quartz. 3237. Primilive limeslow occurs generally in the secondary mountain chains, but seldom in the neighbourhood of the central chains. It is mixed up with hornblende, tremolite, quartz, serpentine, garnet, niagnelic ironstone, and mica. It is often metalli- ferous, containing galena, copper, and iniii pyrites. 3238. Ser/ienline, with the exception of masses in some metalliferous beds, seldom occurs pure : it is often mixed with liineHtone, when it occurs in primitive limestone. 323U. Quartz rock. It occurs either pure, and in whole mountains, as in Dalilsland, around the cluirth of Froscog, and uIno the cliurch of Bredcsta, in Smaland, and many other places ; or it alternates with mica slate, as in DHhlsland, and also in the metalliferous hods of Pcrsbcrg and Klucka. The linieHtoiie of Danemora contains mica slate. It also occurs in veins in granite and mica slate, Ac. 3240. Porphyritic quartx. This is granitic rock, with embedded grains and crystals of felspar; occurs in Sinaland, Tunica Lnppniaik, &c. 766 J. MAP OF SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 8 13 l« 20 at Ftti. 427_ Boot I- NORTH PAR' 1. Klberi !. NiiHb; 3. Tin. 4. Lebalilje 5. HaminWeitt 6. All«ni;aard ;.Jobli> 8. Alupahta 9. PciTlukanu 10. Kiutoheinu 11. Kollojaurcf li. FInlana I3.0fbil«i U. Ankenn, 15. Kurraraari IS. RiRiiTarl 17. Soppero 18. StranTO ID.Utllifare to. lUpai il.Qulikjock St. HuotlTAre S].8alldalm t4. Lfonps tl. SlipliM t6. Stfmra S7. 8llbo>K'k t8. Rlndijnur t9. Walniat 90. Lulea il.nnu at. Sopilnifri 33. Pulla 34. Bajala Keni K. Pdio 86. Upper TonM 3T. Tornea St. Kalli 99. Ranca 40. Harnb 4I.TTin Fie. 427. » 82 >nh Cipe i^/ V' ■at iiiiiiD M '«■ 'Ml 1/ S^I.M-, b'l.f "'.lH,di!*HU: ^fl '^i ^•i,.?:' nil' olf .■«■ Riga O u. * I rcciiwiih 24 'ill Bowl- SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 767 3241. Primitiv* trap. Of this interesting group of rocks, the following kinds are met with; viz.) hornblende rock, hornblende with JliUpar, and hornblende with mica. 3242. II. T^amition rocks. — Conglomerate and tandatone. These rocks, which, in some place), are covered with transition limestone, occur in Jiimtland, Tornea Lappmark, An- germanland, Dalecarlia, Schiinen, islands in the Lake Wetter, East and West Gothland, Nerika, Dalamia. 3243. Transition porphffty. In the parish of Elfdal, in Dalamia. The basis is of the luture of homstone. It rests upon transition sandstone, and is covered by syenite, porphyry, ind transition greenstone. 3244. Greywatke slate. It lies upon sandstone, and is covered by transition limestone. It sometimes contains coal, and tlien passes into a kind of shale. It also contains fossil remains of marine .inunals. 3245. Transition limestone. It occurs in Gothland, (Eland, Schdnen, East and West Gothland, Neriica, Dalamia, and Ja'mtland. In the regular succession, it lies inune- diately upon alum slate, but in Gothland directly upon sandstone. It is seldom covered by other rocks, excepting in West Gothland, where it is covered by clay slate and green- itone. It contains many different petrifactions, as orthoceratites, ammonites, anomites, echlnites, corallites, and entrochites. Its colour is commonly grey, or bluish grey, and reddish brown, often varied with veins of a green colour. 3246. Transition trap. It is the youngest rock of the transition class in Sweden. In Elfdal it rests upon porphyry ; upon transition clay slate and alum slate in Kennekulle, Billengen, the Hunne and Halleberge, and others, in West Gothland. 3247. III. Secondary rocks. — Secondarif sandstone. The mountain chain around Helsing- Ixirg, in Schiinen, is composed of secondary sandstone. It contains beds of slate clay, bituminous shale, and black bituminous coal. It is conjectured to rest upon the transition sandstone and conglomerate of Schiinen. This sandstone, which belongs to the black bituminous coal formation, is covered with other secondary deposits, as limestone, the age of which is not well known. The only one of these newer secondary deposits, the geognostical history of which has been made out, is — 3248. Chalk. This interesting formation occurs at Limhamn, near to Malmo. It encloses balls of common flint, and, at its lower part, passes into a more solid chalk and secondary limeRtone. 3249. IV. Terliarif rocks. The tertiary deposits seem to occur in some points of the land not far distant from the sea-const ; but they have not been carefully explored. 3250. V. Alluvial rocks. Many tracts more or less deeply covered with gravel, sand, and day, occur in Sweden. 3251. Mines, The mines of Sweden have been long celebrated all over the world, and have been frequently described by travellers. 3253. Gold a7id silver mines. The Adelfors mine, which formerly yielded thirty or forty narks of gold annually, now furnishes only three or four ; those of Fahlun, where copper Hfjerenees to the Map qf Sterden and Norway. NORTH PART. 1. Klbern 8. NiiKbl 3. Tim «. ItbuKje i. HamiiierfMt 6. AIten;;aaTd 7.Jok>l>> 8. Alupahta 9. PeiTiukanu 10. Kautokeini) 11. Kollojaum It. Flnlind IMIfoIni U. Ankenet, 15. Kurr.-ivaiUra 16. lUxisvail 17. Soppero 18. StranTo 19.Ufdio»K M.Upial 63. BuM-la IS. Hl S«. A>r;n 63. Mom i. KalliO»i< 64. Tontbern 3. FoUiiK* *S. lletKii 6ft. Ovamen ' 4. Hlroin (4. l.i,mM 66. Hanland .J. AkIb 7n. Junaele Sft. Arlira 67.8eUoe 16. Sodairliamn 68, Egenund "7. Amund S7. HamraiuR 69. Hakke '8. NurdniaUnn W. (letla 70, Chrlalianittnd '9.Parrlk«n l«. Fahlua 71. 1.an||oe 10. Heiwla 80, Mora 7». Valle 81. Nordln«ra SI, Malunn 73. Mokland 8i. Ilemotind SS,aiu>ti 74. Arendal •S.Fon 7ft. Band* 76. Holden 77. Friderikstad 78. Fridetlkkhalt 79. UddeTalla 80. WenerborR 81. UdkOplnR 85. Skara 83, MaiiiMad 84. Raina Sft. N^SpIng 86. NorkSpinv 87. WeUerwUk 88. Llnkfiplng 89. Sab; 90. Eki^ 9l,JonkS|dng 98. HJo 93. Orend 94. narcneni tS. Oottenburg 96. Ketajo; 97. Halmstad 98. Notteback 99. Morlundo 100. Mlalerhull 101. VV'iabJ 108. Nasi 103. Runipekulla 11)4. Caliiiar 105. Boritholm 106. Carlacrona 107. CarUhamm 108. Lalholni 109, 1.andiH>itina 110. Chrlitianil^ 111. Bonim 118, Falitetbo Its. Malmo. Rlvtn. a Tana b Alten c Hannena d Namsen e Torria r Nidelnii SRelna Glomin m i Klar i L>i[> k Morrlna 1 Dahl m IJusne n NQiirunda o Indal p Angermana q Umea r Wlndel a Fltea t Lulea n Una T Knllx w Tomea z Lalnio 7 Muonlo. Laka a* Hum b* Stora c* Ave d* Umea e* M'algomas f* Auanua El Kalla • Stora 1* Foetnnnd 1* Mioaen t* Maler 1* iUelmar m* Wetter n* Wener 0* BolOMIto 7«8 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pam III predominates, return annually four marks of gold and fifty marks of silver. The silve mine of Sahla, which, during the reign of Queen Christina, yielded annually 20,000 mark! of silver, does not at present afford annually more than 2000 or 3000 marks. 3253. Copper minei. The most considerable copper mines are those of Fahlun, which iH also known under the name of Kopparherg. The mines of Atwidaberg, in East Goth- land, furnish about a sixth part of all the copper which the Swedes obtain annually from mines; those of Fahlun yield more than the half of the copper raised in Sweden The ore at Fahlun is copper pyrites, disposed in an immense irregular-shaped mass, jn mica slate : 10,200 quintals of copper are yielded by it annually. 3254. Iron mines. The greatest iron mines are those in the province of Upland : of these the most important are those of Skebo, of CEsterby, not far from Dancmora! of Gimo, of Ronaes. Iron is mined as far north as Gellvara, which is 200 leagues to tlie north of Stockholm. The island of Uto, on the east coast of Upland, also atfurds a con- siderable quantity of iron. The whole mines afford annually 1,800,000 quintals of iron 3255. Cobalt mines. The principal mines of this metal are those of Tunaberg, near 'to Nykoping, and at Awed, in East Gothland. These mines afford excellent cobalt, but the quantity is not great. 3256. Coal mines. Coal mines have been worked for some time in Scania, two leagues from Helsinborg, and are affording a considerable return. 3257. Sulphur and vitriol. The pyritical minerals of Dylta afford annually 1050 quintals of sulphur, and those of Fahlun about 100 quintals of the same substance. The vitriolic waters of Fahlun afford annually about 600 quintals of green vitriol, or sulphate of iron, and a small quantity of blue vitriol, or sulphate of copper. 3258. .Alum- The annual produce of alum is about 42,6C0 quintals. 3259. Quarries. Sweden possesses, besides its regular mines, also valuable quarries of granite, porphyry, and marble. The porphyry quarries of Elfdal are the largest and most celebrated in Europe. Nearly all the fine modern works in porphyry are in the porphvrv Of Elfdal. ' 3260. (2.) GEOtoGY or Norway and Lapland. — I. Primitive rocks. These wild but highly interesting countries are principally composed of primitive and transition rocks ; se- condary rocks occur but rarely, and alluvial deposits are not so abundant as in many other less extensive regions. Granite, contrary to the general belief of geologists, is but a rare rock in Norway and Lapland; it even occurs but seldom in Sweden, and may be considered one of the least abundant rocks in Scandinavia. The granite frequently appears in veins travers- ing the primitive stratified rocks, or running parallel with beds or strata ; and sometimes it can be seen spread over the surface of mica slate, as at Forvig, or irregularly associated with clay slate and diallage rock, as in the island of Mageroc. Gneiss seems to be by far the most frequent and abundant rock in Scandinavia, all the other primitive rocks appearing to be in some degree subordinate to it ilftca slate rests upon and alternates with the gneiss, but is far from being so generally distributed as that rock. Claif slate along with the mica slate is not of frequent occurrence. Quartz rock, various hornblende rocks, and limestone, occur in beds subordinate to the gneiss and mica slate. Gabbro, or diallage rock, one of the most beautiful of tlie older rocks, occurs in great quantity, connected with clay slate, in the island of Mageroe, and other parts of Norway. 3261. II. Transition rocks. This class conta.ins,hesides gret/wacke,'alum slate, and Untestme (which contains much tremolite), and other rocks well known to mineralogists as members of this class, the following: — 1. Granite, which sometimes contains hornblende. 2. Si/eniti, which contains a beautiful Labradoric variety of common felspar, and numerous crystals of the gem named zircon. 3. Porphyry, and, associated with it, various trap rocks allied to basalt and amygd-'.oid. 3262. III. Secondary rocks. The great primitive land of Scandinavia continues onward to the extreme northern point of Norway ; but in this high latitude some new formations tnake their appearance among the older. The sandstone quar *z of Alten has been known since the publication of the travels of Von Buch. On the E ' towards tlie Russian dominions, there is a considerable tract which differs more fror . .■ primitive formations than the sandstone quartz of Alten does. Sandstone and cong ' i^'ratc extend across the subjacent gneiss in a horizontal position. These rrcks probably L.iong to the old red sandstone. 3263. IV. Alluvial rocks. Old alluvium occurs on the coast, and in the inttrior in many of the valleys, and the new every where in greater or less quantity. 3264. Mines. Silver. The only mines of this metal in Norway are those of KiJngsberg, situated in mica slate, which formerly afforded rich returns, but of late years have yielded no profit. The gold mine of Edswold, in the district of Rommarge, and the mines of lead and silver in that of Jarlsberg, have been but feebly worked. The copfier mines of Norway are principally situated in the northern division of the kingdom. The most considerabli are those in the neighbourhood of Raeraas, which were discovered in the year 1644. They have afforded considerable quantities of copper : in 1 805, the annual return was 7860 quintals of copper. The other mines of copper are from fifteen to twenty leagues of Dron- PAH III. . The silver 20,000 marks F'ahlun, which in East Goth- annually from 1 in Sweden, taped mass, in of Upland: of Dancmora, of leagues to the affords a con- intals of iron, inaberg, near to t cobalt, but the inia, two leagues annually 1050 su)>stance. The d1, or sulphate of uable quarries of largest and most e in the porphyry These wild but nsition rocks; se. t as in many other , is but a rare rock be considered one irs in veins travers. • and sometimes it rly associated with be by far the most L9 appearing to he h the gneiss, but is vith the mica slate id Wmesione, occur ;, one of the most slate, in the island slate, and Umeslm legists as members |ende. 2, Syemti, Imerous crysuls of Vap rocks allied to tntinues onward lo Ivv formations make tn known since the feussian dominions, Vtnalions than the Lross the subjacent ted sandstone. le inttrior in many i)sc of Kongsberg, Irs have yielded nu Imincs of lead and 1 Klines of Norway I most considerable lycar 1644. They \ return was 7860 1 leagues of Dron- Boot I- SWEDEN AND NORWAY, 76«» ibelm, at Quikne, Liekken, Selboe, and in the district of Christiania, at Frederiksgave or Foledal- The principal iron mines occur iii southern Norway; and of these the giHt distinguished are those of Arendal and Krageroe. The mine of Laurwig, near to the town of that name, affords annually 26,000 quintals of bar iron and 6000 quintals of (astiron. Tlie establishment of the same kind at Moss affords annually 10,000 quintals ofiron in bars and cast. The same annual quantity is afforded by the mines of Baerun:, Bolvigi Ulfoss, Eidfosa, Egeland, Naes, Uikkemarken Fossum, and Oudalen, Lastly, the mines of Hassel, Froeland, Lessoe, and Mostmarken, furnish from 3000 to 5000 quintals of iron annually. The annual produce of the iron mines of Norway is estimated bv a well-known statistic^ writer at about 1 50,000 quintals. The mines of cobalt, which are n'orked at Modum and Fossum, are extensive, but not deep. In the year 1792 they yielded 2817 quintals of ore. There is a mine of plumbago and blacli lead at Engledal. The mines (Solum, wliich are worked in the mountain of Egeberg, near to Christiania, afford not o ly 1 sufliciency for the consumption of the Danish states, but also a considerable quantity ' i tiportation, Norway possesses quarries of granite, marble, millstone, whetstone, slate and claif. Granite is exported to Holland ; tlie marble and other minerals supply tlie Danish states. SuBsscT, 2, Botany. iiii. The Botany of these countries has been noticed under that of Denmark. SuBSECT. 3. Zoology. S'i66. The Zoology of Sweden, the native country of the celebrated IJnneeus, is so veil known to naturalists, by the writings of that great man, that to them the subject is fmiiliar. Nor does it present any thing very different in its general character from that of Denmark. The bleak and inhospitable regions of Norway and Lapland, to which nature has denied the rich and verdant pasturage of Britain, and the consequent abundance of grazing animals, are, however, the chief metropolis of the Rein-deer, whose diversified ijiialilies arc beautifully adapted for supplying such deficiencies. a* ne Reindeer (Rongifer Tarandua H. Smith) (Jig. 428.) forma the sole riches of the Laplander, and Ita care is almost his only occupation. According to the season, he migrates to the sea shore, the plams, or the mountains. The rich often possess SOOU head ; and the poorer seldom less than ](X). The adult male, in a wild state, is even larger than a stag; but the domesticated races are .somewhat smaller : the sight and scent of these creatures arc astonishing, and guide them with wondernil pre- cision through the most dangerous passes and in the darkest stormy niKhts of an arctic winter. To this sagacity the Laplander trusts his life with confidence; and accidents rarely happen: they draw his sledge with such amazing rapidity, that in twenty-four hours a pair of Rein-deer have been said to perform a journey of 100 miles. In a wild stiitc they arc gregarious; and, when do- mesticated, evince an excessive attachment to each other. During summer they are much tormented by a species of gad-fly ; hut the old account of the glutton falling upon thi > fVom a tree, and then dcirourmg them, is m . considered fabulous. Ilhiring life this useful animal supplies its master with labour and milk ; and, when dead, every part becomes litrriceable, tlie skin for clothing, and for boots ; the horns to make utensils ; the sinews for thread, and the iJtih for food : the intestines are also used ; and the tongue is a well-known article of commerce. Several VempU have been made to naturalise the Kein-deer in Britain, but as its principal food is two species of ^heii not indigenous with us, there apiiears no probability of such trials ever succeeding. 8. The Birds are not numerous, and, with few exceptions, differ not from those of Denmark and the other northern kingdoms. The Iceland Falcon (Falco islandicus) (..^g-429.) rarely wanders to more temperate climes; and a gigantic Owl {Slrix lapponica Lin.) is a peculiar inhabitant of the dreary solitudes of Lapland: to these we may add two other species, the large Ural Owl; and the Great Snowy Owl. These formidable birds prey upon numerous ptarmigans and grouse, great numbers of wiiich inhabit the confines of the arctic circle. The Curruca suecica Sw. or Blue-throated Reed Warbler, one of the most elegant birds of Europe, is not peculiar, as its name would imply, to Sweden, being common in France and Switzerland. 3269. The insects of Sweden, during its short summer, are very numerous ; and many, enumerated by Acerbi, very beautiful ; but, in autumn, nearly the whole country is terribly infested by Musquitoes, these tormenting little animals being beyond calculation more numerous in high northern latitudes than in the woods of tropical America. 3D THI RBIH-DBm. liiO ICBLANp MI.CliK* II I I 770 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHV. PA»t in. Sut'T. III. Utnlorleal Gtoymp/ijf. 3270. The early hntori/ of StmtUmwIn \n di'vply iiirolviHl in faWe and uncertnint Ptolemy and I'liny, lliu liiwt Inl'iirmixi of nnelvnt guuKraphera, seam to distinguish it (tJ " Great Germany," off tliu coimt oC wliloli llitfy ruiruH-nt liaRilia, or Baltia, as a large islan'I' though not nearly appruacliinx to tlui ri'iil (llinvniiioiis. The Goths were found in earl' possession of Sweden, and itii Noiitluirn iirovlnces have been denominated Gotliland ■ In'! the question, whether they wi most numerous of those who suriMid witr ntid duNolation throughout Europe. Dr. Clarlc^ ridicules this idea, as inapplicublu to h country uf unbroken forests, and a slowly advancing population, making the tirit vsNayN of iif(rlculture ( yet, though the population could never be great, the simple and pastoriil liabltN of the people might dispose emigrants to seek sub. sistence with the sword in hiippior oIliiintuN. 3271. Scandinavia, Jlrtt, by u wrim iifftirmlilubit txpeditioni, made afigxire in history at t|j,. end of the ninth century. Iltirold llttrlhger, or the Fair-haired, the first of the great sea- kings of the North, having imitvd thu formerly independent districts of Norway under lijs sway, undertook triumphant expvdItlonN ngidnst Shetland, Orkney, and the Hebrides. Fur several centuries the Dune* and Norweginnx held full possession of those islands ; gave once a king to England, and formed n permnnent establishment in Normandy. The defeat uf Uaco in Scotland, and of IluroUl II I. ill England, in the 1 1th and 13th centuries, put nn end to this maritime dominion i niid the northern nations, notwithstanding their immenso Hupply of naval stores, huvu never itlnev iitlaiiied tu more than a secondary rank among tlie maritime powers. 3ii72. The union of the kingdom* iff Seanilinavia, in 1388, under Marj;arct, called tlie Semirainis uf the North, furnu a niviiiorable era. Immediately, however, after the deatli of that able princess, the Hwudeit began tu struggle fur independence. But their repeated attempts to establish a separate kliigtloiii were always defeated, till the cruel and tyrannical reign of Cliri»tian II. drove uintterN tu extremity, and brought on a new revolution, 327.S. Guataviii yam, in XS'M, lioUled again the national standard in the province of Dalecarlia, and, in three years Hiibsei|iiuntly, entered Stockholm in triumph. After a long struggle, the Danes were compelled to recognise the independence of Sweden. 3274. The reign of UuXavtn Adulphut formed a glorious era for Sweden. The protestant religion having been eHtablislied iiiider Giislnvus Vasa, Sweden began to be looked to as its support when assailed by a formidable (,'oiiluderacy. In 1630, Gustavus took thelieldat the head of only ten thoiiMind Nweiles \ but iiruiiiul this gallant band rallied all the prctesuni powers of Germany. Tlie splentllll victory of Hreitenfeld humbled the house of Austria, and re-establi>hed the civil and religloiis liberties uf the empire. Even after his fall, inibe glorious field of Lutien, hii* geiU'raU conliiuied to wage that desperate war of thirty years, which was necessary to compel the cnlhullc league finally to renounce its pretensions, Sweden, at the peace, obtaineil I'oiiieriuila, and other important possessions in Germany; and continued, till the end of the Heveiiteeiilh century, to exercise a powerful influence on lie affairs of Europe. 3275. The victoriet and reverm itfCharU'H Xtl threw a wild and romantic lustre around Sweden, wliich terminateil, however, in the loss of her station and greatness. Beingd^ | feated at Pultowa, by the C'xur IVter, niul driven to seek shelter from the Turks at Bendir, he was obliged to purchase peace by thu Haerlttce of Livonia, and others of his finest pw I vinces. The influence of Swedi'ii was thenceforth confined within its own barren limiii I and it ranked with difficulty as a power of the second order. The only remarkable clianji I in the course of the century wat produced by the revolutions of 1772 and 1789, wlienCi*! tavus III. succeeded in converting the government into an absolute monarchy, tliougli,b j other respects, bis reign was atlvantagetniN to Sweden. | 3276. The election if Jkrmulotli', one id' llonaparte's commanders, to fill the throne, 1(4 J vacant through the rash conducl of the legitinittle monarch, made a great change in lln^j lations of Sweden. To conciliate IiIn new subjects, he restored in full plenitude the rififl sentativc constitution, which hud been reduced to a mere shadow. Having joiDtdil confederacy against his former nwwier, he received Norway in compensation for tlie Iwil Finland, and had thus a more compact and defensible territory. The Norwegians eiclaiikl not without some reason, against this compulsory transference; yet Denmark haddepmil them of their free constitulion, which lliey now regained, and had in so many respectsil pressed the country, with the view of concentrating every thing at Copenhagen, thtiiiil connection now tenidnated has been considered the bane of Norway. 8k(!T. IV. PutitictU Geography. 3277. The constitution n/ Simlfn itt one of the few in Europe which Us alwijiH lerved some portion of that repreKenlallve system which had been formed in remoKf | Par* 111, and uncertainty, listinguish it from II, UH a large island, ere found in early ed Gotliiand ; lint conquerors, is uik' 'ehoiiiM! of nations;' ave*btcn among tliu urope. Ur. Clarke . a slowly advancing >ulation could never nigrants to seek sub- Igure in history at tk' kst of tlic great sea- of Norway under liis id the Hebrides. Fur ISC islands ; gave once andy. Tlie defeat uf 1 3th centuries, putnn anding their immense ndary rank among tlie • Margaret, called tlit ever, after the deatli of But their repeatiii he cruel and tyrannical new revolution, lard in the province ot triumph. After a long of Sweden- Sweden. The protestani an to be looked to as its ustavus took the field at rallied all the prolcstant he house of Austria, and »en after his fall, in the [rate war of thirty yeais, inounce its pretensioni •ssions in Germany; anil iwerful influence on tbf „ romantic lustre aroun) fd greatness. Being de- Vm the Turks at Bente [others of his finest pre- Ln its own barren limiti I only reninrkalilc clianp I72 and 1789, when G» |te monarchy, though, a Jrs, to fill the throne, 14 1 la'greatchangeintliefrl ^ full plenitude the n[» I low. Having joittdil lupensationforlhete'l Ic Norwegians ewta»4| It Denmark had (lefirtl \ in so many resp««i| [at Copenhagen, IW«I kpe which has aiwppi informed in teniotiiCI Book I- SWEDEN AND NORWAY. in Towards the close, indeed, of the Inst century, it wasi reduced, by Gustavua III., to little more than a form. Bernadotte, however, an elected monarch, without any national claim, was obliged to court the favour of the nation, and, with that view, to re-establish the rights of its ancient diet. This is now rather an antique and cumbrous form of legislature, con- sisting of four orders ; the nobles, the clergy, the peasants, and the burghers ; who sit and vote in separate houses. 3278. Of these hotues, that of the nobles consists of about 1300 iiieml>ers; the head of each family being, by inheritance, its legal representative. They are divided into three classes : — herra, counts, barons, &c. ; reddar, knights ; and tivena, or gentlemen who, though without any title, have received letters patent of nobility. The house of clergy consists of the archbishop and all the bishops ; while the rest of the ecclesiastical body is represented by deputies. The burghers are chosen by the towns, every freeman who pays tales having a vote : they fonn an independent body, partly, perhaps, because tne honour of a seat is not eagerly contested. The peasants do not exactly correspond to our idea of that term : they consist of a body of little proprietors, or lairds, who cultivate their own irround, and who are numerous in Sweden. Tlicir allowance of a dollar a day is provided by a subscription among their constituents ; and, in some cases, two or three districts must combine to furnish out one deputy. The noble-,, have bestirred themselves much to keep down the attempts made by this class to rise in society. They have procured regulations, according to which no person could sit in the house who allowed himself to be called Herr (or Mr.), or who wore a coat of fine cloth. Notwithstanding all their efforts, however, this house, and that of the burghers, are daily increasing in strength. 3279. In the division of powers, the royal prerogative is ample. The king appoints to all offices civil and military, and he is obliged to cotivoke the diet only once in five years, and to continue its sittings three months ; but he may make the meetings more frequent, and longer. He has also a negative upon the laws proposed by the diet. In regard to the diet itself, the division rests with a majority of the houses ; but if they be two against two, the balance is struck by the committee of state, a body composed of a certain number of members from each. No tax can be levied, or loan obtained, without the consent of the diet. 3280. The storthing of Norway, restored by Bernadotte, is possessed of much higher privileges than the Swedish diet. It assembles more frequently, and at its own time, without any control from the king ; and it allows to him only a suspensive veto, obliging him to accept any project which has been three times presented by the storthing. These rights having been once granted, Bernadotte, who found them pressing somewhat hard against his prerogative, has in vain made several attempts to abridge them. Mr. Lloyd, in his late Travels, informs us that a highly republican spirit prevails in Norway, and that the influence, and almost existence, of the nobles is nearly annihilated. 3281. The revenue of Sweden consists of a land-tax, with a poll-tax of Is. 6d. for each ma", and half fur women, — a t.ix, according to Daumont, amounting, in 1 829, to 3,950,000 rix-dollars ; customs, 2,200,000 ; post office, 2,';o,000 ; stamps, 300,000 ; spirits, 560,000 ; an annual vote distributed among the districts, 2,300,000 ; in all 9,560,000 (about 796,600/.) The expenditure was, for civil list, 719,000 rix-dollars ; civil government, 2,052,000; army, 3,249,000 ; navy, 1,201,000; clergy and instruction, 5,420,000, amount. ing, with some other heads, to 8,949,000 (745,700/. ) The national debt, which at the end of the war was extremely heavy, has been almost completely paid off. The people have likewise to pay for the support of a local military force, 1 ,653,000 rix -dollars ; for the clergy, 2,758,000 ; the poor, 471,000 ; transport of government equipage, 683,000 ; feudal services 960,000. In Norway, the customs amounted, in ltt36, to about 320,0(X)/., while the ex- penditure was only aliout 160,000/. ; so that the direct imposts arc very light, and have been much reduced. The regular army of Sweden is only 5901 ; being 2200 foot, 1000 horse, and 2700 artillery. There is a force called delta, of 26,000 men, receiving from the dis- tricts houses and lands, which they cultivate, and are called out when wanted. There is also a landsturra of 95,,500. The navy consisted, in 1 833, of 1 1 ships of the line, and 8 frigates. Sect. V. Productive Industry, 3282. Sweden seem* doomed by nature to be a poor country. Her most southern districts arc beyond the limits of the temperate zone, in which alone the finer and more valuable i kinds of grain, and the richer fruits, come to maturity. Her scanty harvest consists solely of rye, bigg, and oats, scarcely accounted as food in more favoured climates. Scandinavia I IS described generally as one unbroken boundless forest, varied only in its aspect by little ■ patches of cultivated land. I 3283. Agrkullural indtitlry had not till lately done much to remedy natural deflciennea. Dr. Thomson, lin 1812, states the cultivated portion at only l,3tli,(Xi() acres, not an eightieth part of the entire surface. ■A i;reat quantity of grain was imported, and the peasantry adopted the miserable resource of grinding the ^tk, or even wood, of the fir-tree, into (tour. Since 1812, however, improved processes have been intro. ^uceii ; and a great extent of the southern provinces, which consisted of biirren and moving sand, has been ■xed and cultivated. The extent under cultivation is at present stated bv Dr. Crichton, after Forsell, at WX),(JO( acres, of which, according to Daumont, the produce (about 1830) might be reckoned at 188,ai0 tona jjneat, l,798,0(X) rye, 1,6'.'(I,IXI0 barley, 1,70+,00() oaU, I,I9(),(K)0 pulse, 3,240,000 potatoes. On the »;ime autho- ptics, the meadows and iiastures cover 4,723,000 acres, on which are fed 4l It much •ulHttvideil, there heinn abrenlice«hi|ia employed were only !> 38,1 1 in I the chief branches iKing — woolleii., value ,'l'l),(X)(l/., men employed 3,5(10; cnltimi and linens 7o,d(iu/'"raen SinOi mualln 3.'},()m)/., men a,'>() ; augar reflnerirs 1H.1,(XKI/., men 300 ) tobacco WI.INHV., men lltHi. 38)15. The mineral wealth of .Scandinavia 1. exten.sivo, and the produce, though diminislied, Is still very Important. The Swedish iron, widely dimised through prnnitive rocks, is reckoned the tineii' i-i the worhl. The copper i. also of great value. Cobalt, a rare mineral, used In colouring pottery, la found ii. .joniulcrahle abunflance, also some ince 1H30 they have been in the hards of govern- ment, who In six yeari drew from them a value of '.'5,500/. 3286. FiihtTy appears a pursuit peculiarly appropriate to the extensive coasts of Scanuinavi.!. Yet the Swedes are not much addicted to it, probably because the llaltlc during a great part of the year is frozen. Ciotten- burg had once a herring fishery, now nearly lost, the shoals having taken another direction. The Norwegian flihery Is considerable, though bearing only a small proportion to the almost unlimited opiiortunities afforded by ita wide lea., and its deep and commo2,8(KI/. ; tobacco, 70,71X1/ j wine, S-I.SIXi/. ; tea, 7000/.; woollens, 44,ax)/. ; cottons, 3,i,40ort. and export, in 1833, for each of the principal . nrts : — Shlp>. Tons. ImporU. Exports. shi|M. Tons. Impnru. EipMli. £ £ £ Stockholm - 139 23,220 .■17.1.100 460,870 Halmstad 14 2,200 17.600 Xm Gottcnburg • 72 1.5,2.')0 338,100 2.12,400 Wc'stcrwik - .32 3.660 lO.'illO *M 1 1 Carlsham 1 Norrkoping - 2.'> 2,780 28,r.60 13.900 Hernosand - 28 3,3.10 2,420 4,ino. 28 2,120 .ll.WK) 2I,7IX) Uddevalda - 8 1,130 3,200 1.1,4(10 Malmn 40 3,300 40,3(X) 28,880 Landscrona - 4 260 .1,4.10 lO.JHi (ieffle 102 18,280 1.1,700 62,700 Wisby . . 8,.10O \W Hel.singvoy . 16 7.10 29.400 .1,310 Sundwall 2.1 4,700 1,380 10.1.10 Calmur .W 4,830 23,fim The jtopulatioH of Sweden, in 1751, ninountcd to l,7fi5,700; by a census made in islio, it hud risen to a,871,0(X). Of these 1,1,500 were nobility, 17,,';(X) clergy, I'i'AfXX) burKliem, H7,(X)0 living on offices or annuities, 10,000 inerohunfs, 78,000 artisans, "074,000 peasants, 79,(XX) poor, 3»,K00 of all other classes. TVie poiiulution of Norway wasfou'"! in 1826 to amount to 1,050,00(\ which was a rise of 104,000 since iei5. In 1836 it had risen to 1 , 1 94,300. :)'289. The national character of the Swede* is painted generally under favourable colours, MJionest, frank, brave, and even ceremoniously polite. All travellers remark the perfect ufoty with which their luggage is conveyed ; '.nd charity boxes placed on the high road are never known to be ])lundered. They are accused of an obdurate and sanguinary turn of mind, which has displayed itself in the frequent assassinations that have stained their history. Tlic'ir most habitual fault appears to be hard drinking, cacli individual taking regularly three drams a day, and the entire consumption of spirits amounting to nearly 15 million^! of gnllons. Mr. Laing has given an appalling report of the amount of crime, the persons tried in lH:3f> Imng S!(i,9'.25, of whom 2'J,292 were condemned, nearly m many as in all Ennlniid. Purtly, however, from his own explanations, and more fully from those of Uaumont, it appears, that there being no police or justice of peace courts, the most trivial offences, which yet are taken strict cognizance of, are brought before the regular courts. The feudal privileges, als(>, give rise to artificial delinquencies. Upwards of '2,000 consist ill simply being drunk ; wiiile unlawful cutting of wood, and misbehaving in church, are amiiiig the number, 'file serious offences, according to Daumont, do not much exceed '>,0W. In the capital, however, a somewhat unusual profligacy is described as prevalent. ."iMO. The Norwegians appear to possess the good qualities of their neighbours, with fener blemishes. In the rural districts especially, Mr. Laing describes simplicity, content, friendly dispusitions, and even polished manners, as happily prevailing. 3ail. The religion of Sweden la Lutheran, and tlio rhurch cpincopal. This country, which stood long at the hcail of the grcnt protectant confeilcracy, is animated with an ardent zeal lor the rcfurnicd religion. The I'alholiM, till of late, scarcely enjoyed common toleration, and they arc stlH excluded from the diet and ihc higlicr otlices of state. The Swedish |K!ople are commended for their regularity in |)crformlng the duties of Iheir religion : at the same time it has been remarkeon books, which he transmit. ted lo Sweden in order to form the foundation of several large Ubraries. Christina displayed an anient, though somewhat fantastic and capricious, taste for letters. After an interval of some reigns, devoted to con- linucd war, Frederick, and particularly his queen, Ulrica Eleonora, undertook the patronage of science with a iral which was seconded by their snccesor, Gustavus III. The Swedes cultivated with i>cculiar ardour botany and mineralogy, which some of their countrymen mainly contributed to raise to the rank of sciences. In botany, the name of I'innams is yet without a rival; and Constadt and Bergman were in their day little inferior, though they now yield to '.Vcrncr and other great names which have arisen in other countries. Uctgmananil S<'heele made also large contributions to chemistry, which is still ably pursued by Ekcberg, BiTzi'lius, and Afzelius. Although history and poetry have been cultivated, they have not produced any writers whose reputation has spread throughout £uro|)c. From the limited sphere of the Swedish language, few worlis of siience are written in it, or translated into it : hence the literati of Sweden are particularly well versnl in the languages of foreign nations. One of the subjects in which Sweden may most justly exult is, tlie genual spread of education among the lower orders, which seems to equal or exceed that which Scotland enjoys; and to this may probably be in a great measure ascribed their generally mcritorioua conduct. Norway ia not nearly so literary a country as Sweden ; Ur. Clarke even states that there is not in the whole country a single bookseller's shop. This was in a great measure owing to the mean jealousy of Denmark, which would nolallow.an universitv to be foimdcd even in Christiana, which used to be a rival to that of Copenhagen. Yet Norway can buast of literary names ; Holbcrg, Pontoppidan, Vnhl the botanist, Torfa:us, and Snorro Sturleson, Ihe old historians. A vein of bold and rude imetry is cultivated with peculiar ardour; and Ur. Clarke ex. hibita a roll of names, unknown lo EurojH?, whose claims to distinction ai>pcar to be somewhat justified by a iil«cinien given lo us by Mr. Wilson. 3293. Of the learned establishments vf Sweden, the most eminent is the university of Upsal, the chief nurse of all the great men who have distinguished her literary records. This cele- hratcd seat of northern learning was founded in 1478, by Steno Sture, was enlarged by Gustavus Vasa and Gustavus Adolphus, but reached its highest eminence in the last century, »licn It was adorned by Linnteus, and all the men of science who have been distin- ,1,'uislied as reflecting glory on Sweden. Since that time its lustre has been somewhat . The habitation) qf Scandinavia arc very mmple and uniform. " tlavinK," aaya Dr. Clarke " once HKurnt to tlic Imagination a number of low red houaeii, of a linglc storv, and each covercil with furf jiid weedi, a picture la preaeiitod of the ojipldan acencry of Swcilen." The houara, however, are well Hniahcd wUhlii, and eleKantly I'uriiiahcd ; and by nieuna of atovca, double wlndowa, and cloac diuira, they art Vm comfortably warm, even durl'ig the moat rlKorous winter. Swedes have even eomplaihed that they lufA'rnl much more I'rnm cold In I^indon than In their native city. S-£)tV The riri-sa l» deiicribed by Dr. Clarke aa ci|Ually uniform with the habitatinnii. " A skull.raii, fiiiinji cloae to the crown, eilged with a little atlH laie, the hair UeiiiK drawn aa tight and atraight as possible Ijeruath the cap from all parta uf the head, an If to aturt frcnn the roots ; aild to this, a Imndkerchiel thrown over the lap when they go out ; a jacket j abort pittiiiiat; slnckinj, of coloured or white woollen; and higli.heclcHl ihoci" this la the general costume of the Swedish women Mr VVllaon thua deacrlbea the dresa of the rFpre>oiiiativci oi the elaas of ne.iaants:— " White worsted stockings, half boots extending above the calf of the leg, yellcjw luathfr ■mall.clothea with knec.bucklea, a abort brown riut ami walatcoat, and a plain handkerchief tlMl round their iieclii." The annexed cut Ulg.43l.) may give an iilea of the atlitt and a8|iect of the Norwegian iieaaantry. In winter thne garmenta muat be reinforced to the utmost abllilyuf He wearer, as a fence against the excess of the cold. The peasantry wear a sheepskin cloak, with the wool towanli the bcsly, and close fur ca|w. Dr. Clarke nieritioni u i travelling dress, thick yarn stockings covered by stout lea. ther hooM, and over these again boots made of the hideiol rein-deer, with the hair on the outside, and doubly linnl with sheepskin covcrp)) with black w(s)l. The pcu|jlc wear besides, fur ca|>s on the head, l>earskln pelisses over ihe booriancc ill Scanilinavia than perhaps in any other part of the world. The heroes and even the gods of their ancestors are celebrated In song for the quaiililfc^ victuals consumed t)y them. Kvery Scandinavian diinier begins with a whet, administered in a Kpanlt apartment, and which consists of cheese, salt flab, salmagundi, and other dainties which seem rather adapM to satiate than excite a|>i>etlte. The company then repair to the dining-room, where an alniniit endlcu uc. cession of dishes is hantfeil round, one after the other; nor does politeness allow any one to lie iallc?d for, till the prcceiling dish has gone Its round. This " never ending, still iK'ginnioK feast," as Mrs.Wwilstonccrallcalli It, lasts usually two or three hours, when collee Is intrmluei'd, and the company lireak up. Nothing iinxi. sldcred so III bred as not to eat enormously ; so that Dr. Clarke considers two days' previous faitting as alnat necessary to be an acceptable guest at a Swedish dinner. Sect. VII. Local Geography. 3298. This scctiim naturally divides itself into three subordinate parts: — I. Swedtn; '2. Norway; and 3. Lapland, which, though accounted partly Swedish and partly Nor»». gian, has a distinct character of its own, StiBSECT. 1. Sweden. .S299. Sweden is formed into three great divisions .• Svealand, or Sweden Proper; Golaland, or Gothland ; and Nordland or Norrland. In the following statistical table, the citertaml ■-'^<^J^ NORWItOIAN PRAIANTH. nSOO. Simlfi Bool !• SWF, I) I.N AND NOIIWAY. 77S iroblu priMlucu oru from inatttriuU lulluctvil in IHI'J, iiiiicv which dinu cultivation ha* been iiniiily I'tti'ixlv' i but thu populatiun ii iVoin thu convui of I HUd. SiirdlaHd. HwMlUhMiiuHr* Mll«-ll4 .tMliMlrouial, '1 iillltlAlliU 1 1 1 u:f). IMlW III llw ohul* w 1 la Numbnor »riiM. Ihmun raritMn. (Imln |iro(lur«il In NuanitH (IWIlhlmihtll. PoiiuUllon. NortbotU'ii . • 7SI h,m 8,151 588 88,884 nfiio 40,084 Vrtterliiilti'ii im Ui,rM 1,4(15 im 83,870 fl(i,57« 4t,011 1 Vfili'r NorrlanU • m Vi.imi 880 l,5(U 30,818 10.1,500 78,8.)7 Jtmlland - i Himlni. m io,7U) 017 IMS 8U,88i 48,.'UH 30,188 8,0111 58,110 015 3,784 103,787 it*:>jm 10.'.,8!rt Sluckholin - fi7-4fl 7I,4IA 89 4,05(1 5R,(UU 310.987 10.'J,0»li» 4liiK - 58 ()H M,0I1 84 3,87(1 50,701 885,000 1(I(),7!W Onhru 74!i7 4(i,UU.I M 8,774 01,780 108,870 100,8.H (ulitiull 14N'IIU 88,47.) 48 1,708 I^,.'i08 377,514 hii,:ns Siora KiipparlM-rg iiWjtKI 51,M7 180 1,708 70,.ll;l 840,781 180,.'I88 (icik'bcrg ■ • (lol/iland. mM 88,3(17 14(1 8,080 50,1)84 \r,3,'.m iiti.T.ki 01713 47J,llll) 4.1 88,0!NI 400,800 8,(K)!),017 879,l;-3 Urikdpliiii - (WO l(M,lltll 81 5,458 14,114 3(10,044 188,880 t'almar HBO (i«,l81 IH 3,;M7 8.1,404 83(),5«i« 100,780 Joiiki]i)ln(i KronolHTK - !W7 53,(184 411 3,005 7(1,113 8;I3,340 180,006 H4i! ;i7,(i!W 4H 8,8;l7 .'i(i,OtO 17.'5,8SO 108,709 llli'kliigc Sfifi 81,715 87 1,080 31,588 130,14.) 8.'),3I4 Skuriibcrg - - 78-0 14.'!, 108 18 4,804 80,1110 48.'i,8(rt 150,614 KIdlwrK llUti 7:1,808 ;i7 4,8(KI 108,715 3.'!4,888 187,081 Uotti'iilKirg 4i!0 48,458 88 8,7HI IW,,m.) S15,7,'i7 146,t>91 Halmatiult ■ V>0 4.I,1W,I 8.1 8,0.'8 47,4ai Ili7.180 85,(i57 ChriitiaiiiladI /U'4 80,;i44 1.1 :I,0(I8 70,.W1 3(K1,(»87 145,380 Malmohui - - 38fl 888,0110 4 4,0.'U I«,IU7 648,;i,)4 108,190 Go'hUnd • 27 3 30,(M»t 80 1,008 n,rM 8.],523 38,151 807-6 IK8,7:rt 80 30,187 840,8(i8 3,804,184 l,fi'.'5,038 Stockholm city ■ Total - - - • • • 79,473 3,870-85 I,4.'i4,7(i0 08 (W,,ioo l,44,1,8,W 3,708,83.5 2,771,858 SSOO. Sweden Pro/KTOCcupit>s tlic cvntru jf the kingdom, and includeH tho capitul, and the great mining districts. It consists of un innncnsv plain, covvrcd by almost boundless forests, intennixvd with patches of cultivation ; only ii few hills of moderate height breaking its vast uni- formity. Three great lalces, lilce inland seas, thu Wuner, the Wetter, and the Midur, fonn almost a continuous cliain across its centre, liesidvo these, there is an immense luimbcr of smaller lakes, especially towards tlie north, coininunlcaling by river channels with the greater. Thesi! lakes, not being bordered by mountiun hanks, do not display the grandeur which be- longs to those of Switzerland, or even of Kngland. lint their wide and winding shores, broken with rocks, and fringed with u proAision of wood, present many romantic and almost fairy scenes. :iiii|. The division into provlncet, qfSioedfii Proper, M well K) iirOdthlnnd, ai atven in the above tabic, wai mailc recently by government, anil la the only unv iiliiiii whieli ntntiiilicnl ilctaila have been cullccted. But there is another ami earlier diviaion, whieli renmlnii allll lUi'd III the .Swedinh mind ; and rurrcspondi, In lact, both to the a8|icct of nature and tu the peiniiiiiritlea In the iHMiplit Theie arc, Sunderinanland, which la iltualcd on the south aide of the lake Malar i Uiiland. a high terrlliirv nn the nortnern aide ol' thdt lake, and whieli contains the capital : Wcstinanlund, to the weat iif Upland i Niirlkc, a beautiful little region, cum- plctcly enclosed between the threi* great lake! j WAriiivlHiid, to tho north of the Wencr, covered with a multitude of little lakes ; and lastly, I>alvcarllH, calliHl uUii Daliiriic, ur tho Plains, a province which, of all others Jircscnts the most striking and peculiar feature*. It It, above all, distinguished by the energetic character of its peaaantry, whose exertions atone tliir.' reared the fallen mnnarchy, anil who continue to form its mut powerful defence. They still hiilil at a inaxlin, thiit line Duleiarllnn Is eipial to two of any other Swedes. Their diet is poor in the extreme, eonaUtliig In a great ineiiture of biirk.bread : yet their health and viiiour docs not suiferi and a number of them, who were 'luarteritt as troops at Stockholm, were affbcled witli levers in consequence of the repletion euuteil by entliig whealeti bread. Th^ memory of the great tiuitavus Vasa, the founder of the Swedish monarchy. It iheriihed in this province with the utmost warmth ; and many mcmorialb of him are preserved in dillVireiit (iliwet. 3302 StocMuilm (_figA^'l.), with which wo shidl commvncu our details, is finely situated, ■|,S2 at the junction of the ex- tensive and beautiful lake of Malar, or Miiler, with the sea. It stands partly on some small islands, and two pcninsulas.presentingaview as beniitiful and diversilied a.s imagination can conceive. Iiiiiumerablu craggy rocks sTwKuotM. rise from the water, partly :) U I 7V6 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pakt m. covered with houscH, and partly planted with wood j while vc«HelH of all fonnii and di»rriik tions are seen passing to and fro. " From one point of view," Dr. Chu-ko uhsi'rvi's, "it becins a Cyclopean heap of the most noble structures ; palaces and chiin>lios iill nil..,! above anotlier, and the whole floating, as it were, upon the broitd bosom of the dwp. Wliii! edifices, consisting of public and private palaces, churches, and other biiildin)(s, rising troiii an expanse of waters, produce an effect of incomparable grandeur. When the Inkv iiiul sm are frozen, they are covered with sledges of all kinds, and exhibit one of the invest sccnw imaginable. If external appearance were alone to be relied on, Slot'khuhn niigluhe iln'mcd the most magnificent city in the world. This impression is not suslnined by uny bvuutv or convenience in the interior. Except the great square of Norden Muhn, the streets, tlumah of very considerable lengtli, arc neither broad nor handsome. Ther(> is no ftnu pavvinvnt ■ the house* are lofty, all whitewashed, and the shops are extreu)ely piH)r, 'I'lie (llllmnt families reside in separate floors or stories, one above another, the ground-floors lieiuir (isuaIIv occupied as shops. The royal palace, however, begun by Charles XL, niid lliiisliod by Gustavus III., may vie with any structure of the kind in Europe. It is in the Uroviiin style, quadrangular, four stories high, built of brick only, but faced with siom'-colounil cement. Its situation, facing the quay, and commanding a view of all parts of the city adds greatly to its beauty. It contains some fine specimens of sculpture and painting, ruriositivs connected with Swedish history, and a range of small apartments embellislivd by Gus- tavus III. in a fanciful manner. This paKicc, with the flnest buildings of the city, stands on one of the islands. The kings of Sweden have in the country other palacvs : tluU of Drottningholm is a handsome stuccoed building, roofed with copper, and having side winirs' but the gardens are barbarously laid out in the old fasliion, with trees and hedges clipiati into fanciful shapes. 3.'K)3. NykSping i» tlie only tract of Sweden Proper which is south of the lakca. The town of that immo (hough small, has an air of magnificence; The houses arc of wood palntctl yellow, ' ai04. The provinces of Wester Orebro, ami Carlstadt, along the north side of tlip liili(i|i, rrtt'li acroMlhc liingdom. Enkoping, on a branch of the Malar, is the first town which un'urs woHlwnrd (turn StM'kliiilm but It is not of great consequence Wcsteras, on the same lake, has more counncrclnl InuMirtaiiro lu a link tietwccn the capital and the northern and western provinces. There is only one principal ^trl'<'t, I'llxiiit twn miles in length ; the houses are only of one story, and often roofeti with turf. It Is the sec ol' the ricliiiit bishopric in Sweden. The cathedral is a simple coor ; but cclebratcHi as having been the residence of Schecfe. It lie* lit the extreme iiilerliir niliit of tiic Malar. QuittiiiB that lake, and proceeding south-west, we come to ArlmgH, « lH><«iitil\il little ton ii dm a river which falls into thiit lake, and near a canal which connects it with the lake lljelninr, A •Imiii.ivickct cstablishcil by an Englishman, now enables it to communicate with the capital Nearly due west in t)r(«clnuSr though llic limiaea as elsewhere in Swetlen, arc low, and of i>aint«l wood. Thestadthus, or governor's resiiieiice.whli li liicUuli'salsiitlic prisiin, is a huge shapeless edifice. 'I'lie church, which forms also the place of meetliiK tbr the diet, it all ancient structure, originally flotliic, and bnilt of stone, but patched with brick, and In varTiius stylet. I'nH'cni. ing westward, we enter Carlstadt, or; a-i anciently called, Warineland, a region entirely of nilnivi, f'on'sls, niid lakelets, and bounded on the south by the extended shores of the Wener Like. I'arlstadt Is sitiintol near llic [loiiit where this lake receives the Clara, a considerable river, whicli traverses llnae woixled regliiiis, aiul limvn which imnicnsc quantities of timlicr .ire floated ) advantage for this puriHise being taken of the iIoihIii liinhlrii it is occasionally sul)je<^t. One coninanv from Gottenburg has saw-mills, ut which are nnnunllv cut iiiiwanlii of .50,0(X) planks. Carlstadt is a place of from 'MM to .KXH) [leople, presenting the ordinary a«|Kxt oV SvuhIWi [mm. It collects the vast proilucc of the mines and forests of Wanneland, and trunsmits them across the Wciior lii Wenersberg, whence they tinil tlu-lr w,iv to . .|;13 Oottenbnrg, Considerably lu the iiilorlor Is .~'l"'"-/t„^.. Pliilipstadt, ill the very lieiut of the Iron mines, by which It li supportisl, .'iJOTi. The must ittHarltiiNe iiii'M.w ijf firj. berg JlK.i:^.), a ft'W miles to the ^vl^t«anl. They are thirteen lu iuiuilH>r,iluK Ihloaniouii. tain entirely cmniKWixl of veins niul b«l« of Iron ore Dr. Clarke, alter Imvliiu, in tln< course of ten years' travel, ln«|MH'liiT many of the principal works of this kind In illlll'rVnt countries, declares, that he liiid never Ih'Ih'W any thing e<|ual tothii for grandeur of cniit, and for the triincmi.iusly striking eirrum. stances under which humnn I ilmiir la here performed. In the wide niul open iiIivm miit. denly appeared a vast prosinvt of yawning caverns and proiliglous inaclilnerv. Ininieiijo buckets, sus|H'nil(sl by riittlliig clniliin, wm> passing up and down i liiddersweieM-alingall the inward precipices j U|Min which lliewnrli- peojile, reduced by their distance tnpljinilw, were ascending and desc<>ndlng. 'riieclnnkiiiK of chains, the groauing of the piumu.llie h,il. looing of the miners, the creiik Ing orilu'liliHka and whiH'ls, the tranipllnu of horse*, lln'tHvit- lug ol the hainniera, and the loud ami Ihiiuciit subterraneous thunder fVoin the llln^lin|( iif the riM'ks by guniKiwder, In the iiildtt »f all this scene ot excavatloiuind va|Hiur, iirtHlunil an el!'>ct that no stranger could wlinewiin. movcxi. The lulnvra work ni siMeimiscaveriia, amid falling waters, tuiiihlingi(H'k»,sleani, Ire, and gun|Kiwder 'i hey ns'eivo two shillingi ,i rinsainci his . 'l»y i Roixl pny '"I .Swnlen, Book I< SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 777 rAII'.UN MINR. jjOA Dalecarlia, at Dalarnc, extends to the north-cut of Warmeland. It U covered with an extra. onliiwn liroft"'"" 0*^ mosses and fungi, so that it in termed by Dr. Clarke the supreme court of the cryp- iMamia. We liave already rcmarkceculiar character of the people, who preserve entire the dreu, haliita, and the daring energy of the ancient Swedes. The most important branch of productive industry cuiisiitD in the mines, particularly the great copper mine at Fahlun ifijf.iH.). It is immediately adjoining to the town, and consists of an enormous conical mass with the top downwards. The bottom of the cone ueing the top of the mine was the first worked ; and the galleries being made through it without due precau- tion, the whole fell in, producing an im- mense open crater which still remains. Regular staircases of easy descent traverse this immense crater or basin, {xom its outer lip to the lowermost point, whence arise vast volumes of smoke and vaiwur, giving it the appearance, on a greater scale, of the Neapolitan Solfatara. It is divided into no less than 1!HX) shares or sections, among which the ore is divided inunediately on being brought up, and it is then smelted on a small scale by the difibrent indivi. duals. The ore Is not rich. In ItiOO, this mine is said to have yielded 8,(XlO,(XK) pounds of copper; in lK*i, 5,SOasm; but at present only 1,120,0(X) pounds. The workmen have now reachnl the iMttom, or the surface of the cone, and are still working through the ground, in the fond hope of coming to the top of another cone, reaching downwards. Unless this chimera should be realised, the mine, it is said, will, in a few years, ceouc to be productive. Fahlun is a regularly built but old-fashioned and dirty town, subsisting solely by the mine. It has two churches, one covered with copper, but Ihl) has nut a handsome apjiearance, the colour of that metal licing converted into a whitish green soon iflfr rsiiosiirc to the weather. Near Fahlun is the house where Oastavus Vasa lay concealed, the proprietor of Khirh hiu studied to preserve in its pristine state this asylum of the Swedish knig. His chamber, bed, and clothes are still shown ; his shirt of worsted mail fitted similar to those made by the Circassians, and his other \vpa))nns. ;'.W. Sala, which is properly in Westmanland, maybe mentioned here as another mining town on a smaller H'alr, neat, regular, but ill.paved. The only important mine is one of galena, which yields SU(X) marks of ill\ rr, and 3'.',(ltXI pounds' weight of lead. There is also a copper mine, which produces little ; and one of iron, shich is not oonsiilcrcil worth the expense of working. .'im I'plniul, coinciding nearly with the modern Upsala, is an interesting province, extending flrom a part of the lake to the river Dal. It is flat, but diversified with numerous little round knolls, which, with the small lal;cs '.nd the numerous flne forests, render it picturesque. It contains Upsala, the seat of the great northern uiiirersity, and Oancmora, the most valuable of the iron mines. ;i:)09. Upsala, or {Jjjsal {figA35. ), is the place in SweJen most venerable for its antiquity. It was long the residence of the kings, and has always been the chief seat of religion and learn- ing. Even in pagan times it was the residence of the liigh- priust of Odin ; and in 10'J6, Evurinus, a bishop from Eng- land, wiis placed there, for the purpose of converting the na- tives to Christianity. The cathedral is the largest and finest ecclesiastical monument in Sweden, a country not emi- nent for such structures. 'I'he exterior is indeed only of brick, I nAi.A. and there is an injudicious mixture of the Gothic witli the Doric towers. But the interior is very striking, adorned with n double row of fourteen fluted columns, a magnificent altar, and above all by many mnnuinents of the kings and heroes of Sweden. Particular notice is attracted by that of Gustavus Vasii, and the three Stores, successively regents of the kingdom, who, in that station, earned the title of fathers of their country. 1 he shirt of mail of Ma. garet, the Si'mirnmis of the North, is also kept as a warlike relic. Upsala contains also a palace founded by Gustavus Vasa, now half burnt down. It is at present supported solely by the university, of which an account has already been given. It is destitute of all trade or industry. It is therefore small, but very regular and neat, having a large square in the centre, where all the streets converge. 3;)10. The mine ofDanemora is situated near the small town of Osterby. Swedish iron is the best in the world, and the iron of Danemora is the best in Sweden. Dr. Thomson «us told at Sheffield, that ciust steel could not be made with any other. Danemora was lirst wrought as a silver mine, but this was soon exhausted. The iron then began tu be 'i I 778 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 1**MII|. wrought, and soon mtabliHhcd thu high character it now holds. The great openini; is fiA , fathoms d«ep, and the minu linw l»w)n wrought thirty fathoms lower down. The ore is blasted with gunpowder. At short intervals are heard tremendous explosions, like tl;e discharge of the heaviest artillery, which are echoed through the caverns, and shake tlie earth like a volcano, while volumes of smoke burst forth after each crash. From the mouth of the cavern enormous masses of iron are raised up by machinery. The mine belongs to a number of private individuals, who have erected a steam-engine at an expense of 36,000 rix-dollar«. The produce is estimated at 4000 cons. There are twenty-seven other mines in the province of Upsala. 3311. GolMnnd, or OotnlaMd, the iiniithprn illvlalon nf the kingdom, forms a large peninsula, with aniH circuit of shores. It enjoys K coiisldernlily milder climatp, and is the only part of tnc kingdom where whmi is raised in any considcralilit i|uantlty. It t« here also that the recent improvements in agriculture havebwn .chiefly observable. There Is thus more land in cultivation, and trees will not grow in the immediaii! ' vicinity of the coasts; so that Oothlaiid Is not so thoroughly covered with wood, as the provinces to tho north of the lakes. If we except the capital, thisdivislon contains almost all the sea-ports and naval arsenals - and consequently engrosses nearly all tiu< A)reliin commerce of the kingdom. ' 3312. The moitm and iMcial ilivtm'otui i\f Vulhland have been exhibited in the statistical table Thii ancient divisions are Into nastern ami Western Oothtand, divided flrnm each other by the long line of tlio lake Wetter ; Smaland, an extensive but barren tract, to the south of that lake ; and Scania, or Schonen ihn southern peninsular extremity of Hweden, n better |>copled, and better cultivated district than any other in the kingdom. 3313. EMtem OolMand comprises clnefly the moilcrn provinces of Nykdping and Linkiiping. The town of Nykdping is agreeably sltuatMl at the extremity of a small bay of the Baltic, and though small has an air of roagniflcence ; but it carries on little or no trade. It It now much outstripped by Noorkiiuing, the largest of all the kopingt, and the Itiurth tnwn in Hwetleii. Noorklipini; lies upon the large river Motala, which com. municatsa between the lake Wetter and the llaltle, and wlilch is here broken into numerous rocky channels. The chief branch of industry consists In the manulncture of broad-cloth, which is produced so line as to sell at twenty-seven shillings iior ell, of one yard unit three quarters broad. The breed of sheep in the neighbour. hood has Iwcn considerably liniiroviil by the IntriHluction of mcriiws. The town is regularly built, of neat wooden houses. (The term ktiiiiHg, It may be observed, signilies market, being synonymous with the Anglo-Saxon terms cAcn/) and I'Ai/i^iiHX. ) Iilnkitplng is another provincial capital, handsomer in its aspect though much smaller, than NiHirildplnK. 'I'lie cntlmlral, ri'liuil! four hundred years ago, 's one of the miesi ecclesiastical structures In tho klngilom, and lu'nr It is a very h:indsome the.itre. 3.114. Tlie dislrirt nf Smaliiml hiu tor Its chief town Jonk(i|iing, situ.itcd at the extremity of the Wetter and commanding grand and lieauliriil views over that immense lake, which has here a wide border oflow but finely wofldei Mr. James learned that In the year preceding his visit it had yielded the small amount of sixty or seventy ducats. XilB. The sca.coasl iif Smahmil, consisting of the motlern provinces of Calmar and lileki.ig, is of a najted and unpromising as|iccl, but contains some liavens of im|>ortance. Calmar is noted in Sweilish history aj a strong fortress, and still more liecnilse In one of the apartments nf its castle was signed the celebratc butteries of stone, well mountetl with ordnance, which appear formidablt' enough, though probably not capable of eopinu with a ship of the line. Separate establishments exist for the large vessels, and for the llolillai but one ol the most remarkable features consists of the covered docks, partly excavated out of the vast musses of solid riH'k. The want of tides in the Ilaltic is supplied by sluim, which open Into the port, nnd are einplletl again at pleasure. Carlshamn is a smaller town, romantically ■ituatcs, a giKHl ohservntory and botanical garden, aiul a noble cathedral in the Norman style of architecture. Its professors arc iie.dous Lutherans, but they have not raised it to the .'lanie celebrity ii U|>sal. Mubno, fornu'riy one of t he I lanseatic towns, is the chief scat of trade. Helsenving ami Ystadt, ncu little iHirts, are the chief places of cinlHirkallon lor Denmark and Germany. All these towns cuuinund magnilleent views of the Sound, eidlvrned by the crowds of shipping that are continually passing. 3,'il7. Hiifing lurnfil Ihf mml/n'rH iiiiiiit itf' .Vtccrfcn, we come to the coast of West Gothlaiul, situated on that great gulf ail>rt remaineil one of the few channels by which Brilidi goods could fiirce llieir way Inlii llie ('oiitlneiit, It is a very handsome city, built entirely of stone, the lutv PAW III. •pening is fifty I. The ore is >sions, like tl.e and shake the ih. From the ■y. The mine I! at an expense e twenty-seven nsula, with a wide !dom where wheat iculturc have been in the immediate e provinces to the nd naval arsenals ; listical table. The lie long line of the ia, or Schbnen, the , than any other in klipinK, The town I small has an air of iping, the largest of Motala, which com. ouB rocky channel), ccd 90 line as to sell i\> in the neighbour, ularly built, of neat nonymous with the ilscmier in its asiiecl, I, li one of the nnett mity of the Wetter, a wide border of low burnt to the ground, imodious houses, the ;c. A high court of a long Tuund-backed ch a colossal mass as rity The upjicr Iml, ifn the fragments fall he projHirtion of (lure fill ingredients. The ided flats of Smaland. U some copper mines. it began in ITX, and m was informed ; but nt of sixty or seventy iiloki.ig, isof anaked 1 Swi'ilish history as a the celebrated Irrat; le chief naval arsenal with each other and iirks for the defence of eh apiwar formidable ishinents exist fur the )f the covereil docks, is supplied by sluicfs, cr town, romantitallj |al)lc proimrtion of the llcbritv, the capture o( :s of the fortificationi the place. I part of Sweden. II lonison was in Sweden, •nuenlly found no sale tlu'ii shut against Ihe ht refuge there during intriKluce an improvol ■rsity in Sweden, con. il in the Norman style the same celehrit) Ji nvinga"dVstadt,neM riiesc towns commuil Illy passing. bland, situated on IhJt 1 nearest to the gml id Halmstadtareiioiti whole of the wcsleni II rocks, and the nholt lhetiotha,thebroailBl lll()rd» a full commiini. Iluise immense slotBOl Ireally lifinuitedbjlM Innels by which BntuJ lclyof>ii"ne,theun« Book I. SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 77» lood having >>ecn prohibllwt iuiie« Ihv liut srMl conflagration, the second which had occurred In the cnurie ni ten years. A mugnlllconl ehun^h, Ult'ly liullt, la coiutructed, in a great measure, of stone imported IVom Lliand. 'I'he principal street, which U Iiiiik and wide, has a canal running through it ; the others strike off ftom it at right aiiKlet. The |irlncl|wl inert'linnts are Hcotch, and live in a style of great magniflccnca 3J19 H'tnl OutluaHd presviila still •uiiii' other striking features. Among these rank foremost the cataracts ind canal of Tridhiilta. Alxive thv hiriner the river Is a mile broad : but being confined between two lofty rocki it |x'"'^' ''""'" "* waters with priHllKliiiis llirvo. The descent, however. Is only a hundred feet in the course of twu miles, makliiH thus a raiild rather than a fkll; the water rushing along with inconceivable ravidily, boiling up, nnil onveiiHl with i>>nnt. The noise Is prodigious, and clouds of vapour are thrown up. These cataracts opiKised a cmnplcle iilMlrilctltin til the navlgatiflii nf the Gotha, which the kings of Sweden made incred linincnso sums, In eiuUavnuring to overcome; but their works were tooimperlcct to resist Ihe linpetunsUy nf the current At length, in 1793, the enterprise was taken up by a coniiany of private merchants, whu In teveii years brought it tu a happy completion. The canal is twenty- four feet wide, and eight feet ilc«|M>rlty or Imiiortancc. Uddervalla and Stronstadt are small sea. norts with some trade and tishery, hut they have sutfbrcd since the herrings deserted the coast Skara ina Fahlkdping arc places of simiv ennswiuencc, In the Interior of West Gothland. 3J50 Sonltiiid forms a third dlvlsltni, which, If considered as Including Lapland (and it is so considered nolitically), would be inneh more extensive Ihun all the rest of the kingdom put together. It is, however, our mtentiou tu reserve for a |iartU'ular aeetlon Ihe vast and |iecullar region known under the name of Lapland. Xorrlaiid, in a restricted sense, coinprlset the Ihur iirnvlnccs named in the table, but is lietter known under the divisions of Jamtland, Angennanland, M«del|iad, and Hclslngland. Jamtland, where it borders on Kornay, InchKles some of the Itlghest innuiituliis, several of them rising to 6000 or 7000 feet The rest ofXorrlaiul is flat, and the ellinale intilst and vnrlnhle, like that of Jamtland, but colder. Wheat scarcely ripens lieyoiul Snndswall) near tu the simthern litmter, barley and rye ripen with ditficulty. Almost the only fruits are cherries and gooseb<>rrl(>«. The land under cultivation did not, in 1812, exceed 52fiOO acres, which is in iirouortion to the whole, only as I to !)l,t. Yet the people are industrious ; and Von Buch observed a ii'catrr uir of prosperity here than In the rest nf the kingdom. The woods, which cover almost the whole country, are inl'estetl by numerinis herds of wolves. Of the entire population, amounting to 159,100, only 6318 hve inthe towns, which, of cour«(>, inimt Ik' very unlm|iortant Sundswall and Hernosand arc, however, sea. {Wits of some little Gunse(|Ueiivv, as U llinvn ; but this last pro(ierly belongs to Lapland. SuuKUT. s2. Nbrwatf. 31)21. This extensh'e portiun if Mtf .ViiwW.t/i monarchy, recently, by compulsion, but in all ilkcliliuod perinaiiLMitly, iinitott, i (|iinnt:tie8 of timber and fish ; receiving, in return, those comniudities of whivli it MiuidH iiu>Nt in need. 3;!22. The southern AuntvginH fttwimn of Aggerhuus, Christiania, and Christiansund, include a considerubly greater proportion of level territory than the others. They have the great range of inountainM to the north and west, and are not separated from Sweden by these natural barriers. Through theNv provincea flow sotithwards into the bay of Christiania the Drammen and the Gluiniiien, the two greatest rivers of the North, and bring with them an immense quantity of timber, which la cut into deals, and exported to all parts of Europe. The export uf iron is also vonaiderMlilu. !)323. Christiania (Jig' 436.), cajutat qf alt this diitricl, with a population of 20,581, now Aao ranks as the capital of the whole kingdom. It is situated at the head of a long interior bay or fiord, and in a situation which Von Buch considers as altogether wonderful. The bay, its islands, the crowds of sails spread among them, with the view of majestic hills rising over hills in the distance, ap- peared to him equalled only on the lake of Geneva, which, however, has not the vessels and islands. Christiania is chiefly supported by the trade in deals | and Ihtwe cut in ita saw-mills are considered, by connoisseurs in tins article, to be superior to all otiierit. 8oinc of its merchants, particularly the Ankers, maintain the state of prlneea, and are considered equal in wealth and liberal views tu any in Europe. Christiania ctiineH mure into contact than Bergen with the more ad. vuiiced countries of Europe, and liaa adopted almost exclusively the improvements which (liHiinguish tlieiu. Dr. Clarke, intleiHl, complains that too much of an artificial polish has been substituted for the t>ld fVunk Norwegian hospitality. Von Buch, however, conceives tliut interoourse with Chrihtiaiiia Ima materially benefited the inhabitants of the upland valleys. SometimoM, inilewi, firam those most remote, farmers come down iu I'IIIe. Iwccn numerous vallcyi ind districts to which it forms i central point of union. Of thcw valleys, that of the Kulilil is the most extensive and Imu. tifUl, and singularly celelirateil in Swedish story and tradition Here, it is boasted, dwelt the mighty Haco, the noble aod wise ()Iaf Tryggvasoii. Be society of Drontheim is altiii held forth as reprcsenlinijuiite „,„.^,„.,„ its happiest light the genu. iiie Norwegian character; iU warmth of kindness, and generous hospitality. Dr Clarke praises chiefly Its truly Norwegian siniiilicit;: but Von Buch considers it as marked by more refined taste, more graccftil and attractive mnnncri, thui tix •ocietyof Christiania. In no district of Norway is there said to he such a feeling of patrintism aii>l|iubli( ipirit. Drontheim is built wholly of wood, and has in consenucnce licen seven times burnt to thegroimd; yet the houses arc handsome, and ornamcntiil with taste. There i> a spacious palace, built wholly of tin material, and partaking its iini)erfection. Urnnthcim alto contaiiu the remains of a cathedral, the largol Pam III. <( v/lmt tlicir e at the view jrlhern graiid- ! features, and i towns. The irs, wliile other s suffered only iniversily, with the western coast Drainmcn, at the m of (oinc ancient ;rcd by a itream, ition. Fredericks, ly, windino amoiiB Charles Xll. Ihe 37.1, on tlic iinme. of the most roman. 8 in Scandinavia. luthcrn province ot he same name, ilic am, which, from its [, is visited for sliel. 0U9 vessels entering The interior from iludcs Hcdemnrlicn Ueys, and IhouKli iis lilated hy the large intain a single town. its former magnili. )alace, and of several The whole of this n he cast and north the Uoverlield and it from Dronthcim tin^ of the slope town of liergcn t'ay, was formerly capital, and con- ation of 18,511. . whit'li is consi- dell on the export- lie produce of tlic it, tlinii ot tlic at Luil'uilen, uf ucc is brought to [icruus barks, Its long the mono- id still retain miicli ;mre. They ate and send a vessel |)\vn soil does not and lias suH'crtJ ked from them by vsst J of the same name, it In theshoreof aiiiHt but subsists lest bi ommcrce than by the - communlcalion be- lunncroua valleys ind Tto which It fonni a (oint of union. 0( leys, that of the Oiiliiil 1st extensive and Imu- \ singularly celebtateil Lh story and trailition [is boasted, dsrcit (fct Haco, the noble and If Tryggvason. Be Drontheim is al«)i J as reprcscntingundei Best light the gwiu- Vegiaii character; iU ilorweKiun siniiiliciti; live inniincrs, tbiii l« { latriotism amil)* lurnt to thegioiml; V, built wholly of llu [cathedral, the lug* Boot I. SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 781 ,.«,„ In the country, and tu which the wholo population of the North came once in pilgrimage. The t:,irons are very licautimi, with numeriiiii cinnitry-uatii, and lofty anow-crowned hills in the distance. riirisliansuiid is also a small soa-ixirt niid lUliing town in this province; 'iVi A'Vii'i'' litimlliei'H ci»M»ii-n<-<'> !eiis only in a few favoured spots. The spruce tir gradually dis- iMiean «nd shelter Is neiu-ssary to allow the .S««tch fir and the birch to spring up. 'I'hc climate, however, is Iflewh'at milder than that of regions under the same latitude on the Baltic : so that, while the ports of Stock. ym aii'l Cnrlscrona arc shut during several month* of the year, those of Norrland remain continually open. Vf( ill this ilrcary reuloii occurs a busy scene of human action nnil existence. The numerous islands, and the !" ,„ys between thoin and the land, atltird a|>ots to which shoals of Hsh come lYom the farthest depths of the Vorth Sea to lU'iHislt llieir siiawn. During the whole year, the herring aflbrds a regular occupation to the Norr> Lull boatmen ; but tVoni icbruary to April, the shoals, migrating from thence, and fl-om all the surrounding rguU crowd tothel-olllHlen IslamU, the central seat ni^the northern fishery. These islands form achalnparaU Ciuii'hc land, and seiiarated by iiarriiw channels through which the tides of the Northern Ocean rush with tre- Miilous ra|iiditv. Tnesca Hows as in the most rapid rivers, and the name of stream is employed: — Malstrdm, the famous whirl|KHii, (irimstHiin, Siindstfom, which, when the tide is high, produce the cftbct of a mighty ritaract. Waves arc seen struggling against waves, towering aloft, or wheeling about In whirliMwIs ; the Jiihingand roaring of which Is heard many miles out at sea. The produce of the Hshery, which has l)ecn nndcred much more abundant by the IntnMluction of large nets instead of hooks, is conveyed to Bergen in a ireal immbcr of little barks. The Danish government endeavoured tu form at Stromsoe a commercial depAt tot the produce of Norrland; but in this ulcak situation It has not flourished. 'Xlie Russians come with numerous vessels flrom Archangel, bringing meal and provisions, which they give in exchange for the Bsh nught. SuBSECT. 3. Lapland. 3528. The vast region of I.aplanil is dividi-d from the rest of Scandinavia by a line drawn across it nearly coincidin);; with the Polar Circle, so as to render it almost entirely an arctic region. It consists partly of {(rvat clinins of mountains, some of which are 4000 feet high, shilc other extensive tracts arc level. Through these roll the Tornea, the Lulea, the Pitea, and other rivers of long course, and navigable for the few boats which have any occasion to pass along them. The Laplanders are a peculiar race, short, stout, brown, with black hair, pointed chin, and eyes rendered weak by exposure to the smoke and snow. They are divided into the mountain or wandering Laplanders, and those who dwell in what are called villages ; but Kautokcino, which forms a sort of Lapland capital, when visited by Acerbi, »as t'nund to contain not more than four families and a priest. The swifto often celebra'tid. They are cold shv mistrustful, c.id difficult to treat 'with' at least unless tobacco or Irandy \x brought in as mediators, They wore formerly very superstitious ; and the Lapland witches were famous for their empire over the winds, wliid, they enclosed in bags, and sold to the mariner The magic drum (fig. *M.) and the enchanted chain {JiR. 44.5.1 are still in occasional use. Yet the Laplanders have been converted to Christianity, and are attentive to itsdulin coming otlen from vast distances to attend divine scryice' though the instructions are conveyed to them only through the broken medium of an interpreter. 3330. The sea.ct1a.1t of Lapland presents a continuation of the same bold and rocky leatures which distinguish that of Norway. Here, too, the fishery is carried uii with activiiy It is chiefly in the hands of a Finnish . . . race, called Quans, who have pushed ''''' across Lapland, and exert an activity unknown to the natives of that region. The Kussians from Archangel, also, not only bring their meal to exchange for Hsh, but carry on the fishery themselves to a great extent. In July and August they cover with their small three-masted vessels all the fiords and sounds, and throw out lines that are sometimes two miles long, and contain 0(10 or 700 hooks ; so that their vessels arc filled with the utmost rapidity. The government has founded, on the large island of Qualoe, the town of Hammerfest, the most northern in the world, and destined as a rival to Archangel ; but the settlement has never taken root in this ungenial climate, and con- tinues also, witli one exception, to be the smallest that exists. On the other side of the North Cape, on the extreme frontier, the fort of VVardhuus, defended by twenty men, forms the only barrier to prevent the Russians from taking posession of the whole country. Ma. geroe, the most northerly of the islands, consists of steep rocks rising perpendi- cularly fVom the sea, and ascended as if by stairs. In a rocky recess stands Kiclvig, with four or five families, on a level 8|iot, barely afliirding a site for the houses, and exjiosed to the perpetual war of the elements. The tempests umK mm here rage with such l\iry, that it is often imixMsible to leave the house without danger of licing blown into the sea. At the northern iwiiit of At island is formed by the North Caiic the grand boundary of the European continent, facing the ({(fllii of the Polar Ocean. It consists nf^ an enormous mass of naked rock, parted by the action of the «ira into pyramidal cliflb, down which large fragments are continually falling. MOUNTAIN LAPLANDHR. f>AVl.ANDIIt VtlTH MA<1IC nRUM. 1)00. I RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 783 Chap. XVI. RUSSIA IN CUROri. B:13I. Evropean Rtissia is the chief portion of an empire of enormous extent, with vast cjpacitie!; of improvement, and standing at present, if not first, at least in the very first rank, ^ung military nations. It may be considered either as including that great part of Poland which ba^ Ix-'*^" absorbed into it ; or as comprising onty old Russia, as it existed previously to the violent partition of Poland. Although there is little prospect, at present, that the acquisitions in Poland will be wrested from the empire, yet we have reserved for that fallen, divided country, a place and a name, which has afforded the proper occasion for treating of the Russo-Polish provinces. The empire shall new be considered only in a detached and independent view. Sect. I. General Outline and Aspect. 3352. European Russia is hounded on the north by the Frozen Ocean, and especially by its great gulf, the Bieloe More, or White Sea. On the east, those grand natural limits, the mountains called the Urals, and the rivers Volga and Don, separate it from the Asiatic continent. On the south, it is bounded by the Euxine Sea and its gulfs, and by European Turkey. Westward, it imites with Russian Poland, which brings it in contact with the dominions of Prussia and Austria. It extends from about the 45th to the 68th degree of north latitude, and from the i24th to the 59th degr^ of east longitude ; making about |()()0 miles from north to south, and 1400 from east to west. The superficial extent, not- withstanding very extensive admeasurements, under the direction of the government, is by no means precisely ascertained. The great map, of one hundred sheets, drawn up chiefly from provincial surveys, gives to it an area of 1,490,000 English square miles. In 1795, the amount was reduced to 1,295,000, by a map constructed with very great care ; but, from ionie cause or other, this did not include the provinces of Pultowa and Cherson, which, in the great map, had been rated at 59,000 miles. Since that time, many new astronomical observations have been made, and many errors rectified. Wichmann, in bis " Monarchy of Russia," published at Leipzig in 1R13, raised it to 1,396,000. The latest estimate made by Mr. Bramscn, in his work of " Russia and the Empire of Russia," published in 1819, raises it to 1,424,000. Humboldt takes it at 2,040,000 ; but he includes, we presume, the Polish territories. The discrepancies, ns to the details, are still more remarkable, and prove that more accurate observations remain to be made, before this vast territory can be considered as duly surveyed. 3333. The surface of the Russian territory is the most level of any in Europe. That great tract of low land, which begins in northern Germany, expands in Russia to its greatest breadth, exceeding 1 200 miles. A great portion, in the south especially- consists of those immense levels, called steppes, over which the eye may range for hundreds of miles without meeting a hill ; only some large ancient tumuli occasionally diversify their surface (Jig. 446.). 44g They terminate only at the long chain of the Urals, which, rising like a wall, separates theni from the equally vast plains of Siberia The Urals are scarcely known, unless where the road to Asia passes over them : there they are neither very lofty nor very steep, but well wooded, and rich in minerals, especially on the Asiatic side. The mountains of Olonetz, on the north, appear to be a prolongation of those oi' Sweden ; while, on the ex> treme south, the Crimea displays some steep and picturesque, though not very lofty, ranges. 3334. The rivers of Russia arc of the first magnitude ; though the distant and insulated seas in which they terminate, incalculably diminish their commercial importance. The Volga is the greatest river of the empire and of Europe. It rises in the frontier of Novogorod, not far from the Baltic, and traverses in a S. E. line all the central provinces. After re- ceiving from the Asiatic side the Kama, its greatest tributary, it flows chiefly S.S.E., form- ing the boundary of Europe and Asia, till, after a course of about 2700 miles, it opens by numerous mouths into the Caspian, near Astrachan. Large and broad streams, spreading over the southern plains, slowly make their way to the Black Sea. Of these the chief are the Dnieper, celebrated under the name of Borysthenes ; the Don, or Tanais, one of the Bouiidaries of Europe ; and the smaller eastern stream of the Dniester. The Dwina, rising from a source not far distant from that of the Borysthenes, rolls a broad navigable stream towards the Baltic. Another Dwina, in the north, flows towards Archangel ; and during TUMULI UN THK ITKPPU. 78* MAI' OP RUSSIA IN EUROPE. iMt ilO 40 to 60 Umiliwli Givcnwkh ''•Smloi "• Fenda M.Kohcnkorsk '»• KrasnolHirsk ."•Vlatisk "•JPedoto,,, »"■ TmirojOTsk SJ.PouioJ "■ Oloneti I ;»-f«'OM,oia 5S. Ktrti-hemsVoc 59. .Skowdouiilbk 1*1. .Metdlnsk n. KitoU 62. MJM'hanoTak 63. Salsk 64. Veliko Ous^ufl 65. SoWilcliecotUk 66. Tarenik 67. NoToIok 6S. Boutkamk 69. Ptmantfti .0. Kotoraagora 1 1. niiskoi 72. Penda 73. SohenkoTsk 74. Krasnoborsk 75. Kfrnenovsk 76. Tmiim 77. VlaUsk 78. KarKapol 79. Fedoto.a 80. TonrojoTik 81. Vigraersk »J. PoTlatnetz 83. Pouloi 81. VlUma 85. Oloneta 86. PetrozaTodtk 87. Houna 88. Navolsk 89. Jobasalma Kuoplo Tldenaalinl Klvll (ireat Carleh; Waaa Chrlstianatadt "^Jomeborg .faumo NyiUilt ilelainf^ora TaTaatehus Helnola Frederiukfiham Wlborg Rflnlobol Ht. FetersbUTg Oranlenbaum Sophia Novoftorod T.ouKa (ilijv Narva Wesenburg Reiel HapuU I'ernau Veiiden . Vaick Derp P>kOT ()>troT KoliUn Oittachkov Walday Kreslil IloroTlt£hl TIkhvin N. Ladoga KlriloY TcherepoTetl Oustioujna KrasniokoUn Torjok Tver KoUazan Mologa JaroalaT Kostroma Lioubim Vologda Kadnakov Boni Ualllzk rovovolakol Kaillr Koligriv Mkolsk Verkholamsk Fotuliinok .. Auatovak 1. Kal Sollkanuk Kiria Tchjzminak - Roinanova i. Obva '• Perm Koungour Om Okhansk Glazov Viatkl OllOT Kotdnitch Verlouea Vamavln Laransk Ourjoum .■^arajwul Mageihnia Kra.snouftinsk MetchI Kimitk llirsk Menzelina Flaliouga Tchttoiiole Kazan Ank Beferencci to the Map of Russia I'n Europe. 150. Malmisch 46. Sienk 151. Turevokokach- 47. Korolenti ollk 48. Ulelopol 183. Tiareyount- 49. Kourak chounk fiO. Livnl 183. Voail SI. Dievlllk 184. TiiviUk S«. Voroneti 18A. Arzamas A3. Ouftmnn 186. Ardatov 54. ZadoneU 187. Nixnel-noTOgorod 3A. KozFov 18^>. Gorbatov 56. DankoT 189. Mourom 57. Oranlenburs 190. Schoura AS. Bogorodluk 191. PereslavZallaUk S9. Hnzan 192. Vladimir 193. Kolomna 191. Moacov iac viaima 196. Ikrodlno 197. VoU.klamik 198. Kiev 1U9. ToroiMK iOO. Blelol iUl. (ireat I.ouU 808. (ionidok 803. Wltemk 804. Ouachalch 805. Polotsk 806. Opotchka 807. Lutain 808. Dnnaburg 809. Zelburg 810. Baaske 811. Riga 818. Miltau 813. Pllten 814. Goldingen 815. Liebau 810. TelM:h 817. Rossiena 818. Ponlwlech 819. WUkomin 880. Kowno. SOUTH PART. 1. SuwalU 8. Iximza 3. Plock 4. Warsaw 5. Praga 6. Pctrikau 7. Kielce 8. MIechow 9. Lublin 10. Kovel 11. Kobrin 18. Pmsk 13. Proujanl 14. Slomin 15. Grodno 16. Lida 17. Wllna 18. BoTiioT 19. Minsk 80. Klut/k Sl.lloblonllk 88. IMo/ir 83. Ovroulch 84. Tchernigor 25. Nejin 86. Domza 87. Hosnitza 88. Blelietza 89. N. Mlailo 30. Ntarodoub 31. Mglin 38. RaUovl 33. TherlkoT 34. Moghilev 35. Orcha 36. Kraanoi 37. Smolensko .38. Dorogobouf 39. I.okliov 40. Kalouga 41. Tula 48. Tchem 43. Jezdra 44. 4hvl 45. Ucmlirovak 60. Klalom 61. Schatzk 68. Moiwhanik 63. Kirsanov 64. TamboT 65. NoTokboperafc 66. Balascller 67. Alkarsk 68. Serdobsk 69. Tcliembar 70. Penza 71. N'orovtchat 78. Knu>noslot>olsk 73. ScheschkieT 74. Porchinki 75. Alalir 76. KotiakoT 77. r.orodltcli 78. Kouznetzk 79. Saratov 80. KonkoKhkou- rovka 81. Veillan 88. Volsk 83. Khvalinak 84. Sizran 85. Stavropol 86. Slngilel 87. Slnblrsk 88. Bouinik 89. Xp.isk 90. Sergievsk 91. Apntchka 98. Bourgaulma 93. Tevlekeava 94. Oub 95. Koultal 96. Sterlltamak 97. Norouvova 98. Borgoroslan 99. Houzoulouk 100. Samotklna 101. Smakova 108. Uralsk 103. Klzilsk 104. Terekinik 105. Uouberllmk 106. Uirialsk 107. Orenburg 108. Zaiivnoi 109. GenvartzaT 110. Ounilsk 111. Tchegansk 118. Newthizen 113. 1.oukovsk 114. Merjenev 115. Kallmekova 116. KochOurlalak 117. Tonoleva 118. Oouriev 119. Kopinskoi 180. Ilielol 181. Eruk Aman 188. Aatrarhan 183. Bachmatchctugi 818. 1,34. 13.^ 136. 137. 138. 139. 140. 141. 148. 143. 144. 145. 146. 147. 148. 149. 150. 151. l.Vi. 153. 154. 155. 156. 157. 158. 159. 160. 161. 168. 163. 164. 165. 166. 167. 168. 169. 170. 171. 178. 173. 174. 175. 176. 177. 178. 179. 180. '181. 188. 183. 184. 185. 186. 187. 188. 189. 190. 191. 198. 193. 194. 195. 196. 197. 198. 199. 800. 801. 808. 803. 804. 205. 800. 207. 808. 809. 210. 811 184. Knotaetsk 185. Kopanovsk 186. Tchemoilar 187. Uorodok 188. Tzarilzin 189. Bolieklel 130. Tourgoun 131. Kimichin 138. Zaiika 133. KrainoUar 813. 814. 815. 816. 217. 818. 819. 880. 881. 888. Ourioupinak Jotovftk Rovlinak Uoloubinika Masov Akhcnsk FelisoT Azof Taganrog Old Tcherkaik Teherkask Donetz Blatlovsk (tolov ZaltzoT Bogoutch Kalltva Korotoiak LIvenak Karotcha KholmUak Charkuv Koupianik Izioim Slavlaiuk Mariopol OrialkoT Alelandrovsk £katherlnosldV Favlograd Alezapol Konstantlnograd Poltova KrioukoT Lubni Gladiatch Prilovkl Kiev Zytomar Nonad Volintk Rovno Zaslav St.KonstantinoT KhmiaUinIk Skvira Tihcrkoal Kaminlek Tzekinovka Ouman Novomirgorod Elizabcthgrod Olviopol Dobozar Kiclienau Bender Leva Ismail Kilia Akermann Odessa Fedorovka Gc/akow Kllboum Nicolaev rherterlna Cberson Perecop Symplieropol Enlkale Taman Anacopta Tcliemoilea EkateriniKl.v Novomalorosslsk Razsipnoi Stavropol Vaulan Mamal Ardier Soukoum Anocria Pou Gorgievsk AlexandroT Madniarci Halkalle Blelom Oxer Koulpilchia KiiUar 8^1. Unbend 884. Chaderzend 885. Baku ilS. Chamakia 887. Chucheh 288. Glwndleh 889. KnrakiUaa 830. Teflla 8.31.8lgnakhl 838. Uorl 833. Moadok. Lakti. a Enara b Imandra c Kowdo d Plavo e Top f Kounto RUlea PielU I Vigo J Sego a Onega 1 Ladoga m Bielo n Ilmen Tchouak. Jlitwrf. a Kara bOblo c Kaipoudra d Ousa e Petchora f IJma RAfnene Dwina i Pinega i Onega KemI 1 Ounaa m Totnea n Tchirka o Scheksna p Soukhona qVaga r Joug a Vitchegda t Kama u Biela V Oufti V Tchiouzova X Viatka 3 Vetlonga K Ounja a* Vol^ b* Souim c* Oka d* Moloa e* VolkoT r* l.avat g* Duna * Wilna i* Memd J* Vistula 1i« Pripel 1* Slou m* Pruth n* DniestiT o* Bug p* Dnieper q* De»na r* Seira s* I'.iol t* Donetl u* Oskol V* Don «* Khoper X* Meivrdltz J* Little Ouzen z* Great Ouzen a** (Jural b** Mauitcll f*# Kuban d** Kounut I** Terek f*« Kur g** Agadaa. 3 £ 7S0 DESClllPTIVK OEOOUAI'HY. I'ahtIII. •nd alluvlnt } those of iiii older date, iianwly, tlio Hccoiuljiry, transition, and priinitivi' pying but coni|iiiriitivuly Hinull spiweH, ' "'''"'■ 3;»;i7. I'rimitive. and triiimtiim di$trkti, Tliew nro the Urnliun inouiunins Kinl i mid RusNiitii I.a)iliiiul ; tlio northern partH of Ciiruliit, iinil pnrt of the K<>veriiinent of Olon"!' .' the narrow tract exteiidiii);i from the iHhiiid of Oesel in the lialtic, thrimgh Ksthoniii In^ to beyond Vite^ra ; tlie country around Luke Ihneii ; around Woh>f(da i part of the WalT' inonntaiiiN; the inountiiinH of Kandoinir i the tract extendiii); from Hrody, ncrosn the II "! and the Dnieper ; part of the Crimea, and part of the CaucasuH. In tliese districts we in''i with the usual primitive and truiiNitioii rocks, exhibiting similar characteristics to thosc*^^ other countrieH. '" 33,'JH. Secomtury litnih. These frequently appear rising like little islands in the ifnal lluRso- I'olisli plaiiM. The following formations are met with ; — 1, Old red snmUt > ti. Coal formation, as seen in the eoul-inines of I'olaiid and Cracovia. :i. New red sm I stone, with gypsum, salt, Ac. 4. Shell limestone, which, in Poland, contains the famous lead! mines of DIkutz. 5. Keuper sandstone and marl, with gypsum and salt. In Uussiii tliT- is a tmrtheru tall ilittrivt, which stretches in a line parallel with what is called the IVtershur H limestone, for lOOOversts: it makes its first appearance in the Island of Oesel, an(lisworl('"il in several parts of the south of Livonia. Gypaum is quarried in many parts of this ureat tract. Mr. Strangeway describes a ceiitrnl salt ilUtrict, of great extent, in the course of ihu Volga. There is also a rich and extensive tract of red marl, salt, and gypsum, which ex teiiils down the course of the Kama, anf the Volga, and on the north by that of Wologda. The principal s.ilt-works aru in the neighbourluKHl of Solikamsk ; and the gypsum grottoes of Koungour, in the L'ovi'in. ment of Perm, are of great size and magnificunce. 6. Liai and oolite limestones. 7. (Jl■^.^,|, ■and formation. 8. Clialk formation. 3339. Tertiary, 'llie rocks of this closs, whif:li occupy vast tracts of the low coinitry, arc cluy, loam, limestone, 6mu»t coal, with gypsum, and in many tracts, as in C aUiei:i ricli de- posits of rock salt. In central Poland, u ciay, with liffnile or brown coat, rest upon chalk and is the oldest member, according to some geologists, of the tertiary class. Uesting uuun this deposit, formed in part by rivers from continents, there succeeds; a deposit almost entirely of murine origin, and, consei|iiently, abounding in marine shells. It is the tertiary oolite lime- ttoiie, very extensively distriliuted throughout Poland, Podolia, and southern Russia. This tertiary limestone has not been found either in England or Italy ; and is peculiar to I'ulanJ southern Uussia, and Podolia. It occurs, however, in the basin of Vienna and Iluniiary and in France. It is the lost depot of that sea which covered all the country tii the nurth of the Carpathians, from the Baltic Sea to the foot of that chain, and to the liiack Sea, in the middle of which 'ose tlie mountains of Sandomir, und the plateau, south-west, in tlic form of islands, It is covered by a marlif clay, arid a saiul, formed by the last great aliuvi^ii catastrophe, which gave to Europe its present form, and buried in its deixits remains uf un- known species of elephant, mastodon, rhinoceros, he. 3340. Alluvial. In the alluvial soil we have not in general tlie same marked limits between the old and new deposits as in the secondary class. The ancient alluvial deposits consist of u great deposit of miu-ly clay or loam, and of numerous blocks of primitive rocks. This loam must be carefully distinguished from that which is deposited from the present rivers. It is a clay mixed with much carbonate of lime, generally of a yellow colour, and very easily frangible when dry : it is distinguished from potter's clay by tlie lime it contains, and from the marly secondary slates by its want of bituminous matter. In Poland it varies in thickness from SO to 100 feet, and covers vast tracts of country. It forms the high banks of the Vistula ; associated with marly chalk, the excellent soil which affords the wheat of Cra- covia and of Sandomir : but, as we advance towards the north, it becomes more and more mixed with sands, gravels, and primitive blocks, and less and less fertile. It is tliis deposit which contains that vast abundance of extinct terrestrial animals in Poland. The bones and teeth of elephants are the most frequent : remains of the rhinoceros, aurochs, horse, deer, and some great cetacea, or whales, are also found, but less frequently. 3341. An alluvial sand, different from the sand of rivers, is widely sjiread in Poland. It is in great part formed from disintegrated sandstone rocks; but in many euuiitries it is certain that the sand has not been brought from a distance, and has been formed on tlie spot. In this latter case, it cannot be distinguished from the loose arenaceous beds of tliu tertiary class. In the southern part of the district of Lublin, near to Chelm, in the country situateii between Chmiclnik, Staszow and Klimonton, the sand occurs only near to tertiary depots and we may almost be sure that it forms a part of them, and that it is nut alluvial, Tbe sandy soil of Poland commences on the western part, along the frontiers of Silesia; in the grand duchy of Poscn it is connected witli the great sandy plain of Northern Germany: it covers a great part of the districts of Kalisch, Masoviu, Plock, Augustowa and Podlacliia, the portion north of Lublin, and extends from thence into Lithuania and White Russia, In this plain of sand, and particularly upon and in the /oam, we found numerous large and small blocks of primary rocks. At first sight, we might conjecture that these blocks had come susrnall an extent, Book I- RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 787 from the Curpathiam ; but a more careful ciaininatiun proven ttic falNity of audi an opinion. Thu only f'^^'' **•''«'' ''**•• '" tliu priinitivu Hoil of Tutra, niul wliicli iiitcritvctH tlie great ftndstunu chain of the CurpathiauH, is thu Uunigec; all the rivem fine from tuiidHtoiie : lieiice the Duiiiyt'C coulil alone carry the primitive Idocks into the plain of I'ulund. In trutli, we Ami uii tlje ViNtulik, at the debouchd of the Uunajic, and a little lower down, iMiuldent of grnnitv and granitic gneiiw, which arc identical with thoneof Tatra; but thcHe blocks occupy lu small an extent, that they appear insignilicant, when compared with those of the northern plain. There ore, on the contrary, convincing proofs, tliut these primitive blocks have not comi! from the south, but from the north, first, their magnitude and abundance diminishes from the Baltic, towards the south, which is the contrary of what would be the case had tliey coinu from the Carpathians. Further, their southern lini<> (losses, in the vicinity of CMn^XH''""'' by I'rmlborz, along the northern fiwt of the mcu-.itainsof Sandoinir; and, on descending the Komiona, by the Vistula, on Lublin, Lubartor>,ocross southern Llthuaiiia> md still further into the middle of Itussia. Lastly, the rocks (i i not correspond with those uf the Curiiuthian and Sudetic chains ; while they are identicc I witii those of Sweden, Fin- land, and southern Russia. The ubservotiuns of geologists o'l the bsme subject in I'russio, Livonia, und Courlund, uiid in the north of Russia, concur to prove that they hove been sjireud over the countries to the north of the Carpathians by a d<^bucle flowing from north. cast to juutli-west. Our liinits do not oilow us tu enter into deuiiled descriptions, but we may here cite the predominating rocks. 334'.'. I'roni Pflersl>ur/r to the Dwina ond the Niemen, we every where meet with blocks of a granite resembling that of Wiborg, in Finland ; another granite, with Labrador felspar, of Ingriu ; u red urted those nurthern rocks into Germany, Poland, and Russia, has also formed the marly clay, or alluvial loam : it has interred the elephants and rhinoceroses of an ancient time ; it has broken up the chalk plains of the north ; it has separated Denmark from Sweden ; and given, in general, to the Baltic, and the gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, their present forms. On tlie other hand, the idea of Ilausraann, tli:it these blocks belong to the tertiary period, does not seem plausible. 3346. In regard to the river atiuvia, it may be remarked, that they are of but incon- siderable extent in Poland. The Vistula, as the largest river, has formed the greatest quantity. The rivers of the Carpathians, which ore rapid in their course, as the Uaba, Skaba, Sola, Wisloka, Dunajec, and San, running almost entirely among sandstone strata, which yield readily to their action, carry much d(' ''^' 3.150. (1.) IFeslern Uralian minea. These are situated amid it the primitive and trnnsii rocks, and are principally iron and copper; the more precious metals occurring cliii'lj the eastern acclivity of tliat great range. ^ 3351. (2.) Central mining district Sf Ruuia. Tliis tract includes ports of the government of Nishney-Novogorod, Vladimir, 'iamliof, Rezo, and Kalouga; extending from a litil' aliove Mourom, on the Oca, lo near the town of Kulouga. It is, in general, a verv " sandy district, and probably belongs to the red marl formation. Along it are situated w' ral extensive ironworks ; for, in general, the iron is manufactured where the ore is raU.t These supply the principal consumption of that metal in ttie interior of llussia. On*^^ t the most considerable is the eHtabllshment at Vixo, and its dependencies, in llic forest "f Mourom, belonging to M. Bataskott'. The crown works at Tula exclusively Siberia" iron : this is the principal manufacture of arms in Russia. The manufactory at Kiilut" formerly attempted the finer kinds of cutlery, but failed. The ore of the ct'iitral mininir district is described as occurring, at CO feet below the surface, in regular beds. Some f the beds arc dark Aid arid argillaceous; others are mere luyeri of large cdncretiona ■ there are also regular strata of pale yellowish brown-coloured ironstone, which is the oio principally worked. Of the two latter varieties, the lightest coloured ores produce the most Iron. .1352. Copper sand. On both sides of the salt country of the Urals is a vast tract of what is rommonly called copper laml, which extends through a great part of the governments of Viatka, Perm, and Oufa, and completely skirts the soutli and west sides of the Ural moimtains. The sand is of a dull red or green, and is commonly worked fir copper, h contains fossil wood impregnated with copper. 3353. (U. ) Finland mines. At Petrozavodsk, near Lake Onega, there are ironworks, said to be the most considerable in '.he north of Russia. Tlie only kind of iron now smelted there is the bog iron ore, which abounds in the neighbourhood. The usual way to procure it is to drag the small lakes, especially those north-west of Petrozavodsk, which yield vast quantities of the ore. It is not found equally spread over all the lakes : often dillurcnt parts under the same sheet of water will afford ore of various degrees of purity. We may add that there is another great ironwork, of the same description, four vcrsts from Petersburg on the road tu Riga. 3354. (4.) Saltmines- The Russion solt mines have been already noticed. In Poland those of Wielicza and Bothnia arc the most considerable, aflbrding annually a vast nuantiiy of rock salt. 3355. (5.) Coalmines. In European Russia there arc no considerable mines of coal. Good coal has l>cen found at Tula, where it is worked ; but the quantity is so small, and the difficulty of working i( l>eneath a loose and half-liquid bed of quicksand is so great, that it seems unlikely to be «l' much utility. Cool has olso been worked at liakhmout, in itie government of Ekaterinoslaf; but to no great extent. In southern Poland there are nume- rous beds of black bituminous cool, resembling that of Britain, some of which are ten yards in thickness ; and deposits of brown coal occur in the tertiary districts, wliicli also a'ft'urd amber. The amber is shown in that country to bo an exudation from a dicotyledonous troe. From the characters of the tree, and the insects in the amber, a former warmer climat'.' Is indicated. SuBSECT. 2. Botany. 3356. Russia in Europe. Vast as is this country, extending from 40° latitude almost lo the extreme arctic region, it exhibits, over the greater portion of its surface, a vegctatiun very similar to what has already been described in treating of other European countrii^. The western portion is eminently analogous to Germany and the north 4>t France; lis northern parts resemble what we have described under the heads of Sweden, Denmark, and liOpland. On tlie east, the great chain of the Ural mountains forms a strong line of demarcation, separating the northern European from the northern Asiatic botany ; and over this vast surface, winter reigns with excessive '.-igour; while the short summer, characterised by an almost tropical heat, induces a most :apid growth in the vegetable productions, and as rapid a decoy in autumn. It is m the southern and south-eastern provinces of the empire that we are to look for the chief peculiarities ; where the widely extended and celebrated steppes are bounded from Asia Minor by those great inland seas, the Caspian and the Black Sea, or by the inaccessible heights of tlie Caucasian and Circassian Alps. This country has l>een well investigated by the celebrated Pallas ; but, before mentioning some of the more important productions of Russia, in general, as of the districts nearer the capital, we shall give a short sketch of those of the Crimea, a peninsula of the Black Sea, nluch, Bool I- RUSSIA IN KUKOPR. 78a from it* gi'DKrupli'cal situation, (;litiiutOi nnd mil, ii tliv only rrgloii in tlio vnipirc whcrv all (ho prmluctions of Ituly and Urvvcu nilKht liv intrudiivi'il and inullipiivd, and wlivrv, indwd, miiiiy "'' ''"-''" '"'' ""''Ki-'ouuit ; nor In any tiling wanting to vllW't no duHiral)lc a »tntv of ihiiiK'*) >'>^'-' "" ■n'lu'*''!*"*'* ""*' wfll-Kovurnud |M>|iulation, No country, again, can bu butter suited tu tliu Vino, Silkworm, HvHuniv, Ulivo, Cotton, Madder, liantard Sutl'roii, and other living plants, which have hitherto la-en im|>orteed by Pallas. At that time, not onlv are the senses grutiHed with the sweetest perfumes, wafted from tho gardens and woods along the banks of the rivers, the last of uhich exhibit an inflnite variety of wild fVidt trees, while and red iloscs, Lantana, wild Vines, Vitalha, and Jasmines intoriaingled t but likewise each hill and declivity, around the champaign country, is alternately diversilled with the lovely colours of tho flowoi:) that every where clothe the earth ; and sometimes one, sometimes another, species prevailing on dilfercnt lulls, according to their situation, aspect, or soil, vury and enrich the scene. Thus, at s distance, whole 'iides of mountains, and extensive tracts, covered with red arid blue, purple or yellow tints, relieved by a background of shaded greensward, delight the eye with the most fascinating prospects. The fragrance arising fVoin this profusion of ilowers, especially March-violets, and the blossoms of trees, together with the grateful odours of the aromatic herbs, embalm the surroiniding atmosphere. 3357. The Tartar), originally a wandering people, were induced to become husbandmen, inconsequence of tho narrow limits of tlieir country ; the increase of population; and, probably, from the example of tlie Greeks, Armenians, and Genoese, to whom they are indebted for their limited knowledge of rural economy, for their orchards, olives, figs, pomegranates, and their vineyards. Of wheats they have three kinds ; summer and winter Rje, winter and summer Barley ; Oats, but which scarcely come to perfection ; Maize, 448 Millet, of two or three ditl'erent sorts ; and Chick Peas. The Flax (Jig, 448. ) is much esteemed on account of its fineness, and the length of tho fibn*. Their Tobacco is the Nicotiana paniculata, of which tho young leaves are gradually removed, dried in the shade, and buried beneath h.iy ricks i there they turn to a brownish-yellow colour, similar to that of Turkish leaf tobacco, to wluch they are nearly equal in value. Sesame useil to be cultivated, and rice ; but the Russian guvernmont has prohibited the latter, because of its unwholesome tendeiicy. In the gardens. Melons and Water Melons, Cucumbers (of wh'vh they grow a remarkably large Turkish va- riety, sown in April, nnd gathered in May, and which, when filled with meat and rice, is greatlv esteemed), Gourds of various sorts, the Egg- fruit (also eaten Htutled with meat), the Hibiscus csrulentiis, similarly treated with tho last, Jerusalem Artichokes, Potatoes, White Cab- bages, called Kapuuta, celebrated on account of their enormous size, apparently quite diti'crent (torn those of any other part of the world : they appear to derive tlieir excellence from being watered and nourished by the Dsliuruksu, which is impregnated with all the filth of the neighbouring town ( Onions, from the culture of which many Tartars derive their whole support; Garlick, Leeks, Broccoli, Celery, ••■"■ Parsley, Carrots, and Red Beet 3358. The Grape is not only an indigenous production of Crim Tartary, abounding in the mountainous parts, sometimes bearing oblong white berries, and sometimes small round black fruit; but it has been planted in diilereiit valluys and districts from the remotest periods of antiquity. Strabo mentions tho culture of tho vine near the Bosphorus, and the care taken to cover it with earth during the winter, or to bury its roots in the soil, in order to shelter them from the cold, as indeed is still practised ill the vicinity of the Alma and » E !t 790 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPIIY. r*M iif. Katslm. Numerous kinds ore grown, but comparatively with little lucciiM, owinir to th* prejudice and ignorance of the people ; and they are exposed to ii\jurii>s ftom various causes and circumstances. Caterpillars destroy the leaf and flower-buds, while locusts (tlw Gryllus ilalicus) devour what the Caterpillar has spared. Annually d«K«» tlie locust anmt on the dry eminences, in the arid southern regions, from the Europvinu buuiulary, as far as the Irtish and the mountains of Altai ; but it is only in particular years tiiat it multinliM in such numbers as to become pernicious. Thus, after the severe winters of 1 790 and 1800 these locusts were so numerous in the Crimea, that they traverso cross by means of overhanging boughs, and pass in close columns on the stidks of plants ui.d shrubs, wIick they seem to rest, and enjoy the refreshing coolness. Towards sunset the whole swann collect, and creep up the plants, or encamp on slight eminences. Woe, then, to the vineyards where they settle for the ntght ; and if the following day be cold, cloudy, ana solstitialis, and all bitter vege- tables. On the other hand, the locusts do not prey on grasses ; Honu< species of grain, as Millet, are also spared by them, and Sedge, which is the favourite fiH>d of the great erratic locust, together with the Aristolochia Clematitis, which grows luxuriantly in vineyards; Clematis Vitalba, the Euphorbiie, Rumex Patientia, Mentha sylvestris, Artemisia inariiima, Contra, pontica, and austriaca; the rough Ecliia, all the Atriplicea and SaUulm, tlio Stellera passerina, the milky Sonchus, Chondrilla and Prcnanthes, Rhus coriaria mid Cotinus, After having consumed every other vegetable, they attack the Caper buds, the Ik-la Cycia, and Euphorbia ; to the latter of which it must probably be ascribed that many of the locusts, firmly adhering to these plants, ultimately perisherows chiefly on the high mountains by the sea-coast. The largest beams afforded by it %e a1)out two or three fathoms long. Its wood is durable and resinous, but very knotty : the Ksin may be collected in large quantities from it. There are two kinds of Juniper, one bearing red, and another black berries. The former seems to be Juniperus Oxycedrus, and is a small inferior tree or brusliwood ; the other forms trunks more than a foot in diameter, with wood smelling like Bermuda Cedar. To these trees may be added the Yew : it attains a considerable height and thickness in the valleys of the Alps, or Yaila, where it is by no means rare. 3362. The following umbrageous trees occur in Crim Tartary : — Two Oaks, the common and the Cerris ; the latter seldom growing high, as it is eaten down by goats ; three kinds of Beech, which inhabit various situations, and attain different degrees of stature ; the Dwarf thn, which is very common, and whose far-spreading roots are highly injurious to vineyards and orchards ; it is different from the tree of Siberia, and its trunks seldom exceed a foot in diameter: four kinds of Poplar, the white and black, the Aspen and the Lombardy Poplars; the latter was introduced from Ittvly, and has received from the Turks the appropriate name of Salvi, which is also applied to tiie cypress, that it greatly resembles. These trees thrive ifitremely, and, being cleared of the low shoots, form beautiful pyramidal heads, and attain an astonishing height. Notwithstanding their solitary and oilen exposed situations, they have never been known to be shivered by lightning, broken by stones, or torn from the soil ; their long and vigorous roots running to great distances, and attaching them firmly to the ground. 'fhi'ir wood is extremely hard, but easily injured by moisture. The Linden tree, and the Maple, or Plane; also the common Maple (Acer campestre), called by the Tartars the Spoon tree, because its wood makes excellent spoons. Two kinds of Ash ; the common species, inhabiting the cold, and the Manna Ash, the warmer, southern spots. Several Hawthorns, particularly the black-fruited one, and the varieties with brown and with large reddish berries; also tlie Oxyacantha, with small red fruit ; and Crataegus Aria, torminalis, and orientalis. 3363. Among the wild fruit trees are the early and late Apples and Pears ; tliree kinds of Cherry, a small sour-fruited species, a light red and sweet Cherry, and lastly, the Mahaleb Cherry, whose wood is veined, and diffuses, when the trunk is felled, an agreeable odour, resembling that of bitter almonds, which the wood also retains fur a long period. The fruit, which is bitter, and called by the Tartars Dog cherry, is the principal ingredient employed for preparing ratafia and cherry brandy. AVild Plum trees are not vcr common ; but the Sloe grows in the greatest luxuriance. The Turpentine tree occurs sotnetimes in the southern parts, near deserted valleys . it is, perhaps, an exotic ; the trunk attains a thickness equal to a man's body, and the wood resembles Guaiacum, botli in weight and colour. The Straw- berry tree {Arbutus) thrives only on steep rocks, exposed to a meridian sun ; it is more prized for its beauty and fine wood than for the fruit, which is deficient in juioe. 3364. In the mountains and forests are the following low shrubs: — the round-leaved Alder ; two species of Spindle-tree ; the Water Elder ; the Wayfaring tree, or Lantana, from the wood of which the Tartars manufacture the tubes of those tobacco-pipes which are in such great request in Russia and Germany, and known there by the naane of Gordina, or Gorduvina ; two sorts of wild Rose ; tlie Privet ; the wild Cornel, and the wild Vine ; the trunk of the lalter being as thick as a man's arm, and its branches ten or fifteen fathoms long. The Virgin's Bower {Clematis Vitalba) twines around trees, and finally stifles them ; its blossoms diff'use an agreeable smell ; and Ivy, which, however, seldom produces a con- siderable stem. '3365. The shrubs growing in open situations are the Christ's Thorn (Paliurus) ; two species uf Tamarisk ( T. germanica and tetranitra), flourishing in the beds of rivers ; a weak kind of Willow, not the Salix babylonica, which, however, though not indigenous, thrives uncummonly well : the Berberry and Brambles ; the Elder and Ebulus ; the Sumach, or Tanner's tree, of which the acid red berries are an important ingredient for the preparation of animal food, and the whole plant excellent for tanning ; the Cotinus, or Jews' Leaf, so called beciuse the Jews particularly employ it in tanning morocco ; the Medlar Thorn, or Pyracantha, named also Devil's Thorn; the Mespilus Amelanchier; the Judas tree (both (he latter are scarce) ; the grey Spirosa, yellow Jasmine, Spanish Lilac, and Italian Honeysuckle, Coronilla Emerus, Colutea arborea. Saltpetre Wort (iVttrarta), Caperbush, Salsola cricoides, and, finally, tlie Astragalus Poterium, or Bastard Buckthorn, of the Crimea. 3366. Of the plants useful to the Crim Tartars for economical purjwses, Pallas observes that no nation is better qualified to instruct us in the nature and properties of esculent vegetables than the Greeks, who ai'c compelled, by the strict fasts of their church, especially in the spring, to search for every edible root and herb. Thus, tliey eat the thick roots of some abundant species of Scononen ; of the very common Omithogalum pilosum ; of Lathyrus pilosus, Chsrophyllum tuberosum, and Hordeiim hulbnsiim, wliich last is called by tlie ? E 4 79S DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pam III. Tartars Earth NuU { fUrthor, the vproutu of the wild mountain Asparagus, of Sisymbri Loeselii, and Crambo maritima, which last greatly resemble broccoli ; and the stalks of"' species of Heracleum ; tho young leaves of llumex Patientia, and of the Goosefoot or w'lH Oiache; of the Vine, tho Burberry, and even the acrid Arum maculatum, also the Co Salad, or Valeriana Locusta, that sprouts early in the spring; Brooklime, thrivins i" running waters tliroughout thu winter ; wild Purslane ; Dandelion, while it is germinaUn " wild Celery; common Garlic, or Allium descendens, and several others. Of the Canf ' bush, they eat not only tho young shoots, greatly resembling asparagus, but likewise the buds, fruit, and every other OHculent part of that shrub. They have not been observed to use the Sea Cabbage, though tliuy are well acquainted witli the Crithmum, the irennin Rock Samphire of England. "^ "^ 3367. There is an abundance of vegetables in the Crimea, affording excellent food for cattle, and consisting not only of a great variety of grasses, but also of the best vegetables, recommended for artiflcial meadows: for instance, the white and yellow Melilot; the white Galega; the common Burnet SaxifVago, or Piinplnella Suxifraga ; the Poterium Sanguisorba, &c. The mountains, as well as tho champaign country, present good pasture for sheep; and in ordinary winters, tho flocks are sull'ered to remain in the fields. Camels find rich food in the Centauroa ovina, Kali, and other prickly plants ; nor is there any scarcity of seeds for feeding poultry. 3368. Of plants uiefidfor dydng, Ctim Tartery produces, iti a wild state, Madder, some fine species of mountain Guose-grahs, Woad, Dyer's Green weed in great abundance- and, on the southern coast, oven thu Litmus, or Croton tinctorium ; the &ilower succeeds uncommonly well in gardens. The genuine oriental Saffron may also be cultivated with advantage : of tho four indigenous species of Crocus, two produce tlieir beautiful blossoms in the spring, and two in the autumn ; but none yield the real Saffron. The seeds of the great Paeonios aro surrounded witli a rod pulp, the juice of which affords a fine and durable purple dye. 3369. For tannine, tho Tartars possess valuable plants in the Sumach and Cotinus. They might also midco uso of tho Tamarisks ; the dwarf grey Oak ; the small Hornbeam tree, which covers whole mountidns ; tho roots of the Statice coriaria ; wild Sage ; and the common Periwinkle ( Vinca), In fact, no branch of manufacture promises to be more lucrative to tho inhabitiuttH of tho Crimea (which supports very numerous herds of cattle\ than tanning, and tho Turkish harbours present a certain and profitable mart for all sorts of prepared leather. 3370. Among the plants delighting in a saline soU, there is an abundance of the different species of Saltwort ; not onlv on tho Crimean coast, and around the lakes, but also in every situation whero tho oartli is in tho slightest degree impregnated with salt or nitre, the Atriplez lacinata grow* in profusion : from the latter plant, several Greeks have acquired the art of burning excullont StHia, or Knilia, which is exported to Constantinople, ^nd even to the more distant maritimo towns of the Mediterranean. 3371. Numerous medicinal plants, which are at present obtained from the Levant and Greece, might bo cultivated in Crim Tartary; where many, indeed, are indigenous. Among other natural productions, genuine Turpentine might hero bo collected. The Convolvulus Scaminonia, Pxonii's, the roots of which are very aromatic ; the Beiladuima, toge- ther with those salutary herbs in fevers, Cliamoidrys, Cha- micplthys, and Scordium; Rue and Sage, Balm, Pontian Wormwood, Dictamnus albus, Ituscus, and other otRcinai plants, grow in abundance on the mountains, and arc ve7 elHcacioui. Beside other marine vegetables, flourisiiing on tho rocky and stony banks in the sea, there occurs the peculiar Worm herb employed by the Greek apothecaries, and which they also distinguish by the corresponding name of Hclminiho- chortu. 3379. Tf such are the valuable vegetable products with whiih nature has blessed the south of Russia, we shall find that many of those of tho north are scarcely less important to man- kind : there. Maize and the finest Wheats give place to Kye, Barley, and Oats ; the culture of the Mulberry and Vine lo tliat of Hemp (_Jig. 449.) and Flax, such vast quantities of which aro aimually exported, as to form a staple article of trade, and which thrive, as does the potato, so high north as Archangel. Tho stately Oak is replaced by the graceful Birch, and the Pinus maritima by the P. sylvestris, or Booil RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 798 Scotch Fir. Indeed, the mott common ipeciea of wood in the immense tracts of foresu* atending over the northern parts of the Russian empire consist, for the most part, of the Pine tribe. In some pkcvs, the pine trees grow to a great height and size. The Scotch Fir (Pinus st/lfestri*) '<* l*y Aur the most abundant, and, retaining its foliage during winter, irivesslielter to man and to the wild animals of the forest, and greatly enlivens the dreariness ^ these bleak regions. The greater the intensity of the cold, the firmer and more dense does its timber become. This true flirnishes the peasantry with materials for constructing their cottages, boats, fencci for enclosure, and with fuel. It is from the ashes of this tree that the potashes of lliiSHla are principally obtained ; and from the roots an abundant sup- ply of turpentine is collected by tito peasantry, by a very rude method of distillation. 3373. Next to the Fir ranks the Birch (Jigi> 450. and 451.) of which vast forests exist in vnnouH parts, particularly in Finland, and about Moscow and St. Petersburg. Besides supplying a large portion of the firewood, and many household utensils, the natives extract a kind of wine, by fer- menting its juice, which is sold at Moscow at two rubles a bottle. The bark serves to make cordage, nsh!I^^-net8, and sails for the boats used on the lakes, as well as for dyeing the nets, and tanning. The peculiar odour and colour of Russia leather, which IS so much esteemed by bookbinders, and is sud itcver to be attacked by insects, are due to a kind of oil, extracted from the birch, which is called diojet, 450 Uil AND rWWIUI Ot TH« lllltliHi birch-oil, t < V. ->:>picli2o. An extcntivs use is mode of the leafy twigs in the vapour-baths. 451 ki'f' ^^ '^^"m:?. qa. -rr ^s^ v>i^^- ■;;; H -« /Hr— 4^MMdi^a|&A>V^^^H^E^k.^-^— - — ~^s. ' ***** ~ ' ",» -' ^..* TUK miKllt. ■"an. 3374. The Lime {fif(, M'i, ) ii nowhere, perhaps, rendered so subservient to the use of man as in tlie llussiun dominions ( and, on account of its great value, it is, by law, commanded .,! ^^PT; Wll'lam Howlwnn's" Acemmt of the Forcit Trees and Timber Trade of RuMia," for an Interesting 1.,™,! \?i . .. * >"»'"'" »f the natviral |inHluctioni of tliu empire, and from which we would extract more lugciy. did iliQ nature of the present wurk allow of our doing so. ii^mm^- 452 794 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part ni to be planted on the borden of many of the irrcat ro» 1 and these trees furnish the bees with a large quantity of h ' in their frequent flowers. Garden-mats, so extonsJvelv""*'' ployed in our country, and called bast matting, arc ill 1™" ported from Russia, and are derived from the inner hUt of the Tilia europa^a. The same substance affords rowT which, though wanting the solidity of hempen cordage vTl being very cheap, and not Uable to rot, are commonly'uwH in many places for drawing water from the wells. To barl the limes for this purpose, it is customary to grow the tr in rows, and cut them every ten or fifteen years, generallvT the month of May, at the time when they are full of L which renders the removal of their bark easy, so that it ^' pulled off in long stripes, measuring fifteen to twenty feet' As soon as the bark is dry, it is rolled up in bundles and kept in a cool place ; and, when required for use, it is steeped for several days in water, by which the cortical layers, which constitute its thickness, become readily separable. The most internal part is the best, and is employed for making cord ,H. uHi. »ge : the exterior and coarser layers serve for strings tj fasten corn-sheaves, and for hay-bands, &c. Mats were for. merly manufactured in France from lime-bark ; but the practice is now discontinued ; a good paper may also be obtained from it. The trunks of lime trees, stripped of their bark are employed according to their size ; the larger ones by turners anil the f lendorcr by vine^ dressers and gardeners, for their ladders, and for the props of espaliers, &c. 3375. The Beech, Maple, Elm, Alder, IVillow, and Ash, are the other forest trees of northern Russia, for the Oak is scarcely known there ; and these form but a small propor. tion in comparison of the Pine. On the outskirts of the forest, the Mountain Ash abounds. Its fruit is preserved in spirits, and used by the native Russians at their ordinary meals salted with other wild berries. The value of the forest trees to the Russians is admirably summed up by Dr. Howieson, in the memoir above quoted. " They furnish them with fir timber of the finest kind, possessing the most durable and dense texture, and in the most profuse abundance, with no trouble but tnat of cutting down. Of this timber, as already mentioned, with the addition of a little dried moss, stuffed into the interstices, they construct their isbas or cottages, vapour-baths, and other buildings. In the interior, they make little or no use of brick, stone, or lime, except in the construction of churches, peatches or stoves, and chimneys. Their wooden isbas are also warm and comfortable, and superior, in such a climate, to those built of brick and stone ; they are soon heated, and when once this takes place, they retain heat long. Of this timber their furniture and utensils are also made. In large cities, and in the houses of the nobility in the country, of late years, they are gradually introducing mahogany, which they get from America, at a reasonable rate, hy vessels coming for Russian produce, which would otherwise arrive in ballast ; and this thej prefer, from its beauty, to the timber of their own growth, for making furniture. 3376. " The peasantry have little or no tallow or oil ; what they can procure is entirely consumed at the shrines in the churches, and before the images in the isbas. To supply the place of candles, they take long billets of that species of fir tree which abounds most in resinous matter ; these they dry carefully near their peatchet, during the tedious winter, and split, as occasion requires, into long pieces, resembling lath for a house. When a traveller arrives, or when a light is wanted, one of these is kindled at the pealch, and filed in a wooden frame, which holds it in a horizontal position. It gives a bright flame, and bums for a short time, when another is substituted. 3377. " The extensive fore:its furnish to the proprietor a considerable .addition to his revenue, from the potashes, charcoal, and turpentine which they aiibrd. The potash, or vegetable alkali, is made from every species of wood indiscriminately. When a suflicient quantity of ashes is collected, they lixiviate them, and pack them up into casks. These are conveyed down from the interior, by means of inland navigation, to Petersburg, Riga, and other seaports, where they are kept in extensive warehouses belonging to government. There they are broken up, the ashes collected in heaps, the good carefully separated from the bad, and repacked in the presence of the foreign merchant who purchases them. In passing through the country during the night, great volumes of flame may repeatedly be seen issuing from the woods ; and, during the day, while travelling through the forests, it may be observed Ihit many of the finest trees have their internal part burnt completely into charcoal, from the in ascending up the centre of the trunk, while the bark remains entire, and seemingly unin. jured. To make charcoal, they cut down every species of wood indiscriminate!", fom it up into large cones or piles covered over with turf, set fire to them, and allow the combusiioo to advance in a slow progressive manner for some days. The cone is then pulled domi or tcattered, the charcoal collected and sent to Petersburg, Moscow, and other great towa, Book I. RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 795 where it is consumed in the largo works of govemincnt, as powder manufactories, founderics, and ill Icitcliens, in great quantities. The mass of wood consumed in these various ways must be very great 3378. " TluforeUt tupply lurpetttine, with little labour, and at almost no expense. It i, the different species of Fir tree, or Tine, which yield this article : it is distilled from the bottom of the trunk, and the roots, which are left in the earth when the tree is cut down. These arc dug up, and broken into chips by the hatchet, then put into the boiler, and the turpentine extracted by distillation, the refuse of the boiler furnishing fuel for tiie next fire. During the course of tlie day, with one of these boilers, a peasant will oljUin, upon an average, four to five pounds of turpentine : and even this quantity might be considerably increased. If the number of stills, upon a larger and more economical principle, were increased, the quantity of turpentine which might be obtained in the course of a year upon the proprietor's estate might be very considerable, and would much enlarge his revenue. 3S79. " Thejbresls nl$ofumish materiah for the roads. The young iir trees having their branciies loppeu oif, ore laid longitudinally across the road, close to each other, and covered with a layer of earth or sand, to fill up the interstices. Roads of this description are formed by ths peasantry over hundreds of vcrsts, and through marshy ground, which could only be done in a country where wood is in such abundance. Upon one part of the great Moscow road, however, they have lately been collecting large masses of stone, which they break down by fire of peut or moss placed under them, when they are rendered brittle by the severe frosts. it is among these forests that the wild honey is got for which Russia is celebrated. Mead, made from it, is in great estimation among the peasantry, and is sold in the towns as a sub- stitute for sugar, and various other purposes. Considerable quantities of this honey are annually exported to Great Britain and other countries. The wild bees make their hives in the hollow trunks of the aged or injured trees, where they are sought after by the straggling voodmen. The exportation of timber affords a considerable addition to the revenue of the government, as well as to the private fortune of the proprietors. It is a grand source of labour to the industrious peasantry settled upon the estates, and likewise to the shipping and inhabitants of other countries. These forests consist entirely of natural wood, which receives neither the cure nor the industry of man during its growth. Labour, however, might be employed to much advantage in thiiming and clearing away the superfluous trees when young, so as to allow the air to circulate freely among those which might be pennitted to remain and grow up to a full size. In the forests, the trees are so thick that they destroy each other before tliey attain to any considerable size ; and, in that way, it is only a few of the strongest which survive the general wreck. The wood of considerable girth, which was to be found in tlic vicinity of the roadsides, rivers, lakes, or canals, particularly in the neigh- bourhood of great towns, has been of late years cut down, and little or none but that of a stunted description remains in its place. The timber felled for the use of government, and for eiportation, is now procured from a very great distance, hundreds and sometimes thou- sands of vcrsts, into the interior ; and that distance is gradually increasing. Even there, it beromes necessary to bring it a considerable way from amongst the forests, where it is cut down, to the lakes or rivers, by means of which it is floated to the seaport towns. Labour, however, in the interior of Russia, is of little value : it costs the nobleman next to nothing. The peasantry upon his estates, being a kind of slaves, receive no regular wages." 3380. The brushwood, covering a vast extent of forest country, consists almost entirely of the Hazel, the Dwarf Hirch fi?c(u/a »ona), the Alder, Willow, and Juniper : the last growing to a large size, and loaded with fruit. In other places, the surface of the earth is covered with various wild berries, especially the Cranberry and the Uruisnika, or wild Bilberry. These various fruits arc produced in the greatest abundance, and supply the peasantry witli an ample and constant addition to their other food : they use them when fresh during the summer, and salted for winter. The peasant and his family seldom sit down to a meal which is not one half composed of these preserved fruits. The Vacci- nium Oxycoccos (Jig.45S,), or common Cranberry, is by us so much esteemed, that our own country, though atlurding a large supply in the extensive wet moors of the north of England and south of Scotland, does not yield enough for our consumption ; and its fruit is hitcniively imported from Russia fortlie sake of making tarts. THE cranhiekt. SUHSKCT. .1. Zoology. 3381. h is difficult to separate the Zodogtf of European Russia with precision from the I Asiatic portion of this vast empire } although enough is known to show that each possesses I peculiar features. The immense extent of territory stretching from the icy regions to the Ishorea of the Black Sea may naturally bo supposed to contain l)y for the largest proportion M""*^" 796 DESCIllPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. I'ahi III. OS 454 POUND MAHMur. of the European animals ; while, to the eastward, the great Ural mountains seem to imn to this Fauna several of those more characteristic of Western Asia. To dwell upon th '' geographic distinctions would be unsuitable to this work ; we shall, therefore, confine oT^ selves to a brief notice of those animals which appear more peculiar to European Russia. '' 3382. The quadru]>ed$ are numerous. The dreary regions of Nova Zcmbla are fro quented by the great white bear, which seldom passes beyond the limits of eternal snow" arctic foxes, and all the polar animals, are likewise met with, towards tlie central provinces wolves, brown bears, and the other European animals, abound in the forests ; but the wiiii oxen, once known to inhabit Lithuania, are now extinct. 338a Three of the most remarkable quadrupeds, all of a smaller size, arc.thc Dobac, the Soullsk and the Ah i or Calling Hare. The first is sometimes called the Poland Marmot (Arctimi^s Bubnc) (jig rath larger than the hare. Its li.iljitations are not so loily as those oiii? common Marmot ; it prcriis a dry soil, in which it Aim vtrv in , burrows ; and so carefUl are they to secure warmth thai tlill' amass as much dry grass in a single burrow as will feed a hm. for one ni({ht 'Ihn cclobrxtcU Vallas relates, that, wiieii tl... have occasion to transiwrt a quantity of provisions to tlicir li iV row, one of the party, lying on its back, is laden bv the re.1 hi the manner of a cart, and then all proceed in a patty, dra*ii . their companion by the tail to the common magazine. It must be confessed this story appears so incredible that thi. illustrious name of I'allas alone induces us to repeat it 3384. The Soulisk, or variegated Marmot iS/)in«(i«Ai/»j Cilrl lus), is the most elegant of its genus j being simtted, or waved" with white on a brown ground. It Is partially carnivorouil birds and small quadrupeds having been found in its hoards a385. T/ie Alpine Hare, or Pika, inhabits only the hisliMt mountains of northern Europe, in the thickest and most sequestered forests. The instinct for amassiiis provision against winter is highly developed in this defenceless little animal. About August, they cut and collect large parcels of grass, which they spread and dry, and, in efl'ect, convert into lay: thii theyiulto Into stacks about seven feet high ; they then excavate a subterraneous passage from their burrow, which oimu under the stack, and this road is used to give them access to their provision, during those months tliat a Siberian winter buries every thing under the snow. 3386. Several birds, common in Russia, are but rarely seen in other parts of Europe. Amons tliese may be mentioned the Cock of the Uock, the largest known species of grouse, nearly !u 455 big as a small turkey. The beautiful Rose-coloured OuecI or Starling, is not uncommon in the provinces bordering upon Asia; while the Pine Finch, the Cross-bill (fig. 455.), andaftw others of less note, inhabit the dreary pine forests. In the plains has been found the Cream-coloured Plover, so rare a bird in Britain, that a specimen, shot in Devonsliire, was once snlJ for nearly 30/. This is now in the British Museum. Ih European Bee-eater is said to breed in great numbers in the banks of the southern rivers. 3387. Domesticated animals- No recent information has reached us on the present breeds of the horse, ox, and sheep. The first are said to be large, strong, and even beautiful ; but the ponies of Archangel are not larger than those of Zetland. The ilocks of sheep appear to be numerous, and many of the breeds excellent. Whether the camel is really used in the southern provinces, as a common beast of burden, appears somewhat doubtful. The Russian greyhound has long and bushy hair, and the tail forms a spiral curl. Sect. III. Historical Geography. 3388. The southern part of Asiatic Russia was known, under the name of Scytliia, to the Creeks and Romans, who applied to it especially that appellation which was afterwardsso widely extended. The expedition of Darius showed the Scythians to be exactly what the rudest Tartars now are, — a roving, nomadic race, constantly on horseback ; who fought flying, and, by their rapid movements, baffled, usually in a disastrous manner, every attempt of regulu armies to subdue them. 3389. The monarchy of Russia seems to have been first formed about the ninth andtenib centuries, under the reigns of Ruric and Vladimir the Great. At that time it held some intercourse with the court of Constantinople, and was converted to the Greek church, irhitb has ever since been the established religion. 3390. The invasion by the Tartars, under the successors of Zingis, in the twelfth centiiir, formed a fatal era in the Russian annals. The wliolc country was ovci'-run, its capilil reduced to ashes, and the people completely subjugated under the yoke of Oriental dcspotisiu. Despotic ideas, and eastern habits, derived from this source, have ever since continued to prevail in Russia. 3391. The re-ettablishment of the monarchy, under the name of Muscovy, began in theSf- teentli century, under Ivan V&siljewicz. The Tartars, liowever, made a desperate stand ;uid it was not until after a series of victorious reigns that th^y were driven beyond the \m\s trated into Siberia, subdued the whole extent of northern Asia, and made the czars masters of an empire equal in superficies to the Roman. But the monarchy, though aggrandised in every direction, continued immersed in ignorance and barbarism, and had as yet no place ur influence in the general system of Europe. 3393. The civilisation 'g ever ■ ad upon any nation. Beft • I .leath of Peter, Russia had taken her station ainong the i:i«'ilised powers of Europe, omce that tine, her improvement has proceeded steadily, and her influence has been continually increas- ing, Under Catherine and her generals, especially, the conquest of the Crimea, the defeat of the Turks, the victorious wars in Germany, and the violent dismemberment of Poland, |irogre!:sively increased the power of Russia, and brought her more closely into contact with the other members of the European system. But the events of the last war produced this eScct in a much more remarkable degree ; when Napoleon, after having subdued all the other powers, found in Russia alone one that was able to cope with him. That power, at length triumpiiing, became the centre of the confederacy by which his empire was subverted, and tlie independence of Europe re-established ; in reward for which services, she hesitated not to claim a considerable share of the booty. In short, Russia is now, by many politicians, tcknowledged as the most powerful state on tlie European continent Sect. IV. Political Geography. 3393. The government of Russia is despotism, under which the knout is administered even to nobles of the highest rank who may have incurred the displeasure of the sovereign. The emperors have, indeed, endeavoured in some degree to mitigate this absolute power, and have even fonned a directing senate of sixty-two members, divided into departments ; but this body is entirely composed of individuals nominated by the monarch, and serves little other puriiose than that of promulgating his ukases or decrees. It is believed, indeed, to have sanctioned the murders of unpopular or weak sovereigns, which have so frequently stained the Russian annals ; and which have been conducted with a secrecy, and been followed by an exemption from punishment, which shows that they had been approved by the principal persons in the state. There are also hereditary nobles, who possess immense estates, estimated, not by the amount of lands or rents, but by the number of slaves ; yet the titles conferred and recognised by the government are all military. The ranks of colonel and major-general are conferred, in a manner purely honorary, upon professors, and even ladies, as the only mode of raising them in the scale of society. Justice is administered nilh considerable care : conjointly with the judges are appointed assessors, who must be of the same rank as the person tried, and thus somewhat resemble our jury ; but a general corruption, the inevitable fruit of despotism, and of the inadequate payment of the functionaries, is alleged to pervade this, and, indeed, all the official departments. It is not, however, to be denied that the views of the supreme government have, for the most part, been highly liberal, warmly devoted to the improvement of the empire, and to the moral eialtation of its people among the civilised nations of Europe. %di. Slavery is general in Russia. All the lands, with the exception of a few corners, arc cultivated by serfs ; and, as already observed, the value of a nobleman's estate is reckoned by the number, not of acres, but of slaves. The sovereign power has been generally exerted in a beneficent manner, to ameliorate the condition of the slaves, and to promote their eman- cipation, but hitherto with very imperfect success. Their treatment, on the whole, is far milder tlian in the West Indies : still the most abject submission is required, and the lash is in pretty general use. They frequently agree with their masters to pay them an annual rent, mobroh, on condition of their being allowed to migrate to towns, and to carry on trades. Many of them have, in this way, acquired very great wealth. 3395. The revenues of Russia bear little proportion to the extent of her territory, her natural resources, or even her population. They arise from a capitation-tax of two rubles for each peasant, and five for each burgher ; from which the nobles are nominally exempted, but they really pay it in the person of their slaves ; a tax from merchants of 1 f per cent, on their capital ; custom-house duties on imported goods ; stamps, coinage, postage : govern- ment assumes also the monopoly of distillation ; and, in Siberia, the mines are wrought on its accoimt, and the tribute of the subject races is paid in furs : but these last sources, sub- ject to the usual mismanagement of the agents of an absolute government, produce very little. Tlic total amount is stated by Mr. Bremner at 14,200,000/., while there is a debt, 50,000,000/., which is met by a sinking fund of 1,200,000/. A government paper money circulates, but so much depreciated, that the ruble, originally 2t. 4ered all the forces which Russia, in that utmost extremity, wan able to bring against him. These were not ustimiited at much more than 1)0,000 man | noma part of which was only half-armed militia. There might be 40,000 on th» Turklaii, and a ibw on the Persian, frontier ; but, certainly, the utmost which Ruaaiaoould summon, In that greatest need, was not more than 150,000; which the troops employed In garrlNon, In jtoltce service, and in guarding the Asiatic frontier, did not probably more than doiililv. The real strength of the Russian army has always con. sisted, not in its numhurit, but In tliu passive and iron valour of its infantry, and the rapid and skilful movements of its Irregular envalry— the Cossacks, the Baschkirs, and other Asiatic nomades. Its fluid nrllllc|ire«MHl, In the Interior the plough Is a wretched instrument, which, dratged bjr one hone, merely soratehea tlm Diirfltve i and ihn harrow ii composed wholly of wood. In the south alone can the land be laid to be ruslly |iliiliuhi>il i and, even thitro, the rotation of crops is very little undentood. Nevertheless, in every pari of llutala (1ii«l wheat, in surh abundance as might render this the granary of the west, The plains of the Interior, imiNM'Inlly Itetween I'etvrsburg and Moscow, arc covered with exteniiie forests; and all its villagoi,wlthlhi< urtiitlvr |Nirt of its cities, nre built of wood. This, however, liciiig chielji pine, fir, and birch, is iTllle iiditliliul liir ship liuilding or solid constructions ; but numerous ami large iimti and deals are aHbrded for uxiiiiriatiiiii, ('iilllt< and sheep are reared in vast numbers, rs|)ecially in the southern ileppes ; but little has ynt been eltl'i'ttMl In Iniprnvn the breeds : and the distance is such, that nunc of the anfmal products is ex|Hiri«bli), uxi'i'pt (allow, hides, horns, and bristles. Hemp and fiax are cultivated ver; largely, and yield not only thv mnlterahundant. Snmc wine U made in the provinces ahmg the lllat^k Hea, Iwt It has not attained any high reputation. Since IS'i7,hoKcver, very great exertions have lieen mttile to extend Its culture, by intrmtucing plants both from Ilcirde:iux and the Rhine ; and thn proapec^ta of sueeeiw nr*> Mid to be promising. The minerals, which form so great a |irn|»[tion of the wealth of ttuaaia, Mi> brought chleKy from Asia; for the European s'-le of the Urals is by no means m rich as the other. The saoiu \» diHiltl«dly the ease with regard to It* rurs, the finest of which cumc frojB the remotest east of Nilierla. MX). A/aHf^Aic'uir* cannot be cnnsldcred the maple of itnstlan industry; yet they are by no meani wholly wanting. The original native htbrli'S are, •ailelotn. shirtir' ' other coarse fabrics from hcm|i and Uai: these are even ex|)orted In a I'onsldernblii niniiunt. Leathi ecn introduced into thn two tMiplInU, not without success, though tlicy do not sujwrscde foreign impon. otion. In 183J (so far as vie em imilersliind a very confkiscd statement in the commercial tables) there apinn to have lieen made of woven guiNll, a value III linen of 4/ilK),(lU0/. ; woollen. 3,8U0,(XK)<. ; cotton, 'i,5(lll,Mi silk, rmfmi. or ilieae there were exported about 7D(),(IU(U., two-thirds being of linen; but there wat im- ported l,ii80,(IU(M. 3401. Tkt eomnuree of Huuia in fettered by her holding only as it were corners of inland seas, liable to bo shut by otliur powers. It Is still more so by restraints imposed b) her government, in order to foiet) native manufactures. Still it is very consideralile ; consisting ill the exportation of raw prodiieo, tallow, grain, linseed, flax, hemp, timber, with some nc- fiooxl. lJs,fiirs, and coanx goods and the matei The following wen Hid America : — Wheat • V Rye • - ■ Barley - ■ Oats - • ■ Wax • V cwt Hides, Muscovy > _ leather -J tanned - valu raw - cwti FIsx . . ■ Hemp • • •, Timber • valut Polaah - • cwts Oil, hemp and I _ ilaieed • J The imports during Coffee CWt! Splcea Wines and liqueurs valu , cask Do. do. bottle Do. Champagne - — Fish - valu Salt cwts TolBCCO ^ Fniits ■ valu Cotton, raw cwts twist __ do. dyed • — Indigo ■•■ Cochineal ^ Madder • — Value of imports ant Sweden and Norway Fniuia Denmark The Sound Hanse Towns Hnlland Great Urltain We add the shippit countries to which it bi Shipi. Britljh 1,3,'iO Russian 903 Hanoverian - 132 Swedish . 303 Prussian . 228 Danish 201 The quarters from wl Baltic Sea Illaok Sea White Sea European frontier Ruasia ciijoya a large intt M'igable; and those whicl southern «K of the atcd verj urplui for wine LI however, and the pro[iortion means » from the ins wholly I and Hal: much im ;h the en- rks in inig ■ describei ;ton woiki gn inipoit. ;re api«in ;,5«l,(XiV.; c wai ii' amersot id b) her onsistinj imemC' Boo* I. RUSSIA IN EUUOPE. fm tils, fun, and ooane manufactures, in exchange for colonial produce, flne manufactured mods <">'' *'"' materials of her own silk and cotton fabric*. ^fhe following were the principal articUt exported in the year 1 835, to countries in Europe vid America : — QuuiUUa. Vilu.. QuantltlM. Value. jB £ Wheat • Q"- Rye • - - Barley - — Wax ■ " cwti. Hides, Muicovy > _ leather -i 520,180 621,100 Copper . cwti. 62,985 278,889 SI, 030 33,944 Iron . _ 416,003 246,080 14,651 8,793 7,764 Tallow . _ 1,075,178 1,639,123 19,433 I.lnie«d - qr». 463,474 615,. Tom. Portuguese Shlpt. Tons. 1 1,3.10 2.58,896 185 21,586 5 680 Russian 903 142,(i34 Hanseatlc - 99 11,102 Italian - 100 23,7.58 Hanoverian - 132 13,010 Mecklenburg 185 23,664 Ionian 22 4,900 Swedish - 303 29,146 Oldenburg - 26 1,876 American - 50 I3,aw Prussian - 228 32,048 Austrian 137 3.5,480 Turkish - 84 11,024 Danish 201 16,530 French 73 10,194 Persian - Total - 8 60 4,088 .650,494 The quarters from which this trade was carried, on average of 5 years ending 1835 : — Baltic Sea ■ . . • Black Sea White Sea . . .... European frontier ... Imporu. EzporU. jff6,08.5,000 841,000 36,000 815,000 £6,720,000 1,522,000 467,000 763,000 7,7.77,000 7,462,000 Ruatia enjoys a large interior cnmmrrcf y the riven which intersect her wide level plains being almost all nivigablc i and those which fall into distant seas, the Baltic, the Euxine, and the Caspian, approaching very 800 near each other centre of II nulla, lold are cstimntcrohnhlv » I'i _.ion. The coasting trade of the Black Sea, in 1833, employed 3,183 veiirls. the value of »h„ l,2Cft,000 rubles. The trade with Finland amounts to 41,890/. imports ; l(i5,930/ cxt)orl."ih to l(i8,170/. imports , 372,!ttO/. eximrts. A considerable intercourse is also maintained hi i«n' ■ome exaKgeration. The coasting trade of the cargoes was 11,26.'(,( with Foland to l(i£ caravans, or across . . ._ ».««,,„„■«, woollen ond cotton manufactures, leather, hardware. Iron, and furs : in return for which arc recclvpd fVom China, tea ; from Persia, Kliiva, Ilokhara, and Kokhant, silk and cotton, both raw and manlT factured ; from the Kirghcse country, cattle and fiirs. The general result of these branches In 1833 »ii as follows : — . - ' ' Willi X^UiailU lU lflO,IIVI. llll|iui vo , u|A,:.AUf. t.A|nJita. <■ t.u>,viub*uuiv •iitVil.uuiBV Ift ItlHQ mamll caravans, or across the Caspian and llaikul, with the diflbrent countries of Asia. To thorn whow lit land arc exported Asiatic Turkey - Persia Khiva Klrghcae Ilokhara Tashkent Kokhant ImporU. Eiporti. ImiWTU. Eiporti. £ 44,700 293,200 30,600 17ft,200 105,700 41,100 ;,'i,Hno * 37,400 100,000 17,700 182,000 47,300 36,200 China Other countries • Add European .£320,600 1,1110 *324,!K)0 07,300 1,028,(HI0 8,.')(i;),.')0fl 813.400 8,.'J5U,!i00 9,363,900 9,.')91,.'iflfl 3402. The canal navigation qf Russia, so far as it has hitherto been carried, has been exclusively the work of government. T.ie grand object was to connect the Baltic with the Volga, and thus make it communicate with the Caspian, and form a continuous navigation across the whole empire. This was effected by ioininii the Twertia, a tributary of the Volga, to the Mtsa, which falls into the Lake Ilmen, whence, by the V'olkof the Lake Ladoga, and the Neva, there is a navigable line to I'etcrsburg. The steep descent of the river Mtsa, however, presented a difficulty which even Peter could overcome only by a peculiar proccii. Water sufficient can Iw ciillcctetl only once in eight or ten days, and all the vessels nssemblcd in tlic course of that time are summonol, by beat of drum, and shoot down one after the other. In proceeding along the MUa for 33 versts, they have successive difficulties to encounter ; and, as they cannot rcascend these steeps they are broken up for tlrewoml. At Petersburg the canal navigation of Kussia had fallen into considerable . . --iL-L " - -^ communi- cation. Great exertions were requisite to supply with water the scanty streams by which it was maintained, One of the principal improvements was the union of the lake Schlino to that of Velio ; an undertaking beguii in 1778, and carried on with much fVuitless expense, but completed in 1835. By this supply, and those dr.iwn from other quarters, the navigation was so much improved, that, in 1826, a caravan, as it is callcil, of lOOO barks, ascended without meeting with a single accident. Great improvements were also made in the canal of I^doga, though it is still liable to want of water in dry seasons ; but, in 1826, when this deficiency wai felt, the Uuke, by jiowcrfiil steam-engines, poured into it the waters of the Volkof and of Lake Ladoga, and thus enabled the barks to proceed. 3403. TAc c«»a/ (j/ /.ins, commenced in 1802, and finished in 1814, joins the Tikhvine, which falls into Lake Ladoga, to the Lias, a trilmtary of the Mologa, which falls into the Volga. This line is navigable onlv for boats of about 20 tons ; but it haf the advantage over the other of being passable in both directions, and hence is extensively employed in the conveyance of goods from Petersburg to the interior. 3404. Tliv tine qf Maria is formed by the union of the Knnja with the Vitegra, by which the Volga a con- nected with the Bieloi', or white Lake : hence by the Chickana, the lake Onega, and the 8uir, barks reach the I^doga. This affiirdsagood navigable channel, but it forms a circuitous route for Moscow and the interior provinces, and serves chiefly for conveying to the capital the products of Siberia. 3405. The following is a view qf the navigation on these three great lines, and its value in rubles, in the year 1828: — To Prterthurg. Bv the Vichnei Volotchok, barks . 8,916 > raits - 1,378 Tikhvine - - barks . 2,091 rafts - 1,44S Line of Maria - barks • 2,431 rafts - 6,,'j62j From Petersburg. By the VIchnel Volotchok barks - 2,411 Tikhvine - - - l,.'i20 Maria - ? . - ^S-W Crown rroperty. 1 rrivatt Troperty, j Tot.iI, 22,148.000 051,000 3,015,000 81,386,000 14,849,000 9,657,000 1,160,000 18,179,000 784,000 103,511,000 I5,,500,000 12,872,000 1,100,000 18,179,000 7M,000 Other important undertakings, — the junction of the Markta and the ^'olga, the Oka and the Eon, the Friepicz, the Nieinen, and the Hog, the improvement of the navigation of the Onlepcr, — have been projected, and some of them are in an advanccr, IU>rnoiilll, nnil other tivrinun uvans whom the liounty of Catherine iiiduccil to form vlther a (lermunent, or at luMt a temporaryi residence at I'otvri- ^,g, French litorHture. however, hoa alwnva been the most fashionable in tho higher Ku«ian circles; though, with scnroely a Hiiigle vicoption, tho French literary characters hire in vniii been invited to exchange the (UTights of I'urli for the frozen splendour of tho ncrthorn cnpital. The Uussian is Iwginniiig to bo a written language : there are said to bo hoff SiXX) works printed in it, which, however, is not verv much more than the number ammally published in Germany. Lomono>;(itl' and SiimorokolT rank as the greatest lluMian pocU; and Kiiramsin, by his writings in diH'urent branches of the belles lettres, has of lato Jrawn attention even beyond Uussia. 3413. The public eilahlMinenliJIir Hfienctln Hussin are highly endowed and p tronised. The Academy of Sciences, pliiniied by I'eter the (Sreut, was founded by Catheri'.i I., who issigiicd to it a revenue of 50001, The society was regulated by the advice of Wolf and Leibniti ; and several of the greatest nuMlern names have adorned its annals, (imclin, I'al- lis, and utiiers of its members, have been employed, at great expense, in exploring the most distant provinces. The Academy of Arts was founded by Elixabetli, but enlarged by Ca- therine II., ^'lo allowed it \'2,000l, of annual revenue, to be employed in supi.orting 300 pupils, and in procuring the best models of every kind. The library has never become Tcrv extensive, but is rendered curious by the ancient manuscript shronicles ; and by a col- lection of Chinese works, umonnting to UN(X). The museum has many interesting and peculiar features derived from the mineral prodiiets of the empire, particularly a vast mass of native iron found in Siberia, fossil reniains nf the mammoth and other gigantic animals; the dresses, amis, and implements of the rude nations of Siberia and Tartary ; the orna- ments found in the tombs of tho AllaY. The imperial library is also extensive; and a fine cabinet of paintings has been formed by the piirchnso of the Crozat collection, the Hough- ton, formed by Sir Robert Wnlpole, ai'.'l others of Inferior magnitude. Tiie university of Petersburg was founded in 1 HO-1, by tlie emperor Alexander, and endowed with un income of 130,(X)0 rubles. 3414. The Russian habilatinnt, so far ns relates to the palaces of the nobility, and to the public buildings, which are all erected by the crown, arc formed on the model of the rest of Europe, and display a niagnilicence elsewhere unrivalled. All the others {fig. 437.) are niiserablo in the extreme, culling to mind I lie first rude efforts of man after he came out from the hollow of the o.ik. They con- sist merely of the trunks of trees, not evep funned into logs, the interstices filled with moss and clny, and the light usually admit- ted by square open crannies : thus they re- semble cnsuni piles of timber rather than human dwellings. Hence tli.< chronicles because the felling of the timber is the o il;, -.rduous MIAN VIII.Ai|l^< we the expression " cutting n town," pat of the process. 3415. The national amuientenia arc chiefly those aflbrded by the ice ; for here, as all over ilie North, the gayest season is when its impenetrable surface covers all the earth and the oaiers, Tlie Neva is entirely occupied by parlies skitiiing, running slcdge-rnces, and enjoy- ing other sports of the season. A favourite diversion is afforded by the i<.'tvhills, on whose titles are formed steep inclincil planes, down which the adventurer throws himself, seated op I 'machine which he guides with surprising skill, Swinging is snot'er Russian diversion; lo which may be added' the common ones of tliincing, and of a national music, which, with I ibe songs and ballads to which it is sung, is very plaintive and pleasing. 3416. The national dress of Russia consists of a long coat reaching to the calves of the 'ti-'s witli numerous tueks nt tin; bottom of the waist ; :» vest of coloured linen, leaving the iieckbare; thin boots, or shoes, of the bni'k of the linilen. In winter, a sheepskin pelisse 1 15 substiluted for the coat. Tho dress of the higher ranks is now formed studiously on jiheEuiopcan model, though no other part of Europe cim rival the gorgeous robes worn jbythe iiobles and bishops on public occasions, or the profusion of diamonds which covers I their persons, making them appear all in a Maine. I 3417. 2 V staple food of the liussinn peasants consists of black rye bread and cabbage Ibroth, thickened with oatmeal, which Dr. Clarke mentions with horror, but which, according r !: ^y'.'' may be made fur from unpniatidilu j sometimes salted or frozen fish. The jKanding drink is their favourite quass, made by pouring warm water on rye or barley-meal. fllierich cover their tables profusely with French wines and the most delicate dishes, among jHiich sterlet from the Volga, and veal from Archangel, are highly valued. The prellminur) ^ of salt fish, chi'cse, and brandy, as a whet, is ns general here as in Scandinavia 3 F U ■W. 804 DESCRIPTIVE OEOGllAPHY Paht III. Sect. VII. Local Geographj^. Synoptical Table orthodiflbrentGovernmenUnrRuMla In GuroiW) tliolr Extont, Ponulailon nrin„.. i DnlgnaUoni. SquareOerman Mllos, 16 lo B Dcgnxi: about i'lEnglUh. Po|iulaiton. PopuUllua PoiHiUllon of Pflncl|ial Tow,,, |„ ijj 1. Ruisia in Europe 72,8G.',(NX) a Pskof 1,04.5 6)8,876 611 Pskof . • I2,(X^) !>. Tver 1,135 l,2(iO,7(K) 1,110 Tver . . 24.(.IX) 10. Novogorod - 2,r.-8 915,500 216 (it, NuvngnrcHl l(),(HX) 11. Olonetz 3„';87 avxHoo 1(X) 12. Archangel ■ l(i,2-2i> 2()3,I00 16 Archangvl • I6,(XX) 13. Wolngda . «,8(i7 802,200 J" VVnIiigda • U,IXM) U. Jiiriulav 671 1,().;8,1(X) 1,54.5 Jnriulav . 2,S,tHX) 15. Kostroma 1,808 l,455/)00 80,) 111. Vl.uliinir 920 1,334,,500 1.419 17. Nishcgorod 961 1,379,9(X) 1,435 NiilipgnrtHl - \i,m) 18. Tanibof . 1,271 1,422,100 1,118 Tamlinl' • I5,(KH) 19. Riaisan 781 l,.'i()8,6(K) l,(i74 SiO. Tula - 5.08 l.d.ili.SOO 1,860 Tula . - 3S,li(X) 21. Kalouga 395 1,I--.,1(X) 2,999 KHluuga . 25,(100 22. Orel - 849 1,L i,.'HX) 1,.5V9 Orel . • 22,(KI0 i'i. Kursk 701 l,ftl!l,(KX) 2,351) Kurtk • llMNK) 2*. Voioneti - 1,547 1,44;),9(X) 9.'i4 VoroneH • I8,(XH) Littlf Ilussia 4,1,!.5 S,b74,0(X) 1,371 25. Kief - - - 978 1,472,I(X) 1„503 Klof - ■ 40,(XM) 26. Tchcrnigof . - 1,189 1,41(I,0(X) 1,184 Tchernlgof I2,IKX) 27. Voltava 850 1,877,5(X) 2,207 Pullnvii . 10,IKX) 28. Sloboilus Ukraine 1,118 914,4IX) 817 SinUht'rn Httssia - 8,771 2,801,.'KX) 320 29. Catherinoslav 1,417 82(i,l(H) 583 Od(<8an ;iO,tXX) SO. Chcrsnn 1,20(1 459,4ro cnioruti ni,vn4 snips, tunnnge v-^iibuu: oi inis, is2i,9UU were British, 'JS^nn n, 14,400 Aiiiericait, l!»,600 Prussian, 7900 French, 7600 Dutch, 670o'Danish cm Lubvck, 4800 Swedish, Only vessels of moderate size can ascend the Nev •' lers remain at Otinstadt; of the former, in 1835 there were 433; of the latter svi' Being enclosed in spacious snloon, they may Iw considered os a vast conservatory. Tlie islands and oddos '^ banks of the Nova are connected oidy by pontoons, or bridges of boats, which on t'l'*^ approach of ice, arc ronuivvd in two or three hours ; and the ice then supersedes everv oth ° bridge. Tlie population, which in 1764 did not exceed 164,000, had risen in 1836 t' 443,000. Of these, only 141,000 were females. This. great disproportion is imputed t the numerous body of militory always quartered here; to the many young men emplov I in the public aflhirs, and to the extensive works and buildings on which labourers employed, whoso families continue to reside in the country. The trade of Petcrsburff*'* very extensive, including, indeed, more than half that of the empire. The imports in \s^ were valued at 7,248,(HXX., the exports at 4,682,0001, The articles were nearly the same already narrated as forming the general commerce of Russia, except that grain is n^ exported ; the capital, indued, drawing its subsistence from the southern provinces I 1835 there entered 81,384 ships, tonnage 221,600: of this, 121,900 were British yn^nH Russian, l""'"- * ' ^~. «...-:— .^^ ^. — u ,, . . J < ■">ro sinne selenlltiv establishments. Uurpat is an agreeable town, siiuatnl In thr liest part of Livohla, linvliiK n iiretly brisk Inland traile, and being, since 1K(I2, the seat of a welLciidovnl university. Ilevel, the eiipltal iit I'sthcinln, is an olil irregular town, tolerably fortified, nnd with an execllrnt harlmur, where there is some trade in the usual Kussian staples. Narva, a neat (icrniaii.lodkiiig place, fnr. . "rl> lielnnging to the llanse ('oiifiilerney, and still retaining some trade, is chieHy distinguishul fur the >l)t. nl, . lugh ultimately lYuitirss, vietory here gained by diaries XII. over his great rival. 3i'f ' ', a rtveiil ill. aei|Uired iMisKessiun, seems now finally united to the Russian empire. ThoFii> arc : .ill attaehni to .SwihU'Ii ; but, being well treated, their trade protected, and their national euston1^ w. ■pcctcd, they atHjuloaee with tolernblp (mtlence. The country is almost a counterpart of Sweden ; " a succn. ■ion of hill ami dale, nlH)undlnH In forests of llr and beech, intersiiersed with numerous lakes, and thickly ovcrspreail with •hntlered fraunienls of granite." During the winter it is covered with a hard unlfonn •urfaco of snow and lee, In wlileh lliu mads are marked by iMiughs of flr laid along them. TheOulrif Bothnia, between Finland and Hwedeii, is then entirely fVoien over, and sledges drive across it, beating f. themselves a smooth nnd hnril road, which is only a little dangerous at the commencement and close of the season. The V\n* are n race by themselves, and s|ieak a lannuagc whicli is quite distinct from that of any of the' r neighbours, and seems to Ih> In tt^ origin Asiatic. They arc on the whole a patient, laboriaug, well, disposed iM'upli'. MiTt. /4A«, theenpilnl. Is •Itunled on the promontory which connect! the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finlaml; 1 fortunate iMisitlnii, whleli ennbliNi It to carry on all the trade of the country. The university is also consiilcr. able, having I" 'i greatly Improvetl by Alexander. The professors, eighteen in number, have each a s,iUiy of 4(liH) riiliTea, nealii.'S fees Iroin the students, who arc numerous; as a certain attendance is re<|uir«l lb qualify for any oHIee indrr governnirnt. This city, however, has lieen laid waste by a recent fire, which hai consumed the unlvers'ty. Its niUKeum.and library, and many other public edifices. Helsingfors contaiiu 1 naval arsenal of nnne magnitude, but is chieHv lm|iortant fVom tlie vicinity of Swcaborg, the mirthcrn Gibraltar. This fortress Is eetl of three islands, united to each other by bridges ; the works are partrv blasteil ftom the riM'k, and partly built of Ihp granite which comimses it. They mnuiit upwards of MiO|iiccit of cannon, and can aceommiMlitte l'J,asantry are onpressed, notwithatanding eflbrls made by the Russian gnvernmcnt for their elief Riga, the capital of Cinirrand, is one of the greatest emporia of the North. The imports, in IX'^ arc aid to have amounted to l.'i,.^i'i<>,ll -Ibt).), tlio ancient and interior capital, is, periiaps, the most extra- *^ It presents a singular combination of whatever is most striking in botli 3427. ordinary city that vxUi*, viUiur in Europe or Asia, 460 Kirthcrn c (Brtij liiiccii dangit orn, on iVitort, n>i;ioii I tOflll, form! ; uil ;ilH lyct in isgion >, villi continents. It surpasses in splendour the greatest capitals of Europe, and in poverty its poor- est villages. According to the happy image cf the Prince de Ligne^ " it looks exactly as if some 400 old castles of the nobles had been transported thither, each bringing its little attendant village of wooden cottages. Wretched hovels are blended with large pa> laces ; cottages of one story stand next to the most superb and state- "'*«*• ly mansions ; many brick struc- tures are covvrcd with woodvn tops ; some of the wooden houses are painted ; others have iron duors and roul'H."— " One might imagine," says Dr. Clarke, " that all the states of Europe and Asia liiul itvnt n building by way of representative to Moscow : timber huts from regions beyond the Arctic ; plastered palaces from Sweden and Denmark ; painted wnlU from \\w 'I'yrul ; mosques from Constantinople ; Tartar temples from BucliariH ; pngodun, puvlllons, and verandas from China ; cabarets from Spain ; dun- geons, |irlsuiiiii and public ofliccs fk'om France ; architectural ruins from Rome ; terraces and trelliseH iW>m NnplvH ( and wiirchouscs from Wapping. Some parts have tlie appear- ance of a 8C<]ueHt«red dwcrt, ami the traveller is tempted to ask, Where is Moscow ? till he is tuUI, ThiM i« Momcow." " Here arc seen," according to Dr. Clarke, •■ wide and scattered suburbN, hula, ganlenii, pigsties, brick walls, churches, dunghills, palaces, timber- vatds, wareiioufies i and u rvfkiHe, as it were, of materials sufficient to stock an empire. In oilier quarters the Ihrunu ia ho immense, that the traveller asks, What cause has convened such a multitudt) ? and ienriia that » iif Moscow are very numerous, as, notwithstanding the trans- ference of the guvernmvnt tu Peteriiburg, the greater number of the nobles still make it their residence. Many of their pnlucvs are, or were, truly magnificent ; that of the Pascof f family, perhaps, the most strik- es I f ingly so. The Kremlin (fg. 461.), however, is the most extraordinary of all the edifices of this extra- ordinary city. It is a sort of enclosed town, which, besides the ancient palace of the czars, contains the two magnificent churches of St. Nicholas and the Assumption, numerous chapels, government oflfices, houses of the priests and other public function- aries. Its original style and pa- vilion-like aspect are decidedly T«« miiiKMN, Asiatic; yet there are extensive |)onio.-i9 constructed in the (Jreulan style. ■< Here a pagoda, there an arcade. In some parts richness, and even «'leganco { in others barbarism and decay. It is a jumble of mag- nificence and ruin ; old buildinga repaired, and modern structures not completed ; half-open vaults, and muuldoring wnlla, nnd empty caves, amid whitewashed brick buildings, and tuwcrs and chnrehea will) glilterinu, gilded, or pointed domes." A Russian artist presented to Catherine a mo»t auiwrb model, which, at the expense of 7,000,000/. or S.OOO.OOOi'. sterling, would have hnrmoniaetl the whole into one palace, the most magnificent in the world i but very smnll iirugreaa woa made in the execution. Among the wonders of Mos- cow is the greatest bell (flf(. 4(!'.J.) in the world; 67 feet in circumference, weighing mure than L'-J,0()O tona, iunl worth about 70,000/. ; but no intention of ever sus- pending it aeenia to be vntertoined. Another wonder is, the great gun, in which a man may sit upright ; hut fhnn which nut a shot was ever fired. The Church of St. Basil (Jig. 4b':),) is, perhaps, the inuMt curious of all the structures, from the completely Tartar style of its numerona and heavy cupulas, surmounted with gilded crucifixes. It is a work of piety fur individuals tu bvatuw large auina to gild or t !l F4 gild or paint oie of the numberless dome» 808 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY Pa»t ill, ORKAT BBLL Or MOICUW. of the churches, each according to his peculiar taste ; whence arises a brilliant and fanto.!' variety. '* 462 3429. The story of Moscm has been sineiUaHu eventful. She has passed through almost unparat! leled vicissitudes of war and devastation j but her recent scenes of glory and calamity have surpassed all those which preceded. The burning of Mo^. cow is well remembered as the marking event which turned against the all-grasping usurper the tide of fortune. Napoleon, wlien he entered Mos- cow, did not find it burning. The Russians, in retiring, left merely the combustible materials deep lodged, and sure to break forth. The flames soon appeared, and, aided by strong winds from oppc site quarters, gained houriy new strength, till they wrapped that vast capital in one blaze of fire. Its proud and gilded domes eitlier fell to the ground or stood solitary amid surrounding ruin. The citv thus rendered untenable. Napoleon was forced to commence that retreat, in which a great part of his army perished. It is remarkable that the Russian government still renounce the glory of this sublime sacrifice, and represent Moscow as burned by the Frencn. When Mr. James visited the city, in 1814, the whole space of 25 miles' ciicuin- ference presented the most gloomy aspect of desolation. " A few shops and inns had been built, and looked like spots in the wide waste ; but to repair the mansicns of tiie grandees was too gigantic a work to be then even begun ; and they stood in the most neglect- ed and forlorn condition. Street after street appeared in utter ruin : disjointed columns, mutilated porticoes, broken cupolas, walls of rugged stucco, black, discoloured with the scorcliings of fire, and open on every side to tlie weather, formed a hideous contrast nith the glowing pictures which travellers had drawn of the grand and sumptuous palaces of Moscow." (^g. 464.) In 1823, ho». ever, Dr. Lyall and Captain Cochrane found the work of reparation far advanced; and the new streets and edifices were constructed in ■: more regular style, though Moscow appeared still to Captain Coclirane, as in Clarke's time, " beautiful and rich, magni- ficent and mean." According to a work published in 1824, at Moscow, by M, Le. cointc, 6341 houses liad been burned, and 8027 had been rebuilt; so that it was larger than before; and Captain Frankland, in his recent journey, confirms this observation. On the Sparrowhill, Alexander, in 1817, laid the foundation of " a Temple of our Saviour," which, if completed, will be the most gigantic structure in the universe. It is to be 7 70 feet high (the Great Pyramid is only 630), having three successive churches rising above eacli otlier, the low- est of which was to be fronted by a colonnade 2100 feet long Twenty-four ihousaTul peasants were provided, of whom 6000 were to work at the building, and the rest to till the ground for their support. The work, however, does not appear to have been prosecuted. According to Lecointe, Moscow contains 14,724 nobles, 3101 crown servants, 4383 ecclesiastics, 12,101 merchants, 28,029 citizens, 10,384 artisans, 22,194 military, 1854 manufacturers, 1883 coachmen, 53,541 domestic servants, 72,758 peasants, 19,204 persons of various dciioraini. tions, 2385 foreigners ; in all, 240,000. 3130. Among the other cities, tlie first place, on account of Iti mighty name, must be given ti> Die Grral V'li- vugurud, (Jig. 46.5). I'vw ubjvvti convey more nittlancliuly impreiiioni of falUu granduur than the view of lliii oiuRcii or fir. H.^9t^. ftUimiD rALAcn in mokoit. Booil. RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 809 ma nroud capltol of the North. FIrat the metropolis of Rurick, it became afterwardi an Independent republic, •hicn repelling Tartar Invation, held wide iway over the regioni round the Baltic, and, uniting itaelf to the 465 saUtlND PLAN or KOVUOOIIOII. Seat Hanae confederacy, save rise to e northern proverb, •• Who can re. sist God and tnc great Novognrod t " Even alter Ivan had subdued it, car. rled ofT its great bell, and established his tribunal of blood, it was still ths greatest town, though not the capital, of all Russia. The foundation of Petersburg gave it a more deadly blow than all its former calamities ; and it is reduccti to a third-rate place of 8000 or 10,000 people. Yet the crowd of domes and spires rising from its numerous churches and convents give it still a very magnificent appear, ance in the approach ; but these, on arrival, arc found standing solitary on a vast plain, while the inhabited cir. cuit is only about a mile and a half, a fireat part of which is unoccupied. It s now much surpassed by Nizni (or Little) Novogorod, whose fair, already mentioned, makes it the commercial link between Europe and Asia. Its population varies, according to the season, fVom l.'i.OOO to 150,000. The situation, at the junction of the Oka and the Volga (the latter here navigo. ble for vessels of 1000 tons), is most huppy for trade, but exposes it to the danger of inundation. Vladimir, once the capital of Vladimir the Great, is still a handsome little city, finely si. tuated, and with the remains of a very munificent cathedral. Murom, In Its vicinity, is now a larger town ; and in the forest which surrounds it arc Uie extensive ironworks of Vixn. Tver is a well built, industrious city, grandly situated on the lofty banks of thoVolca. In its district is VIchncy Volosluik, near which is the remarkable canal connecting that river wilh the llttitit\ In the south is Tula, ulreailv mentioned as the main seat of the iron manufacture, which ha railed it rapidly to be a large, thriving, and busy place. Kalouga is also important, from its manufacture of canvaii and coarse woollens, and flrom the fertility of the distrirt. Orel is the capital of a very productive tovemment, and sends great quantities of corn and other necessaries by the Oka to Petersburg. Voro. neti ot Voronejc, almost founded by Peter the Great, has become one of the largest and most populous towns in tlie empire. Situated at the Jimction of the river of its name with the Don, under the mild influence of a "oulhcrn climate, and In a i>lain very fertile in corn, it corries on a very extensive trade with the Black iei. It borilers imme'M. There are several churches and public buildings, on a scale rather suited to its former greatness than to ill incient doeline. Vologda, near the neml of the Dwina, is an industrious manufacturing place, and main- tainiBconildcrable intercourse lietwcen Petersburg and Archangel. 343'J, mUe or Malo- Hutnia, called olso the Ukraine, has undergone various revolutions. It was the centre of Ilussia as (irst known to the Greeks, when Kiev, its capital, was boasted IS a rival to Constantinople. It passed then through the hands of the Tartars and the Poles, till the conquering arms of Uussiu again reunited it, but as an appendant province. The Male Russians are a distinct race, decidedly superior to the Red Rnssians. They excel them, according to Dr. Clarke, in every thing that can exalt one class of men above another : industry, honesty, courtesy, cleanliness, neatness. Their houses are carefully whitewashed, the interior well furnished, and nicely clean. Malo- Russia is one extensive and fertile plain, not so ill cultivated as the rust of the empire, and therefore more populous. The ancient and venerable city of Kiev is majestically situated on an amphitheatre of hills overlooking the broad expanse of the Dnieper. In this situation, the numerous churches and convents of the sacred city, with their gilded domes, make even more than the usually splendid appearance of Russian cities ; but when the traveller has toiled up the steep wooden paved road which loads to it, he meets with the same disappointment. Old Kiev is in a great measure deserted ; though still interesting to the antiquary, as it contains the church of St. Sophia, the oldest in Itussia ; and, if nut an exact model of the church of the same name at Constan- tinople, at least of Uyzantino design. The new town is carefully fortified, though only with earth ; but its walls and its spacious arsenal arc both kept in good repair. The population is usually said to be 40,000 ; but neither Mr. James nor Dr. Lyall allow more than 20,000. Tcheriiiguf and Charcof are considerable nnd well-built towns; the lattt.i* has an university. Pultowa is situated in one of the most productive parts of the Ukraine, and carries on a |)retty good trade; but it U chiolly celebrated fur the great battle in which all the brilliant 810 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part 111. Southern liu»$ia consists of a vast expanse of level plains or steppes, extend' I of the Black Sea, and watered by the great and broad rivers of the Dniepcr'^fh° and the Don. These plains, formerly covered only with luxuriant pasture felt the plough, and produce excellent crops of the finest wheat, capable of « 466 fortunes of Charles XII. were wrecked, and the star of Russia became flnallv aipon^ the north. ' "wenoant in 34:$:). the north i Dniester, and the Don. have now I dering this region the granary of the Mediterranean. " Savage from remotest time "It' the Scythia of Darius ; and all its habits and population continued to lie Scytli'ian T'^ Peter and Catherine infused into it the principles of civilisation, which are now ma'k' rapid progress. The fair provinces of Orel, Koursk, Toula, and Riazan, are descriW by Mr. Brcmner as resembling one vast sea of waving grain. Ekahcrenoslav tl' nominal capital of this empire, situated in the interior, is only a large country town Ode ^ (Jig. 466.), on the Blaik Sea,Ts the real capital and centre of com t^.l'\.<^t. ^A.-t^~ -— - lIIPr"'^.*°' "'.• "'"them Russia. _,i«. i-.U.'^.t, . A-a....3 v - - This city, which has sprung up as if by magic, in the midst of a desert, was founded by Catherine in 1796, on the site of a TarUr village of a few huts. Notwith- standing the efforts of Catliirine and of Paul, it did not attain any „„„„. great importance till the Turlts were obliged to open the naviga. tion of the Bosphorus, and Alexander placed it under the able administration of the Duke de Richelieu. From that time it rose rapidly, till it has become the second commercial city of Russia. It is supposed to contain about 40,000 inhabitants. It is a sort of southern Petersburg, regularly built, with handsome edifices, though on a smaller scale. It labours under the disadvantage of a want of water. In 1835, the exports from Odessa amounted to 2.%192,000 rubles (1,026,000/.). The chief articles were — grain, 6,673,000 riiblis; tallow, 6,384,000 ; wool, 4,764,000; hides, 1,610,000. The imports, stated at 14,328,000 rubles (634,000/.), consisted of all that variety which is introduced into a civilised country devoid of manufactures. There cleared from its port 425 ships, of 98,000 tons, of vliicli 19,000 were British ; value of cargoes 475,000/. Cherson was built, in 1778, as the des. tined port of the Black Sea ; but its unhealthy situation, and the obstructed navigation of the Dnieper, have enabled Odessa to supplant it. It is distinguished by the death of Howard the philanthropist, and a simple monument erected to his memory. Nicolaief isa neat pleasant town, and has become a considerable naval arsenal. The commerce of the Don and *he eastern branch of the Black Sea is carried on by Taganrog, boldly situated on a promontory overlooking the Sea of Azof. It has the disadvantage of water so shalloir that ships cannot approach nearer than ten miles ; while the sea is frozen for nine months in the year. Here the Emperor Alexander died suddenly, in 1825. During the short season of commerce, the throng at Taganrog is immense ; and 6000 waggons are some- times assembled. In 183U2-3, there was exported from it an average annual value of 8,500,000 rubles ; the chief articles being wheat, wool, caviar, iron, and ropes. Azof, im. portant during the war of the Crimea, is only poor village. 3434. The ctmntry of the Don Co*iacks is the chief settlement of that remarkable people, who seem to have nothing Russian in their origin and nature, but to be a mixed Caucasian and Tartar race. They are well known in Europe as the most harassing light troops that ever exercised a predatory warfare in the train of any army. At home, they have eicitLHl the admiration of travellers by the arts and virtues of peace. Tliey are handsomer and taller than the Russians, whom they surpass also in honesty and dignity. " Polished in their manners," says Dr. Clarke, " instructed in their minds, hospitable, generous, disinterested, humane, and tender to the poor ; such are the natives of Tcherkaskoy. They form a sort of independent republic, paying no taxes to Russia, but cheerfully bringing forward their nume- rous and valuable contingent of troops. They drive a pretty brisk trade, and many of them acquire considerable wealth. A matron of Tchcrkask, who walks barefooted, will, per- haps, have a casket of pearls worth some thousand rubles." Tiic original Tchorkask (Jig. 467.) lies on the Don, and is a sort of city floating on the water ; but the unlicalthiuess and frequent inundation hence arising hai caused the erection of New Tchetkask, in a high situation oil the Alsai, a '"""""'• tributary of the Don ; which, fur tiaiio, haa drained the old city of the bulk of its inhabitants. 4C7 Doox J mS. The Crime brated as the solitar Scythian barbarism, settlements in this attached, in a some important city of Tl settlement of Cafl^a, forced, by the distur the Caspian. More some power, ruled ovenvhelming power conquest of the Crim ravages committed by its former prosperity. bold and picturesque, riant climate (Jig. 46i on the terraces of which even in ruin, makes a r less favourabli of Pirckof, commanding the Crimea became Russia .3436. The kingdom of i siiteenth century it was a ' "1 15,50 it yielded to the ar iscd than the bulk of tliat t bestowing still greater attei 'father, and make much so a superior description to part contains great quanti Kasan is reckoned the thirc the most industrious, are T 'tfuced to ashes, in 1815, palace, leaving only the han "lis exclusive use of wood 1 and sends its corn down tl 'wMering immediately on t ncli mineral produce of that leiiza, on its tributary the J '«t in the fisheries of that "'tlie surrounding countries DooK I RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 8il 4(iti liil-KFAIV or AIJIOT nAORrflv THB CXIMKA. <;43<;, T/j« Crimea, the most southern peninsular portion of the empire, was long cele- brated as the solitary link which connected the civilised world with tlie boundless domain of Scythian l>arbarism. Even prior to the time of Herodotus, the Milesians had formed trading settlements in this quarter. Under the name of the Cimmerian Bosphorus, it became attached, in a somewhat precarious maimer, to the empire of Home, which built there the important city of Theodosia. During the middle ages, the Genoese formed the flourishing settlement of CafTa, through which they obtained even the commodities of India, which were forced, by the disturbed state of Western Asia, to take the circuitous route of the Oxus and the Caspian. More recently, under the Crim Tartars, it became the seat of a monarchy of iome power, ruled by a khan, though with a certain dependence upon the Porte. The overnhelming power of Russia, after a most desolating and destructive war, made a complete conquest of the Crimea. The government has since made considerable efforts to repair the ravages committed by its armies ; but it has yet been unable to restore this fine country to its former prosperity. The Crimea is traversed by a range of mountains, not very lofty, but bold and picturesque, and which shelter most beautiful valleys, enjoying a mild and luxu- riant climate (Jig' 468.). It was until a recent period rich in monuments and antiquities belonging to the different nations by whom it has been occupied; but of these it is now in a great measure rifled. Symphe- ropol, which the Russians have made the capital, is pleasantly situated on the western coast ; and, though not well built, has a very handsome cathedral. In the interior from this place !s the Tartar capital of Bakitchiserai, finely situ- ated among romantic hills, en the terraces of which the houses are built; and the palace of the khans (fg. 469.), even in ruin, makes a magnificent oI)ject. At the opposite extremity, Caffa, once called the Crimean Constantinople, has 469 been reduced by the Russians al- most to a heap of ruins ; but it is beginning to revive. One of the most remarkable features is that of the excavated rocks in the valley of Inkerman ; where they appear hewn into chapels^ >:e!ls, and other apart- ments, which astonish by their va- riety and intricacy. They are sup- posed to have been the work ot fugitive Christians during the ages of persecution. The strong fortress (if Perckof, commanding the narrow mouth of the peninsula, has lost its importance since the Crimea became Russian. 3436. The kingdom of Xasan forms a semi- Asiatic member of the empire. Down to the iiitecnth century it was a Tartar kingdom, held by a branch of the posterity of Zingis ; but in I5,;0 it yielded to the arms of Ivan. The people are still chiefly Tartars, and more civil- ised than tile bulk of tliat race ; cultivating the ground with diligence, exporting corn, and bestowing still greater attention on their flocks and herds. They also tan, and even embroider leather, and make much soap. There are extensive forests of fine oak, and other trees of a superior description to those found in the north and centre of Russia. The eastern part contains great quantities of iron, copper, and other valuable minerals. The city of Kasan is reckoned the third in the empire ; having 40,000 inhabitants, of whom 12,000, and tlie most industrious, are Tartars. The city being built and its streets paved with wood, was reduced to ashes, in 1815, by a great conflagration, which consumed the cathedral and palace, leaving only the handsome church of St. Peter and St. Paul. In the rebuilding of it, this exclusive use of wood has been discouraged. Viatka is connected with northern Russia, and sends its corn down the Dwina to Archangel. Perm is a rude wooden town ; but, Meriiig immediately on the Urals and on Asia, it thrives by transmitting westward the rich mineral produce of that chain of mountains. Simbirsk and Samara, on the Volga, and Penza, on its tributary the Sura, are similar wooden towns ; which have considerable employ- ment in the fisheries of that river, and in conveying by it to the capitals the plentiful produce of the surrounding countries. I'AI..u:l UV THK KHAM or THB CKIHBA. HIH DEISCIUPTIVE OEOORAPHY. Pau III. Chav. XVII. ORKICB. 3437. GrwM, thougli Iwitrlnft no great a name, and occupying go high a place in our recolloctioni, had coowtli until uf lati*) to bo voniidcrcd as having any actual existence. The torrent of Ottoman cuni|iivi«t, ovurwlivlining oU the institutions and monuments of the classic ages, suumod to liavu ol)IIU*rnti> 10. Orlirend 11. Kalkandere I«. Katchlanik 13. Uikupior8co|ila 14. Comanuva 15. Caralova 16. Ouluenilil 17. Djoumaka 18. Raalouk 19. Neicrokor SO. Vrondou 21. Menllk •it. PclroTilch 83. Llbanovo S4. StroumniUa U. HadoTtu 16. lull! 57. TickTcch 80. Crfichofo 31. loirga St. Dibra Foal 33. Ubre 8lpn .ia 7i!, CdiumMi iir Orfdiiu 73. OfMiva 74, IMi^hlk 75. Lanuaia 76. AviMhiuw 77, .fenitlla 78, ViHluiia 70, onirnva 811. Plurlna Sl.Cauorl* H'i, HiohlitlM H.I. Nu>U Kl, Ouuiinl H.'i, Itoinlua M. I'liiiita 87. I'iwI 88, Catlunara 8U, I'liuura W. I'cialnital 91, Faurea m. Itarma< hi 93, l.t!lnvit)(l 94, Khloiilmtiia 05, lldtfituiw 96, l«|Hilll 07. Uruvim 98, NIalUl* 90. Cailarl, or Hat I. CI JoaliM 101. raraiihorlai or Vuria in>, riilaki* un. NaiMilg* mi, Nnlna \M. Hariarl* IIM. Nldero KmpI 107, 'IVhimili JiiM. Vntm inn, OaHandriA (lain 1 10, Pfinariu 111. PanamI 11'^, idlnia 113, Oalarln IH, INilvandoa I Ifi. KsrllmuiUUIl llfi.CiOaiil IW.Nurvia 118. I^Htvull III). Kimll,A iWli Miillnl Met!' ('Ink* 41. rrvnilil «K, l.tlamvu 1,1. ArMyriwadtrD V/l> (riniiltwl Oreoiea W. yailiiiia tiia 4l.iM«lm 44. kUilllMi 4;,Niiii1>,iiri|ull 4N, Lfliikll 4.1. MIounI 44. Thaumaco 4.1. AiinacoTO 411, Pactoiul 47. Arta 48. l.oruul 40, I'reTeia Ml, Vonitu 51. DrBAomeatre 54. (Baluchi 63, MlMolonRlU 64, Vracborl 6.1. ZdlchoTO 66. Carpenltia 67. I'.ftrail|lk uit. Mdorikl 61 1. LviMinto 611, Aiiiuurnnl 6I.Uala>ldl 04. Haliina 113. Itplphl Caitrl 64. TlierniopyliB 66, lluudounllxa 66, Tnlania 07. Knprena 08. I.itadia 611. Anprnspllla 70, Xcromala 7l.l,>'rka 74, ThrlMs 73, Kukia (Plilsa) 74. (Irolniada 76. Marathon 70. Ml. Penlelicua 77. Marrolwuln 78. Port Mandil 7U. A|uni 811. Allinii 81. LetMlna 84. M>, I'ama 83, Mf,f{ara 84. Cmchrea 86. Corinth 86. Xaraca 87. Acraw 88. Vmtllu 8U. I'alru Ull, A«ln 01. Manolada 04. (laabiunl 93. roumanl 04. I>>rinia 06. Fbiirlldl OB, Ml, Palall* 07, IJila 98, I.Biimdla 00. KaliiakI inn. Tripollua 101. ArKOS tns. N«nra 103. Btiphlni 104. PotamI* la). Caatrt 106. Naiwll di Ro- mania 107. Auroa 108. HI, Pierre 109. Cor.iki 110. Urodltza 111. ArKBliana 114. Klbiura 113. Arcadia 114. Ml. Condo- vouno 116,01dNaTarin 116. Neocaitron. or Navarln 117. Modon 118. Coron 119. Petalldl 140. Androuua 141. Calaniata 144. Leondari 14,1. Arapaulo 144. Prastoa 146. Mlitra 146. Nparte 147. Port Holle, or Stllo 148. Port Karl 149. Napoll dl Mai- vasia l.m, Haglo Lindi 13l,Rupina 1.14. Kolokyna 133. Trinlua 1.14. Marathonlll 136. fardamoula 116. Chiniova 137. Maina 138. UuajiUa. ISr.E OF NEUKOl'OST. 1. Hmim 4. TaTanta 3, Achmet .Vga 4, Canelll 6. Nef{To]iont 6. Koumi 7. Htoura 8. Carjsto. Rtitrt. 8 Rojana b Mn c Mattia d Illslna e SrambI, or Stobi f Beretlno, or Ergent R Vogutaa, or Aous h Demltio i Arglro iCatmaa MaTro.poluiot 1 Lourcha m Arta n A&pro.palamM Fidarls p Akopo q Mavro-potann ll'upils Lake r Ilell.ula 1 Salaldiia t Salembria u Ndzilitza T Inldje w Vanlar X Str\nion J AiikMsU 1 .Meito, Riitri in Iht ,V,Teri, tliat we r ght linve captured hundreds, nay, thousands. Tliat elegant and uncommon insect, the Panorpa Coa of Linnatus, at the same season, may be met with in plenty on all the open plains, together with several species of A/yr* melton ; one of a very large size, and not hitherto describefl. 3446. One of the most fingular domeilicaled animal) is the Turkish pig, more common, however, in Greece : the head of this race is short and narrow, the ears erect and pointed, the legs and body very short; the hair ire frizzled, and the colour is usually dark grey. The ihiands of Candi* mil Crete are lioth remarkable for two peculiar breeds of sheep. •UT The Crfinn sheep, from the unusual character of thrlr homa, have been, by «ome, conaidcrcil a itUtlnct .floi fnmi the doinesticatcU race. Thcit form U handtonie \ the lioriit are long, and ftirnlihed with a atrung fVontal ridge i thoac of the ram generally form a complete cir. cle at the baac, and then turn in three additional apirul twists, RHceiiding vertically ; the tall la long, and the whole body co. vcrcd with coarae undulating wool. In the female the horns are divergent, atrnight, and twisted into four turna on their own axia. From tliia l>rccd haa deaccndcil the Wallacliiah, 3448. The wilit Muamon sheep (Jilt- *T^) *» •"" a»»l to be found in Candia, aa well aa in the higheat mnuntahia of 8ar. dlnla and Coralca. M.-iJor Smith conaiilers that thia apecles makca the nrareat approach to the varioua ihmicatic racua now diaperacd over Europe. The horna are rather abort, and curved backwarda, the pointa being turned inwarda ; the uaual colour la brownlah or liver-rolourc much arched, Ihcae nnlmals never <|uit the highcat ridgea, where they live in small herda, headed by an old male ; but occasionally unite in flocka of near 100. It la doubtf\il whether thia siicciea be apeelHcally the aame with the wild ahcep, formerly abundant in Spain, and probably in all the high primilivo mountains of leini>eratc Europe. :!44g. The Albanian (log has been celebrate^l from remote antiquity. It is still a very fine and pure breed, as big as a mastitt', with very long, thick, silky fur, generally of iliflerent shades of brown ; die tail is long and bushy ; the legs seem more calculated for strength than excessive speed, being stouter and shorter than those of the greyhound ; the head and jaws are lengthened, and the nose pointed. We suspect that the famous large black spwiels of Mount Etna and Calabria must have originated from this classic race. Sect. III. Historical Geography. 3450. The hislorical ages of Greece include one of the most splendid portions of the annals of mankind, and, if treated in any detail, would far exceed our limits. We can but rapidly indicate the leading epochs. These are, — 3451. Tlie early or heroic ages, when the different valleys of Greece were ruled by petty prinres, afterwards called tyrants. To this age belong the exploits of Hercules, Theseus, and oilier chiefs exalted into demigods, for the zeal with which they redressed and punished oppressions, of which many of these petty chieftains were guilty. The Trojan war col- lected together the scattered portions of the Grecian people, made them known to each other, and gave a great impulse to the national mind. 3452. The era of the freedom and glory of Greece began when the different little i^tates threw off the yoke of their tyrants, as they now called them, and erected themselves into independent republics. The enthusiasm produced by this evont was wonderfully heightened when all the armies of the East, united under the standard of the Great King, were vanquished in a series of battles the most glorious which history has ever recorded. Greece now took the lead among all the nations of the world ; and in the succeeding period, though her strength was unfortunately wasted by intestine dissensions, she added to her military glory that of carrying eloquence and the arts to a perfection which has served ns a model to all succeeding ages. 3453. The conquest by Macedon subverted the liberty of Athens and Sparta, and with it all their greatness and glory. Yet Greece, as identified with Macedon, saw her conquests carried to the most distant regions; and Greek kingdoms, Greek laws, and the Greek language prevailed from Egypt to the borders of India. Even Greece itself, especially at the period of the Achaean league, threw out some brilliant sparks of her ancient flame; and letters and arts continued to be cultivated, though not with the same ardour. 3454. The conquest by Rome terminated the political existence of Greece ; yet in some respects she subdued even her conquerors. Her fame in arts and eloqlience remained undiminished ; and the greatest of the Romans, and all who aspired to eminence in learning, came to study in her schools. Athens continued still to be the intellectual capital of Greece, and even of the civilised world. I 8t« UF.SCRJPTIVE OEOOUAPHY »'*»» III. M5S. The cotu/utst fry th* OUommu finally extlnguiitlicd in Grccco every thins tl remained of her ancient grcatneu. The Greeks were madu " the tilavcs of aluvcn '- and "' their character became deeply tinctured with the degradation which, in nuch cirJumstnn^"' can scarcely be avoided. The mountains, however, still afl'urded shelter to numorousbanr who, under brave niid hardy cliiefs, not only maintained a pruiticnl iiitlependence, but curr' 'l devastation into tlie neighbuui'ing plains. "" 3456. Alleinpti at emancipiitinn were not wanting, even in the periods of ihe crrat' t depression of Greece. Supported by Venice, the Muinotcs rose, in the end of the sevi* tcci'ih centurv, and mainlainey '''"''^ fiiNtnvwHiWi tliuy vltlivr niiilntniiiud nn original iiidvpciidunce, or attainud ii g(« unJ on the duolino of tliu 't'«irkliili power. Many of thuni vure at tint sheplivrdii, fhtnci.' thvy roao to Im) robhoH, and nt lunt to Imj ohlctli, Hoinewlint Himilar to the hcnds of the Highlxn'l olant. Thuir adhurvntN nru not hcldt however, liy tlii> Mmu di>i>p hereditary ituchmeiit, hut uhiefly by hopon of pay | and when thcHu diminiNh they readily enlist into u giDK profitablo aurvicu. Colonel Htunhope Iiim Kiven 8tonaro as a specimen of a capituno. Ht hi'liuitain tops behind stone wallu, through fbich they make loopholes, and lire with great dexterity ; but they studiously avoid either I pitched battle or the storming of u fortilled post. The attempts to raise a regular force luicd, partly through want of means and management, and partly flrom the disdain the free HiJien enter* lined for mechanical tactics. The Morea, it is said, can muster 15,000 lighting men ; .'s recently published the following financial statement ; — Ye«ns. Kkvknuk, RxpBKnrruRE. UrncttiitKii. Urachinu. isas 7,(H'>',iKHi . laxMMn )I,4,'>.'>,Atl cattle, and iinty in some quarters is irrigation pracliied witli diligenrc ; yet so Rvnial nru thu cliinnto Riiil snll, timt tlio harvests arc generally more plentiful than in England. Wheat, barley, and ninisi> uro uhU'Hy ciiltivntetl, and ut' each there is some suridus fur ex- I»rtation. Cotton, for which the demanil Is now so oxtviislve, la raised tna very great extent, es|>ccially In the pliios of Macedonia, and forms the chief ImsIs of Its eX|Kl 818 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pakt 111, 3469. Cammeree, for which Greece is certainly well ndapted, Imd l>ccn carried to a crvat height before the war of independence. During that Mrug|rlo it wns nearly lost, but is n beginning to revive. Instead of Hydra, however, the island of Syra has booume its cli^'^ emporium. In 1835 there entered her ports H'J3 vesovlii, tonnage 107,267 • value rf cargoes 445.000/. There cleared out 2635 vessels, tonua.'to 111,480; value of cars . 406,570?. Patrasand Napoli are the chief cmporia of the Moren. In 1834 the form bad about 10,000 tons inwards and outwards j the imports were ^tAyxnA at 9a 200/ tl" exports at 130,800/. Of the former 30,000/., and of the latter 1 17,500/., wore to Gr-at Britain. Of these exports nine-tenths were in currants. In 1«3«, tlie total exports hnl risen to 137,700/., of which 129,600/. were British. In 1836, the imporis into Napoli wore valued at 45,230/., the exports at 19,200/. Of the former 9700/., of the latter only 70(V were British. In that year, the imports into Britain from the Morea a. il Greek islamis consisted of 4?,286 cwts. currants, and 38,800 gallons of olive oil. Tlie exports of British produce amounted to 28,800/. ; these were very various, the largest heads being, cottons 8280/., and refined sugar 7100/. The mercantile navy if Oreeco in 18!l6 comprised 3031 vessels, tonnage 91,550, crews 15,700. S«CT. VI. Civil niul Social Slat*. 3470. The population of Greete, considered in its large sense, is ostiinnte*! by Hciujour ci- elusive ofthe islands, at 1,920,000; being, for Macedonia 700,(XX); Epirus ^(X),(XX) ; i'liessalv 300,000; .ffilolio, Phocis, and Boeotia 200,000; the Morea !«X),0()0; Attica 'JO,(XX). This is reckoned by many too small, and, in Mr. Maclaren's opinion, may he raiwd to '2,700,000 That portion which forms the kingdom of Greece is ratere8tling in a manner ihich appeared to PouqueviUe entirely stinilar to that which, according to ancient writers, was practised at the Olympic games. They present themselves undressed fVom the waist upwards, music plays, they advance with neaiured steps, beating time, and animating themselves by humming certain airs. At the close of the contest apriie ii bestowed on the victor. StlS. The dress of the Greeks is formed on the model of the Turkish, cither from imitation, or it like manna fVom heaven ; liut their extravagant use is suspected to be injurious to the beallh. The Greek pastry, combined of honey and oil, is indigestible to any stomach but tliat of a Ureek. Sect. VII. Loral Geography, 3477. In making a local iurvey of Greece, we shall begin with the central districts, these being most decidedly and essentially Greece ; thence proceeding to the outer region, till it passes gradually into Mahometan Turkey ; and conclude with the islands. 3478. Athens, notwithstanding the smallness of its territory, forms the point in which centre all the high associations connected with the name of Greece, and contains, also, its most splendid monuments. These motives have had so powerful an influence, that king Otho has fixed here his capital, which had at first been Napoli. Tlie city has assumed a modem aspect ; a palace is building of Fcntelican marble ; rows of new and neat houses have been reared amid the ancient structures, of which travellers of taste complain that they do not altogether harmonise. Venetian and Turkish buildings intermixed increase the variety. A railway is forming to the Fixeus ; and though the city does not seem to have regained much of that commerce which anciently distinguished it, yet the resi- dence of the court, and the resort of enlightened travellers, give to it a somewhat gay ■PpearanAe. 3479. Athct'S, however, derives still its chief interest fVom ancient monuments. Here are maintained, iu wonderful preservation, the grandest existing monuments of sculpture ind architecture, — the works of a Phidias and an Ictinus, which raised those who planned them to the pinnacle of renown. The edifices of Rome, indeed, are more extended, more varied, the residt of ampler wealth and resources ; but those of Athene: are in a style of purer and severer grandeur, and l)car the stamp of loftier genius. So durable, os *cl> u beautiful, arc the materials of which they arc composed, that they have survived all 3 G 2 !| 8U0 DliSCIlIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pari III. 47J I'lit.tn Ar ArhKM. 474 liinf ^^ ^K^'^i^ the ravRgcH of tiino and barbuiimn ; and their partial decay, in many instances, hasonlv a to thoin a inoro itolumii and nfll'cting character. They have suflTered, indeed, certain dif pidations from British virtuosT against which recent traveller^ have entered a very vehement protest. Perhaps the benefit accruing to ourselves from the present position of Uiese superb sculptures may sway our jiidg. ment ; but we cannot help ob. serving, that, at the era of tlieir removal, they were almost beyond the reach of all civilised spec- tators; and that now they wi|| be seen by comparatively thousands to one, and much more leisurely and commodiously than in their original Hitc ; and there is still enough at Athens to gratify the roost eager research uf the studc it of artit and antiquity. 3480. The Acropolis, crowtieil with the Parthenon (Jig. 473.), forms the most conspicuous object with which Athunn, and almost any city, is adorned. It is seated on an almost pre- cipitous hill, cumuianding nil the surrounding country. The Parthenon, or Temple of Minerva (y?({.4"4.), was orectod by Pericles during the most classic age of Athens. It was of the finest white marble, en. compassed with eight fluted columns of the Doric order, and adorned with the sculpture of Phidias. It did not sustain any deadly injury till 1687, when the Venetians unJw Kiinigsmark threw a bomb into it, demolished the roof, and mudi in- jured the whole fabric ; after which, the Turks began to hew matcriaij out of it, and to convert tiie interior into a mosque. It is now moulder- ing in all the solemnity of ruin. To Dr. Clarke the edifice appeared an eminently satisfactory proof of the decided superiority of Athenian design over any thing that Home can boast ; a masterpiece of architecture, uniting the greatness and majesty of the Egyptian or ancient Etruscan style, with all th' elegant proportions, the rich ornaments, and the discriminating taste of tho most splendid era of the arts. In graceful proportion, in magnificence, in cost- liness of niuturiuU, iit splendid decoration, and in every thing thai may denote the highest degree of improvement to which the Doric style ever attained, it has no equal. In all thai relates to grandeur, harmony, elegance, and beauty, the Parthenon is universally acknow- ledged a model ; even the minute details of the sculpture by which it is so higlily decorated liavo the delicitcy uf n cameo. These sculptures, of which such fine specimens arc now exhibited in the British Museum, rank perhaps as the very noblest examples of that art, Dr. Clarke notices, in particular, the immense frieze, on which the whole Panathenaic fes- tival was rcpa'Kontcd in one continued basso-rilievo design, originally 600 feet in ler.gtli. 348 1 . The multitude ofKrand ol{jects in Athent is too great for our limits to allow us to enter into more than a verv general enumeration. Among the foremost may be named a range of sixteen superb coluinns, believed to be the remains of one hundred and sixteen whicli belonged to the temple of Jupiter Olympiits. In 1676 there were seventeen; but a few years before Chandler's visit, the pacha had, with incredible labour, levelled one to ilie ground, fur the purpuxo of raising a mostjuc out of the materials. The others are still standing, sixty feet high, and about six feet in diameter, a splendid example of the Corinih- ian order, and built of the ver) finest 47.'5 =^i::'...::-.:,,: :,;criail'sJ,:^;r3. marble. The Erechthcum (^. 47J.), though it consists of the two tcinplcs of Minerva Polias and of Pandrusus, is less extensive than tlie two just j mentioned ; but perhaps surpasses j them in the extreme delicacy of in | sculpture and ornaments, and is con- sidered the finest existing specimra i of the Ionic. The caryatides wliitli | support the Pandroscum are of puf- 1 ticularlv exquisite workmanship. '^ rAltrMMNMN. •'^■•i::'mm^ ■ Hit Itf lllUIMi Book I. troaimrnt of this I] magulno; unti X\\t fundi hnvo bovii lii crectwl l>etwecn th( C4t() ornaments ; In st^sitl a never. ftt,|i„g m. There nrfniDfrtt^ ihoUntorn of Domtnlhc imnumi'iitofl'lillc.iiNi.iHi, iilcamloullinixNiMiKiwli Ilirwlcj Altleiii." || |, , siracturc, on which iiUArr '«■' '™«. ha« liwn mililwi prni the nilml with «ii 1.1,. nio.t|*rft«..tstnlo, 'n„, ,„ fonn, but lnpx|irM«|i,|y »,. gr.mleurnflt»„,,,„^,J«", with ce CliornRlc monument ofThrasyllus; the mnrWc Tower of the Winds ; the ninmimi'iil nf I'lilldiiaiUHK i wlilch rxi'lte the aihniration of the traveller. There are others of which only the sile ami oullinu rnn now Ih> trntH'tl : nurli Is the Stadium, " the most wonderful of all the marvellous works of lliroilm Alllou«." It l« ft)rnn'd liy nn cxrnvated mountain, the ranges of scats occupying its lolly sides. This siruclmc, on which (Hmrrlen were rxlm\i«tc liccn iiiil))(Hi sciences. Tho Turks themselves had laid a .le sor.iewhat i>rtlieir pompous barti.iri, n>. It is remarkab'' thnt, alter having h:c-: formerly so distingur !•> 1 at amaritin'i: c/i'. , if had not a single ship belonging to 't. It bccai>'o, hoi ..ver, an important military position, the Urceks hav. ing found e spring of water in the Aero. polls : after this discovery it wan considered nearly impregnable, yet it again fell into the power of the Turks. While the ancient edifices nearly defied the ravages of war, about a third of the modern houses have liccn destroyectri(ying stream trickles down the rock. On tho southern frontier extends the plain of Mara- thon {fie. 478.), long and narrow, covereil witli rich crops of grain ; but the traveller looks in vain lor the columns, on which were recorded the ir.imortal names of its heroes. The great tumulus or barrow, however, with a bush or two growing on it, still towers abq^e I I ti'kii'ici »T iii««iitiiim. 1 G :i 8Vfi DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P'.M iir. 479 the level of the plain. On the north-west extremity of Attica Is Elcuili, the seat of those thricc.iupri.j mysteries in which almost every nation, Greek or liarbarian, came In such crowds to be initiated ThpnT >- '.2SP''vP]2""^ 'T '"'n"'. the arehi° »«\of the Parthenon, itfcr, onl. .■Jff:: ,, .;:■,.. < • . .;v "i"""" fragment, to attest it. J„S * . . - ^ . place as onoof the grandest Sc^ of «'««!«• ,OPP°»itetoiti.thcilaM of Sulamis (flgm), separated ™m the continent by tnose narrow stralu the scene of that grand naval battle w glorious to Alliens, which complcteW broke the tide of Persian invasiin lu port had Iwcn nil«i up, and the i.'und was occupied merely by a handful of Albanian husbandmen, till the Isto ^- - It to aftbrd shelter to crowds of fuoi »■■"""■" *"" "■■*>'i" tives from the continent. csoeciX Jlrom Dceotia. Mr. WaJdInirtori fminX its population thus raised to 11,500, of whom only 193 were natives; and since that tiir„> t'.e calarait m nf Athens and Iiisara have added to the number. At the opposite or northern extremity of Attica anncars tho temple of Minerva Sunias, a fabric of white marble, and exquisitely beautil\iL It is of the Uoric order nf the same style, and seemingly belonging to the same age, as the Parthenon. There arc twelve columns s'ini standing, the cftfcct of which is greatly heightened by their position on a steep and lofty caiic, whence thov look down on the wide expanse of the subject deep, and are visible 'a. Few traces also remain of the arts, of which tills opulent and voluptuous city was considered as the school. The chief is the theatre, which remains almost entire, and appeareil to Dr. Clark to surpass every other in nreecc, in the harmony of its proimrtions, the costlincci of its workmanship, the grandeur of the Koilnn, and the stu|«ndousprosi>ect presented. 34K8. Argolit, a more extended plain, to the right of the isthmus, forms a long peninsula parallel to that of Attica. It consists chiefly of a plain, bordered by very high mountains, anil of very peculiar beauty, his divided into delicious valleys covered by cultivated fields, or filled with myrtles, flowering shrubs, and trees, and each of which ap|K'urs to be sccluileil from tlie rest of the world. The shepherds from the innuntains are heard playing on their reed pi|>e8, as in the ages of poetic fiction. The cities of Argolis arc the mott ancient in Greece, and their monuments bear the stamp of the Egyptian and Doric style, marked rather liy stu|>endous magnitude than by the refliienient of art. It was even believed I" 'Greece th.it they were tho work of a Cyclo|>ean race of gigantic stature ; a notion, as Ur. CLtrke observci, which every nation his cntertainconses were delivered by the unseen priest in the name of thegixl, the sound being heightened by the rocks so as to produce a striking efibct. Aritos has been, in modern times, a large straggling place, the houses rather commodious, though not well built. Thenci Kovernment had fonncil there at one time a sort of capital, jiarticularly marked by cstublishincnts for ediic* tion, but according to the most recent .iccounts, tlie war had reduced it to a state of .-tliniist tntal di'siiialioni IVoin which, however, it is beginning to revive. The ruins of Tiryns fuim n still mure sluliing mitt than Book I. Ih.iie of Myceiiie, and earr ingsrelhewallsof tho Acr like that of Hercules, (Vnm Ihrfcfecthigh. As an cxni t(iv|it. These walls cxistMl hi>'«l(C,nnd Ihcy arc likely t m>. Sttuiilia, which tho ' Aritoi, and possesses every Mrniuiiilnl by impregnable I lure ilefendirs. The |>ort, tl hucsn'icd on in modern tini Ariiolit, Slid of the Interior I hive iiuilc It their capital an Mil h«l just lieforc been carr in there, np()eared to l)e V>,{ itirk, and dirty ; nor Is itdist ;H!ll. Aigolis cimlaiiu othe prcwnl only a village, situatct iheir lint ciiiistiluent assembi umii by the ancients ns the I unie other tHiillces. These ni Ikjric anil Ionic orders, 'i'lic t ukI lortiiltea, Jiistilles the desi llirniiln, sainnll but rather tlir hliments rcniHiii i but there a Jiring the lower ogoi. 3192. The hij-h plain of uf tlial of Affjolis. 'i'hi ^'liioniy features. It l.yca'iis; it i.s in iiiony pur In spring nnd siii>iincr, \m\ it enjoys II delicious nnd sa lii'Miml in rertilisiiig uliowe ,ll|ilieiis, inif;alt> tlic fields llijilis still lecd ill its vulli'v; pu'lry ami liible. Kvcry ft iiMilcd by Hiiiiis, and cvc Bjniplis .sported among (|„ presence. Hero lin-rei'fd li ofllie first n{;es, hIh.h f|,i,y riineniliroiu'cs are still not n limii'lhe abode of peati-, win lili'. The |iopiilatioii consist 3M.1, Tri/iolkxn, tlio 'I'liil pWii, at the Coot of ftlounl ^ asilicnhodc of winter. Sir V lilt only iijriy s|iot of liis dm rouiilry, uiiil under the worsi IH)|miinesus, an ! r .,(. „(I' in., "all, wliicli rendered it nn Juriii)! the late contest. Fii nirrod a deep ami lastinjr ri;,i ^u". Afleruards it yieideti « much, that it could „„ lot Fflia, a vast wooden Imildin >ul)url) to the town, |,ns lici'ii c Pniicipal houses, wliicli wore i ijuii many piecitnis frn,(5ini.nls I »y are inserted. Tlie 'I'mk!. "^"■cjcsniay not lie woiindci *'•■ Thi- nihi-r cities of the Areno Y» l«.n .leinolislusi by the „;,,,, , WidintiMhemilltnryra^ta I, lW,ilssi,itsrover(-.lwitheimh 1 ™ Houuncvillesiniglui, va Vi'r Jl! ''ra'curMinerolaiidfe llm "ll',*i.ho.ll,vtlie<)pl,i,, „,,;,' , ;''nioi1ur«l |l,,t „ /i,!, ',^','^,V , MN'i;ila8ehi,„li,f«„iii(. (.niliience ii •^ralia, a (linirisliing litll " «" w '''••I"" ''i'.v, nor dwsl , re . tan 'Ml yillagcol' .Siiirri. (-nstJiM ,, in .■cirouii„r,ho«,iii. IS In any r'; I ' icKM. II Ispliieed iiioiieofl Boon I. GRKECE. flSS ittM nf Mycciias nnil curry back tlic minil into n itill more 8Dlcmn antiquity. The only itructurei remain. M are tliu wnllt nl' tlio Acroi)i>lla, cncloaing u npacc of 244 yanii by 54. Their strength is Kc, however, 11°, tint of Hercules, IVoin whom they arc namcil ; lieinp twenty-one feet to twenty.ilve feet thick, anil forty. ihtwri'ct hiKh' As an example of human (lowcr, they iiave been |ilacc existwl l)el'oro llimicr, by whom they arc celebrated ; they have remained entire since Ini aiiCi aixl ""-'y '"'° likely to brave the attacks of time throuah a much longer period. J0I, .Viin;>/<"i which the Venetians have modernised into Napoli, is situated at the head of the Gulf of Arsoi »"■' po*"'-'**^" every requisite of a great naval capital. It stands on a long narrow promontory, wrroundnl by impregnable heights, which woidd render it, like Corinth, another Gibraltar, were it held by Hire (Icreiulirs. The |>ort, though its depth has diminishcil, is still the best and most secure in the Morea. It w uriicd uii in modern times a very considerable trade in the export of wine, oil, and 8i>onges ; the staples of Anioli'i »"'' "' "'" '"'<"'"' Morea. Since the revolution, the Greeks, destitute of ony other secure hold, hive iiwie it their capital and seat of government. Clarke reckoned it to contain only 2UUU inhabitants, but tun hsil jiiat lieforc been carrieilull'by the plague. The number by which it was crowded when Mr. Emerson Hi tlicrc'i uppvared to lie t.'i,(IU<). 'I'he interior is ugly, the streets being, as described by Pausanios, narrow, ituk ami <''''y • "'"' '' " 'I'ltliiftulshcHl by any striking ancient monuments. *ll. Aienlii amiaitu other spots that awaJcen interesting recoUeclions. Epidaurus, now Pithauri, is at nwiit "Illy village, situated in a narrow, but fertile and licautiAil vale. Near it, however, the Greeks held iheir llrtt ciiiistituuiit assembly, to which tliey gave this classic name. A few miles from it is the grove, held i.irr»l bytlie ancients as the birthplace of Ajt!M. Thr olliir eilies of the Areiiilinn tilahi present few monuments of their ancient tame ; these, indeed, luvolHTiiilemnliiihiHl liy the people of 'I'rtpoliitzii, which, th(.ugh not itself ancient, has been built out of Ihtni. Liiiann, a iniseriilile t'lilleelion nl day huts, iiivirs the site of the once prouil Megalopolis, which the 'I'helian htm laiseil into the niilitarv capital of l'elo|>oiiiiesus. Only its theatre, the largest in Greece, can still be traced, its Hcittirnvered wit li earth and overgrown with hnslies, and a lew fragiiu'nt.s of its walls facing the Helis. wn. Hiiuimeville »iiiighl in vain for Minitina'a, it.s eielit tiniples, and the site of the great li.ittle, In wliieli E|ffliiiii(iiida« ei::M|nereil anil fell ; lint Sir VV, (fell could (race, in its flat marshy site, the regular circuit of its »lli,wntlice ooasu the pcmnsula have risen several modern E?'H..'"^.i''""^"''".'=''i Navarino, one of "n best harbours 1,1 the i'clopoi.nesus, in a fine plain, and of considerable strenRth holh ft could not withstand the Kgyptian a™ Modon, the ancient Mcthone^f^Jnd c""o„' on or near the Corone of t'paminonda. • neither of which places are now of mucl ^onswiucncc. .'Hyfl. The penimula qf Maina is almost entiriiy fliiuil with l.ie l>ranchesof the rugged Taygetua nhich rises from tlic sea as it were by steps, and shoots up into lofty aiul snowy pinnacles. Though not so c'lcvated as those of the Alps, they are seen under a bright sKy, and display, it is said, e»i.(?cially when viewed from thr coast of Laconia, tints more l>eautiful than on any other European mouiitninn. Tlic rocks arc naked hard and shar)): and fragments of them arc often employed as hones. This rugged region n inhabited bv the Mai' notes J a (irceic race, who, if not genuine descendants of the Spartans, havo inherited at least all their hardv spirit. Tlicy have ever been the defence of the Greek nation in war, and it. scourge in praoc. The Mainolos quite unlike other (irecks, have a Iwild and manly air, which awes even a Turk. The population is disttibutni through upwnrils of 100 villages, ruled by seven or eight oapitani, who somewhat resemlilo tlie Hiehland lairds during their fullest period "( ulannish indepcndcnci'. i'he Mainotes hav3 all the barbarous virtuci the stranger who truats to their h;/spi'.Jity ttnils it boundless, and may pass in safety l>om one end of Maiiia to the other. The women, who arc uncommonly h.-.ndsmne, and of fair complexion, are much better treated than females arc in the rest of Oreuce or Turkey. Tliey are neither conlincd nor degraded ; and in return thcv distingulth themselves by the<~ conjugal lidclity and active household management ; and, not content with the virtlU'S of their own sex, they emulate those of the other ; sallying forth at the head of warlikebanili and setting cxnoiplcs of masculine prowess. The weapon of the Mainotes is the rifle, to which they are trained (Vom their infancy, and which they use with matchless dexterity. They are the very best of licht mountain troops, in which ca|>arity they have repeatedly cleared the Morea from enemies, and oppresicd it themselves. TTie rocky southern extremity, towards Cape Tasna^'is or Matapan, is held by the Caconvionotts a race who seem a sort of caricature of the Mainotes, having all their tierconcss, without any of their rcdecminii qiin'iities. The towns of Maina are little more than vill.iges; of which Dolus, in the interior, containing 500 liouses, is said to he the largest. Marathcnissi and Kibrecs are small sea-|>orta, the occasioml residence of the beys. To the north-west oiiens the beautiful plain of Calamata, with the large Aourishin;; villageof that name, which, though recently destroyed, must in due time revive. M91. Tlie third peninsula contains thu country of Isakunia, which seems evidently a corruption of Laconia. Its north-easterr head receives the Eurt *as, on whose banks the traveller has to seek for the remains of I^acedaiinon. In approit :hiiig them Iiis eye is struck by Misitra, a more modern capital, which seems to have ar.fjn under the Greek empire. Misitra, extending by successive stages up the sides of an extensive hill, has a magnificent appearance, and might be taken for the metropolis of a large empire, rather than that of the deserted vales 482 of Laconia. The entrance into it produces (lisuppointment;llie streets being narrow, winding, and dirty, and presenting no important edifice ancient or modern. At a few miles' dis. tancc, however, is iraced the site of Sparta, covered «illi extensive ruins; hut these, 10 our disappointment, are found to be not those of the austere votaries of Lyciirgus; theyare the "theatre {Jig. iH'2.)' id other gay structures erected by Rome atler Sparta was reduced to subjection. Only one small building, partly of brick, might be a tomb of one of the 'tncient kings." Laconia is a long level woodland, from which rise, in romantic and fantastic forms, the summits of Taygetus. It lias, however, one important port, ii>"i\ di Malvusiu, whence a much esteemed wine is exported, and some other trade is carried on. 'M9S. rA« nurMi rn coast, extending along the Gulf of Lepanto.and comprehending the ancient Eli) ml Achaia, alone remains to rompl"te the picture of the Morea. It Is a very fertile plain, producing the l«l wine in Greece, and the finest currants in the world. In the classic antiquary it excites tli.^ deepest inlerrsi, as containing the sites of tlisand Olympia, or rather i'isa, the scenes of those games to which Greocethronenl frjm her remotest valleys, and those sacred precincts, on entcrir which the most hostile bands dcpositeil then arms. This regioii was under the protection of Jupiter Olymi , who«e statue, 60 feet in height, pn ;: ' ' TIIRA rhi; AT KPAIl > Book !• ilie utmost perfect ii'hat barb,'irian h Inrcllers have pa identity the grand dimension those of near it is the mode Ivinginruin. Th pUce, with but lift iboleofthepresen 5499. Theler piesent into Eos ancient Doeotia a 3500. Eastern all by those whic and Parnassus, a grand aspect and high flights of th up on a flat and t summits, makes s he discovered wi prior to whicli it been celebrated fo traveller searches I Xerxes. Dr. Clai ancient sepulchres Helicon, the solitu of llie mountain is the pipe of the shej the sheep, is heard ai ascertain the fonntai Helicon lies the plaii of Greece, and the sc on a considerable tra( richly adoiiicd with si it is now only distingi i»o streams Mnemos' "lost conspicuous tuini 3501. Delphi if g. 4 '»l mountain from the slinnes to which manki 'scjact site cannot be iiwng the sides of P„m '"'lopcndent of all reec Book !• GREECE. IciciUl'JiiM'l I ludiigthi'bal Icjioit inteml, i Jcwctliioniisl llcpoiilcill'i™ ■ght,pti:™!.'i the utmost pcrTcction of painting and atatuary, with every diaplay of wcnlth whli What barbarian lianda dcatroycd Olympia liaa not been fully ascertained, but tlie Mvrllcrs have paased over it, and believed that not a trace exiatol. Mr. Dod 825 hich gifta could accumulates >Jie wreck ia ao complete, that Mvellcrs have paaaed over it, and believed that not a trace exiatol. Mr. Dodwcll, however, waa able to MHitll'y the grand tcinnle of the Olympian Jupiter, and dug up acme Oagmenla of columns, cxrreding in dimeiHion those of the I'artheno, , at Athens, Elis presents only a confuscti wreck of scattered blocks j but near it is the modern Oastouni, a small town, one of the richest in Feloponneaus, though at thia moment alao Ivinii in ruin. The modern capital, however, of all thia district, ia I'atras ; a large commercial, dirty, ilMiuilt Lee with but little of a claaaic character. It la fortlflcd, and haa been held by the Turks during nearly the whole of the prcaent conteat 3499. The terrilory beyond the Morea, along the Gulf of Lepanto, is usually divided at present into Eastern and Western Greece, or Hellas ; the former of which represents the ancient Bocotia and Phocis, the latter .^tolia and Acarnanio. 3300. Eastern Hellas consists of several plains enclosed by very lofly mountains, and above ,11 by those which are most sacred in the annais of poetry, the heights of Helicon, Citheeron, and Parnassus, accounted ever the chosen haunt of the Muses. Dr. Clarke considers their erand aspect and romantic valleys as having had a powerful influence in prompting the high lliglits of the Grecian muse, and even doubts whether any great poet could spring up on a flat and unvaried champaign. Thebes, in a plain surrounded by these snow-clad summits, makes still a noble appearance ; but only some coins and fragments are now to be discovered witliin the circuit of its walls. It suffered severely in the late contest ; prior to which it was a considerable place, of from three to five hundred houses, and has been celebrated for the beauty of its females. Westward is the plain of Plataea, in which the Iravellcr searches for monuments of the splendid victory which finally baffled tlic power of Xerxes. Dr. Clarke seems, in fact, to have discovered the site of the city, and near it some ancient sepulchres {Jig, 483.), which may be supposed to have been erected immediately after ■ii<3 that great event. On the oppo- site side of a ridge of hills is the plain of Leuctra, the scene of that other battle which finally sub- verted tlie dominion of Sparta over Greece. The site is still covered with huge masses of marble and stone, which the in- habitants have long laboured to demolish, with the view of in- troducing the plough ; but the attempt has hitherto proved fruit- less. Above this plain rises Helicon, the solitudes of wliich are in the highest degree beautiful : every declivity of the mountain is covered with luxuriant shrubs, or tenanted by browsing flocks ; while the pipe of the shepherd, mingling its sound with that of the bells upon the goats and the sheep, is heard at intervals among the rocks. Dr. Clarke conceived that he could here ascertain the fountaii.s of Aganippe and Helicon, and the Grove of the Muses. Beyond Helicon lies tlic plain and city of Livadia, the latter of which has been the capital of this part of Greece, and tht scat of an extensive jurisdicti'>n. It contained 1500 houses, and carried (.11 a coiisidtralilc trade if the productions of this part of Greece. Lebadia was said to be as richly adorned with sculptures as any Greek city ; but every trace of them has vanished, and il is now only distinguished by the mystic spot of the cave and shrine of Trophonius, and the i»o streams Mnemosyne and Lethe, Memory and Oblivion, flowing through the former. A few miles westward is the plain ■"'■--_ ,. ^ '•"'* of Cherona:a {fg. 484. \ shut in , ./ 1 LT- vA by Parnassus, with its bleak and rugged masses of grey limestone rock, covered with shrubs and coppice. This was a great battle- plain, on which was repeatedly decided the fate of Greece ; first through the defeat of the Athe- nians b> the Boeotians, afterwards through that of the combined Greek forces by Philip, and last- iMKKoxwA. ly (jf Mithriilatcs by Sylla. A most conspicuous tumulus still exists, a monument of tlie ensanguined field. 3501. Delphi (Jig. 485.), at the foot of Parnassus [Jig. 48C.), is separated by a branch of that mountain from the plain of Cherontca. This was the most celebrated of the ancenj shrines to which mankind went in crowds to be deluded. The temple has disappeared, aiid its Mact site cannot be even conjectured. Its position, however, in a deep circular vale, built along the sides of Parnassus, whose vast precipices rise behind in towering majesty, cannot, imlcpcndont of all recollection, be viewed without the deepest emotion. The Cyclopean A-M.I11.NT SAItCUPIIAUt AT ri.ATJVA- k'di ■m m 3 -H i i '■'i 4 5 ^■m ''i??J^& H9« DESCniPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 1'aktMI. mHsonry may ntlll ho UnvvA, lit wliloh tlic strccti, rising in terraces Iwliind each oUier, were made to form a part of the awful featurcs'of the mountain. At tlie foot of a precipice, above which the rock shoots up into two pointed cracs the visiter sees the fountain of Castalia, that grand source of ancient inspiration j and the scene itself combines great picturesque lieauiy with all the circumstances of local interest, A square shallow basin at iu foot was doubtless the Castalian fount in which the priestess was ac- customed to plimge before she mounted the tripod, to pronounce the thrice-sacred oracle. Dr. Clarke ascended the summit of Parnassus which he judged to be one of the highest in Europe, and the prospect from it more striking than from any one of the numerous eminences he had ascended. It overlooked all the mountain tops, except Olympus, which appeared with its many summits clad in shining snow. 3502. Western lleltas, the ancient I^ocrU and ;Etoiia ilUplays neither the same grand features of nature nor the same ancient mngniHccncc ; but it has Ijccn distin Kuislicd in molern military history. Nauiwctui lii ancient port, has been modernised into Ix'iianto, and haj given its name to a gulf, which was the grand theatre of naval conflict between tho Turks and the Venetians and of that in which the Spani.irds, by a signal viclorv' •'"'""• finally broke the Turkish maritime imwer. Salnna, on tiie site of the ancient Amphissa, still retains consider. able impovtance, being (iniKlil^reil M tlie capital and military rendezvous of Western Greece. It communicaiei with the gtiir by III purl nf HenJA, Oaiaxldl, niithcr up the gulf, was rising into some importance Ivforc the late struggle. But Missolonghi, though 4011 "f recent origin, has now eclipsed the ^ " . -V . fame of all the western cities. Its position at the mouth of the gulf had enabled it to rise into some commercial importanre During the late contest, its peninsular site in a shallow sea which admitted onl; boats, though its only defences on the land side were a low wall and a pallrj' ditch, inspired the Grcoks with the de. sign of converting it into a slrong.hold. Missolongbi accordingly madcalongand glorious rciiistance, and became the tal. lying point for all Greece without the lilnrea. 3;i03. Thcssnly forms an exterior por. tion of Greece, sevcrcil fi:om tho rest by the lolly and rugged barrier of Mounl (Eta, which runs across the entire breadth, till it locks in with the chain of Pindus. The interior consists of almost bouncllcss plains, formerly celebrated for the manoeuvres of the Thespalian cavalr)'. It is girdled by mimntaln* still Iciftler Ihiiti any yet iurvoved : Olympus, the proudest of all the Grecian summits, i.ii wliich fable ami niylhiilimy plw'cd Ihe cclcstlnl mansion and the thrnncof Jupiter j Ossa and I'elion.ncxtin magnitude, pil«l up by the (iwnln who hoped tn have senled heaven. Thessaly i8calle(ipnlatliiii at M\{ti\ The towns are much more Tur'.'sh than in Hella* or ilie Morca ; but thi- mmmlaiii" arc held by Greek plunderers {klephtrs^ , a bold and warlike race, who liavciiiaile considerable e liirls to uiit«|i|i»h lliclr Independence. The entrance into Thessaly from Greece is liy oneofilit niiMt celebrated and sfcreil ii|Hit» I'unsei'raled by aiuiquity, the pass of Thermopyhc, wliiili the patriotic devotion of " tho three hundred " has slainiird with the most 8ul)lime recollections. The narrow pa.ssagc Km b<'tween the eastern exlrcmlly of I Mitt and a marsh reaching to the sen. A tumulus is here ctiscovercd.oii which appear tho broken nninifnn of a inn»lve peilcstal, originally formed for supporting, as Dr. Clarke belicvfs, the simple but allW'tlng nmiuiim'lll erertiHl to their memory. A filthy quagmire, breathing mcpliitic exhalatiom, would render the icmie disgiislltiu Init (In these associations. After passing the considerable town of Zeilouni, the eye opens on tho Imnienni) plillli of I'hnrsniin, the scene of that mightycontcst in which fate gave to Cas.u the empire of thi' world, I'hiusii, or I'nriniB, is entirely Turkish, and nothing but the name remains to tell what it was. It is, however, II InrHe town, with etHKI houses. This plain is separated only by some lovf hill! from the immense rh.iinpillKn ol l.nrissa, prrspntlng a smooth and flat surface of the finest soil that can be imagined. I.ariisa Is II hirgi' city, of Vli,(KKi inhabitants, and presents a magnificent view, from the crowd of its mosipies and inlnarnl", which iiinoiiiit to no less than twcnty.four. It is thoroughly Tuikish,.ind the populace are imbued wllli cxlrcme bigotry. Only broken fragments of Corinthian crdumns are mm lobe traced, many of the Hlu'lcnt nmrhlcs liming been liarbarously cut down into the forms of Turkish hoad-drossfi, ami stuck over the tombs riic »liiip« are numerous and good; and in them may be found ancient silver medals, and also >piK'lnH'iis of Ihc 'I'liessnllBn iKiltery which almost equal the ancient terracottas. Suulhuard fnim Larissa tower 01ynipns,l't'lliili, and Ossa I the former disposed in vastmas8e8,and with prodigious graiidrar. The passage through this rornitilttble clliiln is liy the Vale of Tempo {fig. 487.), s" celebrated among theanciciils for its sequestered and pii'liircsipie chiiriictcr. I'lnccil between Olympus on the left iind Ossi on the right, it is compared by Dr, Clarke In l>iivetlAle, or to the pass of Killicrankie, hut on a much larger scale. TlieroikJ rise o tho moat awlHil |Hnpiinillcill«r height, and arc tinted with a great variety of hues. At its entrance is the large village of Aniia'liikii, lllinonl liurely (treek, and in which flourishes a manufacture of cotton thread dyed . of so btaulil\il a rcil, as to have hllhcrlo lmlMelltion. r •6HH. Miiccilimiii, buyoMil TeilltH', Itpeili Its still vaster plain, the ancient Pieria and Emathia, having on tncj MIMINT MUNASttlSi lonr [art of the town, whlcl liL-'cnt ravages of the plag m«! ig uf five magniflcent itwmblei that of Constantino (oliiinns of verde antico. Sen Mion, and supposed to contaii not yet been successfully exploi Boot ■• GREECE. 837 miihOlympuj with iU lofty attonilant summiti. and on the north Scomrut, a branch of the itill longer and MR Mfftil chain* or llvmua and Khodo|>c. ThU plain retemblct a ciater, charactcriitic of the liniettona 4fl7 formation, and hai the form of a horieahoe ) being bounded on the weat by Mount Pangirut, and open, ing on the eait to the tea, The Bneit part li the eaitern, particularly round Screa, where three hundred viilagei are employed in the cuUi. vation of cotton, the itaple of tlv> country. Tobacco, dlitlngulihed by a peculiar bakamic odour, ranki te- cond in importance. Salon ica, the ancient Theiialonica, ia now the greatcat and moat commercial city of Orecce, poaaeaaing a i>opulation of ao,000 or 70,000 inhabitanta. It is one of the few remaining citiea that have prcaerved the form of the mi. dent fortiflcationa,the mural turrcta yet atanding.and the walla that sup- port them being entire. The city ia vAM or rmra. reckoned by Mr.Walpole to contain SO.OOO Jewa and 12,000 Greeks. The liicr part of the town, which the former inhabit, and in which buaiiieta ia chiefly carried on, ia exposed to li, 'cnt ravages of the plague. This city haa one very magnificent relic of antiquity in a propylieum, m\> ig of "vc magnificent Corinthian columns aupporting an ental)lature. The church of St. Sophia tiHiiiblH that of Constantinople upon a smaller scale, but is rendered particularly interesting by ita line ctlumiu of venle antieo. Seres ia a flourishing inland town, surrounded by the plain moat productive in gxion, and supposed to contain 30,000 inhabitanta. The ancient capitals of Fella and Mga, or Edi'saa, have Mi yet been succeaanilly explored. 3505. The islands form a prominent and interesting appendage to Greece. Cyprus, lUuxles, and a considerable number of smaller isles ranged along the coast of Asia Minor, hate been always considered as Asiatic. The Greek European islands arc Candia, the Cyclades, and those termed the Ionian Islands. 3,W6. CaniUa is one of the largest islands in the Mediterranean, being reckoned about 500 miles in circumference : it is of much greater dimension east and west than north ind soutli; and forms, as it were, a base upon which the whole Archipelago rests. It is perhaps more favoured by nature than any other part of Europe. The interior is covered liih mountains, of which Mount Ida towers to a very lofty height. The plains and valleys ■long the sea-coast are covered with myrtle groves, spacious plane trees, and other beautiful voods; and the soil, though merely scratched by a wretched plough drawn by two sorry oxen. yields luxuriant crops of wheat and b.irley. The olive grows in high perfection ; though the oil, for want of care and skill in preparing it, is unfit for the table, and only used for soap and other manufactures. Crete was rendered famous in early antiquity by the laws of Minos, md by institutions of a very peculiar nature founded upon them. During the classic ages li seems to have been far surpassed by the rest of Greece, and the Cretans became even pro- terbial for slowness of intellect. In the lower ages, it derived great lustre from the noble stand there made by Venice against the Ottoman power, at a moment when it threatened to orerwhelin the whole civilised world. The defence of Candia, protracted ifor twenty-five mx% forms one of the most memorable eras in modern history. At length the whole island Ml under the Ottoman dominion, and the Turks have occupied it more completely than ihc Cyolailes and the Asiatic islands. The inhabitants are a fine race, and more independent of ilie Porte than the vassals of most other parts of the empire. The mountains and moun> tain plains, however, have continued to be occupied by a Greek race, called the Sfacciotes, «ho in these high tracts carry on the trade of shepherd, not altogether uncombined with that u rubber. It was by this body that the chief stand was made in the late insurrection, and TURKEY IN EUROPE. M9 491 TOWN OP HYDRA. m- Twu iilanii, Hydrn and Spexxia, though llttlv favourcU by nature, and unknown lo antiquity, have, In a lingular manner, taken the le.ul of all the itatea anil lalanili of Greece. Hydra IJlg. 491.), a rugged niaaa of rock, with acarcely a ajHit of verdure, remained without an inhaliltant till Turkish opprcaalon, and the dcaolo. tlona of the Morca, drove a few flahermen to build their huti on ita prccipltoua aldea. The aame canaea In which the aettlement oriitinated were favourable to ita Incrcaac ; and aa it a|iiicutMl too Inaignltlcant to c\. cite Jcalnuay, it waa allowed to coni. pound with the Turka for a mu 1 1 withaaortofariatocraticaway. Ihu cncrgici of Hydra have been for aomc time cxclualvely turned to war, .iiul perhaps aho will never regain h« luraicr cxtenaive commerce. Speziia la a aort of outwork of Hydra, with only MIO inhabltanta, yet with Hincwliat more of cultivation. Sir W. Gell and Mr. VVaddingtun, whose difiiiositlona are not very friendly, [t|iiesent the population of both aa Albanian i but the (K-opIc themaelvca do not own the deacent ; nor doca it i|]|ii'ar very probable that thie llercc race, who have all along been the oppreaaora of tireecc, ahould have been the furcmost ii seeking redreaa for her wronga. 3510. Tlic Ionian Islands la the name given to a range extending chiefly along the coast of Albania. The |irinci|ial ones are Corfti (the ancient Corcyra), Santa Maura, (formerly Lcucadla), Thcakl (Ithaca), Cephalonia, Cerigo, celebrated under the ancient name of Cythcra, but situated at a considerable distance from tho other), oH'tlie southern coast of Laconla. Tlicae, aa detached islands, occupied fVcqucntly a cunspicuoua place in ancient history ; but their political union took place in modern times, in consctiuence of being held by the Venetians, and defended by their navy against the Turks, wh^) had over-run the whole of the adjacent con- tinent When France, in 1797, seized the territory of Venice, she added these as an appendage to it ; and, even after the cession of Venice to Austria, endeavoured atill to retain them attached to her, under the title of the Ionian llcpublic. She waa unable, however, tomaintain them against theauperior naval force of England,which, al tlie congress of Vienna, waa nominated protector of the Ionian Islands. That power haa since continued to bold them in full military occumtlon, and spends .'iO,CK)0/. a year in fortlflcatlona and troopa. The natives, how. mt, are allowed a great share in the internal government, and even aaaemble in a regular parliament. Thcao iilandi, lilie the opposite coaat of Albania, are rocky, rugged, and picturesque, thougn none of the peaks rlac to any great elevation. I'hia aurfacc renders them ill fitted for the cultivation of corn ; but wine and fruits, efpei'ially the latter, arc raised in great perfection. The species of small grapca which, when dried, are called currants, arc largely imported into Britain IVom these islands. Zante producea annually about 6U,0U0 cwt ; Ce|ilialonia about 50,0(J0. The iwpulatlon amounts to about 2£0,000. Corfu possesses the political pre. eminence ;and the capital, containing 16,0(X) inhabltanta, derives great importance from ita atrong furtlnca- lionii but Zantc is the most flourlahlng and industrioua : its metropolis, of the aame name, containing S2,U00 inhabitants, is the largest town in the islands. Negropont may here be mentioned : a long island teparated by a narrow channel fVom Attica, It ii diversitied by rugged mountains and fertile valleya. It is suppoaed to contain about GO,OU0 people : and ite capital, 16,U0U. It is atUched to the Greek atate. Chap. XVIII. TURKEY IN EUROPE. S511. Turkey in Europe forms the western and metropolitan part of tliat extensive and once mighty empire which subverted and superseded the eastern branch of the empire of Rome. The most extensive portion, in which perhaps its main strength is seated, belongs to Asia. In describing Greece, we have comprised much of what has hitherto been, and it is to be ferred must still, to a great extent, be, Turkish territory. There remains under the head of European Turkey a comparatively small portion of the empiri ; but, as it contains the capital and the seat of government, it will afford the proper occasion for taking a general survey of the power, resources, and character of the whole. Sect. I. General Outline and Aspect. 1)512. Turkey, as to site and boundaries, forms the most eastern part of the territory of southern Europe, and the link which connects that continent with Asia. It also unites the Mediterranean with the Black Sea, being almost enclosed by their various bays and branches, and by that long range of straits, the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmora, and the channel of Constantinople, by which these two great seas communicate. On the northern side it has an inland boundary bordering on Austria and on Russia. The Danube forms here the litnit of the central Turkish provinces, and, with the fortresses on its banks, lias •wen the main barrier of the empire ; but beyond it are the fiercely disputed tributary pro- vinces of Moldavia and Wallachia, which carry the frontier to the Pruth and tlie Carpathian mountains. The boundary on the side of Greece is still somewhat uncertain ; and it may, on the whole, be difficult to estimate the general dimensions of this dominion. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) y :/ r/i *♦- ^^ ij£ 1^ 12.2 I.I 1."^ 1^ U il.6 11.25 7. WJ"/ ^^jV ■* Photographic Sdences Corporation 23 WIST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MS80 (716)672-4503 4r %^ 6^ 890 MA1> OF TURKEY IN EUROPE. •r«.492. n I l.»ii||liuik' DmI Oom nrmiiKich ''i Book I, TURKEY IN EUROPE. 891 3513. TTie mountaint of European Turkey consist chiefly of tliat extensive and formidable range called by the ancients Hsemus and Rhodope ; by the Turks Balkan, Despoto Dag, Argentari ; a continuous chain, stretching from the head of the Adriatic to the Black Sea. It separates Turkey into several very fine and fruitful plains; that of Roumelia in the south, and on the north those of Bulgaria, Bosnia, and Servia, ranging along the Danube. Beyond that river are the vast watery plains of Moldavia and Wallachia. 3514. The greatest river of Europe, swelled to its utmost magnitude, rolls along the whole border of European Turkey. From the barbarism of the government, however, and the hostile relations with the neighbouring powers, the Danube serves very little for the convey, ance of merchandise; it is more fanied in the dreadful annals of war than in the peucet'ul records of commerce. Sect. II. Natural Geography. SuBSECT. 1. Geology, 3515. The Geology of this country is similar to that of Hungary. SuBSBCT. 2. Botany. 3516. Turkey, incluiive of Greece. The two countries now specified can scarcely be considered separately, when treating of their botanical productions. The northern parts, however, lying in the sane latitude with a great portion of Italy, and the south of Germany and Russia, though comparatively but little known, may be expected to contain a vegetation very similar to that of those countries. Greece, and the isles of the Archipelago, in a more southern latitude, under a clear sky, tempered by the waters of the Mediterranean, present a different vegetation, approaching that of Syria and Asia Minor ; and our attention will be principally confined to those which, so renowned in history, and so admirably illustrated in Btfereneet to the Mop of Turkey in Europe, NORTH FART. I. UiUiiLie. 1. LIptKhaia IBAtKhiny 3. IlTU 4. Tokou t.Uora(UiU 6. Kichmau 7n 118. Faiannita U9. Koipri 180. Kiamnan lll.Hainnraaha 129. Seniendila 183. BelRiarte 184. TtcattnoTOCI 186. Schabaca 186. Kuciiliero 187. Vallino 188. Uiiua 189. Kouinlk 130. Moil Baaar. V. fiomia. 131. Slenitia 138. Tachlidje 133. Falcha 134. Boana Serai 133. Traunik 136. Uralaanitu 137. ZwomJk 138. Lowd Tuila 139. Gradacaatch 140. Maclal 141. Prouiau 148. Bind 143. Kottor. VI. CnaUa. 144. Bai^aluka I4A. Koraiaii 146. Notl 147. BUMch 148. Oamnlcu 149. Kamenitaa IM. Siokol. VII. ammtim. 151. Olamoadi 158. Una 153. DouTOO 154. Ruiliht 155. Moatar 156. Oaako 157. Gliublipu 158. TKblRna 159. NikalB. tlOUTH PART. VlII.i4ltiiiifa. 1. Cettlxne 8. Puipirila* 3. Crouchina 4. Ipcick orPcchls A. PHarcnd 6. Taplaln 7. TcUabU 8. AnIiTail S.lkntarl 10. AUciaia 11. Cittanon IS. Duraaaa 13. El Baaaaa 14. Iibat 15. Ochrlda 16. Molcklu 17. Herat 18. Vallons 19. Tcpdenl 80.Haiia 81. PrmlU 88. DeUino 83. BucinDO 84. Souli 85.A>U 86. Joannlns 87. MeaoTO. IX. Hi mmti a, SS. Onna 89.Cliatlia 30.Monaitir SI. KopHII S«.UAup 33. ComanOTB 84. Iidp 95. Uhluitoidtl 36. Dotibnitaa 37. Tatar Baiardllk 38. PhllippopoUa 39. Tchlrpan 40. Himinilt 41. Eskl Sashra 48. Keianlik 43. Jfni Saiibn 44. LamboU 45. Camabat 46. BoOKaa 47. SlaibSu 48. SUIitrl Onmoui Fakha 49. Tchirmen £0. KItk Kilbaa 61. AktaboU 68. Ainada 63. Vila 64. Midiali 65. Conitantinople 66. Buiuk Tchek- medte 87. Erekir 68. Rodoalo SO.TchatalBourgas 60. Adrianople 61. Khafta 68.Dimotlk« 63.Aliia4ak 64. Avracha 66. OalUpoU 66. Migaigan 67. Enoa es.Fer^JIk 69. Kenwukliin* 70. TlUKlair 71. PrahouiU 78. Drama 78. Ncgrokop 74.0uiouiiUa 76. Sena 76. Onhano 77. BHc 78. Roualtp 79.Plaiiana 80. Salonlca 81. Vodena 8S.Kliatarl. X. Oratw. 83.I.ariiM S4.Trlcala S6. MorcoTO 86. Thomoko 87. Phaiia 88.Vola 89. Zeitoun 90. VradHirt 91. IxniKaU 98. MiHolonchl 98. Lepanto 94. Safona 95. Liradla 96. Thin 97.E(nipoa 98.ATiiena 99. Corinth 100. NapoU dl Ro- mania 101. Argoa 108.Antroiii 103. Patraa 104. Oatfouni 105. SlroUtaa 106. Tripollua 107. Lcondarl 108. Arcadia 109. Nararino 110. MilltTB 111. NapoU dl Mai- p D«iillM»ilaa q Jalomnitaa r Bouaao a Blitti tt nPmth * Unat Kameht « Jantra sOima 7 Ilka ■ Tooa uToDlja bbErkane ccMarltaa ddUardi-mawAnla ecMcato ffSlrouma KVaidar Diama UDrIn JjScamU u Vonlulaa U Andje Karaara mmSalembria nn Aapropotiunoa ppMarao. Achik ISLAND OP CANDIA. LCbimaw 8. Canca 3. Retimo 4. Trinidad 6. Temanoa 6. CandU 7.8MUa. Jtiwrv. ■ Danub* b Bare cUnna dVerbaa e fiosna fDwina ■ Moran Elbar I Bulgarian Morara J Tlmok ISctajl I Alula m Oltea n Tellorman o AnUlch or .Vijli • Tliaaoa b Scmcndrckior Samothrao* elmbvoa d Lemnoa • HackaStraU f Tnadoi eMctelin SallDnail ISoopelo IPian mScio II Samoa oNlcaria p Androa qTIno rlllconk aSjra tZM nThermls tMUo V Faroe zNaxU jNio mBanlorln uAmona bb Siampalla «o CalTnmoa dd Stanco •eRlKinri rr RiiodK BSrarpanM CoaoiOtCaaak 833 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. their topography, are yet but imperfectly known to naturalists. The learned Toumefort. indeed, visited the islands, and Dr. Sibthorpe both the islands and the peninsula ; but many of the botanical acquisitions of the former are only known by his Herbarium, and his famous drawings, called VdKns du MusSum, which exist in the Jardin des Fla-ites at Paris ; while the splendid Flora Grteca of the latter traveller, edited by the late H'.t J. £, Smith,' is still far from l>eing completed ; and among that portion which is published, however valuable to the man of science and the scholar, there is but little which can interest the general reader ^Qjj The illustration of the writings of Dioscoridcs was Dr. Sibi thorpe's chief object. The names and reputed virtues of several plants recorded by that ancient author, and still traditionally retained by the Athenian shepherds, served occasionally to elu. cidate or to confirm his synonymy. The first sketch of the Flora Grteca comprises about 850 species. This, however, the author observes, " may be considered as containing only the plants, observed by me, in the environs of Athens, on the snowy heights of that Grecian Alp, Mount Parnassus, on the steep precipices of Delphis, the empurpled mountains of Hymettus the Pentele, the lower hills about the Piraeus, the olive-grounds surrounding Athens, and tlie fertile plains of Boeotia." The author made a second tour in Greece ; and in February, 1795, he visited the Morca. The Violet and the Primrose welcomed him in the vales of Arcadia, and the Narcissus Tazetta (/^. 493.1, v^hich Dr. Sibthorpe was inclined to think the true Narcisstis of the poets, decorated in profusion the banks of the Alpheus. M1RC1UI.1 TAiKTTt. The barbarian hordes, under whose escort he was obliged to travel, had taste enough to collect nosegays of these flowers. The Oaks of the Arcadian mountains presented him with the true ancient misseltoe (Lorm- thus europeeui) {fig. 494.), which still serves to make birdlime, whilst the misseltne of our 49-1 country is, in Greece, seen only on the Silver Fir. The Jay, still called by its classical name Ktaaa, was scream- ing among these oaks, and the Water Ouzel {Sturnui Cinclus), flying along the rocky sides of the alpine rivulets of Arcadia, presented itself to Dr. Sibthorpc's recollection as probably the White Blackbird mentioned by Aris- totle as peculiar to the neighbourhood of Mount Cyllene. But in vain did our classical traveller look for the beauty of the Arcadian shepherdesses, or listen for the pipe of the sylvan swain. Figures emaciated, and features furrowed with poverty, labou.-, and care, were all that he met with. Taygetus, the highest mountain in the Morea, and almost rivalling Parnassus, was ascended by Dr, Sibthorpe ; but the quantity of snow, and the great distance, prevented him and his fellow- travellers from reaching the summit. Panagioti, nephew of the cheriff, and a popular character, accompanied him with fifty of his followers, and displayed his botanical know. ledge by showing Dr. Sibthorpe the Darnel, still called atpa, among the corn, which he said occasioned dizziness ; and also a wonderful root, the top of which is used as an emetic, and the bottom as a purge. This proved to be the Euphorbia Apios, to which the very same properties were attributed by Dioscorides.* 3517. Greece is very mountainous. The summite of the chain of Pmdus are variously estimated at 8400 or 9000 feet. Be the height what it may, it is certain that snow renains the whole year on " Pindut' inland peak, Hobed half in mist, IjcdeWd with inowy rilU, Array'd in many a dun and purple »tteak." The most southern plains are not protected from the froste. In the Peloponnesus, near Tripolizza, the thermometer, in January, falls to 8° or 9<» (Reaumur) below zero. Still, in the peninsula, snow is rare, and of short duration, except on the very elevated situations, where it lies unmelted till the return of spring. Undoubtedly there are peculiar causes that influence the climate of Tripolizza, since the Peloponnesus produces abundantly the Orange, Lemon, and even the Prickly Fig, which latter is as sensible to cold as tlie Date Palm. This thorny plant, which is so common in Palestine and on the Meditensnean shores of Africa, forms strong defensive hedges in the plains of Mecenia. The Date does not seem to inhabit Peloponnesus ; a few trees of it which grow near Athens, are perhaps the only individuals in all continental Greece. On the eastern coast, Orange and Lemon trees grow as far inland as Bceotia, Potidaea, and Thessaly, and even to Mount Olympus, * See Smith's LIA of Sibthorpe, in Reet't Cyclopedia. LUKANrHl't lUROVAiUa. Vml' TURKEY IN EUROPE. 88S which divide* Macedonia from Tbessaly. This is probably the limit of ihoM tree* | at least (here is nothing to attest their growth in Macedonia and 'rhracc, whoNU toil, intersected by otountains, and swept by violent north winds, is mostly covered with siicli forvtti as cha^ racterise the temperate zone. Hawkins, the celebrated travellvr, who visiteil the lovely vale of « fair Tempe," situated to the south of Mount Olympus, and who ha* given a list of the tKca that it produces, does not mention the Orange and Lemon. They assuredly grow in the island of Lemnos, in the same latitude; but Sibthorpe remark* that the climate is there too cool to ripen their fruit. The Olive succeeds on the coast* of Macedonia, 41° N. 3518. To judge by vegetation, the western shores are wanner than th« eastern. Near Epirus, between .S9° and 40^ precisely in the same latitude as the Vale of Tcmpc, Corfu, which is celebrated for its fertility, produces both the Prickly Fig and the Date. 5519. Tke vegetable* peculiar to the transition tone pass Arom Epirus into the lilyrian provinces. The Olive and Myrtle, the Orange and Lemon, adorn the romantic rocks tliat skirt the mouth of the Cattaro and the coasts of the Gulf of Guarnero. Tho two latter do not go beyond : — the Olive, Myrtle, and Laurel, with Quercus coccifi, it were, tlic heaths into meadows. In August, when it blows nortli, and the plant is dried up, they set lire to tlie foot of it ; in an instant the wind carries the flames fur and wide, even to the very mountains. The lirst autumn rains that fall fetch out on excellent herbage from these burnt lundN, and this much sooner tlian in France, because it never freeivs in this island, and very rarely snows." The Isle of Serpliis, and a few other islands, alone produce the beautiful arborescent Pink {Dianthua arboreus) {fg. 498.), the discovery of which seems to have delighted Tournefort more tlian almost any other circum- stance in the whole course of his travels. 500 He introduced it to the Uoyal Gardens at Paris, where it maintained its honour, he t.'lls us, amidst an intinite number of scarce plants from the same country. 35'25, (ium I.atlanum is the produce of a very handsome species of Cistus, well known in our gardens, the C. creticus {fig, 499. ), the Ledon of Dio- scorides, in whose time the gum that exuded from tlie glands of the leaves was obtained by driving goats in among the shrubs, or by these animals naturally browsing upon them, when the sub- stance adheres to their hair and beards. Now that this substance is collected to supply a more extended commerce, a peculiar instrument (Jig, 500.) is employed for the purpose, which is figured and described by Tournefort, and the accuracy of which is attested by Sieber, in his Voyage to Cnti. tOTSSIUM inNOtUlf. llIAtn-llt-a AABORItll. 499 OMTUI oftstnui. IKITIIUMIIfT rOB COLLKTIM TS QUM LAOANUM- Dmk I- TURKEY IN EUROPE. Mi u It is a kind of take, with a double row of long leathern straps. It was in "he heat of the day, and not a breath of wind stirring ; circumstances necessary to the gathering of Ladanura. Seven or eight country fellovs, in llieir shirts and drawers, were brushing the plants with their whips ; the straps whereof, by rubbing against the leaves of this shrub, liciied up a sort of odoriferous glue, sticking on the leaves : this is part of the nutritious juice of the plant, which sweats through the texture of those leaves like a fatty dew, in shining drops, as clear as turpentine. When the whips are sufficiently laden with this grease, they take a knife and scrape it clean off the straps, and make it up into a mass or cakes of different sice : this is what comes to us, under the name of Ladanum or Labdanum. A man who is diligent will gather 3 lbs. per day or more, which they sell for a crown on the spot : this sort of work is rather unpleasant than laborious, because it must be done in the sultry time of the day, and in the deadest calm ; and yet the purest Ladanum cannot be obtained free from filth, because the winds of the preceding day have blown dust upon the shrubs." About 50 cwt of it is annually collected in Crete, and sent exclusively to Constantinople. 3526. Gum Tragacanlk is a no less important article of trade than Gtmi Ladanum, and appears to be the produce, not only of the Astragalus Tragacantha {Jig. 501.) and A. creticus [jg. 502. ), but of others of the same genus, which form a group, distinguished by their per- manent leaf-stalks, which eventually become spincscent. Tourncfort describes the CreUn 501 502 AITKAOALVI TaAOAOAflTUA. AITAAOALUt CUBTICUt. plant, and figures a specimen, in his Voyage to the Levant. " We had the pleasure," says he, "of leisurely examining the Gum Tragacanth upon Mount Ida. It appears naturally in the close of ,1une and in the following months. During that time, the nourishing juice of this plant, thickened by the heat, bursts the greater part of the vessels that contain it. It not only accumulates in the heart of the stums and branches, but in the interstices of the fibres, which are disposed in rays. This sap coagulates in filaments, as in the pores of the bark ; and these filaments, striking through the bark, gradually work their way out, as they are pushed forward by the new moisture that the roots afford. On exposure to the air, the substance becomes hardened, and forms either lumps or twisted laminie, similar to worms of various lengths, according to the quantity of sap ; it even seems that the contraction of the fibres of this plant contributes to the expression of the Gum Tragacanth. These fibres, disentangled like hemp, being pulled and trodden by the feet of shepherds and of horses, shrink up with heat, and facilitate the issuing of the extravasated juice." Sieber, however, in his Cretan voyage, tells us he could not learn that the Cretan Astragal {Aslragalut miicui) produced any Gum Tragacanth. On Mount Lebanon, Tragacanth, we know, is yielded by the Astragalus gummifera of La Billardi^re, who, how- ever, observes, contrary to the remarks of Tournefort, that it is not during the great heats of the day that this substance flows, but during the night, and a little after sunrise ; and he even thinks that a cloudy atmosphere, or a heavy dew, is necessary lor lis production ; and states that the shepherds of Lebanon only go in search of this substance when the mountain has been covered during the night with thick clouds. 3527. Those kituls of wood which we co7tsiiler among the most precious are burnt by the Greeks for fuel. In Amorgos they consume nothing but Mastich and the Cypress-leaved Cedar (Junifjerus lyda) (fig. 503.) which produces Olibanum. The Greeks make use of this latter in their fishing excursions. At the stern of the galley they have a sort of grating into which the wood is put, broken into small pieces. In the night it is set fir« to ; and while the fish are following the boat, attracted by the light, they strike at them with a trident or three-forked javelin. This ^ 3H2 JL'HIPMUl LTCIA. •36 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. PAUt III. eummtit uHtUTWin. tltTACIA UmlRVti wttod is not, however, the produce of Amorgot, which is destitute of trees, but It brought firom the aiyoining island. In the town of Crete, you may see bundles of wood for firinl of the most fragrant description. " Nothing is used," says Sieber, "but Sase, Thyme, Cistut. Cypress wood (Jig. 504.), Maijoram, and Lavender; and it is, indeed, a delightful country where not only the air is scented with the baU S04 samic odour of the numerous aromatic plants! especially after a shower of rain, but where the very smoke is perfumed with the fragrance of the wood of which their flres are made." 3528. The Mat- », tick and Terebinth ^ are gum-resins, for which the island of Scio is especially celebrated. The former is the pro- duct of the Pis- tacia Lentiscus (Jig. 505.). Olivier says that " Mastich must be considered as one of the most im- portant and valu- able productions of the island, since the inhabitants of Scio owe to it a part of their privileges, and the cultivators much of their independence and comfort The L«n. tiscus which yields it no way differs from that which grows in the south of Europe and all the islands of the Archipelago, but from which no Mastich can be procured. Some slight varieties may be seen at Scio, with leaves of a greater or less size^ which are owing to culture, and perpetuated by grafts and layers. 3529. " In order to obtain the Mastich, it is custoiaary to make slight and numcmiis incisions in the trunk and principal branches, from the 1 5th to the 20th of July, according; to the Greek calendar. From these clefts a liquid j'.ice insensibly trickles, which hardens by degrees, and remains attached to the tree in drn^^s of greater or less size, and sometimes even falls on the ground. The first is the must esteemed, and is removed with s. sharp iron instrument, half an inch broad at the extremity. Frequently a cluth is spread beneath the tree, that the Mastich may not be impregnated with dust and dirt. According to regu- lations made on the subject, the first gathering cannot take place before the 27th of August. It lasts eight consecutive days, and fresh incisions are made up to the 25th of September, when a new harvest takes place, which again occupies eight days. After that period the trees are not cut again ; but until the 19Ui of November, the Mastich that continues to flow is collected on the Monday and Tuesday of every week ; and it is forbidden after that period to gather any. 3530. " ^ curious experiment, which deserves to be generally known, came to my hearing. As it is forbidden to cultivate the Lentiscus beyond the limits prescribed by government, a Turk, hoping to evade the law, and still obtain the Mastich, grafted some Lentisk plants on young Terebinths. They took perfectly well, but the man was surprised, some years after, to find tliat from the incisions he had made, a substance exuded, which combined the idour and qualities of Mastich with the fluidity of Terebinth. Mastich is collected in twenty-one villages, situated to the south of the town ; and the quantity amounts, on an average, to rather more than 1 25,000 lbs. 45,000 lbs. belong to the Aga, who farms the article ; and they ore paid to him by tlie cultivators as a tax for the permission of growing it The surplus brings them in about 50 paras for 2J lbs. (rather less than a shilling), and thejr arc forbidden, under very heavy penalties, to sell it to any one but the contractor. The best and finest quality is sent to Constantinople, for the use of the grand signior's palace. The second sort goes to Cairo, and passes into the harams of the Mamelukes; while merchants only obtain a mixture of the second and third qualities." 3531. /( ii hardly possible that the quantity of Mastich afforded by the island of Sciu can supply the great consumption of this article in Turkey and in Europe. A traveller, indeed, assured Olivier that the Lentiscus is cultivated in the interior of Natolia. Throughout the Ottoman empire, it is an universal practice for all the women, even the Franks, to chew Mastich almost incessantly. It softens in the mouth, to which it imparts an agreeable fra- grance, while it strengthens the gums and whitens the teeth. It is also used for fumigation and perfumes ; as a remedy for various diseases, and to give a pleasant flavour to bread. 3532. The Terebinth flows naturally in siunmer from clefts in the bark of another ipcciei BomI> TURKEY IN EUROPE. 8S7 nWACM TWUIHTHVh if PiiUwiB, th« P. TeraUnthiu (fg. 506. )• It i* M first liquid, and of « bluish, graonish, 506 or yellowish white ( but soon becomes hard and dry on ex- posure to the air. It is commonly called Scian Terebinth, bein^ principally grown in that island. But iu flow is facihtated by tlie incisions which the natives make, every spring, in the trunk and branches of the tree. Every moming, after the coolness of night has condensed it, this substance is collected with a spatula, from the trunks of the trees, and the flat stones that are laid expressly to receive it. As the gum, thus obtained, is always mixed with some ex- traneous matter, it is purified by being run through small baskets, afker having been liquefira by exposure to the sun. 3533. T/ie Terebinth trees afford but little gum in pro- portion to their size ; for an individual 60 years old, and with a trunk four or five feet in circumference, yields but ten or eleven ounces annually. As a natural consequence, the Terebinth is very expensive, even in the country where it is produced. Part is consumed in the Levant, and the rest carried to Venice, where it is generally adulterated with turpentine, called Venetian Terebinth. Thus the true tere- binth of Scio is hardly ever to be obtained pure : that which is really so may be known bjt its thickness, and by possessing a more agreeable odour than the turpentine of the spruce and otlier fir trees ; it is also destitute of bitterness «nd acridity. 3534. A tpedet of Qftiips, which deposits its eggs on tiio branches of the terebinth, occasions galls and large excrescences, containing a small portion of a very limpid and odoriferous resin. 3535. The Ferula of the ancients, the yapOti^ of Dioscorides, is an umbelliferous plant, allied to tlw Assafoetida, which is equally one of the Fennels, and referred by most authors to the F. communis ; while Tournefort, who describes it in the island of Skinosa, where it is still Cilicd Nartlivca, says t^" It bears a stalk five feet high, three inches thick : at every ten inches Iherv is a knot, branciied at each knot, covered with a hard bark two lines thick : the hollow oriiiia stalk is full of white marrow, which, being well dried, takes fire like a match : this fire holdt • good while, and consumes the marrow very gently, witliout damaging the bark, which imkei Ihvm use this plant in carrying from one place to another : our sailors laid in a good tton) of it. This custom is of the greatest antiquity, and may help to explain a passage in Hesiod, who, speaking of the fire that Prometheus stole from heaven, says that he brought it in a ferula. The foundation of this fable doubtless proceeds from Prometheus being the inventor of the steel that strikes fire from the flint. In all probability Prometheus made use of the pith of the ferula instead of a match, and taught men how to preserve fire in the btallii of tliis plant The stem is strong enough to be leaned upon, but too light to hurt in striking ; and, tiiercfore, Bacchus, one of the greatest legislators of antiquity, wisely or'tr^icd the Kmt men that drank wine to make use of this plant, because, being heated with e\ • ^•■'mc (IrinltinK, they would often break one another's heads with the ordinary canes. The prit its of the ume deity supported themselves on these stalks when they walked ; and Pliny oiS). serves tliat this plant h greedily eaten by asses, though to other b<»sts of burthen it is rank poison. We could not try the truth of this observation, there being nothing but sheep and goats on tlio island. The plant is now used for making low stools : they take the dried stallis, and by placing them alternately in length and breadth, they form them into cubes, fastened at the four corners with pegs of wood. These cubes are the visiting-stools of the ladies of Aniorgos. What a diflTerent use is this from that the ancients put the ferula to ! Plutarch and Strabu take notice that Alexander kept Homer's works enclosed in a casket of ferula, on account of its lightness: the body of tiie casket was made of this plant, and tlien covered with some rich stuff or skin, set off with ribs of gold, and adorned with pearls and pKcious stones." 3536. Many of the islands are celebrated for their wine— ** Fill high the cup with Samian wine, Leave battles to the Turkish hordes. And shed the blood of Scio's vine." The former islo was chiefly famed for its Muscadine, notwithstanding that Strabo was ravished witii every individual thing in it, except the wine i but " belike," says Tournefort, " he never tasted the Muscadine wine ; or, perhaps, they never bethought themselves then of making any." Naxus had two fables related of it, that the women are brought to bed at the end of eight months, and that there flows a spring of wine in the island. The wines of Greece are in common use throughout Italy. Tliey have been celebrated, indeed, from the remotest antiquity. The ancient medals represented garlands of ivy, interwoven with bunches of grapes. The wines, according to Tournefort, have just tartness enough to qualify tlicir lusciuusncss ; and the lusdousness, far from being fulsome, is attended with that SH 9 am DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P*M III. dclicioui balm, which, in thoie who hare tasted the Candian wines, begets a contempt for idl other wines whatever. Jupiter never drank any other nectar when he reigned Idnir of this island. The Turks cannot forbear this tempting juice, at least in the night-time and then they make clear work. The Greeks drink it night and day, without water, and in 'small draughts, happy that they can thus bury the remembrance of their misery. When water is poured on these wines, the glass looks as if it were full of clouds, shot through with fluctu- ating curling threads, occasioned by the great quantity of ethereal oil which predominates in this delicious liquid. 3537. Malnuey, or Malooirie, so called from the village of Malwisi in that island, was for a long time the produce of Crete ; and it was such a favourite with the Italians, that they have a proverb, signifying that it is " manna to the mouth, and balsam to the brain." Sieber witnessed the process of making it in Crete, and describes the annual benediction of the wine when it is lodged in the spacious cellars of the monastery of Arcadi* : — << Lord God ! thoti who lovest mankind, direct thine eyes to this wine, and on those who shall drink it : bless our vessels, thrice blessed, as the wells of Jacob and the pool of Siloam, and as thou hast blessed this drink of the Apostles. O Lord, thou who wast present at the wedding of Cana, and, by changing the water into wine, revealed thy glory to thy disciples, send now thy Holy Spirit on this wine, and bless it in thy name !" 353H. The botanist need not be told that the currants of commerce are the produce of a species of vine ; though among the unskilled in natural history an opinion prevails that they are garden currants in a dried state. They are, in fact, small grapes, the berries of a vine ; but it is to be lamented that of what species authors are not agreed. They derive their name f^om having been first brought from Corinth ; and as they are seedless, Linnsus considered them a variety of the common Vine ( Vitis nn\fera)t and called it /3 Corinthiaca apyrena- Dr. Sibthorpe brought a living plant, supposed to be of this kind, from the ruins of Corinth, with no small trouble and care ; but his ignorant gardener threw it away. Sir James E. Smith doubts whether the " Zante Currant," which is cultivated at Kcw and in some other curious gardens, and is a native of that island, pre-eminently styled, for its beauty, — " Zante, flor dl Levante," — b« the same plant as yields the currants of commerce. SuBSKT. 3. Zoology. 3539. The native toologi/ of Turkey is unquestionably less known than that of many far distant regions, inhabited by savages or barbarians. The baneful spirit of Mahometanism, Nliown in the besotted ignorance of its followers, who even pride themselves on their contempt for knowledge, is the curse of every nation which has been condemned to bend beneath its galling yoke. No part of Europe is mure calculated to interest the philosophic zoologist than the provinces of European Turkey, and no part has been so completely unex- plored. Our ideas, therefore, of its native zoology can only be formed from analogy. Situated in the most genial climate, abounding in lofty chains of moun- tains, rich and majestic forests, fruitful plains, and noble rivers, with its shores bathed by the Mediter- "*"*"■ ranean Sea, we may conjecture that many animals now rarely seen in more populous and civilised countries here enjoy their native range ; and others may probably exist, still unknown to science. The proximity, also, of Western and Minor Asia, and the lofty chain of Caucasus, that cradle of the human race, renders it highly probable that European Turkey is that " border country " where the two great zoological provinces of Europe and Asia meet, and blend into each other. That the semi-barbaric despots who have so long held this fair portion of Europe in the fetten of ignorance, and paralysed the minds of millions, ma; soon be driven to the deserts of their ancestors, must be tlie unanimous wish of every friend to the human race. 3S40. Among the birds are found several of those wading species, more common to the warm shores of Africa. That singular bird the European or Pink-co- loured Flamingo is a frequent visiter to the salt-water pools and marshes, accompanied by the Pelican (k- 507.) and many other waterfowl; and the stork builds unmolested on tlie magnificent ruins of the ancient temples. 354 1 . The domesticated animals are belter known. The horses, original ly brought from the * Built on the site of the ruini t . Arcadia. ^^P:*^tPfe^ irAI.LACIIIAN IHIIIP. Book I- TURKEY IN EUROPE. neighbouring shorM of Egypt and Arabia, and ttill replenithcd by contUmt intarcoun* with those countriea, are naturally Ano. The cattle are very large, furniibed with ample horni, and are apparently of the wme breed as those of southern Italy. The IVallachian ibe«p {.fig- S06.) have long been celebrated for the singularity of their horns: they divcrg« tlmoit at right angles from the head, are ver}' long, and are spirally twisted : this breed, which ii white, is derived from the Cretan, and in form resembles the old unimproved breed of England ; but the wool, though curling, is rather coarse, and it is straight on the thighs and nil. 'llic superstition of the Turks leads them to abhor pigs. The Turkish greyhoimd, though well formed, is a disgusting little animal, from the skin being almost destitute of hair. SicT. III. Historical Geography. 3542. The Turks, or Toorks, are a numerous race, whose original seat was in the high \ central regions of Tartary, to the north and east of the Jaxartcs, and along the border of th« Altai. Tlieir large and handsome persons, and their fair and ruddy completions, distinguish them from the meagre, diminutive, and almost deformed aspect of the Mongols, the other roling Tartar race. In the tenth century, having subdued all their neighbours, they were attracted by the rich and beautiful regions of the south, and poured down through Kborassan into Persia. 3543. The princes of the Sefjuk dynaUy had, at the above period, established full sway over Persia. Thence they crossed tlie Euphrates, to attack the weakened power of the Greek empire and the Saracen princes. They were triumphant ; and established in Asia Minor what was called the kingdom of Roum, while other chiefs over-ran Syria and tha Holy Land. At this time the whole of Western Asia was subject to Turkish dynasties. But their fall was preparing. The outrages, of which their rude bands were guilty, formed one of the chief motives which impelled the European powers to the great enterprise of the cnisades. The Latin nations poured in with a force which the Turks were unable to with. stand ; and the thrones of Jerusalem and Iconium were speedily subverted. At the same time, the Mongols, under Zingis, having achieved the subjugation of Tartaiy, followed the traces of the Turks, wrested from them Persia, and subverted the caliphate. At the end of the thirteenth century, the once proud dynasties of Seljuk were reduced to a number of scattered chieftains, occupying the mountainous districts and high plains of Asia Minor, and obliged to own the supremacy of the Mongol khans of Persia. 3544. Othman, or Ottoman, one of their chiefs, was the man who, in 1299, erecting an independent standard, founded the mighty Ottoman empire. He appeared first under the aspect of a Scythian chief, a leader of shepherds and bandits ; but first conquering and then uniting under his standard a number of neighbouring tribes, he assembled a formidable military force. His successor, Orchan, having taken Prusa, erected it into a capital, which almost defied the im.^erial metropolis Constantinople. His successors continually augmented their force by the peculiar institutions under which they trained to arms the captive youth of the conquered countries. They continued to make acquisitions from the decrepid Greek empire, until the walls of Constantinople enclosed all that remained of the dominion of the Caesars. 3545. The Turkish empire was raised to Us greatest height by the capture of Constantinople, in 1453, by Mahomet II. The power of the Turks now struck terror into all Europe. In the succeeding century tliey subdued Egypt, the Barbary States, and all the Arabian coast on the Red Seat In Europe they rendered tributary the Crimea and the countries along the Danube ; they over-ran Hungary and Transylvania, and repeatedly laid siege to Vienna. Wlicn alliurs came to that crisis, however, the European states took the alarm, and all the princes of Poland and Germany united against the invader, who was repeatedly driven back with prodigious loss. At sea, notwithstanding the gallant resistance of the Venetians and the knights of St. Johp, the Turks long carried all before them : they subdued Rhodes, Cyprus, and all the Greek islands; and it was only at the little rock of Malta that their progress received a check. 3546. The decline of the Ottoman power was perceptible in the course of the seventeenth century, and proceeded rapidly in the eighteenth. The rigour of that discipline, by which they had rendered themselves so formidable, was insensibly relaxed; the grand signior resigned himself to the luxuries and indulgences of the seraglio ; and the revolts of the pachas in every quarter distracted the empire. When the European powers began to make war with regular armies, they easily repelled those tumultuary bands which followed the Turkish standard. Above all, when Russia began to develope her gigantic energies, the star of Ottoman ascendency rapidly declined. Defeated in every battle, losing several of their finest provinces, and holding the rest by a precarious tenure, the Turks ceased to be for. midiible. In the last war, indeed, Genci-al Diebitsch entered Adrianople, and saw the road to the capital open ; though peace was then granted on moderate terms. But Turkey has since undergone a still deeper humiliation, having seen her empire altnost subverted by Ibrahim, son to the pacha of Egypt, when she was saved only by the interposition of Russia, her mortal enemy, and obliged to sacrifice Syria and Palestine, two of the finest portions of her territory. 3H 4 840 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHY. P*»t III I 'IBAND aiUltlOBi SicT. IV. Political Oeogtvph^. 9547. The T^nNM poUtictU u/Uem Ium no Malogy with that of anjr Otlrar EurapMm paww but ii furmi'd upon a purely Adatic model. lis principle ii the lubjection of the wboU adminittratlon, cifil, military, and religiout, to the absolute diipoaal of one man. Th« grand rignior (^flg. 509,), the •• thadow of God," and " reAige of the world," U coniidcrcd 509 aa reigning by divine eommiiaion, and uniting in himielf sll (h, powen, Ivgialative, oxeculivc, Judicial, and eccletiamlcal. Se. iim I., by the conquMt of Egypt, acquired a right to the title of caliph I but tuUan, or grand tlgnior, U that by which ih« ruler of Turkey it beet known. So deeply rooted it the v*. neration for the Othman fimiily, that, amid to many bloody unI violent revoiutiona, the idea haa never been entertained of a tub. ject icating himself on the Imperial throne i and a(\vr culUnir off' the head of one sultan, nothing has ever been drvnnit uf but raising the next heir to the tlirone. Under the Muisulmin system, the spiritual and temporal powers being ciinsidvrvil ti essentially one, a peculiarly sacred character is coiniimnicatcd to him in whom they centre. According to profound Mahomcttn doctors, nothing that the sultan does cait be morally wrong, li is at least generally understood that he is entitlvlam<>' nor is it, according to Hycaut, till liu lH>g!ns to kill at the rsleuf n thousand a day that the people acquire the right of deposing him. Flu is connidcrt'd alw the proprietor of all the lands in his dominions, excepting those dedicated to pious UHvt, 8548. The vixier {Jig. 510.), otsiUed by the divan, is the person upon whom dvvolvet 510 entire the exclusive power of the state. The gmnd rignior doci not even, like some other Oriental despots, make a show uf Hitting in judgment, but delegates that Amction also to his minittcr- who, thus invested with the authority of supreme magi«irtt(' appoints to all civil and military offices, puts to death all who oppose his measures, and commands the army in |>er«oii, leaving at court in his abseiwo a pacha, under the title of cainiacan. He is also accustomed to go disguised through the city, to «it. mine the weights, measures, and qualities of the gootlt ; and, on discovering any deficiency, to apply the bastinado, nail tlie offender by the ear to the door of his shop, or even strike olThii head. The divan consisted formerly of six pachas of three tsili; but of late it has been formed of the principal state officers: the two cadi askers, or judges of the army j the kiaia bey, who forms a sort of rei» effendi (Jig. 511.), an officer coml)ining the Tunc. tions of chancellor with those of secretary of statu botli fur (he home and foreign departments ; tlio lejterdar effentii, or gcneril treasurer of the empire ; the tchelebi effendi, a sort of naval secretary ; the capitan pacht {Jig. 512.), or lord high admiral. In general, there is no exact correspondencv lM>iwecn the functions in this and in a European court or ministry } a circumstance iVont which confusion is often apt to arise. S549. The muftis, and ulema, or body of moUahs, form the depository of the lawi ol the empire, and the only class who approach to the character of a national council. Tliey are not, as has sometimes been supposed, ministers of religion ; though, since tliu Koran and ila commentaries form the only law of the empire, and the moUahs receive their education in the madreites, or colleges attached to the mosques, they bear quits a sacred character. The ,it lb« lecond penon of the ompira in dignity ; h« girdi the libra on tlx lultui, an 1(1 equivalent to coronation ; and tlia lovereign advancn seven ttept to meet liim, while be idfincM only three towards tlie grand viiier. No great measure of sute can l>e regularly ttken, or command the respect of the empire, without a fetwa (Vom the mufti. The sultan cunotbehcMl him ; and though Murad IV. sought to evade this statute by pounding him in I moiiar, the interpretation was scarcely considered sound, and has not been followed. The tultan, however, in case of high cause of wrath, possesses, or at least exercises, the power of deposing the mufti, and thus secures in general his strict subserviency ; though at uther times tlmt officer, by placing himself at the head of popular discontents, has been the mctni uf bringing the sovereign to an untimely end. The members of the ulema ousht to b« elected by the mufti, after strict examination, and with some regard to hereditary claim ; but the grand signior is in ttie habit of nominating upon his own authority, and firom pure fiTOur. 355a Jutlice it adminUtered bjf member* of the ulema : those in the large towns are unned vwllaJu, and in the smaller towns cadit i the nominations being made by the sultan from a list presented by the mufti. The proceedings are conducted with the greatest sim- plicity. At tlie divan hanneh, or vizier's tribunal, there is a written statement of tlie case, which must however be comprised in a page, leaving room fo. the sentence at the bottom. The parties then plead ; two or three witnesses are examined on each side ; and the decision i) given on the spot. Justice is thus neither costly nor tedious, but it is venal. Few judge* ire inaccessible to a bribe ; and false witnesses are more numerous, and more shameless, than in almost any other country. After all, Turk against Turk has a tolerable chance; but those beyond the pale of the faith afford a mine of wealth to true believers, who, in opening I process against them, are almost certain to gain something. 3551. The court and leraglio form not only the most brilliant appendage to the Ottoman Porte, but one of the great moving springs of its political action. In this palace, or prison, ire immured 500 or 600 females, the most beautiful that can be found in the neighbour- ing realms of Europe, Asia, and Africa ; wherever Turks can rule or Tartars ravage. The pichiu and tributary princes vie with each other in gifts of this nature, which form the most eSectife mode of gaining imperial favour. Into these recesses only short and stolen glances htTe been cast by Europeans ; but their reports attest a splendour like that which is cele^ bnted in the Arabian tales : the walls and ceilings are of olive or walnut wood, curiously owed, richly gilded, and often inlaid with mother-of-pearl, ivory, and porcelain ; the floors spread with the richest Persian carpets. The sultan, however, does not marry, jud^ng his place too high to admit any one to such an equality. From the multitude of beauties, however, he selects seven, who are called kadunis or favourites, while the remaining crowd are con- founded under the appellation of odalitqueSt or slaves. The number seven cannot be exceeded ; but when a vacancy is wanted, it can be effected by removing one of them to the old seraglio, a dignified retirement, which receives also the favourites of the prince immediately on his dflith. These imprisoned beauties are guarded by numerous bands of unfortunate slaves reduced to the state of eunuchs. The gates and outer apartments are guarded by white eunuchs; but bluck eunuchs, rendered safe by their deformity, are stationed in all the in- terior recesses. Many of these personages rise to great distinction, and the Hilar aga (fig. JH,], tlieir cliief, is one of the leading characters in the empire, and even a sort of head of 514 the church. In another palace are reared a great body of icAeg/anr, or pages, trained in all graceful exercises, for the purpose of personal attendance on the sultan. Tl>ey are often raised to high offices of state, though in that capacity they are viewed with utter contempt by the hardy chiefs who have forced their way by merit and ser- vice^ Another class of eminent characters in this court consists of the mutes. A Turkish grandee, lolling on his sofa, requires inces- sant attendance: bis pipe, sherbet, and slippers must be at any moment handed to him or to his guests ; he must therefore have some one before whom he can speak without reserve, and without fear of his secrets being made public ; but many, to reach such high employments, feign themselves to be labouring under these iniirmitiea. Dwarfs, by a taste which seems common to uncultivated minds, are also favourites ; and when any individual unites the perfections of being deaf and dumb, and a dwarf, he becomes one to whom the highest value is attached. 3552. The finances of the empire are shrouded in very deep mystery ; indeed, their limount cannot be in any degree measured by that of the sums paid into the treasury. The I lands held as the sole property of the sultan are let out on the tenure of military service ; and ■ thus is defrayed the whole expense of the troops, with the exception of the janissaries. By a liimilar assignment of land the mosques and all other public establishments are supportnl ; land the sultana mother is, by the same arrangement, enabled to maintain the state belonging I to her rank. The numeroua princesses are bestowed in marriage on the pacbaa and other a«f DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P*M III. opulent individuals, who find this honour dearly purchased by the mortifications which th •re domed to endure from the haughtiness of these imperial spouses. Of the direct contril '^ tion the principal is the haratsh, or capitation tai, imposed on all subjects of the emoire h' are not Mahometan. It has varied extremely ; the present statutory amount is ten sit ** three piastres, according to the different gradations of supposed wealth in the contii'butn "'. but there is much that is arbitrary and oppressive in the actual levy of this impost. In th' subject provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia, the haratsh is paid in one sum by the Diin or vaivodes ; but both from them and from the pachas his imperial majesty is pleasedT accept of numerous presents on various occasions, to say nothing of those which it is at 1 1 highly prudent to make to the officers of state and the occupants of the haram. Hence itw calculated that where the tribute was only 65,000 piastres, the presents exceeded 500 (XX) In short, all the oflices of the empire are regularly put up to sale. Forfeiture and'con' fiscation form also an extensive source of revenue, independently of the principle by whi h the sovereign is held the legal heir of all who die in his service. The customs are con siderable, being levied by farm, without much rigour; but the attempts to establish an excise have been met by violent discontents, and even insurrection. One most perniciou resource is that of the monopoly of grain. It is very difficult to say what sums of monev actually enter the miri, or imperial treasury. De Tott and Cantemir make an estimate of 3,900,000/., which is probably nearer the truth than that of Olivier, who makes it upwards of 6,000,000/. 3553. The military system of the Turks, formerly the terror of the greatest powers in Europe, and now despised by almost the meanest, has undergone no formal change. It is supported on a basis somewhat resembling the feudal militia, though without any thine ui an hereditary character. All the lands are distributed, in portions of 300 acres and upwards, among the zaims and timariots, on condition that they bring into the field, and support at their own cost, a number of horsemen proportioned to the extent of their lots, The number of timars and saimets are stated at 50,160; and the collective force which thev ought to bring into the field at 150,000. The troops are, however, bound to ke<^n to their standards only between the days of St. George and St. Demetrius ; that is, between the middle of April and the middle of October. The above are termed the topnid' or feudatory troops ; the rest are the capiculi, or paid troops, who alone approximate to the cha. racter of a regular force. Of these last, the chief have hitherto been the janissaries (Jig- 515.), who for a long period might be said to hold at their disposal the Ottoman em> pire ; and their aga was one of its greatest officers (Jig, 516.). They originated in a peculiar policy of the first sultans, who, selecting the most vigorous of the young cap- tives, trained them up in the Ma- hometan religion, and in all the exercises fitting them for war. They were afterwards, however, recruited out of the Mussulman population, many of whom even so- licited a nominal admission, with a view to the privileges and exemptions attached to the order. The number on the list was thus very great ; but according to Mr. Thornton, the actual issue of pay, at the daily rate of threepence, implies only a force of 40,000. Recent!)', however, ths powerful body has been annihilated by the vigorous and bloody measures of Mahmoud, the reigning sultan, who is using the utmost exertion to organise a new force similar to that maintained by the other European powers. There is also a paid force of spahis, or cavalry, amounting to 15,000. Of this limited amount, a great proportion is required for the body- guard of the sultan and pachas, and for the police ; so that the field-armies of the Turks consist almost entirely of the /cj .• Jui, or feudatories, a huge tumultuary mass, resembling the armies of Europe during the feudal ages. Their order of encampment has been com- pared to a number of coins taken in the hand and scattered over a table ; and their inarch resembles the career of the volcano, desolating every spot over which they pass : as they ad- vance, the inhabitants flee to the mountains, and secrete all their most valuable effects. The Turkish soldiery make merely one vigorous push against the enemy, and if this fails theyare discouraged, disperse, and return to their homes. Upon such a system, they cannot, in modeni times, at all match in the field regular armies. It would be rash, however, to infer, from the poor figure they have made in all the late wars, that the Turkish empire would fall an easy prey to an invader. It has many defensive resources. The Turks have an eicellent light cavalry ; they skirmish well, and defend fortresses with great obstinacy ; and in ei- tremity -the grand signior can summon to arms the whole mass of the population, vbg JAMSItAHV AUHA. Book I. TURKEY IN EUROPE. 843 jie not slow to obey the call whenever impelled by any national motive, such as would ba llie inv'uion of the empire by an infldel army. 3554. The rayahs, or trUmtary subjects of the empire', form a class subjected to a peculiar nstem of policy. The propagation of the Koran by the sword is a fundamental principle of the Maliometan faith, and death inflicted on the infidel is esteemed the surest passport into paradise. To justify this slaughter, however, it is necessary that there should be resistance ; aud not to strike off the heads that bend, has become an established maxim. But the utmost boon which the vanquished giaour can hope is, (hat his life may be spared : his penon, liis property, his all, belong to the votaries of the true faith. An indiscriminate spoil was at first made ; but policy afterwards dictated to the sovereign the plan of com- muting these indefinite claims for the fixed tribute or capitation called haratsh, which, with eiciusion from all offices of trust and power, formed the only legal penalties. Of course, however, in such a government, various detached acts of oppression and extortion would be committed, against which the despised and abhorred Christian would in vain protest The Greeks had three high offices to which they might aspire ; that of princes of Moldavia and Wallacliia, and of dragoman or interpreter ; but these were all in the gifl of the Forte ; and the intrigues by which they were to be sought served still more to degrade the Greek character. Yet, even under this imperfect protection, the nation, being left in the exclusive ixKsession of many industrious and lucrative occupations, insensibly accumulated a degree of wealth whicli raised them to importance, and excited that desire of independence which has produced such striking effects. SscT. V. Productive Industry. 3555. Agriculture, in European Turkey, is depressed at once by arbitrary exactions, snd by the devastation consequent on frequent wars in many of the finest provinces ; yet its productions are valuable. The grain, which grows in the plains of Roumelia, Bulgaria, and on the banks of the Danube, is considered the finest in the empire. From the same plains a great quantity of excellent butter and bad cheese is obtained, the latter being made ot skimmed milk. The steep sides and deep valleys of H«mus and Rhodope are covered nith vast flocks of sheep, affording the most delicate mutton, but a coarse kind of wool, vhich, however, from it& plenty, forms a large article of export. Buffaloes are chiefly employed in agriculture ; and, though their flesh is unpalatable, their skins, being thick and strong, are of considerable value. Hare skins, also, are so abundant as to form an article of importance in commerce. Bees innumerable are reared, and yield a profusion of honey and vai. A fine white silk is produced in Bulgaria and the plain of Adrianople, but not equal to that of Bursa. Cotton flourishes in the plains south of Haemus, though nowhere so copiously as in Macedonia and Thcssaly. 35J6. itamtfacturei are stili in a less flnuristiing «tate ; yet ttie very flne one of Turkey leather lias been carried to the tiighest iwrfection at Gallinoli, and some otticr places along the Dardanelles, as well as in Kveral cities of Asia Minor. Olivier vainly inauired into the secret of its preparation, which is still hid fhim Europeans; tie could not even ascertain whether it lay in the exeellcnie of the leather, or in the mode of dresiiiifi and dyeing. Adrianople f.ibricatcs a Hne cotton thread, similar to that of Larissa, by which it 1* DOW surpassed. Mr. Thornton |)raiscs the printed muslins of Constantinople. Turkey carpeta belong to .\sia Minor, where manufacturing industry is generally more advanced than in European Turkey. 3557. The commerce of this part of the empire, excluding Greece, is almost confined to Constantinople. Perhaps no city was ever better situated for trade, either by land or sea ; but the proud indolence of the Turks, altogether averse from such occupation, reduced it to a secondary rank ; it is tlierefore confined to the tributary races, and to Frank merchants at Constantinople, acting under great diflficulty and restraint. From Constantinople would be exported a good deal of grain, were it not fur the impolitic prohibition, which does not, however, prevent a considerable contraband trade. Other productions of European and Asiatic Turkey, wool, bufliilu hides skins, goats' hair, Turkey leather, wax, drugs, silk, cotton, and copper, find their chief vent through the capital. In 18.35, there entered and quitted Constantinople about 1800 vessels, of which 130 were British; tonnage about 22,000. Salunica in 18.')5 was visited by 473 vessels, tonnage 45,500 ; the imports 148,000/., exports 68,000/. The trade is carried on mostly through Syra. Horaila and Galacz are tlie emporia of the Danube, being visited each by about '200 vessels annually. The im- ports into the latter in 1835 were valued at 102,700/., exports 213,300/. ; but consisted chiefly in salt, tallow, wheat, cattle, and butter. In 1836, the export of British produce to Turkey amounted to 1,775,000/. The chief articles were, cottons 1,415,500/., cotton yarn 112,500/., woollens 41,300/., refined sugar 99,500/., earthenware and glass 7400/., hard- ware 7000/., iron and steel 17,700/., machinery 4200/., plate and jewellery 10,000/. There were exported of foreign articles — raw sugar 6600 cwts., coffee 935,500 lbs., cochineal 27,000lbs. , pepper 1 1 7,800 lbs. , indigo 46,250 lbs. The imports in the same year were, chiefly, raw silk 678,750 lbs., lamb skins 138,800, wool 2,473,000 lbs., cotton 557,000 lbs., valonia 58,700 cwts., opium 119,900/., raisins 7 1.350 cwts., currants 56,200 cwts., figs 7590 cwts., copper 6070 cwts. These statements include Asia Minor. 3558. The roads, as usual in absolute monarchies, are supported by the government, the 844 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHY. P*«» 111. pachM having wwlKnmantt upon tha national dotnains for that purpose. The grand mil- tary routm aro thUR malntalnod In tokrnble order } but the by-paths are greatly neelectHl' We aro not aware that eanaU have ovm entered Into the plans of Turkish iniDroveiMnt. Sicv. VI. GvU and Social State. S559. Th« mmonal c*«rael#r and wtpect of the Turk is thoroughly Oriental, and in everv point contnury to that of lh« Western European nations. All the external forms of life are dissimilar, and even opposite. The men, instead of our dresses fitted tight to the bodv wear long flowing roberii which conceal the limbs. Instead of standing or sitting on chai^ they remain ttretened on mfia In luxurious indolence ; considering it madness to stir or walk unless for speeial purpoiteR or business. They sit cross-legged, especially at meals. On entering a house, tiiey dike ott', not their hat, but their shoes ; in eating, they use the finders only, without knlfb or tbrk | they sleep not on beds, but on couches on the ground. Tlie females, excluded fVom all socletv, remain shut up in the haram, and must not be seen or named by any penton of the opposite sex. The grave, secluded, and serious cast, impressed by a despotic government and by the Mahometan law, is more decided in the Turk than in the Arab or Pewlan i he U •« a solemn solitary being." The abject submission to a master which is esteemed a religious duty, Is combined with the pride of a conquering people, and with the consclouKneiut of being surrounded by subject races on whom he has set his foot. The deportment of the Turk to the ravah is that of the Teutonic baron towards his humblest domestic vassal. Yet, though this ihncied superiority prompts to acta of tyranny and injustice to this numerous clasi, It iieemi to inspire a sense of personal dignity, which raises him above the system of fokvhootl and deceit which is, as it were, rooted elsewhere throughout the East. Compared with other Uiivnuls, the Turk is honest, and his word may be trusted. From this combination of the slave and the aristocrat in circumstances of a political nature, of austerity and licentiousness in religion, the character of the Turks exhibits many striking contrasts. " We And them," says Thornton, « brave and pusillanimous; good and ferocious i firm and weak | active and indolent ; passing from austere devotion to disgusting obscenity; irom moral »iverlty to gross sensuality; fastidiously delicate and coaitely voluptuous } fwated on a cutestlal bed and preying on garbage. The great are alter. nately haughty and humble \ arrogant and cringing ; liberal and sordid. Though the Turk be naturally sedate and placid, his rage, when once roused, is furious and ungovern- able, like that of a brute." Hu«ptlalitv and giving of alms are Oriental virtues. Even g. andee keeps « sort of open table \ and the fragments of the feast are distributed to the poor at the door. It Is rare to hinder any one from plucking herbs or fruit in a garden or on hard. This humanity Ih even it\|udlciously extended to die lower creation, which enjoyat Constantinople a ^rt of pnradiie. The dogs, though excluded as unclean from the houses and mosques, are alloweil to multiply In the streets till they become a perfect nuisance; the doves feed at libertv on tlio grain In the harbour, which echoes with the crowded clang of unmolested aea>blrai, 3560. Tlu religioH ^ Mahomtt l» considered to be preserved throughout this empire in a state of peculiar and excluitlve purity. Tlie Turk is imbued from his earliest infancy with the loftiest conceptions of his own spiritual state, and witli a mingled hatred and contempt of every other. This fiad | the inutm, who has tlie general care of the mosque, and, in the villages, performs alone all tlie other sacred duties. These functionaries are not distinguished from the rest of the cltliens either by habits or deportment ; and it is remarkable that there is not an office of religion which may not be reguUrly performed without a priest, either b; the magistrate or by private Individuals. The sultan, as grand imam, or head of the church, devolves the duties of tliU character on Inferior officers ; and most especially on the Mr ago, or chief of the block eniiuclis, who, by a singular arrangement, is entrusted with the superintendence of all the mosques. It has been said, that sound belief and the strict observance of the aliove cerenioiilws arc considered as securing paradise, without the necessity of repentance or of gowl works. Uusbcquius even counts it as the peculiar felicity of o Mussulman to believe " that nothing can be wrong which he wishes to do, and nothing right which he does not wIhIi." Ilut this seems to be going too far. We find the disuse of wine, the giving of alma, and the Ibuiuling of caravanseras, practised on a great scale, from religious motives. The first of these Is a good deal evaded ; yet religion has certainly effected the general substitution of cullVe, opium, and tobacco, though even the last is not considered rigidly orthodoi. Predealiiiatlon Is celebrated as a Mahometan tenet, and is indeed evcria Boffl* TURKEY IN EUROPE. M« Ikiir mouth. " It is written," b the resigned comment with which they meet the most arefe calamities, and even death itself. Yet, as they talie the same anxious and even jgofdinate care to avoid these evils as others, the dogma perhaps is rather in their mouths l]^ in their hearts ; and the formidable valour which, in the career of their victories, was ittributed to it, no longer stands in need of such a solution. T.iere are institutions which, lliough not ordained by Mahomet, have become essential branches of the present system. Such are the deniuhe$, a body who seek, by fantastic displays of self-denial, and contempt oTthe outward decencies of life, to acquire the reputation of superior sanctity. The most (ininent are the howling dervishes, who scream out the name of God till they foam at the gouth and taW to the ground quite exhausted. In one sect the xealots founded their feme upon getting all their teeth drawn out ; but it has not made much progress. The belief in (hums, sorcery, magic, and the evil eye was condemned by the precepts of Mahomet ; but „ this censure was contrary to the spirit of an ignorant and superstitious people, it has not uken effect, and these particulars continue to form an essential part of the popular creeu in Muhometan countries. iSS\. The learning of the Turks may be comprised within a very limited compass The toirent of their barbarous invasion buried under it not only the splendid though corrupted remains of Greek science, but that of a secondary description which was attained by the Arabs under the caliphate. Yet some of the early sultans were patrons of learning ; as iodeed, most conquerors have been. Among these was Orchan, who founded at Bursa a highly celebrated academy ; and Mahomet II., whom western Europe regards as a ferocious lynnt, but who in the East is almost as celebrated for his learning and love of learning aa for his victories. It cannot be said that even now learning is left absolutely without cncouragemect. Madreuet, or colleges, richly endowed, are attached to every mosque, and in ihcm a long and laborious course of study is provided for those who aspire to form part of Iheulema. Ten degrees are conferred by them, and the student is often forty years old before he can attain the highest, that of Suleymanieh. The misfortune is, that the studies them pursued have no tendency to enlarge the mind, or to adapt it for the duties of active life. They conust of the rhetoric and logic of the dark ages ; of discussions respecting the com- parative merits of Abubekir and Omar ; and of knotty theological questions, such as, whether the feet, at rising, should be washed with water, or only be rubbed with the bare hand. The Turks are ignorant of the most common instruments in natural philosophy, the telescope, the microscope, the electrical machine, which, if presented to them, are merely shown as objects of childish curiosity. Persons of the highest rank scarcely know any thing of countries beyorr*. the boundaries of the empire. Astrology, so long exploded from the list of European sciences, continues in Turkey to influence and direct the public councils. No espedition sails from Constantinople, no foundation of a building is laid, nor public officer installed, until the munet^em bachi, or chief of the astrologers, has named the fortunate day. With all their pride, they are obliged to have recourse to Christian physicians, whose skill tliey ascribe to necromancy, and who they therefore expect will predict at once, in the most precise manner, the issue of their complaints. All the arts have degenerated into mechanical trades. Neither architecture, painting, nor music is practised with any degree of taste or genius. 3562. The condition of the female sex in Turkey is particularly foreign to our manners and ideas. From the moment of marriage they are immured in the haram, excluded from the fievofthe public and of all of the opposite sex, their nearest relations being alone admitted onoccasions of peculiar ceremony. This circumscribed existence, and ;he necessity of sharing iridi a multitude of rivals the favour of i husband, or n.ther master, appear intolerable to European ideas. It is not, however, without coirpensations, though it seems a great extravagance in Lady M. W. Montagu to allege, respecting Turkish females, that they are the only free women on earth. They are allowed to visit and receive visits, and to frequent the baths ; ablution being even obligatory in a religious view ; and there they meet with numbers of their own sex. Europeans have not failed to surmise that opportunities are thus taken to elude the vigilance of their guardians, and that the bars of the haram are of little avail. Other well-informed writers doubt if intrigues, which can be carried on only at the hazard of life, and with numerous accomplices, can be very frequent The advances, in such cases, are dways made by the lady, who likewise arranges the mode of meeting, provided the gentleman be willing to risk his head in the adven- ture. It can admit of less doubt that, by the channels already named, all the news of the city finds its way into the haram, and that gossip is carried on there as busily as in any European coterie. Here also favours are solicited through the channel of female relations, and the haram becomes often the centre of intrigues by which the empire is shaken. Peculiar veneration is attached in Turkey to the parental character, and particularly to that of mother. Even in the fall of a great man, his haram is always respected, and the property belonging to his wives is left untouched, so that they sometimes become his support. Marriage in Turkey has nothing sacred ; it is merely a civil contract, fixing the amount of the dower, and perhaps limiting the husband as to the number of his other wives. If the iman be present 848 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P*M HI. •long with tho cadi, he is only a legal witness. Those, with respect to whom there h «» such contract, ranli as concubines, who are chiefly purchased slaves. In Constant i there is a bazaar ; a vast square building, with an interior court, «' where man does I'ot I'l f to expose to sale the most lovely and interesting part of the creation." Infidels are cxcl A^ on account of the dreaded influence of their evil eye ; yet French travellers, who have " k* some stolen glances, report that the captives were seen seated upon mats, with thd*"l ' Pouqueville did not observe in these fair sufferers anv'sc'^! crossed, in groupes of fifteen. _ Polygamy is |}ermittii#) by law, and carried sometimes to a vast extent, but only by the rich. The poor and others who study domestic quiet, find one wife quite sufiicient. Divorce is permitted i°" is not conmion. Disagreement of temper does not bear so liard on the husband from ti" separate stote in which he lives ; adultery is avenged by the poniard ; so that sterirt'" reckoned so deadly a curse throughout the East, is the prevailing motive for divorce ^' 3563. The rauahs, or subject infidels, who form so large a part of the population of Turkc arc chiefly Greeks, Jews, and Armenians. The Greeks have been largely noticed, in treati ^' of their native district. The Jews, exposed to every insult, are more degraded', both asl^ character and state, than in Europe. They carry on banking ; usury, at enormous rat« and various small trades, despised by others, by which a penny can be turned ■ and ' alleged to have few scruples on any thing by which their gains may be augmented. Tl " Armenians carry on almost all the inland trade of the empire, particularly in Asia- and q an industrious, frugal, sober, and not very dishonest race. According to Pouqueville tl " Turk, when he deigns to trade, sells with the air of conferring a favour ; the Greek artful and active, is eloquent in setting forth his commodities, appealing to heaven for their valu and his own probity ; the Armenian establishes his speculations with coolness and reflection. his eye always fixed on the future ; while tlie Jew buys, sells, offers his agency in business and is all activity, all attention ; nor can the uniform contempt and aversion with which he is treated ever repel his assiduities. 3564. The amusements oj the Turk are chiefly domestic. His delight is to give himself up to continued and unvaried reverie ; to glide down the stream of time without thought or anxiety ; to retire under the shade of trees, there to muse without any fixed object and to inhale through the pipe a gently inebriating va|)oiir. Stretched in luxurious case, he takes pleasure, however, in listening to the narrative of the professed story-teller, or in viewins the dances of Greek youtlis or Turkish balladiires, at which, though by no means rcmarkahle for decorum, he even allows the presence of his wives. Tlie ball, the theatre, the crowded party, all that in Europe can be accounted gaiety, arc utterly foreign to Turkish manners 3565. The dress of the Turks consists of long, loose robes, which do not encumber their stately walk, though they would be incompatible with running or rapid motion. The absence of all tliose bandages and ligatures by which Europeans are shack! "< must be In'ghlv favour- able to the duvulopeinent of form, and even to health. The turban is the most characteristic feature of Eastern dress ; and its varied form and ornaments not only discriminate the ridi from the poor, but afford a badge to the various professions, to each of which a costume is appointed by government, and strictly enforced. 3566. The food ofllie Turks is not very luxurious. It consists chiefly of stews and hashes, particularly that favourite one culled pUau, with salads, olives, and sweetmeats. In wine though prohibited by their religion, some sultans and grc.it men haye deeply indulged' but in general its use is confined to the lowest ranks. Coffee and sherbet are liaiidtd about on all occasions. Opium, as a substitute for wine, is taken to excess, and often fatally those addicted to it usually fall victims before the age of forty. fi t Sect. VII. Local Geography. 3567. Turkey in Europe, when we have excluded Greece, may be divided into Roumclia, or that great plain, south of Ha;mus and Uhmlope, known to the ancients as Thrace; and into Bulgaria, the northern plain between that chain and the Danube. The rest of l!ie territory consists of tributary Christian states, which are ruled by Christian princes nomin- ated by the Porte, and vacillate between independence, devastation, and sul)JL'clion. 3568. Roumelia has been made to include all continental Greece to tlie frontier of Albania ; but, in the present restricted sense it forms a large plain, fertile in grain, fruits, silk, and cotton ; while numerous flocks and herds cover the hanging sides of the niuunlains, It forms the central and metropolitan province of the empire, almost exclusively helJbyi i Turkish population, and including the two grL'at capitals Constantinople and Adrianople. | 3569. Cotistantinoj>lt (fig. 517.) occupies perhaps the most commanding and important site of any city in the world. Mistress of the long chain of straits connecting the two great seas which separate Europe from Asia, it fonns the link between those continents. Hence,eveD while I'hrace was steei>ed in barbarism, Byzantium flourished as a great comnierdil Dooil' TURKEY IN EUROPE. 847 npublic, until the period when Constantine raised it to higher lr'<)nrtanco by giving to it Ms luunei and making it the capital of his empire. Even i3\or tint lupitrtitiou of the West|^ .817 - -" .^ r . '^r: CnNITANTINOn.B> it continued the metropolis of the East, and rose in importaneo during the vncruttcliments on its territory by the invading tribes. As the world was ovorwlivlnu'd with tlic prodigious inundation of the barbarians, Constantinople became the refiigo uf all that rt'inuinud uf ancient science and civilisation. Reduced by Mahomet II., it became tliu capital uf Moslem igno- rance and superstition ; yet it still continues one of the grentost (Ities iit Europe, ranking neit to London and Paris. The population, in the absence uf any kind uf consus, can bo little more than conjectured. Mr. Eton gives the lowest estimntv, wliicli in ;iOO,OOU. It is arzued that Constantinople stands on somewhat less ground limn I'ttris, that the houses are not so liigli) and there are larger gardens ; but it must be rcuivntbervd tliitt the lower cIogsus in the East pock together in a manner of which Europeans have scurvi'ly nu idea. Olivier, from the quantity of corn consumed, infers that the inhabitants exceed half a million ; and we should not be surprised if strict investigation gave even a grenti'r number ; though it seems wonderful that Mr. Thornton should have mentioned a millitni uf raynlis ns a possible amount. Constantinople, unlike other European capitals, derives little support fk'uin the re- sidence of any great landed proprietors or capitalists, for whom indeed it has few attractions. It rests almost entirely upon the support of those employed by the government, or soliciting from it favours and offices ; and Olivier calculates that B,00<\lXX)/, sterling arc poured in from the provinces, which affords certainly a very ample income. Wo mtist add, however, the commercial class, and the remains of the Greek aristocracy, wliu are established in a quarter called the Fanar, and thence denominated Fanariuts. 3570. The siluation of Constantinople is as beautiful and Niiporb as it is commodious. Seated on the Bosphorus, at the point where it communicates with the I'ropuntis ur Sea of Marmora, it is connected both with the Mediterranean and the lilnck Sen by a succession of straits, easily defensible, yet navigable for the largest vessels. The port is spacious and admirable. On the side of Europe and on that uf Asia rich |>lniuN spread before the eye, bounded by the snowy tops of Haemus and Olympus. The city itself, rising on seven hills, along the shore of the Bosphorus, embosomed in groves, ft-om ninid which numerous gilded domes ascend to a lofty height, presents a most inagniflcent Hpi'clncle. Itut the moment the interior is entered, all the magic scene disappears. The stri^'ls are luirrow, winding, ill paved, and crowded ; the houses low and gloomy ; and the hills, which appeared niigestic in the view, causing steep ascents and descents, prove excessively inconvenient. But the most fatal circumstance in the structure of Constantinople is, that the houses uf rich and poor are alike entirely composed of wood, while chimneys are nut generally used, but their place supplied by vessels of brass or earth put under the feet. These circuntstunces, joined to the usual improvidence of the Mahometans, cause must tremendous conlliigrutions. It is even believed, with or without reason, that the Turkish public enipluv the setting lire to the city as a mode of communicating their opinion on the conduct of their rulers. The scene is terrible, from the extent of the blaze, the deep rolling of the drum IVuiii the tup of the minarets, and the crowds that assemble, among whom even the grand siguior himself is expected to be present. It is reckoned that Constantinople rises entire iVuni its ashes in the course of every fifteen years ; but nu advantage is ever taken uf the circiunstancc to improve its aspect. The fallen streets arc immediately recunstructed with all their imper- fections, and the houses rebuilt of the same fragile materials. This city contains, how- ever, some structures that are very magnificent. Among then» stands furemnst the mosque of St. Sophia, accounted the finest in the world, first built as a church by Justinian, and con- verted by the conquering Turks to its present use. Tlie mosques uf Kultnit Achmct and of Suleyman (Jig. 518.) are equally vast and splendid, but not marked by the same clank DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHY. >**»» III 3t» :iiil. tnwvH at H'LrAm aokhit aud ivutmah. OUTLI or TM MVm tOWMUa The numerous miiuureU are in genenl tiry end elegant, and add greatly to th. bcautjrofUiecitjr. ' ^ 3571. Pern and Scutari, two an. pendages to Conntantinoplc, in anv other vicinity would rank as ciUes^ ^U ll '^ J""'' «1"»^'. where reside the ambasiadon and agents of all the European courts, and under their protecUon all Christians whose trade does not fix them at the port It has thus become very populous and even crowded; so that housed are obtained with difficulty. Scutari stands on the Asiatic side, in a beauti. ful ond cultivated plain, and presenta a picturesque aspect, from the mixture of trees and minarete. It carries on a very consideral)le caravan trade with the interior of Asia. A great forest near it contains the most splendid cemetery of the empire, as all the grandees of Constantinople seek to deposit their remains in Asia, which they consider as a Holy Land, in the possession of true believers,' while Europe is almost entirely the prey of the " infidel." in this vicinity is situated the castle of the Seven Towers (Jig. ,519,) used by government as a state prison. 3578. Romania, or Soumelia, is sometimes used in a very ei. tensive sense, as comprchunding all European Turkey except the provinces on the Danube; but more strictly it is applied to the plain on the site of ancient Thrace, comprehended between the chains of Haemus, Rhodopr. and the sea. In this fruitful but ill-cultivated plain, Adriaiwple, the city of Adrian, rears its lofty walls and towers. It was tlu.> European capital of the Turkish empire before the fall of Constantinople, and it is still a large city, five miles in circumference, and containing xtbout 100,000 inhaliitants. There are several ancient palaces, and a splendid mosque erected by Sultan Selim out of the ruins of Fainagusta in Cyprus ; but the streets, according to Dr. Walsh, are narrow and crooked, the houses ill built of brick and mud. The ancient strength of its fortifications has gone into decay ; so that General Diebitsch, in the campaign of 1829, entered it witliout resistance. Kirklissa is a large old dirty town, of 4000 houses, whose Turkish inhabitants are imbued with all tlie pride and prejudice of their nation ; but there are a considerable number of Jewish and Greek families, who practise some indnstrr, and send large quantities of butter and cheese to the markets of Constantinople. Bourgas, on a bay of the Black Sea, near the foot of the Balkan, has a manufactory of pottery, and carries on a considerabh; trade. Gnllipo*-, on the Strait of the Dardanelles, is also a large and commercial place, with 17,000 inlialntants. 3573. Uulgaria forms a long plain, between Ho$mus on the south and the Danube on ilie north. Some i>ortions are rugged, others nuirshy ; but upon the whole it possesses a large share of beauty and fertility. The Bulgarians, a race originally Tartar, now profess the Greek religion ; and are quiet, iiulustrious, and hospitable. Sophia, the capital, at the foot of the mountains, is a larse town, with 50,000 inhabitants, and carries on a great inland trade between Saloniea and the interior countries of eastern Europe. It is also the usual rendetvous of the Turkish armies taking tlie field against the Rusuans or Austrians. Schumla, near tlic entrance of anotlier of the great passes of the Balkan, forms rather a chain of rudely cntrenclwd positions than a regular fortress ; yet such is the obstinacy with which the Turks defend such situations, that tin's city has repeatedly baffled the utmost efforts «f the Russian army, which in IHi2H was obliged to retreat with signal disaster. Even In Diebitsch's victorious campaign of 1R29, be was unable to reduce the place, but passed it, and, crossing the Balkan to Adrianople, intimidated the Porte into a peace. Schumla is a largecity, with numerous mosques and minarets glittering with burnished tin plates. It is distinguished by numerous workmen in tin and brass. Tcmovo, the ancient capital of the Bulgarian kings, commands another of the Balkan passes. Varna, a port on the Black Sea, is also a leading military station, and was the theatre of a signal victory gained by Amurath the Great over (he Hungarian troops. Dooicl. TURKEY IN EUROPE. 849 3574. A chain qffortreuei on the Danube, large, and strongly fortifiud, formed long the main bulwarks of tliu Tiirkisli empire. The chief are, Widin, the residence of a pacha; Giurgevn, Nicopoli, Rutshuk, Siliatria. They are all of nearly similar character, extensive jnd populous, uniting with their importance as military stations, that derived from an extensive irailc along the Danube. Rutshuk is the largest, containing 7000 houses, inhabited by Grcvks. Jvws, and Armenians, who carry on an active trade. The country round is a dead Hal as far as Uie eye can reach. Giurgevo is considered by Mr. Walsh the most complete fortress in the empire. It is situated amid dismal swamps ; but in the vicinity are mines of rock salt, purer than that of Cheshire, and white as snow. Silistria, in the last war, distin- ijuislicd itself by a long and obstinate defence. 3575. TlieprincipalUiei of Moldavia atid Wallachia, on the north of the Danul>e, form an ex- tensive region, about 360 miles in length and 150 in breadth, presenting a very nearly similar ifinect and character. They compose a vast plain, reaching from the river to the southern and eastern boundaries of the Carpathian mountains. The districts adjoining to these eminences are varied and picturesque, but towards the Danube become flat and marshy. The plains, particularly in Moldavia, are covered with almost innumerable stagnant pools, which com- municate to the air pestilential qualities. The climate is subject to singular variations : in summer extremely hot ; while in winter, under the latitude of the south of France, the Danube is for six weeks of the year so completely frozen as to bear the heaviest carriages. The soil, where not actually inundated, is exceedingly productive. Wheat is raised of Hcellent quality ; but the Turks have imposed restrictions on the disposal of it, and the occupation of pasturage is preferred. The peasantry {Jig. 520.) are a laborious, oppressed rjce, of simple habits, and living - - ^^^ ■"•■ « ' In rude abodes. They are of low stature, weak, with light silky huir,and mostly dressed in sheep- skins. The Wallachians form a considerable part of the popu- lation of Transylvania and of all the neighbouring countries. These two countries were once governed by native princes, and have not finally renounced all pretensions to liberty; yet the mixture of rude independence with debasing despotism did not cause the yoke to press at all lighter on the Ixidy of the people. The boyars exercise over them the same rude ty- ranny as the European nobles during the feudal ages ; while the prince of Moldavia and the liospodar of Wallachia, tWugh belonging to the Greek nation, yet being appointed by the Portc from favour or purchase, practised enormous exactions. The body of the people arc of the Greek nation and faith ; and in these countries the Greeks first raised the siamiard of independence : they experienced for some time a gleam of success ; but their efforts were speedily and completely crushed. By the last treaty, however, the princes are to be appointed for life, and the influence of the Czar is rendered almost, completely para- mount in thcne principalities. The cities in this region are large and rude. .Tassy, the capital of Moldavia, is situated in the interior of the country, amid a marshy district, which renders it unhealthy. Galacz, at the junction of the Danube and the Sigeth, carries on most of the trade, and might attain considerable importance if the navigation of the former river were mode free. Bucharest, the capital of Wallachia, is a much larger city, con. talning about 80,000 souls. It is built upon a dismal swamp, to render the streets passable over which, they are covered with boards ; but, in the intervals, water springs up from dirty kennels beneath. Here, according to Mr. Walsh, European and Oriental costumes and manners unite in nearly equal proportions. The people are clothed half in hats and shoes, half in ealpact and pelisses ; the carriages are driven as often by bufialoes as by horses. The nobles live in extravagance and dissipation, while the people are plun;»ed in poverty 3576. i^erviu und boinia are two countries, of smaller extent, reaching westward from Bulgaria, and, like it, situated between the mountains and the Danube. They do not, however, present any similarly vast plain, but are penetrated by lofty ranges, through which flow numerous rivers, of which the most important are, in Servia, the Morava, in Bosnia the Urlno and Bosna. The territories consist thus in a great measure of a succession of fertile valleys, in which wheat, maize, and other valuable grains are reared ; and though the people are reproached with want of agricultural industry, Bosnia at least produces grain somcwlmt more than enough for its own supply. Cattle, however, is the chief pro- S I •VALUfctiuiAM riuiAirrar< MO DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY P*M III. I i I: I I' I duct in both ; and they poaacM some valuable breeds. The hills arc covered with cxt«n>' forests, and abound in fruit trees, and in valuable aromatic herbs and plants. Nvithcr th* Servians nor Bosnians are under entire subjection to the Porte. The former arc ohleflv r the Greek church, and under Czcrni Georges made a most gallant resistance to thu Tu V ish power, and extorted extensive privileges, making them nearly independent. Th* Servians, though without much literature, have a native poetry, which has attracted admi atinn. The Bosnians, also, though Mahometans, possess many feudal rights, bavin'' thirty-nil hereditary captains, and even deputies from the towns. Their language is ^ dialect of the Servian. Polygamy is seldom practised, and their females appear in publio unveiled. 3577. Several large citiei are found in tliese provinces. The capital of Servia is Bi'lgmdi. a fortress of extraordinary strength, long considered the key of Hungary, and disputed witli the utmost obstinacy between the Austrians and Turks. It is now equally distinguislivd m a seat of inland commerce, being the great entrepot between Turkey and Gvnnany, and is supposed to contain about 30,000 inhabitants. Bosna Serai, capital of Bosnia, is still larger, having been estimated to contain 60,000 inhabitants. It trafficks in arms and ivwel. lery, and receives numerous carnvans from Constantinople. Such is the spirit of indvpcnd. ence here, that tlie Turkish governor is allowed to reside in the city only three days of the ytor. His fixed residence is at Traunick. Jaicza, the ancient capital of Bosnia, is now in decay! 3578. The interior of Dalmatia, called commonly Jferzgovinia, belongs to the Turiij! though the Austrians have succeeided Venice in the possession of the maritime districts. This territory is very rugged, and difficult of access ; yet some parts are productive in wine and olives. Mostar, the capital, with 12,000 inhabitants, is celebrated for tlic manufacture of swords. Montenegro, a district to the south, is covered by a still bolder range of nioun. tains, within wliich the inhabitants, a peculiar race, have maintained their independence against their most powerful neighbours. The Montenegrins, about 60,000 in number, uv governed by a national council; and, as is usual with the inhabitants of mountainous districts, they are brave, hospitable, \indictivc, and superstitious. 3579. Albania is a more remarkable and important country. It extends about 200 miles along the Gulf of Venice and the Mediterranean, and has an interior breadth vuryinj; from 30 to 100 miles. It is entirely rugged and mountainous, diversified by numeroui streams and lakes, and «f an aspect extremely picturesque. The inhabitants, a race of bold mountaineers, have distinguished themselves by their valour from the earliest ages, Tjijj was the domain of Pyrrhus, whose victories in Italy madk him so formidable to Itomc. In the decline of the Greek empire, Albania rose, under its present name, to the character of an independent kingdom. When attacked by the Turks, it made a most gallant reustance' and the exploits of Scanderbeg, its hero, might adorn the pages of romance. Even at the beginning of the present century, Ali Pacha, a native of the country, erected a power almost completely independent of tlie Porte, extending over several of tlie surrounding countries. At length he was overpowered, betrayed, his head cut off, and suspended from tlic gate of the seraglio at Constantinople. The Turks thus re-established their dominion, and renewed the division into the four pachalics ; those of Scutari, Ochrida, Vallona, and Butrinto. 3580. The inhabilantt of Albania are estimated at 1,200,000; and though these include a considerable number of Turks and Greeks, the basis consists of a peculiar native race, diH'ering completely from all others in the empire. Thei -onversion to the Mahometan creed hu been very imperfect : the males of a family go usually to the mosque, while the fenulet attend church, and no discord arises out of this difference ; so that the Turks regard them as little better than infidels. The Albanian is of middle stature, with an oval visage, and high cheekbones ; bearing an erect and majestic air. He piques himself on a frank and open demeanour, holding in contempt the art and dissimulation of the Greek, lie liu nothing, too, of the inert solemnity of the Turk ; is gay and active, yet a stranger to the habits of regular industry. He walks constantly armed ; his delight is in co'nbat, and even in rapine. The mountainous tracts are infested with numerous bands of robbtn, which most of the Albanians join, for at least some part of their lives, without the least shame ; it is common for one to speak of the time when he was a robber. 'Iliey seek military employment also in the service of the sultan, and of the different pachat, particu- larly that of Egypt Although they form only a tumultuary assemblage of men, with scarcely any subordination or regular distribution into corps, yet they are so individuallji active and intrepid, that they have rendered themselves formidable even to highly disciplined troops : they compose the only infantry in the Turkish armies that is at all cfTcctivc. 3581. Joannina, which Ali made the capital, has a very picturesque situation on a \tk, surrounded by lofty mountains, and is supposed to contain a population of 35,000. The houses are irregularly built, intermingled with gardens and trees. A great proportion of the inhabitants are Greek. Arta, on a gulf of the same name, is the chief theatre of trade. Scutari, or Scodra, the capital of Upper Albania, is situated in a rich plain ; has a populalioo of about 16,000; and carries on come considerable manufactures of cloth. Its pacha it now the most considerable potentate in Albania. ^ Dm* <>• ASIA. RSI BOOK II. ASIA. Chap. I. ORNIRAL SURVCT OP ASU. 3589. Jsia ii an immense continent, the largest in the ancient world ; and, perhaps, nearly cquti to Europe and Africa united. It is surrounded by sea through much the greater nut of its outline, which, though broken by large gulfs and peninsulas, presents generally I huge unbroken mass, formed into a kind of irregular square. Its most northerly point is Cipc CvvorovoHtochnoi, on the frozen confines of Siberia, in latitude about 77° N. ; its most soullivrly is tlie terminating point of the Malayan peninsula, in about 2° N. To the east it ttminatc!) in East Cape, about longitude 170" \V. from Londonitothe west in Cape Baba, the iimt wMtvriy point of Asia Minor, in 26° E. long. On a general estimate, and omitting the most prominent points, we may state Asia at 6000 miles in length, and 4000 in breadth ; which, Mipposing n regular figure, would give 24,000,000 square miles ; but, in consideration of ilw nuuiy irregularities, a considerable deduction must be made. Sect. I. General Outline and Aspect. 9583. The boundaries of Asia are chiefly formed by the great oceans. On the north it bu the Arctic or Froien Ocean, which, for a great portion of the year, presents an un- tiried ex|>ansc of ice and snow. To the east and south it faces the great Pacific, which wparstcs it from America by almost half the breadth of the globe. On the south, however, this ocean h enclosed by the Oriental Islands, so as to form a gulf of vast dimensions, called the Indian Ocean. The western limit alone touches on the otfier continents, and constitutes itery vsricd line of limd and sea. From the north, opposite to Nova Zembla, a chain of mountains, called the Urals, breaks tlie uniformity of the great northern steppes. From the termination of that chain to the river Don the line is somewhat vague ; but thence, that river, the Hlack Sea, the straits connecting it with the Mediterranean, and the Mediter- nnean itiicif, form a distinct boundary. Asia is joineo to Africa by the isthmus of Suez, mid so|wrated from it by the long canal of the Red Sea. The immense expanse of its territory presents every possible variety of site and climate, from the dreary confines of the polar world to the heart of the tropical regions. Every thing in Asia is on a vast scale ; lis mountains, its table-lands, its plains, its deserts. The grandest feature, and one which makes a complete section of the continent, is a chain of mountains, which, at various heights, and iimii-r various names, but with very little, if ai\y, interruption, crosses Asia from the Mnlitcrrancan to the Eastern Sea. Taurus, Caucasus, and the Himalayah are the best known portions of tliis chain. On one side it has southern Asia, the finest and most extensive plain in the world, covered with the richest tropical products, and watered by magnificent rivers proceeding from dm great storehouse, and filled with populous nations and great cmpinis. On the other side, tliis chain serves as a bulwark to the wide table-land of Thibet, which, though under the latitude of the south of Europe, has many of the chracteristics of a northern n>gion. To the north, the recent observations of Humboldt exhibit three parallel chains; the Kienlun or Mooz Tagh, the Thianchan or Celestial Mountains, and the Altaian. Tliesc also support table-lands ; but not, it appears, so very elevated as has hitherto been lupposctl. They arc not believed by that traveller generally to exceed 4000 or 5000 feet high, and in many places enjoy a mild and temperate climate, yielding not only grain, but wine and silk. Elsewhere they are covered with rich pastures, and tenanted by numerous wandering rnccs, at once pastoral and warlike, whose victorious bands have often over-run and sulijugsted the empires of the south. The Altaian chain separates Middle Asia from Siberia ; a long range of the bleakest land on the face of the earth. Some of the southern districts have been found by the Russians capable of supporting numerous herds of cattle ; hut the rest is abandoned to wild animals, not generally of a ferocious description, but by the beneficence of nature covered with rich and precious furs, which afford a grand object for hunting and trade. »I 2 M <'<> LonRliiidp Pjui 70 from Ciiraimich W MAP OF ASIA — lAtT rAKT. IHO 190 S.W HO LoiiKitude Eaat 120 frum Greenwich 130 W4 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPIiy. P4«t HI. 3584. One grand Jiaturt o/MUUU Atia consui$ in large Mm or mland mm, ult liU ih, ocrnut, receivinK coniiUenblv riven, Knd hnving no outlvt. Thmw m«, thv Caaplan |k. Aral,thaB«Uu^,and wveral othen of leuer magnitudv. They ara chivfly liiuaiid on the dcpreiised and almoit concave lurface of Wcturn Tarury, which, according to Ilumboldi, {• 900 or 300 feet beneath the level of the tea ; a unking which he coniiden connected wltli the prodigloui elevation of the regions to the eaetward. 3585. No continent hat lo n%any ritert of the flnt muniludo, lome of which yl«ld in lensth of coune only to the amazing waters of the New World. Wu may diitinguiih in Asia three systems of rivers | one, comprising the most distinguished and important streams, descends from the principal chain of mountains, fertilises the great Miuthem vm* pires, and falls into thv Indian Ocean. The must remarkable streams of tliiH cW ar« the Euphrates, the Indus, the Ganges, and the Menam, or river of Stem. Again, from the parallel chain which separates Tartary from Siberia Is another series of riviMm, which direct their course to the Northern Ocean ; the Obi, the Irtish, the Yenisei, the Lena,— gloumy streams, of vast length ; but flowing in this inhospiuble region, and iMiund by almost per- petual frost, they aflbrd little aid either to agriculture or to the intercourse of nstionii. A third system consists of the rivers which, rising in the high mountain centre uf Asia, flow across the empire of China, to whose protpenty they mainly contribute, and fall lnu> the Eastern Pacific. The Amour runs in the same direction through Northern Tartary, but without any profit to that barren district Lastly, tlie Jaxartos, the Oxus, and others of great magnitude, though secondary to the above, flow along the great plains of Wvntcrn Tartary ; but, unable to reach the ocean, eipond into tlie Aral, tliu Caspian, and uthe. inland seas. S586. Alio, betidet iti vattneua$ a continent, is distinguished by Its archipclago«« o( iiUnda, of an extent sufllcient to constitute kingdoms. Such are those of Java, Sunmtra, Boriieo, and the Philippines, which, with many smaller ones, comprise tlie Oriental Archi- pelage distinguished by ita brilliant metallic produrU and rich spices ; and vthibiting s ■ingular mixture of barbarism and civilisation. The two contiguous islands of Japan com. priae a otate dignified with the title of empire. Ceylon, bordering on the eitretnity of Hindoetan, almost rivals the beauty and fertility of that celebrated region. We do not here include under Asia those huge insular mosses, New Holland, New Zealand, &c, which have of late received the name of an Australian continent ; nor llie endless gruu|w acatlcred over the Pacific, and which have also, with somewhat questionable precision, been made a separate quarter, under the title of Polynesia. Sbct. II. Natural Geography, SuBsicT. I. Geology, 3587. The Geology of Wettem Asia, consisting of Asiatic Turkey, Arabia, and Peniii, having never been examined in a systematic manner, or by scientific uliservcrs, doe« not admit of any delineation that could be creditable to this work, or satisfactory to the public. Il)firence$ to the Map of Aiia.— HVii fart RUSSIAN 37. BOu HINDCMTA.N. ,18. CalicM 9. Rrwratiiu tl. MUKM ■MPIKK. 38. Darboid 1. Biu<; i% Manicahm. 9. TnblMnd n. Kalhu 1. P» S. Knauiuka 3y. Kilitcf «. Hanlwan 4. AtlKura «.l. Hwniia Hh Aitractua 3. Ui'llli HBLCKIOHIHTAN. a, Mmjma M. Hun S* Touruukluatk 41. Konnd 4. Bukka I.HoKan S. Alauluk U. liiiru 4. Tsaotikoi* 4«. Ttflii. ». Hjrdiabad 1. Punt 3. Mliub 7. AkUiahr w. Milium S. Ubdonkgl 6. rmtm !i:«te 17. Kwrn •• HoteU TARTAHY. 7. MandaTia 4. Hank VH. Sal ut T. BamoT 1. TiinkM S.Cambaj 6. KIO lu. llainiK'ut n. iiiiii S.Twlnnkl S.Tadik4iHl 9. Oojein «. Pui\l«or II. Jmiialiin 9U. Mocba 9. Sftoumv 9. Koukui lu. Kalah 7. Khuadai !!• A,""" 91. Nana lU Palliuk 4. KhoJiuKl II.AJlllMI* 8. Hula 9. Talta. 13. Mimil tt. Uhria 11. Toaita>k U. Aira 13. AHababad IJ. IMatbtkli .n-CLmlr 1«. HulauM 13. Plnchlu 8. Bokara I5-&". S4.Haad< 7. Hiral 14. Ouda PBHSIA. !?;|{!lE!ir' 39.Th 9 Khalbar W. Tobobk 1. Bamlan S7. Hurat 13. Kubb Id. Vainlw 1 HUun.K. 1 Ualk^di . 3. Cabal IS. Bombay l4.Vnd II.MMlliia 18. Irtm 4. Attack 19. Uoa 13. Iiialiaii 19. Itjar 1 UkaNsrtalun 19. KDinn K-Ogorir n. TebMiHiar S.CaduMN 30. Baadn l6.llubuliaD l3.J<4da m Koto Nor, Ui 6. Ubcn 31 HidrabMl 34. MdioUT 17. Hhlraa 14. MKva n |j"l««>. K- 7. Moultan 8. Khan 9.D4*I 18. N>oMo KolKarinan. in! Karla»ln 17. Tame* rlnilS^<.' 34. Atow lU. Kulat 35. Madraa IS.Tamanla 1 Hnun.Ult S3. KkaMtlnadw II. Sir! KUa 36.AtDM TURKKV 19. lM>» tliaiilnHH S.Po»l^ IX. Caadahar. I.OouMi W.IMiar Bool II. 3588. The arrat\ opportunity of nuti gtn«rsl tketch of th uid of which the q I portion. This w but few particulars li«c«uM it is in this djilribution of the 3589. We comet nt«(l from the eostf 3590. An irreiiu 10 the Hydraoteso Indus), and which the luinmit of Moi pnlty accurately, I trees belonging to t towards the north, I indication of a remi pvM|;c from the In 3591. The Olivet and 45° in the scut of Italy and Carnii the western shores c not seen any where lows the shores of part of the Crimea, marking the limits < noticed its existence Sea and the chain c 35°, upon the lulls to the east of Cabul 3592. The mean estimated by M. .Mi 3593. IntheMe( one woo.1.(ll||hM>k H. SIvllanskiii 15. Habliationa or II! ''"''''"■((ouslana 16. OInuk ■7. Kanlaakol IS. Avainakae 19. Tnilbtiil S). Inliakkule |I.NI«Tctioumakala W.TIlmpdskala u. Krvma SI. Mailmova U. Vakoulak !S.AIdinikae «7.0ii«kon g. Yamik M.Okhouk SO. Oudikoi •I. Flitt Uaikkala 3i. ./ ss.\ 34. 1 .13.1 ,1fi. 37.' 38. _ .1!). K 40. L 41. ^ 4i. J 43. 4'1. 1 4A.I 46." 47. r 1. .1.1 4. 3. 6.N 7.1 H.J 9.1— 10. C It. 1 l«.I 13.1 14.1 13.1 Bool II- ASIA. SuHlcT. 9. Botany. 3588. The arrangement adopted for deicribing the /liialie territorui (fives ut mi ticelltnl opportunity of noticing, in conjunction with the botany nf the eastern province! of Alia, • MiwrtI ultetcli of tliat to wliicli we before alli led (p. i2go.) an tJip Temperate Traniilion Zone, ^d of which tlie quarter of the globe undvr luimiileration occupit-a no large and to important I portion. Thi> we do the more readily, because our limited ipace oblig«*t us to enter into but few particulars relative to the vegetation of the ri>>»pective countries themselvM . and Iwctuw it is in this point of view that Mirbel has so admirably described the geographical djiiribution of the plants of the Old World 3SS9- W'e come to treat, then, of that western portion of the old continent which is sepa- nk'd from the eastern by the vast chain of mountains of Himalayah and Thib«t. 3;;90. An irregular line, traced from wiist to east, commencing at Mogadore, and reaching 10 the Ilydraotes of Alexander (the Rauveu of modern authors, one of the sources of the Indu«)i and which in this vast extent would pass along tlio crests of Atlas, near Cairo, by the luinmit of Mount Tabor, Bagdad, Shiras, Kclat, and Moultan, might thus represent, uKtty accurately, the southern or inferior limit of this lone. The Olive seems, of all tnei belonging to the sone, to indicate most accurately its northern limit. As we proceed towsrds the north, the olive languishes, and at last ceases to grow. Its disappearance is an indicstion of a remarkable and general change in the vegetation ; or, in other words, of the passasc from the transition to the temperate lone. 3391. The Olive, which no longer exists between lat. 42° and 43° in Spain, between 44° •nd 43° in the southern departments of the vast of France, between 45° and 46° in the east of Italy and Carniola, does not extend beyond 40° upon the eastern coast of Greece and the western shores of Asia Minor. It is said to grow on the coasts of Macedonia, but is not teen any where about the Sea of Marmora. Again it reappears at Sinope, and foU lows the shores of the Black Sea as far as Gourich. It is seen in lat 45°, in the southern ptrt of the Crimea, and a degree lower down, on the west of the Caspian ; the river Terek mwiiing the limits of its progress. In Maianderan the Olive abounds ; but no traveller has noticed its existence in the immense countries of Persia and Tartary, between the Caspian Sea and the chain of the mountains of Beloot. Elphinstone has observed it in 34° and 35°, upon the hills which constitute the lower steps of the Caucasus: but it is unknown to the east of Cabul. 3593. The mean annual temperature of the plains in this cone, for the lower boundary, is estimated by M. Mirbel at + 22° to 23° of Reaumur; for the higher boundary at + 14°. 3393. In the Mediterranean portions of this district there are at least six herbaceous for OIK woody species of plants ; and the proportion of herbaceous to woody plants proceeds in an increased ratio, to the hyperborean regions, where twenty-six herbaceous plants (for the most part with perennial roots) are reckoned to one shrub. The number of trees in the Mediterranean flora is not much under 240 : there are about seventy-five in the Temperate Zone, and but twenty-seven to thirty in the Transition Arctic Zone. 3394. The greater part of the trees, shrubs, and under-shrubs of the Equatorial Zone are never Ri^ereneei to the Map nf Asia, East Part. RimsiAN KMPIKE. I.Sl. Pmw'j •i. Rolchniisk 3. KimlMhitka 4. (laimkl 5. PouMereUk 6.Akli>nik I. l)ln.k 8. riloTl 9. Verac Kollmikol III. Zachlimk II. Malol 12. rhanaitai 1.1. (ilthanik 14. SJTttnnskol 15. Habitallonn of theTonffousioni I6.0l«uk 17. Kanuikol 18. Avamikoe 19. Trolnkiil to. InlKkkiiie il.NlfiTcliiiiimskala n. Tllmpdakala SJ.Kmna 14. Mailmora U.Vakouuk S6. Aldanikoe >7. Omekon n. Yamik 89.0khobk SO.nttlikoi *l. Na Makkala »%. AmRliukal* Slo- Ifi. VormR SI.RInnanCiu iK&a 17. Kinkitao M. Hanlchou S3. Volunaka i 18. SlNhan A3. Contchan M. Nerka Vj). KIrIn Quia 34. lx>nffan iO. Tchol Ut. Contehoudiong .11!. UbedtiTa SI. lUnKhotun 48. 8uk 37. Tanca n. Karakum 67. ChouiMtoa 38. EnluHtk S.1. Holln 88. Tankcrd'onjr ^% Kramolank HI. Poro Hatuii .19. Trhlnlu 4I>. 8ak Vi. Onlot 60. Tihonkln 41. N. (hidinak 8fi. Ohlnyang fil.Slanvan 4!. nilolankala V7. l-iklng 6». Vrtihea 43. Kimuk SS.Oara 63. (hllchanRfou 44. HlamoT* to. Cairou 64. Hanfftchco Ai. Irkoutak 30. PllouUa 63. NImpo 4(i, V. Oudimk SI. Campion 66. Koannin 67. Nanlchong 47. NerU'hInik. Vi. Onllb 3.1. iloupaiar 68. Rhahoon CHINESE 34.llanii 69. Euldwa EMflHE. 3.1. 1'halcheou 70. Canton l.Outcham .1«!. Rilllnx 71. Klxan «. Eken i1. KInTan 7«. KMd .1. Tondon 88. Vanaan 39. Tajhucn 73. Tonnln 4. Rothln 74. Renan 5. Kdou 40. Shunta 73. Koeran 6. Raxalln 7.Vakaa 4I.Ca]r 4«. lalnan 76. Mahu 77. Vunnan R. AKounakol 9. ftlerftucn 43. I.U 78. Cajhoa 44. Ca;fou 79. PInIo 10. Quanlln 11. Hcftiu 43. Pnutchcou 80. RMvkIn 46. Homiian 81. Ouli'huenhim 18. NunnnU IS. Klmhlm 47. Nankin 8'^ Llmtclieouftiu 48. Uanlo 83. RMnlnfou 14. Utchtn 49. Nanjan M. Kiiiilciicau 84. Tall l&PliKllia, SS. Uaaa. BIRMAN EMPIRE, Ac. I. (IcrKonge 3. Rantafiiu 3. Klentona 4. Ummerapoora .1. A«a 6. Araran 7. Paftahm Mew 8. Meeaday 9. PtKU 10. Ilan|{nnn 11. Martaban II. ZenM 1.3. iMMfi H.Handopora 15. BoaUnii 16. Ixiniian 17. Nhlairani 18. .SalKonCit; 19. 1'ancao «l. rambodia SI. RIam K. Mnfi\ie S3. Tanaaaerim 84. Rondflon ». Palani Si6. Qufda VI. JQalacca. PHILIPPINE I H LAN DR. MoftindtMtto. 1. Ra«ajan %. Mindanao. f.HIOfl. l.Radoc (. Manilla 3. Manbulao. JAPAN IBLANDR. Ntuhim. I. Naho 1. .I«do 3. Uaakl. Rivera ami Lakea. a Veniwl. R. h Tonaouaka. R. c Piacina, R. d AnalMira, R. « Olenak, U. f I«na, R. RIndlRilka, R, Kaiima.R. i Aldan, R. J Olekma, R. t I.ake Ilaikal I Amour, R. ni Sonipvi, R. n Hoang Ho, H. o Kianu Hii, R. p Panicho.R. q Aracan.R. r Irawaddy, II. i Cambodia, H. 3 I 4 8M DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pa»t III. entirely divesteil of their foliage. The same holds good with about 300 of those iii the Mediter. ranean flora, or a quarter uf the whole of its ligneous vegetation. The Temperate Zone again, has but forty species with persistent leave?, the Arctic Transition Zone about twenty. four, and the southern limit of the Arctic Zone ten at the utmost. 3595. In the Mediterranean diitrict of the Temperate Transition Zone, the Compositie and the Leguminosa are the most numerous families : indeed, they alone constitute one fourth of the whole vegetation. Then come the Cruciferae, Gramineo;, Labiata, Caryophylleic, and Umbellifera: ; afterwards the Scrophulariuae, Rosaces, Boragineee, Rununculaceo!, and Cyperaceae ; finally, the Liliacese. It may be remarked, that the Composita;, Crucifers, Labiate, Caryophylleae, Umbe!liferiE, Rosaces, Ranunculaceae, and Cistes, with some other families, present, in the Temperate Transition Zone, a greater number of specific types than any where else. The chief part of the species of these families that are found in equatorial regions inhabit there the valleys and the mountains ; thus proving that the violent and continued heats of the plains are uncongenial to their nature. 3596. Those families of plants which hold the most important rank among the productions of the Temperate Transition Zone, whether because they contribute the loftiest of those trees which clothe the mountain's side, or because they furnish those individuals of middling stature which delight to grow on the hills, with the branching shrubs which form the hedges, and the low woody plants whose rough and stunted growth overspreads the uncultured plains, are, in the first place, the Amentices and the Conifers; (which alone compose more than halt' ik the arborescent vegetation), and next the Rosaceie, Leguminosie, Terebinthaceae, Rhamneie, Jasmineae, Caprifoliaceae, Cistese, Ericinea;, and Labiatoe. 3597. But whcU gives the Transition Zone Us peculiar character is the combination of those species which may be considered as belonging to three different regions ; that is, the vegetation of the equatorial districts, that of the northern, and the growth which is pecu- liar to the countries situated between the 30th or 32d, and the 44th and 4,?th parallels. The first is seen in its decline, the second in its commencement, and the third in its full perfection. The latter occupies the greater portion of the soil ; the two others form, here and there, colonies more or less flourishing in proportion to their vicinity to the parent land. The Dite tree, the Latanier (LataniaJ) and even the Doum* (Jig. 523.) (if it be true that it grows in Galilee', the Sugar-cane, the Sorgho f {Jig. 524.), the Agave, the Cactus Opuntia or prickly pear, the Orange and Le- mon trees, the Asclepias gigantca and other arbor- escent Apocineas, several African and Asiatic Mi- mosas and Acacias, con- fined to the favourably situated plains: these f^pre- sent the vegetation of the equatorial plains. That of tlie southern countries may be observed on the moun- tains, and consists in the common Oak, the Ash, the Alder, the Hornbeam {Car- pinus orientalis Lamarck), the Beech, the Birch, the Yew, the common Fir, the yew-leaved Fir, the Scotch Fir, &c. As to the vegeta- THI HROnO. • The Cueifcra thcbaica. This tree is much prized in the countries where it abnundi. " A native of the deicrt," says M. Delilc, " its shelter renders many places, that woulil otherwise l«! totally waste, callable of cultivation. Many species of thorny sensitive plants, which rarely grow in the s)>ot8 watered by the Nile, find an asylum under its shadow ; they increase there ; and, spreading in the direction of the desert, limit it« extent by augmenting the productive districts. The trunk of the Doum is composed of longitudinal iiaraUcI fibres, similar to that of the Date, but much stronger and closer. It is cut into planks, whiili are us«^ lor doors in Upiicr Egypt : the fibres are black, and the intermtxliate pith is yellow. I he leaves arc u«eleaved Oaks ; the Jumpers, which attain a height equal to that of some trees ; the Aleppo Pine, the Stone Pine, the Corsican Pine, the Oriental Spruce {^bies orientalis), the Apricot, Peach, and Quince Trees, with other Arborescent Rosacea which we cultivate in our orchards, and which form forests in Ca- bulistan and Asia Minor, bear a considerable analogy with the wild vegetation of our own countries. SuBSBCT. 3. Zoology. 3598. The Zoologtf of thU great division of the earth is as vast as the climate of the regions it comprehends is diversified. Inhabited by nations jealous and superstitious, or lawless and barbaric, obstacles of no ordinary difficulty have long debarred the European from a full investigation of those productions of nature characteristic of the Asiatic continent. That intellectual developement which leads the Caucaiiian to discern his God and adore his Creator in tbe contemplation of his works, does not appear in the Mongolian, a race long sunk in gross idolatry and in a senseless superstition on the divinity of perishable beasts. Hence it is, that the interior of China and Ttiibet, those vast regions forming the centre of Asia, have never been trodden by the natiu-alist or the man of science. The few and very imperfect ideas, therefore, that can be formed of their zoology, have been merely gathered from partial gleanings made on the confines of European India, and of the neighbouring provinces. From such scanty materials we can frame no remarks, approaching to that precision with which we have noticed the zoology of Europe; although they are still sufficient to furnish a few interesting observations of a general nature. 3599. The principal divisions of Asiatic zoology, indicated both by the geographic features of the continent, and by the nature of their respective animals, are properly three. The first commences from the polar regions, and includes the whole of Asiatic Russia. The natural boundaries of this region, on the west, are the Ural mountains, while its southern extremity is marked, with equal precision, by the lofly Altaian chain ; the cradle, as it has been termed, of the Mongolian race. The second great division, as we have already intimated, com- prehends the little-known empires of China, Japan, Thibet, the Tartaric provinces border- ing on Persia, and the eastern shores of the Caspian Sea. The stupendous mountains constituting the Himalayan chain appear to form a natural boundary to this intermediate region. Under the third division we comprise the greater portion of Hindostan and Malacca, together with Java, Sumatra, and such islands as, by their situations, lie contiguous to the continent, and by their productions exhibit the characteristics of Indian zoology, blended in some degree with that of Australia. In this arrangement we have omitted the whole of Asia Minor, and the nations about the Caucasian mountains ; because, so far as the pro- ductions of these regions are known, they assimilate closely to those of Europe ; yet Persia appears to possess many animals of Asia, and this country may possibly present a union of the two faunas. 3600. Of the first, or northern Asiatic division, our zoological information has been almost entirely furnished by the researches of Pallas, one of the greatest naturalists of the age. The shores of the Icy Sea do not, however, appear to exhibit any existing animals essentially different, in genera or species, from those common to Arctic Europe. Neither are the frozen regions and arid steppes of Siberia congenial to the abundance or increase of more than a few species. Such, nevertheless, as appear adapted, by their structure or economy, to inhabit these wastes, are curious and interesting ; and present to the naturalist many forms, either rare in European Russia, or unknown to the westward of the Ural mountains. As we approach the Caspian Sea and the confines of Persia, a mixed fauna becomes evident: for, while many of the species are unknown to Europe, they belong, for the most part, to the same natural groups, rather than to such as are more peculiarly Asiatic : on the other hand, the Caspian Tern (fig. 5'25. ), and numerous other birds, identically the same with our own, are found in abundance on the shores of the Caspian Sea. Hence it appears not improbable that the western zoology of Asia and of the European regions meet together, and lose their distingiushing features, in the countries bordering upon these territories. 3601. In regard to Central Asia, forming the second zoological division, we have already intimated how scanty has been the information supplied for its elucidation. It is, indeedf CASPIAN TBRIf. \y •as DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY Pa" hi. M mMgrt), that we may possibly be censured for intimating a marked difference »;», balng prepared ftilly to explain its nature. Yet, if we consider the great elevatio'., „f .!! oontraf tableland, Its sandy and barren soil, when compared with the rich ve.lpL?™ * ■ttuthern India t and its warm temperatui*, as opposed :o that of Siberia, evervDrinl? Of analogy leads to the supposition that its productions must be peculiar • and thnt Vh •xtenilvtt regions must be inhabited by animals with habits and structures Wanted fo,..'^ Hlluat onit. Nor is this belief unsupported by facts. Central Asia is remarkable fn^ peculiar and a very disUnct species of horse, called the Dziggtai, or Equm Hemioml at Pallaii a ittost extraordinary animal, which we shall subsequently notice. The sam countries are also named as the metropolis of a m! culiar species of Argali, or sheep (Ow ^mmon) (fiT 526.), although its range appears extended botH to Siberia and the Caucasus. It is also probable that the Arnee buffalo, and another gigantic animal of this genus mentioned by Major Smith as found only on the sides of the Himalayan mountains, may more correctly belong to the zoology of Central Ash. The mountains of Thibet and Boutan offer the nncipal asylum to another indigenous quadruped of large size called the Tartaric or yak ox (Bos Pdephagm). If so many quadrupeds, of the first magnitude in their respective families, are inhabitants of these central regions, how many others, less calculated to excite the notice of travellers, must still remain in obscu rity ! 3602. ne birth qf the central division arc scarcely known except from the paintings of the Chinese. Many of the reore! ■entations given by tlicir liest artists arc stitficicntly accurate to enable us immediately to recognise weil-linown species- so that . , much contidence may generally be reposed in tlic existence of •UBB tu have not yet been seen by Europeans. These drawings are numerous in this country, and frenucntlv r«)|irMt!nt large and beautiiUI pheasants, totally distinct from such as occur in southern India. We have 527 MI»Hnl>HaHI!i RHSULOim. before' observed, that Asia is chiefly remarkable for the variety iuiil bril. liancy of its gallinaceous birds : and that most of these, like the Lopho phorus refulgens Tern. (fig. 527.), and other allied species, are only found in the mountainous and elevated p.'ovinces of the interior. Upon the whole, therefore, it seems highly probable that these inland regions may Iw the chief metropolis of many peculiar birds, unknown to the northern and touthern extremities of the continent 3603. The third division, comprising southern India, presents a zoology of great richness and peculiarity. The excessive heat of the climate, the lower and consequently more humid nature of the plains, are equally favourable to an exuberant luxuriance of vegetation, and to the increase of animal life, It is here, consequently, that we meet with numerous animals of a large size, and others of rapacious ferocity. Troops of the Asiatic elephant, with wild boars, buffaloes, and antelopes, among the herbaceous tribes, abound ; while the woods and jungles give shelter to more ferocious animals, which, in spite of increasing population, still retain their ancient possessions, Among these the great tiger of Bengal stands foremost; while panthers, leopards, lynxes, hyaenas, and jackals appear to swann i II the less cultivated districts. The one-horned rhinoceros is still a common inhabitant of (lie itwnmpy banks of tlic great rivers. But this portion of Asia is chiefly characteriseo as 5'J8 being the native region of those large apes, which the credulity of earl; travellers metamorphosed into wild men, and which some modern naturalists would persuade us form part of the same order as that to which we ourselves belong. Various species of these disgusting ca- ricatures of the human shape are scattered in the southern extre- mities of the two great peninsulas of Hindostan and Malacca; but their chief metropolis is in Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and such islands as lie on the southern confines of the Asiatic division, and towards the northern limits of Australia. The Gibbons, or long-armed apes (jt;. 528.), are of a milder nature. The African apes, equally large with tlie orang utan, but marked by distinguishing characteristics, occur nearly in the same parallels of latitude. These species will be sub- sequently noticed in tlie details of those countries to which they more particularly belong. !itK)4i The hirdi (ff southern Asia, but more particularly those of the Indian islands, have iUreitdy claimed our attention: it will therefore be sufficient merely to notice such groups a< lilllllt.*RIIIIU «!•■. MTTLB rALCOIf BooiII- ASIA. •It SS9 IIKO'IfUKSD MRKAEBBT 530 ippearmost striking on the continent of India. The ring>necked Pamkeeti (Jtg.M9,) are peculiar to these latitudes, and present • lovely group of birds, uniting a form of exquisite grace with the moat (felTcate and chaste tone of colouring ; nearly all the specie* are marked by a jet black collar round the neck. Towards the mountaini of Nepal General Hardwicke discovered a bird of this fkmily ftitly equal in size to a South American Maccaw, and apparently belonging to the same group. Many of the short>tail«d Parrots are eminently beautiful ; and one, the Vernal PuTot (Swains. Zix^ lUut; 2d series, No. 1.) is not larger than a sparrow. Various species of Hombills congregate in large flocks, and are scattered throughout this part of India ; the grotesque form of their large bills, generally furnished with a singulaNshapcd casque or horn, is very remarkable. The nectar of Innumerable odoriferous plants affords nourishment to a variety of splendid little birds, of the richest and most daiiUng plumage i these compose the genus Cinnyris, and represent, in the Old World, the humming-birds of the New. The Drongo Shrikes are mora numerous in India than in Africa : living solely upon insects, which they catch upon the wing, somewhat in the manner of swallows: they contribute to check the increase of insects, probably as effectually as do the Tyrant Shrikes, peculiarly appropriated to the New World. The smaller birds of India, particularly among the insectivorous families, are very im> perfectly known ; several belong to groups scattered both in Europe and AMca; yet fUtura researcli will no doubt bring to light many others, peculiarly Asiatic. The genus Gryllivora among the SaricoUe or Stonecliat Warblers, in its typical examples, may probably bo of this description. The Scansorial Birds, both of the continent and islands, are numerous and beautiful. Among these, the Woodpeckers oflbr nothing to dis- tinguish them, geographically or generally, iVom those of other regions. But the true Barbuts, connecting in some degree these latter with the Parrots, are exclusively Asiatic, and abound in such districts as border upon the equator. This singular race of birtis, which climb trees with all the agility of the Woodpeckers, ara represented in Africa by the genus Poaonioi, or the Tooth-billed Barbuts ; while in the American islands, beneath the equator, wo find a third group, distinct in their structure fW>m either. In pro- portion as we trace the Ornithology of Asia southward, wo Rnd it teem with increased interest. It is from the luxuriant islands of the Indian Archipelago that the large Cockatoos of a snowy white- ness have been brought to Europe ; while another, perfectly black, Microglossxa aterrimus Vieil. {jig. 530.}, inhabits the same region. Yet far more beautiful than these are the graceful and brilliant- coloured Lories, of which numerous species have been detected in the southern extremity of Malacca, and on the neighbouring islands, particularly those of Molucca. 3605. The Rapacious Birds appear to be much fewer in Southern Asia than in any region of equal extent, either of Africa or America. This inequality may possibly arise from the insufficiency of our knowledge, and the inattention of travellers to the subject ; yet there are strong grounds fur believing that the comparative paucity of this destructive order is one of the peculiarities of Asiatic zoology. Out of twenty-five sub-gcncra, under which some modem ornithologists arrange the numerous tribe of Falcons, there appears but one (Hierax), and that containing but a single siwcies, (Hierax ceeruleacens) {Jig. 531.), or Little Falcon, which is characteristic of Asia: it is so diminutive as scarcely to exceed the size of a sparrow. The whole of the remaining Falcons, hitherto discovered in these regions, belong to such groups as are common to Europe and Africo. On the other hand, when we consider the number and ferocity of the car- nivorous quadrupeds, we may be led to conclude that Natura has assigned to them, as being more efficient agents, tlie office of keeping down the redundance of smaller onimals, which in other countries is nearly the exclusive province of the birds of prey. A glance at the zoology of the New World strongly favours this sup- position. The largest and most formidable rapacious birds in existence are all exclusive natives of the New World. Out of the twenty-five sub-genera already alluded to, more than one Imlf arc peculiar to the continent of America : and although the same numerical supe- BUCK COCKATOO. KtiT l-ITTLB VALCOI*. 1 i 860 DESCRIPIIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pam III. 532 OIOANTIC CRAiri. riority is not apparent in the species of the vulture tribe, the deficiency appears n«H by numerical quantity. We never met with more than two species of vulture duri """ travels in Brazil ; yet these were in such numbers that a dead animal could not "^ ""' an hour without being discerned and surrounded T! these scavengers of nature. The carnivorous n,.^A ^ pedsof the New World, although not in species vl'-: numerical amount, are remarkably few. while thrr wnce of Antelopes, Buffaloes, Wild Hogs, and oih« large game, so necessary in Asia for the supiort of tl ferocious animals, is a further argument to stn-neth™ this belief; namely, that the distribution of rajaciun! animals, in the two hemispheres, is balancfd bv r-J trarieties. ' '^''"' 3606. The Rapacious Wading Birds of India must not, however, be omitted. We apply this term to the numerous family of Herons ; which certainlv represent, among wading birds, the Vultures and Falcons properly so called. The Gigantic Crane f & 532.), Ardea Argala Lath, (under which name, iti"ore than two species have evidently been confounded) in its uncommon voracity, and in the nature of its fMd, is completely a bird of prey. It is sufficiently high to appear, when walking, like a naked Indian. As a proof of its amazing voracity, it has been mentioned, that in the craw of one was found a land tortoise ten inches long, and a large male black cat, entire, in the stomach ! (Lath. Hist., ix. 39 ) The rainy season, in India, is always preceded by the arrival of these and other cranes and herons, in great numbers ; and the destruction they must create, not only among fish but land reptiles of every description, is so well known to and appreciated by the natives 'that they hold these birds in great estimation. 3607. Of the ReptUes of India little need be said. In the rivers are found large crocodiles, of different species to those of Africa. The serpents are numerous and many are of the most deadly nature: the Coluber Lebelinus Lin. is said to destroy the person bitten, by causing an unconquerable and deadly sleep ; it is of a small size hardly more than an inch and a half long. The serpents of British India have been ably illustrated by Dr. Russell. The islands are inhabited by others of a tremendous size- as the great Pithon, long considered the same with the Boa constrictor of the New World.' The Chameleons are natives of India no less than of Africa, and are now known to com- prise several species. One of the most remaikable reptiles yet discovered is probably the Draco volans i., or Flying Dragon {fg, 533. m from which, perhaps, the fabulous writers of antj. quity derived their notion of the formidable monster figured in old books. This, however, is a small and inoffensive little animal : distinguished from the lizard tribe by having on each side the body of a broad mem- brane, like a wing, strengthened by bony processes; it wanders about trees in search of insects, and is thus enabled to spring from bough to bough, and support itself a few minutes in tlie air. (Shaw, A'iri. Mis.) Another lizard, of a large size, and, from its delicate flavour, much esteemed as food, is found in Amboyna {Lacerta amboynensis L,). The celebrated hooded snake, or Cobra de Capello {N(ua tripudians Men-,), is peculiar to India, and with other species is well known to be tamed by the Indian jugglers. Such appear to be the most remarkable reptiles of the Asiatic region: many others might be enumerated; but so little has been done towards the elucidation of their geographic range, that nothing can be stated suflficient to interest the general reader. 3608. The Native Ichthyology of Asia, from the number, the variety, and the singularity of its groups, is perhaps richer than that of any other part of the world. Our limits will not, however, permit a long enumeration of names. Many of the Ray fish grow to an enormous size, and are so formidable to the pearl divers, as frequently to attack and injure them when under water. Nothing can surpass the elegant markings, or the beautiful colours, which adorn the tribe of Chactodons, and the numerous Labri, of these seas. The Ganges and the other great rivers are inhabited by many peculiar Siluri, or Cat-fish ; and it is from China that we derive the beautiful gold and silver fish now so completely naturalised in Europe. 3609. Among the Insects are many which in magnitude and splendour vie with those of ri.vtNo DRAoni*. Book H- ASIA. 861 the New World, particularly the true I^aplllonidw, or butterflies, among lepidopterous insects, and the family of UuproMii, in thu culi'optvrouii order. Yet, upon the whole, judging from such coUectionii as havo Iwcn broUKht to Europe, we have no hesiution in claiming for tropical America a decidwl Nupvriurity In the number, variety, and magni. Scenco of her insect productions. Thv Scitrabanis Atlas (Hg. 534.), or Atlas beetle, of 5iH ,Vx V Fabrlcius, near Ave Inches long, from its size and kiiiKularity uf shape is among the most remark- able of the Asiatic beetles. The splendid green and gold liuprettis vittata, with many others of vi|unl sixu and beauty, arc so much admired by the Chinese, that they are kept in cages, when alive, in their rooms ; and, when dead, are used AK ornnmvnts for dress. Among the numerous butterflies, the names alone of Papilio Friamus, Ulysses, I'olyinncstor, Panthous, and Octavius will remind the entomologists of Europe of insects they have long sighed to possess, as fit companions to the equally superb, though now more nttnlnnble, butterflies of Brazil. It is remarkable that Asia appears originally to havo furnished us with the greatest proportion of those animals so eminently useful to man, either in n stnto of domestication, or as contributing, in other respects, to his comfort or luxury. The domestic fowl and the peacock, among birds, are natural inhabitants of this portion of the world i while all the varieties of the silkworm must be added to the list of the former t one species alone has been introduced into Europe, but the natives cultivate several others, iVoin which are made garments less fine in texture, but much more durable, than those fabricated ttitm the common silkworm. It appears, according to the observations of Dr. Horsfluld, that in Java, and probably in most parts of India, the Ants are the universal destroyers and removers of all useless or decayed matter, whether vegetable or animal. This ia precisely the case both in tropical Africa and America, and at once accounts for the scarcity of those families of Beetles which are appointed to perform sucli offices in more temperate regions. 3610. Of the radiated and other marine animals wo have no other accounts than mere names of species. The Cuttlefish of llio Indian seas are said to be sometimes so large as to attack the pearl divers, and strangle them in the serpent folds of their arm-like feet. We by no treans think this account is devoid of truth } for, even in the temperate regions of Europo, we have been frequently assured, by the Sicilian fishermen, that these animals instinctively cling to living bodies that coino in their way, and that many instances have occurred, among the coral divers, where life has been thus endangered. We have ourselves seen an undescribed species, not uncommon on tlio coast of Messina, whose arms were much thicker than the wrist of an ordinary man t this species is equally dreaded by the Sicilian mariners, although, on account of its delicate taste, it la sought after, and much prized, as an article of food. ^611. The Conchohgy of the Indian $i>a» U the most splendid, profuse, and varied of any division of the world ; and forms a remarkable contrast to that of America. When we compare the marine shells of the West Intliun seas with those inhabiting the same degrees of latitude in the Oriental Archipelago, the propuition of species in the former is probably not greater than one to six. This fact, which hoa iti ver, we believe, been observed, furnishes a most interesting subject of enquiry to travellers who, like the illustrious Humboldt, con- template those mighty causes which influence the grand operations of nature. On looking to the habits of these testaceous molluscA, we find that nearly three fourths are carnivorous ;. that is, of shell-fish which, like the rapacious (|un(lrupeds on the continent, derive their sole nourishment from attacking and devouring other animals. The conchologist will imme- diately perceive we advert to the genera Cuiius, Oliva, Voluta, Mitra, Cypraca, Harpa, Turbinello, Dolium, Cassis, and several uthors t of which very few species have been found beyond the geographic limits of the great Indian Ocean. Of the numerous and highly prized Cones, a genus containing near ^00 species, not more, perhaps, than 10 may be reckoned strangers to Asia. Lamarck enumerates (iii species of Olives, and of these only two have been discovered in other parts uf the world. The extensive family of Mitrance Sw. or Mitres, are distributed much in the same nroportlon ; while that of the Volutes, contain- ing near 60 species, exhibits but tliroe as natives of AA'ica, and one only of America. Ttie Acephala, or Bivalve shells, as in most other couittrlos, appear to be fewer both in number and variety ; yet in neither of these two groat divisions ore we acquainted with more than tliree or four species identically the same with those found in tlie European seas. Among such as are peculiar to Asia maybe mentioned tlio Hammer-shaped Oysters {Malleui Lam.). These, as Dr. Horsfield informs us, are found in profusion, adhering to the submarine rocks, on certain parts of the Javanese coast. The Pearl Oysters arc abundant in similar situations, and, when large, furnish that beautif\il substance called mother-of pearl. But tlie most remarkable bivalve in point of tile, in the whole world, is the Tridacna gigas {f^. 869 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pari in. 385.). of which th« valvM aometlme* exceed four feet in length, and, with the animal • ^ 533 ^ the enormous weight uf 500 lbs. : it sdheras to rock, b such a strong byssus or ligament, that ii can onlv 1 separated by a hatchet : the cartilage of the hinire when cut and polished, is so beaudfully iridescent m nearl. to rival the opal. ' Sfiia The pmtcity qf the nuviatile Bhalm «nn.»..i throughout Xila. li •nother itngular feature™ lu cES The rTvcn, In number and mactnltude, ire warcclv iS„S^ tho.eof Che New World; yet. ISthert^ they h.^n'ofthM more than ilx or leven ipecies to our cabinet!. Wc can i.«.T believe that thli deficiency originatci in the neS^"!,'; Iccton : for the nhelb of no one region have been mZ L^t •Rer than thote of India; yet America aloM prodic« "S' 100 nieclei. or well marked varietle.. of thia family ^ "•" 3613, T**- Mtrbaceimt land tktUe, likewlae, appear very iparingly diitributed In the Eaatem world • vet w»»i belong to natural genera not met with eliewhere. The genu» Scarabui leemi peculiar to New Ouino, .„ •ome of the aiUacent itlandi i and that of Onchidium I.M 63R). among the liugi, or ahellesa Mol ui?»^. 356 romarkablft The Oriental^ pearUfl»herie» are well known to proillce THInACNA OIUAIi groat wealth. Mr. Percival. in hii account of Ceylon, hu given murf Interciting Infbrmation on thia aubject, which wUl be again adS to when treaUng of that laland. ^ """"^ ;)r(14. The domestic animaU are more numeroua than thoie of Eurom. The unlveraal uae of the horae and the ox aa beaita of burden iimL" dcred unncceaaary by the auperior atrength and sagacity of the cIcDhant In thoae provlncci which adjoin I'eraia, the Camel and Dromctlarv are „ common uae, while the BuRUo ia chiefly employed for agricultural nur poae*. The large Indian oxen are of a diff'ercnt race to those of Eurow having a huncli or lump upon the back, which sometimes weighs near filly imunda : the horna arc abort, and bent backwards, and tlic colour of the hide ia uauaily red or brown. These oxen arc remarkable for other pccullaritiei : they have, in all theli motions, a superior liteU. ncu and activity to those of Europe. Their voice ia also diflterent. producing a groaning sound, lomevhat weak, but ahrlll. .1615. The genertt of quadrtipeda hfAongmg to this division of the world will illustrate the prectHliiig remarks ; and will better exhibit how much its zoology, in this department of natural history, dillurs from th-*.t of Europe. <1«neni and Na. of bulHitiwn. Rpffclw. {Afn, BatuMi, miMoiJtif.) Simla ■ HjllihUM Pcwbllli • l.llM'nliygll . Niinac«iilialm P«|>la " . 8t«nn|Mi Nyctlcvbui * Tanlui (IMi.) Mfftmli'mia Hiimliiliuft NyolMlt Onwra and 8ub.gvnera. rircotus VmiwtUllo Nyrtlnumut ('ntHromelct Fttroinii > Cejihalotca RnrvK Tu|wla Vntxt lUtellut INltorlut Martn * Maphiici l.ulra VU||M<« . Vl.im • OiHwiia Mangusta No. of Spvciet. 1 « 3 I Genera and .No. c Sub^genera. SpecU raradoiunit . S Prionodon » Fell. - . 10 Fhalangista Arvicofii - - 3 - 3 - 7 Ueorychua - 4 Mu> ■ 11 Crlcetua - 4 niimi 4 (iCTbllllU - S ABiiatax - 1 ISciunii . IS Pteromjf ■ 6 Hj.lrii . • 3 I.epui S Lagomji I Manli 1 Elephas • I nencra and Biib-genera. Sill Bquus (/lumirufiii.) CBtreliu MnKhus Klaphua All! Caprlutua . . Klylocerui • • AiKocerus • (iazella Haphicenis Titraceru. NfEmorhedui Capra OvU • . I'urtaz Bubaliu Blaon ■ No. of Siiedn. HGIG. Anwng the genera of birds more particularly belonging to Asia, the following mav be mentioned : yet, in the present unsettled state of specific ornithology, it is impossible to cstimntu tlio number of species they may respectively contain. BMi qf <>r«y. Illeraa ri^. ytsiinvtru, NyctloniU .S'n>. Macmpwr>a Sw, nnlflniWrff. liurjlalinua Hortf* Analctpns Km, Oryptmw Vhv, Irfna /fiirV. I'hirniromU Stv. Tlnmlla Hartf. lorn / -fr^f' Hrarl na Hartf^ Priiili r. Knicv '■'■'^tf* Or.lli'oraSn'. ('alyplomena Riif. Miriiflm Hurtf', l*yralnudn Srv, \1diia (^v. Antndina Stv, Kitrlkla Sm. LamprntomU Ttitu Uracula Lin* C.TjxKMra Vliil. I'aradlaca Lin, Kplmachus C'uv. I'lTctoIophus Vitit, MlcTogtoasum G«^ PalaiomiH Vtg. f.orlui Uruwn, Plcunuiua IVm. Orthotomus ttortf. Photnicophaui VUit, rinnyris t'vv Pomalorhliius Hortf. Gitllinaeetiti* BirJt Vinago Cuv. Ptlionopua Srv* Ftllophonil Str. Pavo L, Piriviilectnm Tm. (iallui Loiiliojihonii Tm. l'h».siaiius /.. ArKU&I^ni. Sect. III. Historical Vieio of Asia. 3617. VietMil in an historical light, Asi- , f the suatbof the great ridge of mountains has been always a wealthy and populou rien they formed such a , »f these shores, and of "iKtructed. Accordingl, Pmsh, were arrested at Boo* II- ASIA. 8CS then regarded as one of its gulfs ; and thence in nearly a direct line to the Ganges, which was represented as falling into the Eastern Ocean. This line cut off all Siberia, Oistem Tartary, and China, nearly two thirds of the entire continent. Thus Europe was itthia time considered as larger than Asia. Ptolemy, by means of the caravan merchants, who supplied Rome with the luxuries of the East, obtained more correct and enlarged views. He learned the existence of China, and could estimate the extent of Asia eastward ; but was uiuble to penetrate the Altai, or gain any knowledge of the frozen regions of Siberia. The Itoman empire, and the states of modem Europe, were soon involved in darkness by tlie inuption of the barbarous nations, and lost even the knowledge already acquired. New light was obtained by the learned men who sprung up under the caliphate, and who, by the conquests of their countrymen, and the wide diffusion of their faith, gained more extensive knowledge of the interior of Asia tlian the ancients ever possessed ; and even than what, with regard to some districts, modern Europeans have since attained. 3618. In modern times, as soon as Europe breathed from the agitations which accom. panied the downfall of the Roman empire, peculiar circumstances called her attention itrongly towards the East. Such, especially, was the effect of the crusades, undertaken to recover the Holy Land, and to repress the progress of the infidel arms. These celebrated eipeditions gave a deep interest to the accounts of Asia and the East ; but there was no icienci to collect or arrange the intelligence which they afforded. Tlie crusading geo- graphy regards little except Palestine, and the theatre of the wars for its recovery ; it places Jerusalem in the centre of the world, and presents only vague notions of any remote countries. A more distant alarm was given by the rapid conquests of the Tartars under Zingis; and his posterity, after subduing Tartary, China, and Russia, over-ran Poland, and invaded Germany. To avert a danger so pressing, a series of embassies was sent, under Carpini, Rubruquis, and other monks of the Romish church, with commission from the pope and the Christian princes. These envoys were received at the frontiers, and carried far into the heart of Tartary, through regions liitherto untrodden by any European. In these vast plains they beheld ttie uncouth pomp and barbarous array of the Great Khan ; and, besides the vast extent of hitherto unknown land which came under their view, they learned particulars respecting the most remote extremities of Asia. Again, the revival of commerce and industry in Europe was accompanied with an almost unboimded curiosity to eiplore the vast and opulent regions of the East. Under its influence, a single Venetian citizen, Marco Polo, stimulated, it would appear, almost solely by individual enterprise, penetrated across the whole of Asia, reaching even to the eastern coast of China. His narrative conveyed an idea of the vastness of the continent, and of the splendour of its distant regions, surpassing the most magnificent conceptions hitherto formed. Several ad- venturers followed in the same path, but with inferior success ; and the celebrated narrative of our countryman, Sir John Mandeville, is, we fear, a mere tissue of imposture. The misturc, or at least the appearance, of fable in these narratives, caused the public to doubt ; until the Portuguese, in the reigns of their great kings, John and Emanuel, under the con- duct of Vosco de Gama, dispelled the mystery, by passing the southern cape of Africa. They soon arrived in India ; and in the course of twenty years, in the pursuit either of commerce or conquust, explored all the shores of Asia from Arabia to Japan. A full view was thus acquired of thp extent of the con' lent in the principal dimensions. Its northern expanse and limits, however, remained still hidden in obscurity. Even Tartar conquest had never penetrated beyond the Altai, or discovered any objects worthy of its ambition in these frozen regions. This career was reserved for Russia. Notwithstanding its poverty, this region, b; its wide extent, and the facility of such a conquest, tempted her ambition. Her first operations were made from the north and the province of Archangel. Anika Strogonoff, an enterprising merchant, penetrated by his own exertions to the northern Obi and the country of the Samoieds ; and, by the valuable furs, and the specimens of a new and singular people which he brought thence, roused the curiosity of the court. But Siberia was chiefly m:de known by the romantic adventures of Yermak the Cossack, who, setting out with a small body of his countrymen, found it easy to drive before him the undisciplined forces of the Tartars, and was soon unexpectedly at the head of a great kingdom. The czars accepted him as a vassal, and after his deatli steadily went on in the career of discovery and conquest. In 1639, about 50 years after the first entrance into Siberia, Dimitri Kopilof reached the shores of the Eastern Ocean. Thus an empire, nearly 4000 miles in length, was added to Russia by a handful of Cossacks and hunters. The questions, however, whether Asia be every where bounded on the north by the Polar Ocean, how that ocean communicates with the Pacific, and whether the continents of Asia and America be conjoined or separated, have been ansiously enquired and disputed among geographers. The English and Dutch made it one of the first eiForts of their infant navigation to seek by this course a route to the East Indies ; but when they formed such a hope, they were ignorant of the vast extent and desolate character of these shores, and of the huge masses of ice with which they were almost perpetually obstructed. Accordingly, the boldest navigators who made the attempt, if they did not perish, were arrested at or near Nova Zembia, and thought themselves fortunate in being 864 DESCRIPTIVE OEOOHAPHY. I'amIII. able again to reach home, leaving their object unflilfilled. The RumtnnK, however, by Uiul or ill small barks gradually crept along these shores, and found thi-ir terriioriM every where bounded by the Frozen Ocean. At length the united cfforU of Uehriiig, SlmUurof and Cook discovered a strait separating the two continents, and beyond which, on chcIi tide' they rapidly diverged. 'ITiere remained still, however, on the Asiatic count a (wttutn, ncit fully explored, which some alleged made a great circuit, and rejoined tlmt uf Atnii'rica. According to Captain Cochrane's account, the late expedition „f Uaron Wraiigcl liu ictiled this question, and ascertained that there is a continuous ocean along the wliule uortli of Asia, which is fully confirmed by the British expeditions of dlKovery, SicT. IV. Social and Political Slate of Aria. 36 1 9. In regard to Us social and political slate, Asia presents, of course, a most varied Nceiie ' and yet there arc some features which at once strike us as generally vliariivteristic ul' ihi^ continent Among these is the transmission of institutions, usages, and maniivra iiimliered from tlie earliest ages. The life of the patriarchs, as described in the curliest uf exlstiiiv historical records, is still found unchanged in the Arab tent. The courts of Nineveii and Babylon seem to have been marked by features of |)omp nearly similar to those of Delhi and Ispahan. Asia, at a very early period, anterior even to the cominvnremeiu of regular history, appears to have made a vast stride in civilisation ; but then she Htuiinetl and has suffered herself to be far outstripped by the originally less advanced nations ut' Europe. 3620. T/ie despotism to which the people of Asia arc generally subjected is coiiiietlvd probably, with this stationary character. A republic, an heretlitary aristocniry, a represent' ativc assembly, a regular control of any kind, are, except in some local and peculiar circum. stances, ideas altogether foreign to the mind of an Asiatic. While, however, the geneni principles of government remain so fixed and immutable, the change of ruler and of dposiy is much more frequent than in Europe. As the ideas of hereditary right and uf prinm. gcniture, are much less deeply rooted, a younger son, or even uncle, uf the reigniiii; sovereign if more able and popular, finds it easy to dispute, and even to wrest tlie sl'ept^' from his feebler hands. Oriental sovereigns, even the greatest, still iniunlaiii tlie priniltivi' institution of sitting and administering justice in person. Though iininutalile in their fonnn of court and maxims of government, they are changeable as to their place of residence and seat of empire. Every successive prince usually selects some favourite city, which lie either creates or raises from insignificance, and lavishes his wealth in aduriiing it, Tliv abodes of his ancestors are neglected ; and hence Asia is covered all over with decajiHl capitals and ruined palaces. 3621. The number of communities, of chiefs, and etvn ^ princes, makiiin a re/tular tmile of robbery is another feature that strongly characterises Asia. They carry it un in no clan. destine manner, but avowedly, even boastfully, and as a calling which tliey eunsider as honest and respectable. If they have accepted a composition similar to tin- old English " black mail," or if they have pledged their faith to an individual, they inviulalily nmintain it, The numerous tracts of mountain and desert afford them holds in which to niuiiitaiii tliem. selves, and these are seldom far distant from some rich plnin, or great connnerciul route, on which to exercise their depredations. Arabia, from the earliest times, has been a hive of such plunderers. 3622. Tlie aspect and manners of the Orientals are different from those of Eurupeans, and in many respects exhibit a decided contrast. Instead of our tight short clothes, they wear long floating robes, wrapped loosely round the body. A light turban supplies the place of the hat, and sandals are worn instead of shoes. In entering the house, or wishing to sliow respect, when we would take off" the hat, they toke off' the sandal. Tliey miikc no use of chairs, tables, plates, knives, forks, or spoons. At meals they scut themselves cross-lcggcd on the floor, and eat out of a large wooden bowl placed in the middle, and tilled, not wiih our solid joints, but usually with stews or sweetmeats. This dish is coininon tu the whole company, and each thrusts in his hand without ceremory, and carries the inursels direct to the mouth. In return, they are very scrupulous about the washing of the bunds, 'lliey use no beds, or at least nothing that we would call a bed. An Oriental, going to sleep, merely spread^> a mat, adjusts his clothes in a certain position, and lays himself duwii, Their household furniture is thus exceedingly simple, consisting of little more than carpets covering the room, and sofas set round it, both which are of peculiar beauty aixl ruieiiess. Their attire is also simple, though composed, among the rich, of fine niateriuls, uiid profiisel; ornamented with jewels and precious stones. Their arms and the trappings of their liorses are also objects on which they make a studied display of magnificence. Tlie beurd,.uve'all the East, is allowed to grow, and is regarded with reverence. 3623. In their disposition and temper, the people of the East show striking peculiarities. They arc grave, serious, and recluse ; they have no balls, no theatres, no numerous assemblages ; and they regard that lively social intercourse in which Europeans dellglii, Book II. ASIA. Ml H silly and fHvoIous. Unleu when roused by strong Incitements to action, thejr renulo itrctched on their sofas, and view as little better than madmen those whom they see walkinff ibout for amusement and recreation. Their moral qualities cannot be very easily estimateo) but may l>o generally ranked below those of Europeans. Their domestic attachments ai« itrongi and their reverence for ancestry deep ; their deportment is usually mild and courteous ; ind they show themselves capable of generous and benevolent actions. On the other hand, unong the subjects of the great empires, the obligations of truth and honesty are habitually tnmpled under foot ; the statesmen and chiefs are usually designing, treacherous, and in- human ; devoid of honour, and capable of the most enormous crimes. The smaller tribes, who display a greater manliness and energy of character, are rude, coarse, and addicted to predatory haiiils. The sentiments and conduct of the Asiatics towards the female sex are such as cannot (list without a general degradation of character. Thepracticeof polygamy, with thejealous conlinvment to which it naturally leads, seems to be the radical source of this evil. The (iclusion of the sex from society ; the Mahometan doctrine that they have no souls ; the Hindoo maxim which prohibits them from reading, writing, and being present at religious ceremonies ; are evidently parts of a general system for reducing them to an inferior rank in the scale of creation. It is true there is one local example (in Thibet) of an opposite system, — female sway, and a plurality of husbands; but this is evidemly no more than a cspricious exception to the general rule. 3624. A high and even ottentatious precision of religion generally distinguishes the Asiatics, and the name of God is continually in their mouths. Their creeds, however, are ill marked by that deep tincture of superstition which seems naturally connected with a nude and imperfect state of knowledge. In many parts of the continent, the most savage ind degrading rites are practised ; and in all, the favour of the Deity is supposed to be gained nther by splendid donations, costly structures, and elaborate outward observances, than by purity of heart and life. The pure and refined system of Christianity, though it was first communicated to Asia, has not maintained its ground against these superstitious propensities. Two systems of faith divide Asia between them : one is that of Mahomet, which, by the ims of his followers and of the conquering Tartars of central Asia, has been thoroughly Established over all the western tracts as far as the Indus. It even became, for centuries, the ruling religion in India, though without ever being tiiat of the body of the people. Hie other is the Hindoo religion, divided into its two great sects of Brahma and Boodhj the fonner occupying the whole of Indostan, the latter having its centre in Thibet, filling all the east of Asia and Tartary, and penetrating even north of the Altai. Sect. V. Industry and Commerce in Asia. 3(25. The useful arts are cultivated in the Asiatic empires with somewhat peculiar diligence. Agriculture is carried on with great industry and care, though by less skilful processes, and with much ruder macliinery, than in Europe. A much smaller amount of capital, particu. larly in live stock, is employed upon the land. The cultivators scarcely rise above the rank of peasantry. The chief expenditure is upon irrigation; for, in all these tropical regions, water alone is required to produce plentiful crops. Asia has also a number of manufactures which, though conducted with small capitals and simple machinery, are not equalled in rich- ness and beauty by those of any other part of the world. All the efforts of European art and capital have been unequal fully to imitate the carpets of Persia, the muslins of India, the porcelain of China, and the lacquered ware of Japan. Commerce, though fettered by the jealousy of the great potentates, is very active throughout Asia. The commerce of Europe is principally maritime ; that of Africa principally inland. Asia combines both. ller interior caravan trade is very considerable, though much diminished since Europe ceased to be supplied by this channel. The native maritime trade on her southern coasts is also considerable, but the foreign trade, particularly that carried on by the English nation with India and China, has now acquired a superior importance. Sect. VI. The Asiatic Languages, 3626. The Asiatic languages are classed in seven groups. I. The family of the Shemitic I lugiiages. II. Tlis languages of the Caucasian region. III. The family of the Persian languages. IV. The languages of India. V. The languages of the region beyond the i Ganges. VI. The group of the Tartar langtiages ; and, VII. The languages of the Siberian region. Sdbsect. I. 3627. Thefamilt/ of the Shemitic languages may be divided into five branches : — 1. The I Hebrew } 2. The Syriac or Aramean ; 3. The Median ; 4. The Arabic ; 5. The Abys- lanian, 3628. (1.) The Hebrew branch includes the Hebrew, the PhceTucian, and the Punic. This [ippears contrary to the opinion of the learned writttr whom we have quoted in the introduce 3 K 866 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. ^*n in. tory chapter, Part III. ; and who 8hows that the Fhaniciani deacended flrum Ham. H might have added, that their city, Sidon, was named after the flrst>born aon of Canaan * 3629. The Hebrew, considered in relation to three principal epochs, may lie disiinguiiihcd a* forming three diflerent dialccto ; the ancient or pure Hebrew, spoken and written from the earliest ago of the nation until the Babylonish captivity, after which it ccaied to be spoken, and tiecame a learned language. The Jews have continued to use it as such with more or less purity, until the present day. In this idiom are written the Scriptures of the Old Testament, ending with the prophecy of Malachi. The Chaldee, which is almost iden- tical with the Syriac. This language was brought by the Jews from Ualiylon. TLcv intro, Sidon, Acre, Berytus, Arad, and Maratlius aflbrd the means of ascertaining the ancient T'lcenician alphabet; but no memorials respec*. ing the literature of the nation have been discovered. 3631. The Punic, Carchedonic, or Carthai^iimn, appears to have been considered one of the dialects of the Phoenician. It was tiie language of the Carthaginians once masters of the whole north coast of Africa, part of Sicily and Spain, and the isles of Sardinia and Malta. It was spoken in Africa in the times of Jerome and Augustine, but has long been extinct. The voyage of Hanno, of which the Greek is an abridged translation, was originally written in this language. 3632. (2.) The branch called Syriac or Aramean ; the latter name being derived from Aram, which in its scriptural acceptation includes Syria, Mesopotamia, Chaldea, and Assyria. This idiom formerly extcndeid through Persia to Samarcand, and even into Tartary and central Asia, where it became known through the merchants and the religious sect of the Nestorians. Its princip.d dialects appear to have been the Palmyrene, the Nabathean, and the Sabian, used by thesi s . ctaries who are, strangely enough, called Christians of St. Julin the Baptist ; and who are said not to believe in him whom their avowed leader proclaimed, 3633. Tlie C'naldee, formerly current in Chaldea, and for many centuries extinct. It was spoken at the courts of Nineveh and Babylon ; and in it were written the astronomical observations, the most ancient on historical record, which were found at Babylon by tlie philosopher Callisthenes. This language, learned by the Jews in their captivity, and by them mingled with the Hebrew, gave birth to the dialect called the Chaldaic. 3634. (3.) Tlie Median branch; so named because the only language it comprises wm spoken in ancient Media. This language is the Pehlvi or Phclvy, formerly in use through- out Western Persia, and on the banks of the Tigris. It was the written and current language of all the higher classes in the Persian empire, and was spoken at the court of its ancient kings. Its high antiquity cannot be questioned. Into it were translated the books of Zoroaster written in Zend, and these translations are perhaps as ancient as tlie originals themselves. The medals and inscriptions of the Sassanides are also in Pehlvi. 3635. (4.) The Arabic branch includes only one language, in which are to be distinguished the ancient, the literal, and the vulgar Arabic. 3636. i. The ancient Arabic/ an idiom long extinct, was spoken throughout Arabia, in two principal dialects, the Hamiar and the Koreish- The Hamiar, spoken in the eastern part, is entirely unknown to us. It probably resembled the Axumite, and was written in an alphabet called Musnad, also extinct. Tlie Koreish was spoken in Western Arabia, especially in the vicinity of Mecca. This dialect, improved by Mahomet and his successors in the seventh and following centuries, became — 3637. ii. The literal Arabic, common to the whole Arabian nation, and the written and literary language of most of the nations subject to the vast empire founded by the successon of Mahomet. In this language that code of imposture the Koran is written. Though ii has long ceased to be spoken, it has continued to be the lUurgic and learned language of all the numerous nations professing Islam, from the shores of the Indian Ocean to the western- most corner of Morocco, and from the Wolga to Cape Delgado in Africa. From the iiinili to the fourteenth century, while other nations were involved in darkness, the literature of the Arabs shone in its utmost splendour. 3638. iii. The vulgar Arabic, spoken in Arabia and in the greater part of Syria and Mesopotamia, in a part of Khusistaun or Fars ; along the Persian Gulf ; in the Icingdoni of Persia ; in some ports of the Malabar and Coromandcl coasts ; in all parts of Eg}'pii ii> A part of Nubia, especially along the Nile ; in all the towns of the Barbary states by tlie BookII- ASIA. 9ft doon and Arab*, and in a part of their plains by the Bedowcen Arabs ; in a part of Bel«d-*:l-jereed ; and in some of the oases of the African deserts. It is singular to remark (lot the name Arab is a mere geographical term ; Jerirat el Arab meaning in this language the isle or peninsula cf the tVesl, which it is, when viewed in relation to the rest of Asia. By a more figurative appellation, the Bedoweens are designated " the sons of the deserb" The nimplicity of the worshippers at Mecca, long anterior to Mahomet, denominated accord- ing to their position the countries that lay on cither hand, when the pilgrims took tlieir tiy northward on their return. El Yemen was the country on the right, £1 Xam, or, as the French imitate the aspirate, El Sham, is the country on the left, which answers to Syria. 3639. The natiotu that tpeak Arabic ute every where the tame words ; the dialects differ little from each otiier. They are, that of Yemen, considered the purest ; that of Mecca and its neighbourhood, deemed to be one of the most corrupted; the Bedoween, spoken in a great number of subdialects and varieties by numerous wandering tribes ; the Syrian, spoken in Syria and Mesopotamia ; the Marotdte, spoken in the country of the Maronites ; ihe Drtue, spoken in the country of the Druses ; the Mapul, spoken by the Mapul tribes on the Malabar coast, and by the Chaliates on that of Coromandel ; the Egi/jitian, spoken in Egypt and the neighbouring countries ; the Mugrebin, or Moorish, spoken in the Barbary itates ; the Momrabic, or Maranish, formerly spoken in Spain, during the dominion of the Arabs, but long extinct ; and, lastly, the Maltese, a jargon composed of Arabic, Italian, and Provcnjal. 3640. The Abyssinian branch, so called because it comprehends the principal idioms of Abyssinia. All these may be subdivided into two classes, according to their greater or less affinity to the Axumite or to the Amharic. The Axumite comprises the ancient Ghees md the modem Gheez : the Amharic includes the Semian, the Arkiko, the Narea, and the Dembea. SuBsacT. 2. 3641. The languages of the Caucasian region are thus classed : — 1. The Georgian family ; nniistlng of the ancient and modern Georgli.n, the Mingrclian, the Suane, and the Lasian. 2, The Armenian family ; including the ancient Armenian, now extinct, except in the literature ind the public worship of the nation ; and the modern or vulgar Armenian, spoken by the Hailans in Turkish and Persian Armenia, in part of Georgia and Shirwaun, and in the government of Isichil. 3. The Lesghian languages, including the A war, the Kazikumuk, the Akusha, and the Kura. 4. The Mixi^edghi, spoken by the people of that name in southern Circassia, and comprising four principal dialects. 5. 'Ilie Circasnan, spoken by the Circassians or Cherkasses, whose true name is Adye, probably the Zyges of Strabo and the Ziches of the Byzantine writers. 6. The Abassi or Absne, spoken by the Abassi, now sub- jects of the Russian empire. 3642. AU the languages of the Caucasian region are excessively harsh, and are renuu-kable for an extraordinary assemluage of consonants and an accumulation of vague and diphthongal sounds, many of them guttural. The Armenian and tlie Georgian are the only written languages : those who speak the others use in writing either the Arabic, the Georgian, or the Turkish idiom. SUBSECT. 3. 364!). Thejhmily of the Persian languages consists of — 1. The Zend, spoken formerly in Bacttiana, where it ceased to be the vulgar tongue before the Christian era. This is the language in which is written the Zend-avesta, the sacred book of the fire-worshippers, by whose priests, the Magi, it was spoken. The Zend may be considered as the parent of all .the Persian idioms, perhaps even of that called by excellence the Sanscrit or perfect language. It possesses its peculiar alphabet, consisting oi forty-two letters. It is written from right to left. It also eniployed the cuneiform characters, as in the inscriptions found among the ruins of FersepoUs, commonly denominated by the Persians the Cheyl Minar, " the forty columns " (i. e. the many columns), and Takht-e-Jemsheed, " the throne of Jemsheed." 3644. (2.) The Parsi, Farsi, or ancient Persian. It had surpassed the Zend in copiousness, accuracy, and elegance, long before it became, under the Sassanidcs, the language of the court and of public business throughout the empire. Among its dialects may be distin- guished the Parsee, spoken, or at least understood, by most of the Parsces or fire- worshippers, called Guebre or Giaour, infidels ; a term, observes Gibbon (ch. Ixviii.), " transferred from the Persian to the Turkish language, from th< xrorshippers of fire to those of tlie crucifix," and ipplied not only to the Roman catholics, but to Christians of every denomination. 3645. (3.) The Modem Persian, derived from the Parsee, and formed, during the long domination of the Arabs in Persia, by the mixture of Arabic with Parsee, and some Turkish. It is spoken not only in Persia, but in a great part of India, where it is very conunon among the Mahometans, especially those of Agra and Aurungabad. It is also the language em- I ployed in the public documents, in the courts of record, and the finance-registers of the provinces which formed the vast empire of the Great Mogul. A dialect of it is spoken by 3K 2 M8 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHY. P"t III. the p«opl« of Dukharia, and by IhoM of lh« Mun* nation Kattered among the towiit of Aijati RuHtia, and in nomti provincua of China. It ha* very grvat analogy with the 8clavoiiie iwd atill more with the languagott of the Germanic family, not only in riuiicalt and iimp|« wurd but in inflexion* and grammatical form*. It ha* many other iliaU'ct*. ^ S646. (4.)TlieA'Mr(oken by the ditl'erent trilie* in Luriitaun appvai* certain from the inve«tigationii of the celubruted Mr. Uicli when Eiiglivb reitident at Bagdad, The Kooril. i«h language dilFer* little from the IVnian in word*, but much in grammar : it i* harth* and much le*a poliiihed. ' 3647. (5.) The language of the (U$etet, inhabiting the high valley* of Cauca«ug, bvtwctn the Mizdjedglii on the vaxt and the Huitinn* or Emertti on the west, and Hhown by Klaprcith to be descended from n colony of ancient Mcde*. I n tlii* language are *everal words cuniinun to the Wutkque and Home other idiom* of the Arabi;m family. SCAB. (6.) 'i\w Puuslito, or j1fi(haun, spoken in stiveral dialects by the numerous tribes of the Pooshtancd, known in Persm by the name of Afghaun* and in India by that of Patann, it has much analogy with the Persian, and very little with the Sliemitic languages. lu literature is very poor, und of no earlier dute than three centuries ago. 36-1!). (7. ) The Hduoch, spoken by the dominant nation in Uvloochistaun and Sindc. It hiu great affinity with the Persian, und mav b« divided into three dialects : the Uelooch proper the Jiabe, spoken by the people so named, a grvat part of whom live in the kingdom of Caubul ' and, the Sindi/ Jielooch, spoken by the nel(H>clies dwelling in Sinde. Tliis language, wliich is very little known, it written in tlio Arabic character, with some additional letters. SUMICT. 4, 3fi50. The languofies of Mia may be divided into two princip\l branches: — ], Thwe forming the family of the Sanskril ; V. Certain particular language! which do not belong lo that family. In the Arst branch, « distinction must bo made of the dead languages, ur languages no longer spoken. These are, I . The Sanskrit, meaning, in the Indian acceptation, perfect or complete. It was formerly npoken throughout the greater part of India; but it has iMien an extinct language for several centuries, and is now studied by the Bramins and Indians, as Greek and Latin are with us. Like the Greek and German, it has the property of forming compound words ad lihilum, and has a great quantity of them. Its most ancient books are the Vedas, subdivided into eighteen vii(iaf, or parts, embracing all the branches of human knowledge, from theology to music ; tlic laws of Menu, or the civil and religious code of the Indians; and the two epic poems called the Mahabharata and the Saimyma. The Sanscrit has a particular alphaU-t, called tlie Dewanagari, consisting oi Jifty-two letters. It is written from left to right, and is the miMlel on which are formed several alphabets peculiar to the idioms t>f the Indian peninsula, that of the Thibetians, and those employed for writing several of the languages of Indn-China. 2. The Bali or Pali, also called the Magada or Misra. This language, which is regiurded as a sister of the Sanskrit, was formerly spoken in Mogadho, a part of liahar south of the Ganges, by some considered as the native country of Buddha. It was widely spread in India before the Christian era, but became extinct when the sect which spoke it was ex|ielled. Like the Sanskrit, it has long ceased to be spoken, though it has continued as tlie liturgic, hieratic, and literary language in the isles of Ceylon, Bali, and Madura, in a great part of Java, as well as throughout Indo-Cliina, except the peninsida of Malacca. It is also the religious language of the numerous inhabitants of Chii.a and Japan who profess Lamaism and Buddhism. It has four principal dialects, tlie Magailha and the Jiali proiier, the Fan and the ITawi. 3651, The living languaget of India, collectively called Pracrit, are many of them derived from the Sanskrit, In several, half the words are pure Sanskrit ; the rest being composed of words partly belonging to foreign languages that arc well known, especially the Fenian, and partly to others imperfectly to be traced, with some Sanskrit words, altered by a regular system of permutation. The Saraiumta, an Indian nation which has long disappeared, and which dwelt along the Saraswati in tlie Pui\)ab, s|)oke a particular language, derived from the Sanskrit, and called Pracrit. The branch of the Pracrit languages appears at present to include, among numerous others, the Ilindoostanec, the Punjatibe, the Cashmeerian, the Caubul, the Sindee, the Zinganec (calle of which one of the bre been originally I OAUAMK BOU. east it reaches the pla Kennanshah ; on the the west it casts its shi bates Palestine and S; 3673. Owing to a c neither the Henna (or Banana, nor several o • The uie of henna is been found leveral whoae i Olivier suggests, this hue n The AralM and Moors cultl rfihe hands and feet ; also toineti, especially, employ Ite leaves of henna are gal applied in the form of paste lod imparts a durable colon The henna, according tc lowers have a strong pen NORTH PAKT. I.Suiuoun iBiflVa 3. Gherxeh 4.Bi>labad S-SinoM e.luifan 7. Kutunourl I. KJnla 9. Mom IO.AO1U ll.Amiuenh 1!. EitkU l].MeUll II. Kill ascunl l6.IaldotNI(«. tiwdfa I!. Imlk 1!. TerekU 19. ModouiU W.BoU SI. KeTer-HIisur «!. TchlFkU 23.(>lid|uk II. Kjuinrl ti.T(«U S6. Tchounmm |9. Amuilah JO.SowuIa JlTbenneh 3S.F,la ». Kcmoun Sj.TlreWl «. Ticbliond I'-tfm H.M«l>«neh 39. Gonnldi JO.Bitoum ll.Poti "•Ton. 13. Konls JjAW'l* <3.Ach. Antalls (w Aniloob) 10. Rhanukv H^^B l.Sinuoun bi. BlalMUt 104. Kibban Madan 12. Adalia ll.Shahraban ^^^^H i.BaffVa 53. Estoury 105. Arabklr 13. Ilurai SS.Caakonot IS. Itokhara flHHB 3. Ghemh 64. Uembhkhana 106. Tctdlan 07. JebakabuT 4. KaraiUoiik 64. Ulakla 13. Ila«dad dHBS IBoiabad M. Kara-Hiiur !>. Eatoiai 63. Alarla H. Mumllla i^ww ''■ S.Suiope S6. Covla-HlHlr »7. Nlkaai 08. Mooch 6. Souaou 66. Tortoaa lA. OuMlih ^Uk3 !i (. stifan 09.1.nae 17. labaita '^-."SA ^^nl 'I T. Kutamoupl M.Adru 10. Malar Gblrd 18. Ekredi aBBb ') i. Kinis S9. Hlrat ll.TutbaCaleh 19. Euahar 69. Bclmul n^BW i' g.Mniet 60. Tokal IS. Diadin so. Slavnia 70. HoldelSldMi) l.Boo»(T,iru«| 19. IMnianlth ( lUHffi c 10. A.h«I Sl.UedCT 13. Bajaiid SI. Alankh Wl. Mnhed All il.Amaucnh 62. Emir Pacha 14. Van SS. Sllinll S. Act» 78. KalaSTlah (Ci*. • 1. Mohed llnMin ' I^^Bb i^ ]l EitkU 63. Uakul 1*. Aidjl.h S3. Ermemk S«.lini*h(Bab«lan| ' 'Y^BB '' II.MeUn 64. Kli-Shehri IS.Aklat S4. Kaaaata •area) S3, Anl«r ' jh^B !i K.Kili 6S. Angon 17. Betlit S3. Sougia S6. ElkTs 74. RaalakM (An- «4, UbAla 1 ik^^n LVScoUri 66.AIW 18.8«rt TS.Ja£Vo|>l>s) a. III! IbH- le.InidolNico- 67. Bfl Baur 19. Emn S7.L*randa «6. CubMM midla 68. Ycrma «0. Faloo SS. Karman ;«. Jeruaalani si Anna. H^B i;. Imlk 69. Eaki-Shthr «I. Arnna ii. MiUaUl Sg. Sclcfkcfa 77.Aadaod(AK)«ua ^^K U.TmkU 70. Kutaiah 30. Meietlu 78. tiasa 79. Hebron \ ^^^B 19. ModoutU , Tl.Kedoua «3.BoMan 81. Tanua (or T«r< • 4^^E !O.BoU 7i. Seiman S4. Kaiaaaria Booa) SaKank CVPRUN IHI.K. '?^nH il. StTir-Hiiur 73. ZniiUan SS. Kara-Hlitar 8S. Adana 81. Amman 1, lank «. .Inwaal i.'^o^^B K.Tchtoklj 74.Bnua S6. NIgdeh 83. Antarba 8S. Byaan l^^mmB v. Uladluk 7S. MoudanU S7. Jo^ Ladlk 84. Kan 83. Tabaria S. .tfka 0i^HH it. Klanitri 76. Pedeima as. Konieh 33. Marash 84. fthemakein 4.C«rtna B^^^R IS.Tosll 77. Blgah 189. Kbhakli 86. Jemnuck 8.1.raa«maPhlll|<|>l «. Nlcmlt yjoHH !6. Tchouroum 78. Lanipsakl 130. Ak-Shchr 87. Samlaat 86. naniaarua a. .amira i^fli^K l;. Vliirkluprt 79. Sultanish 31. Sandakll 38. Sovmk 87. Homa(liiiwas) 7. FsmaKosla. QJ^^^B aMaii.an SO. Baba 1st. Bouidour 39. Danakia 88. Hamah H^^^^B !9. Amaulah 81. AdramjU 1S3. Pambouk Ka. 40. Diarbekil 89. linUam ^>3!BBB Vl.Soumla 8«. Uhelemba Inl 41. Merdln so. Paliiora nfVff# ttMl &4hM* ■^^H t »' 31. Thmneh 83. Ak-Hbaal 184. Ouilamla 42.»ift 91. Salba a ntxIHwa ^^\'gf|j ^ Si.Fatia 84. SuidalU ISS. Allahahehr 43. Jpilrah «S. All) el Coam b Jordan, R. ^"'RG;*^ .:^ a. Kmuun f,:\vsr IS6. Ouicl-Hluar 44. Zaco 98. Hohabch siiiiireTsi:!? WA ■'■ M.TlTtbdl 137. Erkau 4S.Ainadl«h Miahed SSTitbtamd 87. 8mjrn» 188. KapuaU 46. Julamuk »4. El Her tAaaiy(Of«itM),R, hji''."* Se.Hluh 88. Vourla 139. Avaialuk 140. MllMua. 47. Koahab 9ft. Karkiila rWhSri.K. ■,; ^Ejj ' sliM^neh 89. TiKh 48. Julamaik SS.Haroa 1 Neandw,, R* nanbai, R, t^mw;! 90. San 49. Rauba tk. RbaUban L{ JtiHt :! 39. Uounldi 91. Bclaidl BOUTH PART. SCEiklMoun ^^■,''^H.| ' W-Bauom 9«.Banai I. Airn Raini 81. Telmuk 99. HliUar Nakaria ^1," ; US'*' 93. Kara-Hliaai S.ndnim SS. Nialbin 100. Mwaul lOl.lJverdak 1 KliUlmak.R. JM"r 94. Ilulwudlln 3. Mjlaaa S3. Raa.«l-aln Jekll Irmak, R. ,^ is ■■• i «. Koilt 9b. Bardaklu 4. MoKia 84. Hanan 109. Grbat jiiissrsr'"' ^^M \ «■ Akalilk 96. Tahaktein S. Daouaa or ii.Ottk 1(18. Alioun Kuimt 15. Achilkalak 97. Tuils Tbavas «6.Bir 104. Knkoak r. Koomba 98. Klracbchri «. Macil 87. Aln Tab 103. Tavak «.Kan MiHsiun Caleb 99. Kouanci 7. Patan 8. Almali 9. MIra »8. SaiUour 106. Teortt \ Tiiirtii. K. too. Sarakj tOI.OIaah SS.AItpiw 6aBa;aa vk. KaklKllJ^I V Ku|»hrtiffii. IC • Uniou«n. lOli. KdU-lIlwr 10. Vanar iffiBil : 874 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. elsewhere in higher latitudes, can be cultivated there with success. It is not because th temperature of the summer is insufficient ; for the heat is excessive and unremitted. It ' even said that the thermometer rises to 50° of Reaumur during the period, happily a verv short one, when the samiel occasions desolation and death ; but in winter the tempcratu falls sometimes to — 2 -5°, and perhaps even lower. Niebuhr saw at Bagdad, in Fcbruarv 17()5, ice two inches thick. These sudden colds, which the Orange tree is capable of bca ' ing, destroy the Henna. Thus, Bagdad, in spite of its high medium temperature, which i' estimated, perhaps incorrectly, at + 23 -2°, presents only the vegetation of the northern limit of the Transition Zone. 3674. From Bagdad to Moussoul (lat. 36° 28') tlie banks of the Tigris are fringed with Willows and Cucumbers. Beyond this narrow bend the soil is but a dry and burnini; sand 3675. Palestine and the south of Syria, which spread like an amphitheatre along the shores of the Mediterranean, offer a most remarkable instance of the combination of the vegetation of hot and temperate countries. There may be seen together the Date, the Sugar-cane the Banana, the Henna, the Orange and the Citron, the Pistachio, the Olive, the Carob tree' the Cordia Myxa, the Guilandina Morinda, the Indian Tamarind, the Melia Azcdarach (com- monly called Pride of India), the Acacia nilotica and farnesiana, with almost all the forest trees of Greece and Italy, and all the fruit trees of Europe. Each species fixes itself according to its nature, on higher or lower plains, on the slope of the mountains, or on their (summits. 3676. Tlie mountains in the interior of southern Palestine form two chains, which run in 540 * parallel line from south to north. In tlie low part of the intermediate valley lies the lake Asphal. tites, which receives the waters of Jordan. The west bank of this lake is bordered by rugged and barren mountains. At their foot Hasselquist found the Solanum sodomsum {Jig. 540.), the fruit of which destroyed internally by insects, preserves its colour' but contains only dust. The opposite shore is very fertile, and partly covered with lorge forests, Burck- hardt remarked there the Gum trees {ytcacia or il/i- mosa) and a tree of the family of Apocinca;, which the Arabs call Ochejir, and which, according to Dc. lile, is the Asclepias procera of the Equatorial Zone. 3677. To l/ie north of the lake, along the eastern shore ofJor. dan, lies a hilly country, more than ISiO toiscs above the kn] of the river, and full of delightful scenery and uncommonly ,„,._„„„„„„_„„ rich vegetation. The hills produce abund.intly the Oak, tlie .oi.Ai.BM »dom;iiu>. pin^.^ 3n,, ,hc Wild Olive, &c. Thc streams which pour Ih™ waters Into Jordan, flow under the shade of Plane trees, Almonds, Olives, Oleanders, &c. The railey of Damascus and thc shores of the Orontcs are no less fertile. 3678. In the absence of meteorological observations, the vegetation of southern Syria suffices to assure us that its temperature can be little different from that of Cairo. It is not so with the northern districts, with Caramania and Anatolia. The annual variations in the temperature are increased by the influence of a more northerly latitude, to which may be added some peculiar and local causes of cold. This double action is evident at Aleppo, lat. 36° 11 '. The Date tree does not grow spontaneously there, and thc Lawsonia allu, with the varieties of Orange and Lemon, can only be cultivated by giving them sheher. The Myrtle and Oleander are only seen in a cultivated state. It is certainly possible that some cause may exist, independent of the winter's cold, which prevents thc Myrtle and Oleander from growing wild at Aleppo, as these shrubs flourish without any such assistance in the Crimea, Istria, Italy, and Provence : and the former even stands abroad, without protection, in Cornwall, during the winter. The spring, summer, and autumn arerer^hol at Aleppo, especially in July and August ; the thermometer varying from 25° to 28°. From the end of May to the middle of September, the power of the sun, aided by the drj'ness of the atmosphere, burns up all verdure ; but these great heats are incapable of compcnsalin; for the inconveniences of a forty days' winter, during which it snows and freezes altematelj. During Alexander Ilussell's residence of seventeen years in Aleppo, he thrice saw thc frost so severe as to bear the weight of a man without thc ice breaking. 3679. Tt is no error to suppose that local causes may affect the climate of Aleppo; since at Smyrna, 2° farther north, the Orange grows in profusion. Hassel(|uist even remarked some old stems of Date trees which had survived the winter : but he could not find any young obtained from them, which is used in thc baths, and with which the people perfume themselves on .i viiit,ot during religious ceremonies, as mariiagc and circumcision, as well as at the festivals of liair.im and toutbm. i bairam. It was, no doubt, on account of their odour that henna flowers were scattered by thc Hcbrei.u thc apar'mcnts of a bride, and for thc same re.Tsnn the (Egyptians keep them in their rooms. Aconiiiler. able trade is carried on in henna leaves, which yields a large revenue to Egypt. Experimcnti madt »j MM. Drscourtils and licrthollet go to prove that they might be advantagco\isly employed in dyeing woolB stuHk of a yellow colour. For a ilescription of this plant, see, ftirther on, an account of some of the mn interesting vegetable productions of the Holy Land. Book II. ones. The latiti efjuatorial tree. Ciardanelles to Si 3680. The cent rural, elevated, a important is Taur in the plains and productions of the hardly free from sr falls in June : the of trees are thinly since agriculture h distance, almost ap] 3681. Generalli/i the forests of Asia elevated spots ; the Lebanon at 991 toii DO country of the C kind. The Beech where many of our fi (he Medlar, the Quit and the Fig and the favoured soil that m Italy, and the rest of (or Strawberry tree), 3682. fn should enumerate the folloi names that are marke or Africa, 3683. Pinus halep, LariiCcdrus'j Ju„i, laius baccata, Betula rigida, inftctoria*, Li sjlvatica, Castanea ves nip, tremula, and cu orientaUs, acerifolia* W» Ulmus compc tontanesia, phyllireolt andAndrachne,DiospJ "".ese parallels, the low! mountains which protej one might believe it waf 3685. .rf, the Hotu l\ w cannot close this acti ^nie plants for which ll f'g trees and Pomegratl ^3686. The size of thi ;^';ornebytwom4.1 Jl of some other plaJ J-nony of modern twl Mk In supper „„dgF «»Hl't was about th?J ^be supported, it fom,^ ««Pes produced by thi«1 .'»'f.vidualberries7r« k "."/"""eorhoarlalf «'"«« around it, the; pJ Book II- TURKEY IN ASIA. 873 ones. The latitude of Smyrna probably murkii the utmost northern boundary of this equatorial tree. Every traveller remnrkn the nbiience of the Olive on the coasts, from the Dardanelles to Sinope : it reappenra in the vicinity of that town. 3680. The central part of Turhif in Asia, comprehended between lat. 35° and 40°, is rural, elevated, and intersected by numerous ridges of mountains, of which the most important is Taurus. Though tliu summer be very warm, and the thermometer often rises in the plains and valleys to 30'', .lA", nnd avcn 40°, in the month of July, yet many of the productions of the south do not Hucceed thcrOi on account of the winter cold. The ground is hardly free from snow at Eraoroum (Int. !)9° 59') till the middle of April; sometimes it even falls in June : the high situation of this town, 1 500 toiscs, may occasion this. A few clumps of trees arc thinly scattered on the rinini. These were formerly clothed with forests ; but since agriculture has been pursued there, the country is bare and unsheltered, and at a distance, almost appears sterile. 3681. Generally speaking, it is to the voUevs and the slopes of the hills and mountains that the forests of Asia Minor are confined. I'lio Pine, Fir, and Juniper occupy the most elevated spots : the Larix CvdruM, of which M. do la Billardidre fixed the boundary line on Lebanon at 991 toises, grows nUo on Mount Taurus. There are several species of Oaks; DO country of the Old World produces «o many : the greater number are of the evergreen kind. The Beech prevails in Cnrninnnin, Uithynia, Paphlagonia, Pontus, and Colchis, where many of our fruit trees, ns the Plum, the Cherry, the Apricot, the Peach, the Almond, the Medlar, the Quince, the Apple nnd Punr, the Service tree, the Chestnut, the Walnut tree, and the Fig and the Vino, grow wild in the heart of the forests. It is doubtless from this favoured soil that most of these vnluublu trees have been derived that now adorn Greece, Italy, and the rest of the world. Vast trnctn are covered with Olive, Myrtle, Arbutus Unedo, (orSuawbcrry tree). Terebinth, Lentisk, Pistachio trees, Laurels, Pomegranates, &c. 3682. ffe should convey but an imperficl idea of Oriental vegetation, if we did not enumerate the following species whicfi compose the greater part of the forests. The names that are marked with an astorink nro such as have not been hitherto found in Europe or Africa. 3683. Pinus Imlopensis, gylvostrls, nnd Tournefortii* ; Abies orientalis* and taxifolia, Larix Cedrus* ; Juniperus drupnccn, iwtidisNima*, and phocnicea ; Cupressus sempervirens, Taxus baccata, Betula alba and pontlcn *, Qiiercus Robur ; Ilex coccifera, pseudo-coccifera, rigida, inftctoria*, Libani*, Huliphleot *, Tournefortii *, ^gilops, and ^sculus ; Fagus sylvatica, Castanea vesca, Ostrya vulgaris, Carpinus Betulus and orientalis; Populus alba, nign, tremula, and euphratica* ; Snllx bnbyloiiicn, monandra, alba, fragilis, &c. ; Platanus orientalis, acerifolia *, and crinitA ; Liquidnmbnr imberbe *, Celtis australis and Tourne- fortii*, Ulmus campestris and efl\iHn, ()Nyris nlbn, Eloeagnus angustifolia ; Vitex Agnus, Fontanesia, phyllircoidea * ; Fraxlnus Ornus, excelsior, and rotundifolia. Arbutus UneJo and Andrachne, Diospyros Lotos, Styrux ulllclnnle; Tamarix orientalis, Africana, Germanica, and Gallica ; Sambucus nigra, Cornim ninscula ; Pyrus Sorbus, Aucuparia, eleagnifolia, ter- minalis, 8aticifolia,Aria, &c. ; Cratwgvistrilobatn, Axarollustanacctifolia, &c. ; Prunus avium, Cerasus Padus, &c. ; Amygdnlus incnna and orientalis *, Mcspilus germanica ; Mimosa agrestis, Stcphaniana, and julibriwtin *, Cercis Sitiquastrum, Ccratonia Siliqua, Paliurus australis, Zizyphus vulgaris. Ilex ngnifulium, Jugluns regia*, Acer monspessulanum and betcrophyllum &c. 3684. The Olive, the Terebinth, the Pomegranate, the Sweet Bay, the Oleander, the Myrtle, the Fig, and the Vine, follow the shores of the Black Sea through Pontus, Mingrelia, and Colchis, and appear on the coattts of the Crimea, from lat. 44° to 45°. In these parallels, the lowest temperature scftrcoly reaches — 6° ; but on the other side of the mountains which protect these countries fk'um the northerly winds, the cold is so severe, tliat one might believe it was 4° or 5° nenaront fVom what we now call the Vine, were it not for the testimony of modern travellers. Stephen Schultx relates, that at a village near Ptolemais, he took his supper under a large vine, of which the stem measured a foot and a half in diameter ; its height was about thirty feet ; and, including Its wide-spreading branches, which required to be supported, it formed a tent of nlwve (Ifty ftct in breadth and length. The bunches of gfapes produced by this and similarly large vines weigh from ten to twelve pounds, and the individual berries are like small pUnns. When such n cluster is cut, the inhabitants place It on a table or board, about an ell and a half wide, and three to four ells long, and, several sitting around it, they pull oiT nnd eat the iVuit. Christopher von Neitzschuti assures us wn DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pa»t III. thkt he has Men bunches of grapes In the mountains of Judea which measured half an II long, and the berries were as long as two joints of the finger. This is corroborated I Mariti, who relates in his travels that none of the produce of the Vine, as it is known in uth ^ countries, can vie with the grapes of Judea and Syria, of which one man certainly could n^t carry a cluster far without destroying the fruit; thus rendering it probable that the soin conveyed the bunch between them, as much in order to preserve it entire, as on account of th weight, so that the beauty of the grapes might be fully seen in the camp of the Israelites. 8687. H^Uh the grapes <^ the true vine must not be confounded the vines of Sodom and Gomorrah; — " Fortheirvmc isof the vine of Sodom and of the fieldsof Gomorrah: theireraDes are grapes of gall, their clusters are bitter : " and again, " Wherefore, when I looked that mv vineyanl should bring forth grapes, brought it forth wild grapes? " This is supposed to be a species of Nightshade, which beara its berries in bunches, the Solanum Sodomasum ■ and according to Hasselquist produces the apples of Sodom spoken of by Josephus in his '/fa i of the Jews, which, besides their widely different properties from the vine, have the fruit fre- quently destroyed by the attacks of an insect, and thus rendered full of dust (see p. 874.), 3688. The Jig tree {Ficus Carica) abounds in Palestine, and not in gardens only, but growing in open places. Besides the branch witli one cluster of grapes, borne between two upon a staff, and brought by the men who were sent by Moses from Paran to spy out the land of Canaan, there were *' Figs and Pomegranates." So that, if not aboriginals of the country (and their native place has long been a matter of dispute), we know that these iVuits existed there before the entrance of the Israelites. Josephus tells us that they have flgs for ten months in the year ; and it is certain that two oi three crops are gathered annually. " For, lo, the winter is past ; the rain is over and gone ; the fig tree putteth forth her green figs," preparatory to the first crop, which sets about the spring equinox, and ripens about June : these are reckoned great delicacies, and are of short duration, as expressed in Isaiah, " The glory of Ephrai'a shall fade like the early fruit" (figs?). Jeremiali saw in a vision " a basket of figs that were very good, like earli/Jigs." The summer figs set in the middle of June, when the early ones ripen, and are themselves in perfection in August. The third crop is ready late in the autumn, when the tree has shed its leaves. In mild winters, fruit may be found on the trees even so late as January. Figs are eaten both fresh and dried. To render the fruit more certain of ripening, the process of caprification ha: been employed ; and the advantage of this is very evident, when we consider the true nature of the fig. What we commonly esteem the fruit of a fig is no fruit at all, any more than the substance which is caton of the common artichoke. Both of them are receptacles, or a fleshy base, upon which a number of florets are inserted. In the artichoke, the receptacle is plane, or nearly flat ; and, consequently, all the florets that are placed upon the receptacle are visible without dissection. Now, the fleshy part of a fig, that part which so much re- sembles a pear, is also a receptacle, but hollowed out in the centre in a very curious and peculiar maimer ; and on the surface of that hollowed part are innumerable florets, male or female, or sometimes both, within this common receptacle. And the whole is so closed at the top, that it may easily be supposed that, in the case of the receptacle containing only female flowers, the male dust could hardly find access to them ; and if there be mixed flowers, a more free passage for the air must be requisite. Even in France, it is well known that the quality of a fig is improved by making perforations in the top of it. The Eastern nations do more than this. Caprification is by them performed by going to the woods, and thence collecting fVom the wild fig trees a little insect which is very abundant, a species of Cynips, and bringing it home to their cultivated figs. These minute creatures fall to work directly, piercing the fruits, in order to deposit their eggs within them ; and fluttering from one to another, with their limbs and wings all charged with pollen, they by this means convey fertility to the otherwise barren pistils. 3689. The sycamore tree {Jig. 541.) of Scripture, into which Zaccheus climbed, must not bo confounded with tite tree so called in our country. It is a species of fig {Ficus Syca- moriM), and is sometimes termed the Wild Fig tree ; although it is the true sycamore, its name being derived from sycos, a fig tree, and moros, a mulberry ; but this appellation is now generally, though very incorrectly, given to the Acer Pseudo-Platanus of Europe. The prophet Amos says, " I was no prophet, neither a prophet's son ; but I was an herdsman, and a gatherer of sycamore fruit." From this and from other passages in Scripture, it may be in- ferred, that this tree was of very great importance among the Jews ; although its fruit is extremely inferior to that of the true fig, for it has a disagreeable bitterness ; nay, it is said by Pliny and other naturalists to be intolerably nauseous, until nibbed with iron combs, after which it ripens in four days. Thii evidently alludes to the process of caprification. Theophrastus observes, that, when the fruit is mature, it should be pulled somt iiMitosi. jgyg i,efoi^ it is eaten. Abdollatif says, that, previous to gather- Boot II' TURKEY IN ASIA. 877 bgthe figs> a man ascends the tree with a punch, and pricks all the fruits with It, one after pother: a, kind of milky fluid oozes from this opening, and the wounded part afterwards iitm black, and in a few days after the fruit becomes sweet and fit for use. This is indeed Ibeonly one (besides the Ficua Carica) of all the 120 species of Fig, of which the fruit is (ttable, and a vast quantity is consumed by the Arabs and the natives of the Levant It fom» a lafS^ ^'^^> ''^id to be among the loftiest in Palestine, with heart-shaped angular leaves, whose wood is of considerable value, and alleged to be indestructible ; of this we hire a proof in the fact of the Egyptian mummy-cases being made of this wood. And so abundant were these trees in Palestine, that, in allusion to the building of the temple, it is stated that Solomon " made cedars to be in Jerusalem as the sycamore trees that are ig the valley for abundance :" so plentiful, indeed, were they, '.hat " David set overseers over them, and over the olive trees that were in the low plains he *s. " '^*"' dwelt at Gibeah, under a pomegranate tree which was in Migron." The bark has been used in dyeing, and yellow morocco leather is thus stained. 3691. Tlte " HUSKS," in Scripture, which " the swine did eat," in the aflTecting and beautiful parable of the Prodigal Son, in Greek ittparta, are generally, and with much propriety, considered to be those of the fruit of the Carob tree, or Locust tree {Jig. 542.) {Ceratonia Siliqua) ; sometimes called St. John's Bread, from an idea that its fruit was the Locusts eaten by the forerunner of our Saviour ; but as Locusts have from time immemorial been the food of the people of the East, that word may, very fairly, be taken in its literal sense. The Carob forms a middle-sized tree, not unfrequent in the gardens of the curious in England : it belongs to the natural family Leguminosae, having large pinnated leaves, with incon- spicuous flowers, rather large pods, and seeds embedded in pulp. The husks are still commonly employed for feeding cattle in Palestine, after the seeds are taken out, and the juice is pressed from them, which is much esteemed, and used for ^ serving fruits. Mixed with liquorice root, dry grapes, and other fruit, the Mussulmans n e sherbet of it, and it is with them an article of daily consumption. The pulp, too, is eat~ . after the seeds have been thrown away : it is dried in the sun, acquires a pleasant flavoui and contains a great deal of saccharine matter. The leaves and baik are used for tanning o';ins. 3692. The Palm tree of Scripture, generally spoken of, is the Date lalm (Phcmix dactylifera), and its fructification requires the assistance of art. liieophrastus mid Pliny allude to this process in terms which p,o to prove that the ancients had some knowledge of the sexes of plants, and the fertilisation of vegetables. In the East, and in Barbary, as soon as the Date trees begin to flower, the inhabitants carefully collect the male clusters before the pollen has escaped, and, climbing to the top of the female trees, they shake the male blossoms over them ; and then fasten some bunches of male flowers in the middle of the female ones. By this process the successive fecundation of the several clusters of the date, which appear one after another, is ensured. The Date trees of Cairo, says Delile, in his Flora of Egypt, bore no fniit in the year 1800, because they had not beer, fertilised as usual. The French and Mussulman troops were at war during the spring, and the labours of the agriculturist had ceased in the desolated plains. Thus the pollen of the Date trees, scattered by the wind, VRUIT or THI CAItOB TBBI. 878 DESCRIPTIVE GEOOllAPHY. P*M III. instead of being artificially carried, as was customary, to thu ft-malo trees, foiled to fvcundate a single cluster of cultivated dates : but its influence was seen on the wild Date trees, wvi'tjJ of wliich, though at considerable distances, bore fruit, though tliis fruit was w unM and sour as to be unfit for food. The poet Pontanus has sung in glowing terms the history of two Date palms, of which tlie female was cultivated at Otrunto, nnd tiie male at Brindisi ; that is, at a distance of fifteen miles from one another. In spite of this immense interval, the Date tree of Otranto was fertilised by the other tree, and produced nn abun dance of delicious fruit. The winds performed the task of conveying the fecimdatini dust from the male tree into the young ovaries of the female. Many similar iiisiancfs are recorded. Four or five months after the fertilisation has tukun place, the Date trn' begin to bend under the weight of their bunches of ripe fruit. The number of tiicse clusters vary considerably. There are generally three or four on each tree, though some individuaU have produced ten or twelve. Each weighs from twenty to fifty pounds, Uefore the IVuit ha> acquired its full size, it is requisite to raise the clusters, and tie them to the base of tlje leaves, so tliat they may not be shaken and bruised against one another by the force of thu wind. The dates must be gathered some days before they are perfectly ripe, or tliev speei'ily decay and ferment. When it is desirable to keep them for any length of time, ihcy are spread on mats, and dried in the sun, and these are the dates that are sometimes seen in Europe. But tl>e fruit, so parched, gives a very inadequate idea of the sweet nnd agree-. able flavour that is found in the ripe and freshly gathered dates. They also prepare a kind of paste, by pressing the fruits very hard, and putting it in baskets made of the leaves of the tree, which are generally carried by the caravans. Jericho was culled the city of Palms from the number of Date trees in the neighbourhood ; but they arc now comparatively rare! They were emblematic of Palestine on the Roman coins, " where lone Judea wept bcncntli her palm," with the inscription " Judtea Capta." We shall not enter into a history of the uses of this celebrated and most valuable plant, for that may bo found in various well known publications ; but we shall content ourselves with observing, that, on account of its evergreen foliage, it has been considered by the Psalmist as an apt emblem of the flourishing and haiipy state of " the righteous," who " shall flourish as a palm tree ; " and that pnhn branches or leaves (for palms have no branches) have been borne as indicative of joy and festivity, as is often mentioned in the book of Maccabees ; and when our Saviour entered Jerusalem, dm people " took branches of the Palm tree, and went forth to meet him," At the feast of Tabernacles, the Jews, as is well known, had a divine command to employ " goodly palir, branches " in the erection of booths ; and to this day, on the celebration of that festival, the Jews try, by every means, to procure dried ones, when living remote from the countries where they grow. In one part of the south of France, the sale of these leaves forms a staple article of trade. The village of Bordighiera, situated on an eminence sheltered towards tlie north by the Apennines, presents, from a distance, the aspect of a tropical spot, on account of tlie numerous Date trees which surround it. These are from forty to forty-five feet high ; their fruit is seldom ripened sufficiently for eating ; and it is for the sale of their leaves that these trees are cultivated. They are sold at two periods of the year, in spring for Palm Sunday, and in September for the Jewish Passover. The spring leaves are sold at C»l, or 7(/., Genoese money ; but their price is annually falling, as the custom of substituting the branches of other trees for the Palms is much increasing in catholic countries. It is chiefly to llie coasts of Italy, to Rome and Naples, that the palms of Bordighiera are sent. Those gathered in autumn, and destined for the use of the Dutch Jews, who adhere strictly to the letter of the law, yet cannot obtain recent Palms, fetch a higher price ; they are sent nfl' in parcels of 600, at lOd. or I \d. each. Many vessels arc ammaJly employed in this trade. S693. The Olive {Olea) attains to a large size in Palestine, and the country has been con- sidered eminently blessed for tlie abundance of this tree, and 543 .i>i,^\ f^f j|,g excellence of its oil, which the Israelites conveyed lo the markets of Tyre. Solomon is said to have ordereli has Oranges which may vie with those of Malta ; Beirout has Figs like Marseilles, and Uananas like 8t Domingo; Aleppo is unequalled for Pistachio nutsj and Damascus possesses all the fruits of Europe, Applet, Plums, and Peaches growing with equal facility on her rocky soil Niebuhr is of opinion that the Arabian Coftlee shrub might be cultivated in Palestine." (Vol ii. p. 130.) SuBSECT. 3. Zoology. 3698. The waive zoology of AiiaXic Turkey does not present us with any remarkable species that an> not equally founa in the adjacent extremities of Africa and Asia. The lion was once 550 common in Syria, and, according to Oppian, formerly over-ran Armenia ; but this formidable creature is now, as M. Cuvier observes, almost confined to Africa and some parts of Asia. We have determined the fact of the African Lion (Lea africanM Sw.) being a distinct species from that of Asia, which we have therefore named Leo asiaticus. Noble specimens of both are now alive in the Surrey Zoological Gardens (183.3). Angoraij celebrated for its peculiar breeds of goats und of cats. 3699. The Angora Goats are very beautiful .■ the hair, mostly white, is long and soft, and much esteemed for fabricating shawls and other dresses : it has long buS- coloured cars, and the horns, pointing upwards, have a spiral turn. ANOOfIA iUHBr. gggjll. TURKEY IN ASIA. 881 3700. The Angora Sheep (fig. 550.) arc also peculiar. There arc three breeds, all well proportioned) called Coquo Muann, Coquo, and Zomba, Jn all which the horns are iimall. The Coquo hoii the finest wool, that of the others being' more hairy. They all have very long uils) but the ears arc horiiontal. 9701. The cats are much larger than ours, with lieards like the lynx, and, although Kldom aeen in this country, are common in the houses of Paris. SxcT. III. Historical (leography. 3703. To detail the revolutior^ of the countries now comprehended in Asiatic Turkey would be little less than detailing th'tf.i of the world. Down to the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, in 1453, they wee the scene of the greater part of the events which decided the bt« of mankind. These revolutions, indeed, are so well known, that it is scarcely necKsary even to indicate thorn to tha intelligent reader. First to be noticed are the numerous little states in Cinaan bubdued by the Jews, and those which continued as their neighbours. At lost Judei absorbed nearly all these states, and had for its enemy only Syria, Hid for its friendly ncighiiour, Phoenicia, with its splendid commercial capital. Tyre. In Alia Minor we find a similar multitude of small states, — Ionia, ^olis, Lydia, Coria, and miny others. Then comes the era of the great empires, commencing with Assyria, and continued by Babylon, both founded in this region, and both yielding to the Persian empire, irhich, under the conquering arms of Cyrus, extended itself beyond any former state; ittching over all western Asia, including Egypt, and attempting to overpower Greece. But its contests with this last power had a fatal issue. The phalanx of Macedon, tninvd by Philip and led by Alexander, overthrew at one blow this colossal but ill> compacted and enfeebled power ; and a Greek empire was established from tlie Nile to the Indus. When that mighty mass of conquest went to pieces with the sudden disap- pearance of its head, the kingdom of the Seleucido; was formed, which included nearly the ibole of what is now termed Asiatic Turkey, with the exception of some portion of Asia Minor. Amid the confusion of wars and contests which ensued among Alexander's suc- cnson, Asia Minor became not only independent, but the seat of some very potent and celebrated monarchies, — Pcrgamus, Pontus, Armenia ; each of which might have even aimed It general monarchy, had not a mightier foe appeared in the field. To Rome all the nations ihit had ruled Asia were destined to bow ; yet none maintained a harder struggle, or fell vitb greater glory, than Antiochus, Mithridates, and some others of these kings newly risen to greatness. Asia Minor, Syria, Judea, were completely reduced to the condition of provinces ; but whenever her legions attemptetl to pass the desert, and were involved in the fide plains beyond the Euphrates, they were enveloped by the flying clouds of Parthian dvdi^, and tlieir career was closed with signal disaster. Western Asia, under the Roman ^emment, enjoyed for many centuries a peaceful and voluptuous repose. This was broken, In the seventh century, by that mighty revolution which has changed the whole aspect, moral I and political, of the Eastern world. The empire of the caliphs, established at Bagdad, soon I niled, nith absolute sway, Syria and Assyria. Even after this original kingdom had ;ldded to the pressure of those numberless hordes who, under the appellation of Turks or Toorls, poured down from the northern interior of Asia, they all equally fought under the liw and standard of Mahomet. The vanquished were either compelled to embrace his religion, or reduced to a subject and degraded class, deprived of almost all the rights of humanity. These successive irruptions continually hemmed in more closely the Eastern I Empire; and, even after the Turkish power seemed completely fallen, it broke forth under liie Ottoman dynasty with increased vigour. At this era, however, the progress of Moslem I domination received a temporary check, by that series of powerful expeditions from Europe I M celebrated under the title of crusades. The crescent was, for the time, humbled : Jeru- Isalem was rescued, and erected into a kingdom, which subsisted for about a century. At 1 length all the Christian powers in the East gave way before the victorious arms, first of I Un, and afterwards of Mahomet and Selim. In the course of the fifteenth century, all Ilk part of Asia of which we are treating terminated its long scries of revolutions by llieconiing a portion of the Turkish empire : it has ever since been subject to the degrading Ind bnitalising sway of this empire, and of the austere and bigoted religion on which it is rounded. Under this influence, that grandeur and prosperity which rendered it the most Ittlebrated region of the world has entirely disappeared. Volney, wh<> traversed it whh the Itye of a philosophic observer, has painted its downfall in tlie most eloquent and aff'jctiug Itemis, " Every where," says he, " I saw only tyranny and misery, robbery and devo^itation. II found daily on my route abandoned fields, deserted villages, cities in ruins. Frequently I discovered antique monuments, remains of temples, of palaces, and of fortresses ; pi!!:u"j, Hueducts, and tombs : this spectacle led my mind to meditate on past times, and excited in wj heart profound and serious thought. I recalled those ancient ages, when twenty pnons nations existed in these countries ; I painted to myself the Assyrian on the banks of Ik Tigris, the Chaldean on those of the Euphrates, the Persian reigning from the Indus othe Mediterranean I numbered the kingdoms of Damascus and Idumoa, of Jerusalem '■m' M§ DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPIIY. P*M 111. and Samaria, tlio wcrli'io utateii of tlio I'hiliHtliu»<, and the commercial repiilOlcg of Phnni ' Thiit Syria, Hoid I, row nlmual iiiipuoplvil, could thvn count an hundred powerful cit?*' it* Holds were coverod will) townii, villaiivn, luul liamlctH. Every where appeared cultivaM Held*, fre<|ucnted roiidN, crowded haltitations. What, alas! is become of these air 'if abundancu and of life ? What of ho many brilliant creations of the hand ii'''r Baalbec and Jerusalem 7 Where nro the iieetB of Tyre, the docks of Arud, the loomn f Sidon, and that multitude of sailors, of pilots, of merchants, of soldiers ? Where are tho labourers, those harvests, those Hocks, ond that crowd of living b«in((H, which then cover '^ the face of the earth? Alaa! I have surveyed this ravaged land. 1 have vinited the pig/ which were the theatre of so much splendour, and have seen only solitude and dcwrtiui? I have sought tliu ancient nations and their works, but I liave seen only a trare, like Uiat which tliu ^t of the passenger leaves on the dust. The temples are crumbled down • th palaces are overthrown ; thy ports are fliliil up ; the cities ore destroyed ; and the c'arll" stripped uf its inhabitants, is only a d.!soliiite place uf tombs." Although this iiicturi; l' overcharged in some of its features, its general character applies but too truly tu the region now before us, SicT. IV. Polilical Geography, 3703. The imncipk-i and mode if Kuvernment are exactly the some in Asiatic as in European Turkey. The pachas, invested with the command of extensive territories, receive entire tlw power of tlie original despot from whom they derive their appointment. Their distance, indeed, alFords them much more ample opportunities of acting independently, and of merely transmitting lo thu Porte such an amount of tribute and military aid as they can conveniently spare. Even Asia Minor, which is now the centre of Turkish power has been the seat of formidable rebellions ; and Paswan Oglou long governed an extensive trut of its western districts with little or no control f^om tlic Porte. The more remote pachalin of Acre and Uugdad have ulnnatchea to itself the spoil from thu Imnds of the oppres.sor, and sheds his blood uselessly, for a crime of which itself is the accomplice, and by which it profits. Skct. V. Produetwe Induttty, 370,'). The eatuet which have rtndertd abortive the vast capacities given by nature to this regioa I for the production of almost every species of wealth, have been sufficiently explained in th preceding section. It is true that all these countries have, from the earliest ages, bed distinguished rather by agricultural industry, and the rearing of cattle, than by tbelintf manufoctures, which they have been accustomed to receive by caravans from the gral empires of the East. In most of its districts, however, culture is rendered insecure by th* oppression of the pachas, and tho ravages of the Arabs, against which the government (i» not, or at least does not, allbrd prottction. Hence, in many parts, particularly inlhetiiM | lloo» !•• TURKEY IN ASIA. MS behind Jordan and I.ubanon, ami in Mc'Ha|iotamiii, which wvrc fonncily covered with \\w richvfii harvotH, nu trace of fertility rcmainH, except only in their overgrown and deiierteil poitliireit. TIh! upper tracts of Aaia Minor and Anncnia, where horscn and cattle nru reared, are IhiiIi |(M «i|"»"''d to inroad, and better al)le to defend themselves, though tliey too often abuse tlii'ir strength to plunder the inhabitantH of the ncighlmuring plains. Here, however, Is produced the Kne goat's hair or mohair of Angora, which is sought in Europe as a material uf some valuable manufactures. S706. The ru.nufacturei of Asiatic Turkey are chiefly of an ordinary kind, coarse, and for internal consumption only. Yet silk, cotton, leather, and soap are sta|)les of the Levant ; and (lie two luttcr Knd a place in the markets of Europe. Finer specimens, however, of all these (uinniodities seem to be aflbrded from the cities of liarbary. The manufacture of Damas- cus bladcH, BO famed in the middle ages, ceased from the period when Timur carried to Tartary tlic artisans employed on them. At Tokat there is a great fabric of cupper vesK>U, 'llic women among the wandering tribes in the upper districts weave the admired Turkey carix'ts; but tiie Hnest are made in the mountain districts of Persia. 1)707. No part of the world appears more expressly destined to be the seat of an eitenslv* commerce. The command of the Mediterranean, the numerous coasts and islands bv which it is surrounded, its position at the coimecting point of the three continents, and its con* lijiuity lu countries whose dissimilar tastes and productions peculiarly fit them to supply cacli otiicr's deficiencies, are advantages which naturally rendered it the earliest and most livoured sent of commerce. The splendour of its ancient cmporia excited the astonishment ol' tlio world ; and they continued for a lengthened period, notwithstanding the hostile InHucncc of revolution and oppression, to preserve a coniiidcrable portion of their early commerce and magnificence. These, however, have at length almost totally disappeared. Only Aleppo and Smyrna survive ; the former supported by Syria and the caravan trade of interior Asia, by which at one time it received even the muslins and jewels of India. Since the discovery, however, of the passage by the Cape of Good Hope, the Indian trade boa talicn almost wholly a different route. The internal distractions which agitated Persia for half a century rendered the intercourse with that empire both dangerous and unprofitable. Through these causes Aleppo, once the chief seat of commerce in the Levant, has suffered a ^eat decline. Smyrna, as it carries on merely the local commerce of Asia Minor, the part of the empire wliich has suffered least by anarchv and rapine, still maintains a respectable plice as a trading city. It exports raw silk, goat s hair, Turkey carpets, raisins, drugs, and gums, in exchange for the cloths and hardware of Europe. (There is a very full account of the trade of Smyrna in M'Culloch's Commercial Dictionary, under the head Smyhna.) Sect. VI. CivU atid Social Stale. 3708. The state of social existence, religion, learning, and manners, so far as respects the riiiiiij> peoi)le, is precisely the same in Asiatic as in European Turkey. They present that austere, uniform, and gloomy character, which the precepts of Mahomet tend to fonn, and •hii'h is produced in its utmost purity in the cities of Turkey. The native and subject [iK'is, however, exhibit marked distinctions. Tlie Greek population, which in Europo malies the prominent feature among. the conquered people, exists only to a limited extent on ihi' coasts and islands of Asia Minor. In its room all the mountainous Asiatic tracta contain bold and hardy tribes, who, availing themselves of their distance and the declining power of the pachas, admit little control over their internal proceedings, and cstablisli independent and sometimes almost republican governments. 3709. The /ii^'/i and uncultivated table-lands in the interior of Asia Minor are occupied by a wandering and pastoral race called Turcomans, either because they are really descended fVom the people of that name on the cast of the Caspian, or perhaps, because a similar situation, producing similar habits and aspect, has caused the two to be confounded. They drive their flocks in summer into the most elevated tracts, and, as winter approaches, lead them, down into tlie lower and sheltered valleys. All their habits are decideidly Tartar ; and with the domestic simplicity of this race they combine its love of war and booty, with no nice consideration how this latter may be obtained. When summoned, however, to fight under the banner of the empire, and to unsheath the sword against the infidels, they are prompt in obeying the call, and form the main military strength of Turkey. They serve a short campaign without pay, but with little ardour, and with full licence of plunder. Though I they cannot meet disciplined troops in the shock of battle, they make excellent irregular I cavalry. 3710. Syria, Palestine, and Bagdad have attracted great numbers of drafts from the vast Ideserts by which these countries are bordered. Besides those who make inroads for the lalie of plunder, or who drive their flocks, with or without permission, into these more j ertilu pastures, there are many who have obtained a fixed settlement in tlie fields or the Itities, and have become regular subjects of the empire. These conform to established |iiianncrs, and have a more gay and polished address than tlie Turks. Many of them become S L«2 884 UKSCIIIPTIVE OEOORAIMIY. P*«T in. thriving morclmntfi ; Init thoy novor forgt'l tlioHu long gunonlogifH, tlint ri'spcct for tliu bean) aiul mlmiration for t\w liiirHC, wliii-li roriii tlio prido itl'tliu Ariili in liiN imtivu ilvHort, ' 871 1. The uttvi) ami nif^iil liri/(lil.i if Lflmmm linvo nivt>fi nIivIIit to rari-K iif ijuitu ,» ,|if. foivnt chnraotiT tVoni tliu waiidi'ring or tliu KVtilcd AriitiN. TIiohu liigli Hlopcs, unlit I'ur pnstiiruKUi >irv iniulc, by llii* liihorioiiH ciilltiri' oC llio poopiv, toyivld llii'iii NuliNisti'iu'v ; thcv iiglit on foot with llie niiiKlioti tlioy liiivo, wliut is inont rare in Asia, nntional iisKt'ii'ibliiH, witli Hunio form of ri>pul)liciin Kuvvrnnicnt. Among tlicHu mountain tril)i's, lliv dii^.f g^J tho MiironitoH nnil tlio Drusi'M. H7 1 'i. 7'Ai! Mitnmitfs wvru originally ttu< prosolytOH of Maron, a wiint of tliu liftli ci-iitiiry • but being Ntignintixvtl m hurotlcM, lliey, in the wventli century, Nought refuge, under n (lis! tinguiHiied leader cidleil John tlie Maronite, in the hilly country of KeNroiian, heliimi Tripoli, Here, when the Sarncenti over-rtui Syria, carrying on a war of fierce purHecution a;;iiiiiiit the ChriHtiitn name, the Muronite territory became the retreat of many who were willlni; tosncri- fico all for the free exerciNe of that religion. Having piticureil arniN, they bravely dolondrd themselveH, luul the Mahometans were luiwilling to waste their time and resourccn on a tvrri. tory so dillicult aiul no poor. Hy degrecN they not only freed theniKelveH from tiuhji'ctioii of every kind, but, availing theniNelveN le occasiouN, made inroadN into the surniiiiid. ing territorieN, and carried their artuN even as far aH JeruNalem. At length Anuirntli III., a tierce and active prince, lu'canu> indignant at Ncelng his power iIuik braved. In l.;8H, lie collected a largo force, penetrated into their territory, and ccnupelled them to ackiiowli'dro the Hiiprunittcy of the Porte, and to bind themNelveH to the payment of an aiuuial triliiili', which has ever since been paid, or at least owned as due. In every other respoct, tlu'v en scarcely any control. The catholic rites are celebrated as publicly in Kesroimii as in Italy. Of the iiinnerous villages built on the sides of the hills, each has its prii'st, itK chapel, and its 1h-I1. The Maronites, notwithstanding their deviations from strict orlhodoiy, hove Imvu received into the conunuuiou of the church of Rome, which nothing could I'tvr induce them to renoimce, ami which connives at their retaining a patriarch of llieir uwn, wlio resides at the monastery of Kanobin. Kesrouan contains upwards of 'J(X) convents ; hut as the munks till the grouiul, and have brethren capable of carrying on nil necessary linnili. cnirt trades, they cannot Iw ranked as useless members of society. The munerous priests are supported solely by the boimty of their Hocks, which they are obliged to eke out l)y lliv cultivation of land, or the prosecution of a trade ; even the bishops do not usiiully cnjo; a revenue of more than sixty guineas a year. For this poverty, the clergy are conipi'iisatcd by the great respect paid them hy the people, who kiss their hands whenever tlivy meet them. The Maronites, in general, live in a happy simplicity, in rude hamlets or Military houses, ainong the acclivities of Lebanon. They recognise no distinctions of rank, lliose indeed by simple and peaceful habits 'rom those cfils which, elsewhere, the sword of justice must remedy. When, however, any outrage is com- mitted, they unfortunately assert and exercise tho Arab right of private vengeance. The Maronites arc all armed, and, when tlieir strength is called out, can muster 35,000 men, on which Volncy calcidates the entire population at 115,000: wc shoidd rather suppose it 150,000. 3713. TAi; />ru3C.t, who occupy the more northern and still '.ofkier heights r.f Lehaiwn, are a people of much rougher aspect, niul all the religion they have is of the Mahomelan species. The notions tliat they derive their origin from the crusaders, and their name from the Count do Dreuse, art now completely expliHled. Their creed is traced to lliikim, one of the Fatimite caliphs of Egypt, who, in the tenth century, commenced a radical reform of the Mahometiui religion. In this career, he cut ofl' at once all its pecidiaritii'.s ; the pro- hibition against eating pork and drinking wine, the pilgrimage to Mecca, the ohservnnce of fasting, and the recital of the five prayers. Unfortiumtcly ho extended this latitude lo essential points of moral duty, permitting even incestuous marriages, and iiiiully erccllnga worse superstition than that which he had overthrown, by setting himself forth as an incar- nation of the Deity. He finally fell a victim to the enraged multitude, whose opinions he trampled upon ; but his dogmas, and even his wildest personal pretensions, spread throughout Syria. They were proscribed, however, as monstrous and heretical by the prevailing part of the Mahometan world ; and their adherents, like the Maronites, were obliged to flee into tlic recesses of Lebanon. Ueing reinforced by other heretical sectaries, they proved extremely formidable, till Amuratli IIL, in the same expedition in which he reduced the Maronites, compelled the Druses also to bind themselves to the payment of an annual tribute. He stipiduted, moreover, that, instead of living in a species of anarchy under their sheiks, they should choose, subject to the approbation of the Porte, u prince or mir, "'ho should be responsible for their pi.'aceable deportment, and the regular payment of tlic trihule. This arrangement, however, had a result opposite lo what was contemplated. It give to tlie nation an union before imknown; the consequence of which appeared very ubviouSi llaoK 11- TURKKY IN ASIA. RBA wlivn Krikrcl-iliiii or Iwariliii, roiiiiiU'il ii wirt (>r kingiloin of tlur DrtmcH, Having taken Buiruiit, III' iniulu it the cniiilul, ikiiil niicIi it Iiiih ovi-r Hincv continni-il. I Invinff la-en itiiliieed, liowi'ver, to vJHit Ilnly, lie contnieted voln|ituouH liiiliitH, uiiNiiitcd to Orivntul ideiiH, wliicli (vi'iiki'iit'd liiH inlliience, mid led, linally, to liis enptivity und duHtli. 'I'liv DruNeN, however, continued to bu nded l>y liin t'uniily, till it livcitnie extinct, when unotlier wiw OHtahliHhvd in lb pliiix". 371*. The liruici ikrivc friiin t/irlr ituU-penilitire iiii eiivrKy iiihI a vlKoiir of i:linrartcr uiikiinwii to tliu ullicr imtiiinii ol' Nyrln. A i»iiiHlili'rnl)l(' |iiiri of tint Iniiil la In the |M>uviwli)n nf u Wvi Kri'Rt nheikii, whiwu rurtiiiiiK ot''" <'"<'"'"" ">" nntlveii, hut at tliv •umu time nmlntain a nitlrit ol' liberty nnil uHlvity. All llie limit iillliirH 1)1' the nation nniat Ih' ihrlilvtl In an iiiaenihly ol'llit'ic ahelka, at which i-ven iienaanta are allowed III IH' !'"'"'"'• "'"' '" H'**' ""''*' voice j to that thia fiovernnient jireaeiita a mixture of iiowera aomewhiil limllur III Hint ixUtiiiK In the hrlllah eonatltntlon ; hut it wnnta the llxeil Inwa nnil eatahlUheit order which ururetlic latter aKaliiat annrehy. The Drnaea are |iriim|it In llyInK to anna. Aa aoon aa a hoat>le reaoliitlon lifiiriiu'il hy the aaaemlily III' the nation, the eriera, Iroiii the topa ol' the nioimtaliia, aoiind "To war I to «4rl" III wliifh aiiiiinl I.VKKI Driiaea «|iei'illly niiiater. They have no hnyoneta, arc alrniiKcra to taetloa or illirllilliii', iiml are merely a crowd nl' peiuanta with ahort coata anil nakei) \vf,»; lirave ahiioat to exceaa, and cntirlainliiK a priiverlilnl coiiteni|it ol' dcalli. 'I hey never enconnti.'r an enemy face to race In the o|iiui (ilalii. They art' a aort ol' rude chaaHeiira, llrliiK liehind r(H:ka and liiiahca with aiicli accuracy aa aeldoni to mlaa their aim. 'I'liiia, when met on their inoniitain itround, they are nearly Invlniilile. In rcKard to rellKloii,althoiiKli liy iiu iiu'uiia wholly devoid o' >t, aa their eiiemli-H alleKC. they allow a ainKUlar abaence ol' that oateiilatloiia jiiil hitnrinii zeal which ,•• ivn.i"« the tiriciilal world, I'licy pray indlacrlniiiialely in a church or In a tiioaque, ami n|i|>i'ar In view i'hrlatiiuiily tviih Icaa averalon than Mahoinetanlain. Any utrlcl outward ohaervance la cliirlty ciiiillned to an initiated laaa, called oMo/a, or ihH'tora, who eonaider theinaelvea aa alone holy and !i'arntil iiinonK an iKnoraiit peojil'.-. Kuriipeana, alter loiifi iinil vain altenipta, have at lenxth olitalneil a aixlit (if thi'ir ancrcd liooka, liut without IicIiik much the wlaer. Amid an ohacure inyatiial JarKoii, it only npinara that Hakim la atill rcKiinled with the aame iKiiitiilleaa veneration, and that Ida iircleiiaiona to a divine orixin arc fully mliiiittiHl. In nractlce they adhere to hia rejei^lon of circumclaliiii, faatliiK, and all the characterlatii: Motli'iiiolinervaiicea; they even nilinit Ida pernilanioti of iiiceat"»ua connection, to the extent ol' inarriaKe la'twirii hrotlur and eiater. They have the virtuea and the vicea ol' liarliaroua lite ; the aiiiiie houiidleaa iioa. |iilallly. Hie aame deiully I'euda, an aiiioiiK the Aralia. A KCiu'ral li^vy ol' the nation priHiiicea V),{Mt IlKhtiiiK mini, Iriini which we may prolialily eatiinate the eiitlri- population at VIMI,(MXI ; a iiiitiilier which, on thia amall anil |HHir diatrlcl, denotea a Hiiperior denalty tu that ol' the plain* lieiieath, and lully illuatratea the lieiiellclal iHlfti III' liliorty, even In thia rude I'orni. •S]\!t. Ihnsy in l^'liaium hai K'veii liirth to other natloniil dlatlnctlona. In a part of It* moat elevated Interior, tiiwarda the aonlh, dwell the MiiUmnlix. a race of the moat hiKoled Mahoiiietana, hut who adopt tliu Kclof All, which prevalla alao throuiihout I'ersla. They are therel'oredealKnuted hy the Tiirka aa Milm, or hiTctio, while they call theinaelvea liy a name which expreaaea the I'ulleat conildence In Ita truth. Thia ilmlly Bchimii, which hiM cauaeil an much IiIihhI to How In the Moaleni world, liaa rendered the Motoiialia iutiii liy all their iielKldHiura, ('hriatian and Mahometan. They will not even drink out of a veiael whi li IiuIh'CIi until hy either of theae aiTta, IIII it hiia iniiler|(oiie a purilication. At holy aeaaoiia they are aaid to ituily III wnali away their aiiia hy ahcihliiiK the IiIihhI of a heretic They llxht with audi intrepidity, and even ilniivrutiiiii, that, thoiiKh not innaterinK alaive 7IK>I) IlKhtiiiK men, they have remained alwaya unconi|iiereil, anil this liaiidhil haa put to lliiiht nrniiea of many thoiiaanda. The Anxnrium dwell alonx a raiiKe of northern liri||lits towarda Antliadi, They live in a anrt of anarchy hotli aa to religion and Kovernmenl ; hut they are very little known. It woidd he lm|iropcr to conclude without menlioiiiiix the iMini or I''riinii, who are almiiKt all iiionka, anil at^t the part ol fiirnmi to ktraiixira in the Holy I/and ) hut, aa their character la caaen lially Kumiieaii, anti only iniMlitied liy liu'al clrcninnlnncea, their peculiaritiea will be better dlatlnguialied when we come to treat of Jeruaalein and ita vicinity. 37111 Thf iHimntaina ii/' Ihe cimtfrn frtmlivr itf Tiiikiy priHliice racea exlilbiting dcciiled |iecull.iritie». The K'cat and ancient kingdom of Armenia, Hitinit»l in a inoiinlainoua corner of Weatern Aala, haa rcmaiiinl comparatively Utile allbcled hy that iniglity truin of revolution which haa awMit uter that rcKion. lliTC, loo, reliKioiia achiani haa given ill atainn to the character of the nativea. In the fainoua coiitroveray of the two nnturca, the Armeniana followed tlie dogma of Kuiychea, who admitted in the Saviour only one, romiMiuiided of divine and human. The character of the A rnieni.iiia, however, haa lieen formed, not ao muni liy a ilogma transceiiiling human compreheiiHion, na hy haliila of religioua quietude and |Kilitical exclu. lion. Their course of lile much renendilea that of the Jewa, with whom they are ollen louiid in conjuncllon. liut what in the latter la aordUl and graaping |iaralni»ny, appeara acarcely in the Armenian to exceed the limit) of iteady and ineritorloua induatry. Thia people, in tact, carry on all the trade, and many of the maiiufaclurea, of I'erala and Turkey, lapalian, in the daya ol ita grealneai, hail Julia, a large suliurb, os|ire»ly appropriated tu the Arinenlana. 'i'hey have |ienetrated into India, central Aala, Africji, and the eait of Kuroiic ; and have been aonietimea, though nut often, aecii In France and Kngland. In general Ihcy lead a |ieaccable and orderly life, under the guveniincnt of heads of I'ainilica. 'I'he court of Home, liy indcratigable ellbrta at converalon, haa aiiccceded in elfcctlng a B|ieciCB of achiam, by drawing over tu her communion 'MfW out of the 170,(IIM) famlllea of whom the nation conaiata. 'I'he great remaining majority adhere to the Kiitychean creed, and revere, aa their head, the patriarch of Kricrouni. I'hey admit the mar. riagc of prleata, and are free from other catholic auiicrstitlona ; but In return they carry faiting and ablution RAtna SitMrfliiul 6> Vkm S. Teylw V, Panlu in, Aanr 11. Viicoun 1 4. U«lM is. Tlron 14. Hhimmalt tA. Nanr in. Hinndcmiui iU. Ndiiui Kit. AM II. NtiutKtl «t. (MWIttll VII, lUi pl M« V4. Rmtneylrft ta. Niiwnran Hfl. ,lullu tr, Tel llimin VS. Jneiili'ii llriilffe ill, Jowiili'ii Wen nl. HAtlniM fli. AliK'liU RiJ'ercnces to the Map qfPalettine. M. Munhoor 70. PeUexrino 3(!. Acre 71. Terfoon 37. Sal:rni 7!. Soitours an. Hhufhammer 73. Kiuu-ie 39. Nauara 74. Caphar Arat 40. Cana 7A. llinerhen 41. Turan 76. Kanhoor 411. Iletlla 77. Jeneen 43. Taliaria 7H. Zctin 44. Kl Hosn 7U. Ileiun 4.'). Felk 80. Ilolan 40. Jiinu SI. I'eMa 47. TseU fit. Kl Houl 48. Nowa (13. Helt vl Rai 19. Kaaem 84. Il.;hras M. Hhenukeln 8.'i. Tel Dehania fil.Tcras KK. Kafkafa SI. Draa 87. ll|era>li 53. Meearelb 88. Souf ,'i4. Tor™ 89. Dieun Vi Kakliam 90. Ifalaat Rahoad M. Henitha 91. Amau ,'i7. Abll 92. Mezar Aliou M. I'avllolU OlH'i'l 59. /ainma 93. Ator Till. Oin Keii 94. Juliliaugh fil . Hzatntnera 95. lleit Emirecn r,i. Srainmnxh 9(i, Sahusta R3. Miitnmuk 97. Nalee Rl. Nain 98. Sanour (i5. Makheahlj 99. Zeta fi6. Zarxheen 10(1. Min Tabai (17, (Jhlerlicc Alioora (M. Arlny ini. Kl Miikliali W. Kllecrjt Wi. Mooia. SOUTH PART. .35. Saarli 68. Trtoa 1. AnooT 36. Calloune 69. Zi|ih ». Heram 37. Kariet el Aneb 71). Curmella 3. Oudjaa 38. Jerusalem 7I.Ailana 4. Bait 8aka 39. Ilethanv n. Iljimlia 7.1. .Valallij 5. IIo»e« 40. Jericho A. iSawee 41. Hibhah 74. Arad 7. Nahloul 4«. Covent of St. T.'i. 'niella 8. Jacob'! Well John 76. (lerim 9. Atezandrlum 43. Macherui 77. BelKiul, 10. ei Meyieni 44. Ileihbon 78. Ks(enn) ll.Ileralh 45. El Aal -!l. liair \t. Szall 46. Madeba 811. Khanroums 13. Fehell 47. Baal Meon 81. Han. 14. Siafoul 48. I.ob 15. Vaiiloluh 16. Kaalat Zerka 49. Chanhak Rimt, 50. Herodlum a U>it.inl 17. Amman 51. Keilnm b .Ionian 18. TaUxik S". Santa Saba c Zirka 19. Hijr .'>*.. Bethlehem d Slaiidhwr «0. Naot'.r 54. Sach e Kokail 21. Uvlas 55. Shilood f Kl-she Vt. Ileeran 56. Ilamami R Clsnn h K,vsah 13. I.vlionah 57. miMlal SI. Ilelhel 58. ,\skalaam i Anawf 8.^. Sclweri 59. Ilia \ H£ubin SB. H.ima Kn. Keeremalt S7. I^troun 61. llc'illKaa 611. Hel flanoon 1 Sorec US. IxiuiKI m (}.it.t m. Knbad 63. Aitia 64. Llbna n Kiilrun 30. Hamla Faiab 31. Jallil 65. Eiilon 66. ETKhalil P **'jr .33. Vebiie n /t-rha Main 33. Tc made tn contain ihiiu of 300 tons. Great antiouity is ascribed to Joppa even by the heathen writers. In the middle ages it nise into fame, fVom being chosen, as the nearest point to Jerusalem, for the landing-place of the great crusade under Richard Coeur de Lion and Philip of France. Jaffa continued the head-quarters of the Christians in that celebrated campaign ; and to the south extends the wide field of Ascalon, where the arms of the Crescent sustained so signal an overthrow. In the history of the jiresont day, Jatth nas obtained a dismal celebrity fVora it* capture by Bonaparte, and tho subsequent massacre of the prisoners captured there. JafRi is now a collection of poor hut* built round the amphitheatre of a hill, with no military strength, though, from its situation, and two fine springs within its walls, it might be converted into a very strong fortress. At Jaffa ii a convent of the monks of the Holy Land, a plain wooden building close to the sea, where Christian travellers and pilgrims men a hospitable reception ; but the fathers themselves live under continual apprehension for the safety of their property, and even their lives, flrora the bigoted enmity of the savage race to whose absolute tway they are subjected. 3723. As soon as the pilgrim has secured a convoy, he hastens towards the mountainous region before him, in the centre of which is Jerusalem, the main object of his expedition. He sees the vicinity stripped by ihe passage of hostile armies, at various periods, of the trees which once adorned it ; but there are still a number of well-watered gardens, enabling JaSk to make a considerable export of fruits, among which the water. melons appeared to Clarke the finest he had ever seen. The Vale of Sharon, which next presents itself, is sllll remarkable for its rose, celebrated in Hebrew poetry. After par ing a number of villages, mostly in ruins, at the foot of the dark hills which ascend towards the rugged centre of Judea, we enter Kama or l!amla,irie ancient Arimathea. No part of the Holy Land is more fertile than the plain round Rama, which rcscnblei a perpetual garden. The Christian army found it a fenced city; strong, .lopulous, and abounding with all the luxuries of the East It is now only a collection of plaster huts, interspersed with olives, figs, and nopali and overshadowed by fine palm trees. Three miles to the north of Kamla is Lydda, now Loudd, a place cf some fame In scripture history, but much decayed, though a weekly market is held for the cotton spun by ihc neighbouring peasantry. 37S4. From Kamla we ascend at once tu the hill country of Judea, a dreary and gloomy region, the aspect of which appeared iXilly to exnlain to Chateaubriand why Jephtha's daughter and the prophets of sorroi repaired thither to pour forth tncir lamentations. To Dr. Clarke they appeared to resenjbic the rudest pam of the Apennines ; the sides of the mountains consisting chiefly of naked limestone precipices tuwerinx like walls, and the strata of which resembleil the seats of an amphitheatre. Krom their crevices grew dwarf oak, box, and rose-laurel , and considerable wooe seei peasant gliding through the be should be robbed of his I tune to time in this deici janissaiy who brings tho li ' fellah." 3727. Two sptenditl ohjec liowever, a good deal overc! >|i!i'ndid in the East. The 552 cauacK or thi aoiv i I He ground in the form of iMgh by the numberless fr« I wh of holy relics, dose p er churches consist of lar, l^^f the Church of the Th iHdiscovereth it contain I" Jerusalem; and a rent is Book U- TURKEY IN ASIA. 889 litfe struck trovolleni varlouHty. Chtktcaulirinnd dcBcribus it as a line of Gothic walla ilanked by square towera, with tho tupi« of n fuw buildings pcvping above them. Dr. Clarke, on the contnryi who approached, liulvvtl, fVom the north, says : — " Instead of a wretched and ruined town, described by soniu iw the desolated remnant of Jerusalem, we beheld, as it were, » flourishing and stately metropolis; presenting a magnificent assemblage of domes, towers, palaces, churches, and uiuiutHteries, all of which, glittering in the sun's says, shine with inconceivable splendour." It is pmlmblu that the difference of the aspect, and of the objects presented at the opposite sides of the city, may account for pictures so much at variance. 37L'6. Jerusaiem, in its greatest extent, stood upon four hills, some of which might almost be tenncd mountains, were it not for tho loftier elevations with which it was encircled. Mount Sion was the upper or principal quarter, — the Mount of God, the city of David, _on two and a half; and a part of what is commonly supposed to be Mount Sion is now covered only with ruins. Of the remaining circuit, a gnat part presents little more than the remains of a city. The gloomy desolation which pervades it is descrilied by Chateaubriand as extreme. " The houses are heavy square masses, very low, without chimneys or windows. They have flat terraces or domes on the top, and look like prisons or sepulclirys. The whole would appear to the eye one uninter- rupted level, did not tho steeples of the churches, the minarets of the mosques, and the clumps of nopals, break the unifonnlty of the plan. Enter the city, you will there find Dothing to compensate for the didness of its exterior. You lose yourself among narrow uopaved streets, hero going u|i-hill, then down, A-om the inequality of the ground, and you valk among clouds of dust or louse stones. Canvass stretched from house to house increases ibe gloom of this labyrinth ; baxiiars roofed over, and fraught with infection, completely ticlude the light fl-om the desolate city. A few paltry shops expose nothing but wretched- ness to view, and even those are fK>quently shut, ft'om apprehension of the passage of a cadi. Not a creature is to be seen in the streets, not a creature at the gates, except now and then a peasant gliding through the gloom, concealing under his garments the fruits of his labour, lest hcshould be robbed of his hard earnings by the rapacious soldier. The only noise heard from lime to time in this dcicidu citv is the galloping of the steed of the desert ; it is the janissary who brings the head ut the Uedouin, or returns from plundering the unhappy fellah," 3727. Two spleniliil ohjecia shine rompicuoui amid this gloomy picture, which is probably, however, n good deal overcharged, anti place Jerusnlem on a level with whatever is most ^imdid in the East. These are, the Church of the Sepulchre (fig. 552.], and the mosque 5S2 of Omar. The former has long been the grand object of pilgrimage and visit- ation to the Christian world. It was erected by the empress Helena, the mother of Constantine, upon a site which was supposed to include the scene of all the great mysteries of our religion, — the crucifixion, the entombment, the resur- rection. It consists properly of three churches or chapels, connected together by walls and covered passages. The first and most extensive is termed the Churfh of the Holy Sepulchre. The rock, however, in which the tomb was excavated is allowed to have been almost entirely cut away, and that part which contains the sepulchre now rises above I the ground in the form of a grotto covertnl with slabs of beautiful verde antico, rendered I tough by the numberless fVagments ftirtlvely broken off by crowds of devout pilgrims in I search of holy relics. Close to tho entrance is a blok of white marble shown os the stone Ion which the angel sat, and In the interior lamps are continually burning. The two I other churches consist of large apartments, one above, the other below. The lowest is Inlled the Church of the Three Crosses, which were supposed to have been there miracu- jlously discovered : it contains also the tontbs of Godfrey and Baldwin, the Latin kings |o( Jerusalem ; and a rent is sliown in the natural rock, supposed to be that produced hy C1IU>CR Of Till KOI.* MWlODSIh MO DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. fUiinusly and the jacroil thd eartliqiiake at the cruciRxion. The upper church is called that of Mount Calvarv whcru the rock a((ain appears with the same rent, and with holes supposed to inAi^,' tliu place of the Three Crosses. '*'* 3788. Small apnrlmcult along the lidet cf the watti qf Iheie chunket, both within nnd without ■» ». pled by monki bclnngUiR to the diflbrent nations of the East and Wot : Latins, Grcclis, Abynsinilir, r^."' Armenians, Maronltcs, Htc. According to Hi>undrell, the possession of these sacred places was oflon fklrin, i' contested. From almsc and vituperation, the combatants proceeded to wounds and blows "nnusiv floor was not unfVequently stained with their blond. '"" -^ - icari, which he had himself received In these unhni have secured fbr the Latins t jo exclusive command distributed by them at will among the other sects. The monks are continually engaged either in Itrrn' SIX) lamiw constantly burning. In preserving every spot in these churches strictly clean, or in cclcbratinir h^ mystorlei of their worship. " From the arches above, where they nestle like pigeons, from the chaueli l»in» and subterraneous vaults, their songs are heard at all hours both of the day and night. The organ of ih ' Latin monks, the cyml>als of the Aliyssiniau, the voice of the Greek caloation of which 1,^0,. whole of the locality. J localitv. Dr. Clarke insists that there is no hiil such as could be Mount Calvary, and noinarp on which the crucinxion could take pl.ice ; that the alleged sepulchre is not cut out in the rock but is com posed of a number of detached pieces of stone cemented together ; that the stone does not fit 'it : in ihon (hat it ought to bo without the city, and by no means in its present insitioa He finds a much more urobablo site among a numl)cr of tombs, which he discovered in tlie valley of Hiimom, and some of which arc spacioui and handsome. We have not time or means to enquire what room there may be for lliis scepticism anri whether It Is worth while to disturb a belief to which religious feeling has attached itself during so liunv ages. In general, we may observe, that the sepulchral monument) of Jerusalem, particularly the tombs of the kings, of the Virgin, and of the patriarchs, display no common share of labour and beauty. The; »» usually spacious chambers cut out of the solid rock, and elegantly ornamented with carving and sculpture. 3730. 2/y much the most splendid edifice in Jerusalem, however, consists of the mosque erected by Omar on the site of the Temple of Solomon. It is an octagon surmounted by a lantern of the iainc shape, and is considered superior to any other structure in the Turkiiih empire, not excepting the mosque of St. Sophia at Constantinople : it yields only to the matchless boast of Saracenic art, the Alhambra. The walls are externally lined with painted tiles covered with arabesques, and with verses from the Koran in letters of gold. Its nume- rous arcades, its capacious dome, with the rich costume of Eastern devotees passing and repa.ssing, render it, even from without, one of the grandest sights which the Mahometan world has to boast. The interior is in gener&l rigorously shut against Christians; but Dr. Richardson contrived to effect an entrance. He found it a magnificent square 1489 by 995 feet, the floors and walls of marble, and the sakhara, or inner shrine, 60 feet square, of the finest materials, and covered with sentences from the Koran. 37.11. The mantffacttirci (ffJenaalem consist chiefly of objects accounte the pictures of scripture, are here. Every name commcmomtcs a mystcn; every grot proclaims the future ; every hill re-echoes the accents of a prophet. God himself has siw'ken in these regions : dried up rivers, riven rocks, half-open sepulchres, attest the prodigy : the desert stilt apixan mute with terror, and you would Imagine it had never presumed to interrupt the silence, since it had heard the awi\il voice of the Eternal." (Chateaubriand.) 373,S. The monasters (\f SI. Saba, rising perpendicularly from the ravine of the brook Kedron, appear! in the heart of this desolate region. Once the refuge of the saints of the wilderness, it is now a scene of quitt monastic seclusion. In continual danger from the surrounding tribes of Arabs, it has less the aspect of a convent than of a fortress, the abode of some bold and ruthless crusader. Its immensely strong and loflj towers, frowning over hill and glen, are seen from a great distance ; and one of the fathers, by turns, walii ills nightly round on the top of the towers. Yet the Arabs, though continually hovering about in a mcnatin; attitude, usually content themselves with levying a tithe of fine white bread, baked in the convent, and allm the convoys to pass unmolcstoL Somewhat to the south is Hebron, so veneralile by its antiquitv, and still 1 cunildcrable Arab village. The court of Constantinople supports here a temple, built over the supposed •epulchre* of the patriarchs, which are covered with magnificent carpets of green silk, embroidered wiib gold. 3734. These awful heights terminate in an object still more awful, the expanse of Ik Dai Sea- This lake, whose waves engulfed the guilty cities of the plain, presents, perhaps, the most dreary and dismal scene to be found in the circuit of the globe. The rocks by wbich it is enclosed present quite a different aspect on the eastern and on the western shores. On tho former, which is that of Arabia or of Moab, a prodigious black perpendicular wal],ia Book II. TURKEY IN ASIA. 891 which there is not a summit or the smallest peak, and in which the least bird of heaven could not find a blade of grass, throws its perpendicular shadow over the waters. On the western or Judean side the limestone and sandy cliiTs tower in varied and fantastic forms, suKKesting often the idea of piles of armour, waving standards, and rows of tents. The iloomy sea which these roclcs encircle has been clothed by fancy with awful and supernatural characters. A pestilential vapour, it has been said, rises continually from its waters ; iisli cannot live in, nor birds fly over them ; iron will not sink in them ; nor have they ever been navigated b) ship or bark. Recent travellers, however, in the hasty glances which they have caught of this extraordinary scene, have dispelled all that is marvellous in these descriptions- though they have at the same time shown that there was some foundation for them. "^ •*■■ contains forty>one parts ' " 'ho bun>lred of salt ; a much greater proportion iithiuv. sea, and derived from en :iv re ils of this mineral continually dissolving its soutli liore. It is impregnated a.^ with other mineral substances, particularly bitumen, which often rises from the bottom, and floats in large quantities on the surface. Thus it acquires a much greater weight tlian any other water, and is able to support bodies that would sink elsewhere. A fetid and perhaps pestilential air often exhales from water impregnated with sulphur, bitumen, and similar substances. Late travellers may have found a few shell-fish on the shore, or seen a few birds on the wing over the waves ; but these form only exceptions to the general absence of animal life. That boats and vessels are never seen on it, can only be owing to the want of any motive for its navigation. Every thing around, in short, bears that dead, dreary, and fearful character that ought to mark a country struck by the malediction of Heaven. 3733, Tlie shores oj the Dead Sea, and the valley to the north of it, consist of an expanse of salt, dry mud, ind raoving sand. In proceeding through the plain, Chateaubriand discovered what at first appeared to be und in motion. On drawing nearer, hp beheld a yellow current, scarcely to be distinguished from the sands on its shores. It was deeply sunk below its banks, slowly creeping towards the pestilential lake by which it is ntuired. This was the Jordan. In its higher course, however, as it descends flrom the Lake of Tiberias, it ii bordered by trees and shrubs, und its banks are often picturesque ; and in spring, when " the swellings of Jordan" take place, the river fills iU deep banks, and flows with rapidity. Its vicinity is dreadf\iily infested b; Arabs ; notwithstanding which, the visitants of Jerusalem make crowded pilgrimages, for the sake of bath. if in in sacred waters. Six. Between the Jordan and Jerusalem is tie u>ide,flat, plain of Jericho, twenty miles in length and ten in breadth, walled in on all sides hy the high mountains of Judea and Arabia. It is, for this reason, very hot, indin many places parched; but the skill of the ancients conducted through it, with such skill, all the waters ilh millet, cotton, and tobacco, that Dr. Clarke ranks it in many parts as the Eden of the East. Its flourish. I ingitatc is the result of the beneficent influence of a better government, that of the Pacha of Damascus, I liihin whose doinain it was included. Here the traveller passes Bethel, the scene of Jacob's dream, and a fine I tilley callwi Kane Leban, the Lebonah of Scripture. After a march of sixteen hours, he reaches Naplous, 1 01 Napolose, near the site of the ancient Samaria. This city is one of the most beautiful and flourishing of I Uie Holy Land. It stands in a bold and fertile valley, surrounded by bills, and embosomed in stately groves I iDdrich gardens. The inhabitants, about 10,000, are employed in manufacturing for the extensive country I mind : loap is the chief staple. Here may be seen, seemingly well authenticated, the tombs of Joseph and I Beam, and of Joshua, cut in the living rock. A small remnant is found of the ancient Samaritans, I idhering to their worship upon Mount Genxim, to their sacriflce of the ram, and to their peculiar version of I Ibe Pentateuch. I IiS9. Before proceeding onward to the fine regions of Galilee, it will l>e necessary to descend towards the |tMil,andnotirc8omeprominent features which it presents. Almost in a line with Xapolose occurred Ceesarca, ■ uiemagninccnt capitaJuf Herod, long the seat of Roman government, and where Paul made his eloquent liffeali to Felix and Agrippa, During its glory, no city of Palestine, scarcely any of Svrla, could vie with |C»area. Its marble palaces, theatres, and temples, looking towards the sea, struck with astonishment the IIMing navigator. Its temple rivalled that of Jerusalem ; and its games, celebrated every five years, attracted ■■concourse of all the nations of the East Plundered by Baldwin in 1101, and subjected to various turns of ■•tr and fortune, it was gradually deserted j and its materials have been employed in the ornament of modern |ti|''ials. Only a few remnants of marble walls and some porphyry columns remain scattered over its site. CHURCH AT aiTBLBHIH. .^ \\i 898 DESCRIPTIVE 0E00RA1M1Y. Paht hi. 3740; Quitting the rulni of CaBurco, wo approach Ike keigkU tf Carmrl, which, allir tunning fbt a comi i able t|iace north.wnt, terminate In a rocky promontory about SKXJO h'vt hiRh, pntlvctlng into tlic kh. it ' tahiH a vonaliterable number of Krottocs, once occupied ai celli anil cha|)rlii by the nuitvrv unlet boatinj tl? ' aiitivllittion of Carmelite*. A very lew atlll rvmalii, who lead a rccluao llfi*, anil ate venetated even In ik Mahoinctaiit, who iiupply their waiita. The mountain bean the tracot of ancient oiiunlurti, and of dIiiiiui ' of vine* and oliveit i and on the top arc the rulni of a conilderable monatlety erci'twl liy Helena. 3741. On the opi>osite tide of the tuT, partly encloaed by Mount Carmel, !• /Icre, which now ranki flm i political iiniuirlniu'e of any town in thlt neighbourhood. Though often emitldetrd a< Syrian iti mliii within the domain »( the ten trlbea, and Iti modern relatloni, ap|>ear to attach It to Paleatine. Uurlni the n?" ■adea, it cxchani;e!i conteat, and for the repeated change of maatcr* which it had to endure. Theaoviciaaitudca reduced it almuii a deaolate atatc, till, In the aovenleenth century, the celebrated Emir Facardlr. began to rebuild it In lit time* it became the capital both of Daher Omar and of DJeiiar I*acha i and thla lut tytant whilp h duaolated the reat of hia domlnlona, made it hia pride to reatoro and cmbolllah Acre. It bvi'ame' atill mm famoua when the Turka, Hghting behind a mere garden wall, but guided and accondcd by Sir Sydney Smiik and a few Britiah acamen, aet bounda to the hitherto irreaiatiblu carver of Naiiolcon, and fiirccd him to rctn'ii to Egypt. Acre la now a conalderabic pla<:c, though Ita atreeta, like thoao of moat Eaatern towiia are natrr.,! and dirty; yet Ujeiiar, by collecting all the rcinaina of Csaaroa and other aiirniundlng ruined citiea ercrin^ the moat elegant moaque and the fineat hatha thai exist In Syria. More uaofUl worka arc thoac iiraliaiaararui of a flnc fountain lor the aunply of water, which wna much wantnl. He wna even Inducnl, by nioilvn ih« urgent policy of which waa obvloua, to extend to coinimTce aoino nieaaure ol that priitection which waa clu where withheld : atill, even here it waa severely crnin|icd by the blind cupidity with which he IniimaBl iluti^ and inonoixilica. There is, however, a consiilcralile i'X|Nirt of corn and cotton, the priHiucc of llie Hat and At tile plain by which Acre ia surrounded. The port, thnugli it bus Inst much of Ita liinnvr iinportiuice In nm ae<|uencc of being partially choked up with aand, haa been III a giKMl mvasuru reatuted, and is the beat on an, part of thla coaat ' .'i74!2. The route fi-om Acre into ike interior la across the dellKhtfiil plain of Zaliulon, which Dr Clarkp compares to the fineat parta of the Crimea or of Kent On the other aide ia Sifihuuru, anciently onenf |W principal towns of Palestine, and augmented by the Komana under the np|iellutiiin iil Diiica'aarca Aircii part of ita church, one of the atatellcat edlHcea in the Holy I^nd, still rcinaina : it ia udurnnl with eome vm curioua ancient (laintings. The place itself is reduced to a miserable viiliige. ' 3743^ Between Sephoun/andNaxarethah'My nm\ stoiiytrnct Interveiica. Thla laat apot, diatinguiBhcdbTihi! early residence of the Saviour, waa raised to conniileraliie iiii|H>rtaiice diirinu the crusades, and, alter rallini Into almost total decline, was rebuilt by Kacardin, and enlurgetl by Daher Omar It now cnntalns vuii «t 3U00 inhabitants, who were reduced to great ixtverty under Djeiiar ; liut, since his death, have enioytU mme tranquillity. The convent ia large, resembling a fortress, and almost forming a little town by itaelf. itron. taina fourteen inmatea, usually with a gocrt, the interior is very poor, and a great part of it deserted. The old city, at a little distance south, is marked by many fragments of walls and columns, but without any definite feature, or any great building in an entire rtite In this quarter are baths, which retain their ancient reputation. Being very hot, and strnnBly Im. neigsted with mineral substances, tlicy are fninid of great virtue in rheumatic and eruptive diseases. Remains of other great cities may be found along the western shore ; but the precise positions of Capernaum, Chorailn, and Betnsaida remain a subject of controversy. TiVi. In ascending to the high rfgiimt qf the Upper Jordan, and turning somewhat to the westward, wo find the town of Safllid or Saphat It is not mentioned in Scripture, and occurs only In the apocryphal book of Toblt ' nor is it till the time of the crusades that it begins to Agure as a place of Imiwrtance. Notwithstand- iuthli comparatively late origin, the Jews, influenced by Its being the seat of i famous university, and the burial place of some of their most learned rabbins, attach to it a degree of sanctity sometimes exceeding that or Jerusalem itself It has been supposed that, ISO years ago. It was inhabited by K,IMO Jews. It became also aorindpsl scat of the mwer of Daher Omar, who founded there a Mahometan college. After his time it was much neglected, and Volney represents it as dwindled into an almost deserted hamlet Iturekhardt, however, found it containing liOO houses, built on several small hills. In a high and commanding situation. JI47 Returning eatttoard to the hanks qf the Jordan, the general level of the country Is found continually riiini The river^ere forms a flat marshy lake, some miles in circumference, called at present Lake Houle, inrienti V Julias, or Samachonltls. This upper plain of the Jordan is here shut in to the north by a lofty branch of Lebanon, called Jebel Sheik, or the Prince Mountain, which may be considered as forming the boundary between Palestine and Syria. Near Its font Is situated Panias, which Herod, after cmbelliahing and enlatging it called Cssarea-Philippi. It has now resumed Its original name, and Is sunk Into a small village, though lituated in a fine elevated country, fertile in grain, proftiaely embellished with plants and wild flowers, and abounding in game. Considerable architectural remains diatingulsh the vicinity, though it la atill dilHcult to trace the magnificent temple erected by Herod In honour of Augustus. Round Panias, several rivuleta, detcending fVom the declivities of Jebel Sheik, unite, and form the Jordan. To the east of all these countries ii a territory less cloaely attached to Paleatine ; that of the Hauran, called anciently the country beyond Jordan which insenaibly partakes of the character of the Arabian Desert, and becomes Identified with It For aniniiilerable space, however, being traversed by Mount Gilcad, it continues to be well watered, and contains a neat eitsnt of ground well fitted either for culture or pasturage. At present it suSbra severely fVom the ravages of the Arabs; but under the Roman sway it appears to have been prosperous and flourishing, pjeraah (the ancient Oerasa), Amman (Philadelphia), Bosra, and other towns, display on a great scale the remains of templet, theatres, baths, triumphal arches, and other structures which usually adorned a claaalc city. The remalDi of Gcrasa have even been compared to those of Palmyra. SuBSECT. 2. St/riou 3748. After passing the northern boundary of Palestine, we enter Syria, a great kingdom, Muallv fomed in history, and presenting nearly a continuation of the same natural features : OD one side the Mediterranean coast extending north and west; the high mountain chains parallel to it; the itne intervening valleys; and the great desert boundary on the east. Syria cannot boast an equal breadth of level territory ; it may be considered in this respect almost a pyramid, of which Judca is the base. The mountains, however, are on a grander scale. Lebanon (Jig. 555.) towers tea height unrivalled by any ofthe southern chains i S5S IHflOnTS or I.RHANOV. j Its summit crowned with perpetual snows, its sides still prescntirg the remains of those majestic cedars with which they were anciently covered. The plains of Syria, though I "wower, are richer, and have been more highly cultivated ; and more striking contrasts I nave thus been produced between the extremes of civilised and savage existence. Her jciucs have always outshone those of the neighlrauring countries; her capitals of Damascus LoQfitudc KmI « from |»e 3. Ssdjciur 30. Sounillah 4. MamlmlJ, or SI. Zeyhon 3't. Amakia A. ShIhIB .1.1. Alachan (1. Plnwril M. Aajt DenKM ;. Aadina 1.^. ('aramont R. BeiM .Ifi. PmohI 9. Pa>h> .17. S. Simon ID. Jnlrlfr .18. Aleppo II. Hauan Pasha .19. Haun W. Tolmnn tn. Najar \a. HaiM 41. (iihlir 14. Ahtarecn 4S. Hdn IS. Zdchrf 41. Elhai i«. nhiiiu 44. 3t\r 90. Neb; Mcla. SOUTH PART. I.(;aria 2. Markab f. Alaria 4. HuiMln 5. Nasib 6. ToTtou 7. Biafillah ». Mallat 9. Rejadliein 10. Maijad II.Biuri It. Hamah 13. Railan 14. Ralemlh 15. Bmi 16. Eiiich 17. Weill or Imp. MalclwWub 18. Almvrrha 19. Ahibhal to. Palmym tl.CailleorAntura tt. Qu.^rnan VS. Kalaat 34. Kalaat tS. Afaina t6. Halinla t7. Ilomi t8. JanichLili 89. N.jtaf SO. Mar Drordoi Sl.EIHoah 31. RaAneh 33. Aradl 34. MtMqlta .15. Ortou .16. Ard 37. Akmar SB. Kanobtn 39. Baflir 40. Bihiral 41. DMmlri 4t. Tripoli 43. Amvoun 44. Temieiila 43. Utball in. Akoun 47. Ilrir il AUuill 41. Ustbtc 4'J. Kuoucut 50. Zshle 51. Antnure i'l. WtAiA 93. IMrout 54. Saide ."i.'i. KoHt Afi. Ilarouk 57. Bocal 58. MolHloun .'iS. Duia 60. Mridm 61. namascui 111. Metun G3. PiimmcT 64. Meiiel 65. Till 6ft. Menren n;. Kuld en. MoluU m. SM 70. Kin ;l. KiimtlHiiM lod Antiuch have the most fluiirisliing 37«». SolwUlulandmt indiiwndeiit political ex kingdonu of Iiracl and into Ihc cropiret of Any miicr, attained, under ( TJii; powiTlul and warii Kinc glory, it waa abiorl liun 01 a province ; hut the ovlcrn capital of th< iiiuliorclinatc to I'alcitii hovever, never aaiuined lliHiut three ccnturie* Il Qriomcol' thc|iach«a. nxiurilain tribca, alluded bowin of Ui'ipotlim, iccu ,1750. Syria, divide into two portions, uiiti ire narrow nnd furtil .Did Antiocli, in the n limes, the iiiturior citi Imporuncc. A gran S/iia, Hows behind L passes by Antioch intt hy receiving and con< and which might othi mndy dcsiert. JTJt. iit political cx'stcnrc. Ihc early kliiKiImn of iHinascus it bctt known to lit by Iti wan with the k^ninlomt nf Iirarl and Juilah. Rclna nior 3 directly on the road tVom the Kuphratet, It was abiorlicd earlier I ."the i-niplrca of Auyrla and lluhjiun. FoIIuwIiik Ita aucceulvc deitinlet, Syria, aller the death of Alex. Ljcr attained, under one of the heiri of hit divided empire, a aeparate thougn not a native government. The iwwcrl'ul and warlike monarchy of Jic Svlcucido! endured until, after aome brilliant cRbrti and with ' 1,/ilory, It wa» abiorbeect, and at laxt fell wholly under the Mahometan dominion. For ih, liut three ccnturiei it has conllnucy the coast, the other by the desert. Both ire narrow and fertile; they contain many great cities, both a.icient and modem. Tyre iiul Antiocli, in the maritime district, are pre-eminent among the former ; while, in modern tiniM) the interior cities of Damascus and Aleppo have preserved, or acquired, a superior importincc. A grand feature is the Orontes, which, rising near the southern extremity of Svria, flows behind Lebanon through its whole length, imtil it turns its northern point, and pisses by Antiocli into the sea. Perhaps, however, it injures the fertility of interior Syria, bv receiving and conveying away all the waters which flow eastward from the mountain, liul which might otherwise have spread out, and watered a considerable portion of the jindy desert. 3;,il. IIV shall commence our local turvej/ with the louthrm maritime Jironlier. Here, rrocecding fVoin Aire under which pachallc thit part of Syria ia .^till coinpriaed, we come at once upon a name which revives the graiiilcit recoUcctioiia. The little flahing town of Sour, or Taour, it all that rcraaint of ancient Tyro Modem timet have icen the dread tentcnce fulfilled, that the queen of natioiit thould liecome a i^.'xA.). S56 rock, on which tlahcrmcn were to dry their neta The accomplith. ment of that doom, however, hat been modern ; for even in the time of the crutadei it had tome Importance, and, what It tingular, ■ In the _' wat dlttinouiahed by itt ical . - :;'. cauie of Chrittianity. It wat un- der the Mahometan tway that it* ruin waa completed. Maundrell found It a mere Babel of broken walls, pillart, vaultt, &c., without one entire houie left. Only a few wretched fiihermen hartioured Id the vaultt, and piled their trade on the rocky coast Of late, the gok vernments, which had their teat at rvKi. Bairout and Acre, have made tome eflbrta to revive Tyre. A few toler- ible housea have been built for the oHicca of governmciit : and some of the Maronitet, Motoualli, and other inhabitants of the nelghlmurlng mountains, have been induced to aettle there, and to undertake aome trada Forthii, scope is atfonlcd by the grain, tobacco, and dried liga which arc grown in the flat and somewhat fniilc ilistri< t liy wliich Tyro is niirrouiideil. The grain la sent to the islands ; the other articles find a markef tn Eeynt. Even under this faint revival, however. Tyre presents no image that can recall the memory of itt ^" ancient magnificence. Jolliflfe heard the populaticn estimated at SflOO, with a doubt, however, which it ttrongly confirmed by Turner, who doet not think it can contain above SOO houtei, two thirds of which are Inhabited by Motoualls. The harbour can now admit only boats. There arc traces ol city walls about a mile in circuit, but none of any edifices more ancient than Christian churches, one of which It of very large extent A priest still resides here, bearing the pompoui title of Archbishop of Tyra 3753. From Tyre we proceed north- urards by a very flat plain, which becomes continually narrower till we arrive at Sidon {Jig. 5ff7.), the litter city of Phoenicia, superior, it It said, in antiquity, yet second in greatnett *4. Shenjlr n. Iluila ^fi-Owanen 17 Kaiiau\-n. Rivurt and Laku, & Gupliratd, R. b Aiihiv, R. c SHiljditr, R. d San^uur, K. c BaltLaka Htfcrencet to the Map of Sj/ria— continued. r Kocie, R. KAphreen, K> Yt>gr«,H. I Aiwsd, R. k Corache. R. p Hoaniin, R. u I.«lltnl R. I Sholnr, R. q Keblr, H. r El Benle, R. m Mulk, R. tBcrcd, R. wBahrdMusI t Aswod, H. n Banlu), R. a Kadea, R. x El Aazr, R. j Aa>i, or Oiontaa, o Moikab, R. t Ibiahlm, R. ; Natatd AaL R. ii :| 894 Ml. A conilderil DEflCRIPTIVB OEOORAPHY. P*M III. Thouih Ihmro to notlilnii corratponillng to Ite anclani nwno. It Iim nerar nifflirtd in toUl • .in. iilderiblo tnulo U illll muliitalnml hy tFo export of •Ilk, miiI >1io of cotton, the ■ptimlnii or .M k vmployi ■ conilderable iiumlior of InhnbltMitt, Siiloii Ibrmi tho princl|«l port by which !> ctrrlnl nnik marltlius commarc* or Uaniiucut, IVom noroM the mnunlalni. The vxt molct, ofwhlch tho aiiclunt hirii« WM oompoMd, are now entlrvly ileatroyed, though tome iifthoae huge ttonei which flllcd Ihclr entire bniHii may itlli lie leen lying on the thore. Halde, like other Turklih towm, dirty and III built, conlalrii fyomAirlt to 7000 Inhabltanti. ^^ 3703. Norlkieanli /rum Saidf, tho level plain of Phanlcia cvatet. I^banon, here towering to lu lofti«i height, throwa down Iti branchi-a to tho tea, between which only deep and narrow vallvyi Intorveiip Vh! It the leat of the power of the i)rtufi, that remarkable iwople, who have Iwcii already Introilucul taih notice of the reader. Their capital, or. at leaat, the reildence of their prince or cinir, It at Diir^i. Kam« merely an extentlve rough village, with ttmn tS.lIlM to IH.OIIO Inhabltanta, and a large irrai or pnlacr whidi hu no preleuilon* to elegancv. Their moat lm|iortanl town li Bairout, the ancient Hcrytui, now almdai whuiii In tnelr potieiiilon. The muuntalni here enclote a Hne plain, covered with mulberry Ircva, nn which !■ rcarni the flnnt illk In Hyrla. Hi exiMirt, and that of cotton, cauie lome trails at Ilairout, and iuppott a ii<>ijiii>ti.\» which Volney and Jollimieillmatu at IKKIO, ^ "WUWKn ;l7fi4. The nfMl place iifimp imporlauir ft Kihele, called by Europcani Otbcio, or UJeball i namci wlilch reciii at once the Bybloe of the (Ireok*, and tho (iciMi, whoie ancient Inhabitant!, according to Kzekiel wercthi! calkon of Tvre. Thli place wai the chief leat of the wonhip of Adonli, whotc beauty and IroKical hliinn S lined for him lo cnn>|ilcuoua • place In the olaulc mythology. About a mile ttom Kabclc fluwi the Ibrim c ancient Adnnlii, the iierlmllcal rnldening of whoao waters, " lupimscd with blood of Thmnniiu vearlv woundtHi," gave occailun to a wild and IkhtMtlo I'hivniclan fcttival. The circuit of the walla, alHmt « mj^ In extent, wan IracHl by I'lM-iwkc. aa well aa tho remain* of a beautiful church of the Corinthian order which mutt have lieen built In the Iburtli or linh century : Volney rct^kon> IKXX) inhabltanti. ' 37&S. Ilehlnil DJelHtll It Ihf killy lUtlrkt >\t Krtrouan, a lower and extended branch of Lebanon, on which tho Martmilf have fhrnuMi their enlablUhnient Conaldcrably In the Interior, and far up the OKent of Lebanon Ittelf, li the innniutvry of Kanmibin, the rctldence of their patriarch. It consinta merely of a number of grottoca cut In the twV, the largeit of which ha> been excavated Into a tolerably haiulwinechaiivl Beneath rolli a river between two very high rldgc« of plno.«overcd mounlalni : in that the scene la awtui ami romantic. Tho aicendlng road iHNunnva continually more wild and rugged, with numcroua cascailca ilathinit down the rocki i yet • Aiw vlllagea itlll occur, dellgntl\illy altuatcd, andiurrounded with grovea of olive aud mulberry. At length tho Inhiuilled |iart of I.icbnnon It terminated by a Carmelite convent dcdlcainl to 8t. Sorglui, which.ln aummer, ftirmi a cool and dollghtnil retirement ( but the rigours of winter comiiel the monka to remove to IVIpiill. 375(1. Although, howewr, humiin hahilaltonn he patted, the Ufonderi qf the mountain are not yd ethaiuted ■ fbr in a plain, onclitaed by ll» liigl.eat aiiminlta, la I'liiind the small but iirccloua remnant ot the cedari I't Lebanon. About flftecn large olil trrea aliinc aurvlve of that mighty forcat, which rccalla ao many aarted and (loetical Ideas. Tho trunks are ample, one of them mcoauring twcnty-fnur feet in circumference ^ but thei soon part Into several limbs, which riae parallel to each other I'ur aome space, till they begin to extend hor' lontally. The ibilagv Is wldcspreaillng, like tliot of the ouk. 'I'hc wood is hragrant and white, but nut materially unlike rommon tImlHir. The young ccdart, which, with the old, form a grove of about n mile in circumference, appear to lie quite of an Inferior rnce, acnrccly to be distinguished flrom the pines with vhlch they are Intermixed. Although tho remnant bt! au aiimll, vet Volney, In pronouncing the view to lie wholli unworthy the Miguo of reaching It, ap|>ears rat her liiaenaibic not only to the Influence of aasociationi, but lo the magnlflcent scenery which the traveller discovers on this route. An ascent of three hours rtom tlic cedars brings him to the anow covered pinnacle of I/<'baiion, whence he discovers all the varied aspect of iii mountain regions ) the rich plains at Its feet, and the distant shores of the Mediterranean, llerore rcachinij this point, however, vegetation has cxplreit, with the exception of a few stunted cypresses, which loiethcli spiral form, and, throwing out their branches sidewlae, have the appearance of small oaks. 3757. From lijebail the roait lenil* iliae atonn the tea, here bordered by the rocks of the Kcsrouan, which shoot up Into forms the most varied and plcliiresiiue. Nothing is passed except a paltry village, called Batroun, or I'utrono, and a lliielv altiiatcd convent of the Oreek catholics, called Belmont. At Itnijth the route opens upon the plain of 7Vi;i«U, atretchliig far to the north, and one of the most extended oiiil rmlleiii all Syria. At its entrance Is found Triyoli, cnpltui of the tiachalic of the same name, which coniiita of thii wide maritime plain, reaching nearly to the northern limit of Syria. A mountain chain, indeed, con. tinucd flrom Lebanon, still runs through the interior, iwrallel to the sea, but neither so brood nor- ^iRj. It Is thinly Inhabited by the Ansarlans. The plain along the sea Is broader there than in aii) : of Palestine or the ancient Phcenlcla. 'llils plain la well watered, covered with rich pasture, and with cxiciulve groves of mulberry, orange, and other valuable trees. Notwithstanding these natural advantages. It has, vc Know not why, been negleclcd, having never contained a capital city, or been chosen aa the ceiilial ant of nny of the kingdoms cstabllthctl In Syria. Kvcn the pachallc Into which It was formed hat of late, accordini to the alternations oflMiwer and Influence, liccn merged into those of Acre and Damascus. 37&H. TrfpoM li supiioaed by llurekhardt o contain l.'i,lKM inhabitants, about a third of whom arc catholic Christians. It li one of tlic lew Turkish towns which have any pretensions to neatness, the houses being in general tolerably built, and of giMxl stone. It Is said to have lieen originally founded by three suctcuivc colonies fVom T>re, SIdon, and Aradusi whence the Grccka called it Tripoli, or three cities, fjomeofthe lower branches of Lebanon approach, niid enclose round It a triangular valley, covered with the flncit gardcni and fruit trees. The situation Is thusnntonly lieautlfbl, but happily formed to command the advantagei of j every climate. It la, however, iinl'nrtunately subject to fever. In conacquciice of Inundations nude lor the purpoM of Improving tho growth of tlie mulberry tree*. Under the cruiaders this sity was governed, with t|ie title of count, by Ucrtranit, son of Raymond of Toulouu. Six large towers, which liad liecn built for its defence, itiU remain ; but no floe ancient J edifices. Thciradcisconiider. able, and before the leit in I was chiefly in the handidfthe I French. Itsexports',onjistof I rawtilk,soap,aiidsorie}pongei I which are coliectei*. on the lo. | shore. The har^.ur it tolei- 1 able, and the ra8i-ina,oriiort,l Inhc.'jiled by Oriek sailors i«l I shipwrights, fjrmt t liliJel town by itaclf. I 3759. Adoul J'orly miUimil of Tripoli is Torlota, or Tor. f touaa, once a very strong cifc I allowing still the rcnuini ill two walla half a mile in cir.l cumference, the inner of filial ■ ia fifty feet high. Ilconuial tat ANII lip MOCAO. UOUK II- TURKEY IN ASIA. KM ', if cukcniivt hai, nc ■ lof according Id, or Tot. r IttongtitliL Icmaini <■ I file in* I 'rof>(°l |tconliiit| iliuiibpautilXil church urthoCurliilhlmi order. Nenrly npimilteto Torlnu uthe litUnil uf Hoiiiul (yf/r .'UW.), the aiicii'iit Aradii). the Aruil of .Si'rl|ituri', whence Tyre ii •aid to have ilrawii her inarlnrri. It m n iner* niknl lock. III whlcli the •prliiK of water by which the liihnbltaiitii were anciently >u|iiillt'd can no liiiiHcr ho ilinuviTcd I hut lt< |MMltloii |iriitecteil It rroiii the de>|iotltni iif the prlncei on the cantiiienl, iinil drew In It • (real number of innal)ltaiit>, to acconimotlatewhnin the houtca were railed to a aurprlalnx heliihl. Onlv • few itriiiiK iiiiuiea of wall, and nunieroua ciatcriia cut In the rovk, attcat the former eklateiice of thia thrlvln| ctitnincri'ial atute. TiiU InJuurHeylng lo Latakia, a few atrlking iibjccli |ircacnt thcmaelvra i auch are the tlrimi eaalln ol Mnkdh, icatuil on a hill, and about half a mile In circumference ) the villUKe of Hiintat, which acitrcely b[|.»eiit> any tracea of the ancient city of llalunca ; Jihilee, the ancient (inbulu, cijunlly |HHir In ancient anil inolcrn tinica. Much Krealer iin|Mirtancc iH'loiiKa to I^itakia Itaelf, the ancient I.aodlcea, fnundiil li* SeliiicuaNicaiior, and the port of Aiitloch. Ita trade conalated In ex|HirlliiK lo V.^'fui the line winea for whicn the iliilrict waa celebr>iled. At preaent thIa, being a branch of commerce prohibited by the Maliniiielaii leliKiuiii '"** ''<-'''" >up*''r>edcd by that of tobacco, 'I'he returiia arc inodo chlelty In rico. 'I'hv piirt la now •null, aa the Turka have allowed it, In a great mcoaure, lo choke up i but It la atlll the inoal ae'ure of any og lheco.Mt. It laaaid that twenty yeara auo, Latuklawaa u very flouriahlnx place, containing UMMai Inhabltaiil^ vidtlmt it had nearly aiipplantetl ScaniTeroon aa the port of Aleppo; but of Into It haa deeply IVIt the ellbcH eftliat inlagovcrnment which exteiula over all thia ijuartcr. •Sln[ We have now triicetl the maritime iilulii of Syria, till It touches on that f Aniloch, which Ibniii th« noilliiTii exirumily of the kin|tdnm, and which we ahall conalder In comblnuH ■. with thai of Alemio. It It time III retrace our «te|ia, and, liegliiniiiK ufreah at ic aouth, to aiirvoy the urea plain iiViui/crf on lAe upftoiilt III!/ (if l,e'"ini»>, a'lil borderiiiK iinincdi.itcly oil tl" loaert, which forma Kinterii Syria. •'idi. hut Ill/ore reae/iiriK thia aeeuiul iliulsion, a ittiking teatute clai .a our itttenlion. In oroialug fmin Sliloii to tlio pluiii of DumoscuH, the Krent mountain appcara aeparate<\ liaotwo |iaral1el iwrtlona, dlatlngulaheil ill the aiiciciita oa l.ilmiiiin uml Anii-l.ihanui. 'I'licae cncloae between tiiein a broad vallev, anciently called tffloiyrin, or the hollow Syria ; by the moderna It la namwl t'" Vallc) ni lU'ka, llie reHectioii of the rockl mil imiuntaina rendera it Intcnacly hot ; but It la eitrem^'ly well w^itercd, and ylclda abinilantly either puluraKC or groin, according to the Induatry of the occipanta. Of ' 'le. Turklah o-:. eaalon, .nil the Inriiadi uTtliO .\riiba, have ulinoat entirely aiinlhllaleU the peit.:eful labour^ . Ilio huabani o ^i\, and ci iiverted great irarti ni tlii* Hue territory Into a deactt Thit valley ptcacnta, however, one gra , ' mid lni|iortant iMtuts, ihe ruin* uf Uaalbcc. :I763. Baalbec is Bituatud at the northern head of this great vail- ", near to whrru the two LebauoiiS) uniting together, close in above its termination. From a town of w .,■ import- aiice, it lias dwindled into a decayed village, contain!-.^ i-oi more than KXX^ or riOO iiu hibitantn. But Baalbec is famous for a mass of clu.sic r-ins, which, those of Palmyra eiccptvd, nothing in Asia can rival. At the very entru .-e ot ihe town, lofty walls ami rich culumns indicate the site of an ancient temple. The principal gate, obKtructed by Htimot 111(1 rubbish, enters into a court 180 feet in diameter, strewed with broken columns, mutilated upitals, aiitl various fragments ; around it is a row of ruined ediliceH which display all the uriiuncnts of the richest architecture. At the end of this court, another gate introduces the sjiectator to the view of a still more extensive range of ruins. The court here is enclosed by chambers, seven of which may be reckoned in ouch of the principal wings. It is ditlicult to discover their use; but this does not diminish the adii.' ration excited by the beauty of the iiila.stituro of wild plants with which they are ornamented. At the end of this court appears the grandest feature of the editice: six lofty solitary columns, formerly the peristyle uf the chief shrine, to which all the rest of this temple was only Kubordinulc. The s(]uare marked out by tlieir foundations is said to be 2G8 feet long, and 'i4G wide. The shafts of the coluimis are .?K feet high and 21 in circumference; their entire height 71 or 72 feet. The order is Coriiilliian, and the workmanship of the richest and most splendid description. To the leU i> a smaller temple, the walls of which, and the peristyle, composed of thirty-four columns, are still entire. After passing over t>" .:l(s of columns, ruined walls, and other obstacles, lliegate may be reached, and a view olinii!' 1 of the interior, now roofless; but instead of Ihe grand spectacle of a prostrate and uiiv.<:.ig people, and of sacrifices olfered by a multitude of priests, the light uf heaven shows only a chaos of ruins covered with dust and weeds. Nature and barbarism have combined in demolishing this noble fabric. When Wood and Dawkins visited it in 1751, there weri: standing nine columns of the great temple: Voliiey found only six; and of the small i. inple they found twenty-eight, he only twenty. These have been partly overthrown by the eartlu(uake of 1751, partly undermined by the inhabitants for the ;ake of the iron c 'iivps, by which the several blocks composing the columns are so closely held together as not to leave room for the blade of a knife. Of these blocks, now lying on the ground, some are of enormous dimensions ; three of 58, one of 69 feet lonK> The natives, astonished at the power by which these fragments have been transported, ascribii the ori;;in of the edifice to genii acting under the orders of king Solomon. It is customary in these countries to refer every great work to that prince ; and Volney, with some reason, derides the idea of his having erected a Corinthian temple ; prefering on good grounds the tradition which refers the erection of this noble structure to the reign of Antoninus Pius. Dr. Richardson, however, conceived that he clearly discovered, under the Grecian orders, u trace of Jewish foundations ; in which case Baalbec would fufm a very natural position for the " house of the forest of Lebanon," on which Solomon bestowed so much cost and care ; and, when accident and time had demolished it, the new edifice might have been built upon its site. 3764. After traversing all the branches of Lebanon to the eastern border of Syria, we arrive «t the noble plain of Damascus. The environs of this city rank as the paradise of the East. Ranges of hills, branching oS' from the high chains of Lebanon, enclose it, and pour dowu 3 M H r fS ^' 896 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. PAai IIL iiumeruus waters, which unite in forming the boasted Abana and Pharpar of tlie ancients Those waters, indeed, cannot penetrate beyond tlie desert boundary on the cast, where thev ure soon evaporated in a large lalce ; but before reaching it, tliey irrigate every portion of the plain and even of the city, and communicate to the former its matchless beauty and fertilitv, Tliere is, perhaps, no city which has had a longer duration. From the earliest a<»es the existence of Damascus has been recorded, and always as a great capital. It is named in the history of Abraham ; it is celebrated for its wars with the kings of Israel ; it has survived all the variety of desolating revolutions which have passed over this part of Asia. Under the Turkish empire it has maintained a high importance, being on the route of the great caravans to Mecca, whence even the Turks esteem it holy, and call it the "gate of the Caaba," This causes not only an immense resort, but n great trade, which the pilgrims are careful to combine with tlie pious objects of their journey. Damascus has lost the manufacture of sword blades for which it was famous in the middle ages ; but it has still considerable fabrics of silk and cotton ; and the fruits of the neighbouring plain, dried and prepared into sweet- meats, are sent to every part of Turkey. It is at present the most flourishing city in Syria' a distinction which it owes to the excellent character of several successive pachas, throui'li whose exertions the whole of their territory has assumed an improved and cultivated aspect which strongly contrasts with the desolate condition of that of Acre. Damascus is built of brick, and its streets are narrow and gloomy, like those of all other Turkish cities, the people reserving their magnificence for the interior courts and palaces. The great mosque, of which Europeans can obtain only stolen glances, is very splendid, and the bazaar has no rival in the East for convenience and beauty. Several of the streets have rivulets runiiini,' through them, which afford plentifully the great Eastern luxury of water. Alany of the coffee-houses are built on the banks, and the Turk enjoys the luxury of smoking and sipping his coffee while the cool stream is flowing at his feet. The delight of tlie Damas- cenes is to make excursions into the environs of the city, adorned with numberless gardens and to the " plain of roses," covered with that beautiful flower in its utmost perfection. The Hebrew name of Damascus, or Demesk, is not now known to the Orientals, who call it Sham, or El Sham. The inhabitants, amounting to about 100,000, have a bad reputation in the East, where Sham Shoumi, " the wicked Damascene," has even passed into a proverb' but perhaps the alliteration may have had some share in promoting its currency. .■JTGS. Almost all iHe remainder qf the plain of Eastern Syria is vatercd by the Orontcs, in its long course from south to north along the foot of Ix^banon. Thougli it has not the brilliancy and beauty ol that of Damascus, it is yet well fitted for grain and pasturage, and anciently produced thrm in abundance. In modern times, from its exposure to the plundering Arabs, .gainst whom the government has not energy lo defend it, it has been in a great measure abandoned. On this route, however, occur two celebrated cities still not wholly deserted. The first is Hems, abo\it 1(K) miles north of Damascus, on the site of the ancient Emesa. It was a considerable place under the Roman empire, having acquired notoriety, though not glorv OS the birth-place of Heliogabalus. At present, only a fourth of ite is occupied ; and the place is iiotej merely for some antiquities of inferior im|>ortance. Forty miles farther north is Hamah, once supiiosed to lie the ancient Apainea, but which Pococke seems to have proved to represent Euiphaniii. 'that traveller found in it no coins more ancient than those of the Greek empire. Hamah, which Volney reckoned at only VM, is ■up|)08ed by Ourckhardt to contain 30,000 inhabitants. They subsist chiefly by supplying the wants of tlic Arabs, who roam over the vast desert to the east as far as the Euphrates. These freeliooters arc dctcrrnl from their usual violent proceedings, partly by a tacit convention, but more ciTectnally by a IxHiy of 3iio or 400 horse, stationed here for that purmsc by the I'acha of Damascus. Famieh, called by liurckhann Kalaat-el-Medyhrj is a mere village, with an old castle, containing all that remains of the real Apainea. Tliis spot, where the kings of Syria once maintained 500 elephants and SO,(KKI horses, is now so marsliy and inuii. dated, that it can scarcely support a few buffaloes. Volney allows it SOUO inhabitants. It is situated near tlje banks of a considerable lake abounding with fish. 37fi6. At the Orontes approaches the lower part of its course, it is bordered on the east by a range of moun. tains, which reduces to a breadth of six or seven miles the valley through which it flows. This valley, inundated during the summer, yields line pasture. Burckhardt there found the village of Hoasliu, containing about 140 houses ; and farther down, on the borders o.*' the territory of Aleppo, is the large but dirty town ul Shogger or Shoggle. 3767. That we may visit Palmyra before quitting the Orontes, we must make an excur- sion into the depth of tlie Syrian desert, which extends far to the eastward. The traveller sets out from the small village of Hussia, to the south of Hems. He finds himself on a great naked plain, where the stunted shrubs alTord but a scanty browsing to the antclupe. At the distance, however, of every three or four hours of march, occur little villages, or ratlier cluste.'s of hut<- where rest may bo obtained : Sodoud, Houaroin, Karictein. From the last place Palmyru can be reached only by a march of twenty-four miles over an expanse of unihterrupted desert. When this weary route has been passed, the hills, wljich have hitherto run in parallel lines about ten miles distant from each other, close in, and form a narrow valley, traversed by a ruined aqueduct, and on whose sides appear a number of tombs. At length the valley opens, and the eye is struck with a most amazing extent of ruins, covering a wide expanse of the desert ; behind which, towards the Euphrates, stretches a level waste, as far as the eye can reach, without any object manifesting either life or motion. In this surprising scene, the front view presents a range of Corinthian pillars, occupying a space of more than a mile, and behind which, crowds of other edifices appear in dim ])crspective. The grandest, and also the most entire structure, is that called the Temple of the Sun. The court of this temple has a wall nearly complete, in wbicb ai>peur twelve noble windows. Ueliiiid ris" the ruins of the temple itself, almost wliollji Book II- TURKEY IN ASIA. 897 composed of iiiiigiiiiicent ranges of Corinthian columns (Jig. 559.) supporting a rich enta- blature,\vhich has, partially at least, resisted the injuries of time. The eastern gateway, on which all the resources of Grecian art have been lavished, is still in a tolerably perfect state. A noble arch, far. ther to the right, forms the com- mencement of a truly superb colonnade, which, even in its shat- tered and broken state, may be traced to the distance of 4000 feet. Tiic vacuities left hy the fallen columns open a view to the other ruins; and the remains of mag- hil'ii'i'iit stnicturcs are scon through the intcrcolumniations. Sometimes a group oftlirefl or four columns, standing entire, indicates some grand edifice, of which they arc all that is W'fU But besides these ruins, from which definite indications may be drawn, a vast number uf scattered columns cover the plain, some with and some without their entablatures ; and the ground is every where strewed with broken pillars, scattered capitals, defaced sculptures, and large marble fragments, all lying prostrate in the dust. 3768. 77(1' earlu and high importance of Palmyra, or Tadmor, appears eviilently derived from its being the i'liaiinel by which Indian commodities passed across tlic desert to the countries of the West Solomon, who Mcupiiil and enclosed it with strong walls, is reported as its founder; but was probably attracted by the ircaltli whicli commerce had already drawn to this desolate sjrat The historical greatness of Palmyra, how. ever, l)cgan only in the reign of Aurclian, when the spirited and high-minded Zenobia ventured to' establish it XI ail iiidciK-ndcnt kingdom, and to set at defiance the master of the Roman world. The issue of this daring attempt was fatal J Zcnobia was carrieiiilt on several hills, above which are seen towering numerous minarets and domes which command a deligi'tful prospect, especially to the eye fatigued with the monotony of the brown and parched plains that stretch around. Aleppo is very populous ; Dr. Russel, who resided tlicrc for many years, reckons the number at 235,OCO, and is probably more to be depended im than other early travellers, who riiisc it to nearly ;!(X),000. Volney, on the other hand, calculating that Aleppo dues not stand on more ground than IMarseilles or Nantes, and that tlie houses have only one story, reduces the estimate to about 100,000 ; but these data seem too vague to stand against the positive and careful calculations of other travellers. Sectzen h»B lately assigntil 150,000; but whether that number result from a decline in the place, or a different mode of estimate, may admit of question. Aleppo is generally accounted the third city in the Turkish empire, yielding only to Constantinople and Cairo. This great- ness it owes to the vast extent of its inland troile, for which it is most favourably situated, in front of Syria, and in close vicinity to Asia Minor, Armenia, and Persia. It is also a rendezvous for pilgrims from all these countrie? to Mecca. Athough it contains no grand monuments, nor even any very magnificent modern edifices, it is yet reckoned the neatest and best built of the Turkish cities. At least its streets have those negative qualities which are almost all that can be expected in an Eastern city. They are less narrow, less dirty, and tlie walls, built of a species of white stone, have not quite so gloomy an aspect. The society 19 also represented as displaying more of toleration and urbanity than that of other Mahometan cities. This may be chiefly owing to the many strangers, of all religions, who aic attracted 3 M 3 098 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. by its commerce ; since the Cliristian population alone is reckoned at3!,000, and the Jew' I at 5000. A violent principle of scliism had, however, always subsisted between tlic tan'' sartcs on one side, and the pacha with his adherents on the other. While the Ottoman pow'^ remained entire, the latter easily maintained their predominance, and the discontent of th Janissaries was vented in occasional tumult or impotent growling. In 1804, however aft * a somewhat bloody contost, they succeeded in making themselves masters of the citv Aleppo thus, like Algiers and Tunis, became subjected to the sway of a turbulent soldierv It suffered, but not in an equal degree. The janissaries preserved a good police, and chiefly employed themselves in systematically extorting as much money as possible from the inhabit. ants. Each of the latter was obliged to purchase, at a high rate, the protection of a janissary * and having paid this price, he was secure in the possession of his remaining property. ' 3771. Leu than Uoenlyyeari agoAleftpo teat visited by a cnlnmlty qf the most dreailful nature whirh h,. r«hdcred Its future existence as a city problematical. On the nicht ol'the 13th of August, 1822 not dniv ihp ?2 Itself, but every town and village in the pachalic, were sh»lcen almost to pieces by an earthquake which »»« r if IVom Ularbcklr to Cyprus. The most appalling picture is drawn of the horrors of thatdreadful night- thpnu'rii darkness, the quick repetition of the most violent shocks, the crash of falling walls, the shrieks tho orZ^. --»"■--«:-:_:, even of food and shelter. Exposed to a tropical sun and to nightly damps, and scantily fed, a larte DroMH?™ became a prey to disease : and even the liberal subscription collected in London for the sufferers nfovpH a very Inadequate relief. It has been supposed that Aleppo would never again rear its head, and that its rnm inerce would be removed to Smyrna. But its site possesses advantages which cannot be transferred elsewhcKi and which must always, it should seem, occasion the existence of a great city in this part of Syria. 3772. The remaining cities in the pachalic of Aleppo present only faint traces of that grandeur by which they were formerly distinguished. Antioch {fig. 560.), the ancient queen of the East, is only a poor, ill. S60 •-> , .-^"-•"^ '--'»- built, little town, containing, ' " according to Colonel Squire, not more than 11,000 inhabit- ants. This city was built by Antiochus and Seleucus Nica- nor, and was the capital of the Gra:co-Syrian dynasty. Under Rome its wealth and distinction were still further augmented ; and it became, at an early period, the scat of the most flourishing of the Cliristian churches. In the great crusad- ing expedition, Antioch was the first place which fell into the hands of the Christians; and it continued a main centre of their power till 1269, when it was taken by Bibars, the sultan of Egypt. All the fury of Mahometan bigotry was then let loose upon a city long supposed a main bulwark of the Christian power. Its churches, accounted the finest in the world, were razed to the ground, and the site of those edifices, once the boast of Asia, can now with difficulty be traced. Aleppo, under Moslem auspices, became the emporium and capital of Syria ; and Antioch soon sunk into insignifi- cance. For the reason above stated, scarcely a renuiant is left of those structures which rendered it the pride of the East. The most remarkable object is a jiortion of the city wall, which has resisted so many disasters, and even earthquakes. It is of great stren<;th, built of stone, and defended by noble towers, at equal distances. In some ])laccs it is carried up the hills which border the city on the side opposite the Orontes ; in others, along almost per- pendicular heights. Yet a walk, rendered accessible by steps, has been carried nil round il, The aqueducts also remain, and are fine, though not more so than those of some other Eastern cities. n77.1 The environs of Antioch have been particularly famed for their luxuriant and romantic a»poft. In. deed, the banks of the lower Oroiitos, for a considerable 8|>ace, arc said to e<|ual any thinp in ilic world in (mint of picturesque beauty. Mount Casius, the termination of I.«banoii, towers above it to a very loDy lelitht, and the inferior mountain ranges run along the river, presenting broken precipices, nirks, and cairt nverhung with a luxuriant variety of foliage; myrtle, laurel, tig, arbutus, and sycamore. Travelirn hive parliciilurly sought the grove and fountains of nnphne, celebrated for the temple of Apollo, and tlio dissoliilc superstitions of pagan Antioch. The site \* usually tixed about live miles from thecity.on thenmdtoUtakia, and on a spot wfierc a iiiimlier of fountains, bubbling o\A at the earth with a loud noise, terminate in Iwo be.iulillil cnscailes which fall into the valley of the Orontes. Instead, however, of magniliceiit templeiand stately groves, it exMbits only a few rlay-bnilt water-mills surrounded with dwarf myrtles. .')774. On a plain to the south of the Orontes is the stiiiggling seaport of Sunrieah, and near it the remainiol Selenria Plena, a city of great impnrtincc under the tings of Syria. Strength seems to have been rhifliy studied, with the supiiosed object of forming a retreat in case Antioch shculd ever fall into the hands ol .in Invader, There are still reniains of a . oulile wall built on high ditt's overlooking the bed of a niouiilain torrent The outer wall is built of very large stones, and the inner defended by turrets of fifty imcm apart There are also remains of large piers which torincii and defended the harbour. I'ocockc calls tlieplarc K^et, and notices a singular ornament usc« south and west. '^'!t(M,an,l Jf,r„n„ ' Wmb!'irt'rsc&' -*«. rill "*" "I'ilit I ''■'""'"'a ,,f'"f^^''r'•■v' Book II. TURKEY IN ASIA. *n5 About thirty mUes to the norlh-mat qf Aniloch la Scamteruun, or AloXHiiilrctln, which the Turk» mile the port of Aleppo. It iwssesses a very fine road, the only k<"hI aiichornm" >ii nil Syria. On the other kVml extensive nurrounding marshes render the town subject to cpUtiMnlu di>iMio« In n dcRrec beyond any nlhpr in the Turkish dominions. Being, therel'ore, inhabited only by thiwe wlnnn the nlwolulc nci'e«»itic« of commerce compel to make it their residence, it has never been any IhinH innrcthnn ii largo oiicn villaKc; and, nf lite a Kreai part of its trade has been transferred to I..atakla. Tho only re»ourci, which the residents of 2-inlcroon poetess, is an occasional retirement to Hedan, a cool and dullRlitl\il villuKO, tllnateil among the mountains of the west 'J'ho houses arc built along the declivity of a hill, to that thu terraced roofs of one [ow serve as streets to the row tmmetliately above. SuusECT. 3. Asia Minor, 3776. Alia Minor, anotht-r of the great divisions of Asintic Turkey, dciivcB n deep interest fVom sources unconnected with the degraded race by wliioh it in now ruled. Its physical features, indeed, are not on so sublime a scale, nor does its past hiNtury recall events so awful and solemn, as those which distinguished the banks of the Jordan and the Orontes. Still the scenes of nature which it presents are full of grandeur, and its antiquities aro replete with historical interest. 3777. Asia Minor forms a large oblong peninsula, about 700 tniles in length, and some- what more than 400 in breadth. It is almost completely separated from the rest of Asia, not only by the seu, which surrounds the greater part of it, but by the nlniost impassable . mountains and elevated wastes which closely bar the broad isthmus by which it is joined. The structure of this country is remarkable. Its interior is completely encompassed with a girdle of lofty mountains. They run parallel to the sea-coast, somutimeii closely approachinp' It sometimes leaving intermediate plains and valleys of considerable extent. On the south runs the celebratetl chain of Taurus, continued on the west by Tmolus nnd Sipylus, which look in with a northern chain, including the summits of Ida and Olympus. Some of those heights «re extremely elevated. The highest, indeed, actually measured by Mr. Ainsworth, in the Cilician chain, was only 5650 ; but some more distant ones, being coverctl with perpetual snow, could not fall short of 10,000. Mr. Hamilton found Mount Argajus (Arpish), near Cssa'rea, 13,3(X). Olympus exceeds 9000. These mountains enclose u vost interior hollow, which is. however, considerably elevated, and into which they pour almost all their waters. We must, indeed, except those of the east, which are conveyed by tlie Halys, the modern Kizil Irmak, into the Black Sea ; and part of the western waters, which find their way by the Sangarius into the same receptacle. But Mr. Leake calculates that tlicrt! is an interior space, of 250 miles in length and 150 in breadth, of whose copiuiiH watera no part finds its way to the sea. They terminate in a long chain of littltt saline lakes, and during the rainy season cause wide iimndations. It is even supposed that, at that period, the whole region would be laid under water, but for some elevated ridges by which it is penetrated. A territory covered with such profuse moisture would require a more industrious people than the Turks, to render it fit for the production of grain. It forms an immense range of pasture, over which are led numerous flocks of sheep, droves of horses, and, in the hilly tracts, herds of goats ; while the inhabitants lead nearly the same irregular and nonutdic life which ))revails among the Tartar hordes 3778. The part of Jsia Minor which intervenes between tho mountains ond the sea presents a different and more smiling aspect. This is pMticularly tho case with the western tracts of the peninsula. The Cayster, the Caicus, the Meander, and the llermus roll through enchanted valleys stored with the richest gifls of nature. Taurus, on the south, presses closer upon the sea ; but it still leaves ranges of finely watered, though not extended, valleys. On the northern shore, also, which extends along the Enxine, the inlcrval between tlie mountains and the sea is often very narrow ; though the plains of Sinope, of Amisus, and of Trebisond have been the seat of great and powerful kingdoms. They are marked, however, ratlier by the substantial productions of grain and pasturage, ami in the mountains by the useful minerals of copper and iron, than by the gay fruits and smiling luxuriance of the south and west. 3779. In histort/, the interesting transactions connected with Asia Minor havo l>c<>n iin numerous and varied. tiat wc Ciin attempt only a very rapid enumeration. The tlrst pirtiirc Is that of Us nations when arrayed anaiiist Greece in the Ti'ojan war. Troy, in that great contest, ilrew auxiliiirles IVoiii (iiiriu, Syria, M)>la, Phryijia, aiul Meonia, so that it became almost a contest of Greece against Asia. Kven thu tircek pencil of Homer seems to delineate on the Asiatic side a people more polisheower, but much more afterwards for wealth and Iux.irlous edbnilnivey. These unwniliko slates soon yielded to the arms of Persia, were included within Its empire, and their avis nnd resources screed only to swell the i>omp of its satraps. In this humiliating sltuatinn, they lust nil their former high aluinmciits ; and it became of little im|)ortance that they passed aomotlmes tnider the sway of Athens, nnd »tre ruled by lirecks instead of barbarians After the conaueat of Alexniulor, however, and when his rapidly fornuKl empire fell so suddenly to pieces, some of tno most eonsplcuous nniong tho tVngnients «crc kingdoms established l>y his successors in Asia Minor. It was Iheie Hint Aiitlgiiiius nnd De- metrius collected a great portion of the resources with which they made i-ucli a inlghly struggle for the sujiremacy among the Macedonian chiefs. Alter their fall, the kingdom of I'ergnimis w«s IliuiidiHl, wlnwe ponces, hy their own ability, anil the alliance of the Konians, biTiinie for some llnio the niII\ sunk. .Amu Mlimt wai 900 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. I'ARI III. reduced completely into a Roman province, anil mnilc few and (oel)lc attempts to shake ofT the yoke It ua chiefly distinguished in ecclesiastical history by the formation of ajiostolic churches, and the assemblage n! general councils j ol which those of Nice and Chalccilon, in particular, had an important influence on thil belief and worship of the Christian world. Protecteil by its distance from Arabia, and by the mountain chains of Taurus, this iwninsula cscaiKHl in u great measure the tide of Saracen invasion. 'I'hat great succcsjion nf hordes, however, who, under the appellation of Toorks or Turks, i>ourcii lately exhibited by the Porte, has become so universal. The different pachas act nearly as indcnciiiicni princes, make peace or war with each other, and can only be displaced by manoeuvre or intrigue. I'aswaii Uglou, in particular, established at Ooscat an indei)endent kingdom, supiiortcd by an army of 4<),U00 men ami scarcely yieldetl to the Porte a nominal submission. ' 3780. The Turks have made a political division of Asia Minor into pachalics; of which the principal are Anadoli on the west, Trebizond on the north coast, Sivos and Konieh in the interior, Adana on the soutli coast, and the Mussellim of Cyprus. For reasons already stated, however, we shall not pay much regard to this ephemeral division, but recognise the country chiefly under other names which, though unknown in it< present fallen state, are alone interesting to a Euro|)can reader. 37.S1. The local survey to be made of this region, will most advantageously commence from the south-eastern corner, where the narrow pass of Isshs allows the only communication with Syria and the countries on the Euphrates; and where Alexander, by a signal victory, o|icned his way into the boundless regions of Asia Pococke and !>' A nville place this cclebr.itcd spot near the village of Ayas, in a plain two miles long, and three quarters bro.id, enclosed between the hills and the sea. Mr. Kinneir, after a careful survey, seeks to transfer it to another plain more spacious, two miles in width, hemmed in by loftier mountains, and about sixteen miles north of Scandcroon. He contends that this 8|>ace was ni-cessary to enable two such armies to be dr.i»ii up in order of battle; and that it agrees with the data given by the ancient historians and gcogrnphi'r.i. Wr have not space to enter into the minute details of this controversy, Pias was till Uiteiy the wealthy anil populous seat of a marauding freebooter, who plundered the caravans, and laid the neighbouring distririi under contribution ; but the Porte having succeeded in reducing him, his capital also went to ruin. 37S2. The ancient Cilicia, now the pachalicof Adana, consists of two districts; the mountain range, com|)osed of som" of the most lofty and rugged branches of Taurus ; and the level tract, comiiosed of the t»o considerable and extremely fruitful plains of Adana and of Taurus, Adana, situated on the Gcliouii, the ancient Sarus, is a very ancient capital, and still a flourishing town surrounded by extensive cotton plantation', tolerably built, and presents, in testimony of Us former magniflcence, some walls and a magniflccnt gateway. Its situation is agreeable, on a declivity above the river, which is larger than the Cydnus, and enclosed by IVuit trees and vineyards. Tarsus retains its name and its (Kisilion on the Cydnus ; but Mr, Kinneir suught in vain for any monuments corresponding to its great name. The materials ot all its ancient structures seem In have been taken down to build the modern city, which has thus a neater appearance than is very usual in Turkey ; but as these flne hewn stones are merely built into houses of one story high, the place ho« no air of magiiinccnce. Tarsus was not only the capital of Cilicia, but, under the auspices of lionie, rose to lie one nf the princi|>al cities of the empire, both for wealth and for the cultivation of science and literature. It may be recollecteil as being the birtli-placc of St. Paul ; and there is still an ancient church which bcirs his name. Tarsus continues a iwpulous and stirring place. Its i)opulation,as well as that of Adana, is estimated at about 30,000 each ; to a great part of whom, liowevcr, these cities afford only winter quiirters. 'I'lic Tiireoman shepherds viio, in summer, pasture their flocks on the heights of Taurus, during the rigorous season s»k shelter for ti in in the rich plains around these cities. That of Adana is of exuberant fecundity, and, being tolerably cultivated, yields wheat, barley, sesame, and cotton, not only for home use, but in large quantities fur exportation. To these are addcnl copper from the northern districts, and gall nuts from the mountaini. The returns are taken in coflcc, rice, sugar, and hardware. Tarsus, however, is seven or eight miles from the sea, 378;J. To the cast of Adana is another plain equally fertile, on which the imcient Mopsus, or Mopsne>li, is still found under the immc of Mcssis, This place, however, has been occupied by a band of Tummiaii depredators, who have reduced the plain around to a state of desolation, and the place itself to a poor villigc, cumiwsed of mud cottages. 378J. At the weilem boundary of Cilicia begins the coast of Pamphylia, to which the moderns giveliit name of Caramania, fVom an early Turkish kingdom formed upon the coast, of which Karainan, in thi interior, was the capital. This tract consists of a succession of valleys separated by ridges that brancli from the loftier heights of Taurus. These valleys, though often narrow, arc usually watered by line strearas,and very fertile. The ridges often tcrniin.ttc by presenting to the sea, in the boldest and most picturesque form-, lofty pcrix;ndicular dill's of limestone or marble. .■JiHa. Setefkeh, on the (ihiuksu (the ancient Calycadnus), a river of some magnitude, is merely an assembijgt of cottages built of wood or earth , but near it are considerable vestiges of the ancient Selcucia. 'lllercisi theatre partly cut out of the side of a hill; and in front of it a long line of porticoes and other remain- of large ancient eilifices. In the vicinity is an extensive necropolisnrcemetery, consisting, as usual, of numerniii tombs cut in the rock, with some sculpture, and a variety of inscriptions. An aga resides here, subject lotlr governor of Cyprus. Farther up the river, near its junction with a tributary called tiie Krmin.ih, is .V:»/,i miserable village of 20f) hovels, built with reeds and mud, while some wretciied inhabitants .seek their .ibolf in the roiky caverns. This, however, was the site of a magniflccnt ancient city, supposwl by Mr. Kinneir lo have been I'hiladelphia, the plan and principal ciliflces of which may be distinctly tracwl. The cottages arc intermingleil with lung coloiniades and porticoes, still partially standing ; and pillars of vcrd anti(|uc ami otlin marbles lie half buricil, or covered by ruined mosques and houses. 'I he castle is large, anil nearly entire; ii is built on a priripice overhanging thetihuiksu; its walls are surmounted with battlements llankeJn square towers open to the interior. This scene of wretchedness, the result of misgovcriniiciil, is IbunJ ini valley, the aspect of which promises peculiar fertility. It abounds also with the most beautiful sieiiery j IH pastures, groves, ami streams, of the lower tracts contrasting admirably with the majestic forms if »'< mountains above, atid the dark woods with which they are covered. ^ , /, i 378li. Proceeding westward along the coast from Selefkeh, is found Kelendri, called by the Inrks (.uliiii.i few wretchcil hovels, built amid the ruins of the aticicnt Cclendcris, which lie about in scatternl jw mouldering heaps, llerc, however, a magazitic and a custom-house arc kept, to maintaiti the corainunitiiB 3787, Looking from Kelendri, on the opposite side of a small bay, a grand feature presents ilselt infij( Anamour, the most southerly imiiit of Asia Minor, presenting to the Mediterranean a bold, and on one iKt inactcBsible, clifl'. The other side is sccurcil by a castle, nnil a double range of lofty walls, withui *nic.l w the remains of the ancient Aiieinuria. It apiiears to have lieen considerable ; but scarcely a block or frajitm of nmrblo remains. Only the abodes of the dead remain entire, exhibiting a remarkable i>rool of ilieiluraiiii" of their materials, compared with those which formed the habitations of the living. These lomlj*, nmi; " Book 1I> TIIUKEY IN ASIA. 901 which (litploy cnnililornlilv ninuiilKroiliiv, hnvc nil been opened } but their walk arc still fitniiding. Tlic snot iiciiliroly (IcaortiHl « but nboiit itlx nilli'ii illntnut In the modern castle of Anomour, a large cdiflcc, now going to 'Ulll' . ... ,1788. Capo Anamour la •U(M'PIhIi>ose". At the head of the Gulf of Cos is Melasso, rather a considerable modern town, the residence of an ago, though ill built ; but it is distinguished as occupying the site of Mylasa i Jig. 56[i.), once a c.ipital of Caria. The temples of this city were in ancient times so numerous, that a crier, entering the market-place, instead of the usual excla- mation, " Hear, ye pco. pie!" called out, "Hear, ye temples I " They arc now almost entirely Je. molished ; and of on^ very fine portico, of the Com. ])0site order, which was found by I'ococke, there remained, in Chandler's time, only the basement. The tombs are extremely numerous, and sumcareof peculiar structiuc. .^boiil ten miles to the south-east, Eskihissar, a poor modem village, stands on the silt of Stratonicea. nim. Lower down the tame gtilf, to many parts of which it gives its own name, is 7?<»rfroom,on IhesilJ of llallcarnassus {Jl/!- M*.l It Is still a considerable Turkish cruising port, with a uiodcrn cast o ai» pnlnre that possess slicnglh and magnificence. There are no remains at all entire, oxcopt iniioi i theatre overliauging the town j but the attentive eye of the traveller soon discovers numerous iragnm liidlcalive of the liirnier existence of a magnificent c ly. A traveller of the sixteenth ccnlurv aOT j that hi- saw some vcHiities ivf the mausoleum of Artc.nisia; and the exquisite beauty "' "•■"™ " ^ fragments now trnnsferrcd to mndcrii buildings seems to characterise them u having iKlongw w"™ j AnCM or MVr.A!tA. Book II. celebrated structure. jdjoinini! whose beautiful but a lUHbrcnt opinion now 3800, Jl'e have reache of the Meander, whose of Ionia, At every st .Magnesia, on the Meam town, and the Turkish huilt on a hill which c Jleaiidcr, reaching dowi Ihc usual Turkish mate mimerous courts and ga with its lofty minarets. Turkey. Guzelhissar is and cotton yarn, part of circumstances make it the most considerable pi general only their found of a very splendid temp; phryne. Mr. Leake, he river, at a place called J makes the Guzelhissar r village of Snitanhissar, Nysa. On the opposite cent paLice and other r Aniioch on the Meander excellence of its figs. C »liich was a large town i "ere swallowed u|i by ar point, the lofty cliffs ai furks Baba Dagh, the wneath them consists ( majestic remains of Laoc 3801. I.aodicea is situ ;«' ; at the base of whi< by Antiochus, but did i about the Christian era. grandeur to a Grecian ci Clous m.-iterials(^. 566. walls. At present the d a fox passing from l)el i-iiodicea. On the opposi were formerly so celebra Book II< celebrated struclure. TURKEY IN ASIA. ootf Iricies inaerted Into the walU of the cattle have been considered at •pccimeni .„. or sculpture equal to those of " ''-^'■■' S^',- J>»_ -, 5b4 the Parthenon. ' ' " 37!»y. I'urnl he head of the bay of Bomlroom, wc find on a smaller bay, Assam Kalasi, the ancient Jassua, marked by many monuments, chiefly se. pulchral. Across a broad nock ol' land, on the Latonian Ruir, travellers sought, but have scarcely found, the still more celebratti site of Miletus. On the opposite side of the same gulf is the village of Pa. latsha, the considerable ruins idioining whose beautiful site have been supposed by Spon and others to be those of Miletus (flg.bPb.); Iiul a (liKcrcnt opinion now prevails. nAKnncR op malicarnaiiiui. 3800. n'e have reached the finest and vwst celebrated region of Asia Minor ; at the inouth of the Meander, whose winding stream waters the most extended and fertile of all the vales of loniu. At every step we ascend occur the remains of magnificent cities. Those of Magnesia, on the Meander, are usually supposed to be found at Guzelhissar, itself a large town, and tlie Turkish capital of this district. It is about four miles in circumference, built on a hill which commands an extensive and beautiful view over the valley of the Meander, reaching downward as far as the sea. Even the city itself, though composed of the usual Turkish materials, presents considerable beauty in its exterior aspect, containing nuinerouN courts and gardens, tilled with orange and cypress trees, whose foliage mingles with its lufty minarets. Even the streets are broader and better disposed than is usual in Turlicy. Guzelhissar is the residence of a pacha, and carries on a great trade in cotton 311(1 cotton yarn, part of which is maimfactured within itself into coarse calicoes. These circumstances make it the residence of many Jews, and other rich merchants, and one of the most considerable places ii' Asia Minor. The ruins are scattered in fragments, and in general only their foundations can be traced ; but Fococke saw on the north side remains of a very splendid temple, which appeared likely to be the celebrated one of Diana Leuco- phryne. Mr. Leake, however, places the site of Magnesia twelve miles lower down the river, at a place called Juckbazar, where Van Egmont found a number of large ruins. He makes the Guzelhissar ruins to be those of Tralles, which have been usually referred to the village of Siiltanhissar, fifteen miles higher up, but where Mr. Leake finds the remains of Nysa, On the opposite side of the river, near the village of Yeni Bazar, is found a magnifi- cent pahce and other remains of the ancient Alabanda. Near Yeni Shehr are those of Antiocli on the Meander, in a neighbourhood still celebrated, as in ancient times, for the excellence of its figs. Considerably farther up, some miles from the left bank, is Degnizlei, which was a large town at the beginning of the last century, when 1 2,000 of its inhabitants were swallowed up by an earthquake : it has since become a very poor place. From this point, the lofty cliffs and snowy pinnacles of the great encircling range, callec'i by the - Turks Uaba Dagh, the " father of mountains," begin to appear ; but the foiegroiind beneath tliem consists of a tract crossed by low calcareous hills. Amid theso are the majestic remains of Laodicea and of Hierapolis. nsoi. Laodicea is situated on a hill of dry, hard porous earth, which resounds under the feet ; at the base of which flows the Lycus, a tributary of the Meander. It was founded by Antiochus, but did not rise to high importance until under the Roman empire, and about the Christian era. It presents, in shattered profusion, all the monuments which gave grandeur to a Grecian city ; and its columns appear to have been formed of the most pre- cious materials (^. 566.). These remaii.s cover the whole surface enclosed within the walls. At present the desertion is complete : there is neither house, church, nor mosque ; a fox jjassing from behind a wall was found by Dr. Chandler the only inhabitant of Laodicea. On the opposite side, and nearer the Meander, is Hierapolis, whose mineral baths were formerly so celebrated. The mountain above it has been completely petrified by the iM4 DESCRIPTIVE GEOORAIMIY. P*M III. ■TAUIUH AT lAODIOBA* Streams flowing down its sides, which have given it, when seen front u distu.u-c, the ann aiicc of chullc, and, on n nearer view, that of an innnenso frozen caHcade. 'I'lic incruHt T'' is alkaline, without taste or smell, and elfervesees with auids. The riiitis are extensiv" •"" very lieautiful and perfect theatre, the marble seats of which are Klill standing; two '' " churches; and, an might Ic expected, most ample and magniflcent baths, composed'"'!' marble, combined with tht petrified substimccs, and formed above into huge vaults tl ■ appearance of which is almost awful. The site of Colimo appears to he in this nuiuhbou" hood, and has been fixed at a Turkish castle on a rock called Konous, which, howev' presents no ruins of the requisite magnitude. ' *"' 3MH From the mouth of the Mfaruler the cuant mnkcn a Inrao circuit, utrctchliiH nut till onlv ■ n»» atrml separates it from tlic islmul of Samoa. This snot was llu' llientrc of tlio cclobriiteil iiiival urt "* Mycalc, aoarbarians, Justinian removed the columns to ailorn llie church of St. Sophia at Constantinople. Il can now be Idciililicd iiidy by the marshy s|H)t on which itm erected, and by the prodigious extent and magidtudc of the arches raisiHl aliove as a foimdalion, The vaulu formed by them com|>osc a sort of labyrinth, and pure water Is knecdiH'p imderneatli, 'I'licrc is not an aiuirtment entire; but thick walls, sliafbi of columns, and fVagments of every kind, are confuscilly leatternl 'MM. The Up/ier Cairns presents, in its short course, no trace of any celelirated ciV.v. It has, however, on Its southern bank a mo( presenting no nionii. mcnts to justify the inferences wliich might be drawn lYom so remarkable a name. It is large and well bnili, and from fourteen to twenty minarets, rising amid trees and surrouiidliig gardens, give it a verv lieaiilifnl apiiearance. Its flourishing state is iluc to its situation in the llnest |)art of the vale of Caystcr, whiili jIdiU Lirgc crops of rice, and allbrds the richest |iasturcs. .S80,'>. J>o»i the mouth of the Cai/ater the coast sweeps out into an exteiiileil |ieninsiila, which runs parallel to the island of Scio ; after which it liirns inward, aiul forms u side J that deep bay, at the head of which Smi/ma is situated. This modern cnpitnl of Asia Minor, and emporium of the Levant, ]>resents almost the only renuiiitit of lliat prnsiieriiy which was once so widely diffused. The situation is hucIi, that Smyrini coulil scnrccly fail to be a flourishing place. It has a fine bay, with good anchorage, a secure nnd ca|iM'iiiih harbour, and, behind, a plain watered by the Meles, which produces abundantly frnils ami vegetal)los. Although Smyrna be not placed in any of the great western valleys, il is mi near, aiul in so central a position with respect to tlieni tdl, that it can easily ili'aw from tluni every valuable product. With so advantagemis a site, this city rose early to cininciicc. Its first boast was to have given birth to Homer ; ami it was received, though sonicniiai late, into the Ionian confederacy. It was destroyed by the Lydians, btit, liavin;; been rebuilt by Antigonus, rose then to its highest prosperity ; so that Stralio iironouiiccs it i''C most l>eautiful city of Asia. This praise it owed particularly to its gymnaslinn, it.im|ilc dedicated to Homer, and the general elegance and arrangcnietit of its stp.Ms. Ofllie ancient edifices which stood on the bill above the city, only the ground plan can now Ik Boo«II- TURKEY IN ASIA. 908 §§mmm triced, the whole inntorials having bi-cn removed fur the purpose of building the modern Smymit, which extends ulung tlie bay four miles in length and one in breadth. Its grovcH juid minarets make a magnificent appearance from the sea ; and the hill, though stripped of Its c\ii»^i<^ cdifiuuH, has still a large Genoese castle on its Kuminit, Within arc gloomy ,,m narrow and ill paved streets; but the houses along the shore arc very delightful, havinu gardens stretching down to the water, and summer-houses at their verge. Tlic city is liable to earthquakes, which, unless in 17:19, have caused more fear than injury ; an the country, amid the heights of Ida, It receives, on tlie'lclt arivuM iVom the height of llonarbashi, the site of soi[.>e hot springs, and sever.d reni.irkabic tombs i on the other a smai •lugglsh stream, called the Kallifat Osmack. A larger one, the (ihiumlirek, runs parallel to it on t'hiaiiii' but falls into the sea. The tirst hypothesis was that of Chevalier, according to whom Bonarlin.lii i«llie»ih of Troy, and the stream flowing from it the Scaniander. He thus ubtaineil lor the site of the city a hill ijir fountains, several large tumuli, and other ancient remains. Dr. Clarke, however, having clearly'proHil ili. Meander to be much the greater stream, and iH-aring still the ancient name, rejected the rivulet of lloiiatUiilii as unworthy of notice. 'I'he Simols appeared to him to be found in the Kallilat Osmack, which has a counc of flftecn miles, and a tolerable liody of water, but a slow current ; floods, however, might render it " the rapid Slmoi- " Between these rivers is the village of Tchiblak, which may, he conceives, have heciulic §iif of Troy. A late ingenious writer has sought to lix the Simols in the (ihiumbrek, supposed then to hair fallen Into the Meander, though its course Is now changed. The intervening plain would afl'unl ainiile room ! for the contending armies, and such as no other hypothesis presents ; while within its circuit is a spot aicri taincd by Dr. Clarke to be the New Ilium of Strabn, believed, in his time, though not by himself to lie \C spothesis of Chevalier He imagines that the Bonarbashl, in conseretched cottages occvpy the place of Nice, fO celcl)rated undir the Lower Empire, particularly for Iwo grcot ecclesiastical councils. Those humble clwellingii nr« beautifi'lly situated in a fino plain bordered by the lake, and encbsed by wooded hills, rising i o the lofty heights of Olympus. At the end of this plain the yet entire circuit of ii,'Trffl!»,*'th their lofty towers and mossy gates, make a most magnificent appearance. The interior, however, prestnts an entire contrast. A considerable Turkish town had been built out of the ancient city ; but this too is now deserted, and nothing nppears but ruin upon ruin. The decaying walls of the mosques and palaces are seen cveiy where variegated with columns and other fragments of the mure ancient edifices out of which they were lonslructcd. 3814. On turning the eastern boundary of the Sea of Marmora, we immediately descry mother great fallen capital, Kicomedi tlie modern Ii-Kikmiil. It was an early residence of the kings of Bithynia; but its higlu .t greatness begun under Diocletion, who made it ihe mttropolis of the Uoman empire, the wealth of which he lavished in raising it at onc« to a rivalry with Rome, In this character it was soon supplanted by Constantinople, and all its ornaments were probably carried off to emiiellish this new residence ; for there doei Ml now remain the vestige of an ancient city. Is-Nikmid, containing 700 families, has th« ippcarancc of a town entirely modern. Similar has been the fate of Clialcedon, so distin- guished in ecclesiastical history ; its unoccupied area is covered with cornfields and vine- jards. 3815. Scutari is referred to Constantinople, of which it forms entirely a suburb. Passing, therefore, the Oosphorus, or channel of Constantinople, we reach the DIack Sea and the coast of the ancient Bithynia. It is described as a romantic and beautiful country, intersected with lofty mountains and fertile valleys ; rich in fruits and wine, and abounding in noble forests. Through this region the Sikuria, the ancient Sangarius, after traversing a prat extent of the high interior plains, rolls a full and rapid stream into the Gulf of Erekli. A great part of its lower course is through a gloomy and intricate defile, bordered on each sidi; by rugged perpendicular precipices. To the east of this river the country becomes very lolly and presents an aspect like that of Sweden, being covered with noble pine trees, above «liich rise the snowy tops of the mountains. These rugged and gloomy tracts enclose a large plain, in the heart of which lies Boli, the ancient Hadrianopolis, now a poor town of ilwut lOtX) houses, and twelve mosques; noted for the mineral baths in its vicinity. Due north from Boli, at the foot of stupendous mountains, is the seaport of Erekli (Heraclea), ihich still carries on some commerce, but retains nothing of the grandeur which it dis- pliyed under its original name. I 3iiie, Proceeding eattward, we enter the ancient Paphlagonia, an elevated, rude, and naked njion, with detached cultivated spots, but chiefly occupied l)y the pastoral tribes. The tommercc is carried on by Aniassero, formerly Amastris ; by Gyilros, once Cytorus ; by ] Ineboli, Inichi; but above all by Sinope, This celebrated capital of Pontus, and emporium ofthe Euxinc, though destitute of its former wealth and extensive fisheries, has still ,?000 uuls, with some trade and small naval docks. Mr. Hamilton describes its temples, I grmnasia, and porticos, ns all broken into fragments, and built into the rude fortifications I'hich surround the place. The modern metropolis of all this country is Kostamboul, or Kostamouni, situated about tliirty miles in the interior, in a bare dreary region, bounded n the south by the lofty ridj;es of Olgassus, one ofthe highest parts ofthe great encircling Ithain, It contiiins about 15,000 Turkish and 3000 Greek inhabitants, thirty mosques, and IsMerous Imths. On a high perpendicular rock, in the centre, is a ruinous castle, that |onH)l)clongo(l to the Comncni. 3817. Easfudrd from Kostamboul the country rapidly improves, being watered, among I oilier rivers, by the Kizi/ frmak (Halys), which is the larfrest in Asia Minor, and traverses, I liva circuitous line, nearly the entire breadth of the continent. On this route we pass Ijash Kapri, witli 4000 families and thirteen mosques, situated in a rich valley, and carry- |ii; on sonic manufactures of leather and cotton. It is the ancient Pom|)eiopolis, and Iprescnls some beautiful remains of Greek architecture. Some of the pines in this neigh- Ibourhood measured sixteen feet in circiniiforence, and were immensely high, well fitted to |l«"lhe mast of some tall admiral ;" but they are left to rot, neglected and useless. Here, |il»i is found Weiwode, a large beautiful village, in a narrow valley watered by a rivulet, liad surrounded by hills and groves. Vizier Kapri, beyond the Halys, situated in a rich uioral district, has forty-six villages dependent on it, and contains 2000 inhabitants. 3S18. Aroute almost directly east, through a picturesque, mountainous, and woody country, wstoMe shores ofthe Eiixine,and to Siimsoon, the ancient Amisns. This city, celebrated I'm as an independent Milesian colony, and afterwards as a residence of Mitliridates and pmpcy, has not now above 2000 Turkish inhabitants ; but many of the adjacent villages Vtinhabited by Greeks, who carry on a brisk trade with Constantinople. 1 3819, The ancient kingdom of Pontus, which we are now traversing, consists, in a great Bure, of a very flat plain along the sea-shore, in many places highly cultivated ; in Rn, the streams, unable to rcacli the sea, spread into swamps and moracses. About i ; i !)08 DKSCUIPTIVK OEOOIIAI'IIV. Part 1(1, thirty inilm vMt of HaiiiNiMin, tliu Jckil Irmak, tlio unoivnt Iriw, |m>iim into iliu svn nearly „ lurf(u n Ixxly uf watvr iin tliu Kiiell Irmali, tliouxli nftor n iiiucli Nliurttr cuurnc. A litil'* iHiyond 11 tile Tlivrinoiloii, now I'lillvil 'IVrniuli, only fuinouN iw tliu npol on which histury or fiiblo hoi (tlncuil the I'vniiiU* wiirriorii invinorahic under tliv niimc of Ainuzonn. Farihvr cm II Ano wo' difficult country, is Kcrcsoun, the ancient Ccriutuii, r to«i, of 7(X) lioiiNUii, with 11 riiinouR aii)ivct ; und the Torclioli (Tripoli))), iibout halftliiH size, Imi in better condition. At length wo arrive at 'I'lebisond, the ancient capital of tliu CuiiiiH'ni and named by Xeiiophon TrapetiiH, tVoin itn oblong form; but Mr. Iluinilton found lui inonuinentN earlier than thoNU of tliu nyxiintinv princen, of whose palacen there aru spacious remains, 'I'lio place, always the chief emporium of this region, has of latu licvn niucli advanced by llussia linvinK occupied Mongrclia, and extended to its ports her rvstrictitv system, whunuu tho transit trade to I'ersia has been transferred to Trebisoiul, 'I'jai fyg,^,, houses of that city are now filled with Knglish goods; and neat modern rows of huusi'Miv intermixed with its old glmiiny and crowded litreets, 'llicre is no harbour, hut mmi aiichoragi), Tliu imports, which Mr. M'Ciillovh suites in I8:)0 at 'i.'JU,(XX)/., hiid risui in IHt).') to l,()'JO,U(X)/., of which it is believed that seven tenths were British proilucc. TIk' exports ill the last year were (in iit,;o,(XX); but bv Mr. lirniit, seemingly on n inoru precise estimate, at about ,'I(),00U; uf whom 'l(XK) are dreeks, and 'JtXX) Armenians. MUk The hink nml Miii/i' (■.r/iiiNtc uf inli-rhr Aiiii Minor, the most extcnilvc, thou/?h by no mrniii the flnni or iiiiiat iircMlut'tlvu iHirtliiii, ri'innliu In Ih) nurvevisl. The KcniTal character Is that uf a IiIkIi liarc taMc land lii'iiirt with iiilly rlil|r<'a ii( iniiiiiilaliiii. IkliiK riir the mu»t part di'ttit Jtc of trcca, it haa a naked aiperi' •l^il I'ullWatliiii, tlic inilolrncc of the iiatlvca. nml the inaecurlty of |iro|wrty, iirmnt ■ '■■ ■'' — '•• Oh the lunka of all the rivers, however.aru rich paaturcs.whiiii TIiuukIi i'a|uilile of aui'cviar the raialiiKuf any aile<|Uate tupply of Hraiii. . _ , ,„ Willi the open I'ountry In uclieral, are iH'eiipieil liy the iioiiiailie trll>cs called 'i'urliinani, or Turi'oinaiii, wh>^ hiiliita are aluioat wholly Tartar. They aru auliject to little prlneea, who, aeeorilinu to circumstaiicea.doiirdo not |uiy a ainall Irlhutv tii the I'nrte ) and, aiTorilinK to Iniincinorial Scythian uaa^e, combine their [uiioul piirauila with that of pliinderlnH the nnproti't'teil traveller. :IH2I. liUnriitr Ania Minor may be itiviilnl, though without any prcc.se dcmarcntiun, into two portions, western and eastern. The former coiniirisus the wide range of the ancicni I'hrygia, with the smaller bordering districts of Galatia on the north. :ind Lycaonia on the south. In tniHlurn times it is divided between Anatolia and Carumania, forming the interior of lioth. The eastern is the ancient Ciippadocia, now the paclmlic of Sivas, or Sebaste. !)H2'J. Thr we»Urn illi'isioii contains several large cities. Kiutiiyah, reckoned itsca|)iial,ii situated amid the mountains which give rise to the rivers of Ionia ; and the whole couiitrr around forniN the vast muss of those mountains. Even in its decay, the population, amounting to between .lO.tXX) and CO,(XX), of whom lO.OCX) are Armenians, carry on i lucrative trade, 'i'liu houses are large, built on the model of those of ConstaiUinopIc; and the streets adorned with many handsome fountains. There are fifty mosques, thirty public baths for the use of the people ; and twenty large khans for the reception of travullm About fIfVy miles to the north is Kskishuhr, situated on two rivers that full into the Sibria, Around it is an exteiisite arid plain, the same on which Sultan Solimon was defeateiibj Godfrey of llouillon. It was tho ancient Uoryla>um, celebrated for its warm hatlis. The modern town is of uonsidurablu extunt, but the houses are |)oor and ruinous. On tlie other | side, about sixty miles due south from Kiutayali, is Oaium Karahiatar, wliieli D';\nville, on somewhat eipiivix'ul grounds, supposed to be the ancient Apamea. It is a large tin, I containing about IU,(XX) liiiiiilieN, almost entirely Turkish, who are extensively eiigagedii the manufacture of black fell, and the culture and preparation of opium. Sontliwaniji the road to Attalia, Mr. I'Vllows lately discovered the remains of two fine ancient ciiiA, Sagalussos and Selge. The former contained seven or eight temples, with the iifost beauti- ful und perfect theatre he had ever seen, all in the pure Greek style. Selge hore tr.araol having been one of tiiu finest cities that ever existed, showing, for the space of tlireemilisj a continued range of temples, theatres, and other edifices, of the Corintliiun order, h \ place was wholly desolate ; wheat, at every interval, growing up amid the stones. 'i8'i3 The grenl roiiil Ihruiiah /lain Minor runs now in a di'ection nearly south-east towards the snutlm I coakt. On tlila route la Ak-Hliehr ;thv while eily), the ancient Antiwhia ad Pisidiam, at the I'wt ol'ljin | whence cold wind* blow, and torrenlx rush down u|K)n the city ; yet it eont.iins ItM) houses, is adomcilxi I many beautiful Kardena, and with a ino»<|ue ami coIIi'KC consecrated to the memory of llajazct. Farlheial is i.adik, Ihe aniii'iit l.amlleea Ciiinlinsta ; but this is now a poor mud village, presenting only some ftif I menis of inarlile culuiiilia, whlrh the Turks' have converted into tombstones. I ,SH2't. Proceeding on this route, and approaching the southern line of mountain;. tl« I traveller reaches Knnirh, long one of the grand scenes of Turkish magnificence. Iin I Iconiuni, the capital of l.ycaoiiiii ; but its splendour dates from the period when it hccaiwlli'l residence of the powerful and warlike sultans of Uouin; which it continued tu lie till ibtl kingdom sunk lieneiitli the arms of the Tartars. Konieh still displays sii]ierl> speciniensiifill the edifices that constitute Turkish grandeur — mosques, colleges, baths, gradually cniiuUis)! into ruin. Tiieru are twelve huge und above lIX) small musipies : those of Sultan Seliniiil| Slieik Ibrahim are spacious uiul magnificent structures; the marble ";:ites also uf tlic f'pa I Book H- TUIIKEV IN ASIA. •too MtilrM'i'' <■■>'' other ulil cuIIu)(i>h, richlv adurnod with frvtwork nnil i>iit«l>!'>tui'i'. H**I)rd komu orthu flDvt spt>ciini.>ns vxtantof Mooruii nrchitvcture. The ruinit of tliu unoiunt Urei'k city, however, had contributed InrKi'ly towardu xtn orimmunt. Among thvsu, Mr. Kinnvir rvnmrki'il a culusxul Ntatuo of Ilvrculi'S which appeared to him fully eipial to any ancient tculpturv ho had ever Hccn. The modern city, destitute of commerce, in liuilt of wretcheove 30,000 inhabitantN. ii'iS. Fiffy ""''"* A""* Konieh, about midway to the coast, is CarumuH, whivh, after the ftii of Iconium, became the residence of a chief or sultan of its own name ; who ruiitned over iireat extent of the south of Asia Minor, which is still denominated ('aramania. It is much inferior in magnificence to Konieh, but carries on a considerable manufacture of coarse blue cotton cloth, and drives a brisk trade with Taurus, Catsarea, and Smyrna, ii'26. In acha makes o monopoly uftlie grain, and in various ways oppresses the inhabitants. Tliey still, however, curry on a manufacture of fine camlet, from the goats' hair produced in the neighbourhood. 3827. The eattem interior of Asia Minor docs not materially (lilfer in its aspect fVimt tlio wMtem : it consists of wide plains, bare of trees and grain, but rich in pasturage. Subject to its roving tenants, the Turkmans, the frontier districts are also exposed to inroads from ihc Kurds, a fierce ])eoplc, whom we shall find in their native seats on the upper Tigris, Tho people of Coppadocia were considered by the ancients as rude, stupid, and uninformed i but (listini^ijbcd as rearing a breed of excellent horses: 'hey still retain their reputation in both respects. In modern times this territory boro the nai>'>c of Roum, or Uumyiah, being that {tates it to contain 5000 Turkish, and I'iOO Armenian families. The finest city in this part of Asia is Tocat, about forty miles to the north-west of Sivas, rising in the form of an amphitheatre round the banks of the Jekil Irmak. Vessels of copper are here made to a great extent, from the mines in tho m'igh1)ourhood ; to which is added the manufacture of blue morocco and of silk stull^. It is the ipreat channel of the inland commerce of Asia Minor, communicating by caravans vith Diarliekir and with Smyrna, and sending others to Boursa and Sinope. These re- sources support a population amounting, according to Mr. Brant, to C.S70 families, among whom 1500 are Armenian. Proceeding seventy miles in the same direction, the traveller [reaches Amasia, romantically situated on the banks of the same river, which here flows in a larrov valley enclosed between rocky mountains. The surrounding country is finely wooded, id produces excellent silk. 3829. Chanying our direction to the lotUh-wett, after a bourse of eighteen miles wc nrrivo Ooscai, a city raised to celebrity in modern times by the residence of the powerful chief 'aswan Oglu. He long maintained an independent dominion over all the east of Asia "mor, which was greatly improved under his auspices. His palace occupied an iinmenso loce in the middle of the town ; and though the exterior presented, ns usual, only a mass of :ad wall, the apartments wr>rc richly furnished, and profusely adorned with painting and Idlng. The place was i!;p . supposed to contain 16,000 inhabitants, chicHy Turks; but ice the death of this chief, and the fall of his house, it has probably sustained a considerable iminution. Nearly due south from Ooscat, at the foot of the stupendous and snow-capped untain of Argish, stands Kaiiarieh, capital of ancient Cappadocia, and called then MuKiacn ; it tliu name was changed to Cxsarea in honour of Tiberius. When sacked by Sapor, it IS supposed to contain 400,000 souls. It still flourishes by the product and export of Hon, and has 8000 bouses, 2500 filled by Armenians. To the south-east is found Ul istan, the ancient Comana, at the very head of the Kizil Irmak, in a finely wotured plain fercd with trees, and in high cultivation. It has 8000 or 9000 people, and forty iunshing villages under its jurisdiction. The vicinity forms one of tho most agreeable spots Asia, and affords a large quantity of wheat for exportation. To the south, in Upper Cilicii", low Mount Taurus, is Maragh, capital of a small paehalic of the same name, which tin- liataly borders on Syria. 9IO DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pari HI. 3830. To complete the picture of Asia Minor, we have still to survey its isles, once celebrated for wealth, beauty, and power, now reduced to a more complete statu of desolation than ev the continent. Cyprus, inte-joscd between Syria and Phenicia, is the most extensive a'H was in ancient times the most beautiful, as well as the most voluptuous. It is hq n,;]' - length, by 63 in breadth. Tlie Cypriotes boast that the produce of every land and climat will flourish on their soil in the highest perfection. Its wheat is of superior (luality aiiH notwithstanding the imperfect cultivation, a good deal is exported. Wine, however inavl considered as the stap'e product. The grapes contain the richest and most luscious'iuicc of any in the world ; and the wines made from them are peculiarly famed for their sencrou and restorative qualities. They resemble Tokay ; but they are disliked by the Englisji a- having a sickly sweetness, which only great age can remove. Its fruits also arc delicious particularly the orange and apricor ; and game is abundant. All these gifts of nature' however, are rendered abortive by thf deplorable system under which the island is at present governed. The inhai>itants, two thirds of whom are Greeks, are considered just objects for opprcsion of every kind. The governo. who resides at Nicosia, is changed every year- and having obtained his place by purch.ise, is impelled to indemnify and enrich himself by every form of extortion. Thus, Cyprus, from a fertile and populous island, has been reduced nearly to a desert, not coi.caining more than 60,000 or 70,000 iuhabi'ants, and even these are sensibly diminishing. Such was the case, even bef jre the recent Greek insurrection had afforded the pretext for letting loose upon this unfortui..';tc 'sland a horde of banditti who exercised en an unresisting people every form of plunder and cruelty. Till then, Cyprus retained still a remnant of what was rich and beautiful in its ancient aspect. Its t'einalcs still display that finest model of the Grecian fonn and features, for which they were anciemlv celebrated. These charms they seek to heighten by artificial and often meretricious decora. tion ; and their conduct often accords but too well with the ancient ideas, which represcnled Venus as born on this coast, and as choosing Paphos for her favourite shrine, 'I'liey siill carry on the staple Turkish manufactures of leather, carpets, and cotton ; all of great excellence the colours being particularly fine and durable. 3831. Nicosia, chief of the cities of Cyprus, is situated in the centre of the island, in a noWe plain, bounded by lofty mountains. Its fortifications appeared to Dr. Clarke tlie grandestlie had ever seen ; and their extent and solidity, with the domes and minarets rising amid the trees give it an air of grandeur which, in Mr. Kinneir's apprehension, even Shiraz cannot rival. These fortifications are neglected, and indeed would not now be of much value, since the place is commanded by neighbouring hil's. The church of St. Sophia, a very ancient Colliic structure, retains its magnificence ; init the palace of Lusignan is almost entirely in ruin. The place contains about four thousand families, r>f whom half arc Clirisli.ui, divided between the Greek and INIaronite churches. They carry on the three maiuifactures above mentioned, and are also engaged in the collection of medals and other antiquities, of which the neighbourhood is full. Larnica, on the southern coast, is the seat of Cypriote commerce, and the residence of the consuls from the different European powers. The ancient harbour is choked up ; but the roadstead is good, and Uiere is a considerable traffic carried on »illi Malta, Egypt, and Smyrna, by Levantine ships under English colours. The iidiahitanii amount to .'iOOO, chiefly Greeks. A neighbouring cape, still called Chitti, cxiiibils ilie ruined fragments of the ancient Citiinn. Faniagosta, the ca)>ital, held by f lie Venetians till it yielded to the arms of Seliin, shows its former grandeur by a number of old churches, and by a handsome palace, now partly converted into a mos()ue. Cerina and lluHu (Paplios), though only villages, arc the most agreoitble parts of the island, particularly the latter, dis- tinguished Ity ancient fable as the birthplace and residence of the goddess of love, 3832. Another island, slill more celebrated in antiquity, and still more completely fallen, is lihotUs. It was at an early period renowned as a commercial power; but its esistenci'jsa great republic commenced under the succut>sors of Alexander. It then alone as'.'rted that' indepetulence which had been lost by the other Grecian states ; extended its cuinniercc to ihe mo.st listant regions ; and rivalled the splendour and power of the greatest kings, Demetrius, the first captain of the age, not only exhausted against it all the ordinary resources of war, but invented the helepolis, an immense machine, to batter its formidable walls. Hera completely baffled, and suffered before Rhodes the wreck of his military fortunes. Even when this island was merged in the Roman empire, her commercial code wiis adopted by that wise people ; and she ac(|iiired in af^er-times a high military glory, when the kniglitsof St. John, expelled from the Holy Land, made Rhodes one of their last retreats, where the; f long baffled the arms of Mahomet and Solynian. Of all these glories the Turkish sway ks obliterated almost every vestige. The city of Rhodes presents no lon^-'.T a fragment of it! colossus, one of the wonders of the world, or any trace of the numero.s line edifices mib which it had been adorned by the taste and wealth of its inhabitants. It e:!liihilsunlysom massy Gothic churches converted into mosques; and contains withiii about a fourth of its | former area a population of about 5000 Turks and 1000 Jews; for, in coiise(iui'ncei probably, pf the jealousy inspired by its former obstinate resistance, no Christian is allowed to rc-siJe within the walls. The Greeks occupy, however, almost all the reniaiiulcr of the island, but Book II. arc not suppos heats being cot covered with th constructed, and The lower hills : by the ancient Rhodes is oblige 3833. Procee( the birth-place which serves as i lypse. Samos, a been always celel been lately distin regretted that the 38,'34. Sao has a paradise. It is not above 400 Tu at which the Grt resorted the youtl number many emit wore in one day de and Samos, tlie Sci habits liad been the of Samos, present! stop or resist the he from Uie continent. massacre; the unfoi interior. Only a ft was reserved a fate, ladies of iu'gh rank, markets of Smyrna: , 383."* MilylcneMc an Ialcrtimc8g.ivc birth to lupportrng .i population o arceX|»rtC(l,W,ooo quint memorable from the posi ""importance from Its ateemed than any other , 3M6, The provinces furkish empire. Be Jdes by fierce and iii difficulties of approaci independent power. wstcrn divisions, they liKinan kingdom ever marked by that high , admiration of the worl, posed of earth md bri PMd original fertility. •"r, Aiiisworth descril) «naK the proofs of anc JW. re,„.rf,,„J ™ !'"> Tigris and ^'""iid m history, erec Jjection TheyLno «f BajKlad, which durii, ■^'^ »n''«ent Cos yp»e. 5amo,, a larger Z' ^oXlrf'""'^',' ^«'«»-. S St th"''""'^''' ""« «one been always celebrated for i'S •"'P"'**"* island, which raw. i- .u'""^''°'e ""e Apoca! b«n lately distinguished for 11 <''*''^' °^ '^hich striking anHn """^ '» P^hagoras W regretted that the European j!! 'V' *'""'' «'« ^^e cauL^f „^J" '''^"«*'' «mai„^ a' Z 3834. ^-hasexpSedTvlVfr^'^^'r^''''^^^^^^^^^^ '' « '«> t a parad.se. It is calculated by M? T ^*"* '^'*- Nature had MT "^ " *" Turkey. not above 400 Turks. Sc," had iJ. "'"*'' *'"" "mong 150on^7t?^ '^is spot almost .. which the Greeks ha^e ,«te,v'^„?'"^ » g«at centrf of tS iif ,f "^"'^' '»'«'* we« resorted the youth of opulen^f. •? ""**•• ^ C"Uege had hi "*""'»' «generaUV.n number many^minenpS.sorf'J'^'/'*"" «very qlmrter o^ ^^'"'•''"'Aed, to Ttth wc» in one day destroyed? TL'!,"'' '".'"'''»«'■ All th s prosneriP''""?' «"'» «Wch couU and Sa,„os. the Sciotes midel t"!'"? '■"r'"« «>««" efTcM^teTin^ "?l"'r «""' P'ospecS tabits had been those not onlv ^e ^ ""'"S in the cause of fih. "'^ ""^ "^et from Hvd™ of San,os, presc-nted no Zlr LT'^''"'' '^^-''"^^"'Zf^MT^ ■ ^"'"''""nat^ySr stop or resist the hordp« nf a- "««'"st invasion. Thpv » '''^"" *'""'es, unlike »h!f from ii,e continent Th"-'^ ^''^ '^''° P^u^d acmss the^ ^'^ """^'«' ">erefore eifh ""^ ~e; t,.e Tfortun't "Srfl ^°''%^"-- "^ "otTSt tf ?''^'' -P"™'- & o '"toior. Only a fe„ escaped J'^« '"' *''«"-' ^ «"« s£ '^ "' " '''■*"'^!"' ""'I g^nS STr- f '''''' 'f P^^-E.'/oSaTrT"'' *° haveKi'''" !?^ky caves^n the laMm«"| ;rbirth f^'^if"' ^^"x^. ofVo unt, „ " '^'^««- °"* o,,„ ' ''^'"""le more highly '"l-ced i, to ai;;' , T""""' '"-^^''^ion, and th. ^-i*"* ."^ '•«"""«t extre »."«re frontier and nJov^n ' V \-^""' «" a seat of emn^r'^""""'-''- "^ Bagd, ^'"7 ''"CM viewed bvTh"'""' *'*r''^'' '" « greaV mea^^" ""d power, and c, nark nf *i„..- ^ 'v "'e conteiw n„ /^ «-"r measure laid wa^t^ „.. j lall l,„,^-„':" V.''"°*^"'«n Tlii alilc 'I" mot ; , , ""5'r''''« "'« P— ™3?, ft "". """■•• " " "'. of ifl T'""""' ' "-Pfet. 81S DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. by its native kin{^. Only once, under Tigranes, Armenia came forward as a conquering power, and its career might have been prolonged, had it not encountered the disciplined legions of Rome, led by LucuUus and Pompey, who soon reduced it to the rank of their humblest tributaries. When Parthia set bounds, however, to the Roman arms, her rivalry enabled Armenia again to rear its head ; and amid all the subsequent revolutions, it preserved a native governme.it, until it was finally reduced into a pachalic by the Turkish power. A part, however, was severed, and appropriated by Persia. 3839. Armenia encloses between its rugged mountains a table land, fertile in corn and pasturage, yet thinly inhabited. Erzeroum, its capital, is situated on one of its highest points. The climate in winter is intensely cold : snow covers the ground from October to March. It is healthy, however, and carried on a great trade with Aleppo and Bagdad ; but having nearly lost this, its population, according to Mr. Brant, has fallen from 130,000 to 15,000 ; but it is beginning to revive. About ei^'hteen miles distant is Haisan Kela, a small town defended by the strongest castlj in Armenia. Khars, to the north, a frontier town, fortified under Amurath III., was once very large, but now little better than a heap of ruins, containing, by the same authority, 1500 to 2000 families. When quitted by Russia, after the late temporary occupation of it and Erzeroum, many Armenians followed. It Is contiguous both to the Russian and Persian frontier ; but the present pacha has attached himself in a great measure to the interest of the latter power. Ahiiha, which touches on the frontier of Georgia, and Imiretta, stand on the Kur, in the midst of a fine arable district. 3340. Proceeding southtoards along the foot of Ararat, we come to the fine city of Bayaad, the inhabitants of which are reported to be the most warlike and most learned of all the Armenians. It is adorned with a splendid and celebrated monastery, and is supposed to contain 30,000 souls. To the west is Van, noted as one of the bulwarks of the empire in its contests with Persia. Its situation is so strong as to be accessible only by a narrow passage, admitting two persons abreast; and it is carefully fortified, in the oriental style, with a strong wall and a deep ditch. The surrounding country is equally beautiful and fertile ; and at tm miles' distance is the great lake bearing the same name, 168 miles in circumference, but the water of which is too brackish for use. 3841. On a lower level than the region now described is the pachalic and territory nj Diarhekir. It forms a high table>land, about 120 miles long, between the Euphrates and the Tigris. Its sur&ce is rugged, but interspersed with numerous valleys, that are highly pic- turesque, beautiful, and fertile. The city of Diarhekir is the ancient Amida, a bulwark of the Eastern Empire against the Parthians. Its wall of black stone, the work of the "Rmm, though now neglected and ruinous, was considered by Mr. Kinneir as superior, for height and solidity, to any he had ever seen in Europe or Asia. This wall, with the towers and the minarets peering above, gives to the city a peculiarly grand and imposing aspect. Its siiu- atinn on the high road between Persia and Turkey, as as well as on the communication don the rivers, makes it a seat of commerce, which, as in the other cities, has declined; yd Mr. Brant still allows it to contain 8000 families ; Mr. Shell states it to contain 1500 | houses, a third Armenian. On the northern extremity is Maden, a town situated in thenn I heart of Mount Taurus, and surrounded by lofly ridges of bleak and barren mountiin | through a prodigious chasm in which the Tigris is seen dashing. These mountains, ho'' ever, are rich in metallic wealth, from which Maden derives its importance. They prodiM I abundance of excellent copper, some iron, and even a little gold and silver. 3842. Crossing now to the eastern bank of the Tigris, we find ourselves in ihi ni I mouniainout region of Koordittan, occupied by the proudest, fiercest, and most predator)' im I of all who infest the Turkish dominions. They inhabit castles rather than cities ; but M | on the northern frontier, forms a sort of capital. This city is built on a number of nam* I ravines, branching out from a perpendicular rock in the centre, on which a strong casiieii I erected. The streets are steep, but the houses are well built of hewn stone, surroundeiiN| gardens. The city is well supplied with fruits and provisions ; but few merchants venidl on the perilous tracts which lead to and from this mountain capital. Although Betiiiil nominally included in the pachalic of Moosh, the real power is possessed by the Khu'l the Koords. About fifty miles to the south is Sert, the ancient Tigranoccrta, so nanil from Tigranes, who made it the capital of his short-lived empire. At present Sort isain^l mountain village, where each house is a castle, surrounded by a wall, and even a niM These chiefs resemble the ancient heads of the Scottish clans : they possess the power of Up and death over their vassals, whom, however, they treat with kindness and familiarit;pi are regarded with reverence and affection. They feel unbounded pride in their pedi~ which they trace hack to the age of Noah ; cherish a rooted attachment to their native< and a hatred of strangers, towards whom they observe neither faith nor humanity. 3843. Immediately to the west of Betlis it Month, the town of which name has bcent by the Turks the residence of a pacha. It is poor and ill built ; but the district codi« many fertile spots and large villages, cultivated and inhabited by the industrious Armeiiiii| To the south-west of Diarhekir, on the banks of the Upper Euphrates, is found th^vl Book II. TURKEY IN ASIA. 913 pufaalic of Offih marked by a gradual tranHitiun (Vom tho inountslnnua jmrt of Armenia to the sands of the Syrian desert. Its capital occupii'H the iiitu of tht) ancient Edessa, a city of some fame, Iwth under the successors of Alexander, and ttlk>rwardH when the arms of the crusaders placed over it one of the Courtenays, to whom it gave the title of count. It is said to be still well built, with a inaguiticent musquo conNecrated (o Abraham, and a population of 20,000 souls. A village ii)> '>•''■' by AniliN still bi'ttrs the name and site of Harran, the original abode of the patriarch. Other places of houiu importance on the bank of the Euphrates are Racca, the ancient Nicephorium, o favourite residence of Haroun al Raschid ; Fiir, or Beer, where the passage of the river by the caravans is facilitated by a bridge of iMats; Koum Kala, the ancient Zeugnia, a buiull cnstle and fort, formerly the great Roman military passage. 3844. Descending from these heights, we come to tlifi ^-rat jMn Mween the two rivert called at present Algezira, and by the ancients M»yria and Afifsn/mtamia. Though partly rocky and sandy, it is in general capable of being r«n(lvreout 35,000 inluibitants, with the remains of some Ane Arabic structures ; and carries on a little trade. On the opposite or western side of the Tigrisj the villuge of Nimia ap|)ears to occupy a part of the vast circuit of the ancient Nineveh. T.'iu onlv nmnuments arc mounds of earth, nearly a mile in circumference, similar to those u!' Ottliylon, though not nearly so lofty or so perfect. A rampart may still be traced some miles in circumference, surrounded by a fusse, and covered with grass, which gives it the appearance of one of the old Roman en- trenchments. On a vast plain to the east was fought the battle of Arbcia, in which the fate of the Persian empire was finally decided. Mosul, with ■ territory of two miles round it, has been formed into a pachalic by itself. 3845. JU the rest of this country is included in the pachatic qf Bagdad, the upper part of which, touching ou Ditirbekir, retains still the mountainuus character of that province. The most northern town is Merdin, the old Roman position of Mnrdis, the walls of which are still in tolerable repair. The houses, which are rather well built, rise in ranges above each otiier, along the declivity on which the city is built, and which forms a branch of the great chain of Mount Masius. About thirty miles to the soulli appear the towers and ramparts of J)ara, the deep foundations of which may be traced for more than two miles. The southern gate is ten feet ut \h.ckncss and sixty in hei|!!ii: nvi Hom> fragments of ancient architecture are scattered over the site, which is now occupied o ' by a few detached families, attracted by the abundaiii;.' of water. But of all this cl; . of mighty fortresses, none equalled the strenf^tl. of Nisi!>i >, which stood always impregiiaV. against the Farthians, till it was ceded to then> by treats ; .^ftcr ivhtch the Romans attempted in vain to recover it. Only the foundations of the walls car. oe traced fur about three milr'«. The interior is filled with hillocks of stone and rubbish, amid which appear the black tcni.^ of the Koords and Arabs. On the Euphrates, Ot^jjosite to f.Iosul, are only a few small towns, on the site, however, of some Roma'i stations; among v-':i-h wo may remark Kerkesieh, the ancient Circesium, raised to imfnui.t tire by Diocletian ; and A nniib, a pretty large place, which, being situated at the point wherii the Desei t becomes of less immense breadth, is ut\en a rendezvous of caravans coming up the rivet and proceeding across t'j DtiiimHcus, 38very direction, arc spread the undoubted remains of that ancient " glory of nations," wbicli none of the proud capitals of the ancient world ever rivalled in magnitude and the grandeur of its structures ; and which is rendered still more imposing by the awful antiquity to which its origin ascends. It owed its foundation, or at least its splendour to Semiramis, whose era is that of the formation of the first of the great empires. Large additions were made, particularly by Nebuchadnezzar ; and Babylon was thus the work of successive ages ; but we have now no means of tracing the share taken by each in its erection and embellishment. The walls, according to Herodotus, were siity miles in circumference, and, by the most moderate reports, at least forty-five. They were S65 feet high, and sc broad that six chariots might drive abreast along the top. Itie form of the city was that of a regular square, with twenty-five gates on each side; and the streets ran in straight hues from gate to gate. Among the structures three were pre- eminent, and ranked among the wonders of the world. One was the palace, eight miles in circumference, enclosed within three successive walls, the interior of which was covered with paintings. Near it was the second wonder, that of the hanging gardens. These were raised, it is said, by Nebuchadnezzar, to gratify a Median spouse, accustomed to tlie bold scenery of her native country, and disgusted with the tame uniformity of tlic Babylonian plain. Having undertaken to transport thither the landscapes of her own land, he raised masses of huge extent, supported by arches upon arcl.3s, and covered with deep earth, which not only produced plants and flowers, but present"d a range of wooded steeps, similar to those in the mountains of Media. Tliirdly, the gigantic tower of Babel, or Belus, was a still more celebrated structure, respecting which tradition, fable, and history are strangely blended. Though dedicated by the Babylonian kings to an idolatrous worship, it traces its first origin to a much earlier period, when men, intoxicated by their first success- ful achievements, formed the daring project of an edifice reaching to the skies. Convened into the shrine of Belus, it v/as adorned by colossal images and statues of solid ^old, tho value of which has been rated by Herodotus, doubtless much too high, at 5000 talents, or 21,000,000/. sterling. Eq'jally exaggerated has been its reputed height, which some Jewish authorities fix at twelve miles, and even Jerome quotes contemporary authr.'^i' for its beii'g four miles high. These ridiculous estimates give way before the sober tesiimony of St.. i'.>, who states the height at a stadium, or 660 English feet, exceeding only a little that of the highest pyramid. Even after the downfall of Babylon as the capital of an empire, it continued to be the most splendid city in Asia, Alexander was strongly attached to it, and, if he had lived, would, perhaps, have made it his residence. The gradations of its utter decay are not dis- tinctly traced by history. It seems to have been slow, as the powers which held sway in this neighbourhood chose other positions in the vicinity for their seats of empire. The kings of Syria chose Seleucia ; the Parthinns, Ctesiphon ; the Saracens, Bagdad ; and each, according to the custom of the East, sought to aggrandise his favourite city by transporting to it the inhabitants of Babylon, and the materials out of which it was built. Babylon is at present the scene of utter desolation : — " The wild beasts of the forest lie there ; the dragons hov.l in her pleasant palaces." Yet even now, after so many ages of desolation, and after so many great capitals have been built out of its ruins, enough remains to attest the fidelity of those who described it as the greatest capital of the ancient world ; " tiie glory of kingdoms, the beauty of the Chaldees' excellency." Its mighty structures, indeed, are resolved r.early into their original elements : instead of walls and towers, we see only confused heaps of earth, bricks, and rubbish ; but these are piled almost in mountain masses ; and, seen afar along the Mesopotamian plain, proclaim still the wonders of a distant age. Mr. Rich, "' his careful survey, has describ-jd four remarkable masses, which cannot, however, without some difficulty, be traced to the ancient structures. The first is a larga mound, called by the modern inhabitants the mound of Amran, 1 IOC' yards in length, 800 in breadth, and from 50 to 60 feet in height. Its great extent and loose texture seem, with f;rent probability, to suggest the idea of its being the remains of the hanging gardens. After crossing a valley somewhat more than a quarter of a mile in width, he came to another pile fonning a square of about 700 yards, evidently the site of a finer and more elaborate structure. Several walls were entire, built of ihe finest brick, cemented with lime, ornamented with niches, and with lome remains of painting and sculpture. The natives called it the A'asr, or palace, and il» Book II< TURKEY IN ASIA. na ippearance Mteinod utrongly to warrant that appellation. AI)out a mile to the north is another, called tlio Mt{}«(UHi, whose sides are only 219 by 136 feet in length and breadth ; but its elevation is 141 I'eei, greater than that of those just named. The summit is •trewed with various frauments, and the interior contains many cavities, tenanted by wild beasts, bats, and owls, rrom two of them Mr. Rich extracted wooden coffins containing slieletons in hiah prusurvntlun ) and he was of opinion thai a considerable proportion of this itructure would, upon search, be found similarly TiUed. These relics indicate a royal cemetery, of which Huvvrul, |)articularly that of Ninus, are mentioned by historians. Mr. Rich and some other trnvullurs have considered it as the tower of Belus, or Babel. But there is another muss, of vaster dimensions, about ten miles distant, more strongly assimilating with tlie aspect which we should conceive that famous structure to present. It is of an ubiong form, 76'J yards in circuit, and rises to the height of 192 feet. The bricks are of the lineat description, and cemented with lime so closely, that it is nearly impossible to extract one entire. It Iiah some appearance of having been built in stages, and on its summit there is a solid pile of brick thirty-seven feet high, diminishing in thickness to the top. In short, it is in all respects the greatest monument of Babylon, and would have unquestionably cor- responded to the mutt remarkable edifice of that city but for its great distance from the other remains, whicit causcN a doubt how it could have been comprehended even within the vast limits of Uubyluii. Yet, when we consider how immense these were, suggesting the icieu of a fortifled territory rather than that of a city, it seems scarcely sufficient to outweigh tu striliing un accordance in other respects, especially as there is no record of any such extra- urdiimry structure situated without the walls of Babylon. ■i8'l<), A(hoining to this reniurkable scene is the modem toiun of Hillah, built on both sides of tliu Kuphrutes. It contains 12,000 inhabitants, has several stately caravanscras of Ikbyloniun brick, well ri'gulntcil mnrkuts, and carries on a considerable trade, both with Bauura and the districts higiicr up the river. J820, Ueturnin)( to l), and presents still some rcnmant of the fertility of the plain of Babylon, its batiks abounding with grain, dates, and a variety of other fruits. 385;),^ Oil this branch is sitiuited Bassora, or liussora, a great city, which absorbs nearly all the foreign coininereu of Persia and the Euphrates. It is seven miles in circumference, a great part of which space is laid out in gardens and plantations ; and intersected by canals navigable for small vessels. Its tnost important trade, being Jiat with India, is carried on partly by British, but tliiully by Arabian vessels, of which those of 500 tons burden can ascend the river to this point. The inhabitants are estimated at 60,000; a heterogeneous mixture of Arabs, Turks, Indians, Persians, and all the people of the East. They have not expended inuch uf their wealth in the embellishment of the city, whicli is dirty in the extreme. Tho houses ore meuiily built of brick ; the bazaars are wholly unsuitable to the valuable merclmndi«i dv|ioiited In them j ond there is only one tnosque which has a decent appearance. ,'•' \l 3 N 3 M r^'^'t^jjU^ti^ '• •16 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHY. Pam IIL Chap. III. AKABIA. 98.'>4. Aralbia form* an extensive country, or rather region, of Asia. It is a peniniuh comprising nearly the whole south-west portion of that great quarter of the globe. Sect. I. General Outline and Aspect. 3855. The boundaries of Arabia are, on the west, the Red Sea, called also the Arabian Gulf, whicli separates it from the opposite coast of Africa. On the south it has the Indian Ocean, part of which separates it from Berbera. As the coast changes its direction, it has ■till for some time tliis ocean on the east, opposite to the distant shores of Malabar ; but tliis great sea is soon ^larrowed into the Persian Gulf, which divides Aral>ia from the south of Persia. A linu drawn from the head of the Persian Gulf to tlie head of the Arabian Gulf would seem tliu nati.rnl boundary of Arabia, were it not for the vast desert wliich stretches to the nortliward, and is of ach-anie cha- racter appears to cross the whol^ of the Nodsjed, or central district. Betwenn tlicse stony ridges are intersi)cr»ed what are called wadis, narro.v watered valleys, which a degree of vegetation, sometimes even brilliant, distinguishes from the surrounding waste. Yemen, Mic Arabia Felix of the ancients, presents an aspect still more favourable. Along the whole '"' the Ued Sea, indeed, extends a belt, called the Teh<^ma, of the most absolute and dreary bnrruui\ess. But behind this Yemen rises, not into the naked rocks of the Interior, but into variegated hills, covered with some oi' the finest aromatic slirubs. Yet even this trad, tliough distinguished for beauty, is fertile by contrast, and cannot vie with the lumrianl plains of other Oriental countries. HUSH, In all Arabia scarcely a river can be said to exist. Torrents alone are seen dashing down the rocks ; and, after diffusing verdure over a valley of small extent, are ab- sorbed in the sand. They seem never so copious as to form any Uiing that can properl) be called a la/ct- Skct. II. Natural Geography, SuBSKCT. I. Geology. 3859. The reader is referred to the remarks under Chap. I. Sect. II. ante, p. 854. SuBSECT. 2. Botany. 4860. The general nature of the vegetat!<>n of this country may be at once sumiseii from the name ox its two great divisions, Arabia Petraa, and Arabia Deserta- it 'i^'']^ portion is the Yein^.i, or Arabia Felix, so called on account of its comparative fertility Boot II< ARABIA. 917 Another reason assigned for the name of Happy being given, is, that from thia diiitrict were introduced, by way of Egypt, into Europe, so many precious spices, as spilienard, cinnamon, cassia, cardamoms, pepper, &c., which were supposed to be natives of the country, thougli the Arabs are now well known to have themselves imported them from the East Indies. Furskal, however, who has published a ilora of this particular district, tells us that an almost continual drought and a too serene sky grievously injure the soil, and render it unfit Tur cultivation. To this evil may be added whole armies of locusts (" the daughters of heat "), which every where devour the herbage ; graminivorous birds, which are the pest of the corn- fields; and inundations of the sea, that impregnate the fields with salt, and destroy their fertility. Cryptogamic Plants are almost wholly wanting ; the Grasses cannot bear a comparison with those of the north, and Janci and Carices are almost unknown. Littoral plants occupy the shore in a sandy or argillaceous soil. Campestral Plants (Campeatres) abound more as you approach the mountains and under the shade of trees, and exist in society. There are perennial pastures, yielding Holcus and Panicum dichotomum. The Phaseolus is alone sown for fodder, as the Trifolium alexandrinum is in Egypt. The camel, when he enters the woods, luxuriates on Cucurbitaceous and Climbing Plants. 3861. The Cerealia are not confined to the plains, but they extend to the mountains; art assisting nature in the formation of hanging gardens and fields, these being supported by walls and earth carried thither. Coffee, esculent plants, and the Cerealia, are planted, especially Wheat, These amphitheatres of fields, supplied with water by cisterns, afford an extraordinary andnovel spectacle to the traveller. In the plains the Holcus Durra {H. Sorghum) is almost the only bread-corn cultivated. Of this there are three harvests in the year ; two months and a half sufficing to bring the grain to maturity. The first crop is sowed by the natives, the two next spring up spontaneously ; but the grain can only be secured by keeping up a constant noise, and a perpetual watch, to drive away the birds. 3362. The forests are conjined to the moufUains and aiyacent valleys. In all Tehflma (a district which occupies almost all the land between the mountains and the sea) there arc none except at Surdud. These mountain-trees, though exposed to the most powerful winds, gniw straight and lofty : they consist of various species of Fig, of which Forskiil enumerates no less than eight ; Sceura, Keura odorifera, a superb tree, like a palm, but without a spatlia, murh prized on account of the delicious odour it exhales, one spike alone sufliciiig to perfume a whole apartment, for a long time, if placed in a rather moist situation ; Tonicx glabra; Cynanchium arboreum ; Catha, a tree also cultivated in the gardens along with the Coffee, the Arabs eating the leaves on account of their many vij lues : no plague can conic near the dwelling where this is cultivated, nor any infectious disease attack a person who carries a branch of this tree in his bosom ; and Mcerua, besides some unknown species. Palms inhabit the sandy plains of Tehama. 3863. The gardens of this country contain little more than esculent, odoriferous, and dyeing plants. Thus much iVI. Forskal. 38G4. Rattier than attempt an account of the distribution of the vegetable prodtictiu^ts of Arabia, of which so little is known, we shall content ourselves with noticing some few of the plants which arc most valuable in tlie arts or in commerce, and in a greater or less degree peculiar to the country. And in the first rank will undoubtedly stand the 386 j. Coffee {Jig. 570.), of which Arabia Felix, if not the native country, is the favoured spot where this shrub arrives at the greatest perfection. It is a production of the liighest value. Some say it is a native of Upper Ethiopia, whence it was introduced to Arabia; others consider it an abori- ginal of Yemen. Bruce maintains that it grows spon- taneously in Abyssinia, being found wild in the greatest abundance from Caffa to the banks of the Nile. In that country, indeed, it has been considered to be cultivated from time immemorial ; and the same author tells us that the Gailo!, a wandering tribe of Africans, in their incursions into Abyssinia, being obliged to traverse immense deserts, carry with them nothing to eat but coffee, roasted till it can be pi'lvcrised, and then mixed to a consistency that will permit of its being rolled up in balls and put into a leathern bag. One of these, about the size of a billiard-ball, keeps them, they say, in strength and spirits during a whole day's fatigue, better than a loaf of bread or a meal of meat. Be this as it may, it is from Arabia that Europe first became 'acquainted with cofTeo ; and it is from Arabia that the islands of the East and the islands of the West have derived 't, where it is, perhaps, cultivated to a much greater extent than in Arabia itself. We. can, at hest, form but a very incorrect idea of the quuutii.y of collee grown, from that which is exported to Europe: for all Arabia yields to Europe annually only 1,500,000 lbs, weight ; while St Domingo has in one year exported 7 1,665, 1 87 lbs., Surinam 1 5,387,000 3N 4 570 COrVH PLANT. ,11 »ia DESCRIPTIVE OEOGRAFHY. P*M 11!. lbs. ; and other American islands, and even Portia, and Sum, liave matly exceeded in ex. port the quantity derived from Arabia. The plant grows to Uiu height of forty or fifty it^.)' with a stem four or five inches in diameter. Its copious evergreen foliage, white flowers! and red berries, are too well known in the stoves of our own country to need deseription, 3866. The Mocha Coffee, as the seeds of the berry cultivated in Arabia are called, is dis. tinguished from the conee of other countries by the roundness and smallncss of the grain ■ the reason for which is, that one out of the two seeds in the berry is abortive, and the other assumes a rounded form, for want of the mutual pressure that would otherwise have been given. The superior quality depends partly on the time and manner of gathering the Mocha coiFee, and still more, perhaps, on the soil and site chosen for the ciltivutiun of the plants. The best sort is grown on the mountains of Uadje, about sixteen miles east of Beit-el-fakieh, a spot, of which, besides an execrable plate, we have a description in the first volume of Voyage en Arabie, by Niebuhr. " My travelling companions," says he, •• whum i had expected to find at Hadje, were in the gardens on the mountain wliurc the cofiee grows. I followed them thither the next day, taking a nearly east-south-east direction, towards Kusma; and I overtook them at Bulgose, one of the villages which principally depend for subsistence on the culture of coffee. Neither usses nor mules can be used in climbing these mountains: it is necessary to ascend the steep places by a road, which, being only mended at wide intervals, is extremely bad. I'o me, however, who hud just quitted the arid and sandy plains of Tebdma, where I had been accustomed to walking, it appeared delightful, as I was surrounded on all sides by gardens, which formed the principal plantations of coH'ee, 3867. " It was ord;/ near Kahhme that I had seen a single small hill of those long and pentagonal stones that I have formerly described ; l>ut here a great portion of the mountain seemed to consist of this sort of stone; thedetachwl rocks, likewise composed of it, presented a striking appearance, especially where water was trickling from the summit of tlie rods, and formed cascades which appeared as if supported on little upright columns. It is easy to detach these stones from the rocks, and they are used to make steps on the road, as well as for the walls with which it is needful to prop up the gardens where the coffin is grown, on the slope of the mountains ; from which it appears that these stones arc very serviceable to the inhabitants of this hilly country. 3868. " The tree thai produces coffee is well known in Europe. It was covered with flowers near Bulgose, wliich difl'used an agreeable scent. All the gardens lue situated on platforms, one above another. Some are only watered by rain : in others there are large reservoirs (Birket) on the higher parts, whence the running water is conducted and distri- buted over all the beds, where the trees are generally grown so close together, tlut the sun cannot make its way between them. Wo were told that the trees, thus artificially irrigated, bore fruit twice a year : but that the beans ripened only once ; those of the second crop, which did not attain to complete maturity, being inferior to the first." 3869. Balsam, Frankincense, and Mj/rrh, Cum, Aloes, Senna, and Tamarinds, are othei staple commodities of Arabia, that have given the country a name and a rank among com- mercial nations. The Balsam (Amyris Opobalsatnnm or gileadensis, perhaps both one and the other) has already been noticed when treating of Palestine ; it being generally supposed to have been introduced from Arabia to Mount Uileud. Frankincense is the produce of | Juniperus lycia (which, however, does not appear to be a native of Arabia),— and »ii extensively employed in their sacrifices by the Hebrews, who obtained the best fioin Arabia, as do the Roman catholics at the present day for their incense. Accordiug to Niebuhr, the plant affording it is chiefly cultivated on the S E. coast of Arabia, and isthtit culled Liban or Oliban. Yet, on the authority of a paper in the Asiatic Researches liy Mr Colebrouke, the true Ollbanum is the gum of an East Indian plant, the Boswellia serratu of Dr. lluxhurgli.iind the frankin- cense it yields was very likely to be imported by the Arabians, and thence sent to difl'erent countries. .1870. Afyrrh is a gum-resin which is supposed to exude from the Amyris Kataf of Forskiil. Gum-urubic, us it is called, is produced by Acacia urubica (ji^, 571.), (of which an excellent figure is given by Dr. Iloxburgh), and probably many other individuals of the same genus. ;)H7 1 . (If the Aloes, the Aloe Book II. officinalis of Forska East Indian Aloes, (Jg. 572.) of De C Red Sea. Perhaps Ibis genus as menti Arabia has some afB 3872. The Arabia medicine, and the Se 387.9> Tumirindti in (II the hot parts oi 3874. The fruits o\ and Melons, Cocoa-ni Figs, Oranges and L( 3875. The Zoology and Caspian Russia; r adons in the productii with the whole extent i and the Dromedary, to and various Panthers. no correct knowledge c 3876. Tlte Arabian h alac-u ahahii a ALUM eiicti'IKO* ABAIirAN liORi blish the genealogy of a alitics and certificates re noble race are sold at Arabs to part with the m twenty leagues in the "lequahtiesof cnduram I reSinfeV* '■»'"«•< numb ■«,, f' '"^'"ff a retrl rf surprise at the little ^ T*'?'*- By the aid of s< Pwng the patriarchs al ZT: J" ""^ Ishmaell »d traffic. Thebordel ^mi-Arabian states, whf .•nong these were Amn? ["■ef advantages, appear! P" most brilliant and f WPy," and called SabJ P'dramaut, it formed thi fd'i;!'«'y «Jebrated i„l ghereMr.VVellstedll ■«i 800 yards long, ani 'f'er,or was quite"? vTl' "[hich seems tol •he trade of India and! Book II« ARABIA. •tt officinalis of Forskiil is mentioned by that author as the species which affords the famous £ut Indian Aloes, called Soccotrine Aloes : the same, probably, as the Aloe Soccotrina itg, 572.) of De CandoUe, and a native of the island of Soccotra, at the mouth of the Red Sea. Perhaps the same species exists in Africa. In the presence of six species of this genus as mentioned by Forskiil, of several Stapelias, and some Mesembryanthcma, Arabia has some aiBnity in its vegetation to that of the Cape of Good Hope. 3873. The Arabian phj/sicintu first made known the valuable properties of Senna as a medicine, and the Senna of Arabia is the foUage of Cassia lanceolata of Forskiil. 3873- Tumarinds are the fruit of Tamarindus officinalis, a beautiful tree, now cultivated in all the hot parts of the world, on account of the valuable nature of the fruit. 3874. The fruits of temperate and warmer climates are equally grown in Arabia. Gourds ind Melons, Cocoa-nuts, Pomegranates, Dates, Apricots, Peaches, Almonds, Filberts, Pears, Figs, Oranges and Lemons, and even the Mangosteen. SuBsicT. 2. Zoology' 3875. The Zoology of Arabia is nearly of a similar character to that of Northern Africa and Caspian Russia; nor is it possible, with our present knowledge, to detect the slight vari- idons in the productions of countries artificially separated by man. Arabia, in common irith the whole extent of Northern Africa, Persia, and Western India, possesses the Camel uid the Dromedary, to which travellers also add Lynxes, Jackals, Hyenas, Monkeys, Jerboas, and various Panthers. Information so desultory and vague is of little value, as leading to no correct knowledge of the particular species intended. 3876. The Arabian horses {Jig. 573.) are well known to be the finest in the world ; but the 573 ARAItlAN II0R8B idea that they are found wild in the deserts, as asserted by the old writers, is now justly exploded. Major Smith is of opinion that this noble animal was aboriginal in Great Tartary. In no country is he more esteemed, or are his faculties in con- sequence more developed, than in Arabia. The wandering Arab of the desert places his highest felicity in his horses, and is so attached to them, that they are more his companions than his scr- vants. It is by these tribes that nearly all the horses are bred ; and they are known under two denominations. Kadeschi are horses of an un> known race, and kochlani, those whose genealogy is known for 2000 years : this race, they assert, originated from the stalls of Solomon. To esta> blish the genealogy of a kochlani, the most rigorous vigilance is employed, and such form. alities and certificates required, as defeat all attempts at imposition. The horses of this noble race are sold at enormous prices, but no consideration whatever will induce the Arabs to part with tiie mares. An Arabian will generally carry his master from eighteen lo twenty leagues in the day. They perspire little, and possess in the most eminent degree the qualities of endurance, vigour, and admirable temper. 38J7. Locusts in vast numbers, and of different species, periodically devastate this and the neighbouring I rpgiona of Afl-ica, tVom whence they have emigrated, at distant Intervals, to Sicily and the soutri-eastern shore* I of Europe. Sect. III. Historical Geography. 3878, In taking a retrospective view of former periods of Arabian history, we find reason |for surprise at the little change that has taken place in the social life and manners of the nple. By the aid of scripture, we are enabled to ascend to a very early period, and find iiniong the patriarchs a mode of existence precisely similar to that of a modern Arabian 'ftt long ptHod mhieh htUmg* to aaetMt hiftory, Arabia prewrved iU interior pastoral 'tate, while its relations with forai^ nations were coniined to com< mcroe and to petty marauding. It also presen J its independence unaffected by thos« great events which changed 'he fate of the surrounding nations. It was not until the tilth eentury of the Christian era, that, after a singular revolution, it came forth with a mightT sweep to change the destinies of the world. The decline of the lloman empire, the co^ ruption and distractioni of the Eastern church, all favoured the impulse given by a fiene and warlike fanaticism. 3880. Mahomet, after being for years an exile and a fugitive, at length succeeded in uniting under his standard all the nomadic and warlike tribes of central Arabia. In less than fifty years, that standard waved triumphant from the Straits of Gibralur to the hitherto unconquered regions beyond the Ozus. ■ Wherever it came, it stamped on mankind a new character, — dark, gloomy, severe, — combining a hard austerity with a voluptiinu^ indulgence, and, except in some transient instances, hostile tu all the improvements uf art and science. The caliphs who first succeeded Mahomet, and ruled the most (.'xtensive empire on the globe, still retained the rude simplicity of the Arab pastoral life, with the ascetic self-denial of saints and religious teachers. The messenger who brought to Omar the tidings of the capture of Alexandria found him sleeping among the beggars on the steps of the temple of Mecca. The wealth, however, which flowed in from every quarter soon produced their usual effect of exciting a taste for pomp and pleasure. The court of the caliph acquired an almost magic splendour; while poetry and the sciences, regarded wih contempt and horror by the earliest of these militant apostles, were raised to the highest pitch under tlie patronage of Haroun Al Raschid and Almamoun. By that time, how. ever, the rude rocks and desert sands of Arabia had ceased to be regarded as a fit residence for the opulent commanders of the faithful. They had transferred their residence to Bagdad, within the old and favourite seat of empire, on the rich Mesopotamian plain, Thus left to herself, Arabia seems to have resumed her natural and original character, even long before the court of Bagdad had been swept away by the torrent of Tartar invasion, .188 1. Arabia was thus again detached from other countries, and restored to her pristine state of rude and roving freedom. Her coast, however, suffered severely from the extended domination of the Turkt, who two centuries ago had occupied its eastern ports as far as Mocha, and established a system destructive of the commercial prosperity which they had so long enjoyed. The decline of that empire, first felt in its extremities, enabled tlie Arabian sheiks to regain their independence. 3882. A fresh fermentation, similar to the former, during the last century agitated the in- terior of Arabia. A prophet of obscure birth, Abdul U'ahab, appeared, about 1720, and drew numerous followers. His first aim seems to have been to effect a reform in the Mahometan religion, to remove the traditions which had been grafted upon it, and to prevent divine honours from being paid to any human object, even tu Mahomet. Ultimately, perhaps, he has only, by becoming a prophet himself, added one to its superstitions. He dues not appear in the first instance to have contemplated the diffusion of his tenets by force. But Ibn Sooud or Sehoud, a young and warlike prince, inspired either by religious proselytism or political ambition, not only espoused the Wahabite tenets, but undertook, by tlie sword, to compel mankind to embrace them. Successively conquering and incorporating t)ie little surrounding communities, he at length united under him all the warriors of the Nedsjed, the central and purest seat of the Arabian manners. He made himself master of the sacred cities of Mecca and Medina ; and, extending his conquests, threatened at once Mucha, Cairo, and Damascus. Perhaps he and his successors might have established a new empire over the East, had they not been encountered by the kindred energies of Moliammed *he Pacha of Egypt. Tliat chief, directing with equal vigour more regular resources and more disciplined troops, proved an overmatch for the militant apostles of the desert. He drove them from Mecca and Medina, and obliged them to sign a humiliating treaty. Ibral]im,his son, pursued them down to Deraie, the capital, which he took, making prisoner Abdallah, llie son of Saoud, who was conveyed to Constantinople and put tc death. A situation so re- mote, however, girt with so wide a circle of desert, rendered it impossible to extirpate the Wahabites, who watch, probably, a more favourable moment, if such should arise, for an- other invasion of the more favoured regions by which they are on every side siurounded. SxcT. IV. Political Geography, 3883. Arabia is, and has been from the earliest ages, ruled by a number o( princes and peUj lords, independent of each other, and exercising within their own territory a sort of supreme independent power founded on patriarchal principles. The sway of the father of a family, the first source of subordination among men, is that of which the influence is still most strongly felt among the Arabs. Each little community is considered as a family, the head of which exercises paternal authority over the rest. These, in the course of succession of migration, are split into several br^iches, that still form one tribe, without being dependent BooiII. AIvABIA. 921 Egypt and Palestine, the }>• encampments contimiallv mavan, and ready to avail ' the Bedowcen camps, this with each other. Under ^ oneieh other } but their genealogief are careftiUy counted, and the repreientatire of the senior bnncli is always regarded with a high degree of respect and deference. A certain form of coii> federation is made by the election of a grtat sheik, or " sheik of sheiks," who holds th« suprc- macjr. This dignity belongs to a cek-tain family, but the election is thence made by the inferior sheiks. The sway, however, cun never be said to assume a feudal aspect, or enable him to sum> man the other chiefs as vassals. Each, entrenched in his rocky castle, or roaming with his camels and flocks over the expanse of the desert, holds himself independent of every other human power. Individual followers, however, are always ready to flock in considerable numhcis to the standard of some successful warrior, who promises either daring adventure or rich booty. Hence, it is no difficult matter to collect some thousands of freebooters, suflicit;! t to lay under contribution all who pass by the route near which they hover. On that but'i. j>:i """ " 'crs of Syria, and the tract along the Euphrates, large ni .ur.g < and fro, observing the progress of the traveller and the 'ves of any favourable juncture. In the interior, among temper vents itself in almost perpetual petty conflicts .lift Abdul Wahab, they have united into large and con- quering armies ; but these eruptions have only been transient. 3884. yemen forms an exception to this proud and aristocratic independence of the Arabian tribes, in a district distinguished from all the rest by its populousness and fertility, The Iman of Sana, who succeeded to the government upon the expulsion of the Turks in 1630, has established a government formed strictly upon the model of the despotic kingdoms of Asia. He claims an authority both spiritual and temporal, demands from his subjects tlie most unqualified submission, and the extreme abuse of his power can only be checked by the desperate expedient of deposition and strangling. He governs the districts and towns by dola$ and sub-dohi, raised usually from the lowest ranks, and the passive instru- ments of his will. Some traces yet remain of Arabian independence in the cadii and the college of justice, without whom no sentence of death can be pronounced. S885. Oman or Ommon, on the opposite side of Arabia, ranks second in fertility and populousness, being supposed by Mr. Wellsted to contain 300,000 inhabitants. The Iinan rules, like that of Sana, as a spiritual as well as temporal head ; but bis autho- rity is scarcely absolute, except at Maskat. The interior chiefs regard him chiefly as a Mai ruler, are ready to rally round him with 10,000 followers, or even a much greater number. His standing army consists only of 450 men, equipped as sepoys. His revenue is derived exclusively from customs, not supposed to yield above 360,000 dollars. He has 4 frigates, 2 of 50 guns ; 3 corvettes, and some smaller vessels. This makes him the chief iiaTal power in these seas, and he is master of Brava, Zanzibar, and other points on the eastern coast of Africa. Sect. V. Productive Induttry. 3886. The industry, wealth, and commerce of Arabia need not be described at great length. We have already seen that the general character of the soil of Arabia is in a peculiar degree arid and barren. In a great purt of its surface no grain can be raised at all, and in others, only that coarse kind of millet, called d'hourra, which is the general food of the inhabitants in dry tropical climates. The Arabs, notwithstanding their natural dis- advantages and their wandering life, display in some quarters considerable industry in cultivation, particularly in turning to account the scanty rills with which their valleys are refreshed. In Yemen, the contrivances for this purpose are elaborate and extensive. Terraces are formed, and dikes constructed to retain the waters, which are also raised from wells by the labour of the hand, to irrigate the fields ; for the use of water-wheels, which answer this purpose with so much more ease and effect, has never been imported from Egypt. But the most interesting culture of these upland tracts consists in the coffee tree, which has now become a necessary of life over a great portion of the civilised globe. This plant grows at a considerable height, where it can be well watered and enjoy even a measure of coolness ; to prevent which it is often fenced round with other trees. The coffee has been transplanted with success to other climates, particularly the Island of Bourbon and the West Indies, where most of that consumed in Britain is now grown. None, however, has ever rivalled in quality the coffee grown on its native hills. That of Bourbon ranks second, though still at a great distance. Its value here is derived from culture, for the wild coffee is altogether unpalatable. The date is extensively produced, and forms a great part of the food of the people. The balsam of Mecca, the most agreeable of all the odirifvrous woods, is collected in the neighbourhood of that city, and thence trans- ported to the different Eastern countries. In Yemen it is used only as a perfume, and in Egypt is burnt as firewood in cookery, for the sake of the agreeable odour which it com- municates to the dishes. The incense and myrrh, for which southern Arabia is famous, «fe found there only in snull quantities, and are chiefly brought from the opposite African coast. 3887. ffthe vegetabli cutture of Arabia be thus scanty, its natives, a race wholly pastoral IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 !^l^ 1^ ^^= 1^ 1^ |22 1.1 f/^IKS iL25 i 1.4 li^ ■^ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14SS0 (716)872-4503 , r' : ^ ' - •\ Mt DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHT. Pam 111. nd WMtdtring, have cultivattd with care and lucceu fhe breed of Ihe nMer tpecUtot animo/t. The horta of Arabia, as to awiftnen and beauty, enjoys a higher reputatimi than any other ipeciea in the world. This, as already observed, is maintained by an almost fantastic attention to their birth and training. The camel, which seems created expreuly for the soft soil and thirsty plains of Arabia, u indigenous to that country, and seems to haTS iMen transported thence to the wide tracts, of similar characUr, which cover so great a part of northern AfVica. Even the ass is here of a very superior breed, tall and handsome, generally preferred for travelling to those proud steeds which, reserved for state and for war, cannot be sul:jeGted to any species of drudgery. S888. MaHufiutHra can scarcely be said to exist, with the exception of gome quite common iklnrics for domestic use. But for commerce Arabia enjoyed an early celebrity of which only fitint traces are now to be found. At all periods anterior to the discovery of the passagt by tlie Ca|.c of Good Hope, the greater part of the rich commodities of India were transported either up the Red Sea, or across Arabia from the Persian Gulf. The desert glittered with puarls and gems ; and majestic cities, that lie now in ruins, arose amid the waste. Now that the whole of this trade has taken a different channel, the maritinie commerce is almost wholly limited to the export of coffee, in exchange for the manufactures of Hindostan. TItis intercourse, after having been for a long time nearly engrossed by the English, when it centered in Bombay, has of late been appropriated by the active rivalry of the Americans, who, tiiough they give a higher price for the commodity, bring it to Europe thirty per cent cheaper. The entire quantity exported is now estimated at 16,000 bales, of 305 lbs. each, which the Americans sell at 11, sterling per bale. Aden eiports gum arable, myrrh, and frankincense, chiefly brought, however, from Berbers. Besides this maritime trade, the pilgrimage to Mecca forms a commercial tie between the remotest extremities of the AfHcan and Asiatic continents ; for the numerous devotees who, from every part of the Mahometan world, resort thither, scruple not to combine with their pious object a good deal of profane traffic, which is made at least to pay the expense of the journey. SscT. VI. CifiU and Social State. 3889. The social existence of tlie Arabs is, in one respect, remarkably interesting, as it presents, almost unaltered, an image of what human society was in the earliest ages. The whole going out and in of the patriarchs, their feelings and habits, as described in the book of Genesis, are found unchanged in the tent of the Arabian sheik. A recluse and monotonous life, in the midst of the desert, distance from great cities, and from all the scenes where rivalry and the eager pursuit of pleasure inspire the spirit of change, has led the veneration of ancestry, and tlio love of antique habits, to operate in full force. 3890. The Arabs are of small sixe, spare, and even meagre. They are less distinguished b]r strength than by t .rcme agility. Few nations surpass them in horsemanship, and theyarealite intrepid and skilfiil in the management of the bow, the javelin, and latterly of the musitet, since its manifest superiority has introduced that weapoA. Their complexion is sallow ;i defect which some endeavour to cover by staining their whole body of a brovnish yellow colour with the juice of the plant el henna. 389 1 . The Arabs are not only temperate, but extremely abstinent. Animal food is scarcely used at all; even among the rich there is little variety of vegetable diet; the milk of their camels, with its several preparations, particularly butter, is the only article with which they season their bread. Among the rich, this bread is composed of rice imported from abroad, aiid which they boil into pilau, and serve up in a large wooden plate ; but the body of the nation are obliged to content themselves with such as can be made fW>m the d'hourra. This abste- miousness, no doubt, arises chiefly from necessity ; but the higher ranks seem also to vilut it as a meant of preserving those habits of delicacy and cleanliness on which they priJe themselves. Any of those symptoms of indigestion which excesses of the table are apt to produce, arc marked by them with the deepest disgrace ; and instances have been known of individuals who, in consequence of having so exposed themselves, have fled their countij, never to return. Though coffee is little valued in its native district of Yemen, where % drink merely an inf\ision of the husks, it is the favourite liquor in eastern Arabia, and cm the desert. Thev pound it in a mortar, which appeared t^ Niebuhr to preserve the flavoui better than grinding It in a mill, 3899. J%t dress of the Arabians is, in its outline, extremely simple, though set off, among the rich, with ornaments somewhat varied and fantastic. A piece of linen over the shoulder, another round the middle, a girdle, with a jambea knife, form the attire of ordinaiy Anbi during the day, and their bedclothes when asleep. Some wear only drawers and a shiit Their sandals, sometimes of wood, cover merely the soles of the feet. The head-dress is th pert on which they liestow a lavish profusion of covering and ornament, regardless d comfort, convenience, or any adaptation to the climate. I'ersons of fashion wear often k inaigr as tlfWon caps, piled one above another, and some of thick cloth. This mass ii Book II< ARABIA. 9SS lunnounted with one very splendid cap, embroidered with gold, arid having alwayn a sentence of the Koran worked into it. A muslin turban is then wrapped round the whole, the ends of which, flowing loosely upon the shoulders, are ornamented with gold and silver fringes. ,S89f). The cidefi of the desert are deeply imbued with aristocratic feelings, and dwell on their high descent with a pride as lofty as ever prevailed in feudal Europe. This dignity b the more flattering, as it is not conferred or withdrawn at the will of any monarch. It ii founded on ideas thoroughly rooted in the mind of the nation, who, like the Highland clans, view every sheik as the natural head of a race so ancient that its origin is traced back for thousands of years. A sheik of an ancient Arabian family would not exchange his title for that of sultan. Another hereditary Arabian dignity is tlut of iherife, or descendant of Mahomet, marked by the nearly exclusive privilege of wearing a green turban. This is a distinction of a different class, more widely diffused, and descending often tc the poorest among the people. When the green turban is worn by the head of an ancient tribe, it denotes the highest dignity that can exist in Arabia. Such are the twelve families of the Koreish, who can establish by undoubted proof their descent from the immediate office- bearers under Mahomet. In general, however, the inhabitants of cities are vi iwed by the chiefs of the desert as a mixed and debased race, whom they scarcely own as belonging to the same nation with themselves. 3f*94. Tlie most prominent feature in the Arab character consists in the combination of hospitality and robbery, which are practised, the one most liberally and generously, the other in the most deliberate and merciless manner. It is towards strangers that these opposite dispositions a^e exercised ; and the alternative of good or ill treatment often depends on very nice particulars. The rich traveller, who journeys in caravan over the open plain, is considered as a rightful prey ; while he who approaches singly, in a defenceless state, and soliciting pro- tection, acquires an irresistible claim to it. The being once admitted to partake common bread and salt is a sure pledge of safety and protection ; and he who, by whatever means, has penetrated into the tent of the Arab, has reached a sanctuary. A change of circumstance* often renders the same person an object of the most opposite feelings. He who, under the domestic roof, has experienced the most lavish kindness, may, if met on the open plain, be robbed and murdered; and he who, after being plundered of every thing, enters with confidence the tent of his enemy, will be commiserated, and his distress relieved. In the daily habits of life the generaus feeling predominates. A Bedouin, as he sits down to his mesj before the door, hesitates net to invite the passenger to share, without consideration that he himself is poor, and the provision scanty. 3895. The right and practice of private vengeance, always prevalent among rude tribes and in irregular governments, is carried by the Arabs to the greatest height, and reduced to the niost regular system. The fastidious pride of the high Bedouins lays them open to many fantastic wrongs unfelt by others. To say to such an one, " Thy bonnet is dirty," or, " The , wrong side of thy turban is out," forms an insult which only blood can efface. Even for one to spit in the presence of another is deemed a provocation that calls for vengcanc?. In case of murder, the right and duty of inflicting punishment is supposed to devolve upon the friends of the deceased ; and they seek to exercise it, not against the guilty individual, but a;;ainst the head of the tribe, or at least the highest whom their swords can reach. Thus the distinguished Bedouins, especially when they visit the cities, must be armed at all points, and cannot for a moment sleep in security. This fierce pride, however, tolerates and admits a composition not very consistent with itself, which yet is not peculiar to the Arab. It is " the price of blood," upon the acceptance of which the deadly feud is appeased. Such a compensation, however, is of course considered as very little honourable, when compared with the exaction of the bloody vengeance for which it is substituted. 3896. The Arab, like the European nobleman of the old school, is ceremoniously and ostentatiously polite. When two Bedouins meet, they shake hands more than ten times, ohm with fantastic and peculiar ceremonies. The common salutation is " Saldm aleUcAmf (peace be with you !) to which the aged commonly add their blessing. Coolness, command of temper, and a great exterior gravity, are considered as the only deportment becoming manhood, and are even affected by children at an early age. Although this studied decorum, and the habits of an ascetic religion, estrange them from every thing which in Europe is called gaiety, they are of a curious and social disposition. This they indulge by frequent resort to coffee-houses, the only public places known in the East : the markets, also, in which all business is transacted, are frequented, as affording opportunities of entering into social ■ intercourse. 3897. The right of jiolt/gamy, and the seclusion of the female sex, are established principles in Arabia, as in all Mahometan countries ; but not to the same extent as among the great in Turkey and Persia. Niebuhr assures us, that the idea which has lieen held out, of the whole sex being for sale, and going off to the best bidder, is altogether chimerical. Only the poorest and least respectable submit their offspring to that degradation. Such, on the contrary, as are at all in easy circumstances, make it their ambition to provide a dowry for their daughters. Even in die rude tents of the desert, two apartments are provided, of 924 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P*«» III. wUeh tiie inner is reserved for the femaka. Here^ unlcsa when the huibnid Kcdvct viiiii of ceremony, they go about almost as freely as European females. In the cities, on t^ contrary, they never appear in public without a veil, like that of the Egyptians, haviiut oM two holes for the eyes to peep through. It is a remark, that Arabian women often m^tain great sway over their husbands, and even hold them 'A open subjection. 3898. Z%« T^jgum of Mahomet, which originated in Arabia, still maintains undisputed sway ; and Christians, who were once numerous, are now so completely extirpatedf that Niebuhr could not hear of a single church existing. The SunUet and the Slaites who divide between them the empires of Turicey and Persia, and wage such mortal hostility 'about they know not what, have also their respective districts in Arabia. The Sunite$ rank foremost, having always had in their possession the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. The Zeidites and the Beiari, two native sects, reign in the eastern territory of Ommon. These. though they unite in acknowledging the authority of Mahomet and the Koran, have lib other religious sects, some differences, in virtue of which they account themselves the'onlv acceptable worshippers, and all others as heretical and profane. A much more mild and tolerant spirit, however, animates the sects peculiar to Arabia, and is thence communicated to those of foreign orgin. They are not affected by the same hostile feelings towards those of other religions, and are strangers to that furious spirit of proselytism which rages amonc Mahometans in general. Contempt towards foreign sects has with them three gradations' it falls lightest on the Christians ; on the Jews next ; and heaviest of all on the Banians! The Christians, when they appear in the character of merchants, the only capacity in which Europeans of any consideration usually resort to this country, experience little ditference of treatment on account of their faith ; and even the Banians, on the. same footing, are allowed to •ettle, and carry on, in Ommon, extensive traffic. Lately, the Wahabite sect, whose politicil influence has already introduced them to our notice, had absorbed nearly the whole of centnl Araltia ; but their contest with Mohammed Ali, and his triumpliant success, have now reduced their influence to a very low ebb. 3899. The Arabic, akin to the Hebrew and the Persian, ranks among the classic lat^;uagia of the East. The distinguished works, however, which have raised it to this eminence were produced out of the limits of Arabia, in the splendid courts founded by the Mahometan conquerors. Yet the spirit which breathes in them is still to a great extent Arabian. The perpetual movements among this multitude of little tribes, their wanderings, their feuds, their wars, the comparative estimation of the female sex, have generated a spirit of romance and adventure affording scope for the imagination. The tale, in listening to which the Asiatic, as he reclines at ease in the coffee-house, finds his most refined and animating amusement, seems to be the form of composition carried by their writers to tiie greatest perfection. The stories, indeed, so celebrated under the name of the ThoxMni mi one Nights, were produced at Bagdad, under the brilliant age of Haroun Alrascbid. That work has, however, a basis of Arabian ideaf> mingled with those inspired by a splendid and mercantile capital. The romance of Antar, lately introduced to the British public, «u produced within Arabia itself; and, though of ruder construction, and less suited to the general taste of mankind, is by no means destitute of poetical merit. The Arabians hne still poets, who celebrate the exploits of their sheiks ; but none of these can dispute the palm with the ancient bards of the nation. The works upon astronomy, history, geognpbf, and medicine, by which Arabian writers have distinguished themselves, were produced a Bagdad, Fez, and Cordova; and these sciences, in Arabia itself, have always been and in in a very low condition. The first elements of knowledge, however, are pretty genenllj diffused. Schools are attached to every mosque ; and there are others, by means of vhidi many, even among the lowest of the people, learn to read and write. The schools are metelj sheds, open toward the street, in which the scholars repeat their lessons aloud, undisturixd by what is going on without. Printing, however, has not made any progress; and the Arabs, who value themselves on an easy and flowing mode of writing, dislike the siilf appearance which their characters make when they issue from the presses of Europe. Sect. VII. Locol Geography. 3900. In making the circuit of Arabia, we shall begin with the region at the head of the Red Sea, one of the most desert tracts of this desert land ; yet a celebrated and sacred spot, vheit rise the holy mounts of Horeb and Sinai. The wilderness in which they are situated is not gloomy, presenting long ranges of rugged and pn>cipitous rocks, intersected by deep valieji, at the bottom of which are found the only traces of verdure. Sinai is ascended by atei; steep route, which in many places is rendered practicable only by steps cut in the rock. Ilie summit is marked both by a Christian church and a Mahometan mosque ; and this cod- bined veneration is further cherished by a pretended impression made in the rock by the fool of the camel on which Mahomet was conveyed up to heaven. Sinai can boast of tn spacious convents erected on opposite sides of the mountain, for the reception of the numenu pilgrims by whom it was once visited. The largest, called the Monastery of the Foil; Book tl. ARABIA. 9S& Saints, is now entirely in the hands of the Arabs, who liave driven out the monks, its fonncr tenants. The convent of St Catherine, however, is still supported by the contributions from the faithful of the East. It is really a handsome building, 120 feet long, having a church paved with marble, of which the altar is enriched with gold and jewels. At a little distance is an eicellent garden, accessible from the convent by a subterraneous passage. This precaution is necessary, as the roving Arabs, who keep the place in constant blockade, are always on the watch to kill and carry off whatever they can. A little to the west of Sinai is Horeb, a mountain neither so lofty nor so rugged, but containing on its top some springs and verdure. 3901. Proceeding touth-eaat, along the Red Sea, we come to the Hedjaz, or Stony Arabia, a region sacred over the East, as the birth-place of Mahometan superstition. It consists of a sandy and barren plain, behind which, in the interior, rise chuns of mounuins, rugged in- deed, but yielding some valuable products, especially the balm of Mecca. Amid these moun- tains' are situated the metropolitan cities of Hedjai and of Arabia, the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. An awful prohibition against any infidel foot which should attempt to approach these sacred spots rendered them almost unknown ground until very recentiy, when the daring curiosity of Eiuopean adventurers triumphed over every obstacle. Mecca (fg. 574.) was then found to be a considerable city, one of ^ ' the handsomest in the East. It stands in a narrow vdlley,enclosed between rocky hills, following their sinuosities, and partly built on their declivities : the fronts of the houses, instead of presenting, as m some Eastern cities, a long range of dead earthen wall, are of stone, raised to the height of three or four stories, and ornamented with columns and architectural ornaments. This gay aspect seems assumed in a great measure to attract pilgrims as lodgers, and with the same view the apartments are made neat and commodious. The resort of devotees of so many nations, from the extremities of Tartary to the banks of the Senegal, renders Mecca, in peaceful times, a very flourishing city ; audit has been supposed to contain 100,000 inhabitants. Burckhardt, in 1816, reckoned only 30,000. The resort was suspended by the temporary domination of the Wahabites, who s*>ut the holy place against all other sects; but Mahommed Ali threw it open to the Mahometan world; and though alarm for some time deterred pilgrims, whose real was even supposed to have cooled, yet in 1831 the number is reckoned by Well- sted at 120,000, of whom 30,000 came by sea. The temple of Mecca forms a very spacious square, about a quarter of a mile in each direction, with a triple or quadruple row of columns. A number of steps lead down into the interior, containing the object •acred to a Mahometan eye, the Kaaba, or house of the prophet, and within it the black stone, brought down by the angel Gabriel to form its foundatiou. To kiss this sacred stone, to go round it seven times, reciting appropriate hymns, form the completion of that religious service for which thousands of miles have been travelled. The last ceremonial is ablution in the well of Zemzem, which, though itself not the purest water, is supposed to cleanse the votary (torn all sin. A pilgrimage, oftcii tumultuary, to Mount Arafat completes the round of religious observance. A very active commerce in Mecca is com- bined with pilgrimage, consisting in the exchange of the richest commodities from the most industrious countries of the Mahometan world. Mecca, till it was conquered, first by the Wahabites, and then by the Pacha of Egypt, was almost a free ci^y under its own sheriffe. The Aleccaways are proud, gay, and somewhat dissolute ; they are enabled to live in pomp by the gifts and sums paid for lodging and attendance by the numerous pilgrims. 390S. Medina, notwithstanrting Its high clsimi aa the burial-place of Mahomet, haa never rivalled Mecca in the veneration of the East. To viait it li not even conaidered aa an inoispenaable duty, and ii little practiied unlest by the Turkish pilgrimi in whose route it lies. Hence Medina contains not more than 500 houses, fewof which show any degree of elegance or splendour. The great mosque, however, which encloses the 3903. 0/llie porit along tUs coail. Tor, once an extensive seat of the commerce with India, now scarcely niat<. Its harbour is stni good, and in its vicinity are several populous villages. Yembo, thej ' " it of moderate size, like the city to which it is subservient ; yet 'has a population of SUOO'or < It Is mainly supp ort of Medina, , .. ,..., r-r —JO. Judda be- longs to Mecca, and is the main emporium of the Hedjax. It Is mainly supported by the caravans which, ttom motives of religion, trade, or both combined, come across from Suakin to Mecca. This route is followeu by aiinoit all pilgrims tmm the interior and centre of Africa, while those flrom Barbary take the way of Egypt Judda serves in a great measure as the port of Egypt aa well as of Mecca. The annual Indian fleets here un. load their cargoes, which are transported by the merchants of the place to Sues and Cairo. Judda has thus a population of 12,000 or 15,000 inhabitanto, and Burckhardt understood it to contain individual merchants worth nearly S00,000/. The town is neatly built ofmadrepores, and is, on the who'o, a flourishing place. The entrance is obstructed by dangerous shoals, but upon a signia given, pilots hasten out, and guide the vessel urough all those perils. 3904. After a protracted voyage along a dreary coast, the navigator at length reaches the 99« DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paw hi. celebrated shores of Vemen, or the Happy Arabia. It does not, however, at once preaent that amiling aspect, nor waft those gales of perfume, which have been described by the fancy of the poets. A belt of flat, sandy, barren territory still forms the immediate border of the sea ; and the traveller must penetrate a considerable distance into the interior befurc he reaches those fertile valleys, and those hills richly crowned with aromatic shrubs, for which Yemen is famed. This, like other fertile countries, has been subjected to a despotic yoke ■ the government being exercised by the Imam, in the capacity of priest or servant of Mahomet. He mMntains an army of 4000 foot and 1000 horse; but his revenue is not supposed to exceed 80,000/., produced chiefly by duties on the export of coffee. Hji power, as already observed, is considerably checked by some controlling bodies ; and the Pjebal, or mountainous district, contMns many little tribes, by whom it is set at open defiance. 390!). Yemen contains lome coniiderable cities. Sana, the capital, in a beautiful valley about MOO fett above the wa, U one of the neatest in the Eatt, built of brick and (tone, with handiome moujuet and ptUm a< well »» caravanierai. Mr. Cruttenden recltoni the population 4(),000, including SOOO Jewi, and mumM merchantt. Taai \t another city, about half the liie of Sana, surrounded by a mountainoui territory, sun, posed to be the richest in the world in botanical productions. The coSlie, on its way to Mocha, muit du through Belt-el-Fakeh, a town of 8000 people, where it is loaded often with heavy duties. "^ 3906. AikJyiMporft, however, that Yemen Is best known to Europe. Lohela, the most northerly, thouih situated in a poor country, with a shallow harbour, and bad water, exports a good deal of coflbe, but of secondary quality. A better sort Is found at Hodeids, to which has been transferred the trade of theonce flourishing port of Ghalefka, now entirely choked up with sand. All these are fiecondary to Mochs. ( Ig.SJS.), the chief mart for coflfee, and superior to ail others on the Arabian Gulf. It has declined, howeter -,, very considerably from the period wlien' ^ '^ that fkvourlte beverage could be procured only on the hills of Yemen : but now thit the maritime nations of Europe derive .^ .^m ,uH their supply chiefly iVom their own colo. ^T'SnaaMt— ,4fT v.a nies, recourse is had to Mocha only for some of very su|ierior quality. It ii iltu. ated on a flat sandy plain, over which hot winds continually blow. From the wa, iti whitewashed houses, variegated by IiuhI. some minarets and tombs, make a pl^lgt appearance On entering it, howerer.Uie t^"'i Hlth of its streets, and the decayed appeir. l^Ji^ ance of many of the walls, built only of -'•'^ unbumt brick, produce a mucli leu f«. vourable tmpreuion. The population ii not supposed liy Lord Vaientla to exceed JOOO ; and the trade is chiefly conducted by aliout !S0 Banians and Genloos. Moou (y^. 576.), in its vicinity, the ancient em. ,;<,^.m. porium of Yemen, though now decayed, presents still a noble appearance. Beyond tne straits is Aden, once a flourishing port, as is attested by handsme mosques and public buildinn, hut now reduced, Mr.WelUted says, to a village of 1(X) hcuees. It was subje.t to a sultan residing at Ldicdiie a rude town of SUOO people, 28 miles N.E. Lately, however, BriUin took possession of Aden, wltli a view to her Indian navigation. The port ii excellent. 3907. The coast qf Arabia, where it ceases to be parallel to that of Africi, and fhcea only the expanse oftlie Uu Ocean, is called Hadramaut. A neit part of it is l>arrcn and dreary, and tlie interior, called Mahrah, formt a noil extensive desert : but there are tricti interspersed with hills which alnoti rival Yemen in their smiling fcrtilily. Miicula, tiie chief town, ia rather veil built, with 5000 inhabiUnta. In a line district of the interior arc tlie remark- able ruins of Nakab ai Hajar, already mentioned. Shcher and Hotkar ire also considerable ports. Uoar, Cuni, Muria, Morcbat, are only rude til- lages i yet sometimes visited by veneli lor water and refreshments. 3H0H. The coast <(/' Arabia, after «■ tending north-east more than lUOOmila facing the ocean, and luuaing Ku Mascra, changes its line to the noitb- wpst, and runs parallel to southern Persia. From this point to the entrance of tlie IVrsian Gulf is the cout of Oman, or Ommon. This is one of the most flouriahing parts of the peninsula ; for thuugh the gnen^ character be desert, it is thicklv studded with oases fertilised by springs, often by a laborious process conieiltd into rivulets. It is (irequented' as a sort of general dcp'.t for the merchandise of Persia, Imiia, and Araliia, which, from the excellent police, lies oiien and unguarded in the streets, without danger of depredation. From the amount of customs the imports arc estimated at 900,000;. A considerable trade \» also earned on ^f excellent, , — „.. , „ — . . , ,. , by Mr- Wellsted at 60,000. They include tribes fi-om all the adjacent countries of Persia and India; and many of the principal merchant* arc Jews and Banians. The appearance of the town from the >ea, vitli numerous domes and minrrets, is very imposing ; but the interior, as usual In Eastern cities, is rrowd^ ami dirty. Rostak is an interior town, once the capital of this part of Arabia, and still considerable. SoMi, about too miles west of Muscat, in a very populous country, has about 9000 inhabitants, and a very coniidn- able trade. It is governed by a chief indeiicndcnt of Muscat. . S909. Cape Muaseiuioon, a bold and deeply indented promontory, forms the termination ofslongrocliy peninsula, and shuts in upon the eastern side, the entrance of the Persian Gulf. This iicninsulsrtTacis 576 From the amount of customs the imports are estimated at 900,000;. A considerable trade \» also carrieo on by caravans with the interior. High rocks on one »ide, and the island of Muscat on the other, fonn s ipt' clous secure harlxiur, which cannot indeed be entered witliout certain precautions: but on a signal made, excellent pilots immediately come out The town is surrounded by a strong wail. The population itttaM Book II. PERSIA. wr hhiUted by a mixed race of Arabt and Portuguew. Ai we proceed up the ihoret of the gulf, we And it in «M«iion of a bold and deiperate race, the Joatmi Arabt. Placed on the maritlR route by which all the conmerce between Penia and India niuit pau, they have availed (i:em>eivet of thii poiition to carry on a mMt outrageoui lyitem of piracy, accompanied with every circumstance of deliberate cnielty. Theie pro. ceedlngi routed the indignation of Britain, who felt hertelf called upon, ai the chief maritime power in tncM KU,to put down thia dcitructive Kourge. The flrit expedition, though (ucceuful, being iniufflcient to pre- ,(i,t I recurrence of the evil, another was undertaken aome yean ago, in which the main hold of the piratei. Duel Khynia,wai taken and completely dntroyed, and their power lo broken, that it ii expected they will 00 longer Interrupt the tranquillity of the Persian seat. 3910. CmUtmiim to atemdthe gu(f. the next district is that of Lahia, or Laiha, inhabited by the powerfXil ind wlde-tpread tribe of Beni Khaled, and forming the eastern termination of the great mountainous interior tnctoftheKediiied. It ii well watered, and traversed by one of the chief of the imall rivers of Arabia, cilleil the Attan. Lahta, the capital, near the mouth of this river, is described as a considerable city ; and Kalif, built of rock salt, carries on some trade. Opposite to it it the island of Tarent, seven miles long, and cofcredwith delightful gardeni. But the most interesting object on this coast is the large island of Bahrein, neiiwhich is a bank producing the flnett pearls in the world. They are procured by divers, who, descending ... ..-1 — ..-■_<.. — • ...-L ... 1 ._._■ .. . . ...J »^ ..^ ijj- totliebottom, cut the long thin fibre by which the muscle containing the pearl is attached to the ground ... -.'■--Toduct has given rise to the town of Medina, of 800 or 900 houses, which, though itL r vessels of SOO tons, carries on a good deal of intercourse with Bassora ; and the rest The commerce in this product has given rise to the town of Medina, of 800 or 900 houses, which, though its lurtour can receive only vessels of SOO tons, carrit ' ' ' ' ~ oftheiiland it covered with gardens and villages. »ll. We have now completed the survey of the coasts of Arabia ; the interior is too little known to call forth much observation. The southern part presents, on our maps, almost an entire blank ; generally understood to coniist of desert, though, doubtless, a closer observation would bring to view many fertile spots. The centre ftom Mecca to Lahsa is crossed by the mountainous tract called the Nedsjed, which, according to credible infonnalion, contains fertile valleys, a considerable population, and even towns of some magnitude. It carries on alio lome inland trade, and it traversed by caravan routes in several directions. No European traveller, howerer, has ever ventured across it, or Illustrated it with any precise or authentic details. This region, howefer, contains the seat and origin of the Wahabite power ; and numerous hosts have issued from it ludn that standard. In its eastern quarter is Deraie, the Wahabite capital, lately taken and demolished by the Fscha of Egypt, but which, being too distant to be permanently held by him, will probably resume ita importance. More in the centre is the city of Temama, noted as the birth>place of Mosellama, the mmt ctlebiated of the Arabian prophets before Mahomet 391!. The remainder qf Arabia coiuists of that outer portion which, In the form of a triangle, extendi iloog the borders oi' Palestine, Syria, and the course of the Euphrates. In its central part, this is the most com|iletely desert tract of ail Arabia, presenting nowhere any vestige of culture or fixed habitations, and tnvened only by tribes shifting at the sand of the soil on which they tread. In approaching Syria and Judea, the deteit insensibly loses its character, and passes into the fine soil of those fortunate regions. The districts, hovtver, which have succeeded to the powerful semi- Arabian atates of Moab and Ammon, are, according to modem geography, annexed to Syria and Palestine, and nothing Is left to Arabia but complete desert. Even Filmin, with its surrounding watte*. Is considered as Syrian. On the south the ancient Edom, or' Idumea, cntatni tome well-watered valleys, and presents monuments of the power and commerce for which it was iDciently celebrated. The ruins of^iu capital, Petra, lately discovered by Burckhardt, and careAilly examined b; Uborde, prove it to have been very magnificent Only one temple was found standing, but a large space vucovered with flragments of walls and numerous tombs, cut out of the rock, in a highly finished and elegant itile. The monuments were partly of Greek and partly of Egyptian architecture. Along the Euphrates, the (tont and the river touch Immediately on each other. Its banks form necessarily a great and crowded caravan route, and there the plundering tribes expect their richest harvest They are found, accordingly, in large bodiei, and of the most hardy and desperate character. A number, availing themselves of the decayed stat* into ahich the Turkish government has sunk, have penetrated into the rich Hesopotamian plain, between tbe Euphrates and the Tigris, where they feed their flocks, set the government at defiance, and, tempted bjr theftnllitr of the soil, have in many instances gradually acquired industrious and agricultural habits. Chap. IV. MRSIAN EMPIRE. ■abia, after ei- than 1000 milM pasiing Ku to the north- Gulf is the cout Migh the iwvi roccss convertw iia, and Anbii, ' of depredation, also carried on her, form a f|»' 1 a signal made, ulation ii lUled and India; inj n the sea,wiih , it crowded siui ilerablc. Sohu, a very consider- oralongmclir •mniultrtnti" 3913. Persia, in the earliest times, was the seat of one of the most powerful Asiatic monarchies, connecting Eastern with Western Asia, and, in later ages, acted with energy on lU ..ni:*:«„i «..»*.^». ^e i? aiau»....u _u^j..»j -r:* ; . * ;.. _..-ii _. the political system of Europe. many interesting features. Although abridged of its ancient greatness, it still presents Sect. I. General Ovlline and Aspect. H914. There ii no country whose boundaries are more dMcult to d^ne than tho e of Persia. It has none decidedly formed by nature, and is surrounded on every side by r'isputed pro- vinces, whose lot depends on the varying fortune of arms, and on those frequent revolutions to which Oriental empire is liable. Long usage has made the Indus be looked upon, in Europe, as the eastern boundary of Persia ; but the recent observations of Elphinstone, Pottinger, and other English travellers, have proved that the regions of Cabul, Candahar, and Balk are, in a political sense, entirely independent of Persia, and present a physical and social system in many respects opposite. Upon the same principle, it seems impossible to I concur in the arrangement by which the savage tracts of Mekran and Beloochistan continue to be considered as part of the Persian empire. We shall, therefore, designate this vast and rude interval between that empire and Hindostan by the appellation of Independent Persia; for that of the kingdom of Cabul would apply only to a small part, and would indicate only a temporary and fluctuating state of things. Again, tlie northern limit to the I west of the Caspian has been closely narrowed by Russia, which, by a long train of suc- I CMsful warfare, has nearly annihilated the ancient influence of Persia over the Caucasian 3 O MS MAP OF PERSIA. 3 Book II. Ngions, and d( eut, notwithstt and though Hei prenuture to m united. 3915. Perm, boundaries are I pendent Tartary Independent Pei limit to the sou line drawn 8ome< sidered as extend tude, which woul more, than a thoi 3916. Thisvas wme of the grand the interior. Tfa Tigris are now v Caucasus, and Ti ever, branches on< leafing on ly a nar like its course eas trough these mc access from southe of the Caspian, i Taurus, runs pan Louristan and Bu Wher a high than traversed by noma( vene plains, as tho! which distinguish (hem, absorbed in c attain a magnitude the country. NORTH PART. l.EriTan i-Helilan ;• N«ltiMTan J.C«Ai„eh 6.Km the great empire to which it has been so long united. 9915. Perria, thus defined, pretentt a large, irregular expanse of territory. Its northern boundaries are the Caucasian region, now occupied by Russia, the Caspian Sea, and Inde> pendent Tartary. On the east, it has that country to which we have given the name of Independent Persia. The Persian Gulf, and a small part of the Indian Ocean, form ita limit to the south. On the west is the Turkish empire, from wliich it is separated by a line drawn somewhat within the Tigris. The empire may thus, in a large view, lie con* ddered as extending from 26° to 40° of north latitude, and from 42° to 60° of east longi- tude, which would give in the former dimension somewhat less, and in the latter somewhat more, than a thousand miles. 3916. Tliit vant region doe$ not present a very varied aspect. Although Persia can boast lome of the grandest natural features, they rather range along her boundaries than penetrate the interior. The Caspian and the Persian Gulf are entirely limitary. The Euphrates and Tigris are now within the Turkish frontier. Russia has wrested from her the chain of Caucasus, and Turkey disputes the lofty heights of Ararat. From these two chains, how- ever, branches one of considerable magnitude, which runs through the northern provinces, leafing only a narrow but fertile plain between it and the Caspian. It is thence supposed to take its course eastward, till it joins the mighty re nges of the Hindoo Koosh and Himalayah. Through these mountains is that rugged pass, which the ancients considered as the main access from southern to northern Asia, and to which they gave the appellation of the Gates of the Caspian. Another chain, under the appellation of Alagha Tag, separating from the Taurus, runs parallel to the western frontier, and, under the names of the mountains of Louristan and Bucktori, extends to the Persian Gulf. With these exceptions, Persia is rather a high than a mountainous country ; its ridges soon terminate in wide table-lands, tnversed by nomadic and pastoral hordes. Between these elevated tracts, however, inter- nne plains, as those of Shiraz and Ispahan, displaying all that brilliant fertility and beauty which distinguish the favoured regions of these fine climates. The streams which water them, absorbed in cultivation, or expanding into lakes, form merely local features, and never attains magnitude which can give them a prominent place in the general delineation of the country. Bffereneet to the Map aj Periia. NORTH FART. 1. ErifU LHeMiB 3. N«kihiTan 4,C«n Aineh LKhol 6. Konir 7. Unimea 8.TibR« 9. Harno IO.Ahir ll.Ouutind \% Ardebil IVZcnoun le.Miuuh 17. Maniha 18. Meando 19. Shltwan Stulj %. Bilbahan il.Hazar li.TakiSuUmu S3. Sultanli St.Caibln «.Rli.A«nbaci W. tiooigaun M. Kelat «• Coochung «.SirikuteJ 3'. Menre M.Ami)l 59. Siantan W-ManjijOian '1. Koodnara n. Kiiwura *3. Ankol ua), R. b Badakamdir,Lika c Herat, U. d Furrah, R. e Zerrah, Lake f Helniund, R. RTumuk, H. Lara, K. I Indus, R. J Bhugvur, R. k Baklegaun, Lake 1 Karoon, R. m llaweeza, R. n Klzil-Ouien, R. o Uiumea, Lake p Aras, H. 3 02 goA UESCRU'TIVE GEOGRAPHY. »'*»? III. Suet, II. Natural Geography, 3917. The Geology of this country ia too little known to afford room fur any obwrv. atiom ; and tli« botanical remarks chiefly belong to the mountainous region of Independent Penia. The following observations occur under tiie bead of Zoology. SuBiicT. Zoology, 3918. The Zoology of Pertia, flrom the little authentic Information existing on the sub. ject, appears of a mixed nature, exhibiting many of the European animals, with several others more strictly belonging to Asia. The must remarkable of those common to thin country are the following : — Fkltouncta. Ounc*. ArvlciilA MtTMhanvtuls. Aitmchvi Moiut. Miu dKumanut. Brown Hal* Miu piMsiu. AMnchan hauutiv. Aipalax Ijrphliu. flpaUx* Soturus panlcui. ranlan Rqitint WhlUUrjl. Dfurus panlcui' AnUlupa laucorjil. AnUlopaiubeuliuma. Pml«,Oi«(|,. AnUlopa Uorcaa. DorcMArmowT Haplcapra pmlca. Pmlui ChaSoto. 3919. Of the above, we ihall tubiequeiUly notice tho Spalax, the Brown Rat, and the Per- sian GaxelTe. The Asiatic Lion is stated to be not unknown in the deserts of Persia. The Lynx caracol has been called the Persian Lynx, although, from being spread over the northern parts of Africa and of south-eastern Asia, it does not merit this peculiar designa- tion. The White Oryx Antelope prefers the deserts ; and the Dorcas Antilope appears hi be also found in those of northern Africa. In addition to these, Linnoian writers mention the Brown Bear, the Otter, Viverra Mungo L., Striped Hyena, Fallow Deer, and the Euro- pean Hare, as all inhabiting the Persian empire. 3930. ne Spalax, or BKud Rat r/ Pennant, was formerly confounded with the mola Thii singular tnlmil has a thick head, terminating In a very hard and strong cartilaginous muiile. It was long believed the Spalax was destitute of eyes, nor can any external trace of these organs be seen ; but on removing the iliin they are found to be perfectly organised, although so small as not to exceed half a line In thickness. On the other hand, the organs of hearing, although externally very small, are shown to be considerably developed, by the great sise of the auditory canal. The habits or tho animal are equally curious. The S|ialax lives In societies beneath the earth : thev bore excavations towards the surface in search of roots ; but they dig one hole much deeper. Into which they retire for shelter and safety. As they prefer cultivated groundi, md subsist principally upon roots, they frequently become a serious evil to the agriculturist Their movemenit are precipitate, turning or running sidewise, or even backward, with fhclllty : and they bite moat uverrly. When on the surface, they almost always carry the head raised, apparently for the purpose of more cKWiuallv hearing what is pauing around them ; thus relying on their most perfect fkculty for a forewarning il approaching danger, which they have not the means of detecting by sight. (6 riffi Cuv.) 3921. The Brown Hat (fig. 578.), improperly called the Norway Rat, one of the greatest pests of our dwell. Ings, originally came to us from Persia and the southern regloni of Asia. Inis fact ia rendered sulflclently evident from the teitimonlet of Pallas and K. Cuvler. . The former acquaints us with their mlirtlory nature, by stating that, Ih the autumn of 1729, these animali arrived at Aatrachan In such incredible numbers that nothing could be done to oppose them : they came from the western deserts, nor did the waves of the Volga arrest their progress. They only ad. vanced to the vicinity of Paris In the middle of the sixteenth century, and In some of parts of France are still unknown. Towards the north their gradual extension has been slow, nor have they yet been found In Siberia. SQSa ne Oaxetle {fig. 579.) has been long Immortalised by the [wets of Asia and of Euro|i& It Is called by the Persians Txtiran, and by the Turks Jairan : its siie is small, being seldom more than two feet high and three feet seven inches lonfr. The eyes are large, dark, and peculiarly expressive of softness : all Itt movements are replete with grace, agility, and timidity. It not only InhabiU tlie hills of 58U ^i•«•^^ northern Persia, but IS found also in troops ^ ' ' in the sandy deserts of Asia Minor, and on oamms. the shores of I.ake Baikal It is hunted by the Persians and Tartars for Its venison, which Is said to be dcllcioui. 3923. The Ornithology does not present us with any subjects of peculiar interest. Tho Nightingale is well known, and hii long been celebrated by the poets of Persia ; but whether it is llie same species with that of Europe may safely be questioned. 3924. The female qf a new ipeciei qf crowned Pheasant, belonging to t decidedly Asiatic group l.Lopliophoru$ Nigelli) (flg.S^.), has recently been discovered in the more sccludetl and mountainous iiarts nf I'cnia, wnerdt is called the Mountain Partridge: It Is so rare, that the male binl hoi nM yet been seen In Europe. The female measures about twenty inche) in length: the colours are orown varied with black, with the throat and lidci of the neck white. 3925. Qf the Domeilic Animalt, the Persian brectccmed inferior alone to those of Arabia, and tl. reservation of the noble breed Is attended to with equi cara Towards the northern provinces there Is a . .uch stronger race, used for cavalry. aaowN RAT. miiAr.H CHUW>Hll PHKAIAMr. Book 1I< PERSIA. Ml SiCT. III. Hislorical Gtographjf> 3926. The Perrian empire ii celebrated in history. In its vicinity, and almost on its site, were the great and early monarcliics of Assyria and Babylon. The name and people of Penin were then confined to the mountainous districts of Fars and part of Kerman ; while the Metles, tributaries of Babylon, held the fine plains of the interior. The Persian empire was formed after the triumph of Cyrus over Babylon ; and, by the addition of Syria, Egypt, Aiis Minor, and part of India, attained a magnitude unprecedented. 'Die progress of luxury and effeminacy having sapped those maniv virtues bv which the Persians rose to power, they were unable to withstand the hardy and disciplined troops of Macedon ; and this country, with all its conquests and possessions, was rapidly swallowed up in the fourth or Greek empire. Persia ceased to have an independent government, and was subject partly to Seleucus, and partly to a Greek kingdom formed in Bactriana. In the third century before Christ, Artazerxes rescued his country from foreign sway, and founded Parthia, a monarchy which has ever since retained nearly the same limits. It acquired distinction in history by setting bounds to the conquests of Rome, and by frequently defeating the armies of that power. About the year 220, the Parthian dynasty was subverted by that of the Sauanides, who restored the name of Persia, with its ancient religion and laws. It could not, however, withstand that torrent of fanatic invasion which in the seventh century over- ran a great part of the East After one great battle, the native dynasty was subverted, and Tersia received the new faith and the new laws, which have ever since ruled over more than the ludf of Asia. This Saracen dynasty, which soon began to exert an influence friendly to science and civilisation, was subverted, in its turn, by successive Tartar inva- sions under Zingis, Timur, and the race called Turks. These successively supplanted each other; and Persia became, during many centuries, a dreadful theatre of war and devastation. She possessed, however, a native energy, by which she ultimately repelled every foreign yoke. In 1506, Abbas, justly surnamed the Great, raised himself to the throne ; and, by enforcing a rigid administration of justice, and encouraging every species of industry, restored Persia to much of that prosperity for which nature had destined her. After thus flourishing for more tlian two centuries, she was desolated in the most cruel manner by the uiccMsful invasion of the Afghans, who carried fire and sword to her remotest extremities, and reduced her proudest capitals to ashes. In about fourteen years, the avenging sword of Nadir Shah vindicated the independence of his country, and, under the name of Kouli Khan, carried her victorious arms into India ; but this fierce conqueror suflered her to taste none of the blessings of peace. His death without any regular successor, affording scope to the contending claims of a number of chiefs, gave rise to a long and furious civil war, which almost rent Persia to pieces. She enjoyed an interval under Kurreem Khan, an able chief and one of Nadir's lieutenants, who having at length triumphed over all his rivals, endeavoured during sixteen years to heal the wounds of his native country. His death, in 1 779, was followed by a new train of civil wars, only terminated, in 1 792, by the triumph of Aga Mohammed, an eunuch, who transmitted the throne, in 1796, to Futteh AH Shah, the reigning sovereign. Persia, under liis administration, has begun to respire. Although he has had severe con- tests to maintain with the Russians, who have wrested from her extensive provinces, internal peace has been preserved, and considerable exertions have been made to improve the con- dition of the country. Attempts have even been made, particularly under the auspices of bis third son, prince Abbas Meerza, to introduce European improvements. ■ -f ■ SicT. IV. Politiceyond the Caucasian districts, or the course of the Kur. 3929. The present sovert-ign has made extraordinary exertions to form and discipline i corps after the European manner. Tliis system was first introduced by Gardcnne, a French envoy sent by Bonaparte for that purpose, with the view of acquiring an influence in the court of Persia, and of rendering it an instrument for shaking the British empire in the East Sir Harford Jones, however, suci-ccded in opening the eyes of the shab to the ambitious designs of that potentate. The English then succeeded to his favour ; and am) and officers were supplied from this country. The system was carried on. According to Sir R. K. Porter, the actual amount was about 12,000 men in infantry and artillery, who went through their exercise in a very tolerable manner. The cavalry, however, accustoneil to roving excursions, and believing, with trutli, that they could manage the sabre Iwtttr than any troops in the world, could not be brought to place themselves under discipline, These troops were neglected by the reigning sovereign ; and* on the breaking out of lix war with Tutkey, the English officers, not being allowed to serve against that power, iren almost all dismissed. The present regular army is reckoned by Mr. Frazer at 9400 fool and 1200 horse ; and from tlie provinces of Aderbijan and Erivan, which arc alone nudi under the control of the shah, he can levy about 40,000 irregulars. 3930. An unliappy circumstance in the condition of Persia consists in the numlierin predatory hordes by which the country is ravaged. Her fertile plains are every where inter- mingled with mountains and deserts tenanted by these rude banditti. Even those vihie- fend the country in war, plunder it during peace. That mountain chain, in particular, which we have traced from Armenia to the Persian Gulf, parallel to the great road that passu through the kingdom, forms a " labyrinth of countless ravines and formidable gorges,' whencetheycan issue forth to lay waste the finest plains, and attack the richest caravans. It consequence of their continued cheepaot or forays, many of the finest tracts are nowihi» doned by the husbandman, and given up to those marauders. To repress tbera vasontof | the grand objects of the policy of Abbas, which he pursued by measures cruel, indeed, M vigorous. Hie present monarch, less energetic, and residing in the northern extremity of hb empire to watch the movements of the Russians, does not seem to have taken such effecm steps for this object. noMii. 39.irrngcr and more nil snd handsome wool forms the ba< ing wool, which hai The camel, the ass , 3934. Pertia, rfi 'acturing country, ostentatious inagni even Northern Afr slieip those rich ca ilion. Theyformt Mfpets of Herat, ii silk fabrics, rich a tissue is entirely sil 'lie precincts of th embellished with encouragement. ™ wli gold, silver, ar ■wain this branch I Mtensive throughou fnese, with shawls complete the list of 3935. Perria is n W has done nothin MpiKir are drawn f« we neglected; ford aiundant; foragre ffust, which renders oily mmerals which countries bordering [""""jngthebottoln, •species of black Ii monopoly. The kin "• JUorassan. ItowII. PERSIA. 39S1. The otdy aUempt of Perma to Jam a naoy hai been on Ihti CMpian Sea, and in ihii she hM never tuccceded. Sect. Vt Productive InduUty. 3933. The Perdant are an active and laborious people ; and if alt the bmnrlie* of national induitry are in a low «tatc, it ii owing only to the anarchy of the government, and the inroads of the predatory tribet. •iWi, In regard to agriculture, the country labours under considerable disat'vantages. The interior, as formerly observed, is not traversed by any great rivers, and a great part of the toil is naturally salt, sour, and arid. This evil, however, in the better days of Persia, wKi In some degree obviated by artificial irrigation ; and at all times the plains of Ispahan and Shirai, and the provinces on the Caspian, Iwve displayed an exuberant fertility. The kinds of grain cultivated are chiefly those of Europe, particularly wheat ; for rice, which would naturally have been the staple of the southern provinces, cannot be raised there for wont of water. In return, tlie fruits are of peculiar excellence, and some of the most valu- ible are even traced to Persia as their native country. The melon is supiKiscd to be tlivru unrivalled, the orange is of peculiar size; the fig, the almond, the peach, the apricot, trcsllgood. The vine and its produce were once the pride of Persia; and, notwitlistanding the severe prohibition against its use, the wine of Shiraz continues to be the theme even of Eaik'm poetry. Those of Yesd, of Ispahan, and of the hilly provinces in the north, arc ill esteemed. In these last, the mulberry tree grows in such abundance as to render !J||( a staple product of the empire ; and in its days of prosperity a large article of ex|iort. The plains of these provinces aflurd also extensive plantations of tlie sugar cane ; which, however, is used only in its raw state. Tney abound also in woods, wliich are tumid to little account. After all, it is to pasturage that the greater, and of late an incrcssing, portion of the surface of the empire is devoted. In these tracts the primary object is to rear those fine horses which are in universal demand ; for every Persian rides, and delights in the possession of the finest horses he can possibly procure. Those of the Turkman breed are preferred to the Arabian ; for, tliough inferior in swiftness, they arc ,trrnger and more serviceable ; and, though not equally light and elegant in form, they are ull and handsome. Sheep of the long-tailed species are bred in great numbers, and their wool forms the basis of the finest manufactures. Kerman produces a breed of goats yield- ing wool, which has, in a certain degree, the qualities so much esteemed in that of Cachemirc. The cornel, the ass, and a valuable species of mule, are used for the conveyance of burdeiiH, 3934. Perna, durii>g the days of her prosperity, was greatly distinguished as a manii- fscturing country. Her fabrics, suited to the Oriental taste, have supported not only the ostentatious magnificence of her courts and great men, hut those of Turkey, Tiutary, and even Northern Africa. The women of the wandering tribes weave from the wool of their shev|j those rich carpets which wo call Turkey, from the place of their immediate import- ation. They form through the East the most important branch of ornamental furniture. The carpets of Herat, in Khorassan, possess the highest reputation. The next staple consists in silk fabrics, rich and ornamented, particularly brocade and embroidery. Sometimes the tissue is entirely silk, sometimes mixed witi. "otton and wool. Under the Abbasside dynasty, the precincts of the court contained great works of tapestry, composed of silk and wool embellished with gold ; but this art, though not entirely lost, languishes for want of encouragement. Arms, particularly sabres of a superior quality, and richly embellished vith );old, silver, and precious stones, arc prepared on a great scale, to meet a sure demand ; and in this branch no decline has been observed. The manufacture of earthenware is very eitensive throughout Persia, and some of its products almost rival the porcelain of China. These, with shawls made from the goats' wool of Kerman, leather, paper, and jewellery, complete the list of her principal manufactures, 3935. Persia is not a mining country. Nature has not been bountiful in this respect, and art has done nothing to improve the little she has bestowed. Considerable quantities of copper are drawn from the mines of Mazanderan and Kerman ; but those of iron and silver are neglected ; for the silver mines of Maden now belong to the Turks. Salt is only too abundant ; for a great part of the surface, whenever left to itself, is covered with a saline crust, which renders it unfit for vegetation. Persia abounds, however, with those fat and oily minerals which in other countries are rare. Bitumen and naphtha are found in all the countries bordering on the lower Euphrates and the Tigris ; they serve as cement, as pitch I for lining the bottoms of vessels, and as a substitute for oil in lamps. A small quantity of • species of black liquid petroleum flows from a rock in Kerman, which is made a roytil monopoly. The king also claims the right of selecting the best irom among the turquoises I of Khorassan. _ 3936. Tlie foreign trade of Persia may be described in few words. The Caspian, besides I Its difficult navigation, communicates solely with the south of Russia ; and the spirited I itteinpts of the English to open a trade across so many natural obstacles had no result. In I the Persian Gulf, the splendid settlement of the Portuguese on Ormus was only temporary ; SO 4 934 DESCRIPTIVE 6EOORAPHY. 1'am III. and since Persia lost the countries on the Euphrates, she can obtain Indian commodities onlv by the ports of Bushire and Gombroon. ' Sect. VI. Civil and Social Stale, S937. The actual population of modem Perria was guessed by Chardin at 40,000 000 • but this number is considered by all to be beyond the truth, at least in the present dar' Among geographical writers, Pinkcrton hazards the estimate of 10,000,000 for the whole including Candahar; Malte>Brun that of 6,000,000, or 8,000,000 for Western, and the ■ame number for Eastern, Persia. We should suspect both these estimates to be under the truth. Mr. Elphinstone, founding on an estimate which, though conjectural, seems to have been carefully made, conceives the kingdom of Cabul, independent of its Indian possessions, to contain 8,300,000 ; and if this rugged mountain territory, interspersed with huge deserts, hold such an amount, imperial Persia, of considerably greater extent and containing fertile and highly cultivated plains, ought, after all its losses, to maintain a greater. We should think 12,000,000 nearer the truth, which, after all, would not majie one third of the density of England. It would nearly agree with Mr. Kinneir's idea of 18,000,000 or 20,000,000 for the whole country between the Euphrates and the Indus. 393S. The physical character of the Persians is fine both as to strength and beauty, but without possessing any very marked features. So many migratory nations have settled in the country, that it retains only a fragment of its native race. The complexion, according to the climate, varies from an olive tint to a deep brown. 3939. In disposition, the Persians, with a portion of the grave exterior peculiar to the Orientals, manifest a disposition considerably different. They are gay, lively, and animated and have even been termed the Parisians of Asia. It seems to be their principle to " tale the world lightly." This prevailing gaietS de ccexcr and courtesy of manner render the society of the higher ranks particularly amiable, while that of the lower is at least free rrom rudeness. The humblest peasant, from the old man to the boy, expresses himself with civility. They seem to understand the administration of flattery better than perhaps any other nation; and, besides directly lavishing hyperbolical compliments, take the most delicate circuitous modes of inducing the belief that their sentiments are sincere. The stranger, however, who, from these flattering appearances, has conceived the most favourable idea of the Persians, soon finds, on a nearer intercourse, that " they are mere whited sepulchres;" that the most profound dissimulation, and the grossest falsehood, mark their whole conduct; and that self-interest almost universally is the sole spring of action. Thus avarice impels them to over-reaching extortion, and all despicable modes of collecting money ; while the tyranny of the government drives them to the subtlest expedients for its concealment. At the same time, they are represented by Chardin as the greatest spendthrifts in the world ; exhibiting in their dress, their houses, and their harams, a splendour beyond their fortune. They were observed to take a peculiar latitude relative to that precept of the Koran which forbids the use of wine ; but the present emperor, who is a rigid Mahometan, has suppressed these convivial habits, and has compelled all prone to indulge in toping to " drain by them- •elves, bowl afker bowl." 3940. In regard to their faith, the Persians adhere to that grand Mahometan schism, at the head of wliich was Ali, the son-in-law of Mahomet ; and, on account of some trilling distinctions, they and the Turks, who are followers of Omar, mutually doom each otiier lo everlasting perdition. The political rivalry of the two nations has, no doubt, tended lo embitter this enmity. In other respects, the Persians display little of that bigoted and per- secuting spirit which reigns among the nations by whom the Mahometan faith is professed) Europeans, in passing through the country, are not treated as objects of horror and oppro- brium ; and even the long and cruel persecution practised against the Gucbres, or ancient worshippers of fire, by which that unfortunate race was almost exterminated, has now ceased, About 4000 of them reside unmolested in Yezd and in other cities of Kerman. 3941. Tlie Persians are the Tnost literary people among the Asiatics, at least of modem times. Poetry, in particular, is a ruling passion ; and Hafiz, Sadi, and Ferdusi, have dis- played an Oriental softness and luxuriance of imagery, which have been admired, even in European translations. Ferdusi is the epic poet of Persia : the theme of Sadi is wisdom and morality ; while Hafiz has strung only the lyre of love. The latter is the most popular poet, though strict Mahometans scarcely consider it lawful to peruse his verses, unless ofter straining them into a refined and mystical sense. The monotony of Eastern manners, especially in what regards the female sex, precludes that variety of scenes and situations whirh give interest to the love stories of Europe. Elaborate descriptions of the beauties of the beloved object, of the miseries of absence, and the joys of presence, are expressed in those hyperbolical terms and that flowery imagery peculiar to the Oriental writers. The present emperor has a poet in constant attendance, whom he extolled to the English em- bassy as superior to any other bard of the age, and even to any on earth ; and, not contendng himself widi empty praise, gave him a gold tomaun, nearly two pounJs sterling, for every BUOK II> PERSIA. 9S5 couplet. As no specimens, however, have been produced of the works of this modern Hsfiz, we cannot estimate the real value of these extravagant plaudits. * 3942. The tdencet have also been cultivated in Persia with ardour; and considerable assiduity is still shown in the prosecution of them ; but the splendid establishments by which they were supported are in utter decay. The present king is doing all in his power to revive the study of the sciences formerly cultivated. Morals, however negligently practised, are an object of diligent study ; as are also geometry, arithmetic, the Turkish and Arabic languages, but above all medicine and astrology, which last is the high road to fame and fortune. Europeans, on account of their ignorance of this vaunted science, ore held in con- tempt According to an old writer, 400,000/. were annually spent on its fallacious pro- fessors ; and though the sum is doubtless much smaller at present, the craft of divination is not the less esteemed. 3943. Persia contains Jragmenls of several ancient languages, of which the Zend is known only by the Zendavesta, a religious work preserved by the Guebres, but of which the authenticity and antiquity are a subject of controversy. The Pehlevi appears to have been the court language of Persia during the period of its connection with Greece and Rome. Under the dynasty of the Sassanides, the preference was given to the Persic, the dialect of their native province of Pars. This language having been enriched by a mixture of Arabic introduced by the Saracen conquerors, and polished by a succession of great writers, who made it the veliicle of their effusions, has become the most refined and classic in the East, and is spoken not only at the Persian court, but at the Mahometan courts of Hindostan. Its close alliances with all the branches of the Teutonic, and with the ancient Greek and Latin, have afforded ample ground to exercise the ingenuity of the etymologist Meantime the Turkish, introduced by the irruption of the Turks from Western Tartary, and implanted during their temporary dominion, is spoken extensively among the people. 3944. The Persians, as already observed, surpass in pomp the other Oriental nations. This magnificence with them, as with the others, does not display itself in houses and furni- ture. The mansions even of the richest present to the street only dead walls of clay, and a mean door, leading to a large interior court, into which all the apartments open. These apartments are spacious and com- modious ; but they contain scarcely any furniture, except car- pets, on which the owners sleep, sit, eat, and pass the greater portion of their lives. Their dishes are merely trays of painted wood, or copper tinned. Their baths, paved with marble, open to the sky, and furnished with every provision for magnificence and coolness, are also their favourite resorts for pastime. The Persians are splendid in their attire (fig. 581.). Gold, silver, and precious stones, proscribed by the Turks, are lavished by them on their head-dress, their robes, and particularly their sabres, many of which are thus raised in value to 15,000 to 30,000 piastres. The beard, highly respected over all the Er.st, is viewed by the Persians with peculiar veneration : they spare no pains in em- bellishing it, in making it thick and tufted ; they even adorn it with jewels. Their horses are the objects of still greater attention. Even a man who has not clothes worth half a guinea will have a good horse. .S945. The women of rani wrap multiplied folds of silk round their heads, and wear long floating robes; nor do they ever appear in public without long veils (Kg, 582.). The harams of the great are filled, as over all the East, by negotiation with the family of the bride, and by the purchase of Georgian and Circas- sian slaves. From the lavish use of the warm bath, or from some other improper regimen, the beauty of the fair sex is of very short duration. " In eight or ten years," says Porter, " the lately luxu- riant and sportive beauty becomes thin, withered, rheum-eyed, and every way a hag." The son takes precedence entirely accord- ing to his father's rank : as to the moUier, whether she have been wife, concubine, or slave is considered a matter of indifference. 3946.^ The Persians are simple in eating, and use little animal food. Pilau, or rice stewed with various ingredients, forms their favourite dish. The chief luxury of their table consists in a profusion of the finest fruits. Sect. VII. Local Geography, 3917. Infliing the difflcuU boundaries of the Persian empire, we shall continue to include Shirwan, because lu Hparatlon li not complete, nor perhaps Anally decided. Snirwan coniiits chiefly of a fertile plain, arched lound, a> it were, by the mighty chains of Caucasus. The Kur forms iti southern boundary. Being watered : ^ rKMIAN KUAN. WOMAN or HANE. •M DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pa»t III, ftulU. There i>, however, a flat tnrV the capital, and old Shamacliie, of wRS bf numcroui itrcami. It nmducct pIcntiAilljr cotton, rice, wine, and fhiita. •long th« Mn-rtMut, whlcti i> nearly deiert. Shamachie ii reckoned the cat _„.„.i „, _„, ^ only the mint, uvur-run with hruthwood. can now be traced, waa a large and jmpulouB city. Mew S^anurh' built of unhurnt brlok. and iurroundcd by a broad ditch, waa supposed in 179S to contain sooo or Guooinhfl bitanii, when It wm taken and reduced to ashes by Mahommed Aga, a calamity ttom which it hat not nX recovered Itaku, flrom Its trade, and Its situation on the Caspian, is of more modem importance in th„ plain to the touth.eatt arc fbund Incxhauttible pits of naphtha, which yield upwards of Kxio pounds weiohi a day, and which begin to (ill at soon at they are emptied. Near Baku is the plain of Are ; a spot ttom »& •u Innammable gat continually ittuet, producing a blue flame. This plain, to the extent of about a inili> in circumfbrence, had been walled round, was a place of great resort, and held in deep veneration by the anciont Ouobres, All the around to a great distance round Baku Is, as it were, impregnated with this fire which • sometimes teen rolUiig In streams down the mountains. Kuba, a small well fortifled town, it the residence nr a khan, whute sway ixtondt over a very fertile and populous district, called, firom one of its admired oroiiiir tions, " the iNtraillte of rotes." i"™ut. SiHH. 4/tfr iNWti'M Ml! Knr, we enter Ohilan, a long narrow province, formed of a plain which extendi avi miles along the Caspian) and It bounded inland by a range of mountaint which can be penetrated only by a fes narrow iiasitet. There It no river of any magnitude except the Kizil-Ouzen, which, after travcraing a consider able iwrt of l*er«la, ibrmt the boundary between this province and Mazanderan. NumtKrlesi streams hm over, deiccndlug Irum these mountains to the Caspian, maintain an almost excessive richness of vegetation- fbr the (hills, though In the grcateit profUtion, are considered unwholesome. Rethd, the capital, is dcscrilwl by Mr. Prater at a llourtshmg commercial city, having firom 60,000 to 80,000 inhabitants, with well kent baiaars, but abounding In tieggart. As its harbour is unsafe in stormy weather, many prefer the smaller tnrt of Lankeroon, tituatcd to the north-wctt Large crops of wheat, rice, and other grain, cover the Hclds ' but the staple production Is illk, which It cither worked up within the province, or exported to Astracliaa 'The air Is rendvretl very unhealthy, by excessive moisture, with which it it so impregnated, that metallic initru monit can icarvely ik< prctcrvcti from rutt. From its mountain itrcamt, and luxuriant verdure, Ghilan exiiibiti the iiUMt lM>nutll\il and romantic litct even in this pictureique empire. ;!!>t!i To the west of UliiUn is Aderb(Jnn. or Azerbijaun, also encircled by mountaint : on the north tlioscor Armenia, while on the tniith those of Koordistaun, in an accumulated mass, raise their towering heads to ihc clouds. '1 hit province it traversed by numerous smaller hills, and being well watered by the Araxcs.Kizil.Uuzen and other ttrvamt, It one of the pleaiantett and most fertile regions of Persia, though the prosperity orthc mui Is much rtrurvtMHl by the tyranny of their rulers. No city in Persia was more illustrious than Tabritz or Taurls, both as a splendid capital and a teat of commerce : and in the time of Cliardin it was supi^- cd to coriiain fiOO.OUO Inhnbltantt. Nature and man have co-operated in its destruction. It has been tacked eight different timet, and hat lie«elng cased with lai-quered tiles of porcelain, disposed and adjusted into intricate and elaborate flguret, and tui niundcd with a complete band of gilded Arabic sentences, cmbcUithed with flowers in green and gold. There It a.'io a splendid tomb of Sultan Cazan, without the city. Ardebil, aflnc old town, and a ,ieat ofilic ahaht, la llkewlte much dcclineil. Between it and the Kur is the plain of Mogam. The easier'- .>irt rornu a plcturetque and lloiirithlng district, surrounding the lake of Urumea, which is about M) mil' i round, salt like the sen, emitting a tulphiirous smell, and of such quality that fish cannot live in it. Urumea, the reputed birth.plnre of /iiriuii>ter ( and Marogha, the favourite residence of Holaku, where that great prince built hii nimiius (ilMervntory, arc ancient and still flourishing towns. 'MA\. MiixiiHih'ritH fonnt uii an extciuicti scale the continuatimi of the small line of plain, backed by moun. tains, and \* tlie siiutliern iMiunilary of the Caspian. The wheat is not good, and silk is not cultivated to the same extent at in (Ihllaii ; but rice it raised in vast quantities, and the sugar cane alwunds. It is, too, a very Iiii'turesuup pruvliu'e, and, moreover, the scat of a brisk trade. It is unhealthy, not quite so mucli so as (ihilan, liough Rum the same causes. Its southern boundary it Mount Elburz, which stretches along thevbole length of the nrnvlnre, and eastward Into Khorassan. Demavend, forming its loftiest peak, 14,700 feet high, according to Major Tratd, Is situated in a district called Tabrettan, and across it is that long defile called Uic Catnlan ftatot, leading from Teheran to AmuL .1931, AfaanN>fiT(iit cnnlalnt a number of pretty lillle cUiea. Sari, the capital, it tmall, with fortilicationi, once itrongi but now neglected, and hat several lofty temples of the early Guebres. Balfroosh, howeier, Is the largest tiiwn, and carries nn a very extensive commerce. Enjoying free trade, and having lieen pro- tected by a wise governnr from the revolutions which were laying waste other parts of Persia, it hat laid) fliiuriahetl In an extranrdiniiry degree, and is reckone merclal Intercoune lH05n. Teheran eitrcmity of Irak p »ove.'i>igns have mat fe theatre of almost 'J"! father a camp tl l^l-awferofapalace f"*y. that all leave "'"'Mk.part^andenc f^^J'nS.tothcseasfl ™sh captivity. It J rf't^r'-reofsu "marked by hollows. Book H- PERSIA. 987 entirelf traversed by chiini of mountain!, with long vnlleyt interreninii. flrom ten to flfteen mllet In Iwtadth. liihtcned governor, are Iwginnlng to recover. The eastern part of this province, with the a4ioining tract of Khoratsan, is occupied by a salt desert of great extent 3955. Irak is, as it were, covered with splendid cities and celebrated capiuls, most of tbem in a state of ruin, from which a few are beginning to rise. Among these, Ispalmn, or Spahawn {Jig. 59S,), stands pre-eminent. By the caliphs of Bagdad it was made the capital of Persia ; and being placed 583 . in the centre of the empire, sur- rounded by a fertile and beautiful plain, it became a rendezvous of the inland commerce of Asia, and at- tained an extent and splendour un- rivalled in Western Asia. It was destroyed by Timur, but restored by Shah Abbas. Chardin reckoned that in his time it was twenty-four miles in circuit, contained 172 mosques, 48 collugcs, and 1800 ca- „,u,M. ravanscrais. The most magnificent edifice was the palace, the gardens attached to which occupied a space of five miles in circumference, and were interspersed with the most splendid pavilions. The Meydun, a square, serving for military reviews and for a market-place, round which were built the palace, and a number of splendid mosques ; with the Chaur Baug, a long avenue of plane trees, were also distinguished ornaments of Ispahan. The Zenderood, a fine river, giving fertility to the plain of Ispahan, which it is npended in irrigating, traverses the city, is conducted through its gardens and pastures, and crossed by several magnificent bridges. This magnificence of the public structures is com- bined, as usual in Asia, with meanness and wretchedness in the streets, and in the huts occupied by the mass of the people. In 1722, it was taken and almost destroyed by the Afghans, and, the later sovereigns having preferred a northern residence, no exertions have been made for its restoration. A man may now ride through it for miles without seeing an inhabited house ; only three colleges are open ; and its proudest edifices present only piles of rubbish. It is still, however, a great city, with extensive trade, and some flourishing manufactures, particularly of gold brocade. Hussein Khan, a native, who has raised him- ieif to extraordinary wealth, is making great efforts to revive its magnificence. 3956: Teheran (Jig. 584.), founded by Kurreem Khan, is situated at the northern eitremity of Irak proper, at the foot of the loftiest mountains of Elburz. The two last ioveiiigns have maide it their residence, in consequence of its vicinity to the Russian frontier, £84 IMIRIIAK. I the theatre of almost perpetual war. It is four miles in circumference, strongly fortified, >nd rather a camp than a city. It has no grand edifices except the ark, combining the character of a palace and of a citadel. In summer the place becomes so extremely un- healthy, that all leave it who can. The king with the troops, and the chiefs with all their trains, depart, and encamp on the plains of Sultania. The population of the city thus varies, according to the season, from 10,000 to 60,000. Adjacent to Teheran are the remnants I of the ancient Rhaiz, mentioned as a spot to which the Jews were conveyed after the Baby- I lonish captivity. It continued a great city till destroyed by the generals of Zengis Khan. I The remains are of sunburnt brick, and the whole surface for three miles in every direction I IS marked by hollows, mounds, mouldering towers, tombs, and wells. 938 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P*lw Iir. 3957. Among all the fallen capUals of Perna, none lie so low as SuUania. Its broken arches and mouldering remains, displaying all the pomp of Oriental arcliitecture, are miied with a few cottages of peasants, inhabited by about 300 families. There is in particular a grand unfinished mosque, in the interior of which the whole Koran is writen in ornamented characters. The prince royal has begun to erect a citadel, to be called Sultanabad and will probably do something for the repair of the place. Casbin, or Casween, though it has lost its grandeur as a capital, is still a neat flourishing city with a considerable trade. Koom on the contrary, is described as a large straggling wilderness of ruins, all crumbling and' tumbled into heaps. It has, however, been in part rebuilt ; and the modern structures are confusedly mixed with the ancient. A road along the great salt desert leads from Koom to Cashan, a city still very flourishing, particularly by its manufactures of silk brocade. It commands a magnificent view of the mountains of Taurus. 9958. The teeilem pari qf Irak i< mountainoua and irregular, though still interaperwd with rich nlaim Here occurs Hamadan, supposed the ancient Ecbatana, and presenting, in fact, tnc appearance or m^li antiquity. It is still large; though, since its destruction by Timur, it has never held more than a sccomlarJ rank. It is finely situated near the lofty peak of Elwund, but suHbrs under extreme cold during eiiht mmiihi of the year. Still farther west is Kermanshah, a large and flourishing town, bounded by a loni; ranne nf mountains. Those to the north present some remarkAle sculptured rocks. liesittoon forms a high and wr pendicular rock, cut smooth on one side, and impending over the road like a canopy. In one of its raosi iiS.' cessible |)oints is sculptured a group of figures representing a procession. Taki Bostan is a more remarkable feature, and presents a series of excavations made in these mountains ; the most considerable of wliich iian arch cut in the rock, fifty or sixty feet in height, and twenty-four feet wide. The figures represented m numerous, executed with great precision and Judgment, in a manner which Mr. Kinncir conceives would nnt have disgraced the finest artista of Greece and Rome. They are very aimilar to those of Persepolis, and thouBh a.icribed by some to Semiramis, seem traced, on much more solid grounds, by M. de Sacy, to the Saisanun dynasty. 3959. The touth-eailem part qf Irak is arid and poor ; yet it contains the large city of Yejd, still HourishiiiB as a seat of commerce, and of a valuable silk manufactory. It contains the remnant, amounting to alxiut I6,0U0, of the persecuted race of the Ouebres. Yeidikhast, the most southern town, is of some consequence fVom its situation on the high road flrom Ispahan to Shiraz. ^ ■ 3960. To the touth of Irak is Fars, a province of much less extent, but interesting, as it composes thif territory which was originally called Persia, and whose hardy inhabitants subverted the kingdoms of Media and Babylon. Its western part consists of chains of loltjr mountains, forming part of that great range which extends fVom Caucasus to the Persian Gulf, and with fertile though often neglected valleys interjiicricd The eastern part is a large plain, often sandy end arid, but, when supplied with water, very fertile, (larticularly in tobacco. 3961. Shiraz, or Shirauz, though neither very ancient nor very extensive, has long been one of the boasts of Persia, from the beauty of its environs, and the polished gaiety of iu inhabitants. It has been the favourite seat of the Persian muses, and near it are still to be found the tombs of Hafiz and Saadi, the chief of the national poets. Its wines are celebrated as the most valuable in the East; and it is the seat of a considerable and increasing trade' but since it ceased to be the residence of Kurrecm Khan, the inhabitants have lost their character for taste and refinement. The latest travellers have found the romantic spots, so celebrated by Hafiz, abandoned to decay. The bov. . r of Mossella was desolate, and the pure waters of Rocknabad choked with rubbish. The tomb of ihe poet was surrounded br common graves, and no longer adorned with a copy of his poems. That of Saadi, situated in the hills, at the distance of two or three miles, was equally neglected. 39f)2. Near Shirax is thelarfe salt lakeqf Baktegaun, {torn which a great part of Persia is supplied with salt of a peculiarly fine quality. To the north, along the road to Ispahan, are the plains of Unjaun and Kooshkyjerd, which, though now in a great measure abandoned to the wandering tribcs,arc6tillcapal)Ieof becoming again the garden of Pcraia. 39<>l. The itnly other place iifmueh comequence in this province is Bushire, or Abu Shehr, whicli, since the empire lost Bassora, has been the emporium of its foreign trade. This is chiefly with India ; and it is not ml ficient to render the town either large or handsome. Large vessels cannot anchor nearer than sit milei, in a roadstead which, though good, is not perfectly safe in north-west winda. 585 VBMSmitS. 3964. TIte grandest feature of this fn-ovince, however, consists in its ancient remains, which far surpass any that are to be found in the northern capitals. Thirty miles to the south of .Sliirai nri> found the remains of the piilace of Persepolis (fg, 585.), one of the most nugni- Book II. liccnt structures « jiices. The arcfii beautiful executio magnificent. The in basso-rilievo, n the figures is con minences and dcta Grecian sculpture. S9S5. A few mill hill of Nakshi Rou raised. The other, Solomon, appears pro the tomb itself, which 3966. At the end e /fcra/ remains ofShahpi by &por the Great. raclis and precipices. representing the trium feet six inches long, lircuit of the rampartsl 3567. Totliesouthof Fai only dates, with a small q toyed ; ami Taron.thoui -!« T^'^i '""' '-■°™''''>' J«8. lo the east ofFai "tensive tracts of desert: • ipeciesofgoats with hair titles in the empire, till, "^one.it was taken and de tuins considerable trade a i" ""f"rtn"t city, also deca 'trongty fortified; On the f»n (i«l sea port to the east 'Omuj, no longer the b< lie most splendid cities of 57»f»,huthehasin,omc ^&'"/\lhelargeanTf ntm. ' ''<'™'>n forms nnibits a complete contras "•Jwaterd 6y four fine MdenhenameofSusiana. Sell """'■>' »'"' '"i"' f^me, wljose cap tal is at n er^i,in.ufflcieP„tTo'?4 ra I ffP","*' confus on. The t \Z"lT""- On its site a "»."agloSmyw»/ernJ^' "lepowcrfUldyiiaatyofthe •"almost entirely cmplov. BookII' PERSIA. 939 MARIIll ROUirAN. (icent structures which art ever reared. Its front is 600 paces in length, and the side 390 psces. The architecture is in a peculiar style, but remarkable for correct proportions and beautiful execution. The staircases leading into the interior are peculiarly extensive and magnificent. The portals and the capitals of the columns are adorned with numerous figures in basso-rilievo, representing combats and processions of various kinds. The drawing of the figures is correct ; but as only their contour is represented, without any of the pro- minences and details, they present a heavy appearance, and cannot rival the great works of Grecian sculpture. S965. A few miles to the south of Persepolis we discover a remarkable feature, the excavated hill of A^akshi Roustan (Jig. 586.). It is about 300 yards high, and presenu a precipitous ,i;gg face of whitisli marble, nearly the whole of which is covered with sculptured tombs. The four highest are in a superior style of execution, apparently coeval with Persepolis, and belonging to the early kings of Persia. The lower tombs appear to t^long to the Parthian Sassanide dynasties, and represent their wars with the Romans and Tartars. Near Murgab, ninety miles north of Perse- polis, are two remarkable objects. One of them, called Tuckt-y-Sulieman, consists of a large marble structure raised in the face of a hill, and forming a platform at top. It is supposed to mark the site of Pasagardee, the city of the Magi, for the celebration of whose rites the platform appears to have been raised. The other, called Madre-y-Sulicman, for the Asiatics ascribe every thing to Solomon, appears proved to be the tomb of Cyrus. A large flight of marble steps rises to the tomb itself, which is in the form of a house. 3966. At the end of the long valley in which Kazeroon is situated are found the magni- fceiU remains of Shalipoor, founded before the time of Alexander, but restored and embellished by Sapor the Great. It lies in a wild romantic spot, on the banks of a rapid river, amid rocks and precipices. Several of tliese rocks are covered with sculptured monuments, representing the triumphs of the second founder of Shahpoor. His colossal statue, (ifteen feet six inches long, lying on a cavern, has been recently described by Ouseley. The circuit of the ramparts, and the remains of several public buildings, may still be traced. 3967. To the south of Fan is the small maritime province of Lar. The interior is extremely arid, producing onl)' ilates, with a small quantity of grain. Lar, nowevcr, was once a magnificent city, though now much decayed ; and Taron, though poor, carries on a considerable inland trade The sea-ports are now in the hands of the Arabs, who combine trade and piracy. The largest sea-port is Congoon. 3!^. To the cast of Fars is the province of Kertnan, presenting arid mountains, and interspersed with eiteniivc tracts of desert ; but in others capable of high cultivation. Its hilly tracts arc distinguished by I species of goats with hair, or rather wool, <■ peculiar fineness. Kcrman, the capital, was one of the proudest cities in the empire, till, in the course of the civil wars, having afibrded shelter to a pretender to the throne, it was taken and destroyed by Aga Mohammed. From this blow it has never recovered, though it still rtUini considerable trade and mpulation, and is celebrated for its manufacture of shawls and carpets. Bumm, an imiwrtant city, also decayed, and Regan, a neat little town, are both situated on the eastern frontier, and ■tiongly fortified. On the sca-coast this province has Gombroon, which Shah Abbas, after destroying Ormus, rendered the emporium of Persian commerce. It now belongs to the Imam of Muscat, and, with Alinab, a large fottilicd sea port to the east, yields customs to the amount of 2(),(XXI rupees annually. Opposite to Gombroon 1 0rmus, no longer the seat of that vast commerce which, in the days of Albuquerque, rendered it one of the most splendid cities of the East. When it came into the hands of the Imam it did not contain twenty limises, hut he has in some degree restored it Kvery thing of the old city is in ruins except the reservoirs. Adjoining is the large and fertile island of Kishme, containing a town of some magnitude. 3.1(9. As Kcrman forms the eastern, Khusistan forms the western portion of Persia. This province (thibiti a complete contrast to that aridity which dooms so great a portion of the kingdom to barrenness. It \i watered by four fine rivers, the Kerah, the Karoon, the Teraki, and the Endian, which fall into the Tigris ami the Persian Gulf With these advantages it might regain the distinction, which it formerly enjoyeit under the name of Susiana, of being one of the most fertile regions in the world, were it not entirely laid laste by anarchy and misrule. The southern and maritime part belongs to the chief sheik, an Arabian jirince, wliose capital is at Dorak. The Persian l>art, called Shustcr, is under a governor, whose power, how- ever, is insufficient to restrain tlie predatory tribes and inclepcndent chiefs, who make this country a scene of perpetual confusion. The capital,. Shustcr, is a place of some importance, containing considerable woollen mmufaclures. On its site arc exteirsivc ruins, which have been supposed to be those of Susa j but these have, ultli ijrcater nrol>ability, been traced to a spot called Shus, on the upper Kerah, where, for a space of twelve miles in length, the ground, as at Babylon, Is covered with hillocks of earth, rubbish, and broken bricks. It ii now a gloomy wilderness, infested by lions, hyenas, and other beasts of prey. The desolation of this fine province is strongly marked by the ruins of Ahwaa on the Caroon, which, under the protection afforded by tne powerfXil dynasty of the Abbassides, became one of the greatest cities of the East. The water of the river *u almost entirely employed to irrigate the surrounding country, which, now overgrown with wood, was Uien covered with the richest plantations. The site, ten or twelve miles in length, and half that breadth, is covered with vast mounds of bricks and rubbish, and of which C:;ptain Mignan cnnicivL's there might be built u large a city as any that now exists. The inhabitants of the modern village, about 1600 in number on Karching the ruins after a fall of rain, seldom fail to discover gold and silver cnins, medals, and sculptures. ■WH. Besides these provinces, belonging entirely to Persia, there are two which she divides with Turkey, ind which have long formed the theatre of contest between the empires. One of these is Koordistan, the ancient Carduchia, inhabited by a brave, hospitable, fierce, and turbulent race ; who are described as such by Xcoophon, and appear never to have been changed or thoroughly subdued. The caatcrn part, called Ardelan, MO DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P*M III. U. In w for, iubjeot to the Fenlsn monarch, that the InhabtUnti p» a imaU tribute, and are •»» . . hfi call, to engage In their flivourlte purtultJ of war and plunder. Tiie country coniffU entl»w S '^'' »« rnckT mounuini and high table-lanA, trarerwd by difficult and often periloui routeT Tw'' °I ""«» <* Inadeqwtic but mild manner by herediUry chiefi. The principal orthetc. caUedthe wS« ."Tf"'* *S!^^ '5® "?''' ^"^ "' """='' Importance, iltuated in a fine valley, and carryfnt on Mme tr«S» "'*•• « 3S7I. Anolherdmied province, Xong a theatre of conteit between the Eail and the W«,t l. .ho , kingdom of Armenia. The lofty mountain! of Wettern Aita have their central pbKe in Ui'lt rSf ""''"' "I?!"" "■Li"'^ '°J""'J!"S »'"««".»'»» Wonted to a Bouriihing people, now iwept SSm the'^SS"', '. earth : a border land or high r oad, th rough whicH the Asiatic powSripZun open w or p?ed,toi?h!>.l ''» For tAree centurie.. howem. Ermoum, DIarbekir. with the Anett an^oit &il"rMU. I??ve £i™^"'- Turkey. '"'hePerflandiyUion, the chief town It now Erivan. a Mrong fortrcM, •ituated ™ I „!2?i*!? •» rock, over the river TemiL In 1808, the Ruuiani were driven fVom it after a bfockadrDf."xmSnfh '"'?'" the repeated iiieMi (Uiiurned by it have greatly impaired the pro.pcrity of Erivan. Fifty miLSSSii """ "•• 'f"?!!" !* ''■ck'hivan, an ancient and magnilicent city, now reduced to a heap of raiS v?"' t" •rot the FmUn camp li utuaily pltehed in the campaigni againit Ruuia. ™ "* " ""P '" ""'"• ««« tlUi Book II. of rugged mour irith Siose of A greater obstruct! 3975. Therh the Indus, are m of Kaushkaur, i which rises in tt mund derives its of Candabar, ani by forming the s The mountain ti d7 in summer, I Chaf. V. INDEFENDBNT PERSIA. S972. The large region to which we have given the name of Independent Persia forms rather an aggregate of various territories than a distinct or connected kingdom. For the reasons alrewiy given, we have separated it from the empire of Persia, and have included in it the provinces of Seistan and Mekran, which never formed any regular part of that empire. Cabul, till lately the seat of the only important monarchy in this region, has been very commonly considered as a province of Hindostan ; and, indeed, the cities of Cabul and Ghizni were the residence of celebrated dynasties which reigned over that empire : but its moral and physical character is entirely distinct, and the ties which unite them are altogether precarious. The kingdom of Cabul is now dismembered, and a great part of it is in the possession of Runjeet Sing, the Seik ruler; yet the Indus forms too natural a boundary to be superseded by any temporary changes of this nature. For the same reason, though Ahmed Shah held sway over Balkh, the mountains form still the natural limit between Independent Persia and Tartaty. Sect. I. , General Outline and Aspect. 3973. Upon the principles above stated, Independent Persia will be comprehended within the marked natural boundaries formed by the mighty chain of Caucasus, or Hindoo Koosb, on the north ; by the Indus on the east ; the Indian Ocean on the south ; and, on the west, by a winding line drawn along the desert boundaries of Kerman and Khorassan, It will thus, in a general view, be included within the 57th and 71st degrees of east longitude, and the 25th and 36th of north latitude. It forms nearly a square of about 800 miles in length and 700 in breadth. 3974. This region presen'^ a sort of compound of Persia and Arabia .• on the north, vast mountains, high table-lands, and rapid rivers ; on the south, sandy and salt deserts. The most conspicuous feature is that grand mountain chain, continued from the snowy range of Hindostan, which forms the whole of its northern boundary. Though its height does not equal that of the loftiest peaks of the Himalayah, It is yet truly amazing, and scarcely pjiral. leled in any other region of the globe. One point, the most elevated yet obsened, has been stated to reach 20,593 feet. Its summits, though only in the 34th degree of laU'tude, are covered with perpetual snow ; and being seen at once from the whole extent of this region, form, as it were, a bond of connection between the various nations by which it is peopled. From numerous accounts, not yet perhaps very accurately combined, it is sup- posed to extend without interruption westward till it locks in with Mount Elburz, and thus connects itself with Taurus and Russian Caucasus. That part which rises above the plain of Cubul is, from a peculiarly elevated peak, called generally Hindoo Coosh, or Hindoo Koh. In its progress westward, it takes, or at least it received from the ancients, the name of Paropamisus. Here its elevation is considerably less, and it is not covered with per- petual snow. Ranges proceeding from this main one, or connected with it, traverse ineverf direction the territory of Cabul and Candahar. Of these the most important is that of Solimaun, which runs parallel to the Indus, and nearly at right angles with the Hindoo Coosb, leaving behind them, near its highest peak of Suffaid Koh, only a narrow pass, through which flows the Kama. The intervening territories are to be considered not properljfts plains, but as elevated table-lands, yielding the products rather of the temperate than of lie tropical climates. The southern regions, Seistan, Beloochistan, and Mekran, consist pvtijr 3976. The Oe differ from that ( Botany. 3977. Thiscou western frontier o of the Oxus (lat. £ Candahar find mi more dry and lear 3978. Thet mund derives its origin from a source not far from that of the Cabul ; it traverses tlie plain of Candabar, and, giving some degree of fertility to the arid plains of Seistan, terminatea by forming the salt lake of Zerrah, or Zurrah. It must have flowed then nearly 600 miles. The mountain tracts in the south give rise to numerous rivers, or rather torrents, nearly dry in summer, but rapid and desolating in winter. SicT. II. Natural Geography, 3976. The Geology of this region has not yet been explored ; and its Zoology does not difier from that of the Persian empire. The following remarks occur in relation to its Botony. SuBsicT. 1. Botany, 3977. This country, which extends from the extremity of the Himalayah mountains to the western frontier of Beloochistan, and from the mouth of the Indus (lat. 24°) to the shores of the Oxus (lat. 37°), is very litth known. The famous districts of Cashmere, Cabul, and Candabar find more place in the marvellous tales of Arabian writers than they do in the more dry and learned disquisitions of European naturalists. 3978. The southern part of the great desert is not so sterile but that traces of the vegetation 587 of hot countries may be perceived. Here and there, among the drifted sands which heave like the waves of the ocean, grow scattered tufts of dry plants, and bushes of Mimosa and Zizyphus. The Holcus spi> catus (Jig, 587.) is cultivated round some lonely huts; and it is a cir- cumstance worthy of remark, that the inhabitants of these wild abodes are obliged, in their search for water, to dig to a depth of 300 feet, in a soil whose arid surface produces, without any cultivation, Water Melons more than a foot in diameter. The rivers Setuleje, Chunab, and Indus, diiTuse fertility along their shores in the very heart of this desert. 3979. At its eastern extremity is the province of Sinde, of which the southern part, bathed by the sea of Oman to the westward, descends to the tropics. The shore presents a large level plain, which is inter- sected by the Indus, and the various channels which convey the waters of that river to the sea. The shores of this fine stream are remarkably fertile ; but so soon as the traveller goes to a short distance from them, he finds on one hand the desert, and on the other a range of bare mountains, that oiTer a striking resemblance to Egypt, as is remarked by Fottinger. At Tattah (lat. 24° 44'), this traveller remarks that, from the middle of June to the middle of roa July, 1810, the thermometer, in the coolest apartments, never fell '' lower than from 4- 38° to + 33° ; and that at Hyderabad (lat. 25° 22'), in August, the rainy season, it rarely sank below + 38°. Among the plants of this country, we can only point out the Mimosas, the Tamarix, and the Euphorbia antiquorum {Jig, 588.). The same may be said of Seistan, reputed to bie the warmest pro- vince of the empire. 3980. The annual temperature qftfteshores of Beloochistan must be inferior to that of Sinde, because the year is there clearly divided into two seasons, the warm and the cold; but it is requisite to observe, that this latter season only appears cold when compared with the excessive heats of the former. The soil is only fertile where it is irrigated, and elsewhere is as sandy as the desert. It produces the Date, the Pride of India [Melia Axe- darach), the Banyan (Ficus religiosa), the Dalbergia Sissoo, the Mango (Mangifera indica), the Tamarind, the Zizyphus, and some Mimosas of considerable stature : the Walnut, the Sycamore, and the Oriental Plane, succeed very well: Ashes, Oaks, and Firs, with the other Conifero!, are unknown. At a very short distance from the coast, the^ country becomes mountainous, and the temperature varies with the inequalities of the soil. In the low and favourably situated valleys, between lat. 27° and 30°, grow the Date, the Guava, the Banana, the Fig, the Pistachio, the Mulberry, the Pomegranate, the Vine, the Walnut, the Quince, the Peach, the Apricot, the Almond, the Cherry, and the Currant. Rice, Cotton, and Indigo arc cultivated on the plains ; but on the slopes and declivities of the hills, where long HOffUl iriCATlfl* •rpHomiA AmauoavK MP DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. i'aut iir. «Hnten and severe frosts are experienced, they can hardly reckon with certainty on a slender harvest of wheat and barley ; so tardy is the ripening of grain. The ground brings forth spontaneously Mimosa, Tamarix, Hedysarum Alhagi, and Assafoetida. 39RI. Turning towards the tiorlh-u Pallas the Juniperus Ivcia, cr the Savin (Juniperus Sabina). 3 P 592 WIIITI MULBIBftV. DESCniPTIVE OEOORAl'HY. 1'akt III. 8994. In Ik* louthtrn parts i\f Bokhara, th» oriental plane (Plalami orlenlaUt) becomct a tree or roluui growth. Skit. III. Hhlorieal fJeography, S995. Thit region win very little kitown or regarded by the ancients. Under the nnmvg uf ArachoKin, ParopamUiis Dranginnai und Gedroaia, it wan regarded aa a rude, barbaruuit, and iin|iracticBl)le tract. The route to India and the I^ast, was tlirough Aria (the borderinfr part of KhuriiMan) and Hoctria on the south of Mindoo Koosh. It was chiefly known by the expedition of Ali-xandcr, who, in entering India from the side of Daelria, was obligul lo penetrate tlirougli the defiles of Cabnl, and who, in returning by the southern dvsi'rt.s of Gcdrosia, encountered obstacles of the most formidable character. In modern tina% Indo. dependent Persia has acte|iportunity to render his ooiinlry independent, and himself its king. He also invaded India, in the battle of Panniput v,iii(|uislied the IVIahrattas, and appropriated Lahore, Moultan, unil CiLshinero. The kingdom of Cabul became one of the most powerful in Asia; but Shuh Sluijuli, his suc- cessor, was (luthroned in ] 809, by his brother Mahmoud, and many struggles und revulutiuns ensued. The central provinces were occupied by Dost Mahummed, of the family of liarukzio. Ilunjeet Sing possessed himself of all the Indian provinces, and recently added Pcshawer. Kanirnn, son to Muhmood, holds Herat, which he has successfully defended against tlio Persians The British government has lately been induced by political motives to undertake the restoration of Shah Shujah, a measure which they have triinnpliantly ettected. Sect. IV. Political Geography. ^gwG. The political constitution of Cabul exhibits pcwiliarities which distinguish it from that uf almost every other Asiatic monarchy. Instead of the power being inonopollsed bv the sovereign, or at least by the khans, with no check but the influence of rival chiefs, it admits a large infusion uf popular elements. In every oolooss, or tribe, there is ajeerga, or representative assembly, without whose consent the khan can undertake nothing, and who also administer justice, though in some subserviency to the rooted principle of private vengeance. Among the people, much more attachment is felt to the jeerga tliantotlic khun. These tribes may be said to form independent states, and they even carry on war with each other. Their only vassalage to the king consists in a tribute, and a contingent of troojjs in war ; both which, especially the former, are with difficulty exacted. In tlie larjje cities and their vicinity the authority of the sovereign is much more extensive ; hut the rude and desert tracts to the south are abandoned to independent chiefs or lawless banditti. 3997. Among tlie Afghan tribes great reverence is paid to birth, and particularly \oanliqml\j of descent. The khun must be taken out of the oldest family in the tribe ; but the king cither appoints him, or at least has great influence in procuring his appointment. Tlietuo leading trilies are the Ghiljies and the Dooraunces : of whom the former are the rudest, the fiercest, and the most warlike ; the latter are more orderly and peaceable, and in ull respects of a superior char.ictcr. The Ghiljies were the conquerors of Persia ; but Ahmed Shah belonged to the Dooraunee tribe, which became, therefore, the ruling one. At this ascend- ency the Ghiljies cherished mortal resentment; and, indeed, the antipathy bewcen the two tribes is such, that it is with difficulty restrained from breaking into open war. 3998. The revenues of the kingdom of Cabul arise from the land-tax, the tributes paid by vassal chiefs, the royal demesnes, and some minor sources. A consideruble proponioii, however, must often be remitted to the tributary princes, who, if they did not receive this remission as a grant, would be in danger of rebelling against the power which should persitt in exacting the full amount. 3999. The military force, or at least the most regular and efficient part of it, consists of Gholaums, a body formed partly of military adventurers, partly of persons holding lands or grants on a military tenure in and around the great cities. They form a well-disciplined and disposable army, about I3,()00 strong. The Dooraunees are easily mustered, to the ■mount of 13,000 brave highland militia, each fighting under the banner of his own cliief- tain. The contingents of the other tribes amount collectively to a much greater number; but they are drawn out with great difficulty, unless fur local purposes, or with a peculiar hope of plundci . The entire force commanded by Ahmed Shah, in the battle of Pannipui, Book II. INDEPENDENT PERSIA. <>«9 wu Mtimatcd at 40,000 men, which, perhap*, may be nvarly as large an army as can l>c levied from the country for a foreign expedition. S«ct. V. Productive Iniiuttry. 4000. A very great portion i>f this vast region is doomed to complete and irremediable barrenness, produced by the opposite extremes of lofly and snow-covered mountains, and of sandy plains. Other portions, however, of considerable extent, bear quite an opposite cha- racter. The lower declivities of the mountains, and the high plains interspersed between them, though they do not offer the profuse products that cover the plains of Delhi and Ijpatian, are often equal to the finest parts of Europe. Nor arc these natural advantages ni-gicctcd by a rough but active and laborious people. Irrigation, as in all tropical countries, rorms the most important and arduous part of husbandry. It is attended here with peculiar difficulties ; the water from the heights being apt to run over its slopes in dentructive torrents rather than in fertilising rills. To remedy this evil, it is not only necessary by canals to lead the water through the fields, but by levelling and embankment to retain it. A remark- able process is employed, by which the water of a number of wells is collected together, and distributed over a field. Extensive operations of this kind arc the more difficult, from the imall portions into which the occupancy of land is here divided. They are sometimes per- formed by an association among the little proprietors ; sometimi's by a rich man employing Ills capital on this object. Wheat and barley, instead of rice, am the principal species of grain ; the first for the food of man, the latter for that of horses. Fruits and vegetables arc produced in such abundance, that their cheapness is almost unequalled. 4001 . The people have not extended their industry to manufactures, except tin. je of coarse fabric for internal consumption. The kingdom of Cabul, by its situation, is excluded from maritime commerce ; and the coast of Mekran is too poor to make much use of its natural advantages in this respect. The country, however, carries on a considerable inland trade within its own provinces, with the neighbouring countries, and also as a thoroughfare between Persia and India. This traffic is conducted by caravans, which employ camels where the route is practicable for them, but in the rough mountain roads of Afghanistan horses and ponies are substituted. These caravans journey under continual dread of the predatory tribes, which infest almost every part of this country. Above all, in passing through the territories occupied by them, the strictest precautions become necessary. The best parts of Eastern Persia produce rather the simple necessaries of life, than those superfluities which can become the objects of exchange. Fruits, assafoetida, madder, ond a few furs, form the principal articles. In return, they receive the manufactures of Persia ond India, and even those of Europe, by way of Orenburg and Bokhara. I war with tiiigent of tlie large tlie rude iitti. antiquity tlie king Tlie two udest, the respects iined Sliah ascend. n the t«o consists of ig lands or .disciplineti ;red, to the own cliief- number; A peculiar Pannipnl. I a f Sect. VI. Civil and Social State. 4002. Mr. Elphinstonc gives the following coi^jectutal estimate of the population of the kingdom of Cabul : — Afghans - ... - 4,300,000 Beloochcs ... - . 1,000,000 Tartars 1,200,000 Persians .... . 1,500,000 8,000,000 4003. Thiieitimate, besides the main body of the kingdom, includes, we presume, Balkli and the subject part of Khorassan, but not the Indian provinces of Cashmere and the Punjab, to which are assigned a population of about 6,000,000. 4004. Tlie Afghans (^fig. 593.), who form the main body of the population, present, in their aspect and character, a very striking contrast to the Hindoos, on whom they immediately border. Their high and even harsh features, their sunburnt countenances, their long beards, loose gar- ments, and shaggy mantles of skins, give the idea of a much ruder and more unpolished people. The arts of life are less advanced, and many of the luxuries of Hindostan unknown : there is nothing like the same organised police and regular course of justice. Un- der this rough exterior, however, are soon disclosed estimable qua> lities, which advantageously contrast with the timid servility produced by long subjection in the Indian. Their martial and lofly spirit, their bold and simple manners, their sobriety and contempt of pies- sure, their unbounded hospitality, and the general energy and independence of their character, render them on the whole a superior race. In India, every movement originates with the government or its agents, and the people arc accounted as notliing; while here, 3 P'i 593 948 D£8CRIP'riVE oeOORAPHY. Pam III, men put tliemsclveii little uiulvr fontrul, uiul I'ullow undisturlHHl thrir own inclination Although Atiatii' diitHiiniilution pruvulU, vxpvcially at court, yut their intcrcuurHv in hv ii'i means marked by that profound »nd nyHtemutic deceit which characteriitc'N the xulijcc'tn u| tht- great empireR. They hIiow also an active curiosity with regard to the products ut Eurouvan' art and skill, with an eager diposition to em|uire into the procesaes einployvd ■ w|,i|n in India ull these things are regarded with a mere polite indittercnce. Althougli puiyi{g||,y and 'he obtaining of wives by purchase are e<|ually established, yet the former is nut carrii'd to the sitme extent, nor attended with the snme strict seclusion; and hence the dvursdution of the fenuile sex, which is the necessary consequence of such arrangements, does not take place in a degree so remarkable. Matrimonial contracts are not, iis usual in Mahonu'iun countries, negotiated entirely by the friends of the parties ; but, in the country districts vhiiv. ciully, the parties themselves have often the opportunity of meeting and forming attucli* ments. These cannot be fulfilled, indeed, until the youth has earned the purcliasv-inuni'v of his mistress; but though this be in itself far from a romantic feiituic, it gives risv (u delays and dilHculties, which often impart a character of interest and adventure to Ihucun. iiection. It has thus become the subject of luve-tules somewhat similar to those wliicli art- popular in Europe. This pecuniary value of the female sex, nnd difHculty of purclmsi' ha, led to a very odd species of penal infliction. The oll'ender, on being convicted, is senti'MciHl to pay to the injured person or his friends, a number of young women, proportionvd to the enormity of the oH'ence. Twelve ladies form the fine for murder; in minor ott'ences tlig amount is of course diminished. 4005. The e$labli$lietl religion, in Afghanistan, is strictly Mahometon, though toleration prevails more than even in the Persian em|)ire, where it has been observed to be greater than usual in Mussulman countries. As in other Mahometan states, no established pruvisiun is made for the priesthood. The mollahs, or religious doctors, are solely supported liy jndi. vidual donation, whether in the shape of permanent foundation, regular salary, or occasional gift. They form, however, a species of corporate body, called the uleina, who admit new members, after a due course of study and a strict examination. They are numerous, and often assert their rights in that turbulent manner which characteiises the nnllon. TIjiv take arms, and in the neighbourhood of the great cities muster sometimes liusts of 'j(xio ur 3000, who, though they cannot mutch the prowess of the Afghan warriors, are so aidi'il hy the superstitious uwe of the inultititde, as generally to carry their point. In the rural dJ!.. tricts their character is more respectable ; and by promoting peace and inculcating tliu moral duties, they render themselves really useful to this rude people. 4006. A taste for knotdedge is general among the Afghans, though they have nut pro- duced any writers who can rival in fume those of Persia and India. Few of the works in the language, indeed, are above two centuries old, and they are evidently imitations of ilic Persian. Tlic late sovereigns of Cubul have sought to promote learning, and even cu|. tivated the muses, though not with any brilliant success. Unfortunately, the .\t);li:iji«, considering the Persians as heretics, guard against resorting to their colleges, IVsljaHtr enjoys the liighest reputation in the country, and a considerable number resort to Bokhara, There are, besides, schools in every little town and even village, so that the Krst elimentsdl' knowledge are very widely dilfused. The higher brunches are logic, law, and tlieolo),')', lu which are added the Persian ami Arabic languages and literature. Study, in tlie Maljouidnii countries, proceeds in a fixed and invariable course ; so tliat, when you know the last hiiuli a man h:is read, or the last sidgect he has studied, you know all that has gone before It, ami all that is still wanting. The taste for poetry is very general, and a cunsideralilr nunilicr of people in the towns even make the public reading of it a distinct employment, Tiir poets by profession are not to be compared with those of Persia ; but a considerable display of genius often appears in the rude verses of the chiefs and warriors, who celebrate their own feelings and adventures. Those of Kooshkaul, a khan who defended his native counln against the power of Aurungzebe, display a peculiar degree of poetic fire. 4007. Afkhanislan has a language peculiar to itself, called Pushtoo. About half the ttnii-s including all those of an abstract import, were traced by Mr. Elphinstone to forei^^n sources, chiefly the Persian. The rest appear to belong toon unknown root, though it is udniittcd tlial of these a careful examination by a profound Oriental scholar might diminish the nuinbrr. 4008. The inhnbilmits rf Afghanistan are fonned into two great divisions, — of dwclltn in tents, and dwellers in houses. The former, in the western part of tlie kingdom, are sup- posed to constitute one half of the population ; in the eastern they arc fewer, but still so) | numerous. The Afghans have generally a strong attachment to the pastorul life, and art with difficulty induced to quit it. Contrary to the ideas which prevail in £uru|)c, they holdin disdain a residence in towns, together with the occupations there carried on, and IcavcllH to inferior and foreign races. The most numerous of these are the Taiijiks, who havubeeo supposed to amount to 1,500,000, and to be the original people subdued hy the Afghms, who regard them with contempt. They inhabit the towns and their vicinity, and carry oa those trades which are disdained by the ruling people. The fixed habitations of the lo'tr I orders are rudely constructed of unburnt brick, with wooden roofs. The ^Ava d \ Book II. indepeni>f;nt prhsia. 917 tjM grunt are on tli« Pcniian inudel, though in an intVriiw iilylc of magnifli-enco ; their chiuf orniimenti are Periian pivturtm and cnrpeti. The AJiihani arefonil of ill sorla o/* botawniii' nmuMiHenls, particularly thoM whirl) infoive great dliplay of bodily aciuily. Hunting i^i n» it were the rage over all Afghan- JiUn, and the people pursue it not only in all the known and u<«iiaI modus, but in other* Mculiar to the country itaelf. Sumutiinus u whole nuighlHiurliood osseinlfKil forini a circle, tnd iweepi together witliin it all the game lielunging to u certain district. In the villaget much delight is taken in the atlum, a hearty and noisy dance, consisting in violent move* menti, in which both sexes join. They delight in the Aghting of (juails, cocks, and other uniiiiiil* ; and they amuse themselves at marbles, hopping on oas foot, and other garnet coniidured in Europe as suited only to children. 4010. The jlfghan dreu presents a striking contrast with the Indian attire of light, loow, flying robes, leaving a great part of the body naked. It consists of close tunics and wide mantles, com|)osed, among the lower ranks, of sheupskin or coarse woollen cloth ; ap'.ong the higher, of velvet, fine shawl-cloth, or silk. Boots are almost universally worn, and no one it alluwed to appeiir ut court without them. Jewels are cliivily employed to decorate their annuur. The favourite dress of the ladies consists of jackets, soniewhut siniiliir to those of dragoons, and pantaloons, both composed of velvet, shawlcloth, or silk. 8lrings of Venetian iiquins, chains of gold and silver, and ear-rings, are the most valued ornamunts. Wit, Although thf j{fnhan» are tt tober anil temperate people, they are enabled to live well, by the ex. trtmc rheiipneii of all provialoiia, particularly Oull and vettetablei. 'I hey arc alio lovlal anil hospitable ; and " rd to kill a aheep '— "- ■-■• - • ' tven the i>i>i>rer claaiet, when they can alliird to kill a aheep, Invite aoine nelglibouri to partake.' The itiahcs aic merely the mutton with the lirnlh in which it haa t>ecii tioilcU ; the eculiarly cnchtntiiig description. Skct. VII. Local Geography. tOIC. AfifhanMan it divided, like the ancient kingdom of laraci, ainioat solely according to the tribca who inliabit it. 'I'he Bcrdoorauneca arc the principal trilie of the eaaterii Atghanlitan ; and though they are niuih Infcrliir tn the Rhiljica anil Doorauneca, their country derivea some imiiiirlancc lYom ita capital, I'eahawer, the tmnt m'at of government. Knclosed lietween the highest ranges of fl indwi Coosh, the Indus, and tiolimaun, Ihcii wliolc territory is [leculiarly rugged ; yet, as It contains many fertile valleya, and is carel\illy watered ana tultlvntnl, It maintaina a great |>opuTation. The Euaofzies, who occupy the north-east corner of this region, prncnt the most complete s|)cciineii of the original Afghaun riulei'csa. They hold their present lands by eon. qucit, and distribute them in a very singular manner. As each trilw Is split Into two Independent parts, these have iHirtiniia assigned to them cijual lii quantity, but oneii difll'rlng In fertility. To atone for thiadisparity, they rut lut> fur tlielr share every ten years, and. In case of obtaining a ditTerent one fTointhat actually |M>sse8aed, an immoliate exchange takes |>lace. It la aaid to Ik- efU-cteil with much lesa of diiiorder anil disailvuiitage to cultivaiinn than could be expected. The Kuaofiies are the most Indeiwndent of the Afghans, and scarcely own any siilinrilination whatever. The mountaineers, in particular, are excessively rude and ignorant : an inilanie is given of one of them who, seeing a mollah copying the Koran, struck ofT his head, saying, " You tell us this is the book of (lod, and yet you make It yourself." 'I'he inhabitants of the plains, on the con- iTiry, are debaucheil and superstitious. 4013. Weahalt not dwell mt the Turcot' each presents some few peculiarities. of rugged mountains with narrow valleys, which, tK'inf; aftbnlt to the Khyherees, its rude inhabitants, |>eculiar opportuiiities for exerciaing the predatory habits peculiar to thia nation. They employ the moat vigilant iirecautions to prevent a single traveller IVom escaping, iwiilriea are stationcil at all the leading points; and the very sound of the horses' h'lolb echoing along the narrow valleys suumons them to their prey. 4UI4. The country etietuling sofilhwnrti between the range of Sollmaun and the Indus is called Daniaun, The ilrcts here assimilates more closely tn that of Hindostan, lieing comiioscil of white cotton robes, with wide turbans. The |>cople arc more Bim)>le and less turbulent than the nortliern tribes ; and tlioiigh robbers, like ihe re«t, arc celebrated for their honesty. The Sheraunces are a numerous tripe. They are peculiarly dis- linguiilinl by having a AVrArn, or magistrate, whom the^ believe to be in direct communication with the Deity ; wherefore they apprehend that disobedience to ',.8 will must be attendcii with awful and inimciliato ralan'iities. Though indiscriminate plunilerers, they arc very faithful to those who purchase an escort. The Vitereci inhabit the immediate ridge of Solimaun ; an awful region of rocks, torrents, and pine foreata. They hate the high features |)cculiar to mountaineers, arc simple in their manners, and are scarcely ever seen out 01 their own country. I'hough they make a rule of plundering all who enter it, they allow an easy eom- IHbition, and faithfully adhere to It; but the tribes whose wanderings alone carry them through this region, Ixing rough and poor like themselves, usually prefer lighting It out 4015. Pahawer, the only large city in this region, w,i8 the capital of the kingdom of Cabul, previous to its late dismemberment. It is situatcil in a very fertile plain, about thirty-five miles broad, boundcHi by the loftiest ranges of Hindoo Coosh and Solimaun. This city was occupicendcnco than tlicy before enjoyed. Their chiefs, being no longer sup|)orted by royal influence, are scarcely regarded 3 P 3 948 DESCllIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pabt 111. 594 with any degree of deference, and an almost pure democracy prcvaila. The military governors, Indeed pointed by the king, successnilly exert themselves to collect the revenue, levy the contingents of trouDa and, in the immediate neighbourhood of the great cities, maintain a tolerable police ; but their power elsc^ where docs not extend to the prevention of mdividual feuds, or even warfare between tribes in the remote districts. 4017. In this territory is situated Cabul, now the principal city of Afghanistan, and one of the most delightful in the world. Being situated about 6000 feet above the level of the sea, it enjoys a tempcratb climate, and is surrounded by an extensive plain finely watered by three rivulets. The soil is rather deficient in grain, but produces abundance of forage and a profusion of the most delicious fruits, which are exported to India and other countries. Cabul is a busy bustling city, and its bazaar of 2000 shops is considered almost without a rival in the East. The population is estimated by Mr. Bumes at 60,000. It is governed by Dost Mahommcd, brother to the chief of Peshawer, an able and popular prince, and now the most powerful in Afghanistan. He has an army of 9000 well-armed horse, and 2000 infantry. 4018. In this country is situated GAixni, or Gliuznee, the most celebrated of the cities of Cabul : once the proud capital of the Last, where Mahmood rciencd and Ferdusi sang, but now comprehended within very narrow hmits. It does not contain above ISUO nouses ; its streets are dark and narrow, and its bazaars by no means spacious. Remains, however, though not quite equal to its fame, attest its former grandeur. The most remarkable are two lofty minarets without the present walls, and the tomb of Mahmood, a spacious but not magnificent building, over which moilahs arc |>er|ietually employed in reciting the Koran, Bamcean on the northern 8lo|>c of the mountains, and bordering on Tartary, is a city cut out of tlic rock, wliosc cavern abodes are scattered over a surface of eight miles ; and it contains some remarkable temples, with colossal idols. 4019. The western and most extensive portion qf the kingdom qf Cabul is that occupied by the Dooraunee tribe. Their territory reaches more than half the length ol the kingdom. Beins bounded, however, on the north by the mountainous tracts of Paropamisus, occupied by the Eimauks and Hazaurehs, and on the south by the sandy plains of Seistan, the region is narrow, seldom equal- ling, and never exceeding, 140 miles. Although their |Hilitical con. stitution generally resembles that of the other tribes, the Doorau. nees are under much greater subordination to the king. He even appoints their sirdars, or chiefs, though he is obliged to consider somewhat their inclination, and the candidate's place in his tribe. This appointment, and the oflices at court, which arc bestowed almost exclusively upon the Dooraunee chiefs (yfg. ;,''H.), enable them to maintain a very considerable power ; though, as their im. portance with the king depends much on the attachment of their adherents, their sway must l)e mild and conciliatory. It is suiticient, however, to prevent private war ; and the valour of the Dooraunees is displayed chiefly in defence of the monarchy, of which they fonn the main bulwark. Their [Kipulation is supjioscd to be from 800,000 to l,0UO,00O ; the great pro|iortion of whom are shepherds, living under tents, and leading a gay, innocent, pastoral lilc, with fVequent festivals, in which preparations of milk and sherbet form the only regale. The agricultural part of the tribe live in small villages, to each of which is attached the castle of a khan, who seems to hold a rank in society somewhat similar to that of the Scottish laird. At one of the gates is always a building set apart for the reception ot strangers. 4020. Candahar, the only place of consequence in the Dooraunee territory, is a very ancient city, the foundation of which is ascribed to Alexaniier the Great The antiquity, however, belongs chiefly to the site, upon which new towns have been successively erected by difll-rent conquerors and potentates. The present was built, about half a century ago, by Ahmed Shah ; who even attemped, but with little success, to give it his own name. It is regular and well built, with four long and broad bazaars ; but, like other cities, it is not adorned with those magniflcent monuments of architecture which mark the capitals of the great empires. One of the mosques, and the tomb of Ahmed Shah, small but elegant, arc its only ornaments. This rily, with the surrounding country, is now possessed by Cohun Dil Khan, brother to the chiefs of Cabul and I'eih. awer, who has an army of iXXJO horse ; but his government is not |Hipular. Kumran, the only roprcsentatirc of the fallen dynasty of Cabul, has now only a precarious hold of Herat and its territory. Ferra, the ancient Parra, is a large walled town, almut midway between Candahar and Herat. 40!il. The mountainous districts of Paropamisua arc inhabited by the Eimauks and Hazaurehs, belonging, (lerhaps, more proiicrly to Khorassan, or rather to Independent Tartary. The latter, in respect to tiieir general appearance .It Peshawer, are described by Mr. Elphinstoneas" not more remarkable for their conical ('aiisofskin, with thewoolappearinglikeafringe round theedge, and for their broad faces and little eyes, than fortheirwanl of beard." These features mark them as descended IVoin the Mongols, though it is not very well known hon such a race came where they now are. Though subject to the Cabul government, they are in a constant state of i>ctty warfare; each village Ilts a watch-tower to sound the alarm. They are merry, gooil.humouroil, fVicndly ; but irritable and capricious. They scarcely dittfcr from the Eimauks, except that the two tribes have adoptcp«r. timity of harassing the rear, and cutting ofl' stragglers. The Naussers, though of rude manners, are an konest and peaceable race. 4023l South of the Dooraunee highlands lies the province of Seistan, or Sccstaiin, traversed by the rivrr Helniund, which, at its western extremity, forms the great lake of Zerrah, or Durrah, into which flows alM the smaller stream of the I'urrah. This country, celeb>ateable, but which is formed, by the action of the wind, into wavi^^like ridges of a peculiar structure. One side slopes gradually away, but the other rises perpcndicu. larly, like a brick wall, to a considerable height : and this side the traveller, in order to prosecute his route, must often scale with immense labour. The light sand, tilling the eyes, nostrils, and moutli, heightens thirst and irritation ; while the phenomenon of mirage causing the appearance of a still lake that is perpetually receding, tantalises him with the always disappointed hope of arriving at water, Mr. Kinneir calculates this desert at 40U miles from south to north, and iiMI Irom east to west ; but this last dimension must be doubt, ful, and seems under.rated. 4027. Eastirii Ilcloochistan is of a very difibrent character. It consists of a huge mass of ruggeil and rocky mountains, with intervening valleys, which, however, seldom display that fertile and smiling aspect usual in countries under the tropic, but are in general arid and stony. The streams, when swelled by rain, roll through their beds with such headlong rapidity as quickly to leave them dry, serving as roads or nightly resting-places to tlic tr.iveller : but the water sometimes rushes down so suddenly as to overwhelm those who have sought this shelter ; an accident under which Arrian re|)orts the army of Alexander to have severely auHi;red. There arc patches of gixxl verdure, even canabic of cultivation. The l>cst district is the north.castern land nf Caht Uundawe, which affords even a surplus of grain for eximrt. The capital is Kclat, a town of about 4000 liouses, sumioeed to stand on ground iWOO feet above the level of the sea, and, therefore, subject in winter to such intense cold, that the khan and principal chiefs then descend to a lower region. It enjoys, however, a considerable inland trade. It is the residence of a chief, who claims the sovereignty over all Beloochistan, though his real power is nearly confined to the district immediately adjoining. Niioshky, Sarawan, Thalawaii, Kharan, are little mud towns, cajiitals of districts bordering on the desert ; but I'unjgoor is surrounded by a fertile terri. tory watered by the Baldon, which, after a considerable course, reaches the Indian Ocean. 1 he Beloche is a brave, hospitalile, honourable robber, making chepaos or raids nf eighty or ninety miles, to burn a village and carry off the inhabitants as slaves, but treating kindly and securing from all harm the stranger who has, or purchases a claim to, his protection. Conjoined with hiin is the lirahooe, who seems to have been the original possessor, and who, mild, ii.nocent, and pastoral, occupies little villages situated in the bosom of these itupendoiis mountains. 4028. At the south-eastern comer qf Beloochistan Is the province of Leia, the Beat of the ancient Oritie, watered ii)' the I'unralec, a Hat and fertile region, containing Bayla, a town of '2000 houses, and Somncany, an incon- siderable fishing.town. The iniper tracts of this province, however, arc inhabited by the Ilezunjas, pre. I niinent in their ra|iacious habits, even above the other lieloo^hes, " who care not for king, khan, Ood, or the prophet : hut murder or plunder every |icrson or thing they can lay their hands on." Ituhinict Khan, the chief of Bayla, however, having pledged his faith to Mr. Pottinger, assured him that " he need not now fear any thiiig mortal" 4029. The territory between the ocean and the chain of mount.dns bounding Beloochistan is Mekran Proper, and is very similar to that already described. 'I'he mountains, though on a smaller scale, arc equally rude and rocky, with arid valleys intervening, traversed by numerous beds of mountain tiirriiits, but occasionally presenting verdant and cultivate*! sjiots. Gwuttcr, Choiibar.aiidJasli arc small sea.ports, with some trade, subject or tributary to the Iman of Muscat Kej, reckoncil the capital of Mekran Proper, is a considerable town in a very strong situation, thechicf meiliuin between the sea-co.ist and the interior countries. It is still held by the khan of Kelat, who has scarcely any other holil u|ion this country. Bunpore is a small fortified town near the frontier of Kerman. 'I'his western tract of Mekran is infested by banditti called Loories, of a much laser and more brutal character than the usual predatory hordes of Asia. Unlike them, they have reiiounccit every reiiKinus belief, and conceiving that men were born to die, to rot, and be forgotten, not only plunder and murder without scruple, but abandon themselves to every species of depravity. In consequence of this lirolligacy, scarcely any cliildren are born in the community, and its numbers are recruited almost solely by captives violently carried off from the neighbouring tribes. Chap. V. HINDOSTAN. 4030. The region known to the ancients by the name o/" 7)i(/ta, to tliu Arubs by that of Al Hind, niij now most commonly by tlic Persian appfllution of Hiiulostan, has always bem llie most celebrated country of the East. In every age it bus been the ucciiliar scat of ;l I' I >m MA Fig. 596. fig. 596. MAP OP HINDOSTAN. — south part. a s 951 95S DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P*w III. Oriental pomp, of an early and peculiar civilisation, and of a commerce supported by richer products than that of any other country, ancient or modern. Sect. I. General Outline and Aspect. 4031. T/ie nominal limits of Hindustan have varied at different times. In the west, especially, it has sometimes been extended over a great part of Afglianistttn, which was often the seat of its ruling potentates. The real Hindostan, however, seems clearly marked bulh by precise natund boundaries, and by the fixed and deep-seated character of its native population. The boundary on the north, but running in a direction between nurth-cast and south-west, consists of that unbroken and amazing range of mountains, which receives in India the name of Himmaleh or Himalayah, and separates its fine plains from the bicuk table-land of Thibet. On the west, it is the Indus, from the point wliere it bursts tliroiiuli the northern mountains, to that in which it joins the Indian Ocean. Into that ocean southern Hindostan projects, in the form of a vast triangular peninsula, which presents two opposite coasts, Malabar to the soutli-west, and Coromandel to the south-east, both ter- minating in the southern extremity of Cape Comorin. Thence India is prolonged by the large contiguous island of Ceylon. The coast of Coromandel, with the opposite shores of Arracan and Malacca, enclose a large sea, called the Bay of Bengal. Between this bay and the termination of the Himalayah occurs a short interval, forming the most eastern aiui the least accurately defined boundary of Hindostan. The natural limit here seems to be the channel of the lower Bralimapoutra, though Bengal claims a certain extent of hill and jungle on the other side. 4032. Amid the grand features of nature in this region, the extended mountain range of Hinalayalh which forms its northern boundary, is pre-eminent. After crossing the Indus, and enclosing the beautiful valley of Cashmere, tliis range, which, in bounding Afghanistan, under the name of Hindoo Koh, had an almost due easterly course, takes a south-east line. Riffercnces to the Map qf Hindostan. — Part 1. NORTH PART. 63. Hudja 4. Kheerpoor C8. Moorthcdabad 138. Ditleah 195. Indore I. UuTclwh 64. HIrhind S. Nooahura 69. Noonj 13,3. Nunrur 196. Bhop>«ui 197. Ritlind i. Cuhmcie 6S. Shahabad 6. Bettoon 70. RAJhmahal 134. RhiMuounr 135. Chluaeime S. DUTTOO 66. Kurnal 7. ShahHhur 7I.BoBhpoor 198. Hodim 4. Paouneh 67. Pannlitut 8. Jeuelmere 78. Cumicktioor 136. Sindwa 199. Humitn ». Dm 68. Delhi 9. AurunK 73. Moniihlr 74. Chackhi 137. Heronge 800. Uodra 6. Atlock 6'J. Pceroknugar 70. TUara 10. Koorer 38. SauKur 8111. Ahmedibad 7 Futttlunn ll.lteannce 7S. NIdghur 39. Slmereah 802, Cambdj 8113. Uarode ».Bunai 71. Namaul 18. Foolsoond 76. RoKonauthpoor 40. Chowreuhur 9. Jhvlum 78. Mutlra 13. Joudpoor 77. Bluuniraor 41. Mlndwarrah 8(M. (lodtypoor 10. Kaluor M'i^^^' 14. Nainior 78. Harrlorpoor 48. HUpoor 811,0, BurwBUnee II. Ilardarwen IS. Kundailah 79. Belaiore 43. Rallygaum 144. KarfiUah 80€, Kuriioan 1^. r.hinnaunee 7A. Anoitthehr 16. Jyepoor 80. Jehauhioor gl.Cultacli 807. Burhaunpod 13. Jummoo 76. Mcriit 17. AJinwr 18. Menapara 45. Lakenwarce 808. Idulabad 14. Wllierabad 77. N«hTaunpoor 88. Tlkriimrra 46. Omrawullee 8(19. Nusuratad IS. KhumI) 78. Hurdwar 19. Ilindoon S3. Lanluin 47. Elllchpoor 48. Beiloor 810. Chiiiilooi 16. Pindce Daden 7U. .Sorinaiiur 80. Bhurtpoor 84. Puddnmpcor SlI.Fiiimipoor Khan 80. Almora 81. Aitra 85. Contah 49. Hurdah 818. Itamjun 17. Marce Sl.Dlpal 88. Uoomoilekgur 88. Futlehpoor 86. Slnuboom 81.1. liundlTft IN. DaotMl K;l 83. Dohlpocir ai.CiwaflDr 87. Dotwah ISl. Bhotuul 58. Shujawuliwor 814. .MoollitCT 19. fiudda 83. Kainiinor 88. Hanigur 81.'>. Nandooibu itO. Julalpoor 84. N'HlJbabad 85. Uohud 89. Oooniah 63. RajKhur 161. Suckuipoor 811). Soollanpnii 81. Kmlnabad 8.'). Chandnoor 86. Sumbu^ 86. Kalpoe 90. llahar 817. Baroacli Vi. I'mritaei 87. Hahtc 91. Oayah 5.5. Seo|Kxil 818. Sural. S3. Ilolun,{ 87. Barcily 88. Bandah 98. SaKeram 56. Rampoora 157. Kotah 84. NiiKorcote 88. ruiurah 89. Allahabad 93. BotasKlmr Himt. 85. HanitKmr 89. HhahJehanpoOT .30. I'erlabghui 91. (turwa .58. Boondec a Sindt, or Indw SB. Chouiial 90. KarttunKe II.Bcnarifa 95. Palamow 59. Tcnnah b.Ihyluni,otM.l 87* llelas|K>or 91. Kerriikhabad 38. (iayyiioor 96. Slrnoojah 60. Kumulncre c Chunaut) 8S. l.udcviiia 98. MliiiKiree 33. AziiiiKbur 97. (Mnpoor 61. Thurrnud d llavM a». J.iHlndur 93, euwah 31. liopalluor 9S. Jusbimor 68. Bail Kaslr e Si>(ulrie. or !!ui. 311. I.ahare 91. KhahiHwr 35. Arrah 99. Shahiioor 6,3. BoKaur \a\^t 31. Sidlaree 95. KunnoRve 36. ('hupr,ih 100. Suinbhulpoor 64. Wurwah t Sursooiy 3'^. Kceva 96. Khyrabab 37. Putna 101. RuiniiaKiir 165. Kchwauii a ChiOiiiig h .liimnnli 33. Swhew.'d 97. Ilaniqihi 38. HaJ>ur 108, Sohnuof)r 166. Ilyder^ibad 31. JInderwalee 98. KuKuii 39. llurbuilKali 1113. llyraKliur 167, ('uracheo 1 (i allies .1.1. llukkur 99. Dtnicir 40. Sowa lOl. Nurrah 168. Tattah J Ham k Kuiidowaii 3fi. Maunkdira 100. Barauch 41. PuniKih 10.'). MlKdah 169. Bohaur 37. Ulah 101. llliwah 48. SaiiKHhgnlta 106. Ruttunpoor 170. RauK 1 Sargah, or lit^i 5H. Aduokegurree 1(18. l.urknow 43. >tnaf((!|M>or 107. Mahtlii I7l.,lhanah 111 K.IIKi 3|.Mr z Cojle S3. MojKur 117. Ainmernoor 6S. Mahmud|Mior 188. Namwor 181. Tlkeree 185. Purrauiitee aa And S4. AnopyKhur 118. ViJayiHiot 69. Ournada 186. Poloh bb Sunkra S.'i. lUcnnere 1 19. Khalanx 60. UarkerKUiiKe 184. HetTapoor I87.()odlpoor cc Kurrap S6. Chorroo 180. ChavfiUKXir 61. Culpi* 185. Dlioiilna 188. Chittoor dd Naiiro 57. mnRanah 58. Iladrer. 181. KIkklm. 68. Fort William 186. tlurrah 1N9. Hamuoor 190. Mundluoor ee lionie 63. Calcutta 187. Kultalnxee f f Kookrt SU. llclalM SOUTH PART. 64. HooKly 65. Burdwan 188. RU>nnuiiKur 191. Pwrwa eit Banax Rb Chunibul fiO. Ifanil I. DrubliMh l89.('allhiKiT 198. Mehldpoor 6l. 8. Lnrkhain 1,6. Soory I.TO. Cliatlenioor 193. 0ai 40, Boi 41, Tai 48, (iiii 4,1. C.t. 44. Sale 45. Nui 46. Vir 47. Anl 48. (iol, 4il. Ital 50, c:,>i- 51, Ma, •58, Ouii 53. Cod 54. KIL 55. Itai; •56, run 57. Hup 58. Boi 59. Wai 60. Kan 61. Mil 68. Klgi 63. Hyd 64. Ciiilc 65. .logc 66. Bcec 67. Kul 68. Shol 69. Ult 70. Vyra 71. Pin. 78, Sala 73. Pont Book IL HINDOSTAN. 953 which it nearly follows till it passes the frontier of Hindostan, The name, which is derived from the Sanscrit term Hem, snow, is evidently suggested by that long range of pinnacles, vhite with eternal snow, that is seen far along the wide plain of central India, which luxuriates in the perpetual summer of the tropics Although the wonderful distance from which these peaks are descried could not but indicate them to be exceedingly lofty, yet the difficulty of reaching them across a hostile country long prevented any accurate observation. Thirty years ago, their summits were not supposed to rival those of the Cordillera, believed then the .nost elevated on the globe. It was in 1802 that Colonel Crawfurd, after a residence in Nepal, communicated observations, according to which Chimborazo must yield (he palm to Dwalagiri and Chandradabani. Intense curiosity was thus excited, and a series of investigations followed. The missions of Kirkpatrick and Hamilton to Nepal ; the expeditions of Hardwicke, Webb, Moorcroft, Fraser, and others to the source of the Ganges, with the application of the improved modern formula, at length fully established the fact. Although the height of the chain is every where stupendous, no part of it rivals those amazing peaks which tower on one side over the sources of the Jumna and the Ganges, on the other over those of the Sanpoo and the Indus. 4033. Central Himlostath below its great mountain boundary, consists generally of a vast expanse of plain ; but the southern part, composing the great peninsula between the Malabar and Coromandel coasts, though it cannot comparatively be called mountainous, is a very hilly country. Two great chains extend along the opposite coasts, parallel to each other, or rather diverging, and leaving between them and the sea only a plain of forty or fifty miles in breadth. They rise in few places above 3000 or 4000 feet high ; but are very rugged and steep, and the entrance into the interior is only by very narrow and difficult passes. The name of Ghaut, which, through the Teutonic languages, has come to ours in the word gate, being applied to these passes, has been gradually extended to the mountains themselves. The most continuous chain is that of the Western Ghauts, which extends, for nearly 1000 miles, from Surat to Cape Comorin. It forms, evidently, the highest land of southern India, since all the great rivers flow across from it to the opposite coast. Though steep and stony, the hills are not broken, but covered generally with a stratum of earth, sustaining stately forests, particularly of bamboo, which is found nowhere else in equal perfection. The Eastern Ghauts seldom rise to the height of 3000 feet. Mr. Hamilton limits their extent to a line of about 300 miles from the Cavery to the Crishna; but, as a low chain runs from that river to the Godavery, wliich beyond rises again into a lofty barrier, almost closing the passage between the Circars and the interior, there seems little reason wliy the whole should not be considered as one continuous chain, almost equal in length to the western. The interior, between these two chains, consists chiefly of successive tabte-lands supported by the opposite Ghauts and by chains crossing from one to the other, diversified also by single precipitous eminences, which are formed into almost impregnable hill forts. One continuous chain, the Vindhya mountains, runs across the broad base of tlie peninsula, and forms a rugged boundary between it and the great plain of Hindostan Proper. On the west it is connected with a range of bold and lofty hills, which compose the territory of Rajasthan. 4034. The rivers of Hindostan form a feature no less important and celebrated than its mountains. The Himalayah, (torn its lofty magazines of tempests and snow, poun down a world of waters, which, everywhere NORTH PART. I. Bomhaj V. Caliianee 3. (iOFAh 4. Joonef 5. Serroor 6. Foonah 7. Jeiooree 8. Harvinda 9. Ahmpdnuftser 10. Tokah 11. Godavery Vi. Auningabad i3t Aisave M.Jalnah I.V INirloor l(). Hhm 17.Burdaunpoor 11. (todRhCT 19. Kei? KO. NanderP SM'otunKuU W. Netrmul 23. Mahoor 2*. I'oonakuIIo 25. Manickaroog 2f). fhaiidah 27. Cooirnry 2S. KovaiiflW 29. ('hurrah 30. Bekiroorcm 31. Tetlia.. II- Dewllmurry 33. Colun 34. Jashederpoor JV Buitnr 35. Cunode Purgapussaude Vizlnngur Ganiam Ikirainpoor Tarkclly (iimdniiooruni Cicacole Saloor Nunapoonim Vizaffapntam Ankapilly (iulconda Hajalimiindry Curinsa MasuHpatam Giintoor CodnpUIy Kllora Hatigapoor Cuminamett Hiip))awarram Hoiniinpillee Wnvantjol Hamnlieiry Mitpully Klfjundt'l llyderabnd (iolconda .loveiwltah Bicrfer KulbiirKA Sholapooi- fiattoor Vyraii Punderpoor Satara Poiidoog\ir References to the Map qf Hindostan. — Part 2. 74. Bancoote, or Fort Victoria 15. Angvnweel 76. JauKl^ur 77. nherah 78. NaTidossey 79. ('hiorej 80. Turpaon 81. Naguz Ri. Gohiiuk 8.1. lU-Japoor 84. Talltakote 85. Saushur 8n. Muktal 87. (iuni>oor 8H. Dewarkonda SV. Macherla. SOUTH PART. 1. <}oa 2. Dnnvar .1. Nurcoond 4. (}udjunterf{hur A. Afoogull 6. C'avlta! 7> Adonie 8. Rarhoor 9. Kumool 10. Cummum n. Onuole 11. Cauvelly 13. Paumoor H.Budvail \^. Cuddapa 16. Chaffulmurry l7.nooty nrooff t8. Anhaiitapoor Rai Drooff Bellary Cancoo\)a Savanoir Unkolah Compta Jal tycoon rooutla{)oor Bednore HhenioRa Itoodyhull t'hlttletlrooK Peniiaconda Cuddree (fumimconda Chittavail Nellore Trippalty Najilapooram Pulicat niadraD Fort GeoTKe Chingleiiut ATCot Vfllore Chittoor Juneumcota Itanfialoru Cuddalia rhunrovpatam Perrapaiam Mansalore . Neliseer Yesliy Malay, or Mount Dilly Cnnanoru Calicut S/i. Tambercherr; 66. Alysore 57> Seringapatam 68. Hurdunhully 59. Erocle 60. Salem 61. Relloor 62. Trippatoor 6.1. Chittaiwtt 64. Pondicherry 66. Cuddalore 66. Tlagur 67. V'olconda 68. Tranquebar 69. N^apatam 70. Puttucottah 71. Tai\iore 72. Trichinopoty 73. Darapoor.ini 74. Coimtiatoor If). Panany 76. Trtchoor 77. Cochin 78. Calicoul.in 79. Sheracaushy 80. Madura 81. Amiencotay H'i. Vafmbaur 83. Palleincntta 84. TinnevtUy 8.^. Coulnn 86. Trivander 87. Travancore. isr-K OF CEYLON. 1 . Port Pedru 8. Ponoryn 3. Man tot te 4. MatatiTO 5. Cutrhevplly 6. Trincomalce 7. Anurajapoera 8. Nadewaute 9. Chilaw 10. Nalande 11. Kandy 13. Balicalo 13. Oshende 14. Kfahagam 15. M'Donald 16. Colombo 17. Caltura 18. Point duGalle. Rirert. a Godavenr b (ihurk Pooma c Payn (Jungs d Pranheeta e Ki-stnah f Beema B Manjera h Toon^buddra I Malpurba j Htiidfry K Pcniwr I PalauT * ID Punnalr n Collvroon o CaTery p Vayagaro* q VyiHuroo. 954 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P»»T III. dMcendIng iti (tevpi, unite at Icngtii in the two neat branchrs of the Iniluii and the Oangci Theii> uiii. their tributaries, even twrorc iney rvach the plain, iimcnt the mau anU brvadth of great riven whiiA )>. reUin the rapi.lfty of mountain torrents. * "' """'' «''«> MSS. The Uannet hold* a pre-eminent place among the rivera of Hindontan, and indeed of Asia - noi hn ever, fVom the length of its course, which some others surpass, liut from its watering the Hneat iilnlns I'lf th!' celebrated country. The Uanges has been represented as flowing out of the lake Manasarowaro whUn after a long easterly course, it turned to the southward, and penetrated across the Himalayah. Mr ("i i brooke, however, considering these reports as very doubtful, sent, in 1KU8, an cximiitinn to this siint whirh has since lieen very ftjily explored by successive travellers. They have never, mdeed, been al)fc to imi» tratc into the mass of mountains pilcil U|>on mountains, from which the Ganges Is flrst seen dcscciulii L but they have traced it till it appears a mere rivulet issuing from under lieils of eternal snnw 'rilLri cannot thus be the least doubt that it rises in the southern steeps of the Himalavah, and not in any Mint north of that chain. About thirty miles below Scrinngur, tlie prayana or junction lakes place lieiwiiVn tlie Dhngitath and the Alacanando, the two original branches of the (ianges ; of which the former Ihiinoh not of so long a course, is generally regarded as tlie original stream. About five hundred miles below nt Allahabad, it receives the Jumna or Yamuna, almost equal to itself, which has risen in a lofty peak not far in the west of its own source, and, by means of its tributaries, the Chumbull and the Ik-twah, has draineil ih» ■outhern side of the Vindhya mountains. From this side also It receives the iioane. lUit its main tribuiarw are from the north, as it runs iMtrallel to the Himalayah mountains, the Ongra, the t'oosy, the Ouiiilurk poured down from their stee|>8. After receiving this last stream at Mongliir, it may be considered as haviriJ reached its greatest magnitude, being fVom one to three miles broad, and thirty feet deep. It is naviiiai » without interruption to the mountain districts, considerably above Allahabad. The rise occasioiinl bv tho rainy season begins in the end of April, and continues to increase until the middle of August, when it reachw in many places thirty-two feet, and all the ic/el districts on its lower course are inundated, smiietiiiies for thp breadth of one hundred miles. About 200 miles tYom the sea, the Ganges raniitici into a delta, of wliich thi. numerous branches, in entering the Hay of Rengul, form a liibyrinlh of channels and creeks called the Sunderbunds. In most of them, particularly those into which the largest branch divides, the lorce of ihn current is insufticient to cle.ir away the bar of sand accumulated at the mouth. It is only by the IIoobIv branch, which jiassea by Calcutta, that large vessels can penetrate. ^ ' 40J6. The Iiuliis, or Sind, the western limitary strc.nn of India, arises tVom very imperfectly known sourcet in the interior of 'Ihibet. Its longest brantli appears to be that called the river of Ladaukrwiiieh riiio« n™ the lake Manasarowara, and flows north. cast to the above city, where it is swelled by the Shyook ilcsceiiiliiin in an opposite direction from amid the snows of the mountain-range called the Kuenlun. It seems tu have been by mistake that n branch, considered even as the real Indus, was supposed to join it at Draiis. After descending from the mountains and p.nsning Attock, where it is Hrst considered an Indian river, the Indui through all its remaining course, flows almost due north. 'J'he Kama here (lOurs into it the niou»t.iiii stream! of Cabul and Caucasus j but its grand accession is about 4(KI miles farther down, where it rineives in one united channel the waters of five streams celebrated in history j the Jeluin (Hydaspcs, the Chenaiili ( Acusiiics the Kayce (Ilydraotcs), the Ueya (Hyphasis), and the Sutled^e (Hysudrus). These drain all tlic»e>imi steeps of the Himalayah, and the last mentioned e\ on crosses it from a source in Thiliet. The linliis now bet'omes a river of the lirst magnitude, about a mile in breadth, and from twelve to thirty feet decii, camblc of receiving vessels of considci'uiile burtlicn. It is estimatnl by Mr. Humes to pour into the sea four tiincj as much water as the Ganges. In its lower course it separates into two larijc branches, raniifving into many smaller ones, which enclose a delta about 7U miles broad, composing tlie kingdoms of Sinde and Tatta iiart of which is extremely fertile, but that nearest to the sea cnnsikts of a desert of Hat and marshy sand. Tliihy has long identiHed it with the !San|>no, and consequently jusigiKKl to it a long course along the table-plain of Thibet. Hut this origin is now generally discri'e posed principally of gneiss. It is distinctly stratified, and, like the sandstone, dips to the N.E. It is traversed by veins of granite, some of which arc of considerable magnitude: variois simple minerals, as garnet, scliorl, cyanitc, hyacinth, and native gold, occur embedded in it. Ur. Gerard collected fossil shells among strata beyond the region of slates which lucceeded to tlie Himalayah gneiss in going nortliward. Some of them are said to resemble tlic Producta scotica, found in Scottish coalfields; some pectens, not imlike those met with in the York lia$i a terehratula, differing but little from that found so abundantly in the inferior oolite, near Bath ; an ammonite closely resembling the Ammonites subradialus of Sowcrby, which is a fossil of the Bath oolite : belemnites were frequently found, and of all dimensions ; orthoceralites in a clay ironstone. Tertiary deposits arc alleged to occur high among the mountains ; and an interesting display of rocks of this class, containing remains of sea-shells and fishes, and mutilated fragments of bones of the genus Anthracotherum, of a kind of musk-deer, a viverra, &c., was discovered near Silhct, in the north-east corner of Bengal, and similar remains in some other points of the same province. Diluvium, with bones of various animals, is also mentioned as occurring in this mountainous region. Hitherto but small quantities of ore have been met with in the Himalayahs, and these are of copper, iron, lead, and graphite or black lead : of this latter, many are included under this head. 4044. II. Middle /n(/ta. — This vast tract of country forms an inclined plane, of which the great declivity sinks gradually towards the mouth of the Ganges, while the other in- clines towards the Indus. It is almost entirely composed of clays, loams, sands, and gravels, with occasional intermixtures of calcareous concretions named knnkur, fossil woods, and animal remains. In this division of India, we may include the coalfield of Damoda. This deposit of coal, which occupies both sides of the Ganges, through a considerable tract of country, and rests upon granite, appears to be geognostically the same formation as the coal formation of Britain. In the coal pits, of which there arc but three sunk to a depth of ninety feet, there are seven beds of coal ; one of them exceeds nine feet in thickness. The coal is said to resemble that of Sunderland, in England ; but leaves a larger portion of cinders and ashes. It is now extensively consumed in and about Calcutta. 4045. III. Peninsitltr India. — Primi crocks. A ver^ large portion of the peninsula of India is composed of Plutonian rocks, as of granite, syenite, and trap, the Neptunian strata l)eing much less abundantly distributed. The Neptunian deposits are gneiss, mica slate, clqy slate, chlorite slate, talc slate, potstone, quartz rock, and limestone or marble. These deposits are variously upraised, broken, and otherwise changed by vast bodies of Plutonian rocks, of which the most abundant are granite and syenite, two rocks which together form very extensive tracts of country. • 4046. Transition rocks. These occur abundantly, resting upon the primitive deposits, and frequently covered more or less deeply with secondary formations. The following rocks are mentioned by authors; viz., grcywacke, clay slate, quartz rock, and limestone. 4047. Secondari/ rocks. Rocks of this class abound more in the northern than in the southern and middle districts of the peninsula. Old red sandstone occurs in considerable quantity, resting upon transition deposits : this formation in its turn supports mountain limestone, and rocks of the coal foimation. These older secondary formations are overlaid, to a greater or less depth, with new red sandstone, and other rocks apparently belonging to the lias and oolitic series. The green sand and chalk deposits have not hitherto been met with. These secondary deposits are variously upraised, broken, and otherwise changed by second- ary trap, which extends over vast tracts of country. The great western or Malabar chain of mountains, which commences in Candeish, and terminates at Cape Comorin, is at its northern extremity covered by a part of an extensive overlying trap formation, which extends in this quarter from the seasliorr of the Northern Concan to a considerable distance east- ward, Above and beyond tlie Ghauts, as far as the river Toombuddra and Nagporc. The trap hills are tabular, terraced, separated from each other by ravines, often of vast magnitude, and the whole frequently covered with splendid forests of teak and other trees, forming some of the most beautiful and romantic scenes in India. 956 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. l'*»T III, 4048. Terliarif rocks. Tertiary deposits, containing fossil trees erroneously said to be the tamarind tree, occur near Pondicberry ; and clays and sands with sea-slieils, asserted to be tertiary, are met with near Madras. 4049. Alluvial rocks. These occur generally distributed ; and, in some places, the dllu. vium is of great thickness. 4050. Minerals useful in the artsfound in Peninsular India. — Granite and syenite. Thjs^ rocks, which occupy a great part air the Carnatic, Malabar, and Mysore, nearly the whole of the Nizam's dominions, and a large part of Bahar, are employed as building stones. 2V' slate and potstone are employed by the natives for the manufacture of various utensils. All the 6ne plaster with which the walls of the houses are covered in India, and which is so much admired by strangers, is composed of a mixture of fine lime and soapstone rubbed down with water. When the plaster is nearly dry, it is rubbed over with a dry piece of soapstone, which gives it a polish very much resembling that of well polished marble. 40.') I. Marbles are quarried in ditiercnt parts of the country, but nowhere extensively The laterile, or brick stone, is used as a building stone, for which it is excellently fitted' Most of the handsome Roman catholic churches at Goa are built of it. 4052. Gems. The most valuable of all the gems, the diamond, occurs in alluvial deposits as Cudapah, Banaganpelly, &c., in the river district of the Krishna; also in the bed of the river Godavery ; at Sumbulpore, in the district of Mahanuddy ; ond at Pan;)ah, in nundelcund. Corundum, from its coarsest state to its finest, in the form of Oriental ruby, occurs in the granite and syenite district : the spinel ruby is also a native gem, and the same is the case with sircon, which occurs in alluvium in the Ellore district. Schortous lopa:, tourmaline, and schorl, occur in the granite and syenite districts. Chrysolite is an inmate of the secondary trap rocks ; precious gnmct, pyrope garnet, and grenatite garnet, are met with in primitive tracts of country, as also roc* crystal, and various beautiful felspars Ame- thyst and catseye, and many kinds of carnclian, jasper, and agate, are also natives of tlie peninsul.t of India. The annual value of carnclian exported from India formerly amounted to I1,OOU/. The secondary trap rocks afford beautiful and splendid specimens of dilierent species of the elegant zeolite family. Metalliferous minerals occur but in small quantities, Gold and silver are but sparingly distributed ; iron is abundant, but hitherto its ores have not been mined to any considerable extent. There are, at present, no copper mines of any importance, although the general use of copper or brass utensils among the natives of India, and the preference given to them before all other kinds of vessels, would seem to show that this metal was mined much more extensively in former times. SuBSECT. 2. Botany. 4053. British India, notwithstanding its vast extent, its varied vegetation, and great importance to our coimtry, must, inasmuch as regards its botany, be passed ovr in fewer words than we could wish. The present volume would not suffice to contain half of what k known of the useful' or curious vegetables with which botanists arc now acquainted, through the indefatigable exertions of a few individuals, whose names, nevertheless, deserve to be recorded, even in this brief notice. Only forty years ago, and nothing was ascertained, com- paratively speaking (save through the medium of the Hortus Malabaricus), of the vegetation of this vast country, extending from near the equator to at least the thirteenth degree of north latitude, and from the sixty-third to the ninety-sixth degree of east longitude. In 179:!, Dr. Roxburgh was appointed to the charge of the botanic garden at Calcutta; which includes within its boundaries an area of .SOO acres; and this gave rise to the Hortui Botanicus Calcuttensis and the splendid Plants qf Coram andcl. Between the years 1820 and ]R'J4, the learned and excellent missionary Dr. Carey edited the two volumes (extending no farther than the class Pentandria and order Monogynia) of Flora Indica, from the MSS. of Dr. Roxburgh, Dr. Wallicli, and Dr. Jack. For a short period, during the illness and consequent absence of Dr. Roxburgh, Dr. Francis Buchanan Hamilton was appointed lo the care of the Calcutta garden. To him succeeded, on his decease. Dr. Wallieb, whose assumption of this office forms a new era in the botany of India. This gentleman, a pupil of the celebrated Hornemann of Copenhagen, brought a degree of zeal to the duties of his situ.ition which is rare in any coimtry, and certainly unequalled in a tropical climate. Al his suggestion, the Honourable Directors of the East India Company placed the garden establishment upon a footing fur surpassing any thing of the kind known in Europe. Tlic spot of ground is no less than five miles in circumference, and upwards of 30() gardeners and labourers arc employed in the charge of it. Gardens, in connection with it, liave been formed in other ri'inote parts of the Indian possessions ; collectors have been sent out to discover new and especially useful plants; and the residents and other gentlemen attached lo science were invited to transmit the vcgetoble productions of their respective districts to Cal- cutta, both in a living and dried state ; and among these, the Honourable Mr. Gardner, long the Company's Resident at Silhet, furnisheerintendvllt ; publislml in the Journal iif tlic Asiatic Siiriety, t'cbniary, 1832. 958 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pam III. 4058. The siluation of Sch6ranpur, in point of latitude, elevation, vicinity to the bill. and the facility of irri){<>tion from the Doub canal, reiulcrti it particularly ellgjhie for sudi a purpose ; in short, in latitude 30', the same parallel which passes through Persia, Anibia Egypt, and over the southern boundaries of Libya, liarbary, and Morocco, hy New Orleans' between Old and New Mexico, and |)assing through the very centre of Ciiina and Tliil)et.' The elevation, too, lOOO feet above the level of the sea, renders the climate particularly favourable for the introduction into India of plants from the more temperate countries The state of the atmosphere, indeed, for nearly six months in the year, is so similar to that of Europe, that most of the annual plants from that country may be successfully cultivatnl while the cold is not suHicicntly great, or of long continuance enough, to destroy the more southern plants, with the exception, indeed, of such tropical ones as cannot bear frost. 4059. The best crops of European and medicinal plants, Mr. Royle tells us, are obtaini-d from seed sown in November ; after which the weather becomes steadily colder till Christ- mas, when some heavy rains usually fall. During this season the growth of perennial and of herbaceous plants from warm climates is checked ; but in March a rapid rise takes place in the mean temperature of the month, and the increase, amounting to 4'J° of i'ahnnhcit affords a powerful stimulus, and rapidly accelerates the vegetation of spring. About the middle of April the hot winds begin to blow, and continue to do so till the beginning of June when the rainy season commences, and according as it tenninates, towards the bi'ginninL'ur close of September, depends the late or early diminution .).' temperature which ushers in the cold weather. 4060. Tlie mean temperature of Scharanpur throug'.iou* the year is about 73° Fahrenheil, and of the months of January 5'iP, May 85°, September 79°, February 55^ June 90°, October 79°, March 67", July 85°, November 64°, April 78", August 83", December 55°. 40fJl. With a zeal that does him the highest credit, Mr. Royle has introduced to this garden a great number of exotics. From China, the Litchi, Loquat, Wampu, Longun, Tlat I'each, and Digitated Citron, the .Spira-a corymbosa, Dianthus chincnsis, Rosa cliincnsis, and Althu!a rosea. — From America, the Mahogany, Logwood, Sapota, Cherimoja, Ash-leaved Maple, Pimento, and Dahlias. — Fnm Africa and New Holland, Aloes, Pelargonia, Sti. pelias, Amaryllis, Casuarina, Cajapi''.!. &c. The Darley of the hills, called ooa, fruinan elevation of 10,000 feet above the level of tlie sea, has become perfectly naturalised inScha- ranp6r, and a singular species of Wheat f.om Kan.lwar, at an equal elevation, succeeds remarkably well Fiorin Grass is there seenby the side of the Guinea Grass and Lucerne, Suc- cory and Clover, in a thriving state. Many precious medicinal plants are already cultivated, and it is hoped that many more will be introduced. Among the former may be mentioned Rhubarb; the long-leaved Fir, which yields by distillation a valuable oil of turpentine; Henbane, of which the extract is of a very superior quality ; Senna, &c. Among timber trees are the Teak, Suul, Toon, Lissoo, Seriss Maple, Casuarina, Bamboo, Jasmine, end Mulberry. From the Saul tree above mentioned a very excellent resin is produced ; uhjle various gums aie yielded by several trees, from the lower hills, now naturalised at Siliiiranpiir. The fine sugar, for which this district is noted, is chiefly refined by the mucilage of tno plants, the Kydia culycina and Hibiscus Abelmoschus. 4062. Our knmclcdgc tflhe geographical dislrihulion of plants, too, is considerably extendd by the establishment of tliis garden ; for its able superintendent has most successfully ci- plored the country in its vicinity, and, indeed, in the northern provinces of India, especially from the tract of country running along the Ganges and Jumna, from Allalinbail upilit Sutli^j, and from the low range of hills which skirt the Himalnyah as well as tliosc 6i Oeyn Dun ; again from that ])art of the Himalayan range extending from the |)hiiiis to tl^e sources of the Ganges and Jumna, and included between the former river to tlic cast and the Sutl(^j to the west ; from Kanawnr, a place lying along both sides of the Suth'j williin the British territories, but beyond the snowy passes of the Himalayah, and likewise fromilit valley of Cashmere, whence Dr. Royle has received living bulbs of the " Satl'ron" of com- merce, and roots of the true Salep Orchis, or Misvi. — The number of species collected amount to nearly 4000 ; namely, of Dicotyledunes 2791 Monocotyledones 783 Acotyledones - 279 3853 It is to be hoped that ere long Mr. Royle will gratify the botanical world wiili an account of these interesting plants ; and in the mean time, under our next bend, westi)!! offer the result of M. Mirl)el's general and very cursory observations on the vegetation of Himalayah and the southern limits of Thibet. 4063. jifter all that we haiie stated of the labours of the above-mentioned botanists, it car^ not aihnit a doubt but thiit we shall soon be better acquainted with the plai\ts of liiiiii India than we are with those of many countries much nearer home ; and it is very gratiliinj to observe that their attention has been especially devoted to the more useful kinds. 01 lioi'k U. HINDUSTAN. 959 iuch, the number in Britisli India i« very considerable, and their value might be still greatly increased by Uritish ca|>ital and British industry, as is clearly shown in a very sensible ano- nymous pamphlet lately published, under tlie title of a " View of the present Trade and Colo> iiisation of India ; " where it is rendered equally apparent that to the same cause is to be attributed the absence of the useful plants of other countries similarly situated in regard to soil and climate ; while those very countries— witness our possessions in the West Indies, the Spanish, Portuguese, French, English, and Dutch settlements in South America — have intro- duced and carried to a very high degree of perfection the culture of many of the most im- portant commercial products of the East : so that one would think they were aboriginal to the New World. " What but the exclusion of European settlement hinders, in our Indian dominions, the extensive culture of the peculiar productions of America and even of China ? The indigenous products of India have been transferred to America, and there, under the dlrcrtion of European skill, they far surpass in goodness and quantity those of their original country : witness the Sugar-cane, the Cotton-plant, CoHee, Rice, and even Indigo, until, in its native country, the production of this last fell into the hands of Europeans. Have the Indians retaliated upon the American colonists? Where is our Indian Annatto? Where is our Indian Cocoa; our Indian Vanilla? The hardy plant producing the Annatto (Bixa Orellana), introduced from America, is to be found as a garden plant throughout India, but liie drug obtained from it is wholly unknown to the Indians as an article of commerce. The plant producing the Cocoa, although cultivated in the Spanish and even in the Dutch £< .t Indies, is unknown in the British possessions. The cochineal insect and the plant {Cactus cochinnellifer Bot. Magazine) that it feeds upon, introduced into British India by an ingenious European, have, in rearing and culture, reverted to the hands of nature and the care of the Indians ; and Mexican Cochineal, consequently, exceeds it in value by full JOO per cent. 4064. " India is in a similar predicament in regard to China. Situated close to that country ; in daily close intercourse with it ; receiving yearly into our settlements thousands of emi- grants from thence ; having a population of cheap labourers, by character peculiarly adapted to the tedious manipulation indispensable to the preparation of tea, — an advantage which no o'hcr culony enjoys, or is likely for a long time to enjoy ; and possessing the same soils, cli- mates, and physical aspects as the most favoured of the tea provinces of that empire, not one pound of tea has ever been grown in our Indian possessions ; not one attempt has been made to rear this valuable plant in British India, while such efforts have been frequent in distant and uncongenial European colonics. Owing to the superior skill of the Chinese, both as agriculturists and manufacturers, they are enabled to export a large quantity of sugar, of quality much superior to that of India, though having to contend against the high rents incident to a country fully peopled, and where the price of corn is, probably, not less than threefold as great as in the average of the Indo-British dominions." 4065. The forests of India ore, it is well known, upon an extensive scale ; and little, com- paratively speaking, as has yet been ascertained of the species of trees they contain, the indefatigable Dr. Wallich has, chiefly by his own industry, and the various missions in which he was employed in various parts of India, to Nepal and the Himalayah mountains, and in the Birmcse territories, together with what are grown in the Calcutta Botanic Garden, collected no less than 456 different species of Indian wood, which he has deposited, with the sanction of the Directors of the Honourable East India Company, in the museum of the Society of Arts, in London ; and of which an account is given in the forty-eighth volume of the Transactions of that Society. Of these a large proportion arc employed by the natives. Among them is the superb Butea frondosa {fi'i- 597. ), from Gualpaca : two species of Careya, from Nepal ; six species of Chestnut, one of Hornbeam, two Cedrelas, 597 a genus nearly allied to mahogany ; a Croton, five cubits in girth ; two species of Daphne, D. Gardneri and D. cannabinum, of which the wood, indeed, is not used, but the inner bark is, in Nepal, most extensively manufac- tured into paper, which possesses the advantages of being strong, not liable to crack, and which is frue from the attacks of the white ant ; Diptcronitis grandiflora, a stu- pendous tree, one of those which yields wood, oil, and dammar ; five species of Spindle tree ; numerous kinds of Fig, but whose wood is usually light and «f compara- tively little value • an Ash {Fraanus Jloribunda}, whose wood is exactly similar to the Ash of our country ; Gmc- lina arborea, used for turncry-warc of all kinds, and cylinders of which, of a proper sice, are turned very thin for drums, otlicr musical instruments arc also made of it ; Gordoniu iutegrifolia, of which the Birmese have a superstition that one beam in every house should lilways consist of its wood ; three Hibisci, Hopca tinctoria, which grows to an eitonnous BumA moNuot/^ MO IXCSCItlPTIVE OEOOUAI'IIY. l'*HTl|I. Miv, of wliieli cannonH urc maAu, and whicli producM n viilualilo rmin or duinrnar ; u Holly « Wiilnut, "an exceedingly largu tree;" a Jun!|>vr, from Himaluyali; three N|K>civH of tin. beautiful LiinenttruMTiio, neveral of Laurel, a Privet, which conntitutcN a " tinilH'r;" a Muu. nolin, two kinds of Mulberry, three of Nutmeg, whose wood in extensively iisnl; t\ Inriru Olive ; live Hpecies of I'ine, nutives of Nepal, one of wliicli, I'inus Deodoni, yii'lds n tru- f(rant wood ; the very litrgu I'inc of 'Vawcy {P. Dammarii 9), a tree-fern of Nupul (urtyi Hve feet high, l'oly|io It'CAII rANH. ilie other advancing w liausted liy bad liushanc of Kiiio|)t'an resident 1 4()()y. Iiidigu, a stflpi :ni(l one of the most pr timtoria {Jig. 602.); u 602 iNniao, ■•iceped In a vat, till it li ilie liquor is let ofl" into i cause the Cecula to separ ii remains for some time, «o(i(ien hoxcs, placed in .1" ineh s.v the natives of India, pr "'wily supplied by Sout »'iKht. Tliere are at pi «l"eli Ihirty-seven only a process. Tlie Indians, h raampies before them, anc wnipetitors ; for the indi nufactnrcd by Europeans unfit for the foreign mark ii'ws done, it is still, fror commodity. The avera- BooKir IIINDOSTAN. Mt friiAK rAWll. 602 I'roni tliu East IniUvs In IH'2(1, no Ivm than 30,H.'S9,440 lb*., or more than half of tha whulu aiiioinit, wim tliu pruilucu of thv islunil of Mauritiu*. •• lliat Im tu lay, Ihu import* 601 into thin country from n Hmall iHlnncI, with an urvu of 'i7'i,SUB acri's, onu vlvvinth part only of which in under any culture, nnii oiiv iiftvi'iitli only under the culture of the HUgiir-ciine, — (lio iniportH from un island with a somewhat prvcariou* climiitc, and a fertility of Koil not very (liHlingui»hcd, — the iin> portN from an isliind that at the utniotit containN a population of no more than 95,0(H) inhabitant)!, — and, finally, the iinportN from an i»luml, of which the Uritish nation had possesMed tliu Huvereignty but twelve short yearn, are greater, in the grand staple of the tropical world, not only than tliose of all liritisli India, of wliich we have possessed the sovereignty live times as long, with itH area of (iOO.OOU square miles, its population of 8:),(XX),(XX), its fertile soil and its geniid climate, but liirger than those of the whole Kastern world put together (the said small island excepted), embrncing a population «f certainly not less than :IOO,()uliy supplied by South America, which rtrnished England with about 1,200,000 lbs. »ei;;ht. Tliere ore at present, in Bengal, 309 manufactories of indigo for exportation, of "liicli thirty-seven only are conducted by natives, and these in imitation of the European process. The Indians, however, cannot even imitate us to any advantage, with so many esamples before them, and in full possession of all the land, to the complete exclusion of their cunipetitors ; for the indigo thus prepared is full 1 5 per cent, lower in value than that ma- nufactured by Europeans ; and as to indigo made by the old native process, it is still wholly unlit for the foreign market ; and even when re-manufactured by Europeans, which is some- times done, it is still, from the deterioration it has undergone in their hands, a very inferior commodity. The average yearly quantity of indigo produced for some time bock in the .1 Q 2 969 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III, Britisli dominions in India, hits ranged from 8,.'i(X),000, to 9)000,000 lbs. weight, and in value from 2,700,000/. to 3,300,000/. Tlie produce of 1828, the greatest evir known amounted to 1 2,000,000 lbs. Before Europeans undertook the culture and manufacture ut' Indian indigo, it was, as already stated, so bad as to be unsaleable in any foreign mnrket. On an average, it is now about twelve and a half per cent, better than South American indigo. In short, about four fifths of the consumption of Europe, Asia, and America is now supplied with good Indian Indigo ; a commodity which, fifty years ago, had no existence. 4070. Cajeput oil is obtained from an East Indian shrub, the Melaleuca Leucadendron and, in a pure state, is considered one of the best of preservatives of preparations for natnrai history. It is used externally, and with much success, as a cure for rheumatic affections and pains in the joints. In India, too, it has been employed in the almost hopeless task of curing tho cholera morbus. When that disease first broke out in England, and indeed bulbrc it actually made its appearance, Cajeput oil was in such demand, that tlie price ruse to a most extravagant height. But when its inefficiency was unfortunately proved, it was soon reduced to its ordinary standard. 4071. Caoutchouc, or Indian Rubber, is the inspissated juice, not only of several speed's of Ficus, but of the tjrccola elastica of Dr. Roxburgh, or Elastic Gum Vine. To the same natural order with tho latter belongs tlie Strvcli. nos Nux Vomica {f^. 603.) (the Poison nut or romic nut), whose seed is among the most powerfid of all vegetable poisons: yet the pulp of the fruit .appears to be innocuous, being eaten by birds, he. Of the same genus is the Cleansing Nut {Strychnos potatorum). " The ripe seeds," says Dr. Roxburgh, " are dried nnd sold in every market to clear muddy water. The natives never drink clear well-water, if they can get pond or river water, which is always more or less impure, according to circum. stances. One of the seeds or nuts, as they are generally c.illcd, is rubbed very hard, for a minute or two, round the inside of the vessel containing the water, which is generally an unglazed earthen one, and the water left to settle ; in a very short time the impurities fall to the bot- tom, leaving the water clear, and, so far as I have been able to learn, perfectly wholesome." 4072. To the Fig tribe Ix^longs the famous Banyan of India, commonly called Pce|)ul tree, and const-mtly planted about the Hindoo temples {Ficus religiosa) {fig. C04.) : — rrnvniNOt Nt'X vomk-a. KANrATI TftBlk " DraiK'liing no liroiul and Iouk, tliat in the ground Tlio lienilcU twigH take root, anil ilauKlitera grow About the motliur tree, a pillar'd shade Hi|;ii ovcr-arch'd, and echoing walks between." These roots or props occujiy such a space of groimil, that one growing on the banks of the Nerbuddali covers an almost incredible area. Tlie circumference which now remains (for much has been swept away liy the floods of the river) is nearly 2000 feet. The overhanging branches, which have not yet thrown down their props or supports, overshadow a inucli larger space ; 320 large trunks are counted of this singular tree, while the smaller ones exceed 3000; and each of them is continually sending forth brunches and pendent roots, to form otiicr trunU and become the parents of a future progeny. The whole, according to Forhes's OnViila' Memoirs, has been known to shelter 7000 men beneath its wide-spread shade. 4073. ATi loss gifiantic, as a grass, than the Banyan as a tree, is the Hainlioo {jtmio Hambos) {fig. (iOr>.), whose jointed stems or culms not unfrequently exceed 100 fu'i i™ height with a diameter of a foot near their base. It is of the most rapid growih clothed, especially at the top, with copious dark green foliage, and literally corisliliiis forests. It is one of the must extensively useful of all plants, where lightness and duraliHit; Book 1L HINDOSTAN 9«3 art- required. Houses aro built of this caiic, and Dr. Patrick Browne assures us tliat they have been known to endure upwards of iOO years. Besides masts for boats, boxes, i-upe, baskets, mats, pp'ankeens, and carriages, and a great variety of otiier utensils and furniture, both domestic and rural, are made of it. Pa- per is prepared from it, by bruising and steeping in water, when it becomes a paste. It is the common fence for gardens and fields, and is fre<]uently used for water pipes. 4074. Ginseng ( Panax Ginseng) {Jig. 606. )> which constitutes a valuable article of trade in China (though Its medicmal properties are grossly exaggerated by that extraordinary people), and the rout of a nearly allied species ol' which {P. guinqurfoUa) has been sold by the Americans in one season (1824) to the amount of 39,064^, might, there is every reason to believe, be collected to great advantage in Nepal ; and this has been suggested by Dr. Wallich, who published the species, under the name of Panax tetrapliylhi, in his splendid work, Plantee Asialiccen employed as a valuable perfume from the remotest antiquity. It is carried across the desert to Aleppo, where it is used, in substances, mixed with perfume, and worn in small bags, or in the form of essence, and kept in little boxes or phials, like attar of roses. 4077. Slill lakes, pools, and tanks of water, in various parts of India, abound with many highly curious aquatic plants. Water-lilies of diil'erent hues are very common, and mie is rendered famous in his- tory, namely, the Cyaraus Nelumbo {jig. 609.) or Sacred Bean of India, tlie Kvanos of the ancients, whose splendid flowers, of a full rose colour, arc embosomed in large pel- tate leavesof the tendcrest green, and which, as well as the flower-stalk, rise considerably above the surface, not floating like the water-lilies of our country. Sola, too, is an aquatic plant, of which an interesting account is given by General Hard- wicke, in the JBotanical ^riicellany. " It has very often interested me, and gratified my curiosity," says that gen- iliinnn, " to remark to how many useful purposes the Sola is applied by the natives of It is the iEschynoincnc paludosa of Roxliiirgh, It grows abundantly on the SANDAL WOOD* VAIHHIANA JATAHAKflt. (■A'ltKli FfAN (IV IMIIA. India. \% DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. inanhy plninn of Dcngnl, and on the borders of jeeh, or extensive lakes, in every province between Ciklviitia and Hurdwnr. The plant is perennial, of straggling low growth, and KuUluin exvevdH n diameter of two inches and a half in the stem. It is brought to the CiOeuttii iMtlonnt in great quantities in a green state ; and the thickest stems are cut into lainlniV) ttam which the natives form artificial flowers and viirioiis fancy ornaments to decoratu their shrines at Hindoo festivals. The Indians make hats of it, by cement- ing together as many layers as will produce the requisite thickness: in this way, aiiv kind of Hhiipo may he formed ; and when covered with silk or cloth, the hats are stron'<', and inconceivably light. It is an article of great use to flshermen ; it forms floats of tlic best description to their extensive nets. The slender stems of the plants are bundled into fascines about three feet long ; and with one of these under his arm does every flshennan go out to his daily occupation. With his net on his shoulders, he proceeds to work without u boat and stretches it in the deepest waters and most extensive lakes, supported by this buoyant faggt)t. I must not forget to give you the native name of the plant, which in Bengalee is Simla, commonly pronounced Sola. Dr. Roxburgh considered the plant as annual, 1 be. lieve. The foliage, and other parts of the plant, where water is wanting, die down to the roots ; but where water is plentiful, the stems remain, and branch out afresh in the proncr HeuHon," •1078. T.anlljf, liw shall mention, among the grandest features of Indian scenery, tlic Palms those princes of the vegetable kingdom, which administer to so many of the wants and luxuries of the natives, and which are not con- fined to the hottest parts of the country ; for one species, the Chamierops Marliana of Walllcli's Ptant/E Asiatico! Rariores, was foiuul hy that famous botanist in the valley of Nepal, in hit. 28° N., and at an elevation of 5000 feet above the level of the sea. The south coast of India abounds with the Cocoa-nut {Cocos nurijira'' {Jig. 610.), of which the Hindoos celebrate 365 uses that they derive from it. Far superior to this, in the magnitude of its leaves, of which a single one will shelter twelve men, is the Pal- myra Palm {Borassus Jlabelliformis) {fig. 6!!.), which sometimes attains to 100 feet, while Its trunk yields abundantly the Toddy or Palm wine. Tlic Caryota urcns, in the diameter of its stem, which is three feet ; and the Betel nui {Areca Catechu), in the gracefulness of its trunk and folL-igc, also excel the cocoa-nut. The fruil of the latter is eaten with the pinigent Uaf of the Betel pepper already mentionod, wlioncc arises its appellation of Betel-nut Palm. Dr. Roxburgh describes a dwarf palm, under the name of Phoenix farinifera, which yields a fari- naceous substance in the heart of the stem ci This latter substance is the product, it woiilil appear, of two plants, the Sagus farinifera {jig. 612.), a native of the peninsula of India, and the Cycai revoluto, n Chinese and Japanese plant. 611 Av, ^lii. ilM fiJi riU.i>A NTT cabbage, siinilar to the Sago of the shops. lAflU* FARtriPRKA Book II. HINDOSTAN. MB «'i m ,ii 4079. Himalai/a/i, and the ioulhem boundary of Thibet.* — The chain of the Himalayah mountains, an immense barrier which divides the population, the animals, the vegetation, and the climate of the East Indies and Southern Asia, begins, easterly, not far from the river Barrampooter, or Brahmapoutra, about lat. 28°, and extends in a north-west direction as far as the Indus, lat. 35°. In the south it rises abruptly from the plains of Nepal ; to the north, it is nearly on a level with the high ground of Thibet. The highest known mountains belong to this chain : they are situated between tlie 28th and 32d parallels. Mr. Cole- brooke has deduced the following elevations from the observations of Captain Blake ; viz., the Peak of Chandragiri, 21,935 feet; that of Swelagar, 25,261 feet; tliat of Dewalagiri, 28,015 feet; this latter peak exceeding Chimborazo by 6000 feet. Fraser estimates the height at which the snow becomes perpetual on the Himalayah mountains at from 14,000 to 16,000 feet; an elevation which is surprising at a distance of from five to nine degrees from the tropics, but which may be explained by the peculiar conformation of this Asiatic region. While large sheltering chains of mountains, running almost parallel with the equator, and rising like steps, one above another, from the north of Siberia to Nepal, break and arrest the currents of cold air which descend from the hyperborean country ; on the other hand, the warm breezes from the vast plains of Hindostaii sweep gently upward on the easy slopes of the Himalayah mountains, and reach the higher regions without intermixture or contact with the northern atmosphere ; thus causing the Himalayan range to partake of the equatorial zone, in the character of its climate and vegetation. 4080. Tlie lower plains of Nepal and Boutan differ little from Hindostan in their vege- tation. Warmth and constant moisture keep up a sempiternal verdure ; the cultivated spots produce, at the same time, the Mango, the Orange, the Pomegranate, the Peach, the Apple and Pear, the Walnut tree, the Banana, the Bamboo, &c. The Erythrina monosperma and Bombax heptaphyllum are the most common trees in uncultivated spots. The forests of the lower ridges of the Himalayah mountains are composed particularly of Siiorea robusta, mixed with Dalbergia, Cedrcla, &c. At an elevation of from 2000 to 2500 feet, tlie Pinus longifolia and Mimosa Catechu grow. At this height, in about 27° 1 7' N. lat., Hamilton computes tlie mean annual temperatiu-e at + 23° 3'. In proportion as the ground rises, the species of plants tliat belong to the plains of Hindostan become rare, and those which are peculiar to the mountains usurp their places. The vegetation imperceptibly assumes the generic character of the productions of the north, while it still presents a number of specific types that are foreign to our country. The Pine Apple, Sugar Cane, Bamboo, and llice are still culti- vated in the valleys, at an elevation of from 3200 to 4400 feet : but beyond 6300 feet nothing butbarley, wheat, millet, and the other grain of northern zones, will succeed. Tiic common trees are species of Michelia, Gordonia, Fir and Pine trees, Podocarpus, Chestnut, Oak, Walnut, Laurel, Ilex, &c. 40SI. There is never either frost or snow in Boutan, except on the high mountains ; but at Katmandu (lat. 27° 41'), the capital of Nepal, at an elevation of about 4000 feet, it snows every winter. In that part of the Himalayah range which looks towards Hindostan, and on the southern frontier of Thibet, Fir, Spruce, Juniper, Salix tetrasperma. Birch, &c. attain a great height, when not arrested by the sterility of the soil, the precipitous ledges, and the avalanclius of snow. At from 1 2,000 to 1 3,000 feet, upon those peaks which shelter the masses of perpetual snow from which the sources of the Ganges take their rise. Captain Hodgson renmrked a tree of the family of the Conifera>, the branches of which, as thick as a man's leg, swejrt the ground. This tree, which he conceives to be a Pine, and which the Hindoos call Chandan, is perhaps the Abies dumosa of Don, which in that country holds the place which Pinus Pumila does on the higher parts of our mountains. Hodgson found the Chandan in lat. 31° to 32°, on the peak of Chour, and on the snowy mountains of Kounawur, which arise from Thibet. In this region, at a pass about 15,000 feet high, A. and P. Ge- rard observed, on the 2d of October, under a tent, the thermometer indicating, at noon, -i- 10'-' ; ut 4 o'clock it was zero, and the following morning at sunrise the temperature was 8° 3'. This cannot be considered cold, if we take into consideration the season, the height, and the latitude. The Vine, in a favourable exposure, produces delicious grapes al an elevation of from 8000 to 1 2,000 feet English. It must be observed that this is owing to the immediate efficacy of the solar radiation, which is the more powerful as the intervening stratum of air is less thick and more rarificd. The last villages, the last cultivated fields, are at l:!,0(K) feet : and this is the usual limit of the large Pine forests. At this elevation it is almost needless to say that the harvest pays very inadequately for the labour of cidtivation : it consists of some of the Cerealia, Beet root, l\Iillet, &c. A thousand feet higher up, some clumps of Fir, Birch, Gooseberry bushes, Uhododendron, Vaccinium, &c. may yel be seen. Then come the small woody or herbaceous flowering plants that are peculiar to the arctic regions, and the Mosses and Lichens attain to the borders of perpetual snow. The last I'xpiring etlbrts of vegetation here are scarcely different from what is presented by the sum- !l • Kxtrai'tcU from the Giograuhic Botaiiiiiiic of M. Mirbel, in the 14th volume of the iti!muirea Ju Musium fimmre tiiUureW: 3 U J 966 DESCRIPTIVE GEOORAPHY. Pam IIJ. mils of the Andes, of Caucasus, the Carpathian and Swiss Alps, the Pyrenees, &c., nor from the productions of the extreme northern regions, and the antarctic districts that arc divided from Patagonia by the Straits of Magellan. The larger natural floras, however decidediv pronounced their distinguishing characters may be, when, under the influence of a favourable climate, they display all their richness and variety of form, are insensibly reduced, by the effect of a gradual diminution of annual temperature, to a small number of families and of genera, whose specific types are, every where, if not the same, yet so much alike that botanists themselves are often tempted to confound them. 4082. Tlie aspect of the southern boundary of Thibet is wild and melancholy. High plains bounded on all sides by chains of mountains, surmounted by enormous peaks that are covered' with perpetual snow, often present the traveller with nothing but those saline incrustations and metallic substances which induce an almost absolute sterility. No large vegetable pro- ductions can be seen, only a few herbs and shrubs, whose stunted growth denotes the con. genial nature of the soil. In some districts the land is rather better, and is either covered with spontaneous forests and verdure, or brought into cultivation by the hands of man. The winters are long and severe ; for three whole months, the inhabitants are immured in their villages by the heavy snows ; and the summers are scorching, the sides of the mountains reflecting back the sun's rays with extreme force. In valleys that are about 9300 feet high such as those which intersect the Himalayah chain and the Mount of Cailas to the west, Rice' Wheat, Barley, Mulberries, and Opium Poppies are cultivated. There are also some citen. sive vineyards, rivalling, in the excellence, size, and flavour of their produce, the grapes of Cabulistan. Apricots, Walnuts, and Apple trees grow in the forests. 4083. There are certainly some remarkable discrepancies between the climate of the eastern and western parts of Thibet. The latter, of less elevation, and nearer the tropics has, like the equatorial zone, its periods of rain and drought ; and it is probable that tlie winter temperature is generally lower there than in Kounawur, though the cold be very severe. 4084. The Alps of Thibet, like those of Nepal and Boutan, produce Spruce, Fir, Juniper, Oak, Hazel, Alder, Willow, Birch, Elder, Horsechestnut, Ash, Ilex, Gooseberr\', Raspberry, Rhododendron, Vaccinium, &c. 4085. Himalayah and Thibet bring us to the western frontier of China, where we meet with the Transition Zone. But what positive information can be given as to the vegetation of a country, which the unalterable manners, and, as it were, the very instinct, of its inhabitants shut out from the rest of the world, even more completely than could be effected by trade- less seas, howling deserts, or mountains of greater elevation and asperity than the Alps uf the Himalayah? Sdbsect. 3. Zoology. 4086. The native Zoology presents a vast field for observation ; and although many parts have been explored by Europeans, there still remains entire provinces which have never yet been visited by the naturalist. Our celebrated countryman. Pennant, brought together all the information which was then known ; but the revolutions in nomenclature, which more enlarged views of natural science has since occasioned, and the important discoveries since made, have now rendered the " Indian Zoology" of little service to the modern naturalist. It is not a bare list of animals, with their scientific names, that is now wanted, but rather infomnation on the geographic range and the natural economy of each, viewed in refer- ence to the peculiarities of the countries they respectively inhabit. The publication of the voluminous materials, collected by General Hardwicke, during a long residence in British India, will materially illustrate these questions. In the mean time, the following hrief notices on the chief peculiarities of Indian zoology will not be uninteresting to the general reader, as tending to illustrate our previous remarks on the distribution of Asiatic animals in general. 4087. The Quadrupeds which appear to characterise more particularly tlie regions of con- tinental India are the following. They are arranged under those divisions of the peninsula where naturalists informs us they are chiefly found : — 1, Mtndotttin generatly, Gcnetta fasclata. Handetl <}t'nt>tt. Mus f(i)(ant«ut. (ilKantlc Kat. C«rcocvt>UA radiatuft. KatUateil Atonkey. Papin aiHHtia- Thutntiless BatMoii- I'apio nlKer. Btack lt..fioon. Rlilnot'eriM initicus. Indian Rliinoceros. ItempUH iMilllatui. MoIUmI Itat. UritUH malayanus. Malay Hear. IJnu^ lablatui. TlilrklllipBt Bpar. Mantftuta Munsoi. Indian Irtinuuinnn. Prlonmlon ? allilfron«. White fronliHi l'. liCo Mlatlcits. Stfutni. AllaUc Lion. Frrii TiKri". Rojal TIKW. Full! TOTallra. M«ncl<>« IlunllnR Leoiard. TefTUS iwrrlnufl. Hrown Htair. HaiihliuTim Bculloomli. hliarp-homed Anti'lopc. Antilope ccfTicapra. Common Anteloiw. Haphii-erus ftubulata. Awl-horned Ante* loiie. Oi^tblilUA indfcus. Indian tl. Hjriitrix faaiculata- rencll-lalled Porcu* pine* Hystris macroura. Long-talltid Indian Torcuplne. Tetrai srun Chicara (H. Sm'M). Clilcara Anielope- Tctracerus quadricomia. Four-homed Anlelope. Ntsmorhetlua PuTaucelii {//. Smith), Du- Taucel'a Antelope. llos Itub.-ilui. Common Buffalo. Itoft fiaurua- (iaur lluR'alo. H(M Gaycua. Gajrol lluftalo. 2. Dtngal. Cerocebua cynaiuriis. The .>ralbro«tk. Nyctlcebua iienKaknitls. Slow I.Mriur. Nyrtinomus Iten^alensH. Ileiif:al IVil. Pteropui matvinntiiH. llordernl Hit- tienelta Honilar. Itondar (ienetl. Viverra prelienailia. I'reheDslle Viian. Mania crassiraudala. Sliorl-(;iileil .Maiiii. CervUB hipiielaphus. (treat Hussa. CeTvul ArUtotella. Ulack Ulan .1. Ponillchrrrit. Pteropua liCschenaultii. S|K)tti'(l Ilal. Sorel Indlcua. Inili.-in Shn>w. Lutr.l Nalr. Ponillcbcrry OlttT. Viverra Typua. Coinnion Vlvfrra Mua Indlcua. Indian Kat. Mui Ferchal. I'erolial Kit SooK IL HINDOSTAN. M7 he; „„ Malbrmtl Slow Utuur. lonlviol llM i-iiemlle \"i«m. lurt-lailiJ Mil* It Uussa. SUB . rv- iJ|«.iu-a Ha- ;liri'w. rv UttiT. ,n Vlv«t» iU. 11 il 4088. From the foregoing lilt, it would appear tkat the camivoroui quadrupeds, in regard to the number of iDCciM, are very small ; and that this fact tends to invalidate the position, previously ailvanced, that the chief nKuliarity of Asiatic India, when compared with America, appears to be the abundance of its ferocious quailrupcds. It must, however, be remembered, that numerical quantities must be taken into the account ; for it is quite immaterial to the question, whether that abundance is occasioneil by number or by species. To illustrate this farther, wc may state, that during two years and a half spent in traversing the forests of Braiil, with the sole view of investigating its productions, we never once saw, or procured, a ferocious animal : so thinly do they appear scattered in that empire, or, at least, over such provinces as we visited. Now, the Tigers of India are well known to be so numerous, that it is impossilile to enter the woods or jungles witiioiit leeing the print of their feet, or incurring the danger of their attack. Even the common people employed in aniculture are frequently alarmed by their appearance, and fall a prey to their ferocity, close to human iubitations ; neither can the abundance of these terrific animals he traced to a thinness of population, in reipect to which the interior of Brazil is much more deficient If the accounts of Oriental travellers are to be relied upon, the proportion of population between the two regions may be no greater than one to gva The " next neighbour " to a Brazilian of the interior itequently resides at a distance of thirty miles, and often of a two days' Journey, particularly in the central province of Matto Orosso, or the " Great Wood." 4089. A brief notice of the follomng quadrupeds will be interesting or instructive : — the Rhinoceros, the Tiger, the Ichneumon, and the Antelope. 4090. The Indian one-homed Rhinoceros of the continent Ufp. 613.) is distinct from that of the islands. 613 lurpriBing degree. Thicker and more unwieldy for his size than the elephant, he exhibits in confinement much of the singular sagacity observed in that gigantic animal. A young one described by M. Cuvier, and which was lately alive in Paris, evinced many such habits. He smelt at every thing, and seemed to prefer sweet fruits, and even sugar itself, to any other food. Like the elc> phant, he collected and held every thing in- tended for his mouth with . - ~]~ follow, seize its victim, break its head, and then devour it with the utmost voracity. animal lives in holes, or in burrows, near habitations This 968 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part Hi rOUB'RORNRP ANTItlilFR. 409& The four-homed Antelopes (flg. 615.) (for there are probably two apcclcs) arc iiccuDar to India. Th i,i „,, which is named Chickarii Inhabits the forc§t« and hilly tracts aim the western provinces of Rcngal, Bahar, and Orissa. It i» a (|i.|'ii'ni .* ihaiml, wild, and agile little creature, measuring about twenty iiuo and a half high from the shoulders. Its general colour is brmht C! above, and whitish beneath. The form of the horns is siranlc- ihi largest pair being three inches long, and the others only three (iua'H.'K of an inch. i-anira 4094. The Birds, a.s we before observed, are numerous • but, however interesting to the scientific naturalist, tlitrj are few which demand, in tliis place, a particular (lescrii), ^ lion. The Peacock is the glory of Indian orultholoL'y" * The Jungle Cock (Jig. 616.) is spread over the whole of this peninsula, but is replaced, in the islands, by other species : it is perhaps more beautiful than that domcsticnted in Europe. The Oriental Pigeons vie with the Parrots in the brilliancy, yet softness, of their tints. There are no less then twenty-one species described as inliabitin? the -.. continents of India, and eleven more are peculiar to China, ''^ Molucca, and the islands. It is singular that this family, in point of species, is distributed in the two hemispheres in nearly equal proportions; twenty-four being descrihed as American, and thirty-one as Asiatic : most of the latter hare the ground colour of their plumage bright green, and princi- pally belong to the genus Ptilonopus Sivaiiis. The gigantic Cranes have already been noticed, as well as the groups of sucli smaller birds as are sufficient to indicate the nature of the whole. 4095. The Peacock appears to have been introcrb bird in crcatinn although a familiar acquaintance with its form takes somitliin^ fnini that admiration which it would otherwise excite. It is said to ntcur in the greatest profusion over the extensive plains of India, where it grows to a much larger site than with us. It appears, nevertheless, to hcaihv bird i and domestii'atecf;an tlieir career simply as mcrdiants. In order to carry on this occupation, they erected factories, wliicli they were obliged to fortify, in order to secure thomselves from the capricious violence of the native powers. The jealousy of the latter, liDwever, was soon roused, and the train of events followed wliicli have already been skctdied, and which placed the Company at the head of an empire superior to Britain in L'tti'iit and population. The British government could not view them in possession of such nut power and revenues, without some desire of sharing ; and Mr. Fox, in 1 786, brought in his famous India bill, by which the wliole would have centred in the House of Com- ,„oiis, and, through them, in himself and his party. This plan gave umbrage both to king and people, by whose united efforts the bill was thrown out, and the minister removed. Mr. Pitt then made an arrangement by which t'.e Company retained the main direction of alTttirs ; but a body called the Board of Coii'.i-ol was nominated by the king, which pos- itmeA a negation on the appointment of tlie Mipreme officers, and a general supervision over tho whole Indian administration. In 181 3, .hen a renewal of their charter was required, tlie Company were obliged to throw open the trade to private merchants, by whose cnter- lirisc niul industry they were soon in a g-eat measure driven out of the market. In 1833, wlii'ii another renewal was necessary, they were required to give up entirely trading to hi(ha, as well as to China, being only allowed the time necessary to dispose of their stock ami assets. Permission was also given to British subjects to settle, hold property, and carry in trade, in the interior. In other respects the jurisdiction of the Company has been left nearly iis licfore ; so that, from a purely commercial body, they have by a gradual progress become » puri'ly governing one. Their territories arc divided into three presidencies — Calcutta, Ma- dras, and Bombay. The governor-general resides at the former ; and by the last charter, the utlier governors are placed almost entirely under his orders. In 1 834, a fourth presidency was erected, at Agra; but this has recently been reduced into a branch of that of Calcutta, undor the title of the North-western Provinces, which are administered by a lieutenant-governor. 4109. For the administration qf Justice, tho Bengal presidency has been divided into districts termed lil- hhi, each of which contains a court. Thence, however, in important cases, an apiieal lies to six provincial ones, established in Calcutta, Dacca, Moorshcdabad, Patna, Benares, ai.d Bandly, from whom too there is a Gnil ei>|ieal to the metiopolitan one of the ISudder Dewanny Adawlut for civil, and the Nizamut Adawlut fircr.'i inal cases. The judges in all these courts arc British, with native assistants. In each zlllah there aretwi' '.ibordinate courts, called the Suddor Aumcens, and tnc Moonsiflli, mostly Hlled by Hindoos. This !)slcm, though framed with the best Intentions, did not work very advantageously. The youth and incx. Iitriencc nl the Judges, their ignoranceof the language, manners, and whole train of ideas among the natives, iniuiig whom the most gross iwrjury is prevalent, rendered it almost imixwsible to distinguish truth from iiMood. Hence arose a ruinous delay in civil cases, and in criminal ones a degree of impunity causing an iiirreasc to the system of decoity, or gang robbery, always prevalent in India. Of late great exertions have Imn made to improve the system ; the cases of decoity have iMsen much diminisheVom the monopolies of salt and cj|iinin. Tlic customs form the chief other branch ; but the inland duties were taken olT in 18,17. 1111. T/ie /allowing Tables exhibit the Revenue and Expenriilure (irartly estimated) for 1836-7: — 1 RsTini'l. Land. Salt. 0]>lum. Customs. Huunps. Licences, Dues, &c. Albcel- lancous. Total. i i IK-nftal i North-western - ^laclr.•la Bombay £ 3,099,121 4,100,080 2,893,847 1,088,810 £ 1,405,9.50 372,894 23,524 £ 1,706,302 207,840 £ 301,725 379,298 409,445 399,733 £ 179,6.53 102,803 45,460 38,694 £ 224,906 185,200 170,730 1.5:1,943 £ 1,039,988 02,255 065,825 132,333 £ 8017.705 4,829,042 4,018,207 2,;i)4,889 11.781,870 1 1,802,308 1 2,034,208 1,5.50,201 306,616 1 73-l,779 1 1,900,401 20,170,443 EVPRNDITURB. Mllltarj. Miuine. Civil and Polllical. Judicial. Interest of Dclit. Miscel- laneous. Total. Ren sal 1 North-western Mailras Bombay £ 3,494,428 2,208,773 1,312,801 £ 138,478 " 19,222 142,007 £ 751,022 200,451 311,442 361,679 £ 609,524 .506,115 331,607 244,134 £ 1,300,841 65,195 35,462 £ 161,715 4,243 9,127 16,731 £ 6,456,608 716,809 3,005,366 2,112,814 7,070,002 299,707 ' 1,031,194 ' 1,691,380 1,401,498 191,816 12.291,597 The expenses of collection being 2,903,628/., reduce the net revenue to 17,200,81.5/.; leaving, however, an srp.went surplus of 1,915,218/. ; but the Company pay besides l,773.(IO()/. to the C.reat Mogul, I'aishwa, uiid "tlier abdicated princes. Their home expenses also amount to 2,210,000/., being 637,0(;0/. for their legal diyi- tal,and other sums for homo debt, retired allowances, missions, &c. 1 '♦74 DESCIUFTIVE OEOGUAPIIY. Pakt in. SrcT. V. I'riducliue Induitry, 4113. tmlia dan alwiiyx been, in ii peciil'iir inannvr, cvlebratvd Tor \U fiTlUiiy, amX for it profuHion ol' iniigniliccnt and vuliinblo prjdui't». In fact, tliu trupicid cuuntrii'M, wlii'ruvi> water abouiidH, must KurpuHH tliu rc)fioni under the temperate ziiiiv in thl-< riit|ivct, wvtv it only from the cireumHtnnce of producing; more than one crop in the yi'ur. I'lic lariri' un i copious 8tream« of IlindoHlan maintain (generally throughout that country a piri'iiniiil nliundanco. This character, however, in l>y no means universal. All the west of ci'iitriii India, except where it ii watereil by the Indus and its tributaries, consists of sand, in h|,|i,|, the traveller sinks knee-deep. Sund forms even the basis of all the Hot country of Den. gal J though inundation ond culture liave covered it with a thin surface of productive cluy A great part also of the liilly districts, being over.run with that species of rank umiirwood called jiuigic, is unflt for any useful product. Although the Hindoos, too, have tvcr heiti on agricultural people, and remarkable for their industry, nothing can be mure iinptrlVvt than the instruments, or the skill, with which they conduct tiiat important art. Tliv culti. vators, for security under on imperfect police, or from mere custom, live in largo villairis having each a small spot, on the tillage of which they occupy themselves, in conjunction witll the labours of the loom and with other employments. Holding their lands by no tenure except that of usage, they never think of expending capital in their iinprovi'nicnt, and could not, probably, with safety, show themselves possessed of properly. Tiieir |)loii(jli, in comparison with ours, lioes not deserve the name Uudely constructed, ot the cost oflcss t'liaii half a crown, it cannot penetrate beyond two or tlirec iiiches deep, and has no contrivuna' for turning over the soil. It is drawn, not by horses, but by oxen and butlaloes, Honii'tinit's yoked together. Tlic ground, after being scratched in several directions by thin instru- ment, followed by the rough branch of a tree as a substitute for the harrow, is considenj fit for receiving the seed. Manure is employed only in some rare cases, and consists iiitn.lv of ashes and decayed vegetables. Cow-dung is not only <>carce, but is accounted lioly ; it U also employed as fuel, and is even plastered on the walls by way of ornitnient. Tlitrc is no idea of any rotation of crops, except the succession to be raised within the your ; and lliis is conducted on a principle of raising the utmost posi>ible quantity, until the ground is com- pletely exhausted. It is then abandoned to a state not of fallow, but of la;/, and the caltlu are pastured upon it, until by continued rest it has regained its fertility. This riulv syKtoni of husbandry resembles that which was practised in Europe during the early a^'cs. It is not supposed that even in Bengal more than one acre in three is under actual tijla^fe, Tlic cultivators arc poor in the extreme, their annual rents on an average not exceeding fuur pounds; and, instead of possessing any capital, they nrc usually sunk in debt. 4113. Notwithstanding all these tlejiciencies, nature is bountiful, and the products of India are copious. Rice is the article upon which the whole rcgioa rests its main (Ie|jciui- cncc; it is raised on every spot where irrigation can be procured. Thu periods of sowing and reaping vary, and produce a corresponding variety in the quality, Only one era:, ^' raised in the year ; but with another of millet or pulse on the same field. In some of th.- western Mahr.itta districts, it is neCL>ssary to substitute d'hotirra, the arid and coarse grain of Nubia. Wheat and barley are fitted only for those tracts which, from tlicir more elevated site, approximate to the temperate climates. 4114. Himlostan has other highlif vcUualle products. The most important, perhaps, is cotloii, the material of the great national manufacture. It is chieHy raised in the inland and sonicHliat dry tracts of Agra and the Deccan. Mirzapour, in the province of Agra, is tlic gcnml market for cotton, the price of which varies from 1/. 13j. to 2/. is. 6d. per cut. It Is not equal in quality to the American. Silk is also a very ancient staple of India, par- ticularly of Bengal, though not to the same extent as iu China; and the Italian silk is now decidedly superior to both. There is also a wild species brought in from the cmtem wooded tracts of Ai^sam and Silhet, which is useful from its cheapness. Tlie continent of India does not produt^e those more delicate spices which distinguish the islands; but pepper, so extensively used in Europe, grows in the greatest perfection and abundance on tlie !::gli wooded mountains tliat rise above the coast of Malabar. Sugar was plentifid in Hindoslan before it was known in Europe. Tlie interior of Bengal might yield it to any extent, and at much less expense than that raised in the West Indies; but, from the defective mode of preparation, it is of v,.-ry inferior quality, and is in that form called clayed, which is not suited to the £umpc-an taste. Opium, that favourite though pernicious luxury of the East, is the stapk' of the interior province of Bahar, anil is raised of still superior ipialitv in Malwa. It is a precarious crop ; and the British rendered it still worse by monopolising, and then using compulsory measures to make the fiu-mers grow it ; but by recent regulations these restrictions have been in a great measure removed. Indigo has been an early product of India, of which it bears the name : but that of Mexico obtained the preference in Europe, until within the last twenty years, when, by thu vigorous exertions of some active individuals it has been so much improved, that it is imported now to a large aimual amount. Ii k cultivated by the ryots upon advances made by the British ; but the cleaning and preparing Book II- IIINUOSTAN. 9T5 ilfuruHuurc entirely ptirformcd by Eurupvnnii, and with machinery of their erection. Th« average produce of Uenf^al and Oude, the latter nf which in of :.'oiiiiiderably inferior quality, Unliinaled at 9,0(X>,(XK) lbs. Coffee has become an article of coimiderable importance ; and in the laHt year (18H6), 9,.';00,(XX) lbs. were imported into Hritain from Malabar. Saltpt-tre is pro- duced more abundantly in Uuliur than in any other known coimtry. Its formation takes ulace cliieliy during the hot winds, and seems to be connected with that phenomi'non. 4115. Hoidet Iheie turnriei destined for exportation, there are olliei-ii, extensively cun- luincd in the interior. Tlie nut ol the arcca, combined with the leaf of the betel, is one universally used in India, which h.-.s never found its way into Europe. The customs of the country cause a vast consumption of vegetable oils, which are supplied from the sesamum, iiIm) from lint, mustard teed, and the cocoa nut. Woods of various kinds grow luxuriantly un the lower declivities of the Indian hills. The canes, composing the thick jungle or underwood which abounds in marshy ('rounds, are not only used as in Europe, but are much employed in building. The teak has been found unrivalled for ship-building ; but though it flourishes on the hilU of Malabar, it does not attain such perfection there as in Java and the Eastern peninsula. Malabar furnishes also a large supply of san'!u!-wood, of the species called red-wood, as well as others used for dyeing, or for ornamental furniture. 4116. The following ettimale of the produce of the Uritisb Bengal territory, including Dcniircs, Bahar, and part of Urissa, was made, seemingly with great diligence and attention, liy Colonel Colebrooke. To appreciate the extreme clii'npi\css of Indian produce, we must uimTve, that the maund consists of eighty lbs., or within a triHc of an English bushel. Rice, wheat, and barley, 150,000,000 maunds at 1«. €d, per maund - 11,300,000 Millet. (>0,C0<>,000 maunds, at Is. per maund - . . ^,000,000 Pulse, 90,000,000 maunds, at If. !)r/. per maund - • 5,(>25,0(X) Seeds .-..-.. 4,0;18,000 Sugar, tobacco, cotton, opium, and other articles ■ • • 9,000,000 1'3'J,9 13,000 The ipace on which these products are raised is estimated to contain 160,000 s4|uuro miles, and 30,000,000 souls. Ilindostan, taken altogether, may be quadruple as to ex- tent and population, but not quite so as to wealth. We may, therefore, conjecture its entire produce at about 100,000,000/. ; but it must be remarked, that the same articles \t'ould tw considered very cheap in England at six times the prices above stated. 1117. It is not, however, Jor the natural products alone, but, in an especial degree, for manw JKtures, that the commerce of India has been so much prized in the Western world. Cotton, her native material, though not possessing any peculiar original beauty, has, by the skill of her artisans, been worked up into forms of dress the most elegant that human industry has ever produced. That of muslins, ingenious and delicate beyond all others, is appropriate ar.d peculiar to Bengal, in whose eastern district of Dacca it is fabricated in a perfection elsewhere unrivalled. Though especially adapted, as it were, for the climate of India, so general has been its attraction, that this delicate fabric has become the staple of Scotland and the north of England. There, by the employment of machinery and the division of labour, It is produced much cheaper, and, in some instances, even of finer texture ; but the muslin of India, richer, softer, and more durable, still maintains its reputation. The same superiority is preserved by the calicoes, ginghams, and chintzes, which form the staple manufactures of Coromandel, and particularly of the Circars. Though nearly driven out of the European market by cheap and successful imitations, they are still preferred over the East, where the curious consider themselves able to distinguish by the touch, and even by the smell, these genuine products of the Indian loom. The central and western provinces arc not so eminent in manufactures, with the exception of Guzerat, where, especially in Surat and its neighbourhood, they are cheap, good, and of great variety, yet do not attain the same high excellence as in Eastern India. 4118. Silk, though holding only a secondary place as an Indian manufacture, is still ancient and considerable. Its main seats are the great cities of Moorshcorts. El|>ort.s. j BOTgal. Madras. 1 nomtMiy. Bmital. Madras. Umkat, 1 £ £ £ £ £ £ 1 United Kingdom I,CU1!,II0 197,178 1,248,196 2,1(12,925 393,917 l.Ml.Tfli 1 France ... I0(),04< 1U,I85 33,840 351,981 41, DM 42*:. 1 North America 1U0,I« 9,890 9,890 393,916 14,;)7'.l 'ill.MS 1 Ports of Hindostan 2/.; hrass nnd copi>er manufactures, .')«H,5*)/. ; earthenware, 19,.'i00/. ; glass, 1(K),8(K)/. i harilw,irc,7!i,liiV.| hats, 5,100/. ; iron and steel, 137 .."KKI/. ; lend and stint, 17,fiO0/. j leather and sadfilery, 17,900/. ; linens, .ij.lji; plate, jewellery, Stc, 3t),rtmi. ; silk manufactures. l!»,9)()/.; stationery, 48,9(10/. There were besiilis re-fX|».tt(d of foreign articles, Snifi.filHl gallons wine, 8r>,8(M) gallons lirandy and geneva, fil.aw 11)8. miicksilvcr, SCDiilln. •peltor. The thief articles of ex|)ort fVom India to llritain, in 1837, were — Iniligo, .Vii^IKH) lbs. ; roiipi, 51,532,000 lbs. ; raw silk, 1,2!)H,00 HINDOSTAN. 977 unaltered their ancient habits and Institutions. This people, who have attained a considerablo degree of civilisation, though in a form quite different from the European nations, present a highly interesting subject of contemplation. 41 '24. In their external form, the Hindoos, though, by the action of the climate, rendered as black as the negro, have otherwise nothing of the negro aspect. Neither do they exhibit the broad and flat visage, nor the other distinctive marks, of the Mongol race who people China and Eastern Tartary. Their form belongs to that variety termed, by Blumenbach, the Caucasian, and which includes also the people of Europe. Even from them they are distinguished by a peculiar delicacy and exility of shape, suggesting the idea of a refined and even effeminate people. The races, however, bred to war, who inhabit the mountains and the western tracts, are of a bodily constitution much more hardy and athletic. 4125. 3Vie manners oftlie Hindoos, still more than their persons, bespeak peculiar refine' ment. They are described as in a remarkable degree polished, graceful, and engaging ; and, in the whole intercourse of society, a politeness and urbanity reigns, much beyond what is observed in European circles. The impression made by them upon a stranger is that of a benevolent and amiable people. Those gentlemen, however, who have of late communi- cated tlic results of more intimate inspection, present a much less favourable picture. That outward politeness, it is said, soon resolves itself into the smooth and interested servility which men ncq'.iirp in courts, and ui^'er despotic governments, by habitual intercourse with those on whom they are dependent. It is entirely prompted, therefore, by self- interest, which forms the basis of the Hindoo character, and is cherished without regard to any feelings of honour and dignity. These are entirely broken down by the influence of that despotism which, according to Mr. Grant, " is not only tliu principle of the govern- ment of Hindostan, but an original, irreversible, and fundamental principle in the very frame of society." In such a government, where men arc excluded from the pursuits of ambition, and checked at least in any public or lively amusements, selfishness turns almost entirely into avarice ; and this is described as quite the ruling passion in the breast of the Hindoo. It appears to be indulged with an almost total disregard of the principles of honour or honesty ; the grossest breaches of which are so common, as to cause no surprise, and scarcely any indignation, even in those who suffer by them. In the same light do they regard that deliberate and systematic violation of truth, which seems rooted in the Indian character. " It is the business of all," says Sir John Shore, " from the ryot to the dewan, to conceal and deceive ; the simplest matters of fact are designedly covered with a veil which no human understanding can penetrate." This extends even to a form of guilt, from which the religious, or rather the superstitious, habits of the nation might have been expected to secure tlicm. Perjury, the most deliberate and complete, marks every deposition made kfure an Indian court of justice. What involves the tribunals in particular perplexity is, that even those who mean well, and have truth to tell or to attest, think not that they do enough, unless they enforce it by false additional particulars ; and it would thus be impossible for courts of justice to carry on their investigations, if they should reject evidence because it was combined with the most palpable falsehoods and perjuries. On a close inspection, too, much disappears of the mildness and quietude which arc so conspicuous on the surface of the Hindoo character. Deadly feuds reign in the interior of villages ; and, between those who have no motive to be on ceremony or on terms of courtesy with each other, violent wordy altercation; often take place, seldom, however, proceeding to blows. In particular, the already mentioned prevalence of decoity, and the dreadful cruelties with which it is accompanied, go far to strip the Hindoo character of its fame for gentleness. Similar habits of violence are general among the predatory tribes of the West : but these indeed may be considered as dilfering in almost every point from the proper Hindoo character. iVlG. After all, the Hindoo certainly possesses some good qualities; and, perhaps, the late very unfavourable pictures arc drawn chiefly from the populace of great cities, and from men otherwise placed in situations trying to human virtue. It is admitted that, in fidelity to a master or chief from whom they have received treatment at all kind, they are surpassed, and indeed equalled, by very few nations. Their religion enjoins, and it is admitted that they perform, very remarkable acts of beneficence ; and to assert that these proceed merely from a mercenary view of purchasing heaven, would be to judge with rather a scanty measure of charity. The habits of Hindoo life are pre-eminently domestic. Itespect fur old age is carried to a great height; and, when parents are no longer capable uf labour, they are supported by their children, and, never allowed to become a burden on the public. Marriage is held as a perfectly indispensable part of life, without which a man would nut be considered OS possessing a regular place in society, or as qualified for exercising any important function. His marriage, and his marriage festival, are regarded as the most critical and splendid eras in the history of a Hindoo. Yet the wife, when obtained, is the object of very slight respect or regard. Slie is considered wholly unfit to be the companion of her husband, or even tu he spoken to ; and indeed care is taken to render her so. It is deemed disgraceful fur her ever to open a book, to be able even to read a syllable, or to know any tiling of what is passing in tlie world. She is regarded merely as a sort of privileged slave, created only to 3 U 2 «78 DE8CUIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Tart in. obey and roverence her husbai.i^ and bound to view him with the most reverential awe. She h Rtinurally, however, foithful to him; and her attachment is manifested in an extra- urdnwry and cruelly Huperstitious manner, by the sacrifice of herself on his funeral pile. Although a variety of motives may co-operate, this sacrifice would scarcely have become so prevalent, luwl not tliu principle of conjugal attachment been generally strong in the nation. Polygamy does not widely prevail ; and dissolute manners, though strangely combined in many initanccs with religious observances, do not seem to be otherwise so general as in most parts of Europe. 4ia7. T.'w rfliffion of India, such as it is, reigns with unrivalled sway, and forms the basis of all tt8 laws and institutions. It is not merely the object of internal meditation or occa- sional observance, but the guide in all the actions, outward and inward, small and great, of human life. This, however, which, in an enlightened and rational sense, might be con- sidered as marking a peculiar excellence, is combined, in the vulgar at least, with habits of gross ignorance and mean superstition. Yet the Hindoo system fails not to comprise some very lotVy elemeitts ; but these, being chiefly confined to the sacred books, which are inac- cessible to the vulgar, have little influence on the general ideas of the nation. 41!2H. 2'he Uiniloo mythology is a system so vast and multifarious, that to introduce even a sketch would, within our limits, be scarcely possible. It is founded on the grand and philosophiciti idea of on immense all-pervading mind, from which the universe derived its uxistonce. To this Nature, which is called the Bramh, or Brimh, they ascribe the most ex- alted attributes of power, wisdom, and beneficence. This being, however, is not represented as the active ruler of the universe, but as fixed in sublime and perpetual repose. He did uot even, strictly speaking, create finite natures, but emitted them, as it were, out of his own substance, into which those which are most perfect will again be absorbed. Thus sprung the Hindoo triad, llrahma, Vishnu, and Siva, the supreme objects of popular worship, Brahma, though the highest in dignity, and manifesting even the qualities of the source from whi":!! he emanates, is comparatively little regarded, has no temples raised, and no national worship paid to him, Vishnu is the most active member of the triad. His nine l\ilfllled incarnations, and his tenth expected une, are prominent epochs in Hindoo my. tliology. On tliese occasions he appeared sometimes as a man, sometimes as a boar, a lion, or a tortoise, to deliver oracles, to destroy giants, and deliver the earth from the evils that op- pressed it. In two of them he appeared as Rama and as Krishna, names which have almost superscdetl his own ; and under the last appellation, by his extravagant amorous adventures, he has aflPurded ample theme to the luxuriant fancy of the Hindoo poets. As Vishnu is called tlie preserver and saviour, so Siva bears the title of the destroyer, and in that character hits a numerous class of peculiar worshippers. He is usually represented under a form calculated to inspire terror, of gigantic size, naked, riding on a bull, his eyes inflamed, and serpents hanging from his ears like jewels. Wars with the gods and exter'nination of giants fornt (he leading events of his history, which, as well us his worship, comprises some peculiarly indecent adventures and observances. 4 1 ii!). /tnmnn inferior deities, the first place is held by Indra, bearing the lofty title of » king of heaven." This high place is maintained only by perpetual contests with the Asurasand UukHiiNAS, the giants and Titans of India. He is even liable to be ejected by Bramins Hkille!• a of tlicir wisdom than the creed on which they are founded. India is covered with temples, but those recently erected display nothing of that art, or even of that magnitude, which iistorii:,h us in those of Kgypt and Greece. A temple may be built for twenty pounds ; and the laijii'stdui not cost mure than one hundred, or contain above three apartments. The rich seek to dis- tinguish themselves by planting a number together : one pious lady has covered a plain near Uiirdwan with no fewer than 108 temples. Every temple must have its image, miide of gold or silver, or, in default of these, of iron, brass, lead, or tin, sometimes even only of clay and pottery. The deity is manufactured by the workers in these metals and niaterials, and without tne display of any skill in the art of sculpture : aflcr its cunipletiun, ih« Book II. HINDOSTAN. 979 IKUIAN CAR* Brahmins, by sundry ceremonies and invocations, are supposed to infuse the spiritual cha- racter. The person who builds the temple malies a grant for the support of its servants, among whom, besides Brahmins, it is necessary, in many parts of India, that there should be a certain number of courtesans ; a truly singular instance of depravity in a people among whom female virtue is othervnse respected. The religious festivals are often prolonged for several days, with music, dancing, revelry, and various excesses which are proscribed by Hindoo manners on all other occasions. The rage for pilgrimage is universal, and is in itself, indeed, rather the most venial form of superstition, since it affords considerable op- portunities both of information and commerce. The great periodical festivals at Hurdwar and Juggernaut attract millions, but are often accompanied with considerable sacrifice of human life. The bloody scenes at Juggernaut are well known : in these the frantic victima of superstition throw themselves under the wheels of the car (Jig. 617.) in which that idol is drawn furiously along, and fondly imagine that they thus secure a happy futurity. Another mode of religious suicide is by drowning in holy waters, particularly those of the Ganges, and at the island of Sagur. Parents sacrifice their children to the Ganges, or to any power whom they wish to propitiate; ha*, this savage prac- tice was prohibited by the Marquess Wellesley, and his order has been obeyed without resistance or murmur. It is not known from what motive a race of Rajpoots, in the west, have been induced to immolate all tlieir female children. The number of these victims has been esti- mated at nearly 20,000 ; and the effects of the benevolent exertions of Colonel Walker for the suppression of this horrid practice, which were, at least in a great measure, ^^^ successful, have not been permanent. Religious feeling, k'.'^ ViSi^HIB M IS however, certainly enters into that fatal sacrifice by which the Indian widows are induced, and sometimes even com- pelled, to sacrifice themselves on the funeral pile of their husbands. This practice also was, in 1829, prohibited by a proclamation of Lord William Bentinck ; a measure applauded by all the enlightened Hindoos, though it has cicited considerable discontent among the bigoted adherents of the ancient superstition, 4131, The variotts forms of penance and self-infliction form another mode of propitiating th«. favour of the Deity, and of obtaining with the vulgar the character of sanctity. These, always more or less prevalent among superstitious nations, are carried by the Hindoos to an extent elsewhere unparalleled. The Indian Yogues, or fakers, bury themselves in the depth of woods, allow their hair and their nails to grow, and their persons to be covered with filth, till tliey almost cease to present any vestige of humanity. Others remain for years fixed in one painful position, with the arm raised above the head, till tlic limbs become slirivelled or distorted. Instances have been given of persons who buried themselves under ground, leaving only a narrow tube by which they might breathe, and by which food might be introduced. A long course of such austerities is imagined to invest them not only with the highest character of sanctity, but even with power over the invisible world ; and stories are related of mortals who have thus ejected potent deities from their place in the sky.' A more obvious advantage is derived from the admiration of the multitude, who lavish not only homage but gifks on these uncouth devotees : and, as a certain period is supposed to complete the merit of the penance, they obtain time to enjoy its fruits, and often abandon themselves to every species of licentious indulgence, . 4132. The ideas of a future state present also a strong and peculiar character under the Hindoo mythology. The human mind being considered an emanation from the Bramh, or supreme mind, they have adopted, to account for its prc-cxistence, the doctrine of the me- tempsychosis, or transmigration of souls, which is diffused over the whole East. Under this system, the souls of all animals are supposed to be those of men thus degraded, in punish. ment of their sins, but capable, after many ages, of regaining their pristine condition. In a cow, or a dog, they recognise, perhaps, a deceased friend or ancestor ; and are thus led to treat them with a tenderness characteristic of the nation. This weakness they often carry to a ridiculous height, keeping hospitals for aged and even noxious creatures. Their creeds afford also, for the reward of the good, a variety of heavens, glittering with gold and precious stones, watered by crystal streams, and affording in abundance pleasures not always of the purest nature. The places of future punishment are in like manner multiplied, and filled with various species of torture ; such as being burnt with hot irons, dragged through thorns, bitten by snakes, or thrown into vessels of liquid fire. The deeds, according to which these rewards or punishments arc awarded, compose the moral code of the Hindoo. As it includes all the elementary principles of human duty, it has, no doubt, to a great extent, a salutary influence. Too great a proportion, howuver, of the actions to which merit is 3 R r) 980 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. i'AKT III. attached, consists merely of outward idle ceremonies and absurd penances ; and, in par. ticular, tlie bestowing of gifls upon Uralimins, is a duty diligently inculcated by these reverend instructors, 4133. Religion has evidently been the main agent in causing that dhtribution into ctulet which forms the most prominent feature in Hindoo society. In all half-civilised commu- nities, aristocratic distinctions are carried to an extreme height ; but nowhere is the di J linction between man and man rendered so broad and so monstrous as by this institution In Egypt, and other ancient countries, a similar distinction appears to have existed, but was never so strong nor so permanent. A greater variety are enumerated by the Greek writers as existing in their time among the Hindoos ; but at present there appear to be only four prominent castes : the Brahmins, or priests ; Cshatryas, or military class ; the Vaisyus or merchants ; and the Sudras, or labourers. The functions and station of all these arc fixed by their birth in the most decided manner. 4134. The Brahmins hold, beyond all comparison, the first place in point of dignity, and are regarded by the other classes with profound and spontaneous veneration. Yet no esta- blished provision is made by the public for supplying them with even the means of subsistence Their ordinary dependence is upon alms ; and to this mode of support they have given such a lustre, that over all India he who receives alms is considered as ranking higher than he who bestows them. This situation, at once powerful and dependent, is not favourable to the character of the Brahmins, who arc led to employ their influence over a superstitious people entirely to tlie furtherance of their private views. The bestowal of copious gifts upon a Brahmin, and his consequent benediction, are represented as effacing every sin, and securing the most ample blessings. His curse is the forerunner of the most dreadful evils < it has even been represented as sufficient to strike its victim dead on the spot. At niarriai'es! funerals, and on other great festal occasions, the rich Hindoos strive to distinguish tliem- selves by large donations to Brahmins, of cloth, cows, rice, gold, and whatever is esteemed most valuable. Their influence is augmented by the use of mantras, or mighty words, deemed to have power even over invisible creatures, as well as by the discernment of the lucky and unlucky times and modes for doing all things. A prince or great man thus reckons it indispensable to keep near liiin some eminent Brahmins to be his guides in all the actions and emergencies of life. i\3ii. The Cshatryas, tnoiigh inrcrior to the Brahmins, rank higli in pulilic estimation. The name signilin " torn of kings,' ' and implies i. boast of their iloscent from the ancient Uajahs. In tl' ?ir iiorsoiis, tlicy are handsome, tall, and athletic ; but they arc generally destitute of princi|ile ; and many f them practise the trade of robbery on a great scale. The Vaisyas, or mercantile class, are numerous in the cities, partlcularijr of the coast, where they bear the title of Banians. Though their character is ottcn disgraced liy deceit and low cunning, some of them maintain a high character tor mercantile talent and probity, and acciimulalc immense fortunes. In the interior their situation is more equivocal ; they are found acting in various caps. cities, and many even serve as mercenaries in the Mahratta armies, or in the British service. 4136. The Sudras include the ryots, or cultivators of the ground, and alio most of those engaged in lian. dlcraft trades. Though generally ranked below the Vaisyas, they do not altogether admit their inferiority: many of them acuuire considerable wealth, and maintain a respectable place in society. There are, inoreovor, a number of small detached classes formed by the mixture of the four primary ones, and called tlieffom/i. lunker, by whom most of the handicralt trades are exercised. ♦137. A class qf outcast beings yet remains, whom Hindoo society excludes, and to whom it denies tlieniiiH common rights of humanity. These consist of those persons who, from a neglect or violation nl' any of lhit>c minute observances which are necessary to preserve caste, have been expelletl from any of the four cluicj above mentiomd. From that moment the individual is deserted by his nearest relations, is excluded from all the charities and social connections of life ; he forfeits even his property, and is commonly forced to dec into distant exile. The Pariahs in the south form a class of hereditary outcasts. It is contamin.ition loenlcr their house, or eat victuals prepared by Pariahs ; nay, some deem themselves polluted by their very touch. 4138. The Company have of late years formed a church establishment in India for the instruction of the British residents. At each of the three presidencies is a bishop, with a considerable number of chaplains ; also two cler};ymcn of the church of Scotland, nith small allowances to a few Catholic priests. The entire expense amounts to 85,000/. liisHop Heber and other members of this church have been distinguished by Iearnin<; and piety; and the apprehensions, once entertained, that the establishment would give umbrage to the natives, have proved unfounded. Numerous missionaries have also settled in the country, and made great exertions to convert the Hindoos. The Baptists have distinguished them- selves by the zeal and learning with which they have translated the sacred Scriptures into almost all the Indian languages. Their efforts have been seconded by the Church of Eng- land and the London IVIissiunary Society, a.s well as by one formed by the Scottish cliurch. These bodies not only teach, but open schools, where, along with religious triitlis, the know- ledge and sciences of Europe arc imparted. The natives have hitherto been prevented, liy the influence of the priesthood and of caste, from embracing Christianity in n.iy numl)ers; but they frequent the scliools, hold friendly intercourse with the missionarii's, and many of them, like the late llammohun Hoy, have seen the errors of their native superstitions. 4139. This strictness and uniformity of the Indian system does not wholly prevent the rise of sectarian tliitinclioiis. 'llie Vishnuvites and Sivites, without an al)n)lute separation, have each adopted a train of opposite worship and obscrviuiccs. Contrary to the toleration generally prevalent in India, tliey engage in violent quarrels, which often come to hlotrs,on the merits of their respective systems. The Vishnuvites lead a wandering, irregular life, like gipsies. The Jainii arc entire separatists. Inittead of one supreme Being, they wrJnp Book II. mortals exalted into or followers of Boi separation. Origin try, but have obtaini Asia. We shall the 4140. ThelUerati gion. To all the bt The four Vedas, the tanuously from the n required the labours They consist in a gn shipped throughout power of charms, cj dreadful evils upon various in character s origin of the gods, th Tlicy are illustrated I which, like the origin tain of Indian knowh must throw his eyes o are written. Second entirely in verse; an form a strange and he directions for puerile men; but these supeii inculcated upon mort frequently recorded. Ramayana, two great ranas ; for, though the to detail the adventur supernatural. 4141. In this enum mpital defect must be o supposed to have a fou but it is impossible, thii ing their real existenc chronicles. Every thii mctan conquerors. Tl rather puerile, delinea symmetry, describe .. clarified butter, curds, into four ages, of whi years ! 4142. Inthemathem merit. Algebra, in pa tlie nations of Europe ; analysis. Their astroi have been supposed tc to liave been calculated produced is now extinc I'lilty attain a knowledg ef divination. , 4143. In the lighter , iMce. The fables of which that species of c^ ine dramatic literatun ours; and, though deft the works of a Shakspe 'or sweetness, pathos, ai poets of India are emir compositions, however, splendid imagery, but enl and gravely extravagant branches of Indian lite tney are written is dei are at all distinguished, wholly illiterate. The Book II- HINDOSTAN. 981 mortals exalted into deities } but their habits of life are strict and austere. The Doodhists, or followers of Boodh, profess a creed somewhat similar, but with a much more entire separation. Originating in or near India, they have been almost expelled from that coun- try, but have obtained the supreme religious sway in Thibet, Tartary, and the whole east of Asia. We shall therefore have opportunities to treat of them more particularly. 4140. The literature of Hindostan rests, like its social state, almost entirely upon its reli- gion. To all the books which it owns as valuable or classical, a divine origin is ascribed. The four Vedas, the grand basis of Hindoo learning, are believed to have issued simul- lancously from the mouth of Brahma, though they are strangely enough supposed to have required the labours of Vyasa, a learned Bralimin, to bring them into a state (it for perusal. They consist in a great measure of invocations or addresses to the multifarious deities wor- sliippud throughout India, many of which, when duly repeated, are supposed to have the power of charms, calling down' good on the worshipper and his friends, and the most dreadful evils upon his enemies. They contain also precepts for the conduct of life, various in character and merit ; with a full exposition of the national creed respecting the origin of the gods, the creation of the world, a future state, and the transmigration of souls. Tlioy are illustrated by the Sastras and other most eictensive glosses and comments ; all of which, like the original, are supposed to be the result of inspiration. This primary foun- tain of Indian knowledge is carefully shut, unless to Brahmins : none of any other class must tlirow his eyes on these sacred pages, or even understand the language in which they are written. Second to them are the Puranas, which, like the Vedas, are composed almost entirely in verse ; and the ten Puranas contain nearly half a million of stanzas. They form a strange and heterogeneous medley of sound precept, useful doctrine, wild fable, and directions for puerile observances. The narrative part relates rather to the gods than to men; but these superior natures are exhibited as conforming very ill to the duties which are inculcated upon mortals ; bloody wars and licentious amours forming the exploits most frequently recorded. Below the Puranas in celebrity and sanctity are the Mahabarat and Rainayana, two great epics, or rather wild metrical romances, similar in strain to the Pu- ranas ; for, though the basis be narrative, they abound iu precept ; and though they profess to detail tlie adventures of human heroes, the actors and the events are almost wholly supernatural. 4141. In this enumeration, which includes all the serious literature of Hindostan, one capital defect must be obvious : history finds in it no place. Their wild legends are plausibly supposed to have a foundation in the story of some celebrated early kings or conquerors ; but it is impossible, through the mist of fable, even to conjecture any thing precise respect- ing their real existence. The Iliad and Odyssey are, in comparison, plain and authentic chronicles. Every thing in the shape of history that India possesses is due to her Maho- metan conquerors. The geography of the Hindoos, in like manner, is a mere poetical, or rather puerile, delineation, in which they arrange the features of the globe in fancied symmetry, describe it as containing mountains of gold, silver, and gems, seas of milk, clarified butter, curds, and spirits. Their chronology, like that of the Greeks, is divided into four ages, of which three arc fabulous ; and the first consists of nearly 2,000,000 years ! 4143. In the mathematical sciences, the Hindoos possess a considerable share of genuine merit. Algebra, in particular, had advanced farther with them than, till very lately, among the nations of Europe ; since they had made a considerable progress in the indeterminate analysis. Their astronomy has been famed, but with less reason ; for its tables, which have been supposed to indicate observations commencing at 3100 a. c, are now proved to have been calculated at a period much more recent. Even the skill by which they were produced is now extinct ; and the most learned Brahmin of the present day can with diffi- culty attain a knowledge of the period of eclipses, to be employed by him for the purposes sf divination. 4143. In the lighter and more elegant branches of literature, India displays greater excel- lence. The fables of Pilpai, interspersed with moral maxims, possess the highest merit of which that species of composition can boast, and have been translated into all languages. The dramatic literature of the nation is very extensive, being little less voluminous than ours ; and, though defective in plot, and destitute of the varied merits which characterise the works of a Shakspeare, a Racine, and a Moliere, presents many passages distinguished for sweetness, pathos, and humour. Love, too, forms a copious theme ; and the amatory poets of India are eminent, though none of them has attained the fame of Hafiz. These compositions, however, want the genuine language of passion : they are distinguished i)y splendid imagery, but empty profession ; there is something about them stately, sophisticated, and gravely extravagont. It may be observed, with regard to these and to all the other brunches of Indian literature, that their productions are ancicn: ; the language in which they ore written is dead ; and we know few Hindoo authors of the preseat day who are at all distinguished. The Brahmins, who alone ought to be learned, are now almost wholly illiterate. The only tincture of literature and thought appears to exist among some SR 4 98t DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P*KT III. of the higher inhabitants of the great cities, who have derived it chiefly from intercourse with Europeans, and particularly with the missionaries. Among th«se, Rammohuii Uuv is the most distinguished. 4144. Considering llie Hindoos as a refined and vxalthy people, it seems surprising that their architectural monuments should at present be of so humble a character. Even their temples, on which a superstitious people might have been expected to spare neither cost nor an! are immensely numerous, indeed, but both small in size and rude in structure. This ch^ racter does not apply to the ancient religious edifices. The pagoda of Tanjore, and the mighty excavations of Ellora and Elephanta, present features which may rival the most splendid of those found in other Oriental empires. Temples erected even in the small Uajpoot principalities display a beauty rivalling those of ancient Egypt and even of Greece. Colonel Tod conceives, indeed, that Hindoo art has undergone a progressive degeneracy ; and the more ancient the spt'cimens are, they are always the more valuable Since the sway of Mahometan nations was established in India, all the finest structures have been reared by them, and in their own peculiar style. The mosques and tombs con. structed by Akbar, Shah Jehan, and Aurengzebe rank with the most splendid specimens of Saracenic art. Tlie palaces are also magnificent, yet built in a light and airy style, rather resembling pavilions. They are contrived for the admission of air from every point of the compass : they have spacious halls, long galleries, projecting roofs, and terraces open to the sky, with accommodation for sleeping there when the weather permits. They enclose shaded courts, gardens full of trees, marble baths, jets d'eau, arbours ; every thing which cati pre. vent the heat from being painfully felt. The great display of wealth is in the furniture particularly in the fabrics of silk and cotton ornamented with gold, which are either spread' on the floor and seats, or hung round the walls. The throne of the Mogul was estimated at 4,000,000/. sterling, made up by diamonds and other jewels, receivnl in gifts durine a long succession of ages. Meantime, the habitations of the ordinary class are of the humblest description, rudely composed of canes and earth, and roofed with thatch. Irre. gular collections of these hovels, like clusters of villages crowded together, form the main composition of the greatest Mogul capitals, the splendour of which consists wholly in a few great streets or squares, formed by the houses of the grnndees. 4145. The vestments of the Hindoos are suited to the climate, and composed of the manufactures of the country ; they consist of long flow. ing robes of cotton, both loose and light (Jig. 618.). In some of the higher regions only, coarse woollens of home nianufacture are preferred. The clothes worn by the higher ranks do not differ much, unless in their superior fineness ; but the rank of the wearer is indicated by a pro- fusion of jewels, embroidery, and gilding, the display of which caused the Mogul court in its glory to be regarded as without a parallel in the world. The fallen princes and soubalis, who have risen upon its ruins, console them- selves by maintaining as much of this parade as their re- duced revenues will support. 4 1 40. In regard to diet, the Hindoos practise abstemiousness mure than any other nation ' and this from feelings not merely of duty, but of pride. The man who consumes, oreven tastes, animal food or spirituous liquors, is considered by all the higher castes as an impure and degraded being, who must be thrust out from among them, and doomed to mingle with the vilest of his race. Rice and water suffice for the food of the purest classes, and scarcely any who have the slightest pretension to caste will admit within their lips a morsel of beef, The scruple diminishes as we descend ; but it is only among the outca.st classes that intcm. perance is found to prevail. The Mahometans, though by no means so scrupulous, are yet temperate. Their chief luxury is fruit, the I)e8t of which, being brought from the mountainous regions round India, is seen only at the tables of tl<.e great. SrcT. VII. Local Geography. 4 1 47. In surveying that vast Jield which the local geoicrnphy of India opens, we shall reduce it into four subdivisions : the Bengal provinces, includmg the former scats uf Mogul empire ; the western provinces ; central India ; the south of India i and, lastly, the countries on the Himalayah. SiiBSKCT. I. liengal Provinces. 4148. In pursuing the local survey of Hiiulostan, it will be expedient to begin with Bengal, the most fertile province, and, since it became the seat of the power which rules over HintlosUn, the centre of political influence. The Bengal presidency, the greatest of the three into which British India is divided, comprises much more than the mere province of that name. It is a great empire, extending over all the fine regions M'atered by the Gangti WOMAN or DlfTIKLTIOIf. Book II. and the Jumna, an nares, Oude, Allah made with some co inhabitants. Witl toirns, six courts ol 4149. Bengal Pi the Ganges and Bi season, which lasts into a sea, extendir navigable, and boat above the water, being found for '. crops of rice, of wi, the other Indian pr most delicious of ( vegetables are wate boats of various for 300,000 men. Th districts to the grea 4150. Ni-arlf/ the wha ne Cianges, m enterin through which boatii i intersected by these nui Iwen brouglit under ar Calcutta is nupplicd wit the opimrtunity of prod a constant demand in tl riencwl successive alter gable for large vessels i liod; of its waters. 4151. On the Icr of Bengal, made and is very strong, t that time been perpt within a radius of tv ally very unhealthy, in a great measure i The English town, o of brick, it is elcgan called chunam, each prising much the gr cottages of mud and ture. Calcutta is, ] the rich Gangelio pi , 'n lf«7.8, the expo 1,124,770/. J sugnr.ffl'l.S ^iKKls, mfiWI. ; lac dyp !>f|s, m,mi. or thesi 317,580/. J Malabar, Cc W,:mi. Theimpdru "1 all 4,0(iil,9,W/. The •oolli-ns, n4,40()/. J copi l'i4,900/. ; ale and portc Britain, 2,0,')H,480/. ; Kr; Cnuia. 673,400/. ; Singa entered the port »« » fnere cleared out 530 nave lately Iwcn empU ihorteiiing the voyage f 111 the employ of govcr 'I Book II- HINDOSTAN. / :M8 and the Jumna, and comprising the provinces, or rather kingdoms, of Bengal, Bahar, Be- nares, Oude, Allahabad, Agra, Delhi, and Orissa. These territories, according to estimates made with some care, were supposed to contain about 220,000 square miles, and 40,000,000 Inhabitants. Within this presidency are forty inferior courts, stationed at the principal totrns, six courts of appeal, and one supreme court at Calcutta. 4149. Bengal Proper consists of a vast alluvial plain, intersected by the lower courses of the Ganges and Brahmapoutra, with their numerous branches. These, during the rainjr season, which lasts from June to September, inundate the whole country, and convert it into a sea, extending for hundreds of miles in every direction. The whole region is then navigable, and boats arc s(.<>< iling through the corn-fields, in which the ears of rice appear above the water, ""he < sists entirely of sand and clay, not a rock, or even a stone, being found for '. .ailfsu|> Ganges. Fields thus pre ..:, righted produce immense crops of rice, of wi.ivii Bengb . the chief granary. TIk ,a<-.cane also flourishes ; but the other Indian products are not so copious as in the upper provinces. The mango, that most delicious of Oriental fruits, grows here in perfection; but other fruits and culinary vegetables are watery and insipid. A great trade is carried on, up and down the Ganges, in boats of various form and dimension, the navigation of which is supposed to employ nearly SOO,000 men. The main staple of their trade is the conveyance of rice from the country districts to the great cities, and salt from the coast to the interior. 4150. Nearly the whole sea coast of Bengal coniists of the Sunderbunda, extending for alxiut 180 miles. The (ianges, in entering the sea by eight Targe mouths, divides itself intoa labyrinth of streams and creeks, through which boats make a difficult and perilous passage amid conflicting tides and eddies. The landi intersected by these numerous channels, Ijeing inundatol by the water, which is every where salt, have never been brought under any regular culture. They form a vast desert, overgrown with thick forests, whence Calcutta is supplied with wood for firing, and for the building of tioats. These extensive marshes afford alio the opi>orlunity of producing, by mere solar cvaiHiration, large quantities of excellent salt, for which there ia a ron«tant demand in the upper districts of India. The wangcs appears, in the course of ages, to have expe. riencef»M^, the molt easterly (listriit, gi|'m,"'[ licfbre anceiiiiing Into the Interior, wc mutt initt: « mw ui > nnuMnunn, hk.- iiit.ii, cnaicny uiiiric; siiuatni beyond the estuary of tliu Ilrahinanontra, and touchiuR iilnimt immiiiintelv on tho Ilirnian frontiur.' A lariil part of it consists of mountain anil woodland tracts, through which roam larKo herils of wiiu eU'|iliantt ' liut other tracts arc very well adapted for cultivation : and tlie result of enquiries made by the Maruucss VVclfculi'v gave reason for computing its inhabitants at l,2()(i,(XX). The aKririiltural population arc calleil Chooinui'l - they live, in a jicaccablc manner, uiulcr a rajah who pays a tribute tii Rovcriunent ; but the Interior is oc'rii' nicd by the Kouliies or Lunctas, wliu livi' almost the life of savages ( have their villages on the top of liiuli riillH, surprise their enemies in the night, uiassacre the males, and carry olfthe women and chiuircn as slavua! Islamabad, the capital. Is an ancient city, on a navigable river, with a tolerable harbour ; and attempts hm been made to render it tho emixirium ol IJengal } but tho UilHculty of communication with it has alwavi swured the preference to the western ports. ' i\!>3. Itfturnin^ to Caliulta, and ascemting the Huogly branch, wc come first to Serampore, a neat Ihrivluc, little town, at which Is a Danish settlement. This place is interesting as the seat of the Huptist niissioiiariii who have distinguished themselves by such learned and extensive labours in the pious tasli of translatinit thi) Scriptures into all the languagr* or India, and even of China. About twenty miles above Culculta ii of Calcutta, grndiially lost its jplendoiir, though it is still populous and considerable. -tl.Ot. About I'M miles aliove Calcutta, anil on the same branch, occurs MiMirslwilnbad, maile, in 1704 tho capital of Dengal, and still the residence of the Nabob, who, being allowed a handsome pension by the Ilr'itish government, lives in considerable state. This city, and the contiguous one of Cossimbuzar, aUo large ami liopuliHU, situated on an Island in the Oanges, form the main scat of the silk manufacture, which is nowhere else In India carried to equal perfection. The fabrics arc chiefly tafil'tos, satins, carpets and knittiil stockings. ' 41 ">fl. To the well ijf the tine up the river, arc the districts of Burdwan and Birblioom, the former of which is reckoned nearly the most fcrtife in India. Though only seventy-three miles long and forty.five liroail |t maintains a imputation of 2,llO(l,0(X) ; and the rajah, as zemindar, pays a revenue of ilMfWOI. It is entirely agricultural, and contains no town of Importance. ' 4 1 56, To the vast of this line, also between the Ganges and the Megna or Loner Brali. inapoutra, is Dacca, a very fine and interesting district. Wholly intersected by these rivers and their branches, it is liable to extensive inundations, which often alter the bounilaries of fields, and convert nuiny into jungle, while to others they connnunicate extreme fertility, Dacca is the cliief seat of the muslin manufacture, and its fabrics of tliis description are the finest and most beautiful in the whole world. Of late, however, the demand has so much diminished, that the hereditary skill by which this beautiful art is preserved is in danger of being lost. Cotton ({uilts, dimities, and clotlis are also manufactured. Dacca was the capital of Uengnl in the reign of Jehangire, and is still a very large city. It contains 150,000 inhabitants, displays no particular splendour, but is the seat of a great trade. tl.'JT. We return to the Oangcs ; and. Joining its main stream, soon discover the remains of RajamU, IK' residence of the ipubahs of Bengal under Aiirengzebc, and celebrated even In the Kast for its niaeiiiliccncr, ~" Marble halls and deserted courts mark the departed granilcuroi the p.ilace of Sultan Sliujah. A little to the north, on a river which falls into the (ianges, is MaiMa, a thriving place, wilhcmisiilcralilc manuRicturcs of silk, and of m\%cA silk and cotton. A few miKj from Manilla, along a branch of the Ganges now dried up, cxloiul for many miles the remains of Oour, which. In the thirteenth ecu. tury, the Mahometan conquerors established m a proud capitil nf India. The materials oppear to have been carried away to fomi modern cities i a great part of the present site consists of junijlf, the alMxle of tigers ; but wherever cultivation takes place, the brick. dust ill the soil indicates ancient habitation. A diligent mrih has recently discoveretl the remains of a consideruUle number uf mosques and palaces. One minaret [Jig (i20.), represented by Mr, Daniel, displays the traces of peculiar magniliccncc. 4158. Upper Bengal presents a considerably dilTerenl aspect from the lower province. The climate is cooler; uii'l wheat and barley are raised, in preference to riio. Tiie northern tracts are hilly and irregular, inhabited hv u race of short, stout, rough mountaineers, who some- times annoy the inhabitants of the plains, but who iliv pliiy an honesty and veracity very superior to that of Hindoos in- general. The Ganges, which had hitherto upread its waters so wide over the plain, is n->w confined between granite rocks, which at Sicrygolly approximate so closely, that attempts were made to defend the passage by a I'orli. fication, now abandoned to decay. On emerging from this narrow pass, we enter anotlitr district. 4Jd9. Bahar, though pioperlj linct province, is often almost identified willi Bengal, The territory is fertile and beoui .. ; not so copiously inundated, but still well watered by the Ganges and numerous tributaries, particularly the Soanc, from the Vintlhya chain, and the Gunduck from the Snowy Mountains. In preference to rice, it yields very line wheat ; but opium and saltpetre, both excellent and in large quantity, form its characteristic products. It almunds also in all the manufactures of India, though none of them attain the same unrivalled excellence as at Dacca and Moorshedabad. 41(50. The Ganges is still the line upon which the preat cities are situated. Mongliir, oapitid of a fine district of the same name, is a considerable and ancient town, commanding a peculiarly admirable view along the banks of the Ganges. It was the freijuont residence MINAHBT AT OOUR* DOOK II- HINDOSTAN. 985 o( Sultan Shujali, and Cossim Ali Klmn, who bestowed great pains in erecting a very strong fort for its defence. To this erection tlie British government have ceased to attach much iniportancc, since their dominions were extended so far to the westward as to render Monghir no longer a frontier station. Somewliat lower down is Boglipoor, a neat manufacturing town, which sometimes gives name to the district. 4liil. T/ie city nf Bahar stands at some iliBtancc from the river ; and, thougli the ancient capital, and even a royal roiilencc, has now fallen much Into decay. The chief city of the province, and one of the greatest In India, is I'litna, extending about four miles along the river. It has been supimseil to be the ancient I'alibotlira | at all cvcids. It is of considerable antiquity, and was the residence of the soubahs of Ilahar before Its govern. iiu'iit was merged into that of IlengaL There are a number of mosques and temples ; but the only part of the city which can be considered hanibomc is the suburb of llankipoor, occupic Burdwan, to be the richest and most cul- tivated district of all India, and, within a narrow compass, contains a poi)Ulation of 3,UUU,(KX). Its chief ornament, however, is the city of Benares (Jig. r>21.), which is uni- versally accounted by the Hindoos to be ancient and holy l)eyond all others. It may be sold to form the grand dc|x>sltory of the religion and learning of this vaiit country. Its sacred character, which Is sup|>osed to ensure the salvation of all who die within its precincts, cannot fall, in a nation devoted to pilgrimage, of rendering Benares a scene of extensive and crowded resort. Its own po. ■■N< -n. nulation, long supposed to exceed SOO.tKK), has been found by a late census not to be more than 200,000; but it is augmented, at solemn seasons, by pilgrims to a much greater number. Benares, in lad, prncnts a mor» lofty and imposing aspect than any other Indian city. Its houses, instead of bcin;; u mere collection of mud and straw huts, G22 ^^^u.,,.-. ... arc most of them built of brick, and some of them five or six stories high ; so that they make a very magniflccni appearance, especially from the oppo. site side of the river, i'artly, however, with a view to coolness, the streets arc very narrow, with small windows, and terraced roofs. Benares contains also temples and mosques in vast numbers ; though, as in the case of other modern tlindoo structures, not on a scale com- mensurate with the grandeur of the country and city. The greatest of them was levelled to the ground by Aureng- zebe, who in its stead erected a mosque, which now forms the principal orna. ment of Benares. Chunarghur {Jig.62'i.), near Benares, is one of the strongest of the Indian hill forts, and has been converted by the British into a great military station. It was anrleiitly a town of great importance, anil contains a niosciue, the entrance to which has been delineated by Mr. iJauiel, as one of the fliiest examples of this species of architecture (Jig. ti'.y.). 4163. The tuxl divisinn oj the province, in ascending the river, is th.it of Allahabad Proper. It is highly productive, more in wheat than in rice ; 623 t'llS^lJifc- '<"■• though traversed by the parallel ~ ■ streams of the Juniia and Ganges, it is little inundated, and the water, so essential to the growth of rice, requires to be conveyed by laborious processes over the fields. The city is extensive, but not distinguished by any peculiar magnificence or ornament. Its chief feature consists in the fortified palace (Jig. tai.l, begun by the cniiwror Akbar, on which upwai .Is of li.VKK),(X)0 ruiices arc 8up|x)8ed to have been expended. It is of surprising extent, having one side on the Jumna, anil the other near the Ganges, which rivers here unite. It was considered by the Hindoos a> impregnable; but, not being found proof against cannon, the Knglish have fortified it in the European manner, wiTRAKdi TO A iio»gi» AT cinm*«oiiiii. aiiil havc made it a grand military depot lor the upper provinces. The Hindoos regard with religious veneration all junctions of rivers, particularly ith tL SaerXst earn of the Ganges. TTiis junction therefore, of the Ganges with its greatest tributary liccomcs, without dispute, the holiSst sjwt in all Hindostan. Accordingly, it attracts hosts of pilgrim, of CllUKAHUUUR. 986 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pam III, 41fi4. ne uthi-r (IMricts uj AUahabait extend chiuHy tnuth.wvat friiin the Jumna towarili the Vlnect equal to thoae of Uolconda, are of great value. In the time of Akbir' their aimual prn>lucc was estimated nt eight lacs of rupees ; but it is now much diminished. ' 41(>,'i. The province or kingdom qf Oude extends north from Allahabad, near whose eastern frontier the nanges, as already mentioned, receives the (iogra or Sarayu, which is its greatest tributary next to the Jumna; and forms a broad and copious stream descending iVom the llim.ilayah. Its course had i.revlouijv watered the plain of Oude, a rich territory, the lower districts of which are not inferior to those of Haliar and llenares, on which they Imrder ; and the up|)er, though not equnl, by no means barren. By the treaty of 1801 a large and valuable portion was ceded to the nrltish ; the nabob retains the rest, and continues to reside in diminished splendour, at Lucknow. This city, while the nabobs of Oude were in full power, ranked wltl)the most splendid in India. Snjali ul Dowla, who had a peculiar architectural taste, embellisheil it with a number of mo«|ues and palaces, with varied orna.nents and gilded domes, which have a very brilliont eflbct The population has been reckoned at ^III,(IIK), but is probably diminished. Oude, the earlier capital, is in niinii but Fayzabad, which succeeded it as such, is still a populous city. ' 4166. Proceeding up the pnrallel streams of the Ganges and Jumna, we find the space Ifctwccn them, and for some distance westward, occupied by tlie province nf Agra. This extensive territory presents sensible indications of its approach to the great mountain territory of India. The climate, unless when hot winds blow, is cool, and even actually cold ; and the rivers, less ami)le, and confined within higher banks, administer sparingly the boon of moisture. It derives its chief lustre from containing Agra, one of the great Mogul capitals. This it owed to Akbar, who, from a village converted it into one of the greatest cities of Asia. It completely shared, however, the fall of the dynasty, and the greater part of it is now in ruins. Yet the eye may still range over a vast extent of country, covered with the remains of ancient magiiiliceiice. The houses, like those of Henares, are high, and the streets narrow. The vicinity is adorned by the palace of Akbar, and still more by the Taje Mahal (^fig. 825.), erected by Shah Jehun, in memory of his sultana; which ^^2 J is reckoned the finest tomb in ^ ' •■ the world. It is composed entirely of white marble, inlaid with precious stones, and is said to have cost 7,W,00(V. Agta, since its capture by General Lake in 1803, lias remained in the possession of the British, and is become the seat of one of their grand courts of justice and revenue. 4IW. Secunrirn and Miilira are two ancient and remarkable cities, situate.), coinposod a- tlrely of white marble. Mnttraii one of the most ancient and vnie. rate'l< part of the province nf Agra it Ikt Doah, or the country between the livers ; and it is in the immediate urcupallon of the Hritish govern. ment Within this district are the remains of Kannce, nov a poor village, situated to the rat of the Oaiiges, but who« brltk walls, extending for lix milea, attest the ancient granileiir of a capital which, eight centuries ago, ranked superior to any other in northeni Iliiidostan. A Hindoo temple, and the innuioieum of two Mahometan saints, still display m,igniUccncei aiiij UATR TO TUB TAJa MAHAf. OATS Tn MAi;W)I.EUM OF Till RMPRHOR AXHAR. curruii Mi.vAH Book II> HINDOSTAN. 9S7 a numlicr of ancient coini have been dug up on thn tpot. Furruckabad, capital of a (mall district of the lame iiimc, it a thriving coinincrolal city. ^\m. i4/[ra.uw<((i/'M< Jumna, U divided Into two |iarti by the tributary alrcam of the Chuinhul, fluwing •utward IVoin the vicinity of Oujein. The northern part Is held by a number of rajuha, whom tear or policy malntaini in a dependent alliance with Britain. They Iwlung chiefly to the warlike tribe of the Jauti, •■..._ _i ._.■ .1 .1.. I 1.. .^ .1.- I __ t_i... _. . ,., themnelvc* he cajiital of oa? who In the leventecnth century, migrated from the banks of the Lower Indus, and, availing of the distracted state of the empire, leiicd a numlicr of the strongest places in the district. Tn their most powerful chief is llhurtpore, perhaps the most formidable of all the mountain fortresses ot' India. Its liege in IHUJJ cost the British army a grenlcr loss than It had austulned In any three pitched battles j and the ruah, at the cloie of It, was able to secure very favourable terms. In IHS.'i, however, it yielded 'o the British arms. The province to the south of the Chumbul was allowed by the treaty of IH().'> to llic annexed to the territories of Hclndla. It contain; alsoa numlwr of hill forts, among vilnch is pre-eminent Uwuliur Ijlg. 671.) .J, . which, for natural strengtli, has HM^'IflA sc«rcel>, perhaps, its equal in the (!V >7;3i3L world. It consists of a table plain •'ii-»i fcii^Lsj I ' '""' *'"' » '"»"' '""Ki "'»' '"• J:-^: f'-iaitmalti. than a quarter broad; and, being surrounde, died Shah AUum, the last of that mighty dynasty who could be said to enjoy any portion of real empire. His son Akbar is still allowed by the British to bear that great name, and to receive a consideraoie proportion of the revenu.!s of the province, which enables him to live in some splendour. What remains of Delhi is still rather a handsome city ; the streets, though narrow, contain many good houses, built of brick, and partly of stone. It contains some manufactures of cotton cloth, and is the rendezvous of the caravans which maintain the communication of India with Cabul and Cashmere. The palace of Shah Jehan, with its gardens, a mile in circumference, bears still a most magnificent aspect, particularly its gateway ; but a long range of those belonging to the great chiefs and omrahs of the empire, adorned with gilded mosques, pavilions, and tombs, now present only one vast scene of ruin and desolation. 4171. Deliti contains the most splendid modern edifices K by which any part of the empire is adorned. The mosque ^'^called the Jumna Musjeed {fig. 628.), erected by a -^ . daughter of Aurengzebe, of red stone inlaid with marble, is considered decidedly the finest structure in India dedi- cated to Moslem worship. The Cuttub Miliar (Jig. 629.), JUMNA MUBJBSn, AT OSLIIl. CUTTUB UI.VAH. 'Hi'"' w -.-^- 9B8 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHY. P*»T III. roared by onu of tliu Patan emperors named AltumHli, U U43 feet HIkIii and connidcrvd by UNhoji Hvbcr thu flni-st tuwor he evcriaw. It rituis in Ave itogei, the three lowcnt ufwhicii are of flne red granite, the fourth of white marble. Tlia lummit commands n moHt vxtvn. sive prospect. 4172. In the northern part of the province of Delhi, to the cast, are the large and Indus. trioiH towns of liarcilly, Mecrut, Shalijehanpoor, and Rampoor. The two former uosscsh importance on military stations, and the barracks at Meerut are very extensive, A litrev Christian church lias recently been erected there. 4173. The noTlh-ipfilern part i« cnm|MniM of the dlnfrlct of SIrhinit, which U now chiefly iiohoikhI tir thp Soikr Thnugh travi-rat'd liy the «arreil atrriim of tliC Scri'nwattoc, It it for the mint pnrt nriii mul barron It hot l>ccn further deaulaled by tlie lioitlle o|i«rationii of the Aeliti, and hai aluo luin'red (torn the r»vain«i nf Iho Herilan and Tartar coni|uer(ir«, haviiiK liccii the reuular tracli by which they iwnelrati d iiitu llindiiitan 'Hie city of Hirhind, celebrated, under Sultan Feroie, In the fourteenth century, an a gay and flnurithlni capital. In now In a ttale of total ruin. 'I'he moat flourlthinu place in the diitrlct \t now I'atiain ; but uirri'alcr hiitnriial celebrity belnoKs tn Carnnul and I'anniput, one tiio icenc of the victory of Nadir, the other uf thai of Ahmed Shah, which broke the power of the Mahratto*. SuBSECT. 2. Wettem Provinces. 4174. As it is intended to treat separately of the territory situated along ai.il within tlje great range of the northern mountains, we shall proceed direct from Delhi to the j/rovinm on the wentern fronlier. This range by no means presents the luxuriant ond ferlilf aspect of those watered by the Ganges and its tributaries. It consists uf a vast plain of siuid, whusc uniformity is only broken in the north by the I'uiijub, or tlie region of the five rivers, which descending across it from the Ilimalayuh, enter the Indus by one united chnniiel. 4175. Lahore, the chief of the weatern provincen, Includes the greater part of Iho I'unj.ib, with a coniiilpr. able extent of niountaimiUH territory to the north. Thin last ia by nu meana unproductive! tlie lurlh watlini down by the raina beinx furinni into tcrrncit by parapet* nf alone. 'I'bua, all the kinda of ffrnin iicculiarlu the teni|ierate climatea are raiaeil in abundance, and even large fnreata of fira grow on the higher aiijivitin. The liner and more beautiful part of I.ahorc, however, in lliat situated on the rivera, where tlie |>Uiiiaitc coveretl witli the richeat tropical |irngradcd atate, and arc allowed even a acanty mcaaure of religiout toleration. The diauniiin of the .Sciki and their rude habita, are unfavourable to iiulustry and commerce, which would have required a |irotwling' hand to enable them to emerge from the etl'ecta of long civil ccniteat, nnd of the repealed uastaDe of desolating armies tVoin Heraia and Afghanistan. Aithongli, therefore, the 8vik chiefs are iKgiiinini; In sw their error, and are endcuvouring to attiird cniouragcment to trade, tli<' country hua lost much of iUincicnl fertility and beauty, and does not contain a population adequate to its extent. ♦177. Lahore, the nominal capital of this province, was one of the moat beautiful cities of Iiiilia, njun, under the early .Mogul pruiccH, it was inailc an intcrniediale rdlideiice littwcen Cabul and the iiiierlor. Akbar, Jehungirc, anil Ve^(>k^hcrc successively contriliuted tn its einbellishinent. The niauioicum k Jehangire, built »f marble and red stone, of tlie most chaste workmanship, and with flowers .iiiil on awnli in moaoic, ia oqly surpassed by the Taje Mahal at Agra ; while the .Shalimarer garden at Shah .lph.in, nilli three maiaive terraces, and 45() fountains, suggests the idea of the hanging gardens of llabylnn. All, hnxcm, went rapidly to ruin, under the multiplied desolations which l>ahore has sutt'eretl; though its tiluation, on the fertile lianks of a fine river, and on the high road from India to Persia, must always secure to it a certain degree of iMipulation and wealth. Kercntly, also, Itnnject Sing, the •upreme.Seik chief, made it his caiiiial. 4178. Tne im|x>rtancc of Lahore is in a great measure shared by Amrilsir, the holy city nf the Seil(!. mil the rendcxvoua of their furuma/n, or great national council. The c'lject of attraction here isn tankorpnd, formed by Guru Goviiul, an early chief and saint, who gave it the ncmc of the " pool of iniinurtalilv, iiid taught that those who bathed in its waters were puriticartial inundation, and the conveyance nf the nalcrmti the fields by Persian waterworks, dillUsc fertility to a cuiisiderable distance on each side ot their haiiliii. T(m Immediate vicinity, indeed, is in some places covered with mud, so soft that it cannot Lear !.>:,- inad oft horse. The chief iiriKlucts arc, wheat, tobacco, sugar, indigo, and dales. Agriculture, liii»ever,w>'.liiu essential process of irrigation, i-xhibils visible marks of decay, conseive as .Muii.'tis, BOOK II. HINDOSTAN. M9 bill not »o populoul i « grc«t |>»rl of Iti area being orctiplwl In gnnlcni. Th* hounot uro built chli-fly of un- hirni Urli^k. It U ri'inarkalilf for the miiiiufactnru of /ixviffivj, or lilkcii girilica, and of tiirl)an«. 4I»I. 7'*i' iiPi'jriTn ;«r/ '(/• iW(/W/(in, bi'twifii the Aivmliiff nml the Indiia, nmipcHct thp ill»trlct of l^la, Every thiiiR here iH'Kini to awunie nn Afghan aiiMH^t. I'hc mighty unow-niver^l nioiintain* of that rnuntr* appeal in the illKtaiice i the higher rankn of tin.- |ioo|i1u allVct the l'er»lan language anil inannerii ami the farrii-yarilK anil agricultural wonoiny ilUplay that luiierior iieatiie««, ami thoae ainioal Kuroiwan niixlctur iiunagi'mont, which characterlae the countrlea beyond the Indu*. The territory at all remote ftinn the river ii mile iHJtter than a dcaort, The chief raiaci a revenue of aiO.lKKI ru|icei. Ills armcil force cnnilutt of two rcitimcnti of musketry, and rAX»> cavalry. I^la being a iwur village, the rcildcnce of the ritlah U at liukhur, a ^oiiriihing little town near the Indui. \m. Tke populalion of the whole province of Mbdilan if properly neither Hindoo nor Afghan, It con. ii4tiufJaut«, the race whom we have noticed In the weitern |iartiiof Agra, and ofcolonlatii IVoin UeloochliUn: thitc piMipIo arc all Mahometaim. There li an iiiternilxture of llindoui, which U greater In the more eattcrly iracK, but nowhere cnm|>oae> the leading race. CaiiicU are extensively employed Uii the purpoie of travcllliia mcr the vaat bordering dcucrti. 41HI Thf lower Iniluf, after receiving by one channel the united watcri of the Ave riven of the I'un. lili, llowi for a great apaco through a region which, beyond Itt Immeiltate banka, la alinoat entirely deaert, IK character, however, changes when scparallng into two brunchea, of which the westerly la the largcat: ii riiniis a delta aimilar, though on a amnller scale, to that of Kgypt. Thia delta, with a conaldcralile extent 111 tirritnry on eacli aide, forms the kingdom of Sinile, which was highly flourishing while it wna muin*aln«l liiaiiai'iHc poaltinn uniter the away ot the Mogul. Its alluvial and Inundated territory was kept ii high cuUivation, and yielded abiiinlaiit crops of rice, augar. Indigo, and cotton. Tatta, the ancient I'af* Ta, iilualed un the eaatern branch, waa then one of the greatest of Orient I cmporla. Amid the hre' ..iig up of the eniiiire, the chiefs of a warlike and barbarous race, called T |ioreo, flrom the neighbouring ilncrts of iteloochlstaii, seized uixin the government. The king >. Cabul at one time cxactea lulimiiainn and a tribute, which, however, waa paid only scantily, when extorted by an / ighan force. This yoke is now shaken oH": and three brothers, under the title of Amecn, domineer o' e> .Sinde; but, ilMiiiicrs '0 nil arta of goo idiueiicc of this misgovernment has been, that the revenue, which amounted at one time to eighty ' .ca tt extensive in tlic world. 4184, Tnlla, fVom the ctusca now cnumerateil, lias two thirds of its area In ruins, i.,id docs not contain above IJ,l,Uli inhabitants. The streets are narrow and dirty, and the ordinary habitations, as usual In India, are only cottages of canes and mud. The old Kiib'llsh factory Is still the best house In the place. On a moun- tain, at the distance of a mile, arc an am-izing number of tombs, some of them very splendid; but the mosques and iiagodas arc in a great measure going to ruin. The dcciy of Tatta is hntteneil by the transfer, enceofthc seat of government to //jf'/)v//Mi/. This place is aituateart of Sinde situated higher up the Indus la mostly ruled by the Ameer of Khyrpoor, wliosc capital of that name ia a rude and recent town, 15 mlica from the Indus, and with l.'i,(MI() inhabitants. Buidiur, a rock alKive the river, though well fortified, according to local ideas, but having no real strength, protecu I u considerable villages. Scnwun, near the Hydraba'at transit commerce between India and Citbul, 4186. TheprovinceofAJmeer,or .■1ffimere,\s aruAe, in-'in' ■. ;ious tract, which has scarcely been subdued hy any of the conquerors of Ilindostan. It is tiie native seat of that rcmarkablu military race called Rajpooti, who present, both in figure and character, a complete contrast to the other Hind(X)s. They arc tall, vigorous, and athletic ; all their habits arc rude, and their only trade is war. Although their territory approached at several ])oints to within less than a hundred miles of the great Mogul caj^ituls of Delhi and Agra, they never ranked even as regular tributaries of that empire It was by pensions only that they were induced to join as auxiliaries in war. Ihe Kajpoot chiefs, enjoying thus a succession of hereditary power, unbroken by foreign invasion, boast of a long lino of ancestry, and are consideri.d of higher birth tl'.-tn any other Hindoo rulers. Even the Mahratta chiefs, though far superior in power, conceived it nn honour to form family alliances with them. They are by no means a degraded and eii.slaved race, like most other Hindoos; they have rakores, or nobles, of different grades, who owe to the sovereign merely fealty and military service, and are nearly as inde]iendent as the eliienains in feutlal Europe. Though turbu- lent ■•Hid violent, they are considered by Tod as imbued with sentiments of honour, fidelity, and generosity, scarcely known among the inhabitants of the plain. They tlo not hold the female sex in that degraded state too general over India. The Uajpoot ladies are well informed, and regarded with somewhat of that romantic gallantry which prevailed in Europe during the middle ages. Yet they are guilty of a dreadful enormity, that of infanticide ; many of the female children being murdered in the moment of birth ; but this is said to be prompted by a preposterous pride, on account of the difliculty of procuring marriages % 990 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. suitable to their dignity, and even by a consideration of the enormolis expense which it h supposed necessary to incur in the nuptial festival. Sucli is the extravagant display madtt on these occasions, that a year's income of the state is considered as a moderate amount The only populous and powerful tract of this province is that reaching from Agra to Guzerat, on the western bank of the Chumbul. The country here does not present tlie same flat and sandy character as elsewhere : it is traversed by the long mountain chain uf the Aravulli, on each side of which extend fine and fruitful valleys. It thus unites creat military strength with considerable fertility, 4187. Ajmeer, the capital of thl> province, iKlng near the frontier of Agra, is not held by its native chlcfi It was an occaiional residence of the Mogul emperori. For 600 ycara it has \xen a favourite reeort of Maho metan pilgrimage, a« it contains the tomb of a great saint, who is venerated even by the Hinduog Klevcii hundred attendant priests are maintained by the contributions of the pilgrims. The city has still a haiiil some palace, which was erected by the emperor Shah Jehan ; but in other respects it is poor and in decav The fort, bi|iU at the extremity of a range of hilis, is of no great strength, but within it is an ancient temiili. which Colonel Tod considers as one of the most perfect monuments of Hindoo architecture. The surround' ing country is flat and sandy. 4188. The principal Rajpoot chiefs are those of Marwar, Mewar, and Jyepore or Jyenagur, The first is the most powerful : the rajah's territories extend along the western border uf the Aravulli, passing gradually into the desert. His capital is Joudpoor. His chiefs are brave and daring, and he is considered at present one of the chief native powers of India, He may be regarded as almost independent, though owning the supremacy of Britain! Mewar is a fine and beautiful valley, extending along the eastern side of the Aravulli, Its Uana, as he is called, is accounted the most noble of all these chiefs. His power, however is inferior to that of the Marwar rajah ; and a great part of his dominions, being contiguous to Malwa, the main seat of the Mahrattas, has been exposed to dreadful devastations from them. His capital of Oodipoor, however, is of peculiar natural strength ; being enclosed, as well as several hundred surrounding villages, within an amphitheatre of hills, which can only be entered by one deep ai d dangerous defile. The palace of Oodipoor, on the borders of a beautiful lake, is peculiarly splendid ; and that of Jugmundar, on an island in another lake presents almost a magic scene. Chittore, once the capital, though now in decay, contains extraordinary monuments of ancient grandeur. The great column of victory, 122 feet high, and covered all over with exquisite sculpture, representing the principal objects of the native mythology, has been considered the most perfect specimen of Hindoo art. Jyenagur is the most westerly and the most fertile of these principalities. It is even sup|josed that, with a better goveniment than it has yet enjoyed, it might yield a revenue of 120 lacs of rupees, about I,500,0O0A sterling. The capital, of the same name, is a handsome city, considered the most regularly built of any in Hindostan. The for- tified palace of Umeer, built by one of the rajahs, is considered by Heber not inferior to Windsor. 4189. IHe prmctpalitiet now described are all arranged along the firontier of the central provincci of Malwa and Agra. As wc recede thence towards the Indus, we enter a vast and trackless desert of Earid, which gives to this part of India an aspect resembling that of Arabia and Africa. Mr. Elphinstone, in hii route firom Delhi to Cabul, h.id an opportunity of observing it The country of the Shekbawuttee, a ruJe predatory tribe, commencing 100 miles from the flrst-mcntioned capital, was interspersed with culiivainl (pots, and the eands were sprinkled with tufts of long grass, and of a green plant called phokc ; and Ihire were towns of considerable magnitude. In the next territory of liikanecr, verdure was t'uund only on detached sjOTts, like 'be African oases. The traveller, however, was always refreshed with fine water. melons, the most juicy of fruits, which grew with their roots in the sand. The last hundred miles, bclnccii Pujul and Bahawulnore, presented a total absence of water or habitation. The ground was a flat of lianl clay, which sounded under the feet like a board. Yet this most desolate portion of Ajmcor coiitaini t«o chiefs of considerable power, those of ISikaneer and of Jcsselmerc. Bikaneer is populous, and its walls and towers present the aspect of a great and magnificent city in the midst of a wilderness. The dominioni of the rajah of Jesselmere have been still less expl(>reot tribe called Jharejahs, subject to chiefs who boast of never having been conquered. Their habits arc predatory, and they take advantage of their extensive sea-eoait to carry on a system of piracy, for which considerable sco|>c is alfbrded by the commerce of Malabar. It ii r ^markablc, that the ixmulation, though purely native, were converted, without conquest or compulsion, to the .'.ahomctan religion. They practise mfanticide f • an excess beyond anyothcr tribe, the whole of the t'einile children having long been sacrificed, because lu^'iliar circumBtancci of situation and taste preclude them altogether trota the possibility of obtaining suitable marriages for their daughters. The Ilrilish government, in a late treaty by which they extended their protection to the chiefs of this district, cx.ieted a stiiiulalioii that they should discontinue this criminal system ; but Mr. Durnes suspects, from the small nuinlm of female children that make their appearance, that it is still extensively practised in the interior of nalacti and castlet. 4191 . Un reaching the south-eastern shore of the Gulf of Cutch, we find ourselves in the province of O'liuriil which is |>eculiarly distinguished for the variety both of its aspect and population. It has districts as fcrlileanJ highly cultivated, and commercial emporia as flourishing, as any in India or in the world. Yet other tracu present the same rude and arid asiiect, and are filled with the same wild and predatory races, as the ileun jirovinces adjoining. The fiulf of Canibay, by which it is deejiiy indented, affbrds very large scope both lot commerce and piracy. This situation has produced an unexampled variety of castes and races, Amon| these, a number who, under the names of Uhccis, Callies, Coolces, and Grassias, occupy the ruder IracU in the interior, desiiise all approach to civilisation, and subsist chiefly by preying on their inoic opulent neigh. bours. The uniroquentcd shores, also, of the gulfs ofC.imliay and Cutch contain the holds of many det| crate pirates. Cuzerat has receivtMl the remnants of that oppressed and injured race the Magians, iir anoicnl lire. worthipiiers of Persia, bearing still the a\<. cllation of I'arsccs They arc a iieaccablv, iiidustrioui, viU- Book II> ':Vt HINDOSTAN. 991 dlipoied people, to whoWt-tiie province Is Indebted for much of it) commercial protperity. Surat numben ftom 17,000 to 18,tl00, amoqg whom are aome of ita richest merchants. They still retain their ancient lererencc for Are, manifested bjr a peculiar reluctance to extinguish it ; and also the strange custom ot exposing their dead in handsome open tombs, to be devoured by birds of prey, with which their cemeteries are always crowded. They are divided into two classes, the mobids and behdem, clergy and laity, who are allowed only under narrow renlilu.'ions to intermarry with each other. The female sex are more on a level with the male than in other Oriental countries, and are distinguished by propriety of conduct. The religious sect callcil (he Jains are also very numerous in Guzerat. 419S. The pride qf Guzerat is in its cities, Surat, at the first arrival of Europeans, was the greatest empo- rium of India, and at present it ranks scarcely second to Calcutta. The population is usually, though per- haps with some exaggeration, rated at 600,0GU. It has suffisred by the desofation which has overtaken many of me neighbouring districts, and by the British having established the chief seat of their commerce at Bombay. It itill, nowever, carries on extensive manufactures of silks, brocades, and fine cotton stuffi ; while it exports alio the fabrics of other parts of Ouierat, and even the shawls of Cashmere, At the same time, by the Taplee, Nerbuddah, and the Ouif of Cambay, it introduces foreign commodities of every description into central and western India. It contains many nouses handsomely nuilt of stone, but intermixed with those wretched cottages of reeds and mud which form every where the habitation of the ordinary Hindoos. Surat contains many very opulent merchants, chiefly Banians and Parsees. The former carry to a great extent all the peculiarities of their religion, and manifest in a peculiar degree their tenderness for animal life, by erecting tiospitals for birds, monkeys, and other animals accounted sacred. Ahmedabad, the political capital of Guzerat, now included within the British territory, and Cambay, its port, at the head of the gulf of the tame name, are still flourishing cities, though much decayed since the time when the former was the seat of an indci>endent government It still, however, remains a gay city, and sends round the neighbouring districts a tribe of itinerant poets, minstrels, and musicians. Baroach, which, under the ancient name of Sarygaza, was the chief emporium of this coast, is described by Heber as poor and dilapidated, though situated in a delightful country, and carrying on still some trade in cotton. Baroda, now the capital of the Gwickwar, the principal native chief, is still large and flourishing. Uwaraca, an ancient and sacred city, and Puttun Sumnaut, whose temple, the richest in India, was destroyed in the eleventh century by Man. moud the Gaznevide, are now chiefly remarkable for the crowds of pilgrims which they attract. Diu, situated on an island off this coast, has lost all the importance it possessed at the time when it was conquered tiy the Portuguese. SuBSECT. 3. Central India ; with the Deccaiu 4193. On leaving Guzerat, we ascend into the high and strong centre of India, the seat of its powerful and refractory tribes, who never fully owned the supremacy of the Mogul, and maintain, even in face of the still more overwhelming power of Britain, a remnant of independence. This character applies peculiarly to the province of Malwa, or, as it has been called, Central India. It occupies that elevated takle-land over which the Nerbuddah flows during the greater part of its course, and, being placed at the base of the great southern peninsula, separates Hindostan Proper from what is called the Deccan. According to Sir Joiin Malcolm, this table-land is " in general open, and highly cultivated, varied with small conical and table-crowned hills and low ridges, watered by numerous rivers and small streams, and favoured with a rich productive soil, and a mild climate, alike conducive to the health of man and to the liberal supply of his wants and luxuries." Though con- siderably above the general level of India, it seldom attains a greater elevation than 2000 feet above the sea. The climate is mild, and the soil, though generally of little depth, is not surpassed in fertility by any part of the empire. The most striking natural feature is the chain of the Vindhya mountains, which, extending from east to west, separates what is reckoned Malwa Proper from Nemaur, or the Valley of the Nerbuddah. The declivity on the Malwa side is small, but on the other is an abrupt and considerable ascent. The Nerbuddah rises near the eastern extremity of these mountains, in the district of Gundwaiia, close to the same spot which gives rise to the Soane. Its course is almost due west, parallel to the Vindhya mountains, of which it receives all the southern waters ; and continues altogether for about 700 miles. It is not, however, navigable even for boats above 100 miles from its mouth, the upper course being completely obstructed by rocks and shallows. 4194. The hMory of Malwa has been eventful, its strong position having rendered it often the seat of powerful, and even conquering governments. The exploits of Vicra- maditya, one of its early Hindoo kings, ate much celebrated in Hindoo lore, though in a very indistinct and fabulous manner. Even after the Mahometan invasion, Malwa had Moslem rulers, among whom Mohammed Khiljee waa pre-eminent ; by him it was raised to a great height of power. As soon, however, as the Mahrattas, amid the decline of Mogul sway, began to pour in from the Deccan, rearing the standard of Hindoo independ- ence, they were received with open arms in Malwa, which had always remained strongly attached to native ideas and institutions. This province soon became the seat of the most powerful chiefs, who thence spread their conquests over Hindostan, In the course of these struggles, a complete ascendency was gained by the houses of Scindia and Holkar, the founders of which rose from the lowest stations. Setting out in the character of officers of the I'eishwa, the acknowledged head of the Mahratta government, they soon became his masters, and were only prevented from entirely crushing his power by the interference of Britain. As soon as her armies came into the field, the pride of these chiefs was humbled ; they were confined to the provinces of Malwa and Candeish, and reduced to a tributary and dependent state. In 1817, however, when the bands of robbers, organised under the name of Pindarees, placed the British government in alarm, the Mahratta states manifested * general disposition to seize the opportunity of reasserting their independence. Among the chiefs of Malwa, however, only the Holkar family openly declared tliemselves. A* a S 9S)U DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. PaeiIII. IL'H,7:lt!i In Nmiinur, \'it),m iiilKliti It wna KtipiKMiHl, linil'oM till' Mnhiiiiivtiin tiloy wcru cuinplvtcly ilufeatcd in the battle of Mehidpoor, and all their principal fortresses Irtkun, Hritain then dictated the terms of a peace, which established a subsidiary force in Malwii, iind plucod tlia capital and the heir of her house within her tutelage. Scindia on account of Nome very suspicious movements made by him, was also obliged to receive a British Xarristni within his strong fort of Asseerghur. The force of his state now consists of about ilO,(XX) foot and 10,000 horse ; while that of the Holkar family is reduced under .'iooo. 4l!n. Thf fiofiHlaliim i\f Malwa hu not been accurately uccrtaincd, unless in regard to the tvrriturit's f Hnlknr, Thiov, IncludlnB the domain of some de|)endent chicfa, were found to contain in MaUva Frowr ..... -.„. .. ,.. ^ llW.lfil. A comparison with the extent, gave ninety-eight to the square mile- wliirh «cd, ajipJy with tolerable accuracy to the whole region. A remarkably small propoition Han faith ; in some of the towns, not a twcntietli. Those in the country are cliicfl? converted lllndniM, who, as they still cling to their original rites, are not held in any esteem by the orthtxlnv Muasillliinn. The country, previous to its conquest by the Uritish, was entirely over.run by i>rnri's«ional rolilivm, Actlnii under hereditary princes. Besides the Dliecis on the Guzerat frontier, who boast of an niiclont and veiu'rnble origin, both to themselves and their calling, there is a numerous class called (irasalas eiinnlallng of small chielit, who have been driven out by more |>owcrful neighbours, but who, miiattriris riiunil tlli'in a lew followers, endeavour to maintain by plunder a portion of their former state. With them the llrtllsh misiintetl an ai'reeinent that they should reluiquish this turbulent system, on receiving a revenue or compenxntlon IVoni the lands on which they had any claim. 41!l(l. Triuti- anil t'tviy branch qf industry had sunk to a very low state, in consequence of tlic continued syslein of predatory warfare of which Malwa had been the theatre. A caravan of merchants resembled a inllltnry ex|ierent chiefs, also, arc so crossnl and iiitermixeil with each other as lo cause an exaction of hostages, tolls, and customs, almost at every step. These evils have l>een in some deein oouiiternvtnl by a reiiiark.ibly liold system of insurance, which undertakes to cover all these hardships and charges. 'Ilio Insurers maintain a large body of troops : and, by an understanding with the princes and IIkwc ennrerneil In levj^ing the duties, tney make very considerable profits. The staple article ot cxuori is opium, to the extent of li^KKI maunds, of which the price has lately been upwards of GU/. per maund - but this Is HserllHHl to camial circumstances; and the future average is not expected to exceed '2ol. Clotiis of superior quality, nriHlucetl at Chanderee and other places, have also Xxen in request all over India' and though their lldirle has Xwn interrupted by recent anarchy, it is now exjiectcd to revive. Neniaur'pro. (luces n vnluahle briortioii consists of Mahometans, who have built I'uur handionie niiMqiies, hiilarc, the cajiital of the Hiilkars, Is a moilern place, raised from a village by the Princess Alia llliye, the inont illustrious ruler of that race. As a capital, it is still not of very great magnitude. Dhar, the nneli'iit Dlinraiiiiguur, is a place sed of the valley of the Nerbuddah, has for its capital Mlicifsir, |>lcni..t opuli'iii and bcaiilllVil cities of Malwa. 'I'he conduct of this prince, at once prudent and vigorous, has rescued him and his people from all the calamities and wars which have lately desolated central India, ,inil h from an niiL'<|iial (ini. lest Willi .Sclndin, has had his luiwer and territory augmented by the friendship of Britain. He now maintain! an army of IUKMI triHips, with IKii guns, and draws a revenue of !HKI,(MXI rupees. Hal/i is the iiainc given to a wild, lillly, and wihhUhI dintrict luirdering on (iuzcrat. It is occupied by Blieels, and a number of ihIIv predatory (irlnces, who has uaeli his little capital ; but it contains no city of m.-igiiitude. Utif'iir and Kmlul iiri' ill»lrlet» of similar character, contiimcil along the frontier of Ajiiieer. This range of territory conceal) many lirautlUil valleys, and presents also numerous monuments ofanticiuity, of which tlie iimst rcmarkalilc ■re ilu' excaviilcd temples near the town of Bang, in Hath. A few remains, covered with junple and crutnlilliig to piires, alone survive of the glory of Mandoii, which, raised by MahommctI Khiljoc, iliiringthe p.Mlodofthe greatest pro»|)erity of Malwa, attainwl a i.iagnillcence never equalled by any other capital of central India. I.Ike Babylim, it seems to have been rather a fortilied district than a mere city; being thirty. seven miles In clrcnmlerencc, and enclosing ll.',ruil acres. It occupied the crest of the Viiiilhyaniounljiii!, and was enclosed on all sides liy a rugged natural ravine, which a strong interior wall rendered ainmst inar. ccssllile to Indian attack. Nothing is left of this iiolile city but a small fort, frequenteil by reliuioiismenili. cants, and some tVngments nf tcnnlis .uid imlaees, sulhcient, however, to attest its departed gr.imlcur. Ihe ancient ellv of Wi«iii, In Malwa, is distiiignishi'd liy sinne very splendid architectural remains. ■W'M Ajicr naaniiiil llic KcrliiiiliUih cnmmeiices the division of India callixl the Dttniii, a large Cipniisf of lenllory, filling all the broadest part of that triangular piniiisula which has its vertex ot ( ape Ceimriii, while Us li.iseVs formed by the Nerbuddah, and by a line continual from that river In the mimllis of llie "'Uiges This region, with the exception of the se^ucoast, from which it is separaleil by the (ili,iiil», coin. .es H lalile.land of some elevation, though Inferior to Ulalwa on one side, and to My.'iori' on llie nllicr. I«i*es , - „ . . , II thus enjoys n hapider climate, and displays inure brilliant vegetation, than can be attained wiinoulinuii. dnilon, on the level plains of the tropic. I'lie Dcciaii is watered by two rivers, swond, indeed, to thiwof lllliiluatnii Proper, but si III great and sacred streams : the Kisfna anil the (■'() laiwnj, which lintli rise iii Ihc Weslerii (Ihaills, and How across the entire brendlli of the iieninsiila. The li.rincr, bearing the name of one of the most popular lllndno deities, li.is a course of about ii,"in as the strength of that ciiiiiirc was shata, ihe Mahrn'ttns severed IVom it the priiiei|>al Dcceaiiee piuvinces, and pursued beyond those buundsriii Ito' held Vldnpoor and (loleinida as more than tributaries, "' "■ ■ rutins severed IVom it " ■•---• ■> - ' conquest and ravage Book II. 4199. Candeish.or huddah, is, perhaps, i fortress, seemingly ft perpendicular walls impregihiblc alike to the last campaign, b total rout of the Ho] than to make a deci rally, a mountainous late scenes of war am the Nerbuddah, this [ course of 500 miles, \ 4SIIII. Tiw most i»i Asseerghur. A perpe of small hills. On oi which form, iiowever supplies nor the defeii dreadfully infestiHl wi belonging; but the ni Indian proverb, " Gc hill, in the midst of a position, than to its lo approach. It stood a to art, nature has don fortification seems sci feet, eni'losiiig on the i rock, securcii by the si out of the rock, and mination of the rajah t immediately successful 'J'riinbuck, on a larger however luiinerous. I ascent is by a fligfit of the perilous steep of tio which forms the source upon Talitair, whic' 'l either by the river or strengthened by a fort chiefly by being the he^ , nd of whom fiUOO resid 4201. Directly so the large provinces power. They pres< irregular, and amon by tlie upper strean magnitude. The st culture. It suppoi'l it is c-ipablc of mail 7,000,000. These foilresses, though n never been subject, I after t!ie reduclion o Bejapoor, or, as it wi till the year Uisy, this conquest been ci ofthat cnijieror, and then became the re reignfy ; lliougli the seat of that power tt 4a». Pootiah, lliiis be fpli-'iidid. None of its i •liiciilaltiKstefiircostly i;it.Vi aid ill the great ,15 It. .Jhehxedpoiiulatini are irregularly biiilt, chic I •;■ violent tains, these s Jble representations of tl Jim. I'ooiiahisnowim » "III fort, nbout fitly mi IIP luimliial eai.ital, sine lo some degree 1)1 power j ■fi3 /'.'■''■■Vil'iffhrnid, f clort„,|„r|,,,, „,^, «• n ens im,sque,s, aii.l pa " nrty.sev..,i years, is , '? ' I " w I'resenls a dis '■h has not been estii Ii8u.,us to each other ' f"i'ury Mahomet II I, m,. I ;"'«'>■ «!'""ted on the s "le Alogul conquest, it sa s'l" lioi,iiloiis, and eontaii Book 1L HINDOSTAN. 993 4199. Candeish, or Khandeish, n long narrow province, extending along the southern banic of the Ner- Iiuddah, is, perhaps, the strongest military country in the world. Ic is entirely studded with that species of fortress, seemingly formed by nature to be absolutely impregnable. Solitary hills, composed of surrounding perpendicular walls of rock, with a plain on their summit, require only slight artificial defences to become impregnable alike to sap, artillery, and assault; and yield only to the inlluence of panic or famine. In the last campaign, before the war of sieges began, the spirit of the confederacy was entirely broken by the total rout of the llolkar forces at Mtnidporej and the dillbrcnt kiliedars or governors sought little more than to make a decent show of resistance. Though t'andeish has a surface thus divcrsiticd, it is not, gene, rally, a mountainous territory; many parts of it are capable of high cultivation, and, notwithstanding the late'sccnes of war and devastation, are rendered surprisingly productive. Uesides the bounding stream of tlie Nerbuddah, this province is traverseil by the Taptee or '1 ujitee, which, failing into the sea at Surat, alter a courie of 5(XJ miles, would atrord, in peaceable times, ample tacilitics lor commerce. 42(10. TJie most iiiiportmit among the forts of Candeis/i, and the centre of the strength of Scindia, ii Asscerghur. A perpendicular rock, ol the kind common in this part of India, rises al)ove its surrounding bed of small hills. On one side, indeed, it is almost accessible; and there it is defended by two retaining walls, which form, however, an imperfect substitute for the natural rocky barrier. In the last war, ncltncr the supplies nor the defences were found to answer expectation. The vicinity consists of wild ravine and jungle, dreadfully infesteit with tigers. Ma/ligawm is on the frontier of Aurungabad, to which some consider it as belonging; but the narrator of the late Indian campaign considers it as the key of Candeish, and reports an Indian proverb, " Get but imssession of Malligawm, and you have Candeish by the nose." It is a solitary hill, in the midst of a rich, extensive, and completely level plain j but its strength seems less due to natural position, than to its lolly walls, the succession of exterior works, and of six strong gateways, which bar the aiiiiroaeli. It stood a month's hard siege by the British in the last campaign. If Malligawm owes so much to art, nature has done all for the splendid lortre^ of Unkic Tunkie. A more complete specimen of natural fortitication seems scarcely to exist. On every side the pcri>endicular wall rises to the height of ISO to S»X) feet, eni'losing on the top a level plain of a mile in circuit 'rhc ascent is by flights of steps cut in the solid rock, secured by the strongest |>ossible gateways. It has copious magazines, granaries, armouries, all hewn out of the rock, and thus setting bombardment at defiance. It was only, therefore, through the deter- mination of the rajah to abandon a sinking c.iuse, that the attack of the British, on thcOth of April, 1K18, was iiniiiediately successful, and their flag was seen " waving on the lofty and beautiful battiiments of Unkie." 'i'rinibuck, on a larger scale, is a tremendous and wonderful hill fort, impregnable to any army or artillery, however numerous. It measures ten miles round its base, and about four round its upper surface. 'Ihe ascent is by a flight of 'JOU almost perpendicular steps ; but it is iin|iossible, without danger, to look back on the perilous steep of tiOO or TOO feet beneath, b rom the top of this hill descends, falling drop by drop, the rill which forms the source of the great Oodavery. In crossing the Tuptee, our troops almost unexpectedly came upou T'l/'U"'', whic< 'Jefends its passage, and owes its chief strength to the being surrounded on all sides either by the river or a deep ravine, noorhanpoor, formerly the capital of Candeish, is still a large city, strenBthened by a fort which, however, has never maile any formidable resistance. The city is distinguished chietly by being the head.quarters of a Mahometan sect called liohrahs, whose habits arc very commercial, aid of whom (iOOO reside in Surat. 4201. Directly south from Cundcisli, and forming the western part of the Dcccnn, stretch the large provinces o{ Auritngahad anil liejapoor, containing the original seats of Mahratta |io\ver. They present a great similarity in their general aspect ; tlic surface being rugged, irregular, and among the western Ghauts even mountainous. Tliese provinces are watered by the upper streams of the Kistna and the Godavery, not yet become rivers of the first magnitude. The soil is in some parts dry and rugged, but in many is capable of tlie liighest culture. It supports, accordingly, a population which, though not supposed equal to what it is capable of maintaining, is estimated, in Aurungabad at G,(X)0,00O, and in liejapoor at 7,000,000. These two provinces are strong in a military sense; containing many natural foilresscs, though neither so numerous nor so complete as those of Candeish. They have never been subject, for any length of time, to the general government of Hindostan. Even after tliu reduction of the native governments, Adil Sh."ih, in 1489, founded the kingdom of Bcjapoor, or, us it was called in Europe, Vizinpoor, which held high sway over the Deccan, till the year 1689, when it yielded to the arms of Aurengzebe. Scarcely, however, had lliis conquest been completed, when the Mahratta power arose, which disputed the conquests of tliat emperor, and soon drove his feeble successors from all this part of India. Pouiiah then became the residence of the Peishwo, and the chief nominal seat of Mahratta sove- reignty J tliough the success of the rebel houses of Scindia and Ilolkor transferred the real scat of that power to the more northern provinces. 4i(>2. Poonah,\\\wi bccmne metrupolitan among the Mahratta cities, is, however, by no means the most fpU'iidid. None of its sovereigns possessed that iieai'i'ful wealth which could enable them to indulge the (iiieiital taste for (ostly urehitcclurc It seems to have been originally destined rather for a camp than a city : aid in the great assemblages ol the Mahratta confederacy, nearly Sdo.IK.O have mustered in and around It. The fixed poiiiilatinii does not exceed l(l<),(Hiil. It resembles a huge village rather than a city ; the houses are irregularly biiilt, chielly of slight brick walls, by which even the palace is entirely enclosed. I'or resisting tlie violent rains, these striicmres depend chiefly on interior timber frames : they are (laintcd with innumer. able representations of the Hindoo I'anlheiui. 'I'hc markets are nlentiliilly supplied with provisions of every kiiiil I'oiiiiah is now included in the llriti-h territory, and attaelicd to the presiitency of lioniliay. Sattarali, a hill fort, al]iiut tllly miles to the seuth, after being long the state prison ol the hereditary rajahs, luramc the iioiiiiiial capital, since Hritain depo.seil the I'eisliwa, anil restoreil the ancient head of the conl'eileiaey til siinie degree ol power ; but, as this sway is limited, fsuttarali will not pvuliably rise to the rank of a great city. 4'J1).». A trri/ fl'ffhrvt di'giriuif mo/:inJici'tiri' is perceptible in the remains nftlie ancient cn'iltal of Vixiojmor. Thcliirt is, perhaps, the l.trgest in the world, being eight miles in cireuiiitereiu'e, and containing nnmerous Rarilens, niiisipies, and palaces. The great mosque of Adil Shah, which cost 'W,W)I., and oceiipieil (i'ldll men li'r thirty.seven years, is still in tolerable preservation. The Ibrt with the city, separated from it by a largo plain. Ill w presents a district covered by ruins, iiitorsper.sed with several detaeheil towns, the population of "liicli has not been estimated. Aiiningnliiid ami Doiildluhiiri to, in two great .iiicieiit cajiitals, ulnuist con. tiBUiius to each other. The latter, originallv called Deoghir, is the most aiieient j and in the fourteenth century Mahomet III. niaile extraordinary etl'orts to render it the general capital of Ilindostaii. It is very stroiiRly situated on the side of n hill, ainli being well fortilled, is eoiisiilereil a.s the key of the Deccan. Till the Miigul conquest, it ga\e name to the province, but Aurengzebe ennferred tlie Ibrnier appellation ( Aiirun- (tali.id on the neighlioiiring village of (iurka, which he soon inaile the capital ol the Deccan. Iloth cities arc still iinpiiluiis, and contain vestiges of ancient grandeur. At present, they funu part of the doniiiiions of ti.e :'. S 'J I ! I 994 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. Nixam. Ahinediiaggur, once the capital of another powerful dynaaty, and atlll a considerable citv u imu. included in the Britlnh territory. " """ 4204. Near Dowlatabad are found the wonders of Ellora, perhapa the most extensive and surprising moiui inent of ancient Hindoo architecture. Thm. ««..«;»» «p «..««»;..« i.:n n»..«..«»».i :»*.. .. J.. .? tured and ornamented temples. Mr. Enkinc; curious fuliagt , ..... _ . . ^, „ . „ ^^ colossal statues, astonish but distract the mind."" It appeared truly wondcrfUl " that such prodiiioure(ror't« of lalmur and skill should remain, from times certainly not barbarous, without a trace to tell us the hand by which they were designed, or the impulous and powerful nation by which they were completed " THp courts of Indra, of Juggernauth, of Parasu Rama, the Doomar Leyna, or nuptial palace, are the namoi given to several of these grand excavations. But the greatest acfmiration has been excited by the one calleil Kryliis, or paradise, consisting of a conical edifice separated from the rest, and hewn out of tho solid rock, lOO feetliigh, and upwards of iiOO feet in circumference, and entirely covered with mythulouinl sculptures. !. They consist of an entire hill, excavated into a range of highly sciilii! 'The numlwr and magniflcencc of the subtcrraiieons temples" i£. ikinc; " the extent and loftiness of some, the endless diversity of sculpture in others, tlie variety of foliage, of minute tracery, highly wrought pillars, rich mythological designs, sacred shrines and empire, to assume independence. Having connected himself by alliance with Britain, he was enriched with the spoils of the Mahratta empire, and Anally obtained a territory extending upwards of 400 miles in lenetli by 200 in breadth, and containing more than 8,00(),(K)0 inhal)itants. Though allowed, however, tocarvon the internal government, he is kept in a state of entire dependence as to all his foreign relations j and a sub aidiary, or, more projierly, a ruling force is constantly stationed in his capitaL So irksome, it is suspected' does the Nizim feel tliis protection, that he was strongly inclined, in the last war, to join the Mahratta con' federacy ; but, if he entertained any such intention, the rapid success of the British arms deterreii him from open hostilities. 'I'hc whole of this territory is a tableland, diversified by hills considerably less lony than those of the Western Deccan. It has many fertile spots, particularly in the small province of Nanrtere extending along the Godavery, and in the most southerly one of Beeder. It beneflts little by its cxemiition tVom foreign internal sway, being one of the most oppressed and misgoverneil districts in India, witliout wealth or population adequate to its natural resources. It has no flourishing manufactures, and the import of £uro|>ean goods is not supposed to exceed the annual value oS'BJMOl. 4'iUd Ilydrabad, capital of the province of the same name, may be considered also the present capital of the Deccan, the removal of the Nisam thither from Aurungabad having attracted to it a iwpulation of alMut 120,000. It is seven miles in circumference, surrounded by awall, not sutticiently strong, however, to convert it into a military position. Though not a fine city, Hydrabad contains some handsome mosques ; ami the Niiain maintains, on a smaller scale, a semblance of Alogul pomp. He has large magazines tilled to the ceiling with fine cloths, watches, porcelain, and other ornamental articles presented to him by Euroneai] embassies. 4207. Abotit six miles froni Hydrabad is Golcomta, formerly the capital of a kingdom which has a splendid name in Europe, from its diamond mines in the subject district in Gundwana. It is situated on a high rock so strong by nature and art that it is believed by the natives to be impregnable. No Euro|>can has ever beeil admitted. The vicinity is adorned with a number of splendid tombs, Warangol, about fifty miles fVoin Hydrabad, presents only the ruins of the ancient metropolis of 'I'elingana, when that name, now only applinl to a language, designated a large extent of eastern and central India. Xandere and Beeder, capitals of their respective provinces, are lioth fortified towns, but not of remarkable extent Of Beeder it has lK>cn remarked that in its vicinity are s|>okeii the three languages of the east, west, and south ; the Telinga, the Mahratta,' and Canara. The most northerly part of the territories of the Nizam consists of that largest part of Bcrar, of which Ellichpuur is the capital. This province is high, rude, and in general imperfectly cultivated, thougii its bullocks are reckoned the best in Hindostan. 4208. The easlent portion of Berar, with the greater part of the rugged border province of Gundvana, foniis the domain of the rajah of Nagi>oor, or of Berar, chief of what are called the Eastern Mahrattas. liagujee Bhoonslah, the founder of this dynasty, boasts a higher descent than the Peishwa, though he began hii career only as an officer under that |>ersonage. In 1803, he joined Sciiidia against Britain ; but the signal successes gained by General Wclleslcy obliged him to consent to a treaty, by which he ceded the dintrictof Cuttack in Orissa, and a i;reat part of ' crar. In 1817, the rajah, Appa Sahib, at the commencement of the campaign, lulled the British into security by lavish professions of fidelity ; but on the 27th of Noveinherihe Arabs in his service made a sudden attack on their corps stationed at Nagpoor, and it was not without great loss that they were repulsed, and obliged to quit the place. The rajah then offbred a semblance of submiMinn; but soon after seized an op|>ortunity of escaping, and joining the enemy. The issue of the campaign converted him into an exile and a ftigitive. The British placed on the throne his sun, a youth ; but arranged that all aflhirs should be carried on by a regency, the leading member of which was their own resident Xagfoor, chief among the cities of the rajah, raised from a village by Itagojeo Bhoonslah, contains about SO.IMKI inha. bilants, but is meanly built, and |)Ossesses no great strength as a fortress. The bulwark of the territory is considercHl to be Gawilghur, in Berar. This stronghold, consisting of an outer and an inner fort, is buili on a high rocky hill, and was regarded by the natives as impregnable, till 180J, when it yielded in a few day; to the army ol"^ General Wellesley. 4209. (lundwana, with a few exceptions, is (he poorest and rudest provinccof Hindostan. Itismmintainoui, ill-waleretl, covered with jungle, and thinly inhabited ; it was consetiuently almost neglected by the Mngiil potentates, and left to the Guands, its almost savage native possessors. VVIien the Mahrattas however »ta. blishcd a government at Nagjxxir, they took possession of all the parts that were at all valuable or cultivated, and the Goands were driven into the highest and most inaccessible tracts, from whence they descend only for the purposes of plunder. 4310. Orissa, to the cast of Gundwana, occupies the whole sea-coast of the Deccan, fVom the Carnatic to Bengal. The interior, traversed by a |H)rtion of the great chain of the Ghauts, is still more rugged 'han Gundwana ; it is marshy, covcreil with jungle, and Infested by a dangerous malady called the liill fever. The Oureas, a tribe of fierce and rude natives, inhabit these wild recesses, and render themselves formidable lo the Mahratt.is; but the influence of British law has converted them into peaceable subjects. The three grcjl rivers, the Mahanucldy, Ciodavery, and Kistna, discharge themselves into the sea; the first at the northern, and the two latter at the soufhern extremity of this province. 4211. The Circars, comprising that part (if Orissa which is situated between the Ghaufs and the sea, ii of 3uite a ditlercnt character from the interior regions now described : it is indeed one of the most valuable istricts in Hindostan ; equal to the Carnatic in fertility, and superior in manufacturing industry. It ii remarkable, also, as being the first territory of any considerable extent which came under the dominion of the East India Company. The French, in 175!», having been driven IVom Masulipatam, Lord Clive obtained from the Mogul the grant of the territory ; and the Nizam, though then in actual irossession, was not in a condition to dispute the transaction. The internal government has not been materially altered, the villafM being ruled according to their ancient institutions j but the (mwer of the zemindar, who, at the li'sl occupation, could assemble 4I,(XX) troops, has lieen greatly broken. Calicoes and chintzes are the ilaple manufacture, the finest of which are prwluccd on the island of Nagur, forming the delta of the (jodavert These manufactures are exiwrted to Eurojw and various parts of the East, but particularly to Perils, wliere the demand for them is most extensive. 'I'he Circars are five in number ; Guntoor, Condapilly, Ellote, Rail- miindry, and Cicacole : Masulipatam has lately been considered as forming a sixth. 4212. The imporlani trade qflhis district centres almost entirely in Masulipatam, a large sca.port, with the Book IT> HINDOSTAN. bMt harbour in the whole coast (Vom Cape Comnrin. More than half of Iti exports are to Bassora, the red chiefly to Madras, which it supiilies with a considerable ((Uantity of grain. ■ "■(;*, traversed by the I "' " " ... 9 in many part lie. Cuttack, I It the moat rem sen mileii and t ami idolatry. ! lower Mahanuddy, forms an extensive district, connecting the Circars with flourishing manufactures j and it sujjports a population of Srcuit of flftcen milea, and has already been described as the strange aiiirhorHble wene of Tiidian7anati^^^^ Bengal. It Is in many parts fertile, with some .. ^ _ _ J.dUO people. Cuttack, the capital, situated on a broad channel of'thc ~Mah'anu .^ situated about three quar- ters of a mile up the side of a mountain, from the rocks of which it is entirely exca- vated. The entry is by four rows of massive columns, forming three magnificent avenues. The interior is 220 feet long, by 150 broad, bi;t little more than 15 feet in height. The most remark* able object consists in three colossal heads, once supposed- those of the Hindoo Trinity, but now believed to be only difTerent representations of Siva. 4216. The cavtt of Kenneri, on the larger island of Salsette; and those of Carii, on the 3 S 3 RLIVHANTA. i 080 DESCRIPTIVK GEOGRAPHY. Paiit III opposite shore of the continent, present phenomena almost equally striking. The motinta' of Kenncrl, according to Mr. Forbes, iippeurs to hove had a city hewn in its rock" sides (fig. caa.), capable of tomainin?E many tliousund inhabitants. Thurc are tanks, terraces, flights of stops ; every tliimj that could conduce to their acconnnodatioi " yet the ground is now never trodden by a human footstep, except tliat of the curious traveller. There is a ciivern-tcmple, tlic interior {ffr. 6:J:i.) of which, tliough kss spacious tlian that of Eiepliunta, is loftier and adorned with more numerous ranges of columns. The cave-temple at Carli is on a still greater scale than that of Kenneri. 4217. The coast oxtmuliiiR snuth from Ilnmtavit called Cancan. It consists of n striiw of lorriinrv aliiiut forty miles in brcailth, sloping down friim the Ohnuts to i\'.- sea. 'I'liough uniforni in itsBo ncral character, it is broken into a nunilicr of liii » lia>s anil harbours, while the rising Kroninls bdi, ,,1 atJiirtl an extensive |iro.H|icct over the sea. Thcw ailiantaKcs, in a maritime ilistrict, which forms ■ BXCAVATI'^ MUl'NTAIN OF ftCNNBRr gri'at eoniinereial thorouglifare between flourisliiiiB states, caused it to be frequented al an early iicticxl by iirc..■ix™*«ilM'Ji«t^'*..■.. ... arms of the Itritish and the Mah. lattas. The territory was at fint annexiHl to that of the I'oonah Mah. rattas ; but it is now, with tlie ex" ception of a small portion, suliicrt to the Kajah of ColaiMmr, and alraoil wholly under British control. WIH. 0'ij«, at the southern ox tremity of the Concan, having Iwn captured by the I'ortuguc.ic in i.iKi became their prim-ipal sclllement' and was long the Kiiri>pcan rapilai of India Kven in its present utter decay, it retains traces of it.» carlv magnificence. The catluilra', and the convent of the Angusiines, are superior to any other sjiecinicnsoi Kuropean, and |X>rhaps of native, ar. chitecture in India. It retains an air .if gloomy monastic grandtur. A territory of forty miles in Ipiirth ""'"*""" "" ' • and twenty in breadth, is still V pendent u|ian it ; but the settlement sceins almost entirely abandonc. A striking pecuUarily, on the Malabar roast, consists in the early colonies of Christians and Jeit's, which still form a considerable jjnrt of its population. So numerous are the former, as to give Malabar, in many quarters, the appearance of a Christian country: they are com- puted, on the whole, at from 100,000 to 150,000. They derive from a somewhat doubtful tradition the title of Christians of St. Thomas ; yet fheii' origin really does not appear to be much later than the apostolic age. Their original form of worship was simple and primitive ; but the Portuguese, who, at an early period became masters of this coast, considering sucli worship as heresy, began a violent persecution, by which these poor people were at length obliged to admit intc their churches saints and images, to embrace the doctrines of purgatory and transubstantiation, and to treat the marriage of priests as unlawful. They could not, however, be induced to hear the service read in Latin ; the Portuguese were obliged to concede this point, and allow the use of the Syriac. A sort of Syro- Roman church was thus formed ; but Dr. Claudius Buchanan, on penetrating into the interior of Travancore, discovered a body of these Christians in their original simplicity. The intelligence of the people, the virtuous liberty of the female sex. uud the whole aspect of society, seemed to indicate a protestant country. They were poor, having suffered much from the Portuguese, but now enjoy almost entire toleration. 4224. The Jeu'S of Malabar, who amount to about 30,000, are divided into H'hite and Ulack; forming quite distinct classes ; the white considering the other as comparatively low and impure. They are supposed to have arrived not very long after the destruction of Jerusalem ; and in 490 obtained the gift of the city of Cranganore; but, having incurred the hostility of a neighbouring potentate, this settlement was broken up and disjiersed. The black Jews have been supposed by some to be Hindoo converts ; but Dr. Buchanan rather imagines them to be of an earlier race, who emigrated at the time of the Babylonish captivity. Both tribes have Hebrew manuscripts of the Old Testament, which appear to be preserved in a state of tolerable purity. 422). In surveying this coast in detail, vie begin with Canara, which extends along the sea about 200 miles. The northorn part is very hilly, anil priHluccs chicHy teak wood j l)iit the southern, called by the natives Tulava, is well cultivati>d, and exports large quantities of rice. The former contains about 70(iO, tlic latter about N),(KK) houses ; and we may reckon about five inhabitants to each house. Hindoos of that peculiar sect called the Jains abound in the country. There are also a considerable number of Christians ; but the sea. coast is ihiefly possessed by a class of Mahometans called Moplays, apparently emigrants IVom Arabia. Through their means, Hyder and'f ippoo were complete matters of Canara, and the latter carried nn a violent persecution against the professors of all other religions. After his fall, however, Canara, in 179U, was annexed to the Hritish dominion, and toleration was restored, 42ii6. T/ie principal city i\f Canara is Manealore, long a flourishing emporium. It suflbrcd in the war between the Mysore sovereigns and the British government. Being taken by the British in 1733, it was defenilcd with extraordinary valour against the wliole force of Tippoo. In the following year, it was surren- dered by treaty to that prince, who then dismantled the fortifications. Since coming under British dominion, Maii((al(ire lias flourished, and carries on a very great export of rice. It is s ituateil on a peninsula formed by a very teautiful arm of the sea, and on the bank ot a considerable river. The port will not admit vessels drawing more than ten feet water ; but the anchorage at tlie mouth of the river is good. Onore, Carwar, •nd Harcelorc were deprivetl, by the devastations i)f Tippoo, of the great trade they once possessed, but •re reviving under BriUsh auspices. 88 4 9tf8 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part IIF. 4'ii.'7. Proceeding soulhwanU, the next dlttrlct it that of Malabar Proper, which occuuin ulmut ShO miu of coaat, and contain! u|iwarilB of GCW.OOO inhahltanU. The mil immediately along the ihore ia nonr .nn (tundy ' but in th^* intorwkr it (iinmtsfa nf hina thn alHoa nf whlph am fnrmA!..'*"'* valleys intci|xiacd. sundy ; but in the intoriur it cnnaiita of hilli, the aidea of which are formed Into terracca, with ftrtil vallcya intci|xiacd, I'opiwr, abundantly raiaed in the hlll.foreatk of thia country, forms the staple nf a vpr> exienaive I'orcign trade. Calicut, which firat gave to De Oama an Idea of the splendour of Indiaii citiei ly nnc aiiuation. IB/A (/ Malabar Proper is the small province of Coehin, which presents the anmc general mpmI t of the coast, and particularly alwunds in teak timber, though the finest trees have now been cut ny care to renew them. The Jewish and Christian colonies are particularly numerous in this torri' was the rcsidtMice nf the Zamnrin, whose empire then extended wide along Malabar. Its iHiwcr wni materially broken by unsucceaaful contest with the Portuguese ; and, towards the cloae of the last ccnturv was finally dcntrnyed by the invasions of tlyder and iTppoo. In the struggle which terminated In tim downfall of the latter, Uritain derived some aid fVom the nctive chiefs, who In return were invested with the internal Juriadiction of the country, aubject to the payment of a regular tribute. Oetwecn iiuwen placed ill ao ilclicate a relation, dissensiuns were not long ot arising ; and conflicts ensued, which terinin ated In favour of the liritish, who assumed the uncontrolled dominion of this country, its territcirv oeing annexed to the Madras presidency. The Zamorln, like the Mogul, is now a stiiwndiary of our Indian government 42*^8. Calieut, the once proud capital of Malabar, was entirely deatroycd by Tippoo ; but, aa soon as Ilriiiih ascendency iiermitted, the inhabitants, animated by that local attachment which ia strong in India, hastcnol to return. It is now supposed to contain from ^,()00 to 3^>,^W inhabitants, and has an improving traded 'J'he most remarkable modem city, however, has been Cananore, the seat of a great feinale iiotPiuatB called the Kiby ; and, fVom its almost impregnable position, regarded as the main hold or the M'liilavs or Mahometans of Malabar. The Uiby is 8tarts by the chain of the Eastern Ghauts, running, like the Western, parallel to the coast One of these divisions is callnl the Camatic above, and the other the Carnatic betrw, the Ohauts ; but the former is better known, and will be describni, under the title of Mysore ; and the territory on the coast will be here considered as the iiroper Carnatic. It is called also the coast of Coromaiidel j and, though in its general structure similar to Malabar, prcscnii some markeoii the whole, however, instead of numberless torrents dashing down the sides of the hills, and requiring only to be confined and guided, this tract contains large arid plains, to which the industrious husbandman can with difficulty, by canals and tanks, convey the neces- sary moisture. The Ohauts, also, from their great altitude, intercept the heavy rains which the monioon brings on the western coast ; and there are only occasional showers, Irom May to June, to fertilise the ground and cool the intensity of the heat. Hence the Carnatic, in seasons of drought, is subject to severer famine) than any other part of India. Yet, though there are many barren tracts, the country, on the whole, is liighly cultivated, and very productive. 42'J3. The population of the Carnatic is estimated at 5,000,000; of which a peculiarly large pro|iortion consists of native Hindoos. The tide of Mahometan conquest did not reach it before the fourteenth cen. tury ; nor was the subjection nearly complete until the reign of Aurengzebc. A race of Mogul viceroys km then established at Arcot, who, on the fall of the empire, set up an independent power. Pressed, howc rr, by the overwhelming force of the sovereigns of Mysore, they were forced to implore Iltitish aid. Tiie Company readily interiiosed, and, after a long and desiierate struggle, subverted tlie throne of Hydcr and TipixK). The Nabob, however, then found, that he was entirely at the mercy of his defenders; and hi: attempts to extricate himself tVom this dependence nfl'orded them ground for proceeiliiig to farther cxtre. mities. On the death of the reigning Nabob in 1801, bis successor was compelled to sign a treaty by nhicli the sovereignty of all his territories wos transferred to the Company : and there waa reserved to hluiiclf only fVom two to three lacs of pagodas, and a imrtion of household lands. The country was then diviilcd Into eight districts or collectorships, administered by liritish otilcers. Arcot and its immccri«It of weakness, and erected castles, from which, like too many of the baronial chiefs in the feudal ages, they plundered and oppressed the surrounding country. (Jovernment were often obliged to purchase their orderly behaviour by giving them an independent |iower and jurisdiction. There is no class whose subjection proiid K> expensive to Britain. The Carnatic is much more of a manufacturing country than Malabar ; yet itdoa not produce those Ane fab tic, all of a coarser kind, 4234. Our detailed that of the British pt tries, ha.s not been sc finer and more convi whicii runs a strong Iwach breaks so stroi boats, the thin planks by the dexterous mam of letters and messag planks fastened toge addrcs.s, and, when sn now invested in the great, that to transfer Fort St. George, plai distance from tlie sea Fort William at Calci number of men. Th along the beach, their Witli this exception, ] in the midst of garden usually only of one stc composition of shell lii somewhat arid soil. limited scale. The m< a substantial meal, callc usually drive out; anc Town is extensive, and from a distance ; but t chants, who have splei considerable, though lei and the southern Can British tonnage to the were 1,669,130/. in mei 334,210/. treasure. Book II. HINDOSTAN. 999 not produce those flne fabric! which dUtlnguiih Bengal and the Circari. ''icce good*, blue clothi, chlntiei, He, all uf a coaner kind, are ita principal product. 4234. Our detailed $urvey of the Camatic must begin with Madras, now its capital, and that of the British possessions on the eastern coast. The choice, as in many other coun- tries, has not been so happy as that made by the French ; Pondicherry being every way a finer and more convenient station. Madras has no harbour ; but a mere road, through which runs a strong current, and whicli is often exposed to dangerous winds. On the beach breaks so strong and continual a surf, that only a peculiar species of large light boats, the thin planks of which are sewed together with the tough grass of the country, can, by the dexterous management of the natives, be rowed across it. For the conveyance, also, of letters and messages, they employ what is called a catamaran, consisting merely of two planks fastened together, with which they encounter the roughest seas with wonderful address, and, when swept off by the waves, regain it by swimming. The sums, however, now invested in the various edifices of Madras as the capital of the presidency, are so great, that to transfer the seat of government to another place would be out of the question. Fort St. George, planned by Mr. Robins, a celebrated engineer, and, placed at a small distance from the sea, is a strong and handsome fortress, not nearly on so great a scale as Fort William at Calcutta, but more advantageously situated, and defensible by a smaller number of men. The public offices and storehouses form a range of handsome buildings along the beach, their upper stories being adorned by colonnades resting on arched bases. Witli this exception, European Madras is merely an assemblage of country houses situated in the midst of gardens, and scattered over an extent of several miles. The houses consist usually only of one story, and are light and elegant, having columns covered with that fine composition of shell limestone called chunatiu The hand of art has covered with verdure a somewhat arid soil. The mode of living is nearly the same as at Calcutta, but on a more limited scale. The morning, from nine to eleven, is spent in calling and visiting ; at two, a substantial meal, called tiffin, is taken ; at five, when the air becomes more cool, the family usually drive out ; and at .seven or eight, a late dinner concludes the day. The Black Town is extensive, and its minarets and pagodas, mixed with trees and gardens, are striking from a distance ; but the interior is poor. There arc, however, some great native mer- chants, who have splendid mansions in the Oriental style. The commerce of Madras is considerable, though less than that of the other presidencies ; piece goods from the Circars and the southern Camatic forming the chief article. In 1835, there entered its port British tonnage to the amount of 1 95,000 ; foreign 39,000 ; native 74,000. The exports were 1,669,130/. in merchandise, and 286,560/. in treasure; imports, 977,190/. merchandise, 334,210/. treasure. 4a'i. In the vicinity of Madras is the district qf Chinglepitt, originally obtained as a jaghire from the Mogul, and still kept up as a distinct eullccturship. Though the soil be generally dry, it is made by industry to yield tolerable crops of rice. The town of Chiiiglcput is somewhat Inland, and not of much importance. About thirty-tive miles to the south of MiMlras is ilahabali/ioor, or the city of the Great Bali, railed also the Seven Pagodas. It consists of a range of sculptured edifices representing the exploits of Bali, Krishna, and other chiefs celebrated in the Mahabarat. It is sacred to Vishnu, a colossal image of whom is found in the principal temple. The monuments, though not on the same gigantic Fcale as in some other parts of I ndia, are said to he very beautifully executed. In the interior of the country is 'IVipatti, one of the most crowded Kencs of Hindoo pilgrimage; the ceremonies of which, however, Europeans, it is said, have never been admitted to view. 423(), Proceeding southwards, we arrive at Pondicherry, the scat ot French empire in India. This empire, founded in 1749 by M. Dupleix, presented for some time a brilliant aspect, and, seconded by native alliances, threatened to subvert the foundations of the British power in the East. Although the French were, how. ever, sltilful in their negotiations with the native imwers, their intolerant spirit led them to refuse to the people the free exercise of their religion, which must have rendered it next to impossible for them to hold any large territorial i-ossessions. In fact, towards the close of the war of H.'JB, Pondicherry fell into the hands of the ISritish ; and, though restored by subsequent treaties, never, on the renewal of war, mac" > any efl'ectual resistance. Pondicherry was raised by the French from a village to be the handsomest European city in India. It contained many fine houses in the Euro|K>an style ; and the high culture of the vici- nity, tlie numerous canals crossed by neatly constructed bridges, the roads planted with trees, and partly adorned by statues, gave to the surrounding district the appearance of a great garden. The Inhabitants have suflered much I .. • - .. , ,„ ._ . .. their affairs. I a considerable r eSteted without very great loss on the part of the British. 4237. The Hngdom of Tanjore is an important territory, consisting ' the delta of the Cavery, a large river, which, rising in the western Ghauts on the be .ts of Malabar, traverses Mysore, and falls into the sea, after a course of 400 miles. The Hindoos attach to its stream a peculiarly sacred character. At Trichinopoly, about 100 miles above the sea, it separates into two great branches, one retaining the original name, and another called Colcroon. Numerous channels derived from these convert the region into a delta, not surpassed by any part of Egypt or Bengal in culture and fertility. Art has been industriously employed to improve these natural advantages. Immense mounds have been erected, to prevent the tendency shown by the two channels at one place to reunite ; and artificial canals convey to every quarter the benefits of irrigation. The chief produce con- sists of rice, grain, cocoa nuts, and indigo, which are largely exported. The population in. troduccd by Mogul conquest has never reached Tanjore> and the only Mahometans consist of 555SSB! 1000 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. l'*»T III. a few refugees from Arabia. This country, therefore, lins retained, atmont entire, tlie .iiicinu reliffioi'i, constitution, and mannorti of Iiiilia. It h particularly distinKuiKliud l)y tin., splon. dour of its pagodas and other edifices destined to religious worship. Tanjoru wns Kovernni by Hii independent rajah until 17!)!), when the British took advantage of their ascendoiiry lo oblige him to resign the adnunistration, accepting a revenue of a luck of rupees {10,000/. ' with other allowances, somewhiit exceeding that amount. lie was also perniilted, in time oj' peace only, to keep possession of the strong fortresses by which his c.ipitid is defended, 4i2;>H, The cili/ nf Ttiiijin; may he coiisiSoMtherii Indin and the rival of lienares in learning, splenduur, and antii|iiily. Its |)ii};o(ln is grinilv celebrated, rising from tli'o ground by twelve successive stages, and considered iho finest specimen of that spcciis of structure existing in Indii (J!/?. fi34.). A c, is icleDrated in Indian history for the gallant defence made by llritish otficeri .iRainit ih,' French anil their Indian allies, which tcrininaled in a great part of the fnriner being obligcl In surrcniicr Opposite III 'i'litliinopoly is the largo island of Seriiighain, formed by the two branches of the river. It contains a pagoda pre-eminent in ni.ignitudc and sanctity, licing about four miles in circumrercnco, anil surroundetl by seven siiccnsivc iiiclosurcs. The innermost ahrlne lias never been violated by any hnsiilf power. It is visited by crowds of penitents from all parts of Hindostan, who, in return for llie iiardon of their sins, Ix'stow copious gifts ; and the Brahmins attached to the temple are thus maintaincii in a state of luxurious case. 42tn. Among lh< seapo'lt by which the commerce of the kingdom of Tanjorc Is carried on, wc may mention Negapata n, at the mouth ci< the Cavery, once the chief factory of the Hutch on this coait, ami made liy thrm a vi.-y strong and commercial place : but it has declined in boththe.se respects since it ranic under the jiower of Dritain, aixl is now chiefly uscil as a place of refri'shmciit. At the mouth of one of llic deltaic branches is Tranqucbar, which the steady and (irudent conduct of the Danish government converted from a small village to a thriving mart of trailc, now containing from 1S,U(X) to 20,(KK) souls. It is also tlic (eat of a very active fnission, to which the public i> indebted for some important memoirs relative tn India. Dcvicotta, at themnuth of the Cflleriion, is a considerable British factory, though the approach to the fort is somewhat dangerous. 4241. T/if ditiricls of Mndnrn, Dinrligiil, and Tinnevellu, added to Travancorc on the opiiosite coiul, mi. ttitute the extreme south of India. They are inferior to Tanjorc in natural fertility, and still more in cull: vation. 'fhcy arc less coploujiv watereil, and a great pnrt of their surface is covered with jiiiKle, the rude retreat of I'olygars, wliosein. cursions disturbed all the puriuiu nl peaceful industry. It i.« reviviiitr, however, under llritish protcclion. Cotton forms the staple product, particularly of Tinnevelly ; ami a considerable quantity of coawc nu. nufactures is transmitted to Mailrai. The capitals of the s.inie name m not of particular niattnituile or im. portance, and in their situation and structure strength was mainly m. died ; but since the country hai it. tained a more setllcil st.ile, llieir fortifications have I'.illcn into decay. Madura is a very ancient city, and is regarded by tlie Iliniloos as p«u. liarlv sacred It has a paimd,! «r temple much more than cnramen. (Urate to the greatness of the cily, and one of the most splendid in MWBOO Tupi.B *T MAofHi. (outhem India {fie. (Uf,.). 4242. The northern pari of the Climatic still remains to bo mentioned: it is generally inferiorlothe southern, and yields no remarkable product, either of land or manufacture Arcot, nearly in a direct line inland IVom Madras, was raiscil to high imimrtance by the Mogul government, who, attracted by its .salubrity, made it their capital, it a situated, however, ni a barren country, and surrounded by naked (jraiiile nilK Pullicate, a sea-|)ort, after enjoying for a long time high pros|>erity as the chief seat of Dutch commerce on IM Corumandcl coast, has declineil greatly since it came under the |H>wer of the British. In the mostsouthnlj quarter, Nelloor, on the navigable river Pennar, and Ongole, onc» • (trong fortress, are now chlcSy aiau. nuished by 4 conaiderable tiode in (alt. Book It. 424;i, Thehiphlal have now been surve level is about autX) sometimes in cluster maintains, renders A] Gliuuts hreuk the for Indian Ocean, at tin accordingly well fittc billed with some wliii the terrii iry with imj altentior. u the luean most iiiipurtunt ohjec procured ; but nu att grounds, raggj/, a co betel-leaf, opium, and but it is iin|)i(rv, and 4244. Mysore, at t moist furtnidablu enen the Punjab, began 1 deposing hiin. Me countries on the iVIa maintain, liyjoinin though repei-'edly df cavalry, enabled to ke administrutiou ; prote Tippoo Sulb, inheritci subjects by arbitrary c mctaiiism a people alt almost constant war v with the greatest crue unable, however, in tl brought against him. Btrijiped of half his ( involved himself in a carried by storm, and i from the ancient dyn dominions, but allowt KVi. Among the cities, bulwark of Assure, and t f-ivery, here a large and aiipcllation of Vishnu. ■ 'reiilencc of Hyder ; but ^aked rock and dirty m immense, unflni8hoil,uiis 01 the houses mean, and I'foiwrty in houses. Hav residence of which may h "'''^"''•'''"'lantocxcee 421fi ttangalore (Jig. (i; «ming chietTy in the cxpi "f doth tor internal u.5e affiirde, by the reigniiif proved inadeiiuate to reS place, though he was un a royal residence, contaii posed ofmud, displays in «ccommo,lations,Tiioircvc °«n laid out with very Hook it. ttlNDOSTAN. 1001 424.1. The high lable-lanU of Afi/nnre, rising Iwtwetn the two coafitN of soiitliorn InerHcial ornament. The Jccommodatiims, however, are in many respects iniiierfect and inconvenient. The gardens appear to have ■xen laid out with very great care. They are divided into square plots, each of which, according to the 1003 DK8CRIPTIVE OKOCJHAl'HT. l***! III. Muuulman fluhinn, hu inme plant or flower alloltcfl (n It, with whirh It li exclusively flileil 'M.a «iid Ulinciilt o|M!r w»ter theag Kirileiii j aixl Tlppoo, In (he mocliliiory for thU piiriHuc omnloV i ;urhmii..M,>ri',m.o,iryi, G^^ «» ''•*«"|"";i''Ki..ithoi«. M It were, Ihrouul, wlilil the tree. Kruw. The ,1,,^ the cypr™ even the ni,,,!,; iiiiil iM-ai'h, Imvu lieeii Ai,. njltlvafol with ,u,.,e.. lhetow„„f,w^,„„ , nine mllei from SitIiib.. iwlam, hail hecn the int of the native ilyna.iy, bj. *«" iieKle^twl »|„|,,', „ Mahometan ««vcrci|(iii. iiAMiijiiiiH. Hhiec their (lowiilali, boll) the fort ami palace havp been rebuilt, and, the r^jali having made It hU capital, a new and IncreaihiK city hai been I'nrmcd around them. 4U47. The Kkilgerriet, a mounlani range, on the louthern extremity of Mysore, romprise the mo«t elevated tract In that refiion, and even In Southern India, rliinK, at tome l>nintii, to uiiwurda of MNKI I'eet At lli^ height, the rlimnto becomet lo temiHTate, that the Nhilderriiii have lately been employed aa a Haiiatiiry utalioji for thme whoae conitltutioni have been impaired by the intenne hentu m the plaiiia Ix'low. Here the invalid enjoys cool and reitcthing hreeiet, with a rich and romantic scenery of hills, lakes, and waterfalls. I'liit |,i,,{, region is Inhabited by the Tudos, a simple and manly race of shepherds, speaking a peculiar language ajid ilmost intire strangers to the mythology and manners of the rest of India. ' SuBNECT. 5. Countries on the Uimalayah. 424R. In order to coinpletu tlic sui^ey of the continent of India, wc have still to contem- plate the Himalayah, a region but loosely appended to it, and marked liy characters essen- tially difl'erent from the rest. The luxuriant plains of that region arc girt, along their wliol« northern boundary, by this belt of mountains, the most awful and inaccessible in any part of the globe. On the other side, they sink into the lofky table-land of Thibet ; hut as they face India, and descend by successive stages to the level of Delhi and Bengal, they exhibit every variety of climate, from the snows of the Arctic circle to the burning plains of the tropic. In this descent, kingdoms lie along their sides, which, in regard both tu man and nature, present a rude and northerly aspect, rather European than Indian. 4^(9. Of their kingdom!, the most Important is Nepal ; but, for the sake of method, we shall begin with the eastern one of BoHtan, or Soutan. This territory rise* above Bengal, and Is separated by the innwy pinnaclei fVom Thiliet, the territory of the Grand Lama. Its aspect is ruggcil and lolly In an almost uneiiualled dcitrcc, often presenting scenes the most grand and awful ; hills clothed to the summit with large and lolty trees, deep and dark glens, and the tops of lofty mountains lost in the clouds. Their sides are divcrsitled by alirupt pre- cipices, deep dells, and cascades that oflen dash from an amaiing height Near its northern ftonticr toweri the sovereign |ieak of Chumularec, covered with eternal snow, and seen at a great distance fVom the plain of Bengal, though it does not apiiear very lony flroro the mountain table-land on which it rests. Ileyond Ihii point the traveller begins to descend, and soon enters Thibet On the Indian side, so steep has'becn iJie acclivity, that from Uhassa, where per|>etual winter reigns, maybe seen I'unakha, where the raya ofa vertical sun cannot be faced without danger. As the traveller ascends, vegetation continually changes its character. He is soon gratitied with the view of Euro|>ean IVuits, the i>each, the apple, the |iear, and the apricot ; nor is it long l)efure homelier plants, docks, nettles, primroses, and rosebuthea, remind him of KiiglaniL Strawlierriei, despised by the natives, s|iontaneously cover the fields. By.and.by the pine and flr, characteristic of iioilhein latitude*, supplant trees of richer foliage. At length even these disappear, and the ground slinwa only a few stunted •hrulw and scanty herbage ; but the appearance of the Thibetian peak now marks the approach lo a different region. Boutan is separated from Bengal by a tract of wilil and marshy forest, almiit twenty iiiilei in breadth. The excess of heat and moisture here produces a rank luxuriance of wood and JuhkIc, generating an atmospNore truly fatal to the human constitution. A llritiah detachment, stationtHl here in 177'^, wai almoat enti 'ely cut off; and even the natives, whom habit enables to endure the climate, arc a sickly, dimu nutlve, and stunted race. V2M, The Bouleat are an entirely difl'erent people nrom those of India, and bear all the charactcriitici ofa Mongol race. They have black hair, small eyes, a broad flat triangular face. Their weaiiona are chiefly bows and arrows, which they tip witli |ioison, and shoot with dexterity ; but though the timid Hindoo) fly tiefore them at the flrst onset, in their contests with each other they do not display any remarkalilc prowess. Their battle, oa viewed by Mqjor Turner, was carrietl on by hiding themselves oeneath buahca, thence occa. slonally starting up, maiking a hasty discharge, and repUcing tiicmselve* under covert. 'J heir industry struggles with most meritorious energy against the rugged surface on which it ha.s to operate. Almost ercry favourable spot, coated with the smallest portion of soil, is cleared and atlapted to cultivation, bylieing shelved into noriiontal beds ; not a slope or narrow slip of land remains unimproved. Many of thclnlticsl mountains liear on their summits and on their sides populous villages amidst orchards and other planlationi The most extravagant traits of ruile nature and laliorious art are every where presenteil. The irriKatiun of the fields is the object of ]ie<:uliar attention, and water is conveyed by a very simple and useful spaies of aquiiluct, coiniKwwl of the hollowt-d branches of trees Joined tog''ther. Considerable ort is often necessary in the construction of bridges over raiiid torrents and deep ravines ; timber is the usual material, but occa- sionally iron chains are employed. 'Iheir palaces and monaaterie* arc oRen handsome and spacious; bul, having no chiiniiey8,the Hrc, which is often required, must be made in the middle of the otwii room, whicli is soon envelo|>cd in smoke. They are vigorous and healthy, with exception of the prevalence of XbtgiMrt, that universal scourge of such situations. The climate imposes the nc>cesaity of a very dilll'rcnt dress from that of India, and renders general the wearing of woollen cloth and even of furs. The pcniplc have noneof the Hindoo scruples relative to animal food and spirituous liquors ; but their favourite refreihmcnt is lea, not infused, but beaten up into a mess with water, flour, salt, and butter, in a manner by no means suited to an Kuroi>ean palate. 1'hclr religion is that of Boodh, or of the Lama, and is exactly limilar to that ivhith we shall find existing on a greater scale In Thibet. 4231. Tattisudan, the residence of the Kajah of Boutan, is situated in a very fertile v.illey, or rather fllen, three miles in length, and surroniuled by flnely wooded mountains. The citadel in the centre is very ofly, the rajah residing near the top, in a palace accessible only by several loRy stairs or ladders. In Ihij palace arc accommodated 1500 gylongs, or monks of Boodh ; and In its nelghlMurliood is a larjjc manufac- tory of brass gods and religious implements. Ohiitsa, a western capital, is situated amid a range of moun- tains covered with snow. Wandlpore, capital of another province. Is reckoned a very strong iilace, and eonUini numertiui convent* of monks. Butadewar is a strong fort, commanding the pass fVnro Hindoitan Book II> IIINDOSTAN. 10l>3 Intu Moulaii. Mimrichom, i im«ll villas* on • loay hkll, la only mentioned for the beauty of Itt tltuttlon, oiiil Ihe liiiluitry dliplaycd In the cultivation of the iurrounding llchU. i'lM, From the cimtern frontier of JIuutan wi-Htward to tliu Sutli>Tops are surer than in almost any other part of the world. The woods are particularly magiiijicent, aiul flowers of every form and tint cover the flelds. No fruits, however, except thu orange and pine apple, come to perfection ; and both here and in Boutan, vegetables are scanty and defective. Above this mountain region, towers anotlicr, called Kucliar, of more awful lieight, and almost inaccessible, consisting of the loftiest and liiOal rugged steeps of the higher Ilimalayah. It contains immense rocks, broken into the most tremendous precipices, and shooting up into sharp pinnacles, which are either perpendicular, oi covered with per- |)etual snow. A little scanty herbage, and occasional cultivation, is still found in the steep and narrow glens, till the highest ridge is approached, where the whole region is subject to perpetual winter. The Kuchar is about thirty or forty miles in breadth, and communis cates only by tremendous deflles formed by mountain torrents, and overhung by immense precipices, with the table-land of Thibet on the other side of the mountains. 4'.'53. A considerable portion of mineral wealth is included in this mountain region. Copper, iron, and lead are produced in abundance, and of excellent quality. The copper, being more rare in the East than in Europe, affords a very handsome protit. Sulphur and lead are found in every part, and particularly in the Kuchar ; but the former is avoided, on account of the deleterious quality of the arsenic with which it is combined ; while the lead mines are rendered of little value by the impolitic system of rendering them a government monopoly. The quality of the iron is represented to be such, that weapons are produced from it without the necessity of forming it into steel. Rumour has assigned to Nepal metals which occupy a more brilliant place in the estimation of mankind : but the gold thence transmitted appears to come almost entirely from beyond the mountains, and the small quantity of silver ore existing in lead or galena cannot be extracted by the skill of the natives. The valley of Nepal docs not contain even a stone ; and, rather than incur the expense of trans- porting the excellent building materials found in the neighbouring mountains, the natives use bricks, for which clay of admirable quality is found in the country. 1234, The pojiidation of Nepal is singularly aggregated of various classes and descriptions of people. Placed on the brink of two great divisions of the human race, the Hindoo and the Tortar, they have received successive cc!o> .cs from both. The Newors, who form the basis of the population, arc doubtfully traced to cither class ; but Dr. Hamilton, the latest and most accurate observer, regards them as decidedly Mongol, considerably altered by Hindoo mixture. These Newars are a peaceable diligent race, on whose exertions mainly depends the prosperity of the country, though they arc liable to severe exactions from the military government established by the ruder tribes. The Brahmins, at a period prior to any known records, penetrated in great numbers into Nepal, where their superior knowledge soon enabled them to act a leading part. They have now absorbed most of the civil depart- ments of the government, and cH'ected the complete conversion of the people. In this operation, the principal difficulty consisted in persuading these hardy and hungry moun- taineers to abstain from using as food the animals with which their pastures abounded. The whole nation is still suspected of a deep hankering after the flush-pots, and every nrotcnce stijrj 1004 DESCRIPTIVE GLOGRAPHy. Pam- 111. is seized for an occasional trespass ; but, generally speaking, the exclusion of beef as an article of diet is now complete. In every other outward observance, the Nepalcse surpass the zeal of their Hindoo teachers. Colonel Kirkpatrick found almost as many temples as houses, and as many idols as inhabitants. The number of these, indued, seem much more conspicuous than their richness or ornament. The chief shrine, that of Sunibhoonah, over, looking from a height the valley of Nepal, could only be entered by a high ladder ; and when looked into, presented lathcr the aspect of a pour kitrlien than tliat of a ma<'nilici'iit temple. This shrine is dedicated to Boodh, and dependent on the rajah of Boutan, We are sorry to learn that no corresponding purity of life and conduct attends this extreme devotion of the inhabitants of Nepal. 4235. This whole territory is subject to the military gnvemmtnt of the rajahs of Gorkha originally masters only of a small territory of that name, to the east oi Nepal, amonil the heights of the Upper Himalayah. It was tenanted, however, by the Mugars ; a bold and warlike race, who were an overmatch for the industrious people of t'-e valleys, h, 1701, Pritwi Narayan, partly by marriage and partly by conquest, obtained possession of Nepal Proper. He then employed its ample resources in extending his dominion ov>.. that large territory subject to the Chaubisi, or Twenty-four Rajahs, and other surrounding dis. tricts. The career of conquest was pursued by his successors. Sikim, the most easlorly of the present Nepalese dominions, was conquered in 1 788 ; but it was "ot until the coinmciice- ment of the present century that the accession of Garhawal, in which Serinagur is situated extended the empire to its western limit beyond the Jumna. The government, however, having involved itself in war with Britain, and being ccnnpletely vanquished, has been obliged to cede these western conquests. Nepal is now bounded on the west by the Kali, leaving Kemaoon, Garhawal, and the banks of the Sutledge entirely i ider British protection. In the chief government, only some institutions remain, which temper the entire despotism of the sovereign. Much regard is paid to birth, and, on occasions of great emergency, a kind of assembly of notables is held, in which men who have neither oihcc nor connection wjtii the government are allowed to speak their sentiments with great freedom ; and, though the court is in no degree controlled by these assemblies, which are supposed by Dr. Hamilion to be employed merely as a means of allowing the discontents of the nation to evaporate, they doubtless afford an opportunity for public opinion to declare itself. The three chief ranks are the chautcrija, or counsellor; the karije, or man of business ; and the sirdar, or military com. mander. The individual appointed to any of these ranks holds it for life, and coinniuiiicatcs the title to his brothers. The cliauterija, who is nearest relation to the king, is officially prime minister, even though he should be only a minor; but, of course, the authority, in many such cases, must be merely nominal. In the classiKcation of the people, however, llic principal distinction is between those of pure and sacred Hindoo birth, and those who, under the brand of A'has, or inlidel, excite in the mind of the Nepalese the idea of every tiling that is imi)iire and base. The character of the former is supported by abstinence from aiiiinal food and strong litpiors, by strict cleanliness, and by a certain degree of refiiiemciit of man. nirs. The khas, on the contrary, are distinguished by a secret partiality to the religion of the Lama, an eager longing after beef, and generally by ruder and more uninstructeil habits, The reigning dynasty, however, though their own origin is dubious, have zealously adopteJ the Hindoo cause, and have prohibited, under the strictest penalties, all killing of cows for food ; so that the hungriest of the impure tribes dare only feast on those which have died a natural death. 4'J./H In treating the details of tliis territory, wc sliall IjOgiii with SHim, tlic most easterly ilislrict, imme. fliatrlv biirderiiig (in lloutnu. It is tlie abode of the LajKlL-is, " u set of vigorous liarbarians, about onchiV of whom have been dclndcHl by the monkish austerities and superior learning of the Lamas." Thiyire cliiefly armed witli swords and with bows, from wliieh they shoot poisoned arrows. It was witli consiilcralilt ditiieidty that they were subjected to the (iorlilia kingdom, and compelled to renounce beef, pork, 'trong li(|Uor8, and sundry similar abominations, in which Ihey delighted. Indeed, there still remains a rnrnor, lo the extreme east, which retains its inde|HMulencc and ancient customs. Two great river< traverse liiis territory, and descend into Ilengal ; the Tisfa, on the cast, supposed to come from the domain of Lassaanil to ernss'the Snowy Mountains ; and on the west the Kankayi. 4i!,)7. West frmn Sikiin, l/if Kirahis inhabit a territory iit consideralile extent, between the Kanlayi ai the great river K<|()^i. They are a warlike antl enterprising people, and in the days of their iiitlc|i('r.ilcnre could muster .in army of t made by the lliiidoos uas stre- nnoiisly employed in suppressing these prcpensities, they were never completely put d(uvn till the lite ascendency of the Ciiirkha dynasty. Still the Kiratas are iiiiderslood to leel their changed wi>rslii|i and !|'iie diet as a evere privation, and their very iii'iiie sounds impure in the ears ofagenulne lliinlcni. I'lie iiarni valleys i: .i which this territory is divided liirm a number of di.'.triets with towns of some iiiaciiitiiJo, sieIi as Vizaypur, t'hayanpur, KImtaiiy, and Dalka; but none of these plains are of great extent, iiiirarc.iii,v>' the cities of coiisiileratile maMiKtiide. ■I'J.'iH On crossing the Koosi, we (iiul, lietween two lolly ridges, /Ac 1'itlliy nj Kfpal Pmiirr, llic liiiC'LinJ m(i>t fertile, t'ashmere excepted, of any which the mountain world of India contains, 'the prinn|Mha:lt! is about twenty. two miles friim e.'ist to west, and twenty from iinrtli to Konth. Its aspect is dcliijliniil, l«n? every where linely wiiiHled, well cultivatid, and surrounded by a varied amphitheatre of bills alinK'nImli tower lolly peaks of eterniu siuiw. The entirely alluvial character of it^ soil strongly indirati.^lti til"'^ once a lake, the limits (if which in.iy ahiiost be traced, and which is even mentioiuHl in the early trailitiniiiof the nation. 'I'he multitude of siicains, however, by which it must have lieeii fed, now unite in tLiI "I He Gandaki, which forces u uassage through the hilla into the Tarryaui, and ultimately readies tlie Uai>;» Book II. HINDOSTAN. 1005 The inhabitants nf the valley are ehiefly the Newan, already deM:ril)ed, and the Parbatiyat or mountaineera few of whom can be induced to take up their abode in the cities. The chief of these arc Kathmandu or Cat.' mandoo, the present capital, Zalita Patan, and Bhattjang. The number of houses has been stated at 18 000 in the first, 24,0(10 in the second, and 12,0(K) in the third j but Dr. Hamilton does not conceive that the whole number of people can excceil these numbers, unless it be to a small extent in Kathmandu. These towns are neatly built with brick, and the palaces, thoutjl) posscssinj; no high architectural character, are yet more ipnoious than could be expected ft-om the narrow territories oC the princes by whom they were erected. Colonel Kirkpatrick, on conjectural data, in which Dr. Hamilton seems to acquiesce, estimates the entire pouulatiou of the valley at about 500,000. ' distipguishcti pa containing among their number the original seat of the Gorkhali dynasty, who now hold undisputed ci:M>ire over all these mountains. Gorkha is a valley much inferior in extent to Nepal, but with a warmer climate, and a soil of considerable fertility. The cultivators consists of Brahmins, but the fiphting race arc the Magars. Pritwi Narayan introclled or converted. In con. seiiuciiceof the last war, it is now sm n /,■ 1 1 miin. Almora, the capital, is a town of 1000 houses, irre. g ilarly scattered over the top of a high ridge of mountains, and curries on a considerable trade. 4263. To tliL> west of Kemaoon is tlie territory now called Garhawal, but mucli better known under that of Serinagur. It is in an especial sense the holy land of the Himalayah, containing the source of the Ganges, and five prayagas, or junctions of its tributary streams. Tlicnce it derives sufficient claims, according to Indian ideas, to be considered as a place of the loftiest sanctity. Indeed, the awful scene wiiich it every where prosents, of rugged iOcki, deep glens, and mountain rising over mountain, could not fail to excite the deepest imotions in the pilgrims by whom it was vi.sited. Serinagur presents none of those deep and fertile valleys which enable the countries to the east to support a large population. The places capable of culture consist almost solely of small ridges, or table-lands, at the top of the niouiituins. The roads are often cut along the sides of high perpendicular rocks, and tlic torrents are passed by bridges of rope stretched ac.oss. On the largest of these table- lands, about a mile and a half square, Serinagur is built, from the mere impossibility, it would sfcin, of finding another spot which would aflbrd suflicient space. Various vicissi- tudes, however, and particularly the invasion of the Gorkhalis, and the system of misrule wliidi thoy established, entirely deprived Serinagur of the slender measure of prosperity which it ever enjoyed, and it is now a scene of extreme poverty. It is still, however, a coti- sideralile thoroughfare for those devoted pilgrims who, after frequenting the fair of Ilurd- war, venture to visit the thrice-sacred spot where the infant Ganges descends from the snowy steeps of Himalayah. The journey is attended with great difficulty and peril, and a consideralile number perish on the road. The first town above Serinagur is Josimath, the winter residence of the high-priest of the Ganges, which contains numerous temples. It lies on the Ahicananda, one of the two branchi-s which concur to form the Ganges. On tracinir it upwards, is found Munah, a village containing 1 1,000 or l.'>,000 inhabitants; the I'liii'f prai'ticalile entrance into which is across the mountain passes by this iilaec. On the "[ilioslte side of the river is Bhadrinath, the seat of that famed sanctuary which is frequented liy crowds of Hindoo pilgrims. It is built in the form of a cone, roofed with copper, and having a spire surmounted with a golden ball at the top. Only an imperfect view is allowed «t the inner sanctuary, in which is seated the image of Bhadrinath, a figure of black stone, nhoiit tlir'.'e feet high, covered with a rich drapery of gold and silver brocade. A silver Kulver is handed round to receive the oflerings, which are expected to be liberal. There are also several cold and hot springs, each of which has a sanctifying virtue, to be purchased by the penitent with a portion of his earthly goods. Such transactions would nnder these shrines very rich, were it not that the chiefs, in their extreme need, have often eyed them as a source of pecuniary relief; and though the sanctity of the place may prevent tlieiu from lOOfl DESCKIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paht III. abitoUitu plundor, yvt, by borrowing or exchange, of which they can dictate the terms, they have (liNitipatcd a large portion of theoe holy treasures. 4S()4. Al)()ut thirty miles west from Bhadrinath is Gangoutri, a village near the head of the Ulingirati, considered the main and proper bead of the Ganges. A few miles above it is seen flowing with a moderate current, fifteen or twenty yards broad, and about waist deep, Iligller up, it flows beneath beds of snow, so deep that even its sound is not heard. At length Is |Hirccived a wall of rock, from an angle of which, called by the Hindoos the Cow's Mouth, on account of its rude resemblance to that orifice, issues the Ganges. " Notliine " according to Mr. Frascr, *' can surpass the grandeur of the scene which is here presented. The bare and peaked clifls shoot to the skies ; tlieir nuns lie in wild chaotic masses at their fuvt, nnd scanUvr wood imperfectly relieves their nakedness ; even the dark pine more rarely roots itself in the deep chasms which time has worn. Thus, on all sides is the prospect closi'd, except in front to tlie eastward, where, from a mass of bare spires, four huge, loAv snowy peaks arise : these are the peaks of Roodroo Himalayah. There could be no liner Hnishing, no grander close, to such a scene." 4'.'(k'>. At a small dislance, and from the same stupendous ridge which contains the source of the greatest river of India, is found that of its main tributary, the Jumna. The glen, near Dunderpouch, through which its infant course passes, is described to be rugged and glocmy l)eyond description. " It looks like the ruins of nature, and appears," as it is said to be, " impracticable and impenetrable. Little is to be seen, except dark rock ; wood only fringes the lower parts and the water's edge ; perhaps, the spots and streaks of snow contrnsting with the general blackness of the scene, heighten the appearance of desolation. No living thing is seen ; no motion but that of the waters; no sound but tlieir roar." •l'J(iO'. The territory of Sirmore, and that of the Twelve Lordships, extending along the Sut- ledge, subject to a number of independent rajahs till over-run by the Gcrkhas, have novi been restored to those chiefs, under the protection of Britain. The valley of the Sutledge presents little cultivation : the mountains are brown, barren, steep, and rocky ; the bed of the river narrow and arid. In the territory of Joobul, however, the mountains are covered with the most magnificent forests ; pines, hollies, oaks, sycamore, and ytw, of the most viiricd forms, and otten of gigantic size. The cultivation is very great, and the perpendicular sides of the mountains have been most laboriously fitted for it ; so that districts naturally bariX'U are even enabled to export grain. The inhabitants appeared to Mr. Frascr every nay tuperior in external accommodation to the Scotch highlanders ; but their character was by no nuMUiH regarded in so favourable a light, combining the rude habits and violent feuds of a barbarous race with the cringing and abject spirit of an Asiatic despotism. West from the Sutli'dgv, the territory along the head of the Punjab is occupied by a number of independent rtyali^ engaged in frequent hostilities with each other. Among the principal arc Bischur, Sirmore, .loobul, Kahlare, Hindoor. These territories occupy the deep mountain valleys of the Sutledge, overhung by brown heathy steeps, of the Tonse, and of the Pahur, wliich flows through u more smiling valley. The capitals are small towns, built often in stages on the sleep sides of rocky mountains. Such is the situation of Ramporc, capital of iiischur, on a high bunk above the Sutledge. NiUm, the capital of Sirmore, occupies so rugged a steep, that its streets consist of steps cut in the rock. Notwithstanding the barrenness of the surrounding roiuitry, the commerce with Thibet and Tartary enables these mountain capitals to attain some little wealth and importance. 4'J(>7. AJtcr ncaliiiK the mighty boundary wall of western India, the traveller looks down on its northern side into Cashmere, an extended valley, which nature has lavishly adorned witli nil the attributes of a terrestrial paradise. It is enclosed on every side within tremendous steeps, which separate it, to the north from Thibet, and to the west from Cabul and Can- daliur. Numberless rivulets, descending from these heights, dilFuse on all sides verdure and fertility, and render the whole country, as it were, an evergreen garden. Rice, whe.ii, barley ; thu grain and the fruits both of the tropical and temperate climates, are produced in e<|iiul abundance and perfection. The plane tree nowhere spreads such » pomp of foliage. Hut the peculiar boast of Cashmere is its rose, a favourite theme of Eastern pottrv, wliotto tints and perfume are said to be alike unrivalled. Thu numerous streams unite in thu Jelum, which, after forming several small lakes, rolls westward, forces the inounlain barrier, nnd finally joins the Chunab. ♦tliH, 7T»c Cnihmeriant arc a Hindoo race, differing in icvcral rcipccts ttom tho«c by whom tlioy arc iur- rnuiiilnl. 'I'liey arc active, Indimtrioui, and, at tlie >ainc lime, witty and ingenious, with a t.i«tc for poctr; and the hcIimu'm. On tlie other hand, they arc represented as volatile, treacherous, extrava(!:uilly aildidclio iilMiiire, ra|uclou> in acquiring money, lavish ':n 8|ieiiding it. The beauty of the females is niiiili rainnl in Ihii l-:«ati>rn world, and KiMiiinglv not without reason, though greatly enhanced by coiilr.ist with the im rinnpli'Xiiini of tinlin, did the dvl'orinrd visages of the Tartar races. A aadtrcversc hat lielullrii their rouiiirr, since the time when It was the fuvonrile residence of the Miigul, who, viewing it as the parailise of the Indlw, icpalred thither whenever he wisheil an interval of recreation, and liestoweil his cares ami wealtli i» l«vl«hly adcirmng it. On the fall of that [xiwer, Cnshmcre was sulxlued hy the Afghans, tiut ntlcr Hit iW™ ussnl under the imwer of Kungeet Sing, whose office ' ■...■ — . ind greatly reduced its former pros|)crity. The revenue is by Uuinn at .ItKVlOO/. « but it is said to have been of late impossible to realise neatly that amuuiit. of their miuiaicliy has luissed under thcimwer of Kungeet Sing, whose officers arc said to have crueirj' tyriii, nlswl over It, and greatly reduced its fiirmer prosiwrity. The revenue isslateil liy Mourcmrt atW,UlW., Book II. HINDOSTAN. 1007 mo. The Cathmeriata arc a mannfacluring nation. They work skilfully in wood, make the best paper m the East, and excel in cutlery and lackered ware. But the grand branch of industry consists in their shawls, from the wool of the goat of fhibct, which arc in general request all over the world. Moorcroft reckons the produce at 300,000/,, but both this and the demand arc said to have been of late considerably diminished. This work seems to be conducted upon a more extended scale than is usual in India, one merchant often employing a great number of looms. Three men work at each loom ; and a year is sometimes spent in maKing a single shawl. In the best and most elaborate kinds, it is considered cnoufh if 'hey ex-icute an inch and a iialf in the day. Of course, ine ordinary shawls are made with much greater cxp>iilitiui. The demand hat so much diminished, that a large stock is said to have accumulated, 4270. The city of Cashmere, called anciently Scrinagur, is the largest in the Afghan dominions, containing from 150,000 to 200,000 people. It extends three miles along the banics of tlie Jeluni, in a situation, the beauty of whicli has been widely celebrated, parti- cularly its lake, studded with numberless islands, green with gardens and grovis, and having its banics environed with villas and ornamented grounds. 4i271. Cevlon, an extensive, somewhat wild, but beautiful island, forms a close appendage to India, lying to the cast of its southern extremity, whence it is separated by the Straits of Manaar. It is nearly 300 miles in length, and 160 in its greatest breadth. The territory, along the western coast, is occupied by a somewhat extensive plain ; beyond which, ranges, first uf hills, and then of mountains, rise successively behind each other, and with their rugged surface cover a great extent of the island. They do not, however, rise to any verv lofty height ; since Adam's Peak (the most elevated) is only 6152 feet above tlie sea. These steeps arc generally covered with extensive forests and dense underwood, whicii give to a great part of the island the character of jungle. 4272. The history of Ceylon is scarcely at all known previous to the arrival of the Por- tuguese in 1505, at which time they found the native sovereign defending himself with difficulty against the attack of the Arabs. They at first merely exacted a tribute, but soon engaged in a series of warfare, which ended in driving the natives from Colombo and most of the other stations on the coast, and obliging them to take refuge in the interior. They settled in considerable numbers ; and a pretty large body of their posterity, mingled with the natives, still survive. Ceylon, however, shared the lot of their other Indian possessions ; and, in the course of the seventeenth century, after a series of bloody struggles, was wrested from them by the Dutch, It remained in their possession, with the exception of a short occupation of Trincomnlee by the British in 178?, till 1796, when an English expe- dition entirely subdued it ; and by the peace of Amiens it was finally ceded to that power. Ill 18 15 the Uritish beat the king of Candy, occupie;Uive culture, is not raised in sufficient quantity for the support of the inhabitant;. Tie most peculiar product is cinnamon, one of the most delicate of spices, and for wl;ich there exists an extensive demand in Europe. It is a species of laurel, from four to *e'i leet high, with numerous branches, and with a light porous wood. It grows spontiiirn-.yly over a great pcU '. <>f the island ; but that reared in gardens in the vicinity of Colombo is considered the best. The bark, which is the valuable part, is taken olf when the plant is three years old, and requires no prepar- Miun except being spread out to dry. The cocoa nut tree is also in great abundance ; and its fruit, as well as coir, a species of rope manufactured from its husk, arc staple exports. A great quantity of arrack is distilled from its juice. Animals, chiefly wild, are abundant; but tlie only valuable one is the elephant, which, in Ceylon, is considered of better quality than ill any other country in the world : it is not, indeed, so tall as on the Continent, but peculiarly active, hardy, and docile. No elepliants are reared in a tame state; but they arc easily caught in pits prepared for the purpose, and are tamed in eigl* or ten days. An uncommon variety of precious minerals are found in Ceylon ; the ruby, the amethyst, the topaz, and even the diamond : but none of them are of fine quality. The: i are mines of lead, iron, tin, and quicksilver; but little wrought. A very extensive pearl fishery is carried on in the Straits of Mannar, about fifteen miles from the short- ; hut chiefly by boats from the coast of India. In 1804 it was leased for 120,000;, ; '/ut 'ince that time has declined; and in 1828 its amount was only 30,612/. A species of cov.'ii shells called clianks, much used by the Hindoos for rings and other ornaments, is fished in the Straits of Manaar. Mr. Rl'Culloch gives the value of the exports in 18i?5, at — Cinnainoni 114,41( i \ H M ISM DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part hi. Fig. 638. now to about 900,000. The natives, called Cingalese, appear to partake of the character of those of Hindustan, Birmah, Siam, and the Oriental islands, with all of whom they hold intercourse. They arc a fine and handsome race, and in their manners polished and cour- teous ; but they are indolent, and very little advanced in the arts and sciences. As in all countries bordering on India, the religion of Boodh is established. The Siamese are even said to look to Ceylon as the quarter from which they received that faith ; but this sacred character is probably an illusion derived from distance and mystery. It is remarkable that here, as in Thibet and some other Boodhist countries, the unnatural custom of the plurality of husbands prevails ; and it is said to be accompanied, to a certain extent, with the crime of infanticide. The rugged jungly tracts of the interior are inhabited by a savage race called the Beddahs, who subsist by hunting, and sleep under trees, which they climb like monke^ s : some of them, however, are employed in exchanging ivoi j% honey, and wax, for cloth, iron, and knives. The Portuguese and Dutch inhabitants retain their European customs, considerably modified by the adoption of those of the natives. No such modifi. cation has taken place in iho case of the English, who consist chiefly of king's troops stationed at the chief towns. 4275. Of the towns and sea-porls of Ceylon, Colombo, on the west coast, is the seat both of government and of almost all the foreign trade. It owes this advantage to its situation in the midst of the most fertile and productive territory in the island. Its accoir . modation for shipping consists merely of a roadstead, tenable only during four months of the year. The place is well built, with broad und regular streets, and contains about 50,000 inhabitants, who include an uncommon variety of Asiatic races. The fort is spacious, surrounded with a broad and deep ditch. Trincomalce, on the south-east, is situated amid d mountain territory that is singularly grand and beautiful, but very unfruitful. It has, however, the advantage of containing the finest harbour in those seas. The vr-luc of this is greatly heightened by there not being, on the whole coast of Coromandel, a safe roadstead ; so that all vessels driven from their stations on that coast seek shelter at Trincomalce. The town however, being supported only by this resort, is small and poor ; thougli the late establishment of a naval arsenal promises to give it greater importance. Point de Galle, at the southern extremity, has a spacious and generally secure harbour, in a beautiPiil and healthy situation . The native population is numerous ; but there arc few European settlers. At Bellegam, in the vicinity, is a large temple of Boodh, with a colossal statue of that divinity. Candy, the interior capital, is only a liu-ge straggling village, surrounded by wooded hills that echo continually witli the cries of birds and wild animals. It contains •n extensive though not lofly palace of the king, and several Boodhist temples painted with gaudy colours. The British government has constructed an excellent road to this place from the coast. Chap. VII. INDO-CHINESE COUNTRIES. 4276. The Indo-Chuiese conntrivs compose that eT.iensive region situated between India and China, and partaking, under some modifications, the physical and political character of both. This region has hud little sliare in tin. great tratisactions of which Asia has been the theatre ; yet it comprises a number of extensive and important kingdoms, sonic of nhich have been alternately united and separated; Ava, Arracan, Pegu, Sium, Cochin-Chinj. Cambodia, Tsiompa, Laos, and Tonquin. Sect. I. General Outline and Aspect. 4277. The Indo-Chinese region consists of an extensive maritime territory, throwin); out wide peninsular tracts into the Indian sea ; separated by various seas, str.iits, and soundi from its large islands. From Hindostan, on the ''-cat, it is divided by the Bay of Bengal; while, on the north, a range of imperfectly known boundaries, chiefly of a mountainous cliarnctor, separates it from China and Tliibet. The main body of this territory may be described an situated between O'^ and 23° of north latitude, 92" and 109° of cast longitude; but these limits di) not include the long peninsula of Malaya, wliicli stretches southward (o within less than two degrees of the equator. We shall thus have a square space of about ItXK) miles in each direction, and containing probably about 1,000,000 square miles. 4278. Tite surface of this great territori/, according to the general view taken liy Captain Low, is formed by a series of mountain ranges running from north to south, and forming t-itjllSiil.rnu CarNicoliar I. 'i' .v;co)/>«>" ys/ I'Zemee '■ Monftlicr 3. Klaintoun 4('hlUx> ^- Latjetinnno o. Tairoung J Qu«nlon(, 9- MoKuntig jO- raienduam "■ I.uckhunirj '■1. ( n(iirh|iaor j4* iMuiinjr)ioor l.». I'uniiiiozoo 11. Painlia '7-llirma IS Maine io:?r""hrc" |l.rn,„,er.p«,„ T5. Moownh «B. Sertlal.t «■ I'aiphm Mto »>• Lawnjooach Fig. 638. MAP OF INDO-CHINESE COUNTRIES RtJ'erences to the Map qf Indo-Chinese Countries. l.Zcmw ?• Mongller 0. Klalntoun 4. ChllKMl 5. LabcnAftoo 6. Tftfioung 7. Qusnlong 8. HamiHM) 9- Moftunnn 10. raienduam 11. Luekhuniry 13. Cnnu'kpooT 14. iMuiiny]K)or \'>- I'unuiiezoo IR. PanOia 17- Hirnia 1« Maine 19. K«'meoun «0. M( haboo 81. rn.i.ierapoorn M. rhafralnn M, Majuooh ffi. Moowah Sfi. Ser.JaM t7. SekaTuahdo M. Neda; W. Tafphm Mew w. Lawnjooach 31. Arracan 3li. W-iymaioop 3.1. Tntnanuheoun M. Metilah 3.'i. Laj|)>idoh 3fi. MtHiinlmh ."t?. Meenday 3K. TonKho 3!). l*««aye Mew 40. Podanftniew 41. Treeznu 4V. Veaffnun 43. Tonihay 44. Znlix.m 45. IVgii 4fi, YanRsin 47. Di-noobew 48. I'ernaim 49. Tosmiii ATI. ^raro 51. Chlnaliuckecr 5!f. Kan^oon 53. Sniam 64. Martalian .1.'). Ycinylo 66. Ki'Intublilen 57. Tlirce I'AffiKlai 5S. Tnvoy .'»9. Morgul 60. Tenaucrim (iMUrdla m. (in fi3. ('ham 64. Hankok e.*]. Slam 6(i. rakpnliain 67* ChantilKmil CH. Mnn!^cn)>p C9. Aihtne 70. rontlnnin 71. Camoa 7V. Ilaiiac 73. SaiKonR 74. Katiinninnt 75. I'onomviiiR 76. Cnmliodia 77. Smulick 7H. Snmlioklmt 79. Ilttatianq 80 Toluitiiil 81. Nhiatranir 8«. Phuycn 83. Yuan Dal 84. Quinhonfl 85. Toanhoa 86. Sniuk'iiora 87. !\feliiuiiK 8H. Kehoa 89- Konke 00. Tarkoan 91- KlanrounneJA 92. Domea 03. Kikpu 94. Ke«hn 95. Dode^o '.tn.Kenioak 97. Foikey 98. Donho 99. Kaia 100. Kesnoa 101. 8hinten 102. ReloB. Rirtrf, a Kerndum b Irawaddy r ranlamiR 4l I'nunlaun e Sittonp I" ftroutarnr. a Mubi.i h Thaiilnayn i Mav^ie IMpinnni Chant i bond 1 Oubtqiiame m Cninboilia \ Maykaunn Hutt Klen. 1 il 3 T 2 ****««MW*»W' *.^*>v. :'-.>v,:<«->»tj.iin4MiHKK'":, 1010 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. branches from the mighty chain of Himuiayah, whicli crosses Ania from west to east. Be- tween each of these ranges intervenes a broad valley, in general of extreme fertility, and watered by a large river descending from the mountain frontier of China and Thibet. These valleys either form, or have formed, separate kingdoms ; and, though conquest occasionally unites several under one head, the boundary of hill and jungle within whicli each is enclosed aflbrds to it, usually at no very disttuit period, an opportunity of sliaking olf the yoke. The mountains have hitherto been very little observed, being covered with extensive forests entangled with thick underwood, and filled with wild beasts. Those which form the northern frontier of Assam are exceedingly lofty, falling little short of the Himalaya!), of which they ai°c a continuation. Elsewhere they do not appear to be of the first rank in point of elevation : Mr, Crawfurd conceives that the highest of the central range which borders on Siam does not exceed 5000 feet. The rivers arc of greater importance. The Mcnum, which waters Siam, and is called by the natives the mother of water?, appears to rise among the mountains of Yunan, To the twentieth degree of latitude it is navigable only for canoes: but, on reaching Yuthia, the old capital, it tA'comes a niible and navigable stream ; and, after a course of about 800 miles, enters the Cjulf ■■" Siain by three channels, the most easterly admitting vessels of the first magnituile. The Irawaddy, or river of Ava, appears a stream of nearly equal importance, and is navigable several luiiulred miles for large boats. Its upper course is still involved in mystery ; and M. Klaprotli has recently discovered some grounds fur believing that it is identical with the Sanpuo, or river of Thibet, hitherto regarded as the head of the Urahmapoutra. Tlic Mckon or Donn.ii, in Cambodia, is also a noble river, which passes through Yunan, and is navigable in 2'J^ or 23° north latitude, twenty days' sail above its mouth. Tlie other rivers ar.' numerous, and many of them fall into tlie sea; but a greater number arc tributarie!< to the three miun trunks already mentioned. Tliv country is broken by s jveral large b.iys, particularly those of Siam, Martaban, and Turoii • but it contains no lokc^ of any importance. CMWSBD riiuiii Sect, II. Natural Geogmphy, 4279. There arc no materials on which we can attempt a botanical or geological dt'li- neation of tiiis territory, 4280. The Zuolofiy also of these immense and luxuriant regions is scaicely known; wu can therefore merely notice a few of those extraordinary animals wh, .-li appear natives of these unexplored countries. 4281. r/ie Quadrupeds more peculiar to Malacca are the following : — • Kiinia Salyrus. The Ornna OuUim. Hylobalf^ l..ir. !.;ir);v (liltlNin. Ilylubalctt v,trifK.itus. Little liililMin. Ilylotiales letiriM'iis. Cerf lu lualbccenjiiB. Silvery (filiiion. MiUoceu ma^i 42a'j The inanuers of the Orang Outang (or more properly Oraiig Vtaii) (Jig. (J:!!).', sohcII known for its remote resemblance to the human furni, long remained enveloped in fable, until given by Dr. .\\)v\, wliu brought a living one to England, and who had seen many others. The fables of early voyagers, and of some later niilii- ralists, of this gigantic ape walking erect, waginf; war wiili clubs, &c., are now expltxled. The height ot' (he adult animal is uncertain; those brought to Europe, liejiig yuun;;, have not exceeded three or four French feet ; the gieaf toes have but one joint, and no noil. The hair is reddish bruwii, but there is none on the face, or on tlie palms of tJie hands and feet. It is \>erfectly incapable, says Dr. Aliel, of ualliiiii; in an erect posture: this is betr.iyed in his whole estcmil cunrormatioii, whicli is precisely tliat adapted for climbiiy trees and living among the branches. The Oraii); Oiilanj; has none of the grimaces and antics of other lllonkey^, nor dots it possess their proneness to mischief. Cira>ity, a|]- proacliing to mcl.mclioly, and mildness are often espressuti in its countenance, and seem to be its natural (lih|iiisition. Tln' specinun in question was mild under injuries, and soon became strongly attached to tiiose wlio treated him kindly. M. Cuvier lias been induccii to lliink that the Oraiig Outang is no other than the young of the Pongo, a much hir^'er a|ii', inhabiting the interior of IJorneo. Ur. Ilareuood, however, has recently aililueeil vwy strong arguments to show that the Pongo is a d'stinct species. 4'.'^ !. The liihiiiin Apfs are ili'.liiiKiiijihi'il from all ot s l)y the eiKirmnus lonRth (jf tin? aims, or imm' linipirly the fiire-l'eit ; tlii'se nearly toiii'liini; the grtiunil when the animal is plated erctt. Tlie simiM nii»l Ketierally kiitiwii i*: the Itlaek.haniletl (iilihon {llylottiilt'S l.ar. Ill) ; its si/e is nnich liil'erioi'tntlnlof the Orniig Oiitaiif.', as the l.ir[:e>t i^peciniens tlo not exceed fimr feet. The tlispositioii of tIlt'^l' ain's iuta. turally neiillf, na>, .iml even lrt>liesoiiie, and they roceive their foiKl, in euntineineiit, ^ iHiiiiit (jra-iliiit'ss oi Iniliatienee. 4281. T.'if/iir lliiih tliat have been brought from Malacca are splendid ami enmiib; Ijui *>JI&NO UUVAIH,. Book II. INDO-CHINESE COUNTRIES. 1011 =- MO GJtOWNED rilVAIAttT> it is impossiblo to conjecture how many others, unknown even by name, lie hidden from the naturalist in the vast and unexplored forests. Malacca seems to abound with snow-white Cockatoos, splendid red Lories, and m:.ny>coloured Parrots and Parrakects. It is in this peninsula that the gigantic Argus Pheasant, and the Cryptonyx, two of the most striking gallinaceous birds of Asia, are found. 4285. T/ie gigatttic Armt PheOiant Is more than «lx feet and a half long : the two middle tail featncru alone being nearly four feet, elegantly marked by numerous snow-white dots, on a chestnut ground : the whole plumage is varie;'atcd with spots resembling eyes, and tlie quill feathers are blue. In 't« wild state, it lias a great antipathy to light, being very dull during the day. but active as night approaches. It is found also in Sumatra; but is so diffl. cult to be ke|it alive, that it seldom survives in captivity more than a month : hence this beautiful bird has never Iwen brought to Europe but as skins 428a The Cioumed Pheasant (Cryptimyx coTonattuT.) (fia 640.) is a much smaller bird, but equall^r ditticult to rear. It inhabits the deep forests both of Malacca and Java, and is distinguished by an erect chestnut crest of feathers, having their webs disunited Sect. III. Historical Geography. 4287. The knowledge of the ancients respecting this extreniiti/ of Asia was neither extensive nor accurate, and scarcely reached the shores east of the Ganges. There, indeed, Ptolemy exhibits the Golden Chersonese, the Great Bay, the coost of Sina;, and the city of Thinte ; features wliich are found by Gosselin in tlie mouths of the Irnwaddy, the Gulf of Martaban, the coast and city of Tenasserim. Others, however, suppose tlic Sina: to be tlie Chinese, and infer tliat the knowledge of the Romans reached to the coasts of that celebrated empire. It is at all events certain that the ideas of the ancients respecting all this range of coast were extremely confused and imperfect. 428H. The information also of the moderns respecting this portion of Asia was long extremely defective. Marco Polo and Oderic of Portcnau were the first who gave some vague ideas respecting it. The Portuguese, amid tlieir wide career of conquest and settlement, did not attempt to comprehend any portion of it except the detached peninsula of Malacca, on whicli tliey formed a settlement. The French, however, sent to Siam a mission, partly religious and partly political, and thrcugh which Loubere obtained some important inform- atiun respecting that great monarchy. liut it is by their political relations witli British India tliat tliesc countries have become, though still imperfectly, somewhat better known in Europe. 4289. Ava, or the Birman empire, has been subject to the most remarkable revolutions of any of these kingdoms. It comprised three that nre naturally and originally independent, — Ava or Burma, Arracan, and Pegu ; but each struggling for, and alternately gaining, the ascendency. Pegu, at the first arrival of the Portuguese, was found the ruling state, and its conrt displayed considerable pomp. About the middle of the sixteenth century, the Oirmans rebelled against this authority, and not only established their own independence, but subdued their former masters. This supremacy continued till about the middle of the eighteenth century, when the Peguese, having obtained arms and officers from the Dutch and Portuguese, turned them against the Birmans, gained successive victories, and finally reducoit tli'- capital, making prisoner Dweepdcc, the last of a long line of Birman kings. A reaction, however, in no long time arose among this n.iturally brave and energetic pvoplc. Alomjira, a man of humble birth, collected a band of his countrymen, and carried on for some time a desultory and guerrilla warfare. His forces gradually increasing, he suddenly attacked and took Ava, and succeeded in raising a general insurrection against the king of Pegu, i\ poiverful army sent by that prince was totally defeated ; and Alompra, following up his su."ess, invaded Pegu, and gained a series of vitiorics which made him master of the capital, -ind extinguished the Tallien or Pegu dynasty. His successor, Sliemburen, subdued a revolt of this nation, defeated the Chinese in a great battle, and gained possession of Siam, but was unable to retain any part of that monarchy, except the provinces of Mergui and Tenasserim, on the western coast of Malacca. His brother, Minderagce Praw, who afterwards ascended the throne, succeeded in annexing Arracan to the empire. The Birman dominion thus became extremely powerful, as, besides these tliree great kingdoms, its iiiHuence was established over the territories of Cachar, Cassay, and others bordering on Bengal, through which it came in contact with tlie British territory. Two proud and l)owerful states were not likely to be long in proximity without sonic collision. A series of misunderstaiulings at length produced open rupture; and all the disposable force of Britisli India was in 1824 embarked for the invasion of the I5i.-man empire. The court of Ava, long accustomed to vanquish and domineer over all its neighbours, could not be ii> Juccd to view witli apprehension ore which had not even a royal name at its head. A very short conflict was necessary to impress on them the superiority of the Britisli arms : yet sickness, tlie natural obstacles of the country, and the difficulty of transporting provisions and stores, long paralysed the active efforts of tlie invaders; but when at last tliey began to move upon lliti cajiital, all cHoi ■, to prevent their advance were completelv battlid; and the Birman 3 T ;! 1013 DESCRIPTIVE GEOOEAPHY. Part III. government, after repeated defeats, seeing no chance of preserving the scat of government from foreign occupation, signed a humiliating treaty, paying a large sum for the expenses of the war, and ceding the important acquisitions of Arracan, Mergui, Tavoy, and Tenas. sertm, which arc now comprehended within the wide limits of tlie British Indian empire, 4290. Siam, consisting of a single great valley at the head of a wide gulf, and enclosed by two ranges of mountains, which, if not very lofty, are steep and encumbered, has main- tained a more stable character than any other of this cluster of kingdoms. It was indeed subdued by the Birmans in the height of their power ; but on this, as on other occasions, the strong national feeling of the Siamese impelled them to rise on the invader, who, entangled in difficult passes, and attacked by contagious diseases, was ultimately obliged to quit his hold of the country. 4291. Cochiti-China, Cambodia, and Tonguin form three great countries to the east of Siam, to which those of Laos and Tsiompa may almost rank as mere appendages. Of these countries, little more than the name was known to Europe until about half a century ago, when they were brought into notice by an interesting revolution. In 1774, Caung Shung, the young king, was dethroned and driven from his capital by a triumvirate of usurpers, who assumed the supreme sway. The prince took refuge in a desert island, where he lived for several years in the utmost distress. But Adran, a French missionary, who had aided him in etTecting his escape, continued to support his cause, and spared no efibrts to replace the young monarch on the throne of his ancestors. He even went over to solicit assistance in France ; but the disturbed state of that country, in consequence of the revolution, prevented him from meeting with much success. Yet he procured some aid in arms and officers for Caung Shung, who, having landed in 1790 on the continent, was welcomed by his subjects, and by their aid soon replaced on the throne. The circumstances under which his restoration had been achieved led him to form a strong attachment to Europeans, and a desire to introduce those improvements, especially in the military art, by which they were so much distinguished above his own subjects. Having organised a standing anny tolerably armed, and disciplined in the European manner, and a fleet of three hundred gun-boats, with a frigate, he acquired a force with which no power in this part of Asia could cope, He was thus enabled to conquer first Tonquin, a kingdom greater and more populous than his own, and afterwards Cambodia, and thus to become master of all that great range of territory which extends between the gulfs of Siam and Tonquin. Sect. IV. Political Geography, 4292. Tlie government of all these kingdoms is of the same simple structure as that of Eastern countries in general. In principle, at least, it is a pure despotism ; in which no constitutional check on the authority of the monarch is recognised. The statu officers, called in Ava woongees, woondosh, and attawoons, compose a sort of council of state, but entirely subject to the monarch, and removable at his pleasure. The great lords hold cer- tain portions of land or tiefs, in virtue of which they are bound to the performance of mili- tary service. They occupy these only ns grants from the crown, resumablc at pleasure, and which arc judged to cease and to require renewal at the accession of each monarch ; but, in fact, unless upon signal ground of displeasure, it is not customary to remove them. The nobles, especially in Siam, show the most profound submission, and approach tliu throne in the most abject manner, lying prostrate on their faces, and creeping on the ground. Tlie king has many pompous titles, but that of shoe, or golden, is the one most valued, and which must be applied to hvm on every occasion : — "a sound has reached the golden .nrs; a suitor has arrived at the golden feet ; a smell has siiluuil the golden nostrils." The king appears in public only on state occasions, surrounded by his nobles, in a silting pos- ture. The costume of the king of Cochin-Cliina {fg. Oil] is very peculiar and extremely splendid. 4'29;5. The laws of these Hnfidoms are chiefly horroiral from Ilindostan and China: tliey are well combined, exe- cuted with strictness, and a rigid police is maintained. The Birman laws arc of Hindoo origin, and are supposed to have been transmitted from Ceylon by way of Arracan. The code is called the Dirma Sastra, and is one of the many comnienlaries on Menu : it is replete with sound morality, and inculcates severe and salutary lessons, even tr the monardi, on the high duties of his station. With the exception of trial by ordeal and imprecation, which is admitted by the superstitious ideas of the East, it is the most judicious and practical of .ill tlie Hindoo systems. Civil cases are first tried in the courts of the mnywonm or vice- roys, from which lies an appeal, though an expensive one, to the loloo, or supreme tribunal, composed of the coimcil of state, which reports upon them to the king. Tlmsi however, the judicial power is entirely under the control of the executive, and all ofl'ences KINO nv CIKrillN-CltltfA* Book II. which are supposed disproportionate rigo mandarins of difTerei by no means reduced 4294. ThemilUari for which all males oi chiefs of tlieir respect though they have co the muskets condemi art and skill, be brou where the European c But the most efficient the great rivers whici Tliose of the Birmans them are from eighty to is effected partly by fi the river, besides its qu of these boats, of whii fifty to sixty rowers, e thirty soldiers armed v weighing from six to i draw up in a line, wit rapidity, and immediat larger boats also seek ti Gilded barges (Jig, 641 o( war. The state bar floating pennons and sti stockades, which they tl resisted even the most ii these troops can stand penetrated, they take to i Iwen organised and trail 140,000 men ; but Mr. i (lie royal guards amount 4295. 2'he revenue of ^nt ; for the whole coiini Perty of the monarch. ' in Birmah amounts to a commerce, is levied part unproductive one of roy trade, and in Cochin-Ch vanous sources, however wflers, and little or none ««ms, &c., by which the em kmgs are thus enable ot treasures, believed in s Jiynies heard respecting PrompUtudewithwhichI l-mwfurd was informed t 7.140,000 dollars, indepe Book II. INDO-CHINESE COUNTRIE 1018 which are lupposed to aflect the safety or prerogative of the (overeign are punished with disproportionate rigour. In Cochin-Chinaall the branches of administration are executed by mandarins of different classes, according to the Chinese model ; but the political system is by no means reduced to the same regular form as in that great empire. 4294. The milUary itrength of these kingdoms consists almost entirely of a feudal militia, for which all males of a certain age are enrolled, and may be called upon to serve under the chiefs of their respective districts. Their arms are mostly swords, lances, and cross-bows ; though they have collected a considerable number of fire-arms ; but these, being chiefly the muskets condemned in the English arsenals, cannot, by the most anxious exertions of art and skill, be brought into a serviceable state. The only exception is in Cochin-China, where the European officers in the king's service have effected considerable improvements. But the most efficient part of the establishment consists in the war boats, destined to act on the great rivers which form the main channels of communication in all these kingdoms. Those of the Birmans are constructed out of the solid trunk of the teak tree, and some of them are from eighty to a hundred feet long, though only about eight feet broad. The excavation is effected partly by fire and partly by cutting implements. Every town in the vicinity of the river, brides its quota of men, is obliged, when called upon, to furnish a certain number of these boats, of which it is supposed that the king can muster 500. They carry from fifty to sixty rowers, each provided with a sword and lance, besides whom there arc usually thirty soldiers armed with muskets ; while on the prow, which is flat, a piece of ordnance, weighing from six to twelve pounds, is mounted. On coming in view of the enemy, they draw up in a line, with their prows in front, sing a war song, push on witli impetuous rapidity, and immediately attempt to grapple, when a desperate struggle takes place. The larger boats also seek to run down the smaller, which the latter elude with great dexterity. Gilded barges {Jig. 642.) can be used only by princes of the blood and persons of the very highest rank, and they are often very highly ornamented. The na- val arsenal, also, of the Cochin-Chinese appear- ih i t ed to Mr. White very de- r.erving of admiration ; and the skill of their shipwrights is much su- perior to that of the Bir- mans. He saw one teak plank 109 feet long,and has even seen trees of this description which would make a natural mainmast for a ship ol war. The state barges are richly decorated with gilding and carved work, and with floating pennons and streamers. On land, the Birmans and Siamese trust chiefly to their stockades, which they throw up with surprising skill and expedition, and which sometimes resisted even the most impetuous attacks of a British force. In general, however, none of these troops can stand the charge of a disciplined army, but, as soon as their defences are penetrated, they take to flight with precipitation. In Cochin-China only a regular army has been organised and trained in the European manner: this force, in 1800, was estimated at 140,000 men ; but Mr. Crawfurd does not imagine it at present to exceed 50,000, of whom the royal guards amount to 30,000. 4295. The revenue of the sovereign, in these kingdoms, consists of a land tax, or rather rent ; for the whole country, according to the idea prevalent in the East, is esteemed the pro- perty of the monarch. This tax is levied in the form of a proportion of the produce, which in Birmah amounts to a tenth, and is paid in kind. The other source, derived from foreign commerce, is levied partly in the form of customs, but more frequently in the ruinous and unproductive one of royal monopoly. This, in Siam, extends to every branch of foreign trade, and in Cochin- Cliina to those which are supposed most productive. From these various sources, however imperfectly administered, money is continually entering the royal coffers, and little or none ever goes out, for ser\ices are paid by grants of land, villages, cus- loms, &c., by which tlie grantee is enabled to make out an income for himself. The East- ern kings are thus enabled to effect a favourite object of their ambition, in the accumulation of treasures, believed in several instimces to be immense. The vague reports which Major Symes heard respecting the ample resources of the king of Ava seem confirmed by the promptitude with which he paid the large tribute exacted by Britain as the price of peace. Mr. Crawfurd was informed that the treasure of the king of Cochin-China amounted in gold to 7,140,000 dollars, independent of what might exist in the form of silver. 3 T 4 aoVAI. OOLDBN BAROB* 1014 DESCRIPTIVE GEuO;tAPHY. Pari III, Book II. S«CT. V. Productive Indmtri/. 4296. Tho pi-oductiue capacities of this region arc very ample. It yields all thu grand staples of tropiqal produce. The valleys of its great rivers, which possess the expanse of plains, are watered, and, at periodical intervals, extensively inundated, by numerous streams of various magnitude, flowing down from tho mountain ridges, to swell the great rivers; and by these means copious moisture, which, under this ( .mate, almost alone suffices to secure an ample vegetation, is coni.tantly supplied. The principal culture consists of rice, the food of all these nations ; sugar of fine quality, pepper, preferable to that of the Malay countries, and cotton. The sides of the (.'reat ranges of hills ore covered with luxuriant timber of various species and great value. There are large forests of teak, a wood now found to be prefer- able, from its strength and durability, to any other, for the purposes of ship-building. Large boats, as already observed, are often cut out from a single tree, and a great quantity is now produced for the supply of the naval arsenals of British India. Even the fir is found on ttie tops of the upper mountains, and in Major Symcs's opinion might be employed with advantage in masts, for which teak is too heavy. The woods abound also with orna- mental trees, canes, rattan, &c., and with others yielding rich gums, which serve for varnish and other purposes. Stick lac and gamboge are among the chief articles of export. From other shrubs are obtained the areca nut and betel leaf, that universal article of luxury and ceremony in all Indian countries, but which has never made its way into Europe. Carda- moms are a spice for which a large market is found in China, and there is some cinnnmon in Cambodia ; but in general these regions arc not productive of the finer spices. 4297. Cultivation is very generally diffused, and is conducted in the west on the Indian model, and in the east on the Chinese ; but it is not practised in the same perfection, or with the same patient industry, as by either of these nations. The sugar and pepper of Siam are chiefly raised by Chinese settlers. Domestic animals arc little used in cultivation, and in Ava the Brahminical principle prevents them from being made articles of food. Animals are tamed chiefly for conveyance or pomp ; and for these purposes the elephant, here found in greater perfection, and more liighly prized, tlian in any other country in the world, is chiefly ■rmployed. 4'293. Manu^ actures exist only on a limited scale, and in a rude fqpn ; the raw materials svhich the country aRbrds being worked up mostly by the family itself for domestic use. Those brilliant and beautiful fabrics which are the boast of China and Hindostan are not produced here, and the quantity used is imported from those countries, especially from the latter. The only fabrication on which much study is bestowed is that of idols, uhicli arc fashioned out of a fine species of marble found in the country, and generally gilded; but none arc accounted sacred except those constructed at Chagaing. 4299. The commerce of these countries is also limited. They produce in obundanceall the conveniences and necessaries of life, without any of those peculiar products, ns the finer spices and the finer manufactures, which attract traders from the most distant parts of the globe. Their chief intercourse is with China, and consists in the exchange of their raw produce, rice, cotton, timber, ornamental woods, varnishes, or some species of the line manufactures of that great empire. The cotton and other products of the Birman empire are carried up the Irawaddy to a great jee, or market, in the frontier province of Yunan, Britain takes of teiik timber to the amount of about 200,000/. ; in return for which, some British manufactures are received. The trade of Siam and Cochin-China is chiefly carried on by Chinese junks coming to the port uf Bankok in the former country, and those of Turon, Hu^, and Saigong, in the latter. Mr. Crawfurd reckons that about IlGjiwls come annually to Cochin-China, carrying 20,000 tons; and somewhat more than double that number to Siam. There is also some trade with the rising British settlement at Singapore ; but these governments have declined all overtures for airanging a regular com- mercial intercourse. 4300. Somcfahery ispursued on the coast of Cochin-China, and dried fish forms one of the exports of China. On these shores is also collected a large quantity of gelatinous blriis' nests, and of the substance called sea slug, tripang, or biche de mer, for which there ciists an extraordinary demand in the Chinese market. Sect. VI. Civil and Social State. 4.S0I. The population of all this range of kingdoms is a question of extreme uncertainly. Major Sy mes was informed that the number of cities, towns and villages in the Birman empire amounted to 8000; and this, allowing an average of 1800 to each, would give 14,400,000. This, too, is exclusive of Arracan ; so that, altogether, he imagines 17,000,000 to be rather under than above the real amount. This very conjectural calculation, however, appears to Captain Cox over-rated ; and his estimate of 8,000,000 is generally esteemed to be nearer the truth. Captain Franklin even reduces it to 5,000,000, and Captain Canning to 1,000,000. Mr. Crawfurd allows 2,730,000 for the entir^ opulation of the kingdom of Siam, of which the proper ^c are sujjposed to amount to 1,260,000 ; the CIn'nese settlers, 440,000 ; dependencies, 190,( miles. The same contain 98,000 squa provinces of China, 4302. Thepeoph external form. Mi Asiatic race. The! peculiar to the Hind and never suggests the heard is scanty, They have a gloom; last part of the desci they borrow the out into that mechanical Much greater freed< stirring. The Birm respect a decided sti indolent, destitute of that foreign resident! They esteem the low They are, however, j 430,3. The religio, from Hindostan ; y( in the rival system f beyond the Ganges i: of one of Ids most p( forms the grand ope Frugal and indolent i Major Symes consider or head of the Birman Mr. Crawfurd observes common in other coi but bestow all their tr 179,5, to have cost 58,1 space for worship, a di monks or clergy. The mortar: it is r,„ the ti Mpenditure is lavished. use and laborious man •ne interior is adorned covered with gold leaf. ''hoemadoo Praw, or tl si'ccessive terraces, the •ect above the lower. ' Book II* INDO-CHINESE COUNTRIES, 1015 wttlers, 440)000 ; the inhabltaiita of the part of Loos subject to Siam, 840,000 ; the Malay dependenciesi, 190,000. This is upon an estimated supurflcial extent of 1 90,000 square miles. Tlie same intelligent observer estimates Cochin-Chinn, Cambodia, and Tonquin to contain 98,000 square miles ; and, supposing them to be as fully peopled as the neighbouring provinces of China, they would have 5,194,000. 4302. The people by whom alt this territory is in/iabited present several peculiarities of external form. Mr. Crawfurd even apprehends them to Ih; radically distinct from any other Asiatic race. Their persons are short, robust, active, but devoid of the grace and flexibility peculiar to the Hindoo. Their face, flat, with high cheek-bones, presents the form of a lozenge, and never suggests any idea of beauty. The liair i . abundant, black, lank, and coarse ; but the bcnrd is scanty, and universally plucked oul. They have a gloomy, churlish, sullen air ; a blo^ last part of the description seems nearly confined they borrow the outward forms of life from the I into that mechanical routine of observance which Much greater freedom prevails in the intercourse of society ; they arc quick, lively, and stirring. The Birmans appear to be an active and intelligent people, possessing in this respect a decided superiority over the Hindoos. Tiic Siamese are said to be sluggish and indolent, destitute of courage, candour, and good faith ; and so imbued with national pride, that foreign residents cannot obtain a servant to perform for them the most menial offices. They esteem the lowest Siamese to be superior to the greatest subject of any other nation. They are, however, peaceable, temperate, and obedient to the laws. 430.1. The religion of these countries, like all others in the Eost of Asia, is derived from Hindostan ; yet, Tike the rest also, it consists not in the Brahminical doctrine, but in the rival system of Boodh. The name, however, most venerated in all the countries beyond the Ganges is Gaudma, or Goutama ; cither another appellation of Boodh, or that of one of his most popular disciples. The construction of temples and images of Gaudma furms the grand operation to which the art and industry of all these nations is directed. Frngal and indolent in every thing else, they spare neither cost nor labour on this object. Major Symes considers the grand kioum, or monastery (Jig. 643. ), the residence of the sereilaw. ■ Rives them an effeminate appearance. 'ish, and ungraceful gait; but this imese. Upon the whole, though . uikI Hindoos, they are not schooled ^u firmly established in those countries. anAND KIOUM, OR UDNAffTBHV. or head of the Birman church, as perhaps the most magnificent structure in the universe. Mr. Crawfurd observes that the monarchs here erect none of the public works which are common in other countries of Asia, — neither bridges, wells, tanks, nor caravanseras ; but bestow all their treasures upon temples. The principal one, at Bankok, was said, in 179.5, to have cost 58,iaoi. The temples, which serve also as monasteries, cont.iin a large space for worship, a depository for the images of Gaudma, a library, and dwellings for the monks or clergy. The materials are by no means very solid, consisting chiefly of brick or mortar ; it is r.n the timber of which the gates and the interior are composed that the expenditure is lavished. These are painted, varnished, gilded, and carved in the most pro- fuse and laborious manner. The principal temple in Ava is about GOO feet in length, and the interior is adorned with upwards of 200 pillars, fifty or sixty feet high, and entirely covered with gold leaf. But the most remarkable of all these edifices is that at Pegu, called Shoemadoo Praw, or the tem])le of the Golden Supreme (Jig. 644.). It is raised on two successive terraces, the lower of which is ten fret above the ground, and the upper twenty feet above the lower. The building is pyramidal, composed of brick oi mortar, and rises to ' s*" m i IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 ■^ Itt 12.2 1.1 l.-^ia — Ih IIh « < 6" - ► Photographic Sdences Corporation 33 WIST MAIN STRUT WliSTM.N.Y. MSM (716) irausos 1019 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHT. Pam III OP Tim UOt.llHN aUPIIKMll. the height of 361 feet, without excavation or aperture of any liind ; but it diininishn very rapidly as it ascends, su that iu form has been compared to that of a large speaking. trumpet. The whole is covered with a lee, or umbrella, fifty six feet in circumference, the placing of which forms a high religious ceremony, and gives to tlie temple its sncred cha> racter. 4304. The framing oj the imagei m the company and conversation of the other sex. This freedom, however, is not accompanied with any disposition to allow them that place in the scale ol lociety which justly belongs to them. They are treated as the mere slaves of the stronger wx ; all the laborious duties are devolved upon them, and tliey manage most of the trans- Mtions of buying and Mlling. Their conduct, at least in Ava, is said to be generally correct, unless as respects a very sinsular arrangement, into which they are ready to enter with any stranger who comes to reside in the country, even for the shortest period. An unmarried female is then leased out to him, and during that time resides with him as his wife^ mnnngcs his household, and assists him in carrying on his traffic ; but on his departure •be must not accompany him, but returns, without any discredit, to her relations, by whom it is probable the arrangement was made. It seems to be connected with the idia of (he female being the property of her male relations ; and the same traffic is carried on in C' guished for furtility, being «neroncili(*tl U|)un liy n range of bleak mouutoins : but they pot- IC8S a very salubrioua olimnt^i llv invttnit of this const, also, an opening is afforded into the finest interior proviniiV)i both of Ava miuI Hlum. Amherst Town, recently founded on the Saluen, the frontier stream of tht) Ulrinan empire, was expected to acquire an important commerce. It has, howwor, been In a great measure supplanted by Maulmein, founded in IS2S, 27 miles to tho north, whiuh linil a V«ry rising trade, exporting teak timber and rice in exchange for British eottons nitd navnl itorcn. There is a considerable shipbuilding, valued in 1837 at 31,5001, TliP vxportii In that year were valued at 42,500{., the imports at 86,530/., which row in IN!)?, the onu to 6r},R40f., the other to 146,060/. 4318. Malacca, though by tliu (runty of 1814 It was restored to the Dutch, was, in 1825, ceded to England, in exolmngv A*r livr ittmsesKloiis in Sumatra. It wus one of the earliest settlements of the Portuguese, and eoiitliiued fur a long time to be a great emporium of the trade of the Oriental islands, as well »n n ptaec of refk-eshment for vessels bound tu China ; but since Prince of WalvsV Ittland and Singapore have risen to their present importance, the port of Malacca is mueh len (Vuciuented. It has, however, a safe roadstead, a salubrious climate, cooled by a sueoesilon of wa and land breexes, with some industry and cultivation, carried on chiefly by Chinese. The population of the town is stated at 4790 ; that of the uuuutry at 33,800. The Importd, In ih97-8t amounted to about 134,000/. ; the export* to 104,000/. Revenue, in 18!)J)-Q, 0ON4/. ( expenditure, 8365/. 4319. The Birman empire If) famed Into two important dlviritms ; — Pegu, once its rival, but now its sul^ect kingdom, whieh comprises all the sea-coast and the mouths of the rivers ; Ava or Birmah, occiinying the upper valley of the Irawaddy, and the present seat of the ruling power. Pegu U a Hort of delta, entirely traversed by the alluvial branches of the Irawaddy, Pegu, and Saluen riveri. Its valleys are of extreme fertility, and particu> larly productive of ricp| io that U Herves ns a sort of granary to the empire. It has also spacious forests, abounding In teak, which requires a soil at once moist and rich. Ava con- sists of a plain of less extent, eloiely hemmed in by mountains, and by no means of equal fertility ; but it is also well eiUtlvatetl, abounds In timber, and its brave and hardy inhabitants have generally held in their lianrU (lie lupremacy over both nations. 4320. Bangoon, the grand emporium of the empire, is situated on one of the branches of the river of Pegu, and extend . for about a mllo along the water. It is not so well built as the capital, and, indeed, to the members of the late expedition, it appeared little better than a huge assemblage of wooden huti. The custom-house is the only edifice in the town that is built of brick. The population, however, Is estimated by Major Symes, from the number of houses, which is 5000, not tu fttll Nliurt of .10,000. It is composed in a great measure of foreigners from all the countries of (he I^ast, anrl of all religions, who have been encouraged to settle here by tho liberal pulley of the Utrman government. The exchange presents a motley and confused assemblage of IVlahometans, Parsees, Armenians, and all the com- mercial tribes of the Cost, The chief uriinmvnt of Rangoon is the great temple of Shoe Dagon, or Dagoung, whiph, though not quite to elevated as the Shoemadoo of Pegu, is as highly ornamented, and contains In its preelncts 1500 rhahaans and other religious persons employed in the service of Gaudma, 4321. Pegu, the ancient capital, wan reduced, after the conquest, to a state of complete desolation. Alompra rased every dwelling to the ground, demolished the walls, which from their fragments appear to have been thirty feet high and forty feet broad, and spared only the praws, or temples. For some time, the only object was to terrify the Feguese into sub- mission by the most severe exampleiti The present king, adopting a milder policy, has made it his main object to conciliate his Pegu subjects. For this purpose nothing was so grateful as to allow them to rear again their fallen capital. The scattered inhabitants have been invited to return, and new hettlera have been encouraged by liberal grants. The residence of the mavwoon or viceroy liait also been removed thither from Rangoon. Pos- sessing, however, neither the splendour of a royal capitol, nor a commodious site for extensive trade, Pegu has attracted only a Hmall proportion of Its former crowded population. Major Symes docs not suppose it at preitent to contain more than 5000 or 6000. 4322. jlfci)!^ important plavei occur, in ascending the river, before we arrive at the capitals of Ava. Meyalwun is an ancient I'egii city, the splendour of which is marked by numerous gilded spires and spacious conventR. The turrounding country is so fertile, especially in rice, as to render it almost a granary of the kingdom ; and large depots of grain are main tained here by tho sovereign. Prtnne, the ancient frontier of Ava and Pegu, and at onu time a residence of the Pegu klngw, carrlea on a great trade in timber, and is said to be somewhat more populous than Uanuoon, but contains no edifices of remarkable splendour. A continued succession of towns and villages, among which Meeaday is the most important, continues till we arrive at Peuassln, or Paghun. This city, the ancient and splendid capital of BIrmali, at a time when a lilgher taste in architecture appears to have prevailed than at present, abounds with magnlHcent remalna of temples and royal edifices. 4323. The capttaU tjf Am are iiUualed nearly at the termination of the plain of the Ira. 1090 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pam 111. waddy, after it hat taken an eaiterljr direction, and begun to be contracted by the upper mountains. The original capital, bearing the national name of Ava, or Aungwa, was quitted by Alompra for Ummerapoora, and exhibited to Major Symes that aspect of desolation which (dways coven an Asiatic capital from the moment it ceases to be the residence of the court. The slight wooden materials of which the palaces of the grandees consist were easily transported to the new metropolis. The walls were mouldering in decay ; ivy was clinging to tlieir udes ; thorns, bamboos, and a few plantains, allowed to grow unmolested. covered the greater part of its site. Only the temples were left untouched, and were tinkine under the ulent operation of time. Sailing upwards about twenty miles, through a continued succession of houses and villages, the traveller was cheered by the migestic spires and turrets of the new capital, rising amid a wide expanse of water, which, when the river is high sur. rounds it like e lake. The principal part of Ummerapoora is the fort, or rather fortified city, more than a mile square, and within whose precincts are contained all tliat is splendid and that belohgs to the court in Ava. The magnificence of the palace consists chiefly Id its halls, adorned with gilded pillars, and white silk umbrellas bespangled with gold, while the enclosing walls are merely of brick. But the temples are most profusely ornamented without, as well as within ; and their lofty spires or piataths, richly gilded or burnished, make a magnificent appearance. Captain Franklin estimated the inhabitants at 175,000 from the oflSci^ number of 25,000 houses, allowing seven to each house ; but as the houses had been enumerated with a view to taxation, the number was probably under-rated. But it is finslly to be stated, that what Ummerapoora lately was, Ava now again is. In 1 824, tlie seat of empire was transferred back to the old capital, which soon doubtless became the centie of Birman splendour ; and the majestic edifices of Ummerapoora are now mouldering in ruin. 4324. The interior detaiU of Siam are known only to a very limited extent. The esriy capital, Yuthia, was abandoned after the Birman conquest, when Piatac, a chief of Cliinese origin, reared again the standard of Siamei>e independence. He then transferred the capital to Bankok, farther down the river, and more favourably situated for trade. Bankok may be regarded almost as a city floating in the water. The houses are little more than large wooden boxes, of an oblong form, extremely neat, and thatched with palm leaves. Tbey extend in rows eight or ten feet from the bank, to which they are fastened by long bamboos. They are divided into several small apartments, the most central of which is assigned to die household gods ; while in front of many is raised a platform on which is spread rice, fruit, and other articles, forming a species of floating bazaar. These habitations, though diminu- tive, are said to be tolerably comfortable, and can, of course, be moved with the utmost facility from one place to another. Each house has a boat belonging to it, which is almost the only vehicle for moving through the city; and the habit of continual rowing gives to the arms both of men and women a flisproportionate siie. These floating mansions are chiefly inhabited by Chinese, who appear to form the majority of the inhabitants of Bankok, and monopolise almost every department of trade and industry. The chief trades are those of blacksmith, tinsmith, and currier, which, by a singular conjunction, are in the hands of the same person. The tin vessels are highly polished, and the leather, dyed red, I) used, not for shoes, but for pillows and nut- tresses. . The Cliinese, from these occupations, derive a very handsome livelihood, and lite plentifully and grossly, on pork, oil, and fat; consuming more value in food in a week thu the Siamese does, or can afford to do, in two or three months. The shore, meantime, is co- vered with numerous palaces and gilded temples (Jig. 645.), and with the habitations of the grandees, raised by posts above the ground, which is yet so swampy as to render it scarcely possible to walk or drive through the streets. The travelling is chiefly along the river, in richi; gilded and ornamented barges. 4325. Chaniibond forms the most eastern district of Siam, and is in some respects superior to tlie flat and alluvial plain which immediately borders the river. Situated on the slope of the mountains which separate Siam from Cambodia, it forms a hilly and romantic region, covered with noble forests, and abounding in valuable aromatic plants. Pepper is the most important object of cultivation, being prmluced to the annual amount of 20,000 peculs, md capable of almost indefinite augmentation. Cardamoms, though not equal to those of Cn)- ■riBB AT WATANAU. Book II. CHINA. 1M1 bodia, are produced for the Chineie market. The forests contidn some very fim odoriferous woods. The population has been supposed to amount to nearly a million, the most numcr> ous and industrious part of which is Chinese. 4326. The coasts and rivers of Cochin'China and Cambodia are of different aspect ; they ire not bordered by the same vast extent of fertile and alluvial territory. Almost the whole cosst of Cochin-China is composed of steep cliffs, which, from their rugged forms, and the sharp pinnacles in which they terminate, appear to consist of granite, and between which ind the sea there is scarcely a level interval. From theur coves, indeed, are seen issuing fleets of boats, which give the idea of industry and plenty ; but a nearer inspection shows Ihem to be miserable in the extreme. These little barks are composed chiefly of split rattan, with bamboos for masts, the bark of trees for tackling, and mats for sails. They form the whole habitation of their occupants, whose entire property is embarked in them, and who have no food except the fish which can be drawn from the waters. The great rivers which traverse these two countries, though they descend from fertile and smiling villeys of the most romantic aspect, are hemmed in at a short distance by mountains of the same peaked and rugged character as those which border the coast. Although, therefore, these rivers are as ample as those of Siam, the valleys include not nearly the same extent of fertile and productive land. 4327. Hui, the capital cf Cochin-China, is situated on the river, about ten miles above its entrance into the fine bay of Turon. The scenery of this stream appeared to Mr. Finlay> son the most beautiful and interesting he had seen in Asia. A fertile valley, covered with the cocoa nut, th« banana, the sugar>cane, and elegant hedges of bamboo, is bounded by the lofty mountains already described. The view of numerous and apparently com- fortable villages enlivens the scene. Hu6 consists of a large quadrangular fort, or rather fortified city, which constitutes one of the most complete and remarkable military structures in Asia. Each side is about a mile and a half in length, the rampart about thirty feet high, cased with brick and mortar. It is built in the regular European style, with bastions, a glacis 200 feet broad, and a ditch. An hundred thousand men were constantly employed in the works, during the period of their construction, and 1 200 cannon irere mounted on the walls. It is supposed that 40,000 troops would be required to gar> rison the place. Here also the king keeps his fieet of galleys. 4328. Saigong, the capital of Cambodia, is situated near the mouth of the noble river of Donnai. It consists of two closely contiguous parts, called Saigong Proper and Bengeh. The latter is fortified, and is the residence of the viceroy ; but Saigong Proper is the chief theatre of trade, and conducts entirely that of the fine valley in which it is situated. The united city is described by Mr. Finlayson as very large ; each of its parts appeared to him equal to the capital of Siam : and Mr. AVhite reports, ttom ofiScial documents, the population of the whole to amount to 180,000, of whom 10,000 are Chinese. The markets are plentifully supplied with native products aud those of the neighbouring countries. The manufactured articles are chiefly of the latter description, and scarcely any European goods are to be seen. There is a superb naval arsenal formed under Euro- pean direction, and which, from the very fine timber of the country, has produced 150 galleys of the most beautiful construction. 4329. Tonguin, of thu three kingdoms now subject to the sway of Cochin-China, is the largest, most fruitful, and most valuable. Its character is still more decidedly Chinese than that of the others ; and, indeed, it was only in the fourteenth century that it sepurated from that empire, retaining all its forms and institutions. Both the English and Dutch have attempted to open an intercourse with Tonquin, where fine and cheap silks, lacquered ware, and some gold, may be obtained ; but the arbitrary exactions of the mandarins, and the little demand for foreign cloths, in consequence of costumes fixed by law being worn '/y all the orders, rendered it a losing trefiic, and it has been almost wholly abandoned, ^le-cho, situated about twenty miles from the mouth of the great river of Tonquin, has bee*, said by one traveller to contain only 40,000 inhabitants ; but Mr. Crawfurd understord, what is indeed probable, that it is larger than any city either of Cochin-China or Cambodia; in which case the above estimate must be greatly under the truth. We want the information of some recent and intelligent traveller respecting Tonquin. ] CHAf.VIII. CBIMA. 4330. This vast empire, conttuning the greatest amount of population, and, perhaps, also of wealth, united under one government, occupies a large portion of the south-east of Asia. MAP OF CHINA. ilitf .116 Fig* 646. 10' LtiiiKitu'le Kast 11;^ ~irom (irt-fiiwich *i'2J '125 NOIITH PART. 1. P«7tGim 3. Outnichutn 4.81«nAan« . 5. 1'tnghii 6. Vr- ■ opfnic 9. 8lnlng 7. icItSianii i.Yopf in. Tchltij 11. Klnaltluo Toncni SSSo 2. Concniin 15. Tcheniftchun 14. Viichln 15. TAiPl 16. Sotcheou Iff. Tamtan 19. OtMlle to. SIcoujuen 31' Vumnimkien 23. Callcheou 55. KiniitchMU «|. Nlngjruen ta- PimsMiim 56. Voucpiiurfbtt 57. Pekirt M. Vtuklnfftcheou 19. Ptounntcheoa 30. Yuichemi 81. VtiLtcheou 8S. Taitonfffou 33. Roulcbecm 84. Paotwheou 8&- Couchan 3A Houitetclteou 87. Hiiifchfcn 3H. Taili^lieou 39. Hlntcttcou 40. T.-xiyuenfou 41. Faiikltiien 49. TL'tiitiLtlniffou 43 Pa'>tingfoii 44 TchhiKlv-htou 45. I'njho 46 Ttanuiietieou 47 • PintcTieou 4R. I'iiitrheoufnu 49- TenBtrheoufuu iO. SlnciDinKO 61. Kiotchecu IV. l'cml<:hpnuf 'U M. Tetnnnf.m 64. Ciotaii^itclteuu SH. Tetcheou 66. Payhou A7. Chuntefou M. Pitifftinictcheou 69. Leaotrheou 60. Fuentcheoufou 61. Cheleouhlen 6% . VminKUifbu r>3. Paouganhien 64. TilnMcniiut 63. Plnnlowi 66. TiitKpleninjt 67. Linirtchaou 6R. Slnftanpol 69. Vunftnicanpou 70. YouKtaitchlng 71. Yougnfdnpou 75. Yanfctt-'Iiangocl 78. Kantcbeou 74. Tcliinchoulpou 7'). Honfftchoulpou 76. Nancoutchliut 77. Slllinff 74. f Antcheou 79. Konxtchanfffou 80. Kouyuentcheou 81. Lmmtcheou 83. Klnjiyanffftm 83. Ntnfftrheou 84. Poutrheou H.\ Tonstenaou 86. Kiaitchaou 87. Kitcheou Rf). Pinyangfou 89. {.ountianfou 90. Ifoaikinufnu 91. Onckiunrou '.fi. TrhanRtifou 9.1. S*U'hn»ll 91. 'ra>inin^(ili if}. TMiitcheou 96. TnlnKlntchoo 97. Toniniiiitchvou 98. Vt-ntrhoofou 99. Vicheou lot*. (.u(cht«u 101. CoaiTiibieii \0'i. Tahlntching 103. Haitcheou 104. N|iantonff Him iO.'y. HotiiRnnfjU 106. Kieou Pitchrou 107. Ucoy U'R. Pesutcheou 109. Batiahou li^erencet to the Map qf China. 110. Sieoutrheou I'll. Tchlicheoufou 111. Potcheou \f*-'y. Klntenhien 113. rhanschouihien 1^5. NKAnkin^fou 113. TsUchenu 114. Tchln^cheou II A. Kuluheou 116. Yyanfihien 117. Tchentchou 118. Ix>uchihlen 119. Chanfflcheou 130. Hoatcheou 121.Tchlnnitanhien 1^2. Rinffanfuu 13.1. Yaotcheou 131. Plngtcheim VHy. FoUKtslanKfou 136. Ckitrheou U7 Tvflntcheou 13R. Kialtcheou 139. I^tifrufianfon l.V). Pinffi-aiiinff 1.31. tfoetlthfHiu 13''. Mlenttlirou 1.33. I'ftCionMhien 131. Tchaohoahicn 133. Paoklngfou 1.36. Patcheou 137. NinRkiaiig- tchL-ou 13fl. HaltchonfHbu 139. HinfftiKAntcheou 140. Tchouchanhien 141. FanKhlen 143. KoutchinKltien 143. YuenyanKfou 1 14. TetiRtcheou 14.^. Rianf{yaii){fiiu WK. TenRanfou 1 17. St>nyan|{tchcou 14M. Nan>nnt{rnu 149. YunnhiiiKfou 1.50. Hinfilfheou 151. Koniryuigfou 1 Vi. TJuuheoufbu 133. Nanking 151. Kvoyeoutchou 167. Yfichanhlen 16R. niatcliinKhien 169. Hoanfftcheoufou 170. OiiKhnnfi 171. MipnyanKetchou 17t. Nieaiilofuu 173. YHntcheou 174. Ytonhien 175. Kouetcheou 176. Koeitcheoufuu 177. Cht'tcheououee 178. 1,eanf{chanhit!n 179. KmiaiiRngaii' Ichtiou 1R0, TaicliMU 181. Pantcheou 1S3. Chunkintffou 1H3. Kientcheou ISl. Hanichcoii IS.'*. Vatcheoti 18G. MoBlmlen. SOUTH PART. I. Taitchoufou 3. Oucntrheoufou 3. Tchiitcheoufou 4. Kinfthoafou 3. Klutchfoufou 6. I6. Tafiinsfuu 157. Soutrhfnofou 15H. Hanfitcticoulou \m. Mngiiofnu IfiO. Sintthnuihien 161. Ventcheoitfou 1()3. Nhlngkoucfuu 92. Tchangtcheou* fou S3. Pongchoulhlen 24> Pellcheoti 25. Kikian^hien 26. TchinKAiUcliMU 37. Tounuf'ikoii 163. VouhoueitcIiMU 28. TcheUooutclico Hotcheou Houitclieoufou Mahoufou Kiatinutclieou Tchaiklngkoen NingiMinouei HochUo Lankuton Yongpefuu Hiongtcheoupou (himongfou Oueinlngfou Tcliinhngfou Kiensitcheou TsunRfou I'lnK^uenfou Tcliivtieiiluu Smaiifou Ton«infou Ytientcheou SoukiM! P.iiikinRrnii Heiigtcheoufou Nganhoahit'i) Sianutanhim Yeouhien Vongiihingliien Yuentcheoufbu Kinganfou Fiiulcheourou Kientchangfou Chaooufou Kiennhlnsfnu Ktngvuennien FouniJi i iigl rheou Fouli'heoufou Hluenichcoufou Ynngnganhlcn Yenpengfou Tingti'tieoiifou Oupinghicn Nhin^tou Kanlchcoufou Trhalintchcou Tt'hinutclicou Taotcheoii Thuentrhe■ Hoatchenu 131. Ixitlni(rhrou 13'^,SlntcheDufou 133. Kintthpou 131. Tai)pingfou I.Vi. Sinninfitrhmi I."''. .N'aiiP!ir'i;f''U 137. TlcncIwuiJ. — ".»..vm, III seven the depth of Uie j kiang rises in Thil (Contrary bend to tl Then, bending nori central provinces, n nvers appear each noblest, both by tht Book li- en I NA. ion Sect. I. G«tmntier is guarded with equtd care against the approach of foreigners. Communication it left o^icn at two solitary points: only one, the port of Canton to the maritime nnlions of Europe { tho other, Maimatchin, on the Sil)erian frontier, to the subjects of Uussia. The M>uth-wcstern angle alone touches upon civilised territories, partly the Birman empire, iwrtly Tonquin, now included in the empire of Anam, or Cochin-Cluna. 4.SS3. China Proper, now exclusively under consideration, may be generally stated a» eitending from 20° to 41° of north latitude, and (Voni 101° to ISS" of east longitude. This makes I'i60 geographical miles in length, by lOSO mtlnn in breadth. According to an of- ficial statement presented to Lord Macartney, and which might probably approach the truth, the superficial extent amounted to I,S98,000 square miles, or about eight times the dimen- sions of France. Of this vast surface, tho greater part consists of a level plain, alluvial, and sometimes marshy, but in general capable of tho highest cultivation, which it actually receives. 4333. Close observers, however, have traced contideral>lc chains ^ mountains traversing the empire. Of these, the most important teems to bo that which runs through the southern provinces, and ibrms a continuation, though on a much lower scale, of the Great Himalayah. In Yunan, on the western fVunticr, where it flntt enters the empire, its ridges, which appear to be very steep and lofty, nourish bands of lawless and predatory tribes. Uut in the eastern provinces, their pinnacles seldom rise above 3000 or 4000 feet ; and, being covered with noble forests, crowned with pagodas, and witli citie* along their sides, they give to the country a magniiicent aspect, without interrupting its culture and populousness. The ground also rises rapidly as it approachca the northern iVonticr, which is formed or crossed by mountains of considerable height, and over which that stupendous bulwark, the Great Wall, has been carried with incredible labour. Thetw chains also, according to Chinese maps, which form here our only authority, penetrate at diHorent pointa into the int?r!ar pro- vinces. 4334. The pride of China, and the exuberant source of her wealth and fertility, ct ciEist in the mighty rivers by which, through its entire breadth, tliu empire is traversed, i .ie two great twin streams of the Hoang-ho, or Yellow River, and the Kian-ku, or Yang-tse-kiang, rise from distant and almost unknown sources in tho heart of Tartary. The former, as it enters China, is bent by the frontier mountains into « nortlierly course, which it follows for several hundred miles, until it reaches the desert dvptht of northern Tartary. Fortunately for China, it then again bends, and, aAer making a circuit, flows, opposite and parallel to its former course, into the interior of the empire, and fertilises several of the finest provinces io its progress eastward to the Yellow Sea. Its banks hero arc entirely alluvial, and the quantity of mud and earth brought down with it give its waters the appeamnce of diluted cliy. According to Mr. Barrow, it pours into the sea, every hour, 2000 feet of solid earth, sufficient in seventy days to accumulate an island of n mile in circumference ; and, in fact, the depth of tlie Yellow Sea has been observetl very Hensibly to diminish. The Yang-tse- kiaiig rises in Thibet, very near to the Hoang-ho ; but in appronching China it takes a great contrary bend to the south, till it is at one point about 10(X) miles distant from the other. Then, bending northward, it approximates to the Hoang-ho, and, after watering all the great central provinces, reaches the sea by an estuary scarcely 100 miles distant from it. The two rivers appear each to flow upwards of 2000 miles { but tlie Yang-tsc-kiang is rendered the noblest, both by the magnitude of its stream, and by the superb cities witli which its banks M. Tchlimipmfcu m. Tonlbntcheou 14<>< Kouehoafim KI. Nak( oufl W- N»raul. U3. MoniUm IM. Tchellushmn. tome R^erences to (A« Uaf i/ ChiKa—cotaiitued. 145. Mongpan 146. SuenouettM 147. Monjipfal 18LE OP HAINAN. 1. Kionffnhcoufbu 8. Uiwntchcou S. TilMtchMU i.Hoiwao lliiwrt, 4c. ■ IJUI.H. b Sanfw, R. e Vumcleun Cuwl 3U il Tun Ik tlunna Y»Uo» ,, iHitn-kliuii, R. Ki«lln|t.k<«i{(,R. m l.tiU'lm^klAi^tiU. n tUi'ltlntift, R. Vxtm-klAiiK, R. |l ll«)H'kl«liK, R, q V>n«tw-klang Lake. I0S4 DESCRIPTIVE OEOOllAPHY. Pakt III. •re adorned. It ii called by the Chineae " the fint-born of Ocmui," and appear* to be without a rival, unleM among the waters of the New World. Both have great and nume. roue tributariea, which lerve important purpoies of commerce and irrigation. The I'eilio or river of Pekin, the Kan-kiang, and the river of Canton, afford alM valuable meant of internal communication. 4335. Of lakes, China compriies in its central region the Tongting, about 300 miles in circumference, and covered with a numerous population who subsist by fishing ; the Poyang, surrounded by picturesque and finely wooded hills, and by considerable cities ; with severs! othera of lesa magnitude ; but these, on the whole, do not cover any very great proportion of her vast surface. SicT. II. Natural Geography. SuBSECT. 1. Geology. 4336. The Geology of China is unknown. A few facts, in regard to its minerals, occur incidentally in books of travelH and works on the statistics of that vast empire. Ilubies, corundum, topas, tourmaline, lapis lazuli, jasper, agate, jade, marble, porphyry, granite syenite, are enumerated among the precious and ornamental minerals. Earthy felspar or kaolin, an important ingredient in the manufacture of porcelain, occurs abundantly in some parts of China ; and l)eds of coal are described as extending through considerable tracts in the northern parts of the country. Gold is obtained from the sand of rivers in the pro- vinces of Se-tchuen, and Yunan, near the frontiers of Thibet. SUver in the native state, and also combined with sulphur, antimony, and lead, or as ores, occur in considerable abund- ance ; but no mines of silver of importance are mentioned. No gold or silver money is coined. The tutenague is a white metallic substance, of which the Chinese make vessels and chandeliers. The copper pyritei, or yellow copper ore, of Yunan and other provinces, is used for nuking small coin, which is current throughout the whole empire. The pa-kfong, another ore of copper, is also extensively worked. Lead and (in, it is said, occur much less abundantly than copper : that which is exported from Canton _comes from Thibet and Japan. Mines of mercuru abound in Yunan. Realgar, or native sulph'iret of arsenic, ii employed by tiie Chinese, in blocks, for making pagodas and vases. Sdbskct. 2. Botany, 4337. China, situated between the 2 1st and 42d degrees of latitude, and the most easterly longitude of any part of the Old World, possesses a temperature which will appear very low, by comparison with tliat of the corresponding western countries that are washed by the Atlantic Ocean. 4338. From this circumstance, and from a reference to the notes relative to the vege- tation of China which are scattered in the writings of travellers, we shall admit that the Equatorial Flora of China does not extend lieyond the 27th parallel, even under the most favourable circumstances. If this idea be entirely correct, the chain of the Milin mountains, which runs from west to east for upwards of 1000 miles, and then turns abruptly to north-east when within a short distance of the sea, dividing from the rest of the empire the southern provinces of Yunan, Koang-si, Canton, and the eastern pro- vince of Fo-kien, marks the termination of the Equatorial and the commencement of the Transition Zone. 4339. With regard to temperature, M. de Humboldt, on grounds unknown to us, states the mean of Canton to be + 22 -9°. He observes that the thermometer sometimes siniis to zero, and that, by the power of radiation, frost sometimes forms on the terraces of the bouses. The latter assertion is confirmed by the remarks of Lord Macartney and of Knisenstern, The English embassy, arriving in Canton in December, 1793, found that a fire in the chimney was by no means unwelcome, and thirteen years afterwards, in the same month, Krusenstern saw that ice was selling in the streets. These colds are instantaneous; snddo not prevent the vegetation from being entirely equatorial. 4340. Among the most remarkable families of plants in the southern provinces, we shall enumerate the Palms, the Laurel, and Caper tribes, the Menispermese, Malvaceo!, Bombaces, Camellias, Temstromiaces, Aurantiacese, Sapindacese, Magnoliaces, Tcrebinthaces, Rhamnes, Leguminosae, Myrtacete, &c. The cultivator grows together, the Banana, Guava, Orange, Papaw, Cocoa, Litchi, Tea, Sugar-cane, Peach, Apricot, Vine, Pom^ granate, and Chestnut ; but the latter seldom produce good fruit. This combination of the trees of India and Asia Minor may also be observed on the western coast of the Isle of Formosa, between the V!2d and 25th degrees of latitude. 4341 . Few of the vegetables of the Equatorial me are seen beyond the Milin mountains. The northern side of these mountains, sometimtA rocky and barren, in other places over- shadowed with large fore°*s of Oak, Hornbeam, and Poplar, are subject to long and severe winters, during which tiie valleys are covered with snow. Between these mountains Booa II. (Ut. S50 to the Tkanaii Fonwgrana Apricot, an Papaw, not regions. 1 India (Meli cumnmiiiiiu um point out the CA?-650.); wh Which is in Se-i l>ably colder thai 'ne Sugar-cane '" mLuraiA tiuiruAi (Ut. iSP to 87°) and the Yvllow Klvar (lat. 85°], vegeUtloii prMtnta all tha pwuUwiUcs of the IVamiUon Zone. Various tpecie* of Orange, Lemon, Tea, 8ugar>caii«, Hie*, and Fonwgranala, the Black and White Mulberries, the Vine, Walnut, Cheatnul, Peach, Apricot, and Fig, are grown on the lame ipot ; but neither the Paima, Banana, Ouava, Papaw, nor any other ipeciea which requires the steady and continued heat of the equatorial regions. The plains produce a species of Bambusa, the Phyllanthus Niruri, the Pride of India (Metta AMdarach) (Jig. 647.), and SUIIingia sebifera (Jg. 648.), which yields a kind 647 Am "^ '*'** ''*** '* "**'*^*'*'"*(' into ~ ^^ candles by the Chinese, the Thea chinensis, several Camellias, among them the Sasanqua (flrom which they extract an oil of very inferior quality to that of Olea europaea, which is unknown to them), the Olea fragrans, So- phora japonica, Sterculia pla- tanifolia, Ailanthus glandulosa, Vitex indsa, some Cleroden- drons. Mimosas, Neriums, and Rhamni , the Horsechestnut, the Abies orientalis and Pinus Maa- soniana, probably also Pinus Ion- gifolia and P. Pinea (for we sur- mise tliis latter to be the fir tree, from the large cones of which, the Cliinctie were uxn, by Staunton to collect, and eat eagerly the kernels), different kinds of Juniper and Cypress, the Cunninghamia lanceolata (Jig. 649.), Podocarpus macrophylla, Thi^a orientalis, Sallows, &c. 4342. On the lovely banks of the Yang-tse-kiang, or Blue River, and of the soutliem streams which swell its waters, the Camphor tree, the Styllingia sebifera, the Chestnut and Bamboo (that giant of the Grass tribe), grow together, with the Pines, Thija, and Cypress, whose dark hues and uniform aspect contrast strikingly with the rich, brilliant, and varied vegetation which surrounds them. The Nelumbo, or Sacred Bean of India (Q/amiu Nelutnbo), displays its superb flowers on this river. Tlie Bamboo forms forests in Tche-kiang (lat. 29° to 30°,) and with the Pine follows the boundaries of Kiang>si (lat. 24° to 30°), and of Kiang-nan (lat. 25° to 30°). The whole zone obounds with Conifers, and the mountains are adorned with Pines, or, at least, with large trees bearing so close an affinity with them, that a botanist alone could point out the difference. In Kiang-si, whole hills are covered with Camellia Sasanqua (^.650.); while those which encircle tlie town of Thong-kiang (lat. 29°) are crowned with Orange trees. This tree, with the "Ltmyn, is still seen at Koue-te-fou (lat 34° 30^), on the right bank of the Yellow River. Every where the Tea plant grows in the hedges. Staunton, the editor of Macartney's Travels, assigns lat. 30° as the northern limit of this khrub ; but he is in error: it grows much farther. The leaves are gathered at Tchang-tchou>fou, in lat 32°, and, if Linnaeus be correct, also at Pekin ; which does not seem improbable, though there is no poutive confirmation of the statement, since Ksmpfer avers that it is found in the vicinity of Jeddo, in the Japanese island of Niphon, where the tem- perature in winter must be very low. Supposing the fact to be correct as stated by Linnaus, it will afford an ad- ditional proof of what the influence of summer heat can effect in fortifying against the cold of winter. The Sugar cane has not been traced farther north than lat 29° or 30° ; which is in Sc-tchuen, a western province, bounded by the mountains of Thibet, and pro- 1)ab1y colder than the maritime districts in the same latitude ; which induces the belief that the Sugar-cane is probal>ly cultivated more to the north, in Tche-kiang and Kiang-nan. In tlie more northerly parts of China, winter displays many of its characteristics in the course of the seasons. In lat 30°, near the port of Hing-pe, Styllingia sebifera sheds ita leaves in November. A degree and a half north of this place, at the mouth of the Blue River, winter prevails for a fortnight, during which snow falls nightly, and melts at the first rays of the sun. Bouvet, an eye-witness, relates that in February, 1688, at seventy-five miles Iron) the sea, in lat 34°, the snow fell, and the Hoang-ho, or Yellow River, was obstructed 3 U 2 cumniiaiiAMU LAiicniii.AT** 650 CAHII.riA fAHAKQIlA. lOM DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHY. P*M III. CAMIUI* JAPOIWA- witti ira, the Utter having probably been brouf ht bjr the water from • higher part of tht country. It wemt inconteatable that in Pctche-li, which doea not extend bvyond lat. 43° but which riwa gradually from the Iloang-ho and the Yellow Sea to the Great Wall, th« riven are froien from the end of November to the middle of March ; and that, at Pekln (in lot. 390 54*), the winters are very wverc, though the Oleander, the Vitcx Negundo, and the Sacred Bean of India grow in its environi. 4:)43. The above-stated fact* warrant the taking of the Yellow River and the Hoii-ho River •« the line of separation lietween the Transition and the Temperate Zones. 4344. After the above extended remarks, from the laborious Mirbel, on the general ven. taiion of China, it cannot be supposed that we shall enter at large upon the few intcreatinit species which are familiar to us, either from their use or their beauty, whence thvy have recommended themselves to general culture in our green-houses. vnd conservatories; atnonir which will rank pre-eminent the Camellias, with the almost unlimited variations of C. jg. ponica {Jig. 651>). The Sugar-cane (Saccharum qfflcituirum), though so cxtennively culti- vated in the West Indies and elsewhere, is consiilcred to lie a native of China. The same may perhaps he said of the Orange. Rice {(hyza laliva), equally distributed through the warmer re- gions of the Old and the New World, is perhaps more generally grown in China than in any other part of our globe ; and the name is applied to a Chinese production, a most delicate mate- rial for drawing upon, and for manufacturing artificial flowen, known under the appellation of Rice Paper, from an incorrect notion, perhaps, that Rice was employed in its compoaitlon. But if this paper be held up between the eye and the light, an exquisitely beautiful cellular tissue is discoverable, such as no art of man could produce or imitate. It was, then, a subject of much gratificatinn to us, that our late friend. Dr. Livingstone, surgeon to the Factory at Canton, favoured us with a apeclmen of the paper, enclosing a portion of the stem of the plant from which it is cut. The latter is evidently herbaceous ; the piece is about four inches long, hollow in the centre, with a mem- brnnous transverse septum at each end, so that it appears to be the joint of a stem. The diameter is about an inch, and the thickness of the parenchymatous substance is little more than half an inch, but of the purest possible white. This piece might, therefore, be cut into a sheet or leaf, though only of four inches in length, yet of considerable breadth : for it would of necessity be cut in such a manner as to unroll like a scroll of common paper. 4345. The cutting of this material into leaves or lamina is not performed by transverse sections, but made vertically round the stem. The most perfect stems are selected for this purpose; few, however, being so free from knots as to produce a cutting more than nine or ten inches long. 4346. R was Or. Livingstone who first brought from China to Europe a quantity of this substance, which he presented, about 29 years ago, to Miss Jane Jack, who was celebrated for the beauty and accuracy of her artificial flowers. Formed of rice paper, the; obtained additional celebrity, fetched very high prices, and were eagerly sought for by persons of the greatest rank and most acknowledged taste. For a bouquet which Miss Jack presented to the late Princess Charlotte she received the regal present of 70/. 4347. (>'%«» Dr. Livingstone first procured the rice paper from the Chinese, the pieces did not exceed four inches square ; they were dyed of various shades and colours, and cost about 6d. each square. Since that time the price bos been much reduced, and the size of the pieces increased, so as to be upwards of a foot long and five inches across, and preserv- ing their natural whiteness. The tinted pieces are employed by the Chinese for their ani- ficial flowers, and the plain white for making drawings upon. Now, this material is so much esteemed in Europe, that it is in request with all persons who visit Canton. 4348. It is to be regretted that the plant producing this curious and beautiful material is nut known to botanists ; for we are satisfied that, in the Botanical Miscellany (vol. i. p. 90.), two substances are confounded under the name of Rice paper, the soft and spongy stems of the .Sschynomene paludosa (called Shola in Hindostan, and described at page 963. of this work), and the stems producing the substance in question, which are of a far more delicate texture, peculiar, we believe, to China, and, as far as can be judged from a drawing which has been communicated to us, belonging to the Malvaces ; an opinion, as we think, also entertained by Professor Lindley. 4349. Tea is a vegetable which has lately risen into such infinite importance to nwnliini), and which is so restricted, in its still extended cultivation, to China and its dependencies, that we should hardly be exeused did we not oflfer some remarks upon it. Two kinds of Tea plant are commonly cultivated in our green-houses ; the one under the name of Thea viridis, or Green Tea, the other of Thca Bohea, or Black Tea ; and which appeilationi Bool II. CHINA. lOfT had been given them, p*rtly, m It would appaar, on account of the relatlvt colours of th« folinge, ai)d partly under the imprewion that the former produced the Green Tea of the ihop«, and thv latter the Ulack Tea. But this idea leema to be founded upon no good authority, aa we ihall prenently aiiow ; and even with regard to T. viridia and T. Bohea, botanUti are by no meana agreed aa to their apeciiic identity : indeed, a general opinion now prvvaila that thev are mere varietiea ; an opinion, however, in which we do not coincide. Tliea viridia ia a large, atrona-growing, almoat hardy plant, with iu bronchea spreading, ita leaves three to five inches long, very broadly lanceolate, pale green, aingularly waved, .h« margin reflected ; the flowera are large, solitary, mostly confined to the upper axil : they appear in th« autumn aii weeka or two montha earlier than those of T. Dohea (Jig. 653.) : while the latter ia of smaller siae, with remarkably erect stiflf branches, leavea not above half or two thirda the aize of tha former, perfectly flat, more coriaceous, dark green, bearing, in the axils of numerous leaves, two or three flowers, which are smaller and liave a slight fragrance, and are in perfection during winter. It will not endure our frosts. Both kind* are indeed so frequent in our collections, that every one has ' the opportunity of examining them and exercising liia own judgment aa to the importance of their characters. The diffi- culty is much greater in determining which of these specie* is the one cultivated in China : whether both may not be em> ployed in the production of the different kinds of Tea, or whe- tliur they may not be indiscriminately used : for the Chinese ar« exceedingly jealous over the processes employed in the pre- paration of Teas ; and, the Tea country being at a great distaiwe from the European Factory, it is very doubtful if any sci- entific person has, from actual personal observation, been able to decide the question. An assertion is, indeed, (and, per- haps rather too hastily,) made in the General System of Gardening and Botany, namely, that " all the different kinds of teas brought to this country from China are the produce of Thea viridis ; " and again, under Thea Bohea, " This is falsely called Bohea Tea ; aa we find the Bohea teaa of the shops, as well as other kinds, both green and black, to be the leaves of the former species, T. viridis." Dr. Abel, in his Narrative of a Journey to the Interior oj China, satisfactorily notices the two kinds of tea plant under consideration, and he adds, '■ from persons conversant with the Chinese method, I learned that either of the two plants will afford the black or green tea of the shops ; but that the broad, thin-leaved plant (T. viridis) is preferred for making the green tree." This statvinent is corroborated by our valued friend, Charles Millett, Esq. of Canton, who holds a high official situation in the Company's Factory there, and to whom we wrote to request information on the subject. " The Toa plant," he says, •' is almost as scarce in the neighbourhood of Canton as it is in England. The tea country is at a great distance from hence, and the teas brouj^ht to Canton are several months on their route by inland navigation. Of the plants there are two kinds ; of which one has a leaf of a much darker green than the other. This differ- ence may partly arise from cultivation ; but it is to the various modes of preparation, that the green and black Teas (as they are called in England) of commerce, are due. In proof of this, we sent home, lost year, Green Tea from the Black Tea plant : you may, therefore, conclude, that though there are two plants, differing as much in appearance and growth as any two varieties of the Camellia japonica, each, by proper management, will produce black or green Tea indiflTerently. The varieties of teas from the several provinces arise from soil, culture, mode of preparation, and, above all, from the part of the shrub whence the leaves are pulled. From the same individual plant, indeed, there are three crops or gatherings annually ; the first affords the finer teas, of which the Pouchong is the produce of the larger leaves on the young shoots. The extreme shoots, with the opening leaf buds, constitute the Feko. This is, in England, commonly supposed to be the flowers : but an examination, after infusion, will clearly show its origin. The first picking takes place in June, the second in July, and the third in August." 4350. We may add, that Kcempfer's figure of the Japanese Tea plant, which is evidently the plant in general culture in that empire, is the Thea Bohea, not the T. viridis. 4351. The native country of both the species, is, probably, various parts of China ; and the cultivation seems to be confined to the Temperate Zone, extending to the northern provinces of the Empire, and as far as lat. 45° N. in Japan. But the Tea districts, properly so called, are thus stated by Dr. Abel : — that of the Green Tea is in the province of Kiang-nan, between 29° and 31° N. lat., at the north-western base of a ridge of moun- tains, whi(h divides the provinces of Tche-kiang and Kiang-nan : the Black tea district, in the province of Fo-kien, is contained within lat. S27° and 28° N., and is situated on the south-eastern declivities of a ridge of mountains dividing the province of Fo-kien from that of Kiang-si, 3U 3 109(1 D£SCIIIPTIV£ GEOGRAPHY. P»KT III, 495S. The different kinds of tea of commerce, as known to us in Europe, are not very numerous : but the Baron de Schilling has given the names of thirty-six sorts, copied from a Chinese MS. in his possession. Some of the appellations are very curious. The Black or Bohea Teas, if we may judge from their names, are most esteemed ; such as Lao-kiun-mei or " venerable old man's eyebrows ; " Pekao, " while heurs," " palm if the immortals" &q. The leaves of some kinds are used to dye stuffs black, others of a golden colour. All the different sorts of tea may be distinguished, by the experienced merchant, merely by the taste. The situation of assayer of teas at Canton requires this sort of faculty : •nd the individual who holds it enjoys a salary of 1000/. per annum for tasting teas only ! 4353. The quantity of tea produced in China must be enormous ; for, with the exception of Japan, it has not been found practicable, though oflen attempted in Brazil and elsewhere (and mainly on account of the higher price of labour), to cultivate it to advantage any where but in China Proper : and there the Tea plant is spread, and not very thinly spread, over a square area of 1,372,450 square miles. It is now a common beverage throughout the whole civilised world. Its use in China reaches to a very high antiquity. An Indian prince, according to the Japanese, a holy and religious character, of the name of Darma visited China, .^bout the year 516 of the Christian era, with a view to instruct the natives in the duties of religion. He led a life of great abstinence, and denied all manner of rest >:r relaxation to his body ; but he was at lengtli so weary of his fatigues and fasting, that he fell asleep. As a penance for so great a dereliction from duty, he cut off both his own eye- brows, the instruments and ministers of his crime, and threw them upon the ground : each eyebrow became a shrub, and that shrub the one now called Tea ; whose virtues were, till then, as unknown to the world as the plant itself. Darma quickly discovered the agreeable properties of the foliage, which endowed bis mind with fresh powers to pursue his divine meditations. Having recommended the use of it to his disciples, it soon became general in China, and has now extended to the remotest regions of the earth : while the individual who first discovered its qualities is held in remembrance by a rude figure, in Chinese and Japanese drawings, of an old man standing upon water, with a reed under his feet, and one of his eyebrows sprouting out into a tea leaf. 4354. Linschot is said to be the first traveller who tells of an herb with which the Japanese prepare a drink, and which they offer to their guests as a mark of high consider- ation. Caspar Bauhin speaks of it, in his Pinax, under the name of Cha. It was very early in the 1 7th century that tea first became known in Europe ; and we are assured that the Dutch at first carried on a trade, by recommending the Sage of this country, which they gave in exchange for Tea of China. The use of the former soon ceased ; while that of the fatter daily increased among us. Little more than a century ago, according to Lord Macartney, the English East India Company did not sell more than 50,000 lbs. of tea, and very little was smuggled. In 1 784, the consumption of Great Britain was estimated at 1,333,814 lbs. : now, that of Great Britain and Ireland, exclusive of the dependencies, •mounts to more than 28,000,000 lbs. 4355. Lords Arlington and Ossory brought home a quantity of tea from Holland, •bout the year 1666, at which time it was sold for 60j. per lb. But the practice of tea- drinking, even in public coffee-houses, was not uncommon in England prior to that period; for, in 1660, a duty of 8d. per gallon was laid on the liquor made and sold in all coffee-houses. 4356. In the sister country of Scotland, a century more elapsed before tea was generally known. It has been stated, and, we believe, on the authority of Sir Walter Scott, as proving how long a time had passed before tea came into common use in his native land, that people •re yet living who recollect how the Lady Pumphraston, to whom a pound of Jine green In had been sent as a rare and valuable present, boiled the same, and served it up with melted butter, as condiment to a salted rump of beef, and complained that no cooking she could contrive " would make these foreign greens tender ! " 4357. America carries on a vast trade in this article : but Russia is stated to rank neit to Great Britain, inasmuch as 25,200,000 lbs. of tea are yearly imported and consumed by the Russians. Their trade with the " celestial empire," as may be conjectured by the proiimity of their territories, is by land : and it is said, that, in consequence of it, the tea is of a superior quality to that which has been subjected to a long voyage. It is sent from Russia tu Ger- many, where it fetches a high price, under the name of Caravan Tea. But, in Russia, • peculiar kind of tea, not known in other parts of Europe (and, indeed, in Russia its consumption is confined to the Asiatic territories), is Brick Tea ; a term frequently made use of in the interesting travels of Lcdebour in the Alta'ic Mountains, and which has lately been explained to us, and a specimen shown us, by the Reverend William Swan, an intelli- gent missionary, who has resided for ten years at Selinginsk, in Asiatic Russia, where Brick Tea is in very general use among the Mongolian tribes and Bouriats. It is produced al Fo-kien, and consists of old or coarse damaged leaves and stalks pressed into moulds and dried in the oven. Of this a small quantity is taken, pounded in a mortar, and infused for • long time in boiling water before the infuaion is ready ; which, however, is too bad for tin Book IL Chinese tasi sometimes fl 4358. Lit Europe : bu bear the voyi Osbeck brouj board during they turned o ing it (any m after, one re landing, the < At length, Li moment of bii and the growl 1763, and tran 4359. T^n ever recollect t Asia. The vaj population has size, nor can ma cultivated. Thi the empire whili 4360. Of the birds, now in Ei sources. The 1 appear as nativi these, namely, th 653 ^«61. /*<«»*, deli goldandailverfllhof 4362. The Inse qeal boxes, well pi My emits a strong 's one of the largt w'ngs to the other *^ Tie mile m WlilTM WAS II JL"'1'° ""ave come oi P««ri to l,e other specie of nearly equal vSua Book IL CHINA. 10» limity of superio' to Ger- Russia, ;ussia its tly maJ« MS lately ,i\ inlelli- ^rc Brick iducedit Chinese taste. The people above mentioned generally add to it a little salt and milk, and' sometimes flour, fried in oil. 4358. LinntBus had the honour of introducing this interesting and valuable plant alive to Europe : but not till he had experienced many disappointments. The seeds would never bear the voyage ; for, like all oily seeds, they turned rancid in a short time. His pupil Osbeck brought a living plant as far as the Cape of Good Hope, where it was washed over- board during a storm. Lagerstroem conveyed two shrubs, for the true tea, to Upsal : but they turned out to be Camellias, which the Chinese call by the same name ; not distinguish, ing it (any more than some able European botanists) generically from Thea. Some time after, one reached the harbour of Giittenburg in good health : but, the evening before landing, the captain set the plant on the table of his cabin, where it was eaten by rats. At length, Linnaeus advised Captain Elaberg to sow the fresh seeds in pots of earth at the moment of bis departure from China; so that they might vegetate after passing the line; and the growing plants were thus brought in ssiiety to Giittenburg on the 3d Ootoberr 1763, and transported to the botanic garden of UpsaL SuBSKCT. 3. Zoologjf- 4359. The native Zoology of China is as little known as its internal geography ; nor do we ever recollect to have seen or heard of preserved animals having been sent from this part of Asia. The vague accounts of the old travellers cannot be much relied upon. Excessive population has no doubt extirpated or driven away the native quadrupeds of any considerable size, nor can many birds be expected in a country where every acre of ground is sedulously cultivated. These remarks, of course, apply only to those provinces which form the heart of the empire while, of the rest we are in complete ignorance. 4360. Of the Ornithology, some notion may be formed from the numerous drawings of birds, now in Europe, executed by native artists, and from a few gleanings made from other sources. The Pheasants of the interior are magnificent birds, and no less than four species appear as natives of the northern provinces bordering towards Central Asia. Three of these, namely, the Ring, the Golden or Painted {Jig. 653.)i <^d the Pencilled Pheasants, ^^^^^^^ have been long domes- 653 ^«dfll!I^^^^Bi^^k. ticated ; and, from their great beauty, are the chief ornaments of our aviaries ; but the Superb Pheasant (P. superbus) is only known from drawings, and from its beautiful tail feathers, which f>czasionally are sent to Europe as curi- osities. 4361. The Fith, delineated bv the natives, exhibit > great variety ; and ftom China we have derived the gold and tilver fish of our ponds. 4362. The Insects are numerous and splendid. The common sorts are put into little deal boxes, well preserved, and sold to Europeans at the factories. The Chinese Lantern Fly emits a strong phosphoric light from its long trunk-like snout. Tlie Bombyx Atlas F. is one of the largest moths in the world, measuring full eight inches from one tip of the wings to the other. 4363. The White Wa* Inttct {Jig. 65, a) deserves a more particular notice, as producing an important neces. uirv nf UfA. Thn nprfppfr in«M^t th\ hnR hppn mmed bv Fabricius Ci. 654 ._„___ Sir Oeorge Staunton mentions them as inaecti not much exceeding the site of a fly, having very curious pectinated appendages, rising in a curve, and bending towards the head) the wnole Insect being covered with a white powder : this powdery substance is imparted to the stems of the plants, upon which these Insects are found in thicli clus- ters ; it Is then col- lected by the natives} hot vegetable oil Is then applied, and the whole, when cold, coagulates, and becomes as firm as bees* wax. As a me- dicinal drug it Is in high estimation throughout China, and, when made into candles. Is reckoned superior, for that pur. pose, to bees' wax. , _ 4364. Tht Silkworm, now cultivated In southern Europe, ii laid to have come originally Arom China, and there ap- pears to be other species capable of producing silk coccoons of nearly equal value The singularity of this people is 3 U 4 OOLDBR rHKASANT. wMira WAS nnsoT* 1080 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paw hi, UkewiM apparent In their fbndnen for twautlAil Insect* and iplendld beetles (Buprettidei), and ror twautlAil Insects : Uttle cagei with living ipeclmeni of shinln. Id of chirping Cicadas, being exposed In the markcu, and hun> In the drawing-rooms, for the amusement of the wealtnjr. " 436S, Tlie Domeilic Animals are better known than the wild ones. The Chinese Oxen are of the humnni kid, and appear to be of two breeds. One is equal to the smaller British race, with very short hornrL bent back, and the colour of the hide frequently white {Jig. 655.). The other, or dwarf Zebu, ia so wnn derniUy small as not to exceed the siic of a hog : it Is commonly greyish white, with or without very little boms. The Pigs, also, are proverbially small Skct. III. Historical Geographi/. 4366. No countrif has experienced fewer revolutions than China, or has sustained so little change from those to which it has been actually subjected. The brief notices of the Roinaii liistorians, in the first centuries, represent the Chinese to have been precisely such a people as they now are, — quiet, peaceable, industrious; and to have had, even at this early period, silk and perhaps tea, for their staple productions. The Chinese, indeed, possess a much more complete and connected series of annals than any other nation of Asia. Some of these indeed, are manifestly fabulous, ascending to a period of 49,000 years. The Shoo-king however, the first strictly official portion, begins only at the credible date of 3000 years before Christ. At that time, the country is represented to have been in a state of almost complete barbarism, and the invention, first of the necessary and then of the ornamental arts, is ascribed, in these regal documents, to successive early kings of China. It appears, liow- ever, that, about five centuries before the Christian era, China was divided among a number of petty princes, who acknowledged in the emperor little more than a feudal supremacy. About this time arose Confucius, whose master mind, improving, probably, on the idi>as of his predecessors, established those principles of law, manners, and government which have since predominated in China. A series of struggles continued during many ages, These being at length suppressed, a complete despotism, tempered, indeed, by institu- tions and customs calculated to give it a mild and protecting character, was established, Thus situated, the nation lost its military energy, and became an easy prey to those barbarous neighbours who roam over the high table-lands of central Asia. But China has civilised her invaders ; and the manners and institutions of the empire have survived the shocks of successive conquest. The most perilous was that made in the thirteenui century by Ziiigls Khan, a ferocious chief, who committed destructive ravages, and L>ven formed the dreadful design of converting all China into a pasture-field ; but this project was happily renounced, iflis successors made it their study to maintain, restore, and reform the abuses of the Chinese institutions. They were supplanted by a native Chinese dynasty, bearing the appellation of Ming ; but in the commencement of the seventeenth century the Mandshur Tartars, from the northern side of the Gi, order, and respect to parents, the favourite Chinese virtues ; and especial stress is laid uiH)n tbdr duties as faithful subjects and as payers of taxes. A portion of the man- darins are employed in carrying on those examinations according to which the several dignities are bestowed. Those for the lowest degree are conducted by a special class migrating for that purpose from place to place. The second degree must be the result of an examination in the capital city of the province, and under the eye of the governor. The highest rank of tsints^, here translated doctor, must be the result of a triennial examination at Pekin. It is considered necessary for all high and independent command, even for the governor of a city of the second or third rank. A few doctors, under the appellation of han-lin, obtain superior distinction and respi t. According t> an established regulation, each indi- vidual who attains any of the prescribed ranks i-.i literature is promoted, according to wniority, and as vacancies occur, to the corresponding places in the government; and, though there appear to be many instances of favour, fraud, and even bribery, the general practice is conformable to this rule. Various and strict regulations arc also made, to restrain I'ach mandarin witliin the limits of his duty. No one receives office in his native province, oi: even in the adjoining one ; and the same functionary is rarely continued in the same place more than three years. A triennial survey is performed, and reports are made by tlie higher officers on the conduct of their inferiors. All these precautions are not, it is sup- posed, sufficient to guard against much corruption and misgovernment ; which, in so extensive a system, may be readily believed, not only from the unfortunate propensity of human nature tu abuse power, but flrom the degraded character which despotism naturally produces in its agents. Yet, that a system which maintains by much the greatest mass of population any where united under one government in a state of uninterrupted industry, order, and well- being, should be radically bad and corrupt, seems a very rash and hasty conclusion. _ 4;I70. The taws of China have been compiled not with any large or statesman-like views, hut with a minute and elaborate care to lay down the various descriptions of offence, and apportion to each a suitable punishment. The cane is the grand instrument of govern- ment; and all China has been compared to a school, kept in awe by the rod of a master. For its application, the law specifies two distinct dimensions of length and thickness, and more pointedly fixes the number of blows to be inflicted on the offender. For crimes of a deeper dye than those which the cane can chastise, banishment in different degrees is inflicted ; and for those still more flagrant, death is awarded. Mercy, however, may be, and is exer- loss DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAFHY. P*»T in. daed by commuting punishments of every grade with different sums, according to a schedule which the law carefully fixes. The Chinese have not improved so far in legislation as to abolish the barbarous practice of endeavouring to extract confession by torture, and that of visiting the crime of the guilty upon his innocent family. The objects of punishment ore generally speaking, reasonable, and resemble those of other civilised nations ; but there is an attempt minutely to detail the various shades of guilt, and to fix a degree of punishment corresponding to each, which is vain, and even ridiculous. This detail is peculiarly copious in cases of bribery and corruption, the extensive prevalence of which is thus proved, and at the same time is probably very imperfectly guarded against. The Chinese laws have also the infirmity common to some early codes, of interfering in concerns beyond their province ; such as forms, ceremonies, dress, and little transactions beneath the notice of a legislator. The manner in which an inferior bows to, or salutes his superior ; the terms of the card written to him ; the mode in which it is to be folded ; the ceremonial of visiting are all fixed by statute. Whether a Chinese sits down or rises up ; whether he receives com- pany at home or walks abroad, there is a rule fixed ; and the cane is always at hand to punish ite violation. 4371. Upon the whole, the police xs vigilant and effective ; and the laws are certainly not sanguinary ; since in 1784, the entire number of persons condemned to death is stated by Amiot at 1384, a number deemed unusually large; yet, at a moderate estimate of the total population, it would not be more than one in 108,000. 4372. The revenue of China is derived chiefly from the land tax, or rather rent ; for the sovereign, as in other Asiatic despotisms, is held to be the general proprietor. According to the usual Oriental scale, one tenth of the produce is levied. There is no lease, but ejection is not usual. The inferior kinds of grain are exempted. The produce is paid chiefly in kind, and is conveyed to Pekin in the imperial barges {fig. 656.) through the canals and rivers. The tax on ^^^ salt is also very heavy, and its pro- duce reckoned at about a fourth of the land tax ; and another fourth is supposed to be constituted by the duties on imports and exports, the transit duties from province to province, and a variety of minor sources. Of the manufactured os well as the landed produce, a por- tion is paid in kind into the trea- sury The only estimate of its amount hitlierto formed in Europe is derived from a Chinese Ency. clopsedia, where it is rated at 12,000,000/. sterling, which in Britain might be reckoned equal in value to four times that sum. With such an impost, China would not appear at all heavily taxed according to its population ; but there is a question, whether this includes the taxes levied in kind, and if it does not, the heaviest of the Chinese burder.s would not be included. 4373. The military fitrce of China has been represented, in regard to numbers, at least, as very imposing : it has every been made to amount to millions. Grosier and Van Braam, buw- oaiKA BASon. CHinSB MILITABT. ever, seem to agree in fixing the actual number at about 800,000. The greater part are a mere militia, in which the population, when called upon, are liable to serve. Their appearance IJ^- 657.) and habits are most unmiirtary, and they are scarcely called out unless for purposcsof police; to pursue robbers, and pass muster on state occasions. Their paper helmets, waddcil Book II. gowns, quillmi p Dutch ambassad himself with gut tlie throne. Noi principal stations cavalry, who flgh ciplined Europea resistance. It a| only of gunpowd present constitute 4374. TheChn conveyance of tril smuggling and pi beat the whole of 4375. A'o natioi ence. The lanils, care, without exai agriculture is teatil subjects guiding t skill, science, or ca ments, and almost and by the aid of t and inundate the i two crops are in ^ mountains are fori water, and allow w The Chinese steep avoid the waste of frames, and carried and tempering then and adhesive clay, i noted for their ex pi employed, is an ol which are never thi collected ; to whicl refuse which the s this manure, howev ployed in raising , white herb, which i 4376. A grand on the hills of sc It is a bushy shru branches almost fr( vated, they are set i the leaves, are arti green and black tei by Dr. Hooker, in ( and part of Canton Tche-kiang. Thoyi mcnts, like gardens highly flavoured, th( plucked early in th congou, souchong, imperial, hyson, andn through the fingers charcoal fire. Th» separate the differen 4377. Among ot be taller and more j small scale as all ot grounds. The can( machinery of a ehai purpose. MuWerry the empire. Tliest Book II. CHINA. loss gowns, qulhwl pettlcMt*, and vlumiy wtln boots, exhibit nothing of the aspect of war. lliit Dutch ambasiaaon remiurk, (hat tlie vinuoror docs not, lilie other Asiatic princes, surround himself with guards, or maintain, even in the cnpiul, a body of troops for the support of tlie throne. Notlilng more was obiwrved at Pekin than small piquete at the gates and principal stations. The most really vflVetive corps is that of the Tartars, consisting of light cavalry, who flght with the how. Mr. Barrow, however, does not doubt that 20,000 dis- ciplined European troops might march ttom Pekin to Canton, without meeting any serious resistance. It appears ttum aiii'lvnt records that the Chinese and Tartars made use not only of gunpowder, but even of Rontuthlng resembling cannon ; but artillery does not at present constitute any part of the eflVctlve force of the empire. 4374. The Chineie gotvrnmPHt haw, as already observed, very numerout barges, for the conveyance of tributei and other aecommodatlons i also a few armed vessels to suppress smuggling and piracy ) but nothing which can called a navjf. An English frigate would beat the whole of their maritime force. Siev. V. t*roditeiive Induttry. 4375. Xo nation ii toJiimeU JUr itiduilry, In all the arts that minister to human subsist- ence. The lands, in particular, which are at all capable of culture, are tilled with a minute care, witliout example among any other people. The peculiar importance attached to agriculture is testifled bv an annual festival, in which the emperor exhibits himself to his subjects guiding the pmuuli. It Is nut, however, supported by any large application of skill, science, or capital. The Chlne«e carry on farming on a small scale, with rude instru- ments, and almost no cattle. Their chief exertions arc employed in irrigating their iields ; and by tlie aid of the chain pnnip, they draw water out of their numerous rivers and canals, and inundate the crops of rice an HOun as they are sown. This is done twice a year, and two crops are in general raUed annually, without intermission or rotation. The highest mountains are formed into terrateN, so constructed as to retain the requisite quantity of water, and allow what is superfluous to pass | and reservoirs are formed on the summits. The Chinese steep the seed-corn In liquid manure, and use the drill husbandry in order to avoid the waste of seed In brotuteait i and the crop, when reaped, is placed on bamboo frames, and carried home on men'H ihoutders. Oreat care is also taken in transporting soils, aad tempering them by mixture with those of an opposite character, as sand with a thick and adhesive clay, and marl with tolls ttiat are too light. But the Chinese are, above all, noted for their expedients In colleeling manure, which, from the small number of cattle employed, is an object of great Hcarclty. Substances are appropriated to this purpose which are never thought of elwewhere. The urine of men and animals is most sedulously collected ; to which is added human hair, all sorts of decayed herbs, with every offal and refuse which the strictest scrutiny can discover in the corners of streets and cities. As this manure, however, is little required <>» the inundated lands, it is in a great measure em- ployed in raising culinary vegetables, iinrtlcularly a species of brassica, called petsai, or white herb, which forms a fltvourlte article of food with the Chinese. 4376. A grand and peculiar omeet of Chinese industry is the tea plant. It flourishes on the hills of southern China, chiefly between the tropic and the latitude of 30°. It is a bushy shrub, somewhat resembling the rose or myrtle tree, and which shoots leafy branches almost fVom tlie bottom uf the trunk. The plants occur wild ; but when culti- vated, they are set in rows, four feet fWim each other, and, for the convenience of collecting the leaves, are artiflcially prevented iVum rising beyond a certain height. Whether tlie green and black teas be the produce of dlflbrent species of plants, is a question discussed by Dr. Hooker, in the section on Chinese botany. The black teas grow chiefly in Fokien, and part of Canton ; the green In the more southerly districts of Kiang-nan, Kiang-si, and Tche-kiang. They are raised In elevated and hilly districts, and generally in small compart- ments, like gardens. The earlier the leaves are plucked they are the more valuable and highly flavoured, though, of course, the produce is smaller. In black tea, a few leaf-buds plucked early in the spring conNlltute pekoe. The successive later pluckings form the congou, souchong, and. liMtly, huhea. Green tea is similarly divided into gunpowder, imperial, hyson, and twniikay. The leaves are rolled into the usual form by being passed through the fingers of a female, and then dried on thin earthen and iron plates over a charcoal fire. The merchanta arrive at the end of harvest, give it a second drying, separate the different qualities, and, after packing It in large chests, convey it to Canton. 4377. Among other impurtnnt agricultural products is the sugar cane, which appears to be taller and more liiicy than (hat uf (he West Indies ( but, as it is cultivated on the same small scale as all other articles, single proprietors cannot bear the expense of a mill on their grounds. The cane is boiled, and ltd Juice expressed by migratory dealers, who bring machinery of a character very Inferior to that used in our plantations, yet sufficient for its purpose. Mulberri/ trees are neeeHMry for the production of silk, the staple manufacture of the empire. These trees, which do not appear to differ from those of Europe, arc reared S 1034 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHY. Pam III. with the greatest care, in rows ten or twelve feet asunder, and on beds of a moist loamv earth. They are frequently pruned or dwarfed, in order to maice them produce young shoot's with tender leaves, which are supposed to be much more nutritious than those upon older branches. The insects are nursed in small houses erected in the heart of the plantations in order to be removed from all noise ; for the Chinese have an idea that they will be injured even by the barking of a dog. After the silk is wound off, the aurelias become an article of food. That no ground may be lost, the intervals between the trees are planted with rice. Cotton is raised in the middle provinces in large quantities, yet still not sufficient to dispense with importation from Bombay. Tobacco is largely grown and consumed ; and we mav also mention camphor, ginseng, and a variety of leguminous plants. 4378. As a manufacturing peojde, the Chinese are also eminent. The fabric of porce- Iain, so superior in beauty to every other species of earthenware, originated entirely with them ; and, though the taste of their imitators in Europe has produced more elegant patterns, they are still unrivalled as to its whiteness, hardness, and the transparency of the colours • the materials of which they possess a peculiar art in extracting from a vast variety of animal' vegetable, and mineral substances. Silk also is a fabric which the western world has learned from the Chinese ; and the silks of China are still unequalled as to richness, though in Europe they are considered too heavy ; and those of France and Italy are preferred. That light and elegant cotton stuff which we call nankeen, derives its name from the great Chinese city where it is manufactured, and the cotton which grows in the neighbouring province is said to have naturally ttie yellow colour peculiar to it ; but Mr. Barrow informs us, that this colour is not worn by the Chinese themselves, and that blue, black, and brown, are pre- ferred by them. The Chinese ornamented papers, so much admired in Europe, it is un- necessary to describe. Tlieir lacquered ware would be highly distinguished, were it not here eclipsed by that of their Japanese neighbours. A number, however, of little orna- mented trinkets and toys are made with the simplest instruments, and by the hands of single individuals ; yet with a beauty which we in vain attempt to rival. Such are their ivory fans and baskets ; their ornaments of tortoise shell and mother of pearl ; their silver filigree and lackered cabinets, chests, &c. Their paper and printing are both good, and their ink for some purposes, superior to the European. 4379. I'rade must be considerable in a country so extensive, and abounding with so many valuable commodities ; yet it has the peculiarity of being almost wholly internal China supplies within itself nearly all the commodities which minister either to the use orthe pleasure of her inhabitants. Her foreign trade is permitted only at two points, and under the narrowest restrictions ; and though it be considerable to the nations with which it is carried on, by China herself it is scarcely felt as a national object. Another great commercial want in China is that of a monied interest. Capital is so scarce, and so little feeling of security exists, that money is lent only on pawn ; and, in that case, government restricts the interest to three per cent, per month, above which rate, of course, it must have a tendency to rise, Such a deficiency, in a country so wealthy and a people so industrious, seems to imply in this boasted administration some radical defect, some want of protection for all fortunes that rise above the humblest mediocrity. Tliere is no system of credit established between the merchants of distant provinces, no bills of exchange ; no circulating medium except a copper coin of the value of the third of a farthing. In this respect China yields greatly to India, which, amid all its political aginations, has formed a great monied and banking interest, comprising some individuals oi immense fortune. 4380. The commerce of China is thus chiefly confined to the operation of bartering the productions of its different provinces; and tliese are sufficiently various to afford room for a very extensive traffic. The most ample facilities are afforded by the great riven and their' numerous tributaries, and also by the canals, which are constructed on a greater scale than in any other country. One of the great objects is the conveyance to tlie capital of the imperial land-rent, which is paid in kind, and consists chiefly of rice. Van Braam was told, that the barges engaged in the conveyance of it amounted to 9999, which, with the Chinese, is an even number, and that there were 200,000 sailors employed, who worked much more at their ease than the rest of the nation. Salt is a most extensive article. The British embassy found, at Tiensing, piles of that commodity, which tliey calculated at 600,000,000 pounds. It had been brought from the southern coasts of Fokien and Tche-kiang, where it had been evaporated by the heat of the sun, for the consumption of Pechelee and the northern provinces. The conveyance of coal, turf, and other fuel, affords also occupation to numerous barges. The distribution throughout China of the silks, porcelain, and other fine manufactures of the central provinces, affords another source no less ample. 4381. Of the foreign commerce of China, the European part is the most considerable, and is chiefly in the hands of the English. Prior to 1833, it was exclusively carried on by the East India Company ; but on the renewal of their charter at that period, they engaged not only to throw it open to the public, but to renounce it themselves, as soon as their stock could be sold off. Th": private merchants engaged in it with their accustomed activity. The import of tea is the principal branch ; and from Mr. M'CuUooh's Supplement it appeati, Book II. CHINA. 1085 that while in the three or four years preceding the free trade, it averaged 31 millions of poi'nds, in 1835 it rose to 44, and in 1836 to 49 millions. There seems to have been here aomc over-trading, since in 1837 it was only 37, but rose in 1R38 to 40 millions. The descriptions in 1 835-6 were mostly as follow : — bohea, 10,446,000 lbs. ; congou, 27,306,000 lbs. ; souchong, 1,355,000 lbs. ; pekoe, 1,219,000 lbs. ; hyson, 3,666,000 lbs. ; twankay, 4,568,000 lbs. ; gunpowder, 423,000 lbs. ; imperial, 330,000 lbs* In 1837 there were also imported into Britain from China — raw silk, 1,760,000 lbs. ; silk manufactures, 48,000 pieces ; cassia lignea, 82,500 lbs. ; cottons, 1 29,000 pieces ; rhubarb, 85,000 lbs. Tlie exports of British produce and manufactures, which in 1827 were valued at 610,000/., had risen in 1836 to 1,327,000/. : the chief heads were — cottons, 370,000/. ; cotton twist, 212,000/. ; woollens, 659,570/.; lead and shot, 20,970/. ; iron and steel, 11,700/. ; likewise, of foreign merchandise — opium, 54,800 lbs. ; quicksilver, 328,000 lbs. ; wine, 1 7,700 gallons. In 1837, the British produce fell to 678,000/. Hie transactions are carried on entirely with the hong merchants, who are required to give security to government for the payment of the import and export duties on the cargo of every ship that arrives in any Chinese port, and for the good conduct of the crew. There are, however, others, called " outside merchants," many of whom, under sanction of the hong, carry on traffic to a great extent. The Dutch rank next to the English in the Chinese trade, but much inferior to them. Hiough the Portuguese possess the island of Macao, and the Spaniards from the Philip- pines have access to the port of Amoy, they make little use of these advantages. The French, Swedes, and Danes all carry or ^ little intercourse with Canton. The first, how- ever, in 1836 did not employ in it above 800 tons of shipping. Their imports did not exceed 44,000/., their exports, 4600/. 4382. The trade to China from India, where it is called the country trade, is almost en- tirely free, and has been carried to a great extent. It is chiefly with Bombay, which sends to it cotton, and the fine opium of Malwa ; while from Calcutta it receives the inferior opium of Patna and Benares. The import of this article into China has increased sur- prisingly, from a value of 590,000/. in 1817-18, to 2,500,000/. in 1834-5. It has grown also in the face of the most rigorous prohibition, and by trade entirely contraband. This has hitherto been carried on in the bay of Linting, with perfect security, by means of very slight precautions. The most severe measures, however, have been recently taken for its suppression, by imprisoning the British merchants, and exacting the delivery of all the opium in their possession. Its further prosecution seems, therefore, doubtful. Cotton also very extensive, valued, in 1837, at 8,200,000 dollars. Tin, pepper, betel-nut, and some other articles, raised the exports from India to China, in 1 835-6, to 6,102,0001 4383. The American trade with China has also, within the last thirty years, risen to very considerable importance. Commencing nearly with the century, it advanced till, in 1 81 8-19, the imports and exports together exceeded 4,000,000/. sterling. This was in a great mea- sure a carrying trade, and has greatly declined. In 1837, the imports fell short of nine millions of dollars (1,800,000/.), while the exports were only 630,000 dollars (126,000/.). The Americans import from China tea to the extent, in the last-mentioned year, of 5,900,000 lbs. ; silks to the value of 400,000/. ; and other minor articles : they give in return — furs, chiefly from the north-west coast of America ; Turkish opium ; woollens and cottons, partly of English manufacture ; and a lar^re balance in bullion. 4:384. The foreign trade of China in her own bottoms, though bearing no proportion to the wealth and greatness of the empire, is not altogether inconsiderable. It is carried on In large unwieldy junks, whose structure can never be improved, as the slightest de- viation from their present clumsy structure would subject the owners to the high duties imposed on foreign merchants. The viceroy of the provinces fixes the number of junks that shall sail to each particular country, and the species of cargo which they shall carry ' Mr. Crawfurd reckons that there sail annually to Japan ten junks, making two voyages; thirteen to the Philippines ; four to the Sooloo isles; thirteen, Borneo; two, Celebes; seven, Java; ten, Sumatra; nine, Sincapore; six, Malacca; eighty-nine, Siam; twenty, Cochin-China; nine, Cambodia ; twenty, Tonquin : in all, 212 ; which, with a number of smaller ones, make the tonnage of the celestial empire about 8000. These vessels are partly built and owned in foreign countries, but by Chinese natives. They have numerous owners, each of which has a compartment divided by strong planks from the rest of the vessel. In return for the staples of China, they receive gold, tin, and the gelatinous substances called sea-slug, and a peculiar species of birds' nests, which, when made into soup, are reckoned peculiarly delicate and nutritious. 4385. The fishery that exists in China is inconsiderable in a national or commercial point of view ; but, as the means of individual subsistence, no nation carries it to such an extent All the lakes, broad rivers, and sheltered bays of China are covered with floating cities, the crowded population of which have no home but on the water. Staunton and Barrow suppose that the waters of China are as densely peopled as the land, and that they sustain a floating population equal to that of the whole British empire. Chinese invention has dis- rovercd modes of ensnaring the finny tribes quite peculiar to itself. One most singular iiMN 1036 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P*M III. resource consists In the employment of the Ashing bird, a species of cormorant, which dives into the water, seizes the fishes with a long bill, and brings them to its master, accepting in recompense such portion as he chooses to bestow. Others fasten to the side of the vessel a board painted white, which, by moonlight, has the appearance of glittering waves, and attracts the unwary tenant of the stream. Many, ^so, of the owners of these watery mansions keep large flocks of ducks, which go out and return, obedient to a signal. In some of the still waters are to be seen floating islands, composed of broad rafts on which houses are built, and some parts are even laid over with earth, and crops raised upon them. 4386. In public works, undertaken for purposes of utility, China stands without a rival. Ancient Egypt, indeed, exhibits monuments of equal labour ; but these were mere displays of vain and superstitious pomp, and cannot come in competition with those canals which form the foundation of the prosperity of China. The labour and ingenuity are the greater, as they are seconded by little science ; for the Chinese are unacquainted with the construction of locks, or other means by which a stationary supply of water can be ensured. Their canals are merely artificial rivers, formed by changing the direction of those constructed by nature. I)y that called, emphatically, the Great Canal, an uninterrupted communication of 500 miles is maintained between the I'eiho, or river of Pekin, and the great central stream of the Yanir. tse-kiang. A considerable river is arrested as it flows over the high land of Shantang, and the divided stream, turned into opposite directions, forms the basis of this great watercuune. In connection with the rivers, this canal completes, with only one short interruption, a line of 1000 miles of navigation from Pekin to Canton. On the other hand, the roads are narrow and unsuited to vehicles of any magnitude ; there being little ground to spare, and cattle being equally scarce. The only mode of travelling in state is in palanquins, which, as well as the baggage, are conveyed on the backs of coolies or porters, 1000 of whom, at a period when Uie Great Canal was frozen, were employed in carrying to Pekin the presents of the Dutch ambassadors. Ordinary goods are conveyed by double barrows, forming a small cart, the movements of which are produced, when wind favours, by the use of sails similar to those of a boat. The narratives of the late embassy occasionally mention the passage of whole Jleets of wheelbarrows. This practice is noticed by the old travellers, and, on their testimony, by Milton, in his allusion to " Serlcana, where Chinese* drive With sails and wind their cany waggons light." 4387. Among the mighty works of China, may here be mentioned the Great Wall, though it was constructed entirely with a military object. Perhaps it is unrivalled among the pro- ductions of human labour. The wonder is not merely in the continuity of the rampart for upwards of 1000 miles, but in the difficulties which have been surmounted in carrying it over so rugged and mountainous a country. One elevation, near the place where the British embassy passed, was calculated at upwards of 5000 feet It was seen, however, extending along the ridges of hills, over the tops of the highest mountains, crossing the deepest valleys, continued upon arches over rivers, and doubled or trebled in many parts, to take in important passes (^. 658.). Its usual height is thirty feet, though a smoJIer and even half ^ that elevation suffices where '^ it is carried along declivities. The top is paved, and so broad that a carriage can drive along it. Square towers, sometimes forty feet high, are erected at very short distances. Mr. Bar- row observes, however, that this huge work implies no display of skill, either in architecture or military defence. It is mm\) a mound of earth heaped toge- ther, and faced with briclt or stone, similar to the walls with which all the cities of the Chinese are surrounded. Their history describes it as completed in the tliird century, but without mentioning the period of time employed in its construc- tion. As a defence against invasion, on a great scale, such barriers have always been found nugatory ; but tl)is was probably useful in repelling the predatory inroads of those little wandering tribes who filled a great part of the surrounding deserts. Since the Tartar con- quest, which incorporated them all into the Chinese empire, its use is no longer felt, and bji the Chinese themselves it is now little regarded. PART Of TilK OBBAT WALL OV CHINA. Book II. 4388. One of the much the greatest 4 system. It is, how controversy. Lord official authority wl tions, which make tl One of the best au the number of famil an entire populatioi classes, those living npwards of 150,00C by Dr. Morrison, as 14(1,000,000 moiUhi. raising the number t ceding one appears It is evident from \ reliance can be pla< somewhere between France ; it is more I rated. An equal de estimate is, it is per cable to form. 4.S89. Thewhdeo) cast in one mould, bo generally as belongin come across the high over, by pacific and re irregular, and half-ck nose; the extension c and the body general ra their peculiar chan that of a faded leaf, c at all in that colour, compare that of Eun size; few tall men, a The female sex were were not diatinguishe trary, their persons w sidercd as elegant oi which appears in the one of fretfulness am treatment which they themselves to the vii and, from the delicac entitled to admiration ambassadors, who api somewhat dishonest Book II. CHINA. 1087 8icT. VI. avU «nd Soehl SM*. 4388. Oneofthtmoiiremarkabitfiatur** ceding one appears too low, we cannot help thinking that this errs on the other side. It is evident from the contradictory disorennncies «)f the Chinese enumerations, that no reliance can be placed upon them. We inclinu to think that the actual number may lie somewhere between two and three hundred millions. China is eight times the extent of France ; it is more flruitful, more oareftilly, though perhaps not quite so skilfully, culti- vated. An equal density would give a:iO,U0O,O(X) or !140,000,000. Loose as this mode of estimate is, it is perhaps the best that, under all the circumstances, we may find it practi- cable to furni. 4389. The whole of thU I'mmmM M«fti(Nnical head and triangular face," are given . as their peculiar characteristics. Their complexion is of a sickly white, or pale yellow, like tliat of a faded leaf, or the root of rhulMtrb. Their hair is universally black, and, if it fail at all in that colour, the defect is supplied by painting t it is so thick and strong, that they compare that of Europeans to the pile of the finer (\xn. They are generally of the middle size ; few tall men, and still fewer dwarfs or defonned persons, are found among them. The female sex were seen with difficulty, and almost only those of tlie lowest ranks, who were not distinguished from tlie men by any delicacy of feature or complexion : on the con- trary, their persons were pronounced by Mr. Ilickey the reverse of what is generally con- sidered as elegant or beautiful. Mr. Barrow also observed, tliat the air of good humour, which appears in the visage of the male Chinese, is exchanged in that of the females for one of fretfulness and discontent ; which, perhaps, it but too well justified by the tyrannical treatment which they experience. The few, however, of the higher ranks who presented themselves to the view of the English embassy made a much more favourable impression ; and, from the delicacy of tlieir complexions, and the regularity of their features, appeared entitled to admiration (Jig, 660.). The same judgment is warmly pronovnt cd by the Dutch ambassadors, who appear to have made very diligent observations upon tiiis subject. One somewhat dishonest cause of the difference hem perceptible it found iii the trade which loss DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pam III. MANDAaiN AND LAI>IH< prevaili in Chin*, of purchMing, at itn early age^ girit who afford any promite of beauty and training them for the future wives and concubines of the opulent claaiei. 4390. The natumal charcuiter of the Chinese has been very differently regarded, and per- haps there has of late prevailed a V ii disposition to rate it somewhat too ?i n^^'^ l""' Quietude, industry, order, -■"■'^'f^/'/:^ «nd regularity, —qualities which* \'\' >-;<-'■- despotic government seeks always to foster, — seem to bo peculiarly conspicuous. A general good-hu. mour and courtesy reigns in their aspect and proceedings : even when they jostle and come into collision with each other, the extrication it effected without any of that noise, and exchange of turbulent and abusive language, which are but too often witnessed on such occa- sions in European cities. Flagrant crimes, and open violations of the laws, are by no means common. The attachments of kindred areencouraged and cherished with peculiar force, particularly towards parents and ancestry in general. The support of the aged and infirm is inculcated as a sacred duty, which appears to be very strictly fulfilled, (t is surely a phenomenon in national economy very worthy of notice, that, in a nation so immensely multiplied, and so straitened fur food, there should not be such a thing as either begging or pauperism. The wants of the most destitute are relieved within the circle of their family and kindred. It is said to be customary, that a whole family, for several generations, with all its members, married and unmarried, live under one roof, and with only two apartments, one fur sleeping, and the other fur eating ; a system, the possibility of maintaining which, implies a great degree of tranquillity and liar. mony of temper. Within the domestic circle, however, and that of ceremonious social inter- course, seems to terminate all that is amiable in the Chinese disposition. In every other respect they show no interest in the welfare of their fellow creatures, nor even the common feelings of sympathy. Repeated instances have occurred of Chinese dropping into the s«a, and being rescued by the English, while their own countrymen did not take the least notice, or make a single effort to save them. Their propensity to fraud has been amply noticed by travellers, but appears to have been somewhat cxag,<;erated. To the hong merchants belongs the merit of having established a character of very strict honesty ; and many even of what are called "outside merchants" appear to be highly respectable. The custom of the Chinese to write upon their signs, " Here no one is cheated," '^ though we might be rather rash in concluding, with De Pauw, that it implies a predetermination to cheat all the world, manifests pretty clearly that the thing is considered neither unprecedented nor improbable. The want of all independent place and power, the abject submission required, and the appli. cation of the rod to all classes alike, produces a general degradation of character, and the vices which are its natural consequences. The highest officers of state showed an entire disregard of trutli, and hesitated not to utter the most glaring falsehoods, whenever a pull- tiu.1 purpose was to be served Again, the practice of exposing children is another rcpul- 8iv<; characteristic of the Chinese, which harmonises very ill with their apparent mildness, and boasted respect for the ties of kindred ; nor can the poverty which prompts it form its excuse. In Pekin, where it most prevails, the number of children annually exposed, has been stated at 9000; but this is now admitted to be a great exaggeration, and the real number cannot be well guessed. The practice derives no palliation from being exercised chiefly upon the female sex, in consequence of the low estimation in which they are gene- rally held in China. According to the Dutch ambassadors, females in that country may !» considered universally as objects of traffic. Those who promise to be handsome arc pur- chased in early youth by the class of dealers above mentioned, and triuned for the harems of the great, where they pass the rest of their days, according to Eastern custom, in splendid seclusion. The confinement, if less rigorous than in some other of the Asiatic states, is yet strictly ensured by an infirmity arising out of the fantastic taste which prescribes, as indispensable to female beauty, that the feet be reduced to the most minute possible dimensions (Jig. 661.). This, by compres- sion from an early age, is effected to sucli an citent, as to leave them barely able to totter from place to place, holding by the wall or other supports. Tlie lower ranks, on the other hand, after being purchased (mnn un^ nat. ^f *^^ husband, are treated almost as slaves, and Book II. CHINA. iOS» subjected to the hardest labour : they have even been obterved by traveller* yoked to tiie plough. 4991. In regard to religion, China ha* the lingular peculiarity of having none connected with or Kupported by the government. No creed is mode a matter of state, except the abstract belief in the existence of a Supreme Bvins, and of the emperor as hi* sola vice- gcrent on earth. As to every further creed and nte, the nation adopts any or none, as it may Judge most expedient. The learned, indeed, generally alTect indifference upon tliis sulijvct, and limit themselves to the above simple belief, joined to a superstitious reverence fur ancestry and for the ancient sages of the empire. The people, however, require some more sensible objects of worship ; and the vacant place has been cliiefly occupied by the sect of Fo, essentially the same with that of Boodh, which rules in Thibet, and has spread thence through all the neighbouring regions of Tartary. It appears there with its doctrine of transmigration, its numerous images, its monastic institutions, its bell* and bead*, it* noisy music, and its peculiar dress ; all giving it such a resemblance to the catholic worship, ilial the missionaries of the church of Rome fill their journals with perpetual lamentations on the impossibility of distinguishing the two. Although jealous, in general, of every forvign system, the Tartar dynasties have been inclined to protect this religion of Tartar origin. The same favour has not been extended to Christianity, whicii has repeatedly made some progress. The Jesuit missionaries, in particular, have always rendered themselves necessary at court by their knowledge, contrasted with the Chinese igiiorance of the astro- nomy requisite to predict eclipses, and to form a correct calendar. As soon, however, as conversions began to be effected, complaints were always preferred, that the new sect were changing the customs, and even the fundamental principles, of the empire. The proh'^ ition of ti.e almost divine iionours paid to ancestry; the congregational meetings attended by fema'.es, and the representing celibacy as a meritorious state, were the points of objection most forcibly dwelt upon. Repeated persecutions have, in consequence, taken place, by which this faith lias been almost entirely extirpated. Such also has been the fate of Islamism, though tliere ore still mosques in some of the principal cities. The superstitions usual among the vulgar in all countries prevail also in China ; as witches (guei/-shir), good and evil supposed to be locally attached to particular spots, lucky and unlucky times. In the ports on the ocean, pagodas were found chiefly erected to a mysterious being, called the " King of the Eastern Sea ; " a worship obviously suggested by the grand object which nature there presented to them. 4:193. Learning, in China, must form a leading pursuit, and might be expected to be found in a very flourishing state, since it is held in almost exclusive honour, and forms the sole road to rank, distinction, and power. Yet this very circumstance is perhaps the cause of the limited and stationary state in which it actually exists. When science becomes a state engine, any change in its nature or extent becomes a political innovation, which the jealous character of despotism will never tolerate. The language, arrested probably by this cause at an early stage, requires alone the laborious application of years ; after which the laws and history of the empire, and the precepts of its ancient sages, seem nearly to fill up the routine of otKciul study. Mathematics and astronomy, which have been often cultivated with the highest success under absolute governments, have not in China reached beyond their must elementary forms. The Court Calendar, published for the guidance of the nation in various important concerns, has for a long time been constructed by foreigners ; Arabs, Hindoos, and even Europeans. Notwithstanding, also, the paramount importance attached to objects of utility, the Chinese have made no progress in tlic application of the mechanical powers : they cannot even construct a common pump ; and all their great works are the mere result of indefatigable labour performed by a multitude of human hands. 4393. Tlie Chinese language, arrested between hieroglyphical and alphabetic writing, pre> . sents a singular phenomenon. The simple picture of the object, which appears in some of the early writings, has been changed, for facility of writing, into the letter ; but the next step, which should have been to make each letter express a simple sound, and thus a small number by repetition represent all the words in the language, has never been token. Every word, or rather every idea, continues to be represented by a separate character ; and such characters, in the most copious Chinese dictionaries, amount to no less than 40,000 ; a much greater number than there are of words in any of our languages, where many expressions represent several ideas, the context explaining the one meant in each particular case. In China, each character represents the one single and separate idea. This copiousness becomes the more remarkable when contrasted with the peculiar poverty of the spoken language. This last consists altogether of monosyllables ; and as they want, moreover, the letters b, d, r, and x, they have not been able to form more than about 330 syllabic sounds. These by accents and peculiar intonations, are multiplied to about 1300; still there remain about thirty written words to every spoken word. The latter afford thus an exposition of the written words, and, without reference to their sound, form the proper Chinese language. Europeans long looked with despair upon this chaos of characters, to learn the whole of wliich seemed the work of a life. It now proves, however, that a clue exists by which they 3 X mmmmmm 1040 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pahi III. VMJ wind th«ir way. EipvrienM dikcovered ilrit 473, and than 314 particular furini, on* or other of which appeam in every Chincoo character. Thete, by tha nativei are Ckllcd the eye*, by European* the licyi or clemcnii, of the language. Dictionaries have bevn con- •tructed, by ma*ni of which the whole language ha* l>een arranged under them ■* with ui under letter* ; and luch facilities oru thu* afforded, that European*, in the coune of two oi three yean' Hti'iy, have been able to truntlate work* from the Chineie. 4394. The literature of China appear* to be extenvive, though little known to Eunipvana. The peru*al of written books, being tho high rood to honour and diRtinction, becoinvn a faihionable and favourite occupation with all clasic*. No nation of Aiia can boait of aui'h a ma*s of hiitorical annals ; but, though thetw are compiled with care, they evince not that philo*opliical spirit and fearlcH* resenn-h which give lufttre to tho great lii*torians of the Went. The works on laws and on statistics are also very eitensive. Like those on liistory, tlivy are composed by the Aan-/in, or doctors of the first class, and are sent as presents to thu f^rcat mandarins. For the amusement of the people, there appear in quick succession sundry dramas, poems, and tales, a few select specimens of which liave lately been translated. The state of subjection in which the people live, and the narrow circle of their ideas, arc un- favourable to any lofty flights of original tliuught ; but their writings arc often jiuliviuui, pleasing, and natural. Alany of their poems are didactic, composed of short miixiinn ur sentence* ; and the incident* in their *tories are chiefly of a domestic nature, i'rinthig waa practised in China Ions before it was known in Europe ; not, however, by employhig movable types, which would be ill fitted to represent their innumerable characters ; but by cutting these characters out of wooden boards, of which, consequently, there must be one for each page. The missionaries, however, by taking the keys instead of letters, have suc- ceeded in printing according to the European stylo, 4395. Theatrical exhibition, in its various shapes, appear* to be a favourite Chinese amusement. Mr. Uarrow heard, that there was in Pekin about 100 companies, each consisting of 50 persons and upwards, conveyed from place to place in possuge-boats. They perform nut, as in Europe, to crowded and public audiences, but aro sent fur by the rich to act at their own houses. Tlie foreign amlwssadors have not, upon the whole, been very much edified with those presented fur their entertainment. The Dutch declare that the spectacles exhibited fur the entertainment of the court of China would not have attracted an audience in Europe at a country fair ; and Staunton remarks on the gro- tesque nature of the exhibitions, and the presentation of scenes which taste and (ielicacy would have elsewhere withdrawn from the public eye. It is to bo observed, however, that the selection of objects of mere show and biiH'oonery was the only way in which those couhi be amused who knew nothing of the language. Recent research hits made us aci|uaiiitc(l with dramas having a regular plot, and by no means destitute of interest and character. 4396. The fine arts, in China, are deficient Her painters, indeed, can express with minute accuracy the forms and colours of natural objects ; and can produce, on the whuli', a light and pleasing ciTect. Being wholly ignorant, however, of perspective, and of the Hi. tribution of light and shade, they can accomplish no effects of foreshortening or distance ; neither can they imitate iliat depth and blending of tints which nature actually presents to the eye. They give groups of individual objects ; but not n picture. Their music, not- withstanding the mighty effects which they ascribe to it, is, in fact, still more defective, II is perfectly simple, and has been compared to the Scotch, but without possessing its plaintive tenderness. 4397. In the architecture of the Chinese, there is little either of elegance or of that magnificence which we denominate Oriental. The most solid material is half-burnt brick ; and the mansions of the highest as well as the lowest are formed on the model of the primitive Tartar dwellings ; but, even in tho great cities, a traveller might fancy himself, from the low houses with carved overhanging roofs, uninterrupted by a single chimney, and from the pillars, poles, flags, and streamers, to bo in the midst of a large encampmrnt. The fronts of the shops are co- gg2 vered with varnish and gilding, and painted in brilliant colours. The external splendour of the pa- laces and pagodas consists meri'ly in coloured varnish and gilding. The rooms, even those occupied by the emperor, arc small, and little ornamented. The Dutch embassy was received by him in an apartment only ten feet square. There are, however, a number of large halls (fig. 662.), lilie gal- leries, for festivals and public oc- HAU. or AUDnuna iii eanu, casioifs. DooK II. CHINA. 1041 IMVIBIAL aA«D«M* 4398. The gardeni of Chinn Imve been ccU hratvd, and arv fiowitructod on an oppoalM priiiciplti to oun. With tii« viuw of cscapiiig fmui >'>'' monutony o( a country entirely ■ul»' jvcted to art and culture, the Clii. not seek to oxhiliil the wildctt and rudest aspects of nature; lakes, dellt, hangitlf woods, and natural forests. lu the great imperial gardens (Jig. 663.) of Yueninien and Zhehol, where an extent of country is ornamented in this manner, a great deal of really flnc scenery is included. In private gardens, on the contrary, where objects of which the value depends on their grandeur aru at- tempted to be comprised within a space of one or two acres, a lu- dicrous cflect is often produced. 4390. The Chinete are more completely and tubUantially dollied than the other nations in the south of Asia. The men wear long gowns and petticoats, which would give them a reminiiie appearance, did they not add boots ; while the women, with short jackets and trousers, might pass for men, but for the elegant ornament of braiding their hair with flowers. Silks, satins, and occasionally fine cottons, form the material of dress for the higher ranks i the lower arc clad in coarse cottons. The button forms the attribute of rank, and by ita various shapes and sizes expresses at once, to a Chinese eye, the dignity of the wearer. 4400. The Chinese ditl'er from the other Orientals in their food, and in the mode of taking it. Instead of squatting on the floor, and eating with tlieir Angers, they sit on chairs, eat olT tables, and raise the food to their mouth with a species of chopsticks. Their dishes are placed on small tables, but piled in successive stages over each other. They consist, in a great measure, of confections and fruits, the latter of which are iced. One favourite luxury of tlie rich consists of soups made with the gelatinous substances, sea slug, birds' nests, &c., imported ffom the East India islands. The mandarins live luxuriously, and have wvvral meals a day, with numerous dishes at each. The ordinary Chinese can have only rice, with a little seasoning ; but they eat heartily of it, and scarcely any thing, Mr. Harrow lays, puts a Chinese out of humour, except being interrupted at his victuals. Tea is the well known universal beverage, presented at and after meals, and on all occasions. It is drunk without cfeam or sugar, hot water being poured over the leaves. Tlieir wino is bad, hut they have an ardent spirit distilled from grain, of which they sip pretty largely in private. Eren convivial excesses occasionally take place. Sect. VII. Local Geography. ' 4401. Having thus completed the general survey of China, t/i details will not detain us long I since, though vast, they present a monotonous uniformity, and do not, at any point hut one, come in contact with European connections and interests. 4402. We shall begin with the province of Pechelee, the most northerly, and, though not the finest, yet distinguished as containing the capital of the empire. Its elevation, as well as its position, combine to render the climate comparatively cold ; ice prevails for three or four months in the year; tlie sea-coast is marshy ; and, instead of rice, wheat and barley, the species of grain tliat belong to the temperate climates are chiefly raised, llie Tartar frontier presents mountains of considerable height, ..ver which extends the Great Wall. 4403. Pekin (fig. 664.), the celebrated capital of this great empire, stands almost in a comer of it, only forty miles from the Great Wall. It consists of two very distinct parts, the Chinese and the Tartar cities, of which the former is the most elegant and populous, but the latter is adorned by the imperial palace and gardens. The united city is about twelve miles in circum- ference, surrounded by walls, like every other in China ; but those of Pekin are peculiarly lofty, and completely hide the city from those who are without. Tlie population has been a subject of controversy. The English embassy calculated it 3 X2 1043 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. at 3,000,000 ; probably too high ; but Maltc-Brun, ni calling this" an extravagance more than English," commits, wc apprehend, a much greater one, when he says, that this number could not have room to stand upright in Pekin. The Russian embassy judged it only double the %hc of Moscow, and as containing nearly as much unoccupied ground ; which wouldinfcr only 600,000 or 700,000. But Moscow is built in a very scattered manner, and a much greater number of Chinese are understood to live under the same roof than is usual among the inhabitants of any city in Europe. The estimate of Le Comte, who appears to have studied this subject with particular attention, is 2,000,000 ; which, perhaps, with a little abatement may be nearest the truth. Pekin is divided into regular streets, the principal one of which crosses the whole city, and is about 120 feet wide, unpaved, but carefully watered. It con- sists chiefly of shops, which, though, like every other edifice in the empire, seldom exceed- ing one story in height, are adorned with flags, varnish, painting, and lanterns of a peculiar and elegant construction. The streets are immensely crowded, as the Chinese spend much time in the open air. 4404. Other tounu in Pechelee are Tongchoo and Tiensing, the ports of Pekin ; one on the I'eilio, and the other lower down, at its confluence with the Queyho. This last was stated by the mandarins to contain 700,000 souls ; an estimate which seemed to agree with the crowds it put forth ; and its length is nearly equal to that of London. Paoting, tliu re- sidence of the viceroy, has an agreeable inland situation in the heart of a fertile district. 440S. S/iantung, to the soiitli of Pccholce, U traversed in the west by the Great Canal on its way to the YpIIdw Itivcr, aiul in the cast stretclics into a great (HMiinsula. Tliis |irovinrc is mountainous } many jiarts ol It arc lilcak, and thinly inhabited ; and. instead of rice and wltpat, yield only the inferior articles ofd'hourra and millet. Valual>le mines of coal arc found here, which serve for the supply of the whole empire. 'I'sinan the capital, is an ancient city, with the tombs of many kings in its neighbourhood ; it has, at present, fluurish! lug manufactures of silk. 44<)(!. Prucfeding simthtrards, still along the nrcatCanal,we enter Kiangnan, the pride and theboastof Cliiria. Here arc all the grand communications of the empire meet : the Hoang-hn and tnc Yang-tscklang flow into the sea, and are connected by the Great Canal. Mr. Harrow describes with admiration the scene wliicli ai>. peareil at their junction :— " the multitude of ships of war, of commerce, of convenience, and of pleasure- some gliding down the stream towards the sea, others working against it by sails, oars, ami wheels ami others lying at anchor ; the banks on cither side, as well as those of the canals, covered with towns as fai as the eye can reach ; the continuance, along the canals, of cities.towiu, and villages, almost without inter. riiption." 4407. Nanking, the ancient capital of China, is, in extent, considerably superior to Pekin, The exterior wall, enclosing the suburbs, resembles rather the boundary of a province than of a city. Since the government and tribunals, however, were transferred to Pekin, it has greatly declined, and about a third part of its area is now uninhabited. It still colltinuc^ to bo the most manufacturing city of China. Its silks, its paper, the cottons bearing its name, are preferred over the empire to those made elsewhere. Learning also continues lo flourish in an unrivalled degree ; tJie booksellers' shops are nowhere so amply furiiisliid ; ond a greater number of doctors are sent forth from it than from any other city. Nanking contains, also, in its pagoda, or porcelain tower (^g. (i65.), the chief architectural monu- ment of tho empire. It coji- sists of nine stories, ascendtd by 884 steps. The material is a fine white tile, which, being painted in vurious co- lours, has the appearance of porcelain ; and the whole is so artfully joined together as to seem one entire piecp. The galleries arc filled w'tii images, and set round' witli bells, which jingle when agi- tated by the wind. On llie top is a large ball, in the shape of a pine-apple, of which Ihu Chinese boast us consisting of solid gold ; hut on thai point foreign observers sccin to be sceptical. 440H. In lhi» province, also, the traveller who procivrtt southward along the Great Canal finds tlie large and beautiful city of Simlcluvxifno, which the Chinese extol as their terrestrial paradise. Branches from llicfirpit Canal traverse it throughout, and render it, like Venice, a city on the waters. The small Like of Taib», in the neighbourhood, surrounded by picturrs(|ue hills, affimls a scene of delightful recreatlmi. Ili'tcallth classes whose function is to minister to pleasure, lHU't\il or unlawful, are trained to their rei^pei'tivcrucalion!; i-onuHlians, dancers, jugglers, and the females destineii to till the haranis of the great. The latter are jiulinil to Iw fairer and more graceAi !y attired than those of the northern cities ; aiw paint, both red and wliilc, ii lavished lo heighten their beauties. 440R To the tniilh, Kiangnan has on its left the maritime province of TcheHamt, one of the flnott in Chin), and covered in particular with extensive plantations of mulberries 'i'he Hurfaioturcsi|ue, ilstiili plains l)eing varied by irregular hills and ruggeil rocks. It is diatinguislmlby contamingthcgrcatnt.nl >langchoo>foo, situated at the iioint where the Great Canal joins the river Chiang, which here, in a|i|>riwhing the sen, spreads into an ample lake. I'hia it the city described 'ly Marco I'olo under the name urU"!"^'!" PUHCKLAIN TUtVKlt AT ^A^KI^M. Book II. the capital of souti decline, its magniti which cover its surl with which its mar of that celebrated t ■WIO. JCiangsee, U height ; hut as these niU-ri ening valleys, I'ojang lake, a noble eullivated and peouli mciits characterisint several other cities i cliing, wliich the Ch hWlt.im inhabitants o( Hauie and smoke V ever been admitted ii river which falls into changing it for that o •nil. Interposed bel of considerable resort them. It is now littl ( hinese industry can oranges; and the tea i great river which ad.-r disphyofwhateverisi a very fine harbour, w , 44ia The southern J interrupts the water co C'uaiigtuiig, (he northc [liversifle,! by (aiitastic nniitcd cultivation. Xhi liro.iiices. It is travcn conveyed by a land car tran8|>ortiiig merchandli 4-H3. CatUon {Ji^ floating mansions arra liongs, or factories, a a line along the watei fy, hut the suburl 'nhabitants have erecU thi.Ki applies to that granted at an early pe, »m.areccle,iastic".«%'2u' jj once handsome and ci Str-te^tJi Book II. CHINA. \04H the capital of southern China, and as the most splendid and dellghtftil he ever saw. Even in Its present decline, its magnitude, rivalling that of Pckln j the varied beauties of Its lake, the numerous pleasure parties which cover its surface, the glided barges, with floating streamers, sailing to and fto, and the iierial pavilions with which its margin is studded, form a magic scene, which acquits of all romance the glowing duscriptions of that celebrated traveller. " " i " «10. Kiangscc, to thewestof Tcheklang, is aprovinco bordered and traversed by mountains of considerable heiKht ; but as these mountains, wherever it Is possible, arc cultivated to the summit, and have many lino intervening valleys, it is abnost as tortile and |>opulous as any of the other provinces. It is traversed bv the I'oyang lake, a noble piece ot water, surrounded by mountains of considerable height, whose sides are highly cullivatcd and peopled. Nanehiing, the capital, on a river which falls into it from the north, presents monu. nients char.icterisiiig a city of the hrst rank, but is now rcMuced to a state of poverty. Yaotchcoufoo. and several other cities, rise on the borders ot the lake. 'I'hc place most worthy of notice in Kiaiigsee is Kiiite. cliing, which the Chinese, indeed, account only a village, but a village whicli, »ccordiim to some, conluins changing it for that of the rest of the empire. 4411. Inlcrpoied between Kiangsee and the ocean is the maritime province of Fokien, or Foolchim. a region of considerable resort to early £uro|>ean navigators, while the southern ports of China continued optMi to them. It is now little noticed ; but is described as a very fine province, covered with hills, usually such as Chinese industry can cultivate to the very summit It abounds not only in grain, but In fruit particularly oranges ; and the tea plant is reared on a great scale. Foutcheou, the capital, situatetl near the mouth ot a great river whicli admits the largest vessels, and is crossed by a superb bridge of 100 arches, makes an anipie dispi.iy of whatever is splendid or iH-autifiil in a Chinese capitiil. Ainoy, on an island upon the coast. aHbrds a very line harbour, whence the Chinese carry on a great part of their foreign trade. 4411!. The southern fruntier of Kiangsee is bounded by a lotty and nakitl barrier of mountains, which interrupts the water communication, hitherto continued iVom I'ekin. On tlie otiier side is the province of (Jiiaiigtung, the northern approach of whic-li consists, in a great measure, of naked and rugged mountains diversiHwl by fantastic rocks, and on many parts of which even Chinese industry can impress only a very limited cultivation. The interior, however, lieyoiid the city of Chanchcou.foo, equals any of the other maritime provinces. It is troverseil by the river i'ekiang, to which goods, from the great water communication, are conveyed by a land carriage of some days, and which, during a course of !i5u miles, is covered with barks transporting merchandise to and tVom Canton. 4413. Canton (Jig- 666.), the best known city of China, and witli which alone Europeans carry on habitual intercourse, is si- tuated at the confluence of the Pekiang with the Taho, a much larger river coining from the west. Their united streams spread below this city into a broad estuary, called, by Europeans, the Bocca Tigris, which extends about tifty miles in length, and twenty in breadth, to its junction w'th the ocean. Canton itself is about five iiiiles in circumference ; besides which, its ex- tensive suburbs compose, as it were, another city. Tlie great estuary of the Bucca iigris also is covered with flouting mansions arranged in streets, the tenants of which have no home on land. The liungs, or factories, are handsome buildings, situated in the suburbs, and arruiiged in a line along the water. The streets are narrow, and the front of almost every house is a stiop ; but the suburbs and vicinity contain many agreeable sites, in which the wealtliy inhabitants have erected their mansions. All that lias been said of the European trade of China applies to that of Canton, now the sole theatre of this trade ; for the admission granted at an early period into Amoy and Liainpo has long been withdrawn. 4414. Near the month of the Bocca Tigris is the Island of Macao, separated from the continent only by a narrow river channel. It was once a place of high importance, wliencc the Portuguese, in the days of their pride, carried on most of the commerce between I'.uropc and China. It has more than shared, however, in tliat supine sloth and decay which has involved all their Kastcrn empire. The town contains, at present, a po. imlation of about 12,(X)U, including about 4opulation. 4413. West of Quangtong is (Juangsee, which does nut rank high as to wealth and population, a great part of its territory being covered with thick forests and rugged mountains. In the south, however, are plains that yield al)undance of rice, of which a supply Is even sent to Canton. The river Taho, which traverses it throughout, has its navigation obstrueteil by rocks and cataracts. Consideralile mines are said to exist in this province, which the Jealousy of the government prcvenis fToin being worked. Neither Uueyling.fou, the ca|iital, nor any of the other ciliej of Quangsce, rank with those of the rest of China. 4tlU. Ifest »/ tiuattgsee is the tVontier province of Yunan, situated on a still more lofty portion of that great chain which traverses the southern portion of the empire. Though the site be elevated, and the clnnale crai8i'i|iicntly temperate, it is well iii-opled, and yields many valuable prmlucts. The upland tracts arc oecii- picil by a hanly highlaml race, called Ixilo, of a totally ditt'erent temper I'rom the other I hinese. Such is their valuur, and the strength of their haunts, that even this jealous and despotic government has been, after long cHlirt, obliged to content itself with a formal acknowleilgment of homage, leaving the internal government to ho entirely condiictol by hereditary chiefs, to whom their clnns pay .ilmost implicit submission. The metallic wealth of the province is said to be considerable, and even to include gold. The capital, of the sinuu name, once handsome and considerable, has been injured by civil war. 4417. From Yunan, tracing the frontier northward, we Hnd Kueitchoo, a still ruder province, filled with turbulent and rcfVactory tribes. Us cities arc small, Iteiiig little better than military |iosts with strong garrisons, which, as the revenues of the province are unequal to 8up|iort them, prove burdensome to the imperial trea- sury. It contains, however, a number of valuable metids, particularly copi>cr, 3 X a 1044 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. DOOK II. 4418. Sechuen, the next frontier province to the north, prcaenta a much more favourable aspect Ita moun tains arc only of moderate height, and it is traversed and ^ertili!^ed by the great river Yang-tsckiang. Alonii with the silk, sugar-cane, and grain of China, it unites the Tartarian connnodities of musk and rhubarb anil is also distinguisncd for a small and active breed of horses. The capital, Tching-tou-fou, though much mjured during the civil wars, is still very |>opiilous, and carries on a great trade. 4419. The north-western angle of China is composed of the province of Sheniee, which Is very extensive and throws out, as it were, even a long promontory into the Tartarian desert Its aspect is mountainoui nnd' somewhat rude ; but it is highly productive of wheat and millet, and contains copious pastures, on which large herds of cattle are fed. The mhabitants, exposed to perpetual incursions from the Tartars, are trained to arms, and are of a more hardy and courageous character than in other parts of the kingdoia Its caiiitul Singanrou, is a fine city, strongly fortified, and always well garrisoned. ' 4420. Between Shensee and Pechelee, with which our survey began, the Interval is filled by the small pro. 4491. 4fter making this complete circuit of China, we have still left the interior provinces of Ilonaii ami Jfouquang, which comimse the centre of the empire. They rank among its finest iwrtions, being wiitcri'd by the two great parallel rivers, and by numerous tributaries with which they are fcle,am| intelligent. They exhibit none of the recluse and contracted habits of the Chinese, but meet treqiieritiy together at little festivals in the oi>eii air, and appear peculiarly alive to social enjoyment They sliimH) extreme attachment to the English, though they still adhered to the jealous precaution of preventiii); iliem fl-om iwnetrating into the country, and even as much as possililc fi-om landing : as well as to that of kee|iinK the females secluded fVoiu their view. This primitive raceappeared, to Mr, Macleod and CnptHiiJi,lu ijc wholly ignorant of the use of money, and without any arms offensive or defensive; but the scrutinising observation of Captain Beechey discovered that in neither respc-ct were they so remarkably distinguished team the rest of mankind. The artillery and muskets of the English, however, were to them quite a new ami an astonishing sight ; but the employment of the latter against animals caused them such pain, that it was siioii (tiscontinueil. The people of Ixxi-Choo are a diminutive race, averaging only five feet two inches high ; but ■tout and well built ) their faces rather agreeable than handsome. Indeed, the whole animal crintiim, exrt'|it the poultry, is small, but otherwise of execUenC quality. This interesting group appears to extend about SdU miles in a direction nearly from south-west to north-east. Captain Uroughton, who landed on some of the islands at the eastern extremity, found there the same mild and courteous people with those of the great island. 442j. The island qf Formosa, called by the natives Tai-ouan, has been chiefly celebrated by the iminiilcnt fiction of Psalinanazar. The western part, to which alone the application of Formosa, or fair, is appliealilr, is in possession of the Chinese, and may rank with their best provinces, its surface is tiiiely diver.sltieil.aiiii watered by numerous rivulets descending from the higher parts of the island. Settlements were formed hire first by the I'ortuguesp, and then by the Dutch ; but Ixith arc now ex|>elled. The eastern part, ruftftnl miil mountainous, is occupied by races almost savage, who live by hunting, sleep on leaves, have searcelv any clothes or fUrniture, and tattoo their skin like the rudest of the South Sea islanders. 4424. Hainan is a large island, lUO miles in length and 70 in breadth, separated by a narrow channel froin thewcsternextrcmity of the province of Quang-tong. Though in view of vessels going to Canton, it is lilllc known or visited. The interior is mountainous; but a great part of the island is moist and unhealthy ) anil, though the necessaries of life are abundant, the |>cople seem little improved. They are uglv, of small stntiire, armed with bows and arrows, and wear scarcely any clothes. When Krusenstern visitwl lliem, in 1S()5, thi'y were found subject to the pirates of the l.nriioni's. That group of isles, which must not be cont'oiimled Willi a larger one of the same name in the South Sea, extends close along the coast ol China from Hainan In Canton. Their aspect is rocky, bleak, and rugged, like fragments torn from the continent by smiie viiilciit convulsion, and their sides are dashed with the continual spray of the waves. Although a very small Kum. pean force would be sutticient to root out the nest of pirates that harbour there, they have contlnuiHl tu iloly the whole maritime force ol the celestial empire. 4425. A long the coast of Tchekiang extends the almost numberless group of the Tchusan islatiils, of ivliioh, in a sail of 60 miles, 3(KI have been discovered. They are small, not rugged like the Ladroncs, but virilaiil, cultivated, and rising firom the sea in a conical shape. One of them, called I'ootoo, is described n.* a {Hrlwl paradise, and as being occupied by a body of AW monks, who have 400 temples, with houses anil tiankiis attached to them. This establishment is richly endiiwed, and celebrated throughout the empire. Tlurenic many fine (Nirts in these islands, and the channels between them are crowded with alninst inmiimralile vessels, carrying on n commerce, of which the centre is at Ning-i>o, on the op|iosite co.ist 'i'he great Tihiiiaii island is. about forty miles in length, and almut twenty in breadth. It is highly cultivated. Tinxliai, the capital, intersected by canals, rcscmbica Venice on a small scale, and presents a crowded scene ul' liuiy industry. 4426. 7 very pcculi forming tht extends ano and at its ^ penetrates ^ nccted witli Humboldt c tlie interval some fruitfu between thei with the Hit pendent Pen ncctcd with a mighty circuit of mountains that surround the lake of Kokonor, and, as Humboldt conceives, give rise to the Yellow River. At this eastern portion of the range, tlie interval which separates it from the Himalayah is of considerable breadth, and includes some fruitful and highly cultivated plains. As the two chains proceed westward, the space between them is gradu illy narrowed, till, at their extremity, they meet and form one mass witli the Hindoo Koh, or Indian Caucasus, which extends thence westward through Inde- pendent Persia. M. Humboldt even views the two boundary chains of Thibet somewhat as ttibris saillans, shattered branches from the Caucasus. The Hiudoos, who see them in their closest approach to each other, consider both as the Himalayah, and Thibet as only a great and lung valley enclosed within this astonishing chain. High detached branches from both of tlie great boundaries penetrate and encroach upon the territory ; yet, wherever the breadth is at all considerable, the greater part of it is occupied by a vast table-plain, the most elevated, perhaps, on the globe, which yields only scanty crops of grain, but is pastured with numerous flocks of animals peculiar to this elevated region. Thibet presents a region every way distinct in aspect and character from Hindostan, whence it is separated only by a mountain ridge. Instead of sultry plains, luxuriant harvests, and magnificent cities, appear only rude plains, covered with scanty herbage, and diversified by rocky heights, under whose slielter a few rough-built villages find protection from the chilling winds of the snow- clad mountains. 4427. Besides its grand mountain features, Thibet is distinguished as containing the source of many of the greatest rivers of Asia. The Indus and the Sanpoo, rising near to each other, from that loftiest part of the chain which gives rise, on the other side, to the Ganges and the Jumna, traverse this high plain in contrary directions. The Indus, after druiiiing the waters which descend into it from the western part of both ridges, bursts its mountain barrier, takes a new direction, and flows southward into the ocean. The course uf the Sanpoo has not been traced beyond the vicinity of Lassa ; and the theory which iJiMitilied it with the Brahmapoutra has become, at least, extremely doubtful. There seems, however, every reason to conclude, that most of the great rivers which water the empire of China and the kingdoms between it and India, derive their sources from the mountains of Tliilict. The Sutledge, the largest tributary of the Indus, also takes its rise upon their IwrdiT. 4'l'.'8. Thibet contains the lakes of Manasarowara and Rawan Hrad, picturesque and striking obji'cts, encircled by some of the loftiest snow-covered peaks of the Himalayah, and wliich are held by the Hindoos in religious veneration ; yet they are by no means of great extent. 'I'lie hike Tchemarorel, farther to the west, is similarly described by M. Gerard. The Chinese maps delineate in the north-eastern part the lake of Terkiri, seventy miles long, and several others, respecting which no furtlier particulars are yet known. Sect. II. Katural Geography. StiBSECT. 1. Geology. 4 '!'.'<). Gold is found in grains in many of the rivers, and also disseminated and in masses in (|iinrtz rock and other rocks. Silver ores arc not mentioned by travellers, but some varieties of gulena contain thot metal. Mines of lead occur, but they are not worked to any extent ; oros of iron and copper occur in dill'erent quarters, and the Thibetians are said to work rich mines of mercury, the ore being cinnabar. Rock sail is reported to be common ; but the most interesting saline mineral met with in Thibet is that named tincal, or borax. According to Mr. Siiiinders, tiie lake from which borax and common salt are obtained is fifteen days* journey north from Teshoo Lomboo. Surrounded on all sides by rocky mountains, it receives no rivulets, but is fed by brackish springs rising from the bottom of the lake itself. The borax is found crystallised in the lake, and is taken up in large masses, which are then broken, for the convenience uf carriage, and exposed to dry. This mineral, though collected for a consider- able length of time, lias no appearance of diminishing, and most probably is continually 3X4 i 1046 MAP OF THIBET AND TARTARY. Fig. 6C7. Book II, formed anew the year it i« a flux for pn 443a Tli« 4431. The nature, and «vl fore enumerati deserts of Ceii (iwOfnohui Lamirui Vul|iM Oonao. Con Vuli,e» Ktrakan, Ti rulorlujaliilnm. ^| Dliiu. ./ituliu, Hliwi 443a. Severn Horse, the Pict 4433. T/ie M deserts of Asia. hairs only at the Jarger than intei feet long, and m All the proportic almost literally \ wind : its air 1« « vain attempt to o troops are from H It is said to leap \ isslain, which, fro the troop disperse Great Desert, liur they have never w , «M TAe arey Pic, the bottom with a thil •imul, and havo nuiny^ '•erbiigo, &o., which ll during the (leop^no", 4435. The Mm I.Onk •{• Kokchetov J- Katkarall J. Kuiluk ;•«..»{,«, 7. Kopjiii «• Kl.«rabaa 9.Abi.,rj .'?• K«la '•Khl.a '•■ palinalnaiav ; Wpkhar, "• Uraluba «4.nl J". Varkl K'/J.""'J E> f'har* Book II. THIBET. 1047 i»\m liMclliUnii. RtioTl'lnilnl Jnbon. HptK IlllHUlui, Mule ihort'lnlM Jerbo*. brlilllti^ 'rillnArlolimfl. The Tamarisk, lerlilllui nietldlotiallfi. Torrlil Tamariik. i«|illt Tulnl. Mongolian Hare. lAHoinyi nnoloma. Urejr Flea. Kquus HemlonUB. Mongolian Hone. Moschua nioachlflerus. Thibetan Mtuk. CerruA INartfUS ? Tartarian Roe. OvU Ammon. Asiatic Hheep. Boa po«iihagui. Yax Bison. formed anew. V\w Uke U fiitltl to be nt IvMt twenty miles in circumreruiice. For a part of the year it i» fVoien over. In Tlilb«t, m In Europe, borax is employed for soldering, and as a flux for promoting tlio Aiitlun uf gold and silver. SuiSKCT. 9. Botany. 443a The reader U refbrrtid to the remarks under this head at page 965. SuBSKCT. 3. Zoology. 4431. The Zoolosy •/ Thibet mut of Tartary cannot well be separated in a work of tlits nature, and with the NVHiUy ktiowltHlge wc yut possess of their productions. We shall tliere- fore enumerate the moiit remarkable «|uadrupcds that have yet been found on the elevated deserts of Central Aula. Oiotjnohm Lagufui. Ilalr-KMI** I*' mtiig. - n VuluM Oonao. CorMO Kp*. Vuii>» Karakan. Tartarian ro«, Putoriui aliilnui. AlMine JMoti^l, Dll»u .lacului. Bibwian Jnlma. 443'i. Several of the above gumlfuparls claim a more particular notice ; as the Mongolian Horse, the Pica Hare, the IVluKk Deer, and the Tartarian Roe. 4433. The Moneollan Jlorne (l')quus Hemionus Pall.) inhabits, in troops, the great central deserts of Asia. It U aliuiit the Niiie of an ordinary horse, but is distinguislied by having hairs only at the end of the tall 1 along the back is a black line : the ears in size are rather larger than intermediate between those of the horse and mule : the tail is black, near two feet long, and much like that of n vow. This was probably the wild mule of the ancients. All the proportion* of tliU ttlnuular animal exhibit much lightness and elegance. It runs almost literally with the rapidity of lightning, carrying its head erect, and snuffing up the wind : its air is wild and ilery, and the HuutCBt courser that ever scoured the desert would in vain attempt to overtake It. When unmolested, its character is peaceable and social. Their troops are fVom SO to 100 III number, each headed by a chief, who acts as guide and sentinel. It is said to leap three tinum In n circle round the object which inspires fear. If the chief is sluin, which, iVom liU temerity In upurnachtng very near the hunters, will sometimes happen, the truup disperse. The MongoU, tiie Tungooses, and other Tartar nations bordering tlie Great Desert, hunt theie niiimaU fur their flesh, which they highly esteem ; but it appears they have never succeeded in taming It. UH. The Qrey Pico Uar^ In net mere Ihsn alx tnchci long. It ia common In the Tartarian deserts, and Iwynml I.itko ItiiikAl Thpie Utile HMlnmIs iIIk very itvcp burrows with two or three entrances, nirnished at Ihc b(>ttoin with a thick Sllil Hitft lietl iif leaves | thvy wander about during niglit, for they are exceedingly timid, and have miiny enemlM In l|irillK they iH'gln to cut .ind lay in their winter provision of tender herbiigc, &c., which iney pile In lillineriius tinail heaps, like haycocks, about the entrance of their dwelling, prcvi(iusly lilling that as lull M it Will lltitd, 'I'u the external store of provisions they probably gain access during tlie deep snows of Winter, Ity Ullderitllnltig it ft-om their subterraneous retreat. 4435. The Muik Deer <^ Thibrt {,fig, dQR.) yields the valuable drug so called. The animal itself is nearly the size of the roebuck. The flesh is esteemed, although strongly im- pregnated with this scent. When the animal is killed, the bag is cut away, and made into a kind of purse. So powerfully docs every part retain this perfume, that even the blood and liver is frequently mixed up with the genuine musk by tlie crafty Asiatics. 44M. The Tartnrian Roe is larger than our roebuck. It Is marked with a large disk of white on the but- tocks, and is remarkable for having no tail : it inhabits the loftiest regions, only descending to the plains in winter I the horns are much branched, and of great ex- panse. ltkta:lnto« 3. Karkarali 4. Kuduk i. lUiY ». Uuklian 7. Koudni a. Kbarabad 9. Ablnrd 10. Kala 11. Khiva li. Tiittniatkegav 13 Amtio U Hokhara IV KurchM l(). Samarcand 17. Yakhand IS.Uratuba 19, TurkMMn «a. Hnuaaa HI, Kaiikan U. j'erKanali M. Nuewlalmd va. purwaua tin. Pyvabsd U7. r.hllraul VH. I'eaiikiih Kit, MilutiMNih Mt, Varkunil SI. (laahgar an. Khutun ,1.1. Karia St. KoMii'he .13, l'hiira»hAr 80. Uuuliljil All. UiiuFiislHiulel jS, Qhu 4lirHilittliplii 4'. nMlit.01111 KhotD fl. ItAtiikiirum 4i. Miiiiiikiiiinr 4*1. Itmiuliwju 4li, liitiiil 47. ilAFkllUl 4H, TiiiDtii 4U. fMIII A suming provender wanted for the rest. Tiie fat-rumped Sheep (Jig. 670.) is a breed reared in southern Tartary: the horns are small, or wanting ; the ears long and pen- dulous, and the tail very short and thin. There ij another breed, having very broad tails, with four, five and sometimes six horns ; the wool of the first is good' but that of the latter very coarse. The Thibet Goals' are well known to furnish materials for those delicate shawls which bear this name : the hair is very fine and long, particularly on the back, and the ears small and pendent. VAT-a9MVBD SNBBr. Sbct. III. Historical and Political Geography. 4441. One section may comprehend the very little that can be said on these subjects. Although Thibet be placed amidst nations of ancient origin, its history is almost a complete blank. By the Arabian geographers it is barely named ; but, under the name of Telietb, Marco Polo gives a series of relations which, with a certain tincture of fable, suggest a country not materially differing from that which is now to be described. The ecclesiastical character of its government, and its subjection to a sovereign priest, appear to liavc favoured a report, that there existed in the heart of Asia a Christian monarch, to whom tlic early dis. coverers gave the appellation of Prester John. His sacred character, joined to the strength of the mountain barrier of his kingdom, served in a great measure to the Thibetians as a safeguard against the barbarous tribes by whom they were surrounded. Tradition, however, represents their shrines to have been at different times plundered by the Tartars. The most serious invasion was made in the end of the last century by the aggressive and encroaching power of Nepal. Tempted by reports of the wealth of its temples, and par- ticularly of Pootala, the king of that country marched an army into Thibet, and, after an obstinate war, compelled the Lama to purchase peace by the payment of an ample tribute. The emperor of China, professing to revere that sovereign priest as his spiritual head, deter- mined to interpose on his behalf. In I79I, a Chinese anny of 70,000 men arrivul al Thibet, and, notwithstanding a very vig "'^us resistance, drove the Nepalcsc troops beyond the mountains, from the summit of whi Mie Chinese might even descry the British pos- sessions on the plains below. The Th'. !• is now experienced the too frequent lot of a weak state which seeks the aid of a stron/ The religious attachment of the emperor to the Luma did not prevent hiin, when he tound the country in his hands, from assuming civil sway over it, and limiting his ally to a spiritual jurisdiction. The whole country is now, therefore, a province of China, which has thus become almos' ^(iiiti'< .linous with the Brilisli Indian empire. The sway, however, according to the usual Chinese maxims, is mild, and does not interfere with the original plan of internal administration. The Chinese have onl; established, along all the Thibetian frontier, that jealous exclusion of foreigners which renders it so difficult to gain information respecting any country included within their territories. 4442. J'Af government of Thibet, so far as it is unaffected by foreign intorferencc, is altogether priestly. The lama, or liigh priest, is the sovereign, while the successive ranks of monks and gylongs compose the nobility. The laity are the vulgar. It is under the head of religion, tlierefore, that we must compreliend the political arrangements of this singular country. Book II. 4443. Thibet, character of its g few favoured situ valuable product, fo September, suf part of the year, pastures possess t and lierds. Man] beauty and value animal as the oth'ei descriptions, are er 4444. Among tl U;e yai, an animn f'lough not employ and yields .^Iso a r] glossy hair, forms, general demand am( persing insects. Ai the fine wool used i i'nghsh sheep, it jg dose to the body, , covering is evident!, any milder climate value; tho mutton b( flky.. The lamb flc, luxurious in China, 1 m this country as bea: and make their way « » The musk d. CJina and Tartary, bt 'ran,,,„r,, render ,CS; r?ceu'reof*i,|?™^„ Co,^o rants on a oonshferahln .... ">»«! valuable articles ..^'.':'" "thertocarry^o'^tlSfii'?;,'^^ «17. Religion forms mountain regh^no/r, "•"t'tleofBoodh, itsft «!np worship is de'nomin ""gm .n Hindostan, Tho J«m«hichitisge„;,5 ^'0 Imve been the pare ""'■""« the Teshoo Book II. THIBET 1049 Sect. IV. Productive Industry. 4443. Thibet, in respect to agriculture, labours under great disadvantages. The general character of iu soil is bleak, barren, and poor : wheat and barley can be grown only in a few favoured situations, and often fail of coming to maturity. Even the herbage, the most valuable product, though it reaches a tolerable height during the rainy season, from March to September, suffers severely by arid and cold winds, which blow during the remaining part of the year, when it often dries up and crumbles into dust. Yet these mountain pastures possess qualities peculiarly nutritious and grateful, and support numerous flocks and herds. IMany species of those especially belonging to Thibet are remarkable for their beauty and value. Indeed, this .side of the mountains is alike noted for the profusion of animal as the other is for that of vegetable life. Birds, game, and wild animals of various descriptions, are equally abundant with those trained for the use of man. 4444. Among the numerous animals that enrich Thibet, the most prominent seems to be the ynk, an animal of the buffalo tribe, but in some particulars resembling the horse. Though not employed in agriculture, the yak is of great value for the conveyance of burdens, and yields ^Iso a rich and nutritious milk. Its tail, composed of a mass of long, flowing glossy hair, ibrms, under the name of chovorie, a considerable article of trade. It is in general demand among the great men of India, both as an ornament and as a flap for dis- persing insects. Another animal, equally characteristic and useful, is the goat, which yields the fine wool used in manufacturing the shawls of Cashmere. Smaller than the smallest English sheep, it is the most beautiful of the goat species. The wool grows like down, close to the body, and is covered with a profusion of thick and strong hair. This fine covering is evidently given by nature as a fence against the cold, and soon degenerates in any milder climate. Sheep, though certainly not peculiar to Thibet, are here of peculiar value ; the mutton being the finest, perhaps, in the world, and the fleece extremely soft and silky. The lamb fleeces, when tanned with the hair, afford linings considered particularly luxurious in China, Tartary, and all the cold districts of Asia. Goats and slieep are used in this country as beasts of burden, in which capacity they follow each other in long trpins, and make their way with surprising safety across the most difficult and perilous mountain parses, The musk deer, a product of the chase, is found also in the neighbouring parts of Cliina and Tartary, but is peculiarly abundant and valuable in the high districts of Eastern Thibet. 4U5. This country seems to have been almost as bountifully slocked by nature with mineral as with animal productions. The Imperfect 8lion and celibacy which distinguish it in the Cutliolic church. These habits being adopted by the most celebrated characters both in church and state, the idea of dignity is exclusively centred in them, and those of degrada- tion and vulgarity arc attached to marriage. The priests reside in large mansions, much the handsomest in the country, and uniting the character of convents and palaces. Tljc monks in the villages bordering on India are represented as a dirty, greasy, good-humoured happy class of persons, who do not think it inconsistent with their vocation to curry on a' good deal of worldly traffic. In the great central establishment, more dignity of cliaractur is preserved, and the obligations imposed by their situation appear to be strictly regarded. On the whole, their deportment is represented as humane and obliging ; on the part of sujic- riors unassuming, and respectful on that of inferiors. Somehow or other, however, all the wealth appears to centre in them, and a general poverty pervades the rest of the com- munity. The ceremonies of the Boodhist religion bear a striking resemblance to tliuse of the Catholic, insomuch that many of the missionaries found it scarcely possible to discover any distinction. This has even been ascribed by some to a mixture with the votaries of the Ncstorian heresy, which was spread through the East. A favourite part of the service con. sists of music, less remarkable for its harmony than for the employment of every means u( raising as great a noise as possible. Not only are all the voices of the congregation put forlli, and trained by practice to an almost stentorian pitch, but drums, trumpets, cymbals, Imuthovs, and other instruments of the most sonorous description, of tliree or four times the usual size swell the chorus. One of the favourite exercises of devotion consists in producing by the hand the revolution of a painted wheel with gilded letters, on which the gaze of the wor- shipper is fixed. Notwithstanding the difference between the religions of this country and Hindostan, many of the temples of Thibet are crowded with Hindoo idols ; and tlie seats ul' Indianpilgrimage, particularly Benares, Juggernaut, and Sagur,aredcvoutlyvisitedby votaries from the dominions of the Grand Lama. On their part, the Hindoos pay a deep religions veneration to the lofty snowy peaks and the lonely mountain lakes of this elevated neigh- bourhood. Among the former, Chumuluree, on the Boutan frontier, and among the latter Manasarowara, hold the pre-eminence. 4448. Of the learning of Tliibet scarcely the least notice has reached us; and yet there appears to be a good deal. The riiibetiuni> possess the art of printing, derived, apparently, t'rom the Chinese ; since it is executed, like theirs, on fixed wooden blocks instead of movable types, The lan- guage has a large infusion of Sanscrit, and is adni,i- ted by the Chinese to be superior to theirs in sound, tliougli its characters have not equal beauty. It is n rillin, CDiiformably with the practice in Europe, but contrary to that of the East, from left to right. Turner I'uund the mausoleum of the Lama (Jig. 671.) filled with high piles of sacred books. M. de Koros, a Hunj^arianpliy. sician, who has resided in the country, and nKjuired its Ltnguage, discovered an encyclopoidia, in ftnty-tbur vo- lumes ; and a system of Boodhism, comprising aho a general view of the arts and sciences, in 108 volumes. In those discovered among the Calinucks, the liushiant complain of impenetrable mystery ; but, perhaps, tuch specimens might not be the most favourable. The Thibetians must have had some skill in astronomical observation, since they were acqtiainted with the satellite's of Jupiter and even with the ring of Suturn. 4449. In social life, the most characteristic feature is that unique species of polygamy, peculiarly opposed to the general Asiatic ideas, and consisting in the marriage uf one wife to several husbands. All the brothers of a family have only one spouse among them, the privilege of selecting whom rests with the eldest, it seems to be said that a surprising dcgrM of harmony prevails in this extraordinary kind of household : the females, who arc actiie and laborious, enjoy higher consideration than those of India or other Oriental countries, 4450. T/ie ordinary buildings in Thibet are very rude, consisting of rough stones heaped together without cement, and with flat terraced roofs. The only thing like ornament con- sists in a small banner, composed of pieces of rag or white paper, employed as a charm. On the contrary, the religious cditices, which unite the triple character of temples, monasteries, and palaces, display in many instances an extraordinary splendour. That of Tcshoo Loinboo, MAL'tULBUM or THB LAMA. Book II. with its whito an appearance elegance and c high, to contaii richly gilded, seven stories hi^ the insulated ro from the cold b tvhile in the hen 44,>l. Tie nation |>rc|iarcd shcepakin the climate. The i iilaiU, with a kilt, a hiKhcr classci A i ill com|>liincntary li ■H-K. 'J'hc rcllKlot leading castes arc m; very reluctantly be i mill slate, however, liijuom. Tea in the salt, and liuttcr, the Uihi. The entirely nmusimittts ; thoug niav almost be accou 4454. Our topt (lefaclied points, < indeed, found in ti «lio had been sent best, mere outlines partly owing to a appears in the de O'angcs are evider -and of Tliibet, an confined to the verj recent extracts, mai 4455. Lassa, or , IS situated in the fin raiiffes. The wint« cold blasts, the dim lity, independent ol represented as han temples, all richly i almost to rival Foot of government issta wliom all the priest receive their invest; country about .300 i the Chinese, as aire i-assa n military cor Tlicy rule it, howc fiirbed, and in full annual embassy to a- south, is the reiimrl •niles broad, round t 4450. TeshooLo, rendered interesUng i Book II. THIBET. 1051 with its white wnlU, coloured woo<)en rood*, numcrout gilded canopies ond turrets, makes an appearance iihnosi inaKical i and llio npnrtnivntM arc furnished with a regard both to elegance and comfort. Tlmt of Puolala, nt Laxxa, is said, by M. Klaproth, to be 367 feet high, to contain 10,CXX) apnrtnienti OIIihI witli iningvs in gold and silver, and to have its roof richly gilded. There, ns at Teshoo LondxH), the slate apartments arc at the top of the ediflce, seven stories high. The villages and monasteries are generally situated about half way up the insulated rticks which diversiiy the tuble-pluin of Thibet, The rock above shelters them from the cold blasts ; that lielow atlbrdH channels by which the melted snow may run off, rthile in the heart of it granaries and mngnxines are usually excavated, «,')!. The national drtn qf Tkibrl, contrsryto thst of India, U compoicd of thick woollen cloth, and nrciiarcd sheewklns with the fleece tiirnwl liiwsrtU, HirmliiB n commrublc protection from the icverlty of the climate. The relltiinua order* wo«r h veil iil' wiHilleii (•lolli with red iilecvi'i, a large mantle rcaembllng a iiluid, with « kilt, and u pair iif hune ImmiIk, Silkn IVoin China, and fliri IVini iartary, are employed liy the higher claMt* A fine white nilkeii »i'»rl' U an Invnrlnhle pretent on occaiiona cf ceremony, and la encloaed in complimentary letters. «,■>'.>. The reliKion of Thibet doea not Imuoie tile asine aiialcrc aliallnenco In rcapcct to food, to which the leading castes arc aubjet-ted under the HIndiH) nyatcni. A uenvrsl rcntmciation of animal lood, Indeed, would very rciuctanlly be observed In n country which acnriely alllinU any other aliment. The licada of the church ami state, however, accm to value theniaelvea on urcnt aimpllclty of diet, and abatlnencc from atrong li(|uor». Tea la the unlveraal drink, not taken, a* with ua. In a purely liquid form, but thickenetl with flour. Skjjt. VI. /,01'n/ Cti'ography, 4454. Our topographical knowMge of Thilifl is exircincly imperfect, and, unless at a few detached points, can scarcely bo conhldvrvd as having any existence. The missionaries, indeed, found in the Chinese archives n map constructed upon the information of two lamas, who had been sent by that guveriunent to make a survey of the country. It contains, at he^t, mere outlines aiul names, and is evidently far firom lH.>ing strictly accurate. This defect, partly owing to a civil war which broke out in the course of their mission, particularly appears in the delineation of the course of the great rivers, since the Indus and the Ganges are evidently confouiuled ; the latter Iteing represented as flowing along the table- .und of Thibet, and penetrating the llinialayuh. Our definite knowledge, therefore, is confined to the very few points which h.ivv been visited by European travellers, and to some recent extracts, made by M. Klapruth, IVoin works published in China. 4455. Lassa, or Hlassa, the capital spiritual and temporal, " the Rome of central Asia," is situated in the finest part of Thibet, an vxteiuletl valley bordered by stupendous mountain ranges. The winters arc sevt.>re ; but tVoiii April to October, notwithstanding occasional cold blasts, the climate is warm ; rice, the vine, and other fine fruits come to maturity. The city, independent of its chief ornuineni, which is the temple of Pootala already described, is represented as handsome and opulent. In tlio surrouiuling plain are twenty-two other temples, all richly adorned, and of which those of Sera and Bhraeboung are described nliimst to rival Pootala. The entire niunber of priests and monks maintained at the expense of government is stated at 84,000. Lassa is tlie seat of the grand or sovereign Lama, from whom all the priests and sovereigns of that denomination, throughout Thibet and Tartary, receive their investiture. Ho ranked, nisti, till lately, as the civil ruler of an extent of country about 300 miles in length, and composed of the best territory in this region ; but the Ciiinese, as already observed, after expelling the Ncpalesc invaders, have established at Lnssa a military commander and a civil governor, and virtually annexed it to their empire. They rule it, however, with a mild sway, Iciiving all the ecclesiastical institutions undis- turbed, and in fidl possession of their ample endowments ; and the tribute, conveyed by an annual embassy to Pekin, is extremely moderate. \Vithin the district of Lassa, and to the south, is the remarkable lake of Palte, described ns forming merely a belt of about four miles broad, round the large interior islimd which it encloses. 445G. 7'eshoo Lomhoo is the seat of a lama, second in rank to that of Pootala, but is rendered interesting to us by its close vicinity to the Ucngal frontier, from which it is only separated by the mountain district of Boutan. Two suc- cessive embassies, under Boyle and Turner, have been sent thither, and have made us tolerably acquainted with the place and neighbourhood. About 400 mansions combine to form a large monastery {fig. 672.), the walls of which are built of stone, the roofs of coloured wood, and crowned M,.*,R..K „..•.». „.«M... with numerous gilded cano- t05S DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pam III. pirn and turrett. According to the usual syBtem, it is built under the shade of a InVh rock witli a southern exposure, and looks down upon the great river Sanpoo, whose course is here diversified by numerous islands, through which it flows in deep and narrow channels. llie number of monks and gylongs, the sole inhabitants of tliis monastio capital, amounted in 1783 to 3700. Between it and the Boutan frontier is the district of Jhaniiu Jeung, surrounding a monastery of the same name, and containing a considerable manufactory of that thick soft woollen cloth which is generally worn in lliibet. 44S7. Afr, Moorcrtifl penelrated at a more wcitcrlv point Into the region beyond the mountain!, called thorc the Undei, or plaint. He went with the double object of opening a traile in ihawl wool, and ur viewing thn celebrated lake of Manaaarowara, and the riven, If any, which flowed out of it. The only eiilraiice I'rnrn India It by a narrow and moat periloui path, along the precipitoui aidct ot thetc lortieat mountaiiia of tlie Himalayan, which give rite to the Oanget. Nlti, a village of about tixtccn poor houica, forma the froiilier point ; beyond whicn,on the Thibet aide, the r'ad pataet over a tract whnac extreme elevation ia indicated by \u eHecti on the human iMxly, — oppretted reaplratlon, and a giddineia threatening apoplexy ; the lilood at the tame lime, burtting f^om the lipa, and all tne parta cxpoaed to the air becoming retfand aore. Here' nil the tout of the mountaint arc coTereil during the night with tnow, which mclta in the heat of the day and thut Allt the bedt of numberleu torrcnta. The flrtt village reached in the Undct it Daba, perched on a number of Irregular eminence*, and theltcrcd by a hill of great height. The admlnlitrutlon teemed in ihia region divided between the Lama and the Deba, or civil governor ; but the Chlneae commanda were of iiara. mount authority. M58. About eighty milei to the north of Daba lies Gertope, or Oortope, the chief market for the thawl wool Thit place ia rati.er a camp than a town, conaiating merely of cluaicri of black tcnta made of blanlicta fattened to ttaket by ropei of hair, and adornol at the topa with Uaga formed with alireda of coloured ailk aiiil cloth. It It tituatcd in the midat of a vaat plain, covered with large flockt of aheep, goata, and yaka - not fewer, it ia auppoted, than 40,000. ' ttS9, About loo milei tu till- anulh-eatt qf Corlope ate the UAei ot Rnvan tltaii ud Manaaarowara. The latter, though of tmaller dimenaioni, bears a much greater name, and it an object .<. reverential nilKriniaKo ttom all partt of HIndoatan. The few, who can overcome the trcmendoua obeta'''i n oncountcrvd in the way conaider all their tint at forgiven, and an entrance into paradiac aa aecured. The luke Manaaarowara ia or an oval form, about fifteen milet long and eleven broad, turroundcd by cllfn of piadifclout height, haunted by vatt Humbert of aquatic eaglet and a tpeciet of grey wild gceac. It ia atuddol with I'.jmeroua coiiveiita, above which the loftiett mountalna of the HImalayah rear their tnowy pinnaclet. It hat lieen generally reported that tome grert river, auppoted once to be the Oanget, and afterwardt the Indut, had iti aource In this lake- and even that the Sanpoo latued from it in an oppoaite direction ; but Mr. Moorcroft could not discern the Icatt trace of any outlet He wot, however, prevented by illneaa from making the complete circuit in person. The Rawan Hrad waa described to be four timea aa liirgc aa the Manaaarowara, and is aunpoaed to give rite to the tjutledgc ; though tliia, too, aeema not fully ascertained. Iletwecn thcac lakes and Uaba, the country ii filled with not apringa, largely impregnated with calcareous matter. Those at Tirtapuri throw up the water which it intensely hot, to the height of a few Inches. ' 4460. Ladauk, or Leh, is a very elevated territory in the north-western part of Tliibct, separated on the north from Khotcn, by the ridge of Mooz Tangh, or Karrahorum. h is supposed by Moorcroft to be 250 miles from n'.'>-th to south, and 200 from cast to west) and consists of valleys formed by the Indus, its .riijutnry the Shayook, and some smaller streams. The surfaces are very t-levated, the c.ipitnl being supposed 1 1,000 feet above the sea level ; yet several surrounding mountains that rise little above it, are covered with per. petual snow. The soil is rugged, consisting chiefly of the detritus of primitive rocks, only about one-flfth being capable of cultivation. This yields tolerable wheat, barley, and posture, on which is reared in perfection the goat yielding the shawl-wool, of wliicli about 800 loads are sent annually to Cashmere. Rhubarb also is very luxuriant, 'i'livrc is ii considerable transit trade from India to the northern parts of Asia. The capir.il, riuk'lv and irregularly built, contains about 500 houses. The sovereign is nearly iiulcpcndent, though much controlled by the priesthood. Dras, between Ladauk and Cashmere, travcrsi'il by another large tributary of the Indus, is a poor and rugged territory, inhabited by bigoted Mahometans. Cii.\r. X. TAHTARY. 4461. Tarlanj is the name given in Europe to that immense region extending .ilm.ist entirely across Asia from the Caspian to the Eastern Ocean. It is the second of the tlirce great belts into which that continent is portioned out. Although the name of Tsrliiry bo only partially recognised within these limits, and though in so vast a region inucli diversity of every kind must necessarily exist, the general similarity is striking. M'iny parts of it arc tKtrdered, and even pervaded, by chains of mountains ; and large cities, cultivated spots, and fixed societies here and there occur. It contains also sandy deserts of considerable extent. Still, the predominant characteristic is that of pliins almost boundless, covered with herbage more or less abundant, and occupied by wandering and pastoral tribes, wliose camps, like moving citie.s, pass continually to and fro over its surface. Sect. I. General Outline and Aspect. 4462. 7%e surface nf Tartary consists of bold and strikingly contrasted features, on an immense scale : in the cast, long and lofVy chains of mountains supporting very elevated tal)le-land8 ; in the west, a plain of astonishing extent. The researches of Ilamboldt aiidliii Book II. TARTARY. // 1053 learned coac^uton have thrown great light on the conflguration of this great region, which was before involved in much obHcurity. 4463. Three great chains of mountaim, running from cut to west, traverse the wide ex- panse of Eastern Tartory. Two of these ore limitary ; one, the Kucnlun, already described, which separates it from Thibet; the other the Altu'l, dividing it from the bleak regions of Siberia. This last remarkable chain extending eastward under the titles of the Sayanskoi and Yablonoy mountains, is prolonged almost from the sources of the Irtysch and the Obi to the Eastern Ocean. The intermediate clioin, which is wholly Tartar, and divides the country into two great table-plains, is called by the Chinese the Thianchan, or the celestial mountains. This range, hitherto imperfectly distinguished from the Altai, appears to reach its highest pinnacle to the north of Turfa.i and the lake of Lop, where three peaks covered with per- petual snow are celebrated under the title of the holy mountain (Bokhdaoola), or of " the mountain of the queen." Hence Pallas, who erroneously views this chain as part of the Altai, has given to the whole the name of Bogdo. The Turks have attached the appella- tion of Muoi Tagh, or snowy mountain, to its western portion, where it stretches beyond the general range, and shoots a branch towards Khojend, separating the sources of the Oxus from those of the Jaxartes. Here the lofty peak termed the throne of Soliraan, and several others, appear covered with perpetual snow. Considerable mountains also occur north of the Jaxartes ; but ail these gradually sink into the vast low level of western Tartary. Eastward, near the frontier of China, tliis elevated range declines, partly into the griat desert of Cobi, partly into a lower range separating thi^t empire from the country of the Mandshur Tartars. Tlie boundary in that direction is I'ormed by the transverse chain of the Khingklmnoola, beyond the meridian of Pekin, which runs from south to north, and pro- bably connects it with the branches from the Altai. At the western extremity, the plain enclosed between the Tliianchan and Siberia, is believed to be entirely open, and connected with that of Independent Tartary It is otherwise with the plateau south of the Thianchan, and separated from Thibet by the Kuenlun. The extremities of these two boundary chains are connected by a transverse one called the Beloor or Bolor, of a peculiarly lofty and rugged churocter, and aflbrding only two narrow and difficult passes, by which caravans can pene- trate into Eastern Tartary. This remote corner of Asia is distinguished by valuable mines of ruby, lapis lazuli, and other precious stones. 4464. These three mighty chaint enclose two great table- landt, of which the Thianchan forms the central and common boundary, whence the southern extends to the Kuenlun, and the northern to the Altai. The former, commonly called Little Bucharia, is very im- perfectly explored, not having been traversed for several ages by any European ; but it is known to contain several states that have risen to a considerable height of culture and civilisation. An impression has prevailed, as if this were the most elevated plain on the globe; but Humboldt observes, that a country in the fortieth degree of latitude, where cotton, the vine, and the silkworm come to maturity, can scarcely exceed in elevation the plateaux of the Mysore, Spain, and Bavaria. Tlie northern table-land, called commonly Mongolia, is, probably, nearly siinilnr in elevation ; but, being in a more northerly situation, its climate is much more bleak and ungenial : it yields, in its best tracts, only pasturage, and includes large expanses of sandy and saline desert. The country still farther to the east- ward, occupied by the Mandshur and other tribes of Tartars, is still more imperfectly known, but appears to consist, likewise, of an alteriuition of mountain and table-land, bearing still more decidedly a rude and pastoral character. 4465. Western or Independent Tartary presents an aspect entirely different ; and, as the one is supposed to rise higher, this is believed to sink lower than any tract on the surface of the globe. A few branches, indeed, from the lofty mountains, which give rise to the Oxus and the Jaxartes, penetrate its border; but in extending westward to the Aral and the Caspian, the surface declines lower and lower, till a great extent of it is believed to be 200 or SOO feet beneath the level of the sea. It consists generally of a vast and monotonous level, which by the scarcity of water is rendered in many places almost a desert ; and the fine countries fertilised by irrigation from the p'reat rivers, are little better than large oases amid a greater surrounding waste. . 4466. A coniiderable number of riven descending from these high mountain ranges tra- verse the great upland plain of Tartary ; but, unable, across so many harriers, to reach any of the surrounding oceans, they expand into large interior salt lakes, whose magnitude entitles them to the appellation of seas. The ' Caspian, indeed, the largest inland sea on the globe, is fed, not from Tartary, but by the Volga p"d the torrents of the Western Caucasus, The Aral is the receptacle of the two great characterising rivers of Tartary, the Oxus or Amoo, and the Jaxartes or Sirr, which rise in different parts of the trans- verse chain of the Beloor Tagh. Thence flowing westward through the long tracts of Independent Tartary, they fall into the Aral. The Oxus seems to hold a course of about lOOO miles, and the Jaxartes of more than half that length. The irrigation produced by these and a few smaller streams, breaks the continuity of desert, and on them are utuated the most fertile and populous tracts, and tlie most powerful states of Western Tar- ' -\ lOM DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P^t III. tery. In little Buchnrla, another icrie* of riven, flowing eaitword from Akiou, Cashsu and Yarliunci, unite in the Tarim, which proceeds in the tame direction towards tli« great lalie of Lop. To the north of tlie Thianchan, the Hi, a considerable strenm, Huws westward into the lake Balkash or Palkati. Several other rivers traverse this part of AhIil and expand into lakes. The Irtysch, Angara, and Svlinga, though they rise in tliia rvulon soon break the northern barrier, and roll through Siberia. Eastern Tartary in wittiTed through nearly its whole length by the Ainoor or Soghalien, which, after a somewhat wind, ing course, fnlls into the long narrow strait tliat separates tlie continent from the iHland of Saghalien. It mny vie in magnitude with the greatest Asiatic streams; but, from its un- favourable position, it conduces little to the interests of commerce and communication. SicT. II. Kalural Geography, SuBsiCT. I. Geology. 446?. The centr vast dlitancc flrom north-west to south-east. Of late, the Russians have opened a (jreat trade "'"' '.™^j pendent Tartary. They have annual caravans iVoin Orenburg to Bokhara, a commercial route, wliicn anw Book 1 vainly att men. n From all t municatioi and Kiacli those strici 4483. n, been notici and some i request for demand, ho cliietly of in Book II. TARTARY. 1057 vainly attempted to open, for leveral centuries ; and these caravana, it ii laid, conaist fVequently of 30,000 men. Tlicy flrcquent also tlie fairs ofYarlcund, and pome of them have even barn seen in those of Thibet. From all that part of Tartary, however, which is subject to China, they are rigidly excluded. The only com. munication between the empires is on the frontier of Siberia, at the two towns of Mamaitchin on the Chinese, and Kiachta on the Russian side. Here the commodities of the respective empires are exchanged, under those strict regulations by which China limits all her intercourse with foreigners. 4483. The chief trade peculiar to Tartary consists in its horses, the superior qualities of which have already been noticed. There is a small, stout, hard-working breed, selling from 5/. to 10/. apiece, exported to Cabul, and some parts of India, for purposes of husbandry. The large war-horse of Turkestan has been always in request for the cavalry, of which the armies in Hindostan and all the south of Asia chiefly consist. The ilcmand, however, has been much diminished in India by the prevalence of the English, whose troops consist chiefly of infantry, and whose oflicers prefer Arabian horses. Sect. VI. Civil and Social State. 4484. The population of the tribes roving over the boundless plains of Tartary cannot be estimated from any precisu data, nor can a loose conjecture on the subject be hazarded with much chance of coming near the truth. The population of Bokhara has been stated at 2,000,000, that of Kokaun at the same, that of Balkh at 1,000,000. Badakshaun, Khiva, the Kirghise territory, and otlier minor divisions, may raise the whole of Independent Tartary, perhaps, to somewhat above 6,000,000. In regard to what is called Chinese Tartary, we are destitute of all positive data ; but if wc suppose the same ratio to prevail between the extent and population, we must allow to this portion double the number. Against this allowance, it may be argued, that Eastern Tartary contains immense tracts of desert, and thinly inhabited country. It is not certain, however, that these are more exten- sive than in its western regions ; and our accounts of it, which must be confessed to be imperfect, represent various districts as fertile and highly cultivated. Under these views, we might guess the entire population of Tartary at about 20,000,000. 4485. The Mongols and the Turks, or Toorks, the two leading races among the various tribes wlio inhabit this immense region, are distinguished by numerous peculiarities from each other. The Mongols, so celebrated in the annals of conquest and ravage, both under their own name and the ancient name of Huns, occupy chiefly the pastoral districts bordering on the north upon the great desert of Shamo. Their visage is strange, and almost deformed ; broad, square, and flat, with high cheek-bones, the nose peculiarly depressed, small and keen black eyes, bending obliquely towards the nose, thick lips, and a scanty provision of black hair upon the head, eyebrows, and beard. Their persons are somewhat diminutive, spare, muscular, and active, and the horses on which they continually ride are more distinguished for swiftness than for size and beauty. The Calmucks, the Kalkas, the Eluths, the Burats, may l)e considered as branches of the great Mongol family. The Turks, celebrated for their early conquest of Persia, and for their possession of Con- stantinople, are a much handsomer race. They have short and stout persons ; broad fore- heads, high cheek-bones, small but not twisted eyes, and black hair. Their features cannot thus be considered as perfect, according to European ideas ; but as they have none of the Mongol deformities, and, instead of the dark-yellow tint of the latter, have clear and ruddy complexions, their beauty is celebrated by the poets of Asia. They are divided chiefly into tlie Uzbeks, the Turkomans, the Kuzzauks. I'he Mandshurs are represented by some as exhibiting the Mongol features, with a fairer complexion ; but, according to Pallas, they belong to the same class as the Tunguses. Although there be this variety in the external appearance of these races, yet the same wandering, pastoral, equestrian habits ; the division into tribes ; and the absolute sway of their khans, unite in fixing a similar character on all the nations who bear the name of Tartar. 4486. Of the national character of tlie Tartat^ very various reports have been given, according to the relation under which they have presented themselves. Their delight is in war, and there is no nation that wages it on a more dreadful and barbarous system The " scourge of God," the " terror of mankind," are the appellations by which they are kno^n to the neighbouring empires. General extermination, without regard to age or sex, is what they consider themselves entitled to inflict on all who attempt resistance ; and this is miti- gated only when a profit can be made by carrying off captives, and selling them as slaves. It was said of the armies of Zingis and Timour, that they saw before them a fruitful king" (torn, and left behind them a solitary desert. It was tlieir boast, with regard to some of the proudest capitals, that they had reduced them to such a state, that a horse might pas« over their site without stumbling. A picture greatly the reverse of this has been drawn by those who have observed the Tartars, even when tliey were spreading elsewhere the widest desolation ; displaying, in their domestic life and their intercourse with each other, the sim- plicity and amiable virtues of the pastoral age. They are cordial, kind, and hospitable ; quarrels are rare, seldom produce fighting, and scarcely ever bloodshed. Compared with the Hindoos and Chinese, they ate frank, sincere, and honest ; and though they make even peaceable strangers feel the influence of a national pride, nourished by the recollection of so many victories, yet they protect them, and treat them with courtesy. 4487. Two religions divide -Tartary, and are professed with zeal through different portions. All its eastern regions acknowledge the Shaman doctrines, and the supremacy of the Grand 3 Y 2 t058 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. Boor Lama ; while, ever since the commencement of the eighth century, when the countries beyond the Oxus were conquered by the arms aad instructed by the preaching of thu caliphs, they have remained devoted to the Mussulman creed. Under the former system, the little tribes of Eastern Asia have minor lamas, exercising a mingled spiritual uiul temporal jurisdiction, though not holding a supreme sway in either capacity. The oripiiiHl Boodhist system, also, here seems combined with ruder features ; particularly magic, sorcery, and similar modes of deluding the ignorant wandtrers of the desert. In the west, again, Mahometanism seems to be professed in greater purity, and with stronger bigotry, than in almost any other of tlie numerous regions where it reigns. In Bokhara, the former sovereign raised himself from a low rank to that high station, solely by his eminence as a moliah, or Mahometan doctor, and by his rigid observance of the austerities enjoined in that religion. The Koran is here strictly enforced, not only as a sacred but a civil code ; according to its rules justice is administered and the revenue collected ; and, conformnbjy to its precepts, a tenth part of the revenue is bestowed in alms. The prohibition of wine, anil even of tobacco, is enforced with the utmost rigour. Killich Ali, the late able and e(|uiiiible ruler of Balkh, equally aspired to distinction as a Mahometan saint. He bestowed large sums in maintaining mosques and mollahs, fed daily a hundred poor, and afl'ected tlie humility of never riding on horsebuck, lest his feet should at any time be higher than tiie head of any true believer. 4438. The learning qf Tarlary is little known, and is at best only a reflected light u't. Astronomy appears merely under the character of astrology; medicine has lost all the lustre it possessiii lii the days of Avicenna ; and, perhaps, the only .solid parts of knowledge retained of those which were tttU|{lit in the schools of Bagdad, are arithmetic, anil tlie brandies of practical niathematics. 4489. Architecture, in a country of which the greater part of the iiopulation is movable, can never be ex|>e('ted to make much progress. The great capitals are clecorated with haiulsomu cilifices, on the inotlrl of those of Fersia ; but none of these have atiained any gnat celebrity. The regular aluHle of all native I'ar. tars is the tent, carried from place to place with the tribe or encampment. The Tartar tent is nmrh more commodious than that formed of black cloth, which is used in Cabul or Thibet. It is fVamed of close luili or wickerwork, covered with felt, and terminating upwards in the shape of a dome. 'I'hesc, which are oniii large and lofty, are placed on waggons, and conveyed from place to place, suggesting the idea of a moving city. A cainp or migratory village is calleil anoot, and consists usually of fTom twenty to flfty tents. 44!)0. Tlie dress oj the Tartars ditt'ers materially from that of Southern Asia, ai.d is chiefly adjusted fur the production of that comfortable warmth which the climate renders desirable. J'he Turks wear a cotton uliltt and trousers, a silken.woo leii tunic, tied with a girdle, and over it a gown of broad cloth or felt. Tlit national head-dress is a huge white turban, drawn, in general, over a calpauk, nr |ioiiited cap. Ilontiare worn at all times by all classes, poor and rich, men and women, but the rich have them of a sort of linht leather, without soles or heels, forming rather a species of leather stocking, over which shoes must lie »orn when they go ou>. Every man has a knife hanging from his girdle. The women wear nearly tlio siiiic garments as the men, but longer, and throw a robe of silk or cotton overall. They delight in golil amlsilut ornaments, and plait their hair into a long queue, like the Chinese. In Mongolia, sheepskins, dresieil in a peculiar manner, with the hair inwards, are coiisidtred the most comfortable protection againtt tlicrolil.' anil some fUrs, though not of the finest kind, fVom eitner Tartary or Siberia, are adiled. 44yl. The favourite fuud of the Tartars is horseflesh, so repugnant to the taste of all other nations. Thf varied delicacies which cover the tables of the great in Persia and Hindostan are considered by them as vci; insipid when compared with a slew of this coarse aliment Horses there, as oxen with us, are rcgulail; fattened fur the tallies of the rich ; but their limited number, and the higher services to which a laincpio. portion must be put, pUce this delicacy, in a great measure, Iwyond the reach of the poor, 'i hey ran enjoy it only occasionally in winter, when the scarcity of pasture obliges the camp to kill such ni tinware unable to subsist. Among the wandering tribes, however, an animal diet must preponderate, both I'riiin ill abundance and the want of any other ; but, in the absence of the above most valued kind, recouric ii had chiefly to mutton. To the horse, the Tartars are also indebted for their most national and charartciiilh' liquor. The milk of the mare is fermented into an intoxicating drink, called koumiss, which is their lavmirile beverage, and which uhysiciuns bat'e described as really very palatable and wholesome. The stern |>rrn'|>l of tile Koran is, by a Tartar interpretation, not considered as applying to this exhilarating fluid, in whirhtlit Turks, notwithstanding general habits of sobriety, indulge nearly to the utmost extent in which it lan l» rirocured. They use also bouza, a thin acidulous liquor, made from grain, and which is likewise much iliunt n Arabia and Northern Africa. They breakfast on tea, which, alter the mode of lhil)et, they malm inloi thick liquid, with milk, flour, and butter. Sect. VII. Local Geography, 44!i2. The tnosi eastern division ijf Tartary, or the countrv of the Mandlhun, forming the interval bctiNn China and Siberia, and bordered by the Lastern Pacifle, Is still less known than most of llsiilherii!|ii>i<*' We scarcely know it at all, unless by Chinese descriptitna, which are in general meagre and |K)m|ioui II presents generally a dill'erent aspect from those Immense and naked plains which characieri>e Ihi'mlr) of Asia. It ap|>cars to be diversified by rujtged and broken mountain ranges, covered with thick fiircili, iwl separated hy valleys, many of which, notwithstanding the coldness of the climate, imssess cniisidcrahle in- lllity. Their recesses are filled with wild lieasts of a formidable character, and in such crowd! ai to ifiiil" travelling dangerous. Wheat is raised only in the most favoured spots ; the prevalent culture is thaluloiiii elsewhere scarcely an Asiatic grain. The priMluct most valued abroad Is the ginseng, the unlviTjalm™' cine in the eve of the Chinese, who boast that it would render man immortal were it possible tin ««"•' iK-come so. It grows upon the sides of the mountains. The shores of the Eastern Ocean ii|ii«arcill(il'' Perouge covered with inagnilleent forests, but al)andone» Book II. TARTARY. 1039; [er ii*»i* |,l,i.tci» lotoil'."'* IcisWe tn. Icrsjl !«<»"■ 1 lot H*,'" liiut*>p"5 lie »!'»", Hnd many valuable nir.bearhig animals, among which the sable is conspicuous. 440'}. ne Mandthurs are by no means wholly destitute of civilisation. They possess even a languaee and writing, essentially different from that of the Chinese, or of any other nation ot central Asia. The language li distinguished by an excess of srooothnets, which forbids two consonants ever to come in contact with each other 1 by a copiousness almost unrivalled j by the very varied inflections, particularly of the verb I'hilo. loglsti have traced in it analogies with the languages of Southern Asia, and even with the cognate dialects of Europe. This reflncment, however, seems to belong ratlicr to some other era, or to have been imported from some other region; for the impression which Sir Ueorgc Staunton received of these 'lartars, imme. diatcly after he had crossed the Great Wall, was that of a vcrv rude i)eople. Their persons were tall and robust J but their countenances were less expressive than those of the Chinese : their manners were com. paraiivcly rude and unimlished ; the same ttrict order and iiolice were not maintained ; and beggars, who are never tolerated in the Chinese .-npire, swarmed on ail the roads. 'I'hey were so rational as not to have adiinted the ridiculous and injurious system of cramping the female fcit. On the whole, though the Tartar lords hold a high and even ruling place at the court of China, the nation in general is depressed uinlcr the 8S( cnilcnoy of the conquered state, all whose institutions have bei'ii adopted entire by the government m. The province of Mandshur Tartanj, immediately adjacent to China, is called KiricOula, with a capital of the same name. The most remarkable place, however, is Zheholl or «)ehol, tlie summer residence ami hunting.seat of the Chinese emperors. The gardens here are most superb anil extensive, occupying a large expanse of ground tastefully ornamented. The province, however, which is reported to contain the greatest extent of productive land is that of Shin Yang, or Ix'aotong, bordering on Corca. There are citiea bearing each of these names, and of considerable extent 'J'his district is even reported to carry on the niaiiiilacture of a species of ornamented paper, in request at I'ekin. The northern region, watered by the Amoor, bears the title of Taitzikar, or Afandshiir Proper, being the original seat of that conquering race. Its towns, Tiitzikar, Nlmgouta, and Saghalieii Oula, are poor, and of middling extent. On the Upiicr Amoor U the district of Solon, inliabiteassies to China, particularly that of Lange, narrated by Uvll. Though a month was spent in crossing it, the breadth does not appear to have I'Xi'eetU'd -lOO miles. The ground was covered with short and thin grass which, owing, IK'rhups, to the saline quality of the soil, maintained a greater number of cattle than could Imve been supposed. There is, indeed, a considerable number of springs and lakes, btit the water Is so brackish as to be scarcely potable; so that a single pure spring which oc- :« Y 3 • 1000 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Fakt III cuned, tasted as delicious as burgundy or champagne. A space of twenty miles in extent immediately beyond the Chinese wall was composed of shifting and sinking sand, formed into waves twenty feet high, and the crossing of which was an operation of the greatest labour. The ground along this tract is covered with pebbles of considerable beauty, and even value. 4498. Alt the habitable parts of this desert, with the tracts to the north of the Thianchan, covered with rank and luxuriant pastures, are traversed by the trU)es or standards of the Mongols. This terrible race are no longer in a condition to pour over Asia the tide of conquest and desolation. They are split into a number of petty tribes separate from each other, generally hostile, and incapable of combining for any common object. They have been made to own the sovereignty of China ; but that state, unable either to maintain garrisons or exact tribute, leaves them much to themselves, and requires little more than that they shall leave it unmolested. Even this is not accomplished without the payment of a small salary or tribute to their chiefs. There is not even any effective prohibition against the practice of waging private war with each other ; though, when this threatens to rencli any serious or perilous height, a force is levied and sent out, by whose influence terms of accommodation are dictated. The physical features of the Mongols have been already described. In their character they are rough, roaming, warlike ; but in domestic intercourse, frank, cheerful, and hospitable. Their main pride consists in the management of their horses, in which they appear indeed to show a wonderful degree of dexterity. They do not attempt to rival the weight and size of the Turkish horses, but prefer those which are swift, hardy, and serviceable. They have trained them to stop in their most rapid career, and to face, without fear, the fiercest animals. As the luxuries of horse-flesh and koumiss can be commanded only to a limited extent, they supply their place with cows, and with that species of sheep having huge tails composed entirely of fat, which prevails in many parts of Asia and Africa. For amusement, they hunt deer and a few sables ; but find little opportunity for fishing. Amidst all the privations to which they are exposed, they manifest a gay and cheerful disposition, and take delight in various kinds of sports and exercises. Complete converts to the religion of Boodh, they have lamas, feigned or fancied to be immortal, and each of whose places is immediately supplied after death by another, believed to be a new body animated by the same soul. They have also ghpiins (gylongs), or monks, by whom the religious ceremonies are conducted ; and these cere- monies are observed, as in Thibet, to bear a close resemblance to those celebrated under t!ie superstitious forms of Christianity. This ecclesiastical nobility, however, though reverenced and handsomely supported, is far from enjoying the same exclusive dignity as in Tiiibet. The warlike chiefs hold that pre-eminence which is usual among such rude tribes. 4499. The Calmucks are by much the most numiroua among the branches of the Mongols, and they occupy all the western portion of the region now described as Mongolian. In form, manners, and religion, they pre- sent scarcely any distinction. They auiienr, however, to have amore inde|>endent and regular form of govern- ment than any other Tartar nation. Tlie khans of the ditlijrcnt ooroghs, or tribcs.meet in a general council, to elect the great khan of the Calmucks. Tlicy boast of their country as that whence issued the Huns, who acted so celebrated a part in the overthrow of the Uoman empire ; and they even claim the great Zingii as their countryman. In the end of tho seventeenth ccjitury, they had made themselves completely the ruling people, and masters of all central Tartary, including the southern countries of CashgBr and Khoten. Being attacked, hswever, by the Mongols, their rivals, confederated with the whole force of the Chinese empire, they were unable t mission la than (jiven to uu on to Cashgar and Yarkund, where duties of no very oppres- sive amount ore exnvted, but tto foreigner must proceed fartlier. 450!. Cathaw U •l»>rrili«il no a tiaiutiotnc and ancient city, the seat of government, and, tliough not the chief empurmm of lllU |il«rt iiC Aata, vi lit Urn llf lulitinlirhnnd nHbrds employment to a considerable number of the inhabitants. Yarkund is unW»r«Ally hIIiiw«(I Iu be a larger and still handsomer city, estimated, by Mr. Bumes, to contain eo.OOU Inhabitants | of wlliim AlKHI are Chinese, the rest Mahometans. Though destroyed by Abubeker, the grandson of 'I'lmur, it ii|)«tHllly regained its ftirmcr prosperity. Its situation, indeed, seems to ensure its con- tinuance as th»P«ntrf Of (lie thiaild trade of Asia, the grand medium of communication between the east and the west, th« north Hllll Imp south, of that great continent Yarkund, accordingly, is a place of immense resort, and filled with nun)«rntl« vttravansaras Ibr the re ption of strangers. A handsome street runs the whole length of thP city, «llllrely tilled with shops and w ehouses, which are kept by the Chinese, who sit on benches in lYnnt, TtlHre U also a considerable number of mattresses, or colleges. The country around is described us almost iilirtvalll>tl. partli'ularly fur Its finely watered gardens and the excellence of its ftuiu. No strangers arc allowtHi in m** Varklind ) nil one being reported to have entered, the following instruction was received from iKiurt, " Jli* hemi Is the emperor's, his property yours." 45(id. Ten other cuunliiM and t'ltics are enumerated by Mr. Fraser and other writers as situated in Little Bucharla : Khoten, Aktim, Kiiutche. Kelah, Turfaun, Karachar, Elchi, Karria, Ouama, Kargalle, Yengu, and Hisiar, Khat«l) la tliralt<l)«i of the laritest cities In Tartary, containing 75,000 people. Turfaun is also men- tioned by him as a largf and slning rllv, the capital of a considerable country, governed by a branch of the royal family of Cashgitr, No fvceilt tiieiitinn is made of Peym, or Poym, which, according to Marco Polo, ought to be within the alinvti limits. Farther to the cast, that traveller has described the country of Lop, in which was a great lake whvrf the river of Cashgar found its termination. The citjr of Lop formed then a rendezvous of the Oitravaiiii, that here Ibund the most favourable opportunity of crossing the Great Desert on their way to China, lliiyniid 'I, and close on the Chinese fVontler, is Khamil, called Hami in the Chinese maps, represented as a p«(lU'iM, gives place here to the ecclesiastical sway of the Lama. Peculiar super- stitions, the remains, probably, of an earlier system, are said to prevail in this part of Tartary. The dead are often embalmed in aplves, aiMl kt vaders then rush in, set fire to tlie place, kill all that resist, and carry the rest into slavery. Such proceedings, however, arise rather from the predatory habits of the Tartars, than from any peculiar impulse from the sovereign, in whose eyes, however, they are sanctioned l>y the consideration that the Persians are heretical Shiahs, and therefore, by the holy and orthodox Sunites, are justly devoted to bondage. Tlie country in the seventeenth century was con- quered by the Uzbeks, a Turkish people from tlie north. The reigning sovereign, a young man, only twenty-seven years of age, rules with justice and ability. A considerable inland trade is carried on witli India, Persia, and, above all, with Russia. From Astraclian, two annual caravans come by way of Orenburg, each accompanied by 400O or 5000 camels. In winter, the Oxus being frozen, they are enabled to pass it over the ice ; but much hardship is experienced in consequence of the desolate character of the route, where often neither provisions nor water are to be found for several successive days. The imports from Russia arc metals, arms, cutlery, cloths, and other European manufacures ; the returns are in silk, cotton, hides, rubies, and turquoises. The kingdom, according to Mr. Burnes, is divided into eight provinces : — 1. Karakool; 2. Bokhara; 3. Kermina; 4. Meeankiiat, or Kutta Koorgaun ; 5. Saraarcand ; 6. Juzzauk ; 7. Lubiab, or banks of the Oxus ; 8. Balkh. 4506. According to Mr. Elphinstone, and the late Russian mission, the city of Bokhara contains 70,000 or 80,000 inhabitants; but Mr. Burnes estimates them at 150,000. As usual in Asiatic cities, the habitati'ms of the ordinary citizens are poor; but there is a number of mosques, and madresses, or colleges, handsomely built of stone. Bokhara is a great seat of Mahometan learning, such as it is, and the government encourages it, the city containing 366 madresses, many attended by 70 or 80 students. To every niadresse there is a lecturer ; and these, with the students, are supported by funds consisting chiefly of the rent of lands or houses, appropriated to that purpose by Mahometan zeal and charily. There are 4000 Jews and 30O Indians. 4507. Farther up the Kohuk, and about 200 miles to the east of Bokhara, is Samarcanit. Its walls still enclose a circuit of forty-eight miles : the beauty of its environs, and the deli- cacy of its fruits, are extolled in the same lofty terms which were used by the writers of the middle ages. This renowned capital of Asia is now little better than a mass of ruins. Here is also found the celebrated observatory of Ulugh Beg, and the mausoleum of Tiniur, paved with green stone adorned with jewels. It is watched by a few attendants, who were liberally supported by the court of Delhi ; but, since the fall of tlie Mogul empire, they are left in a state of extreme poverty. Kurshec, with 10,000 inhabitants, is now a larger city. Charjooee, with 4000 or 5000 people, is the port on the Oxus. iSa%. The tract$ between the Oxui and the Jaxnrlea partake of the rudest character of Tartary, and are occupied only by bands of wanderins 'I^lrkInan8. The waters ot the latter river, however, fertilise the king- dom of Kukaun and Ferganali, similar in cultivation and improvement to liukhara Omcr Khan, a Maho- metan prince, withnut making quite so high profeasion an the ruler of the latter state, cultivates peace, anJ ii mild and beneficent in his internal administration. Kokaun. or Kokan, of moart of which extends less than W miles in length, and Sti in its utmost breadth, along the banks of the Oxus. Hie canals ilerivcd Iruni that river are the chief meann by which cultivation is produced. To Khivs, also, is loosely attached the roving population of those immense deserts which, on every side, insulate it from the civilised world ; hom Persia, from Candahar, and fVom Bokhara Travellers across these wastes find only at wide intervals a few spots aftbrding water and pasturage That there exists, however, in their recesses a greater number of these onirt than the routes across them would indicate, is proved Iwyond a doubt bv the multitudes whom tncy pour forth for the purposes of war and plunder. The p<>pulation of the whole territory has been reckoned iitSOV.OOO families, of whom about a third are fixed ; the rest wandering, pastoral, and predatory. These last roam usually through their deserts in a state of wild independence, under hereditary chiefs, yet are ever ready to Join anv standard, either of their own sovereign, or of Persian revolted chiefs, under which they may [iromise themselves adventure and booty. At present, as nothing on a great scale presents itself, they are principilj]' employed in desolating Persia, and particularly Khorsiian, by plundering expcUitioiii, in which Ihey not oiilv carry ofT e immense di «l(). Thi the Persian and the per carry on soi much farthi whom they Khiva and 1 4.5fl. The families. It of the khan thouKh iu si revolutions t ♦.ilii. Balk, seems to asce retains, howe enclose is no district is flat measure, by a Paropamisaii this source of compose the g Uzbeck chief, Koondooz, wli MOW to exceed mosaues and ti *il3. AinonQ chief has sulye bounded by tht hot in summer, uoree, Inderab fruit-trees. Mt artillery, but nt 4514. Budiiksi oistricts; andti gales. Thecou very fine rubies. Moorad Beg. 1 the country ilso »ui fributa.-y of 4J15. Several s north are Hissar Uerwauz, ruled I Oxus; Koolab, ! Jarkund is the v Zurikol, situated «Pace between Bu fcskerdon, borderi to Koondooz, the who profess Maho "atribeofKaffe arrows, and scalt "omen, a numt «J"" from Alexai which forms his overran these terr theroyal family of "ifounded 4516. Turcoman Caspian and Aral, described, consist^ tribes, dwelling in «'th ruthless plui Mrefully maintain qualities, however fj'o.lhoreback"' fid, though they n; ^^"T'^'offami ,Z"a *«fuk Meru' ""e Oxus, 2000: ll ^9?|;fn),9000i AI *>J7. In order tn < »" Asiatic Russia w feu;ci„,heearljn ovTr h'™"''l'""« L ifi u"' "^e Aral f;""e Horde. The ( ^any of ,„ tribes ha' SkS'"- Onlj "un Kirghues, and e S?s'sr.s Book I(. TARTARY. 106S carry off* every thing valuable, but the inha^itanta thenuelres lo perpetual captivity In the heart of their immenae deterta. 4510. The lellled inhabUantt qf KUva are described as grou and uncivitited, when compared either with the Peraians or with the Tartars. They indulge in gluttonous excesses, foreign in general to Oriental habits, and the persons of the chiefs are in consequence corpulent and overgrown. Their si.uation enables them to carry on some trade similar Co that of Bokhara, though on a smaller scale. One branch they have extended much farther, that of slaves, if trade it can be called which conslsU merely in selling the unfortunate victims whom they have obtained by violence. Mr. Fraser heard it estimated that there were In slavery, throughout Khiva and Bokhara, :rom 150,000 to 200,000 Persians, and 15,000 Russians. 4511. The city qf Khiva is situated about flfteen miles to the south of the Oxus, and contains about 5000 families. It is poorly built, and i&, indeed, rather a flxed encampment than a regular town. Even the palace of the khan is only a large wooden tent plastered with clay. Urgunge, the ancient capital is almost In ruins, though its situation on the Oxus still preserves to it a little trade. Haxarasp, a place distinguished In the revolutions of Asia, has exiwrienced an equal decay. 451!2. BMh, or Bulkh, the ancient Bactria, possesses In Asia the fame of almost unrivalled antiquity, which seems to ascend even to the age of Scmiramis. It is commonly called, in the East, the mother of cities. It retains, however, a mere 8h.idow of its ancient grandeur. Only one corner of the wide circuit which it* walla enclase i» now inhabited, and is supposed to contain not more than 5000 or f)00() houses. The surrounding district is flat, fertile, and well cultivated, containing about 360 villaees. This fertility is produced, in a great measure, by a grand reservoir formi ' of the numerous waters whicln descend fVom the southern side of the Faropamisaii mountains ; a single canal derived firom which is said to yield a revenue of 90(X)/. sterling. As this source of fertility dries up, the country to the north declines into those sterjle and naked plains which compose the greater part of 'I artary. After being subject to Cabul, and then governed by Killlch All Beg, an Uzbeclt chief, it now ranks as a province of Bokhara. It has licen cruelly ravaged, however, by the chief ot Koondooz, who carried ott'the greater part of the inhabitants, whose number is not sup[>osed by Mr. Burnet now to exceed 'M)0. The ruins overspread a space of twenty milcsin circuit, but consist only of Mahometan mosQuei and tombs ; and nothing attests its having been ever the capital of a Greek kingdom. 4jl3. Among the mountain districts qf the Upp^r Oxus, the pre-eminence is now held by Koondooi, whose chiei has subjected all the neighbouring territories. It consists of a valley forty miles long, and thirty broad, bounded by the Oxus, and watered by'two smaller tributary rivers. It is fertile, but unhealthy ; excessively hot in summer, while in winter the snow lies for three months. The subject districts of KhooUoom, Heibuk. Goree, Inderab, and Talighan, enjoy an agreeable climate as well as a fertile soil, abounding in gardens ana fruit-trees. Moorad Beg, the powerftil ruler of Koondooz, has an army of 20,000 horse, with six pieces or artillery, but no infantry : his revenue is paid in grain. 4314. Budvkshaun, situated higher u|i ilie Oxus, suffbrs under none of the inconveniences of these I^ivei districts ; and travellers speak with rapture of its rivulets and romantic glens. Its fruits, flowers, and nightin- gales. The country is particularly celebrated for rare mineral products ; among which are lapis laxuli, and very flnc rubies. The last are found on low hills near the Oxus, and are worked at present for the benefit of Moorad Beg. That chief has cruelly ravaged Budukshaun, carrying oif a great number of the inhabitants; the country also suffered iVom a violent earthquake in 1832. The capital is ryzabad, on the Coacha, a moun- tain tribut&.-y of the Oxus. 4315. Several still more lofty districts adjoin Budukshaun, separating It flrom Tartary and India. On the north are Hissar, a well-watered country, productive in rice, lately conqurred by the chief of Koondooz; Derwauz, ruled by an independent chief, and producing a considerable quantity of gold, on the banks of the Oxus; Koolab, Snughnan, and VVickhar, small districts ruled by Koondooz. Between Budukshaun and Yarkund is the very elevated plain of Pamcre, extending for six miles in every direction round the lake ot Zurikol, situated in its centre. It is entirely occupied by wandering and pastoral tribes of Kirghises. The space between Budukshaun and Cashmere contains the small mountain districts of Chitral, Gilgit, Iskardo or Eskerdon, bordering on Little Thibet, Gunjoob, where gold is found ; and Kaushgur. The first is tributary to Koondooz, the rest inde|iendcnt. All these countries arc inh. >tcd by the Taujiks, a native race of Tartary, who profess Mahometanism. Between Budukshaun and Peshawer, however, in a stony mountainous country, is a tribe of KafTers or pagans, of peculiar appearance and complexion, who eat l)ears and monkeys, Hght with arrows, and scalp their enemies. They are much addicted to wine, and devolve all the labour U|ion the women. A number of these mountain chiefs, particularly those of Derwauz and Budukshaun, claim a de- scent from Alexander, and receive royal honours in consequence. That of Eskerdon asserts a strong fortress, which fonns his capital, to be of Greek construction. It is highly probable that the Greeks of Bactria overran these territories; and it is (lossihle, also, that some of these chiefs may be sprung fVom branches of the royal family of Bactria. The idea entertained by some, that the KaHbrs are an European race, seems quite unfounded. 451G. Turcomania is the name generally given to those immense deserts, which extend Arom Balkh to the Ca.spian and Aral, so far as they are not broken by the oases of Bokhara and Khiva. The surface, as already described, consists alternately of hard clay, moving sand, and scanty herbage. It is inhabited by wandering tribes, dwelling in movable tents, and almost con&tanlly emplnycil in those chuuaos, or forays, accompanieu with ruthless plunder of property and of human beings, of which the centre ih at Khiva. With this view, they carefully maintain and improve their noble breed of horses, which sell in India for lOtX) or 1200 rupees, llie qualities, however, arc various, as every one in this , 2gion is mounted ; and even in markets, dealers buy and sell on hor cback. The Turcomans boast that they neither rest under the shade of a tree nor obey -.iiig; and, though they make a slight profession of Mahometanism, they have no mosques. Mr. Bumes niatcs the numlier of families at 140,(0), divided into the following tribes : — Eastern ; the Salore (near SI ukhs), 2000 : Saruk (Meru), 20,000 j Ersarce (on the Upper Oxus), 40,000 ; Tuka (on the Tejcnd), 40,000 ^akar (on the Oxus), 2000: in all, 104,000. tt'estern: Yamood (about Astrabad and Khiva), 1I0,()00; Gok^uiionthe Goorgan), 9000 j Ala (near Balkhan), 1000 ; Choudur (near Mangusluk), 6000 : hi all,.36,000. 4517. In order to complete the picture of Tartary, we must take a view of that northern region, bi rdcring on Asiatic Russia, which is covered with the flocks and tents of the Kirghises. This remarkable race i., es not figure in the early revolutions of Asia. They appear then to have chiefly occupied the pastoral regio.'is of S'beria, on the Upper Yenisei. When the Russians invaded these regions with a force which undisciplined warriors could not resist, the Kirghises, after a desperate struggle, yielded without submitting. They retired over the mountains into the wide uncultivated plair.s or steppes which extend to the north of the Jaxartes and tlie east of the Aral They arc divided into three branches or hordes, called the Great, the Middle, and the Liltle Horde. The Great Horde ranges to the east and south on the frontiers of Cashgar and Kokaun, and many of its tribes have adopted the habits of those more improved districts, and acquired a fixed and peace- able cliiractcr. Only come of the high separating ranges contain about SO.OtX), who are called wild or moun- tain Kirghises, and entirely merit the name. The Middle and Lesser Horde occupy the shores of the Aral, and the.tract extending from the Aral to the Caspian, and in these the original nomadic an tileir toeial and political capacity, the Kirghlta enjojr • greater ihue of inilepe.idence than tnoit ler tribet of Middle Asia. The Little Horde, indeed, allowi Ruuia to appoint a nominal khan ' but ■oarcely anv power, unleu what he can iccurc by wealth or personal qualltiei. The main authority 481& In i of the other I he enjoyi loarcely anv power, unieu wnai ne can iccurc uy wcaim or personal qualltiei. The main authority reitf with the little khani who are at the head of each clan, and the union uf whom with the oM men con. •titutet a lort of democratic assembly, by whom the great afl'airs of the nation are determined. Yet the alow ncH and Indeciiion Incident to such a body renders it less formidable in war than those which are commanded I)/ warlike and absolute chiefs The private life of the KirKliiavs is directed by the maxims of Mahometan law, of which they are strict but not learned observers. Under its sanction the chiefs observe polygamy to M great an extent as purchase or robbery can enable them, and a separate tent is allotted to each wiio. The wealth of the Kirghises consists in horses, goats, the large-tailed sheep (which aflbrd very delicate food), and a Riw camels. In these respects their possessions are said to be often very considerable. Their tents of felt are both larger and neater than those of the Calmiicks, and one of them will often accommodate twenty persons It has been chiefly, as yet, by plunder or contribution that they have obtained foreign luxuries; but some adopting more peaceable habits, have begun to obtain them by the exchange of tax*, hides, and felt. Chap. XI. Fig 67 „ . St '» I^ATFiaiMoaiJtv k ^.° RUSSIA ON THE CASPIAN. 4S\9. TIte Urals form the western boundary of that main body of Asiatic Russia which is denominated Siberia. Between them, however, and the confines of Europe on the west, Persia and Turkey on the south, intervenes a region of considerable extent and remarkable character, over which sway is claimed, and in some ruae manner exercised, by Russia. It consists of two portions, which, though considerably differing in aspect, circumstances oblige as here to combine. Sect. I. General Outline and Aspect. 4520. In this territory the most prominent and connecting object is the Caspian. It is the largest inland sea in the world. Its greatest dimension reaches almost due north and south, and in this direction its extent appears to be upwards of 600 miles. It lias an extreme breadth of 300; but this occurs only in the great bay or projection at its north-east extremity : every where else the breadth varies from 90 to 120 miles. Tliis mighty inland expanse is supplied on the north by the Volga, which, after traversing, in a course of 2000 miles, the whole of European and part of Asiatic Russia, pours in tlie united waters of those vast regions. On the west it receives ample streams from the mightjf peaks of Caucasus and Ararat. Tlie Araxcs, Kizil Ozen, and some others, reach a certain magnitude ; but in general these rivers are too near their source to attain any great expan- sion, and they arrive chiefly in the form of mountain torrents, descending from the long range of snowy heights. On the south, also, the streams descending from the Elbourz,— the Kur, the Terek, and the Kuban, — are of moderate length, but copious and rapid. On the west, not far from the Persian frontier, one considerable tributary, the Ochus, Tcdzen, or Kizil Daria, enters the Caspian ; but by far the greater portion of this border consists of arid and dreary deserts, from which the Caspian Sea does not derive any accession to its mag- nitude. Considering the large sources which supply this great interior sea, many enquirers are at a loss to determine how they can be disposed of. Hence has arisen the tlieory of a subterraneous passage, by which its superfluous waters are conveyed either to the Black Sea or the Persian Gulf. As, however, the facts on which this theory rests seem derived from the most superficial observation, so the diflRctilty which gave rise to it appears more imaginary than real. Evaporation from a surface so immense may satisfactorily account for the waters received from all these rivers, of which only one is of the first magnitude. Its surface is supposed to have become lower within the last 200 years, and it certainly appears to be about 300 feet beneath that of the Black Sea. <52I. The waters of the Caspian, unless at the immediate influx of the jgreat rivers, ai«ai salt as those of the sea, with the admixture of a bitter taste, arising from a portion of Glauber salt, supposed to be produced by the decomposition of the naphtha which is found on its shores in considerable quantity. The navigation is very dangerous, particularly in the northern part, on account of the heavy and sudden gales which descend from the high clifs of the western shore, and of the rocks and shallows with which this quarter abounds. There are no good harbours from Astrachan to Derbend. A cluster of considerable islands occun in the Gulf of Balkan, on the eastern coast ; and a number of small ones extend along the north shore, but none of much importance, considering the magnitude of the sea. An immense quantity of fish, particularly sturgeon, is taken in the northern part. 4522. Of the shores of this great sea, the southern belongs to Persia, the eastern to Indj> pendent Tartary and to the country of the Turcomans. The western and northern only are proper to the region we are now to delineate. Between the former and the Ulncl' ^' *«v* c**^'" f 1!B0 V R I A .« ^ , .RUSSIA. '■ Aietandrovsk {■ IJrialkoj J- Kmnenlchlk ;• Koudrioulchew ffjagank 1 !'■ 'fhemonar '• o«loi 8. Uaksaeva 9. UMevo 0. (,„urt„ ll.Ki>|,i„,k„| ^•rflnplchinjk "•itnik Aman S' Kale nik„ II' ""PlMaia '"•TaTnin J'Enlkale 3';T?k"fP'« 5J' F.katwlngdar i:tek"°">^k j!^ 673. MAP OF THE COUNTRIES ON THE CASPIAN. 1005 m il ■ , I ' I I RUSSIA. 1> Aleiandrovhk V. OrlalkOT 3. Kermentchlk 4. KoudrioutcheTsk 5. NaaaTsk i>. Tcfiemollar ;. Btiloi 8. Uaksaeva 9. 1.«btdeTO 10. (iourieT 11. Koiilnikol li.Tclnptchlmk 15. Hlflou.iel Kosle 14. Kruk Aman 15. Doumonk 16. BachmUchchaKi 17. Attnchan 19. Koum&chaltk '9. N™ Tcherkaik SO. Taioinrmr il. MatiopoT n. Pcttonk a. Vodlna S«. Postolaloi Si- Kalelniko? 86. Kauipnoi S7. Kinilfskaia 28. Atchouiif i9. Kopll 80. Tainan 31. Knikale 38. Anacopia 33. Teka «• Ekaterlnodat 36. Labimk 37. Ka.kaik g-gefjarnoi «. TnnnoUnk Alexandrov Madntarel Kalkalie llielom Our Koum^k Houlpltchla hlillar Alexandria Tchodrlm Kozllar Moadok (teorKlenk Sa^ouran Soubaichl Mannal Itcntchlll Boukoum Miioit Teinblco Talanip Wladikoukaa TUbek Temlr Tarkl Dungreti Oaheralah Schacharle Chaitch Anamur Kob) Oort Huraml Scander Kutala Anacria Akalilke Tclar Rlcha Tiugul . NImabad . Utlakanl Signati Jiejereiteia to tke Map i\f tMe CohhIi'iVs on Ike Caspian. TCKKKY, or 41. Hanha ASIA MINOK, 1. SnlllRnUn tl.1. 'IVnia H.^. tiviinri M. Ili'kani HT. Diviiamikiit KH, u»«4a d Hal • Sibiy into a mountainous elevation, till they terminate in the declivity of that great chain which separates Europe from Asia. Here these regions participate in the rich metalliferous character which distinguishes Catharinenberg and the other districts on the Asiatic side. SiCT. II. Natural Geography. SuBSECTs. I. and 2. Gedogt/ and Botany, 4524. The Geology and Botany of this region have no features distinguishing it frotn those parts of Tartary and Siberia which lie under the same latitude. SuBSECT. 3. Zoology. 4525. The Zoological tribes, which appear to have had their origin from the towering elevations of Caucasus, have been so frequently mentioned in the preceding pages, that little more need be said on their general nature. There is reason to believe, that around this lofty chain of Alps are concentrated most of those quadrupeds whose geographic range has been assigned to Europe ; and representations of others, whom nature has given to western and southern Asia, and the confines of Africa. But the Fauna of these interesting regions is so deplorably defective, that much remains to be investigated before this theory can be received with confidence. 4526. The Quadrupeds mentioned by travellers as inhabiting the Caucasian regions are the Caracal Lynx, the Chamois and Ibex Goats, Bears, several Antelopes, and a species of small Tiger of an unknown race, The true Bison, so long extinct in Europe, is still sheltered in these wild recesses; and the Ovis Ammon, or wild Asiatic Sheep, extends from Central Asia to Caucasus. Tlie Ibes of these mountains is distinct, however, from that of Eurojie, to which it appears superior both in strength and agility ; there is also another species (C jEgagus Pallas) differing from both tlie former in its horns; and more closely resembling our domestic goat. 4527. On the warm shores of the Caspian is found that rare Bri- tish bird, the Charadrius himanlopus, or the long-legged I'iotci {Jig. 674.), together with most of the aquatic species known in Europe; nor can we point out a more interesting subject fur philosophic enquiry, than the afiinities which these countries uM-tJtautn nmtK. appear to exhibit between tlie animals of Europe and of Asia. Sect. III. Historical Geography. 4,^28. The tribes inhabiting this tract have always been regarded as dwelling on the outer border of the civilised world. They attracted, indeed, the notice of nations with whom ttKy were in somewhat close vicinity ; but their annals have never assumed a regular or connected Book II. RUSSIA ON THE CASPIAN. 1067 form. The Greeks viewed them only in dim and romantic distance, and considered the cliffs of the Caucasus, and the shores of the Maeotis, as the wild and extreme boundaries of nature. The poets painted Prometheus chained by the wrath of Jove to these awful rocks. The expedition undertaken to this quarter in search of the golden fleece was considered aa exalting almost to the rank of demigods the daring mortals by whom it was achieved. Afterwards the southern borders of Iberia and Colchis became better known, and were even noted in the revolutions of Asia. Their rug((p.d and inaccessible tracts served occasionally as the refuge of the vanquished, while thcv aeterred even the boldest conquerors from an attempt to subdue them. It is believed t'.it t these recesses still enclose races whose habits and language bear the stamp of very hi^h antiquity. Etymologists have even conceived tlii'inselves able to trace many of the radicals of that original language which, under varied forms, has spread from the East througN Europe, It is much more probable, however, that the rugged seats of the Caucasus afford^ shelter to these ancient races, than that they were the source whence population and language originated. 4j'J9. In modem times, Georgia, the most powerful of the Caucasian kingdoms, has been distinguished by its contests for independence with the Persian empire, and, subsequently, as the main theatre of contest between that empire and the rising power of the cxar. Russia, after a pretty long struggle, has secured the whole western shore of the Caspian, and all the level tracts between it and the Black Sea. Even the rude mountain tribes arc obliged to own a certain homage ; but this, as well as the accompanying tribute, is scanty, and fully compensated by the frequent plundering excursions, against which the Russia>is with diffi- culty guard by cordons of troops drawn along their border. Georgia, and still mure Cir- cassia, has been distinguished for the athletic strength of its men, and the fine forms of its females ; in consequence of which qualities, they have been in great request as domestic slaves over all the Turkish empire. In Egypt, particularly, the offspring of those slaves, kept \\f by continual accessions, long maintained, under the appellation of Mamelukes, a sway superior or paramount tu that of its Turkish masters. 4530. Turkey possessed, till lately, some ports and districts on the shores of the Black Sea, which enabled her to carry on a considerable traffic, especially in slaves, and also to foment insurrection among the rude mountain tribes. As, however, she has been obliged by the late treaty to cede to Russia the ports of Anapa and Poti, with the districts of Guriel and Akhultzisk, she may be considered as having entirely lost her hold of the Caucasian territory. Sect. IV. Political Geography, 4531. It has already been observed, that nearly the whole of thi$ territory owns the sots- nijtnty of Russia. That power, to the extent of its means, seeks to establish around the Caspian the same despotic system by which its other territories are governed. Many cir- cumstances, however, rendered this, in its full extent, impossible. Over a range of inacces- sible cliffs buried in snows, or on boundless plains traversed by wandering shepherds, abso- lute rule can with extreme difficulty be established. Russia had hitherto been content with a mere form of homage and imperfect submission ; but of late, encouraged by having wrested the sea-coast from the Turks, she has made extraordinary exertions to render her dominion eomplete and effective, but hitherto with very doubtful success. The same proud aristo- cratic ideas, and the same value for the distinctions of birth, reign here which prevailed in Europe during the feudal ages. The lower ranks, who till the ground and perform all the menial offices, are nearly in the condition of serfs, or slaves, who, in many cases, may be, and are, sold for the profit of their masters. The fighting part of the population, again, con- sists chiefly of voluntary and attached vassals, the companions in peace, and the followers in war, of the head of their tribe. In the southern districts, especially, where the Russians must court the natives as their allies against Persia, they are obliged to allow them the un- restrained exercise of their national propensities. To the north, again, the vast plains on every side of Astrachan are continually traversed by Calmucks, Nogais, Kubans, and other Tartar tribes, who, though they may be brought to yield an enforced homage, could never brook a daily interference in their interior concerns. These are administered by their khans, who collect and transmit such scanty tribute as can be drawn from the flocks and herds of their humble vassals. Thus, in all the wide regions around the Caspian, Russia holds, indeed, full military occupation of the leading positions ; but she has been unable to withhold from the natives, not indeed solid or rational liberty, but that rude and proud in- dependence which, in their eyes, is more precious. It is only in the northern provinces of Oufa and Orenburg, where cities with a civilised population, and extensive mining establish- ments, have been formed, that she has been able to mould the people to that uniform sub- jection which prevails in other parts both of her European and Asiatic territory. Sect. V. Productive Industry. ♦53S. The wealth and industry qftltit region will not affbrd scope for very copious details. The C.-ucaii«n "f?" P"^*^"'* to the acientittc inquirer a varied and interesting vegetation, but a scanty portion of those producu which are subservient to the uses of life. Even the lower valleys of Ororgia and Mmgrelia, though IMK DESCRIPTIVE GKOCRAFHY. Part III. tndowad by natura with mram* Awtllllr, are little ImproTad. Vhe Inhabllaiiti, III illipoinl of ihcintcWct lo tnduttrUMU eullur«,ara morraviir liable ti> the alnriMt continual rarage of war ami predatory liuuriiini Thnt Mipnljr ofanna and of Ibrelpi luxurlet it chleflr derived either ftnm plunder, or ham the talf ,>t thrlr nmiijc aa lUve*. Wine In conalderable abundance, though of middling quality i a little allk rrom the low aoutherri dlilrlcu ( lome aklnt and tur* ttom the higher, and fine honey from the dccllvltici or the hlllt, ncariv com. plete the Hit of their comniodltlea which are lit for the purpoeca of trade. 4S3a Ever ilnce Ruwla became at all clvlllaed, Astrackan. at the head of the Catiilan, hu been of lumo Importance lu a leal of compurce. Two iplrited attempti, Indeed, were made by the Engliih, one in the Kin Icanth century, and the other In the eighteenth, to citabliih a Tactory there, and open thoni'f a cominiinieatioii with the Interior of Aiia. The leading object wb« a thiirc In the commerce of India, which, In confeiiueiice of the occupation of all iti ancient channel! by the enemlci of Chrlatianlty, had found out tliU clrcuitoui and dlincult line by the north of I'entn, and acrou the Cannlnu to the Crimea. It wai found, however tlut Indian commoditlea could now Ire more cheaply conveyed l>y the new maritime channel of the Cajic, nrid'even by the Euphratea, to Aleppo. The aecondary object, of exchanging the raw ailk and precloua itonei of Pcrila for Engllili cloth, waa bamcn *!«« It»»la *....1n •••l.inl. ..... >...■. . .. * ing'coploua returna. One of the chief anurcea of wealth conaiita in the immense quantity uf Hah which both the aea nnd it« tributary rivcra aup|/ly, TIib iturgeoji ia particularly excellent, and from it ia manufactured the caviare, which ia conaidered a delicacy over all Europa To the north, the prov'nuea of Oufa and Orenbure u alrenily iibaervi.'d, contain minea of cnniideralile value, the management of which la intruated lo the general board at Catliarincnberg, on the uppoaltc aide uf the Urala. Skit. VI. Civil and Sochi State. 4534. At the countries of the Caucasus have uvcr buen little occesaible to the rent of the world, the soridl existence of their inlliil)itant8, modified neither by conquest nor I'oreign communication, presents many picturesque and varied aspects. Indeed, there is, perhaps, no part of the earth, in which rude and barbarous life appears under a greater variety of forms. .\s these arc, however, in many respects dissimilar, and as society is split into a multitude of small tribes, the subject ramifies into a variety of Jetails, which will be better given under the local division. In general, all theue tribes profess the dogmas of tlic Ma- hoii.etan faith, though in a somewhat loose manner, free from the tame and mechanical routine which that religion prescribes. Scarcely any of them possess among themselves, or hr.vc imbibed from the Russians, the smallest tincture of literature. They are almost universally addicted to habits of plunder, — that national plunder, on a great scale, which is considered rather a boast than a disgrace, and which is generally familiar to rude tribes who live in the vicinity of more opulent nations. Sect. VII. Local Geography. 4535. In t:et«ing the details of this part of Asio, we shall begin with the regions of Caucasus, which present the grandest natural features, as well as the most peculiar and striking forms of society. The Kuban and the Terek are considered its northern boundary. Within this river-line the country presents a continuation of those vast pastoral steppes which compose southern Russia. In approaching them, however, the traveller descries the mighty precipices of Caucasus rising before him. Its highest ranges are clad in perpetual snow ; beneath is the black region of rocks and precipices ; while the lower declivities con- tain a number of well-watered valleys, forming fine pastoral districts ; and, thuiigh not capable of high culture, yielding plentifully the inferior products, maize and millet. In these mountain valleys dwell the Circassians. This race have been peculiarly celebrated for their physical qualities. The men, though spare, are tall, handsome, and athletic. Bot it is the fine form and delicate complexion of the female Circassians which forms so wide a theme of Eastern panegyric. In these high valleys, with a northern exposure, tlicy do not suffer that intense heat of the sun which produces, generally, the dark tints of Asia. The daughters of all above the rank of slaves are exempted from oppressive or degrading labour, and merely occupy themselves in sewing, embroidery, and the plaiting of straw. Their beauty seems also to be the resul'. of a careful study of all the circumstances which lend lo produce or preserve female ch<'.iTns. The face is carefully shaded from the sun ; thcjr are fed moderately on milk and pastry ; their feet are protected from injury by a species of wooden shoe ; and tlieir hands by the use of gloves. Some even make use of paint, but this is considered discreditable. The value set upon their virtue is marked by the barbarous precaution of a broad leathern girdle, fastened at an early age with silver clasps, and vthich the husband cuts through at marriage. 4536. The distinctions of rank and birth are observed in Circassia with all the strictness of highland pride. Under the prince, or sovereign, are the uzdens, or nobles, who attend him in war or foray, but exercise a sway almost absolute over their own immediate vassals. They are of two kinds, — bondsmen, who cultivate the glebe, and armed retainers, who attend him to the field ; which last have often been raised, on this condition, from the inferior rank. The arrangements for marriage and education are of a most peculiar character, founded on a sort of Spartan apathy, which tramples upon every tender and domestic tie. Until aAer Book I the birti other, ui presence parents, the solo I exercises, take the vide. Ti Mora rei efleininali full vunlid 45;i7. : on their i iiiuiting ai parentage a black mi altered uni use, they also, no cc former age Ik)w and qi and precioL the most sp homely desi Cossacs, wh graceful if country unp ehiefs, he n alway.s, Mr. 45.')H. Th number of i Their own e he deems an 4539. The. valour of its are compose( The Russian! o^n confines «he Terek am Caucasus, floi mouths into ( centre of this »" fie Kubai ordinary exeri from Turkey 'ofy. The C union for coi enemy. of the lower mr MGodetaaaoc. known till the tji rommodiou, bull, 'ne Scot, colony, hMnotanawerJd „ ♦Jtl. ne lowe cornmerce i, chl jWO nouses, and founded the cii tircumataiicea I •ndifftrent quilit •'•oproducftMnl «42. Onth powerful king( '"se'y gifted I wntral and lof ™ the mountai ground is covei "'sed all they, *oods abound i 1 Boor II. RUSSIA ON THE CASPIAN. 1069 the birth uf the flrtt child, the hiiiband and wifu live entirely aeparate, and never Mf each other, unleii by stvalth ; the husband considers it an iniiult if the wife be even named in hJN liresvnce. The child, when l>orn, in never reared in the houiie, or under the eye of hia parents. At the a({e of three or four, some friendly nobleman rcccivcN him, and undnrtakea the sole tank of educating and rviiring him. Under him the tons are trained in ail manly exercises, and the females in those which belong to their sex, until the former is ready to take the Held, and the latter to receive a husband, which this foster-father is bound to pro- vide. Then, and not till then, they are allowe(l to see their parents, to whom they have M'oto remained strangers. 'I'his violent and fantastic mode of escaping the dangers of effeminate indulgence docs not seem to be here inconsistent with that nurture for which full confldencc is elsewhere reposed only on parental care. 45.'n. The noble Circaiiiatu lead that sort of life which is usual with indepontient ehlafk on their own estates, and surrounded by their vassals — a round of war and feasting, of iiiinting and jollity. Especial pride and care arc manifested respecting their horses, whose parentage they consider almost equally important with their own. At the birth of the foal, a black mark, indicating its pedigree, is burnt upon the thigh, which cannot be effaced or altered under pain of death. As these noble animals are wanted both for ornament and use, they must unite the qualities of beauty, strength, and fleetness. On the armour, also, no cost is spared. The modern musket and pistol are combined with those of a former age ; a coat of .nail, often proof against pistol shot i a helmet of polished steel ; a Ik)w and quiver. These, being of the Kneiit materials, are often ornamented with pearls and precious stones worth 2000 rubles. On occasions of state, also, they are attired in the most splendid robes, while their food, furnituret and houses are of the most plain and homely description, 'lliey wage a continual war of plunder against the Tcherncmorskoy Cossacs, who inhabit the plains beneath. Robbery is their pride, and it is considered dis- graceful if a young man has not at least stolen a cow. A stranger who enters their country unprotected is immediately enslaved ; but if under the guardianship of one of their chiers, he meets unbounded hospitality. The regular sale of their daughters, however, always, Mr. Spencer states, to the highest bidder, is certainly a blot on their character. 45:>K. The eatimalea of the population of Cireastia vary greatly. Pallas reckons the number of uzdens at 1500, and their fighting vassals at 10,000. This seems too low. Their own estimate, according to Mr, Spencer, is 200.000 fighting men ; which, however, he deems an exaggeration. 4539. The Riissinn territories every where border upon and enclose Circassia ; yet the valour of its inhabitants, and the rapid movements of the light cavalry of which its bands are composed, have set at defiance every effort to reduce it to a state of regular subjection. The Russians, on the contrary, are only able, and that somewhat imperfectly, to protect their own confines from inroad by a chain of strong fortresses. Tliese are chiefly erected along the Terek and Kuban, two considerable streams, which, rising among the loftiest heights of Caucasus, flow for about 400 miles, first north, then the former east, till it falls by numerous mouths into the Caspian, the latter west into the Black Sea. Mozdok, on the Terek, is the centre of this line of defence ; a town of 3000 people, with a strong garrison. Gcorgiewsk, on the Kuban, is a fortress of smaller magnitude. The Russians have of late made extra- ordinary exertions to subdue them, having brought forward immense forces, and obtained from Turkey the sea coast, which enables them completely to hem in this mountain terri- tory. The Circassians, however, suspending their private quarrels, and forming a national union for common defence, have been able hitherto to baffle the eiTorts of this powerful enemy. 4540. ne baths of Caucasia are situated about thirty miles to the south of Ocorgicwsk, at the foot of one of the lower mountain ranges. They are very numerous, extending over a >paee of about twenty milci. They arc of various qualities, sulphureous, chalybeate, and acidulous; and the principal one is descril>ed by M. Godet as so copious as to discharge about a million uf pints in the twenty-four hours. Tlicy were scarcely known till the first journey of Pallas, but are now much frequented during the months of May and June, and commodious buildings have been erected, both by government and private individuals. In this vicinity is the Scots colony of Karast, which is in a flourishmg state ; though the missionary station established there has not answered expectation. 4541. The lower course of the Terek, through a fertile country, presents some interesting objects. It* commerce is chiefly carried on by Kislar, or Kisliar, a town defcrit>ed by M. Godet, in 1828, as containing xOOOhouses, and about 10,U00 inhabitants, of whom 8000 are Armenians. This race, sober and industrious, founded the city in 1736, and carry on all its trade, by which they place themselves in easy and even opulent circumstawces. The country round produces 40,000 hogsheads of wine, of 500 pints each ; but it is of indiflbrcnt quality, and three-fourths of it is made only for the purpose of being converted into brandy. Silk is also produced in large quantity. 4542. Oil the opposite or southern declivity of the Caucasus extends the famous and once powerful kingdom of Georgia. The world, perhaps, does not contain a region more pro- fusely gifVed both with richness and beauty. Numberless streams, flowing from the central and loftiest part of the chain, irrigate and fertilise all its borders. On the sides of the mountains hang magnificent forests of beech, ash, chestnut, oak, and pine ; and the ground is covered with vines growing wild in vast profusion. On its successive stages are raised all the varieties of fruit and grain, both of the temperate and tropical climates. The woods abound with game ; and the mountains contain in their bosom mines of considerable 1076 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. value. The Human race flourishes in an equal degree : the men are distinguislied for vigour ; and the females, with the single exception of a darker complexion, are as famed for beauty as those of Circassia. All these bounties of nature, however, have been rendered unavailing by the oppressions of a feudal government, and by the continual wars which have desolated Georgia for more than a century. The nobles, who had reduced the prero> gative of the king within very narrow limits, possess over their vassals the power of life and death, and extract from them the whole produce of their lands beyond what may afford the most scanty subsistence. The unfortunate husbandman is moreover exposed to the con* tinual inroad of the Lesghians and other tribes from the upper heights of Caucasus, and is often obliged to plough with arms in his hands. Georgia, which had been protected by its situation from the tide of Turkish and Tartar invasion, was attacked two centuries ago by the whole strength of the Persian empire ; and, after a very gallant struggle, was obliged to yield. The Sophis endeavoured to conciliate their new subjects, and Georgian youth were even employed as the royal guards of Persia. Yet the spirit of independence was not subdued ; and when the power of their conquerors was shaken by the growing fortune of Russia, they eagerly sought to regain their freedom by an alliance with this new power. So far as related to the downfall of Persian influence, all their hopes were fulfilled ; but the potentate through whom this triumph had been achieved, soon proved no less ambitious. The sons of the brave Heraclius were deprived of their inheritance, and Georgia was at last reduced to the regular form of a Russian province. Tliis might have proved an ulti- mate good ; and the Russians have in fact made some efforts to introduce tranquillity and industry ; but the constant wars in which they have been engaged with Persia, and of which Georgia has been the theatre, have rendered these hitherto of very little avail. Through the pressure of these various evils, the population of tliis fine region is supposed to be reduced to a number not exceeding 320,000 souls. The greater number are not Mahometans, hut Greek Christians, with a large proportion of Armenians, who have in their hands all the traflic of the country. The Russians draw from it a revenue of 800,000 rubles, not neurly sufficient to defray its expenses. The waters of Georgia are chiefly collected by tlie Kur or Cyrus, which flows first northward, along the foot of a chain of lofly mountains ; but afterwards turns to the west and south, passes by Teflis, and falls into the Caspian on the borders of Ghilan. It has previously received the Araxes, from Ararat ; the greater part of whose course, however, has been through Armenia and Aderbijan. 4543. The only city of Georgia of any importance, or worthy of the name, is Teflis, (fig. 675.), the capital. It is boldly situated on tlie precipitous banks of the Kur, wiiich 675 ■£) flows here through a deep and gloomy defile covered with immense forests, Several points in its vicinity command a grand view of the bordering chain of mountains, rising in successive stages above each other, and terminating in the snow-covered pinnacle of Elbourz. The city, founded in the eleventh cen- tury, does not possess any architectural beauty. It is a collection of low flat- roofed dwellings, built of dun briclci with small doors and paper nindovs. Nor are those splendid mos happily ilimini Keineggg eatimal *'45. Imtretta |)a.toral region, i from the evils by tnem, under a m the mhabitants o however, their ji ineyhaveamoni several hundreda indolence J yet it diligence than in reduced to about i 4046. liordcring •till more desolate more than fiOoo f, provement in ita c "•f 'eat of some t *>»7. Proceedini called the SiS? Urcaniana. Thev Secured from tJe\ they are wasted bv to annex that of pi able are the Ossetea either hold or S B«itiontheyIvSiU Jhey block up the d d.cuarfaceor,h| UK. little castes I y, ""e noted and tern' distance beneath.Yh" olahthesurroundii We edge of the stw '"bcsofCaucMu, a M'empu to invade th habitation, ««'foea portion of g,^P^^o ( Rook IL RUSSIA ON THE CASPIAN SEA. 1071 region! celebrated in antiquity under the name of Colchoi. The interior tracts are mountainoui and rugged ; but Caucaiui here slopei downward, and allowi to intervene between it and the tea a large plain, inoiit, fertile, but unwholewme. Floodi innumerable, docending l^om t'»e heights, and uniting into thirty consi* derable riven, inundate this watery region. Among these, the onW one of great importance is the ancient Phaais, now called the Riuni, which, after a long course through the deep Circassian glens, enters the plain of Mingrelia, and forms its boundary on the side of Turkey, as it was anciently supposed to form that of Europe and Asia. The ground, impregnated with such copious moisture, becomes too soft for the plough, and unlit for the production of wheat or barley, but yields plentiftilly millet and other small grain, which forms the ordinary food of the inhabitants. Fruits of even kind grow spontaneously, though containing to maintain its independence, and a submission to Turkey or Russia ; which last power has, by the course of events, become paramount Mingrelia, however, has always been more exposed than even the rest of Caucasus to oppression, tumult, and misrule of every description. The nobles are passionately devoted to hunting : they account a good house, a good dog, and a good falcon, the Brst elements of human felicity. Yet Mingrelia has not wholly lost that commerce which anciently rendered Colchos celebrated. The port of Reilout Kali formed a species of emporium for Persia and interior Turkey ; but since Russia obtained posses, sion, and imposed her restrictive system, this trade has been mostly transferred to Trebisond. That power, however, seeing her error, has made a ft'ee port of Poti. Communicating by the Black Sea with Asia Minor and Constantinople it supplies them with the commodities of the Cvpian territory — silk, honey, and, unfor- tunately, above all, slaves ; the obtaining of which, hy purchase, seisurc, and every sort of nefarious process, forms the principal occupatluu of the chiefs of Mingrciia. It Is calculated that Turkey received annually from thence about 13,iJU0 of these unfortunate beings, at the riwuth of the RIoni or Fhasis, containing alraut 1000 inhabitants ; from the obstructions at the mouth of the riv er, large vessels must anchor at least the distance of half a mile. This place, accordingly, is rising into importance, and English vessels, the tirst entrance of which formed an era in the annals of commerce, now frequent It. The trade in slaves, once amounting to 13,000, ii happily diminished. Mingrelia extends about 110 miles along the sea-shore, and about forty or fifty inland. Beineggs estimates the population at 4,000,000 ; but we imagine that number much cxaKKcratcd. 4545. Imiretla, composing the lofty interior of Mingrelia and the banks of the Upiicr Phasis, is a bold paitural region, inhabited by a simple people, who have remained more exempt than llie rest of Caucasus from the evils by which that region has been desolated. Their ciar, an hereditary chief, continues to rule them, under a mere acknowledgment of vassalage to Russia. Retired in woody hills, or agreeable valleys, the Inhabitants of Imiretta keep aloof from the scenes of contention by which they are surrounded. When, however, their native fastnesses are invaded, they defend them with all the hardihood of mountaineers. They have among themselves deep understood tones, which, echoed among the mountains, will often call up several hundreds from spots which did not seem tenanted by a human l)eing. The people are accused of indolence ; yet it is admitted, that silk, honey, and other Caucasian staples are reared by tliem with greater diligence than in other quarters. Cotatis, called its capital, is an old city on the left bank of the Phasis, now reduced to about eighty families. 4546. Bordering on Imiretta, south of the Phasis, is Guriel, a country naturally as rich as Mingrelia, but still more desolated by Turkish inroads, and now reduced almost to a desert, being estimated to contain not more than 60UO families. By the last treaty, however, it has been ceded to Russia, whence a material im. provement in its condition is anticipated. Bathoumi, a (wrt with the only good roadstead on this coast, is the seat of some trade. 4047. Proceeding northward along the Black Sea, after an almost impassable range inhabited by a wild race called the Sisanes, appears an extended and wooded region, the country qf the Abastes, a rough variety of the Circassians. They resemble, without equalling, that people in their handsome persons and dignifled manners. Secured from foreign invasion by the poverty of their country, and by its immense and entangled forests, they are wasted by intestine contests ; and to tne various forms of plunder, their situation has tempted them to annex that of piracy It has also, however, enabled their country to become the theatre of some com- merce in the usual Caspian commodities, that of slaves not excepted. Of this trade, Phanagoria, at the mouth of the Kuban, forms a sort of entrep6t. Anapa, farther to the south, a considerable port, with a good harbour, was in possession of the Turks till the last treaty, when it was transferred to Russia. 4548. All the nations now enumerated occupy the declivities or borders of Caucasus, where alone any extent of culture, wealth, or civilisation can exist Yet its extreme and most awful height; the regions of rocks and eternal snows, are not wholly without their tenants. Among these, the most known and furmid. able are the Ossetes and the Lesghis. The former occupy the mighty northern heights behind Circassia, and either hold or border upon all the routes leading thence to Georgia and the southern Caucasus. Of this position they avail themselves, cither to plunder the passing traveller, or to levy a composition u|ion him. They block up the de61cs, or roll down huge stones as he proceeds along the narrow paths cut in the iicrpen. dicular face of the cliffk. They have not a village that contains a hundred inhabitants, and their abodes are lik, little castles ; yet, on an emergency, they can muster 10,000 horse. The Russians have beaten them, without being able to reduce them, but they have been forced to render up a number of their chiefs, who arc kept as hostages at Moidok, and by that pledge alone are prevented ftom indulging against Russia their favourite proiwnsities. 4549. The teinhi; who, ft-om the southern summits of Caucasus, overlook the plains of Georgia, are a still more noted and terrible race. Viewing fi-om this awftil height the magnificent harvests which wave in the distance beneath, they arc impelled to • perpetual career of robbery, and have become the terror and scourge uf all the surrounding territories. Their habitations, perched on the summits of the loftiest cliK's, and on the eei are chleSy Nogait, mixed to some extent with the Cossacks of the Don. The Tartar habits and character universally prevail, though the people are reduced by subjection to somewhat a more orderly and industrious way of lite than they would spontaneously adopt 455a To the north of Astrachan is the Urge government of Orenburg, which forms, as it were, the link between European and Asiatic Russia. Tartars still form the basis of the population ; but many of them have been tridned to regular and industrious habits. The country is capable of every kind of culture, but is chiefly covered with rich pastures. Its western frontier is formed by the Ural mountains, ixuscuing tliat rich mineral character which has been so often noticed. From these mountains flows to the Caspian a rivoi called also the Ural, and which in its eastern course separates Russia fVom the vast wilds traversed by the Kirghlses and Calmucks. A line of military posts here secures the empire from the inroad of these riido tribes. On this river is situated Orenburg, whose site has been several times changed, and whieli is now rather a well built town of 21100 houses. To this market the Tartars bring annually 10,(XX) horses, and l>oin 40,000 to 60,000 sheep, the latter purchased chiefly for the sake of the tallow. Hence also numerous annual caravans depart for Khiva, Bokhara, Khojend, and otiier cities in the interior depths of Asia, 'I'lioiiuh Orenburg, however, be the most Important city of the district, yet, in consideration of its cximsed ailuntlon ai a fVontier place, the seat of government has lately been transferred to Ottfa, situated at the jun('ti|>piuik<, II. I] Kl.lltnlll, K. ■t DM, II. 1 'i'> iKiiiilln n. I IlKx'll, K. u Tol«il, R. < ImIiIiii, H. w Hihon, H. 1 SKruu, H* ; AmMIiH III. aca\ of let) nn. 1 triule. iigiUmi, lor Oio 1, \>atli. tcc«. U l« «Uh Atal>lc ttg. 676. MAI' OF SIBEIUA. 10T8 > geographic hf third and r portiom of jxtenaive and il tablu-land ; rown dcsvrt , rich pasture, no tlic scat of leak sliores of lOre deficiunt. g provided for uld otiit-rwiso ubBtam'i's ; in which ciotho icato to tlicse me, with li«»« U cniivcni'il, nmoditiw fur- . Annilll. K. (Imcilm.'i; KoKi»». \ A10»". '\l OU'ki>'«i 1** , l,rii«, W' 1 vmii.l- \ (1M1.>, »• o An««*. "• „ • 111.1, H. I lii<>']'' „"• « »iti«. *• I AnwWi* ft 3Z 2 1074 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pa»t III. OooK I Sict: I, General OulUtie and Atptct. 4555. TA« outlines of Siberia are formed by a continuous prolongation of lome of the grandest features of nature. To the north, the ocean eitends in a continuous line not varying far from TO" of latitude, or somewhat beyond the Arctic Circle. On the east, also, Siberia is bounded by the ocean, not, however, the Arctic Ocean, but a comer of the great Pacific, enclosed between the opposite coasts of Asia and America, which approach each other till they form the narrow Strait of Behring. On this side the coast of Siberia is very much broken, and is bordered not so much by the ocean itself, as by its deep gulfs of Okhotsk and Anadir. For its western boundary, Siberia has the long chain of the Urals, which reaches from the ocean almost to the Caspian, and separates the vast plains of Russia in Europe from those, equally vast, of her Asiatic dominions. This " stony girdle of the world," as the ignorance of Europe once termed it, presents no very formidable barrier. The general height is 3000 or 4000 feet, and Mr. Ermann determined its highest point at 4908 feet ; while the slope on each side is so gradual as to be ascended with little difficulty in ordinary vehicles. On its southern line, it is nearly, if not entirely, connected with that vast chain which, running from west to east under the general name of AltaV, forms a parallel line with the mightier ranges of central Asia and India, and separates Tartary from Siberia. It appears in most of its course to be considerably higher and more rugged than the Urals ', the branches which it throws into Siberia are peculiarly rich in metallic ores. The range strictly bearing this appellation occupies only about 7° of longitude around the sources of the Irtysch and the Yenise'i, and is more remarkable for its richness in metallic ore than for its elevation ; but it is connected with other limitary chains extending in the same direction ; the Sayanskoi, reaching to the Baikal ; the Yablonoy or Apple mountains, an extensive and rugged range, which, uniting with the transverse one of the Khing. khanoola, is prolonged, under the title of the Slauovoy or Aldan mountains, to the Eastern Ocean. The application to the whole of the term Altai' is somewhat arbitrary ; but M. Humboldt conceives that it may be advantageously called " system of the Altai." It forms a continued line, bounding Siberia, and parallel to the Celestial Mountains, the Kuenlun, and Himalayah, those mighty chains of central Asia and India. After extending along the shore of the Eastern Pacific, it throws across the peninsula of Kamtschatka a ridge which shoots up to a much greater elevation than any of the rest ; since M. E tnann has determined the highest volcanic peak of Klinchewsk to be 1 5,825 feet above the sea ; and the similar one nf Shivelutsh to be 10,591. He found the whole of the ridge to bear the most decided marks of volcanic action. 4556. In delineating the land boundaries of Siberia, we have mentioned its mountains ; for the whole inurior of this region forms one vast dead and dreary level. The only great feature by which its wide expanse is diversified is its rivers; and these, in regard to length of course and volume of water, rival the greatest of the ancient world. They are not destined, however, like the streams of happier regions, to fertilise the plains through which they flow, and convey their rich produce to bordering kingdoms, and to climates beyond the ocean. No such purposes can be fulfilled by these " lolid floodi. That atretch, attiwart tlie lolitary vaat, Tlieir ley liorrors to the ttotcn main." If any of them had flowed westward into Russia, and reached any of the seas of the civi- lised world, it might have borne rich cargoes on its bosom, and given an impulse to the industry of this rude region. But they ail flow parallel to each other, from south to north, beginning in the Altai and its connected chains, rolling their sluggish waves through frozen plains, and ending in a sea " bound in chains of perpetual ice," along which the utmost eiTorts of modern navigation have in vain attempted to find a passage. It is only by a broken line, ascending the tributary of one river and descending that of another, that a laborious boat track, interrupted by frequent land portage, is formed across Siberia to the Eastern Ocean. 4557. In tracing this cimin ofgrecU rivers, beginning with the west, our notice is first drawn by the combined streams of the Irtysch and the Obi. The Irtysch, which seems to have some claim to be considered as the main stream, rises, to the south of the Alta'i, from an elevated portion of that chain. After a considerable westerly course, it combines with some other waters in forming the lake Saizan, whence it again issues, and, crossing the mountain limit, rolls northward through rich pastoral plains, till it reaches Tobolsk. Here it meets the Tobol, which, with its tributaries, has collected the waters of the western tracts of Siberia. About 200 miles lower it meets tlie broad stream of the Obi. This chief of the waters of Siberia rises in or immediately behind the Altai, and runs through the provi :cs of Kolyvtn and Tomsk, by whose capitals it passes, till, swelled by numerous tributaries, it joins the Irtysch. Though rising from a source less distant, it pursues a more winding course, and roll* • larger body of water, so that its name prevails after its junction. The united stream, however a bay, oi 4558. nisgnitu( southern finds or n On its bi A very li Toungou They hwi capital of its further of 500 or 4559, 3 traversing on the nori east, and w communlct rivers, the Yablonoy r immensity receives the land carriiid plains only the animals 4560. Tl, such, have b to the east, \ the vicinity the Anadir, ascertain on 4561. Siht appellation o bold and lofl this ample re presents a a northern side navigators vj« those who ha lation. This fi-ozen over, ( Mr. Bell fou « solid mats o geon, and wit from the sea, the navigation pletely fresh, the name of h marshy or sub lake of Tchan considerable » impregnated « fcmnants of ac «62. The , Pnmitivo, trai,« tertiary formati and newer dep( .''563. Minet mines and prec J. Guldmin, of Catherlnenh Of disseminated English poundT DOOK II SIBERIA. 1095 howoveri roUi only tlirougli iVaieit plains, till, after a course of about 400 miles, it opens into a bay, or rathvr n broad estuary, called the Gulf of Obi. 4328. Th0 Vmlmi flows cost of the Obi, in the same direction, and nearly of equal magnitude. Thli ueeond of the rivers of Siberia arises near the Lake Bdkal, on the Bouthern side of the Sayanskot chain, whose waters it receives for a considerable space, till it finds or m»kvH an entranee into Siberia. It then flows nearly due north to the Froxen Ocean. On its banks are the considerable, though secondary, cities of Krasnoyarsk and Yeniseisk. A very little above the latter It receives an important tributary, the Angara, Or Upper Toungouaka, whom waters rush Impetuously through a rocky passage out of the Baikal lake. They become afterwards peculiarly clear and transparent, and pass by Irkoutsk, the second capital of Hlberla, till they bring to the Yenisei a stream of equal magnitude to itself. In Its further CQune the Yenisei receives two other Toungouskas, the lower of which has a course of £00 or 600 mlleR, and Joins It at Turukshansk, on the borders of the Arctic Circle. 4539. Th0 Lma n/mtiini still to be mentioned r.mld the mighty waters of Northern Asia, traversing Its mOHt remote and eastern regions. It rises from a small cluster of mountains on the northern shore of the Ua'ikal lake. Its early course, for nearly 1000 miles, is north- east, and sometimes almost due cast ; a direction highly advantageous for establishing a water communication with Okhutski While following this direction, it receives two considerable rivers, the WItim and the Olekma, both from the great boundary chain, called here the Yablonoy mountalnsi The Lena now passes Yakoutsk, the only place which, amidst the immensitv of these eastern deseru, deserves the name of a town. A little farther down it receives the Aldane, which, with one of its tributaries, enables boats to reach within a short land carrlnge of the Eastern Sea. The Lena then flows almost due north, through desolate plains onlv IVequenteil by tlie adventurous hunter, in search of the beautiful furs witli which the animals that inhabit them nrp covered. 4360. The Kvuntiary rivern t^ Siberia are chiefly the tributaries of the great ones, and, as such, have been already mentioned. The Olenek to the west of the Lena, and the Indigirka to the east, would In Europe be considered great; but their obscure and distant course, in the vicinity of features so much more grand, scarcely attracts attention. The Kovima and the Anadir, in the extreme cast, have obtained more notice, in consequence of researches to ascertain on that side the boundaries of the continent. 4361. Siberia mnlaitu one gnmi lake, the Baikal, whose dimensions almost entitle it to the appellation of an Inland sea. The boundary chain, here throwing out branches peculiarly bold and lofty, Dprms a circuit of mountains, the waters of which not only suffice to feed this ample reservoir, but give rise to all the great rivers of north-eastern Asia. The Baikal presents a grand and imposing aspect, being encircled by these mountains, which on the northern Awi are particularly rugged and rocky, and crowned with woods. The Russian navigators view it with peculiar reverence, calling it the Holy Sea, and reporting tales of those who have sutltred severely in consequence of applying to it any less respectful appel- lation. This lake is about ittX) miles in length by 50 in breadth. In winter it is completely fl-ozen over, and down to the middle of March can be passed in waggons. Even in May, Mr. Bell found the navigation dangerous from the ice, and it was only by being moored to a solid mass of It that the vessel escaped injury. The lake abounds with Hsh, particularly stur. geon, and with seals, the presence of which seems very remarkable, considering the distance from the sea. The waters are said to be subject to certain interior agitations, which render the navigation soniettmim dangerous, even when the wind is moderate. Its water is com- pletely fVesh, The other lakes of Siberia are excessively numerous, but scarcely deserve the name of lakes. They are rather chains of ponds, or stagnant collections of water, in the marshy or submerged steppes wliich cover a great extei't of its western territories. Only the lake of Tchany In the steppe of Barabra, and of Kurg Algydum in that of Issim, present considerable vxpansesi A great proportion of these little lakes are saline, or variously impregnated with mineral substances. M. Humboldt thinks it not improbable that tliey are remnants of some great interior sea connected with the Aral and the Caspian. SitCT, II. Natural Geography. StiHSKCT. 1. Geology. 4562. The UmHan antl Altaian ranges afford splendid displays of all the rocks of the primitive, traiii.itlun, and alluvial classes $ vast tracts, also, are composed of secondary and tertiary formations ) and volcanic rocks of ancient and modern date rise through the older and newer deposits, 4363, Miiw; — Siberia haa been celebrated fVom an early period on account of its rich mines and precious slone«i I. Gold minet. The principal gold mines in Siberia are those of Berezof, in the district of Catherlnenberg, on the east side of the Uralian mountains, The gold occurs either pure or disseminated tnrougli Iron pyrites, forming what is called the pyritious ore of gold. Five Englisli pounds' weight of gold are obtained fVom 1250 stone weiglit of the crude ore. 9 Z 3 1076 DESCRIPTIVE 6E00RAFHY. Paw III. 2. Silver mines. The most considerable silver mines are those of Kolyvan, Ner. tchinsk, and Schlangenberg. The silver occurs in a native state, more frequently in the state of ore, as silver glance, red silver ore, horn ore, or muriate of silver. Platina has been found in such quantity, to the east of the Urals, that it is now coined, the coins containing a certain proportion of silver. 3. Copper minei. Rich copper mines occur in the Uralian and also in the Alta'lan chain. The prevailing ores in these mines are red copper ore, or red oxide of copper, and green and blue malachite. 4. Iron mine*. Iron abounds in Siberia, but hitherto few considerable mines have been established in this division of the Russian empire. 5. Lead mines. Although galena abounds in Siberia, hitherto but few mines of lead have been opened. 4564. Gemx and Ornamental Stones. — J)iamond, the most precious of all the gems, has been lately found in Siberia, but not in considerable quantity. The most frequent of the gems are topaz and beryl : the true emerald has no! been fnet with. The Siberian avanlurine is a variety of quartz rock, with disseminated scales of mica, which, when polished, has a beautiful appearance. The red tourmaline, or rubellite, a very beautiful mineral, found at Sarapulka, not far from Mursinsk, when cut and polished, is highly esteemed as an orna- mental stone or sub-gem. Beautiful blue and green felspars, valued by collectors, are met with in diiTerent places ; and the valuable and beautiful mineral, the Utxulite, or lapis lazuli which aflbrds the well known pigment named ultramarine, is met with around the Lake Baikal. The elegant agates, carnelians, and calcedonies of Siberia are well known ; and the rock crystals, with embedded green tourmaline and rubellite, are prized by collectors. r . . I SoBsiCT. 3. Botany. 4565. The botany of the Altaic mountains has very lately been ably illustrated in the Travels of Professor Ledebour, of Dorpat, which we regret are not yet translated from German into the language of our country ; but from which we leam, that the southern and western parts of the Altaic mountains, which it was the principal object of the author's journey to eiplore, consist of wide steppes, whose soil is partly sand and partly clay, con- taining more or less saline principle. There, nature, with few exceptions, only offers the general forms of the north of Europe, and those objects which are new and peculiar are neither remarkable for beauty nor singularity of structure. The Altaic range, on account of their north and easterly position, contrast but unfavourably with the mountains of more southern and tropical latitudes. The traveller does nut, as in tropical climes, descend from lofty mountains into " smiling fertile vales," where a bright ^y makes him forget all bis fatigues : on the contrary, he must submit to be drenched with continually recurring rains, to experience frost even in the summer nights, and to wade through long and weary bogs. Deep and rapid are the rivers of this country, especially the Irtysch and the Alei : the Uba and the Ulba, the latter a tributary stream to the Irtysch, also take their rise iu the mountains, and water, for a greater or less distance, the steppes of this district There are many lakes, some strongly impregnated with salt, and few entirely free from it. Through the whole of the country which lies south of the Irtysch, the ground rises, partly into sepa- rate hills, and partly into ranges of small eminences, stretching one above another, like terraces, to a height of 11 56 Parisian feet. Large pine forests skirt the Irtyscli from Barnaoul to Schulbinsk ; the banks of the Alei are also covered with trees, exclusive of the Fir tribes, and the same is probably the case with the other small rivers. The Uba and Ulba are, however, mostly destitute of wood ; and in general, this wide steppe tract, except the above-mentioned pine forests, is barren of trees, though farther nurth, there is no de- ficiency of them. In the steppes occur many plants that grow plentifully in Euro|)v, par- ticularly the following: — Adonis vemalis and Anemone patens, both in great abundance; many species of Artemisia, Allium, Gypsophila and Statice; numerous Umbellalx; Ceratocarpus arenarius and Diotis ceratoides cover whole tracts ; and, where the ground is impregnated with saline principle, the peculiar salt plants occur in abundance, such as the species of Polycnemum, Atriplex, Chenopodium, Frankenia, Tamariz, Salicoriiia, and Halocnemum ; also Chorispota sibirica, Diotis atriplicoides, and others. Farther south, Amaryllis tatarica is extremely plentiful, with Rindera tetraspis, and the equally rare Nepeta sibirica ; and the beautiful Ercmurus growing on the little hills. But the peculiar richness of the Flora of this steppe first displays itself near the Irtysch, where, besides most of the above-named plants, the following deserve to be particularly noted : a new species of Peplis and of Camphorosma } many individuals, quite peculiar to this country, belonging to the genera Cachrys, Peucedanum, and Scseli; among the Asperifolia^ the genera Echinospermum and Lithospermum, Cynoglossum viridiflorum, Solenanthui circinatus (n. sp.), Tuurnefortia Arguzia, Hyoscyamus pusillus. Rheum leucorhizum ; Arenaria subulata, filifolia, and longlfolia; Cotyledon Lievcnii (n. sp.), Saponaria elegant \n. sp.j, many Zygopliylla, Ammo. . similarity to that of Euro^,. , though many of the pecu- liar productions of the country still appear. The latter prin- cipally belong to the vernal plants ; they also grow on the steep sides of the rocks, or adorn the banks of the mountain streams, wherever these are liable to occasional inundations. In such spots, Gentiana acaulisand Cortusa Mathioli flourish, and Carda- mine macroph\na, Saxifraga Geum, Pedicularis rcsupinata, and others, grow in the greatest luxuriance. A. ;o, rich flat meadows, situated at the foot of the higher mountains, produce many of the peci liar plants of Siberia; while, on the contrary, gently rising hills, or spots clothed with scatter -I wood, exhibit such vegetation only as is common to Europe. This is likewise observable in such places as form standing bogs, and are neither irrigated by the fresh water trickling down the mountains, nor shaded by a thick covering of foliage. Still the morasses of this region do possess some plants peculiar to themselves. 4566. The Spring Jlora is especially marked by the abundance of Ranunculaceae and Liliacete ; as Ranunculus polyrhizos ; Adonis vernalis, sibirica, and villosa ; Paeonia hybrida. Anemone patens, coirulea, altaica, and umbrosa (n. sp.), Atragene alpina, Ornithogalum aiigulusum (n. sp.) and uniflorum, Tulipa altaica and tricolor; Iris ruthenica, glaucescens (n. sp.), and flavissima. Among the rock plants of this region may particularly be noted the following, as most numerous : — Veronica pinnata, Ziziphora media ; Dracocephalum origanoides, peregrinum, pinnatum, Iluyschianum, and nutans ; Nepeta lavandulacea. Thymus angustifolius, Fatrinia sibirica, Androsace dasyphylla (n. sp.), Myosotis rupestris, Onosma simplicissima and Gmelini, Sibbaldia erecta and altaica, Statice speciosa, Swertia dichntoma, Thesium rupestre (n. sp.), Bupleurum baldense, several Allia, Stellera altaica, Gypsophila thesiifolia, Orostachys chlorantha, Sedum Eversii and hybridum; Silene allaica, graminifolia, stylosa (n. sp.) ; Potentilla pennsylvanica and sericca,and many other individuals of this genus; Thalictrum petaloideum, Linaria altaica, several Alyssa, Erysi- mum lanceolatum, Uesperis aprica, various Astragali, Oxytropis setosa. Aster alpinus, Centaurea sibirica, Prenanthes diversifolia (n. sp.), and Ephedra monostachya. On the same plain grow, to the height of a man, some Heraclea, Seseli athamantoides, Cirsium hetcrophyllum, Silybum cernuum, Achillea impatiens, several Adenophora, Delpliinia, and Aronita, many Veratra and Tlialictra, with Senecillis glauca, Tragopogon orientalis, Pi'dicularis elata, and the beautiful P. proboscidea, that covers large tracts. 4567. Among the peculiar bog plants of this region may be mentioned Androsace filiformis, Viula {tricolori aff). Ranunculus Cymbalaria, longicaulis (n. sp.), natans (n. sp.), Gentiana barbata, Cirsium Gmelini, Potentilla multifida. Allium uliginosum (n. sp.) ; and, where the ground is shaded by shrubs or low copsewood, we find Primula sibirica, Phaca exaltata, Pedicularis speciosa, and others; where the valleys expand, in consequence of the rivers that water them being swollen, as in the valley of Tscharysch and that of the Koksun ; there, between the river and the mountain that bounds the vale, are extended, flat, steppe-like plains, similar to those found at the foot of the mountains, but with less luxuriance of vegetation, and different from them in their peculiar productions. In such spots grow Convolvulus Ammanni, Gentiana Gebleri, Potentilla ^n. sp.) subacauli atf., Saussurea (n. sp.) ; Feucedanum vaginatum (n. sp.), which, in dry places, is only a few inches high; Aster altaicus, Veronica incann, Alyssum tenuifolium, several ArtemisisD, with Ranunculus am(£nus (n. sp.). Sisymbrium micranthum (n. sp.), Ballota lanata, several kinds of Leontodon, and, according as the soil is more or less salt, Glaux maritima, which frequently densely covers the ground, and the other formerly enumerated saline plants. From 4.500 to an elevation of 6500 Parisian feet, where Pinus Cembra marks the highest present boundary of the growth of trees, the European species gradually diminish, to give place to the flora of the Alta'i. Here grow most of the individuals of the genus Pedicularis, Sanguisorba alpina (n. sp.). Primula nivalis, Veronica densiflora (n. sp.) ; Gentiana altaica, angulosa, glacialis, humilis, and septemfida ; Swertia obtuSa (n. sp. ), Athamanta compacta (n. sp.), Linum sibiricum, Lonicera hispida. Primula Pallosii, Viola altaica, uniflora and pinnata, Juncus triglumis, Epilobium alpinum, Cerastium alpinum, Saxifraga Hirculus, Mespilus uniflora (n. sp.), Potentilla macrantha (ii. sp.), Aquilegia 3 Z 4 1078 DESCRIPTIVE OEOGHAPHY. Pam III. glandulosa, Ranunculus altaicui, Anemone narciHsiflora, Dracocephalum ultaiente, Linna;a borealis, Flilomis alpina, Cochlearia inlegrifolia, Macropodium nivale, Oxytropis altaica ■ulphurea (n. »p.), Doronicum altaicum, Erigeron alpinus, FroloTia lyrata (n. sp.j' Leuiea altaica, Saussurea pycnocephala (n. sp.), a number of Willows, &c. The most central and westward of these extendi-d steppes, which rise one above another like terraces to an elevation of 5759 Parisian feet, is still more distinguished by its vegetation than tlic lower ones, situated on the banks of the Tscliarysch and Koksun, being extremely arid though sparingly producing, here and there, individual groupes of plants, and exhibiting tuch only as are entirely peculiar to itself. Two species of Anabasis, a new and shrub>like Atriplex, likewise an undescribed frutescent Chenopodium, and three new Zygophylla, two novel shrub-like and very strong-scented ArtemiiiaB ; Corydalis stricta in large bushes ; some species of Oxytropis, with persistent prickly peduncles, some with verticillate leaflets, forming low shrubs : these, together with a few other plants, form the whole of the certainly poor, but highly interesting, flora of this steppe. Yet, at some hundred feet above the present boundary of the growth of trees are seen their dead stems, and on the ground many prostrate shrubs, such as Juniperus nana ( ? ), Betula nana, several Willows, Mespilus uniflora, and Dryas octopetala. Many of the herbaceous plants of the preceding region occur also in this ; but among those entirely confined to it are the following : — Eriophorum Chamissonis (n. sp.), Atliamanta crinita (n. sp.), Claytonia acutifolia, Gcntiana algida, nutans, and rotata, Sibbaldia procumbens, Luzula spicata, Oxyria reniformis, Arenarla [Hel- mio aff-)> nardifolia, and another new species, Biebersteinia odora, Cerastium pauciflorum (?) Lychnis uniflora and tristis (n. sp.); Saxifraga cernua, glandulosa (n. sp.); tercktensis (n. sp.) ; and hieraciifolia, Sedum elongatum (n. sp.) and quadrifidum, Thermopsis alpina, PotentiUa grandiflora and nivea, Pupaver nudicaule. Ranunculus isopyroides, Thalictrum alpinum, Gymnandra bicolor (n. sp.), several species of Pedicularis; Draba carnosula (n. sp.), hydrophila (n. sp.}, and lactea; Parrya exscapa (n. sp.), Corydalis pauciHora, Phaca frigida, Trifolium grandiflorum (n. sp.), Artemisia alpina, Cineraria [awaiuiacce of.), and lyrata (n. sp.), Hieracium crocatum (n. sp.), some kinds of Leontodon, Pyretlirum pulchrum (n. sp.), Saussurea pygmaea. Orchis viridis, and various Grasses and Sedges. Some plants also grow in this district that are found at every elevation throughout the country. Caltha palustrit generally adorns the mar^n of little alpine rivulets ; Epilobium angusti- folium also is found in spots above the boundary of trees, quite unaltered in its appearance; Erythronium Dens Canis springs up wherever the snow is just melted. 4568. The highest limit ^ trees, estimated by Ledebour at 6500 Parisian feet, is, however, OS he says, not always the same. It depends partly on the species of tree, partly on the declivity of the mountain. On the south side, at the rise of the Tscharysch, the last stem of Pinus Cembra appeared, at an elevation of 6541 feet above the sea. On the north side of tlic plateau of the Korgon, the highest limit of the same tree was 5254 feet ; on the Koksunchen Snow Mountains (their east and west sides), at 5692 feet, on the snowy peaks of Ulbinski to the Kreuxberge, ut Riddersk, where the Larch forms the boundary, these trees now cease at 5500 Parisian feet, wliile their dry stems may be seen at a height uf 6187 feet. As to the grouping of the diflferent kinds of trees, tlie following were remarked : Birch, Firs, and Pines are in the lowest situations ; the Birch {Betula alba) rises no higher than 4536 feet ou the Riddcrschen Kreuzberge ; on the east side of the Koksun Snow Mountains it ascends to an elevation of 5236 feet. Pines, which are seen on the sandy soil of the steppes, and are also common on the granite rocks among the mountains, stldom appear higher than 3000 Parisian feet above the sea. Firs, on the contrary, ascend to an elevation of 5270 Parisian feet, though from 4000 feet they are less frequent than on the steppe, where they form large forests. Finus sibirica grows at the foot of the mountains with the Fir, but more frequently together with the Spruce (P. Abies) ; and at a liciglit of 2000 to 2300 feet it is very abundant. From 4000 feet upwards, this species occurs liiore frequently as P. Abies disappears, ard at 4000 to 5000 feet it forms large and close forests, but was never observed beyond 5270 feet, its limit being the same as that of the Fir. The Larch trees were not seen below 2550 feet ; their highest boundary being on the Ritter Kreuxberge, 5500 feet : at 4O00 feet they form extensi . e woods, every where covering the north side of the mountains, as on the Cholsun, Listwaga, and several others. Pinus Cembra first occurs at 4000 feet, but is never so numerous as to cover a tract of country, to the comparative exclusion of other trr Ledebour heard of a forest of Cedars at Tschetschulicha, but never saw it, which stated to attain a greater elevation than any other tree on the Altai, even 6540 Parisian .c-et. When the woods are very thick, particu- larly of Pinus sibirica (but such were not observed north of Riddersk), they will scarcely allow a plant to grow ; where they are not so close, and the ground is moist, they then shelter an uncommonly luxuriant vegetation : Aconita, Cimicifuga foetida, Senecio sara- cenicus, Cacalia hastata, Polemonium coeruleum, Orobus luteus, Pffionia hybrida, Arabis pendula, and several others, frequently attain a considerable height, eight to ten feet, and even more ; but where the woods are very tliin, and the ground is dry, there the covering of plants is extremely scanty. It is difficult to fix the line of snow exactly. On the north Book II. side of tli« 5500 feet plateau of feet, large years ; • ci the summit uncertain, ture of cor it deserves i to the south who rove i still their ^( season there lying from (but on the vegetation « northern ant that corresf more and n reasonably ci which is di\ and south, b and which ai the snowy rej 4569. A I The Terebint Carpinus, Fr plenty; next little groves, low tracts. 1 enough to des disproportion fow, even in countries, so t often, during t to survive lonf their roots beii 4570. Then of the families others seem to Personate, wl Asperifolio!, « Cynarocephala among the Eu are claimed by instance of this genera Astragi places, contribi wanting: for Twenty-three Equisetum, wei of the Altaian! 4571. 0/the of Europe, that country which expedition*; «72. The . Hamburgh, anc exposed to the and very differe Europe, and pa, attains to a gr< Aucuparia, All Timber may, ., milder than on i Bool IL SIBERIA. 107S ude of tlie mountain at Riddwnk, Uw mow lim tomvUmei in the hollowi at the height of 5500 feet during the whole luminer, the quantity varying in different year*. On the plateau of the Korgon, on the aide inclining to tiie northward, Ledebour observed, at 6700 feet, large masiiea of anow, in which might be clearly distinguished the layers of several years ; a circumsUnce rarely, if ever, seen on tlie south side of any mountain. For whether the summit of the Alp of Basclmlathi is always covered with snow during summer, seems uncertain, though the natives declare such to be the fact. To what altitude the cul- ture of com may be succesiii\illy prosecuted, has not been ascertained by actual trial ; yet it deserves notice, that corn grows, at about 4000 feet above the level of the sea, in villages to the south of Cholsun, which it also the limit of resident inhabitante. Some Calmucks, who rove in the lufiy Tschi^a steppe, may, uerlmps, pass tlie winter at a greater height; still their yowten cannot bo termed settled dwellings, nor is it possible that they do spend that season there. When the geugrauhical position of these countries is carefully considered, lying from 47° to 54° north latitude, and at thdr northern boundary from 99° to 105" (but on the south ftva 91" to 109") K. longitude flrom Ferro, no other prevailing forms of vegetation can really be expected, than such as bear a general similarity to those of the northern and midland parts of £uro|)e ; fur it is well known, whatever be the longitude, that corresponding degrees of latitude produce tlie same kind of vegetation, becoming more and more alike as they prucvi>d iVoni the equator towards the poles. But we may reasonably conclude tliat many species, difiWrent flrom the European, occur in a country which is divided from Europe by a large chain of mountains, the Ural, running north and south, by immensely extended steppes, lying at the south and eastern foot of them, and which are even traversed by mountains whose elevated summits rise above the level of the snowy region. 4569. A Uriking fialure of Altaic vegetation consists in the scarcity of hard-wood trees. The Terebinthaceae, Acerew, and 't'iliaceK are absent, as also the genera Quercus, Fagus, CarpinuB, Fraxinus, &c. The Uirch is almost the only hard wood found in tolerable plenty ; next to it are the Aspeus, which prvsetit themsclve!> here and there, collected into little groves. Besides these, two species of Poplar occur on the banks of rivers and in the low tracts. The other hard-wood trees do not attain a large size, and are scarcely numerous enough to deserve notice. With regard to the herbaceous plants, there is a considerable disproportion between the omount of annual and perennial ones. The former are very fow, even in the less elevated districtN ; and as they diminish on the mountains of other countries, so they hero disapiwar almost entirely. In a country where the vegetation is often, during the flowering season, covered with snow, the annual plants cannot be expected to survive long, as tlieir seeds are seldom perfected ; while the perennial plants suffer less, their roots being unhurt, and capable of Utruwing up new shoots. 4570. There ttill belonga another peculiarity to the Altaic flora, which is, that in many of the families tliat are numerous there a* to species, the genera are very few ; while all the others seem to be replaced by an individual or a couple of genera : thus it is among the Personatae, where the genus I'ediculari* composes almost one third; and among the Asperifolio;, where Myosotis and Echinospennum number more than one half. In the CynarocephaliB, too, upwards of half tlie species belong to Saussurea and Serratula ; among the Eupatorinn, the Artcmisiiu are two thirds ; and in the Rutaceae, three fourths are claimed by the genus Zygophylluin. But the Leguminosse present the most striking instance of this ; for three fourths of the species in this very numerous family consist of the genera Astragalus, Oxytropis, and I'linca, while the many genera which are found in other places, contributing numerous individuals to swell that tribe, are, in the Alta'i, almost wholly wanting: for instance, there ore but two species of Mcdicago, and five of Trifoliuro. Twenty-three Ferns, according to tliu Liniia^itn system, of which one third belongs to Equisetum, were collected by Ledubuur. There is little difference between the Cryptogamia of the Altai and that of Europe. 457 1 . Of the other parti of Siberia, the vegetation is so similar to that of the northern districts of Europe, that we sliall omit all notice of it, and direct the attention of our readers to a country which has been mure SMtisfucturily explored by the botanists of the recent Russian expedition*; namely, Kamtschatka, the Alkutian Islands, and Behrino's Straits. 4572. The cove of Awattcha, lying between the same degrees of latitude as Berlin and Hamburgh, and the haven of St Peter and St. Paul in the interior, seem to be but little exposed to the influence of sea winds. The arborescent Birch grews here ; but stunted, and very different from the slender, graceful tree that is so much admired in the north of Europe, and particularly at Peterslmrgh. Pinus Cembra, which, on the European Alps, attains to a greater height than P. Abies, and forms the boundary of the trees, Sorbus Aucuporia, Alnus incana, and some Willows, are seen ; but tliey remain quite shrubby. Timber may, however, be raised in tlie interior of the peninsula, where the climate is milder than on the east coast ; and the seeds of tlie Pinus Cembra, which are eaten at .be * Particularly by Chamtuo, flrom whimo Iwtanlcsl wrltln|i many extracts are given in the erst volume of Htokeft BotamcttI MisctUanp. 1080 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paw III. Book 17. 678 tablet of the Ruuian*, come fVom Siberin, via Okhotsk. Grastro and hertwceous plant* thrive luxuriantly, the toil being rich aiul the sky mild. There are but few specie». deeply watered places, the ground presents only heaps of broken rocks. 4.583. The aspect of nature at the cove of St. Lcxurenct is most wintry ; the scanty herbage barely covering the black soil, while the dwarfish Willows do not reach to one's knee. Tlie Andromeda polifolia (Jig. 680.), that i» found there, does not exceed two or three inches in height* and is one-flowered. Among the plants of this cove are a Delphinium, a Dodecatheon, and an Aretia ; also many undescribed species of those truly arctic genera, Gentiana, Saxifraga, Astragalus, Artemisia, Draba, Ranunculus and Claytonia. AHMWIIIOA ruLtrOLIA. IMS DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pakt III, AKDHOmS* TlrHAdOKit. 4584. The iiland of Si. Lawrence, litusted 3° more to the Routli, docs not diHVr in vego. tation from tlie cove of the same name. The Andromeda tctragona {fg. 6BI.), Dryu I octopetala, Diapensia lapponica, and lome alpine kind* of Myototii, and a Gymnandra, clearly indicate the pre- vailing character of it» productions. Tba nnlunJiittwhu have visited this island remarked, however, that, on their arrival, they gathered more flower<: there in th« rst few minutes, than during many weeks* investigation on the range of islands comprising Radack, &&, si- tuated between the tropics. Here gtow AInus incana, in a very diminu- tive state, and Spiriea chaintcdril'ulia, both of which arc natives of Kam- tschatka, but not of Unalaschka ; and which a severer atmosphere seems to have banished from St. Lawrence's cove. An Ornbanche and a Pinguicula are among the plants of this island. Cineraria palustris vegetates with remarkable luxuriance in the well-watered slopes formed at the base of the mounds of ice ; while Detula nana (Jig. 683. ) is seen even on thp very shores. The plain country of this island is free fWnn snow throughout the summer. SuBSECT. 3. Zoology, 4585. Our knowledge of the Zoology of Siberia andofAnalic Rxaria is chiefly derived from the researches of the celebrated Pallas, The ungenial nature of the climate, the sandy and arid steppes and rocks by which these regions are every where intersected, and the total absence of umbrageous forests, at once accounts for the paucity of species appropriated to this immense territory. The assertion, therefore, made by Pennant, that Siberia is hardly less interesting than America, in the number and novelty of its animals, is singularly inac- curate : the proportion not being more, probably, than one to flfteen. There scarcely appean, in fact, either among the quadrupeds or birds of Siberia, one genus which is not common to the European zoological region : although the following list of quadrupeds will exhibit several species apparently confined to the eastward of the Urol mountains and the shores of Lake Baikal. 4586. The Quadrupeds more particularly belonging to Siberia are the following : — Futoriui tlbirlcui. SIherlftn WmMl> CuiU ilUricui. Hlhnlui Dog. Pboc« Ifporinus. Han H«al. curia unlna. Hra Bear. Otarialnbila. ^iM Lion. Arrlcola arvalU. Field Mouw. Anlcola (Bconamua. Kconomic Field Mouie. Arvicola lUMilli. Rack Motue. Anrlcola alliarlui. Uarllc Mouw. Arricola nitllaiu. RckUI,in soft turfy ground. There are aometimea near thirty dilTerciil entrances to the principal chamlier : cloae to thia arc other caverns, uaed aa granaries for ttieir winter pro. viiiona. Theae stores they gather in aummer, and in damp seasons will flrequcntly bring them out to drr in the aun ; they will not touch theae hoarda until the time of need, living in the interim on sucli other food as can be aupplied fVom over-abundance. On the approach of winter, the male and female, who h,ivc hitherto been separate, mutually retire to their wellatored dwelling, and paas this rigoroua aeaaon in ease and plent;, living upon the fVuits of their former industry and forcthoughL 4Srai Qf the aquatic QuadrupfOt, the Phoca grcetUandica {fig. 683.\ and numerous other Seals, appear m — the iVosen ahorea of the North and White Seas, anii diHbrent varieties on those of I.4ilom the Indian and the African apecies. I'he enormoua tuaka occasionally found, and said to weigh, sometimes, 60U lbs., have lieen inconaiderately assigned to the wild txnr ; but they no doubt belonged to this, or some fouil species of equally gigantic alse. 4591. Of the ..i..-ds, our information is very defective. Pallas cnimierates several, unknown to Europe ; but they are small, .-uid not generally interesting. The Great Bustard of Europe 684 • »AI.M)W>TAII.ID ritATlWCOl.«> Book II. SIBERIA. lOSfl U tpreiMi over the dcteHi, with the Swallow.tailed Prntlncolu (fg. 684.), a rcitleM and clsmoroui bird, of rare occurrence in Europe. Partrid)(e«, Quails, and tlie imaller galli. naceoui birds, are common ; but the larger and more (plendld I'heasonta begin only to appear on the conflnee of central Asia and towards Persia. 4593. The DomUtic AnimtUt are much the iwne as those of European Ruuia. Sect. III. HUtorical Geography, 4593. The rude regUmt of Siberia have but recently attracted the notice of the historian. So portion of it was included by the Greeks and Romans in their idea of the known or habitable world. The Scythians, the same pastoral tribe who occupy the regions of modern Tartary, were in their eyea the remotest people of Asia ; the regions on the Jaxarte* appeared to terminate Scythia. 4594. Tlie modem Tartar conqueror$, of whom Zingis, the greatest, had territories immediately bordering on this region, might have been expected both to explore and conqunr Siberia. Although, however, traditions were found by Carpini, which showed a knowledf^a extending as far as Kamtschatko, it does not appear that much impression was ever madi beyond the chain of mountains which separates these two region., of Asia. FormidabK barriers of nature here arrested their efforts ; and the current of tu^ir progress and conquest was always directed to the more tempting regions of the south. 4595. /( was reterved for Ruutiot after she hod shaken off the Tartar yoke, and !>«'Come a great and |>owerful kingdom, to penetrate the secrets of this bleak and unknown jcgion. Yet the flmt entry was from the province of Archangel, into ita most drvary and ur .-umising quarter. The Samoyedes, inhabiting the Lower Obi, and the shores of the Froi^n Ocean, were accustomed to come to the banks of the Dwina, to exchange their skins and furs for Dutch toys and other articles suited to their taste. Anika StrogunofT, nn enterprisin;.; individual, conceived the idea of extending this trade by penetrating into the districts wlienc >:' these valuable furs were brought He ol>tained considerable wealth by this tr'<'Bc, nnd at list persuaded several of the leading people among that simple race to repaii ^ i .Joscow. The mere view of the pomp and luxury of the Russian court is said by the w iters ;>f that nation to have so strongly acted upon their minds that they agreed to acknow. .-dge the su- premacy of the czar, an i even to pay him a small tribute of furs. That prince soon availed himself of his newly acquired dominion to build on the Obi forts composed of logs cemented with earth, and to people this tract by making it a place of banishment for criminals, par- ticularly those condemned or suspected of offences against the state. Siberian liiscovery assumed a more active character, in consequence of other remarkable events. Ivan Vassile- vitch II., having driven the Tartars before him as far as the Caspian, found his power defied and his commercial views obstructed, by a band of daring nomadic warriors, wl. •, under the name of Cossacks, have since been the bulwark of the empire. At that time, it required the exertion of all its force to root them out; and Yermak, their gallant chief, with about 6000 followers, refusing to submit, fled eastward into southern Siberia. In seeking to obtain settlements there, he was opposed by the Tartar prince who reigned over that tract ; but, having gain a complete victory over him, he found himself in his capital, Sibir, at the head of a more extensive kingdom than that which he had lost. Being still pressed, how- ever, by the arms of the Russians, he could maintain his place only by acknowledging the supremacy of the cxar, and reigning as his viceroy. Yermak having soon after fallen into an ambush laid by the Tartars, and lost his life, the dominion c ' !?>bpria reverted entire to the Muscovite prince. The facility with which it appeared that ^^ ' 'a ' ;tensive kingdoms might be traversed and conquered aiTorded encouragement to persevtr. Orders were sent to the garrison at Narym to advance eastward. After a somewhat painful march through the dreary steppe of Baraba, they came to the fine pastoral regions watered by the Yenisei. Here they found the Tungouses, a people new in form and aspect ; and who, being gentle, and few in number, were easily induced to admit a ligh*. sway, and to pay a moderate tribute of furs. In descending the Angara, however, they citne upon a tribe of different temper, the Burats, a branch of the fierce Mongol race, wiij siiowed no disposition tamely to resign their independence. The Russians paused in this direction ; but found on their left along the Lena an a'most unoccupied region, bleak and dreary indeed, but abounding in furs of the finest qual'.ty. The Cossacks puF^ed on, therefore, undeterred by the snow and ice, which, during most of the year, involved this wild extremity of Asia; and, in 1639, fifty years after the commericement of this career, one of their number, Diraitrei Kopilof, arrived at the shores of the Gr.'if of Okhotsk, a branch of the ocean boundary of Asia. Meantime, additional forces being brought forward at length compelled the submission of the hardy races on the Angara and round the Ba^ikal ; every thing yielded till they come to the banks of the Amoor. Here they met the power of China, incorporated with that of its Tartar conquerors ; and though, even in this combined state, that empire was much inferior to Russia in a warlike capacity, yet, being on ita own ground, it could bring a greater force of somewhat disciplined troops. The issue of this contest was the repulse of the Russians within the line of the Amoor and behind that of the mountains, and the establishment of China in full 1084 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHY. Pam III. dominion over the desolate course of that great river. Neither of these powers have since attempted to pass those pastoral boundaries which form the distant frontier of each • mnd Russia has remained in peaceable possession of an empire which, if measured by superficial extent, would considerably surpass that of Alexander or the Ceesars. 4596. After this empire wasacquired, however, tome grand proNenu respecHngits boundaries remained to be solved. The most important was, whether it communicated with the ocean on the east ; which last involved also the question if Asia and America were or were not joined to each other. These questions had early appeared of deep interest to the great maritime nations of the west, chiefly because an open passage by the north of Asia promised a shorter route to India than that by the Cape. For this object a series of expeditions were undertaken by some of the first naval men of the age, both English and Dutch, who conducted them with characteristic boldness, not dismayed even by the tragical catastrophes which ter- minated the career of several. None, however, were ever able to pass the frozen barriers opposed by the coasts of Nova Zembia and of the Gulf of Obi immediately beyond. These attempts were relinquished in despair ; yet the Dutch, when Peter the Great paid them his extraordinary visit as an apprentice in navigation, pressed upon him the importance of applying his superior means to the solution of these great problems. Peter sent instructions to Yakoutsk, to make every enquiry respecting the maritime boundaries of the Siberian territory, and particularly its relation vith America. He never appears to have known what Miiller claims the credit of having discovered during his visit to Yakoutsk, that there were buried in the arcluves of that place narratives of most important discoveries on these very points, which were then forgotten. From the year 1 636, expeditions were sent down the easterly rivers Lena, Indigirka, Alaska, and Kolima, which ascertained the termination of these rivers, and the continuity of the ocean into which they fell. In 1646, a company of merchants undertook the first voyage eastward from the Kolima, and actually reached the territory of the Tchutchi, the rude tenants of the north-eastern peninsula of Asia. This was followed, in 1648, by a more important expedition, undertaken by two Cossack chiefs, Deschnew and Ankudinow. The latter was wrecked near the isthmus at the mouth of the pautiful ore of co|)|ivr, called Malachite, and very fine rock crystals, some of which, of a green colour, liiivu uvcii been mistaken for emeralds. The mountains of Daouria, and those rounil the Ila'ikal, pro- duce tlie topaz, the beryl, the onyx, lapis lazuli, and red garnets. In I8eneatli, upon which the sable drops down, and is caught in nets. Next to the sable ranks the black fox, of whose skin the very fine specimens sell sometimes for thirty pounds, and five pounds is a wry ordinary price. The skins of the red and grey fox do not sell ibr more than two or three pounds. Those even of the bear and the wolf have a certain value. Among the ust't'ul uninmis of Siberia, it is impossible to pass over the rein-deer and the dog. The furnier are found in every part of Asiatic Russia, but chiefly on the bleak shores of the Northern Ocean, and among the Samoyedes ; to whom, as to the Laplanders, they supply milk, clothes, and the means of rapid conveyance over tlie vast plains of ice. Only those taken in hunting are killed for the sake of the flesh. It is not in Kamtschatka only that tliu strong and well-trained Siberian dog is used as an animal of labour, and particularly in transporting sledges over the ice. 4608. The mpply of,fiah, both in the rivers and the seas of Siberia, is inexhaustible, and only the distance and difliculty of transport prevents this from being an immense source of wi'ulth. The Obi, and still more the Irtyscli, abound with a very great variety of excellent species ; including, besides those found in other rivers, sturgeon of peculiarly fine quality, very large Sperlings, and several species peculiar to these rivers. The Yenisei and the Li'iiu are chiefly remarkable for fine varieties of salmon and trout. But it is the eastern liuys of Asia, and the seas thence extending to America, that swarm with life in a degree niniust unexampled. The most remarkable are those huge marine animals, the tenants of tliu frozen seas, against tlie cold of which they are fenced by thick skins, and a substance almost entirely composed of fat and oil. Whales take the lead among this class ; but the cuast seems peculiarly to swarm with the minor species, seals, otters, sea-calves, sea-wolves, anil others of the same species. The skins of these animals, however, are the only part of lliem which cuii bear a transportation across the immense breadth of Siberia. Those of the si'a>otter are said by Captiiin Cochrane to sell at from 10/. to 30/. in the market of Yakoutsk. 'I'liu abundance of these and of ordinary fish maintains the eastern shores and islands in a state of plenty, independent of agriculture or pasturage. Indeed, we can scarcely credit tlio stjitenient of Captain Cochrane, that GOO persons, inhabitants of tlie district of Nisclmei- Kulynisk, consume between themselves and their dogs, 2,000,000 pounds annually ; milking fifty pounds a day to each person. Probably the fishery along the northern shore would not be less abundant ; but the diflficulty of carrying it on in frozen seas, and the cost of conveying its products, have hitherto prevented the Russians from attempting its prosecution to any extent. The numerous little lakes, the marshes, and inundated Kfiiunds of Siberia are covered with vast flights of waterfowl; and wild ducks, wild geese, swans, &c. aflbrd an important resource to the inhabitants. On the whole, Siberia, parti- cularly in its eastern tracts, would be the first country in the worlil for the sportsman, could lie bring himself to endure the relegation front society which a residence in it would impose. ^fiO!). In no counlty has commerce to stnig/^le against so many disailvantdges. Its northern si'as are burred by ice ; its eastern are too distiint to hold any intercourse with the civilised World. The land communication from St. Petersburg extends over very little less than half the breadth of the globe, through tracts sometimes buried in snow, sometimes im- passable by inundation, and sometimes destitute, for hundreds of miles, of a human habit- niioii. Its rivers, though magnificent, all cross this great line ut right angles, and consequently afford no accommodation for transit, except by ascending; and descending the winding course of their tributaries, with frequent and lattorious portages from one to till* other. The country all round the frontier, and to u certain extent within, is infested uy predatory hordes. Yet, under all tliis accuitiulation of obstacles, the commtrcial spirit in •1 A 1088 DESCIIIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. Siberia is actiye. Tlie Russian inhabitants, with the exception of the officers of govern- ment and the exiles, are almost all merchants, who, having taken up their abode in this dreary region under the hope of making a fortune with some facility, prosecute this object with indefatigable zeal. The transactions generally being of that speculative and adven- turous cast which afford a chance of great gain, are attractive to bold and sanguine spirits. 4610. The great line of Siberian commerce, that leading from Petersburg by Moscow, Nischnei-Novogorod, Kasan, and Perm, crosses the Urals at Catherinenberg. It tlien proceeds direct to Tobolsk, and from that capital almost due east by Tomsk and Kras- noyarsk to Irkoutsk. The first of these places, with the Barabinski steppe, which precedes it, is sometimes avoided by ascending the Irtysch, and taking the route of Omsk and Barnaoul. At Irkoutsk, Russian commerce branches out into two great opposite lines. One of these crosses the Baikal and ascends the Selinga, to the contiguous towns of Kiachta and Maimatchin, which form the solitary point of commercial intercourse between the two great empires of Russia and China. Almost all the principal houses in Russia have an agent at Kiachta ; while the Chinese traffickers consist chiefly of temporary visiters, who are not even allowed to bring their families. The Russians here receive the staples of China ; tea, porcelain, silk, cotton, rhubarb, tobacco, with a variety of those little orna- mental works in which that nation excels : in return for which, they give furs, skins, coarse cloths of various kinds, cattle, and glass. The value of articles exchanged on each side is supposed to amount annually to between 200,000^ and 300,000/. 4611. The other commercial line, branching from Irkoutsk, is that which descends tlie Lena into the heart of the frozen regions, and to the shores of the Eastern Ocean. Yakoutsk, about 800 miles down the Lena, forms the market at which the furs and other precious products of this desolate region are collected. They arrive, not only from all the surrounding wastes, but from Okhotsk, which collects those of Kamtschatka and of north- western America, and even from the remote north-east angle uf Asia, which forms the peninsula of the Tchutchi. A considerable proportion consists of the tribute to govern- ment, which is easily paid, and profitably received in kind. The rest is obtained by the wandering traffickers, in exchange for tobacco, spirits, cutlery, beads, and toys. Book J Sect. VI. Civil and Social State. 4613. According to an enumeration made in 1801, the population of Siberia amounted to 1,038,356; of whom 515,1 1 1 were mak, and 523,242 female. Considerable as this amount is in itself, yet, if we reckon the superficial extent at 5,000,000 square miles, we shall not have much more than one inhabitant to every five miles. 4613. This very scanty population consists of two very distinct portions, the foreign rtilirs and the native tribes. Tlie latter, also, have scarcely any common relation, except that of liaving been all subdued by Russia. It will be necessary, therefore, to consider separately these different races. 4614. Tlie Russian inhabitants are composed chiefly of that unfortunate class who have been exiled into these remote regions for various offences, chiefly those which excited the alarm of a jealous of the Lena, and all the extent of wide and dcso* late plains which reach thence to the Eastern Ocean. The inroad of the Mongols and Burats is supposed to have driven them from the more southern tracts which they originally occupied. Their pursuits and habits of life much resemble those of the Tungouses, though they are considered, on the whole, as less daring and active. Far to the north, in particular they dwindle into a poor and stunted race. Unable to procure bread, they have become in a great measure, indiiferent to it ; and their vegetable food consists of various roots, as onions, garlic, and berries, which many parts of their territory produce in peculiar excellence, Tlie superstitious habits which generally prevail among the natives of Siberia seem to have ariived at their utmost pitch among the Yakoutes. They reckon thirteen kinds of evil spirits, with the dread of which they are perpetually haunted ; and the influence enjoyed by their magicians is unbounded. Their numbers, according to the census of 1801, amounted to 42,956 males, and 41,607 females. 4619. The Ostiaks are a numerous Siberian tribe, occupying the banks of the Lower Obi witli its tributaries, and the plains which extend far on each side of it. Their size is some- what diminutive ; their hair, of a yellow or reddish tint, floats on their shoulucrs ; and thi-ir features are destitute of all beauty. Their habitations, both of summer and winter, are nearly similar to those of the Tungouses, except that the latter frequently contain two or three families, divided by slight partitions, and having one common fireplace. They depend for subsistence chiefly on fishing, though they give chase to the bear and various fur-bearing animals ; the finest of which, however, are now found only in the eastern regions. In these pursuits they display indefatigable activity, which their detractors impute to the pressure uf want, since tliey show a disposition, when opportunity serves, to sink into indolent habits. They are said to be distinguished by great simplicity of manners, goodness of heart, and open hospitality. Their superstition is entirely that of the old rude paganism, without any Hindoo or Mahometan admixture. In their tents they have many little images, before which they place a tabic, and lay upon it snuflT, willow bark, fish oil, and whatever com- modities they themselves consider most valuable. In return for these gifts, they consider as ..ue a pros^ierous fishing and hunting ; and when, in spite of lavish donation, these fail, their wrath is sometimes kindled against their divinities, whom they even dash on the floor, and break in pieces. The bear is the object of a sort of fearful worship ; and, in their oath of allegiance to the Russian government, they wish that, if it be not fulfilled, they may be devoured by tliat formidable animal. Their favourite amusement consists in a species of dance, in which tliey imitate to the life the motions and cries of the beasts, birds, and fishes with which they are daily conversant. The population, by the census of 1804, is stated at 17,236. 4620. To the north of all the races now surveyed, on the extreme shores of tlie Arctic Ocean, wander the Samot/edes, whom the poet denominates " the last of men." They pre- sent nearly the same original form as the Tungouses, but want and harJsliip have sunk thein into a meagre and stunted race. Tliey have a flat, round, and broad face, large thick lips, a wide and open nose, little beard, black and rough hair in small quantity. Their territory, along these dreary shores, extends for nearly 2000 miles, from the European frontier to the Olcnek, and almost to tlie Lena. Placed in the same situation with the Laplanders, their habits and modes of life are almost entirely the same. All their wants are similarly supplied by the rein-deer ; but the herds which they have tamed are employed solely for the purpose of conveyance ; those only which are caught in the chase are used as food, and their skins converted into clothing. On the sea-coast they attack the bear, and feed on his flesh, as well as on that of the whales which are cast ashore. Fishing on the rivers is considered by them an easy and luxurious occupation. In autumn tlicy are chiefly employed in hunting the white fox, the fur of which afibrds the only medium by which they can obtain foreign luxuries. Sect. VII. Local Geography. ^(!i^. In taking a survey of the local featuret of Siberia, beginning at its western or European cxtrcmitj', wc flmi, Hrat, tlic already dc8crit)ed mining district of Cathcrincnbcrg. It is politically attached, not tu Siberia, but to the government ol' I'orm, on the otncr side of the Urals. The capital, of the same name, situated near the sdiirco of the Iset, cont.iins MK) houses, t)uiU chiefly of wo<:d, but some of stone ; while the tireat iiiaiiu. factories arc uf lirick rtHifcd with thin iron plates. Here the Kussian government has established the colli''': of mines, which picsides over all the founderies, lU in number, maintained by it on Iwth sides u Ine Urals. 4owerl\il |>eople. At the time of the earliest travellers, these tombs were a considerable source of wealtli, and it ivas a regular employ- ment to search them ; but, by the latest accounts, they are now so completely riflcil, as no longer to repay the trouble of examination. There are remains of edifices, but not corresponding to the grandeur of the sepul. chral monuments. One ruin of considerable fame, called Semipalatnol, or the Seven Palaces, appeared to Pallas evidently of Bucharian origin. He was much more struck by the ruins of Ahlaikit, a temple which tradition reports as erected by a Calmuck prince of the name of Abloie. It was filled with upwards of forty images, representing all those huge, deformed, and often monstrous deities which arc the ol)jccts of Shaman adoration. They were half male, half female ; some had ten faces and seven arms ; the features of others were hideous and inflamed. The edifice was sustaining daily injury from the Kussian and Kirghise troo|is ; and of the inscriptions, which were found in great abundance by the earlier travellers, only a few IVagments remained. 48S8. Upon this line the Russians maintain their grand cAnin of fortresses, by which the frontier is iroper. 4 A 3 lOOSt DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pam III. ii rcctly defended fVom the Inroads of the Kirghlim. Omsk, the capital of a provlnre, cnntalnt the hcod.qiiarterL and a Rarrison nf MM) men, with IM) Inhaliitanta. This garrlum Captain Cochrane Ucwribei m nmintaliiol In admirable oriler. Onvcrnmvnt eren supporta a achool for the children of the military, on well at another lor thoiie of the Inhaliitanta. The limitary post la at Scmlpalatnol, where &0UO men were >tati(niea Ihia aa one of the moat romantic apota In the world. From a vaat plain covered with the moat luxuriant herbage, but without a tree or a ahrub, a number of detached, rocky, preclpltoua granite mountaina start up ami >prc»l In varloua directlona, Notwithatanding the richnesa of the paaturc with which this plain la covered, it is a complete deaertj " all thia fair and fertile tract ia alwndoned to wild bcaita, merely to conatltute a neutral territory." 4a, formml a* in Tliri>t>t into a pulpy mass, is tho favourite beverage : all thu Iwbitfi and syHtom of lifu nrv tluMO of Middle Asia. Nertwhinsk is the name given to this south>ea8t corner of tho Kuiiiian empire. The town of that name was once frequented as the main route to Kiachta ; but iiinco tho mcrchantH have preferred to ascend tlie Selinga, Ni-rt!ichinsk derives its iui|>urliuico solely fram iU mines of lead and silver, which are ver;i abundant. Their annual produce Is usually 40,000 lbs. of lead ; from which are extracted USOlbs. of silver. Tho minesi like otiiers, aro worked by exiled convicts, whose situation is peculiarly hopeless, as the Chiiieso never harbour them. Westward from these metal, lifvrous chains stretch thu Yabloitoy mountains, the most rugged, and perhaps the loftiest part of the groat chain which here eriMses Asiiu Thick and continued forests, rocks, steeps, morasses, and snow, coverall their higher pinnacles; these features render them impenetrable, unless to a few daring hunters, who make tlieir way by paths scarcely distinguishable from the track of wild boasts. Thu prevailing form is tliat of a numl>er of pyramids uniting in a broad summit resembling an apple i whence is derived the appellation Yablonoy. 4636. In order to facilitato tho route (o A'iackta up the Selinga, the Russians have built upon that river Oudintk and Solin^insk, small towns, in a barren country, and merely sup- ported by this transit. A'iacMa has Iwen already mentioned as the busiest scene of the commerce of Northern Asia, having been Hxcd upon by the treaty of 1728, as the only point at which commerce can take place between the vast empires of Russia and China. It stands on a naked, somewhat elevated plain, with lofty granite peaks rising round it on every side. It is closely contiguous to tho town of Mikimatcliin, crowded with Chinese merchants, who resort thither for the purposes of this trade, The towns, however, ore distinct ; and each is surrounded by its soparato fortillcatiuu. Forts built on the pinnacle of two opposite moun- tains mark the boundary of tho umpire, being surmounted on the Russian side with a cross, on the Chinese side with a cono or pyromid. In consequence of the influx of strangers, the manners aro said to be more poliiilied iHioaii liounuary of Aiia. A north.eatt route of 6UU milea Icadi to Kircnsk, situated on the LeiiH, whtire It llrnt hoRlnn to Im; a river of Importance, and in a poaition equally con. Ti'nient to traveller* txom Irkoulak «nd IVoiu the Yvniact. The laat traces of rich vegetation are here pro- duced by a fertile aoil, even amid tho aevorlly of the climate. It la alao well altuated for the trade in furs j and its sturgeon U rcckoneil tho l)vat In SIlMirIn, With all theae advantagea It la no more than a village of about 1(1(1 houses, latkut and Olekmlnak, altiiatt'd nn tho Lena, aa It dcacenda Into the frozen regions, are merely ■niall |iosta formed for tho colloetliin of l\ira, aiul Ibr atuRca on the rond to Vakoutsk. 4(ki8, Yakoutsk, in tho heart (if thii froien territory, has still prctcnaiona to the name of a city, since ita lli built wooden houaea contain ahout 7(XKI liihaliltatita. Nothing can be more bleak than its situation and environs. K ten crops of rye aro town nn a rich aoil, but under a complete uncertainty whether they will ever ripen, In a climate where, In the eiul of June, the ground la still deeply frozen, and early In September the Lena is passable nn sledgva. Still, It la rendeiiHl a place of some lm|iortance by the rich Wxn which are either caught In the aurrnundlna region, or brought from the opposite coast of America The merchants make very high iiroflts, both by tlie vnorniuua price at which they sell tobacco, spirits, and other European commodities, ana tho low rate at which they obtain those of the natives in exchange. 4dm On the Lower Lena amt OlfHfk, and within the bordera of the Arctic Circle, the Rusaiana have established Gdansk and fJ/««a*, small |KMla Ibr hunting and tribute. Near the mouths of theae rivera, the Northern Ocean preacnta a number of Islos, of which aome are large. They have been careftilly examined by the hunter Uackof, who discovered, oven at tho diatanro of about SOO milca nrom the ahore, an extenalve coast, to which some have given tho niunu of New Siberia. The Ruaalan government aent afterwarda to examine it more carehilly, but wlthuut lielng able to ascertain Ita extent and tioimdarlea. Some even have imagined them to extend In such a manner *a to iK-come connected with the continent of America ; but this aupposition is now very oompleloly rel\ltvd, The ns|icct of these shores is, as might be expected, dreary and desolate i but they present one Indlealinn that is truly extraordinary, and gives much room tor thought to those who speculate on tho cImngiHi and ilcatlny of the earth. There arc found "umeroua bonea and other remains of the elephant, an animal now »ll(ig(>thvr Ibreign to thla iiart of the gloL or to any which ia nut separatehih4m/ii, of peculiar cltaract(2r, called Kamttchatka, extends into the ocean which waters tho vimturn oxtruinity of Asia. This territory is about 600 miles in length, by 300 in its grutttust brettdtli. Its position on the globe ought to give to the greater part of it a climate like that of Britntn ; but the winds blowing firom the plains of Siberia, and from tho vast |)alar rum by whioli it is surrounded, induce an Arctic climate, and allow scarcely there months of summer. This cold is increased by the chain of moun- tains which traverses nearly ita whulu length, some of whose peaks rise, as already observed, to an extraordinary height, Attuinpts have in vain been made to rear in Kamtschatka the 4 A 4 1094 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHY. P»KT III, MAN OP KAMTi'LllArKA. WOMAN or RAHTtCIIATKA. coariMt kinds of grain peculiar to tho most northern climates. There arc, however, berries of various kinds, some roots, which when dried, supply the place of bread; and n gramineous plant, from which they contrive to extract a spirit. But the main compensation in in tlie profusion of anhnnl life, which Alls alike earth, water, an .iAiB»„ V ^ 'iSl^Klii n^^B^ to w.igt> with considerable fury, they have passed into a peaceable, honest, lazy, drimken, servile race, careless of the future, and addicted to coarse sensuality. They have houses both for winter nnil summer (_/?g. 687.). The former, composed of branrhcs of trees, plastered with clay, are (;g7 half sunk in the ground; aiul in the interior one lamp, fed with train oil, lights, warms, and cooks the victuals of two families. The sum- mer-house has a peculiar structure, its lloor being raised by posts, twelve or thirteen feet from the ground, and leaving beneath an empty space, in which the fish is hung up to dry. In their domestic habits, the most remarkable peculiarity is the use of dogs harnessed to the sledges (^. 6H8.), iuid employed to draw them. These dogs arc of no peculiar size or strength, but resemble our mountain or shepherd dogs. Tliey are fed on the oiTal of fish, and in summer are turned out to find their own food ; their return being certain at the ap- proach of the inclement season. In travelling, the driver yokes them two and two abreast, and from four to ten in one vehicle, according to the weight to be drawn. He then places himself in the sledge, which is in the form of a basket with two ends turned up ; but no ordinary skill is required to prevent both rider and carriage from being over -ned on the rugged ground over wliicli it is frequently dragged. At their high festivals, ti, Kamtschadales give themselves up to an almost frantic mirth, which astonishes those who have viewed the sluggishness of their ordinary deportment. Their favourite dance is one in which all the actions and motions of the bear are represented to the life ; and the violent and uncouth attitudes assumed for this purpose excite in the spectators rapturous admiration. 4642. Although the JTamttchaitales, by connection with Russia, have gained an exemption from war, they have suffered deeply from the introduction of ardent spirits and of various contagious diseases. Their numbers have thus been diminished, and do not at present exceed 4600, of whom little more than half are natives ; the rest Russians and Koriaks. Bolcheretzk and Nischnei-Kamtschask, are small villages, which pass for towns ; but the only place of any real importance is Petropaulowsk, or the harbour of St. Peter and St. I'aul, a thriving little port, by which the merchants of Okhotsk carry on almost all the trade of Kamtschatka. 688 •LIME AKLI ->UU1. Bonic II. JAPAN. I09S MM AnartkiBtlago (tftmaU K.amti, catM the KuHlet, itrctch from the louthcrn point ol KumlMhatka to Jew... line o/ nor V (WO mllet. Twcnty.two arc known, of which nineteen arc .ubjc ' t to HuMla ".ml are uninhabited, from the want of water : other, rival KamOchatka in the abun.lanco oYUmo «>"^»h 'rhj Inhabitant! are iwaceable and we 1 .ILiKMejl ; they live nearly aa the Kamt«ha.lalei, hut ma neater an 1 mor! clvhicd manner i and .ome of the .mithcrn i.land. have iinblbeen'lcncc to long loit by all the other nation, of Siheri a. 1 he* meet the Huulani, however, for imrjiosc. of traffic, at the fair of Oitronaya, wliicli, when vi.lted by Captain Cochrane, wa. the rewrt of about 800 Tchu. tchl of b<)th lexe. and of all age., and SOO rein, """.'■■x. .'^y "" ■ """'i '""Rh, honert, liold, and fearlcM race. Dcar.buught exiwricnce ha» rcmlcrcd them excculvcly Jcalnu. of the Ku.sian trader., and by no mean, to easily cheated a. formerly. They take olf about *),()00 pounds of tobacco, averaging three ruble, a pound, with varlou. little article, of hardware, cutlery, and toy. i In return for which, tliey give nea-horac teeth, various akin, and fur. of aea and land animal., the produce of their own coa.l, of the ncinh. bourlng lalandi, and of the oppcltc cuaat of America. CiiAi-. Mil. 464(>. Japan bean an qfflnity to China, in the nature of its institutions, the charnctiT of its inhabitants, and the physical and moral circumstances which separate it from thi- rest of the world. Asia, in general, fcirms a vast continent of hroad and unbrukcn dimensions; but to tlie east and south-uust, it presents archipelagoes of islands, so large as to constitute entire kingdoms. The three which constitute Japan have, not without plausible grounds, claimed the title of empire. The empire of Japan is in fact so great, so populous, and marked by such striking and peculiar features, that, notwithstanding the complete state of insulation in which it holds itself from other nations, it justly attracts a large share of the curiosity of Europe. Skct. I. General Outline and Aspect. 4647. Japan coasists of three islands, one very large, and two smaller, which, being separated from each other only by narrow channels, form altogethei one long, winding, irregular range of territory. The entire length, in an oblique line, from point to point, scarcely falls short of tOOO miles; while the breadth, in some places not more than forty or lii\y, seldom exceeds 100, and never, unless in its most expanded central point, amoimts to '200. Niphon, by much the largest, is about 800 miles long ; Kiusiu, 150 miles long by 130 broad; Sikokf, 90 long, by RO broad. The other islands are mere detached and local objects. The southern part of the large contiguous island of Jesso, comprehending all of it that is valuable and improvable, is completely colonised and possessed by the Japanese. 4648. The stormy seas which dash around Japan form the most prominent feature in its geographical position. To the east it faces the entire breadth of the Northern Pacific ; which, with the intervention of scarcely a single island, reaches fifty degrees across to the coast of America. The south-western point of the range comes almost in contact with Corea, from which it is separated only by a strait of about eighty miles. Proceeding to the north-east, it recedes continually from Asia, till it leaves an expanse, nearly 700 miles broad, called the Sea of Japan. At the northern extremity this sea is narrowed by the large islands of Jesso and Saghalien, till it is formed into a species of close bay. MAP 07 JAPAN. ]32laii;Uuilv Rail 134 rromOrMnoicb. ISA ISLAND OF NIPHON. NORTH PART. 1. PIrnJaU t. Runnl .1. Manila 4. ScdakT A.()oda 6. Aldu 7. Vunuawa «. Klrotau 9. Aiu in. Nabo II. KadtiwU IS. Wbuu IS. Aim 14. Junudiukuii 15. Kubou ID. Shldajbama 17. Otuuna 18. Mliuka 19. Shanda; (0. Madnuan tl. Oonato n. PMlkanI ts. Maffaml t4.NinU is. kSt it. Kabl«i <7. IrafliM tn.Atcin «9. Sanada SO, AMonma 31. UnnkI S«. Namlniiua S3. Piuu 14. KlIMl M, TttiKa X. Kura 37. Au SH. Ofara 39. Cambara 40. Tonomt 41. Fatal M. ImliUu 43. ir«ul 41. NuMla 4.5. (lumma *6. Fvkl 47. (tUma 4N. Jenjoko 49. »Wda 50. Okanda 51. Toiko M. Amafa S3. Nacab* M. Awa SA. Fccuri Afi. Mima 57. Mookl 58. Tilbba 59. Jeddo £0. Jebaia 61. Canaca 62. JrkomI 63. Arecuia 64. JamanaMira 6A. FannUinlt 66. Mlliui 67. Mebu 68. TkRida 69. NIhu 70.Oana 71. Noml 7(. Naoan R(femcei to 7.1. Oiama 71. Khlyo 7.5. Nolo 76. Jmne 77. Kanaaava. SOUTH PART I. Kllancsio t, Tftikavoa 3. MIrala 4. ramtno A. Onfbu 6. JekUmukori 7- AnKuquiama H. Motto 9. Kakuri 10. UulM 11. Futa 1«. TllUdttU 13. Jana 14. Ttlkumma 15. Via 16. Tube 17. Juriniti 18. Kinafian 19. Totaka 10. Kowan SI. Odowan Si. Bandd 53. Fana 54. Iceli SA. KaknTa 56. MIdik* 57. Famumatt 58. Sotida 59. Okaiukt 30. Twatl 31. Amabe the Map of Japan. 35. Nirra .33. Owarl NaffiO> 31. Iko 3>). Komnno 36. HiKga 37. Oiti . 38. Tokll 39. Tbarunoi 40. Nara 41. Meaeo 45. KakI 43. Kuwadl 44. Totlnl 4.A. Ooha 46. Kumano 47. AncTi 48. Euddt 49. Inaka W. OoAn Sl.Hainanl AS. Jodinmo A3. Kanio A4. Akblk* AA. flmi A6. OoRlma A7. Minima S8. Minima A9. Amu 60. Amaiunichl 6I.M. Km •it,. KeU S7. Jamit. SADO I91& I.SooU 5. Umo 3. Kint. Iiroportion all thu ardc from the ii but, in this acquire tlw is indented most import Book I1> JAPAN. 1097 iktuimm HiiiHit. 404(k The tupeel nf Japan l« bold, traricd, Abrupt, ami itriking (Jt/f. 001.), without any 691 lingle feature that ii very pro> minent. Rugged chain* tra- vene its interior, from several of which volcanic fire is thrown up; and Fusi, the highest and most northerly, is covered with almost perpetual snow. On the whole, however, these inequalities of surface are no more than necessary to sup- ply the moisture requisite in so hot a climate { and an ample proportion of the surt'ucu of Japan consists of rich valleys and extended plains, on which all thu articles of tropical produce grow in the utmost abundance. Streams, pouring down from the interior hoiglits, traverse the plains in endless numbers, and in every direction ; but, in this narrow belt, the receptacle of the sea is every where too near to allow them to acquire tlie character of great rivers. There are no lakes of any magnitude ; but the coast is indented with many deep and broad bays, which penetrate the interior, and afford the most important aid to internal commerce. SiCT. II. Natural Gcographi/t SuaaiCT. 1. Geology. 4650. 7^10 iAmii contain several volcanoes of consiiierable extent, concerning wh!ch some few details have been published by travellers ; but the gcognostical relations of the othei formations of the group arc not known to us. 4G51. The precious metals, gold and tUver, abound in the empire of Japan. The gold is obtained principally from a pyritical ore of copper ; smaller quantiiies are collected from alluvial soils of various descriptions. Rich mines o{ silver are said to occu* in the province of Dungo, and the most northerly parts near Kattami. There are considerable copper minei in different districts. Iron is said to occur but seldom, or it is less extei'.jively mined than copper, as the natives do not make so much use of it as most other nations. They sometimes employ it in the manufacture of arms, knives, scissors, and other necessary im> plements. The gold and copper are coined into money. Cinnabar, the ore of mercury, is also met with in Japan. Sulphur is found in great abundance ; coal occurs in some of the northern provinces ; beautiful kinds of amber were received by Thunberg from the natives; and a reddish brown naphtha is used for burning. Aibestot, porcelain earth, toumudine, $ehorl, and marble are also enumerated among the mineral productions of Japan. SuBsicT. 2. Botany, 4653. Japan*, like China, is under the influence of an Oriental clime : its temperature is much lower than that of Morocco, Madeira, and the peninsula of Spain, which lie under the same parallels. The islands of Kiusiu and Sikokf, and the southern part of Niphon, tenninate, eastward, the Transition Zone. These islands are intersected by mountains, some of them of considerable height. The summers are very hot ; but the thermometer sinks a great deal in winter. From observations made by Thunberg in 1775, at Nangasaki, lat. 32° 45", it appears that the mean annual temperature is but + 16° ; owing to which the Bananas, grown in the vicinity, do not bear fruit. In August the greatest heats take place, when the thermometer rises to + 36° or 37°, sometimes to + 43°. The winter begins in January and closes in February, during which the quicksilver varies between + 21° and — 2°. Occasionally snow whitens the ground, and tlic ' u^rface of the water is covered with ice. The island of Niphon is traversed by the northern limit of the Transition Zone. It is need- less to attempt to determine precisely the line of this zone: the temperature of Niphon is unknown to us ; and as to its vegetation, our only information is derived from Thunberg, who travelled in 1776 from Nangasaki to Jeddo, under the surveillance of an escort which did not permit him to deviate from the road. At Osaka (lat. 34° 5'} there is a botanic garden, containing many of the productions of the empire ; and where Dracasna revoluta, Laurus Camphora, and other species which require a mild temperature, grow in the open air. The Tea plant, which, wiUi the Camellia and Lycium barbarum, forms all the hedges in Kiusiu, grows also on the slopes of the mountains between Meaco and Jeddo ; but the Tea appears to be of the number of those plants which a considerable degree of heat in summer protects against the effect of winter. It is probable that the mean temperature of Jeddo is much lower than that of Osaka and Nangasaki. • From Mimoirei di Mua. d'Hiit Nat vol xiv. p. M2. 1098 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY Part III. 1 4653. The trees on the mountains of Niphon consist generally of nortliern species ; such as the Lime Tree, the Scotch Fir, the Pinus Cembra and P. Strobus, the Spruce and Larch. To the north of Niphon, in the island of Jesso, at Matsmai, lat. 4*2° (only 7' north of Rome) , the winter is long and severe ; the thermometer falls to — 1 8" or — 19°; and a thick bed of snow covers the ground from November to April. 4o54. Thnnberp, has made us acquainted with 755 Japanese flowering plants ; most of them collected in the environs of Nangasaki and some aiyacent inlands. This specimen of the vegetable productions of the country suffices to give an idea of its general cimractcr. It may be called an Insular Flora ; and of Japan, as of many other islinds, it appears pro- bable that the vegetable population was originally very small, and has ^tradually increased by colonisation. 4655. Among these T55 flowering plants, we may observe 240 of the old i ontincnt ; some from India, as Sa!!yed ample revenues to maintain Ids dignity, witii an absolute control over all spiritual vuncerns, leaving the solid and temporal power to the cubo, who has ever since maintained it without interruption on the part of the duiri, and, by a -uurse ut' severe and determined measures, has held all the fonnerly independent princes in a state of complete vassalage. 4(i(i2. The inlercourie qf Europeans wUh Japan is to us the most interesting part of its history, though II liiu M^iirccly all'ectn) the destinies of tlie cnipire itself. 'I'he I'ortiiKUOse, who were the (Irst explorers of thit .IS well as of every other part of the Asiatie coiist, etual Jealousy of a dFamtli- government was kindled by the introduction of new doctrines, habits, and ideas, fVoni a furvign imllnii, win,' might employ this change as a prelude to conquest. Some rash steps taken by the missinnaricH, and, pri>linl>ly the report of Portuguese proceedings in other parts of Asia, raised this hostile di8|)Osition to the utniiwt nltcli' A general persecution was commenced against all, both native and foreign, who held the new I'uith j utnl lt was carried on with an unrelenting severity characteristic of the nation. The scries of studied torture I'ln. ployed was not, perhaps, surjmsscd by that which the Itoinan emperors Inflicted on the early convvrts. \%l J^Mnese Christians suffered long, with a constancy peculiar to themselves j but at length, liiiving t(i do with g government which knew not pity, they were either extcrminatiKl or overawed. The PortUKUcse, iit ilio mimo time, were put to death or exjieilcd. That nation, in IH40, made a last attempt, by sending nil cinbaiiiy ol seventy-nine Individuals, to open a new commercial intercourse. But these, by orders ftom the Jiipiiiiiic court, were all put to death, with the exception of thirteen, whom the magistrates sent back with the loliuwiiiii mandate: — "Vou are to inform your fellow citizens, t'lat henceforth the citizens of Japan will nut lerplvo cither monejr, merchandise, or presents from them ; you sec that we have burnt the very clothes of your (lend countrymen. Let your people use in the same manner any of ours who may fall into their hands ; we inoko them welcome, and desire they will think no more of the Japanese than if there were not such n natimi in the world." And on a chest containing the dead bodies was written : — " Henccfonvard, so long as the aun •hall shine upon the earth, let nut any Christian be so daring as to set his foot in Japan." tans. The Dutch were too fully possessed with the spirit of commercial enterprise to be checked by tliwc deadly warnings. Assuming the most submissive deportment, and, as has been alleged, denying the laltli im account of which their predecessors had been expelled, they succeeded in establishing a factory at I'lrnnilo This being soon considered too wide a field, they were removed to the smaller spot of Nangasaki, where llivv have ever since been allowed to remain under restrictions progressively severe. They have at leiinth liccn circumscribed as In a prison : allowed, indeed, to carry on a certain portion of trade, but without ever ra>tiiiii the allotted boundaries. All attempts made by other European states have completely failed. The moat wr severing have been those of Russia^ which, after the possession of Kamtschatka and the Kuriles, beennie thg immediate neighbour of Japan. Russia was exceedingly desirous of opening this interruurse, and even established a school at Irkoutsk, for the education of Japanese youth. In 18U4, Captain Kninoiitlcrn unlleil to Nangasaki on an official mission. Although a Dutch vessel was just sailing for Batavia, the two iiatlinii were not allowed to speak to, or even look at, each other. The Russians were well supplied with provlslniiii ami repairs, but were allowed to land only after a long interval, and then u|)on a narrow neck of grouiul where they were watched as closely as they would have been in the Seven Towers at Constantinople {fig. i;>i7.)' Aller being detained for inanymonths,aiul their idlint ations for permission to proceed to court evailiil under various pretexts, a deputation isino down from the capital, announcing the Irrh vocable decision, tnat no Russian vessel could be allowed to enter Japan. Some yenni alter wards, a Jaiianese vessel having lM.eii laveii from shipwreck on the coast of Aniutie Ituitln hopes were entertained that this clrramsinme mij?ht open the way to friendly eommunicnlicm With this view. Captain Golowniii wiu sent tu Matsmai, the Japanese capital of Je««o. If ho was invited on shore, however, it was imly to Iv thrown into close and rigorousduraiiee, In whuh he was detained for many months. Onlern wiTe then sent to lilieratc him ; but, an niliilit lie ex pected from such a prelude, they were imac' tompanicd with the slightest coneejiliin in favour of Russian commerce or iiitereiinne Golownin learned, during his conflneinenl.llui the utmost jealousy was felt at the court of Jeddo respecting the progress, lioth of Russia by Iniiil tliruiijli northern Asia, and of the English by sea along the southern coast Imiircssed with nn cxtravagniit estlmiae of their own importance, the Japahese imagined that the ultimate object of both these inovcnicnU wai lo leach and finally conquer their empire. Sect. IV. Political Geography. 4664. The division of poxeer between the ecclesiastical and the military potentate is tlie most remarkable peculiarity in tl?e government of Japan : the one holds the highest rank, iiiiil tlie first place in the veneration of the whole nation ; the other absorbs nil tlio solid reiilifies (if power. In this relative position they have remained for several centuries, wishing, liiit ikh venturing, the one to recover the lost reins of sovereignty, the other to dispel the iilmiitom which holds dominion over the minds of the people. 4665. The dairi, who resides at Mcaco, appropriates the whole revenue of tlint ciiy niiil its rich adjoining territory. In order, also, that he may maintain the full pomp of n s(ivi> reign, a liberal allowance is held e to him out of the general revenue. This, lumevcr, is all in the hands of the cubo, v i often finds it inconvenient to make the piiyineiil, iiiiil has recourse to apologies which, whether satisfactory or not, the other has no iiieiins of dis- allowing. Thus, a proud poverty reigns in this saertd court, which is greatly incriMsed hy the circumstance, that all the members of the blood royal, sjirung from the early divine rulers of Japan, now amounting to many thousands, must be so maintained ns not to liriii({ contempt upon the race. A considerable number find employinent in religions functions, and in the numerous monasteries ; but others »re reduced to great straits, and tlie (lesteniianls of the celestial spirits are obliged to supjiort tluir outward dignity by privily nmmifiicluriiiK straw hats, horseshoes, and other humble handicraft productions. Kvery nerve, however, is strained that all around the dairi himself may present the most imposing iispeit of magnificrMice. Fantastic attributes are ascribed to him, which may appear to raise liiiii alime every tincture of mortal iniperftction. His foot is never lo bo profaned by tomliiiib' llit amhauadoh'i iiouib at hanoaiaki. Book II. JAPAN. 1101 ground, and he is never to be moved from one place to another, unlen upon men's shoulders. It is considered unlawful for him to cut off his hair, nails, or any thing which can be held lu forming part of his person ; but the extreme inconvenience of this rule has led to the somewhat poor evasion of taking them from him during sleep. On his death the next heir succeeds, whether male or female, at whatever age. Yet the strictness of this here- ditary principle did not prevent disputed succession, while the sovereign power centred in the dairi ; but, in his present humbled state, the courtiers are studious to adjust all dis- cussions in a quiet manner, in order to prevent any external interference. 4C66. The cubo, or temporal sovereign of Japan, rules with an authority which admits, in principle, of no limitation. In fact, however, it stands on a very different footing from that of the despotic monarchies of Asia. The provinces are ruled, not by satraps appointed and removable at pleasure, but by princes, once warlike and independent, and only reduced, after hard struggle, to bend to the will of a conqueror. They thus form a sort of feudal aristo- cracy, residing in large and strongly fortified castles ; but have no right to meet in council, nor any legal control over the actions of the monarch. They retain, however, lofty senti- ments of independence, to guard against which, the most rigorous precautions are taken. They are obliged to leave the greater part of their family at court as hostages, and them- selves to reside there for a great part of the year. When discovered or believed to be en- Baited in any measure hostile to the government, death is the immediate and irrevocable sentence j and the only mitigation granted is that of being allowed to procure it by their own hands. ifi67 The laws of Japan, in general, may be said, even morecmphaticaliy than thoseof Draco, to b-* written In blixid 'rhey seem to stri'frgle against a spirit in the nation hostile to the despotic principle, and which is made to bend to it only by the most powerful impulse of terror. Cutting in pieces, piercing the belly with a knife Immersion in boiling oil, arc common modes of punishing the guilty. The parent suflbrs for the crime of the child, and the child for that of the parent. A remnant of republican constitution is preserved in the ilivision of cities into wards, to which the maintenance of the police is intrusted, but under the penalty that encli ward must be retjwnsible for the crime committed by any of its members. Of these violent measures, however, the result really is, that the security of person and property is very complete, and that capital punish- ments .ire even rendered more rare than in most other nations. Around Nangasaki "n\y, examples of this unrelenting severity continue more frequent, in order to extirpate every remnant of Christianity, and also to nunish the instances of contraband traffic which private interest prompts, in the face of the most rigorous prohibitions, Skct. V. Productive Industry. 46G8. The Japanese rank with tlie richest and most industrious nations of Asia, though they confine themselves so entirely to their internal resources. In particular, their fertile toil and even those parts of it to which nature has been least bountiful, are improved with the most exemplary diligence. Thunberg, in travelling '! rti-r.-rh tracts the site of which was most favourable for the production of rare and curious plants, flattered himself witli ample means of indulging his taste for botany; but his hopi. . v.fre completely baffled by tlie laudable exertions of the Japanese farmers, who, olxssing ,'>f suth productions in the rank of weeds, had waged a successful war of exteni.'r.aiJon k\7.i2.'-i* tbo'ii. The basis of llieir culture is Chinese; and they resemble that people in '.'I'e . itreme care with which manure is collected. The husbandmen, must, indeed, br. haidly treated, if, according to Krempfer's statement, they are obliged to pay to the landlc d six parts out of ten. Rice is the pride of Japanese agriculture, and the main stall of life. That ., .iM- is raised on the best soil is said to be finer, whiter, and more easil , irresorved. than any other in Asia. Next ill utility ranks the daid-su, a species of large bet.n, w'lich, t)eing mtide into a pulp, serves like butter as a condiment to season many oi their dashes. Wheat and barley are also standard grains, though not to an equal extent. Turnips are the culinary product which serves most for the support of the people. Of trees, the mulberry is considered the most valuable, and affords the material of the staple manufacture, though none of it is equal in quality to the finest produced in China. Tea, being in as universal demand as in that country, is cultivated all over Japan, but with care that it do not encroach on nny more essential product ; for which reason it is planted only in hedges, or in spots unfit for the spade or plough. One of the most valuable trees is the arusi, from which iliitils the precious varnish employed by the Japanese in the rich lackered w^re pecua hnr to tlie country. The fig and chestnut are their principal fruits. Fir and cypress furnish ?he timber chiefly employed for ships ; but the bamboo, for the beauty of its groHth. and the various forms into which it can be manufactured, is the wood incst prized hy the Japanese. wax Quadrupeds, both wild and tame, arc the property with which this empire least abounds. The wild animals, in a country where every spot of ground must be turned to account, are studiously extirpated ; and rrmm 1« found for the tame only in so far as they may be necessary instruments in cultivating tlic ground. Evc'i tliis is performed much more than in Euro|>c by mere manual labour. Oxen, and a largespetics of butllilo, witii a huncli on the back, are chiefly used for carriage and ploughing. Horses, usually of a small size and not very numerous, serve for 8tatc and travelling. There are neither asses, mules, camels, nor elephants. Only a few hogs have lM!cn brought over from China; ami the very few sheep and goats introduceil by the I'lirtuguese at Kirando have never niultipliely ; though some of the rumours respecting its abundance appear to be fabuloui The mines having, ol lute, shown some marks of exhaustion, it has become the policy of the emiierors to economise them, and to prevent the export of gold. Silver is considered to be rather scarcer. But coniier ii the metal which Ja|iaii produces must plentifully, and of a quality finer, more malleable, r.nd titter for use than any other in the worM. A considerable quantity of gold is often combined with it Though iron ore abounds in one part of the empire, it is not generally dlHUsed, and is, on the whole, both scarcer and dearer than copper. This last named metal, therefore, is usually employed in household vessels, the fittiiiK uii of ships, and other works elsewhere made of iron. Pearls and amber are found in considerable quantities on the shores. Submarine plants, corals, corallines, mushrooms, sea fans, occur in singular beauty and variety but are little v-iIuihI by the natives. '' •jfiTU. The maHiifacturing industry of the Japanese, though not so remarkable as that which they display in agricultural pursuits, is still considerable. It is exertctl on the same branches, and after the same mulcli as with the Chinese, — silk, cotton, porcelain ; but none of them is carried to equal perfection. There is one process, however, that of covering their vessels with a rich dark varnish, and raising nbov^ it artificial flowers and ornaments, which derives its name flrom Japan, and in which that nation excels a>> oihers. They arc well acquainted with the art of working metals, and particularly the fabrication of arms ; and also w...i themakiiur of glass. " •JtfiS. Perhaps no tuition so large and to rich is so great a stranger to foreign trade. The Chinese, though so much limited as to intercourse with strangers, have yet huge junks, which sail through all the Oriental islands ; but nowhere is a Japanese flag ever seen. Their vessels, little better than boats, and of aclurair construction, are unable, notwithstanding the use of the compass, to do more than creep along their own coast. The Chinese alone are allowed to visit the more considerable ports of the tmpire, and to exchange raw silk and some of the finer manul'aiturcs, for metals and lackered ware. The Dutch nave only a corner of the |)ort of Knngasalii, where, enclosed in a sort of prison, and subject to every humiliation, they are allowed to dispose of two annual cargoes. They imjiort various articles of colonial produce, spices, and hardware in return, chiefly, for the unrivalled copper which this country |iroduces, with some lackered ware and otiier trifling articles. As they make, however, a profit of 20,(XX)<. a year, they continue, notwithstanding some menaces, to brave all the mortifications, and even dan^'ers, which attend this tratlic Commerce, thus conliiied almost entirely to the interior of the empire, is very active within that sphere. All the shores and baysapwar crowded with barks, conveying from place to |place the various products of the provinces. The roailsare excellent, and thronged in an amazing degree j they are kept clean by the mere anxiety of the people to collect the mud as manure. The broad and rapid torrents in the mountainous districts arc crossed by hanUiomc bridges of cedar, well fenced, and always kept in the must perfect repair. Sect. VI. Civil and Social State. 4674. 7/ie /»)/7u/a/ton o/* Ja/;a» cannot be estimated on any precise data. Its superficial extent has been rated at about a tenth of that of China, and, according to all appearance, the population must be nearly as dense. If China, then, contain 200,000,CXX), Japan will liave 520,000,000. 4675. The Japanese seem, in personal appearance, to be a somewhat altered and improved variety of the Mongols and Chinese. Their eyes are even in a greater degree small, pointed, oblong, sunk in the head, with a deep furrow made by the eyelids ; they have almost the appearance of being pink-eyed. Their heads are in general large, and their necks short; their hair is black, thick, and shining from the use of oil. They are, how- ever, robust, well made, active, and easy in their niotioh',. Their complexion, yellow and passing into brown, appears to be entirely produced by the climate; since ladies who are constantly protected from the heat of the sun are as white as in Europe. 4676. The national characier is strikingly marked, and strongly contra.sted with that which general!; prevails throughout Asia. The .Japanese dilfer most especially from the Chinese, their nearest neighbours, notwithstanding the resemblance in form and liiieamenls, Instead of that tame, quiet, orderly, servile disposition, which makes them the prepared and ready subjects of despotism, the Japanese have a character marked by energy, independc'icc, and a lofty sense of lionour. Although they are said to make good subjects, even to Ihe severe government under which they live, they yet retain an impatience of control, and force of public opinion, which renders it impossible for any ruler wantonly to tyrannise over them. Instead of that mean, artful, and truckling disposition so general among Asiatics, their manners are distinguished by a manly frankness, and all their proceniin;^ by honour and good faith. They are habitually kind and good-humoured, wl mi nutldiig occurs to rouse their hostile passions, and they carry the ties of frieudshi| even to ,i romantic height. To serve and defend a friend in every peril, and to meet '. jrturu and death rather than betray him, is considered as a duty from which nothing can dis|>ensc. Good sense is considered, by Thunberg, as a prominent feature ; and it appears purticuiariy in their dress, which they seek only to render substantial and suitable, despisin;; those glittering ornaments which arc so eagerly sought over all Asiu. The greateiit dvlcct seems to be pride, which runs through all classes, rises to the highest pitch nniuii^ the grni, and leads them to display an extravagant pomp in their retinue and establisliniciit, and lo despise every thing in the nature of industry and mercantile employment. It lias the still worse ell'ect of giving rise, on any injury, real or supposed, to the deepest and nuist iinp;ai.'ulili! resentment. This passion, which decorum and the rigour of the laws prevents from breaking into open violence, is brooded over in silence, till the opportunity of vengeance arrJMs. Forced often to bend beneath a stern and powerful government, they are inipelku i» Ooox II, suicide, tho Europe, io« condemned their own ha ■1677. m There are tw dniri; the o| Am. Thp ] accessurivH tvl beads, drums, pure and ortl to buljevu 111 I class of pure , and cultivate {. however, beino became the uli tenets were fiti Deified kJngM woods, form till invented alvo a of a Hucdeii of 'Iriipwl, and the religion of Kiu j besides thrpp ^i sonieulmt (|/«or( that can propefj with the greatest poral and mijriii assurance of the «ciii))!e of the y,. sumo name. T|| wursliijipurs, on ( their own wny^ , ground, cull nut t draw notice mid i Amida, the Judg souls ; of DrlNo, to gain ui'ce|)tance mcMIS, w |,y ,||y ., ue|)artnienl»i, tluy increase to tin, ^.,, consider i!R.,nN,,iv,, devni, •„^,„„^,|^,^ prouunent a daws , be had seen tliero, to iWir sex, rt-l.lHi of a II tl,e«. pi)„,i,„ 0' tlie einpifu, |( I' is a mere |„w . Jookuig-g),,,, „(• ,,„, assigned. |„ ,j,^, ^, "^ small th,,t n ,„„„ "r priest, ii„,|„r „„„ "' prostrations, niu) sui'pused tthiiiiy, Ih, ;"»■ 'ill-'d with lit,), I'll', pardon of Ninn, "'"'•'' l'"iod, „„ ,„ Kvni those who are '"'•''"invalimhl,,, !^'Si"los. They'an ,,"'','• »'""meni», |„„ "Lit he UHs in „ l(„„ 13 Book !!• JAPAN. UOS guIcldO) the reAige of (kikn and vanquislivd pride. Self-murder here, like duelling in Europe, Mem* to he the point of honour among the great ; and the nobles, even when condemnud to death by tha Rovereign, reserve the privilege of executing the sentence v^ith their own ImiuU. 4677. Thi» peofih rf/^w alio from the Chinese in being of a deeply religious character. Tlioro are two relMonx In Japan t one native, called tlie Sintos, at the head of which is the dftiri i the otlieft the lltiudh, culled here Budso, the same which prevails over all 'astern Asia. The Hutlio giihiit tiscundency by mingling with the original system those attractive accessories whk'li It |itwit>-::,cs In common with the Catholic, — monasteries, processions, btwls. drums, noUy iiuinlc, and the belief of purgatory ; which, though condemned by the pure and ortliodox SlnloUtu, has a general influence over the pi.ople. The Sintos profess to believe In H supreme ruler of the universe, and among their number is distinguished a class of pure ttud phllonophlu worshippers, who entertain lofty conceptions of the Deity, and cultivate the prBl'tlto of virtue as the chief means of gaining his favour. Their belief, however, being thought to resemble the Christian, fell into some discredit, when the latter becauio the oltjeet of mifh deadly persecution. The mass of the nation, for whom such tenets were far too reflaed, have always been addicted to gross and varied superstition. Dtifiod kings nnd heroen, ruleri of the respective elements, local genii, who preside over woods, form the Utiual and natural elements. Amid the paucity of real animals, they have invented also » niiinher of i\utciful and mythological creatures, who are the objects to them of a species of wortthlp. The dragon, olso a Chinese monster ; the kirin, a winged qua- (Irupi'd, and the Jk>t ft llOttUtlfu! bird of paradise, ore all accounted peculiarly sacred. The religion of the JiipniieNe de«U much in festivals, of which they have five great annual ones, bt'siilfs three suiiiller, eelebrated every month, rather with visiting, eating, drinking, and somewhat disorilerly mlrlh, like the bacchanals of the ancients, than with any observance that tan properly be called religious. But pilgrimage is the custom to which they adiiere witli tiic greatest xettl, ttiul IVom which they promise themselves the greatest benefit, tem- poral and spiritual. No one can be accounted at all eminent in sanctity, or have any assurance of the forglvencNs of his sins, who has not been once a year at Isje, the grand temple of the Ti'Hm IM Nir, or first of the celestial spirits, situated in a province of the samo name. The roiuls in summer are completely cliokod with the crowds of devout w'jishippers, on their way to the sacred shrine. As many have not the means of paying their own way, a large proportion betake tliemselvc to begging, and, prostrate on tiie ground, call out to the llcll passengers, " A farthing to can> me to Isje!" In order to draw notice and fitvoiir, they exhibit images of a many-headed idol, called Quanwan ; of Amida, the judge of th'partud souls; of Temr.cco, keeper pf the prison of condemned souls ; of Driso, M.ipi'ente eoniniander of purgatory ; and of other deities. Others seek to gain ufceptani'e by piiiying, singing, playing on fiddles, guitars, and otlier musiial instru- ments, or by the peri'ortuaiu'e of juggling tiicks. On meeting with success in any of these departments, they iineii betake themselves wholly to (lie pursuit, and make a permanent increase to llie eruwtit of beggars with which the country is infested. Such a step they consider theniselve l\tlly privileged to take, af'^r they have shaved their heads, and devoti i ^iieinselv»' to a particular religious order. Among these shaved beggars are prominent a class of liikfrnii or nuns, who appeared to Ka-mpfer the luuidsomest females he had seeit there, Many of them lied exchanged for it an employment the least honourable to their hex, which lliey were mispecled not to have wholly relinquisiied. Isje, the olyect of all these pilgriuingex, prenents nothing that corresponds to its fame, or the magnificence of the empire. It 1m lallier held forth as a monument of antique poverty and simplicity. It is a mere low wooden hut, with a Hat thatched roof, and the interior contains only a looking-glass of cai*t metal, and some cut paper, to both of which a mythological import is assigned. In the kiirroumling plain are about 100 chapels, equally of poor materials, and so small that a man CHintol dtand upright in them. To each of these is attached a ca)nisi, or priest, \nuler one of whom the newly arrived pilgrim places himself. After a due round of prostrations, Huppllciitlotii, and, above all, of gifts, to the utmost amoimt of his real or supposed ability, he U prewuled with ;m o/Ii/rai, or indulgence, consisting of a small oblong hex, tilled with little pleci"< of wood \^rllpped in white paper, which is supposed to ensure the pardon of sinH, nnti exemption from temporal evil for a year to come ; at the end of which period, no nenlotlii Sililoist is sati-iHed uidess he can undertake another pilgrimage. Even those who are not ho fortunate carefully preserve their iifunai, and consider it through life as a valuable j""iiiieiare, unless on their journeys, when they cover it with an enormous cap, made of •ilaitcti grass or oiled paper. {Jiv, (iys.) 46S1. In tnivelling, the .mpanesc spend mure time than perhaps any other nation. The tokaiii, or main road, is desrribcd by Kacmpfer to lio usually as crowded as tlic streets of the ino^t populous city in Euroiie Thi-i is owing to tlioir numerous pilgrimages' to the exoiit of their inland trade: and, «io«t JAPANK''li Cl.SrrMF. ... ..... ..« ,.,, „... ..t: and, most at all, to the immense retinues which attend tlie princes in their annual journeys tn and from the court of tlie culm. The retinue u( one of the very first rank is computed to amount to 20,IXK), and covers the roads for se. vr.il niilt's. First ainiears a crowd of outrider?, cooks, clerks, and other inferior functionaries. Behind is the heavy baggage, which is followed by a number of secondary nobles, also attended with numerous rc'.iniies. 'I'lie prince then appears, surrounded by a varied and splendid train, comimscd of led horses, servants richly dressed bearing lackered chests, pikes ornaineiite broad, and is brilliantly adorned by pillirs of ciHlar, painted papers, and gilded dragons on the roof. The city is subject to dreadful (ires, one of which, in 170;!, consuincil 100,(KK> houses. It is the SKit of varied branchc ■'' industry and carries on also a great iiiteni.il trade. 4<)84. ■.'•.<•« is ■ ; .' considerable distance from Jeddo, near the southern extremity of Niphon, , it a liil.'c distane- -he ii;l.. vjr. This spiritual capital of Japan is .still t' e chief seat ot polished manners, rclineilarli, and im- i: \ tual culture. The finest 'ilk stutl's (Inwercd with gcdil ami silver, the richest varnishes, llie l;csl painted p:i|icrs, and the nmst skilful w tk.s in K'dd, silver, ami copper, are here manufactured. It is likcivijo thecectic T literature iO"l science. .. i oioM I'f the works which are iciblished and read i.^ Japan issuclrum itspretsci. Although there is no longer the means of KU|ipovtiiig the same display of pomp and wealth as at .feddo, jet there is a grander dis|>lav of architectural onianiciit. The palace, or enclosed city, of thesovc. reign is on a similar pla i ; but the religious structures, though built only of cedar, are some of them truly siilendid, richiy gildol, and placcxi in the most i)icturesi|ue and commanding situations. Kauiipfer calculairt that there s'e, in and around Mcaco, not Ics.s than .'Sil.') temples, served by r>~,wa .w/rtAw, or priests. Of Ihcif, hiiwcver, Ihi greater pari \rc d, tliougn ; no ipecU imart kick the walU natives sit 1 Kuroprau ' is spread ; r clean and It, uolwitli. ly the most c ; not only nd are kept occasionally qualty plain, irying in the igrec of iine- which they e their head, I, and usually urncys, when cap, made of (iy».) [lanese spci.d other nation. deairihcd hy owded as the ity in Europe. IS pilgrimages j jdc ; and, most 18 wnich attend ourncys to and Tlic retinue uf s coniputc. (ciine ol tl'C™ ""'■' .Kn'mi'f" "l"'l"W l)r priests. Ofttef, glass and fiime cm the ccclesiaitiCTi a.port, intcrsKteil. ■' the preat island of ■olownin, to cimta"' i with at'v F.uropfsn till' town, oontaimnn |ndorl)ezima,f<1* ■tv riimnuTce in>' IrL-e blonhousfs,* ,trahandtrama.l«;^ And the hands w-™ lards struck, l'''""'"' should contain any lecrct cavity. Long wIrM or pikes are thrust through the cheeses, butter tulis. and jars of sweetmeats. Desima is to the Dutch a complete prison, the gates of which are locked every night, and a guard set over theni Buriecl in this dungeon, they remain ignorant of all that is passing in the world, and gradually lose all curiosity on the uuliject Even the faculty of the will becomes extinct, for want of exercise : 10 entirely are they under the control of the Jmanese. Yet it is confidently asserted that these aecumulate<5 precautions are insufflcient to guard against the powerful impulse of self-interest, and that contraband trade IS carried on to a considerable extent. 4688. The little that is known respecting t\ie peninsula nf Corea n.ay, with propriety, be appended to the account of the Japanese islands. From them it is separated by the Straits of Corea, and by the Yellow Sea from China. The country, 4C0 miles long by 150 broad, is traversed from north to south by a chain of mountains ; and, though some parts are sterile and rugged, it contains a considerable extent of fertile and well-cultivated plains. A great part of what was once supposed to be main land was found by the expedition of Captains Hall and Maxwell to consist of an almost innumerable archipelago of small islands, extending along the western coast. Corea is ruled by a sovereign who pays homage and a small tribute to China, but in his gen-ral sway is entirely independent. The people are very little known, but appear to be tall, handsome, and brave. The British expedition, as it sailed along, was treated with the utmost courtesy ; but the same jealous anxiety to debar strangers from any access into the interior was conspicuous, as in China and Japan. The arts and letters of China have been to a great extent imported, and Corea has the same written language, though its spoken one is entirely diflerent. Men of letters undergo similar examinations, and hold the same conspicuous place as in that country. Quelpaert, 0(1' the southern coast, is distinguished by its lofty mountain, beautifully covered with cultivation. The capital is Kingkitao, an inland town, situated nearly in the centre of the country. Chap. XIV. F.AST INDIAN AKCHIfELAOO. 4689. The East Indian Archipelago is the name usually given to a range of fine and large islands, lying east of Hindostan, and south of the Indo-Chinese countries and of China. Although they have few political ties with each other, and each island is even subdivided into separate states, the aspect of nature, the sta' e of civilisation, the peculiar character of the people, present such a similarity, that they may be advantageously treated under one head. Sect. I. General Outline and Aspect. 4690. The principal islands of this range are Sumatra, Java, IJorneo, the Molucca or Spico islands, and the Philippines ; and it includes, also, several smaller islands and groupcs. The archipelago, in general, has, on the east the Pacific, on the west tlie Indian Ocean ; and seas and straits, connected with these, separate it on tht- nortli from the Indo- Chinese countries and China, on the south from the great islands of New Holland and New Guinea. Situa'ed almost directly beneath the equator, it extends from east to west somewhat more than thirty degrees, or 2100 miles. 4691. Mountains, in lofty ranges, and bearing often a volcanic character, traverse the interior of all the groat islands. Mount Ophir, in Sumatra, according to the measure- ments of Captain Nairne, rises to the height of 13,842 feet. The peaks of this tropical region, however, seldom exhibit that dreary and desolate aspect usual at so great an elevation. On the contrary, they ore crowned almost to their pinnacles with lofty forests, luxii>iant shrubs, and aromatic plant;i, presenting the most varied and picturesque scenery. 4692. Rivers cannot attain any great magnitut'.p, in a region thus broken into islands, each of which has a high chain of mountains extending through its lengtli, which leaves only a plain of moderate breadth between it and the sea. The stream', are numerous, and highly beneficial for irrigation. They are perennial, produced by rain which, in countries so near the equator, fall constantly throughout the year ; while those oi' Hindostan are dry during six months. Many of them form at their mouth commodious harbours, and minister to the purposes of trade ; but, from the causes above stated, can be only of limited and local importance. Lakes, from the same structure, are comparatively few ; though some, imperfectly known, exist in the interior of the mountain regions, particularly of Sumatra and Luconia. 4 B 2 llCti MAP OF THE EAST INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO. ^ig- 699. Book II. U >V% \ ^ ': EAST INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO. Srct. II. Natwni Qtographff. 1107 SuamoT. 1. Otology* 46!)3. The geolofnf of tho Indian Arcliipcloffo is so very imperfectly known, that we cannot lay before our rvatlvrt more timn the following notices. 4694. Sumatra. Four volcnnuet, one of tlium called Ounong Dempo, riaing about 12,000 feet above tho level of the ten, ore dcicribcd as existing in this island. Granite and other primitive rocks are enumerated ns producto of Sumatra ; and trap, limestone, and clays, probably of tertiary funnation, form the lower parts of the country. 4695. Java. Several ranges of volcanic mountains and hills, some of them 1 2,000 feet high, exixt in this island. Extending fVoni tliese arc considerable tracts of low and flat country composed of limestone, clay, marl, and salt, which rnay be of tertiary formation. In these tertiary districts there occur taltes resembling those at the foot of the Apennines, and also numerous salt springs. 4696. Sanca. The prlncinal mountains in this island are composed of granite, with its generally associated gneiss and mien slate. These arc said to bn immediately bounded by a formation of red ironstones but CrtkwlVird, who makes this statement, gives no description of tlie formation. The low tracts ore deeply cover t noes are mentioned as occurring in (lifll>a>nt quarters. The island is celebrated for its gold and diamonds. 469^. Philippine Islanils. These islands are represented as very mountainous, and abounding in volcanoes and sulphur. 4699. Molucca Islamts, The largest island of the group, Celebes, is said to be very rugged and mountainous. It vuntuins several volcanoes in a state of activity ; and primitive rocks, of various descriptions, more or less richly impregnated witli gold, and diversified with cavities lined with rock crystals, occur in many quarters. The volcanic tracts afford immense quantities of sulphur. The smullcr islands of this group are principally of volcanic formation. 4700. The Indian jlrchipelaso, as Crnwfurd remarks, so remarkable for the rich variety of its vegetable and animal iirouuctiuns, is hurdly less distinguished for its mineral wealth. The mineral products which particularly deserve notice, in a commercial point of view, are the following : —tin, gold, copper, iron, salt, sulphur, and the diamond. I. Tin. Here, as in Europe, the only ore of this metal is the oxide of tin, or tinslone- In geographical distribution, tin is confined to the island of Banca, the Malayan peninsula, and the islets on its coasts, with Junkccylon, It exists either in greater abund- ance, or is obtained with least labour and dilllciilty, in the island of Banca, which affords at present by far the greater (juantity of the tilt of commerce of the Archipelago. In Banca, the principal mountains are of granite ; while those of inferior elevation, according to Craw- furd, arc of red ironstone. In the low tracts between these the tin ore is found, and hitherto always in alluvial deposits, seldom farther than twenty-five feet from the surface. Tlic strata in which it is found are always horizontal. The tin of Banca and the other Indian islands finds its way into almost every part of the world ; but China and the conti- nent of India are its principal markets. '■i. Gold. Next to tin, gold is the most valuable of the mineral products of the Archipelago. It is universally distributed throughout the Archipelago, but abounds most in those countries which are composed of primitive and transition rocks. It is most abundant in those islands which form the western and northern barriers of the Archipelago, and exists but in small quantities, rarely worth mining, in the great volcanic range extend- ing from Java to Timor-laut. liorneu affords by far the largest quantity. Next to it is Sumatra, and, in succession, the jHtninsntaf Celebes, and Lu^on. In the great island of Si 1 ■ "U '^1 LUCON. - ' H I.Masi ' V. l(u4Utc ^^1 .1. l-u.-laii 1. .Misiunis 4. Mintlaiido. lifffrencfs to Ike Map i\flhe Kmt Indian Archipelago. HORN BO. S. Ilcxil 3. rhwilwn 1 MtirntM 4. I'nli» A, SnniArnnR 5i IMiintrndock ft. WWn A. Hurntmjra. ^ Miiiii))itvti B. 'rmmrto \ I'tintlrtiia 7. MnnM SUMATRA !i Tmslr Town. H. MrtiMWWT 1. Achivti C U. Il.»ln Ciiiiili*. U. StKMIM) 5. IMl I'RI.KIIKS. .lAVA. 4. .\Knl)Aii I Kvutiir 1i nnnlttnl t>. HAi-oit)(ima 6> Tftpiiauouljr s Ihnnang Tellu «. IHtUVlA 7. Rawa 8. Nattal 9. Iiijuio 10. Ayipoor 11. Itencoolm 1% MannH 111. rnwoor II. ('roce 1',. TulanslUvang 16. r.ilemtiaiiK. MA LAVA. 1. Uangri ^, Fatal) 1 3. Qutila 4. Prince of Waint Uland 5. Dutch Factor; C. SalanRore 7. Malacca 8. Sliinaiwrt. 4 B i) 1108 DESCIIII'TIVE OEOGRAl'IIY. I'AKi III. New Guinea ((old OL'curit, but in what quantity is not kno'.vii. In the Indian isliinds gold occurs either in fixed rocks or in alluvial depu^ilH- r!s'' Hxed roclcs, miMitioned hy Crawfurd, are granite. gneisH, mica slate, and clay sluie. The gold is never ahsol'Uviy pure; always cuntuining silver, and frequently copper. The gold of Uanjar-Iim I'ur example, usually contains, in 100 parts, gold 90 parts, silver I parts, and coppur U parts. The gold of Larnk, in the same island, aflbrcis, in 100 puits, gold N(j parts, silver (i parts, and copper 8 parts. The gold of Pontianak, in 1(X) parts, contains 8.3 parts of gold, 16 of silver, and about 1 of copper. A small part of the gold of conimurcc of the Indian islands is ohtnined by mining in the sulid rocks; some from wash- ing the sand and mud of brooks and rivers, but by far the greater portion by washing deposits of gold in alluvial districts. The annual amount of gold thus collected throughout the Archipelago is estimated by Crawfurd ut 658,176/. sterling. 3. Iron and Copper. Iron and copper are, besides tin and gold, the only metals found in the Indian Archipelago. Iron occurs but in small quantity. Copper ores arc met with in Sumatra, Timor, and in the territory of Sambas in llomeo. Copper is found in its native state in Sumatra and Timor. 4. Diamond. Borneo is the only Indian island which affords the most precious of all known minerals ; and there the diamond is conRned to the south and the west coast principally in the territories of the princes of Banjarmassin and Pontianak. The principal mines are at a place called Landak, from which the diamonds of Borneo, to distiiiauish them from those of Hindostan, are usually designated. It is the same country that is must remarkable for the production of gold, in which the diamond is found. The diuinuiKJ is in great repute among all the natives of the Indian islands, and, indeed, Is the only gein in much esteem, or much worn liy them. One of the largest known diamonds is now in Borneo, in the possession of the prince of Matan, and was found in the mines of Landak about a century ago. It is still in its rough state, and weighs 367 carats. Its real value is l{69,;n8/. 5. Sulphur. There is no volcanic mountain in Java that does not afford sulphur, but the best and most abundant supply is obtained from the great mountain of llaimi- ii/aii)i', at the eastern extremity of the island. Here, and in similar situations in Java, and other volcanic islands of the Indian group, sulphur is obtained without difficulty, und in suoh a state of purity as to require no preparation for the market. 6. Salt. Salt springs occur in several of the islands, more especially in Java, uliurc they arc very abundant. Much of the salt of commerce is obtained from these spring waters by evaporation. SuBSECT. 2« Botany. 4701. Tropical Islands of Asia. — Under this head we include Ceylon, with the isl.mds of the Malay archipelago ; a country eminent, from the earliest times, for the splendour of its vegetable productions, and more especially for their fragrance. But of all their wonderful productions, the most remarkable yet discovered is the Rafflcsia Arnuldii (fig. 700.) ; a plant without stem, without leaves, with roots so minute that they are em- i-yo - ^— -rj^ bedded in the slender stem of a ' '"""''^ species of vine, and ns it wero incorporated with that stem, jet bearing a flower of thu most enormous dimensions. It is a native of Sumatra, and is one of the surprising novelties de- tected there by Sir Stamford Raffles, and his friend and medical attendant, Dr. Arnold. The first appearance of this extraordinary flower, upon the stem of the vine on which it grows parasitically, and where the seeds happen to alight, is that of a small tubercle, which almost resembles a swelling in the bark. This gradually enlarges, still preserving its rounded form, till the bud has attained its full size. It then considerably resembles .i large cabbage. At length, the flower (the entire plant, indeed) expands, and presents a blossom of the most gigantic stature. Its diameter is three feet and a half, its weiglit fifteen pounds, and the hollow in the centre is of the capacity of fifteen pints, Engh'sli measure. The thickness of the petals is not less than an inch and a half near the base : the colour a brick red, inclining to orange, wrinkled or embossed on the surface, and marked with deeper blotches of the same colour as the ground, and with white spots. The plant is (iia-cious. The skimens form a sort of beaded circle around a central abortive pistil; whi( h is itself a large fleshy excrescence, flat at the top, and beset with elongated pro- ILVVFIJHIA AHmitUII. UOOK 11. jections, w decays, and Stfljielias, a by the lean standing hi! aecompaniet I'hn;nogamc say, arrangiH (loubtedly th 470a. Sea Nepenthes d litlOK II. EAST INDIAN ARCHU'ELAOO. I lop jictioiiH, which Dr. Arnold dtclaris ri'seniblud cow'h horns. This superb flomr soon lii'tuys, and in endowed with a most powi>rful but disagrcBablu odour, which, like that of the atnpeliaH, attractH tiien in great abundance. The plant bus been udnurably illustrated by li.e learned Brown, in the twelfth volume of the Liunean Traimctio„.i ; yet, notwiib. standmg his cicellent description, and the accurate exulanatory figure with which it i« Ulcompanied, from the pencil of M. Uaucr, clearly showing its title to a place among the Phicnogamous or flowering plants, Sprengel, in \ih Syslema Vegetnbilium, has, strange to SUV, arranged it along with the Cryptogamic plants, and near to the Fungi ! It is un- doubtedly the largest known flower in the world. 470a. Scarcely leu iiUeresting, if we consider the structure of its foliage, is the famous Nepenthes distillatoria {Jig. 701.), or Pitcher plant, a native of a considerable portion of 701 Southern India, supposed to hi' and even ni< found in J.i.., the species al> to great perf'i dens, especial i especially the islands, and formerly peculiar to Ceylon. Other species. pitl'iikh plant. rious in the nature of the leaves, are • we shall confine our remarks to itioncd, which has now attained ... 'he stoves of our botanic gar- losc of Mr. Loddigcs, and the Uoyal Gardens of Edinburgh and Glasgow. 4703. There is not a more interesting spectacle of the kind, perhaps, in all Britain, than to behold the fine plant of Nepenthes which exists in the stove of the Botanical Garden at Edinburgh. Planted in a tub, whose soil is kept constantly moist by a covering of living Sphagnum and other Mosses, its stem, 18 to '20 feet long, rises from the midst of these ; it is branched, and climbs among the wires that traverse the rafters of the roof, supporting itself by means of its tendrils, bearing, especially towards the extremity, very many leaves, which look more like the contrivance of art tlwin a production of nature. Tlie whole leaf, including the petiole or stalk, is two feet and more in length. The petiole itself is, below the middle, winged with a very broad niiirgin, to that degree that it is commonly taken for the leaf itself; upwards, it forms a long, stout, filiform cii-rhus, or tendril, which is more or less spirally twisted, even when it does not catch hold of any surrounding object to support the parent stem. Its ex- tremity hangs down, and is terminated by the true leuf, or leafy portion ; but which, from its remarkable appearance, is called an apjwntlage to the leaf. Instead of being flat, it is hollowed out, like an elongated pitcher ; it is six to nine inches long, atte- nuated at the base, where it is curved or arched, and then it suddenly turns upward. It is obscurely striated, and on each side, at the front, marked with two prominent wings or membranes ; it is ventricose upwards, slightly expanding at the mouth, which is oblique ; in a young state completely and firmly covered by a lid or operculum, which is flat, and marked with two winged nerves, and fixed by the back to the upper margin of the mouth. After a time, this lid opens, still continuing attached by a point at the back ; but which, though in the act of opening it supplies the place of a hinge, is not capable of any further movement; the mouth of the pitcher, which is heart-shaped, is now quite exposed to view, and exhibits a remarkably thickened margin, which is closely, transversely, and most beautifully plaited. The colour of the pitcher is pale green, often tinged and spotted with red, purple within, where it is glandular, especially near the base. 4704. Us if the better to deserve the appellation of a pitcher, this curious leaf contains a watery fluid, which is si cretcd by the plant itself; for it i often most abundant while the lid is perfectly closed, and when the water could not be received by any external agency. Neither is this fluid of the nature of common water. In each of the unexpanded pitchers of tlic Edinburgh plant was about a drachm of limpid fluid. " This," says Dr. Graham, in his description of the plant, in the Edinburgh New Philosophical Jotmial, for 1827, " liad a subacid taste, which increases after the rising of the lid, when the fluid slowly evaporated. My friend, Dr. Turner, perceived it to emit, while boiling, an odour like baked apples, from containing a trace of vegetable matter, and he found that it yielded minute crystals of superoxalate of potash, on being slowly evaporated to dryness. The pitcher whose con- tents Dr. Turner analysed was a large one ; it had not opened, and the whole fluid weighed only sixty-six grains." 4705. In the plants at the Glasgow Royal Botanic Garden, there is generally a very con- siderable quantity of this fluid, after the lid is expanded and the pitcher has attained its full dcvelopement ; and, whether in pursuit of that liciuid or from any other cause we are not able to sr»y, insects are attracted thither in great quantities, and ants in particular ; so that the pitchers are often found quite black within, from the accumulation of the dead bodies of the latter ; and the quantity thus destroyed is verv great. 4H 4 IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // 1.0 I.I l^|Z8 12.5 1^ 1^ 1 2.2 iiii — 6" L25 i 1.4 III 1.6 o> Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. M5«0 (716)872-4503 iV •S^ \\ V & 1110 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pam III. 4706. In Ceylon, in China, and the other parts of India, where this plant is a native, it is probable that the secretion is far more iibundant than when cultivated in our stoves ; and, if we may credit the narration of travellers, the pitcher is generally filled with a clear limpid fluid, and the lid is then closed ; the latter opens during the day, and the water is reduced by one half ; but this loss is repaired during the night, so that next morning the pitcher is replenished, and anew closed by the lid. This alternate closing and opening of the lid is at variance with what we have observed in our plant*. Small aquatic shrimps, too. Rum. phius tells us, inhabit the fluid. 4707. In tome parti of India, Rumphius and Flacourt assure us that the natives enter- tain some curious and superstitious notions respecting this plant. They believe that if they sever the pitchers and pour out the water, it will not fail to rain during the day. When they dread this state of weather, they are very careful not to cut the pitchers. On the other hand, in periods of great drought, they hasten to the woods, sever the pitchers of the Ne^.tsnthes, and pour out the liquid, firmly persuaded that rain will then ensue. 4708. The generic name Nepenthet is derived from two Greek words, signifying, with- out sorrow. Homer speaks of an Egyptian plant called Nepenthes, which was employed by Helen to dispel grief from her guests : in the same way, probably, Linnaeus, who applied the name in the present instance, might suppose A properties, for its coriaceous leaf, marked ' tr*.v — ^JijUfv. ^jj, tjifgg strong nerves. It was ori- ginally found wild, only, and there in very small quantities, at the south-west- em district of the island ; but when the Dutch first obtained a settlement in Ceylon, they found so many inconve- niences to arise from this limited supply, that they began to cultivate the cinna- mon in four or five very large gardens, under the auspices of the enterprising Governor Falck. The extent of these plantations may be inferred from the fact, that the quantity of spice annually ob- tained from them exceeded 400,000 lbs., and that from 25,000 to 26,000 persons were employed in the cinnamon department. 4713. The rigour with which the Dutch enforced the regulations by which they kept the monopoly of cinnamon to themselves is truly revolting, and forms a blot on their national character. Death was the punishment awarded, and mercilessly inflicted, on any person who should wilfully injure a cinnamon plant, or even sell or give away a single stick of it, or extract the oil from the foliage, or peel off any of the bark. In order to keep up the high price of the spices, the Dutch government used to have them destroyed, when the stock had accumulated, sometimes by throwing them into the sea, and sometimes by burning them. On one occasion, in the year 1760, a pile of these aromatics was consumed near the stadthouse, at Amsterdam, of which the price was estimated at 8,000,000 livres, and a similar wanton destruction took place on the following day. The air was perfumed with this incense, and the essential oils were distilled, and flowed in a spicy stream down the street, to the regret of the spectators, who were not permitted to appropriate the smallest portion of the valuable substance, 4714. The cinnamon tree grows, in a natural state, to twenty or thirty feet high, and sends out large spreading branches, clothed with thick foliage. The leaves are first quite pendent, of a delicate rose colour, and most tender texture : they soon, however, turn yellow, and then green. The flowers are borne in panicles, and are small and white; partaking, as well as the foliage, of the peculiar fragrance of the tree. The fruit yields an oil, which becomes waxy and solid, and of which a kind of candles is made, whose agreeable odour caused them to be appropriated, in the kingdom of Candy, to the use of the court. 4715. When the cinnamon tree is three years old, it affords one shoot fit to yield bark : but eight years of growth are needful before it can be freely cut. At ten or twelve years old, the tree is strongest, and those plants which grow in dry and rocky spots produce the most pungent and aromatic bark. The shoots are cut when nearly an inch thick, and two or three feet long ; they are immediately barked, and the epidermis scraped off, during which process a delightful fragrance is diffused around. The bark is dried in the sun, when it curls up, and acquires a darker tint, and, tlie smaller portions being rolled witliin the larger ones, the whole is packed, and considered fit for exportation. Two harvests are Ills DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pakt III 4716. Camphor is equally 704 CAMPHOR sometimes obtained annually from the some trees. Cassia, or Laurus Cassia, is in iu botanical characters scarcely different from the true cinnamon. In quality it is mucli in. ferior, though often surreptitiously sold for it. It is commonly known under the name of Bhstard Cinnamon. Me produce of a species of Laurel {Laurus Camphom) (Jig. 704.) ; but iu leaves do not exhibit the three strong parallel nerves of the L. Cinnamomum and L. Cassia. The whole tree has a strong odour of camphor, and this substance is obtained by the distillation of the roots and smaller branches. They are cut into chips, and distilled within an iron pot, in which they are suspended above boiling water ; the steam of which, penetrating the twigs, causes the camphor to fly off, and it becomes concreted on straws which are placed in the head of the still. Camphor is much employed in medicine as a stimulant and cordial. 4717. The SunuUran Camphor is found concreted in tlie clefts of the bark of Dryobalanops Camphora. Tiiis is said to be more expensive and fragrant than the Japanese kind and does not so soon evaporate on exposure to the air. It Is sent, therefore, to China and Japan, where it is more highly valued than the native produce of these countries: this last, however, and not the Sumatran, is the camphor usually imported into this country. 4718. The Clove {CaryophyUus arontaticvs) (Jig. 105.) is one of the most precious com. nioilities of the East, and one of the most valuable in commerce. Almost every part of tlie plant is covered with minute dots or glands, which con- tain the essential oil that gives the aromatic odour to it. These abound, particularly, in the substance of tlic germcn, near the epidermis. The Clove was introduced to the Kew Gardens, in 1797, by Sir Joseph Banks. Its native country is the Moluccas ; but, from its value as a spice, its culture has extended to the East and Wust Indies; and we must endeavour to lay before our readers some details respecting a plant of such importance, that it was once the staple commodity of some of the East India Islands, particularly Amboyna. 47 1 9. The clove of merchandise is the uneqiandedjlomri the corolla forming a ball or sphere on the top, between the teeth of the calyx : thus, with the narrow base or germen tapering downwards, giving the appearance of a nail ; a similarity, indeed, much more striking in the dry than in the fresh state of the bud. Hence the Dutch call it naghel; the Spaniards, clavo; the Italians, chioio; and the French, clou ; from which the English c/ore is evidently derived. The uses of cloves are well known, "^*'' as giving flavour to dishes and wines ; and ns stimulant, tonic, and exhilarating in medicine. These properties, with the acrid and burning taste, depend on the essential oil, which is obtained from them by distillation. 4720. The cloves are gathered by the hand, or beaten with reeds, so as to fall upon clotlis placed under the tree, and dried by fire; or, what is better, in the sun. The fully formed berries, which are about an inch long, pear-shaped, and of a beautiful violet colour, arc preserved in sugar, and eaten after dinner, to promote digestion. 4721. The true Nutmeg tree (Myristica qffickak) (fig, 706.) is, as well as the Clove, a native of tlie Molucca or Spice Islands, and principally coiiliried to that group called the Islands of Banda, where it bears both blossom and fruit at all seasons of the year. In their native country, the trees are almost always loaded with blossoms and fruit. The gathering of the latter takes place nt three periods of the year: in July and August, when the nuts are most abundant ; but the Mace is thinner than on the smaller fruits, which are gadiercd during November, the second time of collecting: the diirfl harvest takes place in March, or early in April, when both the Nutmegs and Mace are in greatest perfection, tijeir Book II. EAST INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO. UIS number not being so great, and the season being dry. The outer pulpy coat is removed, and afterwards the mace, which, when fresh, is of a beautiful crimson colour, and covers the whole nut. The nuts are then placed over a slow fire, when the dark shell which, immediately beneath the mace, coats the seed, becomes brittle ; and the seeds, or nutmegs of commerce, drop out : these are then soaked in sea water, and impregnated with lime, a process which answers the double purpose of securing the fruit from the attacks of insects, and of destroying the vegeuting property. It, further, prevents the volatilisation of die aroma. The Mace is simply dried in the sun, and then sprinkled with salt water, after which it is fit for exportation. The uses both of nutmegs and mace are well known, whether in a medicinal or economical point of view. The whole fruit, preserved in sugar, is brought to table with the dessert, but not till after the acrid principle has been, in a great measure, removed, by repeated washings. An essential oil is obtained from both these spices, by distillation, and a less volatile one, by expression. 4722. Pepper, the seeds of Piper nigrum (Rg. 707.), is another spice, which is exten- sively cultivated in the islands in question, as well as on the coast of Malabar, and forms en important article of trade. It was known to the Greeks in the time of Theophrastus and Dioscorides, who, as well as the Romans, distinguished between the white and black pepper. And whilst the use of Betel Pepper, to which we shall next allude, is confined almost wholly to the Eastern nations, the common pepper is an article of general use throughout the civilised world. Still, it is in Asia, where the stomach is weakened by ex- cessive perspirations, produced by the heat of the climate, by a humid atmosphere, and a too general addiction to vegetable diet, that it is employed as a powerful stimulant. Thus, in a medical point of view, it has been found to act as an excellent tonic, calculated to create appetite and promote digestion. The Pepper plant, or Pepper vine, as it is commonly called, is a weak climber, which attaches itself by small fibres to other bodies, or to the ground, like ivy; it bears large heart-shaped, veiny leaves, and long slender catkins of fiowers, succeeded by the berries, which we term peppercorns. These, when covered with their natural husk or coat, constitute black pepper. AVhite pepper is the same fruit, deprived of its outer covering, which is accomplished by soaking the grains in water, when the coat swells and bursts. It is afterwards dried in the sun, and, by friction and winnowing, cleared of the husk. It is then of a paler colour ; but, as the shell or bark contains a powerful principle, it is evident that white pepper loses much of its stimulating property, and is inferior to the black, Mr. Marsden informs us, that as soon as any of the corns on a bunch change from green to red, it is considered fit for gathering ; for, if pulled ripe, many of the seeds would drop ofi*. It is collected and spread to dry in the sun ; nor are the vicissitudes of weather that may occur during its exposure thought to injure it. In this situation it becomes black and shrivelled, as we see it in Europe, and is hand-rubbed, to separate the grains from the stalk. That which is pulled at the most proper stage of maturity will shrivel least ; if plucked too soon, it falls into dust. Thus, weight is the great test of goodness in pepper, and machines are constructed for the purpose of separating the light kind from the sound. Two crops are generally produced in one year ; the culture is attended with some trouble, as it is necessary to keep the pepper gardens scrupulously free from weeds, and to give them suf- ficient irrigation. In the small island oi* Penang, the crop of pepper, in 1802, was estimated at about 21 6,000 dollars. Sumatra also yields this spice ; but the quantity is inconsiderable when compared with the produce of the coast of Malabar, whence no less than ten full cargoes, amounting to 8,000,000 or 9,000,000 lbs,, might be annually exported. But half this quantity is carried over the mountains to the coast of Coromandel, to the north, to the Deccan, and farther on, to different parts of Hindostan. This pepper is esteemed the best in all Asia, and is most sought after by foreign nations. 4723. Another kind of pepper in general cultivation and repute throughout India, is the Piper Betle, or Betel pepper [fg. 708.), Its use may be traced to a very remote date ; for, in an ancient Sanscrit inscription on stone, published in the Asiatic Hesearches, this plant is reckoned among the greatest blessings of the country ; " in its towns are numerous groves HKrKi. i>Ki'i>iin. 1114 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHY. PA»t III. of mangoui plunUtloni of luxuriant betel, and fields of rice ; channels of water, and wella • opulent men and beautiful women ; temples of gods and of the saints ; and men blessed with vigour of iHMly and evury virtue." 4784. 2'A# habit of this plant resembles black or common pepper; but the leaves and catkins are much larger, the former of an oblong shape, and more oblique, and the corns or seeds inflnttelv bigger. In the East Indies, and especially the Malay islands, the inhabitants have, almost trom Ume Immemorial, considered the Betel Pepper as a necessary of life; and this, not by itself, but with the use of lime and the Areca nut, together constituting a mas- ticatory, employed by both sexes, and at all ages. Various travellers relate particulars of the use of this plant ; but we shall confine ourselves to those of Marsden, in his History of Sumotra i tho custom of cliewing the Betel-leaf being, perhaps, more prevalent among the Malays than any other nation. " Whether," he says, " to blunt tlie edge of painful reflection, or owing to an aversion our natures have to total inaction, most nations have been addicted to tlio practico of et^oying, by mastication or otherwise, the flavour of substances possessing an inebriating quality. The South Americans chew the Cocoa and Mambeco, and the Eastern peoiHe, the Betel and Areca ; or, as they are called in the Malay language, the Sirlli and Plnang. This custom is universal among the Sumatrans, who carry the ingredients constantly about them, and aerve them to their guests on all occasions ; the prince in a geld stand, and tlio poor man in a brass box or mat bag. The betel-stands of the better ranlcs of people arc usually of silver, embossed vrith rude figures. The Sultan of Moco-moco was presented with one by the East India Company with their arms on it ; and he possesses anothvr, besides, of gold filigree. The form of the stand is the frustum of an hexagonal pyramid reversed, about six or eight inches in diameter. It contains many smaller vessels, fitted to the angles, for holding the nut, leaf, and chunam, which latter is quicklime made (\tom calcined shells ; with places for the instruments employed in cutting the first, and spatulas for spreading the last. When the first salutation is over, which consists in bending ttie head, and the interior's putting his joined hands between tliose of the superior, and then lifting thvm to his forehead, the betel is presented as a token of politeness, and an act of hospitalltv. To omit it on the one hand, or to reject it on the other, would be an affront; as it would bo likewise, in a man of subordinate rank, to address a great man, without the precaution of chewing it before he spoke. All the preparation consists in spreading on the 8irih, or Piper Detle leaf, a small quantity of the chunam, and folding it up with a slice of the Pinang nut. From the mastication of these proceeds a juice which tinges the saliva of a bright red, and which the leaf and nut, without the chunam, will not yield. This hue, being cunimunlcatcd to the mouth and lips, is esteemed ornamental ; and an agreeable flavour is Inipurti'd to the breath. The juice is usually (after the first fermentation produced by the lime), though not always, swallowed by the chewers of betel. We might reasonably suppose that its nctlvu qualities would injure the coats of the stomach : but experience seems to disprove such a consequence. It is common to see the teeth of elderly persons stand loose in the gums, which is probably the eflTect of this custom ; but I do not think it affects the soundness of the teeth themselves. Children begin to chew betel very young, and yet their teeth are always beautifully white, till pains are taken to injure them, by filing and staining thoin black. To persons who are not habituated to the composition, it causes a strong giddiness, nstringes and excoriates the mouth and fauces, and deadens for a time the faculty of tusto. During the Pausa, or fast of Ramadan, the Mahometans among them abstain trom tho uso of l)etel whilst the sun continues above the horizon ; but, excepting at this tieason, it is the constant luxury of both sexes from an early period of childhood : till, buvoining toothless, they arc reduced to the extremity of having the ingredients previously retluced to a paste for them, that without further effort the betel may dissolve in the mouth. Mixen«i>, " the region of Scitamineae." Among them arc reckoned some species of Canna or Indian Shut, of Arrowroot (Maranta), of Phrynium, Hedychium, Roscoea, Alpinia, Ginger, Costus, Kiompferia or Galangale, Amomum, Turmeric {Curcuma), Globba, ManllHlu, Ac. 47U(i, True (linger is aflurded by the roots of Zinziber officinale ; u plant so easy Book II* £AST INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO. 1115 of cultivation in tropical countries, that imported into the New World it is extensively grown in the West Indies, and on the continent of South America. Edwards, in his Hittory f/ the W^ Indies, assures as that, as early a- 1547, iu culture was so diffused in New Spain, that 22,053 cwt. were thence exported to Europe in one year. 4727. Kcmwferia Galatea {fig.709.), the oiRcinal Gakngale, ana K. angustifolia are both employed as medicinal plants, and are stomachic and cephalic. 4728. Curcuma Zerumbet or Zedoary is likewise a celebrated Indian plant belonging to this family. 4729. Rice {Otyza saliva), though cultivated in all warm climates tliroughout the world, is considered of Asiatic origin, and is nowhere more extensively raised or more valued, than throughout the islands of the East Indies. 4730. Among the numerous fruits of these islands, we shall only now mention the Guava {Jig. 710.) {Psidiwn pyriferum), the Mango {Mangifera indica) (fg. 711.), the ■MMmm* oiLtmA. Mangoostan {Garctnia Mangostatw) (Jig. 712.), the Durion (Durio Zibetldnus) (fig. 713.), and the Malay Apple (Eugenia malaccensis), which, highly as they are prised in their native 713 NAmOWTAN. country, the utmost skill of British Horticulture has never been able to bring to any thing like perfection in the stoves of our island, where indeed it is exceedingly difficult to cultivate many of them at all. 1116 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. PAkT III. 731. The Zoolopf of the Indian jlrchipdago it so remarkable for the variety, splendour, singularity of its forms, that it is difflcult to say in which department it is most in. SuMSCT. 3. Zoology. 4731. and singui«ffii>/ wi ■»& iwnus, umi* «» m uiui^-uii> uj DCijF III wiiivii ucpariiiiviK i[ n most in* teresting. Flourishing beneath a tropical sun, and nourished by marine vapours in a soil naturally humid, vegetation here attains a luxuriance inconceivably magnificent. Animal life equally partakes in this exuberance, and exhibits, under every form, the most singular shapes, and the most brilliant combinations of colours. It is in these distant and little knonrn islands that the great satyr-like Apes dwell in the solitude and the security of their native forests ; while the surpassing beauty of the Birds of Paradise, and the numerous variety of superb-coloured Lories, are among the most striking features in their oniitholocy. As most of the large islands possess many animals hitherto undiscovered in others, we shall notice them under distinct heads. 4752. Java. The Zoology of Java derives peculiar interest from having been investigated by two of our most eminent naturalists, the late Sir Stamford Raffles, and Dr. Horsfield. Under the liberal auspices of the East India Company, the researches of the latter have been given to the public. We are thus enabled to put aside the vague and erroneous ac- counts of travellers, on which, unfortunately, we are too often obliged to depend ; and can confidently enumerate the chief peculiarities in the zoology of Java, one of the most im- portant islands in India. 4733. Tlie great number of native quadrupeds belonging to this island will become ap- parent from the following list : — Java Polecat. Mcmnapltheeiu nuunu. Negro Monker. Njrcticebtu javantcul. JavancM Lemur. MeKademia trirolluni. Thrce-UaTid Bit. Ronolphus, itx rpectce. NjrcteniHjaTaniua. JavancMBat. Vttipertillo, Are iipeclca. NjrcUnomua ddatiii. Delated Bal. Nvctlnomiu tcnuh. Slender Bat. Chelromeln torquatui. Collared Bat. Pteroimi eaulis. Katable Bat. PtetoutM minimus. Little Bat. Tuualalaranlca. Jaraneee Tupala. Tupala Knruglnea. Ferruilinoui Tupaia Putoriua nudinet. Meiihltes mellce)w. TeleKon Polecat. Vlrerra HaiM. Itaue Civet. Genetta Indira. Indian (lenett. Manffuita Javanicus. Jaraneie Ichneu- mon. Prionodon gracUls. fliender Uennet. PelUJavanensii. Jaranese Cat. FelU undata. Wared Cat. Felli Oinrdi. Dlanl'iCat. Phalan^iita rufn. Ked Phalanxer. M us javanus. Javanese Hat. Mua setlfer. Brtalle-bearinK Kat Sclurtu Leschenaultll. Jeralang Squirrel. flclurui lilcolor* Two-coloureil Squirrel Hciurui bllineatus. Tiro-myed Suuirrvl' Bdurus ninrorittatui. Blackbarulnl ' Hqulrrel. Sclurus Flnla.vsotill. Ftnlayson Suiilnd. Fteromys genlbarbii. Bouded Fliliu Squirrel. * Pteromji nitldus. Bright Flying Squind, Pteromyt lagllta. Barbed Klvinji Squlml. Fteromys lepldus. Long-tiilled Squlml. I.ej)U5 nlKricoIlLs. Mauuel Hare. MoschusJaTanicus. Javanese Musk. IVfoschusnanu. Haifles's Musk. Mos4.'hu9 Pelandoo. Pelandoc Musk. rw'i;.oof.ni)Riti> stiuiKHM.- Oulo orlentalls. Oriental tilutlon. 4734. Tlie following quadrupeds, from their rarity or singularity, deserve a more detailed notice. The Javanese and ferruginous Tupaia; the Wild Cat of Java, the Long-armed Ape, and the Gene.: or Coffoe lint. The Two-coloured Squirrel (Jig, 714.) is a peculiar species confined to this island, where it lives only in the deepest forests : the colour above is brown, but the fur on the under parts is of a golden yellow ; it is ii great favourite with the natives, who keep it in con- finement* 4735. TIte Javanese Tupay ( Tupaia javanica), one of the many interesting discoveries of Dr. Horsfield, is an animal i>eculiar to this island, and constitutes a distinct species from either of those two found in tlic other Indian islands. It is a small animal, somewhat resembling a squirrel in the gracefulness and agility of its form, no less than in carrying its broad tail, like a plume, on the back. The fir is thick>set, close, and clothed at the base with a soft down ; that on the under parts beiiig remarkably delicate and silky : the colour above is brown, variegated with grey, having a regular narrow streak extending from the neck, over the shoulder: the lower parts are dirty white. Tills appears to be a rare, or at least a very local animal ; as Dr. Horsfield met with only tao individuals in the extensive and almost inaccessible forests of Blambangan. (Zool- M, No. 3. ) 47.% The che$tntU or remiginous Tupay (TVifiai Pren of the Malays) (.Jig. 715.), ia a lingular little animal, poaaeuing all the tamcness and aprighttinees of ih^souir. rel. The length of the body ia about six or ciglit incliK; the tail, which ia not quite ao long, ia like that of a squir. rel, except in being rounder. The back and lidet art rusty brown, the belly whitiah. Thia ia tlic only iiiccin of Tupaia of wnoae habits and mannera we po?'-' Pah III. Book H. EAST INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO. 1117 , splendour, t is moHt in- urs in a soil nt Animal lost singular int and little urity of their he numerous r ornithology, hers, we shitll n investigated Dr. Horsiield. he latter have erroneous oc- lend ; and can the most im- ill become ap- lo-coloured Rqulncl. Two-ra>«l Squinel. ut, Black-baiided- Flnlaywn Siiiiiml. li. Baniei Fljlng artghtFljlngSnuind. JaiKdKlilnsbquiml. Long-tall«\ gqulml, M»uMelH«re. . Javanese Mmk. afnM'»Mu«k. , Felandoc Musk. a more detailed he Long-armeil ,4.) is a peculiar it lives only in e is brown, but den yellow ; it is keep it in con- to javanica), one )f Dr. Horsfitld, and constitutes a two found in tho inimal, somewhat less and agility of broad tail, like a ck-set, close, and markably delicate liar narrow streak rty white. Tliis net with only l»o 5an. iZool ii«.i singular little Miiiii>li BhtUnessoftl-esf- ; six or eight inchti; Blikethatolasiuit. . back and tidn "' J is the only n"""" »we i)0«5os» anyp«i- arks (/.'■«• rcw.™ , animal lfi»t'''»"''J ■nang, and aftenardi the wooot» on the tidei are in like manner al>|io«eome regularity, In (our icrlet : the llmtM and tail arc ilmllarly marked. The Fells Javanenili is met with in all the Urge forcati of Java, concealing itwif (luring the day in hollow trees, but roving atmut at night, committing dvpredationa on the iioultrjr yarrti. l)r IluraHcld tclli u«, that the natives ascribe to it an uncommon aagacity ; aHacrtlng that, in ()nler to approach the fowl* iinauii|x-ctccs along the back, and two paler one* on the aides ; the extremity of the tail alone being white. An- other variety also occurs where the back ia variegated with grey and bUck, the stripes very obscure, and the limb* and tail nearly black j the latter (a* reprcaented In Dr. Horsfleld's figure), being without the white tip. ihii animal, in size ana colojr, so nearly resembles the Oenett, that it was long .considered to be the ian(! sDcclea It la abundant near the village* adjoining the large forests ; rambling, during the night, In the earden* and plantations in search of fruit* of every deacrfption, preferring the more delicate and ml V kinds, and cauaing much devaatation among the pine apples. It* fondnes* for coBbe U so great, Vnt it is called bvmany the CofTee Rat. In this repast it likcwlae ahows a very delicate taste j for the iillo nilfcrer aelecta only the ripest and most perfect fruit-, the seeds of which, as iJr. H. rclatCT. being dis. .h»3 urn hanged arc eagerly collect«l by the natives, as the coffee is thus obtained without the tedious nt"ett ahemn^' Us nSft ia conatructed; like that of the squirrel, in hollow trees. If taken young it soon hnSsLcntle ami docile, and readily subsiata on either animal or vegetable food; the latter is indeed its , Z7,fib3i"fencc- but i" pressed by hunger it ia known to attack fowla and small birds. " The Injuriou* S • oSvc" D'r H , ' Slone.1 by tlhe ravages of the Luwak In the colfte plantations, are, however, Mv counterbalanced by its proiiagatlng the plant in various part* of the forests, and particularly on the ni LitiPs of the fertile hills. These *pontaneous grove* of a valuable fruit, in various part* of the western 3u?^r..nf Java afn'nltothe iiatives ho inconsiderable harvest, while thcUr accldcntaf discovery iurpri*es aliSgl'ta ?he»ler° in the moat sequestered parU of the l.Tand." {Hor^. Re,., Na 1.) 4740. The appearance of the Bats is striking, both from their size, and their strange con- formation. The Cheiromeles torqualus, or Tippet Bat {fg. 717.), measijrcs, in extent of wing, two feet, having a head not much unlike that of a dog, with a tuft of hair on its toe nails. The head of another species, the Pteropus rostratus, or Long-snouted Bat (fg. 718 ). re- sembles that of a greyhound. The animal itself lives in large societies, and feed* entirely upon fruits ; hence causing the greatest damage to plantations. 718 Tipcnr BAT. Lcrta'SKOUTKn RAT. 4741. The Ornithology appears more interesting than beautiful, as comparatively few species of Parrots or other richly coloured birds of India are contained in the descriptive ciitalogue of Dr. Horsfield : little is known of their natural economy, and technical descrip- tions of colours will not interest the general reader. A glance at some of the most remarkable will, therefore, be sufficient. Near the mountain streams of the interior is seen the rare and delicate Enicurus speciosns, or Crested Wagtail {Jig. 719.), running on the 719 ^ ground, like the European Wagtail. The deep forests are the favourite resort of two peculiar species of Wild Cock (Gallus Bankiva and jamnicus), and likewise aflbrd a beautiful Peacock, unknown to other parts of India. Dr. Horsfield enumerates ten distinct Pigeons, and eight Woodpeckers, different from those of the continent. The colours of the rare Calyptomina viridis, or the Green Fruit-eater {Jig. 7ai.), so exactly harmonise with those of the trees which it frequents, as to render the bird undis- liiiguislLible by a near bystander. The Flycatchers are not numerous ; and the Great- CBKSTRIf WAOTAIT- 1118 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPIIY. < INftTlll. UIIihI Tixty {Euri,lamui fforffieldi) 7S0 («g. 7810 >• * '*»'" inhablUnt. Tli« Jiiviiiiunu Crested OHHItM PRUIT'RATHII* Swallow (Ma eroptery* longipennii) ii one of the moat elegant of its tribe, and the iV garduijavanentit, orOreal Javanese Goatsucker, is particularly rare, even in its native island. 4748. Upon the vhoh, the ornitholoay of Jsva msy Iw contidarcu ■§ very rich, ilnoa Dr. HoriAeld, «§ the result of hii Indlvlduil reicarohet, fUr> Biihes Ui with > lilt of HM itsa«t mitmlt. CaiiiMd Monke; wmiwvHhwHi msuriu, " onkcy. Iljrlohtlin •gmilaclyU, BUmang Ulbbon. MylutittM ulU*- AcUn""' 'itlla mitmla. raim„ HaninuiriUiniM miUtoiihiu, Biin|ial Man- kf. McntnoiilUMCiu ptuinoMU, VUIom Mon- kagr. * - ■■■-' Tufttd Monk*;. BUck-hMideil Nwnnfl|illhMui comaiui. HtmnMUIiMiu Kntelliu. CwiuiiUhMiu slbociiwmu. Ore; Monkey. TuMln Tuis. Samatnn Tupala. Lutn Icptonys. JavwMw Oiut. Canli lumatfrntli. Svmatran I)of|, FelU nabulou. Cknidnl Tiger. Fells lumainuia. Rumatran Cat. Hclunii afllnli. Allied Soulrrel. Sclunli tenub. Slender Squirrel. Hclunu Inrdipill. Uokall Squirrel, Sclunii bivltlatui Two-l>ande>l Soulrral, Hyitrls lonKtcauOa* LonH'ialled Porcu- pine. JlHlrU hwleulaU, rawlrlwl I'nniihlw, HhlnocHoa blvuinlanr. Numtiran Wii. noceroa, ^ Hhlnooeni lumaliNiw, llattiM', IHiiiw, inui, Maliy 'I'ltuir, i<, MitUi Niu, . — MuhUiiUliv, NiDinorhwIiH minalnmnh UmiMi, Ctm, IwiH AnMlofw. ovma, Ta|iiruimaU)iaiu Cervut HainHil » Canut MunOali. 4746. To the$e mutt be added several others, mentioned by the natives, but still unknown lo Europeans. " Native information," observes Sir S. Raffles, " gives rvnson to livllvvv ilmt tlia Orang Utan exists in the interior of Sumatra. It is fVequently (.'onfuuiiiUMl w'Mi ilio Orang Kubu and Orang Gubu of Marsden, which, though ohen tlie sul^evt of fujitu niiil exaggeration, appear to exist on the island as a distinct race of men, almost ah liiilry iiinl wllil OS the real Orang Utan." The natives seem acqur.inted with several sorts of 'ri)ii'rit, vi|uiii In «iie, but different in colours and habits, from tliat of the Continent, as the lllinuii kiiiii. bang, or Black Tiger ; the Rnnau samplat, and others. They Airther dvsvriltv tnutlut ferocious animal, apparently a kind of Lion. Their Rimau Dahan Is said to bo tliv liiv ofn leopard, but darker and less regularly spotted. The king of Acheen assurutl HIr Slum. ford, that an animal called Jumbing was found in the eastern parts of hU dcniilnlonn, ni'srly the size and make of a horse, but having two unequal horns. These nutit'vs, IVitm tliclr vv ry imperfection, are calculated to excite the curiosity and stimulate the viiqulrlvs iif Aitiirt travellers ; at the same time they convey to the general reader some idea or the ftirnililiiiilii and imposing animals which still remain hid from science in the prinievnl forviti of India. 4747. A curious lilUe animal, the Tupaia Tana (the Sumatran name, adapted by HIr MlitmAiril llnntn) 722 - -t-^v ,r— .^ 0%r- 7SS.), Is nearly seventeen Inchfi liiMs, liiiiniiiii bears aome resemblance lo the iqulrrpj, mil III!' iimil is narrowed, and proportlonslily l»n)|tht'niHl,lllii' llinlnt a lorex, or ihrew-mouie. The nir la ml siiil ili'llralr, of adark.brown or blackish niluur aIkivi<, hihI inlillth beneath ; the back of the head U msrki'il liy a iiarniw transveric Innd of black, which Ibrins nil iilm'iirc oint llie great elongation of the snout lilni'va llili iiktIh OS the type of thii highly lingular genua. 'I'lis imllvm offlnn it ia always fSund on or nesr lliti KniuiiiUml Iti scarcity yrevented this aocount tViini IhiIiiji vcrlilnl, 474H. 2W distinct species of /M/«(wrM In- habit the interior. One of these, tlit< R, timii- tranus RaflT. has two horns. The other is well known to tlie natives, but never yvt win lijr Euro|H!ans ; they call it Tennu, and describe it as having but one hum, and being iiiiirkvtl with a narrow whitish belt encircling the body. 474a 7^ Malay Tap 'Jig, 7S3.), although a quadruped of nearly the flrtt magnitude, la s n««lil dli' TUPAIA TAMA. Book II EAST INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO. HM< lUltln'a ItMiiii' corery of the Uto M^|of Farquhar. II li ncarl* equai in i ■ulihed b» lU colour, Iho fore and hind parti being gloMv blat 724 III* d"ii■Jim«nu»mil7;nrg■.^u-M(;«Tt•"H\'•b;:^^^^^ «u 723 „— .:-^ . 4750. 0/ the DomeUic animah, Sir Stamford furnishes us with some intiTvxtinu and uiithviuic information, particularly on tlio Elvpli.tnt, llorw. Ox, Dog, and Cat 4751 ntgarUng the Elephant, tew attenpti have been mailc toculih aiiddonintlcatc the wild troop., which arc ex. ircmely numcroui In the foretu i as at Acfieon alone Is this animal tralnul to the urvloe of man. The Numalran honci are itnal , .irong. and hardy, thono of Acheen are the matt priicd i but the ftatta Horiei, although Urger and stronger are not no handiome. There It a very line and pecullai -iJhi.."* /tt °f ^'hort. compact, and welLmadelbrm, without a hump: thev are almost without exception of a light fawn colour, relieved with white i thev are kciit In Thi. br«=d 1. aulte distinct from the Banttng of jVvfa'SS\K"mr;«Ki„T.la"nt''^'i'lduTl'^^;i»^ are common at Heiicoolen. "••■i«iu»i 4759. The Dog (jTSumatraU wild ami untameable j numerous packs Inhabit the Interior Ajresti, whero they hunt in uiiiion. 1 he U I Is bru.hcl, lilic that of a fox ; the ears short and erect, and the whole cwformallon rurmhlca thnt of tliu Dingo, or Australian dog. vi»iiuiiM«,ion mi. Even the Cati partake of the peculiar Interest attached to Sumatran loology. There Is one hrbirds in India. 47% 0/ Serpenli, twenty species have tieen discovered; the most venomous being the wcll.knnwn Cobra •"•»• The tiuks (fit- 7^) *" enormoui, and appear more like curled horni, rUliiR 729 toerrr or ahmitna. tV% ItAHVHtlI'M A. nrom one island to another, out of the Jawi, than teeth. 4761. The Conchotogy appears richer and more splendid than that of any part of India. Here Is found tlie beautiful and rare Rostcllaria rcctirosiris, of which only two perfect specimens are known in British cabinets, one of which wo ourselves received from this island. The Paper nautilus grows to an astonishing siie. The variety of beautiful Coneii, Cowries, Pectens, and other Oriental genera, are ^most innumerable i and we have been told that the pearl fisheries are not inconsiderable. 4762. The InMect» are splendid, and exhibit the most singular forms, and the most surpassing brilliancy of colours. The matchless Amphrisius Priamus Sw. (Jig- 728. ), the glory of Oricn- 738 ^ tal entomology, seems a peculiar native of this is- land ; some of the Lo- custs (as L. amboinensii Don) (Jig. 729.), are near five inches long, and of a lovely citron green colour ; while the Mantis siccifolia mure resembles a leaf than an insect. A nother species, theGiant Mantis (JIf. gigas), ex- ceeds seven inches in length, exclusive of its antenns. Such are a few of the riches which lie fur AMFiiiiuiix ruiAaui. ^1^^ most part hidden from scientific research. 4763. Timor. — 7'he Zoology of Timor presents us with several animals whicli have not yet been discovered in the neighbouring islands. The following list, supplied by iIk' researches of the famous navigator and naturalist Feron, is therefore interesting : — Fltnawd Bat. I Ptonpiu (rticns. Ore; Raiuctle B*l. I Plno|nu itramlneui. I.c«rr Tcrnile Bil. I Ptnrofiiu amplexlcaudatiu. Long-tailed Cephalotes Fmtinti. Pernn'H Ilat. I Bal. I r«muI'eronU. Timor Sla^. 4764. The Ronsette Bats, commonly called Vampires, are principally from Timor, wiierc they appear to inhabit cither the trunks of trees, or the hollows of rocks : hut the larger species retire to the deepest and most obscure caverns. The Timor Stag is but imperfiTtly known, the head only having been brought to Paris by the French navigators ; judging from this, the animal must be rather smaller than our fallow deer. 4765. Timor is proverbial for ill innumerable shells and marine frroductions, which strew the shores at low water, and present an endless variety of forms and colours. Nor are the land shells insignificant : a most elegant species of Bulimus, banded with buff and purple, is thought to be peculiar to this island. 4766. Niw Guinea The Zoology of New Guinea and its neighbouring islands lias long been the astonishment and delight of the naturalist ; while its surpassing splendour must awaken corresponding feelings, even among the ordinary observers of nature. Thcte regions may, indeed, be termed the Elysium, the earthly Paradise, the fairyland of the ornithologist; for they have given to the ravished eye forms of such exquisite beauty, that the imagination cannot conceive things more lovely or more gorgeous. Here, in truth, arc birds of gold, and of every coloured gem ; for in these " spicy islands of the East " are found the whole family of Paradise Birds, literally so called ; to describe which, both the pen and the pencil l>ecome insufficient. Strange, that the most beauteous of nature's works should be assigned to countries whose natives are the most savage and ferocious of the human race! 4767. The native quailmpeds, in such a vast and uncleared island, must be numeroiLS but so imperfectly arc they known, that we can scarcely extend the following meagre list: — Rofiolphua WMrii. RonoipliuA diadema. Iliaclcm llat< Piccotiu Umorimili. Timor Dat. AM III. BmiII. BAST INDIAN ARCHIPELAOO. ll?l :ountii of al \alK>un mmlern n nutlivn. rnwtM macuUnit. Ppo«*d riHcw. ruti'ua inArrouriM. l^on^i-iatlcU O Ciucui libuf. Whit* (^UKiu* ( iiA»viimii«». d hoini, lUliiK irt of India. two pvrfvct III from this ,utifu\ Conw, wc have been 08t surpassing lory of Oricn- , which have not lupplicd by tin' [ting ; — bu. I«»n Tenule Bil. jV Peron's Mat. [m Timor, wliere but the larger „ hut imperfectly [igators; judging Itonj, which strew kours. Nor are fd with buff ami uring islands has passing splendour If nature. These I fairyland of the luisitc beauty, that ricre, in truth, arc a East" are found , both the pen and Vg works shouU be le human race! lust be numerous; 1 following meagre Fipuan Fhtlu. I PhjiMiMOT thrjwtfliM. VfUow«rfM | nialwfMar liniiu. Bmu •Ilka nuUnnar. | Hw |W|iiMnil>. Nn-OulnM Pig. I The four Utter quadrupeds have juit been figured in the splendid atlas of loological tub- jpcti dlscovere\\v tame brilliant colour i there are two long wlre-like feathert In the tall, curling round at the endi, where they are emerald green. 781 730 Kiifo BiaD or rARai, •IX'HIIArTBD BIKD OB rABASua. Moichui Mnnlna. Cayloo Muak. CervUA unicolor. C«ylon Stag. 733 ♦771 The SIx.ihafted Paradise Bird ifit- 7SI- ) >» '"" "O'e extraordinary : the general colour it velvet-block, butthebreartltof thcmotttplendid gold green, changing iij dlHbrent dlrectiont of light into every colour of the rainbow : on each tide of the head are three long feathert with naked ihaftt, but tipped with a rich metallic luitrc of deep violet purple : the tide.feathert of the body are excetalvely lengthened. 4772. CiTioN. The Zoologi/ presenta some few characUrs different from those belong- ing to the continent, and which deserve notice. 4773. Thefollouwg quadrupeds seem peculiar to this island : — CwcoMbiuilnlcut. ChlniM Monkej. V.»ii«Ulio iilctiu. Pointed Bat. sSno!. pBclli. Wrnder Ur.t IJI*. 73S.). | fkluiu. Mjtonoiili. Cjlon Squirrel. 4774 Tile Slender torii, at Itt name Impliei, it remarkable for the d«?licacy of iU body and llmba j and It ttated to be poitestetl of great agility and UvclinesB. The Llon.Uiled Monkey it to called from the tail being tufted at its extremity ; and there it a white ruff of long hairs on each tide of the fore. head. It it a rare animal, and hat been laid to be excettively maliciout. The Memina, or Ceylon Mutk Deer, hat never been found beyond the Junglei of thit island : it it a pretty animal, about seventeen inches long, greylth-ollve above, and white beneath, with the tail very ihort The Ceylon Stag is a remarkable and Utile known species, of which no specimen haa yet reached Euroiic. Major Smith describes It, flrom the draw. irgs and notes of that excellent artist the late Mr. Daniell, at the largest species on the Island, sur. passing the European stag In sixe. It Is called by the natives Oona i they describe it as very bold and fierce, and as living only in the deepest toresto. 4775. Among the Bird* wc may notice an extra. ordinary species of wild cock, called the Tailless Cock {GttUui ecaudatut Tem.) {Jig. 733.). "S being destitute of even the nidi- menu of that member ; the comb on the head U not toothed. It seems con- fined to the deep foretta of Ceylon, and to be very wild. There arc besides many small birds of elegant plumage, as the Ph«nicornis nialabarleua !>w. Huscipeta paraditea, &c. ■LaRDBB LOBlf. ■ifeSife^- ■ * , -3= 1 133 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pam III. 4776. TIte pearl fishery of Ceylon has long been famous : The shell ftirnishing this 734 precious gem is the Margarita sinensis? of Dr. Leach {Jig. 734.). The fisliery lasts from February to April. The divers go down by Aves, and usually remain under water two minutes ; but some have been known to continue four or even five. Tlic shells are all placed in pits, where the fish are left to die and rot before the pearls are searched for ; these, bs is well known, are morbid concretions formed in the shell by the animal when dis- eased. The divers are hired, and are eitlier paid in money, or by a portion of Pearl Oysters before they are opened : tlicy generally prefer the latter. Besides the Pearl Oyster, CeyUm is particularly rich in other shells, particularly those called chanks, which are much worn by the Hindoos as rings and ornaments. CiyUlH rBAML OVtTUI* Sect. III. Hiitorieal Geography. 4777. TIte condition of these islands during the classic ages, appears enveloped in impe- netrable obscurity. Ptolemy^ who shows some knowledge even of China and the continent beyond India, describes indeed some islands scattered through this sea, and, in particular, Jaba-diu, which is probably Java ; but his delineation corresponds with the real position and magnitude neither of this nor the other islands. The deficiency is not supplied by eny native records. 477S. Considerable revolutions (cem to have taken place, about the twelfth century, in the principal of these ilUnd*. Hindoo colonies had by this time introduced into Java the religion and literature of Boodh, mixed with that of Brahma, and several powerful empires, ruled by Hindoo sovereigns, were, din-ing this and the following centuries, established in ditl'erent parts of the island. Among these, Brambanan, Jangftnin, and Paiajarsn appear to have been at difl'crent periods extensive and imwcrAil ; but the dynasty of Mnja|iahit, l>oth tiom tradition and surviving monuments, must ha"e been extensive bcynnd all the others, stretching its iway even over part of Sumatra. About the twelfth century, also, the Malavs, making an extcnaive migration fVom the plain of Mcnangkabao, in the interior of Sumatra, spread themselves over Malacca, Singapore, and Borneo, and rendered themselves, what they have ever since been, the most conspicuous people in the Archlpelaga 4779. The conversion to the Mahometan faith of Sumatra and Java, the two most important and improvnl of the India islands, made an important change in their political condition. It appears to have talten place, hi the former island sbo'it the beginning of the fourteenth century ; but, in Java, not till ahout 1.00 yean later This conversion was etf^tcd, not by priests or warriors, but by merchants from Arabia, who hud been long attracted to these islands by the commerce in spices. Having settled there in considerable numbers, they at length began propagating their faith, first b]/ persuasion, but, when a number of converts had once been made, they spread it, a* usual with the votaries of this faith, by persecution and the sword. I'licic mercantile apostles became chieftains and princes, and, after a series of bloody struggles, had established in both islands a number of petty kingdoms, in all of which they cither ruled or held a considerable influence. 4780. The arrival qf the Portuguese by the Cape of (Jood Hope caused a meniorcible revolution in the whole Eastern world, and was |>eculiarly felt by the isl.'inds of this archipelago. In 151 1, fourteen yean after the voyage of Oama, that people conquered Malacca, and in the same year penetrated to liantani and the Moluccas. They made repeated attempts upon the maritime states in Sumatra : but, these being theji vigorously ruletl, the invaders were unable to make any permanent impression. Tl)f ir chief object was to obtain full possession of the Spice Islands, on account of their rich products ; but they were encountered by the Spaniards, who had established themselves in the I'hilippines. After some sharp contests, however, the l^ter people agreed to waive their claims, in consideration of a payment of !i[A\WO ducats. The n|ipressiniis of the Portuguese roused a general confederacy against them, which was, however, baffled by the heroism of Galvan ; and that virtuous governor introduced a conciliatory system, though it was ill supported by hit successors. 4781. The Dutch, a new power, who in the course of the sixteenth century sprung up from beneath .Spjinish oppression, were, after the union of Spain and Portugal, placed in an attitude of regular hostility with blves to their insular possessions, have acquired there i decided pre|ionderance. This was, indeed, suspended during the last war: when England by her 8U|ierior navy obUined possession of all the principal islands ; but. at the |ieacc, which rescued her ancient ally ftom the thraldrom of Napoleon, she, with a generosity which has been considered excessive, restored all the captured settlements. By a convention, in IH'2.?, she even exchanged her imsscssions in Sumatra for Mal.irea, which was valuable to her from iU connecting together Singaiwre and Prince of Wales's Island. Sect. IV. Political Geosraphi/. 47B2. The political constitution of these slates is mostly simple, and even rude. There are Mine wandering tribes, in the infancy of society, wlio present scarcely any vestige of law or subordination. In general, however, the system of village republics, the ull'uirs of whicli are conducted by elective and sometimes hereditary officers, prevails hero, as thruugliout the continent of India. These little associations, however, are oppressively (loiMineercd over, sometimes by a feudal aristocracy, sometimes by princes almost completely despotic. The RT III. ing this *h {fg. lie divers minutes ; iro. Tlic e and rot lown, are when dis- (noney, or led: they sr, Ceylon ase called rings and ed in impe- le continent 1 particular, eal position plied by eny incipal of these liomlh, mixed g this ami the JangH". n™l » of Mojaiiahit, hen, stretching g an extensive 1 over Malacca, o«t conspicuous nt and improved ave lalten \ilace, 1 iiboiit IfjO years la, who had been crablc numbers, onverts hail once ic sword. These [ad established in •rablc influence, ■evolution in tlie ,rlceii years after I liantam and the these being then lief object was to (e encountered by sts, however, the The opiiressioM . l)y the heroiira Bumwrted by hii ■I beneath i\vn\s\\ lostility wilh biith : made to dismi te I increased, while fterms, and H'en 1 she successivelv ill to contend with Idc peeuliar cffinH scries of rivalry, ntcs, in the collr^c ■ A treaty was at lime, the attciilion the continent ot ..acquired there a tl by her suwHor ) ancient ally ftoni t restored all tlic Katra for Mal.wa, Island. Iidc. There are IrestigcofU*"' Llluirs of »h>tli I throughout tlie lominccrcd over, 1 despotic. IM Book II. EAST INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO. 11S3 aristocratic system prevails chiefly among the states less advanced in civilisation ; Celebes, Sooloo, and part of Sumatra. Here the chiefs, having reduced the body of the people to a state of almost complete vassalage, unite in a species of confederacy, electing a king or head, rather as a servant than a master, to carry on their general concerns. They have also elective councils, consisting in Boni of seven, in Wajo of forty officers, who have not only the command of the public treasure, but the decision of the questions of peace or war. Among the Goa Macassars, there is a very extraordinary officer, who has the power of removing the king, and calling upon the council to elect another. In Java, on the con- trary, and others of the more advanced districts, the swny of the sovereign is entire and undisputed ; and the subjects vie with each other in indications of the most abject submis- sion. They approach him creeping on all-fours, and retire in the same humiliating attitude : to stand upright before him is considered an insult. The " royal feet," or " the royal slave," are the appellations by which they designate themselves wlien addressing him. He is loaded with the most extravagant flattery : his eyes are two gems ; his face is the sun. Yet, even under these regular despotisms, the body of the people are less oppressed than where the feudal aristocracy prevails. Personal slavery is unknown in them, and even the village governments enjoy a greater share of independence. In all these states, however, there are two orders of nobles, out of which the higher and the lower classes of public oflicers are respectively chosen. Slavery is often produced by war, and Mr. Crawfurd mentions 10,000 Bugis at one time held in bondage by the Macassar nation, and employed in public works, without distinction of rank. Debt is another source either of temporary or perpetual slavery ; and the atrocious practice of kidnapping is by no means unfrequent. 478.1. T/ie Dulrh claim, in a certain sense, the tovereignty of all these islands except the Philippines. In ding iwsitions in a state of military occupation, and generally triumph in contest* v.. ... the natives. Their sway is neither mild nor popular. Oppressive exactions, commercial monopolies, and "^ ^ rendered their joke odious, and given rise to violent insurrections. They ■ with fact, they hoUl the leading p the natives. Their sway is i sometimes bloody severities, have I _ _ appear also never to have made any cttective cflorts to improve and civilise the people j and have not foL lowed uptheatteiiipt.siiiadebylean maaters was in danger, have even taken up arms in their defence. This improvement has been in a great measure eflbcted through the missionaries, wno, without any violent means, have converted and gained the attachment of the people. Still, little has been done to develope the vast natural capacities of these tine islands. Sect. V. Productive Industry, 4785. As to toil and climate, the Indian islands rank with the most favoured regions on the globe. Situated almost immediately beneath the equator, and beat by the sun's intenscst rays, they must, had moisture been deficient, have been converted into arid and sandy deserts. But the vicinity of the sea, their varied surface, and the lofty mountains that traverse their interior, afford a copious supply of waters, which, combined with the heat, produce the utmost luxuriance of vegetation. They yield in abundance not only all the ordinary products of a tropical region, but also peculiar and exquisite spices and fruits, which cannot be transplanteid with advantage into any other soil. The Archipelago, according to Mr. Crawfurd, may, as to clinutte and jiroductions, be divided into five parts, of different character, yet these appear to us all reducible to two, modified by, and passing into, each other. These are, the eastern and western, bordering, one on the Pacific, and the otiier on the Indian Ocean, and exposed to the respective monsoons which blow from these vast seas. The western quarter is more fruitful in the staple and useful pro- ductions of the soil ; rice is raised in abundance, and forms the food of the great body of the people ; noble forests of teak and other valuable timl>er cover the plains ; but the finer spices are not raised in any perfection, and even its pepper is inferior to that of Malabar. The eastern islands, on the contrary, are less fitted for the production of rice or of any grain ; the subsistence of tlic inliabitants is derived from the pith of the sago tree, a mode of support unknown to any other great nation ; but they contain the native country of the clove and the nutmeg, the finest of aromatics. The Philippines, liowever, notwithstanding their easterly position, agree rather with the opposite quarter, being fruitful, not in spices, but in rice, sugar, and tobacco. 478(i Agrlcullural operafiona, even in the most improved of these islands, are extremely simple. A team IS estimated by Mr. CrawfUrd to cost 9L ISa. Gd. ; of which the plough is '2>. and the harrow U., the chief expense being the pair of buffaloes, which arc worth 2/. Wa. Irrigation is the most costly process j it is not ellected by those extensive tanks which dittUse fertility over Hindostan, but by damming up the streams ai they descend from the mountains, and distributing them over the tields j and for this purpose the slopes of the hills are olicn formetl into terraces. As the raising of rice by artificial irrigation does not depend upon the seasons, it is ollcn seen, within the compass of a few acres, in every state of progress. " In one little field, or rather compartment, the husbandman Is ploughing or harrowing; in a second, he is sowing ; in a third, transnliinting ; in a fourth, the grain is licginning to flower : in a flfth, it is yellow ; and in a sixth, tha women, children, and old men arc busy reaping." Wlien ri|ie, tlie head is cut oil' with a s|>eciet of sickle, with only a lew inches of the straw ; it is then dried, and carried to market in the ear. Maiie, like oats ana barley in Kurope, is raised for the use of the lower ranks. The yam, though indigenous, is not much valued, the sweet jxitato lieing preferred. The grains ot Kuro|)e and the common potato are produced only in small qiiantities. The cocoa nut, the ground pistachio, the palmn Christi, and lesamum are largely cultivated f«l the production of oil, a favourite food among the islanders. 4 C :i I1'24 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. 4787. The lago palm la a production peculiar to part of thli region, growing clilefly under the moit boUteroui influence of the eastern monioon. It la only thirty feet high, but w thick that a man with outstretched arms can with difficulty embrace It It la reared only in marahea, ao that a plantation fanni a bog knee>deep. The sago la conaidered ripe in flfteen yeara, and la then cut Into aegmenta, and the pith extracted, which aoon drica into a farinaceoua powder, eaten either in the form of cakea, or of a apeciea of pap. The produce is prodigioua, £00 or GOO pounds being often drawn flrom a aingle tree, and one acre may It la auppoacd, yield 8000 lbs. annually. '* 4788. Spices, however, form the production of those islands most peculiar and most valued by foreigners. These, with the coflee tree recently introduced, occupy in agricul. ture the same place which the vine does iu Europe, being generally cultivated in the hilly districts of each country. Pepper grows plentifully in its western districts ; but Mr. Craw, furd considers it as introduced from the hills of Malabar, whose produce continues still superior. It is best raised, also, not on the rich plains of Java, but on the hilly districts of Sumatra and Borneo. The clove has, perhaps, the most limited geographical distribution of any plant, being confined originally to the five small Molucca islands, whence it has been trans> planted to Amboyna, to which the Dutch have sought to confine it. Tlie tree is of beau- tiful form, about the size of the cherry, bears fruit at a period between seven and ten years, and has an average duration of 75 years, though sometimes it has lasted for 100, or even 1 30. The fruit is first green, then a pale yellow, and lastly blood red, when it is ripe ■ and, being gathered, is dried upon hurdles, and then acquires the black colour which we see it bear. Some trees have been known remarkably productive, and one is even asserted to have borne 1 100 lbs. in one year ; but Mr. Crawfurd does v 3t consider the annual average to exceed 5 lbs., and the produce of an acre 328 lbs. The nutmeg is much more widely dis- tributed, being found of good flavour in all the Spice Islands, and even on the coast of New Guinea ; but the Dutch have sought with tolerable success to extirpate it every where, unless in three of the Banda islands. The tree grows to the height of forty or fitly feet, some- what resembles the clove, and has nearly the same duration, "iie fruit, also, is prepared in a manner somewhat similar, though requiring greater c^xe, and with the additional operation of stripping off the mace, which merely requires to be dried in the sun. One tree produces, in mace and nutmegs together, nearly ten or twelve pounds; but, from the distance at which they must be plaiited, the average of an acre does not exceed 266 lbs. 4789. Among other product! of these iilands may be mentioned the sugar cane, which la indigenous but is eaten by the natives merely as an esculent vegetable; the Chinese express the Juice in thefomiof clayed sugar. Indigo is indigenous, of excellent quality, but ill prepared for use. Coffbe has been intrnluced from Arauia, and cultivated to a considerable extent In Java. Cardamoms and gum benzoin, the Eastern fraiikincrnsc, are articles of some im|H>rtanca 47!M). Foreatt, in extraordinary luxuriance, cover a great extent of the Indian Islands. The teali, so remarkable for its strength and ifurability, flourishes only in the rich soils of Java, and there not t'> the same extent as in Malabar and the Ilirman empire. There are also a considerable number of ornamental wood>, and of others, f^om which precious gums distil Bamboos and rattans overspread the whole country wherever not rooted out by cultivation ; tlicy serve for building, for cordage, and other important purposes. The roangostecn and the ilurion are generally considered the most delicate fruits produced in any quarter of the world ; though, in the latter, the stranger must overcome the aversion inspired by its unpleasant scent 4791. The mitieral wealth of the Archipelago is brilliant and valuable. The lead is taken by gold and diamonds, the most splendid productions of this kingdom of nature, Of the former, these islands, next to South America and Central Africa, contain the most extensive deposit on the globe. It is found chiefly in the south-western islands, whose rocks are mostly composed of primitive strata ; and its central position is in Borneo and the adjacent parts of Sumatra. In the fertile volcanic range reaching from Java to Timor inclusive, the quantity is too small to be of any commercial importanfle. It is found in veins and mineral beds, in the sand of rivers and streamlets, and deposited in al!\ivigi lands. From the first it is drawn only by the Malays and others of the more civilised tribes in the interior of Sumatra. They employ, however, very rude tools, and elTect only slight excavations, clearing the mine of water by buckets and manual labour. Yet there are said by Mr. Marsdcn to be no less than 1 200 of these petty mines in the single district of Menangkabao. The sand of the rivers is searched only by the more savage tribes ; but the drawing of gold from alluvial deposits, carried on almost entirely by Chinese settlers in the island of Borneo, is by much the most copious source from which the metal is sup- plied. The mines are situated chiefly at about two days of inland navigation from the western coast, towards the foot of the mountains. The Chinese colony, according to Mr. Crawfurd, consists of 30,000, of whom only 6000 are employed directly in tlie working of the mines, the rest in branches of industry subservient to it. There are said to be, in the principal district, thirteen large and fifly-seven small mines ; of which, the former employ from 100 to 200, the latter from ten to fitly men. The excavations are longitudinal, and the golden earth drawn from them is put into a trough, and a stream of water passed over it, while it is agitated by a hoe, until the metallic grains separate. Mr. Crawfurd reckon! the annual value of the gold of the Archipelago at 658,000/., which is more than a fourth of that of the mines of America in their most prosperous state, and four times that of all the European mines. Of this amount, 375,500/. is from Borneo, 131,600/. from Su- matra ; the rest is the estimated produce of all the other parts of the Archipelugo. 4792. I'he diamond is found only in Borneo; being confined to that island, to Min- ART III. ' the moit man with on fonni a id the pith 1 spcclea of e acre may, and most n agricul- n the hilly Mr. Craw- jnucs still districts of ribution of been trans- is of bcau- i ten years, DO, or even n it is ripe ; ir which we 1 asserted to lual average 8 widely dis- oasi of New rherc, unless y feet, sorae- I prepared in le additional e sun. One but, from the 1 266 lbs. Book 11. EAST INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO. 1 125 „. iiny quarter of npleasant ucnt The lead is on» of nature. lUin the most islands, whose ._ Borneo and Java to Timor It is found in ted in alluvial more civilised md effect only :, Yet tlierc single district ige tribi"i ; but Chinese settlen . metolissup- ation from the , according to in tlie working dd to be, in the former employ ingitudinal, and ter passed over awfurd reckon? re than a fourtji ;imes that of all 6(XW. ftum ^^' pelugo. 'island, to Hm- dostan, and to Brazil. The Indian islanders prize highly this stone, and cut it with skill chiefly into the table form ; but it is not vedued by the Chinese, whose industry might otherwise have improved the rude processes employed in extracdng it by the Oayaks, or aboriginal savages. Almost the largest diamond in the world is iii possession of one of the princes of MaUn in Borneo. It weighs, in its present rough state, 367 carate ; which, by the process of cutting, would be reduced to one half; consequently, it is not quite so large as that purchased by the Empress Catherine, which, when cut, weighed 193 carats; but it considerably exceeds the Pitt diamond, which was only 137 carats. lu value, according to the principles established by diamond-dealere, is 269,000/., though it might be very difficult at such a price to find a purchaser. 4793. Of other melaU.tin la a rare ona of considerable u>e, and, though diicovered In theae islanda only aiwut the beginning of laat century, haa become an important andcharactcriatic production. It exiata In varioua parts of the Malay peninaula and of the iaianda between it and Java ; but in nunc of these la it worked to any extent unlcaa in the amall laland of Banca, near the eaatern coaat of Sumatra, which, in Mr. Crawflird'a con. ccption, is almost entirely filled with thia metel, in the form cither of veins or of alluvial deposita. The latter on account of the facility of working, la almost cxcluaively resorted ta The proceaa ia, flrat to cut down a portion of that vaat primeval foreat with which nearly the whole island is covered ; then to remove the allu. vial strata in o- der to reach the ore, which is then washed in a manner similar to gold, and amelted by machinery, imple though not unsldlful. About the middle of last century, the mines yielded 3870 tona, being nearlv .a much aa those of Cornwall. Anarchy, mismanagement, and other causes, had reduced them previous to the British conquest in 1813, to less than a sixth of the above amount ; but in 1817 they rose to 2083 tons, about half the produce of Cornwall. Nothing can more strongly prove the efDwU of skill and machinery, since " Cornish tin is obtained with va.st labour, by mining through obdurate granite, often to the prodigious depth of many hundred fathoms j Banca tin, by digging through a few soft strata of sand and clay, and seldom to more than three or four fathoms." The produce has since continued nearly the name, Iwing two thirds of that of all the mines in the Malay peninsula. Like gold, tin is worked chieBy l)y the industry of Chinese settlers. Copper is found and worked in several of the islands, i>artlcularly Sumatra, though not to any very important extent. Iron is scarce, and occurs in considerable quantity only in the small and rocky island of Biiliton. No silver mines of any value have yet been discovered. Sulphur is found abundant and pure on the volcanic mountaina of Java ; but the transportation to the coaat ia difncult Salt, in favourable aituatioiis, is easily produced through the evaporation of sea water by the heat of the sun. 47!H. Fishery is pursued by the islanders with considerable activity ; and its produce, used generally in a dried 8t.-ito, forms a considerable article of food and internal commerce. Important objects of exportation axe afforded by certain gelatinous marine productions, of a singular character, which bear a high pr«!c in the markets of China. Such are sharks' tins, and above all the tripang, sea slug, or biche de mer^ an ugly shapeless substance, of a dirty drown colour, with scarcely any appearance of life or motion. It is found chiefly on coral shores to the eastw.ird of Celelies, including those of New Guinea and Australia. The chief market is at Macassar, whence upwards of 8000 cwt arc annually sent to China, where it brings fVom six to ninety Spanish dollars per cwt. The Chinese, who imagine it possessed of some peculiar nutritive and stimulating qualities, divide it into no less than thirty diBferent species, the various qualities of which arc uiidcrstood only by themselves. Here, too, for the want of a more appropriate place, wc may notice that kind of eer lb. ; at which last price they are equal to about double their weight in silver. 4795, Commerce, among the nations of this archipelago, has always been carried on witli considerable activity. Their country yielded valuable materials, and the insular positions and great variety of seas and coasts afforded ample opportunities. At the time > '' the first discovery by Europeans, the three most civilised tribes, the Javanese, the Malays, .1 111 llugis, carried on a very active traffic. That of the first two has been in a great measure crushed by European dominion and rivalry. The Bugis, however, who have remained in a great degree independent, are still active traders throughout all these seas. The Chinese, again, under the protection, as Mr. Crawfurd conceives, of the regular order established by the European governments, have formed extensive colonies, and carry on a constant intercourse by means of their huge junks, some of 600 tons' burden, but so unwieldy that they can only make one annual voyage to Batavia. They furnish to the islanders tea, cotton stuffs, and porcelain, all somewhat coarse ; receiving in return tripang, birds' nests, sharks' fins, tortoise-shell, spices, and various minor articles. The tonnage employed by the Chinese and native states is together estimated at 30,000. The trade with Europe is carried on chiefly through the Dutch capital of Butavia, and the British settlement of Singapore. The exports to Europe consist mostly of spices, pepper, cloves, nutmeg, mace, with camphor, rattans, tortoise-shell, &c. The imports are cotton manufactures, particularly chintzes of moderate fineness, and of red, green, and other bright colours, with running-flowered patterns; also white cottons, cambrics, imitation bandana handkerchiefs, and velvets. Notwithstanding the tropical situation of these islands, the mountains which diversify them, and tlie influence of the sea-breezes, cause a considerable demand for woollens, which should be the light cheap clothe of Yorkshire, with gaudy patterns. Glass-ware, mirrors, lustres, and common earthenware, at low prices, find a good market. 47% Interior commerce is carrieean standard. There arc considerable varieties of colour, which Mr. Crawfurd thinks cannot be accounted for by the climate- though, perhaps, he does not sufficiently allow for the change produced by elevated sites. The tint of virgin sold IS considered the standard of beauty, which the poets ascribe to the damsels whose praises they celebrate. These islanders are rather an ugly race ; their fVame is deficient in symmetry, their lower limbs large and heavy. The face Is round ; the mouth wide, but with fine teeth ; the cheek-bones high, the nose short and ■mall; the eyes are small, and always black. The hair is long, lank, harsh, always black, and, except on the head, extremely deficient ; so that the Mahometan priests vainly attempt to attain any portion of that venerable aspect which an ample beard is supposed to confer, 4S0I, Tills part of the population, by far the most numerous and important, appears the most uncivilised of all the great nu.'.'.-'w who inhabit the south of Asia. Some seem justly charged with cannibalism, the most dreadful atrocity of which human nature is capable. Yet this original rudeness is mingled with features characteristic of the most highly civilised people in Asia, the Arabs, Hindoos, and Chinese, who entered for purposes either of commerce or colonisation. The Javanese and Malays, the principal of these tribes, are destitute of the polished and courteous address which distinguishes the Hindoo and the commercial Arab. When they wish, as they often do, to be obsequious courtiers, they act their part with a bad grace. In return, they are comparatively frank and honest ; and much greater reliance can be placed on their word. They show also sympathy in the distresses of tlieir fellow-creaturcs, and will exeit themselves to relieve them, on occasions when the Hindoo manifests a callous indifference. Strong attachment is ofVen displayed to their family, their kindred, and their chief. Though generally subject to a power more or less despotic, they retain strong and even lofty feelings of personal independence. Each man goes armed with a kris or dagger, wliich he regards as the instrument both of defending liimsclf and avenging his wrongs, The right of private revenge is claimed by every individual for injuries received either by himself, his family, or tribe. When circumstances deprive him of any hope of avenging himself v.itli ease or safety, he has recourse to that dreadful outrage peculiar to these islanders termed running amok, or a muck. The individual under this impulse draws his dagger, and runs through the house, or into the street, stabbing without distinction every one he meets, till he himself is killed or taken. This movement is always perfectly sudden, indicated by nn previous looks or gestures, and from motives which it is often difficult to discover. The police oflicers, in contemplation of tliese violences, are provided with certain forked instruments, with which they arrest and secure the offender. A predatory disposition, exercised especially upon strangers, is shared by these islanders with all the uncivilised tribes of Asia; but while the Arabs and Tartars carry on their depredations by land, the Malays, inhabiting the shores of straits and narrow seas, through which rich fleets are perpetually passing, have become notorious for piratical exploits, whicti are practised with peculiar activity on the coast of Borneo, and in the islands of the Sooloo Archipelago. 4802. The religious belief and observances of the East Indian islanders, at least of the most civilised portion, have been almost exclusively derived from the great nations in the south cf Asia. The first great and effective colony appears to have come from Telingana in southern India ; and the creed which they introduced, though now nearly obliterated, is still attested by the r of Java custom gen the Hindoo sj anil there has allowed very I festivals with jng the pilgrii liquors, and b] nations. Secli after their wivi they have beco , MOi After i Indian arcliipe Philippine islai almost entirely 't is generally colonists, inspii inono|H)li.inga ♦SO.', ncint made equal pro "itirelyimporti With a religinu "ranch of e fused, scarcely survives, unless upon the small island of Bali, which adjoins to Java, but is rendered almost inaccessible by its entire want of harbour. Here the Hindoo institutions flourish in full vigour, and the worship of Siva is much more prevalent than that of Boodh ; the distribution into four castes is fully esta- blislied; and the same merit is attached to abstinence from animal food, though it is scarcely practised, unless by the priests. The sacrifice of widows takes place on a great scale, chiefly at the death of any of the great men ; and the extent of the practice of polygamy renders its effects there very tragical. Mr. Crawfurd plausibly suspects it to be not wholly imported from Hindostan, but to be a remnant of th» custom general in savage communities, where the chiefs enjoy extraordinary influence. 480a Tkc Mahometan creed, introduced from Arabia nearly four centuriei ago, completely lupplanted the Hindoo system among the Javanese and Malays. By this channel it came in the form deemed orthodox, ami there has never been any mixture of sects. The practice here, however, is exceedingly lax ; and It it allowed very little to interfere with the ordinary occupations and enjoyments of its votaries. They hold the festivals with considerable zeal, practise some measure of prayer and fasting, and set high value on perform. ing the pilgrimage to Mecca. But they pay little regard to the prohibition of wine and other intoxicating liquors, and by no means immure their females with that Jealous rigour which is usual among Mahometan nations. Seclusion takes place only among the great ; and even they, instead of being off'cnded by enquiries alter their wives, consider it as a compliment, and usually introduce them personally to gentlemen with whom they have become intimately acquainted. 'VIM. After the arrival of the Portuguese, the Christian nations soon became the ruling powers in the Indian arclii|>el.igo. The only extensive conversion, however, has been that eff^ted by the Spaniards in the Philippine islands ; of which Luconia, the principal one. has, through the eflbrts of the missionaries, become almost entirely Christian; and though their instruction has not been conveyed in the most enlightened form, it is generally allowed to have eff'ccted a very iin|)ortant improvement upon the rude natives. The Dutch colonists, inspired by a spirit almost entirely commercial, have not made the same exertions, and their inono|xih-iiig and tyrannical spirit was little calculated to recommend their belief 4ii0r>. The inteltecluat character of the Javanese ranks lower than that of almost any other people who have made equal progress in the external accommodations of life ; and their literature, like their religion, is almost entirely im|iort»l from Southern Asia. "In the Javanese schools," says Mr.CrawfUrd, " a smattering of Arabic, witli a religious view, is the only branch of instruction. Javanese literature itself is nowhere taught as a branch of education, but left to Vie picked up as occasion oRcrs. Its acquisition seems not to be considcretl as a thing of utility or necessity, but rather as an accomplishment which it may be agreeable to possess, but which it is no discredit to be ignorant of. I have seen many a chief of rank who could neither read nor write ; ami out of the whole impulation of an extensive village, you cannot always be sure that you can find an individual that can do so. As far as concerns the women, literary education may be said to be altogether unknown. When one is seen that can read and write, she is lnokeon as a wonder. I do not think that, during my extensive intercourse with the Javanese, I saw half a dozen that could do so. The palace of the sultan of' Java aflbrded but a single example." Both the Malay and Javanese languages arc uncommonly copious; l)ut it is in a superfluous profusion of terms to express individual objects, while there is a total al>scncc of those relating to general and abstract ideas. The dialects, especially the Malay, are distinguished by the prevalence of the smoothest liquid and vocalic sounds, and the exclusion of all harsh consonants. The Malay, in adopting a large (lortiiin of Arabic, has smoothed it down so as to harmonise with the original ; and, being written in Arabic characters, which are considered s.icred throughout the East, has acquired a general currency among the people of the Archipelago. The language of the Javanese, on the contrary, has an alphabet of its own, the characters of which are peculiarly neat, though seldom carefully written. I'his people have also a learned and sacred languat;e, called Kawi, which, from the large infusion of Sanscrit, appears evidently to he derived from India, and is employed chiefly in abridgments of the Mahabarat, Ilamayana, and other Hindoo cninjiositions. The literature of Java is almost entirely metrical, yet docs not display those high eflbrts of fancy and passion which often distinguish the eftbsions of a ruder people. According to a late author, they contain neither sublimity, patlios, tenderness, nor humour; but, on the contrary, bombast, fiucrility, or utter inanity. History was unknown previous to the introduction of the Arabic religion and iteratnrc, since which time there has been a tolerably connected narrative of public events; yet the imperfection of this may be estimated when we state, that it is always composed under tnc eye of the prince whose actions it records, and who employs the writer merely as a servant whose only qualification is that of being able to string events into verse. Malay literature is chiefly in prose ; and its largest portion consists in romances, or fragments ofreal story so disfigured as to l)e little better. They have the same tame character with the works comimsed in its brother dialect The best compositions in both seem to be little songs, the eflbsions of natural feeling. — Celebes has a language and literature of its own ; ruder, though in some respects more energetic, than the Javanese or Malay. 4806. Dramatic entertainments, of a very peculiar nature, are cultivated with ardour, particularly in Java. They seem to be only a step beyond the pritctice of common story-telling, which is so general throughout the East. The dalang, or leading personage, sits in front of II9B DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. ,.»*'Vi. «*V*ftllM MAnRN ANtl KI'AIHIWI' 737 Iho it«g«, Hnd ri>iid« in a chanting tone one of the national romances. The pcrformen bohlnd, cuvttnxl UMially with grotesque maslcs (fig. 736.), accompany his ri>cital with -"• ■ - - corresponding movements. Their plate is fro- quently supplied by puppets, many of which arc uf that very peculiar description called acenic sluulum, — monstrous and grotesque figures, of about twenty inches long, cut out of a stiff untanned buflalo hide, and commonly very higlily gilded and painted. 4807. Of ruder amuaementt the chate is puriucU with ardour by the natives of Celebes on their large grauy plaint with gmall active honca, lightly harneiacd, which tncy ride with great swiftneu. This diversion is carried on with much less ardour in Java, and only in iti unimproved dis. tricts; the natives possessing an inferior breed of horses which they ride ill. Their most active chose consists in at! tacking the tiger by a circlL> of spearmen, while the prince often looks on as a siiectator. The islanders in gimeral are not fond of games where much Ijoillly exertion is requisite unit take more pleasure in sitting and contemplating the' combats lietwcvn pugnacious animals. Cock-fighting is a ' universal passion ; the quality and exploits of Kame-cocks are celebrated in their poems and romances. They delight also to view the conflict between the tiger and buffhio, an arduous and eoual struggle, in which, contrary to what might lie ex|M.'ctcd, tne buffkio is generally victorious. They take plcanure also in quail- fighting, and even in contests among a |HtCulil>rs|N><lorcrickcta, Uamcs of hazard arc also pursued with passion, even the lower orders 8quan. tIerlliK their hsrti.earticd wages, and reducing themselves to destitution, by an excessive indulgence in them. This has suggested a singular expedient to those who employ Javanese to watcn during the night over va- luable pro|icrty, and seek to overcome their almost irrcsisliblo propensity to forget their charge and fall asleep : a small tium given to them to gamble for com. pletely secures their vigils. Dancing is also a favourite amusement, or rather occupation : it is solemn, stately and slow, |icrfonncoscd cauie why the mosques, instead of the splendour which they display in other iiarts of the Mahometan world, are here coarsely and inelegantly constructed of tcmjxirary materials, i h 3 natives have lost even the art of turn. ing an arch. Their very best houses arc slight struc- tures of bamlmo, rattan, palmetto leaf, and grau. Those of the peasantry (Afr 737.), simply conilruclfd of these materials, and surrounded with trees aud a little garden, prwluce a very pleasing eflbct 'I'hoteof the higher classes are calli>d pandapas {Jig 'i!&\isi consist chiefly of a roof supported by four iiillars, Imh A MKnAPA often highly carved and painted. The public hallt of tlie towns, the mosques, and even the mcjnarch's slate h»ll of Miilienee, consist only of such structures on a greater scale. To make one the commodious residence iif • chief, U Is utielused by palings, or divided into apartments, by light partitions {ftg.130.). Thealwdaor , the great chiefs, and even the palace of the prince, are I .^9 .^, only distinguished by the greater number and size of these pandapas. The palace, however is enclosed by walls, cnmiKued formerly of hewn stone, but at prnenl only of bad brick, yet which form the only struclum of masonry now rcarcil in the country. 4«09. The dress of these islanders presents a medium, not very coinmoilious or elegant, Iw^twecn the iighl close garments of the Kuro|>ean, and the long floiing rolH'S of the Asiatic. The principal part is the tami, or long robe, not fastened to the boily, but looiely wrapped round the lower part, and fastened by a tone or sash. The coat, the other principal partof thedm, Is only a loose fl-ock. The Mahometans wear a cap resembling a turban ; but the other inhahitanli hare the head naked (.Jig. 740.). The rest of the My ii either uiicovcreil, or envcloiied in vest, bcxldice, of luiiilnliMMis, niTordIng to the l.iste of difTcrcnt tribes. In the court dress, on the contrary, all the u|f(i jiiirt (if till' linilv Is nnkoil, snicaretl with a yellow cosmetic, and loaded with gold ornaments (^V "^''' '" Ihe war \Un», I'igalii, the coat, iiuteetl, is laid aside ; but the rolio la wrapped close round the whole body; while lH>«lil('a the krin, or dogger, which la worn at all times, by every islander, a sword is stuck in thebell, iiiiit a lung a|iear is lirundished {Jig. HH.). MAt.AV llntllR. NOUS* or a cuiir. HT III. rfurmen tal with i is frv. ch aru of sitaduu's, lit twenty 1 bufl'alo ilud and rsunl with :aMy plaini, ;h tncy ride ed on with ipruvcd dis. d of horse), inaists in m. e the prince I gimeral are it requisite, nplating the fighting is a ' r Kame-coclu Tncy delight d buHUo, an to what might 8. They talic [tests among a orders suuan. [encc in them. to those who light over va. > their almost harge and fall amble for com. >l80 a favourite solemn, stalely than with the i passion rather only trains liii I to exhibit in wiho approaches incing In this f or of enmity, Icspair, termin- frantic deed in ^an islanders arc KCic reared, the iistructed by the viththem. The |thc adventurers ! supiwscd cause jour which thej fctan world, are tcil of tcmiiorarj the art of turn. iBTc slight struc leaf, anil gia» inply construrtcii Vlth trees and a cflfcct 'those of «w(.^g738.),»nj four pillars, liotn le public halls of monarch's slate .lodious residence I). The abodes of at the prince, arc mbcr and siie of ft la enclosed bj tic, but at present Ic only strurturH IcscntsamcdiniJ, Vtwcen the m the long Sowini Jiartistheinmsfi ■body, but loosely fastened by a tone Ipartofthedrcst, tians vear a cif rinhahitanH »»« Jet of the bods " I vest, hoddi«. EAST INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO, IIW 4810. Tke diet of the tiUnden li ilmnle, coniUtIng chiefly of rice and flih. «llh Uttle misliire of othei animal food. It li eaten grci-dlly, with little ceremony, and lifted to the mouth by the handi, accordlnR tsi the general practice of the Eaat. The people display n remarkable propensity to the use of narcotic ilimala.M, Wine and still more the spirits of their own manufacture arc liberally used, in defiance of Mahometan injunction ; yet it is not in these that the chief excess is committed. It is in bang, a substance extracted flrom hemp; in tobacco, and of late above all in opium. The Islanders, reversing the general practice of Asia, chew tobacco, and smoke opium. Sect. VII. Local Geography. 4811. The local details of this extensive range of islands, especially as respects their interior districts, are in many respects imperfectly known, and many of them not very interesting ; so that they will not detain us so long as the general description. We shall begin with the western islands, and proceed eastward. 4812. Sumatra, the most westerly of the great islands, extends from north-west to south- cast, above 1000 miles in length, and 160 of average breadth. It is situated immediately beneath the equator, which divides it into two nearly equal parts; yet it is protected from the evils incident to this position by chains of mountains, which extend along the whole of the interior, sometimes in several successive ranges, enclosing between them fine valleys and lakes. Of these Goonong-Pasama, which Europeans, upon a very crude theory, have called Mount Ophir, exceeds 13,000 feet: while Gooiiong-Kasumbra is upwards of 1000 feet higher. These high chains so copiously water the plains and coasts beneath, that, instead of being in any degree parched and arid, they are overspread with too luxuriant a vegetation. The ground is almost choked with dense forests, and with canes, rattans, and other species of tropical underwood ; and a great part of tlie southern shore consists of a forest of mangroves growing out of a morass. Culture has but partially and rudely cleared these encumbrances, and directed the fruitfulness of the soil to useful objects. Sumatra does not produce so many objects for exportation as smaller and even less fertile islands. The most important is pepper, produced in considerable abundance, yet not equal to that of Malabar. This island, however, excels all other countries in the abundance and excellence of its camphor. This substance consists of the concrete juice in the heart of a species of tree, which, however, is becoming daily scarcer, being cut down by the natives for its valuable wood, In Europe, camphor has only a limited use as a medicine and cosmetic ; but the Chinese value it highly, and pay a much larger price for that of Sumatra than of Japan. 4813. The kingdom ofAcheen occupies the most northerly part of this island, extending opposite to the coast of Malacca At the first arrival of Kurnpcans, it held dominion over divers states both of the island and continent, and was dignificcars like an extensive forest 4811. To the south of Achcen,but to the east of the great range of mountains, extends Afenangiaioo, which also, at an carlv |>criod, held many states under its dominion, and was dignified with the title of empire It was the original country of the Malays, whence they spread to other parts of Sumatra, to Malacca, and Borneo, till they became tlie ruling peoiile in the Indian seas. This country is watered by a large lake, said to be thirty miles in length, though the precise situation is not ascertained ; it abounds in gold, and is under very tolerable cultivation. The inhabitants appear to have made greater progress in the arts than any of the other islanders. The gold and silver filigree work, the only fine manufacture in the Archipelago, is executed by them almost exclusively. They supply all the rest of Sumatra with arms j and, since the introduction of those of Europe, manufacture very good muskets and gunpowder. They were very early converted to the Mahometan religion ; and their country and capital iiossess still a sacred character even among their neigh- bours the pagan Batta The country was entirely independent of Euroiicans till recently, when the Dutch. taking advantage of intestine disacnsloiiB, (icnetrated into it, and establislicd tlieir supremacy. 1130 DESCRIPTIVE GEOORAPHT. Pam ni. 4815. 77ke Batlas occupy the country and coul on the oiipotlte or weatem ilde of the mountains Thii extraordinary race dUplay in lomc reipecU a degree of ctvlliiatiun not to be found among the •urroundlni ■tutei. Their country is fertile, and cultivation generally illiniud. They have an alphabet of their own diitlngulihed by the •ingularity of l>elng written fVom the bottom upward* i and the characters are rudely itainped with the point of a dagger on the tnrfacc of a bamboo or branch ; sometlmca even upon a growini tree. In thii rougti manner, however, the miOority of the people can both read and write. Hut with theie attainment* they combine hablta which have lieen coniidered ai lielonging to the most extreme barborlim. Anthropophagy ii not only practlied in the heat of victory, to gnUty deadfy vengeance, but preKtibnl at a regular part ot their lawi and Initttutloni. For all who are guUty of robbery, adultery, unlawl\il marriaim or other high crimet, the penalty Ii, to be publicly eaten by their countrymen. The oflicen of Juilicc and the injurctl partiei aucmble at the place of piiniihment, with a proviiion of salt, pepper, and citron ; the individual moat wronged telecta the Hrat morael, cuta it olt', and cata it) the reat follow according to their rank, till the leader of the aaaembly aevera the head, and carrica it oil' aa a trophy. Authora of good repute have asiertcd that they ate their aged and inllnn relative!, after varioua ccremonica, among which waa that of clanclne round a tree, calling out, " When the ftult ia ripe It mutt (all ; " but. if this moat unnatural practice ever prevailed, it ia now entirely diacontinucd. The number of little tribea Into which this people is divided and who wage almoat ceaaelesa war againat each other with deadly enmity, apiicars to be the circumstance which chiefly keep* alive among them this spirit of ferocity. They arc assimilated to savage lil'e also in the treatment of their women, who are regarded aa little better than alaves, and on whom the labour of cultivating the ground and other hard taaka are devolved. The liattaa are pagana, and their religion little known. From their |iorta of Baious and Tappanoula they export a large quantity of camphor, with gum benzoin and a few other cominoditica. *e,l6. The kingdom qf Siak occupies the eaatern coast of the territory, of which the Inland and western parts belong to the two atatc* now described. A broad river, rising in the mountains of Menangkabao, traversetthc territory, and la navigable alxty.ltvc miles up to Siak the capital ; but the chief trade is carried ou at the sea. port of Campar The navy and commerce of Siak were once great, and are still considerable. The Dutch besides the ordinary commodities of Sumatra, draw from it a considerable quantity of timber } but they have not formed any acttlcment upon ita coaat. 4817. T/iv loulhem quarter qf Sumatra ia on the whole the leaat improved, a great extent being manhy uncultivated, and overgrown with dense forests. On its hills, however, is the most abundant growth o} pepper, the commodity which Europeans princi|ially seek In thia iaiand; and here their chief scttlemcnta have been formcaerve some notice. On the western side, Iwginning from the aouthward, we may number F:ngaiio, the Poggy or Naaaau group, Scebcrrow, Nyas, Bali (or Hog). These islands have a rugged and mountainoui aspect, and Seel)errow is even the scat of an active volcano. The face of the country andtlu'iiilialiil.int.clago, and even to the islanda of the South Sea. Sago, instead of rice, is the staple food ; the inhabitants, called bv tlie Klalaya Mantaway, tattoo their skins, and speak a language quite diflcrent from that of Sumatra. The I'oggy Islands arc the chief scat of the rudest of tlicsc races, who arc unacquainted with the use of metal, have iin weapons but bows and arrows, and in many of their customs resemble the people of Otahclte. The nativeiof Nyas arc much more frugal and industrious, rearing with aucceaa the hog and the sweet potato. Yet they are tierce and sanguinary, the country being partitioned among about tilty little chieflaina, who wage deadly wars with each other. Nearly a thousand prisoners of war are annually sold as slaves, in which capacity the Dutch Hnd them useAil, though dangeroua, aa their fierce pride often impels them to the violent deeils familiar to those islanders 4819. The groups qf the Kicobar and the Andaman islands may, for want of a more appropriate place, be here introduced. 'Ihey extend northwards in almost a continued group from about lUU miles N. W. of Sumatra, where the Nicobar Islands begin, to about 4U() miles farther, where the Andamans terminate. The Nicobar islands are twelve, of which the principal are Sambelong, Carnicobar, and Nancowry. They are generally hilly and woody, abounding in cocoa-nuts, The inliabitants arc of the brown or Malay race, ajid arc peaceable and well-disposed. The l)ancs, who called these Frederick's Islandfc, rorine8 ; but both were abandonnl on account of (he sickliness of tlie climate. They have recently renewed the attempt, but, it is said, with no promise of belter success. The Andamans consist of two long islands, the principal of which is about 14U miles from north lo south. They are mountainous, woody, and in some (wrts very picturesque. The inhabitants, who are a viiiely of the Oriental negro, appear to be among the most degraded beings in existence. Tliey go quite iialicd, live in hovels composc-d of twigs, never cultivate the ground, but subsist on fish ; which, however, they shoot ami •pear with great dexterity. They have been accused of cannibalism, but ]ierha|M without sultlcient ground). The English, witji a view to the relVeshment and shelter of their ships, attempted settlements first at i'ort Chatham in the large island in 1791, and then at Port C'ornwallis on tne smaller one in 1793 ; but lioth thtte itationa were abandoned on account of the unhealthy climate. t6W. Pulo Pinang, a amall iaiand of aeven or eight leagues long, separated by a narrow strait from the coast of Malacca, was only one uninterrupteii forest till 1786, when the F^nglish F:ast India Company purchaieilit firom the King of yueda, and t'urmcd a settlement there, with a view to the refreshment of tlicir China fhinj. In I8fl.'i it was made a regular government, subordinate only to that of Calcutta. The expcclatiorit of ill becoming a grand shiiibiiiiding arsenal have not been fulfilled : but it soon acquired commercial importanct by ticcoming the de|>ot for the prmluce of all the neighbouring districts, as well as a place where all Ibe vessela touched that passed between India and China ; though in this re8|>cct lately surpassed by Singapore. George-town, the capital, consists of airy and spacious streets, and ita markets are well su|i|ilied wiUi |>ro- Viaions j but ita fort is incapable of defence. The revenues in IS-lS-fi were 17,5(iO/., ex|icnditure 2ii,«3(7, 4^21, (Iff the eastern coast, Pandjoor and Rupat, almoat immediately contiguous to Malacca, form depend. encies on the kingdom of Siak. Lingen and Bintang, farther out at sea, are the centre of a lunncrous ^ironp of islets of the most varied form and aspect j some mere naked rmks, others covered with trees and verdure, f liey have been long to the Malays a great seat both of commerce and piracy. They arc ruled liya«uiljn resident in I.ingen, who acknowledges the supreniitcy of the Dutch, and has lately ceded to them in full iovereignty the islet of Rhiu, separated from Bintang by a narrow channel. Rhio, being made a free port, bn acquired great imiKirtancc both ai an entrepM and a place of refreshment : and its iHipulution amountt uw to about 6(J00. ART III. ami^ This urroundlng their own, I arc rudely n a growing , Willi these e barlurism, scribed as a il marriages, itice and the leiudlvidual anil, till the is. Tonnof^e. 13S 61,141 166 83,.'>07 ;t2,0t(r),2.')0 ^921,590 66 24,463 77 26,778 131,420 239,180 16 5,WI4 13 4,125 48,900 47,610 1 4 380 074 4 3 1,112 1,036 10,3.')0 3,360 28,330 8 2,654 11 4,504 38,900 21,320 60 21,178 87 31,249 340,430 181,140 290 ll.'),794 361 152,101 2,670,800 _, 1,442,.')30 The exports iirom Britain to these islands, in 1 836, were 234,850/., of which cottons alone were 166,100/, ; cotton twist, 12,360/. The chief imports were, mace 27 19 lbs., nutmegs 13ill9lbs., pepper 467,319ll>s., rice 27,383 cwts., fir 1215 cwts. 4826. The interior detaOsqf Java cannot, consistently with our limits, be described at great length. It is divided by the Dutch into twenty provinces, which they call residences. Of these, Batavia, Bantam, Bui. tenioorg, Prcangers, Krawang, and Chcribon, compose the western i>art ; while Tagul, Pckkalongang, Kadnu, Samarang, Japara, Rembang, GriseS, Sourabaya, Paxsarouang, Besukic, Baiigouwangui, Saurovarta, l)jo- jocarta, Mauura, and Samanap, form the eastern. " I'l two parts are divided from each other by the vast mountain forest of Dayou Loukbour, on the frontier . '' Cheribon, composed of impenctr.ible woods intersected by foaming torrents and deep ravines. The western side of the islaiul is in general more level and capable of *ery general cultivation. It is almost entirely subjected to European intiucnee, and new modes and objects of culture have, under European auspices, been Introduced. The eastern part bears a dilferent character ; it it mounuinous, wooded, and romantic, yet diversified with rich and beautiiUl valleys, caretXilly cultivated upon 1 189 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III, Iht nativs lyitmi. ThU pirl nf iho Itland hu i ■Iwayi been occupied br (ha maM pnwarAil nallv* iitlnrn anvlant anil'mixlcrn, the latter of whom itlll maintain a large meaiure of Inilenendenee, anil pny inily nnmui! ami tribute to the Outch, Here, too, in conMquence, are all the monumenti of aneleni arvaliivM, nml nr the (kith which formerljr prevailed in Java. 4Nir7, /n Ml- wi-itfrn quarter, Banlam, nest tn Bata*ia, It the meal eelebraled illttrlrt, haviiiK Iin.|| |n,„ Iho capital of the Knallih •ettlvmentt, not only in the itianda, but in all the Indian lean, 'I'lii' t\\\\m liu lately been dothrnned by the Dutch, who have taken the admlniitration entirely Inlii Ihi'lr iiwii lunula, aiui TMMrLB OF miHO BUnOR. have, It li »id. Introduced conilderable improvementa. The town of Hantani ii iiiiw alniiut ilirnni !• niiw ijip nrinoipal place, ami the retidence of the governor. The rc«t of thi> diviiinn la ainiiial eiillrily imriiliiinnl •moni little prineet, held In itrlct lubjectlon to the Dutch. Tjanjor, niie nr tlie it|ili, the hiiiiavt aurroiniitiil liy itmi tree* and odorlOroua flowcra, and commiinirating with each other by aliitded I'lKiliwlht, 4Ma r*« i-m/ira part ((/'Jflfrt, of which the general character hai already lioen ileaiirilieil, I'linlnliia Ihp klnadoma of Mouracarla and DJnJocarta, riragmcnti of the dominion which, under the title nr iliii |.|iiiilri< i,r Mataram, held away fiirincrly over the K'eatcr part or Java. The ftirmer la eatinialml by Nir H [Umn in contain ll7U,«in, the latter iHO.tNN) inhiibltaiiti. The loftieat mountaint and the llneat vnlleya nri< ri.iiiKl |n Ihia rcgiun. Tlie two capitala, bearing the aamc name with the kingdnma, are ealiiiinttil In iiiiiinlii mrk •bout WA),vm inhabltaiita | but are merely coilcctiona of large atraggling viilagea. The rialiii «.a nr thi> •nvereigna are only cluatert of various ediflcei turroundcd by brick walli, The Dutch nialtilniii wi'll.t'im. •trucletl rnria and atrmig garriaont to overawe the native*. 4H'.1li Tki- ancient ilrucluret, alrendv alluded to as diatinguiahing tbli |>art at the ialand, ili>aervc ■nmc< innre iMrticular mention. Miijapahit, the capital of the grcateat iirincea who formerly ruliHl over Jnvn, mii itill be traced In the diatrlct of Sourabaya by extenalve ruini of walla and teiniilea, built oiilv or lirlck, tpt 744 •-,. diMilayIng unen riMiiiirpr. ' ■'*' nblelieauty, lliil llir mmi i'nmiiMeeiiKm|iliiiir nlmi iile la that nr lliim Itiulor \M' 7U), •lliiiili'd III ihc mimnlaiiiiiiia itiiil rninaniic, yet frr'.ile, lerrllnry of Kn. dou. ii.uncillnli'ly In Hip rut nf ('he.ilKiii, lilannmiaru itrUUtU'lHirill'WIHIllMPiPlllll aide |H.il KiiulUli iVpI Inni, and the height I lilfrPt. lili buillnMtlieaiiiniiilliifnamiiil lilil,iilldi'iiii> of »iii'liiiil arcliliKiuic ta at llrambanan. In the dlatrict atill called Mataram, between Souracarta and l)Jo)iicaH«. Ihi' IpmnlM. tliniiih built of hewn atone, are amall, but cluatcrcd in extenalve grniniea, nf whlili the InriiMl l< ihm oalltil the rhouaand Templet. It occunics a space nearly aijuarc, WK) feet in length b)' Will In liromlth, ■"4? 4P!^9». within which are four rowa of amall ediNcea, aiirrimndliiii a lariiorra. I'^kSA-'-tai tral one. The whole group haa four cntrancea, ent'li ftifhin » pntillnul point, and guarded by two gigantic •laliica,iirilH< hiriii lii'ri> rpiiri'ipiiinl Iflg. 7i5.), and which are nine feet hiKh llioiigh kniii'lliiu, nml pipirii r.'ot in circuit. Singha8ari,alan, in the dinlilcl nf Miilitiiu, iiiiri< llipnji of a iiowcrful monarchy, iircaciita ii wiinilerrnl niiilliriiili' nf li'iii|>li') and image*. In general tlieiie a'riicturea are prnniai'ly I'livcrnl wiih minute and often elegant nrimnieiita and ainiiptiirea | liiil lliryniii broken into too many aimllar |>arta, and cnnaiat only nf ai'Mliiliirpii walla, without columna, arcailea, or any thing which can iiioliollinn combine unity with relief and variety. 4S.)l). The $ea-porli iff Snmaranu awl SoHrahttuit, im llio'iiorllioin coaat of the eattern divltinii, though quite aiiliordlnalc In llntnvU, m still considerable. The former It the aeat ol gnvt' of refreshment for vestcit Imund to I'liiiia and the l'lilll|i|i|iin. In road it spacious and safe, and Ita flue naval arai'iiiil lU'tlvpi nmiili' materials fVom the forests of teak by which it la aiirrmiiiiUil, The oMuno sraTvi, ««Aii»Ai.A>i. (Mipulation Is estimated at about W,tm, ♦8.U. r*r filand nf Madura ban been erected by the Dutch into one of their twenty reslili'lii'i'a i nml llipy exercise almost entire control over the three native princes. The people still prnlVaa, In a iircnl mli'millii! tlindmi religion, practise the burning of widows, and are accuseil of using piiixiiiud iirrnwa, SiiniHiuiji, llit capital, is oidy a large village, partly inhabited by Chinese. Ilaii Is almost entirely iiiiU'jieiiili'iit, iiliilcr clihl native prineet, and is chiefly distinguished, as already observed, by the onmplvte pr»vnliMU'u ul the Hindoo creeil and Initltiitions. 4H.12. (If lite range qf smaller itiands extending eailward from Java, J/imhuk, Willi IiImIi wimilnl niniiil. laina in ita centre, ia fertile and well cultivated by an induatrinua race, who Irrigali' llie inmlaliy imaniof tanks, carry on a considerable trade, and aflbrd renreshmcntt tn Kuropean vessela paastiig I'nalwnnl, .Siiin. bawa Is of greater extent, being 180 miles long, and containing in its eaalern ijuarlnr the piiwrrflil kliiRiliini of Hinia, tributary to the Dutch. This island aflbrds a large supply of ta|Nin wood ftir llie Chliii'ai' iiiailirl It contains a very active volcano, which In 1815 committed dreadful ravages. 4N.'I.'). The large MamU qf Plorei and Timor, extending in the same illreotian, may be i'on«lili"<"''' bear a dote analogy. Florcs is very little frequented by Kuro|icans, and hat ceased to allliril, na liirtnrrlt, ■ tupplyof sapan wood. On Timor, however, the Dutch nave formed the setllomeht nrCniipniiK, Willi the >lo of procuring provisions fVom the Moluccas, and, by making it a free port, have raised II In auiiii' liiijiiirliiiin'. It hat become a great mart for the tripang, which is collected both on the neiulilmiirinii alinri'a nml nil llnw ot New Holland. The Dutch, with difficulty, hold in vassalage the native staiea, uf whii'li Iho |iilii('l|«iliin **M III. llv* nrliirn, iiily nciin»||i< iivH| mill of 1)1 iNH'it ImiD t> miUiiH liM I Imiiilii, nml iloMi'ttiil In I In IIIIW llic y iiittltlliiiinl ir limiia, hu iiIihI liy Itiill riiiilnliii llip llim'iiuiltFnr ' H lUniri tn I nrc n>uiiil In niiitnlii rnrh Icni'vt iif llic iIhIii wrlUi'iin. ilt'trrvi? ■nmi' ver Jnvn, imy y iir Inli'k, ypt ni'ii iMMiililrr. Ilnl tlii< inml miili'iif nlrni. if Until llmliii Itimlnl In the I mill rninanllr, il ■ ilinUMif ti'iniib ..Ay I'lin'riil *llli rcii I lull llicy ntc inly iif ni'iiliiliirwl ' cnii nrnkc llim nil tlio'rintllitin ntc tn llnlnvla, Mr ivvrnniiMit fiit 1m >«l .liivmuTO kiiiii. iinlittliin ot' ncmir Ilni< I'liuiilry, Iho lliiiirliililti|i,l«'ili ilry, iinilMn|'l»ii' l'lilll|i|ilin'i. II' illitl iK'ilvM mk mirriHiiiiUHl, llii ItU'iii'i'ii I mill llij» (iri'ttt vMW\, the tit. Hiininnii|>i tlic _iniU'nt,iimlw#i «n('« nf Iho Hlniloo iluli wiiiwlnl "ii'ii"' ,1 Vniiilii liy mwi""' lu ctiiilwiinl. Sim- iKiwrtftil kli'l"!''" liV Chlnoin' I""'"' r ciiiKlilffcil M Ihf nuimiir, (tn' """>« llir.l.»»ftiri;"lM linnKiWltlill""'" iiniK' liii|«iftiim »tinri'» mill I'll Ihiw ll till' IllilH'llUlH" Book li> EAST INDIAN ARCHIPELAOO. MM thoicof Vcall,I.uk«,«ncl Rimoroi nnU their Influence li •hnrcil with tho Pnrtu|pi(im, who, In Ihclr artlle men! of Uloli, retain itill loitio remnant of that power which formerly extcnilal lo wide over Ihia realon The imaller lilandt between Mnrit and iimor, simao, Roiti, l)ao, Savon, Sumba, govcrncti by ralaht iwrllv vaualiof the Dutch, partly Independent, call for little parildilarnotlec. '^ > i-'"J 4834. Celebes, to the north of Floreo, in one of tht most rcinarknhlu portlonii of the ArchipclaKo. Its positioii, between i" N. and 5" S. lat., 118' and I2.V' K. long., wouhl inilicntc very large dimensions ; but it is so indented by the deep bays of lloiii in the south, 'I'onililic and Tolo on the east, as to form only n cluster of long peninsulas, while the (listoiiee from sea to sea nowhere amounts to 100 miles. The peopfe are less advanced in civilisation than those of Java, though tliey possess more of a bold energy of character. The native government is monarchy, combined with a very turbulent arislocravy. The troubles by which it was agitated are attested by the very names of the princes, taken ft«>m tho manner in which they died; as " the throat-cutter;" " he whose head was cut oil';" " he who ran a muck;" " he who was beaten to death on his own stnircnse," and even the epithet " he who died reigning " strongly intimates the rarity of the m'currencc. Tho Hindoo faith and institutions found little place in this island. It was not till the iMiginiiing of the seventeenth century that the Mahometan religion was Introduced by the ntingled power of force and persuasion. The Macassars of Goa were then the most powerful tribe, and held wide sway over this and even the neighbouring islands ; they at one time fitted out against the Dutch a fleet of 700 vessels and ao.OOO men. Aliout the middle of the seventeenth century, however, the state of Boni, supported by the Dutch, acquired a complete ascendency, and that of Goa sunk into a reduced and vassal condition. iKVi. The ttacattan and the Bugis are the two tribes who i. ,Id tho leading place In thla grrat liland, ' The former, as already obicrved, are now completely fallen (Vom their ancient aupremacy, and cloiely mntlnrd witliin their original limit). The Dutch have extorted the cession of the city of Macassar.anil Its surrnundliiB liinrict, and have changed iti name to Ulaardlngen, erecting for lU defence Fort Rotterdam. The sovereign rontinucs to reside at Goa, Tho Bugis are divided into those nf Bonl and Wi^u. The Ibrmer are much the most iMiwcrful, being able to muster *),000 flghtlng men, and forming thus, at present, cnmpletelt the ruling native state. But the Bugis of Wnju are decidedly the most civilised and imprnvoti, anil arc, Iniloi'd, the most sctivc commercial people in the Archipelago. Their vessels with cargoes which, according to Sir S, Knttici, arc ollcn worth SOfiOO dollars, are seen in all the seas from Mew Holland to Slam. Tho entire ixipulallon of the iiland is estimated, by Mr. Hunt, at about l,OOU,000. The Dutch maintain their Influence rather «• tho head Ufa numerous confederacv than as sovereign rulers. Besides the stales already named, wo may mention SoiieiiK, Mandhar, Souhon, and Pancte. 48% Borneo, tfwe exclude New Holland, at a continent, will rank as the largett islanil In the world, being between 800 and 900 miles from north to south, by 700 ftrom castrto west. It is also well gifted by nature. Though placed directly beneath the equator, the mountains of the interior, somo 80(10 feet high, with tho large and numerous streams, entirely secure It IVom aridity ; and though the soil, Ibrmcd Oom primllivo rocki. Is by no means uniformly f>uitfiil, yet rice and the usual tropical grains aro ralinl with ftu-llltv : pciipcr, cinnamon, cotton, cofl'ec, grow wild. This island, according to Mr. Hunt, enjoys n singular rcllcity in the absence of any ferocious animal, though the dense woods would alflird shelter, and tlicy actually harbour the singular species of the oran.outang. The mines of gold, the most copious In tho East, and those of diamonds, in which it it second only tn Oolconda, have been alrciuly descrllietl. Notwithstanding these advantages, Romeo is the rudest ami leaet improved territory in this quarter of the world. The want of any deep bays and inlets, to facilitate communication and tho access nf foreigners into its interior. Is probably tho chief cause of Its backward iKisltion. The Inland tracts are now the chief haunt of the savage race of the Orlciitnl negro, called here in dillbrcnt districts Davuk, lilaan, Mnroot, ^c. The Malays and other tribes, who have (HTuplwi generally the coiuta and niivluiililv rivers, dcBcrilK' these their Inland ncighlmurs in the darkest colours. I'licy are rcprescntoil «s ciinslili-rlng a man unlit for matrimony or any Important function of life, till he lias imbrued his hands in the bliMxi iil' ut least one rdlow-creature : as so devoteif to human sacrifice, that a number even of the imnrer class will dub tngetlicr to imrchnse the cheapest man they can find, and otibr him as a victim ; that they devour tho tlcsh of their enemies, drink their blood, use their bones and skulls as ornaments, and even as money. 'I'hroiigh hiillnw wooden tubes they blow poisoned arrows, the wound of which is said to be mortal. Yet it is certain, that many of them cultivate the ground, rear domestic animals, and carry im some trade ; and h tribe cuIUhI lliajooi are active navigators, roaming from shore to shore, amid the perpetual summer of the tro|ilc. Mr. Hunt accuses the Malays of exaggerating the olltnccs of these |ioor savages, whose enmity they have Justly Incurred by driving them Into the Interior, and seizing every opiwrtunity of catching and selling them ai rlavet 48.i7. The local features of this i«/an(f,with the exception of the gold and diamond mines already deicrilml, ilo not require very detailed notice. Ilorneo, or Bournu, capital ot a kingdom which, during Its greatness, save name to the whole island, is built uiion piles on the swampy hanks of a large river ; cnnais run through Its streets, and the communication from house to house is partly by boats. It has much declliivil, and is said to contain less than 3000 houses, and only 1U,(KX) or 12,000 inh,tbitants. Succadann, a groat ciinimcrrlal place In the middle of the western coast, was, in the end of last century, subverted by an Arab naine4, its population amounted to 10,683; in 1 827, it had increased to 13,732; and on 1st January, 1830, to 16,634. Of the census of 1827, there were 10,307 males, 3425 females; and the di- vision as to nations was into C088 Chinese, 4700 Malays, 1242 Bugis, 1021 nnlivos of India, &c. There were only H7 Europeans, who, however, were at the head of the chief mercantile houses. AI>out twenty lar^te Chinese junks arrive unnuully, liringiiig silks iiiid teas, with about 5000 emigrants, most of whom, however, proceed to Borneo and uthit islands. Mr. M'Culloch states the vessels arriving from Siam and its depeiulvncics ui about 160; Borneo, 150; Celel)cs and adjacent islands, 90; Java and Bale, tJO; Siiinntra, 300: besides numerous boats from the adjacent coasts. The imports in 1837-8 are statnl at about 1,650,000/., the exports at 1,450,CKX)/. The chief intercourse in with Dritain, Calcutta, and China; then, India and the Kostern islands. That with foreign Europe or America is small. In 1835-6 it yielded 24,440/. of revenue; but the charges were 'Jb'.KSO/. 4840. 7%e Moluccas, or Spice hlanilt, derive their great celebrity from produciiic the precious commmlities of cloves nutmegs, and mace, which have been already di'scribiil. In other respects they present few objects of much interest. Gilolo, the largest, hmki'ii like Celebes into a cluster of peninsulas, presents the usual spectacle of a rude pivplv governed by a number of turbulent cliienains, Ceram is nearly similar, except that the greater part is under the power of a single sultan, dependent on the Dutch, wliu take vigorous measures to check the disposition to piracy among the natives. Sninll islands contiguous to these great ones, occupy in this group the most conspicuous place. JimaW and Tidore, off the western coast of Gilolo, the one twenty-live and the other twenty-one miles in circuit, have always held a sort of political supremacy. Tlie early European navi- gators found them contending for the sovereignty which they still hold over the fruiter part of Gilolo, though in subordination to the Dutch. Amboyno, an Island near Ctram, thirty-two miles long and twelve broad, is distinguished as the chief settlement of the Dutch, and the only place where, till lately, they permitted the clove to be rearoii. Vwy have divided it into cantons, where this precious spice is cultivated, under tlie supvrintem!- ence of native chiefs, who are responsible for delivering tlie whole to the government, 'ilie town of Amboyna is neatly built in the Dutch style, and contains a populutiiin of almut 7000. Fort Victoria, built by the Portuguese, still defends it. The ten siiinli Banda islands, of which the principal are Neira, Pulo Ay, and Lantoir, are distin^iiislied hy the growth of nutmeg, raised under the same exclusive system. Nassau, the residence ur the Dutch governor, is a small town, with 1000 inhabitants, on the island of Neira. 4841. The Philippinei form an extensive group of two large ond nine smaller islands, situated at the north-eastern extrL'inity of the Arehijielago. Few countries are more favoured as to soil and climate. Thougli placed immediately beneath the ecjuatur, the height of tlie mountains, and the ocean breezes, preserve them from sufl'erinj; under any severe or scorching heat. Tlie moisture derived from their exposure to the vapours of the PaciHe is somewhat excessive ; yet, combined with the heat, it produces a must luiurkil Buol III EAST INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO. Mill lunds now de- vt|{etaUon. Still thcae iMandi nrv mthvr ricli In the staple IroplcHi produclliM*, ricti, t\i^M ^c, than ill III '«■ aromaticH for which xointt of tliv other ialiindit are cvleltratwi. 481. Among Ihe tiativei 'here are a ronxiderahle number of the negro rare ; yet, long iK-furi- the nrrivul of the European (tie iiiinpletuly savage state; yet they had not, like the other islanders, received colonics, or inipurlcil anv high civilNation from llu- great Asiatic kingdoms. The most improved triliis were the Tiigalas, inhabiting the sin- coast of Lufon, who constructed and iiiivi||at«d vessels of some magnitude with consideral)le tkill, and had a language which was considered ciassiciil thnmglioiit the islands. 4H:\. The SpanianJi early look yoMeisiim of the PhUiiipines, and, if we except the English vxpiKlition of nO'J, ijossessod them without interruption from any of the other Euro|>eaii powers. This people, who labour under severe reproach as to the management of their other colonies, seem to have deserved less blame lure. They imposeil, indeed, on the natives a heavy poll tax, but did not cramp their industry ; and the missionaries assiduously cuinmunicated to them, along with the true religion, a tincture of European arts and know- Inlgo. Hence Mr. Crawfurd conceives that, while in all the others the character of the natives has been deteriorated, in the Philippines it has been decidedly improved by Eu- ropean intercourse. They took amis, accordingly, in defence of these masters, when attacked hy another power. The foreign trade, however, was subjected to tliose jealous restrictions imposed by the prevailing policy of Spain. It was limited to a single galleon, despatched annually from Manilla to Acapulco. Notwithstanding the circumstance of there being only one, yet the mystery and the splendid ideas attached to the very word galleon ditlused an inipression that Manilla was a place of immense wealth ; and the British expedition wliicli captured it in 176'i imposed a contribution of 1,000,000/. sterling, which the city was wliolly unable to pay. When exact information was obtained of its commercial trans- actions, they proved to be very limited. They have materially increased since the Spanish revolution, wliich, loosening the ties with the mother country, threw open the trade to other nations, and the monopoly haa never since been re-established. In 1H27, tha exports in indigo, sugar, tripang, birds' nests, sharks' skins, sapan wood, ebony, rice, dried flesh, pepper, mats, cloths, &c. amounted to 938,000 dollars, with 1 10,000 in treasi re ; the im- ports to 937,000 dollars, with 1.56,000 in treasure. The trade appears, by Mr. M'Culloch's statements, to have since increased nearly one half, though it is still very inferior to the vast capacities of the country. 4844. In regard to local features, the island of Logon is covered to a great extent with liigli mountains, among whicti are several active volcanoes, with hot springs in their vicinity ; and violent shocks of earthquake have been felt at Manilla and in other quarters. The city is built at the mouth of a fine river, on a noble bay, and three leagues to the south- ward is a good and safe harbour at Cavita. On opposite sides of the river, connected by a noble bridge, are the war town and the trade town ; the latter much the larger, but the former better built, the seat of government, containing some handsome edifices, and churches richly decorated. The population has been very variously estimated, chiefly because sonic do and others do not include its extensive suburbs. M. Balhi thinks that witli these it may contain 140,000 people, which would make it the greatest city in the Archipelago. Mindanao, a large island, 300 miles long, is little occupied by the Spaniards ; whose chief settlement, Samboangan, is used only as a place of banishment. On the eastern side is the large kingdom of Mindanao ; the rest is occupied by various tribes, among whom 20,000 are Mahometans, and 61,000 almost savage. Similar observations will apply to Mindoro, a fine island, but little known, and respecting which we need not refute the report of the early navigators, that its inhabitants had tails. We may men- tion, also, Somar, where the missionaries have made pretty extensive conversions ; Zebu, which derives a dark celebrity from the death of Magellan ; Fanny, Marinduque, Negros, Mcii'; ate, Bohol, and Leyte. 4 D IIM DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paut III, BOOK III. AFRICA. Chap. I. GENERAL SURVEY OP AFRICA. 4845. Africa, a spacious continejit, comprising nearly a third of the world known to tlic ancients, composes a peninsula about 4320 miles in length from north to south, and 4140 in breadth from east to west. Its shape is an irregular pyramid, at the southern extremity diminishing almost to a point ; so that it has, properly speaking, only tliree sides. Its western coast, by far the most extensive, faces the Atlantic, which on the other side is bounded, at several thousand miles' distance, by the parallel coast of America. Tu the east, Africa looks upon the southern Pacific, but chiefly that mighty portion of it called the Indian Ocean, which has for its remote opposite boundaries Hindostan, the Eastern Archipelago, and New Holland. From Europe, Africa is separated by the Mediterranean, and from Asia by the Red Sea. Both these gulfs communicate with the ocean by narrow straits, at which Africa comes almost in contact with the opposite continents ; but it is at their interior extremities that they arc separated by that celebrated isthmus, only sixty miles in breadth, which connects this vast continent with that of Asia. Scot. I. General Outline and Aspect. 4846. Africa, in all respects except its vast extent, is the least favoured portion of the globe. Its prevailing aspect is rude, gloomy, and sterile. The character of desert, which elsewhere is only partial and occasional, belongs to a very great proporticn of its widely extended surface. Boundless plains, exposed to the vertical rays of a tro- pical sun, are deprived of all the moisture necessary to cover them with vegetation. Moving sands, tossed by the winds, and whirling in eddies through the air, surround and continually threaten to bury the traveller, in his lengthened route through these trackless wilds. The watered and cultivated districts consist of little more than belts, with whicli this huge expanse of desert is begirt. The best known, and perhaps the finest, is that which borders the northern coast along the Mediterranean, and stretches for SO or 100 miles inland. The famous range of mountains called Atlas, which ancient fable represented as supporting the heavens, with numerous chains branching from it across the continent, diffuses moisture and fertility over sands which would otherwise have been totally unproductive. Then follows the immense ocean of desert, nearly 3000 miles in length, and 1000 in brendlh, reaching across the whole continent from east to west, and from north to south, between lat. 1.5° and 30°. The sterility of the scene is only interrupted by a narrow line, of not above half a mile, formed by the course of the Nile through Nubia, and by a few islands, or, as they are termed, cases, scattered at wide intervals over this immeasurable waste. These spots, affording springs, verdure, and a few dates, support a scanty population ; l)ut are chiefly valuable as affording places of rest and refreshment for the caravans. The traveller who has crossed this dreary interval is cheered by the view of a long line of territory exhibiting a different and much more smiling aspect. Lofty ranges, celebrated tinder the name of the Mountains of the Moon, cross the central part of the continent, and form perhaps an almost unbroken girdle round it. Thence descend many rivers of the first magnitude; the Nile of Egypt, the Senegal, the Gambia, and the famed mysterious stream so long sought under the name of the Niger. Those set bounds to the empire of sand, whicli would else overspread nearly all Africa; they inundate their banks, and fertilise extensive regions, which are covered with rich harvests, and peopled with nations that have made considerable advances in civilisation. A great part of this tract has been recently explored, tlioiifjh niucli still remains for discovery ; but farther south, the greater part of the interior, as far as the Cape of Good Hope, a space of 40° of lat., has never been trodden by any Eurojieaii. Tlio districts on the cast coast, however, are very well known, and still more those on tlie west. riiey present a totally different aspect from that of northern Africa ; profusely watered hv great rivers, in many places luxuriant with tropical products; in others inundated and swampy, overgrown with huge forests and underwood. Some late observers, however, in travelling inland from the Cape, liave caught a glimpse of vast expanses of desert, reporlcil almost to rival those at the opposite extremity of the continent. Lastly, the soiitliern angle Book III. AFRICA. 1137 presents to the stormy sea- ot the Pacific broad table rocks and high nide plains, covered, however, in many places, with good herbage and vegetation. Sect. 11. Natural Geography. SuBsECT. 1. and 2. Geology and Botany. 4847. The Geology and Botany of a continent so extensive and varied as Africa can only be treated witli advantage under its respective regions. SuBSECT. 3. Zoology. 4848. The Zoology of this vast peninsula assimilates in many respects to that of Asia ; while its northern provinces, as we have already seen, present us with many of the European animals. As we recede, however, from such regions as border upon these two continents, the peculiarities of African Zoology become apparent, and show us the necessity of treating it as one of the principal provinces of Physical Geography. That Nature has been far less prolific, both in the ntimber and in the variety of her forms, in this continent, than in any otiier of equal extent, may be readily inferced from its peculiar formation. Vast deserts, equal in extent to the whole dominions of the most powerful European sovereigns, intersect this continent in various directions, aifording neither " green herb or limpid stream," nor even the bare sustenance necessary to life for either man or beast. These deserts are indeed depopulated; they are only passed by the wandering savages, or occasionally visited by migratory troops of quadrupeds. The fecundity of animal and vegetable life is generally equal : hence, on the western and southern coasts, bordering the line of the great virgin forests, numerous animals of the largest dimensions become abundant, the air resounds with the notes of birds, and innumerable insects are sporting on the flowers. 4849. In giving the following rapid sketch of African zoology, it appears natural to arrange our observations under three heads: considering, first. Northern Africa, which includes that portion of the continent to the north of the Great Desert, and washed at its confines by tlic Mediterranean and the Red Sea; secondly, Tropical Africa; and thirdly. Southern Africa. 4850. The Zoological features of Northern Africa, so far as regards its ornithology, have been already dwelt upon ; and in this department a much greater approach is made towards the European Fauna than in any other. The quadrupeds, however, are eminently distinct. The Lion is occasionally seen. Hyenas are not uncommon ; but the Jackalls stated to inhabit tlicsc parts are unknown in Egypt, Nubia, and the adjacent countries. A few species of Antelope range over the arid tracts of Batbary, and are probably peculiar to this side of the great sandy ocean ; while several quadrupeds of Western Asia appear to propagate and extend their range in the countries bordering on Arabia and Egypt. The northern Girafle (Camelopardalis antiquorum Sw.'), which, from very recent researches, we now consider as unquestionably a distinct species from that of Southern Africa, whose food seems to render him nearly independent of herbage, has recently been found towards Nubia by that enter- prising and able naturalist, M. Riippell. The few genera of birds which occur in the Bar* bary states are neither remarkable for their beauty nor their singularity ; nor does the Fauna of Northern Africa, in general, possess so much interest as might be imagined. 4851. The Great Desert forms a natural and marked separation between the northern and the tropical Fauna, although we may include in the latter Senegal, and the whole range of that tliickly wooded coast extending towards Guinea. The pestilential nature of the climate to the European constitution opposes an insurnioi:'itable barrier to the investigation of these countries, no less than to the establishment of maritime colonies : hence, a few gleanings that have been mailc near Sierra Leone, and the more industrious attention of the French to the productions of Senegal, comprise the scanty materials upon which our knowledge at present rests. Of all those ardent but ill-fated travellers, who have sunk beneath the poisonous atmosphere of this accursed country, the name of Bowdich will long be remembered with peculiar regret by the naturalist ; as being the only one whose previous studies and acquire- ments had peculiarly fitted him for reaping that harvest of unknown forms with which nature has filled the vast and interminable forests which belt the coasts of Western Africa. In these impenetrable recesses live the Chim- panzees, the largest of apes, representing the Orang Otang of India; troops of large baboons and monkeys, of imknown species, together with numbers of those ferocious and ruminating animals so peculiarly chanirtcristic of the African continent. Nor are the birds less remarkable. That singular bird, uni(|ue in its genus, the Prionops plumatus, or Ground Shrike {fig. 719.), whose forehead is tufted with a loose thick Ill-'AI- vtr IIIK UHHHM) IMRIKK. Has I 4U SO a* ir. so MAP OF AFRICA. — WRsx faht. 2U 10 Fig. 747. ft) o C. St. Vinnntj 10 » KX ■J H Cap* Vc^nt M O I'^qiiatei Mdiktira U.' 80 tiMi 3(>o 4r>n Aoi) BOO torn ' ' ' ' ■ ' . 20 lANiKltudv Wi»l io rrum Uiuiiwkl) Elioaa 44. Tzhja 4d. ScgKedetn 46. AiiT>ei]it 47. Agdau 4H. Tuaricki 49. Taboo bO. WarnelB 51. Ghraat 5V. Hootiarw A.I. TclMagueaa M. Tafllcl A5. .larman fiC. Ksata S7. AkkaM; !>H. Kl Wa]«l S9. TafM'lalM (iU. Hxawen CI. TautlcrK 6'2. Kl Taraua 63. I.akeneiull 64. El Kakia 63. Wolnl Adtlalla 66. Tana 67. Akka es. iMacas 69. Nun 70. Sukaiaa 71. Ainwily. SOUTH FART. 1. ArRuiii H. lliHli'n 3. I'urlandik 4.Niikra ft. Ouamkrore 6. Joal 7. Cacheo H. (ieba 9. Kade lu. Teomlmo 1 1. llMidela 11. Kofiomba 13. Mode 14. Maillna 1.3. AffiiAni 16. (theraiighel 17. CahlKlii 15. Uoumi'l 19. Kouulukon W. TufaliHia 4S. llouua H. Ilamliouk 49. K\eo or Kalunga 1^. K(i«ei)a 30. Uaiuiiiakoo 113. Kdiiialia 31. KonK Vi. Kaiiijiusi &'i. ]lrlc|uante !.*>. Keinincio 33. Yaminy S6. Benowin 54. Oura 87. Tluluwt .33. Aklialltee SS. Shlnuarin 36. CaiM! Coast Caitlc SU. Walet 37. Il«nln 3u. (Itofiona 38. Waree 31. Kanoce|ihalus * Briu, BaiwtM. Papio* Chp. LtmuridtB. Lemurt. Llchanotui iU. t Leniur lU. t Olollcnui III. Chelromyi Cuv. t KMjxrMimU*. Ball. Pteropul * Briu, f Nycterli 0<^ Rhinolophus Taphozoiu G«iif. Chry$ixlilorii. Centenei i//. t MacrawellilesM.Sm. Ratellut* Cuv. Putorius Cuv. Lutra Auet. MqialoUi Itt. Vivenra Man^ata* Rhyzcena III. Proteles li. Onig; MyKna Au£t. OlaxiaP^nm, Arrtcola* Myoxus* Dipua Balhyergiu ///. Pedetei Orycteropua ///• UanUI.. Phaaeochsnu Styrax. AtitUovet. Aijiocerua (sub< genus) H. Sm. Oryi U. Sm. Uaaella* U.Stn, Antilope* If. Si>i. RcUunca H. Snu Traculua H. Sm, Cvphalophus //. Sm, NtwtraKus H. Sm. Tra^elaphuaH. &'ni, Oapra OvU DamalU H, Sm, Cntoblepaa H, Sm, holAucl. 4854. The Ornithological groups of Africa, distinct from those of Europe, furnish the following genera and sub-genera, many of which occur (generally with some modification of structure) in Southern Indda, and are designated thus (*). NORTH PART. I.Bcniiaii .- Barca 3. Uoraba 4. AuKela 5. Mvraya C. Ahlein Larcea ;. Klwali 8. Al Uarelon 9. Alexandria 10. El Ariah 11. Suez li. Cairo 1.1. Medina 14. Feshn \b. Souadl IC. Siiool l7.Sadfeh 18. Uirgeh 19. El Chariich 10. KlCaiai '/I. Tenlda n. Chebba •a. KalalHCh V4. 1.uxor SV Uhaieh M. Coaaeir !7. Berenice 28. r ■ Rijferences to the Map Aidhali S8. InlKellallt Sulakah 69. Mandera Huakin 60. Arkeeko Amour 61.(ienaleT Pr» 68. Antalo 63. Tamnno Derr 64. Uondar Serra Oharky 6.*). AlaU IScdeii/a 66. Sinasae Tinareh 67.tioodCTOo New Dongola fiH. . Utenha^e 40. liraham'ttTown 41. Frederickbburg. ir>. Ouilhr n.fubo Ihmane Hubo IH. Fort Sena 19. Kei>orted Capital of Mocaraiigtf *^0. I.udanze Ul. Chicova V8. /umtm V5. Zimbaoe V4. Dembararri S3. Maxafipa 86. Manica '47, Nofala yl. Inhambnne U9. Hakarrikanrl 30. AMtJita MADACAKCAH. 1. NarrMnda 5. Mobambo 3. Tananareivo 4. Tantamenu fi. ManaiiKarl 6. Ancove 7. Mourondava H. Ambatanib 9. Tllcar 10< Mananibatoo tMUth. Rivers. a Nile b Hareb c Angrab d Bahr t-1 Azergue or Blue liivtir e Maine fUahr el Abiadhi or White lUver RKeloo Zebte 1 Hawubh t KUleif k Mambaza 1 Quiumafugo m MonKftllo n Temlio o r.hiet-hire p MniiKaxa q Muruciira r Aro\t;raiiKa & Tambvzit or Cuama t Mazoa* or Aroanha u Sofala V Ktnf(Gt?ort;o*a w Mapoota X Orann J Nubariep 4 D 4 IH8 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pam III. ilUM'l|R'tll* fNlli rltPlUl'lllf. 'J'rii li"|ihiirii. • IVtii. Ilnlnwli. !M4U iiHii. Sir, lliinii Nhrikp. fniiiurii, I'MI. )lnninil Nhrlkr. hlylhilirrt Mm'i Wilt'lilfr IlrHi'tiiinyx Mh'. NtiitncUw. Km|iI((i>im tii«< NllkWMmri VMimCuv. WMowBlid. AtnHllna*Siv. Pinch. liUnldii*M>r. FIni'h. Ullophui yUl. llouMwim. l^aniprotoniU Tern. (Irnkle* Runluga /'. BacA'alcr. C^llu I.. Coll. Pn|J. Il.ni:).) l.eiilnMimua yicit, f Indicator VUit. Honey Guide. Cmtra|iui* III. iMtk Cuckoo. Corjrlhali ///. TouraiTo. Muio|ihiiKa lirrl. Hlanuln-eaier. Huceroi* L. Ilornbill. CInnyria* Cuv. Hun.binl. FromeroM * i.. Hooooe. Vlnaao*CKv. Plfinin. Numfda L, Crane. nny|rl>* "/. Uuall. SuuthloL. (Mrich. Anauromua*///. Oncnblll. IbU* AntUl. Ikil. Surr. III. Historical View of Africa, •IH,1,1. Al^ficn, tiottt, ruite, and perilous to the traveller, has always been held in the other i|iiHr>«rii ol till! glube as a region of wonders, which only the most daring enterprise durst Htloinpt to Dxplore. The Greeks were well acquainted with the tracts on the Mediterranean, coiilHiiiIng the uucv flourishing regions and states of Egypt, Carthage, and Cyrene ; but whuiiover thuy renehed their southern limit, they saw nothing but boundless sands scorched by tliu IlitvitHUst ravs of the sun. Hence it appears that the ancients drew the early hypullivnU of a torrid tone, within whose limits it was impossible for men and animals to vxUt. lllHtorliiiis mention several attempts to penetrate it, which had the most disastrous Ihiiiiv. Tla< flrst were prompted by views of conquest. Cainbyses, after subduing Egypt, eiutcnvourvd to cross the Nubian desert into Ethiopia. He soon, however, experienced a fniturti of invans fur the support of his army. Elated with victory, and obstinate in liis piirpoM), liu rufkiRud to retreat ; and the troops, after killing all their cattle, and then feeding on nucli HCttiity h«rlmgc as the ground aflbrded, came at last to the region of pure sand, on which was ii«un neither shrub nor blade of grass. In this dreadful extremity they began tu dovour VACh other ; and at length Cambyses, struck with horror, renounced his enterprise. ,\itotliiir vxiwditiutit Rcnl against the oasis of Ammon, never returned nor was heard of, and wa» bvlii>vv(l tu have been buried entire in that vast ocean of sand. These examples struck the world with terror, and prevented all further attempts, till the wild and enthusiastic daring of Aloxtindvr impelled him to seek a divine character at the shrine of Jupiter Ammon, The inwvli was accompliilied, but not without dreadful sufferings and extreme peril on the p.irt of tliu aritty, and the danger of perishing before they reached tlie verdant groves and Howing rivulft wliicli enclosed that celebrated temple. •IHA6, lflh« mighliett monarchs were thus baffled in their attempts to overcome the barrier of tliUNO awful solitudes, it was not likely that private adventurers should be more fortunate, Vvt the natural desire of man to penetrate into what is unknown and mysterious seems early tu hnvu had a powerful influence even upon individuals. Herodotus gives the narrative of An expfidltlon undertaken by some young Nasamonians of distinction, inhabitants of a ttirritory occupying pnrt of the modern Tripoli. They described themselves as passing suc- ccHKivtjIy through cultivated tracks, then through a region inhabited by wild beasts, and lastly urrivitig nt the great desert of sand. Having reached one of its verdant oases, and begun to pluck the (Vuit which was growing on the trees, they were surprised by a party of little black men, who took Ihein prisoners, and conveyed them to a city fur in the interior, traversed liy A river flowing from west to east. These particulars, notwithstanding the sceptical coin- mcnlt of M. Ousselin, seem strongly to point at central Africa and the course of the Niger. •IH.'iT. The Itomnns, when they had accomplished the final overthrow of Carthage, and CNlabllshcd their empire over Northern Africa, would doubtless be impelled both hy aiiibitlun and curiosity to make some en(|uiry as to what lay beyond. Their expeditions, however, having gained fur them no extension of power, have escaped the notice uf history. There occurs only in Ptolemy an incidental notice that a detachment under Septimus Flatcus, and Aiiothui ulcr Julius Maternus, had reached the country of the Ethiopians, after NUCCeii^tivu w IS of three and of four months; and the latter called the region Agysimba: but what till'; I- '' and what they found there is nowhere reported. 48,18, TAf ^ ,/•/» made to explore the coast of the African continent fonned the grandest object of nncient maritime enterprise. The voyages, therefore, undertaken with that vien', have been a leading feature in the '^"'^t part Lf this work, which details the progress of gcogrnphlcnl discovery (p. 10^ '.). '.'o the same part we must refer for the subsequent M'ttlcilU'lils formed by tlie Arabs, and for the expeditions undertaken in modern times to explorcllie interior of this continent, and the course of its great rivers (p. 5I.\ The chequered kcricN of success and disaster by which this career has been marked, composes the most InlerciilinK chatitcr in the history of modern discovery (p. 68-9.). The successive eftbrts niiide bylTiu African Association, by Park, Horneinann, Deiiham, Clapperton, and Lander, have at length lifted up, from a great portion of this continent, the mysterious veil by which it Imd MO long been covered. Skct. IV. Social and Political Stale of Africa, •18 ')«), 7'lit' political conttitutions tf Africa arc rude, and in general despotic. The unlimited power of the sovereign is in general checked only by the turbulence of aristocratic chiefs, not Book III. AFRICA. 1143 by any well-regulated freedom on the part of the people. Africa, liowevcr, is divided into an almost infinite variety of states, whose political system can only be understood by considering each in detail. Sbct. V. Induslry and Commerce in AJrica. 4860. The processes of agriculture and manufactures, in Africa, are performed generally in 3 rude and imperfect manner. The soil, however, is cultivated almost throughout, to a greater or less extent ; and some fine fabrics, particularly those of cotton, cloth, mats, and gold ornaments, are very widely diffused. 4861. Africa has scarcely any trade, except that which is carried on overland and across its oceans of desert, by caravans, consisting cluefly of camels. It is truly astonishing with what facility these companies now make their way to the remotest interior of the continent, in defiance of obstacles which might have been deemed insuperable. By these immense journeys they procure considerable quantities of gold and ivory ; but the importance of these articles is merged in a cruel and iniquitous traffic, of which Africa has always been the main theatre. Other parts of the globe have for ages depended upon its oppressed and unfortunate inhabitants, for supplying their demand for slaves. Whoever, throughout Africa, has the evil power of selling any of his fellow creatures, is sure to find purchasers who will give in exchange the best products of Europe and the East. Some are condemned to slavery under a criminal code, framed by legislators who make it a study to multiply the number of such offences as may be made punishable in this lucrative manner; others are captives taken in war ; but a large proportion are procured by mere slave-hunting expeditions, undertaken even by the most civilised states against neiglibours whom, with little reason, they account more barbarous than themselves. The number thus conveyed across the desert, to fill the harams of Turkey and Persia, has been rated at 20,000. These, however, serve merely as domestic slaves; and, though subjected to many humiliations, they are, on the whole, mildly treated. A much severer lot awaits those who, from the western shores of Africa, are carried off by the polished people of modern Europe. After suffering through the passage under a confinement and pestilential air which prove fatal to a large proportion, they are sold to taskmasters whose sole object is, under a burning sun, to extract from them the utmost possible amount of labour. It is calculated that, during the flourishing period of the slave trade, 80,000 were annually transported across the Atlantic. At length, however, the wrongs of Africa were heard ; Britain, roused by the voice of some generous philanthropists, took the lead in the cause of humanity. The resistance was powerful, and it occasioned many years of debate, signalised by the long labours of Wilberforce, Clarkson, and other friends of Africa, till, in 1806, Mr. Fox moved and carried the bill for the final abolition of the trade of importing slaves into the British colonies. It has since been declared felony for a British subject to engage in this trade. America and France afterwards followed the example ; and thus the export of slaves from the northern part of Guinea has been in a great measure prevented ; though the numbers still procured from the southern quarters of Benin and Congo, by the Spaniards and Portuguese, are but little diminished. 4862. This vast continent is almost universally in a state of barbarism : yet in ancient times its northeri' states rivalled Europe in civilisation. Egypt and Carthage, when in their glory, ranked among the most civilised and opulent states then existing. Even after the first ravages of the Saracens, learning and science distinguished the splendid courts established in the west of Barbary. The continued influence, however, of a gloomy superstition, and the separation caused by it from all the refined modern nations, have induced among these states a general relapse into barbarism. The population of the continent may now, in a large view, be divided into Moors and Negroes. The Moors, including the descendants of the original Arab invaders, and those whom conquest and religion have assimilated with them, fill all northern Africa and the Great Desert. They reach the banks of the Senegal and the Niger, which may be considered as the boundary of the two races, though they mingle and alternate on the opposite sides, where sometimes one, sometimes another, hold the chief sway. The Moors are a rough roving race, keeping numerous herds, chiefly of camels, with which they perform immense journeys through the most desolate tracts, and across the greatest breadth of the continenu Africa is indebted to them for all the literature she possesses ; at least, few of the Negroes can read or write who have not learned from them. The Moors, however, at least all that scour the desert, are a race peculiarly unamiable. A furious bigotry, joined to the most embittered hatred of the Christian name, renders them mortal foes to every European traveller who falls into their power. The Negroes, on the contrary, though interior in arts and attainments, are generally courteous, gay, and hospitable. Like all barbarous nations, they are fond of war, and cruel to their enemies ; but their domestic intercourse is friendly, and they receive with kindness the unprotected stranger. They are led away with fantastic superstitions, charms, witchcraft, ordeal, &c. ; but these errors never impel them to hate or persecute those who entertain the most opposite belief. Tiicir external aspect is well known, being marked by a deep black colour, flat nose, thick 1144 DESCHIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part IH. lips, and coarse liair like wool. The Moors are deeply embrowned by the influence of tlie iun, but have not the least of the Nej^ro colour or aspect. Sbct. VI. TIte African l.anguagei. 4863. A general view of the African languages may here be most advantageously intro- duced. For this and the two remaining divisions, a summary notice may sufRce, as most of the idioms included in them are as yet too imperfectly known to admit an ethnogra- phical classification equally definite with those of Asia and Europe. This is the less to bu regretted, since few if any of the nations properly belonging to those divisions can be said to posses* a literature. Indeed, what native people south of the equator can be said to have a cultivated language ? 4864. The Jfrican languages hitherto known may be classed in five branches : — 1. The languages of the region of the Nile. 2. Those of the region of Atlas. 3. The languages of maritime Nigritia. 4. Those of South Africa. 5. Those of the Soudan, or Interior Nigritia. 1. The languages of the region, of lite Nile may be classed in the following manner, of course excluding those spoken by nations belonging to the Shemitic family, as the Abyssinians, who speak the Gheez, the Amhara, and other idioms of the Abyssinian branch ; and the Turks, the ruling nation of Egypt, who are of Tartar origin : — The Egyptian family, including the ancient Egyptian, and the modern Egyptian, or Coptic. The Nubian family. The Troglodutic family. The Sliilio-Dankali. The Chillouk. The Dizzela. The Tacazxe-Shangalla. The Cheret-Agow. Tlie Aguw-Damo. The Gafale. The Gurunue. 2. The languages of lite region ^ Atlas, including the Atnaugh, Ertana, Tibbo, Chcllouk, and Guanche. 3. The laitguages of Maritime Nigritia. Under this term are comprehended all the languages spoken in the country called by the French Senegamhia, and in Guinea. The following are the principal in this group: — 1. The Foulalt. '2. The ilfaiu/tngo family. 3. The lyolqf, or lolqf, with various others. 4. The Asltaniee family. 5. The Dagwumba. 6. The Ardralt family. 7. The Kaylee family. 4. The languages of South Africa, amidst the uncertainty and obscurity that still envelope them, may be classed in the following families : — 1 . The Congo family. 2. The Co/frt! family. 3. 'The Hottentot family. 4. 'the Monotnotapa. 5. Gallass besides some independent languages, as the SomauU, and the Molteitemougi. 5. The principal languages of Interior Nigritia, or the Soudan, are, the Tombuctuo, the Haoussa, the Maiulara, tlie Darfur, tlie lyassaiiah, the Mahee, and the Eyeos, or Eyo. Chap. II. EGYPT. 4865. The whole north-eastern part of Africa consists of a mighty expanse of desert sand, extending for upwards of a thousand miles in each direction. The chains of arid and rocky mountains by which it is traversed give only a more rugged and dreary character to this immense waste. One vast feature alone breaks its terrible monotony. From tlie high chains of Abyssinia, and from the still loflier Mountains of the Moon that traverse central i LOWER EHVPT. S9. Scmenhond 4. I. Aleundlia 30. Tuita 6. i. Abaukir 31. Aalkam 3. Kouch 32. MeletUhamr 6. 4. Daharieh 33, Tel IlaXa 7. S. Rahmanle 34. Rclbcii 8. 6. Suidddi . Harehetient , Feahn , Sakleh I Barkah , Rahnaceh , Ibrahim Abou Giritdl , Reheneae , Shdk Hauan . Hamelood , MInleh , Kouadl , Matahareh , Heni Obeld . Melawlel Artih Dalgdi , El Coaitehttua UPPER EGYPT S5. Old Coaseir 5S. E» Tli€l]aale« 5. Manfklout 31. Hachachiuh 56, llelrii 6. Ea Siout y^. Ruins of Thebei 57, DafK-ifim 7. Arab Halem .13. Reiadleh 58, K»s«ilah 8. El Motinar 34. RIaarat 59, Shvik Allel 9. Sadfeh.orldfeh ■U. Deliaibieh 60, Ilmilak 10. Cau el Kebir .16. Aifoun 61, El Kariteh 11. Tahu ,17, Esneh IVi. AIn ni^ch IS. El Harideh .18, El Hibeh 63. Ikrenice. 1.3. El Maraitat 39. Koum .Mereh 14. El AkhnUm.or 40. El Kab loia. Ekhnilm 41. Kouinel Alin.ar a V.:r .. 1, 15. El Medihleh el a. Edfou h H. ui .. Nede 43, RedMleh c Mi'ii/atuh 16.«ltiieh,orOJlrJeh44. El K,inr d Birkit Keroua. 17. El Teheinan 4», Chelielkeh 18. El Kerbeh 46, Heiraa nirrri anil f.i»Ji. 19, Sanihout 47. Koum Ombou a Aleaanilria<'aiut SI), Kl Gezu 48. muaan h Asarah Canal SI. El Wafa 49. El Akhabeh el c Mrllk Cuial SS. El Gahieb Hailreli 50. Koullanieh.or d AhlitounCanaJ S3. Ilendera V Moez Canal M.UhennehiOT Abou Azia r Kirs Nile. Kiniwl) 61. Ea Saua LHT 111. \ari<.Klm 58. Ilossitah • 59. Shiik Allet an. Iknilak Gl. E\ KaiRth n*2. Ain I)i^ 63. Ikrcnicc. , M.t.M. I, II. U-; c Mfii/ali'n d Birkrt KeloM. Bi,.fTioi»ir.ii>'i<- A Alexa"'^"'^''"'* b AWah Canil c Mfli* i;"i»' , il Aklitoun CjmI r MoeiCaMl f Hlver Nile. SO „, LonuituUe 33 EmI from 33 (irteimiili ;jj 1146 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part MI. AfHcM, descend numerous and ample streams, which, long before ontorlng Egypt, iinlto In forming the Nile, a river of the first magnitude. Although the Nile, in Us whole progrvM through this desert, does not receive the accession of a single rivulet, it brings so vimt nti original store as enables it to reach and pour a mighty stream into the Medltorrinieiin. Vor many hundred miles in the upper part of its course, confined between high and rucliy liiinkn, It is merely bordered by a brilliant belt of fertility, the sandy waste stretching indi'lliiiivjy on both sides : this is Nubia. After traversing the barrier of the cataracts, It pusses tlirouKli a broader valley between mountains of some height, and on its banks are many sliiulvd iir inundated tracts, which yield products of considerable value i this is Upper Egypt. I'inivruing ttom these mountains, the Nile enters a flat and extensive plain, where It Ni'parnleit, niiil liy two great ^nd divided streams, with various intersecting branches, enters the Mi'dilerrntivnii ; this is Lower Egypt. In thi-s last part of its course, the Nile is netrly on a level wiih ihu district which it intersects, and, when swelled by the autumnal rains of centrnl AlViiii, overtiows it entirely. The waters begin to rise about the 18th or 10th of June, utiAiti ihujr greatest height in September, and subside as gradually as they rise, and within about n\\ viiusl space of time. The land thus covered with the fertilising alluvial deposit, I'ollet'ted (iiirlnir 10 lengthened a course, becomes the most productive perhaps on the face of tliv gloliv ; hikI, notwithstanding its limited extent, and the mighty wastes on which it borders, hits iilwnyn maintained a numerous population. 4H66. Thus Egypt exitts tolely by th- Nile, and within the sphere of its aviloii. Thv encircling desolation is only broken, to ttiH west of Upper Egypt, by one large vitlle, i'iil|(, beyond whose cataracts Nubia begins, is in 24° 5'. This gives an extent uf 7^ U!i', ur nlKiiit S'M miles directly north and south, and the distance is somewhat augmented by llie hvtullnv of the river; Syenc being about two degrees east of Rosetta, and one east uf Ujiiiilcttii, The breadth is mucii uTe vague. The sea coast which forms the base of the Dvltit (torn Alexandria to the extremity of Lake Menzaleh, will measure upwards of 1,10 miles ) hut In ascending tn Cairo, not more than ninety miles from the sea, the cultivated Irnct tiiin'ra almost to a point; and through the whole of Upper Egypt seldom exceeds tliebrenillhiifl'utir or five miles. Beyond this space, the country passes, by insensible yet rapid grndnlliih«, Into wild wastes, the domain of wandering Arabs. Egypt has always claimed ns liur own llioto rocky and sandy tracts, about 100 miles in breadth, which stretch tiom the Nile lo tliv H«ii 8«a. Although, however, she anciently formed a caravan route across them to llii' grunt lea-port of Berenice, it does not appear that any attempt was ever made lu bring It Into » civilised and cultivated form. On the west the transition has been still morvuhriipli into tliv pathless tracts of central Africa ; for even the oases, strong in the surrounding deNoliitiiin, linvo seldom owned any permanent subjection to the power which ruled over Egypt. 'I'liu Imunij. ■ries of that country, like its dimensions, are very undecided. The posltbin of this country is, in a remarkable degree, both central and insulated. It is placed amidst others wlik'li lisvu been eminently distinguished in history, yet is separated from each uf them by broiiil i'ii|iitHiri of sea and desert. On the north the Mediterranean divides it IVom tirvecci allowin); its vessels, by an easy navigation, to reach the coast of Syria, of Asia Minor, ami even ul' Itnly. To the cast the Red Sea separates it from Arabia, except at the desert isthmiiit ul' 8u('t, beyond which are Syria and Palestine, the countries with which Egypt has always nuilnliiini'il the most important political relations. To the south is Nubia, with all Ihose wlilu tritcit comprehended by the ancients under the vague name of Ethiopia. Nt>twitlnitaiiillnf| its proximity and close intercourse, the thinness of its population, and the difllcultv of iim'sn have prevented that region from ever being fully conquered or incorporated with l'igy|il. On the west, Egypt is separated from Barbary by immense wastes of trncklcHH deNvrta, wliitli prevent every approach to national union. Caravans, indeed, by indefatigable lU'livity, liovi' formed a route across it ; but an army lias never entered it without encountering (liu must overwhelming disasters. SiCT. II. Natural Geography, SuHSECT. 1. Geology. 4HRH. In Upper Egypt, three geological regions can be distinguished i — I. The most southern, the gratiite region; which extends flroni I'hilie throiiKli ll» cataract district to Syene. It aflbrds, besides granite, also syenite and siinie oIIut cryntiillini' primitive rocks. Tlie finest granites and syenites are red and highly crystHllUi'd ; iinil '"■'■ Book III> EGYPT. ur inarkable for their durability and the fine polish which they are capable of receiving. Colotwl ■tatues, pilian, obelisks, and even whole temples, are constructed of these bcnutifbl rockt. It is said that the third pyramid of Djiieh, and also that of Mycvrinus, were originally caiicd with slabs of granite. 2, The most ^ northern, the limettone regioih extends some days' journey south of Thebes. This limestone was formerly much used as a building material. The catacomb* of Thebes are situated in this limestone. 3, The third, or sandstone region, lies between the two former, and extends from Syene northwards to £sii& This sandstone is by some authors referred to the grtis, or sandstono of Fontainebleau, the paving-stone of Paris ; by others to the molasse of Switierlaiid : but all are agreed in considering it as a comparatively recent deposit. Its colours are white, gruy, and yellow ; it is very soft and easily worked, and the buildings constructed of it would probably not have long resisted the weather, had they not been covered with a coloured vamiili. The great temples, and many pillars and obelisks, are of this sandstone, but it docs not appear ever to have been used in building private houses. 4, The whole of Egypt to the north of the limestone, that is, the DtUa region, is prin- cipally composed of alluvium deposited from the waters of the Nile. SuBSECT. 2. Botantf of Egypt, Nubia, and Barbary. 4869. We shall, with Mirbel, consider Egypt, Nubia, and Barbary, as the Southern Transition Zone, already spoken of: the Mediterranean dividing it from the Northern Zone. 4R70. From the Bed Sea to the Atlantic Ocean, and from the Tropic of Cancer to the Mwlitcrranean, the greater part of the soil of Africa presents nothing but deserts, inter* apvrsi'd with oases. 4871. Mary of the springs afford only brackish water, and the rivers and torrents rarely reach the sea ; being absorl^ by the sands or dried up by the heat. The Nile is the only navigable river ; and the alluvial soil which its periodical overflowing deposits on the shores and over the plains of Lower Egypt, with the hills on the coast of Cyrcnaica, some pro- vinces of Fezzan, and the western part of Barbary, which is intersected by the range of Mount Atlas and its ramifications, are almost the only productive parts, and their fer- tility is truly astonishing. 4S72. The winter temperature of the coasts falls as low as + 7'S"» at Alexandria, Rosetta, and Damietta; but, in general, it oscillates between .i- 13^ and 18°. At some distance from the sea, the climate of the plains is scorching at all seasons. Still it sometimes happens in winter, that the violent northerly winds do sink the temperature for a very short period to + 6°, + 5°, and even + 2°, and zero, iu latitudes adjoining the tropics. 4873. Jt Cairo (lat. 30° Of) the mean annual temperature is + 22-4<'; that of winter, 4-14-7°; in spring, •(- 23-1°; in summer, + 29'5° ; in autumn, + 21-9°: in tha hottest month, + 29*9°; in the coldest, -f 13 -4°. 4874. At Algiers (lat. 36" 48') the annual mean is + 21'1°; in winter, + 16-4'; in spring, + 18-7°; in summer, +26*8°; in autumn, + 22-5<': in the hottest month, + 28-2° ; in the coldest, + 13-4°. 4875. Westward of the Bed Sea lies Egypt, a spacious valley, bounded by mountains and deserts. At the period of the greatest heats, the traveller who for the first time visits this country, which is so celebrated for its fertility, feels great smprise : his disappointed glances only rest on a vast plain, enclosed by whitish and naked mountains, and sprinkled with a few trees and withered herbs. At the summer solstice, the swelling of the Nile com- mences, and about the autumnal equinox the country is so inundated as to resemble a great lake, above the waters of which appear, here and there. Date trees. Figs, Acacias, Willows, Tamarisks, &c. At the approach of the winter solstice, the waters gradually retire, and vegetation occupies, in succession, the spots that become dry. Upon this damp and muddy soil, splendid harvests rise, which have cost nothing more than casting the seed on the ground. All kinds of grain are ripe before the month of May, when returning heat de- stroys the verdure. By the close of December, or the beginning of January, the trees are stripped of their foliage ; scarcely all the old leaves being detached, when the new ones are expanded. The exhalations that rise from the Mediterranean fall again in rain on the shore ; while in the interior, the showers are few and light. The clouds which are driven by the north wind towards the high mountains of Africa, and are dissolved in the flaming atmo- sphere of Upper Egypt, pass away unperceived : nothing dims the clearness of the sky. " What will you say," so writes Hasselquist to Linnaeus, " when I tell you that there arc trees which have existed here for 600 years, on which not six ounces of water have ever fallen." The country would be uninhabitable during summer, if the sea-breeie, accom- panied by abundant dews, did not moderate the heat of the atmosphere. The traveller may wander for many days in the deserts of Egypt, Nubia, Libya, and Fezzan, and the northern part of Bornou, without finding a drop of water, or the smallest trace of vegetation. Tlie loil 1140 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. PahtIU. in MmctitnM formed of pebble* and gnye\ ; but oftener of a ralcareoui shining land, coated with saline efflorescence. On its surface are shells, marine sponges, and petriHed trunkn uC trees; all attesting the ancient revolutions of our globe. At intervals, ridges of calcRrcmis mountains, quite destitute of vegetable soil, cut up the arid plains in different dirvctioii',. Some of the districts which are during winter bedewed with rain, produce at that sconon, i vegetation which suffices fur the nourishment of numerous flocks ; but so soon as the griMi heats return, every appearance of verdure is lost. How, indeed, can vegetation rvHi^t la, atmosphere, of which the temperature sometimes rises to -f 50°? The low apolii, and the beds of the torrents where humidity lingers longest, produce some shrubs and niidtr. shrubs, OS the Tamarisks ( Tamarix gallica, africana, and orU-iilalu), the Caper plant, mmv Ck. sias. Acacias, Mimosas, &c. The saline soils again present the harder and thorny Hpi'cii>T«ifTR»uii csTiTAiMHUH. gr„ws as for OS the coasts of the Bight of Benin, the Acacia vera, and other species of the same genus, also affording gum' with a tree of the family of Coniferie, which many travel' .'rs have taken fur the me, but which is probably a species of Juniper or Thuja. The Orange, Citron, Banana, Olive, Pomegranate, Peech, and other fruit trees, with Rice, Wheat, and Barley, &c., are cultivated in these spots. 4H76. Egypt also jiroduces the Chriit'i Thorn [Zizyphua Spinti Chrisli), the Chaste trrc ( Vitex Agnm caatut), Salvadora perHica, the Oleander 1 Nerium Oleander), ond other woody Axclepiades, the Sycamore Fig {Ficm Sycamonis} ; Acacia gLmmifera, nilotica, fnrnesiana, Iit-l)lK.'ck, albida, Sejnl, heterocarpa, senegalensis ; Mimosa Habbas, or M. polyacaniha; llie I'rickly Fig (Cactus Opuntia), &c. In some of the gardens at Cairo grow the Weeping \Vi|. low (,SVr//.r Miylonica), S. egyptiaca and subaerrata, the White and Black Poplars, the Cypress the OiNsin Fistula, Anona squamosa, the Tamarind, &c., with our common Elm, which only attiiins the height of a shrub. Formerly the Sacred Bean of India {Nelumbium spt- rinmim Willd., Cyamus Nelumbo Smith) displayed its broad foliage and splendid flowers on the waters of the Nile : it has now disappeared. Representations of it siill exist on the ruins of ancient monuments. Can this lovely plant, which is indigenous to the East Indies, have been an exotic in Egypt, and only preserved there by cultivation? This is very probable. 4877. The mountains qf small eleration in Cyrenaica produce abundantly the Carob tree, the Olive, Mjinic, LentUk, Arlnitui or Strawlwrry tree, and Juni|icrus phoenicca : tliclr summits arc clothed with thick fornu of a Thuja, which ia doubtlesa Frcaiiclla Fontancili ( Thuja arliculala Deaf). Oaki, which are so abuiidiut u|>on Mount Atlas, the Date and Prickly Fig, are wanting here. 4878. The Atlas mountains, whose highest summits do not exceed 7000 feet according to Mirbcl, 1 1,4(X) feet according to recent travellers, consist of two parallel cliuins, numiii),' east and west, between lat. 28-' and S3'\ They divide Barbary from the great desert of S:diara. The range nearest the coast, refreshed by the sea breezes and frequent sliowers, is covered with forests. The other, lying towards the desert, is dry and nearly barren. Some large intermediate valleys, which are watered by a great number of rivers and streams, are surprisingly fertile. In summer, the air is so hot and oppressive, in the southern districts, tliat the inhabitants quit their dwellings to live under the shadow of the Palm trees. 4879. Though the plain* of the northern parts be generally sandy, they display great richncw of vegetation wherever they are not quite destitute of humidity. Winter is to them llie season of verdure ; a gentle degree of warmth, accompanied by rain, hastens the growth of a multitude of plants, and flowers spring up in the open country, as they do in our climate at the return of spring. But when the sun draws near the tropic, rain ceases, the rivers dn up, the atmosphere becomes scorching, the leaves of the trees lose their verdure, and everj plant is burnt up under foot. 4880. The forests of Barbary occupy ttie higher ranges of Mount Atlas. They arc chiefly formni nf ll( Cork tree and llox, Uucrcus obtecta, pscudo-aulier, coccifera, pseuilo-coccifera, &c. ; the rnii are eaten by the native*, the Alcpiio I'nie il'iiius AuA'/ii'isis), I'l^mlli Funtane«ii, Juni|icru8 phienicea anil lyci^ and tlie Cypress. M. Uest'ontaines, to whom sciciuo is iiiuM for an excellent work on the vegetation of the atatei of Algiers and Tunis, has rarely seen the C'uinjiion U» Daok 111* EOYFT. Il# toun - ,, ■ V .1 .„ ».vi -v. .- — ) wnodv plantt, that Is nhoiit 8»» ihrulw ami till tree., which Nor hern AlVlea poMeie. ' ' " 4H(i2. In Jill.', tluTc are no luss tlian lialf tlic gpcclcii, whctlicr woody or lierbacvoiii, of Egypt, Libya, or VVesti-rn Barl)Bry, l)ut also grow in the other Mediterranean coun. tries bclunKiKg to the Transition Zone. ■1883. The Cuniferev and AinentacetB contribute twenty-four tree* to Northern AfVica j tlio LcguminosaB, eleven ; the Terebinthaceie, five or lix ; the Itosaceie, four or five, &c. The Hicinus (Jig. 755.), or Castor-oil plant, wliicli only appears a tall herb in the South of E. lope, grows to a tree on the southern shores of the Mediterranean. 4884. The proportion of trees and ahnihs to the annual, biennial, and perennial plants is about one to six. 4885. That of perennial to annual and biennial plant* is seven to nine. Here the proportion is increasing, while in the other parts of the lone it is decreasing. This anomaly is, perhaps, more in appearance than in reality, and would probably disappear if wc knew all the herba- ceous plants of Mount Atlas ; for it cannot be doubted that, on mountains, the number of perennial greatly exceeds that of annual plants. 4880. The plants collected bif the late Dr. Oudniy, from Tripoli to Mounouk, are, with the exception of a few species, identical with those of Barbary. 4887. Of all the coast provinces of Africa, Lower Egypt possesses the largest number of equatorial plants; which must be attributed, not only to the vicinity of Arabia, but to the presence of the Nile, whose waters, descending from a country very near tlic equator, necessarily waft, er of seeds, many of which grow and propagate themselves under the burning sky of Egypt. 4888. OfE^pt, Forskiil, a celebrated writer on the botany of that region, says, that it hat little in coninion with other countries. " All that is seen in it excites admiration, whether the works of men or of nature. Lofty mountains ure unknown there, and alpine productions arc consequently banished. The absence of woods excludes a vast number of flowers; nor do tliose plants flourish which properly belong to rivers and lakes. Tlie cold of the northern regions forbids the growth of tender exotics. Egypt, on the contrary, consumes them with unwonted heat. The same advantages of climate and soil, which favour native plants, banish foreign ones. Every kind of vegetable cannot subsist without rain, without the vapour of springs, rivers, or marshes, without the cool shades of mountains and woods. They are not all qualified to ('ndure the diurnal heat by the periodical refreshment of the nocturnal dew. In the dry soil of sonic parts of Egypt, seeds of other climes quickly perish ; again, plants coming from a dry soil ill endure the inundation and marshy state of other parts. Tiie plants of Egypt are fitted to exist by a peculiar vegetative economy. Their texture is loose, and, as it were, plethoric ; so that their proper aliment is prepared in con- tinually distended veins. The widely opened mouths of the vessels receive the copious dews ; and the leaves perforin the functions of so many roots. Hence, great transpiration is excited ; and the moist roots enable them to endure the summer sun, and to pass from the extreme drought of summer to the humidity of a three-months' flood. Besides, the inverted order of things \\v\i prevails here, covers the Egyptian fields in winter witli verdure and blossom, while t!ii.' piants of Europe arc undergoing a state of repose. Sandy deserts, destitute of moisture, insulate the vegetation of Central Africa, and prevent its extending to Europe. Seeds, too, which drop accidentally on the earth, and are subsequently covered by tlie sediment of the river, are never likely to be developed. This is the reason, too, why the entomology of Egypt is so poor. The eggs and chrysalides of insects arc smothered by the stagnant waters ; some few families retire to the trees and loftier shrubs ; but there are not enough of these sheltering spots to protect them from the scorching atmosphere. In like manner, the birds, which inliabit mountains and groves, avoid these exposed and thirsty lields. 4889. The northern plnnts, therefore, most of which belong to mountains or lakes, oi'c lltfO DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. entirely absent. A few only, scattered, and changed in appearance, show themselves as strangers. Egypt arms with thorns the Colutea and the Carduus ; while Sweden poiiita the leaves of the Juniper and Fir. The one abounds with Dates and Sycamore trce« ; the other with Willow-grounds. The Nile is clothed with luxuriant reeds; Sweden maintains an endless race of Carices. The entire absence of Fungi, in the moist soil of Egypt, h remarkable ; Musses and Lichens are extremely rare, and chiefly exotic. 4890. The phnls of Egypt may, therefore, be distributed into two classes ; of which the principal feature is the presence or absence of water. 4891. The irriguous or cuitivaled plants, M of y/hich are exotic, owe their introduction and propagation to human industry. The number of fruit trees by no means answers to the culture and fertility of the soil. The most flourishing of these are, the Date and Syca- more ; which, perhaps, have the greatest power of sending their roots deep into tlie ground, in quest of latent moisture. The spontaneous plants belonging to this division are scvn either near the Mediterranean or the banks and islands of the Nile ; or they occupy the edges of fields and gardens which are artificially irrigated. 4892. Every region, almost every province, has its peculiar Satanic Garden, in which plants spontaneously thrive, being particularly favoured by the soil. The peninsula Ras-et-tin is distinguished from the shore of Alexandria by eminences, fields, fig planta- tions, fosses, salines, and a variety of shady open places. Thus, plants of very difi'tTont kinds are collected in a small space, each having appropriated to itself its own fit habitation. What is still better, in this place the botanist may pursue his researches with security ; the situation defending him from the attacks of robbers. The portion of the peninsula which joins it to the land is occupied by dwellings; the rest is Iraunded by the sea, and the Arabs arc afraid either to cross the water or to go through the city. 4893. Of noxious and useless plants, there are either none, or they are very few, and occupy remote spots ; the reason for which is obvious ; the unceasing cultivation of the more valuable plants entirely excluding the weeds. To the conveniently situated lands no rest is allowed ; as crop after crop is carried away, the ground is turned up with the plough, till every weed is extirpated, and the thick growth of the cultivated plants choke the last Ktraggling native of the soil. Should any remain, in a field not immediately sowi>d, tliey fail not to be destroyed by the heat. 4894. The desert plants, again, form a strong contrast to the former class ; bL'i:i>r distin- guished by their poor and parclied growth, which almost seems to bespeak one's compassion. Even the dreariest spots are not wholly destitute of vegetation, about fifty species having fixed their abode there, and affording a niaintenancc, though of the slenderest and coaraist kind, to the flocks of the wandering Bedouins. These plants seem to partake of tht! nature of the soil which supports them, being arid and crustaccous ; their huUuw leaves, however, often retain the moisture of the nightly dews and winter clouds, which pe- riodically call them into life. They are growing till the end of March, and disseminate tlieir seeds during April and May ; but before the summer solstice arrives, they are almost all withered. 4895. The Sate is the principal object of cultivation ; the trees are planted at intcrt-als of eighteen feet, and after six years they bear fruit. When they are young and tender, it is customary to cover them with mats, so as to cause the leaves to form themselves into a trunk ; every year two rows of boughs are cut off round the tree, so that their age is easily computed. 4896. But of the plants of Egypt, a few, for which that country is rendered remark- able, must be here noticed: and among them none is more worthy than the Papyrus {^fig. 7.'>6.), commonly called the Papyrus of the Nile, cr of Egypt ; because, thougli apparently of rare occurrence in that country, it was theri- first employed in making paper. It is the irairvpos of Tlieo- phrastus and of Dioscorides; Papyrus of Pliny, and Bera of the Egyptians; in Syria, Babier (whence come the wurds Papyrus an(l Paper) ; Cyperus Papyrus of Linnojus, and P. anli- quurum of Link. It is not an unfrequcnt inmate of the stoves uf our country ; where, if the roots be kept constantly moist, it flourishes, and is higlily ornamental. The main stem, surroundi'd at the base by a few short leaves, is bluntly triangular, und attains a height of ten or twelve feet, bearing a large compound uniM of slender, feathery, gracefully recurved, and very numerous flower- stalks, with inconspicuous blossoms. It is from the delicate and white pith which fills the interior of the stems of this tine plant, that the ancients prepared their paper. To accomplish this, after having removed tlie epidermis, they cut the spongy part into lliin slices, which they steeped in the water of the Nile, or into wattr slightly imbued witli gum ; after which, two layers were plai'iil one above another, taking care to arrange them in contrary dine 756 Book HI- EGYPT. IIAI tioiis, that is, alternately breadthwise and lengthwise, many layers being often required to make one sheet of paper. Then the article was dried, and subjected to a strong pressure, and finally smoothed with a tooth, or a piece of polished ivory. On this kind of paper, most of the ancient manuscripts were inscribed ; especially those which have been brought to light by the excavations at Ilerculaneum and Pompeii. 4897. Other accounts, indc'd, of the ancient mode of preparing paper from the Papyrus are a good deal at variance with what is above given, and with what we know of the structure of the plant in question ; which is by no means composed of layers, but is an unifonn mass of very cellular pith, covered by the epidermis. Thus, according to Theophrastus, '■ For making paper, the stoutest stems of the Papyrus were selected ; the thin layers were divided, the central ones being the finest, whitest, and most esteemed. Afler these were spread out, and the irregularities reduced, the muddy water of the Nile, which somewhat partakes of the nature of paste, was sprinkled over them ; many leaves being requisite to form one sheet of paper. It was common, afler pressing them, to beat them with a mallet, to dry and polish them; all these preparations being essential, before the paper would bear writiri;; and for such as was destined to keep a long time, the precaution of rubbing it with cedar oil, which imparted to it the incorruptible nature of that tree, was also adopted." This account is, in all probability, applicable lo the paper of the ancients made from trees inhabiting marshy situations, such as the Willow, Poplar, &c. 4898. The sacred Lotus of Egypt is a plant that has elicited much controversy, and it does appear that, in dilTerent and even in the same countries, the inhabitants called very dis- similar plants by the name of Lotus. According to Shaw, in the plate that represents the mosaic pavement at Prsneste, relating to some of the animals and plants of Egypt and Ethiopia (and of which a full history is given in Montfaticon's ./Intiqiiities, v. 14.), the Lotus of those countries is unquestionably a Water Lily, of which three kinds are mentioned by M. Desfontaines, and represented on many Egyptian monuments. " Two of them," he says, " have been well described in the works of Herodotus and Theophrastus ; one has white flowers and fruit lik° that of a |i«ppy, full of a great number of small seeds : this is the Nymphtea liOtus (fig. 757.) of Linna.-us. The other, called by Herodotus the I^ily Rose of the Nile, and by Theophrastus the Egyptian Bean, or Lotus of Antinoiis, has a flower of a lovely red, and a fruit shaped like the rose of a watering-pot, pitted with deep hollows, each containing an oblong seed, as large as a small filbert ! this is the Nymphtea Nelumbo of Linnaeus, the Cyamus Nelumbo of Sir J. E. Smith, and, according to him, the kvohos of the ancients, which has been confounded by other able writers with the true Lotus of Egypt, Nymphaea Lotus, and has probably become important in the Egyptian Mythology only as a substitute for the former (the real " Lotus of India"). This fruit, compared by Theo- phrastus to a wasp's nest, is represented on various Egyptian monuments. 4899. The red-jlorvered Lotus is common in India, but has disappeared in Egypt ; its former existence there being incontestably proved by the testimony of Herodotus and Theophrastus. 4900. Lastly, the third species has blue flowers, and a fruit like the first : it is likewise delineated on the monu- ments of antiquity, and has been noticed by Athenaeus. This author says that at Alexandria the crowns worn at the festivals of Antinoiis were composed of the red or the blue Lotus. MM. Delille and Savigny observed the blue Water-lily Lotus, in Egypt, and have described it under the name of Nymphaca ca-iu!ca. 4901. The Egyptian Arum {A. Colocasia Linn.) (fig. 758.) abounds in Egypt, Syria, and the adjacent countries, and is extensively cultivated for the sake of its large esculent roots, which are no less esteemed than those of the allied Arum esculentum Linn, in the West Indies. The gourd and cucum- ber tribe are every where planted ; no kind, however, being held in such favour as the Cucumis Chata, which, says Hasselquist, grows about Grand Cairo, and nowhere else, and which the grandees and Europeans in the capital eat as the most pleasant fruit they can obtain, and that from which their health is least liable to suffer. 4 E NYHrilAA LUTUt. MVVTIAf AKim. 1158 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. CARTRAHtiS TIffCTnRIlIt* 4902, The Carthamus tinctorius {fig. 759. )> or Safflowcr, is raised in large quantities yen throughout the country, and is a source of much profit to the natives. Besides its valuable properties as a dye, at Cairo the young leaves are considered an excellent salad. 4903. The Onion {Allium Cepa) is a plant, the use of which may be traced, in Africa, and especlully in Egypt, to a period of very high antiquity, so far back as 2000 years before Christ It still forms a favourite addition to the food of the Egyptians. Hasselquist, in a panegyric on the exquisite flavour of the Egyptian onion, remarks, that it is no wonder the Israelites after quitting the land of bondage, should have regretted tiie loss of this delicacy as they did, with the reproachful exclamation, " we remember the fish that we did eat in Egypt, the cucum- bers, and the melons, the leeks, and the onions, and the garlic,' These roots arc mild and pleasant in Egypt, though strong and nauseous in other countries. There they are soft and yielding • but in more northern regions they are hard, and their coats so compact, as to render them difficult of digestion. The Egyp- tians and Turks eat them roasted and cut into four pieces, with some bits of cooked meat : a preparation which they call kebab, and consider so delicious, that they devoutly wish it may form one of the viands of Paradise. A soup made of Egyptian onions was pro- nounced by the learned traveller to be certainly one of the best dishes of which he ever partook. The predilection for this savoury bulb extends in Africa beyond the country of the Nile. Major Denham, in his route south from Bomou, observed numerous gardens, in which the only vegetable cultivated was the onion. The ancient Egyptians worshipped the onion, and " shed tears at the scent of a deified leek." By the Greeks, again, this root was held in abhorrence ; while the Roman soldiery and labourers almost lived upon it. In the south of Europe, the love of onions was formerly not confined to the lower classes, but extended even to the court ; and it is related of Alfonso, king of Castile, who had the greatest aversion to that savoury vegetable, that, in the year 1 368, he instituted an order of knighthood, by the laws of which it was enacted that those knights who had eaten garlic or onion should not appear at court, nor have any communication with their brethren, for the space of one month. So great a quantity of onions was cultivated at AIbi, in France, that the tithe of them produced to the archbishop an annual revenue of 1000 crowns. 4904. The Acacia of the Nile {A. nilotica) is supposed to be the species that yields gum-arabic. 4905. From time immemorial the Cerealia have abounded in Egypt ; and in the tomlis of the Egyptian kings, which were observed by the naturalists of the famous French expe- dition, vessels were found, filled with wheat, perfect in form and colour, though buried for many thousand years ; so that it is not improbable that Egypt may have been the native country of this grain ; and for many years so great was the fertility of Egypt, that it ivas styled the granary of Europe. 4906. Many are of opininn that we are indebted to Egypt for the Jiean {Vicia Faba); certain it is that the Greeks received it from that country. 4907. The coatl of Barbary is described by Dcsfontaines, in his Flora Allantica, as j warm but salubrious and agreeable region. Its mild winters resemble an early spring, when the Peaches, Plums, Nectarines, and Almonds are in blossom, the herbage is green, and the fields are adorned with innumerable flowers. There are Triticum durum, distin- guislii'd liy its horny, scarcely farinaceous kernel, bearded spike, and solid culm ; liarier, used only as food for horses; Indian Corn, Sorghum, Holcus saccharatus. Rice in tie inundated grounds; Tobacco {Wicotiana nistica and Tabacvm), a great variety of Olives, beautiful Oranges, Figs, Pomegranates, Almonds, Grapes, Plums, Peaches, Pistachio nuts, Zizyphus Lotus, delicious Melons and Gourds, Crocus vcrnus, the White Mulbeny for feeding silkworms. Cotton, Sugar Cane (in gardens). Hibiscus csculentus, and many European kitchen vegetables. Opposite to Tripoli, in the Lesser Syrtis, is an island, now called Gerba, or Jerba, once inhabited by the Lotophagi, a people so termed because their chief food was a fruit called Lotos. " After the Palm," says the learned Shaw, in his account of the vegetable products of Algiers and Tunis, " we are to describe the Lotus whose fruit is frequently mentioned in history ; the Lotophagi also, a considirable people of these and the adjacent districts, received their name from the eating of it. Herodotus informs us tliat the fruit was sweet like a date; Pliny, that it was of the bigness of a bean, aiul of a saflVon colour ; and Theophrastus, that it grew thick, like the fruit of the myrtle tree. This shrub, which is common in many parts of Barbary, has the leaves, prickles, flower, and fruit of the Zizyphus, or Jujeb ; only with this difference, that the frtiit here is round, smaller, and more luscious ; at the same time, the branches, like those of the Puliurus, arc neither so much jointed nor crooked. This fruit is still in great repute, Book III- EGYPT. 115S tastes something like gingerbread, and is sold in the markets all over the southern districte of these kingdoms." It appears very certain, according to M. Desfontaines, that this shrub is the trap Lotos, whence the Lotophagi derived their name ; and tljis is rendered more evident by a passage from Folybius, who affirms that he saw the Lotos himself. The lotos 760 °^ ""5 Lotophagi, says the historian, " is a stiff and thorny shrub; its leaves are small, green, and like those of a Rham- nus. The immature fruits resemble tuyrtleberries ; when ripe, they are of a reddish colour, and equal to round olives in size, containing a stony nut." This description entirely coin- cides witli that of Zizyphus Lotos (Jig. 760.), and cannot be applied to any otiier tree of the country. Polybius has fur. ther informed us of the mode of preparing the Lotos. When ripe, the fruits are gathered, crushed, and kept in close vessels ; the common sort being destined for the slaves, and the best quality for the free men. In this state the fruit is eaten, the flavour resembling figs or dates. A kind of wine is prepared from them by adding water, which is very ii>yriiu> uiTot. good, but does not keep above ten days. li«irs nor Arabs have any distinguishing name for the Atlas. It is usually called Ojibbel TclJ, or Snowy Mouidains ; but the word Atlas is unknown : whence is it derived t May it lu t be a Greek corruption of the liliyan Adracr, or Athraer, signifying mountain ? JIaiiy of tliese heights were measured trigonometrically, «i;d the highest, named by tlic Moors Mittsin, lut. ;il" 12' N , twenty.seven miles S., twenty miles E. of > "locni, tta.« finuiii to be Il,4«) feet above the level of llie sea, 'I I in is below (he limit assigned lo |ierpi<» •1 E 2 (ll.llANIItR. 1154 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. tual mow by Humboldt t yet but onca in twanty yean had then (ummit* been teen free flrom mow." From the enchanting Jebl el Mahni5nla, the traveller! viiited the Atlai mountaina, and ipeiit three daya amona them. At daylight of the 8th of January (a aeaion of the year when the mountaina of more northern lati. tudea are unapproachable), they bade adieu to their earthly paradise, the garden of El Mahmnnia, and Journeyed S.E. towardt Atlaa. The aoil of the plain which they travcraed was a li|!l>t sandy luam, covered with rolled stonea and ahruba of the Buckthorn, traversed by broolis, fringed with Oleanders, and larie Olive groves and ruined aqueduc** ' at sixteen miiea they entered one of the valleys of the Atlas, and winding up a mountain torrent, eri>.~.aped for the night at about 2400 feet above the plain, Gonimiiralinit a splendid view of the city and plain of Morocco, with the winding river, losing itself in the western horlion Next morning, they struck their tents, and aet forward by a sharp ascent ; a brawling torrent was in the valley twneath them, its banks well wooded with Olive, Carooba, or Al Kharob {Ceratom'a Siliqua), ^Vnlnut Acacia, Cedar (the finest timber that the country afibrds, though not very large), and u profusion of Oleanders, and atunted Palma and Rose Trees : they were alj 4914. Tlie domesticated animalt are of much the same breeds as those distributed in the Barbary States. The vicinity of Arabia supplies the Egyptians with the fleetest and most beautiful horses ; while the ass is much stronger and more serviceable than ours ; this breed attains to the size of ponies, and haa long been introduced into Malta, where they command a price equal to fifteen or twenty pounds. The sheep are of the broad-tailed race, spreaiding, with various modifl> cations, over Barbary and the Levant, from whence it has passed into India, China, and Southern Russia. The Goats {fig. 763.) are particularly elegant: the hair is sleek, the forehead arched, and the ears very long and pendulous : this breed was introduced into Malta and Sicily by the British army, on iu return from Egypt ; and, from personal observation, we think those countries well adapted to promote its increase. 4915. The Birdi do not materially differ from those of Europe. Vultures and Storks are held in deserved esteem, from their useftilness in de- vouring offa! and all dead animals : hence they may be seen on the terraces of houses, building and living in per- fect security even in the midst of noisy and populous cities. The Vulture percnopterus, or Slender-billed Vulture, rare in Europe, is here one of the most common birds : it also frequents the deserts, and preys upon those men and animals who have unfortunately perished in those im- mense wastes. Several Bustards, together with Fart- ridges and Qua'ls, inhabit all the sandy tracts. ♦916. The sacred Ibit qf tie ancient Egyptian* {flg.^6^.) was long confounded by naturalists with other birds not even natives of the country, M. Cuvier, however, has now clearly ascertained the species which excited so much veneration fVoin antiquity. Its colour is white, with long disconnected plumes on the wings, of > glossy blackness. 4yi7. The Scarabteus sacer, or Sacred Beetle of the Egy()tians, so often seen represented on their sculptured monuments, is rather larcer than our common dung beetle, and is entirely black. Of the flsh and other inferior animals we have nothing of much •Acitmi iHit. interest to communicate. Sect. III. Historical Geography, 4918. There is no kingdom more distinguhheil iti history than Egypt, or the name of which eicitcs more awful and solemn ideas. The dim rccurds of her ancient story are coeval with the origin of social union, and of all the arts which improve and embellish human life. Yet her early dynasties are involved in deep obscurity, and the descriptions of this pomp and grandeur might even have been treated by modern scepticism as fabulous, had not such astonishing monuments remained almost entire to attest their truth. The reign most celebrated by tradition is that of Sesostris, who is represented as having subjugated Asia, even to its central regions ; and in fact the sculptured monuments of Thebes are represent- ative of triumphs, not only over the Ethiopians, Jews, and Syrians, but over the natives of Assyria, Persia, and even of Bactriana. Greece has always owned herself indebted to Egypt for her civilisation, which began much later, though it proceeded with more . 'd steps, and rose to a much loftier height. At length, iu 525 a. c, Psammenitus, th '- jt native king, yielded to the arms of Cambyses, who endeavoured, but with little success, to push his own conquests into Ethiopia and the Oases. Egypt, however, proved a turbulent member of the Persian empire, the authority of which was disputed by Nectanebis and other usurpers. This antipathy to the Persian yoke caused Alexander to be welcomed as a deliverer. That great monarch appears to have highly estimated the importance of Egypt, especially in a commercial view, which his comprehensive mind could fully appreciate. Alexandria, the most celebrated of all the cities founded by him, proved by its subsequent greatness the judgment with which its site had been chosen. The benefits projected by that conqueror were, even after the partition of his empire, in a great measure secured by the dynasty of the Ptolemies, which wus estoblished in 32.'5 a. c. Its intelligent princes rendered Egypt the moin seat of Grecian learning ; and, by promoting every species of public improvement, made her probably more flourishing and enlightened than she had been amid the tyrannic pomp of the Pharaohs. The subjection to Rome, therefore, which was completed in 30 a. c, was a misfortune to Egypt ; though industry and civilisation were still protected, and Alexandria continued a great scat of learning, and the second city in the empire. A harder fate awaited her in the seventh century, when she was over-run by the Ssracen hordes. The ferocious bigotry of Omar impelled him to exult in the destruction of that library which had been the pride of the Ptolemies, and unrivalled in the ancient 4 E 3 \idti DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III, world I and it Itnl lilin to inflict upon Egypt evils still more deeply felt. By degrees, lit>w«vvr, the conquerors imbibed the arts nnd humanity of their new subjects ; the Saracens b«K)nn)u It |iul lulled people; and, under Saladin, the soldans of Egypt held the first place, as lu power ind splendour, among Mahometan princes. An unfortunate reverse, however nwnitvd this dynasty, 'fhe Mamelukes, a race of slaves whom they had imported from' Ooorgiii itnd Circassia, revolted against their masters, and set up a lawless and turbulent Nwny, whiuli long crushed in Egypt all the seeds of order and improvement. They wcru duNtliiud, Indeed, lo bend beneath the dominion of the Turks, after the capture of Constanti- noplu liud rendered them masters of the Eastern Empire. In 1516, Sclim subdued and piittu dentil lliu Mameluke soldan, and appointed a pacha in his room. The Mamelukes, however, rotnliiud many privileges, particularly that of bearing arms ; and, as they formed tlic hravest cavalry lu the empire, they were always the rivals of the Turks, and often their masters. From tlint time Egypt continued to vacillate between this tumultuary aristocracy aiii) the ffluomy deNpotisni of the Porte. The extraordinary and unjustifiable invasion of the French ill 1 7t)H had no permanent elfccts ; and gave only an opportunity for British valuiir to difiplny itiielf in their expulsion. The new order of things, however, afforded to the Turks «n opportunitv of establishing their power more firmly than before. The Pacha, Mohammed All, Niieeeeded, certainly by very violent means, in cutting off the principal leaders of the MnmuliikoN, ond expelling the rest from Egypt. That chief has since rendered himself independent of the Porte, and has governed the country with such vigour, and in such a spirit of inipmveinent, as promises in some degree to restore to Egypt the prosperity of her best days, lie has even sought to extend his dominion over other parts of the Turkish empire, nnd U nt prttsent (I8.'33) master of both Palestine and Syria ; which the Porte by a recent treaty has been obliged to cede to him. Sect. IV. Political Geography. 4!) I!). Egypt, linct the earliest ages, has been governed despotically. As soon as the Turlis obtiiiiK'd posNcmiun of it, they claimed the right of ruling it by a pacha, invested with all the prerogatives of the Sultar and responsible to him. It has, however, as we have already olMvrvwl, l)ecn always a loose and turbulent appendage of the Ottoman empire. This inseeiirlty was occasioned, not only by its distance, and the difficulty of communication, but by Oiu slinni in the administration still left to its former rulers, the Mamelukes, This share waii in theory, vague and slight, but in practice extensive; -since they composed the best vavalry in the empire, and were ever ready to enforce with the sabre their own claims, just or unjust. 'I'he uiulofined limits between their power and that of the Pacha neecssarily rniiiwd a constant collision. Sometimes the Pacha was expelled by the Mamelukes ; and the I'urte, when pressed by other concerns, was obliged to connive at the revolt. If the people ware ever ohie to mingle in these contests, it was in a tumultuous manner, wlilch pro- dueed nu benefit to themselves, and only augmented that reign of disorder, which was so Altai tn all lm(,rovcmcnt and regular industry. 4!)SiO. Tht Mitmelukes now belong to history. They appear to have made their final exit flrinn the political scene ; and, notwithstanding some brilliant qualities which they possessed, their fate can be no object of regret. Their expulsion left Egypt almost wholly 'subject to the (way of Mohammed Ali, who had received from the Porte the appointment of pacha, Init who, profiting by the distractions of the Ottoman empire, has established a power wholly independent. His administration has, in some respects, benefited Egypt, by establishing law nnd order, nnd securing the people against outrages and arbitrary exactions, and by intrtMliicing some of the arts and knowledge of Europe. Yet his only object has been to IncrenM) his revenue and military power, and that by unenlightened means. His enor. muiiN conscriptions and taxes, with monopolies of almost every branch of industry, hare nvutrnlUed his good measures, and rendered the people as miserable as ever. Actuated by the iiNiinl ambition of monarehs, he attempted conquest, and extended his dominion south. ward along the Nile as far as Sennaar, and even along the White River. In Arabia he hn* completely crushed the power of the Wahabees, and added to his domain the sint Muhommcd Ali has greatly reduced their power. AWi, TA« rtVf nwts of Egypt arise from three sources, the lands, the mi'ri or poll tax, and the Book II I- EGYPT. iiai customs. All the lands are Judged to l>elong to the Grand Signiur, and this claim has been mode good by Mahommed All, who has in a great measure abolished the prescriptive rights wliich many individuals claimed to them. The poll tax is levied only upon Christians and Jews, and is not nearly so considerable. It is paid by all males arrived at the age of sixteen, and varies, according to their property or favour, from 2| to 1 1 dollars. Mahommed Ali has made extraordinary efforts to increase his revenue by monopolising the chief articles of produce, as well as of commerce, und even of transit; but these arrangements being much mismanaged, though oppressive to the country, add little to its amount. Yet this is esti- mated by St. John as amounting in 1830 to 3,119,000/., of which the chief branches were, land tax, l,406,000t ; capitation, 437,500t ; monopolies, 406,000/. ; duties on sales, 337,500/. The chief heads of expenditure were — army, 1,106,000/. ; navy, 440,000/. ; state and private expenses, 425,000/ j civil salaries, 237,5001 : in all 2,661,000/., leaving an excess of 458,000/. 4293. The army, which formerly consisted only of an undisciplined and turbulent though brave militia, has been placed by Mahommed Ali on the most efficient footing. By the aid of French officers, he has disciplined a large body i f troops in the European manner, and rendered them decidedly superior to any force which the East can oppose to them. It con- sists chiefly of Arab fellahs, most reluctantly forced into his ranks, yet who prove, when well trained, brave and efficient soldiers. He has also a considerable number of Turks and Bedouins, with some negroes. The whole number on the list is 175,000 ; but not above 120,003 are supposed elFective. The Pacha has also created a navy of about 14 ships of the line, besides smaller vessels, and on which nearly 1 6,000 men are employed. Schools on a large scale, with European teachers, have been formed, for the land, sea, and ordnance services. Sect. V. Productive Indmlry, 4924. Egypt was distinguished at an early period for the cultivation of the useful as well as of the fine arts. Agriculture, the primary art, for which her situation and soil peculiarly fitted her, appears to have been carried to great perfection, at a time when the finest of the bordering countries were under common and pasturage. Those earliest authentic records of tlie human race, contained in the sacred writings, represent Egypt as greatly resorted to, in times of scarcity, for a supply of grain. When high cultivation has once been established In a country, it is scarcely eradicated, even by long periods of anarchy and misgovcrnment. After all the calamitous revolutions through which Egypt has passed, and notwithstanding her deep political degradation, her fertile lands continue to be cultivated with skill and care, and to yield copious harvests. 4925. Ill all hot countries, but more especially in Egypt, irrigation is the first resource of agriculture. The periodical inundation of tlie Nile, when swelled by the rains of Abyssinia and central Africa, is the primary cause on which her fertility depends. This is so fully admitted, that, in the years when the Nile does not rise beyond a certain height, the miri, or tribute, is not exacted. The whole of the Delta, during the autumnal season, is laid entirely under water. To effect this object, a number of intersecting canals were formed by the provident c s of the ancient government ; and the utility of these is so urgent, and the consequences of their interruption so immediately fatal, that they have not been wholly neglected, even by the supineness of modern administration. The number of canals in Egypt has been stated at 6000 ; but this, at all events a loose estimate, cannot be true, unless we include those minor channels conducted by private industry through every tract, and almost every field. The great canals, which are maintained by the public, do not exceed eighty or ninety. In a great part of Upper Egypt and of Fayoum, machinery is employed to convey the water to grounds which, from their elevation above the river, cannot, without artificial means, be inundated. Buckets raised by pulleys are sometimes suf- ficient ; but at other times recourse is had to more operose and ingenious machines moved by oxen {Jig. 765. }• This successive rise and retiring of ♦' waters produces a singular va- riation in ' aspect and surface of Egypt. Accordin- lO the description of Amrou, in to the Caliph Omar, it presents 765 '^a*^ WATBHINO MACIIINR. ^f a freshwater sea, and that of a his rcpor: in succession an appearance of a field of dust, tliat flower-garden. 4926. Few cuuntriet unite in a greater degree than Egypt the products oj various and opposite elimates. On the borders of the tropical and temperate lones, it yields, in almost cquiil abundiince, the vegetable pro. ductions proper to each : while the variation from overflowing moisture to extreme dryness greatly extends the range of cultivation.' Rice, which was introduced by the Saracens, has l>een found peculiarly adapted to those lower lands which at one season are thoroughly submerged by the Nile. On these it is sown in June, grows amid the water, and yields a harvest in October. Wheat and barley grow better in the higher grounds, iiid particularly on the well-watered districts of Upper Egypt Those tracts which obtain but scanty irriga- tion by artificial means arc only fit for the coarser product of the Ilotcus dhourra, the grain gen'>rally con. sumed in Nubia, which combines the qualities of a shrub with that of bread corn. Its stalk contains a juice 4 £ 4 1158 DESCRIl'TIVE CEOGRAfHY. Paw III. which the nntivei tuck, and which, when dried, icrvet the imrpoae of ftiel ; above grow Icavei, which aflbn) food for the cattle. Oati are not an Egyptian product ( but beam are railed for the use of the caincli. Maiie, flax, and sugar are aI»o objccta of tome culture; and. In a smaller degree. Indigo. Cotton, which, I'lli lately, wa« scarcely ranked aa a product, har, through the exerticins of Mohammed All, become an article of the grcntcst importance, supplying the home manuroctures, and affbrding the materials of a large export. Since 1822, a continually increasing quantity has been im|iorted into Hritain ; in 1837, this amounted to 7,253,000 lbs. It liears a higher price than any other, except that very finest American species called "Sca Islands." The soil teiiuires little labour besides that of Irrigation. Being softened to a species of thick mud, it receives the grain without farther pte|)aration i and even where dry, its quality is >o loose and sandy that It may be worked with very little trouble. 4927. Egypt, in ill fertile tract; exhibits a blooming and veidnnt aspect; yet it is not, on the whole, a mmded country. The foliage which embellishes it, is derived chiefly from fruit and garden trees. 'I'he pulm, the sycamore, the tamarisk, and some iiiecies of acacia, are the most prevalent. For timber and firewood it » almost entirely dependent upon Syria. Some Egyptian wines were celebrated in antiquity, though the country seems by no means well adapted for this product ; at present the vine is cultivated chiefly for its graim Fruit Is generally abundant, but apt to t>e watery. The apricot, the citron, and the lemon, are reckoned the best. 4928. Domettie animals are not numerous in Egypt. Cultlvntion is performed by the iiid of cows and oxen of a large breed, and also a species of tame buffalo. A small number of cattle suffice for the easily cultivated soil. The great have very fine horses, imported chiefly from Barbary. Their paces are only suited for military manceuvres : they can do nothing but walk or gallop. In Egypt, as in Syria, the animal used for travel is the ass, of which there is a breed very superior to any seen in our climates. As the Orientals ride much, asses are very numerous ; there arc said to be in Cairo 40,000. Camels arc seen in great numbers ; but they are rather for journeying over the vast surrounding deserts, than for the interior of the country. Large swarms of bees are bred in Upper Egypt ; while Lower Egypt is remarkable for a process of hatching fowls by artificial heat ; of which, however, it is difficult to perceive the advantage, and which does not produce such sound or healthy chickens as the natural process. Tlie bordering deserts contain the lion, the hyena, the antelope, and other wild animals generally found throughout Africa ; and in Upper Egypt a considerable number of crocodiles and hippopotami are found in tlie Nile. 4U29. Egypt is not, and never was, a great mamtfacturing country. With the produce of her soli she purchases the fabrics of neighbouring nations, particularly at Constant! nople ; and, generally speaking, evciy thing which is imported thence is better and more valued than what is made in the country. There air, however, extensive manufactures of linen, though not of that fine linen for which Egypt was anciently famous. Muslin and cotton dresses are now preferred, as mure suited to the climate. The linen at preient manufactured consists chiefly of the coarser kind, for sheets, curtains, towels, and sackcloth. The large towns of Lower Egypt, particularly Damiutta and Mehallet, are the main seats of this manufacture, which is alio carried on at Cairo, Fayoum, and Siout in Upjier Egypt 'J'hc Pacha made immense exertions to introduce the cotton manufacture, erecting numerous large mills, employing European agents, and compelling the fellahs, to the number at one time of 12,000, to enter and labour at very low wages. Works thus conducted, as might have been foreseen, proved very unprofitable; and though the monarch's pride will not allow him to give them up, many have lieen allowed to go to ruin. The potteries of Egypt are extensive, the mud or slime deposited by the Nile being well fitted for this pur|»8e. From it the Egyptians fabricate a siwcies of porous Jars, which are highly prized for the property ascribed to tlu'm of cooling and clarifying the water; every thing which tends to improve that simple beverage being held in these climates espkciaily valuable. These jars appear to have been used iVom the earliest ages, representations of them being found on the most ancient monuments, 4930, Egypt u more favourably situated for foreign commerce than most other countries, as it may lie saiit to form the connecting link between Africa, Europe, and Asia. It is only, however, at particular periods that its government has afforded the necessary encouragement and protection. The Pharaohs, like the other Oriental despots, were averse to navigation and foreign intercourse of every description. The Persian inlicjt was similar. The sovereigns of the Greek dynasty were the first who turned their attention to the means of improving the vast natural capacities of Egypt. Alexander, in founding the city to which he gave his name, had evidently formed the design of making it a grand commercial emporium, which it soon became. Under . the Roman empire the supply of the capital of the world, and its rich dependencies, with the commodities of central and eastern Africa, and still more of India, occasioned an immense traffic ; but on this the conquest of the Saracens inflicted a blow from which the country never recovered. The Venetians and Genoese, indeed, who first revived commercial enterprise in Europe, formeii factories in Egypt, which they made the cntrepAt for Indian goods. But the natives had no share in these transactions; and, after the discovery of the passage by the Cape of Good Hope, the land carriage, the difficult navigation of the Red Sca, the exaitions and persecutions to which Europeans were ex|)Osed, rendered it no longer possible to compete witli thosevho conducted the traffic even by that circuitous route. The present Pacha has paid great attention to trade is a source of wealth ; but, uiifiirtunately, his mode of treating it is, by taking the whole into his own hands, and l)ecoming the only merchant in his dominions. He deals, however, honestly with the foreign traders; and has rendered a reui service by restoring the canal from Alexandria to the Nile, forty.eight miles long, ninety feet wide, and about eighteen feet deep. This imiwrunt work was executed in IS19, in the course of little mure than six weeks, by the labours of 2.'X),000 men, who were violently impressed for that purpose. The exports of British produce to Egypt, which in 1827 and 1828 only averaged M,O0W, amounted in 1837 to 2'.>0,(I00/. Chief heads : cottons, iau,500/. ; twist, 41,400'. ; iron and hardware, \\,m.; coab, 6,000/. ; refined sugar, 55,000/. Of foreign commodities she scarcely takes any thing. The returns ait almost entirely in cotton, 7,243,000 lbs ; also senna 10,760 lbs; opium, 37ri01bs. A steam comniunicalioo has been formed from Britain to Bombay, by way of Egypt; the passengers landing at Alexandria and pro- ceeding by Cairo to Suez, or the reverse. (4931. The most-active bratuh <(/ Egyptian commerce, and that which has remained unaHlcted by polititil vicissitudes, is can ied on by caravans with the interior of Africa. The journeys on every side must be made through immense tracts of desert, where thcv could penetrate only by the aid of the camel. The caravaiii which go westward from Cairo do not penetra'te beyond Fezzan, at which em|xirium they obtain, imported bj the merchants of that country itself, the varied produce of Soudan. This caravan goes annually, unless pr^ vented by peculiar circumstances, and performs its journey in fifty days. Those which procecil southnardi depart chiefly from Siout ; and their destination is Uarfour and Sennaar. The caravans to the former country are the most numerous and frequent, though still inferior to the Fezzan caravan. Tiieir departures are vtiy irregular: sometimes there are two in the year; at other times, two or t' ree years pass without one, A caravan is reckoned hirge if it numbers 2000 camels ; some amount to no more than 500, or even SCO. m imports fVom all these quarters are much the same. Gold, ivory, senna, ostrich feathers, gum, aretecondir; objects ; but the main staple is always slaves. Egy]>t supplies with this unlawful commodity not only itson liarams, but those of Turkey, Persia, and all thcEaat. These slaves, being employed chiefly in a domesw ISduk III. EGYPT. 1159 cnpaclty, are not doomed to the tame severe and oppre«ilve labour at thoae trannportcd to the We«t Iiidica and .. . ii . .1 u ■■ 1 .■ . . -■ countries where pilgrimages arc cmtomary. it icciiiB the 8)«tein that they shall be so lar turiie luke, making his boast of being a purchased slave, lived for centuries by the side of the Arab, proud of his freedom and ancient family. The Mamelukes, however, are now expelled; and the leading races consist of the Copts, the Arabs, and the Turks. 4935. The Copts, though nc» supposed to exceed 160,000 individuals, and of no political importance, are by much the most ancient, and, strictly speaking, the only native race. The sculptures on the most ancient monuments represent under the same form and features the original Egyptians, when that country was ruled by its native kings. The word Copt seems even a corruption of the middle syllable of the word Egyptian. Some authors, and A'olney among the rest, have represented their features to be substantially the same with those of the negro ; but this seems refuted by the observation of Brown, and the minute anatomical examination of Daron Larrcy. The lat*- " nsiders them as exhibiting, with a few variations, the characteristic features of the Nubia ' and Abyssinian — their skin of a dusky yellow ; their countenance, full without being pulled ; their eyes fine, limpid, opening in the form of an almond, and with a languishing look ; the nose almost straight, rounded at the tip ; the nostrils dilated ; the mouth middle-sized ; the lips thick, but less so than those of the negroes, and not, like theirs, thrown back ; the beard and hair black and bushy, but not woolly. (Description Historique, Etat Moderne, ii. 3.) In their character, they too much resemble those who, being treated with scorn by others, can with difficulty learn to respect themselves. As usual with degraded races in barbarous countries, they are employed in those branches of trade and accounts which are repugnant to the turbulent pride of the ruling people. For want of others who possess the requisite capacity or appli. cation, their oppressors are under the necessity of employing them as stewards, superin- tendents, collectors of the revenue, keepers of registers, &c. : and various branches of trade are in their hands. They cannot, however, be expected to exercise these functions in the same honourable and respectable manner as if the employments, and those who prac- tised them, were the objects of public esteem. The Copts are represented as crafty, covetous, cringing, and addicted to mean sensual indulgences. They are, however, a peaceable race, and are said to be remarkable for the warmth of their domestic attachments. Though they are found in every part of the country, their chief seat is in Upper Egypt, where whole towns are peopled by them. 4936. The most numerous part of the population, being that almost exclusively employed in agriculture, consists of Arabs, whom the fertile soil of Egypt has attracted .'rom all the surrounding regions of desert. Lower Egypt has been peopled chiefly from Arabia and the shores of the Red Sea ; Upper Egypt from the tracts of Africa which lie to the west and south. These cultivating Arabs, called Fellahs, retain much both of the features and character of their original tribes ; an oval countenance, dark skin, large forehead, and small sparkling eyes. Neither have they, by any means, lost that pride, attachment to kindred and ancestry, and vindictive spirit, which distinguish the independent sheiks of the desert. On the whole, however, their conduct is much more settled and peaceable; indeed, in the large towns of the Delta, they have contracted dissolute and irregular habits, which seem to have prevailed from antiquity in that part of Egypt. 4937. The Mamelukes can claim little notice here, since the vigorous though cruel policy of Mohammed Ali has finally rooted them out of Egypt, and scarcely allowed them to find refuge in the remotest depths of the African continent. This extraordinary ? ce, without kindred, without progeny, consisting of slaves imported from a remote country, and raised by the ill-earned favour of their masters to the most distinguished posts, formed the most prominent part of the Egyptian population. Their bravery, their splendour, their incessant ll«0 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. p*M m. cnnflictK with each other and with the Turks, gave to Egypt « ntlrring unci |iii'tiirviuiiiu nHpect, wiiich no other part of the Ottoman empire exhibited. TIdK Nurt of IiiIiti'iiI, Ikiw. ever,_ very poorly compensated for the licence and diHurder with which tlu'y cuiiliiiuiilly afllic'ted the country, and for the interruption which they occasioned to all ri'giilar itiiiii>iry, Their extinction, therefore, may well be considered as a fortunate clruumstniicks niid m omen of better times. 4998. The Turks, though the least numerous part of tlio population, ore lilglily Jm. portant, as having been always nominally, and as being now really, tliu niiwterH of tliu I'liiintry, In their general features they do not diifer from those who inherit tha rest of lliv vn\. pire. This small portion, however, the instruments of a despotic govvrninvnt, uiid wliu all cither possess or aim at political power, do not afford a favourable specimen of lliu Tiirldnh character. Among no description of men, perhaps, exists a mure entire dinregard iil' prin- ciple, than among the officers of a despotic government, who, k, seeking lo rliii>, itrv accustomed to resort to every means of violence or fraud. Spending must of thvir liinu in a gloomy retirement, they brood in silence over their dark mavhlnatlunit, and urv vnii. tinually revolving schemes for circumventing and destroying ouch other. The |iri'iii>iit Pacha has not much to boast in regard to the means l)y whicli he attained his iii'tmil supremacy ; though he has certainly used it in n great degree fur the beneilt of llumu |iliici'd under Ids government. The troops by which l'".j;ypt is lield in subjection have I'diinintcd chiefly of the turbulent race of Arnauts, or Albanians ; but the I'uclm hiM recently rt'truiii'd his armies from all classes, particularly the Arabs, and even the negroes brought IVutn tlii' Interior. 4999. There are Jews, Greeks, and Armenians inEgifpt, but scareviv In mifllclvnt niinil)«r to bo considered otherwise than as strangers settled in the country. The Juwm nre, in a groni measure, supplanted by the Copts, a similarly oppressed race, in all Uiumi brunclivs iif triiillc which usually devolve upon them in Mahometan countries. 4940. The religion of Ef^pt is the Mahometan, exercised willi all its ftccuMtoiiii'tl bigotry and intolerance. Tlie Copts, who profess Christianity, are subjccteil to n speciiil Irlliutv or poll tax, and arc excluded from all public employments, except tlitisu in which their exdu. sive qualifications render it absolutely necetisory to employ them. Thuy belong tu tk' Eutychian sect, or that of the Jacobites, wlio differ in several respects fVuni tluise ; rof'oHfiliig the Greek religion, whom they regard with peculiar antipathy. Tlio piilriHrch iil' \lvxaii- dria is considered as the head of this sect, the religion of which Is also thiit of AliyMiiiin. The Copts have a considerable number of convents, particularly In Upper Egypt iiiul the desert of tlic lakes of natron. Celibacy, iiowever, is not absolutely required of the intnolcs. Pocockc seems to have rated very low their practical religion, alleging that it cuiiii^is merely in reciting their long services, witliout the least appearance of undvrNliiiiiling or devotion, and in the strict observance of their frequent fasts. The Jewish rite uf circum- cision is retained. 4941. The otily language peculiar to Egypt is the Coptic. Unlike Uie Oriciitnl tuiigiics, which appear little more than dialects of one original language, tlio Coptic lius iiiily laim analogies with any otiier. Its basis appears to be that of the ancient Egyptiiuia, who in every respect were much insulated from the surrounding nations, It ceiwvu tu liu •iiolitn in the middle of the seventeenth century, and was supplanted bv the Amide, hut it instill used in the liturgy and sacred books of the Coptic church. The Coptic dlll'ers IVuin llii> ancient Egyptian only by the great admixture of Greek and Arabic, with hoiiiu Latin, introduced during the successive domination of tlic Greeks, the llumunii, nnd tlii' Arabs. 4948. Menct and literature throughout Egypt were lately at the luwett chh. In th«lr loftiest flights the Egyptians made no higher attainments tlian those of reading, writing, and casting accounts. Even these humble elements were disdained by the ruling powcn and only taught to a few of their domestic slaves. There were some linproviwttury reciters of tales and verse, and some practitioners in .astrology. Of Ute the rauhu has iiiiidc great efforts to introduce European knowledge, supporting numerous schucds, t^uiglit partly \ij Europeans, and sending young men to study in France and Englond. The uliicf olijcci teems to be, to fit individuals for the different branchea of his survioe, purticiilorly iiiililnry and naval ; but these are very numerous. Printing-presses have lieen ustablishvd under his direction, and even a newspaper has l)egun to be published. 4943. Oriental manners, by the gloomy seclusion which is inherent in tlietni ffreatiy circumscribe what are called public amusements. The coffee-houses luru much rviturtcu to by the middling classes, who there spend their time in listless indolence, l>eguilo It bv occiuiunil conversation, or by listening to the story-tellers, with whioli Arabia NiippllcN itil the cnnn. tries on which it borders. The baths (Jig. 766. ) are places of habitual runurt, botli I'ur health and pleasure ; and the ablution, being accompanied with skilful and gontio (Vlctiuiii liii!i Imn described as producing the most voluptuous sensations. The wuinun here ehlvilv iiiii>|(li' in nooiety with each other, and sometimes, as is alleged, find opportuniticN I'ur ititri|iiit In the large towns, particularly of Lower Egypt, the almt$, or daiiuing-ghlii, nitriKi Book III- EGYPT. ll«t BnvpriAN BATH. numerous oudieiice* by their exhibitions ; the jiracoand «kill of which nrc viirluuNly rvporUnl, 7fifi but thoy aru univvnially mIiI to nmnir«Ht a total disri'gartl of (Ivcoruin. Thu ^ruat RvMom nppi-nr In public, uiilvxit i)u occasions of public proci'shiou ; und their leisure is spent cliielly in thu in- dolent seclusion of thu linrnm. 4M4. TAf Knj/iilinHS nif not mnrh i-nnim iernl wilh ilrcaa. Th» inoHt niininnii mni setiniiigly the iniMt aiii'li'til arllrlu of npiinrcl, consists of « linen or cotton thlrt wllfi wlilu ilcevo, over which ii a lirowii wisillvn cloiik or coat. The rich throw over all a tine while vcitmcnt,ofihuforniof«iur|illee,wlilch,lH'lna worn on auleinn occaaloni, la >U|)|Hweil to hivVt servcil an a p.itturn for thu upper vvalnient of the Christian prlctthuod. AinonK the nnilpiil Ivgyptiani, linen was the only nialerlnl iumI for stately and sacreil «ii|>arel ; buteollon now, to a great extent, iiipplies Its place. .Sonir of the iworer classes wear nuthinu but a hlnnket or wra|i]M^r of wool or collon cloth. The ilrms of the women Is nearly similar j hut nnu'h of It li mailc of silk, and thoy cover the greater part of the face with a gauio veil. 'I'he usnal head dress is the lutbaii, confined, however, to the higher ranks, and not allowed to be worn by the inferior classes, whu merely cover their heads with the red woollen caiw commo.i all over Uarbary. iWt. The Egyptians oj every class are temperate in rc8|icct to focsl, and even the richest take no pride, nni perhaiM much delight, in the luxury of the tabic. 'I'hcir dishes consist of pUlau, sou|M, stewi, made itartl. cularly of onions, cucumbers, and other cold vegetables, mixed with meat cut In small pieces. The llarbary cuicosoo, which is a dish of this description, is not iiiifrci|uent. ''"■ " ' — ' . . . / li iilacetl in the middle of the festive board. Tl m oil or sour milk. The fasts in general are i . even the rich restrict themselves almost entirely tu vtrgeiuiuu iumj. «iiu uac ui upmni, so general in Turkey, ia luiwrsedcd in a great measure by that of wine, in which the people In this country, oven the '{"urks, indulge with much less scruple than those of other parts of the empi'e. The lower ranks make a prciwratloii tVom the buds of hemp, which produces eflbcts nearly similar to thoje of opium. They prepare also from barley a species of beer called btyuxa, to which, as an ancient Egyptian liquor, an allusion of llerodotui accms to apply. Sect. VII, Local Geography^ 4946. The only division of Egypt which can be considered as permanent or important is that made by nature into three great portions: — I. Bahireh, or Lower Egypt, composed of the Delta, or territory on the coast, and including the great sea-ports of Alexandria, Kusctta, and Damietta. 2. Vostani, or Middle Egypt; where thu Nile, though no longer spreading into branches, flows through a broad and fertile valley. In this qtiarter are situ- ated Cairo the capital, the Pyramids, aitd Fayoum. 3, The Said, called partly also the Thebaid, or Upper £gypt, where the Nile, bordered by hills, flows through a narrow valley, containing not any great cities, but the most remarkable of the ancient vdiflces und inonu* ments. SuBSECT. 1. The Delta, or Lower Egypt. 4947. Weshall begin our survey with Alexandria (Jig. 767.), once the splendid capital of — Egypt, and one of the most celebrated cities of thu ancient world. Even now it forms the link by which Egypt is united with the status of Europe. Its founder, the celebrated conquer- or whose name it bears chose this situ as the must favourable for commerce; and it bu- came the emporium of the most splendid and important of the then existing branches, that with India. The merchandise being brought up the Red Sea to Uereniou, thence transported across the desert, was carried down the Nile to Alexandria, and thence dis- tributed throughout the West. Alexandria, when it became the splendid and polished capital of the Ptolemies, almost superseded Athens as a literary metropolis. Even when subjected to the yoke of Rome, it was still the second city in the empire, and a grand centre of religious and political faction. It received a mortal blow .utwu«:n ALBZANDRIA. Il«« DESCRIPTIVE OEOOUAl'IIY. P*i>T III. Egypt and tlio Fiank cr Chrintian states. Its population, once estimated at 30(),Ooo ii dwindled ko low, that hoiuu do not supponc the amount of inhabitants to exceed 5000, This, Imwever, was doubtljss too low, even before the late improvements of the Puchu, who hiiH re-opc'ned its wute' communication with the Nile, and eHtablished an arsi'nal, in which 1()(X) carpenters, dud other artiHaiis, are huIly. Krom the extremity of the old city cxicrulj for upwards of a mile along the coaat a range of toiniM cut in ilie rock, each of which appears to havcron. lainnl three bikliea. 'I'hcae inniuunenta, however, to u hich liat been appliiKl the name of Necr(jpolia, or (iiy of the Dead, have been almoat entirely atrlpiwd of their contentt, probably by the Arabt, inaplred with the ho|. Amiii the general ruin which ancient Aletamtriu presents, three objectt, remaining atill entire, arrent the attention. 'I'he moat celebrated ia I'umpcy'i pillar (yf/r.7l' tli: lineat granite. Some traveilcra have deirriljnl it aa the tineat column In the world as tu wurk. manahip; but Deiion rates it nuich lower in this re«iiectj conceiving that the unlylieaut) ii in the ahull, and that neither the ueileslal nor the capital have an^ |ieculiar merit. The other olijn-ii worthy of particular notice are the twoobelhl,,, fancifully called Cleopatra'i Nccdica, of which one only ^Jlg.^rccincts of which a conaideraDlc nuiiiberoi towns are enumerateti by I'tolcmy. Under the Roman empire, it was |)eculiarly crowded with convent), ite inmates of which auught this at a retired situation, and aa aflbrding refuge fVom the persecutiona of the Atiani \nd other sectaries. The Emperor V'alens, when he compelled the monks of Egypt to miiitHry service, is taid to have levied in this district no less than .0(100 recruits. Gratien le I'^rc, in making a survey round IhelaLc, found the territory every where covered with verdure and shrubs, and capable of culture. (Deicripii.nii I' Kgi/pte Mixteme, li. lU— ^U He found also the remains uf cities, bc.triiig indications of former iiii|Mirlanre ^muiig these were two, at a little distance from each other, on tlie neck of laud between the lake and the m 1 hey appear to be thoae to u liiirh the ancients gave the common name of Tu|K)siriB, and are situated nearih;! well-built column, called KiiuiiiAbousir, or Tower of the Arabs, which serves still aa a beacon. 'I'heyfounl also a large ornamented building, atwut 2G0 feet siguare, the destination of which seemed uncertain. In the valleys at the weitern extremity of the lake appeared the remains of four towns, distant a very few m\» from each other. On the southern shore of the lake, near a spot called Alwu.el. Kheyr, a double wall, lai(t anil well-built moles, and an extensive surface covered with fragments and rubbish, mark the site ol an in. portant commercial city, which was doubtless the ancient Marea. Nothing but culture, and thercstoraiioni^ tome of the old canals, seems wanting to restore fertility and population tu thit district The great obiiadt would arise from the Arabs, large bodies of whom are now in lull |iossetaion of it, and whose habiii (J rettlcat and desultory warfare would render it very dilHcult either tu drive them Imck, or 10 lix thems cultivators. 4951. The province of Bahireh, the most western of the Delta, it traversed by the canal of Alexudni, which teparatei from the Nile, near Rahmanieh, a town of tome magnitude, surrounded by awall,and>!ii;li the French, in 1801, converted into a fortified pott, but were obliged to turrender it to the British array unlit Book HI- ECiYPT. II0'J General llutchlmon. Thlf dlilrlcl it leti wntered than other p»rli nf the Dclu i «nd Ita chief nrnilurt ii coltnii I the market for which (five* imiiu lin|wrtiiire to Dniiianhnur, iltiialeil In the heart, of the provinc* In aieeniling the Nile, the cnnaU derlveil rriini It I'eaie, ami culllviitlon li nearly cnnHncU to lit InimetllAte banki. Teriine, aHlinllng the iieareat iK)lnt nf water communlfallon to the lakea 'if na.ron, exuorU IVom sum lu VUi tout of that article, chiefly tu Marieillei. Woonlauii U the moat tt'Uthcrly port, whence veaacli may reach t'airo in twenty-four hoiira. iWa. From Alexandria, Ike riitur iif land hiluven Mnrrnlli anil Ihe »<•« extendi caalward, and la nrulnnBid by the Ittkf Maailif till it reaches the ca«tlc of AlMiukIr, on the other aide of which la the hay of that name Thia line of coaat, and thla bay, are rendered lllnalrloiia by ((lorloua cventa in llritlah biatiiry j the victoriea of Ncl*i>n and Abercronibv. Near the termination of Lake Maaille commencea that of filko, abont (incen niilca lonK, communicatlnn with the aca at lla wcalern [Hunt, but anerwnrila acparntcd l>om it by a loiiu line of barren coaat comimaeil of ahiflinK aunda. The iialh through them i» |K)inted out to the traveller by coluinnt at rcKular diatancct of half 'i mile, within each of which la placed, fo) hia rcfrcabmeul, a vaav of water After aiYoinpliahinK thla dreary Journey, he arrivea at Uoiella. 4!i."ia. Hum-lla la altuated at the mouth of the moat wcaterly of the two branchei of the Nile, which eiu'loas Ihe iiriivince of better built than Alcxanilrlai thomaterlHla nreof brick; and though the atreeta arc, aa uaual In Kgypt, nar. row and gloomy, It baa, on the whole, when compared with other Uriental towna, a neat and jilcaalng aiipcar. ance. A conalderabic manufacture of atriped and coarae lincnt la carrietl on ; but ita wealth and population (iiipjHMed about l.'),(J(Kli arc rather on the decline. Kven the recent improvemeida. Including the reaturatlon of the canal of Alexandria, have rather tended to remove the commerce which formerly centred in it. 411M. In aicnulinn Ihe Hotella branch, we come Brat to Metoubia, a large town, notetl for the illaaotulo chi. racier of ita Inhabitanla. Farther up la Koua, once diatlngulahed :u the entrepAt lictween Alexandria and Cairn, In conacnuence of the neglected atate of the canala, ii iiaa Iwcn aupplanted by lloactta in thla trade i and having greatly declined In conaeqnencc, only a nn.dl part of Ita wide circuit It imw inhabltcil. 'I'hc canal of Haahabi, derived from the hea. Farlhi-r tu Ihe toulh, about ten milea cast from thla branch of the Nile, it Tania, contidered the mott populoua town of the Delta, though it doca nut contain above KMKHI inhabitanla. It la chiefly aupportetl by the pilgrime frcfiuonting the toinh of Sold Ahmed el Hedaouy, who dieil in tlie thirteenth century. In tuch an odour ot aanctity aa rendered hla ahrlnc nnc of the moat aacre Pot^ocke supposes, of the ancient Bubastis. The next place of importance is Abou.4ir, a welUbuilt town, where conaiiterabic remains give aome support to the opinion of D'Anville, who pronouncea it to be the titc of lluairia, celebrated anciently for a magnificent festival held in honour of Itia. About five milea btrlow ia Semenhoud, a very flouriahing town, carrying on an extensive tr.ide, fur which its tituatiun U|)on the Nile, aiul connection by several channels with the canal of Karinein, and with Mahallet, la very favourable. It appears to contain 4000 or .OUOO inhabitanls. It is usually considered as the ancient Sebcnnytus ; on which, indeed, Pococke cbacrvos, that the latter might be on the Sebennylic branch, but lloyt-Aymt' remarks, that the adjacent ruins actually extend wettward as far as the canal of Karinein. On that canal, about four miles tu the weat of Semenhoud, is Mehallet, considered the capital of the Delta, and Ihe most induatriuui and manufacturing town in ail Kgypt. The chief fabrics are those of silk, and particu- larly a tort of linen handkerchiefs with ailk borders, usetl ui the baths, with which this city supplies the whole country. The manners, however, apiiear to be very licentious ; disorderly females are particularly numerous, arfd are allowed a degree of liberty which ia denied them in other Kgyptian cities. Farther to the north, on tile same canal, are tlie ruins of Hahbcys, the most splendid in the Delta. In the centre of an enclosure of brick, about 12(10 feet by 800, arc the remains of a grand ediflce, IfiO feet by 100. It contistt of a confuted matt of granite, among which arc diatinguiahctl trunkt of columns, and the remains of capitals with the head of lais, all covered with sculptures in bas-relief most carefully executed. These fragments consist of the finest red granite brought from the quarries of Sycnc. Farther down on the Nile is the large town of Mansoura, celebrated in the history of the crusades for two great battles, in one of whic^h St I,.ouis was defeated and taken prisoner Lastly, four or five miles above the mouth of the river is the city of Damietla, which, though on the eastern l)ank, belongs properly to the interior Delta, as forming the chief market for its productions. Kice of excellent quality, and in great abundance, is grown in its vicinity, and, with cottcc brought up the lied Sea, tones the staple article of export to Syria and the Levant Tobaoco and soap a' c impwrted from Syria ; and luxuries of all kinds from Constantinople. The town is large, but ill built and without ornament It it eniefly inhabitetl by fishermen and Janiasariet, and devoted to trade, of which a great part is contraband. The people arc said to be the very worst in all Turkey, and to have a particular hostility to Christians, which seems to have descended from their ancestors in the time of the Crusades. It is such that a Kuropean cannot appear in the streets, without danger of being intuited. Damletta has no harbour ; vessels anchor in a road by no meant remarkably safe, at the mouth of the river, and the gootta arc brought up in boata. 4>ir>8. The base i]f the Delta, or the coast between Ilosetta and Damletta, remains to be described. It consists, for eight or ten miles inland, of desert and marshy sand, and more than half its breadth Is filled by the lake Bourlos, about twenty miles in length, and six iii breadth. Like Mareotit and Edko, it ia shallow, and separated from the sea by a narrow ridge, penetrated only in one point by a channel, which teems to be thatot the ancient Scbennytic branch. This wild tract, the ancient Ktearchis, is described in history a* having repeatedly altbrded refUge to the kings of Egypt, when driven from the throne by foreign invasion or by insurrection. It is still inhabited by a race of bold and rude tlthermcn, who hold themtelvet neatly inde- pendent of the national authorities. 1164 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. 4959. The liul dtviiion qf Lower Kmpl.md one of comparatiTCly little modem Importanoe, it the prorince ] the cost of tlic Oaniictta branch, and consequently beyond any channel which can of Charkich, situated to now be considered as the Nile. In ancient times, however, it was traversed by two great l>ranchcs, thr Tanitic and Felusiac, flnwinK into the lake Henzaleii. Their channel may still be traced. M. Malut traversed the whole Tanitic branch, now known under the name of the canal of Moci, ih>m the village about thirty miles north of Cairo, at which it strikes ofl'firom the canal of Damietta. In the lower part it changes to San probably a corruption of the ancient Tanis. It is navigable along its whole length for small barks, and, when the Nile la high, even for vessels of some size. It would be easy for an active government to restore it to all its former importance. Even now It aflbrds large means of irrigation, and consequently supports a consl. derable culture and population. The upper banks arc exceedingly fertile, and even the lower contain many fine villages, though thev are kept in perpetual alarm by the iVequent incursions of the Arabs. Not only U every viflage fortifled, but from place to place along the Nile are erected towers, without entrance or windows ; and into these strong-holds, on the approach of a band, the inhabitants with their most precioui effiects are hoisted up by ropes, and kept till the danger be past Eighteen miles below the commencement of the canal, Malus found immense ruins, which, contrary to the opinion of Pococke, he supposes to be those of Bubastls. Enormous masses of granite, more or less mutilated, and covered with hieroglyphics, were hea|ied together in an astonishing manner. 4960. The cotirse of the moit easterly or Peltuiac branch may also be still traced, though much more Imper. fectly J the cultivation is there much inferior, and the exposure to the Arabs greater. The most imiwrtant points on this line are Ilelbeisand Salahlch, maintained as military posts on the Syrian n-ontier. The southern district iKtween the course of these canals and Cairo, called the province of Kelyoubeh, is tolerably watered and abounds in cattle. From this circumstance, as well as its vicinity to the head of the Ked Sea, we sliouij presume it to be the Goshen of the Israelites. All the towns in this |>art of f^ypt being built upon huge matses of unburnt brick, with the view of defending them against the inundation, we may thence account for the severe and oppressive labours to which that people were so cruelly doomed. ♦SKil. The lower part of the province of Charkyeh is marshy and sandy, like all the rest oif the Egyptian coast It is traversed by the Mcnzaleh, a broad shallow lalte, separated from the sea by a narrow ridge, similar to those of Mareotis and Bourlos, but much more extensive. It is sixty miles in length, and twenty- five in breadth, divided by a projecting peninsula. It abounds with fish ; and the fishermen who inhabit its coasts, and the islands of Matharieh, near the above peninsula, arc of the same savage, rugged, and indc. pendent character as those dwelling in the vicinity of the lake of Bourloi. It has two openings into the lea, one of which corresponds with the canal of San, the current of which ia seen distinctly running across. Un this peninsula is the town of Mentaleh, and six miles up the canal are seen the ruins of 'I'anis, the Zoan iif Scripture, once a magnificent residence of the Pharaohs. There are still several Corinthian obelisks and capitals of columns, fallen to the ground, and particularly some very fine antique earthen vessels, of which the glazing remains, SuBSECT. 2. Voitani, or Middle Egypt' 49'J2. After passitig the angle formed by the two divergent branches of the Nile which form the Delta, we ascend to what is called Vostani, or Middle Egypt. Here, about a league to the east of the river, appears the village of Matarich, to the north of whose site are the ruins of the celebrated Helio))oIis, the On of Scripture, and the great scat of Egyp- tian learning. Though almost in complete ruin, it has still some interesting antiquities ; an obelisk sixty-seven feet high, several sphynxes, and large stones covered with hiero- glyphics. 4963. Cairo tlie Great (Jig. 769.), or, as it is popularly called, Grand Cairo, attracts the 7C9 attention of the traveller sailing upwards, and lie gazes with wonder on the numerous minarets wliich distinguish the capital of Egypt and of Africa. Throughout that conti- nent and Arabia, Cairo is considered as tlie queen of cities, as the city with- ' out a rival ; its splendour forms one of the great themes of Eastern ro- mance. Old Cairo ap- '"»«' pears to be of very great antiquity, being built on the site of the fortress of Babylon, which derived that name from being assigned as a residence to some Babylonish captives, brought, probably, by .Sesostris. The new city, however, which has alone risen to the rank of a capital, was founded in 973, by the first of the Fatimite Caliphs. Salodin surrounded it with strong walls and magnificent gates ; and it soon eclipsed the splendour of the now neglected Alexandria. Europeans, however, in the aspect of Cairo, find little corresponding to the ideas raised in them by Eastern description. The streets are narrow and winding ; the prin- cipal one, which traverses the whole area of the city, would be considered in Europe us a mere lane. As they are not paved, a most disagreeable dust is raised by the crowds uf incn, dogs, camels, and asses, which press liirough them. The houses are two or three stories high, which is not usual in the East ; but almost all their light is derived from interior courts, and they present to the street only a mass of dead wall, wliich makes them appear like prisons. I'hcrc are, however, several extensive open squares, round which are built the houses of the |irincipal persons. Into these, when the Nile rises, the water is conveyed by a canal called tlie Kalisch, and converts them into lakes, which, being traversed by plea- sure boats, present at this period a gay scene. On the retiring of the waters, these lakes Book III. EGYPT. 1165 MOIQUB 09 lUl.T iM RAMAN. become so many plains of mtd, which is soon completely dried, and covered with excellent vegetation. The chief ornament of Cairo consists in its gates, several of which are built in a style of simple magnificence, and in its mosques, of which that of Sultan Hassan displays all the splendour of Saracenic archi- tecture (Jig. 770.). Many of the baths have their interior very richly ornamented. The tombs of the Mamelukes, also, built of white mar- ble, and with painted or gilded domes, are very beautiful. The Pacha resides in the citadel, where he has magnifi- cent apartments, A9CA. Cairo, according to Pococlce, is seven miles and a half in circuit, and covers as much ground as Paris ; but as a great part is occupied with gardens and empty spaces, it cannot, according to Volney, contain more than 250,000 inhabitants. Browne, however, reckons them at 300,000, Jomard at 260,000, Baibi at 330,000. The police is maintained with great strictness, each street being shut in at night with gates, and guarded by several janissaries. Notwithstanding the gloomy exterior presented by the houses even of the great, the interior of these mansions possesses great magnificence. Space and coolness are especially studied. They present wide halls, high domes, verandas, rich sofas and carpets, walls adorned with sentences of the Koran, and with foliage and flowers. The habits of life are recluse ; the only great festivals are those of marriage and circumcision, when fami- lies bring all their wealth into full display. 4965. Cairo is perhaps the greatest thoroughfare of any dty in the world. All the merchan- dise which passes between the Mediterranean on one side. Upper Egypt and Arabia on the other, must be conveyed through it. Its land communications are perhaps still more extensive, as in this respect it forms the grand link between the Asiatic and African conti> nents. With the interior of Africa, in particular, a vast trade is carried on ; and slaves are imported in very great numbers, to be exposed in the markets of Cairo. The sale takes place in the open street, where they are subjected to the most minute examination of the purchaser. According to Sonnini, the price did not exceed from eight to twelve pounds a piece. The amusements of Cairo are generally of a very humble nature ; tumbling, rope* dancing, and juggling are publicly performed in the few open spaces which the city aiTonls. For the amusement of the rich, there are improvisatory poets, both male and female, who are said to display occasional talent, though their medicant muse is too apt to employ itself chiefly in fulsome praises of its patrons. 4966. Old Cairo, originally of much amaller extent than the new city, is now uninhabited through a great part of ita site. It ia chiefly occu|iied by Copta, for whom it forma a aort of capital. They have twelve cl)urchca in it, some of tlicm large and aumptuous ; and their (latriarch haa removed hia residence from Alexaudria to this place. It containa alio the ancient granaries, tearing the name of Joseph, which are still uied for their original purpoae. The place ia distinguished also by an immense and skilftilly contrived machine, by which the water is raised into an aqtieduct for the supply of the caatle of New Cairo. 4967. T/ie Inst appendage qf thii great city is Boulalc, ita port on the Nile, diitinguisheil by th« trade, and boats without numl)er ascending and descending. It is of considerable extent, but doca not present any remarkable object, except very One hatha. There ia an institute for 100 pupils, maintained at the cxi>enae of the Fach,i. 4968, The pyramids next claim our attention. Scarcely has the traveller ascended above Cairo, when he comes in sight of those far-famed structures, to which the world presents nothing comparable, and which cannot be contemplated without the most awful emotion. Tlicse mighty monuments seem to look with disdain on every other work of human art, and to contend with nature herself. They form an uninterrupted range for about twenty leagues, on a declivity sloping down towards the river (^g. 771.) ; but the first two, the pyra- mids of Cheops and Cephrenes, from the union of magnitude and skill in their construct.jn, have almost exclusively attracted the attention of the world. The first or great pyramid {Jig. 772.) is 693 feet square, covering up- wards of eleven acres, and rising to the amazing height of 599 feet In an age when machinery wa:. imperfect, and every thing was done by manual laI)our, it is said to have employed 100,000 men for twenty years. The destination of this and all similar colossal structures appears evidently to have been sepulchral. The original entrance, TUB rVRAHlDfl. 1166 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGllAPHY. Paiw III. OliaAT VVHAMID* 773 as well as that into each successive gallery and chamber, is studiously concealed, by being .-2 made exactly similar to the surrounding wall ; and it is carefully barred by huge blocks of granite, which cannot be cut through witliout great h. bour, but which, to the ex- perienced eye, afford a sure test of the sought-for entrance. The opening of the first pyra- mid has been long ago effected; it is ascribed to tlic Caliph Mo- hammed, in the ninth century. Several long galleries have been traced, leading to two chambers, the largest of which is 32 feet by 16; and contains a sarcophagus now empty. Tlie second pyramid, or that of Cephrenes, is about 400 feet high. It had defied all attempts to enter it, till the enterprise was recently achieved by Belzoni. His attempts were long unsuccessful ; but at length, by the position of the block of granite placed to bar the en- trance, he was enabled to trace its real direction (Jig. 773.1. . * the end of a Ion" passage, he (oxa- ,; -hamber 46 fe.t by 16, in wh. sarco- phagus containing a . . m: intityof bones. These bones <, supposed by him to be human; but on being brought to London, and examined b; the Royal College of Surgeons, they were pronounced to be those of the bull, that base object of Egyptian ■KTBANci ro TBI iKOMo rtKAiiiD. worshlp. Indccd, it seems every way improbable that structures so stupendous should any where, and most of all in Egypt, have been undertaken without a religious impulse and motive. 4969. About three hundred paces from the second pyramid is the gigantic statue of the Sphynx {fig. 774.), that singular object, in the delineation of which Egyptian art so much delighted. It has been overthrown, and, till of late, only the head, the neck, and some part of the back, were visible above the sand. The length, from the fore part to the tail, was found to be 125 feet. Mr. Belzoni, having succeeded in clearing away the sand, discovered most singular appendages, consisting of two temples, one of which it holds between its legs, and the other in one of its paws. 4970. Thii part of irrigation. The inundation extends for a considerable apace along its western bank ; but, from the peculiar sloiic of the ground, it cannot be diflliail without tome dilHculty. Immediately on the Nile, the ■"""*" ground is considerably higher than the river, whose waters must be raised with wheels moved by oxen, and with other complicated and laborious machinery. Farther on, the level desetrnds, till it falls even below that of the Nile i but the river must be considerably swelled before its waters c.-in reach across the high separating r',;e. In seasons of low inundation, tliere- fore, it is almost entirely deprivcfi of water ; and, even in average yeat i, docs not obtain nearly the quantity which mijihc l)c advantageously employed. This evil might be entirely remedied by an active government; but in th; present neglected state of the canals, the couHtry sulTers severely from it. In one iiart, indcwl, the tract along the foot of the mountains is watered hy a natural devivation from the Nile, calletl the cinaloi Joseph, the principal branch of which passes into Fayoum, while another reaches even into Lower Kgypt.- (P. b. Martin, in Detcript. Egypte, Etat Modeme, if. 197— S02.) 4971. Except the pyramids, this tract contains few remarkable objectt. Along the Nile is a succesiion of tolerably large, but ill-built villages. Benisucf, somewhat handsomer than the rest, is a brick town, ton. taining a considerable manufactory of coarse carpets. Near Metruhcnny appear extensive though taint traces of the ancient Memphis, the capital of Egypt at the era of the construction of the pyramids. 4972. To the west itf Benisw'f apiiears the province of Fayoum, truly remarkable by its physical charaeler, even in Egypt An opening in the elsewhere continuous I.diyan chain, aided by a vast artiticial rut, hai let in the river upon this tract, and converted it from a desert Into the most fertile iMirtion of this most fertile land. After traversing the territory in numl)crless canals, this branch forms tne lake of Fayoum, whi™ antiquaries no longer hesitate in identifying with the ancient Moeris. Being only, indeiKl, about thirty mil« In length, and four or five in its geiierar lireadth, its extent is much inferior to that ascrilied toitlHlta ancients, who represented it as resembling a sea Moth Martin and Jomard, however, who carefully csainineo its environs, were convincol that the present iukc may lie considered as occupying little more than the bottom of its former bed. The surrounding tract '.wars every appearance of liaving been abandiiiiemiling fields, watered by a thousanii canals, which maintain a perpetual freshness, and whose aspect forms the most striking contrast with the bordering deserts of Libya. Besides yielding rice and grain in equal abundance with the other provinces, it abounds in dates and flax, and prole in grain. Si;bsect. 3. Said, Tliebaid, or Upper Egt/pt. 4980. After Moufalout, Middle Egypt, the Vucstani or Vostani of the moderns, the Hepta- nomis of the ancients, terminates, and Upper Egi/pl, the TliebaiU of the ancients, the Said of the moderns, commences. Egypt, whicli in the Delta was a wide inundated plain, which in the Vostani became a broad well-watered valley, is here little more than a mountain glen. Still, however, though less fertile and populous, it presents objects which, in interest and grandeur, surpa.ss all the most remarkable in the lower and more level tracts of this extra- ordinary country. 4981. Siout is the first large town of Upper Egypt, which has not here assumed the narrow and contracted aspect peculiar to other parts of the Thebuid. Un the contrary, this part of the valley of the Nile is upwards of twelve miles broad, thouKh the river itself has not a breadth of more than 7;>U feet Siout has a large district attached to it, which is very fertile in wheat, barley, dhourra, flax, and contains very fine gardent The population is reckoned at 'i(M>,UX), and the taxes at 40,(I(IO<. The city is large and |x>pulous, and carriet on a considerable trade in linen cloth, earthenware, natron, and opium. This also is the point from whicli the caravans of Nubia and Darfour usually depart, and to which they return. Ilehind the city are a number of country houses erected by the Mamelulies, partially fortified. There are no remains of ancient edifices, tlunigli trunks of columns adorn the houses of several of the principal inhabitants. The face of the mountain, however, which is almut two miles to the west, is excavated into grottoes throughout its whole extent. The greater part of these arc ancient Egyptian tombs, lavishly adorned with hieroglyphics and paintings. Others are the retreats of Christian hermits, who, in the first centuries, wer; induced by a mistaken devotion In bury them. selves in the savage recesses of the Thebaid. Small niches, stucco facings, a few rude iiaintings rcpresenlinii crosses, and some Coptic inscriptions, are all the traces they have left of their abode in thesi' lells. It tceii.s ascertained that Siout elands on the ground formerly oi'cupied by the city which, in the time of I'toleiny, was called Lycopolls. 45)82. The jirsi great monuments qf Ihf T/wAuirf which strike the eye of the traveller are those of yfn/cf. polii {Jig. 77fii), situated at the village of Kau, or Oau.on the wettcrn bank of the Nile Traces arc here found of a temple i!;>() fi«t long, and 150 broad ; but the only part at all entire is the lirst porlico, about 50 feet high. The culumni produce a peculiar nW'wl, llicir __= _^' capitals being compnsiHl of tlie l/I^SilV^ "''"fet^^'id^^^^^S^^fc 'iSUWtHJB^if?^ leaves of the date palm tree, ami ^•^VT^',^ ■'^MWRp'sS^^sairtiiKlSilfe HllfT^slil eJ being Burroundcut eighteen miles south-east of Akhmym is Oirge, or Rirshe, the capital of Upper l^gypl. Nv- witfistanding this proud ili8iiiictioii,it is not so large as Siout, being about the size of Moul'alnut, Minyct, ai ""} niosiiiiciwiil' anil I'vro i™ ■ulturc, Khicn ',\ into those ol throughout all litninn liv il« rftypt- '<■* It, Miii>ot,aiil It' I'ouiiiry, aiil tciichiucn »"' the 49S5. Near tliis city, five miles west from the Nile, on the ranal of Joseph, and on the borders uf the desert, le I'rcnch discnveroi the remains of Abydna. This city was accounted liy the ancients the second in the the Tliclwid : it contained a lalaceof Mcmnon, and the tomb of Osiris : worlcs by tlie same hands whicli conRtructed those of Thebes. It had the misfortune, however, of being situated at the end of a long valley crossing the mountains, and through which the sands of the boundless wentcrii deserts were blown in uiwn it I'lantalions, canals, and all the expedients which were employed during the prosjuTous times of Kgypt to preserve Abvdos from tlie encroachments of these sands, could not avert its destmy. Not only is it in ruins, but tlieso ruins are almost buried. They may be entered, however, by the roof, where spacious interior apartments are found entire, and adorned with hieroglyphics and paintings, of which the colours are as fresh and brilliant as in the first day they were painted. Jomard particularly admired the lower part of a kneeling statue, of human siie, in black granite. This fragment appeared to him perhaps the most beautiful that had ever come ftom ijgBiiBB[itftfifKiiy|itJitfyi^yitaii[?^.iiyiiWw^ , containing, how- ^,^, , _ . . „ „, ! ancient Diospolis, but presenting no remains of it. He then arrives at Kene, a town of some consequence, and remarkable for it« t'ahric of earthen vessels. Pocockc met large floats coming down the river, containing jars placed on a frame- work of twined pnlm branches, and thus raised stage above stage. Four long |>olc8, like oars, were employed to direct the boat. The curious observer, however, hastens across the river to Dendcia, two miles to the west of which arc the ruins of Tentyra, Justly ranking with the most remarkable of which I^ypt can boast 4987. The ruins of Tentyra cover a space of about a milu in length, and half a mile in breadtli. The greater part of this ground is overspread with mere fragments and rubbish ; but one part presents a temple {fi^- 777.)) which, though it cannot cope in grandeur with tiie 777 monuments of Thebes, surpasses in art and skill every thing else in Egypt. Tlie spectator feels, as it were, transported into a fairy scene of enchantnient ; he sees monuments which have no affinity v./itb the pro- ducts of Grecian architecture, or with those created by the taste ot modern Europe, yet which present exquisite beauty, and a magnificence the most imposing. The length of tlie temple is 265 feet, and 140 broad. The portico, above all, inspires astonishment by the grandeur and singularity of its aspect. It consists of six columns, the capitals of which are formed of colossal heads of Isis, the deity in whose honour this temple appears to have been reared, and to whom almost every thing in it has reference. The height of the portico is sixty feet ; but that of the general wall of the temple not more than seventeen. The whole is entirely covered over with those mystic, varied, and often fantastic sculptures {fig. 778.), which characterise Egyptian architecture ; hieroglyphics, groups, figures of deities, and sacred animals ; the whole of the manners and mythology of ancient PORTICO AT UKNOBRA. FART or A MiULPruRED WALL AT DIMIRRA. INTRRIOR or TBMPI.R AT DRNDBRA. Kj^ypt embodied. The workmanship is of (he most elaborate execution, and highly finished. The interior 'fig. 779. ) of the portico is equally beautiful and striking. It composes a rectangle 120 feet by 67, and is supported by 24 columns, ranged in six rows of four deep. The ornaments are equally profuse and varied ; but the roof formerly presented a feature which strongly fixed the attention. Divided into twelve compartments, it exhibited, by a variety of mythological figures, many of which coincide with those employed by the Greeks, a representation of the twelve signs of the zodiac. This remarkable monument has recently, opuii principles which we shall not now discuss, been detached from the root, and conveyed to Paris. 4 F 2 ItTO DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part IT). 4IMM, trittH Mf etmlemplatton i\f tkcie monumenU haa ariun a question, ceitaliily of deep Interest in tlin hlilnry nf Hrt, It wnn never iloulileil that they had been erected by the early and native kings of Egypt until Visrniill. In hln notes to Larchcr's edition of Herodotus, endeavoured to prove them to be of much more KCvnl dntp, i'he •tructurc of the todlac appears to indicate, that the commencement of the Egynliiui year Mtliiwt>rt<(l thpn (I) the sign of Leo, which would take place lietwecn the years 12 and 132 of the Christiun era. Thin nplnloii Is slrenithened by a Greek inscription on the frnni of the cornice, Hrst oliicrvcd by Deiion, ami ilni'i> I'oiiitHi by Mr. Hanillton, in which the pronaos is dedicated to Aphrodite, and the reign of 'rilwrius •••l||iilt'llnii, 4|iN|l, Almiit Icii miles above Kene and Dendera is Krft, the ancient Koptos ; and higher still, Kous, the aiieliMil A|Hilllii(i|K)lli I'arva. These, under the Ptolemies, and even under the Saracen princes, were piaret of great wvallh and Imimrtanre ; for opposite to each is an opening in the mountains, through which is tlie VArnvHli roiile In the ancient Berenice and the motlerii C'osscir. Through the loss of the trade to India, and tliii Irnnalciviice of that of Arabia and Suei to Cairn, this communication is now become of very little import. aiii'ii I'lven the (i>m modern caravans which proceed in this direction take their departure ttom Kene. Boili .... ... . t. .. ... . iilng many uninhabited houses, and ruins that helonu to , prcicnta the portico of an ancient Egyptian temple, of '-, but with a beauty almost rivalling that of Dendera ^ - , ., _ , arc surrounded by gardens, which appear bcaiitirul to IhuiA who have newly passed the desert ■IDtK), Abovu KuuH, for some miles, is a sandy plain, after which the rocks appruacli close It) Ihv rivtir. tieyund a projecting point, however, tlie view opens upon a scene to which tlie world preaetits nothing parallel ; an eitensive plain, covered almost throughout its whole uktvnt with the most lunazing ruins. This is Thebes; the city of the hundred gates, that nilghly capital, the foundation of which is unknown to history, and belongs only to the dim ngi'it of tradllioiinry poetry, whose report would have been denounced as fabulous, had not HUcIl lliitflity liionuiiients proved that it fell short of the reality. This work of the first age uf llitt world aliiio tained 600. The palace itself is entered with great difficulty, and its interior, being dark and filled with rubbish, presents few objects to attract the attention ; but on reaching the roof, the spectator enjoys a distinct and most magnificent view of the whole range of sur- rounding ruins. All who have visited thii scene describe the impression made l>y it as a.inost superior to that caused by any other earthly object. According to Denon, the whole French army, on coming in sight, stood still, struck as it were with an electric shock. The scene, according to Jollois and Dcvilliers, appears to be rather the produce of an imagination surrounding itself with images of fantastic grandeur, than any thing belonging to real existence. Belzuni, in particular, declnres that the most sublime ideas which can be formed from the most magnificent specimens of our present architecture, would give a very inadequate picture of these ruins. It appeared to him that he was entering a city of departed giants. lie seemed alone in the midst of all that was most sacred in the world. The forest of enormous culuinns, adorned all round with beautiful figures and various ornaments ; the high portals sciin at a distance from the openings to this vast labyrinth of edifices ; the various groups of ruins in the other temples ; tliese, altogether, had such an effV-ct upon his mind, as to separate liini in imagii.ation from the rest of mortals. For some time he seemed unconscious whe- ther lie was on terrestrial ground, or on some other planet. 4993. If Karnac is unrivalled in tlie grandeur and extent of its remains, the temple of J.UTor, as a single and beautiful object, seems superior to any thing else in Egypt. The view from the river is peculiarly beautiful, when, across the verdant islands with which it is studded, appears a wide plain covered with palm trees, over wliich these colossal masses throw their shadows; while, behind, the Arabian mountain chain forms the boundary of the landscape. The approach is through the village of Luxor, whose crowded and miserable huts form a strange contrast with these monuments of ancient splendour. At length the portico appears, by the sides of which are seen the two most beautiful obelisks in the world (fg. 782.), each rising to the height of eighty feet, yet composed of a single block of the finest granite, from the quarries of Syene. By what means such co- lossal masses were conveyed to so great a distance, and placed in their present position, surpasses the con- c ption of modern art. Behind them are two colossal statues, now studiously defaced, and deep sunk in the sand, but which must have been forty feet high, and composed of a single block of the same granite. The propylon is 200 feet in height, rising fifty-seven feet above the present level of the soil. The interior is equally grand. It presents to the view upwards of 200 columns of difl'erent dimen- sions, many of them ten feet in diameter, and most in an entire suite. But nothinf; is more re- markable in this edifice, than the profusion of sculptures with which ine obelisks, the walls, and all the apartments are covered. Tliese, indeed, are favourite ornaments on all the Egyptian edifices, and remarkably frecjuent in the palace of Karnac ; but they occur here in unexampled profusion, and executed with as much care and deli- oacy as if they had been the work of the most skilful seal-engraver. Tliey appear to represent tlie history and triumphs of an ancient Egyptian sovereign, probably the founde r the remains of a city have been investigated, the mountains behind have been found ' - ted into sculptured tombs; and those of Thebes, as might be expected, surpass all tl. iiers in number, extent, and splendour. The Libyan chain, which presents for about six miles a perpendicular height of 300 or 400 feet of limestone rock, has appeared peculiarly suited for such elaborate sepulchres. These subterranean works of the Egyptians almost rival the monuments which they raised on the surface of the earth. Entrance galleries lead into large apartments, in which are placed flie sarcophagi, and which ore pro- fusely decorated with that species of coloured sculpture with which they lavishly orna- mented their walls. The deceased lies surrounded with representations of all the objccis which formed his pride and occupation while living. A complete pictirre is tluis exhibited of the domestic life of the ancient Egyptians ; and many of the customs tlierc indicaini have been transmitted unaltered, and are still characteristic of the nation. Festivals, agri- cultural operations, commercial transactions, hunts, bull-fights, fishing and fowling scenes, vineyards, ornamented grounds, form the varied subjects of these representations, liif xhumbers and passiiges adjoining contain numerous mummies, in that wonderful stale ul uiirn r Book 111. EGYPT. II7S preservation which the Egyptians had the art of securing to the mortili remains of their ancestors. They are found wrapped up in successive folds of linen or cotton clotli, impreg- nated with bitumen, and so skilfully applied, as to preserve almost unaltered the form of tlie features and of the minutest parts of the body. Many of them contain, wrapped in their (uWr., papyri covered with hieroglyphical writing, an object of eager researcli to the European nn;iquary. Belzoni gives a very lively description of the difficulties attending this search. <■ A vast quantity of dust rises, so One that it enters the throat and nostrils, and cliokes the nose and mouth to such a degree that it requires great power of lungs to resist it and the strong effluvia of the mummies. You must creep through narrow passages, sometimes not more than a foot wide, after which you come to a more commodious place, perhaps high enouiih to sit. But what a place of rest ! surrounded by Inxlies, by heaps of mummies in all directions. After the exertion of entering into such a place, through a passage of 50, ICX), 300, or perhaps 600 yards, I sought a resting-place, found one, and contrived to sit ; but when my weight bore on the body of an Egyptian, it crushed it like a band-box. I naturally had recourse to my hands to sustain my weight, but they found no better support ; BO that I sunk altogether among the broken mummies, with a crush of bones, rags, and wooden cases, which raised such a dust as kept mu motionless for a quarter of an hour, waiting till it subsided again." 4996. The ancient EgypHam took the most jealous care to prevent any one from pene- trating into these repositories of their dead. The entrances were closed with the greatest care by large «tones, so united with the neighbouring rock as to prevent, if possible, any suspicion that they existed. It has required the most eager research of the moderns to penetrate into these subterraneous abodes. The cupidity of the Arabs, however, stimulated by the chimerical expectation of finding hidden treasures, has, in many instances, overcome every obstacle. The district immediately contiguous to Thebes is inhabited by a peculiar race, who maintain a fierce independence, and have scarcely, unless when compelled by the sword, owned the sovereignty of any government established in Egypt. They have taken up their abodes in many of the tombs, and eagerly employ themselves in searching their recesses fur papyri and other antiquities, which they dispose of at high prices to European antiquarian travellers. This speculative traffic, however, lias been on the whole injurious to tlieni, by rendering their habits still more disorderly, and diverting their attention from legiilar industry and cultivation. 4997. These monuments of private individuals, however, are far surpassed by the tombs of the kings. At a small but highly finished temple, called El Ebek, a narrow gorge or ravine leads by a winding track into the heart of the Libyan mountains. At the end of two miles, a narrow chasm between rocks opens into " tlie valley of the tombs," a gloomy solitude, pre- senting the arid and desolate aspect of the most frightful desert. High mountains with rocky summits Iwund the horizon on all sides, and allow only part of the sky to appear. The heat reflected by them is so violent, that, in 1799, it killed two of Dessaix's escort; and there would be no possibility of enduring it, but for the shelter which the tombs afford. In this awful solitude, the ancient Bgyptians sought to seclude from every human eye the magnificent monuments of the kings of Thebes. Avarice and curiosity, however, have triumphed over every precaution. All had been done to secure the entrance. The huge mass of stone which bars it, opens, when penetrated, into a narrow and intricate passage, closed by successive gate after gate. At length, entrance is found into a spacious chamber, in the middle of which is tlie sarcophagus, commonly empty, while the walls are adorned with painted sculpture, in the iiighest style of Egyptian magnificence. The sul)jects are of a different character from those found on the walls of the temples. They frequently consist of fimeral processions, religious mysteries, sacred animals ; a globe, the emblem of eternity ; and Osiris judging the dead {Jig. 784.). The eye, however, is often shocked by the representation of a number of victims newly beheaded, and stream- ing with blood, while others are led to share the same fate. This seems too strongly to suggest the savage mode of honouring the royal funeral by sacrificing over it a number of captives. The high preservation of these paintings is the more remarkable, as they are in general executed, not on the solid rock, which is here too hard to be susceptible of such ornaments, but on a soft plaster or stucco, which, however, has pre- served them unaltered during several thousand years. 4 !• 4 784 VKIUUXTATIOM XV UflUtU. 1174 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. I'*KT||I, 4IKM. Al Ike timr token HiUzoni hignii hit iiperaliiiiu, tun of time tiHiilM HmI bouii ii|n>iiiH|, nml w,,,, Hc't'viiilhlo. riiat ciiti'riiriiiiiiK travulU'r lunocdnl in (i|H'iiiiig •ovuml i Imt lll«ri< M lUiiiiil n aliiiii' ■Imllnr (a tlinl which hwl formnl the iipciiiriK into the iocond pyrainiil, kuiI wut iiblu In p«n«tl'Htt<. Mvt nmkliiii In! wny Ihrongli nui'uiniilatcd (iljutaulos, lie arrivvU at a ai'pulchral chamliur, •Inillarljr mhiriivii wllh llm iitrmi hut Tar ■nrjiaiKinK all tho rest in inaxnilicLMiL'c. In the centre was a lhe(iliai>'iii|i.| nf thi- dc'cca'apd, in which are intrniluced a numlier of foreign c.i|itive>, aniiniu whom tllii Jewa are iliallii finlahed by their phyaingnnmy and complexion, the Ethiopiana by their colour anil oriiaimr. Youiiu hki drawn fi-om the hieroglyphical insi-riptiona, that thia ia the tomb of Necho anil I'auniini'tli'iK, the I'liriiiiT ni vviioin la mentioned in Scripture as having marie auoccaaftil war agalnat .ludea nod Aaayrla i iiml the latter l< known by an exi>eilitlon agaiiiat the Kthiopiana. Thia remarkable aarcnpliigiu WM| by lh« ukerlloiii or ItelaonI, triuKpiiried to Knglaod, anil ia now placed In the Museum at Cainbridgii, ♦'.l!1). A full iilrn i\f ann'ent Keyplinn painting null tculptuir may be fiirnieil iVnm tho ntnnproita uprflnii'm preserved in theao loinb!i, aa well as U|K>n tho walls of the I'hvhan eililii'ea. 'rhva9 aria ari lirai'llaml in a vurv lieruliar alyle, J'he Kgiires are tirst cut out in a certain degree of rullef, and thu enhiuri lh«n laid over ihun All that lieliing« to drawing is perl'orined l)y the chisel. It has merely, niiwvver, dl>llli|Ulihwl the llgiiria liy cntllnu away the stone round them, so that only the prottle is exhibilnl, and the wholii iiii|i«iirs a« a Hut rnl with rubbish. It has also remaine|iii. rity of style, pei'ullar In Ititiri and It was vieweil by IKmiihisi one uf the iiina' perfeit aiiiiiiit mnniimenta, It la iiiii pei'iillarl)r distini(ul«he|l their feet The Nile, which elsewhere diffVises nuch luxuriant lerliiily, has no power over tlicf fWli Hmitneil tii eternal tterility. The narrow band oi verdure, which soiiielimes boiinda iiliv nl tlie biiM TV.MVim AT SDrU. I'aktIII, li mill tynri I wlili'h Ihc liiiii' >liiillAr r nmktii{i hii lliii iitln'ri, Ini'lii'ii liHiK, il I" Ih> ntn. xvniti'il, mill llii>iiliiiii n nrr illMlii. Illi«l*i'riiliiiii '. YiiuiiK lim liii riiriiii't III I till' litllrr l< wkiirtluiii III Book III. f^MS^'. EGYPT. 1173 plRln iif IHT' uekumiiiiili™"' ( (III' riviT, III M lii'i'ii.Kliciillie ire ii'i'ii II"' ""■ tvlilrli 111!' I'!'!!'- «l, M. lli»l',n' ■^ III Ihc li'iniiM (if AtiiWii ll« hiMiiiii' I'liiiiiil '" Kiini'riil I'liliiii' I' It'll iijiiiii liy I™ riilti till' IIIMIH''™' leu liinii iitiill""' hi. iinri III iW Willi till' iniiil"' f iivrr llipre Mf l|U> III' llii' Iwi'^'i III' iNTmHOR OF TRMri.B AT BDri'. ■lingled with « liiw Mrthen huti mid ttuiited pilmi, •eomi only to make mort MiulMu tlio aiiiruiimlliiii '"""'"'"■"*• '87 ,ii(Kl4. In II viiUrg amiiUI tkii lulihule, koweeer, iluuit Ihe niicfi-Ml fUu i\f Umbo; wliiitu rulMn lire u|iwiiriU uf lour inllw In i-ircunui>rcm'p. anil I'milRlii two trm. |iI(M, much illliiiililutiil, Imt iit'ailiiKiru'n iif Krc«t niiiKiillUi'iici'. Ni'gli'il, unit lli« bliiwIiiK in III' UiL' », Imvv rcilncnl the pluli' tu n Ktatenl' liiliil ili'ivrtliin. 'I'iio niiHk'rii villuKt' on tho ullc nl' OmlMM coiilaliK no liiiiHvr nny liiliulilliinli, ."JlrtlTi. Afouaii, Ihf irlrbiiilfil Hyfne i\f Ihc aitcienU, U iltuati'il on I he ciulorn linnk at tho ttrmlnatliin ol'lhln hiiiK anil ilrcary trait. It wo* rrniarkalilc, niiti/iily 0* belnif thi' llinltary town of Kgyiit ami Ethiopia, lint ehlvllv at nnu iif Ihi' Kraiiil |iolntiu|H>n which thVKfOKr'ilihpriiuriho Alexa".,irlan m'hiHil mraturtiilhcformof the earth, unil the rvlallvo iniiiltliin of lt> parti. Sycne wa> ciiii.lili'riil ni linnuill. ately bcnrath the troplu, and a well wa> fonncd there, at tho iHitloin of which, on theiolstltUlday, tholMHlyol' Ihoiun wai ri'ili I'liil ciitire. The minleriK have searched In vain Tor Ihla well ; and tho piuilion aitiKiied \t not •Irlelly rorrei't, Syeiic Iwlng in 24° 5' '2'i" S, lutltude ( but, considering the Impcrl'ectiiin ut iiiielrnt limtruniviiti, thit ildcii not imply a very greot error. The ancient Syenc contalnii a temple, by no mean*, howevi'r, rorreii|Hiiidcnt In 81' ureal a name i and, with the other original innnumenta. It ia in a great nienaiiro bnrleil under the ri'iiiniiK, flmt of a Roman, and then nf an Arab town, erected iin the aame aitc. The inoilern town la einaely ailjiiiiiiiiK, and, though jiopuloua, la very (loor, being aupimrted chiefly by a trade In dotea, Tho Inhabltaiitt are nliserved to go almost niikeil, a cuatonn which la partly excused on account of the oxircmo heiit riiHUi. .Vvi'nc ia aurrnunded on all aldca by dark and rugged mountaina, extemllng t'ur many nillon up the riviT. 'I licy are formed of that rose-colou rrf granite which, from the apot, la called tyi-nilf ,• liut Ihougji, on fracture, it exhlblta that and other brilliant coloura. the surface la covered by tho action of the «lr anil plrmcnts with a d.-irk brown tint. For almut three miles round Syeno are the famoua i;uarrloa, whence the KKViitians drew their granite chiefly for the cdiftccs of Lower KKypt The marka of the InitrumenH einiiloveil may still be traceil; the soil la every where strewed witn pieces of varluua forma and dliiien. lions, anil it Is siill possible to discover the pur|iose for which many were de.tlned. The iniist remarkable it an obelisk, which Is 54 feet high, without reckoning its )ioint, burled in the sand. 'I'he rn whose aound deafened the iielghlHiuring . ,'»'«!^. V'4»i!'>. ^^ :.r ^.— - jfidllMga«aMfc; -— Inhabitanta, ami obliged Ihein In remove •■iti'^.- -'.^iK^^m.' ^.J^flHHBnf^^ - thelrowellings to adlstaiieclVomtheroar, has not been verlHeil by mmli rii (iliacrva> tlon. It doca not ap|iear lint there Is at present any consWIerable liill : and though some change' might bo possible, one ao entire cannot bo Imagined, A most plc> turesq'ie and extranrillnary acene is, how. cver,nriMluced by the Nile ilushlng tliroiigh a wild confiisiiin of granite rucks, with whiili its lied, for several miles, is t liii'kly studded. The two opposite chains, presenting peaks of every fnrni and a»|>oct, meet and cross in (he middle uf ita course. The river, which above Hows in silent niajcsly, upward! of a mile in breadth, ia here iiarroweil to half that apace ; and its stream, forcing ita way through Ihese sleep anil iniiuiiicrable islets aituated above, amidst, and below the cataract, boiling, foaming, and breaking among a tlioiisaiiil rocka, presents a scene of the grandest efl'ect. The water In the diftV-rent channels la tosaeil aUiut III every ilircction, forming nuniberleas little cascades. The noise, resembling that of a tvnipestuout ocean on a rocky shore, is in winter and spring very formidable, and heard at the distance of three nillea. 5(1(111. The island o/ Philut {Jig. 789.), above the cataracts, and at the very gate of ICthiopla, conalitutes atlll _ another striking feature. Within ■ 789 . " ' > apace of a quarler of a mile In length. and half that breadth. It exhlblta a confusion of grand and beautllXil mo. ■lumenla, rivalling those left by tho greatest cities of Kgypt ; and llielr elegant forms and wlilte cnlniir strlk. iiigly co'itrast with tho embrowned tints and the wild and rugginl |M'aks of the surrounding moiintaina. Denoii distinguished eight dinbrent tcmnlea, built apparently at dlfll'reiit (icrlmla, and quite separate, though aome palna had been taken to combine together those which were cnntiguoua. I'hllnb ia far from presenting the anilllnR ni. pect of Elephantine) but a few datei and cultivated fields on the island itself and the opposite ahorea, placed aa they are upon thia burning loti, .mil amid tills iinmenaity of arid rocka, prmluce an agreeable iinpresjion, and aortcn somewhat theoxirtme M'verily of the site. catahacts or ma mi.ii. PH1I.0II AT BUNRIBB. 1170 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAFHY. I'akt Ilf 10. Htniint Mm tmrnl Ike Nile in ill enlire eourie Ikrougk Kmipl, we hMt loiM over the miln iHKiy „> country i nut lome wihl appnuhigri remain, which the clalina oa bclnnglna to her. Aiming Ihne la ihn llirly dewilnte tract, which cxtriida nrom the Nile to the Hed Mva, throuiih tht whole extent i>r Miiidlr mio. that peculiarly anil Upper KKyi>t. 1 lor man. Miiidlr I'hu toil I) uall U No illatrlrt nl' It aiineam to prmluce any thuiR which can aflbrd „„,, •and, I'n'lpriniiiKled with rncka, thrnuKh which, however, are lnteri|H.>riniM>aeil nf wood ami iiud •Itiiatetl in a ftightftilfy porir and barren country, and without any gmHl water imt what it broiiitlit imnl Aaia. The aea, liowcver, abounda with flah, and It dlaplaya lome commercial activity, though coiitaiiiiiiK no a'H'oinmiMlationa for trade, and having only one harlwur capable of holding a llmllad number nf unr. rior merchant veaaela. 9(111. Behuml, by grenl exfrlloni, fiiund Hit way to Ike ancient Berenice, lU could trace the iniin lireeta, and even the matcrlala or the hnuaea, conalating of corala, madrcimrrt, and petrinKtiiina, the coploua prnilucta of thoac aeaa. Oppoalte to It la a very Hnc natural harlmur, which ha* not, liowrvcr depth enough for laige veaaela, mid whnao entrance la at preaent obatructa! bv a bar nf aanil, I'utiiJ removable. There la a ainall Egyptian temple, built nf aandatone. The extent of the rulna la VIKoaed, have contained a population of 1(I,UIU. At present It la entirely deaertcd. 5III2. Almut twenty milea Inland from nercnicc la the mountain of Zubara, fainoui for the cinrniU tninei found in it by tlie ancicnta. When llelioni piuaed, ttlYy men had liccn craiiloyed (br als inimtha bv a aiieculatnr IVom t^ypt, to open again thb long loat aourcv of wcnith. They hail found, hiiwcviT. only a few apeciincna, moatly of Interior i|iiality, Towarila the wiatern quarter are aaid tn lie atill two later monaalerieii, thoic of St. Anthony and SL I'aul, whoeo gardens and plantationa aomewhat enliven the aiim" of thia deaert. ' 51)1,'). Al Ihe head nf Ike Hed Sea is Suez, by which Egypt carrlea on nearly all that remaiiia of ita nnrr linmenae traile In that aea. Thia Irnilc la now InaulHcicnt tn give any decree of wealth and iinpiirtamo m Suei. It la a pour, ill.bullt town, wliiih derivca all lla provlaiona from Cairo, and haa to wnil Ki'veral milu for water, and even that la bad. Alnniat Ita only intcrcoiirac la with Jidda, fVom which It receivea rnfli'p anct tupplica it with grain lor Mecca. A few veaaela aUii come from Yemen. Thoae of any conalderalilc bu'rilcu •re obllgcil to lie in the road, aa only amull boala can enter the harbour of Suei Itaelf, .1(114. ne canal which nncienllu united Ihe Hed Sea and Ihe Meililerranean waa tracoil by the Krcncli eiiKlneera, who, alter ciinaideralile aearrh, conccivcil that they hail ascertaineil Ita whole line. It exti'iiiltd •croaa |iait of the lathmua of Hiiei, and by Bclbeia, into the l'elu»iac branch of the Nile. Although thcwutk appears to have licen cnntlnueit aucccaalvely by the native princea, the Greeks, and the Komaiia, there ia no record that the canal waa ever actually uacil, unless in (he aevcnth and eighth centuries, under tiie Sararcnlc princea , and then probably only on a small scale. It is conceived quite |Kissible to renew the work ; lliniiiili the necessary de|icndeiicv on the rise of the Nile, and on the variable winds of the Arabian Uulf, reiidcri it ditticult tn secure a regular navigation, .0015. The region In Ihe veil (ff Kgupl conaiata of an equally dreary and still more unvaried plain, or ratlior ocean of sand. I nteraperaeil in it, iiuwever, are lusea, or cultivated islands, of consiilcralile extent. The principal la the one called El Wah, or the great ()a>ii«. It miiat be of tolerable magnitude, ainre llrowiic was eight houra in travelling from AIne Dlie, t'le lirHt spring, to Chatje, the capital. I'oncet ileairilK'i il u a delightful aimt; but it may have ilerlved odditiiirial charms from contrast with the dreary wililerneu around, 'i'hc governors of Upiier Egypt keep a garriaini here, and consider it nf Importance, as all'iinlinK to the caravans that proceed to the souin, an op|iurtun>ty of renewing their supply of provisiona niiii water Charje, the capital, contains about 'MX) inhabitants, who subsist on rice and dates. The continual hlowiiig of the sand is provided against by the singular precaution of a flooring formed above the streets, vhirli rni. dcrs them almost like a dark chamber. Near this place is a truly niagniflcent temple, Ull feet in ' >li, and containing, in high |ierfectlon, all the ornainenta peculiar to those of the Thehaid. On the oiiti ,ale Is a very long (ireek Inscription. In the vicinity of other villages arc considerable temples, where, ihuugh the character of the architecture be h^yiitlan, arched roofs and Greek Inscriptions mark that aililitioiia, at least, have lieen made by a diftl>rent iieiiple. 5(llti. About one liiindred miles to tne w.«t of El Charje, Sir Archiliuld Edmonstotui and M. Droutiii lately discoveriHl anolher Oa»i», consisting of tw ?lve villages, of which the princl|>al, called El Ca7ar, ii Imii. til'ully situated at the foot of a line of rocky hills, and surrounded by flne gardens of palm, acacia, and fiuii trees. Near it are vestiges of a very large town ; and ruins of similar character with those of Kl ('harjt, though on a smaller scale, are scattered throughout the Oasis. 5017. The mile Oasit, called likewise that of El Cazar, not being in the route of any caravan, rfmaiiiol •linost unknown, till Helioni lately maite his way thither. It consists of a plain, murteen milea Innii and eight brnail, formerly cultivatnl Ihroughout, but now only in parts. The (lenple are a rude, inilr|ieiiileiii race, who once had sheiks of their own : they niiUI little intercourse with any other tribe. Ilelzimi fnuijil here the rcinnins of a large temple, with a number of tombs cut In the rock. In the Egyptian alyle. Knini these, and lYoin a spring, varying somewhat in temperature, but not actually In the manner ilpirrilKil bv Heroilotus, he conceives that on this oasis may have been situattnl Ihe celebrated temple of Jupiter Ainmoi. at least that it may enter into coini>etition with Siwah for that disUnetion. Chap. III. MUBIA. n Skl'T. I. General Outline and AspecU 5018. In theheiiinning oftlie chapter upon Egypt, a general idea 1ir.s already lieeii given ot Nubia. Like tliat country, it owes its exemption from the character of complete dr>«ii entirely to the Nile, which holds through it a course of nearly KXK) miles in direct distance, without including its long bend round Dungola. That great river, however, difl'usefl its waters to Nubia in much more scanty purtioiis. Being every where hemmed in by high banks and rockv, it cannot, even without some artiiicial aid, be made to iimndau r%(. 7i>a MAP OF NUBIA AND ABYSSfNIA. 1177 the iKkhi Ixaly nf noiiK thctv !• Ifiit exivnt of Miuillp in.iii. Thf uil li aHiiriltiiH paiturt \ivt\ iHiKHvmloii oif ! H«{ (H'a. lor the iiclpiilly tlic Rrrut X There In itlll i I icnd several injlci , receives CDtll'i', anil Gonalilerable bunleu iceil by tlie Krcncli 3 line. It exIcniM Although the wiiili llomaiif, there i< no uiitler the Sararcnic w the work ; thniiKh jiaii Uulf, render! it arleil i>lniii, or ralhor crnlilc extent. The iiittiile, ninre Browne I'oni'ct lU'iicnlK'* it u he dreary wililcrneii •tance, iia alllirdinK to iroviaiona nnd water ne continual lilnving lie atreeta, vhiili rni. B, 191 feet in ' 'h, On the oiiti n'le inplea, where, Ihniigh irk that additioni, at lone and M. llri>uriii Hod Kl Caxar, is beau. )alin, aeacia, niul Iriiil thoBG of El Ihaije, any caravan, remaineil , tiiurtcen milw l""* re n rude, indi'|ieiiilrai • tribe. llcl«oni fimml Egyptian style. Kmni > manner descrilHil by [ileaf Jupiter Annioi. Longitude Eaat S5 from Greenwich Iteferrncet to the Map qf Xiibia and Abyatinia. NORTH PART. 118. Kail M. Nuakiin 18. Rarrai 4 caiae, It. il Man-b, H. e Anftrab, K. f (luanKue. It. K llahad, R. li IlmdCT, H. I Azrricue, or UIla HIver ) Ablad, or Wbilc KlTIT k Ankit, R. I Ada, R. m Heloo, R. n Koma, R. TIana, R. p (iaaben, R. q Nile, R. of Brun- r Demliea Lake 1 Alhaniiee, Lake t Anaio, R. u .Moire, R. 1 Hawuah, R. w lAWajB l.«kl;. 1178 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pi«KT III. in general more than a mile in breadth upon one side. The country forms, therefore, n narrow belt of immense length, through the endless desert, stretching eastward to the Nile, and to tlie westward lost in the wide and unknown wastes of interior Africa. 5019. ^s Nubia, in consequence of this structure, is divided, both physically and politi. cally, into a number of small states almost entirely detached from each other, our general view will be short, and the most interesting details will be reserved for the local survey. Sect. II. Xatural Geography- SufisECT. I. Geology. .'>020. Travellers mention granite, syenite, porphyry, marble, sandstone and limestone among the mineral formations of Nubia ; but no account has hitherto been published ul' its geognosy. Its mines of gold were formerly celebrated. SuBSECT. 2. Botany. 5021 . The Botany of Nubia has already been considered along with that of Egypt, fp, 1 147, ) SuBSECT. 3. Zoology. 5022. Our acquaintance with the Zoology of Nubia is almost exclusively derived from the very recent discoveries of M. Riippell : whose work, indeed, on the animals of Northern Africa, has scarcely yet, we believe, been brought to a conclusion. 502.*?. The following quadrupeds, besides those equally found in the northern regions of Africa, seem more particularly appropriated to Nubia : — I.epiu labclLntu Allp. IMo- - Fawn-coloured _ House. Mu!i dimidiauis RNp. Nubian Monse. Canfs Tarteti.itua Hlip. Variegated Fos-dog. Caniii AnthuH Rilp, Nubian Wolf, ('anls fiimellcus Rilp. Kordofan Pot. CanU pallidui R«p. Pale Fox. FeliH manlculata Run. Nubian or True Cat. HjTKna venntica Burchetl. Painted Hysna. Oryx Tao Sm. Nubian Oryx Antelope. OryxAddax. Addax Antelope Antilope SaHiiina Rllv. S,ilt*s Antdouo. Antilope montana Hlip. Mountain Antf- loiie. (Iniiella Dama Patl. Swlfl Antelopf. PbasochiEfM Kllana. Masked Iluar. (fftieila Cora. Cora Gazelle. 5024. Several of these deserve a slight notice. Wild Dogs and Foxes appear to be niiiiic- rous J as M. Riippell has discovered no less than four new species. The Variegated Fox- dog is ochre-coloured, the fur thick, and variegated with blackish . it was discovered both in Nubia and Upper Egypt, where it lives in the deserts, but does not burrow. 5 im. ne Nubian Dog, or more properly Wolf, is light grey, marked with a few black spots on the back, while the tail is entirely black. It may be regarded as the wolf o\ Egypt as well as of Nubia, where it 791 >^^52j^s,ai,,^ ^,^ (j^ ^ nevertheless appears to be rare. A third species, the Kordufan Fox, principally occurs in the deserts iKaring that name, and in those nl Nubia : it is nearly related to the Fennic, whicli it resembles in its burrowing habits, and is probably tl . x.iike animal represented on the monuments ofancicnt Egypt; for the true jackal (Cam's (i«riti.car to exist, either there, or in the immetliately adjoininK countries. Lastly, the Pale Fox (C, paUidu$) is entirely of a light yellowish grey, with a bushy tail, tlppea with black ; it is only found in the provinces of Kordofan and Oarfoiur. !)026. T/ial grotesque and rare animal, the Fennic (Ciinis Zerba) {fig. 1Q\.), tirst described by Bruce as inhabiting Abyssinia, was also discovered by M. KUppell in the neighbourhood of Ainbukol, and in the desert of Korti, wnere they live in holes, dug by themselves, and rKxML. not on trees, as has l)een asserted by Bruce. 5027. Bespecltng the Unicom, M. Riippell's researches have furnished iis with some very singular information ; while his observations on the structure of the horns of the Giraffe prove at least that the existence of a quadruped like the supposed Unicom, furnished only with a frontal horn, is at least neithe.' impossible nor contrary to nature. Our traveller obtained some information on this much debated subject in Kurdul'aii, where the Unicorn was said to be known, and to bear the name of Nillekiiia. Persons of various conditions agreed in the statement that the Nillekma was of a reddish colour, equal in size to a small horse, slender as the gazelle in its shape, and furnished with a long, slender, straight horn in the male, which was wanting in the female. Some added, that its hoofs were divided, while others declared they were entire. According; tn liiese statements, this animal inhabits .'ie deserts to the south of Kordofan, is uncommonly fleet, and only occasionally visits the Kaldagi Slave Mountain, on the borders of this province, Three several Arabs asserted to M. Riippell that they had themselves seen the animal in (juestion : and one of his slaves from Kaldagi, on seeing the antelopes brouglit from the desert of Korti, gave, of his own free motion, a description of the Nillekma, exactly coin- ciding with the notices afterwards obtained by the traveller: k appears he had eaten of it in his own country, and described it as a very beautiful animal. Of the veracity of this slave M. Riippell had frequent proofs, especially in the descriptions of animals, all of which were found to accord with the respective species which were subsequently procured. ( Zool- Jiiurn., vol. XV. p. .'J90.) 5048. The molt beautiful Anlelopen of NuHa are those named the Mountain, the Addax or White, and the Dama or Swift Antelopa The Arst inhabits the neighbourhood of FazogI on the White Nile. The elcRant White Antelope [A. Addax) is 'ery rare, being found only in certain parts of the desert In the south of Amhukol, where it lives in small herds : it is so exceedingly Heet, that even the l)est Arabian horses have much diftii'iilty in keeping pace with it. The Dama, from the great length of its legs, would seem tu \i the same celerity of motion, Book III. NUBIA. 1179 5029. The nortliern Giraffe, or Camelopardalis of the ancients (C antiquoruvi Sw.) 792 ^ Jlt. (Jig. 792.)> has been seen by M. Riippell in small herds in all the desert steppes south of Simrie, is plentiful at Darfour, and is even found to the east of the Balir el Azrek. There can be no doubt that this is a distinct species from the Girafie of Southern Africa (C austratts Sw.) 5030. Several interesting birds appear to be peculiar to this kingdom, or, at least, not hitherto known as inhabit- ants of Northern Africa. 5031. Among those most deserving notice should be mentioned the Occipital Vulture {fig. 793.), first discovered by Mr. Burchell in the ■outhern rcKions of Africa. It is a large and imposing bird, having the upper plumage brown, the head and under parta white, and one half of the bill red : it inhabits the borders both of Nubia and Abys- sinia, and is found either solitary or in pairs. The Rcd-throateil Shrike {Mataconotus erythrogaster Sw.) is a new 8|jccies, not very unlike the Barbary Shrike. M. Kuppell describes, under the erro- neous generic name of Ixos, several curi.ous birds belonging to the family of Great-legged Thrushes [Cnileropodinte Sw.1. The Otis Nuba, or Nubian Bustard (Jig. 794.), is likewise a new acquisition ; and seems peculiar to the deserts of tropical Africa. By the discovery of a new Parrot (P. Mcyeri KUpp.) in Kordofan, M. Kuppell has ascer- tained the most northern range of this family in the Old World. We could dwell much longer on the important discoveries of this enterprising traveller and able naturalist, did our limits permit. Wc must, therefore, merely add, that his researches have been extended to every department of the animal kingdom, and have made a very im- portant addition to our knowledge of geographic zoology. KOHTIIIBN olRArFIl 5032. The feathered name is not deficient in these arid wastes. Bustard already no- ticed, another of the same genus, the Otis Arabs of Linnteus, is found in Kordofan : it is of considerable size, and distinguish- ed by a pointed black crest. Partridges and (juails are mentioned by former travellers : among the first is a new species disco- vered by Messrs. Denham and Clap- perton, and justly Besides the Nubian UCCIPITAI. VLI.ri'HK. named to comme- morate the latter. NL'KIAN Hi:srAHt>. Sect. 111. Historical Geography. 5033. Ethiopia is one of the most venerable names of antiquity. In a vague and inde- teiminate sense, it comprehended the whole of interior Africa south of Egypt and Mauri- tania ; but It was applied in a peculiar sense to Ethiopia siib JEgtjpto, — the region of the Upper Nile. This Ethiopia appears to have been a much more powerful and civilised kingdom in the early ages of history, tlian at any subsequent period. Egypt was repeat- edly' conquered from this quarter ; and, according to some, she derived from Ethiopia the original of those arts and institutions which have rendered her name so celebrated. There certainly was an interchange between the two countries ; but we should rather suppose Egypt, more fertile, and possessing much greater natural advantages, to have been the parent. Ethiopia, liowever, attests its ancient grandeur by monuments, excavated from lofky rocks which ovorhang the Nile, and which, though they do not display such exquisite skill, are nearly as magnificent as those of Egypt, and in some respects more striking. ^ 5034. Ethiopia did not, like Egypt, sink under the ascendency of the great empires. Tlie disastrous repulse of Cambyses forms a memorable event in ancient history.^ It does not appear that, beyond some occasional inroads, the Romans did more than maintain a frontier legion at Elephantine, which checked incursions, and exacted some imperfect homage and tribute from the chiefs immediately above. The Saracens and Turks never did more. Even for some centuries after the former enjoyed possession of Egypt, Nubia continued Christian ; though it has sinct , by some unknown agency, become Mahometan. Tliis rough independence, however, has been perhaps a misfortune to Nubia, since it has prevented her from receiving any of the improvements introduced by the proat conquering nations. Split into a number of insignificant states, she has lost all her early civilisation, 1180 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. and her population was abandoned, either to lawless independence, or to the brutal tyrannv of arbitrary chiefs. Ten or twelve years ago, however, the whole country was overrun by Mohammed Ali, Pacha of Egypt ; and, notwithstanding some insumctionary movements he still holds it in subjection. Sfct. IV. Political Geopraphy. ''"'' 5035. Nubia exhibit* no temblance of a well-organised government. Every town or htae village, with its adjoining territory, has its mek, or tnelek, who exercises to the utmost whatever power he may possess, which, according to circumstances or character, is some- times almost absolute, nt other times is held in contempt. Each individual is armed with a crooked knife, which he is ever ready to employ in deeds of violence. Since the sway of the Pacha of Egypt was established, though felt as oppressive, it has put an end to the wars waged by the petty states against each other. '■-■Mi'^S' Sect. V. Productive Industry. SOSS. The range eiKl8, is obtained almost solely hysakieStOt wheels for raising the water to the level ot tiie high banks. Ol these, within the space of 150 miles, which intervenes between the first and second cataract, there are from 600 to 700. The dhourra, noticed as the produce of the more arid Egyptian roils is almost the oidy grain of Nubia; though sometimes the |icople raise an afler-crop of barley or lent'ili Tobacco also, a luxury in universal demand, is cultivated with success. Sheep arc led on the tracts unfit for grain, but are by no means very numerous. Camels arc numerous in the trading towns ; but horses arc only maintained by the chiefs, and for military pur|ioses. 5(»37. The Nubi.ins have scarcely any manufacture which can be termed national. The women makccoarse woollen and cotton cloths, mats of date canes, and the necessary implements for cooking. £038. Tlic commercial intercourse oles fastened behind with cords ; and at night they are put in irons. The tiii,il dcstinv, however, of tliese unhappy persons i' by no means so severe as that of those employed to till the ground in the Eiiroiwan scttleniciits. Sect. VI. Civil and Social State. 5QM. The Nubians are in a very rude state, and arc scarcely acquainted with any of the arts and improvements of civilised society. Many of them, even a little above Egypt, were found by Belzoni absolutely ignorant of the use of money. Like savages, tliey prized looking-glasses and shining toys more highly than articles of real value. Their food consists of dhourra, ground between two stones, and baked into cakes without leaven, over which they pour onion sauce, broth, or milk. They ninke from it bouza, a species of beer, in which they indulge to excess. Their houses are roughly built, either of mnd or loose stones ; in the former case, they are roofed with leaves of the date tree. A cup of cloth or linen, and a woollen mantle or cotton shirt, form all the attire which is considered ne- cessary ; and, in many cases, even this is thought superfluous. .5040. The Nubians are generaUy a handsome race, well made, strong, and muscular. The countenances as well as the demeanour of the females are sweet and pleasing, iiiul they are said to be strictly observant of their matrimonial en>;agemeiits. In the small and secluded villages, the inhabitants of which are employed in agriculture, a primitive siinplicily of manners appears to prevail, and a number who go to act -.ts porters in the cities of Egypt are considered remarkably lionest. In the large trading towns, which are chiefly inhabited by slave merchants, the utmost profligacy of manners prevails. Sect. VII. Local Geography , 5041. 3'Aere are no data for exhibiting the divisions of Nubia in any precise or defiiillc form. Begiiuiing, iiowever, with the frontier of Egypt, and proceeding up the Nile, \re ahall obtain a rapid view of its varied objects. MHS. In that close valley to which uk nw .scenri, the natural features, though strikitig, arc uniform sid monotonous. The Nile flows between rocks, which cither overhung its stream, or leave room only forliilli' patches of cultivation ; and the modern inhabitants are poor and rude. The banks, however, as in Kgypl,ar« diversifled at short intervals with ancient monuments of a grand and striking character. Iiislcnd of beiiii; com|MMtetl of ninsonry, they are, in many and the most remarkable instances, cut out of the solid rock. Alter iwssing a small temple at Debod, and a nuniher of lingular ruined enclosures at El EinUirakal ajiil Sardab, we arrive at Kalabshc, the llrst Nubiiin temple on a great scale. The (iropylon Is I'.li feci lone, sml Book lU. NUBIA. 1181 linen make coarse SO feet high ; but the portteo ia entirely wanting, and ita deatruction aeema to have been cfTectei) by violence, ji the remaining parta are in good preservation, particularly the colours. A golden lamp, evidently Orecian, waa lately round among the ruins. At the distance of a quarter of a mile ia a small temple, with the ruina of a considerable town, about a mile in length, auppoaed by Burckhardt to be the ancient m9. After passing Osrba Dendour, we come to Gyrthe, or Guerfeh Hassan, which presente the flrtt ■neciiiien of the excavated temples of Ethiopia. The greater part of it has been hewn Jut of a perpendicular rock The entrance is adorned not only with large columns, but with three colossal statues, eighlcen feet hich the workmanship of which appeared to llelzoni to display the mere infancy oi" the art. The tigurea were' such as barely to indicate that men were meant to be represented, and their faces were a caricature of th8t of the negro. About nine milea above ia Dakki, a much more elegant structure, situated in a plain, which appears once to have been cultivated, but which is now covered with sand. There are smaller cdiHces , ott'elina and Lcboua, but nothing of much im|H>rtance occurs till we reach Dehr, or Derri, reckoned the canital of Lower Nubia, about 130 milea above Syene. It (wssesaes little either of extent or elegance The houses which, with the exception of a few Iwlonging to the chiefs, rarely exceed eight or ten feet in height, are built of mud and stones intermingled. There is an excavated temple, but not of much importance. A few miles above is llirim, strikingly situated on an almost pcrpciulicular rock which overhanga the Nile, and considered a strong military i)Ost against the Aral)s. The Mamelukes occupied Ibrim on their retreat from Egypt, but on being nbUgemi;ii<;»"i .y^^..., ' ' > = inlialiitcd, produce a picturesque 797 ^ cH'ect, and relieve that asjiect of extreme desolation, which charac- terises tlic scenery of the 1 by several tlioiisand rockv islands, tlirough whicli the Nile tosscti ill perpetual Ciidie*. The rocks consist, not of granite, 8, being coverwl with patches of verdure, and several even Itrst cataract. MW. The territory of Afaliats mav be described in a manner nearly similar ; and the rude and violent character of ita chief ol). liged Burckhardt here to tcrmi. nate his career of Nubian discovery. Majestic ruins, however, continue to be scattereil along the bank, among which, preeminent beauty IS displayed by '.he temple of Soleb i.Jig. 7H7.). 'The remains consist onVv of a range of solitary columns. 1182 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 1'art I if, but thete arc of such peculiar lightnesa and elegance, that they may come into cuin|ietitioii with aiiv m thiwe which adorn the banks (if the Nile. ' 5(H7. H'urfy el HiuOar and Siikkot an- rtide and ttfrile territoriet, in which the range of culture scarcciv extends beyond the immediate banks of the Nile, and the poor villages, when not under the (lomiiiidn di Kgypt, arc ruled over ann oppressed by a succession of turbulent little chicftaini. 'I'hcy contain, however the temples of Semneh and Amarah, the remains of which possets considerable beaoty. ' /XHS. From Dar Mahass the traveller enters the territory of Dimgola. The vicinity of the river continiiiv to present the aspect of a narrow belt of cultivated land, rescued from the surrounding desolation ; liut thji belt, hitherto on the eastern, is now on the western bank. Dongola, besides, presents tracts of more briljiani fertility and beauty than any part of I.ower Nubia, High granite rocks enclose the green and cultivated valley of Jarjar, which Hourislirs in freshness and fertility in the bosom of the wildest waste. Imnicdiatelv beyond is a pas.": ca'lod the Water's Mouth, which is represented as exhibiting a scene of grandeur and wild ness, su|>eriorto those at the first and second cataract It is formed by a succession of huge and (lotachni masses of naked rock, and of large fragments scattered on the plain. Below is the large island of Argo a sunt of peculiar and striking fertility, forming, in the bosom of the desert, the most luxuriant natural gariTen I'he air is full of fragrance, and the palm trce« are rendered melodious by the sung of numlKrIess birds, nmuiiii whose notes that of the dove It predominant. A narrow mound separates this fairy land from the regions oj barrennees and death, and this display of nature's bounties singularly contrasts with the wide tiirroiindinir expanse of snndy desert In one lurt of it are found two colossal statues, lying on the ground, '2i feet in length, and the sculpture of which displays considerable skill, es|iecially when it it coutidered that ilii> materials arc peculiarly hard. .'KH!>. About ten miles above Argo Is Maragga, or Xew Dongola. This la.st name was given to it In tbi. Mamelukes, who, during their tem|>orary occupation of this country, made it their capital. 'Jliey convtrtul it though built only of mud, into a very neat town, with several larjjc courts or squares. The surruuiuiinJ country, naturally the richest in the whole territory, was greatly improved by them. Old Doiigula, whiili appears at no time to have answered to its ancient reputation, is now a miserable mass of ruin. I'he sand which, when Poncet was there, had alreaily made large encroachment's, has :iow buried the centre of tlie town, and divided it into two separate parts. fiOiJO. T/ie Nile, in the tract which we now approach, no longer flows in that straight direction from iiorib to south, which marks almost the whole of its known course. Soon after receiving the Tacazzo, it makes a great bend, and for about 20() miles (lows southwarjl, contrary and parallel to its former course. It t\,„, bends agaui, and renews its usual northerly course, which it maintains through Dongola and NiU)ia. It thus forms three parallel channels, enclosing two |>eninsulas, which contain a greater extent of cultivated jaini and support a larger impulatiun, than any part of Ixiwer Nubia. The middle channel, or that uliicli flnns southward, parallel to the Dongola branch, is oi-cui>ied by the Shei/gi/a, a race of negroes, peculiarly rnvin;; fearless, and warlike. They have numerous slaves, whom tliey employ in tilling the ground, and in iierlorm ing all laborious otticcs, while they devote them.selvet entirely to arms. They make battle a scene of gaietv rush laughing into the held, and address their enemy with the ICastern salutMion, " I'eace be with you " Disdaining the improved instruments of modern warfare, they have obstinately adhered to their ancient arms, the lance and the shield. Even with these, they fouglit a most obstinate battle at Korti with the triKiiis of the I'acha of Egypt It ended, however, in their entire discomllturc j after which they put to death tliwr necromancers, who had deluileit them with predictions of victory, anil submitted to the invader. Ituniour however, since states, that they have risen in the rear of the Pacha's troops ; and it does not, indeeil, seem very probable that a race thus tierce and restless, inhabiting so distant and inaccessible a tract, should rcniaiu in quiet subjection to Egypt 5051. Meratve, perhaps the ancient Meroe, ciipital of the Sheygya, is situated on ilit Nile. The modern town is large, heiiig supposed to contain about 10,000 souls; but the houses are built of mud, and the streets are long and gloomy. In its vicinity, however, is situated a range of the grandest monuments wliicli Ethiopia can boast. A lofty ciiiiiirnce, called Djebel el Berkel, or the Holy Mountain, presents, partly cut out of its rocks, paitly built along its sides, seven or eight temples, the largest of which may rival the most inagni- fic-nt monumt. y the full of a great part, sliil rises to lO.'i feet. One very curious feature is presented l>y the existence, within its interior, of another pyramid, of a dilliT- ent age untl style of arcliiler- ture, but much more entire ilian that in which it is eiiclused. 8052. Bevond Ike head of the bmneh, the Nile is joined by its great tribuUry the Tacaiite, which his f.m\' through Abyssinia. A Berber population again appears ; ami the name of Herlier is even given to a sues uminf four' large villages situated along the river. The inhabitants are a very tine race, as tcilMHiilyijt::. ,-*■ - j>o VffRAMin AT fcL-nltlAL. Book III. NUBIA. 1183 tics : they are lomewnat taller, and much Mroiiger. than the Egyptian.. Though their colour li nearly ai blacfc a. that of the negro, they have very different feature. ; indeed, they arc Randsorae, both in face and person. The.r moral character however, a. drawn by Burclthardt, apiwars under the ino.t unfavourable Uoun. Consisting of .lavc.trader., or having continual intercourse with that class of men, they contract «li the irregular habiU which their mode of life tends to generate. Among their ba.l nualities. treachery and avidity iircdominate ; and, in the pursuit of gain. tSey trample upoil every ordinance, Aunian and divine. The mek's authority is little regarded among the wealthier inhabiuints; who carry on periwtual private quarrels, and terminate every dispute by the law of the strongest. They arc also addicted to intoxi- cation and every species of debauchery, farther up the Nile Is Shendi or Cheiull, a town .till subject to the Arabs, which Mr Bruce found in a state of decay, and not containing above 250 mud house. : but when Burckhardt visited it, a (irolccting government had again rendered it the emporium of trade with centra Africa; particu arly that in .laves, of whom about 5000 are supiiosed to be sold in the markets of Shendi Near this place is a range of monument., the existence of whicli was reiwrted to Bruce, and which were visited and examined bv M. Calliaud, and more recently by Mr. Hoskins. They consist of forty pyramid, and a temple, of which few trace, remain, but which seem, to have been about 280 feet in leimth The largest pyrami I i. 87 feet high. They appeared to M Calliaud more ancient than the monuments of 'EBypt ami of the sarje character Jomard, aa well as M. Calhaud himself, has supposed them to be the remain, of the ancient Meroc j but it appear, to u. that the name of Merawe, and the ruins on a much greater scale at that place, give It a decided claim to preference in this respect. MM. Soon alter leaving Shendi, llic territory sist chiefiy in blue cotton cloth from Surat, which, made into a species of long rolie or shirt, forms the universal dress of the country. Spices, hardware, toys, |>articularly a species of V-nctiaii black bead., are also in demand. 5055. To the south of Senaiir is Fazu^io, a hilly territory, forming a province of llic former country, though still governed by its own prince. Beyond it extend, a vast range of mountainous districts, called Dyrc, and Tegala, or Taggula. It is nearly independent ; but the wild inhabitants are hunte., and grass. Many day.' Journey elapse without travellers having an opportunity of filling their bag. with nater. It. a.|>ect 1. extremely rugged ; but Burckhardt, after having passed through those of Suez and Sinai did not think it quite so dreary. 5057 The uieatern desert appears mttch more desolate. Traveller, indeed, after their departure fi-om Siout, are refreshed at Charje, or the Great Oasis ; but, having quitted it. limits, find nothing but an unvaried waste of sand. Even the wells, which occur only at a wide distance, and of which the principal are at Shcb, Sclirae, and Leghea, though they produce a verdure wh'ich relieves somewhat the nakedness of the desert, olTer nothing which can be fooil for man < r beast. Poncet strongly describes the painful impressions made by 1 scene, " where we meet neither with beast, grass, nor even so much as a kiiat ; and sec nothing but maun. tains of sand, carcasses and bones of camels." The caravan to Darfour has about 800 mile, of this tract to pass through, ere it reaches Cubcubca. That to Sennaar again, touches the Nile at Moscho, and proceed* through Uoiigola to Korti. It then strike, across the ilcsert of Ilahiouda, which, containing a few tree, and herbs, does not present so flrightful an as|iect a. the western solitudes. 4 G \\M DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part 111 I MIAH, Amilhl>r Hmt (^ titmmenial intercourse rcachea acrost flrom the ilUtrlct of Beriicr to the lied Sca. It ll Dir tfmn Itrvtviltlllg the mime itcacrt oapect a< thoie Just described. Un the contrary, the district ot "I'alia lhniU||ll whlcli It IWISM, Is ramniia over all these countrica Tor its extreme fertility. Though the capacitioi of lh<) snll itre liy un meniii duly imnroved by cultivation, yet its dhourra sells in the markets of Jidda Siu per cent, hlilhcr thnii Hint nf K^ypt ; and its breeils of camels and oxen are said to be caually excellent. The Arabs Of 'I'ttka Hri< n warlike riiic, cnsaKed in almost continual contests with the Ilisharcen, a Hvrcc tribe, wlio Witndvr over the uclKlibtiurluK deserts. They are robust, hardy, hospitable among themselvoa, but accused of trvachiiry Hud InhoKpitallty tn strangers. SIIAU. Alter three days' Journey through this tract, the caravans arrive at Suakin, or Sauakin, the only soa- porl (if NllhlH, The island on which it is situated was sciied in the sixteenth century by the Turks, wliu iniwlA It lh«lr marltline capital on the Hed Sea. He Castro, at that time, foiiDd it one of the richest and nuut HiiMrUhlliK Oltiv* of the East, and had teen iiuthing equal to it except Lisbon. All this splendiiur has VHlillhed with the liiss of the Indian trade, and only a lew wretched dows arc seen unloading their cargoes by Ihn side iif snnic Uilserabla houses. The Turks still retain Suakin, though with so small a force that they dar« nut lol llml iin the main land op|>ositc. The harbour retains all its excellence, being capable of holiling IKHI Inrgc, btMldes a |iria, traversed by wandering Arabs. On the west it huit Mciumnr \ and, on the south, the Mahometan kingdom of Adel, or Adaicl : hut tlic groAler purt of these two last frontier lands consists of wild regions occupied by tlie Gnlla, who nlwoys ravaged, and have recently conquered, a large portion of the Abyssinian inoiinrchy. It is difficult even to guess the dimensions of a region of which there are no llkvil liinitM, incastu'ements, or surveys ; but somewhere between 700 and 800 miles from T. Ergett y' Dimmois Desmanthus divergensof Willdenow and De Candolle; Ergett el Krone, Mimosa polyacantha (Wi/W.), is probably not different from M. asperata. The Ensetc is Musa Ensete (_Gmel.), a species of Banana, which grows in the Abyssinian marshes, where there arc large plantations of it ; and it is almost the sole food of the inha- bitants. They eat the green leafless stem, which is many feet high, and an excellent vege- table; scraping off the green skin, and cooking it like turnips, which it somewhat resembles in flavour; and is light, wholesome, and of easy digestion. The Kol-Qua] is the Eu- phorbia antiquorum ; and though Bruce says that he was prepared to see wonders, yet that this tree much surprised him. The ripe fruit, of a crimson colour, and borne on the top of the branches, gave the trees, that stood thick together, a veil of the most vivid 'I G 2 1186 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGIIAPHY. Paw III. red. The tree, which lends out most vigorous shoots, is succulent, and leafless beluw and bears many golden-coloured flowers, succeeded by red fruit. From the green leaves an almost incredible quantity of milk issues ; and, on severing two of the finest branclius, no less than four gallons flowed out, of so caustic a nature that, though the subre used fur the purpose was immediately washed, the stain long remained. When tliu tree grows old, tlie branches wither, and, in place of milk, the inside appears to be full of powder, which is so pungent, that the small dust that flies, on a touch, from the branch, excites dreadful siiucz. ing, while the milky juice excoriates the fingers. Still the woodpeckers pierce these rotten boughs, apparently with perfect impunity. The only use the Abyssinians make of this fluid is for tanning hides, at least fur taking oflT the first hair. The Rack appears evi. dently, from the description and figure, to be a species of Avicennia ; it grows near the sea-shore, and the Arabs build boats of the wood, which is hardened by the sea, and su bitter that no worm will touch it. Toothpicks, made of it, are sold in small buniiles at Mecca, and are reputed to be favourable to the teeth, gums, and breath. The Gir-Gir or Geshe el Aube, a grass, the favourite food of the goats about Has el Feel, is the Andro- pogon afer ( GmeUn). KantufTa, a thorny tree, which, says Bruce, " like many men ue meet daily in society, has wrought itself into a degree of reputation and respect, IVoni its noxious qualities, and the power it has of doing ill, together with the constant exercise of these powers, is an universal nuisance in the country where it grows ; seizing the raiment of the men, whether coarse or fine, and giving them the alternative of dropping their garments and appearing naked, or of extricating them, torn to rags ; and laying hold of the long hair ot' the women. So dangerous is it for the natives of Abyssinia to leave this thorn standing, that every year, when the king marches, among the needful proclamatiuiis tins is thought needful, < Cut down the KantutTa in the four quarters of the world, for I know not where I am going.' The wild animals well know the shelter that this shrub afl'ords them ; and they would be perfectly secure but for a hard-haired kind of terrier, of the smallest size, who, being defended from the thorns by his rough coat, goes into the bush, and brings the game, one by one, to his master," This plant is the Pterolobiuni lacerans of Brown's MS. in Salt's Abyssinia, and the Mimosa (?) Kantuff'a of De Candollc, Gaguedi is the Prutea abyssinica. Wanzey {Cordia abyssinica of Brown in Salt's work) is a common tree throughout Abyssinia ; and so universally planted in the towns, that they have theappearance of a wood. " Gondar, in particular, at the season when tlie white flowers of this tree, which come out in a single night's time, appear, looks as if covered willi white linen or new-fallen snow. To this tree, and the coffee tree, divine honours are pnid by the Abyssinians. Under its shadow tlie king is chosen, and holds Ills first council ; and liis sceptre is a bludgeon made of its wood, carried in state before him. Farek (Dauliiiik acuminata of Bruce, not Linn.), the Bauhinia Farek of Desvaux, was found on the banks of a brook, which, falling from the west side of the mountain of Geesh, down the south face of the precipice where the village is situated, runs into the lake Gooderoo. It is the water we employed for common uses, not daring to touch that of the Nile, unless in drinking and dressing our food. It grew in the side of a cliif, not 40O yards from the fountain of the Nile itself. Its name of Farek itself is derived from the division of the leaf. Kuara (the Erylhrina abyssinica Lamarck and De Candolle) {fig. 800. ), is a beau- tiful tree, and bears a red bean with a blacK spot in the middle, which has been, from the earliest ages, used as a weight of gold among the Shangalla, and where that metal is fonnd, all over Africa ; and repeated experiments have proved that the seeds vary so little in weight, that a better choice could not iiave been made between the collectors and buyers of gold. Fruin its name of carat, the weight of gold is derived, and, passing from the gold cotmtry of Africa to India, it came to be used for weighing precious stones, especially diamonds ; so that lu this day both gold and diamonds are said to be so many carats fine. Walkufic is evidently a plant of the Natural Order Buttneriacea;, and described in the Encyclopidie lloianipt under the name of Wulkufllia Pentapetes. But it is probably not dilferent from Cavanilles's genus Dombeya, of Bourbun and the Mauritius. It is spoken of as a tree of inimitable beauty. Woognioos, a powerful medicinal plant, grows abund- antly in Ras el Feel, where dysenteries reign considerably ; " Heaven having put tlie ami- dote in the same place with the poison." Both there and through all Scnnaar, the inhabitants are- well acquainted with the virtues of this plant, and it was successfully employed on Bruce himself, when all other means of cure had failed. Our travclitr brought seeds with him to England, and the plant is now not uncommon in our stoves. Sir Joseph Banks named it, in honour of its distinguished discoverer, Brucva dysen- terica. Cusso i» a celebrated vermifuge in Abyssinia. It is the Ilagenia abyssinica of Lamarck {^liankaia abyssinica of Bruce). Tiie Abyssinians of both sexes, and at all ■■TTHIIINA AHVM;IKICA. Book HI- ABYSSINIA. 1187 »gi's, ure troubled with a terrible ciiseaie, which custom, however, enables them to bear with !,oine inditference. Every individual, once n month, evacuates a large quantity of worms • and the method of promoting these evacuations is by infusing a handful of dry Cusso (lowers in about two English pints of Uouza, the common drink of the country. While taking this remedy, the patient stays in tiie house, unseen by any one, from morning till night. The want of this drug is thought to shorten the lives of those Abyssinians who travel. It is always planted ntar churches, for the benefit of the town or village, and grows about '20 feet high. The Tiff, or Poa abyssinica, is commonly sown all over Abyssinia, and from it is made the bread generally used throughout the co'intry, alike by the king and peasant. The manner of making it is by taViig a broad earthen jar, and, having made the pounded grain intoalump with water, they set it at some diatance from the fire, where it begins to ferment ; they then bake it into circular cakes about two feet in diameter. It is of a spongy soft quality, and a sourish, not disagreeable taste. At the Abyssinian banquets of raw meat, the Hesh, being cut in small bits, is wrapped up in pieces of this bread, with salt and Cayeimc pepper. 'I'he principal people eat the White Teff, which is made of finer grain ; and the courser sort serves the poorer classes. Every man wipes his fingers on the bread which he leaves for his successor, which Bruce truly calls " a most beastly custom." The Teff bread, after being well toasted, is put into a large jar, closely covered, after being broken into small pieces, and warm water poured on it : it is then set by the fire, and frequently stirred ; after three or four days it acquires a sourish taste, and is what they call Bouza, or the common beer of the country. 5068. An appendix to Brvce's Abysiinia contains the following, more or less interrsting, plants ; but to « hich we dare not give other names than those under which they are pub- lished ; — " Cassia Fistula," which Bruce says, though growing in Syria, Egypt, and Arabia, is a stranger in these places- Abyssinia is its native soil, and the goodness of the drug which it produces in all these countries is in proportion to their vicinity to its native country. The " Lehan, or Tabernffimontana," a tree of which nothing can exceed the beauty and fragrance. " Kriliaha " appears to be a species of Bamboo, growing to a height of 55 feet, and to have been worshipped anciently among the Agow nation. " Anguale " is a tree found near the river Tacazze, and believed to be what bears the true Frankincense ; and it produces, indeed, a gum very like it The Gesh is a very common tree in Abyssinia, the leaves of which the people are accustomed to put in their hydromel or mead ; they are also reduced to powder, and mixed nith the mass from which the Abyssinians make bouza. " Merjoubey " indubitably is a species of Solantim, whose fruit, combined with other ingredients, is used as a cathartic. The " Nub " {Polymnia frondosa) a syngenesious plant, yet in the description said to be a species of Sesamum. It is from this herb they extract most of their vegetable oil. " Umfar, or Anifar," is determined by Mr. Brown to be a Uuddlea (B. acuminata), " Kummel " is stated to be a species of Mimusops, of which the fruit is probably esculent, though nothing is said of its properties. SuBSErT. 3. Zoology, 5069. The Zoology of Abyssinia is still but imperfectly known, although the general accounts given by Bruce, and by subsequent travellers, are, perhaps, sufficient for tlie general reader: the first of these writers, however, is frequently inaccurate. The Elephants, Rhinoceros, Lion, and some kind of Panther, are not uncommon ; while the northern Giraffe, Camclopnrdalus antiquorum, Sw,, now known to inh.tbit Nubia, is in all pro- bability found in the less frequented parts of Abyssinia. 5070. Among the more local quadrupeds we may enumerate the following : — MrnalotlK Knicii. IJnire's Fennic. Vivcrra Ci»etla. Civel. l.jni Chaus. Booted I.vns> I Hjrnx il>riaru8. Syrian Hvraz. Antilo|ie NoemmeTingil lillp, I fronted Antelope. I Sciunis nitilans ft/'/). Abyssinian Squlnel. CapraJaeta. Abyssinian 4l>el. The Civet (Jig, 801.) is the only quadruped iir shall particularly notice, as having long been celebrated for tlie odoriferous substance which it yields. This animid measures about two feet and a half in length ; the tail is not more than one foot, and the height one foot p with much difficulty. When irriffttwl, Itiv (iiiour ut iiuiA bucuniM Ntrunger, and from timu to timu it talis from tho pouch in mnuli |ihwr«. It i« inppo»eUc On-n arc of a Isrtti- white hroeil.wlth Ioiik linriii ; liut Iho greuler niiiiilier iirt- vniinii.ly rnlniiml Tlii" AliyMliiian lirewl of ImnchtHl rattle is loniewliiit peeuliur, lliey am nmikeil wllli liliiik iiiiil white In I'louiU: low on the Icgn, with the horim haiiKinu loose, foniiniK liMUill horny hinh" iii'iiily nf i'i|iml llili'knPMtotlic point; tnriiinK freely either way, anil hniiKliid aHaiii»t tlio elieeki, I il« lireeil, hy luing irHiial'errnI to tallWir.a, and cro«««l with the •Iralght-backeil, h.u liwt lln hliin|il II l« mIitiih'iI niy VrthiBlile. (//. Smi/A.) r.OVi. The (hniiliuhgv '» "" duuljt interesting ; hut the iniUciiMls fur foriiilii(( im ~ opinion on its general nature are much iti'iillervii, iiml ""'■^ not very precise. Tlie Golden I'liiglti hits hei'ii nitn. tioned by Bruce; but the accuuntH of travvllcrs, not tliemselves conversant with iiiituritl hiklory, are now very justly viewed, on all occitsions, witli great Hiiii|iii'|iiii, Wc Khnll, therefore, restrict our notices to lliu iiiiihI ru> markulile autlienticuted ^peciuH, !Ayi!i. Till- Ahyiainian llornhill (Wkiviij* nhiinthitiiia l.nlli) (fiH.HYi.) i> of very lurge ilimeiiiionM, llllh' Infttliir lo n liirloy jn aizei and, like tli.it hiril, \» laiil lo have n wiiltlu iiniler the llifdnt rhaiigniK nt timtt to a full reil; llurn In a Lii|(i> horny linli on iIk foreheuil ; the ipiill fealheri nro pure while i bill the real ul' ili|. plumage U dark. The neat la made in hirwe Ireea, himI oI hk\\ uiuiaual dlmcnaiona, aa to Im' fourtiiiiea a> large iia lliiil id' an ivihIi'; It is covered like the magpia'a, the enlranee being on the iiml kIiIc ; || it the largcat bird of tho genua, aoiiicliniea nieuaiirlnu llitee lii'l mul a half long. Mr Salt ineiitiona another a|H'elea, llie Yellow.liilltil Hotnbill, not larger than a niiigpie. One of Inii lovely riirmviu or Crown Hirda, in all prolmbildy u dlatiiiel apeeliw rrnlii th.d iii tiuinea, ii known in Abyaainiai the pUiniiiHii la uriMt.greeii, of n niii silky texture, and the head Is adorned with nil elevateil ailiili'lri'iilin crest of delicately webbed feathera. TiiiVii. The UyieHs, or Abyssitwiti Plant-culter U'g- •*'«.), la a bird of great rarity, no inilaeinn In i;urii|i(. being known to poaieas a apeelmen i II ia not inili'li bigger lliiin » (*0.) common groabenk. or sparrow i but it Inia only three loia, lOiil lliu margins of the bill arc ilnely toothed In the ninniier of n aiiw i the plunMge ia black, with the head, lliroal, and hri'iial red i niviirilliiD to Ilruce, it ia a aolilary aiiueiea, IVi'ipieiilllig wiKida, and IiiiIIhk u|H>ii the kernela of hard nula : hut Ihia may reiinonalily lie liniiliini, since the saw-like niarginaof the liill iippi'.iidealliied lo i idoll'iitiiili elohc to the ground, in a alinllnr way ua la done liy the t lilllan I'lanUcutter. Mil. Severnl Water Birrit inhahit the liikea anil inoiinlahi ■IriniiK. Of these, we ahall only mention the AlVlenn Jai'iiinii i,S'»'. /mil. Ulust. U.) i a moat grai'ef\il bird, of the aiiiv and hiililts ill; our \vali'i> hen, but with toca and claws of extriiurdlnHry luiiglli, AII\'SINIAN MOHNHII.I.. pi.ANr'Curri. Sect, III. Historical Get>nraphy< None of the conqucrorH of K^ryiii to this ulteiior region. 'I'he Iryilliiim B07R. Ah/snnia was little hioum to the ancients. were able lo penetrate, across Nuliia niul Meroe, into wliich makes tlie Queen of Slieba an Abyssinian princess, ond tlie nioniirclm of lliiit lo.iiilry the descendants of Solomon, seems to rest on a very chimerical founddtlon, The Pliileiiiii'i, in extending their commerce, became intimately acquainted with nil Ihe poriN of the Itoii Sea. Their observations thus reached the kingdom of the Axuiiiltas whose port, Ailuli«, was celebrated for the great quantity of ivory which was shipped tVoni it, iinti whose cii|iiliil, Axutn, exhibits splendid monuments, bearing somewhat of an Egyptian characler. Tlie same territory, though now forming a loose appendage to Ahyssiniu, cunlliuieN to he the solv channel of its trade. The Abyssinian annals represent the coiiiilry as converled lo.liiiliii the refugees from E(,'ypt aiul Arabia, it liei'uiiie more ileriilidlv Christian. To the I'o »uese, when they began their grand career of maritime iliH'ovm, this country was an objic >f eager enquiry, as lieing tliu supposed seal of the I'liiiiuriinl prince whom they named Prester Jolm. Its situation, too, at the boltinn of the lied Siii, appeared, before it was thoroughly known, likely to be favourable lu a Iraile » illi liuliii. Early in the sixteenth century, Covilhain reached it by way of Egypt, and wa^ fiilliiwvil liy successive embassies and missions. Tlie Abyssinians adhered to the Elllycheati ku'I, litlil the Monophysitc doctrine, and owned the supremacy of tho I'atriarch of Alexiliiilriii; llii' Purtiigiiese, therefore, although this system was rather less superslitioits than their imii, considered it little better than pagan, and made incredible elU>rtN to voiivvrl the Aliy»KiiiMai DOOK III. ABYSSINIA. 1180 to the Catholic faith, and obtain their allegiance to the »ce of Rome : in fact, Vaci • ml*. sioiiary of great aiidress, persuaded the Icing, SuKneon, in 16'-'0, to proclnini the Catholic rtlittiim to be that of the st.ite. This step, however, occasioned violent civil warn, which iMuled in the total expulsion of the Portuguese Since tli.it era Abyssinia Iiim niaiiitaincd narcel- any intercourse with tlie powers of Europe. It had been ulinost forgotten amonit us, until the popular and animated narrative of Bruce made it again fanuliiir ; and, notwith- standing some vague and vaunting statements, the general accuracy of his infurmation has been coiirtrmed by subseiiuent enquiry. Mr. Salt has also favoured us with recent and ttccu- rate, though somewhat lr:s extended, observations on the same subject. 5079. Abysdnia luis been alwayi novemed by nalm: princes i though disputed succession, anil the rebellion of the military chiefs, frecpiently involved it in the calamity of civil war Thi'se evils, rising to a peculiar height, exposed the country to the inroad of the Oalla, a riite of warlike and powerful savages from the south. By successive connuesU, thoy have become themselves masters of all the ntral provinces, which their chiefs govern under the name of an Abyssinian prince. Tin jiosition thus held by tliem si parates Abyssinia into two parts, of which the northern division of Tigr^- was administered, in Mr. Sidt's time, by 1U» Welleta Selasse, who lias since been succeeded by Subegadis, an able chief, who is aiming at till' recovery of Goiular. The southern provinces of Slioa and Efat, again, are held by • priiU'V descended of tlie royal family. Sect. IV. Political Geography. 5080. The comlilntion of the Abyssinian monarchy has been, in theory, n complete ili'spotism, no limit being assigned or prescribed to the absolute power of the sovereign. Tlie country, in fact, appears to hove been in a better state, when this system of government really prevailed. For some time past it has exhibited the calamitous picture of a brokctuup ticspotisin. The continual conflicts with the Galla and other barbarous neighbours have thrown extraordinary power into the hands of the governors of provinces and the militaiy cliiefs; and every tiling has finally become almost wholly subject to the law of the sword. The nation, however, still holds the race of its kings in such reverence, as to make It unsafe for those armed usurpers openly to place the crown on their own head. They choose, llitre- fore, some branch of the royal family, to whom they leave the form and sliadtiw of sove- reignty, and in whose name they administer public affairs. Even the Galla chiefs, who, at already observed, are become masters of half the kingdom, and of its capital, Guiidar, have found it expedient to adopt this policy. Sect. V. Productive Industry. 50SI. AhyssMa is a tvry ffrlile region. Its valleys, siipiilied with co|ilniia molituro (Vom tlip mimeroiii ramintahi raiigea, arc comiiletcly excmpteil frerformed by women. 'I'he low state of this important art may be inferrtHl friiin the eircumstanee, that seareely such a thing is known as corn brmight to sale, and that each ftimlly raises what is necessary for i'^ own use. The U))1and distrlets abound witli horses and cullle, whleh, witfi cheese and butter, form objects of exchange. Ilees are breil in great numbers, and the honey Is ol goiHl (lualily. It is not only used for food, but, being mixed with maize, is formed into a I'ermeiiltHl liquor, which is the favourite drink of Abyssinia. Cotton is raised in considerable ijuantitles, though not mt- (icient for supplying the fabrics of the country. 5iW. The mineral wealth of Aliyssivia is small. No metallic substances are worked, or are known to cxlit i althciugh, Irom the mountainous character of the country, thoie is little doubt that a search for them would be rew.irded with suiress. A little line gold is found in t'le saiiiH of its eastern rivers ; but the greater |)«rt, even of that article, is liroiight from regions lurlhcr in the Int.'rior. The most iin|Kirtaiit fossil prixtuctlon li sail, drawn from a gri ,it plain in the western frontier, and even beyond its limits. 'I'ho salt on the surfueo is liaril and crystallised, like ice on which snow hiiS falle;i ; but at the depth of two feet it Is coarse and porter. It i.s cut with an adze into pieces, which, like the cotton cloth, are used as money. The einplnymcnt of cutting it is dangerous, since both the workmen wlio dig the salt, and the caravans which convey It, arc ex|>ose tion. The staple is cotton stuffs, with which tlie people are universally clothed. l''ine cloths lire mamil'ao lured at Gondar, the capital, and coarse at Adowa; the latter, from their universal demand, serve In this ruile state of commerce the purpose of money. The Abyssiniaiis cannot dye their cloth dark blue, but arc obliged, when they wish to introduce a mixture of that colour, to unravel the threads of the blue cloth of Sur.it. Coarse carpets are also manufactured at Ooiidar and in Samen, thimgh for line eariiels the Abyi> sniians depend uiion I'crsia. The demand for arms being regular and extensive, consideranlf indiiltry It eInpl(^yed in manufacturing them. Adowa is distinguished for the fabric of knives, and Antalii lor that oi spears ; and similar articles arc imported from Scnnaar and the district of nerbera. .■)()S4. Tliefureigti eommeree of Abyssinia is far from extensive, (iotxis can be impnrtcil only at the single (Hiintof Massua, and thence conveyed through the empire by the laborious route of the caravans. Almost all the articles of relined luxury must be procured from abroad ; but the deinaud for these Is very limited. From Surat are im|>orted both raw cotton and flne manufactured cloths; carpels from I'ersla; raw tllkl from China; velvets, French broadcloths, colourcil skins from Egypt; glass beads and decanters from Venice. For these articles Abyssinia can give in return only ivory, tjold, and slaves, the staples of Interior Africa, between which and the eastern frontier of this empire there must exist a coiiatderable cuintnuiiU 4 C 4 1180 DESCUIl'TI » WOOUAPIIY. Paht III. utlon, thuufh yet iiiwIvKrlbcil by Euroiwan lriiv«llrri Thit rnmitry, however, m • ch*nni-l Trr the almve traile, hy no mcani tH|uaU Niiliia. The alavcs, iiiclepil, are In <. \me ilcmanil, belnii rniiildcred pnrliciilarly haiuUniiio. On the whole, it ariieara, that, until AhyMl.. la ihnll attain a much higher degree of Improvv. mciit, itt commerce canimt >»■ a material nhject to any l!:uro|i<>an |iowHr, Skl' r. V I . CivU and Social Slate. 60H3. Tlw maimert of the Ahi/tninians, under a flight xcinlilanrc of civiliNAlion derived from Arabia mid Kgypt, prusviit indicatiniiH of the dii'pcHt l)arlmriHin, Iiidvi-d, tlieir domustic lite is inarkvd liy habitn mure gross mid revolting than uny that have licen witnessed mnuiig the must savage tribes. Some, indeed, are such, that the bare report of thetn sliook the credit of one uf our most eminent travellers, who had not, however, been the first in report them, mid wliuse testimony has since been fully conllmied. 508fi. TIte liiriiry of ttw hrinik frast is that which has particularly excited the astonish- ment of travellers, tilices of warm flesh cut from the ox standing at the door, arc brouglit in, with the blood streaming anil the fibres quivering, and are eagerly swallowed us the choicest delicacy. Accoriling to Mr. Hruce, the animal is yet alive while the slices are cut from him, and is heard liellowing with the pain ; but Mr. Salt asserts that he has been just that instant killed : |irobably there may be some variation of practice. This strange Uiod is ax strangely administered. Tlie chief is seated between two ladies, who wrap up the delicious morsels in tefl' cake, and thrust into his open mouth the utmost quantity which it is capable of receiving ; " just," says an old traveller, " as if they were stutHng a goose for a feast." The ladies are then at liberty to satisfy their own appetite, and when these refined members of the company have supplied themselves, the servants succeed, and clear the table. The grossest indecencies are said l)y IVIr. Uruco to be acted at these feasts ; an assertion which Mr. Salt does not fully confirm, though he admits that the conversatiun it marked by the least possible reserve. 5087. The nhuhila, a similarly sovage custom, is practised by the drivers of cuttle. When they feel hungry on the road, they stop the animal, cut out a slice from him, close u|i the wounil, and, having satisfied their hunger, drive him on. 5088. A ifneral ferocity, and promptitude in shedding blood, seems to characterise Ihc Abyssinian nation, and is, doubtless, stimulated by the freiiueiicy of civil and cf foreign wars. The principal officers scruple not to execute in person the sentence cf ilealh, which the king, or whoever he may be whom they obey, has passed against any iniilvi. dual ; and they perform this horrid task with the most perfect coolness and in^litl'erence. While Mr. Itrtice resided at Goiidar, during a period of commotion, he could not stir oul without seeing the victims of civil strife left iinburied in the streets, to be devoured by the dogs and hya'nas. 5089. The manners of tltc Abifssiniam are not less distinguished by licentiousness than by cruelty. Intoxication is very prevalent, produced partly by hydromel, but cliieHy by bouza, a drink well known also in Egypt and Nubia, and mostly produced here from the fragments of tell' cakes brought from tal)le. iMarriage is scarcely considered by IMr. l)ruci> us existing at all ; so great is tlie ease witli which the contract may be fonncd and dissulvcd, The lover consults only the parents of the bride, and, having obtained their consent, seizes and carries lier liome on his shoulders. A brinde feast concludes the ceremony. Suiiietimcs it is rendered a little more formal ; the parties going, two or three weeks after their union, to cluircb, and taking the sacrament together. A lady was met at Gondar, in company witli six persons who had been successively her husbands. Ladies of rank assume great sway over their partners, and are at the same time very little observant of the duties which the marriage bond imposes. Polygamy is very common, though a great pre-eminence is allowed to one wife, and the rest are considered merely as concubines. 5090. The Abi/ssinians profess the same form of Christianiiy with the Copts nf Ej;i/pt, ami even own the supremacy uf the Patriarch at Cairo. From him the Abuna, the actual and resident head, receives his investiture, liy a regulation supposed to have been adopted wilh the view of securing a greater measure of learning than could be expected to be found in an Abyssinian, this pontilf must be a foreigner. As such, however, he is usually ignorant of the language ; and his influence, and means of holding communication with the peopio, are much circumscribed. The Abyssinians combine with their Christian profession many Juduical observances, such as circumcision, abstinence from meats, and the observance of Saturday as well as Sunday as a Sabbath. At thi. same time, they share amply the super- stitions which have infected the Catholic church. Their calendar of saints is equally numerous ; scarcely a day occurs which is not consecrated to one or other of them, anil sometimes to several. They maintain, that no nation, except themselves, holds the Virgin in due reverence ; and in this respect even the Catholic missionaries found themselves out- done. Their churches are numerous, and adorned with paintings ; but images and sculp- tured forms of any description are considered unlawful. They have monasteries, the tenants of wliich, however, are not at all iinmures», with idiom* of African origin. There seems to be an expectation thut the priest* should be oLIo to read ; and a slight exa- mination is made of their (|ualillcation in this particular : l)ut no similar pretension exists among the laity. Their literature seems to l)c confined to legends of saints, chiefly truTislatcd from the Coptic, and to the chronicles, which are written by person* employed nt court for the purpose, on the model of the Jewish chronicles ; in these the transactions of each month are separately recorded. ,'042. All the houses in Abyssinia arc built in a conical form, and with thatched roof*. Some uttempt at magnificence is made in their churches, also roofed with thatch, but surrounded by an arcade formed of pillars of cedar ; and, Ijeing placed on the summit of little hills, they give the country a very picturesque appearance. The sovereign and gran- dees have also largo and commodious residences. The Abyssinian* are extremely fond of paintings, or rather daubings, madu on the ivulls of the churches and of the houses of the great; but of these, the glittering colours seem almost the only recommendation. 804 5093. The dress rf the Abyssinians consists chiofly of a large cotton mantle, with close drawers, and a girdle. Round their head they put a white wropper, which leaves the crown exposed. Many chiefs, as a mark of dignity, wear an orno- ment in the shape of a horn (/g. 804.) projecting from the forehead, which, with their long l)card, gives them a very wild and rough appearance. Bruce supposes a similar em- bellishment to have been worn by the Jews, and to have been alluded to when the exaltation of the horn is mentioned as an emblem of prosperity. .'iO<)4. Such are the natives of Abyssinia proper ; but the society of that country could not be cxiiibited in all its deformity without noticing thnse barbarous neighbours who have liarassed it with continual inroad, and have now possessed and covered so large a portion of the country. The origin of the Galla is involved in much obscurity. They liave evidently come from the depth of that unknown legion which composes the southern interior of the continent. They appear to have been loi^g wandering in search of regions mure fertile than their own, and were seen about two ccniiiries ago by Lobo, near Me- llndn; but the fine plains of Hubesh seem to have attracted the whole mass of their population. The Galla present an aspect of barbarism, in comparison with which that of the Abyssinian is humane and refined. Their favourite ornament is composed of the entrails of their oxen, which, without any superfluous care in cleansing them, are plaited in the hair and tied as girdles round the waist; decorations which are not only ob- noxious to sight, but soon assail tlie olfactory nerves. The besmearing of their body with melted grease completes their embellishment. Their career is marked by indiscriminate mas- sacre : tliey spare neither sex nor age, unless from the anticipation of gain by carrying off and si'lling prisoners. In Europe, they would be considered as a species of light cavalry ; they perform immense inarches, swim rivers, and endure incredible fatigue. Being almost desti- tute of iron, their arms consist of little more than wooden javelins, with the points hardened in the fire. Tliey make a most furious onset, with shrill and savage cries, which strike terror into all but the steadiest adversaries ; but, if this first shock bo withstood, they are ill fitted to sustain a regular battle. They have been said to be without religion, and they certainly have neither priests nor temples ; but they have been observed to hold certain trees as sacred, to worship the moon and some of the stars, and to believe in a future state. In their persons they are small, and neither in hair nor features resemble the negroes. In general, their complexion is only a deep brown ; but this appears to be a consequence of their descent from nations inhabiting mountainous districts ; those who have long dwelt on the plains arc quite black. Th "v are divided into several tribes, of whom the principal are the Borcn Galla, who have Cxcupied the Abyssinian provinces of Dembea, Gojam, and Damot,aiid even Gondar the capital ; and the Adjow Galla, who are established in Amhara, Begemder, and Angot. These Galla who have long lived among the Abyssihians have in a great measure exchanged their original customs for the more mitigated barbarism which prevails among their new subjects. Some of the southern tribes have been converted to the Mahometan faith, which for them is an improvement. 5095. Abyssinia is extensively infested by other tribes, still more uncivilised and savage. The Shangalla, or Shankala, a race decidedly negro, of deep black colour, with woolly hair, occupy a most extensive range of territory along the western frontier. Bruce con- ceives them to be the same race who, under the name of Fuiije, inhabit the banks of the 1199 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pam III, Bahr el Abiad, and are now masters of Sennaar : but this branch, possessed of much higher advantages, is now in quite :;. diiiurent state, both social and political. The proper Slian- galla inhabit the deep banks and ravines which border the Tacazze and the Mareb, in the lower part of tlieir course. The numerous streams poured down from tlie heights, with the intense lieat of these close valleys, produce a rank luxuriance of forest and underwood, which, not being pruned by the liand of industry, chokes the growth of every useful pro- duction. The hippopotunuis, in these waters, rolls his unwieldy bulk, the elephant stalks along the shore ; all wild animals here find subsistence, and, as it were, a home. Mixed with them, and only a degree higher in the sci te of being, are the Shangalla. During summer, they live in pavilions formed under the shade of trees, the lower branches of which are bent down, fastened in the ground, and covered with skin"'. When the rainy season, however, converts the whole surface of the earth into mud, they retire to caves dug in the soft sandstone rocks, and subsist on the dried flesh of the ani> .als caught in the favourable season. These are the tribes whom Ptolemy classes under *he general appellation of Troglodyte, oi <'ground of the Abyssinian muiiarclis; and the objects of chase are not only the elephant and hippopotamus, but the Shangalla, who, wherever they are seen, are pursued, attacked, and carried off as slaves. This brave and fierce race, however, though without either horses or fire-arms, make often a desperate resistance ; they have even undertaken successful inroads into the neighbouring districts of Tigre. Sect» VII, Local Geography. SOgti. The enltance of Ahyssinia for Europeans is by the town of M.issuah, situated on an island hi the Rc reason to thinii that, could he have searched, he might have found in this neighbourhood the ancnent .\dulii. 5098. The kingdom of the Baharnegash, as it is calleottion of that country. The riaylie of Massuah has now extended his authority over the greater i)art of this district. The road from ArliEcko leads first over the lofty mountain of Taranta, coveretfwilh tine ccpect, 51W. East of licgemdcr is Vemhea, a province pre-eminent in several respects. It contains Gondar, the capital, and the great lake of Tzana or Uembea. Gondar is the only place in Abyssinia entitled, from its magnitude, to the appellation of city. In time of peace it contains IU,(i(lU lamilies ; but the hatiitatinns are in no degree 8ui)erior to those met with elsewhere, being merely mud cottages, with conical tliatched roofs. There are an hundred churches ; but the only very handsome cdillce is the palace, built of stone, four stories high, commanding an extensive view. The presence chamber is I'.l) feet long. I'or this struc ture, liowever, beyond the powers of her native masons, Abyssinia is iiuklitcd to the Jesuits, since whose ileparliirc it lias nut been kept in repair, and the two upper stories have beioinc uninhabitable. Emfras iiasii.ill but pleasantly situated town, with 300 houses. The province of Dembca is generally flat, and fertile, particularly in wheat. Its produce is assigned for the supply of the royal household. .5Uij. T/ie lake 7^a»a, or Dcmbvj, occupying the centre of tliis' province, and forming one of the grand features in the physical aspect of Abyssinia, is lilty miles in length, and thirty-flve in breadth. It is formed by the early stream of thcISahrel Azreik, or Abyssinian Nile, coinbiiied with numberless other streams poured down from the mountainous tracts in the west. It contains numerous islands, some of which have been used as state prisons. HM. The lialir el Azieek, after passing ..hrough the lake Tzana, and coming out on its eastern side, makca a grand semicircular sweep of several hundred miles, until it reaches a point not very distant IVoin its origin. This part of its course encloses Giijam and i^nmotjline and fertile regions, the latter of which has, by a modern traveller, been painted as a terrestrial paradise. They are pastoral districts, containing numerous herds of very fine cattle. The inhabitants difl'er somewhat in religion and manners from the other Abyssinians, and have oneii shown a refractory spirit to the government. 5107. Tlie last division qf Abyssinia consists of the southern provinces of Shoa and I^at, with some depend- cni'ies little known. These now form a kingdom, entirely separated from that of Tigrc by the interposition of the (iaila, and governed by a branch of tlic ancient royal family. Shoa is famous as having, about the year SHK), aflbrdcd a refuge to the royal family, when the kingdom was seized, and a great part of them wore ma^sacccd by aii usurper. The survivors remained in it 4(K) years, and afterwards rcsumcil possession of the kingdom. Shoa is descrilied as a flue and rich province, containing the bravest and best-equipped troops in all Abyssinia. It has been supposed that there arc more remains of learning in these southern provinces than in those visited by European!. 51(18. Alii/ssinia i& bordered by a nnniber of loose appendages, subject or tributary to it when powerful and I prosperous, but impatient ol the yoke, which they throw oil' whenever opportunity oH'ers. On the east I « Angot, which the rortuguese, in the sixteenth century, (ound one of the linest parts of the empire, and ailorned with a number of beautiful churches ; but it has since been so entirely occupied by the liertuma [■alia, that it has ceased to be regarded as belonging to Abyssinia. Eastward, as far as the Ked Sea, is Oan. kali, a sandy and saline tract, inhabited by a Mahometan people, called Taltal, who, without being subject to Abyssinia, have been in general submissive allies. 1 3l09. On the western frontier, to the north of (Jojam and Damot, is Agowniidn', or the country of \lhcAifows. This remarkable i>cople is somewhat widely dirtlisiHl ; another tribe of them occupies a prcat I esleiit ol the province of Lasta. Their subjection to Aby.ssinia ccmsists merely in the payment of a tribute [mbuttei, honey, cattle, and hides, partly to the king, and partly to the governor of Uaiiiot. Their traffic I consists ill selling these articles at (iundar; for which purpose they resort to that capital, often in parties of I vm or I5(KI. Their mountains ilo iiiit exceed 4«)0 or 5000 feet ; an altitude which, in that climate, admits of ['"''"fo and cultivation to the very summit Salt circulates with them as money. Their dress consists ot I father softened by a peculi.ir |irocess, and worn in the form of a shirt. Each of their habitations has behind [itan immense cave dug in the rock, which docs not seem to he now occupied in any shape. Whether its longnial destination was for a Troglodylic abode, or for a place of shelter in case of barlinrous inroad, is Ijiiattcr uf conjecture. The Agows were originally wnrshipiiers of the Nile j lint, \vss than two centuries ago, Ithcy were converleil to Christianity, and aic now strict ousercers of, at least, its outward forms. Ill, ■ 'ne (li^lriet <\f Saeala,\\\ the southern part of this territory, contai.'s the celebrated fountains of ■mat river, which has been supix-sed to form the main branch of the Nile of Egypt. They are three in inumlier, litiiated in a marshy plain, at the foot of a mountain nearly mM teet liiidi. The natives have lih 1 "" """"■ "•' '""•'It each ot the fountains ; a liigli.priest officiates at them ; divine honours are p?id to I'""-"' "» tlie Agows, and an assembly of their national chiefs is held annually on tlie sjHit llrucu's boast ol 11»4 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. having been the first to vialt thebo. The cliargp, however brought against him, with so much bitterness, of having practised an artful deception, is altogether unfounded' The Abyssinian river is considered as the Nile by the people of the country, by all the Portuguese mission ■■ " "^ TS prior to D'Anville. The main facts which refute Bruce's opinion are 8 opinion are ' Nile, and he aries, and by all modern geographers i to be found in his own boolc ; for he there states that the Bahr el Abiad is greater than the 1...., „,.„ „.. inserts the narrative of Paez. His error was only one of judgment, into which a man may »\ue\y"'ti,\\ without deserving to be termed a liar. ' 5111. Tlie Abysiinian Nile, after making the circuit of Gojam and Damot, passes through a low marah; territory, called Maitsha. The soil, which is too moist for grain, produces an herb called ensele, which formi excellent food. Hereabouts are some tribes, the Oafats and the Ouragues, of rude habits, and with languasei peculiar to themselves. From the turn of the river northward, the interval between it and Abyssinia it filled by Kuara, a wild mountainous country, which receives a governor from Abyssinia when it darej not do otherwise. Its chief importance consists in the gold wliicb passes through its territory from the Kast 5112. To the north are IValcayt and Waldubba, wild wooded regions along the lower Tacazie, forniini; the domain of the Shangalla, already described. The southern regions of Narea, CaHk, and Qingiro do ni^ seem in any shape to belong to Abyssinia. Chap. V. BAUBAHY. 5113. liarbary is that long Hue of territory, from 100 to 200 miles in depth, whim extends westward from Egypt to the shores of the Atlantic. The name, though familiar with Europeans, and derived from the Berbers, a race of native inhabitants, does not appear to be recognised in the country itself; and the region is even occupied by different independent states ; yet such is the similarity both as to nature and the condition and aspect of the inhabitants, that they may very advantageously be considered under one head. Skct. I. General Outline and Aspect- 5114. The level plain, which composes the greater part of Barhary, resembles in surface and quality that immense ocean of sand which overspreads nearly the whole northern half of the African continent. Barbary, however, derives a distinctive and superior character from that mountain- chain, or series of chains, which, under the celebrated name of Alias, ranges through nearly its whole extent from west to east. The loftiest pinnacles are in the west, rising above the plain of Morocco, and facing the Atlantic, where it apjiears even to rise above the limit of perpetual snow ; but beyond the frontier of Morocco, and east- ward through Algiers and Tunis, the mountains of this chain seldom exceed SOOO or 4000 feet. On the territory of Tripoli, they sink into lower eminences, and gradually subside to that flat sterile surface which characterises Northern Africa. The aspect of the Libyan desert, which separates Tripoli from Egypt, is compared by travellers to that of the bottom of the sea after its waves have receded. The breadth of the plain between the mountains Itifi'rences to the Map of Barbary, or Northern Africa. l.TatIa H. Aklia 3. Stukka 4. Aipilon, or Afiu- luh A. Macaa 6. AaiuXeer, or nania Cnii 7. Tamara 8. Terodaiit 9. Ouiiin 10. TMiftdell 11. Mogadore, or Suerha 1^. Morocco 15. Azaffl, or Nain 14. Duallda 14. T« 16. Uurcja, or Mazajnln 17. Sanit 15. DarelDnHla 19. Trricivet W. Tfilla 81. (titer, or (iuer ■it. 'I'aniel i3. HlKUmnas •U. Niixahila Vi. MataliK ill. Il«il Knwri 'i7. KlBhi. IW. Maniiiactorv of Hiivka t9. M«)uin«l 30. Raliat SI.SallK 33. Meiiciluma 33. El Hooin 34. (Hil«l Alu .35. Ftl .3fi. Alcaiwar 37. El Haratcli, or f.aractie 38. Arzilla .39. Tangier 40. Ccula 41.TMuan 43. Mo«tazR 43. Petion Ue \'clcz. Fort 44. 1'eia 4.^. DouIkIou 4li. Hadaha 47. UarBli 48. Cala Nuftiz 49. Mclllla AO. Killiadana Al, AlcaiMha 69. Mer|<;lah 70. Tl8ii'um!«el> 7I.Tukereah 73. Tejcmoiile 73. nimldde 74. Amoura 75. Hcrim 76. Ilooferjoone 77. Burgh 78. 8. iCIn Tjiia 79. Mallana 80. Zerzabal 81. Alglen 83. Sliahfali 83. Uurgti Hainza 84. N. Keu K5. :4. Braliam 86. Callah 87. S. Haniet 88. Roujeva 89. S Kant !K). He|i»f Ul. Mugrah 92. Tulinah 93. Emlwukltal 94. SIdi Khallat 9'>. I.ewa 96. I'iscara 97. El FIthe 98. Melgig 99. Zcribc KX). Tezzoute 101. Tattubl toy. ('onatantina 1113. Zezeli 1114. Kollo 105. 8tora,orSoigau 106. TIfas 107. (Ireeia 108. llydrah 109. Caiir Jebliir 110. La Cala III. Beta 1 18. TulmrlFo 113. Tunia 114. .Vazida 115. Kalibia 116. Hammamet U7. Zowan 118. Kefr 119. Knlrwan 130. Mahnlla.or AfVica 131. Sbca 133. Kfiii 133. Ilngha 134. Nalhor Tower 135. Ferina 136. Gaflka 137. Tcgewu 138. Toser 139. Nesta 130. Fatnaua 1.31.Caleei 133. Catana 133. Zprisia 1.34. Ki'la 133. Bucseain 136. Znnra 137. Salurt, or Old Trl|ioll 138. Beneabbos 139. Ttli»U 140. Marahut 141.Ublda 143. W. el Kliahan 143. Mesurata 144. Tauerga 145. Bcnioleed 146. Ilhirza 147. lu 148. Wade; Blllin.i 149. I)on).iin LW. Mliail IIUS1I.W 151. Zail'ran 153. Mciliiia Sultai 1.53. Ilusalda 154. Hudia 155. Mnuf I.Vi. Mukdar 157. Zella, or Zaia 158. W.iilMi l.M. Smkiia KiO. (i,iilmiiis 161. Iilri 163. Zui'la 163. (ilTTlW 164. Mi)urT(rah.i d Tmsift e ^Il)rt«'^a f K^'Ufr ■ g Fellelly h lihlr i Tafllet j \^vm It Mahal.i, or Moi Ionia I Etih m Habrali n Shellif User |i WtdelOii^e q Wfti tl Shatn r .Meji-nlah 1 A hill t Aitiiilw, orZaJb u \VaA Feswi T WaddJeaH Fart III. y unfurtunate ; visited even iti harge, however, thcr unfounded, ugiicsc mission. Ee'8 opinion are :he Nile, and he may surely fall, gh a low marsh; tte, which formi d with language) ind Abyssinia is a when it dares ,t territory from Facaue, forming 111 Oingiro do no) Fig, 606. MAP OF BARBARY, OR NORTHERN AFRICA. 1195 in depth, whicn though familiar does not appear •cnt independfnt nd aspect of the ad. ;mblcs in surface )le northern lull' uperior character I name of AHai, pinnacles are in •e it appears even irocco, and east- led 3000 or 4000 gradually suhside !Ct of the Libyan lat of the bottom len the mountains ISfl W.11U11 I.VJ Sw'kiia KiO. (tailaiiiis 1(il Iilri \m Zufia IM (itTIlia IM Mounouk lliS IjtiriuU Hivtit' n \k.i>»ii h Mi^a r llrilia d Tnnifl Mntli<'\a ' is.fifr i Fi'Uellj liMT I TalUM ■I Maliiil'"."'""' Ionia 1 Knia m tlaliraU n SMIif o U«T o Weill Sliai" ; Mei'tJah t AiliUlw,"''"' „ «'acl Few , \Vailt'IJ»" U96 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paiit III. and the Mediterranean, which constitutes Barbary, nowhere exceeds 100 miles, and in many places is not more than five or six ; its average breadth may be estimated ut about fitly or sixty miles. On the southern side of the mountains is another plain of vast and vague extent, stretching indefinitely to the south. Tliis tract, wliich possesses naturally the same dry and desert character as the bordering regions, derives, from the sCreunis poured down by the Atlas, a certain degree of fertility, which continues to the places where tlii'se are absorbed in the sands, or expanded into l^es. This region forms a loose appcndiigo to Barbary, being inhabited by tribes in some sense tributary and dependent, though tliuy arc generally accustomed to rove with little control over their spacious plains. 5115. The plain of Barbary is watered by numerous rivers descending from the great mountain range ; but, on account of the short interval which interposes between it and the sea, they cannot have any long course. None of them can be considered as general features of the region ; their cliaracter is local, and will bj described under the local head. Tlie same triay be said of the less known streams poured from the southern declivity of Atlas, though tlicse roll a somewhat longer course, till they are absorbed in the sandy waste. 5116. The limits of this vast region, especially on the land side, where it passes by an insensible gradation into the trackless deserts, cannot be easily defined. It would be difiicult even to fix the extreme points of Tripoli and Morocco. Port Bomba, on the eastern Iron- tier of Tripoli, is in 32° '26' E., while Mogadore, nearly the most western part of Morocco, is in 9° 20' VV., forming thus a line of forty-one degrees of longitude, or aliout '2000 miles from east to west. Of its northern boundary along the Mediterranean, the liiglust point is Cape Blarco in Tunis, in latitude 37^, whence it declines in Morocco tu '.)5°, and in the Gulf of Sidra even to nearly 30°. The southern boundary is altogether of that vague and indefinite nature already described. Sect, II. Natural Geography. SuBSECT. 1. Geology- 5117. Atlas, or northern region of Africa. — This interesting division of Africa is cha. racterised by the Atlas range of mountams, some of the summits of which rise to a liei^rhtof 1 3,000 feet above the sea. Tlie central and higher chains are composed of granite, j,'iiiiis mica slate, and clay slate ; while resting upon and forming the lower ranges are exten- sive deposits of secondary limestones and sandstones. The limestone aboiiiuls with orjiiinic remains, as shells, corals, ami even fishes, and is said to be referable to the various limt- stones of the secoiulary class, extending from the lias, or even tlie mugnesiaii linifslMW, (o chalk inclusive. Uesting upon these limestones are deposits of tertiary rocks. Salt sprin^r, and gypsum are mentioned as occurring in different parts of the range. Tlie secoiularv and tertiary formations are variously charged and upraised by trap rocks of modern date. anti. Subject. 2. Botany. 511s. The Botany of this country has been described with that of Egyjit, pagi il!:. SuBSECT. 3. Zoology. 5119. The Zoologi/ of the Barbary Stales assimilates with that of northern Efjvpt, Arabia, and Asia Minor ; and re(|iiires, therefore, but a slight notice. The quadrupeds, as luaylii expected, differ materially from those which are now known as inhabitants ui' Kiii'0|i(', a> will be better sun from tlie following list: — ittle llalioon. rynnoci;]ihahis nalKjiiin. Ki'li^ I'ntiluN. I'antlier. I.ynx Cnrafol. Vh'. Ciirncol I,mh. I'jnx ('hau& Sn: DttotLtl r.r Marah Lynx, Sciuni .^fii.:"s. Ilarharv Squirrel. i'niiu'lUH PrniiKcdarluH. Arabian Camel. Mus liarbarus. llartiary .Mouse. Oasellit Diirt-as Sm. llaVl.ary Antelope. .\iit.li|f_ ( (via tra^flaitlnis. lit nricil Sliw (t. Dauialis llulialia Sm. Tliu llulali. 5 1 20. Slime of these lei KOT shall .sli'^htly notice. The Dromedary (fg.^OT.) {Caiiiclus Ihw- (lariiis L.) is well known to be the most iistfiil and the most general beast of burden throughoit the wliule of Northern Africa. It is smuller thai, tiie .Asialic or ISactriun cimiel, and has but one hump, while llial lias two ; but the legs are more slender and elevated, Tluro are several breeds, differing chiefly in size or colour; those of Turkey are the strongest, ami liest siiiliJ for burileu ; but the Arabian and Barbary hrccds .iff i«| yjtf the lightest and the swiftest. The females, w Ian graiiil, jnH ^ Iflw • '-•' v.;^ - "'''' usually taken from their work. ^~ 5121. Uegarding tlie Bearded Sheep (Oi'istra^ebfhi". said to iiiliui)it Northern Africa in a wild state, no in; recent accounts have reached us. Dr. Cams, .ilw"' l.'jfil, describes it as being of an immense sizt, iMrl; eipial to lliat of a stag; yet it was gentle, petulant, and lascivious, fond of abteiiding liifc* Pakt III. liuox III- liARBARY. 1197 C9, and in :d at nliout if vast and IS naturally ims poured ivherc tlii'se ipcndagc to gh tliey are n tlic great n it and tlic eral features head. The ty of Atlas, waste, passes by an d be diflicult eastern fron- of jMorocco, about 'AK!0 1, the liighi'st a to :i5°, anil 'Other of that Africa is clia- > to a hei^ln of granite, jineiss ijos are extin- Is with orjianic ; various limt- 111 timi'stuM, to Salt springs The secondary noderu (late. I'l't. V'^k^ places and roofs of houses, running swiftly, and bounding prodigiously. This animal, con- tinues Major Smith (Grif. Cuv. iv. 320.), appears to be the real Fishtail, or Lerwcc, of Shaw. 5122. The Bvjbal {Damalis Bnbalis) so nearly resembles the European bufialo, that tra- vellers have confounded the two together. Its genr.al appearapre is not unlike that of a small cow ; the proportions are heavy, the head long and clumsy, nnd the singular elevation of the shoulders is remarkably striking. It is wholly of a yellowish dun colour; the tuft of the tail being alone black. They seem to live in small troops throughout tlie deserts and forests of Northern Africa, from the Nile to Morocco, and were met with by Messrs. Den- ham and Clapperton in the woods of Uornou. The Arabs give them a name signifying cittlc of the forest. 5123. 2'he Domestic animals deserving notice, besides the Camel, are the superb Horses of Barbary, and the different breeds of cattle and sheep extending over Northern Africa. 5124. The Barbari/ horse vies with the ArabUiii in beauty of form, although not, perhaps, in the fleetncss of its course. The chest is better made, and more rounded ; the forehead, in- stead of being hollowed, is rather prominent, and the shape of the head is finer : the figure altogether is more imposing than that of the Arab, although their stature is nearly equal. The best Barbary horses are found, at the present day, in the kingdoms of Morocco and Fez; but the Moors do not take near so much care of their horses as the Arabians. 5125. The Morocco breed of Sheep have long wool, the hair on the neck rather shorter and more curled ; like most of the African breeds, they are remarkable for their strong make and long legs : tlieir horns are small, turned spirally outwards, and the scrotum forming two se- parate sacs ; the general colour is white, tinged with liver-colour. There is another breed, culled the Uarbary, having the tail so broad at its base, as to be wider than the buttocks. the wool is coarse, and of a rufous colour on the neck, legs, tail, ears, and nose : the face is much arched, the ears pendulous, and the horns retain the original curve of the Argalis, on a smalltr scale ; the tail is longer than in the last. The third race of Northern Africa is found in Barbary, and even in Corsica. It is policeratc, with pendulous cars, having the tail not much widened, and the colour white. This breed is remarkable for bearing two dif- turent kinds of fleece, the posterior [larts being covered with wool, while soft loose hair ex- tends from the head to tlie shoulder . a crossed breed of this race was some time ago brought to England. It was entirely covered with soft silky hair of a silvery whiteness; that on the neck being of great length. 51'J(). liesides several Birds, foiuid also on the opposite shores of Europe, Barbary is known to possess many other species, inhaliiting the arid tracts of the desert, such as Qiuuls, Part- ridges, and Bustards. The most beautiful bird seems to be the Uarl)ary Shrike {Jin. 808.! iMalaconotus barbarus Swains.), about the size of a thrush ; black above, and crimson beneath ; the top of the head being yellow. IIAUIIAIIV bllflUtli. E^ypt, Araliia, leds, as may \v ; ol' Euroiif, a* Tlic UuMli.. baHicdts Bnm- liost useful .mil Ihoi.' tlic"''^'!' Vai. i"c '\"''^"' , while thai to llevateil. Tlicrc Isi/.e ov colow; lull best siiiuJ fliary lirw'il* art s, whcngraiA XorhtmeW^"' Id slate, no uO' Ir. rams, al)o«t ense sizt, iw ■arlv ceiiiling 'i'^ Sfct. 111. Ilisturical Geography. 5127. Barbary occupied a more conspicuous place in the ancient than in the modern world. It formed part, and in many instances a prominent part, in the great system of civilised nations around the Mediterranean. Cyrenaica, its most westerly portion, cor- responding now to Barca and part of Tripoli, was one of the most flourislinig Grecian colonies. Africa Proper, including the rest of Tripoli and part of Tunis, contained Carthage, Uie pride of Africa, the mistress of Spain and Sicily, and the chief medium of commercial intercourse in the ancient world. Illustrious by her rivalry with Rome, and her niiglity struggle for universal empire, she was not less distinguished by her glorious fall. The southern part of Tunis, joined to the Algerine province of Constantin.i, once formed the powerful kingdom of Numidia, which rendered itself famous both as the ally and enemy of Rome. Western Algiers and Fez composed Mauritania, a ruder region, yet distinguished for its swarms of brave irregular cavalry. The southern part of Morocco was Getulia, an imperfectly known tract, inhabited by a race almost p'.)verbial for savage fierceness. 512S. M these districts, with the exception of the remote ones last menUoneil, were incorporated into the liomaii empire, and became, in some degree, the granary (if Italy. They were exposed, however, earlier than might have been anticipated from their situation, to the inroad of the northern barbarians. Genseric the Vandal fixed here the seat of Ins kingdom, and established a naval power which made lum master of the INIoditerranean. 51'J9. The iiiivsion of the Saraceiispnidumt o complete and permanent change in Northern Africa. They eiilered'it, not only as conquerors, but in vast migr.itory bodies, winch st.imped Ihe Arabian and Mahometan character upon the whole pc ulation. Barbary was at hrst 1198 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paut III. govornuil, under the caliphs of Bagdad, by a viceroy, who established his residence at CnirtMii, or Kairwan. As the central power lost its energy, the states oi' Barbary erected tluMIINi'lvvs ilio independent kingdoms, among which Cairoan was still the eastern capital ; but It WAN iilmust eclipsed in power and splendour by Fez, a city which then ranked amoii» the tint ill the world for learning and civilisation. By degrees, however, the Barliary ntnteii, like all others subjected to the recluse and bigoted system of Mahomet, lost their light anil Intelligence, and, having no intercourse but that of deadly hostility with the im- nrovod kingdoms of Christendom, they had no means of recovering those advantages. riiiii they became, three centuries ago, and have ever since continued, blind, stupid, and bnrlmrous. ft 1 !!(). The iiiratical war between the Turks and the Christiana, during the fifteenth century, ocvUNioiied n lurther change. The celebrated pirates Barbarossa and Hayraddin seized upon Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, and established them as dependencies of the Turkisli empire. Uelninlilg still the spir't of these conquerors, they continued, even after the full of the Turkish naval puwcv, tu devote themselves to piracy ; and their situation along the Medi. ti^rrniienn enabled them to > ct with terrible effect on the European states. Morocco, though nIio reiimined independent of Turkey, thought this too good an example to be neglected ; and her piracies were at one time still more terrible than those of the other states, though they have not been so long continued. /Jiai, M the course of the last half cuutitry, the three states have shaken off the Ottoman yokv'i III Tunis and Tripoli, the Turkish population has been reduced to subordination Hiulor the ISIoorish and Negro troops ; while in Algiers the Turkish soldiery contini'td to lii>ly being ori- L'xcreisiiig in tlio |le, tiicrc appears lilitary hody liy Iflueiice. ^Vllell lito the hands ol' [af^istrateatplea- Jreneh, wlio have ■ic title of D«> Itinn himself, net Dldiery. This I whose vigour of lal period in llie 1 thraldom by tlw Georgian slaves extended ciiuil lid Jews, whom It IpportuDityofiii- llministratiuii sn" Book III. BARBARY. 1199 exhibits nnany barbarous and oppressive features, yet, upon the whole, Tunis was im- proving, while Western Barbary was sinking continually deeper in wretchedness and bru- tality. 5135. Ttipoli has made still farther advances. Its progress has been ascribed to Hamet, whom the Tripolitans honour with the surname of Great. At the commencement of the last century he was a mere Pacha under the Turks, and his life was in perpetual peril from their licentious soldiery. He relieved himself from them in a manner truly barbarous. Having invited their chiefs, to the number of 300, to a feast, he caused them all to be seized and strangled. His adherents then commenced a general massacre throughout the city, and the Turkish sway was entirely annihilated. The Porte, which could with difficulty have vindicated its claims, suffered itself to be pacified by presents and tribute, and finally lost all dominion ovtr the state. Hamet was very active in introducing every kind of improve- ment, inducing Europeans to settle in Ids territories, and promoting all the manufactures for which Tripoli was adapted. His successor, of a milder character, finding himself in peaceable possession of the sovereignty, exercised it with great equity and moderation ; so that Tripoli assumed an orderly and civilised appearance, resembling that of the European states, especially when compared with the turbulent aspect of its African neighbours. Al- though it has been since exposed to some convulsions, the present government, from its con- duct towards the English, appears to retain the same liberal and improving character by which it has so long been distinguished. 5136. The foreign relation! of the Barliary states have not been extensive. The European powers long re. gardcd them with cold and distant hostility, but without considering tlic conquest of them as a desirable ob- ject. I'hcse states were not in a condition to attempt schemes of distant aggi andisement Tlicir oMiy pretensionj to dominion arc over the tracts betiind the Atlas, and bordering on the great desert, called Tafilct, Sigilmcssa, ami the Blcil el Jerced. Even the subjection of these countries is confined to the exaction of a tribute, which a flying detacliment of troops, sent round once a year, forcibly collects. Since the reign of Hamet the (ireat, Triiioli has held Fezzan trilmtary. Spain possesses the fortresses of Ceuta, Mclilla, and Peilon de Velez in Morocco, but without any territory attached to them ; and this is now the only memorial of the long and deadly wars between the two countries. The eflbrts to put down their piratical inroads have brought them more into contact with t.ic powers of Europe ; and the issue of these, in the occupation of Algiers by France, promises to form a new era in the destiny of this part of the world. Those predatory ravages by which, down ti) a very recent period, they rendered themselves terrible to the powers situated upon and navigating the Mediterranean, seem to be now Anally suppressed. Sect. V. Productive Industn/. 5137. /» every branch of productive industry the states of Barbary exhibit marks of imperfectlan and decay. , . , ... 5138. Of the agriculture of Ba;banj our accounts are very imperfect, this branch having been unac. countably omittetl by Ur. Shaw ; but enough has transpired to show it to be in a most imperfect state. In tlie greater part of Morocco, there exists no such thing as fixed property in land. It is cultivated by iimvable Arab camps, called rluuars. which establish themselves on a spot, continue till they have exhausti'd it, and liien uniovc to another. In consequence, however, of the fertility of the soil, and of the w.-iiit of a manu- faeturing populati n to consume its produce, there is in every state a large surplus of corn, « hic^ forms, when permitted, the staple article of cximrt. Wheat and barley are the kinds generalh eultiviitedi the soft and triable soil is particularly adaptc ,■ il3'J. All till fruits i\f sout/icm Europe come lo peifcctiun in Barbary ; and tK' oxcellcncr of the olive is particularly iioted. The vine flourishes; though the religious system of th* natives deters Ihein lYom cnnverting the g'ape into wine, even for exportation. As we .idvance into tiie dry plains of the interior, all tiicse fruits disapp.-ar; otit their place is siipplicil by that of the date tree, which entirely covers the face of the country, and fmms the principal support to the inhabitants of the smithern ilisiricts. . , ^ . 514(). Of domestic .animals, the cow, destitute of the rich pastures of Kuropc, is sm,->ll in size, and deficient in milk. The sheep are also small ; but those fed on the Af is produce that eM|ui»ite muttiin peculiar to mountain pastures. There are also some species, which, with little uttention on the part of their proprietors, pro5,5U(7. The chief headu were ■ wool, 133,000/. i goat, calf, and sheep skins, 69,IKK«. j gums, 25,000/. j wax, 22,700/. ; almonds, I7,I>;J0/. j oil, 9,390/.; butter, 7,700/. i wheat, 3,600/. The im|>orts from Britain were I6I,00(V., of which lll,(KIU>'. in cotton goods, those of India amounting to 64,000/, In 1837, the exports of British produce to Tripoli, Tunis, and Algiers, (said in the tables to include Morocco, but evidently by mistake,) were valued at 51,000/. Chief heads : cottons, 46,450/. ; coals, 4,6fl0/. The only important foreign article consisted of 3,778 pieces of Inilja cottoni. The Imports were nearly confined to 30,(KI0 gallons of olive oil, 188,000 undressed goat.skins, I28,0(X) lbs. of wool. In that year the imiwrts to France tVom Algiers amounted to 703,000/. ; the export! tu only 58,000/. With the other Barbary states, the former came to 142,000/. : the latter to 170,IX)0/. 5143. The most actwe commerce qf the Barhary states is that by the caravans vith inlerior Africa. Triimli sends hers by Feztaii to Bornou and Cassina, and thence across as far as Ashantee ; Tunis by Oudamis and Tuat toTombuctoo; Morocco across the broadest of the desert to the same city, and to the countries on the Senegal. A more particular account of the mode in which tli'ia trade is carried on will be given when we come to treat of the central countries of Africa. Into these countries the caravans tarry salt, which is wanting along the whole line of the Senegal and Niger ; together with European manufactures, particularly cloths of dlfffcrent kinds, hardware, and toys. Tlie returns are gold dust, ivory, gum Senegal, and, above all, slaves, for whom these \infortuiiate countries have been so long raiisackeil to supply ilic other quarters of the glolie. It Is impoksililc to form even a conjecture as to the amount of this inland trade; for Lempriere's estimate, according to which the imports would amount to 10,(100,000/., is evidently a monstrous exaggeration. 5144. TTie mercantile shipping of the Barhary stales may bo considereil as next to nothing. Fishery, notwithstanding the extent of its coasts, is pursued only for immediate consumption. There is, imlLid, a coral Hshery, of some value, on the coast of Constantina, in Algiers, near Bona and Ijt Cala. Air. hia. quicre asserts that it might employ m) boats and 9(K)0 men ; but we question if Europe would alliird a market lor so extensive a produce. With a view to this lishery, the British government, in 18(H), contracie.i to pay to the l)ey of Algiers 50,0(K) dollars (11,000/. sterling) for the imssession of Bona, La Cala, and II Col ; but, naving omitted to form a military establishment at any of these places, it has deriveil, as yet, iin advantages IVom the purchase. This branch of industry is carried on chiefly by vessels from Sicily, Leg. horn, and other ports of Italy. Sect. VI, Civil and Social State, 5145. Of the population of liarbary, wliicli lias probably mucli diminished, only a very loose estimate can be made. Mr. Jackson, indeed, lias given statements of tlie population of the empire of Morocco, founded on documents in the imperial register, nccordiiifr to which, it amounts to 14,880,600 : but, if such records really exist, we can scarcely consider them as proceeding from any thing but an empty vaunt, unless they be taken as relating lo a more prosperous period. They assign to the city of Morocco, for instance, a poptiiation of '270,000 ; while the most judicious travellers do not suppose that, in its present state of decay, it contains more than 80,000. We cannot, therefore, but prefer the estimate of Chcnier, which allows to the whole empire only 6,000,000 ; and perhaps even this is beyond the truth. Respecting the population of Tunis and its territory, the statements made to Mr. Macgill, according to which it antdunted to 5,000,000, appeared to liiin greatly exaggerated. Tlie most careful estimates of tlie population of Algiers make it ratlicr uiiJcr than above 2,000,000. Tripoli is stated by Ali Bey at 2,000,000 ; but, iiotwitlistaiiding the extent of territory, its prevailing barrenness would warrant the conclusion that one third of this is a very full estimate. Proceeding on these loose data, which are all «e have, we may guess the population of Barbary us follows : — Morocco, 6,000,000 ; Algiers, «,00O,00O; Tunis. 2,000,000; Tripoli, 600,000: in all, 10,600,000. 5146. The inliabitarUs of Barbary are separated into three very distinct classes ; the Jloors, the Arabs, and the Berbers or Berebbers. 5147. The Moors inhabit the cities of Barbary, and the country in their immcdialo vicinity. The term Moor, derived from the ancient Mauri, is applied througlioiit Al'rita in a very vague manner. In Central Africa it is made to comprehend all INIahonietans «lw are not Turks. In Barbary, however, the wandering tribes are distinguished by llie naiiit of Arabs, and the term Moor is applied chiefly to the inhabitants of cities. Mahometan cities, in general, present a uniform scene. The inhabitants drag a recluse, gloomy, and monotonous existence. They are strangers to social assemblies, to public .iniuscnitnis >" the arts, and to every thing that animates life. Their time is chiefly spent, in a retired manner, in the interior of their houses. The females, according to the invariable Mahomtun custom, are strictly excluded from general society, and must see none of the male m'I, except their husbands ; they are immured like slaves in the apartments of the Imraiii. Ttai DullK 111. BAUBAKY. I2U1 ttspt'Ct of ai)iithy and gravity, Imwever, wliicli a Moor presents at first view, is, In a great iiu'usurc, fallacious, and he is easily roused from it to the most outrageous acts of bloodshed and violence. In Barbary, the habits of a seafaring and piratical life have rendered these occasions more frequent, and have produced a character more habitually turbulent and dis- orderly, than is usual in Turkish states. Indeed, European travellers have usually described the Moors as a race devoid of all good qualities, and combining every sort of depravity ; l)iit the relations between the parties have usually been of a very hostile nature, em- bittered both by religious and political rancour. 5148. The haram, that favourite and almost sole seal uf Oriental limiri/, is, of course, inaccessible, and can only through some peculiar chance be seen by Europeans, Lem- pricre, however, in his character of a physician, was admitted into that of the Emperor of Morocco. It consisted of a wing of the palace, entirely separated from the rest, and com- municating only by a private door, of which the emperor had the key. The edifice was divided into a niimher of courts, communicating by narrow passages, round which were ranged the apartments of the wives and concubines, who were from sixty to a hundred in number, besides their domestics and slaves. There was a principal sultana, who had a general superintendence over the establishment, but enjoyed not the same influence with the emperor as some of the younger favourites. There were several European captives, who appeared to the traveller the chief ornament of the haram, both as to personal and mental accomplishments. The Moorish ladies were enormously fat, and utterly stupid and igno- rant. Their allowance from their imperial master amounted, in the case of the most favoured, only to half a crown a day ; so that expense and luxury were to he maintained by presents or bribes received from the numerous suitors for favours from the emperor, who is understood to approve entirely this delicate mode of supply. A more favourable account is given of the Tripolitan haram by a lady who resided in that city for many years, in the family of Mr. Tully, the English ambassador. The inmates, who are generally Georgian and Circassian captives, not only possess superior personal beauty, but are endowed with various ornamental accomplishments acquired at Constantinople. Their time is also busily employed ia su)ierintending the numerous slaves, who gWnd, spin, and perform all the domestic oper- ations. 'J'heir toilette is performed in a very elaborate manner, which employs several lioiirs, and demands the service of a number of slaves. Each of the latter has a separate office ; one to perfume the hair, another to arrange the eyebrows, a third to paint them, and so on. The blackening of tlie latter by a preparation of antimony, the forming of them into a particular shape, and the filling of the hair with powdered cloves, perfumes, and scented waters, are the most favourite modes of feitiale adornment. In their domestic cliarnctor, the ladies arc said to disj>lay many amiable qualities; though here, as in Morocco, the jealousy of superior favour with their lord and master often excites violent enmities, and even iinpels to the crime of administering poison to a hated rivol. .5149. While the Moors thus inhabit all the great towns and the fixed villages in their immediate vicinity, all the remoter districts are occupied by a race who are called Oralis, either because they are really the descendants of the Saracen conquerors, or, from situation and circumstances, have acquired similar habits. They dwell in a species of movable encamp- ments called douars, composed of a number of broad and low tents, |)ainted black, and rt'sembling in form the hull of a ship. They are formed of cloth made of camel's hair and the fibres of the palm tree, and are arranged generally in three concentric circles, in the interior of which the cattle are secured during the. night. Each douar is governed by a sheik, or chief, who is considered as standing in a paternal relation to the rest ; kin- dred being the tie which chiefly unites them, and no one not related to the common family l)eing allowed to reside in the douar. Their manner of living is iqiiite patriarchal, and their rites of hospitality so primitive, that they reinind us of those practised by Abra- liiim to the three angels, as recorded in Scripture. The greatest sheik, when a stranger enters his tent, sets down water, and assists him to wash his feet. He goes to the flock, brings in a calf or a kid, kills it with his own hands, and delivers it to liis wife to dress. Like all the races which bear the Arab name, they are equally distinguished for hospitality and robbery ; often exercising the latter against those who have just been the objects of the former. When thov have exhr/a^ted one spot, they prepare to remove to another; for wliicli puvpose, however, they must obt.'dn the sanction of the government, which is held as the projjrietor of all these wide tracts of unoccupied land ; a permission for which a large sum vi money must be always paid. The douar then breaks up, and its members depart, with dieir wives, children, cattle, tents, furniture, agricultural iiuplements, and every thing wlr'eh they possess. The men walk, driving the cattle ; the women are mounted on camels, three on each ; the children. Iambs, and kids are bung in panniers by the sides of these animals (^^r. 809. >. The internal administration of these camps, or dollars, is almost entirely independent of the emperor or prince ; the several communities are animated by deadly feuds against each other, which often lead to conflict; and, in every case of weak government or disputed succession, many of the Arabs betake themselves without hesitation to plunder. 4 H 2 I MM DESCllIl'TlVE OEOOIIAI'IIY. Pahi III. fllflO. ll'hUe these wanttering tribei tv.er llie plains, t\w iiioiiitliiill iliNlrlt'tit ul' Alliiiiarv Ot'Cuplvd by (liu Brebcs, or Verbern, « iio Mum to be (liu originul niul muitt iiiii'k>iit hilmUtHiui JIKtlUVAl' Ur AN AllAH VII.I.Af.H. u( Itai'Imry, driven to take rvruj^e in these iiiarceithible retreutH, Id tlui litilo valU'Vn cinho. miini'd within the huge declivities of the Atlus, they Iniild their viiia^feit, whleh lire lii'iiiili. fully enclosed with gardens and plantations. Some of tliose, however, iHTUityiiiu i|it> higher and ruder parts of the chain, dwell in caves cut out of the roek. They lire liiiiil. featured, athletic, and patient of fatigue. Occupied in pasturage and ciilllviilliin, lliey also vinploy themselves nuich in hunting, and derive an extensive projit from the hkinn ul wild beasts. Their favourite exercise is the use of the musket, both ill lliiiig lit it murk, uiiil twirling it variously in the air ; in which they have ac<|iiired remurkiilile dexteiity : iIiiim> who Clin ulfurd it take a pride even ii> ornamenting their lire-arniH with gold iinil Ivnry, I'oHsessing such habits, they are by no means quiet subjects of the MiiiirUli eniplie iiml the other states to which their territory belongs. Their only homage conHlhtN in a tiiluili', Ht oiicx> scanty and uncertain. In their revolts, which are not iinfrei|iieiiti their lulnur und the rugged nature of the territory, render it almost impossible to hiiliiUie lliein, (In the contrary, they have sometimes descended into the plain, iiiiil carried lliejr inniiuli id the very gates of Morocco. They have none of the migratory habits of the Alillis ; lint, mi the contrary, are unwilling to remove from their original spot. I'lilikellie A lain, ton, they elect their own sheiks, and have a republican form of goveiiimeiil,vcry itniismil iiitlii^ part of Africa. They speak a language called the Anuuigh, ur Uerlier, entirely lillU'iviit from that of the Moors and Arabs, who often require an interpreter when eoiiver>ing uilli them. This language is supposed to be very ancient, and is of the siune family ivilli tlmt of the Tibbo, the Tuaricks, and other indigenous tribes who roam over the pliiiii.ions to iiiiiilil.v, lo heighten the respect of their subjects. That most savage of tyrants, Miilcy ImiiiiiI, •pout a great part of his time in superstitious gestures and observances, calenlaled lo liii|irw tile idea of his direct conimunicution with the Oeity and with Mahnmi't, mid of nii|ii'|Iiimiiiiii li''l.v limit oCt fiili'iK at lull s "'fj' train tliei '" any thing ji ■'IW. In the f l".rrc piece o '"I'liody, III laiKl plaid. 'I ^ ""rk is to 1,0 s( and in which a » thf industrid •"xly, and i,p„( species nf cloak ""I It has a ca icarlet cap, cov. "fits lold.,,, lie R()OK III. nAUBAHY. l^iOl linwiTs theiici' (Icrivi'il, ■ fRPKNT CIIAnMRll. Hailiiiry, moreover, U ovcr-niii hy supi-Mtitlonii of nil kindii, mu-Ii a* ustunlly prevail nin»ii(? the vulvar in iineiili^^litciivd cdiiii- tries; atnong wliicli, tlie lii'lifl' in tlio iiotciit'y of nn evil eye is pnrticiilurly prevalent. Inilividimls iiinong the Arulw still make a hoHHt of the power of clmrniinK ner- pents. 'Ihey exhibit theniselve* li> the atliniiinu iiiiillilnde, half-naked, in strange iittitiides and eontorlions, and twined round by those creatures, whom they certainly have the art of niiderinn innoxious (fift. HIO.). The iiuisl ainiabje of their feelings consists in the reverence paid to decaw? i.lBtions, which exists to a much greater extent thiii iV, vistomnry among Europeans. Kvery Fritlay evening rins what is called " the feast of the dead," when the people ■r to the tombs of their ancestors, who are su|iposed to ■out on that evening, and to share the nlinott gay fet> .al whicli is there celebrated. 'il.'i.'l. I.rnrniiw anri aeience in Itiiilmri/ iii.iy hv lonsiilrrcil n« iirailv fxtlnit, I.ikp llio iitlior Nnnici-ii itatt'9, thoKo of mrbary, and nt Morocco in particiilnr, were InrmiTly Ai8lln)(nl>li(Ml t'nr the riilllvntlon iil' iiiniiniv. l''oz was a (I'lcbratcd school, to which atmlrnlii Ironi thi< moat dlilant niiarterK rcMirtrd. At iircarnl, liy liir tlie Krcalcr part ol' tlic iiopiilatioii can ncitluT write, read, nor (Hrlorni llu> inoiit ennnnnn opcratinim ol' nrilhinctic, and there arc scnrccly any pcranns who have iicipilrcd llie mere rtidlinenti or kunwIeilKe. Miaw mcntloni an havinf; been Kliown to liim qnailrantn and anlrolalu'ii conalriicled In llio moat a.lnilrahic maimer; but aiich inslriuiient* wtrf I'xhibitod as mere ctirioaltiea, without K\\.' ieaat idea licini; entertained of their u«e. Medicine, in whiih ilii' Arabs bii.iat of the (jreat namca ni' Aviceniia and Avcrrhoes, cannot be very hljihly cultivated in aconntry whcrethc usual Ice of a phyalclan la »IX|H-ncc t «| eltW'l. Wine, too, is taken much more freely, even to excels, and in a convivial manner, especially at Algiers anil riiiils, than in other Mahouietun countries. Hut horsemanship, al ovc every thing else, forius the |>rlde anil »inu!cincnt of the Moors ; and their fi.'ats ui this ait are often very wonderful {Ji^, Kll 1. They are partlcu- Sll tlisuillilllllis ly ilill'erenl •I'lllg ttitli ily willt lliitt iitills lu lliv mill less ■OCCII, Till! very ulumo ms; mill lli>.' caiiii'il, if Ity exeti'isi'ti reniui'se me inslnicloiH, peritiiiiim'S' leiiti iieillM iiitihitiiiii lliL' iilimwt I'J- theiiiselvi' W pttriiy 111' eleiiHitms I" hy wliicli iileit lireviiiin of retiMiii it il' htlillls »"-' le iiiuiiiiri'li. ,11, tiisiiiieliiy, luley iMiiii^'l- (I to imiiri" I' Hiiin'rliiiii"'" tits lei AMtSKUKNTS UF THI MOOIIS. la.ly iiiiid of galloping, ami then suddenly stopping : and some will even lift object! frnm the around while ruling at lull speed. Although, however, the rich Moors are almost constantly on the Iweka ot their Jinrsea, lliey train them to none of those travelling paces which are found so useful in Europe ; they have nu Idea "f any thing intermediate between a walk and a gallop. .'d.W, In the dress nf the Moors and Arohs, the most conspicuous feature is the hiiik, or hi/ke, a Urge fi|u.ire piece of woollen cloth, cninmonly six yards both iu length and breadth, which is folilnl Iwisely round llie Imily. It seems to be the same with the garment of the Jews, and indeeil the very same with the High. land plaid. The loose manner in which the na'ik is attached to the body renders it necessary, whenever any Work is to lio seriously set about, to tighten the girdle, which is formc^ *v^* ■V >V' 7. */^ .v'^ > 4 ^ <^V > Photographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STRUT WEBSTER, N.Y. MSSO (716) 172-4503 liM4 nKSCRIPTIVE GEOGRAl'IlY. Part III. 5156. tynk regard to food, one clUh prcvalU at the table of all, from the prince t/j the peasant, which U cutcosoa, a sort ol' almott fluid paste made of crumbled bread, and enriched, accordinu to the mcani of the preparer, with small pieces of meat, vegetables, and condiments. This dish, placed In a larpc womlen or DRHI vr THR MOOH«< 813 earthen bowl, is act in the middle of the companv, who immcdiatelv thrust in their Angers, Itfl It to their mouths, stirring it, if necessary, with their hands, and selecting the most savoury morsels. The rirli, on great occasions, present a variety of dishes ; but they are all cooked in the same manner, consisting of what we call in England spoon meat. To make some amends for this mode of eating, the custom of washing tlic hands both before and alter eating is still rigorously observed. Sect. VII. Local Geograjihi/, 5 1 57. Morocco, the most westerly, is also the most extetisive and important, of the Hurbary jtates. It 1ms two coasts ; one along the Mediterranean facing the north, the other and larger along the Atlantic, looking to the west. The loftiest part of the chain of Allis runs parallel to these coasts, changing its direction along with them, and leaving an intermediiilc plain, finely watered and not surpassed in natural fertility by any part of the globe, lint though the modern Moors have advanced gre.'.ily beyond the rude and roaming habits of the ancient Mauri, they are far from improving the country to nearly the extent of which it is susceptible. Mr. Washington conceives it inlght be made one vast corn-field, and tliiit the ground over-run with weeds and bnishwouL'. -nght afford food to millions. Dcyoiul the range of Atlas, however, Morocco inchuL.: . more arid region named Tafilet, unfit lor grain, but yielding the finest dates in the wor i, and rearing a breed of goats whose skins afford the material for the fine morocco leather. 5158. The political and social stiUt of Morocco is rude and degrading. The cmpunir possesses a power more despotic than any utlier even of the Mahometan potentates. He is not field in clicck liy a mufti, an ulema, or even a coimcil or divan. He is supposed to possess a divine character, and to be superior tu alt law. One emperor, being reminded of a promise, said, " Takest thou me for an infidel, that I nuist he the slave of my word?" Yet this monarch must pay respect to long-established usngcs and in- stitutions; must not invade the domestic pri- vacy of any of his subjects ; and must even give public audience four times a week to udmiiiisler justice to all who may appeal to liim from the cadi, or local governor. On these occasions he appears on horsel)ack, in an open interior court of the palace, with an umbrella over his hcnil {jig, 813.). This absolute power, meantime, is little regarded by the inountaineer tribes, .nnil even by some of those that wander over tin' |)lains. Having, too, no one interested in its support, it is continually liable to be shaken hy treason, revolt, and disputed succession. Mena' these princes have derived a peculiarly jealous and ferocious character ; and Morocco has lieen ruled by some of the most bloody tyrants re- corded in liistory. Among these was pre-eminent Muley Ismael, wlio introduced the system of employing negro mercenaries as body-guards. They were raised at one time to upwards of 90,000 (Mr. Washingtoii is probably mistaken in saying 100,000), but ore now rediici'd lo 5000. They constitute, however, the only regular troops in the empire ; the rest are merely a loose uiilitia, summoned by imperial mandate, and, though expert liorscinen aiul good inarksmis), d<'siitiite of any sort of discipline. The revenue is colh-cted in Wiii'i KMFFRCR CF MdHOOCO. DuuK HI. UARDARY. 1205 in the proportion of a tenth of grain and a twentieth of entile, which, aided by finct and tlu> poll tax upon Jews, is estimated by Mr. Washington at about 1,000,000/. sterUng. rtimu Imluatrif nnd commerce have in Morocco a very limited range. The only im- portant manufnctiiro is that of tlie leather which bears its name. One tannery in the rnpitnl cnployn, according to Mr. Washington, ISOO persons; and, though the processes are slovenly, a fine colour is produced, which Europeans are unable to imitate. Other articles for exportation arc almonds, of very Hne quality, from Susc, dates from Tafilet, ivory and gold dust from Soudan ; honey, wax, oritrich feathers, &c. In return, it receives the usual arliclos of lUiropcan manufacture and colonial produce. Tliis trade is carried on chiefly by the port of Mugadurc. Tlio outrageous piracy formerly exercised from Sallee and other ports of Morocco has for a considerable time ceased. ,'il(«>. Morocco, the capitat, is situated on a very extensive and naturally fruitful plain {Jig. 8M.), above which rises al)ruptly, coveretl with perpetual snow, one of the loftiest fll4 ,^^!^~ri,^i^ viKW IIP Moliorrn AND Tnit ati.a«. r«nges of Atlas. The mosques are numerous, and several of them present striking mn'oiinens of Arabian architecture, particularly that called El Koutouben, the tower of wliich is a.H) feet high. Of the eleven g.ites, one is richly sculptured in the Moorish style. The pniuco forms an oblong of 1500 by COO yards, divided into enclosures, where, surrounded hy gardens, aiv the pavilions of the sovereign, his principal officers and ladies. The floors nix> tossollated with variously coloured tiles ; but a mat, asmall carpet, and cushions, compose the entire fiirnilure. Beautiful gardens surround the city, and spacious aqueducts, conveying wnior fW>m the Atlas, twenty miles distant, bear testimony to a superior state of the arts in former times. ,?l()l. 7'Vri situated in the more northerly province of the same name, is a place of high ri-lehrity, nnd ranked long as tlie splendid and enlightened metropolis of Western Africa. It WHS founde allons. The population, respecting wliich authors greatly vary, is probably rather under timn above 100,000. Alcquinet, to tlie west of Fez, has risen to importance by having been made the residence of the sovereign. The seraglio, or palace, consists of a roost extensive quadrangular enclosure, though tlie mansions which it contains are only one story liiKh- The cilixeiis are said to be more polished and hospitable, and the females handsonter, tlinn in tJie other cities of Alorocco. The population seems extremely uncertain^ .?l(i8 The sca-imrln of Morocco, though they have lost the greatness formerly derived from commerce and piracy, are still not inconsiderable. Mogadore, the most southerly, and the nearest to the capital, is now the chief emporium of the intercourse with Europe. It Was founded only in ITfiO, by tlie emperor Sidi Mohammed, who spared no pains in mising it to importance. Being composed of houses of white stone, it makes a fine appear- Anre from the sea ; but the interior presents the usual gloom of ISIoorish cities, and is chiefly enlivened by the residences of the European merchants and consuls. The country round is nlinost a desert of sand ; water is scarce, and provisions must be brought from the distamw 4 II 4 ifloe DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. of several miles. The population is reckoned at about 10,000. Saffi, or Azafli, a very ancient town, with a fine harbour, though also in a barren country, was the chief seat of European commerce till the monopolising preff ence of the emperor transferred it to Moi;adorc. Satfi is still supposed to retain a population of 12,000. Muzagan, a small welUbuilt place, of 2000 inhabitants, was in the possession of the Portuguese till 1770, Azamore, formerly a great town, and with walls a mile and a half in circuit, is now duserttxl and crumbling into ruin : it has 3000 people. Dar al Beed is a very small place. Farther nurlh, on the opposite sides of a small river, are the important towns of Sallee and Rabat. Sallee once the terror of the seas, whence issued such bands of pirates and rovers, the scat of action, riot, and bustle, is now still and lifeless. It continues, however, to be surrounded by a wall thirty feet high, and in its mosques, arches, and fountains displays traces of beautirul sculpture, and of great antiquity. What remains of its commerce has been mostly transferred across the river to Rabat, or New Sallee. This place, when viewed from without, presents a picturesque grouping of minarets, palm trees, ruined walls, and old mosques, near wliich arc conspicuous its venerable and battlemented Kassubali, or citadel, and the lofty tower of Sma Hassan. The interior retains still some activity, and the markets are well supplied. Population 18,000, of whom 3000 are Jews. Mehedia, now a poor fishing village, lias monuments which display its former importance. El Araclie, or Larache, was once a flourishing European and Christian town ; but the churches are now converted into mosques, and the deserted houses of the consuls line the Marina. It has been made the imperial arsenal, and is very strong towards the sea. Tangier, on the straits, was in 1 662 ceded by Portugal to England, which abandoned it in 1684. It derives its cliief present importance from the permission granted by the emperor to supply Gibraltar with provisions, and from the residence of European consuls. Tetuan, the only port within the Mediterranean, is allowed to carry on some intercourse with the English, whose vessels often take in victuals there on their way up the Mediterranean. 5163. Algiers, the ancient Numidia,and the grand modern seat of piratical warfare, com- prises an extensive and l)eautiful range of coast, lying between 2° E. to about 9° W. longitude, and thus extending 700 English miles in length. The breadth of the inland territory, till it passes, by almost insensible gradations, into the domain of the mountain tribes, or of the wan- dering Arabs, is much more vague, varying probably from 50 to 150 miles. Tlie southern border is traversed by the Atlas in three successive ranges, separated by fine and fertile valleys. The range which faces the maritime plain is called Jurjura; and its peaks, though they do not reach the stupendous altitude of those which tower above Murocru, are of such height, that the snow on their summits melts only in May. The western tracts, traversed by numberless streams of pure water descending from the Atlas, form perhaps the most finely irrigated country in the world. Dcsfontaines mentions a spot near Trcmecen, where, in a circuit of two leagues, about 2000 springs occur. Yet the surface is too varied to allow this moisture to spread into swamps ; it is only diffused so as to maintain a general verdure and fertility. None of these numerous streams, however, attain the character of rivers, except those which rise ir the second range of Atlas, roll through the intermediate valley, and then force their way into the plain of Barbary. Such are the Seibouse, the Rummell, the Zeitoun, and the ShellifT, which last has an early course of nearly 100 miles through the mountain valley. 516*. The territory of Algiers i> thus greatly ilittinguished by naturalJerlilUy. With the exception of lomc arid and rocky plains, it consi&ts of valleys covered with rich pastures, titled for the best kinds of Euro|ieaii grain, blooming with the orange and the myrtle, and producing oliv.- igs, and grapes of peculiar excellence • . . ■ -- - _ . , . 1 of the I and size. he mountains. Yet the indo. Noble forests ol pistachio, of cypress, and of oak, cover tl . sides ( lence of the people, the oppression of the government, the want of roads and interior communication!, cause three fourths of the country to be left uncultivated. Their oil, wine, and butter are all of iiil'ciior quality. They are not so wholly destitute of manufacturing industry. Skins are prepared and coloured in almost as perfect a manner as In Morocco. Their bonnets, shawls, and hnndkerchiefs arc in rctjucst through. out the Levant Baskets of palm. leaves, and mats of junk, are fashioned with singular elegance. Eiscnce of roset Is prepared with a skill little to be expected in such rude hands ; but there is an extensive demand for the article in the voluptuous palaces of the East. The trade, before the French invasion, was almost entirely In the hands of the Jews, and consisted in the export of these manufactures, and of some grain, oil, wax, fVults, and wool. The Algerines took, in return, light cloths, glass, and toys, but showed a great |ire. ference for firc.«rms and powder ; while the European merchants have Ijeen reproached, not only for ■unplying them with these articles, but even for purchasing the proceeds of their piratical expeditions. The fishery of coral, carried on by Euro|iean vessels, produces an annual value of about 1U0,000/. 5165. That turhutent and piratical lyslem, of which Algiers was the centre, is now become a subject only of history. The country was long domineered over by a body of Turkish troops, not supposed to exceed 15,000, and who were recruited from the meanest classes in the ports of the Levant. This body, at short intervals, strangled the Dey, electing in bis •tead the boldest and bravest of their number. The corsairs formed a kind of separate republic, carrying on their barbarous trade under the sanction of the prince, who received t large share of the slaves and booty. These marauders, in 1816, suffered a severe chastise. ment from the English fleet under Lord Exmouth. Again, after they had for some time set France at defiance, that country, in 1 830, fitted out a formidable expedition, by which Algiers was entirely subjugated. The French, however, have .scarcely begun to derive an; benefit from this acquisition. The Turks, indeed, were completely put down ; but the Part III. Aiaffl, a very chief seat of nsferrcd it to lagan, a small lese till 1770. now deserted, Farther north, Rabat. Sallee, ! scat of action, inded by a wall ss of beautiful stly transferred liout, presents a near which arc lofty tower of i well supplied, ing village, lia» he, was once a >d into mosques, ade the imperial I 1662 ceded hy •sent importance isions, and from Mediterranean, is I take in victuals cal warfare, com- 9° W. longitude, id territory, till it les, or of tlie wan- j. The southern iv fine and fertile ; and its peaks, lOvc Morocco, are the western tracts, form perhaps the i near Tremecen, irface is too varied maintain a general the character of the intermediate the Seibouse, the nearly 100 miles the exception of «omc «t kinds of European of iicculiar excellence ntains. Yet the Mo- rior communication!, tcr are all of inlenot ' .pared and coloured in irc in rcMUCsl through. ar elegance. Eftcnce an extensive dcmana invasion, was almost k and of some grain, lit showed a great we. reached, not only for ical expeditions. The 10,000/. itre, is now become ■\ body of Turkish meanest classes in )ey, electing in W' a kind of separate ice, who received » I a severe chastise- had for some tiiiie Lpedition, by which legun to derive anj fut down i but the Book III. BARBARY. 1207 Arabs were found in possession of the whole open country, and not at all disposed to yield it to foreign sway. They could easily assemble a large force skilled in desultory warfare ; and the attempt to subdue them involved the French in much expense and many disasters. A compromise appears at last to have been effected, by which they have secured a certain range of territory, and arc beginning to colonise it ; but the iinhealthiness of the climate, and the hostility of the inhabitants, still rendiT it a very troublesome possession. 5166. The population of this territory is j.dgcd of only by estimates, which are very wide of each other, varying between 1,000,000 and .1,000,000. We have conjectured 2,.500,000. Yet a recent estimate in the Annates ties Voyai^es, which seems to be made with some care, states, of Arab cultivators, 1,200,000; Independent Arabs, 400,000; Berbers, 20,000; Jews, 30,0(X); Turks, rc.iegadocs, and their descendants, 40,000: in all, only 1,870,000. These are distributed into three great provinces ; Titterie, in the centre; Tremecen, or Tlemsun, in the west ; and Constantina, in the east. 51C7. Algiem, the canilal, is situated in the nrovincc of Tittcric, though without tiolng considered a> forming part of it. The streets arc built on the dcosscs8lon of the latter people till 171)2. The fortifications have been injure. Arzew, on a gulf which afl'ords a good harl><>ur, is chiefly noted as containing the ■battered ruins of the ancient Arsenaria. Dr. Shaw s,iw here a Corintliian capital supporting a smith's anvil, and through thi icnts of a ragged ciri'ct he discovered a mosaic pavement. In Its vicinity arc large salt pits. Tenis, also on the coast, once the metropolis of a little kingdom, consists now only of a few mud hovels. El Callah, in the interior, seated on an eminence amid branches of the Atlas, i.< remarkable, us well as its neighbourhood, for an extensive manufacture of oari>ets and bornouses. Medea and Illeeda, the chief places in the province of Tltteric, are both flourishing, and surrounded hy a fine country. ^WX In the eastern part of Algiers, Constantina, celebrated under the name of C'irta, the ancient and ftrong capital of Numidia, ranks still second to Algiers, and is supposed to contain at least 4il,000 inhabitaiitt. It is boldly situated on a rock precipitous on one side, where it overhangs the broad stream of the Riimmell. The surrounding country is fine; but the modern city presents nothing remarkable. The site, however, i« distinguished by splendid monuments of antiquity ; and the ground in one place is entirely covere liy lliu Turkiali noldjury but the Beys, within the last half century, have succeeded in cruiiliInK Ilia Inlinenri- of t|,j^ body, and have made themselves hereditary and almost iiliNuliile Hovvrvluns. 'I'Ikv hgye governed mildly, doing much to mitigate the former violent niid biKotvu system, iiiul to introduce European improvements, SI71. The c'ty of Tunis, only ten milc» aauth.weit from tlio •ito of rarlliitdo, uml nn lll*<*iiHmc inndnui lu, po»»c88C8 all t. J advantages which raised that city to such a height of iir«<|i(irlly, It In, In tlirt, the larmi place in Barbary, the population being estimated at ft-om I(K),()(H) to I.KI.IKMI, II t'Hnniil, oil the wiinlo. be .Ai,i give manufactures of velvets, silk stuff's, and the red caps generally worn In til(< iii'VHiit, The i'X|mrla||n» of grain, absurdly proliibited in the other ports on this coast, is allowed lllldfr H ItikrrUt nr llcciu'i- ffnm Hip dey, though at the exorbitant duty of 13j. a quarter uii wheat. 'J'hiiTiinlsiNli iiIIvimiTI, lieliig wi'llinirkrH Ivory, una tiBirii;ii it;aiiit.Ti>. auiiib vttKUB n v.im-iy oi 4%ur diligent search, be still detected. ' 5173. Of the other ciliis of Tunis, the chief is Kairwan, or Talronn, niuiKlpil liy lht> Hilfnrcm, and lon« the capital of their jiosscssions in Northern Africa. The groat inosmie, •iipportl'tl by ftlKI Hrniillc cijIumiH is said to be at once the most magnilicent and the most revered of any In AlVlcii. Tnlpr, on the lakcof I..owdcah, is only a large village, but enrichetl by trade with the country of diilvs niid Interior AlVlcn on the west coast, Porto Farini, near which arc the ruins of Ulloa and Illsei'U, lllivt' linlll Home trnilo in grain • though the fine harbour of the latter is now so choked up as to allow only itiniill vrasels to rnirr ni the towns on the coast, reaching southward from Tunis, Almahdla Is dl>llii|jilli>lli'il by the remnlni ofi commerce which rendered it once the princi|)al haven on this eoasi ) M(ilin«UM, Is Irlhiiliiry to tliu pacha; and he possesses a powerful influence over the courts of Koiikil and >Silt'k»too. TliiH priiirc has shown a more enlightened spirit, a greater desire to ciilllvati) intercourse with lliu Euro. pean powers, and to introduce the improvements of civilised life, tliiiii any other in Durban-. A singular absence of that jealousy which usually actuates IMalionivliin conrtH liiis lu'eii dii. played in the welcome given to the British expeditions of iliscovtiry, and the xeni (lisiilnjd in promoting their objects. Tripoli cannot be called n fine city ( yet its piiliice, iiiuIiIk generality of its mosques, have some beauty ; and there is n Irliiinpliul iircli ami si'veral other interesting remains of antiquity. .')17S. To Ih,- rastuiard if Tripoli, and in its close vIcliiHy, bcaliu a ilre»ry port Inn of the fir.ii/ n.wi of Africa. A fcv/ days, however, bring the traveller to the dlstrii't of l.t'licilii, where thick grmwofolm and date are seen rising above the villages, and a great spare is covured with liixiirlnnt irii|ii> iif iirm This territory is considered much superior to th.it round Triiioll, and wiis iiion' hlglilv (uia'il livlti ancients, who founded on it the flourishing colony of Loptis Muuim, lleninliis of Us inii'niillliciitniiliii and sliattcral columns are still seen half buried under the land which lliti wind mid sea huic iimim latcd over them ; but the country people arc daily currying off' the iy«giini|ll», niid iisIiik tliiin ni ml stonos. A similar country ctmtinncs to Mesurata, to the west of which Is nlmi n pliilii singul.itlvlpn*, compared even by Hcro» tively statetl that nothing is fimnd in any lart of it strictly answering to the term, At the end ol lliliminli the Syrtic region, though extremely wild and dreary, affords friini time to lime llllle valleys, nr ililitW I •Iiots, traversed by the Arabs with their flocks, herds, and niovalile leiils, Tliti diiligers of Ihl* gulf, F'|j I by the ancients in such direful colours, consist in a Hat and shallow riiHst, l^ill of enncenleil r»>liii'| i*AUT in. ki»li m)Uti«ry ; |liiitl Hir It* »li\\ilci lit , Kinl ImlU nluBli, th ciiminmllty mn>t «■«» 1)0 mnrp entire PVi'll limk "VCt thai inikcii wnll« whifh i,t,) \\* BulilMranraii 111 clulrriis in wliich nUliu'lHlmii miueilurt lief irncoinlghl.by IP Sittncpn", unit lotn I'liicfion "'<■ '»'!'»' (iili.flof AlVlen. On I nDirti- tfnilf m Br»hi; vpMel" 111 <•»'"■ ™ \ \iv llie rcmnini m i ijHWI. ^*l'n'' <•»"*" "" Ncttf lit llcnimc arc vM iini\ mniling « »„ ailUiwil tlirongh k'll gl'lti-fitlly covers tft \\\ wliidi till! city '»kv*, It'tH iK'parture Tripoli thus fumwi i,\ to cxci'i'il 'iS.wio, lliittti'il proiUittiom lOtitotl itittl llousu, L'Hi'VdtnsjiMWsot iiidiry to tUi! pacha; ;k«too. Tills iiriiicc Uritt' wttli till.' Eu™' My otlior ill Uiifliiin' I'oiifiiiiiwi"'-'^'"''"; nil tliL' »*-'<'l ''''l''"*" its iiuliii'i'. iinililn lull itlX'U will wverJ Itinii of '*'• «'■'"' ?';;;;! |ixiivt»iili'f""f|K, lo iiiuiiiy I""'-'' it« ll'lli. iiinnii">"'"'"'* lui'tiivy nf ''"'l'^'' 'j i! I'" '"vvfmt' ire-- '"< lliiml ft. W>^^ "'''"'""* I 1 At I le PI"' "' '" , ,,KJ I liJ;;\lvM.rtm;«5 III of colii'i'nli'il ti»» Book III- WESTERN AFRICA. 1204 Iwoks, against which a heavy lurf ia coiitliumlly breaking. '!'lic tame pi'riU itlll exist, liicreasetl by the heavy swell brought in by the north wind lilowing across the gre.'itcst brcailth of the >Ieititcrranean ; but this gulf, so terrible to the ancients, who were unable to navigate at any distance from land, and doomed by a fatal necessity to cross it on their way from Egypt to Cartli.igc, is little dreaded by the motlerns, who in this course systematically stand out to sea. 5177. T/ie ancient Cyrenaica, and moh, the flowering acanthus, arc soon rcduceiou8 excavations, the funereal tree which covers them, witli the hoarse and savage songs of the Arabs, which are echoed from valley to valley, arrest the i)en8ive traveller, and All him with sulcmn and tender recollections." In this tract are found the two indent, now entirely (Icserled, cities of Teuchira and Ptolemeta. The edifices of the former are entirely reduced to rubbish ; yet its walls, a mile and a half in circuit, have by their Cyclopean strength resisted the powers of destruction, anil form a very (lerfect specimen of ancient fortiflcatioii. Ptolemeta has one magnificent gatewoy and the remains of an amphitheatre, two theatres, and of the columns and tessellateil p.ivcmciit of a palace. The area is covered partly with grain, partly with lofty shrubs; while the cry of the jackal and hyena, and the noise of owls and bats, alone atliird any symptom of life. ")17a. The ruins qf Ci/rene itself, which may be said to he a recent discovery, form the most striking object in this remarkable region. They are finely situated on a high table plain, descending abruptly towards the tea by successive stages, along each of which is a smooth rocky path, still marked by the wheels of the an- cient chariots. The view from the brow of the eminence, upwards of 21X'0 feet high, over the rocks, plains, ami (he distant Mediterranean, is singularly beautiful. There .tre the remains of a spacious amphitheatre, numerous statues, and several fine springs, particularly one called the Fountain of Apollo, much resorted to by the wandering Arabs ; but the city is totally destitute of permanent inhabitants. The most remarkable feature in Cyrene consists of its necropolis, or city of tombs ijig. 815.). Eight or nine rows of sepulchral grottoes 81^ ^-jf^^E- .--TiJ^ TOMBS OV CVRRNK. are arranged m terraces alon- the mountain. Around them arc Bro«pele estuary ; but its course is not more than two thirds of that of the Senegal. The Rio Grande, and the Mesurado, which come down from the southern side of the same mountains, have not attained the character of streams of the first order vhen they reach the sea. The waters of the ivory and gold coasts of Guinea are little better than mountain torrents, pouring down from the high grounds; but from the western limit of Whidah to Calabar, a space of above 200 miles, the Gulf of Benin receives a continued succession of large estuaries, which convert the whole territory into alluvial and partially inundated islands. These channels, the sources of which were long the subject of conjee-' ture, are now, by the discoveries of Lander, ascertained to compose the delta of tlie Niger; though the course of that mighty river must be considered as belonging to the central regions of Africa. Farther south, the Congo pours its ample volume of waters into the Atlantic, which it freshens to a considerable distance ; but though the expedition under Captain Tuckey penetrated aOO or 400 miles upwards, the higher part of its course is still enveloped in mystery. The Coanza likewise appears to come from a considerable distance in ik interior, and inay rank high among rivers of the second class. 5184. The waters of Western Africa do not accumulate into lakes of any importance, Sect. II. Natural Geography, SuBSECT. 1. Geology. 5 1 85. Western Africa. — The African coast, from Sierra Leone to the mouth of the Orange River, is very imperfectly known in a geological view. The hills around Sierra Leone an said to be of granite ; the geology of the grain coast and ivory coast of Guinea is unknotn, and nothing satisfactory can be offered in regard to the slave coast. In Benin there at mountains (those of Camaroon, on the sea coast), said to be 1.3,000 feet high. Theei- tensive district through which the Zaire flows was examined during part of its course, and Part 111. 'Flic territories on ambia; but thew m is split into a There is a general I in classing them ■ thirteenth degree Icgrees in a direct leep bays by which a a direction gcne- ideed, it is founded ind Central Africa; In general, the 11 into the Atlantic, itnbia, and forms a lurse of the Niger. can be drawn ; and elations so decidedly light much nearer to rthern and southern , though Cape Verd, ranges of mountains ertained. The most 1, usually called the I the continent, till it Africa. This chain, h form the northern »nd hilly ; and there not of that immense longer identified with the continent ; but it r of the Mountains of swelled by numerous 4ee, and the Faleme, u, it descends into a uis, it finds a passage, ,es from a point of the stream, forming at in thirds of that of the ■om the southern side )f the first order when >a are little better than the western limit ot receives a continued alluvial and partial!; the subject of conjee- ' ,e delta of the Niger; ig to the central regions aters into the Atlantic edition under Captain curse is still enveloped lerable distance in the of any importance. je mouth of the Oninje ■ound Sierra Leone ate of Guinea is unknocn, In Benin there m „ feet high. Theei- part of its course, am Book III- WESTERN AFRICA. 1911 the rocks met with were grantte, $yenUe, primilive greensloite, gneut, mtca ilale, clay stale, and jjritmtm limestone ot marble. The kingdom of Angola is remarkable for the great eitcnt of its salt mines ; it also affords copper and iron. The mines of Loango and Ben- guela, so often mentioned by travellers, afford principally iron ores. SUBSECT. 2. Botany. 5186. Weaern Africa, containing, as it does, a vast extent of country, botii in the north«rn and southern hemispheres, including the tropics, must, of course, possess an extremely varied vegetation, of which, unfortunately, a very great portion is unknown. Islands present a more interesting field for the geographical distribution of plants, than the continent. In the first place, therefore, we shall offer a few remarks upon that of Madeira, which we are tlie hetter enabled to do from the observations of Dr. Kuhl, given in the Botanuche ZeUung, and the interest of which is increased from the relative situation of this speck in the ocean being such as to form the connecting link between the vegetation of Europe and that of the western continent of Africa, to which country it naturally belongs. " Here," says this traveller, " every stranger must be struck with the entire absence of Oaks, Firs, Birch, Willows, &c. All our European fruits are cultivated ; but such as are not planted in a soil that is properly manured, are far inferior to ours in point of flavour ; at least iliose we had the opportunity of eating. The Grapes, indeed, must be excepted, which possess much richness, and are mostly red. The wine is a true claret, and the good old Madeira has the exact colour of Rhenish wine. The red, which is not a claret, is rare. All the native trees have coriaceous leaves, and one only bears an esculent fruit, which is an arborescent Vaccinium ( V. padifolium Smith), the rest have been introduced by the Portuguese. One single species of Fir, it is said, was found on the island when it was iliscovercd ; but that was soon extirpated by the use made of it in building, for which pur- pose the Chestnut is now employed and cultivated. Of the thick stems of the arborescent Heaths (Ericee), which crown the top of the Pico Ruivo, and whose wood is of a beautiful nd colour, they make props for their vines, which are not, as with us, trained upright ; but horizontally, just above the ground, forming a green covering. As the climate of the respective regions varies according to the relative heights of the mountains, so we meet with very different plants at different elevations, and the several belts, or regions, may thus be characterised : — 5187. " I. /{egion ^talaria. Physalis, Asclepias, Hclminlhia, Atractylis, Ageratum, Sida, Myrtus, Cassia, &c. The Pomegranates, Figs, and Bananas, which are planted about the houses, together with the bright green of the Arums, gave a singular charm to this district. Of the sixty-eight species now enumerated, seventeen extended as far as the region of the Vine, and only two of them were met with again, at a height of 5300 feet. " 2. Region of lite Vine. — The culture of this plant may be said to commence at the sea shore ; but the Cactus does not accompany it above 630 feet. The Vine ascends to an elevation of 2030 feet ; but higher than that the fruit will not lipen. In this region, the Arum, Cane, Mulberry, &c.. Potatoes, Corn, and Onions, are cultivated ; but not the Bananas and Cacti. The hedges consist of Myrtle and Chestnut. .Agriculture is more successfully carried on here than elsewhere ; on which account, few wild plants are met with, but such as we had already found in the lower region, and of those, tliruc that grew at a still higher elevation. " 3. Region ufthe Chestnut. — This commences at 2030 feet, and is eminently distinguished by the tall stout stems of the Chestnut, which tree ascends to about 2950 feet. Those that are found still higher, are smaller, distorted, and bear no fruit. We staid longest in tliis region, and our success in collcc'ing plants was propurtionably great. We found twenty-tlirce Cryptogamia, viz. twelve Ferns (one Darea and If'oodwardia) five Lichens, I Anthocerus, Marchantia, Boletus, two Jungermanniae : — twelve Monocotyledones of our common genera ; only one Carex, and a beautiful Cyperus : — sixty-six Dictyledones, vii. I Hvti Ilumices, Clethra, Lobelia, Andryale, Chamsmelum, an arborescent Euphorbia, ADIA>TUM CAPlLLUt VXNRRIH' 1918 UESCUIP'riV£ GEOGRAPHY. Taht III. Iwo shrubby ipecieti of Tcucrium, Cineraria, Disandrii. We found nine of tlivse Kiicviw in tlie next region. " 4. lieKion of lite Spartium. — This terminated at a licight of 3020 feet, and is singularly pour in its vegetation. We found but one plant we liud not seen before, or did not nu'vt afterwards in the following region. The whole region is covered with Spartium ulune. «« 5. Region of the Heath {ICrica), — This extends to the summit of Pico lluivo, tin. highest point in the whole island, and, according to our reckoning, 5:)0O feet nhuvv tliv K'vi.| of the sea. It is very rich in interesting plants. Towards the centre of it ure trivs uiili coriaceous leaves, an arborescent Vaccinium, and two trees, called Till and Vintrntico, wliivh for want of flowers, we could not determine. Between the fourth and iil^h region is u triut almost covered with Pteris aquilina, and some other Ferns, especially another Pteris. On m.iny ridges, these abound to the exclusion of all other plants, and remarkably so hi , height of S9'20 to 4080 feet; while below them the Spartium, and above thi'in llu' Krinis maintain possession of the soil. But again, not far from the top of the Pico, is a tract where the Ericas arc supplanted by the Spartium ; only, however, for a short space, fur tin. summit is covered by the thick stems of the Heaths. Besides fifteen species, cuinnioii tu tin lower regions, we found, of /tcotykdonei, twelve ; Peiiza and Lichens : — seven Moiwculitle. tlonei, among them two Sciuri, two species of Cyiiosurus, an Aira and Agrustis : — tliiiiy. seven Sicoti/ledones, among them a Sideritis, a beautiful shrubby Echium, with al>luc spike, Crocodylium, Pyrethrum, Phyllis, two Semperviva, Sedum, Cotyledon, &c. There is im Pine Region. It would take too much space to name all the genera we collected; but u comparison of the relative proportion they bear to one another, shows the island tu \m deficient in the northern families of Amentaceie, Saxifrages, and Caryophylleo;, especially the second. It is poor, likewise, in the predominant families of the tru|)ics, ilic Euphorbiaccie, IMalvacea?, and Corymbiferic, which latter are only in the proportion of 1 to 19; but at the Cape 1 to 5, and, in other equatorial countries, 1 to C. But ihi.' Cichoraccfc, which belong to the temperate zone, arc here numerous. In our walks on tlic shore, we found whole banks of Fuci." .'SI 88, In the same way does the celebrated Humboldt divide tlie famous Peak of Ti'iic- rifle, in the Canary Islands, into five zones, to which he gives the name of the Ilegion of Vines, the Region of Laurels, the Region of Firs, the Region of the Retania {Sparliim nubigeniim), and the Region of the GramincH!. These (ones, which lie one above anothtr, like terraces, occupy an elevation of 10,.')00 feet on the steep sides of the Peak ; wliilo, fifteen degrees more nortiierly, on the Pyrenees, the snow covers all, above the height of 7800 to 8400 feet. If vegetation docs not, at Tenerillc, reach the very suiuniil of the volcano, it is not because eternal snows and a cold atmosphere prevent it ; liiil because lava and pumice-stone do not admit of plants growing upon the very brink of llic crater. 5189. The first Zone, that of the Vine, extends from the sea-side to a lieiglit of fruin 1200 to 1800 feet: it is the most inhabited, and the only one where the soil is carefully cultivated. In these low regions, at the sea-port of Orotava, and wherever the winds have a free access, the thermometer never rises so high in summer, nor falls so low in winter, as at Paris and Petersburgh ; as was ascertained by observations made by AI. Savng);!, in 1795 to 1799. The climate seems to hold a mean between that of Naples and the Torrid Zone. In spite of the analogy existing between the climate of Madeira and TenerilTe, tlx plants of the former island are in general much less delicate, when cultivated in £uro)H', than those of Teneriire. Thus Cheiranthus longifolius, from Orotava, is killed by the cold at Montpelier, and C. mutabilis, of Madeira, stands there in the open air all winter. The summer heats are shorter at Madeira than at Tenerilfe. 5190. The Region of Vines presents, among its vegetable productions, eight kinds of arborescent Euphorbias, some Mcsembrynntheniums, which abound from the I'elojion- ncsus to the Cape of Good Hope, the Cacnlia Kleinia, the Dragon tree, and other planu, whose naked and tortuous stems, succulent foliage, and glaucous hue, indicate the vege- tation of Africa. In this zone are the Date, the Banana, the Sugar Cane, the Indian Fig, the Arum Colocasia, whose roots afford the lower classes a wholesome farinnceuus fml, the Olive, the European fruit trees, the Vine, and the Cerealia. The corn is cut from Ihe end of March to the beginning of May, and the Bread-fruit tree promises to succeeil well, as also the Cinnamon tree from the Moluccas, the Arabian Coil'ee, and the American Coeoa Nut. At many parts of the coast, the landscape presents all the character of a tropical scene, and the Region of Palms may be easily seen to extend far beyond the Torrid Zone. The Palmetto and the Date grow very well on the fertile plains of Murvicdro on the nasi of Genoa, and in Provence, near Antibes ; some trees of the latter, planted within llie limits of the city of Rome, resist even the cold of 2-5^ below the freezing point, liutif Western Europe shares but little in the productions that grace the zone of the Palms; the island of TeneritTe, placed under the p illel of Egypt, of Southern Persia, and of Floriila, glows with almost all the vegetable glories which enhance the majesty of Equatoriil Regions. Among its indigenous plants, however, the trees with pinnated foliage, and ih« BiMK in> WESTERN AFIIK A. lyis r ilivsu s))Cc1m «rlHin<«i-«i»t Oriimlnea do not appear ; nor lius uiiy species of the nuincrouii family of Sun- liiivi- I'iiints iniKrntiHl tto fur an tliu Cannry Isliuidfi. ,1l!»l. Thf Sfcoiut /.one, that of the Laurels, includes the wooded portion of Tenerill'e: it a)«> is the rt'Kion of thu sprinnH, which bubhio uji in its ever-vcrdaiit turf. Splendid lonMs crown the hills which adjoin the volcano, among them are four species of Laurel, mi Oak, very similar to (iusrcus Turncri of Tliihet, thu Visnea, Mocancra, the Myrica Faya of lliv Aion-s, nil indigenous Olive {Olca excelsa), thu largest tree in this zone, two species of Sidi'wxylou with la-autiful foliage, Arbutus callicarpa, and other evergreen trees of the inyrlle tribe. Climbers, and an Ivy quite different from that of Europe {IMcra cana- ri^ii.1 iwine round the stems of the Laurels, at the foot of which grow numberless Ferns, ol' which but xUrw species grow so low as in the Vine Ilegioii. Every where the soil, wliiili is covereil with mosses and flue grass, shines with the blossoms of the golden ('itni|iiiinilA (('. rtMWfi), of Chrysanthemum pinnatifidum, Mentha canariensis, and several •hriihhy kinds of Hypericum. Plantations of wild and grafYed Chestnuts form a broad liuiid round the region of thu springs of water, which is the most verdant and agreeable of nil. ,11!ia. Thif Ihmt Zone, or Region of Firs, begins at an elevation of .';400 feet, and there till' lust groupes of Arbutus, of Myrica Faya, and the fine Heath, which the natives call Texo, disappear. This xone, about 2400 feet in extent, is wholly occupied by a vast forest of Firs, mingled with the Juniperus Ccdro of Brous* sonet. The Firs {Pinus canariensh Von Buch) (fig. 817.) have very long and' stiff leaves, which often grow in pairs, but more frequently three in each sheath. As wu had no opportunity if examining the fruit, we arc ignorant if this spe- cies, which has all the habit of the Scotch Fir, is truly distinct from thu eighteen species of Pinus which are already known in thu Old World. A celebrated traveller, who has much advanced the cause of science, M. Du Candolle, considers the Fir of Teiieriffc as alike distinct from I'inus atlantica and P. halepensis. On the slope of the Peak, at 7200 feet, wc saw thu last Firs: on the Cordilleras of New Spain, under the Torrid Zone, the ftlexican Fir grew at an elevation of 12,000 feet. But whatever may be thu analogy existing between different species of the same genus, each requires, for its perfect developcmcnt, a certain degree of temperature and of rarifica- tion of the atmosphere. 51!)!). Thejtmrth amljiflh Zones, the Regions of the Retama and the GramineoD, occupy an vicvatiun corresponding with the highest and most inaccessible points of thu Pyrenean loouiilains. This is the desert portion of the island, where masses of pumice-stone, obsi- ilinn, niul shivered lava forbid the progress of vegetation. We have already alluded to the llowvry tul\H of alpine Broom {Spartium nuhigenum), which form so many oases in this vast SI8 -vria'-iari^i^. . wilderness of ashes. Two herbaceous plants, Scrophularia glabrata and Viola cheiranthifolia, rise somewhat higher. Beyond the scanty grass which is parched up by an African sun, Clado ■ l'^S;j£2HPHfiilBI!9dS!BKS8^RJr "ia paschalis covers the arid soil ; and the shep- herds often set it on fire, till the blaze extends to considerable distances. Towards the summit of the peak, Urccolarias and other individuals of the Lichen family are always tending to effect the decomposition of the scorified matter. Thus, by an uninterrupted action of organic force, the empire of Flora is continually gaining ground on these islands, whose whole structure has been, as it were, deranged by volcanic fire. 5194. It is in the Canary Islands that the Dragon's-blood tree (fg. 818.) appears to ar- rive at its highest degree of perfection, and to attain a most astonishing size. " This gi- gantic tree," as is observed by M. de Hum- boldt, that first of travellers, in his Tableaux de Miifli.»v»i.».n t.n. la Nature, when speaking of a very celebrated rmUi OANAIKKNBItl. 1914 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAIMIY. P*«T III, •pecimen of the Dragon'n.lilood tree, " ii now included within the precincti of-M. Fritnc'lii'i garden, in the iinnll town of Orutava, one of the moitt duliciotii iipoti in the world. In 1799. when we climbed the Peak of Tenerilie, wu found that this enormou* vvgvtablv wa> forty-Hvu feet in circumference, a little above the root. Sir George Staunton nttirinn that, at ten feet high, itt diameter in twelve feet. Tradition reUtet that tliln particular Draciena was venerated by tliu Guancho«, ai the Elm of £pheHU« was by the OrveltH; ami that in a. n. 1 400 it was ai largo and as hollow as it is now. The gigantic Drs|{onV blood tree, which I saw in the Canaries, was sixteen feet in diameter, and, enjoying n per- petual youth, was loaded with flowers and fruit. When the MM. Bethencourt, French adventurers, con<|uered the Fortunate Islands, in the sixteenth century, the Draiuna of Orotava, as sacred in the eyes of the natives as the Olive tree that grew in the cltadul of Athens, waH of colossal dimensions, as it is now. In the Torrid Zone, a forest of ('oimI. pinia and Hymeniea is perhaps the monument of 1000 years. As the growth uf the Dragon-tree is extremely slow, we may be sure that the Orotava tree is extremely old, Doubtless this tree and the Baobab are the oldest inhabitants of our planet. It is singular that the Dragon's-blood tree has been cultivated in the Canaries, Madeira, and the Mat of Porto Santo, from the remotest antiquity, though originally derived from India. TIiIh fui'i contradicts the assertion of those who represent the Guanchos as a race of men u( ihi, Atlantic, who were completely insulated, and had no intercourse with the people o( Aiia and Africa." 5195. The trunk of the Dracaena Draco cleaves open in many parts, and distils, at tli« time of the summer solstice, a fluid, which condenses into red tears, soft at llrst, after. wards hard and friable : thin is the true Dragon's blood of the shops, and must not Iw confounded, though dry, friable, blood-red, and inflammable, with other resinuui substances known under the same name, and derived, the one from a species of Ca. lamus (Rotang), and the other from a Pterocarpus. To the Dragon's bluud are attributed astringent, desiccatory, and incrassating virtues. It is administered internally for dysentery, haemorrhage, violent bowel complaints, and inward ulcers : and c>. ternally, to dry up running sores, to heal wounds, and to strengthen the gums. Tim painters make use of it, in the red varnish with which they colour the Cliinese boxes and chests. 5196. Our obtervations upon the vegetation of the coast itself, of Western Africa, must be very brief, and chiefly confined to the Tropics ; while for a more full account we niusi refer to a learned |)aper, by Dr. Robert Brown, given in the Appendix to Tuckey't Voyo'^t to the Conga, and content ourselves with little more than a few extracts from that pnper, on a comparison of the vegetation along the line of the Congo, with that of other purls of ik West Coast to Equinoctial Africa. 5197. It appears that from the river Senegal, in about 16° N. lat., to the Congo, which is in upwards of 6" S. lat., there is a remarkable uniformity of vegetation, not only ai lo principal orders and genera, but even, to a considerable extent, in the species of wliich it consists. More than one third part of the plants from the Congo have been observed pre. viously on various parts of the coast. Many of the Trees, the Palms, and several other » markable plants, which characterise the land. scape, as Adansonia, Bombax pcntandrum, Elois guincensis, Raphia vinifera, and Pan. danus Candelabrum (Jig. 819.) appear lobe very general along the whole extent of cuasi, Sterculia acuminata, the seed of which Is the Cola, mentioned in the earliest accounts of Congo, exists, and is equally valued, in Guinea and Sierra Leone, and, what is remarkable, il bears the same name throughout the West Coast. The Ordeal Tree, called by Professor Smith, Cassa, and by Captain Tuckey, erroneously, i Cassia, if not absolutely the same plant as the Red Water Tree of Sierra Leone and the Golil Coast, belongs at least to the same genus, .1 species of the Cream Fruit, remarkable in af- fording a wholesome and pleasant sacchinne fluid, used by the natives of Sierra Lconiilo quench their thirst, though belonging to that generally deleterious family the Apucynei, was also met with. 'J'he Sarcocephalus of Afzelius, which is probably what he lias noticed under the name of the Country- fig of Sierra Leone, was found on the banks of the Congo, PAMDAMUI CAHIIHLASAUM. Book III. WESTERN AFRICA. I«IA M. Frunclil'i D worlil. In ou» vvgvUblu ,uiUon atfinm thi« particular I Grvckit; amt ntic Dr«nonV ii^oyiiiK n per. icourt, Frendi )U Drncmnik uf n the citadel of "ori'st of (^flinal- growth of th« extremely oW. It is tingultr and the ilen»Ui whixv fVull, though imaller than that of the cultivated nirccles, is said U) haw a flavour auuerlor to then) nil, and appears to be a general plant along the whole •alvnl III' I'lmsl i and Chrysobalanut Icaco, or a nearly allied species, is equally common fViini Niitii'Rnl lu CunKu. AIMH. NV mn^ hert! introduce a few rtmarkt on the Esculent I'liints of the Congo; the rulllvatiNli as well as the indigenous species, being very timilar throughout the West Coast. <)ii lliv Iwnks uf the river,' the principal articles of vegetable food were the Indian Corn, or Mslav i/m A/nv«<« Cussavn, both sweet and bitter IJalropha Manihotj, two kinds of Tulao valvnslvk'ly vuitlvated t the Cytisus CMan and a Phaseolus (?), witli Ground Nuts {.hm'hhhfffxigifit). The most valuable fruits are Plantains {Mtiia uif>ientum), the I'apaw (CiiWi'n l'iifmffit)t I'uniiikint {Cucurbita Pepo), Limes and Oranges, I'ine Apples, the com- mon TMiiinrind, and Salii, a fruit the site of a small plum, which was not teen riiw. One of lli« must Important plants, not only of the Congo, but of the whole extent of coast, is Minis Kuintivnsts i^fig.t^'iO,), or the OiUPalm, which also affords the best Pulin Wine. Winu is likewise obtained from two other Palms, Ilaphia vinifera (?i and a Curypha (?). Among the other alimentary plants, of less importance, or imperfectly known, are .he Shrubby Hulrus, the common Yam, only seen near Cuoloo ; and another Dioscoreo, found wild only, and very in- ferior to the Yam, requiring, it is said, four days' boiling to free it from its pernicious qualities. On Mr. Locklmrt's authority, two kinds of Sugar Cnnes, and Cabbages, were seen sparingly ; Cap- sicum and Tobacco are generally cultivated, and in the herbarium is a specimen of Malugnetti Pepper. A second kind of Ground Nut or Pea ( Glycine subtcrranea 9] which is extensively grown at Madagascar, also appeared. A species of Ximcnia (A", americanaf) was likewise found; the fruit yellow, the size of a plum, and acid, but not unpleasant, in the higher parts of the river, where it is generally planted. An Anti- dcsma, perhaps like that mentioned by Afzelius, as having a fruit of the same size and taste as a currant, is also in thu herbarium. AIIIO. ft i* fmrticularly de$trving of notice that most of the above plants, enumerated as fiillivalwl on llw Cotino, and especially the imporfant species, have probably been intro- dwrnli iind do not even belong to the continent of Africa. Thus Maize, Manioc or CwKiiVH, Hiul IMiitf Apples, have been brought from America, as also, perhaps, Papaw, ('apslcun), and Tohncco ( while the Banana or Plantain, the Lime, the Orange, the Tama- rind, and Ihu 8iin«r Cane, may be considered as of Asiatic origin. .laOO. /« romm'tim with tkete observations of Mr. Brown's, we may here introduce a list flf llm Edlbls Fruits of Sierra Leone, drawn up by Joseph Sabine, Esq., from the Joiinml and Notts of Mr. George Don, who was charged by the Horticultural Society of London to colU'i't thu iiseftil vegetables of that most interesting country. .laoi, Tlw Pwch of the Negroes {Sarcocephalus esculeiitm) \fig. 821.) is a large, fleshy, and solid fruit, hard and eatable throughout, and full of small seeds, not much unlike a straw- berry in flavour and consistence. The tree grows plentifully throughout the colony of Sierra Leone, 10 to 15 feet high ; the leaves are large and ellip- tical, the flowers pink, produced in globular heads, and seated on a receptacle which afterwards be- comes the fruit The Anona senegalensis, or African Custard Apple, of which the fruit is not much larger than a pigeon's egg, and with the same or a superior flavour to the rest of the species. The Monkey-bread {Adansonia digitata) is much used by the negroes : its fruit, which is of con- siderable size, and of an oblong shape, is full of seeds, and tastes like gingerbread, with a plea- sant acid flavour. The Locust Tree of Sierra Leone (/ngo biglobosa) is a beautiful tree when in blossom, covered with compact biglobular heads of fine vermilion-coloured flowers ; which are succeeded by compact bunches of pods, con- 4 1 M Ali llt'lNKtirtVIM »Altt'aiHtitUtl>H kM'tlt.HNft'O. 121(7 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part 111. tainiiig a yellow farinaceous substance, of which the natives are very fond. It is mentioned by Park m attbrding an agreeable and nutritive food. The Country Cherry is rare, growing on the mountains, and bearing a small oval reddish fruit, somewhat like a Plum in flavour, and pro, duced in clusters on the topmost branches. Anisophyllea laurina, the Monkey Apple, is a fruit of the size of a pigeon's egg, red on one side and yellow on the otlier, with a flavour between the nectarine and plum. Country Grapes are the produce of Vitis ciesia, they urc black, austere, and acid, chlufly eaten by the negroes. Country Currants resemble elder- berries, and are found plentifully on tlie mountains. The shrub {Ficus Srami) which bears the Large Fig grows about the colony : the fruit would be very pleasant, if the ants did nut generally get in and spoil it ; and the same may be said of a smaller fig, that bears abuii. dantly, and is the size of a hazel nut. Afzelius speaks of Wild Guavas {Psuliumpyriferuin) as natives of this country, and Mr. Don saw and tasted the fruit, but he could nut exactly identify the plant witlt the West Indian Guava. The Hog Plum is the fruit of Spuiulius Myrobalanus ; it is well tasted, and sharper than the plum of our gardens, but the stone forms Jialf the bulk of the fruit. The Grey Plum tree {Parinarium excelsum) is more valuable for its compact and durable wood than for the fruit, which, though large aiul abundant, is dry and farinaceous, with a very large stone : an allied species, P. macropliyllum, is culled by the colonists Gingerbread Plum. Of four other fruits, called Plums, the Sninll Figcon Plum (Chry»(Aalanus ellipticus), the Yellow Pigeon Plum (C. luteus), the Black Plum (_VitexzinU>rosa), and the Sugar Plum, it may be said that the first three, thougli good, arc inferior to the latter, which is sold in large quantities in Sierra Leone, and is one of the very best fruits in the colony. The tree is very handsome, sixty feet high, and hears many fruits of the size of a bullace : at ten feet from the ground, the stem throws out routs like a mangrove or Pandanus, but its botanical affinities are not known. From the fruit of the Sweet Pishamin (^Carpodinus dulcis), a quantity of sweet milky juice exudes, the pulp is also pleasant and sweet: the Sour Pishamin (C. acidus) though sharp, acid, and ratlier bitter, is much relislied by the natives. The Mammee Apple (Mammea afrkana) is a lofty tree, with useful wood and a very large fruit. The Butter and Tallow Tree {Pentadesim butyracea) abounds in a yellow greasy juice, to which it owes its name, and which is given out plentifully when the fruit is cut ; this is mixed by the natives with their food, uii account of its turpentine flavour, which renders it disagreeable to the European settlers. Two kinds of Star Apple (Clitysopln/llum macrophyllum and C obovatum) are very inferior to the West Indian Star Apple (C. Cainilo). Tonsella pyriformis bears a rich and sweet fruit, like a bcrgamot pear. There is a tree called Pomegranate, said to be excellent: but having no affinity to Punica. The seeds of Stcrculia acuminata are called Cola by the negroes, who hold them in great esteem, as possessing the same virtues as Peruvian bark. They are like horsechestnuts, and produced in pods, which grow two to live together. A somewhat similar seed, named Tola, is used in the same way. Velvet Tama rinds, the fruit of Codarium acutifolium, are produced in beautifully black velvety pods, and possess an agreeably acid taste, while Erown Tamarinds differ little, except in the colour and larger size of the pod. Pine-apples (Jig, 822.) both grow wild and are cultivated l>y the natives : they abound in the woods, so as to obstruct the passage through tlicm in every direction, sliooting most vigorously, and yielding fruit abundantly. Thu profusion in which these plants are seen, even in unfre- quented spots, sanctions the common opinion of tlie colonists, that they are indigenous to tlie soil ; contrary to the doctrii\e of scientific botanists, who maintain that Pine Apples have been carried from America into Africa and Asia; yet it is remarkable how such an exotic can have assumed all the characters of a native, an 1 even sportcil into varieties, strikingly different from the ippearaiice of the plant in the country of which it is supposed to be the original inhabitant. Two kinds only, the Bluck ami White, are grown at Sierra Leone : though not so large as those cultivated in England, the flavour is superior. Tlie wild varieties are innumerable ; and a very pleasiiil kind of wine is made in the colony from the juice. Besides the fruits already mentioned as found wild near Sierra Leone, the following are cultiviiiid; Plantains {Mtisa SapietUum), Bananas (Af. paradisinca) j the Cocoa Nuts are still rare, and Papaws (Carica Papui/n) are only seen near the settlers' houses. Oranges are abun- dant, and have now grown wild. Lemon* are rare, but Limes plentiful. Casliew Nut* Imvo been cultivated in l.u'ge quantities of late : Rose Apples {Eugeni'i Jambos), o''^ Tamarinds from the West Indies, Love Apples (Solanum Lycopentcon), Melons, Water Melons, Cncunihers, Gourds, &c. of many kinds and qualities : among the Melons, some which having the smull of Musk are called Musk Melons. Two sorts of Capsicum arc grown, and do not appear to be natives of the country. »lNii-Aprl.ii. Book III* WESTERN AFRICA. i-2t: 5202. The Daobab, or Monkey Urcnd, above nientiontd {Mansunia digitata), may l)f deemed one of the most valuable jiroductions of Western Africa. It is likewise said to be found in Egypt and Abyssinia, and is cultivated in many of the wanner parts of the world. There seems to be no question that it is the largest known tree ; its trunk being sometimes no less than thirty feet in diameter. Many interesting particulars of this tree are given in Adanson's account of liis visit to Senegal, especially respecting its size and great age, whence it has been called arbre de mille am. The height of its trunk by no means corresponds with the thickness which it attains, according to Adanson's calculations, which go to prove that its successive growth from one year old, when its diameter is one inch, and its height five inches, to 30 years old, wlien tlie diameter has attained to two feet, wliile the height is but 22 feet; and so on, till, at 1000 years old, the Baobab is 14 feet broad, and 58 feet high, and at 5000 years, the growth laterally has so outstripped its perpendicular progress, tliat the trunk will be 30 feet in diameter, and only 73 feet in height. We must confess that the disproportion is truly enormous. The roots, again, are of a most extraordinary length ; so that, in a tree with a stem 77 feet round, the main branch or tap root measures 1 10 feet in length. A figure of the whole tree may be seen in a beautiful vignette fp. 141.) of Lord Macartney's Embassy to China, drawn from a fine specimen in one of the Cape de Verd Islands. The foliage there, indeed, is not so abundant as to conceal the vast |)ropor- tion of the trunk ; but it often happens that the profusion of leaves and of drooping boughs almost hide the stem, and the whole forms a hemispherical mass of verdure, 140 to ISO feet in diameter, and 60 to 70 feet high. The wood is pale-coloured, light, and soft, so that in Abyssinia, the wild bees perforate it, and lodge their honey in the hollow, which honey is considered the best in the country. The negroes on the western coast, again, apply these trunks to a very extraordinary purpose. The tree is liable to be attacked by a fungus, which, vegetating in the woody part, without changing the colour or appearance, destroys life, and renders the part so attacked as soft as the pith of trees in general. Such trunks arc then hollowed into chambers, and within them are suspended the dead bodies of those to whom are refused the honour of burial. There they become mummies, perfectly dry and well preserved, without further preparation or embalming, and are known by the name of Guiriots. The Baobab, like all plants of the same Order (Afaluacerr) is emollient and mucilaginous. The pulverised leaves constitute lalo, a favourite article with the natives, which they mix with their daily food, to diminish excessive perspiration, and which is even used by Europeans in fevers, diarrhoeas, &c. The fruit is perhaps the most useful part of this tree ; its pulp is acid and agreeable, and the juice expressed from it, mixed with sugar, constitutes a drink that is deemed a specific in putrid and pestilential fevers. Owing to these circumstances, the fruit forms an article of commerce. Bowdich menlioiis that it possesses such an agreeable flavour, and is so abundant, that it constitutes a prin- cipal article of food with the natives, who season many of their dishes with it, especially tlieir corn gruel. The Mandingoes convey it to the eastern and southern districts of Africa, and through the medium of the Arabs, it reaches Morocco, and even Egypt. If the fruit he injured, it is burned, the ashes being mixed with rancid palm oil, and serving for soap. The flowers are large, white, and handsome, and on their first expansion, bear some resemblance, in their snowy petals and vio'et mass of stamens, to the White Poppy {Papaver somniferum). Both the flowers and fruit are pendent. The Baobab tree loses its leaves before the periodical rains come on. 5203. The Arachis hypogaea (Jig. 823.) deserves notice on account of the singular 523 economy of its fruits. It belongs to the very few plants which mature their seeds under ground ; the flower-stalk, after the blossom has withered, bending downwards, and burying the germen in the soil, where it soon increases in bulk, and perfectly ripens. The fruit is a pod, containing one or two seeds, the size of small nuts, with a flavour of almonds ; the natives of several countries eat them, either boiled or fried, and make very pleasant confections of them, the taste resembling chocolate. A valuable oil is also extracted from the seeds of the Arachis, alike useful in food and for supplying lamps, as it never turns rancid. Many attempts have been made to natu- ARAciiH iiyro««A. ralisc this plant in Europe ; but the climate is too cold for it every where north of the southern coast of France. Subs EOT. 3. Zoology. 5204. Our remarks on the Zoology of this portion of Africa must be chiefly confined to Senegal, the neighbouring coasts of Guinea, and the colony of Sierra Leone : these, in short, are the only districts liitherto visited by naturalists, whose researches, moreover, have been hut slight, and confined to the districts immediately surrounding the European factories. 4 I 2 ISIS DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. Yet, whatever may be the nature of the interior zoology, that of the coast is strikingly dis. tinguished from Northern Africa. A rich vegetable soil, and a luxuriance of foliage, is here not uncommon ; heavy rains are perpetually nourishing the earth, and animal lifu is multiplied under a variety of new and striking forms, totally unknown in the arid and sandy deserts of Northern Africa. We may thus safely consider the Great Desert as a natural demarcation between the zoology of the two regions ; but under what degree of latitude we may fix the commencement of the southern zoological range, it is impossible to guess. The whole extent of this side of the continent, from Sierra Leone to the great Oranjjc River, has never even been visited by a naturalist, and its productions are absolutely unknown. 5205. In tlie JMowing lists are enumerated the chief quadrupeds of Western Africa, arranged under those countries where they have been particularly observed : — Antilope redunca. Niwor Antelnpp, Cephafojihus BylTlrultrii Sm. Uush An Senegal. Ccrcopilhecul ruber. K«fl Monker. CercoiiUheriM laliKui. Urcen Monkey. Menderma flrons. Foliareoiu Bat. raphozous tenegalenils. Senesal Bat. Oryx twMMsUca Sm. Kenegal (riyi. Gatella Pama Sm, 8wift Antelope. Traxelaphus acrlpta. Hameased Ante lope. Guinea, Cercopithecui nictitana. White-nosed Monkey. Cercopithecui petaurltta. Vaulting Mon< key. rerrof)ithecu!i diana. Fnlatlne Monkey. Cercocelmn t\illt!hiohU!i. Smoky Monkey. Cercoccbiiii iethlo|M. Kthiopian Monkey. CyanocephalUH papio. (iiiinea Biiboon. Papio Mormon. Mandrttl. Papio Bvlvicola. Wooii ItalKwn. Cinis cancrivorus. Crab-eating Wotf. Sier}a Leone awl Congo, Simla troglodytes. Chlmnanzec. ('ololms poiycnmos. Fuil.tiottom Afonkcv. Gaaeiln mytelopca Sm, Broad-footed Antelope. telo]ie. Cenbalophusquadri&copa. Sm. Four.tuf\cd Antelope. ~ iphus Cephalophus Urlmmla. Guinea Antfloiuscei>tib1c of a taclimpnt Our author gives an interesting account of their curiosity. During his aquatic excursion, tliey desccnOiHi from the to|» of the trees to the extremity of the branches, earnestly noticing, and apparently much ainuacd by, the Ijoats passing up the river. After a time they toolt courage, and began to pelt the travcllprs with pieces of wood, thus provoking a most unequal contest Upon being fired upon, they uttered the most friglit. fUl cries, aniS, although many were killed, the survivors returned to the contest with redoubled courage, anil with a most determinate spirit : some flimg stones at their adversaries, while others even collected their own excrements fur the same purpose. 5208 Tie Green Monkey [fig. 824.) is so named (Vom the upper parts being of a greenish.yellow colour : 824 the lower arc greyish ; and the tail is terminated by > long pencil of yellow hairs; the face, cars, and hands being black, Adanson found this species in immense numbers. I'hey remain on the trees in large troops, and preserve the most proi'mind silence, even when they are wounded. He did not at first notire them, from the similarity of their colour to that of the toliage, until they suddenly began flinging at him pieces of the dead branches ; and although he killed twentjr.three of them in less than an hour, they did not appear in the least frightened by the dis- charge of his guns. In confinement, it is stated by M. Ciivier to be remarkably beautifUl and gentle ; fond of being caresii-d by those it knows, and seldom exhibiting any malicious pro- pensity : when Ailly contented, it expresses satisfaction by a peculiar gentle grunt, which may lie compared to the syllable grau. 5209. Tie Dama Antelope was first described by Iluflbn, fVom a skin brought home by Adanson from Senegal ; this so closely resembles the s|)ccies so named by M. Riippell, and found by him in the deserts of Nubia, that they are probably one and the same. 5210. The Harnessed Antelope {fig- 825.) is a most beautiful animal, first noticed by Adanson by the native name of Gerib. It is about the size of a fallow deer : the ground colour of a bright bay, but marked with stripes in various directions, and with such regularity as to give the idea that a harness, of some white material, was thrown over its body. It has been thought to extend from Senegal to Caffraria ; but Mr. Burchell's observations do not confirm this idea. Another species, closely resem- bling this, is named by Major Smith the Ribbed Antelope {A. phalerata) ; it inhabits the barren plains above the great falls of the Zezere, or Congo ; where it was first observed by Professor Smith. 5211. The quadrupeds of Guinea and Congo must be far more numerous in species than what wouM appear from our list, but the climate is loo deadly to the European constitution to permit the researches of science ; while the notices given by ordinary travellers only Ic>ad to error. These regions present, indeed, a singular feature in geographic zoology, since we find within it the least developed races of mankind, and those animals most approaching to his conformation. The damp and impenetrable forests give shelter to innumerable Monkeys ; and large Baboons, of the most grotesque but repulsive forms, are common in this part of Africa. 825 HAaifsaaiD ANTXtnpa. UOOK III. WESTERN AFRICA. 1819 Africa, ilk«^ t-UMMUN HAmwN. SHIS. rt» Pupio u, or Common Baboon (fig. 820.1, abundant on the cout of Guinea, i> of a ycHowUh green, ■ verging more or leu to brown : the rSiage black, and tbe tall b^Zo long. It varies in >iie according to age : when adult, it !• a mo>t fcrocioua and diaguiting animal. From the iame country come* the Mandrill Baboon (Si'mi'a Matmon Lin.), of an olive colour : iu chin haa a small vellow beard, and the cheeks are naked, blue, and furrowed. In the adult males, the nose grows red, and the end is iometimes of a bright scarlet, while the buttocks are of a bcautinil violet M. Cuvior wol' reraarkj that it is impossible to conceive an animal more extraordinary and more hideous. It very nearly attains the height of man, and is looked upon \tj the negroes with great fear. 5213. JBut the Chimpanzee, of all the Apes yet dis- covered, is that which makes the nearest approiimatiun to the human form. The most extravagant accounts of this animal nro gwen iii the narratives of the old voyagers ; and although its distinction from tliu Oraug-Otttii of India is now established, its history, in other respects, is still shrouded in grvat uhsourity. It was designated by Linnsus as a variety of the human species, under the name of Homo IrogUxt^tes. The Chimpanzee appears to have an affinity, ifnot identity, with the largo AtVican apes so often mentioned by travellers, or to the Barris, or great Wild Man of the African wth'Ai : but the few specimens that have yet reached Europe have been young. Ill the adult statu its site is said to exceed that of the Orang.Otan, and to exhibit the same (luvility, submisitivencss, and gentleness, it appears confined to intertropical Africa, and ii) huitrd of more especially in Congo. The Perruque or Full-bottom Monkey {Cotobus fwli/comoi Gcof.) appears more restricted to the forests of Sierra Leone and Guinea ; it is thiis named fh>m the neck being furnished with a variegated mane of long hair, fancifully compared to a ftill-bottom wig, but truly representing the Lion in its own family. 5WN. Stverat of the Antelopes are very elegant, but we must content ourselves with shortly noticing two. SilS. The Btith Antelope [A tylmcuUrix) [fig. 827.) is called, by the colonists of Sierra Leone, the Bush Goat : it ia of a considerable size, and measures five feet in length : it is found on the bushy acclivities of the open moun. tains, quitting the covers about sunrise to feed, when it is shot by sportsmen i the venison being excellent : it is not so fleet as other antcloiies. 5216. The Ducker Antelope {A. mergens) is remarkable for its great timidity, being alarmed at the least unusual noise, and concealing itself on hearing thunder. It lives solitary or in pairs : its peculiar name originates from its singular habit of rising upon the hind legs to look round, making a blowing noise with its nostrils, and then stooping and flying under cover of the vegetation, to stand and rise up again. A nothcr species, the Dodger Antelope uf Major Smith, also fVom Western Africa, appears to resemble this very much. a2l7. The Lamantin, or Sea Cotp {Manatus senegalenid), an amphibious quadruped of great dimensions, occasionally fre- quents the mouth of the Senegal It is essentially herbivorous, aiulof a mild and liionVMislve character. Adanson describes it as full eight feet long, having some resemblance to .1 teal i ftinr tmils are at ' >ic edge of the fins, ind the tail is horizontally flat ; the eyes very small, and the eitn nut vlnlblo. The ncgt s call it Cercou. MlttH AKTKMtvl. To enumerate the variety of Birds inhabiting this richly-wooded portion of Africa of nil the species would little interest the general reader: we MIR would Ik> hopeless, while a list must, therefore, merely notice the more curious or the more beautiful species. SHI!). The Rapneiuta liintt are few. It anraars singular that only one species of Vulture is yet known to Inhabit Western Africa ; where their services, in removing putrid animal matter, might be supimsed so necessary. This is the Angola Vulture of __ Latham, which is probably the same with the Vultur pcrciiopterus of nxa jH^^ Egypt and Southern Europe ; although Latham's name has recently been erroneously applied, in an English translation of Cuvier's Animal King. dum, to a totally dinerent l)ird. 5220. The Crowned Eagle of Guinea (F. coronafus) {flg. 828.) it not more than two feet in length, or one third the size ol the larger European eagles : it is only occasionally seen on the Gold Coast, and is remarkable for a crest over each eye, while the legs are clothed with feathers to the toes. Thi Senegal Fishing Eagle feeds almost entirely uyxiw fish, in the manner of our Osprey. Five otiier falcons, i)eculiar to this country, have only recently been noticed ; a proof how little we are acquainted with the ornithological riches of Western Africa. The firey.necked Shrike [ilalaconotus oliva. ceus Sw.), the Ilarbary Shrike {Malaconolus barbarus Sw.), and two or three other s|iecies of the same group, equally conspicuous for the rich- ness of their plumage, occur in Senegal, and, probably, also in the neigh- bouring states. 5221. The l>eautifuUy coloured Sunbirds {Cinnyridce Sw.) are met with in great numbers, sipping the nectar from tlie odo- riferous blossoms. The Senegal, the Long-tailed, and the Chalybeate, are three species of exquisite beauty ; and not larger in size than many of the American humming-birds. Here likewise are seen numerous docks of golden-coloured «»i>wi>iB I Orioles of different species. Migratory Kellers, decked with * ' the brightest tints of azure, purple, and green, occur in large 4 I 3 1220 DKSCIIIPTIVE GROGRAPHV. Part III. Pl.ANrAtN-RATFfl. floclcR ; with crested Hoopoes, and beautiful Bee-eaters. Many other tribes, interesting botli to the common oliservvr and to the scientiiic naturalist, miglit be mentioned. The water birds are but imperfectly known. 5222. The Gallinaceoiu Birds, to numeroui in India, and even in America, under the aame narallcia of l.ttitudc, are licrc very few. Some of the partridges, loonely mentioned bv travellers, arc probably at that particular race callcdSand Grouse, found only in the hot latiludca of the Old World (O. PIcroclet T.), while the rest cannot be referred to their true species. 'I'he only gallinaceous birds of any size, |)cculiar to tropical Africa, arc the Guinea Fowl. Of these, the most common species {Numida meleagris) has long been doincsticalei remarkable character is a very loiij; single feather, issuing from the wing covers, measuring near twenty inches, the shaft of which is only cxpande, divided into appropriate apartments, magazines for provisions, arched chambers, and galleries of communication. These are so firmly cemented that they easily bear the wcieht of three or four men ; and, on the plains of Senegal, appear like the villages of the natives. The destruction they effect is wonderfully rapid : they destroy fo^jd, furniture, books, clothes, and timber of whatever magnitude, leaving merely a thin surface; and in a few hours a large beam will be eaten to a mere shell not thicker than writing-pai>cr. On emerging from the egg, the insect is in its larva state, furnished with a great hard head and strong tootlic, but without teeth. They now become soldiers, and assume higher duties ; never working tlicinselves, but su])erintcnding the la- bourers ; they act also as guards to detenu the common habita- tion IVom intrusion or violence. When a breach is made in the dwelling, they rush forward and defend the entrance with great ferocity ; frequently beating their jaws against the walls as a sig- nal to the other guards, or as encouragement to the labourers; they then retire, and are succeedeil by the labourers, each with a burden of tempered mortar in his mouth, and who diligently set about and repair the injury. One soldier appears to attend every irds, lizards, and even by the negroes themselves, who roast and cat them. The few which survive this Iteneral destruction ore collcctiHl by the labourers and soldiers, who enclose them, by pairs, in apartments made "f clay, the entrance to which is so narrow that they cannot migrate ; but where they are diligently fed and atteiuiwi by the labourers, whose bmlics are small enough to i\dinit an easy entrance. Alter impregnation, the alHlomen of the female extcmls to an enormous size, cxcee( itiankliid who trpmi him In the Uuit. Truly may we exclaim, O Ooitl wuiiderful are thy wurka) thy wayi are pait lliiiliilg 52:i4. Other tpecies of Termites build their nuita on trt'oa iif mi ovnl furm, mIiIIu \\m „f anutbor ( T- arda) is cylindrical, two or tbree feut high, ttirmlnitti'il by it ruuiid viiulti-d r>. 833 ^/i')£\ dome, and surrounded by n |irun)lnunt Uirritvi'. 5235. On tite Mollutca and Shtill-Jlth, Atliiiiaun ig the only author worth consulting. The Vuliita cyinbluiii and watplm two large volute ahulU, the anlinnU uf which are carnivorous,' appear to bo in profusion towards .Suiivgul. Convs, uliwi, and various other predacious riicus, nn< no less common' and it is well known that Cyprwti inonctii, or money cowry (Jig. 833. ), passes current among thv iiegru tribvs as coin, of a very low value. MoMRV cowny. SicT. III. Historical and Political Geognphf/i 5236. Western Africa cannot be considered as a region within thf dimuiln iff history, Wht. ther it was known to the Carthaginians or the Romans, and whvthvr lliclr navigators evu passed the shores of the desert, is a question which the few tliuugh curious ilocuincntH ex- tant, will scarcely ever perhaps enable us with certainty to solve. 'I'liu Arabian geogrupjicn appear to have had only a vague and conjectural idea of this region. I'liu coast wus eiitiri'ly unknown to Europe during the middle ages; and until thu Portuguese, under I'rincg Henry, began their career of discovery, in 1432, it was thought u mighty iicliievumcnt to pass Cape Bojador ; but, that obstacle being overcome, the shui'vs of the desert, liowwcr uninviting, were rapidly traced, and in 1441 a settlement was lltrmed on the island uf Arguin. Successive navigators discovered the Senegul, the Ciamliiu, thu Gold Coast Benin; and, in 1484, Diego Cam sailed up the river of Congo. Of all this vast extent of coast, possession was taken, accoi ding to the usual European pretension, in the name of the king of Portugal. Settlements were formed at all the leading points, embassies sent into the interior, and great exertions made to convert tlie natives to the Catholic religion. Por. tugal, however, in the decline of her power, lost all these territories, hikI retains only some possessions on the most southerly part of the const. In KM!), tliu Dutch drove litr from El Mina, and about the same time from all her possessloiiH on the Gold Coast, uf whicli' that people now claimed tlie sole dominion. From this pretension they were forced to recede by the rising naval power of the English, who, in l(i(il, look IVom tliein Cape Coast Castle, and, having formed an African company, hiillt n number of forts upon the coast, with a view to the trade in slaves and gold. The English, about the same lime, formed settlements at the mouth of tlie Gambia, wliile the PreiU'h CHlablished the principnl seat of their African power at St. Louis, on the Senegal. Uoth these hut settlvnients were founded on the belief then prevalent in Europe, that these rivers were the emboticlnires of the Niger, by which a communication might be opened with the inmo<1V. In ihe arts which minister to siilm'stence anri uvnilh, all Ihe nations mIiiiih this const hiive made imc progress. 'I'liuy are decidedly advanced beyond the liunlInK ami even the p,i»tofnl stnte, niid ilorive then chief 8up|K)rt from a certain s|iecies of .i(!riculture. The whole fon«l helliM sluialed lietwetMi the lrn|iln,aiiil Kcnerally well watered, is, in most cases, capable of yielilini^ an alinndniiee ol all Ihe richest IriMsiiremrilic vcKctable kingdom. The products arc maize, millet, some rice, to which are Milileil yiitiis and piiLitiici, lugar, cotlee, cotton. All the objects of culture which enrirli the VVcKt India Ulaiida inlitht lie rnlsiHl here willi ii- vantage. There are some spices, (lariicularly that called (iiiioen pepper, lint none of lliein |Hiiiei» llic hi|h anil delicate flavour which ilistiiiKOishes those proiluceil in the Kaslerii seas mill Islanils, .VitH, These natural advantages are improved liy agrievllure only III a vory linilliij lieKri'e, In Kciieral, Hit great mass of the negro territory consists of an immense and ImiHiiKitrahle iiirest, Unless In a very few !|joIi, there is no such thing as property in land, but an ample portion lies w,tsu> hir any one to eleiir niul lultivilt who chooses, and can obtain the permission of the king or head oC Ihe v)lliiHi<, In ueneral, niily ncriliin extent rcjnd each village or town is clearcic sound of musical in.ttruments. Kach man carries a hue, or llll le spiiile, with whicli he mritrhn rather than digs the grooiid, when just moistened by the rains) and in this happy eliinale It Is lit torcctivt Ihe seed after such suiwrlicial culture. The ground belonging to the kinii or the puliilv Is llrst worked i mil kHT iir. who trrad lit Hiidliig iu timt of 1 vitiiUvd I tho only d RCacplm, rnivoroiia, >i \n\mA uf Uoltl Coast, iHt vxtunt uf Mttm*! of the \m Kvnt into iglon. Pur- rutuins only ell ilrovB her old Coast, of f were forced n tlii'in Cape rts upon tho e name lime, tliu principal lIuiuftilH were Umuclnircs of lint of Africa. L to Ciirry this [iirk'i journey l)v! 11 distinct igur to fall I); Importance to itcrior regions kli I'ttch other, inurous native lere iiltcrnately lH tlio general I Imvi' maile «mw 1 1111(1 (lerWe tlitii |i tlietr»|ii»,»" ; ircanuresoftlie |l pntatiiCT, 'iP'' M lierc with * ] lioHCH the higli . tn nenpral,llit I a very fi'« '!«•'. lear ioi>l »"'""" I-ul, only awl"," ■oi-ii not enrol* It lew ilay" ™> " llr heml, ami W' Ihlcli he wratc™ It Ik nttotccc"' llr»twotkcorlaiit personage as fur. iiiiliiiiK arms to a warlike people ; yet he has not acquired the skill requisite to fabricate a gun. The gold however, which is brought Irom the interior is worked into ornaments which excite the admiration even of Europeans. Mats are woven with considerable neatness and skill, being the staple articles of furniture used for sittini! and sleeping upon, and also as partitions to tl'e houses. Moore even saw them iiass as money 524U. Fhhing is carried on by the negroes with great activity, and supplies, indee«l. almost the whole of their animal food. The most delicate species are the Dorado, called by the Knglisli, Uoluliins , and by the Dutch, golil.Hih. The Albicore is a fish of extraordinary inngniturie, often five feet long, and as thick u a man's body ; but the flesh is not agreeable. They have also cwl, pilchard, sole, mackerel, and other siieeies that frequent our seas. They go out to fish in canoes sometimes forty feet long, cut out from the trunks of their enormous trees, and holding from twelve to eighteen men. From 600 to 8U0 canoes will issue of a morning from one of their large towns, row to the distance of two or three leagues, and continue f.shing till noon They practise also most of the known modes of catching fish j with stake nets, with lights during the night, by which the fish are attracted, and then either pierced with spears, or taken up in baskets. In their habits, the people on the sea- coast are almost amphibious. They have no modes, however, of salting the fish, which serve only for immediate consumption, and cannot be made an article of export. 52-11. Commerce is not actively pursued by the natives of the African coast Their canoes are obviously unfit for maritime tratlic on any extensive scale, nor do they send often or far into the interior sucn immense caravans as traverse the whole of Central Africa. In general, the natives arc content to deal with Eiiroiiean vessels, and with merchants n-oi: :he interior. The Barbary caravans seldom arrive on the Gold Coast or other i>arts of Ouinea Proper: but they are occasionally seen in the rivers of Benin. From the mouths of the Gambia and Senegal, coflles, or kafllas, are occasionally sent up to some distance inland for gold and slaves. 5^4'.'. Tke slave trade, unfortunately, has ever been the grand staple of the intercourse with Europe, if trade it can be called, which is founded on the violation of the rights of huinanily, and consists in a uniform series of arts of violence. Sometimes the chiefs may make their captives taken in war subservient to this nefarious tralticj but, in general, its victims are the product of expeditions undertukcn for that express puriwse, with- out even the slightest pretence of right '1 he king, who wishes to replonisli his treasury by the sale of slaves, fixes upon some village either in his own or a neighliouring territory, surrounds it in the night, sets fire to it ; ami the wretched inhabitants, in attempting to esca|>e, are seized, and hurried on board a European vessel. Slavery is made also a punishment for oHenccs ; but this is productive of various disorders ; for not only is the judge strongly biassed against the criminal, of whose condemnation lie is to reap the benefit, but it has even become a trade to entrap men into crimes, in order to acquire the advantage of selling them. During the full career of the slave trade, the number annually carried oH' from the coast of Africa was estimated at 8U,UiU. Britain, however, after a long course of philanthropic exertion, was induced, not only to renounce this tralKc, but to employ her influence with the nations of Europe to procure its general abolition. At pre. sent, through the concurrence of the governments of France, Holland, and America, it cannot legally lie carried on to the north of the line, and Britain exercises the power of seizing all slaves conveyed irum clie coasts so situated, whom she settles at Sierre Leone. Yet the contraband trade is still most extensive: it is even believed that as large a number as ever are conveyed across the Atlantic, chiefly to Brazil and Cuba. The chase by the English cruisers has even the unliappy eflect of leading to the use uf ships so small as greatly toincrease the hardships of the passage. The unhappy wars, also, which have desolated some of the finest districts, have diminished the tendency of the abolition laws to promote civilisation and improvement. 5243. Although the slave traffic has unhappily been long the staple of West African trade, there are articles of commerce which it has always produced, and the exportation of which might be considerably extended : of these, the most imimrtant is gold, brought down the Senegal and Gambia from Bambouk, Manding, and theotlier mountain districts at the head of those rivers. But the most ample store is found in that part of Guinea which, from tliis product, is called the Gold Coast. 'Vhe greater part is brought from some distance ill the interior, and from tlie opposite side of the same mountains. No account is taken of the imiwrtation of this article; but in the beginning of the last century it was estimated by Wadstrom at from 2Uo,00U/. to aiO.tiOd/. in value. That of ivory, or elephants' teeth, also from the interior, is from 10,(/00/. to 1j,OI;0/. The gums are important articles, particularly gum Senegal, drawn from vast forests of acacia, which grow in the half-desert tracts to the north of the river Senegal. Teak wood is an important commodity ; to which is added several kinds of ornamental and dj e woods, particularly that called red or cam wood. But of late years, palm oil, from its use in manufactures, and the abundance with wliich it is supplied, has acquired an importance greatly surpassing that of any other article. Sugar, cotton, and other graiHl tropical staples have never been ralaed for more than native use; and it would seem that a complete change must take place in the habits of the people, before they will cultivate them tu any extent which can produce an exportable surplus. 5244. Among the articles received by the neuroes in return, cotton goods are the most extensive. Till of Ute, those of India were generally preferred ; but British manufactures of this class are now so much im- (iroved, or, at leiuit, made so cheap, that they have almost driven out their I'^asterii rivals. The export of woollen goods is also very consider:;bic. Brass, iron, and steel are In considerable demand. Guns, gunpowder, brandy, and rum were largely given in exchange for slaves; and for the two former there still exists a ^reat and elt'cctivc demand. Cowries, from the Mulaliar coast, are largely introduced to form the medium of circu- lation through all the negro countries. ,Vi45. Vie eiporls qf British produce to this coast were valued in 1835 at 292,000/. ; in 1836 at 467,000/ i in 18S7at 312,()(XI/. In the last year the chief heads were — cottons, 135,7C0/. ; woollens only ;t,2yo/. ; linens, i,'Ml. ; apparel, 7,400/. ; arms and ammunition, N8,80U/. : brass and copiier manufactures, 7,170/. ; earthen- ware and glass, ,5,700/. ; hardware, iron, &c , 23,700/. There were also exported of Ibreign goods — spirits, 91,liU() gallons; tobacco, 1,112,00011)8.: wine, U,d00 gallons ; India cottons, 50,000 pieces. The chief imports were— palm oil, 223,300 cwts. ; leak, 23,250 cwts. ; bees '-wax, 4,600 cwts. ; pepper, ll'i),50U lbs. ; ivory, 2,'244 cms. ; cott'ec, lb5,000 lbs. Sect. V. Civil and Social State. 5246. Of the population of a territory, of which the interior is so little known, and has sucli vague limits, it is very difficult to tbrin oven an approximated estimate. In the Sup- plement to the Encyclopedia Dritannica, reasons are given, founded partly upon actual enumeration, for supposing that the density may be about twenty-six to the square mile. If, then, we estimate the length of coast at 4000 miles, and assume an average breadth of 300, this will give 1,2(X),000 square miles, and a population of :$ 1,000,000. Yet, af^er all, considering that there are desolate tracts of very great extent, this number may be heyond the truth, and, perhaps, at a rude guess, we may fix tlie population of this great tract of tropical Africa at t" out 20,000,000. 18S4 UESCRIPTIVE GEOGIIAPHY. Pa*t III 5247. In this rc/(ion human nature cannot be said to appear under a dignyiedform. Even the vxturnal aspect of tlii' negro is, in our eyes especially, mean, coarse, and ugly, T|,g deep black of his complexion has been supposed by some to be connected with the barbarism of his habits, though it appears to us sufficiently accounted for by the long-continued action of the intense solar heat. But the thick lips, flat nose, woolly hair, and the line of the face sloping backwards, are at variance with every idea of beauty, and suggest very little of the exercise of intellectual energy. 5248. The character of tlie negroes, of course, varies extremely, according to the variety of situation and government, among such a multitude of little communities. In general, thev have made little progress in that which constitutes improved and civilised life. Tlivy are strangers to literature, the ornamental arts, and refined luxuries. Yet, whenever adequate objects are presented, they display energies sufficient to refute the cruel theories which would represent them as a degraded race, incapable of reaching any high degree of mental culture. In governments of a popular character, they display an eloquence, address, and activity surpassed by few of the most civilised nations. Even in their absolute moniirchieii we discover a regular subordination, polished manners, and skill in the art of war, which, among a people destitute of arts and letters, cannot but appear surprising. There in lu, room whatever to doubt that, placed in favourable circumstances, the negro would attain in as high a degree of civilisation, as the men of any other race. Ferocity in war is a univerital feature of savage character ; and in some of the sable nations it is carried to an extra- ordinary pitch. In his domestic character, the negro presents much that is amialile and pleasing ; he is cheerful, gay, hospitable, and kind-hearted. The negroes appear to great advantage compared with the Moors, who, from the north, h.tve over-run so great a part of Africa, and to whose gloomy and austere bigotry the black natives are entirely strangers. .?249. Of religion, as embracing the belief in a supremely wise and good ruler of the universe, and in a future state of moral retribution, the negroes have very obscure concep- tions ; while almost every superstition which can degrade the human mind reigns in full sway. To express generally what is sacred, what is forbidden, what is endowed with super- natural powers, either beneficent or malignant, they employ tlie term fetiche. Every tliiug which strikes the fancy of a negro is made his fetiche. The grana or national fetiches are rocks, hills, or trees of remarkable size and beauty. But there are fantastic objects of veneration, which each individual adopts, and carries about with him. Such are, a picie of ornamented wood ; the teeth of a dog, tiger, or elephant, a goat's head, a fish bone, or the end of a ram's horn. Some merely carry branches of trees, or a bunch of cords made uf bark. They set up these feticlies in the houses, the fields, or the centre of the villages; erect altars to them, and place before them dishes of rice, maize, and fruits. The framing of these fantastic objects of African worship, and the selling them at an enormous price, forms the chief occupation of the African priesthood. All the good fortune of the negroes is supposed to arise from the favour of the fetiche, and every evil to proceed from ollintc taken by it. Every man fixes upon some act of self-denial, something from which he is to abstain, in honour of his fetiche ; and the engagement thus contracted, he will, in many cases, die sooner than violate. This superstition is often employed as an instrument lii judicial proceedings, which are so conducted as to involve an appeal to superior powers, »ho it is expected will directly interpose to discover the truth and punish falsehood, Ifi negro eats a crust of bread, tastes a drop of Ifquor, or throws sand upon his head, wishin; at the same time that the fetiche may kill him on the spot if he tells a falsehood, mort reliance may be placed on iiis words, than on those confirmed by the oaths of rational men taken before our courts. It frequently happens, that when tests are proirauiuled, the tm hardened criminal at once confesses himself guilty, rather than encounter the terrible all». native of denying his guilt. In the case of any solemn engagement, the person taking ilii presented with his " swearing liquor,'' which he drinks under the dread of the mostanful penalties if he violates the accompanying promise. Tlie people cherish the general belief ofi future state, little connected, however, with any idea of moral retribution. The question i^ whether they have faithfully observed the promises made to the fetiche, and forborne even thing by which he could be oli'ended. According to their ideas, the future world tii be a counterpart of this; will present the same objects to the senses, the same enjoyments I and the same distinction of ranks in society. Upon this belief are founded proceeding not only absurd, but of the most violent and atrocious description. A profusion of vie is buried in tlie grave of the deceased, who is supposed to carry it into the other world ; aid human victims are sacrificed, often in whole hecatombs, under the delusion that they "ill attend as his guards and ministers in the future mansion. This savage superstition prevaili to a peculiar extent in those great interior monarchies, which in otiier respects are nvn | civilised than the rest of Western Africa. 5250. It is impossible to name a region tolerably peopled, where any progress at all to I been made in the arts, which is so completely illilerate, as Negro Africa. It is not enoofi j to say that it has neither books, authors, nor learned men. In no part of this eiteniM I region is there an alphabet, or a hieroglyphic, or even a picture or syndiol of any dcscriplioa I Part III Book in. WESTERN AFRICA. 1 33 J rm. Even igly. The e barbarism nucd action ! of tlic face little of the l\e variety of jencr.tl, they .. They are ver adequate eorics which ■ue of mental , atl dress, and tc monurchieii f war, which, There in iw ould attain td r is a tiniversal i to an extra- s niniable ami ppear to great great a part of ly strangers. )d ruler of the ibscure concep- il reigns in full wed with su^cr- .. Every tiling lational fetiches itastic objects of ;li are, a piece of fish bone, or the jf cords niBik' of , of the villages; s. The framing enormous pric'i ine of the negroes ■ei'd from offence jm which he is to he will, i" ni™y [an instrument in icrior powers, »ta falsehood. Ifi his head, wisliins falsehood, more [is of rational men ,K)inuled, the m the terrible alter- person taking it ii of the most a»fiil I general belicfofi The question K and forborne even future world *ill P same cnjoyraenu, fiinded procceilinp irofusion of wealth other world ; m | ision that they «ill .uperstition pre* respects are niixt progress at all l» It is not enoiip lirt of tlii* «""''^ ll of any description All those relinwl proccsscB, by which the ideas of one mind uro niado to pass into thoie of another, ore entirely unknown. The facility of subsistence, and the absence of circum- stances tending to rouse the intellectual energies, are doubtless the causes of this singular deficiency ; for, as already observed, there can be no ground to presume any original want ill the capacity of the negro. Their powers of oratory, and their skill in politics and war, Indicate talents which, under proper impulse, would lead to excellence in literary com- » position. In the more improved nations, there has been found to exist an oral literature, traditionary songs and poems, the recitation of which is listened to with delight, .liMl. The uniwraal amuiftnittU qf l/ie nrgro, above those of mere acniation, arc dancing and muttc. The former i» liiv-iriably iwrformcd in the open air. As soon as the aim (li-clincs, and its intense heat nliates, there is (lancing Iroin one end of Africa to the other. Four thousand years ago, Haiino and his coinpaiiions were 8iiniri«ccart tliofliiel'lf not the sole object. Their drums and their trunnH-ts, or rather horns, prixUicc a horrid illssonunre, against which, according to some travellers, a whole bale ot cotton would lie required to stop the ears. Others roiircscnt it as more tolerable ; and add, that the negroes have also a kind ofcaslanet, a flute, musical tongs, and a sort of cittern ; and the (lerformers, gaily and even fantastically attired attract to themsclve* the admiration of the multitude [flg. Kit.). nAvcltvfl AND Mi'KO or tub NRnnnu, rii'tl Polygarr.y, througnoiit all tro|iical Africa, has no limit but that of the ability to maintain a eoiisldir. .ibk' number of wives. liy the great it is practised to the utmost extent that their circumstances can admit. To have mnncroiis wives and children is considered a matter of state, and is always made their Arot boast It I'orms even a source of wealth ; for, except the principal wile, who is mistress of the household, and the saerni wife, who is consecrated to the fetiche, all arc made to work hard, both in tilling the flcUls, and in niaiiuracturing mats and cloths. Even the principal wife olten urges her husband to take fresh mates, as a inrans nf iiu reusing the importance of the establishment over which she presides ; it is also customary to make her a handsome present on the occasion. In the towns on the coast the more wealthy take usually from tliroc to twenty wives, while the kings raise the number to eighty or a hundred ; but In Ashantec, Uahomcv, and other des|iotic interior kingdoms, the privilege knows no bounds, and the number is ofter carried to Mvcr.nl thousands. It is swcllct, a biKly of courtesans arc maintained by the state, and are considered as public servants. Not a (ow even of the wealthy are willing to derive a profit from the irregular conduct of their secondary wives. Notwltlistanding the overgrown tamilies of some of the great, such h.ibits cannot fail to keep down the amount of population, and, by causing a neglect of education, to lower the intellcctu d standard of the l«ople. ii'Si. In architecture, and even in masonry, the negro nations rank very low. There is not, perhaps, in all native Africa, a house built of stone : wooer, tin, or. In default of better materials, even with iron. They 1IM6 DESCHll'TlVE OEOOUAFIIY. I'am hi, have been iceii with no Ich than forty nnatl iron rinn on their arnit. 'I'hc arraiwcment of (he hair, nr rathn wool, ii a matter of proroiiiiil itudy to both lexei. Thejr rub It wilh |ialm oil, curl and ilrcii It In varioui formt, anil largely entwine it with iiolil, anil with a tpei'iea of loral vuiuvil at iti weight In Riiid, Home u( ih> negru bellcii |>aint their fare with rcil and white itHita, till it looki like a plveo of flowcreil damatk. A certain degree ol'tultii()iiig,or marking their ikiiiK wilh Aguret of flower* nr other natural nbjectk, iialao iiractiu«i SiSl'i. /» nuaiil lu rilel, if tlie ncgroen nbiervc a degree of iimpliclty. It It chiefly the rcault of iiecculia Butcher'a muut, |ii)Ultrv, and rice, are only within the reach of the opulent. The uior mutt content ihi'in •clvei with nth and millet, which, when boiled together into a thick nicaa, and palm oil |ioured over llu'in form the aliiple diah. 'I'liiy ire allegcil In eat coaraely and voraciouily, thruatliig their handa togeiher »,!' the common diah ; but thia ia a cuatom univertal throiighiiut Aft'ica. When good fare la placed liclore tliHin they are careful tu iiiileiimify themaelvea for former privatioiii. On auch occasiona, they have been knimiiiu manifeat a aort of canine amietlte, eating a* much at aix Kuro|ieani. The drink of the country ia palm wiii? with which chiefly they enliven the loclal clrele ; but Intercourto with European! ha» taught them the niurv pemlciuui utv of urandy, SicTi VI. Local Geography- 5257. }yith the country called by the French Senegambia, or tlie region watt-red by the iwo rivers Suiie^ul and Gambia, we commence our survey of Western Africa. It would be dif. flcult and almost idle to attempt to fix the limit!) of this vaet territory ; but tliey may be HtaU'd at about '250 miles along the coast, and reaching .'jOO into the interior. It is diviijcd among a vast variety of little kingdoms, whose boundaries and condition are continually vury. ing. This part of Africa is most remarkable for the great negro races who inhabit it, and who are in general more peaceable, more industrious, and more amiable than any of the others upon the western coast. They are chiefly three, the Foulahs, the Mandinguva, oiid the Jalofs. 5258. The Foulahs have been supposed to come from Fooludoo on the Upper Senegal, but others suppose thcin of the same race with the Fellatahs in Central Africa; in wliicli caw they must be traced to a foreign origin. They have now spread over all the banks ul'tjui river, besides the great kingdom of Foota Jalloo to the south, and many districts on the banks of the Gambia. They have not the extreme negro characteristics ; neither the dii;!) jet hue, the flat nose, nor the thick lips ; on the contrary, their features are high, with an olive tint, and an agreeable expression. They have embraced tlie Mahometan faith, liui without that bigotry which almost universally accompanies it. Their manners are peculiarly courteous and gentle ; they practise the most liberal hospitality, and relieve the wants not only of their own aged and infirm, but even of those belonging to other tribes. Tlicir cm. ployments are pastoral, and their habits, in some degree, nomadic. Occupying cuuntrin where there is no fixed property in land, they drive their flocks, according to the season, to the tops of the mountains or the banks of the rivers. At night they collect their lienis within the circle of the tents, and light large fires to deter the approach of wild beasts. Such is their good conduct and industry, that it is considered infamous to injure lliein, and a blessing is said tu rest on any territory that contains one of their villages. Their internal government is republican, under chiefs of their own ; and this form they insist upon rilaiii. ing, even when tliey settle under a sovereign of another tribe. 5259. The Manditiguvs are u race more numerous and more decidedly negro, both in funn end disposition. Though capable of great occasional exertion, they have by no means tlic steady industry of the Foulahs. Their employments are chiefly a slight agriculture, fishing with nets and baskets, and, above all, traffic, in which their enterprise exceeds that of the othi't negro races. They conduct large kafilas to a considerable distance in the interior, and llieii language is well understood in all the commercial districts. They are cheerful, ini|uisilivt!, credulous, and so gay, that they will dance for twenty-four hours without intermission to the sound of the drum or bulnfou. Polygamy is practised to a peculiar extent, uiul tlii.' nu- merous households to which it gives rise live in tolerable outw.ird harmony, whicli must nui, however, be considered very secure, since it requires to be cemented by the extraordinaiy expedient of Muinbo Jumbo. This bugbear of the African ladies is called intu scrviit whenever the simpler expedients of scolding or beating fail to quell domestic disseuMi, Mumbo Jumbo, being then summoned, arrays himself in a fantastic coat hung fur his uwoo a neighbouring tree, crowns his head with a tuft of straw, and soon after dusk niurclii's iiiii) the market-place. Thither the unhajipy fair one being summoned dares not disubvy, and the love of stir and miscliief causes her to lie soon followed l>y the bulk of her relluH.cili. zeiis. In their presence she is stripped naked, and undergoes a severe whipping, jnAiilnl by the rod of Mumbo Jumbo, amid the applause of all the spectators. They liavcsim more refined tastes than are usual among Africans ; particularly in poetry, the extcni|iordry composition and recitation of whicli forms one of their favourite amusements. Tlie ori);inal country of the Mandingoes is the elevated territory of Mnnding ; but they are now widtl) difl^used over all this region, and particularly along the banks of the Gambia. 5260. The third great race are the Jitlufs. They occupy nearly the whole of tliat inland territory whicli intervenes between the Gambia and the Senegal, and the extent uf which is estimated by Golberry at 4800 leagues. A number of them are subject to a puw. ful inland prince, called Burb-y-Julof, who boasts of himself as anciently the wlf ruler in this part of Africa. The Jalofs, though of a deep black cuiii|ile>ion, and with the decided negro features, are considered a handsome race. They boost of ihcir Boor III> WESTERN AFRICA 1997 unllquiiy, and in miiny mppct* excel their ncigliboum. Tlicir liin(;uAgc ii softor and more «({rttsiliio J tlioy manufaiturc finer cotton clotli, ami give it a luperior dye; tliey rivai the Miiont in liontetnanxhip, and are fearles!! and expert huntem. They have a singular iikhIc of nunivrntion, rvvlioning l>y flvcii instead of tens, in refirenie apparently to the fingcrii, whiih, for want of the faculty of writing, are the sole infilrnnivnts employed in calculation. Their ingenuity, howev.-r, Ih unfortunately too oflcn employed in dexterous thieving, efTected hv II skilfid movement of the toes, which may be said to rival, in this respect, the fingers of tiio most expert European pickpockets. .VJlil. fl'mhall «7o.w tliii catalogue with the Feloopi, a wild and rude race, who inhabit the jM)re« to the south of the Gambia. Their country is fertile, abounding in rice, poultry, and honey, tVom which last they prepare an intoxicating liquor. Provision is tirawn from them for the seltlementH on the Gambia ; but the Ei.glish, having never taken the trouble to learn tlu'ir language, cannot hoKl any direct communication with them ; and the traffic is managed ilirtnigh the Mandingo merchants, who nre suspected to take advantage of their own exclu- kivc kiiowlislge to cheat both parties. MtH, Amoiin Kurn|K>«n nntlnna, llie rhvr Scnctfal hn» fnr mnrr Ihnn a century hern rnllrely Frtneli i and nlr«i>ftllii«ry i>IHirt» have Iwen inmlc by ■urccnaivc Afilcaii companlcn to ralto It to iin|>nrtanre Fort 81 l^iiilS till" cmdlitl, In nltiistcil on an l«l»nil in the river, a mere sniid.liniik, without ,iny water which euii bo llii'iii iiii tlie Iriemlly jM-ai-e whieli «uccce(lecl in 1814. The diNHHlrduii late, however, of the expeiUtioii lent out III the Vi'i?s.avvH of n dry or dirty green. The mere blowing of the Imrmatlan causes the bark to crack ill iiuinherless places, and the gum to How in large transparent drops, which remain attached 10 llie stirface. The harvest of gum is in December, when the Moorish tribes, of wliom the Tmrshiti are the most powerful, break up from their usual camps, their kings and princes at llivir head, and proceed in a confused and tuintdtuous crowd to the forests, of which each rliiiiiis one or more. Af\cr six weeks spent in collecting the gum, they put it in large leathern Clicks, with which they load their camels, and proceed in the same tumultuous array to the s|Hil fixtnl on for the (;um market, between Fort Louis and Potior. This plain, which is one of the most desolate spots in nature, is suddenly covered with an innumerable multitude (it'|HH)ple enveloped in clouds of dust. The kings appear mounted on beautiful horses, their wives Hcuteil in baskets on the backs of camels, the crowd on foot ; the air resounds witli the cries of men, women, children, and animals. A cannon is fired as the signal for com- nuMicing the treaty. A dreadful scene of wrangling and higgling immediately ensues. I'he Frvitch accuse the Africans of most dishonest arts, and, it appears, are not far behind them, •inoe they have not scrupled to ado])t the policy of insensibly augmenting the size of the timtHf by which the gum is measured, a change which escapes the notice of their rude an- tttgonists. The French take oiT annually about 250,000 lbs. of gum, which sells in Eu- rope at tVum lad. to *JUr/. per lb. In 18^7, there entered the French ports from Senegal H4 ves.seK tonnage tiWJ ', while there cleared out 50 vessels, tonnage 5913. The imports wi>K> viilued at 1 64,770/., of which 83,800/. was retained for home consumption. The ex- ports were valued at .318,000/., of which 268,030/. was French produce; being 52,000/. raw, nnd 'J1(!,(XX>/. manufactured. JHIH. Thf ItiHfrinm i\f Hamhoiili, dtuatcd near the head of the river, and so enclosed between its main itream •ml the greal brnnrhe* of the Kokom and the Falemc, as to form almost a complete island, is the next object ofmmnit'rrlal ln)|Kirlanec to the French on the Senegal, It is almost entirely a country of mountains, whence How iiiimeroiM streams, almost all of which roll over golden sands. But the main depositaries, where the metal Is trared as It were to Its source, arc two mountains, Natakon and Scmayla. The former composes •Iranst an entire mass of gold, united with earth. Iron, or emery. The first four feet of depth consists of fat Ndh, IVoni which the grains of gold arc cxlracteit>|ih, In the kingdom of Oallam, or K^Jaaga, A voyage thither was reckoned to produce cent, per cent. ; but the iiiihenlthiiiess of the climate, the difficulties of the navigation, and the constant haiard of being plun- lifted by a nirremlon of barbarous cnlefs, who occupy the banks, rendered It a very precarious speculation. At|irrtuiit the nirl is abandoned, and in ruins i but the Serawoollies, who inhabit this fine country, ars 133H DESCHIITIVE OEOGIUl'IIY. I'akt III. ■monilha mral Inituilrlnun nrtlio AMciin trlliM, and hive cnxroMul the Imlt of fliiniliimk, Muiulinu inott of the U|i|irr rnuntrU-> on i he Si'iipr*! miil NlHcr. "' ""■< MM, /« iletrenillnn //pi' Sineniil, wi- Hiiil «<'vituI |Hipulniia «iiil imwi-rfiil ilstva, nmntic whirli la ilim „» i. iirrn, cxIcnilliiK ronnlilcrMlily Inrtn to Ihf .ir.!. .'.' Torr*. *». ' ClllleftVOUrOll III ■inmilfc- mu Hiiiiii** |i«n«ii tft„ii,-i, ,11 1,11,11,11, I, If .1(11111 (If hit country and a pnnlent ■yitejn of warfiire, hn« lieeii ahlv to luiffle hit attempt the mi river. On the nililille "K"l rill Mill the miMt imimrtanl porioniiKe i« Iho SIratIc, who liohU hi> court ut (Ihiorel, coiulderalily to the imrih onii river. Nearer th« «» i» thekinijiloin of lloval, (jovcriied liy u petty prime, called the Ureiit llrak, win, i, ," tho laiiiiuaRCorthecnuiitry, ilKnlllea KIiir of KtiiKa. ' '" ViffJ. The eonti fiftuxrn ikf (laniMii and Si-Hegal la chiefly igi i by (iolberry, to extend IM milea In leiiKth, and to contain IHll,lX;l) itilmliltanta, who are Jaloi'a. At the lii?i toland of tloree, on thia coant, the Krench have catahllalicd the capital of all their Afrlc'tii aettlemeni. 1' vlvantaxea cnnalat aoltly In Ita ahmnt Inacceaallile altuatlon on a ruck, three tlilca of which are iieriieiiiiinii and Ihefniirth verv itcep. The roek la fortilletl, hut not, It li aald, In the moat aklh'ul nMiiiier. 'I'lipi „ ' contain* 3(IIMI inhubltanti, and preaenta a very hualliiiK acene, heliiK the eiilreiMit of all the Iruile wiih iIh. i i" IXMltc coaal, ami alio a iiloce of refreahmeiit for French ahlpa on their way to Imlta. It Ilea on the iiurilu'r aide of the penlnauLi, which termlnatea In I aiic Ver.le, the inoHt weaterly |Kilnt of the Al'ric.in niiiiiii,.,i" ThuURh the Mil he aamly. It lieara a iiumtier or thoae hninenae treea called liaoliuh, which give to the i li that verdant aa|H>ct whence It derivea ita name. t>n the northern aide, two hllla, lilH) feet high muri^ (T' atrlklnit SSTiH. ical poaitlon, anil aerve a-t a guide to inarinera. the'Oiimhia it alinoat entirely an Kngllah river ) the attempta to form apttlemciitj ii|ion It haviim li nearly two ceiiturlea, Ihmmi conllned to that nation. 'I'hey have erected Janiea Fort in the middle ol the rlli. hy which they arc enabled to caminand ita entrance. ^olthe rlvir, _, , They have aUii a aniall factory at ri»anla, ulmut fiirfv' inllea upj but, like the French on the .Senenal, they have never been able to realiao any of tho»e ■plciullii I'i (icctatlnna, with a view to which the aettlementi were foundeil. All attempta to penetrate, hy aacernlii n ii . river, to the regiiina watered bv the Niger, proved alHirtive. Yet it wua not till the expiililion nf Puri^ i,,", the failure waa fully traced to Ita true cauae, the atructure of the continent, and the want of coiniiiuiilcatnu iKtween the two rivera. Hence theae aettlementa have never riaen to any great ImiKirtance. fiiiiy. The «(ii/iAiVi la bordered on ita north bank hy iiin'm/y/uHrM/ntf /eaccable race of the Hiafaras, the original tenants, and havecomiH'llcil them toconflne theinsclvi«tiitlic. continent and the banki of the Uio Mraiide. Hiasao, the iargeat of these ialanda, ia inhabited bythcl'ani, alto warlike and enteriirlalng. In 17!W, an ataociatiiin « is lornieil in Kngland, with n view to planliiiL' a k-,' tiement In the Itland of Uulama ; but, though no opposition wot maile in the flrat inatancc, the ililliruliviii crtabllahinB a new colony under circnmatancct to unfavourable, and ea|ieclally ainldat the hnatility iii'ihV, rude nclghboura, toon obliged the English to dealtt ' 5271. Along the heads of the Ilio Grande lies the important kingdom o{ Fuola ,/i//o, saij to extend about 350 miles in length, and 200 in breadth. It ajjpears to be the most im. proved of all the states in this part of Africa. The iiilmbitants are Foiilahs, mid ol'iln Alahometan faith, but not bigots ; and their innrabouts are held in high repiitalion lur learning. They manufacture cloths of considerable fineness ; they work in iron, dug (rani extensive mines in the country ; also in silver, wood, and leather ; and they conduct larw caravans into the interior, as far even as Timbuctoo and Cassiiia. Here, where they nrc [h ruling people, they by no means display that pacific character which distinguislus tlif tribes on the Gambia and Senegal. They can bring into the field 16,0(X) men, and ili, king is engaged in almost continual war, for the base purpose of procuring slaves fur i|it< European market. On being reproached upon this subject by Messrs. Watt and WlnUr. bottom, he declared that he had no other means of obtaining European goods, ollierHi»ii|ic would gladly give up this violent and criminal mode. Timbo, or Teembo, the capilal, ii said to contain 7000 souls, and Laby, 5000. 5272. To the south of Foola Jallo is Soolimana, also warlike ond considenhlc. It borders on the Niger in the highest part of its course, though the sources of that river art placed in the hostile territory of the Kissi. The king is at present Mahometan, hut the bull of the nation pagan. Tliey are a gay, thoughtless, stirring race. The two sexes seem to have reversed their occupations ; the women till the ground, build the houses, act ns liarlxh and surgeons ; while the men tend the dairy, sew, and even wash the clothes, 'I'lie Liiii; expressed to Captain Laing the same willingness to give up the slave-hunting system, iiiiil complained of the same difficulty which had been expressed at Teemlrao. On the cashTii side of the Niger is the country of Sangara, still more extensive and more warlilie; ilic people of which would, it is supposed, have by this time con(|ucrcd Foota Jallu, liiid tiny been united among themselves. At present, whenever the Soolimas are inclined In ,.olu war, they can easily command ten thousand auxiliaries from beyond the Niger. 5Z73. In returning to the coast, we pass through the Koorango country, Inhabited by the ManilliiRocf.irlio, as usual, arc gay, thoughtless, hospitable, and enteriirising. Farther down are the Timmaiieei, a mmii. praviHl race, who were the chief agents in the slave trade . I'hey are described as hospitable, treaiiuTout, ami avaricious. Captain Laing met a woman who accuseil her two children of witchcraft, and on ih,it gtinikl Iloiix III. WESTKIIN AFRICA. l!??m nlfrml In O'H •ll»m •" lilm »» « low prii - I hrlr aRrh ulKiii imiriilliirly ruilo, nml Iho rl»lh» of thrir mniiu- Mdiitii mrv ciWMi'. I lii'y ^mi«' lhi< l-.n^l, h, a* hiivlngil,.,,,,,,,! elicm nf iilin.iat tlii'lr only uuirii' of wiviltb. wliirh imi«l«l<'ill» I"'' •«"'"' "'■>•■'" rhi« |irii|ilc .in-n|i|>re>»«l liy u •iiitinlitr numlntlon rnlliil I'lirriili, who, iiiilli'il liv » l»>iiil, iiMil«lwi«)< •M|'i»irllii|» iM.h olh. : liavc butimo aliimit matlvit of lliv country, ami uftsii I'tvrrlH' llivl' |a>wpr III « very tyr.' iiu'iil iiiaiiiivr. ,1'J7». Till' i'lilliltry of till- 1 niiiiMiicis bonk-rs on tliiir part of the const wliiTo Dritniii, Willi Iho III""* |lllili«lUhr«)|ilc viuws Imi f<>illi(kil the cMny of Shrni l-tnnr. Its |irit)ci|)ill wal, lit Kri'cliiwil. la im IIh- amilli aiilo of llu- hiiy, which rect-ivcs the river ; though it has been some' wliiit ilitlli'iilt to Inltlnte them into the habits of civilised life. With this view, the Church iMiwIiiimry .Society undertook to furnish schools and religious instructors; but the un- liwlllllilU'sit of till) ellinitte has proved a great obstacle. It appears too true, that Sierra l.i'iiiiu liiis not yvt made any impression upon Africa, and that there is no radius of civilis- iitliiil proveodlng IVinn it. It luboun under two great disadvantages; the extreme un- liiiillliiiu'sa of the climate, which both keeps down its population, and renders it difticult to liriHiurti well>i|imllfluil persons to go out ; and also its unfavourable position, in contact iiiily H'lth A few turbulent tribes, not with any of the great and leading states of the contl> iiiMil. These dlandvnntngcs. Joined to the death of four successive governors, among whom wuH Ciiloiiul Donliinn the celebrated traveller led government to hesitate lu to the expe- illvncv iif aiippurtlng this colony, after 3,(XK),(X)0/. had been expended on its formation. To wllliilriiw it. however, would be attended with many evils, oo that an attempt has been iiMili' III innlnlttin It on a more limited scale. The European triMips have l>een removed, mill llii'ir pliiCLi supplied by negroes, and the annual expenditure has been reduced to al)out 10,111111/., of which I7,(XH)/. is fur liberated Africans. Mr. Macauley reckons the population III IIVUK), of whom !(li,(KH) arc liberated negroes, 5000 natives of the adjacent country, J 1.^0 MiiriMiiiN and Nova Scotia settlers, 1000 of the royal African corps, 1100 disbanded iiiilillt>rN, <cen very inefBcient; but teachers have sprung up among tlii'iimiilvvii, who, according to Sir James Alexander, have done much good. The climate \\ tniil to liMvu been nuicli improved by the quantity of wood cut down, so that if due pre- I'imtliiiio he taken, the danger is no longer very formidable. The exports from Sierra l.i'iiiiv mid the auttluments on the Gambia amounted in 1H,'}5 to M0,000/. ; the chief heads MllK— limber, !l(V1(K)/, I bees' wax, 22,000/.; hides, 13,000/.; palm-oil, 14,000/.; rice, <),«(KV.; Kmiii, 'I.HOO/, I gunis, 7)U(XV. j coin wood, 4,700/. ; ivory, 4,700/. The amount sent to liritain »ft»H^,(HX)/, I to Western AtVicn, :K5,0(XV, ; United States, 8,'.'00/. ; West Indies, 7,0(K)/. Tlio illl|iiirls amounted to MXfXKll., and included a great v.iriety of manufactured goods, I'liliinliil proilucvi and luxuries. From Uritain the amount was 110,000/. ; rest of Africa, '.'7,000/, 1 United .States, H'iOO/. .W.V Tkf tinii'i'/)vm Skrrii l.fme to thecrmmcnccmcnt of the OraiiiCoait of Guinea, an extent nf about lu'ii IliiliiltlHl liilliMi, la I'lllcfly Itiarknl by tlic entrance into the aca of the conaiilcniblo rivers iif Shcrbro nnit Mi'iurmlii. 'I'liti l\iriiii>r In liavliinblv twenty Icngucs i.|>, and has a tolerably large inlanil at itH mouth. Un the iMiikt It fiiiiiiil a •iH'Clei of pcari oyator. The Mcsurado is a still larger stream, anil very ra|ii(l. According to Ihe imllviii, It n,i|iilr(>s three months' navigation to reach its source, which would appear to be in the moun- laiiii iif Ki)iiK, mil very nir from that of tnc Niger. Tlie banlara(iticar plant, with 1330 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III beautiful green leavei, and the flruit of which, resembling a flg, pre«ent>, when opened, aromatic Kraim forming the valuable (uirt. At ita flrit intro8 coast, producing no other articles of export, has been the least i>8cd to lie communicated on various high |x)ints ; and those wlio have gone tlirongh the course with success, and are called the " marke|>eciC9 been the least the coast, are |t seems to be ircvalcnt to a ^ir at the grave ht'ul candiilatc n from all hii u'lity. AmonR often iiulccent and those who on all the rest mt conduct the the Pottunuesc Ic there, mixed pe ApoUonla, ii oduct, obtained uallty, anil un. .poUunia, a con. also a Kood deal ottlemcnts upon ist. Naviijation any conspicuous itinually against le African coast, ^bling the cry of an of Kuropeans is but justice to lie account. He en he did go on fas long the most rized commodity coast presents the k1. '1 he soil near jtton ; but six or the richest West [aize is the grain lown from moun- U quantity maj: lie is exported. I'bc more ingenuity in governmcnl is re. emldy is held, and md the adrainistta- jlarly against those )lic envy hy mo(ie- dreadful custom id is accoinpaniril V, all the laborious iniciontly dienilicil toilette, in »lncli ■s have of late sat. their own violfiil _, which, perhaf- r of her arms alone 1 defended by strong Je would be difSciill In of eiaht thousami inds by the Briliih, rients is osttemels lee, in Ihc .Ahaaii fcrly the great matt Ison of twelve men, Ition i Fort Jamts, bf these seltlemenli L UM. Wi* ""' Int state than when i novi' the only foiti Ihc Portuguese, mi ■try, close to a large la hundred tons™ larrisonoflMmcn, litish. Their forti \c ate no less tnn loneatSingo.neii Lns, was divided kquamboe; but Is warlike power iDtliors, of wWeti Itimated to con- Timber would be ■riie attire of ibe l,f. their pcnoM AsiiANfuB ciiisr. bting loaded with golden rings and ornaments, waving plumes and superstitious amiiK>ts [Jig. 83.5.). The people are, on the whole, of a superior class to those on the coast; their houses are larger, more commodious and ornamented ; they manufacture finer cloths. Their manners are more polished and dignified, and their general conduct more orderly. The king is absolute, witli the excep- tion of a military council of four principal officers, whom he is obliged to consult on questions of peace and war, and who usually give their voice in favotir of tlie latter- There are, however, some features in this monarchy which surpass in barbarism those of almost any other. The fury with which war is conducted is, indeed, too ;;eneral among barbarians, but Ashaiitue is horribly distinguished by the vast amount of human sacrifice. There are two annual cusloms, as they are called, in which the king and chief men seek to pro- pitiate the manes of their ancestors by a crowd of victims. Foreign slaves and criminals are selected in preference ; but, as each seeks to multiply the num- ber, unprotected persons cannot walk the streets, without the hazard of being seized and immolated At the death of any of the royal family, victims must bleed in thousands; and the same is the case when the king seeks from the powers above favourable omens respect- ing any great projected undertaking. The abuse of polygamy also is carried to the hii'hest pitch. The legal allowance of wives for the king is upwards of three thousand, selected from the fairest damsels in his dominions, These unfortunate creatures are in general no better than slaves, and, on any capricious disgust, are treated with tlie greatest cruelty, and often put to death. Yet this barbarous king is not without a desire to civilise his subjects, and to adopt European arts and improvements. He has occupied himself in erecting a palace of stone, in the European style, under the direction of an artist from El Mina, instead of the structures of earth and straw to which the architecture of Africa has hitherto been confined. He seeks also to promote by every means the commerce of his subjects, and to open a communication with the sea, to wliich, however, the late unhappy did'crence with Britain has been a considerable bar. Gold is now the most valuable article of export, not produced within the country, but brought in large quantities from the moun- tainous regions in the north. He still clings to the slave trade, and could with difficulty be dissuaded from sending fifty boys and the same nuinber of girls as presents to the King of England. He is at present, however, on the very best terms with the British government at Cape Coast Castle. SW3. On the eastern side of the Rio Volta commences whatEtirn|)eans have called l/ie Slave Coast, because slaves were there procured of the most docile and tractable character. It consistetl originally of the two kingdoms of Whidah and Ardrah, forming the most populous and the best cultivated part of the African coast. The vast and impenetrable forests whiih cover so much (if that continent had here been cut down, leaving only what was requisite for ornamen. and convenience. The whole country was like a garden, covered with fruits and grain of every description. Amid this abundance, the Whidans, having become luxurious and cfTeminatc, were unable to make head against the warlike power of Dahomey, in the interior, which invaded and conquered them at the l)egiiining of the last century. The ttrst ravages were dreadful, and rendered their country almost a desert, nor has its peaceful submission ever allowed it to regain its former prosperity. 5-284. Dahomei/, which is thus predominant both over the coast and over the interior, to a depth of alwut two hundred miles, is governed u|ion the same system as Ashantec, and with all its derdrinitics, which it carries to a still more violent excess. The bloody custom: take place on a still greater scale j and the bodies of the victims, instead of l)eing interred, are hung up on the walls and allowed to putrefy. Human skulls make the favourite ornament of the palaces and temples, and the king has his sleeping apartment paved with them. His wives are kept up to an equal number with those of the king of Ashaiitce. All the female sex is considered as at the king's disposal, and an annual assemblage takes place ; when, having made a large selection for him- self, he distributes the ref\isc among his grandees, who are bound to receive them with the humblestgratitudc. In short, this ferocious rac« allow tnemselves to be domineered over in a mannerof which there is no example among the most timid and polished nations. The greatest lords, in approaching the king, throw themselves flat on the ground, laying their heads in the dust ; and the belief is instilled into them, that their life belongs entirely to their sovereign, and that they ought never to hesitate a moment to sacrifice it in his service. The king ot Dahomey has been lately worsted in his wars with Eyeo, by which lie is now held in a species of vassalage. His country consists of an extensive and fertile plain, rising IVom the sea by a gradual ascent. The soil is a reddish clay mixed with sand, and nowhere contains a stone of the size of a walnut. Though capable of every siwcics of tropical culture, little is actually produced from it that is fitted for a foreign market ; sothat, since the abolition of the slave trade, small advantage has accrued from continuing the intercourse with it, and the English fort at Whidah has Iwen abandoned. 5SS5, ll'liida/i, now commonly called Griwhee, may be considered the port of Dahomey, (Vom which a route of about a hundred milc« reaches through Favies and Toro to Abomcy, the capital. Griwhee is situated in a fertile country, still highly cultivated, and is plentifully supplied with all the necessaries and conveniences of African life. Captain Adams, whose estimates on this (wint are unusually low, represents it aa containing about 70(0 inhabitants. The despotic and capricious manner, however, in which foreign residents arc treated by the tyrant of Dahomey, has gradually induced the dlH'erent European powers to withdraw their factories, ■irtirah is still larger and more flourishing; containing, according to the same authority, 10,(IOU inhabitants. It is situated about twenly.fivc miles inland, on a long and beautiful lake or lagoon, running |>arailel to the sea, with which it becomes connected at its eastern extremity by thelliver of Lagos. The Ardranese are industriQus inihe manufacture of cotton interwoven with silk : they make also soap, baskets, and earthenware, 4 K ltS9 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part \\l and ire ikllfkil in working iroi). Their market ia the tiett regiilatnl of anv on the cuail, and exhlblti ih. manufactureti of India and Europe, toliaeco from Brazil, cloth tVom Kyeo and Houssa, and cvi-ry other artlt I '.hat i« here in demand. Though so close to Dahomey, the people appear to enjoy a republican furm of A considerable number of Mahometan residents have made their way hither, and haveliitni! government. duccd the management of hortcs, and the use of milk, tn l>oth of which the negroes in general arc tlraiiKi.M Badiigry, though it has suffered by recent contests with L.'igo., appeared still, by Lander's report, to lie n I'rjl and populous place, situated in a fine plain, and divided into four districts, each governetl by a chiff who assumes the title of king. Lacos is built upon a small island, or rather the iMink at the iwint where thli channel communicates with the sea on one side, and on the other with the Craiioo lake, a parallel iilcreor water. The town is scarcely a foot alrave the lake, and is over-run by water rats tYom it. It has .'Wi inhal>ilant8, with a good deal of stir and trade. Its petty desimt assumes all the airs of the greatest Attkan monarchs, never allowing his courtiers to approach him unless crawling on the ground. Some b.irliaroui customs prevail, such as impaling alive a young female, to propitiate the goddess who presides over rain and hanging the heads of malefactors to some large trees at the en, now discovered to be all branches of the Niger, of which this country forms the delta. They comtnunicate with each other by creeks, and, frequently overflowing their banks, render the shore for twenty or thirty miles inland, a vast alluvial wooded morass. The natives, having thus very extended water communications, arc the most active traders any where in Africa ; hut, except slaves, the commodities in which tliey deal are entirely changed. Gold has disappeared ivory is again found in considerable plenty ; but palm oil is the great staple of the eastern districts. A great quantity of salt is mode at the mouths of the rivers, both for consuinptian i)t home and in the interior. This tract, however, from its low, marshy, and wundv cha. ractcr, is excessively pernicious to the health of Europeans. 5287- T/ieJirst leading/eatiire is the riper Formosa, two miles wide at its mouth : on a creek triljiilary lo it lies the capital of Benin. This city appeared to Captain Adams (he largest he had seen on Ihennuuf Aflrica ; he therefore probably under-ratcs its |>opulation at I5,U0(I : and, being built quite irregularly, and ron. listing of detached houses, it occupicsan immense space of ground. The surrounding territory is well \ ultivaicd though not so thoroughly clearearing as if (Iropiinl fVom the clouds amidst the vast woods and swamps by which it is 8urroundeal of which is supposed to reach tlielioi|l)lil \:i,M) feet. 5291. Several islands which lie tn the Gulf of Benin may terminate the descripli«| of this coast. They are, Fernando Po, a fine large island, lately occupied only bill lawless race, composed of slaves or malefactors escaped from the neighbouring coast, All British government, however, upon the disappointment experienced in regard to Sitnil Leone, formed, in 1827, a settlement at this island, the mountainous and picturesque mpNil of which afforded hopes of a healthy station; but the.sc have been completely disappoinltll Of thirty European settlers taken out, nineteen died ; and Col. Nicholls, the governor, nl three times attacked with fever. The British liave thus been induced to evncunte t)i| 1»AIIT III. 1 exhtlilU th« r other article tlcan form ol nd have \\Ax» arc stranticii. X, to be » lariie If a ch\i'f, who lint where thii •atallel vlccenf t. It has fiUm ;rcate»t African lome b.irharoui I over rain, and here ecimiiti of lerioi cnunttiet, af coast, of a I. It extends low discovcteil r communicatt lore for twenty ring thus very ica; but, except IS disa\)pettrc(i , D of till- eivstetn ■or consumption and woody ch«. , creek tributary to pen he ciajl ul Irregularly, ami fon. iry is well i uUIvukI, is not "lily ubwilul'i ic<\ in the most irud Uthcportol'llcnini muuicatinR with tki incaringasifilrofl*! the ViiiB '« alisiiliilt, into the scmkUo.ui ijev) Town, on Ui( ve come to that ol the largest estuan and thai hy whkh eing the principil ^ impeded, and ilii , ton either lirantk, ry overgrown »iik oon into two \m the next importoi 1 bar. Bi'ing onlyi 1 this country. TIk in slaves and vain ;iodities, andUsuP' canoes two or tliw I under the head (< rest of his brrtkw and ornamenlsta vigablc for larje ««* I . U appeals WW"" I "followed by tliM»i«;^ vicld a Rood *'»'»' "ol Bd t.oreachtlielic«l«'l Inate the descripwl I occupied only b-il Ibouring coast. l»l 1 in regard to Swl Ind picturesque asi* I Iplctely disapi""*! Ills, the governot,«l Teed to eviicuaiewi Doox HI. SOUTHERN AFRICA. 12S9 ialAnd, r«lliM|ui»hing >t to the Spaniards, who, however, liave not formed any settlement there, Prince's Islmid is high and wooded ; St. Thomas is large and fertile ; the pretty little isle of Annnbtnta is inhabited by a simple native race. These run in a chain to the south- west fttim the Rio Calabar ; and the l:»t three are in nominal subjection to the crown of PortHgal. .MW. The next dlvlilon of Western AftlM consists of Con/fo and Loango, the coast of which, accordine to I)e«rainliiii«. iH-ar. the name of Angola. I he principal feature i. the ZiSre, or Congo, « powerful and ripd river, whlih rushes by ■ sIurIo channel into the Atlantic. Its course was traced upwards by Cai.tain Tuckev in hl« uiiftirtuimtc expcilition, alKiut M miles, yet iiolhir.g was asccrtiined as to its origin and early course.' Ilraligli the li>|HHhP»ls ol its forming the teriniiintion of the Niger is now completely tefuted. The natives o? (niiiio «n> rather of small slie ; iMicy arc cheerful and good-humoured, but ur.rcflccting, and possessed of little emriiy either ol mliid or body. The negro indolence Is carried m them to its utmost excess. The little cultivfc ! not and lamest vlllageN t ihhoo, r.miHiinma.aiiu inga, roniaining only iroin jm) to (SIM) inhabitants. The interior cauUal orimiitiiwar, however, mentioned at the residence of the Blindy N. Congo, to whom all the chiefs iiav a uiiii, .'•*"■". ..-- -. — . — I., — — --—•-•...»—,...•»..«....,. ..Ma. xiiu^iiit.isiiave ill any (lives, whiiui Ihey make the victims of the moat scandalous traffic j frequently tendering their favours to Kuniiniuis at a very IrilllnK rate. ;V«.i,i. 7'Ai- j'liei- liaile, for whlrh alone this part of AfHca is now frequented, is chiefly carried on at Ma- IrmlM and Cnlwnda, on the north side of the river. Malcmba has been called the Mont|ielicr of Africa It tLtiiiU 1111 a hill almul lOO feet high, commanding a beautiful prospect of the windings of the Loango Louisa Ihtu i(!li ail extensive ii'..jln. Its dry and elevated situation preserves it from those deadly influences which ,'l.evvliere operate so fatally on the health of mariners. Cabenda, near the mouth of the river of that n.iine, ,il«i a iHsuitlfUl city. Is situated ut the foot of a conical wooded mountain, and has been called the Pa. r.iihse 111 the toast. It is a great mart for slaves, who are brought from the opposite territory of Sogno • but Hie n..lives coiitrnry to their general character in this region, are rude and difficult to treat with. .V.'H, '/'»(• iiiwa^y III '*<• south ((/■ Congo is called Uenguela, and its commerce is still almost entirely in the li.imU iif the Portuguese. They IVeouent the bay and river of Ambriz, in which there is a tolerable ro'^dstead • hit tlii'ir (irrat seltlenieiit Is at St. I'aul de Loanda,a large town in an elevated situation. It exports annually h.iKUl or '.11,0110 ^lave», chiefly to Hraiil. S. Felipe de Henguela, in a marshy and unhealthy site, is now con. mleralilvdeellm-di aiid its JHiiiulatioiMlocs not exceed oIKKl, mostly free negroes and slaves. There is also jMiLiller port, ealleil Nova liedoiido. The Portuguese claim a certain jurisdiction over the native states for M'vi'Ml huinlreil miles in the interior, obtaining presents and purchasing slaves. Farther inland is the country i.f Juiia t'atsaiiKn. The .lagas are celebrated by the writers of travels, two centuries ago, as a formidable (lfV,i»l«tliiK IrllH', addlctcti to the most ferocious habits, which they have now, however, in a great degree re- iiouiiml. llehliid them, and In about the centre of the continent, is the nation. of the Molouas, represented M more numerous, more Intelligent, and having attained a higher degree of industry and civilisation than inv olliur In AlVlea under this latitude. Tiie country abound! in valuable copper. The king, however, it >tllolut^ and the atrocloui custom of human sacrifice prevails. Chap. VII. SOUTHERN AFRICA. 59SIA. Southern jifrica, by its mere name, sufficiently indicates the part of the continent n nliicli the somewhat \agiie appellation is applied. Generally speaking, it is given to the Itrriiury discovered and partly colonised by Europeans, from that important settlement Miicli they formed ut the Cape of Good Hope. Sect. I. General Outline and Aspect. Si%, The siir^itv of this region is striking and peculiar, presenting three successive hoiminin riingesi running parullel to the coost and to each other. The first, called Large kloof, is hetween ao nnd 60 miles from the ocean, the breadth of the intermediate plain ^iii|t greatest in the west. Tlie second chain, called the Zwaarte Berg, or Black Mountain, k's »t nil interval nearly similar behind the first, is considerably higher and more rugged, lid consists often of double or even triple ranges. Behind, at the distance of 80 or ICO liles, rises the Nieuwcltlfs Gcbirgte, the loftiest range in Southern Africa. The summits, J 11 ureaf extent, arc covered with snow ; from which circumstance the eastern and mos.t pviited part h calletl the Sncuwberg, or Snowy Mountains, whose highest pinnacles are not p|ioseii to full short of lO.CXK) feet. The plain nearest the sea is fertile, well watered, llily cliitlied with grass and trees, and enjoys a mild and agreeable climate. The plains ^(veen the siicccsMvo ranges are elevated, and contain a large proportion of the species of 1 desert called Kiurot). The southern plain, in particular, is almost entirely composed of [ureiil Karroo, ;KX) miles in length and nearly 100 in breadth, covered with a hard and ini- ft'imlile soil, almost unfit for any vegetation. Along the foot of the Sneuwherg, »ever, there is n considerable tract finely watered, and ail'ording very rich pasturage. Joinl the niountuins, the territory is for some space bleak and sterile j but it gradually pioves till It opens into the extensive pastoral plain occupied by the Boshuanas. So far 4 K 2 1234 MAP OF SOUTHERN AFRICA. ■f%. 836. 9 Book IH- SOUTHERN AFRICA. tiS8 as this has been explored to the northward, it becomes always more fertile, though to the west there has been observed a desert of very great extent. The eastern coast also consists chiefly of a fine pastoral plain, occupied by the various Caffre tribes, and broken by some chains of mountains, the direction of which has been very imperfectly explored. 5297. Rivers do not form a prominent feature in a country of which tlic general character is arid. The principal are those which flow down from both sides of the great boundary chain of the Nieuweldt Mountains, particularly in the eastern quarter, where it becomes both more lofty and more distant from the coast. On the side of the colony, it gives rise to the Camtoos, the Zoondag, and the Great Fish River, which last, though the most considerable, has not a course of much more than two hundred miles. The smaller and more westerly streams of the Breede, and the Gansely, with its tributary the Oliphant, are chiefly fed from the inferior chains along whose base they flow. On the northern side, the waters wliich descend from the Snowy Mountains unite and form the Orange River, which, having flowed, first north-west and then due west, through long ranges of rude and desert territories, falls into the Atlantic in about 28° 30' N. lat., after a course, which, with its windings, must considerably exceed a thousand miles. In the Caflre territories, several estuaries open into the Indian Ocean, the early course of which is little more than conjectured ; but travellers through the Boshuana territory crossed streams which, from their direction, appeared likely to reach that receptacle. Sect. II. Natural Geography. SUBSECT. 1. Geologi/' 5298. This district is bounded on the north and east by the Orange and Fish rivers ; on the west and south by the ocean. The country extends from S. lat. 26° to S. lat. 33=" 55' 40", that of the Cape of Good Hope. 5299. Peninsula of the Cape of Good Hope. — The rocks of which this tract is composed are granite, gneiss, clay slate, greywacke, quartz rock, sandstone, and avgite greenstone, or dolerite. Of these the most abundant are granite and sandstone ; the next in frequency are clay slate and greywacke ; and the least frequent are gneiss and dolerite. In some parts, as Steinberg, the sandstone is traversed by veins of red iron ore. The Neptunian formations, viz. the gneiss, clay slate, greywacke, quartz rock, and sandstone, are variously altered and upraised by the granite, and traversed by veins of the augite greenstone. The hill named lion's Rump is composed of clay slate, greywacke, and sandstone ; granite forms a consi- derable part of the Lion's Head; the Table Mountain, in its lower and middle part, is com- posed of red sandstone, clay slate, and greywacke, which rest on granite : the upper part of the mountain exhibits magnificent displays of horizontally stratified sandstone. The Devil's Peak has the same general structure and composition as the Table Mountain. 5300. The ranges of mountains which run northward from the Cape peninsula to Orange 01 Gariep River are composed of granite and slate, with vast deposits of sandstone and quartz rock, with numerous table-shaped summits ; thus showing a similarity of composi- tion in these mountains to those of the Cape peninsula. The three great ranges of moun- tains that run from east to west are of the same general nature, and characterised by the vast abundance of sandstone reposing in horizontal strata upon the granite and slate, form- ing the middle and very often the highest parts of the chain. 5301. Geology of the Table-land. — From the third rimge onwards to lat. .TO" S., the prevailing rock in the plains and hills is sandstone. At Dwaal River, the frontier of the Bt^fcrences to the Map (ff Southern 4frica. 1. Balrarrlkarri 2. .Mellla 3. Kurecchane 4. Cheye 5. Spikaliely 6. Mashow 7. .Metilpowhey 8. Taykecso 9. Vattaba 10. Khing 11. Moquamia n. lloiiVlelce 13. Hflnueen 14. Malaiieetzee 15. Maraltay 16. (lid l.atlakoo 17. Desert Station 18. (iiratlie Station 19. Termlnalia Station !0. Hot Station !1. Kwles i't Sand Station !3. Kuril 81. P.ManM! •a. TurMhej 26. Choiw 27. Kniinpn <8< New Laitakoo 29. BuBhman's Kraal 4. 30. Knegt*8 Fountain 51 . Sensavan .1". (irlqua 3.1. Camptiell Town .M. 8imif(stand S.*!. Konnah 36. llrakke 37. Hem's Kraal flS. Hardca-slle 39. Kaalii-n Kraal 40. Quakka Station 15. 41. flmh Dove Place 16, ' " 17. IS. 19. 211. 21. 42. Dwaal 43. Hrakke-rlver 44. nuffet-liout 4.'>. Hans Halnian 46. OrlainS Kraal 47. Pelia 48. Zebra Fn. 49. Warm Baths 50. Kams SI.H.il-Rat 52. Vander Ilyvers. CAPK COLONV. 1. Bakovan 2. Vallelllea 3. Ung KUp lieeiiwenkiiil Leedwendans Dasaen Wolhift Moedvcrloren OotIor's Kloof Matie'a Fn. Brakke Akkerenzam Kland's Fn. Hartebeeste Gaertner's Fn. I'innaars Nleuw-faara Fn. Eland's Fn. Heplizibah Toombi'rit Bniilhouders Draal Naawe Hull Fn. Hyena Htation Geranium Kockg Hrakke Fn. Waal Fn. Karrle UontelierK Koomland's Kloof 31. MaOe'iFn. 59. 32. Rhenoster Bosch 60, .33. Van Wyk-s Fn. Si. Wolfaatta 35. Jackail's Vail .16. Hl« Fn. 37. Cianwilliam 3S. Oiyven-lmsch 39. Jan Kl.iar> Fn. 40. Vischers Fn. 41. KlipFn. 42. Beaufort 43. (Iraaf Keynet 44. Kruidt Fn. 45. Roodewal 46. Stockenstrom's Fn. 47. Fort William 48. Frederii-ksburtf 49. Bathurst 60. Graham's Town 51. TheupolU 52. Enon 53. Drlekopi 54. I)e Beer's Valley 83, 55. (iocde-hoo|) 56. Remhougte 57. Blanwekrans 58. Slagtet's Fn. Kabeltou b Kooktp HanK Kllpi c Gamna Karra I't. d Lion .Tackal's Kl. e Kanieeldoom Klip Fn. Tulhaiih f Olep K Orange h Krunian Gclbek Ca|ie Tov.!! 1 Hart Stellenbosch 1 Mobatee 1( Mapootd 1 Donkin Caledon De I.iefde Meyntjes.hoek m Ky Gariep, or Yellow Breederiven Zwellendam n Nu Gariep. or ■teed Fn. Black Zoute Vlaldv o Zeckoe Zuurbrak p Brak Vzerhout q Hartebeeste Gauhtsriver r Groot Kitt Georijia aZak Stculel Fn. t Kromme De I'oort u Klein Doom Kipiiendrift Suka T Breede w Gamka Uitenhage. X Groote y Sunday PiffM. I Oieat Fw'i. Guaquipa 4K S 1236 DESCHIPTIVE OEOORAl'ilV. l*A»r III. colony, there are rocks of augite greenstone and bawilt, |irob«bly travvrniiig tin uinditunv The Karcebergen, or Dry Mouiiuins, beyond the liinltH of the culoiiv, iir« nrlnclpiilly lumi posed of sandstone, in horizontal strata, and every wlivrti exhibit beautlttil tiililu-nliniieij summits. This sandstone rock continues onward to lat. ilO" 8., to nuur Mud Oiip, wherv true quartz rock and vesicular trap appears. In lat. ^0° l,V ll'J" H., uiouhlainK, lullvd ihu Mbestits Mountains, composed of clay slate, disposed in linrlaoiitnl Htriilit, occur; tlilii veinj of abbi'stus traverse the slate. In the same mountain green opul and pilchfiloiie ncmir. To the north of these mountains, at Klaarwater, are vast beiU uf liiiwtlmic, dinpoHi'd luiiii'.uii. tally, enclosing organic remains. In conclusion, it may be reumrkvd, that, as fur m j, known at present, the whole uf the table-land of Africa tu the north of the Uruii)(u Uiwr is composed of linustone in horizontal strata, claif ttale, iaml»timp uiul i/uttWa ruck^ granitt greenstone, scriientine, and potstone- SuHsEcr. 2. Botany, 5'M2, If our botankal observations on certain countries are ol\vh limited fur want uf in. for^nation, it is far otherwise with regard to the region in question, wliivli, almost vvit tiiu'v it has been known to Europeans, bus been u never-failing source of butiinicnl novelty to tlie green-houses and conservatories of our country : and in proporliuil to the niulllpllvity uf wh- jects is the difficulty of selecting, consibtently with brevity, what is niUHt mteful and intvri'st- ing. " All that I hiid pictured to myself," exclaims Mr. Uurchell, onu of the niiiit eiilight. ened of modern travellers, " respecting the riches of the Cape in botiuiy, wbn fur Niirpusstd by what I saw in one day's walk. At every step a dilll-rent plant appeared ; and it is not an exaggerated description of the country, if it should be compared lo a bututilc giirdcn neglected and left to grow in a state of nature ; so great wiih the variety every wliure to Im met with. As I walked along," he continues, " in the midst uf the variety and prorusiim I could not for some time divest myself of feelings of regret, that ut every step my fuot crushed some beautiful plant ; for it is not easy, during une'n llrkt rauibleN In this vouniry, to lay aside a kind of respect with which it is customary in Europe lo treat the I'roteii-i, iIib Ericas, the Pelargoniums, the Chironias, the Iloyenus, &c. To give Nome idea uf tlu' botanical riches of the country, I need only state, tliat in the short (liHtancu uf one Eiigli^li mile, though the most favourable season had passed, aiul many uf the bulbous and livrlmccous plants had disappeared under the influenc:. of the drought, I culleeled, in four hours unda half, 105 distinct species; anil I believe that more than double that niiittber may, by starcli. ing at diflfcrent times, be found on the same gruund." 5303. Nathing, perhaps, is calculated so much to strike the attention of u stranger, nsilig great extent of certain groups, and the vast number of dill'erent kindit included in Him, Among them may especially be enumerated the Heaths (Jig. 81)7.), for which the Ciipt has long been celebrnteil, anil the beauty uiiddvli- cacy of which are familiar to all of us from tlie great number cultivated (no less tlmn ooo* species and varlelieit) In the green-liuiiscs of our gardens. Yvt in the colony, iiutwiili. standing their elegance and beauty, su little do they strike the iMIention of llie puupli', that they have not even u name ( but when spokin of, are indiscriiniimlely culled bosjes (hushis). It dues not appear, however, that the rungcol' the I leatht: is very extensive ( for, on coming to the KarriHi I'ass, Mr, Uurchell oiiwrvi-s, "four of the strongest iiiid iiiohI chitructeristii' fia- tures of Cape liotany, the Ericie, the Diusiiias tlie ProteaceouH and IteftlinciHitis tiiliis, in- tirely disupuear ; nor did I meet uguiii withaiiv of them till two years aflerwariN, wlii'ii 1 n- entered the tame holailicnl puraliel iit Znart- water Poort, lying in the same pi> Uel of latitude as Karroo I'uss, but at «" lung, morototlic eastward. The Heath was Erica Plukenetii. Tills lovely tribe had attended ine the wlioli' ftuy from Cape Town, till now that I was arrived at *'•" very dt. ir of the desert, boyond which the scorching heat rendered it impossible fc tli>i,, (o exist; and il seeineil asif lhi> Imndsonie species had accompanied me till the last moment, to lake a long furewi'li in llie name of the whole family." It is probable, therefore, that in Europe, the single ts\Kc'm, the common Heath, or Ling (Erica vulgaris Lin.), extending as it dtiCH tVuin Lupluiul to Itiily in the plains, and un the mountains even to Morocco, occu|>ies a greater extent of suriate " empurpled wltli the llcnthcr'atlye " ihiiii llie 30C species which are eniinierated as natives of llie Cape uf Oood Hope. "AmidM CAPH HKATlll » I.i:llllllll's Ili'liUS HlllllllH: posed on the genus would seem to indicate that she has been in some degree successful. The Silver tree (Protea argeniea) grows to the height of a middling- sited tree; while the Protea rcpens (Jig, 839.), at the other extreme, creeps along the sand, and bears on its slender stem, a flower, which, from its size and colour, mit.:bt at first sight be mistaken fur an orange. The in. ter: ediate space is occupied by upwards of sixty species, which display an extraordinary diversity in form and habit. Some have small blossoms tliat attract the attention of no one except the botanist ; others, at the elevation of a few inches, bear a flower that exceeds in size the crown of a hat, and strikes with wonder the most indifferent passenger. In the inflorescence of some species, particularly the Protea mellifera {Jig. 840.}, a vast quantity of honey is secreted, which attracts swarms of bees, beetles, and other insects, whoso variegated colours and active movements heighten the interest of the scene; nor is this interest at all diminished, when the Cape Humming-bird (Certhia chalybea) joins the animated group, and, perching on the border of the chalice, darts its tubular tongue into the bottom of the flower, or snaps at the insects as they buzz around. 5305. The colony owes some gratitude to the person who introduced the Pine to an acquaintance with the Silver tree. Tlie contrast is not stronger between a black man and a white than between these trees: yet, like them, they possess several striking points of resemblance. The seeds in both, for instance, are contained in cones ; when once cut down, neither of them revives in shoots from the trunk ; the annual branches in both spring out in a circle round the stem ; and in both, the brai\ches, as well as the minute twigs, are covered with leaves. But the leaves of the Pine arc mere 4 K 4 YBOTHA NBPBM. VnOTBA HKLLirFRAt I'iSS DKSCRIPTIVK GEOGRAPHY. Part HI. lines, without breadth, smooth, rigid, and of a dark green colour ; whereas tho«e uf tliu Silver tree are lance-shaped, soft, and clothed with a white shag, more delicate than silk which, blending its hue with the white parenchyma of the leaf, gives it the appearance of sky-blue satin. The effect of a strong wind on the mingled foliage of these trees is pccu. liarly pleasing. 5iV)6. The Silver tree is dioecious. The fertile flowers are separated by the scale of the cone. After the germ has been fecundated, the scales begin to grow, and at length uvi>rton the petals, gathering them in a bunch, entirely concealed from view. When the fruit L become ripe, the sun begins to act on the scales; they curl out at the top and contract at the base, gradually squeezing out the nut, until it arrives at the aperture, when, spreading out the white hairy border of the corolla, it assumes a feathery appearance, like the seed-down of a syngenesious plant. In this state it remains, ready to be wafted by the first gale that blows : but to ensure the idtimate object of nature, the transportation of the seed, the loni: capillary style and its round stigma remain attached to it, and, the latter being too lurei. to slip through the narrow throat of the corolla, the seed is thus suspended by the style, and descends to the ground somewhat in the manner of an aeronaut in bis parachute. 5307. More numerous than the Proteaceos, though of humbler growth, and bearini; smaller but not less brilliant flowers, are the Fig Marigolds [Meaembri/antliemum] a genus almost peculiar to Southern Africa. The principal species of this plant,' of which upwards of 300 have been enumerated, seem admirably adapted for fixing the loose shifting sand, with which a great part of the country is covered, spreading over the groimd from a central point ; a single specimen shades a great extent of surface, and affords a singular relief to the eye, fatigued by the powerful refraction of light. In its thick Hcshy foliage, it possesses a magazine of juices, which enables it to bear, without shrinking, a loni; privation of moisture, at the same time that it gives shelter to the nascent shoots of other plants which spring up in its bosom. The mucilaginous capsules of tlie Hottentot Fig (il/. etlule) are the chief material of an agreeable preserve. Nature has made a beautiful provision for the increase of some of the annual kinds of Fig Marigold, in the property of the capsule, which, contrary to most fruits of the kind, is firmly closed in a period of drought and only opens and discharges the seed in wet weather, when the parched and sandy deserts which this plant inhabits are moistened with the prolific rain. Even after having been lone gathered, the capsule retains the same property, being shut in a dry atmosphere and readily ex])anding wide in water, and very rapidly in warm water. Mesen>hryanthemum coriarium of Burchell is employed by the Hottentots for tanning leather. 5308. T/ie Stapeliie, or Carrion fowers (Jig. 841.), are a numerous and highly curious genus, with square, succulent, leafless stems and flowers resembling Star-fish. They derive their latter appellation from their abominable odour, which so much resembles that of putrid meat that insects are deceived by it, and even in our hot-houses (where 1 10 species are now cultivated), they deposit upon them their eggs, which m hatched by the heat of the sun, when the larvx perish for want of animal food. This is not the only service which these unsavoury plants render, Spielmnnn brought home a species, well known ta the Hottentots by the name of Gnuap (Staftk pilifcra) : it has an insipid, yet cool and uaterr taste, and is used by them for the purpose of quenching thirst ; for which purpose it would seem Pro> idence has designed it, by placing ii only in hot and arid tracts of country. " In past- ing tlirough the Karroo, I expected to have seen abmidance of Stapcliaii, but scarcely hall' a dozen appeared. No part of the colony seems to be so rich in them as the dry sandy regions of the western coast, where they cover a tract of many degrees of latitude in extent, dis- appearing to the eastward, though their associates. Aloes, Mesembryanthemum, and Aizuon, were now and then much farther north." 5309. Aloes certainly are far more numerous than Stapelias, and more remarkable for their varied mode of growth, and the curious form of their succulent leaves, than for tfie ek-giince of their flowers, though many of them, especially the larger kinds, arc not destitute of beauty. Mr. Burcliell observed in his excursions, when halting for the niglil In a rocky situation, near a small river, the fine scarlet blossoms of a new kind of Aloe[,/. clavi/lora Hurcli.) decorating the barren rocks, and giving a certain gay and cullivaliJ look to a spot, which, without it, would have apjieared a rude neglected waste. 5310. As it is not possible to pTCM-'Tvc the Aloetrilw Jig.(i42.) for the herbarium, andisdiey have not l)een studied in their native deserts, all that we know of them, or nearly so, isfnim the species cultivated in our green-houses, and these amount to 1 70 different kinds. Among Book HI- SOUTHERN AFRICA. I3S9 3R0UP OP AlABf. them, tlif Aloe dichotoma, is not the least remarkable ; the Cukenboom, o. the Quiver g^.2 A ""e °f tl>e Hottentots, so called, because natives of the western coast make their quivers of its wood. Aloe splcata is said to be extensively cul- tivated at the Cape of Good Hope, to obtain from it Hepatic Aloes, like that of the Barbadoes Aloe (^. mccotrina). Tlio place of the Cactuses (a genus wholly unknown to the Old World) seems to be occupied by a peculiar and very exten- sive group of Euphorbias, which have the fantastic and varied forms of that singular tribe, and oceu- py the very same arid and rocky situations. Many of them rise to a vast height, with their highly succulent and often prickly and angled stems and branches not unlike candelabra. The acrid milky juice is in them highly elaborated ; and while, on the one hand, men and cattle suffer from the great abundance of these plants, on the other hand, they afford a most powerful poison (especially E. mam> millaris), by which the wounds inflicted by arrows and assagays are rendered most deadly. Vaillant mentions the great sufferings he underwent, by treading with his bare feet upon the thorny Eu- phorbia meloformis(^g. 843.). E. tuberosus, and many other species, are reported to occasion the strangury at a certain time of the year to cattle browsing upon them ; and this statement seemed to be confirmed by Mr. Burchell's 843 oxen being taken ill of that disorder in spots where tliose plants abounded. The Tamus elephantopus {Jig. 844.) (Testudinaria Salisb. and Burch.) is a very remarkable plant, now well known in the green-houses of the curious. The mountains of Graaf- Reynet, says the latter author, are the native soil of this extraordinary production, which is called Hottentot's Brood (Hottentot's Bread). Its bulb stands entirely above ground, and grows to an enormous size, frequently three feet in height and diameter. It is closely studded with angular ligneous protuberances, which give it some resemblance to the shell of a tortoise. The inside is a fleshy substance, like a turnip in consistence and colour. From the top rise several annual twining stems. The Hottentots eat the inner substance, which is considered not unwhole- bume, baked on the embers. It will easily be believed that this food may not be very unlike tlie East Indian Yam, since the plant belongs to a very closely allied genus. Other remarkable genera, or tribes, inhabiting the Cape, are the Irideoi, whose gaudy flowers, tor a short season, give beauty and life, as it were, to the sandy deserts, after which their liglit and scaly or tunicated bulbs are dispersed far and wide by the winds ; the interesting torri'strial Oicliideae {Jig, 84.';.), whose large and brilliant blossoms are scarcely exceeded by 844 tvLPIIDHHIA MBI-UruKMlS. TAHL'd KI.8FHANTt)PUI> those of the parasitic species of Tropical America ; the Restiacea>, a family which the Cap" shares in common with New Holland, some individuals of which, especially Restia tec- toruin, afford excellent thatching for houses ; numerous grasses ; shrubby Boraginew, with vivid hlossoms, p.irticularly belonging to the genus Echiuni ; numerous species of Celastrus, 1340 DKSCRIFTIVE OEOGHAPHY. Paht III 846 ITHILlTIUi of LobeliaceB, of Phylica, Briinia, Thesium, and Chirunia ; the oplendid Strelitiia (^Jlg. 846.), ' ' - to named by Mr. Alton, in compliment to tliu quvvn of Guorge III., " and which stands," says Sir J. V.. Smith " on the sure basis of botanical knowledge and zciil, to which I can bear an ample and very disinterested li'stiiiioiiy :"_ numerous plants of the Natural Order Riitacea>, lu which belongs the Diosma, the powerfully scented Biiku * of the Hottentots (who take delight in mixing it with greane iiiul timearing their bodies with it), and now of our Phnrniucoiiu'ias ; Apocyneie (including Stapelias), several Umbvlliferu>, miiik of them very remarkable, among which is the Tondi'lhlud, or tinder.plant {Hennas depanperata), whose down suiiplivH the natives with tinder, and which may be removed from tlic leaves in an entire mass (so closely are the fibres iiitcrwuvt'ii), and stretched out so as to bemodelled into little caps, stockings, &c. , to which the impression of the veining of the leaves gives • beautiful appearance : in this form the tomentum is ul^cn brought to this country : numerous kinds of Rhus, Cluytia, Phamaceum, Statice, Crassiila, and other genera of the mwt family, Ornithogalum, Anthericum, Lachenalia, Asparn|{u«, Juncus, among which we may mention the Juncus serratus ' — " Many rivers," Mr. Ihiivhill observes, " are choked up with the plant called Palmiet (Juncus serratus) by the colunistj, and from which one river, in particular, derives its name. I'^ome idea uf the appenranct' uf this plant may be gained by imagining a vast numbev of Ananas, or Pine-apple plants, without fruit, so thickly crowded together as to cover the sides, and even the middle, of the stream, standing seldom higher than three or four feet above the surface, but generally under water, whenever the river swells above its ordinary height. The stems which support tliein are of the thickness of a man's arm: black, and of a very tough and spongy substancni generally simple, though not rarely divided into one or two branches. They rise up from the bottom, not often in un upright posture, but inclined by the force of the current. Tliey have very much the growth of Dragon-trees iUraatna), or of some palms, from which latter resem- blance they have obtained their name :" — Cliflbrtia, a curious genus in Rosaceie ; nunieniiii Salvia!, several species of Scrophularinr« and Selagineae; a remarkable genus of Cruciferx, Ileliophila, many of whose species hav blue flowers, an unusual colour in that natiirul order ; a vast quantity of Geraniacete, pOi Ocularly of the genus Pelargonium, which are ulniosi peculiar to the Cape ; Hermannia, and some Malvaceae. Polygals abound ; as do Lej;u. minoss, among which arc several confined to that country, and highly ornamental, lu Lebeckia, Uafnia, Liparia, Hypocalyptus, Sarcophyllum, Aspalathus, Hallia, &c. Indigo. feriE prevail very much, and the Acacias, which present some remarkable species. A. vera and A. capensis are often loaded with large lumps of very good and clear gum, and they have so great a resemblance to the true Acacia of the ancients, or the tree which yields the gum-arabic, as to have been considered the same species. Wherever these trci's aie wounded, the gum exudes ; and it is probable that a large crop might thus be annually obtained without destroying them. If a computation could be made of the quantity that might be obtained from those trees, only, which skirt the river Gariep and its branches, amounting to a line of wood (reckoning both sides) of more than 2000 miles, it might be worth while to teach and encourage the natives U> collect it, which they would readily do, if they knew that tobacco could always be had in ei. change. Indeed, the supply thus obtained would be more than equal to the whole consiiimptiun of Britain. The Acacia capensis (Jig. 847.) (i^oora- boom), or Thorn tree, Wittedoorn ( IVhiletliom), »i«i Karrodoorn (Karrothorn) has straight white thorns, two to four inches long, and is certainly tlii' mo>l abundant and widely disseminated tree of the extra- tropical parts of Southern Africa. Acacia Giratlli abounds in the Bichuana country, and was lirst noticed by Mr. Burchell, who saw it there for llie first time, and descrilies it as a remarkable species, having thick brown thorns and an • " A Hottentot lieing severely wounded by the bursting of a gun, his cfinipaiiions expressed so much ftiili ill the powers of Boclioe-nzyu {Biwkoo vinegar) as a wash to cle.insc and heal tlie wound, tliat 1 allowod il I'l te used Our small stock of thi» liquid soon failing, we ha 1 recourse to an infusion of the Diiisma lesvenn lirandy, with which the wound was washed night and morning for two or three weeks, llie etlerl of It") aiiplication being very satisfactory. This Bockoe or Bucku-azyu is made by simnly putting the lesvwoi Diosma serratifolia, or some other species of the same genus, into a bottle of cold vinegar, and leaving inw to steep J the vinegar being esteemed in proportion to the time during which the infusion has been nude,** •ometimei turning to a mucilage," ACACIA CAPKNIII. I'AKT in Jg. 846.), • <]ui'i'n of K. Smith, il, to wliicli iiiuiiiy :" — L', to whiili lU • of till' Kri'iistf nnil iimcoptvittsi lifiTii", iKinie Toiiili'\l>liid, wn supplii'H ;ed from tlig intcrwovi'ii), |)s, stockings, ! leaves (;ivi'j turn is ofli'ii hus, Cluylia, ft of till' HUini' I, Aspi>r»(!in, Mr. Huii'hill the colonists, tppeiirancv of •Bpiile plants, niiUllf, of the mcraUy unilcr support them gy substance; se up from the It. Tliiy have :h latter rt'sera. ;eK ; numeniu! I of Crui'ifeta'. in that natural fhich are almost ; as do Li'gu- ornamental, as , &c. Indigo, ecies. A. vera gum. anil they rhich yields the these trees aie us be annually le quantity that id its branches, ■s, it might he the natives v> ily do, if »lify le had in «>• jbtnined would :onsiiniiilion of 847.) [Voon- ViiJcf/iorii), wd It whiti; thorns tainly the »'»> feeof ilic"'n- Acacia Giraff» r, and was first it there for ll« thorns and an IsscilsomuchW ■iat 1 allowrf 11 <" ..l)u«n.ale»v«' f tlu' eflVot of Ik Itingthe oa«^ I and leaving tli'» las been m»ile,»»« Book 111' SUUTHERN AFRICA. IMt oval pud uf a M>lid inenly nubstancu within, and which never upeni oa those of other Acacias : in this resembling only the A. atomiphyllu. The head of it is thick and spread* ing, and of n highly peculiar t'orin, which distinguishes it at a great distance. It is called Kiiniei'Uduurii {Camel-lhi>rn), because the cainelupard browses chiefly on it ; and is one of the largest trees in lliese regions. Im wood is excessively hard and heavy, of a dark or rciUlisli brown colour, and is used by the Uichuanas fur their smaller domestic utensils, as spiMiiis, knife-lianilles, &c. Though other species resemble the A. Giratite in form and growth, yet the pod alone is sufficient to distinguish it easily from all others. A. delliiens is >ii culled by Mr. liurchell from the following circumstance. Describing the country about '/,:m\ Valley (Sand Valley) in Iat. 29" 48', he says ; — " The largest shrubs were nearly five fiit high, n plant ((uit'.' new to me, but well known to the Kliiarwater people by the name of lltiikiHluorn { Itooktiiorn) I was preparing to cut some specimens, when, though proceed- ing with the iituiust caution, a small twig caught hold of one sleeve. While trying to dis- engage myself with the other hand, both arms were seized by these rapacious thorns, and the more I tried to extricate myself, the more entangled I became : till, at last, it seited hold uf my hat also, and convinced mc that there was no possibility of getting free but by main force, and at the expense of tearing all my clothes. I therefore called for help, and two of my men came and released me by cutting off the troublesome brunches. In revenge for this ill-treatinent, I determined to give to the tree a name, which should serve to caution future travellers against venturing within its clutches." The roots of A. cle- phuntinum constitute a favourite food of the elephant. The Composita; are extremely >«idcly dispersed ; many being woody kinds, especially of Aster, while the number and Q48 variety of the Gnaphaliums and Xeranthemums (yi^'. 848.) are quite astonisliing : many of them retain the form and colour of the flower long afkcr they have been gathered, and hence derive their name of Everlastings. A great variety of timber is found along the tract of coast that stretches to Flettcnberg's Bay, a distance of nearly 200 miles ; but the indolence or apathy of the Dutch rendered it of little use to the colonists. The only kind that has been introduced into gene- ral use is the Geel Hout (Tnxus elongata), which is employed in houscybuilding. For furniture, tbey occasionally use Stink Hout (Lattrus teter- rima), tliough the execrable odour it diffuses for some time after it has been worked, forms a well- groniuled objection to its general adoption. It possesses the colour, hardness, and dura biliiy uf the heart of oak. .^311. Vie fiegelaUe inroiluctions of the country surrounding Algoa Bay are, in many re'spicts, different from those of the vicinity of Cape Town. The Heaths and Proteas iiliiHist disappear, and in their room are numerous species of Aloe and Euphorbia. These, for the most part, garnish the rocks and precipices, the Aloe perfoliata alone mvii|iii's the plains, and, with its superb scarlet spikes, resembles, at a distance, skir- mishing parties of British soldiers. A singular species of Euphorbia (£. Caput Me- i/i«d from the fact, that though the cloud never descends farther than half way into the hot pnrchtd amphitheatre of Cape Town, it may be observed on the side of Camp's Bay, roiling down in immense volumes to the very sea, over which it sometimes stretches farther than thu vyn can follow it. Nothing can be more singular than the appearance of this cloud. It h '.uii. tinually rushing down to a certain point on the side of the mountain, and there vanlshiiiK, Fleeces are seen, from time to time, torn from its skirts by the strength of the wind, float- ing and whirling, as it were, in a vortex over the town, and then gradually dissolving uwu/. But the main body remains, as if it were nailed to the mountain, and bids defiance to thu utmost efforts of the gale. Tliere is a constant verdure maintained on this muuntain by the moisture deposited from the atmosphere, and it is no wonder that it is frequented by botanists. M. Kcklon gives the following account of his ascent, in a work very little known in this country, namely, the Botanische Zeitung, for July, 1827, published at Rutit- bon ; and with this we shall conclude our already, we fear, too much extended account of the vegetation of this celebrated promontory : — " Numerous' violent showers, accompanied with hail, had, almost daily, for four long weeks, frustrated every attempt of ours to undertake a botanical tour, in which we hoped tu examine the vegetation of Table Mountain, during the winter season, Th« top was con- stantly covered with clouds, which rendered the ascent impossible: but as the unusual culil of this year gave reason to expect that ice would be found on the summit, I was the more curious to see the effect which it would produce on vegetation ; and the occurrence of twu fine wintry days enabled us to start. My friend Heil, the companion of all my wandering,'!, accompanied me on this occasion. It was a beautiful day, scarcely a cloud dimming llie clear blue sky. Our ascent lay among the gardens at the foot of the mountain, where the fresh verdure, interspersed with the many-coloured blossoms of Oxalis and Hypoxli, that were called forth by the rain, ornamented the lower region, By the garden walN flowered the shrubs Muralta, Heisteria, Scnccio rosmarinifolius, Othonna abrotanlfolia, Nottea (Selago) corymbosa, Cluytia pulchella, &c. The water of the great stream from llie Table Mountain rolled down with great violence. The road ceases at the water-mill iibovc the gardens, and we ascended briskly, finding Erica baccans Phylica buxifolia with seed, Achyranthes aspera. Mora grand!- flora, and Cluytia polygunoides. A little bird (Si/luia Paslori) enticed out by the beauty of the morning, whistled his gra'|)t'r note in the miller's fig trees, and even here, amid all the rlrliti of Flora, the lingering wish that we could but hear the in'ghtingale of our native land, convinced us that there is nothing in this wile world capable of completely satisfying the wider wishes of the human heart. While ascending the rock still more toward the table lond, and between the pieces of rock, Penwa mucroiiala, Apa- thosma villosa, Blechnum australe, Pteris calomelanos, Chcilantlics capensis, C. hirta, C. pteroides, Asplenium furcatum, and at the great brook, Lomaria capensis and the Calla Oithiopica (Jig' B49')i now appeared with multitudes of blossoms. The beautiful day hail t«i.u KTHH PICA. attracted another party to the Table Mountain, as we perceived bya iiii.li rii. SOUTIIEKN AFRICA. IfM whilv »»H wnvliiK 01) tliu •uinnilt. Tliv vc'Kctiitinn nt riallu Klipp, owiiiK to tliu late eon* lliiiiitil wvt wi>nlli«r, liHil iiMiimvd quite an Europv.-in anpi'it. I Kathi'red Cyporus Imicrim, VliiUitiiKUitltrulin, n I'liiiipamiln, Cumaturliiimtn, Stucliys atliiopica, and Miirsa collinu. We wtui \mv III lilt' ri'gioiwif tliu Siivi-rtrif, l(XX)ft;i't above lliu level of the «i'n. Leucadendron itrKi'iiluiini liirinH n mnnll foreit, at between 5l)0 and l(XX) feet frum the Luwenberg, running nIiiiik IIio imrlllerii side of the Devil's Uerg and Table Mountain to Constantia, The lovely I'riiii* inellllVra, with red, reddish and white flowers, was here in full bloom, and • Thesiuin, liy lliv ^tvM hrlttleness of its item, was near letting me fall, ns I clung to it to aid me in (ho Hu'i Ml, Ciisiytha HllformiK had almost covered a tree of Virgilia capcnsis, above 20 feet IiIkIi. I'lalle Klijipu consists of granite, striped witli lioriiontal layers of grey greenstone; Ml miinv hundred ieet higher up is the Wittc Klippe, a large granite rock with a sloping top, itvt'r whli'h the water runs, and as there was abundance of water at this season, it formed a iiiiiHt lii'iiulil\il scene. The view was romantic : before us rose the tall steep mass of ruck iil'llii> Tublw Mountain, not a cloud obscured the clear sky, and only in the greater distance to lliv north, n thick whitish fug intercepted the prospect of the whole chain of mounuins. Tliu hi)|lii'iit point of the Hottentot's Holland Mountain, Stettenbosch, Drakcnstein, and TuU IiiikIi. which may be considered as 1(XX) feet higher than Table Mountain, were covered with snow. The onward rood led through various shrubs, among which I observed UuIhmi gHllinmimi Uoyenn glabra, 11. hirsuto, Celastrus lucidus, IMcctronia vcntosa, Cassinia Mau- riici'iiliii Ithiis Niigustifolium, II. tomcntosum and lanceum, Polygala myrtifolia, an Aster, Mitrlynlii ncrls, Unidia oppositifolia ; while among these, in the sandy spots, Uomuleu lVii)(riiiis, Iiichtunateiniii loivigata, and Bulbinc recurva, began to shoot up and blossom. Niiilivrous cows, one of whicli had a calf that sufl'ered us to drive it away fur mure p.itiently lliuii H Ucriimn animal would have done, hurried from us, and they made their (--cape into lliiwi'riiig plants of Diosma oppositifolia, Hydrocotyle tomentosa, an Aster with blue lliiwvr*, Advimndra uniflora, Asclepias arboroscens. Euphorbia tuberosa, and £. latifolia. Ill the third region, about 1700 feet above the sea, a beautiful waterfall invited us to rvit and rvlK'sli ourselves. A thermometer which we had brought indicated 55° in the iihitiU> niid 70'' 111 the sun, at 10 a. m. Round the waterfall I saw Kiggelaria africana will) IVull, Cuiioiiia capeifsis out of flower, Hypocalyptus canescens, Todea africuna, Erloi'i'phnlus racvinosus, Myrica serrata, M, quercifolia, Bcrckheya cihata, and Protea Itiplilucnrpuiii l*ruceeding onwards, and still ascending, wc approached the right cleft, wiiii'li lends to the summit, between steep rocky walls. But, to our great mortiflcation, we rmiiul Ihu viitlrv flora of the place destroyed by a Are that had been kindled about two imiiillm Hgo. Nothing but burnt stumps remained of tlie lovely shrubs tliat had excited iny wliiih'Hiioii oil a previous excursion, and long must it be ere their former beauty can return. t)u«'ll lll'cN ure kindled and kept up during calm weather by the proprietors of Silver tree lilmitiillotm, to prevent such a circumstance accidentally occurring during the prevalence of llu'lu'l'orv-iiientluned strong south-east winds, which not only might destroy all the trees, but priivii highly dangerous to the town. Only an Oxalis varieguta appeared between the con- tmuvil sluiiips, (Uid behind a piece of rock we observed a shrub of lirunia, with all its leaves iiiiil liliisl of iU blossoms burnt ofT. Pieces of broken gloss and old shoes, which lay scat- itM'vd every where on the ground, showed the difficulty of ascending the Tuble Mountain. The lire had not, however, reached the great duiilc, where some African plants appeared; Iml imluro, In general, seemed as dead, and only Arnica piloselloides, an Arctotis, and some U'lives iippvitrvu, where I hud before found Agapanthus minor, Amaryllis sarniensis, Aiul Alrngenu anaustlfolia. To the eye of a botanist, the scorched ground and con- huiiumI vvgelatlon looked like Sodom and Gomorrah. Gnaphalium capitatum and Arnica I'liiittii now npiK'ured in separate spots, and broken branches covered with Parmelia and fiiiieii Iny scnltered at our feet, wafted by the wind from the ravines of the rock. Wu were luiw uhmit U.tOU feet above the level of the sea, and here the Are hud stopped. At this elevHlliiit wtt found Aster cymbalari>b!in"', a Duchnera, and Solanum nigrum among the crevlt'eH of thu rocks. The view around us was truly majestic ; added to which, the drops ul' ruin, driven by the wind from tlie lofty rocks and steep cliff's, reflected back the clear tuiilieniuit, nnd presented all the colours of the rainbow. A sudden whirlwind lifted up a hruken Imsh of Krlca that lay far beneath us, and carried it in a moment high over the Tulile Mouiitnlns. We had accomplished two thirds of the ascent at 1 1, a. m., and arrived Hi » siiinll cavern in the rock, where there is always some water, that proves in the warm •WHoii n great retVeshment to the weary troveller. There Erica purpurea, and some UeiitloneK, were still lit bloom. The defile now became narrower, and the pieces of rock uver which we must clamber increased in size : the cold was also more sensibly felt at our h\g«t%'' eiidi*, the thermometer standing at 43°. Several mosses grew on the moist sides of the rwk. We sought the sunshine now as gladly as in this situation we generally court llio nlmile I but its beams gave no more warmth than the March sun does in Germany. An Aiilliylllfi, nmny species of Restio, and the Osteospermum ilicifolium, an inhabitant of the PIaIii uf Table Mountain, here greeted our eyes ; and the latter first manifested its presence liy tlie ilroiig stnell of its leaves. Many specimens of the Klipp dachren {Hyrax capensis) 1944 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGUAl'HY. Part III. peepeiiisular Cape, and warned us to prepare for our return. No delay was possible, as the mountain would shortly l>e covered with clouds. Indeed, every object presented a most wintry appearance. Erica physodes and some plants of Aster linearis exhibited a few hlos. soma ; while others, as Drosera cuneifolia and Villarsia ovata, were beginning to throw out young shoots. The wind now commenced blowing violently from the north-west, and black clouds covered the Kasteelsberg before us, so that we hastened to regain the defile, lest, being enwrapped in clouds, we should lose our way and be precipitated from the steep sides of the rock ; as it is common for the dense mist to hide every object lieyond two feet before us. Besides the defile by which we ascended, there is another, that goes down on the western side over Van Kamp's Bay ; but the steepness of the rocks about the middle do not allow it to be used. About eighty feet from the summit, in this latter defile, is the only spririi' that is on the top of the Table Mountain, and which never fails in the driest weather. Here we foimd Erica physodes abundantly in full flower ; also E. purpurea, Staavia glutinosa, Protca cynaroides, and P. speciosa, both in seed, Othonna abrotanifolia, Agathosma imbricata, Gnaplialium cephalophorum. Erica Lebnna in seed, Phylica ericoides, Gnidia scabra, and a red lichen on the pieces of rock. There were very few plants in blossom in this gcno- rally rich defile. The thermometer indicated 43" in the shade and 55" in the sun nt I r, m.; at which hour it was 66^' in the shade at Cape Town. Being very hungry, we sat down in the shade to take our dinners, encamping beside the stream, where our tablecloth was spread of the young verdure of Ilestiones, Pena:a mucronuta. Lobelia pinifolin, Hernias capitatn, II. depaupcrata, Clutia tabularis, Osteospermum ilicifolium, Senecio purpurea, and Aster liliformis. Van Kamp's Bay, below us, was covered with white clouds as far as the eye could reach, extending, like a mass of snow, over the Southern Ocean. The wind blew strong through the tops of the surrounding rocks, and lifted the clouds still higher and nearer towards us, though a clear blue sky still appeared immediately over-head. After our meal we again sought for mosses on the rocks, and found, besides an Erica, a Campanula, and CliHbrtia, but not in blossom. Cunonia capensis, likewise past flower, grew in the fissures of the rock, and Schizaea pectinata with dried fructification. Above us, on the high riH'k that surrounded us, we noticed a beautiful shrub, that seemed to be covered with red flowers: my friend determined to obtain it, though I assured him, from telescopic observation, that the apparent red blossoms were only the red fruit of Leiicadendron pyra- midale, and such it proved to be, though he also brought down fine flowering specimens of Pen~a squamosa and several Ericae. At about half past 2 p. m. we returned to the northern defile, and there began our descent, going back by the way we came. My friend had the misfortune to sprain his foot while returning, which rendered our walk slow and difficult, but, happily, no disagreeable consequence ensued ; and, in spite of this delay, we regained Cape Town by moonlight, at about 7 p. m." SuBSF.CT. 3. Zoology. 5:H4. Of the zoological peculiarities of Southern Africa, we have already spoken. In no region of the globe does there appear so great a number of quadrupeds, and these, too, of the largest dimensions. Tlie limits of this zoological region is very uncertain ; inasmuch as of all this part of the African peninsula, we know little beyond the Gariep to the north-west; while the borders of the Great Fish River (forming the boundaries of the colony on the south-western coast), are the farthest limits, in this direction, hitherto reached by scicnlilic travellers. Mr. Burchell, indeed, has penetrated the interior deserts to lat. 26"^' south, and his researches lead us to believe that the animals of central e(|tiinoctial Atrica do not materially dill'er from those of the Great Karroos which bound the territories of the Cape Colony. The chief seat, therefore, of the zoology of Southern Africa nuist he sought for in that immense line of forests which border the coast, and have been traced from Bosjesveld to the bounds of the Great Fish River : these extend, in all probability, to an im- measurable distance farther, and form a belt of eternal verdure, between the arid deserts of the interior inid the more fertile borders of the coast. 5.'il5. The aurprisin/' number and variety of quadrupeds which naturalists have detected in tJiis region will be better understood by the following list; equally interesting both to ihe •cientific loologist and to the future traveller : — AKT III. : us; still :ly n little of hare. plenty of ly names, ishrd this 11 J A.M. ise Hag we as covered mi-insular '. mountain ost wintry few hlos- 5 to throw i.west, and defile, lest, steep sides I feet before the western not allow only spring ther. Here a glutinosa, ia imbricata, icabra, and a II this geiic- jn at 1 r. m.; ve sat down blecloth was olia, Ilcrraas ■io purpurea, luds as far as . The wind ill higher and il. After our 1 Campanula, grew in the e us, on the o be covered om telescopic endron pyra- spccimens of the northern end had the [and difficult, we regained Iken. In no Jse, too,ofthe Insmuch as of ' north-west; lolony on the 1 by scientific ' south, and hrica do not lories of llic Vica nnist be ] traced from Ity, to an ira- Tid deserts of Book III- CmortlM" jijuerjllirrin. Khu«(i«iHrosll .Stn. (.eptrroj^Bal. N«clcil< cai.Mi»i« Sw. . < ill"! Nyi-lerU. N.rlfris afflnU Sin. AlUi'il Ital. VcsluriiUo caiiensl* Sm. Cajie Bnt. Sunt c.iiiensU. «"ni>e Shrew. Marr.«.«llJes SmilhU .Vo4. Smllh"* Chrvii>rhlori« rapensis. Cape Mnlc. Chn^hlorla Holltntolu« Sm. Hottentot Hitilliii Rntel. K«l«l tilulton. ViiroriM ZiireHa. Tlic Zorello. I.um inunniiis. Cliiwlesa Otter. Canit aureus. Jackall. CanU mi-somales. Tape .h\t\M. Hviena venalk-a. Ilunflnu llvcna. Afa.niiil.i cafra. CaHVarlan lihncumon M.m|!iiNta urmatrli Sm. Aquatic neuinon. Manama I.e»alllantll, neiiinon. RyiiTiia rapfn^n If'. Surrkate. rroti'Ki Ijilamlll. CaiH! I'rolcles. HvirriaiTorata. S|K.t!e(l Hyicna. Fflii Im. The HIack-maneil Lloli. Felis S.rv.\l. The Serval. (■'tib L-apt-nsn. Cape Cat. Irh. l.eTa)nant*i Ich. SOUTHEKN AFRICA. Fvli4 iiiitricani. HInck-footcil Cat, Otaria Pexonll. I'erun'i fn). IMiorrcna Homell Sm, i aiw Seal. Mynxtis nvellannriiis. Amcan Itonnouw. Myuxiis mtirinuA. Af urine Dormouse. JMyomw nrritanu^. ATriian Domiuuse. IVIiiii Itonovanl. l>nnovait'a !Vfouot SqutrrH. I.«pus afrJcanUH. Cajie Hare. Lepus rufinurtia Sm, Kufous-nnped Hare. I.r> I caffVn. CatVrarian Orjx. Gasella pyftariri- Whlte-fitcpil (JaiK (iaiielln euchore. Spriniccr (}a7et. Aniilope melarnpus. '1 he I'allah. Keiluiica elcolr.if{Uti. Hvitbofk Antelope. Retlunca isabeliina. Creain-colouml Anie loi>e. RetUinra villo&a. Riet Rhirbo<-c. Hetlunca scnpnrla. Orebi Antelope. Traffiiluit ort-oirafiu.t. Kllpsprinncr, 'i'raffulus ruiM>slris. Slieenbofk. TrnRulus ruteuenit. Vlarkte Hluenbock. 'fra^tiliis (p-isea. (irvslHxrk. Tra|{ulne. < cplialophu'. puTinistlla. Kleenebock TrnR.ilaphus sylvatica. Rosihliock. Dainalis Caama. Tlic Caaina. DamaU^ lunata. Lunntnl Sa^aby. Damitlis Orvas. Imitoofo. DainalU ('anna. Canna. Danialis streiKiccros. Kootloo. C.itobleiias4inu. (iirno. Catolilepaa laurlna. Knkoou. (.'atobleuas KixTKon- Hrimlletl Unoo. " Her " ■' "■ 5M(l ■ PRINO-BOK. live detected Ig both to the Bos catfer. Cape Buffalo. From this list we can only select a few for particular notice. The Antelopes are the most conspicuous tribo, and range over the vast karroos, or deserts, with astonishing swiftness. Some, however, inhabit only the forests, while others prefer the mountains. 5317. The Spiing-hok or Mountain Ant.iope {^/f.S.W.i, callcil by Lich. tenstcin the Aiitilopc pygarga \Trar. Af., 317. .Hti.) frequently go in tron|u or not less than 3ally Tnund in the forests on the eastern coast towards C'aBVaria. It feeds cliicHy on t)ee8 and their honey, and, as if unable always to pro- cure the latter, it would seem to call in the LAPE iKiKMvii iKKK. BusiKtancc of nittu, In thc following manner : — 'I'hc morning and evening arc the times ' *' " '^"' *' of feeding: the note of the bird, well known to the African himtcrs, is then shrill i the latter anitm llm note from time lo time till the bird is in sight : it then flies forward, by short flits, towards the upot wlicrrllw hive is situated, and thus secures a portion of the spoil from its grateful allies. Thoe biril.4 are, of mir'r, hi'ld In much esteem, almost aniountnig to veneration, by the Ilottenlots; and the killing ol llu'iii,li) Dr. CRUTin KiNontifni. Book III. SOUTHERN AFRICA. 1347 S)iarrniitmi, wi 857 VCAHI.KV WIAVRH. I much resciitcMl. I,c Viiillaiit observes, that, on o|iciiii be derived from a settlement on a coast to which its situation attached so much commercial importance. In 1650 they founded Cape Town, and, from the rude and sluggish character of the people thinly scattered over this immense tract, easily extended their settlement to its present limits of the Nieuweldt Mountains in the north, and the Great Fish River in the east. In consequence, however, of the political union of Holland with France and consequent wnr with this country, Cane Town n&s, in September, 1795, attacked and reduced by a British naval force. It was restored by the peace of Amiens, but, on the renewal of hostilities, was recaptured in Januarv 1 806, and was one of the few Dutch possessions retained by Hritiiin in the treaty concluded at the congress of Vienna. 5332. Sect. IV, PulUkal Geoumphi/. Little, m a general view, can be said under this head. The country consists partly uf the Cape territory, which is governed on the usual system of British colonies, partly of a region divided among a multitude of small separate tribes. The usual government is that of a rude monarchy irregularly controlled by the independent spirit of simple and pastoml races. Tlie details respecting both the governnunt and productive industry of a territory sulii into so many minute portions, can only be given with advantage under the local divisions. Sect. V. Civil and Social State. 5333. The population of a region of which the very boundaries arc yet so undetermined cannot even be made a subject of conjecture. We shall, however, be afterwards able to stale that of some particular places and districts. 5334. The classes (if inhabitants in this part of Africa exhibit a considerable variety. Tliey consist of — I. The British, comprising the officers of government, the troops, and a fen thousand agricultural emigrants, whose numbers are not, however, increasing. 2. Tlit Dutch, who farm most of the lands in the territory, and constitute the most numerous part of the population of Cape Town. 3. The Hottentots, the native race, reduced to dcgradinj! bondage under the Dutch. 4. The Dosjesmans, a miserable and savage tribe of Hotten- tots, inhabiting the mountainous districts, carrying on a constant predatory war against tlip settlers. 5. The CaH'res. a fierce pastoral race, inhabiting the country beyond the casttrn limit of the colony extending along the Indian Ocean. 6. Tlie lioshuanas, a pastoral and partly agricultural race, of a dirt'erent character, possessing the country that stretches iiortli- ward from the boundary chain of mountains. These difierent classes will be best treated of under the local divisions to which they belong. Sect. VI. Local Geographi/. 5335. The three great divisions of Soullicrn /(frica arc, I. Tlie Capt; colony. 'J. TIk country of the Cafl'res. 3. The country of the Uoshuanas. SuBSEt'T. I. The Cape Colony. 5336. This colony, of which the general boundaries and aspect have already been described, is estimated by Mr. Barrow to extend 588 miles in length, and 315 in its greatest breadth; but the average breadth does not exceed 200, and the surface consists of about 1 20,« evolving H"-' * Lrm ueill>e-r«» The pil"-' «'"' L meals of mi"""' ' in like wai"'"' remains almost immovablo on her chair, with hot eotFee on a table always before her. The daugliters sit round, with their hands folded, rather like articles of furniture than youthful nnd living beings. A teacher is usually employed ; but, in addition to his proper functions, he is ohliged to employ himself in the most menial offices. Yet they are hospitable in tlie extreme. A stranger has only to open the door, shake hands with the master, kiss the mistress, seat himself, and he is then completely at home. Tliose who occupy farms on the borders of the Sneuwherg, where they are exposed to the depredations of the wild Bosjesmans, acquire, in consequence of the necessity of defending their property, more energetic and active habits 5338. The Hottentots, the original inhabitants of this country, were long fixed to the soil as bondmen, but have been recently emancipated. They have been branded as presenting man in his rudest state, and his closest alliance with the brute ; and certainly they have soared no pains to render their external appearance hideous and disgusting. Their persons are studiously invested with a thick coating of grease, which mingling with the smoke, in which they are almost perpetually involved, forms a black thick cake, through which the yellowish-brown colour of the skin is scarcely ever discernible. For this ornamental pur- pose, butter is employed by the rich, while the poorer classes besmear themselves with fut from the bowels of slaughtered animals. Yet this coating is sold to be really useful in defending them from the solar rays, and preventing cutaneous disorders. Hard and coarse hair in irregular tufts, and prominences of fat jutting out in places where they are least ornamental, complete the picture of deformity. All their habits of life are filthy and slovenly. When a sheep or an ox is killed, they indulge in beastly gluttony ; ripping open the belly of the animal while yet half alive, and tearing out the entrails, which they throw on the coals and greedily devour. Their villages, or kraals, compose a labyrinth of little conical hovels, reared of twigs and earth, and so low that the inmates cannot stand upright. Yet their aspect of sluggish stupidity seems, in a great measure, induced by the degrading bondage in which they are held. They pursue wild animals with swiftness and dexterity, directing with a sure aim tlu'ir darts and arrows. They carry on various little manufac> turcs, tanning and dressing skins, forming mats of flags and bulrushes, bowstrings from the sinews of animals, and even moulding iron into knives. In their free state they had a republiean form of government, and were led to battle by their konquers, or captains, to the sound of tlie pipe or flageolet ; they had also the same passion for the dance and song which is general throughout Africa. The charge of their having been strangers to every religious idea seems now completely disproved. 5339. The Bosjesmaus appear to belong to the same original race with the Hottentots ; but from the rude haimts which they occupy, have preserved a precariour independence. They inhabit the most inaccessible valleys of the Sneuwberg and Nieuweldt, and the deso- late tracts extending thence to the Orange River. Of all human beings their condition is perhaps the most forlorn. Their food is obtained only by scrambling over the rocks in pursuit of wild animals, swallowing the larvae of ants and locusts, or carrying of!' cattle in wild foray from the plantations in the plains beneath. Yet they display energy, activity, and even gaiety. They shoot their little poisoned arrows with surprising accuracy ; and, when pursued, hound from rock to rock with an .ifjjility which delies European pursuit. They can endure long fasts, during, which, however, their frames become extremely lank and meagre ; but when they succeed in obtaining a supply of animal food, they devour it voraciously in amazing ({uantities. Considerable ingenuity is shown in the pictures of animals drawn by them upon the rocks. On moonlight nights, they dance without intermission from sun- set till dawn ; and sometimes continue for several days and nights. 5340. The following statistical view of the dilTerent districts in the year 1833 is given from authoritv : — ; Area il) S,|, Mllus. Population. Acres in Pasture. Stock. 1 1 I Malm. 1 Kumalcs. Wheat. iiarlev. ! dais. Kye. Horses. Hometl (■atllo. Shee|>. i'i\v 'r„wn - o.iua !),l!l'i' 0,7.'i(l Caiie IliMri.t - 3,,',SI 6,7IW: B.nii.'i so.noo .i.ion , 1,1,'jos 1,144 S,700 22,300 20,707 Stl-IIl'IltK)^ch . a,'2S» «/)SI, 6,1IH) 1 1,'.(X) iM'i 1 ,i,.')ii(; 1,'^lfi oo.oon 7, ISO 17, .',00 10,013 \\ lyrcism 4'i,lll 7,.v.is: 7,S0'i 4li,(i7l) «i,(w.'. 'r.,i7ii 7,f>'^0 13,U7li ,3s,'isn 30",S.'>4 ' /wtliumiam • 7,lilB 7.!)7.V 7,IM 11,0(10 .I.IHIO ! 4,0011 I. 'Ill 5,17fi,nO(l llMSl .32,0114 S4,8,')3 fiiHiri'L' . 4,03'i 4,10fi' .■i,7U'.l S,7!)4 ii.OIKI lior, i.mio .'ifi.K.lfl 4, nil 2li,lilS 20,623 lite1llu^l'a 8, Olio 4,'if.7> .1,S'^5 'iS.IHKI '.^,.'11 10 300 1,.',IM) A7,!<(lll ,'),013 ,',.-, ,0.'i7 72,1.V2 .01.^1,, 1,711'^ 5,y7l> 4,77H 1,3IH) ,1,0011 2,4110 5 2,l!l'J,;lll'.i iJ.V, 3S,'Jli 101,0011 Si'llltT^t 7,l(iS 0,147 .',,4liS l,.15n .'>7.'. .3.17 , U,7Sil,iill 7,14!) 61,«2!l 071,243 liraafUejnel . 3a,704 I5,3'J4 1 l.4(i.1 l.SSO 3SI 1!IH 4 1411,000 9,711 49..'..'>r, 009,3Sl 1 T„lal 1 M,'ii6 '^.'..M'J (i'.),44,1 l'^l,4'JI Kl.ti'ifi 4g,(!ii l'i,',l,T.l 17,'iO'J,673 Ti,U"i 313,044 l,0Cn,8S0j 534!. C«/)e Town, the capital of Southern Africa, and the most important Euro])can settle- ment on the continent, is situated near the isthmus of a peninsula, formed by False Bay on the east, and Table Bay on the west, on whieli last the city itself is built. Immediately behind rises precipitously the Table Mountain, 3.582 feet above the sea, and consisting chiefly of stee)) cliffs of naked schist and granite, 'i'he Devil's Hill, ,331.';, and the Lion's Head, 2160 feet high, rise on each side. This triple siinniiit forms a most conspicuous 1 I. li I«SO DESCRIPTIVE GEOGUAIMIY. I'*" III. CAFK OP n(H>li ll'l'l* object from the sea, over which also these si)ots comiuiind ii vurv Ntrlklitg pruspvct. Tiihle Bay affords an abundant supply of excellent water, and is capabln td' contidiiinK ""y iniiiilwr of vessels ; but from May to September thoy are in dangoi tVoni htJHvy wi'steriy gules, uiul it In advUnldu to lake a stntiun nt tliu liviitl of l-'alse Hay. Cape Town (Hy, H»i().), hehiK tlio only good plHCo of refteslmiMit fur vohswIh between Europe and Amvriva, on onu side, tlic Knst IndU'H, Cldna, and Australia, on tilt) other, nuist always hu J great eonnnervlal lliuruu){hrurc, In IH;l,') the exports nmouiited to 267,000/. ; in 1835 to ."leS.OOO/., but there were then iiielnded nlxnit (ifi.tXKW. in toa and nutmegs, objects of casual transit. The chief regular heads were, — wine, I()!l,'i'(X)/. ; skins, 6000/.; wool, 14,000/. ; corn and meal, 3'l, 700/. ; live stoek, l'J,ri(H)/, ; ])rovtsl(ins, I .■),:j(K)/, Tlierc were sent to Britain a value of 'J20,0(K)/. ; Mauritius, •l!),H(X)/i i Australiii, 'ISiiXKV, ' St. Helena, 19,800/.; United States, 10,500/. The importit anunuited to .'ilH.tXKV., hut including the transit of nutmegs and tea. The others wvru of Ihu vnrt(His kinds sunt to colonies : cottons, 125,000/. ; woollens, 36,000/. ; linens, IH,(KX)/. \ apparel, iStc., yo,7(X)/, • iron and hardware, 34,000/.; gkss, 9000/.; spirits, ai,(XX)/,, 9iv, The value from Bri! tain was 4.30,600/.; Mauritius, 2H,000/. ; F H India, J!).(XX)/. ; Unltwl States. \%cmi.; France, 12,000/. ; Brazil, 11,400/., &c. The export of Ih'ltiiih produce in that year was 326,000/., but rose, in 1836, to 482,000/., and, in 1837, to -INHiiXX)/. The population, ns above stated, is about 20,000. There arc ^t'veral newspapers and a literary Journal. S342. The other places in the colony are, in ijcneral, only ilromlf/i, or vtlltiiie'i which, In a riiuntrv rnllrcli agricultur.tl, derive their sole importance fruin being th avat ol' llit> loiiiil Hilinllllmriilluii. ronitantin and Simon's Town, in the close vicinity of the Cape, a^e >U|ip iil' wine, the other bi docks for shipi>inK. Stellcnlmsch and Zwcllendam, the chief placet in lht< two inoat tlourlshliiK iigrlrulturi districts adjoining, containisl, some time aKo, the one only seventy, Ihv olhiir thirty hiiuics. (Iroiif Itcv Mil net icb or tht .,- - , - — . -- , , ■■■Siipiioiiitnt in their agricultural pursuits, sought other employment, have swelled lU (HipiilNlloM lo nliiiut Mm. ft ini, scribetl by Mr. Hose as " a large, ugly, ill-built, straggling (dace, conlnliilnii n ulrnngv mixture of Inimiitn^ [I by Mr. Hose as " a large, ugly, ill-built, straggling (dace, conlnliilnii n ulrnniiv mixture of Inmiiitni officers, idle trailesmcn, drunken soldiers, and still more drunken selller«," II U rnHianliciilly iltiiatnl m a deep valley, surrounded t' ' " ' "'" ' ' ■■■'■■■'■ '— - - ■ - • ' "• .J, .u.iuuiL.^I by hills and glens, througli which heavy wnggnns are m'i'II coining ollcn frmnavrcat distance. This frontier sufti^red severely through the C'attVo lnva>luii of IH;M | hut (tcnuu has been lia|i|jily restored. SuBSECT. 2. The Territory of llie CaffW». 5343. 1%!$ territory extends from the eastern boundary of the eoluny iilong the coast of the Indian Ocean, the north-eastern direction of which it follows. On the west, ii is bounded by the country of t\h Boshuanas, at the distaneo of about U(X) or 300 niilis from the sea; but this frontier has never been precisely explored. To tile ('allVurian const, wiiich reaches about as far as Delagoa Bay, the Portuguese have given the niiiiie of Natal ; nliitli has been followed by navigators, though it is, of course, quite UPknowti to the natives. 5344. T/ie Caffres (a name given by the Portuguese) are exiri'inely handsinne in tlioir external appearance. The men. especially, are tall, robust, antl itiiiseiiliir, yet of the imni elegant symmetry of form. Their manners are easy, and their eKpression friink, (fcncmis and fearless. The females are less beautiful, their persons are somewhat short anr »,ii, mj on urgent occasions can arm 10(I,(KX) men, who comprise, wo presume, Ilie whole adult liiaU' |>ii|>ulalinii. lie has been the most I'orinidable conqueror in this part of Alrica. He drove heliile him u nuniln'r iil'lhcminli' bouring tribes, who, under the name of Mantatees, or wanderers seeking new liiililtatlinis, ilinnlalnl .ig'«l part, (irst of the Hoshuana and then of tlic other CallVe territories. liUiulenaiit Kiirewell, in IWt, liinmW a small Knglish colony at Fort Natal, which is still maintained un w siimll senle | and III IH it a Inigc cniiKrilioii of Dutch farmers was made ton fertile region in its vicinity, l)vlll|j iiivulvvd, however, in HatwiUiIlK savage natives, they have suffered severely. .SO'l 862 »«uiand behind, cheering those whose sentiments they approve, and loudly deriding whatever they consider ridiculous. 4L 3 -- r^^S rOUNU KINO OP MAHOOT/U. 1'252 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGllAl'in. PahtIII. 86!) 5348. The loums, in consequencp uf (he circuinatancvs already mentionctl, which have iniliuvd nearly ihe whole population to luaenible in them, |>osiies« Krcater maKnitutIr than might have been expected frdiii tlic Mate of cultivation and society. Lattakoo waa the llrst visited, and the name remains, though, in conM(>i|uonr(; iif a schism in the trdie, the town ha; liecn transferred to a B|iot al)out sixty miles farther north. New I,au takoo Is supiioscd to contain ahuut tklUd people. Merilmhwey, capital of the Tannnahas, is not of c<|ual im portanne. Mashow, to the north, where the territory of the liarolongs commences, \t, a Hne town with ill {mi] inhabitants, beautinilly seated on a hill, and surrounded by a number of lesser eminences. Within a ciriuit of twenty miles there are twenty-nine villages, and almost uninterrupted cultivation : the habitations ami fur niture are superior to those of Lattakoo. The |iopulatlon is estimated at 1(I,(IU() or li>,000. Mclita, capital of the Wanketiens, also a tribe of HnroloiiKS, is likewise an important place. Hut the largest and best liuilt city in Southern Africa, and the one whose inhabitants have maiie the greatest progress in the arts of life, i* Kur recehane {fie. S03.). The neoplo arc in number about 16,(KK); thcyamclt iron and copiier in large clay fur naces ; their nouses are surrouiicleii by goori, considcrahly places iww de- try of cxteniivc is as yet litllc UUOK HI. EA8TKRN AFRICA. 1253 •om the Cadre ic coiisideri'd as r the inost part, juntry contains ary, capable of is less known, ,s tliey liad ilis. stations, from on. The coaM covered witli 00 miles in tlie ilelincated a Mr. Salt is uf ainliezc is veiy course Is at all ing to probable ilth of the con. are Cuama and Quiloa, several wn. The same icd identity with ir.ly conjectural. (^uiloa and M(- an inland sea. to attempt any icing two inter- indebted to ll.e is a well knoivn jacli and towels, intary canal, li y were involveii Ceylon, because' )rests that covet The nativK lip the root, they . in high e«'«"' lOUiMIIO VLANT. 8().5 fi'j^ l,y the people, who ihu it for the cure of dysentery, for heuling ulcers, and as a remedy for almost every disorder. Tlie late Sir Walter Farquliar, physician to the king, was very desirous to obtain the Colombo root in a living state, and, after many fruitless endeavours, made by hii son, Sir Robert Forquhar, Governor of Mauritius, who was opposed by the Portuguese authorities on various pretences, but main y because tliey were unwilling to permit the exportation of so valuable an article, he finally succeeded in obtaining, through Capmin Owen, of his majesty's ship Leven, growing roots of the Coloiiibo plant. These were distributed to the Mauritius, New Holland, Uie Seychelles Islands, &c. and it is thus to be hoped that this valuable plant may be naturalised in these coun- tries, and that its culture may be rendered an object of industry and resource to the planters of the Mauritius. 5353. The second is the Telfairia volubilis (^^r. 86,5. ),a climb- ing plant lately discovered on the coast of Zanzibar, of very easy cultivation, and producing an esculent fruit, three feet long, and full of seeds as large as chestnuts (2G4 in one fruit), which are as excellent as almonds, and of a very agreeable flavour : they also yield an abundant oil, equal to that of olives. It was originally brouglit by ?I. Uojer, of the Mouritius, from Pemba, on the shores of Zanzibar, where it grows in the forests enveloping the trees witli its branches, and sometimes with a stem 1 8 inches in circumference. The seeds have been distributed to Bourbon and New Holland, and by the missionaries to New Zealand and Tahite. At Mauritius it has thriven so well, tliat it producnd stems 30 feet high, ond in the stove of the lote 1 . .„ clay, Esq. of Bury Hill, to whom Mr. Telfair sent seeds, it grew so luxuriantly, that the pruning knife was in constant re- quisition to prevent its filling the whole house. A plant so easy of cultivation must soon become common in all countries, and thus will Mr. Telfair have the honour of giving a most useful vegetable to mankind, as well as a name to a new and very beautiful plant 5354. Our zoological knowledge of this portion of Africa is lamentably deficient. The whole extent of the eastern coast, from lat. 30° south to 10° north, has never yet been visited by the naturalist ; and tlie zoology of Abyssinia and Egypt having already been noticed, leaves us nothing further to say on this head. tt?>55. This territory is generally occupied by negro nations in a state of barbarism, yet some of them numerous, and not destitute of arts and industry. The coast, however, has, in modern times, been chiefly in possession of two foreign powers. The Portuguese, when, in the close of the fifteenth century, they made their way round the Cape, found almost all the maritime stations in the hands of the Arabs, whom they called Moors, and whom they succeeded in driving successively from each, and occupying their place. It would be illusory to attempt delineating, under regular heads, the political, commercial, or social state of a region composed of such various parts, so imperfectly known ; but, in a successive view of its local divisions, we shall endeavour to concentrate the little that modern observation has ascertained on the subject. .Mjfi lifginning from the south, tuefind Sofala, which at the time of the first arrival of Europeans wae very ini|i(irt.int, as the emporium of the Bold and ivory brouglit in great quantities down the Zambczc. Since Quillimane became the channel by which these commodities were conveyed, Sofala has sunk into a village (rf imor liuts. The Portuguese, however, still maintain there a fort, which holds suprcm.iey mer the more southerly stations of Inhambanc and Corrientes. An annual vessel comes from Mosamb'iquc, with coarse cotton and other articles, in return for which it receives gold, ivory, Jind slaves. ITic place is situ.ited on a considerable river J but, in consequence ofextcnsivesand-baiiks and shoals, which appear to have increased, it is difflcult of approach unless for small vessels. The natives seem to be of the Cafflrc race, well armed, brave, and independent. ftSol. Inhambanc, to the south, has an excellent harbour, and isdcfendcd by a fort and 150 men. The other Portuguese do not exceed twenty-five ; but there is a numerous coloured iwpulation. Few slaves are procured here, the natives being fierce and warlike j but about lOO.IXX) Ibs.of ivory, and some wax,are sent to Mosambique. Quillimane, at the mouth of the Zambezc, is now the chief seat of trade on this coast. From eleven to four» teen slave vessels come annually fVom Hio de Janeiro, and each carry off, on an aver.ige, from 400 to .WO slaves. The situation is swampy and unhealthy ; but the (wjiulation is nearly 3000, though only twenty-five houses are occupied by Portuguese or their detccndants. .ffiS. Mosambique is the principal establishment of the Portuguese in Eastern An-ica Though it derive its importance from being the emporium of the gold, ivory, and slaves, broiighidown the Zambeze, it is situated about 3(10 miles from the mouth of that river, and the trade is in a great measure transferred to Quillimane. It i* built on an island, which has a good roadstead and a commodious pier, but afibrds by no means either a convenient or healthy situation. The principal inhabitants have their houses at Mesuril, on the con- tinent, at the extremity of the peninsula of Cabocciro. The trade in slaves, the most extensive, has been much diminished since the British obtained possession of Madagascar and the Ca|)c, and laudably pro. 4 L » TKI.yAIHIA VUI.U01LIB. 1954 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pakt III. hibitetl tlio intrwluctton of them liilo tlieio colonlca. The export i> not jiui>|Hwctt, liy Mr. Salt, nowt^ •eiei, but not remnants of I public itructuri's, negro attenilania, are richly loaded with golden ori'iamentti tea, towhii^li the prlncliwl Inhabitanti are rvm evening invited, in presented in a Tull lervicc of gold. 'I he dominion of the Fortugueae wureelv rxti'iuu beyond the |>eiiin!iula ni' CalHieeiro : and they arc with dlHIculty iibic, by allianee with the cliietii ol ^uliiiuii. gone and Sereimc, to make head ugaiiitt the Makooa, a populom and warlike tril>e, occupying a great exti'iii ril' the coaat 5359. In the interior, on the Upper Zambeze, the Portugiiuse possess mervly the smull fort, of Sena and Tetc, erected with a view to the protection of tlieir trade, with two still smaller in the more remote stations of Zumbo and Muiiica. In these settlements, joined to tli,it of Quillimanc, they maintain 264 troops, and have a population of 500 Christians, with iil,H'>^ slaves. The ground being generally fertile, and abounding particularly with honey, wax senna, and other dyeing drugs, they draw from the land attached to these stations a revenue of 'J,900,IXX) reis. Monomotapa, or more properly Motapa (since Mono is merely a guiieral term for kingdom), has been dignilied in the early narratives with the title of empire. If it ever deserved such an appellation, it is now broken into fragments, the largest of wliicli is held by Changaincra, who, under the title uf Quiteve, resides at Zimbao, the ancient capital. He belonged to the Maravis, a race of daring freebooters, who neglect agriculture and devote themselves entirely to plunder. Farther to the north are the Monjous, iiilmbit. ing the country which figures iit the early maps as the empire of Monumugi. They are negroes of the ugliest description, of a deep shining black, with high cheek-bones, thick lips, and small knots of woolly hair on their heads. Their only weapons are bows and arruwi, Manica is celebrated as the country chiefly aflbrding the gold for which this part of Africa is famous. A Portuguese expedition, in 1569, penetrated thither: they found the inlni.'s by no means to answer their reputation, but to consist chiefly of gold dust in small quantities, embedded in sand and earth, from which the metal was laboriously extrnctcd, A small fort, as already observed, is maintained in this district. The Cuzeinbcs, » numerous people far in the interior, arc completely subject to the will of a despot ; yet tlitir country yields in abundance iron and copper, and is the seat of a very considerable trudo in ivory and slaves. The Movizas are a comparatively peaceable and industrious race. Tlw Bororos arc a great people, reaching, it is said, nearly as far as Mombaza ; but they tire very little known. 5360. In the coast northfrom Mosambique occur the Querimba Islands, giving imnic to the opposite coast. They were laid waste by the Portuguese at their first arrival, but Here afterwards rcpeopled by colonists from Mosambique. They have sulFered, however, by ntiacks from the Madagascar pirates. Quiloa, about 100 miles north-west from the bold promonlory of Cape Delgado, was found by the Portuguese a great seat of power and coinmrrcc. About the end of the seventeenth century it was wrested from them by the Im&m of Muscat, whose officers have since governed it. It is now dwindled into a miserable village. Mum. buzu is situated on an island about three miles long and two broad, surrounded by cliffs of madrepore, which make it a kind of natural castle. The country is fertile in corn, and lit for the sugar cane, and the small shells called cowries are collected in great abundance on the shore. The harbour is excellent, and a considerable trade is carried on along the cua^t in dows, often of 250 tons burtlien. Rritain, for two years, maintained a factory there, liui withdrew it in 1827. Melinda, long the handsomest and most flourishing city on this coast, has been completely destroyed by the Galla. Patta, once of great importance, is now much decayed, and a great part of its trade transferred to the neighbouring port dl' Lninoo. Parallel to this coast, at the distance of about twenty or thirty miles, arc ihi' small but fine islands of I'emba, Zanzibar, and Monfia. They arc of coral fouiulatiuii, liiii the surface is flat, and covered with a soil highly prmluctive in grain and sugar. Zanzibr, subject to the Imam of Muscat, is a prosperous place, and has tlie most flourishing traik'of any in this part of Africa. It is supposed to contain 150,(XK) iiilinbitnnts. .'i361. Magailoia, called aUo Mukdcahu, la a conaiderabic town, lymg to the northwa d I'rum MrliiuU The prince having succeeded in maintaiiiinK his indc|icndence, and reiiellcd all European intercourse, all the country to be very little known. The British ship Albemarle, in 17ric8 : but these liilont to a part which, containing only tombs, may be called the City of the Dead. The habitations of the living are only low thatched huts. Hrava, within the territory of Magadnxa, is also a jiort of some coiisiHium The whole coast, from Cape Delgado to the northern limit of Mag.uloxa, is commonly known liy the iiaiiirnl Zangueliar. This territory, when di.'tcovcrcd by the Portuguese, was occupicil by the Sowhylcse, a |>eaoiMl>lr and industrious people ; but the coast has imw been mostly wrested from them by the Arabs of Muscat, uliilc the whole interior is iKissesseil by the (ialla, the same ferwious race who have over-run Abyssinia, ami uho, in the course of a furious warfare, have destroyed every sea-iiort which was not protected by an iiiMilii position. 5^W. The coast (if AJan, the Azania of the .nncients, extends from the northern termination of Zanjiifr bar to Ca|>e Ouarilafni, where Africa ceases to bord^T on the Indian Ocean. This tract is geiicMllyaiidaiiil (andy, though in the northerly parts it becomes hilly and fVa|;rant, like the neighbouring one ol Betbiit That coast, extending from Cape Guardafui to nearly the Straits of Bab el Mandcb, is situated on ncitlin the Indian Ocean nor the Red Sea, but on an intcrmeiliate gulf, bounded on the op|iosite side by lliecoailol a III. n.ioK iii< CENTRAL AFRICA. 13.{5 icii'Xi'wd wkiimil, I OWI'll'l fl'nt tllMl' l>lll)'> utill mil III Iter I'vi'ii hit an- I'H'ty y rxli'iiili Uuiiilun. eat I'XU'Ul null forts I smaller that of th 2I,H'J7 iity, wax, n ri'vi'imu II i^uiK'ral ipirc. If f wliifli is ii> uncii'iU {ricuUurc, 1, inlinbit- Tliuy are tliick lips, ml arruwii, 1 of Africa the mini's ,t ill small I cxtracti'il, luzcmbi's, n it ; yi't tlwir il>le trade in race. The hey arc very ill); iinnie to al, but were. ir, by attacks promontory i commerce, n of Muscat, lage. >Iom- ll by cliffs of Icon), and fit luiulimceon iiig the coast ry there, Iml city on lliis iportance, is |riiig Jiurl of liU's, arc iW lulation, tiw Ziuuibar, ;hiii{? trade of I friim MclimU Ircourse, alloni lire, but ii «»' ■•I'ies of W». ■t these Wilms Is (if the liviiiR Iv coiisequ™'* ■liy the uaiiie «' VsP, » l«cral'l( 1' Muscat, »l"li' ■ainiii, ami uk T liy an ii'.»ulJ' ■ion of Zangiifr liierallyatiiUnil Ime of BitJi-m liti'il on ntitliM , liy the coail N ihaii II ilewrvfi iii w. ni uii- luwn ui ueiwra ii an annual lair, wiiere, acconlinn lo imtii vaicntia, mere arc mill l."i,liuil liat.a" (■'"•'<> ">»■ each) iif gunn, at 3t. I'Zi. ; SOOO bahars of myrrh, at 4/. IBs. ; frankinicnw, to any •«leiil ilenwmliil, at il. 1*3. Kvcn gold and Ivory are laid to be brought from Hanim, a country dtuatcd Iwciily iliiy' Journey In the Interior, MiU 1'*i' iiiMM/»v •» '*<■ iiiUrior/nm ll.is coast, though moat im|ierf«tly known, npprara to Iw l|{ul»i°ly l»iil') contains some good habitations. Chap. IX. CENTRAL AFRICA. XM, The nppellttfion of Central Africa may with propriety be given to an extensive and f ilful region, in the most interior part of that continent. Consisting of spacious plains, WM.'.'rcd by noble rivers, and begirt on the south by lofty mountain chains, it forms one of Ihe finest connlries on the globe, and is inhabited by nations who have made considerable proKress in industry and civilisation. Separated, however, from the sea-coast, and from the rest of the civilised world, by immense deserts tenanted by fierce and warlike banditti, it leiniiiiu'd till lately almost unknown to Europeans, who heard only by vague rumour of its lieiiuly 1111(1 wealth. It is only within the last forty years that the during enterprise of llritisli liavellers has traversed this region, and ptirchasetl, at a costly price, a tolerably u'ciuiite and extensive knowledge of it. Sect. I. General Outline and A.ect. ,'i,'l(i(i. The extent and boundaries of a region like this, composed of various detached states iiiul kingdoms, are exceedingly vague. From Western Africa it is separated by the limits iilivuily (Iclineated (p. I'JIO.). On the north it has the uniform boundary of the Great Desert, into wliloli its fertile plains pass by rapid gradations. On the east, the great expanse of the lake Tcliiul, the sea of interior Africa, separates it from countries almost wholly unknown. The soiithcrn boundary, formed by tracts still more completely unexplored, cannot be drawn vdlli liny approach to precision. On the whole, however, we may esteem Central Africa as l)iii|{ lietwctn the ISth degree of cast and the 4th of west longitude, and the 8th and 16th (if north Irtllliide. It may thus include 1300 miles in length, and 560 in breadth, and form 11 sipmri' surface of about 700,000 miles. .'i;l(!7. .y eiiiitinuous chain of mountains, celebrated by the ancients under the appellation ofllie Moiiiitaiiis of the Moon, traverses the whole territory from east to west. It exerts a most heiiclu-eiit influence in diiliising through this region coolness and moistvve, and rislivmiiig itfrotnthat arid desolation to which so great an extent of the continent is doomed. These iiunintuins appear first on the western coast near Sierra Leone, where their lofty peaks, culh'd the Mountains of the Lions, overlook the Atlantic. They then traverse the countries of roota .lallo ami Kankan, giving rise to the Senegal and Gambia ; while the Niger, in ils upper course, Hows through their deep valleys. In this quarter the range is not very hifly, hut presents n varied and picturesque aspect. Park, in passing through Konkodooand >Siitad(H), was much struck by the appearance of its glens and precipices, and the variety of loriiis wliii'h the rocks assumed, resembling ruined castles, spires, and pyramids. One jiriiiiite iiiiiss had exactly the aspect of a Gothic abbey, with niches and ruined staircase. The Slime chain was crossed l»y Captain Clapperton, in the country of Yarriba, where its highest piiiiinrles were only between 2000 and 3000 feet ; but the passes were exceedingly narrow and rugged, enclosed by huge granite blocks 600 or 700 feet high ; yet every level spot ^va^•, covered with fine crops of yams, millet, and cotton, and large towns were hiiill on the very summit of the ridge. Farther to the east, these mountains afford an opening, through which the Niger, swelled to a river of the first magnitude, forces its prodinimis nmss of waters ; but their cliffs overhang the river, which dashes roughly over the rocky bed that it has worn for itself. Farther cast still, south of the great plain of Houssa, lloilK I liiiiiiliir, liiliiililli'f .l;l(iM. 7v iiKiiv umiiil i'iiMi|ili'ioly I lll|1«lnl III I Tlii'iiit' ll nil ll H rii|ili| III Niiiiltiii'l ill ^ lliit' jiUiii III' M'cMiiilii'.ti'r, I'll' Uiiiijlii, I ||"il 111 fiiiii'ii "111' jllllCl' III Imi hcyiiiiij I 'ly LiiiiiItT, I* •ll" H'll, ll lliif lilt' Wllfid, M •'iiliilmc, II N|ii il» WllMJIlljj,, 'll' ll'" linvrr I ll aiMiiii nil, ll It! It'iM iiH ll .'"'"•i" I'.viir, ;' M«inl ^' }Mh,t I' ft I '•IU,„„„„ ii::i'"' « ;■;:!;';'■ "'I u. ^tz; J ■ Ij'i'iriiiiiii »l M "I" if S Jl lli.«.i "VIkiI.Ii ll Awiiia •'J' l.t*ilw llllllK Ml. rENTUAI, Al UK A. iai7 K\wan to nltiiin itH unotest iniiKiiitiulo niiil MMvoi ln't«li» I" III'' "'Ki"" MMitli of Uy were under- Htuud to I'xivnd fur xouth- ward, and lu Iwcomu much moru I'lvviitcd. Tliis wa» conflrmed liy the nppcaranci! of Nuvcral remote peaks in that direction, particularly one lioid »o be thirty-tive miles distant, and which had a most alpine character, much resnmbling the ai- guilles of Mont Blanc, a* seen from the Mer do Glace. They were known even to the rude natives by the classic appellation of the Moon Mountains. ,1HtiH, 't'hr rn'fit, which derive their supply from this great inountoin range, form a still mine ((rillid and celebrated feature. The gnat stream of the Niger, long involved in such (lui'li my^liryi has at length, through the persevering exertion of British travellers, been very i'iini|ihli'ly explored. Its source, though not actually visited, seems ascertained by Laing III imixt III the high country of Kissi, about '20O miles in the interior from Sierra Leone. 'I'lii'iii'V It rolls through Foota Julio and Kankun, where Cailli^ describes himself to have found il II riipld and considerable stream. At Bumniakoo, having received the tributary from Siiiiknrl ill iMaiulIng, which Park mistook for the main stream, it begins its course over the lllU' jilulil of Uamharra ; and at Sego, the capital, is described to be as broad as the Thames at WiMniliivler. In this country it is culled the Jolilia, but lower down receives the name of iliii (tiliillili or tiiiorra. Beyond Bambarra it flows through the lake Dibbie to Timbuctoo ; mill ill I'liiirsi' from that city to Youri is proved by the fact of I'ark having navigated from iiiH> \\\mv It) the other. As far as Timbuctoo the Niger has flowed north and north-east ; hill III')' Olid lliilt city it changes to the south-east and south. F'rom Youri, its course, traced liy l.iinili'r, Is, with some winding, almost duo soutli, till, at Kirreo, about 170 miles from lilt) Ki'ii, il iu'gllis to separate int«» branches, and forms a delta, the greatest, undoubtedly, in till' worlili wiiosv estuaries extend along the coast from the river Formosa to that of Old CuIiiImii', a space of about :<00 miles. The whole lino of this noble river, allowing for all lu wliiilliigs, ciiii scarcely be reckoned at less than 3000 miles, and for several hundred miles III' ill lower course it formn a magniflcent expanse, resembling an inland sea. Thus, though Il I'lilliiol milk with the Missouri and Orcllana, those stupendous floods of the Now World, it 11 III k'li'il us large as nny of those which water the old continents. Ilf/crcnccs lu Uie Miiji of Ctiitinl .l/ika. Niillill I'Airr, I. Himu I. \U\n\ .^. TrttlitM V \.llllltlA ^ ,i«M»» li- Va I Ml.- I.. H |iiHimilimlt«tii II. »iv.i III. hrtihiiiuliiia ll.hlln n >.iu.<,..f|>ililili> 11 M..1 ,i,,l,.,i h, l'lml.|i,l,«l !'<■ ll.illli'llllMt v. \m\»i H. huL.tliu.. I'l Hull, CI I iriiiii..|] ■Il l.n.iiiiinll il Vi.iill ■l\ h,H,l,l,| II 11 4 c r,.,Mi vi.W«,i '17. t\liiiii.t »» Uv,i ,1ll. Ilalilm .11. 'I'nlirn M. KiH.ini .1.1. rulil'IF II. Kiilonknrn .l.l.lhlnri ,111. rnrlit .1?. Atliln :iS. Nnrktrn ,l!l. Knlin 411, I'BtilnH'e 41. Un.niin 44. Ill'rahl'l! 1.1, Zlinili. II, Ninritliin 41, Kntitwiiwii 4'l, Hmnliirt I'ora 47. lliHtKnwii 41. Illii„,i 4lt, tuiiiui,nm nil, lliiili'iu.i M. IIik>Ih,,'ii li. llMli'kat-rre M, UHlwIinrT At. (11(1 lliirtuiu, or i,» J""'" .11, Ihluuwn All. VlHUt A7, llliriffliit A!). Allouli Mull m. Mahnh nl. PiKilIc lili. Ilnrrl (>.1. KonanrA fi4. llnloVo ItA. Shuwy Cfi. Kuiwery fi7. MAfal.il lis. Anunln r.'.l. Nt'w Koriiou 7(1. Kmiliit 71, AiiKomou Vi. AflaK«y 7.1. IliTlierrj 71. Ally Maliur 7.1. [\f(irn 7(1. ll.iiry 77. Mwliwa 7N. Miisfi.la 7'.>. M. nalla N(l. Mumitw SI. Ailatnt.wa Hi. Mana S.I. Karnwa Nl. Nansoriiia N.I. Carlla Mi. Dainoy S7. KulUnitiiAhii. NN. Irfininiec H<). roknin S.'*. El Mina Cutle Rivtrt. yO. Connie UR. AkrofVoon n .Tr>ltl>a,or Nlupr h Ounnm, or Nigrr c Ha Nimma 91. .InrolK-i y;. (ajH-Coaatrantle SS. Tviiitim UU. EKita. W. At f.irah A llara SOUTH FART. .V). AkTur.ih 4. Ktwhee .11. (irent I'lmoe i AkLvny A. l)oh(» 31. Wlijdnh 1 I.=«K<« k llviiin fi. KnoMM .Ifi. I'orto NoTo 7. rh.intloo ,17. IliulaKTy 1 Wurte 8. Dufu .18. Wow m Knniofl 0. Accoiloo .Ti. .Tcima n N*'* Carabar m. Afoom 40. I,.iHtH o Hiiinv II Old ralahar ll.Kntta 41.piiasM-e 1'^. Altomev 4^. fVnin f] Rio del Key n. Najilm • 4.1. Wane r (\-im(>r(iona 11. Oilanty 44. Itra-vH s MalltntA \'i. IVInnlHni 4.'.. KIhw t T&liiiddn Hi. *'nula 4(i. Kirree u Coodoonla n.Ciritoo 47. I>amuKgoo ▼ Accra 18. Itriqu.iDte 1(1. Yanimv 4S. Atta w Moussa 4!K l1o(.-qiia X Quiirrama 1 > Stiasliiim W. K.-imtv SO. Cutttini CuiTiif*' 'il. CooiiKisilL' fA. Kncunda z Vfou ii'i- ("UT.1 5'i. Funtla. a-* Sl.ary *iX Axim It* Uambatarum. '^1. Aquciliih 1258 * DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. 5369. The trihutariei of the Niger are of peculiar magnitude and importance. At no great distance above the point where the delta commences, the Tshadda, or Shary, nearly equal to the main stream, enters, after watering large and fruitful kingdoms, and having formed the theatre of un active navigation. At no great distance above, it receives a smaller tributary, the Coodonia, which was seen, by Lander, flowing through a fertile and highly cultivated country. Considerably higher is the Cubbie, a largj stream, from the city and country of that name ; and higher still the Quarrama, which has passed by Zirmie and Sackatoo, Be- tween this point and Timbuctoo, we have no means of knowing whether any rivers fall into the Niger. The tributary which passes that city is of no great importance ; but at the eastern boundary of Bambarra, Park describes the influx from the south of two great streams, the Maniana and Nimma. Those which fall in during the earlier part of the course consist of numerous mountain torrents, which swell the river, without themselves possessing very great importance. All the rivers in the eastern part of Central Africa fall into the great receptacle of the Wke Tchad. The principal one is another Shaty, the early course of which is unknown. Major Denham saw it at its mouth, where it was about half a mile broad, and flowed at the rate of between two or three miles an hour. Forty miles up, it was seen rolling in great majesty and beauty ; but was not traced any higher. The Yeou, rising in the hills of Dull, to the south of Houssa, flows first north and then east through Bornou, till it falls into the western side of the Tchad. Even at the junction it was only about fifty yards broad in the dry season, and, though of great value for fishery, does not aflbrd the means of any extensive trade. 5B70. In regard to lakes, the Tchad is greatly pre-eminent, situated in the most central part of the continent, and on the frontier of Bornou. It may be about 200 miles in length and 120 in breadth, and forms thus one of the greatest bodies of fresh water in the world, though it cannot equal the mighty inland seas of Asia. The dimensions are augmented in an extraordinary degree during die rains, when a surface of many miles, usually dry, is laid imder water. This inundated tract, when deserted by the waters, is covered with impenetrable thickets, and with rank grass of extraordinary height, and, though unfit for the residence of men, becomes a huge den of wild beasts. The lake contains numerous large islands, some of which are the residence of tribes and even nations. The Dibble, or Dark Lake, formed by the Niger between Jenn^ and Timbuctoo, appears not nearly so large, since M. Caillie, in sailing across it, lost sight of land only in one direction. The other lakes yet known to eiist in this region are small and local objects, though sometimes very picturesque. SiCT, II. Natural Geography- SuBSECT. 1. Geology. ftSni. Soudan, or Nigrilia, in the central and more elevated districts, nWords granite, gneiss, mica ilale, elan iliiti; quarix rock, hornblende rock, litnestone, Sec. These deposits arc various^ traversed by greenstone and ntlicr trap rocks. At Onrec tlicrc arc line displays of columnar basalt. Great tracts of flat country cxicnil lo the eastern limit, IncludinK Koudun, of which the kingdoms arc Houssa and Bornou. In the flat and dcicrt regions, suit lakes anil natron lakes occur. Beds of rock salt are also met with. The salt is arranged in boii several teet thick : it is nilneil into large slabs, which are afterwanls sawn into blocks for the market. Theie mines form the riches of the country. Gold is found in different parts of Africa, but most abimdantly in thii region, which nirnishes most of the gold which is sold on the western coast of Africa, as well as that which is brought to Morocco, Fez, Algiers, Cairo, and Alexandria. According to accounts furnishe ounces, valued at SO.'i.S-IO/., and in the following four years of peace, .'iO,,')ii!l ounces, valued at 12.'),.'i8()/. The eastern coast of Africa, where the Portuguese still retain soincsclllc ments for carrying on the slave traile, may be slightly noticed. According to some authors of the sixletiilh century, Melinda, Sofalo, Moiamliiijue, and other tracts on that side of AOica, allbrded large quanlilics of gold i but their accounts arc not to l>e implicitly relied on. Mr. Salt, the latest traveller, who visiteeono to the west, and Southern Africa to the south. There are a few quadrupeds, however, stated w Inhabit the inland piovincea more particularly, and which we shall briefly notice : — Aiitlln|w forfei. 0«mlii«n Anteloi*. Antlliipi- ndenat*. KobAnlclope. Neolrnipu pygmira Urn. I'jKmj *"'i'2' Dainalis >cni>Ka>enil>JS>n. KoMAnWif' Bos Pcguui. Pegaaw. Manli longictuHa. Long-lalleti Manli. I CamelnnirdalU auilralU Si». Th« SouUi- rhMcochwnis anrlcaniu. Elhioplan I cm (ilratl'e. Cajn-linMrdalU anUquorum Hw. The I Antelope. I Uasella corinna Sm. Corlana Gazelle. Nurdiem (ilraflW. Book III. CENTRAL AFRICA. Part III. ice. At no , nearly equal ig formed the ler tributary, ily cultivated id country of jckatoo. Be- ivcrs fall into > ; but at the of two great ■r part of the lut themselves ral Africa fall tary, the early was about half Forty miles up, higher. The I and then east junction it was or fishery, does he most central miles in length er in the world, 'e augmented in lally dry, is laid ith impenetrable the residence of ge islands, some rk Lake, formed ce M. Caillie, in It known to exist ie. MM, mica ilale, cits I by greenstone and at country extend 10 the flat and desert ; is arrangeil in Iwis ■ the market. Ttoe St abundantly in ihn L well as that *lucli hiishcdtoMr.Jiicol), land by ships of vtat, seven years of »ar, I four years of l«a«. II retain some seUlc- lora of the sixlccnih 1 larne quantities ol ..f who visited llKW [moved much ofthe V, that the only «iJ Rnncr a ccmsideiable 1593, the gnverno' «' worth about 2» «;. 1359 5374. The Mams is analogous to the American Armadiilocs, being, liltc them, entirely covered with an im- penetrable coat of mail ; this, however, is disposed not in rings, but lilce the scales of a fish. The Ethiopian Soar is a hideous animal, with long tusks and fleshy protuberances "n each side of the head. The Great.horned Aniilope is a species deserving the attention of ftiturc travellers : its horns, which have only yet been seen in Europe, are erect, with the point bent back, and are no less than two feet and a half long in o straisht line Th'! animal is supposed to inhabit the interior of Western Africa The Gambian Anielope has been also brought from the same region ; its aspect is peculiarly soft and engaging, but it is uncommonly shy. The Pegaase is a species of BuBilo, inhabiting the interior of Congo and Angola, and thus intimated by two of the Catholic missionaries, Oalleni and Carl : — " On the road to Loando, in the iiiiigdom of Congo, we saw two Pacassos, roaring like lions, the male and female being always together, 'lliey are white, with rufous and black siiots, with ears half a yard in length, and the horns straight When they see human beings they do not flee, nor do they harm, but stand and look on." This vague account would not have deserved notice had not Major Hamilton Smith detected a drawing of this very rare animal among those which formerly belonged to the great and famous Prince Maurice of Nassau, now in the Berlin library. The Eland is the only anteloue on which a quantity of fat is found sufficiently hard to make candles. 5375- The Giraffi will lie here noticed, as a genus whose geographic range appears more especially confined to the inland parts of Alrica The ancient writers appear to have understomi these quadrupeds much better than the moderns ; for Jonston was not only well convinced of their existence, but ho flgures several which he supposes are distinct species. The new and valuable information on the Giraffe of Northern AfVica liuhlished by Hup|)cll, first led us to suspect that it was, in reality, a distinct species from that of Southerri Africa, and this idea has been fully confirmed by a further investigation of the subject, and by verbal information comi.nunicatcd by Mr. Burchell. We Cf.nnot, in this place, say more on this interesting discovery the details of whici; we propose communicating i.-. the oublic through a more appropriate channel. It will be luHicient to observe that the Giraffe of Northern Africn (C. antiquorum Sw.) was known 'o the Romans • but the moderns long doubted the existence of such a quadrjped, until the Dutch traveller. Colonel Gordon' and our own countryman, Patcrson, found the Giraffe of Southern Africa (C. australis Sw.l, and brought its skin to Europe. In an adult state the latter is said to be sometimes near twenty feet high, and the specimen in the British Museum, brought home by Mr. Burchell, measures seventeen feet and a half In a state of nature the manners of both, as Car as we yet know, are nearly similar They live in small families, princiially in the plains of the interior, where there is occasional herbage or succulent vegetation. Their ordinary food, how. ever, is the leaves of the mimosa trees. Their gait, when walking, is rather stately than awkward : but, as Le Vaillant well observes, it is ridiculous enougn to see them trot, for the Giraffe then resembles a limping beast, with the head perched at the extremity of a long neck which never bends, swaying backwards and for- wards ; the head and neck playing in one piece between the shoulders, as on an axis. Their short horns appear useless as means of defence, but they kick with prodigious force, and the jerks are so quick, that the eye cannot count them. {VaiU. Trav. ii. 279.) The disposition of the Northern Giraffb is remarkably gentle : nothing can exceed the mild and beautiful expression of its f\ill dark eye. It is certainly the most interesting quadruped we ever beheld ; and we considered a journey to Paris well recompensed, l.ad it only afforded us the gratification of contemplating the noble Girafft;, now living (1833), in perfect health, in the Garden of Plants, where Mr. Landseer sketched the figure given at p. 1179. Sect. III. Historical Geography. 537(). The history of this extensive region is altogether unknown till the twelfth century, when, during the flourishing iieriod of Arabian literature, the eminent geographers Abulfetia, Edrisi, and others, described the settlements formed by their countrymen on the southern side of the Great Desert. The Arabs appear to have migrated thither in numerous and probably successive colonies. The movement took place chiefly in conse. quence of the contest between the dynasties of the Aijbasidcs and Ommiadcs, when the vanquished party sought refuge in the remotest extremities of Africa. Being probably |x)s8essed of sujierior skill in the military art, tlicy easily prevailed over the undisciplined natives, and established powerful states along a river, which they called the Nile of the Negroes, but which a|>|icars to be only the Zirmic, or Quarrania, a tributary to that which we call the Niger. The principal kingdoms were Ghana (Kano^, and T'ocrur {Sarkatoo\ while to the east was the [mwerful negro state of Kuku (.Ilornou). The court of Ghana displayed a splendour, derived chiefly from the gold imported from the countries in the south, u hich appeared dazzling even to those who had witnessed the greatness of Bagdad and Cairo. 5377. Various revolutions, only imperfectly rejiorted to us, appear since that (leriod to have agitated this part of the continent. In general, one powerful chief seems to have aspired at, and in a great measure attained, a supremacy over tne others, of which he was speedily deprived by the revolutions to which these turbulent states arc liable. In the fourteenth century, Leo Africanus, visiting Timbuctoo, found it in |ios. session of Izchia, a powerful chief from Morocco, who lield then the chief sway over Ghana and the principal countries of Central AfVica At the end of last century, Mr. Lucas understood that Cassina had gained the supreme rule over the Mussulman states in this quarter. About the beginning of the century, however, Danroitin, chief of the Fellatalis ufSackatoo, not only asserted his independence, but made himself master of all Hnussa, then conquered Ilornou, and finally extended his dominion westward as far as the Niger. The Fellatah empirr, thus founded, has since, however, sufTcred much dismeniberinent The standard of inde- pcndei wad raised in Ilornou by a native of Kancm, who, under the title of Sheikh el Kaneniy, drove out the inv^i lor, and assumed the real sway over the country. In the heart of lloussa, Guohcr, Zegzeg, and other countr ci, have thrown off' the yoke. Vet the I'ellatahs, under other chiefs, are extending their comiuests to the wcriward, and have even passed the Niger into Yarriba Timlmctoo, meantime, has long lost the suprenmc)' it possessed in the days of Leo. It Iwcamc even tributary to the emperor of Morocco ; and, though it lias shaken off this yoke, the king's dominion docs not now extend beyond the city and its immediate vicinity. Itamharra, when visited by Park, was found the most extensive and powerful kingdom on the upper course of the Niger; but it has since been dismembered by Sego Ahmadou, a Foulah chieltain, who liai obtained possession of the flourishing city of Jenn6, and the surrounding territory Lilt, which probablr ling treated undei « Is, howe«r, stated t» lo«mlil«nAnlelo|» I KoljAnleW- . Sect. IV. Political Geography. M78. The government in the countries i)f Central Africa is eompklelii despotic ; and In the native states the homage paid to rulers and grandees is even more abject and debasing than in any civilised empire. In Gycn, the greatest lords, when they aiiproach the sovereign, throw themselves Hat on their faces, kissing the earth, and piling heaps of dust upon tneir heads. The sacrifice, on the death of any prince or chief, of Ins principal officers and favourite wives, though not carried to the same bloody extent afi in Ashantee and Dahomey, is considerably prevalent ill Eyco and other native states. Yet the greatness of the inonarchs is not supported by much of outward irnmp and slate. Their mansion, usual attire, and daily habits, difibr little from those o( their mi-auest subject. The kiiigof Youri.oiie of the greatest of these potciit.iti's, received the English mission in a small square spot, which might be compared to a clean English farm-yard ; and his audience of leave was given in an apartment unswept and dirty, with swallows Hying aliiiiit, and a number of naked girls and boys passing and repassing. The king of Wawa, to give his state reception, placed himself in a niche of the city wall. Thepompof the sovereign consists chleflv in the multitude of his wives: and it was the boast of the king of Eyeo that his queens, linked haiiil in hand, would reach IVom one end of the kingdom to the other. These ladles, however, .tre in a very different situation fVum that which in Europe is suggested by the word 1260 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. I'akt Hi, qucoii : alave would be the more .i.>|>ropriate, to varied arc the scrvicra of evrry (IcseriptUi!) vxnctcd fVim tncin. They act as boi\i the army of .Sackatoo, .50,0(10 or ftl.lKX) strong, employed in the siiu,. i.i Coonia, a rebel city: but oidy a few chiefs, dressed in quilled ariiiuur made some display of viHour ; the others, u|)on being struck bv a false Hlarm' took precipitately to flight, upsetting every thing in their way, most of ih,'. men and .inimals tumbling over each other, and rushing together lii save what they could by Hi^ht. A camp, as elsewhere seen by I pportim »», like a village, coinpuscd of a luimher of huts, resembling bee.iiives atraiimi in regular streets ; ,d was " filled with weavers, tailors, women siiijiiiiiig eott.in, others reeling oil'; some selling loofoo and accassons, othiTs stllnu yams and paste; little markets at every green tree, holy men coniilini; Uim beads, and dissolute slaves drinking roa bum." The musket is alii».i wholly unknown in the wars of those nations. The greatest moiuirchs li,,i, only a few, which they keep as objects of pride and curiosity. 'I'lie .VmIi caravan followers, armed with those weapons, and possessing a certain degree of discipline, are su|ictii)r in thousands of their opiK>ncnts, and often decide the battle between the mightiest monarchs. 8fi7 KA.NKMn(»l SI'KAHMAN. Sect. V. Productive Industry. 5iVi\. Almost the whole of this extensive region may rank with the jhiesi nnilmost fruitful on flu .uri'iai of the globe. Though placed nearly beneath the line, and scorched by tlie intensest rays of,. iropKal ..m , suflTers from this cause less than almost any other country in the same situation. The great cli.iin nf m, t; . tains by which it is traversed in some degree tempers the severity of the heat, and, by the nuniirims sin i; which they pour down, aflnrds throughout the means of irrig.ition. Kven their declivities, s(jim'liini'siiiii very summit, are covereerlect ilidusir) m >ii, iieople produces only gussub, a species of millet, whiili, inste.id of being formed into iiread, is imrdy Ici.IrI into a paste. So 8U|iine is their < ullinc, that in this tine climate they do not rear a vegetable of any (lc(ri|L tion, excefit a few onions ; nor a fruit except limes, and those only m the garden of the sheik, hi ll.iii.ki, however, two crops ot wheat are raiseear8 to be quite a negri> mamifactnre, being carried to tlie foealest peilectinn' tiH'iniiilr.r. occupied exclusively by that people; Loggnu in the east, and N'yilt'' westwaiil on the shores of the N'i).'rr !'.'> manufactures in Iloussa are chiefly conducted by slaves fiinii the latter country. Dinhani di'Hrilu.r Iieople of Ixiggun as steeping their'clolli thrice in indigo, then laving it on the trunk nf a l.irKilnr, ml beating it with woikIcii inallels, till it niqiiiri'S the most brilliant gloss. Mats, being uiiivirsally iiarlli i and sleep tiiion, form also an extensive braiiih of manufacture, which is carried to peculiar innirliii il Uabba in Nylt"'. The gold found along the western part of Hie ehain of niuuntaiiis is worked uitli iniiuiln. able skill into rings and ornaments. I'AUT Hi, xncti'rt frura he khiKiliiin, rt tulla. 'I'lin M, and thdit' nv ilegradiiiK Kovcnimciii, tl)u inaiian ux m\ fiom any prescntii, niiil rry nn a kihhI II ndvantniii'. mil oxtiirtiim. ill liiiKi' hcaiij itrangiTS, as a D aummnns uf 'i'lie cavalry intl, us well at they want tln' Jtcly to Biulii, turne I, wni'ii VlRltiVfJ, 'I'll!.. L'ik lit' lioTimii, 'I'hey w.\n\\ lieir itiily aniit of tlU! t'lU'llU, yet tlu'y have rout a cliaiii uf Thfl-'clKlah s, tiuhlinK with VL't I.am\i'r»a«' in till' sii'iie 01 luiltt'il ariHuvit, ly n falsi' aliirin, ay, most of llic ii^etlier to save r iipi'iton, wa* e-Liivi's anaii|!nl women it|i'miuiig 19, nthi'ts sclliiig Ml emintiiiK Ilini nuskot is a\\\M it inonari'hs haii isity. 'I'lie Arali p, arc svi|it'tiui lu 'ill on the kuifiii' .. tvoiiiral >aii, ;( It eli.iiii lit' uiiu:.' imnu'rous slit ..t;.> siHiH'tnm'slui'i- ir the luiului'ti . > |e. jorate or sviviiluk lir turning U|> tin' Tillam', on K'nuiuii lit has even Iwii |e inllui'iii'i'sul'lin :iussa till' l!'Jiii ' ■ntlv Ki'iil tii>fitv [et iiuUisln "< il'i il, is niiTi'ly \«M ill' of any ilwtiii llii'ik. Ill H.m.n, 'il Willi Iruils.wJ |in till' kiii8ilo'ii"f .., anil llu'Wauli. ili(!0 liir ilvi'iiili 1' II of viTV valiu'j'f „i, that llH'v I'.Ki' . ilmm'ilii'aliinu'i Jl'-i'- owners !!>■ llion,llli'i'.'il"i'''. ,,,'o- .irmMilN.iif It lliil,l'V,llll' fli'l Il tlie siri'aiibllui Hv 'l'lii'mo>lw' lllvih.ilmihl' ■■ Tii'iiiii inrouiil'J'" I of till' Si|;ir, I'..' Jiani ili'MTil'v- r ■if a large Her, al T,'i'rsally »«■'! ' ' ' ' jiliiir iH'tlVfli'iii ,ii Ikeil Willi in"-"l'i- itlMlK I1I> CEWTRAL AFRICA, ,ViH4, l\»Hmfre^, throughout this region, U carried on with considerable activity, tlioiiuh in hut |HVHll»r. Maritime trade Is precluded liy its situation, far distant from any ciast. Even 1261 „l,ui iHVHllar. .Maritime trade is precluded l.y its situation, far distant from any roast: ""Even ?iver"nXr lloiil* not i.rnotl.ed w^th much diliKcncc, unless on the Niger, and that chiefly on its lower "ours": mU ,„,|,ri««' ii«« the sen Waggons arc unknown, and would pcrhaiw be too cumbrous for the rude tracts throuKh ^lliih they would have to be conveyed. Single travellers, also, could not proceed with safet7through rou.cs ,„■ ,„ih length, many |mr « of which arc beset l,y predatory tribes. Commodities are conveyed by larre ,„„,,«. ..mietlljiM rcseinb Ing little nrmip. called caravans, kafilas, or coffles. Those which mm tetw«n Northern and Central Africa, across the immense ex|ianae of the desert, employ camels, whose pat So" Ihlrsl, ttlHl their soft and elastic himls, almost exclusively fit them for traveling over tiU wide surfaci of «„ul. In «hc rugged and mountainous tracts, burdens are chiefly conveyed by means of as»es ; but in the ,„vit IVrtik; plnlm ot Houssa and hyco, the human head is the most fVcquent vehicle : those of females not rx„.|.tlng the wives ot H'C great men, and even of the monarch, arc decidedly preferred. These fair bearer. h,v I' '..•«-n seen carrying with alacrity loads which it required the labour of three men to place on their heads Th,. AlVican oarnvBii iiK-rchant is a very diflVreiit iierson from him who, while his vessels are traversine the iwnii, rt-mnlns soatwl in a snug counting-house, reckoning the silent accumulation of his profits • he must ,uiH>iii|wliy his InvestnuMits to their remotest destination, through desolate tracts, the domain of warlike and lenH'loiis trilws. Passing through regions which own no law but that of the strmigest, he is obliged to arm lilniM'lf and Ills lollowers, and to defend as n warrior what he has earned as a merchant. Unhannilv he is oltiii teiiilitwl to imitate those with whom he conteiida, and to consider plunder as a cheap and even nit dis hohoiirulilc iiioile ot completing his assortment of goods. He holds himself thus equally ready, accordinir to I'ltniiiKlumes, to act as thief, iictllar, merchant, prince, or warrior. His liand being armed uitli muskets ami loriiiliig n hltlc standing army, are truly formidable to the nations of interior Africa. They form there a Mirt of iitate within the slate, and arc at once courted and dreaded even by great sovereigns As commodi lien, ill crossing the desert, rise in value firom l.'io to .W() per cent., and sometimes are procured by mere violi'iH'i', the merchant who passes safely through a scries of such adventures acquires immense wealth anil can orteli rival the liomp of princes. The caravans which traverse on fooi li:>} iiegio countries in the ivi'sl, and which consist In a great measure of females, though often very noisy, and addicted to convivial mill oven dissolute habits, bear by no means the same warlike character. The female tralfickers act iiiit iiii-rcly ill n servile capacity as bearers, but carry on extensive transactions, and acquire considerable iirniH'rty. ,'kW, Tkf nimmoililii'i conveyed across the desert, and exposed for sale in the markets of Central Africa m olili'tly of « showy and ornamental kind : coarse wixilleii cloths of gaudy colours, and red silk thread to be wovoii into tlii'ir cotton rolics ; coarse French writing |iaper. beads, rings, and ornaments made of silver, l!l,i«», iMrnI, niiilK-r, and even pewter ; and with regard to the material of these articles imiiosition is very easily liraetlsiil. Si^lssors and knives, with other iron imiilcmcnts, and, still more, arms, arc in constant demand. .\ wi'looiiie Is even given to the gaudy cast-oH" dresses of the Mamelukes, and to the old sword.blades of the ■■"lidits iif Malta. Salt, In large quantities, Is brought from pits in the interior of the desert ; and goora or ', 1 iiiits, — a Ihvnurite luxury, which is even called the African coffee, — are transported Urom the western 11' ensterii |mrti of this region. The returns made to Northern Africa from Timbucloo consist partly of mill Ivorv ! hut slaves are the chief article sent from thence, and almost the sole one from Houssa and ....riioii. Tlioiie uuroituiinte victims are caught by armed expeditions in tho mountainous regions to the south. Hit' Inhabitants of which, being mostly pagan, are considered by orthodox Mussulmen as lawAil prey. These iiiriwils .irc undertaken nut by private marauders, but by powerful chiefs, and even by the greatest princes. Oil iHYasiiiii of the ninrrlogc of tlic sheik of Dornou with the daughter of the sultan of Mandara, u combined I'XiHilltliiii was tent against the Musgow nation, which, after a desperate struggle, brought in ^itlflo slaves ; mill the liU|itials were celebrated witli barbtiric pomp, furnished out of the tears and captivity of so many vielliiii. ;;'i,>iiv .ViVMi'f tinirf,«, ciiiinh, nor other modes of improving the interior communications, are employed in tills n'gliiii. The muto^i are merely spaces left vacant, and beaten by the continued tread of men and animals Tlii'y arc oltcii eiiciinilicred by kwuiii|m, trees fallen across, and even liy the large nests of white ants. Where lliiy arc crossed by broad rivers or lakes, a large raft is placed on the bank, by which, not without some dif. lliiilty uiiil danger', the caravans arc ferried over. Sect. VI. Civil and Social Slate. ,'i,IST. Ttii' slate of sodfli/, though it has not passed the limit of what must be dcnominuti'd hiiilmi'iiiis, hits yet'inndo a grentur approach towards civilisation than among any other AtVicHii imlions, except those which border on the Mediterranean. Nor is this solely owing 10 the iiiigi'Hiions from that region, though these have been numerous, and a great part of llio |iiipiilation is ilerived from them. The states ))urcly negro, which have imbibed no IHiilion (if .Vriibic religion and literature, have made nearly an etjual advance in arts and ini- |iiiiveiiii'nts. The lolnl absence, however, of alphabetic writing, and of any written or even imlnti'il ivi'iirds, seems to place these last decidedly beneath the least improved among the ^'I't'iit inilliins of the Asiatic continent. .VIHH, In the mnral existence of the African there are many very dark features. War is niiried on with all the ferocity of the most barbarous nations ; many tracts, formerly flourish. iiijf, wore seen, by the recetit travellers, reduced by it to a state of entire desolation. Another iliH'P liltit is the extensive prevalence of robbery, practised not merely by desperate and out- liiwcil Inilividniils, but as the great national and state concern of almost every community, Kti'ttt iiml siiinll. In other parts of the world, robbery is carried on by the poor against the rich; ill IViitrid AlVicn, it is equally or more by the rich against the poor; for there, he »lio is ilestiliile of every thing else, has at least himself, who, converted into a slave, forms till' riclii'st booty that can tempt the plunderer. The treatment of the numerous bands of oi|Hivi's who are conveyed across the desert is also attended with many circumstances of ri'iiiiiiseless cruelty. Yet it must not be concluded that an unbroken gloom hangs over till' imiriil condition of Africa. There seems even to be something jieculiarly amiable and i'»|][i'KinK in the social feelingsand Imbitsthere prevalent. Warmth of friendship, hospitality, niul liuiniinily, are virtues of which Park and other recent travellers have given many shining iiMiiiu'cs, They are furnished even by Moslems, notwithstanding tlie hostile feelings chorishod by a bigoted creetl. When IVIajor Denhain was Heeing from battle in a naked ami iiiiM'i'uble stale, it young African prince pulled off his own tmiisers, and bestowed them ii|iim him. lltith Clapperton and Lander paint the Fellatali shepherdesses in the most 1262 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. engaging colours ; describing their dress as arrangeu witli taste, tlieir hair braided with peculiar neatness, their manners artless and simple, their conversation at once modest and full of kindness. 5389. In regard to religion, the nations of this region are pretty equally divided between two systems, the pagan and Mahometan ; one native, the other introduced by migration and intercourse from Northern Africa. The Niger, in a general sense, forms the buundary of Moslem influence, which has, however, penetrated at several points beyond that river! The Fellatahs, who form the ruling people in the fine territory of Houssa, appear to have migrated from Egypt and Burbary, bringing with them the Mahometan religion. The people of Bornou, and of the adjacent countries of Mandara and Begharmi, have been' converted to this faith, and profess it with a still more bigoted zeal. Tlie Christian tra. vellers were considered by them not only as doomed to perdition, but as destitute of any claim to the rights and courtesies of humanity. One fixeil article of belief among all tliese nations is, that they may lawfully reduce to slavery all the kerdies, or pagans, who peuplu the southern mountain districts. In other respects, they do not strictly conform to the recluse and contracted habits of life generally prevailing among nations of this profession : the females are not closely immured ; intoxicating liquors are not rigidly abstained from ; and various amusements which it proscribes are indulged in without scruple. Tlic panan tribes are free from this intolerant spirit ; but their superstition is mean and puerile in the extreme, consisting in implicit reliance upon fetiches, charms, and amulets of the most ridi- culous nature. The barbarous system, also, of human sacrifice, though prompted by the extravagant veneration in which their great men are held, has evidently an intimate con- nection with superstitious impressions. 5390. Learning, throughout Central Africa, appears in a very depressed state. The reading even of the Koran is confined to a very few of the great fighis, or doctors. Its verses arc chiefly employed as amulets to secure triumph over enemies, or success in the different pursuits of life. Its contents are frequently imbibed by writing the characters with a black substance on a wooden board, washing them off, and drinking the liquid, The Arabs, who possess somewhat greater information, often practise most scandalous im. positions on the credulity of the negroes. The princes, both in Bornou and Houssa, shoH- a disposition to enquire into and cultivate the arts and sciences ; but they have no channel of information, unless from Barbary, where these pursuits are in an almost equally depressed state. Sultan Bello and bis minister had each a library, but no communication has been made to us as to the contents of either. Yet extemporary poetry, sung by the composers, is repeated at almost all the African courts. Singing men and singing women are constant attendants on the chiefs and caboceurs ; and their songs, though conceived probably in terms of the grossest flattery, appear to contain a large portion of national history. The Arab caravan drivers also cheer their long expeditions by reciting poems, where the talent displayed is often considerable, and is derived less, probably, from any acquired literature, than from the excited state of passion and feeling, which arises in a life of wild and wan- dering adventure. In the most improved of the native states, there appears to exist u con- siderable taste for sculpture, and in their edifices, the doors, with the other ornamental parts, are adorned with pillars, on which are carved the exploits of their warriors, combined widi the various movements of favourite animals. 5391. The amusements of these nations arc not extremely refined. Wrestling and gaming arc favourites in Bornou, The wrestling exhibitions are made by slaves cap- tured from the neighbouring and hostile countries of Begharmi and Musguwy, The masters place their pride in the victories achieved by these slaves, cheering them during the combat, and often on a favourable issue throwing to them valuable robes and other pre- sents. A powerful wrestling slave will sell for 100 dollars ; but a defeat, the disgrace of which is never forgotten, causes him to fall at once to four or five. Ladies, also, even of rank, delight in a strange exercise, where they beat particular parts of the body against each other with such force, that the van(|uislied party is thrown flat on the ground. Tlie prin- cipal game, and one skilfully played, is a species of rude chess, carried on by beans, «iih holes made in the sand. At Kano, the most flourishing of the cities of Houssa, boxing is practised with some science, and such excessive fury, that a thorough set-to not unfre(|uenlly terminates in the death of one uf the combatants. Tlie performers exhibit for pay ; and when Captain Clapperton hired a party, the whole population, male and female, quitlwl their occupations, and thronged to view their favourite spectacle. In Eyeo, there is a species of dramatic exhibition, consisting, however, merely in a display of mimicry, tricks, and buffoonery. Persons enclosed in sacks pursue each other with surprising agility ; ont of one comes a representative of the boa constrictor, who exhibits an excellent imitation of the movements of that animal ; there was also exhibited to Captain Clappertun the " uhiie devil," a caricature of the European ; a thin figure, painted white, shivering with cold, and performing very naturally a variety of movements which apnear strange in the eye of an African. We may conclude with dancing, which, over all native Africa, is the standing and universal amusement, continued often for whole nights, and practised in every funn, UOOK II1> CENTRAL AFRICA. 196S le composers, 1 are constant . probably in listory. The :re the talent red literature, ild and wan- to exist a con- imcntal parts, ombined witli from slow movements resembling the stately minuet, to curvets that might rival those of Grimaldi. Even the Itings place a peculiar glory in their skilful performance of this exercise ; to be an expert dancer is thought almost as flattering as to be a successful war- rior ; and even those monarchs, whose advanced age disqualifies them from any real emi- nence in this performance, strain every nerve, by elaborate displays of it, to extort the (lattery of their subjects. Sect. VII. Local Geography 5392. The eastern part of this territory, comprising the kingdoms of Bornou, Mandara, Loggun, and Begharmi, will be most convenient for commencing our survey of its local divisions. 5393. Bornou, one of the most powerful kingdoms of Central Africa, extends about 200 miles in every direction, on the westward of the great inland sea of the Tchad. The extent of that sea, and the variations on its surface, have been ah'eady described. When, in con- sequence of the rains, its waters swell, and ovjrspread the large encumbered tract aban- doned during the dry season, the numerous bands of wild animals which it harboured, elephants, lions, panthers, and hyenas, are obliged to quit their cover, and seek their prey among the habitations of men. At this disastrous period, travellers, ai:d the slaves em- ployed in watching the corn-fields, often fall victims to their fury ; the hyenas have even been known to force their way into walled towns, and devour the herds that had been driven into them for shelter. 5394. With the exception of this peculiar district, Bornou, watered by the tropical rains and often partially inundated, is a very fertile country. The soil, after being merely scratched with a hoe by the female slaves, and the seed scattered, rather than sown, yields very considerable crops. Cities, containing from 10,000 to 30,000 inhabitants, and many nailed towns, rise along the shores of the lake. The markets present a most crowded scene, the principal one at Angornou attracting sometimes 100,000 people. Yet the nation is remarkably deficient, not only in refined and intellectual pursuits, but in the humblest of the useful arts. Instead of wheat or rice, they raise gussiib, a species of small grain, wliich, being boiled to a paste, and having melted fat poured over it, is in Bornou considered the most delicate of dishes. Even iron tools, notwithstanding their value to a martial people, are handled in the most clumsy manner. The only fabric in which they have attained any kind of excellence is that of cotton cloth dyed blue with their fine indigo, the tubes or pieces of which form the current coin of the realm ; yet even in this staple they do not equal the natives of Loggun and Nyfl(S. Tliey have, however, the absolute necessaries of life in abundance. Numerous herds of cattle are bred by Arab tribes, who have trans- ported into Bornou all their pastoral habits. The most numerous are the Shouaas, who in the towns are described as deceitful, arrogant, pretended fortune-tellers, and greatly re$eml)ling gypsies ; but in the country display greater simplicity of manners. Major Dtnham describes the daughter of a rich Shouaa loaded with ornaments of amber, silver rings, and coral, her hair streaming with fat, a black rim of kohol, at least an inch wide, round each of her eyes. She sits astride on a bullock, over which carpets and tobcs have been spread, guides him by the nose, and tortures his sluggish form into something like caperings and curvettings. The Bornouese are characterised by simplicity, good nature, and ugliness. They have in excess the thick lips, face sloping backwards, and other characteristics of the negro. The principle of speculative curiosity is one to which they are not only strangers, but which they cannot at all conceive as swaying the human mind ; and the recent travellers could by no means obtain credit for this motive in visiting Africa, 5395. The government of liornou is absolute s but when the English mission lately visited the country, tliey found it in a somewhat singular political situation. The sheik, sur- nanied El Kanemy, who by his valour had rescued the kingdom from Fellatah invasion, possessed all the real authority, which he exercised with justice and vigour ; but he found it prudent to confer the ostensible dignity of sultan on a member of the ancient royal family, who lived in empty pom)) at New Bornou. There is probably no court of wliich the taste is so absurd, grotesque, or preposterous. Tlie primary requisite for a fine gentle-. man and a courtier is a huge belly ; and where feeding and cramming will not produce this beauty in sufficient perfection, the part is swelled out by stuffing and cushioning. This unwieldy bulk is then covered with ten or twelve successive robes of rich and varied mate- rials. Fold after fold is wrapped round the head, till only a small part of the face, and that all on one side, can be descried. Numerous amulets, enclosed in green leather cases, envelope their clothes, horses, and arms. Surrounded by a train of such attendants, the sultan of Bornou received the British mission in a cage or crib, liarely capable of contain- ing his own person {fig. 868.). Thus attired, however, the Bornou cavalry take the field ; hut Uiey are there totally inefficient. Indeed, the sultan, who ought to be still more pro- tuberant and encumbered than the rest, is subject to the convenient necessity of never lighting; but if his army is defeated, anil he cannot escape by flight, he seats himself in 4 M 1864 DESCRIl'TIVK GE()(Ml.\lMIY. 1'aut III. /UPIBMI Of TI!R BUtTAV 0» HOBNOU. Statu bmieath a tree, nixl quittly awaits tliu stroke of di'iitli. l.iiiiilvr liciinl it ri'imrtud ut BouMa, that tliu Nhvik Imil ivciMitly liuun put i%FiJSj-u- '•* '''"»"' ''y "'" "••'•""i who hiul ri'smiiiil Uic .I'-t; -^ suprenit' h\vii_v. S3!)(i. 7V(« luumii of Hiifmiii are conniternble though not ol' the (Irnt nmgnltudu. New Dor.' nou, the prewiU iVNJdeiu'u ol" the indtaii, Is said not to contidn uuiro Ihiin lO.lXH) people; and Kouka, whurt) thv Nhvik koiit hJH eoint, is still sinailur. An){i)riuni i* (he hiigest plnee in the kingdom, coiUididnm ill IohhI ;|(),(HH) people, und, during thu crDwdwl niiukelH held there, olaii iVom BO,0(H) to l(X),(H)t) nru itsHeiuhled. All these are in tilt) heurt tii' (he kin|| westL-rn l)ahk of tliu Tclmd. Angidii, on )in. southern or liughiuiiii IVoiillei', and Woodie on that of Kaiiein, aru iilxit coiiNiderahle s at the latter, the earavaim itiu iniide lu ntop till p^.^. mission tu proceed In ttlitalned iVuin the sovercii;n, Kanein, in the iiurth, In ii nider diKtriti, par! taking Hoinewhat of llitH'hiii'aeter of the liui'derini; desert ; but its liihaliilunlN arc peculiiirly hravf. Lari, the vapllid, in u town of 'JOOU inlialiitnnts consisting of clusters of rush-huts, in the shape of welUthutelu'il Coni-Nlni'kN. 'I'lu' largi'st cities, however, appear to have been formerly situated on the lower course of the Yeou ; hui they have been entirely destroyed, and the whole country laid wiiNle, by the desulalint; iiiruiui of the Fcllatahs. The ruins of Old Hornou were seen covering a Hpiicu of live or six si|iirire miles; and Gambarou, the former residence of royalty, displayeil In Its ruined edilias ii degree of elegance not observable in any of the modern t'lipitalN. The territory roiiiid these cities, formerly in a state of the highest cultivation, U now covered with lahyrintlis of thickets, and the meadows overgrown with wild plaills. It cuntiiins only a k\\ scattered villages, whose inhabitants live in constant ilreail fi'oin lliu predatory inroads uftlK.' Tuaricks. Farther to the west, beyond a large town called Kabhhai'y, are the almost savajjc tribe of Mungas, who light with poisoned arrows, and yield it ivluctunt subinissiuii to tiit dominion of Uornou. 5.')97. Mandara, situated to the south of Uornou, consislN of u (Inc valley, cnntaliiiri)i eight large towns, the principal of which is Mora. The whole country, and even the capital, are overlooked by the great central range of the MountiiInN of the iMoon, whiili lo the southward of this territory appear to attain their loftiest height. They are inlialiiti'd hv numerous and barbarous races, comprehended, by the MiindiU'llN, under the nppellatiim ul' kcrdies, or pagans, and thence considered as lawful prey. These peopte paint their Imdics, wrap themselves in the skins of wild beasts, and subsist chlilly on frnllM, honey, and tliu lisli drawn from large lakes. The Musgow, the m.ist dislaiit anil rudest of I hose rucen, wm seen mounted on little (iery steeds, covered only with thu skin of a gout or leiipanl, and having round their neck long strings of the teeth of their eneinieNi Dilknlliili, a part of this mountain territory, is occupied by Fellatahs, who have their villages '.lronnly I'orllliwi, and fight desperately with poisoned arrows, by which they once put lo liiglit the wludetum' of liornoti and Mandara, though aided by a numerous and welUiU'ined body of Arnlis, 5Mfi. Loiiiiiin, situated innnediately to the south of ihu lake 'IVhiid, and watenil liy tlic lower course of the river Sliary, which falls into that great reeejilach', appears lo Iil' (incur the most improved and industrious countries in all Africa, The l,oggunese, nnnd llic furious wurfare waged by the surrounding slates, have, by a skilful nelilralily, ninintaiiuil themselves in peace. They work steadily and skilfully at the loom, an occupation elsi'wiicro abandoned to slaves. Their cloth, after being thrice steeped in a dye of excellent indigo, receives a brilliant gloss by being placed cm the trunk of n huge tree, and beaten wiili wooden mallels. Tlie tobes thus fabricated are much superior lo those of llcirnoii, uml only equalled in NyH't'. The jieople rank also above their luhary, ahout forty miles above its entrance into the lake. S'.i99. Begharmi, or Uegherme, is a considerable country, to the south-east of the lake Tchad. The people, who are stout and warlike, wage almost continual war with Bornou. which boasts of having subjected them ; but they always find a retreat beyond a considerable river, which flow^ through their country, whence they return and regain possession of their territory. Their chief force consists in mounted lancers (fg. 870.), which, with their horses, are cased still more completely in iron mail than those of Bornou ; but they do not in the field display any higher degree of courage. 5400. The islands in the lake Tchad, which are numerous, and many of them large, are inhabited by tribes that have made themselves formidable to the surrounding countries. The Biddomah, occupying the eastern quarter, have a fleet of a thousand large canoes, which they employ entirely in piratical inroads. They maintain the doctrine that their deity left them without grain or cattle ; instead of which, he bestowed strength and cunning to snatch those good things from others who possessed them. This destination they zealously fulfil ; there being not a spot round this wide expanse of water which is for a moment secure from their attack, the vicinity of the capital not excepted. They carry off many of the people as I slaves, but treat thein well, and even bestow wives ' upon them. No attempt to check their ravages seems made by the most powerful of the Bornou sovereigns, who merely say, " The waters are theirs : what can we do ? " The La Salas, a pastoral people, inhabit a number of small verdant islands near the southern quarter, separated by channels so shallow, that those acquainted with them can ride on horseback from one to the other. These islands are covered with rich pastures and numerous herds. .MOl. Houssa is an extensive territory in the most central part of Africa, reaching from the upper course of the Yeou nearly west to the Niger ; but its boundaries both on the north and south seem to be yet undecided. Although it is ascertained not to reach the main stream of the Quorra or Niger, it is yet well watered by the river Quarrama or Zinnie, wliicli,with several tributaries, flows westward to join the Quorra. On the eastern border, also, it is traversed by the upper course of the Yeou, and on the southern by the Sliary or Tshadda, which also falls into the Niger. This region derives its social character from the Fellatahs, ilcsccndcd apparently from the Arabs, who migrated thither in large bodies in the teiilli and eleventh centuries, and have ever since continued to be the ruling people. It appears to be more elevated, and the climate less sultry, than that either of Bornou or the countries on the Niger; travellers have even occasionally suffered from cold. The face of the country exhibits evident marks of superior cultivation and a superior people. The fields are covered with large crops of wheat, two of which are annually produced, and the grain is stored in large granaries raised on poles as a security from insects. Irrigation is practised with diligence. Tlie grain is made into bread, and the markets are well supplied with fruits and vegetables. The Moslem faith is professed, having the iniquitous right founded upon it, of carrying into bondage the southern tribes of kerdies, or infidels; yet the same liigoted spirit does not prevail, and the Arabs even allege that the Fellatahs are not tru" ■1 M '.' I.ANCKKS UK I 1266 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paut III. Moslems. Their commercial liabit!i, and intercourse with the negro nations to the westward are probably the chief causes wliich introduce this more liberal train of ideas, 5402. Sackatoo, probably the Tocrur of the Arabians, situated nearly at the WL'sttrn extremity of Huussa, is at present the ruling country over that region. The ti'rritury up. pears to he fertile and populous, and its capital the largest city in interior Africa, 'flje houses are built closer than usual, and more regularly laiu out in streets. The place Is sur. rounded by a wall between twenty and thirty feet high, with twelve gates, always slmt at sunset. The dwellings of the principal inhabitants consist of clusters of cottages, and uf houses built with Hut roofs in the Moorish style, enclosed by high walls. 'J'herc are two mosques, one of which, unfinished when Clappcrton resided there, was 800 feet in k-ngtii supported by wooden pillars plastered with clay, and richly ornamented. The pulacc, as usual, forms a sort of enclosed town, with an open quadrangle in front ; while a painted and ornamented cottage contains the hall of audience. Of late the residence of the court having been transferred to the neighbouring town of Magaria, Sackatoo is likely to experience a decline. 540.3. The countries of Goober and Zamfra, or Zanfara, are of a ruder character, inliabitcd by a warlike race, who have sometimes ruled over Houssa, and are at present in open rebi'j. lion against the power of Sackatoo. Even the high road between that city and Kano h continually infested by them. The merchants venture to pass it only in numerous and close bodies, every one striving to be foremost, and exclaiming, " Wo to the wretcli that falls behind, he will be sure to meet an unhappy end at the liands of the Gooberites!" In 1829, Coonia, the strongly fortified capital of Goober, repulsed with loss the whole militarr force of Houssa, amounting to 5O,000 or G0,000 men. Zirniie, the capital of Zamfra, is represented as forming a sort of outlawed city, where runaway slaves find protection, and the inhabitants arc esteemed the greatest rogues in all Houssa. 5404. Kano, tliough declined from its ancient greatness, is still the centre of coinmcrci; and civilisation in interior Africa; yet it is built in a very scattered manner, occupying unly about a fourth of the circuit of fifteen miles enclosed by its walls. The inhabited part is divided into two by a large morass, dry during a part of the year, at which period is lii'ld a great market, the most crowded and best regulated in Africa. It is under the superintend- ence of a sheik, who has even the exorbitant power of fixing the prices. Such is tlii' con- fidence established, that packets of goods are very commonly carried away without biiiif opened ; and if any fraud is discovered, the packet is sent back, and the itylala, or bniktr, is compelled to procure restitution. Tiie market is crowded from sunrise to siuisut I'vin- day, not excepting Friday, the Mahometan sabbath. The slaves, who constitute (lie staple commodity, Iiave a special market, composed of two long ranges of sheds, one fur nmlis, and the other for females. The poor creatures, decked out for the purpose, are scatd in rows, and are nicely scrutinised by the purchaser, who inspects the tongue, teeth, eyes, and limbs, causing them to cough, and move in ditl'erent directions, so that any di'fei-t in ikir persons may become apparent. The current coin in traffic consists of the small shells oiiiil cowries, 480 of which are worth only a shilling, so that the task of counting them is la- borious. Kano is supposed to contain !!0,000 or 40,000 inhabitants, 5405. Kashna, or Kassina, to the north of Kano, is a considerable kingdom, which at no distant period held the supremacy over Houssa, and has even lately shaken ofl' tlie yoko ol' Sackatoo. Its walls, like those of Kano, arc of immense circuit ; but the inhabited pan does not amount to above a tenth of the enclosed space. It is still, however, the seatul'i considerable trade with the desert, with Timbuctoo, and with caravans coming across the desert by the way of Gliadaniis and Tuat. 5406. To the south of Sackatoo iind Kano is the country ot Zegxej', one ofthcfincstinall Africa. It is covered with plentifid crops and rich pastures, yields piu'ticularly good rice, and is beautifully variegated with hill and dale, like the finest parts of England. Zariu, ttic capital, is like an enclosed district, occupying a great extent of ground, wliich cun)pri5es even woods and corn-fields ; the population is estimated at about 50,000. The country to the south of Zegzeg, though diversified by rising grounds, is still fertile and well cultivatal, containing a number of coiisiderublc towns. Cuttup, a compound of 500 villages, or ratiur clusters of houses covering a beautiful plain, forms the market for a gre.it extent of country, Farther south, however, there is •' 'edto be a rugged and mountainous region inliabilid b? the Yam-yams, a savage race, i :nted as cannibals, and who, some time ago, had killej and eaten a whole caravan, 'i aiiie peoj)le are mentioned, six centuries agu, by EdriM, as bearing the same character, uunrora is situated in u country fertile, though rocky; and about half a day's journey from it is Jacoba, described as a large city on the river Sliary; while farther to the east, on the same river, is stated to be another great city, Adaniu»a: but here our knowledge In this direction terminates, 5'107. The western tracts of Houssa do not contain any cities of great magnitude. Vrl the late travellers mention liershee, probably the Uerissa of Edrisi ; Katungwa, surruundid by a fine country ; Zangeia, picturesquely situated amid rocky hills ; and Girkw.i, oiiirivrr of the siunc name, tributary to tlie Yeou. Katagutn, capital of a province once uicludcd Book III. CENTRAL AFRICA. IS67 in Bornou, contains 8000 inhaliitants ; and in the same district is Siinsan, a large market- place, divided into three distinct towns. To the north is a rude tract, inhabited by the Bcdoes, a fierce, independent, pagan race, between whom and the Moslems a constant war is waged. 540H. The countries on the lou4 1 H. Tlie lianki of the Niner, helow Jioiisna, nre occii|iifil by two great and fluuriihing kiiigdums : Eyi'o on the v/vat, iinil Nytle, or NoiilHu, on llie east. 5414. Ki/rn, ciiIIihI also Ilio, or more properly Yarribu, is a very extensive country, exten(llng hum the frontier of Kuushu nearly to the coast, from whicli it is only separuti'tl by the territory of liadagry, while from the Niger it reaches west to the frontier of Dalin. mey. It is one of the most fruitful countries on the globe, and is also well cultivated uml densely peopled. The Helds are covered with thriving plantations of Indian corn, milli't, ynms, and cotton. The loom is busily plied, though its products arc not equal to those In the neighbouring country of Nytl't-. The scenery is beautiful, the woods exhaling a (IcIU cious fragrance, and being filled with myriads of brilliantly-tinted butterflies. The femiilcn, likewise, arc actively employed in the conveyance of goods, which they bear on their heads, executing this laborious task with surprising cheerfulness. A range of ruggnj mountains, from 'JOOO to ftOOO feet high, crosses one part of the country ; yet such is ihu mildness of the climate, that cultivation, and even large towns, are fotmd on their very sumtnit. The government is most despotic ; the greatest chiefs, in approaching the suvv. reign, throw themselves flat on their faces, and heap on their heads sand and dust. Yet, in the general administration of the government, there seem few instances of cruelty or wanton oppression. The proi)erty of the sovereign consists chiefly, as already observed, in liis innumerable wives, and the various functions performed by them. The habitations are in general mere huts, and the residence of the chiefs is only distinguished by the luunbvr of tiiesc within an enclosing wall; but the gates and panels of some, though only of ivu(hI, are adorned with elaborate sculpture. The practice of human sacrifice prevails exten- sively, though not quite to the same degree as in Ashantee and Dahomey. On the deini»' of the king or of any great chief, his principal ofHccrs and favourite wives are doomed tu die along with him. Most tragical scenes arc thus presented, as the devotion is by no means voluntary, but the necessity of it imposed by public opinion produces the deepi'sl distress both in the prospect and in its actual arrival. The Fellatabs, it appears, Imvi! already passed the Niger, and arc preparing to attempt the conquest of Eyeo, in which it is thought that tliey will probably succeed. 5415. ytmonii the cities of Yarriba, the first place is held by Eyeo, the capital, situated in a line plain, and, like most African towns, covering a very large space. It is, inilri'd, fifteen miles in circumference, so that the mission had five miles to march from llii'ir quarters to the palace. There are, however, many fields and open spaces in this wide circuit, and the population can scarcely be even conjectured. Hohoo, the former capitiil, though much declined since the transference to Eyeo, is still a very large place, in even a superior country, resembling the finest parts of England. Since the Fellntahs obtained a footing, they have founded Aloric, which, being increased by runaway slaves from every quarter, is now reported to be greater than Eyeo. A luunber of other large towns ari' mentioned. Jenna is the first on the southern, and Keeshee on the northern frontiei, Chaki, though on tlie very summit of the mountain ridge, is large and populous. 5410'. Nnffv, oi\ the eastern bank uf the Niger, is a very fine country, occupied by the nii^t industrious and improved of all the negro nations. Their cotton cloths are held in llic highest estimation, and even the finest of those manufactured in Houssa are by sluvis from NyfT**. It has, however, of late been dreadfully ravaged by tlie Fellatabs, wlio liiivo made themselves nearly masters of the coiuitry. Rabba, the capital, is considered, next to Sackntoo, the largest town in possession of this people, being supposed by Mr. Oldlicld Id contain 40,CXX) inhabitants. The streets are crowded and dirty ; but the markets spiicinin and well provided. The king maintains an army of 25,CXX) men, with which he innkis annual ex|)c(Uti(;ns for plundering, chiefly slaves. The commerce is extensive, reai'liin^,' even to Tripoli. The surrounding territory is highly productive, covered with rich croiis, and with numerous iind fine breeds of horses and cattle. The mats made there i\k reckoned superior tu all others in Africa. Koolfu and Kufu, two towns on the nunliirii frontier, and on the high road of the Houssa caravans, being protected by strong walk have escaped the desolation of the late wars, and are flourishing seats of trade. Tlie ptupli' have been converted to the Moslem religion, yet without glocmiy bigotry, or seeliisiou of the female sex ; the women, on the contrary, being the most active mercantile iigenls. Lever, or Layabn, and linjiebo, arc two thriving towns on the Niger; and the latter enjov* an uninterrupted navigation down to the sea. Uoth have changed their site fnnn tlie eastern to the western side of the river, in order to escape the ravages of the Fellalahs but without fully attaining th.it object. The Niger spreads here into a most magnilia'iit channel, from two to six miles in breadth, and contains several beautiful and fertile islands. Patnshie is on the frontier of Houssa, while IJelee, lower down, borders on Nyfle. lint ihi' finest by far is Zagoshi, immedi ttely adjoining to Habba. It is about fifteen miles Vinf, ai-.d three broad, in the mid-channel of the Niger, whose broad stream on each side suparatw it fiorn the continent. The surface, scarcely raised above the level of the waters, is com- posed of mud, frequently inundated, and so sofV that a slender cane may be thrust even into the floors to any depth. Yet the island is highly cidtivated and productive ; and its luami- UlM>l( III. CENTIIAL AFHICA. 12(59 I'liotiirfs pre-eminently «lisplny the Ki'iiunil Niipcriority of thosu of NyflR?. Tlie cotton clntJw tlioro woven nre vnlued beyond all others by the chiefs and gnat men throiif?h(iut Africa. The people poHscss also numerous canoes, GOO of which, beinft armed and belonninR to the smereiKil, enable him to secure his country ajtaiiiKt tliose revolutions which have jlesolated tlio miKhbouriiiB continent. Egga, the town of Nytle which lies fartliest down thj NiKer, o«ti>nds four miles alonj? its banks, and has numerous boats belongin{? to it. 'Jlie popula- tion is half Mahometan, half negro. With P^gga terminates NyiYi, and with it the range of wiiillhy and populous kingdoms that extend along the Niger, from Youri downwards. 1118. About forty miles below Kacunda, several yet unknown towns intervening, the Siiirr I liveg iU greatest tribittary, the Tshaddn, called sometimes the Sliary, and which liiiH been traced flowing by Jacoba on the south of Iloussa ; but its origin and early omnse is unknown. At the junction, it is little inferior to the main stream, thctigh mora tilislructed by shallows; its trade, and the populition on its banks, ajjpeared both inferior, riie chief city is Fuiida, about thirty miles inland from its port of Yimmaliah, surrounded hy a magnificent plain, Iwunded by low hills. 'I'lie population is reckoned by Mr. Laird Ivtween ;U),(HX) and 'lO.OOO; of which the Moslems form about a tenth, but the most rcspect- .hIiIc part, 'riiere are considerable manufactures of cotton, copper, and iron ; tlioug'.i the IrmK' lias been nearly ruined by an oppressive government. Funda, reported the greatest (•ni|mriuni of this part of Africa, is about three dayV sail up the Tshadda. At the junction 111' (lie two rivers is a commercial town named Cuttumcuraffe. lUli. 7lMii».t i\f imiKtrtance continue to occur in the course of the Vigor ilowiiwarcU. Bnrniia, about iiKhly hillot iH'low KacuiiiU, Is the scat of a very iHrRc market, frequented by numerous stranuers from the iiiliriiM, .nnil l>om tlic upiwr and lower eournc of the Ni;?cr. It i» .'ollowed by Iddah, Al bai.ica, and Damug- liiBi, thi' liitler govcrncil by an cnbghlenelete the picture of Central Africa, it remains to describe tlw countries on the upiKr A'l^'i'c, as celebrated as any of those now enumerated. For 400 or 500 miles iihove Youri, iiuleed, the shores of this great river are almost entirely unknown, as I'ark, unfortunately, never returned to relate his navigation down to that city. At the end of the nliove reach, however, occurs the most important city in this part of Africa. .'il'.';). Tim till (too, or Tomhuctoo, the celebiated emporium of the commerce in gold, has iilways shone in the eyes of Europeans with a dazzling and brilliant lustre. Most of the daring ■mil iirten tragical expeditions into the interior of the continent had for their object to reach 'lim city, Yet its actual condition, and oven magnitude, are still involved in very considerable imoertinnty. The relation of Adams is of very doubtful authenticity. Major Laiiig resided there lor a considerable time, and made the most diligent enquii ies ; but the result, in consequence «t llie catasti'ophe which terminated his career, never reached the European public. If, as 'ills been surmised, his papers were transmitted to Tripoli, it was under circurristances wliicli will pn)bably prevent them from coming at all before the world. Cailli^, sup- liiiving that he really visited Tombuctoo, which we are not disinclined to believe, was far fmni hcing a careful or an accurate observer. From the few positive notices, however, thuK 4 M 4 1970 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAFMY. i**»T III. obtained, wc may infer ttint the city \n neither no large nor ru ipluiidiil ii« rumour renrv. sentcd it. That dominion wliich, in the time of Leo, it hod extended over the neiKliboiirliiir countricsi and even over Houmo, hus ceased for several centuries. It then liecainu Hiiliji'et to the yoke of Morocco ; and since this was shaken olf, has been governed by a nugru kiiiir and the negroes have been tho ruling people. The place is described as contuiiiiiig soiuu hanilsonic mos<]Ucs, and n spacious enclosed palace ; but n great proportion of tliu Iniliit. ations, like those in other negro countries, are nure conical hovels, like bee-hives. 'I'jni. buctoo, however, being the place where the caravans from Morocco, and most of tliuHu IVmii Algiers and Tunis, first touch on the fertile regions of Central Africa, must always \)aHsv•,^^ great commercial importtncc ; and a depAt is found there of the commodities wliii'li jt atrords for exchange with other countries. Gold, and still more slaves, are the stapU' urii. cles, Timbuctoo, also, being situated In an arid and barren territory, is dependent iiihih Dambarra for grain and provisions, which are brought down the Niger, and landed at tliu port of Cabra, a small town about a day's journey distant, consisting merely of a raiij^e »( houses along the water. 5424. M some ilislance above Timbuctoo occurs a very extensive lake, called the Dihhii., formed by the waters of the Niger. Its greatest dimension seems to be from east tit west, on wliich side alone, in sailing across, its termination cannot be descried. Its Hliurcs iiru chiefly occupied by the kingdom of Maslna, a pastoral country, inhabited by u trilie ui' Foulahs, wlio are ruled by a brother of Sego Ahmadoii, the sultan of Jenn^. ,6425. Jentii, or Jinriif, is a city second oidy to Timbuctoo in commercial importance: it is situated, according to Park, on a tributary of the Niger, but according to Caiilii'-, on a branch separated from, and then reuniting to, that river. It appears to collect frmii Dam- barra and the countries to the south all the commodities wanted for the market of 't'om. buctoo, which it transmits by vessels of considerable size, though of slight construiliuii, and merely bound together with cords. In Park's time it was subject to liambarra ; hut it has since been occupied, with several of the neighbourin^r territories, by Sego Ahmaduu, i Fellatali prince. The population, rated prob.ibly too low by M. Cuillii^ at 800() or l(),(XM), consists of a great variety of tribes, Foulahs, Mandingoes, Uambarrans, and Moors, uttrni'iud by the extensive commerce which centres there. Transactions on n (;reat scale are currinl on by thirty or forty Moorish merchants, while the negro traffickers conduct it nii a more limited footing. The merchants are said to be hospitable, and polished in tlu'ir manners. 54'J6. TIte kingdom of Bambarra consists of a beautiful and extensive plain, lliroujili which the Niger rolls for about 300 miles, from the point where it becomes nnviguhio for large canoes. The territory is fertile and well cultivated, being to a great exletit iiiun. dated during the rains. The hills to the south contain considtrablc quantities of guliltii earth, from which the metal is extracted and brought to Bambarra. Some of the nurllurii districts partake of the character of the desert, and are covered by the Moors with their flocks and herds. Sego, the capital, in the centre of the kingdom, is divided by (In V>'\n\:r into two parts, the communication between which is maintained by ferries, which are under the control of the government. The place is surrounded by high mud walls, the liouto are built of clay, but neatly whitewashed, the streets are commodious, and mosques riso in every quarter. The numerous canoes on the river, the crowded population, and tliu culli. vated state of the surrounding country, exhibit altogetht-.' a scene of civilisation and muf. nificence scarcely to be expected in the centre of Africa. Park estimated the population at about 30,000. Sansanding is a great commercial town, lower down theNiger, supiiosi'd lu contain 10,000 people. Its market was the best arranged and supplied that Park saw in Africa. Dammakoo, where the Niger first becomes navigable for large canoes ; Muraboo, a great market for salt ; Samce, and Silla, near the eastern frontier ; are all considcrulilc towns on the Niger, 5427. Several small kingdoms intervene between Bambarra and Gallam, which, witli llani' bouk, are included in Western Africa. Kaarta is extensive, but has a sandy soil, yiuldiiig little except the lotus. The capital is Kemmoo ; but the king has the strong fortressiii of Joko and Gedingooma, to which he retires when hard pressed by his neighbours of liam- barra and Ludamar. Kasson, between Kaarta and Gallam, is a small but beautiful u:id ret- tile kingdom ; the capital is Kooniakary. Satadoo, Konkodoo, Dindikoo, Brooku, Fuolailoo, are little kingdoms, extending along the upper course of the Falemc, Ba Fing, iJ.i Lev, wJ other streams, which combine in forming the Senegal. They are elevated, rocky, wuoily, with very picturesque sites ; and gold, in considerable quantities, is found in \\w sand of their rivers, 5428. M. Caiilii has described several territories to the east of Foota Jallo and the soulk of Bai ! irra. Among these is the district of Bour^, abounding remarkably in gold, wliith, as elsewhere, is found embedded in alluvial earth. It is carried southwards into Kankan, i fine country, traversed by the Niger in its early course. Kankan, the chief town, istliuuil of a great market held thrice a week, where are exhibited not only gold, provisions, lioiity, and cotton cloth, but fire-arms, powder, Indian calicoes, and other goods obtained from nntiK 11 1< THE SAHARA, on great desert. 1971 |'.iiiii|ii'iHli. I'd llio iMiit U Oiinssoulo, n luli Urrilory, divomifii'd liy numerous villngcu. in. |„iliilt«l liy «ii liiiliiMrlmn ami liospitaLli; pooplo. Tlii'ir iii-iglihoiirs of Sfimlmlikila. ihroiiKli ,ii|iliii> liiiloU'liri', ilcrivc liltio bfiu-flt riimi the lioiintius of naluro. To tlio vast of tlam, liiirti'vcr, in Tim(<, B vi-ry (Ini-ly wati-red and cultivated territory, aliounding in varimis frnitii mill vegi'lalili'^, particularly the shea or huttertruc, und tlie gooru or kulla nuts. A niniilar lliiv I'uunDy i'unlliiueH to Jeni\^'. riiAP. X. THE SAHAHA, Oa (IRK.AT nK.HF.RT. AI'JIK Till' tSiiliiird, nr dreal Dc.icrl, forms an iiiimenso rn. ^c of territory, which '>'ould, jllili'i'ili fiver the whole northern half of Africa, Imt for the (.artial exemption i lodnced hy lliii nioniiliiin ran^je of Atlas, and the course of the Nile. Its actual and «l,,iosl uninter- ru|iUil eHlent may he stated as from the I.'ith to the ;l()th degree of nottli latit 'it-, and from ihvlUllli of east to the I.'ith of west longitude. It may thus amount co neariy ;10(K) miles III li'iiKlli. and ItKM) in breadth. 'I'his vast expanse, the most dreary and tc 'Me on thcf-.i i »f lliii citrlli, forms an obstacle to the intercourse of nations greater than is opposed by \iie hIiIihI oceans. Yet the daring spirit of enterprise has induced human beings to occ-. ■ cvi'iy I'HIreinity or corner in which sid)sistencu could by any means be iirocuredj n.d tiey lime I'iMiiied riuiles by which, though amid sutl'eriiig and deadly peril, regular journi ; s jDuy Im |ii'iliirnieil across this vast nnd desolate region. .1l;l(l. Till' Hiirfitce iif the Sahara does not consist entirely of one urt'Mrm plain of tiiiiil, III tlie most level tracts it has been blown into heaps or hillocks steep -m one side, wlili'li reliiarkahly increase both the dreary aspect of the region, and l..e diilicnlties with hIiIi'Ii llie IravelU" hns to contend. In other places it is traversed by dark ranges of naked rui'ki which sometimes approach so close as to leave only a narrow path for caravans to iiiiiri'li llil'oiigh. The terrible spectacle of human bones which strew tlie ground, and some- liiilvH ci'iK'kle unexpectedly beneath the tread of tlie traveller or his camel, lends, at inter- villi, iiililitional horror to the scene. The most dangerous encounter is that of the sand wind, i/lji;, hTIi), when the sand, blown up by tempests from an extensive moving sur- 871 , V/--V'-'. ''^..-■a: f AND wmD. Mfu, IIIU and darkens the air, and threatens to suffocate the passenger. Yet some fflvcrl ciill i^enerally be found during its fury ; and the disasters indicated by the bones *lili'll whiten the desert appear to arise almost solely from the failure of provisions, and jwlltMiliirly of water. The privation fulls always first upon the slaves, who on such occa- Muii» lU'i'iiii ill great numbers. iiiu DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. 5431 . T/ie most remarkable and important feature, however, which diversities the great Afri- can desert, consists in the oases. This eastern term, which signifies island, is very appropri- ately given to those detached spots, over which springs, bursting fortli amid the desert, difl'use some partial verdure and fertility. The view of these spots inspires travellers with emotions peculiarly pleasing ; sometimes from mere contrast with the encircling desolation, but some> times also from the peculiarly elegant landscape which they themselves present. They are embellished with flowering shrubs of peculiar beauty ; whole tracts are covered with forests of acacia, from which rich gums distil, and with groves of the date and lotus, yielding sweet fruits and berries, which form the food of whole tribes ; while mild and graceful animals chiefly of the antelope species, trip along the meadows. These districts, on a great scale occur chiefly on the northern and southern borders, where the desert generally mitigates its stern aspect, and Imbibes some portion of that moisture which fertilises Central Africa and the region of Atlas. 54ti'2. T/tii vast central and flat region of Africa is covered more or less com- pletely with u quurtzy and calcareous sand. Here and there solid fixed rucks rise through the sandy covering, or even form tracts of country ; and in the eastern part of the Sahara the rocks are principally secondary, and chiefly limestone, sandstone, gypsum, and rock sail, which In some places appear to be traversed by trap rocks. Fertile tracts, named oases, occur here and there in the desert, and also lakes, the waters of which are in some instances impregnated with carbonate of soda, in others with muriate of soda, forming the vnlron ami salt lakes of travellers. The rocks on the sea-coast of the Sahara, and the Islands that lie along it, are said to be principally composed of igneous rock, and chiefly basalt. 54:}3. The Botany and Zoology of this desolate portion of Africa are scanty, and too im. perfectly known to admit of any regular description. rA'M. Inhabitants, in as great numbers as the soil can support, arc found occupying both the borders and the interior oases of this vast and desolate region. They are of various races, and have entered from diflTerent quarters. The large oases of Fezzan and Darfur appear to have been partly or wholly peopled from Egypt and Tripoli. Wanderim; tribes from Morocco have covered with their herds all the habitable tracts of the western desert nearly as far south as the Niger. The negro tribes have seldom quitted their fertile and wooded plains to encroach on this gloomy domain : they are found chiefly in Darfur and Kordofuii. But the most interior tracts, to the south and west of Fezzan, are thinly pi'upled by tribes of peculiar character, the Tibboos and the Tuaricks, judged to be remnants of an aboriginal race, who occupied all Northern Africa, till it was covered by the tide of conquest .'uul emigration from Asia. With a few exceptions, the character of all these desert tribes is gloomy and siiu'ster, like that of the regions through which they wander. Agitated by want, and exempted by their position from almost any restraint, they seek, by violence and plinulcr, to wrest from the caravans which pass through their H naln, or from the richer nutlons which border it, a portion of those good things which nature has denied to them- selves. These habits, with the absence of culture, have given a rude and unsocial character, which, inflamed by bigotry in the Mahometan tribes, has rendered a journey throiig'i their territory peculiarly di'U-essing and dangerous to Europeans. It would be nearly impossible, under general heads, to describe a region so vast, and composed of such varied portions, We shall therefore endeavour, under its different districts, to class all the little information which European research has been able to procure. The description may properly begin with the northern tracts. 54 35. Almost immediately west from Egypt and the Nile the desert commences, present- ing the aspect of a plain from which the sea has receded. It is covered as it were with the fragments of a petriflei'. forest ; large trunks, branches, twigs, even pieces of bark, all con- verted Into stone. When ten days' journey have been passed without seeing a human hal)itatlon, the traveller descries Ummesogelr, a village perched on a rock, with 1'20 inhabit- ants, who live a peaceful life almost secluded from intercourse with all human beings, X ilny'i journey westward is the larger oasis of Si wah, a deep hollow valley, watered by numerous springs, and fi'rtile in dates, the staple produi.. and food of this region. The people, esti- Muited at from LiiOO to 2000, form a turbulent aristocracy, but derive some wealth from the continual passage of the caravans. Vet the chief interest which attaches to Siwah arises from its being supposed to contain the celebrated shrine of Jupiter Ammon. The distanre from Egypt nearly corresponds ; and at Ummebe'la, in the vicinity, are the remains of an ancient ediflce, though nut corresponding in magnitude or style of architecture with our idea of that celebrated temple. The difficiilty is increased by the occurrence of other oases of similar aspect, and contHlning similar remains; though the preponderance seems, on the whole, to be in favour of Siwah. 54,'IC. Atigila, the Aegilaof Herodotus, a few days' journey westward, is a dirty, ill-built place, about a mih; in circuit There arc some more fertile spots in its vicinity ; tlie country aboimds in dates, and the inhabitants have established some active commercial relations H'il'i interior Africa. Farther to the westward Is a most gloomy, rocky region, called the Black Book III. THE SAHARA, OR GREAT DESERT. 127S Harutsh, a succession of narrow defiles, enclosed by rugged steeps, and obstructed bv loose stones. West of it is the White Harutsh, a long range of limestone rocks, which appear as if glazed, and abound in shells and marine petrifactions. 5437. Fexzan, which opens at the end of the mountain region of Harutsh, is a very largo oasis, about 300 miles long and 200 broad, sometimes dignified with the title of kingdom. Nature has scarcely distinguished it from the surrounding desert ; it is not irrigated by a stream of any importance. The inhabitants, however, by laborious processes, have raised up the water, which is always found at a certain depth under ground, and have thus formed a number of little oases, in which dates and a little grain can be reared, and where a few asses ana goats, and numerous camels, are fed. It is the inland trade, however, that the inhabitants regard as the source of animation and wealth. Feizan being due south from Tripoli, and about midway between Egypt and Morocco, is the most central point of com- munication with interior Africa. The arrival of a caravan on its frontier produces a species of jubilee; and on its reaching the capital, the demonstrations of joy are redoubled, and the sultan gives them a state reception. There are also very extensive merchants belonging to the country itself. Through tliese resources Fezzan is enabled to maintain a population of ahout 70,000. The sultan is tributary to the Bashaw of Tripoli. Mourzouk, in a low, un- healthy situation, but well watered, is the residence of the prince, and the chief seat of com- merce. It contains remains of stone edifices j but the present structures are poorly built of mud. Germa, the Garama of the Romans, who made it the capital of this part of Africa, contain!! monuments of its ancient consequence, but is now much decayed. Zuila, Temissa, and Gatrone are small towns on the western frontier. Traglian, to the south, bordering on the desert, is an industrious place, with a thriving manufactory of carpets. Sockna, in the desert to the north, on the road from Tripoli, forms a great caravan station. 5438. Oadamis, or Ghadamis, an ojisis to the west of Fezzan, derives importance from the passage of the caravans from Tripoli and Tunis to Timbuctoo, though these are not so considerable as^ those from Fezzan and Morocco. This place, and the surrounding villages, exhibit many traces of ancient Roman occupation. It has the singularity of being divided hctween two hostile tribes, each enclosed by a separate wall, with a common gate, which is shut when they are engaged in mutual warfare. 5439. Tajilet, Darah, and SigUmessa, to the south of the Atlas, and loosely appended to the empire of Morocco, enjoyed a great celebrity during the middle ages, but have been little heard of in modern times. The caravans to Timbuctoo, which once rendezvoused in this territory, now generally prefer the more westerly route through Susc, by which they avoid the steep passage of the Atlas. These countries, however, are understood to con- tain many fertile tracts, abounding in excellent dates, and producing a valuable breed of goats. 5440. The state of Sidi Heschem, or Ischim, on the southern extremity of Morocco, com- bining portions of Suse and of the surrounding desert, is now the chief theatre of the Moorish trade with Tombuctoo. The prince, who rules over a mixed population of Moors and negroes, has made himself nearly independent of the empire ; and his country has become a Jc'|H)t of the goods which pass and repass between Morocco and Timbuctoo. Akka and Tatta are the principal stations from which the caravans take their departure. 5441. We shall now survey the more southerly states enclosed in the Sahara, and the tracts by which they communicate with those on the opposite side. 5442. Datfiir is a considerable country, almost due south from Egypt, and west of Sen- naar, whence it is separated by Kordofan. The route by which the caravans pass from Egypt is of the most dreary character, since travellers, after leaving the greater oasis, do nut lor about 700 miles meet with a human habitation ; however, at Sheb and Selime they are refreshed by springs of water. The country itself is of a very arid character, destitute of every thing resembling a river or lake. The tropical rains, however, within whose in- fluence it is, fall at the proper season with great violence, when they fill the dry beds of the torrents, and inundate a considerable extent nf the country. Tiie operations of a rude agriculture, carried on by the females, are then sufficient to produce, in a few places, wheat ; and in a great number the inferior species of dokn, a kind of millet. Camels abound, and are noted foi their power of enduring thirst; the horned cattle and goats are good ; but horses, sheep, and asses are of inferior breeds. The people, not supposed to exceed in number 200,000, are a mixture of Arabs and negroes, the former of whom hold the chief power. They profess the Mahometan religion with bigotry, Imt do not submit to the secluded habits and abstinence from fermented liquors which it Liijoins ; on the contrary, they are jovial, and even licentious. The king is absolute, though obliged to court the soldiery, who, when discontented, sometimes depose and strangle him, ilecting in his room another member of the royal family. They are about 'JOOO in number, distinguished neither for valour nor discipline, but endowed with an almost preter- natural endurance of thirst, hunger, and fatigue. Large caravans, at somewhat irregular intervals, pass between Egypt and Darfur, interchanging slaves, ivory, ostrich feathers, &c. for clotlis, carpets, toys, and beads. A considerable intercourse of religion and trade is cat- 1274 DKSCIIII'TIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part J'f. ried on with Mecca hy way of Jidda nnd Sim1(in, Cobbc, tlic rnpitnl, is not siippusi'd to contain more thon 4000 inlmhitants ; it is about two miles long, but consists merely o( ttums of detaclied houses surrounded by wooded inclosurcs. The sultan rcsis to Sennaar and Darfur, and in IS'.'O \Nas iihliL'i'd to yield to the arms of the Pacha of P)gypt, who continues to claim the sovereignty, whiii, liowever, over so distant and rude a tract, must always be very precarious. 5444. To the south of Darfur is yerlit, inhabited solely by negroes, and containing; vniii. able mines of copper. Fartlier south still is the mountainous country of J)oniin, (lossi'SMd by a barbarous people, and in which, according to Mr. Urown's information, niniiiTom streams unite in forming the liahr el Ahiad, or main branch of the Nile. 544,1. Heruoo, called also Saley, VVaday, or Mohba. is an extensive country, ri'iu'liinir westward from Darfur to nearly the confines of liegharmi and ISornou. Accordlnr; lod,^ imperfect accotmts yet received, it appears to be greater and more populous than Dini'nr nr Kordofaii. ^^'ara, the capital, is represented as a considerable city. Near it passes a lawc river, called the Bahr Misselad, which, according to Urown's information, tvnversi's tin. country in a north-westerly direction. In this quarter, also, the great lake of Fittro Is y^.. portcliu|ii'il huts. In the heart of the desert, between Gadamis and Timbuctoo, is the district iif Siiniil or Tuat, inhabited by a mixture of Arabs and Tuaricks, in no respect better than the Ks{ of the desert tribes. Major Laing sustained among them a signal disaster. Aghably mid ,\in-el-Salah, their chief towns, are frequented as caravan stations. Chap. XI. nil llio liiiK I'lililain iTi'i'l, ami luk, iiiiK'« III) liU' ill ciimmirct, llu' liortliTi tllfV l»c reniali"', ami iitlcrs, |itn Ih'iIIUT llicir irilicsari'llie sMi; ami ill* irliculiir, llie n fonmicr- ig il is wrj ahitalilo por- invc lirmmlil lose last till')' ii'iillyoiMwl sliDivs of llif only liofc ol THE AFHICAN ISLANDSt .'i'l.'iO. Al^'icn does not, like Asia or America, enclose within her bordering seas any grand iiivlii|U'i«go. Yet she is begirt at a certain distance with numerous islands, some single, lull till' greater nu>>iber, especially on the western coast, arranged in groups. These islands iii\' iminnluinous, and many of them volcanic ; they include a great extent of fertile territory, mill present grand, picturesque, and often beautiful features. Yet they arc so entirely illstiinl and detached from each other, and possess so few objects in common, that they I'liiinot ull'ord room for any description under general heads ; and our only division must be iiimie l>y considering each island or group in succession. ma 1 . 7'/i(' ^/".oi'i's, or ^^(•s^•l•(t hlamls, have, on plausible grounds, been referred to Miiio|ie ; yet, on a general view of their site and aspect, we adhere to the old arrangement, wliieli iniikes them African. 'I'hey lie between the 37th and 40th degrees of north latitude, mill llie 'J.'ilh and ;l'Jd of west longitude. They are nine in number: St. Michael and St. Mary, l'lll^el,v luljoiiiing each other; Terceira, Fayal, Pico, Graciosa, St. George, nearly a group liy llieniselves ; Corvo and Flores, considerably to the westward. These islands bear evident murk', of having been produced by the action of subterraneous fire, the symptoms of which iiiv Mill visible, though no volcano is ut present burning. Islets have even been thrown up iViiiii the siirl'iu'e of the neighbouring sea. In 1720, an English captain saw one emerge »illi ini explosion resembling the discharge of a tra'n of artillery. A similar phenomenon wiiH (iliserved in 181 1 ; tluines, like a liost of sky-rockets, were seen bursting from under the siii; hill llie rocks ejected did not rise above the surface of the water. The internal heat, lionever, iniuiifests itself by very striking phenomena. Such, on the island of St. Michael, 111' llie li'rnms, or warm baths, the springs supplying which arc so hot as often to burn the li.inil wliieli touches them. KIsewhere the caldeiras, or boiling springs, rise in columns, mil exoeeiliiig twelve feet high, but of various diameters, and tlic burning vapours are I'oi'iiieil iiilii clouds, which exhibit a variety of fantastic figures and brilliant tints. The wilier will boil an egg in two minutes, the atmosphere is strongly imjiregnated with sulphur, ;iiiil siiHoealing vapours issue from various fissures. Nut far from the caldeiras is the Miiiltly ('rater, a vast cavern filled with mineral substances in a state of constant ebullition, mill iiiiikiiig a noise mightier than the waves of the sea. .II.V.', ;\inid these turbuK'nt elements, the soil is extremcli/ fertile, yielding in the plains iiliiiiulum'e of grain, while even from the crevices of the volcanic rocks grow the delicate iiriiii({es for which St. Michael is celebrated, and the vines, yielding a wine that resembles wiilmiii equalling JMadeira, which clothe the steep sides of the mountain of I'ico. These, »illi gmin, all'ord materials of an export trade, in exchange for European fabrics and loliiliiiil produce. The population is vaguely estimated at between '200,000 and .'!00,000. ."il.''i;l. ThiiUKh St. Mivhael is the largest island, being above 100 miles in l.ngtli, and is iiKo the mosl fertile, its capilal, I'onte del Gada, is not tlie seat of llie geiierul government. Tills ilislinetion is enjoyed by Angra, in Terceira, in consequence of ils comparatively stil'e Imi'Ihiui', It also derived, of late, a considerable interest from being Dcciipied by the lullipielils of Maria, the young queen of Portugal, in opposilioii to the usurpation uf .Miguel. 11)' ilH good harbour it likewise obtains the exportation of the wine of i'ico, which is lu'iii'e known by the name of Fayal. The amount, in good years, luis been stated at 80OO >ir IO,lHU) pipeit ; but Lngluiid, in 1830, took only 2780 gallons. 1276 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III 5454. Madeira, in about S'i^" north lat., is a beautiful island, consisting of a cluster of mountains, or rather one single mountain with various peaks, rising abruptly from tlic Atlantic. It is covered all over with rich vegetation ; and to the traveller, who puni'tratc-s into the interior of its valleys^ nothing can be more picturesque than the varied furnis uf the rocks, the verdure which clothes them, the glitter of the streams, and the country s«ats churches, and monasteries placed in striking situations. This fertile island was first dis^ tinguished for producing the best sugar known ; but, after the rivalry of the West Indios rendered this culture no longer profitable, the islanders applied themselves to wine, which was soon raised to high perfection. Being favoured by the Methuen treaty, it was imported in large quantities into England, where it was used more extensively than any, except uurt and sherry, bearing a higher price than either. Of late, there has been a preferenwot French wines. In 18B6, the import was 234,000 gallons ; but 152,000 were re-ex portnl leaving only 82,000 for home consumption. The export of British produce in that year was 52,000/. A considerable quantity is besides sent to America and the East and West Indies ; and a voyage to tropical climates with a return to Europe is supposed to improve its quality. The very best, however, called " London particular," is imported direct to that capital. The island yields a small quantity of a very rich sweet wine called Matimiii, Funchal, the capital, is almost an English town, nearly all the opulent inhabitants hcing merchants of 'that nation employed in the wine trade, while the Portuguese are generally very poor. Madeira has iidjacent to it Porto Santo, a small high island with a good road. stead ; and two Desertas answering to their name ; but these do not seem entitled to rank with it, so as to form a group. 5455. The Canaries, distinguished under the appellation of the Fortunate Islands, are among the most celebrated and beautiful groups of small islands in the world. Thev li« about the 28th degree of north latitude, and between the 1.3th and 18th of west longitude. They are properly seven, to which Humboldt, after Ledru, assigns the following dimen- sions, to which we add the population in 1 8iS5 : — Gomcra . Fcrro . Teneriflfe Grand Canary Palma • Lancerola Fuerteventura 73 so. leagues: 85,011 pop. fiO — fi»,OV) 27 — in,l!l5 6,3 — 17,434 26 — 13,885 14 «(]. leagoes; 11,743 pfip. 7 — 4,444 270 219,7,51 These islands, especially the two principal, consist of mountains which rise abruptly from the shore, and shoot to an amazing height. The Peak of Teneriffe, the great landmark tu mariners through the Atlantic, is 1 2,000 feet high. The rocks rise from the shore in basaltic forms, whence they bear often the aspect of castles, for which they have even been mistaken by the passing navigator. In the interior, they are high and naked, bristling with sharp points, and presenting often singular indentiitions on their bold summits. Yet being often covered with forests of laurel, pine, arbutus, and other trees, they exhibit picturesque and even magical scenery. Humboldt considers the steep ascent of the peak as presenting the most rapid transition known from a tropical to an arctic vegetation. On the coast are valleys blooming with the oranfrc, myrtle, and cypress ; above, declivities crowned with the vine and the most valuable spei.es of grain ; higher up, forests of the laurel, chestnut, aod oak ; these are succeeded by the dark pine and Scotch fir ; then a plain strewed with duslol' pumice stone is followed by the Malpays, entirely composed of loose fragments of Ian The summit bears the marks of a volcanic crater not very long extinguished ; for eten early in tlie last century it made destructive eruptions. 5456. The toil in these islands displays much of that luxuriant fertility which distinguishes tropical countries, when profusely watered, like this, by the streams from the high mountiiii., and the vapour from the ocean ; yet their western sides are parched by arid and pestilential breezes from the African desert, the streams arc often absorbed in the porous lava, or rush down in torrents which would sweep away the earth, were not walls formed to retain it. The principal exportable produce is that afforded by the vines, which grow on tlie lower declivities of the peak, and yield a wine which, though inferior to IMadeirn, lins, from its cheapness, come into considerable use. The exports in 18.'t3 amounted to I'j'7,'J00/„ tht imports to 104,122/. The first head consisted of 8684 pipes of wine, 17,12,5 arrobas of brandy, 1 80,500 arrobas of barilla ; with some silk, grain, and fish. The wine iinporttii into Britain in 1837 was 370,900 gallons ; the exports uf British produce in that year were 41,900/. The chief seat of this trade is Santa Cruz, in Tenerifl'e, with an excellent roadstead. which Humboldt calls a great caravansary on the road to America and the Indies, irhert numerous vessels of all nations touch for refreshment. The place is, however, intensely hot, and the natives not engaged in business prefer the residence of Laguna, 2000 feet above the sea, which enjoys a delightful coolness. Grand Canary is more uniformly fertile thin Teneriffe, supplying the other islands with grain, and yielding a little of the fine wine calitd sack. Las Palnuxs, its chief town, is the ecclesiastical capital; but thcseatof govcrnnieiitii at Santa Cruz. Ferro, small, arid, and rocky, was once supposed to form the most westerly point of the Old World, and has often been used by geographers as the first meridian. 5457. The native inhabitants of these islands were a remarkable race, ctilled (limth Book HI- Al'UICAN ISLANDS. f a cluster of pUy from the 'ho penetrates id forms of tlw country seats, 1 was first dis- le West Indii's to wine, which t was importeil ly, except port a preference- of sre re-exported, ice in that year East and West sed to improve ortcd direct to called Mulmiji. ihabitants being sG are generally ith a good road. entitled to rank natc Islands, m rorld. They lie ' west longitude. following dimen- rise abruptly from great landmark to le shore in basaltit ven been mistaken ■istling with shat]) Yet being often lit picturesque and as presenting Ibe On the coast ate crowned with the urcl, chestnut, anil owed with dust of .'ragments of lava. iguished ; for era 1277 They had attained a considerable degree of civilisation, cultivated music and poetry, showed a high respect to the female sex, and had even a class of vuigadcs, or vestals, to whom thev paid divine honours. Tliey practised agriculture with diligence, and posscsswl the art of embalming bodies ; the mummies, still found wrapped in goat-skins, prove them to have been ii tall and handsome people. The Guanches maintained also, for nearly half a century i most valorous struggle against the Spanish invaders, but were at length completely ex terminated. The modern Canarians are a sober, active, industrious people, who have migrated to all the Spanish dominions in America and the Indies, and form the most useful part of the populaUon. 5458. The Cape Verd Islands, about eighty miles from Cape Verd, in 16° to 17° north lat., are ten in number, three of which are large, St. Jago, St. Antonio, and St. Nicholas • the rest small. Mayo, Bonavista, Sal St. Vincent, St. Lucia, Brava, and Fogo. The larce islands rise in the interior into high mountains, and Fogo (fire) contains a very active volcano. In general, however, the surface is arid, rocky, and much less productive than the Canaries. The chief growth is cotton, which is exported to Africa ; and a very fine breed of mules and asses is reared, many of which are sent to the West Indies. Goats, poultry, and turtle abound. Salt is formed in large quantities by natural evaporation! particulariy in Mayo, where there is an extensive pond, into which the sea is received at high water, and the salt completely formed before next tide. These islands arp not much visited by vessels destined for America and the Indies, which, after quitting the Canaries, stand to the westward, in order to obtain the benefit of the trade-winds. The Portuguese, since the first discovery, have claimed the sovereignty, and maintain a governor-general, who resides at Porto Praya ; but the natives have of late regained a good measure of independence. 5459. Ascension is a solitary rock, far out at sea, in lat. 8° 8' north, long. 14^ 28' west. It is completely rocky, barren, and long uninhabited ; yet from its situation ships often touched there, and letters were even lodged in the crevice of a rock, called "the sailors' post-office." Of late, the East India Company have formed a small settlement there. 5460. St. Helena, so celebrated lately as the ocean-prison of the greatest of modern warriors, has now reverted to its original destination, as a place of refreshment for the returning East India ships. It presents to the sea, throughout its whole circuit of twenty-eight miles, an immense perpendicular wall of rock, from 600 to 1 200 feet high, like a castle in the midst of the ocean. On the summit is a fertile plain, interspersed with conical eminences, between which picturesque valleys intervene. The climate on the high grounds is very agreeable and temperate, though moist. There are only four small openings in the wall of rock, en the largest of which, where alone a little beach appears, has been built James Town, where the governor resides, and where refreshments, though on a limited scale, are provided for ships. 5461. Turning the Cape of Goo), hut never with any important result. They have small stations, liuwuver, ut 8». Mary, Tainatavu Foul I'oint, and near Fort Dauphin. ava. Boiirlmn, about 400 miles cast of Madagaicar, )• rorly-olKllt lllllM liMlKi nilil thlrtv.iilx liroair ii consists entirely of the heights and slopes of two great inouiitalns, Ihv moat noiitlicrly of whicli cuiiialni I volcano in iicrjivtuul activity, throwing up tire, smoke, and ualivs, with N iiiilie ti'niy tremendoiu. riicp suhatunecs are ejected, not from the crater, hut by latorul nut only lur the (irdlnarv tropical products, but for some line aromatic plants. The I'ortnHUi'siMlliii'iiveriil tlili Island in \'i'K' imi being taken by the Krcnch in 16412, and raised by M, de Fluvonrt to an InilHirlHlit cslnhlishlnunl, it wiiioa|Ui Ilonrbon, which name it has resumed, alter bearing, during the revolMllnnnry iierliid that of lleuiiion Uourbon collee ii considered second only to the Arabian i and Its vultun also livnt's a high i'h:irav.'li'r Itj cloves have come into some rivalry with those of Amboyna. All other iilij«iili, liuwevcr have lately become iccondary to sugar, which has bc'.n> 4(i,()8S males, and !iJ,4H> females, were slaves. The exports to t'lanee In IH.I7 wero valued at IiI«,{h«i; Hij imports ut 453,(KJU/. The idland labours under the disadvantage ul nut lluving n tvcure harbour, or ( ,uii j roadstead. 5465. Mauritius is about 120 miles caU of Uourhon, not i|iillu no large, yet still i5o miles in circuit. The rugged mountains, which cover a great piirf of the isluiid, jrive it a somewhat sterile churficter, and it does not yield grain even for its liliiiteil popiilatiun ; vtt the lower slopes produce coffee, cotton, indigo, and sugar of iinpi'oved i|iiallty. The Uuuli in 1598 called it Mauritius, from the Prince of Orange i hut formed no |)eriiiiincnt esia. blishment. The French, too, for some time, sent only a few ensiial seltlers from llunrlwn' but, in 1734, La liourdonnaye, its able governor, raised it to it Miiviil stittion of the lirstim. portance: it was called Lsle of France, and became the eiipilill of the Freiicli possessions in the Indian seas. It was also a stronghold for privateers, who are saiil, in ten years, to have taken prizes to the value of 2,500,0(.X)/. At length, ill IHII), it yielded to the anus of Britain. Since 1812, its sugar, being admitted at the sume iliilles im those from tlie Wi^i Indies, became the chief branch of culture. The exports in IM!),'! atuotinted to (ii»!i,(KiO/. ; of which C2;},(X)0/. consisted in sugar. The other heads were ehletly small mticlts re- exported. There was sent to Uritain a value of ,'5.5v!,7lK)/, ( Alistl'itlla, 5l,7tX)/. j France, 30,000/.; Cape, 24,800/. ; India, 19,000/, ; Madagascar, ll),(KK)/, i Uourbon, lO.tXX)/. The imports amounted to 665,000/., and included the \u\m\ variety of initnufactiireil guuds and luxuries; also rice from Indio, grain from the Cape, cattle IVitill it, France, and IMadngascar, The chief heads were — rice, 114,000/. ; cottoiifl, 107,(KM)/, | eoi'll and ineal, ,')I,H(H)/. ; nine, 51,000/. ; live stock, 56,500/. The value from Uritain was li'.'l.tKX)/. j India, yil,(XiO/.; France, 100,000/. ; Cape, 51,000/. ; Madagascar, .'i:l,lXX)/. i Uomhon, 'i'.tXX)/. The exports of British produce, which, in 1835, were only 19(i,0tX)/,, hail risen in IH37 to 3ll),000i The following is a statiitical view of ita iliitritti and /iu/ia/i<(l'nii ill 18,')5 s — Fort Louis Famnliiniiussrs Itiviere du Kempart Fhnij - Grand Port Carry forward Smi 71 H,7.Vi i:.m : ^ • ■ lis I.Wi I.I'I6 ■ « 7(W rii.Hiii 31.M* 54110. A cvnsiiierahlenumbcriif islets, single or in groups, spot the liidliin Di'cnn to the ran of .tfrifi l)f dependencies oji jMauritius, Uodrigucj contains only l.M InhHblliints, Dlcuo (larcia '.'7,i, (Jak)!,i II". 'Hie Seyehi'lle.s, nearly north from Madag.ise.ir, with the horduring ,!l'oup nf llie Aniiranli'i, arcacMn o4' very small isliinds, high un,l rorky, and little litted for any I'llltlire except cntliin ; liul llicr nluund with c(ii'i)a-nuts, and their shores with turtle and excellent tish, 't'lie popnlatliin In t.Wil nas Wl, cl whom I0'J5 were slaves. 5467. The Comoro Islands, a group of four, hetweuil MililngiiMcar and the continent, are very elevated and mountainous in the interior; but the lower traels alinuiid in ilitep, cattle, and all the tropical grains and fruits. The InliahitantN are mild and iiidnstrioiiii, but they have been mo.st dreadfully infested and their niimlu'rs Ihilllleil by the Miicliijascar pirates, who make an annual inroad, laying waste the upeit eotuitry, and lilucbding the Part III, I, mv\ armcii l)t nntivus tu iirk'N, lit' hail foiiiiilv, wliu net.', in July, inour to tliv Illl'M to Hllttkl! tlio I'lirccr ut mile l'ri'i|uent !>)) liut iiuver •y, 'I'linitttavu, y.iilx broad? 11 irlilch cuiitaiiii a iiciuUiiis. ThcRc ! the uinwaraiico wks tliruwii Into i«. A Bri'iit iwtt Kiermii liiilus aiiil liir llic "tiliiiary mil 111 l.iiw 5 liiit iflit, It wni callBl ttmt of llcuiiion. ^Ii I'liaracli'r. lis uvu liiti'ly becoiik' I'liiali'i", were fVff ; •A at lUS.lMK., tlie larbuur, ur i .in a HO, yet still l,iQ isliliul, nivo it a \ioimliitiuii ; ytt ity. Tliu Duiili jK'rininieiit esla- I iVom lluiirlion; w of till' lirst im- I'olii'li possessions I, ill ton years, tu it'll to tilt' iiriiis of je from tlie \Vi'i i.'.W M \.i<' m ^ M.xVi li>^ ;o tlie eau of Aftiti Jrela '^T.-i, lialtp i* Inlraiiles are "I"'"' lull i lull lliey »'»'>'*' 111 If'iii was ^iitj.1, » liuul tlio continent, iiIkuiihI in slnep, |i(l iiuliistriousbut l,y tilt' M;«la|:«i" V'ul lilockaJiiigilie towns. Comoro is the largest, containing a mountain supposed to rise 6000 or 7000 feet high ; but Anjouan, or Johanna, is the most flourishing, its chief town being supposed still to contain 3000 inhabitants. Mohilla and Mayotta are comparatively small. 5468. Socotora, forty leagues cast from Cape Guardafui, is governed by a sheik de- pendent on the Im&m of Muscat. It is twenty-seven leagues long and seven broad mountainous, rocky, and arid ; yet it yields the best aloes in the world, and a small quani tity of dragon's blood. Though the coast is bold, it aflbrds excellent harbours; and ships may procure bullocks, goats, fish, and excellent dates, at reasonable prices. Botany and Zoology. 5469. Respecting the Botany and Zoology of several of the African islands, we can com- municate some curious particulars, which will be best collected under one general head. 5470. Tristan d'Acunha. — This island, if indeed it may be considered as belonging to Africa, is situated in 37° S. lat. and U° W. long. The whole is a solid mass of rock in the form of a truncated cone, rising abruptly from the sea, and ascending, at an angle of 45 degrees, to the height of 300O feet. This mass is surmounted by a dome, upwards of 5000 feet high, on the summit of which is the crater of an old extinguished volcano. The face of this mountain, as far up as the base of the dome, is mostly covered with brush- wood, intermixed witli fern and long grass, that veil its native ruggedness. Along the N.W. side of the island there runs a belt of low land, constituting a plain about six miles long, and presenting to the sea a perpendicular front from 50 to 300 feet high. The whole is a mass of stony fragments, scoriie, and other volcanic products, mixed with black indurated earth. Part of this plain has been cleared, by fire, of its wood, though the scorched trees still encumber the ground ; and the rest is in a state of nature, covered with an impenetrable copse. This plain is the only part of the island that is in the least sus- ceptible of vegetation ; and, could the needful and laborious preparations be made, there is no doubt it might yield a fair return in all sorts of European grain. 5471. r/ie ascen* Mm),of astroni; balsamic odour, is common. An infusion of the dried leaves of this plant is used as a sub. stitute for tea by the Hottentots uent down in charge of tlie cattle. The soldiers use for the same purpose the leaves of the Pelargonium, which hardly yield to the others in strciiirth of odour. Tlie low ground is over-run with a species of Aciena (/#. sarmeiitosa), a plant of no apparent utility, but an intolerable nuisance to such as have occasion to walk over the ground where it grows. Its fruit is a sort of bur, which, on the slightest touch, fixes itself on the clothes, and, falling in a hundred pieces, covers tliem with an unseemly crust of prickly seeds, not to be got rid of without infinite labour, 5473. On quilling Ihe shores of the Cape of Good Hope, and directing our attention to the eastern side of Africa and the adjacent islands, we shall find that very little is to be collected that can convey any thing like :i satisfactory idea of their vegetable productions. The Cane lies in the highway, if we may so term it, to the must important of our colonies, uiul it has consequently been frequented by men of science as well as by the sons of commerce. It is quite otherwise when we have rounded that vast promontory, and proceeded northward. Madagascar, which seems next to offer itself, though visited by Michaux, who found an untimely grave there, by Du Petit Thouars, who published some memoirs on the plants, by Dr. Thomson, F. L.S. staff surgeon, with a copy of whose manuscript journal we have been favoured by C. Telfair, Esq. of the Mauritius, by MM. Uelsinger and Bojer, wliose journal is published in the third volume of the liolanical Miscellany, and lastly, by Dr. Lyall ; yet has been but imperfectly investigated by these able men, who could do little more than testify how much remains to be explored. 5474. AgriaiHure seems to be most carelessly performed throughout the vast island of Madagascar. The indolent natives stir the ground with a spade, and drop in a few seeds, when they are sure of reaping such a harvest as shall supply their wants throughout the year. Rico is the chief object of culture, and the principal article of food ; it is grown on the low lands in the damp woods, and by river sides ; sometimes being put into tlic ground as we do kidneybeans, but oftener transplanted, and it yields a hundred fold, without giving other trouble than that of keeping the soil free from weeds. Women and children only are employed in setting the rice, the men helping to cleor the ground. Thus tlie inhabitants of Madagascar could hardly maintain themselves without the existence of tliosu extensive marshes, which arc necessary for the culture of rice, but which constantly uxhalc pestilential miasmata, and to which the insalubrity of the climate may justly be attributed. After Rice, Manioc and Batatas are the chief articles of food. The roots of Muiiioc often acquire an enormous size, measuring fifteen feet long, and almost a foot in diameter. 'I'lion come Maize, " seasoning Herbs, Giromonds," Calabashes, Earth Nuts {Arachis), Sugar Canes, Pine Apples, Bread Fruit, and the Vine, and among the articles of manufacture are Cotton and Hemp. Potatoes, that were introduced by Mr. Hastie, the British resident, have thriven admirably, and the same may be said of other European vegetables, as Beaii^ and Peas. It is much to be regretted that the eager desire of gain which characterises tiia Malagassy rarely allows them to wait till the productions of the soil are ripe ; tiiey gather their vegetables and fruit and carry them to the bazaar not half matured, that they may secure some paltry pieces of coin. 5475. An exact enumeration of all the Indigenous Madagascar Plants is, and will long remain, a desideratum in botany. Centuries must previously elapse, and the knowledge can only be obtained through the exertions of Europeans, who will gradually render the climate of Madagascar less prejudicial by extending the limits of its cultivation, and exploring the hitherto undiscovered districts. The productions of the west, north, and southern coasts, and of all the interior, remain almost unknown, and the slender documents that have been furnished as to the vegetation of the north-east, by French naturalists, most of whom have perislied from the effects of the climate, serve rather to stimulate than to satisfy a botanist's curiosity. 5476. Two plants, peculiar, we believe, to Madagascar, are eminently worthy of notice; the Hydrogeton fenestralis {Jig. 872. ), and the Tunghin tree ( Tanghinia veneiii/ltia). The 87'i first is an aquatic plant, bearing tuberous and esculent roots, and throwing up from these roots elliptical leaves, pierced with holes, arranged with the greatest regularity and in the fonn of parallelograms ; or, in other words, the whole Iciif seems to be composed of a latticework of vascular tissue, presenting the appearance of what is called the skeleton of a leaf. We possess beautiful specimens, gathered by the late Dr. Lyall, and we are informed by Mr. Telfair that living plants have been in- troduced to, and are cultivated at, the Mauritius. 5477. The famous Tanghin Poison is the fruit of Tanghinia v^neniHua (Jig. 87.1.), formerly called Cerbera Tanghin. Its botanical history and a figure of it were first published in the Botanical Magazine, tab. and page 2968 ; and, since, still more BVDKOOITON rSNBITRAT.tS. Book III. AFRICAN ISLANDS. 1881 copiously, from coinimiiiications by C. Telfair, Esq. in the Botanical Mucellanu. I'o these works, thertfori', we may rtfer for full deUils ; and not to occupy too much space ""^ """ '"ere, we shall confine ourselves to a relation of thf extraordinary and truly diabolical use that is m;ide ot the seed of this plant in its native country, Madagas- car. The kernel, though not much larger than an almond, is of so poisonous a nature, that a single one suffices to destroy more than twenty individuals, liadama, the late enlightened sovereign of Madagascar, abolished the use of it in the native ordeal j hut it has been unhappily revived by his successor to an extended degree. It was with great difficulty that Uadama could induce the chieftains to admit of the discontinuance of an usage which had existed from time immemorial, and whose unerring efficacy in the detection and punishment of crime had never been questioned, until Mr. Hastie, the British government agent, had acquired such an influence over the king's mind iis to expose its fallacy. But this TAtKiHiiiiA TiHiNinoi. wBs tlic worlc of ycais ; and though Uadama was at last himself convinced that nothing could be more unjust than the practice, yet he feared to shock the prejudices of his subjects, by commanding its discontinuance. Even the chief performers iti the ceremony, the " skids " as they are called at Tannarivoo (the capital of Madagascar), who unite in their own persons the offices of priests and physicians, and who administer the poisonous kernel to the victims, never doubt its power of revealing guilt and clearing innocence. The last occasion on which the ordeal was practised in Uadama's reign, and of which he availed himself to procure its discontinuance, personally regarded his court and attendants. The king was affected with a complaint of the liver, for which the " skid " prescribed some inefficacious remedies ; and as the disease became worse, Mr, Hastie gave him calomel powders, which he had found, by experience, to relieve himself under similar circumstances. The disease vanished, but ptyalism was produced, and alarmed the king's family, wlio believed that he was poisoned, and insisted on all his immediate attendants being put to the ordeal of the Tanghin. The royal skid was most earnest in pressing to have it performed, although he himself, from his rank and place, would be among tlie first to whom it would be administered. In vain the king protested that he felt himself cured, and that the indisposition and soreness of the mouth were caused by the medicine lliat liad relieved him, and would pass olT in a few days. The skid insisted ; the ministers and principal chieftains joined with the family in requiring the ordeal, to which the king reluct- antly consented, stipulating that it should be the last exhibition of the kind, and bewailing the necessity which thus deprived him of so many attached dependants, whose fate he predicted, while he protested his conviction of their innocence. The king's servants, including the skid, were more than twenty in number ; they were shut up at night sepa- rately and forbidden from food. Next morning they were brought out and paraded in pro- cession before the assembled people, the presiding skid had the Tanghin fruit in readiness : aller some prayers and superstitious evolutions, he took out the kernel, which he placed on a smooth stone, and with another stone broke down a part of it, to a softness like pounded almonds. The victims were then brought separately forward, and each questioned as to his guilt : if he denied, his arms were tied behind, and he was placed on his knees before the ^kid, who put a portion of the pounded kernel on his tongue, and compelled him to swallow it. Thus the kernel was shared among all the king's personal servants. On some, the ciTect appeared in half an hour or less. The skid takes particular notice ho ' they fall ; — on the face, to the right hand or left, or on the back ; — each position indicai t a difl^erent shade of guilt. Convulsions generally came on, accompanied with violent effc to vomit Those whose stomachs reject the dose at an early period, usually recover : on this occasion there were but two with whom this was the case. The others were flung, in a state of insen- '^ihility, into a hole ready dug, and every person present at the ceremony was obliged to throw a stone over them. Thus their burial was soon completed. The royal skid was among the first that fell. Those that recover are supposed to bear a charmed life ever after, and are respected as peculiar favourites of the gods. 5478. The isles of France (or Mauritiiis) and of Bourbon have indeed been investigated by the labours of several naturalists ; and the result, as far as regards their characteristic vegetation, has been communicated to us in a letter from M. L. Bouton, and the same has very recently been published in the twenty-fourth volume of the Annales des Sciences ^'alurelles, p. 247. This able and zealous botanist particularly notices the opinion of M. Achille llichard, and says : " After casting a rapid glance on the kind of vegetation that is observable in the islands of Bourbon, Mauritius, and Madagascar, M. Richard, in the introduction to his Monograph of the Orchidea, considers, as do all geographers, these three islands as belonging to Africa, lying, indeed, as they do, niucli nearest to this continent. 4 N 2 I28'J DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part I if. ■ But,' continues M. Richard, ' in tho clmractcr of tliuir vegetation, they dilUir from iliut of Africa, and more assume the pcculinritics of the Indian Arcliipelago, from wliich thvy are separated by widely extended seas.' Farther on, M. Ricliard thus eiprcsscs himself: — ' We may perceive that the Flora of Mauritius and Dourbon has more analogy with tlmt of the Indian islands than with the vicinity of tho Cape of Good Hope ; and that, (hough geography may rank these islands as appertaining to Africa, they belong to India, and con. sequently to Asia, in consideration of their vegetation. Without presuming to give a satis. factory explanation of this phenomenon, we will simply add two ohsi'rvations, fl-om wliicli it seems easy to deduce such conclusions as may throw light on this point. 1. The regioiiH of the Cape of Good Hope are extra-tropicul ; while the isles of France and Bourlion, uml the Indian Archipelago, are situated within the tropics : and it is well known what an inllu. ence this situation exercises on the character of vegetation. 2. It appears that the pri'vuiU ing winds of the Indian Archipelago are from the east and north-east ; that is, exactly tlinsv which come in the direction of the Indian islands.' These remarks appear to me ronclu. sivc ; the first, especially, is highly important. Al! naturalists, who have explored thi; most extensive regions of our globe, have observed an extraordinary identity in the proihictioiu of the tropics. On this subject I shall quote M. Dumont Uurville, who, in a note cum. municated to the Institute on the voyage of circumnavigalion performed in the Co(iiiillt', says, ' more than half our voyage lay in the torrid zone, and among the nunu'ruiin archipelagoes that arc scattered over the immense Pacific Ocean, In all these islund^, sliirt. ing, as it were, from the most easterly ones, to those that arc on the confines of Asia and even of Africa, the Flora is but the >ame ; herbs, shrubs, and even almost all the trees, nro alike, and the only shade of difference is, that the number of species increases as we drtw near the continents.' Mauritius, Bourbon, and Madagascar," proceeds M, Bouton, ■' are com. prised in these general remarks ; but the Cape of Good Hope, situated beyond the tropics, and fourteen degrees south of Mauritius, is necessarily an exception. The Flora of tho African promontory is stamped with a peculiar character, that to me presents more puinis of affinity ni:!i iSmt portion of New Holland which is placed nearly in the same pnralli'l, Several identical genera may be observed in the mass of vegetation of these two lucnlilics. Many Proteas, certainly, grow ot the Cape ; but a few of the species are also fontid in New Holland ; with very similar genera, as Uaiiksia, Embotliriuin, Hakea, and I'ersounin. Gnaphalium, Elic'irysum, Diosma, and several genera belonging to the Iridea*, Li'gu- minosic, and Ficoii eve, grow equally at the Cape of Good Hope and New Holland, The prevailing natural tainilics in the latter country are, according to M. Leschenault, the Pro- tcaceo;, Ericina;, Synantliereo;, Leguminosa;, and Myrtaceie ; now these families constitute the gross of the vegetation on the promontory of Africa, A third spot on our globe si'tiiu to present some traits of resemblance to the two localities I have just described, and that is the southern extremity of America, where there arc many of the genera which grow in the ■<'/' y^^,^* south-west of New Holland, Again, tho vi-gi'talion that obtains in these three points has no rescniblniicc to that of the Mauritius, while the productions vS our island bear more analogy with those of tlmt por- tion of Africa which lies under the same parallels as Madagascar, Bourbon, and the Mauritius, Now this wide extent is yet hardly known, the part lying near the sea alone having been explored ; niid this is pronounced by my esteemed friend, M. liojer, who examined the coasts of Mosambique and Ziin. gucbar, to possess many of the plants which grow in our islands, or others which hold a similar rank in the same natural orders. It is no less true that some genera do exist peculiar to the Mauritius, and which forn' is M. Richard expresses it, its peculiar phv- siogi. v; but every thingtcnds to confirm theopiniun that tines,, detached features will sink in the general mass, when we shall become better acquainted will) the botany of that portion of Africa which lies between the tropics, and which, more than any part of our globe, contains the vegetable productions whose con- geners exist in the Mauritius." 5479. About eight or ten degrees north of Ma- dagascar lies a small group of islands, called the Seychelles, which are rendered famous by the pro- duction of a Palm, not known in any other part of the world, and whose history is too remarkable to be passed over altogether in silence. Even of this small group of islands, three only, lying within half a mile of each other, produce the Palm that bears the Double Cocoa Nuts '{Jig. 874,), or, ns they are called, Cocos de Mer, from an erroneous idea lliat POURMt CIHX>A-l(Ur THRU, tiloy weftf I Cocoa Nuts M'K, in the I Htill HO lliglll prince s vsi us thiu '• III) sea luid there »•«, whose tn that the pali dived for, it marine branc elephants, tig nilrailed sue With such a is no wondei it was death will) fiold till crowns Were fruits as to j file Chinese a Nut, when eoi lines the nut, fi'ii coral, blac fVoin vessels o subjected to it Si'iiMj omnc. ', vessels ; a siiifj •>»xiuus ingredi in il. The di tlii'se mystical r lioliinieal histor iiiipeifect notict Telfair, who ci iioccssary sjiecii " growing in th starting up on i «nil yell,)w leaf, "lyeyes n pictu «niiiiii»ed objects '■'"■metl ai.,iually, "liiili it is cstim " Hnest on youn •"■"""re. In thi >'»l'«n(ls in all it! •In- leaves, is eati iind even for the \ •Ih; imriiiion, dooi 'I'liiig mattresses »mls of (li(|l,re '"• t'iKlit pints . an nrlioies, shoving di wMc nuts, «'W. TheXooh Went iiiteinpcrote "'"'Ws all those h "">t iinlion, who lei I^X'losy of Madaga '»"f»»ohnpeculi„, l'«'><:;i«|UHllydi8tinc '""■ Hoise is here k «"pl«ci natura', ijuod (iriiice sell omnium marinarum rerum, qua' rura; habentur." This author further assures UH till'.. *• the Double Cocoa Nut in no terrestrial pi. ' iction that may have fallen in the WMV and there become petrified, as others ignoraiitly stuui ; but a fruit, grmviiiii itsiifm lite ita, whose tree has hitherto been concealed from the eye of man." The Malays asserted llmt the palm that bore it was sometimes seen at the bottom of the ocean ; but that, it (lived for, it instantly vanished : while the negro priests further affirmed that its sub- nmriiic branches harboured an enormous gridin, which nightly came to shore, and, seizing eli'phants, tigers, ftc, carried them as a prey to its nest ; and, not satisfied with these, ntlriu'led such ships as came near to the spot, and devoured the luckless mariners. With such and even stranger ideas respecting its place of growth and history, there in no wonder that this nut should be highly prized ; indeed, in the Maldivian islands, il WHS death to any man to possess it, and all that were found belonged to the king, will) sold thi.m at high prices or distributed them as regal gifts. I'Vom I 'JO to 150 crowns were paid for each nut, and even kings have been so greedy of obtaining these fruits as to give a loaded ship for one. Uumphius certainly states his suspicions that the Chinese and Malays may have, perhaps, set too high a value on the Double Cocoa Nut, when considering it an antidote against all poisons. The albumen, or meat which lines the nut, was thought to be the part where this virtue resided : it was mingled with red coral, black ebony, stags* horns, and many such anomalous ingredients, and drunk IVoin vessels of porphyry. All inflammations of the body were likewise believed to be suhji'Cted to its powers ; it was a preservative against colic, apoplexy, paralysis, et id Uniiis oinne> The shell, being less precious, was granted to the great men for drinking- vi'ssels ; n single slice being suflicient, if used as the lid, to neutralise the eflect of any iiiixiuus ingredient that might mingle with the drink, tobacco, betel, &c. that were held in it. The discovery of the Seychelles islands, and the knowledge thus obtained that those mystical nuts grew upon trees, caused a speedy reduction in their value ; though the liotanical history of the Palm that produced them continued long a desideratum. Some imperfect notices served but to stimulate the curiosity that was finally gratified by Mr. Tclfitir, who entreated Mr. Harrison, a friend resident in the Seychelles, to obtain the ntfccssary specimens and delineations. " To behold these trees," says Mr. Harrison, " ({rowing in thousands, close to each other, the sexes intermingled, a numerous offspring Klirling up on nil sides, sheltered by the parent plants, the old ones fallen into the seai iMul yellow leaf, and going fast to decay, to make room for the young trees, presented to my eyes a picture so mild and pleasing, thut it was difficult not to look upon them as miinm'ed objects, capable of enjoyment and sinsible of their condition." A new leaf is formed niniually, which, falling ofl' at the year's end, leaves a scar or ring, by counting wliii'li it is estimated that this Palm requires 130 years tor its full growth. The foliage i> finest on young plants, shooting up perpendicularly, folded close like n fan, to 10 feet or more. In this state it is pale yellow, and used for hats and bonnets; afterwards, it I'Umiuls in all its beauty, and becomes green. The crown or cabbage, in the midst of till' leaves, is eaten ; the trunk is used fur building, and the folinge ser/es for thatching, and even for the walls of houses, a hundred leaves sufficing to construct a house, including till" partition, doors, and windows. The down, attached to the young foliage, serves for lining mattresses and pillows, while the ribs of the leaves make baskets and brooms. Vi'sseU of diflercnt forms and uses are made out of the nut, some of them holding six ori'inht pints; and, being very strong and durable, they are much valued. Among lAher nrtli'K's, shaving dishes, black, beautifully polished, set in silver and carved, are formed of ilicto nuti. SIHO, The Zoology of Madagascar is as little known now as it was a century ago, « hile the ri'wiit intemperate conduct of the French naval commanders towards the native authorities lieslroys nil those hopes which had been raised for the success of a scientific naturalist of llwt imtion, who left France, two years ago, to explore this most interesting country. The iixilojiy of Madagascar, in fact, from the scanty gleanings that have as yet reached Europe, is of such n peculiar character, that it can scarcely be assimilated to that of Africa, while it ap- |iei\rs eTiVE GEOGRAPHY. »'*Hr III, J4R1, The ijuudvupetU, an intimattid by voriout writers, are anaiiged in ihu tulli)wiii» li«!— * Jclunotui \\\nvt Sit. llUrk Inilrl Ltmur. ikhnnotu* l.tiiiKfr. l-'toi-kv l«niur. .•llmr Miiracn. Itulllwt Uiliiur, vVriiur nilUa, Hvil l^'.'tiiur. ^niur Miiiit(iNii. MntiuiKii Lffnuri <#ttiur ratla. Kliiii'lam-il l^iiiur. ^niur titMvr. llliuli lA-inur. ivmur tufvui. Yellow l«inur. >«niur Alblmanui. Whttr-haiiiliKl Lemur. I.«mur collilrta. Coirari.il l.«iiiur. I«iiiur ■IlikfVani. WhttB-fViititnl l^mur. I.i-iiiiir iilRrtlVuiia. llliick-*'riHilMl Ltiiiur. I.finiir I'liivrvUA. A*\\\ l^triiiiir. <>liilu-iiu« iiiaU.i4{iuc«ilviuU HI' Littltf (Hullt'iiu« rrs*Kli--.iuitnlui. iirvnt Laiiiur. 'I'ar.iu* fuMuin4iiiu lit. Vulltiw-hnnikd 'i'driler. Chfflramji maJagaicarttiuia Ajm. A>. I'lrru|iui dlwinliill. Kiloaiilt'iiVdin,,!,, CiriKiFtin HrlilUMlnuhUii. '1 lia i nuirn. ('i'tili.nt>>itiniiii. 'I aiirei . Hrlurua riiadagiui'dnfiuu. .Miu1»mai..<. (timlrrirl. -«•".•> ttuilai>iilui. Muknl llMr. 5482. The native Huologu of the Mauritius, at inuy h« nupposfd, in but Hcanty ; yvt the judicious cxvrtiuiiH of tliu Frvncli Imvu intruducvd suvvral animaJs bviivflcial to thu iilnnd. Tlie African Svriii'iit-i'uti'r is suid to liuvu become domesticated, and is highly useful in destroying reptiles. The Locust-cater (a species uf l.iun- prosleriius 9i has lilcewise been brought from the siinie tim. tinent, and lias several times preserved thu crops friiin complete destruction. The Goromy (Osphroemut ol/tu Com.), a small but most delicious fresh -water fish of Cliiiia, is hero completely naturalised, and has multiplied to lu'li u vast extent, as to be considered the greatest delicucy oi' the island. 5483. The celebrated Doth (Jig. 875.), a bird no longer known to exist, was unquestionably a former inhabitiiiil of thu island of Mauritius. Old Tradescant, whose museum appears to have contained an entire specimen, mentioni it as " not being able to Die, being so big." Some very inter. esting particulars on this strange uncouth animal Imvuliciii collected and published by Mr. Duncan, the present lealoui and intelligent curator of the Ashmolean Museum, where the bill (probably belonging lu the specimen named in Tradescant's cataloguej attests the veracity of the early voysgeri; while a foot is in the British Museum. This latter induces us to view the Dodo as tli« Rasorial type of the order Raptorei, its relation to the Ratores being only analogical. 5484. The few native quadruped! noticed by authors are the following : — Pteropui fulttarli. Common Vampire. Pti-roiiuft rubu-ollif. Htftl-cullareu Vampire. Centenca letoaua. The Taurec. Manguiu lalera. MaurlUan Mannuite. Taphoioua mauriilanui. Mauritian liat.' 5485. The Marine Shells arc conspicuous for their beauty and profusion ; although ver; few are different from those species found ii< tlie Indian Ocean. The Olives, Harp-shells, Cuivries, Cones, &c. might furnish a long list ; but the Aluny- ribbed Harp (Harpa nobitis) must not bu oiiiitlnl. The fresh waters furnish the Melania Amarula lim, and the Melania setosa Sw. {Jig- 876.) : the latter i> of great rarity ; it is crowned with vaulted b|iinn, each of which encloses two or three tetuieuui bristles ; a singularity seen in no other shell yd discovered. IHM, Am wpnivrii liciitl lliiiiiiih It iiic Tlil^ I'oiilliiei viillKliii'iieJ I inti AlVlcaar ii|iml lu half I HhH. Mnunlai "lit ijimriur of ihi "u lilt' ((IoIk-, nnp, '''"""KMi-hed poc, Anu'rltn (mtiillel i ^'hIw of C.lunil l-ltMWim, It coilllli 'wiwttli till. i.,,,m„ 'III JHldy iIh- ,„ni ''«""*'. nl' I'liu'liin, '•"•I. tm h.||c|||||,r i, '"'^"•' llliiniml ami '"'".'iHiMghNllllln '''' KWI diiilii ,.., ,7'"tiU|i. lew c(.M,l,l iirly lirwiry ,„„| ,| ilio Hlniry »i,vi-rity no n>'t vxt'wtl tiocx K''ii|""tUufiheN.M. B«>«it IV. AMERICA. WOOK IV. AMEHICA. im* HWi. Amtrica ii a vail conlinenl, cuinprisin)^ ont' of the grand divisions of the globe. The wvMvrn lu'inllii)ri>, in fiiri, euiituiim Kcurculy my continental land that is not American | IIkiiikIi It Includun l)Ut a sMiall portion of land, uh compared with the eaitcrn hemisphere. iliN I'linllncnt, Imviiig remained for thousands of years unknown to the most learned and «iill|{lil(>ncd nations of the East, is called commonly the New World ; while Europe, Asia, «nil AlVica are culled the Old World: and America includes an extent of territory nearly t'i|iiul to half uf thu three united. Chai'. I. OCNtHAL VIEW OF AMEHICA. ,HH7. //mrr/i'd ii bounded on each side l)y the greatest of the oceans. On the west, the IWIIIc separates It from Asia, and, from un almost immeasurable breadth, gradually narrows, (III it Ivrniinates at Uehiing's Straits, where the two continents come almost into contact. On \\w lliirlll Is thu Arctic Ocean, divided by huge frozen islands into numerous bays and liilt'tt. On the vast the Atlantic separates it from Kurope and Africa. On the south it jircuk'nts n stormy cape to the expanse of the Southern or Antarctic Ocean. The whole iiiirllivrn liuundary uf America is now found to range about 70° N. kt., but Leopold Suillh Island, Its highest known and probably existing point, is in 74°. Cape Horn, llimi, heitig nearly in 5(i" S., these extreme points are situated at the interval of 131° from itu'll Dlllvr. Hence this continent comprehends the whole of the tropical and temperate, with piirt uf the arctic climates, on both sides of the equator. This line, however, which wiiiilil unioinit to above 9UU0 miles, cannot be considered as measuring the dimensions of a ('iM)thiviit so Irregular in its form, and of which the southern portion is so nearly detached, mill Ill's almost entirely cast of the northern. It seems, therefore, necessary to view these iwii purllitns separately. The greatest dimension of North America appears to be in about lliv (lUlli degree of latitude, where it extends east and west across about 100° uf longi> tuilv, or amM miles. From its arctic boundary to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico (viiclmlliig the peninsular part of California) will be about 44° of latitude, or 3000 miles, Wlllll Anteriva, again, may be taken from 9° N. to 56' S. lat., a space of 4550 miles; whllu Ihu greatest breadth, about lat. 6° S., will be 35°, or 2440 miles. This does not in- I'liiilv (he long winding range of territory including Mexico and Guatimala, by which the Iwutoiitlnents are connected, but which seems not very strictly to belong to either. Sect. I. General Outline and Aspect, 1IHH. Mmntain ranges, peculiarly distinguished by their mognitude and continuity, pervade lIlU i|ii«i'tef uf lliB world. One chain, the longest, ond, with a single exception, the loftiest tm till' gliihe, appears to extend from its northern to its southern extremity. By fur the most ilUllii)tii|i,hi>tl piil'llon is that colossal range which, under the name of Andes, traverses South Aliurli'ft jHii'ullel to ond at u small distance from •' o Pacific. Commencing at the northern liiiriU'l' of ('(ilunihin, and throwing some lateral brunches along its coast towards Coro and Ciina'Cim, It cunllnues in its progress southwards, always swelling in mognitude, till, almost iK'lU'iilh Ihe vi|ltotor, it shoots up into the summits of Chimborozo and Antisana, believed •III liitt'ly the (Ortlest points un the earth ; while it spreads terror by the tremendous vol- cmiiH'H iii' I'lmhlnclm and Cotopaxi. In passing through Peru, it continues still very lofty, «nil, III) ri'HchIng its Kouthern or upper region, forms a vast knot or moss, amid whose peaks •i>wiir llllniiinl and Sorotn, which recent observation has proved to surpass even Cliimbo- nuo, Ihmigh still Inferior to the highest among the Himalayah. In its progress behind Chile, iIiIh pm\ cimin continues to form an immensely steep though not viry broad ridge. It I't'i'niiH'it U'Nit tonsldernble n» it oppruaches the southern limit of the continent, and the pecu- lliirly iliviiry unti tlesulafc aspect which it there assumes is owing less to elevation th'-" tc III*) wintry severity uf the climate. The heights on the adjacent isle of Terra del Fuego do luit vwwA (iOOO feet j and even the formidable clilfs with which Cape Horn faces the I(Hi|i|ihu of the Southern Ocean do not rise higher than from 1500 to 1600 feet. Mm, The same chain must now be traced in its progress through the more northern part* el Aiiivricii, The iHthmus of Panama, indeed, that narrow neck of land which connccU 4N4 ICM MAP OF NORTH AMERICA. Fig. 877. m 110 Loiik-itiiile Wait 100 rioin Grcenwith 90 Fig. 877. fig. 878. MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA. 1SS7 1288 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGKAPHY. Paki III. these two great continental masses, is filled only by a ridge of inoJuratc L-levutiun, su lu tu allow hopes that a canal may unite the two opposite oceans. But after a short intvrvul \> swells into that great table plain, upwards of 6000 feet high, which covers the greati'!' iiint of Mexico and Guatimala, and converts there a tropical into a temperate climate. From tliis level shoot up much higher the snowy conical peaks of Orizaba, PopocalcpL'tl, anil Tolncu the first two of which send forth formidable volcanic eruptions. Beyond Mexico tliis iriviit elevation is partly prolonged in the great chain of the Rocky Mountains which run parallel to the Northern Pacific, and bounds on the vest the valley of the Mississippi, 'I'ljouiji, their clifls be steep and rugged, they by no means equal the elevation of the Andes, scarculv at any point surpassing 12,000 feet. Beyond the 55th parallel they rapidly sink, tliuiiirh a branch, about 200O feet high, runs along the western bank of the Mackenzie llivi'r, m,,! even along the shores of the Arctic Ocean. It may be observed that very high niountaiiis are seen at different parts of the shore of the Northern Pacific ; particularly in the (ioth parallel, where Mount St. Elias is supposed to exceed 17,000 feet ; but whether these t'onn a parallel chain to the Rocky Mountains, or are branches detached from thi'tn, is not yi'l duly ascertained. 5490. ^n eastern chain pervading America, though not quite in so miifonn and cuii. nected a manner, seems traced by Humboldt. In North America, the Apalucliiaiis, ui Alleghanies, form a continuous ridge parallel to the Atlantic, and bounding the marilinii' territory of the United States. Detached, somewhat irregular, branches from tiiem sprtad through Canada, Labrador, and the vicinity of Hudson's Bay. The ino.intains wliich rising around the Gulf of Mexico, form the West India islands, appear to be vli'viitcd summits of the same range. After disappearing for a small interval in the delta of the Orinoco, it appears again in numerous ridges, which spread wide over Guiana, and of wlikli the central mass appears to be the Sierra de Parime. On the southern side ul' the AniiiZHiis again, Brazil is traversed by several successive ranges, which are in some degree ijroluiii'i'cl to the La Plata, beyond which they sink finally into the vast plains of the Pampas. 'I'hu whole of these eastern ranges are very low, when compared with the grand westorii cliaiii ■ they reach generally from 2000 to 3000 feet, and seldom exceed 6000 ; tlii-y are not Ik' seat of violent volcanic action. Several of the West India peaks, how ever, are soini'u liui higher than the above, and one or two are volcanic. 5491. T/ic plains of America form almost as great and remarkable an object as Its iikiuii. tains. We may remark in this continent three systems. One is the plain along the .AtliintiV, between that ocean and the eastern range of mountains. To this belong the orlf^iiial lirri. tory of the United States, and that of Brazil, the former moderately, the latter luxuiiantlv, fertile. The second plain is that on the opposite side of the continent, between the jinai western chain and the Pacific ; it is narrow, moist, of very various aspect and prodiuv, But the plains which extend through the centre of the continent, between the great raiigw References to the Map of North America. NORTH PART. 1. Fort Aleiaiidrov- hkaiii *i. Russian Factory 3. Fort (iootl Ho|ie 4. lort Norman fi. Fort Slmifeon C. New Hfiuse 7. Fort rhipew\anl 8. Fort Resolution 9. Fort Kiiteri)rise 1(1. Fort niiunhia 1 1 . York Factory 13. Hock lloube 1.1. ijevem iloube 11. AHKinj Fort 1.5. Moose Fort Ifi. Huiiert's House 17. Kast Main Fac- tory IS. WlialeUayHousi 19. Nain ta. I'erce 81. Dalluiuile it. Cliatlia.n y3. .St. ,lolm'< «4. Halitai S.'i. St. .Iolin'« X6. Oueliec V7. Alootre.-il ■in. I'lirlland nil. llostiin ,11). Albany 31. New Vork S'l. riilla. *i. St. Antonio 4(i. 3. St. Harbara 47. 4. SI. Isabel 4S. .'>. St. Rosa 4'J. 6. Oaito M. 7. St. Fernando 51. H. Slblllela b'i. y. Albuquerque 10. Santa Fe .M. 11. Jellerson M. 1'^ Jackson .'i.'i. 13. New Madrid .'iC. 14. (\idlz .'.7. Ui. Columbia .IS. If). Fort Deposit fill. 17. Flilendon (ill. IS. RalelKh fil. I'J. Columliia (i8. 80. Augusta 63. 81. St. AUKUstlne C4. 'ii. St. Pedro r,y •a. Tallahassee (ifi. 81. Pensaiola 67. 8.'). Cahawba 6S. 8(>. .lackson 6!). 87. l.lttli' Rock 70. •iH. Fort Mlra 71. •i'.). Naliher 78. 311. .Ilol.llc 73. 31. Fort AiInmB 74. 3'^. New Orleans 7.5. .33. Natchitoches 76. 31. St. Antiiiiio 77. 3.'). Fort del Ali.u 7«. 3G. .lacome 7I>. 37. Santa ( nil m. 3N.SI. Oabriel SI. .■VI. St. DIcBO H8. •10. Calmrra S3. 41. Arisiie 84. 48. Petlc a.i. 43. Matape ««. St. Maria l.orctto St. Ronue St. Pwlro . Chihualiua . Dolores . Monterey . Ciistaneiila , Victoria de Du- ranfto . Sonora . Siiiitlafio . Zacntet-aa New Santander St. l.uis Potosl . (luadalaxara . .hispan iMeiico \'alladolld Cnlin;a . Zacanda Acapulco Tnsiia l.a Puebla Wra Crul Merlda Camiieachy ll.ili»e chiiipa Oaxiic.-t Port Colorado Tehuanlepec Santiago (iuatlinala Sonsonate Santlaf^n Tniilllo rtH)n Keatrjo Rlueheldj, Nicoya Panama Porto Hello Kingston S7. Cuba SS. Havanna m. SI. DoiiilnKO !>(). Port au Prince. t.iiktt. a (ireat Hear Lake b (ireat Slave Lake (ireat Slave Lake s Itunrinu Athabasca, Ot Laket tl.iiiiis'> |i m ri.liiniliia n .Muliunni.ili o S.iittiii, or U'*li'l ltiw;r p Mi'soiirl M Vclti.u Sioiie r Hii; lloni s Itunriiiji \\*,iit[ -titft of the Hills u IIhI lllvcr d Wollaston v Mi^M^.iJ))ll ~ Deer Lake w Alhaliy X Ktpiioi y (ircil M'liaUlllm / I'aiii.il'iivn. 1 Lake of the Woods a* Fast .M;iii f Wlniiil Little Winnipeg s Little Win . h Manatoulln 1 Siiiierior k Michigan I Huron in Frle n Ontario u t^haniplain p Tennlsc.tminu ■I Aliliilibbe r Misllssinny s Clear ^I'ater t 'I'uapanaKoa u 'I'ef^uavo T Chapala. b* Rupcrl'. Itiiui c* Si. I..n»niiii' d* SI. .l„|u,', Ibiri i.'* IK'law.ire f« Ohio e* tirc.il Waltavll II* 'riniit\Mr i* S,ii.ii.ii..li j* .\l.,ll,l.l.l,0|j k* .M.ili.iMa I* S.,l'il.c \\\*< I o'liriilii n* li>i.|ilili.|i' o* llrl"l"'>>n »''"'JiUI«,leni„ „., I. .5. 6. si !). I III. 11, 18. 13,1 14, I.I.' III. 1 N'riihi JJ- I'liuwliinii ;;■ iV'ii'-iuia ».. JUd.piiia "' •?;'"« Fe de ,,, j!"«"I» ;"' I "l"n«ii ii.'m'i,','"""'!'''"" ". I'l'ui,, '; ,""",>*iiiii '"' ■; "''Wlllllii de ., "I"«IWM '' *'^•vl^t. IS,; 111,1 811,1 81,, 1 88, i\ 8.1 1 1 81, c V.5. P 8li. \' 87. ,M 88, N' d. 8'l, A ,10, N 31, P, .18, (II .ri.^^ n<.<.K IV. AMERICA. I28S of till' wistcrn niid wt-sterii mountains, are of prodigious extent, exceeding even tliose which cover HO greiU n part of Africa and Asia. While the latter too have a vast portion of tlieir lurl'iue dooujcd to hopeless sterility by heaps of moving sand, the interior plains of America lire iihnost throughout completely watered, and overgrown in many places with even an ex- coshIvc luxuriance of vegetation. It is true they display solitudes as- 'dst, and tenanted by rmes as Navage, as the most dreary deserts of the Old World. But this backward state is evidenlly owing to the unfavourable and inland site of these vast tracts, destitute of ninri- linie inlorcoursc, and only of late become the theatre of European settlement. Even the rich tm>l>luro of the groin)d, covered with dense and entangled forests, and with gigantic grasses, llioiiKli it marks the natural luxuriance of the soil, obstructs the first eftbrts of unimproved culture, but the tide of emigration has now completely set in to these vast interior tracts ; ([rent states have been founded in them j and it is evident that in a few ages they will be I'oveied with a numerous and increasing population. This is remarkably the case with the Hreiil lilaiu of the Missouri-Mississippi, between the Rocky Mountains and the Alleghanies, funning what is called the western territory of the United Slates. Tlie plantations formed ill this region iux> proceetling with such rapidity, that it must evidently, in a few generations, lii'conie one of the most populous and flourishing regions of the globe. This plain is pro- \o\vfvA without interruption northward to the country watered by the upper courses of the .Mis>i>sippi and the St. I.awi'cnce, and even as far as the Polar Ocean ; so that, as I'i'umboldt olivei'ves, out! of its borders is covered with the palms and the splendid foliage of the ini|ii('< while in the other the last buds of arctic vegetation expire. These northern plains, luiwover, present a very gloomy aspect, overspread with dreary pine forests, intersected by IVuxon lakes, and allbrding shelter only to numerous tribes of tlie elk, the deer, and other riir-heariiig animals. The extent of this plain is estimated by Humboldt at 2,430,000 M|imre n\iles. Another, almost equally vast and luxuriant, occurs in the heart of South America, where it occupies the basin of the Amazons, between the Andes and the mountains ol' Itrii/il i but it is covered, as yet, with unbroken native forests, and tenanted by rude and wviiite tribes. The same great authority reckons it at 2,340,000 miles. In the northern i|iiurtiM' is that great expanse of the Llanos of the Orinoco, estimated at 261,000 miles, covi'ivil with gigantic grasses, yet still, too, almost uncultivated, while in the southern part of llu' itmlinent, the immense surface of the Pamjias, bordering the La Plata, displays its f'er- lilily (inly by the numberless herds of wild cattle, which have multiplied amid its pastures. Tlio nri'a, according to Huinboldt, comprehends 1,'J15,0(X) :;;Hes. .11!!'.', 'rahtc-laiiils, or elevated plains, form a characte.istii, featurj in the geography oi America, though not so striking as in that of Asia. The riiu'oal is the one which covers Rtferencei to the Map <\f SouiU Iniciif |',lt W'lllll IllMI %. |,.VMnitH' l. .rdiii'. liiw ,,Mi W.il.aili Linn.il) i.ll.u lll.'OlJ k.ll>.llll> l..raJo Ijv... or U"*' lirti- litii.i)!') .iali- cninMUIA. 1. \"tMMBim, ur : Ni'w KttlnburHli I. .^iXlUHtK 111. Vnlviu'lft ) J. I tiiiinnit IVriiilirlH'lHH lU'l t1- l-'ori 'rhumc, ur Nvw (itttttnn IV.MiniimrU I', 'rumllit h. MvTiiU I''. Vrtritiiw '.*»', Atim^ AtnlmuA VV.S, Hnnwra '(.VN.Cn ImtleHlo Nriini tt- rAiuiwIiinik W Iti'iiinltiM V). Nrvvrt V\. (Jmi.. iiV« llV S, .lo.M{Mlin lie (ilMANA. 1. (itHirmiiiwH "i. rnrnnmritiu X t'liyrnno 4. St. laiuisorOy.i- ItHA^tl.. 1. Sniiia Itdsa V. S. Anl«m[o t'iutnulu'lm ^, S, Aniimluile Marnpl •I. Tlioiimr A. Ilnrrelliw t'u >rimr 7. \'i»lln do Kftii H. Avrlltw,nr t'oary *,i. Kill Ni'^ri't or l'\)rtnU Uurra 10. ltt>tltn 11. (titUliw.orraulU I'i. Haniatvtii 14> Pnntba 1.1. Villa Nova d.i Madrpite Dtoa 1(1. X'llla VU'oja 17> ^' tfiMotlaiUuai Hnrraii IH. AlrolMlK l!». Tara VI. Aii-auUni ^'i. IMavanhan) tX ItniiliMirti Vl.CnxlaH V.I. I*nnmi1ia Vf!. Vln.#a «;. Mnrvnil VN. Niiirn, uv ViUti tUI l\.vto VK AriiMil no. Natal .11. I**\ratlin .IV. Olhhlnirtniam- Ut'iltV J l.iico ^X Vlllamiva X\, rntuiNt .^.^. Valemla 5rt. Oelra-f 37. Jurumenha .IS. ('anno ^ii. IVrnHKoa ■10. Joa/uiro 41. .Ini-ol»ino i'i, Ari'iulo 1.1. Hahia, or H. HnU vailor M. Illieoa 4.^. .Toazciro 46. S. Itnsa 47. Arraya 4S. AKoaquciiie 49. Piiracatu .'lO. \*llla lloa .'»!.(■ luatrn .'»-^. Villa IMIa ftX VllUi Hica d4. Item .Succi>sso, or Fanddo M. Torto St'Kiiro A6, S. Jote do roirto Atrffre A7. Khpfrttu Snnto M, Kio Jaiu-iro y.i. Lao Pnulo 60. Villa NoTa 61.(iualrA ()U. H. Antonio (>3. I'aranaf^a 64. TonTtntos M. Portnlt^re H6. Kivilirande (i7. HoiobI 6H. S. .To&£ 6<>. Almnfiro 7(1. Loriana 71. Monle Video Ti. Maldonado. I'KRU. I. Tunit.ct «. Tnulllo n. <'aiaiiiarquUla 4. Duara .'». t'itx:d)am*>a fi. Iluanco 7. Tar ma R. Ocopa. 0. Limit 10. I'isco 11. ClialliudiuH Vi. t:u>.co 1.1. Arcquiiii. 14. Ila 15. Ari: J6. T( f .iBi .» 17. La tx liiaclor dc 'a Cruz. BOLIVIA. 1. S. Xavier U. Aimlobamba 5. Zarata I. La I'az 5. Oruro B. HotosI 7. La Plata K. rnchahaintia 9. Florida 10. Santa Cruz dc la Nueva 11. S. Lourenzoue la Front tra 12. Alliiiqiierqvie 13. 8. lternaruoi> Tarl/ia 14. S. Francisco de Atacama. LA PLATA. 1 . Palcipus i. Salta 3. .Tujuy 4. Tuiuman fl. Corricntea (1. (Tondclario 7. Hanta Lut-ia K. Santiago 9. Catain.ina 10. Kluia 1 1 . Cordova 12. Santa ¥i 13. ItoMiiio 14. Hiienoa Ayrcs l'>. S. Luis Ifi. Mendoza 17. Kl Diamante. i:irn«. 1. CoiiiaiKj 2. Il'jasro 3. Lit Serena 4. Acontaiiiia rj. \''aIpaiai»o fi. Sdntiiifjo 7. rnnce|)ci''n 8. .Uauco 9. Laiiiuo in. N'aldivia 11. Cullniro 12. S.Carlos. PATAGONIA. 1. Coljie 2. Sanrliad.i 3. ', or .Iiivary IV ,)iitav, ur Hjiitahy I "Art-, ,,r Telle % I'u; 1, ur Purus I Mi-.-hta a* Taj ajos, or 'lopavo-i b* Xintiii c* L'ru,i.ny d* Totantiin c* JMtarv.orlVrcariip f« Patnailia u* (lorgura h* Caniozin i* St'ara i* Paraiba "k* S. Francisco I* Uiolirandedo Hclmonte .n* Dore n* ParailMi 0* )Mrana \i* ' .?te (|* P.iraiiahyba r* Paraguay 8* S. I.dienzo f^ (;;Mi>are u* ' l-alit, or 8. > jitdalena V* ^ ; un'Ta VI* Kin Grande de la Plata y* pilromayo s*" Uio(iraiide z* Cniffuny a*>x Satado b** Dolce c** ]\IenUoza, or Colorado d** Saliidillo (.A* sanpuel f ** Slcu l-euvu (;** Camerones 1** Port Detire. 1990 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III, the whole of Mexico, with part of Guatiroala, rising to the height of 6000 feet. The Andes within their lofty ridges enclose very elevated sites, on which even cities are built • but, in general, these level spots are too limited to constitute more than a mountain valley hemmed in by lofty perpendicular steeps ; and often from the bed of the river to the top of the mountain is a continued and laborious ascent. Bolivia, or Upper Peru, with tlie border. ing districts of La Plata, comprises certainly a very large extent of elevated land, and cities are built on a higher level than in any other quarter of the globe. Yet its general rugged and irregular surface seems to constitute rather a mountainous territory than a table plain. 5493. The rivers of A.nerica constitute perhaps her grandest natural features, or at least those in which she claims the most decided preeminence over the other quarters of the globe. They are unequalled both in the length of their course, and the masses of water which they pour into the ocean. The principal of these rivers take their rise in the great western chain, from its eastern side, whence, being swelled by numerous streams, they roll broad and spacious across the great interior plain, till they approach the eastern range of mountains. Thence they derive a fresh and copious series of tributaries, till bearing as it were the waters of half a continent, they reach the ocean. Thus, the Mis- souri (which, notwithstanding the error which has given the name of Mississippi to the united channel, is undoubtedly, in a physical view, the main stream,) takes its rise in the Rocky Mountains, then flows eastward into the deep valley, where it is joined by the Mississippi, and there receives from the Alleghany the copious tributaries of the Ohio, the Wabash and the Tennessee. In its course thence southward, it receives tributaries both from the eastern and western range. In South America, again, the Amazons, after a loni; course along the foot of the loftiest Andes, and collecting all the waters which descend from them during a range of upwards of 1000 miles, rolls westward across the great plain till it comes to receive ample tributaries from the eastern ranges, of Farime on one side and Brazil on the other, and, before reaching the Atlantic, is swelled almost to an inland sea. The La Plata, after having by itself, the Pilcomayo, and other tributaries, col- lected all the southern waters of the Andes, in its south-eastern course across the continent, receives the Parana, which, after its long course through the valleys of the Brazilian chain, disputes the rank of principal ; after which, the united stream, in its junction with the Atlantic, bears the magnitude of a great bay or inlet. There are other rivers wliich from different and much more limited sources swell to the first magnitude. In North America, the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi proper derive their ample stores not from any moun. tain chain, but from that cold watery region of forests and swamps which forms tlie northern prolongation of the great central plain. In South America, again, the Orijioco, though the Andes send to it some considerable tributaries across the Llanos, is formed chiellv during its winding course around the Parime end other ranges that traverse Guiana ; yel such is the store lodged in this region of forests and swamps, that it pours by its seven mouths into the Atlantic a flood almost as ample i>9 its greatest rivals. The rivers which flow through the comparatively narrow valleys which intervene on the east and west between the mountain chains and the nearest ocean, cannot reach any great magnitude ; though often valuable for navigation, ♦''ey belong only to the particular district which they traverse. The Coppermine, the Mackenzie, which flow through the north into the Arctic Sea, have a longer course, bu , from the barren regions which they traverse, are of no commercial value. 5494. Laket in the most northerly part of the continent arc numerous and important. They are not, however, mountain lakes, nor formed by mountain streams. They oriffinale in those great wooded watery plains whence the Mississippi and the St. Lawrence take their rise. The chain of connected lakes on the upper course of the former river, the Ontario, Erie, Huron, and Superior, form the largest bodies of fresh water in the world. Comniii- nicating with the sea by ihe broad channel of the St. Lawrence, and in a country whose population is rapidly increasing, they are becoming of the greatest advantage to commerce. Similar lakes extend northward as far as the Arctic Sea, — the Lake of the Woods, the Athabasca, the Great Slave Lake, the Great Bear Lake; but these, unconnected uithanv other sea, and frozen for the greater part of the year, caimot serve any commercial pui-|)oic. In the heart of the mountain region of Upper Peru is the great lake of Titicaca ; but, ge- nerally speaking, the Andes, abrupt, lofty, and pouring their waters into deep and narrow valleys, form rivers, and not lakes. Sect. II. Natural Geograpiii/. SuBSECT. 1. Geo'ogy> 5495. The Geology of this continent can only be properly described under the heads of Its respective countries. SuBSECT. 3. Botany- 5496. Of all the quarters of the globe, America offers, unqueetionably, the most intercstiiij field to the botanist, extending, as it does, from beyond the Arctic Circle in the iiurtli, nearly Book IV. AMERICA. l'29l to the Antarctic Circle in the south, and including a vast range of mouMtains, the most remarkable in the world, whether considered relatively to their height or their extent ; for they literally stretch from one extremity to the other of the whole continent, and in such a manner as to divide it into two very unequal portions, the eastern and the western ; thus forming a line of separation between the vegetation of the respective sides, more distinct thpn that constituted by many degrees of longitude. In relation to other extra-European countries, it may be said that a considerable part of the American territories has been ex- plored by the mnn of science. North America can boast of Kalm, Bartram, Michaux, Pursli, Bigelow, Torrey, Elliott, Nuttall, Darlington, Boott, and Schweinitz, who have most successfully investigated the botany of the United States. Richardson, Drummond, and the officers of the various arctic expeditions. Lady Dalhousie, Mrs. Sheppard, and Mrs. Pcrcival, have satisfactorily ascertained the vegetable productions of Canada and of the Hudson's Bay Company's territories to the eastward of the Rocky Mountains (or the Cordillera of North America) ; while the coast of the opposite side, washed by the Pacific Ocean, has been explored by Mepzies, Chamisso, Douglas, and Scouler. The botany of Mexico has been described by Humboldt and Scheide. The nr^me of the former highly- gifted individual is intimately connected with the tropical parts of South America, and almost all we know of the plants of the old and extensive kingdom of New Granada is from his labours and those of his companion Bonpland, and their predecessor, Mutis. Peruvian and Chilean botany were long considered the peculiar province of the Spanish literati, and we owe much to the investigations of Ruiz and Pavon ; but still more, per- haps, to the indefatigable exertions of Haenke, Cruckshanks, Bertero, Pijppig, Cuming, Mathews, Bridges, Jameson, Hall, and Gillies ; the latter, indeed, extending his researches into extra-tropical America, in the latitude of Mendoza, from the Atlantic to the Pacific Oceans. Brazil, whose productions seem inexhaustible, has had the good fortune to he explored by Spix and Martins, Augustc St. Hilaire, Pohl, Mikan, Sellow*, and already aflbrds, perhaps, the most splendid flora of any spot of the globe. Casual, indeed, have been the visiters to the more southern parts and adjacent islands of the vast continent under consideration, and few the observations we can make upon them ; nor, indeed, will our limits allow us to enter, as we could wish, upon the more particular nature of tlie vegetable products of any part of America. We have devoted more space than was contemplated to the former countries of tlie ^lobc, and on that account are com- pelled to be more brief in characterising the botany of those that are to follow. 5497. The most remote land, the Ultima Thule of the southern hemisphere, that lias been yet explored, constitutes a group of islands, called New South Shetland, lying otF the southern extremity of America, in lat. 65°. " None of these islands," says the enterprising Captain Weddel, "p.ffords any vegetation, save a short straggling grass, which is found in very small patches, on spots where there happens to be a Kttle soil. This, with a moss similar to what is found in Iceland, appears in the middle of January, at which time the islands arc partially clear of snow." The eye of the botanist would, perhaps, even here, discover some curious pi r. i , thoug'', undoubtedly, the majority of thevn, as in the highest northern latitudes, would piovc to belong to the families of Mosses and Lichens, and probably are not dissimilar to those of the coldest parts of the South American continent. A few specimens, hastily gathered on the islands, have, indeed, though in a very imperfect state, come into our possession ; amongst them, a Polytrichum without fruit. A very beautiful Lichen appears to he common there, bearing large deep chestnut-coloured fructifications. This is described by Dr. Torrey, in Sillimaii's American Journal of Science, under the name of Usnca fasciata (j%. 879.), and is figured in Hooker's Botanical Miscellani/, vol. i. t. 14. ; where its great similarity with the Usnea melaxantha of the Andes of Peru, and the U. sphacelata of the arctic regions, is noticed. It is the same Lichen, probably, which is noticed by Lieutenant Kendal, when speaking of Deception Island, one of this groupe, in lat. 64°. " There was nothing," he says, " in the shape of vegetation, ex- cept a small kind of lidien, whose efforts seem almost ineffectual to maintain its existence, among the scanty soil afforded by the penguin's dung." Several very interesting plants have recently been gathered on Terra del Fuego and the Straits of Magellan, l)y the late expedition to survey these coasts, under the command of Captain King, but are unfortunately yet unpublished; so that, al- though the straits just mentioned are now much frequented by English and American vessels engaged in the seal-trade, almost nothing is known of their vegetation. Sir Joseph Banks landed I'PKBA yiKlAT/. ' While writing ttiis, wp Irarn from Oie pul)lic journala Hint Mr Sellow li.is fullcn n sacrifice to hi« entlmsia, 680 WINTFRB HARK. Ah |il> an. proached the shore, he met with sea-weeds of a inuHt vnonnoiiM Him- ; iniv of them in particular (Fitcus giganteus), having leaves four feet liin«. inid with ntvtnn, thougli not thicker than a man's thumb, yet 120 feet long. On nhorv, Hir JuRviih and his party gathered upwards of 100 species of plants; umoiig thuni iik>vi>rill htunm of a Wild Celery and Scurvy Grass {Apium antarctkum anA Cardamine untimiHmlkn. \ the famous Winter's Bark {Drymis Winteri) (Jig. 880.), so called from its having Uvv» (Irht discovered in Torra del Fuego by Captain William Winlwr, thv t'otiipiuiion of Sir Francis Drake, who in 1579 introduced this plant to the knowledge of ^.P^lKSff^^ European physicians as a valuable tonU'i more CMpeclally usefulin scurvy. It is, however, wholly neglected in the practice of physic- E^^s>^''^?^ ]i j^^ the Canella alba (a tropical aromtttie plant, which Ih totally dill'erent from it) having been confounded with it In the shops, and no quantity having been brought to Fiurope, uxcqit as a curiosity, till the return of the ships under Captain Cook. Living individuals of this interesting plani ore, wu bi^lieve, in the gnrden of Mr. Lowe, at the Clapton nursery. The trees wert" found lo he chielly of one kind, a species of Birch (JMiila aiilnyi'lka), Ihu stem of wliltli is from thirty to forty feet in diaiiwii'r, ho th«l, In case of necussity, they might supply a ship with tojintitMit. The Fagns antarclica might likewise be employed as tinibvr. Ci'itnhci'rlvs were also found in large quantities, both white c id red. 6498. In the Straits nf Magellan, ttie Evergreen Beech il'iigun Mulnidi'f) ((row* In Iho grealeit nliiindaiioc and reaches a very large size. Trees nf this specien, three liiet In iliituu'li'r, aro Nhnnilnrit i of lour fiTt there .-ire many, and Captain King says, there is one trt-e (perhaiw the vpry umut' lliillt'iHl liy Idtnniiiihiro Hyroii) which measures seven toct :n diameter for wventeen feet ahovu tliv riiiiliii nnil lliciu (llvldes Into three large branches, each of which is three foci thick. Many of thuno Ihio trt'i'n, nwlnu, licrhniii, to the coldncsi of the schistose sub'.oil, arc decayed al the heart. Captain King ohttirvi'd hut IVw other tinibnr trees in the Straits, besides the l-Ivergrccn Deech juat mentioned. Such an appellHlloh only helongs to the other siwcici of Beech and the Winter's Bark. The last which is alto evergreen, U lo ho liniml iiilxed with the llrst in all parts of the Straits, so that the country and hills, from the height of (KKHt li>|i| nliovelhesea to the very vcrte of high.water mark, are covered with pcr|ieti>al verdure, which la |iertiliiirly Mrlklng hi those places where the glaciers descend into the sea; the sudden contrast In audi caaea prex'lillnu In the view n iciiie as onrct^ able as it seems to be anomalous. Vegetation, indeed, appears to thrive iiioal iuitiirlnnllv, niAl large, ivrnxlv. stemmed trees of Veronica and Fuchsia, such as in England iire lieatwl i\* li'hder greenlho'iie planln, are in full Hower, within a very short liliig, liir Ihey iiinii the chosen food of numerous and large herds of guaiiac(H>s, SuBSECT. 3, Zoology, .5499. The ZMlo<:y»ftlw Xi-iv World is as distinct from llmt iiC llic (Hd, as llic unii.ials of Au-'-tr-tlia arc from those of Africa and the Indian Islmuls, Thi'ie isnUoii i iiiiniiHaiiiilo^^ical res'ii lance >: iveen these two insular continents lUserviiig milii'i', Tin' inirllieni Inlitmles of .\!i<.rica present tis will' many of the aiiiinals of Kill'opi' iiinl Anin j nnd the fniiiia', .if the;'' three divisions unite 'n 'e arctic regions. The /oology of ,\i|..|rnliii, in like manner, assinii'ites to that uf .Soutliorn .MVica and the Indiiin Kliiiiils i oi' nitlier iiiiiy be said to bon-).'' many of the animal forms coinmou lo both, Hut lowliiil /.oological priiviiiceof Ilic world its southern extremity approximates, is still unkiiosvn i iiliil this is inviiselv tlic cast with .\inerica. Upon this question, involving many points of high iinportaiice lo (joograpliii' joology, we shall not at present dwell; since tht only inforiiinliiiii which iiiiglit lead lo aiiv satisfiK'toi-y results, namely, a systematic list of the aniuiiils of I'aliigoiiin nml Terra del Fuego, still remains to he supplied. ,').'>()0. The Zoologi/ nf America embraces the produclioiis of niicIi a viihI miiiI diversiliid region, tluit we must consider it more in detail under three divisions ; niMiiely, llio iirctii' or northern, the feiniieratc or iiucrmediate 'cKion, and the Nuuthcrn or tfopiciil ; a liniilli niiglit be made to cinhr.-ice the regions towards Cape Horn ; but lhi> aninuilN of these liititiidcs, as liefore observed, are very imperfectly known. • Sec King's Geography of Terra del Fuego and llio Straits of Magellrtii, hi tile JoiirnnI itf Mc- Royal Gengraphical Socirtt/, vol. i. p. Itili. ifc: '7^ , Part HI. Ah lio ap. iliv of tliem in inn, tliniigh not niul liis party ' II Wild Celery rumoiiH Winter's 'ovoreil in Terra )!) of Sir Francis u knowledge of ii'iMiilly useful in letico of physic ; I totally dillercnt I Hliops, and no » a curiosity, till iiK individuals of of Mr. Lowe, at )(.' chielly of one itviii of wliicli is :{\Hu of necessity, l''»giiii antarcticR 8 wuru also found Krcnlrat nliiindanrc, ti nf I'niif IVct there r rotnniniliire llynm) u (lUlileii Intn three inim, tn the r()hliiet) 'r tlinlinr Irceiln the I til the ntlier siK-cien il with the llrst in all Ken tn the vpry verge II tlioac iilacrs where lew n ni'i'iip ii« nurce- Iv, nllVI llirnc, ttoiidy. ilho'lic plaiitu, are in IrilM ilnwiiwarils villi ii'c|iieiil('il liy pitrolj liitter Imve iii'en scon iiVB n't' iMinstant titin. ''lii'luiii ciTlaiiily «a! 1' iiileiR iilllir liavsoii , uriiwinK I'veii in the TllWlinlslllCMVl'sUTll there tnriiis Init a r nre nil t-iiiall and I'll liiilii's. Oil llic iiiity i^inall i>l)riibi flerise llii« roKion, diiiig, liir lliey liirni as tlie iiniiiiiils of M'iiiiis iiiuilo).;inil iirllierii liililiiili"< ml llie fiiiiiiii'. .if ill like iiiiiiini'i-, limy be slid to III |ii(iviiii'eof the _ reiisely the oast iice to neognipliic might lend to any ill iini' Hook IV. AMERICA. 199:{ I' I erra M St iiml iliversiliccl lely. Iho iiri'ticor I i 11 I'liiirth inigld lliese laliluiles, as oiirnni n! Me noy<^ and ,550!. IntUe arcic or northern dwmon may be incl.idL.l those frigid regions comn.encinu twcen 55^ and 60- of north latitude, and extending to the shores of the Frozen Ocean . d we may name the great I'olar IJear (/f^. hHi.) as the typical animal of these regions. TMB WniTB OH UKRAT POLAR RRAR. - • -'gions. riie above demarcation, Iiowxver, is named from conjecture more than from positive evidence; for it is much more natural to conclude that, if any zoological peculiarities attach to the arctic regions of America, they would commence beyond the far- thest points in this direction, which are annually visited by the migra- tory or summer birds of the United States. Many of these are well known to breed in Canada; while the more recent zoological researches of Dr. Richardson, in liigher lati- tudes, prove that the migrations of these birds <'xtend 1, > ond the latitude of 60° N. It seems, therefore, highly probable that the ornitholugical features of Arctic America are confined to much narrower limits than we have here assigned ; and that tlie;e limits do not extend farther south than the " Barren Grounds " and " Prairies " of the arctic navigators, those extensive plains which ajipear to be the chief residence of the Canadian Grouse {Tctrao canadensis) (Jig. 882.), and other species of the family peculiar to this continent. The second volume of the Northern Zoologi/ has put us in possession of numero.is facts on the ornithological geography of these regions; although much still remains to be discovered before these facts can be generalised. In the mean time we shall avail ourselves of the valuable information already communicated by this enterprising traveller, re- lative to the ferine inhabitants of Northern and Arctic America. S.roa. The quadrupeds of these regions, according to Dr. Richardson, are geographically liistrihuted in the following districts, under which they will be briefly noticed: — 1. The remote i-^laiids of North Georgia. 2. Tlie chores of the Polar Sea, and the Uarren Lands. fj. New Caledonia. 4. T!ie liocky Mountains. .'3. The Prairie Lands, fi. The Limestone District. 7. Tlie Eastern District. ,5,10,1. (1.) In the islands of North Gc j''i.'i'n,sitnatcd in lat, 75^ north, there are only the nine follouii.j species of maniniiferous animals, of which five £i.e carnivorous and four herbi- vorous. The first two are only summer visiters ; they arriv .• on Melville Island towards the middle of ."May, and quit it, on their return to the south, in the end of September. ANAniAN um't;,>B, Boimn^rhafiis. Musk Ot. CtTviLs T.iramlis. I'aralKiu Deer. Unusmaritifinn. I'olar Hear, Gulo liisciis. Wolverine. MuNtc a erminea. Thu Krmine. Clanis u^us. American Wolf. Vulliet lagopiis. The Arctic Fol. (jeorychus hiidsonius. tludsoiiS Bnv l.eiiiint,'. I.eiul9 ^lacialis. Polar Hare. 5501. ;2.) The i/uadrupeds of the shvres of the Polar Sea are the same as those inhabiting the Barren Grounds. This name has beea applied by the arctic voyagers to that north-east oarner of the .'\merican continent boundul to the westward by the Coi»permine River, the Great Slave iind other lakes, to the southward by the Churchill or Blissini pi River, ana to tlie nortii.iard and eastward by the sea, The rocks of this district are f imitive, rising only into low lulls, with a few stunted shrubs in the valleys; but the soil in general is a dry coarse sand, so poor as to aft'ord no other vegetation than lichens. These dreary and daiii;e!ous wastes are destitute of Tui'-bcaring animals. The abundance of lichens supply till- favourite food of the small Carabou, or American Reindeer, and the Musk Ox, both of «iiieli animals are here common. The following quadrupeds are likewise found in the Barren Grounds : — L'rsiis arrtns ? americanus. Il.arrcn ^'■rciintl Hear. I'r.iis riianti;nui. Tolar or Sea Hear. 'iii!() l'i,rns. Wolverine. I nt^)li^l^ eniiinoa. sioal, or Ermine, }Ul,iriu«Vi,nn. Vison Weasel, l.uln ranadensis. Can.idian litter, t aliw lajjoims. Hare Indian Ilo({. V alias fuhniiiosa. Sooty Foi, Fiber jlbetliirns. Tlie Sfnsfiuasli, Arvicol.i xantlio^nalliUA, Yellow -theekeil MouM... Arvirola i)cnn^v!vanicns,M'iIson's;\IousL', Arvicoia horc.dis, iNorthem Mouse, Georychus trimmronatus. Hack's I,e- min;;, (liHiryclius hudsonius, Hudson's Hay i.cininf;. I (ieorycluia Bra-nlandtrus, Creenland I.eininf;, Arcloniv* l',irrvi, IVarn's Marmot, Levus f;lact,aUs, Polar Ilare. The fin.t eifdu on this list are more or Icvs caniivoious 'r plscivorfju' ; ,and prey much uiton the reinaindtT, which are herbaceous. 5505. (3.) The district of Neiu Caledonia, on the west of the Rocky Mountains, was not visited by Dr. Richardson ; but, tiom the notes of IVIr. Harmon, its zoology presents some peculiarities. The summer is never very warm, and in winter the snow is sometimes five feet deep. This, Mr. Harmon imagines, is the reason why none of the large Bnimaltt. IS94 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGUAPHY. Pari III. t eicept a few solitary ones, are to be met with. The quadrupeds are not numerous. The Moose Deer is scarce, and the Black Bear more so. The lesser species consist of Beavers, Otters, Lynxes, Fishers, Martens, Minks, Wolverines, Foxes of different kinds, Badgers 883 Polecats, Hares, and a few Wolves! The birds are Swans, Geese, Cranes, Ducks of several kinds, and Partridges! The Canadian Goose (Anas canadensis) (/g.883.) is here called a Bustard: it appears to be common, and has long been domesticated in both continents. All the lakes and rivers are well furnished with excellent fish. 5.506. (4.) The animals found on the Rocky Mountains are thus enumerated by Dr. Richard. son: — CANADIAN GOOIRt Vctpcnlllotubulatui. Sny'i Bat. Soreipaluatrii. American Marsh Shrew. Unui amerlcanuB. American Black Bemr. UnuB feroi. Grisly Bear. Dulo luscua. Wolverine. Futorlui ermlnea. Stoat, or Ermine. Putoriui VIson. Viion Weasel. Muatela martes. Pine Marten. Mustela canadeniU. Fekan, or Fisher. Lutra canadensis. Canadian Otter. FelU canademis. Canadian fi>'nx. Castor fiber. American Jleaver. Fiber zlhethicus. The Miisquuh. Arvicota rlptriua. Bank Meadow- Mouse. Arvlcolasanthognathua. Ydlow-cheeked Mouse. Arvicola noTa*boracensls> Sharp-noied Moase. Georychus helvotua. Tawny liCminf;. Neotoma Di-ummondil. Hock; Moun- tain I«mlnt{. Musleucojius. American Field Mouse. Arciomys empetra. Ouebcc Marmot. Arctomvs nruinotus. J'he Whistler. Arctomys Varryl. Parrj's Marmot. Arctomyi uuttatus. SpottiHl Marmot. Arctomys lalcralis. 8|>cr arms uf the Colombia arc inhabited by the same kind of animala as occur on the Missouri plains. These are principally as follows : — ITraua ferox. Grisly Bear. Canls latrani. Prairie Wolf. Vulpes cinereo-argentatus. Kit Fox. Mvles labradorla ? The Brnrn. I Cerrua leucurus. Lon«-tftl!«l Doer. Cervus mucrotls var. a. Black-tailed Aplodontia ieporlna. The I.ewellel. Ucer. I 5508. The Bisons are supposed to have found their way across the mountains very recently; they are Kill comparatively few, and very locally distributed. 5509. (5.) The fifth geographic district comprehends those extensive plains, termed Pmma lying between the toot of the Rocky Mountains and the Limestone District suhsequontly noticed. These lands are in general level, and the traveller, when crossing them, must direct his course by tiie compass or by the stars, as an Arab would traverse the Great Desert. The soil, however, although dry and sandy, is tolerably fertile ; as it supplies a thick sward of grass, whicli furnishes food to immense herds of the Bison. Tliis abundance ol pasture- renders these plains the favourite resort of various ruminating animals, and the Hutfalo and W^'piti abound. The following list will better exhibit these peculiarities: — Uraus feroK. The Oriil^'Bear. Cania latrana. The I'rairie Wolf. Vulpes cinereo-arcenutus. Kit Fox. Arctomys ludovicianus. The WUton* wist. Arctomjs Rlchardsonii. Tawn; Mar- mot. Arctomys Fru'^kllnll. Frankiin's Mar- mot. Arctumys Hoodil. Ixnpard i\farmot. Geomys tal])aides. The Mule Sand Hat. Lepus vir^inianus. I'rairie Hare. Eqtnis raballus. The Hurse. Cervus alceii. Moose Deer. Cervus stronfO'IoccroA. The WanlU. Cervus macrotis. DIack-lailcd Peer. Cervus leucunis. Lt)i){{-iailee furcifer. Prung-humttl .Ante- lo|>e. lioa amerlcanus. Amcriran Bison. 5510. The fUr-bearine animals also exist in the belts of woods, which skirt the rivers flowing through iht plains above-mentioned. 5511. (6.) The sixth district is a very flat limestone deposit, bounded by a remarkable cliiiin of rivers and lakes, among which are Lake Winnipeg, Beaver Lake, and the middle portiunof the Missinippi River, &c,, all to the southward of the Methy Portage; while its northim confines are marked by the Elk River, Great Slave Lake, Marten Lake, &c. The ^^l)ok of this district is well wooded, and yields the fur-bearing animaU in abundance ; the lolloping arc found in this tract : — • Vespertilio pruinosns. Hoary Hat. SorexpalustViii. American Manih Shrew. Sorex Forsttri. Forsler's Shrew. Condyluralonsicauda (South parts only). I^n^-laited Shrew. Untua aroericanua. American Black Bear. Oulo Inscus. 'Ihe Wolverine. I'litoriuft vulgaris. Common Wen.M?l. Putoriiia erminea. Stoat, or Ermine. PutoriiiB Vison. Vison Weasel. Mustela martes. Pine Marten. Mustela canadensis. Pekan, or Fisher. 5512. rAojf OTflrit<:d M«» * are but partially distributed. To this list must be added difterent varieties ol the American Wolf, named the Cirey, the Biacki the Dusky, and the Pied: together with three varictici of Fox ; namely, the Common American, the Cross, and the Black or Silver. 5513. (7.) The seventh or eastern district is formed by a belt of low primitive rocks, extending from the Barren Grounds to the northern shores of Lake Superior. It is about 200 milis wide, and, as it becomes more southerly, it recedes from tlie Rocky Mountains. It diffm from the Barren Grounds principally in being clothed with wood. It is boumlcd to tfie east by a narrow stripe of limestone, beyond which there is a flat, swampy tractj forming the Menhites amcricana. Hudson's Hav Skunk. I.utra canadensis. Canadian Ottrr. Felis canadensln. Canadian Lvnx. Castor fiber ainerlcanus. Amer. Ileavcr. fibinr zibethicns. The Musquash. Arvicola zanttiofpiathua. Yellow-cheeked Mouse. Arvicola pennsylvanicua. WUson'i Mea- dow Mouse. Mua leucopus. American Field Mouse. Meriones labradoriua. Labrador Jump- ing Mouse. Arctomys empetra. Qiu'iirc ll.irmot. * Arioniys Huodii. I.L'oii.iitl .Marmot. * Sriurus l.vhtori. Tlit- Harkw. * Sciurus quailrivitiatua. Fuur-baniliii Touched nquirrel. SciuruB fludsonius. The Cliirknrev. * Hciurus Niger. Ulack Siitiirr.!. Ilyatrii plloauB. Canml.i rorrunine. [.i>l)us nmerlcanus. Anu'ricai) tfari'. i lervus aJcM. R!oose Deer. *t'ervuji Tarandus (sjlv.) The U'ood Caraliou Titer. Bos .imericanus. American Bison. Part III. erous. The of Beavers, ids, Badgen, few Wolves, sese, Cranes, 1 Partridges. IS canadensii) , Bustard; it has long been itinents. All veil furnished f Dr. Richard- Chickaree Squirrel. (Hlpina). Ejerem 'el. ada Vorcuiilne. Vmcrican iiare. irllari'. Mule Chief Hart. ■Deer, larabou Pear, ack-tallcil Deer. RockJ Mountain ky Mountain Sheep niericaii UiMa. illy ; but the wide ;ur on the Missouri Lonictalle<\ Hwr. 1. The l.e»ellel. cntly i they arc slill i, termed Trairifs, rict subsequently sing them, musl tlie Great Desert. ies a tliicli sward idance of pasture the Bull'ala and rm. ThoWaiiW. HLick-tailcd Owr. LoHUtailol IK1T. I'ruiig.hornwl Ante- American Biion. flowing thiougli the Iremnrkiibli; cliain 1 middle portion of Ihile its northern l&c. The » liA ce; the following Book IV. AMERICA. 1995 Oueber ^larmot. |aw.h'1 Marmot. The Hackee, lillatus. Four.Mi«i>'t %.' The ChickarK. I Black Scjuirrrl. tanaila I'oTcufme- f American llaic jTiXi TheHW I American lllw"' Lifl-erout varieties el Ith three vanctici el I rocks extending ■ about 200 miles Itains. Itdifff lisbounaedtoihc Itract, forming *e western shores of Hudson's Bay : its western limits are tlic limestone deposit last mentioned, tnd its native animals ore these : — goni paliutrli. AmnlMn Munli Shrew. Mprei Kontetl. Fiir»tec'i Shrew, g.-.lapa Up. iKiwtal. An unknown UrJuif «nietlcinu* Aniorlcin Blick Unui nurltimtljk Polar Be.ir. OulolUKUi. The Wol»etliw. Fuloriui luliaril. t^oiiiinon H eaaeL I'utorii'* ef minea. Slont, or brnuna I'liloriuj V'lion. Vlioii Weasel. Mu.leU inmei. IMiie niarten. Muilela caiudenaU. i'ekui, ot Fiiher. Mephltei ftmcrlcana. Hudion'i Bay Slunk. ' l.utra canftdensU. rannda Otter. PetU caiiadennU. t'liiijullan I.^^x. Castor liber atnert.:anus. American Ueaver. Fiber zlhetblrui. The Musquixh. Arvlcolaiftnthognatlius. YeUuw.eheektd MOUH!. ArTlcols pcnmylTanliw, Wllion'i MuuM. Ueorychut hudsonliu. Hudion') Baj Leuilng. Muk Mtropus. A merleen Field Mouse. Mcrlunv. labradurlut. Labrador Jump. hiK Mou^e. Ar('toin}Keiii)ietra. Queticf' Marmot. .Srhirus l.vsliri. The rouched Squirrel. Si-lurus tnsdMiniui. The Chickaree Squirrel. Pteromys tabrlnua. Setem Klver F1«- Inft Squirrel. Lcpua atnerlcanui. American Hare. CetTUa aU-en. The Moote l>eer. Cetrui Tarandus Isjlr.). The Woo* Carabog. I Iheie mult ht added aevcral varietiei of the American Woir, with the four racci of Foxct, called the Arctic, Aniericari, Crou, and Black. There teenu, also, lo be an undetermined upccies of badger. The Fiilar Bear doca ikiI g» farther inland than about 100 mllei over the ewampy land which skirts the coast 5515. To the remaining tribes of the unimal kingflom, at the birds, insects, fish, &c. of Northern America, we can devote but little space ; nor has Dr. Richardson yet given to the world the results of his valuable geographic observa- tions on these classes. It will therefore be sufficient to observe, that most of the European Arctic birds occur in the same latitudes in the American seas. Some, however, ore found in these regions which are altogether peculiar tniiRicaic TUfiBD DvoK. to tlic Ncw World.' 885 ti\& Among theielalterbirdtmaji be nuticrdthe American Tufted Duek (Anasruflloranea) ifig.68*.), which much rcscmhica the crested duck of Euroiic : the head, neck, breast, and up|ier itarts arc black, and there is a chest- nut collar louiiJ the neck. The Ituildy Duck (Jg. 882.). so culled from its rc6 S87 5517. The second grand division of Ametican Zoology may be supposed to commence towards Canada, and termi- nate with the Gulf of Mexico ; thus embracing the most temperate and healthful regions of tlie New World. In regard to its ferine inhabitants, little can be said; for, although the species have been described in systems, no traveller has yet taken those comprehensive views of their geographic distribution, which give such an interest and - --. ...r--^" " u---- value to our preceding observations on the northern ani- „^„ nucK. mals. Many of the northern quadrupeds range over a Liii-e portion of these temperate latitudes, while the others, not found towards the Pole, do not exhibit any striking peculiarities m the zoological distribution of genera. But the ornithology is more distinctly marked. Numerous tribes of insectivorous birds, unknown in the tem- perate latitudes of the Old World, or the equinoctial regions of the New, spread themselves over this fruitful portion of America, either as pcrmonent residents or as annual migrators from the more genial shores of the Mexican Gulf. The most celebrated of these is the Mocking- Bird {Orpheus poly- nloltos Swains.) ( ^UlkU> 1296 DESCRIPTIVE OEOOllAPHY. Part III. W I P I I I lufficiently grown to undertake tlicir autumnal {intiiagc, nearly the whole return to winter in latitudes less cold, and where their anhnal Inc:'. iocs not fail. Very many of iIkmi species have been traced to the warm shores and the tuhle-lnnd of Mexico; )iers upiivar in some of tlic West India I&ies, the Bahamas, &c. ; hut not more than one ur two Imvu yet been detected on the Terra Firma of Equinoctial America. The birds of gnini', in comparison with those of the northern regions, are few and insigniHcant ; always exruptlnir the Great American Turkey, for it is this part of the New World which Hrst ^avc iis tJiis noble addition to our farm-yards. Increase of po: ilation has had its usual ellcct, inul him long driven these bird* from many of their former haunts; they still, however, arc to be found in large flocks in the back settlements of Louisiana, &c, 5518. 0/ other animals, tlicre are few which are tlie same as those of Europe. Tlic Fish arc numerous ; but no une species, like the cod of Newfoundland, would Neeni to occur in sufficient profusion to create a distinct branch of commerce. Reptiles, in point of vnrit'ty, seem also to abound. Morse has enumerated nearly forty kinds, found in the United States ' and Virginia, in particular, produces great numbers. The most formidable of tiiese iirc tliu well-known Rattlesnakes, of wliich there now appears to be more than one species ; nuino few of the others are venomous, but none can be compared, in bulk, with the monstrous ■crpents of South America. Tlie savannas and swamps abound with immense liull-l'ro){«, five times the size of the European; while a particular species of Alligator is said to occur in the southern rivers. 5519. The third great division, under which we are to view the Zoology of Amvricn, comprises the whole of the Southern Peninsula, from the Gulf of Mexico to tiie extremity of Paraguay, beyond which lie countries never visited by the scientific naturalist. No uuriK can do justice to the splendour, the diversity, or the magnificence of the productions uf this luxuriant region. Nature every where teems with life, under new and captivutiiij; funns, unknown to the naturalist who may be familiar only with the animals of milder elimatei, or of those distributed in the higher latitudes of the American Continent. This change becomes apparent on the table-land of Mexico; although it may be first traced in tlii> southern parts of Carolina, Florida, and Southern Louisiana. 5520. In respect to the Quadrupeds of these regions, our information is brief, vague, and unsatisfactory. Hernandez was sent in the golden days of Spain, towards the close of itic sixteenth century, and furnished by Philip II. with an ample salary, to investigate tliv productions of Mexico ; but although he has been styled by some the Pliny of New Spiiiii, his talents were below mediocrity, and both his authority and writings have long cvasid to be regarded or quoted. Neither will the brief notices found in Clavigero, and writers otllio same period, conduce to any solid information. The tribe of Monkeys begin to apix'iir in Mexico, from whence two species have been recently received ; while the increase of tlic family, both in numbers and variety, is very observable the nearer we approach the 'lunid Zone. The diflerent Lynxes of North America give place to the Jaguars, Pumas, Occluli, and long-tailed Tiger-cats ; the two former being the most formidable of the South American ferocious quadrupeds. Bears appear to be unknown, and the largest wild animals are probably the Tapirs. Deer and Anttlo|iet ** are sparingly scattered ; for in iliis respect America offers a sinj;ular contrast to the opposite cantiiunt of Africa. Sloths and Armadillues, on the other hand, characterise the hot countries of the New World, of which the Great Ant-eafcr(_/ig.888) is also a native ; while bats, of al- most innumerable species, sHiriii in the brief twilight of a tropical evening. 5521. The Ornithology of Tropical America, as a whole, certainly exceeds, in splendour, that of any other region of the globe. This, in fact, is the chosen metropolis ol ilie 889 m Humming-birds, of which near one hundred distinct 1 - - speci(H are already known to naturalists. Of these, one only ( Trochilus colubris L. ) is generally known through- out North America, where it appears to ronge over the whole of the United States, returning to the south in autumn. Cold, however, does not appear to nflict ihwo little creatures so much as might have been imagined ; for Sir Joseph Banks discovered a lovely species (l|i» IluiF-necked, Selasphorus rvfus Swains.) (/ip. 889.) "i the chilly climate of Nootka Sound. The late Mr. »V „ «.B.cK.i. Hu«M.Nu.»ir.i. Bullock, jun. assured us that, in Mexico, he lias tmvelW U.rougli woods of fir, with '' )ach llie 'l'""'** 'umas, Ocelots, South American lals are prolwMy ■^ and Antelofcs fired; foriiitW* isTers a sinifular posile continent nd Armndillui% characterise the oNewWorliUf t-eatcr(Jig.888^) ,hilc bats, of «!• i species, sttwm -lit of a iropuil ^ in splemlour, letropolis of ih« hundred distinct I Of til'''*' ""' I known through- lo range over the I to the south m lar to affect ll"';'' 1 been imnginwi Lfiy species ('i;» ,rhelttlcMr.«^ LhehastrnvclW TonthetfW*' I" Book IV. AMERICA. I a))7 lirntil, whoru the thermometer is seldom bciuw 6H , this beautiful tribe is particularly HhinuUiit; and Axura describes many others, peculiar to Paraguay. Another group of splendid little Ilonuysuckers (ATectaniica III.), but ot' which only three or four spt^cies are yet known, represent, on this continent, the Sun-birds of Africa ( Cinnyridit), and the llonvy-feedeni uf Australia {MelUphagitUu). 5M'i' '/'Ae ii»»«cds of Carolina, from whence we derive two species. Several others occur in the West India Islands, but hitherto the^ have not been detccteil on the table-land of Mexico. As we approach Cayenne, the species rapidly increase, and continue in undiminished numbers, and in great variety, to the most northern parts of Paraguay that have been yet exploa>d iishes ( Myotherina Sw. ), seem peculiarly 'lile those tribes which venture beyond arc continually darting after insects 'dual chooses for itself In these they no enemies, their numl>crs would are tliereforc the coiinteractiug .igents : SM-B-nir«nii> rARn.,T. This extensive family, together with the Aiit destined tu devout insects concealed in foil are exposed to the aumerous tyrant Fly-catcli> which Hy past the particular station which v. eliiniites, ants are the universal destroyers ; bui increase to a frightful extent. The Aiit-Tlirusln these little birds live almost entirely upon the ground, in thick forests, and are perpetually feasting upon these insects, .'i'i'J;!. Th« Purroti, of which only one species, the Carolina Parrot, is found throughout Nortli America, constitute a most striking characteristic of the southern, regions. Several species ocetir on the Mexican Cordilleras, but their numbers increase in the less elevated provinces ; and, in the low lands of Uuatimala, a recent traveller appears to have seen flocks (if splendid Macaws. Others, of the most brilliant plumage, spread over the whole of Brazil, and even extend to latitudes south of Paraguay. The common green and yellow fronted Parrots seen in this country are all brought from Tropical America, and pass by the general nninc of Ainnzoiiiau Parrots. The grey and red-tailed species are nearly the only ones found (in the opposite shores of the African continent, a striking instance of the total dissimilarity between the zoological productions of the two regions. The little blue-winged or Passerine Parrot of Brazil (jSjr. 890. ) is the smallest of its race ; it flies in largo flocks, and is not bigger than a sparrow. The abundance of this tribe in the New World is in a great measure explained by this con- tinent being so well clothed with forests and fruit-bearing trees, upon which the whole of the Parrot family depend for food. On the other hand, the chief characteristic of Africa is its bare, sandy soil, and hence the fruit-eating birds of that continent are comporatively few. ■VVJ'l. I'he Toucans occupy a prominent station in the Ornithology of South America, and extend from Mexico to the southern extremity of Brazil : they are omnivorous birds, feeding both upon animal and vegetable matter. Their enormous bills are nevertheless very light, and, being vascular within, admit a great development being given to the organs (f smell. By this power they discover the nests and eggs of other birds, which they are continually plundering. The Red-billed Toucan (fig. 891.) is one of the largest species, having the body black and the throat of a creamy whiteness. The Trogons, the Jacamas, the Hermit Birds ( Monassa Vieil.), and the PufF-backs ( Tamatia Tuv.), are all couliiicil to this con. tinent, and feed upon the hosts of insects which always accom- pany an exuberant vegetation. While these birds arc appro- priated to winged insects, the Woodpeckers and large Scan- sorial Creepers (Dtndrocolaptes 111.) climb the trunks of trees, and devour those tribes which lurk in the crevices or beneath the bark. Both are particularly abundant, and the latter occur in no other part of the world. mi'25. Among the frugivornus tribet, we must notice the numerous and beautiful family of Taiiagers ( TanagrincB Sw. ), as peculiar to America : some few species are arnoiig the •umincr visiters of the Northern States, but the chief metropolis of the family is in the «qiiinoctial latitudes, where the vast tracts of table-lands, thinly but universally cl(jtheil with low trees mid shrubs, supplv those small berries and fruits upon which they feed. In the more lofty woods, liordering on the coast, the traveller meets with groves of trees, thickly hung with the long pu-jc-shaped nests of the /c/er«nJ^ '^^^ VMS DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. OHIOI.B Mm* Mexico. Tlio Stoiie cliata and Wagtails are likewise unknown ; the first being supplied by 8i>8 .^ ^^■PrfQtfMf. the Ground- peckers (Opethiorhynchiu Tem.), and the latttir by the Water-chats {Fluvicolims Sw.). 5526. T/ie moH decided fruit-eating birdtare of those superb gc. nera composing or representing the Chatterers {Ampelidai Sw.), Many are as big as crows, and exhibit singular deviations from the usual form of birds. One (Cephalopterus omatus Geoff.), the Umbrella Chatterer (Jig. 893. ), has a large crest of feathers on its head, resembling an umbrella. Another has a pendulous wattle in front, which can be made to assume something of the appearance of the horn of the Unicorn. A third has a naked ti'iroat with numerous fleshy caruncles hanging downward; ' and a fourth is completely bald, with long feathers round its neck, like the mane of a lion. Nothing would be more curious or interesting than the knowledge of the habits and economy of such strangely formed birds; but all this, at present, is a mystery. We only know that tliey live in the deep recesses of the forests, and that they are sometimes seen perched upon the topmost branches of the loftiest trees, uttering a loud and strange noise, on the rising and setting of the sun. 5527. The genuine fruit-eaters, however, form one of the most beautiful groups in tropical ornithology. There are many species, mostly of the ^03 gJ2e of a thrush, but variegated with the richest shades of azure, purple, and crimson : they are solitary and silent, and must be sought for far from the abodes of men. Others, called Mana- kins (Piprirue Sw. ), are much smaller than sparrows, and live in little flocks in the damp woods, feeding only upon soft berries. Several are conspicuous for their beautiful crimson crests, while one, the PuS'-throated Manakin (Pipra Manacus L.) (Jig. 894.), is remarkable for the feathers on the throat being lengthened like a beard. 5528, The rapacioua birds are numerous and formidable : (he chief is the famous Condor of the Andes. The King of the Vultures is conspicuous for its colours, while two or three others, of a black colour, are every where found so soon as a carcase is Kft unburied. The Destroying Eagle (jlquila de- structor Sw. ) exceeds all others in strength ; and there are numerous smaller races of Buzzards, Kites, and Falcons, totally different from those of Europe and Africa. 5529. The galiinaceous bird* of Tropical America materially differ from those of the north. A magnificent species of Turkey is peculiar to the forests of Honduras; while, towards the equinoctial line, we find the Curassow Birds, Penelopes, Guans, and other large-siied genera, which might, no doubt, be domesticated by the natives. Grouse, Bustards, or Pheasants are not known, and Partridges are very scarce; but the Tinamou occur in great variety. Several of the species exceed the largest dunghill fowl, and the flesh of all is most delicious eating; their tails are so sliort that they appear to have none. 55.SO. The water birds wee few, from the absence of large lakes, and the partiality of these tribes to more temperate regions. The marshes are frequented by Jacanas, or Spur-winged Water-hens {Jig. 895.), several sorts of Tiger-bitterns, and a few ducks, of species not known in the Northern States. The lakes of Mexico, however, appear to be profusely stocked with Waterfowl, comprising many of those coinmcn species so abundant in Europe and Northern America. But we must no longer dwell upon this charming portion of American Zoology, tbt investigation of which occupied two of the happiest years of our life. 5531. To enumerate even the tribes of splendid insects, wliich render the Entomology of Tropical America far superior tu that of any region in the world, would, in this slight sketeh, be impossible. As this continent exhibits a more varied and dense vegetation than any other, so are its insect produc- tions more numerous and brilliant, particularly in tliosie tribes which, like the Butterflies and Moths, derive their food from leaves and flowers. The Diamond Beetle [Curcului UMHRMf.l.A cllArrkmiii. 894 viirr-TimoATBD manakin. lrulr'ln^oltl• uATim-iirii. Part III. ; supplied by the latter by ise superb gc- tpelidai Sw. ). iviations from lotus Geoff.), est of feathers i a pendulous letbing of the I has a naked ; downward ; hers round its ! more curious and economy , present, is a >ep recesses of ranches of the :he sun. ful groups in mostly of the liades of azure, it, and must be , called Mana- rrows, and live ion soft berries, rimson crests, Manacv% L.) on the throat brmidablc : the ie King of the 5 two or three ^^L so soon as a gle {AquUa tk- and there are from those of those of the peculiar to the [{uinoctial line, lans, and other domesticated nsants are not the Tinamou cies exceed the most delicious ippear to have irtinlity of these or Spur-winged er-bitterns, and orthcrn States, bu profusely those common America. But ing portion of occupied two vitecis, whick far superior to , blight sketth, jore varied and insect produc- larly in tlio* let ive their footi ]BCtle {Cvrnlio Book IV. AMERICA. vrjo imperialu L.) (fg. 896.) is one of the most splendid of insecU; and, l»cfore Braiil 896 was DIAMOHD ■BVTI.B. accessible to European travellers, was so rare as to be sold at a high price. Carnivorous insects, and also such as feed upon dead .inimal matter, are very thinly dispersed. Anu are the universal removers of all such offensive sub. stances as are too small for the food of Vultures ; and the diminutive size of these little agents is amply compensated by the inconceivable myriads of their numbers. The Cochineal is newly the only insect which has been turned to greiU commercial account. The Honey Bee of Europe is unknown, but there are several wild species of this family whose honey combs are formed in trees, and much sought after by the natives. 5532. Ofdomestk animah the list is scanty ; the Horse and Mule, originally brought by the Spaniards from the old continent, are the most universally ushI in the new, where they have multiplied prodigiously. The immense numbers of wild oxen in tiie plains of Buenos Ayres are well known : these also are of European descent. Nor does Southern America produce any native animal of equal size, the largest being the Tapirs, while the Lama and three or four kindred species are principally confined to the Andes of Peru and Chile. 5533. T/ie genera and tub-genera nj qvMdru\iedi more peculiar to the New World are these : — Hmlavl, /tela liiiiff. LucathrixHumb. MvcctK m. Ccbvis rHi>. CalUthrii W. A6tti in. Plllwcia UU llijule m. Bat*. FijUottoma Cuv. Vftmpyrui Sjii:t Ulo«a|4iaKa Gt^. Artibius Leach MonophjiUut l^tack Monnoop. I^eiich Thynntera Sfpir NoctUro Gtnir. l^tabi7. Kcaphidunu Sw. Icterus Sri'. Xanthomit Sir. Casfticus Sw. »l!eu >»tu) inulla Vieil FHngillit, Finchet. * Oulraca Sw. Tiaria Sw. Ammodramiu 5w. Pipillo Vitil. Tanagriua. Toniigtrt, * TanliTola Sw, Tanavra L, * Ramphoph Vieil, * ljim|irot(« Sw, * N'emoitl.i Vieil, * Olnol>a> Sw. * Pvran^t.T Vieil. Tarhyplionis KM. * Arreinon I'lnV. EuphonU Vieil, Aelala Sw. Pnytotoma ffo/, loiial.. * Corythus Cuv, S>llviaia, VmU,;$. CullciTOra Sw. 8ynalaxit Vieil, * Sialia Sw. 0|ieetiorl)ym'hus Tem. Scinrus Tem, Trichaa Tim. Setonhagn Tem. SylYlcoia Sw. * Vermlvora Sn, * Mniotllla Sw. *i!aiteropaK.4'''. Panis /.ill. * llylflphiluii Tem. * EKilnina Vieil. Mervttttie, Thrutht*. Donacoliliis Sw, Icteria VieiL Oritheus Sw, ourers, however, has impelled them not only to treat with great severity the natives of America, but to open with Africa a rruel trade in slaves, by which many millions of negroes have been dragged from their native country, and doomed to the most severe and degrading toil. The industry of colonial America is almost entirely agricultural, carried on with the view of supplying the markets of Europe with sugar, coffee, cotton, tobacco, and other rich tropical products ; in exchange for which, and fur the timber, hides, and furs of the northern regions, they receive all the variety of manufactures which the improved industry of Europe so abundantly produces. Sbct. VI. Civil and Social State. 5543. The civil and social, like the political, slate of America is strikingly varied, accord- ing to the races, belonging to remote quarters of the globe, by whom her territory is peopled. The native tribes, who are still suffered to occupy extensive regions, claimed but not occu- pied by Europeans, exist generally in the savage state, displaying all its bold and terrible, yet sometimes engaging, characteristics. Even the Indians of Mexico and Peru, being mostly of humble rank, and dwelling in remote villages, display few remains of the degree of civilisation which distinguished those empires. 5544. The Eurojiean colonists, who are now in possession of almost all America, retain generally the manners and habits of the mother country, somewhat modified by their pecu- liar situation. The absence of any old nobility or other aristocratic distinctions has diffused through them a very general feeling of independence and equality, which has been con- 6rmed by the republican institutions now so generally established. The same cause is (presented as rendering the tone of society less refined and polished than in Europe. The (leople, however, have shown themselves active and enterprising, fully capable of availing themselves of all the advantages which their situation presents. Even the Spanish Ame- ricans, who, while under the sway of the mother country, were accused of voluptuous indolence, have shown no want of energy, either in the struggle for independence, or in the internal contests which have since unfortunately arisen. ■ 5545. Tlie negroes imported from Africa, and held in oppressive bondage, have scarcely room to display any decided character. They retain the rude habits and superstitious ideas, joined often to warmth of heart and amiable feelings. Even those who have obtained emancipation, being still held as a despised and inferior caste, can scarcely attain that self- respect which is the parent of many of the virtues. 5546. Tlie establishment of these three great races in this country has led to the forma- tion of numerous mixed classes, in which the blood and complexion of the European, Indian, and negro are variously compounded. Hence, in the absence of the distinction of ranks, has been founded an aristocracy of colour, in which white holds the first place, and each individual, as his complexion deviates from that standard, sinks in the scale of society. The degrees in which it is departed from have been carefully counted, minute subdivisions farmed, and various terms, mulatto, mestizo, sambo, &c., invented to express them. In the course of the recent struggle for independence in tlie Spanish colonies, more liberal and 4 04 I«» DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paw III. rmtioMi id«M have made aome progreM ; but in North America, it ii lamentable to state that thit barbarous prejudice »till continues in full force. > SacT. VII. Language). SS47. The American languages being little known, and rude, ailbrd very little room for observation. They have been provisionally classed in eleven groups: — 1. The lansuages of the Northern region of South America. 2. The languages of the Peruvian region. 3. Those of the Guarani-Braiilian region. 4. Those of the Orinoco, Am..zonian, or Andes- Pariine. 5. The languages of Ouatimala. 6. Of the Mexican region. 7. Of the central plain of North America, and the neighbouring countries east and west. 8. Of the Missouri-Colombian region. 9. The languages of the Alleghany region, and of the Lakes. 10. Those of the Western coast of North America. 1 1. Those of the Northern region of North America, including the Esquimaux, and the Tcbukches, American and Asiatic. Chap. II. RHITISH AMERICA. 5548. T7u part of America noio belonging to Great Britain is an assemblage of vast, ill-defined, and straggling territories, the remnant of that mighty empire of which the great insurrection depriv«i her. Even in their present dismembered state, however, their extent and capacities might, and probably will, enable them one day to surpass the greatest of the •Mw eiisling European monarchies. Sect. I. Getieral Oulliue and Atpect. 5549. Of the existing British empire in America it would be difficult to determine the pre- rise extent and limits. The base line may be said to be formed by the river St. Lawrence, and the great lakes Ontario, Erie, Huron, and Superior. These, unless at a few points, separate the British territory from the United States ; but there is to the south of it one great angle, consisting of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, which has been withheld from the Atlantic states, and remains attached to Britain. The islands at the mouth of the St. Law- rence, i— Cape Breton, Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland, the theatre of the greaiei^t fishery in the world, — are also British, some fishing privileges being allowed to other nations. On the continent, Britain claims the right to occupy the immense space extending from the St. Lawrence to the newly discovered Arctic Ocean. Such an occupation, however, even in a prospective view, is so distant, that to include the whole tract would be clearly premature. We reserve, therefore, for a separate chapter, the regions still held by the native tribes of America. The actual occupation extends along the northern bank of the St. Lawrence, of Lake Ontario, and of part of Lake Erie ; and it reaches, though only in some instances, thirty or forty miles into the interior. The Company which enjoys the exclusive trade of Hudson's Bay, maintains several forts on its western shore, t urther, they have on the leading lakes and rivers of the interior, and even across to the Northern Pacific, small forts called houses, where they are secure against the attack of the Indians scattered over the expanse of these desolate wilds, and can form a store of the articles necessary for the fur traide. A large proportion of that people are employed in hunting, to procure for them iu materials ; but they can scarcely exercise any jurisdiction over these rude tenants of the wild. Beferences to the Map of Britith America. DPPER CANADA. 1. AmiMnlburR t. Cluihun *.BtldaRl^NCB EDWARD INLAND. I. Darlmouih t. Chailotte Town 3. George Town. afwrj dJirf takti. * SaRuenaj, R. b Great RWer c Rieer St. MaurlM d Ottawa, or Gnnd Ki»er e Cliantlrie Lale f Madawisca, K. K Trent, R. h Slinroe Uau I Thamn, K. j (hlie, R k Si. Lavmire, n. I HirlieliiM, K. m Francii, R. n Chanili.rw, R. St. John, K. p Haliffoucbe, R. q Main, R. r Grand l.akf 1 Petit CondiK, S I Shubtnaeidir, H u FeiTj R1»rniiiie the pre. r St. Lawrence, t a few points, » of it one great iheld from the of the St. Law. of the greatest o other nations. ending from the •wevcr, even in iarly premature, jnative tribes of ft. Lawrence, of some instances, Iclusive trade of |cv liave on the 'ific, small forts Ittered o^er the iry for the fur jre for them itt tenants of the i Oils'", "'5™'' Bi»« , ^ t Chamlrle Uij f Madawasca, K. Ttwt, !}• ^ n Stinroe Laki i Ttiamw, It 1 Ouie, R „ \ Hl.U«Tm«.'>- 1 BIch*-", „"• n Krancii, R. n f lianill^'Wi !>• oSl.Jalin.R. „Ki»ll«»,»t'«."' qMaln.K. ,PrtltConili«,^ I SllulKWt* «■ 6 1304 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHY. PAat 111. 5550. Th* eHmate ii very levert, much exceeding what U felt under the Mine latitude in the old continent. Lower Canada fur five and Upper Canada for tliree monthi of the year have a mean temperature below the freeiing point, and are buried in perpetual tnow i yet after that period the sun breaks out with luch force, that large cropi of the moat valuable grain can bo raised on the great extent of fertile land of which the territory conuits. Upper Canada, from a careful survey made with a view to emigration, has been found particularly valuable ; iinely watered, clad with immense forest* of valuable timber, and con- taining about ten millions of acres capable of culture. Nova Scotia and New Brunswick are well wooded countries, but less fertile ; and tliough the winters are lew severe, the heavy fogs that prevail for a great part of the year are still more disagreeable than the frosts and snows of Canada. 555 i . The surface of (Ait eitenavt region is not very much varied. Two chains of hills cross Canada, each parallel to the St. Lawrence, one at the distance of fifteen or twenty miles, including all its most fertile and productive valleys ; the other at about StOO miles' distance, forming the boundary of the province. Some chains also crou tlie more northern regions ; but upon the whole they may be considered as a prolongation of the great level of the Missouri, bounded still on the west by the lloclcy Mountains, which reach the farthest extremity of the continent. 5552. The river two portages, in which tlie canoes milst be taken on shore, and dragged over land. Sect. II. Natural Geography. Subs EOT. 1. Geology, 5554. Canada. — On the south side of the St. Laurence, from Giisp<( to some miles above Point Levi, opposite Quebec, the whole country presents high mountains, valleys, and forests. These mountains appear equally as lofty as any of the Alleghany chain, of which range they form a part. The prevailing rocks are granite, greywncke, clay slate, and transition limestone. The lower islands of the St. Lawrence arc mere iiiv<|ualities of the vast body of granite which occasionally protrudes abovo the level of the river. The Ks- mouraska Island, and the Penguins, in particular, exhibit this appearance ; and in the forest of Kamouraska huge bodies of granite rise into sharp conical hills, one of which is jOOfeet high. At St. Iloch the post-road leads for more than a mile under a |H.>rpendicular ridge of granite, 300 feet high. The city of Quebec is situated on a proinoiituryi on the north- west side of the St. Lawrence, formed by that river and the St. Charles. The extremity of the headland is called Cape Diamond, whose highest point rises 345 feet above the level of Pam III. i Utitudt in of the yew enowi yet Mt valuable iry conitist*. been found )er, and con- Brunswick re, the heavy he (Voits and lalni of hills n or twenty lit 300 miles' tore northern great level of h the farthest of the noblest been held to of which the es are merely ured into the . The last is ario to Mont- which render grandeur in ■ L'ho navigation or some weeks vhich traverses d miles below he world ; and largeiit is Lake I'd outline and of Alic'iigsn extremity, miles by 63. though the eep, clear, and tnd nt present 600 feet above places at 900 iWOfect On of which the circumference, td from eighty descriptive of vers Winnipeg ages, in which ic miles above valleys, and lain, of which lay slate, and uolities of the cr, The Ki- Id in the forest lich is 500 fwt liidicular ridge 1 on the north- lie extremity of Ivctlie level of Bo<>« IV. BRITISH AMERICA. 1305 urn the water. It U composed of grey granite, containing in cavitiea rocV cryatali, and • species of dark- coloured clay slate. The north coaat of the St. Lawrence, below Quebec. exhibits trap rock^ clay slate, and occasionally granite ; the latter is considered to prevail in the interior of the country, and particularly as forming the base of the mounUins of Labrador, and of the country north of Quebec. Cape Tuurment, thirty miles from Queboe, is a round massive mountain of granite 1000 feet high. As we approach QucIk-c, • reddiah or greyish black clay slute appears as the prevailing rock, and it forma the bed of tha St. Lawrence to Kingston and Niagara. Boulders of granite, limestone, san .stone, syenite, trap, and marble, occur in the same extensive region. Above the rapid of Richelieu a flat country prevails, until we reach Queenston Heights. The greater part of the soil of the lowlands is apparently alluvial ; and twenty to fifty-five feet rise of the waters would nearly cover the whole country between the Allcghanies and the highlands of the north. llie exceptions to this general rule are, the Beleeil mountain, the summit of which is about 1000 feet high. The mountain is an abrupt termination of a branch of the Green Moun- tains, and divides the waters of Lake Champlain from the sources of the rivers St. Franoia and Tamasca. Tlie mountain to which Montreal owes its name, the rocks of which appear to be principally trap accompanied by limestone, is another exception. Whenever rapida occur, we find the elevation of the country increasing, and limestone generally accompanies the prevailing rocks. The step of country formed by the limestone ridge, which commences at Queenston Heights, and which rests upon a bluish clay slate, is elevated about 350 feet above the shores of Lake Ontario ; and the upper country, the base of which is limestone, it generally level, until we approach the high lands between Lake Huron and Lake Michigan. The limestone rocks of the Manitoalin Islands, in Lake Huron, contain similar organic remains (those of mountain limestone) to those that occur so abundantly in the limestone rocks which prevail at the base of the island of Anticosti. Along the north coast of Lake Huron and Lake Superior granite predominates. Indications of vokanie truptiom are said to occur at St. Paul's Bay, and on the mountains north of Quebec. The great earth- quake of 1663 is said to have overturned a chain of sandstone mountains 300 miles long, north of the St. Lawrence, and levelled them with the plains. 5555. Canada is considered rich In miuerali. Pelallte.n rare mineral, was found by Dr. Lyon, near York. In Upper Canada ; beryl i> found at Lake of the Woods ; Labrador feltpar, at Lake Huron : axlmle, Hawkes- bury and Otuwa; avenliirine. Lake Huron; amelhytt. Lakes Superior and Huron ; opalUe, or |ihoiiihate of lime, Fort Wellington ; arragonile, Lacllna; strontian, in magnlflcent mauea, Erie, Ontario: tcAor/, St. I awrencc ; precioua and magacsian garnet. River Moira, Ontario, ftc. ; cornelian, agate, xeollte, prehnUe, jlw>r tpar, baryte; Lake Superior ; brown and green coccolite, Montreal and Hull, Ottawa; olivine, augUt, Montreal ; grenatite. Rainy Lake ; anIhnfihyllUe, Fort Wellington ; marblei and terpentine are common on the ncirth shore of Lake Erie, which cxIiiLiitt immense t)edi of gypium, the principal of which Is In DurolVles, and quarried largely for the purposes of agriculture. 5556. Ores. — iron. Seven kinds of iron ore occur In Canada ; viz. magnetic Iron ore, specular Iron ore and red iron ore, brown Iron ore, bog iron ore, sparry Iron ore, or carbonate of iron, and iron pyrites. The mag. ntiic iron ore has been found abundantly, but only in one place, where it is smelted, viz. in the township of Hannora and Belmont, in Upper Canada. Specular iron ore The only place where it occurs abundantly Is close to the mining (stabllahment at Marmora. Hed iron ore hsabeen noticed i;i two or three places, but most abundantly in the vicinity of Henderson's Lake, in the Gannanoqui, where 't cd In old red tandslone. Brown iron ore occurs, but In small uuantity. Bog iron o -. v'Mch is next in abundance to the magnetic Iron ore, is found abundantly both in Upper and Lower Cai.. i a, \ articularly behind the two seigniories of Batiscan and Champlain, in Lower Canada. It Is the only extcii«r c deposit of this ore which haa yet been worked in Lower Canada, and the furnace at the forges of St. Mam ce is entirely supplied by II. Sparrif iron ore Is found in the immediate vicinity of the works of Marmora, where it is worked chiefly as a flux for the furnace. Iron puritei, or sulphuret of Iron, is found In many places, imrlicularly abundiint on an iiianil on the south shore of Urummond Island. Graphite, also known imder the names /i/umta^, or black lead, which is either pure carbon, or carbon united with a small portion of iron, is found rather abundantly In the township of Houghborough, also at Hull on the Ottawa. Ores qf manganese, in small quantity, are mentioned by some authors ; and ores qf silver are also re|iorted, but on doubtful authority, to have lieen met with. Traces of copper ore and maases of native copper have been found, but h It hcrto no tialive gold has been diicovered in either of the Canadai). Ores qf antimony are re|>orted to exist in the neighljourhnou of St Paul's Bay, in Lower Canada. Galena, or lead glance, the common ore of lead, has been found in many places, particularly near Lake Meniphrcmagog, In Lower Canada. Sulphuret qfzinc, or xinc.blrnde, occurs in small Quantities; and cr'anaAar, the ore of mercury, .ilthough reported to have been met with on the shores of ukes Erie and Michigan, in the United States, has not been found in the CanadLnn territories. 5u7. Nova Scotia appears to be based on granite, although this rock is almost every where covered by other, often more recent, formations, or appears only in boulders on the surface. A transition slate, and greywaeke, with marine organic remains, and containing beds of limestone, and very rich beds of t'roii ore, covers the greater portion of the country : the iron ore is an oxide, sometimes a peroxide, and Is often beautifully impressed with organic remains, and sometimes a shell is half moulded in the slate, and the other halt' adherent to the iron ore, thus proving their contemporaneous formation. The sandstone formation is next in extent after the slate. Part of it is said to correspond with the ii«e red sandstone and heuper/arm- tttions of other countries ; and this part also contains great beds of gypsum, from which the gy|wum imported into the United States is derived ; grindstones^ which also form an uniiortant article of commerce between the two countries, are obtained from the same formation ; underneath these arc beds of black biluminous coal, which are worked, anil this valuable mineral is finding its way into the Eastern States, both from the penin- sula of Nova Scotia, and from tlie island of Cape Breton, which is separated only bj| a very narrow strait flrom the north-eastern mainland. As there is no bituminous coal, in any quantity, hitherto discovered in New England) as the Nova Scotia grindstones, having already a great nblng or fluwlm ruth wtlh frtat Airy along thli rocky eoait, and Into the Bay of MInet and Chlgneelo Bay and their branehM, undermining and tearing away IromenM maaaei of rocki, and piling them up along the thorn. The mlnerali ImbeddMl In the trap affbrd a rich harvett to the mlnoraloglit, and probably no known trio dlitrlct of North America It richer In the beautlfkil mineralt that atiltt In characterliing that formatioii . thut, among othen, the following mineral! are mentioned at fbund In the trap formation : — amrthyil, rack eryttal, cakedony, agate, chabaile, analclmo, bumonlte, metotype, itllblte, calcareoui tpar, and iiwculir Iron ore. MM. Nrw BattNiWicR. — The geotogy of thli province It very Imperfectly known. Acrordint to Mr. M'Oregor, llmattone, grey wacko, clayilate, with landttone. Interrupted oocatloiially by gnelu, trap •ud granite, eeem to prevail on the louthern coait Among thete, however. Unnilime niipean to pre dominate, VnrMr of promlilOK quality aboundt at Kennebccatii, and. It It lald, alto in other parti ur the country. Coal It plentiful, and Iron ore aboundi. Oraphtle, or Mack lead, hnt lieen found, alto conpor and awnganete oret. Oyjuum twA erimlntoHe are abundant near Chlgnecto Batln. Along the tliorei of Ihlt provlnec, Aiclng the uulf of St. Luwrciice and Chaleur Bay, landitoiie prevallt. Grey miiiditone and clay tiate teem to predominate, at far at Mr. M'Uregor could obterve, along the courte of the Mirainlrhi among whleh gramte. mica, quarti, and Iron ore occur. AgaUi uuijMperi are collected In lomv placet' Salt tprlngi alto have been obaerved. ' &U9; Ctrl Bkiton. — Mr. M'Oregor tayi, among the primUive rocki {granite prevallt In the pcniniular country touth-eatt of the Brai d'Or ; and1t probabW formi the nucleus ol the highlanilt between thi> inlei and the Oulf of 8t, I awrenoe. Nyenite, trap, mica ilate, clay tIate, and occatlonally quarta, alto api>ear on the Oulf Coatt Primitive trap, lyenlte, and clay ilate thow themtelvei, together with trantition limcttune grey wacke, gy|>ium, and coal, generally. In all parti of the Itland. The clait of lecondary roclci nyrKm newever, to be the mott extenilvej and coal exiiti In luch abundance, that pcrioni unacquainted with Kmlun coiMlder It the predominating formation in the Itland. Coal, in a field or fieldt of vatt extent, aboumli in the aouth-eaitern divlilon of the itland, turrounded by carboniferoui llmettone, new red landitonc, &c The quality of this coal It well adapted tot common Areplacei. The extent or quality of the coaLAoliti north of the Braa d'Or have not been atcertalned. Oyptum occurt in great plenty along the thorea or the Braa d'Or, at the Out of Canieau, on the Oulf Coott, and In tome other parti of the itland. Several tati nriitgi have been ditcoveretl, which vary In ttrcngtn ttom lix to twelve per vent, of lalt Situated, un Nr. Bouehette, In the centre of the bett fltherie* or North America, and where coal it abundant, the inanu. fiicture of Mlt promlaet to become hereafter a moat valuable tourcc of wealth to the colony. Iron ore aboundi every where. In the roal diitrict about Lingan, Sydney, tec., and at Cape North and Atpcy Bay. MdO. Pbincr EowAin latANn. — The aoil of thli itland it fertile ; and thure it acarcely a ttonc on the lur- fkce that will lra|iede the progreii of the plough. There it no limettone nor Ry|>tum,flor hat roal yet bna diicovcred, although indicatloni of Iti pretence have been noticed. Bed clay, of good quality for briiki aboundi In all iiartt of the Itland \ and a ttrong white clay, fit for the potter. It met with, but not in ircai quantity. A lollury boulder of granite pretenti ittelf occatlonally to the traveller. The bate of the idand ii a landitone, which appeart to extend under the bed of Northumberland Strait Into the northern part of Novi Hrotia, and into the eattern divlilon of New Bruntwlck, until It ii loit in iu line of contact with the gramit bale of the Alleghanlet, about the river Nipitighit. &!>R\. UnyirovHULkmt. — The only geognoiticiU tttformalion ve have been able to procure in regard to Ihii laland it derived from an " Account ufa Jnuiiiey across the Island of SewfoumUantl, by W. E. CornaciL Ew).," iiubllthed In the 10th volume of the Edinlmrnh Philosophical Journal. Thit entcrpriaing gi'mleman in the beginning of September, 1H32, left Smith'a Sound, at Itardom Itland, on the caat tide of tlic iilanil' Mcompanied by one Micinac Indian ; and, along with two of that tribe, reached St. Oenrgc'i Harbour on Iht weit tide of the itland in the beginning of Novemlwr: having Ihut been the flrit pcnon to tratclai'rw Newfoundland. The flrat rocks met with, were granite and porphyry j thete were tucccnlcd by alti'rnaij(.ni of granite and mica tIate, which in their turn were rcfilaced by granite. Granite, syenite, por|)hyry, miu ilate, clay ilate, and quarix ruck, occur in the district occupied by Melville Lake. In the tame diitrict thfie are leveral kindt of tecondary landttone, prolubly belonging to tho coal and ml landitone furmatloni. The primitive rwkt extend onwardi to Gower's Lake. From Oowcr a Lake, by a series of lakes, to Kichardwn'i Lake, the country Ii almost entirely composed of primitive rocks; tliu only indications of secondary form. atioiu being In the agate near Oower't I.akc, the basalt at Kinma's Lake and Jeanetle's Lake, and the indirj. tlon of coal and iron near Stewart's Lake. A seruvntinc ile|>osit is succeeded by agreat tract of granite, giieiu, and quartt, which extendi ttom Jameson's I..ake liy Uathurst't I.,ake, Wilton's Lake, King Ueurge the Kourtti Lake, to St. Oeorgc't Harbour, in the Day of St. ticorge, on the west coast of the islancT iUiiil. About the centre qf the islamt there arc several ridget of terpentine, which exhibit this rock in all ili beautiful ami numeruut varivtirt. The flnutt kindi occur on the thorei of Serpentine Lake, and on iierpeutiiK Mountain and Jameson't Mountain. &5M. The west coast is by far the rlcheil In minerals. There it coaf of good quality in St George'i Bar, about eight milet from the tea coatt, up the louth Barratway River. There are teveral salt spriHfi; m about two mili't from the tea coast, up another Barrnsway river, some milet north of that where the coalii (bund i aiiotl'cr a few milei itlll farther north, up what is called Uattling Brook ; and a third at rort-i-Pott I'here It a ttrong tulphuroui inrlng close to the tea shore, about a mile north of the Barratway River, vben the lalt iprlng I nt mentioned it found. Oyptum and red ochre abound between these rivers and flat Bai. at the lea shore ; and the former is also found tome miles within the country. There it a dark grey colouitd marble found at Bay of Iilandt ; but, from rc|iort, in no great quantity near the coatt. "The toil of St George'i Bay ii good, and not lo rocky at in most part* of the itland. Mr. Cormack, in allution to the names giveu bi him to tiif mountaini and lakes met tiu 898 in the course of hii adventuroui es|«di- tion, remarks, " I have used the customin privilege of giving names to the laiiM ind mountaini I met with in this liitherto ui. explored route, and these are in conpli. meiit to distinguiihed individuals and pri. vatc IViends. The roukt I collected «to examined by Professor Jameson." 6,501. Anticosti Ulund is said hki maw of limestone abounding in organic r6 maim. iiU'i. Maudalen liLA.yns art rtfttUi to lie more or lc«i deeply covered »iih i •andy toll, retting uiwii a sanditonc thitb forms the prevailing or only roik in lliii Iniular grnuin SuBSECT. 2. Botani/. .556(i. Under this head it will be t extent, alxiunili In icw red sanilitonc, tkc, ality of the coal-fioldi along the ihoriw of the ie uland. Several mil of lalt Situated, laji li abundant, the manu. lony. Iron ore aboundi ■pey Bay. eely a itonc on the «a. I, nor hai coal yet been good quality for briiki, t with, but nnt in great The bate of the islanil ii le northern untt of Novi contact with the graniit procure In regard tothii and, by W. E Cormack, enterpriaiiig gentleman, > ciut aide of the iiland, Gvorgc'a Harbour on the rit peraon to trau'l acriiii lucceeiled by alternaliuiu I, ayenitc, porjihvry, mica In the tame district thm iilatune furinationi. The I of laket), to Uichardwn'i tiona of lecondary form. :e't Lake, and the Indira- attract of granite, gnei* iKIng Ueurge the Fuurtb'i '»'«*• ■ . „ hibit this rock in all lU [e Lake, and on Setpcutint lality in St George'i Bit, r several salt ipriDfi; m lof that where the coal ii id a third at I'ort-iPon i Barrasway Kiver,tihtti itliese rivera and I'lal Bay, Ire is a dark grey colourtd It. The soil of St George'i ion to the names given bi Stains and lakes met •iii if his adventuroui e«i«^ fl have used the ciistoman ing names to the hkei «»' [t with in thia hitherto un- 1 and these arc in comiili- >ished individual) and pri- Phe rocks 1 collected »m ifessor Jameson." igTi Island u laid '» '' ' |e abounding in organic r^ L.F.N IsLA.Nns art r/purtd tts deeply coverwl vnih [ Eg uiion a sanditoneinitt liiling or only rotk In m IcT. 2. Boiaiii/. this head it will be collr^ Ir in one view North AIll^ lof Mexico. Thii l»rti« J. to the eastward of tin focky MouiitainilhMtw" avTviu a^n •ntfTtao^. 130T dlelilfd inW threeprinelMl ragiona. The exlrcm* south, as hr an lat S50 N.. la d«ilmat«l th* R^tinn «# Magnuliaa Ulg- M*.) I tSe second, ..tending to Ut UP, .. that of ^%tmuiAC}^U^^f^^ , «,d tl!? third as the Region of SaxlOages (m mi, stretching to thfl Arctic negioiia! I he two former are ceiUlnly »«ry eha. racterlstle; but the latter Is not more diatlngiilahed by the prevalence of Saxl- gages than are similar latitudes In t.iirfl|ie and A>la : the genera. Indeed, and many of the species, especially in the most northern paria, bieliia very nearly the same In all. SM7. Aiming the moil imporlanl of the vegetable productions iif North America, must unduubtcdly rank the forest trees, which originally occupleil to vast a imrtlon of the surface ot the country a few years ngos but which now, on account of the enormous de- mand for timber, and the iirogreu of population, arc leniibly diminished, es|icclally in the more Inhabited parti of the country. The Oaks are very numerous, and extend IVom Canada to the extreme southern parts of the United States. None of them, liow< ever, can compare, us to the quality of .^ . u. «.. . . . ^ . ^, , . -«. .. their wood, with the nritiah oak. They viry In height, from two feet to the lof»lett timber. The Live Oak (Uuerciu virena), not found north III \'irK:iila, Is perhapi th« beat of all for ship-building, and Is considered one of the must valuable trees In America i next rank the I.aurel Oak («. taurifnlia), the Black Oak or Quercitron (Q. Uncloria), especially priied for Its bark, the White or Iron Oak («. oblmiloba and Q. nlha), found In all parts of the United States, and the ScarLt Oa'5 (fl. cocci'tit'o), which Is a very large tree, and whose Ibllagi', ct aiiging In autumn to a brieht red. gives the woods a highly pict ur-sque appearance. 556a The White Elm of MIchaux ( Ulmut n nerkana) is among the most graceful and most majestic of Ai'vcrn.:; forest trees The Red or Slippery Elm ((Amau fulm) deli|.hu na dry situation, aa the preceding prefers a moist one. 5.'i69. Of Aiket, eight species are enumerated by Pursh, and ten nf Acer, or Maple, Including the Neguiido, among which the Sugar Maple is well known for its copious saccharincsap.yielding a valuable sugar. The Hickory Tribe afibrd fVult, as well as timber, which latter is employed for various mechanical and economical purposes. The Juglans nigra is called the Black Walnut ; J. c'ncrea, the Blt'.cr nut. Oil nut, and White Walnut ; J. olivo'rormis, the Illinois nut, much priied in the Southern States for its delicious kernel ; J. sul- cata, tnethick-shelled or Bark Hickory; J. alba, the shag bark Hickory; J. tomentosa. Mocker nut, or common Hickory; J. amara. the Bitter nut ; J. porcina, Hg nut, whose tough wood is formed into narrow alipa and used as brooms ; J. aqualica, Water nut, or Bitter nut Hickory} and, lastly, J. myrlsllcte formls, or Nutmeg Hickory. ;w70. The Pine Tribe are of acknowledged importance in a commercial point of view ; their timber, especially fVom the Britinh settlements, being l.irgcly exported. Ucaules those of the United State*, of which an ample account may be found in the works of MIchaux, we poaacss, in Canada and Nova Scotia, the P. Balsa- mea. Balm of Oilead Fir, Fir Balaam, or American .Silver Fir ; the P. canadensis, or Hemlock Spruce; P. nigra, Black or la so abundantly made; the P. rubra; the P. alba, or White _. Baiiksiana, the Scrub or Grey Pine; P. Strobiis, the Weymouth Pine; P. pcndula, the Black Larch ; and P. ralcrocarpa, or Red Larch. But of all the known Fines, that which has been recently discovered to the Westward of the Rocky Mountui.is, by Mr. Douglas, is the most remarkable. 'I'his most princely of the genus, perhapa the finest specimen of American vegetation, attains the enormous height of from 170 to 3-20 feet, witn a trunk twenty to fifty feet in circumference, and its cones are from twelve to eighteen inches long, measuring ten inches round their thickest part The trunk is remarkably straight and destitute of branches till within a short space of the top, which forms almost a perfect umbel. The wood is of fine quality, and yields n large portion of resin. Growing trees of thia species, that have been Partlv burned by the natives, to save the trouble of cutting other fuel [a practice to which they arc greatly addicted), produce a substance w)iich Mr. Douglas says he is afraid to call sugar, but which greatly resembles it The tree grows abundantly two degrees south of the Columbia River, in the country inhabited by the Umptqua tribe of Indians. 'J'he seeds are gathered by the natives in autumn, pounded, and baked Into a sort of cake, which is considered a luxury. The saccharine sub- stance is used in seasoning dishes, in the same way as sugar is in civilised countries. . . , , , 5571. The Locust Tree (Roliinia Pseudo- Acacia) {Jig. 901.), BO ignorantly vaunted by Mr. Cobhetl .is suited to the soil and climate of Ungland, and even of Scotland, is, indeed, in its native country, a most valuable as well as Iwautiftil tree. 5572. The Tulip Tree {Liriodendron tulipifera)n one of the noblest deniiens of the American forests, attaining a height of eighty feet, clothed with a Ught green and very peculiarly formed foliage, and bearing flowers as large as, and not inaptly resembling, fiS73 Rhododendrons, Aialeas, and Kalmias, with other shrubs, l)elonging to the same natural family, abound in the swamps of Netth America, and form, with their evergreen foliage and lovely flowers, some of the chief ornamentsofotir parterres and pleasure-grounds; and our gardens are Indebted to the north-west side of America fat tl.e ■Asivaaon. DiHible Spruce, of which spruce beer Spruce ; P. reainmia, the Pitch Pine ; P. LOCUST TRSR. DESCRIPTIVE OEOOIIAPHY. I**M III, varitty of beautiful Pcnlitemoni, (Snothvru, flilllai, and Collomlai which have tiMn lalaly liiirmlurMl in Ihain, aa well at Hlbe* langulneuni, EKhichollila calllarnica, three ipeclee of Ualuvhorlut, Uitiillherli Rlitlliiii and numeroM Lupliiei ; almuit all the dlacovery of the Indefatigable Uouglaa. ■ S574. Two remarkaUe genera of planU, peculiar to North Amvrioa, muit nut iini«« ii||,^ gether unnoticed: the on« (Sarracenia) consisting of six Sjwoitss, anil uxtumlliig fVon) J^y^ Orleans to Canada; the other (Ditmaa) is vonflnvdi wu livllwy to one spot, the vicinity of Wilmington, in North ('aritllim, 'Dig Snrraccnia (>!$». 902.), or Sidv-sailillu flower, grows in swamny places; its leaves are not flat, like those of must plaiuii, In't tubular, and enlarged upwards, so as to resemble a pllvhvr in shape ; the mouth of this oriflce is shvltered bv a lid, lljiii « ^inp or helmet. Tliese leaves, notwithstanding the wtit |i|iivvi, „^ growth of the parent plant, which would not stiem to rvijiilru sny reservoir of moisture to supply iti wants are always niitrv tlmn half filled with water. It has not yet been asourtaiiitiil wimt uit the properties of this fluid, which render it so inviting lu lintt'vlat but myriads do enter, and die there ; for no sooner liiii* m\ iiu||. vidual entered the mouth of the tube, than he is H|i|mrtihily urged forwards by the rapidity of the descent, and liy ||i« u|r, cumstance of the neck of the tube being covered with thickly set hairs, all polhllng iluwit. wards, so that his struggles to return are cHcctually prevented by the inverletl lumliiun uf these hairs, and fatigue presently makes him drop into the watery abyss below, 857S, The DIonBa mutclpula (Jig. 903.), for there It only one ipeclet (nr Amurloan Fly 'l'ri*|i\ |im > most ourioui apparatui for entrapping Intecti. The genut l> tomcwhat allied to our Hllvne, nr CnliiliHy, mid bv-art at the extremity of each of Itt long green leavet, whli'h IU< •iiri'iuliiii on the ground, a pair ol'lnrge, thick, flctli^ Uilwi, unlteil tngeihtir liy lliii|r Imw and fVlngcd at the nnRrgini with a row ol long and (lender iplnet, U\w iiiinlii ttncy that thtt plant gave the llrit Idea of imr rat-traii, and Itt nimlii iil {iimui Ing it very nearly the tame. No loontr duet a Ay alight ii|>on lliu I'iMilfr w. tween the two lobct, than theie tuddciily converge, the tplneil inciit itiiil lUiii one within another, and the poor Inicct tuttbrt Impritonnient and ilmili. Hili same etfect It produced by touching theie lobot with a |illi, a •Iritw, iir tut tmall object ; butlthli It chleHy obtrrvable In flue warm weather i the I'liiiiigr' tile power being very weak In winte . Sir J. K. Smith In ilwliltnlly (ir(i|iiiiiim that thete decaying carcaatet arcaerviceableto the plant, liy mliiiliililiiriiiaii pecular air to it i and Mr. Knight, a nurieryman, near Londiin, liiiiiiil llim « growing apeelmen of Dlonsa, upon whote leavet he laid Itnv fllaiiipiiu nf m* lieef, wai much more luxuriant in iti growth than an IndlvliliMl hhi m treated. S576. Wilh regard to the ea«t tide of the Britlth tetliementt In Niitlli Awti rica, " the planti of Upper Canada," tayt Dr. Itichardaoii, In a ltn,|ii the weitward of thit diitrict lie the plaint of Ihu HatkatrhHWaii, vnltHKlliiii in the foot of the Rocky Mountain!, to Peace HIver In a northerly illnt'liiiii, dmI uniting with the Prairie country of the Miatnuri to tlie luulliwitnl, TIid iI ,. trict being open, with intcrtiierted clumpt of wood only, hat a peculiar vegetation, contHinIng rnivurnl di Nm, tall'i plants, gathered on the Miitourl. It it the BuRklo dittrict. The Hucky Mnunlaint titilil itllilii' plantt, and the country to the westward of them produces Mr. Douglat't iilantt, whiuh are nliiii iiiiciiliiif A line drawn ttom the toulh end of l.ake Winnipeg to the Fallt of the Satkatchawan, and fin\\\ \\\m'» to the wett end of Great Slave Lake, cutt ofl'a imrlion of country, bounded to the eatiwaril liy IIiiiIimi'i Bay, to the touthward by Upper Canada, and to the northward by CheiterHeld Inlet ami (iri'iit Hlii>ii Ulur Thit dittrict It more or let* rocky, abounda in laket and swamps and rivert, and la thickly wniiitiiil. '\'\\tw li little variety in itt plantt, which are nearly those of Labrador, and it it the dittrict which haa iiiiiri< iwiiiiiiflr home the name or the Hudton't Bay Lands. To the northward of it the Barren Qrounda exieinl In lliii •»> cout. The vegetation In all the open parts of the Barren Oroundt It arctic ; but tome iii' the lliiilaiiii', lU) plantt are found on the Innka of riven where there are collectioni of alluvial toll, theltereil liy hiuli Imiili^ Thit alluvial soil It to abundant on the Mackenxle HIver, that many of the Hudaon'a liny iilitiiii m\ thick grovet of White Spruce grow at far north at lat. 6)4°. The thoret of Behrllig SIraila uv tm\\t,\ In toil and climate to the Barren Oroundt, and I thould class Newfoundland and I^Urartur wilh tliv lilmiil of AnticottI and mouth of the St. Lawrence, along with the Hudton't Bay district," 5577. An article of food, extensively used by the Canadian hunters in the iirclle mill subarctic regions of North America, is afforded by some species of Lichen, nil lii'luiigiiiK in a distinct tribe, indeed, of the I.ivt'rworH, m\ ^^ now constituting the genua Umhllit'ttrla, ll was this which, under the name of Trlpt il« Roche {jig. 904.), is described an •u|i|iurtlii|| for many days our enterpriaing euuiilryiiiinii Captain Sir John Franklin and l)r, Ulchnril' son, and some of their oompaiiiuni, whvii Ihi'y were in that country exposed to (liv niiMl iin< paralleled hardships and sulU'rin^a tVum « want of every other aliment t wliilti ulluT inili' viduals of the same party peri»liii(l, liieii|iiilil« of subsisting upon so wretohvd a ilk'l. 5578. The moil northerly land belonging to Nor'h America that hat yet Ixwn expliired, If wu f>iii'»|n lliv lliN'k|i Mmim DIONjKA MUinvi I.A. vmra vm mochv. lllMIK IV. DRITISH AMERICA. 1309 It) lucllc mil livlllllgillll III vi'rwurls «i'il lillimlD. Ii of 'I'rlpt il« ftii Hi|i|iortlii|| vuuiiiryintii. l)r, Ulchi«ril- UK, wlmii ihi'y ilw niukt nil' iiiK* iVum « lit) ullit^r IihIi' \tiil, ini!S|iil>l« tllvt. J, ir wo w'liii JI«Oltl«, llll'llKtllll II liliili iiuMliKni lliH'ky Mi*i' riillnllni lyom a cmlril pUuit, Ilk* Iha Icgi nrom tlie body of • •plOcr. Kiilil«r Punt < r I mildtf PUnt ti«/(l)- only irowlng flwtilarlt C/l^. «».), whoi* loni ninnm, pldcr. Induced our Mllon to call II iha «7«. Orttnland U no* gentrally conildercd «• part of America i but .•>.'* "/ "° coiMquen™! boUiilcully •neaking. lu Flora l« vtr» •Inillar, but there U thl> reniaikablu iwcullarlty attached to It, namely. Miat It cuiitilnn Heath (l'n/(iiiM vitlgarii), while no part of America rrnjier bPHri one of the genut. flottu. Thr mou norlherly ipeck of land that hat yet been vUlted by ?i^^*r. H "VlfV.i" ^',';.'1V«''' I*'*"!!"' "»« '•'""y belonging to Ame! rlca} !• Iloii-a Itlet, a little luot In l«t. 81", and It* produce of planta. half a iloien In number, U ehlofly I.lcheiii. But beyond this, a vege. t«tinn hai been found of a moit ainaiilnr nature, u to lu place of growth and iti nearnoM to Iho iiolc. At flrit iliiht It would hardly be rccog. niml for a vegetable at all. Hut it U fiii.ned from a leed or tporulV It imbllwt nutriment from external orKuni, however minute theee may be, it iiileititute of I iciimiition, it growi, bvun lecd, and diet I But what it itt place of growth ? In lal. WIP, where Captain Parry found II in the greateit abundance,— ' " 'fhe'e, where the North congeali hit watery matt, Filet high hit tnow«, and flimri hit teat with glatt,"— there, where, we may tay. there is no land, no rocki, no earth, to which It can be attached, doet It iniialiit the luow Itielfi and, from the cir- cumtlancet of many mllet i>l turt'ace, anil twelve feet in dentli, being tinged with it. It hat reccivwl the name of Rcriiloroccui m. It wai again collected and brought home by I'arry'i tecond cxpniiilun, ha\ing been obterved not only growing on tnow, but attached to ttonet and moatei, covering them with a thin ri^d gelatinout cruili during the third voyage, thit highly Interetting plant wat found in greater abundance, perhaiii, than on any Ihrmcr occailon, and In a tltuation ttlll more remarkbalv, for it wat on the floet of ice, extending to the uU inoat limit of Iheir progrett, and In luch prnnition, and no completely embedded in the tnow, that diitinrt red llnet were left by the track of the boatt or tlcdgct on the aurfacc ; thu» it vegetatet In the moat mirthern reiinni to which man hat yet been able to penetrate, and flouriihing roott In an element (or rather a tiate of in element) In which no other vegetable that we are acquainted with can exlul. Sub;-ict. 3. Zoology, ,15f*l. The geographic range of the quadrupeds belonging to thi« distant portioit of the Britiah fiutninions Iim already occupied our attention. It will, therefore, be sufficient to notice a few of those whose furs constitute an important branch of commerce, and administer to greatly to our individual comfort. On this head, the invaluable work of Dr. Richardson {Narlktrn Zoology, vol. i.) again supplies us with the latest and best information. iSM. The larger quadrupeds now known in this part of America are the Barren-Ground, the Ulack, and the Grisly Bears, the Prong-horned Antelope, the American Bison, the Moose Dver, and the Curabon ur American Reindeer. The lesser, in which are comprised ihe greater number of the fur-bearing animals, are the Otter, Racoon, Badger, Ermine, Fisher, Beaver, different species of Marmots and Squirrels, with a great variety of Wolves •nd Foxes. SSM, The Barren' Ground Bear appears confined to those dreary regions which bear its Mine, Iving to the northward and eastward of Great Slave Lake: it is of a dusky brown, and besides being larger than the black species, has longer soles. It feeds, like the Polar Beari occasionally upon fish, and during the autumn frequents the sea-coast for this purpose in considerable numbers. These bears are much dreaded by the Indians, who careAilly avoid burning bones in their hunting encampments, lest (lie smell should attract them. Dr. Richardson relates an amusing anecdote of an old Indian, who, while seated St the door of his hut, pitched upon the bank of a small stream, was surprised by per- ceiving a large bear coming to the opposite side, attentively surveying him. •' The poor Indian considered himself in great danger, and having no one to assist him but his aged wife, made a speech to the following effect : — ■ Oh bear ! I never did you any harm ; I have always had the highest respect for you and your relations, and never killed sny one of them except through necessity. Go away, good bear, and let me alone, g(y; I vv^ii I f i^\ ""^^ ^ promise not to molest you,' The bear -''*'" ''*^^''*' * »-«ft"\>*' walked off, and the old man, firmly believing in the efficacy of his eloquence, favoured us, on his arrival at the fort, with his speech at length." The common Black Bear is a well-known inha- bitant of Canada, while the Cinnamon Bear of the fur-traders is considered but an accidental variety. The hunting of this species has been well described by Mr. A. Henry (Trav. p. 142.). 5584. The Racoon (Procyon Loior Cuv.) {Jtg. 806.) it fre- quently teen in menageries ; Ita countenance ft fox-llkc, hut lu gait beariih. In itt wild itate, it tleeps by day, but prowli during Ihe night after fruit, roots, birds, and insecti. At inw water it freiiuenls Ihe tea-thore, to feed on crabt and oyalert, and It fond of dipping its fund Into water before It ealt ( hence the tpeciflc name of lotor : It climbt Ireea with facility. 'ITie ftir it uted In iiitkliig bill, and lu fleih, when It hat been fed on vegetablet, it reported good. » Reprciented at p. S90. of thit work. 1310 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. CANADA LVNX. &W& Tht Pine Marten IMmMa Marlii) {Jig. 807.) dllftrs not from that of Europe, although certiln American racea. Inhabiting rocky dlitrlcti, are dlatinguUhcd by the lupcrior flneneu and dark colouri of their fUr. Thii it used for trimmingt, and will dye n well aa to imitate ■ablei and other more expeniive furt ; hence it has alwan been an important article of commerce : upwards of 100,(100 ■kins have long been collected annually in the fur countries The Pekau, or FUher.(J/u>/ete canadetuU), it a largei aid stronger animal, but its manners are similar : its fur, how. ever, is harsher than that of the Marten, and less vnluable I some thousands are annually killed in the Hudson's Bay countries. , , , _. . , 5i)86. The Canada Otter {Lutra canadensis) resembles ll)« European species in habits and food, but is perfectly distinct, MNE MAiiTEi.. measuring near live feet long; while the American Wolf, J?^^'Yh-eruMa5^Vi:i^«TnVm'Lr^X^ 7000 to 9000 skins are annually procured by the Hudson's Bay Comiuuiy. It is a timid crea- ture, never attacking man, and is incapable of injuring the larger quadru|>eds. It lives principally on hares : iU gait IS not much unlike that of itf prey ; it proceeds by bounds, straight forward, with the back a little arched, and lighting on all the feet at once ; it swims well, but is not swift on land. The Indiana cat the flesh, which is white and tender. 5588. Amongthe birJt of rapine and qf the chase may be noticed th« two majestic Eagles of Northern Europe, the Golden and the While. headed. The Fish Hawk is not uncommon ; nor is the booted or rough. legged Falcon {Buleo laeopus) so rare a bird as with us: a beautiful specimen l,fig. W^J^ was brought home by the Arctic expeditious. The Marsh Hawk of Wilson seems to be also numerous, but whether this is the young of our common hen harrier is yet doubtl^il. The grouse are much more abundant in these northern latitude* than in tlie United States, but they are all very difTerent from the European kinds ; nor is their Ptarmigan the same as that of the highlands of Scotland. These supply food to the Great White Owl, which here frequently hunts his Siuarry during the day. Numerous small migratory birds enliven the short-lived summer ; they visit Canada or the purpose of incubation, and then retire southward ; but the Canada and the short-billed Jays (liimrtl. Ihia canadensis, and brachyrynchus Sw.) a|>|es, as may be ex|>ected, are \n immense numbers, and supply excellent food to the provident natives, by whom tliey are preserved in the snow as winter provision. Among these the Canada Goose is one of the largest and the most numerous. How far thece birds extend their migrations northward is not known : they were seen by Captain Phipps on the dreary coast of Spitibergen, in lat. 8V°97'i and, Wilson remarks, it is highly probable that they past under the very pole itself, amid the silent desolation of unknown countries, shut out since the creation from the prying eye of man, by everlasting and insupeiaUc barriers of ice Certain it is, that the breeding-places of these wanderers have never l>ecu disrovereiL Alter incubation, the approaching rigours of the arctic |iole ccimpel them to retreat towards the south. The Indians are well aware of the period they are to be expected, and make such havoc in their ranks, that in favourable years S(XJU or 4000 are said to be barreled for future use: the autumnal flight lasts from August to October; and those which are taken at this season, when tlie frost begins, are preaerv.ed in their leathers and left to he frozen tor the mth provisions of the winter stock, the feathers lieiiig imported to England. When in good order, this bird weighs from ten to twelve iwunds, and each is estimated to yield half a jHiund of fcatnera. The Siiuw Goose [Anas hyperborea) is another of these nortliern wanderers, but it is a conrmon species in Hudson's Bay. MMk-UH'LBOiiBU rAl.c ■^3 CANVAWBACU DICK. Its manners are not so well known : 5590. The American Widgeon (Mareca amerieana L.) (A^.gil.), called also the Bald-pate, is aliout thesiie of the European species, but of a handsomer plumage : it s*;^-. does much injury to the rice plantations in the southern states, and is the constant attendant of the Canvass-bacli Ducks, thieving from those expert divers the fruits of their industry. The Widgeon, who never dives, watches the moment of the Canvass-back's rising, and, before he has Ilia eyes well o|)ened, snatches the delicious morsel from his mouth, and makes olT. On this account, the two stiecies live in perpetual contention. The Bald-pate ducks are said sometimes to perch on trees : they feed in company, guarded by one. 5591. The Canuats-back Duck (Fuligvla rallisnrriaVHl) (Jl(!.9l0.), is celebrated throughout America for the ex- quisite delicacy of its flesh, which Wilson describes as rich, juicy, tender, and altogether unrivalled by any other of its tribe : two or three dollars a pair is said to be no uncommon price for these birds on particular oicasions. 'Hie Canvass-back, in its plumage, very much resembles the English Pochard (E ferina), but is larger ; its prin- cipal food is the root of a vailisnoria, a grass-like plant, which grows at the bottom of the freshwater shoalt ■t from seven to nine feet deep. In winter, these birds sometimes assemble in such numbers as to cover teveral acres ; but they are very shy, and can only be approached by stratagem. AMKMICAN WIUUKO.f. Book IV. BRITISH AMERICA, l»il lut the site lumaKe: it 1> touthcrn Kivusi-back ft fruits nf m, watclH'S 1 before lie ftus inonel Louiit, tlie I Bald-pate ley feed in llffOTWil.) br the ex- Lcribes ai ■ any other I to be no loccations. Irefleuiblei \ its ptin- [er shoalt 1 to cover StCT. III. HUtorical fltography. 5592. The dheovery of this part of AiMrica was effected at a very early period by British skill and enterprise. In 1497 and 1498, very soon after the voyage of Columbus, John and Sebastian Cabot not only explored the coait of what is now the United States, but surveyed the mouth of the St. Lawrence, and sailed even along the coast of Labrador. Some years after, the French navigator, Jacques Cartier, sailed up the St. Lawrence to Montreal, upon which voyage the French founded their claim to Canada ; which they did not, however, make good till 1 608, when a colony was founded on a great scale, under the pompous title of » New France." The settlements were pushed by that enterprising nation with great activity, and even far into the interior, until they began to enclose those formed by Britain in New England, so that a collision between these two great rival nations became inevitable. Canada was transferred to Britain by the events of the war 1756-63, and by tlie glorious combat at Quebec, where Wolfe conquered and fell. By the peace, all this and the other parts of North America were secured to Britain in full dominion. Canada remained to her even amid the great revolution which severed all the southern part of her empire. By a singular contrast, the part of America which was colonised from England, and inhabited by Englishmen, rejected her, while the part colonised by France, and inhabited by French- men, remained firmly attached to her. This was doubtless, in a great measure, a con- sequence of the very liberal and conciliatory manner in which England treated the con- quered province. Sect. IV. Political GtograjAy. 5593. The cotutilution of Canada was made to embrace many of the benefits conferred by that of the mother country. This boon was given almost unsought, in the year 1783, in reward for the fidelity of the people during the war. From that time, instead of being ruled solely by the governor, who is also commander-in-chief, aided by a coimcil, they received a cotistitution somewhat similar to that of Great Britain. 5594. 2%e legi$lature of Canada consists of two bodies ; the legislative council, elected for life by the governor, and exercising the functions of a House of Lords, and the House of Assembly, corriesponding to the British House of Commons, and elected by the nation upon the freehold qiialification of forty shillings. The turbulent proceedings, however, of this body, and the insurrection in which they terminated, have induced the British legisla- ture to suspend the constitution ; and it is generally understood that in its re-construction, tlie two provinces will be united. Upper Canada has hitherto had a constitution almost eiactly similar to the lower province. 5595. The courie of justice in criminal concerns is founded upon the equitable principles of the law of England. The same law was once introduced in regard to civil matters ; but it excited such dissatisfaction among the natives that there was no alternative but to restore to them their old French law of property. This is founded on the feudal tenure, often cha- racterised by considerable complexity, which renders it very difficult for the purchaser of an estate to ascertain its titles. There is a singular provision, conferring a moiety of all pro- perty upon the wife ; so that no man can dispose of it without her consent. The courts are formed somewhat on the model of those of England, though without affording the full benefit of the system of jury trial, and various imperfections are admitted to exist in the administration of justice, but measures to remedy these are in contemplation. 5596. Therevenue of Lower Canacta amounted in 1834 to 156,589/., derived almost en- tirely from customs' duties. In that year, the revenue of Upper Canada was 108,841/. Out of these sums, the civil government is supported ; but the military and naval defence is defrayed out of the general funds of the empire. 5597. The military and navcd force of Canada consists almost entirely of that part of the British arnny which circumstances render it expedient to maintain there, and which varies with the circumstances of the country. Recent emergencies have raised from about 4,000, to upwards of 10,000. Tliere is also a numerous militia, who behaved with great intre- pidity during the last war. On I^ake Ontario, at that period, were built a ship of the line of 102 gims, and two frigates; and two seventy-fours were in frame, but have not been finished since the peace. Sect. V. Productive Industry, 5598. The natural retources of British America are more ample than would be inferred from its dreary aspect, and the vast snows under which it is buried. Canada has a very fertile soil, especially in its upper province ; and though it l)e free from snow only during five months, the heat of that period is so Intense as to ripen the more valuable kinds of grain, The vast uncleared tracts are covered with excellent timber. Nova Scotia and New Brunswick are less fertile, yet they contain much good land, and are well timbered. New- foundland is not so barren as has sometimes been supposed, and has on its shores the most valuable cod fishery in the world. Even the immense northern wastes are covered with a 4 P 1912 DESCRIPTiVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. profusion of animals noted for their rich and beautiful furs, which form the foundatiun of an extensive and valuable trade. 5599. Agrievlture, in this country, is still necessarily conducted on a somewhat riulo system ; yet the whole of Lower Canada, for more than 400 miles along the banks uf tlie St. Lawrence, presents an extensive chain of farms. The French hahitans, indeed, have an extremely imperfect mode of culture; they scarcely scratch the soil deeper than an inch, and adhere with pertinacity to old habits. They have none of the enterprise or emigratini; spirit of the republicans, but stick to their paternal fields. They cultivate nearly the same kinds of grain which arc grown in England, with a little maize and tobacco. The pastures especially in the townships, are reckoned superior to those in the more southern parts. Of animals reared for food, hogs are the most numerous ; the sheep and cattle are of small size. Culture in Upper Canada has of late years been greatly advanced by the copious influx of British settlers. Government, for some time, m/tAe grants of land on the mere payment of fees; but after 1827 it was disposed of by auction, one fourth of the purchaso-inoney being paid down, and the rest by three annual instalments. By a late regulation, however the whole must be cleared off at once ; but the price seldom exceeds \0a. an acre. The set' tier also finds his ground generally covered with a dense growth of wood, which, if cleared by hired lalraurers, will cost him from 3/. to 4/. an acre ; or if doing it with his own hands, he can scarcely effect more than five or six acres in the year. Nearly two years must there- fore elapse before he can reap any crop, and then only from a part of his domain. If an emigrant from this country, he must calculate the expense of transport to the colony, and to that part of it where he is to reside. When all these dithculties are overcome, he finds liirn- self full and complete master of the land which he has purchased and cultivated. The Canada Company have lately endeavoured to facilitate settlement, at the same time securinir a profit on their own capita). Tliis body, incorporated in 1826, bought from governmem tracts equal to 2,300,000 acres for which they engaged to pay the sum of 295,000/., by six. teen annual instalments. This ground is dispersed through every part uf Upper Canada ' but the largest portion, amounting to about a million of acres, and extending sixty miles in length, is along the eastern shore of Lake Huron. The Company found towns and vil. lages, form roads, lay out the ground in convenient lots : they have age .:s on the spot, who afford every information and aid to emigrants ; they sell their lands from 7«. 6d. to 20$. an acre, requiriog only one fifth of this sum to be paid immediately, the rest by annual instal. ments ; and the company state that they have on no occasion resorted to compulsory measures to obtain the payment of arrears. In 183S, they had paid to government 223,000/. and had sold nearly 700,000 acres. The American Land Company, formed in 1833, pur. chased of government about 1,200,000 acres, for 177,000/., to be paid by instalments. This laud is situated in what are termed the Eastern Townships of Lower Canada, and chieAy in their most southern district. The Company give employment to the poorer emigrants, and, if desired, build a log-house, and clear a spot of ground tor the settler. They require a fourth or fifth of the purchase-money to be paid down ; the rest by six annual instahnents Their operations, however, have been much impeded by the recent disturbances. The farm- ing management, as over all America, is very slovenly, when compared with good English practice ; but circumstances, perhaps do not admit of l>etter ; and the greatest ditiicullv is the want of a market. The expense of living, so far as concerns the absolute nucessariii of life, is very moderate ; but wearing apparel and all manufactured goods arc double the price at which they sell on the other side of the Atlantic. Servants ore very dear, and scarcely to l>e had at any rate of wages ; even those brought from Britain usually strike out an independent career for themselves. A wife, if at all industrious, and a large family, in- stead of l>eing a burden, arc the great source of prosperity on the American lakes. 5C0O. Manufactures form no considerable part of the political economy of Upper CanaJi; and the policy which will lead Great Britain not to encourage them is, perhaps, furtuiiaie, OS they would at present, on any great scale, be decidedly premature. There arc, lionivct, considerable household fabrics particularly of coarse woollen. Soap and candies, and cabinet work, are made from materials on the spot ; yet not enough to supersede importation. Grist and saw mills on a large scale arc necessary to put the raw produce in an exportable state. Ship-building is encouraged by the abundance of materials, and in the years 18:15- 36-37, was carrlet7,CI6 79,499 228,223 Rum ... Total ^ 3,319,724 Xobacco ■ 83,337 448,763 We shall now exhibit these transactions according to the colonies by which they were car- ried on, and to the countries with which the intercourse was held :— Colmlw. EipocU. Importi. Newfoundland . • . . Canada • .... New Brunswick ... Cape Breton - • . . Prince Edward's Island ... Nova Scotia, ... Total , .. . . £ 787,022 896,848 877,209 31,039 9,029 455.647 £ 576,800 1,496,378 621,511 11,666 1,174 612,195 3,706,694 1 3,319,724 | 1 Countila. Eipons. Importi. CountilM. Eiporu. ImjjoTts. Great Britain Ireland . Ouemsey and Jersey • Denmark Germany Holland France - • Portugal Proper — The Aiores — Madeira • Spain Gibraltar lUlv Africa, West Coast of — Mauritius East India Company's Ter- ritories - - . - £ l,479,in 240,818 8,127 1,943 2,000 193,394 1,348 3,726 83,328 11,566 30,631 6,183 3,330,243 44,764 18,16 30,026 99,122 229 2,674 14,123 1,806 398 6,425 10,513 56 2,501 164 3,472 China French Settlements in North America British West Indies - - Foreign West Indies, vis. Danish - . . French Spanish Haytl • United States • - Brazils South America South Sea Fisheries . Total £ 395 446,.'>00 1,933 140,212 37,206 10,l7fi 1,233 & M,237 22 403,664 18 SI3 C..V33 1,412 271,065 15 17,880 2,706,694 3,319,724 i 5606. Tht internal communications of Canada are almost solely by the River St. Lawrence and the lakes, which open a very extensive navigation into the country. It is seriously obstructed, however, at one point, between Montreal and Lake Ontario, where a series of rapic's occur, over which only canoes can shoot ; and all heavy goods must be landed and re-shipped. The Falls of Niagara elsewhere present an obstacle still more complete. The river Ottawa is becoming a valuable medium of intercourse with tracts that are rising in importance ; but it is also obstructed by falls. 5607. Great exertiouB have been made to improve 6y eanaU the interior communications of Canada, though the advantage of those made by the government has been a good deal con- troverted. The chief object has been to obviate the continued series of obstructions to the navigation of the St. Lawrence above Montreal One canal has been conducted from that city to the village of La Chine, a distance of eight miles, avoiding the formidable cascade, cnlled the Sault St. Louis. Considering the mc^erate dhtance, the expense of 130,000/, is very large ; but the works are said to l)c admirable, and the canal is of great use, Government then determined to form a grand circuitous communication with Lake Ontario, by the Ottawa. The object held forth was, that in the event of war with the United States, military stores might be conveyed from Lower to Upper Canada, without the dangers which «auld b« incurred by the route of the St. Lawrence, the opposite bank of which would b« k»,T ill. M Book IV. P^ITISH AMERICA. 1918 37M19 U0,001 104,974 3gun to ailopt, at a long interval, the changing fashions of the mother cuuntry. LAyAniAN CAHlnl.B, MIS. The food qf the rural Canadian/ is chlcHy pork, holled In pea-soup, which is the standing dish at oreakfast, dinner, and supper. During Lent, flsh,' vegetables, and sour milk, supply its place. Knivei and forks are accounted superfluous ; and, to meat which can be eaten with a spoiin, tlie whole party sit ruund and help themselves '^oni one general dish. Tea and coffee are only ociasinnal treats. Unfoftuiiatt'ly, from Its i'het*ring influence, rum Is too much In request, and the habitant seldom returns from marki't without rather an undue portion of it. At certain seasons, and esiiecially after Lent, they have their 'Vi'uriirriii,' In which lifly or a hundred sit down to a t,ilile, covered with enormous joints, huge dishes of fruit andfutl, and vast tureens of milk and soup. Dancing concludes the merriment. Sk(,'T. VII. Local Geogrnjihg, 5616. la detailing the geography of British America, we must divide this extensive terri- tory into two portions: — 1. Canada; 2. The countries and islands at the mouth of the St. Lawrence. 5617. (I.) Canada, the most important and productive of the British American turri- tories lies along a line of upwards of 800 miles, from the mouth of the St. Lawrence to the extremity of Lake Superior. From the line of the river and lakes, Ciiniida stretches tunanlt the north, with a small depth of actual occupation, till it touches on the ill-defmcd Irauiidary of the Hudson's Bay territory. It is divided into Lower and Upper Canada. 5618. Lower Canada extends along the bank of the St. Lawrence up as far as the Lake St. Francis, a little beyond Montreal. Tlience it stretches westward along the northern bank of the Ottawa m far as Lake Temiscaming; the southern bank belonging to the up|i«r proviooe. .5619. t Cnbintt Li Area In squ Population Possessors Kainllles en Kaiiillles en Acres of im Acres occul Wheat prod Oats, minut Potatoes, ill Horned call Horses .Sheep Hogs Grist Mills 5620. Ti district bear agreeable ma have a gloom is enriched. a cleft in the long winters, by the aid o statute built i the wooden c forty inmates to education i orders were n were appropi 12,000/. a ye! them being vi vicissitudes of weeks heavy i to a level witl inhabitants ca the weather Ix expanse of tli horse, sledge, a path has bee and varying tl employed ; of \ TIius passes tl the ice of the i in large mussi of the river. from the iiiten month of the S'lSI. tiueheca only on the westp Quebec was one c the cost of his life of the .\mcrlcan \ «s seiurhig the po dcralile ; as s|| th coinniHnicatlon w Hook IV. BRITISH AMERICA. 1817 .5619. Of then four dhtrict, th^ following tabular vieu> for 1 83 1, given in the Edinburah Calnnd Library, compr ise-. , wc bc-I.eve, the mo .t recent statistical information : 1 * Area in squiiro milcf Pflpulatloii in IH3I l'o»si'98or8 of real iiro|wrty • • ' Kainlllcn cMuplitycu In »uruiilture . . Kainilina oni|>l<>)'i'cl In trrtilii • . l Acrt'8 of Inipiovpd land Acres occupied, but unlmprnved Wheat produce In minotii (!( bualivl) OnU, minoti - - . ; I'lilatoej, ditto Hiirncd cattlu - - - | Horses - - - • Shi'op - • - - I Hogs • - - • j Crist MIIU - - - Quebec. ISI.UNS I7,21A 12,407 764 »0i,778J 1,<>HB.817 9ll,*i87i 7»S,I334 I.G'JS.HJU] IW,7»4 2G,ai3 152,31)2 74,M5 94 Manttcal. 4!t.77,416 1,188,704 116,686 .543,343 295.137 295 rrrv nr oi'frbo 5620. The city of Quebec {fig. 914 ), the capital of Canada, is the chief feature in the district bearing its name. It is smgularly situated, half on a plain along the northern bank "f "iB St. Lawrence, the other half on the tcp of a steep per- pendicular rock, at least 350 feet high, which rises immediately »bove. These are called the Lower and the Upper Towns. The Upper Town conuins the government buildings, the re- sidence of the governor, the military, and the most opulent inhabitants, the best and hand, somest streets, and the most agreeable mansions. The Lower Town is more crowded j its houses are less handsome, and have a gloomy and monotonous aspect ; but it is the sole seat of the traffic by which Quebec is enriched. The communication bctwen the two is maintained by a narrow track through a cleft in the rock, called Mountain Street, to which name it fully answers. During the long winters, when this steep trock is a sheet of ice, it can be passed only with great caution by the aid of Shetland hose, iron cramps, and similar expedients. Quebec is by strict statute built of stone, as a security against the dreadful conflagrations wliich have laid waste tlie wooden cities of the west. There are three nunneries, containing each from thirty to forty inmates, which number is kept up witliout difficulty. Two of them devote themselves to education and the care of the sick ; so that they are of real use to society. The male orders were not allowed to recruit their numbers, and as they successively died, their funds were appropriated by government, which, from the Jesuits alone, derived an income of 12,000/. a year. The cathedral and other public buildings are respectalde, without any of thein being very remarkable. The life of the inhabitants of Quebec is varied chiefly by the vicissitudes of the season. Towards the end of November, winter sets in, and for several weeks heavy falls of snow, hail, and sleet, closely follow each other. The snow often rises to a level with the tops of the smaller houses ; and it is with the utmost difficulty that the inhal)itants can keep open a narrow path between them. Towards the end of December the weather becomes clear, the snow ceases to fall, and its white solid mass covers the entire expanse of the surrounding country. Then is the time for the citizens to sally forth with horse, sledge, and cariole. and drive over the smooth snowy plain, where, as every tra'^'> of a path has been obliterated, the route is marked by pine branches, stuck in at short distances, and varying the monotony of the scene. Kvery precaution against the cold must now be employed; of which buffalo robes, lined with green baize, have been found the most effiectual. Tlius passes the time till March, when the weather l)ecomcs mild, and even hot, and in April the ice of the St. Lawrence breaks with a mighty crash, and floats down for eight or ten days, in large masses, bearing along with it fragments of earth and rock from the upper parts of the river. May and June are usually wet ; in Jidy and August the inhabitants suffer from the intense heat and tormenting swarms of insects : September is the most agreeable month of the year ; but in October the biting frosts of winter begin to be felt. SiiSI. Quehec, as a military position, is excessively strong. The rock on which it stands can he approached only nil the western liilr, where a citadel and a great range of other works render it almost another Gibraltar. Quebec was one of the nioHt brilliant .icenes of British glory. Near it, on the plains of Abrahu.n, WolT', at tnccost of his life, gained the splendid victory which annexed Canada to the British enipire. In the beginning of the American war. General Montmmery, in attempting to carry it, was defeated and killcwcr Canada, which, without it, wouhl tie untenable. The commerce is consi- derable ; as all the vessels fVom Britain and other foreign quarters stop there and unload their cargoes. The Ciimmunlcation with Montreal i> carried on by steam-packets, nf which nine, whn^c tonnage varied from tOO 4 P 4 1318 DESCRIPTIVE OEOOKAiMIY. P*»t in. to 3S0 loni, were ulytnii In lim. t>iic of between 7U) hihI WK) ttina liiia bevii receiilly bulll In carry on ih, Inlerouurie with HaUrax. ' '"'^ 5682. The toimtry rvmud Quebec it brokon. wild, wood«. Alwui mjvuii mill's villages. Within the few last years it has bevoine a favourite resort of Hrifisli emigrants, and the American Land Company purchased here a large litook, to open an iiitereourse with which they foxinded Fort Uundas on the St. Lawrence, and formed a good road thence to Sherlirooke; while in the centre of their grouiuts they fininded the villa.L'e of Victoria. On the northern bank of the Ottawa, also, beyond the range of French settlement, a con- siderable number of townships have been funned. The most fliinrishing are Chiitham, Gren- rillcand Hull. The upper purt of the Ottawa is fretiuented by the fur and timber tiiuicn. !tRifi. The HiitricI o/UaipJ remains to romplete ihedeacrlptlon of l^)wrr Canada. It la on the anuth lino .if the St. I.awrence, near it« nioutli, iMifdrrinK on New llrinitwii'k It la a country nf Irregular niiil >onu-tiniM niiiuiitainnua aurface, containing numerous lakca, and watered t>y aeveral rivpri>, of whicTi the Itcilifioucht ii _,_ . rile territory iscoverwl with diusc foreala, and exiiorta aouie Hah, oil. and timber. I'lircod- Hshcr) employs IStlllmen, and prod ucca about .'H),al. fls' forty or fifty huta. KT III. y on ihi' A'tout t n tlic nci (fig. o*t strik. )l)jectH ill It \M'arn Niagara thu inaHH tliv ample ich it is kun lucki and intch tossinf; it liUngHnow, !» a iiioK' 'riic east. iinali lakes vUh a view tvlgatinn. Ii Ittcnl woodfi) hiterccptnl at > (Itttrlct with lie guod ilovFi c tlic ample 1 of C;maiia; itrcai liouset. to Montreal; Tlininw. Ilie if Montreal is nost fertile in ;ful fields gaj pleating that rcy limestone, winter ; while )Ugli liilerahly ixteniling llie ful, opener flourishinj! isli emigrants, k»n intercourie jil roail tlit"« ■»e of Victoria, leineiit, a con- Imtluim, Gren- \\\kx traders. m the »"Uth 'i'".' '''' Inr nnd wmcUni" ■he llestiamchtii limber. The"* |l 1 ami «t)nut«« ^Arocrevillajeol Hook IV. BRITISH AMERICA. 1SI9 56'i7. Un>*r Canada ia a va»t region, commencing at the I.«ke St. Franci*. a little below Montreal, and extending along thu whole chain of the ijTeat lakca, to at least the wcatern boundary of Lake Superior. Its general features have already been noticed. lu ciistenc* an a country has been very recent. The French, while they held Canada, merely mainuined B chain of miltury posts, to keep in check the savage tribes by whom this region was occupied. It remained a mere district attached to Quebec till 1781, when a nuinlier of American loyalista and disbanded soldiers were located upon it, and the name of Upiier Canada bestowed. It slowly increased till 1811, when it contained 77,000 inhabitants, and in 1824 had risen to 151,000 ; but the tide of emigration has since been so strong that the census of 1835 gave 336,000, and it is now believed to contain 400,000. Of the 50,000 who in each of the years 1 83 1 and 1 832 landed at Quebec, most proceeded to Upper Canada. In 1836 and 1837 there arrived in the Eastern districts 6,600; Midland nnd Newcastle, 3300; Home, 5000; Gore, 3900; Niagara, 3500 ; London and Western, 7000. Tliis wan independent of the number, believed to be considerable, which came by way of New York. 56'28. Upper Canada is estimated by Mr. Bouchette to contain 141,000 square miles, of which, however, only 33,000 have been laid out into townships. The space thus organised composes a si'Bcies of triangle, two sides of which are formed by the lakes OnUrio, Erie, and Huron, with their connecting channels. This tract, about 570 miles in length, and 50 to HO in breadth, is one of the most fruitful on the face of the earth, and capable of supporting a most numerous population. It is divided into e'even districts, of which, from the Edin. burgk Cabinet Library also, we give the sUtistics, brought down to 1835. niiiTicu. I Johnitown - 1 Eailern • Ottawa - I Bathurat - ' Midland ■ I Newcastle I Home Gore Niagara • London • Weatera • Population. Total Acm cultlvatttl. 29,119 38,804 7,044 32,69.1 46,685 30,245 47,1^3 40,156 38,735 41,311 14,496 70,64,')4 83,813 16,3541 57,197 187.338 94.419 179,518 326.428 309,763 144,370 39,561 Acm uncuUlvatetl. 355,07U 331,134 110,2884 353,363 358,214 434,526 690,753 511,713 349,312 718,606 281,290 AMWMment uf lii.ner roununn PTOli«fly. Honn, .136.461 l,308,307i I 4,394,169 £ 1,699-10 1,49013 44310 810' 14 3,11314 1,559- 17 2,46512 3,407-06 2,21016 3,083-17 922- 30,302-29 5,148 3,924 748 1,541 8,^'w 3,339 6,049 6,287 6,721 4,963 2,459 llonifd cuii>. (IllM Mllli 9*m MIIU. 13,119 16,338 3,535 12,459 34,.^3^ 15,367 28,733 34,506 18,499 26,4110 8,5« 789 36 46 16 38 111 ■76 150 113 93 108 13 In tracing the details, we shall begin by exhibiting the line of the great water communion' tions which form its most prominent feature. 5629- The rapid* commence ut the Lake St. Francis, and continue to the village of La Chine, about ten miles above Montreal. Tlie river is there confined in narrow, rocky, broken channels, through which it dashes with violence, agitated like the ocean in a storm. For nine miles there is a continued succession of rapids, the most formidubic of which are those called the Cascades {fig. 916.), where there is a considerable fall or descent; and the gjg channel, for two or three miles below, is like a raging sea. Previous to the formation of the canal of La Chine, all ordinary vessels stopped at that village.and discharged thilr cargoes, which were conveyed by land to Mont- real. There are several modes, however, in which the enter- prising hardihood of man con- trives to leap over (tauter, as it is called) these formidable perils. The Durham boats are very long, very shallow, and almost flat-bottomed. carrying sometimes twenty-five tons. They arc pushed through the rapids by poles, ten feet long, pointed with iron, which the crews even fix in the channel, and apply their shoulders to; thesides being guarded by thick planks. They are chiefly navigated by United States' men. The bateaux arc smaller, also flat-bottomed, draw less water, taper to a point at each end, and are con- structed of such materials as will bear a good deal of hard knocking. They are guided by Canadian voyageurs who know every channel, rock, and breaker; and this is recommended by Mr. Duncan as the safest conveyance. The La Chine canal now enables the navigator to avoid the dangers of this part of the river; but as similar obstructions occur in other portions of its upper course, the use of the vessels above described is sti 1 necessory. 1 he timber raRs arc also obliged to shoot the rapids. Then follows a remarkable feature ; the eipaiision of the river into what is called the Lake of the Thousand Isles. The expression was thought to lie a vague exaggeration, till the isles were officially surveyed, and found to -•*:>twvJVAHA-#.*aj TACCAnH or TUB «T. LAWH«KCB* 1980 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P*»T III. 917 I •mount to Ifi98. A miil through thoni priiienta a inuHt lingular and r'.imantic aucceiwion nf nceneit. 'Itie irIvh are of every sixe, form, livight, and aipvct ; wooily. verdant, roclty ' naked, iimiUnK, barren ; nnil prcwnt as numeroiiH a nucceHsion of liayn, inlets, and channels at occur in all the rest of the continent put togutlior. nCt.W. Luke Ontario, u much frritnder expanse, follows innncdiutely after the Lake of the ThouKHnd Idles, This inland sea is in some places of such a depth, that a line of ;iOo fathoms could not reach the Itottoui. It is subject to violent storms, and the swell is some- times as heavy us in the Atlantic. It bears the largest ships of the line, and was in IHI3 and I H 1 4 the theatre of all the great operations of nnval war. The current is distinctly purcvptible which iH'ars this vast l>ody of water along to the eastward, at the rate of aliout half u mile a^ hour. Largo and commodious steam-vessels, one of them of 740 tons, ply between ail It) ports, and convey passengers from one end to the other on very moderate terms. 5Hi\\, Kinyton and Ttironto, tA the opposite extremities of Lake Ontario, are the two principal towns in Upper C'anada ; the latter the capital, but the former most iinpurtant M a scut of trade and naval depot. It lies on or near the north-eastern point of the V/^n and has a commodious harliour. The plan is elegant and extensive, and heiuf; wi'll though but partially tilled up, makes a pretty little town. The population in 1833 wg, 4I0(), and has doubtless increased The little navy raiseil hero during the late war is laid up, and some of the ships are only in frame, but all in a state to be finished and sent out in' a short time. Toronto, near the north-wist end of the lake, owes its support to its beins the scat of government, and of the courts ; and to the extensive settlements recently formed to the north and east of it. It consists of one long street, along the lake, with tlic beginnings of two or three others parallel to it. The houses, barracks, and guverntncnt olticcs arc all neatly and regularly built of wood, and whitewashed, llie inliuhitants have increased to 9500. Coburg on the lake, and Peterborough in the interior, are large thriving villages in the Noircastle district. 56Stt. Tkt Niagara channel, about forty miles in length, brings into the Ontario the wattrs of Luke Erie and of all the upper country. On this channel occurs an object tie most grand and awful in nature, the Falls of Nia);ara. Tlie accumulated waters flowing from four mighty lakes and all their tributaries, after beinj! for two miles agitated like a sea by rapids, come to a precipitous rock where the; pour down their wlioli mass in one tremenduus plunge of 1 60 feet high {fy, 917.). The noise, tumult, and rapidity of this fallioj! sea ; the rolling clouds of foam, the vast volumes of vapour which rise into the air, the brilliancy and va- riety of the tints, and the beautiful rainbows which r commodioua. It is ahallow not nveraRinn n iloptli of more than fifteen or eiKhtecii futhom!!. and at the aame time liable t„ violont (itornm. Long sunken lecft and precipitous rocky hanks occasion daiiaors, irreatlv incrinscd by thick mists, which often hide from the mariner all »iew of his courK- Scarcely n summer passes in which some vessels are not lost Steum packets are U'st calculated for ntciriiiK through these perils, and they are acoordiiixly employed to a great extent Tliere is a iiuinlter of line wooded islands on Lake Erie. At its extremity the traveller comes to the De- iroit River or Channel, which, with the small lake of St. Clair, forms a connection with the iiDrthern expanse of Lake J/urmt. This is still larger than Lake Erie, and its greatest extent in from mirth to south, almost in a pyramidal form, with its base towards the north, from the eosicrn end of which, however, the largo bay of Maclialadosh branches off. It is crowded with iithmds, which stretch olong the northern coast in close and successive ranges, and, com- blind with the storms to which thi* lake, like the others, is subject, render the navigation licciiliarly intricate ond dangerous. The northern coast of this lake is not at all settled, nor iiidied fully explored ; it is reported, as compared with the lower lakes, to have an unfruitful soil, and a cold, humid, and tempestuous climate ; but the cutting down of the woods and a careful culture, after the more tempting lands ihall have been exhausted, may probably yiilil more favourable results. Along its eastern shore there is a great extent of very fruitful territory. Lake Superior, the farthest of this great chain, is of still larger extent, Iwing nearly 400 miles in length. Its northern coasts are rugged and winding, formed of precipitous rocks, often penetrated with deep caves. Major Long, who coasted it, says that no scene can be more dreary than its northern shore ; nothing appears on its surface but barren rocks and stunted trees; the climate is cold and inhospitable; game very scarce ; fish plentiful, but ditHeult to take. No one attempts to ravel by land, unless in winter, when the rivers are frozen. The coast, however, is picturesque, from the clearness of the water, the bold and varied forms of the rocks, and the numerous cascades. Only half a dozen of Chippewa families were met along its whole course. The Hudson's Bay Company hove a post at Michipicoten, where a good deal of business is done. They have also a station at Sault St. Marie, on the channel between lakes Huron and Superior, where a fall interrupts the navigation. 56:)4. Between the lower reach of the St. Lawrence on the south, and the Ottawa on the north, extend the four dittriclt ; Eastern and Johnstown along the first river, Ottawa and liathurst along the second. This is not the finest part of Upper Canada, a great extent being rocky and swampy, while the climate is comparatively severe. I'here are, however, many fertile tracts, which have great advantages from the vicinity of Montreal, and the navigation of the two boundary rivers, as well as of the Rideau stream and canal on the west. Cornwall, Frescott, and still more Brockville, have acquired some importance from their site on the St. Lawrence : the last contains about 2000 inhabitants. Perth and Lanark are thriving villages in the interior. By-town, at the junction of the Ottawa and Kidvau, is also of some importance. 5635. The country, from the thoret of Lake Ontario to sixty or seventy miles inland, is fortned into the Midland, Newcastle, and Home districts. Each of these has, northwards, towards the Ottawa, a still larger extent yet unsurveyed, and almost unknown. This, thpreforc, is the most extensive part of Canada, and it is superior, as to soil and climate, to that above described. AVheat, oats, and peas, are grown in perfection ; but the pasturage is not equal to that of the Eastern townships ; and maize is a precariour, crop. The river Trent, the Rice Lake, and a chain of smaller ones in the Newcastle district, with that of Simcoe in the Home, facilitate internal communication, especially as some steamers have begun to ply upon them. Tliis tract has been a favourite resort of emigrants, insomuch that, between 1817 and 1836, the population has increased from 27,000 to 121,000. 56:i(i. The northern shore of Lake Eric, with the western of Ontario, and the south- western of Huron, enclose the four most westerly districts of Upper Canada; Gore, Niagara, London, and Wettern, The soil is various, a large tract on Lake Erie being dry and sandy, while considerable parts of the Niagara and Western districts are swampy. A great proportion, however, is luxuriantly fertile ; end the warmer climate, with copious moisture, fit it not only for the common grains, but for maize, hemp, and tobacco. Besides the great bounding waters, the Tliames flows westward into Lake St. Clair, the Ousc, or Grand River eastward into Erie. The Ni.igara and Western districts were settled mlicr than the others; the latter by a French colony. In 1802, also, Colonel Talbot established a large body of emigrants upon the northern shore of Lake Erie. There remained, however, in the Gore and London districts, ample scope for the recent spirit of emigration. In the former, the Canada Company have purchased a large block, while to the north of the latter they have procured a tract to the east of Lake Huron, containing 1,100,000 acres, and most exceedingly fertile. The population of these foiw districte in 1817 was .'34,000; in 1836 it bad risen to 124,000. Hamilton, or Burlington, near the western extremity of Lake Ontario ; Newark, or Niag.-jra, at the junction of the channel ItM DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHY. P»«T III, of that nnme with the Ukoi Port StanW^, on I^ku Erie; AmhanlburKi on tli» Dutrnli Channul; London, in the heart of the dwtriot of that name, are Inrne villaKv«i Krmliuilly r!«ing into towns. In the heart of Oore dintriet the Canada Company havu fiHMiiliMl ilm town of Ouelph. and on Lalie Huron that of Ooderioh, which are Rradimlly advnnoliiK, 5637. Nova Seotia is a large peninsula, on the south of the St. Lawrunoe, ami (tinning, as it were, a fragment detached from the great mass of the territory of the Unlltiil Htiiiim, It is hounded on the north by the bay, or rather narrow straits, separating it fruu) Cniic Breton and Prinee Bdwnrd's Island ; on the east and south-east by the Atlnniioi iiii ilui west, bv the Bav of Fund^, which penetrates so deep as to leave only an intlnniu, hIhmiI nine miles broad, connectmg it with New Brunswick. It is about :IHU miles liiiiu, kmiI from 50 to 100 broad, comprising atiout 15,600 square miles, or nearlv UMN)(),(NM) iwri'a, The land varies muoh in respect of fertility ; the coast facing the Atlanllo, prt>«vtiiln)( s rocky and barren aspect, conveyed the idea, which was lung prevalent, that sterility l'oriii»ii the prevailing character of the soil. But the northern coast, and that on (li«< liny of Fundy, are muoh superior ; the latter is in many places luxuriant. Even tliti insraliy tracts overflowed with alluvUtl waters, when dyked in, yield the richest ornps, I'roni tlii< chill and variable weather in spring, wheat is not raised with the same mlviuitsKv h< in Canada ; but oats succeed completely ; potatoes are very superior | and the liri« m much of the intercourse of the other colonies with the West Indies and the Unllvtl Niittv<< In 18.35, her exports were valued at 827,000/., imports 795,000/, The ehli'f hvwM export were fish, 155,800/.; wood and lumber, 115,000/.; gram and flour, ll\,liM\ M and pork, 13,000/.; coals, 14,600/.; gypsum, 14,700/.; oil, 10,900/.) vvgetalilvx, \li,Wt\ live stock, 69,00/. These do not include the exports to the other northern coltMik'*, Itit imports were, as usual, the various kinds of manufactured goods and eolniiinl |tnNluo> The following table exhibits the §hipping and intercourse with each countryi Britain Northern colonies Britiili W. hidles United States . Prince Edward'i Island Canton Other countries Total OittwuiU. Ship*. I Ton*. IDS 1,301 390 767 74 n s.e.'vg 87,7(13 76,161 38,022 67,000 3,SI» S,S6S aia.«93 Mtn. 1,10A 4,162 3,224 3,213 176 217 11,137 Expont. (Wi,719 349,621 228,498 102,260 35,868 25,033 827,999 Hhl|j>. H(l 1,211 352 765 03 I 31 2,523 Inwtnii, Timi. I Mun 2.'»,aiT 1,174 75,719 4,(HW 34,320 8,0111 70,H50 3,440 4,435 •ill) 270 l» 3,74{i lAil 211,5011 l«,'W UA^AJM. Iffil«n'' Boor IV. BRITISH AMERICA. II 'Hiu adinlniitration U vested in a governor, council, and house of aintiinbly. Th^ In IHaH amounted to 54,924/., of which 32,78.U wm from excise, and 11,9 ns. The c«|)cnditure waa 63,600/., of which 10,900/. waa apent on i™,.,, „..„ on wluMtion- There ia a college at Windsor, on a very respectohle footina, and ur, called Dalhousio College, has been built at Halifax, hut the Aind* have been customs. iiml. another, oanea uaiiiuuuu voiieKe, nas oeen Duilt at tialirax, hut the ftinds have been found insufficient to place it in operation. The Presbyterians support a seminary at I'Ictou, and the Baptists one at Horton, both aided by the provincial government. "Hiere lire also about 450 schools supported by 5000/. from the public revenue, and 12,000/. from privste sources. The chief religious denominations are church of England, 28,600; churuli uf Scotland, 37,000; Roman Catholics, 20,400; Baptists, 19,700; Methodists, 9,700. The Hrst is connidered established, but without receiving any support except from a society at home. There are ten or twelve Catholic clergymen ; thirty-two of the church of England { twenty-ftvo Presbyterian; twenty-five Methoduts, and thirty-flve Baptists. m*. SoM Scolla msr be divided Ir ' thsn MO miles along the Atlinllo. % rnecoaiuor inc uuir or 8t Lawrence, or more itrlcllv |.-al||l nn l\^f nnnnaitA alilji nrMthli>h bva thn inlmnttm nt l>»ln«A K<.1h..k^ -..^ e> n . . h mil ' BsjrorFundy. SoM Scolla may be divided Into three grsnd portions ; — 1. The eailem coast, which extendi Ibr mora - ■ iglheAtlaniio a ThecoMUoflheGulfof StUwrence. ormorest'lcl^^^^^ ittsltnipn the oppMlte side oTwhlch are t^he UJjndi of Prince Edwsrd snd Cspe Breton. 3. The •horei oflha _-, About the centre of the esilem coast Is Halifax, enjoying one of the noblett harbours In the world, nriglnally called Chebucto, on a bay ilxtecn mllei long, which will contain any number of •hlnping of any inc. It was founded in 1749, by General Comwallls, and has since carried on almost all the Irsde of the cmintrv. The uopulation In IBitS waa 14,40a The ImporU In 1B3S were worth 733iinot i the exports! W,ml. The city Is agreeably situated on the declivity of a hill facing the water i and the houKs. thouch niiiitiv nf wood, are built regularly, and many of them handsome. The moat extensive dock'vard In Hrltlih America has been formed here. The society conaliti chiefly of mlllUry ofllcera and merchsnU. There li nn this coast a succeulon of fine harbours, of which twelve are capable of admitting ihina of the line. Lunenhurg, chief of the German lettlemenla, contalna a population amounting to nearly half that of Halihx •Ith which It plies a brisk trade, Liverpool alio carries on a considerable traffic g but Hhelburne, which at the ciul uf the American war, was the largest place In Nova Scotia, has sunk into a mere village The iiiirtliFni coast has PIctou, nrom which, and the neighbouring bays on this coast, la ihlpped the largest quantity of limber and coal. On a river Ailing Into the Bay of Fundy is Annapolis, the original French capital i but, ilnce the transference of the seat of government to Halifax, It hu sunk Into a very secondary iilace. The Irnie iirthli great t)ay Is now chiefly carried on ftom Yarmouth and Digby, containing respectively 43uo and WWU InhablUnts. 5639. Cape Breton is a large island, separatea from Nova Scotia only by narrow and winding channels, called St. George's Gulf and the Out of Canseau, a great part of which is not more than a mile broad. The island ia about 100 miles in length, and 80 in breadth, containing an area of about 2,000,000 acres. It is penetrated by a very extensive and irregular arm of the sea, called the Bras d'Or, which divides it nearly into two equal portions, snd is throughout navigable. The surface is diversified by hills, none of which rite above IjOOfeet; and the soil is fully equal to that of the neighbouring countries. The land granted in 1821 amounted to 685,000 acres; and, allowing for hills, swamps, and barrens, there are supposed to be about 500,000 acres still to be disposed of. Only the coasts, Including those of the Bras d'Or, have yet been cultivated ; and the population in general is in a less improved state than in the other colonies. The climate resembles that of the neighbouring countries in the intensity of the cold in winter and of the heat in summer ; hut these follow more irregularly, and a fortnight's thaw occurs often in the midst of frost and snow. These variations are somewhat disadvantageous to agriculture, which, indeed, is still in its infancy, the valuable cod-fishery attracting the chief industry of the people. Cape Breton, therefore, imports wheat flour, though it affords a small surplus of oats and potatoes. There ore coal mines of great value, granted to the late Duke of York, and now in the hands of a mining company in London, who work them to some extent. In IR.-ta, her imports are stated at 1 1,600/., her exports at 31,000/. The chief heads of the latter were — fish, 15,900/. ; coals, 6470/. ; wood and lumber, 3,870/. This does not include the intercourse with Nova Scotia, through which much of the trade is carried on. Cape Breton has excellent harbours, and commands, in a great measure, the navigation of the St. Lawrence. Of the population, exceeding 25,000^ the most numerous portion consists of Scottish Highlanders, and next to them of Acadians. The island was, in 1820, politically united to Nova Scotia, and sends two members to the house of assembly. A revenue of shout 5000/. is raised by a tax of a shilling a gallon on spirits. Louisburg, which the French carefully fortified, and made one of the principal stations in their " New France," it now entirely deserted, and Sydney, a village of 500 inhabitants, is all the capital which Cape Breton can boast. Arichat, on the isle called Madame, is the most flourishing place, having 2000 inhabitants, and a very active fishery. 5640. New Bruniyiiek is a large country to the north-west of Nova Scotia, from which it is separated by the Bay of Fundy. It has on the east a winding coast along the St Lawrence ; on the north, part of Lower Canada ; on the south-west, the territory of the United States, the boundary with which is still a subject of dispute. It is estimated to contain 27,700 square miles, or 17,700,000 acres. The western part is diversified by bold eminences, though Mars Hill, the highest, does not exceed 2000 feet, and is in the disputed tiottion. From these heights flow fine rivers, of which the St. John's has a course of about SOO miles, for nearly half of which it is navigable. It falls into the Bay of Fundy, while the Miramichi, also a very noble stream, ends in that of St. Lawrence. Tlie country in pnaral is broken into hills of moderate elevation, which agreeably diversify its aspect, and 1924 DESCUIPTIVE GEOGttAPHY. Pam III. pour down numerous fertilising streams into tlie intervening valleys. The soil, with the exception of a few rocky and swampy tracts, is described as extremely fertile, and wheat, for which Nova Scotia is generally unfit, is raised there with advantage. Agriculture, how. ever, though making considerable progress, is still very limited, and does not render New Urunswick independent of foreign supply. It is still almost one unbroken magnificent forest ; and under the extraordinary encouragement aiforded by Britain, almost all the ener- gies of the inhabitants are directed to the timber trade. This trade is conducted by a class of men called lumbereri, who carry it on during the depth of winter, in the heart of these immense woods, sheltering themselves in log-huts, four or five feet high, with a large fire in the middle, round which they all sleep. In spring, when the ice melts, and all the river channels are filled, tliey load the timber in vessels, or form it into ratls, diirini; which operations they suffer much from cold and wet. Having brought the produce of their winter's labour down to the ports, they obtain a liberal remuneration, which in the course of a few months is scjuandered, usually in empty show and reckless indulgence. In the year 1824, the timber trade seemed to be at the height of prosperity, the exi)orts being valued at above 600,(XX)/. Soon, howexer, the price fell one half, and became scarcely sutli- cient to defray the expense of conveyance. The if adc, however, has gradually recovered from this shock. In 1835, it was exported to the value of 435,000/. The description is chiefly yellow pine, which, though it wants the strength of Baltic timber, takes a higher polish than any other species, and is hence in great demand for various ornamental purposes. 'I1ie coarser forms, as well as the white spruce, which grows in the southern districts, arc well fitted for packing-boxes. The saw-mills, employed^in preparing the produce for export- ati(m were valued in 1835, at 420,000/. A considerable fishery is carried on in the rivers, and in the bay forming the harbour of St. John : vessels are even sent to the whale-fishery. In 1 8.'i5, the exports under this head amounted to 49,000/. The total exports in I8:!5 were 577,000/. ; imports, 621,000/. The ships built there are complained of as somewhat slight, yet being aSbrded for 6/. per ton, they are in some demand, and were produced in 1835 to the extent of nine, with a tonnage of 2.3,000. The entire tonnage of the colony is stated at 80,800. New Brunswick formed part of Nova Scotia till 1785, when it was formed into a separate government, and peopled by a number of American refugees, In 1817, it had only 35,000 inhabitants; but by the census of 1824, these had risen to 74,000, and by that of 18.34, to 119,000. The present amount may probably be about 150,000. This rapid increase is owing not only to the prosperity of the timber trade, but to the emigration, which, since 1830, has been directed thither to the extent of about COOOannu. ally; in consequence of which, from 1830 to 1837, there had been a sale of 1,3;!C,000 acres. A New Brunswick land company has been formed, and purchased 580,000 aeres in the interior, on a branch of the Miramichi, and on a river fulling into the St. John, where they have founded two villages, made roads, and prepared lands for cultivation. The constitution of New Brunswick is nearly similar to that of Nova Scotia. The revenue, derived chiefly from customs and sales of land, amounted in 1830, to 49,600/., and in 1835, to 60,300/. 5641. The following statistical view of the province has been given from the most recent materials in the Edinburgh Cabinet Library ; — CountlM. Square Miles. Arre.. Poi)ulaUon. Acres sur. veyeil and ojien for Hettlers. Value of 1 JHU. IS.H. St. John King's Qiicun'a Sunbury York Carlcton Ciiarlotto WVstmurc^land Kent Northiimbrrlaiid . Gloucester Total - - J,'«)3 l,fi34 1,017 5,878 4,400 1,418 2,307 l,7r)fl 3,495 427,(i48 H34.(I3.') I,046,24r> 6M,'JM\ 1,842,073 J a,8ifi,(i(K) J 907,904 1,47«,'I92 l,i'2:i,.'j84 5 2,.I36,224 . 2,230,889 J 12.907 7,980 4,741 3,227 10,972 9,267 9,303 l.^829 '20,6(i8 l'2,19.'j 7,204 3,938 r 10,478 I 0,493 15,8,')2 14,20.') r 0,0.11 i 11,170 t 8,.323 32,000 24, (KM) 8(j,(l(K) 78,(XI0 I 148,000 j 23.'),0(I0 .'■)7,(IIK) 170,000 12,(N)0 16,000 iii.riia 24,2.t0 ■i-im I'JI.IIH 28,(M7 2I..'KI0 m.im U,'25« 2r),931 l.'),r,98,.').'^l 1 74,226 ' 1I9,.W7 fl24,ra)0 >;jn;t.3,w fi. 109 8,873 746,869 4,184 940 638 1,034 1,638 1,187 88 681 498 Trlnilv Ha, BmaTina ua; - 9sg 6,H(I,1 7»fl 168. 11 3081 48,317 4 167| 51 698 805 74 8 l,'i« 187 801 5,183 181 1971 At 35B 68,887 56 184 57 377 693 60 6 1811 l.1laiii) and lieutenants of his majesty's navy, who, however well intcntioiicil, and able in their prol'essiun, could scarcely bcqualilled for so delicate a function. Of late, a chief justice has been nominated, with two aisiiUnli. who go on circuit. It was not till ItUl that a constitution was granted, comixised of a house of asicmbly, of fourteen members, elected almost hy universal sulIVagc ; and a council, of eight, nominated by the crovn This kjtstem has not as yet worketl very harmoniously, some collisions having taken place between the atscmbl; and the other branches of the Kovernment. .^649. St. John's, the princijial place on the island, resembles a large fishing station, the whole shore being lined with wharfs and stages. The harlMiur, formed of lofty |icr|ieiulicular rocks, is safe, though the cnlranre requires caution. The place is defended by several fortresscn, one of which, Fort Townsend, is the rcsldciici of the governor. The houses are ranged irregularly along one long street, with lanes branching fnimit: tiicv arc built mostly of wood. This construction cx|Hised the town, in ISI.'i, to a series of four dreuilfdl conlliijra. tions, in one of which MO houses, uiid property to the value of .^i(l(),(KKU., are »up|>osed to have licoo dcitroycd The |x>pula(ion varies much, according to the season of the year j Mr. Ilouchette estimates its stationary Hnmiit at about 1 1, (UK). Harbour tirace, on Conception Hay, and I'laceiitia, on the bay of that name, once the French capital, are also places of some coiisc<|uence. The I^abrador Hshery is carried on from a nuinlier of tmill ■cattered stations, on the coast opiHuile to Newfoundland, or a little farther north. Still farther in th,it dirtc- lion, the Moravians have been very successful in converting and civilising a numlM r of the savage nativci. CiiAr. III. THE UNITEO STATKS. 5650. 7%e United Statet of North America possess i« territory of vast extent, including the larger part of what is valuable and productive in this ,\n of the coiitiiieiit. They form also by inuvh the greatest and most influential power that exists in the New World. RT III. the mer- pain and s for the It sea, to icky bays en found that our ented by 500,000/., it is still als, found i. Large ports were .; herrings seal-skins, 5t not only :ock, must ' he French that of the at 70,900; Tiber, about ie servants, nostly from Itimore, the bits the dis- Book IV. THE UNITED STATES. 1327 Sect. I. l,57!r 3,113' \fA:m 491, 6,H19; 6,ral« 1« tf»» 1,C1S Iffl IM 5,«3' (61 Ijl 'lU V " 3l'!, '. ■ , (.•« (in 710 Vl\ 671 1» a - . I 'i,m ' \'i,Ml ■;-;,7IS M,M!i.'< astly of captains Lrufessiun, rould ]lhtwoaasi>lanli, ■ of assembly, o( It by the cro»n. L'li the assembly liolc shore being Iigh the enlranre iia the resiilenc? Iigfromil: ttaj Taiirul coiiflJKta- i liccii (lestinycd. latioiiary amount lonce the French liuiiil)i'r of small li't in that ilircc- Tane natives. |.>nt, incluiling 'I'licy form k^orld. General Outline and Aspect. S649. The extent of the I^«i<«/ ««<« has been calculated upon two different principles They have been viewed a« incl.iding on y the territory actually occupied, peopled, ano divided into states which send representatives to the general congress. On the oUier hand their dominion has been made to comprehend a still more vast additional region, stretchInK far to the westwanl, oyer which the American U.iion claims a right, and according to every appearance will actually possess the power to occupy and settle it in proportion as she is enabled to do so by her increasing population. .,,..,- , "-■ Alleghany mountains, but since that tunc a constant tide of emigration has poured across them, and has extended the limit to the ^reat line of the river Mississippi ; settlements have even been established beyond it The for- 1 of this vast space, Mr. Warden conceives, may lie represented by a cone stretching from south-west to northeast, about 1700 miles in length, and 650 in breadth. Its area is calculated at about 1,000,000 stjuare miles, or 640,000,000 acres. Of this, about 51,000,000 are calculated to consist of water, and a large part is also covered by the broad surface of the Alleghany. 565 1. The division, founded on the probably effective claims of the United States, has the same southern, and also the same northern boundary, which is prolonged in the line of the Red River. But thr western boundary is that vast and long chain traversing tne whole continent south and north, and known by the name of the Rocky Mountains, Their missions have even passed these mountains, and surveyed and named a portion of the territory between them and the Pacific ; but as this tract is separated by so strong a barrier, and is pressed by Mexico on one side and by Russia on the other, future circumstances nnist determine how far the claim to it can be established. In the mean time, America can have little reason to comjilain, if, to this her prospective empire, we assign the Rocky llountains as a provisional boundary. The United States territory, in this larger sense, will have nearly the same length from north to south. But its line from east to west will be fully 2(XX) miles ; and the entire area will be somewhat more than doubled. 565'i. i/y another division, founded on natural features, the eastern territory, between the Atlantic and the Alleghany, is distinguished from the western territory between the Alleghany and the Rocky llountains. The former does not comprise above a fifth part of the whole, and is inferior also in natural fertility. But having been long cultivated and settled, it comprises the greater part of what America yet possesses of population, wealth, unil culture. The other luis only one characteristic, but certainly a most remarkable, feature, the vastness of its level surface. It embraces the immense basin of the Mississippi and the Missouri, the largest plain in the world except that watered by the Amazons. Its tracts of fertile land, with its great and numerous navigable rivers terminating in one main trunk, open to it prospects, by no means remote, of opulence and populousness, the extent of whidi it is difficult to calculate. 505!!. The mountains of this territory consist almost entirely of the two long parallel chains already mentioned, which are more distinguished by their extent than their elevation. Tlie Alleghany, called also the Apalachian or endless mountains, form the original unbroken western boundary of the states. Their average height is from 2000 to 3000 feet, and they seldom exceed 4(X)0 feet, though at the single point of Mount Washington, in New Hamp- shire, they rise to 6600. This height, too, is above the Atlantic, whence the base gradually rises to MOO or 1.500 feet; so that the apparent elevation is by no means striking. The Alleghanies, however, to the breadth of 110 to 150 miles, extend to three, four, or five successive ridges, divided by deep and fertile valleys. The Rocky Mountains are more vast in every dimension. The loftiest peak yet discovered, wliic'i is seen at the distance of 1(X1 miles, and whose summit is covered with perpetual snow, was measured by Major Long, and found to be 8507 feet above the level of the plain, which being calculated at 3000 feet, would give 1 1,500 above the sea. The average is not, probably, quite half that elevation, or more than oouble the Alleglianies. The chain is very broad, in some places not less than 300 miles ; but it is crossed by deep and fertile valleys, which afford commodious passes, SG54. The rivers of the United States form a grand and most important feature. Those ill the Eastern states, indeed, rising all from the chain of the Alleghany, at only a mo- derate ilistiuu'c from the sea, cannot, even by a winding course, attain any great length. Those in the norlli, however, form deep bays, and from tlie level nature of the country are navigable to a great height. The Hudson is navigable for vessels of 80 tons 160 miles, imd iiresents, perhaps, the busiest scene of river navigation in the world. The Delaware, forming the bay of that name, the Siis<|iiehannah, the rotowinac, and the Roanoke, ter- iiiinatiiig in Albennu-le Sound, nil contribute the greatest benefits to navigation. To the 4Q 1928 MAP OF THE UNITED STATES. -T !>4 I I I 80 [.uiiKitiiilt V.tfBt S2 Iruni ljrt'tiiwi<.li. ^{j 74 Rtfereneet to the Map qf the United States. NOBTH PaKT. I. DELAWARE. TonriM* I. Donr t* SmTma. (I. NEW JERSEY. TowM, 3. Tuckerton 4. Tmiton. III. COVNECTi- CUT. Totvnt. ft. Newhaven 5. Hanroid. IV. RHOnE INLAND. Town. 7. Frovtd«nce. V.MAHSACIIi;. SBTT8. Tovtnt, S. NewiMirt 9. Rattan 10. Nurlhnnipt'm. VI. NEW HAMt'. SHIRK. Tomna, 11. Concoid 12. Iliinaf«r 13. Lancutnr. VII. MAINE. Tunriu. H. I'ortland l.f. IMfait 16. Edlnulon 17. MacMu !H. Solon 19. Notrldgowlck. VIII. VERMONT. ToffpiM. 90. nurUn){1on Kl.Monlmllcr n. Windwr. IX. NEW VORK. Ttitvna, iS. ChntM 84. ri.itnburg 8.^. OcdeniilmrK Sti. Watertoirn S7. Utica m.TroT t9.A1ballJ SO.Hudaon »l. N«w VoA n.Goihm S3. MonUeello 34. Coopeittowa 3A. Oswego 86. Auburn 37. Ocnera 3li. Anitellc* 39. Rochcatci 40. RufTalo 41. FredonU. X. PENNSYL- VANIA. Toittiu, 4*. Warren 43. Franklin 44. Piltaburg V>. Cireen&burf 4G. Roseburg 47. Centre 4H. Smcthport 49. Heilefonte 90. (Jetlyburg Al. HarrUburn it. WIIUoiu'iTort A3. WdUborouRli M. Tunkhannoch 35. Nescofiec 36. Sunbury 37. AUentown 58. PhUadelpUa 59. Lancaater* XI. MARYLAND. TOKIU. 60. Baltimore 61. Fredcricktown 62. Washin|!ton. XII. VIRUINIA. Ttmiiu. 63. Prederlckfiburg 64. Richmond e:i. Elizalicth 66. Norfolk 67. PetenburK 6fl. Lewiitown 69. Taylon'lli* 70. 1.ynchburff 7l. Slaunton 74. WIncheiter 73. Mursantown 74. UliKlInK 75. BuOalo 76. Charleston 77. FranUin. XIII. KEN- TUCKY. Tontu. 78. Prestonbiurff 79. Wililamtbuqi K). Monticello 81. Ulavtow 8S. Cadii 83. NaihTllle 84. Mornnaald 85. Hartfcrd 86. Klizahelh 87. Frankfort 88. Leilniiton. XIV. OHIO. TonmM. 89. Cincinnati 90. Ripley 91. Chllllcolbe 08. Marietta 93. Zaneirllle 94. Sleuhenrilla 95. Now LUbon 'Jfi. rhardon 97. Moftcow 9fl. SmduskT 90. Columbus 1110. Troy 101. Fort DedliW Wi, I'anjsboig. XV. MICHIOA.V. rofpw. 103. Mnuimi 101. ManTK 105. Ilelmlt 10. Elowee 4f>. I.exington 47. Angusta 48. Milled)!e«l!le 49. Knoxvllle 50. Doiily .'>!. Early 62. Irwin ,^3. Appling 54. .Tack&onville 55. Tatnall 5(i. Sav,annah .M. Tuckersville 58. St. Mary's. XXV. FLORIDA. ron-n*. 59. .Tacksonsvitle (iO. St. Augustine 61. Rollstown G'i. Nl'w Smyrna 63. Florida 64. Virasassey nrj. Indian Village 66. St. Prtlro 67. Tall.iha.sseo 6H. St. Andrew's 69. Choctawatchie. XXVI.ALAUAMA. 10. Mobile Q2 71. St. Steplien'8 72. Sparta 73. (Covington 74. (iret'nstla!e 75. Cahawl>a 76. Fort Hainhridge 77. Fort Strather 78. Hlountville 79. Iluntsvitle 80. Florence 8I.Plkeville 82. Erie. XXVII. MISSIS- SIPI'I. Timn$. HZ, Hamilton 81. Arbachotubbee 8.^. Pitchlvns 8C, Jarkso'n 87. We-.tville 88. Winchester 89. (Jrerne 00. Shield borouRh 91. ForiU 92. LilHTty 93. Natchez XXVIH. L0UI8I. ANA. Ot.Oratahoola a.l. Monroe 96. Natchitocltn 07. ClutiATille 98. Opelousas 99. Francevllle 1(K). MailiKonTille 101. New (>rle.in» 102. Donaldftonvilltf 103. New Iberia. River*, a Connecticut b Hudson c Delaware d Susquehantu e Potowniac f .Tames RKoanoke Santee 1 Savannah iAlalainaha Ch^ttahooche 1 Ali>bama m Tonil)eckbee n Mississippi lUd Klver p Arkansas q Tennessee r Cumber land 8 Ohio t Maumee u Wabash V Illinois w Missouri 1 Kock Htver J Wisronsan I fit. CroU* 1390 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. 5fiS(i, In regard to lakes, the Cnlicil State* have a iharc in the greatest lake-chain In the world, that of the Sujierior, Huron, Erie, nnd Ontario. I'hese, however, though the Iwundarjr line |0. The strain qf this primitive rcffion vary in direction from N. and S. to N.E. and S.W. ; they rcry generally, it is niaintainescn between ten and lillcen miles from its influx into ('hesaiH'akc l!ay. It .Mimctniici disappears uniler the soil ; but at the point where it cro.tses the Susquehainia it rises to a greater liei|;lil, and is more rugged than usual, ^t Trenton it meets the D<'lawarc. After crossing York Island, this granite ridge extends along the nor ore of Long Island, dips under the |>assage between that island anil li-hcri in dipping under the p.ass.iBe between Fisher's Ishmd and the continent, lleef, not far below Stonington in Connecticut. ■ greater part of the transition rocks found in the United Slates, .ircording >V. of the primitive, .nid form a long and narrow zone, extemlint' Iroma little N.K. of the Hudson nearly to the Itiver AKibama. The breadth of the zone is from -20 to Km miles. The strata generally dip to the N.W.; and their inclin.ition, "" >li|>, in inoit places, is less than i'P. Tlie tranMli(>ii rocks, on their north-western border, are often in coi>'.i.'t ^^l.'l secondary rocks, the latter appearing in tlie valleys, and the former in the surrounding inounta: ■■. Ar.iung these rucks are found limestone iil' varioui colours, grey wacke slate, flinty slate, and various cunglomeiates. These rocks are traversed and overlaid b; various trap rocks. • .Otkii!. (.i.) Secimilari/ rods. The great secondary de|Hisit lies north-west of the transition rock.i, exlendinj from Ihem to the lakes, and from the Iliulspn to (lie westward of the Mississippi. This deposit is ei|ually remarkable Imth for the extent and uniformity of the formations which it embraces, ami uliiih nniM>t if linustiine and sandstone in strata often nearly horizontal, and on which rests the great bla.k coal fornialioii, According to Maclnre, there is reason to believe that this secondary dc|>osit extends westward of the .Mis- sissippi nearly to the foot of the .Stony Miinnt.iins : thus presenting nn area whose diameter from rast lo\ve^t is aliont 1,'iisi miles, and from north to south about l',^K) miles. He further conjectures that all this extent uf ■econdary roiks was once the bottom of a great lake or sea ; that the waters of the lake have lieen graiiuallir discharged by the Mississippi, the Hudson, and the St. Lawrence, the oidy rivers that have completely brnktQ through the mountains which once surrounded this immense basin of water. ;"it;ii.). (4.) Tirlidrji ruiks. Although considerable deposits of this class of rocks are met with, no accurate account of them has been publisheil, .1(1114 (.'">.) Alluriiil tlfjmils. These cover vast tracts of country in the United States j of these the mosi considerable is that which is intcrposetl between the Atlantic shore and the Alleghany luount.iiiis. The northern extremity of this deposit is at Long Island, all of which appears covered with alluvlnra, exec|itthe margin of the shore at Hiirlgate, where primitive strata appear for the distance of four or live miles. On the east and south-east this alluvium is bounded by the Atlantic, and on the south by the Gulf of Mciicom Island, which it crosses, am appears once more at \Vatc uikil. (i.) Transition rocks. to Maclurc and Cleaveland, li Boo» IV. THE UNITED STATES. 1331 'I'* J'lV^y.'J.n.riMT in r.h™^°' '"'"'"' """"''"y. cnmmencini, a littt') hclow Newark, nm. north of Amboy to the Raritan, and thence passes nejr Trcrilon. Philadelphia, Baltiinnre. WajhiiiKton Kre. Pel<-r|ihurK. a little we«t of 1 lalilax, Smithflel.l. ami Avcrystorough in North CaroU .a and Cam.len in South Carolina near^ AuKiHta on the Savannah, an.l thence hendinB to The w J.?, It crossoi the Ogcechec, OakmiilRee, Alabama, and Tomheekbco rivers, and reached the Misslssinni near N.U:he^ The h^'Kht ofthi, depo«,t above the level of the ,ea gradually' dimin ,ht" in pS,ai.Vl fromXorg" t„ Sew York. Froin the Misjixsipp, to the lloaiioke, the tide does not rbaeh the noith-wenterii boundary o» thi, a luvinm ; hut from the Iloaookc to he Delaware, it enter, the primitive ranKC. Sw le y cxten.M deposit ba« not iMjen minutely examined m many points, and in no one to a very great depth iWoiiKhiU whole extent there is very little which deserves the name of r«k. and in those quarter, wi.'e rocky Strata wcur, it has notbeen proved that these are not tertiary. In Maryland, aliout Htteoi mile" soutl^fWnn tl 2 ,rnnUshirc. 5666. II. Coat. There are said to be four coal formations In the United States : — I. The true glance coal, or anthracite, found in the transition clay slate. 'Z Coal destituteof bitumen, usually called anthracite, but ilill'cring ftum the anthracite found in clay slate. It occurs in a slate rock, said to he In America the lowest of the lower secbndary series of rocks ; and is conjectured to correspond to the great coal formation of Itri. tain. .'!. The proper bituminous coal, is at Tioga, Lycoming, &c. This coal is contained in a slate rock, nlthin the lowest of the series of upp' secondary rocks. 4. The fourth formation is that which includes the brown coal, or lignite, which is found . i a very extensive de|»»it in the state of New Jersey, along the south ihore of the B.ay of Amhoy ; also In Maryland and Massachusetts, fen/, the newest of the coals, is found in many parts of the United States, particularly in the states of Ohio, New Jersey, New York, and Massa- chusetts. The coal at present most extensively mined and used for domestic purposes and for the arts, is the glance coal, or anthracite. The following are some of the most important localities of United States coal, iiicluiliiig glance coal and black bituminous coal, viz. : — Missouri, Tennessee, Kentucky, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Connecticut, and Massachusetts. sua. III. Saline minerals. The principal saline minerals of the United States are s.nltpetre, or nitrate of poLish, and common salt, or muriate of soda. — 1. Sailwire occurs In Georgia in a great cavern ; one bushel of the earth of which, containing both the nitrates of potash and lime, yields from tliree to ten pounds weight of imre nitre, which sells at about hi cents a pound. The nitrate of lime Is decomposed by wood-ashes. In Kentucky, limestone caverns abound, and furnish large quantities of nitre. One of these caves is (546 yards in length ; its breadth 40 feet, and it» average height 10 feet. One bushel of the earth of this cave commonly yields from one to two pounds of nitre. Kentucky also cITords native nitre under a very dill'ercnt form, and constituting what Is there called rock ore, which is, in fact, sandstone richly impregnated with saltpetre. These sandstones rest on limestone, and sometimes present a front IVom 60 to lou feet high. When broken into small fragments, and thrown into boiling water, the stone soon falls Into .sand, one bushel of which, by lixivlalion and crystallisation, frequently yields ten imuiids, and sometimes more than twenty pounds, of nitre. The nitre obtained from these rocks contains little or no nitrate of lime, and Is said to be superior for the manufacture of gunimwder to that extracted from the earths already mentioned. M.isses of native nitre nearly pure, and weighing several pounds, are sometimes found in the fissures of these sandstones, or among >let.i('hed fragments. Indeed, it is said that these masses of native nitre sometimes weigh several hundred pounds.— 2. Common salt, or muriate of soda. In the United States, salt springs are numerous In several ilislricts. These springs sometimes flow naturally, but arc more freciuently formed by sinking wells In those places where this salt is known to exist, as in salt niarshes, and in suit licks, so named from having formerly noen the resort of wild animals to lick the clay impregnated with salt. Salt springs and wells occur in the Arkansas territory, Virginia, Kentucky, Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, &c. When Cleaveland pub- lished the second edition of hi,-, excellent Mineralogy, in 1822, the whole quantity of salt annually extracted friira saline springs in the United States exceeded 1,200,000 bushels; and of this the springs of New York furnished more than 700,000 bushels. ■itifiS. IV. Metals and ores. — I. Native gold. The principal gold district In the United St.ates is in North Carolina. There the gold occurs in veins transversing granite and primitive greenstone, or, according to some, in Lalcose slate J and as an ingredient in the alluvial .siwts of ground in the ranges of the greenstone f»rm,ition. The gold workings in Carolina are much richer than the alluvial mines in Brazil. According to '1 Q 3 1332 DESCRIPTIVK UEOOUAPHY. 1'aht III. the Michigan territory and Ohio, mure partlciilariy on the ihorM of I^ltoi Mlchiiian, Huron, St. Clnlr Detroit River, and Lalce Eric to the mouth ot Vcrmliion llivvr, It iNX'urt In tlie hiTI In the Inrni cil' binvk ami red nand, hut ia usually more abundant In bankji uf tine tV'rriiKlnnuii clay, Nvar (ho niiiiitli ul' \'('rin»jit River it is in the form of a wry line red |>owder, or in ((raiiiii and inmll niauo, dlKKi'iuiniititl in iliiv. It yields by diatillat ion almut sixty |icr cent, of mercury. — t. <'(i;i;irr. Masses and (irnlns of |nirc or niiiivc cop|>er are found in ditfcrcnt ii,irts of the United Stales, as in the Illinois In the North 'West 'rerrllnry iwhrro about thirty miles south from Lake Su|)erior, on the west liank of the river OntonaHon, was found a V(>ry large mass of native copper, wuiRhing by estimation about 'j'.HNI lbs.), VirKlnla, Maryland, I'ennsylvani^i, Nii^ Jersey, and C(ninecticut. Various aulphurets qf coi>per, ai yellow, grey, and black, .ire nu't ivitli in ihc Union ; in Maryland, Pennsylvania, New York, Cniniccticut, Massucliusvtts, and Mjilne. The 1,1/ utiilr of copper, or ri'rf copper ore, is found in Virginia, I'ennsylvunia, New Jersey, and Coniu'Clicnt. The A/i/c en/. bitnale qf copper, in Pennsylvania and New Jersey j and the /jnv» carioHiitc ((f nipper, or urern tiinlueliilc, in Maryland, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Massachusetts. ^.0. Irim, Meleork inm has been met with |ii Louisiana A remarkable mass, in the possession of Colnnel (lilibs, Is three feet four Inches long, and two feet four inches broad, and weighs hilly 'MM Ibi. Iron pyrltet, or siilphnret of Iron, m-iiira every whcic throughout the United States. lUack iron ore, or magnetic iron ore, a very lni|)ortant ore of iron, iKciir* m Arkansas territory. South Carolina, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, llhoile lalaml Maine, Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire, /{eil Iron ore, or s/niN/iir Iron ore, occurs in tlio ■ame states of the Union as the black iron ore. Brown iron ore, or hpilriile, Is alsii a IVcquont ore in several of the states. These are the chief ores of iron worked for economical piir|Hiscs 1 but to these we may ailil ihc chronmle qf iron, which atlbrds chromic acid, a substance which, when iiiiilehin, Tennessee, Maryland. I'cinisylvnni.i, New Vorlt, (nn. nccticut, Vermont, Massachusetts, and Maine. Bluck lead, or araphUe, 'I'liis valuable mineral, sn iiniiiirt.iiit in the arts, ia found in Missouri, Virginia, Pennsylvania, New ,rer8ey, New York, Connecticut, Massachiiiciit New Hampshire, and Maine. Excellent pencils arc mannfactureil at New Vnrk i the graphite ftnm Kucki county, ill Pennsylvania, is reduced to |x>W(ler, fornie()<^D. ne Botany of this and the othei cuiintries of North America hai boon ticicrlbed under the heailor Dritish America. Si;b8ECT, 9. Zoohpij. 5670. To our zoological remarks on North Aini'ricii in ){i>iioriil, liltio tnore need licrc he addod. Thu native quadrupeds, pnrticiiliirly tliose of a liir^o si/.i', liiivt lieen projircNvivtly diminishing a.s cultivation has advanced, iind liave reliTalcd to lliu vast plains heyimd tlie back settlements. The diflerent sorts of S<|uirrelN, I'^i*. anioii)( the siiniller races, still appear in considerable numbers, and at certain seasons riiriUHli ){iiinc for the iininteur sportsmen. Many of the (juadriipeds enumerated by Dr. Iticliardson are either dis|icrsiil, or occasionally appear, over the remaining portions of North America, niore |iarticiilarly to the westward. The American Hison, or liiiiralo, never coinnuni in the United St.ilc's, has gradually retired before the white population. Moose Deer, in like manner, were formerly found as fur south as the Ohio, but these also ure disappeiiriiig in the more cultivated states. Two species of Dear, the lilavk anil the (irisly, still retain posscs^inn of their former haunts, while the Uacoon, American liailger, I'isher, Lniiiiie, &c.. are among the more common species. 5671. The liliick Hear of America {Unm americunm Ilich.) (Jiii. 9'JO. ) is ft dlffweiii animal to that culled by the same name in Kurupc. Ii has a milder ilisposition, anil lives more nn vcgct.ibleM it is the smaller of thu .\ineriean species, seliiom ev cecding live feet in length; the fur is long, stral}.'lit. black, and shining, and when the skin was t'orincrlv in great reipiest, a "prime" one was worth IVoin twenty to forty guineas, ami even more; at iireseiil (18;I0) liie demand is small, from their being lilllo used cither a g^ muds or hammer>eloths, so that tlie best sell for liiil« more than forty KhillingN. The favourite food of tlii' species are dillerent berries ; in the ahsctiee of which it preys upon roots, insects, fish, eggs, and such birds or (jiiiulrupedi as it ciin surprise; but ^^'^^^y AMKHK'AN BUCK RBAR* Book IV. THE UNITED STATES. l»:<:l .'(1 IllTC Iw lioymul llic r;ii'i's, still tliL' miitttt'W r ili^iK'i'^i'''> irtii'iihirly liitoil Stales maiiiiiT, WW ill the moro ill luisscsMiin iiiin.', &»■■•• ■'"' • 1 is 111 V ... a iliflorcni Kuropi'. It vt'(;i'lal)lt>; svUlimi n- , 5trai(!lit. foriiKTly in twtntyto 1S;!0) llic tillirt » ii.,. for lil''« ,1.. tboil of llii' L. ofwtiit'"' jsiirpriwi'"'' 1)11); IS _i()m I il ( used t sell ' „ does not. from choice, touch animal food. Timid in its ( A/j. U21 .Us a much ^1.) i«a much more formidable i\xx\et ihnn the Utt, ihiiuuli 921 "« ">r i» less valuahic. Its strennlh and Iitck'Hv 1« URULV ■■AK. to great, that the Indian h'lntcrs u«v the un-ntoat precaution in attackiiu- it, Whpii aduU, It H rcimrtcd to attain a wciKhl cxicodinii 8tMl iHmmla. and one has been killed, meaturlng nine fwt from the nose to the tail, t*ome Idea of it* ilrcnplh maj be had, from knowing that It hat draiiKiHi'to a considerable distance tlic can-a«e of u bulllihi weighing alwut KHiOIIm. The following itorv, nr. Kichardson observes, is well authcntleated : — A party ol voyagers up the Saskatchewan hail seated themselves in the twilight liy a lire, and were busy in preparing their supiwr, when a large firialy Bear sprang over their eanoc that was tilted behind them, and, selling one of the imrty by the shoulder, carried him oil'. The rest Hed 111 terror, with the exception of a man named Koiirasso; who, grasping his gun, followed the l)car as it was retreating leisurely with its prey. ... « . . "e called to his unfortunate comrade that ho wan afraid Ot hitting him If he fired at the bear ; but the latter entreated him to do so immetliatelv, without luM- tatlon, as the bear was squeeiing him to death. On this he took a dclilicratc aim, an into the body of the iK-ar, which instantly dropt its prey to pursue him : hcescapeil with ditHcuTty, and the wounded man llnally recovereil." The cubs of the Orisly Bear can climb trees; but when the animal is l\ill grown, it cannot do so : the hunter may thus escape; but the infuriat';d animal will sometimes keen watch btlow, and thus confine its enemy for many hours. This is a carnivorous species, but occasionally eain Tcgetablcs. It inhabits the Rocky Mountains and the Eastern plains ; while its southern range Is statwl to reach Mexico. In 183() there was a live specimen in the Tower, ami two others in the I'aris garden bUlS. nc American or Red Fox {Vulpet fulvm) {fig. pus!.) boars a close resemblance to the 'cnmmflii Q,,., European Kox ; liut it has a longer and liner fur, its cars and nose are shorter, and its chirks rounder. It nreys much on the smaller aniiiials of the rat family, but devours all animal food j it hunts chieHy in the night, yet Is freiiiienllv mtu in the daytime. It runs for about 11X1 yanls uilli prcat swiftness j but its strength is exhauslcd in tlic first burst, and it is soon overtaken by a wolf or a mounted huntsman. The skins of about WKJO are annually im|>orted from the f\ir countries, 'I'he true European Vox {I'ulpes viilgaria) is said, hy naturalists, to inhabit North America ; hut l)r, Kichardson states it docs not exist in the countries AVKHI.AVKK.. ,0,. """Ij oftaiiada. It is possibly to this spmes which Ur, Godnian alludes, when he says th.it reddish foxes arc numerous in the middle and southern states, and arc every where nuturious depredators on the iKiultry yards. 5fi74. 7Ai' llalg and Mice of Europe, originally unknown in the New World, have been brought thither by the carlv Euriniean visiters. The lil.ick Hat seems to have multiplied very fast until llie intriKluction of tlie Hrnwn itat (A/us derumanus) thinneil its nuinlvrs ; and from this cause it h,is now liccnme as rare as it is in Kunnic. The lirown Kat first appeared in America in 177.'> ; it is now common in houvr, but in IWJ it had Mi't ,ulvanceI.Her«, .1,1. Aci'lik'nlal vl.ltem, ,11. iffn- tl. further amfarf thnt although the ipcclci In the noman Statci are fewer than Ihiise nf Phllailelphla the ftirmcr lieliig Wi the latter SHI, atill it la aiuerleil that the ilelldciicy la largely rieomiieiiiicd by a vtrv great aupcrlurlty In the number of liidlvliUiaU \ a hcl, hutretl, which the noble writer hiia liai| riili (iiinur tuiiltica to aaeertHln, but which wo ahmilil tint have erediteil on any ntlior authority. He ftirther rcinarka, that Hhilailclphia la Inferior to Home in tlio number of atatloiiary aiieeiea, and of thoae which eoine in the breedinu ^^^ lenaon ; while Philadef|ihin, on the other hand, exhiblta a miicli nintcl ^<^!) ^BSX\ numeroua liat of aurh winter and northern birda aa arrive from the arriu' reitiona during Intenae cold, and arc found in the apring aiul autumn in tin. more aoulhern prnvincca. .OtfJH. Amime the rmnciuut limit arc acveral hawka and owla well kiioKn In KiiroiH', while other* apiwar reatrlclcd to thia continent. The (all. fornian Vulture occura only lK<^ond the Kocky Mouotaliia; but twoutlur, of a black colour, arc common throughout the Statea. Unc of theic (C,/ Miir/i'i Aiirr. III. {JIg.'Mi.) goea by the name of the Turkey Vulture, tlic ■'' other ia called the niack Vulture. The King of the Vtdturoa U'iiH(iiir.i I'a/m) iK'longa more to South America, but a|>|ieara occaainnally in Kinriil,! Xi>< during aummcr. T'he largeat Eagle la the white-headed aiieciea (A. A'uiu- cephola Sw.) ; and the Oapiey or Fiah Hawk diffVra not trom our llriiikli race. The (ireat Hornnl «»w| ia aprcad over all the regiona between Caii,i(l,i timimi «i.irtii«. and Mexico ) but that gref t Morthcrn hiniter, the .Snowy Owl, aeldom wan. dera, except in acverc winti r<, into the midland atnlea. rH?79. To enumerate the mnny tix-ciei uf summer Jlinit •>■ h\?M aiuiually reaort at the hrceding acanon to Iho Unitcil Statea would far exceed our preaent limita. I'riiicu Imrlea llonaiiartc calculates the number tn k' met with inthi. ata:e of Fhilailelphiii alime at Hixty, not more tliaii tv/our three of whi ■hare known tn inhabit l''.uro|>o. America is ce- lelirated for ita kinging birda ; for, notwithatanilinK the allcKiri m. perinrity of our own, we muat concede the palm to that country which givea birth to the true Moekiiig.tiirA (Oriiheim imlt/olottm Sw,', The Wood Thruah, whoac nolea are lo charmingly iVofcrilHcl in Wilaon, repreaenta our Song Thrush j but the Virginian Ninhtiniiale ifln. Wi.) la more deacrving admiration for ita rich scarlet pliiniaiie than for any pretcnaiona it may be thought to have tn llic incl(Kly of ita nameaake. Secie« o' (truuse and one of Partridge. The American Woodcock \JtK- !l^'>') l><» I'Ik o^ ours, but hiia no banda of black on the un- der plumage; while the Siii|ica can acarcely he distiiiguiahed from those of Kurojic, except by their tjul feathers. .ItiSO. 'I'hc Fish, Kei)lilei , Insect), /. &c., present nothing very re- ,' ' markable to the general reader, ' although their eliicHlatinii would be highly interesting to the na- turalist. The nnmlier and va- riety of lish In the Ohio ia par- ticularly great. The rivcra anrl lakca abound with a aurprlsing number of Hivalve shells, exhibiting on their internal surface a luslrr, nearly equal tn the oriental pearl conntera and other ornaments made from the Pearl Oyster ) tlu'y do imi, however, a|i|iear to have been turned tn any other account than the making of sleeve buttons. I'hc puriilo •prries (ViiUi purjmraseens) (Jig.VUfi.) ia the most richly coloured. .MiHI. The Domestic .-tnimals may lie shortly notii'cd. America ia not destitute of indigonnus dnnicsllc •he<'|>, but the United States have been attentive to preserve and improve the breeds originally imported Irum Kngland, and Merinos have been introduced at high prices ; nevertlielcsa the woollen inanulacturcs httveiiol yet engagitl so much of the natuinal attention as with us. On the cattle, our information is but |iarliil: nlichaux remarks that the number in Kentucky is very considerable, often forty or lifty at a plaiitatianMhcv are Iwught lean, and sent to Virginia tn \k fatlenetl. Sheep, in the aamc province, are very few ; and of ail the Uoincillc animali, Piga seem to be the most numerous. VIHKIMAN NlnN^l^rlAI.H. 935 !)26 amuriiA.v WMincacK. 1 .vio ri HPr Sect. III. Historical Geography, HW2, The discovery of North America closely followed that of the WcEtcrn Ilcinlsplicre in geiivnil. It wns in l-}!)2 that Columbus first laiulvii in Ilispaniola ; and the century had not closed when the two Cnbots had explored the whole coast as high as I^alirador. Tlic Spaniards, however, were the first who formed a settlement upon it, which was in Florida, ill WiUi, under Juan de Ponce, which they retained till 17(>3, notwithstanding suinu blouJv contests with the natives, and the rival eflbrts made liy the French aiul Knglish. 5W'.\. It was in Viri/inia, and under the reign of Elizabeth, that the first effort was raadt: to establish these important colonics. Spain had already drawn all the brilliant priiies; but the active reign of Elizabeth, and the romantic enterprise of Sir Walter llaleif;!], impciy the English towards Virginia, under which name was then v.iguely comprehended iuariy nil the coast now held by the United States. l)ut though Sir Iluniphry Oilbvrt and Sir Walter Kaleigh made or sent some expeditioits thither, there was no final settlement till the reign of James I., when, according to the custom of the age, two ccnipanin Book IV. THE UNITED STATES. were formciJ, liaving n diffbrcnt Hpliere attached to ench 1335 The first, composed of many tlio the persons of rank and offlcern of distinction, sailed in 1607, and formed a settlement on River Powlia an, which fal s into the Dny of I'otowmac. They were s,mn involved. UHiuil, ni deadly contest with the natives ; Captain Smith, the most efficient leader of \„c- colony, was even taken prisoner and about to he put to / a number of public-spirited individuals, with the view of finding employment for multitudes uf the distressed labouring classes. It suffered considerably by dissension until 1752, when it was taken under the immediate care of government, and placed on the same footing with the Carolinas. 5686. These tetttcments continued to flourish under the English sway. The native In- dians were driven to a distance ; the charters which liad been wrested from the states by Charles II. and James II. were restored ; and they advanced rapidiv in culture and popu- lation. The war of 1756 — 63 was attended with signal triumphs of the British arms, and its issue added Florida and Canada to the empire, which thus comprised in one united mass all settlements of any value formed by Europeans in North America. But the pride of lirltain, thus raised to the utmost height, was soon destined to experience a severe humiliation. 5687. The American revolution, already prepared by the distance and increasing great- ness of these states. Arose immediately out of the claim of Britain to impose taxes on them without their own consent. After a scries of discussionSj Britain refusing wholly to withdraw this claim, the American colonics rose in rebellion ; and being favoured by the extent and local difficulties of the country, and finally aided by France, Spain, and Holland, they, in 178:5, wrested from Britain a full acknowledgment of their independence. Since timt time these colonics have ranked as a separate and republican power, under the title of the United States of North America. 5688. The settlement of the H'estem States, between the Alleghany aiwl the Jlississippi, formed a wonderful addition to the power and resources of tlie American Union. Before the loss of Canada, the French bad begun to settle the Ohio ; and, in 1 767, the Americans began their emigration to Kentucky. That territory ranked as a hack settlement to Vir- ginia till 1792, when, in consequtnce of its growth in wealth and population, it was admitted to the rank of a state ; and Congress afterwards passed a resolution, acknow- ledging as sueh every .settlement which had reached the number of 60,000 souls. On the same grounds were admitted, in 1796, Tennessee; in 1802, Ohio; in 1816, Indiana; in 1817, Alabama; in 1818, Illinois; in 1821, Missouri; in 1856, Michigan and Arkansas. l!)30 DKSCniPTIVE OEOORAPHY. I'tKTill, Out of the vast cxpaniu) of the North-wc«t territory, two governmunti, WlMKiiuhi iinil Iiiwn, bnve been fi>rmoil, and will doulitlcM in due time make good thuir claim to rank h« iitiiti'*, 5689. The piut rtginn Itryond th» Miuitiipvi drvw the attuntlun of (liu AMivrli'uiin, m •oon a.« their settlements l)eg»n to press agamst that river. Here, iii the old ti>rrlliiry was peopled, an unbounded scope was afforded for fresh emigration and ■i>lllumviils, 'I'lui purchase of Louisiana in 1H(M, from Bonaparte, who liad taknn it fVoni H|iMin in vhimshkii for a paltry principality in Italy, removed all obstacles to thuir views. 'I'liu vnpeditliiiii. nf Captains Lewis and Clarke, and that of Major Long, explored this territory its fur n< the llocky Mountains, and even to a point on the Pacific ; and Europe nvi|uiiM< {''rciu'li and Spaniards, Mississippi, Alabama, and afterwards Missouri, were iiiIuiUUmI Inin i||,i Union OS states. All the remainder of this tract is occupied only nt a few i4«Mlli'riendence, a strong party, at the head of which were JelU'rm.n nml Madison, sought to introduce almost pure democracy ; but Washington, Adams, I liinillinii, and other statesmen attached to the federal system, succeeded in establlsliing n giivcrniiii'iil more nearly approaching to the original rrrwlel of the Hritish constitution | in wlilch ilui popular branch is clicckewi'rii, niid carries on every thing connected with the protection and defence of the nntioii, ('(iiiiiili'ri'il as an united Ixidy. At the same time, there are state government* for tlio regtiliilldii nf internal and local concerns. 5692. The itate govtmmenti are a sort of miniature of the general gnvernnuMil. Tlu'v have their senate, their house of representatives, their governor, and oounell, nil idi'i'tcd liv the people. The elective franchise belongs in general to the whole body ol'lVvk* i'ill«i'ii<, with some distinctions as to particular states. In New IIumpNhire, PuniiNylvMhiiti llcln- ware, the Carolinas, and Georgia, it is confined to citizens paying taxes) in CiiniU'i'ili'iii and Virginia to freeholders ; in Massachusetts, New York, and New JerHey, to m«t'rv('il, except in a few instances. The formation and maintenance of roads and vanHlN, hihI iIh' provision for public instruction, belong in general to the state governmentN, 5693. The general government, or Congress, exercises a supreme sway over tllp HJiiili' nf America. It has power to impose taxes for national defence, or for all piirpiikuH I'liiiiU'i'liil with the general welfare of the American people ; to borrow money i lo legiiliiU' I'nri'ifiii commerce ; to establish uniform laws of bankruptcy and naturaliNation i to eoln niiiiu'), and fix the standard of weights and measures ; to declare war ; to raise and kiijijiiii'l nii army and navy; to call forth the militia, and provide for organising, arming, and ilixi- plintng it ; and to carry on all transactions with foreign states. 5694. The legislative branch consists of two l)odies, the House of Ueprenenl.illvi'< nml the Senate. The former arc elected every two years by the body of thu people, I'licliiilliiil slaves, Indians, and two fifths of the people of colour. There was origiiiHlly ii iiii'iiilHt for every 40,000 inhabitants ; but, that the number may not become liio ({rent, llir standard has been altered, and is at present 47,700. The senate coukInIh of Iwii iiit'Mil>rr> from each state, elected by the legislative bodies of that state. The nieiiihert I'liiilhiiii'iit office for six years ; but one third of their number is changed every two yearx, lli'li', ii< in the British legislature, the concurrence of both houses is necessary befiiru niiy inntlnii can pass into a law. 5695. The president is chosen by the general body of voters, not directly, hut liy ll MM number of electors nominated by them. He continues in otiice four yeafN, mill niiiy Iv re-elected : yet no president has been so more than once. Ho is the head of Hit' t'lii'i'iiliri' government, and exercises the 8.ime functions as the king of Great Britain, enci'iil lliiil In' cannot make peace or war, and that his nomination to all civil and inilllary iilll)'t"< l«iii'l valid till confirmed by two thirds of the senate. Nor does he possess a M\ vi'tii ii|">ii llir laws presented to him by congress; but if he disapprove, tlinNo laws onniiol |m*i'* williiiuli II.MK IV. rilE UNITED STATES. 1:137 , .M.-iirrcnco of two tliirdi. of (hat luxly. lUn salary it only 2.1,(XX) dollnw (about ,1:10«ulciic« ; not iu»flcii-nt, it in fkupiionccl, to dulVay tlie vxpeiMo of tlio nituntiuii, tirithoiit Home privntv forttino. ,5f!!)«. The sui)reme Judicial power roslilf* in a chii-f junticc, witli nix osiocintc \w\itv*, wl». Iiaving Ik'ch oppoiiitcd l>y tliu prmiili-tit, witli the concurrence of the Henote. holil their y the commerclol disasters of that year, which reduced the amount of customs, while the public lands brought only about (5,000,000 dollars, 'i'hc wars u ith the Indians, aIiii, with the arrangements and treaties for their removal beyond the Mississippi, raised the expi'iiiliture, in 1836, to 31, and in 1837 to 39 millions. We sre not aware, however, that any fresh debt has been incurred. In 183(3, the expenses for the civil government were ■l,7(i.),(KX) dollars; — being for congress, 843,a(X); civil and diplomatic, 2,799,000; pensioners, clerks, ftc. , 538,000 ; supplementary, 585,000. Those for tho navy were 4,575,000 ; army, ■l„'IIO,(XX); army and navy extraordiniiries, 3,847,(XX); '.'xtraordinuries for the Indian (Iqiartincnt, 13,551,000. The extent and mode of disposing of the public lands will he hIiimvii in treating of the western territory. .'i(ifl9. The military force of the United States consists almost entirely of militia, which in |ioint of numbers sounds exceedingly formidable. In 1815 they amounted to 748,(XX); mid in 1837 had increased to 1,033,000. This vast mass, however, being exercised only for II liny or two in the year, is described to be greatly and even ludicrously deficient in iliu'lpline and subordination. Yet though, at the commencement of the last war, they were ('X|iiise(l to severe and mortifying reverses, they were able, before its close, in a good inoisiire to redeem their character. The regular force, which in the war of independence never exceeded 27,000, was raised, in 1814, to ()3,(XX); but immediately on the conclusion III' peace it was reduced to 10,000. It amounted in 1837 to 7958 men, consisting of four re);iineiits of artillery, two of dragoons, and seven of infantry. Economy and political jealousy seem to be tlie joint causes which induce the States to bring it ounded forest : in New York, one of the most advanced, not above a fourth is cleared. Land is so plentiful, in proportion to the population and capital, that rent has scarcely begun to have any existence, the farmer being in almost every case proprietor of the spot which he cultivates. Government lands in the western states arc exposed to auction, at l^ dollar an acre ; and even the very best seldom brnig above six dollars. The implements and processes are rude. The attempts made by Ilritisli farmers to introduce a more skilful system have been found premature, and must be deferred until a more advanced period 5703. The products of land in Amnrica are very various. Timber of different kinds is obtained by the mere process of clearing land for cultivation ; but as this operation is more extended, the wood has risen in price, and is becoming somewhat scarce. Maize, an indi- genous American grain, is universally cultivated, and, though of an inferior species to wheat, is suited to a greater variety of soils and situations. It is extremely prolilic, and admirably fitted for feeding cattle. Wheat is also general, but succeeds best in the middle and western, and in the uplands of the southern states. In the northern, oats for liorstfs' food, and rye for distillation, arc the prevalent species. Maryland and Virginia have tljc grand staple of tobacco, which is raised there on a greater scale than in any other part (if the world. In the Carolinas and Georgia, and lately in Alabama and Mississippi, cotton, for which there is so vast a demand in Europe, has become the prevailing article ; that produced on the coast, called Sea Island*, bears the highest price, but the greatest (juantity is drawn from the interior. The moist lands in the same region are employed in tlic cultivation of rice to a greater amount than in any other country out of Asia. In tluisi; districts of Florida and of Louisiana which border on the torrid zone, the sugar-cane is found to flourish, supplying already a great part of the internal consumption. Even from the maple tree, in the northern states, sugar is made to the extent of 9,000,000 llis. Flax and hemp are raised in considerable quantities, especially in the west. The breeds of horned cattle have been much improved in Pennsylvania and other states, and the merino sheep have been introduced without apparent degeneracy, though not to a very great extent. AVine, silk, hops, are articles of prospective culture, regarding which the friends of Ameriia indulge in sanguine anticipations. The entire value of American agricultural produce va estimated, in 1812, at about 105,000,000/. sterling, of which more than 5,(X)0,000/, was exported. The amount since that time has greatly increased. 5704. Manufactures of a high class are not suited to a country in this early stage, wliicli, in general, finds it more advantageous to purchase with its raw produce the fabrics of oilier nations. The Americans have made extraordinary elTorts to force them, by proteclin;; duties : those imposed by the tariff of 1828 were almost prohibitory, but the sufl'erings thus caused, and the loud complaints excited, led to an arrangement for gradually reducing tlicni, so that in 1842 the duty on the principal articles will not exceed 20 per cent. Already there is a large and increasing production, and even export, of heavy and bulky fabrics, In 1810, the total produce of the loom was, by an oflRcial inquiry, estimated at His,; "[ coarse, 10,905,000 lbs. There were employed in the manufacture 1549 " sets of niacliinwy' (meaning, we suppose, factories), of which 344 were of broad cloths, 178 kerseymeres, ,"4 8ttiinet«, 158 flannels, 210 linseys, 24 blonkets, hats, &c., 61 carpets. About 150 were suii- nollars. 249,000,000 202,000,000 75,0(X),(XX) 20,000,000 200,000,000 60,000,000 1 20,(KX),000 100,000,000 40,000,000 were, in fourteen """r is almost tl Book IV. THE UNITED STATES. 1330 posed to be employed upon foreign, the rest upon native, wool. Cotton is the object of an immense production and export, a great part being received back from Britain in a manu> factured state. The quantity worked up within the country was estimated, in 1835, at 800 millions of lbs., employing l,7.'>0,0008p .idles ; the capital invested, at 80 millions of dollars. ,570.5. Mining is not as yet a prominent branch of American industry, her welUremune- Mted labourers being unwilling to engage in so painful a task. Yet the materials are not wimting. Gold is extensively diffused through quartz rock from Virginia to Georgia, which last is now the most productive quarter. In 1824, the value was only 5000 dollars in North Carolina, to which it was conKned till 1830, when South Carolina came forward on a small, and Georgia on a great, scale. The largest produce was in 1834, amounting to S98,00O dollars, which in 1835 fell to G98,5(X), and in 1836 to 467,000. Of these, Vir- ginia yielded 62,000; North Carolina, 148,100; South, 55,200; Georgia, 201,400 ; Ten- nisscu, 300. This was the amount brought to the mint ; but it is supposed a great part tiikfs another destination. Iron has a very wide range among the primitive rocks of New Enjjland, New York, New Jersey, and part of Pennsylvania. Bar iron was made in 1810 to the amount of 27,000 tons ; inlS.IO it had increased to 112,800 tons; and there were then I91,.500 tons of pig iron. Ores of copper are numerous along nearly the whole range of tlie eastern states ; yet repeated attempts to work them have proved anprofitable. Lead is found in vast abundance in the most western states, particularly Missouri and Wisconsin. It bef;an to be worked in 1821, and in the next three years yielded only 335,000 lbs. In 1829 it rose to 14,541,01K) lbs., but afterwards declined, and in 1835 was only 3,7j4,00O lbs. Tliere are large beds of anthracite coal in Pennsylvania, and of the bitu- minous kinds in the Mississippi valley. The quantity raised has been estimated at 770,000 tons ; yet this does not supersede a considerable import from Nova Scotia. Salt from sta-water is made in Massachusetts, while different parts of the western territory contain copious brine springs, yielding, it is supposed, 5,500,000 bushels for the supply of that inland region. 5706. Commerce is carried on with very great activity. As a pursuit congenial to the spirit of republicanism, it is considered the most honourable, and the merchants in the great towns form the only species of aristocracy that exists. Mr. Warden even boasts that business is done more promptly than in any other country ; that a ship will be unladen in a fu\r days, which would reciuire elsewhere as many months ; that no vessels are built so expeditiously, or sail so fast. Witli sloops of sixty or eighty tons, they double Cape Horn, carry ou the South Sea whale-fishery, and enter the ports of China. The long suspension of direct intercourse between the European states during the revolutionary war stimulated the commerc'.' of America to a premature activity, and called into existence the carrying trade, usually peculiar to the most advanced stage of industry. The following table exlill)lts the progressive amount of exports, imports, and tonnage of shipping, from 1795 to 1837, drawn from Pitkin's Statistical View, Porter's Tablet, and M'Culloch's Dictionary. Ye.\rs. K)i)Kirt8. Zni)iorts. Tonnafre emiiloyed. Dollars. Dollars. 1791 n\iK\,{m 29,2(K),(Hi0 ,')02,0fl0 17»S 47,8r)5,(K10 fi9,7.'>ii,()(K) 747,9(10 17'J8 CI Mi,(m C8,.Vil,(100 808,000 IWIl 93.(12(1,(100 lll,3l'i3,(KI0 i,o:!;i,oflo 1804 77,,t(KI,0(K) 1,424,000 IHIS .52,.').')7,0()0 83,080,000 1,3(18,000 1819 70,142,' 00 87,140,000 l,2(!(i,(l(X) 1H22 72,i(;o.(ioo Kt,241,(H10 1,324,000 1825 y9„'j3r>,(ioo 9(i,340,(H10 1,423,0(10 1828 72,2(i4,0(IO 88,.'i(«l,(K)0 1,741,0(10 1831 HI, 310,0(10 103,191,000 l,2(i7,n(H) IKVj H7,177,(Kin 101,029,000 l,4;t9,000 1833 :io, 140,000 108,118,000 i.(ifl(i,ooo 1834 104,330,(H)0 12r.,.V2l,OflO l,7."i8,(XI0 183!) 121,(i'.l3,()00 149,89.'),000 1,824,000 1 183G 128,003,000 189,990,000 l,893,(i(IC 18S7 117,419,000 14(I,9.V),(I00 1,890,000 Tlie apparent reductions of the tonnage in 1815, and 1831, arose from the correction of an erroneous system of adding, in each year, the vessels built, without allowing for those lost ami worn out •''707. T/ie exports of America consist almost entirely of the unmanufactured produce of land, to ho either consumed or worked up by foreign states. Grain is limited by the lieavy freight with which it must be loiuled before reaching Europe, so that wheat nour is almost the only form in which it can be transported. Cotton, however, has now liuconic greatly the leading article. Tobacco, an old staple, is still considerable, llice, naval stores, staves, and timber, salted pork, and butter are also of importance. The 1340 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pari III. following is a statement of the value of the produce and manufactures of theUnitcd Stutos exported in the year, to 30lh September, 1837 : — Hpeckis of McrchandUe. The Sea.' Fisheries ; — Dried fish, or cod fisheries Pickled lish, or river fltheries (her- ring, sliad, salmon, mackerel) Wlialc and other flsli oil Spermaceti oil W balebone Spermaceti candlci The Forest. Skins and Airs Ginseng - - - Products of JVood: — Staves, shingles, boards, Ac, Other lumber Masts and spars - - Oak bark, and other dye All manufactures of wood Naval Stores : — Tar, pitch, rosin, and turpentins • Ashes, pot and pearl AOHICULTURE. Products of Animals ;— Beef, tallow, hides, horned cattle Butter and cheese Pork (pickled), bacon, lard, live hogs Horses and mules Sheep - . Vegetable Food : — Wheat Flour - . Indian com Indian meal Rye meal • Rye, oats, and other small grain Biscuit, or ship bread Potatoes Apples Hico Tobacco Cotton All other Agricultural Products :■ Flaxseed Hops Brown sugar MANrrACTUBES. Snap and tallow candles Leather, boots, and shoes Household furniture Coaches and other carriages Hats f)88,B06 181,334 l,271,r.45 101,875 223,r>82 23,fi,-!0 40,990 2,309,279 5,795,647 63,240,102 50,553 89,705 22,668 393,031 ]14,.553 265,421 100,565 185,066 Species of Merchandise. Saddlery ... Wax Spirits fVom grain, beor, ale, & porter Snuff and tobacco Lead Linseed oil and spirits of turpentine Cordage Iron — pig, bar, and nails — Castings — All manufactures of Spirits, from molasses Sugar, refined Chocolate Gunpowder Copper and brass Medicinal drugs Cotton Piece Goods :— Printed and coloured White Nankeens Twist, yarn, and thread All other manufactures of Flax and Hemp ;— Cloth and thread Bags, aud all manufactures of Wearing apparel Combs and buttons Brushes, billiard tables and apparatus Umbrellas and parasols Leather and morocco skins not per lb Printing presses and type Fire-engines and apparatus Musical instruments Books and maps Paper ond stationery Paints and varnish Vinegar Earthen and stone ware Manufacttu-es of Glass Tin Pewter, lead, marble, and stone Gold .ind silver, and gold leaf Gold and silver coin Artificial Bowers and jewelry Molasses Trunks Brick and lime Domestic salt Articles not enumerated :— M.tnufacturcd Other articles Total Dnllarl, Xfim 91,1W 145„')l!i 427,836 17,015 .W,726 15,;w 151,0(0 'JII.S'JO 53,513 215,728 3,051 181,716 91,724 137,2S7 549,801 2,043,115 1,815 61,702 175,040 18,42^ 29,8!tj 218,34(1 i'im 4,WJ 12,043 21,316 24,905 2,710 4,H57 .:S,142 .W,5-;i 17,241 4.313 I4,2lil 44,!l.-iO 10,s!l2 ■ 8,5(ii 6,M3 1,283,51(1 11,201 7,i;i 2,a!| 2<),(ar, 5(1,472 . r)W,8w 5(11),80'J 95,.5(>4,4U The articles of foreign growth and manufacture exported amounted, by Mr. M'Cullocli's statement, to 21,854,962 dollars, making 8 grand total of 117,419,376 dollars. 5708. The imports consist of all those various articles of consumption wliich America does not make or produce within herself; the Uncr fabrics of wool, cotton, silk, flax and hemp, iron, steel, and brass, and the luxurious and aromatic products o the East and West Indies — coffee, tea, sugar, spices, &c. ; also wines and spirits. Tlie tuUowing is a statement of tlie amount and value fur the same year : — Species of Merchandise. Value. Species of Merchandise. Value. Dollart. Mllrl. Free of Duty. Rags of any kind of cloth 439,228 Articles for the U. States 375 Undressed furs 515.277 Hides and skins, raw 3,.1IIC,i)«l Articles for Phil. Societies, ^c. : — Plaster of Paris I43,3,17 Philosophical apparatus, &c. Books, maps, and charts 14,2.50 Barilla 115,013 31,974 Wood, dye • - - i.l'.W: Fine arts 5,687 Unmanufactured mahogany, & other (;:iii.i»',n Antiquities - - - 2,081 Animals for breed I'l.'.'i'* Scientific 9,283 all other ... 103,101 Antimony, regulus of - 13,511 Pewter, old - 2,|iM Spelter or line 94,163 Tin, In pigs and bars ri2fl,0i)l Burr stones, unwrought • ^ Brimstone and sulphur ' 21,717 plates .'Uid sheets 7»1,M2 69,321 Brass, in pigs and bars 147.287 Bark of the cork treo 4,545 19,336 Clay, unwrought 12.467 Hats, caps, and I Book IV. THE UNITED STATED Table of Impo«t» — continued. 1841 M9,8fll 2,043,115 1,815 61,702 175,04U 1«,42.2 2D,S9j 218,34'' 43,fi« 4,K'JU 12,043 21,316 24,'J05 2.7111 4.H.i; J8,14'2 .VI,:.7'J 17,'24i 4.313 M,»lil 44.P) l«,Ki'> .5,M3 l,283,.'il!l 11,2111 7,1TI 2,ai1 WM 58,4;2 S»0,«02 l)Cil,8CM V«lM. '■ Doddrl. 43'>,2ffl 51.5.277 3,3IICi,i'i»l 113,3.17 115.r,13 ■21i7,(V»i C.tO,W 81,OT ; 103,101 , 2,!)» ' C20,001 781,W2 147.281 Species of MtiTchindiie. Spices Value. Copper) In pigs and bars in plates for sheatliing ships for the use of the mint old, fit only for re-manufac ture Sullion, gold silver Specie, gold silver Teas from India, China, &c. Coft'ce Cocoa - , Almond* Currant! _ ,. J Prunes - • Fruits'^ Figs Raisins, in boxes .AH other 'Mace Nutmegs Cinnamon Cloves Pepper Plmentp Cassia LGinger Camphor . ,." , Slll(s, other than Indian, lace veils shawls, shades, &c. Other manufactures of Manufactures of silk and worsted Camlets of goats' hair, or cashmere of Thibet Worsted and stuff goods Mncns, bleached and unbleached Ticklenburgs and burlaps Shooting, brown and white Bolting cloths: Wool, not exceeding 8 cents per pound Quicksilver Opium Crude saltpetrj All other articles Total Mebcmandisb pavino Ddtiii ad VALOREM. Mannfacltires (if IVool:— Cloths and casslmeres Other articles of wool Worsted yarn Manttfaclures of Cotton ;— Dollart, 921,789 !i89,3B9 13,607 270,036 636,M9 594,291 1,80.5,26.5 7,490,309 6,901,695 8,6,57,700 225,456 239,321 44,9.57 73,210 82,867 980,201 340,629 23,145 97,168 18,693 25,624 298,652 242,446 99,263 42,616 104,821 297,461 10.816,718 1,810,947 99,143 3,3,50,266 4,851,857 384,716 541,771 25,958 703,276 20,153 57,061 6.53,564 8,423,674 Species of Merchandise* 69,250,031 8,013,460 929,288 172,128 Dyod, printed, or c(jloured White 7,087,270 1,611,398 Hosiery, gloves, mitts, and bindings 1,267,267 Twist, yarn, and thread 404,603 Nankeens, direct from China 35,900 Other arUcles 744,313 Silks from India, l/c. :— Piece goods 2,293,296 Other 707,696 Lace of thread and cotton 806,199 Manufactures of flax 792,904 hemp 695,868 Hats, caps, and bonnets 652,364 Manufactures of Iron, and Iron and Sleel :— Arras 583,033 Other articles ... 4,911,678 Slamtfacturci qf — Copper - - • 103,729 Brass - - 504,848 Tin - 41,978 Pewter > • - 44,116 Lead 6,697 Wood — cabinet-ware 87,033 other articles 230,269 Leather ... 431,119 Marble - - - 18,972 Gold and silver, and predoui ttonei. set or otherwise 467,085 Watches, and parts of - - SaMlery . . 1,345,807 816,216 Glassware Wares .— China and porcelain Earthen. and stone Gilt Plated, not speclQed Japanned Coach and harness furniture Carriages and parts of Slates of all kinds Quills, prepared Black-lead pencils Paper-hangings Hair-cloth and halr-seattng Bruiihes of all kinds Cu|ipcr bottoms, cut round, &c. Silvered and plated wire Raw silk . f Indigo . , Wool, unmanufactured, exceeding cents per pound Articles not enumerated, 5 per cent. Do. 10 do Do. 12. Uo. 12) Do. 15 Do. 20 Do. 25 Do. 30 Do. 35 Do. 40 Do. 60 do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. Value. Total HlHOaANDIIR PATIMO SPBCIflO Duties. Flannels, balie, &c. Carpeting and Floor-Cloth ;—' Brussels, Wilton, and treble in' grained Other ingrain and Venetian Floor-cloth, patent, printed, or Rainted -cloth, other than patent floor cloth Cotton bagging mnes ;— Madeira Sherry Sicily Of France Of other countries Spirits from grain Do. other materials Molasses Vinegar, beer, &c. Oi'/— olive Linseed Other oils Teas, from other places than China Chocolate Siuror — brown White Other Cheese Soap ... Tallow Lard . . - Beef and pork Bacon Butter Cigars . . . • Oiher kinds of tobacco - Cotton Gunpowder Bristles Glue OcAre — dry In oil - - Rod lead Whiting, &c. Sugar of lead Lead — pig, bar, and sheet Shot I'lpes Old and scrap 190,597 144,450 253 5,030 235,630 1,231,659 21,589 883,927 109,260 6,113 4 197,820 37,716,374. 111,249 66,864 253,195 27,369 18,686 429,251 793,210 277,790 97,645 1,744,041 1,280,700 336,563 1,134,239 3,444,701 60,674 169,294 403,527 8,325 1,359 1,311 6,118,166 1,084,502 1,138 22,885 26,189 19,866 5,239 11,854 22,018 12,162 1,217,724 4,862 138,470 13,048 142,740 3,362 26,842 12 47,316 49,840 86,640 13,871 529 116 8,8t» 1343 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. TA8LE.or lMroRT» — continued. Pam III. !<|i«cia of Mefthandtae. Cordage — cables and tarred Untarred, and yarn Twiftc, packthread, and leines Corks ... Copper — rods, nails, &c. Muskets, rifles, &c.. Iron and steel wire Tacks, lirnds, and tprlgs Iron — nails, spikes Cables, chains, &c. Sheet and hoou PIS« Old and scrap Bar, manufactured by rolling Uo. otherwise Steel Hemp Wheat flour Salt Coal Value. Dolli.. . .34,108 12,180 143,818 61,83a 1,091 l)i,373 63„'>33 6fi.774 4»,K14 403,1)78 504,473 422,929 18„1»1 2,.')73,3(i7 2,()I7,3IG 804.817 483,7!ta I22,fi.'>l 8«2,r.l7 362,079 Bpeciet of Merchandise. Wheat Potatoes Paper Books Ado ('■lass bottles Window glass Fiih — dried or smoked .Salmon Mackerel All other Shoes, boots, &c. Divers small articles Total v.ilue of merchandise paying 8i>ecific duties - - Do. do. ad vaUirem Uo. do. free of duty Total Value. tMlar,."' 4,1M,325 20,821 77,183 210,190 2f),251 a57,im 111,327 13,528 50,03:) 9.08!) 24.828 81.1,12 lll,l(;fl .34,n22.SI2 37.7I(1.374 140,989,217" The following exhibits (also for 1837) the commerce of the United States, consiidcred nrith reference to the countries with which it was carried on : — Value of Eipons. — Countrtct. Value of Imiiorts. Pomestic Foretxn Produce. Produce. Total. Mtllri, Dollar,. Dullint. 73.7/,lf,. Russia . . 2,810,110 144,080 1.162,652 I,3(«i,732 Prussia . ■ - 497,829 l(Ki,.558 33,427 13',l.!IK.'i Sweden and Norway 1,399.901 211,700 208,704 42(1.404 SwiKlish West Indies 68,977 84,114 3,005 87,110 Denmark . • 102,819 172.260 109,421 2«l,nNl Danish West Indies - - - 1,164,087 1,124.642 233,8.50 1.3.W,4!I2 N't'therlnnds - - - 1,886,976 2,(a5,l)89 1,322,936 3.3.'iS..'iii Dutch Kast Indies - - - 1,019,769 263,2.50 285,224 •Mx,474 Dutch West indies 419,107 291,779 30,876 32'J.f,,W Dutch Guiaua - - • 44,976 .54,518 I, .595 ."^uia Belgium . . - .'i49,(H)9 716,618 393,!Mi9 l,110..'»(7 England . . - 43,.'i66,7.W 46,235,102 4,884,768 51,ll!l,«-n Scotland ... 1,188.410 3,441,211 12,,596 3,4.\'I,S07 Irt'Lind - • • - 131,776 9.893 . 9.W Gibraltar ... 207,173 3R 1.031 203,870 .'i6l.!Kil Malta ... .15,961 100,805 173,366 271,1"! British Kast Indies 3,041,842 120,.591 82,967 2(«,.W British West Indies 1,451.302 2,074.4!18 43,866 2,II»,IW British Guiana . . - 6,244 42,885 . i'i.K Honduras ... 202,624 99,694 12,1,58 I11.HS2 Britisli African Ports . 1,780 • 1,7* Cape of (i4.949 French Atl.inllc Forts 20,521,496 16,1.54,.567 1,690,114 17,844,W1 French Meiliterranean Ports 1,562,118 1,196,347 649„5,50 l.M,"!.*.!? French West Indies 414,203 .50,5,063 ,54,7W i.nii.'.im 27ti.KVJ 354,433 3.\«ll- 1 C,3l'i7,ri'B riisi.'.iKi 141,4011 lOI.OT iri.Md llil,(l*< jfl.lu7 24,4117 i.r.ii.M ! lU,3l'i ;t«sn32a 1(11 17 ,11™ |.'i7,OT 1 iiHii,iin i,7i:i.*'i 7,iM 1,4H7,7!« 111^ Countries. I-- Caina Europe Asia - Africa Weat Indler South Seal Sandwich Islandi Auitralaaia Uncertain placet y«loe of Import*. DoUau. 8,965,337 I9(i,g41 709,077 2,183 4 1, COS 6,601 4S,C6,1 5,261 Value of KipoTti. I>oniMtlc Produce. Forelfpi Produce. Dollitrt. 318,978 124.303 70,171 299,6.52 445.780 19,8.57 29,920 DotUn. 311,618 2.53,22,5 129,843 21,777 2.436 18,230 1,328 Total. IMIar,. 630,501 124,993 323,396 429,495 467,\57 22,203 48,150 1,328 JS^ ^J_'.'«q,?89,_217_ J^,56i4U_ _jn,854,962_ J117,419^|J We can also exhibit, for the same ye ar, t he export, and imp orUot each particula r ,iaU, - Value of Imnorti. ^TT ~ n Statu and Terrltorlet. Malnp New Hampshire Vermont Masiachusetts Rhode IsLinil Connecticut New York New Jersey Pennsylvania Delaware Maryland D. of Columbia Virginia North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Alabama Mlstissippi Louisiana Ohio Kentucky Tennessee Michigan Florida Total In American veuels. DoUar: 661,098 81,550 342,449 19,231,633 607,802 311,121 I 68,863,370 ' 69,1,52 10,715,907 66,201 6,249,063 75,778 589,276 236,731 1,620,878 492,029 342,379 10,037,546 6,085 17,782 27,401 490,784 122,177.193 In Foreign TCSSL-lS. Dalian. 140,306 284 753,035 1.5,808 7,728 10,438,352 964,024 640 1,607,970 26,447 224,.586 34,982 889,982 282,320 267,006 3,082,466 11,662 ToUl. lM(arf. 801,404 81,434 342,449 19,984,668 523,610 318,849 79,301,772 69,1,52 11,080,111 66,841 7,8,57,033 102,225 813,862 271,623 2,510,860 774,349 609,385 14,020,012 17,747 17,782 27,401 490,784 noniettic Produce. Value cfEiporli. 1 DaUan. 947,276 26,000 138,693 4,871,901 411,806 623,103 16,083,969 19,640 2,565,712 40,333 3,365,173 467,766 3,699,110 •548,876 11,1.38,992 8,935,041 9,6.52,910 304,831 31,546,275 132,844 69,790 74,373 Foreign Produce. IM(iir<. 8,676 8,641 4,866,289 76,452 9,487 11,2.54,4,50 24,.577 1,275,887 424,744 1,443 3,604 2,919 81,169 6,898 3,792,422 28,304 Total. DdUn. 955,952 34,641 I 138,693 I 9,728,190 ' 488,2.58 532,.590 27,338,419 44,217 3,841,599 40,333 3,789,917 469,209 3,702,714 .551,795 11.220,161 8,935,041 9,658,808 304,831 35,338,697 132,844 69,790 102,677 18.812,024 1140,989,217 105,564.414 1.21,8,54,962 ! 117,419,.t76 5709. Hie shipping of the States is considerable, as compared with the other brandies of industry; her seamen are active and enterprising; and the country affords ample materials. An artificial and less salutary impulse has been given by tonnage duties on tbreign vessels, which are altogether excluded from the coasting trade. The following statement will show that, since 1821, there has been a large and continued increa.se, yet that every restriction has not prevented the foreign shipping from augmenting in a much more tlian equal proportion : — Vnm ending MhSeiH. Inwaroi. Ot-TWARDi. ■ American. Fordfin. Total. American. Forelifn, 1 roui. 1 Toiu. Tom. Tot*. Tont. roiu. Toiii. 1821 765,098 81,526 846,624 804,947 83,073 888,020 1822 787.961 100,541 8SB,.502 813,748 97,490 911,238 1823 77,5.271 119,468 894,739 810.761 119,740 930,601 1824 8,50,093 102,367 952,400 919,278 102,552 1,021,830 ! 188.5 880,754 92,927 973,681 960,366 95,080 1,0.55,446 182G 942,206 105,654 1,047,860 9.53,012 99,417 l,a52,429 1827 918,361 137,689 1,0,56,960 980,.542 131.2.50 1,111,792 1828 868,381 1.50,223 1,018,604 897,404 151,030 1,048,434 IBID 872,949 130,743 1,003,692 944,799 133.0(16 l,077.8a5 1830 967,227 131,900 1,099,127 971,760 133,436 l,ia5,196 1831 922,952 281,948 1,204,900 972,504 271,994 1,244,498 { 1832 949,622 393,038 1,342,660 974,865 387,.5n5 1,362,370 • 1833 1,111,441 496,705 1,608,146 1,142,160 497,0,39 1,639,199 1 1834 1,074,670 568,052 1,642,722 1,134,020 .577,700 1,711,720 1 1835 1,352,653 641,310 1,993,963 1,400,517 630,824 2.031,341 1836 1,265,384 680,213 1,936,697 l,315„523 674,721 1,990,244 Of the foreign shipping which entered the American ports in 1 836, the British amounted to 142,000 tons; British America, 377,.?0O; British West Indies, 24,800; Hanseatic, 36,500; Holland, 7,700 ; Spanish, 4,500 ; French, 21,700; Swedish, 9,800; Mexican, 5,700 ; Cubi, 10,300 ; Brazil, 4,300. The progressive tonnage belonging to the States ha< Already been exhibited. The tounnge of ships built in the year to 30th September, 4 R ]:)44 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. 1836, amounted to 113,600. At that date there belonged to the different states and their respective districts as follows : — SlatM. DUtrlcM. Number. Suta. Diitrlctl. NumliCT. ■ Passamaquoddy - 1(1,025 Baltimore fi2.3fi5 Machias 7,893 Oxford II,4 than three miles from the shore. Thi-j trade is reckoned to employ about 60,W I tons of shipping, and to yield a value of from 1,200,000 to 1,500,000 dollars. The capw I of raackarel employs about 50,000 tons, yielding ,,"i54 I 6,792 9,76,'i 1,605 1,631 2,069 14,802 I 2,4"2 I 2flCi 83ili ■; 1,4S8 1,432 4,856 ' lO.Wi ! 9W ' 7061 3,6CS 3,3J6 ! 1,7U 6,OTi 4«ll 6,66S1 81,ilO 1,761 a Vf< 1,651 otal_j ,t there with «" •em whalc-lisM' „. 1,1 1834, tbeii he produce in f' M, besides seal oJ „„dla«d,Lab*l are allowed toW ■ Tploy about 60,(W Zn. The cap.; „e amount unpo"* /e have been alr_ er commerce. J 1 ,t to 2000. Stet- eyed in 1836 .0.J ^ississipi" »»*n the great river :l:tefprisc»n^;H undertiikingsj'l Eastern statcsto" is that connect! long, sixty t«' I !h and ten feet deep. In 1830, there passed through it 5280 vessels. The Delawnro and the Hudson are also joined by a canal 108 miles long, completed in 1828 l)y private indi- viduals, who expended npon it 2,230,000 dollars. Since the rise of the Western states, however, it became an arduous but important object to form a water communication uniting the two great river systems, that to the east and that to the west of the Alleghany. An insurmountable obstacle seemed to exist in tliat vast aid continuous chain, till the state of New York, after careful surveys, determined on forming a canal from the Hudson at Alhany, to the Mohawk, whicli falls into Lake Erie; and this grand work, commenced in 1H17, was completed in 1 825. It is 363 miles long, 40 feet wide, and 4 feet deep, with 83 locks and 18 aqueducts ; it cost 7,149,000 dollars. It is now the scene of a most busy trade. The tolls amounted, in 1836, to 1,448,000 dollars, yielding an ample return even on the large expenditure. An important canal has also been formed, connecting the Hudson with Lake Champlain, and thereby opening a communication with Canada ; it is 63 miles long, and cost 1,257,000 dollars. Several others have been formed— to Oswego, on Lake Ontario, to Chenango, &c. The total cost of the New York state canals finished in 1837 was 11,962,000 dollars; the tolls amounted to 1,293,000; the bulk of goods transported along them to 1,071,000 tons, value 55,809,000 dollars. Of these, 61 1,000 tons, valued at 21,822,000 dollars, arrived at tide-water on the Hudson. On the opposite side, the new and flourishing state of Ohio lins completed a canal, which, uniting the Scioto and San- dusky, forms a navigable communication between Cincinnati and Lake Erie. It is 30'> miles Jong, with 12,050 feet of lockage, and executed at less than IO,(XX) dollars j)er mile. The same state has also formed a canal 65 miles long, connecting (Mnciniiati with the Miami, and costing 740 dollars. The tolls on the first were, in 1834, 160,000 dollars, on the last ,')0,000; these had risen in 1836 to 207,000, and 51,000. A still grander undertaking is that of the Chesapeake and Ohio canal, designed to unite the Potowmac at Washington with the Ohio at Pittsburg, It will he 360 miles long, and 60 feet wide, and would require a tunnel four miles in length to convey it through the mountains. The original estimate was 22,375,000 dollars; but it io calculated that, hy substituting a railway on the most rugged part of the mountain tract, it may he re- duced to 9,347,000 dollars. The work was commenced in July, 1828, and some progress was made, when it w.xs suspended by want of funds ; but means, it is still hoped, will be found for its completion. Pennsylvania, too, has rivalled the other states, having in 1837 nearly completed 600 miles of government canals, and 286 by private adventurers. Of the former, which cost 13,301,000 dollars, the most remarkable is that from Philadelphia to Pittsburg, the entire line being 395 miles, of which, however, 36 consist of a railroad, 'flic amount of tolls for 1837 was 473,000 dollars, being sliort of the estimate, and scarcely remunerating; but it exceeds by 70,000 that in 1835. Virginia and the Carolinas, notwithstanding their wealth, have been left behind in this great national improvement; but they arc beginning to move. The Dismal Swamp canal connects James's liiver with Albemarle Sound ; one has even been planned between that river and the Ohio. Many smaller ones have been executed in dilTerent quarters, and others arc projected ; but the career has been somewhat checked by temporary embarrassments, and the inadei|uatc returns from several of those executed. 5712. In regard to roads, the Americans have greatly distinguishcil thcinsi'Ivcs by (ho activity with which they adopted the improvement of rai'ways, which they did not originate, indeed, but were the first to carry out to a great practical txtent. By the abundance miles ; not begun, but, in 1 837, 4 millions subscribed. Wo may add, tmu tVom Charleston to Memphis, in Tennessee, 740 miles, estimate 15 millions ; from Savannah to Memphis', 7(X) miles, vatlinatu 12 millions: these are only in embryo. Even the new western states, Indiana, Illinois, and Mi. chigan, have projected and partly begun extensive works of this nature. The siune causes, liow. ever, mentioned in regard to canals, have suspended the completion of many of them. Tlivre is a great national highway iirom Cumberland, avrovs the Alleghany, to St. Louis, wliicli ifi well executed; but the common roads throughout the country are nuistly very indilfcrcnt. 5713. The monied and banking interetU of the United States have risen to extraor. dinary importance, the enterprising character of the nation having ))roduced a great call tur the credit thus aflbrded. It has, however, on repeated occasions, been extended beyond due bounds. Tliis was particularly the case in the year 1 837, when matters were brought to a crbis by the government withdrawing its deposits tVom the United States Dank, mid requiring payment of taxes and of the price of puhlio lands to bo made in specie, Thv consequence xrayinents, and there was felt throughout it a most severe oomineroial shock, which extended in some degree to Britain. The government, though they gave some indulgence as to the payment of taxes, did not adopt any change of tiystcm ; and the banks have gradually broiiglit their affairs into a more regular train The following statement shows tlio extent and condition of the banking business in each state about January 1837 SIMM. No. of Bank). No. of Hranchvt. 8|H!clt KuniU. H|i«cl0. ClinilBilon. CaiHIal. IMIart lU/rtr*. IM/iri. DalllTl. MBina M . . m • HH7,UtO 1.913,418 5,226,7M New Hampihire • - - 27 . • 7ilO.I7R m m i.fifis.ana a,83!t,.yis Vermont l» • N01,Ui3 7n,Hn3 3,nM),H60 l.ia.'),624 Maiiochusett* ... 117 • • . • l,4ftn,3.10 IO,H93,34g 34,47>«,1I0 Rhode lalaiid 8l S.fifiS.ai; New York ... 9» 3 a.WlH,C44 fl,nft7.H30 34,1»S,(XKI .17,101,4f)0 Pennsylvania ... New Jersey - - •19 • . > »,1I»,!I!K) 13,794,1114 23,730,ajn 25 . - ■ ■ 4««,U17 l,9IH,OI7 4,14WI Delaware - '- 4 4 • ■ 141, DIM 718,948 8l«,n2n Maryland - ... 31 a • ■ l,i»9,S47 3,310,835 10,438,(J5.'i p. of Columbia ... 7 . . • w 4.'W,337 I,l3n,n57 2,201,415 Virginia .... 8 IH ■ • l, l,'lft(i„'W4 4,105,155 7,I4S,326 Missouri < I > a 333,934 Illinois .... a 6 . ,MKI,794 l,5r,5,;)73 2,014,700 Indiana - - - - 1 10 . l,«M,7;i7 1,970,595 1,.')M,4«I Ohio 33 1 • 3,iA:(,;t34 8,330,974 9,247.2!»; Michigan Fiorlcb U 3 - .VI4,37A 1,8W,335 I,4W1,000 ft • a'ia,7fM) M5,H4a 774,010 %m.m FennsyWaiiia Bank United States Total 1 IH ■ a,()3H,440 11,447,908 3.%000,COO 634 IM A,:M;rt.iwto a7,oift,;n(i 149,185,890 290,772,101 Sect. \'I. Civil and Suciid Stnti; 5714. T/ie poptdation of the f/nited S/oie», according to the ccunus of IR.TO, amounted (o 12,856,165 ; a number, not very great absolutely, and even small relatively to llio extent of their territory ; but astonishing when considered us existing in a region which, 200 years ago, was only a boundless wilderness, peopled by a few Ncnttered bands of suvngcs. Uut the most interesting circumstance is the rapid increase which has marked, and, according to every appearance, will continue to mark, their progress. Although there has been a con- stant tide of emigration from the closely (leopled European countries, ever since the first settlement of those states, there is no doubt that the growth of this great mass is chiefly owing to the ordinary principle of population, to the means which the human race possesses of multiplying itself, when a check is not presented by the difiiuulty of subsistence. There are no early enumerations on which much reliance can be placed; but, in 1753, tlienumlwt was estim:;te(l at 1,051,000. A regular decennial census, taken since 1790, gave, .it that period, .3,921,000; in 1800,5,319,000; in 1810, 7,23!),00() ; in 1H20, 9,638,000. It is most interesting to consider, as the immensity of unoccupied land leaves full scope for this (lowerof multiplication, how vast the future numbers may bo with which this region will bo peopled, and which will render it much the greatest state that ever existed in ancient or modern times. It is calculated, upon good grounds, that in u century it will contain I (iO,OOO,000i and still, being only half as populims as Britain or France, leave ample scope fur future increase. in the wo 5715. : opposite I and peop spicuous, internal ir lioastful d some emii have displi practical a gant spccu resources ( honourably institutions attention h gent and s sturdy inde stranger, p« any bounds. known to tl common in gouging, or but with ad putes are cai yei it is obs< between mer they have m< though, eve'i- treated lathe 5716. In r tion between for, and provi the clergy arc fesscd with zei deficiency ; a conspicuous ii flaming oratoi even violent c the extravaga (|uartcrs, dest Shakers, jum] and even in t numbers, lias Baptists — Frecn — .Sevent „ - SIx-Pi Catholics Christians CongrcMtlona Dutch Iteform Episcopalians Friends German Heforr Jews J;Utheran8 Jlennonites Methodists Moravians or V Mormonites New Jerusalem rresbyterians - Cu - As Z "* Shakers Timkers Unitarians t'nirersallsta ART III. rhicli, in )iu\i from iiwH linve )t bvgun, inp\us, in I, vstiin»tu s, and Mi- uses,)iuw- im, TliiTc H, wliicli is iditTcrcnt. 9 cxtraor- vat call fur k'd beyond ire \mmglit Dank, and !cic. Thu inouts, and iome degree payment of roiiglit their lid condition CaylUl. BUUK IV. THE UNITED STATES. 1347 8 » 101 »l »\ no M 17 148 I Ml i57 117 l'2H Iti ;«i (in IH8 •2.'! r)3ft 158 1 173 ,174' nasi MO R,226,7M ' a.M'J.SOS ! l.l'2ri,624 34,47l«,ll0 9,M7,ri 8,(i(j5,«)7 37,101,4M ii3,75U,3M 4,I4'2,03I ' (jlS.iWI 10,438,tJVi 2,204.445 fi,731,M 2,525,000 8,ri3)i,U8 11,43«,«2S 7,572,176 36,769,455 1 ri,»72,»15l 5,092,6651 7,145,326 j 2,014,760 l,5ii5,4«l U,247,« 1,400,000 2,113,301 35,000,COO Min 290,772.IW1 n, amounted to To t\io extent of liicli, 200 years ligcs. Uut the Id, aecording to |as been a con- since tlic first nass is cbicSy ■i race possesses Istencc. There 153, tlienuralw gave, at that 0. It is most bttliis power of iill be peopled, lent or mwlcrn In 160,000,000; lope for futuw increa.w. T be Anrierlcaiis, should tlicy continue united, would then bucomo the greatest imtion in the world; and the most powerful states of Europe would rank as secondary to them. 571.5. The national character of the American has been the subject of very various andevcn opposite representations. Though the population be aggregated from different districts and and people, it is strongly animated by common national feelings. Among these is eon- spicuous, pride in its popular institutions, its vast extent, rapid progress, and the irreut internal improvements achieved by it. This is alleged to be accompanied with a somewhat l)o»stful disposition, and an extreme soreness as to any depreciating reflections, in which «)me eminent travellers have rather liberally indulged. In the pursuits of industry, they have displayed almost matchless enterprise, activity, and application, accompanied with u practical and inventive spirit j and though these have sometimes pushed them into extrava- gant speculations, they have, on the whole, been well calculated to dcvclope the vast natural resources of their territory. The higher classes sliare that philanthropic spirit which honourably distinguishes Britain. They have numerous well endowed and well managed institutions for the diffusion of religious knowledge, and the relief of distress. Particular attention has been paid to the improvement of prison discipline. Tlie Itmales are intelli- gent and strictly virtuous, even with some tincture of prudery. It is alleged that the sturdy independence of the people makes them not scruple to intrude in various ways on a stranger, particularly to gratify that curiosity which, in the country districts, scarcely knows any bounds. The Americans are pugnacious to a consider.ible degree. Duelling, un- known to the ancient commonwealths, rages in this modern republic to an extent not now common in Europe. Among classes who do not aspire to this elegant form of contest gouging, or scooping out the eyes, kicking, and biting, have disgraced their pitched battles | but with advancing civilisation, these practices are happily going into disuse. Party dis> putcs are carried on with greater violence and more unmeasured abuse than even in England; yei it is observed that, after the dispute is over, good humour and social intercourse ensue between men of the most opposite parties. Upon the whole, travellers generally state that they have met throughout the union with somewhot uncommon I'inass ond hospitality; tliough, evei at the inns, they were received rather as the obliged .an the obligers, and treated rather as guests than as employers. 5716. /n religion, the Americans have adopted the novel system of cutting off all connec- tion between church and state. Individuals or classes of believers choose their own instruc- tor, and provide entirely for his support. In the large towns, at least of the northern states, the clergy are sufficiently numerous and well provided for, and religion is in general pro- fessed with zeal ; but in others, and especially in the remote country districts, there is a great deficiency ; and sometimes violent excesses of fanaticism occur. The latter is partieulurly conspicuous in the camp-meetings, where crowds of several thousands flock to listen to some flaming orator, whose address is accompanied by the congregation with shrieks, screams and even violent convulsions. It appears, however, by the representations of late travellers, that the extravagances acted at these meetings have been exaggerated, and that, in remote quarters, destitute of regular means of instruction, they have been productive of good. Shakers, jumpers, and other fantastic sects, have sprung up in the remote country districts, and even in the cities. The following view of the different sects, and their proportionate numbers, has been given in the /Imerican Almanac for 1 839 : — Denomlnatloiu. rhuTchw or ConKTVgatlona. MInbtm. Memlien or Communicanu I'opulalloo KiUnutt. Baptist! - ... 6,319 4,239 452,0001 — Freewill - ... 753 612 33,876 f 4,800,000 — Sevcnth-Day ... - Six- Principle .... 42 46 4,503 ( 16 10 2,117) Catholics . - - - 443 389 800,000 Christians ... . . 1,000 800 I60,000" 300,000 Congrcgationalista • ... Dutch Kerormed • • - - 1,300 1,150 160,000 1,400,000 197 192 22,515 450,000 Episcopalians - - • - - B50 849 - 600,000 Friends - - - - two . - 100,000 German Reformed - • • - 600 180 80,000 Jews ..... . , . 16,000 Lutherans . - • - 750 207 62,266 640,000 Mennonltes - ... 200 . 30,000 Methodists ... — Protestant ... 2,764 400 660,103 > 60,000 J 8,000,000 Moravians or United Brethren 24 33 6,745 12,000 Mormonitcs . . . - « . 12,000 12,000 New Jerusalem Church - - - 27 33 . 6,000 Presbyterians .... 2,807 2,225 274,0841 — Cumberland - - - 600 4.50 50,000 — Associate ... 183 87 16,000 . 2,176,000 — Reformed - ... 40 20 3,000 — Associate Reformed - • 214 116 12,000 Shakers . - . - - ID 45 6,000 6,000 Tunkers ..... 40 40 3,000 30,000 Unitarians . . . ■ - 200 174 . 180,000 UniTcriaUsti ... 6B3 817 - 000,000 4 U 3 1 348 DESCniPTlVE OEOORAPHY. P*»T III. .7717. TAd iliweii form a portlun uf tliu Nociuty in North Atnuricii wliicli affbrdit a subject of ri'proacli from abroad, and of anxiety to her own enlightened citizens. The number Amounts ta already stated, to above two millions, and is increasing more rapidly than tliu white population. Slavery is terminated in the New England states, New York, I'enn- sylvnnin, Now Jersey, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois; but it retains still a very wide range. Since 18UH, the importation has been prohibited, it is believed effectually; but there is still tt largo inland trade from the old to the new southern states. The life of the slave is guarde^ by laws, administered, however, by white Judges ; but the power of flogging re- mains with the master. They do not seem iiv general to be treated with great severity; some, it is said, experience peculiar kindness; and that their physical wants are well nuppliod, seems proved by the rapid increase of their numbers. Yet it is painful to observe, that the slave-state legislatures, instead of preparing the way for gradual eman. eipation, seek only to take away the capacity and desire fur it. With this view, they have prohibited the bestowing upon them any education, anapers may be accounted literature, this brancli has l>ecn curried to an extent which Europe cannot rival. The number, which, in 1810, had been 3()4, rose in 1828 to 802; and is supposed now to exceed 1000, of whieli ,50 ate daily papers. The Americans have been eminent for mechanical inventions, of whieh the steam vessel, by them first applied at least to practical purposes, is a conspicuous example. The government have shown a laudable zeal for the instruction of the great body of the people. In New England, an assessment is laid on all property for the maintenance of free hchools; in New York, the same systetn has been begun; and even in the new states largo assignments of land have been made for this purpose. In these last, however, the low remuneration of teachers, and consc(iuent ditiiculty of procuring good ones, with ttiu reluctance of many pupils to attend regularly, obstruct the laudable intentions of government. Book IV. 5720. /) painting, t They have tiitions for delphia. ; York, and amusenienti sued witli c iiing to appi The houses ill the couii wood is prel specimens a occupy. 5721. Tht that of kingi c(|ual in cxtc European cc following tal showing its e census of 1 8t been more rei the local deta state governm important pla New Englam Massachusetti Cuiinrcticut N'i'w llainpsblr Vermont Maine Khode Island Middle Slatet New York - Fennsylvania Ne'v Jersey Delaware - Southern State \ Maryland ! Virginia I Columbia DIstr North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Florida Terrlto Alabama I H\-$tern Slatet i Kentucky . Tcnucsseo Ohio I 'iiillana Illinois Michigan . Missouri Arkansaa . Mississippi Louisiana . Boo« IV. THE UNITED STATES, anccd stage tminon lan- cliL'C'k upon •oduced any tVorUl; but , witli those lecmwl this Tlierc were, above forty il a library j was from nstitutcd in glish works Tlicy thus the banks of branch has .a 1810, had hicli .W aic )f which the )us example, body of the nance of free new slates however, the 1 ones, wiA intentions of 1349 5720. In the fin* art$, Uic Americans have shown a very strong natural geniiu for painting, though their artwts have been obliged to wuk for patronage in the Old World They have given us West and Copley, and, more recently, Leslie and Brockedon. Insti- tutions for the eiicourogemcnt of the art have been now formed at New York and Phila- delphia. American music is not much spoken of. Some edifices at Washington, New York, and Philadelphia, are splendid ; but built, we believe, upon foreign designs. The amusements in America are in general analogous to those of Europe. The drama is pur- sued with considerable ardour ; native histrionic genius, both tragic and comic, is begin- ning to appear ; and the best English actors find an excursion to America advantageous. The houses in the large towns are built of stone or brick, after the European model; but in the country, and generally i.i ull the back settlements, the cheap and easy material of wood is preferred. It is put ».;gether often very rudely, of unhewn logs, though the better specimens are of framework .nd sometimes on a more extensive scale than the owner can occupy. 8«ci. Vlll. Local Geography. 5721. The divieioH of America it into slates, an appellation which corresponds rather with that of kingdoms and nations than of counties or provinces. Of these states, several are equal in extent, and in all the capacities of future greatness, to some of the most important European countries. The number of states amounts at present to twenty-four ; and the following table concentrates a view of the most interesting particulars respecting each, showing its extent (according to Darby's Fieiv of the United States), its populati(m by the census of 1830, the name and population of the principal towns at that date. There have been more recent local enumerations in particular districts ; but these will be noticed under tlie local details. The letter o, appended to any ol these, marks that it is the seat of the state government ; a distinction often very different from that of being the largest and most important place. Keu) England. Area In H75 109,031 New Orleans, 0. - 46,310 12,761,570 4 R 4 ISflO U£SCHIi TIVE OEOOHAl'MY. l*AHrll|. 8uM»:cT. I. Xurthem or Ntm EnijIiiiiJ Stuht, 5722. Thtfint lix ilatei, which ate well known under thi- ^fiiorul nnniu iif Nvw f'.imliinij, coinpriMi the cnrlivst and mu^t respvctHbly settled, the most improved and nioNt liiUlOuvnl' portion of the Union. It wus peopled al)out the beffinninK of the Nevuiitventli vviiliiry !iy tlie puritan dissenterH, flying from prelatic persecution. Those emigrants unlertuhu>d simihi extravagant and fantastic opinions, and did not extend to each other that toiurMtlon iiniliil in wealth oiid population, and took the lead in asserting the indopendenee of AnierivM. 'I'hv cargo of tea thrown into the sea at Uoston, and the battle of Lexington, Atrnu'd llui (n gradually divided into several provinces, which now rank as slates. MunsAvhimetlN whs {\r^^ founded on a very considerable scale in lti28; Connecticut, in l(i:i7| anil, in HHtl, tlii'y vn^u, combined under the title of the United States of New England. In UJM.I, a limly „f antinominns, ejected from Salem, founded Rhode Island, for which they iihtaineil ii I'liiirivr in 1645. Disputes, which arose in IfiHO, caused the separation, iVoni MttusHehuNi'lln, iiI'iIki extensive territory of New Hampshire. Vcnnont was a sort of buck HittlwnH'iit, wlili'h, having gradually sprung up in the beginning of the eighteenth century, begitii hi clulni independence about 176'0, and obtaincid its full recognition in 1790, Maine ii a iiiiirv northern frontier territory, and was long harassed by the incursioiu of the Indliiiiii, itml hy the wars between the French and English. In I7C0, it did not contain above IM,(KKI ImIui. bitants; but these having increased, lu 1810, to 228,000, Maine wai eimhleil In IHUO to nhake off its dependence on Massschusetti, and to become a separate state, 5723. Matsachutett$ is the oldest of these colonies, the most improved, and tliitt In wlik>h the character of New England most decidedly applies. The greater part U levvl, iinil lli« soil composed in most places of tine fertile loam, though sandy along ths sen-vitiMl | hut Ihn extreme west touches on the great Apalachian border, where the mountains rise to il.liXldt 4000 feet, and the domain is covered with extensive woods. Us centre in vrossvd liy llu' Connecticut lliver, which, with its fine valley, traverses the whole of New Engliiiiil IViiiii north to south. This level tract is cultivated and peopled to a degree almost eiiuiil In llmi of European countries. Wheat, however, is not raised with advantage, being iiligliluii liy the severe cold of winter ; nor is barley much cultivated. Maize, rve, oatx, and liviiiin, m the prevailing descriptions of grain. The breed of cattle is good ; salted provUloiiN, nmj ilai produce of the dairy, form objects of exportation. The farmers have exteniilve iiri'liiirilii, from which a great deal of cider it made. The state produces a considi'mblv ijimntily iif iron and some lead. Its progress in manufactures Is remarkable, compared Willi Unit ur most of the other states. The value of the chief branches, in lHa7i was returneil lit M»k, cottons, 17,300,000 dollars; woollens, 10,400,000; boots and shoes, H,()4Vi.0lH)| liHtimr, 3,254,000; iron, nails, &o., 4,180,000; bonnets, 1,902,000; cabinet ware, l,Uif'J,lHK)| clothing, 2,613,000 ; candles, 1,620,000 ; Looks, &o., 1,048,000. The whole value. IihIiiiIIiik fishery, was estimated at 91,765,000 dollars, employing 117,350 nersuiin, i'Uv whiilg population, in May 1837, was 691,000. In commerce, shipping, and HNhery, MiiNitivlinNclli takes u decided lead of all the states. According to the assertion of Mr, Wurdeiii In wlik'li a Briton will, perhaps, demur, her seamen excel those of all the world fur buUliii'>>llii| with handsome houses built of red brick. Immediately above this part of tlii* InwM r'M'< Beacon Hill, commanding an extensive and peculiarly rich view Into the liik'Hur vF ART III. ' l''nulitiiit, iili'iriKuiil, ^uiiliiry !i)f tlhi'il Miim< tliii) iMiilvr I uf Nli'iiily y niUiuu't>il vrWw, 'I'liu il \\w colli. wr vouiilry, I, llllH IlI'V'll tia WtiK lUnt (I, llu'y wctt' I It liiidy of vil II I'liiirti't INi'lln, ol' till! IH'lll. Wtlil'll, ;im to cliiliii lu U M iiiiirt! UiiiiN. mill liy l!l,(KM)liilm. I III IH'JO lo tllKt III Wllll'tl Itivvli mill tli« UHMt I llllt thl! iNW to 'MM III roMvil liy till! h^iixtmiil iViiiii , iimiiil to llinl l^ (iIIkIiIviI liy uiul livmii, iiru mliMiNi mill till' nlvv on'liiirilii< )U )|imiilliy iif I Willi tlmtur iriu'il ii» lit'liiK) .(MM) I Imllitr, V, l.'Jti'J.IHXit \\\w, liH'liiilliii; i'lii) wiiiiit Mimiiioliiiw'tii IrtWiii to wlili'li loliliu'w. «"<«• I mill III IHDb 1701) vi'HwN L tli« lm|'""» \\{\ft, Miwi of .iirt« I hihI iIi« [vNwIll i'll||ilttCll wIii»1m-IWi«'>' juil unil utlici lull) \,m^m \\w lUlivrlim III iiUNnvlniMlli (III lint (U'Wfllil'n'ii liiiul. till ln)»ly> lt.llnllllX'11*' " in, eoiii*i«l«tif* liiiiil wliiirl^ Mn >Vv«t lltiKltiii In Ntrt'VlH) wllli h\w »»*" '''I'" Book IV. THE UNITED STATES. 1931 tliu ooun lioiiw luntry. Several of tho public luiildingfi nro very elenniU, osr»ecially the now i ; tliimgh It fmls to produce thf duo ellect, liy beiiin built of brick. A ...,1 ,.,, -., . ''y '^■'"K '"''It "•' 'Jricl'- A iiiuDt mipcrb hotel hns lately been erected, on u scale feimingly lieyond that of the city It Is iieven storiM high, and contains 2CX) upartmcntn. Hoston, till the late rapid progre«« of New York, wan tho centre of the commerce of tho United States. In lH;)fi it owned ii'Jfi.lXX) tiiiH of ithipping. Tho harbour is no spacioud aw to afford a good depth of water to upward* of 5()0 vesHols ; and the entrance being extremely narrow, renders it easily defensible 'I'lie wharfs arc numerous, and more commodious than any other in America The largest is 1 7.10 feet long, 1 Ol feet broad, and bordered throughout by a range of spacious warehousen. The market, 530 feet long, possesses the aainc pre-eminence. Tho inhabitants, according to Mr, Lambert, are ilistinguished for their domestic habits, regularity of living, integrity in llieir dealings, liospltality to strangers, strict piety and devotion, and respect for the mora) mill social virtues. The severity of manners which they brought from England has been considerably relaxed, and the theatre and other amusements have been introduced. At the Mine time, u devout attention to religious worship, and tho strict observance of the Sabbath, are remarked to a greater degree than in Old England. Unitarian doctrines, however, havo olitiiined a considerable prevalence, produced probably by a reaction fron. the high anti- iiuinian tenets which prevailed nt tho first settlement. Boston is also the head-quartcra of fidoriilism, as opposed to democracy, the former system being generally supported by tho northern states, and the latter by the southern. It has also been, in a comparative sense, the Athens of the Union, though New York is now treading close on its footsteps. Franklin, the Adamses, Fisher Ames, were its natives, and the Sorth American lieview, tho best in the coiimry, is conducted there. Harvard College, at Cambridge, three miles distant, is well endowed, has numerous professorships, and its library is second only to that of Philadolphiii, containing many works of rarity and value. Boston is connected with tho continent by particularly largo and handsome bridges, one of which is nearly half a mile lung. ^"i^ MaitachMHU hat lonte other toums qf comei/uence. Sakm, the name of which lndlc«tc« the hiah rellaioui reelings of Its foundcra, li now a handaome plcuaiit town, which flourlehca by the advciituroua trade to the East Indies, in which it chiefly cm|>lnya itii 31,000 tons uf ahliming, and for the |ironintltin of which It has founded an inititution callcil Iho Enat India Marine Society, Plymouth (^, 927.), the oldest town in New England, and even nriiouTn, MAiiAcnvaBm. mrnt of cotton manufacturea : nearly Ul.ooa in the States, founded in 1621, by a colony of ' ) nonconformists, drives still a considerable trailo. . j Nantucket, on an island of tho same name, was / the chief scat uf the southern whale-fishery, which it prosecutes wilh almost unrivalled spirit, having thirty wiirks for the extraction of s|H!r- " maceti oil. Whales once abounded in its own nclglibourhoml, but they have now disappeared. It is now sur|>a8aetl in tliis branch by New Kcd. ford, with a population or 11,000. VN'orccstcr la rather a thriving litlle inland town. LijwcII hna risiin rapidly into importance by the establish. in 1835, ahe made 99 milliona of yarda, and the population had risen to very S7W, Conneelicut is another state immediately to the south of Massachusetts, and border- ing chiefly on that bay of the Atlantic called the Sound, formed by the opposite coaxt of Long Island, It is almost entirely agricultural, and the cultivation is carried to as high a pitch as in Massachusetts. The farmers are a plain, homely, hospitable race, bearing the English stamp almost unaltered. The morals are very pure ; duelling, so common in the utiivr states, is here held in disgrace, and there has scarcely been an instance of a citizen eullty of a capital crime. Public education is most amply provided for ; there being no less than 250,000/. appropriated to the support of schools. There is scarcely an individual in the state who cannot read and write ; and Yale College, in Ncwhaven, under popular patronage, has attained to considerable note. The rank of capital is disputed by Hartford mill Newhaven, agreeable rural towns : the former inland, on the banks of the lliver Con- necticut; the latter a sea-port, and a very early settlement, still carrying on most of the trade of the state. It is neatly and regularly built 5727. New Hampshire, stretching south from Massachusetts, occupies a very greot part of the surface of New England. Its territory is the most elevated of any in the states ; it is lirokvn into every diversity of surface, and rises in the interior into the high level of the Wliite Mountains, the loftiest peak of which is Mount Washington, Its varied scenery, ol mountain, lake, and river, causes it to be often called tho Switzerland of America. Its industry is chiefly agricultural, and every product of the soil suited to a tetnperate climate is yielded in the utmost abundance. The chief wealth hitherto has been in its forests ; but these are now considerably thinned. Tho inhabitants are peculiarly active, hardy, and ath- letic ; and the advance of population has been remarkably rapid. Nothing is more common than to see a grandmother at forty; and the mother and daughter are often suckling children at the same time. This state is well watered by the upper part of the Connecticut ; iind Almost the whole course of the Merrimack is through its territory. Although it can. 1S52 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. not rival the intellectual character of Massachusetts, yet it has Dartmouth College, an institution on a limited scale ; and the legislature has made large provision for diffusing the general elements of education. New Hampshire has a comparatively small extent of coast on which, however, there is some ship-building, fishery, and trade. The towns are not considerable ; but Portsmouth is a neat agreeable sea-port, with an excellent harbour, and 26,000 tons of shipping. The Washington, a seventy-four gun ship, was launched here in 1814. 5727. Fermonl is a long territory, running north and south, to the west of New Hamp. shire, and bounded on the other side by Lake Champlain. That piece of water, 160 miles in length, and 1 8 in its greatest breadth, is a main barrier of the Stf.tes on the side of Canada, and its positions of Crown Point and Ticonderoga have been distinguished by some of the most remarkable events in its military history. The centre is traversed by the Green Mountains, from which the country takes its name, which form two parallel ranges, but nowhere rise higher than between 3000 itnd 4000 feet. They enclose many fertile valleys, and a fine plain is interposed between them and Lake Champlain. Under these advantages, its population between 1790 and 1830 increased from 85,500 to 286,000. The people from Vermont are active, hardy, florid, and robust : in peace, industrious and frugal , in war, peculiarly brave and intrepid. The legislature has not been behind that of the other states in its care for education ; a portion of land in every new township being set aside for schools ; and an annual tax also levied for their support. A college, endowed with 33,000 acres, has been established at Middleburg, and another at Burlington ; the two at- tended by 200 students. The manufactures of Vermont are of little importance, and the exports consist chiefly of timber and the produce of land ; a great proportion of whicli is sent by way of Lake Champlain to Canada. Montpelier, which ranks as the capital, is only a pleasant village, surpassed by Windsor, Middleburg, and Burlington. 5728. The great maritime dittrict of Maine, long held politically attached to Massachusetts, has since 1 8g0 formed an independent state. There are considerable tracts of mountain and swamp, and a great part of the interior has not yet been regularly settled ; so that four- fifths of its area do not contain more than 1500 families. The rest, however, hns had most rapid accessions, from 10,000 in 1750, to 399,000 in 1830, and 472,000 in 1837. A small colony of Indians is peaceably settled on the Penobscot river, and is increasing. The dense original forest, which composed this territory, is broken only by a narrow plain along the sea-coast, and agriculture is yet in an imperfect state. The inhabitants, however, carry on a good deal of ;hip-building, trade, and fishery. The registered tonnage in 1834 amounted to 225,000 ; and the timber annually cut is valued at 10,000,000 dollars. Augusta is tho capital ; but the largest place is Portland, a well-built sea-port, owning in 1837, 47,(XX) 'ons of shipping. Bangor, on the Penobscot, has become also an important place. '>729. The state of Rhode hland occupies a little corner of New England, shooting out between Connecticut and Massachusetts. It was founded by about forty individuals, who, l)eing expelled from Boston on account of antinomian tenets, bought a tract of land from an Indian chief for a pair of spectacles, and founded there a town, to which they gave the name of Providence, and to the whole district that of Rhode Island. Possessing considerable advantages of situation, this territory was soon well peopled. During the revolutionary war, it was long occupied by the English troops, and was somewhat recusant as to entering into the federal union, but at length gave its consent. The soil is rather too light for grain, but yields all the productions of the dairy in great perfection ; has an excellent breed of sheep, good pacing horses, and valuable orchards. Unfortunately, it is less advanced in general information than the other parts of New England. The first settlers were deeply imbued with the opinion that a Gospel minister could derive no benefit from human know- ledge, and this idea has never been eradicated from the minds of their successors. Tlie lav for establishing schools was once repealed, though it was lately re-enacted. The Baptists arc now the ruling religious sect. Providence, the capital, is the third town in New England, 1 is situated at the head of Narraganset Bay, which aclmits vessels of 900 tons, and carries on a brisk trade, owning 14,000 tons of shipping. Newport, at the mouth of the bay, once the chief town, has, notwithstanding its fine harbour and beautiful situation, been in a greut mea- sure supplanted by I'rovidence. SuBSECT. 2. 77ie Middle State*. 5730. T%e Middle Statet consist of New York and Pennsylvania, with the smaller ones of New Jersey and Delaware. These are on the whole the most flourishing of the whole Union. They contain the greatest extent of cultivated land, the largest and most pro sperous cities ; and if they do nut at present equal the intellectual character and active energy of the New England States, they are in these respects making rapid progress. 5731. New Yorh is one of the most extensive and decidedly the richest and best peopled niemlicr of the United Slates. It stretches far beyond the western boundary of New England, widening continually as it extends to the north and west. A branch of tlie Alle- gluiny, approaching the sea, runs through its eastern district, but is not of such height ns Book IV materially or friable only, prol Hut the b which adi On the ni formed by lines beiiii^ sissippi, fo the city of care as tha (vincipal ( water mel« Tlie popul acres; 1,85 estimated i those of Ne grist und sa 5,598,000 ; 2,433,000 ; produce 2,2i enjoy a grei peculiarly e: It is the la cities. It is towards two called the So channels, .mc the world mi meree which ( of the canal t emporium in shipping and its port 1510 valued at 38,' town. The < pears confuse< cleanliness. ; are long, spaci for upwards of handsome houi, after these app London. Wot fires which it h has handsome ] Union. It is many respects timed economy freestone, and t otherwise fritt( other handsomt New York are wfge scale, and "als. The soci, wealthy individ "id public Aim Book IV. THE UNITED STATES. 135S materially to obstruct cultivation. Almost nil the rest is level, and composed of a fine loam or friable clay, yielding every kind of produce in perfection. It touches the sea at one point only, prolonged, however, by Long Island, and the fine and secure bay which it forms But the benefits of inland navigation are conveyed far into the interior by the Iliver Hudson, which admits ships to 120 miles, and vessels of eighty tons 160 miles, from its mouth.' On the north, where it borders on Canada, the stale has another great chain of navigation formed by Lake Cliamplain, the River St. Lawrence, Lakes OnUrio and Erie. These two lines being now joined by the great canal, and connected with the river system of the Mis- sissippi, form an immense circuit of inland navigation, which has its focus, as it were, in the city of New York. The agriculture is now conducted with almost as much skill and care as that of New England; wheat is raised in abundance; that and maize being the (urincipal products. The grasses tire luxuriant ; fruits are largely cultivated, particularly Wilier melons, and peaches in such quantity that in some places hogs are fed with them. The population in 1835 was i2,n4,()00. In that year it contained 9,655,000 cultivated acres ; 1,855,000 horned cattle, 525,000 horses, 4,262,000 sheep, 1,554,000 hogs ; the whole estimated at 297,543,000 dollars. Manufactures are also flourishing, though not equal to tliosc of New England. Their value, in 1 835, was 60 millions of dollars ; but 27 were from grist und saw mills. There w- re Irom fulling and carding machines, 5,545,000 ; tanneries, 5,598,000 ; iron, 4,350,000 ; cotton, ^,050,000 ; dyeing and print-works, 2,465,000 ; woollen, 2,433,000; distilleries, 3,098,000; breweries 1,398,000. Tlie salt springs at Onondago produce 2,209,000 bushels, and the mineral springs at Clifton, Saratoga, and New Lebanon, ciijoy a greater reputation than any others in the States. The commerce of this state is peculiarly extensive, both by its great port of New York, up the Hudson, and the canal which connects it with Lake Erie, 928 ""•* ''y ^'^^^ Champlain. The ship> ping in 1836 amounted to 404,800 tons, and the exports in 1837 were valued at 27,338,000 dollars, the imports at 79,301,000, 5732. The city of New Fork {Jig. 928.), though not the seat of the principal government, may be con- sidered in many respects as the "■" '"""• capital of the American Union. It is the largest, the most wealthy, the most flourishing, and the gayest of all its cities. It is situated on the Island of Manhattan, at the mouth of the Hudson, looking toivards two channels formed by Long Island, one with the coast of Connecticut, called the Sound, or East River, the other with tlie coast of New Jersey. In these channels, and in the harbour, which admits vessels of 90 guns, the united navies of the world might lie in safety. We have elsewhere shown the great value of the com- merce which comes down the Hudson, and which was estimated, even before the completion of the canal to Lake Erie, at 50,000,000 dollars. New York is the greatest commercial emporium in America, and, next to London, in the world. In it centre almost all the shipping and trade above mentioned as belonging to the state. In 1830, there entered its port 1510 vessels, the tonnage of which was 450,000. The imports in 1827 were valued at 38,700,000 dollars, the exports at 23,800,000. New York is a handsome toim. The old part, indeed, where the great stir and business is still carried on, ap- pears confused crowded, incommodious, and is by no means kept in a desirable state of cleanliness. But there arc two streets, called the Broadway, and the Bowery Road, which are long, spacious, and filled with handsome houses and shops. The Broadway is continued for upwards of two miles through the centre and highest part of the city, and contains many handsome houses, built of red brick. For a certain space it consists of private mansions ; after these appears a range of shops, which are said to vie in magnificence with those of London. Wood is now prohibited as a building material, on account of the destructive fires which it has occasioned ; but many of the old houses still consist of it. New York has handsome public buildings. The city hall is considered to have scarcely a rival in the Union. It is 216 ft. long, 105 broad, and 51 high, built mostly of white marble, and in many respects with some taste ; yet it manifests in others a certain incongruity and ill- timed economy. While the body of the building is of white marble, the basement it of red freestone, and the dome of painted wood ; the windows are too numerous, and the edifice is otherwise frittered into too many minute parts. The same observation applies to^ many other handsome edifices in this and other American cities. Tlie benevolent institutions of New York are very numerous ; and the state prison and penitentiary are constructed on a large scale, and supplied with working implements, as conducive to the reform of the crimi- nals. The society in New York is numerous and goy, being composed of o great number of wealthy individuals. The upper class consists of rich merchants, leading professional men, and public Ainotionaries ; the second, of shopkeepers, clerks, und subordinate officers of tSJ4 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY, Part III. Book IV government. Tlic gentlemen dress in the fashion of London, and tlic ladies in that of Paris ; and it is observed, that, while the manners of Boston arc decidedly English, those of New York are considerably tinctured by French vivacity. There are two or three col- leges and public libraries, though not on any great scale ; but literary taste and the desire of information arc rapidly spreading, even among the female sex. There are 4000 negroes of whom 1700 arc slaves. New York is not particularly healthy. It has repeatedly been ravaged by the yellow fever ; consumption carries off annually a great number ; and bad teeth are very prevalent, Tlic extremes of heat and cold, and a luxurious mod« of living, appear to be the chief causes of these last maladies. The population in 1835vras 270,000. 5732. The interior town* in this state have suddenly acquired high importance, in conse- quence of the construction of the Erie and other canals, Tlie principal is Albany, at first built by the Dutch, in their heavy style, with the gable ends of the houses turned towards the street ; but of late it has been greatly extended and improved, and has even, in pre- ference to New York, been made the scat of government. Here the river ceases to be navigable for vessels of any size, and the Erie canal begins, the formation of which has con- tributed in an extraordinary degree to the prosperity of Albany. Troy, six miles above Albany, Utica, on the Mohawk, where the great canal joins that river, Rochester, on the Genessee, where it is connected with Lake Ontario, and Buffalo, where it joins Lake Eric, have risen rapidly to the magnitude of cities. The population of Albany in 1835 hud risen to 28,000, of Troy to 17,000, of Utica to 10,000, of Rochester to 14,000, of Buffalo to 16,000. All these new cities, particularly the last, arc handsomely built, and have churches, halls, and other public buildings, on a large scale. The celebrated forts of Crown Point and Ticonderoga, on the western shore of Lake Champlain, have been allowed to go to ruin. The plain of Saratoga, which the surrender of Burgoyne rendered so prou'' - "-cie in American history, is now remarkable for the profusion of mmeral springs witi \vl>ii > is covered, and which have begun to render it a scene of crowded re rt. 5733. Pennsylvania is another of the middle states, and one of the most cxtensi\ m important in the Union. It forms nearly a regular parallelogram, to the south and . ss ward of New York. The territory is almost wholly inland, since only at its north-easicm extremity it touches the heads of the Chesapeake and Delaware, and at its north-westcra the shores of Lake Erie. The Alleghany Mountains, here bending eastward, cross it in an oblique direction. Though a part of their sides is rude and rocky, there are rich vajlcvi interspersed. The coast also consists partly of light and sandy soil ; but must of tl'ii; interior plains are composed of a rich and highly productive loam ; so that Peiinsylvania ranks, on the whole, among the most fertile of the Eastern states. It was founded, as already noticed, by a colony of Quakers, under the enlightened and benevolent Penn, They have been followed by numerous emigrants of various nations, chiefly Irish and Germans, with some Swedes and Dutch. The Quakers are now greatly outnumlifral, not having above 54 out of 330 congregations ; but their original influence has stamped a sedate, mild, and philanthropic character on the population. Agriculture is in a flourishing state in the eastern and southern districts, and land of good quality, in the counties imine. diately round Philadelphia, sells at thirty, forty, and even fifty, dollars an acre. Hut the extensive tracts to the west and north are still in process of clearing, and land may be had for four or five dollars, or even less. The pastures are very extensive, and there is an excellent breed of cattle of the true Old English description. Coal exists n remark- able abundance, upwards of 600,000 tons being exported to the other states ; and in 9S9 .-.-i-i^-^t ''J^'^&i^^ the western parts there are ^^\j;>;sK-' ..^■{^^stts&i.^ r.vsK-, extensive salt springs, yiulii- ing 1 ,000,000 bushels annu, ally. The iron works are very extensive, being reel. oned in 1 832 to yield annu- ally 45,000 tons pig, 25,000 bar, 8000 blooms, and 9J00 castings ; in all 87,300 tons, Co L.in goods are also manu- facture J to theextcntofabout 20,000,(XX) yards. The im- ports in ]8li7 wercinvaW 11,680,000 dollars, exports 3,841,000; hut most of the trade passes by \vayofXc» York, and some by N'e> Orleans. 5734. Fkiladelphia {fig. 929. ], the capital of this state, is one of the greatest and moit iDterusting oitiw of tli<) Union. It occupies an oblong space, enclosed by the confluence of ihc ,.«»., .-..^..^ ^'"■J' ^A* ■{»-» -Vt ~ -* -J Rivers D< ■traight ai so that, th York. Th are the mo wards of 4< esting curl Franklin a and, in me Arts posse! which is W for 3000 gu to science. transatlanti newspapers was, it is sai Philadelphi; however, by laws by the place i arid { of solitary c trial. The style of pure structure. 5735. Lan supported by population o three in En, small ness, is belonging to i Western terri 5736. Neu. rather an app 1680. • It is and pebbles, ii even on a gre The original s grants from . New England tinguished th« rendered emin scale nearly pr sUtes. The s almost entirely capital, but N 16,000 inhabiti its fells, has ni tinguished ] vmr.AnRLPHiA. ^ Dutch, then « »*! separated Ouccs wheat of P«on»ylvania. ] wnaderablc quai IT III. Uiat of 1, those •ee col- i desire negroes, lly been and bad mode of 1835 was in eonse- f, at first 1 towards , in pro- ses to be h has con- ilcs aboTc er, on llic Lake Erie, > had risen BulTalo to e churches, rown Point red to go to ■ou'' ' "'ce itl »■)"' ■' xtensiv ...J th and • >t north-easiem lorth-westcm cross it in an e rich tallcyi t most of tlic Pennsylvania founded, as .volcnt I'enn. fly Irish tnd loutimmbomi, Ihxs stamiH'il a a flourishing lunties immc- [ere. But the Id may be had I tlicre is an IS n remark- Itates; and in lartB there ate springs, view- bushels anna- on works ate ;, being recli' to yield »«""• ,nspig> 25,00) jms, anditlOO ,11 87 ,300 tons, are also manu- icxtentofalwn' lirds. Tlw* were in "I"* lollars, expo* lut most of ilie ,v way of New iomc by New latest and w»l Influence of ili« Book IV. THE UNITED STATES. 1355 Rivers Delaware and Schuylkill. It was originally laid out on a regular plan, the streets being straight and crossing each other at right angles ; and they are well paved, and kept very clean ; DO that, though not so brilliant and gay, this is a neater and more commodious city than New York. The literary establishments of Philadelphia, which owed their origin to Dr. Franklin, are the most respectable of the New Continent. The library founded by him now comprises up- wards of 40,000 volumes of very valuable works. There is a museum containing many inter* esting curiosities, particularly the entire skeleton of a mammoth. The seminary founded by Franklin as an " academy and charity school," is now called the University of Pennsylvania, and, in medical science especially, has no rival in any of the states. Tlie Academy of Fine Arts possesses an extensive collection of casts, and of ancient and modern paintings, among which is West's celebrated picture of theHealing the Sick in the Temple, which was purchased for 3000 guineas. The American Philosophical Society has made some important contributions to science. Printing is carried on upon a greater scale, and more elegantly, than in any other transatlantic city. There were, in 1819, fifty-one offices, employing 153 presses, partly in newspapers and partly in reprinting popular British works. One of Sir Walter Scott's novels was it is said, put in types in the course of a single day. With all these me?.ns and appliances, Philadelphia is scarcely so literary a city as cither Boston or New York. It is celebrated, however, by its philanthropic exertions. The attempt to mitigate the severity of. the penal laws by the penitentiary system has been more diligently attempted here than in any other nlacc and an edifice has been constructed on so great a scale as to allow the principle of solitary confinement to be carried into full effect, and thus to give the system a fair trial. The best edifice in Philadelphia is the United States Bank, of white marble, in a stvle" of pure Grecian architecture. The Bank of Pennsylvania is also a handsome marble structure. 5735. Lancaster and Harrisburg are tolerably thrivmg country towns on the Susquehanna, supported by the trade of that river, and by the richness of the surrounding districts. The population of the former place is half German; and six newspapers are published there ; three in English, and three in German. Harrisburg, notwithstanding its comparative smallness, is the seat of the legislature. As for Pittsburg, and the adjoining regions belonging to the river system of the Ohio, they appear to us so decidedly connected with tho Western territory, that they will be considered more advantageously in connection with it. 5736. New Jersey is a long narrow strip between the Delaware and the Atlantic, and rather an appendage to New York than,, a separate state, which it began to be only in 1680 ■ It is in general very flat, and about a fourth piirt of it, consisting of loose sand and pebbles, is very unproductive. The hilly tracts, however, afford good pastur -e ; and even on a great part of the level surface, buck-wheat and other grain is raised with success. The original settlers were Dutch ; but the population was successively augmented by emi- erants from England and Scotland, Quakers from Philadelphia, and Presbyterians from New England ; so that they for.n altogether a somewhat motley community. They dis- tinguished themselves by their ardour in the cause of independence: the Jersey militia rendered eminent service in the battles of Trenton and Princeton. New Jersey, on a scale nearly proportioned to its size, has the same manufactures as the great neiglibouring states The shad and oyster fisheries arc considerable; but its commerce is carried on almost entirely through the medium of New York. Trenton, on the Delaware, ranks as the capital but Newark, on the Pasaic, is now by much the largest place, having, in 1835, 16 000 inhabitants, with manufactures to the value of 8,000,000 dollars. Paterson, near its'falls, has numerous mills, and a population of 12,000. These falls (fig. 9.30.) are dis- tineuished as among the most picturesque objects which the United States present. Ihe * 930 .J effect is produced chiefly by '"* the wild and varied scenery by which they are bordered. 5737. Delaware forms a still smaller strip, on the eastern coast of the bay of that name. It is a low terri- tory, in some places sandy, in others marshy, tlie Cypress ' Swampcovering nearly 50,000 acres; but there is a great proportion of fine alluvial soil. It was originally settled by the Swedes, then occupied by the Dutch, then ceded to .William Penn, when it became part of Pennsylvania, from which itwM separated in 1755, under the title of the Three Counties of Delaware. It pro- duces wheat of fine quality, and has some important manufactures similar to those ot Ponnsylviinia. Dover and Wilmington are two rather flourishing sea-ports, from which a considerable quantity of flour is exported. PASAIC rALIJI. two DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. 8UB8ECT. 9. The Southern Statu. 5738. Tte Southern Slate$, so denominated from their situation to the south of those now described, are Maryland, Virginia, tlie Carol inas, and Georgia. 'ITiey enjoy several natural advantages over their northern neighbours ; particularly a more genial climate, and a soil capable of yielding in abundance rich products, which cannot grow under the bleaker sky of the north. These circumstances have led to the formation of a people essentially distinct from those hitherto described, and almost at variance with them. The Northern Americnn joins with his agricultural pursuits a good deal of manufacture, and a most active coin. merco; the Southern American is purely agricultural. The one is active and stirring, the other indolent and luxurious ; the one cultivates the soil as a farmer, the other ns u planter. While in the one slavery is happily almost extinct, the other devolves upon Iiis negroes the greater part of the labour. " The southern planter," says Mr. Lambert, '• ac- quires his wealth not by the sweat of his brow, like the New Englander, but by the labour of his negroes. He lolls at ease in the shady retreat, drinking, smoking, or sleeping, sur- rounded by his slaves and overseers, who furnish him with the luxuries of life, without tlie necessity of his leaving the piazza." The northern merchant, on the contrary, is strenu- ously exerting himself from morning till night, exercising his faculties, expanding liis mind, and enlarging his ideas by continual intercourse with people of every nation, and by cor- respondence with every part of the globe. The slaves are held in the most degrade(! state ; their evidence is not received in a court of justice, and a penalty is imposed on any one teaching them to read. Tlie lash is habitually applied to them ; and instances arc given by many travellers, and especially by Mr. Stuart, of their being treated with the most shocking barbarity, even by their mistresses. Yet their general treatment must be in some respects tolerable, since, without importation, they double their numbers in thirty years, A barbarous prejudice also, here, as elsewhere, still excludes the negroes, even when free from all the privileges and rights of freemen. It must be confessed that the Soutliorii Americans especially in the sea-ports, arc doing a good deal to redeem their character, both for activity and for intelligence. 5739. Maryland, the most northern of these states, is situated on both sides of tlic groat bay of Chesapeake. It borders on Delaware and Pennsylvania, and, though not of great extent, is a fertile and agreeable region. The sea-coast and a range of mountains in tliu interior temper, in most places, the extremity of the heat. Though marsh and snnd iircvail in some quarters, the soil is, on the whole, extremely fertile. The wheat is of very superior quality ; the barley and potatoes are also excellent ; while both here and in Vir>;inia tobaau forms the characteristic object of culture, 'llie produce in 18;}6 was 25,000 bogslieads. It is stronger than that of Virginia, and more esteemed in the North of Europe. The iron- works are considerable : manufactures have been established to some extent, thougli much inferior to those of the northern states. Tiie lislieries are carried on with activity, .'ind in 1835 yielded 4I,00() barrels of herrings, 550O of slmd, and 16,700 of mackerel, 'i'lic com- merce consists chiefly in the exportation of its raw produce, being ahnor.t all the tobacco grown, a great quantity of wheat flour, and some iron. In I83G it had 103,(X)0 tons of shipping; the imports in 1837 were 7,857,0(X) dollars, exports 3,789,000. Maryland wis first settled by Lord Baltimore, during the reign of Charles J., with a colony of Uomaii Catholics, whose descendants are still numerous. Tliey introduced a very unusually tolerant spirit, so that the state served as a refuge from the persecution of the puritans in NewEni;- land ; and thus it soon became prosperous. The inhabitants are said to present tlie most ikvourable specimen that exists of the Southern Americans. They are distinguislied by their agreeable manners, kindness, and ■ hospitality. The labour, however, is devolved entirely upon the ne- groes. We must also observe, that Maryland is now rivalling Ne»' England in zeal for ditfusing in- struction. Several colleges have been founded, and large sums votitl for the support of schools, 5740 Jia!timore(Ji(/. ija:.), on a bay near the western head of the Chesn|)eake, is the largest ciiy of the south, and now yields only to New York ami lioston as a commercial emporium. There is no place of which the growth lias been more rapid. Mr. I'almer iis- «uri's UK that there are iiitko-.is so old as to remember when there were only twenty houses in it, and not a vessel belonging to the port. It now contains upwards of 80,000 souls ; and ik BALTIHOIII. Book IV- THE UNITED STATES. 1357 shipping* '" 1837, amounted to 62,300 tons. The merchants of Baltimore are active and en- terprising, and carry on trade with all quarters of the globe. Their schooners are the best con- structcd of any in the world, and are no less fitted for trade than for privateering, in which ca- pacity they made a great figure during the last war. The town is celebrated for the superior excellence of its flour, which seems owing both to the quality of the wheat and to a skilful mode of grinding. The citizens lay claim to peculiar distinction for hospitality, enterprise, and bravery. They recollect, with pride, the tepulse given to the British army, and the death of General Ross in the attack of their city ; they have erected a monument of brick, ctt'cd with marble, to the memory of Washington, and have reared several very fine churches, particularly the Roman Catholic and the Unitarian chapel, the latter of which cost 20,000/. Although small vessels can come up to the place, (he main harbour is at Fell's Point, ubout k mile distant, where a separate town has arisen. In 1805, a medical college was founded, and was extended, in 1812, to embrace other branches, under the title of the University of Maryland ; but the plan has not hitherto been fully realised. Annapolis, the original and still the 6fficial capital, where the state legislature assembles, is agreeably situated on a peninsula farther down the Chesapeake ; but it is now entirely eclipsed by Baltimore, com- pared to which it is a mere village. 5741. Virginia is the most extensive, the richest, and the most influential of all the Southern States ; the centre of all the agricul- tural interest, the focus of democratic prin- ciples and of negro slavery. It extends far to the westward over the successive ranges of the Alleghany. These ranges, composed chiefly of limestone, are not above 2000 and 3000 feet high ; but, being steep and wooded, with majestic rivers forcing their way through them, produce many striking and ron.antic sites. The most remarkable object is the natural rock bridge (fig. 932. ), formed by some great convulsion of nature, which appears to have rent a mountain asunder from top to bot- tom. A fissure has thus been formed, about two miles long, and in some places 300 feet deep, the sides of which are joined at the top by a mass of rock, while they descend so perpen- dicularly that a plummet might lie let fall from the edge of the rock to the bottom of the gulph. The stupendous arch thus formed is 213 feet in height, and spans at top 90 feet. ,00. BK.Do., v.Ro,MA. From thcsc mountains several fine rivers, the James, the Rappahannock, and the Potowmac, descend eastward mto the Chesapeake. C country for 100 miles inland is low and swampy, and becomes rugged m approach- ins the mountains i ^ut though some districts suffer from these causes Virginia .n general shiSy favoured ^s to soil ; and her climate, being the most gen.al of the temperate zone, nafs the finer kinds of grkin and fruit to come to full matiinty. The ear les settlement b No4 Amerie.^ was made here by Sir Walter Raleigh, in 1587 ; and Virgmia, named i honourof Elizabeth, was long the appellation by wluch the whole of t^.s coas^ was known The other states were gradually detached from .t Tobacco, wheat and rnaize, areX staples of Virginia, and afford a large surplus for exportation. Manufactures notwithst^iding some^efTor'ts to introduce them, never made any progress The ™ wealth of the region is copious, but has been turned, as yet. to little account, fhe sh.p- havetei rlSS^ this steteV yet much less has been done for the diffusion of knowledge hn^b "list any other Th'e legislature, however, h-c formed a Meraryfund,^h.ch amounted, in 1833, to 1 ,552,000 dollars, yielding «" •"''r^^^J^'?^ ' '7„t^Ji^,e^^^^ aonronriated to the instruction of poor children. Several colleges, though not on a very ?argeS have Wn rlutly erected. The labour here, too, is chiefly carried on by slaves, who are sent in considerable numbers to the new western states. ■^142 The townt in a district so decidedly agricultural, could not acquire any great ^l^t Yr'the" Commerce which necLsarily ^^^'^ ^^^^ oil ilZ RiveT^'lSt produce has given rise to several flourishing and increasing pot «" J*""^^ ^^^ >^'^:^^ mond. the capital, is situated considerably up that "^"-"t *P° "'' '^T TJ' ^^^^ navigible. Aboilt 25.000 hogsheads of tobacco and 200.000 barrels of flou^«es^^^^^^^ be annually exported from it. Its improvement was f%'«,^ chiefly by New bnglana emigrants, who filled the houses as fast as they could ^e "; J ^^ Ca^^o a^^^^ mond (fig. 933.) is in a commanding situation, and one of the best edifices ui the Unitca BOCK BHIDOBi VIROINIA* 1S58 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. 933 States ; and the placo, is, in general, new and well built. At the mouth of James River, after it has spread into a little hay, is Norfolk, also thriving, neat, nnd very commercial. On another hrancli of the river, Petersburg enjoys a considcral>lc degree of prosperity manifested by the rapidity with which it was rebuilt, after half of it, in 1816, had been burnt to the ground. Wheeling derives import. ancc from its situation on the route to the Western Territory. gj^V.ii'' - ORIAT VALU ON TIIE POTOWHAC. OAPITOI., mCHMONlt, VirOlNlA. 5743. Columbia, destined to contain the capital of America, is a small segment, ten miles square, cut off from Virginia and Maryland at their point of junction. It stands nearly in the centre of the Eastern ur Atlant'.c states, their extent to the north and souili of it being about equal. It derives importance also from commanding the navigation of the Potowmac, one of the greatest rivtis of this region, descending from the heart of the Alleghany. Navigation, however, has been seriously obstructed hy the succession of falls which interrupt the course of that river. The great falls (yf<7.934.), fifty-nine milesalwvc Washington, form one of the grand- est scenes which the United States present. The perpendicidar descent is seventy-six feet, but the rapids ex- tend for several miles up the river. A stupendous projecting rock covered with cedar affords a spot from which the romantic scenery and the impe- tuous dashing of the waters may be contemplated. At the close of win. ter, vast masses of ice, rolling over the rocks with a hideous noise, present a scene truly sublinr.e. Canals of several miles in length, and cut in several instances through the solid rock, enable vessels to evade these formidable obstructions, and to ascend the river to the height of 219 miles. 5744. The ciVy of Washington (Jiff. 935.) has been built by the American government as its own chief Beat, and also in the expectation of its becoming the greatest and most splendiil metropolis in the New World. The situation is fine, on a somewhat elevated ground, at the angle formed by the two "'""i"llBiHf7iIliii7'''iT ''■'V^l&^^i^^B^^H^ branches of the Potowmac. The plan is represented as almost unrivalled for regu- larity and beauty, forming a parallelogram of four milts by two and a half. The greater number of streets nicetat riglit angles ; but the main avenues cross these diagonally, while li^^n^^^t^.v- . -.r-»« TrnniriT 111 iiii i « iii i iiii nil ^^ii the public buildings are placed ^^^^H9^H^|ynB|En^^^j^^^^^^^^^s^^^^|L in situations whicli it is cj- ^i^^^tKKt^KKKH^mB^i^^^SS^^m^^^^ pcctcd wUI give them the hap- piest effect. Unfortunately, """"•"""• all this is only prospectivJ: the plan, iiutcad of being carried regularly through, has been taken up at a number of de- tached points, six houses here and twelve there, so that no order is yet perceptible; and tlie 936 . - city consists only of straggling clus- ters placed at an inconvenient dis- tance from each other. The expec- tation of its deriving greatness from commerce has not yet been fulfilled. In the Capitol (/iff. 9'.iC>. ), or house for the assembling of Congress, no cost has been spared to produce the utmost possible magnificence, Nine TNI CArirUI. AT WttliLVUTON. Book IV. THE UNITED STATES. 1359 wernment as lost splcndiil New World, fine, on a 1(1 ground, at by tlic two I'otowniac. pvoscntcd as for rcgu- formiiig a tour milts The groatcr meut at right nain iivenucs iiially, wliilc igsarcplacod icli it is cx- licm the liap- nfortunattly, prospective ; imber of de- blc ; and tlic jggling clus- Iwcnicnt dis- Tlieexiiec- Icatness from |,cen fulfilled. ;. ), or house Jongress, no produce the icnce. N""8 hundred marble columns have beeii imported, and the talenU of four artists have been em- ployed upon it. ITie British set fire to the edifice during their temporary occupation in the last war, a somewhat barbarous proceeding ; to which they added another truly Gothic, that of burning the national library. The official house of the president is also very splendid .5745. North and South CaroHna, and Georgia, may be considered together, as partaking one 6 .- oil. 1. begins to prevail a class ot productions differing from those of Vir- ginia, and partaking more of a tropical character. Wheat is no longer grown with equal success, though maize continues to form the staple food of the lower orders. Rice and cotton are the chief products of all these three states. The former is singularly favoured by the superabundant moisture which prevails in all the low maritime tracts; and Europe derives from Carolina almost all that it consumes of this grain. The cotton, which loves a dry soil, finds in the sandy tracts on the sea-coast and neighbouring Islands a most favour- able situation. The cotton produced under the name of Sea Islands bears a higher price in the market than that of any other region of the globe. The rapidly increased and now immense market which Europe, and, above all, Britain, afford for this material of its most extensive manufacture, has greatly enriched these states, by whom cotton is found more profltable than any description of grain. There are some domestic manufactures, chiefly of cotton ; but, on the whole, this branch of industry ranks lower than even in Virginia. The commerce consists in the exportation of rice and cotton, in exchange for manufactured goods, wines, and the produce of the East and West Indies. The gold mines of these three states, discovered only within the last twenty years, have acquired some considerable im- portance. The produce for some years back has been elsewhere exhibited. The Carolinians are perceptibly inferior to their countrymen of the other states in respect to education ; but colleges are now founded, one in North Carolina, two in South Carolina, and one in Georgia ; and sums have been voted for the support of common schools. The Carolinians are courteous and rather polished in their manners ; yet they have been accused of leading an idle and dissipated life, of being addicted to spirituous liquors, gambling, horse- racing, cock-fighting, duelling, boxing, and gouging ; but Mr. Warden assures us that they are improving in all these particulars. j74C. Charleston, the capital of the Carolinas, is agreeably situated at the head of a bay and at the confluence of two small rivers, the Ashley and Cooper. This situation forms an excellent harbour, which enables it to engross almost the whole trade of the country, thougl- it is thirty or forty miles distant from the Santee, its largest river, which traverses nearly its whole extent. Charleston contains a number of good streets and handsome houses, which, at least where well situated, bear a very high rent ; many bringing from 3001. to 700/. a year. They are spacious, furnished with balconies, verandas, and every appurtenance which can render them a cool and pleasant retreat from the scorching rays of the sun. The place, however, wants some of those accommodations which exist in the industrious cities of .the north. The streets are unpaved, unless with brick footpaths ; and, in windy weather, whirlwinds of dust and sand fill the houses and blind the eyes. Swamps and mo- rasses, which surround the place, are allowed to become the receptacles of stagnant water ; and the bodies of dead animals, instead of being buried or burnt, are thrown out to be devoured by birds. These disadvantages must injure the purity of the air, and render Charleston liable to those fevers which have repeatedly proved most destructive to it. All the indifferent and some of the good houses are constructed of wood ; but the best are built of a dark-looking brick, and the streets are agreeably shaded by a spreading umbrageous tree, called the Pride of India. The great planters reside in Charleston for a part of the year, and spend their time in profuse jollity and hospitality. There are instances, it is said, of individuals among them possessing 20,000i. a year, and many have 4000/. or 5000/. They readily contract debt, and arc slow and uncertain in paying. Intellectual pursuits are oomparatively little regarded ; there is a library and museum, but both on a small scale. Columbia, the state capital, is a small pleasant inland town. 5747. Georgia has for its chief town Savannah, built at the mouth of the great river of the same name, which has a long course on the line of the Carolina frontier. The towr. stands on a sandy cliff, about fifty feet above the river, and, though built much more oi ounded liy immvniiv furuntN. Tliu wharfs nnd wurchuuscs extend along thu river, and form a sort of lower town. The Georgian planters are less opulent than those of Carolina, and have nut the sMino fVuu and generous extravagance ; on the contrary, tlicir economy is alleged to bo somewhat Miveru | and yet it is asserted that they manifest the same tardiness in the paymeat of Ihvir dvhts. They are e<|uully fond of horse-racing and jockeying, and are represented to be on thu whole ruder and more addicted to the violent and unfair modes of fighting which tliNgruou the southurn status. Augusta is a pleasant town, 236 miles up the river, and not only collects thu cotton of a very rich surrounding district^ but carries on a trade with the Indians, Three newspapers are \yu\y. lishcd there. Milledgeville, a still smaller place, haa boon madu thu scot of government. St. Mary's is a little town on the frontier of Florida. 5748. Florida, East and H^eat, forms the Southern boundary of thu part of the continent which is occupied by the long line of thu United States. East Florida is a peninsula of 400 miles in length, stretching southwards, and forming the boundary of the Gulf of Mexico. West Florida is a long strip, extending along thu norlhurn interior of timt gulP. Its surface greatly resembles that of the low tracts uf Carolina nnd Guorgia, sandy and swampy, covered in some parts with superb tropical forests, and in others capable of good cultivation, particularly of cotton. The European settlements arc Kiimll, few, and scattered, and much harassed by the Seminole Indians, who occupy a large proportion of tliu terri- tory, and whom the States have not yet been ablu to Nidxlue. Thu Floridas belonged to Spain till 1819, when they were ceded by treaty, and have since fonncd a territory uf thu Union, though not yet raised to the rank of a state. All the towns of Florida are small. Tallahassee, in the interior, has been madu the seat of government, and invested with the name of a city, but has as yet nothing more, 'i'hu largust place in East Florida is St. Augustine, on the Atlantic, with a population of not (|uite /itXX) inhabitants. Pensacola, in VVcst Florida, is smaller, notwithstanding its excellunt harbour. 5749. Alabama is a tract which runs up into thu interior iVoin West Florida ; nnd having been severed from Georgia, was first formed into a territory, and in 1H20 became a state. The surface and soil generally resemble those of Georgia, though thu upland, being consider- ably elevated above thu sea, is reckoned more healthy than most imperfectly cleared tracts under the same latitude. It is finely watered by the large rivers Alabama nnd Tonihcckbee, which unite in the Mobile. Its progress bus been extremely rapid, and it was believed in I8:i5 to contain 400,000 inhabitants. 'I1iis has been chiully owing to thu cultivation of cottoii, the average crop of which at present is supposed to exceed !).'iO,()00/. The exports in 1 8:17 were valued at upwards of 9 millions of dollars. The Indians of the Creek tribe, by whom a great part of its territory was occupied, have now mostly emigrated to the westward. Mobile is advantageously situated at thu huad of a duup bay of the samu name, with an ci- cellent harbour. In 1830 its population was only iltXX), but was reckoned in 1835 at 6000, and will, doubtless, ere long attain u much greater importance. Tuscaloosa, the state capital, has a fine interior situ, on a rivur accessiblu to steainurs. SuBSECT. 4. The fVettern Tvrrilorii. 5750. The Western Territory is generally undvrsttMMl to comprehend that extensive region which lies between the Alleghany and thu Rocky Mountnins. Its extunt, position, and general features have beun already exhibited. It excites u deep inturvNt, less by its actual condition than by its vast capacities, and by the prospect of thu mighty nations with which, nt nu (lit- tant period, it will doubtless be covered. A close and continuous tide of immigration liastlir the last thirty years set in from the eastern to thu western states. It consists |iartl}' of emigrants from Europe, but chiefly of the natives of the easturn states themselves. Ik Americans arc enterprising travellers; they consider every part of the States' territory ai their country, and arc easily impelled, not by distress and neeesNity only, but by any feasible prospect of advantage, to migrate from one to anotliur of its most distant quarters. "Old America," says BLrkbcck, "seems to be breaking up, und moving to the westward." Tlie number of iibove 3,000,000, to which the western population now amounts, and which has been formed solely by this process, sufficiently uttestH its great extent. The abject of the emigrant is to beco"- ' t proprietor and cultivator of port of that immense unoccupied territory, which the govurmnent has, by conepiust, treaty, or purchase, acquired from the Indians. A >■ portion is annually disposed of by auction, and the proceed! form one of the principal branches of thu national ruveniie. For a long time they were ci- posed at two dollars an acre, only one-fourth of the price being paid down, and the rest by lour annual instalments; but as large arrears weru thus aecutniditted, the upset price va: reduced to \\ dollar; but the whole was rc(|uired to be paid immediately. Under this ar- rangement, vast quantities have been sold, in a great measure to capitalists, purchasing larp tracts, and .selling them in small lots ; but this speculation buing carried to great excess especially in 1836', was one chief cause of the recent distrewi. Part 111. m of tlic river id wurclioiiscs inters ate less ravuganee; on I aHRurtcd tliat .■()iiul\y fonil of more nddlctud ites. Augusta 1 of o very rich lapcrs are pulv of government. of the continent I is a peninsula J of the CJnlf of ior of that gulf, urgia, sandy and capable of good iw, and scattered, lion of the tetrU idas belonged to a territory of the Florida are small. invested with the last Florida is St, timts. rcnsacola, lorida ; and having ('JO became a state. md, being consider. feetly cleared tracts a and Tombeckbee, iras believed in Wo lUivation of cotton, .xporlsinlM7wete k tribe, by whom a -\ to the westward, B name, with an ei- jckoned in lS3o f Tuscaloosa, the that extensive region position, and geiwl i its actual condition ith which, at "»r immigration has to It consists iiattly of cs themselves. ITi* States' territory «! „,butbynnyfe«be nt quarters. ;'0^i the westward." T^ amounts, and ;vte ent. The object "^ immense unoccup^ purchase, acquired I. and the proce* J time they were «• lown, and the rest by UoOK IV. THE UNITED STATES. 1.161 y 5751. The following table sliowi the estimated quantity of public land in eaohtttttc. with the progress of sale to 30th September, 1837 : SUM or Ttnilon. '""o-Sl^uSV"' o«^^j'.'.r'"'»c 8.W. Amwni paid. Ohio liultana ... Illinois Missouri Alabama . - Mississippi Louisiana - - - Micliltjaii Arkansas Florlila ... - Wisconsin Total Amt. 10,555,9.52 20,457,393 31,9ai,730 40,241,430 31,fl99,470f 21,920,780 20,437,5.59 31,118.302 31,408,011 40,254,207 18,612,437 Aerei, 16,512,110 18,4&l.679 23,0111,748 21,004,365 29,26.5,0.55 20,172 482 6,543,393 12,731,853 12,602,900 6,218,573' 4,807,307 Aerft, 12,37,1,247 13,7.54,:»7» 0,'i73,'2.56 5,.M1,0.M 10.08(1,687 0,235,045 2,010,426 S,804,2»« 2,127,005 08;i,324 1,051,021 IM/ari. 21,777.092 17,MS),450 11,610,024 7,4:iA,8Hi 10,406,840 I2,M8,006 i,714,8(M 11,180,537 2,080,775 805,230 1,303,700 313,600,373 1 172,374,470 76,025,055 106,245,056 Tlic following shows the total result of the sales for each year since 18S0 s — Y«w. Qiiantll; of Public Land otftred for Sale. Ouanili, of Public Umd told. Amount pnldby PurchoMn. Act.TundJJSd In onch Vmt. 1820 1821 1822 1823 1824 1825 1820 18-27 1828 1829 1830 1831 18.32 1833 1834 1835 1836 Sept. 30,1837. Acre*^ 8,338,075-04 10,910,480-42 0,002,031-37 11,414,508-70 7,204,180-48 3,410,004-55 2,880,703-50 3,314,810-71 3,208,403-90 6,148,002-26 0,750,708-77 11,00,5,501-42 4,205,805-20 e,G14,.59C-93 13,0.56,865-37 13,767,208-06 509,034-50 Acm, 303,404-00 781,213-32 801,220-13 063,310-52 749,32304 aa3,401-C9 848,082-20 926,727-70 965,000-36 1,244,860-01 1,920,733-79 2,777,8.^6 88 2,462,342-16 3,8.56,227-50 4,6.58.218-71 12,.5fi4,17S85 20,074,H70-92 4,805,462-07 D,4larM. 424,902-26 1,169,224-08 1,023,267-83 8.50,136 20 053,799-03 1,20.5,008-37 1,128,017-27 1,318,10.5-30 1,221,3.57-00 1,572,80,3- .51 2,433,432-04 3,5,57,023-70 3,115,376-09 4,072,284-84 6,000.981-01 1.5,099,804-11 2,5,167,833-06 6,127,418-39 IMIdri. 1-40 1-50 1-28 1-30 1-27 1-35 1-33 1-12 1-26 1-26 126 1-28 1-27 1-29 1-31 7-27 1-23 1-28 122,512,384-25 01,206,411-07 1 78,340,.5,5712 1 1-27-4J1 1 5752. Forest and prairie arc the two grand features which mark the surface of this western wilderness. Forests predominate in all that tract which is nearest to the eastern statOM, and immediately beneath the Alleghany. They consist of lofty primeval trees, which rise often to an amazing height. In the rich tracts, they sometimes exhibit a grand asscmbla)^ of gigantic objects, which carry the imagination back to other times, before the foot of a white man had touched the American shore. The white oaks arc seen rearing their mag- nificent stems without a branch to the height of seventy or eighty feet, terminating in full luxuriant heads. 575.3. Tlic prairies exhibit quite a difTerent scene. They consist of endless meadows, without a tree, or even a shrub, and in which the grass rises to the height of four, six, or even eight feet. It is in npproaching the Mississippi, that they begin to appear. The grand prairie reaches from Lake Michigan, nearly to the Ohio, nbout 300 miles in length, and twenty-five to thirty in breadth. The region west of the Mississippi consists almost entirely of one boundless prairie, reaching even to Mexico. The Indians, and sometimes the Europeans, set fire to these pr.iiries, when the flame spreads with tremendous rapidity, and is said to present one of the grandest and most terrific spectacles in nature. The flamo rushes through the long grass with a noise like thunder ; dense clouds of smoke arise ; and the sky itself appears almost on fire. Travellers then crossing the prairie arc in serious danger, which they can only escape by themselves setting fire to the grass around them, and taking shelter in the burnt part, where the approaching flame must expire for want of fuel. Notliing can be more melancholy than the aspect of a burnt prairie, presenting u uniform black surface, like a vast plain of charcoal. These conflagrations are said to l>c by no means injurious to the soil, unless in so far us they damage some of the bordering enclosures. A prejudice at one time prevailed against the prairies, as not fit for cultivation ; but this has been found erroneous ; and they arc the more in request as it is a most important object to save the labour of clearing away the wood. 5754. The backwoodsmen, divided into the classes of squatters and hunters, form a peculiar society, beyond the regular pale of settlement. The squatters are those who established themselves upon unoccupied lands, not only without any regular right, but for some time without specific pursuit or object. When, however, the states began to dispose of these 4 S2 196)1 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPIIY. P*».' III. lands in a regular manner, the squatters, who could produce no title-deeds, and were unwilling to purvliase any, were warned tu move farther to the westward, which they did not unwillingly) as the new wttlers were ready to ^ive them a good price for their buildings and stock. 1 hey form thus u sort of irregular pioneers, in advance of all the setllemcntfi, Ileyond them are the luuitcrs, who never cultivate, and refuse all occupation except the chase of the beor, the buD'alo, and the raccoon, and the bringing down birds with their rifle ; unless when they take excursions of lOUO miles to trade with the Indians, llicy live in rude cabins of unhewn logs, with large intervals between each, through which the smoke escapes ; their only furniture is timber cut itito a rude resemblance of beds, tables, and clmira ; their only covering, the skin of the bear and the buflklo. A bad name has been given to them, as perilous neighbours ; their habits are, in foot, half Indian ; and some desperate outlaws, having found shelter in these outer confines of the civilised world, have committed depredations with impunity. But, as a body, they have been found by recent travellers to be hearty, honest, and hospitable ; in short, persons from whom no danger was to be apprehended. The States government have lately granted to the squatters a power of pre-emption on favourable terms, when the lands are put up for sale. 5755. Kentucky and Tennesite, the first settled and most fully peopled of the western states, arc prolongations westward of Virginia and North Carolina. They reach from the Alleghany to the Mississippi, and border southwards upon Georgia and Alabama. They arc nobly watered by the Tennessee and the Cumberland, which fall into the Ohio, and by the Ohio itself, which forms the northern boundary of Kentucky. Much has lately been done to improve the navigation of these and other rivers. The soil throughout a very large extent is particularly rich, and equally fitted for grain and pasturage. Wheat of fine quality, hemp, and tobacco, are the chief objects of culture in Kentucky; in Ten- nessee they arc in a great measure supplanted l>y cotton. Horses, cattle, and hogs arc bred in great numl)ers ; much attention has been paid to the improvement of the breeds, which in many instances arc now excellent. The difHculty of importation has led to manufactures on a greater scale than might be expected ; and Kentucky alone employs 24,000 looms. The deep stain of the slave trade has been transferred from Virginia; and in 1830, Ken- tucky contained 1C5,000 slaves, and Tennessee 141i,000. This gives the people habits of indolence, and n disdain of homely occupations. Yet they are on the whole well spoken of, OS high-spirited, frank, and hospitable. The taste for reading is general ; there arc four or five colleges, numerous academics, and a school almost in every township. The people live in rude plenty, eating meat three timesadoy; are fond of dancing, and rather too fond of gaming. Their commerce is carried on partly across the Alleghany, but mostly down the Ohio and Mississippi, — a line of 2500 miles, which even in a steam vessel it requires about twelve days to ascend, and nine to descend. Lexington, the ancient capital of Kentucky, is still the most genteel residence, and contains a college, increasing in rupu. tation. The seat of government is now transferred to Frankfort, a small neat town on the Kentucky. But the most flourishing place is Louisville, advantageously situated on the Ohio, immediately beneath the great rapids, which arc now avoided by a canal, formed with great labour. All the traffic of the two states, and of Ohio, passes through it; so thnt, in 1HB3, its mercantile transactions were estimated at 24,837,000 dollars, and its population at 20,000. Nashville, the capital and only considerable town of Tennessee, contains nbout 7(XX) inhabitants, and has r.jme trade. 5756. The noble and rapidly advancing state of Ohio is situated on the northward of Kentucky. The river from which it derives its name, though reckoned only a fourth rate in the Western World, is as large as the Danube, and it receives four great tributaries, nil, like itself, of safe and easy navigation. It flows in a clear and beautiful stream, and, according to Mr. Stuart, bos, with its tributaries, 5000 miles navigable for boats. The soil, though various, is to a great extent extremely productive. It yields in perfection wheat, rye, and particularly maize ; in some parts tobacco and cotton. Cattle are sent largely to the eastern states ; hogs are produced in amazing numbers, and their flesh cured and exported. The commerce here, too, is impeded by its inland situation ; yet this has been greatly remedied by steam navigation on the noble western rivers ; also by the canal l>etweeii Philadelphia and Pittsburg, and still more by that, which the state itself has formed, connecting the Ohio with Lake Erie. Here, as in Kentucky, there are considerable troll and cotton manufactures. 57.'>7. Several large town§ have arisen in this fertile region. Pittsburg, as already observed, should be considered as belonging to the territory for whose supply its manufactures are carried on. Pittsburg has been called the Birmingham of America. The situation, at the point where the Alleghany and Monongaheln unite in forming the Ohio, is must favour- able for the trade of the Western Territory. Iron- works, the material of which, including coal, the neighbourhood amply affords, glass-huuses, and other manufactures, flourish. In 1835 it contained 120 steam-engines, 16 large and many small foundries, 10 glass- works, &c. The population had risen to 35,000. Cincinnati is situated considcrahly fiirther down the Obioi and is the real capital, though at the south-western extreniity. Book IV. THE UNITED STATES. I9M rtliward of fourth rate utarics, all, ircam, and, oats. Tlic perfection tie arc sent flesh cured lis has been the canal itself lias lonsiilcrablc ly observed, iicturcs arc ituation, at tiost favour- (i, including flourisli. _ lOglass- lonsidcralily extremity. This city, iprung up n n ft.w year, amid a vwt dewrt, presents already range of com. modioui. wcll-finished brick house., spucioti, and bu«y marlct-ti., subsUniiol public build- ,„p, tl.ou«nd. of prosperous wcU-drM^.,!, industrious inhabitants, houses and iHwts bu.ldmg,street. levellinR and paving, crowds of country people constantly coming and going, rhough somewhat too close to the river, it is well built, on a regular plan It carrirt on a most extensive trade up and down the Ohio, by the Mississippi, along the Ohio canal, which here joins the river, and also by the Miami canal. In 1800. it had onW T^O inhabitants, who m 1820 increased to 10.000, in 1830 to 25,000, and now, according "to Captain Marryatt, amount to 40,000. He considers the society to be as good as in any of the eastern cities. Cleveland, at the junction of the canal with Lake Erie? has suddenly sprung upinto a haven of the lirst importance. Captain Marryatt describes it as containine above 10,000 inhabitants. In 1835 its port was entered by 980 steamers, and 805 other vessels. Columbus, pleasantly situated on the Scioto, though the seat of government, is as yet of small comparative importance. ZanesviUe, Lancaster, anil Chillicotl.e are advancing towns, in convenient but urhealtliy situations; for, according to Mr. Birkbeck, gain is the alpha and omega of the founders of American towns. 5758. Indiana is an outer region to Ohio, which it rivals in fertility, and into which for the last twenty years a great tide of emigration has flowed. It is watered by the noble stream of the Wabash, with numerous tributaries to a great extent navigable ; and the state has shown much activity in improving the communication by roads and canls. The population between 1810 and 1830, increased from 24.000 to 341,000, and in 1835 was estimated at 600,000. Still its towns— Indianopolis, recently made the capital ; Vincennes, early founded by the French; Corydon, Madison — are all only rising villages. The most remarkable place is Harmony, on the Wabash, long occupied by a body of sectaries, under the .sole spiritual guidance of one Ilapp, who not only instructed them, but directed their industry and received all its proceeds. A strict rule of celibacy, seemingly very ill suited to this part of the world, was imposed upon them. Some years ago, he removed to Economy, in Pennsylvania, having sold bis establishment to Mr. Owen, who attempted to realise there his peculiar views of society, hut without success; and he has since abandoned the place. 5759. Illinois is still an outer tract to Indiana, separated from it by the Wabash, and extending to the Mississippi. The river from which its name is derived has a steam navigation of 400 miles, and receives the Kaskaskia, which has between 300 and 400. Its whole boatable navigation is estimated at 4000 miles, and a canal is in contemplation to unite the Illinois with Lake Michigan. Mr. Stuart, who recently traversed this state, describes It as one of the finest countries in the world ; two thirds of it being composed nt beautiful and fertile prairies, finely diversified with wood. The population has tripled within the last ten years. It possesses lead mines of extraordinary richness, which, in 1830, yielded 8,323,000 lbs., but has since declined. The population, only 3000 in 1800, had risen in 1800 to 157.000, and in 1830 to 272,000. Vandalia ranks as the capital, but Shawnee Town is rather a larger village. Albion and Princeton are rising into .some importance. Alton on the Mississippi, and Chicago on Lake Erie, are the seats of trade, and rapidly advancing. 5760. Michigan is a state still more recent, and which has advanced with even greater rapidity. It comprises a peninsula, nearly enclosed by the lake of its own name, tho.se of Huron and Erie, also a tract reaching to Lake Superior. Its soil is not surpassed by that of the finest among the other states, and it has become of late years a very favourite theatre of emigration. In the course of a few years lands were sold in it to the value of 11 millions of dollars. Two extensive railroads have been commenced, and have made some progress. Detroit, a few years ago only a rude village, has now more than 10,000 inhabitants. 5761. The state of Mississippi, on the lower part of that great river, remains still to be described, before we pass to the western side. It has obtained a bad reputation from the aspect of its coast, which is merely a tract of barren sand, bearing nothing but pines ; while, higher up, the land is swampy and subject to inundation. But in the interior, between the Mississippi and the Yazoo, there is a tract which has been described as the garden of America. It is covered with large herds of cattle, which are not even housed. Maize, indigo, and tobacco arc cultivated ; but cotton tiaving been introduced, and found to thrive, has nearly superseded all other branches, and is now produced to the extent of 300,000 bales. It has caused a great increase in the population of the state, which between 1830 and 1835 had risen from 136,000 to 325,000. Natchez, once celebrated as the residence of an Indian chief, called the Great Sun, is still the principal place, but has only ,^000 or 4000 inhabitants. 5762. Louisiana is the only other state east of the Mississippi. It comprehends the delta of that river, about 200 miles in length, and 100 in breadth, the whole of which space is intersected by numberless branches of the Mississippi and of the Red River, which comes from the frontier of Mexico. These streams, between the months of March and June, arc swelled by floods coming down from the Ohio and other northern waters, and are then 4 S 3 1M4 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHV. PkKt tir. liahls to inundation. To nvcrt tliis calamity, tlicro liaH lx>vn formi'il n |;rvttt work — a ^nAi or mound of earth, flrom four to lix fvet tiiKh, parallel to tlio margin of the Hlrintni, whluli |« ihuR conHned within salutary bouniU, Sometimes, however, in liiKli HihiiIn, thu wiiii,(NHi ncrvs in this state are rendered unproductive by inundation. There is, however, a griMit v«li'til nl fertile alluvial lands, on which large herds of cattle are fed, and good crops rnised uf siiKiir, rice, and cotton. The capital invested in sugar plantations is stated at •i,1,(MN),(K)(l tliiiliirii, Wheat and maize it has been found more advantageous to import tVuni thu hlglitir couiilry, 9763. Neiv Orleani is situated on the main branch of the Mississipiii, aliiitit l(Ki mile* aliove its mouth. It has rapidly risen to be one of the principal ports ol the I'lillvil Hlitli'*, and its increase must be progressive, since it is the chief outlet fur thu imnK'nsu iniitii of commodities brought down from the Western Territory. The pimulatlon Iwis ndviiiKi'ii from 10,000, to 4fi,000 in 1830, and to 70,000 in 1835, exclusive oMO.tXX) or ,1(MHK) wliii resided during the winter. The imports amounted, in 1837, to 1 4,0*^0,000 dojlurs, lliii fHiiiiMit to 35,388,000 ; but it has only 8 1 ,700 tons of shipping, the trade being vhlelly t>iirrli>(l on li* vessels from otiier quarters. The town, which wos only of wood, has been muvh Iniprovi'il. ir.iil built in a great measure of brick, yet it contains no very slegant buildings i llvit nvwiipii|<(iri have been set up, and a college founded. The Catholics, who originally cunipoNV)ecn found sufficient to procure the peaceable cession of any desired tract. Thv IimIIiiiiii iId not know very well what they are doing, when for such trifles they sell lo mighty ii lilrlli. right. At the same time, so incalculable are the benefits to the human rave iViitii ili« transference of this interior world to civilised possessors, that it would he great pfdillitry In criticise so peaceable a mode of effecting that salutary eliHugc. 57(>5. This territory consists of a succession of grctit valleyi fttrmnl by mliihly ritrtt rising in the Rocky Mountains, flowing eastward to the Mississippi and tho AilHoMirl, Beginning from the south, the first in order is the Red Itivur, wliioh rises In MmdIi'ii, hikI, after a course of 1450 miles, falls into thu Misgissip|)i, about 'J40 miles ahovti Nvw (hlvniKi being navigable about 1000 miles though with some obstructions in the dry NtinMill, It brings down a vast mass of alluvial mutter, from the colour produced by wliU'li It ili'< rives its name. Next, the Arkansas, by a parallel line of 2173 miles, iblls in hImimI !iw miles higher up; being navigable for boats 1981 miles. Twenty-two miles hlglier, tliv Mk sissippi receives the White River, after a course of 700 miles, 600 of which are niivlftiibli', Tlic next grand feature is (he junction of the Misnturi, wliich thenceforth reeelvi's hII the strcims descending from the western boun viillcyii iiiiil along the base of the Rocky Mountains, and has been navigated 837 miles up, (in Ihu other side, in the interval between these two mighty streams, thu Grand Ulver, Ilit' H\m\\, and the Jaqucs River flow into the Missouri, the Des Moines and St. Peter's lllvvr into the Mississippi. We omit a host of smaller streams and tributaries. 5766. The soil of this immeniie tract is various, and not so uniformly flue ' Rocky Mountains. On the Missouri, above the Osage, there is said to he ;l'.VV»! winiirc miles, equal to Kentucky. Beyond the Osnge is a vast space, whicli appeared to Mfr Uhi»ii ihc finest country he had ever seen, except tliat it is soniewlia*, deficient in wood Binl wiili'f. T:.v banks of the Arkansas are in many parts stony and barren j but those of lli« W'hiK River are very favourably mentioned. There are in this tract two uxtuiislve deiii lies between the American and Spanish territory, and is of great extcnti ruuohiitg nlung tlw UooK IV. whole east the Gulf < I'xiiviie, iniull crag rivers, flow ill Amerieii MIsHouri, a r,7r,7. i„ riirnicd in | Miiiriv, ahoi liilidiirs und Nome tohuec Miitural pasi liirjfe distrie extracted, the I'ur trade H'ttltTS, so t St. Louis, ft Ihv Missouri a very extens ni'xt five yea stcnin-boat ai ^'ll^ Coinpan wending the i HiTculuneum Imve a field a 'jiiniitity of It Jt'dl'rson, sele 57«H. /Iria, tn the Rocky e»pl()rc'(l. AI hi'ultliy ; hut i t\w surface is i culture, with v it shares the i inhabitants, wl tnpital, is as yi 57f;!), ^n in two territories, If^iiconsin is b( •Mississippi, on that of Upper ( healtliy, and fri Mississippi vail "Iienings and fu without any lal inexhaustible su the soil, witliou (•'included with I'he clinmtc, of iluctiuiis of tlie from a inarktt, i rail ivaj, of some have be,,,, ^^tf^p I'fairie ilu Chioi ihc two great ri I'lmn is situated Missouri, and bo frontier. It is d( licalthful countrj "fcly of squattei puwhnse, when ( '0 have |,y that t "le privileges of 5770. The/„d "till unaltered all ''""'iiig; and to UooK IV. THE UNITED STATES. yatii wan tliat wl... « «"«««;" '""^ of the Mexican river IX-l Nnr.c. «oo to 300 milo. in i.rvaaii., and fto.n the Ouif of Mexico to tl u M.H«,.,r.. It i, extrumely wline, „„d nlK,uiui, witl. murine c»..vi». Two tlnr, i, of tl.e ^mn^, „,„ „« «,lt «» thr ,e» j an.l in every .iirection throuK», it. .m.ill cragKy mountain,. larRe quantit.e, of r.K^li m\l can l.e .lug. Tl.e lleci and Arli»n».w nvi.r^ Hoivrng tlirougl. tins ,,in,n, nre extremely nalt. The other desert is « feature uni.iue in America, an extensive surface of moving sands, exteiuiing l>ctwcen the I'lotte and tlie MisHouri, and reseinliling in cliarocter tliose of the African Siiliara r.vn. In this district, notwithstanding its remote situation, the rtate of MU,v,uri formed in IH'Jl. and is daily increasing. It extends along the banks of the river of luin.o, about m) miles west from the Mississippi. The soil is fertile, and agricnituru luhotirs under no disadvantage except the want of timber and stone for fences. Grain with M.me tobacco and cotton, arc raised witli advantage ; but its chief value consists in the rich iiiilural pastures, on wbicli arc reared vast herds of cattle, horses, and ho-s. niero is a lurge district peculiarly abounding in lead, from wliich, in 1H;M, about (,„';ix>000 lbs. were ixlnieted. The command of the navigation of the Mississippi gives it high i ...ortance. and the fur trade is carried on with the Indian tribes. T wu advantages have attr..cted iiumeroui wttlers, so that the population, which in 1830 was .30,(XX), had riser in 183(5 to 'JIOOOO St. Louis, founded by the French in 1764, in a very fertile territory ixlow .'he junction of Ihu Missouri with the »Iississippi has l)ecome a place of high importo iic-, and the theatre of It very extensive trade. The population, of e,HOO in 1830, is l)tlieved .o have doubled in Om next five years; and is supposed by Captain Marryatt to have nr reached L'r X). Tiio stcnm-hoat arrivals in 1835 were 803, tonnage 100,000. It is a gre.u depot of t' ; American Fur Company. Immediately above the junction is St. Charles, a considerable vi \o. De- wmuling the river, we find the smaller ones of Carondelah, St. Ferdinand, n^i\ v, Andrew'tj Ilorculttiieum, where boats are built ; St. G<5n6vievc, a larger village, when ;ho inhabitanfi hiivB a Held of 700 acres, which they cultivate in common, anr' to «hich a considcrah';. (juiintity of lead is brought from mines in to become states. IViiconiin is bounded on the south and east by Illinois and Michigan, on the west by the Mississippi, on the north by the British boundary, in lat. 49°. The situation being nearly tlmt of L'pper Canada, while the surface is slightly elevated, renders the country extremely healthy, and free from those pestilential disorders which occur in the southern part of the Mistlssippi valley. It appeared to Captain Marryatt to consist of alternate prairie, oak openings and forest. The prairies are extrcrr>"'y rich, fit either for pasture or cul.ivation, without any labour of clearing away the timli r. Limestone quarries abound ; and an Inexhaustible supply of lead and other inineraL,, :.- 'mnd a few feet beneath the suifacc of the soli, without injuring its fertility. A treaty for removal to the westward has been concluded with the Winnebago Indians, by whom the territory has hitherto been occupied. The climate, of course, precludes the raising of cotton or the other vtry marketable pro- iluetioiis of the south. Its staple must he. grain and cattle, which are somewhat distant from a inarkct, though the numerous rivers aflbrd great facilities of conveyance, and two railways of some extent have been pr jeuled. Enterprising settlers, to the number of 18,(XX) have been attracted to tliis remott region, where, even in 1 837, 1 ,0,'i'2,000 acres had been sold I'talrlc ilu Chien, an old Indian village in a fine meadow, being situated at the junction of (lie two great rivers, must become the principal place, and is rising into some importance. Iiiieii is situated on the opposite or western bank of the Mississippi, extending thence to the Missouri, and bounded on the south by the state of that name, and on the north by the British frontier. It is described nearly similar to Wisconsin, as a beautiful, undulating, fertile, oiid healthful country. There is not an acre yet sold ; its poimlation, of 22,(XK), consisting en- tirely of squatters. By a late regulation, these irregular holders have a preferable right of puiclinse, when the land comes to be set up for sale; and they probably hope, by industry, to have by that time acquired the means. It was in June, 1838, that Iowa was admitted to the privileges of a territory. Dubuque and Burlington are the principal places. 5770. The Indians, who as yet occupy the vast region to the west of the Missouri, retain Mill unaltered all the features of the savage character. They procure food almost solely by hunting; and to surprise a hostile tribe, to massacre them with every exercise of savage 4 S4 "■'TO' I' 136*6 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. cruelty, and to carry off their scalps as trophies, is their highest ambition. Their domestic behaviour, however, is orderly and peaceable ; and, whether from fear or friendship, they seldom kill or rob a white man, even when an opportunity offers. Yet, although the Americans boast of mild and equitable proceedings towards theui, and they cannot resist the temptations offered to them to part with their territory, a deep jealousy appears to be felt since, during the last war, they almost unanimously took part with the English. Consider- able attempts have been made to train them to the habits of civilised society ; and in some places, where they are entirely locked in by European settlements, they have become fixed, and have even multiplied; but elsewhere, the moment that any impulse was given to war and hunting, they have instantly thrown up every other pursuit, and reverted to all their original habits. The tollowlng statement of the numbers and position of all the tribes, wu presented, December 1. 1M7 by Mr. Harris, Commissioner of Indian Afflilrb:— "=■ •. io.v, I. Name and Number of the Tribes now East of the Mississippi. itt, Undtr Trratu to rtmovt Wett WfainetNuroe* OttowMofOhio PoUwRUmlei of Indiana Chlppcwai, OlUwaa, and Pot- awatmmics Chnokeca Crteks 4,S0O 100 9,9i0 l/<00 14,000 1,00(1 Chickasaws • Seminoles Apalachicolas Ottawas, and Chlpnewai in the licnintula of Michigan 1,000 4,000 . 400 6JM0 "U. Sd under TreKjf lo rmmt. New York Indians Wyandot, Mfamles Mencmonlee Ottawas, and Chfppcwai of the Lake* Total 1,111(1 II. Indians who hare removed. Chlckauwi M9 Apalachicolas Cnerokees 865 Piankeshaws 151 133 Chlppewaa, Oiuwas, and Pot- 7,911 Peoriai and Kaskaaklas awBUmIe* «,l»l Kfckapooa »8» Potawalamies of Indians 51 I6,00C Delawares 8'Jli Ml ail ter.- : 476 Hhawnees 1,878 Senecas and Shawnees 80,137 Ottawas 374 Hemlnolea nr- 4(17 Wea« 888 Total 4M2; III. Indigenous Tribes along the Western Frontier. Mloui 81,(iOO Cnnianches 1 19,80(1 tiros VentKs 1(1,800 lowas l.JOO KioWAVR ... 1,800 Eutaws"^ iD.vno Sacs 4,S0fl Mandana 3,80(1 Crows 7,XII0 Poles 1,600 Ouapaws Minatarces 45(1 C'addoes 8,0(NI Sacs of the Mliaoviri son 8,00(1 Poncas 9a> (luxes s.tsa Pagans . . - 30,0(K1 . Arickarees V,751' Kansas .1,606 Assinabolns 15,00« Cheycnnea 3,M)il Omahas 1,600 Appachos 80,880 Blackfeet 30,110(1 Ottoes and Missouriai 1,000 Cms SfitX Pawnees I!,MO Anepahas 3,0001 Total m,m 9S7 Chap. IV. MOKTHERLT REGIONS OF AMERICA. 5771. The regions now described, occupied by Europeans, or the descendants of Eu- ropeans, comprehend scarcely a half of the surface of North America ; there rcmiiins a vail expante helditill, almost undiiturhed, by its native tribes. Three powers, indeed,— Britain, liiissia, and the United States, — have by admitted claim or treity partitioned the whole territory among them. It is, however, neither possessed by them nor even known, unless in the lines crossed by hunting or exploratory expeditions ; and in one direction by n few stations, at vast distances, culled houses, erected by the fur companies, and slightly fortified, so as to be impregnable by the scanty bands of savages who traverse this region. The dciniircatiun is traced, therefore, not by the features of nature, which are unknown, but by mechanical lines, traced on a map, according to the degrees of latitude and longitude. This arrange- ment '.ppears to be premature. It seems enough if civilised nations rank as their own the countries of which they hive actual possession, not those of which they have only a remote and prospective occupation. Sect. I. General Outline and Aspect. 5772. This portion of America is of very irregular form, and some of its limits are ci- ceedingly vague. On the south it may be stated to be bounded by Lower and Upper Canada, and by the Unitv: 1 States, particularly that district called the North-west Territory. To the west, a large portion of it, extending southwards, called by the Americans Columbia, or Orregon, is bounded on the east by the Rocky Mountains, and on the south by the Mexican territory. All the other boundaries are maritime, and are, on the east, the Atlantic, broken into numerous and deep bays ; on the north, the Arctic Ocean, ranj^ing in a varying line between the 70tii and 74th degrees of latitude ; on the west, the Pacific, forming a very winding line of coast diversified by numerous islands. This region may, therefore, range from 60° to 168° of west longitude; making, in this latitude, a length of alxiut 4000 miles ; while the general breadth may be considered as lying between 50° and 70° of latitude, and amounting to about 1 600 miles. 5773. The general features of this vast region are so little varied, and also so imiierfectly Book IV. NORTHERLY REGIONS OF AMERICA. m. 1 *,\m , 57,'> . 1,101) . 4,000 the li,')61 • 1 49,3f.5 161 13! M «1 '^11 16,800 1 19,'ino 7,41)0 %m\ 9011 1 2,7«' J,10O 1 30,l»W I'iJl,**, •"^"•.CT^.;*.-;«_^*«PWii 1367 known, that they may be described in few words, and we cannot afford room for the usual subdivisions. Avery large proportion is bleak, and chilled beneath the influence of an arctic sky. Even extensive tracts, endowed with great natural fertility, are destitute of culture, and covered with pine forests. The only commodity fitted for trade consisU in the skins and furs of the numerous animals by which it is tenanted; and these, being destined to ■^ defend against the rigour of an arctic climate, are exceedingly rich and valuable. To obtain them is the chief motive which has impelled Europeans to traverse the expanse of thete boundless and dreary wilds. The native inha- bitants are thinly scattered, and are all in the lavage state, the rudest under which human society can exist. Some display all the ferocity incident to that character ; while others are com« paratively mild and peaceable. They are divided into two distinct races; those whom we call Indians (Jig. 937.), and whos<; various tribes occupy the whole interior of the continent ; and Esquimaux, who are found tenanting all the shores of the Arctic Ocean. 5774. 2'he greatett mountatut In North America traverse the western part of this region. The continuous chain of the Rocky Mountains forms the eastern boundary of the district claimed by the United States. Branches from these, probably extending north-west from them, shoot up into the lofty peaks of Mount Elias and Fairweather, which overhang the Pacific. But the principal chain, so far as our imperfect information goes, takes a north- easterly direction, and runs parallel, first to the Mackenzie River, and then to the Arctic Ocean, where our recent discoverers have given to different portions of it the names of Richardson, Buckland, Romanzoff, &c. The eastern part of the tract is almost entirely level, and forms a continuation of that great plain which, including the basin of the Missis- sippi, reaches from the Gulf of Mexico to the Northern Ocean. 5775. Rivera and other water$ abound in a region which, even in its most level tracts, is covered with extensive forests, and subject to little evaporation. The most southerly part of the great eastern plain includes the sources of the Mississippi, and of those numerous streams which form Lake Superior, and ultimately the St. Lawrence. In another direc- tion, the two Saskatchawans, flowing from die eastern side of the Rocky range, unite and fall into Lake Winnipeg. From the same quarter, the Unigjah or Peace River, united to the Athabasca, and passing through Slave Lake, forms the Mackenzie River, whose course ftom its remotest head cannot be estimated at less than 2000 miles. Farther to the east the Arctic Ocean receives the less ample streams of the Coppermine and Thlew-ce-choh. Hudson's Bay forms the receptacle of the considerable streams of the Mississippi or Churchill, the Nelson, and Hill Rivers. In the west, the Columbia, descending from the Rocky Moun- tains, and receiving the tributary of the Sapho, or Lewis, falls into the Pacific, after a rugged and broken course of about 1 100 miles. Farther to the north is F^azer's River. 5776. Lakea also are largely produced by the copious waters collected on the dead level of the great eastern plain. Tlie spacious expanse of the Winnipeg borders immediately upon Upper Canada. Northwards along the line of Mackenzie River are the Athabasca or Athapescow, the Slave and the Great Bear lakes, all of large dimensions. Numerous smaller bodies of water are found, especially on the course of theThlew-ee-choh and in Boothia. These lakes, however, in the heart of an arctic region, frozen for half the year, and almwt always encumbered with floating ice, confer few benefits on the surrounding country, and present serious obstructions to the traveller. nits are el- and Uppn ,t Territory, a Columbia, Uth by the he east, the [, ranging in I the Pa*' Legion msyi 1 a length of Sen 50° and im perfectly Sect. 1 1. Natural Geography SuBsxcT. 1. Geology. Of the Geology of these most northern regions of America, a general idea will be con- veyed by the following, dotails : — 5777. I. The Rocky Mountaini, and the Mackenzie River, from Great Bear Lake, in N. lot. 65°, to the Northern Ocean. — The Rocky Mountain range is principally compos^^d of primitive rocks, which support an extensive deposit of secondary formation. The sea coasts, from them towards the Mackenzie, arc shallow, and skirted with islands, sometimes bounded by a gravelly beach, at other times with high banks of sandstone or cliffs of limestone. Greenstone, sand- stone, and limestone occur in pebbles on the shore. On the sea coast, west of the Mackenzie River, Captain Franklin collected greywacke, clay slate, limestone, Lydian stone, quartz, pot- stone, and rock crystal. Brown coal, cloy ironstone, pitch coal, and limestone, were seen on the shores opposite the Rocky Mountains ; and westward, towards Icy Cape, were noticed greywacke slate traversed by veins of quartz and iron pyrites. On Flaxinan's 1368 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. Island, N. lat. 70° 11', W. long. 145° 50', were seen greenish clay slate, brought down by the i-ivulets and torrents from the Rocky Mountains. From the east end of Lakv Superior, slightly converging towards the Rocky Mountains, to the cast side u( Great Bear Lake, there is a range of primitive rocks but little elevated above the surrounding country. For 7C0 miles, beginning in N. lat. 50°, between these two ranges, the space is occupied principally by hurizontal strata of limestone as far as 60° nortli. The shores of Great Bear Lake are of primitive rocks, sometimes rising into hills of 800 or 1000 feet. Musses of rock and gravel, apparently derived from the hills, consisting of quartz rock, granite, and gneiss, are found on the surface and in the valleys. The north shore of Bear Lake is formed of boulders of limestone. Fort Franklin stands on a buy of the west coast, and the bottom of the bay and the beach are strewed with boulders of granite, syenite, porphyry, greenstone, amygdaloid, porphyritic pitchstone, dolomite, limestone with corallines, grey and red sandstone. The soil in the vicinity of Fort Franklin is sandy or gravelly, covering a bluish plastic clay, which is firmly frozen during the greater part of the year. Narrow ridges of limestone rise in the country west and north of Fort Franklin, which is otherwise level as far as the eye can reach. 5778. Bear Lake River. Grey sandstone forms the banks of the river. Salt sprinp, yielding excellent common salt, fall into the river a little below the rapid, at that point where the Rocky Mountains first appear in the distance. The strata on the sides of the rapid are sandstone. Brown coal, with impressions of fern, occur on the banks ; also am- monites in a reddish iron-shot sandstone. The Bear Lake River flows into the Mackenzie through banks of a greyish black limestone, traversed by veins of white calcareous spar, The upper beds are calcareous conglomerate, associated with limestone impregnated with mineral oil, also bituminous shale. Sulphurous springs and streams of mineral oil are seen issuing from the lower limestone strata on the banks of the Mackenzie, when the waters are low. 5779. Mackenzie River. The banks of the river, at its junction with Bear Lake River, are composed of different brown coal, alternating with pipe clay, potters' clay, &c. The beds of coal take fire on being exposed to the atmosphere. The pipe clay is used by the natives for food when provisions are scarce. It is not unpleasant to the taste, and it is said " to have sustained life for a considerable time. The traders use it for whitening their houses. It is associated with a rock resembling bituminous shale on the shores of the Frozen Sea.'^ De- posits of brown coal occur near the Rocky Mountains, along their eastern edge, in a narrow strip of marshy, boggy, uneven ground ; and again on a branch of Peace River, and on the Saskatchawan in N. lat. 5'2°, and on Garry's Island, near the mouth of the Mackenzie. On the banks of the Mackenzie, below Bear Lake River, are steep cliffs, and in many places underneath are rocks of limestone. Salt springs arc said to occur in connection with this formation. The Rocky Mountains appear at no great distance from the Mackenzie. At the rapids in that river, where limestone ridges tr.iverse the country forty miles below the first rapid, the sides of the river rise into mural precipices of limestone, weathered into columns and castellated towers. At this remarkable rapid, called by the natives the Ramparts, the river is narrowed to 300 yards, with 50 fathoms depth of water, and the defile is three miles in length. Tli'; banks rise on each side of this vast chasm from 80 to 100 feet above the level of the river. The rocks of the Ramparts are of granular foliated limestone, coloured with mineral oil ; and, accompanying the river through tiiis rent, many varieties of limestone occur. Below the Ramparts the river expands to a breadth of two miles, and its banks slope away to a moderate height. In N. lat, 66°, mural cliff's of sandstone or quartz rock, 160 feet high, repose on horizontally stratified limestone, containing eta coral. Forty miles below the sandstone cliffs, marl slate occurs, forming the banks of the river, which again contracting, gives to this reach, for twenty miles, the name of the Narrows. On emerging from the Narrows, the Moekenzie forms o number of deltas, through which it fulls into the sea. The Rocky Mountains form the western boundary of the lowlands of the deltas, and the Reindeer Hills a parallel boundary on the east side, Limestone occurs in conical hills, but a loose sandstone predominates. These hills gra- dually diminish in height, and the eastern branch of the river runs round this nortlieii limit in N. lat. 69^. White spruce grows as far as 68°, where it disappears. Tlic country thence becomes a frozen morass, onward, north of the hills, seldom thawing more than sis or eight inches from the surface. 5780. Allnvial Islands. — The space occuoicd by the various reaches of the jMackenrie, between the Rocky Mountains and the Reincitcr Hills, is ninety miles in length, and from tort) to fifty in breadth. The river forms this tract into islands, by the numerous channel) through which it winds its woy to the sea. The islands are most of lliem flooded in spring, but annual accumulations of drift-wood and sand have raised some parts above the reach of the annual inundations, and as far north as lat. 68° the highest parts are clothed in summer with dwarf willows and white spruce. Sandy shouls skirt the coast, und the whole line from Cape Bathurst in W. long. I '27°, as fur west us the Sacred Islands in W. long. I3i' presents a similar outline and structure. The sea coast, east from the Mackeiuie for Part III. ught down id of Lake e of Great surrounding , tlie space The shores 100 or 1000 g of quartz north shore a bay of the i of granite, nestone with 1 is sandy or ;r part of the ort Franklin, Salt sprmps, at that point e sides of the iks; also am- le Mackenzie ilcareous spar. iregnatcd witli 'al oil are seen len the waters ir Lake River, &c. Tlie beds I by the natives ssaid "to have r houses. It is zen Sea." De- ige, in a narrow ver, and on tlie Mackenzie. On in many places >ction witli tliis ikenzie. At the I below the first ed into columns i Ramparts, the le is three miles 100 feet above iated limestone, , many varieties th of two miles, flg of sandstone containing chain he banks of the le name of the mber of deltas, crn boundary of jn the east side. These hills gra- this northern Xhc country ,g more than sii the IMttckeniie, h, and from fortj morons channels loodcd ill spri"!' I)ove the reach of lothed in summer I the whole l'»,' , W. long. 13'' Mackeuiie fo' Coo« IV. NORTHERLY REGIONS OF AMERICA. 1369 many miles, are low, with occasionally gently swelling sand hills. The beaches and capei are covered with boulders of limestone, sandstone, and syenite. Some of the promontories consist of bluish slate clay, reddish slate clay, with interspersed crystals of selenite, and exhihits the aluminous mineral called Rock Sutler, 57H1. Sea coast east of the Mackenzie. — At Parry's Peninsula, still on the edge of the sea, limestone begins. The beaches are covered with limestone boulders, and on the steep banks it appears in weather-worn columns, while in other sections it appears in horizontal strata j and fragments of chert, dolomite, and greenstone, are scattered over its surface. Vegetation is very scanty, and over large tracts there is not even the vestige of a lichen. 5782. Sea coast. Cape Lyon to the Coppermine liiver. — Slate clay traversed by and covered with trap rocks form hills rising to a height of 700 or 800 feet above the sea, and appearing on the coast in the form of lofty precipices. Eastward the line of coast becomes lower, red quartiy sandstone occurs, and Gothic arches of limestone form sti iking objects. Naked barren ridges of iron.shot greenstone cross the country at Point De Witt Clinton, and the upper soil consists of magnesian limestone, gravel, and bluish clay. From this dis- trict to the mouth of the Coppermine River, limestone is the prevailing rock, accompanied by sandstone, greenstone, and porphyry, with various disseminated minerals. Vegetation ceases before reaching this line of coast, which is between 69° and 70° N. A patch of moss, or a clump of dwarf willows in crevices, or under the shelter of decaying drift-wood, occasionally appear ; but with these very rare exceptions, no trace of verdure or herbage is seen. 5783. II. From Slave Lake to theoretic Ocean by the Coppermine River. — Granite rocks occur east of the Slave River, where it joins Slave Lake, and the same rock forms the Rein- deer Islands. The same formation continues to Carp Lake, producing on its hills and valleys spruce firs, Banksiana, and aspen. On Point Lake, in lat. 65° N., the prevailing rocks are greywacke, and clay slate, with magnetic greenstone. In the sheltered valleys spnice firs are seen, but farther east, where gneiss crosses the river, there is no wood. In lat. 66° N., high peaks of red granite and syenite, and large beds of greenstone, are said to pass through and overlay quartz rocks. In the beds of the torrents intersecting the plains are found fragments of red-coloured, granular foliated, limestone, red sandstone, quartz rock, and trap containing prehnite. The Copper Mountains consist chiefly of trap rocks, resting upon and traversing red sandstone and limestone. Small masses of native copper occur disseminated through the trap rocks. In the valleys are found native copper, green mala- chite, copper glance, and prehnite. North of the Copper Mountains trap hills occur. The intermediate country consists of a deep sandy soil, and some of the eminences are clothed witli grass, but the ridges are destitute of vegetation. On the west banks of the river red granite extends from the Copper Mountains to the sea, where it forms mural precipices on the coast. The main shore, for sixty miles east of the Coppermine River, is a low shelving gravelly beach. Eastward of the beach trap rocks re-appear, and form an exceedingly sterile and rocky coast. The islands near this coast abound in clifls of greenstone and clay- stone porphyry. The whole country is barren, one ridge of rocks rising above another, with stony valleys between, without a trace of vegetation. Granite occasionally rises up into acute and craggy peaks 1500 feet high, alternating with low naked ranges of gneiss. In one instance a vein of sulphuret of lead or galena was found enclosed in the gneiss, which is often intersected by veins of trap and porphyry. Continuing east, red sandstone, with bluish ^rey slate, appear. Amygdaloid, enclosing agates, occurs in Barry's Island. On the coast gneiss re-appears at short distances, with occasional lofty peaks of granite. Accord- ing to Dr. Richardson, a red sandstone, which he conjectures may be the new red sandstone of authors, prevails on the Arctic sea-coast, from the mouth of the Coppermine River, in W. long. 116° eastward, to Cape Turnagain, which is in W. long. 109°, N. lat. 69°. The gneiss formation is next in extent, and runs parallel, within the red sandstone, extending from the sea to Fort Enterprise, in lat. 65° N., presenting the true " Barreti Ground." The general direction of the strata just mentioned is N.W. and S.E., and the mean angle of inclination 45°. Granite, syenite, gneiss, mica slate, clay slate, occurs throughout this, with their usual geognostical relations. Gneiss is the most extensively distributed, always allendcd with a scanty vegetation, and generally the most desolate sterility. The masses which occur on the summit of the hills on the Barren Grounds are generally of granite, derived from tliesubjacent rocks. Extensive alluvial deposits occurred on the line of the first journey per- fomied by Franklin, such as lakes filled up by deposits from rivers, and the debris of mountains washed down by torrents, besides alluvial peninsulas formed by the action of the sea. 5784. 1 1 1. Melville Island, Port Botveti, and the coasts of Prince Regent's Inlet.— Winter Harlwur, in Melville Island, is the most Western point ever navigated in the Polar Sea from the eastern entrance. It is in N. lat. 74" 26', and W. long. 113° 46'. The length of Melville Island is lliO miles from E.N.E. to S.S.W., breadth forty or fifty miles. Sandstone of the coal formation, wit.i casts and impressions of plants, resembling those found in the coalfields of Britain, form the principal mass of the island. 5785. Port Boit'cn and the coasts of Prince Regent's Met. —Secondary limestone, by som» considered as identical with mountain limestone, forms both sides of Prince Regent's Inltt. 1370 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part 111, It is every where deposited in horizontal strata. It contains embedded masses of chert, and organic remains of various kinds. On the hills, and on the surface of a red coloured lime- stone, were found masses oi fibrovs brown iron ore, and also brown coal. On the west side of Prince Regent's Inlet thick beds of gypsum extend thirty miles through the country, associated with a limestone which, when near the gypsum, abounds in organic remains. All the gypsums are of a white colour, and of these the foliated, fibrous, and granular are met with, but not the compact. 5786. Alluvial deposits. — Alluvial marl deposits, from the snow waters passing through and over the limestone strata in the summer, occur on the shore^i and in the valleys, and fragments of limestone are scattered in different directions by the same agency ; but the lime- stone hills in many parts, and the country generally, were more or less covered with boulders of primitive rocks. Some of these were upwards of fifty tons in weight. They abound near the sea-coast, gradually diminishing in size and number, and at the distance of fourteen or sixteen miles from the sea, they are comparatively small and seldom. The nearest known fixed primitive rocks were upwards of 100 miles distant from these remarkable boulders. 5787. IV. Islands and countries bordering on Hudson's Say. — The lands bordering on Hudson's Bay, and the islands which it encloses, are generally hilly, and are usually dis. posed in ranges, but are not very lofly, the average being about 800 feet, and the highest summits not exceeding 1 500 feet above the level of the sea. The valleys are narrow and rugged, and the cliils often display mural fronts of more than 100 feet in height. Where- ever the shores are low, flats and shoals extend far out, making a shallow sea ; but where the coast is rocky and steep, the sea is proportionably deep. The country is covered with snow and ice the greater part of the year. The upper soil varies from two or three inches to one foot in depth, beneath which the ground is frozen like the most solid rock. In the summer, a few plants appear in tlie fissures of the rocks, in sheltered places. The genenil aspect of the country indicates the prevalence of primitive rocks, but no volcanic rocks have hitherto been met with. The islands and countries bordering on Hudson's Bay, between lat 60° and 69° N., and long. 65° and 125° W., are composed of primitive, transition, secondary, and alluvial rocks. 5788. Primitive rocks. — These are, granite, gneiss, mica slate, clay slate, j:hlorite slaie, eurite porphyry, hornblende rock, hornblende slate, primitive greenstone, serpentine, and primitive limestone. Several interesting minerals occur in these rocks, such as gamtl, vircon, rock crystal, beryl, coccolite, asbeslus, graphite) magnetic iron ore, magnetic pi/rilei, chromate of iron, &c. 5789. Transition r'yrks- — These are, quartz rocks in many various forms, greynaclie, greywacke slate, transition clay slate, and flinty slate. 5790. Secondary rocks. — 1. Limestone enclosing corals, trilobites, orthoceratitcs, and man; fossil shells. 2. Bituminous shale, an indication of the coal formation. 3. Seiondan greenstone, sometimes containing titanitic iron ore, sometimes iron-shot and poriihyriiic, and at others crossed by veins of calcareous spar. 5791. Alluvial deposits. — But few alluvial deposits are mentioned as occurring in those parts uf the arctic regions that border on Hudson's Bay. The most striking objects are the boulders spread over some of the islands. Whole limestone islands are covered will) blocks of granite, gneiss, and quartz, both in rounded masses and in angular forms. SuBSECT. 2. Botany. 5792. The Botany of these regions has been already noticed, under the head of Briiisii America. SuBSECT. 3. Zoology, 5793. The Zoological features, in regard to the ferine inhabitants of these wild and unciviliidl tracts, have been sufficiently dwelt upon in our introductory remarks. We shall, tlicrcfon, merely notice, more in detail, a few of the most interesting quadrupeds already mcntiondl. 579t, The Polar or Sea Bear it preciiely the aamc at that of Arctic Europe ; but Dr. Richardion consklm ita size to have been much exaggerated Ijy the oIl<> voyagers: it never exceeds nine feet in length and to and a half in height. Many interesting and even & tressing anecdotes are upon record, attesting it< amiil strength and dreadftil ferocity. The principal rBiil«» of this formidable animal is on fields o<^ ice, with wliiciM is frequently driven to a great distance from land j butt' not only swims with rapidity, but is capable of niui»( J long springs in the water. This species, being ant » procure Its food in the depth of even an arctic wi* has not the necessity to hibernate ; its pace, at fulliim Is a kind of shuttle, as quick as the sharp gallop of a hm 5795. The Musk Ox (Bo» moachatm) Ifii- *9) *""' Its name f^om its flesh, when In a lean stale, intVxf strongly of that substance. It Is truly an arctic an* the districts which it inhabits being the proper MA | the Esquimaux. Grasn at one season, and lif""" ' another, supply ita only food. In size, the Miut ui 939 i^JO B(;oK V acarccly eq Notwithsta in herds of when wouii i/iie. Tit winter adva as to becoin on noc 5799. The (he aquatic bi however, are ; eiclusively eo in another woi most interestii made by the I Society, after I during the infl ol^care in their unfortunately were more ind exhibited only . 5800. The C I" their oniitho ■?§«-. ['""owing Ducks. M fuxt ol«u,a aitpl,'. buOK IV. NORTHERLY REGIONS OF AMERICA. 1371 ROCXV MOUNTAIN OOAT. ROCKV MOUNTAIN SIIEKP. in herds of fVom twenty to thirty, and fltee at thniiht of m5n ifhi h,.i?"''K *'"' 8™"' """J {hey uremMe . when wounded will altick the hinter. and endanler fiii Hfe ' ""* """''• however, ore very iraicible, and 57!»6. The Wild Goat and Sheep of the Rocky Slountain, de.er»c a brief notice: particularly u the two ™. -*.-».= -A,. '""■. *"«.?"'( Chopra nmemriBfl Rich.) L/!ff.9«).)Uai biff a« ?hat rfhi'^M "P = 'Jf "T" '"'"1'"? ^own on the •"e.Tik? ;!SL Jk® *'J""° '""^.i 'he Tiair U long and straight. ^^™" •han that of the .l^cep. but finer thin that of the H^rj'M*'"". • " "'J'^'"" 'he most loftv peak, of he Rocky Mountains, and probably extends from «» to 65° Ifn .hit* ?"" !*???' "''''='• " P'l Musquash. 1 Hear. G9.'>,(I21 97,!i2.'> 27,000 18,000 ri,6.W 779 328 800 8.'»,.'i49 I 7;,W3 contains the large lakca of Deer There were as., 7031 of the wolf, 2166 wolverme, 754 badger,^600 swan, mostly fVom \ork 1-ort. The beaver, for the price, number, and steady demand, is the most valuable^ the silver foxes are the finest, but few ; the martins are small, but very precious, resembling the Siberian sable. » 5fc07 called climate probable that inc range and VVollaston, and tjc small ones of Mcthyc, Buflhlo, and isle i lu CrceionThe last three of whicll fhlZ are stations, to which the tradcri ascend In canoe.. On Albany Kiver, also, there arc OsnaburB Hou» (iloucestcr Houac, and Henley. "....uuig nuuae, 5808. Lake Winnipeg, with the region to the west, whose waters flow into it, forms an extensive division of native America. This lake, to which the old travellers gave the name of Assiniboins, is of a winding form, about 280 miles long, and from 80 to 15 broad. It re- ceives numerous and large streams from almost every point of the compass, and enjoys thus a remarkable extent of canoe navigation. One shore exhibits variegated hills with wide and fertile prairies ; the other, a grand but desolate scene of naked rock. From the north it receives the Winnipeg river, whose falls, or rather cataracts, have a peculiarly wild and sub- lime character, from the rapidity and itnmense volume of the waters, the various forms of the cascades, and the dark granite and primitive rocks through which they dash. Tlie upper part of this river expands into the Lake of the Woods, about 300 miles in circumference. The .scenery is very wild and romantic, the shores being bordered by precipices crowned with dense foliage, and the surface studded with countless islands. The country is, however, so bleak and rugged as to afford no support; and only a solitary bear or moose deer, or a half-starved family of savages, is occasionally met with. 5809. The country west and south-west of the Winnipeg consists of an extensive plain, in many places fertile, yet still almost exclusively occupied by wild animals and savages. Large rivers flow tlirougli it, the two Saskatchawans, the Assiniboins, and the Red River, whicli rises nearly in the same quarter as the Mississippi. On these rivers, the Hudson's Bay Com- pany liave a considerable number of trading houses. In a fertile territory, with a fine cli- mate, along the Red River, Lord Selkirk formed a settlement ; but it suffered severely from contests with the Indians and north-west voyagers. It is now in possession of the Company, who have established upon it a number of their retired servants, making them grants of 100 acres with a small frontage on the river, along which they extend for about 40 miles. The population, of British, iialf-caste and civilised Indians, amounts to 5000, with 13 schools, and 7 churches. 5810. The regions extending to the north if those noiv described, and hounded by the Arctic Ocean, are scarcely known, unless in the lines traced by the recent expeditions of discovery ; yet from these we can form a tolerably correct idea of their general outline. The northern boundaries, of Hudson's Bay were fully ascertained by the second expedition of Captain I'arry. That expanse appears more properly a sea, having a communication, not with the Atlantic only, but with the Arctic Ocean, by the Strait of tlie Fury and Hccla. The north- eastern extremity of America forms here what is called Melville Peninsula, the eastern coast of which is wa.shed by the Fox Channel, the part of Hudson's Bay that extends north from Southampton Island. That island is separated from the continent liy a long, narrow channel called, since Middleton's time, the Frozen Strait, which is crowded and the navi- gation encumbered by a labyrinth of islets. The climate is exceedingly rigorous, beyond what might be expected in a latitude under 70°. The seas are covered with an unbroken sheet of ice, unless for three or four months of summer, during which time also icy frag- ments are tossing about, and the bays and straits are still encumbered with them. From the accumulation of these in the Strait of the Fury and Hecla, the attempt repeatedly made by Captain Parry to penetrate Into the Arctic Ocean was completely baffled. When spring melts the snows, the country is traversed by impetuous streams and torrents. One considerable river called the Barrow, descends in a most magnificent fall, amid finely broken rocks, about ninety feet perpendicular. Yet the ground here and in other quarters is covered during the short summer, with a rich vegetation. Almost the only land animals which endure the rigour of winter, arc the fox, the wolf, and the musk ox ; the deer take their flight into milder climates. The shores, however, are crowded with that huge am- phibious nnimal the walrus, in herds often of 200 or 300. Only a few scattered families 1374 DESCRIPTIVE OKOOllAPIIY. Part III. i of EM{uimaux wander along the shorcR nnd iNlaiidx, pikMinft uOvit ovor the ice fVom one tu the other. They are on the whole peaceable und friendly, ond diitplay no !*mall degree of industry, and even ingenuity, in providing for their wantN, and fencing against the rigour of the climate. Their food consists entirely of wild animals, whom they have snared or taken, and in these operations they display both art and euiirage. When they have thus laid in a stock of provisions, they indulge iniMt enormouslv, bringing on themselves the distresses of repletion, soon followed by those of ninilno. 'I'he skins of captured animals particularly deer, skilfully fitted tu the shape, afford rich nnd warm clothing, sufficient tu defend them against the extreme cold. Their sununer hubitaliuns ure tents fVamed of the skins of deer, with the bones of largo animals serving as posts \ but the winter houses are most singularly constructed, without any other material except snow. This substance when duly hardened by the first cold of winter, is cut into slabs, which arc put together so skilfully as to form structures of a conical shape, that remain durable till melted by the heat of the following summer. Each apartment is accommodated with a lamp fed with the blubber of the walrus or seal ; and which serves at once fur light, heat, and ooukcry, Jt preserves immediately around it a temperature of i)H" } but on thu bench round tlic wall where the inmates sit and sleep, it doe* not exceed 33" ; and they are preserved from the cold only by large quantities of clothing, 5811. Captain Iio$$, in his gallant and adventurous voyage, explored a large extent of the northern coast of America, and found it distinguished by several remarkable and im- portant features. Tliis coast, commencing at the south-western point of Melville Peninsula, nearly opposite to the Frozen Strait, extends north-west to about lat. G8° N. and lung. 93° W. Here it narrows into an isthmus, not mure than fifteen milew broad, two thirds of which space is occupied by a chain of freshwater lakes, 'I'he land then extends on each side, enclosing two spacious gulfs, called thu East and West >Se.is. Thu eastern coast, partly discovered by Captain Parry in his third voyage, has heon completely surveyed by Captain Ross. It is much broken by deep inleta and rooky ishuKls, enoumlicred with ice, and of dangerous navigation; but its south-eastern coast contains three secure harlraurs, Fclii, Victory, and SherifTs. The northern coast was seen by Captain Parry in his first voyagt, without his landing upon it ; and al>out 80 miles of the western coast were explored by Commander Hoss : but the north-western boundaries aru yet unknown. The country, as far north as 72°, is inhabited, and Captain Rt)ss had euntmunication with a very interesting tribe of natives, who had never before seen any Europeiui, Thu whole was named Uoothia, and considered as a peninsula ; but Captain Hack gives nMim to doubt whether it is not, in fact, a very large island. Commander Ross also sailed westward along the American coast to long. 99'^ W., lut. 70° N., where he was only LK) miles frcnn the nearest known point of Cape Turnagain. 581*2. Another line nftliscovery wan traced by llmrnr, imder a commission by the Hudson's Bay Company, from Fort Churchill to tlio mouth of the Coppermine River. It consisted of an extensive plain diversified by a chain of comparatively small lakes, to which he gave the nomes of Cossed, Snowbird, Pike, Peshew, and Cogead. The natives are of Indian race, much ruder than tlie Esquimaux, with whom they wage n most cruel warfare. They sub- sist solely by hunting, and proceed on the usual system of savages, devouring an enormous quantity of food when it is abundant, and thus exposing themselves to intervals of cruel famine. The severest labour, and especially that of carrying heavy burdens on their long journeys, is devolved on the wives, who are kupplied also with very scanty fare. As they are thus a source of wealth, the husband anxiously increases the number, and this he attaint by exertions of bodily strength, for whoever can overcome another in wrestling, may at once seize on his wife ; and stout wrestlers thus stnnetimes accumulate five or six. At thecnil of the long northern plain is a ridge of stony mountains of dillicnlt ascent, beyond which is the considerable stream of the Copperininu River flowing into the Northern Ocean. Tlie mine, however, from which it takes its name, having prubidtly been cxhai'sted, uilbrdsnov only a very scanty supply of the metal. 5813. Captain Franklin afterwards, by another route, deseentled the Coppermine River, and explored above six degrees of the coiut to the eastward. His career terminated at Cape Turnagain, about 150 miles westward of thu farthest point explored by Commander Ross. That nearest the river is well covered with vegetation ; but all the rest exhibits the most dreary and inhospitable aspect, being composed only of a series of trap rocks which cover with their debris the intervening valleys. It is broken into deep gulfs, to the principal of which were given the names of Coronation, liatliurst, and Melville. Along the coast, vith a narrow channel intervening, extend a range of rocky and barren islands, the principal of which, after eminent British characters, were named Herons, MiM>re, Lawford, Home, Jameson, Goulburn, Elliot, and Cockburn. The whole country, for a considerable dis- tance inland, as was fatally experienced by Captain Franklin, is of thu most dreary character, affording support only to a few arctic animals, and nothing which can serve as human food, except a species of lichen called tri/>e de roehr, which yields only a scanty and miserable nu- triment. In the summer of 1838, Messrs. Simpson and Dean explored about 130 milct AHT III. im one tu degree of he rigour Rnarcd or have thus iselvcs the il animals, iiflicient to ncd of the houses are substance, lit together itud by the ed with the Dukcry. It id the wall, id from the tfi extent of iible and im- e I'enlnsula, nd U)ng. 93° ;wo thirds of ■nds on each I coast, partly 1 by Captaia 1 ice, and of •l)ours, Fclii, 9 first voyage, vcrc explored he country, ai iry interesting irned Boothia, ler it is not, in American coast .nown point of the Hudson's It consisted which he gave )f Indian ncc. They sub- ^ an enormous nrvnls of cruel on their long rare. As they tliis he attaim \ft., may at once At tlicenil jyond which is Ocean. The Id, ull'ordsnow Icrmine River, limtcd at Cape liinander Ross, liibits the raost Is which covei llic principal ot Ithc coast, with ■he principal of Iwford, Home, Jnsiderable dis- Toary character, las human food. I miserable nu- «ut 130 mil"* Hi«)k1V. NORTHERLY REGIONS OF AMERICA. iy75 farther eastward, rtsachiiig i» lofty cape, whence appeared an open ocean, studdere miles. I'hc inlluenco of the Ki^lUh has i.ut an end to internal war ; l>ut it has intraluccd a habit, iwrhaps more UmclMl, the Inordinate ii.o of siiirits. For this Ihev exehanne all the furs which they arc able to collect j and whenever thev h«v. thus olitaincdai(uaiitltyol^rum,a scene of coiitinue and 1^0, it lias an entirely changed aspect and climate j and displays all the rigoiiis of an arciic region. The ground i« clothed only with stunted tlrs,and traversed by numerous herds of rein.deer. The Copper, the Hare, and the Diij!-ril)b«l Indiana are the tribes by whom this quarter is frequentetl. Kort Franklin, on (Irent Hear Lake, ami Fort Enteriirlse, on Point Lake, which lies to the eastward, have acquired celebrity as places of |ire|iar«llon and of refuge before and alter the iierilous voyages performed along the shores of the Polar Sea. (.'apttlii Hack, m 18J.5 ami 1834, being employed to search for Captain Uoss, traced, from near the eastern extremity, the course of the river named Thlew-ee-choh. It was broken by many falls, and in Its course were several considerable lakes, named I'clly, Garry, Macilougall, &c. It tenninated in a considerable bay of the Arctic Ocean, but he was obligeil to return without being able to connect it with Koss or Franklin's discoveries. .W15. The coast of the Arctic Ocean which bounds America, after being unknown for so many ages, has been recently explored for the space of 115 degrees of longitude westward frtmi the mouth of the Coppermine River. The first portion, surveyed by Dr, Richardson, extenils between that and the Mackenzie River, and comprises 20 degrees. This coa,st stretches in a comparatively uniform line from east to west, broken oidy by two deep bays, to which were jtiven the names of Liverpool and Franklin j while towards its eastern extremity there extenils, parallel to the coast, a long line of insular territory, which was called Wollaston LantI, The shore for a great extent is bordered by bold and rugged, though not lofty cliffs one of which is singularly perforated, while elsewhere a range appeared constantly on lire. This iast phenomenon is produced by the composition of the rocks, consisting of bittiminous alum shale, the sulphur contained in which has a chemical action prutlucing a constant ignition, whence arises the formation of the chemical salt called alum, of which this may bo considered as a great natural manufactory. Along the coast are Ksijuimaiix villages in coiisidorabh numbers ; and tliey are, on the whole, better constructed, and show a greater progress in the arts of life, than is usual among this people. •WIG. The coast westward of the Mackenzie liiver extends also in an almost direct line declining gradually to the northwards. It is broken only by two not very deep bays, called Beaufort and Camden, and diversified by a number of small islands. Navigation, however, is rendered gloomy and difficult by the masses of ice, either floating or fixed, which, even in the height of summer, encumber every part of the coast The effect is increased by the deep and dense fogs in vbich the atmosphere is very gene "'y involved. They aro supposed to arise from the copious vapours exhaled by the beat oi .le sim, and prevented from dispersing by the mountain range which closely borders the coast. This range consisti of the termination of the Rocky Mountains, which, after so long a course aeio8.s the con. tinent from south to north, take now a westerly direction, and fall into the Arctic Ocean. The explorers g.ive to succes.sive parts of it the names of the Buckland Chain, the British Chain, and to one which occurred after passing the Russian frontier the name of Count Uomanzoff, as an eminent person of discovery. They ilo not, however, rise into those steep and lofty cliffs which form the western boundary of the United States. Mount Cony. bcare, a conspicuous peak, was found to be only 800 feet high j and though the British Chain was more elevated, there seems no room to think that it much exceeds 2000 feet. Tlie small bands of Esquimaux met here by Captain Franklin required to be cautiously dealt with, though they showed a peculiar ignorance in regard to every thing European. Taking hold of the English coats, they asked of what animal these were the skins ; they fastened fish-hooks and awls as ornaments to the nose, and stuck needles, with the same view, into va- tious parts of their persons. Farther west, howavcr, the natives were found to be possessed I T 1976 UK8CRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY, Pa»t hi. I of bcaili onii knives, not of Uritisli tnanufiicturc ; wliicli bail, it was stntud, been brought by £M|uimnui from the wustward, and ri'Cuivvd liy thi>in from hahlnnna*, ur wbitc men ; llicse arv with great probiil)illty, cunJvcturL'd to be the Itussinu!). In fact, the expedition liad come within the limits of that territory which had by treiity been a.s)cnt by this lust navigator reached Point Bnrroir, in71*', the most northerly point of America yet discovered or l)elieved to exist. The cold waa here so intense, that the boat was frozen in before the end of August, and it wa.s necessary to cut through a quartrr uf a mile of ice, in order to lilK'rnte her. 'llie tribe of Ksipiimaiii here are peaceable and friendly ; but at Cape Smyth, to the westward, they are during and thievish. The point which Captain Cook had named Icy Cape, and where his progress had been arrested, was found by Capt'iiii Beechey quite free from ice ; it was low and filled njih large lakes, so near the sea that n boat could easily be dragged over into them. The coast, in proceeding south-westward, forms Cape Lisburn, composed of low hills of rounded sand. stor.e, and Cape Beaufort, presenting cliffs of rugged limestone and flint. The nalivn here were good-humoured and friendly. About Point Hope and Cope Thomson, the co,ist is occupied by a tribe of Esquimaux, diminutive and extremely poor, yet merry and liospj. table. The rocks composing Cupe Mulgrave were found not to face the sea, us Cook had suppo'ed, in viewing them at a distance, but to be somewhat inland, and the interval (illtHi, as in I ther parts of the coast, by numerous small lakes. °l'lie natives arc taller than the other Esquimaux, but appeared never before the arrival of Captain Beechey to have situ Europeans : this was evident from the alarm which they showed on seeing a gun dischargd and a bird fall. They were extremely courteous, presenting to the English, as dainties, the entrails of a seal and co.igulated blood, which they were much disappointed to findnotatall relished. Kotzebuc's Sound, so nameeninsulrt of Alashka, the wiile range of coast claimed l>i/ Russia stretches east by south about 30° of longitude and 10^ of latitude, till it touches on that which has been assigned to America. This extended shore bears in general a bold and awful aspect; bordered with mountainous steeps covert d with dense Qnmcval forests, and wholly uncultiv.ited. Mounts St. Elias and Fairwtutlier are wsi'fctiveiy 17,000 and 15,000 fcft high, and form the most elevated peaks in the northern part of America. Yet, though the spade or the hoe is nowhere employed upon this savage soil, it yields spontaneously a profusion of delicate berries, and the neighbouring sens swarm with huge fish, whose coarse oleaginous substance is suited to the palates of the rude inhabitants, while their skins supply at once warm and beautiful clothing. It is by no means, therefore, a desert coast, but is bordered by populous villages, tlie inhabitants of which have made a certain progress, if not in civilisation, at least in the arts. 5821. This coast is broken in a remarkable degree by bays, deep sounds, and long islands connected, by narrow channels, with the continent and with each other. At the norili-wcst eitremity is the Island of Kodiak, about sixty miles long, which witli the smaller one of Atognak is separated from the continent by the Straits of Cheligoff. The natives are robust, active, and well skilled in all the arts connected with fishery. Their boats, almost entirely covered with leather, display great ingenuity in their construction. The Russians long made the port of St. Paul in this island the chief seat of their trade with north-western America ; and, finding the natives extremely serviceable, have removed great numbers of them to the lettlements formed along the coast. 5822. To the west of Kodiak is a long inlet, which receives the name of Cook, by w horn it was explored, and a little beyond is Prince William's Sound, the head of which, almost touching that of the inlet, encloses a large peninsula. The inhabitants of this and the neighbouring districts are a peculiar race {figs. 945, 946.), square, stout, with large heads, liroad flat faces, and hooketl noses. They are clothed in long frocks or robes of the skins 4 T2 i ^ m \^ l.'»7» UKSCIUl'TIVK CEOOIIAI'IIY. I'antIII. ■.-P^^l^ of «i>« *iul iNiid aniiiMl*, utually with tliu )mir oiitwnidiis aiul tliuy Imvn (tivlr iiiim<« mid iippiT li|m (lurnirHivil, nnil im. ))4« _^ OKI .ddf^ K^ ••,""'' "rniiinimlii iittu'li Into tlii>m. The Nouiiil I* ilvM'rllti'il liy Vnri. cuiivttr HN viiiititliiliiK iiiiiiiuroiia liarlM)ur», Imt all rtiiitlttrvil mort or lom uimnru liy oismit'iiluij rmlii or kIioaIn. TIiv ItiiMimiit ln^p Hoda, A mnull Dtctiiry uit thf ^^^ wenturn »U\v of i'mik'N liilvi, miil fS' .vo'-£T«ys«iKfc'- I^KiLUtii^Jf>P*i^^^B Fort Aloxiiiiilwr, it litrudr una m its lii-ail, witlilii tilt) (iviilniiiiln, 5H!i!l. Ttiti mi»l ,/>(M« /V(»r, WUliam't Simnil vxImmiIn in «n almost continued line fioutli-cMt, with only tho imall oponinft "f Aihnlrnlty liny, It ||^ however, very bold and lofiy, (listinituislicii by tlic colowinl puakii of I'Mm itiltl l^illrwunllivr, The HusHiaiis liavc here a conKldcrable factory, called Yaltoiiat. cm WII.|.MM'f HM7Nn. WOMAN op rRINCI WltLIAM'i lOtrhP. in l)iik 6H24. At the tcrininstioii of thin territory cominciicci a numeroui archliielngii nf Inrjii' Miimh VHIriiillrM I front of the count. To the iirtncltinl on« hnvi- liwii given the namei of (lenriii) lit., I'rIlii'iMir VVnlM like of York, nnil Admiralty. Each of Iheto iilAiiili haa •innller nnet near II, nomtilliniit I'liiinlilrrnl u forniioK with it a ncparnte group or archijielago. Through the ialiyrlnth of wliiiliiiK nlmiinvlii liiiiuril liy llmv nuineroua IiIhiiU*, V.uicouver ma>leaino«t laborious search, in ho|ic>or lliiilinii aniiiiiH llitiin (hi< iiiim.aliiiahi. for (uitage into lluiiaon't May or the Atlantic i but he Hnallv aicertainoil that it wita not In liv liioheil hi' i., Ihia ipiarter of Aincric.i. The Kussiana, on George 1 11. 'a laiv, which Ihey call lUraiinlt', liavc vri'i'li>i| Mr» Archangel, whicli they make the capital of all their icttlementa in America. It la only, hiiwiivi(", nnil miiilli. ward from the Russian boundary, is claimed by the United States, in virtue of tlw t'xpvijltldii of Lewis and Clarke, in 1805. The Hudson's Bay Company, however, ieptii nlilo in aho* even by .Vmeircan authorities, that their servants, in 180,1, had already ertiMtiil llie inniiii. tains, and formed settlements on the northern branches of the Ctduinbin, nx well il<« mi oIIki takes and waters. In 181 1, Mr. Astor, of the United States, formed ii wltlvineiil en llmt river, which he named Astoria; but sold it, in I81S, to the north-weat n((entN, lhriiii||l. whom it came to the Hudson's Hay Company. The latter have flxed their elilvf alalion higher up the river, at Fort Vancouver, where they have a number of Neltlcra, aiul « considerable tract of uncultivated land. Through the activity of tlieir aervniltiti in ijiltonf American competition, they have ac i>«tr>ullni) ilil'i' iif WiilP", I I'llllnllll'll'll u iitim'il liy IliMf ii< liiiiic«>ii||hl- v liHilivil l^ir III ,vi< tiri'i'lwl Np» (iwi>»i'r, « lnw III iiii\illi^ \mM- ritiW Kl llil> mill imimiiy r-Milriil srki'l nf t'n'iliiii, irtiiu friiiti ! 'I III nii||\it •» In'r 1 y nil till' ili'i'llm iliuwii liv llll"ll irti l« lii'lil "■■ I*' ill, lim lii'i'ii ml- /ftx/xf/ili III! tilt UilltNl lit'loll|;i ,m\t\ III |>liu'lii|i lUiiti' »if « U"«" riiln< Ifli', \m\ wiiiili' l''lllO I'KIWllltliill )) Itlllo III ilitiw [mviI tilt' ini"!"' j»'ll i»n im "tliw kWiiU'iil (III tlml Uoitln. tlimiijll' ]\t clilvf "tntlon KlillU'fl. "wl • IIIIIIK, ill «i''" "' [In vv(tllill. llf L, wlik'li Iw |nH III ri'iiili'f till liy ('11)11' 111""' (llmiilo, IK "ft*'" Ivrii «iiiiH"« 111"'" ,flvt'V Cnliimd* Lllllili' M". M'l 1»,K.1IU' III nlW 'n lUv.'i', iiftt' • [Wvo, lll\- « I'l"!" miiili. till' I'll* iliiiii (.'liiiiiii ""' FliluUtliui'"'"'''' lU'li till' |>'l««'l"' ■ ,,«,». of iiwjj-'!'' |,„ii,i«i»mlft"'" limiUlt f«n'P;'*i ■ rtiiil ftim wW Uoo« IV. MEXICO. I:i7!t ihey collect are exclinngeil witli European vi-iwU for bad giiiin, opiicr ktttlvH, kiiivi«, Uibucco, and, above all, white niul blue beiidn, which form their most valui-d unmmcnl. Ilieiie articlen afford materials for a trade with the upi)er nat jns, whom they meet oiue a year at the falls t)f the Columbia. These tribes, iiowev r 'ude, ttudiouily seek to ein- la>liish their persons, but in a most fantastic and preposti ous manner, by keeping the forehead compreEsed in infancy with an instrument which, .1' successful, causes a struiuhl line to run from the crown of tlie head to the top of the nose. With this form, and with a thick coating of grease and filth, the Clatsop young fenialc becomes one of the must hideous objects in existence. Yet when adorned witli bears' claws, copper bracelets, whili' and blue beads, she is regarded as an object of attraction ; and il is painful to add, that the men carry on the most unblushing traffic with their wives and daughters, whom they olUr as the medium of trade, the return for presents and services. This dishonourable practicv prevails generally to the west of the Rocky MounUins, an well as the (lnHeniiig of the fore- head, from which the other tribes give them the name of Fiutheads. 58'-'8. The eoatt northward from the Columbia, like that still farther north, is faced by numerous islamla, the principal of whicli, called by llie joint nomes of Quadra and Vancouver, is about 150 miles long. This coast, like that of the continent, is lofty, crowned with immense woods, and the rocky shores are beaten by tlie waves of the I'acillc with II fury through which whole forests are torn up by the roots, and extended along the sliore. Tlie ground is wholly uncultivated ; but it yields spontaneously an abundance of the most delicious berries, onions, and other roots. Tlie chief supplies, however, are derived from the ocean, whicli abounds in an extraordinary degree with fish of every size and hpecies. The smaller kinds serving for food arc taken in abundai.ce by merely pussing through the water a long rake with pointed teeth : this work is left to the lower ranks ; while the chiefs undertake the nobler task of combating the wimie, the sea lion, and the otter, whoie ski'is lupply them with rich and beautiful robes. Each tribe inhabits a particular cove, or islaii !, and is ruled by o chief, who maintains a very considerable dpi;ree of savage pomp. Wicananish was found by JVIeares occupying a house or paluce, consistin,\( of a huge square u; .irtment, in which his whole household, of 800 persons, sat, ate, ani! slept. The door-posts and thi rafters were supported by gigantic wooden images rudely mrved and painted, and the wliole apartment was studiously adorned witli festoons of human skulls. The royal family occupied a raised platform at one end, on which were placed the chests of treasure and otiivr valuable efl'ects. Their repasts consisted of enormous quantities of blubber, fish oil, and Ash soup. The people {Jigs. 947. and 9-18.) have the usual American features, with com. plcxions tolerably fair ; but these they studiously disfigure by stripes of red ochre and streninu of fish oil, mingled sometimes with u species of glittering black sand. Some of tlie tribes dis. play extreme ferocity, and on the whole they are suspected of cannibalism, human heads and hands being both displayed as trophies and offered for sale. Yet, when a fiiendly intercourse was once established, tlieir manners were found peculiarly mild, courteous, and engaging. Tlio subjects of one chief were estiiiiuted at I i),0(K) , of another, at 10,000 : so ihiit the population nf the whole coast must be very considerable. 948 «,tN l>? NlK)rKA I «ii.MVV 111' M» Chav. V. 5829. Mexico is an extensive and noble territory, forming the greater part of that vast tract of land which connects together Northern and Southern America. Originally a native empire, afterwards the principil of the Spanish viccroyalties, it is now a yreal independent republic. It has sometimes been considered as extending to the Isthmus of Panamo, which was, in some degree, under the jurisdiction of the viceroy of Mexico ; but M Guatemala, to the soutliword of Mexico Proper, was always a separate intendency, and has now erected itself into an independent republic, it seems fairly to claim a short separate notice. SecT. I. General Outline and Aspect. 5830. The outline of Mexico is so vague and irregular that its general dimenfions of length and breadth are not easily determined. The southern extremity is at the head e the bay of Tehuantcpec, where the two coasts approximate to within about V25 miles ot 4 T ! 1380 MAP OF iMBXICO AND GUATEMALA. Fig' 949. Si <-S.; ndres '■J'Wnliiia "■-fsiiiulon ; '• ''elian ■;■ 'J- Hu,t|,.o .■^:^ranc■lsco ''■S.dalirlel •'■ J'Bolino VI ,'""" "ucarel W. \ievp. ilino Book IV. MEXICO. ISSt each other,^ and then, diverging, form the large peninsula of Yucatan. Thence the coast continues in a long oblique line from south-east to north-west, till it reaches Cape St. Francisco in 38" N. latitude, where is the farthest settlement that has been formed by the Spaniards, though tlieir claim extends to Cape Mendocino, in lat. 42°. The length, even if measured in a line due north, would give 2'2% or 1540 miles; but in the oblique direction it would be much greater, probably '2'20O or '2300 miles. Tlie breadth varies exceedingly. At the main centre of the empire, from Acapulco to Vera Cruz, Humboldt, after careful measurements, reckons it at 4° 16' 7", or very nearly 300 miles. In the rude regions to the north, it is more than triple, at least if we adhere to the old boundary of the Rio Salinas, prolonged, we suppose, by the upper course of the Red River. The United States, however, contend thiit the Rio del Norte, winding in conformity with the line of tlic llocky Mountains, would present a much neater and more precise boundary ; but the Mexicans have not yet opened their eyes to the beauty of an arrangement which would deprive them of 23,000 square miles of territory. Humboldt computes the whole surface of Mexico at 948,000 square miles, of which under the temperate zone are 688,000, and under the torrid zone 260,000. Thfs last division includes ull the ancient empire of Monte- zuma, with all that part of Mexico that has hitherto been valuable or productive ; indeed, all that is considered as strictly Mexico. 583 1 . The surface of Mexico is elevated, composing part of that vast ridge which runs along the whole contment of America parallel to the Pacific, and which in the south is called the Andes or Cordilleras, and in the north the Rocky Mountains. In the middle part the chain presents a broad table-land, from 6000 to 8000 feet in height, thus equalling Mont St. Bernard, and others of the most remarkable summits of the old con- tinent. Tliis table-land is not, us in Quito and other parts of South America, an interval between opposite ridges, but is the very highest part of the ridge itself. In the course of it, indeed, detached mountains occur, of which the summits rise into the regions of perpetual tnow, on a level almost with the mightiest of the Andes. Such are the volcanic peak of Orizaba (fg. 950.), Popocatepetl, (^g. 951.), and Toluca. But these are merely insulated heights or chains, running in a different direc- tion from the general ridge, and presenting few interruptions to that continuous level, as smooth almost as the ocean, which extends, for upwards of 1500 miles, from one extremity of Mexico to the other. 5832. The fertility of this vast table plain varies with its elevation. The summit is absolutely devoid of vege- tation, not from the severity of the MEXICO. I. HuinsufKudiak J. S. Katiol i. i'al Snlado 4. S. Andres .'>. S. L'ruz r. Karnnrn 7. S. S«rnfina 5. S. l.iiu . !). S. t'nyviano II*. Asiiurion U.S. tVrnundo 1^ I'etian n. S. Iliijtii-o M, Arriivii Teiiedon !.'>. llriafda I'i. S. Fr.incUco U. MimlLTCy IS. U Soledad 1''. S. Barbara Vli.S. (laWel i(l.l)|!oliiio •i1. 1'ueno Ducaielir M. Itclrilla SI. Taciiintrele K.'i. (Ml W. McvM V". Tans t». S.iiit.i F^ VI). .MIiiKjiierque ^". i""<|Uiiiaa .■^l./iiiml ^^. .I.irnmo ■}t. l^ll■^ollcl Norte ■1i..MI)jii,i cC\. i',irui)i.|.i(la ^7.s. Kt-niardino ■'H. I'm do 'I uhso ■"• 5' Javier del Bnc I'l. Slunallo ^1' Imurii References to the Map nf Mexico and Guatemala. 110. ii'i. 18.1. Sl.Tltlial 8'^. l*t. de CotiHoIn- clon S;^. Hiiaxcfiulllfi HI. rohahulla »!>. H. Uo«i le Cculu HIi. Ilachlndin 87.H.reilri>deilala- lit> TiitiutBino Oqultoa UlianU S. J. de Coinpii- tano H. DioKJ X. MlKuel H. Thomas iUiaarlo S. FrnnclKO llorls (lerlrudU S. Itmaclo K. Maria S. Josd do Co. niodu SantlaKo l.a I'n/. LorvKo .S. Hosalla (luayniai lliuan ('rlHAnco Sonora Arlupe Volarde l.olt IttiqUilllU A tamo Fort del Altar N. Saba (luanlla llarcA l.aTrnltli Nai'Mloehil tialveston Fort .Matnt*orda _ N . K . ilel lUxarlo I K. PuraHKo S. Antonia 113. Slannrl nllan «H. Uruarhl 89. Naeatalmrl !>(), ('oiire)H'l'J. I.'il, t.'il 1 I.Vi, 1,'i7. l.'iH, 150 Valparaiso ICO. Tuslla /acalecaa I'il. V. Hemtosa Ileal de Hanto* I'i^ Talwwco Maleliuata 1fi.1. Sama-sinta I. (era 1(>4. Habancul Tampico Hi.'). Camiieche AllaiMira llili. Merlda l.iiK rolml 1(>7. I.ilKartos fVUUB^ Callenlei IW. Vnlladolld Teplc SatillaRo l*li>dra lllanca TecDtntlan Teqidla (iiiadalaxara Halantaiu-a Otieretaro raimco Tuspan .Talasinffo Cadercita \'alladolld Kniapo PaKfiiaro /acualco Ciilima Xala Zacfltula I'elalliin Acapiliro CIillpananKa TaM'o Mexico l.a I'urliU Xalapa . \'erii Crux . Ol; ttlsco i. Oaxai'd IMUeepee Teliuantcpcc Cblapa im. Muall 17U. Salatnanea de llaealar. liUATEMALA, 1. Maquilalia v. (ioeuoetlan 3. Copanabastlan 4. I.o!i Ikilores 5. (lUeKueleiiango 6. /oliava 7. Old (luatemala 8. (iuattniala y. Sonxmate 10. Cohan U.S. Crux \'i, liualan 13. S. Salvador U.S. .Mluuel l-'i. 'lVKUi-l(;ali>ol 10. Ciunavasua 17, Moralel 1H. (Mnoa 111, S. H.irl.ara VII. rruxillo 48. NIcoja SO. Canago ,10. Landecho 31. Fort 8. Carlot 33. U Taen .13. Blewfielda 34. Jalover ,15. Mosquitof SS. Crata. Ititvrf and tjsktt. a Los Monftes, H, b S, Sacramento, H. c S, Huetuiveutura. H, d Us Tniehes, R. e I»» Martirrs, R. f TfKUayo, I., f; Timpanogw,, L, I S, Iluenaventura, It, 1 Salado, R. iColoradoi H, llila, It. I Asceiiiilon, R. in HlaquUorSonorai It. n CulLncan, R. o Nnsasi It. p tiran.ie de Sant- iago, R. q Cliapalai I.. r /aratula, R. s NkMraauai L, il. S .1. ileOtlancho t Yare, It. VI. Ilantia V3. New SeeovIa •li. Iti'alejo a.'i. I;»K.n Vf). (iranada 'J7. Nicaragua u Iraval, I-- V Mnctesuema, R. « Klo del Norte, II X Colnrado, K, y Canadlen, H. I Rigio, K. 4 T 4 W'tU IMS DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY, Part III. 951 rorucATipBTL climate, which belongs only to the temperate zone, but from the absence of moisture, oc- casioned, ns Humboldt conceivi's, by tlie force with which the rays of the sun strike on this open plain, the absence of trees, and the porous nature of the rocks, which causes the water to filtrate down to the lower regions. On this high arid plain, muriate of soda and other saline , substances exist in extriiordinarv ; abundance, and give to it a rcsem. ^•^ blance to Thibet and the saline steppes of central Asia. Yet a great part o' New Spain must rank with the most fertile regions of the earth. As soon as it begins to slope down towards the sea, it becomes exposed to humid winds and frequent fogs; and a vegetation of uncommon strength and beauty is nourished by tliL'sc aqueous vapours. The descent, suddenly becoming rapid, terminates in the narrow plain along the sea-coast, a tract in which the richest tropical productions spring up witli a luxu- riance scarcely to be paralleled. Yet while the climate is thus prolific of vegetation in the finest and most gigantic forms, it is almost fatal to animal life ; two consequences which, according to Humboldt, are in this climate almost inseparable. The Spaniards, terri- fied by the pestilential air, have made this plain only a passage to the higher districts, where even the native Indians chose rather to support themselves by laborious cultivation, than to descend into the plains, where every luxury of life is poured forth in ample and spontaneous profusion. The slope by which the table-land descends to the Mexican coast is so steep that, till the road very recently constructed, no species of carriage was able to ascend. Between the western coast and the tnble-land intervene four long and steep ridges, which are difl'icult to traverse. Hence the conveyance of goods to the city ol' Mexico, and from one ocean to the other, had been effected solely on the backs of niiiics. Another great commercial disadvantage of Mexico is, that its eastern coast, against wliiili tile trade- winds arc continually driving an accumulation of sand, are destitute of a single harbour ; for this name, according to Humboldt, cannot be given to that most dangerous of all anchorages, which is found at Vera Cruz. The western coast, indeed, has, in Acapulio and San Bias, two of the most magnificent ports in the world ; but the coast, exposed to the entire breadth of the Pacific, is, for several months of the year, rendered unapproachable by tempests. 5833. The rivers of Neiu Spain are not important. The Rio del Norte, indeed, may have a course of 140O miles, and that of the Ilio Colorado, on the west, may be about hall that length ; but these streams, flowing along the foot of rugged mountains, and through desert and savage tracts, are at present of no com- mercial value. The rivers of tropical IMexico an mere torrents, which rush down from its talile-lami, and, from the structure of the country, roach the sea after a short course. They i)our down reniarkalik waterfalls, among which that of Rogla (/f. 9.1'.'.\ broken by volcanic rocks, and fringed «ilh nulili trees, forms one of the most picturesque spots in (lit world. 58134. The lakes of Afcxico are very numerous, and appear to be the remains of others, of vast exlciir. which formerly coveied a much larger propoitioiiol' • this lofty plain. Tlie valley of Mexico is covertJ with small lakes, which occupy nearly a fourth of ib surface ; but the only one on a very great scalo i- that of Cliapala, in New Gulicia, which IlumWJi estimates to contain an area of about lllOOsquan ^■:-i 952 •" 'y f'^ 'if ■Mi> LA.CAItK Of HR()TA> miles. Sect. II. Xaturul Geography. Slusect. I. Geiilti^i/. 5h35. In the Old World, granite, gneiss, mica slate, and clay slate often form the ccniial ridges of the mountain chains ; hut in the Cordilleras of America these rocks seldom iipinJ' at the surface, being covered by masses of porphyry, greenstone, amygtlaloid, basalt, on- sidian. and other rocks of the same class. The coast of Acnpuico is composed ot gramti, 'art 111. sturc, oc- concL'ives, he rays of > plain, the liu porous I causes the the lower arid plain, ;licr saline traordinary it a rcsem- tlie saline a. Yet a ipain must tile regions as it begins [iicnt fogs; .'se aqueous plain along ith a luxu- ' vegetation onsequcnces riiards, terri- iicr districts, 4 cultivatiuii, n ample and [exican coast > was able to ig and steep the city of :ks of mules. jgainst ttliitli ite of a single OBt dangerous ,, in Aca\mU'o 1st, exposed to lapproacliable indeed, liiay be about liall and through of no com- . IMoxico an its ta\)le-land. rcacli the sea n remarkaliW a (f.^- M^.;. jith nolili' 10 spots in lilt umorous ai"l vast extent. propoitiiiiio' L-o is covereil fourth of it^ {Treat scale i« leh Hum'iolJt 1 ;iOO square rni the ceidral a-ldom ai'li'''" id, biis;'"- "''■ •d of graiiile; Book IV. MEXICO. •138.'? and as we ascend towards the table-land of Mexico, we see it rise through the porphyry for the last time between Zumpango and Sopilote. Farther to the east, in the province of Oaxaca, granite and gneiss occur in the extensive elevated plains, traversed by veins of quartz, contommg gold. The geognostical relations of the secondary sandstone. lime- stone, and gypsum, met witli m Mexico, are veiy imperfectlv .nderstood. 5836. Mexican Volcanoes. — In Mexico Appears to commence the great cliain of volcanic mountams, which extends with little interruption from lat. 24° N. to lat. 2- S. The most northern volcanic rocks in this country occur near the town of Duran^o, in lat 24° long. 104°; but no active volcanoes are met with until we reach the parallel of the city of Mexico; and here, nearly in the same line, five occur, so placed tliat they appear derived from a fissure traversing Mexico from W. to E , in a direction at right angles to that of the great mountain chain, which, extending from N. \V. to S. E., forms the great table-land of Mexico. The most eastern of these, that of Tuxtla, is situated a few miles west of Vera Cruz. It had a considerable eruption in 1793, the ashes of wliich were carried as f^r as I'erote, a distance of 37 leagues. In the same province, but farther to the west, occur the volcano Orizaba, the height of which is 17,000 feet, and the peak of Popocatepetl, 880 feet higher, the loftiest mountain in New Spain. The latter is continually burnin", though for several centuries it has ejected from its crater only smoke and ashes. On the* western side of the city of Mexico are the volcanoes of Jorullo and Colima. The 'leight of the latter is estimated at about 9000 feet. It frequently throws up smoke and ashes, but has not l)een known to eject lava. The volcano of Jorullo, situated between Colima and the city of Mexico, is much more recent than the others ; for it is known to have made its appear- ance so late as the year 1 759. In the month of June, of that year, according to Humboldt a subterraneous noise was heard in the district of Jorullo. Hollow sounds of the most fright- ful nature were accompanied by frequent earthquakes, which succeeded each other^for from fifty to sixty days, to the great consternation of the inhabitants of the district. From the begiiming of September every thing seemed to announce the complete re-establishment of tranquillity, when, in the night of the 28th and 29th, the horrible subterraneous noise recommenced. The affrighted Indians fled to the mountains. A tract of ground, from three to four square miles iti extent, rose up in the shape of a bladder. The boundaries of this con- vulsion are still distinguishable from tlie fractured stratii. The malpmjs or volcanic ground near its edges is only lliirty-nine feet above the old level of the plain, called Las Vlayas de Jondlo; but the convexity of the ground thus tb'own up increases progressivelv'owards centre to a height of 524 feet. Those who ^\i..m;.a.ed thi- great event fron^ tiic moun' assert, that flames were seen to issue fortli for an output of more than half a league, tha' mcntsof burning rocks were thrown vast heights.. ■ i i* tliat ihrough a dense cloud of lies lighted up by volcanic fire, the softened sii.'ace ot . le earcl- .vas seen to swell like an agi- tated sea. The livers Cuitiniba and San iVdro ,u- ij.itateil themselves into the bi-niing chasms. Eruptions of mud, and especially ftiR»;i of 'lay, enveloping balls of detomiosed basalt in concentrical layers, appear to indieato tliat subterraneous water had no small - -.uia'd cone is n fumnrolc from which a thick vapour ascends to the height of from twenty to thirty feet. In many of them a sub- terraneous noise is heard, which appijars to announce the proximity of a fluid in ebul- lidon. In the midst of the furnaces, six large masses, elevated, from ;)0') to 1600 feet each, above the former level of the plain, sprang uj) from a chasm, wliic'i ranges from N. N.E. to S.S.W The most eltvated of these enormous masses is the great volcano of Jorullo. It is continually burning, and has thrown up from its north side an immense quantity of scorified and basaltic lavas, containing fragments of primitive rocks. These great eruptions of the centr.il volcano continued till the month of February, 1 7(jO ; since which period they have become less frequent. 5837. The Jive active volcanoes just noticed appear to be connect 1 by a chain of inter- mediate ones running in a parallel direction, Uiid exhibiting evident indications of a similar origin. Thus, Orizaba is connected with Popocatepetl by the Cofre de Perote, and with Jorullo by the extinct volcano of Mexico, called Iztaccihuatl ; lud (lie geognostical struc- ture of them and all those high mountains that rise above the tauk-'and of Mexico on the same parallel appears to be the same, being composed of trachyte, from apertures in which the existing volcanoes act. 5838. The same law prevails in the provinces of Guatemala and Nicaragua, which lie be- fecn Mexico and the Isthmus of Darien ; but the volcanoes here, instead of being placed nearly at right angles to the chain of the Cordilleras, run parallel to it. In these provinces no less than twenty-one active volcanoes are enumerated, all of them coiitained between 10' and 1 5' N. lat. Those which have been most lately in a state of eruption are Los Fucgos of Guatemala, Isalco, Momotombo, Tnlica, and Bombacho. 5839. Ores, (.Jr. — Tin ore, which occurs so abundantly in some districts in the Old World, appears but sparingly in Mexico. The mines of Comanja, which are situated in "le lis 'g- %m DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY, Part III. gyeiiite, alford veins of silver ore; and the most copious mines in America, those of Qua- nazuato, are situated in a vein of silver, which intersects a primitive clay slate, passing into talc slate. Many of the Mexican porphyries are rich in gold and silver. These rocks are characterised by the general presence of hornblende and the absence of quartz ; and of the felspars, the ryakolite, or glassy felspar, is the most frequent. Tlie rich gold mine of Villal. pando, near Guanaxuato, traverses a porphyry, the basis of which is allied to phonolite, and in which hornblende is very rare. The veins of Zuriapan traverse porphyries, having a basis of greenstone, which rock, as is frequently the case, contains many interesting minerals, such as mesotype, stilbite, tremolite, asbestus, green garnet, fluor spar, chrysoprase, fire opal, sulphur, carbonate and chromate of lead, and orpiment. The rich silver mines of Real del Monte, Pachuca, and Moran are situated in porphyry. 5840. T/te transition rocks of Mexico which most abo-ind in ores are limestone and grcy- wacke ; the transition limestone allbrds ores of silver ut Ileal del Cardonal, Xacala, and Lomo del Toro, to the north of Zuriapan ; and rich silver mines are situated in the rocks of the greywacke group. 5841. The secondari/ deposits most prolific in ores are those of the limestone series: thus we are told that the silver mines of the Real de Catorce, as well as those of El Doc- tor and Xaschi, near Zuriapan, traverse what Humboldt describes under the name of alpine limestone. In that and the formation named by the same author Jura limestone are situated the famous silver mines of Tasco and Tehuilotepec, in the intendcncy of Mexico, 5842. The mean produce of the mines of New Spain, including the northern part of New Biscay and those of Oaxuca, is estimated at about 1,541,015 troy pounds of silver,— a quantity equal to two thirds of what is annually raised from the whole globe, and ten times as much as is furnished by all the mines in Europe. On the other hand, Humboldt remarks, the produce of the Mexican mines in gold is not much greater than those of Hungary and Transylvania; amounting, in ordinary years, only to 4315 troy pounds, 584:>. The silver obtained from the Mexican mines is extracted fj om different ores. Most of it is obtained from silver glance, or sulphuret of silver, arsenical grey silver ore, horn ore or muriate of silver, black silver ore, and red silver ore. Native silver is useless in the northern districts. In Mexico there arc about 500 towns or iirincipal |ilaccs, which alford silver. These 500 places comprehend together about 3000 mines, and there are between 4000 and 5000 veins and other repositories of silver. 5844. Copper, iron, lead, and niercurif are also procured in Mexico, but in small quantities, although there appears to be no deficiency of the ores of any of these metals, SuBSECT. 2. Botany, 5845. Mexico natiiraUi/ connects the vef,etation of North and of South America, though it has a greater similarity with the latter in its climate and productions; but the mountain! are not so lofty, the great chain of the Jordilleras being twice interrupted within its limits. The northern Cordillera a' Nicaragua exhibits the first indication uf depression, butag;': rears itself for a time in the province of Veragua, and is there crowned with a very ,,..c plain, called the Table. In the eastern part of the province, it breaks into detached moun- tains of considerable height, and of the most abrupt and lugged formation ; thence, proceed- ing still to the eastward, innumerable sugar-loaf hills appear, not above ,'!00 or 400 feet high, with their bases surrounded by plains and savannahs ; and, finally, about Chagreson the one hand, and Chorrera on the other, these also disappear fur a few miles, and the country becomes almost uninterruptedly low and flat. Presently, however, the sugar-loaf mountains again t' icken, and, becoming connected, form a small cordillera, running from about opposite Porto Itello to the Bay of Ttianuingo ; where is the second break. The lanii then continues low through the province of Darien and Clioco, and is most nbundaiilin rivers , those on the north side tending to the Gulf of Urubn or Daricn, and those on tlie south to that of St. Miguel : beyond which point the cordillera again raises itself un an extended scole and enters South America. The vegetation of the isthmus is very luxuriant, the fruits and vegetables like those of other similar intertropical countries. The grain cnl- tivated is Rice and Indian Corn. The Sugar Cane is grown, but not extensively. Coll'ee and Cocoa are raised for domestic consumption. The Caoutchouc tree, Jlilk tree [Pah de faca), and Vanilla plant abound in the woods. The clinrcoiil made from many of the trees is considered excellent for smelling ; and, as such, is exported to I'eru, and is in much request there. Some of them yield very rich and brilliant dyes, used by the Indians, but not yet in commerce. The barks of others arc medicinal, oraiioundin tannin. Ir.k is made both from gall-nuts and a bush called Alsifaii, resembling the €?]»'■ Miuiy valuable resins are extracted from different trees ; |)articularly one, distilled from ih* Irark of a tree called the I'alo Santo, or holy tree, which is highly frngnint, and ubcillwlli as a remedy for disorders and to burn as incense. The Styrnx olTicinnlis of I.Iiui.tus is very abundiuit, the gum extracted from it selling at two dollars the pound. With iliigum flowing from tlic Caoutchouc tree, while yet liquid, the inhabitants niamifaetiire :i sortof water-proof cloth, on the same principle as in this country ; but which, thus prepared, ii Book IV. MEXICO. 1985 more uulfonn, and never cracks. In the vigour and varietit^ of its woods, the isthmus challenges competiUon with any part of the world, according to Mr. Lloyd ; who, in the Traniactions of the Geographical Society of London, enumerates no less than ninety-seven kinds, of which he has communicated specimens to that institution. 584G. The Mexican empire, or New Spain, which extends from lat. le° tc lat. 37°, presents by reason of it» geographical position, all the modifications of climate which we should find in passing from the Senegal river to Spain, or from the coasts of Malabar to Bucharia. This variation of climate is increased by the geological structure of the country, and by the mass and extraordinary form of the mountains of Mexico. Upon the summit and slope of the Cor- dillera the temperature differs according to the elevation ; and it is not the solitary peaks alone, whose summits, near the limit of perpetual snow, are covered with firs and oaks • whole provinces produce spontaneously alpine plants ; and the agriculturist, dwelling in the torrid zone, loses all his hopes of harvest from the eft'ect of frost or the abundance of snow. From this order of things, it may easily be imagined that, in so mountainous and Mtensive a country as Mexico, there is an immense variety of indigenous productions, and scarcely a plant exists on the globe which cannot be cultivated in some part of New' Spain.* 5847. No better idea, perhaps, of the general aspect of the vegetation in a much fre- quented portion of the empire can be conveyed than by the journal of a German botanist, Scliiede, very recently published in the Linneva, to which we must beg to refer our readers for a description of the country between Jalapa and Mexico. 5848. Ill New Spain the people not only obtain an agreeable drink from the saccharine substance of Maize, Manioc, Banana, and the pulp of some Mimosas ; but they also cul- tivate a species of tlie Pine Apple family {Agave americatia) in order to convert its juice into a spirituous fluid. Wide tracts of coimtry present nothing but fields of Maguey, whose long, sharp, and thorny leaves contrast strangely with the glossy and tender texture of the foliage of Bananas. It is not till after eight years that this plant shows signs of flower- ing, and aflibrds the " honey" (as it is called) whicli is used for making Pulque. The inte- rior is cut out, and the hollow continues for two or three montiis to afford daily a large quan- tity of sap, amounting, sometimes, to the enormous quantity of 15 quartillos, or 375 cubic inches, daily, for four or five months. This is the more astonishing, as the Agave plant- ations are always situated in the most arid s))ots, where hardly any soil covers the rocks. The culture of the Agave possesses many advantages over Maize, Wheat, or Potatoes, as the plant is not affected by the drought, frost, or hail which so often prevail on the high parts of the Mexican Cordillera. The stalk perishes after flowering, and an immense number of suckers spring up in its place. The man who plants 30,000 or 40,000 stems of Maguey is sure of leaving his fiu.iiiy rich, though it requires patiei\t'e and courage to per- bovere in a culture which will not be profitable in less than fifteen years. In good soil, the A'.ave sends up its flowering slom in five ye.irs ; in a poor soil, not sooner tlian in twenty. i'li.j " lioney " or juice of the Agave is a very pleasant subacid ; and ferments readily, owing to tlie saccharine and mucilaginous properties that it contains. The smell, however, of the Hquor that is obtained, is most putrid and disgusting, but those Europeans who li.ive overcome their dislike to it, prefer Pulque to every other drink. The Indians consider it to be stomachic, strengthening, and nutritious, and speak in rapture of the excellence of that which is made at Tlocotitian, where the peculiar soil gives a remarkable flavour to the beverage, and where there are plantations of Agave that annually yield more than 40,000 livres of rental. The Maguey was not only the Vine but the Pai>yrus and the Hemp of the ancient Mexicans, who painted their hieroglyphics on paper made of the fibres of its leaves. A tliread called /«/a, which has the advantage of never twisting, is still used that is prepared from it, and its thorns serve, like those of the Cactus, for pins and nails. A liighly intoxicating spirit is also extracted from the Maguey. Vanilla, of which we have already made mention, abounds in Mexico ; though the natives take no pains to cultivate so valuable a pl.int. .';849. The Cncltis coccinellifer (fig. 953.), which nourishes tlie valuable Cochineal Insect, is a native of Mexico, and was cultivated for tlie sake of the precious dye which the insec*; affords, long before the con- quest of that country, the plant- ations being called Nopaleros. From the district of Oaxaca alone the amount expoitod has been estimated at above * OACTUI rocCINBLLIVRR. Humboldl'8 lliit dt la Nouvflle Espagne. 1366 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part hi. U' i \Ul 500,000/. sterling, and the annual consumption of cocliineal in Great Britain only is about 750 bags, or 150,000 lbs., worth 275,000/. ; "avast amount," as the authors of the Introduction to ErUomology well observe, " for so small a creature, and well caiculawd to show us the absurdity of despising any animals on account of their minuteness." The plant bears much resemblance to the Cactus Opuntia, or Prickly Pear, and is easily ctil. tivated in dry rocky spots : the Cochineal Insect is, in general appearance, not very dis. similar to the Meal Bug of our gardens, and equally covered with a white powdery sub- stance. The male insects, which are comparatively few in number, are winged : when the females are with young, they are placed on diiferent Cactus plants, which is called sowini' thenu Here they increase rapidly in size and numbers, and, four months afler, the Imrvest commences; when the insects are brushed off with a squirrel's or deer's tail, by the women, who sit for hours under one Nopal plant, and kill them, sometimes by immersion in boiling water, sometimes by exposure to the sun, or in the vapour baths of the Mexicans. By the latter method, the powdery substance is preserved, which increases the value of the insects in commerce. 5850. Allixco, in Mexico, is justly celebrated for the abundance and excellence of tlic chirimoya {Anona c/wriinolia) which it pri.'duces. This is cultivated in many of the hotter parts of South America, and justly ranks ns one of the best fruits of the country. 5851. The Clieirostemon, or Hand Plant (Jig. 954.), was discovered by Hum- boldt, in 180:, fomtitig immense forests in the province of Guatemala, in New Spain. From time immemorial, a sinole Individual of this tree had been cultivated in the gardens of Tztapalapan, where it was said to have been planted by j\Ion. tezuma before the conquest of Peru; and the Indians attached a religious veneration to it, believing that not another specimeo existed or would exist in the world. This taste for horticulture still prevails among the Mexicans, who delight in dressing niili garlands the stands where they vend vegetables or pulque, and arrange nowgays of freshly gathered flowers among the Peaches. Pine Apples, and Sapotillas which they display.* 5852. Tlie true Jalap {Purga de Xalapa), that well-known and potent medicine, is tliu root, not, as is sometimes supposed, of Mirabilis Jalapa, but of tlie Convolvulus Jalapa, a climbing pkni which grows, at a height of 1300 or 1400 metres, in many parts of Mexico, delighting in cool shady situations, among woods and on the slope of the mountains. It is singular thiit it is likewise found in the liot province of Vera Cruz, in sandy arid s|)ob. near the level of the sen, and that M. Michaux should also have met with it in Florida. Tt: annual consumption of Jalap in Europe has been stated at 7500 quintals, an amount wjiiti Humboldt thinks must be considerably over>stated. Its price at Xalapa, when the largM j quantity is obtained, is from 120 to 130 francs the quintal of about 100 Ihs. 5853. The Dalilias, those universal favourites, whose many-coloured blossoms give suet I splendour to our parterres at a season when the approach of winter renders them doiiW; valuable, as well as many other semi-hardy plants, are natives of the cool and hilly purtio: Mexico. SuBSECT. S. y.oology, 5854. The Zoolofii/ of these intpirstin/:, regions has oniy of late been partially m:iile knm; lamode'Ti '.:enc«>; for, notwithstaiiiling the muiuficent liberality of the couit of Spainel sinding Hernanik'z for the express purpose of investigating the animal productions of il» I New World, the result of Ills mission w.is unattended either by commercial or scientiiif advantages. Vague and trivial notices, accompanied only by barbarous Indian names, rei- 1 dered the works of Hernandez nearly unintelligible even to the European naturalists of ilu I age, and the author and his book have long since passed Into oblivion. The political cv# f of the last few years have now opened the natural riches of Itlexico to the researches id>: I the enterprise of Europeans. And although the zoological gleanings hitherto inadeiel the table-land have been very local, and comparatively scanty, they ore sudicient si give some goneral idea of the probable nature of the whole, at least so tar as wl cerns the geographic distribution of the ornithology; the only department in whicli>il possess, as yet, any collections. To this, consequently, we must from necessity restrict ob I notice ; since the others, slightly mentioned in the narratives of the old travellers, cannot kf recognised or named^by the m iderns. There is, as we have already observed, uidicioij reason to believe that the union of the southern and northern American Fauna tils I pirtce on that high table isthmus which geographically divides the two most |)ronuttii«l divisions of the New World; and this idea will receive some confinnation by the t'olloiill details. * HumlwIUt and Bonpland, Voyage cl Eisai tur ta Nouvelte hiiMgne, vol. i. |i. ill. pago !>K IIANIt 1-1. -IKf. Amilta "I.>lnru. \_ "ml. Circus ruill,! . ■'s^f. ll,,. I native.s of \\ I "« in Ihomsd I nnnecossarv l«Piit from th< I'lslributod t 5860. , lunknoivii i j T'lirimma , Part III ;at Britain only is ** as the authors of and well calculawd minuteness." The r, and is easily cul. irance, not very div white powdery sub- J winged : when the ich is called sowing ths after, the harvest » tail, by the women, immersion in hoiling I Mexicans. By the value of the insects and excellence of the in many of the hotter ;»e country. ;iscovered by Hum- in the province of immemorial, a single d in the gardens of jen planted by Mon- he Indians attached a not another speciinto , taste for horticulture light in dressing with tables or ptilque, and rs among the Peaches, ilay.» 1), that well-known and iometimes supposed, of falapa, a climbing plani netres, in many parts of ! slope of the niountaidi Iruz, in sandy arid sjwii j kvith it in Florida. The ntals, an amount whicfc alapa, when the largest 100 lbs. ired blossoms give ml Ler renders tliern aoiiblj le cool and hilly parho: | m partially m:ule Vmi )f the couit of Spain d limal productions of lixj commercial or scienii^i irous Indian names, ret I ropi'an naturalists of ttii: I on. The political ev# I ico to the researches iK I mings hitherto \m\i^\ ' they are sufficient '^J 'at least so far asctfrl [lupartment in which*' I rom necessity restrict oa I e old travellers, ciUinoiK I ready obsorvod, mfficiflsl American I'aunatital the two most prominrfl ■-irmationby thclolM| vol. i. p. iii- pay^'-***- Book IV. MEXICO. The following Birth are common both to Mexico and the United Stales : — 1387 58.55. llutM I'orealli. Northern Buzznrtl. Circus americaniia. Amertcnn Ihirrier, Ai-cipHer iiennftyUanicus Srv. Pvnnsyl- vaiilan Hawk. Mux vlr^^nlana L. Vlrstnian llnmed Owl. TVrannula'saya .Sn-. fiaj'a Tyranl. 'n h"'*^'"°^" *"*• Hwi.l.rea*ted Sialia Wlisoni Sw. Wilson'* Hluelilrd. heiurus aiirocapiUut in;. fJoUlen- crowned Tit. ""men SolurtH aquaticufc Stv. Water Tit. Tricha* personatus Sw. MaTjIandYel. lo« •throat. S.'.lvU'nia luniricana Srv, Blue-hacked Warbler. Svlvicola Hluckbumla Sw. Blackbumian Warbler. Sylvlcola lestiva Sw. Yellow Warbler, hylvicola (laTicoIlbSm. Yellow-throated Warbler. vlyico'a coronata Srv. Yellow. crowned Warbler. Vermivora solilaria Stv. Worm-eatlnir Warbler. Wa'rbTCT. '""*^"*'* *'"'■ >»«>«*" Almidacomuta VfUtcm. Shore Lart fnnjtilla socialis IJ'iV*. Social Sparrow. IvrrhuIafronialiiHoM. JJuUfinchlinnrt. ImUchonyr ory/ivoruH Srv. Hire Hird. V Ireo olivarea ? /(.m. HcJ^yed WarMer. Anelnius phccniceua Hw. Hed.wiiuted .■^tarlinR. ^ jUoloihrua pecorls Sw. Cowbird. aiumella luduvlciana Srv, Crttccnt otarllng. Xanthotnui baltimora C. Baltimore nan Kn est. Dendrocifjufl rariui Stv, Varied Wood- pecker. Gulrac imloTlciana Sn, RoM-breasted uroKbeak. Ouiraca citrulea Sfi'. Blue Oro^bnik. Mniotilta varla Kfei7. Black and White trceper. SltHcarolinwuUt. Carolina Nuthatch. ^'c,™o "VeTlcunaf.. (Jreat AnuTlcaii Kingfisher. fiSHfi. The above ipcacs are mostly migratory, visiting the Unitcti States to breed, and rt'turtiing southwaru. It does not appear, however, that they pass beyond the Mexican Gulf: since not one. out oi'the whole thirty.flve, has yet been discovered on the Terra Firma. RINU'HIRn. 5857. The next Hit comprises those birds which we were the first to describe as new species, peculiar to Mexico. {Phil, Mag,, June^ 1827.) They are unknown in the United States, nor have they yet been detected on the main land of South America: — Hirunilo thalassinua Stv, Sea-green Swallow. Tyrannula aflinU Stv. Meidcan Tewee Tyrant. Tyrtnnulrt ohsrura Sn'. Olwcuro Tyrnnt. Tyrannula barbirostrin Sri;. KeardLKl Tyrant. Tyrannula nlKTicans Stv. Blackish Tyrunt. Tyrannula muslca Srv. Musical Tyrant, rjnuinula oriiaia Stv. tp. niw. Creiited ivrsnt. >*t";'ba;ia niiniaW Stv. Ui.-d-bodied Hyi-aichcr. >^t"!'ha«a picia Srv. Palntett F';- cairher. ■^^lopliaea rubra Sn». Red Flycatcher. !vto|)|mHa rulifrons Sw.sp.mv, Ycllow- throatt'il Klyratcher. r^anmis crnshiruetris Sw. Thick-billed Tyrant. Tyrannus vociferans Srv. Calling Ty- rant. Piiliogoiivs cinereus .Sm. Zool. lU. I'l.GV. 120. Cinereous B* -ry-eater. 1 tiliognnys nitens av. nor. hiack Berry- eaitr. Cint;lus anipricanus Sn\ American t> aier-ou/el. SImila flaTirostris Sw. Yellow-billed Ihrusb. Menila irlstisSw. Sad-co!our«l Thrush. Mmila Miens An*. Silent Thrush. Onihcus rurvirostris Stv. l.onK-billed M'tckiii^'-bird. Oriilieiifi ai'nilescens Sm, BlueMork- niK-bml. Siaiia inf\irana .So*. Mexican Robin. Slvfcola inurnata Stv. Plahi Warbler. Iiinlo i..aculata Stv. Spotted Chiri- niich. Filiilo marronyx Siv. Lonii-clawed Chirk lincli. Pijiilo fusra Srv. Brown Chlckfinrh. Pii>ilo rufesrens Sw. Chestnut Chick- (iiith. ChondestessirlsetUBSn'. Strijied Finch. Frlnuilla cinerea Stv. Aiih-coloured Finch. Cunluelis mexicaniis Sn: Mexican (i old finch. Cassicus coronatus Stv, Crowned Hanpicifl. Afrelaius lonpipes Stv. Long-legBcd Rlafa'-blrti. Xanibornus Bullockii Stv. Bullock's Hi'ni^iiest. Icierus nielanocetihalus Stv. Black- heeded Hanpie»t. Icterus crassirohtria Sw. Thick-billed Hangnest. Icterus cucullatus Stv. Hooded Itang- nest. Ictenia mexicanu Lench. Mexican Hanffnest. Ouiscalus palustris Sn'. Marsh Boat- tail. Cyanurus coronatus Sw. Coronated .lay. r.vanurus formosus Sn: Famous JIas. I'anaera i-rythrocephala Sw. Ked- headeci Tanpgi-r Pyran^a livida .Vn-. I.ivid R«H>i. J. P.u-auKa hepatica Stv. Mexican Kcd- birxi. Psranga bldentatu Sn-. Doubled -toothed Keiihinl. Tiarifc pusillus Sw. Little Grosbeak. tjuiraca nu'lanocc^haia Sw. Ulack- headetl (irusbeakl Psiii fcus k'uri>rhvnchu9 Sn: White- hilled Parrot. Marrocercus mexicanus Sw, Mexican nlurkaw, Ranipha^toB carinatui Sw. Carlnated loucan. AlclancrpesformicivonuSm. Ant-eatinii WooiIi>ecktr. Mflanevpes elcgans Stv, Klegani Wood- JtetktT. Melanerjiw albifrons Sw. White .fyontO'l Woodpecker. Colapies Mexicanus Sw. Crimson-shafted \S'oi)il pecker. Xiiiiioihyncluis leucogaster Sw. White- tnroottd Tree-climWr. Xipho.hynrhus tIavi>iasteT Sw. Vetlow- Ihroatcil Tree-climl)er. Corcyxuaflexicanus Sw. Mexican Cow. cul. Crotophaaa sulcirostrii Sw. Uroore- billed Ani. Trt>;,(in Mexicanus Sw. Zoo/. ///. pi. 82. 11)7. nrexicanTrogon. Tro^on Morganii Sw. Morgan '« Trogon. Trodiilus ful.uens Sn: Ketulgeni Huni- minfj.blrd. Trncbilus tbala>»inii3 Sn: Sea-grtvu Humming-bird. Trorhilus piaivrurcus Stv. Broad-tailed Humminu-lilrd. Cynanthus latirmtris Sn'. Broad-billfd Humming-bin). Cynantinis bitiircatus Sw. Double-fork- tniled Humming-bird. Cynanthus minimus S»''. Little Fork- 'taiteil HummiiiK-liird. Cynan'hus Lurilcr .Sn-. >leiican Star Huniniing-binl. Lamponii^- anicrbysiinat Sw. Ameihys- line tfumni-nit-l'ini. Priiinites Mexk'anii!.>«'. Zoo .7/7. pi. SI. Mi'xicaii Moimoi. 58.')8. The third list exhibits such few species as have !)ecn likewise observed on the Terra i irnia, but arc unknown to inhabit the north of America: — Destroying Brazilian Amiih (letlructor Daud, E.il(!e. PolMoriia brasiliamis Vieit. ( aracara. Run- . |.ter Tyrant. S;'.uroi>hagus sulpuurutus Sn'. Bentivi Tyrant. Icterus di>miniccnsis Oaud. Dcmiingo Hangnutt. Mi.iToierrus mllltaris Stv. Military MarWaw. TrothiUis melanotis Sw. Black-eared Humming-bird. 58J!i. It rrsnlfsfroih tfits cnumcrathmy that of li3 species of land birds, hithtMto ascert^.ined, by us, to be natives of Mexico, m appear altogether peculiar to that coutitry, 11 are aUo natives of South America, and I H of \orth America. These facts, so important in illustratins the jrrcat principles of animal distribution, I are in themselves so valualile, that we could not withhold them from the scientific reader. It will, however, be I unnecessary to enter on similar details regarding the water birds; as of twelve species of the Duck family, Iwnt from the lakes of Heal del Monte, not one imssessed any novelty, the whole l>cIonging to those "pccics |flUtributed over North America. 5RfiO. Amov^ the Wading Birds are two most beautiful species of Tiger Bitterns, hitherto ■unknown to niiturHlisls, and wiiicli, in fact, we have not yet regularly dt'scribcd. One, the Ir/^Wsomn lincQta, or Lineatcd Bittern {fig. 956.), i« entirely Maved with fine fulvous lines ; Ithe other, T. mcncana^ has these lines enlarged into broader bands, while the chin, and part ii h ill ;.!# 1388 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pa»t III. of the tliroat, is naked {fig. 957.)' Tha American Dittcrn, wliich liere represents that of Europe, is also a common bird, and, fVom its smaller siio, it is called Butor minor (fig, 958. ). LlNKArVD BUTIRN' HimiL'AN HITIHIIN. AHUIIL-AN niTTilRtr. 5861. The Quadrupeds, Insects, ije. i»ro too little known, to permit any satisfactory ac- count being given of tlicm. The only qutt(lrupele heigh: of civlliHation. The Mexicans Ijail \ calendar, of which a reprcscntalion i here given {Jig. 959.), more acciinie than tinit of the Greeks and Romans: they built large cities, lofty and regiAu pyramids; they smelted metals, ami cii tlie hardest stone ; and they rccoriidi events by paintings of a peculiar tht meter, which were little inferior torn hieriiglyphicH of Egypt. Two speii- mens of these ancient paintings are here exhibited ( //i;. 9fi().l. There existed a refi- lar gradation of ranks in the empire, and the exorbitant power and pride of the nol'et was contrasted with the almost enslave- cities, lofty ami refA smelted metals, amUi „ie ; and they recorileO tini?s of a peculiar *• ■ore little inferior to tk. ,f Egypt. Two ^p«i- ' There existed a K* and pride of the 1* jople. The.nJelw^ lin advance m poli* i„„. Human -,aai <" ,e their character .«* roglyphical tuhlesott^ uVas shown them. I h The first wi'*'""' „uiry has in vain '»« 'Mexic. a.>y """"*' ' ilisation there «*^ '.,„, us is usual '" *»'' 960 MIXICAK IIIIIII(WI.rFII|CI. a band of daring adventurers, whom the possession of fire-arms and the terror produced by them rendered invincible. After a resistance not without some glory, the Altec empire was overthrown, and Mexico, with Peru, became the brightest gems in tlie Spanish crown. There appears no doubt that a great part of the nation, including most of the nobility and priesthood, perished at the time of the conquest ; hut considerable nmnbers still survived, and continued to live in separate villages, with a local jurisdiction. Although the country was in all respects ill governed, yet the hopes of immense wealth attrnctrd n number of Spanish emigrants, who gradually inultipliecl in a country aboiuuling with the necessaries of life. Even the Indians, whom the Spaniards at last sought to protect. increased their numbers in the course of the last century, and from the intercourse be- tween tlie two races a very numerous mixed tribe originated. 5864. The spirit of revolution and independence, which was gradually difl\i8cd in tho mildly governed English colonies, did not, for b^jrne time, reach those under the Spanish sway. The habits of implicit submission, and the ignorance which accompanied it, pre- vented all but a few daring spirits from forming even the idea of emancipation. Yet a root of discontent was deeply lodged. The Creoles, or Spaniards born in America, were now the most numerous race, and were always increasingly preponderant. But the Spanish government, from a short-sighted policy, placed all its confidence, and vested all political power, in a small body of Spaniards sent out from Europe. Tlie discontents of the proscribed Creoles, however, might long have fermented without explosion, had not their ties with Europe been broken by Napoleon's invasion of Spain. The principle of loyalty itself led them indignantly to repel this usurpation, and to frame a provisional government for themselves ; and having once tasted the sweets of independence, they were unwilling to recognise either th^ local authorities established in Spain, or the su- premacy of the king himself. The contest was long, bloody, and desperate ; for most of the intelligence, and all the military skill and discipline, were at first on the side of the native Spaniards ; but, after many vicissitudes and many dangers, both internal and external, the Mexicans succeeded in fonning a constitution, nearly on the model of that of the United States. Great disturbances, however, still continue to agitate it. Sect. IV. Political Geographi/. 586,'). The Mexicans, on effecting their emancipation from the yoke of Spain, formed themselves into & federal repulitic, divided into nineteen states, each of which has its local government, while the general congress provides for the foreign relations and general interests of the confederacy. These states are Mexico, Queretaro, Gnanaxuato, Mcchoaean, Xalisco, Zacatccas, Sonora and Cinaloa, Chihualma, Durango, Cuhahuilu and Texas, New Leon, Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosi, Vera Cruz, Puehia, Oaxaca, Chiapa, Tabasco, Yucatan, Old and New California, Ntw Mexico, TIascala, and Colimw. The members of the house of representatives are elected for two years, and there is one for every 80,000 inhabitants. The member must possess landed property of the value of ROOD dollars, or derive from some trade or profession an income of KKH) dollars n year. The senate and iiicsidcnt are chosen by the state legislatures. This constitution has, unfortunately, not !)een sufKcient to prevent civil dissensions, and even an appeal to the sword. ia9<) DESCRIPTIVE OEOOllAPHY. I'ART lU, 5866. The army, according to Mr, Wit('.\ amounted, in I8'J7, to 5H,9JJ ; of wlium 32,161 were under arms. They wert' ctivitfcd into twulve regimrots of infantry, twvlvu of cavalry, and three brigades of artillery. The navy consisted of i ' ship of the line, twu frigatefi, four brigs, and some smaller vcssi'N. The army cost i),U69,000 dollars, and tliv navy, 1,309,000; amounts which the finances of the country were ill able to defray. 5867. The revenue, which, in 1808, was estimated at 20,000,000 dollars, had in 1825, through the civil wars, and the al>olition of unpopular taxes without the substitution of others, f:illen to 9,375,000, being all thn was to meet an expenditure of 18,000,000, and the interest of the debt. The state, amid its distresses, had obtained loans from Uritisli capitalists, but with little benefit to either party. In 1823, there was procured from the house of Goldschmidt a loan of 3,200,000/., but this being at a discount of fillty per cent, and a large sum being charged for agency, the amount paid into the Mexican coflvrs was only 1,180,000/. A loan of the same extent obtained next year from the house of Hurclay was reduced by the same causes to 1,370,000/., of which the lenders were able to make gou3tol, .._, can be miuie set much value bout 150 quarts of the people, , both in North 'and is still rare quality, l)ut only by importation, culture is laho- ibstitutes being Vanilla, the and Vera Cnii, UOOK IV. MEXICO. ISM ii poor man, wlio, l)y bennmK and borrowinf^. coiitriveil to carry on a fruitless excavation ,liirm({ eeven years, till he came at length upon tne Kveai vein, which for nrore tlian tiiirty years yielded above muXX)!. annually. The mine of l'»\elloii. iii the district u( Sombrerete, yiehled H(K),000/. in six months ; but its product has been by no means so steady. The purl- (icatitin of the metal is effected either by smelting or by amalgamation with mercury. The hitter mode is considered the most eligible, especially since the forests have been thinned by the quantity already consumed in the smelting process. lfi,(XK)(|uintals of mercury are required f.ir the mines of Mexico ; a quantity difficult W procure, especially while the Spanish govern- iiicnt mimopolised and retailed it at an enormous price. The produce of the mines continued iiiereasing till the commeneement of the late revolution. Fnnn 1750 to I75D, the average appeared to be 1 (i,5(;G,tX'X) piastres ; tV mi 1771 to IHO;), it was 1!),«88,0(X) ; but in the first years of the present century, the i! • s levied imi)lied an amount of '22,(XX),00O ; and, allowing for contraband, the total nii. ,liably be '.'5,000,(XX), or 5,.';00,000/. sterling. During the dreiulful convulsions of i revolution, the amount wrs greatly reduced, the water having in many instances 1, „.uod to rush in, the maehiner.- destroyed, and the workmen dispersed. The silvu >.,inod in the mint of Mexico, which, in 1810, iiniDiMited to the value of 17,!)5(),(KX) dollars, had fallen in 1825 to 3,651,lX)0. Extraor. (Unary efforts have lately been made by Ibitisli capitalists to restore and extend the pro*luee (if those mines. The following companies were formed : — Heal del Monte, 500,000/. ; United Mexican, 1,200,000/.; Anglo-Mexican, 1,(XX),(KX)/. ; Holaiios, 150,tX)0/. Ilalpuya- hiia, 18C),0(;0/, ; Catorce, GO,(XX)/. There were also two American and one German, but on a smaller scale. Great difficulties were encountered in the conveyance and erection of machinery ; but ,sonic success has crowned their etlbrts. In the years 18!5(i and 1837, there were coined at the different mints of the Mexican republic, silver to the value of 22,81 fi,(XK) dollars, e(|ual to 5,9G3,000/., or 2,!)81,500/. per amiuio. The amount in gold was 9,'(4,00O dollars, equal to 190,800/., or 95,4(X)/. annually. The coinage in 1837, at the mint of Mexico, wits 10,071 dollars in gold, and 510,3.11 silver; Guanajuato, 151,024 gold, and •J,S57,000 silver; Guadalajara, I2,(i42 gold, and 5(>(;,9(i2 silver; Zacatecas, 5,238,253 silver; Diirango, 207,040 gold, ami 721,020 silver; San Luis I'otosI, 1,110,777 silver; Chihuahua, '.>'25,lfi2 silver. .iSTH. yiani{fmlurct in Mexico are, niul must long cniuiiuip, in ,1 very rude etatc, A KtronK prejudice cxlatt ainoiiK the natives against inaiuinl laliotir: in consequence ol' wliieh, it Is eliiefly coiifiiieir to criminals, or pcrsiiiis ijiiinpelled Ity debt tu engage in it. These worlinu'ii arc immured as in a prison ; and high walls, double doors, barred windows, together with the severe corporal punishment often inHieted on the inmates, make those places resemble an ill-conduetcd gaol. There are, Imwevcr, considerable fabrics of coarse red earthen- ware, which is used in all the operations ol' cookery : also manufactures ot coarse woollens and cottons. The amount of these, in gWHl times, was reckoned at r,5U0,lKI(U. ; but declined during the troubles. Working *in gold and silver has, as might be expected, been a favourite cccupation. Services of plate, worth QKK)/, orWKX)/., have been manufactured at Mexico, whicli, for elegance and line workmanship, may rival the best of the kind of ICuropc, Glass has al.NO made great progress. The coaches of Mexico have long been celebrated both for good construction ami beauty, — it being; the p.articular i their coach. ambition of all who (mssibly can, to have 5871. The commerce of Mexico corresponds little at present with its great fame for wealth. It consists chiefly in the exportation of the precious metals ; almost the only other staple commodities beinj; eoehiiieal, vanilla, and logwood, — articles still almost confined to this country; besides which, there is some sugar, flour, indigo, and tobacco. In 1835, there entered its ports 525 vessels, 55,575 tons; of which 50 vessels and 7750 tons were British. In 1837, the commerce with Great Britain, France, and the United States, was nearly as follows ; — Exports, Imports, Britain . - £'740,000 i,'lGO,000 France - - 385,506 284,479 United States - - 774,(XX) 1,130,800 £1,899,506 i'l ,,574,279 The intercourse of Britain i* carried on to a considerable extent through the United States and W est Indies. The direct exports in 1837 were chieBy, fi.MO.lKK) yards cottons, valued, wilh other small articles at_^12,8(lW.; 2,(i:>l,(ill(l lbs, cotton twist, l+4,4!Kl/.j woollens, 8()'J4 pieces, 34,177 yards, value 41,()(K./. j linens, l,fii!8,((H) yards, value ii.-,,9(HI/.j silks, U.suo/.j hardware and cutlery, l;-,l!) tons, ll,8l.V. Of liireign articles, the only very imiHirtant were, 7,'i7,.7.'8 lbs. of (luicksilver, 2,'K)U pieces India cottons, -SM pieces India silks, ,)!i:,2 gailoiii wine. Under the old rtginie, the trade was nionopolised by Vera Cruz and Acapulcn ; but uniler the repiiblic, a considerable amount has eent,Ted, in the north at Tampico. in the south .it Lacuna iii' Icrnimos, in the "ostat ,San Jilas and other imrts. The vessels which entered Vera Cruz, in ISi,, were '-"-^l, witn a tonnage 'ifi".,8S(i, Of these, ol ships were liritisli, briii.'Mng in cargoes worth Ji:,,S!i7/., ami taking 'I™)/' V"'"^ ;" l!(H«ls „r K,MW. Trnipieo was entered by 1,W vessels, tonnage i:!,!)?!. S'J„li"t'*h Y }^^-,fr Zl„ mm., takiii,. av^ •, 1 111(1/. The entire imports into this port were ,(b.!iS(l/„ exports ■-;'.;"• On the western coaM, ,Saii Bias, (.iiiaymas, and Mazallan received 1+T vessels, l-;.'l«'"!VJ'"M''f ''•;*.«« '•.':^^^"'''« i:^',TW, Of these, 13 llritish vessels brought a value of hUMM., and dok .,l,,hS/. '"f ""'>,. ;..h,Vi o"! wived -.-. vcsseks, mr, tons, which took away I lti,3U (luintals ol logwood, its only cumiiiodity, ol tthah bl,S.4 went on board of 12 British vessels. 5872. The rouds of Mexico are tolerable, so far as they extend along the level surfl.ce of W irai ^ ^f^"^- A^ %^-' ^> IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) ^' Z. ^j^ 1.0 I.I ItiKA |2.S ■ 50 ■^~ ■■■ •^ I2i2 12.2 - li 1 1.25 1 1.4 1.6 III^^^B^B^B IIIISI^^^^^S IIIII^^SSS ^ 6" ► ^ .^;^^ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14S80 (7!6) S73-4503 1998 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pam III. the high table-land. But the steep declivities from thence to the maritime plain along both seas, were long impassable for a carriage of any description. Before the late re- volution, however, the merchants of Mexico had undertaken a most magnificent high- way, so judiciously adapted to the declivities, that loaded waggons could ascend from Vera Cruz upwards to Mexico, and thence down to Acapulco. This public work was interrupted by the late revolution, and was found by recent travellers in an unfinished and neglected state ; but it can scarcely be doubted that the new government will soon avail themselves of the means they now posseiis, to complete so important an undertaking. Sect. VI. Civil and Social State. 5873. The population of Mexico, which bad previously been estimated on the most vague conjecture, has been computed by Humboldt with extraordinary care. He copied from the archives of the viceroy a statement containing the results of an enumeration made in 1 793, by which the number was rated at 4,483,529. This census was taken, however, in oppo- sition to those popular apprehensions and prejudices with which such an enumeration is always viewed ; and the real amount might be at least a sixth more, or 5,200,000. After carefully comparing the numbers of births and deaths, and observing the progress of agri- culture, the increased amount of duties on consumption, and the many new houses every where building, he considers that the population of 1808 might be safely estimated at 6,500,000. It has since been rated at 10,000,000, but seemingly too Iiigh, considering that, by the war, not only a multitude of the inhabitants has perished, but that many of the sources of industry have ceased to be productive. The best authorities seem to reckon the present population at about 8,000,000. 5874. The classes of society are singularly varied, and are characterised by distinctions more striking than those observable in other countries. They are four, more distinct and almost more alien to each other than if they were separate people, actuated by the strongest sentiments of national rivalry. Those classes are, native Spaniards; Spaniards bom in America; the mixed castes; and the Indians. 5875. The native Spaniards, called Chapetones, did not exceed 70,000 or 80,000, and the greater number of these have now been expelled ; but, prior to the late revolution, the court of Madrid, either through jealousy of the Americans, or through personal interest, bestowed exclusively upon them every office in its colonies. They deported themselves as beings of a decidedly superior order to the Creole Spaniards, who, they openly asserted, were an effeminate and ignorant race, incapable of any elevated and liberal occupation. They are now fallen from their high estate. They are stripped of all their honours and dignities ; many of them reduced to extreme poverty, and allowed only to exist under strict surveillance by a government to whom they are objects of perpetual jealousy. Captain Hall considers them, notwithstanding the deadly error which caused their ruin, as not undeserving of sympathy. They are better informed, more industrious, and more highly bred than the natives, and in all respects, except on the national question, more liberal. As | merchants they were active, enterprising, and honourable ; and towards strangers courteous and obliging. It could never, certainly, be expected, that tliey should not resist to the utmost a revolution which deprived them of their station in society, and reduced them tos depressed and subordinate condition. 5876. The Creoles, or Americans, as they prefer to call themselves, even when they were depressed beneath the preponderance of the Europeans, formed a privileged class in com- parison with other natives. They are fond of splendour, and delight to ride oh horses richly caparisoned (Jig. 961.). Many of them, descended from the first conquerors, or enriched by speculation in the mines, enjoy fortunes almost more than princely. Forty or fifty thousand pounds a year is not an uncommon income, even for families who do not possess mines. The Conde de la Valenciana has repeatedly drawn fiom his mine 250,000/. in one year. The Condede la Regia, from the profits of another, presented to the linf two ships of the line con:>'.!'ucted of cedar. These imtncns* fortunes, however, are often dissipated in ulterior minio; speculations, to which the owners are tempted by one suc- cessful adventure, and in which they often squander all tlul they have gained. An ostentatious mode of living, a rage fo gaming, and an ill-arranged domestic economy, ate ilio causes which involve the richest families in embarrassmentt and prevent any accumulation of capital. The entire number of those denominated whites in Mexico, is about 1,200,000, of whom all except il{< small number of Europeans above mentioned are Creoles. The charge of ignorance » generally advanced against this class ; and, notwithstanding some decided exceptions, audi peculiar aptitude, which most of them are said to display in learning the priticiplo o' science, cannot be wholly denied. The causes, however, which have produced this menui HUICAN OBNTLKIIKN* degra niagii cnabl( 581 still SI 962 i L Tin. I along ate re- ; high- i from rk was tied and )n avail I- (St vague from the in 1793, in oppo- iration is 3. After « of agri- ises every ;imatcd at onsidering any of the reckon the distinctions iistinct and lie strongest fds bom in 300, and the folution, the (nal interest, hemselves as isserted, wcw ation. They honours and St under strict isy. Captain ruin, as not more highly re liberal. As gers courteous t resist to the ucedthemto" (hen they «ie d class in com- ride on hotsM conquerors, ot fortunes almost i pounds a yew iUeswhodonot a has repeatedl! The Conde* ntcd to the kinj These imm'"* ulterior tciM ?tedbyone»w- living, a «P J conomy,««* „ embarrassmwl Ul. The en « ,om8lle«ept, to only 204,000 dollars. The churches, however, in Mexico, Puebia, and other large cities, are of surpassing splendour ; and the blaze of gold, silver, and ornaments, surpasses what is displayed in the richest shrines of Europe. Bigotry, among the body of the people, prevails nearly to the same extent as in Spain ; and the new legislators have not attempted to grant toleration to any other religion than the Roman Catholic ; yet many of the best informed are supposed to be secretly tinctured even with the sceptical opinions of the modern French school. The Indians liave been what the Spaniards call converted to the Clrristian faith ; but the change has evidently been not u change of creed, but a com. mutation of one ceremony for another, and in some cases their ancient ceremonies are retained. Humboldt seems to suppose that they merely considered the Spanish gods ti> have vanquished their gods, and thence to have become entitled to their homage. They even persuaded themselves, and, it is said, were assured by the Spaniards, that the emblem of the third person of the Trinity was identical with the sacred Mexican eagle. Be tills as it may, the Mexicans display an extraordinary ardour in adorning tne churches with pictures and statues, and in collecting and grouping flowers, fruits, and every thing which can increase the splendour of religious festivals. But their favourite form of worship is dancing round the altar, and with astonishment it is i>erceivcd, that these dances are the same with which their ancestors celebrated the immolation of human victims to the dreadful god of war. The warrior departs, attired in the full costume of the days of Montezuma ; he meets another ; fights, vanquishes, and drags him by the hair before the emperor. The spectator almost expects to see the blood begin to flow. When Mr. Bullock was modelling the great Mexican idol, the natives gazed intently, and some of them were heard to observe, that, after the cordial manner in which they had adopted the Spanisii gods', they might have been ollowed to retain a few of their own. 5880. Tlie sciences have not yet shone very bright in this part of the western hemisphere. Few governments, however, have expended more in the promotion of physical science than that of Spain in America. It sent three botanical expeditions into Mexico and other parts of its transatlantic territory, which cost upwards of 80,000/. Geometry and astronomy have mode considerable progress in Mexico. Humboldt names three individuals, Veksjiuez, Gaino, and Alzate, who might have held a resjiectable rank in Europe. A botanical garden and collections of minerals were formed in Mexico on a great scale. Tlie school of mines produced great advantages to the country, and the pupils were initiated even in the highest branches of mathematics. These lights, according to the most recent accounts, had suffered a temporary eclipse, in consequence of the long revolution ; but the new government is endeavouring to revive them by measures which can scarcely fail of ultimate success. 5881 . The fine arts were also promoted with grcot zeal by the old government, which, at an ex|)en8e o^ KaX)/., transported to Mexico, across the rocky passes of the Cordilleras, a collection of easts of the finest antique statues. The Academy of the Fine Arts possessed an income of 5(XX)/. a year, chiefly supplied by government, and the benefit of its exertions was seen in the beauty of the public edifices which odorned the capital. 5882. The amusenienis are chiefly those of Old Spain; bulUflghts, and religlciis pro- Book IV. MEXICO. 1895 cessions. The theatre is still fur inferior to that of the mother country. The dress of tJie ladies is usually black ; but on holidays they wear very showy and brilliant stufls, without much regard to the richness of the material. The atlire of the gentlemen, especially on horseback, is exceedingly splendid ; embroidered breeches of coloured leather, adorned with silver buttons and silver lace; over their short calico jacket is thrown a rich velvet cloak often embroidered with gold. The homes of the wealthy exhibit similar splendour. They are usually three stories high, and the fronU painted white, crimson, or light green • sometimes covered witli glazed porcelain. The finest apartments are lofty and spacious, situated on the first floor, which is ascended by a magnificent staircase. The house is built round an interior court, filled with trees and flowers. The roof is flat, and is made strong, to resist rain ; it is adorned with plants and flowers, which in fine weather make it an agreeable- resort. Sect. VII. Local Geography , 5883. Mexico, in 1776, was divided by the Spanish government into twelve intendencics. This division, made with a view to its interior administration, has been abolished ; but as it coincides with the natural features of the country, it may serve for our present purpose to exhibit the details of the Mexican territory. The following table is drawn up from the data of Humboldt. The population here stated, being founded upon the census of 1793, Is below the present amount ; but it will show the relative proportion between the difl'erent parts of the territory. ProTtaioel. Square MUm. Ponulation in 1733. Provinces. t^uare Mlla. i roiiulatlDii 1 In 17113. Mexico Puebla (iuanaxuato Valladolid Guadalaxara Zacatccaa Uaxaca Mcrida 5,927 2,696 911 3,446 9,612 2,225 4,447 5,977 1,511,800 813,300 517,300 SlG,«m 630,500 153,300 534,800 46.'i,800 Vera Cruz San Luis Potosi Durango Sonora New Mexico Old California New Calirornia 4,141 27,h21 16,873 19,143 5,709 7,295 2,12S 156,000 ; .'i;!4,y(io 1 159,700 1 121,400 1 40,200 , 9,000 1 15,600 5884. There is anot/ier and more ancient division, which is still regarded by the inhabilfliits. This is into — 1. The kingdom of Mexico, comprising the first seven intendencics, and all the most rich and valuable portions of the state. 9. The kingdom of New Galicia, com- prehending the intendencies of Guadalaxara and Zacatecas ; a somewhat ruder tract, hut containing some important cities and havens. The outer and ruder regions were arranged under the respective heads of Leon, New Santander, Texas, Cohahuila, New Biscay, Sonora, New Mexico, the two Californias. 5885. The intendenctf of Mexico consists of what is called the Valley of Mexico, a fine and splendid region, variegated by extensive lakes, and surrounded by some of the loftiest volcanic peaks of the new world. Its circumference is about 200 miles, and it forms the very centre of the great table-land of Anahuac, elevated from 6000 to 8000 feet above the level of the sea. In the centre of this vall^ystands the city of Mexico (^g.964.) ; tlie ancient 964 Mexico, or Tcnochtitlan, having been built in the middle ot a hike, and connected with the continent by extensive causeways or dikes. The new Mexico is three miles from the Lake ot Tezcuco, and nearly six from that of Clialco ; yet Humboldt considers it certain, from the remains of the ancient teocalli, or temples, that it occupies the identical position of the foriiier city, and that a great part of the waters of the valley have been dried up. Mexico was long considered the largest city of America; but it is now surpassed by New York, perhaps even by Rio Janeiro. Some estimates have raised its population to 200,000 ; but it may, on good grounds, be fixed at from 120,000 to 140,000. It is beyond dispute the most splendid. " Mexico is undoubtedly one of the finest cities bull' by Europeans in i"tlier heniisphcrc, with the exception of St. Petersburg, Berlin, and riiiladelphia, and some 4 U 3 1S96 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. quarters of Wcstininstcr : there does not exist a city of the same extent which can be com- pared to the capital of New Spain, for the uniform level of the ground on which it stands, for the regularity and breadth of the streets, and the extent of the squares and public places. The architecture is generally of a very pure style, and there are even edifices of a very beautiful structure." The palace of the late viceroys, the cathedra], built in what is termed the Gothic styi , several of the convents, and some private palaces, reared upon plans furnished by the pupils of the Academy of the Fine Arts, are of great extent and magni- ficence ; yet, upon .the whole, it is rather the arrangement, regularit;^ and general effect of the city, which render it so striking. Nothing, in particular, can be more enchanting than the view of the city and valley from the surrounding heights. The eye sweeps over a vast extent of cultivated fields, to the very base of the colossal mountains, covered with perpetual snow. The city appears as if washed by the waters of the Lake of Tezcuco, which, sur- rounded by villages and hamlets, resembles the most beautiful of the Swiss lakes, and thu rich cultivation of the vicinity forms a striking contrast with the naked mountains. Among these rise the famous volcano Popocatepetl and the mountain of Iztaccihuatl, of which the first, an enormous cone, burns occasionally, throwing up smoke and ashes, in the midst of eternal snows. The police of the city is excellent ; most of the streets are handsomely paved, lighted, and cleansed. The annual consumption in Mexico has been computed at 16,300 beeves; 279,000 sheep ; 50,000 hogs; 1,600,000 fowls, including ducks and turkeys; 205,000 pigeons and partridges. The markets arc remarkably well supplied with animal and vegetable productions, brought by crowds of canoes along the Lake of Chaico, and the canal leading to it. These canoes are often guided by females, who at the same time arc weaving cotton in their simple portable looms, or plucking fowls, and throwing the feathers into the water. Most of the flowers and roots have been raised in chinampas, or floating gardens, an invention peculiar to the new world. They consist of rails formed of reeds, roots, and bushes, and covered with black saline mould, which, being irrigated by the water of the lake, becomes exceedingly fertile. It is a great disadvantage to Mexico, however, that it stands nearly on a level with the surrounding lake ; which, in seasons of heavy rains, overwhelm it with destructive inundations. The construction of a desague, or canal, to carry off the waters of the Lake of Zumpango, and of the principal river by which it is fed, has, since 1629, prevented any very desolating flood. The desague, though not conducted with skill and judgment, cost 1,040,000/., and is one of the most stupendous hydraulic works ever executed. Were it filled with water, the largest vessel of war might pass by it through the range of mountains which bound the plain of Mexico. The alarms, however, have been frequent, and cannot well cease, while the level of that lake is twenty feet above that of the great square of Mexico. 5886. Acapulco, on thu west const, has been celebrated in an extraordinary degree as almost the centre of the wealth oC America ; the port whence the rich Spanish galleons took their departure to spread the wealth of the western over the eastern hemisphere. It is one of the most magnificent harbours in the world, seeming as if it were excavated by art out of 1 vast circuit of granite rocks, which shut out all view of the sea. To Captain Hail and his companions, it appeared the very beau id^al of a sea-port. Yet while Vera Cruz, with its wretched anchorage amid sand-banks, annually received from 400 to 500 vessels, that of Acapulco scarcely received ten, even in the time of the Manilla galleon, the discon. tinuance of which reduced it to a state of insignificance. The more northern part of San Bias, in the fertile province of Guadalaxaro, has become now of much greater im- portance. . 5887. Other places of great tnttrest exist in the intendcncy and valley of Mexico. Qucretaro is a considerable and fine city, containing many handsome edifices, both public and private, with somewhat flourishing cotton manufactures. Of 35,000 inhabitants, 11,600 are Indian. The surrounding valley is particularly fertile and beautiful. Tezcuco is now only a mass of ruins, but these are peculiarly grand. The foundations and remains of temples, fortresses, palaces, and other extensive buildings, attest a period when it must have been one of the greatest cities of America, capital of the kingdom of Aculhuacan ; still later it was tlic seat of literature and art, the Athens of America. The palace of the former tributary king could not be viewed without forming an elevated idea of the ancient IMexican architectnre. It must have covered several acres, is raised on several sloping terraces, and of materials at once durable and beautiful. All round Tezcuco arc seen raised mounds of brick, miicd with aqueducts, ruins of buildings of enormous strength, and many large square structures nearly entire. Here the blind zeal of the first bishop collected and committed to the flames all the monuments of Aztec history and literature. Near Otumbu, once large and flourisli- ing, but now little more than a village, arc the pyramids of Tcotihuacan, the two principal of which appear to be temples dedicated to the sun and moon : the highest of them has been recently estimated by Mr. Glennie at 221 feet. A flight of steps leads to the top, where an altar appears anciently tu have been placed. It is surrounded by numerous pyramids, al>out thirty feet high, arranged in broad and regular streets, all terminating in the great pyramid, (fiy. 965.) Book IV. MEXICO. 1397 TTIIAHlDi or TI0Tint-ACA1f< 5888. The inlendevuy of Puebla stretches nearly across the contin-^nt, and over the high uble-land. It has few miniii, but contains an extensive table plain, 6000 feet high, eminently fertile in wheat, maize, and fruit. This was the seat of republican Mexico. TIascala and Cholulo, , tlie two cities which bade defiance to the power of Montezuma, are usually included within its limits. It contains also Popocatepetl, the loftiest mountain in Mexico, ex- ceeding by 2000 feet the highest inEurope. The volcano has for several centuries thrown up only smoke and ashes. 5889. Puebla de los Angeles (Jg. 966. ) is a handsome and Urge city. It is entirely Spanish, ggg __ having Leen founded since the '**~ conquest. The streets are straight, oroad, and cross each other at right angles, dividing the whole into spacious squares. They are well paved, and have broad foot- paths. The houses are large and lofty, the walls often covered with paintings, while the roof is orna- mented with glazed tiles. In the splendour of the churches and the »oiini.A n. los ANomM. richness of their endowments, Puebla, according to Mr. Bullock, must take the first rank in the Christian world. The cathedral is a vast pile, with little external ornament: but the interior is rich beyond description. The high altar, finely designed by an Italian artist, is composed of the most beautiful marble and precious stones that could be found in New Spain : its numerous and lofty columns, with plinths and capitals of burnished gold, the crowd of statues and other ornaments, have an unequalled effect. In manufactures it takes the lead of other Mexican cities : those of woollen have declined, but those of earthenware and glass arc still flourishing. Humboldt reckons the population at 67,800 ; Bullock, thirty years later, at 90,000. 5890. Choltda, the ancient capital of a great independent republic, has declined into ii town, containing, according to Humboldt, 16,000, according to Bullock, 6000, souls. The pyramid of Cholula {fig. 967.) is the work of art which, next to the pyramids of Egypt, ^_^ . approaches nearest in magnitude --, >v .'^ ^ """^ vastntss to those of nature- 1\, ' "^ ~ «.t " :-■""■■ . " \ It is not nearly so high as the Great Pyramid, being only 172 feet ; but the length is nearly double ; 1335 feet, instead of 7'J8. It is four times as long as the third pyramid, or that of Myce- rinus, and somewhat higher. A section having been made through it to form the road to Mexico, it was found to be composed of brick, and displayed an interior chamber, built of stone, and containing two skeletons, some idols of basalt, and a number of vases curiously varnished and painted. On the platform at the top has been erected a chapel, where mass is dailv celebrated, and whence a noble view is obtained over the fine plain of Mexico and its boundary mountains. TIascala, once the powerful rival of Mexico, is now no more than a large village ; its ancient monuments, if any exist, remain unexplored. ... .i. . 5891. The intendency of Vera Cniz occupies the sea-coast belonging to the two now described, and also a tract of land considerably farther south. It extends inland from the level of the Gulf of Mexico to that of the great central table-land. In a day s journey tlie rrKAMiD or cboi.ui.a. the traveller, by showing him that he is beyond (. and soon after he is cheered by the view of fields of wheat. Pines then begin to mingle with the oaks, and at a little higher elevation, these and other resinous plants a one cover the rocks, whose summits penetrate into the regions of eternal snow. This ntendency is capable of yielding in abundance the most precious productions j and witlim a recent ISM DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. 96m VKIIA CltUi. IHtriod, lUgar, tobacco, and cotton, all of excellent qiiulity, hove been raJRctl t«) a niiicli ureiiter extent : but the horror with which the climate is viewed both by Eiiropunns and Indians is Hueh, that the greater part of it rentains a complete desert, where blU-n, for many leagues, there are only to be seen two or three huts, with herds of cattle, half wild, struyinn round them. 5893. Vera Cruz (Jig. 968. ), in which centres almott all the tra(U of Mexico, ia well and handsomely built of the submarine material called madrepore, which is also made into lime ; and its red and white cupolas, towers, and battle- ments have a splendid effect wlivii seen from the water. The streets also are kept extremely neat and clean ; yet Mr. Uullock considers it the most disagreeable of all places of residence. This arises not mert'ly f'om the pestilence which taints the air ; the surrounding country is covered with sniul blown into hillocks, which, reflecting the rays of the sun, render the heat more oppressive. There is not a garden or a mill now within many miles of it ; and the only water wlilcli can be drunk is that which fulls from the clouds. The markets arc bad for every article KXcept llsh, of which many beautiful species are here caught. The place appears to liuvc sensibly declined since the dissolution of the ties which connected Mexico with the motlivr country, Humboldt reckons a population of 16,000; but Bullock, though he admits it might hold even more, does not estimate the actual number at more than 7000. The castle of Siui Juan de Ulloa, the last hold of Spain in the New World, and which commands the entrance of the port, is of immense strength, though it seems impossible to believe that H,(XK),000/. sterling could have been expended upon the structure. 5H93. The only other important place is Xalapa, a very handsome town, commodiously situated, being 4000 feet above the sea. The neighbouring country is finely wooded, and particularly remarkable for the medical article jalap, which received its name from the city, riiis intendency contains also two stupendo'is mountains, Orizaba, the second in Mexico UH to height, and that called the Cofre de Pe-ote, which is still more than 1000 feet higlicr than the Peak of TeneriH'e. 5894. Valladolid is an extensive intendei.cy, situated to the north and west of that of Mexico, on the summit and western declivity of the table-land. It includes the ancient kingdom of Mechoacan, as it is still called in the country, which was independent of Mon- teittmiu, and of which the capital, Tzintzoutilan, still exists, though reduced to little more than a village. Mechoacan, unless in the unhealthy tract along the coast, enjoys n fine and temperate climate, is intersected with lulls and charming valleys, and presents the ap- pearance, unusual in the torrid zone, of extensive and well-watered meadows. This territory has been marked by some phenomena of the most striking nature. On the 29th of Sep- tember, 1 759, from the centre of a thousand small buri>ing cones, was thrown up the volcano of Jurullu (jig, 969.), a mountain of scorite and ashes, 1 700 feet high. Inan extensive plain, covered with the most beaiitil'iil vei,'i'- tation, deep subterraneous noises, accompanied by frequent earthquakes continued for the space of lifty or sixty days. On the night of the 'JSili of September, the sounds recom- menced with such fury, that all tlie inhabitants fled from the district, .\ large tract of ground was seen to rise up and swell like an InHatnl bladder, and spectators reported tliat. throughout this space, flames were seen to issue forth, and fra^lnelll^ of burning rocks were thrown up to prodigious heights ; and that, through a thick cloud of ashes illumined by the volcanic Hre, the softened surface of the earth appeared to heave like an agitated seu. The plain is still covered with immerous small cones, sending forth from their crevices a vapour, the heat of which often rises to 95°. From among these rise six large hills, of which tlio highest is Jorullo, still burning, and throwing up immense quantities of scorilieiucra at the time of the conquest, is a flourishing place; in 1792 it had 24,000 inhabitants, hut it sufl'ered severely during the revolu- THi Ro»Ai. TOMB! OF MiTtA. tlon. I'eliuantcpcc, its only port, is not a good one ; but it is of considerable value .is a channel by which the indigo of Guatemala is conveyed to Europe. , ., n .„„ „<• .Uo „„„ 5899. The inlendenc;, of Aferida is much bettor known under ''>«/l'l'^'' '^''"" °;,**'.^ 1'^": insula of Yucatan, of wh/ch it consists, and which >v.th Oaxaca forms the soialu^.n^^^^ eastern extremity of Mexico. It is a vast plain, only mtersected l.y » '''""^f '"°^ ^'"^,7;: which do not rise above 4000 feet. It is thus excessively hot ; yet f™"^. " ^^'-'^^J^" ness, it is by no means so unhealthy as most of the low lands under t ns burning one The heat is t^K, great for the ripening of European gram, and ''« ""\y .^''^^J, \', * yields for subsistence are maize and roots. This was the first part of Mexico ni which tht ^^::9^^<^^ 1400 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHY. Pa»t III. Spaiiiardi landed, an<^ though it b« leu improved than the interior, they found, to their siir. priie, indicatlont that civiliaation waa in a more advanced state here than in the islands ; ■tone houses, pyramidal temples, enclosed fields, and a clothed and civilised people, Having no mines, however, it owes its commercial importance solely to its valuable product, logwood, which the English, excluded from almost every other part of Spanish America, were allowed, by treaty, to cut in the bays of Campeachy and Honduras. 5900. Chiapa, under which we msjr include Vers Pas, formed the molt northerljr dlitrict of Ouatemals ; but the greater part of it, on a late occaalon, leparated Itielf A-om Ouatemala, and united with Mexico. The ioii If fertile, and capable of yielding in profUaion tropical firuiti and grain. Though low, vet it It flrce tVoin damp, and not unhealthy. It acemi difficult, therefore, to undentand how this country, which the Spanianit found populous and flourishing, should have since been converted almost Into ■ desert Although tne cocou of Soconuaco and Its neighbouring diatrict of Suchlltepec be accounted the best In the world, that favourite 8|>anlih beverage ia not rataed in quantity sufficient to become of commercial Importance. Chiapa of the Spanlarda, called also Ciudad Real, though ranking as the capital, is now only a small place of 4000 inhabitantt Chiapa of the Indians la larger, and carries on a conaidcrable trade. There are several other large villaRci, chiefly Indian. Near Palenque, the most northern of these, Don Antonio del Rio lately traced the icmalni of a great ancient city. Fourteen largo buildinga, called by the natives the Stone Houaea, remain nearly entire ; and for three or four leagues either way the fragments or the other fallen buildings are seen extending alonfi the mountain. They are of a rude and musalve conatruction, well calculated fordiirabillty ) and the iirinciiul apartments sic adorned with numerous (Igurca in relief, representing human beings of strange form, and variously habited and adorned. 5901. The northern intendencies of Durango and Sonora form, as it were, the transition from the fertile and cultivated tracts to the rude outer districts of Mexico. The great table- land slopes gradually downward, the capital of Durango being not more than 4000 feet above the sea. Ttiese two intendencies, the first of which is better known under the name of New Biscay, are as eitensive as Great Britain and France put together ; yet their popu- lation does not exceed 280,000. There are some valuable mines in the southern border; but in general the Spaniards exist only in scattered settlements over a vast extent of country. They have to contend with a tribe of ferocious Indians, called the Cumanikes, who have tamed the wild horses of the country, and ride them with the utmost agility ; while, like the Kamtschadales, they employ dogs as beasts of burden. They scour the country, destroy the villages, kill all the adult prisoners, and preserve the children for slaves. The spirit of vengeance and inveterate hatred generated during this long struggle has placed nearly an insurmountable barrier between the Indians and the whites, which almost totally precludes the hope of improving these savage hordes. Meantime the people of New Biscay, procuring their subsistence by hard labour, and constantly on the alert to defend themselves againni these formidable inroads, have exhibited an extraordinary devclopemcnt both of physical and intellectual energy ; and it has even been remarked that they are the best scholars, Tlic towns are larger than might be expected, owing to the necessity of union for mutual de- fence. There are a considerable number, whose population varies from 5000 to 12,000. 5902. .San Louit de Potosi ia an extensive intendency, atretching north and eaat along the Oulf of Mexico, and better lcd. 5903. New Mexico, which has been dignified with the title of empire, ia only an infant aettlement, formnl on the Rio del Norte, in a fertile territory, but having a climate remarkably cold, considering the latitude It ia aeparated from New Biscay by a vast, arid, and perilous desert. The settlers have a still harder conflict to maintain with the Indiana, a few of whom, however, have attained a certain degree ofcivilisatiou. A great number of sheep arc reared, of which about 3U,UX) arc aent to the southward i and there arc some mines uf valuable copper. Santa Tt, the capital, is supposed by Humboldt to contain .ITiOO inhabitants. 5904. California is a long pcnii.sula in the Paciflc, parallel to the continent, from which 11 is separated by Its deep gulf. Tlie Spaniards long viewed it as an El Dorado, or country of wealth, their holies lieiiiK led by aome pearls found on its shores; but a close examination has dispelled those visions. California enjoys the most beautiful sky in the world ; conatantly serene, blue, and cInurilCKS ; or if any clouds for a moment appear, they display the most brilliant tints. But the soil is sandy and arid, like the shores of Provence ; and only a few favoured apota present a trace of vegetation. Nowhere can be found a flner abode lor the astronomer,' or a worae for the cultivator. There arc about 7000 or 8000 Spaniards and converteopulation can ever he very much greater. New California is the name given by the Spaniards to a range of settlements formed by them on the western coast, extending northward frmii Old California It is one of the most favoured spots on the globe as to soil and climate. All the varieties of grain and fruit peculiar to the licst Euro|)ean regions grow in the highest iierfection ; the vine and the oliic nave been more successfully rearelit U/Il),(XX)/. The capital is named Houstown ; and five newspapers are publisltud lit dlll^rvnt towut. Cha». VI. aUATIMAt.A. 5906. Guatemala, or Guatimah, notwithstanding Its Mi\nll eomparatlvc extent, has been recognised as one of the new states into which the weitlern wnrlil In to l»c divided, it has even, in virtue of its position, assumed the pomvtoun tlllo of Ctntral jlmerica; but this the world does not seem to have yet conceded. StcT. I, General (hlHnt md Am^aeU 5907. Guatemala is bounded on the south.east by the province of Vcragua, now belong- ing to the republic of Colombia, on the north and norlh.ttniit by the provinces of Chiapa, Tabasco, Yucaton, and the Atlantic, or the Sea of the Antilles, and on the south and south west by the Pacific Ocean. It forms a sort of extended Ulhniui, reaching from north-west to south-east, between 8° and 17' N. lat.. and W and (»«« W. king. Measured by an oblique line from one extremity to the other, it mny Iw 1050 miles in length; but the breadth, from sea to -sea, nowhere exceeds 500, and In mmc places is only 100 miles. The surface has been estimated at 200,500 square miles, which, thouuh it appears small when compared with the immensity of other Ainurtvan states, is nearly double the whole extent of the British Islands. £908. lite surface of Guatemala Aoe^not displav thnt loOy and rugged chamctcr which generally marks the American continent. The chnlu of the Andes, which raises such a tremendous snowy barrier through the greater part of the continent, sinks In the isthmus of FanamJk into a mere rocky dike, connecting North and 8«tutli America. Near Nicaragua, it seems to become little more than an insensible ridge, nloplng down to the shores of the opposite oceans. Proceeding north-west, it soon rises and prencnts to the Pacific a lofty range, in which Humboldt and Arago have counte\v> ii9in. There it nothing known, under this head, by whiph Ou d^mftlA fan be illlliHgUlshcd (Vom the bordering countries of Mexico and Colombia. SicT. III. Historical awt J^Ulicnl GfOfirnfihy, 5911. The history qf Guatemala, and the country itself, were Ip«« known limn «ny other part of America, till recent events brought them into notice. Yet Its recnrtU npiioar, In many rf»p"'t«, wotlliy of rnq\ilry. The ancient Guatemalans evidently imssesaed a civilisation derived (Vont Hlid rlvallliig that of Mexico. The lialarc of yuiche ie said to be comparable in magnitlcence lo that of Millrt, III the ilctilh of Ibrests have been found ancient cities, containing monuments similar in grnndoiir nnd ornnin^m lu the rrnrnttrt of Mexico, and on whose walls arc found flgures and; other representations well pxfi'iitwl In l«i.rellef. TheToltecs, who preceded the Aztecs, as rulers who civilisecl Mexico, appear lo have liwil ilrlvcM (nutliwnrd», and to have settled In Guatemala. The reslsUncc to Alvnrado, sent in WH by CoflPll l« I'oniiuer this country, was vigorous, and even such as to rcndcrthe issue somewhat doubll\il, After lll« Btimincsl, Ouatcmala was erected 1409 DESCRIPTIVE OEOOnAPIIY. r*Ht III. inti) *n aiiillcncla, with nnljr a tllKlit ilc|if>ii an inde|icniU>iit itate i and Mexico, which «l lirat mniio K'cat cil'orti to retain her aa a iiruvlnce, tliiUing her tie. Icriiilnailon Innnutable, very witvly, and with a tolerably good grace, yielded the |xiint. SicT. IV. Productive Imluitry. IWI'i. The finxlurUve guttlllifn of (luiilemala ate, if iioiilble, luperlor even to thote of other countrlci in the nruitl'iil climate* or America. Like Mexico, It yleliU In rilflVrent regloni. and at iinall diitancci rri>iti each other, all the varietica of fruit anil grain peculiar to the tropical and temiierale loiiei. Ol' rriiiii •evcral of the moit\aluablc arc |iro procured to a great extent. I'hcrc ore inaiiuriicturea of ciilton and porcelain, lonie nl' them line, but only for Internal conaumption ) and the rulirlci In wrought gold and ailver arc luld to |Miaaeaa great merit, (iiiateinalu al)i>uiida in minti, particularly uf •liver ; aomc of which have been undertakenby an Lngliah company, but the reiult la yet uiiccrlain. ju tiueaallenango ia fiiunil very Hnc aulphur. .V,||3, The cmiimetcr ut Ciiiatemala haa been limited at once by political agitation, and by the want iif poili capable of receiving large veaaela. The following, in IH3A, were the deacriptlons und value of lia export!.. Indigo, HIT.NK) diiilara ; coi'him'al, ThT-.^iOO; golil anil aiiver, Wti.lHHIj d)e-wooarllla, IIN.tMMi; augar, W.flOO; tortoiaeahrll, Fi3,n(in; coH'ec, HO.dOn; I'eruvian balaam, l,'>,(l VO,(KK)i — in all, .t.THH.Onodollari,— about 7.')7,(KK)/, (»f Ihi-ac vaUiea, M73,WIO dollara were from the luitiuf fluatemala; N.lti.lKlO, El Salvador ; 74!MMKI, Hondurat { (170,(10(1, Nicaragua; fmMMMl, Casta Kica. Tlie im- norta arc alated nt 3,.'i(jO,(l(HI dollara, _ about 7l'i,(KHV. Ilritain holda acarcely any direct Inlercnurte wjii, Guatemala : in IM37, her produce cx|iortce undertaken iVom the Lake of Nicaragua; there is no present appearance, however, of its execution. Sect. V. Civil and Social State. S915. The population, according to u communication by M. Galindo to the Gcogriiplmal Society, amounts to 1,900,000 — of whom 635,000 arc Indians, 475,000 whites, and 740,000 mulnttocs. The province- of Costa Ricn contains LWiOOO, Nicaragua 350,000, Honduras 300,000, San Salvador 350,000, Guatemala 700,000, the federal distrirt 50,000. 6916. The character qfthe Ouatetiialan.! does not, probably, dIHbr materially fVom that of the other Spaniih Americans, though It Is praited by .Inarros as presenting a favourable specimen ; and, (lerhaps, their oIkcu. rity may have shielded them from inucli of the degrading oppression felt in other ijuartera. lie roiirownti them aa docile, humane, courteous, liberal, alllibic to strangera, and only liable to the chargea of puaillanlmit; and indolence. A conaiderable patriotic spirit was aliown by the Inatitution, in 17!).'', of a Society of Krieiidi of the Kingdom, with the view of promoting agriculture and the arta ; but, alter having carried on upiTaliom with great spirit for five years, they were snpprcaaetl, in 1800, by an arbitrary mandatu of the govcniniiiit An univeralty was cstalilisheil in 17W, whose pretensions were at first confined to scholastic learninKt bul mathematics and experimental philosophy have since been introduced. Sculpture Is said to be carried to greater excellence in Guatemala than in any other |iart of the New World. Skct. VI. Local Geographi/. 5917. The Spaniards divided Guatemala ttrst into thirty. two ond then into fiftem sections, which they named variously, intendencies, alcaldias, and corregimicntos. Torrfiiir enumerates the following provinces ; Sonsonate, Soconusco, San Salvador, Solota, Cosia Rica, Vera Paz, Honduras, San Leon de Nicaragua, and Quesaltenango. Huiiihvldt'^ distribution into bishoprics seems, however, suHiciently minute for the interest yet attailieil to the local details of this territory. These are, Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Honduras. .'iniR. Gualetnnla Proper is the central province, comprising the great chain of volcanic mountains, nnil thi alone downwards from tncm to the sea. It is here that the great variety of climate and productions apiicari, and that the latter are in the highest perfection. What is strictly called the valley of Guatemala coiisi:;; pro|)crly of nine valleys, of varying elevation, enclosetl within the great circuit of volcanic mountairj- In the centre of this range of valleys, at an elevation not precisely known, stands the old city of Sanli,i^odt Guatemala. It was erected first In \.VS!, at the foot of an enormous mountain, called the Volcano of Waltr, and which too soon justified that title; for, a few years afterwards, an a(|ueous eruption burst forth, of the most formidable character, which overwhelmed the whole city, and buried in its ruins a ^reat |iart of ih( inhabitants. Appalled by this disaster, the Spaniards removed the city to another situation in a beautiful and Hnely watered valley, which vieldecioii is said to have been inhabited by 1000 persons. Rut the site, with all its felicities, li*l terrible defects. It was liable to dreadful shocks of eartliquake and volcanic eruptions, which rcndcrnlihi' existence of its inhabitants constantly insecure ond their fate often tragical. Juarrus has devoted a portioinf his work expressly to a record of the miseries of old Guatemala. In the above succession of cal.'iinll'es severe attacks of pestilence were interspersed. At length, in I77.'>, the series was consummated by a truly apiallini; earthquake, the shocks of which, continuing at intervals from June to December, reduced the city ncarltlo a heap of ruins. The Spanish government, on being advertised of this disaster, sent out instructions tn remove to another site i but this, perh.ips welUmeant, order, licing executed in an abrupt and dcs|H>tic m.niiiier, iml; aggravated at first the miseries of the unfortunate city. New Guatemala was built in the valley of Mixoo.in a situation not so fertile and Iwautifiil, but extremely healthy, and exempt from the dreadnilcalamitiesornhieU the old city hati lieen the victim. It was reared in the usual regular manner and with numerous si|iiare); tl" houses are neat, though low, to mitigate the danger of carthijuake ; the churches and other public cdilicci on • HnoK IV. COLOMBIA. Hon ln'rmant'iitly.Hi cry little liNtil hcru'ir into nii , HiiUiiig hctilc. her rountrlei in I iliilalii'Ct fr.im iiiei. t)l' friiili, i« (o largi' a imrt Id to be the very lent. Thi'Fi' arc ) aiul the fiihrici I, particular!} of ft uncertain, In the want nf (xirti of Iti cxi«irti ; - )i hUlea, 7«,i»«ii n, l.'i.lKK); ratllf, ! lYom the jhuI ut Intercniirte with irevcr. lU'^mibi. imallcr teale, but of very elraant iloalgn. The rltliena, ■upixwed to amount to .10,0(10, i>ly, with »ery roniidfT- able ilillgenif, the trailci of wcnvliiH, pottery, workbiR In ullver, and embroidery, Ita cblef artlclci of trad* are iiulig" and eiicoa. Old (.uateinala likewlte ha» rUen tYom Iti anhi., iiiul a great proimrtlon of Ita exile* have Kriwlually lound their wiiy baek to their lormer alHNle. llaviOK attalniHl a iMiiiulallun of HUtJO. II ws« reinvented, not with the prlvlleiiea of a tlty, hut ihonc (if a town. ;,!ll(i. Oilier Jlne trail) ami imimrlnni citiia are aUo found In the valieyi of Guatemala. Santa Crui del Qulihu repreicnta the once ureal Ulallan, lanltal of the Indian kiniidoiu aubverteil by Alvarailo. lU iMilaee. ill ninKiiltude and aplendour, ap|K-ara to have been little Inferior to thoae of fuiro and Mexico. It eontaliinl aiciiminiKlation not only for the king liiniielf, but (or all the prlnrea of the bliKHl-royal anil a numeroua IhhIv KiLird. Ai It apiwura to Iw In iK'tter iirenervation than any other of the ImiH'rIal aeata of native America, a ilihKiiit exanilnalitm would probably leail to ini|Mirtant diacoverlea. San Salvador, to the aouth, la ll:j capital ol an intcndcncy which containa above WHymo jmiple, and forma a very rich tract, yleldlna moat of the inillao which la the ataide of the kingdom. The capit.il. In a line valley, contained. In I77H, a iNipulallon of lii,(KS), ihlcHy employed In the IndiRo trade. A variety of volcanic niovcmenta deiolatc thia province, while they lire«ent curloiia phenomena to the view of the obaerver. Farther to the aouth, and itlll In Ihla central region, are other fertile diatrlcta, iirovliled the reader can uronounce their namca: Uueaaltenango, Tolonlcapan, and (iiii'KUctenangn. Thcac dlalrlcla are chiefly Inhabited by Indiana, who are clvlUaed, and carry on aeveral rurioua and luHcnloua manufacturci. UMl Ktcaragiia forma the moat aouthcrn of Ihc three blihoprlca. The mliihty range of volcanic Andcf, which have given »o dccidetl a character to central (iualcmnia, here terminate*, and the whole chain la In a iiiaiiiier aua|icndcernte tracts. This region Is red with thick foreata containing the valuable trees of mahogany and logwiHHl, In regard to which the KmuI'sIi have caref\illy stlpulateil for a right to settle on the Honduras coast. Thvy are established on the river Uallie, navigable for boats 2IKI miles up the country. The settlement consists of 'i.'io whites} 'J'iiKifree coloured ; and •iVil slaves. The olHclal value nfthc imgiorta Into llrltain, in Wi\\ was UKl,7!).'i/. ■s 1 xxi*t irei The maho into which a boily of our countrymen were so fatally seduceil, partakes of the general character, but seems still more dreary and uninviting. Comayagua, calleil alao Valladulid, is agreeably aituated in the interior ; but, though tnc nominal capital, It haa never attained anv great importance. TruxUlu, and Cape Uracioa, on the coaat, are more coniplcuoui placca, but now also mui n decayed. Chap. VII. hen into fiftein entos. Torrcnif or, Solota, Cosia to. HuniboldtV erest yi't iittatl."-'ii 1(1 Honduras. c mountains anil "" ■^prwluctions appno, • Guatemala cons!:.; inic mountains- In d city of Santiago Jt ic Volcano of Watt, m burst forth, ok IS a great part of iti luatfon inabcautiM of life. A very IMS; structures, nl shicli )fthcn""»"'"-r all Ita fc"'"','"',",!; ,B, which rcnilctnl Ik .Bdevoteil .7 portion mofcalaniitiosK •d by a truly apiallmB ace<( the city near.? instructions to rem despotic manner, only icvullevof Mixcclna 'Sr"lamiticM.f* umeri)ussilii.»n'»'"'' 'icr public cdillces"" .5923. Colombia is the name now given to the extensive territory of an independent state or states, whicli took the lead among the newly formed republics in wliat was formerly Spanish America. Recent changes are understood to have subdivided it into three por- tions, which have assumed the appellations of New Granada, Venezuela, and the Equator; hut the bearings of this division are too ill ascertained, and even its iM-rmanency too un- certain, to admit of iu superseding the general appellation of Colombia. SiCT. I. General Outline and Aspect. 5924. Cdombia, in its general outline, occupies nearly tlie whole iiorlh and north-western part of South America, and comprehends the two governments included by the Spaniards under the names of the viceroyalty of New Granada, and the captamcy-general of the Caraccas. It is bounded on the north by the great gulf of the Atlantic, which is eiiclosed between its shore and the long chain of the West India islands, comrnonly called the Ca- ribbean Sea. On this side also a narrow land boundary connects it with Guatemala. On the west it stretches along the boundless expanse of the Pacific. Southward it borders on Peru, separated from it by the Guaya i'ananui 11. Matulingo For ll.t'Hilinela la.t'.liimM 1.1. New Ediiib II I'argana • 7. l'ortU(t» !I!* I^azoluma 19. T.ilu ,?,'• '^"hugena SI. Teneriill. 22. l,o! lU'je, S.1. rulRar SJ. Sienga »j. Sama Malta *''. Kincntl >f. Klo Hnrha ^'*. f'alahoja «;. Tuncuraca ■Til. Honda 31. .«. Anna 3i. .VaracajfU) -M. Perija ;i. S. Maria J>. Dlbraltar _• !!""" t-'urera .17. Carora Ji' '■™ Puerlos J ■ &sl|p,a '". .Snrarula 41. Coro 4A 11,-ira 4.1. Toniyo 41. Simla l.ucia 45. llarquUhnclo 4fi. 1 ui-rlo Calicllo 4.. Valencia 4H. Cura «■ Victoria ■•*'. Cirai-c.-ii ol. Vares .13. i),.| Nj^„ .^*J. I'uruey JJ. N. riarrolnna Ji. ( umanacoa M. ( uniana Fig. 971, Book IV. COLOMBIA. I40S -'iSSI'on.ig. i« nations, in fact, have formed settlements on the coast ; and ideal lines have been drawn throush the interior, to separate their portions from each other and from Uiat of Colombia. For this last, the extreme boundary of solid and practical settlement appears formed by the Orinoco in lU course from west to east All the rest, under the name of Guiana, is merely an indefimte expanse of nver and forest, of which the native Caribs remain in almost undisturbed possession. 5925. This huge nutss of terrUoty forms a species of broad irregular oval, reaching from 12° 25' N. lat. to 6° 15' S. lat., being 18°; east and west from 58° to 81° 30' \V lona making 23 Jo. Tills will give dimensions in length of 1620 and in breadth of 1 260 English miles. The enUre content is calculated by Humboldt at 30,000 square leagues, or about 240,000 square miles. -o -> 5926. The surface of Colombia, its mountains and plains, are of the most varied character, and on the most majestic scale, presenting forms and phenomena the most grand and awful that are to be found on the globe. The summits of the Andes have ceased, indeed, to rank as the very loftiest on earth. The Himalayah, the mountain boundary of Hindostan, is not only higher, but presents, perhaps, a grander continuity of unbroken and gigantic steeps. But, ascending from the low country by a series of tabular plains and broad valleys, it presents at no single point any very /-'^k astonishing elevation. It has nothing to resemble those solitary gigantic cones, which, in the Colombian Cor- dillera, shoot up towards the sky, and even under the burning influence of the equator remain buried to a great depth in perpetual snow. Chimborazo {fg- 972.), the giant of the west, stands yet unsealed by mortal foot. Hum- boldt and his companions made extra- ciimBOBAzo. ordinary exertions to reach its summit, and arrived at about 2000 feet from that point, believed to be the greatest elevation ever attained by man. Here they planted their ■ RefereTKCt to the Map qf Colombia and Guiana. H NORTH PART. 59. Canipano 115. Uuanare 173. 8, Barbaia 48. Palmar d PatIa ^1 1. Mi-nsabe 60. A mana 1 16. 8, Antonio 174. 8. Fernando 43. Canoa e Esmeialdai ^H "i. Verngua 61. Malurin 17, Nurias 175. Bnllhasar 44. Porto Viegp f Maronna ^H \ N'ara 6i. Fort S. Rafael 18. 8. Francisco 176. Maroa 45. Xipijaba 46. S. Helena g Maranon, or Ama. ^B 4. S. Francis 6.1. Zacu|>ana 19. 8. Fernando ■77. Davlpe zons ^H 5. f,a Concepclon 64. Imataca 80. 8. Rafael 178. 8. Carlos de Rio 47. (iuayauull h Pastaca ^^B 6. Pononome 6h. Old Uuiana 81. La Concepclon 179. sXno 48. lanu.iche 49. Nausa 1 Tiiire, or Figueiia ^^M 7.('ha)[m 66. Caiony 8a.rajaiara J Cuniray ■ Napo ^H K. Purto Hello 67. S. Vmccnl 183. Alia Gracia 180. Mandavaca SO. Itlobamba ^H . Caiman 7.1. Vguana 131. Curl 8. ZarniMza 57. 8. Xavler » Motatan ^M 17. Tortufm 74. 8. Salvador 1.18, S.-Pedro 3, DuKa £8. Miranhaa t Tocayo ^M IS. Tecazoluma 7S. 8. Clara 1.13, 8, .los^ 4, Ne'va 59. S. Romano u 8, Juan ^M 11. Tolu 76. Helen 134, 8. Horja 9. Mercadillo 60. Asuncion V Manapure ^m ■»>■ Carthagcna ^H ^I.Tcnerift'o 77. Paraoua* 78. CalaEoia 135. Atures 6. 8. Juan 9. HoKoM 89. La Concepclon ^H 4,5. llarquifiiineto 101. Muri 160, Marlqulla 3U.8. l.uisdeGon- 85. La Baranca ^H 4r). Puerto Cabelto 108. 8. Andr^ 161. Honda Easa 86. Sanlander Rivtrt. ^1 47. Valencia 10.1, Cancan 168, Tocas 31. Mhra 87. Urarinas a EsflcquilM) ^H IU4. 8, Ilartolom« 163. Chlmnta 38. s. Teresa 88. 8. Luis b Demerara c Berbice ^m 49. X'lrlnrla ^H .M). CirarciU lOS, VaridI 164. XIrainena .13. Vlaja 34, 8, RosadeOas 8!). I.a liSguna 106, Ulron 165. Mara;al 166. 8. Miimel 167. 8, DarWa 90. Chimicuros d Corenlln ^H !>t. Varea ^H 5'- •■haKuaramM 107. Ocana 108. El Hourio (ruins) .15. Napoloa 91. Xeberoa 98, Allcros. e Cupanama f Surinam a Marony h Mana 1 Gauyca ^m .'0. IVI Neido 109. Pamiieluna 110. 8. Antonio 168, Moroi-ote 169. Pore 3?:Xf" BiwM. ^H ^n. N. itarcvlnna 111, IjlOiila 170. Huenarlsta 38, Archidona a Magdalana II!. Pedraza 171. (iuacasta 39. Quito 40. Ilaniliato b Cauca ^m M. I'limanacoa 11.1. Qulntcro 114, Varlnaa 178. Iluta of the c Atrato ^ ^H n. Cuiiiana Slgidaquercs 41. Machachi 1406 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. instruments on a narrow ledgo of porphyritic rook, which projected from the vast field of unfatliomed snow. A broad impassable cliasm prevented their farther advance ; besides which, they felt in the extreme all the usual inconveniences of such high situations. They were enveloped in thick fogs, and in an atmosphere of tlic most piercing cold ■ they breathed with difficulty, and blood burst from the eyes and lips. The form of the mountain, which is that of a truncated cone, appears every where sublime, but peculiarly so from the coast of the Pacific at nearly 200 miles distance, whence it resembles an enormous semitransparent dome defined by the deep azure of the sky ; dim, yet too decided in outline to be mistaken for a cloud. The height was ascertained by Humboldt to be 21,440 feet, Antisana, though only 19,000 feet, is remarkable for having a village on its side at the height of 13,500 feet, once believed the highest inhabited spot on the glube. The French academicians, when they established themselves on the top of Pinchinclia, at the height of 15,000 feet, experienced all the rigours of an arctic winter, which sometimes threw them, after the exertion of mounting, into a state of vertigo or insensibility. Tliey were involved in almost constant fogs, and when these cleared, they beheld the clouds spreading a wide and smooth surface beneath them like that of the ocean, and heard the dreadful roarings of the tempest in the valley of Quito, 5927. The most tremendous volcanoes in the world are those which burst from this moun- tain range. Cotopaxi (Jig. 978.) is the most formidable in the Andes, and, indeed, on the globe. This mountain is 18,898 feet 973 •■<, high, consequently more elevated than Vesuvius would be if pliiced on the top of Tenerifl'e. It is the most '..oautifiij of all these colossal summits, presentin" the form of a regular and smooth tune, wrapped in a covering of the purest white, which shines in the rays ef the sun with dazzling splendour, • .:•.! iK.. taches itself in the most piciiresquc manner from the azure vault of heaven. It is seldom that this volcano is wholly silent, and that at night smoke and flami' are not seen rising from its sunnnii, like a beacon flame in the regions above. In the course of the last century, it had five great eruptions, and one in 1803. As the inflamed matter ascends, the perpetual snows, wliich have covered the summit to an almost unfathomable depth, arc melted, and rush down ill destructive torrents, when its naked and embrowned head is displayed to the astonished inlKibitants of the plain. Then, amid appalling soiuids, louder than the loudest roar of artillery, the burning entrails of the earth rush up into the sky, rising often half a niHc above the mountain head before they stream down upon the surrounding districts ; nuiunlaln above mountain is then raised of pumice and lav:u It has been averred that Cotopaxi was heard at the distance of 600 miles. Humboldt certainly states, that on the coast of tk Pacific, at 140 miles distance, it sounded like thunder, or like the discharge of a coutinuuut battery of cannon. From this and the other South American craters are ejected not onlv the usual volcanic substances, but torrents of boiling water and mud, often containing grtai (juantities of dead fishes. Sometimes, after successive eruptions, the undermined walls of the mountain full in, and become a mass of tremendous ruin. Such was the fate of £1 Atta'i, which once reared its head above Chiniborazo, and of another very lofty volcano. which, in IC98, fell with a similar crash. .OiiSS. T/ic general range of the Andes, as it passes througli Colombia, is divided in the nortli inin thm parallel chaiiit, of wliirli the eastern has tictwvcn it and the middle chain the plain of Santa Fe de lloEOt.i, mi some others, whieh constitute the most valualilc |iart of New (iranada. Farther south, tliese riianis uniit into two, of which the most elevated, comprisiiiK all the highest volcanic sunnnits, is on the westorii tmr, faciuK the expanse of the Pacific. Ketwcen it and the parallel chain is interiwsed the tahic plain of (Juiio, about twenty miles in breadth, and of the most sur|>assinK richness and beauty. To the east .ilso the .\iide< throw nut a chain, called l>y Humboldt the shore chiiin of Venezuela, which runs parallel to the sea ,iluii|ithe coast of ('araccas, as far as CumanA, leaving along the shore a plain rich in the most valuable tropii nl prnlx. tious. The surface of all these mountain districts presents a very difterent aspect from that of the hugcliraJ mass of the t;il)le-land of Mexico. Their elevated steeii rid((C8 are separated by deep narrow burnini; vaili)', wliicli descend almost to the level of the sea, and the only temiwrate lands consist or small plains, wliiih \mi as it were on their sides. There is tluis a more ra|iither extensive jHirtion of the Colombian territory, commencing where thenwin. tain ranges terminate, and re.iching cast and south to the Orinoco. They consist of immense Wats, covered »il!i niagnilicent forests anil vast savainiahs, in which the grass often grows alM>ve the human height, envctiiin ira view both man and horse. A great extent is inundated l)y the Orinoco and its large tributaries. Tliesoilisi.ille III Hie extreme i but the unheallhliu'ss of the climate deters settlers who are not urged by extrenie ncci!.'i» .'iimi. Twiiiilher uroiiiis, not belonging to the Andes, have been tr.ieed by MumlHihlt. These are, the. %!" dc Santa Martha, 1M,IKN) feet high, vvljieh mariners, seeing on that coast covered with per|ietual .o decided oldt tu be village on I ihe globe. hincha, at sometimes ity. They the clouds d heard the this moun- leed, on the 18,898 feet cvated than 1 on the top jst '..oautiful s, presenting mooth cone, f the iniri'st rays cf tlie jur, • .■■•■' ill- t piciiircsquc lit of heavt'ii. lino is wholly oke and tlaim 1 its summit, Ty, it had fivt rpetual snows, and rush down [the astonislitd loudest roar of half a mile icts ; mountain , Cotopaxi was the coast of llic of a continuoui ;cted not only ontaininj; (ircat rniined \vall*'>l' the fate of El lofty voU-aru). ic notlli into ""'' iFcdelioRiiiJ.iin these cliains uiim 1 the wtstotn sBii, 1,1c nlain of U'"""' ■ast nlsn tlic M« H)thesca,iloii|!t»e ble troiniMl I"'*'* itofthchugeljioJJ o\v liurninn vall(SS iitains, which huj frnin an arrtic to i ozen tract* near il.< (,f(iats,l"'l'^!',»'" Idwrr urnumi* if'ft l„tilhi'h;.s.Yf';: Biiuw, tliat lie 111'* „(! where the nwiii- ie flats, covomliiilfc dKht.nivcrii.iili"!'; ,J; ■I'hoMiiiis'''"'" „ extriMiH' nccii'i'V ■hescarcthcM.'" Book IV. COLOMBIA. 1407 neiitatcd to rank ai part of the Cordillera ; but it U now aicertained to he a ilnoin miokiu ....... ..»,..■ .urroundcd by plain. The other is the Sierri Parlm^ to theliit .nd^?h rf the^rin^ l^.SJM^..jy»^^^^^ hcip of mounuins, tnit not very lofty. Both by its ilev,tion and its m, tion oi. the eSnSnt f Lffl'll"' rather to the syrtem of the Alleghany and the mountain, of Braill tl.a7to that of the c^Km »"'™"*"'* S931. Among 'f'^tf «■'• Co'onAia may ran „ahe Old and the NrWorW. 8h. had their source* in the Andes,— the Ouaviare, the Mcta, and the Apur^ ; the last of flnwlHK thrtHiKh the plains of Wiuela, and drawing its waters from the coast chain, is alone very ImiK.rtant fn a "wi niercial view. These shores may in future ages become the magniflcent seaU of cmpfrc, Cut at prMeiit t he are overgrown with forests and t>iicket8, peopled only by wandering Caribs, and nretcntinkbut a fcw«ialte«v 'uin- they rars8"ionB"and settlemenU. The really useful streams arc' those of smaUcr^lmensYoniLwhlShT^^^^ canals between the mountain chains, bring down the products of those high valleys, at preteni thiri 7c lif. vateii part of Colombia The Magdalena, the largest and most commodious of these streams. hJI- a emirsB.r mure than 500 miles between the eastern and middle chain of the Cordilleras, aBb.diiig to the plMii uf .S«n u Kc a communication with the sea. The Cauca runs between the middle and western chaliii and artilr a course of nearly equal leng.h. joins the Magdalena before it falls into the sea near Carlhaiiona. The Alraio !■ a smaller stream, between the western chain and the Atlantic. The Magdalena is Ihroughmit navlifal li though the voyage is rendered painful by the heat and the myriads of insects. The navigallun uf Ihe Cauri! is by no means so good. To the south, the still smaller rivers of Esmeraldas and of auayaoukl aflbrd to thi< provinceof Quito an important means ofcommunicating with the Pacific Ocean. ^ «ii.iuim msi. There are learcely arty lakes of importance. We must except, however, that of Maracaybo. which though it communicates with the sea, yet, unless in strong winds blowing IVom thence, preserves Its waiun fresh and unmixchcnomena presented by those regions iVoin the level of the sea to the hif;hcst summit of the Andes." We shall here consider the botanical part of It alone i and let us, with that eminent philosopher, suppose ourselves transported into the region wneto nature has delighted in combining the most majestic forms, eroui>cd in the most striking manner i that country nf the Palms and the scitamineous plants, which stretches from the level of the ocean to a height of 51a lollivi | the t'ind of the Banana {Musa), the lleliconia, the Alpinia, and the most odoriferous liliaceous prmjuclluns, in this burning climate grow the Theoiihrasta, the Plumiera, Musstenda, Coisalpinla, Cecrnpla iwllalA, the Hyincnsea, the Balsam Tree of Tolu, and the Cusparia or Quinine Tree of Carony. On the barren sea «hiir«>, bciieath the shade of Cocoas, Laurus Persea, and Mimosa Inga, arc found the Allionia, the Conocarpua, the Mangrove (Rhhuiphora Mangle), Convolvulus littoralis ana brasiliensis, the Tallnum Avlccnnln, Caelus Pereskia, and Sesuvium Portulacastrum. S>)35. Some of the plants of this region p\H toises. One single Palm, from the Andes I^Cermytoit aHitkola) (J»tf,!i7+,1, presents the extraordinary phenomena of growing equally at a height oi' ilrom 9M to U7'i toises ; its trunk, coated with a waxy substance, attains to a height of 54 . tween iOO and 8tX) toises, while the Quinine Trees rise to 14H7 tolsoi almve the level of the sea. The hardiest s|>ecies are Cinchona Innelllilla and C cordifolia, the tcnderest C. oblongifolia and luiigiflora. The ftimniis Quinine Tree of Loxa, which is quite diflbrent from Ihe orange Owlulnt' of Santa Vt, grows from 975 to 1280 toises j it dillVrs eMenllaUy IVom C olandulifcra, to which it Iwars most analogy, and has only been hitherto seen near Loxa, and in a small district of Peru. To dlstlngulth it ftom all other 8i>ecies, and to do away the incorrect a|>|iellnllim nl Cinchona officinalis, it has been called C. Condaminea. CaoiilehiHie l» it possess few analogous characters, of Kicus, a Hevea, a 1IIh, a the prmluct of severM Plf'^f '''»*pj;?' h" iuo e"xUtsTirveg"'ot"ai;ie8'of'dilftrent gincra, beini, exiraelwf In a1''^"'™ 'i'riTif'.nd''^ P«u from a du'ynamous shrub found by M. Haenke. The IVurt of a Myrlea .nd^heTru^k'^iV^lm IJqua'ry yiebl w!^^^^^ thus substances, oossessing similar chemical p,o,.e,lie. art 4 X 1408 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. derived fttmi highly diaiimilar vcgcUblMi and It li the same with the febriftige principle of Cinchonn 975 which rctidet in plants belonging to totally dilTcrent genera. ' S937. The Cusparia of Caronjr, near Upatu, a magniflccnt tree, which yields the Angostura Bark, is not a Cinchona, though it be difflcult even for a chemist to distinguish between the infusion of Cuspa and thatof the orange Quinine fVom Santa F6. Upon the sea coast west of Popaynn grows a tree possessing the qualities both of Cinchona and Wintcra, but differing from either of these genera. The Cusparia of Guiana, the Cuspa of Now Aiida. lusia, and the Cascarilla of Atacamei, all vegetate at the level of the sra' and their juices contain a principle analogous to that aflbrded by the true Cinchonas at an elevation of 1436 toises. atXiH. In the temperate region of the Cinchonas grow some Liliaceir, as Sifyrinchium ; the large blue-flowered Melastomae, the arborescent Passion Flowers, as tall as our European Oaks ; Bocconia fTutesccns, Fuchsias, and most beautiful Alstroemcrias. The Macrocnemum and Lysianthus grow majestically there, and the ground is clothed with KHireutcria, and Wcfssia and Dicranum, and other evergreen mosses, while the ravinoa shelter Oun.' ncras, Oxalides, Dorstenias, and a multitude of unknown Arums. Potlirra hygromctrica with Hypericum baccatum and cayancnsc grow higher up Beyond 1120 toises, the sensitive Mimosas disapi)ear under the influence of the increased cold ; at 13.11) to 134<) toises, Aca;na, Dichondra, Niorcm- bergia, Hydrocotyle, and Alchcmiila form a thick turf. 1'his is the region of the Weinmannias and Daks, of S|>ermacocc and Vallea stipularis. The Mutisia climbs over the Indiest trees. The Oaks (duercui granatensis) only commence in I-k|uatorial Regions at an elevation of 872 toises ; while in Tumi nmN. Mexico they are f>>uncd flower, grows also on the Andes of Peru. For a long time a single individual only was known, near the city of Toluca in Mexico ; it seems to be wild in fiuatemala ; and this famous Hand Rant of Toluca has probably been equally planted by some Roint>tequai whose taste for cultivation, and whose admiration of the beauties of vegetation, are attested by the ruined' gardens of Iitapalapan. .W.'Jit. Near the Equator, the larger trees are not found beyond 1385 toises ; and above the level of the city of Quito they l)ecome small and of comparatively stunted growth. At 1796 toises, almost all arborescent vegetation ceases, though shrubs become more abundant : this is the region of the Berberries, the Durantas, and Barnardesias, whose presence marks the vegetation of Pasto and Quito, as that of Santa ¥t is indicated by the Polymnia and Tree Thorn-apples. Caatiiiejas, Embothrium, and Clusias are common in this region, with Calceolarias, whose golden yellow blossoms contrast agreeably with the verdure of the grass through whirli they sprout Nature has assigned a zone to these pl.intf, which rommenres at a northern degree of latitude. Higher up, towards the summit of the Cordillera, from 1436 tolfiiW toises, is the region of Wintera and Escallonia. The cold and damp climate causes the trunks to l)ecomc short and to divide into numerous branches, covered with coriaceous and glossy foliage. Some trees of the Orange Quinine and EmlKithrium are found thus high. The Alstonia, whose dried leaves form awhnlesome tea, with a Wintera and F^scaiionia, form scattered groups, and at their feel frow small Lobelias, Basellaa, and Swertia quadrirornis. Still higher, at 796 toises, the arborescent plants disappear ; in a narrow valley on the volcano of Pichincha alone is there a group of arborescent Syngenesis with stems 20 to 24 feet high. From IU2<) to 2103 toises extends the range of alpine plants ; Staihelinas, Gentians, and the Espeletia fruticnsa, whoK downy leaves often shelter the poor Indians who are overtaken by night in these desolate spots. The opei. ^: jin is adorned with Lobelia nana, Sida pichinchensis, KanunculusGusmanni, Ribes fyigidum,Oentiana quitensii, and many similar plants. The Molinas arc the under.shrubs that grow at the greatest elevation on the volcanoes of Purace and Antisana. An an elevation of 2103 toises, the alpine niants give place to the Graminca>, of which the region extends to 2^iO toises. There, Jurava, Stipa, and manv new species of Agrostis, Panicum, Avena, and Dactylis cover the toil, which, at a distance, wears the appearance of a golden carpet, called by the inhabitants Pajonal. Snow falls, from time to time, on the region of the Oraminese. At a height of 2360 toises there are no more Doner, ing plants under the equator. From this limit to that of perpetual snow, Lichens alone clothe the rocks. Some of tlicse indeed appear to vogc. tate imiler the snnw, for at 28.00 toises, near the summit of Cliimlmraza, the IJinliilicaria pustuiata f,fig. !I76. a) and Verrucaria geograpliica \ff. 'J76. b), are seen growing on a shelf of rock, and these were the Lit organised substances adhering to the soil at so great a hciglit which Humlwldt and his companions were able to detect SiiRSECT. 3. Zoology- 5940. The Zoology qf Colombia oRbrs A vast and almost an unexplored field to the modern naturals!. We know not how it lias happened, that, while Brazil has been traversed by learned men, sent frnin ncatl; all the Kuro|)ean nations, the other regions of South America, in regard to their znolngirni priNliictionii, aic as little known at this |icriod as they were when guarded by Spanish jealousy; for Hiimlioldt, in /oology, did little or nothing. We shall not atteinjit, there- fore, to hide this doHciency by qiuitalions rrom obsolete works ; rather wishing that a conlo!- lion of unavoidable ignorance may inilucethnsc who have the power and the inclination, to direct their attention to this subject I'hcrcii one bird, however, of surpassing beauty whirh we can notice, as having been recently font (tom Colombia and Guatemala : this is the Caluriis pavoiiinus Sm., or Pcneoik 'Irognii (fig. ifn.), so named from the splendid groon plumage of the back and the long leather) towards the tail : It is said to be very rare; living only in the deepest and mo«t unfre. quented forests ; and is much sought fnrbjrthi vucooK Taooon. natives on account of its superb feathers. 97C «, UMMfMCARIA ri'STur.ATA. I>, vhhritaiiia onjoHArKlcA. ART III. r Cinchona, :rco, which ult even for f the orange Stows a tree fciing from Mew Anda. of the eea; by the true Liliaccic, M icent Pauion ruchBia*, and anthua pnii and Wci«»ia, shelter Ciun- mii. Porlicra w higher up. the influence ™dra, Niorcm- is the region ipularis. The nalensis) only ises ; while in ! planta which verdure of the Chcirostemon, if Peru. For a It to be wild in e Rointztequat, by the ruined level of the city all arborescent J, the Uuranta!, 1 Vi is indicated n in this region, e grass througli Tthcrn degree of Pgion of Winters le into numeroui and Enilxitlirium orm a wholesome I, and at their feci , Still higher, at larrow valley on (cent Syngenesis, Extends the range lafrutico8a,whoa! ircttaken by night Lobelia nana, Sids lentianac|uitcnsii, tirutjs that grow at Antisana An an the GraminoE, of I, Stipa.andmany lis cover ihc soil, len carpet, called imc, on the region re no more flo«ei- of perpetual sno»', «d apjwar to voge. nit of Chimliorazo, I geogrnpliifa J(. icse were the last «t » height which modern natuiahs.. II. sent from ncativ cal proMt, in /<«l"nvM ■ not attemiit, there. , bv quotations from hiiig that a conies- cc may induce th« the inclination, to is subject. Thereii lassing beauty «hicli been recently sen cmala : this is "" r Peicoik Tto^nn the splendid preeo d the long ica'l"'" id to lie very rare; j,t and most unfte- uch sought for by tl" ipcrb feathers. Book IV. COLOMBIA. 1409 it Sect. III. HislorkcU Geugraplty. ,S9«:.,r*'..^:'il'r.™»''';?.to-».?f.''". ih" Olo^W-n Slate, was that of a people much lea advanced in civilisation than those of Mexico and Peru. The whole of thcvalt nlainnwW,^ h "m' ,?•■ •'•"""C"' 'n IribuUrics were occupied by the Carib., a savage and w^ke rare tti.'Ihu^ bythoOnnoeo and lu sweeping a manner, branded as ferocious 'cannibaE: In th"u,™,„Uin ofT„iM'i''r"'"'''' P'P^Py '" *°" of the cSrdillera., was found the kingdom of C\imnlm^c^^^lXfl\A^^'J}^'"rV:^'^^'^ ""^ '""?••«• dour, of Cuico and Tenochtitlan. yet had made "WsirralJe oSms in eW . U^^^^ ^ uV ''/ ."'*• f "'' ?'' "* and^,.ie.Ui the people cultivated' the ground, were dece'*,:f,y''Zh"eS.'"a^lr'l'^jte3- ^Jfu^rffy'^oTfe^nb affid';j^«*inrt«hXaTj!,V'.h^^^^^^^^^^ !X'"rVor^eTu l'^ «"' two daring adventurers, Qucsada and Benalcaiar. .caled IheloftiMt And«„iS ;?.^,.i.°'^i,'^?.'.V> 5?**'""> Quito an-i"M'aeraoie agriculture, 5aid no principal and scarcely any intereat In 1826, the llnances were in a very unfavourable state, the cxpeiMliturc being l.'i,487,719 dollars, and the revenue only 6,lU*vM, leaving a deficit of !I,2!)0,,7.'iO infantry, 4o00 cavalry, and 2.'i20 artillery. They are ill disciplined and accoutred ; have scarcely any thing like a uniform ; and their arms are both scanty and imperfect; but they arc cxeccillngly brave, hardened by long warfare, and have vanquished even superior numbers of regular troop.. The artillery and engineer departments arc the most defective. .IW. The Colombian navy Is yet in its infancy, and, in 1824, coiisistcil only of six cofvettes, seven brigs, and tix schooners, nianiiiHl chiefly by Kiiglish and French sailors. Even this small force rendered great service in the blockade of Maracaylid, and at one period made itself formidable as a privateering force, extending its ravage, even to the coast of Euroi>ean Spain. 5948. A schism has recently taken place in the Colombian state, which has liccn divided into the three tcparali' republics of New Granada, comprising the ancient viceroyalty of that name; the Equator, composed of Quito and the adjoining territories ; Venezuela, comprehending the great plain to the east of the Andes, and iKirdcring on the sea. Thc«c states have of late made an amicable agreement to separate, dividing among thcinsclve. the general debt of Colombia. The interior constitution, we believe, remains the tame as that of Uie united republic. 4X2 HIO DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY Part III, Sect. V. Productive Induitry. 6919. Tike /crW/ory (2^ CoTootAiVi Is chiefly iliatingtiiahed by its voit capacities fhr lin|irovcmcnt, wlilch arc developed only in a very imperfect degree. The toll Is as various as thestate« that coni|io«c the territory. New Granaua, though a mountainous country. Is fertile In all kinds of grain and fruit : the woods consist chieHy of cedars, walnut trees, ebony, Muio and Ouiana wood, tnray, Braxll, sassalVas, cocoa tree, vanilla, tamariiuf, medlar, sanotas, guavas, palms, cassia ; manchinecl, whoie Juice, fruit, and even branches, emit a subtle poison, which causes a general inflammation and tumour, onlv to be cured by olive oil ; and another tree, called the habella de Carlagitui, whose bean Is the best antidote known against the bite of viiwrs and snakes. In the province of Vcnciuela also arc found many precious woods, as the variegated granadiiio, resembling tortoisesheil, cedars whose trunks servo as hives for bees, vanillas of su|>crior fragrance, cardamoms, saraa- parilla, indigo, cassia, tamarinds, cinchona ; tacamajaco, a noted specific for headach : balsams and oils for tlie cure of wounds. The province of Guayaquil produces a variety of ship timber, Including oak, tlie strong wood called guachapeli, cedars, also ebony, with a variety of cabinet woods. The provincoa of Loxa and Quito are noted for their excellent cinchona. 5<.)r>0. ^pricultiire in this country, beyond any other in Spanish America, or perhaps in the world. Is capable of sui)piym^ in the utmost variety the richest proli' soils : coffee, in the tablelands, l/jOO to 2000 feet high, of Caraccas and CumanS ; cotton, In the plains vf Maracaybo ; and sugar in all the warm, low, and moist valleys. Coflbc lias always yielded a surjilus fur ev. Sortation, and the two latter arc now making great progress. Indigo, once a very important article, has miirli cclined. Wheat and other European grain find favourable situations, yet Colombia cannot dispense with a large import of American flour. The banana grows in the same spontaneous abundance as in Mexico. ■Wl. jAc mines qf iVeui Granaila have been a subject of brilliant and perhaps romantic cxiicctations. Humboldt observes that nothing can be more fallacious than the external appearance of rocks and veins ; and that, till regular shafts and galleries have been fornie0,UOO dollars, and from IKlii to 1H2U, '20,000,000, or 2,0(X),000 annually ; and nearly this amount Is still cx|iorled annually from. Carthagciia. 5952. In Santa Martha there are mines of gold, silver, and precious stones, and some rich salt-works. Tlic Srovince of Quito yields gold, silver, copper, quicksilver, topazes, amethysts, emeralds, rock crjrstal, and vcrj nc marble : in Vcneiucia is found tin, and also rock crystal, with lapis lazuli, not much inferior to the i'ck>. brated ultramarine. The copper mines yielded in one year 1500 quintals of excellent quality. Time only can discover whether the rest will pay the exiieiise of working. The salt mine of iC:ch8quira, glittering like an immense rnrk of crystal, yields a revenue of 30,000/. ayear. It is not the onh one; and the mineral finds a ready market in tlie country. The pearls of Panama and the Kio Haclia, notwithstanding their great name, do not yield more than W,i\(M. a year. 59.03. Manufacturing iiuluslry can scarcely be said to cxid 'I'he leather of Carora, the hammocks of Marqucsita hland. and the blankets of Tocuyo, arc objects of little importaiicr. even in respect to jnternal consumption. 5954. The commerce of Colombia bears yet but a small proportion to its natural capacities, but is iii< creasing. It consists in tlic export of the precious metals, cocoa, cotton, su(;ar, coffee, in exchange for manufactured goods and European luxuries. There is a want of very complete recent information ; hut the following exhibits the amount of f»me princi|ial branches for 1 837 : — 978 Great Britain France United States Eiimrts. .*liK),(IOO 90,350 216,000 Imtiorts. rf5Cl,9(iO PAUAOI IN THH CORMM KHAH. The imports into Britain in 1837 consisted mostlpf 344,659 lbs. cocoa, 451,19'7 ll>s. coffee, K'SI tons fustic, 3432 cwts. hides, 150,284 lbs. indigo, 5:!:1 cwts. sugar, 249,516 lbs. tobacco, 2,258,867 lbs cotton. The exports were chiefly, 4, 111,71: yards, &c. cottons, valued at 94,790/.; 188,283 lbs. twist, value 1 2,488/. ; eartlieiiwart. 3206/. ; hardware and cutlery, 3125/. ; iron and steel, 7075/. ; 1,205,586 yards, kc. liiicn, value 26,480/.; 3276 pieces, 16,464 yards, woollens, 17,560/. The foreign articles sent thither were, 9064 pieces India cottons, 1045 pieces linen, 2131 pieces silks of Europe and India, 1885 gallons brandy, 3575 gallons wine. In 18,>d, there entered the |x>rt of Cartliageiia 48 vessels, tonnage 0719, bringing cargoes wortli 314,17!)/.; !»> tlie goods taken away were valued at only 2ii,7l5/. The returns were mostly in 8|>ecic and bullion, eslimaltt. at iii,i%lUl. Panama, in 18.15, received 'ib vessels, of 1416 tons. Puerto Cabello, between January and Stiitcinljcr, Ift.'i.'i, received .OS vessels, (i2'/l tons, bringing a value in goods of 87,7.'30/., and taking away \l'j,'X\'>l., chirll.v rotton and cop|ierorc. Savanilia, in IS.iti, exported a value of 4r>,4.'iii/., of which 3'.','.'05/. was in ciXInn. I'mm I.a Uuayra, I he jKirt of Caraeeas, there cleared out, in l&'Ji, !K) vessels, tiniiiage 9470; in 1S;5;>-.'J4, it« cxi»rt> and ini|Hirt« 'united, amounted to t;ectationi. s aiul veins ; and » only imiiortanl V I'oiayan, and larks Tl'erearf I those called thr Torrcntc to lio rd r and lead, "therj }A also for its saii. luntains of Antio. jbundancc, excel. ;nia,andAnscrm3. tlic more neiioral lars, and from l«le^ies of chair plwed on the backs of |)ersons, called lUleros, hired for the purpose, who carry him with surorisinir con.lort «nrt safety. Even in whatwere called the royal roads, all thi h« b^n done is^ocutiTown the'^rTsf Wa "whlSh usual y makes some little compensation for Its evils by the formation of line military roads, has not yet Intro- duceil any Inrproveraent Into those of Colombia. Scattered bodies of partisans withoiit baggage, and with only a few light artillery, could scramble through such openings as the country aBbnled, amfiv?!! set a value on the impossibility of transporting through them a regular and equipixnl army. The exclusive use of mules without carriages of any description, remarkably Increases the exiicnse of conveying goods; yet habit causes 979 , . ^. it to be followed even on the plains of ^ ^ " ' Veneiuela, where there might be room for waggons as large as those which are driven over the Pampas of Buenos Ayres. , - -u^a^M tjiv>sii.»T-»«, B ^t:fvm^m.m. \ ^-^^^ TAc britign, which are thrown I ' OiJinkKt Wfi^-SfflKftrsi «-- .\*««Bil^A over the torrents of the Andes, and from steep to steep, are of the most fragile and haiardous description. In a few rare inst-nces only stone is employed. In , general a few rough planks are laid across, and covered with earth and branches ; no fence, and no breadth greater than four lcet,beingeverthought necessary. Where the space to lie traversed is too great for this contrivance, a bridge of strong cable is constructed, over which the Columbian passes secure, though Itrocks beneath him. . . I. J , ^ .,»« > . ,. . ,. . . Sometimes, between distant points, a single rope is stretched (Jg- WO.), and a hammock or basket made to run from one cud to the other. Sect. IV. CitiiV and Social Slate. 5957. The population of Columhia is stated by Humboldt, according to an official report in 1822, at 2,643,000; of which New Granada had 1,327,000, Venezuela 766,000, Quito (the Equator) 550,000. By a census in 1835, however. New Granada contained 1,687,109, or, allowing for deficiencies, at least 1,700,000. Supposing the other two to have increased in proportion, Venezuela will now contain about 1,000,000, the Equator 700,000; in all, 3,400,000. ,WJ8. The character qf the Colombians Is, probably, much influenced by the sudden transition ttom a depressing despotism to an extreme degree of liberty. They retain much of the gravity, temperance, and sobriety of the S|)aniards, with a share of their pride, suspicious temper, and neglect of cleanliness. A courtesy somewhat stately and studied prevails in their demeanour. It is not easy to gain their confldence ; but when that is once obtained, they arc cxtreniclv IViendly and cordial. They are hospitable to foreigners, whom, from natural pride, however, they regard with secret Jealousy, Though they have shown themselves in many in- stances capable of the most vi(!orous exertions, their general procedure is stow and sluggish ; and to urge a Colombian to stirring activity is like rousing a man out of a dream. The Colombian unwillingly engages in any speculative occu|iation, or mercantile transactions on a great scale ; he prefers quietly accumulating money by retail trade. It certainly retlounds much to his honour, that, after a war so long and desultory, the country IB not infested by robbers or bandits toany extent; and there is no necessity for having houses secured by bolts or bars. An inordinate propensity to earning prevails among the men, who spend almost all their leisure in this diversion, and often haiard enormous sums, lictween the two sexes in Colombia, as in the mother country, prevails a dull mechanical gallantry, the admirer keeping in close and constant attendance u|ion his mistress, to whom no one else must speak or almost look ; yet this is, perhaps, less frequently accom. I>anied with any thins criminal than a foreigner would be led to suppose. 5H59. The mieioa is as ytt exclusively the Iloman Catholic, and its ceremonies are observeil with the strictest punctuality. The shrines of nogotii appear to surpass in magnilicence even those of Mexico. The cathedral contains an image of the Virgin, adorned with lA'iS diamonds, 1'2!I5 emeralds, Ix-sides many other precious stones. The other twenty-six churches are all resplendent with gold and jewels. The convents arc also numerous, but are happily diminishing. The parish priests rule in the villages with almost absolute sway ; but their influence, uniting together the different classes and sexes, is considered on the whole advan. lageouB. Many of the young men who have had more enlarged means of Information, have begun to see the absurdities of the Catholic creed ; but a general scepticism, rather than any rational system of religion, seems to have taken the place of their ancient 8U|>erstition, . S-MX The races are as numerous and as variously crossed as in Mexico ; but they are more happily blended and balanced than either there or in the United States. The negro maintains his place in the scale of humanity ; and the mulattoes Paez and I'adilla have ranked among the foremost of the heroes who achieved the national independence. Humboldt calculates, contrary to the idea of Depons, that there are not many more than 60,UUU slaves In the state ; and, by the legislative arrangements, the whole number will be fi-ee by the year 1840, 59H1. Of the native Indian tribes within this territory, the Caribbees are the ruling iieople. No nation in the world is stamped with a dee|)er brand of ferocity ; the very name, converted into cannibals, being applied to signify devourers of human flesh. The charge appears Io havelieen greatly exaggerated by the Spaniards, who certainly met with a most licrcc resistance, and sought by this allegation to justify the system of enslaving and exterminating the savage tribes. Oppressed by a long series of unequal war, they were considered as nearly extinct, till Humboldt, in his voyages along the Orinoco and its tributaries, ascertained that there must be still about 4(),(X)0 of pure and unmixed blood. They arc a fine tall race, whose figures, of a reddish copper colour, with their picturesque draiwry, resemble antique statues of bronze. They shave great part of the lore- head, which given them somewhat the ap|>earancc of monks ; they wear only a tuft on the crown. They have dark intelligent eyes, a gravity in their manners, and in their features an expression of severity, and even of sadness. They still retain the pride of a conquering people, who, liefore the arrival of the SiKiniards, had driven before them all the native tribes in this part of the continent. A great [lortion of them, however, have now been civilised in a surprising degree by the missionaries, who exercise over them an almost absolute sway. Each h(diday they present themselves loaded with ollerings of every kind which can be occeptable to the priest ; and after divine service, those of both sexes who have been guilty of any ollbnce receive in his presence a sound whipping, which they bear with exemplary patience. Humboldt, though scandalised by this scene in the view of ecclesiiutical dignity, conceives that such strict discipline may bo necessary to keep these savage natures in check. They cruelly torment their children by Imprinting on them the barbarous ornament pru- 4 X ;J t4t« DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. ducal by raUlnit the Hnli in lonR ittri|ie« alniiR the logi and thliiha. 'I'licjr arc IVcc, however, ttom the equally barlMriHU uracticu ul' Hitttvning the head by comproulon, wliivh It grncral among the other trilict of the OrliiiH'o, the iiwcimenii of whcuc cr-inia, iihown in Kuri>|ie aa dvatitutc of forehead, arc nwrcly ikulU (haiivd iM'tween planka. In thi« rountry oeenr thecaaleofa/Ainiu,willi white hair,Qf weakly and delicate conttitiilion low alaturc, and very ellkniinate character : they have large eyea, and arc ao weak-alglited, that they vannut cnilnre the raya of the auii, though tliey can ace (dearly by moonlight niNiV. ne Melleclual italf (if Cnhmhin i» yei very rude. Study la little known among the middle and higher ranka. In all the great citiea, imli-ol, there are unlveraitlct and collegea, which are even richly endowed ; but they are uauully attacheliilviio|ihy In that of (araccaa there were two profeaaora, whote aolc flUKtion waa to (ircive the linmnculale conception of the Virgin. There are, however, men of au|>erlor mind, wlio endca. vour to elevate In Ihia res|iect the character of their countrymen. Under their auapicea, a niuaeuni, a li- brary containing alreai^ TtHlll volumca, and aeveral Lane.iatcrian achoola have been formed at UogotS. niNll. The amutcmenis of Colombia are ehiclly Imrrowed fnnn the mother country. Dancing ia |iua>ionntelv ftillowed In the aeveral forma of the fandango, the bolero, and the Spaniah counlrv-danco. Hull and cixk Hghllng are eijually favourite apnrta, and lend to keep alive that ferocity which ia the main blemiah in llio mural character of the Spaniarda. Here, aa over all .South America, they practiae what Id called the laam, ur catching the hull by a nooac funne ranked the religioua cercmoniea, and ea|)ecially proccaaiona, in which theycer. talidyoutalrip the mother country, both aa to aplenduur and abaurdity, Peraona rcprcaenting the leading .Scriii. lure characlera arc paraded through the itrecta, arrayed in the moat magnificent Tobea, and covered with pearia dianuinda, emeralda, and rubiea. In the grand proceaaion at Quito, Juatly characterited by Mr. Steventon aa ■n eccleaiaatical numiet-ahow, the Holy Vir(;in ap|ieara in the uniform of a general officer, with ■ gold-laccd hat and a red cncKade. Thoae feativala are, in fact, accompanicnl by gamct and thowt^nd matquerodea, ttWri. The C»linnhiant, etpeeiaUy ihefrmalet, a^ct a singular fUainneu qfdreu. They almoat unlvcrially walk the alreitta in a large !j|>anian mantle, a wide cloak ol black or light blue, which envclopca the peraon in ■ucli a manner oa oltcn to leave nothing vialbic except the eyea. Their fettival and ball dretiea, on the other hand, are too gaudy, being covereil all over with jcwela or tinael. tmr>. FuiMi [a aupplie7> Cundinamarca, the original name of an Indian kingdom, answers now to New Ciraniula, recently formed into a, separate republic. It consists of ranges of vast mountains ilopitig down to the banks of the Upper Magdalena, and partly also of the Cauco. It presents in the extreme the abrupt transition between the most opposite soils and cliinatt>s; but the most valuable tracts coiuist of the tine though not very extensive table-lands. .'i<>>M. Santa Fif dc n<)gold,the capitil of New Oranaria, la tituatcd on s table plain 50 milea liyS.'>, and 8(>ll(l feet nliovc the level of the aco. This plain, though under the line, hat the climate of Britain, ami even of .Scotland, though without the chanf;e of aeatona, the )icr|ielual temperature being that of apring ur autumn, ami the thermometer aeldom falliiig below 47° or riaing above 70°. The only alternatinn ia rormnl hy the wet aeoanna, which arc two: the firat comprehending March, April, and May ; the accnnd September, ticlcilier, and Moveinber ; and theae, being colder than the othcri, make two wintera and two aummera. Tlic aurrouniling iilain ia cxceaaively fertile, fine, and fruitful, yielding two crojw in the year of the beat Kuru|iran It ia hemmed in by lolly niount.iina, rugged prccipicet, roaring torrent*, and fk-ightful aliyasca, Tlie city of Santa Ft Itself ia encloacd in a grand mountain circuit, cliHi of 10(KI feet high rising immeiliately above it. Thia city waa fotindnl in \r>3H, by Qucaadu, and rapidly increastHl : it It now aupixHctl to contJiin 30,IKJ*I iiiliabitani). lit atrectt and aquurea are o|>en and aiuriuiii, but the hoiiaei arc generally heavy and old- faahioncd ; and even the late palace of llie viceroy dianlaya little magniflcuiice. Tlic beauty of tne'city reata wholly on its mlo tiaatical edUlcea, which consist of Iwcnlj-iix churchea and twelve convents, Manyofllir foriricr are not only aplcndid, but built niili some taste; and their nuinerout apirc«, amni the gr.iiideur of the aurrounding acciirrj', give it a very fine apiicarance It coiitaiiii in univeraity and archiepiacopal see, ami carriei on a considerable trade in cotton goods, MJn, and grain. SytiR The sci-nery qf the plain <\f Pofold ii marked by many striking and pii'tiirciijue features. Among these are particularly con. spiciioua the Kail of Tcquendaina iMf-W.', and the natural bridgei of Icnnonzo. The tiril ia formed by the river KngotA, as it dcfccnils protMpitously IVom its native |>luiii to mingle with the Magdalena. Its mass of w.ilcr«, lift" viously spread to a considerable brcudlli, arc contracttHl to forty feet, and dashed dmii ' precipice (150 feet high, into an almost blliom. FAIL ur iKii iKiiAiiA. Ictaabyaa. Thewatera, aathcj beataBainslllic rwkf iHMieath, riac up aometinies in columna, aometime* In myriada of fleecy and fantastic eha|ie.H, like IIim formetl by fireworks. The immense clouds of rising vapour, when illuminated by the aim, form liciulifiil rainbowa. The jilain alM)ve the fall la covered with the grain of Kuroi)e, while ut ita foot grow the |niini and sugar-cane of the tro|iic. Thcliridge of Iconnnio (7?^. !«1.) is a natural areti across a chasm W) to' deep, at the Imttom of which flows a rapid torrent, which would have been otherwise impassaliie II appears to have been formed bv three masaea of rock detached from their original |H)sition, and thrown logc. ther by an earthquake It is alHiiit fifty feet long and forty broad. At one ajiot, a view is obtained mlo Ijc abyaa beneath. The continual night which reigns there, the birda ofdarkneaa whoae mournful cries rwHo in the cavcriia, the gloomv watcra which fill the depth of the precipice, the thick foliiige of the trees wnicn Part 111. the equally rllwt of the kulli ihiiiied Eunilttiitton, they vaniiut anil hlglici ly cndowcil ; nlic thcoloKy ruiu'tiori wu , who omli'a- lUiteiini, a U- 1 iiawlonntciv lull ami oirk lomlth ill till' ;l the la$K>, or inter the head hich they ccr. IcadinR Scriii. cd with pcarlt, . SteTcnion at th a gold-laccd iqueradn. lott unlvertally • the pennn In •, on the other the table plaini I in Caracoaa ai festive dinnen neii arc variouJ, I departments > durnt)lc. 1 now to Sew ast mountains le Cauca. It and climates', ic-lands. mile* hy «• »^i c of Britain, anil that of »\>rin|| w ■riiHtioii is formoJ Iccond SciitcmlHT, summers. Inc he best Kuroiiean iful aliysscs. The closed in a grml IK) feet liiuli rising 1 city was foumlnl ridly iiH'rcisnl ; it 3(),(KX) iiihiibilant), iiK'ii ami »l«fii""i ly heavy anil old- itc palace of Ihc aBiiillceiu'e. IM Hilly on its ccilf fisist of twcntv-i;« snts. Manyodhr lid, but built wiin icrous »i)irc», an"! iding sci'iiovy, givo It contains an al see, ami carrioi ;otton gf« wise imi'assaliit n on, and thro*" W- "is obtained into the „„rnfuloric« rw. of the trees whitn Dock IV. COLOMBIA. M1.1 ■•IDOI or ICOXOMIO. 982 !;?th? eS'of'ilir* "' ""'"*"'• """ ""> '^''"- «'''"' "'"»'"• "" 'hose horror., convey no feeble Id.. iWU. Atyva Is situate.! above HogotS, In the hlghct part of tie course of the Magdalen., yet on a ulain so much lower "to make It excessively hot ; while the waers of h? "» ' Magda on., fed ftom the snowy rcKif.n. aUive, are exccssivelv cold Cocoa Is the chief product, which Ts eximrted trthrextcnt of OW^ loa.ls. costing thirty piastres each. iheAndaquli. a nallo^^f savage Indians, occupy the upper tracU whence th«M.il7il» "S'^^iJ/rl'^V? ""'•"Weiffy toC pus'e^ger*^ "•«^"*"' mi. Mariquila Is a province lituateil below Bouoll nn th« « 'ih.'!! SJ,™ V^' '"'!' »",'' •" «•"' >ni'ldto ra" gVo* "'e Ande, i^H^hX • PP",''''*'',*"''! 10 it. Its table-lands are not extcii.ive mi.^''"i.n.„'^n\'V'''*""^' by mine., which are now .bando„"M' being the highest (mint to which boats can ascend. Here tlicrl' Juh'„,'^ ^^'. "." '""""''arkc.l, and conveV^ Into the ^n^rVo^ c'lhcr by slight rafts, or on the backs of rnule^ 'nwrior. .)il72. Antuiqma is a more imimrtant province, rcMhlni ftom the Lower Magdaleiia to the Cauci on wh\ch it i. prIndpZ Sed! It lies betwren the middle ami western raiig.'^of the Cordllleriu JAI-Sm' 7'"' here the Quindiu W*. 1W2.). separatM^he vafleTi 01 the Maifduleiia and Cauca. It is very lortv'anjtteep, iU higlieit ncak of folima being ascertained by llumfeoldt to b? l7.igo fret i.5^.M?iTtT''""'' '^* ""»' "''"»«* 'n «•'• northern Andes I II an uniform ridge, opposing very great obstacles to . dumi* i but it does not throw up thoiemagnl(lcei.t cone., which sSSkethi view in the equatorial Ande^ Tfie province of Antioqila is neirly in * Si'^;."Inl1 Hi;?™, '??.?''* 'i^ ".""" "»«""" *>"^h com,«,e It^ onN fiO arc cultivated. 250 are in pasturage, and the rest is covered with .. . thick and cntangleil forests. Amid its proftislon of foliage, indeed are found the cinchona, thewax tree, and lomevaluablc dyeingand ornamental woods : but the chief wealtH of Aiilioquia U derived ftom the auriferous character of its muuntaini, particularly the guiiidiu. Resttepo reckons the annual value of the gold at 1.2U0,(HIU piastres: the producU of agriculture at onl* 338,000 piastres. ' 5'J73. The ilepartmeni qf Bo. yaca, divided into the province* of 'l"unju. Socorro, I'ainpluna, • and Casaiiarc, occupies the sloiie. of the eastern Andes, as tlicy stretch northwards towards the lake and plains of Maracaybo. It prcMnti the lame aspect as the regions now describeili rugged passes, bleak paramos, sultry valleys, interspersed with cool and fertile tablc>lanits. 'I'he province of Tuiija is generally bleak and elevated, and its agri. cultural produce small; but in return it is the most industrious in the whole stale, and manu- factures a great quantity of coarse cottons, with which it supplies the other provinces. The city of Tuiija was the Indian capital ot Cundinamarca, and continued, even under the Spaniards, to be a rich place, till it was su^ierseded by Santa (V. Socorro is a more fertile and cultivated region. The town is rudely built, but contains l'J,UOO inhabitants, busily employed in coaric cotton fabrics. Pamplona Is a considerable and pleasant town in a lolly sifiatioii. Casanare, o.i the river of the same name, forms the medium by which the province, on the Magdalcna commuiiicati* with the Llanos and the coast of Caracca. ; under the old regime the influence of the merchants of Carthagena caused it to be shut up. in order to secure their own mono|x>ly of the Santa Fi trade ; but as such absurd restrictions will now be abolished, the Casanare may become an important channel of commerce. 51174. The department art of the course of that river, with the plain cx- tcniliiig to the Paciflc. The mountainous part forms the province of Popayan ; the plain that c f Choi^c'j. XTiTt. Popayan is one of the richest and finest provinces of America. Its plain is more extended and pro- ductive than that of Santa Vi, and maintains a siqierior breed of horses and cattle. Cultivation, however. is iiuiolently carried on. Iiciiig abandoned chiefly to slaves. The inhabitants look to a more brilliant source of wealth ill the gold of which their soil, every where tinged with red and yellow, indicates the presence, In the nunierous mines, it is found ill earth, from which it is extracted by agitation in water, as in Western Africa. Popayan is a handsome city, buiit more regularly and elegantly than Santa \'i, and inhabited by many opulent mercliants, who have sufl'ered severely by the revolution. Its site, >in the river Cauca, is picturesque ) the climate delicious, notwithstanding the frequent rains .iiid teni|iest3. tt enjoys a considerable trade in European merchandise, which it receives iVom Carthagena. and distributes ta Quito and other neigh- bouring districts, together with the prtxlucts of its fertile soil. Above it rises the tolcano of Gurose, con- tinually emitting flames, unless when ohstructetl by the sulutuiices thrown out by itself, in which case Indian, are employed to clear it. lest the subterraneous flame should proiluce earthquake. From its summit a river descends to Popayan. so impregnated with acid substances, that the Spaniards call it Vinagre. On its banks are the most picturesque, perhaps, of all the falls (fig. 9H;i.) in America, with which Humboldt ha. made u. acquainted. Caly is a clean and well-built town, in a delightful situation ; and the inhabitants have attained considerable prosiierity by exporting tobacco and other produce of the interior. Lower down the river is Cartago, in a situation which the cold blasts from the snowy mountains would render inclement, were it not sheltered by a ridge of lower hills. The surrounding country contains many valuable mines, and would be most rich in cocoa, cofl'cc, sugar, and all tropical productions, if cultivators and a market could be found. 51176. 7'At' district of Choci occupies the plain between the most eastern rangeof the Cordillera and the Pacitic. It is excessively humid and unhealthy. The streams pouring down '>oin the Andes, and the congregated clouds borne in from the great ocean, produce numerous ami r.;,-A rivers, and would aflbrd great accommodation, to commerce. Unluckily the ground it so wet, that all t :.jc6 may be considered as a vast moras, covered with imiienetrablc forests. It is, likewise, so soft, tliat the house, can be built only upon 4X1 HOUMTAIIf OP qUIKDIC. ItU DESCRIPTIVE GEOOIIAI'MY. Part III CAIOADN 09 VINA(tllB< •Ukei I ami ev«n culinary vcgotubli-i canncit bo grown, imlitu U|ion wnuilcn bonriU iirtldvlally i-li-vatol. Tli<< ground, however. In the few placea thiit «ro clviiri'd, 983 -•■•. .^ nrodurei, moit abundantly, maiii', >iiKar-vani', imci banana. Hut Chocil iIitIvvii lit wuiilth, iih yrt, wholly IVom it( mineral treaiiirpt. Dvtwci-n the height of UVi and 3(100 feet, the earth can •carcely h<- dug, at any point, without lireientlng H<>l>l, roinlilned with platlim, In greater or leti quantltiei. The platlna It unuuliy found In the proportion of two pounds to ilx of giilil. The former metal lellt for eight or ton dolinm a pound : the latter at 200 dollari, bringing In JiuinUra SAO, The (Mongrel*, verv Injudlclouily, continue tlic old prohibition agalntt 1t> export. The mlnea have declined greatly during the war, which drew away all the licit negroes, and they do not now yii'ld more than twenty quintalt of gold, and ten of pialliia. Captain Cochrane apprehenfu that the approachlnij emancipation of the •lavei will nut an end to tin- working altogether, and that It will bo Impoulbic to bribe firee negroei to dig. In a climate which, thouuh not oppretilveiy hot, la damp and extremely unnhuru. some. Choc6 haa only large trading vlllagei : CItera, which carrlea on the commerce of the Atrato, a Hnr navigalilc atreum flowing north ards into the Gulf iil Darien ; Novit.t, that of the San Juan ; and Huenavcii- tura, that of the Dagua, both whii-h flow Into the Fn- ciflc. Hiienaventura, with Ita illstrlct, comprUing part of Chc)c6, haa lately been moilo a seporntu provliH'e, A!)77. i'(Metual spring, at once benign and equal ; and even during the four months of rain the murnings and evenings arc clear and beautiful. Vegetation never ceases ; the country is called tlio evergreen Quito ; the trees and meadows are crowned with perpetual verdure. The £uru- pcan sees with astonishment the plough and the sickle at once in equal activity ; herbs ul' the same species here fading through age, there l>eginning to bud ; one flower drooping, and its sister unfolding its beauties to the sun. Standing on an eminence, the spectator views the tints of spring, summer, and autumn, all blended. But the feature which renders the view from Quito the most enchanting, perhaps, that the eye ever beheld, is that above this beau- tiful valley, and resting as it were on its verdant hills, there rise uU the loflicst volcanic coius of the Andes. From one point of view eleven may be discovered, clad in per]ietual siiuw. 5979. These mountains, particularly PInchlncha (j!. Tliry arc v».ry IWllli. I IkoTl ihfr'i'iL'l'Jl"""" »' "1"" l"'"'""K«tl»n. „l hat'f «u ,^ cotlon, nn.l liilmtn. Ii. aliuii.laiii'.. i hut ihV nilture U icry part al" Willi wmun l» lliatlllallitHi o ily by fhi. ImUnni nn foot, carrvlnv a . long kiillB lo cut thvlr way tlirmiiAi the uiiilrrwixxl •=•"»'"« • 5983. OuayaquU fornn one of the moit lini«irtaiit lU'iMrliiunil* nr Ci.li.iiihla. wliUh wni liir >n. •!.». h.i ■ alternately 6y that iUto anil Peru. It it now .liv,,!,!,! int.. iw.i ill.lrl T. uryaiuTand M»';.».,r Th** country l.'very fertile, particularly In cocoa. Iiilorior l».l«o.l In mmluy In tim ,1 TrS , h ^hi'rcta. alwav". bjcn a demand to the extent of the quantity prmlnc^l whici, Mr,'m,.v. , ell, i«" a Wyic" "«!ro^^ three buiheli each, and lell ng lometlraei at lovviutnllam lie Ittiirua, Ihcrc are alio large ,.la,aiiS^, "f tobacco; ^great amount of timber and salt i. c«|.orttHl i and arui* ilrnvm ol huriiol cattle, imiloi, " ,d h r,", arc driven from the lavannahn Into the Interior. (Iiiayai|lill, lh|. i'n|>ltnl, on the bay of the .amo n n.o fuu„dod by Piarro Iniaa, contair, 'Mm> Inhahliai.t., and U «iim of ih,'. »„M llnnrUh ?„' J^Jinincrda ci?K; South America. It. dockyard ii narticu arly eniciulvo, It |iriHtii|.v,l mit. .lilt. .i| 7lKI Ion. • vmv n,mm,,, v vo8.el« of :mu or 400 ton. arc built there i bill II . c i cdv ni.lnl l\>r .•.|i..i.i...r. .'.r i rj ... i.- ..... '..'i™!"""'> feiiiriT'i rh^^H-^ J^V, ^A 1 . ' ^^I^^H^B]^^ . .'1 . rOHH ^ nouta OP Till INOA at callo* 5984. Venezuela, the last of the three grnml lUvtalftim of Cututtiliia, presents itsulf now under the character of an independent republic. It lietirn n coi«|ili'lcly opposite aspect to the two former divisions. While they consist of tlw ilvcllvllles and valleys of the loftiest Andes, Venezuela forms a plain of immense extviiti r«iiclilng eaihvard to and beyond the Orinoco. This region is divided Into tbrev pnrls, dlNliiiKulslii"! by the must marked contrasts both natural and social. The OrNt cuiisUtK of Itie forest tvrritory beyond the Orinoco. It exists in an entirely unsubdued and snvnuo stnte, tivupkj by the Caribs and other tribes, who roam from place to place, and wii|;i> umiost coiiliiiiml war with eacli other. A few only have been formed by the missionariea into m/iirfiuH. these animals forms one of the principal brancliea uf the eonrnierce of Veneiuela. The third division, consisting of a coast about 600 miles lungi uiid the territory imincdiulely adjoining to it, includes all that exhibits any degree of culture ur t'ivllisutiun. Here the West India products, and particularly cocoa of superior qtiidilyi nN' eulllvuled to a considerable extent ; and a trade is carried on, which, though interrupted by the revolutionary war and other calamities, is likely, in periods of traimuillityi to be revived niul extended. 5985. Caraccas, situated considerably to the enstwnrd nluil|t this coast, has always been the capital of Venezuela, and previous to IHIU wna ii verylnrge city, containing abovf 40,000 inhabitants. On the 2Gtb of IMareli it wiui uverlhrowu by one of the most dreadful earthquakes recorded in cither hemisphere. AIUt four lit the evening, two successive shocks were felt, during which the ground was III eoulimiiil undulation, and heaveiF like a fluid in a state of ebullition. Tlie danger wim iJieii thought to be over, when a sub- terranean noise was heard, like the rolling of loud lluiiidert It was followed by two sliocks, one perpendicular and one uudulatory, au treiiieiutuuR) that In u few seconds the 1416 DE8CIUFT1VE GEOGRAPHY. Pa»t IIL Fig. 08 whole city wut in ruins. Sfvvml of (lie loAimt cliiirilifii fvll, burying :iO0O or 4000 of the inhabitant*, and thvy wvru ho complvtuly dvttroyed, that nonu o( (liu liiiginentt were nioru than flvu or six feet above the ground. Nvarly 10,000 persons |)eriklied on the spot, liviidvii iniuiy more who died afterwards, in consequence of wounds and privations. The agitation of the revolutionary contest obstructed the revival of Caraccas, and in 1830 it did not contain above *ja,0OU inhahitiuits. The city is finely situated, in a valley between the sea and the lofty mountain of the Silla, whose two peaks rise to the height of nearly UOOO feet The cathedra is spacious, but massive and heavy, Altii Grocia, its most elegant church, wan overthrown by the iiarthquuke. There is an university on a very large scale, though the objects of instruction are somewhat obsolete. oust), l.a Uuaura, about twelve milci ttom Ctraccai, of which It It the |tort, notwIthitaiidlnR Iti unheattliy climate uml bod nartwur, U the ii'at ufa very coimiilvrnble trsile. Similar illtuitcri have ffUiiveil It Iroiii a iiaiiulatlun of \J,(W to icarrely CiOUU; liut it U iiuw reviving. The Colninblan Airleiiltural AuiM-iaticiii, rormcil III liritain iluriiiH the •|ieculattvo era nf IHIU, tent nut to this place a colony or about iUU Hcoltith hlghlaiidiTi : but they had been ill tclutiil : a number died, |iarlly through their own miiconduct) the rvtt were coiivi'yni III BrItUh veuelt to the llnititl Statea. 9iW7. Suine comlderablf cUiei occur on the coast to the cut of Carwcat. Cumana Is iltuated on an exleniive and fertile plain on the Lower Orinoco, Iwundcd by a curtain of rude mountain!, covered by luxuriant foretti. Nuincroui herda run wild on Its lavannahi, and In the plain on the coaat very fine tobacco is culii. vated. 11 haa a verv iiiaciuua and noble harlwur, and the whnleaulf of Carliico, on which itiaiiliiatcd, aflliriii ?[oad anchoraKC. Mulei, cattle, and provlaluna arc ex|Mirlcd to the W'eat Iiiillea) but there ii no longer roiiin iir the very large contraband which prevailed when the S|ianlah Main wai generally cloacd againit llrilnin. The Inhabitanta, reckoned by Humboldt at 1M,IIart of Its trade. Is now much dccayetl. MarmaylK), happily aituatcil at Ihv Junction between a bay aiiJa large lake reaching (kr Into the interior, early became a great citv. It ciiiilaini many deaccndants of the early coni|uerort, who live in proud indolence : the reat of the iiinabltantt itaiii wealth by tralflc ; and the whole are supposes to lie nearly ^),(J(IU. TruxUlo, in a tine country near the luvnl of the lake, early became one of the moat Houriahing cities in America ; but being. In llirH, plunilcrcil ajiil reduced to ashes by Uramont the buccaneer, it has recovered only In so far as to be a tolerable country town, though presenting monuments of its former importance. It is almost rivalled by Merlda, a neat town Id tlii; west of it. Ileturniiig to the coast, and proceeding westward, we Hiid llacha, only distlnguiahed by llie neighbouring |icarl-H»ncry, to which an Knglish company, during the last ten yc.ira, acnt an annual ahiii, \«\\, It la said, with little of the ex|>ccted profit Farther west is Santa Maria, ailuatcd In a country pervaded liy a detached range nf very lofty mountaina. It la fortified, and carries on a little trade. 5e and the United States, sail to and from Carthagena ; and It absorbs most of the commerte of the Magdalcna and ill tributaries : hence it is still su|>posed to have a population of about 18,U00. The buildings have on the whiile a gloomy aspect, though there are some handsome churches and convents. Mompox. at the Junctioii'of ilie Magdalcna and C'auca, derives some Importance IVom this situation. Tolu, In a rich vegetable illxrict, ii noted for the lialsam bearing its name. The vicinity of Turbaco is distinguished by the curioua phcnomi'iion of the VulcancUus, alwut twenl^r cones, eighteen to twcnty.flvc feet high, whence Issue constant cruptioiii of gas, sometimes accomiunied with water and mud. 59U(I. Panama anil Purlo Bella, on the opposite sides ofthe Isthmus of Dorien, bore a great name in Amrrita, when they were the exclusive channel by which the wealth of Peru was conveyed to the mother countiy Now, when Iwth that wealth is diminished, and a great part of it is transiKirlitl round ('a|ic Hum, their lonw. quence has much declined. Yet Panama, on the coast of the Pacific, is still a fortified place, and, though with only a bad roadatead, continues to carry on some trade, and maintains a ixipulatioii of alwut 10,(iU), Porto Hello, on the npiioaite coast, whose pcatilentlal climate caused It to share with Carthagena the rr|iul these two ports. The i>rnjcct of a canal iH'twcen Panama and Potto Bcllo is for the present given up, IjuI a railway Is projected. Near Cape Bias is a fishery of |iearls and turtle ; the former carried on by an Kngliih company with little advantage, the latter affording a profitable emiiloymeiit to about I'JU individuali. Santiago, or Veragua, capital of the former province of that name, is a place of some consequence. SI'Jl. 'I'he greal plaint in Ike inlertor qf yenexuela and on the Orinoco, possessing neither manufaclurci nur commerce, cannot contain cities of any magnitude. Yet Varinas was reckoned a neat and handsome place, and, notwithstanding severe loaaes during the revolutionary war, has still JIMK) inhabitants. Manterul Amm some im|>ortance from the commerce of tne Aiiure, on which it is sitiiatetl. St. Thoini^ d' Angostura, the onlf city yet founded on the Orinoco, nutwilhslaiiuing recent losses, is atill about equal to Varinas, and is the leii of a bishop and a college. Chap. VIII. PEHU. 5992. Peru, of all the regions south of the Gulf of Mexico, is the most cek-bratcd fur wealth and ancient civilisation. Its very name is proverbially used to denote profuw abundance of the most precious metals. Yet the Spaniards, towards the close of the la^i Ualalirli Tl NOIITII PAK- '■ Uuiroz »• Oimllnqulllo 3. Tniieicrs J- PH)n|,»r, J. Ammaiw 7. 1'iurs U* Swhura ,9. Olmo, 1". Illlmo. '• Wlach. }•• Uchunchs "■ omln«o ,;;■ pijalm ,;3- ''imtbamlM * Pinjn '?i '•"•inachuco «.' Sa"n"'""" «-Sjnl,ago "■ Muiuio lilU Part III IXX) of tlie were inoru >ut, iNiaillvH agitation of not contain lea and tliu fiivt. Tlic ilmrcli, wan tllOUgll tilt' Iti unhcallhy icwl It Irimi a •Utiim, foriiuJ I hlghlainli'ii '. were cunviycil in »n exli-niive 1 by luxuriant ibaccu Is rultl. liluiilcil, uflimli n<> longer rmim ugalnit Ilritaiii. I. Cumaiia \\u tint no lofty m tic, c»rrli.'» uii • once fainuut for Fi(f. 986 MAP OF I'EIIU. 1117 hed by lU caflHI Mlont in America, utroui I'alluru d [)ly decaywl, yet it ih Eurojic ami Ine Magilttlcna anJ lU have on the whole le iunction'iif the actable illitrlct, li rlous phcuomenon iitant cruiilioni ol name In Amcrin, 1 mother countrj. Horn, their lOHKi. place, anil, though m of about UI.IW. Kcnatheroiiulaiion itlngilownofwmc unlcia during tnc an midway bci««it mt given up.lMl? •i on by an tnghjh ut VM Individual). «quencc. •r manufacture!! iM id handsome plKC, s. Mantcral denvri Ango«tura,lhconli •lniw,andiiithcieii 7t l.ondluik HVil 71 rrom Gitinnirli M NnllTII PART. I. Quiroz 1. (•uMlnqulllo 3. Tnitelera 4. PelintfurA A. Amnli)ie 6. Fajrn ;. I'lura H. Serhum 9. nimcn III. Illlmni ll.l'illache IS. Mlculuampa U. Ucliuncha l.V liuliiil Ifi-Chachapoyai 17. lH-*anto IH. Mo>ohamba l!<. Umai VO.CalmliaM il.Panm li. S, Ihrliara W. S. Doinlniio *l. H. Kr.incUco ifi' llueiiaTentura 57. Palalm W. I«[me(>amba W. Pan,-m 3". Huamachuco *1. ('ntamarca J'i.Sanna 31. rhicnma JV Tnn.llo W. S,intiaffo 'V. (iuamanrano J**. Huara »• PUcobamba Jll-Qulrhe. *1. Caiamaniuilla 'l- Huarai n. Mlilulo References to the Mnp qf Peru, 41. ramtmhomoto 4.'>. Uchl/a 411. M. MlKuel 47. Anialmacaa 4H. r^amarinlKuaa 4». PIcholKM AO. CamarnMiul Al. raimlequl A'i. Piiziizo A.1. Muna .14. CuchoTO 5A. Monzon 66. Huaracliuco 67. Placobamba SB. Panwi A9. Cainliamba (il). Pampaa 61. (^otaiiaraiio M. (kloa 6.1. Canrhai 64. (?hurlin 6.1. f jiurlcocha 66. Huanuco 67. Paaco 6H. Huancnbamba 69. Qulmlrl 70. Hablrosqul 71. Tamtiianlque 73. TiKuanaaquI 7.t. Aporeffuiaqul 74. Jmut Maria IS. AuMt 76. Plchano 77. Parra 7H. S.inabaroba 79. Callao 80. Hejca Hl.Tarnia Hi. Ocopa fl."J. Choniroi 84. 4mla B.'i. Taccha H6. Cmla 87. Chancay 88. Lima 89. (iuarochlrl 90. ». I'wiro. ROUTH PART. I.N.,lm.'\ V. I.a Kxaltaclon ile la Crua ;i. N. Anna 4. X. Pablo 5. Pablo di> loa Keyea A. Tumupasa 7.H.Jo4 8, Pancartamtio 9. Urea 10. Zainora 11. ruico li. ITrubnmba 13. Vllcnbainba 14. Intalce i!i. MayaiK) 16. Anco 17. ranxallo 18. Huamanjca 19. (tuama ao. CorU il. Iiunncavelica ii. I.lriue ».1. «. Cnil U. M. Ilomaa li.t. Cannete id. Plaro S7. N. Oeromodeica U8. l..-traniate . i9. Haacamarca 30. S.Juan 31. P.ijco 33. Anilaguaylaa .33. Ahanitay .34. rhalbuanca .Vi. Maniara .36. rnmbobambil 37. I'rcoj 38. AyaiHita 39. Aporoma 40. H.inilla 41.Hli'uanl 43. Tinia 43. Coparanue 44. PMro We Caloino 45. AIM 46. Chaucalla 47. Para 48. Paura 49. Para y Sanchoa 90. InKvnIo .11. .Faqul .A3. Maluran) M. Caravelll A4. Cumana AA. Aplac A6, Arcqulua 47. Pocal A8. Ohule A9. Moquehua 60. Ilo ei.Tacua 63. Artca 63, Tana 64. Tara|iaca 6A. Iqulque 66. Pica; RiMra ami Lakti. a ClilM.R. b liaurlcucha, R. e HualtaKa, H. d Pachltra, II. e Apo Paro, R. r Vabary, K. g HyiitahT, R. h Purua.h. I Madeira, H. h Einltarlnn, R. I Paro, or HenI, R. ni Vanibari, K. n .Apurtniac, It. Perene, R. p l.aurlcocha Lake q rhlnchayrocha, I., r Afantaro, R. 1 Patnpaa, It. t Oconna, II. u Villono Lake V QuIIca Lake. BOLIVIA, or UPPER PEH17. 67. Pancocba UK. Tunirhllia 69. Cayna 71). Mana 71. Vura 73. Ciirahaura do raranKai 73. Potoil 74. r^alapa 7A. Oruro 76. Panduro 77. Chlraiica 78. La Pai 79. Marhara 80. Fomata Bl.Chuculto 83. Conci'prion de 1*11110 83. NIcailo 84. AiianKaro 83, Huancane 86. 8. ,7uan del Ora 87. Apololiambi, i)U Conc-epclon 88, Zarata 89, Challana 90. 8, Franciaco 91, 8, Borja 93, 8. PtHlro Nuevo 93, 8, Peiiro 91. 8, Iiinaclo 95, 8, Tiinidad de Panipai 96. 8, R«a 97. 8, MlKuel 98. 8. Mafdalena 99. Ixireto 100, 8, .loachltn 101,8, Martini 103. 8. .Xarler 103. 8, .low lie Chi- quiloi 104. Puerto liorai lOA, Colacu 106. 8anta Crui 107. Paurlto 108. 8amalpaU 109. PIra 1 10. Calwza 111. Atiaiio 113, Je>ui de loa Montet Claroi 11,1, Chlbm 114. Totera IIA, Toinlna 116. ARUIIla 117. Oropea 118. Pomabainba U9. Preiidlo, Riwrt ami takitt a Chucuito Ijake b Paro, or HenI, It. c ManlquI, R. d Cobitu, R. e Apure, R. f Mamore Chiro, R. RImalucara, R. (iuapore, R. I Ubany, R. k 8, 8alrador, R. I Mamore, R. m Plorea, R. n Mataronea, R. o Carblmayo, R. p PUcomavD, R. q Colaffayaia, R. If 1418 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. I'akt III. century, severed from Peru all tlie ultra- Andean regions, called Upper Peru, comprisiiii^ the richest mines and the greatest mass of the native population, and annexed them to tlu' viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres. We cannot but regret, with Humboldt, this attempt ■' to efface the historical remembrances of nations. The associations," he observes, " of thu In- dians who inhabit these countries are odener directed towards Cuzco, the centre of the ancient grandeur of the empire of the Incas, than towards the plains of Buenos Ayres,'' Besides, we must say, that, in our estimation, the idea of " rich Potosi's mines" was su strictly associated with that of Peru, that we could not willingly see them separated. In fact, the artificial tics formed by the court of Spain were finally dissolved by recent events. Upper Peru, having been liberated by a force from Colombia under Bolivar, has been erected into an independent republic, under the name of Bolivia. Buenos Ayres, having in vain endeavoured to effect an union even with the nearer territories of Cordova and Tucinnun, will still more vainly seek to comprehend within its limits the domain of Potosi. Under these views, we have determined to consider Upper Peru as Peru, and restore tu that country the districts which seem thus naturally to belong to it. Sect. I. General Outline and Aspect. 5993. Tlie boundaries of Peru arc on the west the Pacific, forming a long line of cuast between 4° and 24° of S. lat., which, by its windings and its oblique direction from north- west to south-east, probably exceeds 2000 miles in extent. On the north, the general boundary is the river of the Amazons in its easterly course, which is prolonged to the sea by a line somewhat winding, indented by the Colombian province of Jaen, On tliu vast, Peru is separated from Brazil by lines very vaguely drawn through barbarous regions, which cannot very properly be said to belong either to one or the other. It is carried, generally speaking, parallel to the coast, sloping like it to the south-east, ranging from 68° to 60° long., and extending from 4° to 25" 40* S. lat. At first, the Tavari, for some space above its junction with the Amazons; afterwards, the upper part of the Madera; lastly, a portion of the upper La Plata ; form grand natural limits. To the sniitli, ac- cording to our principle of including Upper Peru, the general boundary will be funned by the Pilcomayo, continued to the ocean, by a line drawn from its source across tlie Andes. Peru will thus be about 1500 miles in length and 700 in breadth. Tiic cun- tents, according to the careful estimate made by Humboldt, will be in square leagues 4J,50U for Lower Peru, and 37,020 for Upper Peru ; in all, 78,520 leagues, or 936,240 square English miles. 5994. T/ie surface of this extensive temtori/ is of the boldest and most varied description. It is crossed, and in a great measure covered, by the Andes, in their greatest extent ami loftiest height. Humboldt, who has traced with sucli care the line of these mountains, finds them separating, about 19' or 20° S. lat., into two parallel chains, which enclose anvxtendtd and lofty table-land, including Bolivia, or Upper Peru, and partly filled with the immense lake of Titicaca. Between 14° and 15° these chains unite, and near their junction is situated the ancient capital of Cuzco. It is remarkable that the Andes, which in their course frum Cape Horn have hitherto proceeded almost due north, here suddenly change their direction to north-west, and for a short time almost due west; while the coast, as along all tliissideof South America, follows every winding of the mountain chain, to which it contiiuies always strictly parallel. Around Cuzco is accumulated a vast knot or mass of mountains, about tliree times the extent of Switzerland. The Cordillera then again separates, unci auotliir t'lble-land appears only about half the extent of the former, but extremely elevated, heing in some places 10,000 feet high. It then unites in another knot or mass, which contiuiis lli'e rich mines of Pasco, those of Potosi being placed at tlie opposite extremity of the first laliic- land. It then opens into three parallel chains, of which the most eastern is oidy a small lateral branch, bordering on the vast plains called the Pampas del Sacramento, Vm high summits occur in the western chain facing the Pacific, and are seen in loft) sue- cession from the cities of the coast. The last is in 8° S. lat,, after which tliere d«i not occur one for 350 miles. But the mightiest part of the range is that already mentioned as extending over Bolivia, or Upper Peru. It is both the most spacious and the highest of all the branches of the Andes. It contains the stupendous peaks of Surata and IllimanI, the highest in the New World ; and which rise, the former to tlie lieiglit of 25,400 and the latter of 24,350 above the level of the sea. It encloses uii extensive table- land, scarcely any where less than 12,000 feet high, and peculiarly distiiiguislied for tlio great altitude at which full cultivation, large towns, and even cities, are situated, In this lofty district also are found the rich mines of Potosi. Between the Andes and the sea extends the plain of Peru, where the chief Spanish settletiients have been formed. It is from 50 to 100 miles in breadth, partly covered with brunches from the Andes, hut towards the seu forming a fiat expanse of land, often white with saline incrustations, and alisuluteiy a desert, unless where one of the broad streiuns, or rather torrents, from the iiiuuntains can l)e directed over if. Book IV. PERI). 5995. The riven qf tt'estern Peru can scarrolv Im mnL i from the Andes, and roll along its narrow plain to the iSr Th!;^' .'*!"•' H'""^^ torrents, which descend traversed, by the greatest rivjrs in the woHd The Amazn;,. l^^"l"'°''!"'^'"'9'' '" l»r.lcrod, and partly l>er..vian Andes One branch rises from two lake, am.Tthc mmnZn '„7 P^.r'.""""' •^"V"'" "'"""R '"^ lasl-mcntioncd table plain, receiving all the waters of ta bonmUrv ™ . . .P»»™. •"verses the whole of the lor about m miles, it forces its way through rock' am straUs LnrL??hl"?""-- ^^"l '"""wii'g this course dir«tion eastward, and reaches that ImmeSsc plain through which ?t.,^,^..^"»''"" "' """ ^"""""e™. turns it. Atlantic. The greater river Bcni rises in thc'^Sierra ^Co J,ah, J. .''"^"VSJ 'i' .r'"" ?.""»» America to the iuV, thele belong more ,?ro,H..rIy to" Bmiland pTa^SZ^V'thelThTh Vl" "*""'"" ""'• 'h' P""" l«,undary, falls into thei'lata, t.aving passed througluhe richest mh,!.rnir„'" ».''«»"">><'.««" forming id mi. lakes in South Amirica are not very grai 1 o- charactS^ f„T°" '" "'^W"''''■ dosed in its greatest table-land, the Lake of 'iSca which Jho.m^.,^^^^^ ''J"!* ™ntalnsone en. .Jeneva. cannot come into any cimpctition with the mighty hdand.M. of CaVadT "^ °' ""•' '^'"' '"■ Sect. II. Natural Geography. StBSECT. 1. Geology. .TO7. The Breat eham of Peruvian Andes is divided between lio ,„j ono „. o i . • » . tudinal branches, which are separated from each other by a wfdc "lleyor^therlw;'. ,',"'," '"?. '"""'■ faieof which is elevated 2033 toiscs above the sea. 1 he northern cXmiCofthif-'''^-'*^ Ihe mer. versing primitive rocks. Thcreare besides gold washings oil the "hanks' of'rhc'Maran'dn A"itl.".°nj''H"' "*" or the rapid mountain torrents.^ The quantity of gold coined in the royal mh.t of Uma beX".n "" """'" mines of Peru have been long celebrated, and of these the most valuable are hose of goW ™lve?°and ■ ,urv. The gold is obtained at present a Pataz and Huilies in Taoma; and from somi veins of quart vrrdinD nritnitivo rocks Thpro nrn hpauloa Drtl.l wncVi;nr.D ».. »i.„ i i. ' _i. *. «. •»•*; *vtii» ui uiiariz Of 1-ni an.n801,,amounted to 3450 marks Spanish, "in Peru nVarlythe wfioie" lv« is ex?;acl'«lTmm 'tt S mines of Yauricocha, or Lauricocha (commonly called mines of Paseo, and the Cerro di Bom»,m\ anVi .h„r„ of(;««/f;«i-oc.or Chota, and Huanl^aya. The most valuable of thcsrminesarc tK.se of Pasco \1ua.^^^^^^^^ the high table-Iaud, 13,000 feet above the level of the sea, whi.h afford rnmrall7aboiit aKiVS^l The mines of Chota were discovereil in 1771 by a Sjianiard ; but the Peruvians worked, in the time of the Imn. 8!)8. Cinnabar, or sulphuret of mercury, the common ore of mercury, occurs in Guanca-Velica, a district ot Peru, at no great distance south-west of Lima. It apiiears that the discovery of this great mercury mine goes baik to a very remote period, since the Incas made use of cinnabar in painting themselves. Mercurv is found in the environs of the town of Guanca-Velica, in beds and veins. In the great mine of Santa Barbara the riiinabar is contained in a bed of quartzy sandstone of nearly 400 yards in thickness ; but the mctallifc'ruus mass is not more than 70 yards thick. Besides the cinnabar contained in the sandstone of Santa Barbara tliiTC is also some in this same part of the Cordilleras, in small veins, in alpine limestone. Tin anil lead mines are worked at Chnyanza and Paryas ; there are considerable deposits of copper at Aroa, yet the inhabit- ants of Peru imiiort that metal friiin Chili. !i'M>. Upi'kk Pf.ru, or Bolima. — This state is interesting from the variety, extent, and value of the mine- rals it affords. The mountainous regions are principally composed of porphyry, and in the same chain there arc volcanic mountains, some of which are in a state of activity. Gold is found in ronsidcrable quantity on the mountainous districts, but hitherto it has not been very extensively mined. It occurs assnciatci ..« Molocacti, Cacti, and Schinus Mollc also grow in this district, the latter plant alfurding a resin which is much valued as an application to bruises. The <""V\\R ^HiTi/ celebrated Yellow Potato of Peru {Pa/ias amarillas) is cultivated at Huamaii. (•'^■JJiVflLna^kf'^x tanga. It is deemed su|ierior to every other variety, but is an indifferent bearer, and does not succeed near the coast. This may be considered as the native country of that valuable and wiilely diffbscd plant, the Potato {fig. 987.), which is very common about Valparaiso, inhabiting steep rocky places on the clifU ' near the sea, and always bearing pure white blossoms free from the purple hue so common in the cultivated varieties. In the immediate neighlmurhiKxl ol Pasco, that celebrated simt from which so much wealth has issued, few plants are to be found, those which most frequently occur be^ng a few (ieiitiani, Lupinus iiiiliigciius, and some Coinpositae. The pappus of Werneria rigida it used as tinder, and the ftuit of Alstroemeria dulcis is eaten by the children. r\"T*TO. Si;bsect. 3. Zoology. fiOl).'!. 7'Ae Zoo/a/r.i/ is as much unknown as that of Colombia : thcresearchesof the accomt>lished traveller! Humboldt and Bonpland, having been more directed to plants than to animals. Our notices must consc. qucntly be very brief, and conlined to the three most cele. brated animals of the Peruvian Andes, the Lama, the Vicugna, and the Condor. 6(XV». fhe Lama {Catnelus Glama L.) (Jg. 988.) reminds ihe spectator of a very small camel, in which genus it has been placed by Linnsus. It has been supiiosed by Karon Humlwldt, that the wild lamas are only individuals strayed from tlic domestic breed : but if this is correct, where was the animil originally brought from ? The hair is long, soft, and clastic on the body ; but close and short on the head and limbs. In manners, the lama is gentle and confiding, without showing much vivacity; its carriage is graceful, and even beauti. All, when the pure white of the throat and breast is seen in tVont It has not very great strength, but is trained to carry burdens. fi(XI5. ne Vicugna (Came/us Vicugna L.) is smaller than the i.AMA. lama, but is celvbratecli man, yet they exhibit no fear at his approach : their fo monarchies which, at the invasion of the Spaniards, had altainwl In a degree o( refinement far above that infant and savage state of societv in which all the rest of the Amcriean continent was plunged. It was also remarkable firom the contrast of the character i^f its civilisation with that Part HI. ig at every day ition from the cmirac, catried 18 covcret) with iieiu are clothed* r fuel, some are rubs that grow iiictia, East of cen the eastern id few, and the . The country, ' Cordillera, anil lirds of splenilid leroHi tributary ire In the same ! leagues, many icacs {Narcissus leighbourhood of its of Lima, who ds, on St John's indsia;, Mutisis, t, the latter iiIhtu to bruises. The ited at Huaman. ndiffercnt bearer, ed as the native (^g. 987.1, which aces on the cliSi m the purple hue ncighl)Ourhooad and limbs. In ;, without showing and even bc.nuti- 11(1 breast is seen in t Is trained to catty ) is smaller than the -ncss of its wool It Andes, and cxhibili ,8 follows ; — KojH's, in passes, near their riven in these dircc. I stop in terror at the ain or noosed by the •r species, not unlilie i'his animal, not to over, and then the , jlc. ar gri/phus I- J'f ■^ the publication I'l the largest of tec greater, when seen for, when jiercheil, ih. It is peculiar lo .»t noinU, boriicrins 1 tlicy never allicli )ach : their fwHl and ■^bearded vulture of per, or even a hcilet, me, by their bcalj! ey then imnuxliilfij ill Quito, it is saut - formidable birJi,!' is carrion or rteaj tnickly clothed wth withstanding musKc. • is killed with g«" Book IV. PERU. NStI ,h. hi< di h, had attaincstecIc9 which had been overcome, and the flying brldgw brwhl h " i5ii.m» had been formed over he deep ravine.. Roberteon conceived that ancient JierS cont5in«l one city 00^ Zt of Cuzco, and that all the rest of the population was rural; but this opinion is at variance with the MtwiVive remains observed by recent travellers. The ancient structure, of Peru have nothing of that lotyVhaVmier; to which those of the Mexicans atUined. Perhaps they were thus forme.1 for security in a C(«ii try ri'iUJwt to earthquakes. The walls, composed of immense blocks of stone, seldom rise to more than twelve IVet In height; but they enclose immense space, of ground, and are divided into an infinity of aiiartmeiitsi lint" much that one, olwerrcd by a late traveller, near Caxamarca, apiiearcd capable of contaiiiiiig .MKHI men, To the Mexican painting, and hieroglyphics, there is nothing analogous among the Peruvians, who however lind their guipia, or sti-ings, on which the colours represented the objects, and the knots their number. 'lliuVoil. trivance, first used apparently for purposes of culculation, was afterwards employed a. a record of events ■ though it cannot be said to x so effbctive a. the Mexican picture.. Amid the mildness of all their rite, and habits, the Peruvians retimed one practice marked by the deepest barbarism. On the death of their Inca, or even of any great chief, a number of his vassals, often very considerable, were interred aloiiK with him. There were also deposited a portion of his wealth, and many precious and useful articles, deatlnisl for his use in the other world. The opening of these huacas, or tombs, has often provetl a great priae to Kuro- pean adventures; and in one instance there was found a treasure in golcf amounting to nn leu than 150,000/. 6008. Spain, through the daring enterprise of a small band of adventurers, whose deeds we willingly declllio recounting in detail, acquired, by a coup de main, this vast and rich empire. Pern then liecnine tl'»> cenl.B of the wealth and power of Spain in South America. An extensive dismemberment, indeed, took plniH>, bt the erection of the viccroyalty of Buenos Ayres, .-nd the transference to it of the richest mining (listriclil i yet Lima continued not the less to be the capital of all the southern states. 6009. The spirit of revolution and independence which was kindled with such force by the French uturiwtlnii in the mother country, was much less strongly felt in Peru than in the less opulent seats of Spanish power, All the highest functionaries, and the richest merchants, were settled in Lima, and inspired a lone of Kelled to a disastrous retreat. La Scriin was ngaln master of Lima, which remained for some time in his hands ; but Bolivar having called forth all Ihe strenitlli ol Colombia, and the royalists being wcakcneerfectly restored. Sbct. IV. Political Geoprap/iy. fiOlO. Peru, in t 1 consequence of it. lilicration, was formed into two separate republics : one, consisting of I/iwer Peru, considered now as Peru Proper ; and the other of Upper Peru, or Bolivia. They were, imleiHl, rennlled in 18.«, under the presidency of Santa Cruz, who, in the battle of Sncabaya, completely del'euted Salidierry, the daring usurper of Lower Peru. The successful invasion of the Chilians, however, apiiears likely again lo separate them. Everything is still in a precarious .-ind unfixed state. Slavery is in course of alxilil loll, all negroes either born or entering the country after the year 1820 being dcclarectual snow which cover, them ; so that it is almost solely through the negleetwl rcm,iins of the Indian terraces and irrigating canal, that any of the elevated tracts are rem ert-d very pro. liuctivc. Some of the vallejis, also, and of the lands along the rivers, are extremely fertile Malio Is the stn|iU« grain ami chief food of the natives, in the various forms of brc.id, puddings, imrridge, and roasted tiriiln. II is also made into a fermented liquor called cAi'cn, which is agreeable enough ; but, unlortuiialely lor the ftsll. dious taste of Europeans, the Indian women consider it their duty carefully to chew it as a means of lermeill. ation. Some of the higher ground, are better fitted for barley ; but for wh«?at, Peru la deiiendeiit u|>oil Ihe Chilian province of Concepcion. The sugar-cane is cultivated with decided success, though not on a very great scale. Fruits of every climate, from the successive slopes of the Cordillera, are ixiured down into the markets of Lima. The neighlwurhood of Pisco is covered with vines, from the gram's ot which are made iriO,IKXt gallons of excellent brandy ; but the wine of Peru possesses no merit. Ipecacuanha, balsams, metlleliial plants, and valuable dye-wood, may also be mentioned. .,,-...._. ... i . „„„.i,i„..i,i., mvt Mamtfactures me in a still less advanced state. In the mountain distrlc s arc made ^n'l'le"''"'" quantitie. of coarse woollens, blankets, flannels, baiie, and particularly ponchos, a loose riding t '"«»• K'"* • rally worn throughout Spanish America, and sometime, made of great fineness. A lew '"«"""" "'^,™" manufacture cottons, rtoatskins are made into good cordovan. The 'n'''»"»,y*™"'«J"»"",^., '"''!* work in gold and silver, and their maU and other .irticles of furniture made "^n™ «»" ,«'»'" 1"^,"" very much admired. In general, however, the Peruvians look to Europe for a supply of all the finer maim- factutcs. 1422 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGllAPHY. Part III 6019. The minet have been the source of the unrivalled wealth of Peru. These arc seated in the inmost depth of the Andes, approached only by steep and perilous passes, and in mountains which reach the limit of perpetual snow. The silver mountain of Potosi, in Bolivia or Upper Peru, has no equal in the world. It rises to the height of 16,000 feet, is eighteen miles in circumference, and forms one entire mass of ore. It appears from tlic city dyed all over with metallic tints, green, orange, yellow, grey, and rose-colour. Thougli since the conquest upwards of 240,000,000/. have been drawn from it, the mountain is still only honey-combed, as it were, at the surface^ ore still lies at a somewhat greater depth, and is in some places overflowed with water. Yet it sunk into such a state of decay, that in the ten years ending 1 829, the annual produce is not believed to have exceeded 330,000 dollars; chiefly owing to the political convulsions, and the exhaustion of capital. A mining company was formed in London in 1 825, and began operations ; but during tlic embarrassments of the following year was given up. Tlie mines of Pasco are situated at a prodigious height, on the knot where the Andes lock into each other, more than 1 .'3,000 feet above the sea. They are chiefly in the mountain of Lauricocha, forming a bed of brown ironstone, about three miles long, and one and a half broad ; from every ton of whicli .wo or three marks of silver are extracted. These mines, before the revolution, yiuldcd aimually 1 3 1,000 lbs. troy of silver; but during that convulsion their working was ciitirulv suspended, the machinery destroyed, and water admitted. They have been in some degrv'i- restored ; but, according to Dr. Smith, only about thirty out of several hundred ancient oni's are now at work. There are mines also at Ilualgayas in the province of Truxillc, and Huanlaya in that of Arequipa. Tlie gold mines are found chiefly in the interior district of Tarma, bordering on the Amazon. Tlie metal is partly obtained by the usual process of washing the earth impregnated by auriferous streams ; but in some instances the guld is found embedded in veins of quartz rock. Mercury is considered equally precious with silver, from iu scarcity and its necessity in amalgamation. The discovery therefore, of tlie mines of Guanca-Velica was of the greatest importaitce, and they yielded at one time an immense amount. The mountain, which is nearly 14,000 feet above the sea, being exca- vated into three successive galleries, a great mass fell in, and crushed the most valuable works. Hence Peru docs not now supply itself with this mineral. The following is tlic amount of gold and silver coined at the different mints in 1837, and which probably duM not include the whole quantity raised : — Gold. Silver. Lima - - - - jf445,825 Cuzco . - ^£23,985 10 C6,952 16 Potosi - . 39,506 6 414,014 12 jf63,491 16 £926,792 8 6014. The commerce of Peru was almost suspended during the revolutionary struggle; yet, notwithstanding the hostilities which still continue, it has in some degree revived. The following average estimate is given on authority of the principal heads of export to Europe : — Medicinal bark, of which the most valuable kind, called Cabstiya, is produced only in Bolivia, 28,000 quintals, value 85,250/.; Chinchilli skins, 4000 dozens, 3100/.; cotton, an improving article, 800O quintals, 1 8,600/. ; hides, 605o ijuintals, 9036/,, —a recent article, but inferior to that of Buenos Ayres ; saltpetre, 150,000/. quintals, 108,984/,; seal- skins, 6000, 3196/., — this trade is declining, from the destruction of the animals; sujiar, 7(XX) quintals, 5425/., — most of that raised is sent to Chili ; tin from the mines of Bolivia, 17,000 quintals, 39,.W5/. ; wool. Vicuna, 400 quintals, 11,025/.; sheep's wool, \6,m quintals, 37,200/., — [this wool is brought from the mountainous districts, and is of a very soft texture. This list, which is evidently not quite complete, forms, however, a value of 320,000/. The exports of British jiroduce to Peru, which in the years 1827-28-29 did net average above .300,000/., had risen in 1835-36-37 to about 500,000/. The amount in \m. indeed, was 606,000/., but fell in 1837 to 476,000/. Chief heads; — Cottons, 9,297,0(iO yards, &c., value 268,000/.; linens, 1,462,500 yards, Ac, 54,000/.,; woollens, 20,400/.; silks, 10,074/. ; hardware and cutlery, 12,700/. ; earthenware, 6500/. ; apparel, &c., 4SaV. The chief foreign articles were, 159,400 lbs. quicksilver, and 2488 gallons wine. Tlie trade with Britain is the chief foreign one ; the exports to the United States in that year amounting only to 182,000/., imports 31,000/. France exports only 2516/., but imiiorls 69,940/. In 1835, there entered Callao, the port of Lima, 346 vessels, tonnage 5C,W. The customs there, in 1837, yielded 259,600/. From the more southerly port of Way tliere were exported, in 1834, specie and plate to the amount of 170,300/., with 46,000/. in bark and wool. Of these values, 161,106/. went to Great Britain. Aricu, which scms as a port to Bolivia, received in that year 99 vessels, in which \«'ere exported bullion tDll't value of 65,000/., bark 35,000/., other articles 8300/. ; of whi situated i>t a ; than 13,000 ling a hcd of y ton of which lution, yielded g was entirely n some degree >d ancient ones ■ Truxillc, and interior district le usual process nces the gold is r precious witli herefore, of tlie at one time an sea, being cxca- le most valuable following is the ch probably do« Book IV. PERU. 142;? itionary struggle; e degree revived. leads of export to jsaya, is produced O dozens, 3100/.; 9030/., — a fMi'"' Is, 108,984/.; seal- le animals ; supi, ; mines of Bolivia. cp's wool, 1G,00C 1, and is of a vet; owever, a value of 827-28-29 did no; le amount in 183fi. Cottons, 9,297,(XX) svooUens, 20,400/.; apparel, &e.,4S0Ct •allons wine. 1«« States in that) eat 2516/., but impom Is, tonnage SG.WO. ;bcrly port of m] 3f., with 4G,000/. i« Arica, which serves ,orted bullion to lis 74,394/. to Grwi Is of the foot tracks of the horses, or more frequently mules, by wl.icli they arc trod. No carnage IS attempted to be driven; but the effeminate traveller sometimes e.l Hsles o the back of the mule, a spee.es of box or litter, the motion of which, however is vc"! unpleasant It is only m the dreadful steeps of the Andes, that human art'.^ h", employed to form a path along the sides of precipices, to cut one through r,H=ks, ml ee, to form them into steeps; but these works, it is probable, were pertbrmed by l" native Peruvians and not by their European conquerors. ^ i conquerors. Sect. VI. Civil and Social State. 9f10 sist in gei)«i iral oiil; 1,400,000 as the actual number; perhaps rather hastily; for there cannot, we suspect under the circumstances of the last twenty years, have lieen any increase. Accordiiiz to statements obtained by Mr. Brackenridge at Buenos Ayres, Upper Peru, called therethe Audiencia of Charcas, contained 1,716,000; of which .510,000 were Europeans and mixed races, 980,000 Indians, and 220,000 not distinguished. We cannot help suspcctin-' tliis statement to be a little exaggerated, especially as to the first head ; but we have no other Peru, then, will contain in all 2,792,000 iiihahitants. ()017. The characler of the Creoles, or native Spaniards, of Peru, is painted under colours somewhat less flattering tlian that of the same class in almost any of the oUier states. The preponderance of the European Spaniards appears to have been more overwhelming than elsewhere. This political degradation, with the general diffusion of wealtli and facility of subsistence, seems to have been the chief cause of the enervated state into which the natives of Lima had sunk. The male inhabitants are considered by Mr. Proctor to he almost too insignificant a race to lie worthy of mention ; destitute of all energy lioth mental and bodily ; so that, notwithstanding the extensive trade, there are not above two or three mer- cantile houses carried on by native Peruvians ; all the rist are conducted hy foreigners many of wliom are from Chili and Buenos Ayres. The ladies act a much more conspicuous part ; though not always, we are sorry to say, altogether to their credit. From their earliest years they are led to consider themselves as the objects of admiration and homage, and a system of the most decided coquetry, or at least flirtation, is established. Even Mr. Stevenson, their champion, allows it to be common for the mother to screen her advancing years by making her daughters address her as a sister. Their intrigues are greatly aided by a dress originally intended to mark reserve and seclusion , the sai/a, a light elastic gown fitted close to the frame, being covered with the manto, a large loose cloak of black silk gauze, which is wrapped round even the face (Jig. 990.). Under this disguise, they sally forth, and amuse themselves by addressing their friends without being known by them ; mixing with the crowd to view whatever exhibition may be going forward; and, it is too likely, in still more culpable indiscretions. Gaming prevails also among both sexes to a destructive extent ; and families are extremely ill managed. Yet the Peruvians are courteous, humane, hospitable, and generous. In tlic country, these amiable qualities are combined with equal mirth, but a much greater d^'grcc of simplicity. 6''1R. Thr Tiulians, or native Peruvians, arc still, over Ml Peru, the most numerous class. They present nothing of that fierce aspect, anil that untamed ami ferocious character, which render the C.arihs, the Ura- zilians, and the Indians of Canada, so terrible to European settlers. They have small features, little feet, well, turned liml)», sleek, coarse, block hair, and scarcely any beard. Ulloa and Bouguer have rpiiresented them as sunk in apathy and insensibility ; as beings to whom good and evil fortune, honour or dishonour, life or death, api)eared to be all alike. liut though a certain t.imeness of character may have been gener.itetl by tlicir former despotism, it appears, tb.it the shy, re8crvt>cana, Indian), and Negroes. Accoriling to Mr. Stevenson, the mestizo is strong, swarthy, with little lieard, laboiioua, and well ilisposcd i the mulatto is less ro()usl, but is acute, talkative, imaginative, fond of dresa and parade. In a public diKtmi. ation at the university, a mulatto in the gallery will often help the embarraaacd student out with his syllugisni The zambo (mulatto and negro) is violent, morose, and stubborn, prone to many vices, and guilty of niori; robberies and murders than any other class, only excepting the Cninos (negro. Indian), said to be the very worst mixed breed in existence, ugly, laiy, stupid, and cruel. (iO'.'O. The religion, a> in every country over which S|>ain ever reigned, is exclusively catholic. Lima is Hie .c>cii accumulated by several of the convents from inous doim. tiona. Some of the clergy are respectable, but a great projiortioii of tlie friars arc said to lead very dissolute lives, and to uromote rather than cheuk the general licentiousness. Although no toleration is admitiiil, yet in 18V/ the inquisition was abolished. An Knglish traveller then resident saw its dungeons broken open, and their secrets disclosed : lacks, pillories, scourges of knotted cord, tormentors of netteil wire, with fHiints projecting inward ; and gagging iiistrtnnenta formed of human bone. There was a crucitix with a lead capable of making a movement, which, licing produccil by a person tYom tiehlnd, had the apiicaraiiie (if being miraculous. (lO-il. Literature is not In so utterly depressed a state at Lima as in the other cities to the south of the Isthmus of Uarien. Besides several colleges, there is a highly endowetl university, founded in 1549, on the model of that nf Salamanca. The professors do not deliver lectures ; but examinations and disputations arc mainkiincd with considerable diligence. A number of scholars have lieen prcxluce •■» he ai)l>caraiKe e louth of thp in I.M9, on the isputations arc n America, are ition, contained ompanied Willi ,ull-flght«. c(Kk. is extreme, mi lies, and alrcaily re of fish, cctis, Jdlc of tlM! tabic. inisli America, ' a form nearly wo miles long, lalf broad ; the lied by the river surrounded by a ,nd clay, twelve apablc merely of rposes of polif*^^- run in straight p the city into » juaresofviirious lensions. Tlicy more than oms dcd by vor'."'"'* interior, painti'il citation of sloni', ■r Spanish cities on old plaster^'! rangely occniuwl : apartments nmv •nificence. '11"^ sider.ibleliei!!>l; velyrich. d"* though vvitlttl'S the croiiwl lloor. ,,„; ami fifteen )iit extensive, and, so rich, !•* t""'' tlio catheilral. A" ..asurc in the im- , was contamcil m .hments;l.ntdut- olntion great 1« .bstracted, tl.oui;!- aerials st.hst.tuuj ■^ carefttlly . 'i^i^] . nopuJation ol iortlingt"^"--'";: .en, 26,55;J won.e. 2a Mestiios, .Wf declined, and .w« Book IV. PERU. 1 425 httle to exceed 45,000. Callao, communicating with Lima by a very fine road, has an ex- cellent harbour formed by two islands. The forts l>y which it is defended are handsome and strong ; l)ut Callao itself is a mere fishing village, of about 200 huts. em*. On Me coatt to the north of Lima is Truxillo. a handsome little town, a miniature of Lima, and built II the wme gay style. Around It is a very extensive and productive plain j and "her tracts, which are now „n... w«.t«. «ro nroved. hv .h, ,.r.»i„. of acequli^, and the ruin, of large towns, to have been cultiv«t«l ind 9 port ol Huanchaco, which has a tolerable roadstead, Truxillo sends receives British goods in return. On the 29lh of November. 1830, the uxillo, proclaimed the independence of that intcndency, and thus use of liberty in Peru, lluachi and Suih! are large Indiair villages, inhabitants, an active and hardy race, carry on some fine manuiac- the produceof its territory to Lima.aml receives British good's in return. On the 29lh of Novimber, isa). the Marquis of Torretagle, governor of Truxillo. ■••""'••■ — • "•- —- • • - .. ; .' ^■•"•y"'""-'. »<'■*'.."'», rendered an essential service to the cause i the houses poorly built of mud ; but the inh , _ „.„, ,„^^ ^„„, „„ ,„,„„ „,„. „„,„„^,. turcs of cloth and glass. Sanna is the seat of a consider..ble trade, and La^mra^e^ue/to he north of T?ux Ito IS the most thriving place between Lima and Guayaquil. The inhabitants manufacture excellent cordovani ol goatskin ; cotton cloth, j,articularly table linen and canvas ; soap, which, though much inferior to that of Kurope, is preferred iii Peru j and sweetmeats m-ide from the fine fruits of the country, which are packed up in chip boxes, and sentaU along the coast. I lura, still farther north, is generally accounted the most andent city m ^uth America, though it is not exactly on the site of the city founded by Piiarro. Its district is noted for the finest breed of mules in Peru, sometimes selling for ort of considerable imiwrtaiice : but since the earthquake of IG05, and the plunder of the place, in l(i80, by the virate Warren, it has been in a great measure deserted, and the population has emigrated to Tacna, which is a thriving town, about thirty miles in the interior, employing extensive droves of mules to carry the merchandise landed at Arica into the jirovinccs beyond the Andes. Moquehua, another interior place.U chiefly noted for the goml wine produced in its district. OOHR. The northern interior qf Peru, forming part of the Spanish intendency of Truxillo, consists of the provinces of Huailas, Huamalies. and Conchucos : they occupy various levels in the great interior table- land of the Andes, and are reachetl by rocky and almost precipitous routes over the western chain. I'heyYresent that variety of rich and valuable nroduce, which generally marks the American table-lands. Wheat, barley, cocoa, sugar, are grown ^n its diScrent stages ; flue cinchona is brought from the eastward, though the waste, ful mode of collecting it may cause a dread of exhaustion ; the fine soft wool of the alpaca aiul vicuna is collected. There is a great deal of manufacturing industry in these upper districts; the wool is made into IHinehos, flannels, serges ; the goatskins into cordovans ; the tallow into snap. The mines, which were for- merly worked to a considerable extent, are now almost all abandoned. Great hospitality prevails ; any rc- siHxitable traveller, on arriving at a town, has only tn f>n to the best house in it, where he is sure to lie enter- tained, usually without charge. Iludcness, however, ascribed to the inhabitants, especially of Conchucos, and believed to arise from habits formed under the i ling system, Tlicre are several pretty large towns in this high district, which serve as markets for the proilinoof the neighbouring country, and channels by which they receive European commodities. These are, Caxatnmbo, Iluaras, and t'axamarca ; each of the two last, according to Mr. Stevenson, containing 7(KK) inhabitants. Cfaxamarca is, above all, distinguished as having contained a place of the ancient Incas, and being tlie sjiot where Alahualpa, the last of the dynasty, fell by the sword ot Pizarro. An Indian family still boasts this high de. rest mestizoa, with only a ainall and dinhnlHhing lirii|mrti»ii uf HiiaiihirdH. The maniifacturea arc conaldcrahlc. (Unco threw ofl'thc Spanish yoke earlier than Lima, but the rity was soon retaken by the royalists, and remained with them till tlic final extinction of their power, (iO.'ll. Upitcr Peru forms an extensive territory, situated south and somewhat cast of liiiwer Peru, with which it assimilates in aspect and productions. Yet, in 177H, it was separated by tliu Spanish government, and attached to the viccroyalty of La Plata; while III the course of the late revolution it was severed from La Plata also, and erected into nn iiidepeiuk'iit republic, under the name of Dolivia. This is among the least known regions of the globe, yet one which its natural features render peculiarly interesting. It is now nscprtained, by the important observations of Mr. Pentland, to contain the l.iftiest mountain piMiks in the New World, yielding in height only to those of the Himalayah. The summit of Sorata was found to be 'J.'>,400 feet high ; that of Illimani, 24,350 ; so that Chiinburazo, which is only 21,400, must hide its diminished head. Tlie very elevated table plain from which these colossal summits rise appears to have prevented their extraordinary elevation from becoming sensible, till it was determined by barometrical measurement. This tabic pl:iiii, though not the most elevated, seems undoubtedly the most fruitful and populous on the globe. That of Thibet is as lofiy, and vegetation ascends as high on the southern slopes of the Himalayah. But while Thibet, in general, presents only wide pastoral expanses, covered with numerous herds of goats, sheep, and oxen, this western table yields copious harvests of rye, maize, barley, and even wheat ; it has cities above the region of the clouds ; villages which would overtop the white pinnacles of the Jungfrau and the Schreckhorn ; cot- tages as high OS the top of Mont Blanc. The following are among the most remaricable lii'lgbts: — the city of Potosi, 13,350 feet (its mines, 1 0,000); city of P(ino, 12,832; of Oniro, 12,442; of La Paz, 12,194; of Cbarcas, 9332; of Cochabambo, 8440; cottages at the source of the Ancomarca, 15,721 ; post-house of Pati, 14,402. Mr. Pcntland's obser- vations of longitude, though imperfect, seem to show that the principal stations in this region arc further east, and more in the interior, than our maps represent them, in cunsc- j|iience of which these remarkable summits are not visible from the Pacific. 11102. Thi- new mvemment have formed Bolivia into eight departments ; — Chuquisaca, I.a Faz, Oniro, I'olosl, Cochahamba, Santa Crnz dc la Sierra, Tarija. IKI'U. A tile hat beenfliid upon for a capita/, to bear the name of Sucre, the commander whose victory al Ayncui'ho secured the independence of the stale ; but as this city Is not yet In existence, the interim motro. polis is (Ixed at Cbarcas, which has been reinvested with the ancient Peruvian name of Chitquisaca, and hi< Imrne also sometimes that of La Plata, from the silver mines in its vicinity. It is a handsome city, containing alMHit 12,(KH) inhabitants. Notwithstandini? its astonishinn elevation, the country round is fertile and smiling. There is an university numerously attendi-d, anil a library, said to be one of the best in South America. ^m^, l,n Pax, to wliich M. llalbi, on Mr. Pcntland's authority, assigns a population of 40,(KI(), is rcallv the chief city of llolivia, and surrounilcd by the most interesting objects in that country. A few miles to thp south is tin- NevaiW de lllimaiii, and at some clistanco to the north rises that of Sorata, Imth already ilcsrrilml ni the highest mountains in the New Worlil At some distance to the north-west is the great lakeofTicirara, al)iiut 1.10 miles long, anil the largest in South America. This lake is a sacreil object in the eyes of the IVru. lians, since, according to their most sacrcl traditions, it was on an Island in its centre that Jianco Capar ami his spouse first apjioareii to give laws and arts to the empire. At the village of Tiahuanacii, near its lianlu, are the remains of a stniiendous palace erected by the ancient Peruvians. The Interiorcnurts, tVH) feet si|uari', are built of enormous blocks of stone, some of which weigh eighty tons. The great gates are each coiniiosod of one single mass. There are also remains of colossal images, but rudely Ecul|>servef a long narrow band of territory nituatcd between tlio .\nilc! and the Pacific Ocean. The foriiior, reaching unbroken from the northern to llic soullurii citrcniilv of South .\iiu'rica, divides it into two very UMc<|iial parts. That on tlic las' 'art in. reat height, mliitnntii, of ii|iortiuii of mn, but the jwcr. at cast of '78, it van (kta; while id into an wn regions It is now t mountain ["lie summit ;iiiml)oraw, plain from TV elevation 'This tabic populous on ithern slopes al exponses, iclds copious f the clouils; ckhorn ; cot- it remarkable ,, 12,832; of ) ; cottoges at itlanil's obser- ;ations in this icm, in consc- l,n Vat, OniTO, wliofic victory at ic interim molro. uqiiisacn, and ha» nc city, containing fertile and smiling. ilh America. O.WH), i» rcal'y 'f i few miles t" '"'' 1 already ilcwrital atlakeor'l'.iiiiifa. [.(■vesoftlu'rctu- Jianco faiKW ami icu, near its liank», rtii,3«)fcetS(Hia"', arc each comimscil ibscrved, few traros n the world, being, ncriffc. It is lint a It lm«, howpver, a assertion that, 111 its nrcseiit decliw, it not more tli.in than 4000 ot m ' e midst of a tctlilc 'e la Sierra, sitiiMixl >K8 UV llllU. '^wm 1 m km 1488 MAP OF CHILI AND LA PLATA. Fig. 995. «/• ' niiceiirloj "• Arniiro Fig' 995. Book IV. CHILI. 1499 <^ 00 iiumlce uiul obnldlin. Few countrtei In the worlil mv hi i'OMllmi«ll)f niiil vliilmlly iMtitalnl lijr mrlhquaki'i u Chill : ■nil thctc agilulloin wciu prliicl|mlly iin llm I'ltaU'rii l\*iX iif llip niiitiiiUlii rnnKP ; irlilnm on the wettern. The miikl rcinnrkalilu <-rii|itlan »l thii ('l)lllttM viili'itmtva wi«t (hut iir IVIcriM, mi thu .'kl t'urmnl. A lar^e iKirtliin iil' tlii' inmnilnin M\ Into lln> l.(niUip, nnil, hnvliiR lllletl lit l)«l, gave riio to a lake, In con«i'i|iieiii:o of ihu HUcuiKiiUIInn »\ llii< wnlvr, N|irliiKii ol' |H'lri>U'iiin fliiw out ' ■ — ■'■ '- ' ' ' ■■ '■ ■ ■ ■■ "(itaai ■ ■ ,_ , , Aiiili", ionie- tiiiiet at iin elevation ol'yUlK) to 14,(11111 feet uUivu Ihu Ivvvl nl' llii< >iiiiUii nl i lny, (Mrlly tvrtiiiry, |iailly " ■ "" '■ " " ' 'M (III (litM'omt III the I'aellli'. Theie olay« rcrt In various place* on the eaitern ilile, anil Ry|»iini nixi iii'i'itrn nhiimliinlly i llnivttunc In UiiiHoIh ami other iilarcn, and coal near the Hay of C'niiccivloii. I'lwtil ihiilla art' hiiinil mil iilil>ei|U('nlly In the , ., . ......1— ...uu.i...... ■ i'lhti>iMi l)i<|>iiiUaiil iliiy, lurlly t( cm iin cimat nl the racllU'. Th uiHin a brownian iaimaioiie, woicn exieima u lur aa iiiii ciicaln nl' Viil|Mr.ilaii, ciiiialilliiH iil'ayriiltc, anilliirnia the northern oH'act of the three iecoiulary niouiilalii rHiiHowliiili lirniiih iill'iViini thi I nrilillera liy Ihccucala H'ciit, ciichwing I'lMiiil ahells, occur In Ihu iiiarilhnv iiriivtnci> lion a browniah iaiulatone, which exicnila at t»x aa the cticalt of Chacabuco, aiitl Conn the three rlilKca iiili'iv(inlii|| IwlwiH'ii SavrvHlliiii, In lh« valley above ('ii<|iiimbo, half a mile wide, are |i.irallcl roiida ri'scinbling Ihoaii of llleii liny III Mcnlland, \< hiae hirniallon la coiinecteil with the rising of the land in thia part of the New World. imu The mineral produeUims nf Chili, accnriling to Or, (lllllra, Hn< very luiinerona, and many of them ol ercat value and utility ; but Its pradnce In thu (ireciiiiia iiiulnla Ima nuverthvlvia Ihhmi annicwhat ovcr.ralnl Many of the richest mine* cannot be worked unilir iiriacnl ciri'liiiialanci'i, 'I'lie ileaert cuiintry to the norlli lit lull irlh iif C'oiilaiHi docs not |icrmlt the working of the rldl liiliii'* of unlil, allvcr, and cniipcr at Clinco Cajo, ami other iiart* of that country, aa theac diatrict* are allo|iulhur ilcalllnte ol water and other necc«*ariea of life In that part of the country there are alio rwk aall «nd line atnliiary inarhle. To the north of thia, II the iirovlncc of Atacama, arc mine* of nitre, which hiive liwn recently ex|ilored ) and the produce of iliU aiilwtancc has been conveyed In conalduralilu nnanllliea IViiiii the |«itl of Coliigo to Kuroiie. In the niuntrv between the Hlohio and archliielago of Cliiloe are niliiieriill« and rich mliiea ) hut none of them hat Ik'mi worked aince the natlvea recovercil imaaeaalon of llml cminlry. The gold inliica In the inter. lecdiatc urovincea are at Copia|io, fluaico, ('iH|nlinlHi, I'nleroii, \a iilgnn, Tlllle, rutuendn Algiie, Huilli. iiutuuua and other placea. These were lornicrlv wiirkwl (n a great elitcnl, hut have been leaa attended lo than 'forineily, aince the commcmeineiit of tlio ruviiliilloii, The rli'lieal liilnes of allver are In the pro. viiii'ca of Cuulaiio CiHiulnibn, and Santiago. In thcae, the allver la geiiernlly nmiid cnmlilneil with anlphiir, nr«i>iiic lead and other mineral aubatancea ; but a few yuara Hun, a rich vein of allver wai . I'antlelaria 40. rtilll.in 47. Tuca|iel 4S, La Palitia 4'.l. YuidM 60. Conmirlon .■il. S. llafacl it. Aramo 53, NcCTrto 64. S. Hiirliara 66. Millai|ua 56. Taniu'ti 67. Fuli'illco W. Vurciuiojo 60. Vaiiehuo 61, I.alnuo 61. Vlllarlca 6.1. llaio 64. ('lieli|ui 65. Valillvia 60. S. Kt^marldo 67, Manzano 6S. H. I.illa 6'J. H. riirlm ;o, Kl Aalellero 71. CalbUi-o I.A PLATA, NuRTIl VaUT. I, Puinnjuu t. riulia 3. Vui;la 4. Ilolcan ,5, Pt-Tlco 6. Illaiiro 7, JiO"> », F. ilcl Nearo D. Ht'iita lu. (iuailalcazat II, Cavza Si>i|. ei «c/iTi'NCi's III Ihi- A/rtji (\f iWi nml /.« IIK, H, KmiwiiiIu nil, \i|>iniiaa I, M. HIiihivI M. Hulcirra y V. A.rr llilial Maniiaiio n. N. iliiaiiilo la ,51 . AniuUliiy Fniiiltrii til. Frentium 4. l*iii\i'llo &3. Six'iiluiila A, la» rnlitiialM 54. N,Jiu«iliil'atai'aa 0. lUilrllllln ~, Ml'MllMfil . I'aiTKalillii .11, F. H,l>t|.ia . 55. TiMiillliuaila .50. Maiara 57. Pllainliala 5S. IMariiK.ihl.i 5U, Sai)ti.ii|(t (Ivl K.li-rt) fiO. Xinlumil 61. Avinaraa Ci'i, ('aclui>arn 63. PauuiliiD 61. H, PiTnaiiilo ilu ('ala.iiavi'a 65, tiiiayraiiia IVfaaaa imiiieso 60. laimyaii 07, S, Vernaiiila IS, Turun 13, Capore 14, Camaculas 15, Aycolics 16, Royauno!* 17, Ounrucanoa IS. Chllauull'iuli'a 19, Toli«ioiii» 120, MofiKolaa tl, llili*ii(M Ayrv* M. Il.ili'llhaii. ('nilllia 59, Fiirllii lie Loin till, Alrhi 61. Miiiil. ill) l.iilti'f. m. Iliitav 11,1, Aiiilii. III. N'. H. ilel I'Harile ii* C«iulnilio INleli'lie. V* l.tiiiari 05, tlnliiiehlaliual «♦ nmapa on. Iha|iip|n,a 1* Oullaniari 0', LiHiiiuliii y* AconrftRiia OK, f'litli'ileiraimen f* MaiKx-lia on. I'lililiii'lini ilel Kllr n** lllanco JO, llmlialdf 71. Aliaiihet. Htifei> a rrt.nliliiilii It Vntllluiiiiii a V llliillrnntle il Ill-line. t* IVl Valle II* i'lmmlilclia 11* Itellen I* IMainn .1* Kalailo il* .luncal 1* llilneral ni* I'oplaiio n* lluaM-u 0* Anuualasia p* Fiiiiuilliia i|* Kerlll r* Matliia >* l.linarl I* ]\leiiilo/.i 71, Hellan, or Itoih- W, MaiiilKiilii lent 78. AntfualasIA 73, AnlilKaiilliii 74, Aiiiinua 75, llloja lie la Nui'va 76, \'iiulia)iia 77, Pisinaklaa 78, K, .luan lie .lai'luii 79, Mii.liiau hll. HhiilHilaii HI, Villa ilel Valle Felin 88, Pluliami H3. Vipiira 84. lluraann R5, Ponteiuela 80, Vunta 87. lluanauasta 88. KalaiMUii 89.S, MlHiii'l go, Coni-eaiune 01, Jukim 98, Hania Lurla 93, Uaraaa 91. Alilaa 95. Corrienlea 90. S. Ailijiulln 97, Aaliiu-ion 81, H Aliliilllii 8.5. CaWiit till liar, ipilr 86. tluAliniiiAi'liii 8J, Nlil)il 88, llanaiU 811, Haiilii F(i .111, riiriiiiilii 51, N, lima 38. 1'linliiva ,13, Kiii|i|rA 31, Aliaufurlii .1.5. Kl I'livlilii .16, M. Aiiuii.liii 37. N, |.iiii>ii*ii 38, M, Fflllllll .111. N, railiu 411, Turn., 41. M«iii'lii>(, 48. Fi«l )*, Ki|iirllii Haiiln 4.1. HiMiiii J 4. li^iiiiH liailrt. 5. in luiliiiipiiHii 40, laniilii fVplliielii I'lli'iiniaio H Fliuiiiiitunient lsiti|H>la II l'nrnaiia» I Pariina I I'nmiiay k 8nliiillllo I AttH'lVP III 'I'eli'i'to II Ulliitlo 11 (liilulii p H. 1 liiiii Inline b** Atequia c** Moja lee I*uvii, Hes.iiruailero da Meiulo/a, or Itio Tulorailo A** Fl.ivea e** T,.mlll f** \Rna<'io f;** (lue^en I** I laraineca l«« PIcun I** I'li.u I*iivii k** Hainiiiel 1** liOiifren in** I'lrnlliirontrr. n** SifU Ia'Uvu o** Hiieno p** Tolten q** Penayeo t** Colpl a** N'eritara I'niiinn el hnlaOa I** lllobio 47. l'oi#ii 4H. iir , -. Ilaliailll .. 4U. FiiTiiii ili> Mpr. nali-a 50, Funmil'.Vlliril 1) Plli'ftlrt t Piiinew a Hpio I llllllf II Halflilo V ratntan w Alia. k t'nlilera y H. 8nl»ailor,or Hliillraniledc .ligiiy a 8. 1, Pirn n* Anitmn II* Amiabiiallas i* liiiii'iiiiiorassn t1* I'm-tiinall e* IIoihIo .axa V** Clilllan w** Maule a** Tlngiiaririr.i. a Palclpa li AmlalKala r Mataraa d .lapave e 8alado8 de Ins PoraPHDS r (Irande g Salinas h (irande I l.liiiite ) I'ewninaviiM' 4 Y I H:)o |)i:SC III I'll VK GKOUIlArilY. I'aiii III. Iinccii mllvi, In Ihc liniiki of th« rivor M^ypii, where It )• riiliiunl liy aiiialKnm.ilinii. I'hr inpiirr tnlnt'i arv liUK'h miirv iMimi'riiiu .iiiJ vmIu.iIiIo Ihnii any nf tliv ciIIiitk, iiiiiI iillliril llie ilaiili' mineral iiroiluit ol ( hili. 't'liev occur lictwi'en J C anil Jii'^ S. lal. i Init are |irini'i|<'illy cunllneil In the |irnvinie> (if I ci<|nnnlio aiui C'n|ila|K>. '|'heni|i|ii-r nre li aticNiatetl with >nl|ihnr and nr«enlc, which are icimrated liy inu'llhiK. Itnl it i« nnly nucli nunx aacnnlnni nre that yielila iine hall'nriU v.elnlit (ij°|inre metal lliat are wnrked. Alxaita thiiu. •ami nl' Ihciic iiilnea were wurkcd In the lime ol Molina j liut iilnre that ppriiMl,owlnH lothe vUiwIlndei In thu iiolituai and connncnial nimlitlDii of the cnnnlry, the miinlH'r workcil Iiok varied coiKlileralily. Ul late ye.ir> however, owliiK to the Improved connnercial (iractliei, till* branch ol' lndu>try haa received an Increaiiil impiilne. The rich ami I'amoua cnp|H'r mine of I'ayen In the Arumanlan country lia> innx licch iihworked. Mnieii ol' (julcktllver are itated to exUt In CoiiulmlHi, ('o|ila]xi, and f.lmachca. formerly they were proliiliitni Iroin la'iiiK worked, and we ilo not hear orihelr having lieen <>|iehed ■incc the reiirlcllon waH remove liy fur the nin^ |iriNlurtive in mineral Ire.i^urea, and containa the celeliratetl Hilvcr ininea of Uapallala and ramatliiu, lii'tidc'i many otheia In the aaiiic raiifte. In the aliove triu't la the alum mine of (luaiidacol, where llili iiaeful produc- tion may he had In isreat aliuiiiluneUi In It the alum cuith la united with auUa liiatcad of potoiio. '^ SuusEcr. Ihitaili/. (i(U.3. 1/ u'l' comiilcr the easlvrn tUe <\f Stiulh Aim-rien, in nearly the aaino latitude! oath I wcalcrn, weahali find n very diU'ereiit veKctalion, owIiik to the exteniive chain of the Aiidea, already noli, ed, which aeparati) the two counlrlea liy a vant natural harrier. The Cordillcraa gradually decrcaae in height aa we reccile fiimi the tropica. In the nelKlilHiurhood of Uulto, Chimhorazo and I'ichiiicha rear their aummita to the height nf ne.irly 'J2,INM) leet above the level of the sea : near .SanliaKo du Chili the hixlieat land la I >,IHH) feet ; I'arlhcr aoutli,nt Concepcion, it ia.'-ldl lower i and, at Chiloe, there are few parta of the rniiKe exceeding IKKXI fell in height. Iletwveii Chiloe and the Siiait of Maftellan, Ihe averatje altitude may be taken at 'Mii feet ; hut lliere are some of Ihe muunlaiiia that may riac to lietween M*) and IKHXI feet hixh.* lil>U. «MC ((/' Ih,- montiliikhigfcaliiri's iircaenteil on the .ippro.ich to Chill by Ihe I'ai||ht m the Aiidea Ihia inorniiiKi on drawiiiK near the land at daybreak; startiiiK, aa it were, from the occuii it.svlf, their aummita of eternal >miw ahone in all llio inajealy of light, long before the lower earth waa ilhi. ininated, when, auddcnly, thu auii aiijH'ared from behind them, and they were luat, and we aailed on for hour*, iK-fore we deaeried the land." Of the vegetation of Iheae mountalna, little la ut preaent aacertaincd ; and lliat little, eolliH ted prihcipnily from a|>ecimena gathcrvil by Dr. (iilliea, Mr. Cruckthanka, Mr. Macrae, and Mr ('umihg, la more Inlereating to the hotanlat than to the gener.d reailvr. The intermediate country belwnii the Andes and Ihe coaat la belter known ; but, na Ita vegetation paaaea Inaenalbly into that of Peru, we kliall endeavour to give a akct.'h of the more remarkable fcaturea, by aoiiic oxtracta from a lltlle-knowu jniiriia' of cur valueil friend, Mr. I riickahaiika, very lately published in Ihe aecond volume of the llulnnital Mm; limy. Chill, and that p.irt of I'eru lying wcat of the Arnica, from their gciigruphical ailnatioii and physii.il ttruclure, otter an inlereating tleld for studying thceflect of climate on vcgetnlion. The twocountrlea preaeiii ., line of coail, extending from 40" S. lat to wilhih a few degrees of the equator ; Ihe great chain of the Andes runa in a direction almost parallel to the coaat, and the surface of the intervening cnuntrv la similar throiiitliuiii, consisting of ranges of mountaius, diminishing in height aa they recea, and Ihe sun Is rarely obscured. The gradual decrcaae of atmospheric moisture from the south m Chili to the north of I'eru la a striking feature, and pr'.' iiices a reinarkahle ellWt on the vigetation, lii Vnlillvia and Concepcion, where the rain la copious, forests of lolly Ireea Jibound, and the earth ia generally covered with herb.iceous jilanta, ami pro {Dri/niis iliili-nsh), Ueuli (?), Avellani) ((liKiiliid liiii'n'iilii//lii\imil I.itri i^llliiis ? i-iiiiatira, ii( IliiAa and AiHull in the Uotauy iif Cupl. llnr/ni/'s I'liyiife). 'I he Araiicaria, or Chili I'liie {Jiji. '.'y<.), ia .'drall^l conllned to the luilinn country south of the llioblo; where Ihe naliiri Biib'.i.at entirely on its .«ccd, which they harvest and linry in pita for wintir WAV. Its wikhI is .said to lie very lesinoua and cloae.graiiUHl, but brittle; for which reason, |irolial)ly, ilia never ex|K)rted. .Some of the .diove- nanieil Ireea are also found in other parta of Ihe country. In the iniilille provinces, vegetation ia less luxuriant, and Ihc wnixia thin. Trees selihuii attain a large si/e, except in ravines, and many of these are dillerenl from those of the south. Those most fre(|ueiitly found on the tiilU au the MoIIe, Ihe ItoWlo [lUildon /rnfiram\ <^\n\\A\ {Snu'tritiitflomos aiiu- Hiii(iti:\ Mul I'eumo \l'finiiiis lubtn). TI.e Mnytcn [Viii/tciiiis cliilaws . I.ileii \Aiiir(i sniiitii\ I.itri, ami sinnc ollicrs, are liss ciuninon. Tiu' ViiUixtui {Tiini.siii'ilai III ilijiciirinis^, Mai|Ui (Aiislolucliiii .Miii/tii, lieilfla [l.itriinni icautilul. The ImicIisIic (Jig.Wfi.) also arc cdnliiml to moist ground, exiept V. lycioides, which iiih.ibils the driest spots cm the liills. In many pl.'U'oa, where the soil is too poor or loo dry for other tree*. the Kspino {Mi'miKa r«irn«i) grows ; the wornl of which is licivy, .ami much valued for fuel. Near the Andes, the .Alg.iroba, n tree of the saiK family, is comim in similar spots; and large tracts of Ihe bills areoDcii covered with I'ourretia coarctntn. Itischietly in llie middle provinces Hut the I'almofChili(.U;irororfo.v) is found. It is not a common tree, licingvcr; King, in Journal of the Roijal Oi\%raii/iiciil Soc-'tti/ i}f LoniUni, loco cil. WJC fiOM. Ch racca of If the mount eiidiireil, t Valdivia, ' country Chili. I ft'liich has put to dea lliem, and IKbl. 7'/ The Engli ii.ntivea, I general i Mexico i it contain imv.'. lirovinccs which hai submLasioi designed, general d~ Kuropean accnied in being aide drove the RDvcrnor i western A Ihe gre.it I governor c troops, to at lirst del met the ei of Chili, in oicupy director oi yield to D ever since agitation. fid-iS. Tl composed A conaidc lio.'i*, Tl l»AUI Ml. ■prr mtnvi iitu hIiu t di' ( lull. 1 (H|iiiiiilio anil tiiiK. Hut II II AlKiiitallinii. luUiiilt'i til lliL' 1)1' lutu yi'.ira, .1 nil iiicri'iiii'il iTii iiiiwiirki'd, vi*rL> pruliiliilL-d rlllDVCll. Milll'l. [uliu of ini|uirt. illl. of till' * nr ly liir till' 1111:4 iiuilliia, iK'niili'ii t lUl'ful Iirinlllt- ISO. ti'tlcrii, wo th.ill which wiKiralcn we ri'reni' l"i<>iii III till- hi'lt;lit ipf «K) li'i'l ; I'arlliir Uiiu am feit III it ■MU I'ci't i Imt I allbrilcd by lliu than the liRht nl I'ruiti the iKi'aii : caith wa« lilii- ili'd on lor houti, laincd ; anil tlial MniTBC, nml Mr. country littwwii 111' I'eru, wf »liall Ic-kiiowii jmirna' llulaniiut .Wiin lion nml liliy»ir,il mintricii i>rc8i'nl n lain of till- Aiiilw Miiliir tlirmiKlmiil, 'riic«c niiiunlaiiis, liiiorlunityofroiii. ll'i'reiit ilcgrci'i ol /ctful intliicnoi'dii ulh, antli^alU'iUii tioii. 'I'lic aviranu i;hill, the raiin arc Ic of ValparaiMi, il a week or two, or iiart of Chili, the nist lieiiiK "11 "I'T 'uniYcriM , :ii»l Illl' xposeil to, ill ttlial L> eqimtiir, this iiii>t . from the iuMh iil he vi'jjetatioii. In c earth is (.'Ciuially . Fniiii C'liiirilifiull ninonest trees: Hit miriiiii iiiiiimlira , iiiiislicd, iify/"'*!' ji„ i.iii;.l, is almiitl where the nati"' ry in iiits for wintir rniiiiil, hut britlU ; Some of the alum- itry. Ill the iiiiiWIi' thill. Trees si'liliini • these are ilillirnil mill on the hilU au ^^ul/tl■nlls f/i'/i'";"' ' I, si iiiminiiii. 11.1 dim Miii/ui , IMIii' ■^ eoiiliiieil til mil- life fiiuiul, 'if «!'■''' (xUiee u>el'ul liiiilii'i 111 early siiniiiicr. .,.) also arc I'liiiliiiiil iieilriest Biiotsonlhi' 111 ilry for other tree-, which is heavy, anil la, a tree of the saii'.t of the hills are often iniililleliriiviiici'sll"' mmoiitrce,lieiii|(ViT5 UuoK IV. CHILI. 1431 purllal , but loveral ctntei ow'c much of their value to the iiumlH'r of ihce ,,alm.. of win, h. though the .ten. 1. ' - <"" .' ".'■ ""' '"'" I'"!"''"!, and, belntt very (oiidol lt> hii.k. they presently ,et to work eallnH thi .■^! : J'if*' "i""'!'.'" !"»»<":alinK it In the llr.t Initonce. and swallowiiid H whole j aflerwariU, while chcwlim Iho cud, the nun are elecled ; and when the meal It tlnUhi'd, n„,'.™'.'i "'""'" " '■"'""'. l"'for« each of the aniinali |cr«tl. free from the huik , the cattle beliiK thiii nil the hill., at the .ame time that they elflttually por „ a^*;, u elulcraZi;'' *'"" ""'" """" """""" im;. In the dhtriil of which Valparaiso may be coiisidereil ihr en ,^'ih^ .Ih'.i. j;;!ii;s\^^l!n;Xir"'« •"" ""■'" -"" ""- ""^ ™^ -- -'nt;^o::;r[\:i:;cZS;?s^:vS^ I, no culture. "Ihe Carbon (CV-r.fm ,/.'r,i«d,';,) Is almost the on y r ee , i" wo.hI I. Imrd L., 1 h .avJ I 'i .^"! l„r fuel 111 .meltliiK copiH-r ore. as are the Talp.ea and varlou, Sctl. wi 1, Si 'a itetr w^h Vrow thirtJ or forty feet Inuh, niid throw out many braiieliei. luiumnor inu s, wniin grow inirty SuiisF.(T. 3. Zoology. l-iOW. Our informalhn on l/u- Xoology i^f Vhili U very .light : a meagre lilt of about a doien birils hai lieeii Kieen by one of he mcKlern traveller. In thU country, but we may cmi.ider it a. a renio iiiiV I reil liy t^ pr»fe.se< naturabst. I'he Lama and Vicugna, two wool-bearlng animals of the Aiide. have 'lea lylwei .lescrlbediinder the head ol leru: to heso we mav add three other kindred species, calleil by traveller, lie I'acu, Chilihuque. and Humel. a. natives also of Chi'.i. Wo have just received a line colK'lion of Cliil ii birds, which will form the .ubJiTt of a distinct volume of our O,mlhol,vmtl Ihawinna. Among them are two or three nevv genera ''• l-ark« and Ijirk-warblers which were supi«se,l to be unknown In South Ainericu. ikHd. I he most <|/i '»"'■■'' *'"' i» I'll- C oii'lor j while another, called ihe I'lantciilter i.I'hyM„ma rata l!in.>, is singular, Iriiin the bill beiiiK toothed like a saw, and used, like that instrument, to cut down iihuits. Hi ,t the bird may lea.st on the tender leaves. More recently has been discovcreil In Ihl. country a new siui ic. of llumminn-ltinl, near four times the size of any other yet known to naturalists ; hence it has receiviil the nams of Trochilus giganteus, or the Pataponinn Humming-llird. It ir only rcniarkablo for Us »iie. lince It 1. without any of those brilliant culoiiro which deck the plumage of iU congencre. Sect. III. Historical Gcof-raphy. fiOJO. CAi'/i. when first discovered by the Spaniards, was found In posaesslon of Ihe most active and hardy race, of the Indian, that people the New World. Almagro, in lliffl, penetrated with grtttl dillieiilty throuuh the moiintainou. and desert tracts leniling to It ; but wa. so ilisgustcil with the hardships and losses which lie endured, that, in l.^JS. he returned to Cuzco. The real founder of Spanish dominion In Chili was I'edroile Valilivia. who, alter an obstinate lontest of ten years, between 1.|J40 and l."(,')0, subdued the greatir |iiirt of the country, founded the cities of Valdivia, Concepcioii, and Quilliita, and established a naval iiiteriin.rse with Chili. He had then to encounter the warlike Araucanian., with whom the Spaniards sustained thai long war, wliich has been celebrated by Krellla, the first of the Spanish epic poets. Valdivia wa. ilel'eateil, taken, and put to death by the Araucanian chief, Caupolican ; the Araucaiiians afterwards baffled all attempt, to suUlue lliem, and continue to separate the main bmly of Chili from the southern district of Valdivia. %', IRUI. The tliiminion (tf Spain was maintained over Chili, interruplnl only by the inroad, of the Araucanian.. The English made one and the Dutch several attemjit. to form a .cttlemcnt ; hut, not being supported by the natives, they made no lasting impression. Chili, in hiHJ, wa. separated from Peru, and placed under a captain. ciieral solelv dependent on the king of Spain. It never drew Ihe attention nor rose to the im|iortaiice ol riexico ami I'eru j but the prinluceof its mines, which was considerable, and the many fertile district, which it contained, securcti to it a progress in population and wealth, similar to that of the other colonic.. (iil'i'i. The emancipation of Chili was prepared and produced by the same causes wliich excited all the other provinces to shake oil' the Spanish yoke. On Ilie'JW of June. ISIO, intelligence was received of the events which had occurred in Europe. 'I'he Chilians repelled the demand made by tlic I'roiich Kovcrnmeiit lor their suhinission, and in a few days elected a new governor and a junta of administration. Thi. ostensible act was dcsignetl, as in other instances, In keep the sovereign power for Ferdinand VII, ; hut it was not long ere a general disposition arose to einbracc the opportunity of shaking oil' the oppressive yoke of .Spain and the European Spaniards. In April. ISl 1, a national congress was summonetl, and the independence of the country seemed in a favourable train. A force, however, was sent fk'om I'eru to re-establish Ihe royal cause, which, bring aided by the disunion of the patriot generals, liefcated them, though alter a brave resistance, and drove tliein over the Andes towards Mendozn. They were there received and .upmrtcd by San Martin governor of that city. That enterprising and remarkable iicrson now took Ihe lead in the revolution of south- wcitern America. He a.'^.emblcd u considerable force, with which he crossed the Andes, and. being joinril by till' great liiHly of the Chilians, soon compelled the royal troops to take refuge in the port of Coiiccpeion. The giiveriKir of I'eru. however, being now determined "\ m.ike a grand elliirt, assemlilcd almost all his dis|iosable troops, to the amount of "i(l(K) men. and sent thei:i tu reinforce those alreaily in Chili. The patriot force was at first defeated and driven back ; hut. being ral;..! I'; the zeal and abilities of San Martin and O'Higgins, it met the enemy on the plain of Mayp6, and gained & complete victory j which finally sccurcil the independence of Chili. San Martin was even encouraged to advance into I'eru, the capital of which country he succeeded ill occupying j though its liberation, as wo have seen, did not then prove to he liiial. O'lliggiiis became director of Chili ; but. endeavouring to rule by a sell-elected senate, he became uii|Hipular, and was obliged to yield to Don Itamon I''reire. under whose auspices a general representative congress wiui callnl. Chili has ever since formed a republic completely independent of Spain, though not without a good deal of interior agitation. S^;c■r. IV. I'olit'cul Geonrapliy. f'i0.i3. The polUical si/stem qf Chili is as vet in a vacillating and uncertain state. The congress w.ia to be comiioscd of deputies chosen on the principle of direct election, and of one deputy for every 1,'),(XI0 inhabitant.. A consiilcr.able disposition seems to prevail for a leilcral form of government. iiO.W. The finances arc not in the most nourishing condition. According to the statements in Mr. C.ild. I 'i* f '^iS -^•****i«^ 1432 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pabt III. cleugh's Anpendlx, the cuitonu yielded 1,100,000 dollari, and all the other revenues 200,000 ; making a total of 1,JOO,000 dollarit The annual expenie* of the province of Santiago amounted to I,0'Jt>,!H8 dollars ; of Cuii- ccpcion, 360,000; of Valdivia, 180,000; expenditures caused by the loan, 100,000. in all, l,Ufi6,M8 dollars making the heavy deficit of 666,M48 dollars. A loan of 1,(100,000/. was raised in London in 1822, at 70 |ier cent' 60t>5. T"*!' arviy, under the pressure of circutnstaiires, has been sup|Hirted on a large scale, compared with the population and resources of Chili. That country sent into Peru, in support of the patriotic cause, no less than 7500 troops, who had been well disciplined, and who proved brave and effective. Hesides these, about SOOO remained in the country. The militia consists chiefly of cavalry, who are brave, but ill disripliiied. 6K)M. The navy, though it distinguished itself under Lord Cochrane, never formed any considerable force, comprising only one ship of sixty guns, two or three of fifty, with some corvettes and gun biigs. Being ukl ships purchased {h>m Britain, and having been in hard ecrvice, they are now considerably decayed. Sect. V. Productive Industry. WSl. Agriculture it carried on extensively, though with very rude implements, of the same form with those that were introedcd by the enormous grants which were made to indiviiliiaU at the time of the conquest ; yet it is stated, that in many districts fine land may be obtained at the rate of a dollar for two acres. 6058. The manufactures, as over all America, consist only of coarse articles made by tnc country people for domestic use, with the simplest instruments. From Mrs. Graham we learn, that they bring to market ponchos, hats, shoes, coarse shifts, coarse earthenware, and sometimes jars of fine clay. 6059. Mining is the branch of industry for wliich Chili has been most celebrated, but it is not the source of her most substantial wealth. The mines occur in the interior from Coquimbo, in a barren tract in the northern part of the country. Tlie metals are t;old, silver, and copper. The latter is by far the most abundant, there being matiy hundred mines of it ; the others arc much rarer, and the discoverers, who are oflen poor, have re- course to habilitadores, a class of rich individuals resident in the cities, who supply the necessary funds for working the mine. The northern mines are situated in a bleak and barren country ; and many in very rugged and inaccessible situations : San Pedro Nolasco stands on a lody pinnacle of the Andes, where the snow, even in summer, lies from 20 to 120 feet deep, and in the winter its drift is so tremendous that the miners have been buried under it 1,50 yards from their own house. Notwithstanding these obstacles, the produce has, by recent exertions, been greatly augmented. In the beginning of the century, tliut of gold was reckoned only to average .10,000^ ; in the years 1834, 183.5, 1836, this average was 99,(XX)/. Silver, in the first period about 40,000/., amounted, in 1834, to 296,000/. ; and the export, in 1836, was 170,000/. In 1836, the export of copper, in bar, was 58,885 quin- tals ; in ore, 179,703 quintals. A very fine vein of coal has been found near Concepcion, which has begun to be .shipped from that port for other parts of Chili, and even for Peru, 6060. The commerce of Chili bears a full proportion to its other resources ; since to the bold enterprise of modern navigation, the doubling of Cape Horn no longer ajipcars formidable ; and, besides supplying its own wants, it serves as an entrepot for Peru ami the western coasts of Mexico. The exports of British produce amounted, in 1836, to861,9!)0/.; in 1837, to 625,500/. Chief heads: — Cottons, 17,182,000 yards, &c., value 409,000/.; woollens, 18,144 pieces, 77,679 yards, 103,000/. ; linens, 1,337,000 yards, 49,000/. ; silks, 10,000/.; iron, hardware, &c., 22,000/. ; earthenware, 6000/. Of foreign articles, there were exported 4041 tons lead, 174,567 tons quicksilver, 3834 gallons wine. The iinpnrls, independent of specie, were, mostly — copper, 1809 cwts.; Peruvian bark, 120,000 lbs.; indigo, 19,100 11)5.; saltpetre, 27,100 cwts.; wool, 376,200 lbs. In the same year the exports to France amounted to 208,000/. ; imports, 250,000/. : exports to United States, 235,000/. ; imports, 297,000/. fMl, Fithing Is neglected by the Chilians, though many fine species are found in their seat. I'he shell f.ili are particularly delicate. 6002. Arliflcinl communications remain ttill in a very imperfect state. A good road was lately made from (he capital to Valparaiso, but it is not keiit in complete repair. The cross roads, at Mrs. Graham dcscrilKt them, arc not sucn at In England would be considered passable, though she has teen worse in the Apennines S«CT. VI. Civil and Social State. 6063. The population (\f Chili is more Involved in doubt than that of any state of South America. HumlmUl states, from bpanish authorities, that a census, in 1813, gave !)80,0(H), and that the present amount is probaljlv 1,200,1100. More recently, Mr. Caldcleugh and Mr. Miers have estimated it only at about 6(KI,IKMI ; but tliii teems to have been foundinl un very 8U|>erficial observation ; and the best informed persons, who have |>enc- tratcd into the interior districts, do not believe it to fall short of 1,500,000. 6064. Tlie social state of Chili diflers scarcely by a shade from that of the rest of Spanish America. There is the same native courtcousness, politeness, kindness of heart, ignorance, Kxtravagaiit love of diversion, abject superstition, and propensity to quarrelling. Tin's lait Book IV. CHILI. 14.');) icai. The shell fisli passion, which among the lower orders is fed chiefly by a resort to «,v tho prickly pear bush, and a scanty sprinkling of wiry grass ; while at Guasco, four degrees further south, there u no longer a trace of vegetation. The greater part of the interior consists of a rock, eumposc^l entirely of pieces of broken shells, sometimes covered with a thin soil, l)ut more commonly with a wnite ponder liki; snow, which (iroves to be sulphate of soila. It is only on the bunks ofthe streams, that the eye is gratilie'd Willi verdure, cultivation, and pasturage. Its iniiH of nature. Its situation, indeed, and the cold rains, render it tintit for tropical produce; but all the grain and fruits of the llnest temiierate climate are rcarei>,U(K) galhins of wine, with hides, w(h>I, and other minor articles. Conccpciuii, will) four conventual churches, a nunnery, a catluHlrul in progress, and many handsome houses inhabited liy .'iniie ofthe old .Spanish nobles, might almost dispute with Santiago the rank of c.?] ital of Chili. 'I'he houses, like those of Santiago, are mostly of one story, built of mud or sun-dried brick ; but here they form regular struli at right angles to each other. The people are peculiarly kind and hospitable, and their guy and festive habils are accompanied with comparatively few irregularities. Such, at least, was Concepciiin ; such, and more, will it doubtless be again ; but the lust aecoiints represent it to have sun'ered with peculiar severity ftoiii the late contest. Alternately occupied by the Spaniards and the patriots, it was riiilely treated by iMith, hut especially the former, (icnerul Sanchcx directed to military objects all the timlier destined for the new cathedral, ami, on finally abandoning the city in IHIU, set lire to a numlier of the principal houses. When Captain Hall visited it, in IK'^I, he found it almost desolate. Whole squares had lieen re VALPAHAIHU. 'aKT III. \ contains uk'Ut citi- 10 Almcn- a sort of IS thu most ower ranks ibradas, or nd. None ome; even ircely toler- progress of many new es erected. it acquired coming; the J intercourse the trade of 1. All tlic traded from le appearance 1828, sixty. 12,746 tons, During tlie m November ds a safe and jt in winter, July, precau- list the nortli 1 with peculiar a small but n the interior, vince in which >r aspecl as it ap- own uf C'oMiiimto, ily suppliiil by the rthcr south, tluri; nposc^l eiilirily of wliite powilor likj; yeisKratitioUwitli ncliulc liotli silver Tlic \iriHliiou uf iimbo ftir tlie lup- ulin, anil iusttucts yinent gives some ialHc, ri'taiiuimih in the licart of tlie rcailful calamity ol It of l»r.> shook It The walls, tlioOK" il9, some outwards, Icri-Oil, wliiili they w(\il.lhavehutie>l I, city. CoiiiaiMMS coiisiilercil as be- n Book IV. LA PLATA. US5 Ihc usual conflict of Spanish parties, Chili had boon laid waste by the Araucaiiiani, who, led liy IIcuavUIm, • hold outlawcil native olCincciwioii, carried on a war of perpetual inroad, similar lo thai which min> rniinl on the Scottish and hnplish borders, and which, though pictures(|uc and eventful in narrative, wiw moil calamitous to the partic; concerned. Talcahuano, the i>ort of Conrepcion, is a small town of almiit M) In. habitants, on a large bav, with a good and secure anchorage. Its defences have the reputation oflitihiK very strong J but during the late war they were neglected ; wherefore, being of mud, and Incapable of rvnUtlhu the heavy rains of the country, they are nearly ruined. (i07-'>. VaMMa, the most southern province of Cliili and of America, comprises a lerrltory of kImhiI |:»1 liy 120 miles in extent, watered by three rivers, and containing several plains that arc very productive in grRln and cattle. There is scarcely any European culture ; but the mis.iiinaries have, at dltll'rent imlntii, siiccmlrtl in forming the Indians into iwaceable and tolerably industrious little communities. Vahlivla wna IliUhdml In LMS, destroyed by the Indians in 1G(«, and rocstablislied in l(i45. It was recruited lo a limited deuree liy convicts sent from other parts of Peru and Chili, and employed in the public works. The town of Vaitllvlii '* situated about sixteen miles above its i)ort, whic^h is gootl, and defended by strong batteries, lit popiiliitiiin, which never exceeded 9.W, was reduced in 1S20 to VW. This decrease was occasioned chiefly hy the eniluratliiu to Osorno, built about forty miles distant, in the middle of the last century, the most luulhein town In tliu New World. The capture of the port of Valdivia, in 1819, by Lord Cochrane, with 319 trooiia, iinMiaeil by llHW, was one of the boldest and most brilliant achievements in the American contest. 6076. Arauco has been already mentioned as an extensive territory, which Interimsci Itself iH'lween the Spanish districts of Conceiwion and Valdivia. It extends north and south for about three degrees of Intl. tude, reaching inland to the mountains. This region, celebrated in Spanish slury ami song, is descriU'd by Mr. Stevenson as really one of the finest in South America. The Araucanians, having adopteil the rude agri- culture of the Spaniards, raise Indian corn in abundance: they grow most mlmirable pntnloes, which are, probably, indigenous ; and have a good stock of horses and horned cattle. The whole country Is illvlditl liitti four districts, governed by hereditary rulers, called toquis, confederated together for their own benelll nnti the injury of their neighbours. Particular districts are ruled by subordinate chiefs, a.so hereditary, rnlled iilmfne.1. When war is declared, the toquis eleet one of themselves, or even some other chief, who nsminivi the supreme command. They have appended the European musket to their own original arms of the iHiw, arrow, and club. When they set forth on an expedition, each individual merely carries a small bag of Imrihtti meal trusting that ere long he will be cotttfortably quartered on the territory of his eiiomlei. During the Knanish dominion, every new governor of Chili generally endeavoured to distinguish himself hy the C(mi|liert of Arauco; and having assembled an army, he usually beat them in the Heldj but he soon foui'd himself obliged, l>y a continue' ""'';? """ channel of such great lengthfappears to be analogous to thrd v s fn of iLotland Z,hl Xltn'^Z J*'"'"'™' line of the Cal«lonian Canal. In proceeding westward fro n the eXrn emiance ' t^e eoastJraduin't* ^h ". ""^ its character; and primitive rocks appear about Cai>e Negro, nearStetl. Island whfrp,m^^^^^^^ changes rise to the height of from 2000 to ami feet. Captiin King remarkMhS^tied ?oo i,m nf ^ii^^^^ "^ ''*'" meiicing at Port Famine, about thirty miles fVom Cape FrowaM ^towards fhe^^^^^^ u^.'F'' ™"?- and openings of the land in Terra del Fuego tend iS the sime d irS • Va/s foL^*/?o^,t 21.^^ ./mm, which dip toward, the south. This coincidence in the direSirof the mZta^^ rang*Texp«s^ on Captam King's map : and he supposes that a similar structure holdi good throughout the wenterii brS of the Strait, from Cape Froward to the entrance on that side ""uugnoui me wcftern branch ms. Spccimaisfrom Fres'imitcr Bay, about I2U miles from Cape Virgins, on the Patagonian side of the strai, consist of highly crysUlhsed greenstone, and hvpersthene rock, resembUngthoK of Sec hn^^^^^ pebbles and boulders on the shore arc of granite, syenite, quartz, and flinty slate mm. The vicinity^ Mount Tarn and Eagle Bay, about midway between Port Famine and Cane Froward affords various hornblende rocks ; with grey wacke, flinty slate, and grey jpliiity limestone. The slate ot' Mimnt Tarn contains traces of organic remains, bpocimena ft-om thesouth side of theeastern branch of the strait rn »i»i of micaceous gneiss, found at the entrance of St. Magdalen's Sound, and at Card Point on the south-west of St Gabriel's Channel. The rocke at Cape Waterfall, near Card Point, arc of clay slate ; and the shores of Ad miralty Sound aflford granite, clinkstone, porphyry, and greenish compact felspar. Captain King also mentio s his haying observed There reddish auartz or sandstone, like that of the oW red sandstone of ^uxoiw ■ and he remarks, that the »oil orer thi» rock is barren, while that above the slate proiluccs luxuriant vcKetation ■ bceihes of great size growing there within a few feet of the water side. In general, the hills in this part of Terra del Fuego appear to be slate ; they rise to the height of 3000 feet, and are covered with ice and snow Mount Sarmicnto, however, which is more than 5000 feet high, appears, from the shape of iu summit to be volcanic ; and was called by the navigator, after whom it was named, " The snowy volcano." tms. Spccimem from the tuest'm branch of the Straits of Magellan, collected by Captain Stokes, all consist of primitive rocks. Cape Notch, Cape Tamar, and the Scilly Islands, aflbrding granite ; Port Gallant and Cape Victory, gneiss and mica slate ; and Valentine's Bay, clay slate much resembling that of Port Famine These places are all on the north side of the strait. On the southern side, in Terra del Fuego, Caiic L'priiilit atVords granite and gneiss ; and the latter rock is found also at Tuesday Harbour, and in the ncighbourlinoil of Caiie Pillar : the columnar mass, from which that remarkable point was named, is composed of mica slate. SuBSECT. 2. Solany- fiOSO. In a former chapter, p. 1291-2., some account was given of the botany of the Terra del Fuego and the Straits of Magellan. The eastern coast of Patagonia, from the entrance of the Straits of Magellan to the river I'l.iti, is comparatively low, and a great |iortion of it occupied by pn»n;in», extensive plains, covered with grass, but destitute of trees. This jicculiarity of country, indeed, exists uimn the most extensive scale in the provime of Buenos Ayres : a vast superHcics, the whole of which is a plain (interrupted only here and there by a few hills, the highest scarcely tJOO feet), extending tVoin the Atlantic Ocean to the foot of the Andes, a space of "20 leagues. Many of the rivers, from the extreme evenness of the surface, are (with the exception of live or six that are received into the Parana or Paraguay) arrested in the plain, without any decided course, and insensibly absorbed, like the rains which fall on the same ground. &W. " The level sur/acewhich so uniformly characterises the whole province of Buenos .\yres affords little soojie for variety in its vegetable productions: still the aspect of the country is marked by many striking peculiarities. DiHercnt kinds o{ clover and other leguminous plants, intermixed with grasses, constituting liic grcit mass of the vegetation, give to the country its verdant appearance, and form an inexhaustible source of nutriment, not only to the deer and other wild animals which are so abundant, but to the numerous herds of cattle and horses which may be seen grazing in all directions. The country is naturally destitute of wood, and, with the exception of an occasionalnaturalcopseof the Tala shrub, of very inconsiderable height, nothing resembling a tree is to be seen. The Orabu {Phytolacca dioica), however, sometimes makes its appearance to diversify the sceiie, and relieve its monotony. Trees of this kind generally point out to the traveller the site of some habitation, near which they arc usually planted; since, from the great rapidity of their growth, they snon become conspicuous at a distance, and afford a grateful shade to the inhabitants, during the hot season of the year. They are otherwise very useless, on account of the spongy nature of the trunk, which is so soil that it has sometimes been used as wadding for artillery, during the wars which prevailed in the country. In the more inhabited districts of the province, and ciwcially in the neighbourhood of the city, iiuii'crous plantations are met with of |)cach trees, which arc cultivated for Hrewnml, and form a very prolit- able investment of land and capital, as they grow with great luxuriance, and may be cut down every four years ; so that, by dividing a plantation equally, a fourth part may be felled yearly, which is sure to meet with a ready sale, being the principal fuel used in Buenos Ayres. The ftuit, which is produced in great abund- ance in such plantations, is applied to no useful puriiose, except the feeding of pigs and poultry." • lioi'l. A very remarkable feature, occasioned by plants of exotic production, is given to the pampas of Hiicnos Ayres by two kinds of Thistle, well known in Europe ; but principally of the Cardoon {Cynara Cardun. <"'".«, S Hooker, in Botanical Maeaxine, t. 28ti2,1. The native country of this plant is the south of Euroiw and north of Africa ; but, the seeds having been conveyed to South America, it has escajml into the extensive plain Ihat lies between Buenos Ayres and the Andes, and has given such an extraordinary feature to that • Dr. Oillics't account of Buenos Ayres, in Napier's edition of the Encyclopcedia Britannica. I'i'i} 143H DESCRIPTIVE OEOOUAPHV. Part III. country, as deserves to lie reoordeil in a (Icscriiitimi of Its vegetation. " The great plain or pampas of the Cordillera," nays Captain Head, in his " Kiiugh Notes, taken during some rapid Journeys across the I'ampas, and among the Amies," " is alHiiit !MI0 miles liroad ; and the part which I have visited, though in the same latitude is divided into regions of different climate and produce. On leaving lluonos Ayrcs, the Hrst of these regions is covered for 180 miles with clover and thistles j the second, which extends for 4.'!0 miles, produces long grass ; and the third region, which reaches the liascof the Cordillera, is a grove of low tiees and shrubs. The second and thirction from lluenus Ayres, continuing along the s,ame plain, that had been all burned at one time, and where the grass was beginning to shoot again : and still I did not arrive at the termination. There was certainly no obstacle that could sto| the flames. Woods arrest its ravajjes, because they are so thick and green, that they do not burn ; but the edges of them become dry and scorched to such a degree, that the next conflagration finds them an easy prey. This custom destroys whole swarms of insects anil reptiles, with immense numbers of the smaller quadrupeds, and even of horses, which have not so much courage as the oxen in forcing their way through the Wrc." aW2. Of trees, Azara observes, t.iat in this singular country, from the Hiver Plata to the Straits of Magellan, there appear to be none, a.id shrubs even arc exceedingly unfriHgucnt. In some places near the frontier arc viznagas, a large wild Carrot, and Thistles, which are collected for fuel; but as this is still scarce, the inhabitants burn the bones and fat of animals, and the dung of horses. At Iluenos Ayrcs am! even at Monte Video, much of the latter substance is consumed, csnecially in the ovens ; though the peach trees, that are cultiv.ited for this sole object, aid in the supply. A little woomo latitude, these regnins a loiiK tftass ; The aecoml nrt shrulis arc le first teK'iiin of the thistloa liH-Helil. The full liberty in tended acroM r\ a month the «, which have 1 is hemmed in lof the thistles meil.they form it would be an dnted with the summer is not re ; their heads with the breeze ind, where they by any aceiilent ty as to destroy e to escape. In )f heating ovens, iiilk, which they \ about in w.irm ■ leaves, and llie icn the plants ot )le aspect to the Us send out new ds arc destroyed, caution insetting I have travelled nc plain, that had did not arrive at jrrest its ravaRCs, dry and srorehnl oys whole swarms 3, which have not I to the Straits ol 10 places near the but as this is sld Hucnos Ayrcs and though the peacli ured on the hanlts wood that is fit fur kf this comes from tufteil on the river •ho, Algaroba, and Tlie fruit of one i)eoled, would be as larieot beans-, it i« ces a liijuor, call™ ) the missions, the more peopled, hi \y near water, Init Hcult ; and yet the that is covered wdn nders it dithcult tci inn the root ; while id out fresh sliooli y, and rarani ; l"it. , at a loss til kii(i« [caria hram-nmV, e pine of the noitli, that its woiKl miifii branches issue irom The fruit is a roiml >mmonllr,lmtwh™ every long, and the ,1 1" chestnuts. IW Jesuits have sowed ,nh the while to rut rudder, for 1 am ™j- The seeds ol 1 "> 'they, with my .ilh" ingle- individual 111 "'the Jesuits pUiilrf t the Indian women Tills tree (Saimi" , forplaytliin|.'»tot^ -• It upon linen i H" Book IV. LA PLATA. ngi he ion brniuhfs,""'!* lamlasiiei'tarethc pnssihie. Tl;';"™' .Icstitutc ot might be in a measure obviated. The .lesuits were also more careful in the mode of preparing the leaves, irom which they removed all the broken bits of wood and pounded them small, thus making three kinds ft-om the same plant There is, however, but little diflercnce in the flavour, the principal requisite being that the foliage snould be thoroughly scorched and roasted, and collected at a suitable time, as damp weather is very injurious to the quality. Thus, with. out regarding the intermixture of bits of wood, or the size of the leaves, the Paraguay Tea is divided into two classes, the Fueite and the Electa. The latter, which is the best, is consumed in the provinces of La P!aU to the amount of 1,250,000 lbs. ; the other goes to Chili, Pctu, and Quito. The South Americans ascribe nuniiicrless virtues to this plant, which is certainly aperient and diuretic, hut perhaiw possesses no other good qualities. Like opium, it produces some singular and contrary cllects, giving sleep to the restless and spirit to the torpid. Those who have once contracted the habit of taking it, do not find it easy to leave it ofl; or even tu use it in moderation, though, when taken to excess, it brings on similar disorders to those produced by the iinmndcrale use of strong liquors. 9197. Many reaitis and gums are produced In Paraguay. Among them is the well-known Gum Elastic, Caoutchouc or Indian Rubber, which distils from the Hevca guianensis. Though applied to so many pur- poses in Europe, economical and medicinal, especially in rendering cloth water-proof, in its native country this gum is only used to make balls fur children to pi y with, and to give light at night in the desert. For the latter, they make a round t)all of the resin, and, throwing it into water, observe the part that floats upwprds, 111 which they insert a burning match, which lasts a whole night, or till the ball is entirely consumed. hen the trunk is pierced, a large quantity of resin soon flows out, which is received on a piece of leather s ched on the ground ; it quickly condenses, and may tic drawn out in long strips ; or, by pressing it together /urms a compact mass. Another tree, called Nandipa, aflbrds a resin which, mixed with equal par. of Cane Brandy, forms a Iwautifkil varnish. Turpentine and Gum Elemi are the produce of two other tri s ; and a strong milky glue exudes from a common tree called Curupicay. The Aquaraihay, of which the runk is sometimes as thick as a man's body, furnishes a much esteemed article, called the Mission Balm. Tills is procured from its leaves, which are bnWeA in wine or water till it becomes a syrup, fifty arrobas o. 'caves nrodueing one of balm. A tribute of 2 lbs. of this balm was paid by all the Indian nations where the tree grows, and transmitted to the king's aiwthecary at Madrid, In its native country, it is called Curalo To thick as one's arm, and from three to five feet long, the leaves two feet in length, and a foot wide, gkissy and 4 Z " M0:^ i^iiiJS*! 1440 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. tlccply den, Thia plant prcxlureii a apikc like malic, with teedt of n plciuaiit flavour, and long alraight ronta, witnuiit anjr knota, that, at^cr having twinwl icvcral tlinea round the trunk, atrlku Into the earth, Thcte riH>ta are carerully iwclrd, and their bark, which ia deep violet, Hne and eaally delached, aervpa to make ealiica and other rordagc employed in navigating the Paraguay, without other preparation than that of drying It aOcr It haa been wutteu. These ro)>e9 are cncap, they are not liable to decay in mud or water, and will itaiid a atrong pull ; atill they are nut ao durable as hemp. Friction and Iwnding are apt alao to Injure Ihcni. Our Oigatea used these ropes with advantage during the latter yeara of the war, liUilP, TAt' p/an/j uaually known in the country by the name of Pitaa, Cardaa, and Caraguatai (7V/aiuf<(.c and llromelltc t perhaps Agam) grow in great abundance ; some as parasites, and sonic on the ground. They all contain more or leas water, which is iierfectly clear and fresh, anil often aervea to quench the travel. Icr'a thirst Two arc more remarkable than the others : one of them grows in large quantities on the eilges uf WihhIs and even In open spots, but does not extend to the river I'lata. Its long and tliick foliage, like that of the pine- apple, yields a strong fibre, the inside leaves, which preceile the develoiicment of ttic fruit, being quite pearly ; the smalf blossoms arc followed by fruits, like dates, which, when ri^>e, arc of a flneoranitc colour and good to eat The other ia called Ybir^i : its fruit resembles a pineapple, but is quite worthless; out from the riiliage is manufactured an excellent cordage, called Caraguata. This Is usol for various i>ur|ioBes, even In preference to hemp, because it neither stretches, nor decays in water, A ro|ic, an inch thick, made of this substance, was comiiared with an hcmiien one of the same thickness, and it provetl the strongest lillKI. It is rfasonahle to supiHisc that on the western extremity of the great plain we have alxive alluded to, almiit Mendoza, the vegetation begins to alter, and to partake of that of the mountains, that city being sltu,itc(l at the eastern foot of that vast range. One of its most remarkable features, and that which would l>e least cx|ierted from its extra-tropical latitude, is the number of species of Cactus found in its vicinity, Sehouw ftlvea W^ 8. lat as the southern limit of the cactus region, lit. Gillies, in a morning's ride from Mendoza, las bcon able to gather twenty-two distinct species of thia curious genus, all of which he has introduced to the gardens of Great Britain, and all arc growing in one establishment, the (ilasgow Ilotanic CSarden, (illll. At Buenos Avres, wheat yields 16 for 1, at Montevideo 12 for I ; but tne grain is not much abori' the half the size of that of Spain, From S. lat 40° to the Straits of Alagellan, Azara considers the soil to be too salt to yield wheat tiltl^ Vines were once more extensively cultivated than at present. In ItiOS, tl'e city of Asuncion, tlir capital of Paraguay, supported in its neighbourhood 2,'(l(),(XIU vine-stocks, Mendt/a and San Juan, bntli situated near the eastern foot of the Cordillera, towards the close of the last century yielded annually to Buenos Ayres and Monte Video, the former 3313 barrels, and the latter 7!H2 barrels of wine, Tobaeen is largely grown, and l.'i,(A)U quintals per annum have been exported. Sugar, Mandiocea, Indian Corn, Uatata^, and other vegetables requiring a warm climate, are, as may be cxi>ectcd, readily cultivated, SuBSECT. 3. Zoology. 610.1, On the Zoology qf Paraguay, and of the provinces bordering on the great Rio de la Plata, the only authentic information is to be found in the memoirs of Azara, whose ample accounts of the native animal* may be consulted with the greatest advantage. Unfortunately, however, this writer uaes only proviiici,!] names ; so that the scientific naturalist, unless he detects the animal from its description, is quite in the the active care of a akiinil and industrious owner. (Bm. Am. ^Si^ ''™' '• ^J-' These Owls hunt during the noon.day sun, ariil y '^ appear to live in the villages of the marmots, whose descrtol /V J ■ • ' 1% habitations they (iccupy; for there is no evidence that llic iL- J JB'^'^X '^ -' marmot and the owl habitually live in one burrow, ^'^' •S'S* ' Cl()5, The Cock-tail nalerchal (Aleclurus aleclor) {fg- 'I'Ji ' ^i.^- " is not much bigger than the Stonechat ; the colours are [ilaiii, but the highly singular structure of the tail, shaped like (hil of a cock, renders it very remarkable. It lives on the ground, cocK-TAii wAT»«cHAT. lu opcu pUlus, HcaT watcr ; but flies with great celerity, Tftt males Oequcntly mount vertically In the air, flupuing their wings, and moving their tail in an cxtraordiiun way, and then darting down suddenly to the ground from a great height. Sect. III. Historical Geography. 6106. La Plata had no claim to a place among civilised nations before the discovery of America Tlii Indians on the banks of the Paraguay, as on those of the other great rivers, were at that time in the Io»bi itagc of savage life. . , ,„ n Kl()7. The Rio de la Plata was discovered by the Spaniards early in the sixteenth century. In \M, Iw Pi^dro de Mendoza founded the city, and in two years established settlements as high as Asuncion, i liiril f» lold was probably the motive for penetrating so quickly and so far into the interior ; but no gold rewarool .he search. The first im|>ortanco of Buenos Ayres was derivetl from a few cattle having strayed inloiu immense plains, where they multiplied with astonishing rapidity amid the rich pastures, and in later im their hides became a great staple of commerce, Paraguay derived great benefit from the missionary nil; lillshments formed there by the Jesuits ; where the rude Indians, on a greater scale than in any other pail .( America, were reclaimed tVom their savage life, and trained to rcgiilar, jieaceable, and industrioui occ» patlons. The re.esublishment of the order may produce jiolitical cTianges of great imimrtance through*! | all the republics of South America. , ,.,>■' 6108, IH 1778, Buems Ayres, hitherto subordinate to Peru, was erected into ■ viceroyalty, iiicluihnBi» the provinces east of the Andes, and thus comprehending t'ppcr Peru, with the mines of I'otosi ; »««» rendered it, next to Mexico, the most important division of Spanish America. „ , , . ,... . .,., • tiioy. The emancipation of Buenos Ayres was in some degree prepared by the British expeditions mlM and 1808, which formed one of the least creditabte jmrts in the military history of the last war. Bu i« I grand impulse was given, here as elsewhere, by the compulsory abdication of Ferdinand. In M«)'i ^l Cisneros, the viceroy, after having tiken violent measures to siipiHirt the Spanish authority, »'«» "^ I to assemble a junta, and to allow an indeiiendcnt government to lie formetl, acting in name of tm i nand VII, After this the country was agitated by many disturbances and vicissitudes, M"'i'«/ 1'"™. S I resisted J and when reduced by (leiieral Artlgas, it was occiipieil by that iwrson as an iiidepeiHleiit cnw-i •rhilc the Portuguese, encouraged by this disunion, advanced and sciznl the town, together with tiicwwi fJ Part HI. strnighl iont«, eattl>. Ihcsc icrvpt to make 1 thkt of ilryiiijj water, and will 1 alto to Injuri! aUi (TttlandiU on the grouni . ench the travcl- I on the ctlgcs ul BBC, Ukc that of ■ tiic fruit, lioii.K IncotanKCColiiut thless; imtlrom uiiuriMMCS.cyin lick, made of thu iSwc allndcil to, city being situatid 'h would be least vicinity. S«'l'™" lie from Mcndoja, has introduced to ic Garden. « not much abo't' onslders the soil to y of Asuncion, tlic iS San Juan, botli «ipUled annually to f wine. Tobaein is idlan Corn, Batatas, ic la Plata- the oiil? S- the native animal) uses only iirnviiinal ,.isquitcintlie.«aik monalsotoBoiitlicin ncd; while the va.t descendants of those ,r to turn the former that milk is a srai« \ar birds of raraguar o". accovint ha. to« ff of N. It '• *'.•' ", made by » «V«;f ? arly urescntinl liy H^ a by these birds i«li* of the marmot sho. ous owner. {Bm. . •he noon-day sun, a imots, whose tocrtol no evidence that tne ic burrow. ,, rVhc colours are plf. c' ail Shaped like thy "uliiesonthcgroirt th great celerity, in Uil in an extraordnu" ..century, l"S viceroyaltyjlnHuai^^ e mines of 1 ot"*' > British expedition.^;; 1« ■^f thelastwar. n y^, Fcrdinand. 1" "'»>^y,^| ,ish authority. »»,V* Book IV. h\ PLATA. 1441 of the territory called the Banda Oriental succeisf\illy. and the goveri into an indcnendcnt republii as to baffle all attempts K0vernme,,r of U?L,l'«!y.' 'mP' ^''y'°''"'• "" ''t'""" ^y """"»• ^yre. vigorou.ly .-ind Dmrblic l)r Kra" "a aUoV^.'r'i^!.!'; "»'"'"';'''>« '""""V. ""1 allow it to Ik- formed 8 to exiicl him w ?h .h •^""•"^ed to occupy the u|)|)er i.rovinco of I'ar.iguay «o (Irmly rf ;dUherr"oW,;ii;"^f\he wil^io'yZy w'ils't TiS^^^^^^ to Buenos Ayrcs ; and a republic was constituted, undVthTutle of " ?hP I S America." This union, however, has not been permanent. In Febru«rvlK9(i^. .,,^1 i'" b""" ."? 'g!;?e?nmen"t. """"' "" '" '^"""'•"""'" "' "' o-. «"ho"i!gh iVotUUo''n7'.lf ^.ifrrXriri^rr 'afi'^u^niuli Sect. IV. PoUticdt Geography. illO. The conitilution qf Buenoi Ayres is that of a representative rcDUbllc limiUr tn ihut nf .h. a.k™ s . .. ncrican states i but it ha, been, and continues to'bc, in a stattTo cxWemely im .'lets to enter into any minute details. i.»ircraeiy unseiiicu, that It would be 61 American use 6111. The adminislratioti uf justice has been placed on bill, ine aatmniairaiuH oj justice nas Dccn placed on a resncctahli- f,intin» msti, .i,„ «— » .• .. , , . jury, for which Mr. Caldclcugl, doubts if the slatrof so •letTK yet ada ,t«l Th.™ lr^T,T "' *">".' ''^ ial(t;i iudg« in the Hrst in.tance,.with salaries of m) dKrflle judS^of U^c hiSh cou^^^^^ dollars ; and a council tor commercial aftalrs. ^ jx^is" "■ mt. mgn touri, witn S!j()0 simnle compare.1 to those of the British troop. ; and their attire bear, uTheVSi grert a reTcmb Ince'to th?t of t ic levies of Sir John Falstaff; however, they have of late consiilcriblv inmrnin i iv,.;.?..? -I. Br,i.il, about 10,(100 troops were collected, with a numerous miimi;'^ Improved. During the war with 61 13. r*«r<;wBU« during a continued war, and disorganised internal government, necessarilv fell into m. embarrassed state. T he indei^iiuent government, under its necessities, was driven trfore^ loan, whi?h destroyed confldeiice ; and to enormous custoin.house imposts, which led to a ruinous cortraband At'jXth i„ 1821, Hxed and moderate rates were established, being for most articles 15 .cr cem • bS fir sugirlea' cotlee, and »m/^. or herb of Paraguay. 20 per cent. ; w.nes, liquor., and ornamental fu iiUure" S^Tr cent' Tl 0(5) OOOr.tCTllng. nevcr.failing purses of London.capitali8t,, amount, to 4,5W.0W*ollars; fil'l4. 'The'provinces, since thcbreaking up of the congress in 1819, have remained In a state of separation • though they have assistwi Buenos Ayres in 'her war with Brazil : altohother they are described by m{. llobeit- 8011 and others, a, in a most unsettled state, domineered over by daring and sanguinary usunicrs, and without any establishment of aw or order. In Paraguay, Ur. Francia continues to exercise a most absilulc and tv. raiinical sway oyer the ignorant natives, for the report, of his death seem to be premature. Monte Video and the Banda Urientfll have tormcd a separate republic. Sect V. Productive Induttry, 6115. The agricultura! produce consists almost entirely in the vast herd, of horse, and horned cattle which cover those boundless pl.iins, clrched with rich herbage, which constitute the Pampas The eaucho or farmer, has no care in reai ing or feeding ; he has only to throw over them the lasso, or long leathern noose to kill or drive Ihein into Buenos Ayres, and, in the case of horses, to break them, and put a mark on them by which they may lie knuwii. Beef can scarcely be said to bear any jirice, since a cow may bi- t-d for tv.ciilv shillings, and the hide is worth more than half that sum. Wheat and barley, for which tl < perfectly ada|itenrtation. lillii. The »itn<'( of Potosi, the richest in South America, may now be considered as again attached to Peru. There are, however, scattered along the eastern liordcr of the Cordillera, a number of mines of gold, silver and copjier, from which high expectations were once formed in this country ; and it was supimsed, that, by the apiilication of British skill, industry, and capital, they might be rendered far more productive than they had ever been. The observations of Caiitain Head and Mr. Micrs have dispelled these hoiies. It apiiears that mining, before the revolution, had been pursued to excess ; adventurers being urged at once by the immense profits which had, in a few instances, attended it, and by the cheap rate at which the compulsory labour of the Indians could be obtained. Under this impulse, mines had been worked, which in Cornwall would not be thought worth working. All these poor mines aro now deserted, being unable to pay the high rate demanded by fVec labourers for such severe work, when they are surroundeJby the richest unoccupied Und, and masters of as many cattle aa they can catch Machinery, supposing it were worth employing, i, of very difficult application, from the want of water and timber, and fi-om the vast extent of land-carriagc by which iron must be conveyetl. The Knglish association, therefore, formed for working the mines of the Kio lie la Plata, after investing a large capital, have judged it wiser to submit to the cptirc lost than to (iroceed. This branch of industry will never, perhaps, regain its former height ; and the prosperity of the state must rest upon other and more solid foundations. (1117. There is scarcely any mantrfaclure, except that of ponchos, or riding cloaks, which are universally worn, and from habit are made better than those hitherto supplied by the Manchester manufacturers, who are exerting themselves, however, to improve the fabric of tliis article, i'nat indolence, which the South Ameri- cans inherit from the S|>aniards, will, probably, long prevent thein from becoming a manufacturing pen|ile. (illH. The commerce of Buenos Ayres is large, compared with the iwpulation ami general wealth oflhostate. The country is ilepcndent on foreign supplies to, almost every article, both of manufactured goods and colo- nial produce, and even for a little grain ; in return for which it gives the refuse of its cattle, hides, horns, hair, tallow, and lately wool. The trade is chiefly carried on from Moiitc Video and Buenos Ayres, which we can state separately for 1836. Monte Video. Countries. Enteral. Cleared. | Ships. Tons. Value of Cargoes. Ships. 1 Tom. : Value of Cargoes. 0olitc, courteous, indolent, unenterprising, passionately fond of diversion, especially in the forms of dancing and gaming. Every lady holds her tcrtulia, or evening party, to which even (he passing stranger will sometimes be invited. They arc less charged with Intrigue, however, than in odicr great cities of the New World ; the conduct of the young ladies is very strictly watched, and they are married at thirteen or fourteen. The lower ranks pass through the streets in a very orderly manner ; but tliey are (no much addicted to frequenting pulperias, or drinking-houses, where gaming sometimes gives rise to deadly quarrels. Horses being easily procured at Buenos A:rre9, it is an object of pride to keep a number nf line quality, on the equipment of which the inhabitants olten bestow more care than on the due clothing ofthelr own persons. Every one has a horse ; even the beggar begs on horseback. 6122. ne Gauchoi, who inhabit the wide surface of the Pampas, and appropriate the numlicrless herds that roara over them, are a very singular race. Some travellers hold them as downright savages ; but Captain Heaii dial, notwithstanding a general vigour almost preternatural, the lower limbs arc weak and bent, and he is incapable of walking to any distance. His dwelhng is a mud cottage, with one apartment, and so swarming with insects, that in summer, the whole family, wrapped in skins, sleep in the open air. All round is a dcser(, with the exception of the corral, or circular s|H)I, enclosed by stakes, into which the cattle arc driven. Neillier grain nor vegetables are cultivated, nor is the cow made to yield mim time to lime given, to ex|)ose all sides of the meat in succession, and slices are cut (jiiI by the surrounding family : the juices, of course, fall into the tire, and are lost. A certain proportion become robbers, fur which vocation these desolate plains afford scope ; and Captain Head does not consider it tnk lo meet a |>arty without a display of three pistols ready cocked. 6123. The Indians itf the Pantfias, a savage and terrible race, driven before the Oauchos, have in no degree coaleK'ed with them, but continue in a state of deadly and rajging hostility. Whoever encounters them in these wilds must ex|>cct death in its most terrible forms for his immediate lot ; and the travelicr.'i, niecling each other, ask, with trembling voice, if any Indians have been seen on the route. They apiwar of theKeniiiiif Arauco breed ; are nobly mounted, having each two or three horses, so that, when one is exiiaustcd, the rider leapt on another. lYiey delight in midnight cx|>cn and surprise. On reaching the hut of an unt'nrtuiiaic Oaucho, these marauders set Are to the roof, when the family, who, at the same time, hear the wild cry which announces their doom, must rush to the door, and arc instantly killed, without any distinction, except of (he young girls, who are placed on horseback, and carried otf to serve as wives, in which capacity they are well treated. A large body were lately in a state of regular war with the colonists, but they have been defeated, and driven beyond the Colorado. 6124. The Catholic religion prevails exclusively in these states, as overall South America : but the splendour of the churclies, and the endowments of the clergy, appear to lie greater here, compared at least with the means of supiwrting them, than in any other province. There prevail", also, a particular laxity in the conduct of the clergy. A late traveller, one Sunday evening, in passing the arena for cock-fighting, saw a numlicruf clergymen, each with a fighting cock under his arm. 'ihe government at Buenos Ayres has shown aeon. siderabie activity in reforming the abuses of the church, having suppresieil a number of convents, and at one lime prohibited any accession to the number of monks and nuns j but the influence of these communitici:> university! with (hoaJ acts, he r| irooutoril were theyl ■Iliistrinusff The violcil gone bcyol the motroil fcgularityl found bl herb of pJ Monte Vi(i r>m. coi "nderthcl Part III. 2,891,000 7,93h,a(lO 889,600 3,641,400 847,300 454,100 3424HI0 820,400 440,100 120,400 816,800 232,400 87,»00 2 9,907,01 1 1 tides:— Cottons, lliicni, l,4(7,l»i0 ,500/. Of fiireiKn iiaiated chiefly of wool. The ira. t«, 55,0001. J 8U|1|>OIOI to b« t and thistles, for ;)0«cd by 8wanii«, , fordiiiK, though iialB, culled bhca- and anon pretiiii- Suiritcd half-wilil B gallop, il i» only ,nce of tiavelletn, very small pro- lerally supposed ,d of the Banda ole to somewhat )W every where tlic livcrsion, especially to which even the .ycr, than in ottier i>d they are married cr ; but they are loo lives rise to deadly .p a number of line iue clothing of their imlwrleiB herds that ivages 1 but Captain lucho is at once the full gallop, brealiiiiB keleton of a hoisfi he ground ; »" that, t and he is incapable ,1 so swarming «iin 11 round is a destrl, , • arc driven. NcUlier only food J ami it u to overhang the hre, aliccs arc cut out bj , proportion become ,ot consider it safe 10 08, have in no degra encounters them in c traveller!!, meeting appear of the geminn .exhausted, the rider hutofanunfofluMle ■ar the wild cry «« inction, except of tlic apacity they .ue wri ^y have been dcfcaliHl, ica;butthe»plemlo»' ,2J at least with th r laxity in the condutt iting, sawamimlwrol yr« has shown aeon, r convents, and at one these communities ;» Book IV. LA I'LATA. I44:i of di^smdoT"* '" ""* '""""" """""'"■ '" *»'"'" '•"• •"""•'"•« "f "<"""• A yrr, has rather served a. a ground 612.5. A'nowledee, as in the oilier new .tutes, U cnvniirnKcd l»y thv government, without having yet nniade any very deep nnpreH.lon .in llit> h.xly of Ihc people. Several larae schools have been estabhshetl on the plan of nuiltml InMrtullon, and an university has even been founde.], without permission Ironi the pupe ; hut il Ih llllle mure than a classJtal school. There are three newspapers, but no literary ur «demlll« journal.. A history of the country, by Don Gregorio Funes, enjoys repiitaiioH, ' ' Srct. VII. /,uif Buenos Ayre» (Ji^, J004.) U AUMiiA oil thuiuulhern bank of the Hio de 1(X).| l» I'lata, about 200 miles above its mouth ; and, being raised about twenty feet above the river, end presenting the spi,-es of numerous vhurchcs and con- vents, it makes rather a line appearance. The houses are new, built of brick, white- washed, and witii Bat roofs, over which may be taken a pleasant and even extensive walk. The windows are protected by iron linn, I'niisliig each mansion to resemble a lock ip house, and to form, indeetl, a completu forilflcalloii ( which enabled the town to make u formidable and cfl'ectual rcsislaiice li> llig llrillsli army, absurdly marched into it by General Whitelock. Along the beach Ihiro In ii street which resembles Wapping, being crowded with grog shops. The calhetlral, tlioiigli built of brick, is a very handsome structure, as are several of the other churche* tiiul iniinnsterles. The fortress in which the viceroy formerly resided is situated near the rivur. The town, on the whole, is rather handsome, especially the houses surrounding the grttnt H*|iinre. The environs on the land side have a very monotonous aspect, being niiiinnleil neither by varied vegetation, nor by the chirping of birds. The population U estimitlvd nt 70,000. Large vessels cannot approach nearer than two or three leagues. fil27. ifonte Video, capital of Ihc Banda Orlenlal, nr e«ii|*ni thorfi Of the Plata, potinsci the best harbour niwn that river, and before the late disturbances wnsa Ouuiiiihlllll i Vitli'o, it npliciirs. Is now to be the seat of an inde. pendent republic, lliongh doubtless in close alliam'o with lltilMliiii \\)tvt, hy wliouc exertions its indeiwnrlcnce has lH?en vindicate Mr, UimIucv calculates the |)op\ilation of this KL.j-^ HIKNCM AVNRI. quarter, w - province and of the BaiHia Oriental to be as yet only .'ilMNKI Cm riviiteii, iii the Junction of the Plata and the Paranii, must, from this happy situation, risu In llmo iilMi'li iilHivt< Its present moderate Importance. I^wer ilowii, on the opposite side of the river, |s Santa HY, dlslitlll I'lghty leagues from Ilucnos Ayres, which has risen to considerable importance bybrcomliiK a depM tiir the uoimU on the river Mr. Robertson describes also a great trade in supplying Peru with inulcH and other enllli', 'I'lic .Sniitift'erinn was represented 1 1 Mr. ('aldcleugh as more wiU and cruel, and regardless of thi< iHws, Ihnn nny nf the other provincials. The popu- lation ol the town is not supposed to exceed MW; and of lla illtlricl, 'l(l,(KKI, Oia). Paraguay, still fartner up, between the Plata himI 1110 Pannik, ftirms a very fine district, which has fallen under the absolute dominion of a person nf thM liiiiili< of I'ranila, Having taken a degree at the university of Cordova, he applied his knowledge III astinnoiiiy Hhd physics, and the instruments connected with those sciences, to impress this simple race with a helliir In his supernatural powers, By these and other arts, he rules them with absolute sway ; and his first maxim It In allow no tiersoii or thing to come into or go out of Paraguay. Of things, the most valuable Is th(> herli nf PttriiKunv, which the neighbouring countries, were lliey permitted, would lake ott' to the value of I,(KKI,(1(I0/, sUnillig ( and of persons, Honpland, the illustrious botanist and companion of Humboldt, whs lung (lulttlned In prison, though recently liberated. The violent steps, however, by which this pcrsiin la now suiilHiiilMH his sway, seem to indicate that it has gonebeyondwhat the temper of the nation willlumr, and Ihei'i'liirc W not likely to he permanent. Asuncion, the metropolis of the Upper La Plata, is a considorn(ili) lilm't'i with tthoul IO,(KH) Inhabitants, but with little ty. It is built on a bank above tlu< river, which Is daily washing away part of the th the smaller ones of CofMHiiiity mid Villa KIcn, were the staples for the Two other villages, Sania l.iicla and l.illlt' Httnts I'f, sent down to Buenos Ayres and regularity and beauty. ground beneath it This place, herb of Paraguay. Two other v. . . •, . Monte Video lime and gypsuin, for the purpose ol whiliiwashlnn the wnlla of those cllics. 61.30. Cordova, Tiicuman, and Snila form together all e»ti>li«lvt< tenlon, which has been oRen comprehended under the general appellation of Tucuman. They till the iMtcrvtil ticlwevli the Itio de la Plata and the Andes, ■I / !l i.%?P H41 DESCllIl'TIVE OEOUIl.vrilV. Tart III. which ilnrii iwil roiiNikt of ilrnil lovi'l |ilnhi>, llkv thixo in (hi< aoiith, iHit in cromiiHl liy lirxnchct of Iho Aiuli'ji Hiitl even l)y iiarullcl vhiiliia, of whlili the iiiiiit I'lmtlili'rnlilc i« that rallMl the Mivrra ilc Ciirdnvu. Ilrtwci'il thi'io nioiintuiim iire roiiiiil valli-yi and fxti'iiitril iilniim t of tne Andiii {Jig. KMI.'i,), is a continual thoroughfare. A iirn. inicl, almost uniipic in America, is that of winca and brandies, which are very tolerable, niiil arc SI nl to the neighbouring provinccH. Memlnza It n neat town, well built of brick, the strciii refreshed by streanit from the river, ami Ibc interior of the houses well tittnl up. The pupu. lation It generally reckoiu;il from MUX) to Iii.ikk]; though Mr. Califcleiigh makes it &;o,(KX). 'I'licy are dcscribnl as a ipilet, retiieclable, well.di8|H»nl people, though they give tnemsdvos up witliou' reserve to the indolence generated by the cliiiialr, enjoying an unbroken siesta, or sleep, from tuelvi< to Ave in the afternoon, when they rise to walk on the alamcda, which commands a noble view iii' the plain and the Andes : but this it the usual train of life in these interior cities. San Luis, to the east ul Mcnilnz.'i, on a freijuciitcd though circuitous route Irom ISucnns Ayres, is a much smaller place, consisting iif a number of mud huts, scattered over a large siiace of grounii, but In a situation hiuhly picturesi|ue, being enclosed by a lofty branch of the chain of Cordova. San Juan, to the north of Meiidoza, hat another but much less ft'cquentnl route through the Andes. •>l.).'3. PalnKoHia, which, since the settlement formed on the Hio Negro, the Ruenot Ayreant number as one of their provinces, is in full jxiatestion of an Indian race, all mounted on horscb;ick, and in habits and asmd i^lotcly retem!''i .■( those who ilesol.itc the I'ainpas. They have drawn the attention of navigators by thiir size, and ha- j '■■en actually reported as a nation of giants. Although this be exaggerateil, yet they really teem tall above the ordinary standard. They are described to be excellent horsemen. The western coa>l ol this country is bordered by a proloTi|(ation of the Andes ; but these mountains, alter passing Chili, di.erpetual snow ; but no rocks or islanils utrur to obstruct the navigation. In the eastern qu.irter, the coast again assumes a granitic character, and is also ilivcrsifieil by islaml*, iiiough not so numerous as in the western channel. 'I'lie southern coast of 'IVm del Fuego is also broVen into numerous islands. Two of them, Hotte and Navarin, are separated I'roiii the main land by a long narrow channel, stretching almost in a direi-t line, and named, from Captain King's ship, the lleagle. Stoaten Land, another large island, lies offthe eastern coast, from which it is separatsd by the Slraiti of I^ Mairc. One of the islands belonging to the group, called I/Hermite, is remarkable as containing CaiH? Ilorn, the most southerly point of America, and tricing directly the wastes of the ocean which surround tlie Antarctic pol(>. It was once deemed " inl'aniniis for temiiests ; " but it is now found that in a proper 8ia>on Cdiie Horn may lie nas^etl with little danger, and it is commonly preferred to the winding and dimcnlt channel of Slagellan. The retclierais, who inhabit 'I'erra del Fuego, are a handful of miserable savages, in the lowest ttate of wretchedness, and siibsikting solely by the shell-llsh which they pick up on the shore. The Spaniarili noi'TR nV'Sn Tils ANPKIi. Boon IV. DllAZIL. I44r> iiimlu 11" c'itrly attPin|it ti> form u tcttluineiit u Pnrt L'.„.i„. i.. .u inaiiitniii II. ""t-mcm at lort (amine, In the mlUillo of the .trail, but k.uW „oi lil.'):V Tlif eiislrni maul iif Pninuimhi \» i»mmtnUvf\l)a, one of the most considerable in Brazil. These mountains are not Kcnerally higher than from 4(XX) to .'5(KX) feet ; only a few detached peaks rising to about 6000. Geographers have filled the interior with loDy chains, which nave remained as fixtures in modern maps; butitseemi now ascertained that these vast regions arc in general very level j and that even the separation of the waters of the Amazon, the I.a Plata, and the Madera, is made by plains, the highest ridges of which are only apparent by th.it separation. The banks of the Lower Amazons present plains almost boundless, ii|4 GMrgetown 4. N*« AnuMfdim A< Paramaribo 6. Diiteh For 7> Iracuba 5. CaycniM 9. Rnira 19. 81. Loulhot Oyapock 11. Muui IS. Villa Vora da MadndtDlaa 13. Pnffou 14. Datlnro 15. Oltura 16. Monlalagra 17. Santarem IS. Obliloi,orPana U. Faro TO. Vina Nora da lUlnha *l.8fiat,ocyT« n. Btr|>a Rtferautt to the Map tf BratU Paraguay, and Ouiana. . Rio Ncpo, or FonUwiada Ban* Ataa Monr Carmo 8. MarU 8. PaHpo H, Joaqnim 8. Roaa Baroaloa Thomar Caldai 8. Anlonlo da CaaUnbaIro 8. JoM da Mara- biftauna 8. Antonio da Marapl ATalloa, or Coary Tm, or Villa da Ena AHDtniMion Matura OIlTaniat or 8. Paulo da Oina* l1 Hitherto it has been found chiefly In alluvial Mnds and conglomerate (eatcMp). Ewhwege mentions navl.ig seen it embedded in brown iron ore; The district of Serra do Frio is that in which it occurs most abundanUy ; and it is said also to be a native xm. duction of the territory of Hatto Orossa According to EscI- wege, the supply of diamonds durine the elihtv. four years flrom 1730 to 1814 was at the rate of S&OOO carats per annum: but the return ftom the recistm of the administration of the diamond mines flrom ISOO to 1806 wis only 1»,000 carats. 6144. targe diamundt do not abound in BraiU, but some of considerable site are occasionally met with Topases of great beauty and of considerable slse are met with in the diamond district, the chrysoberyi and the green tourmaline or Braiilian emerald in the Serra dos Esmeraldas, and splendid rock crystals and beautiful amethysts are of nrequent occurrence. 614& Iron, In the form of magnetic Iron ore, specular iron ore, and brown iron ore, is (bund in vast quantities. Gold in gridns is found in the sands of most of the principal rivers and their chief branches : or it occurs in the consolidated sand and gravel named cmcalha Gold also occurs disseminated In dlSiient primitive rocks, but there are not mines for the gold they contain ; ail the gold exported iVom Braiil being obtained by washing the sands of riven. Native copper and also ores of copper are met with, but hitherto they have not been turned to any use. Common salt occurs in some clays and marls, and nitrate of potash or saltpetre is produced in abundance !a the extensive limestone beds of Monte Rodrigo, between tne Bio doi VeUioi and the Faiani. SnBSiCT. 2. Botany. irito twiiio g)rtion of the country which is most iirequented, and must, consequentiy, have been vidted by thousands of uropeans ; and he shows how great is the advantue possessed by a traveller acouainted with natural history over the common observer, botli with respect to pleasurable expectation, and the chances of Its f\ilfilment The objects of his studies are Infinitely numerous, and each in its simple relations is so completely a centre of observation, that he must always be repaid for the labour of research. " On first entering the harbour of Rio Janeiro he feels unutterable delight No qiprehension of disappointment darkens his prospect The certainty of meeting Nature in her gavcst and most exalted colours, in all her varied and attractive forms, gives him unmixed enjoyment The brilliant tints of the mountain foliage feed his botanical imagination t whilst the daixling Insects which flutter about the ship tell to him the stores of animated nature. As a gei^ logist, he may almost remain on the deck of the vessel and prosecute his researches ; immense ridges of prU mTtive mountains, traversed by deep ravines, and rising in succession to the very boundary of nis vision, aSbrd him an ample subject of interesting investigation. When once the naturalist has landed, he quickly bends his way to the rocky woods that cover these hills, and finds himself encompassed by all the beauties of Flora Thus I was entirely overwhelmed for some minutes by my sensations, on first beholding the glorious productions of a tropical climate In their native soil Phmts that are reared in England at great expense, and attain, under the best management, but a puny and uncharacteristic form, flourished around me in all the vigour and luxuriance of their perfisct being. A thick coppice was formed by numerous species of Cassia, Cssalplnia, and Bauhinia, whose gay colours and elegant forms were curiously contrasted with the grotesque characters of the Aloe and Cactus. The trunks of the forest trees were covered with beautiful Creqiers, and parasitic Ferns occupied their branches. Emerging flrom the wood, I entered groves of Orange trees, bearing fruit and flowers in the greatest profkision. I approached them in wonder, and scarcely dared to taste their abundant produce, when 1 was astonished by receiving permission to gather them in any quantity. Having laden myself with plants, I returned along the rocky beach to my boat ; walking, at every step, over land Btferencei to the Map iif Brazil, Paraguay, and Guiana— continued. 4. nt <" ^' BalwdoT ti.TtcaiV' !8. Pambal IT. JuoMM , W. RlodeCtnUi 19. Msncu JO. Bo;aM. lO.Gomlun II.U«« 1!. Olhoi 13. .Toazciro 14. Ilheos 15. Porto Seguro 16. Alcobuo 17. S.JoiKdoFotta AteKT« 18. Bom Succetso, or Fariado 19. Arachibj to. Catiral !1. Ihiai lUrru de Currello 18. Deiembouue U. S. CarlM da Jacuhy t4. Concdcao iJ. H. Joao dtl Rn 16. Vdla Rloa 17. Sabara !8. Marian W. Eiplritn Santo 30. Supemtrim 31. Uliatab* Si.RioJandto S3.<}iuntll» S4. OuanU 35, JuTucca All. 36. Jaauul 37.8rPaula 38. Villa Nov* 39. 8. XlTlcr 40. (lualis 41.8. Thome 41. Pintaaul 43. Cananea 44. Paranajrua 45. Villa do 8. Fnui' CllCO 46. Villa da Uinns 47. Papagajos 48. 8.5uo 49. Salto Ana M, 8. MlRUtl M. Yacuj M. Porulegre M. Rcftato 34. ConT«ntoa 33. Quinlao 36. CompTlda 37. Rio Onnd* 39. 8. Roas 60. Joae 61. Almaan 61. RotUoo 63.Coknla 64. Monte Video 63. Maldondldo 66. Caitinola 67. HsngnUo. PARAGUAY. I. Toldano I. Itapccaguaco 3. Voquila 4. Unado d« Capi- tals 3.Vtllad«Curu||ual7 6. Auumpfao 7. Villa Klca 8. Vlapua 9. Ninnbuou. Alivrv. a Eiaequlbo b Domerara CourtntUM d 8uTinam • Maronj f Ouayca SOjapock Anai.-ilrapucu I Vaccarapy J Orixlmina,or Trombctoa k Guatumaa^or Vattinia 1 Jnaguaplra m Brinco n Negro o Copueta, or Vapnra p Codaya q Jarar; r Jular, or Hyutahy t TOe, or Tefik t Coary u Vurutor Funu V AmauMii or Man* non w Madera z Itener, or Guapore J Jawy,«iVii>y 1 Machado, or Ulparanna a» Tap^Jot, or Topayoa b* Jumenul c* Arinoa d* R. de tt«s Barm e* Xingu f* Annapu 6* Tocantln * Araguay I* Mortee i* Pamalba k* luplcuru 1* Mean m* TuriaKu n* Guama o* Oorguea p* FIdalgo S* Camoiln * Jaguaride a* Conchaa I* R. Grande u* Paralba T* S. Frandico w* Itaplcuru I* FeniMiMKU c y* Contia a* Rio Grande do Bclmonte a** Mucurt b** Doc* c** Eiplrini gaale d** Paraiba e** Rio Verde t** Rio Grande Faranahjba >** Paraguay 1** 8. Lorenio j»* Tacoary k** Vermetha 1** Anhanduhy Guam m** Parana n«* Tleie o** Parana Fanema p** Firapo o** Grande da Curt- tubal or Iguacu r** Uruguay >** Que |M Negro tt** Yblicil Uuisn. 1448 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. rralM and the larva! of iiuccU, wlioac nunilxrn gave an a|ipcaranco or niilinatlnii to tlic aoll. Standing on the lieach, with my back to the aca, I had immnllatcly before inc the dark face of the Siigar-Ixwr Mountain, rlilng iVoin a wood o'f flowering treca. To the right hand, the game wood climlieil the prcclpitoiii ground, inter- lected by patha leading to n ruggcti rm^k. Here, grovea of orange trees afliirded a retreat IVom the blniic o( the unclouded aun ; while the cool aca breciea heightened the clluct of the acenc, and, blowing over fields nf bloom, came charged with delicinua nragraiine." <>147. Martiut motlfiUly airroboralei all that Dr. Abel has stated. " Scarcely," says he, '* were we beyond the streets and nolae of Hlo Janeiro, when we atopued, as if enchanted, in the midst of a strange and luxuriant vegetation. Our eyes were attracted aometlmes by gaily coloured birds, or aplcndld butterflies ; aomclimca liy the aingular forms of ll\f insects, and the ncata of wasps and tcimitea, hanging fVom the trees ; sometimes by the beautinil plants scattered in the narrow valley, and on the gently sloping nills. Surrounded by lofty, airy Cassias, broad -leavnl, thick-stemmed Cecroplas, thick-crowned Myrtles, larg»4>loa(omcd liignnnias, climbing (una of (he bnncy-lwarlng Paulliiiias, far-spreading tendril* of the Paa(lon>nower, and of the riclily. flowering Cnronilla, aliove which rise the wavnifi summit* nf Macaubu Palms, we fancied ouraclvea trana- |Mirted into the garocna of the Iles|>erlde*. Pasanig over several streams which were turned to good account, and hills coveretl with young coppice wood, we reached the eminence along which the apring-water for the rity is conducted. Uctween the wooily hills, there arc diveraifled romantic prns|>ects Into the valleys below. Soinctimea you traverse oiien s|Mits, where a stronger light is reflected from the flowery ground, or from tliv shining leaves of the neigfiboiiring high trees ) sometimes you enter a cool shady bower. Here a thick wreath of Paulllnia>, Sccurldaco!, Mikanias, Passionflowers ailorncil with an incredible number of blossoms, climb through the crowns of the I'eltis, the flowering Khexias and Melastninas, Bauhlnlas, delicate Mimosas, and glossy Myrtles; there, bushy Nightshades, Sebestanas, Kupatoria, ('nitons, £giphilas, and Innumerable other plant*, form an impervious thicket, amidst which grow iinnieiisc stems of the Silk Cotton Tree [Bomhnx), of allverJcavrd Cecroplas, thorny Rraill-wood tree, of the Ix-eythi>, with its singular firuit resembling a pitcher, alender atems of the Cabbage Palm, .tnd many other sovereigns of the w(mmI. The mi^catlc aight, the re|ioic .iihI alienee nf theae wooda, interrtiptnl only by the buiz of the gay Humming, llirds fluttering from flower to fliiwcr, and by the singular notes of unknown binlaand insects, peculiarly aflkct the mind of the man of acnsiblllty, who feels himself, a* it were, regenerated in the prosin-cl of the glorious country. The atrcani, which the a(|Ucilui't conveys to the city, falls In one place in beautiful cascade* over the granite rocks. Oblique-leaved negoiiius, alender Cnstua and Heliconias, the red flower-stema of which shine with peculiar splendour, contrasted with the gloom of the forest arlHirescent I'erns and (brasses, hanging bushes of Vernonias, Myrtles, anil Mela- ■tomas, iKMiding tmi'er a load of blossoms, adorn the cool s|)ots that surround them. I^arge and amall-wiiiKi'd butterflies s|)ort above the riupllng water ; anil birds of the gayest plumage contend, as it were, morning ami evening, to overcome the noiac nf (he brook by their various notes. The higher one ascends, the more .c d with the lietter kind ; and, were the pieces of wood care- t^illy selected, it might afibrd a very (lowerful medicine. Another Ilrasillan plant, containing a great quantity uf bitter, is the Carqiieja (Biitxharis antUiMloidet^, which Is much used against Intermitting fevers." fil4H. // i» remarkahl,- thai upon alt Ihv shores , the basis of the forms nf each Individual fliir.i. Those sliriilis and trees which emit roots from their branches require to conic into contact with the sea, in order to attain their |ierfect growth; and, with their widc-spreadiiig and very su|ierflclal roots, they appear esjiecially to afllrt the swampy soil of itK shorci. Though their wood la> solid and not nnfreuuently thick, they grow with extra- ordinary rapidity. The Mangrove {Khiviyhora Manffle, MiiJigue vermclho) i> dislinguisheil by forming a very tliirk bark in a prnportionably short iieriml. In those places where the scarcity of timber dues not make it necessary entirely to cot down the Mangle Trees, as, for inslanre, in Mnranhao, it is usual, particularly at the commencement of the rainy season, when the sap begins to flow lietween the wood and bark, to tear ofC (he latter and use it for tanning. On the summits of these forests growing on the shore, arc seen, in sailing along, the most beautiAil white herons altting, gay-coloured halcyons watching for ll>li, and within the thicket various waterfow', running alwiit or swimming. Wherever these trt es grow, the whole neighlMiurhood is converted Into marshes and swamps, and servca only fur an abode fur a |icculiar Bpccici of crab. fiUil. The eelelirated liussian t'oi/ager niiit traveller. Baron von I.angsilorJf, has a beautiful country rtii- di'iice in llraiil, at the foot nf the Organ Mountains, called MaiuUocca, on account nf the excellence of the Mandiocca rmits (Jatro/iha Manihol't which are cultivated there. This estate la iKiunilcd on the northward by a chain of mountains, traver«"artici!l.'ii>' iHstiii. guiahed by the abacncc of large kindi oT trees, of a alower growth. The primeval forests, which Ktaiid, ai testimonlea of the creative energy nf th.- New Continent, in all their original wildnesa, and still unprofuncil liy human hands, arc callol. In Brazil, Man Virgem, Virgin Knrests. In th<*in, Kuroiican coolness refieshcsthc wanderer, and, at the same time, present i the image of the most luxuriant |irofiision ; the never-ceasing i><.wcr nf vegetation makos the trees shoot up t > a maJe^.tic height ; and, not contented with these gigantic primeval monuments. Nature calls forth, u|Hin .'very stem, a new creation of numerous verdant fioweriiig parasite plants. Instead nl (he uiiifcrm poverty of s|iecies in the forests of Uurn|ie, there Is an eiullcss diversity in llic forms of stem, leaves, and blosKoins. A most every one of these sovereigns of the forest, which here slaiid near to each other, is distinguisheil, in 'he total elltct of (lie picture, from its neighlKiur. While Ilic Silk Codon Tree, partly armed with strong t.iorns, iH-glns at a considerable height fVom the ground to spread oiil its thick arma, and its Hngeretl leaves ar( griiupeil in light and airy masses, the luxuriant Lecvthis and tlic llraiilian Anda shoot out, at a less height, many branches profusely covere fornilnii Krotiiw, aKrceably contrnatcd liy the _. . crown of a llrailhan I'inc {Araucaritt imhricatn) natives of "-- *-—'— —'-'■-"- nriinment the proud ground with rich verdure, hloHnoms of the Hhcxia ; Itiiliincom and Ardisiic, w iilirasta ; the ConcliO('ar]>U8 . licdKe* of Maranta : magniflcent witli garland! of Mlliania i ing Dalcchamiiiu and the ttliich dcacenn ihially kill grotet(|uo """"'" "^ -..,.»..«»-, ..... uuw., ..Ku ..icnen |>uimonariiit, aiul n mullliillclly' lif curiously forn.e.l Ker:!t ; all ihwV «,h,,ir. able productUHiiof ioynun^ a tollvomblne to form a scene wliieh allvniately fliu th« SConr"""'" ""•> •""'«•" •"" '^emterior fa irufual fomOl !• rwiul. to the relative situation of each Imllvliluid plant, with regard to the tunileney In wif. prejervation. With luih a nilnvMof lift., and such a vigorous slrlvlng at dvvvliipvl men , even so rich and n>rlilt> « noil ai this is not caiuihic of funilahlng the noccs sary nourishment in suflii'leiit aliUMdni.i'e i hence those gluantic trees are In a eiiiiilaiii struggle for ihi'ir own presvrvutinn, and miHKle each other's growth, still niuro tlian do the trees in our forests, Kven the Btcins which have attaliivil a eonslilrralilu . . '"^'i!'>t>oi><< '(^Mulrca laruesuiinlv of nutri. mcnl, feel the influence of their stronger nclghlx)urs, arc suddenly arrested in their growt I by In' ii» (lepriveil of the reijuisite juices, and thus become, in a short time, subject to the general Uws of imlurif which leail them to a rapid dissolution. Thus we sec the noblest trees, after suHbriiig an alroiihv of Mimit tnfiiitl.a* f1..riiti(iii nntnn nu/nu liif anta a.irl nfhnr tt.aimla Bnl*...! i.il.l. .Im.n.. A....» .1... . ... ' ' ,. v'^ TlIJANIiHtA. 10 promote the growth of the trees close together, a! io take care that they stand at a iuttlcieiil illilaiicv IVoni each other. •ilJl. Uraxit mils are the fruit qf ncrlhollitia rxcclsa, {fli '»«< (M J"09.) one of the most Inteiesllng niniils of Ijui New World, and which deserves to lie ciiIIIvaIihI In (iio warm parts of America, as we grow Iho alliHiliil and walnut It has been slated that the weigh! of lliu l>ult is so enormous, that at the iicriwi when It ftills, lliv savage natives dare not enter the forests without cover, ing their heads and shoulders with a strong hiickler of wood. The people of hjimeraldas still descrilw (ho dangers which thev run, when this ftiiil, which li m large as a chilli's head, and whuic ihell is so hnni m almost to ilefy the sharpest instrument, droin IViiin a height of fifty or sixty feet. The produce is abniiilniil, each containing from tifteeii to twenty large nnil well. flavourely. (>l.^>2. T/ii' Ilrnzil H'oori of commerce is the priitlucc of Cssalpinla brasilicnsls ; and Hnaownn«l, now in well kiiiiwn and extensively employed as (in oriiaineiital material for furniture, that of a Jacaranda, lil'i 1. Italsant i\f Copniva is aflhrdol by the genus Copaifera. lil.H. Ipfcacuanhn, the true llrazilian drug, resjiecting which there has lieen so much diacusslnn, Is Ihi) root of the Cenhai'lis I|)ccaciianlia of Richard {fig. lull).). Its discovery is due In the niilive llrnilllnns. MarcgraalTand Pison « ere the first who made it known in Europe, and experiments proved the ulllilynfthil truly vnlualile drug. 7 heir description, however, was so defective that Ipecacuanha was long iiaeil iH'liire Ihc plant that produced it was known : till, in \m), Dr. A. Gomes brought Howeriiig specimens lii Miiriijie, which llrotero deacribepin, to remove the arillus : then they are winnowed, sifted, and cleansed. When the kernels are perfectly purified, they are pounded in a mortar of heated Iron over burning charcoal, and thus reducrd to a coarse paste, which is set to cool on a marble slab. A second rolling is bestowed with a steel cylinder on a smooth fVeestone, and as soon a* the paste becomes sufficiently smooth, it is mixed with sugar in a hot basin and poured into tin mould*. Cadet mixed 8 lbs. of the Caracca Cacao, which is the finest kind, with S lbs. of the third kind (Island Cacao), and 8 lbs. of powdered sugar. The addition of ginger, cloves, and pimento, and even musk and ambergris, commonly given in America, render* chocolate, which is by no means easy of digestion, still more heating and exciting. Cadet recommends that only 8 oz, of cinnamon and 3 oz. of vanilla should be put into 20 it». of plain chocolate paste. Chocolate is not very much consumed in England; it Is in greater esteem in France; it forms the ordinary breakfast in S|iain ; and in Mexico, according to Humboldt, it is not considered an object of luxury, but of prime necessity. 6157. The Ixitany of the northern parts of South America, namely, Guiana and Colombia, is far less known than that of Brazil. Oulana presents a singular appearance as you approach it from the sea, being remark. ably low for a great extent towards the interior, so that it cannot be discovered, even iVom the mast-head of a vessel, until close to it. It then presents a curious Aringed aspect ; for nothing but the tops of the tall trees by which the land Is covered are visible on the horizon, apparently floating in the air ; being seen through the medium of an atmosphere charged with watery vapours, that are raised by the excessive heat of the climate ttom a humid soil " Up the Orinoco," says the lively author of Campaignt and Cruues in SoM America, " the scenery is strikingly beautiful ; and, when viewed from a ship'sdeck as she glides slowlyalong the smooth water, presents a magniflcent moving panorama. The banks on each side are covered with imper- vious forests of majestic trees, chained to each other, as it were, by the Bejuco or gigantic creeping plant of South America, which grows to the thickness of an ordinary cable. These ancient trees, when decayed through length of years (for the axe of the wovdsman has never yet resounded In these wilds), arc sup. iiorted upright by these enormous plants, which bear a striking resemblance to the huge water snakes thai lurk in tne swamps beneath. There are many other parasitical plants which bear flowers of various brillianl colours, forming festoons on the trees to which they cling. Among the branches, monkeys of every descriii. tlon gambol and follow the vessel, springing (Vom tree to tree by means of the Bejuco, which has oblainni, ttom this circumstance, iu Indian name of monkey's ladder. The most conspicuous among this mischievous tribe is the araguato, a large red monkey, alwavs seen in herds, the voung ones clinging to their mother's shoulders. These are very destructive among the plantations, where they pull up and destroy more roots and fVuit than they eat or carry away. Their howling during the night is much louder than could be considered possible, considering the size of the animal. The noise they make may lie easily fancied to proceed from panthers, or other large beasts of prey. This is so much the case, that three English soldiers, who had deserted fVom Angostura, were so terrified by the noises made by these animals In the middle of the night, that they hailed the boats In which the other troo|)S were, and begged to be taken on board, declaring that they were surrounded by tigers. Parrots and macaws, with toucans and other birds of beautiful plumage, complete this splendid picture, and fill the air with their discordant screams, to which the metallic note of the darra or bell.bird, responds at measured intervals ; at one moment sounding close to the ear, m.d the neit, dying away in the distance. Up the small creeks, which are completely embowered by inaKnilicrnt ever. greens, are seen pelicans, spoonbills, and garzons, or gigantic cranes, all busily employed in fishing. NVhcn to this is added the occasional appearance of that tyrant of the stream, the alligator, floating i'l consrioui su|>eriority among the bulky manalis and the more agile tnninos, which are incessantly rising and blowing in shoals, the scene may be somewhat imagined, but cannot be adequately des'.rlbed." 61&R. AmoHS the many medicinal and poisonous plants growing on the banks of the Orinoco, one of the most singular IS a specie* of Bejuco, which, v'hen properly administered, prove* a powerful preservative from the eifects attendin,-; the bite of every description of (loisonous serpents. It evei appear* to deprive these reptile* either of the power or inclination to use their fangs. Some of the leave* and *mall branches arc pounded, and applied in this state as a cataplasm to both arms ; the skin having lieen previously scarified freely above the elbows. This species of Inoculation Is repeated at stated intervals ; the Juice of the bruited plant, diluted with water, being also occasionally drunk. Several soldiers, belonging to General Zedeflo'i division of the patriot army, had undergone this treatment, and flrequently found the advantage they thus bad acquired. They were thereby enabled to take ihelter in dcMrted huts, which others dared not enter, foi Book IV. BRAZIL. 1451 ! them out In their hand! fear of the tnakei alwan lurking Iniueli o\am. iiuiin...h .i,„ without iuitaining any Inlury. No dece«lo^ wS nrarti^ V''"* "en could bring 1 their ikUl in de*troylng thWreptileTTho ZaM^rilufin"^.' «ny reward ukei or expected, for whlbiTln'; ance. Some of the crSelu are 16 ftill of it. that^?^nMl«f.°"•J?.'^l "T "elghtiour'hSod /n peat *H drink the water, which they aswrt to be •ufflcientl, imor^SS J?.i^l"' '"'e**"" around, tStath^ and in many obttinate chronic complalnU. """"*""» "nP'egnated with the virtuei of the plant to eflbct cimS 6159. Among thtnlendia paraaitic orchideom olanti i.hi«h i„„o.. .1. .. ■ he forett tree, with verdure and blottom. not SeWn 7s he V.nX r J-""'"* t ">'!' " *''e dead trunki of A a Ji ita warm nunoent .nli 1,1 ki ^ '.. *■"■ oaliamic o< our, and ^, A ^«™, nn Th,ii i,r-]!"/!?_V^P" "• y hlch toth Water and alcohol VAnirLA AUUMATICA ana naa alender and verv framnt ivwi. ;>r .* aZT" ■ u'lf "*"• near tfie peduncle, and bleaJh them inlSnVanMu.lv bvEinS them into boiling water. Then they are hung uS in the imfn .if expoaed to the ami, and the following day amwid with oi?toD?^ vent their ahrinking or drying too faat It is nreraaMv iL'^ 1^ bind them round with an oiled thrwd that ih^^/'nf.I^'««» . '"Hthrro Wh"%f'»"8!ngup.thnuVrabUSr„f^'coTfl".?d la downwarda, and they oae their clammmesa, and become brown, wrinkled aofL their former aizc. I" th.a state Ihej; are rubbed with oily handa and de^i!2d in^ n freah. In the torrid parta of America, it were most easy to cultivate vanilla and flows fVom the point which I and shrunk to a quarter of t varniahed pot, to keep them Irean. in me lorrm pana 01 America, it were most easy to cultivate vanillV and to produce much larger quontitiea than arc now obtainable ; but the inhabitanta only collect auch iVuitu is found on the wild plants, which arc confined to the shores of creeks and other swampy spots liablelooccaaion^ ipundation. There, the vanilla twines over the stems of the mangrove, and Sowers in themonth of Mav bewi ing its fruit in September. The uae of vanilla ahould be confined to peraona of feeble conatitutions • ita hcatinir and irritable qualities would render it dangerous to auch as are liable to feverish, inflammatory, or cutaneous .lymptoma. It la uaed in cakea, lemonade, ahcrbct, and ice ; but especially for giving a flavour to chocolate 61fi0. Cayenne Pepper is the ftuit of Capsicum annuum. Rini. The Bixa Orellnna. or Arnotta, which yields the dye with which cheeses arecoloured red, arrives to the stature of a large tree in Guiana. GI69. Quattia, that intensely bitter drug, is the wood of Quassia aniara. 61ti3. The Cannon-ball Tree {Couroupila guianensis) is a striking plant, an inhabitant of Guiana, remarkable for the size and beauty of ita blossoms and for the magnitude of its fruit The tree grows to SO or 60 feet high, covered with foliage that is mixed with racemes of flowers, sometimes containing a hundred highly fragrant blossoms, of a lovely crimson red colour, succeeded by cnormoua flruits. The fallen sheila or huaka that atrew the ground, ao nearly resemble a cannon ball, that one might easily imagine a com- pany of artillery had bivouacked in ita shade. If we may truat in the poetic language of M, Descourtilz, Flore Pittoresque et Medicate des Aniittes, the noiae these ftuits make in falling aflbrds an additional reason for the name. " Beneath a pure and dazzling sky," says he, " gracefulness is ever united to the magniti- cence of nature ; there the hidden streams only reveal their presence in gentle murmurs, or by the silvery light that they cast upon the rocks, or the soft sound with which they trickle through the grass, or the increased verdure with which they endow the plants. But when the silence of nature is broken by those violent hurricanea which too often, in the torrid zone, blast all the hopes of the cultivator, you may hear the report of the fhiita of the cannon-ball tree, whose bursting produces an oft-rcpcated echo, and resembles the rolling tireof adischarge of artillery." The shell is used inSouth America for domestic purposes, as the calabash. The pulp contains sugar, gum, malic, citric, and tartaric acids, and is employed to aflbrd a refreshing drink in fevers; but in the perfectly ripe state, it exceeds whatever is filthy, stinking, and abominable in nature; yet the scent is remarkably vinous, and ao permanent, that our late friend, the Reverend Lansdown Guilding, on ex- amining aome portiona of the fruit that had been preaerved in rum two or three yeara, found the native odour of the plant ao atrong, aa to render the apartment almost insupportable. Insects revel in this filthy and disgust. ing ]>ulp. Beetles and earwigs feed upon it ; while the formicas find shelter in the hollow of the shells. tiltH, Among the painu, the Manlcot Palm and the Cokarita are the most celebrated. eif>5. 0/ the dWirenI kinds of Yam, which arc cultivated in most tropical countries, though only natives of intertropical Tiidia, we shall speak more ftilly when we come to treat of the vegetable productions of the South Sea Islands, where they form one of the principal articles of food to the natives. liltti. Batatas, or tweet Potatoes, are the fleahy, spindle-shaped roots of a Convolvulus (C. Batatai). There are several varieties, the culture being easy, and the plant bearing Batatas at all seasons of the year, those put into the ground in February being fit for use fVom June to March of the following year. In the South of France, the Convolvulut Batatas is cultivated in the open air, in a warm situation and light soil, but a hotlied is requisite for ita growth^a. more northern countriea. This root is nourishing and of easy digestion : and forms a staple article of food in many parts of South America, especially Guiana. There are various modes of cook- ing it, either made into cakes, boiled, or baked ; but thebcst way for preserving its genuine flavour is to steam the roots or to bake them under the ashes. This is the kind of potato which is alluded to by Shakspeare, as possessing stimulating properties (in his comedy of tlic Mary Wives of Windsor], and not the root of Solanum tuberosum, which was unknown in Europe in the time of the great Knglish dramatist. The Batataa contain a great deal of aaccharine matter, and when submitted to the process of distillation, aflbrd an alcohol, of which many of the South American nations are but too fond. The folLige is much relished by cattle ; and cows that are fed upon it yield an increased and improved quantity of milk. . j . . fil(i7. fiHsawfl ftrrarf is nowhere, perhaia, more-: ndantly prepared than in Guiana. It is produced fVom the root of the Jatropha Manihot {fie lola), and in the following manner : -The root is rasped on large tin or wooden graters, fixed on benches, behind which the women employed in making it sWiid in rows. A sufticieiit quantity having been rasped for one time (as the surplus would ferment and spoil), tlicy put it in long circular baskets of plaited rushes, about 10 feet long, and 9 inches In di^ineter, called mangucras. These are hung up, with weights attached to the lower end, which draw the plaited work tight together. 1453 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. acquired by pneliM, ipread It out In a round and very thin layer, nearly the liie of the plate It ii laid on. Thia they do, merely with a piece of calab-nsh, which they keep >^M In constant motion ; preulng gently every part of the surface, until the 1013 ^Ki&> heat hat united the meal Into a rake, without In the least altering its colour or scorching It. Their method of turning a cassava cake (if that slie reiemblet sleight of hand ; for they efltct It with two pieces of split cane, without breaking it, though srarcely so thick as a dollar, and only ai yet half cemented together, and of a substance always brittle, especially when warmed. This bread is very nourivhing and will melt to a Jelly in a liquid ; but it Is dangerous if eaten in any quantity when dry, as it swells, on being moistened, to many times itt original bulk. It will keep good for any length of time, if preserved In a dry place. The expressed juice deposits, after standing for some time, a line white starch, which, when made into Jelly, is not to be ■ distinguished fVom that prepared from the arrow.root 6l()8. When it it cotuidered that the Jatropha Manihot tielongs to a highly poisonous tribe, and is itself one of the most virulent of the species, it cannot hut ex.cltt.' astonishment to find that it yet yields ao ' abundant a flour, rendered innocent by the art of man, and affbrding nourishment to many thousands in South America, Even In our own country it is largely imiwrted and served up at tabic, under the name of Tapioca. Such is tne jmisonous nature of the juice of Manioc, that it sometimes occasions death in n few minutes ; and thus many of the unhappy Indians destroyed their Spanish persecutors, A lATBoTHA M««inoT. Surinam physician administered it, by way of experiment, to dogs and cats, who died after twenty.flve minutes of dreadful agony. Dissection provcot, and otiiers carry it to their children, till one might fancy that a cowherd was distributing to his family the milk of the Hock," 6171. From this rilraordinary fluid. Dr. Thomson, Professor of Chemistry, hat extracted a new substanee, which he calls Oalactine. ens. The Arracacha {Arracacia eiculenta. Hot. Magazine, t 3099.) is a productive and hardy roof, gratcrul to the palate, and of easy digestion. It is iicculiar to the hilly country, and is particularly cultivated near the city of Santa F^, where it is planted in the same manner as potatoes, to whicn it ii preferred, resembiiiiji, in thape and tatte, the Jerusalem artichoke. The natives frequently use it, together with maize, for making that celebrated Indian beverage called chica, which is commonly drunk by the mountaineers. The roots art' irregularly shaped, and adhere in clutteit to the original plant. The culture of the Arracacha root liai lately been extended to Jamaica, the climate of which «eems perfectly. suited to itt nature. The soil which iuitt yamt appeart equally adapted to the Arracacha. SuBsECT. 3. Zoology. 6173. Tlie Zoology of Brazil is of such a nature, that we know not how to convey an adequate idea of its magnificence or its richness. Yet, if we view it in reference to that of any other region of ei.i«T» e ,..,''*' y^ the aoil ia uncommonly rici vegetation attalna Ita gr. cleared for cultivation, p than he meeta with a toiai. hieing 'uxui.. ' n amazir ^ifibrent ci. - Tfie number and variety of inaecU towarda the coaat ia inconccliablc i moiature and f^^^^^^ "? vegctablea aoft vegetable juicea. seem csaential to numeroua tribea ; but o^n the cm^nS and uhuii« ^n'l" '^, "'^.»'»' wood., where the .oil ia dry and hot. water acarce. and the foliage S^d,.un^«i?n?n'.f.l.^i''''' """?' be acarce ; for the traveller may journey onwarda for houra. without™ *n»«tt«S ?v .h„ If ">' "PI*"',"' butterfly. The birda. Indeed, are much more numeroua, parUcularlyS of ?hcTa,L.^^^^ ?iA*f """.?' * derive their principal food from the amall fVuita and Unlea whldi C ratinm tr JaTiS^^^^^^ Butwemuat no longer dwell on these gener..! pccunaritiea.hiwcver i"t3inrbEt'^rreMt^ aketch of those tribca moat remarkable in the zoology of BraiiL intercating, but proceed to a rapid 6175. Amone the Quadrupeds, we arc atruck with the number and var'ety of Monkeva and Rat. T>.. ..... like Apea anJBaboona of the 6i.l World far exceed in aize any of their tr be yet di8?OTer2din^m.r^r" neither are the genera of th a continent similar to thoaeof Africa or of India^^Lve tJla 1?u are wfthoul cheek pouchea or naked calloaitiea on their liuttocka. The Howling Monkeys Qtf/c'te, III. live in the d^ recesses of the virgin foreata, and arc heard morning and evening sending forth suclUremcndoua and flightftS howls, as to impress the listener with the ideaol the aound proceeding from some gigantic and fcrScioua animaL The "Ursine Howling Monkey {M. ursma Humb.) is of thil description," fnd although ^aU Its voice, louder than that of a bear, is i«rfcctly terrific. Monkeys are only abundant in the virgin forerta- they live entirely among the loftieat trees ; and their tails, being nrehensilc, give them an additional focilti in leaping and jumping firom branch to branch with the most perfect ease. No leaa than aixtv-flve sdwim are described as natives of Brazil and the regionii adjacent "Ftvu.-. «I76. The Bats are surprisingly numerous j and are, no doubt, powerftil instruments to keen within due tiiiits the myriads of flying inaecta : some, however, live almost entirely upon ftuits, while others like the deadly vampire of the Kast, enter the cattle stables, and even the huts of men, and suck the blood of both We have more than onco had a horse or mule ao much weakened by these animala during the night as to be incapable of travelling. * ' number, and are fearful of man. The largest are the Puma and the Jaguar, the last being a most formidable animal. There are, besides, several small and elegantly marked Tiger Cats ; but tlie Lion, Tiger Fanthcr Hyicna, and the whole list of savage quadrupeds so common in Africa or in India, are totally' unknown in the New World. 6178. 7"Ae Puma (F. concolor) may be said to repreacnt the Lion in the New World ; like that, it is large and uniformly yellow, but without a mane or tufteil tail. It is about five feet long, and two and a half higTi. Azara informs ua that it climbs trees with the greatest ease, although it generally lives in the forests and lies concealed In underwood. In ita wild state, it never attacks man ; and when in confinement becomes aa gentle aa a dog. Whether thia Paraguay species is the same as the Puma mentioned by Major Smith. iGrif. Cuv. 2438.) is not quite clear. 6179. The Jaguar (K onra L.) is not unlike the American panther : they are solitary animals, inhabiting thick virgin forests. They attack cows, and even bulls of four years old, but are especially enemies to horses. It will, indeed, not attack man, unless pressed by hunger ; but this is no security to the traveller, as Azara mentions an inatance of two men who were seized and carried away by these animals when sitting Iwfore a large Are. There arc two races, the one larger than the other, but both are fierce and untameable. The Tapir and diffbrent siiecies of Sloth arc well known inhabitants of trupical America, and have been repeatedly described. The Armadillos likewise belong to this continent. Travellers mention small deer; while numeroua Cavya, Squirrels, and lesser quadrupeds, abound. Horses and mules are the only beaata ot burden, and ahcep are almost unknown. 6180. The ornithological features iif Brazil have already been noticed ; and, in regard to species, it may safely be pronounced the richest in the whole world. Not more than one fifth of the whole empire has been yet explored ; yet upwards of 500 difierent birds have been already discovered, and new objects are continually enriching our museums. Tu enumerate these would be tedious, even were it |iossiblc ; but a few general particulars will not be misplaced. 6181. The Rapacious Birds are not proportionably numerous. Large Black Vultures are every wheie seen perfectly tame, and aitting on trees by the way side, ready to devour offhl or any dead aiiimai substance. They appear of a diifcrent si«H:ic8 to the turkey buzzard and black vulture of the United States. The King Vulture (r. papa L.) ia nearly of the same size, but is much more rare, and is remarkably elegant in its plumage. The forests of Guiana, Pari, and other parts of Brazil, shelter the Aquila destructor, or Great Destroying Eagle, one of the most formidable and ferocious of birds. It considerably surpasses in size the golden eagle of Europe, measuring near three feet long ; the back and upper plumage is black, the under greyish white, and on the hind hctd is a semicircular crest of leathers, which is erected at pleasure. It flies with majeatic rapidity, and preys only uiwn the larger quadrui)cds, as deer, sloths, monkeys, &c., pursuing them indiscriminately, and tearing them to pieces by its enormous talons. In contrast to thia formidable bird of prey is a little owl, not much bigger than a sparrow, a pair of which were the first bird we shot after landing in South America. The Caracara, or Brazilian Crested Eagle, we have recently illus- trated (Zootogica/ ///uj/rntonji, PI. 2.), and many other buzzards occur towards Paraguay. . .V • 6182. The extensive order qf Perching Birds oflers numerous trilics conspicuous (br their beauty, tncir HM DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. ipl«ndour, or their ilnguUrity. ThoT]rraBlFI]reatcheri(7Vrami 6183. Hummlng.binU are to be seen wherever a tree is In ftill blosiom, darting about flrom flower to flower, among splendid butterflies often much larger than themselves. 4tkeiSikm fllH4. TIte Water Birdi, along the swampy coasts of Pari! and in some other parts, are abundant t but thcic tribes, upon the whole, are but locally dispersed. The splendid scarlet Curlew and the red Flamingo are met with near Pari, in flocks of many hundreds. ■aAiiUAii raoo. 6185. Serpent* and ReplHei appear much less flrcquent than in the equinoctial regions of Africa. Alligators of a small siio arc often seen basking on the sunny edges of the savannahs ; but others arc mentioned by travellers of a much larger siie and of more ferocinui habits. The Rattlesnake appears to be unknown, or very rare, although there are other snakes whose bite Is believed to Iw c<|UBlly venomous: we must, however, observe that the Braslliani are uncommonly ignorant in these matters, and that we were partlcii. larly struck with the paucity of these rratiles met with in our daily Journeys and woodland excursions. Many, however, arc vrrv beautinil in colour. Boas of a large sise are said to be met with on the banks of the great rivers. The fVogs in some sltuationi arc innumerable, and their croaking is almost deafening. We well remember a little negro boy bringing to us, as a curiosity even to the natives, a trog of such vast dimensions, that the little urchin I'ould scarcely walk with It in both hands : its body was certainly bigger than the head of an ordinary man. We omitted to ascertain the precise species (Jig. 1015.). 6180. 7d enumerate the countleti variety qf Iniecti would be J almost impossible. Near the virgin forests they absolutely swarm. I The diurnal Butterflies (PapiUonkUe], more particularly, arc of a sire and brilliancv unrivalled by any in the whole world ; at these gaily coloured tribes we estimate that between liOG and 700 species are found in Braiil alone. Some of the lesser arc perhaps the moat brilliant. One, in particular, named after the God of Love (Pap. Cupidot..) (Jig. lOm), has the underwings embossed with gold Simla in such a way as to appear as if liquid drops of that metal liad fallen upon the wings and cooled without injuring them. Anis arc aa numerous as in Western AfVica ; but the scorpions and centipedes are small, rarely seen, and do not appear to alarm the natives. Many of the Beetle tribe are remarkable for their grotesque ap- pearance, and others for the splendour of their colours. ThuUreat Fire-fly (Patgora lanternaria) (Jig. 1017.), is said to emit Oom its snout a light more sparkling than that from a doien glow-wnrms. cuFiD BDTTnmv. jhis fact, however, we have never verified, although we frequently round the insect The Diamond Beetle we have before mentioned ; but even this is surpassed In magniUrcnce by two others of the same genus, peculiar to the more southern provinces towards St. Catharine's. 6187. The Marine Shells of the llrazllian coast arc re- markalily few, the Capsa brasiliana (Jig. 1018.) being almost the only example of a genus peculiar to these seas. The exterior is covered with an olive epidermis ; the interior is tinged with violet. Two new s|iccies of HodioliB or Date-muscles (Jig. 1U19.) have recently been urougnt from Rio de Janeiro, and the rare Vnluta brasi- liana of Lamarck is stated to have come fVom this coast. Few bivalve shells have yet been found In the large rivers ; but these are dlRbrcnt f^ora all the North American species, ar.d may be known by their superior iridescence. The genus Hyria Lam., and its various subgenera, among w**''*! is the Castalla of the same author, arc all from OKBAT PtRR-Pl.r also occur In the forests, one of which, the length. 1019 Vaxilian rivers. Some very singular land shelli M ovalis (Jig. 1030.), often exceeds four inches in r,\93. This is I) ;iO,000 tro lACA HSAVIirAvA UAIB KUMaiJ. AutlMua uvAi:i». RT III. tn triicU, {Ftmico. f waiting (roopt of Ith black, and othei i 111.), and ifWfUC 8w.) :hPcatlnKa f Toucani inlng ttom >r nell.blrd the anvil. lU the tra. F Sw.), and mer to feed inumorable he labulara on to theae e itoncllkc till bloiwm, often much ; > but thcic 'lainlngo ate Lient than In ■tie are oncii )Ut ntheri arc lore ferocious or very rare, ltolicc^in{jliif. US 5 CIH8. The coaat of liraxil wns first toutlKcl in 1499 l>y Viiuciit Yuiicz I'itizoii, onu of the companions of Coluinbns, who docs not appear, liowewr, to liiivf pi-nelratuil far l)L'yoiHl tliu mouth of llie Manmoti. Next yv:\t it occurrci rrcncn riuKUcnou lo itio Janeiro, wnicn was even Inr a short time terinecl Antarctic France; and the Knglish attempted to fix themselves in the north ai I'araiha : but the tierce niul determined attacks of the I'ortuguese rooted up both these esUiblishmeiits. A inon: furniidable cHbrt was made by the Dutch, after the transference of Ilrazil to I'liilip II., with wliinii tliey weic nt open war. Under I'riiu'c Maurice they made themselves masters of the whole nortli of lir.izii, which tlicy held fur nearly hidf a century. But their establishment having been too much rcilui'cil, and their attention being eniimssed by other objects, the t'ortuguese, in lUOt, commenced a series of brisk att.uks, by wliich they soon recovered possession of the whole territory. After several atterajita to retrieve their allUirs botli by arms and negotiatiim, the Dutch, In I'ifil, were obliged to make a final cession of Ilrazil to Portugal. The llrazilians had suhse. oueMtly some occasional i|uarrels with the Spaniards, especially in 17li2, when the governor of Uuenos Ayres took from tliem the fortress of t'olonia del Sacramento, which, however, waa restored at the conclusion of peace In 17fi.'i. liiyo. The urea* prosperily of this colony dates chiefly from the year 1699. That wns the ejioch of the dis. covery of uohl, which was succeeded by that of diamonds ; two brilliant objects, whicii placed Ilrazil com. iiletely on a level with the richest of the Spanish |M)Ssessions. At the same time the fertility of tlie soil was howcvcr,''he has since been obliged to abdicate In favour of his Infant son. Sect. IV. I'ulitical Geography. ■mi The ennslitulion of Brazil is ostensibly a limited monarchy, on the model of the Dritish, except that .!,','.« 'is no hcrcilitarv house ; the senate, as well as representatives, licing elected by the people, with some emicurrt" ce of the sovereign! There is, however, a great dillieulty in ontorcing the measures of any general ami central administration over so wide an extent of country, and over provinces so deei.ly imbicHl wi i a I cal 8 irU The northern districts, in particular, have made vigorous attcmp U and sl.l cliensh the wi^ to l.mi a sepkrateand republican government, on the model of those now establishcil over the rest of America. fil93 The revenue of Brazil is stated at about 20,000,000 cnisndos, about 2,300,001)/. This la burdened witVi a debt of 30,000,000 crusados. The military force consists of ;iO,000 Uoops of the line, with 50,000 militia ; and there is a considerable marine. Sfci'. V. Produclwe Induslry. 6194. The mUur.d capaeities of Jhazil ure fully cpiul to thosL- of any region in the New World. The soil is capable of yielding profusely sugar, cotton, collee, tobacco, all the ricliL- 1 tropical pi^)ductions ; the forests are immense, and abound in the most viiluable timber- the fields are covered with numberless herds of cattle ; and the most precious ot . metals are found near the surface of the earth. Its chief defect is, that, destitute of those tine elevated table lands, whicli cover so much - of Spanish America, it all'onis no eligible situation for European colonists ; and the labouring classes consist al- most wholly of negro slaves ; a circumstance adverse to its prosperity, and necessarily engendering many evils. 6\9r>. Dense and impene- trable forests (,fi{f. 1021 .) cover a groat part' of the interior of Brazil, and exhibit a 145S DESCUIPTIVK GEOGRAPHY. Part III, luxiiriiinou nf vugvtatioii almost peculiar to the central regions of South America. " The iiilinite variety of tint'^ which these woods display, give them nii aspect whoily different froiii those of Europe. Each of the lofty sons of the forest has an effect distinct from that of the rest. The brilliant white of the silver tree, the brown head of the Mangoa, the purple flowers of the Brazil wood, the yellow laburnums, the deep red fungus, and the carmine-coloured lichens, which invest the trunks and the bark, all mingle in brilliant con- fusion, forming groups Anely contrasted and diversified. The gigantic height of the palms, with tjieir varying crowns, give to these forests an incomparable mi^jesty. All these are inter- woven with a network <:if creeping and climbing plants, no close as to form round the large trees a verdant wall, which the eye is unable to penetrate ; and many of the flowering species, that climb up the trunks, spread forth and present the appearance of parterres hanging in the air. These woods are not a silent scene, unless during the deepest heat of noon, but are crowded and rendered vocal by the greatest variety of the animal tribes. Birds of the most singular forms and most superb plumage flutter through the bushes. The toucan rattles his large hollow bill ; the busy orioles creep out of their long pen- dent nests ; the amorous thrush, the chattering manakin, the full tones of the nightingale, amuse the hunter ; while the humming-birds, rivalling in lustre diamonds, emeralds, and sapphires, hover round the brightest flowers. Myriads of the most brilliant beetles buiz in the air; and the gayest butlcrtlies, rivalling in splendour the colours of the rainbow, flutter from flower to flower. Meantime the beautiful, but sometimes dangerous, race of lizards and serpents, exceeding in splendour the enamel of the flowers, glide out of the leaves and hollows of the trees. Troops of squirrels and monkeys leap from bough to bough, and large bodies uf ants, issuing from their nests, creep along the ground." It concerns us here to remark, that these immense forests are rich in tiinl)er of every description for use and ornament, suited either for carpentry, shipbuilding, dyeing, or furniture. That kind specially called Brazil wood is particularly celebrated for the beautiful red dye which it produces, 610f>. Aaricullure is exerclsrd in Braxil upon valuable product!, and in fertile soil), but in a very alovcnly manner. J'hc I'arincr*, till of lute, were a ino«t ignorant race, hot IwlicviiiB th.it there were any countries in the world cxrcpt I'ortuxal and Itraiil, nor any cxeept the last in which tnc migar cane grew. 'J'hey have begun, however, to hold intercourte with the worhl in general, and to introduce improved processes from the West India islands. Land is so abundant that thcv never think of employing manure, but break up a fresh fpot ulieni'ver a cultivated one ia exhausted. 'I'ncy do not even grub up the trees, but plant the sugar canes among the stumps, the luxuriant shoots from whicli cannot be cleared away without great laljour 6I!I7. AmoHK llie ali/irls nf culture sugar has long l>een prominent ; the rich and moist soils on a great part nf the coast being iiarliiulaily suited to it. Notwithstanding the cheapness of land, a considerable capital is necessary to est.iblish n sugar planl.ition, including at least forty slaves and a variety of machinery, 'j'iio amoinit is from MM. to KMKIU/., which is olU'n Iwrrowed, payable by luccessive small instalments. Cotton liai of late become a leading article, in cnnseijucncc of the extensive tiemanil in Britain. The best is that nf I'crnamhuco ; that of Marai:ham an the negroes, manioc and kidncybeana are the articles most raised. Maize and lunanas arc nut so much used as in most tropical countries. Itice is largely cul- tivated only in Maranhain. 619K. Cnltic multiply to an immense extent in all the provinces nf Ilrazil, but more especially in tlic (outh. 1 he great farms contain '2(m, 3000, 4000, and aomctimes even 40,000 head. The bulk of lliesu roam at large in a wild state, with no attendance except that of two or three peons or herdsmen, rlilinx constantly round the wide pastures, to keen them within the bounds, and defend them against the attacl.s oi' wildbcasta. Once a year only they are collected within an enclosure, and branded with the mark of tho master. I'nrtiuns of tliese roving herds are from time to time caught and killed, chieHy fur the liide, thoueli the flesh also is dried in a peculiar manner, and sent to the norlliern provinces. A certain number, nolwit^i- atanding, are tamed, to supply milk, and to aerve for meat, which ia considered more delicate than that of the wild cattle. C199. Minet, however, form the most celebrated, though by no mcang the most valuable, aource of Brazilian wealth. G-200. Tlie gold of limzU occurs, like that of Africa, in the form of dust brought down by streams which descend from the hills, and from wln'ch it is separutey which processes it is perforated like a honeycomb ; and the earth being all waslied away, presents a picture of desolation which excites the astonishment of strangers. Tlie produce of gold has greatly diminished, and on the whole the precious metal has proved to Brazil a fatal gift. The eager seartli and hope have continued after the amount ceased to repay the labour. A few instances of wealth suddenly acquired have generated a (llslikc of steady and regular occupation ; and the rich soil in the neighbourhood of the mines, and 'AftTlII. a. "The (liflVreiit inct from ! Mangoa, g, and tliu lliant con- the palms, B are intt-r- 1 tlie large flowering f parterres est lieut of iTial tribes, the bushes. long pcn- lightingale, leralds, and ties buiz in bow, flutter :e of lizards I- leaves and bough, and concerns us tion for use That kind lye which it a very rtovcnljr ny cuuiitrivs in w. 'I'hry liavf processes from )ut break up a (ilant the sugar cat labour, i on a great part cralile capital is lacliiii'Ty. 'I'lf ImentM. Cotton n. The best is both placi'S. In lultivated, along 1 of recent intro. he most imiwrt- 1 arc the articles :e is largely cul. isiiccially in the le bulk of llicse licrtUmcn, ricliiig ^st the attacl.s of the mark of tlio the hiilc, thonali number, notwitti- catc than that of ourcc of Brazilian brought down by agitation in rior deposits of inhabitants, to ive occupation. hoe to open a s not encounter J, and is poured me, and made, be impregnated intain, and pits )eing all waslwd strangers. The al has proved to amount ceased neratcd a dislike f the mini's nnJ UUOK IV. nil A 7.11.. I«7 niAMUKD BIVIR. from which the tnoit solid wenUli mlKht hitvi. bvt.ii tlt-rlviMl. U nll.)w..,l to lie waste. The fildustlT ' * •'"«»"lv«'ly t-vwlwi, ,,r«Mvs heavily on this branch of 6201. The diamondt of Brazil are a source of wenlth still more brilllani, yet even less pr«)ductive. The principal d anyone gromul Is In . clrtuU of sis.eeh leagues ound Tejuco, ,n the district of Serro do Ino. The trade has b«,„ ,n.,„«pol|„.d by ,he government ; and as usual in such cases, has been conducted at a vtM y great expi-nse. Not less than 35,000/. ]0S3 iiiinunlly is said to be expended in "Hlt'i'rs, negroes, machinery, and inslrumviits. All proprietors re> ildeiit near the spot eagerly proffer W Ihi'lr negroi's at a very low rate ; to It wlilch proceeding it Is alleged that R Nliijster motive* frequently impel *'• them. The diamonds of Urazilarp ff the gold, among portions of alluvial earth. Of all the duwsi. tnritis of diamonds, the most cele- brated U the river Jiquitonhonha ,.,. . ^, , , . (,/<«• 10«a-l, which flows nearly as broad as the Thames at Windsor. When workwl, iliu rhnnnel is turned aside either by canals or pumps, and the earth from the bottuiii dug out. The cascalho is then laid in lK'«lt« hv (hu side of n flooring (/j;. 1023.), tllv detl Into vnrluu* compartments, into each of which a ciirri>nt of water is admittctl. While till* pHKkvs through, the cascalho is kept in loiidtBiil motion |»y raking it till the earthy particles are washed away. The negro stationed at uneh vompartinvnt then begins a most diligent HCiiich for (he diamonds. When he finds one, lit) t'lapn hU hands, and holds it up between his foretlnger nnil thumb to the overseer, who places ll in a bowl suspended from the centre of the Mruclme. When a negro presents a stone of NtDventewi ciiihIh and a half, he receives his liberty | and hnndsotnu presents arc given whenever any diamond of inferior, tliougli of consldendile, slue Is foimd. On the otiier hand, the Hirk'luit precautions arc taken to prevent any fttim heltig hccreted. Three overseers, plat'ed on liigli seals, command a view of the wlioln j(l'oup| lUul the negroes are frequently ehnngetl frinn one compartment to another, lest they should thrust a diamond into a corneri niitl return to take It away. There is an infinite variety in the size of the diamonds, Home nr« so very small that sixteen or twenty are required to make up a carat ; while, on tho other liuiul, two or three are usually found in the course of a year, weighing from seventeen to twenty ciirals. It is not expected that one weighing thirty carats will be foiuul ot\uner Ihni) once in two years. The diamonds of Uinzil are larger than those of India, ami Hs luHllaiit, liul nut so hard. At the first discovery of the mines they sent forth no less tliiin n Ihoiiwind ounces of diamonds, which made a prodigious impression on the market } but of late their annual produce has not much exceeded 22,000 carats. 6202. Of other mineral proiluils, iron and copper art' Mild to abound in the interior pro- vince of Matte Grosso ; but they have not yet been « oiki'd. There are also topazes larger than those of Saxony and Siberia, t(niiinallne«i iiiid rock crystal. fiSoa. Mam^factures have made f mailer progress in llrHill Ihini In nnv other of (he South American colonics The only fabric of im|Hirtanec is that of gold ant) illvtir, wlileli In enrrkil on in the capital to a great extent. The articles wrought arc of great beauty, and src an ol\|ei'l evsii i)rex|iorl. fi204. Commerce flourishes in consequence of the very ticpendencc of the country upon foreign manufactures, as well as the valuable profUK'tN ot lt« soil. Kio Janeiro is the centre of trade for the southern coasts, which send to it prflvlttlniis for Its own consumption, as well .IS hides, tobacco, sugar, and cotton ; vast tralnii of londi^d mtilcs also come and go to the interior provinces, especially S. Paulo and Miniis Ocriies. Bahia carries on most of her trade, and Feriumbuco and Maranham nearly all of theirs, direct with Europe- In 18.S7, the trade between Britain and lirnxil employed 17(i Nhlits, '13<.'i37 Ions, and 3182 men out- wards; 162 ships, 38,161 tons, 1912 men inwardH. The principal articles of export from A Aa WAJIILNO rUR niAMUMia- i i4an DESCIUI'TIVE OEOOllAPIIY. Part III. nritnin wora, eottutiH, 'l8,7fi7,a7«> India bandan- n(K>s, HO(X) gallons wine. The imports were, chiefly, — cotton, Sardinian, mi French, '27 Danish, 26 Ilumburghers, '25 Swedish, W> Austriiiii, 9 Dutch, 9 Helgian, 1) Spanish, 31 various. The imports for three years, to the abuw period, averaged 4,,58H,700/, ; the exports, 2,929,580/. I'crnambuco, in 18:).'i, shipped uii board of 159 vessels a value of 951,800/., of which 592,000/, was to Dritain, Ualiia, in 18.S5, was visited by C8f) vessels, tonnage 106,989; and imported goods to tlic value of 1,4I2,(XX)/., of which 94M,000/. were from Hritain, Maranhum, in 18,'Ui, received l.'j.i vessels, tonnage 20,219; of which 26 were Uritish : imports, 519,OCX)/. ; exports, 579,700/. : of the former, 219,tKK)/., of the latter, flH;i,5(X)/. were liritish. Pay to, in 18!17, imported ii value of 26,600/., and exported 24,10U/, Putting these amounts together, and supposing the exports and imports at Pcrnamhiico and Uahia equal, which is probably near tlie truth, wc have the large amounts of 7,498,(XX)/. imported, and 5,317,000/, exported fruin Brazil. The balance may be sup|)oserinciplciorChristianily,cvea >AKrni. m pit'CV!!, Iiurdwiirv 4:l,(MX)/. ; I cniulli's ;)f forviKii II baiulaii- i», i cotVoi', )H. ; HU|{nr, rriincu ill !)'JH,!»0()/. ; i4H vessels, iigufsv, 4(> (i AiiNtriiui, the uliovu slii|)|)Cil on Ualiisii ill lie value of eceived I.'!.! , 579,700/. : , imported ii d supposing ly near tlic ported from be tolerable ; tiprovement. In, and niiulc the constant Front tropical of ferryboats, nade to swim enernlly much lot Kiipposv it as aseerlainrd rt made to tlie s-generul and Of these lliir« >es, 1,7'J8,(XX) er must siiiic ttion of net;'" 21 and lit'i'2. ! to agree «illi 100. m the other Sciutli to«. Hy the above ainwara that not he iKipiilatioii im wiMti' riue, and an half the inliri' slaves. 'I'he con. irtation of these f mimbera v\\o the voyanc, ami in whU'h thiv ted in oi>en market liri'seiiteil eceiies trissiiiK ami ile. humanity. !'■» a laU', liowever, ll.is was, in I'lhniarv, ». to ciase. Tilt vi'8 are exiMwiKl, nf all the laiinoious treatment of Iheir nd with IcsK pm- law than in the ,■,, On the whole, heir .ictual eoiidi- ch more favourable t there or in the tc«. The rcligicmi fChrintianily.cveii DouK IV. IHIAZIL, 14^0 6208. 0/ the lirazilian chmach-r report does n„t .peak very favourably. The emiBrautii consist, n. « great measure, ol adventurem. often of inferior rank, who have gone ouV with the view ol ainassing a urtune in any shape, »n,t pursue . traffic partaking more of ped" .Ihng and retail habits han of any libend principles of trade. M-ny of 0,0 free negroe. aiul inulattoes seem to have a good deal of the scoundrel about their The ladies have leu liberty than in Europe, and do not make the very best use of what i; .-y have The charire. against them seem often too sweeping; but, from the concurrent testhnonv „f trave' enu tliey rank lower than those of Lurope, and have not the same graces either of aitire ol maimers. Mrs. Graham, however, observed a warmth of domestic affecti mi whi, , ,ho never saw equalled, unless in some of the Iliglihind clans, and which sho». Itself ,ather unluckily by marriages of uncles with nieces nephews with aunts, u: d others v -Mn the forbidden dejsrees. On the whole, the night of ignorance in which Urniil has hitherto been involved must serve as an excuse for many faults; and, in proportion as this is dis. pelleil, much improvement may be expected. 6209. Science, titeralurr, ami art have scarcely yet any existence in llrazil. Some of the higher classes, and of the officers of the government, are well informed, and f . Mi-.nort towns are beginning to imbibe the spirit and knowledge of Europe; but these im. ro.. lents have made little way into the interior. In 1K08, the prince regent carried out i iibrv y of 70,000 volumes, which is open to the public ; and there is a museum, containing a fine col- lection of diamonds, cr\slals of gold, and other Hraz-ilian minerals, but not rich in any other respect. The i>lan of founding an university is not yet executed ; and the liraiilians who beek a finished education must cro.ss the sett to Coiinbra. 6210. The Indians in liraxU are in a much more uncivilised and unpromising state than in the Spanish settlements. They have never been incorporated in any shape with tlio Kuropcaii population, but have always retired before the progress of civilisation into the depths of tlieii forests. They have borrowed, indeed, from the rortUi^uese some scanty portion of raiment. But they have never attempted the taming of onimals, or the planting of grain ; they subsist solely on the spontaneous fruits of the earth, the roots which they can dig up, and the game brought down by their arrow, which they shoot with mar- veil JUS del ity, taking an almost unerring aim at the distance of forty or fifty yar''..l'it the back settlements of Porto Seguro, have a favourite mode of ornamenting th''..- ; ,:s by what is called the hiloque. This consists of large pieces of wood pendent from the ears and the under lip, to which they are fastened by holes bored for that purpose. The result is, that the ears are stretched till they hang down, like wings, sometimes to the shoulder ; while the lip is made to project, and half the lower teeth arc !'.\ able little boats flitting about. The shore rises immediately into green and wooded hills, thickly planted with villas and convents, and behind which loily mountains shoot up their heads in the most picturesque and romantic forms. These objects compose the most enchanting scene that can be ima- mo lAsriEo. gined. It struck a late traveller as greatly resembling the Trosachs at the entrance of Loch Katrine. The town is tolerably well built, mucli in the European style, the houses being three or four stories high, though the streets are rather narrow. Two of them extend the whole length, with new and broad streets striking off from them ; urn! there are several very handsome squares. The town is well supplied with water, by excellent aqueducts. There is a greater stir and bustle than is usual in an American city, though the crowd of half-naked blacks and mulattoes olTcnds the eye of the newly arrived European. The population has been fixed only by rude conjecture. Before the arrival of the cou t, it was supposed to fall short of 100,000; but that event caused a great increase, and it has even been estimated as high as 150,000. The environs of Rio de Janeiro are delightful in the extreme, the valleys and sides of the hills being covered witli trees, shrubs, and creeping plants of peculiar beauty. The bay of Bottafogo, and the sides of the rude and lofty mountain called the Corcovado, are the spots most par- ticularly celebrated. The king has a rural palace, called Siui Christovao (Jig. 1027.), of light and pavilion-like architecture, and which from its site has a much more pleasing cH'ect than that in the city. We have already noticed the trade of Rio Janeiro, centring in itself thnt of all southern Brazil. The cultivation of sugar, cotlee, tobacco, cotton, and other tropical products, is rapidly extending ; but the greater part of the flour made use of is brought from the United States and the Cape of Good Hope. The trade is chiefly in the hands of tiie British. The arsenal, the dockyard, and marine establishments are on a small island witliin the harbour. 621.'). St. Catharine is a long narrow province, which is chiefly remarkable for the island of the same name. It has a fine climate : its perpetual verdure and its conical rocky hills give it a beautiful aspect from the sea. The town has .?000 or 6000 inhabitants, many of whom have chosen it merely as an agreeable residence. The coast is as yet thinly peopled, though it contains several excellent harbours, as Laguna, Guaropas, and particularly Sun Francisco, on a river of the same '^'-^ VS,!* name, which will increase in im- -'' ^ " portance when a road is opcni'd over the mountains intu the fine plain of Orotava. 6214. Kio Grande do Sul, the niOM southern province, comprisca a lung extent of level ami alluvial coast,, in which the large lakes of Patos ujiil Mirlm run parallel with the sea. Tho plains are covered with vast hercU of cattle, which aftbril hides and charqiir, or beef dried in a peculiar maniiri, makinf; a copious olijcct of rx|>ort. Some of the fazcndas, or farms, cmn. prise no less than r>(X),U(jO acres. The chief town is Portalcgre. to which the I opiwrtunitics of its trade have attnutnl | evrn Kuglish settlors. Ilcing situated at the head of the lake, Its maritime intercourse is carried on by the port of St I'edro, which is also flourishing. fiSUr-. Thepmvincff iff Kspiritu Santo nnJ Porto Segiiro extend for about 400 miles alonft t!ic coast north. ward from Rio ; but though the latter was the jmint nrst discovered, and though they ikisscks ample natural advantages, they have remained always in a comparatively rude and unimproved stale. Theco^ist r:ili!i' here lornied, according to the observation of I>tince Maximilian, of n broad tract of high (oinu, I extending rr(mi Kio ilc Janeiro to Ilaliia, which ha« not yet liecn occupitHl by Portuguese settlers. Onlyi I few rosds have been n|ienoenetrate into the interior, uidess well armed and in large parties, 'riicse tracli, I susveutible of the highest cultivation, are covered at present with noble virgin forests, in wliicli the cedar, th( I Braiil wood, the Perutiaii linlsatn tree, and other aromatic and valuable sjiecies, abound. The llio Dmiil the only river of a Ioiik conr«e ; and It can be ascended in canoes proiwllcd by poles. It Is in most \i\m«\ liorderetl by forests so thick and impenetrable, as seldom to leave grninul on which a house could stand : the; I I'cho with the roar of the tiger, the ounce, and the wild Imar, and of men still more savage and d.ingcroukl Among numl)erlesH other birds are seen the magniliccnt macaws, screaming aloud and soaring above the tof FALACK OF IAN rMHIBTOTAO Part 111. It is studded islands; the seen passing md innumtr- Iting about, icdiately into hills, thickly md convents, fly mountains i in the most nantic forms. )ose the most It can be ima- 1 late traveller wn is tolerably s high, though new and broad The town is il bustle than is Itoes offends the ude conjecture, but that event The environs the hills being ly of Bottafogo, spots most par- .1027.), of light fasing effect than ng in itself that md other tropical (f is brought from 1 the hands of the mall island within ible for the island conical rocky hills inhabitants, many yet thinly peopUil, ,d particularly San a river of the sanit will increase in im- n a road is openwl ntains into the fine tava. ■andc rfo Sul, the n«m incc. comprUo a loni! an! alluvial coast,. in gc lake, of Patos an rallcl with the Bea. Uo e?«i with vast herds of ifforil hi.les and charqur. in a ,..-c«llar mai.|UM, ,piou. ol.ject of cM»rt. ?zenda.. or farms cum. than ««.•»•« »"t..l,.h rortalegrc, to whii'h Ui ofUstr-'lcUvcatt™.; oursc i» carried on b> the j iles along the coast noil^- I hey iK>s»i's« ann>lc nalun ^^iractofhiBhlorcM ,rtng>.esc settlcrj^l ; verse them. A,^*'. J ,ur tJic large c.t.cj. I ' ^-.lir^^o] ;i Book IV. BRAZIL. 1461 betl. |)ro- he or the highest trees. Of the sca-iiorts, the largest is Casa Velha, to whieli may iie a>ld name* of the provinces, hMMritii Santo, or Victoria, and Porto Seguro; as also {tnmven These towns consist generally of houses one story high, and the strceta arc straraliiiB ii with grass. In Porto hcguro, though so near the sea, they have no other food than 6a(te>re Is a large Ubrary, with some valuable manuscripts respecting the interior of America, It Is allowed to lie in a neglected state. The police is bad, the dagger being generally worn, and too often used ; the deaths by assassination are estimated at 200 in the year ; yet St. Salvador is esteemed the gayest city In Brazil. In 1832, 124 British ships, of the burden of 27,119 tons, cleared out from Bahia. (i218. Of the other towns of Bahia, Cachocira, the principal of those in the Keconcalc, is handsome anil will built, ami contains nearly WfiOO inhabitants. Jacobina, more in the interior, was formerly enriched by mines, which are now given up. Ilheos, a prettily situated port, was once very considerable, but it sunk witli the banishment of the Jesuits, and is now of little iin|iortaiice. 6219. Pernambttco is the next province to Bahia, with the intervention of the small and unimportant ones of Seregijic and Alagoas. Pernambuco ranks decidcilly as the third province in the empire, being cdiiipara. lively very industrious, and having eNperienced a rapid improvenu'iit from the extension of the gruwlli and ex|>ort of cotton. The harbour is one of the most singular in the world. It is formed by a rir(7i' or reef of rocks, which run parallel with the shore, and on the exterior side of which a heavy sia is perpetually lireakiiig. To the interior cnannel, however, this reef serves as a complete breakwater, and vessels which have once tiiriicil Its point hear the surf dashing witlioiit, and sec the spray, while they themselves are sailing on ciilinly and smoothly. What is callcti the town of Pcrnainbuco is a ciinipound of four (owns : Olinila, seated above on a range of rocky hills, and the most ancient, but now much decayed ; Ilccit'e, built on a sand-bank level with the water, and deserving its name from the reef opposite to it already mentioneil, — the seat of trade, highly flourishing, and rapidly increasing ; St. Antonio, or the middle town, comixiseil of large and broad streets, and containing the governor's house, and two principal churches ; lastly. Boa Visia, an extensive agreeable suburb, where the principal merchants have commodious gardens. Pernambuco has flourished extremely and increased rapidly, chiefly in consequence of the augmented culture of cotton, and the aniiile market for it in Europe. The cotton of Pernambuco is said to be the best in the north of llrazil. In IHlil, Mr. Koster reekoiieI(rAMLiU> times four miles Their dresiconsists of jacket, hat, an.l long pantaloons iir leggings, all of brown untaniHHl leather, a tanned goatskin over the breast, and a nair ol coatie "ton drawers or trousers. They live in mud cottages thatc;^ied with leaves, and il tlev posses: a table, coinider it useless at meals, when the whole parly s.piat roun.l «t a mat with tl c boi^ls, dishes, or gourds in the centre. The wife sel.lom appears, and woukU«.usp«t"l of'holdiui uiiunesway in the household, were she to make any 5 A I I tb'J DKSCUll'TIVE GEOGRAPHY. i'am in. attempt to discourse. They vat mc at tlircc tiinm a day, with milk and a little manio<; tlour, or French Dcaps, The children are often suckIwI liy .she.(ioat», which arc thence culled co»/ar/frs, or gudmothcrs. All their religious ministrations are derive(l I'rom itinerant priests, who curry about nn altar, and all the apparatus lor mass, on so small a scale as to he thrust into a p lCK■^ad(lle ; from which they are drawn whenever u sufljcient number is found to |iay for the ceremony. Tins, with implicit faith in charms and relics, forms the whole of their relinion, to which they areyet so strongly attached as with ditticulty to deem it credible that Mr. Hosier whom thev understood to be a heretic, should be of the same shape with themselves. Tlicy arc, on tiie whole' after all, rather a good sort of (x'ople ; hospitabh', liberal, and open-hearted. I'lieir distance from the scat of justice renders them t as high as o(),(li:(). The other capitals are small. I'araiba, noted for the abundance of Ilrazil wood, was formerly considered of more im|)ortance than now ; however, it lias in fact continued to increa.se, though eclipsed l)y the superior importance of Pernand)uco. Uio (irandc is covered to a great extent with hills of fine and white sand, ami is fertile in sugar, yet thinly inhabited -, aiul Natal, its capital, is little better than a village. Seara has a pretty bri.^k trade on a small sca!e ; but, accordiig lo Mr. Koster, the difficulty of land carriage, the want of a gcKid harbour, and the dreadfid droughts, prevent ary s.inguinc ho|)es of its rise to opulence. Piauhy is ahnost entirely an inland province, and its little interior capital, Oeyras, is scarcely at all known. The isle of Mnjo dos Soanes, situated at the mouth of the Amazons, is very I^L'rtile ; but the heats would he insui)portnble were they not tempered by the sea-breezes A great part of its surface is covered with woods, tenanted by wandering Indians. (iv!.'J. The interior provinces consist, in the lirst inslance, of the three in the south, .San Paulo, Paranii, aiid Uniguay ; which, with the exception of the chain separating them from the coast, form a vast lowland, tr.i. verseI>. Us chief importance consists in the pro,1uetiun of the tea or fu-rb of Paraguay, which is considereil, er a great part of .South America, as much a necessary of life as the tea of China is with the Knglish. IhaC of I'ruguay is indeed inferior to w hat is prmluced in the territory west of the Parana ; but as I)r I'rumia, the present ruler of that region, has capi iciously prohibited its exportation, the Ilrazilians sup]ily all the nei)thh(iiir. ing countries with this valuable commiHlity. The whole country, as far as the I.a Plata, has Indeed been Kitely erected into a new province, named Parana ; but part of this is, in fact, the undisputed domain u'' rrancia, while his claim to the rest has been successfully resisted by Ilucnos Ayres. It^.'fi. Minas (lerites, the most central province in Ilrazil, is distingtiishcil as containing the principal minc> of gold and diamonds. In passing into it from .San Paulo, a decided change is observable in the .xspect ot nature. The country swells into hilLs, and gradually ussumes the features of a romantic and alpine re.k^inn. The gulden mountains, which trarerse the whole extent of Minas (ieracs, do not rise above yoOO or 4(I(jO icet ; they exhibit not the rngKCd clefts or gigantic rocky summits of the Alps or of the Cordilleras j they consist of long series of detaciied ranges, with agreeable caniixis on their summit, and separated by shiping anil pastoral but not very deej), valleys. The country is often extremely fertile, and might yield the most valuable priKhJ. lis, were nol the attention of the inhabitants drawn otT by the glittering but often useless treasons liiiinu III the bowels of the earth. S. Joao del Key is a neat little town of whitewashed, red.tili.d houses, siir- roundeil by a singular scene of round hills and broken rocks, with tracts entirely sterile, and others coverni with the most luxiiria.it verdure. Its situation is so agreeable and central, that an intention was once forninl of making it the capital of Ilrazil. The mine from which its di.stinction is derived is merely a deep pit, into which the streams Iroui the neighbouring hills are directed, and in which any one is allowed to se.ireh. lis prmluce, and the hopefl formed from it, liave much iliminishcd, and S. Joao supports its somewhat langiijil prosperity chiefly by an inland trade, keeping four caravans, of fifty mules each, constantly going hai-kivanls and fdrwanis to Uio Janeiro. WUn Hica may be regarded as the Kl Dorado of Ilrazil, from it:, higiiiy prii. ductive gold mines, alreaily ilcscribed. The place is large, its inhaliitants being variously reported liom K,(«l to i;d,IKXI. There ure 4(X) or .'ii II giMid houses; and the gnvernment palace, the town house, the I heaire, and the prison, have rather an unuaual air of magnifleence \Vater is supplied from fourteen fine public fountains. The prmluce of the mines fias declined; but the internal trade is very brisk. 'I'ejuco, the capil.il of tie diamond district of .Serro ilo Frio, is situated in a most dreary trad, where all the necessaries of life must lie brought from a coiuideridile distance. It is well built, on very rugged urnund, and contains lidoo free inhaliitants, and as many slaves employed in searching for diamonds. Villa do Principe, in a Hue country, un the Imrders of the diamond district, enjoys a more solid prosperity, and contains about fM*i people. (liJii". 'J'liere are sli/l several etierior pr^'vinees of Ilrazil, which have been occupied by tie Portuguese only at a few detacheil points, while by far the greater part remains in full pi>. session of the ii isiitdued Iniiiahs. These provinces are, (ioyaz, .Matto (irosso, and Pari. To them may be adiled the still nit re exterior reginns iM'yoiid the Amazons and the Mader.i, Solinioens and (iiiiana, the domiM^'ton over which can he coiisiiiercd by thi^ Portuguese as only fiiture and firoapective. dWH. iloi/az is a province, or rathi r kingdom, of vast extent, watered bv the mighty streams of the Tmai;- tines and the Aiaguay, which iiip,e in their progress toward.s the Amazons. The aspect is de.'Ciilied a« geiicr.illy uneven, thoiiiih seldom inoiintainous, comprising many sandy sterile plains, wooded only n|ii«(i/So//;H«'w is still more remote from the sphere of Kuropcali ami clvllUwl «xl,i..n..., It extends beyond the Madera, south of the Upper Amazons, which here receives four great r mi i.h.^^ :md tlUnly scattered tribes of savage l„di;rnr7us""onry'u'n"etu7r.:rciv'S^^^^^^^ I'lscan missions, ol which nine have been estahlishal along the banks of the great rivtra. "'" '■""• C2.'52. Thf region nf Portuguese Gtiinm is still more vast, extending OOO nillos by (iOO and nearly on an equality as to settlement and civilisation. It includes nearly iho wliolc course of the Rio Negro, the rival of the Orinoco, and one of the greatest IrilmlarinH tif llio Amazons. The ttio Negro derives its name from the black colour whiili its wmerit iifi'Nenl to the eye; notwithstanding which, taken out of the river, they apijcar puitVi'lly cleiu' niut pellucid. Its navigation is good, and by the Cassicjuiare it has a communicRtiun with llm Orinoco, which may hereafter prove of the greatest importance. Three leagues uliovo ihu mouth of the river, the Portuguese have established the town of Rio Negro, wbeie Ihvy not only keep their stores and a small garrison, but have endeavoured to forn) mainifiii'lnien of fotl;un and pottery, which must be considered here as very forced undei'tiikliijiH, They have also several small settlements and missions higher up the river, and ou the Uio Uninvu its chief tributary. Still farther up, the Amazons receives the Yapura, another iiiinu'iiiiu tributary, coming across from the Cordillera. Its banks are covered with noble woodn indicating a fertile soil ; but the navigation is rendered difficult by the rapidity of lliu current; and the shores have been found unhealthy for European ciinsijiutiuns, 'J'hu clianiiel of the Lower Amazon, for about Ib'OO miles, forms a sort of Inland sea, in >vhii'li the opposite biuiks are often not visible, and the whole of which is believed to be niiviguble fur the largest vessels. This course is through an immense and miigiiilicenl pliihi, not eiii'ioached on even by a hillock from the bordering Andes, but sloping gnuliiully and nlinoNt insensibly down to the Atlantic. But this region, which will one day be the uiost lloui'inh- iiig (m the face of the earth, is at present occupied only by tribes of wandering Indiiuis, inul a lew settlements, which the Portuguese have formed by banishing their feloiif) into it. These emigrants, at a distance from all law and restraint, have availed tlieinavlvuH of (heir superior arms and skill cruelly to oppress the natives, against whom they carry on u regular system of slave- hunting. Charges of cannibalism have been made ugain'glt a* g;j^ -„«,»»» rv Kngliih Miles o . Porto NIpe ■J. KspirHu Santa 16. Baracsa. 10. NviirUli 11. ViUa del Principe It. N'uevlta 13. K. Salvador .l.\MAICA. 1 . Kinxstown 'i. Npanlsh Town HAYTI. 1. St. Nlcholai «. St. Mark 3. Port au Prince 4. Ca|>e Henry fi. S. .laso 7 llalloi 8. S. Domingo 9. Savanna PORTO RICO. 1 . Aqiinilllto 9. San Juan TRINIDAD. 1 . Porto Espana S. Montserrat. Sect. I. General Oulline and Aspect- 6334. These idands extend in n species of curved line, first cast, and then south, beginning near the southern point of tlic Unitcil States' territory, and terminating at the coast of South America, near the mouth of the Orinoco. On the east and north they are bounded by the Atlantic ; on the south, the Caribbean Sea separates them from the coast of Colombia ; on the west, the broad expanse of the Gulf of Mexico is interposed between them and that part of the continent. They are situated generally l)etween the fifly-ninth and eighty, fifth degrees of west longitude ; and, excluding the Baliamas, between the tenth and twenty-third degrees of north latitude. The largest arc those which extend from the Gulf of Mexico east- ward ; Cuba, St. Domingo, Jamaica, and Purto Rico. Those which run from north to south are smaller ; but many of them, as Harbadoes, Martinico, Guadaloupe, Trinidiid, are very important from their fertility and high cultivation. This latter part of the group is frequently called the Windward Islands, from being exposed to the direct action of tlii' trade winds, blowing across the Atlantic ; they are named also the Antilles, and fre- quently the Caribbec Islands, from the name of the people, called Caribs, fuund there b; the discoverers. G23.?. Mountains of consUlprabIc plcvntion ilivcriiiry each o( tlioac islandi, eauaing ihcin to renemlilc tlic elevated remains of a imrtinn of the ciiiilincnt, which aome ronvulsion ovcrwhelmiMl. Generally apeaking, the interior ii compoacil of a range or Kroup, somctiinra of little more than a aiiiKle mountain, the Kloprs of whirh, and the plain at ita feet, conatitntc the iaiand. 'I'hc moat elevated |H'ak» of ("uha, St. Domingo, .nnd Jamaica exceed 800t) feet ; while the highest •uminita of the Windward lalanda range from .'KKNI to 4(Xili r«'l Mnat of theae eminencca have evidently been the aeat of vnlcinir action ; but this ap|>eara to have ceased in .'ill of them, except the SoufriiTv of Ciii.idBloii|iv, which still i xliibita some faint iiidicaliona of it. Fig. 1029. Book IV. \ PORTO IlICO. I. Aqumllllo «. San Juan TRINIDAD. 1. Porto Espana asalt, which forms the greatest height The separation of these rocks is accurately in the direction of the volcanic islands, that is, from N. W. towards S. E. Hence the island of Barbuda, which is farther removed from the volcanic range, lies entirely in the linjestone region. The shells in the limestone differ liut little from those of the surrounding sea ; but the limestone expands over the whole island, which, although it is eighteen miles long, and thirteen miles and a half wide, is nowhere higher than about 110 feet above the sea. A basaltic cover, therefore, separates this limestone from the volcanoes ; and probably these latter, before reach, ing the surface, have previously forced their way through the liasalt. It occurs again in Tobago : specimens of dolerite, containing remains of cerithiie, have been sent from the island ; showing that a limestone similar to that of Antigua lies over it. Barbadoes, in its general com|x)sition, is very much like Antigua ; and the same would apiiear to be the case with St. Bartholomew and St Martin. In Deseada, Marie-Galante, and Grande Terre, limestone only appears. This limestone extends to the north and cast sides of Martinique. ffl42. Volcanic Islands. — Grenada. Coral reefs bound the coast from S. W. to N. E, but not on the west side, nasaltic pillars occur on two places on the coast The Home Rouge, formed of three conical hills, IVom .'KKI to 600 feet high, is entirely composed of slags and vltriUcations. It Is, therefore, probably a cone of eruption. (i243. St. Vincent. The volcano Morne Oarou, which is the loftiest mountain in the island, is 4740 feet high. It was ascended on April 26. 1812, the day immediately preceding the eruption which has made the island so well known to geology. The crater was half a mile in diameter, and f^om 400 to 5(X) feet deep. In the middle of it there rose a concave hill, from 260 to 3(X) feet high, covereil, in the lower part, with vcge. tation, but the summit with sulphur. Vapours of sulphur also ascend from many crevices in the locKs. The crater, according to Anderson, exhibited the same appearance in 178.'» ; and he remarks how evidently St. Vincent, the Soufriire of St Lucia, Montagne ViMe in Martinique, and Dominica, were extended in the same line. On April 27. 1812, ashes burst from the crater, and, during the night, flames ; on the 20th, during the night, lolty pyramidal flames were leen ; and, on the 30th, at 7 A. M., lava burst oiien the north, west side of the mountain, and flowed so rapidly do vnwarils, that it rcachcil the sea in the course of four hours. At three o'clock, a frightf\il eruption of ashes and stones took place from the great crater, which de. slroyed nearly the whole of the plantations in the island. 624*. SI. Lucia. The crater occurs In a sharp and steep chain of hills, from 1200 to 1800 feet high, which traverses the island from N.E. to S. W. The sides of the crater arc very lofty and steep, especially on the south-east side Vapour breaks out on all sides. At the bottom there arc numerous small lakes, in which the water apiiears to be iierpetually boiling, and in some places the ebullition is so violent that the water is ptoahelght of four or five feet Many places are incrusted with sulphur; and brooks which flow thrown up t down the sides of tlie mountain alwuiid in carbonic acid. •tones and ashes took place. It is reiiorted that, in the year 1766, an eruption of 14<>6 DliSCRIPTIVE GEOGIIAIMIY. Pakt III. ('■245. Martinique. Tlic mountain TMc, in the nortliern part of tlic island, wliicli is 44 16 feet high, containi a great crater, or a soufriJrc. Many Hinallcr craters, at a lieight of 3()(J0 fei't, show former lateral eriiptiont. On the 22(1 of January, 17ti2, a imall eruption, prcceilcear on its acclivity, and basaltic pillar* in the hollow between this and the third peak of the island, in the southern i>art, on the Pic de Vauclln. ti'2H>, Uuminica. Dr. Chiaholm says this island is a confused moss of mounlalna, the loftiest of which is H'lW feet high. Many solfataras o^cur in it, which arc not burnt out, but, on the contrary, occasion small sulphur eruptions. The lower parts of the mountains arc of trachyta 6247. Ouailiitoupe. The S41nt> Islands, composed of columnar basalt, connect this island with Dominicn. The highest hill among them is on the Terrc d'cn Haut, which is !I6I> feet. Probably these basalts form a border around trachyte hills. The Sonfrifere of Guadalouiie is 47!I4 feet high, according to I.e Iloucher ; .OKJO feet, acconling to Ainie. It is situated in the centre of the island. On the 27th of .Septemlier, 1797, after the Antilles hacut the sulphur doen not always rise from the same vents : new vents arc daily forming, and old ones are closing up. Hence it happens that the wlxdu mass of rock In the neighlmurhuod becomes impregnated with sulphur. A similar toufriirc is situated an Knglish mile distant from this. 6'J4l. SI. Euslatia is a conical mountain, about twelve miles in circumference, provided in the middle with a crater which much exceeds, in magnitude, circumference, and regularity, all tlic craters in the Antilles. 62;i2. liahama Jalniids. This numerous group, as far as we know, is entirely composed of limestone; which, in many places, displays magnilicent caves. They may be considered a continuation of the limestone islanils of the Caribbean Sea. 62;i.'i. Trinidad appears to make a part of the continent ; and Dr. Nugent remarks, that its rocks arc cither primitive or alluvial. The great northern range of mountains that runs from east to west, and is cnnnei^ted with the high land of t'aria on the continent, by the islands of the Bocas, consists of gneiss, of mica slate containing large masses of quartz, and, in many places, approaches in nature to talc slate ; and of bluish limestone, traversed by veins of calc spar. From the foot of the mountains, for many leagues to the northward, there extends a low and perfectly flat land, evidently formed by tlie debris of the mountains, and by the copious tribute of tlie w.iters of the Orinoco, depixited by the influence of currents. The faniuui asphaltum or pilch lake, situated amid.st a clayey soil, is about three miles in circumference ; and, in Ihe wet season, is suHiciently solid to bear any weight, but in hot weather is often in a state approaching to fluidity. The asphaltum ap)>car8 to be supplied by springs. At the south-west extremity of the island, lietween Point Icacus and the Rio Erin, are small cones, resembling those of the volcanoes of air and mud, near Turbaco in New (iranada, which are of the same nature with those of Macaluba and the Lake Nal'iia in Sicily. S(;rskct. 2. Botany, (STA. Tlie splendour of the vegetation m the Islands of the West Indies is the theme of every traveller there. We must content ourselves with notiiing some of the most important of its productions. 62.'i.l. Few plants are more extensively valuable, in a commercial iMint of view, than the Mahojianii (Swiflrnia Ma/innoni) {fig, lO.iO.). The uses of this woooses hy its (^reat Iwaulv hardness, and durability, and Ihe exquisite imlish it is capable of taking. It is said, too, to Iw indestructible by worms or water, and to be bnmli-proof ; hi-iicc the Spaniards used to make their vessels of mahogany, and t'apt:un Franklin took with him to the Arctic Sea, boats constructed in Kngland of that material, as being the lightest (in consequence of the thinness of the planks\ and the niiienl,till its perfection and fitness for cutting. 'I'his operation comineiues aliout August; the gangs of labourers employed in this work consisting of from IwiMiiy to fifty, each being headed by one man, called the captain, and acconnianicil by a person termcHl the huntsman, whose business it is to search l/ir hush ami liril employment for the whole. 'Ihe latter cuts his way among the thii'kest wooili, where be climbs the highest tree, and thence minutdy surveys the couiiirv. The leaves of the mahogany tree are invariably of a reddish hue; anil an c.vr, accustomed to this kind of exercise, can at a great distance discern the places where the tree is most abiinil.iiii. Thither he directs his -teps, without other compass or guide than his recollection aflimls, and never fails of reaching the exact s|Kit, though he is sometimes obliged tu use dexterity to prevent others from availing themselves of his disi^ivery, and seizing first on the hidden treasure, those who follow him being ciitirii)' aware of any arts he may use, and their eyes being so quick, that the lightest turn of a leaf, or the laiiitist impression of a foot, are unerringly perceived. •i2;Vi. The Mahngany trie is commonly cut aliout ten or twelve feet ftrom the grounil, a stage being erected for the axeman. The trunk, from its dimensions, is considered the most valuable iKirtion ; but for ornamcnt.il work the branches are preferred, the gr.iin being closer and the veins more variegated. Thecutting of roails is the most laborious and expcnsivepart of the work ; but it is customary to facilitate this as miu'h as possible, liy placing the scene of ogierations near a river. The underwood is cleared away with cutlasses, which Ihe pwiiilc use with great dexterity ; but it is often necessary to clear away some of the harder and larger trees with fire. The quantity of road to be cut in each season depends on the situation of the iKidy of mahogany tri'cs, which, if inucli disposed, will Increase the extent of road-cutt.ng : it not unfrequently happens that iniUs of road and many bridges are made to a single tree, which tree may ultimately yield but one log. 'I'he rn,iili iH'ing now all ready, which may generally be eflb<:ted in December, the cruss.cutling, as it is teART III. ;h, containt I eniptioni. r. Chialioliii to apcaka of jxistciice of iiiaic c.f thu ceil thia unci of which ia caaioii amnll h Domiiiicn. laalta form a juchcr ; SlUO i97, after the y of jiumite, laea. ad, beautiful oway, ami is looac atones ia heated to cm the same I hole mass of cd an English Hi, and many onicat among d of trachyte, kea ; but since mlddlp with a ! Antilles, of limestone j ' the limestone t it» rocka are o west, anil is isiata of gneiss, talc alatc ; and lany leagues lo the mountains, a. Tlie famous ;e J and, in the approachiiiB to ;y of the island, )f air and mud, the Ldke Naftia f every traveller ^na. the Afahopany leccssary hero to rniturc ia formed its ^rcat teiuty, of taking. It is mil-proof: hoiue 'apt^iiii Franlilin of that material, k8^, and the must liled the areatisl eckoiiod the mcist Honduras, where t apriiiging from Lonimciiees alwul ig of from twenty d aceomj>anii'il by «//<• him/i anil dial 10 thickest wckkIi, veva the coinilry. hiic ; Biul an eye, ia most abuTulaut J, and never fails era lYom availing lim being entirily eaf, or the faintest e being orcctcci for jut fur ornamrnl.il • cutting of ro.uls is inch as possible, liy «, which the pcciiilo I larger trees witli if mahogany tree,*, ipciis that miles of e log. The ro,i(li as it is technically ta, according to its the trees being so kept in readiiicsi. DooK IV. THE WEST INDIES. I4a7 resi»ndlng with he at 11 hour of midnight inakes it wear mor'e the appearance f/ometh^uVi^a exhibition than what It real via. the pursuit ol industry which haa fallen lo the lot of the Honduraa vvoo Icutter l" the end ot May t>ie periodical raina recoinmeiice : the torrenta arc so great as to render the woo Is iim.ract - cable 111 the co.irao ot a few houraj vvhen al truck ng ceases, the cattle are turned into pLtu e, a, l the triicka, gear, and tools, &c. are houseil ii the end of June, the logs of mahogany are Aoated down the swollen rivcra in pi(pans (a kind of flat^bottomed canoe) followed by the gang of laoourera, t" discnBaSe fiiiV. Tlie Maranta arundinacea ia a plant of considerable interest, as It is believed to yield Arrow-root a well known and elegant article of diet, which is prewired, according to the late Ilr. Sims, from its roots, ii'ot by drying and (louiiding, as has been slated, but by maceration in water, in the same manner as starch ia made from wheat, potatoea, and other farinaceous substances. Great quantities of arrow-root have of late lieeii imiiorted into this country from the West Indies, and much recommended aa fomi for young children' and aa a light nourishment in aickncss. A similar substance, probably in every respect of enual elKcacy and not leas salubcious, haa, of late years, been prepared in considerable quantities, in the Isle of Portland, Irom the roota of the common Cuckow Pint {Arum maculalum). The Maranta arundinacea is an herbaccoua |)eieiinial, and increaaed by parting the roots. It grows two or three feet high, with broad leaves and a spilie of small white flowers. 6'iJ8. Myrtus Pimcnia, the handsome tree which produces the Allspice or Pimento of commerce, ia a native of the VVcat Indies, and especially the island of Jamaica, Its profusion of white blossoms contraat moat agreeably with the dark green leaves that clothe its numerous branchea, while the rich perfume that is exhaled around, renders an aaaemblage of these trees one of the most delicious plantations of even a tropical clime. When the foliage is bruised, it emits a fine aromatic odour, as powerful as that of the fruit, and by distillation, a delicate oil, which is otton substituted for oil of cloves. The allspice tree is of ditllcult cultiva- tion, seeming to mock the labours of man in his endeavours to extend or improve its growth ; not one attempt in flfly to propagate the young plants, or to raise them from the seeds, in parts of the country where Ihe tree does not grow sjiuntancously, having succeeilcd. The enormous crop which the pimento tree aome- times yields, woulil render its culture very profitable. In a favourable season, one tree has been known to afliird I'lO lbs. of the raw fruit, or 1 cwt. of the dried spice ; a loss of one third generally occurring in curing it. So plenteous a harveat acldom occurs above once in five yeara. Pimento combines the flavour and proper. ties of many of the oriental apicea ; hence its popular name of Allspice. fii)!). The Avocado Pear is a beautiful smooth fleshy fruit, the production of Lauriis Pcrsea. Its flavour combines the taste of artichoke and flibcrts, but is not comparable to many of the European Auita; lemon juice and sugar, pepper and vinegar, are often ai!destori/ food of the Inhabltanti of the Philippine lalea, and many parta of liulln. They ruait It In the huak, and cat It with aalt. The huak contalna a mucllaglnuua, acrid, burning, and cauatic Juice, which aflbrda ao Indelible a atain, that It la uaed for marking ink, and for cleanaing fuul ulcrra. It alao conaumoa excrearencca and warta, but it la neceaaary to waah the parta with water lmmadTal<>ly alter Ita application. A more dubloua property it that attributed to the Anacardlum, of brightening the fat'ulllva, atrengthening the memory, &c. 0163. Wilk regard to the Banana or Plantain ( Aftiaa paradMaca and U. lopientum, fig$. 1033. and 10 3.), Humboldt thua writca : — " It la to be doubted whether there la another plant in the world which on ao ainall ,i tnncc uf ground proilucea such a maaa of nourlahing aubatanco. In eight or nine montha after the aucker i» planted, the banana begins to ahow its flowering atem, and the fruit may be gathered in the tenth or clcTciitli month. When the stalk is cut down, one among the many alioots la always found, whicli ia about two tlilrilt aa high as thi> parent nlunt, and will bear fruit three montna later. Thus a bnnnna ground is kciit up uitlidul any nirther trouble tnan that of cutting down the stem of which the fruit has ri|>oned. and stirring the a round a little, once or twice a year, about the roots. In one year a space of ICX) sijuare metres, c(int»iiiin|; 1 or 4U banana plants, gives upwards of 'J()UO kilogrammes, or 400(llba. weight, of nourishing substimu'. What a (liflerence between tliia produce and the grain that is yielded by the most fertile parts of Eiirace ; and aa 44 to 1 of potatoea. In the stiitos of iHir country the lianana never ripena properly ; the soft aaccharine mucilage that fllls It bearing no more reaemlilance to the matured and mealv fruit, th.n the milky substance that ia contained in the green cnnit of wheat doea to the hard and ripenea farinaceoua kernel. It would be difficult to describe the various j>ro. cessea bv which the South Americans and Wcat Indians prepare this fruit. I have often aeen the nativci, after a day of great fatigue, make their dinner on a very small quantity of manioc and three bananas uf llie larger kinil. Generally speaking. In hot countrira, tno people are partial to saccharine food, whicli tliey consider not only palatable, but highly nourlahing. The muleteera on tne coast of the C'araccas, who conveynl our baggage, frequently preferred raw sugar for their dinner to freah meat. The ripe fruit of banana, exposed to the aun, driet like a fig ; Ita akin turna black, and the whole amella like smoked ham : in this state it is most wholesome. A great advantage arises from 1034 -— -E.^ ^^ tA:j\ the facility with which the banana is raiswi, ^ ^ . . which makes it even preferable to ilip bread-fruit, which, though luadctl with fruit for eight months of the year, wlien iiiuv destroyni, aa It often it (luring the native wara, causes laating distress to the country." fi2fi3. I'Msion-ftoweri (Ftoa Passiuiiis) (Jig. II13.1.) of four different kinds, so named Irom the fancied rcscnililance exhibited by the plant to the instruments of our .Suvioiir'i passion, producerhap^ moat calculatctl to interest the European viilter. If he dcrlvet any pleasure from the lieauties of pietureique icenery, he will Karccly be able to define what moat excltet hit admiration, the indi. vidual beauty and contrast of lomit, ' or that eternal tpring Which here enamels every thing,' and calls forth a luxuriance of vegetable life in every direction. Nature appears prodigal of organic matter. The ground is overloaded with piantt, which have tcarcely room for their devclopement. The trunkt of the older treet are every where covered with a thick dra|>cry of fcrni, mniscs, and orehidcout plants, which ditniic into the air the richest odours, and alinotl conceal from tight the noble stems that uphold them. Their growth is favoured by the great moisture of the air, and these lovely parasites, sheltereil from the direct rays of the sun. are seen ascending on every side, even the larger branches. So great Is the variety of vegct.il>le beauties that tometinies decorate a tingle trunk, that a considerable sjiace in an Eurojiean garden would be reiinired to eon- •niii them. Several rivulets of thepurett water urge their meandering course through the bru3liwoal ornament of our scenery, appear at Intervals : Convolvuli and other crceiiers have climiietl their high stems and sus|H'iii', anil it is iil) mt Ihc (ainc mto. Altlimigh niico common, It !• now niily met with in the \«t% cnllivntcil ibtamlii. It run* with ffreat rclcrity, iiartli'ularly up risiiiK 1035 Kriiiinil, Imt will I'rcciurntljr loll over, like tiie hRre, In descending a hiil: it t'crds on all vPtfCtaliU's, lint Is very fnnd nt' nuts. In Cayenne, ihu Agouti is more cotnmon, and is tlierc seen in troops of morn than twenty. U.'ii!!. The Hinti are alnio.it as little known as are the quadrupeds; i|i(.j seem, hnwcvir.to belong to the same ramilies, and in numerous instaiiies til the same s|>ccies, as those of the neighbouring parts of Fliiridn and (ieorgla, mixed with several others more particularly bolungiiig tii the Terra Firnia. Our friend, Mr. Lees, has transmitted us, from the Hahaiiia Islands, the nrazlllan Motmot {I'rionlirt Momiiln 111.) (Jig. KBli.;, (hp Tiicha» vrlata Sw. or Veiled Vcllow.throai, a beautiful new 'IroKdii, Kc. } while the celebrated Mocking-bird of the United States {() riilieii'n fialyn/ullHs Hw.) Is known to have u range over Jamaica, Cuba, and several ■ other islands. Trinidad, however, appi.i's to be the chief Island for birds: the ruby. tnpai, the rufT-noki'd, and the cmerald.crciitcd HummliiL'.liirds are iiarticularly siilcnilid ' the crimson-throated Malzc.tiird [Anflaiiin niililnrlaVwW.^, the Mexican llangiiest (/. nieiicnnua I).), aihi ,^„ the Ited.headed 'ranaKer (,/,7ii'.'"'.'. The Common Guana ; /.. Iniiana I..) (fig. I0i9.' U sometimes five iiiit>iii>s' xnTMoT. feet long : its general colour is green, prettily variegated, but its hues .ire changeable, like those of the cameieon. According to Cateshy, ihcse anImaU arc, or were, particularly abundint in the Daliama Islands, so as to constitute one of the rliiil articles of food with .r.:'"y of the natives ; and Hruun mentions them as Inhabiting Jamaica, They arc excfs- IC-JT 1038 [C**"^. MAItrlMUU UALMNL'LR* -Nri K on nAnmR. sii cly nimble, and are hunted by dogs. Such as are not wanted for use are sailed and barrelled. Ouanas ate also found on the continent ; and when rooitod, we can affirm that their Hesh is peculiarly delicate, lieinu 103S tender, sweet, perfectly white, and not unlilu' the inside of a lobster's claw. <>'->73. The Orccii 'I'urtlc {Tfsludo Myiliis I,.) (.^1,'. imu.) is that particular species mi IiIkIiIv priz kI liy epicures. So con-.nioii does it apiK.ir tli 4)e in these seas, that, when Sir Hans .Sld.ino wrote, forty sloojis were employed by the pcdiilc ^ of I'ort Itoyal, Jamaica, in their capture. Tin; _ llahamans also are extensively concerned in this fishery, carrying them to Carolina and oiliir parts where turtle are scarce. This s|ii.cics derives its name lYom the fat being green, iiiid it feeds on a kind of grass, called turtle kws', which grows at the bottom of the sea. 'I'licv are principally caught, says Catesby, in April, wlivn the nshermen go in little boats to Cuba ami (he ., . . .,_ .... . . . 'leighbourinn islands, watch the turtle duiiiiU the evening, turn them on their backs, and attciwardscoli^ them at leisure. 6274. The tnarine shells are few, and, wlien compared with those of the Iiuiiaii Arclii- pclago, sink into insigiiificancp. The largest are llic 'Sv^ Homed IMniut (Cassis cornuta I..) (/^'. 1041.) ami the Stroinhus Gigns, with a pink inoutli, both much esteemc'ii for inaiitel-])iece ornaments. Those inhabit- ing the land, on the contrary, are much more imineroiis than ill Asia. Jamaica, in particular, produces ii very great variety; while it is in the island of St. Vincent alone that the rare I'lecocheilus undulatus (fg. 1042.) has hitherto been found. T/ie Insects (jffcr nothing of particular interest to tlie unscientific reader, and it is ,i 1040 ilHREN ruRrLi. 627.5. general remark, that in all islands the species arc mucli fewer than upon continents. .\ Part HI. >t with in the urly up rl»liiK ■lulliig a hlU '. ['nyiMmc, tlm than twcnly, Irupi'iln; llifj mm iimtAiii'i's f Kliiridn nml unKhiR to (111.' mthultahiiihu lig. ma.:, iiio new Trot'iin, tatca lOriilifuii ha, ami Bcvcral hii'l' lilami fur \arly iii>1<'niliil ; ■nntii 1).), ""il icon «ent frmn rely black, ara tly asci'ttainiit. vintcr hi tliiio cm riniKi". noral rhiiraclor Ahitc ilcriins, water mar«hi'< ; w bill anil (III |> arc rommiin in liiiincthnes met uiiu'rabic while erpciit than of i and repliirs, to jaril i« by some icsc arc coninioii U 80tnetime8 five , but Its hui'H are o Catcaby, these one «f the diiil They are execs- nooK IV. TIIK WEST INI)H,«. 1471 cllcil. Guanas arc irly (lelieate, hemi! c, anil not mihk.' reilttdo Mi/iliis I..'; : siiccici so hiijlily 511 iloM it a|>|iiM. to 1 Sir Hans Sloaiie oycil by the fmiik heir capture. Hie fcly coiieerniil in Carolina anil oiliir rce. This >liet>is It being green, :mii1 calleil turtle Brass, ■ the sea. 'I'lie* arc shy, in April, wlim lata til Culi.i anil Ini" I the turtle lUiint: lie liuiian Archi- ; largest urc tin' (fig. loa.) ami oiith, liotli inucli Those inliabit- li more immcroiis r, produces ii very id of St. Vincent latus {Jig. 104'-'.) readff, and it is a II continents. -V very excellent naturalist, the Ilt!\ rend I.un..».iu,n ... ,^ 7i '•""•""wn tliilldliin, loti|t rvR dent in St. Vinfonf. rotindliili iieedH, soniewliat larger tlinn tlioio of the mustard, and o( llip Bnmc lint, yet «»iining with « rich KloMof gold J indeed, they miglil y a Miperflcial observer, lio eiimiy inintHkcn for grains of llmt precious metal. They arc, however, very light, and, on close i'XHmliiatiun, a small hole will be insect has made its escape from the shell, which is in fi.,..'Xr!r''''!r"?r'^'''"^'' '''"'"•'"'' science, Mr. Guilding Ims fallen a victim\o It d:;„':;,S;c;Thl!'& oAHis ooiiwmrA. >I4II»1CH>IMII UNIIUIlli Sfct. in. llhluHrnt (.V,.«.7i;%. The prand career of diaccwnj in tint New World i t parngraph was written. 6276. The grand career of discownj in the New World coinmenied wlih »ho vv„.. i v Columbus, in 1492 when he sailed to explore ft llvw iti 7tn ll« U . l fl ! ^"''""• the Bahamas, a.ul then on Hayti, or St. Do dn« o. 7 and Inlv ^f "' T ?"" °' diately followed him, visited f ccessKe.y .h^.fcn/lrd; 'tI. Ztcd Te tlemr but were soot, engaged m contests with the .mllves. whom they treated with such rc^kH; cruelty that the whole race were near y exterminated. Kor about « centu.^ and a half these islands remained m possession of the Sp.mlunU, tliouglnuglected hyTlK^for the more splendid regions of Mexico and I'em. During the 17tl. century they Came the hold of a desperate band of outlaws and pir.iteH. vM,!] Uuccmieers, who waged wfth sue cess a predatory warfare along the vv hole circuit of tliv Spanish main ; at the same time the English and French, not witliout some cuiieurrciico with these adventurers, souaht to obtain possessions in this archipelago. Hef.nu the end of llie century, the Rnnlish were masters of Jamaica, the French lield hjilf of St. Doiiilng,,, lu.d the two nations had divided between them nearly the whole of the Windward Mttiuls. These acquisitions, thouKh much inferior in extent and natural advantages to those i,i||| held by Spain, were so much better improved and cultivated, that they soon l.tcame of I'lir superior value. This prosperitv liowever, was in some measure procured by uuiiiis lUeply to be deplored ; the compulsory labour of numerous bands of slaves, who, conveyiMl IVoin Africa uiiilcr circumstances of tlie severest hardship, have become much tliu most miiiieruiis part of the population. 6277. // memorable crisis in fVesi liiilian hialorij took place in 1 792, when the National As- s.inbly of France passed rash decrees, abolihhing all dUtltu'liun of ranks, and proclaiming the complete equality of mankind. This step wii-. kooii fvillowud by a general rising of the negroes ill St. Do..iingo, who, after a long and bloody stniKt.U', succeudeil in establishing their inde- pendence, ana in incorporating into their new sliili- tlli> Spanish part of the island. At the same time, the condition of the slaves in X\w colonies bulougiiig to I'.ngland drew the atten- tion of the philanthropists of that country, who, nfli'r long representations and eflbrts. succeeded in procuring a complete prohibition ngnliist the fnrtliir imporlution cf negroes from Africa. Nor did they cea.ie tlieir efl'oris till arriuigeinents wen' mudc which iviil ensuie, in a few years, the entire liberation of this iinliiiluntilu class of Imniaii beings. SecT. IV. Volilifiil (Ifiip.niiihif. i;27S. The polilical relatKjns of all these Ulanils nro sulinrtllnttlc In Ihinie of the mother country, to whicli they are subjected. In thine bcloiming to llrilaln, the while priiprli'lnrii nrc reiircnented in houses of .-issem- lilv, whieh exercise some of the t\nu'tiiina of the llrlti»h |itirliiiim'iil 'I'he limits Ih'Iwih'h Ilk' two jurisilictions, however, have not been very priTlsely ilcHneili ami ill ievetnl lllnliiiui'", partlrulailythnt nt' the treatment of the slaves, some rather serious cuUlsiuns bavu luktni plttcti, tlnytl,n> iiheaily nhicrvcil, forma an independent republic. Sect. V. Prodiuliw tmltinDif. iCT.i. .In uncommon meature nfveallh and fmtiwriljt was llir it ImiK time cnJnytKl by these islands They flourished especially during the lajit century, when they niiliplli'il i\linii»l exclusively sugar, roflbe, ami other artic Us, the use (if whieh had beeoir.e general over Ihi' elvilincd wiillcl. Alter the Ireiich revolution and that oflliencgroes in St. Domingo, the islands behuiHinH In llrlliiln hw'lline almost the solequarter whence Euri|ie was I'uruished with West India priHluce. 'I'hc pnupcrity thus cniued cxcIIihI in an extraordinary tcgrec the envv of Napoleon, who made astonishing ellbrls In »hui llrsi I'miu'C, nlid then the whole Continent, against all niereJiaudise coming from (treat nritniii or her cnlonics, lllll this exclusion was never coiniilete. The last twentv vears hjivc priHtuccd a very severe reverse. 'Iliu grenl eni'cuirnijpmeiit thus allorded liil to an over. priKluiticin, and consequent depreii9. (i2S0. A sugar planlaliiin forms a grtat niannfaeinriliK M well n» nKrleullural i .■.tahllshmeiit, in whiih a large capital must tic invested. It cannot be carried mi Willi itilvniltn)ie, especially since the full in ilie value (>r produce, lUilcM on a considerable icale \ ai the w lillu tetviillts Itliil thti liinchlliery must be nearly the same a w 1479 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHY. I'ahtIII. on • imtll u on • Urgo ciUte. riantntioni, according to Mr. Hll)bcrt, vnrir IVom 500 to 3000 icfM, and IVoin 100 to SCO negroci. An average one iiinjr contain 300 negroet, who may priKUico ahniit !l)0 hngtheaili of iiigar, Thli will require .100 aerci of land planted with canp, nnd .'Vli) head or caltio, tnt the malnlcnanre of which 600 acret will be requliite. For negro grounds and wimmI .'XK) more will lie nccciinrjr. The whnli* extent will thuibo I400acrei. The original price of good land !• 10/. i thecxncnnr of clearing, 10/. ; of planting Id/. : In all 30/. I making 4300/. of original outlay upon the land. The liuildinga and machlncrjr arc cttlmatol a< followi: — A mill, 400/. i warehnuic, 1200/. ; curlng.hnuie, fiUii/. ; dlitillcry, anu.; cnpiM-r ami utill, 'M»ll.; dwelllng.houte, INK)/. ; traih-houiet, 3U'I. : In all, 7.'UiO/. riirreni'y, or &m>l. (tcrllng ) which, aildrd to the ri»t of the land, maki>< MW. The ncgroo of a great plantation arc divided into three gangi : tho flrit of which, compotcd of the mott vigornui and active, ninnunti to atmut ■evcnty-tcvcn ; the iccond, to thirty-one ; the third, to twenty-aeven. liaildci lliei.cuttcrii. Hftccn watchmen and cooki ) nine driven of mulct and cartt i twcniy-ciglit maiont, carpcnleri, imithii, and cnojicra ; twelve for attending cattle; icventeen nvertecri ; twenty-one hn«pital attendantt ) tix for watching ground*, ttc. tiVHI. Cij^^ranka next to augar in Importance; and, though Introdiicid froni h remote quarter nf the world, haa been cultivated with auch aucccat, that thecoffbcof llcrhirc und ,lnmaic» ranka aecnnd to that of Mocha, and auperlor to that of any other country. Within the Inat few yeara, however, the cnm|M>tition from other quartera haaliccn so great aa to give the planter! occasion to complain that It la atlll more unproductive than sugar, and l(a culture haa In conaequonce aomewhut declined. The lm|iortatlon into Hritain, In I8.'h.>, •mounted to'J4,n(X),0ortion or their dally forts and lm|>nrta, distinguishing eich settlement, will l>c given under the Imai ■ectlon. (Icrc we may state, that, in 18,'!7, the eX|>orla of llrltish i)r(xluce to the West Indies were valuni at 3,4.'i6,7IX)/. The chief heads were — apparel, 2i;!l,(KK)/. ; aalteil iH-cf aner, 3<),!)0()/. ; butter and cheese, l(Hi,400/. ; coals, .01,500/. ; cordage, 17,8110/ ; coltoiii, 926,800/. i earthenware, 4(i,i2flO/. ; herrings, 42,000/. ; glass, til.OOOf. ; hardware, «ic., 117,000/. ; hata, 77,fl(Kl/. ; iron and steel, 149,000/. ; lead and shot, 10,700/. ; leather and saddlery, 129,400/. ; linens, 374,000/. ; ma. chlnery, 26,000/. ) plate, 40,400/. i sllkt, 36,!X)0/ ; soap and candles, 104,(HX)/. ; reflned sugar, 16,000/. ; tin, 15,600^; woollena, 125,700/. Of foreign articlea, there were — wheat flour, 181,000 cwts, ; India cottons, 106,000 nieces; pemwr, 01,000 lbs. ; cinnamon, .'15,600 lbs. ; rice, 108,(KKI cwtt. ; India silks, 13,880 pieces; tplrits, 204,0011 gallons ; toliacco, 2.'>4,.'i00 lbs. ; wine, 281,000 gallons. The chief Imports were — raw sug.ir, 3,.'!O6,700 cwts. ; rum, 4,418,000 g.tllnns; molasses, .')7.'<,<>00 cwts. ; coHl-c, 15,777,800 lbs. ; cocoa, 1,847,000 Ilia. ; cotton, l,.''irk, 31,789/. In return they exported, suKur, 6,8.17,000 lbs., value 78,900/. ; rum, 1,339,000 gallons, 97,.100/.: molasses, ^OO.VKKI gallon!, 4.'>,701/. Thewhnle value of the imports was 548,600/. ; of the ex|H>rta, 23,l,2046 tons, and 13.612 men, outwards. The whole number employed in the trade of the Islands amounted, In 1836, to 535,223, the particular! of which are given in the local i >ction. Skct. VI. Civil and Social Stale. 628C. The population of the different portioni of the West Itidies has been ascertained with varying degrees of accuracy. Reserving inorc precise detiils for tho local section, we shall give the following, as a near approximation of the whole ; — Spanish islands ..... 1,000,000 British (inclusive of Demerara) - - . - TSSfiOO Hayti - - ..... 800,000 French islands (inclusive of Cayenne) ... 222,000 Other European islands (inclutling Dutch Guiana) - • 150,(XX^ 2,960,000 Of these it la probable not above .'jOO.OOO are European! ; the rest are of negro origin, and, unless In Hayti, the greater part of them are in a state of slavcrv. 6887. TVkf* iociat Hate of these islands is peculiar and painf\il. The population consists of three jiortioni. between which scarcely any symiiathy exists : — 1, The whites ; 2. the slaves ; 3. the mixed population and emancipated negroes. On a subject which has cxclteerintcndiiig the cultivation of their own lands, parti; of agents and overseers employed by owners residing In Hritain. As a Ixxly, they do not merit many of the i reproaches thrown upon them l,y the zealous friends of humanity. Inheritance rather than choice has |>l.ire tense of equality, which may seem strangely inconsistent with their habits and situation. Yet the samcanft | nialy has (x;curred in Greece, in Rome, and in the United States of America. 1'he sanguine temper, ami 1>artIII. rot, antl fto"" .lull of •>'«'"/ nro of whicn who\o oxttfiit plsntlng \[ll. ( citimatol u ,1 .till, StKKI'i ,U-.ilothBi"«t tiritof whU-h, ilrty-onc i the \ cookil ">"«' tending c»"l, nted the \iUmJ«, Ihlnfcrlptlotio rial of chocolate, uiied In Uritaiii. il, exl»U,evcnln ;r country of the ,„ the market ot cat prniiortion or c coniumctl in \t. •n under the local .,• were valued at r,i;o.000i.; booki, j(. ; hat»,m, «"•'•. n., 374.tiOW. i ma- gar. I6.««t» i /'"• , . India ccttdiu, ilkt. 13.880 piece.) were — raw suKiir, •, mahogany, 2fi.i«l nerlcan colonlei and I, timber, gram, and it. ; com, meal, and inki, l.W,(H«l ''o8 636,853 615,503 5071 68,990 4,899 Bnlish (ii^iua 9.'>,(KXI 8.15,300 1 ,508,946 8.'i3,')77 3,799,898 r,6.1,0.19 • 8,094,179 911,.'i77 716 111,485 5,845 TnnWiul 43,67H 2S(i,V47 3,53(1 78,387 485,341 «0(i,977 1,678,913 487,731 469,808 361 i 40,903 3,810 ,S|. ChriUopher tHA'Jt 9l,7(i.l 65,677 18,I8H 80,839 5,189 4, 145,70.1 98,344 89Sl 15,538 1,.584 lAmiKua l3,7aB S08,9I3 »»,I71 U7,lil4 84 . 8..^87! 175,8ns 191,817 458 87,945 8,091 (irmada U.61« 156,798 M4,919 1K.3.W 81,647 109,915 486,68(i 801, (Wn 117,315 837, 19,110.1 1,678 iDominica 19,375 48,'.'90 17,010 7,893 .183,083 . 1,0.',4I 78,888 68,077 109, .5,961 1,154 Si. I.ucia is,3ao 61,691 7,493 4,786 143,866 . 16,88.-1 69,0111 60,344 3711 13,1144; 8,006 ;S(. Vlncml . 86.533 I94,1H!< 181,56'2 45,li67 79 56,81j 3,191 349,480 155,588 896 84,mi' 8,145 Ne»i» . . K.lVt «5,4in 10,867 8,971 4,61'J . .14,885 38,511 815, 8,487 1 1,094 'MonlMrral - 7,119 10,413 8,9.16 8,513 . 1,11(1 19,069 9,819 174! 5,488 719 lolago is,9ai 7 1 Ml 85V.4I4 7,181 . . - 196,974 73,947 108 11,955! 939 lyiriiln Itlandi 7,731 T,«79 3,0S8 906 . 7,958 . 83,18'J 15,886 .167, 4,395 1,051 'Hihamu 18,7IK 36 13,358 . 103,677 151,078 88,691 145,811 603 59,.189: 3,779 Uenuuda. 8,7»0 • 13 178,044 ■ • 81,907 116,067 184, 18,7a3| 793 8ccting a region which presents in general so uniform an aspect. 6293. Jamaica is the largest and most valuable island in the British West Indies. The lofly range of the Blue Mountains in the interior, covered with ancient and mi^estic forests, gives to its landscapes a grand and varied aspect. From these heights descend about a hundred rivers, or rather rills, which dash down the steeps in numerous cas- I cadet, and, after a short course, reach the sea. From these elevated tracts the island is supplied with the vegetable productions of a temperate climate ; and the Guinea grass, 5 B 2 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. Fig. 1043. " 7Hi ft.rtnitv is uscribed in » bf""' „ «re to diligent r. .animng and measure to an b ^^,,..,^^1106 of cultivation, ^^e a^ ^^ ^ „ain water ""/'Sv in tropical -r/:;rrectn'^'""^ Blbice Pimento, the plantations sum^r^^^ <„(;,,. Afiioo/'.^fl""""-'"' ,. Mimical; g. Foln."Ull> ', St. Anno C. I'lirl Anwmo 7 Mmifl'l'"-'-'' (t. KlnR»U)n 11. I'ort Uo:'' '°* ll,Liii:li«l«.' 12. SI. DntotliJ n. I.iui>vi» ll.lll»ckWKl> Riivil. ,i;.i.ly destroyed bj the earliest settlwl the civil wars, it t thus made very of whom were aWe u oftheeiBhteenili f the exhaustion of 1 and produce were v-mg no mouutaim in the Atlantic. 1. th, heing eoinl"^ ions, diversifiefl oy 1,0 capital, is "M" "u has an excel en . consciiuence of iw ""licxt in i';n'""»'S isitions. It «»•«;*, french, has, with rtian of people of colour, some of whom have attained to considerable wealth. Ne"" Amsterdam, the small capital of Ber- hice, is agreeably situated, intersected by canals, and with a considerable spot of ground attached to each house. 6305. The Bahama Islands form a very extended and numerous group, being successively parallel, first to Florida, then to Cuba and part of St. Domingo. Five hundred have been counted j but many of them are mere rocks and islets. The island oalieil the Great Bahama is remark.ible as being the first part of the New World that was discovered by Columbus. These islands were very much neglecteil till about the begin- ning of the I'Kt century, when u British settlement was formeil there under Capt'iin Woixles liogers. The Hahamas, notwithstanding their favourable situation, have never been productive in the West lit.iia staples. The soil is in general arid and rocky ; and even those islands which might be cipable of improvement have h«Mi iieglectcHl. Cotton is the only article which has been cultivated to any extent, and even this has de- clined. They produce, however, a consideriUile variety of fine timber and dye-woods, and some of them sup. ply the neighbr ^ '^ fCatl. ti'2 LoiiKituileWvst gQ frimiGrenimit'li 70 R^erences to the Map qf the Island qf Cuba. 1. S. Isahela 9. Matanznt Xd. Nniviu >. Nombre de Dios 10. KUe^o 17. PortN'ipe 3. Honda ll.Carajatas IH. Itaracoa 4. H. Felice W. Villa Tiara 19. Halllmnica b. Batavanno 1.1. S. Jiinn rie l. Villa del Principe r S.Juan 2B. R. Juan iHwri. K Juana^in ft Navio S7. NenrlUo a Calafra 'iH. K,8!10i wine, brandy, &c., 1 ,827,700 ; "salted beef and pork, 1,425,500; spices, U.^.WX); frulln, 187,580; grain, 3,302,800; cheese, butter, tallow, &c., 1,335,400; fish. 4!17,<)0(), The exports were, chiefly, to Spain, 2,91 9,000 dollars ; Hanse Towns, l,S8a,fi(X)i Simnlsh America, 248,300; United States, 5,792,600; Prance, 1,344,600; Ent(land. a.'CllVlfiO • Italy, 106,700; Low Countries, 1,130,900; the Baltic, 590,700- Portugal. 4 l(i,3«H). The imports were, from Spain, 4,659,000 dollars ; Hanse Towns, 361.500; Spanish AnierioH, 1,099,000; United States, 6,548,900; France, 861,360; England, 1,37!),90(); Italy, 71,900 ; Low Countries, 203,490. Besides these amounts, introduced under nationid (lags, there were imported under the Spanish flag, from foreign countries nut diHtinguislied, 4,966,000 dollars ; exported, 1 ,294,000. No distinction is also made in bonded gmMls, wl.icli were brought in to the value of 2,639,000 dollars ; sent out, 1,469,000. The ships, in 1837,,wcre — 2524 vessels inw.irils. tonnage 3fi7,0Hi 2326 vessels outwariti. Innnnii* .W.flRl The duties on shipping .wd gooek unly to screen them. Cuba derives great benefit from railway of 4j miles, from the Havana to (liilnvs. Ill oilo nl the richest sugar districts, chiefly executed bv iJritish capital. 6309. Havana, or the Havannah, the capital of Cuba, is one of the greatest and nioit flourishing cities of the New World. It once carried on the whole, and still retains more than two thirds, of the commerce of the island. The harbour is admirable, cn)iublu of con- tain.ng a thousand large vessels. The fortifications, particularly the Worro and Puiitit ciwlli-s, are remarkably strong. The arsenal and dock-yard are also on a largo scale. The city priiKems a magnificent appearance from the sea, its numerous spires being intermingled with lolly and luxuriant trees. The churches are handsome, and richly ornament :;' ; and several private ni»ii« sions are reckoned to be worth above 60,000/. each. The intcior, 'lowove"-, for the most pari consists of narrow, ill-paved, and dirty streets, crowded with m^ .;''n'ir, e\hiliit a gay and even splendid aspect. The recently constriv. ivt> subui V • are also huilt in a h«. perior style. The Havannah has patriotic and literary societies, a; li ,eveii JournnU, The population in 1827 was 112,000. 6310. Other towns in Cuba have risen to im|>ortance since the mononnly of the tiaclo nhsiirdly Cfln- ferred on the Havannah was withdrawn. Matanzas, only about six^v mi.L-s cast of the i .i;>IUi, has at'uiilmt a considerable commerce. In 1827, it contained l.'>,000 people, now much incrcasetl ; . I ('• rx|iiirt« In 1337 were 3,000,000 dollars. Trinidad, since it was permitted, carr v^ r i with ictivity the tra ii> ..f the miuth- em coast; its exports and imports in 1837 were each about i mm.'./.iC dollarf. Sanllaun de Cnhi., nt thu eastern extremity of the island, was the original capital, and suffered scvtrelywiienthu.ilstliictlim win, trails> fcrrcd to the Havana ; but since I78B, when its iHirt was opened, .thassharc.890 fanegas (worth 18 dollars each), cneoi,, l,!Wi.VIOO II*. cotton, 1.724.(KH) gallons molasses, 4.914.800 lbs. tobacco. The intercourse is chlcHy with Kpalli and America, very little with liritaiii. San J'.iaii dc PortO Rico is a strong place, with a spacious and secure li.-'' 'luur, snu contains about 30,000 inhabitants. 6312. 77ie po«ses»ions o/ France in the West Indies, previous to the revolulionnry war, were more valuable than those of any other nation. The exports from St. D'.min.fo nluiio amounted to 5,000,000/. That valuable island is now entirely lost to her. Dutln;.' die Into war all her islands were captured, and she ceased to exist as a colonial power. At the peace, Martinico and Guadaloupe were restored, and, with Cayenne, form territoriis of eoilsiduraUlii value and capability. The following shows their intercourse with France in 1837 1 — Martinique - (iuailaloiipe - Cayi'uno EniMwI. riearctl. ImiMirth. li>|»>rlt, 107 ships Il« - 24 - 27,696 tons 3fl,H(W _ 13,'i Ships i;i4 - 26 - 34,488 tons a.'i.'.iOO — .MI17 - 6N|I,4MI 1III,4H'J i'iili'J,;il4 704,MlM l'j;i,'.i:is 249 — 63,'j;)2 — 2').') — 7.5,60.^ - ■fl.llll-.IWH I'l.MO.MWI The chief articles exported, in 1 83.^, from Martinico were — 67,1 10,000 His, sugar, I ,.'i.'!8,0(X) Rallons molasses, 330,0(X) gallons rum, 1,728,900 lbs. colfee. From Oiiailal.iupo, 7H.!>:I7,(X)0 lbs, sugar, 1,13I,0(X) gallons molasses, 47l,7(«) gallons rum, and 2,'_'09,0tX) lk«, colUjt), 5 n 4 fl 'wti! im 1478 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. fiSIS. MartMco, as compared witl' the other Antlllet, Is a large and line Islam!, about fifty miles in length and sixteen in breadth. The surface is generally broxen into hillocks, and in the centre rise three lofly mountains, the streams descending Trom which cupiuusly water the island. The progress of Martinique took place between I7U0 and 1732, during which period the negro population increased from U,.V)0 to 72,UU0. Tlic English, when they took it a second time in I8()<), found next year a population of .0ti,4l3. The census of ISa^ gave 1 16,000, of which iliKX) were whites, 28,000 free coloured, and 78,(MK) slaves. Port Royal, the capital, and the scat of the courts of justice, is awell-built town, with 10,000 inhabitants ; but the chief trade centres in St Pierre, whojc excellent ruad renders it an entrep'it of the trade with the mother country. 6J14. Guadaloupe is a largcr.island, being from fifty to sixty miles long and twenty-tive broad. It may almost be considered as two islands, since a channel, from thirty to eighty yards broad, crosses the narrow isthmus by which its eastern and western portions are united. The western, called llasseterrc, notwithstanding the name (which is derived from its position with regard to the trade-wind), contains a chain of lofty and rugged mountains, one of which displays some volcanic phenomena, emitting volumes of smoke, with occa- sional sparks of fire. However, its plains are copiously watered and fruitful. The eastern division is more flat, and labours under a deficiency of water. I'he progress of Ouadaluupc was contemporaneous with that of Martinico, though slower. In 1755, it contained 50,800 inhabitants ; in 1812, these )-ad nicreased to 114,000. In 1835, the popu'ation was found to be 127,000, —of which I7,(X)0 were whites, 14,000 free coloured, 96,(XK) slaves. Basseterre, on the part of the island bearing that name, ranks as the capital ; but, having a bad harlHiur, is supuoried merely by the residence of government, and has not more than 80OO inliabitinti,. Point-a.l'ctre, on tlic e.istern side, carries on almost all the trade, and h.i8 a population of about lf),(iO(). The islands of Marie.flalante and Deseada are appendages to (iuadaluupe, of little im|>oaance. ().3I5. Cayennf, or Krench Guiana, is an extensive tract belonging to the Soutli American continent, but which, for reasons already stated, we shall here consider in conmxtion witli the West Indies. Cayeime Proper consists of an alluvial island about eighteen miles long and ten broa J, formed by the branches of the river of that name ; but the term is applied generally to a coast about 500 miles in length, having Dutch (iuiaiia on the west, and Portuguese or rather llrazilian Guiana on tho east ; but the limits of the latter are disputed to the extent of I'iO miles, in consequence of the ambiguity occasioned in the treaty of Utrecht by the terms Yapock and Oyapock ; and the Ilrazilians, in spite of every remonstrance, continue to occupy tlie coast as far as the latter river. Cayenne is an alluvial swampy region, covered with majestic forests. The trees astonish Eurniieans, not only by their prodigious size, but by their great variety ; M. Noyer having counted no less than 259 that were titted fur human use. Fine aromatics, unknown to the other regions of the west, have been cultivated there with success. The Cayenne pep|>er is the most pungent and delicate kind of that spice ; ami the clove, long supposed exclusively attached to the Moluccas, has succeeded so well, that a part of tlie ciiii- iuroption of Europe is supplieti from Cayenne. The natural advantages of this colony are very great. Tlie cutting down of these nobli' woods would uflbrd the material of a valuable timber trade, and tlic ground thus cleared would be tit for sugar and every kind of West India produce. Yet the tract is cultivated in only a few ■cattereil patches, not exceetling in all 10,000 acres. Serious obstacles are indeed presented by the |)esti!ential vapours exalol from these dark woods and marshes. In a settlement on a great scaU, attcnntcd ni 17(V!, no less than I.i,IXK) persons perished, so that the dojiortation to Cayenne of deputies obnoxious to tlie ruling party, during the revolution, was indicted a« conveying umoit a sentence of death. Yet, if due precautions were used, and the woods cleared, it would probably be as healthy as any other settlement in this quarter. Cayenne is a small town, neatly built of i.oud, with a spacious and commodious road, and a |iopulation of 3000. Kouroii, Sinnamarec, La M.ina, and Oyapock are small settlements scattered along the coast. < 6310. The /Mssfssians ({f the Dutch in the West Indies, when compared with their eastern colonial enipire, ap|>ear exceedingly limited. Their only islands are St. Eustatia, S;dia, and (ura^oa. The Hrsi two are sin.ill isles lying immediately north of St. Chri.'sloplier's : St. Kustatia consists almost entirely of the sloping sides cif one high conical hill, terminating in a rocky summit. It is, however, cultiv.ited with great care, and aliouiuls particularly with toliaccn ; also ui cittle and poultry, of which it aitbrds a surplus to the neighbouring islands. The capital is well Ibrlilied, and forms a siiecies of entrepot both of regular and contraband trade. The pdpu lation of the island is estimated at 20,(XK) ; that of the town at liOflO. Saba, only twelve miles In circuit, and destitute of a harbour, is a pleasant island, but of no commercial value, ".'he Dutch participate with Kraricc the small island of St. Martin, valuable almost solely for its 8.'\lt-works. Cura(;oa is a larger island, far to the west of the others, and only about seventy miles distant from the S|>anish main. It is about thirty miles loii);, and ten broad ; but part of its surface is ..id and unfertile ; and its im|>ortaiice was chiefly derived from the contraband trade which its situation enabmi it to carry on, while the continent was exclusively possessed by Spain, and studiously slir against the vessels of other countries. Since Columbia became independent, aiul threw o|>eii her ports to all nations, Cura(ua has sunk into a secondary station. Williamstadt, its capital, however, with a Hue harbour, Iki', still a considerable trade, and a |Hipul»tiun of 8000. 6317. Surinam, on the coast of Guiana, constitutes the most im|>ortaiit part of the Dutch western ixissis- sions. Dutch Guiana formerly included Demerara, ISerbice, and Essequilio; but Uritain having in the last war captured these three districts, her capital was empliiyeil with such advantage in improving them, that the determined, at the iieace, on retaining them, and left to Holland only the larger but lest valuable territory ul' Surinam Proper. This coiist, like that of the rest of Guiana, is fiat and alluvial, and is traversed liy severiil broad rivers, coming from a considerable distance in the interior. Tliat of Surinam has a channel about four miles wide, but shallow and rocky, navigub'.e only for boats. The Dutch, since they regained {.ossession of it, have made very considerable efforts for its improvement, and it is decidedly using in im|>ortJiice. ParaniariLio, at the mouth of the river, where it atlbrds excellent anchorage for vessels, is a considerable town, well built of wood, and arrangeil in regular streets, adorned with fineirees. I's coininerce, though now sur]iassed by that carried on in English Guiana, is considerable, and supiuirts IS.OOO or '.^0,000 persons. ().!18. The Danes have three small islands in the West Indies. St. Cioix, the principal one, lies to the .suiith of the Virgin Islands : it h.is a nirlace of eighty-one .square miles, and a population of al«iut 3n,(KI0, all slaves, except '.'jOO whites and K'oo free culoureil. it is productive, in proportion to its extent, in the usual West Indian articles. St. Thomas, one ol the Virgin Islands, is of little ini|iortance, unless as i favourable station for intrulitcing into the other islands those goods which the great states have declared contraband. St. John's, another of the same group, is very small, .nid only noted lor its excellent harbour. 631!l. Thi- Swedes have only one small island, St. Itariholoruew, situated alniut fifty miles north of St. ( hris- topher's. It is not quite twenty-live square miles in extent, and is generally ., with occa- ision is more rancous with increased to "ree coloured, but, having a J inliabitaiits. about lfi,lKX). ontinent, but lyenne Proper uf the river of ch Cjuiana on re disputed to t by the terms he coast as far trees astonisli cd no less than est, have been hat spice ; and art of the con- ry great. Tlie )C ground thus d in only a few the pestilential itcdm ITlVi, 110 lie ruling party, ecauUons were artcr. Cayenne •3000. Kuuroii, colonial empire, HI two ate snull ■ sloping sides uf irc, and aliouiuls ibouring isliimls. adc. TheiHipu_ ss ^n circuit, ami )ate with I'r.iiicc island, far to the hirty miles luii|!, [lerived from the lely poasesscii by ndependent, ami istadt, its capital, h western iwssc'S- living ill tne last IK them, that slu' uable territory ut iversed liy several lannel about tout d irosBCSsion nl it, lice. Varaniarilm, e town, well huM now surjiassed l>y , lies to the sc.uili 'iii.lKHI, all slaves, 11 tlie usual \Vest avcjurahle statinu aband. St. Johns, norlhofSt.llii-is- as fertile aiul «ill il, (luhtavia, tnc hese seas, ■resting portions (il ,,-,() miles ill U'liRtli, ii-h the luMli "\ '"i . covered iicarl.. 1" whicli, iiiutiiiK "1 land .lisnn er.nl ly of lli>i.a.iiol.i, "^ adventurers, wii" i-ialile almiu!.'!"'!', mines, and "lli>''- ,let!reeexb..iMi"l. l.iiiungo, «.i- 111' reiieh biuT.iiu'if* ■enel. g"ve""",?,l ' Linl by tin-' '"'"'"• Fig. 104.5 1) 1 "rei MAP OF HAYTI. 7.2 71 1 Arealilr •i. St. Mark .1. .\rlilMMritc 4. (iuiLiive ft' E'lalform ft. St. Nicoliu 7. .1111111 Kaltel s. Port I'aix U. I'lirt .llarBnt 1(1. Caiif tft'iiry 11. Port Daui>)iin 12. Dondon 13. Si. MlRuel 14. Hinnlui 15. M irubalaU IG. llamic.l 17. St. Thfinie 18. .'Mrmic CliristI 10. U-nlii'lla '^0. Sami.ipo VI. St. .tat'.. Ui'Jermcn to the Map nfthe Islnml c.f Ilayti. 'i2. roncei>cion de la ?t% Rani VvK.i 'i7i. Santa Sarra '21. r> ruan y.'t. .Uifjtflina V'J. Cotuy i!;. roli;:i»ln VS. Savanna '.i'l. Si'liye 50. Hiqiiey 31. St. Uoinini^o .Tl. Azua ?t\, Haitos Vt, \'iaiatno X. S. ,luan 37. Po-larneles ,1S. Kale Trou ,TJ. Caves 411. Port au Prince 41. Lcx>i;ano ^'i, .lacqucmal 43. Pesiiueno (if> 41. St. l.ouis 4'!. Miraguniia 4(1. raven 47. Tres Uios 4S. I'iburon. Ifmrl. l> Gimyara c Monte Ctirtill d Vuma e Homana f Souca SMuco.'li Oy.ania i Rani J Tavtra k Nlevd. cious rc8trn;it; of an ex Uisivc coinp.iny ■ but a more liberal policv lieiiiR adnptcil in 1728, it rapidly advanceil to a degn . ' . prosperi.v altogether unprecedented. Though l.u-iiiing little more than a third of the island, it far siirpa .. L>. in opulence not only tile Spanish part, but the whole Spanish West Indies. In I78il, the imports were valued at upwards of .O.OdO.OllO/. sterling. ilWl. The French revoliiliim oaused an extraordinary ch.inge in the state of Havti. In 17|i|, the Convention caused to be proclaimed throughout the i-slaiid their f.ivourite doctrine, that all men were free and eipial. This proclamation gave rise, in the first instanee, to a contest hetweeii the white and 'he free coloured popu. lation. Hut while these parties were contending for the application of the principle, the slaves felt th.it it applied also to thcin. They rose in a body, massacred or drove out the other two classes, and bccaine entire miisters of French St. Domingo. This revolution, with the exce.s.ses which accompanied it, soon eiideil, like other revolutions, in a military despotism, which was established in ISOii by Dessalines, who assumed the title of James I. He was succeeded by Christophe, his second in command, who n.iined himself Henry I, here- ditary king of Hayti. Meantime, however, the republic of Hayti was established in another part of the island, timlcr thp presidency, flrst of I'l'tion, and then of Boyer. Henry, harassed by attacks from this and other qiL-utcrs, ended his life by suicide in ISiill. lioyer then, by a series of vigorous operations, f.ot only extended his sway over all the French part of the island, but annexed to it also that belonging to .Spain ; so that the whole is now comprehended in 'he republic of Ilayti. France, in IHO.), made strong cHlirts to regain this valuable island, but without success. At length, on the I7th of April, 1S2.',, a treaty was concluded, by which she acknowledged the imlependeiiec of Hayti, on condition of receiving the large sum of 150,nOl(i,iJ31 lbs., iiinounted, in IH'ii. to UWdlbs. (dll'ee continued to be a staple production. The forests of mahogany and eaiii|ieachy wood were found of greater value than had been supposed. The revenue, in. I8j7, is stated at 'i,OH'.',(KX) d .'.kirs, and the expenditure at '.',71 j,(KKI ; but Hayti is severely pressed by the enormous snin which she has eiiijaged to pay as the price of her independence. rile following shows the export of the staple productions for three years, which we may observe with re- gret has been diminishing : — is;).-*. INSfi. IW. l.bs. l.lis. /./«. ("otTee •18,:).')2,(HI0 ,37,ilii'^,'lOO S(l,Hl.i,WK) Logwood • . - is.'jus.ono C.7(i7,fKIO tJ.Oiili.lllH) • otton l.li 19,(100 l,l>7'i,IHVl 1.013,1)00 Maliogiuiy . .'),4i;i,IK10 4,'.I.').'J,IH«) 4,7'.1'',0 1480 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. Tlie following oxhlbitt the amount of commerce for 1836, dlitlngulihlng the different porti : — Port au Prince ... Cape Haytlen ... Jacmel .... Aux Cayei . . • Gonaivei .... Porto Plata ... ToUl Entered. Impotti. CiMKd. Btjmtt, 73 39 61 44 43 Ton*. 17,869 10,794 4,6H8 7,675 6,633 4,133 243,490 131,966 33,248 38,436 13,076 16,577 74 43 60 43 37 Tom. 20,283 10,801 5,083 7,443 6,398 3,478 -L 401,106 184,6.10 10.5,198 137,361 63,970 19,164 369 1 50,680 474,783 38,1 1 82,485 911,839 1 (>323. HayU hai been divided into iix department!, named, chieBy after their poiitiona, Weit, South, Artibo. nite. North, North-enat, South-catt The Jait two comprehend the part lately potaased by the Spaniardi. Port au Prince, in the department of the West, i> the capital, and the chief teat of trade. It haa a aecurc and excellent roadatead, but the country around ia marahy, and, during the summer, very unhealthy. The city is built mostly of wood, ita atrceta unpaved, and containing no rcinarkablu edifices. The population may be firom K.OOU to 15,000. Port Haytien, in the department of ', ne North, the seat of the kingdom established by Chriatophe, ia better built, with well-paved streets, and somi- hanti«i>nie squares, and has a population of about 10,000. Near it l> the citadel, constructed at vast expcntv on the top of a mountain, ai a place of security for himaelf and his treasures. Aux Cayca, in the department of the South, the erst of an ephemeral gnvemmcnt, which sprung up during the disturbances, is a neat town, with a flourishing trade ■ but it was almost deatroycd by a hurricane in August, 1831 . St. Domingo, the capital of the Spanish iiart of th j isl^ind, presents the remains rf a very handsome city ; a solid and spacious cathedral, a large arsenal, houses in general commodious and well built i but it has been long in a state of decay, and is not supposed to cont>)in now above 1U,000 inhabitants. BOOK V. AITSTRALASIA, POLYNESIA, AND THE ISLANDS IN THE POLAR SEAS. 63224. Islands and groups of islatids form an extensive and important portion of the sur- face of the globe. Those which are in the close vicinity of the great continents, and situated in gulfs enclosed by them, have been considered as appendages to these continents, and treat' of in connection with them. But, in that wide expanse of ocean, which covers more than half the surface of the globe, there occur some very large and numerous small islands, widely separated from any continent, and a survey of which is requisite tu complete the description of the w orld. They present human society under rude, indeed, but striking and picturesque, aspects ; and, through the extension of commerce and navigation, colonics have been established, and a frequent intercourse maintained with them by the maritime nations of Europe. 6:i'25. These islands may be divided into three great classes, marked by distinctive chara-.-ters : — I.Australasia. 2. Polynesia. 3. The islands in the Polar Seas. Chap. I. AVSTRALASIA, 6320. Australia, ■* already observed, is the name given to an assemblage of huge insular masses of land occupying the western parts of the Pacific, and extending soutlmard from eastern Asia. These great oceanic tracts consist, according to Mr. Barrow, of, 1. New Holland, called often Auslrdia; 2. Van Diemen's Land; 3. New Zealand; 4. Pupiia, or New Guinea ; 5. New Britain, New Ireland ; 6. Solomon Islands ; 7. N w IIcliritlvH ; 8. New Caledonia. Of these, New Holland is by far the most extensive, att-iinin); cvvii the importance of a coiitine>it ; and since, for well-known reasons, a ])eculiar interest attaches to it and its close appendage of Van Diemen's Lund, these will be chiefly regarded ill the h'vneral description, while the local head will comprehend the other insular regions bv which it is cniircled. 1. New Holland. Sect. I. General Outline and Aspect. (),'?27. New Holland, ortlio continental part of Australasia, may be stated as lying hctween 10 30' ami 3!»" S. hit., and between 1 Vi" 20' and 153'- 40' K. 'long. Hassd' .issijrns to ii 2977 miles from cast to west, and 2004 from north to south. The superficial I'ontont i« estimated with difficulty and variously. Ziinmerniann'K Geography makes it 3,300,000 square 10. » » on int pe nui Ja of I ste stil Ye vas reii Pa»t 111. Fig. 1046. MAP OF AUSTRALASIA. 1481 irtii — Etporta. L. m 401,106 m 184,ftS0 m 105,19» «t 137,361 m 63,970 t7e 19.1M 185 911,839 iVeit, South, Arllbo. the SpanlatdJ. Pott It ha» a secure and Healthy. The city i« c population may be igdom established by a population of about I place of security for liemcral government, was almost destroyed ,i)rc8cntatheremaiiii oral commodious and >ve 10,000 lababitanti. POLAR SEAS. portion of the sur- linenls, and situated lesc continents, and ocean, which covers and numerous small requisite to complete indeed, but striking navigation, colonics lem by the maritime arlied by disUnilivc olar Seas. ■O- »• «■ Eiidrachtr Ltnil ,« n ,, V^Sh.rli.B. "uilliIlliiM Rollenrst I •ury CC. OraftoD ^a C*** sir J B 'l»nki |. Tiertm dtl Eipiritt^ *i«nlii litw£t^HtBKIOti 4f , . "^ Fti«li..*\ York I. . I TownMtiJ Dorre ^^ C. Natu™'"" V- »*.-»«t^«'*' aeCttT'*'""' '"■ Inilinii I. ^ > illOil 11. ^ O .,V»' ■otl MMHiW'i' ^Notfolll I. ^••**' VAN DIKMKNs5^;^>ijvNu NKV. {^^ /zEAl »ND W) too T.tO lOOU Eiigliih Milu \ "'». Sunw'J Laid A'lckliuda l1 10 ,20 '«0 40 OADIipxItl I. I no I . Svc'ney 'i. Kichinoml 3- LlTer]tool 4. Uathursl 120 • I 1 1 ISO Loniitudc UU Eul (mm |50 Gncuwich 160 170 loU ^0 References to the Map qf Australasia. 5. Oeorge Town 6. Hobart Town 7. York 8. Perth Aiverf. n Swan b Prince R«frent*s c AUiijaton d Lirerpool e Endeavour f Boyne SBriKl>ane Hastings J ''iutlereaxh K niacquarie 1 Nevean m r^tchlan n Dumaresq o nforrumbidfie* p Murray. assemblage of huge extending southward to Mr. Barrow, of, 3, New Zealand; non Islands; 7. N « jst extensive, attaining )ns, a peculiar iiUercst rill be chiefly regarded other insular regions stated as lyiiif? hctwi'in Hassel assigns to It . sui)erficia1 loiittnl i« Ikes it 3,300,000 square English mi; :s ; Freycinet, more recently and with fuller materials, allows very little more than 3,00O,Oc'O. The late discoTcrics of Captain King must somewhat modify any cal- culation, though they affect more the details than the general mass. The form of the whole is compared by Hassel to that of a horse-shoe. 6328. TAe turfwe of this very extended continent can by no means be fully ilescrilwd upon the very limited information which we yet possess. The leading feature, so far as yet traced, consists in mountain ranges running parallel to the coast, and leaving on that side only narrow and often barren plains, but on the other much more extended ones stretching into the interior. The prevalence, however, of granite and sandstone renders the region generally arid, and large tracts of it wholly unproductive. Major Mitchell does not esti- mate that, in the principal colony, more than a sixth can be considered valuable ; and Sir James Stirling considers the greater proportion in Western Australia as similar. The banks of the great rivers, which form the finest part of other countries, are htrepeculiarly naked and sterile. The southern districts, the seat of recent settlement, appear decidedly superior ; still the representations of their luxuriant fertility have proved to he much exaggerated. Yet even these proportions of good land, in a country nearly equal to all Europe, afford a vast scope for colonisation and settlement Nay, the arid character of the soil seems to render it peculiarly lit fed for the production of that fine wool, which, from the fiicility of 14B3 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paht III. Itfi production and transport, has been tlic cliiuf source of pronpcrity to the colony. The northern coast was found by Captain King presenting n continuous low and wooded tract of shore ; but it has not been explored to any depth, 6:)i^9. The mountains of Australia form, as already observed, a sharp and rocky ridge nround a great part of its circuit. The Blue Mountains, in particular, which rise behind the colony, tower u]) almost like a wall ; their clifl's being so steep, and separated by such dreadful abysses, as to haw been long considered as presenting a barrier absolutely im- passable. It was not until 181.3 that a route was discovered through them, which has since l)ecn made completely patent. Tlieir highest summits do not appear much to exceed .'JOOO feet. The southern range, named the Australian Alps, is much more lofty, covered for most part of the year with snow ; and the waters thence descending, in a great measure relieve this region from the arid character elsewhere prevailing. In the south-western part, along the Swan River settlement, extends the Darling range, about HOO miles in length, and another in the south, inland from King George's Sound ; but tlieir highest pinnacles are not supposed to exceed 350O feet. Others will, doubtles.s, be found in the vast unexplored extent of this region. ftlX). llweri ilo not, cither in tlii; extent of tlieir course or the abundance of their waters, bear iluc pro- Imrlloii to tlie extent of this region. Tlic Hawki'sbury, anil otiiers, wliich roll on; Kndeavour River; Lizard Itivcrj round hill near Cape nhmlall ; Mount CalcHlun ; island near Cape Arnheim ; Melville Bay ; ll.ild Head ; King (ieorge's .Siunil. — i Miin slate. Mallison's Lsland. — J. 'I'li/c slate. Kndeavour Kiver 4. Ilornhlenrie slate, robasons Ili\er; H.Mf-way ll.iy; I'rince Kegent's Uiver. — ^>. (Sranulnr i/iiartx. Kndeavour Hirer j Montague Sound, north-west coast. — li. (imirlzi/ eonglomerates and ancient sandstones. limld's Hay ; islands of the north anci north-west ciasts; Cambridge (uilf; York Sound; I'rince Itigeiit's Uiver. — 7. /.iniestone, res-'inNin/i in the rharaeter of its organic remaim the mountain limestone i;/' England. Interior of New Holland j near the east coast ; Van Dieinen's Kami. (ViJS. Ttie coal formation. Kast co.tst of New Holland ; Van Oiemen's Kami. The coal formation on the east coast has been traced fVom llotany Bay more than one hundred miles to the north ; and it extends nearly thr same distance into the interior, the jiosition where it has been most particularly examineil being on the branclu's of Hunter's !liver. 'I'he ccal is worked at Newcastle. Ironstone is loui.d along with the coal, and ores of thi.s metal, particularly bog iron ore, occur in considerable (|uantiiy in tlillerent parts of New Holland. (i,UJ. fossil i/'ood in eotil foniiation. In our lectures on organic remaiuii, when discussing the subject itf fossil trei's, we have .'strongly recommeniles. J. 'I'liat the eleiihant was an inhabitant of N<'W HolUiHl Kt K very remote perijil,.-!:! it apiieamto have been iiotonly of every p.irt of the Old World, but oftho Book V. AUSTRALASIA. 1483 I have hml occMloii to examine anotliTci «tion n .«J,^^^ »^^ T r" f"*".' "l'.'";"'Mr"!' N"" **<"'«'' Wale», locality a, WclUnKton Valley, In my former cV.iZun St™ ^""^'"■"> """ «'«' """«? examination were referable to nine dl.tinct »nS of M»m ;,..i„ *^ "*?' '^e fossils you submitted to my order M„r.su,,ial,a. The specimens »e' t o Biron cSvK^^^^^^^^^ *'"' " "'"«'? «"1>""». to the two species of Dasyurus, one of which clocs not seeZtn .1 mt.v^^ ?!.*'»«'' '"""' '''*^''<'» '" ""•' ""' ' v'*- .pecies of I'eramelcsi a species of kangaroo otthe^JuJiZ u^ .""^ "' M«"°"''J".''f OwHyoyj a small every known s,«cics'of tAis genusTa s^l ai"mal olX ,mwTw T" ""j" ™'«?l"'y v"y 'll«fcVent from of w'hich the tones are scattere.! iii imm^se Tumlancc in cSafn t?rti"nn^„^^^ '" " "f" >"'■""'' "•" saurian animal, nearly allied to the genus Gre*o but whirL tho inn?J i ".* *"" T.™"' ^'"-"^i and a examined, prevents my determining ?m,re aSurate"y A carefl.1 PxaK^fn^H"„"„'"7.h'^ "'" "•»«'"'"«« • have Mitcheirs collection leaves no doubt that the tones of most of thnTl" "' "je'I'ef'mcns of Mi^or transported thither by camivaro,,, animals, as in the ton^cavM o? V,^Sll'„ "'rf "'"* '" "'?«' ^^^ *"« have discovered several ftagments evidently gj^nd ami worrdownundor^ Krance. &c. I animals ( and among nearly UK) specimens bf long tones stm enveVJil in^h ?™*'' ot small carnivorou. not found one to which the epiphysis remains Sl^raithouBh n ,K . ,n r' '*«''<:•'«"= "»»*, ' ^avo having been gnawed off by the Animals which SeTyinS these r«e^^^^^^ proo/ of their it is easy to guess from the catalogue already given " "™""' "'*'»'= recesses. What these animals were, J indications of the new red .andstone (rearti flrom inaecta ; an explan- ation which, lllte many othcra aiiplicd to the IKH-'ullaritica of the vexetablc KinKdotn, la, perhapa, more fuiuit'iil than true, and which only aervca to allow how little we arc able to comprehend of the myateriea of the vegetable world. 6JM. The genua Epacria, with ita allied Renera, aeema to be almoet aa numeroua, and to hold the aame rank in New Holland, aa the Ht-atha do at the Cape. 6345. No plants qf New Holland arc more sought after by our collcctora, or more prized for their varied foliage and lovely flowcra, *'^*'^'*' _ than the Proteaces; and of theac the most beautiful. If we except the Waratah {Telopea ipeciosissima) {Jig. MAS.) haa been conaecratiKl to the earliest invcatigator of the natural hlitory of the country, the Oiend and companion of Cook, Mir Joaeph Kanlci. ^^j— ^^ " Upwarda of MX> apccica of thia order," «aya Mr, Brown, in the botany of 1048 ^BwS^^ Fliiulera'a voyage, " are at present known : more than half of these are nativca of Terra Australia*, where they form one of the moat striking peculiarities of the vegetation. Nearly four flftha of the Auatralian ProteaccK belong to the principal parallel, in which, however, they are very unequally distrihutnl; the number of aiicciea at ita western extremity being to those of the eastern aa two to one ; and, what la much more remiurkable, the number, even at the eastern extremity, being to that of the middle of the (larallel as at least four to one. I'rom the principal parallel the diminution of the order in number of 8|>eciea ia nearly equal in both directions i but while no genus haa liecn met with in the tropic, which does not also exi.st in the principal parallel, unless that ecctioii een found in South America ; and of Stcnocanius, the original species of which is a native of New Caledonia." 634ear Jointed, like the atem of an Equiaetuia Its maximum appears tc nuiFiA ipirioiiiiiiiA. exist in Terra AiLstralia, where it forms one of the characteristic features of the vegetation. Thirteen Australian apeciea have already been discovered j the greater number of these arc found in the principal parallel, in every |>art of which they are almost equally abundant. In Van Uitmen's Island the genus is less frequent, and within the tropic it is comparatively rare ; no species, except C. equisctifolia, having been observed on the north coast of New Holland. Beyond Terra Australia only two a|ieriea have l)ecn found, namelv, C. cquiaetifolia, which occura on most of the intratropical islands of the southern Pacific, as well aa in the Moluccas, and exista alao on the continent of India ; and C. nodiUura, which is a native of New Caledonia t 6347. 0/ the Conifera:, the Phyllocladua rhomboidalia of Hichard (Poducarptu aipleniifoUa of La Bil. lardi^re) forms a new genus. Callitria is quite i>eculiar to New Holland ; and the famous Araucaria excelsa Uig. 1049.;, teckoncd among the loftiest trees In the world, which was first found in Norfolk Island and New Caledonia, has been ascertained, by Mr. Cunningham, to extend Irmn 1049 M^^^a. Mount Warning on the east coast, in lat. 29° S., thence sparingly '""-'^■*'**^ towards the tropic, within which, however, it is very abundant, fonning upon aeveral islands the only timber. Thia is, probniily, the nearest approach of the species to the equinoctial line; and, altliouiih I it occupies an .irea of iJtK) miles, it is very probably limited, in Terra ' Australis, to its immediate shores, and, as appears to be the case with Pandanus, exists only within the influence of the sea air. ftMH. The Orchidete are in great variety, and highly curious in the cxtratropical parts of New Holland, and are chiefly terrestrial. 0349. Nutwithslanding that so large a portion i\f New Iliilland is intratropical, and with a climate so well suited to their growth, it is wonderful how deficient the country is in Palms ; which can only be accounteeciea having been detected, bearing fruit, in the vicinity of Kndtavour River. The Corypha australia extenda to lat. 24° S., and this is nearly the southern limit of the order in this country. Ujion the north-west coast, the genus I.iviriK- stonia has alone been met with, in lat. 15° ; but along the whole of the west side no other palm apjiears tu grow. filJO Among the Aiphodelew nf Terra luslralis, the genus Xanthorrhica Is considered one of the most re- markable in habit, giving a peculiar aspef to the vcKCtation of the district where it alxiunds, whicli extonils to the south end of Van Dicmen's Island, and is also found within the tropic. All the species yielil a uum resin. The X arborea is the Yellow Oumtrce of White's History of New .South Wales, and is (lescrilHil as attaining the size of a walnut tree, growing pretty straight for about fourteen or sixteen feet, alter whi<'h it branclioi ecic>s, in th • Supplement tu his I'm- dromut Flora Nome HoUandiie. t Mr. Allan Cunningham, in King's Voyai. RT III. c cnlunK' ligina, t'l iveakliul, I'l in other pill on thr illlcit-nt to liile irf the ■ Iti hlKhly I. It \t anid the protec- an cxplan. iiilicd to the .iiiKdom, 1«, !, and which c arc able to he vegetable ,th Its «H1«1 imcrou»,aiul ' Holland, at ind arc more r more iiiizcd >vcly flowers, icsc the miwt to the earliest loacph Banki. the boUny of If of these are inMt strikinB he Australian ever, they are tern extremity la much mure cing to that of I the principal nearly equal in in the Iroiiir, that section (if several genera ;h apiiear to lie caeca! has been genera are con- ■ral species have riglnal species of [ branches whidi !imum appears tc Icteristic features number of these undant In Van arej no species, 1 Terra Austral! 9 [ropical inlanil* of and C. nuditlura, iifolia of LaBil- Vraucaria excelsa i Island and Niw in, to extend Item thence sparingly very abundant, _ is, probably, the lei and, aUliougli r limited, in Terr J ,o be the case with aa'"- . • .!,„ hly curious in tnc terrestrial. / Nan llollona « their growth, it IS which can only be ;hc great tendency Only six species ot IB to three genera, — according to Mr. wcics having been Tls to lat. «o h . a"'' , the genus I.ivinj- icr palm apifars to lone of the mii!-t re- Inds, which extendi [species yielii a Mum land isdescnlHH as 1 feet, after whic i it *' the larger kinils ol Lplcmcnt to his I'l"- Book V. AlISTUAhANIA. 148J gnu or tcdgr. From the centre of these leaves springs » leaves springs » slnulv (iKitslalk, rlghlcvn or twenty feet high, per. fU'liy eriTl, rtnieinliling the sugar eatie, and terininaling in a spiral T ,\ "".', ""'"'!' "" ''"'' '"' "'"'»•■ ''''"• '«'■«<' •'<'"'. or footstalk, U used liv the 'IfllVM ftir ttinkiiig s;H>Krs and fl.li.gig., iH'Ing |>oirit«l with the Iwlh nf Hsh iir other animals. Hut tiic m<«t valuable If.', ^ul" "/t '''* •i"".' "I'l'"«rs lo be lis resin, the propertiw of which vie with thnsunr lliv uiihiI IVagrnnI haUains. This resin exmlos siMMiiijiienii.iy |y„„| ,|„, |,„,|,^ „|„| „|,| ,„„j^, f,,,„|i, ,y,„„ im.),!,,,,,, . I Is nt a yellow ininur, Hiild id llr.l, hut iH-lng insplssateil in the sun J,i !'nL ? """'' •*.'"" I '""■"' "" •'"« ''""I' " '■"Ids a smell some. what Iku s|ora«, l I. penally ...Juhle in spirit of wine, but not 111 water, nor even In esseiillal oil „i turpentine, unless digested in asiriing heal, anil III.. varnLh It allhrdsV of little strength or use, It wij. imnil hy Mr, Wlm.. u, Ih< a gnallie eoniprelienil one fmirtli of all the Uicotylo doiious plants, while the (haases llinii nli eipial partofllie Miiiiucotyletlonous ones. Abuut one leiilli only iif these has been oliservid In other parts ol the world. Of the ( ryploginnlo piniits, hy l^r the greater number are natives of Europe. Alining llliiae, liu«ever, thai are peculiar to New Holland, some arc verylieitiillllil and eiirloua : we may particularly Instance, among the Sea weeds, Cliiiiilen elvgnns [Jig. Ili52.) ; ainung the Mosses, Dawsonitt polytrlclioldes (/(«, lli,14,^ which Tins the leaves of a Polytrichum and the Inclined capsiileol a llliximuinia, hut Is terminated by a beautltUI tuft of white silvery hairs llir a iierlstdinc t and among the Lichens, the Cenomyce rotlspura {Jig, |ti,'i)),), whose fVond Is pcrforatcvl like the most delicate lace. 6355. Wf mention Ngw !!k*i,»nIi, ftir Ihe saVe of making some remarks on a most valuable plant, which was originally detectetl by HIr Juaepli Hanks, during ook's first voyage, in 1770, the Pharmiu/n teaaa (fig. 1055.) or New Zealand Flax, It serves Hie liilmbltaiils Instead of hcmii or flax, and excels csrHAuyrus poli.iculabis. cr.Al'IIBA KI.BIIAMS nil llml Is niililled to the same purjiosce in other emiMli'les, I'l -re are two sorts of this plant: in Imlh Ihe leaves resemble Flags, but the flowers arc ■sr -.I ' j> snmller and their eliuters more numerous j in one *l»i*fl'fc^•>• y^"""' "'"' '" ""^ o"*?' deep red. ly", ""■■■■^ V". VV 7Za eiiiiniiiiiis Bise. A plant which might be applied eilMIIIHHIf. Biav. " i-.n... o ^ , 'f :„ csNciMvcu nsTiimsA. ^.iiii aui'h advantage fn so many uselVil and im. |K,rtant pur,K,se8, w.mld certainly Ih- a great acquisillon to V.m\mA, «' "^I'V^, v' found nMrandvJ^^^^^^^ tittle troiibl'e,a.s it sc-ms to lie hardy, and alU'cts ii.i narlleuhir snlfs. '''''"?,, ""fyf™"''j' ,!■''' ""^h p^^^ hi the driest mould and the deepest iMigs : the bog, llowever. aeel s f''tl " «' f jf"' Sf 'Cd mny cT- it grows larger than elsewhere. Since the dispuvery «r Ihi' I'linfmlMi" ti'"*" '" "cw Zealand, many ex IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 t^ 1^ ^S Ui Ui2 12.2 1.1 f.-^lsfi 1.25 I U 11,6 f 7 Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WIST MAIN STRIET WHSTER.N.Y. 14SS0 (716) 872-4503 ^ 4ff &". ' \ \ \ I486 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. Book V. ncrimenti have been made, which all prove the great strength and value of itt fibre, which ii now extensively lued in Mew Holland for cordage, and imported for the fame purpof e to Europe. In the South of France, 1054 tuUtetheprao 1057 DAmONI' -OLVTEICHOIDM. mOKMlOM TINAS. in Devonshire, and in other districts possessing a similar climate, it grows perfectly well in the open air, and has even survived the winter on the coast of Tnvemess^hire. But all the attempts that '-ave been made to separate the fibre firom the leaf of the New Zealand Flax, which it is requisite to do in a fVesh state, as maceration is found materially to injure the strength of the thread, have proved unsuccessflil. The native women perform this apparently simple operation with case and quickness : holding the end of a newly cut leaf with their toes, they insert a shell between the green substance and the fibre, and readily eflbct the separation by drawing this shell through the whole length of the leaf. No machinery or other process has been found capable of thus dividing the thread, which undergoes no farther preparation, no hackling or cleaning, previous to being shipped for the English market by the Port Jackson traders, who must apparently still depend on the savage women and their shells for the cargoes they obtain ! A representation and full account of this interesting plant are given in the Botanical Uagaxine for December, ItlSS, to which we muit refer our readers. SuBSECT. 3. Zoology. (USfi. AiiSTRtLAgiA. — The Zoology qf the Southern Archipelago is more singular than beautifkil, and is much more calculated to arrest attention ftvm the peculiar habits and structure of the subjects themselves, than f^om the elegance of their forms, or the richness of their colours. Australasia has been termed the land of contrarieties ; as if nature, in the creation of such forms as she appropriated to this region, had determined to mark them with some peculiar character inconsistent with those rules she had adopted in the formation of all her other productions. That form, for instance, which in other parts of the world she has confined to the smallest races of quadrupeds— the rats and the dormice — is here bestowed upon the Kangaroos, the largest tribe of four.fbotcd animals yet discovered in this insular continent ; but these wonderful creatures, Instead of fabricating warm and skiinil nests beneath the earth for the protection of their young, in like manner to all other mouselike quadrupeds, are provided with a natural nest in the folds of their own sliin, ' where the young are sheltered and protected, until they are able to provide for themselves. The Great j Kangaroo {Halmaturtu giganteut lU.) (Jg. 1U66.) is, in fkct, the largest and most typical quadruped of the whole Australasian range : the total absence of such aniraaltai lions, tigers, deer, oxen, horses, bears ; in short, of all tho« races spread ever the rest of the world. Is the most striliing I feature in the loology of this region. It is further remarkable I that nearly all the quadrupeds either actually belong or are I intimately related to the ulires of Linnoeus. Two thirds of I the Australasian quadrupeds make their way by springing in | the air. All the Kangaroos, when using any degree uf spcfd I in their movements, proceed by prodigious leaps, while the I Flying Phalangers or Opossums (6. Pelauritta), of which lii I species are described, arc even more remarkable for this habil I than the Flying Squirrels of North America. We might I almost be tempted to believe that, if there really exists. In | creation, an animal which would at once indisputably connect I the two great divisions of the vertebrata, and dcmonstraltl their union, such an animal will be hereafter discovered in I KUKoAsou ,|,g jouthern hemisphere. The Ornithorhynchus, or l)ucl*l bill, may be Justly said to exhibit more decided indications of such a union than any quadruped yet knovn, I and this is also a native of New Holland. I 6357. On quitting the toologicalprovlnre qf Alia, the paucity of large quadrupeds is first apparent in the I islands of New Guinea and New Caledonia, where, it may be remembered, in our preliminary observationi,! we supposed the first indications of the Australasian forms began to be developed. M. Lesson discoveredl ■everaf small animals in those islands (referred by him to the genus Cuscus) which exhibit a manife«t attini:;! to the New Holland phalangers ; while of edible domestic animals, the Hog alone (of a peculiar Imnxl, oil more probably siiecics) is to be found generally distributed through the Pacific islands. The Do(js are atol peculiar : small, and wolf-like, they appear to want all those generous and sagacious qualities which arc »! coiisplcuous among the breeds distributed over more civilised countries. I 6358. The ornithulogical productiinu of this hemisphere arc c<|uaily Interesting, and, (torn being morel numerous than the quadrupeds, nfTer a wider field fur KCOgra|>hlc comparison. We have already dcvotedl iome attention to this i>art of our subject, when iminting out the natural relations of the Australasian groupl with those of the Indian Archipelago and of Southern Africa. It is, therefore, unnecessary again tu rccaiil Biemen-s Llind,*1 Farrakeets and th 1058 CaillION.TAII.SD CO fiSSI. The paucity 1059 NloNia-iriNaM I ',"",'' .'*"'»''S"»«akei I "dging fW>m the coll I AnWtentlveinvestlgati £!!?■• i? raempUflcatl nrks which have been KM 111. (Xteiuivdj of France, Book V. AUSTRALASIA. 1487 le open air, and ve been mode to I fresh state, as [Ul. The native , of a newly cut cadily efltct the other procc«8 hat , no hsckUng ot mint apparentlji entation and full ;o which we muit wniOK*TAtllD aAOI.I< tuUte the prooft i> favour of auch affinttio*. The rapacioua birda are by no means excluded from this region. — although it ia a matter of doubt whether any genuine apeclea of vulture haa yet been diacovered. The largeat bird of prey we yet Itnow of is the Wedge-taiied Eagle ( «j. 10S7.), equal in site to the Golden, but having the Icga feathered to the toea : leveral of the Hawks tn altogether peculiar; among which ia one entirely white; and there is reason to believe that the geographic range of the Peregrine Falcon of Europe (the Greatfooted Falcon of the Americans), actuaUy extends to New Holland. The mild temperature of the climate renders the services of Vultures unneceaaary j but we are still to learn what agency ia aub. stituted for the removal of carrion and dead animal matter. The few nocturnal birds belonging to the families of Owls and Goatsuclters difffer 5?' ?Km V'.S European types, except, indeed, the large Podargi, or Great-biiied Goatsuckers. 6359. Among the perching triha, the beautiiUl parrots, cockatOM, and parrakeets, demand our .first attention, as being by far the most attrac- tive and brilliant in their plumage. The genuine parrots, with a perfectly even tail, are very few : Indeed, we know not at present of more than one species, the PtiUaaa FieUii Sw. The Cockatoos, which flrat appear in Southern India, extend also to New Holland. Some of the spedes are white ; the rest are of a black colour, richly variegated on the tail with red, as exempliflcd in the Crimson-tailed Cockatoo (/>. Cookii) (fig. lOSa) : they are of a large sise ; but a species lately discovered is im bigger than a tm&W parrakeet : this group haa not yet been traced in any of the South Sea islands. The Lories are also numerous, but belong to a diSferent aectioii from those of India : green, and not red, is the predominating colour of their plumage. Besides such as are only to be found in New Holland and Van Piemen's Land, several othera of a very small siie are locally distributed in the leaser iaianda. The Ground FarrakeeU and those with broad tidls [Pexoporta III, Platycercut V. & H.) likewise characterise these isUnds. 6360. The iniectitorout Urdi, strictly apeaking, are comparatively few : but it atiU remains to be aacertained whether the suctorial tribe, formed by the Honeysuckera IMeUiphagidtB V.), do not also derive nourishment from small Insects, concealed in the flowers, whose juices they auck by their bruah.like tongue. This supposition appears highly probable, since we can attest, iVom personal observations, that auch is the habit of nearly ail the humming-birds of America. The Scansorial Creepers arc of only two species, and no bfards have yet been discovered similar or analogous to the genuine woodpeckers. The Toucans find their reprcaentative in the New Holland Channel-bill (Scythropi III) ; but the Cuckoos and Orioles are not much unlike those of AfVica, Aaia, and Europe. Hie Pigeons and Doves are certainly the most beautifVil in the world ; the general tint of their plumage ia a rich green, variegated with red, purple, or yellow about the head andbreaat; but othera occur of a brown colour, relieved by apots on the winga of the richest and most changeable colours, equal in brilliancy to the finest gems. I The Bronie-winged Pigeon {fig. 1(159.) is a well-known example of thia group, I which comprehends several other species. The Chatterers of America seem ! represented by the Thick-heads {Pachycephala Sw.) ; the Orakles of India and Africa, by the Satin-birds (Ptilonorhynchus Kuhl.) ; and there is one species of Crow, which lives solitary : lastly, the Flycatchers and Warblers very nearly resemble those of AfHca, and even present us with two species belonging to European genera. There does not appear to be any sparrows, the parrakeets being the universal devastaturs of grain, and the pests of the farmer. Two or three small flnches of Indian genera {Amadina, EitreUa Sw.) correspond to our goldfinch. »r « „ j /. fi36l The oaueihiQf tallinaceotu birds is also evident. Tlie great Emu or New Holland Cassowary, ,. . r r -V B appears to have the same economy as that of America. To this order we refer that singular bird the LyreUil (Menura tuperba L.) already noticed. 6362. The Aqvatic tribes belong, for the most part, to groups found in other countries j but the genus Cereoptit (Jig. lOtiOi) occurs only in New Holland : it is of a light grey colour, as big as a goose, and the only example of this form. The faginalii.oT Sheathbiil, seems more pecu- liar to the Pacific islands. There arc, no doubt, many waders and swimmers not yet known to naturalists, for wildfowl are frequently mentioned by travellers as by no means scarce. Oceanic birds, par- ticularly Gulls, Petrels, and Pelicans, may naturally be supposed to abound over such a wide extent of ocean. 6363. The Entomology qf New Holland, in regard to species, has been illustrated by Donovan, and still more ably by Lewin, who atudied the Lepidoptera in their diilbrent stages, and engraved the sublecta on the apot But fVom neither of these works can any general views be acquired on thia portion of Australasian soology ; and, unfortunately, fuch can onlv be taken by those higher naturalists, who direct their attention to the phUoaophyofthe science, luch can only lie ""'™^S'. J^ transmitted to England, we deem the number and variety of insects, in com- cmHON'TAlLBD COCKATOO. 1059 VROHSI-WIHOBD riOBON. Judging flrom the collections ( 1060 Ist apparent in Ijel Inary obscrvatioM,! iLesion discove^l manifest ami"'! I .Hxjuiiar breed,"! fhe Dogs arc al»| IticB which arc *"■ from being mj"! Jc already devolrfl luatralasian grou?l ly again to tecaf*! pariaon to the aiie of New Holland, much fewer than might have been expected : the Coleopterous tribca have a more insulated character than those of the I.epidoptera ; as the latter, both in genera and in snecies, show a decided approximation to those of Africa and India, ^Kthout having exhibited, as ;et, a single American species. The insects of »he smaller Pacific islands may be considered as unknown, it being impossible to understand their true forms or affinities ft«m avstems now obsolete. From a young but lealous Entomologist of thia rountry, we may expect much additional information on this subject, in the valuable work he has lust commenced. _ ^ , , , . . 6364 The Snakes and Reptiles offtr no subject of popular interest, although some of the New Holland lliarda and aerpenta are very curiouB. FUh, as may be expected, are plentiftil. , „ ,, . 6365 The Shells qf the Southern Ocean are peculiarly attractive, and view only to those of the Indian seas. It is here that tlie family of olutcs (Volutida; Sw.), so highly priacd by collectors, is chiefly found, ing g?oup hu cnabledus to det«^^^^^ 1 Ansttentlve investigation of tWsch.m.nggrou,|^h«^^^^^^^^ E:t!^»K?I\TP"r "SKifo'sX^aiTiS^^ "C'p^-eminent fype of this family is th^e genus VoluU. torki which have been philosophicaUy i 5 C 1488 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part 111. cnmprUinii the melon ihelU of collecton : and we accordingly find It hai an almott general diaper, ion om the temperate iwrts of the old world. Voluta oUa ii found in Spain ; V. cymblum, with several others, in Al'rica ; V. athiopica, tessellata, &a In India i while V. umbilicata, and probably tome otherf, occur in New Holland: here, however, this typical group ceases ; while that of Cymbiola Sw., which comprehends the Music volutes, appears in its fUU typical character. The C. magnlfloa Sw., the largest of the genus, is chiellT found in the Australuian seas, and this form extends throughout the South Sea islands. The ttimj type, composed of the Harp volutes {Harpula Sw.), and the fifth {Scaphellt Sw.), under which is included the lovely Volutes, named Junonia, Zebra, maculata (fig. 1061.), &c., exclusively belong to the Paoiflo Ocean. The Cones, so abundant in India, have not been discovered in these seas ; and only two or three cowries, of rare species, have yet been sent to Euro|ie The marine genus Struthiolaria, is also restricted to this ocean, llie elecant genus I'hasianella, or Pheasant Snail, is another group, principally confined to New Holland, where these beautifUl shells occur, in some localities, in great profVision, and in endless variety of markings. 63nchui H. 4- V. Pftlttacarut IIHm. ■Nanodn H. « V. *l«ptolophu» Sk. *Plal;remi> H. It V- •Pnoiwrui lU. APalcumU H. )t V. Ix>riui Brit*. ATrlchoKloisui B. tl V. CUmaeterii rnii. Onhony^ Tern. •Slttrita Sw. Dicaiim Cm*. Phlladon Cuv. Mellinhiurii Ltnin Pliloifi Sw. *PtUonoput5fV. Promtcefui Vieil. Mcnura Lath. Meganodiui rem. Chlonb Fartl. Cenopata Lath. 6369. The foUowing genera and mbgenera (\f birds occur also in India or AtVica, or in both : — Mjctnria t Lin. Meropa l.in. ChBlura sttv. Collarli Cuv. Halcyon Siv. Ocyptenii Cuv, Edollua Cuv. Cebleiivria C%v. PiiM Vita. Oriolua lAn. OijUlTora Si». *Camiticola Sw. Eunlda Sn. Amadina Sw. tilaucopU Forri. PUUnopua Siv. Porphvrio Briit. llurrhlnui III. A ptenodytM ? Pant, Phaeton Lin. 6370. Nbw Holland. — TAe xoological featurei already sketched of the Australasian range apply wiui I particular force to New Holland, as being the chief metroimlis of this xoologlcal province. It is, therefore, I dly necessary, in this place, to enumerate a few of the most remarkable animals yet discovered on Uiii I iusulated continent I 6371. Of the Marnipialor Pouched Quadrupedi,^c Great Kangaroo [Halmaluna giganteus IlL) lithe I piost conspicuous. Although a native of regions so distant, It is now become the most common p.iiimal in our | menageries. The remarkable shortness of the anterior feet shows that they cannot properly be used for walk- ing; an imbecility of structure, however, amply compensated by the great developement of the hinder feet: the fbrmer are used when the animal is browsing, but when it wishes to proceed with the least uctivity, and I especially to run, the strength of its hind feet and enormous tail gives it the power to talce surprising Icajs, I and thus easily to escape its enemies. The Kangaroos live in small troops, headed by the old males. No leu I than eight species of this genus have been discovered in New Holland ; that nuned H. elegans is the only one I with a variegated f\ir, the back being marked with transverse stripes. I esji. The Hair.tails (Datyunu III) are a peculiar race of quadrupeds, allied both in habits and appear- 1 ance to the polecat and marten : they may, in refcrenrc I to their food, be ranked as beasts of prey, since they alerp I during the day, and Oiily steal forth in the night, search. ( ing for smaller animals and the bodies of dead aealt I They receive their name fVom their long bushy tall, net I unlike that of a fox. The Tapu-tafii {Datyurm titfa) {Ji(. [ 1062.) is an elegant example of this tribe. I 637a The DuckbllU Omithorhynchui) {fig- 1063.) lon| I excited the scenticism and the astonishment of natuni- 1 Ists; who beheld in these creatures the perfect bill of if duck, engrafted, as it were, on the body of a mole-Ulie I quadruped- It was first maide known to the world by our I countryman. Dr. Shaw, who clearly demonstrated It wai I no fictitious deception. The whole animal has ton I resemblance, In miniature, to an otter, but is only thirteen inches long. It swims well, and, indeed, leldon I quits the water, since the extreme shortness of Its limlia renders it only able to crawl on land. Theie I .. ) <(y'<^,- animals, of which there appear to be two species (dliti»| ' '-'••'R- ■ gulshcd only by colour), are principally found near Pot I Jackson. The foot of the male is armed with a ipur, I through which passes a poisonous liquor, rcnderini the I animal dangerous. It has lately been clearly proved that I these duck-moles not only lay eggs, but suckle their younn I 6374. The moil common Birds belong to the Melll-I phagous or Honeysucking fkmily (Melliphagiia Sw.i,| ail of which have the tongue terminated by a bruih-litel bundle of very slender filaments, with which they clthti I suck or lick the nectar of flowers ; the little scarlet Hone;- 1 sucker, however, is the only B|iecies ornamented by any I gaiety of plumage. Many of the Warbleia, on the other hand, are uiicnmmonlv bc.iutif\il ; one, called the I Su|icrb i Ualurus superhtis) (fig. \OCA,), has the back of the head and the throat velvet black, divided liy bank I of the richest blue : it is constantly In mntion, carries its tall nearly erect, and sings a short little song aa HI perches. The Emu bird Is still smaller, being scarcely bigger than our wren, and having a long Uil,l quite transparent, consisting of one bifiircated feather, like those of the Emu, wi.ence its name. But| Uie two most magnificent birds are undoubtedly the Rifle.blrd and the King Uriole. , 6375. The Rifle-bird (Pliloris paradiseus Sw.)ls nearly theslieof a Jay, but its bill U long and sickle shaped. I like the unifbrm of rifle troops, it seems, at a distance, entirely of a black green ; but, on closer inspecUmii I --.'-- ■^•■*;n ranj^TAra. lOfil fiRNiTiinan VRCnUi- •""■"■» WIKOaO HORON. saoiivo FAnaiir. >ART 111. ftr.lon OTR I Spain ; V. lata, &c in !W HoUaml: , Sw., wlilch actcr, The \ustralatuo The third h (Scaplullt onia, Zel)n, Ocean. Tlie ■e seas ; anil t to £uro|ie. Theelmnt I My connned localitiei, in I lived bivalvei I conchologyof a part of tlie | luu 0/imi. the follo«iiig I L€trii« Sw. h. r«m. If. Lin. Jriw. III. • ? Fartl. nge apply win It ia, therefnie, I icovered on Uiii I mieus nuiiUiel lon p.nimal In our be used for vaik- ' [the hindctfcet: east uctivity.andl aurprialng iesft, I malea. Kolesil 11 is the only one I Book V. AUSTRALASIA. 1489 iU rich and magnificent tints astonish the spectator. The Kins Oriole (Sertmitu <.imM«/.^iW.SrOT VOLUTB. The Snow-tpot volute, CymSiola nivota 8w.) {/Ig. 1068.), sells for three or four pounds; the Cymbiola magnlflca Sw., the largest of the genus, when darkly coloured, is worth nearly as much. I'he Lineated Volute (Scaphella undulala Sw.) is common in some localities, while the Phasianells, or Beauty snails, »r<^ particularly elegant. 6.'>79. The only native donuttic animal , is the Dingo, or New Holland Dog {fla. Iflfi9.) : it seems to partake of the singular contradictory nature of Australian animals, by never (as it is asserted) being known to bark. It is active, fierce, and voracious, runs with the tail carried horixontally, the head elevated, and the ears erect One that was brought alive to this country leaped on the back of an ast. and would have destroyed it. All our domestic breeds of cattle, sheep, and hones have been long introduced, and have rapidly multiplied. 638a Van Dikmbn's iMin.— The Zoology bean a general resemblance to I tliat of New Holland, yet presente us with a few animals peculiar to this southern latitude. The chief Ipidrupeds of this description are the Dog-faced 0|>oasum, the Unine Dasvurus, the Brush-taile* Dasyurus, lind the Dwarf Dasyurus. There are alto two species of Balentia or Phalangus. From our young friend, IXr. Thomas Winter, recently gone to this interesting country, we hope to derive much valuable infbrmation Ion it> looiogical productions, for a ftiture edition. SnnNWB- WlNflBD riOBOK. 1069 1070 DOfl'VACKU UFUUUU. NBW HOLLAND DOQ. Lnd sickle. Bhtixd' I Voser in»ii«cccies; while the Dronze- winged Pigeons of two sorts, are very common in the open country. 6383. The /olloieing gloitaryqf the animaU best known to the settlers of New Holland has been given by Judge Field, in his valuable Geographical Memoirs on yew South ffales, I/)nrion, 1825. It will answer the double purpose of informing both thr scientific and the general reader : — 5C 2 l;JSi&e*'fv^- ^ •luitiFD r*RHor. .♦fll^^ 1490 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part in. tcntt Kangano. Htdmamnu glganteua. Bnuh Kuiffsroo. Halmatunii pencilla- lui. FlvlngOpouum. Petaunu -^^ ? Shaw, Waur or Duvk Mole. Omlthorjmcliut ftlKUI. Dlrdt. Jablru. M;ctnria aiutralU. Erau. or Caiiowary. Khea None Hol- landla. Emu Bird, or Catchflj. Malurtu mala. chunu Vieil. Native Companion. Ardea AntiKone. Black Hwan. Cjf(nu» atratul. Uoose of New Holland. Anai aemlpal* maca. Pheaunt, or Bird of Paradise. Menura tuperba. Swamp PheaMuit. Oentropu« -^^ ? Hpur-winjml Plover. Charadriui f Heoent lilrdt or Kin^'n nole. Hericului cnrvioGephalu* Stvalni. Rifle Bird. Ptilarii paradlneiu Snuiiiu. Butcher Bird. Vanoa dcitructor Tern, White Hawk. Acciplter Nova HoilandiE Ttm, Satin BInl. Ptiiinorhvnchui Macleavii, Superb Warbler. Malunu sutierbus Vieil. Lauffhing Jackau< Ltack, Docelo gigantea OrnnFlgaoii. Ptilono)>un Alvaro de Men. I dana was sent by the Viceroy of Peru, with a squadron from Cailao. After measuring the breadth of (lie I PaciAc, he fell in, near the eastern extremity of New Guinea, with a group of thirty-three islands, to I which ne gave the name of Solomon. It woulS be a singular instance of the chimeras which obtained I credit in that age, if Mendana reallv hoped, as it ia aaid he did by giving thia name to the islandi, lo i persuade the world that thcywere the Ophir, whence Solomon drew the treasures with which he adorned I the temple of Jerusalem. There ii- nothing in the description of them to justify so wild an hvpotliesii. I The natives of one of the largest (Santa Ysabel) were of a very dark complexion, with curly hair, wearing I scarcely any clothea, feeding on cocoa-nuta and roots, and, it is supposed, on human fleah. Such repaib I seem too well indicated by the horrid present made by the chief to Mendana, of " a quarter of a boy villi I the hand and arm." At San Cristoval, the natives mustered in a large body, armed with spears, clubi,! and arrows, to give battle to the Spaniards ; but a short discharge of musketry was sufltcient to digpcrsel theiTL Mendana was sent on a second expedition to examine these islands more carefully ; but such wai I then the imperfection of maritime olMervation, that he sailed for a considerable time about that quarter,! without hehig able again to light on them; so that it was tauntingly oliserved, that " what Mendana dit. I covered in hu first voyage, he lost in his second." He landed, however, at Santa Crui, which ia not vet; I remote flrom them, though it appears more properly to form part of the New Hebrides. It is somewhall remarkable, that though these ialands have been touched at by Bougainville, by Shortland (wIid gavel them the name of New Oeorgia), and by other navigators, they have never been surveyed with carej nor haa any important addition been made to our knowledge respecting them since the time of Mendana I 6^. In the footsteps of Mendana followed Peiiro Fernandez de Quiros, whose name is great in thehii-l tory of early naval discovery. On the Slat of December, 1605, he set out with a squadron fi-om Lima inl search of the great Austral continent. Quiros held a cense considerably to the south of the equator, andl for a long time discovered onlv small detached islands. At length, in April, 1606, he came to the iilaridil called the New Hebridea, one'of which it of such extent at to suggest the idea of a continent. Here iiel found a Iwy large enough to hold a thousand ships. With that familiar use of sacred names in which thil auperttitiout devotion of the Spaniards delighted, they called the country Australia del Espiritu Santo, ml fine river* the Jordan and the Salvador, and the port Vera Crui, The banks of these streams were dclishtM,! being clad with a charming verdure, and every where enamelled with flowers. The bay was so well iheM tered, that in all winds it continued smooth and calm. The land wat covered with trees quite uptolhel mountains, which, like the plaint, were always green, being leparated fVom each other by valleys, watered b;! fine riven. In a word, there wat no country in America, and very few in Eiiroiie, equal to this. TbeT Spaniards made tome attempti to conciliate the inhabitantt ; but their conduct, being imbued with thai tyrannical spirit which always distinguished the transnurine proceedings of their nation, soon excited il violent hostility, and they were obliged to make olF without holding any other communication than that of il few smart skirmiahet. They departed, therefore, with the empty ceremony of taking posseulon of it in t name of Philip III., and founding a city, which they called tne New Jerusalem. Luit Vaes de Tom at the tame time, second in command to Quiros, pushed his discovery to the strait which separates Nen Holland fVom New ( .inea, and taw both those large contincnta, but without well knowing what ther were. Torrct't Strait even dropped into oblivion, and waa not rediscovered till 1770. Quiros publiihedj splendid and highly>coloured description of the territory thus discovered by him, and addressed to the Sfum court no fewer than flfty memorials, urging them to send out a colony : but that cabinet, sinking intolt^ supine indolence which has long characterised it, made no further exertions. 6388. The Dutch now took up the undertaking from the oppoiite quarter of Java and the Molucc The latter -stands almost touched those of New Guinea ; and it was natural that expeditions should I sent tVom them to explore the coaat of that very great island. In lliUS, the yacht Duyrhcn, employed a. this mission, and taking on her return a southerly course, touched at that part of New Holland which » Book V. NEW HOLLAND. 1491 DOW called Cape York, but without knowing what the had diacovercd. rorrea uw the very lame part of New Holland in the diacovcry of hli Ouyfhen wai the nrst European that viewed any portion of that continent. In the courie of thirty yean, Thit happened a few monthi before rorrea aaw the ver;r aame part of New Holland in the diacovcry of hia atrait ; ao that the commander uf the n:e>h expeditions, intending and belieTinc themaelves to be diacovering New Guinea, aailed, in fact, along a great |iart of the oppoaite,and even to the wcatem coast of New Holland. In Taamant inatructiona It ii already characterised by the name of the " Great unknown South land," and it la atated, that in the years 1616 to leSi, a range of ita weatern coast fi-om 35° to 32o & lat, was diacovcred by the ahip Endragt, under the command of Dirk Hartog. The name of that commander waa, in fact, given to an laland and large bay, called aftcrwarda Shark'a Bay by Dampier; and both by him in 1<>97, and afterwards in 1801, by Baudin, a tin plate was found herv, bearing the name of the ahip Endragt. In lti!?7, a veaael called the Ooede Zeeuaaid, puslied ita career farther, and turning the south-western point of Cape Leeuwin, explored a considerable extent of the southern coast, to which was given the name of Nuyt's Land. Abel Janei Tasman, however, took a wilier range, which rendered him foremost in the career of Australasian discovery. On tne 14tn of August, lfH3, he sailed from Batavia with two ships, the Hecmskerk and the Zeehaan. He appears first to have sailed southward through a wide range of open sea, till he passed the latitude of W°. Ho then steered west, still in the same latitude, which kept him at a distance (torn the coast of Mew Holland, but brought him upon that of the southern appendage to It, now so well known by the name, which Tasman gave to it, of Van Diemen's Land, in honour of the then governofigeneral of Batavia. Tasman, on this coast, saw neither man nor beast ; yet he observed smoke in several quarters, and fancied he heard in one place a sound of people, and in another a noiae like that of a trumpet ; alao footstep* resembling those of a tiger or some other wild beast He observed too very lofty trees, with steps cut in them with a flint, Ave feet dismnt fVom each other, which gave the idea of a gigantic race, by whom such steps could be commodiously used. Tasman now continued nis course eastward, till he came to the coast whivn he called New Zealand. He soon aaw enough of the inhabitants, who were not long in diaplaying that ferocity, of which they have aince given ao many proofs. Having surprised a boat, they killed three of his men, and obliged four others to swim for their lives. Tasman doea not seem to suspect the dreadful ulterior fate which probably awaited the victims. He gave, however, to this inlet, the name of the Bay of Murderers ; and with some difllculty cleared the inhospitable coast to which it belonged. His course then led him to the Friendly Islands, whence, after beating a considerable time through little known and dangerous seas, he reached Batavia by the northern coast of New Guinea. Although the Dutch thus ahowed considerable interest in the explor- ation of these extensive coasts, there is no record of any intention or attempt to form a settlement upon them According to one of their navigators, there were every where found " shallow water and barren Goasts« islands altogether thinly peopled by divers cruel, poor, and brutal nations." 6389. English navigators were now found taking the lead. Dampier, first in the cha- racter of a buccaneer, and afterwards in a regular and official career of discovery, observed with characteristic accuracy the north-western coast of New Holland. But it was Cook, whose career enabled him to put togetlier into one regular and consistent system the scat- tered notices of former navigators. He made a complete survey of the eastern coast of New Holland, which till then had scarcely been at all visited, and ascertained the almost forgotten fact of the complete separation of that continent from New Guinea. He ex- amined, also, Van Diemen's Land, though not witli minute attention, and without being aware of the strait which separates it from New Holland, and gives to it an insular cha- racter. Cook, also, circumnavigated New Zealand, traced its separation, by the strait which bears his name, into two great islands, and ascertained, by some agreeable and some bitter experience, the striking contrasts in the character of that remarkable people. 63!)0. The British government, in consequence of the discoveries of Cook, and the com- plete knowledge now obtained of the coast of New Holland, conceived plans, which gave a new character and interest to the Australian world. Although the territory was extensive and the soil fertile, it yielded none of those rare and brilliant products, either vegetable or mineral, which had hitherto tempted to the formation of colonics. But another motive, suf;gested by the philanthropic temper of the age, proved sufficient to impel to such an undertaking. The vast growth of the wealth and population of Great Britain was accom- panied, unhappily, with increased temptations to crime. The many unfortunate persons, thus made amenable to the laws, for oiiences not of the deepest dye, when continued in prisons, suffei'ed in health and morals, and came out commonly more corrupted than they entered. The transporting them to the opposite extremity of the globe was a punishment less cruel and debasing, and offered a much better chance of amended habits. It afforded, also, the distant prospect of covering these almost boundless deserts with the arts, industry, and civilisation of Europe. Such were the laudable motives which induced our govern* ment, in 1788, to esublish the colony of Botany Bay. The settlement has ever since gone on increasing, and, notwithstanding some drawbacks, arising from the peculiar materials of which it is composed, it has, in a very tolerable manner, answered its purposes. The original source of supply has, no doubt, been powerfully reinforced and purified by that spirit of emigration which has recently become so strong, and which promises to realise, earlier and better than was ever expected, the hope of filling these vast regions with a civilised popula- tion. The progress of settlement, however, continually narrowed the space in which room could be provided for the numerous voluntary and involuntary emigrants. It became the first object of the settlers to discover such a space in the interior, across the hitherto im- passable range of the Blue Mountains. This was done in 1813, by Messrs. Blaxland, Wentworth, and Lawson. Governor Macquarie afterwards despatched Mr. Evans, the deputy land-surveyor, by all possible means to find out or make a path down these moun- tains, to the fine country which these gentlemen had first seen beyond them. For twenty- six miles Mr. Evans passed over a succession of steep, rugged mountains, which seemed repeatedly, at first sight, to deny all passage. At length he reached the highest point, a lofty table plain, afterwards called the King's Table Land, whence stretched a prospect of prodigious extent. On the opposite side appeared a very abrupt descent into a deep and JC 3 1492 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pam III. I I 1 romantic gleni beyond whicli rose another lofty chain of bills. After making his way for ■eventeen miles along the ridge, be came to a most tremendous precipice, above 600 ft!et high, called Mount York, down which, with great labour, a road was afterwards constructed called Cox's Pass. His toils were now rewarded. He came to fine pastoral plains, well watered by two rivers, the Campbell and Fish, uniting into the Macquarie. As noon ai this intelligence had been conveyed to Sydney, and the route reported practicable, in 1815, Governor Macquarie in person crossed the mountains, and examined this new acces. lion to the colony. He founded a township there, to which he gave the name of Bathurst ■ •ud this rich and improvable district is now occupied by a thriving population. 6391. Another expedition, under Mr. Oxley, the surveyor-general, was, in 1 81 7, under- jdien to discover the course of the waters which flowed westward from the Blue Mountaini and to explore the regions through which they rolled. Mr. Oxiey first followed the course of the river Lachlan, which was found proce^ing directly westward ; but nothing appeared •long its banks which could afford the promise of a flouristiing settlement. The hills were rugged and steep, the plains either sandy, or marshy and inundated, and the river finally dwindled into a narrow channel running through a morass. As Mr. Oxley was returning by another route, disappointed in the object of this expedition, he came upon a noble river, watering a rich and romantic valley, and which proved to be the Macquarie, a broad and considerable stream, flowing in a north-west direction. He returned at this time to Ba- thurst, but next year set out on a fresh expedition, to find, if possible, the terminatpon of this important river. He traced it to the north-west through a series of rich flat^ and extensive level plains, till, unfortunately, it too began to spread into marshes ; and, at length, ap- peared to terminate in a vast watery plain covered with reeds, through which it flowed with a channel only five feet deep. He now determined to return, nut by re-ascending the river by the same track, but by striking to the east, across a mountain range, which led more directly to the sea. On this track many interesting discoveries were made. The party passed over high mountain ridges, whence they descried to the southvard several vast plains covered with the richest herbage. Tliey observed a succession of ri< ers flowing to the northward, and, at length, came to a considerable one, directing its c( urse to tlie eastern coast. To this they gave the name of Hastings; and a good harbour, found at its mouth, has, under the name of Port Macquarie, become the seat of a settlement which promises to flourish. On the whole, this expedition, notwithstanding the disappointments which attended it, enlarged greatly the known extent of lands in the interior fit for cultivation and settlement. It is only to be wondered that, with officers so enterprising, the career of discovery should have been suspended by government after penetrating only to about a tenth part of the breadth of the continent, and that no further efforts should have since been made, except by private individuals, to enquire into the secrets of the great Austral wilder- ness, until the year 1827. A well-nppointed expedition was then placed by the colonial government under the direction of Mr. Allan Cunningham, the King's botanist, who had already traced a route from Bathurst to Liverpool Plains, a fine country discovered by Mr. Oxley in his second expedition, and who now effected a journey from Hunter's River to the River Brisbane, on the banks of the latter of which a penal settlement had already been established for several years ; and near to which, with a pass to them tlurough the di- viding range of mountains 4000 feet high, he discovered some very spacious pastoral downs, ready for the colonist, whenever the government should be pleased to convert the penal settlement into a free one, as they had successively done Hunter's River and Port Macquarie. 6392. In the year 1828, an expedition was despatched, under the direction of Captain Sturt, an officer of His Majesty's 39th regiment, to Mount Harris, a detached hill upon the Macquarie River, where Mr. Oxley had left his boats upon proceeding easterly towards the coast. The expedition then traced the Macquarie through its last stage to the woodlands below Mount Harris, where its channel ceased " to exist in any shape as a river." In exploring the country beyond this point, the party traversed the bed of that extensive morass, into which the late surveyor-general had, ten years previously, descended in his boat : this they now found " a large and blasted plain, on which the sun's rays fell with intense heat ; " the ground itself, parched to an extreme, exhibiting in many places deep and dangerous clefts, which clearly demonstrated the long existence of those droughts, to which every known part of New South Wales was at that season exposed. On these in- hospitable levels, Captain Sturt passed a week ; and in whatever direction they advanced to satisfy themselves as to the fate of the Macquarie, whether on the plains or wooded grounds, reeds of gigantic stature encompassed them, and greatly obstructed their progress. Captain Sturt now directed his expedition to tlie north-west, much annoyed by the total want of I water, but he came ultimately, in following one of the watercourses, to the left bank of a large river, the appearance of which "raised their most sanguine expectations." To the utter disappointment of the travellers, however, its waters were found perfectly salt; > circumstance the more severely felt, as the horses of the expedition had travelled long in an excwsively heated atmosphere, and had been without water a considerable time. After Book V. NEW HOLLAND. 149S making mme amuigement in favour of liii oihau«t«d animalii, Cantaln Sturt pittcaedcd to eiplore thi» river, to which he gave the name of Darling. He followed it in the direction of its course (south-westerly) about forty miles, but the want of " drinkable water " and the appearance of a loose red sandy soil, at once destroying all ho|H' of meeting with the most icanty supply in the back country, obliged him to give up its fUrthor exauiinntion The extreme point to which the Darling was traced, and from irliioh it continucil its course through a level country to the south-west, Captain Sturt marks on hit map, in lat 30° 16' S. and long. 144° 50' £. ■ 6393. To the lame indefatigable officer was intrusted, at the dose of 1829, the direction of a second expedition, destined to trace the course of the Morrumbidgec, which had been followed down, some years ago, by stock-keepera in pursuit of strayed cattle, who also ascertained, in their long rides along its banks, the extent to which the country westerly, from its elevation above inundation, might be saibly occupied by grating stations, ilie direction which this river was also, at that period, known to take towards the marshes of the Lachlan, led to the conclusion, that both streams were united in those morames. 6394. Captain Sturt proceeded from Sydney in Deceml>er, 1 R99, and, tracing the river down on its right bank, until he had passed every rapid or fltll that might impede its navigation, established a depAt, launched a boat, which he had oonvuyeil ovcradth of 100 vards; and its banks, on which were many natives, were overhung with trees of finer and larger growth than those on the Murray. Its waters were, moreover, ascertained to Im two fiithoms in depth, of turbid appearance, bui perfectly sweet to the taste. The confluence of these two livers takes place, as appears by Captain Sturt's reckoning, in exactly long. 141° E., and immediately to the south of the parallel of 34°. The circumstance of the meridian in which he had struck it, and the direction flrom which it came, combined to satisi^' him that it could be no other than the Darling. 6396. The Murray afterwards appeared to continue its course tipwardsof adegrce farther to tlie westward, and in that space to receive a second stream, which fhlls in on its left bank from the south-east. From (his point, the banks assumed a new ap|H>aranc«>, and olong the northern extended a range of cliffy, which appeared to the party, as they passed beneath them, to be of partial volcanic origin. The navigation at length became rather intricate, for those cliffs being immediately succeeded by others of limestone on each Imnk, the river was found to force its way through a glen of that rock, in its passage flrvquently striking the base of precipices of the same formation, which rose to a perpendicular elevation of 200 feet, and in which coral and fossil remains were remarked to be plentifully embedded. At this stage of their passage, those long ranges of forest hills, which extend along the eastent shore of the Gulf of St. Vincent, became discernible, indicating to the exploring party their approach to the coast. On the 3d of February, the river having reached the meridian of 1 39}°, the disposition of the bounding cliffs gave its course a decided licnd to the southward, through a continuation of the glen, which at length opened into a valley. At noon, on the 8th of February (the thirty-second day of the voyage from the depot), upon entering the river's hst reach, they could discern no land at its extremity ; some low hills continued, however, •long its left bank, while its right was hid by high reeds. Imincdintvly afterwards, these enterprising voyagers entered an extensive lake, the expanse of which stretched away far to the south-west, which received the name of Alexandrina, being c*timnt«|Hirt of a captured bushranger, that in the north-west, nearly inland (Irom Port Mite(|unrrk> there flowed a very large river named the Kindur, by which, in a suutlwwvst dlrvction' he had repeatedly reached the sea. Tliis was not a very high authority, but it ciiiiiciiliHl with some recent surveys, and, at all events, important discoveries were likely to be inuto in this quarter. It was determined therefore to send an expedition, which M^jur Mitchell undertook to conduct. He had, however, to march about 300 miles, through a dcwUit country, crossing the Hawkesbury and the Hunter before he came to the I'ecl, whvrc liii exploratory career began. This river was soon found to terminate in a larger uno, ntnml the Malverindie, which was crossed at the ford of Wallanburra below the Junction, After being followed for a considerable space, it terminated in the Nammoy, a larger stream thin either, yet still not of the first magnitude. Their progress being here obstruotc<( by n stccj) rocky ridge, a canvas boat was launched on the waters, but these were enoumbeKtf by (lril\ wood ; it struck on a sunken tree, went down, and part of the sturoa was lost. \kmg obliged to quit the river, they struck northward through a rudo solitary country, till tlicy came to another stream smaller than the Nammoy, and proving to be the Owvdir, fxrincrW seen by Cunningham. It was followed, however, in the hope that it might leud to sumo. thing greater. From its marshy banks they were obliged to quit it, but ciuno upon it again ; when, as neither its course nor magnitude were promising, they crossed, and struck northwards. After about forty miles travelling, they came to a ouraiderablo nnd npid river, named tlte Karaula. With revived hope, they followed its course, but wore much disappointed to find it almost due southerly, and still more when it brought them back lo the Owydir ; and the two formed an united stream, which woa intleed tndy ntiianiRccnt, as broad as the Thames at Putney ; but the situation and course left no doubt of its being identical with the Darling, into which it was certain that the Nammoy also would suon enter. Thus the whole result was to trace the upper streavna that formed the Dnrling. Their stores were now falling short, as two men left in charge of part of tlivut were atucked and speared by the natives. On this route, a considerable extent of flnv pasture I grounds were discovered, which have since been partly occupied. In 1833, Mr. Diion I was sent to proceed through Wellington Valley, and endeavour to trace tlie ranges of hills between the rivers Lachlan and Macquarric. He fell short of this ol\jeot, and nliniMt his I only exploit was to trace, for about 70 miles, tlio course of the Uogan, a tributary uf the I Darling (lowing from the south- west. I 6398. Circumttaneet prevented any freih expedition till 1 83 J, when M^jor Mitchell set out on a ueond one, with a view to trace the downward coursr of the Darling, and ascertain if it was really identical with that large tributary which Mr. Sturt had scon entcriuft tlie I Murray. He began by tracing the continuous course of the Uogan fbr about 'JTU miles, I till its junction with the Darling. Its aspect was pretty uniform, flowing through s lev I valley, with considerable variety of soil, including much good (Misturoge. On this route, » I most distressing circumstance occurred in the disappearance of Mr. Cunninghnin, tliel botanist. Twelve days were spent in search of him, during which the ibot-prints of his I horse, its dead body, and, lastly, his own steps wandering in dillVn'nt direetiuns, were I successively traced. At length he was concluded to have perished tliruugh want of (m\ I and water ; but, on their return, they were shocked to learn that he bad l)cen murdered hy I the natives. Arrived at the Darling, Major Mitchell at first attempted to dosceiul it in I boats ; but finding the channel narrow and rocky, he preferred journeying along the Iwiiks. I He traced it 300 miles, flowing south-west towards the Murray ; and though that rivet I was still 100 miles distant, yet the direction of the stream was so deeidetl towards the point I where Mr. Sturt's large tributary entered, while there appeared no other river of llic same I magnitude, that no reasonable doubt remained of their identity. It would have been I impossible to complete the exploration without separating the number of twelve into tvo I parties, — a measure attended with extreme peril. The natives, in numerous nnd incrcssin; I bodies, showed an embittered hostility as well as eager thieving propensities, nndmrel indeed evidently on the watch for opportunities of plunder and murder. The expedition I therefore retraced its steps. The banks of the Darling were found extremely naked, I consisting partly of that rough herbage called scrub, partly of clay full of holes. Only I the immediate border, occasionally inundated, wab covered with largo trees and luxuriul I herbage. 6399. Early in 1836, Mafor Mitchell set out a third time, tlio governor being anxiovil Book V. NEW HOLLAND. 1495 ciiiK Miuiouil Ailly to lUKMrUin the conneotion of the Dulbg with the Murray, and alio traea at flir a* poMible the course of the latter river. He reached first the I.«chlan ; but there, where hi* predecessor's boats had floated, and Mr. Osley had appeared to discover an inland sea, nothing was fbund but a dry channel. The banks seemed to resemble, on a smaller scale, those of the Darling. Tliey came then to the junction with the Morrumbidgee, which l^nivcd a magnificent stream, much superior to any that M^,ior Mitchell had yet seen in AuAtralia, with a full current, and its banks clothed with excellent grass. After travelling 1 feur days along its banks, he struck off with a view of more directly reaching the Darling, but soon found himself on the banks of a river so copious that it could only Iw the Murray. It was 165 yards broad, and seemed swollen as with a flood. In approaching towards the Darling they met a large body of the hostile natives formerly encountered, upon whom they were obliged to fire, and killed several. Soon after he came upon the Darling, which waa hero only a chain of ponds, ind he could walk to the other side dry-shod. After tracing its course for some distance, till, from the complete similarity of its banks with those formerly seen, the identity seemed completely established, he descended and surveyed ita junctiim with the Murray. He then proceeded to ascend the course of the latter river. The banks, for a long space, were not very inviting, full of reeds and scrub, and bordered by many lagoons. They improved, however, and from the summit of Mount Hope he saw t country of great extent, full of open grassy plains, beautifully variegated with serpentine lines of wood. This was an object more interesting than the mere course of a river, which vss therefore quitted with the view of exploring so fine a region. In proceeding through these fine but solitary valleys, the traveller felt himself the harbinger of mighty changes, lince a crowded and busy population would doubtless soon pour into them. In proceeding, he found himself in the heart of an extensive region, not encumbered with wood, yet possessing a sufficiency, bounded by the sea coast and mighty rivers, and watered abun- dantly by streams from lofty mountains. To a considerable range on his route he gave the name of the Grampians. He came in view of, and traced to the sea, another river named thp Glenelg, not to be compared in magnitude to those he had quitted, but flowing full ind clear, and with a large proportion of very fine land on its banks. Striking then to the north-east, he came again upon the low alluvial flats of the Murray, still so bordered with lagoons, that he could with difficulty reach its channel, which appeared, as liefore, more copious than that of any other stream in Australia. After crossing the Morrumbidgee, Ihey saw the tracks of wild cattle, and l "ran found themselves on the borders of the I colony. 6400. TAe exploration of the vatt thores of the Australian continent had also been carried I on with activity. Captain Flinders, and Mr. Bass, a naval surgeon, sailed from Port I Jackson, in 1798, and ascertained the complete separation of Van Diemen's Land from New Holland, by the strait bearing the name of the latter gentleman. The French admiral D'Entrecasteaux, on the south-eastern coast of* Van Diemen's Land, discovered, in 1 792, that magnificent channel which bears his name, and which forms a series of the finest har- bours in the world. Captain Flinders, in 1801, was employed by the British government to make a thorough survey of the coast of New Holland, which he completed with regard to the south-east and north-east ; but the loss of his vessel prevented him from extending it to the west and north-west coasts. These were surveyed, about the same time, by the French expedition under Captain Baudin, but not in a very complete or careful manner. The British government, therefore, in the course of the last few years, employed Captain King to go again over the ground, and examine strictly all the points yet left in uncertainty, ind particularly whether some river, proportioned to the magnitude of the continent, and capable of ministering to its interior commerce, did not there discharge itself into the I ocean. Captain King made some valuable discoveries. He examined the northern bay of ] Van Dicmen, which he found to be a gulf; inspected the channels of the Alligator rivers «hich fall into it ; and discovered at the mouth of the bay two large islands, Melville and I Bathurst, which had heretofore been supposed to be part of the continent. On the north- vest coast he discovered Prince Regent's River, which, as already observed, is larger than I my other yet found on this side of New Holland, though still not such as can well afibrd I I channel to any great mass of its interior waters. Sect. IV. Political Geography, 6101. The govemtnent e attended with peeu- I Uirdifficultiea. A Ixxly of men who itand regularly opposed to the lawa, and the lawa to them, can only I be maintained in peace and order by processes which must appear severe to those who arc placed In more Ibnuriible circumstances. The difficulty has, perhaps, not been diminished by the admixture of that more I Nipeclalile class, whose emigration has Xxen voluntary. The estrangement, and even anti|iathy, which lauit arise too readily between these bodies, (Vom the contempt with which one is apt to view the other, Ibivc town fertile seeds of disaension, and render it very difficult to maintain a due temper l>ctween these I lilisrmonious elements, I 6403. Kothing like a free constitution has yet been granted to the colony. The executive power reaides in Itlie Kovcrnor, asaistcd by a small council of the highest officers of the government, while the legislature ia likired by him with a council, which includes a few of the principal settlers and merchants, Imtn counclla IMni appointed by the king. The proposal for any new law originates with the executive, which, before aub> 14M DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P*»TniJ mltllng It to the tog Ulatlvt eouncll. muit propound It to the chief Juallee, who it to pronaunse whcihR u contain! any thlni contrary to tho law ot England, After pauliig the council, It mutl be communli'iLl to the government at home within aix inonthi aRorwardii and till three yearn have elapted, Ihe kmiin!!j Interaoee hii veto. It mu>t alto, within ilx monthi, be laid before the BrItUh parliament, ' 'l 6403. Tke Judicial pouxfr qf Ike eolonf \% vetted In a chief Juttioo and two attittant Jiidgn, who try A eaavt, criminal and civil. In the fonner, one uf the Judget It combined with what It calinl a Jury <,i\^l contittt not of the colonitit, but of tvven naval or military offlcert nominated by the gnvernnr, ami KhirM teemt, therefore, to partake mure of the character of a court martial, i'he Jurori, however, arc llaljie il challenae, the groundt of which are pronounced u|ion by tlie Judge. In civil catet, lie or one ol' tlii. auin..] Judget ft combined with two attettora, who muit be niagittralet of the colony, except where bulh utrtiea content lo have a Jury of twelve men at In England. Not above one iiiitance hat necurred, tliice tlieatjtra] tion of thit Judicial charter in I8j4, In which both partiea have to coiiaenlcd. In vaaea where the liluJ •xcecda AXV., an a|H>eal liet lo the kovernor, and, in ca«c of rovcrial of Judgment, and in all catet uliovc MUJ to the king in council. 'I'he pjlice acemt to Iw maintained in a very iu|ierlor manner to that of Eniilandl ainc* Mr. P. Cunningham aiiuret ut, tuat in Hydney, where there am to many proHlgatc Indlviiluali, Mnol and property are at tecure at In an Enxliah town or the tame litc. Such ttatemcnit, however, muit ulwai] be underttood with tome allowancee. van DIemen't Land, at Hrtt, had no teparale jiirltdictlun, except r' caiite* under CM., being a mere dependency on New South Wnlct ) but It recently obtained b»tli a irparai lieutenant-governor anil rouncili, and a teparate court of Juttleo. 'I'hit latt, except that it hai only u, Judge, It conitltuted in tlib name manner at that ol Sydney, to the guvcrnor of which, aititteU by lliei'ljie] Juitlce, there liet an appeal trcn It in all catet of property above M)l. ; and In catet above lOM. a runliM appeal liet to hit majetty in council. 64U4. The milUnry force ttationed In the colony coniltia of two regimenli, (^oin which three compuie are detached to Van DIemen't I>and. There it no flxed naval force ; which it complained of, both In relureix to haiardt of foreign attack, and to attemiitt lometimet made by the mnvictt to carry oil' lolnnltl cral A tingle thip of war It tent down to both coloiiirt ttom the Eatt India alatinii. 6405. The revenue of the colony of New South Walea ia chiefly derived from a cuatomt duty on imintt •plrltt, at the rateof7<.iM. |K>r gallon on theuroiliire oftlie Weat Indlea or Canaila, an<) had tXten to 322,(XI(i/., of which we cannot give the lull iletalla, but ll)| p(XJ/. Th| ex|ienditure by the mother country In the two coloniet amounted to 4.')2,0(XV. : being, for the trantportiUon i tupport of convicti, 347,000/, ; the rett for the maintenance of the military force. Sect. V. Productive Industry. (Hffl. The toil, at already obtcrved, notwithitanding tome flattering picturei, It not generally fertile: (nn tiderably more than half It deactibed at naked and arid, coveretl with n hard reedy vegetation called >cnjb,ani unlit for any uaefbl purpote. Even the rett, with tome exceptiont, ia only moderately productive ; and ahfl a teatoii of peculiar drought occurt, the eflectt l)ceoinc very diatreaaing. The extent of unaccu|iled linl however, it to vatt, that the coloniata inuat for a long time have ample meana of making a aclection: aiil though the herbage be moitly thin, thit very circumatanco teemt here, at in northern Germany, rarourabll to the rearing of flue merino wool, which fallt oft' when the animal bccomet highly fed. Thit article, beiiil produced witn little labour, on a great tcale, eoiiiiy traiiaiiorted, and of ture demand at home, h.ia U?cn Ihl •ource of great protperity to the colony, and rendered many of Itt proprletort very wealthy. The lamedcl ficiency rendert the forettt leu dcnac, and the labour of cuttlilg them down Icm levere ; while over mani tractt treet are only agreeably tcattcred, at in the park of an Englith gentleman. The touthern diitricil watered from the high range of the Auatralian Alpa, contain a conaideralily greater proportion of good lantl The above general character appliea to the original colony and to Wcttern Auttralla, By much tliegratir part of the region ia ttill unknown ; but itt character it probably not more I'avouralile. I 64(KI. Traniporlalion of criminala wat the tyttem upon which the colony wat originally founded, and b| which It long continued to be peopled. The convlutt, on being firtt landed, are employed in the acrtict cf government, labouring in gangi, and often In chaini. Thoie who have for tome time behaved well, obttini ticket of leave, allowing them to follow auch employmentt at they pleate, and lattlng for a limited time Ii catc of continued gomi Tiehaviour, thla ia made i>ermanent, and they are Anally raited to all the privilegnoT fk-ee cltitena within the colony. They are then termed emanclplata ; and a number of their data have riia to great, tome to Immcnte, wealth. When emigranta began to retort to the colony, and became fotmumi land, for the cultivation of which labourcra were urgently wanted, It became cuitomary to aaaign to each i certain number of convictt, who acted at tcrvantt, and Indeed at temporary tlavet. In 1835, the total numbtf of convictt In New South Walet wat 24,276, of whom 90,807 were attlgned, 982 belonged to road, and ll!iln chain gangt ; 646 were in gaol, and I'JSO had been baniahed to ttill more rigorout penal aettlementt. Thla ayilen however, after a full Inveitigation by parliament, waa Judged to have failed In Itt object of reformation, ..ndn lie productive of many evilt : and propoaalt were made for itt reduction and gradual abolition ; but a nunicroii meeting, held at Sydney In July 1838, remonatrated againtt thit ttcp, at founded on exaggerated atatcmfliH and tending to deprive the colony of meant of improvement which were urgently wanted. Government haf therefore, at yet, merely llmitedf the atalgnment tyttem to uteftil, and moitly agricultural labour, diK tinning It for great citiet, or purpoaci of luxury. 6409. The vaiantary tmigrantt form a large and increasing source of supply to the popi lation of the colony, which will finally, it is hoped, be wholly recruited from this souit A considerable number of individuals pow)e8.sed of property prefer this quarter on accounj of the fiicilities in procuring convict labour, and the great profits derived from the rearing i Book V. NEW HOLLAND. 1497 mnded, and t| I the urtlcc if dwvll.obuini .nltedtime. 11 ;he prlvilegexr clau haretlid me pounwn 4 assign to eun I le total nam oad,anilll!'ll( U. Thiiijiira rmation.Ml butanuncrou ited statemniL overniiieiilJ''l labour, diK"^ to the popii| 1 this soul •r on accounj ;he rearing" ihecp. A oabln pataagu has hitherto cuNt 70/., but can now be procured at 501. Itie omi> gniit't firfit object will be to make a purchaM of land ; and any spot he may fli upon will, It his request, be put up to auction, at the minimum rate of 12f. per acre. He is liable, iadiied, to be outbid ; but, unless in the central situations near Sydney, (ground seldom bring! much beyond the upset price. A moderate quantity may be sufficient for rearing grain and ngetables ; while, for pasturage, whence proHt is chiefly expected, the unsold lands within the colony arc Icaitcd at 1/. per square mile. He is not, indeeenevolent association in London, who nt out several shiploads of unmarried females. Precautions were taken to secure them of character ; yet many of an opposite description found admission, by whose example, Ithe temptations of the voyage, others were misled, so that the morals of the colony were Tno means improved by this importation. Government, therefore, encourage this class of nigrants only when under the protection of elder relations. To meet the urgent demand c labour, a proposal has been entertained of borrowing 2,000,000/. on the security of the I sales, and sending out 100,000 in eight years; but this is not yet decided on. Tlie irtation of Coolies from India has already been urged; but Government anxiously dis- nnge this source of population, unless an absolute necessity should arise for it. I Mil. The mode and objects (if culture do not diflbr materially nrom thuse of Britain. The hoe prevailed at Voutiet of Australian cultivation ; Imt, unlesi in lands entangled with brushwood, or wlicre there is a want ■atlle, the plough Is now universally substituted. Wheat and maiae are the chief crops in New Holland. n( wheat is sown in April, and reaped in October or November ; after which, maiie Is sown iiiiineiliately, d teajied In March or April. Two crops of potatoes are also raised, one between Feliruary and July, the bti between August and January. Maise require* much manual labour, and is exliausting tn the soil ; but Itcrop is so abundant, and so useful for cattle, that it cannot be disiiented with. On the whole, grain is nut uidrrcd so suitable to the climate as pasturage ; or at least, requiring a degree of lalmur which is cx|)ensiv« ildiffioult to procure, does not yield equal profit. It is carried on by large proprietors chiefly for their own ply ; by others on a tmall scale, labouring the toil with their own hands, and carrying the produce to ikcl. In 1839, the number of acres returned under wheat was 44,000, yielding 53G,0IK) bushels ; under liie, 20,800, yielding 477,000 bushels. iller scale. 16412. The rearing of animals has become much the most important part of the industry ■Australia, and the source of very great wealth. That of sheep has been found by much I most productive, as even the arid and scanty nature of its herbage seems peculiarly I for the production of very fine wool, which, as Mr. M'Culloch informs us, degenerates never the animal becomes fat and richly fed. The first introduction of the Spanish 1 was in 1797, when Captain M' Arthur brought over six, which happened to be at the e of Good Hope. They were found to thrive so well as to make this be soon viewed a I prospective object for the colony ; but it was only by degrees that it rose into actual urtance. In 1815, the import into Britain was only 33,000 lbs., but rose, in 1820, f 99,000 Ibf.; in 1825, to 411,000 lbs. ; in 1829, to 1,005,000 lbs ; and in 1835, to 1498 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pam IIiJ 3,776,000 lbs. ; while, in 1837, the import from it and Van Dieinen's Land together i, 7,060,000 lbs. In 1839, we have seen it stated, though not officially, at 9,000,000 lbs] For this employment it is usual to purchase land in large lots ; so that, of 272,000 acres sold iil 1837, 247,000 were disposed of in portions each upwards of a square mile. With this vieipj also, leases are taken of the unsold lands within the colony ; and beyond its limits vasi tracts are occupied by squatters, whom, however, it is now proposed at least to tax. It J reckoned that one shepherd will tend 1000 head, provided the country be quite open ' bui if encumbered with wood, one will be required for 350. Captain Sturt calculates that t stock of 670 ewes will, in five years, increase to 5464, the fleeces of which may be valua at 922/. ; which, allowing 365/. for expenses and purchase, will yield an income of j57/J Cattle are also reared in large numbers, mostly at the out-stations held on lease or bJ squatting, where they require little attendance. There is a considerable market in thg colony both for the meat and dairy produce ; and the hides are exported to England, m official return seems to have been made of the flocks and herds in New South WaiHj. but those of Van Diemen'.s Land amounted, in 1835, to 6449 horses, 82,217 horned cattli] and 824,256 sheep. The numbers In the great colony may be supposed to be at lei double. 6413. Fiihery ha° risen of late to be a conspicuous branch of colonial industry. ThJ species adapted fur food, and especially the shell kind, are extremely abundant, and brougll to market mostly by the natives. The whale, however, affords the largest source of proliij It abounds in all the seas in this part of the world, both in the form of tl:c commoJ or black whale, producing train oil ; and in that of the cachalot, which yields tlip spermaJ ceti, in much smaller quantity indeed, but bearing a greatly higher price, and more easilJ transported. The lost has, therefore, become the chief object in what is termed the southera whale fishery. Tliis pursuit has for some time been actively engaged in by the British an] Americans ; but as soon as the colonists could accumulate capital sufficient, they found a| obvious advantage in carrying it on from their own shores. Tlic ships are usually ownei by merchants in Sydney and Hobart Town, who put on board provisions and implement^ while the captain and crew are paid by shares of the produce. In 1836, New Soul] Wales employed in this trade 40 vessels, 7544 tons, nnd 828 men. The produce was ITO tons of sperm, and 1178 of black whale oil; the whole valued at 126,080/. In Van Diel men's Land, there were employed 19 ships and 126 boats ; the produce was 615 whales; tli| estimated value 79,660/., — making in all, 205,740/. Gtl4. Manufactures .tre not naturally luitcd to >o jroung a colony, yet they have made much greater pregi. than might be expected, owing to the great diatance of the markcta, both for importing manufactured goo and cximrting their raw prottuce. The articles made in the colony arc chiefly coarte and bulky, such ascouil not have borne the expense of a long transport ; agricultural implements, common pottery, woollen cloilil undycd and twilled, in resemblance of Scotch blanketing; leather from the skin of the kangaroo ; hitf bcavered with the fUr of the tlying squirrel ; straw hats, and soap. The articles are in general dearer tlii] those made in Britain, but fully as durable, etpecially the cloth. In 1835 there were in New .South Walj two distilleries, ten breweries, seven fabrics of coarse woollens, two of hats, four of soap, seventeen orieathH two of rope, two lotteries, three iron-foundric<, three saw-mills, fifteen printing presses, 6415. Commerce is carried on to an extent which, compared with the smallness of thl population, is perhaps unexampled. In 1836, the total imports amounted to l,324,49j/.j exports, 858,502/. Of the former, to New South Wales, 991 ,947/. ; to Van Diomcn's Land 332,548/. The groat preponderance of the imports is evidently owing to the large suppliJ introduced by the emigrants, and partly also for the use of the convicts. The chief hcadl were — cottons 100,904/.; woollens, 65,123/.; linens, 36,030/.; silks, 28,918/.; appai haberdashery, &c., 147,000/. ; hardware and cutlery, 28,800/. ; gloss, 37,600/. ; iron, ■.>3,000/.l hats, 23,350/. ; spirits, 87,600/. ; tea, mostly direct from Canton, 33,100/. ; tobacco, 20,4(X)/:| wine, 66,400/. ; sug.tr, mostly from Mauritius and India, 160,800/. ; wheat and wheat flouT mostly from India and the United States, 57,900/. ; beef and pork, 26,700/. ; books, 16,L'00/,| stationary, 1 9,900/. The produce of the fishery, valued at 1 1 5,000/. , is also iticludcd amoni the imports. Those from Britain amounted to 990,700/. ; China, 38,000/. ; Mauritiuf 56,000/. ; New Zealand, .36,400/. ; East Indies, 52,200/. ; Cape, 16,000/. ; United State| 14,300/. Tlic staple exports are wool and whale fishery produce. The former, in lit amounted to 5,291,000 lbs., value, 483,400/. ; and the amount, as already observed, rose,! 1837, to 7,060,000 lbs. From the fisheries were supplied 978,000 gallons of wliaic,a 480,000 of spermaceti oil, valued at 1 93,400/. ; with 5799 cwts. whalebone, valued at 2I,W In 1837, the amounts were, 15,490 tons of common, and 6312 of spermaceti, with ' cwts. of whalebone. There were, in 1 836, also, 15,500 hides, valued at 8900/. A certai quantity of provisions, and of the diflTcrent articles imported ore exported to Westcij Australia and New Zealand. All the amounts stated have increased, within the last f years; indeed, in 1837, the exports of British produce alone had risen from G9(i|000/, i 921,000/. 6416. The mineral kingdom in Australia has not yet yielded any very excellent products, though, ai uiuj in untried cases, sanguine hopes have been sometimes cherished. 'I'here is, however, a very extcmivcM^ formation, reaching from Botany Bay to Port Stci>henB, and particularly abounding at Hunter's Itlvcr. Tn at Newcastle, In 18^6, yielded 12,646 tons, value &747/, The coal burns well, but does not cake ; so thai ill chiefly used In manufactures, and wno tiiious honesty, prompted by a feeling of the delicate footing on which their character stands. A number, however, who have made money by spirit shops, or other questionable means, spend it in a very discreditable manner. It is painful to find, that, among the convict population in general, the standard of morals, instead of rising, has been continually lowered. Mr. M< Arthur informs us, that while in the years 1810-18, the proportion of convictions in the criminal court to the population of the colony was 1 in 375, in 1831-35, it had risen to 1 in 119. The convictions for petty offences in 1825 amounted to 6000; in 1835, when the convict population had not quite doubled, to 22,000. Happily it appears, that the young men born in the colony, of convict parents, acquire often a character the reverse of that of which the example is set to them by their progenitors. The fair sex, we are sorry to find, are the most turbulent part of society, both in coming out, and after tbeir arrival. They are said to place trust in many circumstances which may prevent the arm uf the law from pressing on them with extreme severity ; and the great disproportion of their number to that of the other sex, being as 1 to 10, g^ves to each an importance which they are apt too highly to value. So many are the candidates for any fair hand which may happen to fall vacant, that a state of widowhood is scarcely tenable for the shortest period ; and the lady has hardly time to array herself in weeds, when arrangements are made for firesh nuptials. The ^oung females being thus too much an object of courtship, ind irregularity of conduct being no bar to the matrimonial state, they do not always con- fine themselves within the strict limits of propriety. 6422. The voluntari/ emigrants form- a third class, not distinguished by such marked I features. They come out with the view of finding or making a country and society as like as possible to what t' ley had left at home. In the towns, especially, the habits of fashion- able society in England are almost punctiliously copied, though of course on a reduced 1 scale. The pride of station is said to be carried to an extravagant height, as is usual I among those who have the least pretensions to it. But the most deep-rooted and unhappy I distinction is that which the emigrants can scarcely fail to make between themselves and I the freed convicts, or, as they are termed, emancipitU. The emigrants pure refuse to hold I any social intercourse with this class, and brand as confutionitti those who admit them at I ill to their houses or society. This treatment is borne most indignantly by the emancipist, I vho has been admitted to a complete footing of political equality, with the exception of not I beinf; summoned upon juries at quarter sessions. He himself, however, has established a I dmllar distinction between the emancipist pure, who, since his landing, has maintained an I ineproachable character, and the emancipist impure, who, having come out as an offender, I has been committed and punished for fresh offences within the colony. These distinctions I have been the sources of deep and lasting feuds. Governor Macquarie made great efforts I to equalise and unite the classes; but, endeavouring to carry his point rather by power and I authority than by time and conciliation, he only widened the breach. Meantime the emi- ■ puts have constituted another classification among themselves, expressed by the fanciful llille odterling, or natives of the mother country, and currency, or hose born in tbo colony. I The currency are said to be fine-spirited youths, yet, from some cause of climate or country, llhejr have the same tall form and pallid aspect which present themselves in the children of Ithe back settlements of America. In return for the unjust ridicule with which they are lueatcd as currency, they adhere closely to each other, and have an exclusive attachment to llheland of their birth, with a contempt for the mother country, which is generally by no 1 Deans lessened by a visit to it. 6423. Religious instruction, and the elements of education, were obviously of the first im- Iportancc, with a view to the reformation which it was proposed to effect by such a colony. Ill was, therefore, a most lamentable omission, which appears from the narrative of Colonel ICollins, that for several years there was not a church in the colony, nor a school, except liuch miserable ones as a few of the convicts set up for their fellow offenders. Very great Incrtions have since been mode to improve the colony in both respects. According to the Idespatch by Sir Richard Bourke, on the 30th of September, 1833, the funds supplied by ■{oternmcnt for the support of the Church of England amounted to 11,542/. ; for that of ISeotland, (lOO/. ; for the Roman Catholic, 1500/. His Excellency, however, stated, that Ithis distribution, as compared with the numbers of the respective communions, gave great llissatisfaction. He therefore proposed, as a new arrangement, that whenever a congregation liliould subscribe 300/. for a church or chapel, government should add an equal amount, and lAould grant a salary proportioned to the number of adult resident members; viz. if 100, l«ie of 100/. ; if 200, of 1 50/. ; if 500, of 200/. This suggestion was approved by the home ■{ovcmment, and carried into effect in July, 1 836. It seems to have given satisfaction, and lihe government allowance was not only equalised, but greatly extended, since, in the esti- lute for the year 1839, it amounted to 28,800/. About the same time, also, the Arch- Ikconry of New South Wales was erected into a Bishoprick of Australia. In 1819, there Itere 17 government schools in the colony, which, though costing above 4000/., gave 1508 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. PamIII.1 edueation only to 534 boys and girls. Effbrts were made to extend the system, ana ml 1825 the expenditure was raised to nearly 10,000/. ; the number of scholars on the bookJ was 1037, but the attendance very irregular, and the management defective. Arehdeaconl Scott then succeeded, by great exertions, so as to leave, in 1829, 2060 under regular edu-F cation, while the expense was reduced to 56001, The government continued to eitenjl their liberality to this object ; but here the same complaint was raised of the too eicluJ sive application of the funds to Church of England schools. Lord Glenelg thcrefon recommended the adoption of the Irish national system ; but this was strongly objected l by a large body of the colonists, who urged that the proportion of Catholics was so jnuchl smaller than in Ireland, as to make it unreasonable to modify the whole system on theiil account ; but a separate provision for their schools was not objected to. In 1835, there weru in New South Wales, 38 Protestant schools, attended by 2321 scholars; and 10 Catholic] attended by 8-^9. The regular cost of the former was 6415'., with 3580/. for buildiniJ and repairs ; oi the latter, 709/. regular, with 509/. for buildings. Two are orphan school^ where i68 boys and 164 girls are boarded as well as taught. One of them is a classicd school at Paramatta, attended by 81 boys. There are besides, in the capital, two institu] tions called colleges, but seemingly only schools of a higher class : one called the Australia). presided by Dr. Lang, of the Scottish church, with a capital of 7000/. jointly contributec by subscribers and government ; the other, Sidney college, attended by 120 boys, supportd by fees. In Van Diemen's Land, in the same year, there were 28 schools, attended by \i scholars, to which government contributed 6200/. \ Sect. VII. Local Geography. 6424. In eoHMidering the local divisions of Australasia, the prominent place must, oFcours. be given to its great central mass of continent, chiefly with reference to the Hritish settle] ments formed there. The principal one, named New South Wales, has been divided intd counties, called respectively Cumberland, Camden, and St. Vincent, on this side of the filuJ Mountains; Westmoreland, Gcorgiana, King, Argyle, and Murray, to the south; andltoi] burgh. Cook, and Bathurst, to the west, of that great barrier. To the north of Sydney, dividd by Hunter's Iliver, and the county of Hunter, arc placed the counties of NorthuinbcrlaniU Durham, Gloucester, and Macquarie on the east, and Philip, Wellington, Brisl)anc,anJ Bligh on the west, of the dividing mountains. The following Table exhibits the estciJ and population, and other statistical details respecting these counties. The acres in croi are wanting in several, but these we believe are almost entirsly pastoral. Counllct. Arnle Batnurit Bligh . Brisbane Camden Cook Cumberland Durliam Georgians Glouceiter Hunter King . Macquarie Murray Northumberland Philip • Roxburgh St. Vincent Wellington WeitmoreUuid ■ Without the boundaries Road and iron gangi • Penal lettlementi Veiteli at lea • Fort Philip Siuure i.gsi I, SCO 1,683 2,344 2,188 1,665 1,445 2,117 1,924 2,930 2,096 1,781 2,000 2,248 2,342 (un 1,519 2,667 1,656 1,592 Whole Number. 1,248,640 1,190,400 1,077,120 1,500,160 1,400,320 l,0(i5,60O 924,800 1,354.880 1,231,360 1,876,200 1,315,840 1,159,840 1,280,000 1,458,080 1,498,880 certain) 972,160 1,706,880 l,aV9,840 1,018,880.' 1,018 l,03S,.'i20 89,586 I 2i5,373,9qO In Crop. 3,857 200 5,633 39,588 6,469 370" 993 9,919' 1,263 Popula* linn. 1836. 2,417 1,729 376 1,378 3,161 2,052 39,797 3,208 575 854 808 544 1,.'«)0 1,728 5,016 247 1,980 592 530 579 2,968 2,230 1,628 1,175 224 Rell(lon. •""J"'- C.lhollc*. Jew.. P«pa. 1,618 1,243 273 1,004 2,1.58 1,517 29,090 2,300 339 628 6.10 327 898 1,0R9 3,601 147 1,415 430 357 393 1,784 1,394 926 850 210 783 485 103 373 982 535 10,273 904 234 222 175 217 376 630 1,398 100 561 162 172 185 1,164 829 697 325 14 63,292 i 77,096 I 54,621 I 21,898 477 13 1 1 18 371 4 2 3 2 24 8 11 64!5. Cumberland formi the original, and atlli the only ftilly settled portion. It has about Aftj-six mileil coast, comprehending the noble harlmurs of Broken Bay, Port Jackson, and Botany Bay. Behind, the Hatta bury, with its head, or tributary stream, the Ncpean, mafcea an entire circuit round it ; beyonii wiiich thcljtii and steep mountain ridge shuts in the county, leaving to it a breadth of only forty miles. The soil onil coast, as is the case generally throughout this continent, is light, barren, and iciidy. In advancing inlMl Interior, it improves: is covered with fine though not thick woods; and, though of a somewhat pnonlavini itone, yields tolerable crops. Along the inundated banks of the rivers there is found a great iuxuriancil natural pasture ; but the inundation renders precarious the crops which are raised in these higlily fcttilif valleys. This province has already four towns of some importance, — Sydney, Paramatta, NVindur.r Liverpool 6426. Sydnty {fig. 1075.), the capital of the New Southern World, is situated uponll P*M III. in), and Inl 1 the book ^rchdeamnl egular cdu-f 1 to exten too etclu-l Ig thcrtfon objected I 'as so jnuchi cm on thein , there wei 10 Cathotie] for building )han sclioolS is a classict ttro institU'l le Australia! y GontributM ys, support inded by 12 lUSt, of COUI! Dritish scttlH (1 divided intl de of the Blul jth; andUoil Sydney, dividef }rthunibcrlan(|] , Brisbane, ani bits the eitcnl ! acres in no glon. Jews. l'>{an.| is" 1 I 1 18 371 4 2 3 2 24 H II ,1074 a. MAP OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA. T 1503 1 3 1 1 1 ■ 1 ; ■ 2 1< ■ 7 1 ■ " 1 1 ■ 1 477 ! 100 m tut fifty-six mil» lehind.theHarti mrt which tlicbn Ci. The soil onll I advancing inl» what poor clay II great luxuri>i« icse higlily fc* nalta. Windier, >ituatedupor.ll 5D l.'>04 DESCllIPTIVE GEOOUAPIIY. PaktIII, S<- :^ - .-'-^ viaw ov •rDifiy. cove bearing its name, which opuns from the Hpnciuuf) basin of Port Jackson. This vast ,„75 ">l«t passwl unnotircfl by Captaii, Cook, whose atttention was cngrussvd by the ncighlx>urin|; harbour uf Botany Bay, also excellent and at. : tractive by its rich and varied vegi>. tation. When Governor Philip, therefore, was sent out, in 1788, to occupy New South Wales as a |i«nal octtlement, his destination was for Botany Bay, — a name which long continued to be given to the whole establishment But when he came to examine the coast, he soon discovered this new harbour, which was so superior to the first, and to almost any other ever yet seen that he hesitated not a moment in fixing his colony upon it. From an entrance not more than two miles across Port Jackson gradually expands into a noble and capacious basin, having depth of water suflicient for the largest vessels, and space in which a thousand sail of the line might mana-uvre with the greatest ease. It stretches alraut thirteen miles into the country, and branches into not less than a hundred small coves, formed by narrow, rocky, yet woody necks of land, which alibrd excellent shelter from every wind. From among it this ample choice was selected Sydney Cove. It is more than half a mile long anil about a quarter broad at its mouth, whence it gradually narrows to a point. For about two thinis of the length it has soundings of from about four to seven fathoms, and is perfectly secure from all winds ; for a considerable way on both sides, ships can lie almost close to the shore, nor is the navigation in any part rendered dangerous by hidden rocks or shalluws. The scenery, composed of rocks and hills covered with wood, and a shore diversified by numerous cliff's, is highly striking and |>ictures(|uc. " The first occupation of this neiv world, the appearance of land entirely untouched by cultivation, the close and perplexed growth of trees interrupted here and there by barren spots, bare rocks, or places over- grown with weeds, flowering shrubs, or underwood intermingled in the must promiscuous niaruier; then the landing, the irregular pitching of the first tents where there appeared an open spot, or one easily cleared; the bustle of various hands employed in the most incongruous works; — all these gave a striking character to the first settlement." The town of Sydney is liuilt at the head of a cove, on a rivulet which falls into it, niid in a valley between two opposite ridges. That on the right, called the Itocks, was built first, and in the must irregular manner, each man studying his own convenience, without the least reference to any general plan. Governor Maciiuarie, however, determined to enforce u principle of aliynement, and, under his direction, the principal street, called George Street, was carried in a straight and broad line of a mile, along the left ridge. Similar regularity was required in the smaller streets branching from it, and even the rocks were brought into ,some short of shape. That quarter continues, however, to be occupied by an inferior class, while all the fashionable houses are on the left side. The best are of white freestone, or brick plastered, and have a light and airy appearance. Many of them, being surrounded with gardens, occupy a great extent of ground. A Britis' air is studiously given to every thing ; yet the parrots and other birds of a strange note and plumage, and the show of oranges, melons, and lemons, in the market, bespeak a foreign country ; while a sadiler tale is told by the gangs of convicts in the employ of government, marching backwards and forwards in military file, with white woollen frocks, and grey jackets besmeurvd with sundry numerals in black, white, and red ; and sometimes, by way of punishment, with tlic chains jingling on their legs. But the police is so good, that even in this strange society property and person are said to be in security. " Elbowed by some daring highwayman on your left hand, and rubbed shoulders with by even a more desperate burglar on your right, while a footpad stops your way in front, and a pickpocket pushes you behind, — you may jostle through the crowd with the most (lerleut safety." The principal public hiiildiugs are the governor's house, built at various times and by successive governors from Philip tu Darling, and having in front a very fine plantation of English oaks and Cape pines, tht walk round the outside of which forms the favourite recreation of the citizens ; the barracks, occupying one entire side of the principal square ; the convict hospital, a large tripartite stone building wi>!i verandas all round to both stories ; a smaller military hospital, a hand. some convict barrack, a court and school house, &c. Sydney, by the census of I8fi6, con- tained 19,729 inhabitants; of whom, 9179 males and lOH'Z females were free; 2!):i'J nulcs and 586 females were convicts. Tliere were about 14,000 Protestants 5000 Catholics, and :)40 Jews. The population is supposed to he now ■J4,0(X). The display of wealth is said to lie beyond the population, the shops and houses equalling those of the first-rate towns in England, and the carriages almost rivalling tliose of the metropolis. There arc tlinv established churches, and eight belonging to other professions ; ten schools, and two collc|!cs. Eight newspapers and a monthly magazine are published. A Mechanics' Institute, fuuiidi'd Book V. in 1833, possesse vessels start regu coaches for Parai ()4«7. The other tm Paramatta, called foi a flat and uninternti territory unnroducti' including a factory o between the capital i out much arranveine pleaaure-grountb ; ui hit houae an obtcrvai gation. It la finely p lively above each oth bnurliood is risinK in out, hot a imaii govei agc« of a country to\ founded, lomewhat p existence waa only ini bMinning to apeak fi affording a route to t aiderable buatic. Can and a court-houae. fi428. Camden counti ward ft-om it. The M riaing ateep, like the r which unite in formin plough only in partici lllawarra, or the Five ihrubs, and even birds tree, the pine, the tree new quarter of the woi muchofthat timber, fa been occupied. This d a waggon can scarcely latcd by the Shoalhave fi»29. The counliea qf the terrltoriei nowdesc of that ridge. On the I I81<), that the enterprisi varied, and have even, territory is crossed by 1; ever, yields at least tole and best are the plains, i timber, and atted, seem Captain Curric, in 1823. .10 miles from the sea, « by the newly discoverec these Ane plains may ex 6130. The region to th, ion, and surveyed by Mi given a new character U two large rivers flowing dreary and hopeless as inundations, which swoi its waters over low and I more melancholy than t iluggiah course. The M by primary, or at least present many highly pic liered ; and thus offfer evi coast by the steep.ridge c a mnre level and direct ri mi. The banks of the Bathurst on the left, ba county, which might mo .icres in extent, clear oft reserved by government. dcpAt for CGiivicta has be lettlers. The lieavy can already very extensive, a made, of good quality, ai asiuiiiing the aspect of i members, and there Is Ih iaralis as the fox. Being . 6m. HuNler't River, t K situated fifty.five milt It rises fVom the continua ihe first settlement, and f Patcrson's Rivers. On tl nmdhani \vft the colony cimtaiiis many fine tract* limlwred ; but when clea [lial vast extent of fine i>i ait journey, and into wh luiminshani, the botaiii lurveyor, have severally ( miiiM of coal at its raou •ettleincnt the iwpular na ronvict afcition j but as k BivcratPort Macquaric, BuoK V. NEW HOLLAND. 1505 in 1833, possessed in 1837 an income of 631/., and regular lectures are delivered. Steam vessels start regularly for the towns on the Hawkesbury, Hunter, and Brisbane Rivers, and coaches for Paramatta, Liverpool, Windsor, and other towns in the interior. Ii4i7. The other lourni of Cumberland are in a riilng itate, but have not yet attained mucli importance Paramatta, called formerly Rote Hill, it lituated at tiie head of Port Jaclcaon, and leparated from Sydney by a flat and unintemting country. Iti harbour being unflt to receive vcstela of burden, and the aurrounding territory unproductive, it ha* not made the same rapid progrcM, and Ita population in 1836 wa> only SWO mcluding a factory of female convict*. Ita importance conalita chieHy in carrying on the communication between the capital and the interior. It ii merely a large BMemblage of detached home* with garilena, with- out much arrangement : but there ii a good government-houae, a beautiful garden, and extenaive natural Rleaaure-grounda ; and here, the late governor. Sir Thomaa Briabane, conatantly realded, and attached to ia house an obaervatory. vVindaor ia about forty milea in the interior, at the head of the Hawkeabury navi. nation. It ia finely placed at the baae of the Blue Mounlaina, wboae foreat ridgca are acen towering auccea> ■ivelv alMve each other. It baa 1130 inhabitanta, who are chiefly cultivatora: and the ground in the neigh- Imurliood ia riaing in value, especially thoae parts which are out of the reach of inundation. It ia well laid out, haa a amall government cottage, a church, a gaol, a handaome court-house, and the other uaual append. aKca of a country town. Richmond, lately only a hamlet, containa now HOO inhabitants. Liver|>ool was founded, somewhat prematurely, about fifteen years ago, by Governor Macquarie, and for some time ita existence waa only indicated by a post, saying, " Thia ia Liverpool ; " but it has now a good church, and is beginning to speak fur itself, havnig fiOO inhabitanta ; and though not lying in a very fertile country, yet affording a route to the fine agricultural and (>aatoral diatricta of Camden and Argyle, it ia a place of con- siderable bustle. Campbell Town, in the fine diatrict of Airda, is yet only in its infancy ; but it fiat a church and a court-house. fi4S8. Camden county is situated partly in the interior behind Cumlierland, and partly along the coast south - ward ttom it. The Morrison and other ranges render it a hilly and even mountainous country ; the hills rising steep, like the roof of a house, leaving between them only narrow gorges, through which flow rivulets which unite in forming the Nepean. Hence this county, though generally affording fine pasture, is fit for the plough only in particular parts, which, however, arc exceedingly rich. It is peculiarly so in the district of lllawarra, or the Five Islands, on the coast Here the moat luxuriant vegetation prevaila; and the treea, shrubs, and even birds, are entirely diBferent fVom those of the rest of the colony. The cedar, the cabbage tree, the pine, the tree-fern, the black cockatoo and the green pigeon, make the spectator think himself in a new quarter of the world. The land ia too closely timbered to be easily brought under cultivation ; though much of that timlier, being of cee traversed by two large rivers flowing into the interior, the Lachlan and the Macquarie. llie former presented the moat dreary and hopeless aspect All the flat country bordering it was subject to its sudden and destructive inundations, which swopt all bel'ore them without producing any fertility. It constantly diflUsed and extended its waters over low and barren deserts, creating only low flats and uninhabitable moraaaei. Nothing could be more melancholy than the ap|iearance of the level and deaolate regiona through which thia river winda its ■luggish course The Macquarie, on the contrary, ia a noble river, the inundations of which are so confined by primary, or at least by secondary, banks, that they never produce any destructive eSbct The shores present many highly picturesque scenes, and they consist generally of rich flats, or open valleys lightly tim. bered ; and thus oRbr every advantage to the settler, — alloyed, indeed, by the evil of being separated firom the coast by the steep,ridgc of the Blue Mountains j but even this lias been recently lightened by the discovery of a more level and direct route. ti+ll. The banks ojthe Macquarie have been made to divide two cnunticSj— Roxburgh on the right, and Bathurst on the left, bank. Extensive locations have now lieen made on Bathura Plains, in the former county, which might more properly l>e called downs, as they form a succession of gently swelling hills, 50,000 acres ill extent, clear of timlier, and covered with luxuriant herbage. But the south side of the river is still reserved by government At the fine valley of Wellington, seventy miles down the river, a government dcp«t for convicts has been formed i but these, it is expected, will soon be made to give way to more eligible Kttlcrs. The lieavy carriage discourages the raising of grain in these districts ; but the stock farma are already very extenaive, and Sydney is, in a great measure, supplied with cattle from them. Cheese is also made, of good quality, and wool is a rapidly increasing and improving article of export Bathurst is now aisuining the aspect of an English country neighbourhood, tt has a literary society, composed of twenty members, and there is the " Bathurst Hunt," whose chase is the native dog, an animal as destructive to lambs as the fox. Being 1800 feet above the sea, it enjoys a climate remarkably cool and healthy. 6432. Hunter's River, the banks of which arc now dignified with the titles of Northumberland and Durham, ii situated filly-five milea to the north of the Hawkesliury ; but the road by land is nearly ninety milea. It rises fVom the continuation of the Blue Mountain range, which ia here more distant from the sea than in the first settlement, and follows a course of 140 miles, during which it receives from the north William's and Patcrson's Rivera. On these, and for 100 miles up Hunter's River, settlements were formed when Mr. Cun- ninKhani Iv4l the colony ; and the whole, we understand, has now been located. The soil it various, but contains many tine trai'ts, among which that of Wallis's Plains has only the advantage of l)eing very closely timbernl j but when cleared, the soil is most luxuriant. A hundred and twenty miles in the interior l)egint that vast extent of fine lustoral country, culled l.ivcriiool Plains, discovered by Mr. Uxley, at the end of hit ■ettleinrnt the iwpular name of Newcastle, but its original name is King Town. This was oticned as a mere convict atitlnn ; but aa aoon as it was discovered to be so eligible, the convicts were removed to the Haatings Hirer at Port Macquarie, and Hunter's River was given up to aettlera. Vcwcastic is only a cluster of brick S D2 1506 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pam III. IRy mlln Inlanil, till it reachn thj Blue Mouiitalnt.md i, but generallv broken Into a pleuing undulation oTIiiil > n forett, by which li meant graaa-land, lightlv covered m. Captain King remarki, (hat there are here IS,(1U0,CI« and wood cottage*, but It* imputtance I* ridng with that of the •ottlement and of it* coal mine* ) whub and itore* are beglnniivf to be erected i and the population In 1BS6 wa* 700. But nothing in the country hu equalled the rapid riae of Mailland : in 1833, only a wooded hill, it contained in 1896 nearly ISOO InhabliantT and ha* a Mechanic*' Inititute and lubacrlption library. ' 6133. ne rivrr Ha$liHgt iw'M Ike country round it ha* *lnce. In It* turn, been made a flree *ett1ement. The Halting* wa* diicorered, a* already obtcrved, by Mr. Oxley, on hi* return fVom hi* *econd Journey. It ii not ▼cry important. In a narigable view, ilnce it cannot lie a*cended more than ten mile* by ve(*al* of any iln. but it flow* through a great valley, extending for flRy mile* Inland, till it reache* thj Blue Mountain*, md with a breadth nearly uniform. Tht* tract I* variou*, r .._ t— t... ._» ■— _, j..— and dale, and con*Utlng mo*tly of what i* called open with good timber, and nee f^om the peril of inundation. acre*, in which It I* diffleult to di*cover a bad tract. It I* in'general Anely watered with clear *mall ttreuni" an advantage not enjoyed by the more *outhern diatrict* of the colony. The climate i* nearly tropical, aixi rather too not for wheat, which I* apt to be burnt up or to run into atraw ; but malie and rice would, of courae, flc)uri*h ; and augar and tobacco have been tried with auccea*. The inland dividing Blue Hountaini are very rugged and lofty, riaing to 6500 feet \ but to theaouth.weat of theao mountain* i* the exten*ive rann of pa*toral dUtrlcl* called Liverpool Plain*. Port Macquarie, with 8!M) inhabitant*, i* a bar-harbour, into which ve**el* drawing more than nine feet of water cannot lafely enter ; and they muat be on their guinl agalnat a aunken rock on the aouth aiile ; but there ia good anchorage without, and the ahore la notdangeroui. A convict eatabliahment waa formed here In ISSO; but aince the quantity of good land became unequal to the demand for It, the convlcta were removed to the atlll more remote atatlon of Moreton Bay, and Haatinga Kiier la laid out for aettlera. Not far f^om hence there waa recently dltcovered another river, navigable for vcHeli of 300 torn to flfty-aeven milea nrom ita mouth, and which falfa into Trial Bay. The banka conaiatcd of open paatoral foreat, hilla with alluvial untimbered plaina, holding out the muat flattering proipccta to the aetiler' and flrom a high hill upon thia river, another large river waa aeen forty mile* to the northward, dl*charilni| itaelf Into the aea fVom the north.caat Southward, again, between Haatinga and Hunter'* Riven, Pon Stephen* receive* another *tream, called the Karner, whoee banka, notwithatanding the firat unfavourable reporia, Mr. Dawaon, the late agent of the Auatralian Agricultural Company, found to contain 1,U(XI,000 acre* of good land. 6434. The Brittane i* the lateat dlacovered and the largeit f\illy aurveyed river which i* found on the eaittrn ahore* of Auitralia. Moreton Bay, into which It fall*, had been obaervcd by Ca|itain Fllndera, who dlacovered one amall river falling Into it, but look only a alight view of the wcatem ahore. Here, however, in December, 1R23, Mr. Oxiev dlacovered a channel, bearing all the marka of a large river. He accordingly aailed up Ofti milea, during all which apace it continued navigable, aa he thought, for veaaela not drawing more than sixteen feet of water. A ledge of rocka then ran acroaa, not affbrdlng more than twelve feet of water. It waa traced, however, for more than twenty, and aeen for forty or fifty milea farther, atill without any apparent diminution of magnitude. The country waa generally of the flneat description, alternately hilly and level, but nowlieie Inundated ; the aoll equally adapted for cultivation and paaturage, covered with abundant and very large timber, particularly a magniflceot specie* of pine, which aeemed sumcicnt for the topmast* of the largest shipi The entrance of Kiorelon Bay Is tolerably aare ; and Red Cliff Point, ten milea fVom the mouth of the Brltbane, or the weatern ahore of the river itaelf, affbrd* commodlou* harbour*. The aettlement ia quite in ita infancr, and ia yet only penal ; nor were there in 1826 more than elghty-Ave acre* brought under cultivation ; but the period cannot be very dUtant when it will become one of the mo*t flourishing portion* of the colony. 64S5. AuttraJia Felix is the name given to an outer part of the colony, not yet regularly formed into divisions, but which possesses great capabilities, and is rapidly rising into importance. It was first named Grant's Land, from an officer of that name, by whom it was discovered and explored in 1800. More than twenty years after, Messrs. Howell : Hume, travelling about 400 miles along the coast, from Twofold Bay to Western Port, I discovered the great opening which this tract afforded for cultivation. The numerous waters descending from the great chain of the Australian Alps, relieve it in a great measure from that aridity which is the greatest evil in the regular colony. Hence it possesses i { much larger proportion of fine land, pectdiarly fitted for pasturage. In 1826, Captain Wetherall formed a aettlement at Western Port ; but it was soon abandoned for Swan I River. The settlers from Van Diemen's Land were the first who duly appreciated this country, and began to resort to it in considerable numbers, making their principal settle- ment at Port Philip, at the head of a large bay, and in a most fruitful and bcautifnl | country. The settlers were, for a long time, drawn chiefly from the other parts of tlie i colony, but now regular packets proceed thither from Britain. The town of Melbourne is | described, in 1839, as half a mile long, and containing 350 houses. Considerable annoy. ance, however, is sustained firom bush-rangers. Western Port, at the mouth of a consider- able river, has pn excellent harbour and anchorage, but cannot be approached at low water, | owing to extensive mud-banks. 6436. South Australia is the name recently given to an extensive territory lying west of I Australia Felix. It stretches from the I32d to the 141st degree of £. longitude, and from the coast inland to the southern tropic. The principal features arc two deep gulfs, named | Spencer and St. Vincent ; while eastward of the latter is the estuary of the Murray, whieb, as already noticed, brings the united waters of the Darling, the Macquarie, the Lachlao, and Morrumbidgd. The country has been estimated to contain about 300,000 squan I miles, or 192,000,000 acres. The coast was first discovered and surveyed by Captain Flinders, and immediately afler by the French navigators Baudin and Freycinet, having on board the naturalist M. Peron. The latter, having first returned to Europe, and pub- lished their narrative, gave to the coast the name of Napoleon ; but when Flinders, afteri long detention, reached Britain, he showed grounds which were generally recognised in Europe for claiming the name to himself; but both terms seem to have given way to modem arrangements. It is remarkable, that the English navigator makes a very indif- ferent report of the country ; describing the soil as like the bottom of the sea, covered witli I deep sand, the sandy hills being full of incrustations of marine animals and plants, and the water brackish. The Frenchmen, on the contrary, draw a very flattering picture, con- ddering it as the part of all Australia best fitted for settlement. The one seems to bare { Book V. NEW HOLLAND. 1507 ^ing west o( de, and from gulfS) named irray, wWcli. the Lachlai, ),000 squart by Captain !inet, having pe, and pub- nders, after » ccognised Id ;iven way lo a very indif- covered with ants, and th« picturet con- lems to have viewed chiefly the exterior coast, almost throughout bleak and forbidding | while the other penetrated up the bays, and saw the fine interior plains. Subsetiuont acoounta conflrmed their statement, and directed modern colonial enterprise to this ul>Juot. Yet the descrip- tions have much varied s some representing it as of unequalleil Iwutity and fertility ; others, 08 that of Mr. Mann, a recent visiter, painting it as arid as the sands of Arabia. The truth appears to be, that it is checquured like the rest of the continent, containing much bad land, but still enough of good to afford ample scope fur settlement. 6437. Tht eotoniialion of South Auttrulia with liritish emigranta was undertaken in 1836 by a body of commissioners, having Colonel Turrens at thei.' head. With the consent of government, they were to carry on all the arrangements conmivted with the sale of the lands, the conveyance and settlement of emigrants, while a governor under the crown was to conduct the civil administration. In disposing uf the lands, they proceeded on a new system, — dividing them into lots of eighty acres, to be mtid at a Axed price of not less than 1 2«. per acre ; but the rate was soon raised to 30(. The greater part of the purchase- money, however, was to be employed in gratuitously ounveying over emigrants of the working class, whose condition would thus lie improved, while they woultl relieve that tcarcity and high price of labour which is among the greatest evils in a new colony, being very poorly supplied in the old settlement by the tusignment uf cuuvlcts. Each pur- chaser was allowed to select for himself a labourer fbr every SKV. of the purchase-money, to be conveyed over at free cost, provided he was uf a description «nd liharncter approved by the commissioners. By these arrangements, it was liupetl that the colonists would escape that hard and difficult life which usually attends the first breaking up uf a new country, and would be able, in a short time, to transport thither the comforts, and in a great degree even the refinements, of civilised society. 6438. In pursuance of these views, two vessels were despatched in March and April, 1836, having on board Colonel Light, who had been named surveyor-general, and was to fix upon the site for a town, laying it out in lots for purchase and building. That officer spent some time in surveying the large Gulfs of St. Vincent and Spencer, with Kangaroo Island, near their mouth. Port Lincoln, on the western coast of the latter inlet, having a very fine liarbour, had been viewed as the desirable spot, and the governor was to arrive there. Colonel Light, however, on viewing the country round, considered it as possessing no advantage fitted for a colony, and fixed on a site near the eastern coast, communicating with it by a creek, to which the name of Adelaide was given ; and a thousand sections, of an acre each, were laid out with all convenient speed. Bv May, 1H37, sixteen vessels had arrived from England, conveying upwards of 1000 people; while twenty-five ships had come from other parts of Australia, with supplies provisions, and intending settlers. By the end of 1838, the commissioners had sohl in Kngland 41, UX) acres mm in the colony 6160 acres; and had transmitted 5322 emigrants. The nimdier in 1838 had been 3154, ofwiiich 356 were of superior rank; while of the labouring doss, 787 male nnd 807 female adults were conveyed by the company ; the rest partly by other means. The colony was at first much agitated by party spirit, fomented by disputes between the local commissioner and the royal governor, and which could be adjusted only by uniting these two offices in the same person ; the site of the town was violently disapproved by many, and the land surveys were delayed beyond the expected time. Amid these animosities unfavourable reports necessarily arose ; and Mr. Mann, a recent authority, represents it «s a bubble about to burst. When we find, however, the sales of land in this country constantly increasing, after full time to receive accounts from the spot, settlers resorting thither fVoin New South Wales and Van Dicmen's LAnd, and the price of ground and liuuses constantly on the advance, it seems impossible to doubt that it has been found to contain within itself the elements of well-doing. Besides the cattle and sheep brought by sea, a route for them overland from Sydney has been discovered. The population may prolwbly now not fall short of 10,000. The only place that can yet be called a town is Adelaide, agreeably situated on a plain, whence on the north rises Mount Lofty, to the hei|;ht of about 2000 I feet. The distance of about five miles from the sea, with a swamp intervening, causes expense and inconvenience in the conveyance uf cargoes. According to a statement in 1839, Adelaide contained 4000 inhabitants, with numerous houses uf brick and stone. Churches and schools were in progress ; and of the latter one wns contemplated on such a scale as might attract even students from India. At Port Linc«>ln, which, according to many, ought to have been the capital, a township has been formed, which soon counted 300 inhabitants; and 15,000 acres were laid out in the country. A little industrious village, named KIcmsig, has been founded by a body of German colonists. 6439. If'eslem Auilralia i» another colony, extending along a InrRc part of tho wontrrn, ninl a smaller of Ihetoulhcrn coast, and reaching to 3U" S. lat. and 120 K loni , about a'Mi nMv» In the forniir direction, and I !SI in the latter. It wa« first discovered by the Dutch navigators, VaM*, l,(H>nwln, and Nnytsj ami ultur. I varda surveyed by Flinders, Baudin, Krcycinet, and I'eron. 'J'o them all II «p|icBr»l like the whole western I coast, of the most dreary and desolate character, unfit to support human lltV, and still more to be the sent of I any flourishing scitlcment. At length the opening of Swau River was discoverMi ; »ud I'aptaln Stirling, I havlni; ascended it in 18'J6, found on its upper banks a large extent of vaUiablv html. 8lnco that time It has I !ven explored in various dircctioni, and fouud to contain, along with much arid Mid unprwtuctWs toil, at much ' 5 D 3 1506 DESCRIPTIVE OEOOIIAPIIY, P*»T III, that !• valuable u li (bund In the original colony. The Ibrnier, InilectI, U ailmltlnl to amount to at Imi three nfthi ofthc whole i but there remalna •till ample tcoiie fur culture ami aettlement. 'Ilie coail, ■■ m New South Walea, U bordered at wme dUlanec Inland by utepp ridgra ur naked granite hllla, They arr Viw! nlly low, unleia In the moat northerly part, and alio on the Hiuthrni ooait, where they rite to above .'XmirNt From theae flow numernua riven, though none of long courte, forming at their mouth ten eatuarica, uiutlli containing good harboura. The principal are Swan HIvvr, I'ccl'i and I««vhenault'i InleU, Hale ilu dci. graphe, on the wett coaat i Fllndcrt' Bay, and King Ovnrge'a Sound, on the louth. The native* are mm numeroua and Intelligent than on the eait cooit | they are divided Into tribe* at aUHll IIMI, which waitv n kmii ofwar with each other. ' 6440. Meaiurei to found a colony were actively taken in Enalnnd, na aiMm aa tlicac fuvuur. able reports were received. It was planned on a most eitonaVvo acalu liy n iMMly of penile I men of large fortunes who proposed, in four years, to ooiivcv thither l(),(KX) enilKriiniv receiving in return a grant of 4,000,000 acres. ITiis mighty plan br«>ki< tlown ; but in tin I year 1829, upwards of 800 colonists were conveyed out, and lilivrnl grants of land nlloii»|l to them. They had, however, to struggle with many tlilHoultlvs s the land, till they limll ascended a considerable height up the river, was of inferior <|imlity, and they were invulviil I in severe contests with the natives. These unfavourable reports, with the disapimintintm I of the splendid original projects, created an impression against tlti) colony, which hits nnil subsided, and has prevented it, since 1833, fVom being almost at all a flvld of emigrnliim There appears scarcely any sufficient ground for this disfavour. It svcms to contiiinaJ much gooid land as New South Wales, and is nearer by a month's sail tu the mother countn I and her eastern possessions. It is free from the evils of a settlement for oniivicts, though I wanting, of course, the benefit of their labour. There has Ixivn lut impression that tlio iK-itl sites are pre-occupicd by large improvident grants; but besides that this «oc>tns oxnggprniod.r the owners are said to be ready to sell at a rate much under the minimum price now fl«n{| for government lands. The population in 18,<)7 was SCKi'J, of wlunn lUHi were males, niidl 750 females. This small number seem to have exerted themselves very actively to iinprDtel their condition. Between 1834 and 1838, the acres in crop had increased fVom <)IN lol 2447 ; the sheep from ^545 to 1 5,590. The wool shares the general exuellence of tli»t A Australia; and Governor Stirling antv:ipates that, by 1H47, there will Iw -KHXWX) sliitiiT yielding an annual value of 100,000/. The exports in 1837-38 amounted tu ri544/. ; the im.| ports to 45,4001, The fishery of whales and seals in King George's H«>und was increaiiiii; [ The demand for labour has beeh very urgent, with a view tu which it was proposinl til bring Coolies from India. A revenue of 4000/. is raised in the ouUiiiyi but ritXXV. is nitdtill from the imperial treasury, to defray its expenses. AMI. The towmkipi are almoit all upon the Swan River, at the mouth of whoae putuary i» Frrrmniitlt,! which carries moat of the trade, and contains gooiil| the entrance of Moreton Bay. That beyond, though viewed by Captain Flinders, has not been cxamlmil iil any complete or satisfactcrv manner. lu generai aspect la low and sandy, dtvenitled with sand hilla, rovm^l however with a rich vegetation, becoming more and more tropical In Its cnaracter. The t'oaal ia rich In Mi\l particularly turtle. Islets, single or in gn>u|is, are scattered along the whole of It* extent. No attempt havitil been made to penetrate th > country to any depth, or even to explore the coast minutely, it is highly iirotuuif that many fertile tracts of land may yet be found, as well ns large river*. Four, indeed, have been utcl; dal covered : vli. the Clyde, \v Bateman Bay, and the Royne, in Port Curti*, which did nut alKml much pnimlvj the Darling, under Mount Warning, and the Tweed, close to Point Danger, which have not yet Iki'ii vm factorlly explored. 6Ma The northern coaU begini at Cavf York, the most northerly pilnl, opposlto to whirh la the mul i New Guinea. The Interval is called Torre*' Strait, and I* filled with various iaianil* and HriiuM iif MxA among which last those of Prince of Wales and Clarence are the most nunterous. Immediately ntU'rvar* open* the vaatOulf of Carpentaria, stretching about fiSO mile* inland, and -KM) milea acriMS. It was auiifuiTilr visited by the commander of the Uuyfhen, Torre*, Carstons, and 'I'asman i who all, however, viewed it und the impreuion oHts being part of the opposite coast of New Guinea. UiHik, In 1770, by •ailing through Tom Straits, di*pelled this error ; but it was still (upnosed that the vast o|ienlng might Imi an oceanic clnuind dividing Into two parts the east and west of New Holland. The coast waa In general low, sandy, Iwrri'ii, Im with shallows, and sometimes with coral rocks; but woods and rich grass were *«H>n in the interior, Niiini rous torrents descended ftom the mountains, and affhnled a good supply of (Veih water ; but no river of ii magnitude could be discovered ; and Captain King considered this ctiservRtlun of Captain Flinders ao i factory, that he did not repeat the search. 6M4. Amheim't Land, beginning at Cape Amheim, which terminate* the Gulf of Cariienlarla, extendi a upward* of 300 miles to the entrance of the Bay or Gulf of Van Diemen. It was almoit unknown till the li' careful survey made by Captain King. He found the woods aometlmes luxuriant, and the vegctaliiin ik At other times, the trees were low and stuntclctvly ri'iiinlir and discovered two large estuarien, which lie nnmcd Alligntor rivora, and the Inrgeat of which, iiDorlKT traced upwards of 36 miles, waa atill 150 yards broad, and two or three ddhonis i\n<\i. The western cMiUti been hitnerto supposed to be those of a large peninsula proJiTtiiig so lltr as to li made liv Captain King. The low, flat, wikmIv ahori vhlrh haicnnllnued Ibr MNI milea, here reaiiea, and the general churiieter ofthevoant li rneky, nixued, ami Men arid t (teih water being to lie procured only al a lew polnli I'hc coa.t !• ileep, lnden(e^^ ry-~, hut none wa« found. Port Warrender l« a \z\~- ..J-. I:' -• - '/ V " "-y" t i. ■ ^ "Ohio harlHiiir, but doei not altbrd iVeib " ■ ■ •. ■. > i>. ,,„(^,f_ York Sound l« a very «|iaeiom bay, receiving two •ninll ilvera ; but llriiiiawlrk Hay, which quirklv followa, rerelvea I'rincu Itegent'a Klver, tne largeat yet known to lull Into the norlh.weaterii coaat. It waa traciil iX) inilea up, when It had atlll a iircadth of 3'KI yarita, t>n Ihia river Iheru la a walerl'all of n very >lrikiiig and ain- Kolar iia|)et.'t IJiif. lOTli.)) the alratllled foriii of the riK'k cauaing the atreain to apiiear aa if fulling down a range ofMept. Ai ieiiglh, I'aiitain Knig came to .n broad n|ienTng, called I'vgnet liay, which by an Inirlcatu channel he traced upwardi for Hfty milea, •hen he wa< obliged to return ; but IVoin the tidea and other clrcumatancea he la Inclined to believe that it riiuiinunlcatea with Collier's Bay to the aouthwani, and forini thia iiart of New Holland into a large iaiand. On thIa coaat, too, ha* recently beei- diacovered FItiroy Klver, with a tine country on Iti bnnka. 6447. Endrnchi'i Laud, dirvc'.ly facing the west, was discoverud in 161C, by Dirk Hartng, in lilt! ship of tliat name. He and liis successors gave a mmt dreary picture of it, as t'lhibiting only low steep rocks bordered by barren sands, and torrents bursting tlirougli their ravines. One large opening was observed, named Shark's Uay, which penetrates deep into the coast, with many windings, and would form an excellent harbour, but for the total absence of fresh water. I'o the south arc some mountains called Moresby Range by Captain King ; and another, called, by the French, iMonte Naturaliste ; and the coast was licre somewhat wooded. Notwithstanding its apparent sterility, the natives appeared us numerous as in any other <|uarter ; and as its rocky barrier has been penetrated at so few pitiiits, it seems still probable that there may be within it something much better than its gluoiny aspect would indicate. 2. Van Diemen's Land, 6448. Van Diemen't Land is an insular appendage to the southern part of New Holland, I Imt of miicli smaller dimensions. It lies between 40" 42' and 43° 4.*)' S. lat., and 145" .'IT and 1 ts° ii'2' E. long., and is reckoned by Freycinet to contain an area of 27,192 scpinre miles. It presents neither the same long and sharp mountain ranges, nor the same vast plain.s, OS the mainland. In general, it is composed of alternate hill and dale, and even the I liigli downs are generally fit either for cultivation or pasturage. The chief lines both of I mountain and river run from north to south through the eastern part of the colony. Table 1 Mountain, the most elevated hill in the highland, nearly overhangs the southern settlement of I Huliurt Town, rising to the height of 39:!6 feet, being covered fur nine months in the year jwilli snow, and subject to violent whirlwinds. The northern peaks, called lien Lomond laud Tasman, are also considerable; but the chain of mo.st continuous elevation is that nearly I ill the centre of the island, called the Western Mountains, which extend north and south fur its l»'hoie length. They possess a general height of 3500 feet ; enclose several large lakes, one laid to be sixty miles in circumference ; and give rise to most of the principal rivers in the |i»liuid. These rivers arc, the Tamar, which, uniting the waters of the North and South lEsk from the east, of the Macquarie and Lake Rivers from the south, and of the Western iKiver from the west, forms at Launceston a navigable stream, which soon opens into the Ibroad estuary of Port Dolrymple, on the north side of the island. The Derwent, flowing lin ail opposite direction, and swelled by the parallel stream of the Jordan, spreads into a Vible harbour on the south-east side of the island, on which Hubart Town is situated. Two rivers on ttie western side enter Macquarie Harliour. The harliours of Van Diemen's '>and surpass those of any country in the world, nut excepting even the admirable ones of S't'w South Wales. This island was first discovered by Tusman, who surveyed its southern ^nd part of its western shores but not the northern and eastern, with which we are hiefly ac(|uainted. It was afterwards ob.served in parts by Marion, Fiirneaux, Cook, |nd particularly D'Entrecasteaux, who traced the remarkable chaiuiel which bears his lame. All this time, however, it was believed to be a part of the continent ; nor was it till pass, in 1798, passed through the straits which arc called after him, that its insular jharacter was established. In 1803, Captain Bowcn founded the first convict establishment I Risdon Cove, on the left bank of the Derwent, which was removed, in 1804, by Colonel ^llins, to Hobart Town, on the right bank, in Sullivan Cove, about twelve miles up the I'er, Since that time the colony has been in a state of rapid increase, particularly since 5D 4 IMO DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHY Fig, 1077. *i. «8 £«iiHituil« 1^1 Referenea to the Map of Ve< k Broad I Cl;d« m Jordan n Coal p Plenty q Mount w Ht. Fault z Bmkida) » 8u|)plj a* Avon b* Mmq c* Don r* Hiiiiw * nm i* Inilll HI HhI|;« \* Hliik , m* Mpntljil n* Arthur o* KIni p* (Jonm. it became the fiivourite resort of voluntary emigration. The climate of Van Diemen's Lao'l belongs decidedly to the temperate zone, and is therefore more cool and more congeniill to a British constitution than that of the original colony. It has not the same eitreneil of barrenness and fertility ; there are some rich flats along the rivers, but in general thil lands are somewhat high, and of a medium aptitude both for agriculture and pasturage! A greater proportion of it is quite clear of wood, and admits of the plough being appliHl without any previous preparation. On the road from Hobart Town to Port Dalrympltl there is a plain extending in one direction for twenty miles, and clear land is frequent oil Book V. the north side o with Iheclimatet *K) equal to any o good; the sheep but this has, perhi ment. This land i thu Huon pine, ai of Van Diemen's j were, if possible, in believe^ with the mi leiied every opportui numbers and couraa leverely, they were p ence with them, to r« and industry J and th more ample space, an 6449. TheBriluhi Ihe last few years er wording to Sir John ence to the present wi females ; but the govd J The produce of wool I •greater breadth of lai I used at home. The wl I in tram oil, of 40,730/. I ployed ill that year 23C I «nd .3236 men, outwar I measures have been ad< litruction. There are 1 I 6450. TheuttlemetH land Cornwall on the ILaunceston. The pre jlh e^following sUtistica l DijtticK. Hobart Town Launccitoo Hichmond New Norfolk '. Oatlandi Caim,bcllTown ! Norfolk Plaint Brighton Botliwell Hamilton W'eitbury IJfeal Swan Port '. CfO'W Town Circular Head Jllnder,' |,|and " . Aborigine! Military Convict gangi, 4c. ." 1077. Book V. VAN DIEMEN'S LAND. tail OttlaH ' 'I ■£tal*| PynMH re. p>ii« 1078 B Wtitm a* A 'on li« Ml!I«I c« noo (• l<»M f* Bljtta r. 1* in< MorW n* Anh«l o* Uori» HtTlVU 0> VAX OIMIKI I.AIID. Ui« north tide of the iiUnd. M«Iie, tobaeou, and, much more, lugar, are not compatibls witli the climate > but wheat, twrley, and oati are produced ofiuperior quality ; the potatoea tie equal to any on the glol)c, and will keep through the whole year. The cattle are rather good I the sheep produce fine wool, though not quite equal to that of New Soutli Walee ; but thii hai, perhapi, been fVum want uf care, ana great eflbrti are making for ita improve- ment. Thie land wants the cedar and rose-wood of the great continent ; but the black-wood, the Huon pine, and Adventure Day pine, are valuable trees peculiar to it. The natives of Van Diemen's Land (/Ij/. 1078. and 1079.) were guessed bv Ilassel at only MOO, and were, if possible, in a lower state than even those of the great continent. They were strangers to fishing, and to the construction of 1079 «ven the rudest canoes, but conveyed themselves in miserable rafts over any water they were obliged to cross. They were unacquainted with the throwing- stick ; their spears were much leas for- midable, and their disposition more peaceable; but, unfortunately, thev be- came inflamed with the most deadly hatred against the English. This de- plorable circumstance appears to have been solely owing to the rashness of an officer, who, at an early period of the settlement, fired upon a party approach- ing, as there was afterwards reason to ^ Since that time, these unhappy creatures Kixed every opportunity "of attacking and killing the colonisU ; but the smallness of their numbers and courage rendered their enmity far from terrible. After having suffered Nverely, they were persuaded by Mr. llobinson, a gentleman who ha«4 2,091 6,73ft 11,374 240,616 920 10,115 95,:<62 49 KIchmond .... 2,08H 1,47H 3.566 12,131 270,808 605 6,576- 29,232 101 New Norfolk ... 8M W,1 1.822 3,320 36,430 351 1,703 14,044 84 Oatlandi .... fi08 695 1,293 3,586 224,589 605 6,662 188,293 91 I'ami.bcll Town Norfolk Plains 1,082 1,238 2,320 11,051 48uilt than Sydney, has good substantial houses of two stories hi"h, with some handsome public buildings, among which are a brick church with an org»n,a good gaol, and a large substantial quay. The chief interior places are Elizabeth Town, at | the farm settlement of New Norfolk, Sorell Town, Ross, Macquarie Town, and Brighton. 64>52. Launceslon, the chief leat of the iettlcmcnts in Cornwall, is lituated forty miles up the Tamar at I it* confluence with two amall atreama, called the North and Spciea of estuary, which admits vessels of 150 tons ; but ia so obstructed by banks and shallows ai to render the navigation very difficulL With this view, the seat of government waa removed, in IH|ii lo George Town, at the mouth of the river, in the fine harbour of Port* Dalrymple. This arrangement haiimt been sanctioned by the settlers, who find the environs of George Town much leaa fertile and agreeable, and also more distant from the seat of culture, than Launceston, which, It set ins probable, must again become the county capital. Norfolk Plains, Perth, Campbell Town, and other tinurisiiing settlements, are in the Interior. I 6453. The eireuil qfthe eamti presents various features, and is not, on the whole, so forbidding as that of the I adjoining continent. The eastern coast, for the northern half of its extent, is little indentcil, and prcsraii I generally sand hills ; but in the middle, between St. Patricia's Head and .St. Helen's Point, exhibits a raiii:cof I abrupt unapproachable rocks, with lofty and broken mountains behind. This coast termin.ites with the long | atcep Isle of Schouten, aeparaled from the continent by a narrow strait. I'he south-east coast thence continnei I to present a series of long islanda and winding peninsulas, enclosing deep and commodious havens. It bciiini | with the large inlets, called by the Engliah Great Swan Port, hy the French Fleurieu Bay ; south frcm I which, the Island of Maria presents a formidable astwct, surrounde.<'i| traits, — Furneaux'a, Clark's, Cape Barren,'— of tolerable sise, but of no beauty or promise. ,3. New Zealand. M5A. New Zealand ranks next to the countries now de.scribed, as the most iinporlantl of tilt! great southern insular masses. It ranges parallel to the south of New Holland,! with a bruad intervening expanse of ocean. It consists of two islands, separated unlyl by a strait, and composing properly only one country, lying l)etwcen 34" ttn'l 3<»,78'i,(X)0 acres. The northern island is known by the name, not very well tittcH fn'l Finglish organs, of Ealieinomauwe ; the southern by that of T'avai Poonammoo. 'I'licfe is tlie smallest, but is distinguished by the finest soil, and by natural features of the Ixilik^ and grandest description. Chains of high mountains run through both islands, wliicli the former, rise to the height of Ji!,000or 14,000 feet, and are buried for two thirds i their height in perpetual snow -, presenting on the greatest $cale all the alpine pheiioim'ni.| From these heights numerous streams flow down, watering in their course the most fcriilT anil enchanting valleys. The huge glaciers and plains of snow which cover their hljrM regions ; the mighty torrents which pour down from them, forming stupendous ciitaracl'l the lofty woods which crown their middle re^rions. ; the hills which wind along their fall decked with the brightest vegetation ; the bold cliffs and promontories which breast the raiglil of the southern waves ; the beautiful bays, decked with numberless villages and caiioos, —ill conspire to present a scene, which even the rude eye of the navigator cannot behold willir out rapture. The soil in the valleys, and in the tracts of land at all level, it. more fi'rtil^ than it. New Holland, and, with due cultivation, would yield grain in abundance. Itp") duces even spontiuieously and plentifully roots fitted for human food, particularly tliot of a species of fern, which covers almost the whole coiuUry. The natives breed pi(.'s ' ■ AN AKD won Book V. NEW ZEALAND. 151S MAP OF NEW ZEALAND. FTy. 1079 a. Longitude East (Vom Orcenwich, cultivate some maize, yams,' and potatoes; and the phormium tenax, or strong flax, serves not only for clothing, but fishing-lines, and various other purposes. The mountains are clothed with a profusion of fir trees of a variety of species unknown in other countries, and rising to a magnificent height, which the tallest pines of Norway cannot rival. The natives {fig, 1080.) are of a different race from those of New Holland, belonging tr^n rather to that Malay race which predominates 1^ in the South Sea Islands. They are tall and well formed, with large black eyes ; they are intelligent, have made some progress in the arts of life, and arc united into a certain form of political society. These circumstances, however, have only tended to develope in a still more frightful degree those furious pas- sions which agitate the breast of the savage. Each little society is actuated by the deepest enmity against all their neighbours; their daily and nightly thought is to surprise, to attack, to exterminate them : and when they I have fTained that guilty triumph, it is followed by the dire consummation of dc . ouring their victims. Such was the catastrophe which, in 1809, upon the jealous pride of one of the chiefs, befell the entire crew of the ship Ooyd ; only two or three children being saved, HIN AHD WOHAN Of ICIW HALiKD. and afterwards recovered by Mr. Berry. Yet to the members of their orni tribe, or those whom they regard as friends, they are not only mild and courteous, but display the fondut attacliment and most tender sensibility. Fi. milics live together in great harmony, and ^ seen assembled in pleasing and liarraonioui groups (Jig. 1081.). On the death of their relations, they exhibit the most impassioned and aiTecting symptoms of grief, cutting theit faces with pieces of shell or bone, til) the blood flows and mixes with their tears. Se. veral even of the females, who had formeil an irregular connection with the tailors, showed them every mark of faithful and tendul attachment. They have a great turn for oratory, the chiefi making speeches of two ot three hours, accompanied with vehement gestures, to which thote of the audience correspond ; but we have yet no translated spe^ cimens of New Zealand eloquence. Their war canoes are venl large, adorned with much curious and elaborate carving. Greit diligence is also exercised, and great pain endured, in bcstowiiu upon their skins the unnatural ornament of tattooing (Jig. 1082); and the visages of the chiefs are often entirely covered over! with various regular figures. This, however, is not eflectedl without severe pain, causing even attacks of fever ; but to shrioli in any degree from the operation is considered as altogctber derogatory to a manly spirit. They have also a horrid art, bj which the heads of their enemies, being dried in an oven, ami exposed to a stream of fresh air, are maintained in a state perfect preservation. Their houses are by no means spacious; that of Korra-korra, i{ powerful chief, measured only nine feet long, six feet wide, and four feet high. They ait placed in hippahs (Jig. 108.3.), or fortified vil.[ lages, seated on high and steep hills, ascendi by pathways, narrow, winding, and often perJ pcndicular, so as to be most perilous to European ; but the New Zealander leaps ui OS if it were level ground. Their origii arms consisted of clubs of stone and whali bone, of long and pointed spears, and of tl pattoo-pattoo, or wooden battle-axe; since the musket has been introduced to theg knowledge, it has absorbed all their warlil regard ; and the strength of a chief is counted, not by his men, but by his muskets, report of fifty being in the possession of Korra-korra spread the terror of his name fo 200 miles round. The New Zealander has no idea of the pitched combats in the open fieli which give a sort of cliivalric character to the New Holland fighting ; his baser aim is steal upon his enemy, and massacre him, unprepared and defenceless. This, however, common in savage life among such small political associations, where the object is not sonal glory, but to gratify the passions and promote the interests of the tribe. The pulation cannot be exactly ascertained, but is generally estimated at about 1C0,000. 6454. Great changes have been lately produced in this people by intercourse with £ peans. A numerous body of missionaries and catechists, who, frpm a petition presented his late Majesty, appear to amount to thirty-five, have, with daring zeal, settled in country. They have ac(|uircd a wonderful influence over the natives, have induced tin to send their children to school, and have introduced within a considerable circle elvmei of civilisation. They have congregations of 2476 persons, and 1471 children are taught their schools. Tlieir lives and property have not in general been even threatened ; luj several of them, with a degree of worldly wisdom perhaps scarcely consistent with th{ object and profession, have purchased very extensive tracts ; employing, in several cases, al twenty natives in their cultivation. Thl'/ have not, however, thus lost the respect of people, and have even done the service of training some of them to that regular industry which savages are in general most repugnant. Their influences, however, have been to great degree neutralised by others of a very opposite kind. Trade and fishery have indui many individuals to visit and settle on these islands : some are respectable ; but man] being convicts from New South Wales, and the crews of whaling and other vessels, hii undermined whatever was good in tiie native character, and aggravated its enormitii Spirits have been introduced ; a ^iiameful traffic carried on in the virtue of the unman females ; and by these means profligacy and disease have been widely spread. The iii( nmriviiD vit.LAij listent with tha feral cases, al le respect of ular industry ^ have been loi cry have indui Me; but man! her vessels, hii 1 its enormilii ,f the unman cad. The m horrid crimes have been in some instances committed or instigated. As a somewhat bar- barous taste has prevailed at Sydney for native tattooed heads, it is certain that many murders have been committed in order to procure this article. Mr. Johnson mentions, that he very lately applied for one to a chief, who regretted having none on hand, but offered to him the choice of fifteen slaves, any one of whom should be immediately killed for his accommo- dation. Their main object has been to procure fire-arms, by the aid of wliich several chiefs were enabled to commence an exterminating war against their enemies. The general acqui- sition of them has now placed all nearly on a footing ; and hostilities have not been more frequent than before. On the whole, however, as too often happens, their character and condition have been injured, and their numbers thinned, by intercourse with civilised nations. 6455. The productive industry of New Zealand is as yet very limited ; but there are few countries to which it is inferior in natural capacities. The lofty mountain ranges pour down numerous streams, which fertilise the country, and relieve that aridity which in New South Wales renders so many tracts barren, and culture in all precarious. There are even objects which, by the mere labour of cutting down r .id collecting, can be turned to good account. The greatest hopes were at one time entertained from the Pkormimn tenax, which was supposed to unite in a superior degree the qualities both of flax and hemp. These expectations have not been yet fulfilled. In 1831, a large quantity was purchased for the navy ; but, according to Captain Fitzroy, the ropes gave way in the nip, or when kept in a bent state, and were otherwise inferior to hempen. For the private trade there was imported, in 1835, 7811 cwts. ; in 1836, only 1927 ; in 1837, none. Yet many con- sider that the defect is only in the preparation, and that, were this well cond'icted, it would answer the highest expectations. Tlie forests are very noble, containing particularly a tree named cuwdie, fitted, in a superior degree, not for mainmasts, but fur topmasts and yards. The coast is also very favourably situated for the whale fishery, which attracts numerous vessels from Britain, America, and Australia. In 1838, the arrivals in the bay of Islands alone amounted to 131. Almost all the commerce is with New South Wales and Van Dicmen's Land, to which the exports in 1 836 amounted to 36,400?. Of these nearly two thirds were the produce of the whale fishery, — being 180,500 gallons oil, value 14,9702. ; 2117 cwts. whalebone, 9490/. Of land products, there were 1 29,200 feet boards and planks, 6846 pieces pine and other timber, valued in all at 5636/. ; flax, 3290 cwts., value 2097/. ; potatoes, value 935/. The imports, amounting to 40,550/. , were very various ; partly supplies and provisions for the fishery. Timber, chiefly in the form of masts, yards, and bowsprits, was imported into Britain, in 1836, to the extent of 594, and, in 1837, of 386 loads. There is no regular direct export of British manufitctures ; the amount in 1835 being 2,687/. ; but none in the two following years. 6456. A plan of colonising New Zealand is now in active operation. Large purchases lave for some years been made on very easy terms from the native chiefs, and a great extent the northern coasts, with the finest forests, have become the property of Europeans. n 1825, a company was formed for this purpose, but its operations were not extensive, and finally merged into another, which was fully organised in 1 838, under a number of indi- iduals of the highest respectability. A capital of 100,000/. has been subscribed, and iitensive purchases made of land, said to be of the first quality. The same plan was lopted as by the South Australian Association, of selling the ground in lots of 100 acres, at le uniform price of 1/, per acre, employing three fourths of the purchase money in the con- i;ance of emigrants and labouring settlers. Their proposals, issued on the 1st of June 1839, ere received with great favour, and in five weeks sales were effected to the extent of |9,990/. A preliminary expedition was despatched in May 1839, to select the site of the first ilony; while another followed on the 1st of August, with the surveying staff, to arrange the e for a town. Before the end of the year, eight other vessels were despatched, and there [ere conveyed altogether 216 cabin and 907 steerage passengers, — making 1123; and the Mony is described, we believe with truth, as one of the most respectable, both for intelli- :nce and rank in society, that ever left the British shores. Government had at first lined this extension of the colonial system ; but, on further consideration, they, on July 19. 39, issued a minute authorising Captain Hobson to proceed as Consul to New Zealand, treat with the chiefs for cessions of territory, to be annexed to the administration of New luth Wales. He has since been named Lieutenant-Governor. Yet, though the colony be IS respectable, and its general arrangements judicious, we cannot but feel apprehensive as its prospects of personal safety. The population, though thin, much exceeds the poor ' scattered handful found in Australia; being estimated at 160,000, it will furnish ,000 warriors, the most ferocious savages in existence. They have been often seen imbled in bands of 3000 and 4000, and are now armed with muskets ; and though they ibtless could not contend in the field with even a small number of British troops, they lid carry on a most destructive desultory war. The company, from one or two reports, fo>" -?d the idea that, in regard to Europeans, they have laid aside all their vindictive ings, and will endure from them the most enormous wrongs without resentment. ^1 ^mir' 1516 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III, \\v These conclusiona, in theraselvcH so improbable, accord very ill with recent statements made by Mr. Polack, of violent outrages committed, ships burned, Europeans making at least I hair-breadth escapes, and suffering vengeance for wrongs committed by otiiers ; to which we may add the very recent murder of the crew of the Jean Bart, and the destruction of { Captain Clayton's whaling establishment. It is certain that they have courted Eurupesg traders, obtaining from them articles eagerly desired, often by mere criminal compliances; but the case would be different with a colony spreading over and occupying the land, and I offering great temptations to plunder. Such a settlement is usually well received at fint; but almost invariably an embittered enmity soon succeeds. We recollect one solitary exception, — the Quakers in Pennsylvania-, but doubt whether the present colonists will make a second. Both Captain Fitzroy and Mr. Busby, late resident, consider the display of an | imposing military power essential ; yet none appears to have been provided. There I been no study of a concentrated and defensible position ; the colonists are to be located at I different and distant stations, where they can afford no mutual aid, and are to be studiously mingled with the natives. We cannot help, moreover, doubting whether the emigrants I who go out with property, m the hope of earning liberal incomes, as in Australia, may not be I much disappointed. Almost the sole source of that wealth is the fine wool, for produciri); I which the very fertility and copious moisture of New Zealand would be unfavourable ; and the company, in fact, do not encourage the prospect of its being a pastoral region. Tlie I flax might in some degree supply its place ; but being at present rejected in the market of I Europe, its finding again a place is only a speculation. Wine, oil, and dried fruits are with I confidence held out ; but these, we suspect, require many hands and much experience; even in the United States, though including the most suitable climate, they have never been I produced in a marketable state. The only assured staple, then, seems grain, — doubtless a I most valuable object ; but its culture and transportation are so laborious as to be, in young I colonies, at-'a-s attended with limited profit. In Australia, it is considered remunerating I only to the smaller capitalists, and the case is nearly similar in America. It is somewhail curious, that, in the company's own work (p. 83.), a recent letter is quoted describing Nevl Zealand as at present "undoubtedly only a poor man's country, with no field for a large] capitalist;" while Dr. Lang recommends it specially "for the humbler classes, who are to I earn their subsistence by cultivation." Upon the whoic then, while Australia offers so vaitl R field, with little danger, and an ascertained means of acquiring wealth, it seems impossible I to discover the motive for preferring another, where the clangers are so great, and the pro- 1 spects comparatively limited and uncertain. 6457. The local delaib qf New Zealand are icorcely at all known beyond the coast, which, too, has tic* I lM)cn very fully aurvcyed. The most northern part forma a very irregular peninsula, connected with the ml I by a narrow isthmus at Kaipara. It terminates in the two capei called North and Maria Van Diemcn, cotr.-l 1><>seduf diirl( rocks and sand, against which the waves of the PaciHcdaah with fury, and life Is lndicutodo'.ilTl >y the wild scream of the sea- fowl. On its eastern side are the luys of Islands and or Wangaroa, Irath simciou! I and secure, surrounded by a fertile and beautiful territory. The former is the favourite station both for iht I trading and whaling vessels ; containing in its vicinity tha largest European population, and four inissiananl stations, while the natives are rtH^koned at 18,000. The Island of Otia Is twenty miles long, and fertile, till I two tolerable harbours. On the western side is the bay of Hokianga, reaching 30 miles inland, rct:eiriii|l many small rivers, surrounded by a rich country and fine timber. A bar, at the entrance, requires prccni'l tit ill level, generally fertile, though diversified with considerable hills ; but the rivers lieing small ami obstrucuill by mud banks, afford no fine harbours. On the western side again, parallel to the Thames, the Waikntodotil for l.V) miles, through a fine undulating region, occupied bv almut 18,0(X) natives ; but there is ,i baraliul mouth. The coast then runs first south-west, and then south-east ; the projecting point belli); tiie UM (4<| named Kgraont. or by the natives, the moimtain of the Snowy Wind. There are good openings ,'it Kaiiil Makou and VVaniianera ; and the flax-fields on this line are very extensive. We come then to Cook's Sliaiitl dividing the twf| of settlement. To^waiti, on the island of Alapawa, near the entrancu of Queen Charlotte's Sound, rorimil considerable whaling establishment. The two coasts of tho southern island run in nearly uniform panlltl| lines, varied on the east by Bank's peninsula. Through the centre runs a continuous range of innunUiiii>l many of whose summits are covered with perpetual snow ; and, as much of tlie coast is burdered by {lerpendi'l ciilar rocks, the aspect from the sea is rugged and desolate Yet the table lands and valleys along Us nin»l rons rivers are said to be very fruitful ; while rocky pinnacles and stupendous cascades make tlie temw awfully grand. Kcw or no iiermanent settlements nave liecn formed ; but the American whalers li.ivediH covereii fine harbours, particularly Dusky Kay, on the west ; Port Otango, Angaroa, and Lookers.unUav.cr the east. South of all i.s an IslaiiJ about HO miles long and broad, nainc^ after Captain Stewart, wlioiilH covered It In ISIO. It contains good harliours; butKoveuux's Strait, which separates it from the main iil^' is studded with rocky islets, aiui of dangerous navigation. 4. Papua, or New Cuiiua. IM.'iA. New Guinea is the largest mass of southern eontineot next to New Holland, being from l'200liil(l miles in length, and varying from 1.10 to 'MtO miles in breadth. There seems greni niason to surmise Ihatinf one of the finest countries in existence. The few navigators who have sailed along its coast observed m(4 of mountains swelling behind each otiier, their summits rising In the most picturesque and varied luici and clothed with immense pine forests. The Dutch maps represent some i,f those on the west coail ' Part III. Book V. NEW GUINEA, ETC. 1517 lents made ig at least to which truction of I . European | mpUancesi i land, and | 'ed at first; ine soUtanf s will male [splay uf an I There lias I e located at I e studiously I e emigrants I .may not lie I r pruducini; I lurable ; and fgion. Tlic I le market uf I uits are with | experience; re never been I — doubtless a I be, in young I remunerating I I is somewlial I scribing Nev I Id for a large I cs, who are to I I offers so vast I ms impossible I and the pro- 1 jch, too, has nm ted with the mt in Diemen, coir,- ta Indicated oil Oil, botli siwcioij) itionl)otliforlh!J four inissionaij , and fertile «ilb inland, rcceiiinjl requiri's preciu- as, forms an*, ascend 70 miltt loast, Iwyonil tb« luartcr itontainii ~ coast tlienopin •r one 'if lla»k». ileof thisroaitii —ill and obstrufleJ he W aikiitotoi icre is.TtMf'li" lllgl.llcl"iU'4< penings at Kw* to Cook's Sttiiii.1 rveyed, wouWIn 1, Port Nlcholi* lound, tloiidjjiM omi)aiiya8apl« '8 Sound, fuw' f uniform pa"'" mo of mounia«».l ired by iwrpe* .sftloniiiUiiiuMj make tbe icnf whalers toe «i ookers-ou Bav.' Stcwarl,»li» the main '' [froml'2(XHol»1 ) aurmisi" l'ii'"'J ■st observwl xnfiy A and varii'J M"^ ■the west co»st« covered with (lerpetual snow, which would Imply, In thit latlttide a height of Ili.OOU or 16,000 feet. The tnpious molaturo which must How down from tlieae helghta, in a climate so Intentoly troiilcal, can icarceW fail in Kcnerato a most rich veKetation, while the close contiguity and aimiliir climate ol the spice lilandi afford a presumption that their valued proiliicts may And hero a congenial toll. Yet this tempting region haa been \e,n almost a terra Incognita, having bucn geueraliy viewed only from a distance by navigators, except Forreit, who landed lit several points of iti rorihern rnait. iSome recent observations have also beian made by the Krmieli navigators Duperrey and Le.son. The population, like that of New Holland, waa found to conalit of Papuans, or Oriental negroes, mlnglei' with the still ruder race uf the Haraforai, who Inhabit the interior mouutaioa. These I'apuans appear tr> be n degree fartlier advanced in the social scale than the New Hol- landers. This is shown in the very 'ingular construction of their huti, raised on elevated planka or ttagei, resting upon poles that arc Sxed u lually in the water. This scheme Is suupoted by Forrest tO be adopted with a new to security from the attack) of enemies, ami particularly of the Haraforas. 'J'hete houses, which are divided among a number of families, have a door both towards land and tea, lo that, according to the quarter whence danger comes, they may betake themselves either to their vessels or to the woods. They construct and ornament their canoes on a large scale, and show considerable skill in tishing. They not only wage deadly war against each other, but manifest a particular jealousy and hostility towards strangers, which may be owing, in a great degre:", to what they sulfer from the inhabitinta of Uorneo and Celebes, who make fre. queiit linOiids, and carry them off as slaves. These vessels also carry away trepang, edible bird*' nests, and tortoise-shell. The Dutch, in 182S, formed a settlement in Triton Bay, in lat. 3° aV, Along the south- western coast are numerous groups of •mail islands, the most closely adjacent being the Arru and the Ki, continued towards Coram by those of Coram and Ceram-Laut, and towards Timor by the Tenimber islands, including the largi; one of Timor- Laut ; also by the Serwatty group. These islands, wnen surveyed In l82fi-6 by Lieut. Kolff, were found mostly inhabited by a milder and more industrious people than those of New Guinea. Tnaces remaineo of a number of factories once maintained by the Dutch, most of which are now deserted. There are also several missionary stations, which have produced bcneticlal eifecU. The productions are the same as are drawn from the continent, with the addition of pearls In the Arru, the Ashing for which, however, ii very laborious. The Loulsiade Is the name given by Uougainville to a range of broken shores west of New Guinea. He ranked them as an archipelago ; hut It teems doubtful whether they do not all form part (if one large peninsula, and even of New Guinea. The aspect of both appears to be nearly the same, except that the uativea seem to be still ruder. 5. New Britain and New Ireland, M.'in. A leriei 0/ largf grouiif of islands, bcgining near the north-western boundary of New Guinea, ranges in a circuitous line parallel to New Holland, and in tlie direction of New Zealand, though stopping cnnti- dcrably short ofit. Their aspwt is various, but in general mountainous and often rugged, as iii the other regions of Australasia ; like which, also, they contain valleys, and even plains, covered with the moat proflise vegetation. The inhabitants are divided between the two great races, the Papuan, or Oriental negro, Utile, U){iy, and black; and the Malay, taller, of a dingy brown, and of more pleasing features. All the islands exiiibit only varieties uf the most savage form of social existence. They are little known or frequented, as the rout of the circumuavigator usually leads him from the Society Islands into the sea between New Holland and New Zealand, avoiding the coral rocks scattered through the Australasian gulfs. The group of New Hritaiu, Now Ireland, New Hanover, and other small islands, was partially seen by l.e Maire, and after, cirils examined with some care by Dampior and D'Knt.'ecastcaux. Carteret also viewed a detached and more westerly part, which he called Admiralty Islands, and which appeared better cultivated, and inhabited hyainore civilised race, than the others. Some more recent observations have been made by AI. Lesson ami his companlont. The wliolc group lies between the tirst and sixth degrees of south latitude i and, were .^rrowsmith's map (which is laid down, however, upon the most conjectural data) followed, one should esti- mate the supcrlicial extent at 10,000 Knglith square miles. New Ireland is very tliickly wooded, and among ill trees are mentioned the Areca palm, and even the nutmeg. The natives are Papuans, but are considered li; the French navigators to be the most civilised in this archipelago. They have temples, and a regular funn of idolatrous worship. 6. Solomon hlands, •i4 hA.IVK, UV TANHA. 1«18 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part Ilf. IketuTM : but thiir weaponi are conitrueted with peculUr ikill; and the tribei are almoit at peipetual wu with aaen other : yet In thetr locial Intercoune Iner are mild and IHendlr. Fonter reckon! the popuU. tion at 900^000, of which he luppoiee Tanna to conUln 80/100. and HallicoUo 50,Ooa 8. New Caledonia. 6M8. >r«HrCiil«ft)ii^aUrgeUUnd,8S0inilei long, and 60 broad, formi the louthern terminatlonofthiigntl chain of archipelagoes. It la trarened by a continuoui range of mountaini, which rear their conical headi to a coniiderable height, and throw out branchei, which m- •ent their rocky ncee toward! the !ea. Though water ii lomewhat abundant, a great part of the !oil li so rockyud uindy aa to be by no mean! fertile. For!ter rates the pouH latlon at 50,000 : but D'Entrecaiteaus docs not think it an exceed half that number, aa it is almost wholly confined to the sea coast, where a supply of fish can be obtained. The natires (Jig. 1084.) affbrd decided specimens of the rude ud dimlnutWe forms of the Papuan or Oriental negro. Tlin have been painted in the most opposite colours by Cui and by D'Entrecasteaux ; by the one u mild, IHendly, m) courteous ; by the other aa fierce warriors, anil devouren a( human flesh ; but the ftict Is, that, in !avage life, nothing || more common than the presentation of these two exIrenKi according to the circumstances under which the people m ■an am woaan or «iw cAi.aDo.iia. viewed. r r ••• Chaf. II. FOLTMBSIA. 6463. Poluneriot or " the many isles," is the name which geographers havr now generally •gfeed to give to numerous groups with which a great part of the Pacific Ocean ii studded. While the islands which compose Australasia are of such magnitude as to ap. proach the character of continents, those of Polynesia are so small that most of them can scarcely aspire above the diminutive appellation of islets. Yet they are so numerous, and follow in such close succession, that they may properly be considered as a region of tlie globe bearing a peculiar aspect and character. NORTH-WEST PART. I. Harbour S. Amatcnlam S. KandrteM 4. Dolom fl. Parte* Vda 6.Vala T.Soudt S.Snlpliw 9. Alaaandn, Iilandi SS. NaniuctM 86. Banham'i It- lands 87. M lllc, or Mu|. ■rave Iilandi 88. PIM 85. MaKtaiw'i It- lands 4a Manhairi It- 4I.GUI>arM 4t. 8lni|iioa1 Is. lands 43. Blihopt 44. Klnfnnlll Group 4A. Dfummond'a 46. Blaner^ 47. Wood 41). Hallt 49. Cook^ M. Ocean M. Pleatant &t. Shankli A3. Moatoverdiecn M. Hopo M. Tejroa 36. Oaibobct 37. Brown's Ranfe ftS. Puao 39. Pis 60. HoffallfOrTorrci 61. Two Iilandt 6t. Sevan Iilandt 63. Koop 64. Mi^oor 65. Lamoel 66. Paldoo 67. Ooloot 68. Poolop 69l 44. OleewhT 45. Ovolara 46. Tootoolllah 47. Sarag* 48. ContolaUon If landa 49. Cocoa Iilanda 30. Oonaroo 61. MIddlelon Is- landa St. Takanora 63. Amboo 64. MejwoUa SA.Ona 66. Turtle 67. Unga 68. Ainurgora 69.Majotga 60. Law 6I.T00A)* 6t. Hanaoe Islands 63. FaAaAigeea 64. Tongataboo C). P]litaarti,or <^a Sola 66 . -luea . LEAST 1 ilT. 1.1 . t. 8 , ^ITi It. laitdl 3. Iilandt of Danger 4. Otter Iilanda 6. Oao 6. Humphrej 7. Reaton 5. Peregrin* Iilanda 9. Fenrhyn Iilanda 10.8tarbeek II. Volunteer It. Maiden 13. PItnfl M.CaroUn* 13. TIburon 16. Nukahlwa 17. Oheenhoo IS.Obcetaboo 19. Madalena tl! Rk^ablo tt. Mlnerra t3. HInden Ejlandt Iiltndi t4. DItappolntmeni Iilandt t5. Predprksllg* t6. Fntneaui Iiludi I t7. Tlokea t8. Bhain t9. Palllsefi Iilanli 80. Deani 81. Kruaeniteml Iilsndi St. Recreation 83. Oiahelte 34. Saunden* S5.Vliete* 86. Tultal 87. Bllllnghaum 88. Selllylilanl, 89. Mapeelia 40. Falnwnlon 41. Whjioolah 4t. HarreT*i Iilinai 43. OtakooUi 44.Wu«eho 43. Mohoowin 46. Roilmrgh 47. Mangeca 48. Remitara 49. Oheteroa 60. Toobonai 31. High 6t. StrElm.) 53. Gloucester 64. Freiervitlor> St. P»^ ., 56. Mans- ■ h Iiland. 66. Prince Henn'i Iiland 37. Resolution 68. Thrum Cm ,19. Whitiunda; 60. Gloucester 61. Biigh'iLuten 6t. Opari 63. Four Croeud Qulrn L 64. R.Vluan BipM I 65. WilKn ' 66. Caryrfort 67. Ix)nl Hood'l 68. Oamblet'i 69. Creicent 70. I.OW 71. Pllcalm'i 7t. Incamatite. Pi. 108^ MAP OF POLYNESIA. 1«19 pi I5M DICSCRIFTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paw in. SicT. I. General Outlme and Atpect. 9464. The Pacific Ocean, over which these numerous islands are scattered, is a voit wpanse extending, in its greatest breadth, 1 50 degrees, oi nearly one half of the globe. It is by no means, however, completely filled with the groups of Polynesia. From the shores of Asia and Australasia, indeed, in an east and south-east direction, they closely follow each other to al>out l.SO° W. long., or for the space of nearly 100° of longitude. From north to south they range between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn nearly 50 degrees of* latitude. Beyond tliese limits, northward to the Aleutian Islands, eastward to the continent of America, and southward to the Antarctic Ocean, scarcely a rock rises tu interrupt the unbroken waste of the Pacific. 6465. These islands rank with the moit fruitful and imUing regioni on the surface of the globe. Their situation, altogether between the tropics, and beaten by the rays of an equa- torial sun, might have given them a parched soil and a burning and pestilential climate, These evils are averted by the moisture and breeies from such an extent of surrounding ocean, and by the interior mountains, which rise, in many instances, to a very lofty height. Several of the Polynesian peaks approach the elevation of those in the great continents. In the Sandwich Islands, Mouna lloa is about 16,000 feet, Mouna Koah about 15,000 feet above the level of the sea. In Otaheite, Oroeno rises to 10,800, and Tobronu to 9500 feet Most of the other islands have mountains inferior, but considerable. An exception is, indeed, formed by the coral islands, those peculiar structures raised from the bottom of the sea by the incessant labour of myriads of insects. As the formation ceases as soon as it reaches the surface of the ocean, these islands are merely a few feet above its level, and are visible to the navigator only by the trees which rise from their flat surface. The higher islands are indented by deep bays, and finely variegated by streams descending from from the mountains; but their extent does not admit the formation of rivers or lakes of | any importance. SiCT. II. Natural Geography. SuBsiRT. 1. Geologt/. 64e& EttHer Iiland. !0U0 milM tnm the coait of Chili, and l^flO ttom the ncarat inhabited iaiandi, Pit, cairn bland excepted, which has been peopled by European!, is of igneous origin, and said by navigalon to be itudded with volcanoes. 6467. Ducie'i Iiland is of coral fbrmation ; of an oval forin, with a lagoon or lake in the centre, which ii partly enclosed by trees, and partly by low coral flats scarcely above the water's edge. The height of theioil upon the island is about twelve feet, above which trees rise fourteen feet more, making its greatest elevation about twenty^ix feet above the sea level 6468. Etixnbeth or Henderton Itland. " We found that this island," says CapUIn King, " differed essential!) ftvra all others in its vicinity, and belonged to a peculiar formation, very few instances of which arc In cxiit, ence Wateoc and Savage Islands, discovered by Captain Cook, arc of this number, and perhaps, also, Mil den Island, visited by Lord Byron. The island is Ave miles in length, and one in breadth, and has a (lil surface nearly eighty feet above the sea On all sides except the north it is bounded by perpendicular clillli about flfty feet high, composed entirely of dead coral, more or less porous, honeycombed at the surliace, anil hardening into a compact calcareous substance within, possessing the fracture of secondary limestone, and ha a species of millepore interspersed through it. The dead coral, of which the higher part of the island U con. I posed, is nearly circumscribed by ledges of living coral, which project beyond each other at difTerent dcpthi; on the northern sUe of the island the first of these had an easy slope ttom the beach to a distance of aboul flfty yards, when it terminated abruptly about three fiithoms under water. The next ledge had a greala I descent, and extended to two hundred yards fh>m the beach, with twenty.flve fathoms over it, and then [ ended as abruptly as the former, a short distance lieyond which no bottom could be gained with two hundnd ikthoms of line" This island appears to have been raised above the sea through Plutonian agency. 6469. Gambier'i Itlatub. This group consists of five large islands and several small ones, ul situated in i lagoon formed by a reef of coral. The largest of these is about six miles in length, and rises into two peaki, elevated 1348 feet above the sea. All the islands are steep and rugged, particularly Marsh Island, whicn ml distance resembles a ship. The external fbrm of these islands at once conveys an inipression of their volcajiii [ origin, and on examination they all appeared to be composed of rocks formed tnrough igneous agency. The rocks are vesicular basaltic lava and tufa; in which various zeolites, calcedoniee, jaspers, and cii,l careous *,Mt occur. These rocks are traversed by veins or dikes, ranging fVom east to west, of a compiit I volcanic rock abounding in olivine. Forming a striking contrast to those rugged and lofty igneous iwii, | is a series of low islands, owing their construction to myriads of minute zoophytes, endowed with apoisl which enables them to secrete calcareous matter in such quantity as to rear the maKniflcent structure raanrl leagues in circumference A great wall of this kind already surrounds the islands, and by the continued laboitl of these submarine animals is ttti approaching the surface of the water in all Its parts. On the iiotlh.«ii[ side it already bears a fertile soil, and beyond the reach of the sea sustains trees, and aflfbrds even a haliii,l atlon to man. In the opposite direction it dips flrom thirty to forty feet beneath the surfiice, as if purp«tl;l to aflbrd access to shipping to the lagoon within. " All the islaiids," continues Captain King, "weiub.1 sequently visited were similar to these, in having their western or eastern side more advanced thanllil opposite one. The outer side of the wall springs iVom unfathomable depths ; the inner descends wilti aiiiptl to about ISO or l.V) feet tidow the surfhcc. This abruptness causes the sea to break and expend its fUry upoil the reef, without disturbing the waters in the lagoon. The coral animals consequently rear their delinltl structure there without apprehension of violence, and form their submarine grottoes in all the varied shifsl which fancy can imagine. They have already encircled each of these islands with a barrier, which the; ml daily extending, and nave reared knolls so closely as almost to occupy all the northern part of the lagoul More independent bodies are in other parts bringing to the surface numerous isolated columns, tending to till same end ; and all seems to be going on with such activity, that a speculative imagination might pictun 1)1 itself, at no very remote period, one vast plain covering the whole of the lagoon, yielding forests of bread fhi^l cocoa nuts, and other trees, and ultimately sustenance to a numerous population and a variety of aniiulil subservient to their use." I 6170. Coral Iilanda. I.ord Hood Island, Clermont-Tonnerre, Serle Island, Whitsunday Island, Queen w| lutte Island, Iju l>laiid, liyaii, mJ King adds, " the of formation as iti lilaiids of this grf> leas than one mile ^ 6»71. Olaheiie. by dark rocks, and Is said to be lu,0()(j and amygdalous bj the common basalt panled Kotsebuc, i process of format!' K'l»|>«r, some varie ferent parts of the Ulietea, Dorabora, sidered basaltic isia 6*1% Marquetat nion, prove to be a fl««. In these isIa Is the case in most i C»7a The Friendi imall volcano, TofU for every time it h< Jtrc-im of lava, flow Mwards, in tlie Hai 'iingatabooand An lliis gruuii, and in tdwards, in 1791, ol table-land. B47*. Keu) Hebridi U stated by Forster \ Wi. Sandwich hi, or some coral recft ai olivine and auglte,cli •cyeral craters In the (Mowec;. Hawai, tli Kroup, Its structure known. Besides the i which is in activity Captain King at IB.(hi ».!.,"'* I^^ks of V Mr. tills reckons the 'I'l'l* 'l^^ "f ««« • "'J^-^ntrtagesofdec. M7R South Shellam few specimens brought only say, generally, th rnwar to Ee the most his interesting rouar' Island, in fi lat (iiib n| land among the South feet above the sea; ai fame nautical dlscovei •"""■n land is also ins fi477. Juan Ffiiiandt highland, the loftiest 8 "," ««mined the islan ii5j 'SE"'* ""hording M7& The GoUapagm ""'"ly inland, vi;.>Ji •J^"'' August, 1814, ol ofthc group, vis. Abin on March 2(i. 1825, laii.i Poup i and that sr.vcra "as ui Narboroush and I |"™'y-fivcmikc8,andl the land, the thcrmoir squatic birds and other II like a new creation : faces, as if we had no ri I fertjandallthUamidsi noolatc a scene as Imag H'*''" most concern, Among the esculent one &*f;"''-ftuit(.frtoc«n ii^ ^eywofondof/ »i nessed in the appeara hicf.Uisusually'K? «• 'n rebake it on the ne: ;[ « •'"'net assemble to i Sf « large pit, 20 o b^ngsthelattertoastati "uit thrown in, with a f" Part 111. , 18 a vut lube. It ii lie shores of rollow each .''rom north ^ degrees of laiA to th« ck rises lu irface of the of an cqiia- tial climate, surrounding lofty heiglit, continenti. ibout ia,ooo onu to 9500 in exception tie bottom of ases as soon its level, and irface. The cending from rs or lakes of Book V. POLYNESIA. fern ited Ulands, Pil. by navigatoii to centre, which ii height of the toil I ;reatc«t elcvatioD liflbredeuentiallil hlch arc in cxUl. irhapa. alio. Mil. \ h, and has a flil I pendiculat cliA, I the tuifoce, and I iDieatone, and ba I the island is com. | diflbrent ileptlu; I distance of alKiil I ge had a gtralei I ver it. and thnt I vith two hundred agency. I all situated in 1 1 —J into two peaki, I Island, which till oftheirTolctniil igneous ageDci.l Jaspers, and cil.| »cst, ofacompxtl [ty Igneous rocki,! wed with apo««l It structure ram! I c continued labour I On the nortliJ«l*l er. which they i»l «rt of the lago«| ins, tcmiingtottil I might picturelil rests of bread MI variety of animal Bland, QuecuChnl lutte Island, I.agoon Island, 'I'houin Cap Island. Eginoiil Island, Harrow Island, Caryitbrt litaiid, Usiiaburi Inland, Ilyaiii Martin Island, Ulouccsler Island, Ilow Island, are ihruughiiut uf cural liimiatliiii i and C'autaiii King adds, •• the islands which were visited between How Island and Olaheite were all of the same chnracter of formation as those JUHt enumerated : one of tliese ho nainiHl Melville, aniitlier Croker Island, I'lic cnrul island!! uf this Krnuii are thirty.two in number ; the largest of them thirty miles In diameter, and tlio smallest less than one mile." 6171. Otaheile. This Island ap|)eare like one Infly mountain, IntorsectrtI with drp|i, (sreen valleys, bounded by darli rocks, and terminating above in a doulile summit, Oruhenna anil IMtiililtl, the iiuMt elcvateil of which is said to be IU,IKJU feet above the level of the sea. The rovka are of an laneous nrlain, and prlncl|»dly common and amygdalous basalt The amygdaloldal basalt aHlinIs ajxiphyllte, nvetllvstoiie, ehabaslte, and analcimc, and the common basalt embedded augite, hornblende, and largo masses of granular iilivliie, Homnann, who accuiii. panied Kotiebue, observed, besides the minerals Just menlluiml, In sums vavltles sillrenus stalactites In tlio Siroccss of formation ; and the same naturalist found rucks of ellnkstoiie, with eml>eddctaha, Ulletea, Dorabora, and Maura, are of the sane general nature as the Marquesas s hence they may be cuiu ildered basaltic Islands, with volcanic craters oferuiitlon. Ult Marqunat. The highest of this group, the Island of Dominica (OhlwauB\ inav, In Von Uuch's opi. nion, prove to be a trachytic principal volcano, with a crater. The other Isles a|i|H'ar tii U'liing to the liasaltlo cls«s. In these islands the sea extends to the base of the uiuuntalna, there li«lii|| no protecting cural reefs, as It the case In most of those in the PaclAc, Gk73. The Friendly hlandt are generally low, few of them attalnliii a height of some hundred foct : but the small volcano, TofUa, rises to a greater height, probably atXK) iK't. It ati|H'ars in a state of coimtant activity : for every time it has been visited symptoms uf agitation have been olwervni. As staleil by iluch, a great ■Ire.tm uf lava, flowing from the base of the mountain to the sea, protlucwl IYIghtl\il ravages ; and Captain Mwards, in the Pandora, found the volcano In ftill activity, Knuii tliv pnmliH) which covers the coast of Tongataboo and Anamoka, it would seem that the inouiitaln Is nirniMl of trachyte. In the niirthcrn part nf this group, and in the most northern Island, Gardner's Island, In 17" .'i7' 8, hit W\' \f K long., Captain Edwards, in 17111, observed traces of a recent eruption, and sinuku ruse every whore fVoin the border of the table-land. less, ho thinks, than 18,40(1 feet Mr. Ellis reckons the height at between 15,0U() and lli,0()U ll feet almve the sea, Mr Caldcleugh, the only geologist who has examined the island, could discover no trace of a modern vulcnnu, said tu exist there by I'uriner visiters : all the rocks, according to him, consist of basaltic greenstone, or rather basalt emlieddnl with olivine. 6478. The Gallapagos form a very characteristic volcanic gruuii. The prineltial vnlcatio lies In the most «'e^terly Ihland, viz. Narborough Island, which is said to be the Inttlest uf them all. I.leuletiant Mhllllbcer, on the 4th August, 1814, observed two volcanoes in this islaml in a stateuf activity. Captain llalldescrllies another of the group, vis. Abington Island, of basaltic formation, traversed hy miiiiy craters of eruption. I^rd Bvruii, on March 2(i. IS'iJ, landed on Albemarle Island, which, he remarks, Is the largest and lunicst uf the Gallapagt s group ; and that several extinct craters show that fire has, at no remote |H>rl(xl, iH-en as active there as It then was in NarburoURh and some others. " Its length," continues Ixiril llyrtni, " frmii north to south. Is about leventy.flve miles, and the southern end appears to be well v i>nded. The heat was very great as we approached the land, the thermometer standing at 84° ; and as we shot Into the cuve we disturbed such a number of aquatic birds and other animals, that we were nearly deafened with their wild and piercing cries. The place ii Uke a new creation : the birds and beasts do not get out of our way i the iwlleans and sciklions look In our faces, as if we had no right to intrude on their solitude ; the small bints are su tamo that they hop upon our feet : and all this amidst volcanoes which arc burning around us on cither hand. Altogether, It Is as wild and desolate a scene as imagination can picture." SuBsecT. 2. Botanift M79 The numerous groups qf islands scattered throughout the vast I'aclHe afflird a very varied vegetation. Slid, what most concerns both us and the natives of them, a considerable nuinoer uf highly useful plants. Among the esculent ones will especially rank " that tree which In nnAilllng stores The staif of life spontaiieeople a few weeks after the bread-tYult aeaaoii has ctminienced. For the I chiefs it Is usually aressed three times a day ; but theixiorer clauses seldom ciHik II mure than once a day, and I ev:n rebidce it on the next Various are the modes ol^ prep:irliig this valimlile fruit iSonictinies the natives I of a district assemble to prepare It In a large and common oven, when it Is i'uIIihI ii^iVi. This is done by I digging a large pit, 20 or So feet round, and filling It with tlrewisHl and large atones, till the heat almost I brings the latter to a state of liquefactinn, when the covering Is renuivwl, and iiinnv hundreds of ripe bread- I <^it thrown in, with a few leaves laid over th«m s the remaining hot stunes nrv placed above tncni, and the 5 E '.J ISS8 UESCillPTIVE GEOOIIAIMIY. Paut III AIITOCAIIrul IlfCltA* whoU eovtred wtth leave* and earth. It rcmalnt In thU itatv a day or Iwn, when the iNirlln In whum Ihc Oult bvlonga dig a hulv and lake nut what thvy want, till th« whulo U contunii'd. llrvml-IVult thua bakml will lirv|i kihuI wvcral wi-vki alter the iiven U iiiNinnI, i'hU |)riH!CM la murk dU('()ntiiuietl ainee tlio Inlnalurtkin iif ChrUtlanlty, uwiiiH l«al(>, when It la rullnl mahi. It keem many ninniha, and, IhoiiKh a4mr and Indlini. tible, la ciinaldered k(hhI IUhI dnrhiK the avarce aeaaona. The* tree on which the bread- lYult iirowa, bvaldea pruduehin Ihtn or four rcKular croiia annu .lly, and UiniK avidotn i|«iU« deatltulc ofrliH! IVult, l\irnUliea a valuable rMlu. that la uaed ilir mnhlni tight the aeaina of the eanoc*. The bark of the yi unit branilm aftbrda cloth, and the Irunka a valuable timber, of which raiim, ' houaoa, and moat of the lUrnlture of the |i«o|ile, are nianuric. tured. There are M varletiea uf thia tree, tn« jirlnciiwl iiclii|i the Paea {Artocarput incita), aud the lira Maulitt {A. tmc. grifulia], RtHl. In the Satutwiek UlmUU the bread-iyult li uauallyoalcn gT'Htn, when ita rind la thin, but hard, like that uf a nii'lon, and entirely covcretl with allHntly marked and ainail iwidaftmul aectiona. It la cooked by thrtiwlnii It Immi'diatuly on thi' lirr. when the outer coat liecomea chiirrcd, and the Inner (xirta >,iil< moit like a potato, which It reaemblea In general conaiatcncv, though it la rnlher more ajiongy, anil theulmli' when the rind la removed, haa the appearance of a beautiful llght-colountl amiiklng liNil; Tile taate la li«i> ilir hard-boiled yolk of an egg, alightly aatrlngent i very good at a vegetable, though tu tlngllah |>alate» lbrinl> j but a very Indittbrcnt aulutitute for bread, ti48ti. '1 he low intratropical Ulanda of Polynesia yield Cocoa.nuta In the greateat abundance, which m called Haari, and, alU-r the brcad-IVult, roav be conaideretl the moat aerviccidilu IVulta. The trpv, Icm, u nacftil and highly ornamental, imparting to the landacape all the richnma and elegance of equatorial vet. dure; but ao well ia it known, by forming a striking featuie In all Oriental viewa, that it la here tnihivn. aary to describe its straight and tapering stem, or the bvautil\il crown of long green Icnvea which n ticars at the summit, and which, like a gracetUI plume, waves In the lllhil lirecac, and niHla over the spreading wood or the humble shrubbery. Unlike the brcad-IVult, plantain, and nlini«t every tree nRlml, ing valuable iVult, which require a fertile aoll to bring them to iierhtctlon. the ciH'i>a.init, though it will grow In the rich vallcya. onu bealde tlie atiennia that tlow thruunh them, vet flouriahe* equally on the barren aen-lHwh, lunld IVnunu'iiii of coral and aand, where Ita root* are waahtnl by every riaing llilc, ami on the arid aides of aun.burnt mountalna, wlicic the aoll la ahallou', mj where no atream la acen to flow. The triuik, whether in ita tinilicrot bark, aervca the South Sea lalandcra llir ainuait til pur|Nwe« of ahi'llcr, protection, and defence, the Uvt houa(f nature, aKIiril a kind otddlh that la sometimes removcnrlof llilaaervli'oahle, hardy, and beautiful iilunt. In every atiige, IVom Ita tirat tbnnatini after the fall of the bloaaom, to the hani, dry, and rl|ic nut lliat ha almost begun to germinate, tiie IVult may lie ae<>n at the aainu tliiicnn the aame tree ; and, In one way oi' other. Its pulp, milk, kernel, huit, or oil, are all rendered aubaervlent tu the wants of the ^utli Sei Islanders. [ S483. The Yam Is afthrdol bv the roots of ntittcnrca niatn {fig. \m\ which ia cultivated with much care, though lUr that very reason to no great extent It ia rcqulaito to plant It on the slopes or low hilli, w I the bottoms of valleya, where small terraces an< |iur|KMely prepared lit I its reception, coverol with rich earth, or ileeaying leave*. The rn4i | DioacoaiA AUTA. are highly nutritive and wellHavoured, and are pre|>ar»l for IimkI i'IiIih by baking or boiling. As thev may be preaerved longer out uf tlit I ground than any other vegetable, and thus form an excellent ^ea stock. It la tu be regreltml that yonu arc ikI I more extenaively grown in the South Sea Islands. I ti464. Taro is the root of Arum eicuUntum, a plant that forms the chief article of eulllvatlnn in the .'ianil. I wich and other Poiyneaiun ialnnda, annwertngtothescMationalheilmibltl Kur|M>se of vegetables and breail. The riKit re<|Ulrea to Ih< plantcil liii [ ard aod, and kept covcrwl with water iVimi nine to linecn mmilhi,! when It is fit to eat, though It increoacH In alse and excellence liir lit I years or more. In the natural state, iHith the tillage and rootsflftinl have all the pungent acrid qualities that n\ark the genua to which (In I plant belongs ; but theae are ao diaalpnted by eiHikIng, whether Inkinf I or boiling, that they become mild and iwlalable, with no (leculail flavour more than belongs to giMHl lireml, The iaiundera Imke the m I in the native ovens, in the same way as the liread.tVuit, alrciily it. I scribed, and then Iwat the |iaste Into a mass like dongh, rallnl P« I ; It is eaten by thrusting the Rirtt-Hngerof the right hand into the tiiw,l and securing as much aa will adhere to it, |iaalen to pul|i and auliJiH'lwl to re|ieatet IhnI, when the natives shall hitil acquired a l>etter methial of iire|iariiig It, thia may become a vsluiMl ..A^,. .....r...nA article of commerce, and vie with thu West Indian atruw.iool ill tao€* H»»AririnA. ap|)carancc, as it already docs In quality. AM III whom Iht 1)1, m tht CM U inucli f, uwliiD lu ilch uinlti) HI, by Iwlni 1) tt l> rallnl mill tiuU|(n. ^1 lur.UiK thtnt iUe (Intitule il (tir niiiklnii iiiK bmiiclin vilTch I'aiion, iru tnaiiufic. rliicliHil iKlnn iilitt {,A. inlt. uiuRlly Mien t uf * ini'liw, nil jHMitauwwl ly 1)11 the litr. in>r iMitli >.iilj mil tl)v V'liolr, :Mti' !• I'' lilt' »lati<« Ibrinl'.; ict, which sre ho tree, too, il iMUmtiirlnl v«. here UDiiwa. 'ftViHi which il iiikU over the cry tree nfllml. , thoudh It »i\l It How thi^ugh lunlil IVtiumi'iili rIalDK »<"'> >"il I |g nlmUow, mil ill Itii tluilicTai m»v* 1)1' ilii'ller, M-. bflHR m»le ..In, Bllll 11"! tilt t)!i» ei)vi'\o|>c the [I » Kiiiil ot'i'hilh Ul(., mul cut inlo tUhotincn, »ho i> BDiiiiyiHl l)yiu ■ thU Korvlccable, I llrtt nmnation :li)0 iiiit that ha lie tniiic time DO Ik, kernel, huik, L '' the Houtli S« Lata {fig- 1'**'. Vrry rcMun to m 1 Df low hilli, « I lely pcciinral (k I •ii»e«. The rmu I «sl Ibr fiioiU'ilhff I [initer out of the I llint yiuiu arc iitt I rfloM hi the S«nd. liMhmstholoul* ItubeliUiitcitini ^1) flflccn months icellciicc for m f mill niotioflm tiiun to which ih< I, whether l)akin( Iwlth no iicculiul ller* hnke the t«t IlVult, ulrcaily Jt limKh, calloll't liut Into till' mw, ■It Into tlio mM* 1 'i-he onlv iim liim l'oc,"thcl\m<"!*| 1 piMHflltfl*) ifl i the loll, 1» '^l Inch liner rooti ml IrepeBtiHl )»(i»niiiPi| III drleil ill lhot«i| Instlve* »li»» l"«| llMt Mruw.|0(iti>| Hook V. POLYNESIA. IJSS •MM. Moff rich and iwrrl to Iht latte than Ihe cocoa-nut or bread^uil, yet far le«t lervireabic at fond, it the Mala of Ihe Mouth Sen islanilcn, by which naine they initiscrlminately call both the Plantain anrt Ranaiis (the Mum tnpifntum and M. narariitiaca), Theae are inillReiinua, thouKh rultlvnted ; their IVult la rich and nutritive, yet tra cnnimon In tde tro|)lca tn need a |>artlcular dcacrlntUin here. There are, pcrha|M, thirty cultivated varictlea, bealdea nearly twenty wild ones, which arc alao larKC and uaelbl. The Orca, or Maiden I'lantain, cornea to the higheat perfection, and ii truly dellclnua. The atalk ia aeldom more than eight tn twelve feet high : Italeavet are nneapeclmenanf tropical verdure, being often twelve to alxteen feet h>iig, nearly two feet wide, nl a delicate pea-green colour when recent, but rich bright yellow when dry. The fVult U about nine inehea long, aomcwhat like a cucumber, exce|>t that it haa frcqui'iitly well.deflned angles, which give it the apiiearancc ofbciiig trlanguli>rorquailrangular,u'hcn ri|>e of a delicate yellow hue Sixty or aeveiity fVuit* are aometlmea attached to one stalk. Each iilantnin nriHlucea only one bunch of fVult, and Is then removed, its place being supplied by the suckers thnt rlae round the root: if these be four or Hve feet high when the parent alcin la cut down, they will liear in about twelve montha. 'J'hc plantain fVult is always acceptable, and reaemliles In flavour a soft and aweet, but not very Juicy pear : It Is good in milk, and also in puddings and pica, and, when fermented, makes excellent vinegar. rr(H7. /» certain ncatonM <\f the year, when the bread-flrult is scarce, the natives supply the deflclency with Ihe IVuit of the Majie, or Rata, a native chestnut {Inocarpm eiiiilit). This is a tree of stately growth and ■plcndid foliage, rarely seen in high grounds, but generally flourlahing on the margin of streams, the course of which may be ftcquently traced by the unbroken line of native chestnuts towering above the humbler trees. The aingular trunk generally rises ten or twelve feet without a branch, and then haa large umbrageous arms; but its chief feature is the sujiporting sterna or buttrcaaea, which it throws out fVom large nrojcctlona on Ihe atein, and which, striking root at a distance of three or four feet, appear like so many iilaiika covered with bark, and nlacc8 the moat juicy among the indificnoua prnduetlona of the Society Islands. It resembles in its sha|>c a small aiiple, and is of a beautiful hrignt red colour, containing a white and juicy, but rather Insipid, pulp. Like the Vi, it bears but once a year, and is in season two or three months. Both these trees are propagated by seed. 5tR8. Three ipeciet qf/ern aHbrd food ; the Pteris esculenta, Polypodlum Medulla (Forster), and P. dlcho. lomum (Thunberg). MH9. Beiidei the valuable etculent plantt now mentioned, ia the Sugar-cane, or To (Saccharum offlcinarum), which grows spontaneously In the Sandwich Islands, and perhaps comes to greater perfection there than in any other [lart of the world. It was formerly cultivated to be eaten raw ; the natives on a journey often carry a piece of sugarcane, which fbrnishea a aweet and nouriahing Juice, appeasing at once both hunger and thirst Within a few years they have been taught to extract the juice, and by boiling it prepare a very good sugar. ri4yo. Thete varioui indigerunu producliont are not only eaten when dressed, as taken iVom the tree or dug l^om the ground, but by a diversity of combinations several excellent kinds of food are prepared ftom them, which may be termed the confectionery or made dishes of the South Sea islanders. With ripe bread-ft-uit and plantainmixed, they prepare Pcpe, which, when baked, is not unlike soft gingerbread. A composition of arrow-root and grated cocoa-kernel is called Tanta ; and of arrow-root and plantain they make a number of sweet puddings, which arc folded in leavea, and baked in the native ovens. A sauce is ftimished by the ripe cocoa-nut, sliced, and put Into a calabash uf salt water, which they shake daily till the nut be dissolved. This l« called Mltiaro, and, though most nauseous, is eaten as sauce to fish, bread-fruit, and almost every article of llxxL (HMl. The native fruits of the South Sea Islands are delicious, and their number haa been greatly increase. Smooth oil, cool milk, and unfermcnted wine. In rich and exquisite variety ; On these the indolent inhabitants Fed without care or forethought" 64P3. The art of preparing a spirituous liquor ft-om the saccharine Ti root (Dracaena terminatis) Tjig. IdflO.) was unhappily soon learned, and communicated from the natives of one group of islands to another, and all the demoralising and debasing cflbcts of drunkenness were propoiw tionably exhibited. The root may certainly be used for many valuable purjioses ; it is sweet and palatable when bakc terials ; while a bamboo cane, placed in a trough of cold water, condensed I the diatllled vapour, which flowed into a calabash or other vessel set below to receive it. When all wai I ready, the men and Imys of the district assembled to drink the Ava, as this spirit was called; and they Itontinued so employe%kemnA TniiMii«Ai.»> IS'J4 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPilY. Part III, M ■ medicine i !ktr. Collie, the (urRcnn of r>|it. Reerhev'a vojige, h»lnR tlintetl lU Hdcacjr In cun of eulaiieoui diieaaca, which It reinuvni In s few wecki, anil even ircmed to i>r(iduce « /'rnoviitlng cAhrl on Ihi whole conttltutliin. A reprctentatlon of the Tahitlan illll, with manjr paitlculan mpcctlng the Ava, ina]f b« (bund In Mr. KllU't Interntlnii work, the I'ulym'tian Hi-trarrhei. 64(H Capt. Betchey tiatet, Inal the roiita and ataiki nl'a ■im'laa of Pepper (Piptr meihytUcum) have ulio been dlitllled In many nf the iilanda i and though the Imimrtallon at foreign iplrlti haa much lupeneded th« UM of Ava, that Intoxication, with It* attenilant demoralUatlon, It (kr more prevalent than formerly. Thi colour of Ava made flrom Ihe'pcpncr retemblea thick dirty water, and Iti taate ii to nauaooui, that It wa< rui. Iraugntof I burning effkcta, tomary to iwallow a hearty draugnt of water alter the Intoxicating doae, to remove Ita unpleaaant taile and WKt. far cloilkinf, the Pnlyneaiana avail themaelvet greally of the bark aflbrded by (he IHonu {Brotuionelia] mapyr(/irn, or I'aiwr Mullicrry (jf/r- l< !>!.). The manufacture of cloth, which It a Irdioua praccti, and the weaving of matt, which anmctlmea at'rvo for Karment.i aa weu aa for beddln; fall to the department of the women. 'I'he Inner bark la taken ofT In i alngle piece, by a lonKitudlnal IncUlon flriim end to end of the trunk i It It >cra|icil, tpreod out, rollrd and llattrncti, and aulcfltodrv; the addition nf other pircrt U-inK fometlmct matle, tn inrrcaae the diameter, lh( womlen mallcta with which the bark la lieatcn arc four^lded : one aide beinn amooth, the aecond couracly KTiioved, the third farrowed more finely, and the fourth clnacly chirked in tcjuarca or diamonda t and Ihua the pnliem may be varied, and cloth may be produced, either amooth, atri|>icing alightly baked la formed Into torchei b; atringing thirty or forty nuta together on a ruah, and enclnaing four ot five of theee atrlngt in the Icavca of the Tl {Draeima terminalix), or Hili (.Pandanut oiloratiisima). Alter being lighted, before one nut It conaunitd, the flame commuoicatea to the oil of the one below ; and at the blaic n- pire*, the thcU of the exhausted nut It struck off, till the whole is coiv V VJll u>^ turned. The tree also yieldt a gum u«ed in preparing the native cloth, ^^^^Vl^^ *"'' "'^ ^'"''' ■")>■'<'' ■ l>crmanent dye ; still the nutt are the mo*t prKioiu ^\yj^ part Sometime* they are burnt to charcoal and pulveriaed, for taltooini \\^ the skin, painting canoe*, tee. \ \ 6496, 7'Aeri'rm'rilatheErythrlnaCorallodcndron,abeautlftiltree,corernl with splendid flowera, and yielding a delightful ahade. The eate with whicli cutting* of It itrike root, and the lightnea* and fine grain of the wood, render it valuable for fence*, and the beat canoe* and turf board* are midi of It. turn. The Sandat^uiood of the South Sea talandt It conaMcred bv Capt. Beechey to be the aame as thai A (he Ea>t Indie* (Sanla/um album) ; but the ai)eclmens brought home by the naturaliatt of that expedition I firove it to be the Santahim Kreycinetianum {Jig. Um.) of (iaudichaud,ijil Freycinfl't Vot/age, p. 44'i. to-H.I. It Is, accoiding to that navigator, lln I only commercial production of the Sandwich Islanda. It is a ti>ler>lil! heavy and tolid wood ; and, after the sap or |>art next the bark has been lain oir, ia of a light yellow or brown colour, containing a quantity of aromatic «1 Although a plant of slow growth, it is found In abundance in all iti mountalnout part* of the Sandwich Itlandt, and It cut down in grcnt quu title* by the natives, as it constitutes their prlnci|ial article of cx|H)rtalkiii It I* brought down to the Iwach in pieces, from a foot to eighteen inrta in diameter, and six to eight feet long, to small sticka, not more than aniixl thick, and a foot and a h.ilf long. It it sold by weight i and the merchaiti, who exchange for it article* of European or ChTncae manufacture, tilt it to the Canton market, where it is bought by the Chinese, for the puipM of preparing incente to burn In their idol tcm|>let. fiSOO. The SandaUiroori, it it known, require* many year* to arrive at aft ■tate for the market, and, ita cultivation not having been attended to,il« wood ia becoming scarce, while the debt of the nation i* considerably ii. created. During Capt Beechey* visit, in order to avoid the npem attending the collection of Ihi* wood, it became necessary to lav a ttix iiit the iicople of a pekul (or 13.'! lb*.) each, which they were required tolmif fVom the mountain* under Bi>enalty of four dollars, and to deposit with tin authoritie* of Honoruru. llie greater part of the wood brought in tt tmall and crooked, and only fit for the use of the Jot-houae* in China, where it is burned at inretinc; m the coniumptinn of it there is diminished, in coniequence of an order for its disuse in those plant if worship. The odour of the sandal.wnod of the Sandwich Islands it very inferior to that of Malabar, Ceylon and other parti of India SuBSFCT. 3. Zoology. fViOI. The xoolnntrnt character of the South Sea iaiand* hat already tx>en Indicated in our general obtml ationsuiHin Australasia. There are, however, many local pccullaritica ; but the limit* impoaed on thiide;' ment of the work will no longer |502. The nf modern mo tlie dlicorery i however, Magi breadth of the Ladronea, whei navigation wo* Mexico, croasci 6503. TheS, tht South Sea i Isles ; and, twt group called fra in the voyage di inland, which he 6504. Then Le Maire doubl nf (he latter nav voyage in which interesting grou] in crossing the I 6.505. It was mainly achieved series of voyages Wallis was the fii of detached islant Cook, between V, »iid Friendly Isia on the character i important group unhappy misundi operations of the America, and in present subject, nesian region had employed in com curious gleanings Labillardiere, and still more recently for the Russian n Beechey, not to n ■till detached islar search of future ns 6506, Europeai upon these islands whom, sent out by from the ship Dufi lapse of nearly twe of that island, thej rites connected wi people. This indue instructing the nati which have been i change, within the "gency of America the world. Since to the most distant the regular commei licr Australian sett Good Hope, vessel Society Islands. T Northern Paciiic, a "leir harbours are settled in their port! "et in unison, or rej Uuoc V. I'OLYNKSIA. ISU.t inme as that of I that cxpcdilKnl . (taudichaud,ltl It iiaviRatnr, tht I It is a tcilerablil ,rkhasbeenlilni[ ty of aromatic oil I dance in all Itil »n in great qui* I le of cxportalkn I o eighteen Inrbiil more than an intk I idthemerchanli,! lanufacture, titil e, forthepunuil Skct. III. Ifiitorical Geogra/ihtf. (;502. The diieovertf of the Pofynesian Itlandi ha* been one of the leadtnK acliievemcnU nf modern maritime enterj riic. They were entirely unknown till a period aubipquent to the diicovery of America and of the paxHage round the Cape of Good Hope. In 1513, however, Magellan paused through the Straits which Iwar liU name, and measured the entir* hrcadth of the Pacific. He sailed southward of most of these islands, touching only at tb* Ladronea, whence he proceeded to the Philippines. Drake and Cavendish, wIkmu circum> navigation was connected with their attacks upon the Spanish possessions in Perii and Mexico, crossed the ocean too far north to come in contact with the principal groups. 6503. The Spaniardi, about the end of the century, made considerable vHbrt* to explore tht' South Sea from Peru. Mcndana, in 1575, discovered in itswcstern quarter llie Solomon Isles ; and, twenty years after, in proceeding to found a colony there, he lighted upon a group called from him the Mendana or, from his employer, the Marquesas Islands. Qiiiros, in the voyage distinguished by the discovery of New Holland, passed a considerable and line island, which he named Sagiltaria, and which there is great reason to suppose was Olalieitc. 6504. TAff /)u/cA succeeded in the career of austral discovery. In 1615-16 Schouten and Le Maire doubled Ca|)e Horn, discovering Staatcn Land, and the Straits bearing the name of the latter navigator. About the same time Tasman, from Java, performed tlie important voyage in which, after discovering Van Diemen's Land and New Zealand, he arrived at the interesting group of the Friendly Islands. Roggewein, also, towards the end of the century, in crossing the Pacific, made several discoveries, and, in particular, that of Easter Island. 6505. It was England, however, which, under the reign and auspices of George III., mainly achieved tl 3 exploration of this remote and interesting portion of the globe. The series of voyages fitted out by government began with those of Byron, Wallis, and Carteret. Wallis was the first who certainly touched on the beautiful shores of Otaheite ; and a number of detached islands were brought to light by these navigators. But the three voyage* of Cook, between 1 767 and 1779, formed the grandest era of Oceanic discovery. If the &>ciety And Friendly Islands had been already known, he was the first who made careful observations on the character and social state of the remarkable tril>es by whom they are inhabited. Th« important group of the Sandwich Islands was entirely discovered by him, though, fVom an unhappy misunderstanding, they proved the fatal scene of his untimely death. The operations of the same illustrious navigator in the Australasian islands, on the shores of America, and in the arctic seas north and south of these latitudes, do not belong to the present subject. At the close of the career of Cook, all the leading outlines of the Poly- nesian region had been explored ; and the efforts of Vancouver, his successor, were chiefly employed in completing the survey of the north-west coast of America. Yet ample and curious gleanings were still left for Bougainville, the contemporary of Cook ; for P^rouse, Labillardi^re, and D'Entrecasteaux, afterwards sent out by the French government, who itlil more recently employed Freycinet, Duperrey, and D'Urville. Something still remained for the Russian navigators Krusenstern and Kotzebue, and fur our countryman Captain Beechey, not to mention other names of secondary importance. There probably remain ttill detached islands, and even small groups, in this great expanse of ocean, to reward the search of future navigators. 6506. European intercourte, during the present century, has effected a remarkable change upon these isUnds. Among the most active agents hare been the missionaries ; a party of whom, sent out by the London society, were in 1797 landed in Otaheite, by Captain Wilson, from the ship Duff*. Their labours were not crowned with almost any success, till after the lapse of nearly twenty years, when, in consequence of events which will be noticed in treating of that island, they succeeded in overthrowing idolatry, with the bloody and superstitious rites connected with it, and in acquiring an almost paramount influence over prince and people. This influence they have, in subservience to their main object, employed in studiously instructing the natives in civilised habits, and in the arts and industry of Europe ; efforts which have been attended with a certain though not complete success. A nearly similar change, within the last ten years, has been effected in the Sitndwich Islands, chiefly by the agency of American missionaries. Another cause has acted powerfully upon this quarter of the world. Since Britain and other great maritime nations have extended their navigation to the most distant seas, these islands, once considered so remote, have been included within the regular commercial lines by which the ocean is traversed. As the route from Britain to iicr Australian settlements by Cape Horn is nearly equidistant with tlukt by the Cape of Good Hope, vessels frequently prefer it, and are thus led to touch for refreshment at tlie Society Islands. The Sandwich Islands are situated in the route to the whale fishery in the Northern Pacific, and in that of the fur trade from north-west America to China. Hence their harbours are sometimes crowded with vessels, and American merchants have even settled in their ports. The mariners and missionaries, two very opposite characters, do not act in unison, or report very favourably of each other ; but they have combined in producing 5 E 4 m iUfi"'K^ii«j«i;-i i"«.TSi.'?,,i^{;''4?ft'.-;.:'ii_» i--*!^^^ MM DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. a somewhat grotesque mixture of the arts, manners, and civilisation of Europe, with the rude and licentious habits to which the people were previously addicted. Sect. IV. PoliHeal Geography. eSffJ. The political tlate of thaee iilandi ii tlmple, though not exactly what might have l>een expected in •uch a atate of (ocial life. The people do not enjoy the rude independence of lavage life, nor are any of ihe governments moulded into a republican form. They are ruled by chiefa, in an absolute or at least arbitrari manner, with a power only controlled by the influence of inferior chiefs who hold sway over particular districts. These higher classes, Ijeing exempted ttom labour, and t)etter fed than their inferiors, are so much taller and handsomer, that they appear almost like a different race. Yet, amid this great distinction of ranlu DO very strict police is maintained ; and the punishment of crimes is in general left to the private resentment of the injured party. Sbct. V. Produetive Industry, 6508. The natural advantages poueued by these islanda, as to aoil and climate, are not, perhaps, surpaited by those of any other region. Their situation, entirely within the tropics, might have exposed them to be scorched beneath the solar influence ; but the vapours exhaled from the vast ocean which washes their shoret, and the interior eminences, secure a copious supply of humidity, which, combined with the warmth, producei a most luxuriant vegetation. Some of the mountains arc the seat of powerful volcanic action, others are itecp and roclcy ; but many are clothed to the summit with majestic forests, and the plains which they water ■re adapted to the finest species of tropical produce. Their small extent, however, and remote situation, preclude the expectation that they will ever compete with Tropical America or India, in supplying Europe with these valuable commodities. 6509. Agriculture is by no means altogether neglected ; though its operations are in many places nearly superseded by the spontaneous profusion with which nature furnishes the means of subsistence, and even of luxury. Otaheite and the neighlwuring islands are covered, almost wit hout culture, r.ith forests of the cocoa- nut palm and the bread-Ouit tree, Nearly their only labour conaists in raising, upon amall cleared spots, the potato and the yam, as additions to their diet. Captain Cook's attempt to introduce horses failed, through the improvidence of the natives ; and it was not till after long cHbrts that the missionaries have at last succeeded Beef and other freih provisions can now be procured at moderate rates. In the Friendly Islands an industrioui spirit is perceptible ; the fields are well cultivated, and laid out with great neatness and order. The Sandwich Islanders, having a soli comparatively arid and barren, have exerted still greater diligence, not only in tillage and enclosure, but in extensive and elaborate processes for irrigation. The absence. Captain Beechey oh. serves, of the green and shady forests of Otaheite, produces, at first view, an unfavourable impression; but, on mounting the hills, every valley is seen covered with plantations of laro, the vegetable lutwtance on which these islanders chiefly subsist. According to very recent accounts, European settlers have introduced into Otaheite the cultivation of sugar, of good quality, sufficient for the supply of the surrounding islands. 6510. Manufactures and arts are by no means in so forward a state; yet the natives produce some fine fabrics for the accommodation and ornament of the chiefs. From the liark of certain trees are prepared clotfai of considerable beauty ; while fVom other sulMtances very fine mats are plaited. Feathers are olten fVamed into splendid and fantastic head dresses. The progress in the iiscftil arts is the more meritorious, as the natives are destitute of the most important instrument, iron ; a want so much felt, that, at their firat inter- course with Europeans, the smallest and rudest fragments of that metal were received in exchange for a large value in commodities, and were prised almost like silver and gold in Europe. It is surprising how tolerablj the deficiency was supplied bf implements of stone, hard wood, or bone, which were rendered fit for all the purposes of agriculture and industry. In particular, they had succeeded with these imperfect means in con- structing spacious and commodious canoes, fitted not only for navigating round their coasts, and from one neighbouring island to another, but for performing with nafety voyages over a great extent of the Pacific. Some, destined for state or for war, are highly, and, indeed, fantastically ornamented; others are diligcntlf employed in fishing, whence the people derive their chief supply of animal food. The military implementi, as usual in such societies, are variously and skilf\illy fVamed. The missionaries have shown an enlightened teal to introduce European arts and industry. A c.irpenter and a weaver were sent to Otaheite ; and even i cotton factory, with the ftill concurrence of the chiefs, was established at Eimeo. The people, under the linl impulse of novelty, worked hard, and produced a cloth somewhat coarse, but solid and durable. They soon, however, began to tire of continued application, and tho fabric has not yet made much progress. Captain Beechey dreads that the composure and li.tiiirerence which they manifest on such subjects will be the banc of their future prosperity. It is very well, they sajr, for Europeans tif work, who need fine clothes and fine shipi, but they are satisfied with the abundance in which nature has placed them. It may be ho|icd, however, that the continuance of the intercourse with Europeans will inspire ■ taste for their arts and luxuries, and a willingness to make exertions in order to procure them. 651 f Commerce, unless of the most limited internal kind, had no existence till very recently. These islandi, however fertile, have no commodities which can bear the cost of a distant conveyance, except the sandiil wood sf the Sandwich Islanda, which finds a ready market in C'hina,but is beginning to lie exhauated. Their |hi[|i are frequented almost solely by ships on their way to the whale-fisheries or across the Pacific. These vcsiel) arriving after a long and exhausting voyage, stand in need of provisions and supplies, and are often dispoinl to spend some time in refitting and restoring the health of their crews : they aflbrd thus a considerable niarkri for the timber, fruits, and live stock produceo much tlon of ranlu, te reaentmcnt aM. lurpaned d tnem to be >• their ahoret, mth, produce! on, others are ich they watei lote aituation, plying Europe r places nearly •e, and even of ■* cf the cocoa- ared spota, the 'd, through the laat succeeded I an industrioui The Sandwich L only in tillage In Beechey ob. npresslon ; but, tance on which introduced into islands. iduce some fine prepared cloths ,re often framed ritorious, as the their first Inter- lange for a large ig how tolerably d fit for all the tt means in con- , and from one of the P-icific. rs arc diligently ary imnlcmenu, I an enlighti'ned :lte; and even a I, under the flnt )le. They soon, >gTess. Captain be the banc of and fine shipi, ., however, that luxuries, and a These islandi, the sandal nood . Their porti These vesieli often dispoteil Jderable market beads and bits of >llars bear now a ited, unless by so large, that le observations this number is ixed Polynesia ecision on il« ider the entire ?sque aspects. cast of savage lich, combiiieJ MOMAl OR TRMPI.S. with the beauty and abundance with which the land is gifted, made it appear to the first voyagers Itke a terrestrial paradise. These flattering appearances, however, proved in n;9tincti(( characters. Eimeo dia'covered by VVallis, has a pealc nearly 30(10 feet high, and broad rldgea cross it in various directions i>.id form a rocl(y coast ; but wide weiI>wonded valleys intervene, and the port of Taloo ii one of the finest in the South Sea. But Eimeo is chiefly distinguished as still the centre of that European and Christian civilisation which originated there. It contains an academy, a printing.otticc, and a cotton factor;; all, it is to be regretted, on too small a scale, and making too little progress. Ulietea, or Raiatea, is, next lo Otaheite, the largest of the group, being nearly sixty miles in circumference, and having closely adjoining lo it Otaha, about half that site. Both are encircled by a coral reef, bordered by numerous islets. Ulietea ii governed by a separate kingi the people are smaller, darker in colour, and somewhat ruder, than those c< Otaheite. Borabora, or Bolalwia, is a bold, finely wooded, and picturesque island, governed by separate chiefi, and inhabited by a fierce hardy race, who aHbrd a place of refuge to outlawed and desperate characters Iroii other quarters. Of smaller islands, Maitea, on whose coast pearl oysters are found, Maurua or Maupili, and Toobouai, are deserving of mention. 6A2J. ne Archipelago of Low Islands is the name given by Hasscl and Balbi lo an almost numberless range of islets, extending ES.E. from the Society Islands, and passed in the route thither from Cape Horn. Tlieit origin and structure are extremely remarkable. Coralline plants, growing at the bottom of the ocean, hatboui a class of lithophytic insects, which, during their life, form round them a substance which, alter their deatli, becomes hard as stone. The rockwork of one generation affords a basis to that of the succeeding, and layen are thus placed over each other till they reach the sufacc of the water, and form islands. As soon aa the rock it exposed to the air, the insects quit it, leaving it perforated by numerous hollows ; but they work Tot some time laterally, forming, immediately under water, concealed table reefs, which have given occasion to numerous and fatal shipwrecks. Meantime, from amid the interstices of the rocks plants spring up, and, on their decay, are converted into soil, till the new island is covered with luxuriant vegetation. These islandi scarcely ever rise more than a few feet above the sea ; for the low hills which some navigators have thought they nbscrvol, seem to be only the lofty form of the pandanui, which usually springs up on such shorn These coasts have usually parallel to them a coral reef, se|iarated by a lagoon, into which it is often dilficult to find an entrance. Of thirty-two islands observed by Captain Beechey, twenty-nine had lagoons. Whei these wonderful ocean-fabrics were first noticed, an impression prevailed that tliey wore proceeding to a vajl extent, and that the coralline insects were rearing a continent from beneath the Pacific ; but the observationi of Oaimard, Beechey, and others, rather suggest the conclusion that they are raised only under local and peculiar circunrstanccs, not yet fully ascertained. The formation, also, seems to go on very slowly. The wreck of the Matilda, left in I8()2 on a coral reef, was found by Captain Beechey, in ISif), unaltered in position, and without any coral having grown over it. 1 hat navigator also remarks, that these Islands are found all in the direction of the trade-wind ; that the windward side is the highest, while the other is only a half-drnwnfd reef The surface displays in general a blooming but little varictl vegetation. The leading tree is the turn. danus, and next to it Ihccmoa nut, l»)th valuable, and yielding nutritive fruits. The |icople are lilllt known, .'u the slender supplies to be obtaineeads. Those of Byam Martin had an Otalieiteaii cast of features ; and a party, wafted bvi storm from that island, 6U0 miles distant, had brought with them Testaments, hymn books, Stc. It wouldl* impossible to attempt going over the details of these almost innumerable islets. Bow Island, , 10 miles loo) and 5 broad, is well wooded, but the people barbarous. King Reorge s Islands, discovered by Byron in \'A consist of two small groups, well fiirnished with water and provisions, and inhabited by a numerous ran, resembling the Otahciteans, ami uniterstanding their language. Queen Charlotte's Islands, and Auroii, are of nearly similar character. In the most northerly part of the archipelago, Byron saw one which borcu aiipcarance of brilliant vegetation ; but, when he had reached it with difficulty through o|ienings in the rntil reef, he found if destitute cither of water or provisions, and named it Disapjiointment. The Ilussian naii- gatort Kotzebuc and Bellinghausen discovered islands lo which thay gave the name of Romanzofl', Suvarof, and Krusenstcrn ; but they did not see any inhabitants. 6524. I'itcairn Island, a small detached spot, standing almost alone, near the eosten Boob V. extremity of thi made it the abo the view of tr: island, howevei Christian, turnei midst of the Pai by a train of a safety. The mi) small neighbouri at these islands, { upon Pitcairn Ii with eight of hi- board, and then i sensions soon arc and Christian bet there remained i Adams, after witi reflection and a ci himself, and, if ] were easily convei race directly oppt thirty-six males at and friendly. Tli they heard occasio 6525. Easter Island extremity on that sidi lince been fk'cquently only twenty miles in c ii bold and rocky, an rocks are composed en Langle, who accompai ference, and at least 8( lung ceased to issue, found only in ponds. industry of the inhabil yams, potatoes, and c the lemalea ; but the i their frames seem for polished aildrcss, with and Captain Beechey's compass their ends. 1 There were spacious m high, representing, tht however, are so far froi defacing them till the remaining. tiSia On the west, a remained without a na coverer j a tribute to h look's Islands are sma ponds and wells, yet th Otaheite, and the mil Whitoutacki!, and Rar latelyembraced Chrtstii 6527. The Sandt range, and fully 15 are thirteen in num contain, 50OO are ot VVoahoo, Mowee, ai islands is grand ui pleteiyto an alpin from the Blonde lal mountain was alma volcanoes. They n phenomenon appear here presented is tin progress was sudder Kventy feet perpen »ery steep path cont more, we came to Ihe sounds proceedii ing chasms, of unk Df what was going erater ; but words ; Part III, 1 rH" an op«n I )re held as a 1 chiefs soon I :d Hetotte, is [)f undoubted I iiice would be I I : he stole a I ;, awaited tlie I ibandoned the I en thus chris. I f defeated the I f the inissiun- 1 Mr. William! I useful arts, as I ling, and ship I ) fifty tons, in I exported ; and I ere, and tliitty I y Cook at u)). I aptain Wilson,! lese have since I 000 to 20,000, 1 triking d'stinctift I ridges cross it in I le |)ort of Taloo ii I hat European and I a cotton factorji I liatea, ia, next t« oscly adjoining to 1 islets. Ulieteaiil ler, than those (< I Dy separate chiefi, I e characters (ron I la or Maupili, and I ; r.umtwrless rang! I ;apc Horn. Their I the ocean, harboui I , alter their death, I :eeding, and layen I s. As soon as tht ' but they work fa ! given occasion to spring up, and, m m. These islandi tors have thought up on such shorn which it is oftn lad lagoons. When rocrcding to a vas It the observationi y under local and very slowly. The altered in position, ids arc found all ii nly a half-drownsl ng tree is the iian- e i>eople arc litlli > induced mariiicri v desert, and somt lalay race, and to any previous navi, ation. Thcnalivii nians. The Chiin they had, lately it mished at the »ie» eves; and, wheni tch it This griMii oral reefs. When the case in I-agco they had for llail^ party, waflid bvi !, &c. ItwouMt* dand, .30 miles lotji by Byron in X'fi, _ a numerous ran, lands, and Auroii, one which bore M lenlngs in the coni The Ilussian iiaii- omaniofl; Suvarot near the eastenl Book V. POLYNESIA. LfSl cxtreratty of this range, has attracted a remarkable interest, in consequence of events which made it the abode of a British population. In 1789, Captain Bligh visited Otaheite, with the view of transplanting the bread-fruit tree into the West Indies. After leaving the island, however, a violent mutiny arose among his crew, who, headed by one named Christian, turned him out with a handful of adherents, into a boat, and left them in the midst of the Pacific. Thus abandoned, it seemed almost certain that he must perish ; yet, by a train of almost miraculous efforts and events, he succeeded in reaching Britain in safety. The mutineers first returned to Otaheite, and then made an attempt to settle on the small neighbouring island of Toobouai ; but, dreading discovery by British vessels touching at these islands. Christian determined to seek some spot more solitary and remote. Ho fixed upon Pitcairn Island, discovered by Captain Carteret, and arrived there in January, 1790 with eight of his comrades, six native men, and twelve females, whom they had invited on board, and then carried off. In this ilUcoinposed society, however, the most dreadful dis- sensions soon arose. Conflicts took place, especially between the natives and Europeans, and Christian became an eariy victim. In ten years, thirteen men had been killed, and there remained alive only one, named Adams, with six women and nineteen children. Adams, after witnessing such scenes of misery and crime, had been led to habits of serious reflection and a careful perusal of the Scriptures. He now determined thoroughly to reform himself, and, if possible, his companions. The Otaheitean females proved tractable, and were easily converted ; and the children, trained in strict principles of religion, grew up a race directly opposite to that from which they sprung. Captain Beechey, in 1825, found thirty-six males and thirty females, forming a happy little society, well instructed, orderiy, and friendly. They felt, however, a desire to see something more of the world of which they heard occasionally from passing navigators. Adams is since dead. fS'iS. Eatter Island, or Vaihou, stands entirely by itself, considerably east of the above, and forming the extremity on that side of the great Polynesian range. It was first discovered, in 1722, by Roggewein, and hai since been firequently visited, as it lies in the direct route from Cape Horn to the Society fslaiids Though only twenty miles in circuit, it has excited much interest from its physical aspect and social state. The shiwe i! bold and rocky, and the whole island liears the most evident marks of volc.inic action. The numerous rocks are composed entirely of lava, and small extinct craters are found on almost all their summits. Ue Langle, who accompanied La Pcrousc, penetrated to a large one in the interior, about five miles in circum. ference, and at least 800 feet deep ; but the grass growing on its sides showed that the subterraneous fire had lung ceased to issue. In consequence of this structure, the island is irrigated by no streams, and water ii found only in ponds. Although this deficiency deprives it of the cocoa-nut and the bread-fTuit tree, yet the industry of the inhabitants has given to its rocky nills a verdant and smiling appearance, and has supplied yams, potatoes, and other vegetables, in considerable plenty. The natives are a handsome race, especially the females ; but the gigantic size ascrilied to them by Roggewein is not confirmed by later observers, and their frames seem formed more for activity than strength. They exhibit, in the extreme, the gay and polished address, with the propensity to thieving and licentiousness, which distinguish the Society Islands ; and Captain Bcechey's experience showed that they did not scruple to have recourse to violence in order to compass their ends. There were found among these people some singular traces of an ancient civilisation. There were spacious morals, in the vicinity of which were found colossal statues of stone, about fourteen feet high, representing, though in a rude manner, the upper part of the human form. The present inhabitants, however, are so far from sharing the art by which tnesc were constructed, that they have been continually defacing them till they have alinost entirely disappeared, and Captain Beechey found only a few tVagment* remaining, t>5'2l). Un the west, also, the Society Islands have, at an appendage, a imall and scattered group, which remained without a name, till Krusenstern, followed by Hassel and Baibi, gave toit that of ciaoiir, its dis. coverer ; a tribute to his memory which we shall not refiise, though it be scarcely worthy of so great a name. Cook's Islands are small, low, and of coral formation; they are deficient in water, which is found only in ponds and wells, yet they are tolerably peopled and cultivated. The state of society nearly resembles that in Otaheite, and the missionaries have succeeded in converting a considerable number. Mangeca, Wateo, I VVhitoutackf, and Rarotoa, are the principal The people of this last are very civilised, and tneir chief hat (latelyembraced Christianity. Mr. Williams reckons the population at 16,000 or 18,000. 6527. The Sandwich Islands form as it were a solitary group far north of the general [range, and fully 1500 miles distant from both the Mulgrave and the Marquesas. They ■are thirteen in number ; but of the 7000 square miles which Hassel estimates the whole to I contain, 5000 are occupied by Owhyhee ; and the others are thus comparatively very small. jWoahoo, Mowee, and Atooi, are, however, not inconsiderable. The natural aspect of these lislands is grand and awful. The mountains of Mouna Roa and Mouna Koa rise com- Ipletely to an alpine height, and have their summits wrapt in perpetual snow. A party Ifrom the Blonde lately reached nearly, but not quite, to the summit of Mouna Koa. The Imountain was almost entirely composed of lava, and exhibited numerous traces of extinct ■volcanoes. They reached, also, on the flank of Mouna Roa, the volcano of Peli, where that Iphenomenon appears more awful and varied than in any other part of the world. The scene acre presented is thus described by Captain Lord Byron : — " Within a mile of the crater, our Iprogress was suddenly arrested by finding ourselves on the edge of a precipitous ledge of eventy feet perpendicular height, clothed with trees and gigantic ferns. A winding but very steep path conducted to the bottom ; and, after moving onwards a few hundred yards norc, we came to a second ledge, whence we heard the deep roaring of the volcano, like khe sounds proceeding from a blast furnace. And now, at every step, we perceived yawn- Ing chasms, of unknown depth, from some cf which columns of black smoke issuing told of what was going on in the realms of fire below. At length we reached the edge of the crater ; but words are totally inadequate to describe the effects produced on us by the first ^ 1 ■■>; 153S DESCRIPTIVE GEOaRAPHY. Paht III. tight of that dark fiery gulf. From its brinli, where tve stood, we loolied down for tnon> than 1 300 feet, over rocks of lava and columns of sulphur, between whose antique fissures a few green shrubs and juicy berry-bearing plants had fixed themselves to a rugged plain, where many a cone, raised by the action of the fire below, was throwing up columns of living flame, and whirls of smoke and vapour, while floods of liquid fire were slowly wind- ing through scoriae and ashes, here yellow with sulphur, and there black, or grey, or red, as the materials which the flames had wrought on varied. Not less than fifty cones, of various height, appeared below, as the fimnels of the various operations going on. Au | least one half of these were in activity, but it appears that the same are by no means con- stantly so ; nay, that often older cones fall in ; and new ones are formed elsewhere in the bottom of the pit. Some eject stones and fragments of rock, while from their dark and sulphur-coloured flanks, lava, and sometimes water, issues : many of the cones emit vapours, which, condpnsed, form beautiful bed:) of sulphur ; others are distinguished by the wreatlied columns of white and black, that indicate steam and smoke, curled round each other by the wind, but never miiing." 65'i8. Captain lung- in 1779, estimated the population of these islands at 400,000 ; but, though this number is adopted by Hassel, we have no hesitation, wi*''; M. Balbi, in pre- ferring that of Ellis, who reckons only 130,000. The distribution made by Captain King tlirough the islands may, however, give an idea of their relative importance. He assigns to Owhyhce 150,000 ; to Mowee, C5,400 ; to Woahoo, 60,200; to Atooi, 54,000 ; to all the others united, 70,000. A third part of these numbers may approach the truth. The natives are tall and robust, especially the chiefs, who here, as in the otiier islands, ap|H'ar like a superior race to the lower orders. As compared with the Otaheiteans, they are of a dark brown complexion ; and the females do not display the same softened graces. I)ut these islunders are distinguished above all other inhabitants of tlie South Sea by diligence and skill in the pursuits of industry. While the Otaheitean, in voluptuous ease subsist] chiefly on the spontaneous bounties of nature, the Sandwich Islander has carefully unproved almost every spot susceptible of cultivation. The taro root, on which he chiefly subsists, requires a soil not only tilled, but inundated ; the fields on which it grows, therefore, arc enclosed by stone fences, and watered by irrigating canals. In manufactures, canoe- building, and fishery, these islanders display the same active industry. Their general con- duct is open, honourable, and friendly ; yet they are easily kindled to fierce resentment, I especially by any wrong against their chiefs. Such a cause led to the disastrous conliia which terminated in the death of Cook ; and the circumstance of one of their great meo being fired at from a West India vessel led afterwards to the murder of Messrs. Hergest and Gooch of the Dxdalus. The people have been peculiarly distinguished by their efforts to raise themselves to the level of European arts and civilisation. In this career they were first led by Tamaliama I., who, about the year 1794, with the assistance of Vancouver,! and of Young and Davis, two English seamen, began to form a small navy, which soon I amounted to twenty vessels, some of seventy tons' burden : he had disciplined a small bod; of troops in the European manner, and erected a fort defended by cannon. His son, Iliho-Riho, in IB19 embraced Christianity, and abolished idolatrous worship. Still farther I to promote the improvement of the country, he and his queen pnid a visit to England, wher; they were received with the utmost courtesy ; but, unfortunately, both were seized with I contagious fever, and died. His son being a minor, political influence was shared by seveni I female relations and chiefs ; but the same system has been, on the whole, maintained. Sinn I 1825, missionaries from the United States have made great efforts for the instruction of the I natives, and have established an extensive influence. Great commercial activity prevails I at Honororu, in the island of Woahoo, the only place in these islands deserving the naineofal town. It contains about 5000 inhabitants, nearly a hundred of whom are Anglo-Americans I and English. Besides ordinary traflic, numerous British and American whalers touch here. [ The following exhibits the amount in 1835 : — ConnlrlM. Arrived. Departed. Whaling VeaavU anircd. Vcwii. Torn. Value itf Cargoea. Veaieli. Ton«. Value of No CarKoei. ""• Tom. Brillih American Handwicll Illamb platen Chilian To'al 7 1 I 1 35 tK)9 fiO GO L. it.lOfl b;,!ioo 710 i.JOO In hallaat 11,000 17 l.iou .Til fill L. 1 SI ,110(1 10 5i:,.'soh nav ru. Al . The Harcha CCOgllit i> noi : Walk igator, \a bei more ni lid ; bu cd. Tl V common tHglm Ilia Alvaro Me ng long fo irtheriily g t the Amci ey were e y cMIci mil. ndana, rgotten Toup w icaii*« c xamiiit Ithe^ I'he fo who gi , they » II Ar>t Ucover dill IN( rclilpelago qf mer, long th ive to them th rere re-ditcov« visited, ill 1791 y being prior, h 4 with some i Mendat : only B name red an , by an ianam ■ttehtic la, contiiiti of tfi part known, tu of the Miirquiii/ d examiiiwl Kin Amcriran mml f of " WailiiiuM n by Kruii'iiilt" NATivn or TI Paht III. It fur more r|ue fissures jgcd pluin, columns of owly wind. rey, or red, ly cones, of ng on. At> I means con> vherc in the eir dark and mit vapours, :he wreathed »eh other by 50,000 ; l>ut, albi, in pre- laptain King He assigns X); to all the truth. The lands, appear they are oft graces. But 1 by diligence ease subsist] uUy improved hiefly subsists, therefore, art :tures, canoe- r general con- :e resentment, .stroiis conflict leir i;reat men 8. Hergest and their eftbrts to •eer they were of Vancouver, ly, which soon :d a small bod; lOn. His son, . Still farther Sngland, whcrs re seized with I lared by sevenl ntained. Sinn I itruotion of the | ictivity ptevai gthe name of 1 1 iglo- Americans I lers touch hen. Book V. POLYNESIA. 1593 tut and have ihice been frequently touched at by Brltiah and American fhl|M. Theie tilanda arc elevated, and the mountain!, rUing to the height of 40UU or 5000 Teet, are extremely broken and craggy, while a (andy belt extendi along the aea; but the Intermediate valleyt are singularly fprtlle and picturesque, coplouily watered wnich descend In numerous cascades, one of whli ' — • •• — - autifUl In the world. 6530, Tlie population has lieen estimated variously, and, indeed, rxtravasantly, since Forster assigned ■ " — off . .. d Diet by streams wlilch descend In numerous cascades, one of which, in Nukahiwa, being SOOO feet high, is among the most beautiful In the world. ettttll SI rrlYBl. Si»wni UiL nre»i. SOS SJj 1,669 5.9'i 1,S«7 6,WS, 1 »rt, conaislaoft"! iiart known,";! of the MarquiiJI il examini'il «il«l Amcrirsn inm" I • of" Waaliiiipi"! unby KruKiitiii'l 100,000 to the mere group of the Marquesas. The more careful olMcrvatlon of Krusenatem and other recent navigators has reduced this numlwr tol8,(X)0: the same Is assigned tuNukahiwa; while the other Wash- ington Islands may raice the whole somewhat above 40,000. Nature, in providing the people with the bread ftult, the cocoa nut, and the luinana, affords them subsistence almost without labour. They add only a few plantations of yams and taro. and reserve their chief labour for the plant which yields the liitoxiraling liquor aSkavia, and for that fVoin which their mats are fabricated. The domestic animals are hogs and poultry, the dog lieing wanting. The men of these islands are described as tall, robust, and the most flnely formed, of almost any known race. I'hey would not, it Is asserted, lose by a comparison with the most perfect models of ancient sculpture. Their complexion, even, is little darker than that of Europeans ; but it Is visible only In tlie youths, for the tattooing, practised over all the South Sea, la carried here to such a pitch, that the skin of the adult tiecomes the mere canvass of a picture. The operation begins at twelve or thirteen, but it is not till thirty or thirty-live that their person is entirely covered. The women have handsome features, but their gait Is slouching and their limbs ill formed : they have an air marked by eHVontery, and hold virtue In scarcely any estimation. The character of these islanders displays the usual contrasts of savage life ; In their ordinary Intercourse they are fVlendly, open, and engaging ; but they carry on war with the most deadly ferocity, piercing the brain of the vanquished enemy, and eagerly drinking his blood. The islands are divided among a number of Independent chiefs and tribes. The missionaries have made some attempts to cominiinicate Christianity and civilisation, but hitherto with little success. The different islands have received from their successive visiters rather a perplexing variety of names. Ohivahoa, the largest of the Marqiieaan group, is called also Santa Dominica i to which may be added the more frequented one of Tabouataor St Chriatina, and Tatouiva or Magdalena. The Waahington group, liesides its principal one, Nukahiwa, contains Ouabouga or Waahington, anil Ouapon, called also Adams or Trevanion. 6531. The Friendly Islands, a name which, notwithstanding the examples of Hassel and Balbi, we are unwilling to exchange for that of the Tonga Archipelago, form a fine and interesting group, considerably to the west of Otaheite. With a single exception, they pre- sent nothing of that lofty aspect, or those symptoms of volcanic origin, which distinguish the large islands hitherto described. They consist of a basis of madrepore, raised apparently from the bottom of the ocean, by the well-known action of insects ; and the coasts are encircled by dangerous coral reefs. The ground rises not in general more than 20 or 30 feet above the sea ; nor do the highest hills exceed 100 or 150 feet. Hence they are not, like the high islands, irrigated by copious streams ; and the people are in many places obliged to procure an inferior water from wells or ponds. Yet the soil is almost throughout ex- ceedingly rich ; and the natives carefully improve it, keeping their plantations in excellent order, adding to the spontaneous abundance of the banana and the bread fruit by the care- fill cultivation of the yam and other roots. These islands thus maintain a population which, though evidently overrated by Forster at 200,000, may probably be estimated in the Tonga group at 50,000, and in the others at 30,000 or 40,000. In the construction of their vessels they are scarcely equalled by any other natives of the South Sea. The double canoes, composed of pieces sewed together, are 60 or 70 feet long, and about 5 broad, a^ * the two parts, 6 or 7 feet asunder, being united by a platform, render the vessel spacious and commodious, while it is capable of navigating with safety even distant seas. The natives of the Friendly Islands {fig. 1098.) are of a dark brown complexion; the men are muscular, with broad shoulders, and the women are often deficient in delicacy of form and features ; but many of both sexes present models of almost perfect beauty, and their expression is generally mild and agreeable. Their character has lieen drawn in more flattering colours that that of almost any other people of the South Sea. Tlie name given by Captain Cook expresses his opi- nion of their disposition. Thdy seem to pos- sess the amiable qualities of the Otaheiteans, with a smaller measure of their faults. If neither their honesty nor the virtue of their females could withstand the temptations of European intercourse, among themselves both appear to be exemplary ; and their domestic attachments arc warm. Yet a more intimate observation has discovered among them all the darkest features of savage life. An European vessel, having fallen into their power, was plun- dered, and the crew murdered with merciless cruelty. Their wars are carried on with the utmost ferocity. They have a complicated system of superstition, worshipping upwards of 300 eatooas, or deities, which preside over the sky, the rain and other elements, and assume often the forms of serpents, iiiards, and dolphins. They believe also that the British have a national god, whom Ihey admit to be wiser and more powerful than theirs, from the fine cloth and ships he has taught them to make. A party of missionaries landed from the ship Duff were NATIVn or THB PRIBNDLV IRLAKM* 1534 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. at first well treated ; but the natives, having imbibed the superstitious idea that a pestilential disease owed its origin to them, put several to death ; and others perished in civil wars. They have been succeeded, however, by a party of Wesleyan missionaries, who have recently made very great progress,— having, at Vavaoo, a congregation of 2000, while, at Tongatalxw, they have established a printing press. The Friendly Islands are very numerous: including those of all sizes, they are supposed not to be fewer than 150. The largest, however, is not above seven miles in length. The principal in the Tonga group are, Tongataboo, Eooa, and Annamooka, called by Tasman, their first discoverer, Amsterdam, Middleburg, and Rou terdam. In another group is Tofoa, the only mountainous island, containing a volcano, which manifests some degree of activity. Lefooga, the principal of the numerous group of the Hapaee Islands, was long the residence of a chief who held sway over the others. Vavaoo, in another duster, is the second in size of the whole archipelago, and one of the most fruitful. 6U3. The Ftejtf, FidieM, or VUi Itlandi, situated to the north-west of the Tonga group, are so cloiely continuous, that they may properly be considered as forming part of the same archipelago. They were par. tially discovered, first by Tasman, afterwards by Cook, and have been more lUliy observed by Bllgli and lome American vessels : yet they are still very imperfectly known. To this chiefly it seems owing that they have not excited equal interest with thow just described ; for they are coi.siderably larger, and equally fertile and populous. Paoo, or Tacanovo, Is about aity leagues In circuit : It belongs to the class of high islands, \»\m traversed by mountainous ridges, though several members of the group are low and encircled by coral reefi. They abound In the usual Polynesian products, particularly In sandal-wood, which American ships have beguo to carry off in considerable Quantities for the market of China. The people, though not negro, are of a darker complexion than those of the Tonga Islands. Yet they do not appear to rank lower in arts and civlliaatlon; their canoes, their cloths and mats, are equal or superior to those of their neighbours. Some whom D'Entre. casteaux saw in Tonga appeared to him to have more character and Intelligence than the natives of that island. The deep ferocity with which they are branded may, perhaps, arise maiiily ftrom the light under which they have been viewed, and their being known chiefly through the report of their enemies. They are certalnljr a martial people. On going to battle Ihcy paint their faces ; and having bored the septum of the nuse, itict into it two large feathers. Their name Is terrible to the Tonga Islanders, with whom they wage Oequcnt war, Tliey were lately subject to Finow, but have mode themselves independent ; and the power Is now shared among several individuals. Besides Paoo, Nawihi, Lewu, and Meywoulla, are of considerable dimensloni, 6S33. The Navigalort' Islandt may also be considered as belonging to the Friendly Archipelago, of which they compose the north-east portion. They were partially seen by Mendana, then by Schouten, afterwardi more ftilly by Roggewein, who gave them the name of Bauman's Islands, changed since by Bougainville to Navigators* ; but the native name is Hamoa, or Samoa. The interior is elevated, and the rocks seem to ei. hibit marks of volcanic origin ; but the mountains are clothed to the summit with lofty trees, and the wooded valleys beneath, watered by numlwrless streams and rills, present an enchanting landscapie. These ireci, bearing the usual nutritious fruits, maintain the natives in plenty, which Is augmented by the great number of dogs, poultry, and hogs, of whi.. h lost Pirouse purchased SOO ftrom two Islands. The men are of almoil colossal height, and finely formed ; their complexion nearly white, though In the adults completely concealed by tattooing. In the construction of their houses and canoes they are at least equal to the other Polyneilani ; and their cloths are woven with skill not equalled in Otaheite. liespecting their moral qualities, the reporti have been very opposite. Roggewein paints their friendly and courteous disposition in terms as flattering ai have been applied to the most engaging of the South Sea Islanders : while Perouse represents them In the darkest colours. He had, indeed, too good reason ) since a partv, composed of Langlis, captain of the Astrolabe, Lamanon the naturalist, and nine others, who had landed on Maouna, were surprised, massacred, and their bodies treated with the most dreadftll Indignity. Their ferocity has been fomented and shared by convicts from New South Wales, one of whom Is said to have killed 200 Individuals with his own hand. Yet when the missionaries recently landed, they were surprised to meet a more cordial reception than in any of the other groups, and are In hopes of effecting a great reform. Fala, Oyalava, and Maouna, are the largeil Islands, and may rank with the most considerable in the South Sea. Mr. Williams estimates the population ofthe whole at 100,000. 6&34. ne Caroline! form a very extensive and numerous range, the most western of Polynesia, and extend. ing for upwards of 30 degrees, or about SOOO miles. They lie north, while the Society and Friendly Isiandi are south, ofthe equator, A few of them are hig'i and peaked, though they do not attain the alpine elevation of those of Eastern Polynesia, being supposed not to rise much above 3000 feet : all the others are low and of cural formatlou. They have l>een among the latest and moat Imperfectly known In the South Sea. They were discovered, first in 1^, by Francisco Lozeano, driven thither by a storm from the Ladrones, who gave the nameaftar Charles of Spain. Since that time there has been ■\ considerable Intercourse between the tio ftoups i and the shipwreck of Captain Wilson, In I7H3, made us acquainted with the ?elew islands. The rench commanders Freycinet and Duperrey have recently made valuable observations on these iaiaudi. In productions, they resemble the rest of Polynesia, except that the bread-fruit abounds onfy in the eastern Islands ; and the hog is unknown unless in the Pelew group, where it has been introduced by Europeans i so that fish forms almost the only animal food. They are situated in a most tempestuous ocean, exposed to violent hurricanes, one of which often sweeps away the entire produce of an islana ; yet the people are still more at home on the waves than even the rest of the South Sea islanders. Besides drawing from them a copious sup. ply of fish, they equip large barks with sails, and by the aid only of the stars navigate across these stormy seal to the Laidrones. There they obtain iron and some European manufactures, part of which is anern,irdi exchanged with the more easterly islands for bread-iVuit. Hogoleu, Yap, Oualan (first visited by Captain Duperrey, and found possessed of a very considerable degree of civilisation), and Pounipet, discovered by the Russians in IBM, are high islands, and the largest In the archipelago. The group containing I'Ica, La- mouriek, and Oullmirak, though composed only of low coral Islands, Is distinguished by the sill of the natives In navigation. Their vessels are superior tc> those In the rest of the archipelago ; and it is by them chiefly that the communication w.th the Ladrones is maintained, by means of a small annual fleet which ren- desvouses at Lamouriek. 6S3.t. Lord Mulgrnve't Islands form a group so closely adjoining on the cast to the Carolines, that they can scarcely be considered otherwise than as a branch of that great archipelago. They were flrst found out by Captains Marshall and Gilbert, in a circuitous voyage from Port Jackson to Canton ; afterwards mure fully examined, in 1817, by Kotzebue, who discovered the important Isles of Hadack and Itulik, They consist ofa crowd of low coral islets, raised, like the others, by a peculiar process from the bottom of the ocean. The In- terior rises Into verdant hillocks, but the Immediate coast Is sandy ; water Is found only In deep wells, and li wanting in some Islands, though others are Irrigated by streamlets. Hence no luxuriant variety of vegetation is displayed, and the chief dependence is upon the pandanus, whose hill-formed trees, yielding a juicy aro- matic fruit, are seen growing on the most arid shores. The cocoa nut. In scanty supply. Is employed only for ropes and sails. The islands are entirely destitute of land animals, except rats, which are numerous, and •ometimes eaten u food. They are peopled up to the limited resources which luture aSbrda. The naliveisre Book V. ISLANDS IN THE TOLAU SEAS. 1535 dncrlbcd under more amiable colour! than almoit any other In the South fk'ai, u lyicndly, courtcoui, and amiable ; flrce from the thlevUh |iropcnaitlci and diiioluto conduvt which arv Ihvre to Rcncral. The parti. culan muit be counted, not by inland!, hut by groupi ; Ihoie of Hadaok and Itallk, dliirovcrni by the Ituuiana, being the moat important Tnoac of Gilbert, SlmiMon, and Itlihop, llirlhvr to lliu luuth and cait, have received their namea IVom Uritiah dlacovcrcra. 653G. The Pelew Islands form a wcatern branch of the Caroline ArohliiolnRn, not materially dinVrIng in character. They arc of moletely a imrudlBe; and though this Imi.rcasion WM evidently much Heightened by the previous long and exhausting voyages, they teem really to (Hiaacti all t'ic advantagea of the moat favoured Polynesian groups. They arc iKoderateiy elevated ; .but the mnunUInt In tho centre do not rite much above SOUUfcct, and from them the surface desrends by terraces to tho snore, which, like others In these seas, i« iKgirt with dangerous coral reefs. It is covered, for the moat |>art, with the rich vegetation (xcuiiar to these climates ; and though Europeans at first found the islands destitute of any useful quadruped, the Spaniard! have introduced with auccesa not only those of Euroiw, but the guanaco l>om l>orU| and tho deor flrom the Phi- llppinea. The natives in the three principal islanda, estimated, on the diirovery, Kt4U,O0U, were a remarkable wopic, who had, in aome respects, made greater progress In the artt than tho other South Sea ttlandera. They were. Indeed, very Inferior to the Otahelteant in clothing, the men Iwlng almoit naked, and the women wearing only a amall apron ; and their household furniture, though neat, wai very limited ! but their egricul. ture and canoeHjullding were fully equal ; and they had tho remarkable in|)orlorlty of poaietaing a rude ipccies of coin, and of having erected tpacioui structure! dedicated lecmlngly to rcligloui purpoiei. Thcie were compoted of an iimer and outer range of pyramidal column!, crowned by ■ lemlclrcular dome i the whole composed of sand and stone, cemented together and covered with gy|uum. Civilisation wai also IndU cated by the high rank held by the female sex, wno were exempted not only from cpprrssivc labour, but flrom the degradation connected with the practice of |iolygamy. The win>. If allghloti, could return to her parcnta, canying with her the whole of the household goods; while, if aho herself iiroviNl unndthhil, the huaband might indeed kill her seducer, but was obliged to send her hninu unlnjuriil. When the Spaniards, in 1678, foraicd an eitabliihment in these ialanda as a place of refreshment fur the Manilla galleon, tlicy endeavoured SI usual, to impose their sway and their religion on the niitivea, who strvniiously resisted both: and In the struggle the greater part of tliem were exterminated. A few niund rel^ige in llic Carolines ; others fell lictims to pestilential diseases ; and the small remnant can scarcely be dittlngulshvtl from their conquerora. Tlnian, so celebrated by Anson, is overgrown with forests, amid which the rulna of ita simcloui editlcea can with difficulty be traced. The population of the three prlncl|)al Islands was found, In 1816, to consist of only 5389 individuals, composed chiefly of S|ianiards, Tagalaa flrom Manilla, and Indian! flrom Peru. Agrigan, tiu> oapital. In the island of Guam, contained 3115 of thu number. Chap. III. ISLAKDS IN THE rOLAR SKAR. 6538. To complete the description of the detached and in«ular portions of tho globe, there remain still a considerable number of large islands, situated in the atormy seas by which the two poles are encircled. Although these regions bo dreary, dcsolnte, and almost uninhabited, I ihey present features which strongly attract the interest and curiosity of mankind, and have induced many daring adventurers to explore and navigate these rvmottt coasts and seas. Sect. I. General Outline and Aspect. 6,539. The Polar Islands are situated partly in the seas round tho North, partly in those round the South Pole. The former, lying within tho Arctic Circle, are by much the most numerous and extensive. Commencing from the eastward, wo find Nova Zembla, rincliing northward from the boundary of Europe and Asia ; Spitailicrgcn, called sometimes East Greenland, tlie most northern land yet visited ; West Greenland, a mass of territory possessing almost the magnitude of a continent, and long supposed to bo part of America, fVotn wliich, however, it now proves to be entirely disjoined ; lastly, tho rnngo of the Georgian Islands, discovered by Captain Parry, of which the principal oro Cornwallis, Uuthtirst, Melville, and 5 F 1536 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHY. Pakt III. Banks's Land, the boundaries of which lost arc yot unknown. In tho Antarctic Ocean, on the contrary, where a new continent was long sought and oipvctcd, no oitvnslvc boily of land has yet been discovered ; but there are some considerable islands, or groups, particu- larly New Georgia, New South Shetland, and the New Orknuvs. All lliese tracts are vither insular, or broken by deep bays and sounds, formed, probably, by ihu violent stonns and currents which beat continually against their shores, and which are sup|H)svd, in many cawt, to penetrate entirely across the most solid masses of land. The aspect of these regions ii usually mountainous, presenting long and bold promontories to tlio stormy seal by wliich they are surrounded, and often also enclosing spacious and secure harltours. * 6540. The air and dementi, which, in other parts of tho world, are only accessaries, form here the leading objects, giving their gloomy stamp to the whole region. Snow falU occasionally in the very heart of summer, and before tho end of autumn it U'sins to descend in a continued succession of showers, till every object it buried iHineath it, and nature exhibits only a monotonous surface of daziling white, which remains, according to the latitude, for six, seven, or eight months. At the same early i-nitioA ice begins to bind, first the streams and freshwater lakes, then tho enclosed bays and arms of the ui, till at length it fixes its chains even upon the broad surface of the ocean. In June and July, indeed, when the sun becomes vertical, and constantly alwve tho horiion, the icy mauo] dissolve, and burst asv nder often with a tremendous crash } but some portions, more Arml; consolidated than the rest, remain unmelted, and produce romnrkahle phenomena. In particular situations on the coast, the ice of successive years is piled into glaciers, whicli rise often to a great height, till, their foundation being undermined by tho waves, they descend into the water, and are carried out by wind and tide into the open sea ; there they form to the mariner a bright and fearful spectacle {Jig- 1099.), reflecting the rays of light in varied and beautiful tints, but threatening by their contact to dash his vessel to pieces. Somew times they are borne by winds and currents to a great distance, and even into lower Iiti. tudet, where they appal the navigator sail- ing through the temperate seas. In other cases, portions of the n^icn surface of the sea, remaining firm while all around them is melted, become fields or jRoea, which float through the deep, and, being often driven by the tempest with terrific violence, cause instant destruction to tho stoutest vessel. 6541. The primlion of light forms a sin- gular and gloomy circumstance in the arctic abodes. For two, three, or four months, the sun never appears above the horiion ; out continued night reigns. Yet there arc not wanting objects to cheer this lengthened gloom, and to give a bright and even fairy splendour to the polar sky. Tho moon and stin ahine through the clear frosty air with peculiar brightness; halocB and other lutninoui meteors are more frequent and more vivid than in lower latitudes ; and, above all, the aurora borealis fills the arctic atmosphere with its coruscations of playfiil light. The Ion; day of summer, during which the sun never sets, can scarcely be niunvd as a compensation for the wintry gloom ; yet, during a period of spring and autumn, when it wheels a pcrpetuil circle immediately above the horizon, it paints the skies with hue* more brilliant and varieii than those which adorn those of any other climate. Sect. II. Natural Geographi/, 654S. The Polar regions are chiefly clistinguiihed by the almost mlire ahsmtf at those nrodiictloni whitt I come under the head of natural history. The few which arc found thvui are common to them wilhlhtl rontinental countries, already dcscribctl, that are situated in very hiKh latitudes,— .Sweden, Kuropcau Iluiiii, I Silieria, the northerly regions of America, and the most southern parts of that coiitlneiit Sect. III. Historical Geographif, 6543. Theie regions were discovered much later than any other, and were. Indeed, till 1 1 very recent era, entirely unknown. The only ancient navigator that appears to htn | turned his efTorta in this direction, was Pytheas of Marseilles, who steered his daring siil [ towards the extreme northern boundaries of the earth. But when he reached Tliule, wbicli| we conceive to be Shetland, the dreary aspect of nature, the gloomy mists In which hewul involved, and the sinister reports of the natives, led him to helievo that ho had approaclied| as near as mortal could to that formidable limit. Some learned moderns have imagini ' Thulc to be Iceland, but, as we apprehend, without any good foundtttion. 6544. During the middle ages, the Danes and Swedes, under the terrible appellation ('I Northmen, undertook, on a great scale, distant voyages, and filled with their fleets ail ih-'l seas of Europe. Their object, however, was not discovery, but first plunder, and tlicnron-f quest; and their direction was towards the rich and smiling regions of the loutii, not tusliorol 101 ISLAND. Part III. Book V. ISLANDS IN THE POLAR SEAS. laav ! OcMn,on Wo botl^of pi, iwrticu- W arc vitlin otonns and mtiny cowi, e regions is u by wliich utaricR, form Snow fulls it to ilcKCend iknd nnturt rding to the c bogiiu to !• of the set, In June and he icy maMci , more flrinl; noinuna. In Inciurs, which , tlicy descend I they form to ight in varied I ening by their pieces. Some- It nnd currents nto lower latl- navigator sail. CA8. In other I KUrface of the II around them oes, which float ig often driven violence, cause { ^utest vessel. At forms a sin- iccinthcaKticI L< horison ; one (tliuncd gloom, noon and sttn >ther luminoui above nil, tli« ;lit. The long I compensatiot I >vls a pcrpctuil iant and varied iroductlom whitli I tlicm with I™ I European Kuiiii, I . indeed, till 1 1 ppears to h»« I his doring sjil dTlmlCtwliit'l wldch \\«i^\ hadapproachrfl have imagined I c appellation!' cir fleets all th!' ', nnd then con- th, not to shots ■till more bleak and dreary than their own. In RCl, liowever, Nadodd, n pirate, discovered Iceland, whither a colony, composed of exiled Norwegian chieftains, was soon after sent. These remote settlements became even seats of science, aflbrding a refuge to learned men amid the distracted state of Europe during the feudal ages. Colonies from Iceland settled on the coast of Greenland. Several citizens of Venice, during the flourishing era of that republic, particularly Zeno and Quirini, appear to have penetrated into the north seas, where they encountered severe shipwrecks; but they did not materially extend the range of knowledge in that direction. 6545. 7%« ilucovery of the East ul('(']t of human enterprises; yet it ia umlertalten with alacrity by our hardy tars. For this pur|iosp, fleets of Uigi I •hips, wrii equipped with boats, Hiipk, harpoons, and sppnrs, are annually sent into the northern seas. '1 lint, each vessel, with all its boats, is constantly on the watch ; and when the alarm is given of a whali; lieini descried, all fly to the onset. The tiri-t object la to strike into the animal the sharp instrument called tho liar. poon, which has a lo:ig iii expires. The carcase, being altachcil to the sides of the siiip, hfliiued, or the lilulil3l,2'J2/., or 175,000/. annually. The British flsherv, during Its most |iioi. uerous period, very much exceedetl this amount. In the Ave years ending 1818, It yielded an nverate{< 68,940 tuns of oil and 3420 tons of whalebone ; which, as the oil was then valued at SfJ. I0«., and the liones 90<., formed an amount of 3,834,110/. or .Viri,822/. per annum. In the peculiarly fortunate year of IHU.ii exceeded 700,000/. Since that time, the use of gas, and the substitutiim of rnpe and other oils In the woolla manufacture, has coDSiderably reduced the demand and consequent production. In tho year 1829, it wu- 10,672 tons of oil, at 2U. • - 360,800 8071 tons of whalebone, at 180/. I0U,3M> a76,l&0/. Oeneralhr speaking, the fishery Is, for tho proprietors, a very speculative and adventurous trade : acrordli|| to the skill of the olflcera, or to mere accident, a ship may return clean, or empty ; or it may brine howil cargo worth .VJOO/. or 6000/. : an instance has occurred in which the value amounted to 1 1 ,000/. The llli^l wrecks, which are so frequent, involve at once the failure of a cargo and the entire loss of a vessel vorill 6000/. or 8n N. Int. I •iac, convert two larg are rocky, and compoi their (uminits by the BwM V. ISLANDS IN THE POLAR SEAa 1J30 ) peculiar coating Sect. VI. Civil and Social Slate. (i,'iM. Human loelfty. In (hli bleak extremity at tlic earth, exIiU In the riideit rarm, (nd on tlio mmt limited Kslc. The unaratvt'in loll ref\ue« tn man any luiiiiort i liiit the hiiRe amphibia, particularly the leal and the walrui, with which the ahorpt nrc crowilcil, bolnii attacked with a nkiil and dlllRencc prnmplol by nrreulty, yield a prvcarioui yet not scanty iulwUtciice. All the arctic rcgidiii arc peiiplcd by that iHtiilinr rnic called buiuimaux, whom we have already dcHrlbcil, on the authority uf t'aptaln I'arry, in our lurvcy of the north- erly coaati of America. 'I'hc Krcater number of them, not belonKlUK to America, are l'r>unil on that cxtcnalvo HUM of land cailcil Went (Ircenliind. The do .ilnlon of thii rcKion la clalmnl by Denmark, which maintalna aloiiK the ahore a lew acntlcrcd sctllcmenta, -.iLiiiileil each by a handled of Danea, who often intermarry with the nativea. They employ Ihemaelvea in capturing the acal, and In exchnnginK with the peopie aomo Lurojiean gooda for akina, blubber, fuathera, and the tuaka of the narwal. A veasel cornea annually from the imilher country, bringing iiroviaiona ami the matcrlala of trade, and receiving the above articlcii A few miaalnnarlea, chieHy Moravlun, have employed their ploui labour! In tho converiron of the natlvei i but their lucceu hu been limited. SiCT. VII, Local Geography, fi.'i.'i.'i. Thf heal dftallt of the arctic reglona arc cxtenalvc and icattered, but do not pretent many pcru. liaritlea which will re<|Uire long to ilclain ourattentlon. We ihall begin with the Oeorglan lalanda, diacovered by Captain I'arry In the aea tn the north of America. (WSf). Mflvl/lc Jaland, tlio moat we«tcrly of theae, upward! of 100 mllei both in length and breadth, and in latitude l^P N., ia m>.'morablc aa containing the apot where Captain Parry apent two ycara, and braved with iiiccoaa the extrcmcal rigour of an arctic winter. The fun dlaap|)cared on the 4th of November, and waa not aeen till the M uf February following. During thia Interval, land and aea were alike covered with a monotonnui lurfaec of anow, and the thermometer averaged about fiP below the fVeezlng |Miiiit. Yet the Engiiah olflcera, when duly clothed, and when there waa no drift, were able to walk in the open air fur two or three houra n day: and, by Judlciuua prccautiona, their health and thnt of the acamen waa perfectly preaerved. In May the anow begina to melt, and mi June it cover! the country with poola : but It la not till Augual that the Aea becomea open ; and, before October, winter haa again commenced. No mhabitanta were found here, or on any of thia range of lalanda. The only anlmala which appeared during the winter were a pack of hungry wolvea, which hovered round theBrltiah vcaacla In hope of plunder; ami It waa not till the middle of May that the huntera met with lome ptannigana, and taw the footatepa of deer. Vegetable production! were few and ihort.lived. 65.'>7. A tueresifon of islandt extend eaatward ttora the one now dcicribed ; drat the amall one of Byam Martin, then that of Hathurat, almoat equal to Melville ; and next Coriiwallla, also of cnnaideralilc aiip. Only the Bouthern coaata were aecn by Captain I'arry, aa he aalled along ; and their aapcct appears cloaely to reaemble Melville laland. Cornwallia la aeparated by Wellington Channel from an extcnaive coaal, which re<'eivcd the name of North Devon, and reachea to tho ahorea of liaifin'a Day ; but whether It forma a continuoua tract with Grceidand, or ia comiiosed of one or more lalanda, remains yet to be diacovered. 'I'he coaata up|x)8itii to those now dcacribed, which apiwarcd to Captain Parry to be insular, have been discovered by Captain Kosi to form part of the continent of America. KM. Greenland, long suppoaed to be part of America, til) Captain Parry ascertained its complete diajunc. tion, forma the largeat known extent of laiiil not belonging to the four continent!. From Cape Farewell, in lat. fiOo, it atrctcne! northward for the ascertained length of I!) degrees, with an indcflnlte extent beyond : while the general breadth U about a'i degrees of longitude. It remains uncertain, indeed, whether several of the deep Inlet! which indent the coaat, may not penetrate entirely aeroaa ; yet they would thu! very allghtly break the vaat continuity of land. liut thia wide region la, of all other!, Icaat valuable to man, producing icarccly anything which can minister to his comfort, or even existence. Ila aapect la, throughout, ot that dreary character deacribcd aa belonging to the arctic world. It Is claimed by Denmark, which, aa already mentioned, has farmed along itc western cooat aeveral Fmall aettlemcnta, of which the prin- cipal are, in the aouthern i>art, Julianahaab, Statenliuk, (iixlthaali, and New Hcrnhut, the aeat of the mia. lionarlea; in the northern, Egedeaminde, Umanak, Oiierniwick. Farther north still. Captain Itoss diacovered ndlitrlct which he named the Arctic Highlands. The Inhabitanta, who had never before acen an Kuropcan, were aelzed with the utmoat astonishment, especially at the ships, which they at first imiigincd to be huge birds with wings. They were found to diflfer from the other Laquimaux in being destitute of boala ; for though much of their food ia drawn from the aea, they obtain it by merely walking over the frozen aurf'ace. They have the advantage, however, of poasesaing iron, fVom which they frame inatrumenta much more powerful than thoae made of twnc by othera of their race. They difl'er greatly from them also In having a kmg, who ii beloved, and to whom they pay a tribute of aeala, train oil, and fish. The cilHii on their coaat preaent the remarkable phenomenon of red anow, the nature and origin of which bai excited much controversy among the learniii in Europe. 6,TO. The eastern coast, extending southward from Iceland to Cape Farewell, bai excited a remark.iblo Intercat in consequence of having been believed to be the seat of earlv and flourishing colonies, which vast fields of Ice shut out from the civilised world. Several expedition! were sent by the Danish government to discover " lost Greenland," but without success, till that lately perforn-ed by Captain Graah. He discovered no trace of them ; but the inhabitanta, while they reseml)led th(! Esquimaux in their mode of life, had the European aipect and features. Tlie coast appeared tliinly Inhabited, and not penetrated by any deep bays. It did not appear to him that the colonies could be situated in this quarter \ but on this sulyect difference of opinion still prevail!. To the north of Iceland, however, a range of coast, 400 miles in length, between fiS° andTS", waa lately surveyed by Mr. Scoresby and Captain Ciavcrlng. The most remarkable part was called the Mverpool Coaat, along which riaea a mountain chain 3000 or 4000 feet high, forming precipitous cliffa, which terminate in numberless ncaka, cones, and pyramids. Like other arctic shores, it Is penetrated by very deep inlets, particularly one called Scoreaby'a Sound, a branch from which ia supposed to convert the Liver- pool coaat into an Island. The tract on the opposite side was called Jameson's Land, bounded on the south by Cape Hooker, and beyond which another sound branched off, which appeared likely to render it also insular. This inlet appeared atretching into the interior without any apparent termination j and there is lorae room to conjecture that it may communicate with Jacob's Bight on the western coast, wliieli Sir Charles Gifseck6 traced to the height of ISO miles. No natives were seen i but there appeared every whereitiarks of recent Inhabitation, and even amall villagea, composed of subterraneous winter abodes. Captain Claverlng afterwards surveyed a part of the coaat lying fartiicr to the northward. He found it bold, mountainous, and deeply Indented with bays ; but its aspect was dreary and desolate in the extreme. Yet, on landing upon an inlet named after Sir Walter Scott, he met a party of natives bearing all the general characters of the Ksquimaux race, and who, by their extreme alarm and surprise, showed tliat they had never before been tUited by Europeans. The coast waa traced as high aa 7!i°, and waa aeen extending atiil northward as far ai the eye could reach. , , .„„ „ . MCO. Spitxbereen, called often East Greenland, is a large island in the Arctic Sea, lying about GOO liies east otthat now described. It ia about 300 milea from aouth to north, and '200 from east to west, anu reachc! beyond HO^ N. lat. It ia of an irregular form, and broken by deep baya and aounds, which, on the eastern lide, convert two large portions into islands, ciiied Edge and Seland. Its cliffs, several thousand feet high, are rocky, and composed in a great measure of loose atonea ; and though the anow In summer Is melted from their summit! by the heat of tho aun, it continue! long to liein the deep valley!. The country li wholly uu- 5 F :j '»:-; 1540 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. Book V. IJOO productive, but aboundt in the deer, the walrui, and other arctic animali. Spitibergen, however, haa been much Oequcnted by the maritime nationi, having been long the chief and almost sole scat of the whale llshcry. with this view its western bays were fiercely disputed, till an agreement was made by whicli the English and Dutch divided between them the principal stations. The latter fouHded the village of Smeercn- berg, where they landed the whales and extracted the oil ; and it became so flourishing as to be considered almost a northern Batavio. The whales, however, tauglit by the destructiv^T war waged against then deserted all the bays one after another ; and it was necessary to carry on the fishery in the open sea. Even then they fled Oom one quarter to another, till the whole .SpiUbergen sea was neatiy /hAed out; and it became necessary, notwithstanding the increased danger, to remove the chief scene of operations to Davis Strait* The coasts of .Spitzlwrgcn have also formed the route by which Phipps, Buchan, and Parry made their ittcmpti to penetrate to the pnlc. The latter reached nearly to 83° N. lat., and found the sea in August all covered wiili ice, but broiien, siniiing, and interspersed with lanes of water. At this utmost limit every trace of animal life had disappeared. A few Russian hunters take up their abode on the dreary shores of Spitibergen, where they continue even during the winter, occupied in the pursuit of the seal and the walrus. 6561. Nona ZeniNa is another large mass of insular land, extending north from theboundary of Europeand Asia, between t%° and 74° N, lat., 53^ and 70° E. long. Though more southerly than Spitsbergen, it huaa 8S|>ect, if possible, still more dreary. The southern coasts are low and flat ; but those to the north arc bor- dered by mountains wr.ippcd in perpetual snow. It is less penetrated by sounds, though one running east and west reachet entirely across, dividing it into two nearly equal partik The coasts have been chiefly flrequenied by navigators, who sought In this direction a passage to India, but commonly found their career arrested on these dreary shores. Barentz and his crew wintered in a haven on the north-eastern coast, where they lur. fered the most extreme hardships, to which the commander flnally fell a victim. The Russian goveninieiit have recently sent expeditions under Lasarefl', Litke, and other navigators, to complete the exploration of the coast, but have not made any attempt to form a settlement upon it 6562. The islands V the Southern Polar Sea, to which M. Balbi has given the somewhat too pompoui title of the Antarctic Archipelago, extend chiefly south-east flrom the extremity of the American contincni They present the same general character as the arctic lands, with some variations. Though situated in a comiMratively low latitude, which in the northern hemisphere admits of habitation and culture, they ate utterly dreary and desolate, buried in ice and snow, and not tenanted by a single human being. Their shores, however, are still more crowded with those huge amphibia, whose rich coating of oil renders them a tempt. ing prize. Hence they have become the object of European avarice, which, durhig the few years that have elapsed since the islands were known, has made dreadful havoc among these animals, and greatly thinned their numben. The walrus is here replaced by the sea elephant, a still huger creature, and richer in oil ; and the seals have a fine fUrred skin, for which the Americans have obtained six or seven dollars apiece in the market of China. These shores are equally distinguished for the legions of sea-birds ofgigantic site and peculiar form; among which the penguin and the albatross are the most remarkable. The lands, on the whole, are smaller than in the north, more broken into islands, and as deeply indented by bays, forming man; excellent harbours. 6563. The Matoutne or Falkland Iilandu, though situated only a little beyond 50° &, the latitude of Eng. land, bear alF the characters of an antarctic group ; rocky, destitute of inhabitants, but crowded with seals, and containing very fine ports. On one of these the English formed a settlement in 1766 j but it was destroyed, in 1770, by a S|kinish expedition from Buenos Ayres. Measures have lately been taken for again forming one on a small scale. There are two large islands, Falkland and Solcdad, with a great number of islets. The flsiieries on these coasts have lately acquired considerable importance Mr. Wcodeli states, that in 18:21 and 1822, they yielded iHO tons elephant oil ; and that there were drawn fVom them and from New South Shetland together 320,000 fUr seal skins. The fine harbours are often touched at by vessels pusing round Cape Horn, or to the southern fisheries. The Falkland Islands produce several peculiar shells, among which is the rare Cymbiola magellanica, or MageL lanic Volute. {Jig. 11(10.) A gigantic species of Limpet, with a perforation in the middle, and beautifully rayed with brown, is also common : it is the Fissurella picta of Lamarck, 6361. South Georgia, situated to the east of the Falkland Islands, and nearly in the same latitude, is a large island, about 90 miles long by 10 broad, but bearing a character exactly similar. Discovered in 1675 by La Roche, it was carefiilly surveyed in 1771 by Cook, while searching for an austral continent It wai then almost forgotten till the abundance of its seals and sea elephants attracted the notice of those engaged In the southern fisheries. The pursuit was carried on with such activity, that, according to Captain Wcddell, the London market was in a few ',ears supplied hence with 20,000 tuns of oil, while 1,200,000 f\ir seal skini were also carried off: But the chase of the sea elenhant was prosecuted with such reckless avidity, without sparing even the pregnant mothers, that they have been nearly extirpated, and the trade ruined. 6565. New South Shetland, with the smaller adjoining group of the New Orkneys, being situated in filOand 63° S. lat, are scarcely nearer the |>ole than the British islands after which they are named ; yet their climate is that of Greenland and Spitibergen ; islands of ice are tossing through the seas, and the land ii peopled only by those animal forms peculiar to the antarctic circle. These, however, since the discovery by Captain Smith, of BIyth, in 1818, have attracted numerous adventurers, who have carried off" great quamltiei of oil and seal skins ; but by their improvident pursuit have greatly thinned the supply. There are twclie considerable isles, of which the principal are named Barrow, King George, and Livingston, with innumerable rooky islets. The land is moderately high, one peak rising to ^500 feet; while elsewhere there is a volcanic cone, which rises only to 80 feet Deception Isle contains a very fine harbour. The New Orkneys coiiiitt of ■ large island called Pomona, or Mainland, and of many smaller ones. Farther to the east are a number of small islands, which, being at first supposed to form a continuous coast, were named Sandwich Land. Again, to the south of New .Shetland, in almut lat. t°, a Russian captain, Beilinghausen, lately observed a range of coast, which he named Trinity Land, but which may probably be found to consist also of a cluster of lilandi Two liusdian frigates also, in 1829, penetrated to 60° S. lat, where they found two islets at some diilance from each other, which they named Peter I. and Alexander I., and which form the most southerly spots of land yet known to exist. 6566. Among arctarctic islands we must also reckon Kerguelcn's, or Desolation, situated far to the cast of those now descrilx-d, in long. 70° E., and the moderate lat of 50°. It resembles exactly New Georgia and South Shetland. Captain Cook's party, who carefully examined it, were astonished at its scanty llora, ■mounting only to sixteen species, mostly mosses and lichens ) but they were struck by the multitude of am. phibious animals with which its shores were peopled. This has lately attracted the attention of the advcn. turers in the southern fishery, who, according to Captain Weddell, have recently drawn from it supplies nearly as large as fVom New Georgia. We may finally mention the solitary islet of Tristan d'Acunha, situated to the west of tlie Caiw of GoojI floi>c, in the low latitude of .38°. By the picturesque description of Mr. lOarlc. who w;is driven thither by shipwreck, it appears indeed to contain rich pastures, on which Euro|iean cattle thrive; yet the bleak storms of a long winter, and its shores crnwdetl with the sea elephant, the [Xinguin, and the albatross, mark its affinity to the antarctic regions now described. A settlement formed there by the , English has been abandoned} yet a very few individuali are still induced to reside on It by the facility of | lubiistenca MA0BI.fJkN10 VOLUTR. TABLI The Latitttdes Names of Places, lAalborg . . lAarhus • AbbevUle . Aberdeen, Mar. ColL > Abo Aboukir Tower Acapuico Acheen Head Acre . Adalia, Pier Head Adelsberg - Aden Cape - Admiralty Isle Adria . . AfVica - . AfVican Isles, S. Isle Agde . Agen • Agimere 'Agnes (St) L Agra ■ Agria . Aigues. Mortes Aire - Aix • • Aix Isle AJaccio . . Akerraan . Coo Albano . . Albany . . AIbi . Alcala de Henarei ■ Alcmaer Aleppo • Alexander Port Alexandrctta {Alexandria . Algesiras {Algiers Light. house Algoa Bay, Cape Recif Alicante Almagucr . jAlmcria A lost . . Altdoif • . Altengaard . Altona - Amasaero . AmboynaBay, KortVictorIa Ambrose (St.) Islo Den Den Frai Scot Finl Egy] Mex Sum Syrii T^irj At Geni Aral Pacl. lUly Barb India Oo Fran( Frani India Scilly India Hun) Frani Frant Fran< Fram Corsit Russi Eui Italy Unite Stat Franc Spain Nethc Turki Asi W. C( AfV 'urki Asi Egypt Spain Barba S.Coa Afr Spain iWa Spain Belgii Oermi Laplai Oermi Turke Asii Indiar chin Pacifi( Occ TABLE OF LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES. Tlie Latitudes of Places, with their Longitudes from the Meridian of the Royal Observatory at Greenwich. NamaofFtaco. Countc, &c. Latitude. Longitude. NamaaofFlaces. Caunui,&c LaUtudc. lyjogltude. Aalborg . . Denmark - §, ^^N gjiiillE Amiens Prance O / // 49 63 41 N '1 18 i'l E Aarhui - . Denmark • i6 935N 10 14 5 E Amoy Harb., Qhinese Sea 24 10 ON 118 10 E Abbeville . France SO 7 4N 1 49 58 E Chapel Isle Aberdeen, ScoUand ■ 57 8 56 N 2 5 42W Amsterdam Holland - 52 22 17 N 4 53 IS E Mar. ColL - Amsterdam Indian Ar- 19 90 S 132 15 E Abo . Finland - 60S7 ION 22 20 15 E Isle chipelago Ind. Ocean Aboukir Egypt . . 31 19 44 N .30 17 16 E Amsterdam 37 48 S 77 25 OE Tower laland Acapulco - Mexico • 16 50 19 N 99 49 18 W AnamourCape Turkey in 36 050N 32 51 OE Acheen Head Sumatra . 636 ON 95 19 OE Asia Acre • Syria . - Turkey in 32 54S5N 35 6 20 E Ancona - • Italy - - 43 37 54N 13 29 7 E AdaUa,l>ier 86 52 16 N 3045 3E Andaman Isle Bay of Ben- 13 34 ON 93 9 OE Head AdeUberg - Asia Germany • 45 38 ION 14 23 25 E ^reat),NE, gal Aden Cape - Arabia • IS 43 SON 45 14 OE Andaman Isle Bay of Ben- 10 26 ON 98 40 OE Admiralty lale Adria ■ . Pad. Ocean lUly . . Barbary • 2 11 45 S 45 8 57 N 146 12 2 E 12 3 55 E (UtUe), SE. gal Afl-ica - . 35 30 ON 11 6 SE Anderson's 1. Sea of Kara. 63 4 ON 167 38 OW AOican Ules. Indian 465 S 64 9 OE tschatka S. Iile Ocean Andrew's (St) Cyprus 35 41 40 N 34 37 26 E Agde • Prance 43 18 40 N 3 28 10 E Cape Agen - France 44 12 S2 N 036 35E Andrew's (St) Pacific 520 ON 138 16 E Agimere India . . S6 35 ON 76 20 OE Isles Ocean Agnea (St) I. Scilly Isles 49 54 ON 6 19 OW Anegada Isle, NW. Point Caribbee 18 46 ON 64 26 OW Agra - Agria - . India ■ ■ 27 18 SON 78 17 E Isles Hungary . 47 S3 54 N 80 21 46 £ Angers . France - - 47 28 9 N 033 OW Aigues. Morte* b'rancc > . 43 33 58N 4 1122 E Angoulime . France 45S8S7N 9 16E AnnaPequina W. Coaat of 26S7 S 15 16 E Aire • Prance - . 4S 4] 62 N 15 36W AMca Aix . . Prance • . 43 31 48 N 5 S6 47 E Angiiilla Isle, NE. Point Caribbee 18 16 ON 63 830W Aix Isle - Prance 46 1 38N 1 10 41 W lales Aiacclo . . Akerman • Moraica 41 SS IN 8M 4E Anhnlt Tight- Denmark - 66 44 SON n 38 51 E Ruaaia in 46 12 ON 3044 OE houae Europe Anjenga India . - 8 39 SON 77 OE Albano . . Italy • . 41 43 SON 12 38 15 E Annan Spire Scotland - 64 59 23 N 3 14 46W Albany • ■ United States 42 38 38 N 73 4* 60 W Annobona I., High Peak Atlantic Ocean 1 28 24 S 5 SO OE Albi . . Prance 43 5S46N 2 8S3E Ann's (St) W. Coast of 8 10 ON 13 50 0W Alcala de Spain • . 40S8 40N S23 22W Shoals, N. AMca Hcnarei - End. Alcmaer Netherlands 52 38 2 N 444 45E Anthoiv|'s(St.) Cape Verd Isles 17 U ON 25 6 OW Aleppo ■ Turkey in 36 11 S5N 37 10 16 E Aaia Ant'ibes - . France - • 43 34 43N 7 7S0E Alexander W. Coaat of 15 52 OS 12 OE Anticoati Isle, Gulf of St 49 26 ON 63 38 15 W Port AMca Jupiter's Inlet Law- Alcxandrctta Turkey In 36 35 27N 36 15 15 E rence Asia Antigua Isle, Fort Hamll. Caribbee 17 4 SON 6154 45W Alexandria . Egypt . . 31 13 5 N 29 55 15 E Isles Algeslraa Spki n . . Biarbary • 36 8 ON 6 26 12'W ton Algiers Light- 36 48 36N 3 465E Antongil Bay Antonio (St) Madagascar 16 27 23 S 50S3 30E houie Cuba- > 21 54 ON 84 56 15 W Algoa Bay, S. Coast of 34 1 OS 8640 OE Cape Cape Recif AfVica Antonio (St) Spain - ■ S8 49 60N 930E Alicante Spain ■ . Terra FIrma 38 20 41 N 28 35W Cape Almagucr • 1 54 29N 76 55 2 W Antonio (St) Cape, N. Pt Paraguay . 36 20 OS 56 45 OW lAlmcria Spain - - 36 61 ON 2 31 OW Alost - . Belgium • 50 66 18 N 4 2 13E Antonio (St) Patagonia • 45 8 SOS 65 48 44W Altdoif - . Germany - 47 45 8 N 9 34 15 E Port Alteiigaard . Lapland - 69 55 ON 23 4 15 E Antwerp Apenrade ■ Belgium • 51 13 16 N 4 24 10 E Altona • ■ Germany . Turkey In 63 32 51 N 957 30E Denmark • 55 257N 926 S8E Amasaero . 41 46 3 N 32 84 24 E Aimllonia : W. Coast of 5 6 ON 8 39 OW Aaia Cai>e AlVica AmboynaBay, KortVlctoria Indian Ar. 3 40 S 128 15 E Apt France 43 52 29 N 6 23 62 E rhiiielago Pacitlc Apur6 River, Colombia • 736 23N 66 47 15W Ambroac (St.) 26 20 S 79 61 OW the Mouth 1 lale Ocean 5 lAqullcla F4 Italy ■ - 45 45 32 N 13 23 OE I i '•Sti:-.'S'^^i' >>i-> iim. 1549 LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES. NUMtof PISOM Counlrj, <>c. Utitttde. Loncliwle. Names of Placet. Country, &c. LaUlude. Lonitltuifc. Aranda de Spain . . / A 41 40 \e N %40&W Basiano Italv - • Ceylon ^45 34N 1*1 44 50 E Duero Bassas Rocks 6 II ON 81 39 0£ Aranjuex Spain ■ . O. of Mexico 40 I54N 3 36 15 W (Great) Areas (las; la. Archangel • iW 16 ON 91 54 OW Bastia . • Corsica 42 41 36 N 9 26 45 E Russia in Europe India - . 6434 ON 4043 OE Batavia Ob. aervatory Bayeux - - Java - 6 9 8 106 51 43 E Arcot . 12 54 14 N 79 21 33 E France 49 16 34 N 41 36 W Arendal Norway . 58 27 ON 8 51 20 E Bayonne France - - 43 89 15 N 1 28 26\V Arensberg . Russia in 58 15 9 N S2 27 45E Bazas . France - - 44 25 55N 12 32W Europe Deacliy Head Bear Isle . England - 50 44 24 N 15 12 E Argental Cape Arlca - Italy . . 42 23 25 N 11 9 39 E James' Bay 54 34 ON 79 56 OW Peru . - 18 26 40 S 70 16 5 W Beauvais France 4;) 26 7 N 2 5 OE Aries . France 43 40 31 N 4 37 47 E Bcechey Point N. Coast of 70 24 ON 149 37 OW Arnhem Cape N. Holland 12 IS OS 137 OE America Arona • Italy . . 4546 ON 833 OE Behring's Isle Scaof Kamt- 55 36 ON 167 46 OE Arras; • France . • 50 17 34 N 246 25E schatka Ascension Isle Atlan.Ocean 757 S 13 53 45 W Belle Isle, France 47 17 17 N 3 4 45\V Ascension Isle Carolinas - 653 ON 158 53 OE Bencoolen, Sumatra . 348 S 108 OE Asia's lales, ». Indian Ar- 1 ON 131 17 E Fort MarlU Westernmost chipelago Bender Russia in 46 SO 32 N 29 36 13 E Isle Europe Asinara Isle Sardinia . 41 6 ON 8 18 OE Bengasi Barbary . 32 7 SON 20 1 33E Aspoc Isle, N. End Norway - 61 13 ON 446 OE Benguela Bay W. Coast of Afirica 12 S3 SO S 13 33 OE Assenade Netherlands .'.1 13 42 N 3 ^ll 18 E Bergamo Italy • • 45 41 51 N 9 40 2fiE Assisi . Italv . 43 422N 12 35 28 £ Bergen Castle Norway - Netherlands 60 24 ON 5 20 OE Assumption I. Paci. Ocean 19 45 ON 145 35 OE Bergcn^p. 51 29 44 N 4 17 23 E Astracan Russia in 46 21 13 N 48 345E Zoom Europe Netherlands Berlin . Germany - 52 31 45 N IS 22 13 E Ath . . 50 42 17 N 3 46 32 E Bermuda Isle, Atlantic 32 88 ON 64 30 OW Athena . - Greece 37 58 IN 23 46 14 E St. George's Ocean Atoui Isle - Sandwich Is. 21 57 ON 159 39 OW Town Atures . Colombia - 538 34N 67 59 JW Bermuda Isle, Atlantic S3 15 N 64 47 OW Auch . France - - 43 38 39N 35 HE Wreck Hill Ocean Auckland's U. Paci. Ocean 50 30 S 166 25 OE Berne • Switzerland 46 .ance 44 50 UN 33 529W Italy 44 59 12 N 10 25 38 E 29 36 15 E Germany - 46 40 ON 11 37 15 E Persia 36 11 ON 49 S3 15 E ■ )rocken Germany - 51 48 29 N 10 36 35 E Cassel . Germany . 51 19 20 N 9 35 18 E 20 1 35E ■ Mountain Castiglione Italy 42 45 58 N 10 52 15 £ 13 33 OE ■ Iruck . . Germany . 47 S4 34 N 15 15 41 E Fort Bruges Belgium - 51 12 33 N 3 13 33 E :astre9 France 43 37 3 N 2 15 IE 9 40 2fi E 1 Brunn Germany . 49 11 28 N 16 35 21 E iCastries Bay Tartary - 51 29 ON 40 56 19 E 5 20 OE H Brunswick . Germany . 52 16 29 N 10 32 OE Catania Mole Sicily 37 28 20 N IS 4 30 E 4 17 23 E ^1 Brunswick New Wales 50 14 23 N 82 38 56 \V Catherinburg Kuss. in As. 56 SO 38 N 60 40 15 E House Catherine's Brazil 27 21 58 S 48 OW IS S<2 15 F ^1 Srussela Belgium • Walachia ■ 50 50 5J 14 48«E Caminha Portugal - 41 52 42 N 8 44 48W Chili 41 53 OS 72 54 45 W Caroppche - Mexico - 19 50 45 N 90 3() 30 W Carlos Cananore India 11 51 11 N 75 43 44 E Chin-chewBay China 24 54 ON 118 40 E 5 175 34 4J\V| Canary Isle Canaries - 28 10 ON 15 31 W Christiana Isle Archipelago 36 15 ON 25 3 45 E (Orand) Pal Christiania • Norway • 59 55 ON 10 48 OE N 70 58 4;)W «J 13ri5!lE; Caiuiia C/irll.. . 35 18 45 N 25 18 15 E Christiansand Norway - 58 8 4N 8 3 OE Candlemas Is. Sandwich 57 10 OS 27 13 OW Christianstad Sweden 56 1 15 N 14 9 30 E Land Christiansund Norway 63 7 ON 7 42 OE S 55 30bl.| ^ ,j,^^^^ Canilia • 3^ 28 45 N 24 12 45 E Chrlstinsstad Uutibia in 62 16 9 N 21 18 5 E M OK 07 7e' ^I Canterbury England - 51 16 48 N 1 4 61 £ Europe M ^D XJ f ^ ^^H Cathedral Christmas Tierra del 55 21 54 S 69 47 14 W N 2 23 57EI H i 127 3 U£| ■ Canton China 23 8 9N 113 2 45E Harbour . Fuego - Canton Isle - Chinese Sea 15 23 ON 109 6 OE Christmas Isit • In. Ocean - 10 34 S 105 33 E Cape-DiggL'S I Hudson's 62 41 ON 78 50 W Christmas Isle Pacifi.Ocear 1 57 45 N 157 34 45 W N 99 20 OEl H Bay Christopher Caribbee Is. 17 19 ON 62 49 OW Caponcs Point I.iiconia . 14 52 30 N 120 3 OE (St.) N 73 13 30W H 1 **• tir. A F ^^H Capraja Isle - Med iter. 43 18 N 9 48 12 E Chri8tovaI(St. ) Solomon Is. 10 50 OS 162 22 E Canrcra Isle ■ Mediter. 41 12 4(5 N 9 28 20 E Christoval Cuba - - 22 10 ON 82 1 OW » 14, 25 Ofc, ™ 'CaiiricornCaiM } K. Holland 23 28 OS 151 15 E (Don) u 1.1 r,t i-r' ^1 ^Caracas Colombia - 10 ;)0 50 N 1 67 4 4.-I W Cliusan Har- China - - 30 26 ON 121 41 B N 1* 53 1 S 12 Ki 1. Ie.H iCarcaseonnc - France 43 12 54 N 1 2 21 OE bour, Chusa n 1544 LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES. NaniM of Plaon. Cuiintry, lie. I^uiud*. Loniliudr. Nanus of PUcM. Country, ftc. LtUnide. Lon((Uud«. CiUcT . . Oormany • &*o '6s fsatisE Darby Cape ■ NW. Coast Mg'l ON 163 OW Clotat(La) • France .. ♦3 10 29 N 537 OE of Amer. CWiUVeccliia Italy . • 43 5<.>4N 11 4145 E Turkey in 40 9 ON 86 19 OE ClagenfUrt - Germany • 46 37 ION 14 20 OE Asia Clauithal . Germany - 51 48 SON 10 20 32 E Darmstadt . Germany • 4g56S4N 8S4 49E Clear Cape . Clerke'i lile • Ireland • 51 25 ON 929 OW Dauphin Fort Madagascar 25 £ 08 46 35 OE Sea of Kam- 63 15 ON 160 40 OW Davcntry England . 58 15 39 N 1 9 SW tKhatka Spire Clermont France 49S8 48N 225 5E Deal Castle . England • 51 13 5 N 1 23 59 E Clermont-Fer. France 45 46 44N 3 5 17E Deception Solomon Is. 8 20 30 S 157 2 29 E rand Cape Cleve* . (lermany • 61 47 40 N 6 7 6E Delagoa Bay - B. Coast of 25 58 OS 33 15 OE Cobourg Germany . 50 15 18 N 10 58 OE AOica Cochin ■ . India 9 57 30 N 76 29 OE Delft • • Netherlands 52 49 N 4 21 45 E Coimbra Portugal - 40 12 SON 8 24 42 VV Delgado Cape K. Coast of 10 ON 51 17 E Colchetter, St. EngUnd . 51 53 18 N 053 34E (North) AfVica Mary'i Delgado Cape E. Coast of 10 6 08 40 50 OE Collioutc France 42 31 31 N S 5 17E (South} AMca Cologne Germany • 50 55 21 N 6 55 15 E Delhi - - India - . 28 37 ON 77 40 OE Colombo Ceylon . 657 ON 80 OE Deliverance Louisiade ■ 10 59 20 8 154 26 30 E Colonia Sacra- Paraguay ■ 34 26 OS 57 58 OW Cape mento Germany - 53 329N 839 28E Columbia Ri. NW. Coast 46 19 ON 123 54 OW Dendera England • 26 10 20 N 32 40 27E ver, Entrance of Amer. Derby Steeple 52 55 32 N I 28 16W Como . • Italy . . India . • 45 48 22N 9 5 41E Deaeada Isle, Caribbeels. 16 20 ON 61 liOW Comorin Cape 8 5 ON 77 44 OE NE. Point Comoro Isle - Comoro Mes 11 32 OS 43 25 OE Desveloa (lot) Patagonia • 48 81 30 8 66 8 15 W Concepcion - Chili . - 36 49 10 S 73 4 45 W Cape Devil's Isles Condom ■ • France 43 .'>7 49 N 22 22E Ouayana - 5 27 ON 52 34 OW Condore lale - Indian Ar- chipelago 840 ON 106 42 OE Dhalac Isle, South End Red Sea . 15 32 30 N 40 15 OE Congoon Persia • • 27 48 45N 52 6 OE Diamond Isle B. of Bengal 15 58 ON 94 19 E Constance - Germany - 47 36 10 N 9 8 15 E DiamondPoint Sumatra - 5 18 ON 97 48 E Constantinople Turkey in 41 1 27 N 28 :^ 15E Diarbekir • Turkey in 37 54 ON 39 53 45 E St. Sophia Europe • Asia . CojH! Cape . Spain Denmark . 37 24 40 N 1 31 40W Die France 44 45 31 N 522 33E Copenhagen • 55 41 4 N 12 35 6 E Diego (St) . New Albion 32 39 SON 117 16 48W Copiapo . . Chili . . 27 10 OS 71 5 15 W Diego Garcia Ind. Ocean 7 21 OS 72 22 OE Coqtiimbo . Chili - . 29 54 40S 71 I9 15W Isle Cordova Port • Patagonia - 45 45 OS 67 27 15 W DiegoRamircz Isles Tierra del 5627 ON 68 39 OW Cordovan France 45 35 15 N 1 loss W Fucgo Tower Dieppe • Fi-ance 49 55 34 N 1 444E Corfu I. Vido Meditem- 39 38 5 N 19 55 38 E Digne . . France 44 5 18 N 6 14 I'J E Isle nean Dijon . . l)i lingen Discnisle - France . 47 19 as N 5 2 5E Coringa Bay - India 16 48 ON 82 24 E Germany - Uattin's Bay 48 34 17 N 10 30 29 E Corinth Greece 37 58 22 N 23 28 29£ 69 10 ON 54 40 OW Cork, Quay at the Cove IreUnd . 51 51 50 N 8 16 SOW Discovery Port NW. Coast 48 8S0N 122 37 41 W of Amer. Coron . Greece 36 47 26 N 21 58 52 ^ Diu Head • India . . 20 42 ON 71 6 OE Corricntet F. Coast of 24 1 SOS 35 51 OE Dixmude • Netherlands 51 2 12 N C52 3£ Cape Corrientei Afl-ica Dobrzyn Russia in 52 38 5 N 19 35 15 E Mexico . 20 25 SON 105 35.36W Euroi)e Cape Dofar . Arabia . 17 3 ON 84 10 OE Conoer . ■ Denmark • 55 20 ON 11 930E Dol . ■ France 44 33 8N 1 4.5 3 VV Corte . Corsica - 42 18 2 N 9 8 46E Domburg Netherlands 51 33 51 N 3 29 52 E Corvo Isle ■ Azores 39 41 ON 31 3 OW Domingo (St) St Domingo 18 30 ON 69 49 OW Courtray Belgium . SO 49 43 N S 16 6E Dominica Isle Caribbee 15 18 ON 61 32 OW Coutances • France 49 2 54 N 1 «6 23 W Islands Coventry England . Gallicia • M 24 25 N 1 30 5W Dondre Head Ceylon 5 55 SON 80 43 OE Cracow • . 50 338N 19 57 9 E Donnawcrt - Germany 48 43 15 N 10 47 3E Crail Spire ■ Scotland . 56 15 58 N 2 36 55W Dorchester England 50 42 58N 2 3.5 WW Crema ■ • Italy . ■ 45 21 29 N 9 41 57 E Church Cremona Italy 45 7 43N 10 2 12 E Dordrecht • Holland • 51 48 54 N 4 39 43 £ Crillon Capo • SoRhalin - 45 .W ON 141 58 54 E Dorpat Russia in 58 S8 47 N 26 42 OE Cronstadt ■ Russia in 59 59 26 N 2»49 30E Europe Europe Dortmund . Germany 51 31 24 N 7 26 41 E Crooked Isle • Lurayos . 22 48 ON 74 17 OW Douglas Cape NW, Coast 58 56 ON 153 50 OW Cross Fell - England - 54 42 18 N 228 S7W of Amer. Croii Isle - Russia in 66 29 ON 4020 OE Dover Castle - England 51 7 47N 1 19 7E Europe Dresden Germany 51 2 JON, 13 43 IL CroM Sound • VW. Coast of Amer. 58 12 ON 136 24 W Dromedary Mount N. Holland 36 18 OS 150 11 OE Crut Cape - Cuba . • 19 48 ON 77 35 W Drnnthcim Norway Ireland 63 25 .SO N 10 23 25 E Cuddalore ■ India U 43 23N 79 48 12 E Dublin Obser- 53 23 13 N 6 20 SOW Cuen^a . • Peru 2 55 3S 79 13 22 W vatory DukeofYork's Culver Point - N. Holland 32 56 OS 124 39 OE Pacifl.Occan 8 41 OS 173 21 45 W Cumana ■ - ('i)lombia • 10 27 37 N 64 9 45 W Isle Cumberland New Wales 53 50 40N 102 558W Dulau Signal England 55 55 54N 8 13 1?W House Staff Curasao Isle - OaribbceSca 12 8 ON 69 OW Dundee - . .Scotland .S6 28 ON 2 m OW Cuxhavcn Germany ■ 53 52 21 N 843 IE Dunkirk France 51 2 9 N 2 22 X E Lighthouse Durazzo Turkey in 41 19 30 N 19 27 « E Cyrcne N. Africa - 21 49 5 N 32 49 5 E Europe Ualrympic Port Dame Marie V. Dicmcn's l^nd St. Domingo 41 4 OS 146 48 OE Durham Cath. edral DuMcldorf ■ England 54 46 31 N 1 34 6W 18 37 20 N 74 33 32 W Germany 51 13 42 N 640 23E Cape DamlclU Duyfhcn Cape N. Holland 12 35 OS 111 42 OE Egypt 31 V, 4,3 N 31 49 30 E F.ast Cape . Moilagascar 1 15 14 S .W.'iO OE Dantiio Prussia - 54 20 48N 18 38 5 E East Ca|ic . N. ZcaUnd 37 44 35 S 178 58 OE I Names of Pis East Cape Easter Isle, Centre East. Main House Ebersdorf Edam . Eddystone Is Eddystone Lighthousi Edgecumbe Cape Edinburgh Oliservatoi Egg Isle Egmont Port Eichstadt . Eisenach EI-ArischFor Elba Isle, For to-Fcrraio Elbing . . Ellas (St) Mount Elizabeth (St; Elizabeth Bay iKlizabeth Cape ElHellahCape Elueneur Ely Minster . Embrun Emden • . Emcralda . Emmerick . Endeavour River Engano Cape lEngano Cape Engano Jsle . Engclholm . lEnkhuysen - lErfbrth lErlangcn . Erierum Escurial Kututia (St) Isle Evrcux Exeter Cathe- (Iral lEzija . . irairweather Cape Falkcnberg . Falstcrbo Fano . 'Faiio Isle Farewell Cape Farewell Cape Faro Fartash Cape Faval Isle, Horta Fifamp . . Fi'lain 42 16 IN 2 57 39 £ ropa Point ) N 2 IW iT -p H FinisterreCaDe Spain 42&4 ON 9 lii OW Oijon . Si>ain 4335 ON 536 OW )N 19 271 ' ^ ^B Fiorenio (St) Corsica 42 41 2N 9 17 43 E Gillololsle . Indian Ar. 45 ON 128 22 OE .u K Fish Bay W. Coast of 16 31 OS 1164 OE pelago IN 134 6\N mt Ahica Girge . ^X ' 26 22 20 N 31 55 6 E -r ■ Fi'ime • Illyria 45 20 ION 14 26 22 E Girgcnti Lighthouse 37 15 SON 13 31 20 E 2N 6462 nl B Fltrcckoe lale Norway . 58 5 ON 8 2 OE OS 14142 9^ ■ iFlcnibori . Denmark - S4 47 18 N 927 40E Glasgow Scotland • S5 51 38N 4 18 OW r OS mm vt. ^ Florence . Italy - . 43 46 41 N 11 15 45 E Glastonbury England • 51 8 43 N 2 41 1»« J 5S 178 5» uti ^m Florcslale • Aiorea 39 33 59 N 31 8 15W Tor ' 1546 LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES. NaaaaorPlacn. Coonury* ho. LaUlade. Longinid*. NamnorPlacts.' Counlr;,&c. LalUude. Longlludr. ' Olouceiter M. Holland O / i/ lU 59 US 1M26 OE HavredcOrace France 4^«)fU / // 6 38E C«|ie Heligoland I., Oenn.Ocean 51 U M N 7 63 13 E 1 Oloucnter England • fil 52 3 N 2 14 15W Lighthouse 1 Cathedral Helena (St.) 1. Helena (St.) Atlaa Ocean 15 55 OS 643 OW Olouceitar New V.'ales 51 21 20 N 87 2 59W Patagonia - 4430 OS 65 29 15 W| House Point 1 Olouccitet N?w r.ritain 5 31 OS 148 23 OE Helena (St.) Peru - 2 10 3 80 47 15 W; Mount Point Gluckow Russia in 51 iOSON SI 20 15 E Helsingborg • Sweden 56 255N 12 43 15 E , £uro|)e Helsingfors • Russia in 60 10 ON 25 15 E 1 Oluclutadt . Germany - 53 47 42 N 927 8E £uro|ie 1 Uoa India If. 30 N 78 53 OE Htlvellin England • 54 31 43 N 3 21 W OoKt lilo - Philippine 13 52 ON 120 6 OE Mouiitnin IsiM HelroctSluys Holland . 51 49 29 N 3 27 53 E Oodthaab • Greenland 64 10 ON 51 48 W Heraclea Turkey In 41 1 3N 27 54 34K Oocs Holland . 51 30 18 N 3 53 31 E Europe ' Gomcra Me Canaries 28 6 ON 17 8 OW Herenthals - Netherlands 51 10 45 N 450 29E Oonave Isle St, Domingo 18 49 ON 73 1 OW Hernosand I. Sweden . 62 38 ON 17 53 15 E Good Ho|ie New Guinea OiO OS 132 31 OE Hesseloe Isle Denmark • 5fi 11 46N 11 40 1 K Cape Good Hope Hinchinbrook NW. Coast 00 12 SON 146 39 20W & Coast or 34 29 08 18 23 15 E Cape of America Cape Africa HinlopenCape, Lighthouse Hioring UnitedSUtes 38 47 16 N 75 6 15 W Gore Isle Sea of Kamt- fiO 17 ON 172 SO 45 W schatka Denmark • 57 27 44N 10 28 E Goree We • W. Coast of 14 40 ON 17 26 OW Hobcrg Cape Hogsties Islets Sweden 6656 ON 18 11 OE Africa Lucayos - 21 39 ON 73 56 4\Vi Gorgona Isle Mediter. - 43 25 46N 9 53 10 E Hogstraeten . Hola . Holland . 51 24 5 N 4 45 48 E Gorgona Isle Pacif. Ocean 253 ON 78 6 IS W Iceland 65 44 ON 19 43 45 W Oorti Germany . 45 57 30N 13 28 45 E Holy Isle, Cas- England • 55 40 20 N 1 4«38W Gotha,01»erv. Germany . 50 56 8N 10 44 OE tle of Seeberg Holyhead Alountain England ■ 53 18 61 N 4 39 27 W| Gottenburg . Sweden 57 42 4 N 11 57 45 E 1 Gottingen . Germany . 51 31 60 N 9 56 9^ E Honda Colombia • 5 11 42 N 74 53 30 Wl Gouda - Holland . 51 59 51 N 4 42 41 E Hondschotte Netherlands S0 58 56N 2 35 14 E 1 Graclosa Isle, Aiorei 39 5 ON 28 OW Honfleur Franco 49 25 13 N 14 U\V| SaiiM Crui Hoo 1.5 E Hamburg Germany - 53 32 51 N 9 .58 ."57 E Ismail . Turkey in 45 21 ON 28 50 15 E Hamein Germany • 52 5 29 N 9 20 10 E Europe Hammerfest Norway 70 38 22 N ' 23 43 30 R Isola.Bclla - Italy . 45 53 11 N sm ST, Hanover Germany . 52 22 25 N 9 42 55 E Ispahan Persia 32 24 .34 N 51 .50 1.5 E Hanover I'acif. Ocean 2 31 OS 149 50 OE Ivica Isle, the Mediterra- 38 53 16 N 129«E (New) Isle Castlo nean Harlem Holland . 52 22 56 N 4 38 19 E Jarkson (Port) Castle Point N. Holland 33 51 SOS 151 insoE Harlem's Bay China 22 31 ON 114 51 E Harllngcn - Holland ■ 53 10 32 N 5 24 47 E Jafft - . Svria . . 32 5 25 N 3MG 8E Hartlepool England • 54 41 49 N 1 10 31 W laftli Cape ,. tJ. Holland 36 57 OS 1,J!)41 OE Steeple Jaxo (St.) Isle CapeVcrdls, 14 53 ON S.','J 3i! W Hastings Isle Ind. Arehip. 6 rs s 116 26 OE Jakutsk Russia in (>2 1 50 N 129 42 30 El HatterasCape UnitedStatcs 35 14 .W N 75 34 27 W Asia 1 Havannah, Cuba • 23 'J27N 82 22 53 W James (St.) CochinChina 10 18 ON 107 10 OEl Iht Morro Cape .Namsi or riant. Jaroslawl Jarra Isle . i jjask Cape • (Jassy . Java Head . |Juan-Lctan . Reef Jeniieisk iJeremic Point Jersey Isle, St. Aubin Jerusalem • Jcrvis Bay, Cape George Jiddah . . Johanna Isle Johannisberg John's (St.) Cape ' John's (St.) Fort John's (St) Isle Joseph (St) - .luan (St) . Juan-Fernan. dez Isle Judeiiburg . Julian (St) Port Kaiscrsheim Kakava Isle - Kalatoa Isle • Kallandborg Kalpcny Isle Kamii;fock . Kamtscbatkoi Ness Karak Isle . Kasaii . Kaskon Katif Bay, N. Point Kaufbeuren . Kerguelen's r I Land,Christ Harb. Kcrtch Crin KiamCheu - ~ KMwclly Spire Kiel . s Kilduin Isle • King's Isle . Kinsale Kiow . Kiringskoi. Ostrog Kittory Point Kittis . K'astnftu-th . Khn . Koonigsburg Kola . Koluga Kongsbacka . Kongswinger Koraka Cupe Korn-Neu. burg Koseir - Koslof . . Kastroitia . Koviina jRussli iIx)W'er) LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES. 1547 Nam« or PlacM. Country, &c. Latiluile. LonftUude. Names of IMactti. Counto><«^- fjillluile. Lonftttuda • Jaroalawl Rusaia in Europe fi? 37 do N O i II 40 10 15 E {ovima (Upiwr) Russia in Asia O / tl 65 28 ON 153 35 15 £ Jarra Ute • Straits of ♦ ON 100 14 E {ragcroe Norway . 68 51 SO N 930 30E Malacca irannichfeid Germany - 50 51 55 N 11 U 45E Jaak Cniie - Persia 25 58 ON 58 10 E irasnoyan - Elusaii in 56 1 2N 92 20 52 E Jaaay - Moldavia • 47 8 SON 27 30 15 E Asia Java Head • Java - 648 OS 105 11 OE Krcmentzouk Russia in 4'l S28N 33 29 OE Juan-Lcton CapeVerdla. 15 48 ON 22 .06 W E'"")C Itcef ICrcma - . f- y . 48 21 SON 15 36 OE Joniieiak Ilu^s. in A. .W 27 17 N 91 58 45 E KrioCi.. ■ - 'in 1 S6 41 ON 87 21 OE Jcrcmic Point St Domingo 18 3!) 57 N 74 13 2«J W ««. Jcraey laic, St. Aubin British 49 U 59 N 2 10 44 W Kurr •'ort Ind:. 24 52 ON 67 17 (IE Channel Kurak . . Aussib in 51 43 SO N 36 27 45 £ Jcruaalem - I'urkey in 31 47 47 N 35 20 15 E Europe Asia Ladrone Isle Chinese Sea 41 57 ON 113 43 OE Jcrvli Bay, N. Holland 35 9 OS ISO 56 E (Great) Cape George Ugoon Isle - Pacifi.Ocean 21 38 OS 140 37 OW Jiddah . Arabia . SI !9 ON 39 15 E Lagos . Portugal - 37 6 ON 8 S8 3 W Johanna lalc Comoro Isles 12 16 OS 44 30 OE Lagoa . Turkey in 40 .68 42 N 25 3 S6£ Johanniabcrg Prussia S3 37 48 N 21 49 15 E Europe John'a (SI.) W. Coast of 1 15 ON 9 15 OE Lampcdosa 1. Mediterra. 35 81 15 N 12 30 5 £ Cai>e Africa nean John'a (St.) Newfo\md- 47 33 45 N 52 39 45 W Lampsaco . Turkey in 40 20 52 N 26 36 .05 £ Fort land Asia John'a (St) Caribbee la. 18 30 ON 6*47 OW Lancaiter • UnitedStates 40 2 39 N 76 19 SOW lale Lancaster England ■ 54 3 8N 2 47 41 W Joseph (St) • California . 23 3 13 N 109 40 53W Steeple Juan (St) - Porto Rico 18 29 10 N 66 13 15 W Lancerota Isle "anaries - 29 14 ON 13 26 OW Juan-Fernan- Pacifi.Ocean 3340 OS 78 58 15 W Landsberg - [Germany - 48 2 .08 N 1.1 53 31 E dez lale Landacroon - Sweden 55 .02 27 N 12 51 IE Judenburg • Germany . Patagonia . 47 43 CO N 14 42 45 E Laiigle Bay ■ Sachalin . 48 59 ON 142 33 4 E Julian (St) 49 5 SOS 67 44 15 W Langle Peak Jesso - 45 11 ON 141 13 13 E Port Langrcs Prance 47 51 59 N 5 20 5E Kaiacrahcim Oermany - Turkey in 48 45 52 N 10 47 58 E Laon - France 49 33 54 N 337 27E Kakava lale • 36 11 ON 29 57 K Larneca Castle Cyprus 34 54 SON 33 40 45 £ Asia Latikia • . Syria . - 35 30 SON 35 47 55 £ Kalatoa Isle - Ind. Archip. 720 OS 121 40 E Lraubai'h Germany - 46 1 48N 14 46 40 E Kallanilborg Kalpcnv Isle Kainii.icck . Denmark • 55 40 54 N 11 6 33 K Launccston England . 50 3C 18N 4 20 42 W Laccadivca 10 5 ON 74 1 OE Ste«ple Russia in 48 40 50N 27 1 30 E Lausanne - Switzerland 46 31 5 N 6 45 30 E Europe Lawrence (St.) SeaofKamt- 63 47 ON 171 45 E Kamtschatkol Kamtschat- 66 I ON 163 22 SO E Isle achatka Ncaa ka Ijiaaowea England - 53 24 50 N 3 649W Karak Isle • O. of Persia 29 16 ON 50 27 OE Lighthouse Kaaan . Russia in 55 47 51 N 49 21 9E Lecuwin Cape N. Holland 34 19 OS 115 6 OE Europe I^euwin Cai)e N. Holland 34 25 50 S 115 35 15 E Kaakon Russia in 62 22 10 N »1 10 SS E Leghorn Italy 43 33 5N 10 16 45 E Europe Legnago Italy . . 45 11 13 N 11 19 13 E Katif Bay, N. Arabia 26 36 SON 50 12 OE Lcipsic ■ Germany - 51 20 16 N 12 21 45 E Point Lciva . Colombia - 530 ON 73 53 62 W Kaul'beuren ■ Germany • 47 53 30 N 10 36 45 E Lc Mans France 48 OSON 11 35 E Kcrguelen's Ind. Ocean 48 41 15 S 69 2 15 E Lemma Isle Chinese Sea 22 2 ON 114 16 E Land.Christ (Great) Harb. Leon . Mexico - 12 21 ON 86 45 nW Kcrtch Crimea 45 21 19 N 36 21 21 E Leon Isle Spain N. America 36 27 45N 6 12 W KiamCheu - China 35 37 ON 111 S9 30E Leopold South Island 73 56 ON 90 OW Kl(twclly Spire Wales 51 44 15 N 4 17 22 W Kid . ^. Germany - 54 19 4'i N 10 8 18 E Lc Puy France 45 2 51N 353 S6E Kilduin Isle - Russia in Europe 69 10 ON 33 50 OE Lew-chew I. (Gt) Napa. Chinese Sea 26 14 ON 127 38 OE King's lale • Baaa'aStraiU 39 37 OS 143 54 OE kiang Lewis-Town Kinaale Ireland 51 41 30 N 8 28 15 W UnitedStates 38 47 47 N 75 15 48W Kiow . Ruasia in 50 27 ON 30 27 45E Leyden Holland - 52 93nN 4 29 13 E ' Europe Libau • . Courland - 56 31 36 N 20 55 20 E Kiringskoi. Ruasia in 57 47 ON 108 3 OE Lichtenau . Germany • 51 37 24 N 8 .04 7E Ostrog Asia Liege - - Belgium ■ 50 S9 22 N 5 31 42 E Kittery Point UnitedStates 43 4 27 N 70 44 30 W Lilienthal - Germany . 53 8 SON 8 54 15 E Kittis . I^apland . 66 48 20 N 24 3 15 E Lima - Peru - 12 3 OS 76 56 45 W Kla^unfUrth - Germany . 46 37 ION 14 20 E Limoges France 45 49 .03 N 1 15 23 E Klin . Ruasia in 56 20 18 N 36 48 6E Lincoln Isle - Chinese Sea 16 41 ON 112 42 E Euro|)e Lincoln Min- England - 53 14 7 N 032 IW KoeniRsburg Prussia - 54 42 12 N 20 29 15 E ster Kula . Russia in Europe 68 52 SON 33 045E Lindesnies Lighthouse Norway . 57 68 ON 7 3 OE Koluga Russia in 54 30 ON 36 5 15 E Lintz - Germany - 48 18 54 N 14 16 45 E Europe Lipari Isle, Mediterra- 38 28 35N 14 55 40 £ Kongsbacka - Sweden - 57 27 ON 12 7 OE the Castle nean Kongawinger Norway - 60 12 11 N 11 58 OE Lisbon Obser- Portugal . 38 42 24 N 9 8 SOW Kuraka Cape Turkey in 38 5 52N 26 34 45 E vatory Asia Lisburne Cape NW. Coast 69 5 ON 165 28 SOW Korn-Neu- Germany - 48 21 22 N 16 19 E of Amcr. burg Koselr • Litchncld England - 62 41 12 N 149 2IW Egypt 86 8 ON 34 15 E Spire Koslof . . Russia in 45 11 54 N 33 22 48E Liveiixral, St England • 53 24 40N 858 S6W Kostroma • Euro|ic lluiuia in Europe 57 45 40 N 41 12 51 E Paul's Lizard W. Lighthouse England - 49 57 44 N 5 11 5W Koviina Russia in 68 18 ON 163 18 15 E Lizier(St) - France 1303N 1820E vLowcr) Asia Lizieux France 1 49 8 50 N 1 13 47 £ 9&A^S^- ■?^^^?7^^t5^*^;i^L.i!i»'v» ■^■Vl-:.^: mm. 1548 LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES. NamofPUcw. Coinlijr, Ae. UMtod*. NamtaorPlim. Counliyi ftc. Lailtud*. Lonatlude. LobotQiMf Lucayot . & at ion 7?36 3()W Manapar Point Manchcater, S. India §88 'on J3 ' // 78 16 OE Lodi . Italy - . Arabia • iS 18 31 N 930 58E England . 53 29 ON 8 14 82 W Loiieia 15i4 ON 48 44 OE Mary 'a Spire Lohata . - Arabia 15 48 8 N 42 8 45 E Mandarin'a Chinese Sea 21 88 ON 112 21 30 E Lorobei France 43S8 30N 54 24E Cap lale Lombock bit Ind. Arehlp. 8 SI OS 116 26 E Mangalora India 12 50 SON 75 7 OE Lomond Scotland : 5A U57N 3 17 4W Mangea lale Pacifl. Ocean 81 56 45 S 158 3 OW Mountain, Manglea Point ManheimOb. Peru 1 36 30N 78 50 SOW W. Germany . 49 29 18 N 8 28 OE London (New; UnitedStatei 41 SI 8 N 72 30W aervatory Liihthouie London, St Manilla Luconia . 14 36 ON 180 58 OE Enghmd . 51 30 40 N S47W Manafelt lale Hudaon'a B. 62 38 ON 80 33 OW Paul'i Mantua Italy . . 45 9 16 N 10 48 IS G Londondern Long liland, Ireland . 54 59S8N 7 14 49W Marburg Margarilalale, Germany . 46 34 42 N 15 43 UC UnitedStatct 41 ON 72 15 35W CaribbeeSea 11 10 ON 63 58 12 W E. Hampton Cape Ma Lopea Cape • W. Coaatof 59 OS 9 17 OE Marienburg • Pruaaia . 54 1 SIN 19 1 56 E Aflrica Marigalante Caribbee Is. 15 51 ON 61 19 OW Loretto Italy . . 4387 ON 13 35 5 E lalS L'Orient • France 47 45 11 N 3 21 2 W Markoe Me. Norway . 57 69 ON 659 0£ Loughborough England . 58 46 31 N 1 11 54W Lighthouae Steeple Marmara lale Turkey in 4037 4N 27 SOSOE Iiouiiburgh - Cape Breton fale 45 53 40N 59 54 45 W Aaia . Maraeiilea Ob. France 43 17 49 N 5 82 IS E LouiiladeCape Kew Guinea 11 SO 48 8 128 SO 55 E aervatory LouvaiD Belgium . England • 50 5S88N 4 41 46 K Martha St) Terra Firma 11 19 34 N 74 8 SOW Lowettoir • 5(89 ON I 46 OE Martin (St) Scliiy lales 49 58 ON 6 15 UW Lubeck Germany . 53 51 18 N 10 40 53 E lale Lubeck Iile - Ind. Archip. 545 OS 118 48 OE Martin (St.) Caribbee Is. 18 4 ON 63 W OW Lucaa (St) CaUfornla 38 58S8N 109 SO 23 W lale Cape. . Martin dcRhe Franco 46 12 18 N 1 21 52 W Lufon France 46 87 15 N I 945W (St.) Lugano Luii-Maran- Italy . . 45 59 56 N 8 57 35 E MartinicD lale, Caribbee la. 14 35 49 N 61 5 43W Brazil 830 08 44 6 OW Fort Royal Mary(St)Cape ham (St) Italy 39 47 30 N 18 23 20 E Lunde Norway - 58 27 10 N 636 6E Mary (St.; Isle Azores 36.57 ON 85 18 W Lunden Tower Sweden .^5 43 46 N 13 12 48 E MaaafUerc lale Pacifl.Occan 33 45 30 8 80 37 15W Lundylsle - England • 51 9 47N 438 28W Maaaowa liay Abyaainia - 15 34 ON 39 37 OE Lutterworth England . 58 47 SO N I 12 IW Matanxa Peak Cuba 23 1 39N 81 45 2 W Steeple Matapan Cape Turkey in 36 23 80N 88 89S0E Luxemburg - Lynn, Old Germany - EnglancI , 49 37 38 N 6 9 41E Europe 52 46 52 N 025 4E Mataro • S|>ain 41 32 23 N 2 26 48 E Tower Matiumay • Jesao 41 32 ON 140 4 OE Lyona Macao • - France 45 45 58 N 4 49 84 E MattheWa(S«.) France 48 19 34 N 4 45S9W China 88 II SON 113 31 30E Lighthouae Macauar • - Celebes . 5 9 OS 119 « OE Mauritiualale, Ind. Ocean 20 945S 57 28 30E MaceraU - Italy Spain 43 18 36 N J3 26 15 E Port Louia Machichaco 43 88 ON 8 49 OW May Cape . UnitedStatea 38 56 46N 74 S3 (i W Point May i., Light. Scotland . 56 11 £2N 2 32 47 W Macon France 46 18 27 N 450 OE houae Madeira Me. AtUn. Ocean 32 37 ON 16 54 46W Majro Me, S. Capo Verd Isles 15 4 SON i3 8 SOW Funchal Madona ble Archipelago 36 31 ON 26 52 OE Mayotta lale. Comoro Isles 12 54 OS 45 14 OE Madra* India - 13 4 ON 80 22 OE the Peak Madrid (Kew) UnitedStates 3n M30N 89 27 15 W MaixarraCiU Sicily 37 39 SON 12 33 30 E Madrid, Grand Spain 40 84 57 N 3 42 15 W adel Square 1 Meaux - France 48 .57 40 N 2 52 « E Maettricht - HoUand . ,W 51 7 N 5 41 IE Meiningen • Germany - 50 35 26 N 10 24 13 E Hagadoxa - K Coutt of 8 5 ON 45 49 OE Melilie Barbary . S5 18 15 N 2 56 low Aftica Memcl - Prussia - 55 42 15 N 21 8 3E Magdalen Iilei Gulf of St 47 11 ON 61 43 OW Menile • France 44 .W 42 N 3 29 34 E Lawrence MendocinCape NW. Coast 40 89 ON 124 29 15W Magdeburg - MaheIiiei,St. Germany - 53 8 4N 11 38 59 E of Amer. Ind. Ocean 435 OS 55 85 OE Meaalna Light Sicily 38 11 SON 15 3S30E Anne'i Iile houae Mahon, Cape Minorca ■ 39 51 10 N 4 18 17 E MeauradoCapc W. Coast of 6 15 ON 10 36 30 W MoU Africa Mahouna Me Pacifi. Ocean 14 8U4fiS 170 16 35 W Meaurat Cape Barbary - 32 25 25 N 15 iUJE HaiamboBay, Entrance Madagaacar 15 10 OS 47 6 OE Meti - . Krance 49 7 ION 6 10 i!8 E Mexico ■ . Mexico . 19 25 45 N 99 5 M W Maker Tower England . .W20S2N 4I0 16W Michael's (St) Azores 37 48 ON 25 13 OW Makry, the Theatre Turkey in 36 36 88 N 29 7 15 E lale AaU Michael'a (St) England ■ 50 7 2N 5 37 33W Malacca Fort India 8 18 ON 102 15 E Mount Malaga Spain Porto Rico 36 43 SON 425 2W Michael'a (St) France ;4N 1 30 24W Mala-Paiqua 18 ON 65 42 15 W Mount Cape^ Middleburg Holland . , 6N 3 37 .WE Malnpina Jeaao 43 48 15 N 141 19 E Milan Observ. Italy 43 88 2N 9 1131 E Cap^ atory Malinea Belgium . N. Hebridea 51 I 58 N 4 88 59 E Milatio Light- Sicily 38 15 58 N 15 13 30 E Mallicollolslc 16 25 OS 167 38 OE house Wallicollo file N. Hebridea 16 S5 20 S 167 53 OE Milo Isle, the Archi|)elago 36 48 SON 24 13 32 E Malmo Sweden 55 36 37 N 13 1 19 E Port Malo (St.) • France 48 39 3N 8 1 IIW Himbres Isle Lucayos . 2.5 16 N 79 11 OW Malouinealale, Falkland la. 51 85 S 59 59 15 W Mindoro Isle Philippine 13 27 ON 120 20 OE PortEgmunt Isles Malta Me, Hcditcrro. 35 53 ON 14 30 35 E Minchcad England . 51 12 42 N 3 28 4W Valetta Ob. ■lean Steeple lervatory Minicoy Isle Laccodivca 8 17 ON 73 18 E NwiMlirPIuM. Mirepoix Oh. F aervatory Mlrik Cape IV ver,s.£.En. trance Miltau Mocha ■ Mohilew V A; Ri Mohilla Me |Mi Mombas Har. hour, Entr. i . MondegoCape'Po Montauban iFri Observatory Montego Bay Jni Montery . \Se Montevideo ILa Lighthouse MontpellerObjFra servatory Montrose • Swi Montserrat I., Car .NE Point Monsa • Ital Moose Fort . Nev Morales . Tcr Morant Point Jam Morant Quays Cari Morebat Cape Morillos (loa' Cape ' Mornington I. Mornington Port Moscow Mosdok Ara Port New Nub Ruai El - Ruai Moasel Bay, '& Ci CapeStniaize Mount Cajie Mowec Isle . Mozambique Harbour IMulgravePort Mulhaccn . Mulhcim Mumbles Lighthouse Munich Munster Muscat Cove Mussendom Cape Nacrdcn Namo Harbr. Namur Nancy . . NangasakI . Kankin >fnntC8 .Vaples Narbonne . Narva Natal Port - Needles Lighthouse Negapatam Port Negrais Capo Neustadt Nevera Nevis Isle. „S. Point Newark Steeple Newbiggin Spire Af W.C Af Sand ECc Af NW. of Gem Gem Engli 0cm Gem Arab Arab Holla Cl)ini Neth< Franc Jupan China Franc Italy Franc Russii Eur East of J^ Engla India (Newbury I Steeple India Germ; Franci Caribl Englai Englai Englai LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES. 1549 5 27 33W 1 30 2iW 337 30E 9 It 31 E 15 13 20 E 24 13S4E 79 11 OW 20 20 OE 3 28 4\V 73 18 E NunnoTPlKn. Countrj, die. Utiiude. Lcnglludt, NamstorriscM. C«inlr|iAo, UUludi. LoniiUuilt. Mirepotx Ob. France & 'b U Ua^'dE Newenham NW. Coast S4i^N iS i'j'hw •ervatory CaiN) Mewhaven • of Auier, Mirik Caiw W. Coast of 19 3 48 N 16 u sw United 8t 41 17 7 N 78 59 low AArica Nice . . lUly BtUomlngo 43 41 16 N 7 16 37 E MiMiuippI Ri. ver,&E.En. UnitedStatci 8857 ON 89 13 OW NIoolai (St) Mole 19 49 SON 73 89 S3 W trance Nioobar Isle D.ofBongal 645 ON 94 OE MitUu Russia in 56 39 6 N 83 43t7G (Great) Europe Nieu|ioit nolglum . HoHaiid . 51 7 54 N S4S 15E Mocha > Arabia • 13 20 ON 43 SO OE NlmeHuen . 51 SI SON 5 60 41 E Mohilew . liussia in S3M ON SO 24 45 E MIngpn :-hlna . 89 57 46 N ISO 18 15 E Europe Moiambique NIsmea > I'rance 43 50 8 N 4 21 45E Mohllla Iile 12 SO OS 43 50 OE NlihneU Itutila In 66 10 43 N 44 88 30E Chan. Novoaorixi NiihneT. Europe KuMla In Mombai Har- E. Coast of 4 4 OS 40 8 OE ii4 65 88N 90 1 46E bour, Entr. Africa Oudinik Europe Mondego Cape Portugal . 40 11 54 N 8 54 6W Nocera Italy Franco 43 640N 1S46 17E Monlauban France 44 055N 1 S0 4SE Nolrmoutlcr 47 8N 8 14 7 W Obicrvatory Isle Montego Bay Inmaica ■ 18 30 ON 77 54 OW Nooahevah 1. Uarquriai 8M OS 140 S OW Montery Montevideo New Albion 36 35 45N 121 51 6 W Nootka Sound NW. Coast 49 35 15 N 186S6 46W La Plata - 3453 OS 56 13 W of Anipr, Lighthouse Nonlllnmn . Norfolklsle . [lermany > 48 51 ON 10 S8 SOE MontpelierOb France 43 36 16 N 3 58 40 E Pnilfl.Uccan 89 1 458 168 10 15 E •ervatory Norkuping • Iweden • 68 35 ON 16 11 OE Montroae Switierland 45 55S6N 753 38E North CaiHi ■ North Caiw . Upland - N, Zealand 71 10 ON 86 45E Montierrat I., Caribbee Is. 16 47 35 N 62 13 35 W M86 OS 173 1 OE NE. Point North Cape . Russia In 6866 ON 179 11 SOW Monia Italy 45 34 41 N 9 17 11 E Asia MooieFort - New Wales 51 15 54 N 80 56 84 W N, West Capo Huto Ca|)0 • N. Holland 81 50 30 S 11438 OE Morale* Terra Firma 8 15 SON 74 1 OW J«|>an England - 37 33 IS N 137 36 OE Morant Point Jamaica • 17 58 ON 76 8 OW Nottingham 68 57 8N 1 8 14W Morant Quaya Caribbee Sea 17 86 ON 75 54 OW Steeple Morebat Cape Arabia . 17 ON 5132 OE Novaro lUly 46 86 38 N 837 46E Morilloi (lu; Porto Rico 17 58 SON 67 11 OW NovogoroJ Rursia In 68 31 S3 N 31 16 24 E Cape Eura|io Mornington I. NewHolland 16 32 OS 139 50 OE Noyon . Franco 4!) 34 48 N 3 050E Mornlngton Nubia . 18 16 ON 38 38 OE Nuremberg ■ Oermany . 4!) 36 ^'> N 11 4 15E Port Oby Isle . Indian Arch. 8 85 N 104 . 74 £ Moscow Russia in 55 45 45N 37 33 OE Ucanna Spain HUMla In ,■)« 66 33 N 3 30 51 W Europe Oc^akow 4e W. Coast of 644 ON 11 SO W Uhotoroa Isle l>acin,Occan 88 86 368 150 48 45W AfMca Ohitahoo Isle Marmietat Russia In 965 OS 139 8 OW Mowec Isle - Sandwich Is. SO 50 ON 166 8 OW Okhotsk . 69 SO 10 N 143 13 45 E Moiambique E. Coast of IS 1 OS 40 47 OE Asia Harbour AiVica Oldenburg • Germany ^ France . 53 840N 8 14 .15 E Mulgrave Port NW. Coast 59 34 17 N 139 48 6 W Oleron . 43 11 1 N 36 16E of Amer. Omor(8l,) . Franco 60 44 53 N S 15 12E Mulhacen • Germany . 51 12 59 N 10 28 45 E Uonalaihka I, NW. Coast 53 64 ON 166 82 OW Mulhcim Oermany . 47 48 4 NW. Coast 54 30 SON 165 31 OW Lighthouse of Amer, Munich Germany - 48 8 20 N 11 34 30 E OportOfthoBar Oran,St.Crulx Portugal . 41 8 64 N 8 37 18 W Munster Germany . .'il 58 10 N 7 36 31 E Barbary . 35 44S7N 39 34W Muscat Cove Arabia 2,3 38 ON 58 41 OE Castle M'jssendom Arabia . 26 21 ON 5638 OE Oranue • Orchlll* Itle France 41 8 ION 4 48 23E Cape CarlliliceSca 11 68 N 66 546W Naerdcn Holland ■ 52 17 49 N 5 g50E Orel - Utissia In 58 56 40 N 35 57 15E Namo Harbr. Cl)ina SI 35 ON 113 33 OE Eumno Russia In Namur Netherlands 50 28 30N 4.51 7E Orenburg . 61 46 6 N 65 44fiE Nancy - . France 48 41 55 N 6 10 31 E Asia Nangasaki . Nankin Jaiian 32 43 40 N 129 52 7 E Orfbrd Cape NW, Coast 43 68 ON 184 85 OW China 32 4 40 N 118 47 1.^ E of Amer. Nantes France - 47 13 6 N 1 32 44 W Oribrd Light. England • 58 6 ON 134 I4E Naples Italy 40 50 15 N 14 15 45 E house Narbonne - France 43 11 22 N 3 0S3E Oriiava Peak Mexico • 19 8 17 N 97 15 OW Narva Russia in 59 22 53 N 88 uaoE Orleans Franco 47 54 18 N 1 54 41 E Europe East Coast Orleans (New) UiiltMl St. 8!) 67 45 N 90 11 OW Natal Port - 39 55 OS 31 2S OE Ormus Isle, Gulf of 87 7 ON 66 37 OE of Africa N. End Persia Needles England - 50 39 53 N 133 S5W Orapesa Cape S|ialn 40 5SSN 885E Lighthouse Ortegal Ca|ie Osnaburg • Spain Germany . 43 46 40 N 7 49 OW Negapatam India 10 45 SON 79 55 OE 68 18 36 N 8 1 HE Port Ostond llQigluin • 61 13 67 N 355 8E Negrais Cape India 16 2 ON 94 13 OE Osterode Germany . 61 44 15 N 10 16 54E Neustadt - Germany . 47 48 27 N 16 13 32E Otahelte Isle, Paclfl,Ocoan 17 89 15 8 149 30 22 W Nevers France 46 59 17 N 3 9 SIE Venus Poln Ncvls Isle, Caribbee Is. 17 5 12 N 62 33 21 W Otranio Italy N. Ilollnnd 40 9 SON 18 29 15E S. Point Otway Cane Owhyheelslo N.Voint 38 61 OS 143 30 OE Newark Sfceple England - 53 430N 49 18W Sandwich Isles 80 17 ON 15S58 45W Newbiggin England - 55 11 14 N 1 29 48W Oxford Ob. England • Al 45 39 N 1 15 saw Spire J servatory iNewbury England - 51 34 5 N 1 19 9 WlPadang Head Sumatra . 066 OS 99 56 OE 1 Steeple IPaderuorn • Gorniany • 1 61 43 37 N 8 43 51 E gsmi!!rSSp|SV^Tf{p^X^liu^;.n.;KLJ>aik£T^ 1580 LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES. NumarriicM. Padua Obter- Coiinirj, die. l«iiiu«to. Lonailuil*. NamM 0t Flacft. Caunlrji Ac. Italy iSii 'is l1 61 32 E IMala Peru vatorjr I'lt'ttenberg South Conat Paix Fort . St Doming art N 72 S3 30 W Hay of AlVlcn Palawan lale Philippine 1. a 38 ON 118 22 OE Plymouth New Church England . Palermo Ub. Sicily 38 fi44N 13 2H OS 48 39 45 W Portland Islea, Pavill.Uou«h Paramatta N. Holland 33 48 458 151 1 15 W Eatternmoat Otiaervatory Parli, Koyaf lale Franco 48 50 UN 220 23E Portland England • Obaervatory Lighthouao Parma - - Italy 44 48 1 N 10 26 45 E Porto . Italy • . Parol lale ■ Archinclagn Terra Kirnia 37 3 4(i N 25 11 OE PortoBcllo • Colombia . Paito - 1 13 liW 77 21 25 W Porto-CabcUo Colombia • Palchcw laics. Pacifl.Oci-aii 24 42 ON 125 36 OE Porto-tJali'te Spain > Eaaternmoatl. Porto.Vccchio Corsica PatrUWa (St.) Van Die- 41 42 OS 1148 84 OE Port Royal Jamaica • Head men's Land Portsmouth . Uiiltee of Africa Presburg Hungary . PauUdc-Leon France 48 41 24 N 3 58 22 W Prince's lalo Straitt of (St.) Sunda Paul-de-Lo- West Coaat 8 47 30 8 13 53 OE Prince's lale Atlan.tkean ando (St) of Africa Pr. Edward'i Gulf of St. Paul.troia. France 44 21 3 N 4 45 54E Iain I^wrencp Chateaux(St.; Pr. Edward'a Ind. Ocean Pavia Italy 4.5 10 47 N 9 9 48E Isles, largest Pr. of Walci* Payta Point - Peru 5 3 SOS 81 2 UW NW, Coast Pedro Bruiico Cliineae Sea 22 19 30 N 115 8 OE Caiw of A mtaert lale Quemada Coroa Perpignan • France 4« 42 3 N 2 54 9 E Patagonia . Peaaro Italy 43 55 1 N 12 53 36 E Point Peterborough Cathedral England • 52 35 40 N 14 45 W Quentin (St) Franco fueretaro . Mexico ■ Peteraburg . Ruaaia in 59 56 23N 30 18 45 E Quilimano East Coast Europe River ofAfticn Petropaiilow. Kamtachat- S3 15N 158 49 OE Quilon Point India 1 skoi-Oatrog ka Juimpor France •Philadelphia United St 39 56 55 N 75 11 SOW )uiio . Peru . . iPhilip Islea . Pliilippeville Pacifi.Ocean 8 6 ON 140 3 OE Race Capo • NowiViundl, France 50 11 19 N 4 32 34E Radatock Cape N. Holland Philipsburg ■ Germany - 49 14 IN 8 86 40E Ragusa Dalmatia . iPiacenxa lUly 45 2 44 N 9 42 32 E Ramiey lale Walea Pico lale, the Aiore« 38 28 SON 28 33 OW Rasalgat Cape Raa-el-Ana Arabia Peak Egypt . . IPierre(St)Iale Newfoundl. 4fi 48 ON .W 12 OW Cauo Ras.Mahomcd 'Pillar Cape • Patagonia - Van Die - 52 46 OS 74 54 14 W Arabia . Pillar Cape . 43 12 8 148 5 OE Cape men'a Land Ratisbon Germany • Pillau I>ru88ia - rc PalagnnlH • atory Retlondo Isle Caribbeo la, Piscadorca la. Chinese Sea 23 32 ON 119 46 OE Reikianesi Iceland • larRcat Isle Cape Pitcairn's Ule Pacifi.Ocean 2.') 4 OS 130 2.5 OW Remedioa Mexico . Pittubtirgh . United St 40 26 15 N 79 58 15W Cape LMIIudv, 31 (1 US AU *i 80 N tfi ra 3 N wan ON 44 A2 Id N .U 88 M N II m ON M 44 m N 8 «l IN N IH ,-H N 8 30 8 SO 31 88 N 41 4(1 44 N 9 !» 30 N 10 88 82 N 4,1 80 1(1 N 41 Xi 89 N 17 fl8 ON 4,1 4 IS N SO 48 3 N SO S 19 N 4 49 87 N 48 H 7N n .-iS 8 1 41 46 14 ON ON 4(1 .M S (U 4S 30 N SN 47 39N S 8S ON 19 OS 4.1 .14 IS N 41 ,10 40 N U U 08 SS 9 ON 89 U 30 8 id 47 ao N Al 47 S8 N 88 IS 08 41 57 S 33 7 49 N AU IH 30 8 49 SO SI N 80 3(1 StI N IH 10 8 8 SI ON 47 S8 89 N 13 17 S 46 40 ON 33 18 OS 48 .'til N SI SI 4,1 N «8 82 (I N ti M ON 87 43 ON ♦9 ,M N 44 8.1 A N 51 84 47 N ,"■10 SI 17 I (>;l la OS ON ON laHiglludo. 1 WW UK 4 7 16 W 340 4W 80 43K 1» SO 4K 88 48 UK 79 54 1; 1 M r,'> W 76 ,19 54 W 78 27 (1 W 149 39 UK iNuiisorPtacw, 8 2(J 50 W 12 14 2'i K 79 4,1 \vl 68 16 4'> W 3 5 SO \V 9 Ifi ,'17 K 1 76 .« 30 \V| 70 43 (1 Wi 1 A5y\v 14 8,1! 15 E 1,M 6 4,') El 17 10 4,'i E 1 10) 15 UK 7 26 E ! 68 5(i UW 37 46 OK 1(18 17 SO \V| 94 13 S,? W 100 81 E 1 141 82 W 8 22 W 71 19 4j W 135 12 E 1 77 19 w' I7S 49 50 W 71 O^-iW; II 7 3IIE 167 13 (IE. 174 SO ,'-10 e! 186 18 ,17 E ' (i8 30 15 W 3 17 40 E tiNi 10 1,') w; 37 3U 0K| 76 48 30 E 4 SilW 78 45 15 W 53 3 1,1 W m 15 OE 18 (i 1,1 E 5 l!l ai w ,19 ,W OE 3,1 48 E 34 15 OE 18 4,'»e! 12 10 51 E 1 1150E{ (19 8 15 W (i2 l!l Wi 22 47 30 W| RemodloiPort iRcndaburg . JHenne* Keaohitlon 1, {Reaolution I. iRetolutlon F. Slave Lake Retford (EmI) Spire 'Revel • IRhA la. Light IKheimi iKhodet Harb. Hhodei RIcaenkuppe Kigi . . Rimlnl ■ Riobamba Nuevo Rio Janeiro Bay Ripon Church Reca Partida Point Rochefort . Rochelle Hodoato Rodrigue Isle Roman xoir Cape Romberg Komo Rondoe lale - Koaetta • Rosaal Point Hothenburg Rotterdam . Rotuma lale . Houen Round Isle . Ni < D( Fri Pa Hi t N. Ei^ Ru I Fra Fra Rh Fra Oei Rui E Itr.1 Per Bra Eng Mei Rovercdo Ruremonde . Kuttunpour • Ryacotia Rypen Salia Isle • Sabionetta . Sable Cape . Sahib lale . Saintea SaintealB.NW, PtofW.I. Sal lale Salamanca • Salayer Strait 8alee 8alehhieh Saiiahury lale Frai Frai Tur El Ind. JeiM Tart Ital) Nori Engl Gen Hoil Pacii Fran NW, I "' 'Gem Gem India Indii Denr Carib Italy Nova Arch Frani Carib Cape1 Mexi< Ind./ Moroi ..Judai Engia 13 30 N ' 89 40 " W' Salisbury Spire Salonica Saltzburg . Salvador (St) Salvagca lalea |Mlvage« lelea Samana lale Samar lale . p^mara Saraarang Bay Samboangan Sandwich Cape Sandy (ape . Sandy Hook Lighthouse SangaarCape San.ho Cape Santa Santa-Cruilslc Sania-Cruilslc Stnta-Fe |-FedeKoKota v,M.,.nu Santamler Bar Mexico SamanderPortlSpain i'urke Eur Germi Brazil Atlanl St Doi Lucav Philipi Ruaa" Java Minda N. Hoi N. Hoi Unit £ Japan Coch. C Peru Pacific Caribbi Mexico Colomb LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES. 1.151 iNMIMOrPUMI. lllW ♦ w «'.' (1 \V| l!t 4") W 1!) OW' .1 17 40 K , m lOlSW ;i7 M 0K| 7(i 4» .10 E 1 4 Si'iWl 7H« 15W M SISW ;Vt 15 E \H lilSE r. Ill 36 w r..NW. Pt of W. I. Sal Iile Salamanca • Salayer Strait Salce Salchhieh Salisbury Isle Salisbury Spire Salonica Saltzburg Salvador (St.) Salvages Isles Salvages Islet Samana Isle Stmar Itle - Samara Samarang Bay Samboangan Sandwich Cape Sandy (ape . Saiidy Hook Lighthouse Sangaar Cape San.ho Cape Santa Santa-Cruilsic Sanla-Cruilstc SantvFe &-FedeKogota SantanderBar SinvanderPort NW. Coast of Amer. Denmark - France Paclfl.Ocean Hudton't StralU N. America England • Ruttia in Europe France France Rhodei Itle France Germany ■ Ruttia in Europe Italy . . Peru . Braiil England . Mexico France France • Turkey in Europe Ind. Ocean Jetto Tartary . Italy . . Norway . England - Germany . Holland . Paclfl.Ocean France NW. Coait of Amer. Germany . Germany - India India • ■ Denmark . Caribbee It. Italy Nova Scotia Archipelago France • Caribbee It. CapeVerdlt. Mexico Ind. Archip. Morocco > iidson's B. England ■ IXirkey in Europe Germany - Brazil Atlantic Oc. St Domingo Lucayot - Philipp. Islet Russ. in Eu. Java Mindanao N. Holland N. Holland Unit SUtcs Japan Coch. China Peru Pacific Oc. Caribbee It. Mexico Colombia • Mexico Spain Si IR 40N 48 650N 17 iU SOS 61 S9 ON 61 10 S6 M 53 93S8N 59S6S3N 46 14 40 M 49 14 41 N 36SH ON 44 31 8 N 50 43 18 N 56 57 1 N 44 343N 1 41 46 8 »53 OS 54 8 UN 18 44 ON 45 56 ION 46 9 SIN 40 58 S4N 19 40 40 8 45 85 SON 53S5S0N 41 53 54 N 62 34 30 N 31 SS ON 58 55 ON 48 SOSfiN 51 55 83 N 18 30 OS 49 36 97 N 58S6 30N 4.'> 55 36 N 51 11 48 N 88 16 ON 13 31 16 N 55 19 57 N 17 39 ON 44 59 47 N 43 83 45N 38 40 ON 45 44 43 N 15 51 85 N 16 41 ON 80 40 ON 5 40 S 34 5 ON 30 48S8N 63 89 ON 51 3 56 N 48 38 7N 47 48 10 N 13 5 S 30 9 ON 19 16 36 N 83 18 ON 18 40 ON 48 39 35 N ar.* OS 6 43 UN 18 19 84 42 40 25 lAicinidt. OS S ON Names of Flaois. Country, &c. 41 16 30 N 13 44 ON 8 59 10 41 17 44 36 13 4 Xi 48 N 23 45 ON 43 28 SON 3 S OS 8N ON 1^ 53 io W Bantona Saratof 9 39 53 E Saik Isle . 1 40 47 W Savage Isle . 141 45 W SavannaUght- 65 16 W house Savu Itle 113 45 W Scala Nuova Scarbgh. Shoal 54 3 W Schiedam . Schlukenau 84 35 9E Schmalkalden Schnlttken • 1 S3 35 W Schweldniti 4 3 47 E Sebatllan (St) 18 15 E Scllngintkol. 8 34 89 E Ottrog 15 40 E 9ellvrla 84 7 45 E Senlit 18 33 51 E Sent 78 48 46 W Serdie-Kamen Cape 43 18 W Seringapatam Setuval 1 30 47 W Seven Capet, 94 58 W N. Cape Shan.tungProi 67 34 W SheerneuStafr 1 9 40 W Sherbro Itle 37 35 31 E Shet It. (New) 63 11 45 E Shipunsk.Noti 141 34 SO E Shrewsbury, S. Chad's Steeple 141 44 45 E Slam It 39 47 E Sienna 5 35 30 E Sierra Leone .10 38 SO E Cape 3 3 W Slllntty, the 8 56 54 E Mausoleum 4 39 11 E Silver Quay 177 50 OE Bank,SE.end 1 5 59 E SIncapore 159 S3 30 W Singanfii Sinigaglia 11 35 E Sinope 5 59 14 E 88 36 E Siout 78 3 36 £ Sisteron 8 47 30 E Skagen Cape 63 18 W Lighthouse 10 30 5 E Sktddaw 65 89 45 W MounUin 86 88 15 E Skudesnst 38 3 W Lighthouie 61 41 85 W SIciwick Sluyt • S3 3 W Smith't Itlef 100 55 45 W Smyrna 180 88 E Snowdon M. 6 48 45 E Socorro Isle . 31 59 45 E Socotra Isle • 76 47 W Soderhamn . 1 47 84 W Soissont 88 56 E Solidad Port Soliman Port 13 1 24 E Solomon Cape 38 88 W Sombrero Itle 16 3 W Sonderburg - 69 13 83 W Sonderhauien 73 40 W Sooloo Itle . 185 30 E Sorsogan Port 35 SO IS E Sourahaya - 110 34 OE South Cape - ISi 14 E South Cape . 146 89 E South Isle - 153 16 E Southampton 74 13 W Isle Southampton 140 14 E Spire 109 14 E Southerncss 78 58 45 W Point 166 5 E Spartel Cape 64 48 89 W Spartivento 104 S3 45 W Cape 74 13 53 W Specie !I8 6 W Spencer's Bay 3 40 .W Wl 5 G U'Muda. Spain HussiainEu. EngChannel Pacific Oc. Unit States Ind. Archip. Archipelago Chinese Sea Holland • Germany • Germany • Germany • Germany • Spain Russia in Asia Turkey in Europe Franc* France Russia In AsU India Portugal - Turkey In Asia China England • W. Coast of AMca Atlantic Oc KamtKhat England • India lUly W. Coast of AiWca Turkey In Asia Lucayot E. Indiet . China lUly Turkey in Atia Egypt France Denmark . England • Norway . Denmark Nethcrlandt Pacifi.Ocean Turk, in Asia Wales Pacifi.Ocean Arabian Sea Sweden France Falkland Is. Barbary - Candia Caribbee It. Denmark Germany Ind. Archip. Luconia - Java New Zeal. Van Die. L. Pacifi.Ocean Hudton't Bay England Scotland Barbary Italy Italy ■ W. Coatt of Africa ! 43s8i0N 51 31 38 N 49 33 32 N 19 3 15 S 33 45 N 10 30 8 37 51 ON 15 8 ON 51 55 9 N 51 30 N 50 44 36N 53 48 ION 50 50 37N 43 19 SON 51 6 6N 41 4 35 N 49 18 38 N 48 11 55 N 67 3 ON 18 2S 89 N 38 28 «4 N 36 83 50 N 37 35 ON 51 11 S8 N 7 89 ON 68 S3 30 S 53 55 ON S8 43 88N 14 30 40 N 4388 ON 8 31 ON Umiillud*. 3 19 35 W 46 15 E 8 84 .10 W 69 30 3CW 80 55 45W 121 43 27 15 117 48 4 84 I4 86 10 96 31 87 16 87 158 106 38 OE OE OE OE SOE 15 E 48 E 15 E SOW 45E 38 11 3E! 3 35 13 E I 3 16 59 E I 171 54 30 Wj 76 41 S8E 853 SSW 89 8 10 E 183 87 E 44 86 E 18 45 OW 63 48 OW 159 43 E 8 44 53 W 100 60 15 E 11 10 15 E 13 18 W 36 15 89 N 38 19 16 E 80 18 UN 6030 OW 1 13 ON 34 16 45 N 43 43 16 N 43 3 16 N 27 13 14 N 44 11 51 N 57 43 44 N 54 39 18 N 59 8 40 N 54 31 27 N 51 18 35 N 14 SO SON 38 S5 ON .03 4 ON 18 40 ON 13 30 ON 61 17 47 N 49 88 58 N 51 31 30 S 31 46 15 N 35 9 15 N 18 38 ON 54 54 .59 N 51 88 33 N 6 1 ON 18 r,3 N 7 14 23 S 47 16 SO S 43 ,17 OS 31 30 ON 63 57 ON 50 54 ON 54 52 SON 35 48 SON 37 SS SON 44 4 ON 25 48 OS 103 30 OE 108 57 E 13 11 45 E 34 41 15 E 11 IS SS E 556 SE 10 37 50 E 3 8 9W 5 19 OE 933 57E 333 9E 168 43 15 E 27 6 OE 4 3 38 W 110 17 W 54 10 E 17 5 SOE 3 19 37 E 58 5 15 W 85 730E 86 19 85 E 63 85 OW 9 47 13 E 10 SO 81 E 181 18 E 183 SO E 118 41 SOE 167 80 9F 146 49 E 140 OE 82 OW 1 33 56 W 334 53W 5 55 OW 16 SSSE 9 51 OE 75 8 OE i^5ijfaaw.KJiatf i i!'.a;'i!iii.'ji.^jftiitgt-.-.i.fe-- ' V4...« -Hgi^^i-A i nnii 1.5 5!i LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES. Sunn dt riacM. Country, &c. l.alJluila. I.mialtuilfl. .NaniM of Plain L'ountrjr, Ac. ■.•IIIUlls. l.on|Huil<. 9|icncer Cape V. Holland & 18 'O 8 IS^SS'OE Three Points W. Coast of 4/ii ON % j dw Spire - (iermany 41) IH .01 N 8 i'li 16 K Cape AlVica MiMilflta Italy ii Ai M N 12 :H 46 K l'hulv(S«utli) Sandwich 59 34 08 87 45 OWi KUile ■ Germany - Englandf - .'i.l :!ul rones - 14 58 ON 145 51 \-,t. Strabatio Ireland .H 49 S9 N 7 23 5W Tobago Isle ■ Carlbbee I. II 10 ON 60 27 1) W StraltiinU ■ Germany - M 19 ON 13 38 15 E Tobolsk Russia In 08 11 42 N 68 6 13E Stratburg . Strombofil.8t France 48 34 56N 7 M 51 E Asia Mediter- 38 48 SON 15 18 30 E Toluca Mexico . 19 16 19 N 99 21 30 W Bartolo . ranean Tomsk - - Russia in 56S9 38N 83 9 51 El Stroinneu • Orkneys - 58 5fi ON 3 31 5 W Asia Stromttadt . Sweden - .68 55 30 N II 12 OE Tongatabou 1. Friendly Is. 21 8 OS 173 13 OW Stulgaid Germany • 48 46 15 N 9 11 OE Tongres German* - Denmark • 50 47 7 N 5 27 J8E Suakin Nubia 19 5 ON 37 33 OE Tonningen . .H 19 25 N a 58 4.-, E SucceM Capo TIerra del or. OS 65 19 OW Toobouai Isle Pacifl.Ocean 23 85 OS 149 20 -M W I Fuego Tor Harbour Arabia . 28 19 ON 33 28 UE Suci • Chinese Sea 30 030N ,«S8 OE Tornea Sweden 65 50 50 N 84 12 n E Sulpl'iir Iile a7 58 N 188 22 E Tortona Italy • - Spain . - 44 53 86 N 8 56 .TiE 'Sunderland England - 54 .M 18 N 1 81 low Tortosa 40 48 46N 33 OE 1 Llghthoute Sundtwall • Tortuga Isle Toul . - Caribbce Sea 10 59 ON 65 H OW Sweden - 68 82 SON 17 16 30 E France 48 40 38N 5 n ItiE iSurat Klvcr • India 81 4 ON 78 51 OE Touinn France 43 7 9N 5 .« 41 E .Swan Riyer N. Holland 31 50 OS 115 50 OE Toulouse France 43 35 46 N 1 »i Mi, 1 (Perth) Tournay Belgium • 50 36 SON 3 23 17 E jSwanieaCaatle Wales . r,l 37 13 N 3 .55 38 W Tours France 47 83 46 N 41 38 E 'Sweetnoie Russia in 68 18 ON 39 46 E Trafalgar Cape Spain 36 10 15 N 6 OW 1 Cap« Europe Tranquebar . India 11 1 30N 79 55 OE Syene ISyra Ule, Port Archipelago 24 5 83 N 33.54»tE Trapanl Sicily 38 3 ON 18 30 OE 37 26 ON 84 .5;i E Travemunde Germany - 63 67 46 N 10 51 40E !Syracuu Sicily 37 2 .58 N 15 16 10 E Trebisonde ■ IMrkey In 41 8 41N 39 88 UE Ltghthouie iTaciiba Asia Mexico - 19 .!l ON 99 7 45 W Trent - Germany - 46 6 86 N 11 3 45E [Taganrock . Russia in 47 18 40 N 38 39 E Treves Germany - 49 46 37 N li 38 mi 1 Europe Trieste Illyria 4S 38 8N 13 47 8E iTambow Ruuia in 58 43 44 N 41 45 15 E Trincomale Ceylon 833 ON 81 22 OE Tangle- Fort Europe United 37 47 ON 75 52 30 W Bay Trinidad . Cuba 81 48 SON 80 52W Flar taff States Trinidad Isle Atlan.Ocean 80 38 SON 29 11 OW Tanr . Iile, New He- 19 32 25 S 169 20 11 E Trinidad Isle, Caribbee 10 38 42 N 61 38 OW Port Reso- brides P. d'Eapagne Isles 1 lution Tripoli . Barbary - 38 53 40 N 13 lt33E Tanna Iile, N. Hebrides 19 32 85 S 169 41 5 E Tripoli Syria 34 86 8.5 N 35 51 J8E Port Reso- TrisUn Atlantic 37 6S6S 12 7 0W| lution d'Acunha I. Ocean Taormlna Te- Sicily 37 48 15 N 15 17 40 E Triton Isle - Chinese Sea 15 46 ON 111 11 OE; legraph Troyes France 48 18 6 N 4 4 4!1E: Tars . ■ Russia in 56 54 SIN 74 5 18 E Truxillo Mexico - 15 51 ON 86 7 OW, Asia TruxiUo . Peru 8 6 9S 79 3 22W Tarbei France 43 13 r,i N 4 14 E Tscherkask - Russia In 47 13 34 N' 89C3I.i£! Tarimilile - S|iain 36 .'iO N 5 35 15 W Europe 1 .Tarragona - Spain Turkey in 41 8 50 N 1 15 30 E TschirikofT Japan 32 14 15N,1314130E Tarsus - . 37 1 ON 34 .52 E Cape , 1 Asia rschitschagofflJapan 30 56 45 N 130 36 30 E Taunton, St. England ■ 51 .W N 3 522W Cape 1 1 Hary'sStecpIc TschukoUkol Russia in 64 14 SON ,173 31 OE Tavastehus Russia i-i 61 3 ON 34 86 30 E Noss AsU 1 Europe Tso.Choui . Corea 35 30 ON '129 16 7E jTchln.sanlslcs Tedclcs Cape China 30 SO N 122 36 OE Tsus-Slma Isle Japan 34 40 ONIWS? OE Barbary - ,% .57 N 4 14 8E Tubingen ■ {Germany • 48 31 10 N 9 3 3jK leklenburg Germany . 52 1.1 28 N 7 47 25 E Tula Russia in 54 11 40N 37 1 fiE Telllcherry India 11 44 ON 75 49 30 E Europe Icnby Spire Wales 51 40 20 N 4 40 52W Tunbridge . England . 51 11 58 N 17 2E' Tcn-choo-foo China 37 46 ON 120 53 OE Tunis, Fon- Barbary - 36 47 59 N Kill IJE Tcncdos Isle Archipelago 39 51 ON 25 53 OE douc Tencriftfc Isle, Canary Isles 88 17 ON 16S9 45W Turin, Plana Italy 45 4 ON 7 40I5E the Peak Castello 1 Tercera Isle, Azores 38 39 ON 87 14 OW Turnagaln N. Coast of 68 18 6 N 109 25 OW; Angra Cape America Ternate Isle Ind. Archip. 050 ON 127 3S OE Turon Cape - Coch. China 16 8 SON 108 17 11E( I Tcrnay Bay Tartary - 45 10 38 N 137 1 15 E Twer - Russia in 56 51 44 N 35 67i:3fc 1 Terracina . Italy Sicily 41 18 14 N IS 13 88 E Europe 1 1 Terra-Nova 37 8 36 N 14 15 40 E Tynemouth England - 5.5 1 81 N 1 24 31 W I Column Lighthouse 1 I Tcscuco Mexico ■ 19 30 40 N 98 51 V Udrievalla • Sweden - m 21 15 N 11 56S0EJ 1 Thadffus (St.) Russia in 62 50 ON 179 S 0. Vdlne Italy 46 SUN 1^ IS lit ■ Nosi Asia i;ffl» . - Russia in 54 48 45 N 55 53 tot | Thebeo Ruins C:aribbeels. 2.5 43 ON ,32 39 21 E . Asia ■ Thomas (St.) I. 18 20 M 65 3 OWUlm - . Germany - 48 23 20 N 9 59 fiE 1 66 « SON 3113 Ofc 1 Three PoinU Patagonia - 49 46 OS 75 4<; l5WUmbas Russia in Cape ' Europe I NsmN sf Places. Umea . u Uiist Itle . 8i Untleftn Cape Si Upsal . . 8< Uralj . K Cranlburt • Urbino . Ushant Isles. Turk's VtU . Utrecht Vie, - . Vabret Vaison Valiiivla Valence Valencia Valery-sur. Somme(St) Vailadolld . Valona Valparaiso • 'Vanderlin C. iVannes Vavao Isle . Venice, 8L Mark's Venloo Vcra-Crut . Verd Cape . Verden Verdun Verona 01>. servalory Versailles . Vlanna Vicenia Vienna Vienne Vigerano ViOT . ViCach Villa de Cond* Villa del Pao. (Villa. Kranca. iVillalpando . I Vincent (St) I Cape 'yincent(St!I. CarH |Virgln.Oorda Caril I Isle, E Cape UU Virgins Cape Patai |Vto(St)CapeSlcl^ Frar Port lull Gen Fran lUly Spall Oern Porti Coloi Italy Spaii Port! : •iTvatory (ViiagapaUm Voghera 'Volcano Bay ..'■vaiiu Day ,'Voicano Isle iVolcano Isle jVoicano Isle 'Vologda Frani IViviers ' Oli servatory '" ~" India Italy Jcsso Japan New: Pacifl Russii jVolthoen'sIsle India' Voroneti '- "'" |WakefleId ! Spire Waideck Waldcnl. . ifoiara Walli.', Isle. L^^S; Waisingham Cumb« J^'Pe Isle i^'ii/hffi.e'f ""J i'^ LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES. 1533 ow 80 52W 29 11 OWl 61 38 OW! I3 11S3E 35 51 i8E| IS 7 UW| 111 11 OE, 4 4 WE' Rrt 7 OW, 7t 3MW 89 23 1.5 E' 131 4ia)E 13O3()!0E 173 31 OE 129 16 7E i-«in OE 9 3 35K 37 1 fiE 17 2Ei 10 HUE I i 7 40 15E; 109 « OW'; 108 17 OEi 35 57S3E 144 31W| 11 56 30E 13 15 2t 55 53 4ot 9 59 fiE 3113 Ot Nun« af Placn. Counirjitic. I.ailiuil«. Loniliude. N'tmn of FIum. CountijriAo. I 8 47 39 86 N 18 33 54 8 45 85 38 N 51 88 17 N 19 11 58 N 14 43 45 N 52 55 37 N 49 9 31 N 45 26 7 N 48 48 21 N 41 43 36 N 45 31 40 N 48 18 40 N 45 32 57 N 45 18 54 N 48 13 20 N 46 a; ON 41 81 18 N 8 38 1 N 43 40 SON 41 51 10 N 37 854N 28 28 ^'0 E 45 45 W 141 14 30 E 17 39 E 61 35 30 E 13 43 59 E 12 37 5 E 5 3 6V\ 13 U E 5 7 I6E 4 25 17 E 2 50 31 E 5 4 !»E 73 34 W 4 53 35 E 83 3 W 1 37 61 E 100 68 OW 19 25 45 E Waraiilln - Wardhuui ■ Warmenidorf Warriiigton Ntcepio Wuriaw Washington Watecou lale Weimar Wernlngerode Weael Weymouth Cajio Whiteharen Windmill Whyda, Hrl- tiili Factory Wiborg Wiborg Wloklow High l-ighthoute 71 38 15 W Willlamiburg ' VVllna 137 9 E « 45 4W 173 59 45 W 18 20 59 E 6 10 31 E 96 8 45 W 17 30 30 W 9 12 47 E 5 22 17 E 11 1 15E 13 II 18 31 ON 7N 58 21 OS 38 11 50 N 44 39 14 N 17 43 30 N 44 59 21 N 48 19 ON 30 43 ON 5 32 20 S 10 25 12 S 59 13 30 N 5 58 OS 51 40 SON 53 41 8 N 51 12 43 N ctOSSSSN 13 18 OS 66 4 ON 53 48 26 N Wincheliea Steeple Wiiichctter Caihedral WindsorCaitle Winga lleacon Winter Island Winter Ilarbr. Wiiby Wittenberg - Woahoo Isle 2 7 22E 8 43 30 W 11 33 24 E 16 22 45 E 4 53 39 E 8 52 1 E.^ , 8 33 30 W Woolver. 13 52 IS E Wolfenbuttle Woody Point hampton Sp. Ocrmany I.apl»nd • Uermany • England • Huiila In Europe Unit. State! I'acifl.t^ean Germany - Uermany - Germany N. Holland England W. Coait of AfVica Denmark Kuiila in Europe Ireland United SUtei Kuiiia In Europe England . England • England . Sweden Hudion'a Bay Melville I. Polar Sea Sweden Germany - Sandwich Islet Germany • W. Coait of America England . 8 35 54 W Workington 64 48 W ,,Chapel 7 19 30 E Wormi 5 84 16 W Worm's Head 8 59 36 W WreklnMoun. tain 61 16 < WurUburg - 64 85 24 W Wuihnel- Wolotichok 68 17 25 W Xam-hay - 12 46 15 E 4 41 OE 83 26 OE 9 1 25E 141 8 OE 130 16 40 E 148 4 15 E 165 48 21 E 40 11 15 E 124 48 E Yap Isle York (New) Battery York Cape York, Fort York, Miniter Yprea Yuelburg Yitad Zacheolile • Zaiappa Zante Iile, the Town Zaniibar Road 39 21 SO E 1 29 24 WlZariiin 9 1 33 GJZirbi Isle, the 19 51 16 V/ 177 21 45 W 60 51 C W 7 K 35 E Town Znaim Zumpango Zurich Zuriksce Zutphen England • Germany . Wales . England - Germany . Kuisia in Europe China Pacifl. Ocean United Statn Greenland New Wales England - Belgium . Germany ■ Sweden Porto Rico Mexico Mediter- ranean E. Coast of Africa Russia in Europe Barbary . Germany . Mexico Switzerland Holland - Holland • 46 ^8 is N 70 82 3ti N 51 17 13 N 53 83 SON 63 14 88 N 38 55 ON 50 I SOS 60 59 13 N 51 50 34 N 51 39 17 N 12 39 8 54 38 60 N 6 IB ON 56 37 II N 60 48 40 N S3 58 88 N 37 15 60 N 64 41 8 N 50 65S8N 51 3 40 N 61 89 ON 57 38 18 N 66 11 84 N 74 47 18 N 57 39 15 N 51 53 39 N 21 40 30 N 53 8 44 N 60 3N 68 34 54 N 54 S8S4N 40 37 49 N 51 33 56 N 52 40 11 N 49 46 6 N .57 3.0 12 N 31 16 ON 9 35 ON 40 42 6 N 1^ 26 n K 31 7 E 12 M\ 7 E 8 33 11 W 31 8 45 E 76 58 45 W 158 14 SOW 11 81 E 10 47 28 E 6 37 BE 143 18 E 3 34 56 W 834 OE 9 36 20 £ 88 40 6E 6 81W 76 64 15W 85 18 OE 48 31 E 1 18 36 W 3S88W 11 38 E 83 9 49 W 110 31 36 W 18 26 SO E 12 43 44 E 158 1 6W 10 31 54 G 127 67 W 8 7 low 3 33 SOW 8 21 13 E 4 18 56 W 2 31 SOW 9 55 SO E 34 41 OE 121 38 E 138 8 OG 73 59 0W| 75 56 ON 66 39 OW 57 1 48 N 92 34 45 W 53 57 48N 1 4 34W 50 51 10 N 353 4E 51 50 29 N 6 26 28;:. 55 25 SIN 13 4R .» E 18 23 48 N 67 34 IW 19 30 8 N 96 '4 39 W 37 47 17 N .;o Jl 48 E 6 6 OS 39 33 OE 48 4! SON 44 87 45 E 33 54 ION 10 53 25 E 48 51 15 N 16 1 57 E lit 46 52 N 99 S45W 47 22 S3 N 8 31 30 E 51 39 4 N 3 54 59 E 58 8 86 N 6 11 52 E 5 G 2 rm I. Mont Blanc, A t!. Monte Koaa, A 3. Finster Aarhoi 4. Juiigfrau, Alpi 5. Schrockhorn, j (i. Oertlcr Spitze, 7. Gross Glocknci 8. Simnlon, Alps 9. Miilhacen, Siei 10. Maladetta, Fyr U. Mont Perdu, P 12. Pcnaranda, At 13. Etna, Sicily U. St Gothard, Al 15. Kuska, Carpatt 16. Mount Ci!ni8, j 17. Little St Bcrnt 18. Monte Corno, j 19. Kanigou, Pyrci 2U. Skagtios Find, 21. Siicchiitta, Dofi 22. Lomnitz, Car|>ij 23. Taygctus, Oree 24. Olympus, Turk 25. Montd'Or, Au' 26. Cantal, Auverg 27. MczJnc, Cevcni 28. Parnassus, Grci 2U. Ossa, Turkey 30. Kicscn Koppc, 31. Pelion, Greece 32. Hecia, Iceland 33. Lozire, Ccvcnr 34. Puy de Ddme, ai;. Fcldbcrg, BlacI ,16. Haydclberg, B( 37. Helicon, Oreeci 38. Ben Nevis, Gra 39. Ben Lawers, Gi 40. Cairngorm, Gr« 41. Vesuvius, Italy 42. Keilbcrg, Er'zgi 43. Schneulwrg, ti: 44. Brocken, Hartz 45. Snowdnn, Wale 46. Schehallicn, Gn 47. Cader Idris, W« 48. MacKillicuddy's 49. Ben Lomond, G 50. Schneckopp, Th 51. Skiddaw, Engia 52. Ingletmrough, I 63. North Cape, La 1. Chumularcc, H 2. Uhawalagirl, H 3. Javaher, Himal 4 Kudra, Hlmala} R. Jamautri, Hima 6. Highest Peak ol 7. Klburz, Caucaat 8. Ararat, Great, j 9. Kazbek, Caucaa 10. (lounong Pasun 11. Ucniavcnd, Pen ir>55 T ABLE or THE HEIGHT OF THE PRINCIPAL MOUNTAINS ON THE UtOUK. EUROPE. 1. a t. 5. (i. 7. 8. 9. lU. 11. 12. 13. U. l.'i. Ki. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 21. 25. 26. 27. 28. 2y. ao. 31. 32. 33. 34. a'i. .Ki. 37. 38. 3!). 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 43. *>. 47. 48. 4!t. 50. 51. 52. S3. Mont Blanc, Alps - Monte Koia, Alps Finstcr Aarhorn, Alps Juiigrrau, Alps Schrockhorn, Alps Oertlcr Spitzc, AIj)S Oross Glocknc Simplon, Alps Alps .All Mulhacen, Sierra Nevada Maladetta, Pyrenees Mont Perdu, Pyrenees Pcnaranda, Asturias Etna, Sicily St Gothard, Alps Ruska, Carpathians Mount Ci!nis, Alps Little St Bernaril, Alps Monte Corno, Apennines Kanigou, Pyrenees Skagtlos Find, Dorrincs Snechiitta, Dufrines Lomnitz, Carpathians Taygetus, Greece Olympus, Turkey Mont d'Or, Auvergne Cantal, Auvergne Mezdnc, Cevennes Parnassus, Greece Ossa, Turkey Kiescn Koppc, Sudetea Pelion, Greece Hecia, Iceland Lotire, Cevennes Puy de D6me, Auvergne Feldberg, BlacI: Forest Havdclberg, Bohemian Forest Helicon, Greece Ben Nevis, Grampians Ben I.«>wcr8, Grampians Cairngorm, Grampi.uis Vesuvius, Italy Keilbcrg, Kr'zgebirgc Schneelierg, Fichtelgebirge Brockcn, Hartz Snowdon, Wales Schehallien, Grampians Cader Idris, Wales Mucgillicuddy's Reeks, Ireland Ben Lomond, Grampians Schncekopp, Thuringian Forest Skiddavr, England Ingleborough, England North Ca|>c, Lapland ASIA 1. Chumularce, Himalayah 2. Uhawalagiri, Himalayali 3. Javahcr, Himalayah 4. Itudra, Himalayah a. Jamautri, Himalayah fi. Highest l'c.ik of Hindoo Consh 7. Klburz, Caucasus 8. Ararat, (ireat, Armenia !l. Kaibek, Caucasus II). Uouiiung I'asumbra, Sumatra It. Ucuiuvcnil, Persia English Viet. 15,668 15,527 14,325 13,730 13,310 13,065 12,980 11,730 11,878 11,436 11,275 11,200 10,870 10,605 9,912 9,650 9,600 9,523 8,800 8,400 8,122 7,962 7,950 6,650 6,470 6,350 5,920 5,850 5,840 5,350 5,200 5,010 4,y.!0 4,890 4,750 4,690 4,.5,'i() 4,.)79 4,051 4,050 3,932 3,910 3,600 3,730 3,568 3,564 2,5.10 S,404 3,262 3,220 3,022 2,361 1,300 29,000 ' 28,r>00 . 2.5,800 2.'!,000 ■ 22,500 • 20,000 . 1«,.350 17,700 ■ 15,8(K) . 15,270 • 11.700 5 19. Arglsh, Asia Minor 13. Ararat, Little, Armenia 14. Alas Tag, Altai 15. Highest Peak of liebanon 16. Awatcha, Kamtschatka 17. Olympus, Asia Minor 18. Highest Peak of Nilgherries 19. Sinai, Arabia 20. Takhtalou, Taurus 21. Adam's Peak, Ceylon 32. Sabramani, Ghauts 23. Ida, Asia Miiwr 24. Chaizgour, Vindhya 25. Carmel, Palestine 26. Tabor, Palestine AFRICA. 1. Highest Peak of Cameroona 2. Peak of Tenerilffe 3. Bernard, Bourbon Isles 4. Highest Peak of Atlas 5. Lamalmon, Abyssinia 6. Compass, Sncuwberg, Africa 7. Romberg, S. Africa 8. Fogo, Cape de Verd Isles 9. Taranta, Abyssinia 10. Pico Ruivo, Madeira 11. Table Mountain, Africa 12. Piter Boot, Mauritius 13. Diana's Peak, St Helena EngllHh Frel. • 13,300 ■ 1.3,500 ■ 11,520 ■ 11.050 - 9,750 ■ 9,100 - 8,835 - 7,9.W - 7,715 ■ 6,650 - 5,7.50 - 5,«U - 2,700 - 2,250 - 2,053 ■ 13,000 - 12,176 - 12,100 . 11,900 - 11,300 . 10,250 - 8,330 ■ 8,100 . 7,980 - 6,233 . 3,i»2 . 2,790 - 2,710 G ;) AMERICA. Sorata, Andes . > . 25,400 Illimanl, Andes . . • 24,200 Gualatieri, Andes ■ • . 22,000 Chimborazo, Andes . - 21,000 Cayambe, Andes ... . 19,633 Antisana, Andes . . • 19,136 Coto|iaxi, Andes . . 18,867 Tolima, Andes . . . 13,436 Mount St. Elias, North America . . 18,000 Po|)Ocatei>ctl, Mexican Cordillera - - 17,780 Pinchincna, Andes ... 15,931 IztaccihuatI, Mexican Cordillera ■ • 15,705 Mount Fairweathcr, North Amorica ■ 14,736 Cofre de Perote, Mexican Cordillera - 13,275 James's Peak, Rocky Mountains ■ • 11,500 Sierra de Cobre, Cuba ... 9,000 Grand Sorrania, Hayti - . - 9,000 Duida, I'arimc . . - 8,250 Highest Peak of Blue Mountains, Jamaica 7,278 Mount Washington, Alleglianies . . 6,650 Mount Sarmieiitn, Straits of Magellan • 6,000 Mount Otter, Allcghanies . . 4,250 Kaatsklll, Allcghanies . - . 3,150 Cape Horn, South America - . 1,860 SOUTH SEA. Mouna Roa, Sandwich Isles . . 15,980 Mouna Koa, Sandwich Isles . 13,800 Orneiio, Otaheitc . . . 8,350 Egmont Peak, New Zealand . . 8,150 Sea View Hill, Blue Mountains, N'>w South Wales . . . . 6,700 Highest Peak of Barren Mountains, Van Uicmcn's I,and . 5,1 OQ c Itoftr- encM. A. Forth B. Tay C. Trent D. Shani £. Tham F. Sever O. HudM H. Ebro I. Po J. Seine K Rhon< L. Loire M. Tagus N. Oder O. Suaqu P. ViitUl Q- Elbe R. Gamb S. Dnieii T. Dwini U. Rhine V. Colom w. Senegi X. Don Y. Dnien Z. St Lai A. 1 Orino( B.1 Gauge CI Danub D. 1 Indus E.1 Euphr F. 1 ■I'lgri, 0. 1 Mackc H.1 L 1 Volga LaPla J. 1 Niger K.1 Obi L.1 Nile M. 1 Balir e N. 1 Hoang 0. 1 Yang.t P. 1 Mlsaiaa R} Marafl Illinois 8. 1 Missou T.l Ohio 1. Edinburgh, 3. Dundee. 9L Nottinghan 4. Limerick. 5. London, a Oxford, 7. Olouceiter. 8. New Yorl(. 9. Hudion. 10. Saragosea. 11. Turin, 1!. Pari). 13. Lyoni. R Orleani. 15. Nante*. 1S57 COMPARATIVE LENGTH OF THE PRINCIPAL RIVERS. Rcfcr- encet. Nlma. Mouth. Counp. Source. l^&. A. Forth . • North Sea - . Scotland Ben Lomond Mountain 115 B. Iiy • North Sea . . Scotland Grampian Hills 120 C. Trent - - North Sea . . England Ireland SUfibrdshire 125 D. Shannon . . Atlantic Ocean . Mountains of Leitrim - SOO E. Thames • North Sea - . England CoUwold Hills S15 F. Severn . - Bristol Channel - England and Wales - Plinlimmon Mountain 220 O. Hudion - Atlantic Ocean . North America SUte of New York - S70 H. Ebro Mediterranean Sea Spain Mountains of Asturias 380 I. Po Adriatic Sea Italy Monte Vise 410 J. Seine - ■ English Channel - France C6te d'Or Mountains - 425 K Rhone • • Mediterranean Sea Switzerland and France Mount Furca 460 L. Loire Bay of Biscay Atlantic Ocean • France Mont Oerbier B4S M. Tagus . - Spain and Portugal Sierra Morena 550 N. Oder Baltic Sea - • Austria and Prussia . Carpathian Mountains . 580 O. Su • North Sea • France, Geimany, and Holland Mount St. Gothard • 810 V. Colombia Pacific Ocean North America Stony Mountains 910 w. Senegal - Atlantic Ocean - Africa Heights of Foota Jallo Toula 950 X, Don Sea of Azof Russia 1020 y. Dnieper . . Black Soa ■ . Russia Heights of Smolensk - 1140 z. St Lawrence - Atlantic Ocean • North America Upper Canada 1320 A. 1 Orinoco • Atlantic Ocean - South America - - Sierra de Parime - • 1480 B.1 Ganges . - Bengal Bay BlacliSea . . Hindoostan Himalayah Mountains • Black Forest . 1550 CI Danube . ■ Germany, Austria, and 1760 Turkey D. 1 Indus Indian Ocean Hindostan Himalayah Mountains . 1770 E.1 Euphrates Persian Gulf Turkey in Asia Mountains of Armenia IdOO F.l Tigris . . Euphrates - Turkey in Asia Mountains of Armenia 950 0. 1 Mackenzie - Arctic Ocean North America Rocky Mountains Heights of Valdai 1920 H. 1 Volga - - La Plata Caspian Sea Russia 2040 I. 1 Atlantic Ocean . South America Heights of Itambe SI30 J. J Niger - . Gulf of Guinea • Africa Mountains of Loma . 2300 K.1 Obi . Arctic Ocean Chinese Tartary and Russia Nubia and Egypt Abyssinia and Nubia - Altai Mountains 2550 L.1 Nile . . Mediterranean Sea Donga Mountains S610 M. 1 Bahr el Airek Nile Lake Dpmbea 800 N. 1 Hoang-ho Pacific Ocean Thibet and China Desert of Cobl 2630 0. 1 Yang.tae.kiung Pacific Ocean Thibet and China Desert of Cobi 2990 F.l Mississippi Gulf of Mexico ■ North America Leech Lake 1930 ll Maraflon . . Atlantic Ocean - South America Heights of Cicacica - S380 Illinois . Mississippi R. North America • ■ State of Illinois 500 B. 1 Missouri Mississippi R. North America Rocky Mountains Alleghany Mountains • 2310 T.l Ohio . . Mississippi R. North America 1190 REFERENCE TO THE TOWN& 1. Edinburgh. 2. Dundee. 31 Nottingham. 4. Limerick. 5. London, a Oxford. 7. Gloucester, 8. New York, 9. Hudson. 10. Saragosea. 11. Turin. \^. Paris. 13. Lyons. 14. Orleans. 15. Nantes. 16. Lisbon. 17. Madrid. 18. Brcslau, 19. Stettin. 20. Washington. 21. DantJig. 22. Warsaw. 23. Dresden. 24. Hamburgh. 25. Jillifrcy. 26. Bender. 27. Archangel. 28. Frankfort. 29. Constance. 30. Faribe. 31. Azof. 32. Cherson. 33. Quebec. 34. Calcutta. 35. Rahar. 36. Benares. 37. Allahabad. 38. Vienna. 39. Buda 40. Widin. 41. Tatta. 42. Hyderal»d, 43. Moultan. 44. Attock. 45. Bassora. 46. Babylon. 47. Bagdad. 48. Fort Good Hope. 49. Astrachan. 50. Novogorod. 51. Buenos Ayres. 52. Rabba. 53. Eboe .54. Boussa. S.'i. Timbuctoo. 56. Sego. 57. K holy van. 58. Narim. REFERENCE TO THE LAKES. 59. Cairo. 60. Thebes. 61. Dongola. 62. Sennaar. 63. Gondar. 64. Lantcheou. 65. Hoain-gaufou. 66. Nankin. 67. New Orleans. 68. Louisville. 69. New Madrid 70. Macapa. 71. Olivcnca. 72. La Paz. a. Dcmbea. A, Great Slave Lake. Eric. Ontaria Constance. Lake Luman or Geneva. 5 G 4 HMI / ' •' (.' / Aaiboro, paire 1 Aar.643. "^"^ Aarau, 669. Aarhui, 76a Abaiiei, lori. Abbazaca, 1269. Abbeville, 644. Aberdeen, 466. Abergavennr, *i4 Aberglaulyn, Poi Abery.tw»lh,433 AbIaa,Bahrel, II AblaiUt, 1093. Abo, 806. Abomejr, I2S1, Abouair, 1163, 116 Abrantei, 691. Abruzzo, 637. Abydoi, rulni of, ] Abyttfnia, boui mountaini, 1184 — , riveri, 1185. — , botany, 1188 .zoology, 118" — , niatorical a pby, 1188, 1189. -— -. agriculture, auctions, com) 1189. > political state — , manners, barl religion, 1190. — , learning, dress, 1191. - — I local dlTlsioni Acaden.y, French, — , geodesical tions by, 126. Acapuico, 1396. Acclimation of 231. Accra, 1330. Ache, fall of, 197. Acheen, 1129. Achmounein, 1167. Acre, 893. Adamowa, 1266. Adana, 9001 Add, 1266. Adelaide, Queen, A pelago, 1444. A«|W tains, rivers, 1445. — .— , map, 1446. , geology, 1447. , botany, 1447—1452. — , zoology, 1452—1454. .historicalgeograpby, 1455. , conititution, reve- nue, 1465. -^, character, the In~ dians, 1454. , productive Industry, 1455. ^— , agriculture, mines, gold. 1456. ,diamond mineB,com'- merce, 1457. , population, negroes, 1458. , local divisions, 1469. Breakwater, 427. Brebes, 1202. Brechin, 465. Breda, 726. Breezes, seaandland,176. Bremen, 708. Brescia, 629. 631. Breslau, 694. Bress.iy, 478. Brest, 546. Breton, Cape, 1324. Bridgenorth, 423. Bridges in England, 375. Bridgetown, 1474. Bridgewater, 427. Brieg. 694. Brindisi, 638. Brisbane river, 1606. Bristol. 425. Bristol Bay. 1376. Britain, zoology, 336. .— , political geography. 349. , commerce, 369. — , exports, 369, 370. — , imports, 371. — , fisheries, 373. — , tonnage, 373. Britain, New, 1617. Britany. HiR. British Islands, map, 308, Brixen. 690. Broadford, 478. Broadstairs, 390. Brod, 737. Brody, 748. Brokeville, 1321. Bromberg, 747. Bromsgrove, 425. Brooko, 1270. Broom, Loch, 472. Broseley, 423. Broughton, 62. Brown, 64. Bruar, falls of, 469. Bruce, 64. Bruck, 689. Bruges, 721. Brunn, 692. Brum, 6]. Brunswick, 70S. Brunswick, New, 1323. — , geology, 1806. Brussels, 720. Bruton,427. Brzest Litow, 781. Bucharest, 849. Buckingham, 407. Buckland chain, 1378. Buda, 734. Budweis, 691. Buenaventura, 1414. Buenos Ayres, 1443. Bulblo, 1364. Bugis, 1133. Bukkur, 989. Bulgaria, 848. Bumm, 939. Buname, 471. Bunderpouch, 1006. Bunpore, 949. Burati, 1069. Burchell, 64. i. -: Burdwan, 984. '■ ^ Burgos, 674. V* ■ Burgimdy, 852. Burlington, 1162. Burslem, 410. Burton, 420. Bury, 418. Bury St Edmunds, 893. Bushire, 938. Bute, 473. Button, 64. Buxadewar, 1002. Buxar, 986. Buxton, 411, 412. Byam Martin liland,l(i30. By-town, 1321. C. Cabet, 1208. Cabot, discoveries by, 67. Cabra, 1270. Cabral discovers Brazil, 57. Cabrera, 686. Cabul, 948. Cachoeira, 1461. Cader Idris, 432. Cadiz, 584. Caerleon, 424. Caermarthen, 433. Caernarvon Castle, 431. Cae>-narvonshire, 431. Caerphilly, iH. Caerwys, 4a'>. Cnsarea, mini of, 891. Caffa, 811. Cafh-es, 1250. Cagliari, 034. Cahors, 549. Caicus, river, 90.V Cairo, Grand, 1164. Cairoan, 1208. Caithness, 472. Calabar, 1232. Calabria, 638. — , its vegetation, 604. Calahorra, 577. Calais, 545. Calamata, 824. Calatayud, .573. Calavita, 816. Calcutta, 983. Caledonia, New, 1518. Caledonian Canal, 461. Calicut, 998. California, 1400. California, New, 1400. Callao, 1425. Callender, 469. Callo, 1414. Calmar, 778. Calmucks, 1060. Caly, 1413. Cambray, 644. Cambridge, 394. Cambridge Oulf, 1509. Cambridgeshire, 394. Camden, 1605, Campar, 1130. Campbelltown, 472. 1306. 1563 INDEX. Campan, 73B. Camphor, lllil. Caaada, l78. t.'atania, 640. Cataniaro, 039. Cathaitne, St., 1460. Catrall, 444. Cattaro, 737. Cauea, river, I4IS. Caucatlan race, 349. Caucaiut, 1066. 1U68. Cauga,51. Cauken, 948. Cavan, 511. Cavei, lag. Caxamarca, 1435. Caxatambo, 1435. Cayenne, 1478. Cayiter, river, 904. Caiar,EI, 1176. Caiembei, 1254. Cetebei, 1133. Cenhalonia, 839. Ceram, 1133. 1134. Cerigo, 839. Cerino, 910. Cervera, 579. Cevennei, the, 549. Ceylon, 1007, 1008. — , loology, 1131. Chagrei, 1416. Chalco, Lake, 1396. Chalk formation in Eng- land, 331. Chiloni, 653. Chamberry, 633. ChamounI, 643. 655. Champagne, 553. Champlain, Lake, 1347. Chancery, court of, 363. Chancheou-I'oo, 1043. Chandemagore, 984. Chantibond, 1030. Charcat, 1436. Charcoff, 809. Charente, the, 548. Charie, 1176. Charkieh, 1164. Charlemagne, ■'>3. 537. Charlemont, 723. Charleroi, 733. Charleiton, 13JK). Charlotte Town. 1335. Chartreuae, Grande, 56] . Cbateauroux, 548. Chatham, 393. Chataworth, 412. Chaubisi, 1004, 1005. Chavea, 604. Chazellea' miation to Le- vant, GO. Chedder dim, 437. Cheduba, 1018. Cheki, 1368. Chelicut, 1193. Chelmaford, 392. Cheltenham, 435. Chemniti,701. Chepewyan Fort, 1375. Chepatow, 424. Cherbourg, 546. Cheronsa, 8i!5. Cheshire, 432. Cheater, 423. CheaterBeld, 413. Chiapa, 1400. Chicheater, 387. Chieti, 638. Chiica, 1435. Chili,boundarlea, aurfacc, 1436, 1427. --— , map, 1438. , geology, 1427—1430. , botany, 1430. , zoolosy, 1431. .hiatortcal geography, 1431. , political Btato, 1431, 1432. -^, population, social atate, 1433. , agriculture, mining, commerce. 433. , religion, knowledge, 1433. , local diviaiont, 1433. ('hilka, Lake, 954. Chilon U'*). Chlmboraio, 1406. Chimpanzee, 1219. China, botany,1034— 1039. , zoology, 1029, 1030. , map, 1023. .— , extent, mountaina, rlvera, 1033. , geology, 1034. — -, religion, learning, language, 1039. , literature, arts, ar- chitecture, 1040. , local divialona, 1041. , gardcna, dreaa, food, 1041. Chino, la, 1330. Chingleput, 990. Chittim, 8. Choco. 1413. Cholula, 1397. Chorley, 418. Chriatchurch, 389. Chriatianla, 779. Chrlatlanatadt, 778. Chriatlanaund, 780. Chrlttopher't, St., 1474. Chunarghur, 986. Chuqulaaca, 1436. Churchill, Fort, 1373. Cilly, 689. Cincinnati, 1363. Cinnamon, 1111. Cintra, 591. Circara, 994. Circaaaiant, 1068. Cirencotter, 425. Cirrua cloud, 1G9. Citera, 1414. Ciudad Rodrigo, 576. Cividadella, 58a Civil Hat, Britiah, 350. Clackmannan, 465. Clagenfurt, 690. Clare, 807. Claremont Park, 387. Clatsopa, tribe on the Co- lumbia, 1378. Clausenburg, 737. Clausthol, 703. Clermont, 553. Cleveland, 1363. CIgvea, 695. Clifton, 436. Climates, 81. Clitheroe, 418. Clove, 1113. 1134. Clyde, river, 4S8. , fails of, 464. Clonmel, 605. Clouda, 168—171. Cnidua, 903. Cnoaaon, 828. Coal formation in Eng- land, 318—320. Coal in England, 369. Coalbrook, 423. Cobbe, 1374. Cobham Hall, 387. Cobi, desert, 1059. Cublentz, 696. Coburg (Canada), 1320. Coburg-Gotha, Saxe, 704. Cochambamba, 1426. Cochin, 998. Cochin-china, 1012. Cockerroouth, 422. Coff^, 917, 918. Cognac, 648. Cofmbra, 693. Col re, 663. Colchester, 393. Colding, 762. Coldatream, 456. Coleralne, 509. Colima, 1399. Coll, 475. Colmar, 554. Cologne, 695, Colombia, boundaries, 1403. , map, 1404. — — , mountaina, I40.'>. , volcanoea, 1406. Colombia, rivers, 1 407. , botany, 1407. , zoology, 1408. — , historical geogra. phy, 1409. — -, schism. Into three states, 1409. — ^, constitution, finan- ces, army, navy, 1409. — ^, agriculture, mines, commerce, 1410. ^—, roads, bridges, 1411. ,^— , population, religion, racea, 1411. — , local divialona, 1412. Colombo, 1008. Colonaay, 474. Coloate, 904. Columbia, 1858. Columbia River, 1378. Columbua dlacovera Ame- rica, 67. Columbus, 1363. Comayagua, 1409. Comets, 103—106. Commerce, a branch ol industry, 874. Common Pleat court, 364. Commons, Britiah House of, 351. — , election of, 352. Comorn, T35. Comoro lalanda, 1278. Comrie, 469. Concan, 996. Coiicepcion, 1434. Conehucos, 1425. Condamine, expeditiun by, 60. Condor, 1420. Congoon, 939. Cont, 632. Connaught, 607. Connecticut, 1.351. Constance, 660, G6I. 70U. Constantina, 1207. Constantinople, 846, 847. Conway, 431 . Conybeare, Mount, 1375. Cook, Australasian disco- veries, 66. — , northern discover- ies, 65. , voyages, 60—62. Cook's Inlet, 1377. Cook's Islands, 1531. Coomb Martin, 428. Coonia, 1266. Copenhagen, 761 . Copernican system, ICO. Copiapo, 1434. Copper mines in Eng- land, 368. Coppermine River, 1371. Copta, 1159. Coquimbo, 1434. Corachic, 089. Cordova ( Spain), mh. Cordova (La Plata), 1441. Corea, 1105. Corfu, 829. Coria, 574. Corinth, 822. Cork, 805. Corn, kinds of, in Eng- land, 331. Cornwall, 428. , mines, 317. Cornwallia laland, 1531. Coro, 1412. Corou, 824. Corona, 174. Corrientea, 1443. Corsica, its geology, CM. Corsocr, 762. Cortereals, discoveries by, 57. Cortez, 57. Cortona, 627, 628. Coruguaty, 1443. Corunna, 576. Corwon, 432. INDEX. 1563 le River, 1374. , 1443. I geology, C(H. discoveries n, 028. 1443. i76. 13. Coiiacki, Don, coiinlijr or, 810. Cniaeir, 117A. Cotta HIca, 1403. Cntatli, 1071. CotopaxI, 1406. Cotton manufacture In Rngland, 366, 367. Council, privy, 3M, — , cabinet, 3ftA. Countlei, EngUih,iouth- em, 3N5. — , eaitem, 392. ^— , central, 396. , midland, 406. — , northern, 413. _—, weitcm, 422. Coupang, 1132. Courtray, 722. Coventry, 408. Cowei, 390. Cracow, 7S0. Cradoo, Lake. 1232. Cranganore, 998, Cree Indians, I37S> Cremona, 629. 631. Crietr, 469. Crimea, 811. Croatia, 737. Croix, St., 1478. Cromarty, 472. Cromrord,412. Cronborg, 762. CronsUdt, 737. 806. Crown Point, 1347. Cahatryas, 980. Ctealplion, 91.'). CulM, map and dcicrip- tion, 1472. Cubagua lile, 1412. Cubbie River, I2.'>8. Cuddalorc, 999. Cuenfa (Spain), 573. Cuenta( Colombia), 141A. Ciiilen, 467. Culrots, 469. Cumae, 636. Cumana, 1416. Cumberland, county, 420. (N.S. Wales), 1502. Cumhrays, 473. Cumulus cloud, 170. Cupar, Fife, 464. Cupar Angus, 465. Curnf oa, 1478. Curiamuria, 926. Curische Ilaff, 745. Currents, 186, 187. Cutch, 990. Cuttack, 995. CuttumcurafTe, 1269. Cuttup, 1266. Cuvier, classification of races, 249. Cuyaba, 1463. Cuzco, 1425. Cyclades, 828. Cydonia, 905. Cyprus, 910- Cyrenaica, 1209. Cyrcne, 1209. D. Daba, 1052. Dacca, 984. Dahlac, 1192. Dahomey, 1231. Dalby, 129. Dalccarlla, 775. 777. Dalkeith, 4.58. Dalmatia, 737. Damala, 823- Dnmanhour, Ilrmllnn, 465. Dunuarvan, 505. Dunkeld, 468, Dunkirk, 545, DunUlt'oCastlo, 510. Duiuiottar, 466, Duiirora, 1266, Dunae, 456, Dunstable, 407. Dunatnffiiage, 472, Dunvegan, 475. Durnngn, 1400, Durham, 413, 414, Durlon, 1115, Dm rah. Lake, 948, 940. Duaky liny, I5|0. Dusseldiirf, 61)5. Dwarncn, Wl, Uyre, 1183, B, Earn, Loch, 469, ' Earth, figure, 112. — — , figure and nuunU tude. 71. 72. •^-', rotation, 77, 78. — — . motion round the sun, 98—101. ^— , oblateneta at the poles, 113. , magnitude, 123. Earthquakea, 209, 210. In Calabria, 213. at Llabon, 213. — at Antloch, 214. — I In the Caraccas, 2IS. , cauae of, 216. Kaat Main, Fort, 1368. Gaater Island, 1623. Bbeling, 61. Eboe, 1209. Ebro, river, 557. Eccleslaatical Statei.618. ftc. Echmim, 1168. Kcija, 685. Gcllpaes, 139. — of the moon, 90—93. of the sun, 93—95. Eddiea, 187. Eddyatone llghthouie, Edd'a Land, 1809. Bdf\i, 1174. Edgecombe, Mount, 428. Edinburgh, 466-^58. Edko, Lake, 1163. Edom, 8. Eelah, 1061. Efat, 1193. Eger,e9l. Egga, 1269. GKypti general deacrip- tlon, 1144— 1146. , map, 1 145. ^—.boundaries, 1146. , geology, 1146,1147. ,boUny, 1147— 1154. — — , zoology, 1154, 1155. — , htatorlcal geogra- phy, 1155, 1156. — , political geography, Turki, Mameltikes, 1156. , agriculture, irriga- tion, 1157. — ■, revenue, army, 1 157. , product<,commerce. 1158. .population, races, , religion, language, manners, 1160. , baths, food, 1 161 . . , local divisions, 1 161. Ehrenlireitstein, 690. Eimauks, 948. Kimeo, 1530. Ekaterlnoslav, 810. RIam, 9. Ellw, 066. Elberfeld, 695. Elbing, 746. Elburz, Mount, 936. El Callah, 1207. Elche, 680. Elleamere, 423. Electricity ofatmosphcre. Elephant, 1245. Giephanta, 995. Elephantine, 1176. Eleuaia, 822. Elgin, 467. Eiras, St., 1288. Ellichpoor, 994. Kllora, 904. Elphin, 508. Elslnore, 762. Eluths, 1060. Elvas, 592. Ely, 395. U BBi?fWSBart-*1WflB — '^ w i - ' im w R.i.- i . wn- i iMBimi 1564 INDEX. Emfrai, 1193. Kmplro, whnt, 27I. KiHlvrta, IIU3. Kndrarht'i Land, IMW. EnKsno, 1130. England, map. 310,311. _— , referencci to, 313, 313. — , general outline and aspect, S13. , geologr, 315. ^— , agriculture, 362— 864. — , 'manuracturef,a64— 367. — ., minei, 367—860. ^— , commerce and ihtp. ping, 36&-37a. _^, Interior navigation, 37a, 373. _-, railwayi, 373-,178. — ^, populatlou, 371^. — ^, roada and bridgei, 37ft. . ^ Bnillth national charac- ter, ?76. — cliurch, 377. | unireriitiei, 37A. literature, 37»-^3. iclentiflc inititu- . tioiit, 380. ' — painting, 381. I music, 383. — amusement!, 382. { — counties and cities, i statistical table of, 383, 384. counties, southern, 386, &c. England, New, found- ation of, 1.-07. , sUtes of, 134B. Enkhuysen, 73fi. Enkoping, 776. Ennis, fi07. Enniscorthy. S04. Enniskillen, .V)9. Enterprise, Fort, 137S. Entre Rios, 1443. Eooa, lft36. Epact, 88. Ephesus, 904. Equator, 73. (state so called), 1414. Equinoctial, 73. Equinoxes, precession of, 81. Eratosthenes, 133. , his geographical system, 38, 39. , general view of the world, 29—33. ^— , Europe, 30—33. Asia, 33. . (Africa, 34. Erekli, 907. Erfurt, 694. Eribol, Loch, 473. Erie, Lake, 1333. Erlvan, 940. Eriau, 736. Erment, 1 174. Erne, Loch, fi». Erythriean Sea, Feriplus of, 18, 19. Krzeroum, 913. Esbele, 894. Escurial, 574. Eshke, 1181. Es) hissar, 903. Etii ihehr,908. Esmeraldas, 1415. Esne. 1174. Eapiritu .Santo, 1460. Esquimaux, 1531. .oriitin, 350,361. Essek, 737. Esscquibo, 1475. Essex, county, 392. Essington, Fort, 1508. Estremadura (Spain), 578. Eiirnudura (Portoga)), 500 Etesian winds, 170. Ethiopia, 1179. Ethiopian rariety ofman, 351. Etive, Loch, 471. Etna, 0.19. 643. , Us vegetution, 604. Eudoxus, voyages of, 14, 15. Eupcn, 723. Euphrates, 9. , provinces on, 9. Europe, map, 380, 381. — , references, 283. , general survey uf, 383. •^, natural features, 383—385. , population, 385. — ^, races iuhablting, 286. , religions, 287. , political state, 388. , botany of, 388—293. I — , tabic of its vegeta- tion, 290, 291. t , ioolngyof,393— 300. — , quadrupeds, 295. I , ornithology, 297. , Ashes, 297, 298. — — , insects, 298. I , shell fish, 298, 299. — , languages, 300—307. Eustatla, St., 1 478. Evaporation, 166. Evesham, 425. Evora, 593. Exe, river, 437. Exeter, 427. Exmoor Forest, 436. Exmouth, 438. Kyomouth, 456. Eyeo, 1268. F. \ Fabriclus, diatributlon of insects, 2.S8. Fahlun, 777. Fairhead, 509. Falkirk, 4.M). Falkland Islands, 1533. Falmouth, 429. Famagotta, 910. Fano, 626. Farewell Cape, 1539. i Farness, 723. , Faroe Islands, 753. 764. Fars, 938. I Farshout, 1169. I Fayal, 1375. j Fayoum, 1166, 1167. I Faiucio, 1181. Fc, Santa, .583. Feejee Islands, l.'>34. Felipe, St., 580. Fellatas, 1265. Feloops, 1227. Ferabad, 936. FerganKh, I(ri2. Fermanagh, 508. Fermoy, 500. Femel, 124. Ferrara, 619. 626. Ferro, 1276. Fcrrol, 576. Fcrtit, 1274. Festiniog Vale, 432. Fei, 1205. FezKan, 1273. Fidshi Islands, 1534. Fife, 464. Finances, British, 356. Fiudhorn, 467. Finland, 806. Finnan, 466. Fireballs, 175. Fishery, a branch of in' dustry, 373. Fittro, Lake, 1274. Fitzroy, river, 1609. Flume, 690. Fixed aUn, 69. Flanders, Rast.WesI, 731 . Flannan Islands, 470. Flenshurg, 733. Fleurieu Hay, 1506, Flinders, 67. , aurveys by, 60. Flint, 483. Floraa of Great BrIUin, 335. Florence, 637. Flores, 1131, 1133. Florida, East and West, 1360. Flushing, 736. Fochabers, 467. Foggia, 638. Foklrn. \M3. Funtalnebleau, 544. Fontarabiu, .'i77. Fooladoo, 1370. Foota Jailci, 1338. 1370. Foota Torra, 1338. Forfar, 465. Formations, arrangement of, 217, 218. Forroenlpra, 586, Formosa, 1044. Forth, river. 438. 460. Foul Point, 1277. Foiila, 478. Foulaiia. 1336. , Fountalna, intermitting, 190. I Foutcheou, 1043. 1 Foveaux Strait, 1616. I Fox, 64, 65. Fox Islands, 1377. Foyle, Lough, 600. | ' France, boundarlva, ex> I tent, siirmt'i', 51 1 . | I , map, 512, 513. , rivers, 514. 515. , geology, 516. 518. ' — , mines, 517. 538. i I , iMitany. 618—535. ' , znulog) . 535, 5'Jtl. I , liistorii U geogra- : phy, .Vi6. I — , the chambers, 638. , administration of , Justice, 538. I — , finance, army, navy, [ 529. , — , agriculture, 639, 680. I , grain, wino, live stock, 530. ! — — , sllk,bcet-root,wooe»m«ntlfl, 1508. FrvytMirK,70l, Freyburg, 700. Frwylnet, 67. Friburg, ma. Friwllniid. 746, Friendly Islands, 1533. Friesland, 726, Friachti Ifaff, 745, Froblaher, 04, Frogniorn, ,188, Frozen Strait, IS73. Fuldu, 703, Funi'hal, 1276, Fund, ainking, ,157, Fundn, 13*19. Finidy liny, 1321. Ftliifklrchcn, 7:m, Furrui'kntmd, DhT, Fury and llucia, Strait or 1.173, FikI, 11197. Fyvra, hill of, 470. Kyno, Loch, 47 1, Ftsabad, III63. O. (ladamia, 1373. (lat'ln, 638. (lainslmrnugh,31H). (ialiU'>,84U. (luliixidl, 836. Oalaxy, 70, (iulugii, 1278, (iaiida, 576. (talilirlcsliy,5D. (tall, St., (160. nalla, IIUI. (lalliun, 1237. (iailicia, 747. (.alllpoll, 0.18. 818, Oallaway, 460. (lalway, 507. damn, Vascnilc. 57. (lambarou, 1264. Ilambia, rlwr, 1228. (lambicr Islands, I MO. (landia, 580. '.ianges, river, KM, Oangoutrl, IIHH). (lap, A5I, I (lap (South .Sea), I.VIO. 1 O'trumanti'*, 2ii, 27. I (larbn Di'iulniir, IIhi, (larhawal, um. I (lurlspa, lUlla of, I!I7. (larnnne, river, 616. ! (Inritang,4l8. (iasvony, 541). , , 1438. . t.nula, till', n'j«l. , (iawllghiir, DIM. , (iayn, 888. U86, I (Iny-i.ii«»nc's nucpiit, ICO. (Iel8 ral, tg. , modern critical, 60. — — , modnrn descriptive anditatistical, 61. of Auttrnlatia, 66. -^i organised and living beings, 67. , principles of, 67. , connection with ma- thematics, 67. , Keology, 67. , liistnrical, '^60. Geological principles of geography, l'>8. George, St. (Uvrmudas), 1475. George, St. (Demerara), 147ft. George, fit. (Grenada), 1471^. Georgetown, 1130. l.tfl.'S. Georgia (Asia), lUU'i. 1070. Georgta(U.States), ISAO. Georgia, South, lft4U. Georgiewak, 1069. Germa, 1273. Germany, boundaries, mountains, rivers, 664. , geology, 66A— 671. , map, 666, 667. , boUny, 671. .loology. 671,672. — — , historical geogra- phy, 672. , political system, 673. -^, diet, Its members, B73, 674. -^, agriculture, 679, 680. , forests, manufac- tures, 6H0. -^, mining, commerce, 6H1. , Internal commerce, canals, 682. — , population, races, social state, 682. , religion, literature, 683. , bonk trade, fine arts, &c., 684. —, division Into circles, OS.'!. .table of minor states, 7('3. Gcrona, 679. Gerri, 1183. Gertope, 1052. Gt^ser, great, 189. Geysers, 763. Ghalefka, 926. Ghana, 51. Ghassa, 1002. ' Ghauts, 953. Ghehol, 1059. Ghent, 721. Ghilan, 936. Ghiljios. 948. Ghizni, 948. Giant's Causeway, 509. GilirHltar, 544. Cidid, 1183. Gijansk, 1093. Gij..n, .W6. Giliiio, 1134. Gingiro, I'^.W. Oirall'c, 1179. GIrgr, 1168. GirgcntI, 641. Girgevo, 849. Glrkwa, 1266. Glaciers, 173. Glammis, 465. Glamorgan, 433. Gliirus, 660. Glasgow, 461—463. Glastonbury, 427. Glatz, 694. Glencoe, 471. Glendalough, SOU. Olenraaluro, M3. Glogau, Gross, 694. Gloucester, 425. Gloucestershire, 4iM. Gnesna, 747. i Goa, 996. 1 133. Goar, St., OlMi. Godavery, !IM. Goderlch, 1322. I Godin sent to Peru, 12' Goes, 726. Gog, 9. Gog and Magog, 50. 53. Gohud, 987, Oojam, II!I3. Golconda, 994, Gold Coast of Africa,1230i Golden numbers, 87. Gombroon, 939. Gomora, 475. Gondar, 1193. Goober, 1266, Goole, 415. Goonoong Paiama, 1129. Goraies, 748, Gore, 1319—1321. Goree, 1228. Gorkha, 1003. Gjjriltz, 694. Gosselin, 61. Gothland, 778. , West, 779. Gottenburg, 778. Giittingen, 7U2. Gouda, 725. Goyax, 1462. Graaf Ucynet, 1250. Gradisca, 737. Graham's Town, 1250. Grain Coast of Guinea, 1229, 1 230. Grampians, 468. Gran, 734. Granada, .581 . Granada, New, 1412. Grande, Rio, 1228. Grangemouth, 458. Grantham, 390. Gratz, 689. Gravesend, 387. Gravitation, universal, 105. , laws of, 106, 107. Greai Swan Port, 1512. Greave's Mission to Le- vant, !>S. Greece, 812. , map, 813. , asipect, mountalna, rivers, 814. •^— , zoology, 814, 816. — , historical geogra- phy, 81.5, 816. , political state and divisions, 816. ^— , emancipation, 81 G. -^, capitam military, navy, 817. — ■; agriculture, manu- factures, 817. -^, population, charac- ter, religion, 818. , learning, amuse- ments, &C.,8I9. , islands, 827. Greenland, East, 1.539. , West, i.'ao. Greenland sea, colour of, 179. Greenlaw, 4.'i6. Greenock, 463. Greenwich, 386. Grenada, 1475. Grenoble, 551. Grijalva, 57. Grimsby, Great, 396. Grimsel, 658. Grindelwald, 6.58. Grisons, 663. Griwhee, 1231. Grodno, 750. Griinlngen, 726. Grosswaradln, 736. Guadaiaxara ( Mexico), 1398. Uuadaloupe, 147'. Guadalquivir, river, Sft5. Guadiana, river, 555, (iiiadix, 683. Guam, 1527. (iiiamanga, 1425. Guanaxuato, 13118. Giiancavelica, 1425. fiiianches, 1276. Guanuco, 1425. GuardafUi, 12.54. Guastalla, 629. 631. Guatemala, 1401. , historical geogra. phy, 1401. .divisions, 1402. , population, charac- ter, 1402. — ■, produce, mines, ca- nals, 1402. Guayaquil, 1415. Guajourus, 1459. Guayra, la, 1116. GuL'Ulerland, 726. ifuelph, 1322. Guernsey, 434. , botany of, 324. Guiana, Portuguese, 1463. Guli-nne, MK Giilkll'urd, :)87. Guinea, New, 1516. , zoology of, 1120. Guipusroa, 577. Gum Senegal, 1227. Gumhlnnen, 746. Gundwana, 994. Gurlel, 1071. Gi'stavia, 1478. Guthrie, 61. GuzulliUsar, 903. Guzerat, 990. Gwalior,887. G*utter, 949. Gydros, 907. H. Haarlem, 725. Ilacha, 1416. Haddington, 4.56. Hadramaut, 9'26. lltemua, 831, llaerlem.meer, 708. Hafod, 433. Hagli-y, 424. Hague, 724. Haguenaii, 654. Hainan, 1044. Hninault, 722. IIall)er8tadt,694. Halfaia, 1183. HalicarnasBUS, 903, H.ilicz, 718. ILtllfax (Kngland), 416. Halifax (British Ame- rica), 1323. Halk, 690. 694. Halmstadt, 778. Halo, 174. Ham, descendants of, 277. Hamadan, 938. Hamburg. 704. Hami, 1061. Hamilton, 464. 1321. Hammer, 780. Hammerfest, 782. Hampsliii'c, 388. Hampshire, New, 1351. Hampton Court, 406. Hanau, 702. Hxngchoofoo, 1042, Hang-yang, 1044. Hanno, voyage of, 1 1 — 13. Hanover, 679— 701. Hanover Island, 1444. Harbour Grace, 1326, Hardware manufacture in Kngland, 367. Harlech, 432. Ilarlingen, 726. Harmattan, 176. Harmonv, Isea. Harris, 476. Harrlsburg, 1365. Harrowtle, 992. Hartford, 1351. Harti moiintain, 701. Harutsh, Black and Whiti, 1273. Harvard college, 1361. Hassan Kela, 912. Hansel, 61. Hastings, 387. Hastings River, 150S. Hauran, [8911. Havannah, 1477. Haverfordwest, 433. Havre. 546. Hawanien, 432. Hawthxrnden , 468, Haytl, 1478. ■^—, map of, 1479. , negro state In, 1479. Hazarasp, 1062. Hazaurehs, 948. Hearno, 65. —^, discoveries by, 1374. Heat, Its Influence on plants, 230—2.13. — — , radiation of, 167. Heaths, Cape, 1236. Heavenly bodies, rota- tion, 74. .distances, 76. , magnitudes, 76,^7. Heavens, phenomena of, 68 Hebrides, 473. Hebrides, New, 1617. Hebron, 890. Hecla, 763. Hedjas, 92S. Heidelberg, 699. Hellbronn, 699. Helder, 725. Helena, St., 1277. Helens, St., 418. Helicon, 825. Hellas, Eastern, 828. , Western, 826. Helmund, river, 948. Hclsingfors, 806. Hemispheres, 73. , map of, 157. Hemi), 896. Hen, 1169. Herat, 9.36. Herbagi, 1183. Herculanoum (Naples), 636. Herculaneum( Missouri) , 1360. Hereford, 423. Hermanstadt, 737. Hermopolls, ruins of, llfi8. Hermosand, 779. Hernhut, New, 1539. Herodotus, his geogra- phy, 2:1. , of Europe, 24. , of Asia, 25, 26. , of Africa, 26, 27. Herschel, 70, 71. Hertford, 407- Hertzingen, 704. Herve, 722. Hesse- Cassel, 702, Hesse- Darmstadt, 702. Hesse-Homburg, 704. Hexham, 414. High land, 199. High water, time, 188. Highlands, Arctic, 1539. Highlands of Scotland, 467. Hilburghauien, Saxe, 704. HlUah, 91.5. HImalayiih, or HImma. leh, 952. 1002. , botany, 964. Hindoo Coosh, 940. Hindostan, 949. i 1566 llliidnttiin, initp. OM, 9AI . , extent and bounds- riei, g'tS. — , mountaini. SA9,0M. , rWeri, OU, OM. >— , geologir, OM-DM. '— , Ben», DM. , botanjr, 0A6— 866. — , foroiti, giW, 060. '^-^ palmi, 004. , inologjr, 000— OTiA. , hlitoncal geogra- phjf,08«-OTO. — , Britlih power eita> bllihed In, MM, 000. jPolltlHl itate, 070 '— , native poweri.OTl. — , Britiih udmlnlitra- tlon, 073. , agricultural pro- duce, 074, g7S. , manufacturei, 97A. — ., commerce, mining, 076. — — , population, 076. . HIndoof, 077. , their religion, 078— OHO. ^—, caitei, 080. , literature, icience, OHI. — , archltecturo, dreii, 083. — , local diviiioni, 081 Hipparchui, geograpliy Improved by, 39. Hlrichberg, ffiM. Hlilory, ancient, 360. , modem, 370. Hobart Tovn, ISI3. Hodeida, 036. Hoden, 1371^. Ilngolen, \tM. Horieniollern, 704, Hoklanga, I5IA. Holbeach, 306. Holkham, 304. Holland, 706. , map, 707. — -, geology, 708. — , lurface, rivers, lakPi, 708. — , xooiogy, 700. — . Iilitorical geogra- phy, 700. , cauiei or flourlth- ing commerce, 710, 711. , political (Utc, 712. — , revenue, army, na- vy, 713. , agriculture, hortl. culturf, 714. , manufacture!, com- merce, fishery, 710. , canals, 716. , population,7l6,7l7. , religion, learning, universities, 718. — , fine arts, amuse- ments, 710. — , table of provinces and towns, 710. , province, 7S3, 733. Holland, New, extent, UNO. , surface, mountains, 1481. , geology, 1483. , botany, 14H6. ^— , zoology, I486. •— , discoveries in, by Portuguese, Spaniards, and Dutch, UOO. — , discoveries in the interior, UOI-MO."*. — , settlement by the British, 1401. , on the coast, 1405. political state, 1405, 1406. , peopled by convicts, 140^1. INDEX. Holland, New, Judges, army, revenue, I400. , agriculture, sine, 731. — , mines, commerce, 733. — , population, 733. — , races, religion, learning, 733. , local divisions, 733. Hunter's Kivcr, l.WA. Hunting, early mode cf support, 373. Huntingdon, county, 395. Huntly, 467. Hurkaun,g.36. Huron, Lake, 1.333. Hurricanes, 176. Hurrur, 1255. Hutton on rain, I7L Hydra, 816—830. Hydrnbad, 080. 094. Hydrology, 177. Hyena, 1345. Hythe, 386. Ibsambul, 1181. Ice, phenomena of, 183, 184. Ice and snow, 2fll . Icebergs, 184,185. Iceland, 763. Iceland, hot springs of, 180, . geology of, 7,'0, fcoiinnio, natural bridge, 1413. Icy Capi-, 1376. Ida, Mount, 000. IgtMlada, 579. Ilrhester, 437. Iin-acomb, 438. Ilheos, 1461. lilimani, I4M. Illinois, 1363. Illyria, 680. Imiretta, 1071. Income and expenditure, publlcuble of, 358,350. Indian, East, Archipe- lago, 1105. ^— . islands, mountains, rivers, 1105. .geology, 1107. , botany, 1108—1115. , loology, 1110—1133. , political state, 1133, 1133. , soil, agriculture, 1133. , minerals, gold, dia- monds, 1134, ,tln, 1135. ^— , commerce, 113,5. ^population, races, , religions, intellec- tual state, 1137. — -, drama, hunting, ha- bitations, 1138. , diet, dress, 1130. , local divisions, 1 199. Indian Ocean, 178. Indiana, 1363. Indlanopolis, 1363. Indians on the Missouri, 1365. Indlgirka, river, 1075. Indigo, 061. Indo-Chinese countries, 1008. , extent, surface, ri- vers, lOOtt— 1010. , map of, 1000. , xoology, 1010, 1011. , historical geogra- phy, 101 1. — — , BIrman empire, 1011,1013. -^, government and laws, 1013. , Siam, Cochin- Chi- na, ftc, 1013. , army, war-boats, revenue, 1013. — ^, population, 1014. , culture, manufac- tures, commerce, 1014. ,inhabitants, religion, literature, 101.5, lola — , arts, dress, food, 1017. , local divisions, 1018. Indore, 993. Indus, 9,54. Industry, proiluctive, 373. Inhamliane, 13,54. Inisfallen, island, 506. Innspruck, 690. Insterburg, 746. Inverary, 471. Inverness, 469. Inverury, 467. lona, 47*4. Ionian Islands, 839. Iowa, 1365. Ipswich, 393. Irak, 9.17. Irak ArabI, 013. Irawaddy, river, 1010. Ireland, extent, 478. , geology, 479—487. — , mountains, rivers, lakes, 470. , map, 480. Ireland, historical geo- graphy, 4117— 4NU. , political geography, 480, 400. , agriculture, 491 . i'.H. , manufactures, 493, , fishery, 404, , commerce, 40.'!. , exports and Imports, 406. , canals, 496. _, principal ports, 496, , slilpping, 406. , population, charac- ter, 407. ■^—, clergy, education, 408. ^— , arts, customs, a. muscments, Ac, 400, ~— , table of counliei and towns, 500. Ireland, New, 1517. Irkoutsk, 1093. Irlomlti, 751. Iron mines In England, 368. Irtysch, river, 1074. Irun, 577. Irvine, 460. Isakonia, 834. Ischia, 601. Islands, Bay of, 1515, Islay, 473, Isles, the Hebrew mean. Ing of, 7. 8. Is- NIkmId, 907. Isothermal lines, 163. Israel, kingdom of, 3. IssinI, 1330, Italy, Imundarlos ami surface, 595, , map, .V.Hi, 507. , rivers, lakes, .509. , geology, 599—603. , botany, 603—605, Italy, zoology, 606— eiM. — , historical geogra- phy, 609, 610. — , political geography, 610,611. — , agriculture, manu- factures, 611, 613. — , minerals, com- merce, fishery, 613, , canals, roads, 614. -_, civil and social state, 614— «18. -^, religion, 615. , literary collection!, 616. , fine art*, 617. — — , eccletiaitkai statn, 618. — , manners, dreii, food, 618. , local geography, 6IA. Itinerarles,BomaD, 35. 3S. Ivifa, 586. Ivory Coast, 1330. J. Jaca, 578. Jackcon, 13.59. Jacobina, 1461. Jacob's Bight, I. MO. Jaen (Spain), .586, Jaen (Colombia), 141V Jaflh, 888. Jagcrndorf, 693. Jago, St., de Coitipoi- tella, 576. Jago, St., 1377. JaTcia, g.'iO. Jaloin, 1336. Jamaica, map, Skc, 1474. James Fort, 1338. 1377. Jameson's Land, l.tSS. Jamtland, 770. Japan, extent and bound- aries, 1095. , map, 1096. , geology, 1097, , botany, 1097-l«fl Japan, inology, •— , hittorinu |iliy intKi, lion — ,piilltieiilit< Cubu, i KM), 1 1 , agrlrultui mals, 1101. -^, flihery, Ac, IIOV. , population, I'liarac'tt-r, 110'. — , rcligliin, II , arts, builill Ii(l4. , local divlsli Jiiphcth, descent 477. JiifDslaw, 748, Jiisk, 040. Jjissy, 840. Jiiuja, 1435. .lava, liai. .lavnn, 10. ,l;ixnrles, 1053. .Ii nil Pied (li'I'urt Ji'lillee, K!l,5. Ji'ddo, 1104. JilTcraon, |;I64. Ji'kll Irmak, rive .li'lliilabad, 048. Jino, 7a'l. Jrnna, 1368. Ivimt, I37U. Jirlclio, NUI. .Wr*ey, 434. Jemuy, New, 1351 .U'riualem, 8NN H Jcsselmere, 000, .Ii'ts of wotcr, 100 .IhareJaliH, OUO. .Mmnacu Jnimg, 1( .lillllVey, 1338. .loannlna, N.VI. .lo«() del Hey, .S., Joaainl Arabs, 'J'/l Jiihn's St., i:i3.5, I John's, St. (West! Johnstown ;Canadi .luhn'a 'I'own, 147( .Ti>ko, 1370. .lodbdl, 1006. Jordan, river, 891. Jorjan, 936. Jnrullu, 1.108. Jonlmath, 1005. Joiulpnor, mt, Ju.iii, San«nl 1477 Juan F« Judda Jiidict PMt FarMndM, I -t4pMnr,37: JiiKgamMLMA Juiiaa,tt.Virt, it JullaoilMa^ 1530. JullelfOI«t«*Berg Juniper, TO, 71. ' Jura, 4T4. Jura, 663. Jury trial. 364. Jutland, 763. J.H'iiiigur, 090. Jyi'pore, 900. K. Kaarta, 1270. Kalishary, 1364. Karuiida, 1360. Kaipara, 1515. Kalrw.iii, I3IM. Kalsarii'li, 009. K.ijaiiin, 1327. Kalabslie, IIHI. KaliMidar. 85. Kalisch, 750. Kalkas, KNIO. Kaloui;a, 809. Kaininlec, 751. Kamsin, 170. KamtBchatka, 1093 Kane Leban, 891. Kaui'in, I3(i4. Kankan, 1370. INUKX. 1567 iltiorlrM gen- 1117 _4HU. cal geogr/iphjr, JnpM, loolnfty, inOD. ^^, hlalcirlriil gvogra- |iliy WM, linn. - — , piillticiil itiilo, Diilrl, CulMi, IKN). Mill. , aRrlriilUirn, ani- mall, 11(11. — , fluhury, mlncrnli, Ac, lIll'A , popiiliillon, national cliarui'U'r, llO'i. .roliKlon, 1103. , aru, bullilinKt, dirt, IIIM. , lornl Ulviilrini, 1 104. Jniiliutli, (leacviiUunti uf, 477. JiiriiilMW, 748, .liitk, , 986. Kanaaii, rlvttr, 1.164. Kantiil, 1KJ2. Karukiiriiin, M. Karuuc, 1170. Karroo, ri.'M. Kartuun, 1183. Katan, 811. Kaichan, 7.36. Kaibna, 1266. Kunkankln, 1361. K»»inn, 1270. Kutaguin, 1266. Kati'r, 13:1. Katrine, I.ocb, 438. 460. Katungwa, 1266. Kau, 1168. Kautnkeino, 782. Kayor, 1228. Kay.young, 1044. Kc-vho, 1021. Kwihee, 1268. Kvft, 1170. Keheclan, river, 1364. Kchl, 700. Kelghlcy, 416. Kcj, 949. Kelat, !I49. Kelendrl, 900. KelU, A(I4. KeUo, 4ft9. Kvlyoubub, 1 164. Komaoun, lOOA. Keininon, I27U. Kendal, '.20. Kenr, llb,>. Kenlhvortu, 409. Kcnnerl.OU'i, 996. Kenneth, king, 144. Kent, eoun'.y, 38i"). Kentuck,, 1382. Kepler, 10,'i. Kepler's laws, 108, 109. Koreaoun, 9(I8. Kerguelen'8 lilund, l.MO. Kcrinan, 939. Kermansliali, HS-I. Kerry, 806. Kesrounn, 894. Keswick, 421. Kew, 387. Kbamll, 1061. Kham, 912. Khiva, 1(162. Khnjnnd, IU62. Kholyvaii, 1(192, 1093. Khoiilloom, 1063. Khuten, 1061. KhiisUtan, 939. Khyberui'S. 947. Khyrponr, 989. Klachta, 1093. Kiaina, 1267. Klangnan, 1042. Klangsee, 1043. KIddurnilnster, 425. Kiel, 7>>2. Klelce, 7.'iO. Klelvlg, 782. Kiev, 80!». Kllda. St., 47G. Klldarc, 504. Kilgarran Castle, 433. Kilkenny, .W4. Klllaluc, .508. Klllarncy lake and town, rMi. Kilmarnock, 460. Kilwinning, 460. KImoll, 816. Kincardine, 466. Kinctrdlnc O'Neil, 467. King, surveys by, liO. 67. King (icorge's Islands, 1522. King Ueorge'K Sound, 1502. Kingdom, what, 271. KingkiUn, 110.'). King's Bench, couit of, 361. King's roiinty, 8(VI. Kingston (Irel.md), 503. Klliiistnn (Uritlsh Anie. rica), 1.121. Kliigilon ( West Indies), 171(1, 1741. Kinross, 46A. KInsale, 5(;6. Kinti'iliiiig, 1(93, KIratas, I0li4. KIrby on uiiinml gengra- jiliy, 2,58, 'j.Vj. Kirensk, 1(19.1. KIrghises, 106.1, lOOI. KIrln.Oiila, 10.^9. Kirkngati'li. 90.5. KIrkaldy, KhI. Klrkhy I.iinidale, 420. Kiikiiidbrlgbt, 461. KIrkllssa, 848. Kirkwall, 477. KIrree, 1269. KIslnne, 919. KIslar, l(M». KIssy, 1228. Kliitayah. 908. Klzll Irinak, ri\er, 907. Kizil Onzen, 936. Klaprotli, 62. Kiinislg, |.')(I7. Kllni'hewsk, 1074. Kloater Neuburg, 6S8. Kniatlneaux Indians, 1374. Knowie Park, 387. Koillak Island, 1177. Koeitelioo, 1041. Kokaiin, 1062. Kokonor Lake, 1017. Konleh, 908. Kiinl^.slMTg, 74.5. Kfinigsgrad, 691. Kuiilgsti'in,7(ll. Konkodoo, 1*270. Kimkics, |(i1H. Koolfu, i'.!(i8. Koondoot, l(j63. Kooniakary. 1270. Kourango, 1332 Koordlstan. 912. !I39. Koords, 88.5. Koping, 776. Korddl'an, 1274. Korn Neuburg, 688. Koslin, 603. Kostamboul, 907. Kotah, !I02. Kotzebue's Sound,' 1 376. Koufa, 915, Kouka, 1264. Koumkala, 913. Kous, 1170. Kowno, 7.50. Krasnoyarsk, inii2. Krefeld, Ii95. Kremniti, 734. K rem 5,688. Kreuzenach, 096. Krusenstern, 62. Kunra, 1194. Kuba, 91G. Kuban, river, 1008, 1009. Kuchar, 1003. Kuenlunniountains,!047. Kulfsteln, 690. Kul'ii, 1268. Kukii, .53. Kurds, 8H5. Kurgan, 1091. Kuriles, 1095. Kiirreechano, l'J.52. Kustrin, (i93. Kutznctzk, 1092. L. I.aara, 901. Labrador, 1.172. , fur trade from, 1372. — — , western coast of, 1372. I.aby, 12')S. Labyrinth of Kgypt, 1167. La I'aiile, 124. II I.achlan, river, 148?, I.ad.iuk, 1(182. I.adlk, 9 of England, 363. Laybach, river, 689. — , city, 690. Lead mlnei in England, 369. I,c-adhlll!i, 460. Leamington, 40n. Leaotung, I0ri9. Leatowea, 4'2A. Lebanon, [801], 893. Lebeda, ItWS. I^ebrlja, IM&. Leabury, 423. Leedi, 4I!V. Leeuwtn't Land, 1509. Leeward Itlands, 1474. Lefooga, \!>K. Leghua, 1183. Leghorn, 627, 628. LegUlatlve power, 272. Leh, 1052. Leia, 949. Leicester, 407. LeIiKtor, fiOO. Lpipzig, 701. Lciria, Ml. Leith, 4r)H. Leitrim, S08. Lemberg, 748. Lena, river, lOTi 1092. Lenoir, 126. Leoben, 6H9. Leominster, 41i3. Leon, ftifl. Leondari, 816. Lepantn, H.i6. Lephourl, 892. Lcrida, .579. Lerwick. 478. lies Cayes, I4''0. LesKhls, 1071. Leslie, mode of producing ice, 1«7. on tei»peraturcj,l61, 162. 16,5. I.euctrn, 825. Leuk, baths of, 6,57. Leuwariicn, 720. Lever, 1208. ].exlngton, 1362. I,ewis, 475. Leyden, 724. L'llcrmite Island, 1444. Lias, canal, 80a Liberia, 1229. Libonrne, .540. Lichlleld, 411. Lichtenstcin, 61. Lichtcnstein, 701. Lidlord, 428. i.iigc. 722. Lifford, ,509. Light, its Inflnoncc on ve- getation, 233. Lignitz, 691. Lima, 1424. Limbiirg, 722. Llineritk, ,51)7. Liinniat, 643. Limoges, 518 Limousin, .547. Lincoln, 395. , Port, 1.507.' Lincolnsliire, 395. LIngen, 1 130. LInkopIng, 778. Linlithgow, 4.5S. Linnlie, Loch, 47X Lintin)?, 1035. Linton. 42!i. I.inti, OSS. Lipari Ulandii, 602. 643. Llppe-Dctmolil, 7<^4. Liplie- Scliaiiuii'jui'g, 704. I.iria, .5H0. Lislwn, .5!K). LislHirn, t'apo, 1376. LUlc, ,541. I.i^niore (Scotland), 472. Lismore ( Ireland), 505. Llasa, 747. Lithuania, 750. Llradia, 82.5. Liverp«oI(Kngland),'4l8, 419. Livcrpooiv ,.»<■"•*■ Holland), l.')0.5. plains, 150S. —^ coast, 1539. ' Llanb9. Lohvia, '.Hit. Loire, river, 513, 514. Lomliardo- Venetian kingdom, 628— (Ml. Lombok, 1131, 1132. liomond. Loch, 438. 471. Londo!i,,396— 406. Loniiondcrry, 509. Long Isl.ind, 475. Longford, ,504. Longitude, 74. , how to determine, 13a — , by a chronometer, I3S. , by eclipses, 1,19. — , by lunar distances, or occultiitioiis, 140. , by moon's transit, Ml. — , by slgn.ils. Ml. ,l>ytnanKUlation,Ul. I.ongleat, H92. Lous Ic Sanlnler, 554. Loochuo Islands, 1(144. Ldogoo, 1207. I.Duniliii;, 171. Lorca, 5S0. Liird^, llritish House of, 3.50, 3")1. Lorctto, 619 62.5. L'Orient, .547. Lome, 472. I.orralne, 551. Lotliiiui, East an.l Mid, 4.57. , West, 45>). Ixitiis, ll;il. Louis, St. (Wislcrn Af- rica), 1227. Louis, St. ( UnitedStates), I3I>'>. Louisbiirg. 132). I.ouishul^', 1517. l.ouisiana, VMhi. , triuisfcrred to Am'?- rica, i:ct8. Louisville, i:i(°>2. Louth, 390. ■504. Louvain, 720. Low Islands, archipelago of, 1522. Low land, 109. Lowileah, I20H. Lowell, 1351. Lowi'stoir, 393, I.oxa, 1415. LiilHCk, 708. Liihiaiia. O'.H). Lublin. 7.W. Luiia, (i2S. »,i.!i'roi>, (i58. n.->9, I.urkiiDW. 986. I,u(,'i)U, 1135. Ludainar, 127.5. I.udlow, 4-.'3. LuitwIg.iburK, (i99. I.U|{.UIC>, lllhl. I.iigo, .570. Luis de I'otn.'ii, San, MOi. Lunar distances, 140. Lund, 778. Luneburg. 702. Lunenburg, 1323. Luncvlllc, ,554. Luss, 471. Lutzen, 604. Luxemburg, 72(>, 727> Luxor, 1171. Lydda, 8S8. LymlngCon, 389. Lynn Itegls, 394. Lyonnois, .'i52. Lyons, 552, M. Mandie, Lake, 1103. Macao, 1043. Macassars, 1133. Macclesiield, 423. Macedonia, 826. Macglllicuddy'a Recks, .5(M>. Mackenzie, fi5. 1375. Mac Leny, theory of va- rieties In man, 2.56. Macqnarie Harbour, 1506. , Port, 150.5. , liiver, 1492—1504. Macri, 901 . Macul.a, 926 Madagascar, 1277. , l)otaoy, 12H0. — , zoology. 1281. Ma.leira, 1276. Madtn, 912. Madras, 9;j, 9. Malialmllpoor, 999. Mahass, 1181, Alahe, 9!IS. Mahomet, 920 Mahon, Tort, .586. Malirattas, IKll. Maidenhead. 3S8. .Maiilstone, .')8ii. Mainiatchiu, 1093. Maiiia, 824. Maine, 13.W. 13.52. Slaiiland. l.VHi. Maitsha, 1191. M.ijo dos Soanes, 1402. M:ij irca, .5S6. Makooa, 12.51. Mai.il)ar. 990- !HI8. , < hi Istians and Jews in. 99". Malacca, 1019. Malaga. 5S2. Malar. 775. Malay, variety of man, 252. Maldiinado, 1413. Mallicollo, 1517. Mallow, .5(Ni. Malniii, 778. Mall), St., .547. M ilonlne Islands, 1,540. Matstriini, 781. Malta, 612. , geoliigy, 603. , animals, 608. Maltr.|)iun,(>2. .Milwa, 991. Manu'lukcs, 11.56. 11.59. Man, geographic distribu- tion of, 248. , Ills civil and social condition, 275. Man, Isle of, 431. Manoar, Straits of, 1007. Manabic, Mil, Manal., !<105, Manasarowara, Lake, 1052. Mancha, la, ,573. Manchester, 417. Mandara, 126-1. Mandingoes, |226. Mandou, 33. Mar.s, 98. Marseilles, 551 . Martaban, 1019. Marta Santa. 1410. Martinlco, 1477. IMarwar, 990. Mars illli, I.'I23. M,iryborough, .504. Maryland, 13.56. , I'oiuidatlon of, lllll. Maryport, 422. Marv's, St. 1359. Masalla, 20. Mascara, 1207. Masina, 1270. Massa, 631. Massachusetts, 1350, IIIM. Massuah, 1192. Masidlpatam, '.I9I. Mataii, ll.'U. iMatanzas, 1477. Matar.ani, 1132. Mai lock, 411,412. Matsmal, 1104. Matto (irosso, M(;2. Maulda, 984. Maulinein, 1019, Maupertids, i by, 60. 125. Mauritius, 1278 Mauro Kra, ma Maybole, 401. Maynas, 141.5. Maynooth. ,504. Mayo (Ireland) Mayo (African 1277. Mazaga, 1403. Mazagan, 1206. Mazanderan, 93 M'aco, 1104. Jieander, river, Meath. ,501. Meaux, .514. IVlecca, 925. Mechain, 128. Mechlin, 720. Mechiacan, l.39( Mecklenburg, 7( Medea, 1207. Medina, !)25. Medlnet, Il(i7. Meiliiiet Abu, 11, Mediterranean S Mceaday, 1019. Mcerut, ;)S8. MoKahoun. 1019 IMcgalopolis, 823 Mcgara, 822. Mchedla, 1206. Mclningen, Saxc Meissen, 701. .Mekran, 949. Mela, 'lis geograi Melasao, 902. Melbourne, 1.506. Melllla, 1252. Mellnda, 12.51. Mdlawi, 11(18. 5l('lro8e, 459. Melun, .544. Melville, 1.509. Melville Island, I Melville I'enlnsul Memel, 745. Mcmnoniinn, II, Mcnai Bridge, 37.' Mcnangkaliao, lU 5Iciidan:i, 00. , .lrclil|iclago, iMcndip Hills, 425 Mendoza, 1444. Mciidoza, tables b Mcnin. 722. Mi-nouf, 1163. Mcntz, 7(12. Minuthi.is, 20. Menzaleh. 1101. Meqninenza, .579. Mi'(|uinc-z, 1205. IMcrawe, I1S2. Mcrcator. .5;i. , Ills chart, Ifi; - — , coiistruciion, Mercury, 70. Merdin, 9i;». Mcrgui, Klia. MiTilioliwey, 12,52, Mcrida (Spain). f,7 — (.Mexlo), 139! Mcri,la( Colombia] MiTiiiian, 73. , how to detc 136. Merino sheep, 565. -■^Ii'riiinetli. J.)2. MiTkal), «;i.'). .5Ipr(ic. 47. MiTthvrTydvil.l.i, 5 nn. Shall .Icha,, ■lli'shcrl, !i:j(;. •;;|i'^licd All, 915. •'I''>«i'iiia. HV4. •J'|■<^ilil. 610. M,-si.s I'OO. Mi'.iir.iHo, river, 12 ''''kiirata. I-.'.S, Mi'lc'i.|-|)l(i);y, l.-jM. •Wcleers, aqueous, I iti or, 1007. I. a, Lake, .73. 417. ', KiH. W7. )!)2. a. Mountain, 1)99. r. 12. .631. :i, a branch ^274. >6. nature, 141, jcction, 142— clopment, MS tccd's, UiO. cation of, ITil. HO. kiin. HU7 , I). 30. , 1462. 821. !.'>4. , 6!)2. , .M7. I), .Vv •r, 1 102. I'll, 472. i32. .:iko, 1162. HS, 111, sdO. lands, l.'>27. GK'J. te, 1474. ,740. aer, 74C. its geogrnpliy, 1413. 1200. Bay, 902. cr, !>I6. 8H4. Itlandi, ir>32. .W. 1019. ta. 1410. 477. )0. 1323. nil,. 'MM. Kl.Vi. latiun of, i;ill. 422. i:(M. •i(i7. 70. ctts, I3r.n,i:vii. 1192. nn, '.I'M. CI. 1477. 1132. 11.412. 11(14. 880, 1462. 4. 1019. INDEX. Maupcrtuls, expedition by, 60. 12.5. Mauritius, 127A. Mauro Kra, map by, 56. Maybole, 461. Maynas, 141.5. Maynonth, .'i04. Mayo (Ireland), hm. M-^yo (African Islands), 1277. Masaga, 1403. Ma/,agan, 1206. Ma/nnderan, 936. M'aco, 1104. r.icandor, river, 903. Meatli, rm. Meaux, .'>t4. INIecca, 92'). Mechain, I2R. Mccliliii, 720. Mo'lDaran, 130H. Mecklunburg, 703. Mcilea, 1207. Medina, 9'2.'>. Mc'dinot, Illi7. McilluL-t Abu, 1172. Mediterranean Sea, 179. Mceaday, 1019. Mccrut, 988. Meiialioun, 1019. Mi'KaldpoHs, 823. MoKara, 822. Mi'lKHlli, 1206. Weiiiingcn, Saxc, 704. Meissen, 701. .Meliran, !M9. Mela, his geograpliy, 'Hi— Melasso, 902. Mcilinnrne, 1.506. Melilla, I2.'>2. Melinda, I'i.'Vt. Mollawi, lliiH. IMi'lrosc, 4.'>9. H Mclun, 1)44. Melville, l.'iOO. Melville Island, 15,39. Melville Peninsula, 1373. Jlemcl, 74.'>. Mcmnoniinn, II7'2. Menai Bridge, 37.). MenanKkal)ao, 1129. iMendan;i, liO. , .Archipelago, IM'i. Mendip Hills, 425. .MenilDza, 1444. Moniliiza, tables by, 133. Menhi. 722. Meniiuf, 1 163. Mentz, 702. Miiuithias, 20. Menxalch, I Kit. Mecjiilrieiiza, .'>79. Mecpiini'z, 1205. Merawp, 1182. Mireator, tf.l. , his chart, lfi3— 155. , construcUon, 1,50. Mercury, 70. Mcrdin, 9i:<. Merjjul, 1019. MiTihnhwey, \2:t2. Merlda (Spain). 574. (Mexico). 1399. Meri.la(Col()»ibla), 14l»!. M.Tidian, 73. , how to determine, i3i;. Merino sheep, .565. -■Meridneth, 432. Merkal), SM. .Mcroe. 47. MiTthvr Tjdvll, 434. Mi'ni. .Shah .IcIiau.'JIiO. Meshed, 930. •Mc■^hl•,l .All, !I15. M''-senia, H'll, ^'■'-viiii. lilH. '''•-sis.l'IKI. Mi'-urailo, river, I '229. Mi'iiiratii, 12 .8. Meteorology, 1 58. .ileteurs, mjueous, 172. Meteors, lumlnoui, 173. Metnubis, 116,3. Metrahcnny, 1166. Mett, 554. Mowar, 990. Mexico, extent and boundaries, 1379—1381. — , map. 1380. , mountains, 1,381. , rivers, lakes, 1381. , geology, 1382—1384. — , volcanoes, 1383. , botany, 1,381—1386. , zoology, I3«6-I;i88. , historical geogra- phy, 1388. , ancient calendar, 1388. , paintings, 1389. , political state, 1389. — , army, revenue, 1390. , agriculture, mines, 13!'(). —, manufactures, com- merce, roads, 1391. , population, classes, 1392. ■^, Indians In, 1,389. — , religion, sciences, arts, &c., i:i90. , provinces, their ex- tent and population, i;t;)5 , city, 1390. , New, 14(10. MeziOres, 5.53. Mliev.*ir, 9!i2. Mieliael, .St., 1275. Michigan, l,'!r,3. , Lake, \XV). Miehipieoten, 1321. Midilleburg (Iloll.nul), 72. Morne (iaroii, 1475. Morocco, 1198. 1204,120.5. Morpeth. 4 14. Morriinibidgee, river, 1443. Mosanit)li).io, li.'.54. Moslmrg, 0'<9. Moscho, 11 Sit. Moscow, 807, 808. Mo.«.<, (80. Mostar, s.50. Motaiia, I'j5I. Motiers, 00.3. Motnualis, 885. Motril, .58,3. Moultan, 988. IS6J» MounaKoa,'IR.'«l. Mouna Koa, 1S31. Mourtouk, 1373. Mout, 900. Moutleri, 633. Mouiangaye, 1277. Mowee, 1,524, Moxdok, 1 069. MBtizlawl,75l. Mudge, 129. Mugh), lOIH. Mulgrave, Cane, 1376. Mulgrave'i Islondt, 1534. Mull, 474. Mulligaum, 993. Mullingar, 504. Mnmpawa, 1133. Munden, 708. Munich, 697. Miiiiiiiporc, 1018. Minister (Ireland), 805. Munster (Germany), 695. Munstcr, Sebastian, 58. Muquez, 1277. Mur, river, 689. Murcta, 580. Murgab, 939. Murom, 809. Murray Klver, 1493. Murviedro, 580. Muscat, 926. Milsgow, 1264. Muslris, 19. Musselburgh, 4.53. MuBsendoon, Cape, 926. Muttra, 986. Myeengp, 822. Myra,90l. Mysore, 1001. N. Naardcn, 726. Naas, 504. Nackshivan, (MO. Nadir, 73. Nahn, 1006. Nain, 1368. Nairn, 407- Nakabal Majar,gi9— 926. Nakshi Itnustan, 939. Namur, 722. Nanchang, 1043. Nancowry, 1130. Nancy, .554. Nandere, 994. NansHsakl, 1104. Nanking, 1042. Nantes, .546. Nantua, 5,54. Nantucket, 1351. Naples, 6.34. Napoll, 823. Napoli di Malvasia, 824. Napoloiic, 891. Narberth, 433. Narbonne, 549. N.trnI, 625. Narva, 806. Naryin, 1092. Nasamones, 26. Nashville, I3U'2. Nassau ((icrniany), 704. N';uisau (W. Indies), 1475. Natchez, 1,303. Naiissers, 948. Navan, ,V)4. Navariii Island, 1444. Navarino, 824. Navarro, .577. Navigators' Islands, 1584. Navy, British, .362. Naworth Castle, 420. Naxos, 828. Nazareth, 892. Ncagh, Lough, 510. Nearchus, voyage of, 16. 18. Neath, 434. Nebulie, 70. Nechn, eircumnavigatlon of Africa under, 10. Nedjed, '.Ili7. Needles, 3'JO. /I 1570 INDEX. Negapatam, lOflO. Negro, Kio, 1463. Npgropont, A2U. Nelkunda, 10. Nelloor, KKK). Nemaur, 9<.)l. Nepal, 1003, 1004. Nerbuililah, n.'i4. 991. Nertsrhinsk. 1(I9». Neufchitrl, 0(12. Neusatz, 73.5. Neualcdicr See, 735. Neu8oI,734. Nevis, 1470. Nevis, Ben, 470. Newark, 412. Newark (U. States), 135. Newars, 1003. Newcastle on Tyne, 413. Newcastle under Line, 411. .Neweastle(Canada),1319. Newfoundland, l,T^5. •^—, geology, 1307. Newliavcn, 13')l. Newmarket, 39-'>. Newport (England), 300. 424. Newport(U. States), I.3.'i2. Newport Paguvll, 407. Newry, Sll. Newton, lOfi. New York, 13.")3. Neyva, 1113. Nhilgerries, 1002. Niagara, 1322. Nicaragua, Lake of, 1401. Nicaragua, San Loun do, iva. Nice (Italy), B32. Nice (Turkey in Asia), 90". Nicholas, St. (Belgium), 721. Nicliolas, St. (African Islands), 1277. Nicholson, Port, 1510. Nicobar Islands, 1130. Nicolaief, HIO. Nicosia. 910. Niger, the researches con- cerning course of, 3^— 47. Gt. 12.57. Nikl, 1207. Nile, overflowings of, 197. Nimbus cloud, 171. Nimegui'n, 720 Nimgouta, 10.59. NIngpo, 1014. Nisi'hnei-Kolvmsk, 1095. Nisli.tpour, 9J6. Nislhis, 9i.3. Nismes, .5.50. Nitl, 1052. Nogais, 1072. Noorkiiping, 77H. Noosliky, 949. Nordlingen.il',)'*. Norfolk fouiity, .39.1. Norfolk, New, 1.3.5S. 1512. Normandy, .544. Norrland, 77!l. 7SI. Northumberland, 4 13. Norton Sounil, l.37'>. Norway SeeSwcilen. , geology, 7fiH, 709. — , peasantry, 774. , local divisions, 779. Norwich, 393. NorwiMid, 124. Nolo, (HI. Nottingh,im, 407. 412. Nottinghamshiri', 412. Nova Siiitia, l.')23. — — , gcoliigv, l.'loo. Nova /eniiila, l.'i32. Noviira, (i;i2. Novlla, 1414. Novogorod, Great, H0«, Ml 19. Nnbia, extent,! 170— 117S. , map, 1177. , joulugy, 1I7H. Nubia, historical geogra- 1 phy, 1179. , political state, 1180. , culture, commerce, IIHU. , races, civilisation, 1180. , local geography, 118!). Nnkahiwa, 1,533. Nunez Balboa, .57. Nunia,913. Nunivak Island, 1376. Nurenib«!rg, C98. Nutmeg, 1112. 1124. Nuyt's I.and, 1507. Nyas, 1130. Nyeborg, 702. Nyffc, 1208. Nycoping, 77G. O. Oakham, 4(18. Oasis, great, 1170. , little, 1170. Oaxaca, 1399. Oban, 472. OUIorsk, 1091. Oberland, fi.57. Obi, river, 1074. Ocana, .573. Occultatinns, lio. Ocean, 200. ,salinecontentsof,182. Oceans, 178. Odensee, 7G2, Oder, (505. Odessa, 810. (Edenburg, 73.5. Ocrtelcs, mountain, WO. 4Eta, 820. Olfenbach, 702. Ohio, state, 1.302. Ohlvahoa, 1.5:t3. Ojc'da, .57. Okehanipton, 428. Okhot.sk, 1093. Oldenburg, 704. Olenek, river, 1(I7-). Oleiisk, 1093. Olliida, 14.57. Olmutz, (i92. Olympus, 820. Omagh, 511. Oman, 920. Ombos, 1175. Ommon, 920. Omsk, 1092, 1193. Onjiole, 1 (JO. Onore,997. Ontario, Lake, 1.321. (•(Hiipijor, 990. Oojein. 992. Oon.ilashka, 1.377, Ootdniak Island, 1377. Ooscat, 9I'9. Opcrniwirk, 1,539. Ophir, (i, 7. Ophir, .Mount, 1129. Oporto, 593. Oran, 1207. Orange Kiver, 123.5. Ordufia, 577. Orebro, 77(i. Orol,H09. Orenburg, 1072. Orcnse, ,570. Orfa, 91,3. Orihiiela, .5>'0. Orinoco, river, 1407. Orion, 70. Orissa, 994. OristaiMi, (hl4. Orkiicvs, 470. Orkneys, New, 1,51(1. Orleans, .547. Orleans, New, 13(i4. Ormuz, 9.39. Oman*, 554. Ornithology, «'aucasiau or Kiiropcan, 200. , Moiigullan or Asi. atif, 20.3. Ornithology, American, 26*. , Etiiioplan or Afri- can, 205. , Malay or Australian, 266. ^—, of arctic rpgion9,207. —— , of tropical regions, 268. Oronsay, 474. Orontes, river, 896. Ortelius, .58. Oruro, 1420. Osage, Orand River,13frl. Osaka, 1104. Osium Karahissar, 908. Ossa, 82B. Ostend, 721. Osterhy, 778. Ostiaks, IWIO. Ostrog, 751. Oswestry, 423. Otaheitc, 1521, 1522. ^^, first discovery, 66. Otia, 151.5. Otranto, (i»*. Ottawa, 1304. 1316. Olumba, 1390. Oualan, 1.526. Onassoulou, 1271, Onde, 980. Oudinsk, 1093. Oufa, 1072. Oulimirak, 1526. Ovas, 1277. Overyssel, 720. Ovieuo, .570. Owen, surveys, fiO. Owhvliec, 1524. Oxeii, Uritish breed, 340, 341. Oxford, 407. Oxiey, 07. , discoveries by, 1492. Oxu«, 10.53. Ozenc, 10. P. Pacific Ocean, 178. Padang, 1 1.30. Paderhorn, 095. Padua, 02!l, (hlO, Picstiim, 037. Paghan, I(>I9. Paisley, 403. Palcmbang, 1130. Palencia, 570. Palcnqne, 1400. Palermo, 040. Palestine, H80. , map, 887. Palgonth, mines of, 428. Palihothra, 4(i, 47. Paiina, ,580. Palinas, las. 1270. Pnhiiyra, K90. P.impas, 1432. , flcl Sacramento, 1425. Pamplona, 1413. Panama, 1410. Pandjoor, 11,30. Panias, [k91]. Panniptit, 988. Paoo. 1.532. Paoting, 1042. Papua, 1.509. Papu.18, 1120. Papyrus, 1151. Para, 140;). Paraguay, 1443. Paralba, 1402. Parallax, iylvania, 13.54. Pcnritli, 420, Penryn, 429. Pens.icola, 1300. Pentelifiis, 821. Penza, 811. Penzance, 429. Pepper, 1113. Pera, 848. Perckof, 811. Percanios, 905. t'eriodic ineiiualities, II'.'. Perm, 811. Pernambiico, 1401. Pcroiise, 02. Perpignan, 549. Persberg, 776. Persepolis, remains, 03^. IVrsfield, 424. Pershore, 425. Persia, Independent, as- pect, mountains, 910. , botany, 941—944. — , historical geogra. phy, 944. , constitution, rcvc. nues, troops, 914. , industry, 945. , population, inhabit. ants, 945, <.I40. — , religion, knowlfii|!i', 940. , amusements, dross, food, 947. , loc.-il divisions, !il7. Persian Fmpirc, bmiiiil. aries, 927. — , map, '.128. . mountains, plains, 929. , zoology, 930. . iilstorical goopra. phy, 931. , hionarchical cnnsli- tutlon, 931. .^—, army, preilatnry chiefs, 932. , agriculture, niaiw. foctuics.iomnierce.'.'iW. Persian Empi Cion, cliaraci •^— , religion, 1 , language, , local div !»30. Perth (Scotlan Perturbations planets, 112. Peru, extent a arie.s, 1416—1 , ni!\p, 1415 , mountain , geology, I , botany, 1< • , rivers, iok — , zoology, 1 — ^, historical phy, 1420. , political a 1421. , agricultu facturcs, 1421 . mines, c 14:22. — , pupulatioi natives, mix 1423. , religion, amusements, , local divisi , Upper, 14; Perugia, 828. Pesaro, 619. 020 Pesliawer, 947. Pesth, 734. Petcherais, 1444 Peter 1. Island, Peterborough, I Peterhead, 407. Petersburg (llu —8110. Petersburg ( Uni 1358. Peterwaradin, 7; Petra, 927. Pctropaulowsk, Peiitingerian tab Pharsalia, 820. Pliigalia, 823. PhiladelpIHa, 13' Philip, Port, 1.50 Philippines, 1134 Pliiiipsburg, 7(K). Philipstacit, 770. I'hiiipstown, 504 Philcc, 1170. Physiognomy ol surface, 198. Piauhy, 1402. PicaKl, 124. • , observation Picardy, 544. Pico, 1275. Pioton, 1323. I'ieilmont, ii3i. Pierre, St., 1477. Pilchard fishery, Pillau,74fl. ' Pilscn, 091. Pindiincha, 1406. PInkerton, 01. Pisa, 027. Pisco, 142.5. Pitcairn Isl.ind, I Pithauri, 823. Pitt Island, 1512. I'itt»l)«rg, 1302. Piura, 142.5. Pizarro, 57. Piarencia. .574. Piacentia, (i29. 03; Planets, orbits of. , primary and ary, 102. I'lantagenet, 1.500, Pliinls, geograpli sidi'red in re^ their distribntiii , station of, 23 , placet ol ,«rimth, 238, 239 - — , migration ol,' INDEX. clipsc observed Persian Empire, popula- tion, clinracter, 934. .religion, letters, 034. , languajte, dress, 93&. , local divisions, U35, !)3fl. Perth (Scotland), 408. Perturbations of the planets, 112. Pern, extent and bound- arie.s, M16— 141». , map, 1417. , mountains, 1418. , geology, 1419. , liotany, 1419. ' ■ , rivers, lakes, 1419. , loology, 1420. — , historical geogra- phy, 1420. , political geography, 1421. , agriculture, manu- factures, 1421. , mines, commerce, 1422. , population, Creoles, natives, mixed races, 1423. . , religion, literature, amusements, 1424. —, local divisions, 1424. , Upper, 1420. Perugia, 628. Pcsaro, 619. 620. Peshawer, 947. Pcsth, 734. Petcherais, 1444. Peter I. Island, 1540. Peterborough, 1320. Peterliead, 4(i7. Petersburg (Kussia), 804 — 8(IG. Petersburg ( Unit. States), 1,358. Peterwaradin, 737. Petra, 927. Petropauiowsk, 1094. Peutiniierian tabic, 38. I'harsalia, 820. Pliixaiia, 823. Pliiladelphia, 1.354. Philip, Port, 15lKi. Philippines, 1134. Piiilipsburg, 700. Philipstadt, 770. Pliiiipstown, 504. Philoe, 1176. Pliysiogiiomy of cartli's surl-ice, 198. Piauhy, 1402. Picaiu, 12i. ——, ol)servations by, 59. Picardy, 544. Pico, 1275. Pictou, 1323. Piedmont, 032. J'ierre, St.. 1477. IMieliard fishery, 429. I'illau, 740. Piiseu, 691. rini-hincha, 1400. 1414. Pinkertcm, 01, Pisa, 027. Pisco, 1425. Pitoairii Island, l.'iSO. Pithauri, 823. Pitt Island, 1512. Plttshurtr, 1302. Piura, 1425. Pizarro, 57. I'iaeencla. 574. Plaientia, 029. 031. 1,320. I'lunets. orbits of, 101,102. , primary and si.'curid. ary, 102. I'luiitagenet, LWO. I'l;uits, geography con- sidered in regard to tlieir distrihutlcin, 227. — -, station ol', 237, 23^. , plarei ot their Krnwth, 238, 2.39. , migration ol',240,241. Plants, obstacles to their migration, 241. , Mritish, table of, 326, 327. , Scottish, 328. , Irish, 329, 330. Platiea, 825. Piatten, Lake, 735. Plinlimmon, 432. Pliny, his geography, 38. Piymoutii ( ICngland), 427. Plymouth (NcwEngiand), IIWI. Podolia. 751. Podor, 1227. Poggy Islands, 1130. Point de (Jnlie, 1008. Poitiers, .548. Poitou, .547. Poland, extent, rivers, marshes, 7.38. , natural geograpliy, 7.38,739. — , historical geogra- phy, partition, 739. , map, 740. , political division, 741,742. ^— , agriculture, ma- nufactures, commerce, 742, 743. — , population, 743. , national character, 741. , religion, knowledge, &c., 744. , local divisions, 744. , Prii.«sian,with Ducal Prussia, 745. , Austrian, 747. , modern kingdom of, 748, 749. , liussian, 730. Polar circles, 80. Polar Seas, islands in, lii3.5. , their general aspect, 1530. , discoveries In, I53G — 1.538. ^— , tisheries, I. 538. , local details of, 1539. Poles, 08. Policandro, 810. Polignac, 552. Polignano, 038. Political constitution, 271. Polynesia, I5|8. , ra.ipof, 1519. — , general description, 1520. , geology, 1520. ^— , botany, 1,521. , discovery of, 1.525. , K.uropeau inter- course with, 1.52.5. — , political state, 1.520. , i)roductions, com- merce, 1.520. — -, population, 1.520. — '-, social state, 1527. ^— , religion, missions to, 1527. , amusements, habit- ations, dress, 1528. — ^, local divisions, |.'i29. Pomernnia, 093. Pompeii, 0;i7. Pomjiev's Piil.ir. 1102. Poniliclierrv, 'j'.iii. Pontedel (iada, 1275. Pontefract, 415, P(mt-y-piiol, 424. Poole, .3'.) I. Poonah. 993. Popayan, 1413. Popoeatepi'tl, 1390. Porcelain tower, China, 1012. Porlock, 427. Poro, 816. Portalegre, .592. Portariiiigton, f.04. Port an Prince, 1480. Port Dalrymple, 1512. Port Davey, 1512. Port Glasgow, 403. Port Havtieii, 1480. Portland, 1352. Portlimd stone, 391. Port Louis, 1278. Porto Bello, 1416. Porto Rico, 1477. Porto Santo, 1270. Porto Segiiro, 1400. Portpatrick, 401. Portree, 47.5. Port Uoyal (Jamaica), 1474. Port Koyal (Martinico), 1473. Ports of England, their relative commerce, 372. Portsmouth, 389. Portsea, 389. Portsoy, 407. Portugal, extent and boundaries, 586 , geology, botany, loo- logy, .587. , rivers, 587. — , historical geogra- phy, 5S7. , political geography, 588. , productive industry, 588, \-c. , agriculture, manu- factures, &c., 589. , population, national character, .589. . religion, literature, 590. — ^, its provinces, ,590. Portuguese Australasian discoveries, G'i. Posega, 737. Posen, 740. Posilippo, 635. Poll, 1071. PotosI, 1420. — , mines of, !422. Potsdam, 093. Potteries, 410. Pounipet, 1.526. Powerscourt waterfall, .503. Poyais, 1403, , 1305. Prague, 691. Prairie du chien Presburg, 733. Presoot I Kugland). 418. Prescot( H ritisli America) , 1321. Presteign, 433. Preston. 418. Preuss-Kyl.iu, 740. Prince I-.dward Island, geology (if. 13110, 1307. , description, 1325. Prince of Wales Cape, 1370. Prince Regent's River, 1,501. Prince William's Sound, 1377. Pritchard, theory of varie- ties of iiian, 250. Procida, (iOi . Projection, globular, 147, 148. , orthographic, 142 — 144. , stereograpliic, 144 — 147. Pnime, 1019. Provi'iicf, 550. Providence, 13.52. Providence, port. 1375. Prussia, rise of, 073. ^— , kiejidom, provinces of, 070. , constitution, educa- tion, taxation, army, 077. , local divisions, 092— 690. 1571 Prussia, Ducal, 738. 748. , East and West, 745. Przemyzl, 748. Ptolemy, his geography, 43. Ptolemy, his geography of Asia, 4,5—47. , of Europe, 4S— 45. , of Africa, 47, 48. Puebla, 1397. Puerto Caliello, 14ia Puerto de Lamar, 1*26. Puerto, Espafla, 14^^. Pullicate, UNK). PuloPinanR, 1130. Pultowa, 809. Punaklia, 1002. Puniijab, 988. Puiijgoor, 949. Purcliena, 583. Puy •:, Quiche, Santa <:ru/ del, 1403. j Quiilimane 12.54. Quillota. M.'!4. ' Quimper, 540. ! Quinitiu mount.iln, U13. Qiiinsai, city, :>''.. I Qiiiros, 06. j Quito, 1414. I R. ; Raati, 735. Raaiiiali. 98. . Rabat, iwr.. j Haliba, 12li8. Racca, 913. Race, liuman, vartrtiei ! of, 249. ' R,ada('k Islands, 1534. Itadania, 1277. Radius vector, 81. ; Radnor, 433. R.ldow, 7.50. Raglanil Castle, 424. Hagusa, T.37. Rahmanleh, 1102. I Railways in England, 374. i — , at Manchester, 375. I Rain, 171, 172. Ralntiow, 174. Halik Islands, 1.534. ! Ranila. 888. Kaniond on temporaturci, IOI. Hampoor, 988. Rampore, 10(6. Ramsgite, 380. I Rangoon, 1019. I Uaimoeh, Loih, 409. 1572 Raphoe, 509. Kas el Khyma, 927. Kastiiilt, 700. Itatli, U'.I2. liatisbon, COB. linwan llrail, Lake, 10-'>2. Heading. :W. Uccifc, I4(il. Hwljangs, 1130. Hcil Kiver, settlement on, i;)73. Kees, GUn. Ucl'raction, atmospheri- cal,!*.'!. KegKlo, (i29. 039. KeRions, botanical, 242— •MO. lien.iml t, M). llenfrewsliirc, 4G<. Kennrll, 2. Rio (;ranilc do Siil, 1462, Rio Janeiro, 14ii2. RIom, M'i. Ripen. 7l>2. Rivers, 2»2. — — , their bisins, decli- vity, iHire, I9(i. ^^, inundation, 197. Rivulets, 200. Roads of Kngland, 379. Rochdale, 4 IS. Hochel'ort, .MS. Rochelie, MH. Rochester, 13.'i4. Rockingham, 4im. Rock, Little, 1305. Rocki, structure of, 21 0, , elasses and speckles of, 219, , Neptunian primi- tive, 221). , I'lutonian or igni- gennus primitive, 220. , transition, 220. —^, I'lutonian transition, 221, , secondary, 221. .^— , Neptunian transi- tion, 221. — — , Neptunian second- ary 222, ^— , I'lutonian, or igne- ous secondary, 22i'i. , Neptunian tertiary, 22,'!. — -, Plutonian, or ii^nl- genous tertiary, 2i(>. , alluvial, 220. . , volcanic, 227, , their elFcct on vege- tables, 2:<.'i. Rocky Mountains, 1327. I3!'2. Ilocrov, '■.■iS. Roda,'l37'*. INDEX. , W!>. Rodriguez, 1278. Roeskilde, 7G2. Romania, 84H. Romanzolf cliain Rome, 019—624. Romney, 3S7. Romsey, 3K9, Ronccsvnlles, 577. Honda, 583. Rosas, ,579, Roscommon, !WH. Roseau, 1471, Rosetta, 1 103. Roslin, 4.'iS. Ross, Captain, discoveries by, O.'i, 1374 Ross ( Kngland), 423. Ross (Ireland), 472. Ross, New, .')04. Rostock, 703, Rotherham, 416. Hothsay, 473, Rotterdam, 724. Rouad, 895. Rouen, MG. Roum, 90<>. Konssillon, ,M9. Roveredo, 090, Hovigo, 0'J9. Roxburgh, I.Vi.'). Rubruipils, journey of, .'54 Rum, 475, Riipat, 1130. Ruremonde, 727. Russia on tlie Caspian, 1004. — , map, 100.'^, — ^, bounilarit.", moim- tains, waters, 1004 — lOfiO. , zoology, 1000. , historical geograjiliy, l(Hi6, l('07. . political geograjihy, 1007. — , culture, commerce, 1008. , social st.ite, IflflS, — , local divisions, 1(08. Russia in Kurope, extent, boundaries, 78;), -^—, surface, rivers, lakes, 7S3-785, -^— , map, 784, •^—, g'Milogy, 78') -78>(, , botany, 788— 7!i-">, ^^, zoology, 79.->, 7'.iO. — ^, historical geogra- phy, 790, 797. — — , government, slavery, revenues, 798. ^— , agriculture, manu- factures, commerce, 798 — 8(,0. , canals, roads, 8(10. , piipulation, 8(KI, — — , nobles, slaves, 801. — , religion, 802. , literature, liouses, amusements, ,*c,, 803, , statistical tabic of provinces and towns, 804. Russia, Great, 8()(1. , White, 8119. , Soulhern, NIO. Rutsliiik. 819. Hyde. 391). Rye, 3S7, Saarhruck, O'lO, Saar-Lnnis, 096, •Sal.a, 1474, Sat)a, St., 890, Sabine, |:|3. Sacala, 119.3. .Sackntoo, 1200. Sii'l llailjar, 1103. •Saflad, [8!)1], .Sa'ti, l-IKi. Sa^alassos, 9ii8. .Sagli.'dieii, lO.Vj. Sahara, 1271. , surface, inhabltanti, 1272. .Said, llOH. Saidc, N93, 894. Sfiigong, 1021. St. Andrew's, 404. St. Elmo's Are, 175. St. Ives, .39.5. Saintes, 548. Sala, 777. .Silahleh, 1104. Salamanca, .575. Salamis, H'22. Saleb, 1181. Salem, 1346. Salerno, 037. Salisbury. 391. S.illee, 1200, Salona, 826, Salonica, 8'28. Salt produced in England, 369. Salta, 1444. Saltcoats, 460. Salto dc Agiia, 1433. Saltzhurg, 688. Salv.ulor, S. (Guatema- la), 1403. Salvador S. (Brazil), 1401. .Samfinap, 1132. Samar, 113,5, Sani.ira, 811. Si»marang, 1132. Samarcand, 1002. .Samarof, 1091, Sambatikila, 1271. Sambclimg, 11,30. Sanboangan, 1 135. S.unbor, 74S, Saniee, 1270. Samen, 1 193. S.amos, 911. Samoyedes, 1090. Siunsoon, 907. San, 1164, Han lll.is, i;i90. .San .luan, 1444. San Luis, 1 144, San Marino, 020, Sana, 920 Sand-banks, '203, Sanilomir, 7,'i(). Sandwich, 380, Sandwich Islandu, l.\3l. Sandwich Land, ITi-IO. Sangara, 12'28. Sanna, 1421. Siinipihar, 400. Sansan, 1207. "^.•msandlng, 1270. .•nnaar, 1183. S^trampore, 984. Seregipe, 1461. Serfo, 816. Serica, 46. Serinagur, 1005. Seringapatam, l( Sert (Turkey i 912. Sert (Barbary), I Sertam, 1401. Servia, 849. Settle, 416. Seville, .583. Seychelles, 1278. Slax, 1208. Shahjehanpoor, S Sliamaehie, 930. Shamo, desert, 1( Shangalla, 1191. Shannon, river, 4 Sliantang, 1042. Shapoor, remains Sliark's Bay, 1,50'J Shat ul Arab, 91,5 Shawnee Town, 1 Sheb, 1183. Sheba, 8, Sheep, British brc Sheerness, 394. ShelHcld, 416. Shcher, U'26. Sliekbawuttee, 99i Shekh Abad,', iK; Slum, family of, 2 Shendi, 1183.' Kliensee, 1(:44. Shcrbro, river, 12 Shetlanil, 478. Shetland, New 1.510. , botany of, 1 2 Slicygya, I18'2. Shian» Island.^, 47( Shields, Nortli and 41,). Shikarpore, 989. Shilluks, 1183. 120 .Shiraz^ 938. Shivelulsh, 1074. ■Shoa, 1193. ■Slioghn.aun, 1063. Shrewsbury, 4'.:3, Shropshire. 423. .8hnster, 939. •Siak, 1130. .Siain, 1012. ■*, l()7.'t. , boundaries, i tains, rivers, 1074 .geology of, 1(17; . botany of, I 11182 , zoology of, 1(IS3, , historical u( I'hy, l()'<3. • -, ccmqnest liy H KK), I1I8.I. — ■. expeditions alo shores, 1084. INDEX. 1573 ir, 1474. 3otha,7M. aiiacnJOi. in, 704. 703. )m of, 700. f,94. ountaius, H. 99. (England), (West In- 6. , G61.' •, 708. M. 24. ■g, 1092. urn, 704. ■; 6'J4. «, (JfiO. 3. s, 434. I boundaries, ;l Into 1-ow. 1 Highlands, ioiintains,437. loilis, 438. V, 439—444. cal survey of, villi England, constitiitiun, , 44r.. .■, agrlcul- |tedland.,nia- , 44H. rics, mines, ;s, commerce, Icanals, 4r)I. |nl character, .V2. ire, universi- (Iress, Jias- ,. tM. Il\()untiesaiid I. sriO. Itransparenfy, lire, pliosplio- 1|MI. 1 level, 1«I. liildurof, 17'.). ;■, speeilic grii- luent parts of, |, 179. sallness "i, Issitiidesor.T'.i. Jt.,.'>7'.». 1)7. ■44. iualUiei, n.'. Isii. Segorbe, 180. SegoTia, 574. Soliwun, 574. Seine, river, 515. Seistan, 948. Selefkeh,900. Seieucia, 91.5. Seleucus, his expek, 1093. Selinunii, 641. Sellnty Cape, 901. Selkirk, 4.'>9. Seminoles, 14CI). Kemipalatnol, 1092. Semllii, 737. Semnch, 1182. Senegal, 1227. S.'nnaar, 1183. S'lrampore, 98-1. Keregipe, Ufil. Serfo, 816. Serica, 46. Serinagur, 1005. Surlngapatam, 1001. Sert (Turkey in Asia), 912. Sert(Barbary), 1208. .Sertam, 1461. Servla, 849. .Settle, 416. Seville, .583. Seychelles, 1278. SI'ax, 12(18. Slialijehanpoor, 988. Shamachlc, 936. Shamo, desert, 10.59. Shangall.1, llUl. Shannon, river, 4-9. Shaiitang, 1(142. Shapoor, rem.iins of, 939. Shark's Hay, {Mi. Shatul Arab, 915. Shawnee Town, 1302. Slieb, 1183. Sheba, 8. Sheep, Bril. Sierra Nevada, 5I>5. Sifans, l()(i0. Sigilmessa, 1273. Sigmaringen, 704. Sikarla, river, 907. Sikiin, 1904. Sikina, 816. Silesia, (i93. Silistrla, H49. Silla, 1270. Silvcs, .^92. Siinbir.<.k, 811. Sinai, 924, 92.5. Sinde, 989. Singapore, 1134. Sinope, 907. Slon, (i.")7. Siout, U'W. Sioux Inilhins, 13G4. Siphnos, 816. SIratie, 1228. Sire, 119:t. Sirhind, 9S8. SIrmore, IIIOU. Sirocco, 176. Sisanos. Ki71. Sivas, 'Ml. Siwah, I'i72. Skero, ►*2S. Skiddaiv, 421. Skipton, 416. Skye, 475. Slanovoy Mountains, 107 1. Slave, Oreat.Lak.:, 1375. Sleswii'k, 762. Sligo, .5(IH. Smaland, 77S. SinolcMisko, W)9. Smyrna, 904. Snelllus, 124. Sneiiwberg, 1233. Snow line, 173. Snowd.'U, 430. Society Ishiiuls, 1529. Sockna, 1273. Socorro, 1413. Socotora, 1/79. Sofala, 1'253. Soil, its inlliience on ve- getation, 235. Soissons, ,54.'>. Solar system, general view of, 120—122. , tabular view, 121, 122. Soleure, 002. Solimoens, 1463. Solomon Islands, 1517. Solon, 10.')',). Solstices. 79. Somerset, 425. Soiiora, 14(1(1. So.iliman.t, 1228. i Sooloo Islands, 1133. 1 Soplda, MS. Sorata, 1426. Sorla. 574. Soroe, 762. I Sorrento, 63G. Sount, 1275. Sound, velocity of, 177. Sour, 893. Sourab^iya, 1132. Souracarta, 1132. Sourgout, 1091. Soiitchcoufon, 1042. Southam|>toii, 389. Southampton lsland,1373. Southwark, 387. 399. Spain, extent, surface, ri- vers, 5.55. , map, 5,56. , geology, 5.57— 1500. , botany, 560—564. , zoology, 565. , hl.'torical geogra- phy, .566, 567. , agriculture, manu- factures, i)6S. -^, commerce, popu- lation, national charac- ter, .'i(J9. — , religion, literature, 570. , arts, diversions, dress, 571. —, divisions, 572. Spalding, 396. Spandaii, 693. { Spaniards, Australasian discoveries, (i(i. Spanisii Town, 1470. Sfiarta, 824. Spey, river, 438. Sjiliere, doctrine of, 72. j Spiiynx, Egyptian, 1166. Spiee Islands, 1110. 1124. 1134. > .Spitzbergeii, 1.531. ] S\iU\gm, Mdiint, 663. .S|iorade8, HI 6. S|irinB-bok, 1245. Springs, ls;)_2()3. , hot, 1H9. , origin of, 190. , tlKcirv of, I'.HI, , in the sea, 191. S(|Uill;ice, (;:i'.i. .Staaten Land, 1441. Staebroek, J475. Staflfa, 174. Stidlord, no. Stal'brclsliiro, 409. Staiiil'ord, 3li6. Stampalia, 911. St.meo, 911. S oiislaus, 74S. .;t mtz, 6.')9. Stars, failing, 17-'>. Statistics, nature of, 61. Staubbacii, (>58. Stavelot, (■-'7. Stelleiibosch, 12.50. Steniiis, stones of, 477. Stettin, 6',i3. Stewart's Island, 1516. Steyer, (WM. Sliiton,395. .Stirling, 4.'iH. Stockholm, 775, 776. Stockport, 422. Stockton, 414. Stoneiiaven, 466. Stonehenite, 391. Stone Indians, i;i7.5. ! Stornowaj . 475. Stoui iirid>ri', 4.'5. I Stowc, 4(18. ; Straho, 60. 1 Stralsiind, 693. I Stranraer, 4(il. ' .Strasbnrg, S'vl. I otrata ami beds, struc- ture of, 216. I Stratford on Avon, 408. Stratlin-d, Stony, 407. Stratiicliiyd, kingdom of, 441. Stiatiiinore, valley, 465, 4li6. Stiathspev, 409. Strelit?., 703. StromboU, 642. Stromness, 477. Stromsor, 764. 781. Stronstadt, 779. Struntian, 472. Stroud, 425. Structures observable in the crust of the earth, 216. Stry, 748. Stuhlwcissemburg, 73S. Sturt, discoveries by,1492. Stutgard, 699. Styles, old and new, 85. Styria, 688. Siiadeah, 898. Siiakin, 1184. Submarine land, 199. Succadana, '133. Sdccondce, 1230. '* Sndermanland, 775. Sudras, 980. Suez, 1176. Suffaid Koh, 940. Suffolk, county, 392. Sukkot, 1I8'2. Snltanhissar, S03. Sultania, 938. Sumatra, 1129. , zoology. Ilia. Snnibawa, 1131, 1132. Sun, apparent motion, o8. , annu.il motion, 78. , cycle of, 85. Simderbunds, 9S3. Sunderland, 413. Sundswall, 779. Superior, Lake, 132.3. Surat, 991. Surinam, 1474. Surrey, county, 387. Susa, 6:)2. Sussex county, 38". Siitlierland, 472. Swan River, 1501. Swansea, 434. Sw( ,iborg, 8(16. Sweden ard Norw.ay, ex. tent .ind boundaries, 764. - — , mountains, rivers, lakes, 765. —i-, geology, 765-768. , map. 7(>M. 769. , zodlogy, 7l9. , 'iitorical geogra- |iliy, -,70. . , constitution, reve- nue, troops, 771. .agriculture, mines, lisliery, commerce, 7/1, 772, . population, cliarac. ter, 77:». ^^, religion, learning, 773. , arts, hibitations, dress, 774. , liical divisions, 774, 77.5. Switzerland, boundaries, 642. , mountains, rivers, 643. — , map. (i44, , l.ikes, 615. — , geology. (146. , botany, 647— n.5(). , zoology, 6.")0, 651. , liistorieal geogra- phy. 651,652. , political constiti • tlon, 6.52, , iliet, 6.52. , army. 6."i3. — — , ai;rieiiltnrc, manr. faitures, commerce, 653. — national character, rcdigion, learning, 654. , table of caatuns, C55. . 1574 Sybarti, plain of, 638. Sydney, 1498. Syene, 1 176. Sympheropol, 811. Syra, 828. Syracuse, 641. Syria, [8913. .map, [892]. Syrtii, 1208. Siarnygrod, ^M. Siegedin, 737. Silgeth, 7». T. Taai, 926. Talwrca, 1207. Tabarla, [891]. Table Mountain, 1242. Tabor, 691. Tabor, Mount, 892. Ti.brr.T 036. TariiiiU'S, 1115. Tacaiz.', riser, 1182. T.iciia, I42fl. •( sttlet, 1273. Ta..:Hl.if. llSli. Tiii.;mro«, 810. T :, "«, river, 555. i'aiif, 1043. Tali'u, 1168. Till., y^'i. Ta».i, 1181. T?!.i ]iii<)t settlement, 1322. Till .ihuan.), 1435. f!.!!i;.irt»»ee, 1360. J ' ■ ;i , river (Kngland), •4 -;'■" — ( V.DiRmen's Land), 1503. Tamatavc, 1277. Tambookies, 1250. Tamwortli, 411. Tangier, 1206. Tanjore, 999, 1000. Taniia, l.'UXt. Tanta, 1 1 03. Taormina, 640. Thprobune, 20. Taptce, iW3. Tara, lOiil. TarahiU, .W4. Taranta, 1192. Tarascon, .'iSl. Tarbcs, 549. Tarliet, West, 471 . Tarent, 927. Tarento, €<\H. Turgoniti, 751. Tarifa, 58.-.. Tarlja, 1420. Tarma, U'i.'i. Tarnopol, 748. Tare, h'i. Tarragona, .578. Tarryani, UK«. Tarslilsli, 4—0. Tarsus, !K)0. Tartary, 1052. ^— , map, 1046. __—, mountains, table lands, rivers, 10.53. , geology, 1054. — , historical geogra- phy, 10.-)4, 10.55. _— , political system, 10.")5. — , agriculture, manu- factures, commerce, 1056, 10.07. _, population, races, 1057. m , religion, learning, dress, lood, 1(1.57, KliiH. . , Waudslnir, lo.'is, lil.VJ. . , Mongol, 1059. . , Independent, IflGl. TasehKend, K";.'. Tash Kapri, 907. Taiman, lili. Tasman, (wnlnitula, 1514. Tassisudun, I00'.>. INDEX. Tatta (Africa). 1273. (India), 989. Taudeny, 1275. Taujiks, 948. 1061. Taunton, 427. Tavasthus, 80h'. Tavistock, 428. Tavoy, 1019. Tay, river and loch, 438. Taygetus, 824. Tay-yuen-fou, 1044. Tchad, Lake, 12.58. , islands In, 1265. Tchekiang, 1042. 1'cherkask, 810. Tchernlgoff, 809. Tching.tou-fou, 1044. Tchusan Islands, 1044. Tchutchi, 1095. Teemboo, 1228. Teflis, 1071. Tegea, 823. Teheran, 9.17. Tcignmouth, 428. Teisse, river, 735. Tejuco, 1462, Tckrit, 913. Tcllicherry, 998. Telmessus, 90l, 902. Temama, 927. 'remciwar, 737. Temissa, 1273. Tempo, S20. Temperatures, list of, Kil. Tenedns, 911. Tenerifle, 1276. Tennessee, 1;162. Tentyia, 1169. Teotihuacan pyramids, 139(>. Tepic, 139!(. Tequendania Fall, 1412. Teranc, 1163. Tcrceira, 1275. Tereboli, 9I'8. Terek, river, 1068, 1069. Termites, 1221. Ternate, 1134. Terni, 6«. Ternovo, H48. Terra del I'uego, 1440. re.sino, 6*J3. Tetuan, 12(!«. Texas, HliO. 'i'exel, 72.-). Ti^zeueo, lake and city, 13',/6. riiales. 23. Theaki, 829. Thebaid, I KM. Thebes (t;reeee), 82.5. (Ksypt), 1170. Thcresio.iol, "35. Tl]erniiae,8l6. Thessalv, 8'iO. Tlieux,'727. Thiancliim fl'* 'nl.ain«, KWt. Tliil)et, ': ■■■ •■ Jarr'S, mountains, ilk s, 1045. , inap of, ivvi Tar- tary, 10-I6. , geology, ' "7. , zoology, 11(17, 1048. — , historu'ai and noli- tlcal geography. IIH"*. — — , ngricultiue, anU mals. mines UM9 . , religion, learning, 10.19, 10.50. , local dl>isions, 1051. Tlilerv 5-i2. TidoiV, 20. Tlilee.ow.ihoo, river, 05, 1.175. Thomas, St., M7I. riicirnliiil, liio. Thorshavn, 704. Thim, li5N. Thunder, 175. Tluirgovfa, 6(>0. Thurso, 472. Tibboot, 1274. Tiberias, Lake, [891], Ticonderago, 1351. Tides, 114 — 120. 187, 188. , high and low water, 116. , spring and neap, 117. , In different scai, 118, 119. Tideswell, 412. Tidorc, li:)4. TIensing, 1042. Tigr<<, 1192. Tillage, a branch of In- dustry, 273. Tilsit, 746. Timbo, 1228. Timbuctc), 63. 1269, 1270. Time, division and equa- tion of, 82, «3. Time, 1271. Timor, 1132. Tin mines in England, 369. TInevelly, inOO. TInghai, 1044. Tiuian, 1535. Tino, 82!*. Tintern Abbey, 423. Tipperarv, .505. Tiree, 47.5. Tirlapuri, 1052. Tishect, 1275. Titii.ca, l.iike, 1422. Tiverto.i, 41''.'. Tivoli, 624. Tjanjor, 1132. Tlisiaia, i:W7. Tl ,.eu, 12<»7. Tobago, 1471. Tobermory, 474. Tobolsk, 1090, 1091. Toekenhurg, 660. Tocrur, .52. Tufoa, 1.531. Togarmah. 9, Tokay, 737. Toledo, 573. Tohi, 1416. Tombs, ancient Egyptian, 1172, 1173. Tongatalioo, 1.534. Tongehou, 1042, Tinigres, 722. Tnngting, Lake, 1044, TonniUKen, 702. Tonipiiii, 1021. Ton^l)el■g, "HO. Toplitz,«91. Tor, 925. Tornadoes, 176. Toro, 576. Toronto, 1320. Torres Vedras, ,592. Torrieelli, Ids experi- ment, 1.59. lorfola, 1471. Tortona, 632. Tor(o\a (Spaiii), 578. ToilcaiTuikev im AslaV ^;|| Toucans, 1297. T( don, .551. Toulouse, 519. Toun);ouska, river, 1075, 'i'ouriiay, 722. Tours, .5)7. Toivcester, 407. Towyn, 432. ToziT, 120H. Trade, home a.'d foreign, 274. Tr.iiie winds, 176. Trafietown. 1229. Trajiiian, 1273. Tralles, 903. Tranqueliar, 1000. TransyUania, 7.37. TrapanI, 641 . Trarshaz, 1227. Traunii.k, 8.50. Travancore, 998. Treasury, first lord of, 356. 'i'rees, English, 331. Trcmecen, 1207. Trent, 690. Trenton, 135,5. Trdres, 096. 'I'rcvlso, 029. Trichinopoll, 9C9, 1000. Trieste, 690. Trig, vl. zirs, nnii'lis, *e., mki, .justice, court, liiiaii- CCS, 841. , niilitarv svstein, tri- butaries, S42; 843, Turkey in Eui culture, mai commerce, W, —~, national religion, 844. , learning male sex, 845 ■^, amiuomei food, 846. , lot-al divis Turk Lake, .506 Turks, 1057. r — 'n Egypt, ] I urnagain. Cap Tursheez, 936. Turukshansk, 1 Tuscaloosa, 136( Tuscanv, 626, 61 Tver, 809. Tweed, river, 43 Twickcniiam, 4( Tycho liralic, tions by, .59. Tynemot'ith, 413 Tyre, 893. — , commerce, Tyrol, 690. Tyrone, 611. Tzitzikar, 1059. U. I'bes, St., .591. I'binsk, 1092. L'ddervalla, 779. Udina, 629. Uist, 476. Ukraine, Polish, Ul llostan, 909. riadi-Kaukas, 10 riadimir, 809. b'lea, 1534. Ulietea, 15.10.: niapool, 472. L'llswater, 420. I'hn, 699. I'ister, aOH. L'lva, 475. I'mbarakat, el, 11 I'mea, 779. Ij'meer, 990. I'nmiebeda, 1272. I'nnner.ipoora, 10! Liiimesogoir, 1272 riiicjrn, 1178. (nieli, 90S. I'nited States of At tlieir extent, di> mountains, river , leap, 1328. > lakes, l.Hll. 1 Keology, i;t.i(| , zoology, 133 , iiistoriial , pliy, 1334— I3;t«. 1 political CO tion, 1336. , judicial pow venue, army, navj — — , agrlcidture, factures, value o (luce, l,t.in. — , commerce, tal I:)39-I314. — . canals, roads — 1:M(!. ^ , population, c tor, 1.110. , religion, lite arts, (vc, I34H. , table ol'states towns, ,\e., 1349. J iiiversitres.Engiis tiikie 'I'unkie, 9113 I' list, 47s. I'nferwalden, 658, l.;pland, 77.5. 777. I psala, 777. tral Mountains, Id I'ranus, 70. I'rgUHKc, 1(102. I'ri, OSS, 650. J ruguay, 1402, I runiea, 136. B INDEX. il stiito, variiius I ilivisiiins, Ksi:. 111 lioiimliiii'N tio.il system, vi. ifiis, .<-r.Hlii. ice, court, Un;m- Turkey In Europe, agrl- culture, mnnufactures, commerce, 843. , national cliaracter, religion, 844. , learnini;, the fe- male aex, 845. ^— , amusement!, dress, food, 840. , luoal divisions, 84C. Turk Lake, HOG. Turks, 1067. — in Egypt, IICO. Turnagain, Cai)e, 1374. Tursliecz, 936. Turuksliansk, 1092. Tuscaloosa, \'i(W. Tuscany, 62(), 027. Tycr, 809. Tweed, rivpr, 438. Twickenham, 4I!6. Tyclio Bralie, observa- tions by, .VJ. Tyncmoiith, 413. Tyre, 81)3. , commerce, 3. Tyrol, 090. Tyrone, 611. Tzitzikar, 1059. U. I'lies, .St., 591. I'blnsk, 1092. Iddervalla, 779. Udina, 029. Uist, 476. Ukraine, Polish, 751. Ul Hostan, 909. riadi-Kaukas, 1009. I'lailimir, 809. Ulea, 1,534. Ulictea, 15,TO.i Illapool, 472. Ullswater, 420. I'liii, 699. Ulster, r,u8. Ulva, 475. Umbarakat, el, 1118. t'mea, 779. t'mcer, 990. I'lnmebeda, 1272. I'mnicr.ipoora, 1020. Uiiimi'sugeir, 1272. Unicorn, 1178. Inic'h, 908. United States of America, tlicir extent, divisions, mountains, rivers, 1327. .map, 1328. , lakes, 1330. , geology, 1330—1832. , zoology, 1332—1334. , historical guugra- phy, 1334—1330. , political constitu- tion, 1336. , judicial power, re- venue, army, Uiivy, 1337. , agriculture, manu- factures, value of pro- duce, 1:138. — , commerce, tables of, I339-13M. — . canals, ro.-ids, 1344 — i:iio. ■^, population, charac- ter, 1310. , religion, literature, arts, \c., 1318. , table olstates,cities, towns, \c., 1349. Unlversitles,Kngl!sh,378. Unkie Tunkie, 9U3. Unst, 178. Unterwalden, 658, 059. Upland, 77.'>. 777. Upsala, 777. Ural Mount.un«, 1004. Uranus, 70. UrgunKC, 11)02. Uri, (158, 059. Uruguay, 1402. Iruniea, 136. Uike, 424. Ulicu, 1354. Utrecht, 726. V. Valsyas, 980. Valali, 067. Valdivia, 1435. Valence, 552. Valencia( Spain), 579. 594. (Colombia), 1410. Valenclana, mine, 1399. Valenciennes, 544. Valetta, la, 642. Valladolld( Spain), 575. (Mexico), 1398. Valparaiso, 1433. Van, 912. Van DIemen's Bay, 1.508. Van DIemen's Land, dis- covery of, 06. , 1.509. , map, 1510. , population, natives, 1511. Vancouver Fort, 1378. Vandalia, 1302. Vanncs, 546. Varesdin, 736. Varieties of man, cauies of, 2.53. Varinas, 1416. : Varna, 848. Vaucluse, 5.50. I Vaud, canton of, 6SC. : Vavaoo, 1534, i Veins, structure of, 218. ; Velez Malaga, ,583. I Venezuela, 1415. I Venice, 629, 030. I Vcnio, 727. Venus, 70. 97. Vera Cruz, 1397, 1398. Veragua, 1416. Vercelli, 032. Verd, Cape, Islands, 1277. Vermont, 1352. Verona, 629. 031. Vertical circles, 74. Verviers, 722. Vesou^ 554. Vespucci, Amerigo, 67. Vesuvius. 600, 601. 036. Vevay, 0.57. Vlatka, 811. Vicente, San, 1462. Vicenza, 029. 031 . Victoria, Fort, 1 134. land. 60. 1375. Vienna, 086—688. Vienne, 551. Vigo, .576. Villa llella. 1)63. i Villa del Principe, 1477. 1 Villa do Principe, 1402. Villa Itica, 1439. 1402. 1 Villa Vicosa, 592. | Vlllach, 090. Vimiero, .592. Vinagre, fail, 1413. Vincennes, 1363. Vincent, 01 . Vincent, St., Cape, 592. Vincent's, St., 1471. Vindhya Mountains, 95,' Virgil, tomb of, 036. Virgin Islands, 1474. Virginia, 13.57. , foundation of, 1336. \ ischney Voloshok, 809. Viseu, .593. Vittoria, 577. Vizerees, 948. Viziapoor, 993. Vizier Kapri, 907. Volcanoes, distribution of, 2IH. , phenomena of, 205. , ejected matters, 200. , kinds of eruption, 208. , periods of activity, '209. Volhynia,75l. Volta, Rio, 1230. Voroneti, 809. Vossius, 61. Vostani, 1164. Vostetza, 816. Vouchang, 1044. Voyages, ancient, 10. W. Waal, river, 708. Wadyel Hadjar, 1182. Wagram, 688. Wahabltes, 920. Wah, el, 1176. Waju, 1133. WakeHeld, 416. Walcayt, 1194. Walchercn, 720. Waldcck-Pyrmont, 704. Waldubba, 1194. Wales, geology c.', 310. , description of, 430, &c. , North, 430, 431. , South, 4,'3. Wales, New South, 1373. , lakes. &c., 1373. Wallachla, 849. Wallcnstadt, Lake of, 660. Wallich, Dr., 957. Walsall, 410. Wandipore, 1002. Wanlockhead, 460. Wara, 1274. Warangol, 994. Wardliuus, 782. Wardour Castle, 392. VVarmeland, 775, 770. Warre, 1'232. Warrington, 418. Warsaw, 749. Wartha, river, 747. Warwick, 408. Castle, 409. Washington, 1358. Washington (In Missis- sippi), 1303. . Washington I8land8,1.532. Washington, Mount,l327. Water, its substance, re- lation, composition, 177. — , mechanical destroy- ing effects of, '200. ^^, freezing of, 201. , chemical destroying effects of, 201. mechanical forming effects of, 202. .^— , chemical forming effects of, 203. Waterfalls, 197. Waterford, 505, Waves, phenomena of, 185. Wawa, 1267. \Vearmouth,413. Weddell, 66. Wedgwood ware, 410. Wednesbury, 410. Weimar, 703. Weissemburg, 5.54. Wellington, 423. Wellington Island, 1444. Wells, 4'26. Wells on dew, 107. Wels, 088. Welshpool, 432. Wcner, 775, 776. Wenersburg, 7'i9. I Wentworth House, 417. I Wcrra,005. I Wesor, 065. I Westeriis, 776. ; Western Port, 1506. Western States of Amc- i rica, settlement ol',1337. Western territory of 1 United States, 1300. I West Indies, 1403. I — , map, 1464. — — , general description, I I4i;4. I 1575 West Indies, geology, 146.5. , botany, 1466. , zoology, 1471. — , historical and poli- tical geography, 1471. , culture of sugar, coffee, &c., 1471. , population, loclal state, 1472. , table of population, produce, &c., of each Island, 1473. Westmeath, 504. Westminster, 398. Westmoreland, county, 420. West noreland A astra- lia), 1.505. Westphalla,PrusslaD,694. Wetter, 775. Wexford, 604. Weymouth, 391. Whalley, 418. Wheeling, 1358. Whidah, 1231. Whirlpools, 187. Whitby, 41.5. Whitehaven, 421. Wiborg (Denmark), 702. Wiborg (Finland), 806. Wick, 472. WIcklow, .503. WIddIn, 849. Wieliczca salt mines, 747 . Wigan, 418. Wight, Isle of, 389. Wight, Dr., 957. WIgton, 401. William, Fort, 470. Williamshohe, 702. Wilmington, 1355. Wilna, 750. Wilton, 391. House, 392. Wiltshire, 391. WInchelsea, 387. Winchester, 389. Wind, velocity of, 177. , force of, 177. Winds, 170. Windsor (England), 387. Windsor (United States), 1352. Windsor (Australia), 150,5. Winncbah, 1230. Winnipeg, Lake, and I country round, 1373. Wirtembcrg, 078, 079. , local description, ! 098. I Wisbeach, 395. Witepsk, 751 . Wittenberg, 694, Wlodimir, 751. Woahoo, 1524. Woburn, 407. Wofila, 1193. V'ojjerat, 1193. Wolverhampton, 410. Woodio, 1204. Woods, Lake of the, 1309. Woodstock, 407. Wookiy Hole, 426. ; Woollen manufacture In i England, 305,306. Woolii, l'228. Woolwich, ,S92. ! Woon, 992. j Woordaun, 1163. ; Worcester (England), I 4'24. i Worcester (U. States), 1 1351. Worcestershire, 421. Workington, 421 . Worksop, 412, Worms, 702. Wrangel, 62. Wrath, Cape, 472. Wrexham, 432. Wright, 1,53. 1576 INDEX. i X. Yanl Shehr, 903. Zam*hl, 1268. Zelaya, 1399. Zemben, 1193. Xalspa, IMS. Yeniwi, river, 1075. 1092. Yeou, river, I2M. Zambeie, I3ft2. Zambor, 73ft. i ■ Zenderood, river, 937. Y. Yeid,938. Zamf^a, 1266. Zenith, 7.1. Yablonnjr Mountaini, Y«idlkhait,93A. Zamora, IV76. Zerrah. Lake, 948, 049 1014. 1093. Ynnne, river, AI6. ZamoM, 7B0. Zeyla, i2Aft. VaKouat, im. York (England), 4 IK. York (Brltlih America), Zaneiville, 1363. Zhehol, 1059. Yakoiitea, 1090. Zangela, 1266. Zlerikaee, 726. YakouUk, 1003. 1321. Zanguebar, 1254. Zante, 829. Zirkniti. Lake, 690. YanI, ins. York(U. Statei), 13A3. ZIrmIe, 1266. Yaoori, 1267. York, Fort, 1372. Zanilbar. 12A4. Zittku, TOl. Yaotcheoufoo, 1043. York, New, 1348. Zaria, 1266. Zlaciow. 748. Yapura, 1463. Yorkihire, 414. Zea, 816. Znaym, 692. Zodiacal light, 176. Yarkund, 1061. Youri, 1267. Zealand, 72ft. Yarmouth, Sno. 303. 1323. YprSi, 722. Zealand (Denmark), 761 . Zone*, 80. Y arriba, 1368. Yuel, river, 708. Zealand, New, Ifil2. Zoolaa, 12M. Year, tropical, aidereal. Yitadt, 778. , character of people. Zubaran, 1176. Julian, Uuratlle or Yumlla, 100ft. 1613,1514. Zug, 6A9. Zufla, 127S. leap. M. Yunan, 1043. , diKovery of, 66. Yeh, 1018. Yuthia, 1020. , coloniaatlon of, 1 ftl ft. Zumpango, Lake, 1306 Zurich, 659, 660. Yell, 47a Yverdun, 662. — , local deUlli, lftl6. VelloWitone Rlrer, I3(!4. Zebu, II3S. Zutphen, 726. Yemlw, 93S. Z. Zegteg, 1266. Zertounl, 826. Zwellendam, 12S0. Yemen, 9SI. 926. Zacatecai, 1399. Zwoll, 726. ■ » THR END. London : Printed by A. SpoTTiiwoonR, New. Street- Square. 3!W. mJ, river, 937. r». lAke, 948, 949 lAA. I(V>9. e, 7M. , Lake, 690. 1266. H)l. .74«. I light, 175. to. lano. 1, 1176. >. «8. ISO, Lake, 1306. 6M>,06U. n,7!26. idam, ISM. 726.