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' ■' ■ .'^ GENERAL SKETCH EUROPEAN HISTORY. v, -h \ i ■f 'I / rl I < 1 t,r."| Jrii 546 Poems of Theognis of Megara 044 Babylon taken by Cyrus 568 Hippias driven out of Athens 510 The Tarquinii driven out of Rome 510 Battle of Marath6n 490 Battles of Thermopylai and Salamis 480 Battles of Plataia and Mykaia 476 Confederacy under Athens 477 Leadership of Perikl6s at Athens 444-469 Early Greek Dramatic Poets 476-388 B^[inning of the Peloponnesian War 431 Thucydidas, fl C. 431-411 Xenophdn, fl C. 410-669 Athenian expedition against Syracuse 415 Defeat of the Athenians 416 Dionysios I., Tyrant of Syracuse 406-667 Battle of Aigos-potamos 405 Government of the Thirty at Athens .,.,•• 404 Deliverance of Athens by Thrasyboulos . . . • • 406 Veii taken by CamiUus 686 ?; " . •if I- ! df CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, B.& BattlevOf the AUia ; flome taken by the Gauls . . . %90 Spartan Campaigns in Asia Minor 309-894 Corinthian War 804 Peaceof Antalkidas 887 Kadmeia of Thebes taken by the Spartans .... 888 The Spartans driven out of Thebes ; leadership of Pelo- pidas7 First Samnite War 343 LatinWar 340 Battle of Chair6neia 338 Alexander the Great, King of Macedonia 386 Thebes destroyed by Alexander 335 BatUe of the Granikos 334 Battle of Issos 833 Foundation of Alexandria 338 Battle of Arbaia 831 Second Samnite War 896 Death of Alexander 308 TheLamianWar 393 Submission of Athens to Antipatros 398 Beginning of Kingdom of Pergamos ....•• 380 Agathokles, Tyrant of Syracuse C. 310-886 Battle of Ipsos • • *®* Third Samnite War • 333-990 Pyrrhos, King'of Epeiros • • *** D6m6trios PoliorkSt6s, King of Macedonia . . • • *®* War between Pyrrhos and the Romans . . . • • *®* Gaulish Invasion of GreeQe-fw4 Macedonia , ^ • *^^ 186 30I k90 195 194 181 19Q CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. ^ B.& Renral of tbs Achaian League "* 880 Gaulish Settlement in Asia 879 Battle of Beneventum 878 Death of Pyrrhos at Argos 878 Hierdn II., King of Synunise 870-818 FirstPunicWar 864-841 Sikydn joins the Achaian League 851 Rise of the Parthian Dynasty 850 Aratosy General of the Acludan League . • . . • 847 Hamilcar Barcas, General of the Carthaginians . . 845 KleomenSs, King of Sparta 886 War between Rome and lUyria 889 War between Sparta and the Achaian League . . . 887 Corinth given up to Antigonos D6sdn 888 Battle of Sellasia 881 Death of KleomenSs 881 Hannibal, General of the Carthaginians 881 The Confederate War 880-817 Second Punic War 818 The Scipios in Spain 818-806 Battle of Lake Trasimene 817 Battle of Cannse 816 First Macedonian War . 813-805 Publius Cornelius Scipio in Africa 806-801 Philopoim^n, General of the Achaian League . . . 808 Battle of Zama 808 Second Macedonian War 800 Battle of Kynoskephal6 197 Defeat of Antiochos the Great at Thermopylai . . . 191 Roman Conquest of Cisalpine Gaul 191 Defeat of Antiochos at Magnesia 191 Roman Conquest of JEtolia. 189 Polybios, fL C. 188-146 ThUrd Macedonian War - . . . . 171 The Lykian League. 168 Battle of Pydna 168 Third Punic War 149 Fourth Macedonian War 149 Macedonia becomes a Roman Province • • • • • 148 IVl CHROmtOGICAL TABLE. *•' . B.e. Ourthage taken by the Romans 140 War between Rome and Achaia ; destruction of Corinth 146 Attabs bequeaths Pergamos to the Romans .... \%% Roman Conquest of Numantia 193 Tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus 199 l^irst Roman Province in Transalpine Gaul .... las Tribunate of Caius Gracchus 1S3 Jugurthine War 111-106 Invasion of Gaul by Cimbri and Teuton6s .... lOO Caius Marius, Consul 107 Defeat of the Teutones at Aquae Sextis lOfl Defeat of the Cimbri at Vercellse lOl The Social War OO Civil War between Marius and Sulla 88-8S First Mithridatic War 88 Battles of Chaironeia and Orchqjnenos ..... 87 Dictatorship of Sulla Second Mithridatic War Roman Conquest of Syria . Jerusalem taken by Pr ipeius • • Conquests of Caesar in Gaul • • S8-51 Caesar's Invasions of Britain 55-54 Parthian Expedition and Death of Crassus . . • • 54-53 Civil War of Pompeius and Caesar ....•• ^8 Defeat of Pompeius at Pharsalos • • 48 Perpetual Dictatorship of Caesar • • 45 Death of Caesar • • Second Civil War • • Battle of Philippi - 48 War between Caesar and Antonius • 38 Battle of Aktion 31 Title of Augustus taken by Caesar 87 B^;inniing of the Roman Empire .....*• 87 Campaigns of Drusus and Tiberius in Germany • • • 11-8 'A.D. Defeat of Varus by Arminius • • 8 Tiberius, Emperor •• 14 Gmipaigns of Germanicos ••••••••. 15-18 %t - ''• B.e. 146 146 !•• !•• las 1-106 106 167 106 161 60 18-66 66 67 46 46 66 61^ c67 67 11-6 'A.D. 6 14 15-16 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. ^ x^ A.IX CftUgnla, Emperor 67 Claudius, Emperor 41 Claudius in Britain Nero, Emperor Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Emperors 68-66 Revolt of Civilis . 66-70 Destruction of Jerusalem 70 Vespasian, Emperor 70 Domitian 76 Titus 81 Final Conquest of Britain by Agricola 84 DacianWar 86 Nerva 66 Trajan 68 Hadrian 117 Antoninus Pius , 166 Marcus Aurelius 161 Commodus 180 Septimius Severus 163 Antoninus Caracalla 611 Alexander Severus 666 Sassanid Dynasty in Persia 666 Valerian 656 Gallienus 660 Kingdom of Palmyra 661 Claudius II &08 Defeats of the Goths by Claudius 666-&70 Aurelian, Emperor 670 Overtlirow of the Kijigdom of Palmyra 876 Diocletian, Emperor -, , . 284 Maximian, joint Emperor with Diocletian .... 666 Abdications of Diocletian and Maximian 305 Constantine the Great (sole Emperor) 363 Foundation of Constantinople . 364 Council of Nikaia 365 Constantius (sole Emperor) 350 Campaigns of Julian in Gaul 356-360 Julian, Emperor 360-366 if \ : ' ;.• I XfiA CRROl^OLOGICAL TABLE. The Goths cross the Danube . . • Battle of Hadrianople Tbcodoshis the Great (sole Emperor) Arcadius and Honorius .... Alaric in Italy Stilicho defeats Alaric Rome taken by Alaric The Roman Li^ons leave Britain . Banning of the Gothic Kingdom in Spain Settlement oi the Vandals in Africa English Conquest o£ Britain . . . Deftat of Attila at Chilons . . . Majorian, Emperor in the West . . Reunion of the Empires under 2^no Odoacer governs Italy as Patrician . Reign of Theodoric in Italy . . . Justinian, Emperor Chosroes or Nushirvan, King of Persia Campaigns of Belisacxus in Africa Italy recovered by Belisarius and Nars6s Lombard Settlements in Italy . Birth of Mahomet Maurice, Emperor ..... Chosroes Parviz, King of Persia Conversion of the English . . Phokas, Emperor B^;inning of Mahomet's Mission Heraclius, Emperor .... Campaigns of Chosroes . . . Heraclius overthrows the Persian power Death of Mahomet; Abu-Bekr Cahph Saracen Conquest of Syria . Saracen Conquest of Persia . Saracen Conquest of Egypt . Saracen Conquest of Africa . First Siege of Constantinople Carth^e taken by the Saracens Saracen Conquest of Spain . , and Ganl A. a •7e S78 ao« ••5 40A 40S 410 410 414 489 449-547 4S1 467-461 476 476 4.^93-596 597-565 531 534 536-554 568 569 588 590 897-681 609 609 610 611-615 693-698 639 639-639 639-651 638 647-709 673 698 710-713 ''f CffROmiOGtCAL TA^LE, sk A.D. 716 717 7aa Second Siege of Coustantinople Leo the Isaurian, Emperor Iconoclast Controversy in Italy Battle of Tours ; defeat of the Saracens by CharleA Martel 7«fl Constantine Kopr6nymos, Emperor 741-775 Pippin, King of the Franks 758 End of the Ommiad Dynasty at Damascus .... 750 Abd-al>rahman founds the Ommiad Dynasty in Spain . 755 ITie Saracens driven out of Gaul 755 Charles the Great overthrows the Lombard Kingdom 774 Deposition of Constantine VI 797 Charles the Great, Emperor of the West .... 800 Ecgberht, King of the West-Saxons 80fi-887 Lewis the Pious, Emperor 814 Saracen Conquest of Crete 888 Saracen Conquest of Sicily 887-878 Treaty of Verdun 848 Alfred, King of the West-Saxons 871 The Macedonian Emperors in the East .... 867-1088 Paris besieged by the Northmen 885 Division of the Karolingian Empire 887 Settlement of Rolf in Gaul 913 Edward the Elder, Lord of all Britain 984 Otto the Great crowned Emperor 968 Otto the Second, Emperor 978 Otto the Third, Emperor 988 Mahometan Invasion of India 1001-1086 Danish Conquest of England 1013-1016 Cnut, King of all England 1017-1035 Edward the Confessor 1048 Conrad II King 1084,* Emperor 1097 End of the Ommiad Dynasty in Spain . . . . . 1031 Union of Burgundy with the Empire 1038 * In the case of the Western Emperors the first date is that of election and ooronation as King or, in the case of a King crowned in Kis father's life tiqie, his accession as sole King ; the second date is that of his coronation as Bfliperar. b % ,_,; ■j.:4i^fSilg TCk CBkOtfOLOGtCAL TABlJL 1 ^Hftft° ■ H ^R ^^^^ft^ 1 ^HHit ■ , i ■\ H , 1 ' ^IH> ^H^v ' ) '■ ' ' ' ^ ^^K • ^BIb ' • mmt . ' r ^^HR. . ' I ■ r , ns ' ■ ^■^B ^^^■r W^m, ^Iv Wmm ■V'S ; ' ^H ■ ■ • Hi^ ^Hvteh ^ Henry III King loao, Emperor lOAm Rise of the Seljuk Turks 1035 Togrel Beg helps the Caliph AI Kayem against the Dilemitcs 1055 Henry IV King 105e,£n^ror 1084 Norman Conquest of Sicily 1060.1000 Battle of Senlac 1065 Battle of Manzikert 1071 Revolt of the Saxons against Henry W 1075 Henry IV. at Canosa 1077 Alfbnso of Leon takes Toledo 1084 Dynasty of the Almoravides in Spain 1087 Division of the Seljuk Empire ....... 1099 Council of Clermont 1095 The First Crusade 1096 Jerusalem taken by the Crusaders 1099 Henry I.» King of England 1100-1135 Henry V King 1106,Emperor 1111 Alfbnso of Aragon takes Zaragoza 1118 John Komnlnos, Eastern Emperor .... 1118-1143 The Concordat of Worms 1138 Norman Kingdom of Sicily 1130 Lothar of Saximy .... King 1135,Emperor 1133 Conrad III., I«;ing 1138 Manuel Komrinos, Easfsm Emperor . . . • • 1143 The Almohade Dynasty in Spain ....•• 1145 The Second Crusade • • "47 Henry II. of England ll»4 Frederic Barbarossa . . . King 115fl,Emperor 1155 The Lombard League ^ . . . . 1167 Conquest of Ireland 1171 Saladin overthrows the Fatimite Dynasty .... 1171 Manuel, Eastern Emperor, defeated bv the Turks . . 1176 Philip Augustus, King of France • 1180 Peace of Constanz 1183 Saladin takes Jerusalem 1187 Henry VI Kingll90, Emperor 1191 CsNKittest of Sicily by Henry VI 1194 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. xA A.D. Battle of Alarcos I19A John, King of England !!•• ' 'Alliance between the Crusaders and Venetiai.3 . , . iflOl First Latin Siege and taking of Constantinople . . lAOS Second Latin Conquest of Constantinople .... ia04 Theodore Laskar6s, Emperor of Nikaia ^ • . . Ifl04 Imrasion of the Moguls under Jenghi2 Khan . . . 1&06 Crusade against the Albigenses Ifl08 Battle of Tolosa laia James the Conqueror, King of Aragon . . . Ifll3-lfl76 Battle of Bouvines iai'4 The Great Charter granted by John 1815 Henry III., King of England iai6-ia7fl Ferdinand IIL, King of Castile iai7-l&5B Frederick II King IfilS, Emperor laao John Vatatzgs, Emperor of Nikaia laaa Mogul Invasion of Persia laaa Saint Lewis of France !»«• Frederick II. crowned King of Jerusalem .... laas The County of Toulouse joined to ^ti'rance .... laaa Ferdinand III. unites Castile and Leon laso The Teutonic Order conquers Prussia . . . ia30-ia60 Kingdom of Granada ia37 Rise of Uie Ottoman Turks ia40 Battle of Lignitz 1841 Jerusalem taken by the Chorasmians 184-4 First Crusade of St. Lewis of France 1848 Death of Frederick II. Conrad IV., King . . . 1850 End of the Swabian Dynasty . 1854 The Interregnum 1854-1873 Manfred, King of Sicily 1858 End of the Bagdad Caliphate 1858 Michael Palaiolc^os, Eastern Emperor 1859 Recovery of Constantinople 1861 Battle of Evesham 1865 Dante bom 1865 Conquest of Sicily by Charles of Anjou . . . * . 1866 Qii^ory X., Pope ...«..,••,•• 1871 ■K*! Wi ■ ' 1 1 1 : 1 i' : ■i ■^ 1' ■ ' ' '. 1 [| *ii p 4 '-W '. , ; 1 1 j| K ;l..' . \ ' ■ nU CHRONOtOGTCAL TABLE. A.D. Edward T., King of Englatid , ifl7fl Rudolf of Habsburg, King ],fi73.ia9A The Sicilian Vespers '. . lasft Wales united to Ehgland lasa Albert, Duke of Austria 1888 Genoese Defeat of the Pisans oiT Mcloria .... 1884 Acre taken by the Mahometans 1881 Beginning of the Swiss League 1881 Adolf, King 1888 Albert I., King 1888 Battle of Courtray 1308 Boniface VIII., Pope 1884-1808 Clement v., Pope 180A Edward II., King of England 1307 Popes at Avignon 1308 Robert, King of Naples 1308 Henry VII King 1308, Emperor 1318 Lewis of. Bavaria .... King 1814, Emperor 1388 PhiMp the Fair annexes Lyons to France .... 1314 Battle of Mortgarten 1315 Edward III., King of England 1387 Independence of Scotland . ^ 1388 First P&ssage of the Turks into Europe . . 134-1-1347 Lewis, King of Hungary 1348 Jane I., Queen of Naples 1343 Battle of Crecy 1346 Rienxji at Rome 1347 Dauphiny of Vienne becomes an appanage of France . 1348 Charles IV King 1346, Emperor 135^ The Golden Bull 1356 Battle of Poitiers .* 1356 Peace of Bretigny 1360 Philip of Valois, Duke of Burgundy 1361 Hadrianople taken by the Turks 1361 Battle of Najara 1366 Rise of Timour 1370 Return of the Popes to Rome 1376 Beginning of the Great Schism • • « • . . . 1378 etnONOLOGKAL TABLE, B^ginniog of the War of ChioggU \mf% Timour conquen Persia lS80.ia9a John the Great, King of Portugal 1S86 Battle of Sempach ISSe Union of Poland and Lithuania !••• Bajazet, Sultan of the O^omans 1989 Gian Galeazzo Visccnti, Duke of Milan 1S95 Victory of Bajazet at Nikopolis 1S98 The Union of Calmar 1S97 Bajazet defeated by Timour at Angora 140S John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy 1404 Death of Timour 140A Pisa becomes subject to Florence 1406 Sicily united to Aragon 1409 Council of Pisa 1409 Sigismund King i410,£mperor 143S Henry v., King of England 1418 Battle of Agincourt 1418 Council of Constanz 1415 John Huss burned 1415 Alfonso v., King of Aragon 1418 Jane II., Queen of Naples 1419 Philip the Good; Duke of Burgundy . . . . . 1419 Henry V. takes Rouen 1419 Treaty of Troyes 1480 Amurath II., Sultan 1481 Siege of Constantinople ,. 1498 Council of Basel 1431 Treaty of Arras 1435 Council of Florence " 1439 Frederick IIL , King 1440, Emperor 1459 Battle of St. Jacob near Basel \444 BatUe of Varna 1444 Death of Filippo Maria Visconti, Duke of Milan . . 1447 Christian I., King of Denmark Constantino Palaiologos, Eastern Emperor .... Francesco Sforza Duke of Milan •••...• 1480 Mahomet II., Sultan • • . • • 1451 1 ^ t»v CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, A.D. End of the Hundred Years' War ]4a3 The Turks take Constantinople 1458 Wars of York and Lanca$;er 1455-1465 John Huniades drives back the Turks from Beljj^r.ide . 1456 Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary 1458 Mahomet II. conquers the Empire o^^rebizond . . 1481 Casimir IV., King of Poland, wins West Prussia from the Teutonic Knights 1488 Union of Castile and Aragon 1471 Ivan Vasilovich frees Russia from the Moguls . . . 1477 Discovery of the Cape of Good Hope 1488 Conquest of Granada 1498 Christopher Columbus discovers America .... 1492 Charles VIII. of France enters Italy 1494 Florence gets rid of the Medici ....... 1494 Pisa regains her liberty 1494 Lewis XII. of France conquers the Duchy of Milan. 1500 Shah Ismael, first Sophi of Persia 1501 Ferdinand of Spain and Sicily conquers Naples . . 1504 League of Cambray 1508 Maximilian I. takes the title of Emperor-elect . . , 1508 Henry VIT" King of England 1*09 Pope Julius II. forms the Holy League 1511 Ferdinand conquers Navarre 1518 Battle of Ravenna 1519 The Medid return to Florence 1518 Selim the Inflexible, Sultan 1*^* Germany divided into Circles 1518 Christian II., King of Denmark and Norway . . . 1513 Francis I., King of France 1515 Battle of Marignano 1515 Charles v., (I.) King of Spain l»l« Beginning of the Reformation 1517 Charles V. elected Emperor 1519 Ulrich Zwingli preaches at Ziirich 1519 Christian II. of Denmark becomes King of Norway . 1580 Mexico conquered by Hernando Corter .... 1519-21 Suleiman the I^awgiver, Sultan • • 1580 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. A.O. Suleimaii takes Belgrade 15S| War between Charles V. and Francis 1 1581 Luther before the Diet of Woims 15S1 Knights of St John* driven out of Rhodes .... 15flS Gustavus Vasa, King of Sweden ISftS Frederick I., King of Denmark and Norway . . . 15fl3 Battle of Pavia 1525 Foundation of* the Duchy of Prussia 15^5 Lewis II. of Hungary killed at the Battle of Mohacs 15&6 Baber, Emperor of Hindostan 1506 Sack of Rome by the Imperialists 1527 The Medici driven out of Florence ...... 1527 Peace of Cambray . . . . b 1529 Diet of Speyer 152P Sultan Suleiman besides Vienna 1529 Charles V. crowned Emperor 1530 Fall of Florence ... 1530 Confession of Augsburg 1530 The Portuguese colonize Brazil 1531 The Smalcaldic League 1531 Death of Zwingli 1531 Peru conquered by Francisco Pizarro .... 1532-1536 Ivan IV. (the Terrible), Czar of Russia 1533 Duke Charles of Savoy besieges Geneva .... 1534 The Society of Jesus founded by Ignatius Loyola . . 1540 Mary, Queen of Scots 1542 Nizza besieged by the Turks 1543 Council of Trent 1545 Death of Luther . 1546 Henry II. of France 1547 Edward VI. of England . 1547 Henry II. of France seizes the Three Bishopricks. . 1552 Mary, Queen of England . 1553 The Fall of Sienna , . 1555 Abdication of Charles V . 1555 Peace of Augsburg . 1555 Philip II. of Spain 1556 Akbar, Emperor of Hindostan . 1556 I BCVl CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. h A.D. Cosmo de' Medici, Duke of Fl v-ence, gets possession of Sienua , 1557 Battles of St. Quentin and Gravelines 1557 The French take Calais 1558 Elizabeth, Queen of England 1558 Peace of CEteau-Cambresis 1559 Francis II. of France 1559 Frederick II. of Denmark and Norway 1559 Charles IX. of France 1560 Death of Gustavus Vasa 1560 Religious Wars in France begin 1558 First French Settlement of Carolina 1568 Cyprus taken by the Turks 1571 Battle of Lepanto 1571 Massacre of Sahit Bartholomew 1578 The Polish Crown becomes purely elective . . . , 1573 Henry III. of France 1574 Philip II. annexes I ortugal to Spain 1580 Charles Emmanuel, Duke of Savoy 1580 Uioion of the Seven Provinces 1581 Death of William the Silent 1584 Sir Walter Raleigh founds the Colony of T^ginia . 1585 Mary of Scotland beheaded 1587 Philip II. sends the Armada against England . . . 1588 Christian IV. of Denmark and Norway 1588 Henry IV. of France 1589 End of the Dynasty of Ruric in Russia 1589 Philip III. of Spain 1598 Treaty of Lyons 1601 James I. of England 1603 Jehangir, Emperor of Hindostan 1605 Lewis XIII. of France 1610 Expulsion of the Moriscos from Spain . . . • • 1610 Union of Prussia and Brandenburg 1611 Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden 1611 Beginning of the Romanoff Dynasty in Russia • • 1613 Beginning of the Thirty Years' War 1618 philip IV. of Spain , • • • 1681 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, xxtB A.D. Massacre of Amboyna 10&8 Cfari^an IV. of Denmark Head of the Protestant League 16fi5 Charles I. of England 16fl5 Sliah Jehan, Emperor of Hindostan 16ft7 Gustavus AdolphusI Head of the Protestant League . 1630 Battle of Liitzen 1632 Christina, Queen of Sweden 163S Ferdinand III., Emperor 1637 B^;inning of the Dynasty of Braganza in Portugal • 1639 English Settlement at Madras 1640 Lewis XIV. of France 1643 War of Candia 1645 Peace of Westphalia , . . 1648 Charles I. of England beheaded 1649 Oliver Cromwell, Protector of England 16S3 Prussia independent of Poland 1657 Death of Oliver CromweU 1658 Leopold I. Emperor 1658 Annmgzebe, Emperor of Hindostan 1658 Peace of the Pyrenees 1659 Restoration of Charies II. of England 1660 Treaties of Oliva and Copenhagen 1660 Denmark becomes an absolute Monarchy .... 1660 Charles IL seUs Dunkirk to Lewis XIV 1663 War between England and the United Provinces 1664«1667 The Plague of London 1665 The Great Fire of London 1666 J^ewis XIV. conquers Franche Comt^ and part of Flanders 1667 The Triple Alliance against Lewis XIV 1668 The Turks take Candia 1669 WilUamin., Stadholder 1679 John Sobieski, King of Poland 1674 Peace of Nimwegen 1678-1679 Lewis XIV. seizes Strassbui^ 1681 Sweden becomes an absolute Monarchy 1689 ^e Turks beside Vienna ^ 1689 xinffl CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. ' A.D. Lewis XrV. revokes the Edict of Nantes .... 1685 James II. of England 1685 The Hungarian Crown becomes hereditary . , , , 1687 Lewis XIV. seizes Avignon 1688 William and Mary, King and Queen of England . . 1689 Peter the Great, sole Emperor of Russia .... 1689 Russian Conquest of Azof 1696 Peace of Ryswick , 1697 Charles XII., King of Sweden . 1697 Augustus the Strong, King of Poland ..... 1697 English Settlement at Calcutta 1698 Peace of Carlowitz 1699 Battle of Narva 1700 War of the Spanish Succession 1700 Frederick I., first King of Prussia 1701 Anne, Queen of England 1708 Stanislaus, King of Poland 1704 Gibraltar taken by the English . . ^ 1704 Joseph I., Emperor 1705 Union of England and Scotland 1707 B^nnii^ of ''the East India Company 1708 Charles VI^, Emperor 1711 Treaty of Utrecht 1713 Victor Amadeus II. of Savoy, King of Sicily . . , 1713 Frederick William I., King of Prussia 1714 George I. of England 1714 Lewis XV. of Franc." . ..*..,. 1715 War between Austria and Turkey 1715 The Turks win back Peloponn€sos from Venice . . 1715 Jacobite Rebellion in England 1715 Peace of Passarowitz . . 1718 Death of Charles XII 1718 Quadruple Alliance against Spain 1718 Victor Amadeus II., King of Sardinia 1720 The Pragmatic Sanction 1790 Mahmoud I., Sultan 1730 War of the Polish Election 1733 Fcace of Belgrade • 1739 CBROmiOGICAL TABLE, A.D. Maria Theresa, Queen of Hungary 17 AO Frederick II. (the Great) of Prussia 1740 Frederick conquers Silesia 1740 War of the Austrian Succession 1741-174>8 Charles VII., Emperor 1742 Francis I., Emperor 1745 Second Jacobite Rebellion . 1745 Battle of Culloden 1746 William IV. Hereditary Stadholder 1747 The Seven Years' War 1756 Suraj>ad-dowla takes Calcutta 1756 Battle of Plassey 1757 English Conquest of Canada 1759 George IIL of England 1760 The Family Compact » • 1761 Catharine II., Empress of Russia" 1762 Russian conquest of Crim Tartary 1762 Peace of Paris 1763 Joseph II., Emperor 1765 Annexation of Lorraine to France 1766 Annexation of Corsica to France 1768 First Partition of Poland • • 1772 Abolition of the Society of Jesus ' • 1773 Peace of Kainardji • • 1774 Lewis XVI. of France 1774 Revolt of the American Colonies 1775 Declaration of Independence 1776 Independence of Ireland 1782 Convocation of States-General in France .... 1788 Constitution of the United States ...,,.. 1780 Selim HI., Sultan 1789 Leopold II., Emperor 1790 Francis II., Emperor 1792 National Convention in France 1792 Treaty of Jassy .....,.,..,. 1792 Wars of the French Revolution 1793.1815 Second Partition of Poland , ^ 1793 Execuiiou of Lewis XVL • , 1793 CHRONOLOGICAL TABL&, Third Partition of Poland Batavian Republic \ » Paul, Emperor of Russia ...... Helvetic Republic Battle of the Nile Union of Great Britain and Ireland . . Alexander, Emperor of Russia .... Peace of Lunevill^ Peace of Amiens Napoleon Buonaparte, Emperor of the French Buonaparte, King of Italy Battle of Austerlitz Peace of Pressburg Battle of Trafalgar Francis 11. resigns the Imperial Crown . Battle of Jena Peace of Tilsit • • Mahmoud II. Sultan The Peninsular War begins . . • . • Battle of Wagram Revolt of the Spanish Colonies in America French Invasion of Russia War between England and the United States Battle of Leipzig First Peace of Paris Abdication of Napoleon Buonaparte . . Congress of Vienna Return of Buonaparte . Battle of Waterloo Second Peace of Paris The German Confederation Greek War of Independence . . . ^ . Separation of Brazil from Portugal . • Charles X. of France Nicholas, Emperor of Russia . . • • Battle of Navarino War between Russia and Turkey . . . French Revolution of July Separation of Belgium from the Netherlands A.D. 1795 1796 1798 1798 1800 1801 1801 1808 1804 1805 1805 1805 1805 1806 1806 1807 1807 1808 1809 1810 1819 1813-1815 1813 1814 1814 1815 1815 1815 1815 1821 1829 1824 1825 1827 1828 1830 1830 : ^-.^ CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. A.D. Insurrection in Central Italy 1831 Polish RevoIuUon 1831 CivU War in Spain , . . . ' 1833 Independence of Egypt 1841 Pins IX., Pope 1846 War of the Sonderbund in Switzerland 1847 Fiederick VII. of Denmark 1848 Second French Republic 1848 Louis Napoleon Buonaparte, President .yi . , , 1848 First War of Independence in Italy 1848 War of Sleswick and Holstein 1848 Swiss Federal Constitution 1848 Battle of Novara 1849 Victor Emmanuel II., King of Sardinia 1849 Fall of Rome and Venice 1849 French Republic destroyed by Louis Napoleon Buona- parte. 1851 Buonaparte caUs himself Emperor 1858 The Crimean War 1854-1856 Alexander II., Emperor of Russia 1855 Indian Mutiny 1857 Freedom of Lombardy 1859 Garibaldi frees Sicily and Naples ....... I860 Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy 1861 Secession War in America 1861 Polish Revolt 1863 Battle of Konigsgratz 1866 Sleswick and Holstein joined to Prussia . .... 1866 France declares war against Prussia ..••.. 1870 Battle of Sedan ^ l670 Rome /the Capital of Italy , , 1870 William I. of Prussia, German Emperor • • . , 1877. Surrender of Paris 1871 Peace of Frankfurt \ 1871 c A GENERAL SKETCH or EUROPEAN HISTORY. CHAPTER I. ORIGIN OF THE NATIONS. Different nations of the world {\) — difference between East and West (2) — the Aryan nations (3) — connexion among their languages {^ — ainoimt of progress madi by them before their dispersion (4) — their advances in religion and government (5) — the Semitic nations (6) — their religious influence on the world (6) — the Tu- ranian and other Non-Aryan nations (7) — their extent in Asia (7) — traces of them in Europe (7) — movements of the Aryans in Europe and Asia {^—geographical shape of Europe {c^)—the three great peninstdas (lo) — advance of the successive Aryan swarms (11) — the Greeks and Italians (11,12 ) — the Celts ( 1 2) — the Teutons (13) — the Slaves and Lithuanians ( 14) — later Turanian settlements in Europe j Hungarians and Turks ^14) — different degrees of importance among the Aryans of Europe {i^—Rome the central point of all European History (i) — Division of periods before and after the Roman Dominion (16). I. Different Aspects of History.— The history of the various nations of mankind may be looked at in many and very different ways ; and the importance } ^rlf^' r* ^"^ *3»'^ ORIGIN OF THE NATIONS. [CHAP. of difTerent parts of history varies widely according to the way in which they are looked at. One who wishes to trace out the history of religion, or of language, or of manners and customs, will often find as much that is useful for his purpose among savage nations, who have played no important part in the world, as among the most famous and civilized people. But researches of this sort cannot be put together into a continuous tale ; they are not history strictly so called. By history in the highest sense we understand the history of those nations which have really influenced one another, so that their whole story, from the beginning to our own time, forms one tale, of which, if we wholly leave out any part, we cannot rightly understand what fol- lows it. Such a history as this is found only in the history of the chief nations of Europe, and of those nations of Asia and Africa which have had most to do with them. 2. Difference between East and West. — Between the history of the East, as we may vaguely call it, that is chiefly the history of Asia and Africa^ and the history of our own Western world in Europe and America^ the gap is in many ways wide. To take one point of difference among many, the his- tory of the East does not give the same political teaching as that of the West, It is in a much greater degree the history of a mere succession of empires and dynasties, and in a much less degree the history of the people. We shall therefore do right if we ded with the history of the West as our main subject, and treat of the history of the East only so far as it bears on the history of the West. For history in the highest sense, for the history of man in his highest political character, for the highest developements of art, litera- ture, and political freedom, we musl look to that family of mankind to which we ourselves belong, and to that division of the world in which we ourselves dwell. The branch of history which is history in the highest g to shes e, or that who nong rches \uous istory >ry of other, ;o our ' leave at f ol- in the [ those [lOSt to I,] EAST AND WEST. \ and truest sense is the history of the Aryan nations of Europe, and of those who have in later times gone forth from among them to carry the arts and languages of Europe into other continents. The history of these nations forms Western or European history, the history of Europe and of European Colonies, But here too we shall find some periods and countries of higher interest and importance than others. Still the whole, from the earliest times to which we can trace it back, forms one connected story. No part is altogether void of interest in itself, none is altogether cut off from connexion with the general thread of continuous history. And with regard to particular times and places, this part of history reaches the highest degree of interest and importance that history can reach. It takes in the history of those times and places which most directly concern ourselves, and it takes in the history of those times and places which have had the deepest and most lasting influence on the world in general. It is then to the history of Europe, and of the Aryan nations in Europe and in European colonies elsewhere, that the present sketch, and the more de- tailed histories which are to follow it, will mainly be devoted. The history of other parts of the world, and of other families of the human race, will be dealt with only so far as those other nations and countries are brought into connexion with the long unbroken tale of European history. 3. The Aryan Nations. — Some readers may perhaps by this time have asked what is to be under- stood by a word which has been already used more than once, namely, the Aryan nations. That is the name which is now generally used to express that division of the human race to which we ourselves be- long, that which takes in nearly all the present nations of Europe and several of the chief nations of Asia. The evidence of language shows that there was a time, a time of cour<5e long before the beginning of B 2 ORIGIN OF THE NATIONS. tCMAP. recorded history, when the forefathers of all these nations were one people, speaking one language. Sanscrit^ that is the ancient language of India, Persian^ Greeks Latiuy En^lish^ and other tongues, many of which we shall soon have occasion to speak of, are really only dialects of one common speech. They show their common origin both by their grammatical forms, such as the endings of nouns and verbs and the like, and also in a way which is more easily understood by people in general, by their still having many of the commonest and mo?*" necessary words, those words without which no language can get on, essentially thv^ same. Now many of the nations which now speak these languages have for ages been so far parted from one another that it is quite impossible that they can have borrowed these words, and still less these gram- matical forms, from one another. We can thus see that all these nations are really kinsfolk, that they once were only one nation, the different branches of which parted off from one another at a time long before written history begins. 4. Early State of the Aryan Nations. — But what we know of the languages of the various Aryan nation' tells us something more than this. By the nature: of the words which are common to all or most of the kindred tongues, we can see what steps the forefathers of these various nations had already taken in the way of social life and regular government in the days before they parted asunder. And we can see that those steps were no small steps. Before there were such nations as Hindoos and Greeks and Ger- mans, while the common forefathers of all were still only one people, they had risen far indeed above the state of mere savages. They had already learned to build houses, to plough the ground, and to grind their corn in a mill. This is shown by the words for ploughing, building, and grinding being still nearly the same in all the kindred languages. It is easy fot any- #' 1.1 THE EARLY ARYANS. s one to sec that our word mill is the same as the Latin mola^ and that our old word to ear — that is, to /"lough —the ground, which is sometimes used in the Old Testament, is the same as the Latin ararg^ which has the same meaning. But no one ought to fancy that the English word is derived from t' e Latin, or that we learned the use of the thing from any people who spoke Latin, because the same words are found also in many other of the kindred languages, even those which are spoken in countries which are furthest removed from one another. We see then that words of this kind — an3 I have chosen only two out of many — are really fragments remaining from the old common lan- guage which was spoken by our common forefathers before they branched off and became different nations. It is therefore quite plain that the things themselves, the names of which have thus been kept in so many different languages for thousands of years, were already known to the Aryan people before they parted into different nations. And I need not say that people who build houses, plough the ground, and grind their corn, though they may. still have very much to learn, are in a much higher state than the people in some parts of the world are in even now. 5. Early Aryan Religion and Government. — But language again tells something more of the early Aryan people besides the progress which thej had made in the merely mechanical arts. We find that the names for various family relations, for the different degrees of kindred and affinity, /zM^, mother, brother, sister, and the like, are the same in all or most of the kindred tongues. We see then that, before the separation, the family life, the groundwork of all society and government, was already well un- derstood and fully established. And we see too that regular government itself had already begun ; for words meaning kiftg or ruler are the same in languages so fa^ distant from one another as Sanscrit, Latin, and ORIGIN OF THE NATIONS, [CHAP. ii ! English. The Latin words rex^ regercy regnum, are the same as the Old-English rica^ rixian^ rice, words which have dropped out of the language, but which still re- main in the ending of such words as bishoprick, where the last syllable means government ox possession. And we can also see that the Aryans before their disp'^jrsion had already something of a religion. For there is a common stock of words and tales common to most of the Aryan nations, many of which they cannot have borrowed from one another, and which point to an early reverence for the great powers of the natural world. Thus the same name for the sky, or for the great God of the sky, appears in many of the kindred languages, as Dyuus in Sanscrit, Zeus in Greek, and the Old-English God Tiw, from whom we still call the third day of the week Tiwesdceg or Tuesday. And there are a number of stories about various Gods and heroes found among differeni Aryan nations, all of which seem to come from one common source. And we may go on and see that the first glimpses which we can get of the forms of government in the early days of the kindred nations show them to have beer, wonderfully like one another. Alike among the old Greeks, the old Italians, and the old Germans, there was a King or chief with limited power, there was a smaller Council of nobles or of old men, and a general Assembly of the whole people. Such was the old con- stitution of England, out of which our present consti- tution has grown step by step. But there is no reason to think that this was at all peculiar to England, or even pecuUar to those nations who are most nearly akin to the English. There is every reason to believe that this form of government, in which every man had a place, though some had a greater place than others, was really one of the possessions which we have in common with the whole Aryan family. We see then that our common Aryan forefathers, in the times when they were still one people, times so long 4 L] THE SEMITIC NATIONS. 7 ago that we cannot hope to give them any certain date, had already made advances in civilization which placed them far above mere savages. They already had the family life ; they already had the beginnings of religion and government ; and they already knew most of those simple arts which are most needed for the comfort of human life. 6. The Semitic Nations. — Such then were the original Aryans — that one among the great families of mankind to which we ourselves belong, and that which has played the greatest part in the history of the world. Still the Aryan nations are only a small part among the nations of the earth. It is not needful for our purpose to speak at any length of the nations which are not Aryan ; but a few words must be given to the two great families which have always pretty well divided Europe and Asia with the Aryans, and with whom the history of the Aryans is constantly coming in contact. Next in importance to the Aryans we must place those that are called the Semitic nations, among which we have most to do with the Hebrews^ the Phoenicians^ and the Arabs. And in one point we must set them even above the Aryans ; for the three religions which have taught men that there is but one God — the yewishy the Christian^ and the Mahometan — have all come from among them. But those among the Semitic nations to whom this great truth was not known seem often to have fallen into lower forms of idolatry than the Aryans. Now the Semitic nations have, so to speak, kept much closer together than the Aryans have. They have always occupied a much smaller portion of the world than the Aryans, and they have kept much more in the same part of the world. Their chief seats have always been in south-western Asia ; and, though they have spread themselves thence into distant parts of the world, in Asia, Africa, and even Europe, yet this has mairly been by settlements ip comparatively late times, about whose history we \1i 8 ORIGIN OF THE NATIONS. [CHAP. know something. Their languages also have parted off much less from one another than the Aryan languages have ; the Semitic nations have thus always kept up more of the character of one family than the Aryans. 7. The Turanian Nations. — The rest of Asia, which is not occupied either by Aryan or by Semitic people, is occupied by various nations whose tongues differ far more widely from one another than the Aryan tongues do. Still there is reason to believe that many of them at least were originally one people, and at all events it is convenient for our purposes to class together all those nations of Europe and Asia which are neither Aryan nor Semitic. The people of the greater part of Asia are commonly known as the Turanian nations. In the old Persian stories Turan, the land of darkness, is opposed to Iran or Aria^ the land of light ; and it is from this Iran^ the old name of Persia, that it has been thought convenient to give the whole family the name of Aryans. And besides that Jarge part of Asia which is still occupied by the Turanians, it is plain that in earlier times they occupied a large part of Europe also. But the Aryans have driven them out of nearly all Europe, except a few remnants in out-of-the-way comers, such as the Fins and Laps in the north. The Basques also on the borders of Spain and Gaui, whether akin to the Turanians or not, are at least neither Aryan nor Semitic, so that for our purpose they may all go together. Except these few remnants of the old races, all Europe has been Aryan since the beginning ot written history, except when Semitic or Turanian invaders have come in later times. But in Asia the nations which are neither Aiyan nor Semitic, the Chinese, Mongols, Turks, and others, still far out- number the Aryan and Semitic nations put together. 8. The Aryan Dispersion. — We have seen that there was a time, long before the beginning of recorded X.) THE ARYAN DISPERSION. history, when the forefathers of the various Aryans dwelled together as one people, speaking one language. And the advances which they had made towards civilization show that they must have dwelled together for a long time, but a time whose length we cannot undertake to measure. Nor can we undertake to fix a date for the time of the great separation, when the families which had hitherto dwelled together parted off in different directions and became different nations, speaking tongues which are easily seen to be near akin to each other, but which gradually parted from one another so that different nations could no longer understand each other's speech. All that we can say is that these are things which happened long before the beginnings of written history, but which are none the less certain because we learn them from another kind of proof. The various wandering bands must have parted off at long intervals, one by one, and it often happened that a band split off into two or more bands in the course of its wanderings. And in most cases they did not enter upon uninhabited lands, but upon lands in which men of other races were already dwelling. Among thcoC they came as conquerors, and, for the most part, they drove them out of the best paits of the land into out-of-the-way comers. First of all, there are the two great divisions of the Eastern and the Western^ the Asiati: and the European^ Aryans, divisions which became altogether cut off from one another in geographical position and in habits and feelings. From the. old mothet-land one great troop pressed to the south-east and became the forefathers of the Persians and Hindoos^ driving the older inhabit- ants of India down to the south, into the land which is properly distinguished from Hindostan by the name of the Deccan. The other great troop pressed west- ward, and, sending off one swarm after another, formed the various Aryan nations of Europe. The order in which they came can be known only by their geo- fO ORIGIN OP THE NATIONS. [CHAP. graphical position. The first waves of the migration must be those whom we find furthest to the West and furthest to the South, But, in order fully to take in the force of the evidence furnished by the geo- graphical position of the various Aryan nations in Europe, it is needful to say a few words as to the geographical aspect of the continent of Europe itself. 9. Geographical Shape of Europe. — A glance at the map will show that, of the three continents which form the Old World, Europe^ Asia^ and Africa^ the first two are far more closely joined to one another than either of them is to the third. Africa is a vast peninsula — ^in our own day indeed it may be said to have become an island — united to the other two by a very narrow isthmus. But Europe and Asia form one unbroken mass, and in some parts the boun- dary between the two is piu-ely an. .xiaL Some maps, for instance, make the Don the boundary ; others make it the Volga, The most northern and the most central parts of Europe and Asia form unbroken geographical wholes ; it is only the southern parts of the two con- tinents which are quite cut off fi'om one another. And it is in these southern parts of each that the earliest recorded history, at all events the earliest recorded history of the Aryan nations, begins. Central Europe and central Asia form one great solid mass of nearly unbroken land. The southern parts of each continent, the lands below these central masses, con- sist of a series of peninsulas, running, in the cas^ of Europe, into the great inland sea called the Mediter- ranean— the sea which brings all three continents into connexion — in the case of Asia into the Ocean itself. Europe thus consists of a great central plain, cut off by a nearly unbroken mountain range from a system of islands and peninsulas to the south, which is again balanced to the north by a sort of secondary system of islands and peninsulas, the Baltic being a^ I] GEOGRAPHY OF EUROPE. II kind of northern Mediterranean. We might almost say the same of Asia, as the mouths of the great rivers which run to the north form several peninsulas and inland seas. But then this part of the world has always been, so to speak, frozen up, and it never has played, nor ever can play, any part in history. 10. The three great European Peninsulas. — We thus see that the southern part of Europe consists mainly of three great peninsulas, those of Spain, Jfalyj and what we may roughly call Greece. Of these, the two eastern peninsulas are purely Mediter- ranean, while Spain, from its position at one end of the Old World, could not help having one side to the Ocean. So Northern Europe may be said to consist of the two Scandinavian peninsulas and of our own British Islands, which in a certain way balance Spain, and which, in a general glance, seem peninsular rather than insular. Now of the three southern peninsulas, it will be seen at once that the eastern one has a character of its own. Though the nearest to Asia, it is in its geographical character the most thoroughly European. As Europe is, more than either of the other continents, a land of islands and peninsulas, so Greece and the countries near to it are, more than any other part of Europe, a land of islands and peninsulas. It is therefore hardly more than we should expect when we find that the recorded history of Europe begins in this eastern peninsula, that is to say, in Greece ; that for several ages the history of Europe is little more than a history of this and the neighbouring peninsula, that is to say, of Greece and Italy ; that the third peninsula, that of Spain, first appears in European history as a kind of appendage to the other two ; and that the historical importance of central and northern Europe belongs to a later time still. 11. The Aryan Settlement of Europe. The Greeks and Italians.— This does not howeveir t9 ORIGIN OF THE NATIONS. [CHAP. necessarily prove that the two peninsulas of Greece and Italy were positively the first parts of Europe which received Aryan inhabitants. There can be no doubt, from the close likeness of the Greek and Latin languages, that the Aryan inhabitants of those two peninsulas branched off from the original stock as one swarm. They afterwards parted and became two nations, or rather two groups of many nations ; but the fact that the Greek and ^2X\Xi languages agree so closely together shows that there was a time when the forefathers of the Greeks and the forefathers of the Italians had already parted off from the fore- fathers of the Hindoos and Germans, but had not yet parted off from one another. Now the time when they occupied these two peninsulas must have been long before the beginnings of recorded history, so that it is impossible to give any details of the way in which the land was conquered. Still it is not in the least likely that they found the land uninhabited. They may have found earlier inhabitants who were not Aryans, as the Aryans certainly did in many other parts of Europe, or they may even have found Aryan settlers earlier than themselves. The exact relations be- tween the Greeks and the other ancient nations of south- eastern Europe are in some respects very hard to make out, and the little that can be said about it in such a sketch as this will be better said when we come to speak of Greece somewhat more particularly. But of the people whom the Italians found in the middle peninsula of the three, we must say something more. 12. The Italians and Celts. — In the case of the Italians, we know a little more of the nations, both Aryan and otherwise, whom they seem to have found in their peninsula. In some parts they most likely found a n on- Aryan people, and it can hardly be doubted that, if they entered their peninsula by Ijand from the head of the Hadriatic Gulf, the;^ 1.1 THE CELTS. IS already found a CV/AV people in the northern part of it The Celts were the first wave of the Aryan migra- tion in central Europe, and we therefore find them further to the west than any other Aryan people. In historical times we fi^a them in Gatu^ in the British Islands^ in parts of Spain and Italy ^ and in the border lands oi Italy and Germany south of the Danube. Now it is not likely that they found any part of these lands quite uninhabited ; it is far more likely that they found an earlier people dwelling in them, whom they slew or drove out. In Spain indeed and in Southern Gaul we know tciat they found an earlier people dwelling, because, as has been already said, there is a small district on each side of the Pyrenees, where a non-Aryan tongue is still spoken. The people who speak it, the Basques^ are, we cannot doubt, remnants of the earlier people who inhabited Spain and Southern Gaul, and most likely other parts of Western Europe, before either the Celts or Italians came. And we can hardly doubt that the Italians found people of this race, perhaps in their peninsula itself, and at any rate on its borders. But the Italians never settled far to the west of their own peninsula ; the first Aryans who pushed their way into Western Europe as far as the Ocean were the Celts. But we must now mark that, as the Aryans pressed upon and slew or drove out the earlier people whom they found in the lands into \7hich they came, so presently other Aryan swarms came pressing upon the first Aryans, and dispossessed or drove them out in like manner. Thus, in Western Europe, while the earlier inhabitants have been driven up by the Celts into very small corners indeed, the Celts themselves were in the end also driven up into corners, though not into quite such small comers. Tnus, out of all the lands where the Celts once dwelled, their languages, of which the British or Welsh^ the Breton^ and the Irish tongues still sur- vive, are now spoken only in certain parts of Gaul, i:< «4 ORIGIN OP THE NATIONS. [CHAT Britain, and Ireland. This change is partly because as we shall see as we go on, a large part of the Celts were conquered by the Romans^ and learned to speak their language. But it is also partly because another wave of Aryan settlement presently came into Western Europe, which pressed upon the Celts from the east, and drove them out of a great part of the land, just as they had driven the earlier people. And so in later times, other branches of the Aryan family have pressed backwards and forwards, and have conquered and displaced c her Aryan nations, just as much as those that werr not Aryan. But there can be no doubt that the Celts were the first Aryans who made their way into the western lands of Spain, Gaul, and Britain. 13. The Teutons or Dutch. — The second Aryan swarm in Western Europe, that which came after the Celts, is the one with whose history we are more concerned than with that of any other ; for it is the branch of the Aryan family to which we ourselves belong. These are the Teutons^ the forefathers of the Germans and the English^ and of the Danes, Swedes, and Norwegians in Northern Europe. The Teutons do not appear in history till a much later time than the Celts, and then we find them lying immediately to the east of the Celts, chiefly in the land which is now called Germany. From this they spread themselves into many of the countries of Europe; but in most cases they got lost among the earlier inhabitants, and learned, like them, to speak the language of the Romans. The chief parts of Europe where Teutonic languages are now spoken are Germany, England, and Scan- dinavia. In Scandinavia we cannot doubt that the present Teutonic inhabitants were the first Aryan settlers; for they found a Turanian people there, some of whom still remain, by the name of Laps and Fins, in the extreme north of Sweden and Norway and or the eastern coast of the Baltic. But in most places f^^|Pf^WPiW5r^ ,v, ,.- .:.»»«) 7 > i. "m.^iiJ lAV use :elts )eak ther item east, just to in have lered :h as e no made i, and Aryan after more is the selves of the- wedes^ uions an the to the called into cases amed, mans, lages Scan- it the lAryan there, f and lyand [places 1.1 THE TEUTONS AND SLAVES. IS the Teutons, as the second wave, came into lands where other Aryan settlers had been before them. Sometimes they may have simply come in the wake of the Celts as they were pressing westward; but, sometimes they found the Celts in the land and drove them out, as was specially the case in our own island. Of the first coming of the Teutons into Europe we can say nothing from written history, any more than of the first coming of the Celts. But many of their chief settlements, and among them our own settle- ment in Britain, happened so late that we know a good deal about them. The true name of the Teutons IS Theodisc or Dutchy from Theody people^ as one might say, "the people," as opposed to foreigners. The Germans still call themselves Deutschen in their own language, and not so long ago the word Dutch was still used in English in a sense at least as wide as this, and did not mean only the people to whom alone we now commonly give the name. 14. The Slaves and Lithuanians. — The third wave of Aryan settlement in the central parts of Europe consisted of the Slaves and Lithuanians^ whom for our purpose we may put together. It must not be thought that the word Slave, as the name of a people, comes from slave in its common sense of bondman. It is just the other way, for the word slave got the sense of bondman because of the great number of bondmen of Slavonic birth who were at one time spread over Europe. This third swarm forms the Aryan inhabitants of the central part of Eastern Europe, of Old Prussia and Lithuania., \A Russia, Poland, Bohemia, of parts of Hungary, and of a large part of the countries which are subject to the Turks. They thus lie to the east of the Teutons, who in after-times turned about and greatly enlarged their borders at their cost. And it is also among these Slavonic people that we find the only instances in Europe of a Turanian people turning about and establishing themselves at the cost of Arvan ■^M'-W'- n f:-- ^i iS^: |6 ORIGIN OF THE NA TIONS. [chap. nations. One of these is the IJ unitarians or Magyar s^ a people aUied to the Fins, who pressed in as conquerors, and founded a kingdom which still lasts, and where the old Turanian tongue is still spoken. The other case is that of the Ottoman Turks, who still bear rule over many of the Greeks, Slaves, and other Aryan and Christian people in south-eastern Europe. And as we go on, we shall find other cases in eastern Europe of Turanian nations invading or ruling over Aryans ; but it is only the Hungarians and the Ottoman Turks who founded kingdoms which have lasted to our own time. The last Aryan people to be mentioned in this survey of Europe are the Lithuanians^ whose language and his- tory are closely connected with those of the Slaves. They are the smallest, as the Slaves are the largest, of the great divisions of the Aryan settlers in Europe. But they are of great importance, because their lan- guage is in some sort the very oldest in Europe ; that is, it is the one which has undergone the least change from the common Aryan tongue from which all set out. But it is only in a very small part of Europe, on the south-east comer of the Baltic, that the Lithuanian tongue is still spoken. 15. Rome the Centre of European History.— Such is a very short sketch of the settlement of the chief Aryan nations in Europe. The history of these nations forms European history. But, even among these Aryan nations in Europe, some have flayed a much more important part than others. Thus the Lithuanians and Slaves have always lagged behind the other nations. Nor have the Celts played any great part in history, except when they have come under either Roman or Teutonic influences. The nations which have stood out foremost among all have been the Greeks, the Romans^ and the Teutons, And among these it is the Romans who form the centre of the whole story. Rome alone founded an universal 11 I^OME THE COhiMOhT CE^TTEE, t» Empire in which all earlier history loses itself, and out of which all later history grew. That Empire, at the time of its greatest extent, took in the whole of what was then the civilized world, that is to say, the countries round about the Mediterranean Sea^ alike in Europe, Asia, and Africa. The Roman Empire was formed by gradually bringing under its dominion all the countries within those bour.'- which had already begun to have any li^'story .,»». ^e which we may call the states of the Old World. And it was out of the breaking up of the great dominion of Rome that what we may call the states of the New Worlds the kingdoms and nations of modem Europe, gradually took their rise. Thus through the whole of our sketch we must be ever thinking of Rome, ever looking to Rome, sometimes looking forward to it, sometimes looking back to it, but always having Rome in our mind as the centre of the whole story. In the former part of our sketch we have to deal with king- doms and nations which are one day to come under the power of Rome. In the latter part of our sketch we ha\e to deal with kingdoms and nations, many of which actually formed part of the Roman dominion, and all of which have been brought, more or less fully, under Roman influences. In this way Rome will never pass out of our sight. i6. Division of Periods.— -We may thus say that the history of the civilized part of the world falls into three psuts. There is the history of the states which were in being before the Roman dominion begar*, and out of whose union the Roman dominion was formed. Then there is the history of the Roman dominion itself. Lastly, there is the history of the states which arose out of the breaking up of the Roman dominion. But we shall have much more to say about the states which grew up out of the breaking up of the Roman dominion than about the states which were brought together to form it. There are I' i8 ORIGIN OF THE NATIONS, [OUAT. two reasons for this. Histor which we can fully trust, history which was written down at or soon after the time when things happened, begins only a few hundred years before the Roman power came to its full growth. But a far longer time has passed since the days when the Roman dominion began to break in pieces. Thus the portion of trustworthy history which comes after the days of the Roman dominion is much longer than the portion which comes before it. And in these later times we have to deal with many great and famous states, among which are those which have grown into the chief powers of Europe in our own day. But in the earlier time, the time before the Roman dominion, we know very little of most of the European nations : the history of most of them may be said to begin at the time when the Romans begs I n to conquer them. Of most of them therefore the little that we have to say will be best said when we come to speak of the Roman conquests. But there is one European country which has a history of its own before its conquest by the Romans, and a history longer and nobler than that of the Romans themselves. This country is Greece, Of Greece then, and of Greece alone, we must give a separate sketch in the next chapter, before we begin to trace the steps by which Rome won her universd dominion. l--r. CHAPTER II. GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES. Connexion between the Greeks and Italians (i) — their rela- tion to other neighbouring nations (i) — their early advances over their kindred (i)— meaning of the name Hellas {^—geographical character of the country (2)— number of islands and peninsulas (2) — consequent number of small states {2)— early political superiority of Greece (3) — relations between ilie Greeks and Phoeni- fi(ms (4) — extent of the Phoenician Colonies (4) — extent i I EV,,~- «.] THE GRRRKS. 19 of the Greek Colonics {$)- -distinction between Gtetks and Barbarians {(>)— relations of the Greeks to tfu kindred nations (6) — relations amont^ the cities of Greect {7)— relations of the colonies to the mother cities (7) — early constitutions of the Greek cities ; likeness of those to other Aryan nations (8) — Kin^ship^ Aristocracy ^ Democracy (8)— Tyranny {^) — Greek religion and myth- olo^y{\o) — the Homeric poems (i i) — the Dorian migra- tion (11) — the Messenian wars (11) — reforms ./ Soldn at Atlu^ns {w)— growth of the Persians (12) —their conquests of Lydia and the Greek cities of Asia (12) — first Persian invasion of Greece; Battle of Marathdn ( 1 3) — second Persian invasion of Greece ; Battles of Salami s^ Plataia^ and MykalU ( i t,)— greatness of A them (i^)— beginning of tlie Peloponnesian War (15) — Athenian expedition to Sicily (15) — Athens overcome by Sparta (1$) — the dominion of Sparta (16) — the Peace of Antalkidas (16) — rise of Thebes (17) — rise of Mace- donia under Philip; his supremaey in Greece (18) — conquests of Alexander the Great (19) — effects of his conquests J spread of Greek civilization in Asia (20J — the Successors of Alexander in Asia and Egypt (21) — the later Kings of Macedonia and Epeiros (22) — character of the later history of Greece {2^)—prevalenci of Federal Governments in later Greece ; Leagues of Achaia, ^tolia, and elsewhere {2^— greatness of Sparta under Kleomenis {2$)— interference of Rome in Greek affairs (25) — Summary (26). I. The Greek People.— Whether the Greeks were the first Aryan people to settle in Europe or in Eastern Europe we cannot tell for certain. But we do know for certain that they were the first Aryan nation whose deeds were recorded in written history ; and there never was any nation whose deeds were more worthy to be recorded. For no nation ever did such great things, none ever made such great advances in every way so wholly by its own power and with so little help from any other people. Yet we must not look on the Greeks as a nation quite apart by them- selves. We have already seen that the Greek people c 3 ff 20 GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES, [CHAf, were part of a great Aryan settlement which occupied both the two eastern peninsulas, and that the fore- fathers of the Greeks and the forefathers of the Italians must have kept together for a good while after they had parted company from the other branches of the Aryan family. And there is some reason to think that some of the other nations bordering near upon Greece, both in the eastern peninsula and in the western coast of Asia, in Illyria, Thrace^ Phrygian and Lydia, w ere not only Aryan, but were actually part of the same swarm as the Greeks and Italians. However this may be, it seems quite certain that most of the nations lying near Greece, as those in Epdros and Macedonia^ which lie to the north, those in Sicily and Southern Italy ^ and in some parts of the opposite coasts of Asia, were very closely akin to the Greeks, and spoke languages which came much nearer to Greek even than the languages of the rest of Italy. The people of all these countries seem to have had a power beyond all other people of adopting the Greek language and manners, and, so to speak, of making themselves Greeks. The Greeks seem, in fact, to have been one among several kindred :aations which shot in advance of its kinsfolk, and which was therefore able in the end to become a teacher to the others. And one thing which helped the Greeks in thus putting themselves in advance of all their kinsfolk and neighbours was the nature of the land in which they settled. 2. Geographical Character of Greece. — Any- one who turns to the map will see that the country which we call Greece^ but which its own people have always called Hellas^ is the southern part of the great eastern peninsula of Europe. But we must remember that, in the way of speaking of the Greeks themselves, the name Hellas did not mean merely the country which we now caU Greece, but any country where Hellenes or Greeks li\ ad. Thus there might be patches, so to speak, of Hellas anywhere j and there were such W^^Mi'-Om S. [CHKf. >ccupied he fore- of the lile after iiches of to think ear upon ; western d Lydia^ the same this may Dns lying w, which Jtaly^ and were very ;es which anguages countries Deople of and, so e Greeks I kindred blk, and ecome a h helped Ivance of re of the 4t.1 GBOGRAPHV OF GREECE patches of Hellas round a great part of the Mediter- ranean Sea, wherever Greek settlers had planted colonies. But the first and truest Hellas, the mother- land nf all Hellenes, was the land which we call Greece, with the isla.;ds round about it. There alone the whole land was Greek, and none but Hellenes lived in it. It is, above all the rest of Europe, a land of islands and peninsulas ; and that was, no doubt, one main reason why it was the first part of Europe to stand forth as great and fret; in the eyes of the whole world. For in early times the sea-coast is always the part of a land which is first civilized, because it is the part which can most easily have trade and other dealings with other parts of the world. Thus, as Greece was the first part of Europe to be- come civilized, so the coasts and islands of Greec* were both sooner and more highly civilized than the inland parts. Those inland parts are almost everywhere full of mountains and valleys, so that the different parts of the land, both on the sea-coast and in the inland parts, were very much cut off from one another. Each valley or island or little peninsula had its own tov/n, with its own little territory, forming, whenever it could, a separate government independent of all others, and with the right of making war and peace, just as if it had been a great kingdom. 3. Character of Grecian History. — The geo- graphical nature of the land in this way settled the history of the Greek people. It is only in much later times that a great kingdom or commonwealth can come to have the same political and intellectual life as a small state consisting of one city. In an early state of things the single city is always in advance of the great kingdom, not always in wealth or in mere bodily comforts, but always in political freedom and in real sharpness of wit. Thus the Greeks, with their many small states, were the first people from whom we can learn any lessons in the art of politics, the i" ¥» m k Us GREECE AND THE GREEK COLOhriES, tCHA*. art of ruling and persuading men according to law. The little commonwealths of Greece were the first states at once free ar«d civilized which the world ever saw. They were the first states which gave birth to great statesmen, orators, and generals who did great deeds, and to }.p:eat historians who set down those great deeds in writing. It was in the Greek common- wealths, in short, that ihe political and intellectual life of the world began. But, for the very reason that their freedom came so early, they were not able to keep it so long as states in later times which have been equally free and of greater extent. 4. The Greeks and the Phoenicians. — Whether the Greeks found any earlier inhabitants in tjie land which they made their own is a point on which we canni t be quite certain, but it is more likely that they did than that they did not. But it is certain that, when they began to spread themselves from the mainland into the islands, they found in the islands powerful rivals already settled. These were the Phxnicians^ as the Greeks called them, who v/ere a Semitic people, and who played a great part in both Grecian and Roman history. Their real name among themselves was Canaanites, and they dwelled on the coast of Palestine^ at the east end of the Mediterranean Sea, especially in the great cities of Sidon^ Tyre, and Arados or At-vad. They were a more really civilized people, and made a nearer approach to free govern- ment, than any other people who were not Aryans. They were especially given to trade and to everjthing which had. to do with a seafaring life. They had thus begun to spread their trade, and to found colonies, over a large part of the Mediterranean coast, before the Greeks became of any note in the world. They had even made their way beyond what the Greeks called the Pillar's of Hcmklcs^ that is, beyond the Strait of Gibraltar, and had sailed from the Mediter- ranean Sea into the Ocean. They had there founded •VJ.^^'^^i^'^' .■■"-'■.' '^.W'J.j' n.1 GKEBItS AND PHCENICiAfTS, ^ the city of Gadesy which still keeps its name as Cadit^ and they founded other colonies, both in Spain and on the north-west coast of Africa, of which the most famous was Carthage. They had also settlements in the islands of the iEgaean Sea, as well as in the greater islands of Cjiprus and Sicily; and it was in these islands that they met the Greeks as enemies. But, even before the Greeks had begun to send cut colonies, they had a good deal of trade with the Phoenicians. And, as the Phoenicians were the more early civilized of the two nations, the Greeks seem to have learned several things of them, and above all, the alphabet. The Greeks learned the letters which the Phoenicians used to write their own language, which was much the same as the Hebrew^ and they adapted tliem, as well as they could, to the Greek language. And from the Greeks the alphabet gradually made its way to the Italians, and from them to the other nations of Europe, with such changes as each nation found needful for its own tongue. The Phoenicians did much in this way towards helping on the civilization of the Greeks : but there is no reason to believe that the Phoenicians, or any other people of Asia or Africa, founded any settle- ments in Greece itself after the Hellenes had once made the land their own. 5. Foundation of the Greek Colonies. — From the mainland of Greece the Greek people gradually spread themselves over most of the neighbouring islands, and over a large part of the Mediterranean coast, especi- ally on the shores nearest to their own land. In fact, we may say that the Phoenicians and the Greeks between them planted colonies round the whole coast of the Mediterranean, save in two parts only. One of these was Egypt on the south ; the other was Central and Northern Italy, where the native inhabitants were far too strong and brave to allow strangers to settle among ihcm. The Greeks thus spread themselves over aU v'he islands of the iEgaean Sea, over the coasts of '^pr^ft'^'-' -.-;,^» ;. ■h'-:t\r f M- OftAP. It] FOUND ATlOtf OP THE COLOmES. «i Macedonia and Thrace to the north and of Asia Minor to the east, as well as in the islands to the west oi Greece, Korkyra and the others which are known now as the Ionian Islands. A great part of this region be- came fully as Greek as Greece itself, only even here, on some parts of the coast, the Greek possessions were not quite unbroken, but were simply a city here and there. And nowhere, except in Greece itself, did the Greek colonists get very far from the sea. Other colonies were gradually planted in Cyprus^ in Sicily and Southern Italy y and on the coast of Illyria on the eastern side of the Hadriatic. And there was one part of the Mediter- ranean coast which was occupied by Creek colonies where we should rather have looked for Phoenicians ; that is, in the lands west of Egypt, where several Greek cities arose, the chief of which was Kyrint These were the only Greek settlements on the south coast cf the Mediterranean. But some Greek colonies were planted as far east as the shores of the Euxine^ and others as far west as the shores of Gaul and Northern Spain. One Greek colony in these parts which should be specially remembered was Massalia^ now Marseille. This was the only great Greek city in the western part of the Mediterranean, and it was the head of several smaller settlements on the coasts of Gaul and Spain. In the southern part of Spain, and in the greater part of northern Africa, the Greeks could not settle, because there the Phoenicians had settled before them. And no Greek sailors were ever bold enough to pass the Pillars of H^rakles and to plant colonies on the shores of the Ocean. 6. Greeks and Barbarians. — We have thus seen the extent of country over which the Greek people spread themselves. There was their own old country and the islands nearest to it, where they alone occupied the whole land ; and there were also the more distant colonies, where Greek cities were planted here and there, on the coasts of lands which were occupied by ■*v «6 GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES. [ciiAf. men of other nations, or, as the Greeks called them, Barbarians. This word Barbarians^ in its first use among the Greeks, simply meant that the people so called were people whose language the Greeks did not understand. They called them Barbarians, even though their blood and speech were nearly akin to their own, if only the difference was so great that their speech was not understood. It followed that in most parts of the world it was eas ' to tell who were Greeks and who were Barbarians, but that along the northern frontier of Greece the line was less strongly drawn than elsewhere. Along that border the ruder tribes of the Greek nation, the ^toliansy Akarnanians, and others, lived alongside of other tribes who were not Greek, but who seem to have been closely allied to the Greeks. If you turn to the map, you will see along this northern border the lands of Macedonia^ EpeiroSy Thessaly. Macedonia was ruled by Greek Kings, but it was never reckoned to be part of Greece till quite late times. Thessaly ^ on the other hand, was always reckoned as part of Greece, though the people who gave it its name seem not to have been of purely Greek origin. In Epeiros again the same tribes are by some writers called Greeks and by others Bar- barians, and it was only in quite late times that Epeiros, like Macedonia, was allowed to be a Greek land. So, among the colonies, though all were planted among people whom the Greeks looked on as Bar- bariansj yet it made a great practical difference whether the people among whom they were planted were originally akin to the Greeks or not. Thus, in many countries, as in the lands round the ^gsean and also in Italy and Sicily, the Greeks settled among people who were really very near to them in blood and speech, and who gradually adopted the Greek language and manners. In this way both Sicily and Southern Italy became quite Greek countries, though in Sicily the Greeks had to keep up a long struggle against the n^) GREEKS AND BARBAklANS, 27 Phoenicians of Carthage, wlio also planted several colonies in that island. In Cyprus also the same struggle went on, and the island became partly Greek and partly Phoenician. But in those of the ^Egaean islands where the Phoenicians had settled, the Greeks drove them out altogether. For there was no chance of the Phoenicians taking to Greek ways as the Italians and Sicilians did. 7. The Greek Commonwealths. — Greece it- self, the land to the south of the doubtful lands like Macedonia and Epeiros, \;as the only land which was wholly and purely Greek, where there was no doubt as to the whole people being Greek, and where we find the oldest and most famous cities of the Greek name. Such, in the great peninsula called Peioponnhos^ were Sparta and ArgoSy and, in early times. My kbit ; Corinth too on the Isthniis^ and beyond the Isthmus, Megara^ AthenSy ThebeSy and, in very early times, Orchomenos, Each Greek city, whenever it was strong enough, formed an independent state with its own little terri- tory; but it often happened that a stronger city brought a weaker one more or less under its power. And in some parts of Greece several towns joined together in Leagues y each town managing its own affairs for itself, but the whole making war and peace as a single state. Thus in Peloponnesos, first Mykhity then ArgoSy and lastly Sparta, held the first place, each in turn contriving to get more or less power over ^ greater or smaller number of other cities. Ahd it v/ould seem that in very early times the Kings of Myken^ had a certain powf;r over all Peloponnesos and many of the islands. Still, even when a Greek city came more or less under the power of a stronger city, it did not wholly lose the character of a separate common- wealth. And when the cities of Old Greece began to send out colonies, those colonies became separate commonwealths also. Each colony came forth from some city in the mother country, and it often hap- A CREMCE AND THE GREEK COLONtES, [cttA^. pened that a colony sent forth colonies of its own in turn. Each colony became an independent state, owing a certain respect to the mother city, but not being subject to it. And as the colonies were commonly planted where there was a rich country or a position good for trade, many of them became very flourishing and powerful. In the seventh and sixth centuries before Christ, many of the colonial cities, as MilHos in Asia, Sybaris in Italy, and Syraaise in Sicily, were among the most flourishing of all Greek cities, greater than mosc of the cities in Greece itself. But the coloniec were for the most part not so well able to keep their freedom as the cities in Greece were. 3. Forms of Government. — Tii the earliest days of Geece we find much the same form of government in the small Greek states which we find among all the Aryac nations of whose early condition we have any account. But both the Greeks and the Italians were unlike the Teutons and some of the other Aryan nations in one thing. That is because they were gathered together in cities from the very beginning, while some of the other nations were collections, not so much of cities as of tribes. Still the early form of government was much the same in both cases. Each tribe or city had its own King or chief, whose office was mostly confined to one family, for the Kings were commonly held to be of the blood of the Gods. The King was the chief leader both in peace and war ; but he could not do everything according to his own pleasure. For there was always a Council oi elders or chief men, and also an /usemtly of the whole people, or at least of all those who had the full rights of citizens. This kind of kingship lasted in Greece through the whole of the earliest times, through what are called the Heroic AgeSy and in the neighbouring lands of Epeiros and Macedonia a kingship of much the same kind lasted on through nearly the whole of their history. But in Greece itself the kingly Ill FORMS OF GOVERNMBNTi power was gradually abolished in most of die cities, and they became commonwealths. At first these com- monwealths were aristocracies; that is to say, only men of certain families were allowed to fill public offices and to take part in the assemblies by which the city was governed. These privileged families were in most cases the descendants of the oldest inhabitants of the city, who did not choose to admit new-comers to the same full rights as themselves. Some of the Greek cities remained aristocracies till very late times ; but others soon became democracies; that is to say, all citizens were allowed to hold offices and to attend the assemblies. But it must be remembered that everyone who lived in u, Greek city wa not therefore a citizen. For in most parts of Greece there were many slaves ; and, if a man from one city went to live in another, even though the city in which he went to live was a democracy, neither he nor his children were made citizens as a matter of course. In a few cities the name King^ in Greek Basileus, remained in use as the title of a magistrate, though one who no longer held the chief power. And in Sparta they always went on having Kings of the old royal house, two Kings at a time, who kept much power both in military and in religious matters, though they were no longer the chief rulers of the state. 9. The Tyrants. — All the three chief forms of government, Monarchy^ Aristocracy, and Democracy, were held by the Greeks to be lawful ; but there was another kind of power which was always deemed un- lawful. This was Tyranny. It sometimes happened, especially in cities where the nobles and the people were quarrelling as to whether the commonwealth should be aristocratic or democratic, that some man would snatch away the power from both and make himself Tyrant. That is to say, he would, perhaps with the good will of part of the people, seize the power, and much more than the power, of the old 9D GREECE ASD THE GREEK COLONIES, (CHAP. Kings. The word Tyrant meant at first no more than that a man had got the power of a King in a city where there was no King by law. It did not necessarily mean that he used his power badly oi cruelly ; though, as most of the Tyrants did so, th< word came to have a worse meaning than it had a/ first. The time when most of the Tyrants reigned in Greece was in the seventh and sixth centuries before Christ ; and the most famous of them were Feisistratos and his sons, who ruled at Athens in the sixth century. In the colonies, and especially in Sicily, Tyrants went on rising and falling during almost the whole time of Grecian history. But in old Greece we do not hear much of them after the sons of Feisistratos were driven oat, about the end of the sixth century, till quite the later times of Grecian history, when Tyrants again were common, but Tyrants of quite another kind. 10. The Greek Religion. — The religion of the Greeks was one of those forms of mythology which have been already spoken of as growing up among most of the Aryan nations. All the powers of nature and all the acts of man's life were believed to be under the care of different deities, of different degrees of power. The head of all was Zeus, the God of the sky, and he is described as reigning on Mount Olympos in Thessaly, where the Gods were beHeved to dwell, with his Council and his general Assembly, much like an early Greek King on earth. The art and literature of the Greeks, and indeed their government and their whole life, were closely bound up with their religion. The poets had from the beginning many beautiful stories to tell about the Gods and about the Heroes^ who were mostly said to be the children of the Gods. And, when the Greeks began to practise the arts, it was in honour of the Gods and Heroes that the noblest buildings and the most beautiful statues and pictures were made. u. The Early History of Greece.— Of the ^ n.) EARLY HISTORY OF GREECE, 31 earliest times of Grecian history we have no accounts written at the time; we have to make out what we can from the traditions preserved by later writers, and from the notices of the poets. For composition in verse always goes before composition in prose, and the earliest Greek works that we have are those of the poets. The poems which go by the name of Homery the Iliad and Odyssey^ give us a picture of the state of things in the earliest days of Greece, and al- lusions and expressions in them also help us to some particular facts. But scholars no longer believe that the story of the war of Troy is a true history, though the tale most likely arose out of the settlements of the Greeks on the north-west coast of Asia. These settlements were among the earliest of the Greek colonies, the very earliest probably being the settle- ments in the southern islands of the ^Egaean, which Homer himself speaks of These were made so early that it is vain to try to give them any exact date. Presently we get glimmerings, which seem to have been preserved partly by poets and partly by tradition, of a great movement by which the Dorians, a people of Northern Greece, came and conquered the Achaians in Peloponnesos and dwelled in their chief cities, Argos, Sparta, Corinth, and others. The other chief division of the Greek nations was the lonianSy whose chief city was Athens, and who are said to have planted mPiUy colonies in Asia about the same time when the Dorians came into Peloponnesos. And when we get down to times to which we can give something more like exact dates, we have remains of several poets which sometimes help us to particular facts. Thus there was a war in which Sparta conquered her neighbours of Messinij of which we learnt something from the poems of the minstrel TyrtaioSy who made songs to encourage the Spartan warriors. This was in the seventh cen- tury before Christ ; and in the next century, Sold?i, the famous lawgiver of Athens, made laws for his own city, af7^-fgy< '■* St GRRBCE AHD THE GRBRIC COLOmSS. [CHAK and first gave the mass of the people a share in the government, which was the beginning of the famous democracy. Solon was also a poet, and we have some remains of his verses, which throw light on his political doings. So again, the poems of Theognis of Megara throw some light on the disputes between the nobles and the people in that city. But from frag- ments like these we can get no connected history, so that most of what we know of these days comes from later writers, who did not live near the time, and whose accounts therefore cannot be trusted in every detail. It is only when we come to the Persian IVars, in the beginning of the fifth century before Christ, that we begin to have really trustworthy accounts. For those times we have the history of Hhodotosy who, though he did not himself live at the time, had seen and spoken with those who did. By this time the chief cities of Greece had settled down under their several forms of gbvernment, aristocratic or democratic. And most of the colonies had been founded, especially those in Italy and Sicily, which were at this time very flourishing, though many of them were under Tyrants. Greece had now pretty well put on the shape which she was to wear during the greatest times of her history, and she had now to bear the trial of a great foreign invasion and to come out all the stronger for it. 12. The Persians.— The people of /'^wdr, though they lived far away from the shores of the Mediterra- nean, in the further part of Asia beyond the great rivers Euphrates and Tigris^ were much more nearly allied to the Greeks in blood and speech than most of the nations which lay between them. For they be- longed to the Eastern branch of the Aryan family, who had remained so long separate from their kinsfolk in Europe, and who now met them as enemies. The Persians first began to be of importance in the sixth century before Chiist, when, under their King Cyrus^ n.] GROWTH OF PERSIA, 33 they became a conquering people. He took Babylm^ which at that time was the great power of Asia, and also conquered the kingdom of Lydia in Asia Minor. This concjuest first brought the Persians across the Greeks, first in Asia and then in Europe. For the Greeks who were settled along the coast of Asia had been just before conquered by Croesus^ King of Lydia, the first foreign prince who ever bore rule over any Greeks; and now, as being part of the dominions of Crcjesus, they were conquered again by Cyrus. The Greek cities of Asia, which had, up to this time, been among the greatest cities of the Greek name, now lost their freedom and much of their greatness. And from this time various disputes arose between the Persian Kings and the Greeks in Europe. The Athenians had now driven out their Tyrants and had made their government more democratic. They were therefore full of life and energy, and tliey gave help to tl^.e Asiatic Greeks in an attempt to throw oft' the Persian yoke. Then the Persian King Darius wished to make the Athenians to take back Hippias^ the scr. of Peisi- stratos, who had been tlieir Tyrant. At last Darius made up his mind to punish the Athenians and to bring the other Greeks under his power; and thus the wars between Greece and Persia began. 13. The Persian Wars. — The first Persian expedition against Greece was sent by Darius in the year 490 b.c. A Persian lieet crossed the ^Egaean, and landed an army in Attica. But, far smaller as their numbers were, the Athenians, under their general Miltiadcs^ utterly defeated the inv^^ders in the famous battle of Marathon. In this battle the Athenians had no help except a small force from tlicir ne.'^hbours of Piatata, a small town on the Boeotian border, which was in close alliance with them. This was the first of ail the victories of the West over the East, the first battle which showed how skill and disciplin can prevail over mere numbers. As such, it ib i4 GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES, [cha?. the most memorable battle in the history of the world. Ten years later, in 480 b.c,, a much greater Persian expedition came under King Xerxh himself, the son of Darius. He came by land, and all the native kingdoms and Greek colonies on the north coast of the iEggean, and even a large part of Greece itself, submitted to him. Some Greek cities indeed, especially Thebes, fought for the Barbarians against their countrymen. But Athens, Sparta, and several other Greek cities withstood the power of Xerx6s, and in the end drove his vast fleet and army back again in utter defeat. In this year 480, we e fought the battle of Thermopylae where the Spartan King Leonidas was killeci, and the seafight of Salamis^ won chiefly by the Athenian fleet under Themistoklh. After this Xerxes went back ; but in the next year his general Mardoiiios was defeated by the Spartans and other Greeks in the battle of Plataia, and the same day the Persians were also defeated both by land and sea at Mykal^^ on the coast of Asia. These three battles, Salamis, Plataia, and Mykale, decided the war, and the Persians never again dared to invade Greece itself. But the war went on for several years longer before the Persians were driven out of various posts which they held north of the -^gaean. Still, they were at last v/hoUy driven out of Europe, and they were even obliged to withdraw for a time from the Greek cities of Asia. 14. The Growth of Athens. — At the beginning; of the Persian Wars, Sparta was generally looked up to as the chief state of Greece ; but, as Athens was much the stronger at sea, it was soon found that she was better able than Sparta to carry on the war against the Persians, and to recover and protect the islands' and cities on the coasts. Most of these cities therefore joined in a League, of which Athens was the head, and which was set in order by the Athenian Aristeides^ surnamed the Just But, after a time, Athens, instead of being merely the head, gradually became the l£ ttl THE GROWTH OF ATHENS. ^ mistress of the smaller states, and most of them became her subjects, paying tribute to her. Athens thus rose to a wonderful degree of power and splendour, beyond that of any of the other cities of Greece. The chief man at Athens at this time war Ferik/is, the greatest statesman of Greece, perhaps of the world, under whose influence the Athenian govern- ment became a still more perfect democracy. In his time Athens was adorned with the temples and other public buildings which the world has admired ever since. This was also the time of the great dramatic poets, jEschyluSy Sophoklh^ Furipidis, and AristO' phank, -^schylus had fought in all the great battles with the Persians. Euripides and Aristophanes were younger men who lived on through the next period. Oratory, which was so needful in a democratic state, began to be sLudied as an art, and so were the differ* ent forms of philosophy ; in fact, there never was a time when the human mind was brought so near to its highest pitch as in these few year of the greatest power and splendour of Athens. 15. The Peloponnesian War. — ^But the great •power of Athens raised the jealousy of many of the other Greek cities, and at last a war broke out between Athens and her allies on the one side, and Sparta and her allies on the other. This war, which began in the year 43 1 b.c. and lasted for twenty-nine years almost without stopping, was known as the Peloponnesian War^ because it was waged by the Athenians against Sparta and her allies, among whom were the greater part of the cities of Peloponnhos^ besides Thebes and some other cities in other parts of Greece. Of this war we know all the events in great detail, because we have the history of it from writers who lived at the time. The history of the greater part of the war was written by Thucydidesy who was not only living at the time, but himself held a high command in the Athe- nian army. And the history of the latter years of D 2 I 36 GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES, [chap. the war was written by Xmophon^ another Athenian writer, who also lived at the time. This war might be looked on as a war between lonians and Dorians, between democracy and oligarchy. For Athens was the chief of the Ionian and democratic states, and Sparta the chief of the Dorian and aristocratic states. But the two parties were never exactly divided either ac- cording to descent or according to forms of govern- ment. It is perhaps more important to remark that Sparta had many free and willing allies, while Athens had but few such, so that she had to fight mainly with her own forces and those of allies who were really her subjects. During the first ten years of the war, down to the year 421, the two parties strove with nearly equal success, the Athenians being much the stronger by sea, and the Spartans and their allies by land. A peace was then made, but it was not very well kept ; so that Thucydid^s says that the years of peace ought tc be reckoned as a part of the war. Then, in 415, the Athenians sent a fleet to attack the city of Syracuse in Sicily. The Syracusans got hel;> from Sparta, and so the war began again ; but, after two years of fighting and siege, the Athenians were altogether defeated before Syracuse. The allies of Athens now began to revolt, and the war during the later years was carried on almost wholly on the coasts of Asia. The Persians now began to take a share in it, because they were eager to drive away the Athenians from those coasts, and to get back the Greek cities in Asia. But they did more in the way of giving, and sometimes only promising, money to the Spa. ^ns than by actually fighting. Several battles, chiefly by sea, were fought in these wars with varying success ; and it is wonderful to see how Athens regained her strength after her loss before Syracuse. At last, in the year 405, the Athenians were defeated by the Spartan admiral Lysandros at Aigospotamos in the Hellespont Athens Vv-as now besieged, and in the next year she tt] THE PEIOPOI^XESTAN fVAR. 37 had to surrender. She now lost all her dominion and her great naval power, and was obliged to become a member of the Spartan alliance. Her democratic government was also taken away, and an oligarchy of thirty men was set up under the protection of Sparta. But in the next year, 403, the oligarchy was put down, and Athens, though she did not get back her power, at least got back her freedom. 16. The Dominion of Sparta. — At this time, at the end of the fifth century before Christ, Sparta was more than ever the greatest power of Greece. From this time Athens has no longer any claim to be looked on as holding the first place. But she still remained one of the greatest among the Grecian cities, and, as her political power grew less, she became more and more the acknowledgec* chief in all kinds of literature and philosophy. Her loss of power, which left Sparta for a while without a rival, presently led to great changes. New powers began to come to the front. We shall, first of all, see the foremost place in Greece held for a while by Thebes^ the chief city of Boeotia, which had always been reckoned one of the greater cities of Greece, but which in the Pelopon- nesian war had played only a secondary part as one of the allies of Sparta. We shall next see the power ovei all Greece fall into the hands of a state which had hitherto not been reckoned to be Greek at all, through the viciories of the great Macedonian Kings, Philip and Alexander, But for a while the Spartans had it all their own way. No state in Greece could stand up against them; the government of most of the cities passed into the hands of men who were ready to do whatever the Spartans told them, and in many cities there even were Spartan governors and garrisons. A few years after the end of the Pelopon- nesian war, the Spartans made war upon Persia, and their King Agisilaos waged several successful cam- paigns in Asia Minor. But by this time several of the i;,- m. 38 GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES, [chap. Greek cities had got jealous and weary of the Spartan power, and the Persian King Artaxerxes^ against whom the Spartans were fighting, was nati rally glad to help them with both money and ships. So in the year 394 Ag^silaos had to come back to withstand a confederacy formed against Sparta by Athens, Argos, Corinth, and Thebes. Several battles were fought ; and, though the Spartans commonly had the victory, yet it was shown that the Theban soldiers were able to do great things. In the former part of this war the Persian King sent his great Phoenician fle, • to help the Athenians ; but afterwards he was persuaded to change sides, and in 387 a peace was made, called \}[i^ Peace of Antalkidas^ by which the Greek cities of Asia were given up to Persia, and those of Europe were declared to be every one independent. But in truth the power of Sparta now became greater than ever, and the Spartans domineered and interfered with the other cities even more than before. Among other things, they treach- erously seized the Kadmeia or citadel of Thebes, and put a Spartan garrison in it. They ako put down a confederacy which the city of Olynf n wa-^ making among the Greek cities on the coast! -f Macedonia and Thrace, and thus took away what might have been a great check to the growing power of the Macedonian Kmgs. 17. The Rne of Thebes. — It was when the power of Sparta was at its very highest that it was over- thrown. The Thebans, who had shown in the former war that they were nearly as good soldiers as the Spartans themselves, now rose against them. In 3 7 9 the Spartans were driven out of Thebes ; a democratic government was set up, and Thebes under two great citizens, Pelopidas and Epameinondas, became for a while the chief power of Greece. The Spartans were defeated m 371, the first time they had ever been defeated in a pitched battle, at Leuktra in Bceotia. After this Epameinondas invaded Peloponnesps ■MM ".] SPARTA AND THEBES. 39 several times. He gTea'ay weakened the power of Sparta by restoring the independence of Messtn^^ which the Spartans had long ago conquered, and by persuad- ing the Arkadians to join in a League and to found Kegabpolis or the Great City^ near the Spartan frontier. During the first part of this war the Athenians took part with Thebes, and in the latter part with Sparta ; and in the course of it they won back a great deal of their power by sea, and again got many of the islands and maritime cities to become their allies. At hst, in 362, Epameinondas was killed at Manttneia in a battle against the Spartans and Athenians, and after his death as there was no one left in Thebes fit to take his place, the power of the city gradually died out. 18. The Rise of Macedonia. — We have already seen that, though the Macedonians seem to have been closely allied to the Greeks, and though the Macedonian Kings were acknowledged to be of Greek descent, yet Macedonia had hitherto not been reckoned as a Greek state. Its Kings had not taken much share in Greek affairs, but several of them had done much to strengthen their kingdom against the neighbouring Barbarians, and also to bring in Greek arts and civilization among their own people. Just at this time there arose in Macedonia a King called Philips the son of Amyntas, who did much greater things than any of the Kings who had gone before him. His great object was, not exactly to conquer Greece or make it part of his own kingdom, but rather to get Macedonia acknowledged as a Greek state, and, as such, to win for it the same kind of supremacy over the other Greek states which had been held at different times by Mykene, Argos, Sparta, Athens, and Thebes. He artfully contrived to mix himself up with Grecian affairs, and to persuade many of the Grecian states to look upon him as their deliverer, and as the champion of the god Apolldn. The temple of Delphi had been plundered by the i- 41. 40 GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES, [chap. PhdkianSy and Philip pdt himself forward as the avenger of this crime, and got himself admitted as a men ber of the Amphiktionic Cf'uncil, the great religious assembly of Greece, which looked after the affairs of the Delphian Temple. This was much the same as formally acknowledging Macedonia to be a Greek state. Philip also conquered the Greek city of Olynthos in the neighbourhood of his own kingdom, and made the peninsula called Chalkidik^^ which runs out as it were with three fingers into the .^gaean, part of Macedonia. This he would hardly have been able to do, if the Spartans had not already destroyed the great Greek alliance which the Olynthians had begun to make in those parts. Philip was several times at war with Athens, and it was during these wars that the great orator Dhnosthenes made himself famous by the speeches which he made to stir up his country- men to act vigorously. Philip's last war was against Athens and Thebes together, and in 338 he gained a victory over them at Chaironeia in Boeotia, from which the overthrow of Grecidn freedom may be dated. After this, all the Greeks, except the Spartans, were partly persuaded, partly compelled, to hold a synod at Corinth, where Philip was elected captain-general of all Greece, to make war on Persia and avenge the old invasions of Greece by Darius and Xerxes. But, while he was making ready for a great expedition into Asia, he was murdered in the year 336 by one of his own subjects. 19. Alexander the Great. — Philip was suc- ceeded by his son Alexander^ known as Alexander the Great. He was presently acknowledged as the leader of Greece against the Persians, as his father had been. Thebes however, where Philip had put a Macedonian garrison, now revolted, but it was taken and destroyed by Alexander. In the next year, 334, Alexander set out on his great expedition, and he never came back to Europe. In the course of six years he altogethcji ".] PHILIP AND ALEXANDER. 41 tabdued the Persian Empire, fighting three famous battles, at the river Granikos in Asia Minor in 334, at IssoSf near the borders of Cilicia and Syria, in ^^^, and at ArbUa or Gaugam^la in Assyria in 331. In these last two battles the Persian King Darius was present, and was utterly defeated. Between the last two battles Alexander besieged and took Tyre^ and received the submission of Egypt, where he founded the famous city which has ever since borne his name, Alexandria. Soon after the battle of Gaugamela Da- rius was murdered by some of his own officers, and Alexander now looked upon himself as King of Persia. He afterwards set out, half exploring, half conquering, as far as the river Hyphasis in northern India^ beyond which his soldiers refused to follow him. At last he died at Babylop ^'n 323, having made greater conquests than were ever made by any European prince before him or after him. And there was no conqueror whose conquests were more important, and in a certain sense more lasting ; for, though his great empire broke ia pieces almost at once, yet the effects of his career have remained to all time. 20. Effects of the Conquests of Alexander. —The conquests of Alexander, though they were won so quickly, and though a large part of them were soon lost again, made a great and lasting change through- out a large part of the world. Both he and those who came after him were great builders of cities in Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, and as far as their conquests reached. In each of these cities was placed a Greek or Macedonian colony, and in the western part of Asia most of these cities lived and flourished, and some of them, like Alexandria in Egypt and Antioch in Syria, soon took their place among the greatest cities in the world. The Greek language became the tongue of all government and literature throughout many countries where the people were not Greek by birth. It was tlius at the very moment that Greece began to lose CH. Il.l ALEXANDER'S CONQUESTS. 43 her political freedom that she made, as it A^re, an in- tellectual conquest of a large part of the world. And though, in the cities and lands which in this way became partially IlcHenizedy there was n iher the po-tical freedom nor the original genius c ' he great statesmen and writers of old Greece, yet nii^re leaiii- ing and science flourished as they had never flourished before. The Greek tongue became the common speech of the civilized world, t>he speech which men of different nations used in speaking to one another, much as they use French now. The Greek colonies had done much to spread the Greek language and manners over a large p .1 of the world. The Mace- donian cor' quests no'''^ di still more; but they did not, as the old colon u'. Lad done, carry also Greek freedom with them. 21. The Successor suf Alexander. — The great empire of Alexand d.d not hold together even in name for more than a lew years after his death. He left no one in the Macedonian royal family who was at all fit to take his place, and his dominions were gradually divided among his generals, who after a Uttle while took the title of Kings. Thus arose the kingdom of the Ptolemies in Egypt^ and that of the descendants of Seleukos in the East, which gradually shrank up into the kingdom of Syria. In the countries beyond the Tigris the Macedonian power gradually died out ; but various states arose in Asia Minor, which were not strictly Greek, but which had a greater or less tinge of Greek cultivation. Such were the kingdom of Fergamos and the League of the cities of Lykia, These arose in countries which had been fully subdued by Alexander, and which won their independence only because the descendants of Seleukos could not keep their great dominions to- gether. But Alexander's conquests had been made so fast that some parts even of Western Asia were i^pt fully subdued. Thus out of the fragments of thi? i. 44 GREECE AND THE GREEK COLOmES. [CHAF. Persian Empire several kingdoms arose, like those of Pontes and Bithynia^ which were ruled by native Rings, but which also affected soniethin}^ of Greek civilization. And some real Greek states still con- trived to keep their independence on or near the coast of Asia, as the city of Byzantion^ the island of Rhodes^ and the city of Heraklda^ which last was sometimes a commonwealth and sometimes under Tyrants. Of many of these states we shall hear again as they came one by one under the power of Rome. But we are now more concerned with what happened in Macedonia and in Greece itself. 22. The later Macedonian Kings. — The death of Alexander was followed by a time of great con- fusion in Macedonia and Greece. Even while Alexander was away in Asia, the Spartans, under their king Algis^ had tried to throw off the Mace- donian yoke, but in vain. After Alexander's death another attempt was made by several of the Greek states, especially the Athenians, who were again stirred up by Demosthenes, and the yEioltans. These last were a people of western Greece, the least civilized of all the Gre* k states, but which now began to rise to great importance. This was called the Lamian War, In the end the Athenians had to yield, and they were obliged by the Macedonian general Antipatros to change their constitution, making it much less democra- tic than before, and depriving many of the citizens of their votes. For many years there was the greatest confusion in Macedonia and Greece and all the neighbouring countries. And things were made worse by an attack from an enemy with whom the Greeks had never before had anything to do. Greece and Macedonia were invaded by the Gauls. By these we need not understand people from Gaul itself, but some of those Celtic tribes which were still in the east of Europe. After doing miich mischief in those parts, the Gauls crossed over into Asia, and there ■nm II.1 THE LATER MACEDONIAN KINGS. 4S founded a state of their own which was called Galatiay and^ as they too began to learn something of Greek civilization, Gailo-gncaa. Meanwhile Kings were being constantly set up and overthrown in Macedonia, and each of them tried to get as much power and influence as he could in Greece itself. At this time too Epeiros^ a countr)' which had hitherto been of very little importance, became a powerful state under its King Pyrmosy who at one time obtained possession of Macedonia. He also waged wars in Italy and Sicily, which will be spoken of in the next chapter, and he had a great deal to do with the atTairs of Peloponnesos, where he was at last killed in besieging Argos^ in 27 2. From this time things became ratlier more settled ; a second time of freedom, if not of greatness, began in Greece, and a regular dynasty of Kings fixed itself in Macedonia. The old royal family was quite extinct, and the second set of Mac 0- donian Kings were the descendants of Antigonosy one of the most famous of Alexander's general r.. His son Dhftetrios, surnamed PoliorketSs or the Besieger y got possession of the crown of Macedonia in 294. Both he and his son Antigofios Gonatas w( re driven out more than once, but in the end Antigorios contrived to keep the Macedonian crown, and to hand it on to his descendants, who held it till Mace- donia was conquered by Rome. 23. The later History of Greece. — The last days of Grecian history, before the country came alto- gether under the power of the Romans, are in seve- ral ways very unlike times which went before them. The states which are most important in these times are not the same as those which were most important in the old days of the Persian and Pelopon- nesian Wars. First of all we must remember that Macedonia and Epeiros must now be reckoned as Greek states, and that a large part of Greece, eipecially in the north, was now subject to the Mace- ii 46 GREECE AATD THE GREEK COLONIES. [chA>. donian Kings, or at least altogether under their influence. And, among the states of Greece itself, the division of power was very different from what it had been in earlier times. In the days which we have now come to neither Athens nor Thebes was of any great account, and, though Sparta was of great importance during part of the time, yet its greatness was only, as we may say, by fits and starts. We may say that the chief powers of Greece now were Mace-> doniay Achaia^ /Etolia^ and Sparta, Achaia and iCtolia are states of which but little is heard in Grecian history since the heroic times, and the strength which they had now chiefly came from a cause which must be explained a little more at length. 24. The Achaian and .^tolian Leagues. — What chiefly distinguishes this part of Grecian history from earlier times is that we have now but little to do with single cities, but with cities and tribes bound together so as to make states of much greater size. With the exception of Sparta, the Greek states which play the greatest part at this time were joined together in LeagueSy so as to form what is called a Federal Government, such as there is now in Switzerland and in the United States of America. That is to say, several cities agreed together to give up a part of the pOAver which naturally belonged to each city separately to an Assembly or Council or body of magistrates in which all had a share. In a government of this kind the central power commonly deals with all matters which concern the League as a whole, while each city still acts much as it pleases in its own internal affairs. There had been several Leagues of this kind in Greece from the beginning, but they were chiefly among the smaller and less famous parts of the Greek nation, and they did not play any great part in Grecian affairs. The only one which was of much note in earlier times was the League of Boeotia, and that could hardly be with any truth called a League, for Thebes was so V"' iS^l.' < T » v^j^^t:^ 11.1 r//£ ACHAIAN LEAGUE. i.u much stronger than the other IJoiotian cities as to be practically mistress of all of them. But now the Federal states of Greece come to be of special impor- tance, because it was found that, as long as the cities stood one by one, they had no hope of keeping their freedom against the Macedonian Kings, and that their only chance of doing so was by several cities acting together in matters of peace and war as if they were one city. The greatest of these Leagues was that of Achaia, which began with the ten small Achaian cities on the south side of the Corinthian Gulf. These cities had been joined to- gether in a League in early times, but in the times of the Macedonian power they had gradually fallen asunder, and in the days of Antigonos Gonatas several of them were in the hands of Tyrants, who reigned under Macedonian protection. This was the case with many other cities of Greece also, and it was the great object of the League, as it grew and strength- ened, to set free these cities and to join them on to its own body. It was about the year 280 that the old Achaian towns began to draw together again, the chief leader in this work being Markos of Keryneia. About thirty years after, in 251, the League began to extend itself by admitting the city of Sikydn as a member of its body. Sikyon had just been set free by AratoSj who now became the leading man in the League, and, under his administration and that of Philopoimen^ who followed him, the League took in one city after another, Corinth^ Megalopolis^ Argos^ and others, at first only with their own good will, but afterwards sometimes by force. At last all the cities of Peloponnesos and some cities beyond the Isthmus became members of the League. The iEtolian League on the other side of the Corinthian Gulf did not bear so good a character as the Achaian, though its form of government, v as much tip- same. For the .^tolians, though a brave people and always stout in 48 GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES, [CH. defending their own freedom, were ruder and fiercer than most of the Greeks, and were much given to plunder both by sea and land. The -^tolian League thus greatly extended itself, and became more power- ful than that of Achaia, but its policy was not so just and honourable as that of Achai^ commonly was. There were also smaller Leagues in Phokis and Akar- ftaniaj besides the League of Epeiros, which was now counted as a Greek land, and which had got rid of its Kings and had changed itself into a Federal common- Wealth. Thus, except Sparta at one end and Mace- donia at the other, by far the greater part of Greece was parted out among the different Leagues. 25. The last Days of Independent Greece. — For a long time the great object of the Achaians was to set free the cities which were more or less under the Macedonian power. But at last they became jealous of Sparta, which was again becoming a great power, and in 227 a war broke out between Sparta and the League. Sparta had new a great King called Kleomett^s, who had upset the old oligarchy and had greatly increased the power both of the Kings and of the people. By so doing he put quite a new life into his country, and he pressed the Achaians so hard that at last, in 223, they asked help of Antigonos Doson^ King of Macedonia, which they only got by giving up to him the citadel of Corinth. The Macedonians and Achaians together defeated KJcomenes, and Sparta's second time of greatness died vvith him. The next King of Macedonia, Philip^ kept on the alliance with Achaia, and the Achaians and Macedonitins fought together in a war with iEtolia ; but, though the League gained in extent, it lost in real power and freedom by joining with a prince who was strong enough to be its master. Peace was made over all Greece in 216, but by this time the Romans had begun to meddle in Greek affairs, and from hence the history of Greece and Macedonia cliieHy consists of the steps by which in. m. LAST DA YS OF INDEPENDENT GREECE, 4$ they were swallowed up in the Roman dominion. This last stage of their history will therefore best be told in our sketch of the history of Rome. 26. Summary. — The history of Greece which we have thus run through, though it is the history only of a small part of the world for a few hundred years, is worth fully as much study as any later and wider part of history. It is, as it were, the history of the world in a small space. There is no lesson to be taught by history in general which is not taught by the history of Greece. The Greeks too, we should never forget, were the first people to show the world what real freedom and real civilization were. And they •brought, not only politics, but art and science and literature of every kind, to a higher pitch than any other people ever did without borrowing of others. In all these ways Greece has influenced the world for ever. Still the influence of Greece upon later history has been to a great decree indirect. Greece influenced Rome, and Rome influenced the world. But with the history of Rome an unbroken chain of events begins which is going on still. We will now try and trace it from the beginning. CHAPTER III. THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. Ancient extent of Italy {i) — Gauls, Ve?ietians^ and Ligu* Hans within its modern boundary (i) — effect of the geography of the country on its history {i)— inhabitants of Italy s the Etruscans and the Greek colonists (2) — two chief brafiches of the Italian race, Oscans and Latins (2, -^—language, religion, and governmtnt; te?idency to the for??iation of I eagties {j^— origin of Rome; characteristics of its history {^— the Roman Kings (6) —dyjtasty and expulsion of the Tarquinii (6)— the powers of the Kings transferred to the Consuls (7) — 5o THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. tCHAP, disputes between Patncians and Plebeians (7) — wars of Rome with her ne^hbottrsj taking of Veii (8) — taking of Rome .by the GUuls (8) — wars with th-e Samnites and Latins ; gradual conquest of Italy (9) — state of Italy under the Romans; dis'U7iction of Romans^ Latins, and Italians (10) — war with Pyrrhos (11) — origin and h. story of Carthage (12) — First Punic War (13) — cession of Sicily j 7iature of the Romafi provinces (14) — Second Punic Warj campaigns of Hannibal a7id Scipio (15) — Third Punic War ; destruction of Carthage {\6)-~first dealings of the Romans with Greece (17). — First Macedonian War (i 7) — Second Macedonian War J alliance of Rome with JEtolia and Achaia (18) — campaign of Antiochos in Greece j Roma^t conquest of JEtolia (19) — Third Macedonian War j dismem- berment of the Macedonian Kingdom (20) — Fourth Macedonian War; Macedo?iia becomes a Province (?:) — war with Achaia; destruction of Corinth (21) — tiie Macedonian states in Asia; revolt of the Parthians (22) — war with Antiochos; and extension of Roman influence in 'Asia {2.7)— formation of the Province of Asia (22) — conquest of Cisalpine Gaul (23) — conquest of Spain (24) — inhabitants of Transalpine Gaul (25) — affairs of Massalia; formatio7t of the Roma7t Province in Gaul (25) — invasio7i of the Cimbri and Teu tones; the'ir defeat by Marius (26) — Ro7ne domipiant round the Mediterranean ; her relatio7is with Egypt (27) — in- ternal disputes at Rome ; her relations to her allies; murder of the Gracchi (27) — the Social War ; final conquest of the Samnites (28) — Civil War of Marius and Sulla; Dictatorship of Sulla (28) — war with Mithridates; campaigns of Sulla and P 0771 pens (29) — Romaii conquest of Syria; dealings with Parthia (30) — disputes atRo7ne; rise of Ccesar (31) — Ccesafs conquests in Gaul; his campaigns i7i Germa7iy a7id Britain (32) — Civil War of Po7npeius and Ccesar; Dictatorship and death of Ccesar (33) — Second Civil War; Battles of Pnilippi and Aktion; Egypt becomes a provi7ice (34) — i!'e younger Ccesar beco7nes Augustus; begi7tning of the Ro7nan E7npire (35). I. The Geography of Italy. — We now come to the history of the second of the t^^ree great peninsulas, that of Italy. But we must remember that in early in.] GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY, St times the name of Italy did not take m all the land that we now understand by that name, and that a great part of its inhabitants did not belong to the race of whom we shall have to speak of as Italians. The greater part of Northern Italy, all north of the Po and a good deal to the south of it, was counted as part of Gaul, and was inhabited by Celtic people akin to those on the other side of the Alps. Thus there was Cisalpi?ie Gaul, Gaul on this side — that is the Italian side — of the Alps, as well as Transalpine Gaul, or Gaul beyond the Alps. Milan, Verona, Bologna, and other famous Italian cities thus stand in what in early times was part of Gaul. And the country in the extreme north-east was held by the Venetians, a people whose origin is not very clear. They gave their name to the province of Venetia; but it must be remembered that tbey had nothing to do with the city of Venice, which did not begin till many ages later. And the land between the Gulf of Genoa and the Po was held by the Ligurians, a people who were most likely not Aryans at all, but a remnant of the older inhabitants, like the Basques. And people akin to the Ligurians seem also to have held the islands of Sdrdi?iia ^n^ Corsica, and part o^ Sicily. None of these lands were counted as part of Italy in the earliest times, so that the name of Italy belonged much more strictly to the peninsula than it does now. The name seems to have been first given to quite the southern })art only, and to have gradually spread itself northwards. The map will, at once show that the peninsula of Italy, though it is so long and narrow and has so great an extent of sea-coast, is not so broken up by bays and arms of the sea, nor has it so many islands round about it, as the peninsula of Greece. And though many parts of Italy are moun- •tainous, and though the great chain of the Apennijies runs from one end o the peninsula to the other, yet the whole land is not Ciit up into little valleys m the way E 2 r~ 52 THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. [chap. 1^' #•"' ^^ that the more part of Greece is. Two things came of this difference between Greece and Italy. Fir.;t, the Italians never became a seafaring people in the jame degree that the Greeks did, nc>r did they in the same way send out colonies to all parts of the world that they knew. Secondly, there never were so many great cities in Italy as there were in Greece, and the small Italian towns were less jealous of their separate independence, and more ready than the Greek cities to join together in leagues. 2. The Inhabitants of Italy. — Setting aside those countries which were noi Ji'^'n reckoned as part of Italy, we find at the beginning of history three chief nations dwelling in the peninsula. The part of Italy between the Amo and the Tiber was called Etruria, the land of the Rasena as they called them- selves, othsrwise called Tyrrhenians^ Tuscaus^ and Etruscans. The origin of the Etruscans is a great puzzle, bw*. most likely they were an Aryan people, though their tongue was very unlike those of the other nations of Italy. In early times they seem to have spread over a much larger country both northwards and southwards, but in trustworthy history they appear only in the ^^'v's already spoken of on the western 45oast, where /.ey formed a confederation of twelve cities. They were great builders and skilful in many of th^ arts, and they were held to be specially wise in divination and all other matters belonging to the worship of tlu Gods. The Etruscans, like the Gauls and Ligurians, were settled in what we now call Italy before authentic history begins. At the other end, quite in the south, the Greeks planted many colonies, but these belong to a later time, when trustworthy history was beginning among the Greeks, though it had not yet begun anxHig the Italians. The map irill show that this part of Italy is rmich more like Greece, much more broken up by bays and peninsulas, than the rest of Italy. The Greeks were UI.] THE INHABITANTS OF ITALY, 53 therefore, as we have alrcaily seen, able to found many colonies here, some of which flourished so greatly in early times that the country was known as Great Greece. But at the time when history begins, all Italy in the older sense (that is, not reckoning Ijguria and Cisalpine Gaul), except Etruria, was inhabited by people whom we may specially call Italiafis. These, as we have already said, belonged to the same Aryan swarm as the Greeks, and the common forefathers of both must have stayed together after they had parted off from the forelathers of the Celts, Teutons, and others. The greater part of Italy was occupied by tribes sprung from this one swaim, some of whom however were more closely allied to the Greeks than others. But all may be looked on as coming nearer to the Greeks than to any other branch of the Aryan family. But long before history begins, the (jreeks and the Italians had parted off into distinct nations, and the Italians hrid ?.lso parted off into distinct nations among them- selves. , . The Latin and Oscan Races. — We thus see tha: setting aside the Etruscans and the Greeks who sett led in later times, all tae other nations of ancient Ita !y were allied to one another, ^nd all were more reniotely allied to the Greeks. But they had parted far more widely among tl nseh es than the different tribes of the Greek nat i ever did. The Italian nations fall naturally intc wo great groups, which we may call roughly the O^ans^ lying to the north-east, and the Latins^ lying to le south-west. Of these the Latins were those who ire more nearly allied to the Greeks. The St'culi r Sikds especially, in southern Italy and in Sicily, townich island they gave their name, and some other of the tri bes in the south, seem to have been as near to the Grt jks, and to have been as easily Hellenized, as their neighbours in Epeiros and on the coast of Asia. The Oscan tribes, Sabifies^ Umbrians, and others, were much 'tss nearly akin to the Greeks, u THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH [CHA^. and presently the Oscan races began to press south ward at the expense both of the Latins and Greek colo- nies. It was these Oscans of the south, the Samnites^ Lucaniajis^ and others, whose incursions gradually destroyed the greatness and freedom of the Greek colonies in Italy. 4. Language, Religion, and Government.— Our knowledge of all the ancient nations of Italy, except the Romans, is very scanty, but it would seem that the differences between the Latin and Oscan races answered rather to the differences between the Greeks and their most nearly allied neighbours than to the differences of Dorians and lonians among the Greeks themselves. Still they always had much in common ia language, religion, and government. The old languages of Italy all gradually gave way to the Latin, and we have only a few fragments remaining ot any of them. And of their religion, even of that of the Latins, we know very little, because, when the Greeks and Romans came to have dealings with one another, they began to call each other's Gods by the names of those among their own Gods which seemed most like them. Thus the Greek Zei.s and the Latin yitpiter got confounded, and the other Gods in the like sort. But one thing we can see, that none of the Italian nations had so many stories to tell about their Gods as the Greeks had. As for their government, we can see the same elements as among the Greeks and other Aryans, — the King or other chief, the nobles, and the ordinary freemen. In fact, owing, as we have already said, to the nature of the country, the common form of government in ancient Italy was much the same as that common in the ruder parts of Greece, several kindred districts or small towns joining together in a League. Of these Leagues the most famous in history was that of the Samnites^ an inland people of the Oscan Stock, and that of the thirty cities of the Ldiins on the west coast south of the Tiber. ai.] ORIGIN OF ROME, 55 5. The Origin of Rome. — iJut there was ont Latin city which was destined to be mighty and famous above all, and to become the mistress of Latium, of Italy, and of the world. This was the town of Rome on the Tiber. There were all manner of traditions in ancient times, and all manner of conjectures have been made by ingenious men in later days, as to the origin of this greatest of all cities. Into these we cannot go now. The story most generally believed by the Romans themselves was that Rome was founded by Romulus^ a son or descendant of ^neas (in Greek Aineias\ one of the Trojan heroes who was said to have escaped after the taking of Troy, and to have taken refuge in Italy. But Romulus or Romus is merely one of those names which were made up because people fancied that every city and nation must have taken its name from some man. The tales about the foundation of Rome, and about its early Kings, are mere legends whic^ cannot be trusted. There can be little doubt that > ^Ta.^ began as a border town of the Latins, on the march or frontier, both of the Etruscans beyond the Tiber, and of the Sabines in the moun- tains. The first Rome was a settlement on the hill by the Tiber called the Palatine, held by the Latin tribe of the Ramiies or Romans. This settlement on the Palatine and other settlements on the neighbour- ing hills gradually joined into one city. Of these the first and chief was the Sabine settlement of the Titienses on the Capitoline hill. The beginning of the growth of Rome was when the Latin Ramnes and the Sabine Titienses made a league together, so that their people gradually became two tribes in one city, instead of two distinct cities. This was the beginning of the way in which Rome became the greatest of all cities, namely by constantly granting its citizenship both to its allies and to its conquered enemies. Step by step, the people of Latium, of Italy, and of the whole civilized world, all became Romans. This i*.' s^ THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTfl. [cttA^. is what really distinguishes the Roman history from all other history, and it is what made the power of Rome so groat and la:3ting. 6. The Roman Kings. — There can be no doubt that Rome, like the Greek cities, was at first governed by Kings, who ruled by the help of a Senate and an Assembly of tlie People. But the Roman Kings, unlike those in Greece, were not hereditary, nor were they even chosen from any particular family. It is said, and it is not at all unlikely, that the old rule was to choose the King in turn from the two tribes of the Ramncs ahd Titienses. The legend gives us the names of seven Kings, and it is most likely that the two or three last names on the list are those of real persons. These are the dynasty of the Tarquinii, about whom there have been many opinions, but who most likely were Etrubcans, and who seem to have adorned Rome with buildings and works of Etruscan art. At all events they greatly extended the power of Rome, so that she became the greatest of all Latin cities. The last King, Lucius Tarquinius^ called Superbus or the Proud^ is said to have acted as a cruel tyrant, and to have had no regard for the laws of the Kings who had gone before him. He was therefore driven out with his family, and the Romans now said tliey would have no more Kings, and they ever after hated the very name of King. This is said to have happened B.C. 510, about the same time when the Tyrant Hippias, son of Peisistratos, was driven out of Athens. I'here can be no doubt that the driving out of the Kings ot Rome is a real event, but, as we have no accounts of it written at the time, or for ages after, we cannot be certain as to the details of the story, or as to the exact time when it happened. 7. The Roman Commonwealth. — The Roman history is, for want of contemporary accounts, very uncertain for a long time after the driving out of the III.) THE KINHS AND THE CONSULS. VI Kings. Much of what common' ''^ passes for Roman history is really made up of legends, which are often most beautiful as legends, but which still are not history. Much of it also comes from what is much worse than legends, namely mere inventions in honour of Rome or of some particular Roman family. It is not till two hundred years and more after the Kings that we come to history of which we can fully trust the details. Still we can make out some- thing, both as to the internal constitution of Rome and as to the steps by which she made her way to the headship of Italy. The chief thing to be remembered is that Rome was l city bearing rule over other cities. The government of the Roman commonwealth was the government of a city ; and so it always remained, even after Rome had come to be the head of Italy, and even of the world. When the Kings were driven out, the powers which had belonged to the Kings were entrusted to two magistrates, who were at first called Prcetors and afterwards Consuls^ and who were chosen for one year only. The Senate and the Assembly of the People went on much as the;/ had done under the Kings, but, soon after the Kings were driven out, there began to be great dissensions within the Roman Commonwealth. For there was a very old division of the Roman people into Fairtcians and Plebeians or Commons, of whom '.he Patricians for a long time kept all the chief powers of the state in their own hands. Most likely the Patricians were the descendants of the first citizens, and the Plebeians were the descendants of allies or subjects who had been afterwards admitted to the franchise. This division must have begun in the time of the Kings, as it began to be of great impor- tance very soon after they were driven out. At fii-st the Consuls and other magistrates were chosen from among the Patricians or old citizens only, though the Plebeians voted in choosing them. There were long disputes between the two orders, as the privileges 1 r l1 1^' ' ' ,; ' 58 THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. [cMAP. of the Patricians were felt to be very oppressive, and gradually the Plebeians obtained the right to be chosen to the consulship and other high dignities. The first plebeian Consul was Lucius Sextius in n.c. 366, about the time when Kpanicinondas was warring in Peloponnesus. After this the two orders were gradu- ally reconciled, and many of the greatest men in the later history of Rome were IMcbcians. 8. Wars of Rome with her Neighbours. —At the time when the kingly government of Rome came to an end, she was strong enough to make a treaty with Carthage^ in which she contracts, not only on her own behalf, but also on that of all the Latin cities of the coast as her subjects or dependent allies. But she seems to have lost a good deal of her power after the Kings were driven out. Her chief enemies were the Etruscans on the one side of her, and the various Oscan nations, especMly those called the ^qtiiam and VolscianSy on the other. With the Latin cities she was for a long time in close alliance, Rome, as a single city, being one party to the treaty, and the other Latin cities, as a League, being the other party. About B.C. 396 Rome greatly extended her power by the conquest of Vcii\ the nearest of the great Etruscan cities. This was taken by Marcus Furius Camiltus^ who was then Dictator ; that is, he received, for six months only, greater powers than the Consuls them- selves, as was often done in dines of special danger and difficulty. But soon after this the Roman power received a great check, for in B.C. 390 the Romans were defeated at the river Allia by the Gauls^ who, it will be remembered, held most of the northern part of what is now called Italy, They were now pressing southward, and invaded Etruria. The city of Rome itself was taken, but the Gauls were soon either driven out or paid to go away, and it is wonderful how soon Rome got over this great blow. And from this time the Roman history becomes somewhat more trust- nt.] tTAUA^ WARS OF ROME. worthy, for we at all events have the lists of the Consuls and other magistrates, though there is still much falsehood and exaggeration in our accounts of their actions. The Romans had still to withstand several invasions of the Gauls, and they had many wars with their neighbours, ii: which, on the whole, they went on increasing their territory, and ever and aeon admitting those whom they conquered to their own citizenship. 9. The Roman Conquest of Italy. — At last, about B.C. 343, there began a series of greater wars in Italy, in which the Romans may truly be said to have been fighting for the dominion of the whole land. And in the space of about sixty years they gradually won it. The Sanmitcs^ a nation of the race which we have roughly called Oscan, were now the chief people in the South of Italy : they were a brave and stout people, quite able to contend with the Romans on equal terms. The first war with the Samnites did not last long, and it was followed in 340 by a war between Rome and her old allies the Latins. The Latins wished for a more complete union with Rome, and for one of the Consuls to be always a Latin ; but to this the Romans would not agree. The end of the war was that the Latin League was broken up and the cities were merged in the Roman state one by one. Then, in 326, came a second Samnite War, which lasted eighteen years, and a third lasted from 298 to 290. In these two latter wars the Samnites were helped by the Etruscans and Gauls, but all were gradually subdued, and by the year 282 Rome was pretty well mistress of all Italy, except sonic of the Greek cities in the South. 10. The Italian States under Rome. — The con dition of the Italian states under the Romc^.n dominion was very various, but we may say that the tree people of Italy now formed three main classes, Rovians^ Latins^ and Italians. Many of the allied and con- ** ' I t'j i tl -m 87 11 11'* IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 la lai |22 1.1 il.8 mv^ 1^ ^ 6" - ► w Vi ■v Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. USSO (716) S72-4503 '^>^ ^ to tttE ROMAN COKtMONWEALtB, MaK quered states were altogether merged in Rome at a very early time ; their people became Romans, and formed tribes in the Roman Assembly. Rome, in the end, gradually admitted all the people of Italy to her own citizenship. But, till an Italian city which was subject to Rome received the Roman citizenship, its people had no voice at all in the general government, in choosing the magistrates, or in matters of peace and war. And, after such a city received the Roman citizenship, the only way in which its citizens could influence such matters was by themselves going to Rome and giving their votes in the Roman Assembly. This should be carefully borne in mind throughout, as it was the natural consequence of the Roman govern- ment always being the government of a city. Among the states whose people did not at once become Romans, some had the Latin franchise, as it was called, the franchise which was at first given to the cities of Latium and afterwards to others in different parts. This did not give full Roman citizenship, but it made it much easier to obtain it Lastly, the Italians or Ailies kept their independent constitutions in all internal matters, but they had to follow the lead of Rome in all matters of peace and war. Thus it was that the Roman dominion in Italy was a dominion of a city over cities. II. The War with Pyrrhos. — We now come to the beginning of the wars of the Romans with the nations out of Italy, beginning with one in which they had to fight for their newly-won> dominion in Italy itself. Soon after the Roman power had reached into South- ern Italy, the people of the Greek city of Taras or Tarentum contrived to offend the Romans, and they then asked Pyrrhos^ King of Epeiros^ to come and help them as the champion of a Greek city threatened by Barbarians. Pyrrhos came over in 281, and the Romans had now to try their strength against a way of fighting quite different from their own, and that undei IIL] H^AJi WITH PYRRHOS, 6i the most famous warricM* of the age Pyrrhos was joined by some of the lately conquered nations in Southern Italy, who were glad of a chance of throw- ing off the RomMi yoke. He defeated the Romans in two battles, but with so much loss on his own side that he was glad to make a truce and to go over into Sicifyy where some of the Greek cities had asked him to help them against the Carthaginians, In 276 he came back to Italy, but in the next year he was defeated at Beneventum and left Italy altogether. In the next few years the small part of Italy which still held out against Rome was subdued. 12. Carthage. — Rome was now mistress of Italy, and she soon began to be entangled in wars beyond its boundaries. The greatest power besides Rome in the western Mediterranean lands was the city of Car- thage on the north coast of Africa. This, as we have already said, was a Phcsnician city, one of the colonies of the older Phoenician cities of Tyre and Sidon. Carthage, like Rome, was a city bearing rule over other cities ; for she had gained a certain headship over the other Phoenician cities in Africa, much as Rome had over the Latin and other cities in Italy. And besides the kindred Phoenician cities, Carthage bore rule also over many of the native tribes whom the Phoenician settlers found in Africa. And, unlike Rome up to this time, she had, as trading cities and countries always strive to have, large dominions be- yond the sea. Carthage at this time bore rule over the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, and she had also large possessions in Sicily. But in Sicily a constant warfare was kept up between the Phoenician and the Greek settlements, in which the Tyrants who at dif- ferent times reigned in Syracuse specially distinguished themselves. Such were Geldn^ who reigned at the time of the Persian War, Dionysios, who reigned at the time of the war between Sparta and Thebes, and AgathokliSf who lived in the time of Pyrrhos. As .■■•'v fe THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. [chaf. llLl Tyiants in their own city, these men did many evil things ; still they deserve some honour as champions of the Greek nation against the Phoenicians. Sicily thus became the great battle-field between the Aryan and Semitic races, and it became so still more after the Romans stepped in. The wars between Rome and Carthage also bring out one great point of dif- ference between the two cities. For, while the Romans waged their wars by the hands of their own citizens and allies, the wars of Carthage were mainly carried on by barbarian mercenaries, that is, soldiers serving simply for pay, whom they hired both in Africa and in Gaul and Spain. A state which does this can never hold up for good against one which uses native armies ; and it is a sign of the great wealth and power of Carthage, helped still more by a few very great men who appeared among her citizen^, that Carthage could hold up so long as she did. Carthage had indeed one other great advantage, namely that, as a trading city, she was very strong by sea, while the Romans had as yet had hardly anything to do with naval afiairs. Thus Carthage and Rome were the two great states of the West, and it could hardly fail but that war should spring up between them about something. And it was the more likely, as the island of Sicily lay between them, where the Greek cities which were threatened by Carthage were closely connected with the Greek subjects of Rome in Southern Italy. 13. The First Punic War. — A cause of quarrel was soon found in the disputes among the different towns in Sicily. Rome, as the head of Italy, under- took to protect the Mamertines^ a body of Campanian mercenaries who had seized the town of Mess^ni on the strait. Their enemies were Hieron. King of Syra- cuse — ^for those who were formerly called Tyrants now called themselves Kings — and Carthage. Thus arose the first Punic ^^x^ so called from the Latin ^•1', > V.^l Sl«iK-7- IIL) THE PUNIC WARS. 6S form of the name Phoenician. This war went on be- tween Carthage and Rome for twenty-four years, beginning in B.C. 264, and Hieron had soon to change the Carthaginian alliance for the Roman. During so long a time the two great cities contended with very varied success, the war being chiefly carried on in and about Sicily, though at one time the Roman Consul Marcus Atilius Reguius^ who is one of the most famous heroes of Roman legend, carried the war into Africa. For a long time the Carthaginians had greatly the advantage at sea; but gradually the Romans came to be their match at their own weapons, and at last a great naval victory was won by the Consul Caius Lutatius Catulus^ which made the Carthaginians ask for peace. The First Punic War ended in B.C. 241. 14. Beginning af the Roman Provinces. — This victory over the Carthaginians was the beginning of a new state of things, and gave Rome quite a new class of subjects. For, when peace was made, Car- thage had to give up her possessions in Sicily, and the island, except the part which belonged to Hieron, became a Roman province. This was the beginning of the Roman Provinces^ that is the dominions of Rome out of Italy. Their condition was much worse than that of the Italian allies, for the provinces were ruled by Roman governors, and had to pay tribute to Rome. The Provincials in fact were mere subjects, while the Italians, though dependent allies, were still allies. Though they were bound to serve in the Roman armies and to follow Rome in all matters of war and peace, they still kept their own consti- tutions and no Roman governors were sent to rule them. 15. The Second Punic or Hannibalian War. — ^Twenty-three years passed between the end of the first Punic War and the beginning of the second. But 01 the meanwhile the Romans got possession, rather e4 THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. [CHAf. unfairly, of the islands of Sardinia and Corsica^ which Carthage had kept by the peace. On the other hand a Carthaginian dominion was growing up in Spain under Hamilcar BarkaSy one of the greatest men that Carthage ever reared, his son-in-law Hasdrubal, and his son Hannibal, the greatest man of all, and one of the greatest generals that the world ever saw. Another quarrel arose between Carthage and Rome, when Hannibal took the Spanish town of Sagunfum, which the Romans claimed as an ally. War began in 218, and Hannibal carried it on by invading Italy by land. This was one of the most famous enterprises in all history. Never was Rome so near destruction as in the war with Hannibal. He crossed the Alps and defeated the Romans in four battles, the greatest of which was that of Canna in B.a 216. Many of the Italian allies revolted against Rome, and the war went on in Italy till b.c. 203. By that time the Romans had taken Syracuse, which, after Hieron's death, had for- saken their alliance, so that all 'Sicily was now a Roman province. They had also, while Hannibal was in Italy, conquered the Carthaginian possessions in Spain. Lastly, the Roman general who had been so successful in Spain, Publius Cornelius Scipio, crossed over into Africa,*so that Hannibal had to leave Italy and go back to defend Carthage itself. He was de- feated by Scipio in the battle of Zama in b.c. 202. Peace was now made, by which Carthage gave up all her possessions out of Africa, and bound herself not to make war without the consent of the Romans. That is to say, Carthage now became a dependent ally of Rome. The Semitic races could no longer dispute the dominion of the Mediterranean lands with the Aryans. 16. The Third Punic War.— The last war with Carthage began about fifty years after the second. The Carthaginians were always at variance with their neighbour Massinissa King of Numidia who had m.) tOKQVEST OP CARTffAGM, been an useful ally of Rome in the fonner war. The Romans always favoured Massinissa, and in b.c 149 war broke out again between Rome and Carthage. Three years later Carthage was taken by the younger Scipio, Publius Cornelius Scipio yEmilianus; the city was destroyed; part of its territory was given to Massinissa, and part became the Roman province of Africa, This is an example of the way in which Rome advanced step by step. By the First Punic war Carthage lost territory, but it remained quite independent The Second made it a dependent ally of Rome, but left it free in its internal government The 7}|fnf destroyed the city and made the country a province. It is perhaps hardly needful to say that Africa^ as the name of a Roman province, does not mean the whole continent, but only the immediate territory of Carthage. 17. The First Macedonian War. — We see the same way of advancing step by step in the next great conquest made by Rome, which was going on at the same time as the Punic Wars. This was' the conquest of Macedonia and Greece, Many things were beginning to bring the Romans and the Greeks together, and, when any people began to have any- thmg to do with Rome, however friendly their desJ- ings might be at first, it always ended in the other nation being sooner or later swallowed up in the Roman dominion. The Romans already had Greek subjects in Italy and Sicily. They were now begin- ning to know something of the language and literature of Greece, and to imitate them in writings of their own. For it is about this time that the Roman literature which we now have begins. The Romans now began to have dealmgs with the Greeks in Greece itself; but their first dealings were quite fiiendly. A war broke out with lllyria in b.o. 299, which ended in the island of Korkyra and the cities of Apoll^ia and Efidamnos submitting to Rome. These were l^' fiMM' 66 TITB ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. tCHAT. Greek cities on the lUyrian coast, and they welcomed the Romans as deliverers. Bat Rome had now got possessions on the Greek side of the iEgaean, and the conquest of those lands had really begun. In 215 Philip King of Macedonia made a league with Han- nibal, and in 213 the First Macedonian War began, while the second Punic War was still going on. In this war Philip was helped by the leagues of Achaia^ Akamania, and EpHros^ while Rome found allies in the League of ^tolia^ in Attalos King of Pergamos in Ada, and Nabis Tyrant of Sparta, Since the fall of Kleomen^s, Sparta had been in a state of great confusion, and she had had several wars with the Achaians, in which Phihpoimhii the last great general of Greece, greatly distinguished himself. Peace was at last made in 205, and some changes of frontier were made ; but the chief result of the war was that Rome had now begun steadily to interfere in Greek and Macedonian affairs. 18. The Second Macedonian War.— The first war with Macedonia, like the first war with Carthage, did not affect the position of that king- dom, or of any other of the Greek states, as inde- pendent powers. The Second Macedonian War, which began in b.c. 200, marks another stage in the progress of conquest. The Romans now stepped in to help the Athenians, who were their allies, and who had been attacked by Philip. The iEtolians took the Roman side from the beginning, and the Achaians joined them in 198. In 197 the war was ended by the defeat of Philip at Kynoskephal^ in Thessaly,and the next year, 196, the Roman Consul Titus Quindius Fhtmininus proclaimed the^liberty of all those parts of Greece which had been under his power. Philip thus lost a large part of his territory, and had to become a dependent ally of Rome. And from this time we may count the Greeks allies of KomCi though nominally free, as practieally dependent nL] THE MACEDONIAN WARS, ^ 19. The Conquest of ^tolia. — The ifDtolians now invited the Seleukid King Antiochos the Great to cross over from Asia and attack the Romans in Greece. He crossed over in 192, and several Greek states joined him, but the Achaians held steadily to Rome. In 191 Antiochos was defeated at Thermopylai hy the Consul Manius Acilius GlabriOy and his allies the iEtolians were presently, in 1 89, obliged to become a Roman dependency, being the first within the borders of Greece itself. Rome also took the islands of Za- kynthos and Kephailhtia^ and the Achaian League was extended over all PeloponnSsos. Rome was now really mistress of Greece, and Grecian history from this time consists mainly of her dealings with the states which had practically become her subjects. 20. The Third Macedonian War.— The TTiird Macedonian War^ waged with Perseus the son of Philip, began in 171. Most of the Greek states were now on the Macedonian side, for it had become plain that Rome was much more dangerous than Macedonia. But the Achaians remained allies of Rome, though they were from this time treated with great insolence. The war ended with the victory of Lucius jEmilius Paullus at Pydna in 168. The Macedonian kingdom was now cut up into four commonwealths, all dependencies of Rome. Epeiros was subdued and most of its cities destroyed. 21. Final Conquest of Macedonia and Greece. — ^The Fourth Macedonian War happened at exactly the same time as the Third Punic War, in 149. The Macedonians rose under one AndriskoSy who called himself Philip, and gave himself out as the son of Perseus. He was successful for a time, but he was overthrown in 148, and Macedonia, after so many stages, at last became a Roman province. There were also many disputes between Rome and Achaia, which now grew into a war, and in 146 the Achaians were defeated by Lucius Mummius, and Corinth was r a m. THR ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. \ na?. destroyed in the same year as Carthage. The League was dissolved for a while, and the Achaian cities became formally dependent on Rome. But Athens and several other Greek cities and islands still re- mained nominally independent. The history of these times was written by Polybiosy a leading man in the Achaian League, but who, being a prisoner at Rome, formed a close friendship with the younger Scipio and other chief Romans. He was thus able to look with his own eyes at two different stages of the world's history in a way that perhaps no one else ever could. 22, The Romans in Asia. — Macedonia and Greece formed easy stepping-stones for the Romans to meddle in the a^airs of Asia. By far the greatest of the Macedonian kingdoms in Asia was that of the descendants of Sdmkos^ which for a while took in all Alexander's conquests in Asia. But this great do- minion was cut short in the East about b.c. 256 by the revolt of the Parthians in Northern Persia. They established a kingdom under the descendants of their first leader Ashk or Arsakh^ which in after times was the chief rival of Rome. The eastern provinces of the Seleukid Kings thus fell away one by one, but at the time of the Second Punic War their dominion reached to the ^gaean at one end and stretched far beyond the Tigris at the other. But it must be remembered that there were several states in West- em Asia, both native and Macedonian, like the kingdoms of Pergamos and Biihynia, which did not form part of their dominion. All these states were more or less tinged with Greek culture. We have already seen how Antiochos, called the Great, had crossed over into Greece and had been there defeated by the Romans. The Romans then crossed into Asia, and Antiochos was defeated by Lucius Scipio at Mag- fihia in 189. Antiochos had now to give up all his dominions west of Mount Tauros, and the great dominion of the Seleukid Kings shrank up into a I f K' ifl ' ■ tt.l COATQC/BSTS W AS/A, mere kingdom of Syria. But their capital Antioch on the Oront^s still remained one of the chief seats of Greek culture, and one of the greatest cities of the world. The Romans now became really masters of all Western Asia, though after their manner, they did not as yet formally take any part of the land to diem- selves. What Antiochos gave up they divided among their allies, giving the largest share to Eumen^s King of Pergamos, The kingdom of Eumen^s thus became the greatest state in Western Asia, and his capital, like Antioch, became a great seat of Greek culture and learning. And a little later the cities of Lykia joined together in a free and most wisely managed Confedera- tion, much after the pattern of the Achaian League. But from this time Pergamos, Lykia, and all these Macedonian or Hellenized states looked up to Rome, just as the Greeks in Greece itself had already learned to do. At last in 1 33 Attalos^ the last king of Pergamos, left his dominions to the Roman people, and the greater part of them were made into n Roman province, by the name of the Province of Asia^ the first province that Rome held beyond the ^Egaean. 23. The Romans in Western Europe. Conquest of Cisalpine Gaul. — In all these wars ■ with Carthage, Macedonia, and Syria, Rome had to struggle with enemies on something like equal terms. All wete civilized states, and the Macedonian Kings, both in Macedonia and in Asia* had kept up * the military discipline of Philip and Alexander. We must now see how Rome dealt with the people of the Westy the forefathers of the chief nations of modem Europe, but who then were only brave bar- barians. Her first conquest among these was naturally that of those lands within the Alps which are now reckoned part of Italy, but which were then known as Cisalpine Gaul The Gauls, it will be remembered, had once taken Rome itself, and they had shown themselves dangerous enemies to Rome by helping :if^;^ 10 THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. [CMAf. the Samnites and Etruscans against her. It was no wonder then that the conquest of Cisalpine Gaul began almost as soon as the conquest of Italy was over. The lands south of the Po were won before the first Punic War, and in the time between the first and the second Punic Wars the conquest went on, and several colonies were planted beyond the Po. The Gauls greatly helped Hannibal in his invasion of Italy, but they presently paid dearly for so doing. For, as soon as the second Punic War was over, the conquest of Cisalpine Gaul went on, and was ended by about 191. The land was now full of Roman and Latin colonies, and it soon became a Roman land and began to be reckoned part of Italy. Liguria and Venetia were conquered soon afterwards, so that the Roman power took in all within the Alps, all that we now call Italy. 34. The Conquest of Spain. — Meanwhile the third and most western of the three great peninsulas, that of Spainy was being^dded, like Greece and the neighbouring countries, to the Roman dominion. Spain was the only one of the great countries of Europe where the mass of the people were not of the Aryan stock. The greater part of the land was still held by the Iberians^ as a small part is even now by their descendants the Basques. But in the central part of the peninsula Celtic tribes had pressed in, and we have seen that there were some Phoenician colonies in the south, and some Greek colonies on the east coast. In the time between the First and Second Punic Wars, Hamilcar, Hasdrubal, and Hannibal had won all Spain as far as the Ebro for Carthage. But during the second Punic War, between the years 211 and 206, the Carthaginian territories in Spain were all won for Rome by the Scipios. Rome thus became the chief power in Spain, even before the second Punic War was over, and before she had conquered ail Cisalpine Gaul But Spain has always been a hard nu] CONQUESTS m SPAIN AND GA UL. TI country to conquer, and the Romans had constant wars with the native tribes. Still we may look on the Roman dominion in Spain as finally established in B>c. i33i when the younger Scipio took Numantta, This, it will be remembered, was in the same year as the bequest of Attalos which gave Rome her first Asiatic possession, and Numantia was taken by the same general who had taken Carthage. From this time all Spain was a Roman province, except some of the mountainous parts in the north, where native tribes still remained free. 2^. Beginning of the Conquest of Trans- alpine Gaul. — The conquests of Rome in Trans- alpine Gaulf Gaul beyond the Alps, began a little later. Gaul in the geographical sense, the land between the Rhine, the Alps, the Pyrenees, and the Ocean, was then, as now, peopled by different races, speaking different languages. In the south tlie old non-Aryan inhabitants still held their ground. The districts near the Alps were chiefly held by Ligurians^ while Aquitain^y a name which then meant the land between the Pyrenees and the Garonne, was Iberian* In the centre the Aryan Celts had settled, but the next wave, the Teutons, were most likely ahready pressing upon them, though when our kinsfolk first crossed the Rhine it would be hard to say. The Mediterranean coast of Gaul was fringed by that group of Greek cities of which Jnfassalia was the head. Massalia was a great trading city, and it became an ally, at first a really equal and independent ally, of Rome. This was in 218, at the beginning of the second Punic War. The Romans had once or twice to cross the Alps to defend their Greek allies, and at last, in 125, a Roman province was formed in Trans- alpine Gaul, in the land which has ever since kept the name of Provence. At the same time the colony of Aqua Sextia, now Aix, was founded. As usual, the Roman dominions advanced, and twenty years later fc*-'' 911 THE ROMAIC COMMOfHTEALTH. (cttAf. the Roman province reached as far as Creneva to the north and Tolosa or Toulouse to the west a6. The Cimbri and Teutones.— It is not unlikely that the Romans would now have gone on and conquered the whole of Gaul, if an event had not happened which put a stop for some time to their further progress in those parts. For about this time Gaul was invaded by a vast host of barbarians called Cimbri and Teutones, who came from the North, but about whom there has been much doubt whether they really were of Celtic or of what we call Teutonic race. They defeated several Roman commanders in Gaul, but in 102 the Teuioties were utterly defeated by the Consul Cuius Marius near Aqtm Sextice, and in the next year the war was finished by the two Consuls Marius and Quintus Lutatius Cahtlus overthrowing the Cimbri also at Vercellct in Cisalpine Gaul. This was the same kind of danger from which Rome had been saved long before by Camillus, the danger of being overthrown, not by the chief of a civilized people like Pyrrhos or Hannibal, but by a people who were still altogether barbarous. If any men of our own race had a lumd in this invasion, it gives it a special interest for us ; but, tX all events, as saving Rome from this great danger, the defeat of the invaders was one of the greatest events in Roman history, and Caius Marius is one of Rome's most famous men. But, fully to under- stand the condition of Rome, and especially to under- stand the position of Marius, we must look back a little at the state of things in Italy while these great conquests were going on abroad. It will however be better to keep the details of the internal affairs of Rome, as far as may be, for the special History of Rome, and to speak chiefly of those things which con- cern the relations of *Rome to her allies and subjects. 27. Rome and her Allies. — We have thus seen that, in the space of about two hundred years, from the beginning of the Samnite Wars to the conquest of ttl.) ttL) kOME AM HER ALUES, f^ Numantia ani) the inheritance of the province of Asia, Rome had come to be the mistress of all the lands round the Mediterranean Sea. The whole was not as yet fully annexed and made into provinces, but no power was left which had the least chance of holding against Rome. The only great power with which Rome had had no war was the kingdom of Egypt, There the descendants of the first Ptolemy^ all of whom bore his name, still reigned, and Egypt was the richest and most flourishing of the Macedonian kingdoms, and its capital Alexandria was the greatest seat of Greek learning and science. But when the Romans began to be powerful in Asia, even the Ptolemies, who often had wars with the Seleukids, began to look to Rome as a protector. It was this vast dominion, while it made Rome so great in the face of other nations, which led to the corruption of her constitution within, and at last to the utter loss of her freedom. The form of government which had done so well for a single city wiUi a small territory did not at all do for the govern- ment of so laige a portion of the world. Throughout the* Roman dominions the Roman People was sove- reign ; the Assembly of the People made laws and chose magistrates for Rome itself, and sent out generals and governors to conquer and rule in the subject lands. ^\i^ provincials y and even the alliesy had no voice in settling the affairs of the vast dominion of which they had become a part, and they were often greatly op- pressed by the Roman officers. Meanwhile in Rome Itself the great offices had been gradually thrown open to the Plebeians as well as the PatricianSy and hardly any legal distinction wac left between the two orders. The constitution was therefore really democratic; for the sovereign power lay in the Assembly of the whole People, which made the laws and' chose the magistrates. And, in choosing the magistrates, they also indirectly chose the Senate, as the Senate was mainly made up of men who had held the different magistracies. Still : n THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. [cHAP. the constitution had a great .tendency to become prac- tically aristocratic. For the men who had held great offices, whether patricians or plebeians, began to.form a class by themselves, and their descendants, who were now called ftobleSf began to think that they only had a right to hold the offices which their forefathers had held. Then again the old citizens of Rome were largely cut off in the endless wars, and vazxiy freedmen — that is, men who had been slaves — and strangers got the citizenship, so that the character of the Roiinan People was greatly lowered. And, as every citizen who wished to vote had to come to Rome in his own person, the Roman Assembly had become far too large, and gradually turned into a mere mob. Then again many citizens were wretchedly poor, while rich men had made themselves great estates out of the land which rightly belonged to the commonwealth. Thus, instead of the old political strife hetweQikpatriciafis and plebeians^ there had come, what was a great deal worse, a social strife between the rich and the poor. While Rome had still poweiful enemies to strive against, these evils did not make themselves so much felt ; but, when Rome had nothing more to fear, they began to be very glaring, and men had to seek for remedies for them. And, along with this, the Italian alHes, who had not been raised to Roman citizenship but who had borne a great parf in the wars of Rome, now demanded to be made Romans. The cause of the poor against the rich was taken up by Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus^ in the year 133 ; and the cause both of the poor and of the allies was taken up by his brother Caius in 123. But both of them were murdered by the oligarchs, who wished to keep all power and wealth in their own hands. 28. The Social War.— After the death of the Gracchi the ill will between the nobles and the people, and the further ill will between the Romans and the Italians, still went on. The next great leader of the popular party was Caius Marius^ of whom we have m.1 v*". "',':•" '\'f^.y'::'X''^ '-fW.^ tXLl T^E SOCIAL IVAH. 75 already heard as the conqueror of the Teutones. He was not of any high family, but was bom at Arpinum, an old town of the Volscians, whose people did not obtain the full Roman citizenship till i88. His sympathies therefore lay with the people against the oligarchs, and still more with the Italians against either the nobles or the mob of Rome. He was an excellent soldier, and first began to distinguish himself in the war mth/ugurthaj who had usurped the kingdom of Numidiay whose'iCing Massinissa had been so useful to Rome in the Punic War. This war began in iii, and in io6'Marius brought the war to an end and led Jugiutha in triumph. Very soon after came the inva- sion of the Cimbri and Teutones and Marius' great success against them. He was now the chief man in Rome and the leader of the popular partj'. But the complaints of the Italians still went on, and in the year 90 most of them rose in arms. This was called the Social War^ that is the war with the Socii ox Allies of Rome. It was ended in the course of the next year by all the allies, except the Samnites and Luca- nians in the south of Italy, submitting and being made Roman citizens. The Samnites, whom it had cost Rome so much trouble to conquer two hundred years before, still held out. Marius held a command in this war, and so did Lucius Gortteltus Sulla^ who had been his lieutenant in the war with Jugurtha ; but Marius did little or nothing, and went far to lose his old credit, while Sulla showed himself the rising man of Rome. Presently a Civil War, the first in Roman History, broke out between Marius and Sulla^ in which the war with the Samnites, which had never quite come to an end, merged itself. At one stage of this war Ser- ioriufj a Roman general on the Marian side, held Spain almost as a separate power, having a Senate of his own, which he said was the real Roman Senate. In 83 Sulla came back from his wars in the East, of which we shall speak diicctly, and the Samnites joined with f )6 TBB ROHiAN COMMONWRALTff. fcHA*. the Marian party, and began openly to declare that Rome must be destroyed. Rome had never been m such danger since quite the old times, and there can be no doubt that Sulla, who now saved Rome and crushed the Samnites and the Marian party, fixed the future history of the world far more than Caesar or anyone else who came after him. Sulla now took to himself the supreme power at Rome, with the title of Perpetual Dictator. But, when he had quite rooted out the Marian party, and had passed a series of laws to confirm the dominion of the aristocracy, he gave up his power, and lived as a private man till he died soon after. Rome had now passed through her last trial within her own peninsula. The Samnites, who had withstood to the last, had been utterly cut off, and the other Italians had become Romans. 29. The Mithridatic War. — While Rome went through this great trial at home, she had to undergo another almost as great abroad. She had to wage a war greater than any that she had' waged since the conquest of Carthage and Macedonia. One of those states in Asia Minor which had arisen, as was before mentioned, out of the ruins of the old Persian Empire, was Pontos, the Kingdom of the Euxine Sea — Pontos in Greek meaning the Sea^ and specially the Euxine Sea. Its Kings were of native blood, but, like all their neighbours, they made a certain pretence to Greek culture, and the acquisition of the province of Asia by the Romans made them neighbours of Rome. Ponto9 was now ruled by Mithridatis the Sixth or the Great, A war with him broke out while the Social War was going on in Italy, and Mithridates succeeded in win- ning all Asia. He then ordered all the Romans and Italians who were settled in Asia to be massacred in one day, which the people everywhere did very wil- lingly — they had made themselves so hateful Then his generals, like Antiochos, crossed over into Greece, where many of the Greeks took his side. Sulla then. m.) %. tlLj MITHRiDATIC AND SYRIAN WARS, T/^ in 87, came into Greece, stormed Athens, won two great battles at Chairdneia and Orchomenos in Boeotia, and then, being called home by the news of the suc- cesses of Marius, patched up a peace by which Mithridat^s gave up all his conquests. Such a peace was not likely to last, and, as soon as he had a good opportunity, Mithridat^s began the war again. This was in 74, and the second war between him and the Romans, first under Lucius JJctmus LucuUus and then under Cnceus Pompeius^ called Magnus or the Great, lasted ten years. It ended in the overthrow of the Pontic kingdom, which was split up in the usual way, and in the complete re-establishment of the Roman power in Asia. 30. The Conquest of Syria. — In the histoxy of Rome one conquest always led to another, an^ after the overthrow of Mithridat6s, the Roman arms were carried by Pompeius much further towards the East than they had ever gone before. Tigranh, King of Armentaf who had helped Mithridat^, was utterly humbled ; Syria, the remains of the great Seleukid kingdom, was partly made a Roman province, partly divided among dependent princes. Pompeius also took Jerusalem in the year 63, and Palestine was henceforth tmder the Roman power, though it was often held by vassal Kings, such as the Herods in the New Testament The Roman power now reached from the Ocean to the Euphrates, and the Roman Commonwealth may be looked on as having taken the place of Alexander and his successors in Asia, as the champion of the West against the East. But each increase of dominion laid it open to fresh enemies. The Parthian Kings became formidable enemies, and indeed rivals, of Rome. We shall hear a great deal of the wars and other dealings between Rome and Parthia. But the first attempt of the Romans against Parthia, which was made by Marcus Lucinius Crassus in the year 54, was utterly unsuccessfiil. Crassus was %, <'i '■,'•« r« TffE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH, [CHA». nL] defeated and killed, and the more part of his army were made prisoners. 31. State of Things at Rome. — Meanwhile it became more and more plain how imfit the government of the single city of Rome was to rule all Italy and the world. New discontents arose out of the admission of the Italians to the Roman citizen- ship, and the commonwealth was torn in pieces by the disputes of the leading men. We now come to the famous men of the last days of the Commonwealth, — Pompeius and Crassus, of whom we have already heard, Marcus Tullius Cicero the great orator, Marcus Porous CaiOy and the most famous of all, Caius Julius Casar, We shall say more of their doings at home in the special History of Rome. It may here be enough to say that, as far as natural gifts went, Cassar was perhaps the greatest man that ever lived, being great in all ways, equally as soldier, statesman, and scholar. He was of an old patrician house, but he was connected with the family of Marius, and he took up the cause of the people not honesay, like the Gracchi, but to serve his own ends. The whole Commonwealth was now utterly corrupt; still Pompeius and Cicero, though there were plenty of faults on their side, did strive to defend the law and constitution, such as it was, while the Roman people had sunk into a mere mob, which men like Caesar could use as they chose. 32. Csesar's Conquests in Gaul. — In the year 59 Caesar was Consul, and in the next year he went into Gaulf which had been given him as his province, and where he spent about seven years in conquering the whole of the country. Instead of a small part of southern Gaul, the Roman dominion now reached to the Rhine and the British Channel. In this war the Romans first had to deal both with people of our own race and with the land in which we now live. Our own people, the En^lish^ were stUl io their HL] CONQUESTS OF CMSAR, 79 old land by the Elbe^ and Caesar never came near them. But there were several Teutonic tribes in north- eastern Gaul^ and in the year 55 Caesar crossed into Gtrmany itself, but he did not conquer any part of the land. In the same year 55, and again in 54, he crossed over into Britain; but he made no lasting conquest, and left no Roman troops behind him. Britain was then inhabited by a Celtic people, the Britons^ who gave their name to the island, and whom our fore- fathers, when they came into Britain long after, called the Welsh or strangers. Both the German and the British expeditions were made rather to show the power of Rome than to make conquests which it would have been hard to keep. The Rhine thus became the boundary of the Roman province of Gaul ; that is to say, the Germans on the left bank of the Rhine became subjects of Rome, along with the Iberian and Celtic inhabitants of Gaul, while the Germans on the right bank remained free. This con- quest of Gaul by Caesar is one of the most important events in the history of the world. It is in some sort the beginning of modem history, as it brought the old world of southern Europe,' of which Rome was the head, into contact with the lands and nations which were to play the greatest part in later times, with Gaul, Germany, and Britain. 33. The Civil War of Pompeius and Caesar. — Caesar had been dl this time winning fame and power in Gaul, in order to make himself master of his country. Things got into great con- fusion while he was away, which was just what he wanted. At last, in the year 49, Caesar openly rebelled, and another Civil War now began, in which Pompeius commanded the armies which were faithful to the Commonwealth. But now that the Roman dominion took in so large a part of the world, a civil war be- tween Romans was not necessarily fought in Italy. The power of Pompeius lay chiefly in the lands east '• M lo TffE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH, [cma». of the Hadriatic; so, while he was gatheriog hii forces there, Caesar marched to Rome and got the People to make him, first Dictator, and then Consul for file year 48. Then he crossed over to Epeiros, and presently defeated the army of Pompeius and the Senate at Pharsalos in Thessaly. Pompeius was soon after murdered in Egypt, and in about three years' time Csesar was able to overcome all who with- stood him in Africa, Spain and elsewhere. The battle of Pharsalos is one of the most important battles in history, as it really ended the Roman Commonwealth, and began the Roman Empire, which we may almost say has gone on ever since. The forms of the Com- monwealth lasted long after, but from this time the Roman world always had a master. Caesar was now master of the Roman dominions, and was made Dic- tator for life. He was also called Imperator (the word which is cut short into Emperor), a title which in some sort belonged to every Roman general, but which Caesar was allowed to use in a special way. But he was not satisfied with being Dictator and Impe- rator ; he wished to be King and to wear a diadem. This was more than men could bear; so many of the senators, among whom the chief were Caius Cassius and Marcus Junius Brutus, conspired and slew him in the senate-house (March 15th, b.c. 44). Caesar was a Tyrant ; he had overthrown the freedom of his country and had seized a power beyond the laws. But it should not be forgotten that for the provinces it was a distinct gain to get one master instead of many. The real lesson to be learned from the overthrow of the Roman Commonwealth is that states which boast themselves of their own freedom should not hold other states m bondage. 34. The Second Civil War.— After the death of Caesar followed a time of great confusion, lasting for thirteen years. Brutus and Cassius, who had killed Caesar, stood up for the Commonwealth and there was in.] IIL] BBGINNING OF THE BMPIRB, 8l a war between 'them and the partizans of Caesar under Marcus Antonius, one Of Caesaf s officers, and Caesar's, great-nephew, Caius Octavius, Caesar had adopted Octavius as his son ; so his name became Caius Julius CcRsar Octavianus. These two, along with Marcus ^milius Lepidus, formed what was called a Triumvirate for settling the affairs of the Commonwealth. Mean- while Brutus and Cassius, like Pompeius, had gone to the East, and in 42 the battle oiPhilippi in Macedonia was fought betwe 1 them and the Triumvirs, and the hopes of the party of the Commonwealth were crushed. Presently Antonius professed to make war upon the Parthians, but he did nothing great, for he was utterly bewitched by Kleopatra^ Queen of Egypt, the last of the dynasty of the Ptolemies. War pre- sently followed between Caesar and Antonius, and Antonius and Kleopatra were altogether defeated in a sea-fight at Aktion^ near Ambrakia, on the west coast of Greece (31). Antonius and Kleopatra presently killed themselves, and Egypt became a Roman pro- vince. All the lands round the Mediterranean had now come under the Roman dominion, though here aind there there were principalities and commonwealths which had not been formally made into provinces. 35. The Beginning of the Empire. — There was now no one left to withstand Caesar, and the Senate and People gradually voted him one honour and office after another, which made him practical^ master of the state, though the outward forms of the Commonwealth went on as before. But he was never called King, or even Dictator, like his uncle, for that title had become almost as hateful as that of King. But the new title of Augustus was voted to him, and all who succeeded him in his power called themselves CcRsar and Augustus. But he is specially known as Augustus CcBsar. This is the beginning of the Romaa Empire, for, of the various titles borne by Augustus and his successors, that of Emperor (Itnpe' o ■ I 8s Tff£ HEATHEN EMPIRE, [CHA?. rator) or chief of the army was the one which prevailed in the end. The rest of the history of Europe is the hiptory of the Roman Empire in one shape or another, and we shall see that the title of Roman Emperor went on almost to our own times. The first Emperor then was Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus, and we may count the Empire as beginning in b.c. 27, when he received the title of Augustus. The last Emperor was J^hincis, King of Germany^ who gave up the Empire in A.D. 1806. The differences between the early and the later Emperors we shall see as we go on, but there was a continuous succession between them without any break. CHAPTER IV. THE HEATHEN EMPIRE. Extent of the Roman Empires distinction of the Latin, Greeky and Oriental Provinces (i) — nature of the Roman dominions j all the inhabitants of the Empire gradually become Romans (2) — ? ngn of Augustus j steal- thy introduction of Monarchy (3) — wars with the Ger- mans; victory of Arminius (3) — Roman Literature afid Art (4) — the Claudian Emperor i; conquest of Britain; the Empire passes from the Ccesurian family (5) — the Flavian Emperors; wars with the Jews, Batavians, and Dacians (6) — the Good Emperors; origin of the Roman Law (7) — Emperors chosen by the army; dis- tinction of Romans and Barbarians; the Illyrian Emperors (8) — the Tyrants (9) — restoration of the Kingdom of Persia ; wars between Persia and Rome (10) — wars with the Teutonic natiofts; first appearance of the Goifis (io) — origin of Christianity ; its advance and persecutiotis (11) — reign of Diocletian; his division of the Empire (12) — last persecution of the Christians ; Constantine embraces Christianity (12) — Summary {i^, I. Extent of the Roman Empire. — ^At the time when the government of Rome practically iv.l EXTENT OP THE EMPtRE. changed from a commonwealth to a monarchy, the Roman power had spread over all the lands which could be looked on as forming the civilized world. These lands fkU naturally under three heads, the distinction between which will be found to be of great importance as we go on. In the Western provinces, as Gaul and Spain, to which we may add Africa, where Carthage had been restored by Caesar as a Roman colony, the Romans appeared, not only as a conquering, but as a civilizing people. Roman customs and the use of the Latin language took firm root; the whole civilization of these lands became Roman, and the native tongues and customs lived on only in out-of-the-way comers, such as the mountain land of the Basques in Spain and southern Gaul. But in Greece, and in those lands whither the Greek speech and customs had been carried by Greek colonists or by Macedonian conquerors, the Greek civilization, the older and the higher of the two, still held its ground. These lands became politically Roman, but they remained socially and intellectually Greek, and Greek still went on as the language of literature and polite life. But in the further East, in the lands beyond Mount Tauros, in Syria and Egypt, though those lands had been ruled by Macedonian Kings, and though great Greek cities had arisen as their capitals, the native languages and religions and general habit of thought never died out, nor were they driven, as in the West, into out-of-lhe-way corners. It is only in a very superficial sense that these lands can be said to have ever become either Greek or Roman. This distinction between what we may call the Latifiy the Greeks and the Oriental provinces must be carefully borne in mind throughout It was not a distinction made by law, but it was one which had most important practical results. Speaking roughly, the Roman dominion was bounded by the Rhine, the Danube, the Euphrates, and the great deserts of G 2 if THk HEATHEN EMPIRE. tcHAF. Africa. It did not reach c[uite so far as this at the very beginning of the Empire, but the few outlying lands which were needed to bring it to those bound- aries were added during the reigns of Augustus and the other earlier Emperors. And, within those bound- aries, we may look on the Latin provinces as reaching from the Ocean to the Hadriatic, the Greek as reach- ing from the Hadriatic to Mount Tauros, and the Oriental as taking in the lands beyond. 9. Nature of the Roman Dominion. — It must always be remembered that the establishment of the Roman Empire was not a formal revolution. The old republican forms went on in Rome, and the relations between the ruling city and the allied and subject states were in no way changed. But as the Empire, as the power of one man, became step by step mor-. own hand in the year 68. The Empire now passec' quite away from the Caesarean family; those who followed no longer pretended to belong to that family, even by adoption ; yet all who succeeded to the Empire still went on calling themselves Casar and Augustus to the very end. 6. The Flavian Emperors. — A time of con- fusion followed on the death of Nero. The armies in various parts of the Empire chose their own generals to be Emperors, and several of them obtained possession of Rome, and were acknow- ledged by the Senate and People for a little while. Thus Galbay OthOy Vitellius, succeeded one another very quickly, each reigning a little time and then being killed. At last, in the year 70, a more permanent power was established by Titus Flavius Vespasianus^ who kept the Empire till his own death in 79, and was succeeded by his sons Titus and Domitian in succession, the first time that an Emperor had been succeeded by his own son. Vespasian made a mucl) better ruler than any of the Emperors who had gone before him, and a long time of comparative peace and good government now began. In Vespasian's time the Jews^ who had rebelled in the time of Nero, were subdued by his son Titus, and Jerusalem was destroyed. And during the times of confusion, the Batavians, a people near the mouth of the Rhine, very nearly akin to ourselves, had revolted and tried to set up an empire of their own in Gaul. This movement top was put down about the same time as that of the Jews, The power of Vespasian and his family was now firmly established, but it is to be noticed that the Flavian Emperors did not, like the Julian and Claudian, spring from any of the great and ancient families of Rome. This is a sign of the way in which old distinctions were breaking down. Titus reigned but two years after the death of his father ; he was cailod the Delight oj Mattkindy but his brother Domitian* who succeeded f ' w.l THE GOOD EMPERORS. 89 him, and who professed to be a careful and severe assertor of the laws, gradually became as great a tyrant as any of the Claudii. In his time the conquest of Britain was completed by Agrtcola, and Rome found a new enemy to strive against in the DacitLns beyond the Danube. Domitiaii was killed in 96, and the Flavian dynasty ended with him. 7. The Good Emperors. — We now come to a time which in some sort continues the Flavian dynasty. The Roman world had now got thoroughly used to the rule of a single man, and there can be no doubt that the provinces were better off under the rule of the Emperors than they had been under the Commonwealth. And, from the accession of Vespasian onwards, there was a great feeling in favour of legal and regular government, of strict observance of the law and of respect for the authority of the Senate. It was about this time that Law began to be a matter of special study, and that the great Roman lawyers began to put together that system of Roman Law known as the Civil Law^ which has been the groundwork of the law of most parts of Western Europe except England. Several famous writers, both in Greek and Latin, flour- ished at this time, especially the great historian Tacitus, The Emperors of this time, who are often called spe- cially the Good Emperors^ formed a kind of artificial family, like that of the first Caesars, each man being succeeded, not by his real son, but by one wh4m he had adopted. Five thus reigned in order, Nerva from 96 to 98, Trajan from 98 to 117, Hadrian from 117 to 138, Antoninus Pius from 138 to 181, and Marcus Aurelius from 161 to 180. Of these Trajan was the first Emperor who was bom out of Italy, being a native of'Spain. It was in his time that the Empire reached its greatest extent He had wars with ^ the Parthians, from whom he won several provinces in the East, so that for a moment the Empire reached the Caspian Sea. But this was only for a moment, for thes^ ,»,*».««*!r o CHAP. IV.] EMPERORS CHOSEN BY THE ARMY. 91 Eastern conquests were at once given up by Trajan's successor Hadrian. And in Europe also Trajan won the province of Dacia beyond the Danube. But this too, though it was kept longer than the conquests in the £ast, was not a really lasting possession. From this time the Romans made no more great conquests, for they commonly found that they had enough to do to defend their own frontiers. Thus Marcus had to wage wars with the Germans along the Danube. He was a philosopher, who left some excellent moral writings behind him. With him the time of the Good Emperors ended. For he was succeeded by Commodus^ who was his own son, and not merely a son by adop- tion. He was the first Emperor who was bom during the reign of his father. But he proved very unlike his father, being, for vice and cruelty, one of the worst princes that ever reigned, and was at last murdered in 192. 8. Emperors chosen by the Army. — A time now followed, lasting for nearly a hundred years, from 192 to 285, during which there is no need to go tlurough all the Emperors by name. Many of them reigned only a very short time. The soldiers set up and slew Emperors as they chose, and the Senate was obliged to make the usual votes in favour of those who were thus set up. It was quite a rare thing for the Empire to pass from father to son, or by fair election by the Senate, or in any other peaceful and lawful way. For a little while there was an attempt to keep up a dynasty or succession of Emperors in the same family, or at least in the same name; for Septimius SeveruSj who reigned from 193 to 211, and his sons called themselves Antoninus^ though it does not seem that they were descended from, or even adopted by, any of the Emperors of that name. Under Severus the government became still more military than it had been before. He was succeeded by his wicked son ^ntoninusy who was commonly called Caracalla, |ii'' 9» THE HEATflEN EMPIRE, [CHAr. And, after he was murdered in 217, two Syrian youths, Elagabalus and Alexander Severus^ who were said to be Caracalla's sons, were set up in succession, who both took the names of Aurelius and Antoninus. Of these Elagabalus was one of the worst, and Alexander one of the best, of the Emperors. In the time of Caracalla the old distinctions of RomanSy LatinSy Italiansy and Provincials were quite wiped out. Ro- man citizenship was now given to all the free inhabi- tants of the Empire, so that a man in Britain or Greece or an)rwhere else called himself a Romany as in the East men have done ever since. It therefore hap- pened that many of the best and bravest Emperors, especially towards the end of this time, were what would before have been called Barbarians, That word now meant those who were altogether outside the Empire. Many of the best of these later Emperors came from Illyria. Deciusy ClaudiuSy Aureliany and others, brave and wise men who rose by their merits, followed one another in swift succession, and had much fighting with the different enemies of Rome. At last one of the greatest of their number made a complete change in the constitution of the Empire, which we must presently speak of. 9. The Tyrants. — While Emperors were thus set up and put down by the soldiers, it often happened that there were several Emperors or claimants of the Empire at once ; that is to say, the armies in different parts of the Empire had each set up its own general to be Emperor. And towards the end of this period it often happened that one of these pretenders con- trived to keep some part of the Empire for several years, so that there were Emperors reigning in Gaul or Britain or some other province or provinces only. But these local Emperors must not be mistaken for national rulers of the provinces where they reigned ; they claimed to be Roman Emperors, and they of cQurse aimed at getting the whole Empire, if they iv.l HrAliS WITH THE PERSIANS AND GERMANS, 93 could. Sometimes the reigning Emperor found it convenient to acknowledge them as colleagues ; if they were unsuccessful, they were called Tyrants, As in old Greece a T3a-ant had meant a man who unlaw- fully seized on kingly power in a commonwealth, so now it meant a man who called himself Emperor, but who was held not to have a lawful right to the title. In the time of GaUienus^ who reigned from 260 to a68y the whole Empire was split to pieces among various pretenders of this kind. One of these should be specially noticed, because it is the only case among all these divisions of anything like a real national state being founded. This was at Palmyra in Syria, where one Odenathus was acknowledged as Emperor, and after him his wife Ztnobia, one of the most won- derful women in history, reigned as Queen of the East, But this new kingdom was put down by Aurdian^ one of the ablest of the Illyrian Emperors, in 271. 10. Wars with the Persians and Germans. *— We have seen that a new state of things begins after the reign of Trajan, for from that time the Romans had to fight, not as in former times to make new conquests, but to keep what they had got already. The wars went on along the Eastern frontier, with the Parthians as long as their power lasted, and after that with a new enemy who stepped into their place. These were the real old Persians^ who had been kept in bondage ever since the time of Alexander, but who rose up about the year 226 and founded a new Persian kingdom. Their first king was Ardeshir or Artaxerxes^ whose descend- ants, called the SassanidcB^ ruled over Persia more than four hundred years. Many of the Emperors had to wage war with the Persians, and among them Alexander Severus and Valerian, the father of Gallienus, who reigned from 253 to 260. He was taken prisoner by the Persians, and died in captivity. At a later time the Romans gained territory from the Persians and then lost it again, and so things went on for some V ^^ f %\ ' ' '"1 I - k j^ % ^ THE HEATHEN EMPIRE. ages; Rome and Persia were always fighting and making small conquests from one another, but, till a much later time, neither dealt any real blow at the main strength of the other. But the wars which the Romans had to wage in the West were of quite another kind. They have a more special interest for us, because they '^v'ere wars with our own kinsfolk, and they also mark ine of the greatest stages in the history of the world. For it was now that the race came to the front which was to take the place which had been held, first hy the Greeks and then by the Romans, as the leading race of the world. From the time of Marcus Aurelius onwards the Teutonic nations began really to threaten the Empire. The chief business of the Roman armies now was to drive the Germans back ; and, if they made any conquests, it was now merely winning back lands which had been lost. We now first hear of the famous nation of the Goths, a people whose speech was very nearly akin to our own, apd also of the Franks, whose name has in later history been more famous still. The great lUyrian Emperors had much to do in fighting both with the Persians and with the Goths and other Teutonic people. And Claudius, who reigned before Aurelian from 268 to 270, won a great victory over the Goths, who for some time afterwards kept more quiet. But Aurelian thought it wise to give up Trajan's province of Dacia, so that the Danube again became the boundary. We now come to a time of great changes in the internal state of the Empire. II. The Growth of Christianity. — All this while, almost from the very beginning of the Empire, a new religion had been growing up in the world. Our Lord Jesus Christ was bom in the reign of Augustus and was crucified in the reign of Tiberius. Ever since that time Christianity had been gradually preached in most parts of the Empire, and the Christians were now a large and important body. The Christians were often cruelly persecuted, but it should be carefully \ ' rt.] THE GROWTH OF CHRISTUHin. noticed that, as a rule, it was not the worst Emperors who most persecuted them. The truth is that the heathen religion of ancient Rome was looked on as part of the constitution of the state. Other Gods might be worshipped, if only the old Gods did not lose their worship ; but a religion which taught that the Gods of Rome and of all other nations were alike false, and which strove to win over all mankind to that belief, was looked on as dangerous to the Empire. Those Endperors therefore who were most zealous to keep up the old laws and customs of Rome were com- monly the most anxious to put down the new faitli, and we therefore find that the Christians really suffered most under good and reforming princes like Trajan and Marcus Aurelius. Still the Church constantly advanced and made converts, for men had now but little real faith in the old Gods, and their worship was mainly kept up as a matter of state policy. And Christianity also had no small influence even on those who did not accept it as a religion. A higher standard of morals and higher notions of the divine nature became common even among the heathens, and many a philosopher who professed to hate and despise Christiani^ was a better man for Christianity having been preached. At last it became plain that a deadly struggle must come between the old faith and the new. Those who held that the greatness and glory of Rome were bound up with the worship of the old Gods of Rome saw that the time was come when a stand must be made. The Christians were now grown so power- ful that several of the later Emperors, especially Decius and Valerian^ looked on them as dangerous to the state, and severe persecutions went on during their reigns. After that time, there was a lull ; the Christians were not molested for a long time, and their doctrine spread among all classes of people everywhere. At last, at the time which we have now reached, among many important changes, came the last and greatest persecution t 11 II THE HEAThMiN EMPIRE, (CHilP. 12. Diocletian and his Successors. — During this time the notion of the Roman Commonwealth, the forms of which had been so carefblly kept up under the earlier Emperors, had almost wholly died out The Empire had become a military monarchy, in which the power of the prince rested mainly on the support of his soldiers. And another change gradually hap- pened. All the inhabitants of the Empire were now equally Romans, and the Emperors had to move about wherever the needs of constant warfare called them. Italy therefore ceased to be any longer distinguished from, the rest of the Empire, and even the importance of Rome itself, as the centre of the Empire, was greatly lessened. These great changes, which had already taken place in fact, were now formally acknowledged In the year 284 the Empire fell to Diocletian^ another of the able Illyrians of whom so many had risen to the throne. He began quite a new order of things. There were to be two Emperors, with the title of Augustus^ reigning as colleagues, with two CcBsars under them. Breaking roughly, this fourfold division answered to Italy itself and the neighbouring countries, the Western provinces (Gaul, Spain, and Britain), the Greeks and the Oriental provinces. Many of the forms of royalty which had been unheard of before were now brought i0to use, thou/jh even now no Roman prince dared to uike the title of King^ and the Senate and Consuls still went on in name. But Rome was now quite forsaken as a dwelling-place of the Emperors, who found it better to live near the frontiers, whence they could keep watch against the Persians, Germans, and other enemies of the Empire. Thus Diocletian and his col- league Maximian lived respectively at NikonMeia in Asia and at Milan, while one of the Ccesars was com- monly placed in Gaul or Britain, at Trier or at York, In 303 Diocletian abdicated, and made his col- league Maximian abdicate also. But towards the end of their reign they put forth a series of cruel edicts n.) JtElGf^ OF DiOClBTiAf^. «T against the Christians, and the heaviest of all the Jpe^ lecutions now took place. But the Church hved through all attempts to destroy it, and its greatest worldly success followed soon after this great perse- cution. The system of Augusti with C^sars under them was not regularly kept up for any long time* A series of civil wars followed, till at last the whole Empire was joined together again in the hands of Constantifie called the Great. He began to reign at York in 306 ; after that he reigned at Trier, till he obtained the whole Empire in 323 and kept it till his death in 337. He was the first Emperor who acknowledged himself a Christian, and other important changes were made in his time, which will be spoken of in the next chapter. 13. Summary. — We have thus gone through the history of heathen Rome both under the Common- wealth and under the Empire. It began as a single city j it gradually gained the dominion, first over Italy, and then over all the lands round the Mediterranean Sea, and it gradually admitted its subjects and allies to its own citizenship. When the government of a single city became quite unable to act as the govern- ment of the whole civilized world, all power gradually came into the hands of one man, and the practical holding of all power by one man gradually changed the state into an avowed monarchy. Then, when all the inhabitants of the Empire were alike Romans, the city of Rome became, as it were, lost in the Roman Empire, and other cities began to be seats of government. At the same time new enemies, namely our own kinsfolk, were beginning to threaten the Empire, and a new religion, that which we ourselves believe, was begin- ning to supplant the old religion of Rome. We have thus come to a time of very great and speedy change, and to the first beginnings of the state of things which still goes on in modem Europe. There is in some things a greater change between the first Emperors and the Emperors after Constantine than there was between the old Kings of Rome and the first Emperors. THE EARLY CHRISTIAN RMPiRE. [. all the Emperors after him were Christians, and by the end of the fourth century after Christ, the Christians were, to say the least, the great majority in most parts of the Empire. Under the Emperors Gratiu)i and TheodosiuSf who reigned between them from 367 to 395, the public profession of paganism was quite put an end to. 3. The Teutonic Invasions. — We have now come to the time when the nations of our own race began to make their way into the Empire. We have seen that the different German tribes had been most dangerous enemies of Rome ever since the time of iiugustus, and that many of the most valiant Em- perors had much ado to defend the Empire against them. So it was still ; Constantine and Julian had to fight hard against the Germans, and so had VcUentinian^ the next Emperor but one after Julian. But infill these wars, though the Germans were constantly driven back, yet they grew stronger and stronger, while the Romans grew weaker and weaker. Some of the Germans made their way into the Empire in arms : others took service in the Roman armies, and oflen received grants of land as their reward. In both ways they learned something of Roman civilization and Roman military discipline, without losing anything of their own strength and courage. Tresently it became not uncommon for a Gothic or other Teutonic chief to be at once King of his own people and to bear some title as a Roman general or magistrate, in such cases he and his people served the Emperors or fought against them, pretty much as they thought good, or according as they were well or ill treated. And at the same time they learned something of the religion of Rome, so that most of the Teutonic nations became Chrstians, before they settled in the Empire or very soon after. But it was for the most part in its Arian form that they embraced Christianity. Thus we find Barbarians^ who for th^ most part however were v.l THE TEUTONIC INVASIONS. K^ Christians, settled within the Empire ; and before long they began to occupy whole provinces. We have now come to the time when the' Teutonic settlements and oonquests become the mo3t important facts in our history. It often happens that the migrations and victories of one nation are caused by some other nation pressing upon it. And so it happened now. The movements of the Teutonic nations into tho Roman Empire which had akeady begun was greatly hastened and strengthened by the pressure of Tura- nian tribes who were pushing their way from the East. The chief of these were the Huns, who had been them selves. driven out of China in the extieme east of Asia, and who were now making their way into Europe. Though the Huns did not themselves enter the Em* pire till long afterwards, and though they never actually settled within it at any time, yet this migra- tion of theirs had a most important effect on the state of the Empire, by the stir which it caused among the Teutonic nations. 4. The Qoths. — The first Teutonic people whom the Huns met were the Goths, who had lately formed a great kingdom in the land north of the Danube, which had been Trajan's province of Dacia, but from which the Romans had withdrawn under Aurelian. They were beginning to become Christians of the Arian sect, under the teaching of a Bishop named WuljUa or Ulfilasy whose translation of the Scriptures into the Gothic tongue is the oldest Teutonic writing that we have. The Hi^ns now came upon them like a storm j some of the Goths submitted to the new in- vaders, while others were allowed to cross the Danube and settle within the Empire. This was in 376. The first Valentinian was now dead : the«reigning Emperors were his brother Valens in the East and his sons Gratian and Valentinian in the West. The Goths were so ill-treated by the officers of Valens that they took to arms; a battle was fought near ZTa^/z/a^/A; It '-' 104 THE BARL Y CffRISTlAN EMPIRIC, \miit. In 378, in which Valens was killed. After this the Goths were never driven out of the Empire, though many of them took service in the Roman»armies. But strangely enough, when the Goths came to found a lasting kingdom, it was not in the eastern part of the Empire into which they had first passed, but quite away in the West. This was a most wretched time for the Empire ; for, besides the movements of the Barbarians, various Emperors or Tyrants rose and fell in different provinces, especially in Gaul and Britain. Things went on a little better during the reign of TheodosiuSy who is called the Greaty and who reigned, first as a colleague of the sons of Valentinian, and after- wards alone, from 379 to 395. Theodosius is famous for the penance to which he submitted at the hands of Saint Ambrosey the Archbishop of Milan, who re- fused him admittance to the church till he had repented of a massacre which he had ordered among the tur- bulent people of Thessalonica. Theodosius was the last Emperor who reigned over the whole Empire before it was divided and dismembered ; as soon as he died it began to fall in pieces. He left two sons, of whom Honorius reigned in the West, and Arcadius in the East. The WesUGothSy under their famous king Alaricy presently revolted, and, though they were kept; in check for a while by the Roman general StilichOy at last, in 410, they took and sacked Rome, which had never been taken by a foreign, enemy since the time of Brennus the Gaul. Alaric died soon after, and the next Gothic King Athaulf made a treaty with the Empire and passed into Gaul and Spain. German tribes of all kinds were now pressing into Gaul, and from Gaul into Spain, and rival Emperors were rising and falling. Athaulf went in name as a Roman officer to restore the province of Spain to the Empire. In reality this was the beginning of an independent Gothic kingdom in Spain and southern Gaul, and the way in which this kingdom began is a good exaiLpU ♦.) fWE LATSS SMfSKOilS. 10) r, S S I I of the way in which the Roman Empire, its laws and titles, still exercised a powerful influence on the minds of those who were really its conquerors. 5. End of the £mperors in Italy. — Meanwhile the Western Empire was being cut short in all quarters by the settlements of the Franks^ Burgun- dians, Vandals^ and other Teutonic tribes in the different provinces, settlements which we shall speak of again presently. No Teutonic kingdoms were founded in the East; but, while the Western pro- vinces were falling off one by one, the East had much ado to hold up against the attacks of die Persians. Presently the Romans of both Empires, and the Goths and other Teutons who had settled within the Empire, were all threatened by' the Turanian hordes under the famous Atiila, King of the Huns. He went on for a while ravaging and conquering far and wide, till at last he was defeated in the great battle of Chdlons in 451 by^the united powers of Romans, Goths, and Franks. ' This was one of the most important battles in the history of the world; it was a struggle for life and death between the Aryan and Turanian races, and Christianity and civilization, and all that distinguishes Europe from Asia and Africa, were at stake. The names therefore of AetiuSi the Roman general, and of the West-Gothic King Theodoric who died in the battle, are names which should always be held in honour. It is need- less to go through the names of all the Emperors. of this time : the only one in the West who is worth remembering on his own account is Majorian^ a wise and brave man, who reigned from 457 to 461. At last, in 476, the succession of the Western Emperors came to an end, and the way in which it came to an end marks the way in which the names and titles of Rome were kept on, while all power was passing into the hands of the Barbarians. The Roman Senate voted that one Emperor was enough, 106 TUB EARLY CHRISTIAN EMPIRE, [chap. T.l and that the Eastern Emperor Zeno should reign over the whole Empire. But at the same time Zeno was made to intrust the government of Italy, with the title of Patrician^ to Odoacer, the chief of the German mercenaries in the service of the Western Empire. Thus the Roman Empire went on at Constantinople or New Rome, while Italy and the Old Rome itself passed into the power of the Barbarians. Still the Roman laws and names went on, and -we may be sure that any man in Italy would have been much sur- prised if he had been told that the Roman Empire had come to an end. We shall presently see what im- portant events came of this long keeping on of the old Ronian names and feelings. 6. Settlements of the Burgundians and Franks. — It was through these settlements of the Teutonic tribes within the Roman Empire that several of the chief nations of modem Europe arose. We may perhaps call the Spanish kingdom of the West-Goths, of which we have already Tspoken, and which began about 414, the first of the kingdoms of modem Europe, the first which arose out of the break- ing up of the Roman Empire. For some while it was not merely a Spanish kingdom, for it took in all Aquitaine or Gaul south of the Loire, and the capital of the West-Gothic kings was at Toulouse, Meanwhile the Burgundians and Franks^ whose names are so' famous in later history, began to settle, at first under a nominal subjection to the Empire, in other parts of Gaul. The Burgundians settled in the south- eastern part of Gaul, where their name has lived on in several kingdoms and duchies. And, towards the end of the fifth century, the kingdom of the Franks took firm root in Gaul under their King Chlodwig or Clovis — the same name which was afterwards written Ludwigy Louis y and Lewis — who reigned from 481 to 511. He became a Christian, and not only a Chris- tian but a Catholic, which greatly favoured his con- V.) TBE GERMANS W GAUL, 107 quests, as all the other Teutonic Kings were Arians. The dominions of the Franks now took in part of their old country in Germany and also their conquests in Gaul And they have given their name to parts of both countries ; for part of Germany is still rolled Frankm or Franconiay and part of Gaul is still called France, In Latin both names are the same, Francia, But the Franks gradually spread their conquests over a much larger part both of Gaul and of Germany, bringing the different nations of both lands into more or less of subjection to them. TVus in Gaul they conquered the kingdom of the Burgundians and won Aquitaine from the West*Goths, leaving to them only a small part of Gaul on the coast of the Mediterranean. But it was only in Northern Gaul that the Franks really settled. It was out of these settlements of the West-Goths, Franks, and Burgundians that all the modern states of Germany, Gaul, and Spain have arisen. 7. The Vandals and the East-Goths.— But there were other Teutonic settlements in the Empire which did not in this way give birth to modem states and nations, because the Emperors were, as we shall presently see, able to join them agtiin to the lEmpire. Among these were what we may call the worst and the best of the Teutonic settlements, those namely of the Vandals in Africa and of the East-Goths in Italy. The Vandals were for some time settled in Spain, but in 429 they crossed over into Africa and founded a kingdom of which Carthage 7i2c& the capital The Vandals were Arians,vand they cruelly persecuted the Catholic Romans whom they found in the country, and this seems to have been one reason among others wh> their kingdom did not last. The kingdom of the East-Goths in Italy was very different. Their King Theodoric entered Italy in 489 by a com- mission from the Emperor Zeno, overthrew Odoacer, and reigned himself from 493 to 526. But, though he n ! I / ' CRAF. ▼.] RBTGN OF THEODORfC. 10^ reigned in Italy, he was never called King of Italy, but only King of his own Goths. Though he was an Arian, he in no way persecuted the Catholics, and he let the Romans keep their own laws and all that they were used to. Every year he named one of the Consuls, while the other was named by the Emperor at Constantinople. Italy under Theodoric was the most peaceful and flourishing country in the world, more peaceful and flourishing than it had been for a long time before or than it has ever been since till quite lately. The dominions of Theodoric stretched far beyond Italy to the north, east, and west, and he ruled the West-Gothic kingdom in Gaul and Spain as guardian for his grandson. But this great dominion of the East-Goths did not last any more than that of the Vandals in Africa, and none of the modern states or nations of Europe can be said to spring from either of them. 8. Origin of the Romance Nations.— We thus see that new states arose out of the settlements of the Teutonic nations in the western provinces of the Empire. And we may say that not only new states arose, but also new nations. For, out of the mixture of the Roman inhabitants and the Teutonic settlers, there arose a new state of things, which was neither Roman nor Teutonic, but a mixture of the two. The Goths and the other Teutons who settled in Italy, Spain, and Gaul were by no means mere destroyers who swept everything before them. They let the Romans keep their own l&^a and language and part of their lands. And in Spain and Gaul those nations, like the Goths and Burgundians, which had been con- verted by Arian Bishops gradually came over to the Catholic faith. Moreover, as the Romans had all the learning and civilization on their side, the clergy were for a long time almost always Romans, and they kept the property and influence which they had before, and indeed added to it Thus the t ;o nations were I ' N no THE EARLY CHRISTIAN EMPIRE, [chap. gradually mixed together; and the conquerors, as being the smaller in number, gradually came to adopt a great deal of the laws and manners, and especially the language, of the conquered. Thus there arose the modem Spanish and Italian nations, and the two nations of Gaul, the people of Provmce and Aquitaine south of the Loire and the French to the north. But of the langu-^ges which were thus formed we must speak a little more fully. 9. Origin of the Romance Languages.— By the time the Teutonic settlements in Western Europe took place, Latin had become the common speech of Gaul and Spain no less than of Italy. The old languages which were spoken before the Romans came lived on only in a few out-of-the-way comers^ like the country of the Basques. The language therefore which the Teutonic settlers found prev^ing, and which they had to learn in order to get on with the people of the provinces, was Latin. That is to say, it was such Latin as was spoken at the time, which of course was not quite the same as the I^atin of the great Roman writers of earlier times, and the language no doubt differed more or less in different provinces. And, as the Germans learned to speak Latin, the language naturally became still more cor- rupted, and a good many German words crept into it. Thus the common language of Italy, Gaul, and Spain became a kind of corrupt Latin, which men used in common speech ; in writing they used fairly good Latin for ages after. No one thought of writing in the common speech, which began to be called Roman, in distinction from the Latin which men wrote. Thus, out of the various dialects of this Roman language, several of the chief languages, of modem Europe very gradually arose. These are those which are called the Romance languages, those namely which have their origin in Latin. The chief of these are Italian and Spanish in their diflerent dialects, Provettfal \^ AT. ir.l THE ROMANCE LANGUAGE, in Southern, and French in Northern, Gaul. These languages had their beginning at the time of which we are now speaking, but it was not until long afterwards that men began to understand that quite new languages had really grown up. And, besides these four great Romance languages, a fiflh, distinct from any of them, which is still specially called Romansch^ is spoken in the eastern parts of Switzerland, in what was ancientW the Roman province of Rcetia, And, stranp'^r sti the lands which formed the province of Dacia, which the Romans held only from the time of Trajan to that of Aurelian, a Romance language is still spoken, and the pe(^le still call themselves Roumans. Of the fourth great Latin-speaking country, Africa, we have nothing to say in this way, for, as we go on, we shall see how in Africa everything Roman and everything Teutonic was utterly swept away. 10. High and Lov^ Dutch. — Such was the way in which the Teutonic nations established themselves in the western provinces of the Continent. Meanwhile other Teutonic settlements of quite another kind, and made by another branch of the Teutonic race, were going on elsewhere. This is a good place to stop and explain that there are two great divisions of the Teutonic or Dutch people, the High and the Low, It must always be remembered that, though we now commonly use the word Dutch to mean only the people of Holland, yet the word is always used in German, and was formerly used in English, to mean the whole of the German people. And, as the Germans called their own speech Thioiisc^ Deutsch, or Dutch^ meaning the language which could be understood, those people whose language could not be understood were called Welsh or strangers. The High-Dutch are those who live inland, in the south of Germany away from the sea, while the Low are those who live near the sea, by the mouths of the great rivers Rhine, Weser, and Elbe. Into the greater part of their country the Romans had i \ , iiiijpirtiriMiiii ^1 I '-' lit rm EARLY CHRiSTFA^ SMPiRE. [CBAP. never come since the da3rs of Drusus and German!- cusy and for a long time they knew very little of the Romans, and the Romans knew very little of them. They had not served in the Roman armies, and they knew nothing about the Christian religion. They were therefore in quite a different state from the other tribes who had made their way into the continental provinces ; for these last knew something of the civil- ization and religion of Rome, even before they en- tered the Roman dominions. Of the earlier Teutonic settlers the greater part belonged to the High-Dutch division, though the language of the Goths had much more in common with the Low. But, though the Low-Dutch and Gothic languages are thus closely connected, yet the settlei lents of the Goths have historically nothing to do wi th the settlements of the Low-Dutch. Those Low- Dutch settlements which have had most effect on the history of the world, and in which we have the deepest interest, were made in quite another part of the Empire, and in quite another way. The settlements of the Goths and Franks were mainly made by land, while the great settlement of the Low-Dutch tribes was made by sea. II. The English Conquest of Britain. — We have seen that in the island of Britain, of which the greater part became a Roman province in the time of Agricola, the Romans found a Celtic people, the Britons, But in the north of the island, and in the other great island of Ireland, there was another Celtic people, the Scots or Irish, The Romans never even tried to conquer Ireland, and they never conquered the whole of Britain. The nothem part of what is now called Scotland always remained free. In the rest of the island the Britons were conquered, and the land became a Roman province. But in the fourth century, when the power of Rome began to get weaker, tlie free Celts in the northern part of the island, the Picts and Scots, began to pour into the Roman pro- !:■ ▼J HIGH AND LOW DUTCH, IIS t' ^ %i ' i vincei and other enemies began to come agsunst the land from the east by sea. These last were no other than our own forefathers. For we ourselves, the English people, belong to the Low-Dutch stock, and we came into Britain from the old Low- Dutch lands by the Elbe and the Weser. It was in the latter part of the fourth century that these Low-Dutch tribes, and, ftfst among them, the Saxons^ began to make attacks on Britain by sea. The Saxons are also heard of as pressing into Gaul by land, and they even made one or two small settlements there ; but their attacks on Britain by sea were those which led to the greatest results. The first great Saxon invasion was ia the time of Valentinian, but it was driven back by Theth dosiusy father of the Emperor of that name. But when the Roman power began altogether to give way in the reign < f Honorius, the Roman troops were withdrawn from Britain, about' the year 410, and the island was left to shift for itself. Th« Teutonic invasions now naturally began again, and now it was that our fore- fathers began to settle in the land where we now dv^elL No doubt men of many different Low-Dutch tribes joined in these expeditions ; but there were three tribes which stood out above the others. These were the Angles^ the Saxons^ and ih^ Jutes. The Celts, the Britons and Scots, have always called us Saxons^ most likely because it was the Saxons who made the first attack in Valentinian's time. But, as soon as the different Teutonic tribes in Britain began to join to- gether into one people, the name by which they called themselves was Angles or English^ and the land was called Anglia or England. Thus it was that our own people, the English people, came from their old homes on tiie mainland, and won for themselves new homes in the isle of Britain. They knew nothing and cared nothing for the laws or language or arts of Rome. They did not, like the Goths and Franks, adopt the language and religion of the Romans; they swept ^1 ■f ■% ; - ^^fPP^W^BHl^ 114 THF ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST, (CHAF. everything before thera, and the Britons were either killed, or made slaves, or took refuge in the western parts of the island. The Germans everywhere called the people of the Roman pro\dnces, whose tongue they did not understand, Welsh^ and that word in German is still applied to the French and Italians. But in Britain of course the name meant the Britons ; we called, and still call them, the Welsh, and the part of the island which they still keep we call Wales, The first English Idjigdom founded in Britain was that of Kent, a kingdom of the Jutes, founded in 449, two years before Aetius and Theodoric overthrew Attila at Chilons. Presently other kingdoms, Anglian and Saicoii, were founded, and, in little more than a hundred years, 'he greater part of that land which had been the Roman and Christian province of Britain had become the heathen land of the Angles and Saxons, Thus it was that our English people settled in the land which thus became England, settling in quite another way from that in which the other Teutonic nations had settled in the other parts of the Empire. Our forefathers kept their own language and their own religion. They did not become Christians till about a hundred and fifty years after the Enghsh Conquest began, and then they were not converted by those whom they had conquered. And the tongue which we still speak, though, like other tongues, it has gone through many changes, is still in its main substance the old Teutonic speech of our fathers. 12. Summary. — Thus, in the course of the fourth and fifth centuries, the Roman Empire gradually be- came Christian. The capital was moved to Constan- tinople, and, when the Empire was divided, Constanti- nople always remained the capital of the Eastern part. Meanwhile the Goths, Franks, and other Teutonic nations pressed into the Empire, and out of their settlements the Romance nations of modern Europe arose. The invasion of the Huns was driven back by -S'^l.J»L-> the united powers of Romans and Teutons. The series of Emperors in the West came to an end, anO the Empire was nominally reunited. Theodoric the Goth reigning in Italy. Meanwhile the Low-Dutch tribes, the Angles and SaxonSy were settling in Britayt^ and making the beginning of K)ur own English nation. CHAPTER VI. THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST. Continuation of the Roman Empire at ConstantinqpU (i) — condition of the Eastern Church (i) — reign of Justinian^ his legislation and buildings (2) — etploits of Belisarius and Narsisj recovery of Africa and Italy (2) — Lombard conquest of Italy ; relations of Rome and Venice to the Empire (2) — wars with tM Turks and Avars (3) — greatness of Persia under thi two Chosroes; Persian victories of Heraclius (3) —rist of the Saracens; preaching of Mahomet j spread of his religion (4) — the frrf Caliphs; their wars with thi Empire; conquests of Syria and Egypt; sieges of Con' stantinople (5) — Saracen conquests tn Africa ^ Spain^ and Southern Gaul (5) — Saracen conqw.st of Persia; breaking up of the Saracenic dominion; position of the later Caliphs {6) — the Isaurian Emperors; dispute about images; decline of the Imperial yower in Italy (7) — advance of the Lombards in Italy (8) — the Merwings in Gaul; they are succeeded by the Karlings (8) — Pippin invited into Italy; he becomes Patrician of Rome (8) — Charles the Great conquers the Lombards; his election as Emperor (8, 9) — Summary (10). I. The Roman Emperors at Constanti- nople. — The succession of Roman Emperors thus came to an end in the West, but the Empire still went on at Constantinople. The Emperors who reigned there still claimed to be sovereigns of the whole Empire, though they had no real power west of the Hadnatic. I 2 ''SSvUk'H^nlu ,<•!«« •ffl!i,j«J*..Wi«« ,»■ t't6 Tff£ ROMAk EMPJRk IJST TIIB EAST, [chaf. The parts of the Empire which were really under their dominion were chiefly those which either were .originally Greek, or where the Greek language and civilization had been spread by the conquests of Alexander. That is, they ruled over the lands which I have before spoken of as the Greek and the Oriental provinces. Still it must be borne in mind that these Emperors were strictly Roman Emperors. The Imperial succession went on without any break ; the laws and titles of Rome were kept up, and, thrugh Greek was the language which was most spoken, yet Latin remained for a long rime the official language, that whi<:h was used in drawing up laws and public dociunents of all kinds. Therv*? is no need to say much about the Emperors who reigned at Con- stantinople between the death of Theodosius the Great and the nominal reunion of the Empire in 476. Their time was mainly taken up with wars with the Persians, in which the Romans gen^ rally got the worst, with the invasion of Attila and his Huns, and with ecclesiastical disputes within the Empire. The people of the Oriental provinces especially, who had never thoroughly become either Greek or Roman, were con- stantly putting forth or adopting doctrines which the Catholic Church, both of the Old i\nd of the New Rome, looked on as heretical. Several Councils of the Church were held during this time, and this was the time of some of the most famous of the Greek Fathers^ especially the great pre acher Saint John Chrysostom^ that is, the Goldenmouthy who was Patiiarch of Con- stantinople. The Patriarchs of Constantinople or New Rome were the chief Bishops in the East, but, as the Emperors were always at hand, they never won anything like the same power which the Bishops of the Old Rome won in the West. Thus, thougn the history of the Eastern Lmpire is largely a history of ecclesias tical disputes, yet we never find there the same kind of disputes between Church and State, bet^\een the 1 •'''''■ .'V ,V-' ■ VI.1 THE EMPERORS AT CONSTANTINOPLE, n? ecd'^siastical and the temporal powers, which make up so ^icat a part of Western history. a. The Recovery of Italy and Africa. — ^As the claims of the Emperors who reigned at Con- stantinople to mb over all the dominions of their predecessors wer rW : ' * ( X:! .Wwt .:U:Ui^\-^K->Hjei^ .fcii-scf Alui i f?7'" ■^^**VT«Vvhich in fact meant to conquer the whole world. They everywhere gave men the choice of three things, Koran^ tribute^ or sword; that is, they called on all men either to believe in Mahomet and to accept tlie Koran^ a book which contained his revelatio7:is, to submit to the Saracens and pay tribute, or e^se to fight against them if they could. By th'^se means the religion of Mahomet was spread ever a large part of Asia and Africa, and we shdl see that it made its way into Europe also. As Christianity became the religion of he Empire and of the nations which learned their civilization from either the Old or the New Eome, so Mahometanism became the religion of the Arabs, and of those nations who were conquered by them or learned their civilization from them. Wc may call it the religion of the East^ as far as we have to do with the East, just as Christianity is the religion of the West, It has spread at different times as far as from Spain to India. The people of all the countries which were conquered by the Saracens and other Mahometan powers had either to embrace the Mah'ometan religion or else to buy the right to practise their own, whether Christian or heathen» by the payment of tribute. 5. Wars between the Saracens and Romans. — As soon as all Arabia had been joi^^ed together under the authority of Mahomet, he and his followers began to spread tiieir power over the neigh* bouring countries ; that is, of ^ourse, mainly over Sie dominions of Rome and Persia. Mahomet himself died in 632, before any serious attach was made upon either, and lie was succeeded in his power by rulers called his Caliphs or Su::essors, the first of whom was his father-in-law Abu-Bekr. The Caliphs were at once spiritual and temporal rulers, much the same as if ^\ 1 / ▼1.1 COKQUESTS OF THE SARACENS, "3 Christendom the same man had been Pope and Em- peror at once. Under the first two Caliphs Abu-Bekr and Omar, the Roman provinces of Syria and Egypt were conquered between the years 632 and 639. Now it should be remembered that these two were the provinces in which Greek and Roman civilization had never thoroughly taken root, where the mass of the people still kept their old languages, and where men were always falling away into forms of belief which were counted heretical according to the faith both of the Old and New Rome. In these provinces there- fore men may well have deemed that they had little to lose by a change of rulers. lu followed then hat, though the Saracens had to fight several hard battles against the Roman armies in Syria, yet they met with no general resistance from the whole people, and in Egypt they met with no resistance at all. The great cities of Antioch and Alexandria, as well as Jerusalem ^ were thus lost to the Empire. But in the lands on this side of Mount Tauros, where the influence of Greek culture and Roman law was more deep and abiding, the Saracens never gained any lasting footing They often invaded the country, and twice, in 673 and 716, they besiege J Constantinople itself, but they made no abiding conquests. In Africa too, which had been far more thoroughly Romanized than Syria and Egypt, they met with a long resistance. Their invasions began in 647, but Carthage was not taken till 698, and the whole country was not fully subdued till 709. From no part of the Empire have all traces either of the Roman dominion or of the Teutonic settlement of the Vandals been so utterly swept away as froin Africa. From Africa in 7 10 the Saracens crossed into Spain, and in about three years they subdued the whole land, except where the Christians still held out in the mountain fastnesses of the North. They conquered also a small part of Gaul, namely the pro- viace of Narbcnns or Septimania, But this was thq A k'*i; tttAT. yn.) EXTteNt OF TUB CALtPHATR, tSf end of their conquests in Western Europe. In 73a they were defeated in the great battle of Tours by the Frank Charles Mariel^ of whom we ^hall presently hear again. In 755 they were altogether driven out of Gaul, but it took more than seven hundred years more to drive them out of the whole of Spain. 6. The Saracen Conquests in the East. — The Saracens thus lopped off the Eastern and Southern provinces of the Empire, so that tJie Romans no longer held anything in Africa, nor any- thing in Asia beyond Mount Tauros. Meanwhile they were pressing on with equal vigour against the other great empire of Persia. In about nineteen years, from 632 to 651, the whole kingdom of Persia was conquered, and the native dynasty of the Sas- sanides^ which had reigned in Persia smce the time of Artaxerxes, came to an end. Persia now gradually became a Mahometan country. The Saracens thence pressed northwards and eastwards into Sind^ the most western part of India, and into the Turkish lands beyond. the Oxus. For a short time the whole of this vast dominion held together, and a single Caliph was obeyed in Spain and in Sind. But, before long, disputes and civil wars arose among the Saracens themselves, as to the right succession of the Caliphate, and in 755 their empire was divided, and was never joined together again. Spain was lost, and in the East the Turkish tribes were pressing into the Saracenic empire, very much in the same way in which the Teutonic tribes had pressed into the Empire of Rome. The governors of the different provinces gradually made themselves independent, and various dynasties, chiefly Turkish, arose, whose obedience to the Caliph became quite nominal Various sects also arose among the Mahometans, just as they arose among the Christians, and each sect looked on the others as heretics. There were opposition Caliphs in Spain and in Egypt; but those who gave themselves out as the orthodox fol- :* < ' • ■'-■'•■iJi' f f tl6 rK« ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST. [CIU». lowers of Mahomet always looked up to the Caliph who reigned at Bagdad. So the Caliphs may be looked on as keeping something like the power of a Pope after they had lost the power of an Emperok. 7. The Loss of Italy. — The descendants of Heraclius went on reigning till about the end of the seventh century. Then came a time of confusion, till at last, in 718, the Empire fell to a valiant man named Leo^ a native of Isauria^ whose descendants reigned after him till the beginning of the ninth century. The second siege of Constantinople by the Saracens was then going on, and it was mainly owing to his valour and wisdom that the invaders were beaten back. This defeat of the Saracens by Leo is really one of the greatest events in the world's history ; for, if Constan- tinople had been taken by the Mahometans before the nations of Western Europe had at all* grown up, it would seem as if the Christian religion and European civilization must have been swept away from the earth. But, if Leo thus secured the Empire towards the East, his dealing in religious matters did much to weaken its power in the West. Though Spain and Africa had been lost, the Emperors still kept Rome and all that part of Italy which was not conquered by the Lom- bards^ as well as all the great islands of Sicily ^ Sardinia^ and Corsica, The Italian possessions of the Empire were ruled by an Exarch or governor, who lived, not at Rome but at Ravenna, Thus, as neither the Emperor nor his deputy lived at Rome, the power of the Popes or Bishops of Rome grew greater and greater. At last, during the reign of Leo, another religious dispute broke out, about the worship or reverence paid to images and pictures in churches. This worship Leo held to be idolatrous, and so did his son Constantine, called Koprdnymos, who succeeded him and reigned from 741 to 775, and who also was a valiant warrior against the Saracens. The party who thought with them were called Iconoclasts or breakers K-: ..-:; rtro the final division of the Empire, the Mahometan power was divided in much the same way. The first four Caliphs, Abu-Bekr, Omar, OthmaUy and Alt, were ali among the immediate friends or kinsmen of Mahomet. Tlien came the dynasty of the Ommiads, who reigned at Damascus. But in 750 they were overthrown hj the descendants of Abbas, the uncle of Mahomet, ^ho founded the dynasty of the Abbassides, by whoni i>ip seat of their dominion was after a while moved to Bui>* dad on the Tigris. But a prince of the Ommiad family K 2 132 THE FRA^ktSH MMP^RE. [chAp. Abd-al-rahman by name, escai)ed to Spain, and waa the founder of the dynasty of tl|ie Ommiads oiCordovc,, These princes at first called tlAemselves only Emir or prince, but afterwards they tiook the title of Caliph, and from the beginning they were the enemies of the Abbassides. Thus there were: two rival Empires among the Christians and two riv»il Caliphates among the Mahometans ; and, as was tcJ be expected, each of the Christian powers was at erimity with the Mahometan power which was its own n«eighbour and :^ good terms with the Mahometan powei!* at a distance. Tlie Caliphs of Cordova were the natural enemies of the Western Empire, and the Caliphs of Bagdad were the natural enemies of the Eastern Empire. But there was com- monly peace and friendship between the Western Empire and the Eastern Caliphate and between the Eastern Empire an«l the Western Caliphate. And, just as the two Empires not only parted asunder from one another, but etich split up into various kingdoms, so the two Caliphates gradually split up also. Many Mahometan powers arose, which professed at most a nominal allegiance to the Caliph either at Bagdad or Cordova. And some of these powers went on con- quering at the^expense of the Christians. In the course of the ninth century independent Saracen powers arose in the great Mediterranean island*? of Sicily and Crete, which had iip to that time belonged to the Eastern Empire. \^ Spain itself the Saracens never conquered quite the whole of the country, as the Christians always maintained their independence in the mountains of the North, whence they gradually won the whole peninsula back again. In the ninth century then the four great pow'i^s of the civilized world were the two Christian Enipires and the two Mahometan Caliphates. The jgntish Islands were independent of all, standing alone in being both Christian and independent. The other parts of Europe which acknowledged neither Emperor nor Caliph were still heathen and barbarous. <^. TO] DOMINIONS OF CHARLES THE GREAT. IJ3 3. Charles the Great. — The first Frankish King who became Roman Emperor, the* first man of 'Teutonic blood who was called Caesar and Augustus, was, as we have said, Charles the son of Pippin, called Karolus Magnus or Charles the Great, In after times he became A great subject of French romance, in which he is sralled by the French name of Ch arlem as[ nf^ Under him die power of the Franks rose to Ss highest pitch. Francia^ the land of the FrankSy took in all Central Germany and Northern Gaul. Besides this, Charles more thoroughly established the Frankish dominion over Southern Caul and Southern Germany, that is over Aquitaine and Bavaria^ and also over Armoricay die north-western comer of Gaul. Here a great num- ber of the Welsh from the Isle of Britain had settled when their country/ was conquered by the English. Thus the land was known as the Lesser Britain or Britannyy and the Celtic language, which had perhaps never quite died out, was kept up by their coming. Charles also subdued the German people to the north o.' his own Francia, that is our own kinsmen, the Saxons who had stayed behind in Germany and had not gone into Britain. They were still heathens, but he forced them to embrace Christianity. He thus became master of all Germany and Gaul. And, as we have seen, as Emperor and King of the Lombards he held the greatest part of Italy, and he had also Spain as far as the Ebro. He had also much fighting with the nations to the east and north of GenAany. To the north la/ the Scandinavian nations, called the NorthMen, of whom we shall have presently to speak more at large. Of these Charles had a good deal of fighting with the Danesy and he brought them into some degree of sub- mission .to the Empb-e. To the north-east of Germany beyond the Elbe lay the Slavonic nations who were spoken of in the first chapter, who grew up into the different nations of the Wends ^ the Poles , and the Czechs or Bohemiansy all of whom had at different timej|f • "VjrSBiBKOiH!;i.' ', '.>(' 1./!,' ■M CHAP, vn.] IMfV/S THB PIOUS, ni rL, and to make submission to the Empe of whose country has long formed part of Germany. To the south-east were other Slavonic nations who had been allowed to settle on the frontiers of the Eastern Empire. Between these two branches of the Slaves, in a great part of modem Hungary, the Turanian people of the Avars had fixed themselves. With all these border nations the Empeior Charles had much fighting, and most of them were brought into more or less of submission. Under him then the Western Empire was at a greater height of power Aan it had ever been since the division after the death of Theodosius, and in all his vast dominions Charles did what he could to encourage learning and religion by promoting learned men, founding bishoprirVs and monasteries, and mak- ing laws for the government of his Empire. He first united Germany under one head, and he won the rank of Roman Emperor for the German King. Like Constantine arid Theodosius, he thought of dividing the Empire among his sons, but, as all his sons, except Lewis, sumamed the Pious, died before him, the whole Empire passed at *his death in 814 to that one son Lewis. 4. The Prankish Kingdoms. — So great a do- minion as had been brought together under Charles the Great needed a man like Charles himself to keep it together. The second Frankish Emperor Lewis was a good but weak man, and his sons were always rebelling against their father and quarrelling with one another. Several divisions of the Empire were made during his lifetime, and after his death, his dominions were, after much fighting, divided in 843 among his sons Lothar, Lewis, and Charles. Lothar was Em- peror, and, as such, he reigned in Italy, and he was meant to have at least a nominal supremacy over his brothers. For his own kingdom he took Italy and a long narrow strip of territory reaching from the Mec^iterranean to the Northern Ocean, and taking in 136 THE PRANKISH EMPIRE, [CHAP. 1' what is now Provence at one end and Holland at the other. Part of his kingdom spoke German and part Romance. To the east of him his brother Lewis, who is called the German^ reigned over a purely German kingdom, the lands between the Rhine and the Elbe. Charles reigned in Gaul to the West of Lothar. On Lothar's death Italy passed to his son the Emperor Lewis the Second^ while a second Lothar reigned in tf e borderland of Germany and Gaul. From jvir be n the kingdvjm of two Lothars, this land was? call c i Lotharingia^ and part of it still keeps the L JUi du form of Lothringenox Lorraine. Just in the same way ^^ arles's kingdom was at first called Karolingia^ only the one name has gone out of use, while the other has lived on. But the different king- doms which were now formed had no regular names. All the different Kings were Kings of the Franks, much as in earlier times there had been several Emperors at once. There now came a time of great confusion, during which the different kingdoms were split up and joined together again in various ways. But there was still always one King who was Emperor, though he soon lost all real power over the others. And all the Kings were of the house of the Karlings, save only :n the Burgundian land between the Rhone, the Saone, and the Alps, where Kings of other houses reigned, a*'"' which was called the Kingdom of Bur- gundy or Aries. At last, in 884, all the Prankish kingdoms except Burgundy were joined together under the Emperor Charles the Fat. But in 887 all his kingdoms agreed to depose him, and each king- dom chose a King of its own. And the kingdoms which were now formed began to answer more nearly to real divisions of nations and language than had I hitherto been the case. Thus from this time the jtem and Western Franks were never again united, ind the word Francia henceforth has two meanings. tastem or Teutonic Francia was the old Frankish laud -..^-, ▼n.] THR FRANKTSH KINGDOMS, >S7 \ ! in Germany, forming part of the Eastern Kingdom. Western or Latin Francia was the land between t^e I oire and the Seine, where men spoke Romance a ! not German, and which formed part of the We^) *■. t Kingdom. Between them lay Lotharingia^ the boru.;r land, takmg in modem Belgium. This had. no longer a King of its own, but it was often disputed between the Eastern and Western Kings, the Kings of Germany and Karolingia. In South-eastern Gaul the Burgun- dian Kingdom went on, sometimes forming one kingdom, sometimes two. And in Italy, during the first half of the tenth century, t' -^e were several rival Kings, some of whom got to be c wned Emperors. But they had no pojver out of >a\^ md not much in it And it must be remer ' Tv i that all this time Southern Italy still belonged to le Eastern Emperors, and that Sicily had been cor ^uered by the Saracens. 5. The End of the Ka.iings in Germany. — After the division in 887 the Eastern or German Kingdom still stayed for a while in the family of Charles the Great. For the East-Franks chose as their King Amzilf, who was a Karling, though not by lawful descent. But the Western Franks in Karolingia chose OdOy Count of PartSy who had been very valiant in defending his city against an attack of the North- men, of whom we shall hear presently. But King Amulf was the head King, and King Odo of Paris did homage to him for his crown ; that is, he became his mauy and promised to be faithful to him. Amulf afterwards went to Rome and was crowned Emperor. But the German crown did not stay long among the Karlings. The line of Amulf died out in his son LewiSy called the Child, and then the Eastern King- dom fell to men of other families, connected with the Karlings only in the female line or not at all. From this time the Kingdom of Germany went on as a separate kingdom, but we shall soon see that it had a great deal to do with the other kingdoms which arose j-'"''^. 'T ^JWT^ — ' f^ "> 'ZIUBSSSSH.'SHaitimxn 1 li CHAF. VII. 1 BEGINNING OF FRANCE. w - out of the breaking up of the Prankish Empire. And it had much to do in other ways with the Slavonic and Turanian people to the East, and in the end it greatly extended itself at the cost of its Slavonic neighbours. 6. Beginning of the Kingdom of France. — After the election of Odo of Paris to the Western Kingdom, there followed a hundred years of shift- ing iO and fro between his new family and the old family of the Karlings. Sometimes there was a King of one house and sometimes of the other. The Karlings still spoke German, and, when they held the kingdom, their capital was Laouy in its north-eastern comer. The family of Odo were called Dukes of the French, «,nd they spoke French, as we may now adl the Romance speech of Northern Gaul, and their capital was Paris. Their Duchy, the Duchy of France — that is. Western or Latin Francia — was, even when its Dukes were not Kings, the most powerful state north of the Loire. But whichever family held the crown, the Kings had very little power south of the Loire. For, in these times of confusion, the Dukes and Counts^ who at first were only governors of the different provinces, both in the Eastern and Western King- doms, had grown up into hereditary princes, paying a merely nominal homage to the King, whether he leigned at Laon or Paris. The princes north of the LDire, the Counts of Flanders, the Dukes of the Normans (of whom we shall say more presently), the native princes of Britanny, and the Dukes of Burgundy, were often at war with the Kings, and with one another. These Dukes of Burgundy held the northern part of Burgundy, that of which Dijon is the capital ; this did not form part of the Kingdom of Burgundy, but of the Western Kingdom or Karol- ingia. South of the Loire, where men spoke, not French but Proi engal, the Dukes of Aquitaine and Gasconyt and the Counts of Toulouse and ijarcelowi{ t ' U0 THB PRANKISH EMPIRE. [chap. m. »:.^;.> had hardly anything to do with the Kings at all. The most famous among the Karolingian Kings at Laon was Leivis the Fourth^ called From-heyond-sea^ because he had been brought up by his uncle King /Ethehtan in England. He had much striving with Hugh the Greatf Duke of the French, the nephew of King Odo, who refused the crown more than once, but who never had any scruple about rebelling against the King. But on the death of the last Karolingian King at Laon, Lewis the Fifths Hugh Capet ^ the son of Hugh the Great, was chosen King in 987. This was the real beginning of the modem Kingdom of France, The Duke of the French was now King of the French. Paris became the capital of the King- dom, and, as the Kings of the French got hold of the lands of their vassals and neighbours bit by bit, the name of France was gradually spread, as it is now over the greater part of Gaul. 7. The English in Britain. — We have thus seen how the kingdoms and nations of Germany, Italy, Burgundy, and France were formed by the breaking up of the great Frankish Empire. Mean- while our own English nation was growing up in the Isle of Britain, which formed no part of the Empire, and which men spoke often of as a world of itself. We have already seen how the three Low-Dutch tribes, the Angles, Saxons ^ and fuies, settled in Britain, how they drove the Britons or Welsh into the western part of the Island, and how, as they gradually became one people, the whole nation was called Angles or English, Tliey formed a great number of principalities in Britain, among the chief of which were the Kingdom of the Jutes in Kent, the oldest of all, the Kingdom of the West-Saxons, which began in what is now Hampshire and gradually spread over all South- western Britain, the Kingdom of the Mercians in the middle of England, and the Kingdom of the North- humhrians, which, sometimes under one King^ some- >■■ ^J>V?*.MMf:W^.a.^frWM>fj»La.Wh f w-WrifeBg \miiM^- . r.f^^ : "ifV'™ l^f^ ftt] TffS ENGLISH IN BRITAIN 141 timesunder two, stretched from the Humberto the Firth of Forth. The Kingdoms of the South-Saxons^ East' SaxonSy and East-Angles should also be noticed, but they were less powerful than the other four. AH these kingdoms had much fighting with one another, as well as with the Britons or Welsh to the west of them and with the other Celtic tribes of the Picts and Scots to the north beyond the Forth. Sometimes cne of their Kings gained a certain authority over the other king- doms ; he was then called a Bretwalda or Wielder ^f Britain, As we have already said, the English re- mained heathens for about one hundred and fifty years after their first settlement in Britain. Then, in 597, Pope Gregory the Great sent over Augustine, who converted the Kentish King ^thelberhty who was then Bretwalda ; so Kent was the first Christian kingdom among the English. Gradually all the English kingdoms were converted, some by missionaries from Kent or straight from Rome, some by the Scots, who were alr«ady Christians, but none, it would seem, by the Welsh. And presently the English began themselves to send missionaries to convert those of their kinsfolk in their old land who were still heathens. One of them, Winfrith or Boniface, in the time of Pippin, was called the Apostle of Germany, This was quite another way of being converted from that of the Goths and Franks who embraced Christianity while they were pressing into the Empire. But, even after they became Christians, the English still went on making conquests from the Welsh, and Jso carrying on wars among themselves. During the seventh and eighth centuries the three great kingdoms of the West- Saxons, Mercians, and Northumbrians 'vvere ever striving for the mastery. Sometimes one harl the upper hand and sometimes the other ; but al the beginnir;g of the ninth century the different Englifeh kingdon s began to be more closely united togetl.c!, and they had also a common enemy from without to witlistand. 149 THE PRANKISH EMPIRE. [chap. 8. The Northmen. — We have already spoken of the Aryan people in Northern Europe, called the Northmen or Scandinavians. These were a Teutonic people, whose speech is more nearly akin to the Low- Dutch than to the High. They had settled in the great peninsula to the north-east of the Baltic, where they were gradually making their way against the Turanian inhabitants, the Fins and Laps^ and they had also occupied the peninsula called the Cimbric Chersonhos or Jutland^ which is divided from Saxony by the River Eider, In these peninsulas and the neighbouring islands they gradually formed three king- doms, those of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. The Danes in the southern peninsula had often to yield more or less of submission to Charles the Great and his successors. But the Northmen of the northern peninsula never submitted to the Empire, and indeed the Swedes had for a long time to come but little to do with the general affairs of Europe. They had enough to do in striving with their own Turanian neighbours, and in conquests toward the East, where they came to bear rule over the Slavonic land of Russia. But the Western Scandinavians, the Danes and the Norwegians who were more specially called Northmen, began, towards the end of the eighth cen- tury, to be fearful scourges both to Britain and to all the coasts of the Empire. Even while Charles the Great lived, they had begun to sail about and plunder iu various parts ; and after he was dead, and when the Empire began to break in pieces, they were able to ravage almost wherever they pleased. After a while they began, not only to plunder, but to make settle- ments, both in Gaui and in Britain. They also settled in Icelafid, in the Orkneys and in the other islards near Scotland, in the northern part of Scotland itself, and in the towns on the east coast of Ireland. But we have most to do with their settlements in England and in Northern Gaul. For through their settlement ia nnfifiiiaiifc>'-,ri-, .j^-.: vn.] THE ENGLISH Al^'D NORTHMEN. 143 Gaul a new power in Europe arose, and, what we should hardly have looked for, their settlements in England had a great deal to do with the making of the different English kingdoms in Britain into one. 9. Formation of the Kingdom of England. — V/e have seen that, up to the end of the eighth century, the chief power among the English in Britain was always passing from one of the English kingdoms to another. But at the beginning of the ninth century it came permanently into the hands of Wcssex. This was under Ecgberhi^ who was King of the West-Saxons from 802 to 837. He was a friend of Charles the Great, with whom he had taken shelter when he was banished from his own country. It was no doubt the friendship and example of Charles which set him upon doing in Britain much the same as Charles had done in Germany. Ecgberht gradually brought all the other English kingdoms and the Welsh both oi Cornwall and of what we call Wales, into more 01 less of subjection to his own kingdom of the West- Saxons. Other Kings went on reigning, but they were his men and he was their lord, like the Emperor among the Kings and princes on the mainland. Thus a great step was taken towards joining all the English i:i Britain into one kingdom. But the Scots beyond the Forth and the Northern Welsh in Cumberland and thereabouts remained independent, so that Ecgberht was still far from being master of the whole island, and presently the Danish invasion seemed likely to shatter the newly founded West-Saxon power alJ^ogether. King Alfred or Alfred^ the grandson of Ecgberht and the most famous of all our ancient Kings, who began to reign in 871, had much fighting with the Danes. The northern part of England was conquered by them, and Danish Kings and Earls reigned at York. Presently they invaded Wessex, whence they were driven out by Alfred in 878. But he found it needful to make a treaty with the Danish 144 THE FRAN-KISH EMPIRE, [chap. King Guthruniy by which Guthrum was allowed to hold all the eastern part of England, on condition of becoming Kir.g Alfred's man and also becoming a Christian. For the Danes were still heathens, as the English were wh^.n they first came into Britain, and they seem to h tve taken special delight in destroying the churches and monasteries. The Kings who came after Alfred, his son Edward and his grandsons ^thelstan and Edmund^ had much fighting with the Danes in Britain. But at last they were able to bring all the Teutonic people in Britain, both English and Dariish, into one kingdom ; so they were called Kings of the English and not merely Kings of the West-Saxons, And all the princes of the Welsh and of the Scots also became their men, so that they were Lords of all Britain. Son.ti'.imes, as being lords of the other world where the Roman Emperors had no power, they were called Emperors of Britaifty or in Gfeek Basileiis^ in imitation of the Emperors of the East. It was King Edward who first received the homage of all Britain in 924. But it was not till a long time after that the Daner- in the North of England were thoroughly subdued. But these settlements of the Danes, by breaking up the other English kingdoms and by mak- ing En^ishmen everywhere ready to join against the invaders, really did much to help the West-Saxon Kings in winning the lordship of the whole island. 10. Foundation of the Duchy of Normandy. — The Danes and other Nortlimen also made many invasions of Gaul through the whole latter half of the ninth century. They more than once sailed up the Seine and besieged Paris. There was one specially famous siege of Paris in 8S5, wlien Count Odo did great things in vithstanding the Northmen, in reward of which he was before long, as we have seen, elected King. Soon after this the Northmen began to make settlements in Gaul as they did in Prliain, and one of their settlements rose to great importance. This vu.] BEGmi^ING OF NORMANDY, US Wis the settlement made at Rouen by a chief named jRolfi or in Latin Rollo, This was in 913, when Charles the Simple, who was King of the West-Franks — he was of the House of the KarUngs and reigned at Laon — and Robert y Duke of the French, who was brother of King Odo and was afterwards King him- self, granted the land at the mouth of the Seine to Rolf. For this he became King Charles's man, and he served his lord much more faithfully than ever the Dukes of the French dia. Rolf was baptized, as Guthrum had been, and the Northmen who settled in Gaul gradually became Christians and learned to speak French. Their name was softened into Nor- mans, and their land was called Normaiidy, and their prince the Duke of the Normans. The Dukes of the Normans of the House of Rolf became the most powerful princes in Northern Gaul, and we shall presently hear of them in England. II. Summary. — Thus, in the course of the ninth and tenth centuries the great Prankish E?npire broke in pieces ; the Kingdom of France arose in Gaul ; the Kingdom of E?igland grew up in Britain ; the Danes and Northmen settled both in Britain and in Gaul", and their settlement in Gaul grev into the Duchy of Nor- mandy. During this time the Romance languages had hardly begun to be written, but men were finding out that they were distinct languages from Latin. Books on the Continent were still wholly written in Latin. Thus Eginhardy the Secretary of Charles the Great, wrote the Life of his master, and there were other good writers of histoiy in all the Frankish king- doms. But in England our own English Chronicle began to be put together in these times, so that we have, what no other people in Western Christen- dom has, our own history written in our own tongue from the beginning. f 146 THE SAXON EMPERORS, CHAPTER VIII. THE SAXON EMPEROKS. [CHAIr. The Kingdom of Germany ; dealhif^s with th. Mcigyars and Slaves (i) — the Saxon Kings ; victories of Henry the Fowler and Otto the Great over the Magyars (2) — Otto the great crowned Emperor ; relations between the Empire afid the German Kingdom (2, 3) — the later Saxon Emperors (3) — disputes between the Eastern and Western Churches (4) — the Macedonia t ^mperors in the East; their victories over the Saracens (4) — Slavonic settlements in the Eastern Empire j wars with the Russians and Bulgarians {^)— greatness of England under Edgar (6) — Danish invasions of England; reign ifCnutin England (6) — greatness of the Scandinavian nations J grecit don-'nion of Cnutj effects of the Scan- dinavian settlement J in Gaul a7td Russia (6, 7) — con- version of the Scandinavians and Russians to Chris- tianity (7) — Summary (8). I. The German Kingdom, — The division of 887 separated for ever the Kingdoms of the East and West Franks, those which answer to Germany and France. But the Kingdoms of ItaJy and Burgundy were, after a while, once more uni(3rmany. They had much ado to defend themselves against the inroads of the Danes, to defend and extend their border against the Slaves to the north-east, and to drive back some new and fearful enemies who had begun to show themselves to the south-east. These were the Magyars or Hun- j^an'ans, of whom we have already spoken, who were |}fessinp^ i'.to Central Europe, and who, wherever they c«ime, Qid as much mischief by land as the Northmen Till.] THE GERMAN KINGDOM. 147 did by sea. They were still heathens, but in the end, before the tenth century was out, they became Chris- tians, and settled down into a regular and powerful Christian kingdom. They have heid their place among the kingdoms of Europe ever since, and their land 1: still called the Kingdom of Hungary. But, before the Hungarians had thus settled down among Christian nations, the German Kings had to fight ^any battles against them to keep them out of their own dominions. As a safeguard against the Hun- garian invasions they founded a Mark or borde^^-state under a chief called a Markgraf or Marquess ; this was called the Eastern Mark^ Ostmark or Oesterreich. This grew into the Duchy of Austria^ the Dukes of ivhich have, oddly enough, for a long time past been also Kings of Hungary. To the north of Hungary several Slavonic states grew up during this time into Christian dukedoms and kingdoms, '^specially those of Poland and £0 hcTuia ; but the Wends on the south of the Baltic remained heathens for a long time, and the Prussia is to the east of them for a longer time stilL Thus th' ; Kingdom of German ^' was the central state of Europe, and it had to do with all parts of Europe, East, "West, North, and South. And it v/as soon to rise to greater things still. 2. The Saxon Kings. — " e dynasty which had most to do with raising thf merman Kingdom to gres tness was that of the Sa.^ s, whose Duke, Henry ^ was elected King in 9 1 8. I : did much to make his kingdom flourishing and pov -ful, and he had to wage many wars against the ^ ^yars, especially by the foundation of towns. H a as succeeded in 936 by his son OttOy called the Great. He finally defeated the Magyars in a great batft in 954. He had also much to do with the affairs )i the Western Kingdom, and he often stepped in to help the Karolingian King Lewis, who was his brother i'^-lnw, against his enemies in France and Normandy. But he is most famous L 3 ■alWraiiiMHXMIMMaWv »-'i«B»»«<*~to. . 148 THE SAXON EMPERORS, [CHAP. for again uniting the Roman Empire to the German Kingdom. Since Araulf no Emperor had been gene- rally acknowledged, though some of the Kings of Italy had been crowned P'mperors at Rome. In truth, Italy, during the whole half of the tenth century, was alto- gether torn in pieces by the struggles of rival Kings and wicked Popes. In 951 Otto was invited into Italy, and he made the King Bcrengar become his man. In 962 he was again called on by the Pope and the Italians to deliver them from Berengar altogether. So he entered Italy a second time, and was crowned Emperor at Rome, by the Pope John the Twelfth^ one of the worst of all the Popes. 3 The Restoration of the Empire. — The coronation of Otto the Great as Emperor put the Western Empire on quite a new footing. Hitherto the Empire had had no special connexion with any one of the several kingdoms which had arisen out of the break-up of the dominion of Charles the Great. The Imperial crown had been sometimes held by one King, and sometimes by another, and very often there had been no Emperor at all. But now Germany had, under the Saxon Kings, become so much the ^eatest of all the Frankish kingdoms that it was able to join the Empire to itself. The change was in truth a restoration of the Empire in a more regular shape after a tim<; of confusion. From this time the Empire was always held by a German king. As long as the Empire lasted, the rule was that whoever was chosen King in Germany had a right to be crowned King of Italy at Milan, and to be crowned Emperor at Rome. There was not always an Emperor, because some of the'German Kings nevqj got to Rome to be crowned Emperors ; but there afways was either an Emperor or a King who alone had the right to be crowned Emperor. Thus the Kingdom of Italy was again united with the Kingdom of Germany. But both Burgundy and KaroUngia or the Western Kingdom Vni.] RESTOKATWl^ OF tVJSSTERA EMPIRE. 149 Still remained cut off from the Empire, Burgundy for awhile and Karolingia for ever. Still the Emperors kept a good deal of influence in Burgundy, and in the Western Kingdom too as long as any of the Karlings reigned at Laon. But when the Kingdom of France was finally established, when the long line of Kings of the French of the blood of Hugh Capet began to reign at Paris, France left otf having anything to do with the Empire at all. Otto the Great died in 972, and after him reigned his son Otto the Second till 983. He had wars with the Danes, whose King Harold^ called Blaatandox Bluetooth^ he forced to become a Christian, and also with the Eastern Emperors in Southern Italy. Then came Otto the Third from 983 to 1002. He was called the Wonder of the World. His great wish was to make Rome again the head of the world and to reign there again, like one of the old Emperors. But he died young, and hir p! ^ns were all cut short. Then came Henry thi Secoh ', a descendant of Henry the First, but not of Otto the Great, who was the last Saxon Emperor. He died in 1024. 4. The Eastern Empire. — It is say something of what had happened since the Election of Charles the Great in the The Easterii Empire, as I before said, was now chiefly confined to the Greek-speaking parts of Europe and Asia. And, after the Eastern and Western Empires were separated, disputes gradually arose between the Eastern and Western Churches. They differed on some points both of doctrine and ceremony, but the real ground of quarrel was chiefly because the Eastern Church would never admit the claims of the Bishops of Rome. The Iconoclast controversy went on during a great part of the ninth century, but in the end the worshippers of images gained the day. After Eirene there were several Pimperors of different families, some of whom were weak men, while others ruled well and fought miyifully against the Saracens. At 1^ in the now tirne to in the East Wcjt. t$0 THE SAXON EMPERORS. IcHAf latter part of the ninth century, a dynasty arose under which the Eastern Empire won back a great deal of its former power. This was the Basilian or Macedonian dynasty, the first t,mperor of which, Basil the First or the Macedonian^ began to reign in 867. He was a law-giver, and under him the Byzantine dominions in Italy were greatly mcreased. But the time when the Eastern Empire reached its gix^atest amount of power after the final division was from 963 to 1025. Three Emperors, one after the other, Nik^horos Phdkas^ John Tzimiskes^ and BclsH the Second^ won back many of the provinces which had been lost. The Saracens, as we have already seen, were now cut up into many small states, and, though the Caliphs went on, they could no longer meet the Emperors on equal terms. Nik^phoros won back Crete, and both he and John Tzimisk^s, who murdered him and reigned in his stead, waged wars in the East, won back Antioch and other cities which had been taken by the Saracens in their first conquests, and again carried the Roman frontier to the Euphrates. 5. The Slavonic Invasions. — We said at the beginning that the Slavonic nations were the last of the great Aryan swarms which had pressed into Europe, and that which had played the least part in the general affairs of the world. As yet we have not heard much of them, except so far as the German Kings had greatly extended their dominion to the West at their expense. But we have now reached a very important period in their history, chiefly with regard to their deaUngs with the Eastern Empire. For a long time past various nations had been pressing into the northern parts of the Byzantine dominions, and the Emperors had constart wars to wage against enemies on their northern as well as on their eastern frontier. Some of them settled within the Empire, while others simply invaded and ravaged its provinces. Some of these mvaders and settlers were Turanians, VIIl] the MACEDONIAN ElfPERORS. t$i but many of them belonged to the r: :e of the Slaves, who play a part in the history of the ICastern Empire something like that which tne Teutonic people played in the West. That is to say, they were half conquerors, half disciples. Many of the north-western provinces of the Empire were settled by Slavonic tribes, who have grown into the people of Senna^ Dalmatian and the other lands now bordering on Hungary, Austria, and Turkey. They also made large settlements in Macedonia and Greece, but from some of these they were afterwards driven out. It is even said that the Macedonian Emperors themselves were really of Sla- vonic descent. The Russians^ also a Slavonic people, though their princes were of Scandinavian descent, made several inroads into the Eastern Empire in the ninth and tenth centuries, and even attacked Con- stantinople by sea. But they were finally defeated by the Emperor John Tzimiskes in 973. Another great enemy was the Bulgarians, a people originally Tura- nian, but who learnt to speak a Slavonic language, and who were so mixed up with their Slavonic neigh- bours and subj'^.cts, that they may pass as one of the Slavonic nations. They founded a kingdom in the north-western part of the Empire, and they were for a long time a great thorn in the sides of the Emperors. With these Bulgarians the Emperors had many wars, till in the end their kingdom was altogether destroyed by Basil the Second, vho was called the Slayer of the Bulgarians, when tho Roman frontier was again car- ried to the Danube. All these invaders and settlers gradually became Christians, getting their Christianity from the Eastern Church, as the Teutons and Western Slaves got theirs from the Western Church. But the Popes and the Patriarchs of Constantinople had long disputes about the obedience of the Bulgarians. It was under Basil the Second, whose sister Theophand married the Western Emperor Otto the Second, that the separate Eastern Empire was at the greatest height tHmmmmmtrntmrnmu t5» TffS SAXO// EMPEROkS. tcMAi*. of its power, but after his death it greatly fell back again. 6. England and the Danes. — Kngland had a good deal to do with the Western Empire during the time of the Saxon p]mperors. The daughters of Edward the Elder were married to the chief princes of Europe, and one of tliem named Eadgyth or Edith was the first wife of Otto the Great. It marks the central position of the German Kingdom that its kings made marriages with England at one end and with Constantinople at the other. Under Ed^u;\ who reigned ^rom 959 to 975, England was at the height of its power, but in the reign of his son ^thdred the inroads of the Danes and Northmen began again. At one time, in 994, England was attacked at once by Olaf King of the Northmen and by Swegm or Sweyn King of the Danes. Olaf was persuaded to bftcome a Christian and to make peace with England \ so he went home to Norway and began to bring in Chris- tianity there. Swegen was the son of that King Harold who had been overcome by Otto the Second ; he had been baptized in his childhood, but had fallen back into heathenism. The war with Swegen went on till at last, in 10 13, ^thelred was driven out and Swegen was acknowledged King all over England. This was quiet another kind of conquest from mere plundering inroads, and even from settlements in parts of the country, like that of Guthrum or that of Rolf in Gaul. A King of all Denmark came against England to make himself King over all England also. Swegen died very soon and yEthelred did not live long after. The war then went on between Cnut or Canute the son of Swegen and Edmund the son of iEthelred. At last, in 1017, Cnut became King over all England ; he inherited the crown of his native country Denmark, and he also won Norway and part of Sweden. He was thus lord of all Northern Europe, and was by far the most powerful prince of his time. vtiO bOMtNlC ^ OF CNUT. t$3 Though he came into England by force, he ruled well and won the love of the people ; but after his death in 1035 the bad government of his sons disgusted the English with the Danish rule, and in 1042 they again chose a native King in the person of Edward the son of iEthelred. 7. Greatness of the Scandinavians. — The time when Cnut reigned in England was the time when the Danes and the Northmen were at the height of their power. Denmark, Nonvay, and Sweden were all powerful kingdoms ; England was under a Danish King, and princes of Scandinavian descent ruled both in Normandy and in Russia. But wherever the North- men settled, though they always put a new life into the lands which they made their own, they showed a wonderful power of adapting themselves to the people among whom they settled, and of taking to their manners and language. Thus Cnut, when he reigned in England, became quite an Englishman, and the Northmen who settled in Gaul became quite P>ench, and those who settled in Russia became quite Slavonic. In this way the original lands of the Northmen really lost in strength and' importance, and became of less account in Europe than they otherwise might have been. For the best life of Scandinavia went away into other lands to give a new life to them. About the end of the tenth and beginning of the eleventh centuries, all the Northern nations, except the Prus- sians and Lithuanians, gradually became Christians. The Scandinavians, like the other Teutonic nations, got their Christianity from the West ; but the Rusraans, like the Bulgarians and the other nations who had to do with the Eastern Empire, got their Christianity from Constantinople and became part of the Eastern Church. To this day they are the only on*^ among the great nations of Europe which remains in the com- munion of the East, having nothing to do either with the Bishop of Rome or with the Reformed Churches. .<^^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 11.25 IIS lU 111 ■ 4.0 2.0 vQ /2 /: (9^ /A '"^J^ .^ v PhotDgraphic Sciences Corporation 23 WfST MAIN STKEIT WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 '4^ 154 THE FRANCONIAN EMPERORS. [qha». . 8. Summary .^Thus, in the ninth century and the beginning of the tenth, the German kingdom ad- vanced, and was again united with the Roman Empire, The Eastern Empire won back much of its power, and drove back its Slavonic invaders. The Danes conquered England, and the Scandinavian people generally were at the height of their power. The chief historians of this period were the German writers who recorded the deeds of the Ottos. In England learning had got back from what it was at an earlier time. In Gaul men had already found out that the Roman^ or the spoken tongue of the people, had grown into a different language from the written Latin, But we have no French writings as yet CHAPTER IX. THE FRANCONIAN EMPERORS. Succession of KingSy Conrad^ Henry the Thirds Henry the Fourth^ Henry the Fifth (i) — dealings of Henry tfie Third with the Popes (i) — disputes between Henry the Fourth and Gregory the Seventh (i) — continued dis- putes between the Popes and Henry the Fifth (i) — causes of the growth of Papal power (2) — designs of Gregory the Sevenths disputes about investures and the marriage of the clergy {i)^growth of the Duchy of Normandy (3) — reign of William the Conqueror; his claims on the crown of England favoured by the Pope (3) — election of Harold of England: invasion oj Harold of Norway; Norman invasion and conquest of England (3) — effects of the Norman Conquest of England; use of the French language; closer conneX' ion of England with other lands (4) — relatiotis between France and Normandy {^^ effects of the Norman Conquest on Fram".; greatness of Henry the Second in England (5) — advance of the Christians in Spain; growth of the kingdom of Arragon {f^— Norman Conquest of Sicily ; fomidation and growth of the king" tt.l tiliNRY THE THIRD. ^Vi dom (^)-^decline of the Eastern Empire (Ji)— growth of the Turks; their dealings with the Calipm ,(JS)^ divisions of the Caliphate (8) — wars between the Turks and the Eastern Empires conquests of the Turks in Asia Minor (8) — revival of th€ Empire under the Komninian Emperors J decay of the Turkish power (8) — causes of the Crusades (8, 9) — the Crusade preached by Peter the Hermit and Urban the Second (9) — First Crusade J taking of Jerusalem (cfy-effects of the Crusades (9) — Summary (10). I. Succession of Kings. — On the death of Henry |he Second, Conrad, a descendant of a daugh- ter of Otto the Great, was chosen King. He was the first of the Franconian Emperors. They are so called as coming from the Eastern or Teutonic Francia, which, to distinguish it firom Latin Francia or France^ is commonly called Franconia. He was crowned Emperor in 1027 and reigned till 1039. The chief event of his reign was that in 1032 the Kingdom of Burgundy was united to the Empire on the deadi of its last King Rudolf. Thus three out of the four Frankish Kingdoms were again joined together, France alone, as we must now call it, standing aloof. Conrad's son Henry the Third was one of the greatest of all the Emperors. He was crowned King both of Germany and of Burgundy in his father's lifetime. This was often done in those days, in order to make the succes- sion certain, and to avoid the dangers of an interregnum or time when there is ^no King. Henry was odled into Italy in much the same way as Otto the Great had been ; for there were great disputes at Rome, where three candidates at once all claimed the Popedom. King Henry came into Italy in 1046 and deposed them all. He then gave the Popedom to several German Bishops one after the other, and they ruled the Church far better than the Romans had done. He was himself crowned Emperor in the same year. He did much to restore order and religion both in •56 THE PRAHCOmAN EMPERORS. tcRAf. Germany and in Italy, and he maintained the authority of the Empire better than had been done for a long time. He was a close ally of our King Edward, whose half-sister Gunhild^ the daughter of Cnut, was his first wife. On his death in 1056 he was succeeded by his son Henry the Fourth, -who was only six years old when his father died, but who had been already crowned King. His childhood and youth was a time ot great confusion, and, as he grew up, he ruled at first very ill, and his oppression drove the Saxons to revolt in 1073. About the same time there arose long dis- putes between the Emperors and the Popes, which tore Germany and Italy in pieces. At one time Pope Gre- gory the Seventh, the famous Hildebrand, professed to depose the King, and in the beginning of 1077 Henry had to come and crave pardon of Gregory. In the same year the Saxons, and others in Germany who were discontented, chose Rudolf Duke of Swabia Kin^ instead of Henry. Rudolf was killed in 1080. but, during nearly all the rest of his reign, Henry had to struggle with one enemy after another, among them his own son Conrad, and afterwards his other son Henry, whom he had crowned King in 1099. Henry himself had driven Gregory out of Rome in 1085, and he had been crowned Emperor by Clement the Third, whom he had himself appointed Pope. At last he died in 1 106, while still at var with his son King Henry, who now reigned alone. Hettry the Fifth had nearly the same disputes with the Popes wluch his father had had, but he was regularly crowned Emperor at Rome in 1 1 1 1. He married Matilda, the daughter of our King Henry the First, but he had no son, and the Franconian dynasty came to an end at his death in 11 25. 2. Growth of the Papal Power. — The power of the Popes, which has just been mentioned, and their disputes with the Emperors, must be spoken of a little more fully. From the time of Constantine onwards. W.1 THE POPES AND THE EMPERORS, ^Vl the divisions of the Empire and the constant absence of the Emperors from Rome had greatly increased the power of the Popes. They had not, hke the Patriarchs of Constantinople, a superior always at hand. Charles the Great had fully asserted the Imperial power over the Church, but, after his Empire broke up, the power of the Popes grew again. It was checked only by their own wickedness and their divisions among them- selves, which Kings like Otto the Great and Henry the Third had to step in and put an end to. Things were very different now from what they had been in the old times, when the whole or nearly the whole of the Church was contained within the bounds of the Empire. First of all, there were now two rival Empe- rors and two rival Churches, and the Empire and the Chiurch of the East in no way acknowledged either the Emperor or the Bishop of the Old Rome. And even in the West, part of the Empire, namely the Kingdom of France, had cut itself off from the main body, while new Christian kingdoms like England, Hungary, and Denmark had risen up beyond the Empire. In this state of things the Bishops of Rome, who were looked up to by so many kingdoms as the chief Bishops of the West, could hardly remain so submissive to the Emperors as they had been when the Emperors were the only Christian princes. The Popes had not as yet any distinct temporal dominion, such as they had in after times ; still thev were no longer mere subjects of the Emperor, as they had been under Constantine and JuLtinian and Charles the Great. In truth, it was to this undefined position that the Popes owed much of their power. And now Gregory the Seventh, the great- est of all the Popes, set himself to work to set up the ecclesiastical power as superior to the temporal. To this end he laid down two main rules, one that the clergy might not marry, the other that no temporal prince should bestow any ecclesiastical benefice, as was then commonly done in Germany, England, and i5« THE FRANCOmAN EMPERORS. [CHAf. most parts of Europe. Hence began the long quanol between Gregory and Henry the Fourth, and between many Popes and Emperors after them. And we may mark that the quarrel between the Popes and the Emperors was one in which good men might and did take either side. A good Emperor like Henry the Third did much good by clearing away unworthy dis- putants, and giving to the Church a succession of worthy rulers. But the same power in the hands of a bad prince led to the sale of bishopricks for money and to many other abuses. The great evil was thai Popes like Gregory the Siventh, who were really anxious for the purity of the Church, acted too much as if the Church were made up only of the clergy, and strove to make the clergy, ^ith themselves at theii head, into quite a separate body from other men. It is hard to say which party won in the end. We may perhaps say that the Popes succeeded in overthrowing the power of the Emperors, but that they had them- selves to yield in the end to the power of othei temporal princes. 3. The Norman Conquest of England. — ^We have already seen how in 987 the dynasty of the Karlings in the West came to an end, and how Hugh, the DiSce of the French, became King of the French. Meanwhile the duchy which had been founded by Rolf had grown up into great power and prosperity, and Normandy reckoned among the chief states of Western Euorpe. And Normandy became greater still under its famous Duke William^ who subdued England, and who is therefore known as William the Conqueror, It was now that our own island, which had hitherto been looked on as another world, began to have much more to do with the general affairs of Europe. King Edward, the last King of the English of the old West-Saxon dynasty, was, through his mother, a kins- man of Duke William, and it would seem that at one time of his life he made Duke William som^ kin4 of IX.1 THE NORMAN CONQUEST. i$9 promise that, as he had no children, he should succeed him on the throne of England. But, however this may be, when King Edward died in 1066, the English people, as there was no one in the royal family fit to reign, gave the Crown to Earl Harold^ who was then the greatest man in the land. Duke William however put forth his claim, and, though he found no one to help him in England, he made most people in other lands believe that he had the right on his side. Espe- cially he persuaded Hildebrand, who was not yet Pope, but who already had great influence at Rome, to take his part. So Pope Alexander the Second declared in his favour, and blessed his undertaking. This was the way in which the Popes seized every opportunity to extend their power both within the Empire and in other parts of the world. William was thus able to invade England, at the head not only of his own Nor- mans, but of men from all parts, who were taught to look on the enterprise as a holy war. England was just at this time attacked by Harold Hardrada^ King of the Northmen^ so that our King Harold had to fight against two foes at once. He defeated Harold of Norway, but was himself defeated and slain by Duke William in the famous battle of Senlac or Hastings. Duke William was crowned King at Christmas 1066, but the English still withstood him in many places, and it took him about four years to get full possession of the whole kingdom. He gradually found means to give all the greatest estates and highest offices in Eng- land to Normans and other strangers, and he handed on the English Crown to his descendants, by whom it has been held ever since. 4. Effects of the Norman Conquest of England. — ^The establishment of Duke William and his followers in Normandy brought about some very great changes both in England and in the rest of Europe. The English were not killed or turned out, as they had themselves done by the Welsh, and they W', 100 THE FRANCOmAN BMPBRORS. [ClUf . kept their own laws and language^ yet for a long time all the chief men in the land were of Norman or other foreign descent. But it is wonderful in how short a time the Normans in England became good English- mea This was partly perhaps because Normans and English were, after all, near kinsfolk, only the English had kept their own tongue, while the Normans had learned to speak French. French remained for a long time the fashionable language in England, and though, in the end, English became once more «the speech of all men in the land, yet in the meanwhile it became greatly changed, and a great many French words crept in. Many new ideas came in with the Normans, which gradually made great changes in our laws and manners. The power of the Kings became much greater than it had been before, and William made the whole kingdom far more truly one than it had been up to his time. Since his days no one has ever thought of dividing it. The Norman Conquest also caused far more intercourse than there had been before between England and other nations. Learning flourished more, the art of building greatly advanced, and many reforms were made in the Church ; but it must not be forgotten that England from this time was brought much more under the power of the Popes. 5. Relations between England and France. — Before the Norman Conquest, England and Fraiuty meaning thereby the new Kingdom of Fans, had hardly anything to do with one another. But France and Normandy often were enemies. Ever since Paris became the capital, the Kings of the French had felt themselves hemmed in by the Dukes at Rouen. And now that the same man was Duke of the Normans and King of the English, the Norman Dukes became still more powerful in Gaul, and were still more dan- gerous neighbours to their lords the Kings of the French. The King at Paris was in truth shut in on every side by his own vassals, the great Dukes and OL] ENGLAND AND FRANCE, i6l m Id Counts, over whom he had no real authority. Just at die time when the Empire was strongest under Henry the Third, the Kingdom of France was weakest under Henry the Firsts the third of the Parisian Kings. From this time there was a distinct rivalry, which we shall constandy come across, between the Kings of the French and the Kings of the English, who were also Dukes of the Normans. This rivaliy has gone on almost ever since, and we shall constandy meet with it in one shape or another ; and this rivalry had the further effect of keeping up the old connexion be- tween England and Germany, both of them being rivals of France. I have sdready mentioned that Henry the First of England, the son of William and the third of our Norman Kings, gave his daughter in mar? riage to the Emperor Henry the Fifth. King Heniy of England, who reigned from iioo to ii35) was bom in England, and he married Edith or Matilda^ \he daughter of Malcolm King of Scots. Her mother Margaret was the granddaughter of our King Edmund Ironside, so that Henry's children had some English blood in them. In 1154 Henry, the son of Henry the First's daughter, the Empress Matilda, by her second husband Geoffrey Count of Anjoti, came to the Crown of England. The pedigree in this case should be carefully remembered, because with Henry the Second began the Angevin Kings of England, who were neither Norman nor English, .except in the female line. Henry presently married Eleanor the heiress of Aquitaitie; he thus was master of the more part of Northern and Western Gaul, holding of the King of the French far greater possessions than the King held himself. Here is quite a new state of things, in which the same man not only held both England and Nor- makidy, but had by far the greatest power in all GauL We shall presently see what came of these changes. ' 6. Wars with the Mahometans in Spain.— The time of the Franconian Emperors is also memor* r< • iCs THE FRANCONIAN EMPERORS, (CHAF. i ■:•'■■ able 08 the time when the great struggle between the Christian and Mahometan nations began to spread itself over a much wider field. All this while wars had been going on with the Saracens in all those parts of Europe and Western Asia where they had settled. The Christians of Spain^ as I have already said, had always kept their independence in the mountainous lands in the north, and the conquests of Charles the Great had been a further check to the advance of the Saracens. As the Western Empire began to be divided, the Western Caliphate grew stronger. The time oif the greatest power of the Mahometans in Spain was in the reign of Abd-aUrahman the Thirds from 912 to 961. The Christian kingdoms however stDl main- tained their independence, and in 1031 the Western Caliphate came to an end, and the Saracen dominion in Spain was cut up into several small states. The Chnstians were now able to advance, and in 1084 Alfonso the Sixth, who had united the two kingdoms of Leon and Castil^ won back the old capital of Toledo^ and was near making himself master of the whole of Spain. The Mahometans in Spain had now to call in their fellow-believers in Africa to their help. Thus aroso the Moorish dynasty of the Almoravides in Southern Spain, which put a check for the while to the advance of the Christians. But in \\i%y Alfonso of Aragon recovered Zaragoza, that is Casar-Augusta, the chief city of Eastern Spain, and from that time the kingdom of Aragon also began to grow in importance. 7. Foundation of the Kingdom of Sicily. — Meanwhile the Christians were also gaining ground on the Mahometans in the great islands of the Medi- terranean. I have said how the Emperor Nik^phoros won back Crete for the Eastern Empire, and in the beginning of the eleventh century Sardinia was won back by the people of the Tuscan commonwealth of . PiscL/ Soon afterwards, Norman adventurers began rtoi^ss into tlie South, and to make conquests at the iai!^i^ ntl sPAm AND srcri v. ^ \ expense both of the Saracens and of the Eastern Emperors. Under the famous Robert Wiscard^Htity conquered nearly all the lands which the Eastern Emperors still kept in Italy. They then crossed into Sialym 1062, and founded a county which, in 1130, under its third Count Roger the Second^ became a king- dom. Thus began the Kingdom of Sicifyy where at first French-speaking Kings reigned over Arabic- speaking Mahometans and Greek-speaking Christians. All three languages gradually died out, but for a time all nations and religions flourished under the Norman Kings. King Roger afterwards won the Norman possessions in Italy, and the little that was left to the Eastern Emperors. Thus the Kingdom of Sicily took in, not only the island, but all the southern part of the Italian peninsula. 8. The Eastern Empire. — ^We must now look to the affairs of the Eastern Empire in Asia, and the more so, because its danger at this time led to the most famous of all the wars between Christians and Mahometans, namely to the Crusades or Holy Wars, These were the wars which the Christians waged to win back the Holy Land, and especially the tomb of our Lord at Jerusalem, from their Mahometan posses- sors. After the death of Basil the Second, the Eastern Empire, which, under the Macedonian Emperors, had again become so powerful both in Europe and Asia, began once more to fall back. As a new European enemy had arisen against it in the Normans of Sicily, so a new and terrible enemy arose against it in Asia. These were the Turks of the house of Seljuk. We may now look on the chief dominion of Asia as being finally handed over from the Saracens to the Turks. l*his change of power in Asia brought about two memorable results. First, it was the cause of the heaviest blow which the Eastern Empire had under- gone since the time of the first Caliphs. Secondly, it was the cause of the Crusades which were waged M 3 ■.■*J ^^T^^nSf^Sr^W^^^^iFf^ :iT^.-^^- \^' ff"" '?L t h %'.'. W' — - A' ' ll-*- ' '/. ■ Ki- y; , fe ^ . ai*- bv .: i'-. ^P^ra., ll« r^i? PRASCOmAff EMPERORS, tcKAf . by men froi. Western Europe. In the course of the tenth century, the Eastern Caliphate may be looked on as coming to an end as a political power. A third Caliphate arose in Egypt^ and the Caliphs of Bagdad gradually fell under the control of their own mercenaries and ministers, much as the Mero- wingian Kings of the Franks had fallen under the control of the Austrasian Mayors. Meanwhile several Turkish dynasties arose in Persia^ and the Mahometan conquest of India began. At last, in 1055, the Caliph Al Kayem asked help of Toqrd ^vhere, and Philip took advantage of it to cause a sentence to be passed by the peers of his kingdom, by which John was declared to have forfeited all the fiefs which he held of the Crown of France. By way of carrying out this sentence, Philip conquered, with very little trouble, all continental Normandy and the other possessions of John in Northern Gaul. But the Duchy of Aquitaine and the Norman Islands were still kept by the Kings of England. From this time England became the most important part of the King of England's domi- nions, and all the natives of England, whether of Old- English or of Norman descent, began to draw together as countrymen to withstand the strangers whom the Angevin Kings were constantly bringing into the land- < «.J ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 191 MeanwhUe John contrived to quarrel both with Pope Innocent and with his own subjects : and in 13 14 Philip won the battle of Bouvines in Flanders over the English forces, together with those of the Emperor Otto, who was John's nephew, being the son of his sister Matilda. In this battle the French got the better of three Teutonic nations, Germans, English, and Flemings all together. In iai6, the Barons oi; England who had revolted against John offered the crown to Lewis the eldest son of Philip of France. He came over to England ; bat as John died before long, the supporters of Levds gradually left him, and Henry the Thirds the young son of John, was acknow- ledged King. Two things strike us in this part of the story. On the one hand, it seems strange that the Normans in Normandy, who had had such long wars with the French, should have allowed themselves to be conquered by Philip almost without making any resistance. On the other hand, it seems strange that the Barons of England, whether we call them Nor- mans or Englishmen, should have offered the crown of England to the eldest son of the King of the French. The truth is that John was felt to be really neither a Norman Duke nor an English King, and men most likely thought that, if they were to have a foreign ruler, Lewis would be better than John. 6. Saint Lewis. — After the death of Philip, his son Lewis the Eight hy who had failed to get the crown of England, reigned for a few years in France, from 1223 to 1226. Then came his son Lewis the Ninths called Saint Lewis, and most rightly so called, for he was perhaps the best King that ever reigned, unless it were our own Alfred. The only evil was that his per- sonal goodness helped greatly to increase the power of the Crown, and so, in the end, to make the Kings of France absolute rulers. And in the like sort it helped greatly to increase the power of France among other nations. While Saint Lewis reigned in France, Henry ,\\ ui THE SWABtAN EMPERORS. [CHAf. the Third reigned in England from iai6 to laya. Henry made some attempts to get back his possessions in France; but in 1259 peace was made, by which Henry kept nothing except his possessions in the South. In Saint Lewises time also, but while he was Btill young and under the rule of his mother Blanche of CastiUy the dominions of the Counts of Toulouse were added to the royal possessions by a treaty made in 1239. Thus the Kings of the French, instead of being cooped up in Paris and Orleans, as they had been up to the time of Philip Augustus, had the more part of their kingdom in th«ir own hands. Their dominions now reached to the Mediterranean Sea, and they had havens on all the three seas, the Medi- terranean, the Ocean, and the Channel. And, though Provence and the other great fiefs of the Kingdom of Burgundy were not joined to France for a long time to come, still from this time they began to have a con- nexion with France. The French Kings began to meddle with their affairs in a manner which paved the way for their conquest at a later time. Generally, just as the German Kingdom was getting weaker, and was now in truth splitting to pieces, the French King- dom was getting stronger and more united ; and from this time France was always reckoned amongst the foremost powers of Europe. 7. The Internal Affairs of England.—The internal and constitutional affairs of England will be spoken of more at large in the special history of Eng- land. But a few words must be given to them, as they are closely connected with the general course of European affairs. The thirteenth century was a time of great cbangeSj a time, so to speak, of beginnings and enduigs, throughout the world. As both Empires practically came to an end, as the Kingdom of France^ in anything like its later extent and importance, may be said to have begun, so now the Constitution of England began to put on the shape which it has kept «.] SIMON OF MONTFORT, «93 I. V" V*. ever since. Under John and Henry the ThiM we sec how the fondness of the Angevin Kings for foreigners of all kinds drove the natives of England, whether of English or Norman descent, to join together against the strangers. The whole nation joined together to force King' John in 1215 to grant the Great Charter^ by which all the old rights and good laws which he had broken were confirmed. This Great Charter the Kings who followed had to confirm over and over again, because they were always trying to break it ; and it has been the groundwork of English freedom ever since. So again, in the time of Henry the Third, the King's misgoveniment and his favour to foreigners again drove the Barons and the whole people to rise against him. And, though the Popes again took the side of the King and excommunicated all who rose against him, yet we again find the whole English nation, nobles, clergy, and people, acting firmly to- gether. In this war against Henry the Third the great leader was Simon of Montfort^ the son of another Simon of whom we shall hear presently. He was, oddly enough, a Frenchman by birth, but he in- herited the earldom of Leicester through his mother ; and when he came to England, he threw in his lot with his new country, and did in everything as a good Englishman. It was by him that the Great Council of the Nation, which was now called by the French name of Parliament^ was made to take the form which it has borne ever since. Some kind of National Assembly was found in every part of Western Europe. But in most countries the Assembly consisted ol Estates ; that is, representatives of the different classes of freemen in the nation. These, in most countries, were counted as three. Nobles, Clergy, and Commons, the Commons generally being only the citizens of the towns. This kind of constitution was set up in France by Philip the Fair, the grandson of Saint Lewis. The States came together in each country to 194 THE SWABIAN EMPERORS. [chap. grant money to the King, and to demand such changes in the laws or other reforms as might be needed. But in France the States never met regularly, but only when it suited the King's purposes, or when he could not help calling -them together. In England;, on the other hand, our Parliaments went on far more regu- larly, so that we have never been left without a national Assembly of some kind from the very beginning of things till now. And in England the Parliament took the particular foim of an assembly with Two Homes, The Earls, Bishops, and other great men, grew into the House of LordSy and the House of Commons was gradu- ally formed out of the representatives of the people in gen^ial First of all, the freeholders of each couniy were c vJled on to send some of the knights of that county to represent them, and at last, when Earl Simon held a Parliament in 1265, he called on the cfties and buyoughs to send each two of their citizefis or burgesses. Earl Simon was killed that same year in the battle of Evesham^ but the system of representation which he had brought in was before long firmly esta- blished under King Edward the First. 8. The Conquest of Ireland. — During this time many things happened between the English Kings and their vassals the Kings of Scots and Princes of Wales, which will be better told in the History ol England. But it must be mentioned here that it was in the reign o^ Henry the Second that the English do- minion in Ireland began. At the very beginning of his reign, in 1155, King Henry got a bull — that is, a writing sealed ^ita the Pope's bulla or seal — from Pope Hadrian the Fourth^ who was an Englishman and the only Englishman that ever was Pope, giving him leave to conquer Ireland: thus had the Popes taken upon themselves to dispose of kingdoms. But it was not till 1169 that some nobles and other private adventurers went over into Ireland under pretence of helping a banished Irish king called Dermot, Two '4p , ^^...MMtUi.iJU'-iU^il^ ' w*gisrfr-^i551 • XL) THE CONQUEST OP IRELAND. I9S years afterwards King Henry went over himself to receive the homage of the whole country. From that time the Kings of England always claimed to be Lords of Ireland, and the city of Dublin and a greater or less part of tiie island was always under the English power. But it was not for many ages that our Kings really got possession of all Ireland, and cruel wars long went on between the English settlers and the native Irish. 9. The Loss of Jerusalem. — A large part of the history of this time might come under the general head of Crusades. .The first Crusades or Holy Wars had been undertaken to win back the Holy Sepulchre from the infidels; but after a while both the name and the thing began to be greatly abused, and Cru< sades were preached against any one with whom the Popes were at enmity. The First Crusade, as we have already seen, led to the establishment of the Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1099. The chief strength of the kingdom lay in the two orders of military monks, the Templars and the Hospitallers or Knights of Saint John, and many warriors from all parts of Christendom went to serve for a while in the Holy Land as a good work. Still the Kings of Jeru- salem had much ado to keep their little kingdom from the attacks of the neighbouring Mahometan powers, and several new Crusades had to be made to help them, some of which were led by the greatest princes in Europe. Thus in 1147 the Second Crusade was preached by Saint Bernard^ one of the hohest men of the time, and who is called the last of the Fathers of the Church. Co?irad King of the Romans and Lewis the Seventh, King of the French, both went on this Crusade, but they were not. able to do any great things. And there soon arose a power in Egypt which became more dangerous to the Christians of the E^st than any of the other Mahometan powers had been. We have seen there had been for some time a separate line of Caliphs in £g>i)t ; these were called the Faii- 3 v^fy m$Li^.*fTm s^**'T^ni^*7^3»i^ 'W, t96 Tlf£ $VrABIAN MMPBROHS. tCHA^. mites^ as they pro€:ss to be the descendants of Ali and Fatima^ the daught(ir of Mahomet. But in 1 1 7 1 their power was put dovm hy Joseph sumamed Saladin^ who brought back Eg^^t under the spiritual power of the Caliph of Bagdad, much as if the Eastern Church had been brought under the power of the Bishops of Rome. Saladin became the greatest Mahometan prince of his time, and in 1 187 he took Jerusalem and drove the Christians out of the greater part of the kingdom. Thus far all the Crusades since the First had been waged for the purpose of defending the Christian possession of Jerusalem. We have now again to come to Crusades which were waged, as the First had been, to win back the Holy City from the Infidels, as well as to save the small fra^^ment of the kingdom which was left. 10. The Later Crusades in Palestine. — ^The loss of Jerusalem roused tiie spirit of all Western Christendom. King Henry of England tcc-k the cross ; but he died two years later, without ever setting out for the Holy Land. But in 11 89 the Emperor Frederick set out by land, but was drowned on the way; and in 11 90 Philip King of the French and his great vassal Richard, the new King of the English, wenic to the Holy Land by sea. King Richard iid many great exploits ; but the princes quarrelled among themselves, so that Jerusalem was not won back ; but some parts of Palest* ne were stiU left to the Christians, and they were allowed to make pilgrimages to Jeru- salem. Of the Third Crusade we shall have to speak by itself, as it did nothing for the Holy Land at all. But in 1228 the Emperor Frederick the Second jVfho claimed to be King of Jerusalem in right of his wife, notwithstanding the opposition of Pope Gregory the Ninthy really went to the Holy Land, and won Jeru- salem by a treaty witl the Egyptian Sultan Katnd^ and was crowned King there. He was the last Christian King who really reigned at Jerusalem. For ir 1244 : 1 . ... A v.^ii.^«^,. .,,4,a>umi,tttmammimmmistjmimks^ XX.] T^£ CRUSADES. 197 V the Holy City was again lost by the Christians, being taken by the Mahometan ChorasmianSy and it has never been won back again. The Popes, instead of helping the Emperor to win back his kingdom, were always excommunicating him and preaching Crusades against him. The Christians however still kept some small parts of the kingdom, and in 1348 Saint Lewis^ the King of the French, set out on a Crusade ; but, instead of going straight to Palestine, he first attacked Egypt, as being the best way of winning the Holy Land. But he was taken prisoner in Egypt ; and, though he did afterwards reach Palestine, yet he could not win back Jerusalem. At last he came back to France in 1254, having done little or nothing for the common cause, but having shown his own courage and good- ness in a wonderful way. In 1270 he set out on another Crusade ; but this time he began by besieging TuniSy and died there. In 1270 Edward the son of King Henry of England, afterwards the great King Edward the First, went on another Crusade, and did something to stop the final overthrow of the Christians in Palestine, though even he could not win back Jeru- salem. At last, in 1291, Acre, the last town which the Christians held in the Holy Land, was taken by the Mahometans, and the Christian Kingdom of Jeru- salem came altogether to an end. But the Emperors called themselves Kings of Jerusalem as well as of Germany, a;?d the same vain title las been borne and disputed about by seveiral other European sovereigns. 7^ II. The Latin Conquest of Constantinople. — No one perhaps would have expected that the Eastern Empire, the great bulwark of Christendom against the Saracens and Turks, and which the first Crusaders had professed to go forth to defend, would be actually overthrown by a crusading army. We have seen that the Komnenian Emperors, following in the wake of the first Crusaders, were able to win back a large part of the Byzantine dominions in Asia. The ^!PU Ifm ^ i i r ip | i jl i l Rjii.iiiii| | ipi||ir i t i l)li 198 TlfE SWABIAN EMPERORS. [CHAP. / two Emperors who reigned after Alexios, yb^« and Manuel^ were both great warriors. JohUy who reigned from 1 1 18 to 1 143, did much really to restore the strength of the Empire ; but Manuel^ who reigned from 1 143 to 1 180, was rather a bold knight-errant than either a good ruler or a great general. He had to contend with many enemies both in Europe and in Asia. In his time Greece was several times ravaged by the fleets of the Kings of Sicily ; he had to wage wars with Hungary, and at last he was defeated in a gr^at battle against the Turks in 1 176. After his tune the Eastern Empire again began to decline; there were many internal revolutions ; Emperors were set up and put down \ the Bulgarians revolted, and a separate Emperor set himself up in the isle of Cyprus. At last, in 1 201, several Western princes, among the chief of whom were Baldwin Count of Flanders and Boniface y ^ //« Marquess of Montferrat in Italy, were setting out on a //yvc ^^ T / i Crusade, and they came to Venice to ask for ships to take them to the Holy Land. Venice, it will be re- membered, had never been part of the Western Empire, but had always kept on its nominal allegiance to the Emperors of the East, till it had gradually be- come quite independent, as it was now. The three Italian cities, Venice, Genoa, and Pisa, were now the greatest naval powers in Europe. The Doge or Duke of Venice, Henry Dandolo^ agreed to let the Crusaders have ships and to go with them himself; only the Crusaders were to conquer for the Venetians the town of Zara in Dalmatia, to which they laid claim. Pope Innocent protested against this, as being no part of the business of a Crusade. Yet they not only took Zara, but agreed to help Alexios Angelos, the son of an Em- peror of the East who had been deposed, in getting back the Empire. This they actually did in 1203. But, as the Romans or Greeks (whichever we are to call them) of Constantinople presently revolted, and slew the Emperors who had been put in by the i .4immmmmsmitk 6 XI.] LATIN CONQUEST OF C0K\^:ANTIN0PLR, 199 Crusaders, the Crusaders in 1204 again took the city ; and the Roman Empire of the East may now be said to have come to an end. 12. The Later Greek Empire.— When the Crusaders had taken Constantinople, they went on to deal with the whole Eastern Empire as their own. They set up Count Baldwin as Emperor of Constanti- nople, and they divided among themselves as much of the Empire as they could get. This was the begin- ning of what was called the Latin Empire of Constan- tinople : the word Latin being now often used, as opposed to Greeks to mean all those who admitted the supremacy of the^oman Church and who used Latin as their religious and official language. Among the Latin powers which now won settlements in the East, the Venetians got possession of many of the islan' and important points of the coast, which was the beginning of their great Eastern dominion. Some of the Venetian and other Latin possessions were never won back by the Greeks, but, on the other hand, the Latins were far from conquering the whole Empire. The Greeks maintained their independence in Epeiros and at Nikaia and Trapezous or Trehizond in Asia; in both these latter cities Greek princes reigned with the title of Emperor. Thus the Eastern Empire was cut up into a crowd of small principali- ties, Greek and Frank (the meaning of this last word in the East has already been explained), Despots of Epeiros, Dukes of J^fhens, Princes of Achoia, and what not; the Latin Emperors at Constantinople being supposed to be lords over all the Frank settlers. But, as the Emperors who reigned at Nikaia, Theodore Laskarh and John Vatatzh, were very wise and good princes, the Empire of Nikaia, which professed to be the true continuation of the Roman Empire at Con- stantinople, grew and flourished; and in 1261 the Emperor Michael Palaiologosvf on back Constantinople, 9^7d the Empire of the East in some sort began again^ 20O THE SWABIAN EMPERORS. [CHAF. But it never won back its old power, for, besides the provinces which were held by the Mahometans and the new dominions of the Venetians, some of the Greek and Frank princes still went on reigning, and were independent of the Greek Emperor at Constan- tinople. The Empire of Trebizond especially outlived the restored Empire of Constantinople. In truth this restored Empire of Constantinople was little more than the most powerful of several Greek states which went on from this time tih they were all swallowed up by the Turks. Still the Emperors of Constantinople always called themselves Emperors of the Romans ^ and professed to continue the old Bfoman succession. From this time the Eastern Empire became more strictly hereditary than it had been of old, and the crown remained with very little interruption in the family of Palaiologos, till the Empire was finally destroyed by the Ottoman Turks. 13. Crusades against the Albigenses. — We have just seen how a Crusade, which was meant to be a war for the defence of Christendom against the unbelievers, could be turned into an attack made by one body of Christians against another. But when the Fourth Crusade wus turned about into an attack on Zara and Constantinople, Pope Innocent at least did what he could to hinder such a falling away from the original design of a Crusade. Yet, before long, Inno- cent himself caused a Crusade to be preached, no longer against Mahometans, but against Christians who were looked on as heretics. In the South of Gaul, both in those parts which were fiefs of the King of the French and in those which were held of the Em- perors as Kings of Burgundy, many men had fallen away into doctrines which both the Eastern and the Western Church.^j condemned. Those who held these doctrines were commonly called Albigenses^ from the city of AIM. The chief princes in those parts were the Counts of Toulouse and the Counts of 1 t I •f. ffm' '■'•■' mm mm mk mmAi^' XI.] CRUSADES IN GAUL AND SICILY. \ Provence: each of them held fiefs both of the Emperor and of the King of the French ; but the County of Toulouse itself was a fief of France, while the County of Provence was of course a fief of the Empire. The Counts of Provence at this time were of the house of *he Kings of Aragon. In 1 208 a Crusade was preached against Raymond Count of Toulouse^ which was car- •ied on at first by Simon of Montforty the father of "he Simon who was so famous in English history, and afterwards by Lewis the Eighth^ King of the French. iimon even defeated Peter King of Aragon in a great •attle, and obtained possession of Toulouse. It looked At one time as if the house of Montfort were going o be established as sovereigns in the South of Gaul ; Dut the end of the matter was that the heresy of the Albigenses was put down by cruel persecutions, and hat m 1229 the county of Toulouse was, as we have een, incorporated with the Kingdom of France. 14. Crusades against Sicily. — In this way the 'Jrusades, which had first been preached only against he infidels, next began to be preached against heretics. The next stage was to preach them against any one 'vho was an enemy of the Pope. Thus Crusades were ^reached against the Emperor Frederick, and, after his ieath, they were preached against his son Manfrea (Cing of Sicily, who began to reign in 1258. Manfred Aras a wise and brave King, and he greatly helped the Ghibelins in other parts of Italy ; things almost looked 4s if a Kingdom of all Italy was about to arise in -he House of Swabia. But the Popes were of course the enemies of Manfred. Even while King Conrad was alive. Pope Innocent the Fourth had in 1253 pro- fessed to give the crown of Sicily to Edmund the son of our King Henry the Tliird. But rothing came of that: so in 1262 Pope Urban the Fourth offered the crown to Charles Count of AnjoUy the brother of Saint Lewis, who was also Count of Provence in right of his wife. Charles got together an army of French ^ 1 \ > 203 THE SWABIAN EMPERORS. [CHAF. Crusaders, and in 1 266 he overthrew and slew Manfred in battle. He then took the kingdom himself; and when, two years afterwards, young Conradin^ the nephew of Manfred, tried to win back the crown, he was defeated in battle, and was beheaded by order of Charles. Charles was thus King of Sicily, both of the island and of the mainland ; but in 1282 the island of Sicily revolted against the oppression of him and his Frenchmen, and the Sicilians chose as their King another King Peter of Aragon, who had married the daughter of Manfred. A long war followed \ the end of which was that Charles's descendants kept the kingdom on the mainland, which vas commonly called the Kingdom of Naples , while the island of Sicily became a separate kingdom in the House of Aragon. But in both kingdoms the Kings called themselves Kings of Sicily J so that when the island and the main- land were joined again long afterwards, the kingdom was called the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. 15. Crusades in the North of Europe. — Besides the real Crusades against the Mahometans and what we inay call the mock Crusades against heretics and other enemies of the Popes, there were also, as we have already seen, Crusades against the heathens in the North of Europe. The people on the east side of the Baltic, in Prussia^ Lithuania, Livonia^ and Esthonia, were still idolaters. PolandhdA become Christian at the end of the tenth century, and the Polish Dukes and Kings had much trouble with their heathen neighbours. Both Poland and Lithuania were much smaller states now than they became after- wards. But Russia at this time was a much greater state, and came much further to the west, than it did again till quite late times, for the Poles and Lithuanians made large conquests at the expense of Russia. Both Russia and Poland were at this time often divided be- tween several princes ; and one or two of the great cities, especially the famous Novgorod in the north^ r - ■ I if ■■..*»'Mmmtmmiinmmmim:mimtm ^—TT^ XI.] CRUSADES IN THE NORTH, aoj j' were able to make themselves into republics. But both Poland and Russia were almost wholly cut off from the sea by their heathen neighbours, and at one time it seemed as if the chief power in those parts was likely to fall into the hands of Denmark. For seve- ral of the Danish Kings, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, niade large conquests on the southern and eastern shores of the Baltic. But in the reign of Frederick the Second great changes were made in those parts by the establishment of the Teutonic Knights. They were first invited by some of the Polish princes to help them against the heathen Prussians. Under their Grand Master Hermann of Salza^ they were commissioned by the Emperor Frederick and by Pope Gregory the Ninths who preached a Crusade against the Prussians, to settle themselves in those parts about 1230. They presently conquered Prussia and ^^^a&X- tmPomerania; and in 1237 another order, called the Knights of the Sword^ who were established in Livonia^ were joined with the Teutonic Knights. The territo- ries of the Order now quite cut off Poland, Lithuania, and Russia from the Baltic, and hindered any further advance of Denmark in those parts. The wars of the Knights in those lands were looked on as holy wars, and many men came from other parts of Europe to join them in fighting against the heathens, just as they had done against the Saracens in the East. But the government of an order can never be a really good government, and the Knights became quite as danger- ous neighbours to the Poles, whom they had at first come to help, as they were to the Prussians an.! other heathens whom they had come to fight against. 16. Advance of the Christians in Spain.-^ While Crusades against heatliens and Mahometans were thus going on in the North and East, the wnole history of Spain might be called one long Crusade on the part of the Christians who were winning back the land, step by step, from the Saracens and Moots. 904 THE SWABIAN EMPERORS. [CHAV. The advance of the Christians was still checked by the foundation of new Mahometan dynasties, which passed over from Africa into Spain. As the Almora- vides passed over in the eleventh century, so the AlmohadeSy who were much like a kind of Mahometan Crusaders, passed over in the twelfth. Alfonso the Eighthy who, as being the chief prince in Spain, called himself Emperor ^ withstood them for a while ; but, after his death in 1159, Castile and Leon were again divided, and the Almohades were able again largely to extend the Mahometan territories. In 11^^ Jacobs the Caliph of the Almohades, at the head of a kind of general Mahometan Crusade, won the great battle of Alarcos over Alfonso of Castile, the grandson of the Emperor Alfonso ; and as the different Spanish Kings were constantly quarrelling between themselves, it almost seemed as if the Mahometans were going again to get the upper hand. But, when the Caliph Jacob was dead and the Christians began to join together again, the Almohade prince Mahomet was utterly de- feated in 12 12 at the battle of Tolosa; and from that time the Mahometan power in Spain steadily went down. Ferdinand the Thirds called Saint Ferdinand^ who reigned over Castile from 12 17 to 1252, and who in 1230 finally united the kingdoms of Castile and Leon, won back a large territory, including the great cities of Seville and Cordova. The Kings of Portugal and Aragon also were pressing their conquests in the West and East of the peninsula. The most famous of the Kings of Aragon was James the Conqueror^ who reigned from 12 13 to 1276. At last nothing was left of the Mahometan power in Spain save only the Kingdom of Granada in the South, which began in 1237, and which, having a good barrier of mountains, lasted much longer than any one would have looked for. From this time there were five kingdoms in Spain, Castile, Aragon^ Portugal, Navarre, and Gra- nada. Of these Castile was the greatest and Navarre XX.] THE SPANISH KINGDOMS. 20$ the smallest : but, as both Castile and Portugal were chiefly employed with their wars with the Mahometans, Aragon was the Spanish kingdom which had most to do with the general affairs of Europe, as we have seen when speaking of the history of Sicily and Southern Gaul. 17. The Invasions of the Moguls. — While Christians and Mahometans were thus fighting in various parts of Europe and Asia, a new power, a Turanian power, which was neither Christian nor Mahometan, threatened to overwhelm both alike. These were the Moguls ^ commonly known in Europe as Tartars^ who in the thirteenth century burst forth from the unknown lands of Asia, beyond either the Saracens or the Turks, much as Attila and his Huns had burst forth eight hundred years before. They began to rise to power under Temujin or Jetighiz Khan^ who reigned from 1206 to 1227. During the whole of the century he and his descendants went on con- quering and destroying through the greater part oi Europe and Asia. In some parts they only ravaged, and ravaged more cruelly than either the Saracens or the Turks had ever done ; in others they founded last- ing dynasties. In religion they seem to have been a kind of Deists, acknowledging one God, but not ac- cepting either the Christian or the Mahometan law. But all religions. Christian, Mahometan, and heathen, were freely tolerated among them, and in the end most of them became Mahometans. In Europe Baton Khan pressed all through Russia, Poland, and Hun- gary, as far as the borders of Germany. The furthest point which they reached to the west was Lignitz in Silesia^ the border province of Poland and Bohemia, which had been Polish, but which now was Bohemian. They there, in 1241, gained a battle over the Teutonic Knights and all the princes of those parts* All Europe was naturally frightened at such an invasion, and the Emperor Frederick tried to stir up all the to6 THE SWABIAN EMPERORS. [CHAP. XI. Other Kings to a Crusade against these enemies, who were worse than Saracens or Prussians. But the Moguls pressed no further westwards ; they ravaged Hungary and the countries to the north of it, but the only lasting dynasty which they set up in Europe was at kasan on the Volga, whence they held Russia in their dependence. Thus Russia, which had at one time seemed likely to become an important power in Europe, was altogether thrust back for a long time. The Lithuanians conquered all the western provinces, even the old capital of Kiev, and the Russian Dukes, first of Vladimir and then of Moscow^ were looked on as mere subjects of the Mogul Khans. In Asia, be- sides conquests in China and other parts which do not concern us, the Moguls overthrew most of the existing powers, and founded a lasting dynasty in Persia. The Chorastnians, from the lands east of the Caspian, fl>ang before them, overthrew, as we have seen, the restored Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem. In- 1258 HoIagoUf another grandson of Jenghiz, took Bagdad, and put an end to the Abbasside Caliphate, though a line of Caliphs who professed to be the descend- ants of the Abbassides wtnt on in Egypt, but without any temporal power. The power of the Seljuk Turks was also quite broken up, and the Greek Emperors at Nikaia were greatly frightened, though in the end the invasion of the Moguls helped the Eastern Empire to last a little longer, by destroying the power of the Seljuks. But it was only for a little while, because the overthrow of the Seljuk Turks made a way for the growth of the far more famous Turkish power ot the Ottomans^ whose beginning came a little later than the time which we have now reached. 18. Summary.— Thus we see that the time of the Swabian Emperors was a time of still greater changes thrn that of the Franconian Emperors. Ir their time much was done towards bringing the various powers of Europe into something like the •(•■w^a ■ |l|l l > HM ||)1^ mmm ^' ao8 THE SWABIAN EMPERORS, [CHAP. state in which they are now. The power of the Western Empire came pretty well to an end, and Germany and Italy began to be collections of separate states, inde- pendent or nearly so, as they have been ever since till quite lately. The Eastern Empire was broken up ; the greatness of F^«/^ perished, .and the Crusades came to an end. But, while Chris- tendom lost in the East, it gained in the West by the great advances of the Christians in Spain, Castile now takes the first place in the Spanish peninsula. In the hke sort France is now fully established as the leading power of Gaul. In England Normans and English are fully reconciled ; the Angevin Kings f by the loss of the more part of their foreign dominions, are driven to become national sovereigns; and that parliamentary constitution is established which has lasted ever since. The north of Europe was further from putting on its present form tb.'n the west ; but the estabhshment of the Teutonic Order, the check given to the power of Denmark, the extension of Lithuania, and the subjection of Russia to the Moguls are all events which had an important effect on later times. This was also a time of great intellectual pro- gress. Universities began to arise, among which Paris and Oxford were two of the most famous north of the Alps. In England we had Latin historians and other writers, such as William of Malmcsbury^John of Salisbury, and Mattheiv Paris, and the great Friar Roger Bacon, who forestalled many of the inventions of later times. In France pro&e writing began with Villehardouin, who wrote an account of the taking of Constantinople. Italian literature began under Fred- erick the Second, and in Germany this was the time of the 'Minnesingers or love-poets. The pointed or Gothic style of architecLure also began to come into use in the last years of the twelfth century, and flourished greatly in the thirteenth. Altogether this was, both in Europe and Asia, a time when old systems were falling Tilliaiili-BTIW wpa St/MMARy* 209 *^*»1 J •« mftqt oarts we may ROW. CHAPTER XII. r.,,rrmE OF THE EMPIRE. THE DECaiSE ur T^Sf Austria tohf^orf^^-f^Ju-Ms ^f^MCn^ position <'*lf & ^'^if^tTHZeof AustrM (i)-J^t'lt)J Avignon with the "'^"'j,„f,:face the Eighth (3) " .j^ gygat the Tenth ;£B^g'^J ^j,. Templars &J%X„,, Popes; '"(^X Zforming Councils, f"^.^^ ^^. f r^f fc 2'^^ '^Siy«4 Venice, Genoa, a^j;^ ^^ Popes : f^ "J,,, 0/ "' ^'"ft^%TZsiciliesj ffpJi^faU Jh ^W» ffi i ^ ' i l ftWI WI IWiiJ!Uii imn m rn t i m mamii f m^ < mx- -•*■ tio TNE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE, [cHAP (12) — the eight Cantcnsj battle of Sempach (12) — re' lations of the League to the Empire^ France^ and Austria (12) — beginning of the Valois Dukes of Bur- gundy; acquisition of Flaitders (13) — reigns of John the Fearless and Philip the Good; advance of the Burgundian power within the Empire (13) — reign of Charles the Boldj his rivalry with Lewis the Eleventh (13) — his schemes and conquests; his war with the Confederates ; battles of Grandson^ Moral, and Nancy (13) — ejects of the Burgundian War on the Confede- rates (13) — the Greek Empire of Constantinople; its advance and decline (14) — rise of the Ottoman Turks ; their conquests in Asia (14) — their advance in Europe; institution of the Janissaries (14) — rise of Timour ; he defeats Bajazet at Angora (i$)—<^eign of Mahjmet the Second; fall of Cons tantim pie (16) — conquest of Greece and Trebizond; taking of Otranto; death of Mahomet (16) — civil war in Castile; battle of N ajar a (17) — wars of Aragon with Provence and France (17) — maritime discoveries and conquests of the Portuguese (17) — union of Castile aud Aragon; conquest of Gra- nada; beginning of the greatness of Spain (17) — state of the Scandinavian Kingdoms; Union of Calmar (18) —the House of Oldenburg in Denmark ; affairs of Sleswick and Holstein (iS) — conversion of Lithuania; its union with Poland; partition of Prussia (19) — deliverance of Russia from the Moguls (19) — the An- gevin Kings in Hungary; reign of Siegmund; his de- feat at Nikopolis (20) — exploits of Huniades ; defeat of Wladisiaus at Varna (20) — reign of Matthias Cor- vinus; designs of Austria on Hungary {20)— growth of Universities (21) — writers of history and poetry (21)— final triumph of the English language (21) — theology and philosophy (21) — levelling doctrines taught; condition of the villains (21) — use of ift- fantry in war {21) — state of architecture (21) — Sum- mary i^"^, I. The Great Interregnum. — After the death of Frederick iue Second the power and dignity of the Western Empire greatly declined. Italy new began quite to fall away. Many of the Kings who were (hosen in Germany never went to Rome to be crowned THE GReAT INTERREGNUM. 2lt *"-J 1 j-^ cr. thouch their Emperors at all. and ^|j°,^; :;i:yfide some changes p Jlng through he c« ^l^^y^i3,^i„g hold on the at the time, could »»' fj^P,!^ J^ of Burgundy quite Italian Kingdom. The Kmgr ^^ „ broke in pieces ; some ot ^K ? connexion with the wealths still kept on Ae«/°""'r^ ^ne, by one means Em^e, but others passed^eToA^^^^^^^^ Vus beg^n or Mother, under the po^ero kingdoms Sl^rgrowth of J-r^e J the^-^t^ ^^ ..^ a sort m belonging to the Empwe^ Bouvines, aiid which foreshadowing m *« '^^H'tt^as stopped only yester- hL eone on ever since, tUl it ''^i^^Jiek the Second, £.^ In fact, after the death omea ^^^^^ e successors, thoug^^^«)^ye«^^ ^^^^^^ ^^ A. lar 127^ is commonly callea tne ^^^^ ^ighbouring countries, and the^ P ^^-^^ there S" greatly enlarged their own p j^^^j gygry t^'nTA to I'-P ^^^.-^eStwas rife through S^olnritUrm:i.fe.tl^-nen^dmustbc HMM ii n i y iil l i l 1 H I I' i ' « I i J 1 I tt» THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. [ciui^. put to such a state of things, and at last in 1273 a King dwelling in the land was once more chosen. 2. 'Kings of the Houses of Habsburg and Liizelburg. — The King who was now chosen was not one of the great Princes of the Empire ; he was Rudolf Count of Habsburg^ a castle in Aargau in the south of Swabia. He reigned till 1292, and was a brave and wise man, who did much to restore peace and to subdue Ottocar King of Bohemia and other ene- mies. He was the founder of the House of Habsburg or of Austria, from which so many Kings and Emperors were afterwards chosen. For the old Margraves and Dukes of Austria had come to an end, and the Duchy was granted by Rudolf to his son Albert, from whom the later Dukes, Kings, and Emperors of the Austrian House all sprang. Neither Rudolf nor either of the two next Kings, Adolf of Nassau and Rudolf's son Albert, was ever crowLed Emperor. Albert was the first Austrian King, and there were no more for some time to come; for, when he was murdered in 1308, the Electors chose Henry Count of Liizelburg or Luxeni' burg, who reigaed as Henry the Seventh. In his time It seemed as if the Empire were going to win back again all its old power. For he wgit into Italy, and was crowned Kllng at Milan and Emperor at Rome in 1312 ; but in the next year he died, by poison as was thought, and hic great schemes died with him. He was however able to provide for his own family as P.udolf had done, for he got the Kingdom of Bohemia for his son John, by marrying him to the daughter of the last King Wenceslms. This King John figures a good deal in the history of the time, but not so much either in his own kingdom or in Germany as in going about as a kind of knight-errant in Italy and France. At last he died in the battle of Crecy between the French and the English, of which we shall speak presently. He was never Emperor or King of the )tll.) tun tVZELBURC EMPERORS, it) Romans himself, but several of his descendants were, as we shall soon see. On the death of Henry the Seventh, there was a double election between Lewis Duke of Bavaria and Frederick Duke of Austria^ the son of King Albert. But Lewis reigned in the end, and in 1328 he T»7as crowned Emperor. He had great quarrels with Pope John the Twenty-secondy and each professed to depose the other, just as Gregory the Seventh and Henry the Fourth had done. Lewis was again declared deposed in 1346 by Pope Clement the Sixth, and then John of Bohemia persuaded the Electors to declare the Empire vacant and to elect his son Charles, who reigned as Charles the Fourth. He was crowned Emperor in 1355, ^^^> what one would hardly have expected, he was crowned King of Bur- gundy at Aries in 1365. Charles made a good King in his own kingdom of Bohemia, but he sadly lowered the Empire both in Germany and in Italy. He is chiefly remembered for granting a charter known as the Golden Bull, by whicn the way of choosing the Emperor was finally settled, but by which the powers of the Empire were still further lessened in favour of the princes. Then followed several Kings who were never crowned Emperors, and on whom we need not dwell long. One of them, Wer^eslaus, son of the Emperor Charles, so far from taking heed to Italy, took none to Germany, and kept always in Bohemia. At last, in 14 10, his brother Siegmund was chosen King, and he was crowned Emperor in 1433. He was already Margrave of Brandenburg and King of Hun- gary, and be afterwards became King of Bohemia. The truth is that the Empire by itself was growing so weak and so poor that it was found needful to choose some prince for Emperor who had dominions of his own which would enable him to keep up his dignity. And in Siegmund we get the beginning of that special connexion between the Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary which afterwards became of Wmw-r.-f'i^ mm ■•«•« 214 T//E DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE, [cmap great importance. Siegmund was specially zealous in the attempts for reforming the Church of which we shall hear presently. He died in 1437. Then came his son-in-law Albert Duke of Austria^ who died in 1439, and was succeeded by another Austrian Prince, Frederick Duke of Steiermark or Styria. His was a v^X'j long reign, lasting from 1440 to 1493, ^^t he himself did nothing memorable. In 1452 he was crowned Emperor at Rome, being the last Emperor who was crowned there. From the time of Siegmund we may look on the Empire as putting on quite a new character. Neither as Emperor nor as King of Ger- many, was the Emperor any longer the chief prince of Europe. But the Empire was now held by princes who were powerful through their dominions both in and out of Germany, Kings of Hungary, Dukes of Austria, and so forth. And, from the time of Albert the Second, though the Emperors were still always elected, yet the Electors always chose a member of the House of Austria, and most commonly the head of that House. Thus from this time the Emperors were again very powerful princes, though it was not from the Empire that they drew their chief strength. The House of Austria lent its strength to the Empire, and the Empire lent its dignity to the House of Austria, and, before the death cf Frederick the Third, the German Emperor was again the only Emperor. How this came about we shall see presently. 3. The Popes at Rome and Avignon.— Wt left the Popes disputing and waging war against the Emperor Frederick the Second and his descendants, both in Germany and in Sicily. There were however some Popes who gave their minds to better things. Thus, nearly about th^ same time that Rudolf was chosen King, a ver} good Pope, Gregory the Tenths was chosen in 1271. Indeed Gregory had a good deal to do with the election of Rudolf ; for his great wish was to put an end to all the strifes and confusions 5HI.] THE POPES AT A VIGNON, 215 which were going on in Germany, Italy, and elsewhere, and to make all Western Europe join together in an attempt to win back the Holy Land. He even brought about for a moment the reconciliation of the Eastern and Western Churches ; and, between him and King Rudolf and King Edward in England, it almost seemed that the whole world was going to start afresh with a good beginning. But Gregory only reigned a little while : he died in 1276, and the real power and glory of the Popes died with him. Boniface the Eighth^ who reigned from 1294 to 1303, tried to get back all the powers which any of the earlier Popes had ever made use of. But the times were no longer fitted for this. The more Europe began to settle down into a system of distinct nations, and the more the Popes began to put on the character of Italian princes, the less were they able to act as rulers of the whole world, even in purely ecclesiastical matters. Boniface the Eighth quarrelled with Philip the Fair^ the King of the French, and in the end Philip sent and seized him, and he died soon after. The next Pope but one, Clement thi Fifths was a Pope of Philip's own choosing, and was quite at his beck and call. He left off living at Rome, and moved his Court to Avignon on the Rhone, just outside the French border. Avignon had been one of the free commonwealths in the Kingdom of Burgundy ; but it had come under the power of the Counts of Provence, so that it now belonged to the French King of Naples. The new Pope was thus more within tlie power of his master the King of the French. For seventy years the Popes lived at Avignon instead of in their own place at Rome, a time which men called the Babylonish Captivity. Of course this greatly weakened their power. Presently Clement and Philip joined together to destroy the order of the Templars^ which had done such great things in the Holy Wars. We can well believe that many corrup- tions had come into the order, but no one can believe "W 1^1^ THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. fcHAI^. the monstrous tales which ine Pope and the King got up against them, as if they had cast aside all religion and m(h"als altogether. It was no doubt the wealth of the knights which Philip wished to seize ; so the order was suppressed throughout Europe, and in France mary of its members were cruelly put to death. The next Pope, Joh7i the Twenty-second^ had, as we before said, great disputes with the Emperor Lewis, and he was also thought to have gone wrong in some haru points of theology. This is one of many things which show how much men's mmds were now stirred on the subject of leligion, as we sh?'l ]— esently see. The Popes did not tinrily go back t ^vv..ae till 1376, in the time of Gregory the FJeverfh; and, when he died two years afterwards, there was a double election. Urban the Sixth, an Italiar. was the first chosen, and afterwards Robert 0/ Geneva^ who called himself Clement the Seventh. So the Church was divided. Urban lived at Rome and Clement at Avignon, and some nations followed one and some the other ; France 01 course took the side of the Pope at Avignon, and England therefore took that of the Pope at Rome. There were thus two opposition Popes, for, when Urban and Clement died, their several parties chose others to succeed them; and this state of things went on till men got weary of their disputes, and tried to settle them in another way. 4. The General Councils. — Ever since the time of Constantine, General Councils, that is meetings of Bishops and divines from all part^, had been summoned, first by the P^mperors and afterwards by the Popes, whenever there were matters to be dis- cussed concerning the whole Church. Such Councils were always held to have greater authority than the Popes. But of course, after tlie separation of East and West, they could not really represent the whole Church, but only the Western part of it So now a series oif »tt.) THE GBNHRAL tOVMClLS. it> I Councils were held to settle the affairs of the Church, especially the disputes between the Popes. The first was held at Pisa in 1402. This Council deposed both the Popes and chose a third, Alexander the Fifthy who was succeeded hy Jo h?i the Twenty-third. But as the other two, Benedict the T/iirteenth and Gregory the Twelfth^ would not give in, this only made three Popes instead of two. At last in 1415 another Council was held at Consta?tz, chiefly by the help of King Sieg- mund, who worked very hard to bring about the peace of the Church. This Council deposed all the three Popes, and very rightly ; for John the Twenty- third, whether he were rightly chosen or not, deserved to be deposed, for his wickedness reminded men of the old times of John the Twelfth. The Council then elected Martin the Fifths who was acknowledged everywhere as the true Pope. But the Council did some other things which were less to its credii. The religious controversies at the time, and the abuses of the Papal dominion, had led everywhere to much thought on religious matters and to the putting forth of many new doctrines. In England John Wickliffe, a doctor of Oxford, had written against many things in the received belief and practice of the times, especially against the Begging Friars^ that is the Franciscans ond Dominicans, who professed to live upon alms. He made many followers, and his opinions spread, especially in Bohemia, Two of the chief Bohemian preachers, fohn Huss and Jerome of Prague^ were brought be- fore the Council and were burned, to the great shame of King Siegmund, who had plighted his word for the safety of Huss. The followers of Huss in Bohemia now rebelled, and a fearful civil war followed. In 1 43 1 there was another Council held at Basely which professed to depose Pope Etigenius the Fourth^ and which lasted from 1431 to 1439. This Council, had its decrees taken effect, would have greatly lessened the powers of the Popes and increased those of the 2l8 THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. [ciiAF. W1 Bishops and the national Churches, bringing things in short more to the state in which they were in early times. But 'the Council of Basel gradually fell into discredit, and it died out. The Popes never liked these Councils which were held in places north of the Alps, like Basel and Constanz ; and meanwhile Pope Eugenius held a Council of his own in Italy, first at Ferrara and then at Florence^ where in 1439 another nominal reconciliation with the Eastern Church was made. This was because the Eastern Empire was just then at its last gasp, and was glad to get help from the West on any terms. For the rest of this century the Popes must be looked on as little more than Italian princes, and we will speak of them again as such. 5. The Revival of Learning in Italy. — During all this time we may look on Italy as being in some sort the central nation of Europe. It had indeed no kind of political power over other nations, for the power of the Emperors was gone, and this time, when the Popes were so much away in Gaul, was just the time when they were less Italian, and had less power both in Italy and elsewhere, than at any time before or after. And Italy, cut up as it was into many principalities and commonwealths, was in no state to bear rule over other nations. Still it might be called the centre of Europe, as being the country which had more to do with the rest of the world than any other one country. It was iie country to which others looked up as being at the head in arts, learning, and commerce, and it was the country too where, just as in old Greece, there was the greatest political life among the many small states. But of course, as in old Greece also, this was bought at the cost of constant wars between the different cities and of many disturbances within them. The two nations which had been the most civihzed in Europe, the Greeks in the East and the Saracens in the West, were now falling before the Turks and the Xlt.] THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING, 219 Spanish Christians. The Italians in some sort took their place. Ever since the twelfth century there had been a great movement of men's minds in the way of learning, and this turned more and more towards the study of the ancient Latin writers, and after a while the Greek also. And studies of this kind also had an important political effect. Thus men in the twelfth centur)' began to study the old Roman Law^ and this study disposed them much in favour of the Swabian Emperors. So again, somewhat later, the study of the old Latin poets, and what they said about the old Caesars, led men to welcome Henry the Seventh and the Emperors who came after him. The great poet Dante Alighieri was strong on the Imperial side, both in his poems and in his prose writings, and he re- proaches King Albert for staying away from Italy and not taking heed to the garden of the Empire. But, on the other hand, the study of the ancient republican writers, and the praises which they give to the killers of tyrants, several times stirred up men in the fifteenth century to conspiracies against the Popes and other princes. Towards the end of the time with which we have to do printing was invented ; and though it was not invented in Italy but in Germany, by Gutenburg at MainZf yet it was in Italy, where there were more learned men and writers than elsewhere, that it was for a long while of the most importance. Gunpowder too, an invention as important in war as printing was in peace, gradually came into use in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. It quite changed the manner of warfare ; the old style of armour and the old style of fortification, both of which had in Italy been carried to such perfection that men could not be wounded, and castles could not be taken, by any arms then known, now became of little use, and a new order of things in warfare began. 6. The Commonwealths of Italy. — Mean- while the political state of Italy greatly changed. The ft»> THE DECUNR OF THE EhfPfftE. (cmaK separate cities, which had in the twelfth century been independent commonwealths, were gradually grouped together into larger states. Sometimes the lord op tyrant of one city got possession of several cities, so as to form a large continuous dominion. In such cases a ruler generally tried to give some show of law- fulness to his power by getting the Pope or the Emperor to invest him with his dominions as a fief, and to give him the title of Duke or Marquess as an hereditary prince. Thus, in the course of the thir- teenth century, the chief power at Milan gradually came into the hands of the family of the Viscontu Then, in 1395, Gian-Galeazzo Visconti, who was Lord of Milan and held Pavia and other cities of Lombardy, bouf^ht a charter from King Wenceslaus making him Duke of Milan, The Dukes of Milan, through the wealth and industry of the cities over which they ruled, became far richer and more powerful than many princes who had much wider dominions, but, now that their dominions were made hereditary, they were laid open to the usual disputes and wars as to the right of succession to the duchy. When Filippo-Maria^ the last of the Viseonti, died in 1447, the Milanese tried to set their ancient commonwealth up again. But they were obliged to admit Francesco Sforza^ the son-in-law of the late Duke, as his successor. He was one of a class of men of whom there were then many in Italy, mercenary generals who went about with bands of soldiers, hiring themselves out to fight for any prince or commonwealth that would pay them. It was by the help of such leaders that most of the princes and commonwealths of Italy in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries waged their wars. Thus there was a new dynasty at Milan, that of the Sforza. Meanwhile, as some of the cities of Northern Italy thus fell under the power of the Dukes of Milan, so others came under the power of the commonwealth of Venice. For it was in Italy at this time just as it was long before in old kit] TftE STATE OF ITALY, aai Greece ; one dty bore rule over another. Venice, as we have seen, had gained the first position in the world as a maritime power, holding large possessions in the East. But in the fifteenth century she was tempted to become a land power also, and she won a large dominion over the cities in the north-east of Italy. The government of Venice had by this time grown into a narrow oligarchy. The chief power was in the hands of the noble families, quite shutting out the people and leaving very little power to the Doge. But, though Venice was an oligarchy, yet it was a prudent and moderate oligarchy, which never failed to supply wise statesmen and brave commanders by sea. For the fleets of Venice were always manned by her own citizens and subjects, though by land mercenary troops were commonly used. Genoa also remained a republic, and kept up a great deal of her old maritime power. At one time, in 1379, she seemed almost on the point of conquering Venice. But at Genoa, un- like Venice, there were constant internal revolutions, and the city had several times to submit to the Dukes of Milan and the Kings of France. The other great maritime commonwealth, Pisa, lost nearly all her power after a sea-fight with the Genoese in 1284, and at last in 1406 Pisa became subject to Florence. This last commonwealth, which had not been prominent in the twelfth century, gradually became, in the course of the thirteenth century, one of the chief states ot Italy. As Venice was the greatest example in later times of an aristocratic commonwealth, so Florence was the greatest example of a democracy. In this way the two in some sort answer to Sparta and Athens in the old Greek times. At Florence the old nobles were quite put down in 1292, but, in the course of the fifteenth century, a kind of new nobility gradually arose. Among these, one family in particular, that of the Medici^ gradusdly rose to have the chief power in the state, plough without disturbing the forms of the common- y ■H) 822 THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE, [cha?. wealth, or >':aking any particular title to themselves. Such were Cosmo de^ Medici^ called the Father of his Cowitryy and his grandson Lorenzo. Their power was of a different kind from that of the lords or tyrants, either in old Greece or in other dties of Italy. Nor was it such a power as that of Perikl^s at Athens, for it passed on from lather to son. It was more like the power of Augustus and the other Roman Emperors whj respected the forms of the commonwealth. On the whole, Florence, though the greatest and most famous democratic state in later times, was by no means so pure and regular a democracy as Athens was. Still there was no part of Europe where there was so much life, political, intellectual, and commercial. Dante, the greatest of all Italian poets, was born at Florence in 1265, and died in banishment in 132 1. Many other of the chief artists and men of letters also belonged* to Florence ; the commerce of the city was famous, and its bankers lent money to Kings in England and elsewhere. And in the time of the Medici there was no city in Italy where greater, en- couragement was given to the men who were engaged in reviving the old Greek and Roman learning. 7. Rome and the Popes. — Rome meanwhile, forsaken as the city was for so long both by the Emperors and by the Popes, quite lost its old place in Italy, and did not begin to win it back again till, the affairs of the Popes became more settled after the Council of Constanz. Tl\e Romans never forgot the old greatness of their city, and, as men's minds were constantly falling back on old times, one Cola di Rienzi in 1347 set up again for a short time what he called the Good State^ and ruled himself by the title of Tribune. So again, after the Popes came back to Ro.ie, .there were one or two conspiracies to set up the old com- monwealth ; but from the Council of Constanz onwards we may look on the Popes as undoubted temporal princes of Rome. They were gradually able to brin*^ !' -> .>mmf '' UW >"lhl *»i PI L?. XII.] ROME AND THE POPES, 323 under their power all that part of Italy, stretching from one sea to the other, over which they professed to have rights by the grants of various Kings and Emperors. The latter Popes of the fifteenth century must be looked on as little more than Italian princes, and many of them were among the very worst of the Italian princes. Some of them, like Nicolas the Fifths did some good in the way of encouraging learning; and Pius the Second^ who reigned from 1458 to 1464, and who is famous as a writer by his former name of ^Mneas Silvius, tried, like Gregory the Tenth, to get the Christian princes to join in a Crusade for the deliver- ance of the East. But Sixtus the Fourth and Innocent the Eighth were among the worst of the Popes, men who thought of nothing except increasing their temporal power and advancing their own families. 8. The Two Sicilies. — The Two Sicilies mean- while remained divided. The Kingdom of Sicily on the mainland, often called the Kingdom of Naples, was in extent the greatest state in Italy, and some of its Kings, especially Robert , who reigned from 1309 to 1343, played an important part in Italian affairs. But it shows how much greater was the life of the separate cities, even when they were not under a free government, when we see how this large kingdom lagged behind the rest of Italy, and how, even in political power, it was not more than on a level with the principalities and commonwealths of Northern Italy which were not above half its size. This Kingdom of Sicily was much torn in pieces by civil wars arising out of disputed successions to the Crown. Two bad Queens, Joanna the First (1343 to 1382) and /oanna the Second (1419 to 1435), caused much confusion by their different marriages and adoptions of successors. During the greater part of the fifteenth century the crown was disputed between a branch of the House of Aragon, who for the most part kept possession, and the Dukes 6/ Anjou, a branch of the royal house of France, who ■>vuii mn"fimm ,'^ 9H THE DRCUNE OF THE Eh^PIRB. [CHAf. i i ever and anon tried to make their own claims good. At last the claims of the Angevin princes passed to the Kings of France themselves, and then many important events followed. Meanwhile in the Island of Sicily the other branch of the house of Aragon ivent on reigning. The first King Frederick^ who established the independence of the island, ruled bravely and wisely, but after him the island kingdom became of no account at all. At last Sicily became united to the Kingdom of A' igon, another step towards the great events of the next period. 9. England, France, and Scotland. — A great part of the history of the lands beyond the Alps during this time is taken up by the long wars between England and France. These had now become thoroughly na- tional wars, and before long they grew into attempts at a complete conquest of France on the part of England. And the wars between England and France are a good deal mixed up with the wars of the English Kings with Scotland, and even with Wales. For, when England and France became constant national enemies, it was the natural policy of the French Kings to raise up enemies to their rivals within their own island. It was the object of Edward the First, like that of his namesake Edward the Elder in old times, to join all Britain, as far as might be, under one dominion. That part of Wales which still kept its own princes was joined on in 1282. Wales was never again separated from England; but once or twice, when there were revolts in Wales, those who were discontented with the English rule tried to get help from France. How Scotland was for a moment united with England, how, after the death of Edward the First, it was again separated under its King Robert Bruce^ how in 1328 Scotland was acknowledged by England as an independent kingdom, but how constant rivalries and wars went on between the two kingdoms in one island, must be told more fully in our Histories of England XII.1 nmiAND, FRANCE, AND SCOTLAND, %%% and Scotland. The point to be borne in mind no\v is that, from this time, we find a steady alliance between France and ScoilanJ against England. This began as early as the time of Edward the First. In the long wars of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries we now and then find French troops serving in Scotland, while the Scots soon learned to take service in France, and in the later wars we find them serving against the English in every battle. Through this close connexion with France, Scotland came to hold a higher place in Europe than she could otherwise have had from her size and position. lo. Wars between England and France. — During the reigns of Edward the First and of his son Edward the Second, who reigned from 1307 to 1327, the rivalry between England and France did not lead to any great war. Philip the Fair got possession of the Duchy of Aquitaine in the year 1294, but he had soon to give it up again. It was in the reign of Edward the Third, from 1327 to 1.^/7, that the great war began which the French writers call the Hundred Years* War, It was something like the Peloponnesian War in Greece in old times ; for, though there was not actual fighting going on for the whole time, yet there was no firm or lasting peace between the two countries for more than a hundred years. Edward the Third pro- fessed to have a claim to the Crown of France through his mother Isabel, who was a daughter of PhiUp the Fair. But the French held that no right to the Crown could pass through a woman. And Edward might very likely not have pressed his claim, had not the French King, Philip of Valois, driven him into war by his attempts to get possession of Aquitaine. A long war followed, which was famous for the taking of Calais and for the great victories of the English at Crety in 1346 and at Poitiers in 1356. Edward, as was natural, was an ally of the Emperor Lewis and of the Flemish cities, which were now beginning to rise >-««llfl MR [11 i ''Is Wh ';'J«« ^ i ^38 iff"' ■ ■'■*»! 31^ , \ V-'^^PB n'^ Is -';.. ^S iV^!^ !•' K 'Bft )lf4i ' t ''^Va iXni ''}^k si ''■^H P '' ^ 'iwi W' ' '^'wl w f^p (m'' ' 'Wm V^ '^"'^Wl ft si'^9 W •wsTTtaBtnisif tfimmmmm»m''mmm0frmmift wwfmmmrm y . ' ., ! » ■'< ■■■ ' « ■ » .■ • ■■» n u !. . .^ , ,1,, 826 THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE, [chaf. % '■ ■i H '■■\ ^ into great importance, though they never won the same complete independence as those of Italy. The feudal superiority over Flarders belonged to France ; the Flemings were therefore better pleased when King Edward took the title of King of France^ so that they might seem to be fighting for, and not against, their over- lord. As King Edward was an ally of the Emperor Lewis, it came about that King John of Bohemia took the French side, so that he and his son Charles^ who had just been chosen King of the Romans, were both at Crecy, and King John was killed there. At Poitiers another King John, the French King himself, was taken prisoner, and, as David King of Scots ^ the son of Robert Bruce, was taken prisoner in 1346, there were two cap- tive Kings in England at once. This first part of the war with France was ended by the Peace of Bretigny in 1360, by which Edward gave up his claim to the Crown of France, but kept his possessions in Aquitaine, together with Calais and some other small districts, and that no longer as a vassal of the French King, but as an independent sovereign. Edward then granted his dominions in the south to his son Edward^ called the Black Prince^ who ruled at Bourdeaux as Prince of Aquitaine. Before long the Peace of Bre- tigny was broken by the French King Charles the Fifths and, before the end of the reign of Edward the Third, the English had lost ne.'^rly all their possessions in Aquitaine except the cities of Bourdeaux and Bayonne. The cities commonly stuck to the English rule, under which they were less meddled with, while the nobles were mostly for an union with France. After the peace was broken, King Edward again took up his title of King of France, which was borne by all the Kings of England down to the year 1800. Then came a time which was neither war nor peace. Many truces were made, and now and then there was some little fighting, but it was not until the reign of Henry the Fifth in England that the war began again on a XII.] THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR. 227 great scale. He took advantage of the dissensions by which France was torn in pieces during the reign of the >\ eak, or rather mad, King Charles the Sixth. He won the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, took Rouen in 141 9, and in 1420 concluded the Treaty of Troy es^ by which Henry was to succeed to the crown of France on the death of Charles, and the crowns of England and France were to be ever after united. Both Charles and Henry died in 1422, but a large part of France refused to acknowledge the treaty; so, after their deaths, the war went on between Charles the Seventh^ who reigned at Bourges^ and Johti Duke of Bedford^ who was Regent of France for his nephew Henry ihe Sixth. Now comes the great story of the waking up of France under the famous Maid of Orleans, Joan of Arc. She came from the borders of Lorraine, but she was called the Maid of Orleans, because she relieved that city when it was besieged by the English. By her means Charles the Seventh was crowned at Rheims, the old crowning-place of the French Kings, in 1429. He tl 'ii5 got the start of his English rival, who had not yet be ,1 c;o*.ned, but who was now crowned at Paris in 143X. The war now went on for a long time, and, after the death of the Duke of Bedford, it was for the most part badly managed on the English side. The English were gradually driven out, not only from France, but from Aquitaine also, till at last, in 1453, Bourdeaux and Bayonne were finally taken by the French, and the English kept nothing on the continent except the territory of Calais. The Hufidred Years^ War was now over. The Kings of England still kept on their claim to the Crown of France, and they now and then professed to make attempts to recover it. But, though there were for a long time many wars between England and France and long enmity between the two nations, the notion of conquering France was never again seriously taken up after the time of Henry the Sixth. Q a n f .-i-j II i 'i^ 'mimmmmmifi BP*"? mm y \ I' 928 THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE, [cHAf. II. The Growth of France.— The long wars of the English were a great check to the growth of the Kingdom of France, yet it was growing all this time, both by uniting the territories of the great vassals to tlie Crown and by annexations at the expense of its neighbours. These were of course mainly made at the expense of the Empire ; bui, as Aquitaine had become an independent state by the Treaty of Bre- tigny, its conquest also mav be looked on rather as a foreign conquest than as the union of a great fief to the Crown. And it was during this time that the French Kings began the process which has gone on ever since, that of joining the states which made up the Kingdom of Burgundy one by one to the Kingdom of France. Even before this they had taken the little County of Vmaissin^ but that had been given up to the Popes. But now they began in earnest. In 13 14, Philip the Fair took advantage of the disputes which the citizens of the Imperial city of Lyo7is had with their Arch- bishops, and annexed the city to his own dominions. In 1349, in the thick of the English wars, the last of the princes of Vienne on the Rhone, who from their arms bore the title of Dauphin or Dolphin^ sold his domi- nions to Chai-les the eldest son of King John of France, and from this time it becatne the rule that the eldest SOD of the King of France bore the title of Dauphin, The County of Frovenre also, though not part of the Kingdom of France, was, from the time of Charles of Anjou onwards, held by French princes. And so it came about that, somewhat after our present time, in 1 48 1, Le7vts the Eleventh^ the son of Charles the Seventh, was able to add Provence also to France. The French Kings also more than once got hold of the County of Burgundy or Franche Comtk^ of which Dole is the capital. But this they were not able per- manently to keep till long afterwards. Still, before the end of the fifteenth century, the acquisition of Provence, Lyons, and the Dauphiny of Vienne had : Ml 'OM^/iMMM ttu] CkOWTH OF PRANCE, ^ given the French Kings a good half of the BurguiK dian kingdom. The only princes of any great power left in that part of the world were the Counts^ after- wards DukeSy of Savoy y who ruled on both sides of the Lake of Geneva, and who had also possessions in the north-west corner of Italy. In other parts of the Empire also, even where the French Kings did not make conquests, they were winning influence. To the north of their own dominions they often had wars with the stout people of the Flemish cities, over whom they sometimes won victories, but by whom they were sometimes defeated. The battle of Courtray in the time of Philip the Fair is famous as the first great victory north of the Alps won by townsmen over nobles. On the whole, notwithstanding the long wj^rs with England, the kingdom of France had greatly grown in power and in extent in the times between the middle of the thirteenth century and the middle of the fifteenth. 12. Beginning of the Swiss League. — While the three kingdoms which belonged to the Empire were thus getting weaker and more divided, and while the kingdom of France to the west of them was growing stronger and stronger, two new powers gradually arose in what we may call the border-land of all these king- doms. One of these lasted but a short time, but the other has lived on to our own day. These are the Duchy of Burgundy and the League of the Swiss Cantons. This last began among three small mountain districts on the borders of Germany, Burgundy, and Italy, called Uri^ SchwyZy and Uiiterwalden. They were German- speaking members of the Empire, and there was nothing to distinguish them from other German- speaking members of the Empire, except that they had kept far more of the freedom of the old times than most other lands had. Like many other districts and cities of the Empire, they joined togw;;her in a League for mutual defence. This they had doubtless ^Xto THE DECUHE OF TjtlR EMPIRE. [cHAf . i 1 ■i'. h done from earlier times, but the first written document of their union belongs to the year 1291. The Counts of Ilabsbitrgy who had now become Dukes of Austria^ and who had estates within the three lands themselves, were now very dangerous neighbours, and the Con- federates had to keep close together in order to guard their freedom. This they made safe by the batrle of Morgarten, which thpy won over Du' c L:^^oL^ of Austria in 13 15. i'rcsently se\cial of tlic neigh- bouring cities, Luzern, Zurich, and I^em^ joined their alliance, as also did the smaller towns o; Zug and Glarus ; so that in the course of the fourteenth century they formed a league of eight states. Its name was the Old League of High Germany, and its members were called the Eidgenosscfi or Confede- rates; but the name of the Canton oi Schwyz gradually spread over the whole League, and they came to be commonly called Swiss and their country Switzerland, But it is only in quite late times that those names have come into formal use. Such a league was of course much dreaded by the neighbouring nobles, but it was for a long time favoured by the Emperors. The three lands had been specially loyal to tue Swabian Emperors, and they were no less favoured by Henry the Seventh and Lewis of Bavaria, ^^harles the Fourth was their enemy, but they were again favoured by his son Siegmund. But the Dukes of Austria were their constant enemies, and therefore, when the Em- pire passed into the Austrian House, the Confederates had to be on their guard against the power which had hitherto been friendly. But they did not throw off their allegiance to the Empire, and, during all the time of which we speak, the Confederates remained a purely German body, although some parts of their territory, including Bern, which was the most powerful member of the League, lay within the bounds of the Kingdom of Burgundy. The Confederates had to wage several wars for the defence of their freedom, as wh-cn in 1386 XII.] THE SWISS LEAGUE. SgX i they won the battle of Sempach over another Duke Leopold of Austria and a great confederacy of the nobles, and wher "n 1444 they wore 'ittacked by the Dauphin Lewis, ai rwards Lewis the Eleventh They had also some disputes i,nd even civil wa • among them- selves; ; at on the whole the League steadily ad- \anced : id made many alliaaccs with its neighbours. And these cciimo:. wealths also, like those of old Greece and of Italy, conquered, or sometimes bought, various towns and districts, which they held as their subjects. Thus, by the middle of the fifteenth cen- tury the Confederates had grown into a new power in Europe, and one which was getting more and more independent of the Empire. But they in no sort formed a nation, because all the members of the Leag'ie were still purely German. They were simply one of many German Leagues, which circumstances allowed to become more independent than the others, and, as it turned out, to survive them. We must now speak of the other power which was growing up mean- while in the border-lands, and with which the Con- federates presently had a great deal to do. 13. The Dukes of Burgundy. — It must be al- ways borne in mind that the name Burgimdy has several meanings. Thus, besides the Kingdom of Burgundy^ which, in the times of which we are now speaking, quite fell to pieces and was almost forgotten, there was the Duchy of Burgundy, which was a fief of the Crown of France, and the County of Burgundy, which was part of the Kingdom, and therefore a fief of the Empire. A power now began to arise, which took "in more than one of tliese Burgundies, and which seemed not unlikely to bring back the old times when there was a Middle Kingdom of Burgundy or of Lothayingia lying between Germany, Italy, and France. This came about in this way. The French Duchy of Bur- gundy fell in to the Crown in 1361, and Philip the son of King John of France became the first of a new ill 13a THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. [chaP. line of Dukes, that of Valois. He married Margaret the heiress of Flanders, and thus united two of the greatest fiefs of the Crown of France. Of these two, Flanders, where the great cities were always quarrel- ling with the Counts, was almost an independent state. After Philip there reigned three Dukes of his family, yb^;/ the Fearless from 1404 to 141 9, Philip the Good from 141 9 to 1467, and Charles the Bold ixoxtx 1467 to 1477. AH these Dukes, as French princes, played a great part in the affairs of Prance. They also were always winning, in all kinds of ways, by marriage, by purchase, or by conquest, large territories within the Empire, including the greater part of the Netherlands or Low Countries^ taking in nearly all both of the present Kingdom of *he Netherlands and the present Kingdom of Belgiufn, besides much which has now gone to France. They thus were vassals at once of the Emperor and of the King of France, and they were really more powerful than either of their lords. For their position as a boraer power gave them great advantages, and their possession of the great cities of the Low Countries, turbulent as their citizens often were, made them the richest princes in Europe. Duke John the Fearless was murdered by the Dauphin Charles, afterwards Charles the Seventh, and this threw his son Duke Philip into the arms of the Eng- lish. Philip supported the English in France for a long time, and, after he forsook their side at the Treaty of Arras in 1435, the English power in France fell away very fast. Duke Philip reigned very prudently, and increased the power of his Duchy in every way. But under his son, Charles the Bold, his great power fell to pieces. There was a constant rivalry between him and Lewis the Eleventh. He also kept all the world in alarm by endlessly planning one scheme after another, and by annexing such of the territories of his neighbours as he could get hold of. One great object of lus was to annex the Duchy of Lorraine^ that is the xn.] THE DUKES OF BUkGVND'V, ^3S southern part of the old Lotha?ingia, the capital of which is Nancy. This would have joined his domi- nions in the Netherlands with the Duchy and County of Burgundy. But he also dreamed of getting Provence, and of making himself King of all the lands which had ever formed part of any of the old Burgundian and Lotharingian kingdoms. In this way he got into dis- putes with the cities on the Rhine, with Duke Siegmund of Austria, and lastly with the Confederates. And the King of France, of course, took care to stir up all his enemies against him. A war now followed between Duke Charles and the Confederates, which was carried on in the dominions of the Duke of Savoy north of the Lake of Geneva. Charles was overthrown in two great battles at Granson and at Murten or M'^ -at in 1476. At last he was defeated and killed in 1477 in a third battle at Nancy, whither the Confederates had gone to help Rcfit Duke of Lorraine \.o \i\n back his Duchy from Charles. This war had two great results. The great power of the Dukes of Burgundy was broken up. Charles' daughter Mary kept his dominions in the Low Countries and, after a while, got back the County of Burgundy, But the Duchy of Burgundy was joined to the Crown of France, and the scheme of a great power lying between Germany and France came to an end. On the other hand, the great victories of the Confederates raised their reputation to the highest pitch. They now began to take a part in general European affairs, and to count as a distinct power. They also now began to win dominions in the Romance- speaking lands to the west and south of them. But their successes did much to corrupt them ; the Swiss, as they now began to be called, were such good soldiers that all the princes of Europe, especially the Kings of France, were glad to have them in their armies, and thus began the practice of serving for hire, which was the disgrace of the Swiss League till quite lately. mmmm 334 nf£ DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. tcMA». 14. The Eastern Empire. Rise of the Otto- mans. — While the Western Empire was quite chang- ing its character, sinking into a German Kingdom, or rather into a Confederation of German States, the Eastern Empire^ which had now become practically Greek, came to an end altogether. After the Greeks had won back Constantinople from the Latins in 1 260, their dominion, under the last dynasty of the Palaiologoi^ was but a shadow of the old Empire. Yet, as had so often happened before, there was for a while a time of revival, and the Emperors of Constantinople, Emperors of the Romans as they still called themselves, were able to join on to their dominions many of the little states, both Greek and Frank, which had sprung up at the time ot the Latin Conquest. During these last days of the Eastern Empire there was more inter- course than before between the Greeks and the Western nations, especially the Venetians and Genoese. And, whenever the Greeks were in any trouble, their Emperors always made a show of putting an end to the division between the Eastern and Western Churches. But schemes of this sort never really took root, as the Greeks were fully determined never to admit the authority of the Pope. These applications for Western help were commonly made when the Eastern Emperors were hard pressed by an enemy which seemed likely to swallow up, not only the Eastern Empire but all Christendom. These were the Ottoman TurkSj so called from their early leader Othman. They arose in the middle of the thirteenth century, being first heard of about 1 240. This branch of the Turks produced a succession of greater rulers than any other Eiastern dynasty, and their power has lasted till our own time. They gradually swallowed up the provinces of the Empire in Asia, and most of the other powers. Chris- tian and Mahometan, in those part^, and Turkish pirates began to ravage the coasts of Europe. About 1343 ^cy got a firmer footing in Europe during some •"WJ^ffllBffl X1I.1 T»E OTtOMAtr 7VRJCS, S3S of the dissensions witliin the Empire, and they were never again driven out. In 1361 their Sultan Morad or Amurath took Hadrianople, which became the Ottoman capital. What remained of the Eastern Empire was now altogether hemmed in ; all was lost, except Constantinople itself and a small territory round it, and some outlying possessions, chiefly in Pelopon- n^sos. Meanwhile the Turks were spreading them- selves to the north, and were overcoming the Slavonic lands which had learned their Christianity from the Eastern Empire, Servia^ Bulgaria, and other states in those parts. This brought them into contact with Hungary, and thus led to wars of which we shall speak presently. The successes of the Turks were largely owing to their taking a tribute of children from their Christian subjects, the strongest and bravest of whom were brought up as soldiers, and formed a well-dis- ciplined body of infantry which overcame all enemies. These were called Janissaries ox New Soldiers, Dur- ing the reign of Bajazet, surnamed the Thunderbolt, who reigned from 1389 to 1402, things seemed as if the Eastern Empire and aJl the Christian states of South-eastern Europe were about to be destroyed at once. But they gained a respite in a strange way from the appearance of a new Mahometan power in Asia. 15. Rise of Timour. — The great Mo^l Empire which had been founded by Jenghiz had long ago fallen to pieces ; but dynasties rising out of it reigned for a long time in Pei ia, and for a still longer time held Russia in bondage. In the latter half of the fourteenth century a prince called Timour arose in Central Asia, whose descendants are commonly spoken of as the Moguls, but who seems in truth to have been Turkish rather than Mongolian. He was a Mahometan of the Shiah sect, those who hold the divine right of AH the son-in-law of Maliomet, and who look, not only on all the Ommiad and Abbasside Caliphs, but vr\:rt^t-^> d3<5 THE DECLINE OP THE EMPIRE. t^HAfr. r *:^i a u on the first three Caliphs, Abou Bekr, Omar, and Othman, as usurpers. They had always existed as a religious sect, but most of the great Mahometan nations were Sonnites or orthodox Mahometans, who look on all the first four Caliphs as lawful successors of Mahomet. Timour therefore made religious zeal an excuse for attacking the whole world, whether Chris- tians, heathens, or such Mahometans as he looked on as heretics. At last he came into Western Asia to attack the Ottoman Sultan Bajazet, whom in his letters he addressed as the Ccesar of Rome. Bajazet was utterly defeated and. taken prisoner in the battle of Angora in 1402 ; but Timour never crossed into Europe. He died in 1405, and his great dominion, like other great dominions of the kind, broke in pieces. 16. The Fall of Constantinople.— The little that was left of the Eastern Empire got a breathing space through the overthrow of Bajazet by Timour. A civil war arose among his sons, and the Ottoman monarchy was not again united till 1421 under ^xiX\.zxi Amurath the Second. He besieged Constantinople in 1422, but the Empire still dragged on a feeble existence till the accession of his son Mahomet the Second^ called the Conqueror y in 145 1. All the Ottoman Sultans hitherto had been great warriors, and, according to the Eastern siandard, wise rulers. Mahomet was perhaps the greatest of them all. He presently besieged Constan- tinople : the last Emperor of the East, Constantim Palarologos, made another of those reconciliations with the Western Church of which we have already heard ; but he gained no real help from the West except a few volunteers, who came chiefly from Venice and Genoa. The gTeat siege of Constantinople began, one of the first great sieges in which cannon, which had been gradually coming into use in war for about a hundred years, played a great part, The Eniperor did all that nian could do in such a strait, but at last, on May the 29tii, 1453, Constantinople was taken by storm. Con- »I.) FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE. W nd s a tan vho sof an liris- on to ers stantine died sword in hand, and tlie Roman Empire of the East came to an end. Constantinople now became the capital of the Ottoman Empire^ and Jus- tinian's great church of Saint Sophia became a Maho- metan mosque. Id a few years Mahomet conquered Peloponn^sos and the greater part of Greece, and in 1 46 1 he conquered the Greek Empire of Trebizond^ which thus outlived that of Constantinople. He had thus got possession of nearly the whole mainland which had belonged to the Eastern Empire at any time since the first Saracen conquest But the Vene- tians still kept several points on the mainland, besides Crete and Corfu and some smaller islands. Some of the other islands were still kept by Latin princes, and Rhodes was held by the Knir' is of Saint John. Cyprus too remained a Latin kingdom, though before long the Venetians gained that also. Mahomet went on to plan the invasion of Western Europe, and the Turks actually took Otranto in Southern Italy ; but the West was delivered by the death of Mahomet in 1481, for his successor Bajazet the Second was not a conqueror like his father. 17. The Spanish Kingdoms. — The two ends of Europe, the Scandinavian and the Spanish penin- sulas, played a less important part in general history during this time than they did either before or after. Their history is chiefly confined to dealings within their own bounds. In Spain the Saracens or Moors were now shut up in the one kingdom of Granada, and, though there were often wars between them and their neighbours of Castile, yet the Spanish history of this time is much more taken up with wars and disputes among the several Christian kingdoms. The history of Castile is connected with that of England, because our Black Prince, Edward, Prince of Wales and Aqui- taine, was persuaded in 1366 to lead an army into Spain to restore King Fedro or Peter^ surnamed the Cruely who had been driven out by his brother • ') I K"-^«Bi?8ir a38 THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE, [chap. Henry of Trastamara. In this war Edward won his third great battle of Najara or NavaretCy and restored Peter, who was however before long killed by Henry. Aragon again' was closely connected with ihe Two Sicilies. The island kingdom was united to Aragon in 1409, and Alfonso the Fifth, who was Kinr; from 141 6 to 1458, was, during part of that time, !?> posses- sion of Naples. But, as he was succeeded in Naples by his natural son Ferdmajid and in Aragon by his brother Joh7i, the two kingdoms were again separated for a while, and the crown of Naples was all the while disputed by the Angevin princes. At one time, in 1467, the war was carried into Spain by fohn, Duke of Calabria, son of Ren^, Count of Provence and Duke of Anjou, who called himself King of Sicily. This John came to help the Catalans, who were in revo.i against John of Aragon. John had also wars with Lewis of France for the possession of the border county of Roussilloiiy which changed hands several times between the two crowns. Portugal meanwhile was doing great things. Under John the Great, who reigned from 1385 to 1433, the Portuguese began to take revenge for the long possession cif Spain by the Saracens of Africa by conquests in Africa itsel£ And at the same tin">e, under the Infant or prince Don Henry, they began a course of navigation and discovery along the western coast of Africa and among the islands of the Atlantic, which went on during the whole of the fifteenth cen- tury. At last the great discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in i486 opened for Portugal a yet wider dominion in India and other parts of the East. In this work of exploring, conquering, and colonizing distant parts of the world, other nations soon followed, but it was the Portuguese who first showed th.^ way. Meanwhile a change took place in the Spanish penin- sula, which led to great changes in Europe generally. This came about through the marriage in 147 1 of Isabella Queen of Castile with Ferdinand the Infant of \ * ^tssaase^^atj^-t- xu.] SPAIAT AND SCANDINAVIA, 239 Aragon, who soon after succeeded to the Aragonese crown. The Crowns of Arago i and Castile were ever afterwards, except for a very s^Iiort time, held together. In 1 48 1 the Cat Jiolic Kings ^ as Ferdinand and Isabella were called, began a war with Granada, whose King had invaded the Castilian territory. In 1492 they took Granada itself and united the kingdom to Castile. The Mahometan dominion in Spain, which had lasted through so many ages, was now at an end, and the recovery of Granada might almost seem to make up m Christendom for the loss of Constantinople at the other end of Europe. Spain, as the united dominions of Ferdinand and Isabella were commonly called, soon became the greatest power in Europe. 18. Northern Europe. — In the Scandinavian peninsulas, the power of Denmark gradually sank in the course of the thirteenth century. Towards the end of the fourteenth, in 1397, the three kingdoms were united by the famous Unio?i of Calmar, under Margaret Queen of Norway and daughter of Waldemar the Third King of Denmark. This union, with some interruptions, went on through the fifteenth century. In 1448, under Christian the First, the House of Olde?iburg began to reign, which has gone on in Denmark till our own time, and which held Norway also within the present century. During all this time the Northern kingdoms had many wars with the League of the Huns.'. Towns, and the shifting relations began between the Kings of Denmark and the Duchies of Sleswick and Holstein which have gone on till our own days. Sleswick, the land north of the Eyder, was the southern part of Denmark, which had become a separate Duchy, but which was not a fief of the Em- pire. Its people were partly Danish and partly Low- Dutch. Holstein, on the other hand, that part of Saxony which lay between tlie Elbe and the Eyder, always was a fief of the Empire, and its people were wholly Low Dutch. ■''\ ' '-■■.« ;r M ■I R;.''w' "^^ii iri 940 THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. [CHAP, 19. Russia and Poland. — Great changes took place in the lands to the east of the Baltic during this period. The Lithimnians, the last Aryan people in Europe to accept Christianity, were con/erted towards the end of the fourteenth century. Their Duke /agelion married Hedwig Queen of Poland in 1386, and was baptized and brought about the conversion of his people. He was the founder of the dynasty of Kings of Poland of the house of /agelion. The union of Poland and Lithuania under one sovereign formed one of the greatest states in Europe. The dominions of the Jagellons stretched far to the east and south, taking in a large part of Russia and reach- ing to the new conquests of the Ottoman Turks. And in 1466 Casimir the Fourth finally got the better of the Teutonic Knights, annexing the western part of Prussia to Poland, and so cutting Prussia off from Germany. Russia meanwhile, while cut short by the Poles and Lithuanians to the west, was held in bond" age by the Moguls to the east. But, after Moscow became the capital in 1328, Russia began to recover itself somewhat, and at last, in 1477, /van Vasilovitz completely freed the country from the Mogul supre- macy. Still Russia was altogether hemmed in, and it had no means of taking any part in Eurof>ean affairs for some time to come. 20. Hungary and the Turks. — Meanwhile Hungary shifted about from one dynasty to another^ Towards the end oi the thirteenth century the Hun- garian crown passed by marriage into a branch of the Angevin house of Sicily. The greatest King of this line was Lewis^ who reigned from 1342 to 1382, and who was also King of Pol nd. He was the father of Hedwig who manied Ja^ I^-;^ Her sister Mary married Siegmund, who was ar .wards Emperor and who also became King oi' lIuii^;r..T. In Vy time the Turks became danger -^u 10 II -ngary, and both Hungary and Poland soon be^'ia.e special bul,varks of — — rfiirafza )^t XIX.] POLAND AND HUNGARY. 241 Christendom by land, as the commonwealth of Venice was by sea. In 1396 King Siegmund and a large body of Wes'.ern allies were overthrown by Sultan Bajazet at Nikopolis. In the next century a famous captain, John Huniades^ Waiwode or prince of Trails- silvajiia^ greatly distinguished himself against the Turks; but in 1444 Wladislaus the son of Jagellon, who was King both of Hungary and Poland, after driving back Sultan Amurath for a while, was defeated and slain by him at Varna. After this John Huniades was regent, and in 1456 he drove back Sultan Mahomet from Belgrade. His son Matthias Corvi?ius wati King from 1458 to 1490. He did much to civilize his kingdom, and vaUantly kept off the Turks, while on the other side he won great victories over the House of Austria, who were striving to get the kingdom of Hungary into their own hands. 21. Language, Science, and Art. — The pro- gress of learning has been already sp)Ken of with regard to Italy, as it was there that it \\i d most effect on the political history of the country But men's minds were at work in other parts of th t world also. Men were eager after knowledge in many ways. Many of the UnicJersiiies in different countries were now of great importance, and in England Colleges began to be founded in them. History was in most countries still written in Latin. In the thirteenth century we had some good writers of history in Eng- land, especially Mattheia Paris^ who spoke out boldly against both the Pope and the King. But in England the writing of history v/ent down a good deal in the foartecnth and fifteenth centuries. There was, on the other hand, a series of historical writers in French from the thirteenth century onwards, and in the four- teenth and fifteenth we learn much about the different staj^es of the Hundred Years' War from the French- spe Liking writers Froissart 3iX\([* Alonstrelet. In England the English tongue had in the fourteenth century agaiiii R [ ■ 'I ifvL ^;>H WJOHMI m 242 TIfE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. [cH. xii, quite driven French out of use, except for some legal and formal purposes. And we had now such poets as Geoffrey Chauctr^ whose works did much towards fixing the standard of the English language. There were many divines and thinkers in various ways, some of whom, as we have already seen, began, especially in England and in Bohemia, to teach doctrines different from those w.iich were commonly received in the Ch'irch. And the general stirring of men's minds led some into speculations about the natural equality of mankind which led to revolts of the peasants both in France and England in ♦^he course of the fourteenth century. The people called Lollards in England, the followers of Wickliffe, often mixed up the religious and the social movement together. But in England villainage was on the who e dying out, while in many other countries it was getting harder and harder. In war, up to the invention of gunpowder, the knights and gentlemen who fought on horseback still despised all other troops, though the Scots, the Swiss, the Flemings at Courtray, and the English archers at Crecy, all showed what a good infantry could do. These cen- turies also, the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth, were the ages wh' 1 architecture reached its height in Europe, and when the finest churches and castles were built. But it was only towards the eud of this period, as times grew quieter and law grew stronger, that we find many great houses strictly so called, except within the walls of the cities. 22. Summary. — During this time then the Em- pire of the West dwindled into insignificance, and the Empire of the East was destroyed altogether. A great Mahometan power was settled in the East of Europe, while the last Mahometan kingdom was overthrown in the West. Spain became a great power. In lialy learning revived, but the freedom of the cities was in most cases destroyed, and the coiTuptions of the Fopedom grev/ greater and greater. England and France "^^^i!^ Xtl.] SUMMARY, 243 waged a long war, in which France was nearly con- quered, but she gained in the end, and won a large increase of territory both from England and Trom other powers. The Szvt'ss league and the Duchy of Burgundy became important powers, but the advance of the latter was cut short. The three Scandinavian ki?igdoms were united, though not very firmly. Poland became a great power, and Russia laid the foundation of her greatness by throwing off the yoke of the Moguls. The defence of Christendom against the Turks, though endlessly talked about by Popes and Emperors, really fell in the main on Poland, Hungary, and Venice. ■ ^ B m 2 M S^^rrrr 244 THE GREA tNESS OF SPAIN. tcitAi»« CHAPTER XIII. THE GREATNESS OF SPAIN. % c \ Characteristics of modern Europe ; formaHon of the existing powers and nations {i)—/^r ogress of arts and inventions ; falling back of political freedom (i) — increase of the royal power; introduction of standing armies (i) — ail Western E^irope now { Hon (2) — chief causes of the Reformation of Religion; ^^actical abuses; the power of the Popes; disputes on points of theology (2) — different forms taken by the Reformation in different countries; the Reformation^ as a rulcy accepted by the Teutonic nations and refused by the Romance (3) — no real toleration on either side (3) — names give7t to the different parties {'^—growth of the power of Spain; acquisition of various kingdoms by conquest and marriage (4) — succession of Charles the Firs* of Spain; his election as the Emperor Charles the Fifth; the Austrian Kings in Spain (4) — reign of Philip the Second; annexation of Portugal (5) — reigns of Philip the Third and Fourth; wars with Fravce and loss of territory ; persecution and expul- sion of the Moriscos (5) — rivalry of France and Spain in Italy (6) — conquest of Naples by Charles the Eighth (^—conquest of Milan by Lewis the Twelfth, and of Naples by Ferdinand (7) — League of Cambray agaijtsf Venice; the Holy League; restoration of the Medici at Florence (7) — rivalry of Charles and Francis ; battle of Marignano ; captivity of Francis at Pavia (S) — sack of Rome; peac^ between CharUi -'IRv, XXII.] THE GREATNESS OF SPAIN. 245 and Francis ; cor citation of Charles (8) dominion of Charles throughout Italy j subji/oation of Florence (9) — Wars of Venice with the Turks ; loss of Cyprus; battle of Lepanto (9) the Popes ; their purely worldly policy at the bcginnim^ of the period {\o)— improve- ment under the later Pxypes; Council' of Trent; foundation of the Jesuits (10) — reign of Maximilian (11) — the Emperors after Charles the Fifth; the Empire becomes purely German (11) — beginnifig of the Reformation in Germany ; preachitig of Luther (12) — religious wars a7id persecutions ; invasion of the Turks {\2)— growth of France; annexation of Brittany (13) — reign of Francis the First; Henry of England takes Bojilogne (13) — reign of Henry the Second; seizure of the Theee Bishoprics; Peace of Cdteau-Cambresis (13) — the Reformation in France ; teaching of Calvin {i^— -persecutions and civil wars in France ; reign of Henry the Fourth (14) — revolt of the Netherlands against Spain; William the Silent {1^— formation of the Republic of the United Pro- vinces (16) — growth of the Swiss Confederations Ihe Reformation under Zwingli and Farel{ 17) — conquests of Bern from Savoy ; Savoy loses in Burgundy and Stains in Italy (17) — civil wars in England ; reign of Henry the Eighth (17) — the Reformation in England ; Henry throws off the Papal power; religious changes under Edward {i^ — restoration of the Pope^s power under Mary; final settlement under Elizabeth (18) — relations betweett England and Scot- land; reign of Mary in Scotland {i^) — war between Elizabeth and Philip (19) — union of England and Scotland under James ; civil wars of England (19) —final separation of Denmark and Sweden under Gustavus Vasa (20) — the Reformation in Denmark and Sweatn ; advance of Sweden itnder Gustavus Adolphus (20) — greatness of Poland ; humiliation of the Teutonic Order ; foundation of the Duchy of Prussia; its union with Brandenburg (21) — disputes about Livonia {2,1)— growth of Russia; accession of 1:1 m 1 ■ :'1 m -"'Wii'miift:^ - — ■•— ■ — ^.^^ l\ 246 TlfE GREA TNESS OF SPAIN, [CIIAP. the house of Rowanoff ; the Polish crown becomes purely elective (2\)-- ben^imuNi^ 0/ the modern kin(^dom of Persia (22) — reii^Hs of Selim the Inflexible and Suleiman the Laivi^^iver ; Turkish conquests in Hungary (22)— conquest of Cyprus and battle of Lepanto (22) — disputes in Bohemia ; the Elector Palatine chosen King ; beginnin^i^ of the Thirty Years^ War (23) — career of Gustavus Adolphus (33) — interference and advance of France (23) — Peace of Westphalia ; degradation of the Empire ; acquisitions of Sweden and France (24) — continued war between France and Spaifi ; Peace of the Pyrenees (24) — European colonies and settlements ; different kinds of <:e**l'-mcrts (25) — Portuguese settlements in Africa and India ( 2 5 ) — discovery of A merica (26) — Spanish settlefnents in America (27) — French ^ English^ and Dutch settlements in America {2%)— progress of learninq;^ art^ and science ; use of the national languages {2())— Summary (2fi), I. Characteristics of Modern Europe. — We are now gradually passing into a new state of things. Nearly all the nations and powers of Europe which now remain have been already formed ; the indepen- dent states are fewer and larger than before, and things are beginning to be in many ways more like what they are now than they have been hitherto. The great advance of learning and science in the fifteenth century altogether changed the face of the world, and three great inventions, printing, gunpowder, and the mariner's compass, were now fully in use and gave a wholly new character to all matters both of war and peace. The gener^tl stirring of men's minds, and the spirit of thought and enterprise which began to be abroad, took various forms. It led to the great changes in religion which are spoken of as the Re- formattojif and it led to the discovery of new lands beyond the sea, and to the establishment of colonies by the chief European nations in distant parts of the illiilii' iii[iiiiiiin"'"iT — .\w»i»«HT«s«»<«*»*'i''^»"**'^«''***° XIII.] CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN EUROPE. 247 world. In all matters of intellectual progress, and in all the arts of ordinary life, the time to which we have now come is a time of wonderful advance. But, for a long time after the beginning of what we may call modern history, political freedom did not go forward, but rather fell back. It was a time of much deeper and more far-seeing policy than earlier times, and it was a time when governments grew stronger, when laws could be more regularly carried out, and when much of the turbulence and disorder of earlier times came *^o an end. But it was also a time when, in most parts oi Europe, Kings contrived to get all power into their own hands j it was a time of wars which Kings waged for their own purposes, and in which the nations which they governed had very little interest. To wage these wars they had to keep standing armies, that is, armies of soldiers who are always under arms and who always receive pay. A standing army need not be an army of mere mercenaries, like those which served in Italy for any prince or commonwealth that would hire them. Still, where there are standing armies, things are very different from what they are when a lord calls on his vassals, or when a commonwealth calls on its citizens, to fight when they are wanted to fight and then to go home again. A standing army makes the government which employs it far stronger ; and it was by means of these standing armies that the Kings in most parts of Europe were able to overthrow those free institutions of earlier times which many countries have only quite lately won back again. But the main' outward difference between these times and the times that went before them is that the old ideas of the CJmrch and the Empire now passed away for ever. The Eastern Empire was gone ; the Western Empire survived in name only. The Emperors were often very powerful princes, but it was not by reason of their being Em- pv'jrors that they were so. We have now very largely to deal, not so much with nations, or even with particulajf •! ,f '!l| '.-"i 1 1 ,j ■J- . IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) ■<^4*^ i^ 1.0 I.I liilM |Z5 ■tt Uii 12.2 lit u ■Ik u Ul r^r-^u^ ^ 6" ► ^ ^ ^> /A ''W '/ Photographic Sciences Corporation # ^v :\ \ 4 \ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. USSO (716) •72-4503 '^ :r>ti4&i&iii !l r-^ "*twv ■_ *^-^ Wr" -"'•%'Q- K'^' JI48 7!ffi? GREATNESS OF SPAIN, [CHAP. States, as with collections of states and nations in the hands of particular families. And we now come to that great revolution in religion by which the Churches of Western Europe have ever since been still more widely divided among themselves than in former times the whole Western Church was from the Eastern. The Eastern Church meanwhile remained for a long time as it were hidden, as most of the nations which belonged to it were in bondage to the Turks. It is only in later times that the Eastern Church has again become politically important, as being the religion of the great Empire of Russia. 2. Causes of the Reformation. — At the be- ginning of the sixteenth century we may say that the whole of Western Europe was in communion with the Western Church. And, though all men did not think exactly alike as to the authority of the Pope or Bishop of Rome, yet all looked on him as being at least the head Bishop of the whole Church. There was no nation in the West which was not Christian. The Lithuanians had been converted, and the Moors in Spain had been conquered. If there were any heathens left anywhere, it would be a few Laps in the extreme North. Nor was there any Christian nation in the West which refused submission to the See of Rome. The Albi- genses had been put down long ago, and the revolt of the followers of John Huss in Bohemia had, after much hard fighting, been put down also. There had all along been religious discontents among particular men, and both in England and elsewhere many men had been burned as heretics. Still no whole nation had as yet set up any new ecclesiastical system for itself. But early in the sixteenth century there began to be a much greater stir about religious matters in most parts of Western Europe. Ihis was owing, partly to the gcieral stir in men's minds caused by the revival of leammg, and partly to the exceeding wickedness of the Popes of those tim^s. There wei^^ Mil.] CAUSES OF THE REFORMATION, 249 three things at which men were specially offended. First, there were many practical abuses in the Church which could have been done away with without either casting off the authority of the Pope or making any changes in doctrine. Many of these things the Coun- cils of the fifteenth century, at Constanz, Basel, and •elsewhere, honestly tried to mend; but the Popes always stood in the way. The Popes themselves in after days tried to mend many things, but not till it was too late. Secondly, the authority of the Popes was itself felt to be a great grievance, partly because it was often so badly used, but also because, even when it was well used, it interfered with the rights both of civil governors and of national Churches. The truth is that the power of the Bishops of Rome had grown up from the same causes as the power of the Emperors of Rome, that is, because Rome was the head city of the world. And now men were beginning to be dis- contented with the power of the Popes through the same causes which had made the power of the Em- perors die away. That is to say, Christendom was split up into separate nations and kingdoms, and Rome no longer kept its place as the centre of all. But, as the power of the Popes was held to be a matter of religious belief, it was not so easy to get rid of it a£ it was to get rid of the power of the Emperors. Lastly, besides all this, many men held that not a few of the doctrines which were believed, and of the ceremonies which were practised, in the Church were wrong in themselves, and had no ground in Scripture or in the practice of the first Christians. Disputes arose about the Mass or sacrament of the Lord's Supper, about the use of images and the practice of praying to saints, about the state of men after death, about the necessity of confessing sins to a priest, about the laws which forbade the clergy to marry, and about the practice of saying the Church service in Latin now ihat I.atin was nowhere the tongue commonly undei;- -Tfr.-- .V"'-- 350 TffE GREATNESS OF SPAIN. [chap. Stood. Some of these disputes were about points which the Popes might have yielded without giving up their general system, and which indeed they have sometimes yielded in distant parts of the world. But others were about points of doctrine strictly so called, which those who held the received belief to be true could not give up so easily. Thus the early part of the sixteenth century was a time, above all others, of religious controversies, and these controversies led to the most important events, both religious and political. 3. The Reformation in different Countries. — ^The end of all these disputes was that a large part of Western Europe gradually became separated from the communion of the See of Rome. This gradual change is commonly called the Reformation, And, as in old times, Christianity took different forms in the Latin, the Greek, and the Eastern provinces of the Empire, so nearly the same thing happened now. Allowing for a good many exceptions, it may be said that the Teutonic nations accepted the new teaching, while the Romance nations clave to the See of Rome. And there were great differences in the way in which the Reformation arose and was carried out in different countries. In some countries the change arose among the people and was rather forced upon the govern- ments, while in others it was chiefly the work of Kings and rulers. And change went much further in some countries than in others. In some countries quite new forms of worship and Church government were set up, while in others men cast off the authority of the Pope and changed what they thought wrong in doctrine and practice, but let the general order of the Church go on much as it did before. The extremes each way might be seen in our own island ; for, of all the coun- tries which made any reformation at all, England changed the least and Scotland the most. And in Ireland the great mass of the people have always withstood all change, partly no doubt because their xm.] THE REFORMATION, aSi English rulers tried to force it upon them. And, though the stirring of men's minds, and the habit of thinking for themselves .which led to the Reformation, did in the end lead men in most countries to see that they ought not to persecute each other for differ- ences in religion, yet they did not find this out for a long time. For a long time men on both sides held it to be a crime to allow any kind of worship except that which they themselves thought right. Thus the Reformation gave rise to civil wars wherever the two parties were nearly equally balanced, and to persecu- tions wherever one side was much stronger than the other. Those who clave to the old teaching thought it their duty to hinder the spread of the new, and those who adopted the new teaching thought it their duty to hinder the practice of the old. It was only in a few cases, where neither side was strong enough to do much mischief to the other, that the old and new worship went on for any time side by side. Those who accepted the Reformation were commonly called Protestant or Reformed, two names which at first had different meanings, but which are now commonly used without much distinction. Those who clave to the Popes called themselves Catholics, as claiming to be the whole and only true Church. The other side called them in contempt Papists and Romanists, Perhaps it is safest to use the name Roman Catholics, a name which is not very consistent with itself, but which ..voids disputes either way, and which in Eng- land is the name known to the law. 4. Growth of the power of Spain in Eu- rope. Charles the Fifth. — From the latter part of the fifteenth century onwards the power of Spain grew fast, and during the greater part of the sixteenth century we may fairly call it the greatest power in Europe. The marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella had united Aragon and Castile; they had conquered Qranada,and, after Isabella's death in 1504, Ferdinand. :..■ '.lit «54 r-^iB GREATNESS OF SPAIN, [chap* > 1, , all these dominions he gave up to his son Philip in 1555. 5. Successors of Charles the Fifth. — ^After Charles the Fifth came three Kings of Spain called Philip, Philip the Second xqi^q^ from 1556 to 1598. He was a most bigoted Catholic, yet almost the furst act of his reign was a war with the Pope Paul the Fourth in his character of a temporal prince. In Philip's time began the war in the Netherlands by which the northern provinces threw off the Spanish yoke, of which we shall speak more presently. It was he also who sent the famous Armada against England in 1588, and he also interfered largely in the affairs of France. On the other hand, in 157 1 his fleet, in alliance with that of the Commonwealth of Venice, won the sea-fight of Lepanto — the ancient Naupaktot in the Corinthian Gulf — over the Turks. This was the first great check which their power met with. In 1580 he got possession of the Kingdom of Portugal^ so that the whole Spanish peninsula was for a while joined together under one ruler. As long as Philip lived, Spain outwardly kept its place as the leading power of Europe ; but under the two following Kings, Philip the Thirds who reigned from 1598 to 162 1, and Philip the Fourth, from 162 1 to 1665, the Spanish power greatly decayed. The war in the Netherlands went on till the independence of the seven northern provinces was acknowledged, and in 1640 the Portu- guese threw off the Spanish yoke, and set up the d)masty of Braganza, which has reigned in Portugal to our own times. In the reign of Philip the Fourth there was a long war with France, which was ended in 1659 by giving up to France part of the Spanish dominions at the two ends of Gaul, Roussillon and part of Artois. The Spanish dominions were thus lessened in various places, though Spain still kept her distant possessions of the Two Sicilies, Milan, the County of Burgundy, and the Southern Netherlands. In its internal govern- XIII.] SUCCESSORS OF CHARLES THE FIFTH, t%% ment, Spain was, during all this time, the most despotic and intolerant country in Europe. The old liberties of Castile were overthrown by Charles the Fifth, and those of Aragon by Philip the Second. Nowhere were Jews and heretics of all kinds more cruelly persecuted, so that in Spain the Reformation made no progress. The Moors too, who, at the conquest of Granada, had been promised the free exercise of their religion, were shamefully oppressed. A revolt under Philip the Second was put down with great cruelty, and at last under Philip the Third, the remnant of them, called MoriscoSf was driven out of the country. This was a great loss to Spain, as the Moors were a sharp-witted and hard-working people, and the provinces where they lived were the most flourishing parts of the peninsula. 6. French Invasion of Italy. — During the first half of the sixteenth century, no part of Europe is brought more constantly before our notice than Italy. But this is no longer a sign of the greatness of Italy, but of its decay. Italy had now become the battle-field on which most of the princes of Europe fought out their quarrels. During all this time there was a long rivalry between France and Spain, which was in some sort a continuation of the dispute between the Houses of Anjou and Aragon for the kingdom of Sicily, as that was a continuation of the older dis- pute between Guelfs and Ghibelins. But now that the two sides were represented by the great kingdoms of France and Spain, the quarrel was carried out on a much greater scale, and, between the two, Italy was torn to pieces and utterly trampled under foot. What the Italians called the invasion of the Barbarians began in 1494, when Charles the Eighth of France took it into his head that he had a right to the King- dom of Naples. In two years he marched all through Italy, conquered the kingdom with very little trouble, and, as soon as his back was turned, lost it again. Great confusion was caused throughout Italy by 1 156 THE GREATNESS OF SPAIN. [chap. Charles* march, and one result of it was that the Florentines were able to get rid of the Medici, and that Pisa was able to throw off the yoke of Florence, and remained independent till 1509. Presently, when the next Kin^; of France, Lewu the Twelfth, again set up a claim to the Kingdom of Naples and also to the Duchy of Milan, Ferdinand did not scruple to make a treaty by which Naples was to be divided between the two Kings of France and Aragon. Lewis won the Duchy of Milan in 1499, but, before the division of Naples was fully carried out, he and Ferdinand quar- relled over their spoil ; and the end of it was, that in 1504 Ferdinand got possession of the whole kingdom, and was thus King of the Two Sicilies. In these wars the Spanish infantry won a renown which they long kept. 7. The League of Cambray. — Spain had thus gained a footing on the mainland of Italy, and Ferdi- nand now went on to meddle still more with its affairs. In 1508 he and Lewis of France, the reigning Pope Julius the Second, and the Emperor-elect Maxi- milian, all joined together in a league, called the League of Cambray, to despoil the commonwealth of Venice. For each of these princes pretended that some part of its territories rightly belonged to himself. Venice now seemed on the point of ruin, when again the spoilers quarrelled among themselves, but this time it did not happen as it had done in the case of Naples. For Venice got back nearly all that she had lost, though the commonwealth was never again so power- ful £dfter this war as it had been before. The cause of the division among che enemies of Venice was that Pope Julius, when he had got all that he himself wanted from the republic, made what he called the Holy League to drive the Barbarians out of Italy. To this end he joined with Ferdinand against Lewis. In 15 1 2 the French defeated the Spaniards in a great pattle at Ravenna, but Pope Julius leagued himself xm.J THE WARSi OF ITALY. •5> with the Swiss, and by their means the French were altogether driven out of Italy. Florence had all along been in alliance with France, and, now that the French were driven out, the commonwealth was obliged to receive the Medici again. Milan also went back to its own Dukes of the House of Sforza. Lewis and Ferdinand both died before long, Lewis in 15 15, and Ferdinand in IJ516. 8. Wars of Charles and Francis in Italy.— Lewis and Ferdinand were succeeded by two young Kings whose rivalry led to more wars. Lewis was succeeded in France by Francis the First, and Ferdi- nand, as we have seen, by his grandson Charles. Both Charles and Francis sought for the Empire on the death of Charles' other grandfather Maximilian in 15 19, when Charles was elected. Thus the rivalry between France and Spain was yet further height- ened by the personal rivalry between the two Kings. Francis had by far the most compact and united king- dom ; but Charles united the power of Spain, the wealth of the Netherlands, and the dignity of the Empire. But before Charles began to reign either in Spain or in the Empire, Francis had begun his reign by another invasion of Italy. He had first to over- come an army of Swiss in the battle of Marignano in 1 5 15, and he presently won back the Duchy of Milan. Then in 1521 Pope Leo the Tenth, who was of the House of the Medici, joined with the Emperor, and another war began, which may be said to have gone on till 1530. The armies of the rival princes fought at both ends of Italy, both in the Duchy of Milan and in the Kingdom of Naples. In 1525 Francis himself was taken prisoner at the battle of Pavia, and was only released after consenting to a treaty (which he did not keep), by which he yielded many things to the Em- peror. Amongst other things, those parts of the Netherlands which were held in fief of the Crown of France, namely the Counties of Flanders and Artois, s a$8 THE GREATNESS OF SPAIN, [CRAP. ! |5 ' were set free from all homage, just as the Duchy of A^uitaine had been by the Peace of Bretigny. In all these wars the princes and commonwealths of Italy, the Popes among them, were dealt with as something quite secondary. The Duke of Milan was set up and put down again, as happened to suit the Emperor who professed to be his protector; and in 1527, when Cletnent the Seventh^ who was also of the House of the Medici, was Pope, Rome itself was taken and sacked by the Imperial troops, and suffered far more from them than it had ever suffered in old times from the Goths or even from the Vandals. The Florentines took advantage of the taking of Rome again to get rid of the Medici. But at last, in 1529, the Pope, the Emperor, and the King of France all came to terms. Francis betrayed all his allies, while Charles stuck by his. In 1530, Charles was crowned King of Italy and Emperor, but instead of taking the two crowns, one at Milan and the other at Rome, he took^botli crowns together at Bologna. All Italy was now com- pletely under his power. Charles was more powerful than any Emperor since Charles the Great, and it might have seemed that the old days of the Empire were come again. But after the time of Charles his power in Italy passed, not to the next Emperor, but to his son who reigned in Spain, so that it was plain where his real strength had lain. 9. The States of Italy. — The end of these wars thus was that the power of the Emperor, or rather of the King of Spain, was established throughout Italy. Charles was himself King of the Two Sicilies, and, on the death of the last Duke of Milan, he granted the Duchy to his son Philip, so that the Kings of Spain ruled at both ends of Italy. The other states of Italy too were really under his power, much as, in the old days of Roile, the kingdoms and commonwealths of Greece and Asia had been before they were actually ipade into provinces. But there was one Italian state ^\^ XIII.] CHARLES THE FIFTH EMPEROR, 259 which at least did not yield without a struggle. Thii was the commonwealth of Florence. The Pope and the Emperor agreed that the Florentines should be obliged again to take back the Medici, but tht7 did not do so till after a long and terrible siege. Then princes of the house of the Medici began to reigQ as Dukes of Florence^ and in 1557 Duke Cosmo added to his dominions the territory of the commonwealth ot Sienna, Some time after this he got from the Pope and the Emperor the title of Grand Duke of Tuscany^ and the memory of the old republic was quite wiped out. Of the other commonwealths, Venice, Genoa, and Lucca, besides the little San Marino, still went on. But their governments were aristocratic, and the only one of them which played any part in European aiiairs was Venice, which was still the bulwark of Christendom by sea, as Poland and Hungary were by land. But, in the course of the sixteenth century, the Turks wor. from the Venetians many of their possessions both in the islands and on the few points which they held on the mainland of Peloponn^sos. And, notwithstanding their share in the great victory of Lepanto, the Vene- tians had in 1570 to give up the island of Cyprus^ which the Turks had conquered, but they still kept Crete and Corfu and some of the smaller islands. 10. The Popes. — The Popes must, especially in these times, be looked at in two lights, as Italian princes and as the heads of those of the Western Churches which still clave to them. In their temporal character the Popes were much mixed up in the wars of Italy, and they had the great advantage of being able to call on men to support their political schemes under pretence of helping the cause of the Church. During the sixteenth century the Popes greatly ex- tended their temporal dommion, joining on to it many principalities and cities which, as they gave out, were held in fief of them, so that, if their holders rebelled or if their families became extinct, they would s 2 Ifo THE GREATNESS OF SPAIN, [OBAfl fall to the Pope as superior lord. In this way the Popes came to be, even as temporal princes, the great- est power in Italy after the Kings of Spain. At the latter end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth centuries, the corruption of the court of Rjome, and the personal wickedness of the Popes, was at its height. Some of them were men of most scandalous lives, as was Alexander the Sixth of the Spanish family oi Borgia, who was Pope when Charles the Eighth came into Italy. And even those who were not so br.d as this were thoroughly worldly men, who thought more of increasing their dominions and ex- alting their own kinsfolk than of doing their duty as the chief Bishops of the Church. Such wa? Julius the Second, the great fighting Pope, and Leo the Tenth and Clement the Seventh, the two Popes of the house of Medici. Between them came Hadrian the Sixth, a native of the Netherlands, an honest man who was anxious to reform practical abuses, but who had no kind of love for Italian ways, or for the revival of ancient learning, of which Leo the Tenth was a great promoter. Hadrian however reigned only a very little time. It was in the time of Leo the Tenth that the Reformation began to be preached by Martin Luther in Geniiany, but the Popes for some time took but little heed of what was going on. But towards the middle of the century things began to change. The Reformation, as a system of doctrine, made but little progress in Italy, and it never became the religion of any Italian state. But there were many men, even high in the Roman Church, who would gJadly have yielded to the Reformers on some points, and there were still more who, without wishing to change any of the received doctrines, were eager to reform practical abuses and get rid of scandals. In this way there came to be a marked change between the Popes at the beginning of the century and those towards its end These later Popes were often fierce bigots, ready xltt.) tffk POPB!^, ait to persecute and to approve of crimes done in the cause of the Church ; but they were almost always men of good lives in their own persons, and eager to do what they thought their duty. One famous Pope at this time was Sixtus the Fifths who reigned from 1585 to 1590; he was wonderfully active in bringing his temporal dominions into good order. In 1545 a Ge- neral Council came together at Trent, which went on, with some stoppages, tUl 1563. This Council reformed many practical abuses, but it fixed the Roman Catholic doctrines and practices in a much more rigid shape than they had ever been put forth before. Its decrees were not received by the Churches which accepted the Reformation, and therefore the holding of the Council only made the breach wider and more hopeless. During this time too new religious orders were formed for the special purpose of advancing the doctrines of the Church and converting heretics and heathens. The chief of these was the famous Society of Jesus, or Order of the Jesuits, founded by the Spaniard Ignatius Loyola. This order was for a long time the chief support of the Papal dominion ; and the Jesuits won back a large part of Europe to the communion of Rome, but in most countries, Roman Catholic as well as Protestant, they contrived to make themselves obnoxious to the civil power. II. The Emperors. — Frederick the Third was the last Emperor who was regularly crowned at Rome. His son Maximilian, who married Mary of Burgundy, was never crowned either at Milan or at Rome, but he took the new title of Emperor-elect instead of merely King of the Romans. No later Empero»* except diaries the Fifth was crowned in Italy at all, and Charles, as we have seen, was not crowned at Rome. Maximilian also took the title, which had never before been for- mally used, of King of Germany, and all the Kings after him were called in formal language Kings of Germany and Em^erors-elect. But they were commonly spoken i6a THE GREATNMSS OP SPAthf. fcHAh !?•*■•■• 1 of as Emperors^ which before was never done unless they had been crowned at Rome. Maximilian was always trying to do greater things than he was able to do, but, as King of Germany, he certainly did some- thing to restore the royal power, and much more to bring the country into greater peace and order. In his time Germany was divided into Circles^ and a supreme court called the Imperial Chamber was set up. These changes did not do all that they were wished to do, but still they did something. Then came the reign of Charles the Fifth, and the great power of the Emperor, though not of the Empire, in Italy and the world generally. After Charles' abdication, his brother Ferdinand^ who was already King of the Romans, succeeded. In his time and in that of his successors Maximilian the Seco?id, Rudolf the Second, and Matthias, we may say that the Empire was purely German and had nothing to do with the affairs of Italy or of the world in general. In the next reign, that of Ferdinand the Second, things began to change somewhat. 12. The Reformation in Germany. — In the reign of Charles the Fifth came the beginning of the Reformation. Nowhere was reformation more needed than in Germany, where the Bishops and Abbots had grown into powerful temporal princes, and quite neglected their spiritual duties. Towards the end of Maximilian's reign attempts began to be made in the Diet for the reformation of practical abuses, and about the same time the famous Martin Luther began to attack, first the practical abuses, and then the established doctrines, of the Church. This he began to do in 15 17, and he was greatly followed by many people, though little notice was at first taken of him in high places. Luther was protected by his own sovereign, Frederick Elector of Saxony ; and, when in 1520 a bull was put forth against him by Pope Leo the Tenth, Luther ventured to burn it. By this time Charles the Fifth had been electeu Emperor, and in •■•f.' 'ytmwo'iStsmittixmimt* XIII.] MARTIN LUTHER, 263 152 1 Luther was condemned in a Diet of the Empire at Worms. But Luther was still protected by the Electors of. Saxony, and gradually many of the princes and cities of Germany, especially in the north, em- braced his doctrines. Germany was further disturbed by a revolt of the peasants in various parts, but all that came of it was to make their bondage harder than it had been before. There were also revolts of the Anabaptists, fanatics who not only preached wild doa trines in religion, but tried to upset all government and society. Against all movements of this kind, Luther set himself quite as strongly as the Catholics did. His own reformation meanwhile went on. At the Diet oiSpeyerxxi 1529 the Emperor and a majority of the Diet passed a decree against all ecclesiastical changes. Against this the princes who followed Luther protested, and thus arose the name of Protestants, a name which originally meant the German followers of Luther, as distinguished, not only from the Roman Catholics, but from the other Reformers who did not agree with Luther on all points. In 1530 the Lutherans or Pro- testants drew up a statement of their doctrines, which was called the Confession of Augsburg; in the next year the Protestant princes and cities joined together in a confederacy for mutual defence, which was called the Smalcaldic Leagued But, when some of them tried to get help from France, Luther protested against such treason, and a kind of reconciliation was patched up with the Em])eror. There was no time when Ger- many more needed to be at peace, for, besides France on the one hand, the Turks were threatening on the other, and Sultan Suleiinan or Solomon in 1529 actually besieged Vienna, and ravaged the country as far as Regenshnrg c. Ratisbon. In 1546 Luther died, and in the same year a war broke out between the Kmperor and the Catholics on one side and the Protestant princes on the other, which went on with some stoppages till in 1555, by the Peace of Augsburg^ a64 THE GkBA rmss oP' spam {mM», the two religions were put on terms of equality through- out the Empire. But this was no real toleration ; it simply meant that the government of each German state might set up which religion it pleased, Catholic or Protestant ; nothing was done for those persons in any state who might be of a diflferent religion from the Government Thus, for instance, in Austria, where a large part of the people had become Protestants, the. Catholic religion was brought back, chiefly by the help of the Jesuits. And in the same way Protestants of one sect did not scruple to persecute Protestants of another ; for in some parts of Germany men had fol- lowed the doctrines of the French reformer Calviriy and they and the Lutherans drove one another out. During Ferdinand's time and that of the following Emperors, religious disputes went on, till, in the reign of Ferdinand the Second, came the beginning of a more fearful religious war than had ever happened before between Christian and Christian. 13. The Advance of France. — The power of France was meanwhile advancing, and the jealousy between the French Kings and the House of Austria, , both in Spain and in the Netherlands, was getting stronger and stronger. The Kings of France were getting more and more absolute in their own dominions, and they were still increasing their dominions at the expense of their neighbours. In their Italian wars they failed ; for they were never able to keep either the Duchy of Milan or the Kingdom of Naples. But the only great fief of the Crown of France which still kept its own princes was now added to the royal do- minions. This was the Duchy of Britanny, whicn passed to an heiress, Anrte^ who married two Kings of France in succession, Charles the Eighth and Lewis the Twelfth. From this time Britanny has been reck- oned part of France, but to this day a large part of the people do not speak French, but still use their old Celtic tongue, akin to the Welsh of Britain. Lewis the f*'»iw.'s:«W*': >ugh- ; it rman tiolic iis in the iiii.l I^RANClS TfiE t^IKSt, 26S Twelfth, though he did so much harm in Italy, made a good King in his own kingdom, and was called the Father of the People. The next King, Francis the First, was thoroughly bad in every way, except that he was a promoter of art and learning. All these Kings were of the House of Valois ; but, as neither Charles the Eighth nor Lewis the Twelfth left any sons, the Crown did not again pass from father to son till the death of Francis in 1547, when it passed to his son Henry the Second. There were some wars between France and England at this time, but they were of small moment compared with those either earlier or later. At one time, in 1544, Henry the Eighth of England took Boulogne, but in 1557 the French got back Calais, which the English had kept ever since the time of Edward the Third. But these wars with England were nothing compared with the long wars which Francis and his son Henry waged with the EmperOr Charles and his son Philip. These may be said to have gone on from 1520 to 1558. For, though peace was made several times, it never was well kept or lasted long. The French Kings, while cruelly per- secuting the Protestants in their own kingdom, did not scruple to help the Protestants in Germany in their wars with the Emperor, nor were they ashamed to encourage the Turks> the common enemies of Chris tendom, to attack the Empire and its allies by land ana sea. In 1537 Francis got hold of the greater part of the dominions of Charles Duke of Savoy^ but this conquest was not kept very long. Thus far the French Kings had mainly sought after Italian dominion ; they now began more directly to attack the Empire on the side of Germany. In 1552 Henry the Second got hold of three Bishopricks of the Empire, Metz, Toul, and Verdun, which, though they lay apart from the Kingdom of France and were surrounded by the Duchy of Lorraine, were kept by France ever after, till Mets was won back in our own times. Indeed, from • , < i 266 THE GREATNESS OF SPAIN, [CHAP. i this time, though Lorraine remained a fief of the Empire, yet it began to come very much under the power of France^ and the family of Guise^ who were of the ducal House of Lorraine, began to play a great part in French affairs. After Charles had abdicated, the war still went on, though of course it was now a war between .France and Spain, and no longer between France and the Empire. At last the French under- went two great defeats at St Quentin and Gravdines^ on the borders of France and the Netherlands, so the Peace of Cdteau-Cambrests was made in 1558, and the advance of the French power was stopped for a time. 14. The Civil Wars of France. — From the Peace of Citeau-Cambresis till the end of the sixteenth century, the history of France is mainly taken up with the religious wars between the Catholics and Protes-* tants within the country. These lasted, with stoppages now and then, from 1562 to 1595. The French Protestants were not Lutherans, but followers of John Chauvin^ or Calvin, a Frenchman by birth, who settled at Geneva. His teaching went further away from that of the Roman Church than that of Luther. It was followed by all who accepted the Reformation in the Romance-speaking countries, and also in part of Ger- many. The name Protestant therefore did not 'pro- perly belong to the Calvinists in France, who called/ themselves the Reformed, and who were commonly known as Huguenots, They were cruelly persecuted under Francis and Henry the Second. After Henry three of his sons reigned in order, Fra?ids the Second from 1559 to 1560, Charles the Ninth from 1560 to 1574, and Henry the Third from 1574 to 1589. The mother of these three Kings, Catharme of Medici, of the House of Florence, had g^eat power, which she used very badly, during the reigns of all her sons. The leligious wars began in 1562, and in the latter part of them the chief part on the Reformed side was taken by Henry of Bourbon, King of Navarre. He was the ".v^WWty wi eW w u . 'iw.^. tllL] tlVlL WAkS IN PRANCB, itty next heir to the Crown of France after the sons of Henry the Second, though the kindred between them in the male Hne was very remote, as they were descen- ded from different sons of Saint Lewis. Henry had inherited from his mother the title of King of Navarre^ and with it the possession of that small part of the king- dom which lay north of the Pyrenees, and which had been kept by its own Kings when all the rest had been conquered by Ferdinand of Aragon. He had also large fiefs in the South of France, which was the part where the Huguenots were the strongest, like the Albigenses in the old times. The two parties were always going to war, and always making peace again ; but, when peace was made, ijt ne^'er gave any real toleration. The Reformed religion was allowed to be practised in particular towns and places, — La Rochelle especially became something like a separate Calvinist commonwealth — ^but men were not allowed to follow what religion they pleased everywhere. Philip of Spain meddled as much as he could, of course helping the Catholics. The most famous event of these times was the massacre of the Huguenots at Paris on Saint Bartholomew's Day, 1572, which was called the Massacre of Saiftt Bartholomew. At last, when H«nry ,the Third died in 1589, the Crown came of right to Henry of Navarre, but he found that, as long as he remained a Huguenot, Paris and the greater part of the kingdom would not acknowledge him. So in 1593 he turned Catholic, and then he soon obtained possession of the whole land. Instead of the old title of King oj the French (in Latin Rex Fraticorum), he called himself King of France and Navarre. Henry was murdered in 16 10, and was succeeded by his young son, Lewis the Thirteenth^ who reigned till 1643. Under his famous Minister Cardinal Richelieu^ the royal power was greatly strengthened, and, 'though the Huguenots were not persecuted, they lost their special privileges in particular places. Under him too the House of II; ft68 TkB GkJSA t/^JSSS OP SPaM IcMAK Bourbon began to take the first place in Europe instead of the House of Austria. 15. The Revolt of the Netherlands.— Mean- while a deadly blow was dealt to the power of Spain in her outlying possessions, and a new commonwealth arose in Europe. It will be remembered that the Netherlands had been brought together under the Dukes of Burgundy, and that they had now passed to Philip of Spain as their successor. They were a most important part of his dominions, for nowhere else north of the Alps were there so many great and rich cities near together; but the bad government of Philip, especially his religious persecutions, and above all the cruelties of his Lieutenant the £>uke of Alva, led to a revolt. This began in 1568, and the war went on till 1609. The great leader of the revolt was William Prince of Orange, called the Silent, His principality of Orange ^2,% one of the small fiefs of the Kingdom of Burgundy which had not been swallowed up by France, though it was now almost wholly surrounded by French territory. In this he was something like Henry of Bourbon, with his little kingdom of Navarre, for the Prince of Orange had private estates in the Netherlands which were really worth much more than his principality. His wisdom and endurance led to the deliverance of all the northern part of the Netherlands from the Spanish yoke. At the beginning of the revolt the Southern provinces were the most zealous; but after a while, as their people were mainly Catholics, they fell back under the power of Spain, and they remained dependencies of one power after another, till such parts of them as escaped being swallowed up by France became the present Kingdom of Belgium. 16. The United Provinces. — Meanwhile the Northern provinces, Holland, Zealand, and others, where the people were mostly of the Reformed religion, stuck by the Prince of Orange, and called in help from England, France, and the German branch i•M«!»W«'»"^ « • Sm.] REVOLT Of THE NETHERLANDS. 209 of the House of Austria. But none of these foreign helpers did them much real good ; so at last they formed themselves, in 1581, into the Federal Common'^ wealth of the Seven United Provinces, In 1584 the Prince was murdered; for Philip, who stuck at no crime in what he thought the cause either of the Crown or of the Church, had offered rewards to any one who would kill him. After William's death the war was continued by his son Maurice^ and it went on after Philip's death till peace was made in 1609. The peace was in name only a truce for twelve years, because Spain was too proud to acknowledge the independence of her revolted subjects, but the war now really came to an end, and the United Provinces^ answering nearly to the present Kingdom of the Nether- iandSf were firmly established as an independent power. This was one of the most famous wars in all history, for never did so small a power so long and so successfully withstand a great one. Some of the greatest generals of the age were brought against the Provinces. There was the Duke of Alva first, and then Don John of Austria^ Philip's half-brother, who had won the battle of Lepanto, his nephew the famous Alexander Duke of Parma^ and lastly the Marquess Spinoltty whose great exploit was the siege of Ostend, in the latter years of the war. The Dutchy as the people of Holland and the other United Provinces are now commonly called in a special way, did everything for themselves ; for they got very little real help from those who professed to be their allies in England and France. Thus a new state and a new commonwealth was formed in Europe. In strictness the Provinces were still members of the Empire, but their allegiance was quite nominal, and in 1648 their absolute inde- pendence of the Empire was . formally acknowledged. Owmg chiefly to the daring and activity of their people in all things to do with trade and the sea, the Uniied Provinces, small as their territory was, reckoned i •»o THE GRRA TNESS OF SPAIN. [CIIA» during the whole of the seventeenth century as one ol the chief powers of Europe. They came afterwards to defy France, as they had before defied Spain, and things so turned about that, before the end of the century, they were helping Spain against France. 17. Switzerland and Savoy. — Meanwhile the older Federal commonwealth which had grown up at the other end of the Empire, the Old League of High Germany or of Switzerland, was playing an important part in European affairs. From the middle of the fourteenth century till after the war with Charles of Burgundy, the Confederates had made many conquests and alliances, but they did not admit any new Cantort into their own body. But in the latter years of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth century fire new Cantons were made, Freiburg^ Solothurn^ Basely Ichaffhausetij and Appenzell, These made up the Tnirteen Cantons^ which lasted till the end of the eighteenth century. All these were purely German, but now begins the connexion of the League with the Romance lands. About the end of the fifteenth century the Confederates won a small territory in Italy, and we have seen that they played a ijreat part in the wars of that country. And, ever since the Burgundian War, they had been making :heir way to the West, in the lands of the now pretty well forgotten Kingdom of Burgundy. The history af the Dukes of Savoy now becomes of great im- portance. For, whereas they had lands both in Bur- gundy and in Italy, they have ever since been losing their lands north of the Alps and winning new lands to the south. At last, in our own day, they have lost al their old Burgundian dominions, but have become Kings of all Italy. But at this time it seemed as if the power of Savoy was going to be wiped out altogether. We must remember that the territories both of the Confederates and of the Dukes of Savoy were still parts of the Empire, though their real connexion with Xllh] SWITZERLAND AND SAVOY, it was very slight. As in Germany, religious and political affairs had much to do with one another ; but Switzerland had its own Reformation distinct from that of Germany. The new doctrines were first preached at Ziirich in 15 19, by Ulrich Zwinglt\ whose teaching in many things went further away from the received faith than that of Luther. He also did good by speaking against the custom of men hiring themselves out as mercenary soldiers. Zurich, Bern, and several other Cantons accepted his teaching, while others remained Catholic and some were divided. A civil war followed, and Zwingli was killed in battle in 1531. Meanwhile the Reformation was preached by William Farel in the lands bordering on the Confederates to the west, and especially in the free city of Geneva, That city was hemmed round by the dominions of the Dukes of Savoy, who were always wishing to get hold of it. Now that Geneva had embraced the Reformed re- ligion, there was a further pretext for attacking it, and in 1534 Duke Charles of Savoy besieged the city. But Geneva was in alliance with Bern and with some others among the Confederates; so a Bernese army marched to deliver Geneva, and at the same time took the opportunity of conquering a large part of the dominions of Savoy on both sides of the Lake of Geneva. Other parts were seized by the Canton of Freiburg^ though it remained Catholic, and by the little Confederation of Wallis or Valais^ which was in alliance with the Swiss. Bern not long after also annexed the Bishoprick of Lausanne — the Bishop of Lausanne, like other Bishops of the Empire, being a temporal prince — but in 1564 she restored to Savoy her conquests south of the Lake. The result of all this was that the Confederates, themselves a purely German body, became the head of a large body of Romance-speaking subjects and allies, which in later times have been made Cantons alongside of the original German states. Geneva from this time •;• THR GMAT/TESS OF SPAm [CRAF. remained a free city, though the Dukes of Savoy still sometimes tried to seize upon it. And presently the great French Reformer, /o/m Caivitiy came there, and became the real ruler of the city, which thus grew into a kind of centre for men of all lands who followed his doctrines. After this time the affairs of the Con- federates had but little to do with the general state of things in Europe, but it should be noticed that in 1648 they were, like the United Provinces, acknowledged to be quite independent of the Empire. As for Savoy, almost as soon as Bern had conquered the northern districts, the whole of the Duke's dominions were overrun by France, but they were gradually won back by the next Duke Emmanuel Filibert, From this time the Dukes of Savoy began to look more to their Italian than to their Burgundian dominions. Thus a dispute with France about the marquisate of Saluzzo was ended by the Duke Charles Emmanuel^ who reigned from 1580 to 1630, keeping Saluzzo and giving up the district of Bresse to France. These are but small districts, but they show the way in which France was winning the old Burgundian lands bit by bit, while Savoy was losing territory north of the Alps and gaining it in Italy. 18. The Reformation in England. — The affairs of the countries of which we have thus far spoken were all closely connected with one another. England meanwhile was constantly mixed up with the general course of affairs, but she did not engage in any such great wars on the Continent as she did in either earlier or later times. After the ending of the great war with France, England was torn in pieces by the Civil Wars between the different claimants of the Crown of the Houses of York and Lancaster, and there was no King whose title was altogether undisputed till the accession of Henry the Eighth in 1509. He was always mixed np with foreign affairs; and when the Empire wiis vacant, in 1519, he had some notion of tf^jnr-f. WII.) TUB REFORMATION IN ENGLAND, 173 getting chosen himself, and there was talk more than once of his famous minister, Cardinal IVo/sey, being chosen Pope. But in truth nothing very great was done by England on the Continent at this time, except that, as we have seen, the English conquered Boulogne and kept it for a short time. The Reformation in England is commonl)t said to have begun under Henry the Eighth, but in truth Henry changed very little either in doctrine or in ceremony. What was done in his time was to restore and enlarge the authority which the old Kings had in ecclesiastical matters, and to declare that the Pope had no jurisdiction* in England. All through his reign men who taught the Reformed doctrines were burned as heretics. It was only when Henry's son, Edward the Sixth, succeeded in 1547 that any strictly religious changes were made. Then, in 1553, came Henry's daughter Mary, She was, through her mother Katharine of Aragon, a cousin of the Emperor Charles, and she married his son Philip, afterwards Philip the Second of Spain. Thus England was in close alliance with Spain and at enmity with France. Now it was that England lost Calais, and so had no longer any possessions on the Continent. Mary also undid all that had been done by her father and brother ; not only were the old doctrines and ceremonies restored, but the authority of the Pope was set up again. Under her sister Elizabeth, who began to reign in 1558, the English Reformation was finally settled. The Pope's autho- rity was again thrown off, such changes as were thought needful were made in doctrine and worship, but the general system and government of the Church went on. But the reign of Philip and Mary, under which many men were burned for their religion, had thoroughly set Ei:iglishmen against anything that had to do with either Spain or the Pope, and many men in England wished that change had gone further in religious matters than it had gone. I', 274 THE GREATNESS OF SPAIN. [chap. \ % 19. England and Scotland. — Meanwhile the re- lations between England and the neighbouring king- dom of Scotland were very important. The old wars often began again, and, when yames the Fifth of Scotland died in 1541, leaving only a young daughter called Mary, there was talk of joining the two king- doms by marrying her to Henry the Eighth's son Edward, afterwards Edward the Sixth. But all that came of this was more wars, and the throwing of Scot- land still more thoroughly on the side of France, Queen Mary was brought up in France and she married the Dauphin ira//«V, who was afterwards King for a little while. She was thus Queen regnant of Scotland and Queen consort of France, and she claimed to be Queen of England also, because, according to the extreme views of the papal power, she had a better right to the English Crown than Elizabeth. After the death of Francis she went back to Scotland, but about this time the greater part of the people of Scotland em- braced the Reformation in a very extreme form, while Mary stuck to the e^^ religion. She was afterwards driven out of her kingdom for her personal crimi and took refuge in England, where she was kept in ward for many years. She thus naturally got to be looked on as a Catholic saint and confessor, and she became a centre of conspiracies against Elizabeth at home and abroad. At last, in 1587, she was beheaded for her share in a plot against Elizabeth's life. The ind'gna- tion of the Catholic party everywhere was great, and now the quarrel between England and Spain broke out on a great scale. Elizabeth and Philip had for many years been doing harm to each other in a small way, but now, in 1588, Philip sent his great Armada against England, which came to nothing. Elizabeth now came to be looked on as the head of the Reformec^ party throughout Europe, and she gave some help at different times to the Reformers both in France and in the Netherlands. The war between England md 'mm--^^mimm>m tin.i ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND: ay$ Spain went on during all Elizabeth's reign ; but when, on her death in 1603, the Crowns of England and Scotland were united in Mary's son James, Sixth of Scotland and First of England, the policy of England altogether changed. For James truckled to Spain, and England for a long time lost the position which she had before held in Europe. The reign of his successor Charles the First was mainly taken up with internal affairs, and the latter years of it with the great Civil War, which lead to the King's beheading in 1649. All this time is one of the most important parts of our history, both in England and Scotland, but it is mainly taken up with the internal affairs oif the two countries, which have comparatively little to do with the general course of things in Europe. But the union of England and Scotland under one King nad this effect, that Scotland was no longer the enemy of England, nor could it any longer be an ally of France in wars between France and England. 20. Northern Europe. — It was in the beginning of the sixteenth century th^it the attempt to join to- gether the three Scandinavian kingdoms of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, which had never been carried out for any long time together, came wholly to an end. Christian the Second, called Christian the Cruel, who became King of Denmark and Norway in 15 13, became King of Sweden also in 1520; but his oppres- sion provoked revolts in all his dominions. In 1523 he was driven out of both Denmark and Sweden. The Swedes chose as their King the famous Gustavus Vasa, who had been their leader in driving oat Chris- tian. He brought in the doctrines of Luther, but less change was made in the order and government of the Church in Sweden than anywhere else except in England. Under Gustavus Sweden began to rise to a much higher position in Europe than it had ever held before. He died in 1560, and the Kings who followed him were of no great account till the famous Gustavus T a ;».f; "1 4". % d76 THE GREATl^ESS OF SPAIN. tciIAP. AdolphuSf who began to reign in i Six. Of him we shall hear more in the history of the great wars in Germany. On his death in 1632 came his daughter Christina^ in whose time a part of Norway, namely the province oijamteland^ with other districts, and the isle of Gotland^ were won from Denmark. All this while Denmark and Norway remained under the same King. Under Frederick the First, who reigned from 1523 to 1533, the Lutheran religion was established in Den- mark ; but after his death there were disputes about the succession to the Crown, and wars with the city of Lubeck, Under Frederick the Second, who reigned from 1559 to 1588, the free people of Ditmarschen^ who had all this time kept on their old freedom at that end of Germany just as the Forest Cantons did at the other end, and who had more than once defeated the Counts of Holstein and Kings of Denmark, were at at last conquered. His son Christian the Fourth reigned from 1588 to 1648, and we shall hear of him again. ^ ' 21. Russia and Poland. — In Poland and Lithuania the descendants of Jagellon went on reign- ing till nearly the end of the sixteenth century. Under them Polai d was at the height of its power, and it formed one of the greatest states of Europe. Its territory now stretched far to the east, and took in large countries which had once been part of Russia, and which have since become part of Russia again. In the course of the sixteenth century, when the Russian power began to rise again, parts of these terri- tories were won back again, and from that time the Polish frontier has commonly gone back. But before this, as we have seen, the Teutonic Order was greatly humbled in 1466, when the Knights had to give, up the western part of Prussia to Poland, and to hold the eastern part as a fief of the Polish Crown. This led to a further change in 1525. The Grand-Master Albert of Brandenburg had become a Lutheran. By a mi.] RUSSIA AND POLAND. «77 treaty with Sigismund the First of Poland, the Teutonic order was abolished as a sovereign power, and Albert became hereditary Duke of Pnissiay holding his duchy, which took in East Prussia only, as a fief of Poland. After a few generations the Duchy of Prussia and the Mark or Electorate of Brandenburg were, in 1611, joined together. Thus began the power of the House of Hohetizollern as sovereigns of Brandenburg and Prussia, which has gone on so greatly growing to our own times. In 1657, under Frederick William the First, who was called the Great Elector, the Duchy of Prussia became independent of the Crown of Poland, just as the Duchy of Aquitaine three hundred years before be- came independent of the Crown of France. In 1701, to go on some way beyond our present time, the Great Elector's son Frederick took the title of King of Prussia instead of Duke. Thus the Electors of Bran- denburg, besides their possessions in Germany, held the Duchy or Kingdom of Prussia, which was cut off from their Electorate by that part of Prussia which had been given up to Poland. The other possessions of the Order to the North were treated in nearly the same way. In 1561 the Grand-Master of Livonia, Gotthard Kettler, who had also turned I-.utheran, gave up all the dominions of the Order to Poland, except Curland, which was made into a Duchy for himself, just as Prussia was for Albert. But in the one case, out of the treaty with Albert arose one of the great states of Europe, while out of the treaty with Kettler nothing came but long wars between, Sweden and Poland for the lands east of the Baltic, till in the end they were all swallowed up by Russia. But long before this Russia was making great advances. John or Ivan the Fourth, known as Ivan the Terrible, reigned from 1533 to 1384, and his doings towards his own subjects were among the strangest in history. But, besides wars with Sweden and Poland waged with various success, he altogether overthrew the power of the Moguls or :mi S98 THE GREATNESS OF SPAIN. [CRAP. !■'' Tartars of Kasan, who had once held Russia in bondage; he took Astrakhan also, and so extended the Russian dominions to the Caspian Sea. He was the first of the Russian princes who took the title of Czar, Some say that this name is simply a Slavonic word meaning King, while according to others it is the Russian form of Casar; anyhow it is certain that the sovereigns of Russia, who have latterly been called EmperorSy have always wished, as the most powerful princes belonging to the Eastern Church, to be looked on as successors of the Eastern Emperors. Russia was now a powerful state, but it was cut off from the Baltic by the Poles and Swedes, and from the Black Sea by the Tartars of Crim or Crimea, so that Russia had no havens except on the Caspian and the White Sea. It was by the White Sea, from the port of Archangel, that Russia now began to have trade with England and the other nations of the West. In 1589 the old line of Ruric came to an end, and great con- fusions followed, among which the Poles were able in 1605 to place a pretender, who professed to be the true heir, on the Russian throne. But in 16 13 the Russians chose Michael Romanoff, from whom the present royal family springs in the female line, and Russia began to flourish again, though it had to wage wars with Sweden and Poland with various success to the end of the century. In 1573 the Poles made their crown purely elective, instead of choosing, as before, from the royal family. Sometimes they chose a native Pole, sometimes a foreign prince ; but from this time all power came into the hands of the nobles, to the loss both of the King and of the people, and Poland began to go down both at home and abroad. 22. Turkey and Hungary. — Under Bajazet the Second, the successor of Mahomet the Conqueror, the Ottoman power did not advance, but in some parts rather fell back. In his time a new Mahometan ''I's**- ■ "y^iiiiiriini^i. iiBW»t. XIII.] TURKEY AND HUNGARY. «79 enemy rose to the east of him. This was the modem I kingdom of Persia, which rose again, very much as Persia had risen again under Artaxerxes in the third century, by the preaching of a national religion. Only this time it was not the preaching of the old Persian religion, but that of the Shiah sect of Mahometanism. Thus the Turks and Persians were not only political enemies, but they looked upon each other as heretics. The new dynasty, which began with Shah Ismael in 1 501, was known as that of the Sqphis. Endless wars now followed between the Turks and the Persians; meanwhile Seltni the Inflexible^ who reigned from 1512 to 1520, added Syria and Egypt to the Ottoman Em- pire, and obtained a surrender of the Caliphate from the nominal Abbasside Caliph at Cairo. Then came Suleiman — that is, Solomon — the Lawgiver^ who reigned from 1520 to 1566, and was one of the greatest of the Sultans. It was in his time that Francis of France made alliance with the Turks against the Empire. Under him the Ottomans made great conquests. In 1 52 1 he took Belgrade; in 1522 the Knights of Saint John were driven off the island of Rhodes, after which the Emperor Charles gave them the isle of Malta^ which they successfully defended against the Turks in a great siege in 1565. But meanwhile Suleiman con- quered a large part of Hungary. In 1526 Lewis the Second^ King of Hungary, was killed at the battle of Mohacs, after which the crown passed in the end, though not without a good deal of opposition, to Lewis's brother-in-law, Ferdinand Archduke of Austria, who was afterwards Emperor. But the greater part of the country fell into the hands of the Turks, and Buda became the seat of a Turkish Pasha. The Hungarian Crown has ever since been held by the Archdukes of Austria. It was in the course of these Hungarian wars that Suleiman made his way into Germany, and besieged Vienna. He had also wars with the Empire in other parts, as along the coast of II If vi i a8o THE GREATNESS OF SPAIN. [CHAP. Africa, where the Emperor Charles at one time took Tkmis, And in 1543 the Turkish fleet was actuall> brought by the Most Christian King into the waters of Italy and Provence, where Nizza or Nice was in vain besieged by the Mahometans. Suleiman was the last of the great line of Sultans who had raised the Otto- mans to such power. After his death, though the Turks still made some conquests, they no longer threatened the whole world as they had done before. In the reign of the next Sultan, Selim^ the Turks gained the island of Cyprus and lost the battle of Lepanto ; and from this time they had constant wars with the Persians to the east, and with the Poles and with the Emperors, in their character of Kings of Hungary, to the north. 23. The Thirty Years' War. — We now come to the great war which took up all the later years of this period, which had Germany for its centre, but in which most of the nations of Europe had more or less share. This is called the Thirty Yeari War. It began in Bohemia^ where the intolerance of the King, the Emperor Ferdinand the Second^ provoked a revolt. In 1619, just about the time that Ferdinand was crowned Emperor, he was deposed in Bohemia, and the Elector Palatine Frederick^ a Protestant Prince, was elected in his place. It was like the old wars of the Hussites beginning again. The next year Frederick was driven out of Bohemia, and he pre- sently lost his own dominions as well. Meanwhile, at the other end of Ferdinand's dominions, the Pro- testants of Hungary revolted, and for a while turned him out of that kingdom also. But the great scene of the war was Germany, where it was first of all carried on between the Catholic and Protestant princes within the country j but gradually, as the Emperor, with his famous generals Tilly and Wallenstcin^ seemed likely to swallow up all Germany, other powers .began to step 10. The first was Christian tlie Fourth King of Den- "**«»•: - I I'l i l lW i l l W. 'III WK - xin.] THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. flSl mark, who was himself a Prince of the Empire for his German dominions. In 1625 he became the chief of the Protestant League, but he was soon driven out and obhged to make peace. Presently, in 1630, a greater power stepped in from the North. This was the famous Gustavus Adolphus King of Sweden, who be- came for two years the head of the Protestants, and carried on war with wonderful success for a short time till he was killed in the battle*^of Lutzen in 1632. In this war Gustavus showed himself one of the greatest leaders that ever commanded an army. By this time other nations were beginning to take part in the war. England never formally joined in it, but there was, as was natural, a strong feeling in England on behalf of the Protestant cause, all the more so as Frederick's wife Elizabeth was a daughter of James the First, and many Englishmen and Scotsmen served in the Swedish army. France too, under Cardinal Richelieu^ began to meddle, first making a treaty with Gustavus and help- ing him with mpney, and afterwards, in 1635, joining openly in the war. Richelieu had put down the special privileges of the Protestants in France ; yet he did not scruple to make a league with the Protestants in Germany and with the Protestant powers of Sweden and Holland, in a war which had begun as a 'war for religious liberty in Bohemia and Germany. From this time it changed into a war for the aggrandizement of France, all the more so as most of the Protestant states of Germany made peace with the Emperor in 1635. Meanwhile the Emperor Ferdinand died in 1637, and was succeeded by his son Ferdinand the Third. The war went on for a while in most parts ot Europe with various success, the chief leader in Ger- many on the Protestant side being Duke Bernhard of Weimar. In 1642 the great minister of France, Car- dinal Richelieu, died, and his power passed to another Cardinal, Mazarin. In 1643 Lewis the Thirteenth died, and then began the long reign of Lewis tkt J . i 283 THE GREATNESS OF SPAIN, [CHAP. I ! Fourteenth^ who was only five years old when he came to the crown. Thus the latter part of the war went on under a different Emperor and different sovereigns both of France and of Sweden from those under whom it had begun. In this latter part of the war the French arms, under their great leaders Turenne and the Prince of Conde^ began to be decidedly successful. At last, after long negotiations, peace was made in 1648. ^ 24. The Peace of Westphalia. — The peace that was now made, which is known as the Peace of Westphalia, made some important changes in Europe. In Germany the two religions were put quite on a level, that is to say, the government of each state might establish which religion it chose. But the country had been utterly ruined by the long war, and whatever traces were left either of authority in the Empire or of freedom in the people quite died out. From this time Germany long remained a mere lax confederation of petty despotisms and oligarchies, with hardly any national feeling. Its boundaries too were cut short in various ways. The independence of the two free Con- federations at the two ends of the Empire, those of Switzerland and the United Provinces, which had long been practically cut off from the Empire, was now formally acknowledged. And, what was far more im- portant, the two foreign kingdoms which had had the chief share in the war, France and Sweden, obtained posesssions within the Empire, and moreover, as guarantors or sureties of the peace, they obtained a general right of meddling in its affairs. Sweden re- ceived territories in northern Germany, both on the Baltic and on the Ocean, part of Pofnerama, the city of Wismar, and the Bishopricks of Verden and Bremen, The free Hanseatic city of Bremen remained independent, as well as Liibeck and Hamburg; but these were now the only remnants of the famous Han- seatic League which li.ui once been so great. But ioi .•«WS«!«W»WW«n XIII.] THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA. 283 these possessions the Kings of Sweden became Princes of the Empire, like the Kings of Denmark and Hungary, the Elector of Brandenburg, and any other princes who had dominions both in the Empire and out of it. But the territories which were given to France were cut off from the Empire altogether. The right of France to the Three Lotharingian Bishopricks, which had been seized nearly a hundred years before, was now formally acknowledged, and, besides this, the possessions and rights of the House of Austria in Elsass, the German land between the Rhine and the Vosges, called in France Alsace^ were given to France. The free city of Strassburg and other places in Elsass still remained independent, but the whole of South Germany now lay open to France. This was the greatest advance that France had yet made at the expense of the Empire. Within Germany itself the Elector of Brandenburg also received a large increase of territory. The war in Germany was now over, but the war between France and Spain still went on, till 1659. Then France gained Roussillon, and a few places in Lorraine and the Netherlands, and Dunkirk was given to England, much as England had at other times held Calais and Boulogne and afterwards Gibral- tar. In the next year Lewis the Fourteenth seized the little principality of Orange^ but this was afterwards given back. 25. European Settlements in the East.— We have now come to the time when European his- tory begins to spread beyond Europe itself and those parts of Asia and Africa which had immediate deal ings with Europe. In the last years of the fifteenth century new worlds were opened, both in the East and in th^ West, and gradually all those European nations which '^p.d any power by sea began to trade, to con- quer, and to make settlements, in parts of the world which were never before heard of. In this way Eng- iand, France, Spain, Portugal, and Holland have all, 'm ''•n I 084 THR GREA TNESS OF SPAIN. [CHA» like !he old Greek commonwealths, planted colonies in various parts of the world. But there has been a great difference between the ways of colonizing in the two times. An old Greek colony was an independent state from the beginning ; it owed a certain respect to the mother city, but it was in no way subject to it; but the colonies planted by European kingdoms have been looked on as parts of the dominions of the mother country, and have been held as dependent provinces. The colonists therefore, when they have got strong enough, have commonly thrown off the yoke of the mother country, and have made themselves into inde- pendent states. Then again we may make some dis- tinctions among the different kinds of colonies. In some places the European settlers have gradually killed or driven out the native inhabitants, much as the English did with the Welsh when they first came into Britain. This has been the case with most of the colonies of England. The English settlers have often been largely mixed with settlers of other European nations and even with slaves from other lands, but ihey have hardly mixed at all with the natives. In Dther cases, as has happened in most of the colonies of Spain, the Europeans and the natives hsive mixed a great deal, and things have been somewhat as they were in the time of the conquests of Rome ; that is to say, large bodies of men speak Spanish who are not Spaniards by blood. Then there is a third class of European possessions in distant lands, where Euro- peans bear rule over the natives, but neither drive them out nor mix with them, and indeed cannot be strictly said to settle or colonize at all. Such is the great dominion of England in India, which is some- thing quite different from our colonies in America, Africa, and Australia, Possessions of both sorts began in the times with which we have now to do. The colonies strictly so called were chiefly planted in America, while dominions of the other kind were ■;i fi-^- •■,■'• (^ •I !•• J ■ P tl »f",| a^ THE GREATNESS OF FRANCE. fCHAP. people, are not denied the free exercise of their re- ligion. Ill 1683 the Turks besieged Vienna, which was delivered hy John Sobieski, King of Poland^ and Charles Duke oj Lorraine. After this the war went on, and the Turks were gradually driven out of the part of Hungary which they held, and peace was made at Carlowitz in 1699. In the midst of all this the crown of Hungary, which, though it had been so long in the Austrian family, was still by law elective, was made hereditary in 1687. Leopold then gave up the kingdom to his son Joseph, who in 1690 was chosen King of the Romans, and succeeded his father as Emperor in 1705. He took a leading part in all the affairs of Europe during his time,. The war with France went on, and so did the civil wars in Hungary, till 17 11, after which we hear of no more revolts for a long while. In that year Joseph died, and was succeeded by Charles the Sixth. He it was whom the Allies had wished to make King of Spain, and now the fear of uniting Spain with the dominions of the House of Austria helped to inclme the Allies to peace. By the terms of peace the House of Austria got, as its share of Spanish dominions, all that remained of the Spanish Netherlands, the King- doms of Naples and Sardinia, and the Duchy of Milan, except some parts which were given to the Duke of Savoy. In 1 7 1 5 another war began with the Turks, which was ended in 17 18 by the Peace of Passarowitz^ by which more territory was won, mcluding Belgrade the capital of Servia. Thus the House of Austria^ whose archdukes were so regularly chosen emperors, gained a great increase of territory during this period, but it all went to the advantage of the House of Austria, not at all to the advantage of what was still called the Roman Empire. 7. The Spanish Peninsula. — The history of Spain during this time, as far a? it concerns us, has pretty well been told already. Tiie power which had * tw| lww \Ji . \ ■ m*] AUSTRIA AND TURKEY, m been so great under Charles the Fifth and Philip the Second had now sunk to nothing, and Spain was dis- puted about by other powe.s without their asking the consent of its own people. But of the competitors for the Spanish Crown the Spaniards certainly prefened the French candidate to the Austrian, except in Cata^ lonia^ where the people took the other side. They had been deceived by the French in earlier wars, Portugal during this time has hardly any general his* tory. Ai fi^si: it took the side of the French, and afterwards that of the allies. And we must not forget that, besides the loss of its possessions in different parts of Europe, Spain itself suffered dismemberment. For, as we have seen, England got, not only the island of Minorca, but also the fortress of Gibraltar on the mainland of Spain itself. 8. Advance of Savoy. — Italy also has very little history during these times. From this time onwards we shall find both Italy and the Netherlands used as a kind of battle-field for the wars of other nations. We have seen how, by the Treaty of Utrecht^ several parts of Italy were again made to change masters, and how, for the first time since Charles the Fifth, the Emperor^ though we can no longer say the Empire^ again became an important power in Italy. But thore are two in- dependent states in Italy of whose history some ac^ count must be given. The House of Savoy was steadily making its way. From the beginning of the seven- teenth century the Dnkes of Savoy had sought to add to their dominions the possessions of the common- wealth of Genoa, and also whatever they might be able to win in Lombardy, which was then divided between the commonwealth of Venice and the Kings of Spain as Dukes of Milan. Genoa they were not to win for a long time; but, by taking a part dexterously, and not veiy scrupulously, in every war, they always con- trived to gain something by each treaty of peace. Thus Duke Victor Amadeus the Second took a part in ;i I h:'. S06 THE GREA 7NESS OF FRANCE. [CBftP. both the wars of the Allies against France. He gained in some campaigns and lost in others ; he changed sides more than once ; but he gained an increase of territory both by the Peace of Ryswick and by the Peace of Utrecht His gains by this last peace were very great \ he gained a part of the Duchy of Milan, and, more than thiS) he became a King. The Dukes of Savoy had for a long time claimed to be Kings of Cyprus and Jetusalemy but these were mere nominal kingdoms. But now Victor Amadeus became really King of the Island of Sicily , while the kingdom on the mainland went to the Emperor. The Two Sicilies were thus again divided, as they had been In the fourteeath and fifteenth centuries. The Dukes of Savoy in all this show a marked contrast to the other princes of Italy, and the corruption which had spread itself over most parts of Italy under the Spanish domination had hardly touched their dominions. They were thus able to do great things ; and, though their policy as yet was purely selfish, they wore really laying the foundation of the power which in our own time has grown into the re- stored Kingdom of Italy. 9. Wars of Venice. — The other Italian state of whuch some account must be given during this time was the commonwealth of Venice, which was still nobly playing its part as the champion of Christendom against the Turks. Cyprus had been lost, but the Venetians still kept Crete. But in 1645 the Turks attacked the island, and a war in its defence went on for twenty- four years. This war, as the greater part of it was taken up by the siege of the town of Candia, was commonly callea the War of Cattdia. The Vene- tians were helped, just as in the old times of the Crusades, by volunteers and others from various parts of Europe, from France, Spain, England, and Savoy \ but at last, in 1669, Candia could no longer hold out, and the whole island passed to the Tiu'ks. In 1684 the Venetians joined the Emperor Leopold and the nr.] THE ITALIAN STATES. m Poles in their war with the Turks, and presently Fran, cesro Morosinty who had commanded at Candia, con- quered the whole of Peloponnhos, and was afterwards elected Doge. It was in this war that the Parthmdn, the great temple at Athens, which had become a church under the Eastern Emperors and a powder-magazine under the Turks, was finally broken down when Moro- sini was besieging Athens. Peloponnesos was con- firmed to Venice in the Peace of Carlowiiz in 1699, but it was won back by the Turks in 17 15, as well as all that Venice still kept in the East, except the Ionian Islands and one or two points on the west coast of Epeiros. Ini7i6 the Turks in vain tried to take Corfu, but in 1 7 18 the Emperor Charles forsook Venice just when there was a chance of winning back Peloponnesos. With the Peace of Passarowitz in that year the history of the wars of Venice in the East, which had gone on ever since the taking of Corstantinople in 1204, came to an end. 10. The United Provinces. — During all this time the Seven United Provinces, as what we have already said will show, held a much higher position in Europe and the world in general than could have been looked for from the extent of their territories. And they did this notwithstanding an awkward constitution in which each of the states of which the Confedera- tion was made up kept nearly all the rights of sove- reignty. In Holland, which was the leading province of the seven, there was a chief magistrate called a Stadholder, who often held the same office in other provinces also. This office had passed on for some generations, almost as if it had been hereditary, in the family of the Princes of Orange. But, when William the Second — as it is most convenient to call him, though he was really the Ninth in his own principality of Orange — died in 1650, his son William the Third was not yet bom, and the office of Stadholder was formally abolished in 1667. At this time the States i. 'a X a -# 90B THE GREA TNESS OF FRANCE, [chap. were chiefly led by a famous statesman of Holland, fohn de Witt, but in 1672 there was a revolution ; De "VVitt and his brother were murdered, and the Prince was appomted Stadholder. It was he who carried on the great defence of the Provinces against France, but after his death the office of Stadholder was again abolished for a long while. II. The Northern Kingdoms. — Sweden, like the United Provinces, held during all this time a greater position in Europe tha it was really able to keep. Queen Christina abdicated in 1654 ; the wars went on during the time of the next King, Charles the Tenth, and in 1660 Charles the Eleventh concluded the Treaties of Oliva and Copenhagen^ by which Sweden gained almost all Livonia from Poland, and obtained from Denmark all that part of Denmark which lay within the northern peninsula, so that Denmark now kept only Jiitland and the islands. Sweden now had greater territories than it had at any time before or since, and in this King's reign, in 1682, the royal power was made absolute by law. The same had been done in Denmark in 1660, in the reign of Frederick the Third. Then, in 1697, came the famous Charles the Twelfth, He was presently attacked by Denmark, Poland, and Russia all at once. He first beat the Danes, and then the Russians in the famous battle of Narva; then he passed on into Poland, where he deposed one King and set up another ; then he passed on into Russia, where at last he was defeated at Pultowa, and had to take shelter in the Turkish dominions at Befider. There he stayed in a kind of captivity for a while, but in 17 14 he made his way almost alone to Siralsund in his Pomeranian domin- ions, where he was besieged by the forces of Denmark, Prussia,, and Saxony. In 17 18 he was killed in attack- ing Fredericks hall in Norway. His sister Ulrica suc- ceeded him. Absolute monarchy was now again abolished, and the royal powers were made very small. ttv.3 CHARLES THE TWELPTH 305 In 1720 and 1721 peace was made by Sweden with her various enemies, and the Swedish dominions were cut short in all parts. Livonia and the neighbouring land were given up to Russia, whose territories now reached to the Baltic. Bremen and Verden were given up to Hanover, and part of Swedish Pomerania to Prussia. So of the fruits of the German victories of Gustavus Adolphus nothing was left except part of Pomerama and the town of Wismar; but the Scandi- navian territories which had been won from Denmark in the last century were still kept. Charles the Twelfth had won victories which astonished the whole world, but he taxed the resources of his kingdom be yond its strength, and since his time Sweden has never been what it was during the whole of the seventeenth century. But, on the other hand, Sweden now reached to the extreme south of her own peninsula, and was no longer cut off by Denmark from the western seas. In fact Sweden has to some extent, like Savoy, gained territory at one end and lost it at the other, though the gains have been greater in the case of Savoy and the losses in the case of Sweden. 12. Russia and Poland. — We need say but litde about the history of Russia in this chapter, because its wonderful advances towards the end of this time will come better as a connected story in the next chapter. Poland meanwhile had, as we have seen, to give up her new territory of Livonia to Sweden, and presently, in 1672, she had to give up the border province of Podolia to the Turks, and to submit to pay a tribute. But in 1674 the Poles chose as their King their own famous general, John Sobieski^ the same who delivered Vienna in 1683. Both before and after he became King, he won several victories over the Turks. He got back part of the lost territories, and for a time joined Moldavia and Wallachia to Poland ; these are the two Danubiati principalities of which there has been much talk of late years. These con- 1^1 r f '' Sto THE GkBA TNESiS OP FkAMB. fcttA». quests were not long kept. Sobieski died in 1696, and the Poles did not choose a new King for more than a year. Then they chose Frederick Augustus^ Elector of Saxony ^ who turned Catholic to receive the Crown, since which time the Electors and Kings ot Saxony have been Catholics, while their people have remained Protestant. This King is called Augustus tJie Strong. He won back the strong town of Kami- nieiz from the Turks ; but, having joined the league against Charles the Twelfth of Sweden, he was utterly overthrown in 1702. Charles cpllod on the Poles to depose A igustus and choose a new King; so in 1704 they chose one of their own nobles, Stanislaus Leszczymki. But he reigned no longer than Charles could help him, and, after Charles's df eat at Pultowa and after a civil war in Poland, Augustus was brought back. Poland was now fJling very fast from the high place which it had once held in Europe. 13. The Turks. — The chief events in the history of the Turks have already been told when we spoke of their wars with Venice and in Hungary. Though they conquered Crete and recovered Peioponnesos, yet on the whole the power of the Ottomans was going down. Some of the Sultans, like Mahomet the Fourth^ in whose time Vienna was besieged, were men of spirit, and Mahomet sometimes commanded his own armies, but some were very weak men indeed, and none were like the great series of Sultans who had founded the Ottoman dominion. One great reason for the decline of the Ottoman power was that the tribute of children was no longer regularly levied on the sub- ject nations. The Janissaries had become a kind of hereditary caste, and their old spirit was quite gone. In former times all the best servants of the Sultans, both in war and peace, had come from among the tribute children. Now that <:he tribute was no longer levied, the Sultans had no longer the same succession of able and faithful servants, and the subject nations '■'"■^W»i(i.«rtiB|iH)' u kiv.] POLAND AND TURKEY, 3ii were»Tio. longer deprived of the men who were most fitted to be their leaders. As long as the tribute was levied, we may say that the subject nations could not revolt. As it was, we do not hear of any revolts for some time to come, but the subject nations now began to gain strength and their masters became weaker. 14. European Settlements in India.— The English dominion in India began during this time. The great sailors of Elizabeth's time had made their way into the Indian seas as well as into those of the West, and a systematic trade with India, carried on, as was usual in those days, by a Company ^ began in the times of James the First. The English merchants had a*^ iirst*to withstand the opposition of the Dutch in the islands, and of the Portuguese on the mainland. The putch had got possession of the islands called the Spice Islands, which form part of the great group of islands which lie beyond the two peninsulas of India, and in 1623 great indignation was caused by what was called the Massacre of Amboyna, when severstl Englishmen were put to death by a sentence of the Dutch Court in the island. With India itself the English began to trade in a regular manner about 16 1 3, when they received a charter from the reigning Emperor /eha?igir. The great power in India was now ihi^' Mogul Empire^vfhich. was ruled by Mahometan princes, sprung from Baher, a descendant of Timour who established himself in India in 1526. His grand- son Akbar, in whose time the Mogul dominion was spread over the greater part of India, was the greatest and besLof all Mahometan rulers. But in truth he gave '.up Mahometanism, and set up a new religion oCliis' own. Jehangir was his son. The first settle- ments in India were merelv ^aclories for trade, but in those distant seas it was needful for merchants to fortify their factorier>, and. to have ships which could withstand an enemy. Commercial enterprises thus giadually changed into political and military enter- \4 :i f'A ^^ jtt rm GlfEAT/ZESS OF PXAl^CB, tCllAk U\ ... prises, and the Company, which was at first merely a company of traders, came to have its dominions and armies like a sovereign prince or commonwealth, and in the end to have rule over nearly all India. These times however are yet to cume ; but the story of the English power in India is somctliing like the history of Rome ; wherever the English merchants settled and fortihed their factories, their dominion really begaa Their first settlement was at Surat ; one which be- came of more importance began at Madras in 1640; and in 1662 the King of England, as distinguished from the English trading Company, first became pos- sessed of a dominion in India. This was Bombay , which was given to England by Portugal on the mar- riage of Charles the Second to the Portuguese Infanta Katharine. But this new dominion was before long granted by the King to the Company. In 1698 began the English settlement at Calcutta^ and these three, Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta, remained the chief seats of the British dominion in India, during all this time there were many disputes between dif ferent sets of merchants about the right of trading with India, till at last, in 1708, the East India Com- pany was put on the footing which it kept long after, and under which it gradually obtained either sove- reignty or commanding influence in most parts of India. By this time the Mogul Empire was much weaker than it had been at the time when the English first settled. Shah Jehan^ the son of Jehangir ; who reigned from 1627 to 1658, was a great prince, but undei his son Aurungzebe^ who reigned from 1658 to 1.707, being thus nearly contcmporaiy with Lewis the Fourteenth, the Empire, though outwardly at its highest pitch of splendour, was really falling to pieces. For Aurungzebe was a bigoted Mahometan, and his intolerance led to a revolt of the Mahraitas, a Hindoo people who founded a great dominion in Central India. And presently the rulers of the different pro- '■•«mmKi^.. II ttV.] THE ENGLISH m WDIA, m vinces under the Mogul Emperors began to grow into independent princes, keeping up only a nominal sub- mission to the Great Moguls as he was called. This is the same thing as we have seen so often in other parts of the world, in the Caliphate and in the Empire and in the kitigdom of France. By these means the progress of the English in India was much helped. But we must remember that during all this time there was no sign at all that the English were likely to come to be the head power in India. There were as yet no- thing more than one set of traders and settlers among others, Portuguese, Dutcli, French, and Danish. Some of these settlements of other nations remain still, though the English have so greatly outstripped them. But with the islands— except Ceylon^ which lies close to the peninsula, as Sicily does to Italy — the English have had but little to do. They have always chiefly belonged to the Dutch and Spaniards. 15. European Colonization in America. — During all this time colonization was going on briskly. The two great maritime and commercial powers, Eng- land and the United Provinces, now took the lead in it. It was now that England was rising to her great position by sea, and her new power led both to the foundation of new colonies and to the conquest of the colonies of other European nations. The Spaniards and Portuguese kept their great possessions in America, though the Spanish power had utterly gone down in the Naw World as well as in the Old. The Dutch colony of New Netherland was flourishing, though the Dutch and English often had quarrels. In 1638 the Swedes also, now that Sweden had become a great power, set up a colony on Delaware Bay^ but in 1655 this colony was conquered by the Dutch, and was joined to their own New Netherland. But New Netherland itself did not last very long, for it was conquered during the first war between the Dutch and the English in Charles the Second's time, and seveial f- 314 THE GREATNESS OF ERAPfCS, fCHAt. English colonies were made out of parts of it The chief town, New Amsterdam, changed its name to New York, in honour of the king's brother, James Duke of York. Other colonies were planted during Charles the Second's time, as Carolina and New Jersey, and especially Pennsylvania^ which was planted by the famous Quaker William Penn, who made laws for his colony, and established greater toleration in religion than was to be found anywhere else. Meanwhile the French claimed to hold all the vast regions to the north and west of the English colonies, and, whenever there was war between France and England in Europe, there was also war between the French and English colonies in America. By the Peace of Utrecht in 17 13 the French colony of Acadie was given up to Great Britain, and became the colony of Nova Scotia, But, on the other hand, the French were really coloniz ing at the mouth of the Mississippi, in their province oi Louisiana^ and in 17 18 they founded the city of New Orleans. The last of the English colonies in these parts was Georgia, which was founded in 1723. This made up the number of the thirteeen colonies in North America, which still remain as the thirteen oldest States of the American Union. 16. Summary. — Thus, during this period, France gained a great increase of territory, and more than once she caused great alliances to be formed to with- stand her. The great Spanish monarchy was divided, all its outlying possessions in Europe being se^^^ated from Spain. England and Scotland were more firmly joined together, and began to take a leading part in all continental affairs, and Great Britain for the first time won a footing in the Mediterranean. In Ger- many the Emperors became mere Austrian princes : but, as Austrian princes, they gained a great increase of power, both in Italy, firom which they had so long been shut out, and in South-Eastern Europe as Kings of Hungary. In Northern Germany also we see the ■*■■■ ■^"ww. nm h wjii *,: stiv.i eoioi^rjss m America. )t| beginning of a great and more strictly German power in the growth of Brandenburg or Prussia, In Italy, Savoy advanced, and Venice still maintained a gallant, though on the whole a losing, tight agamst the Turks. In Northern Europe Sweden had, by the end of the period, quite lost the great position which it held at the beginning, though it had gained some territory at the expense of Denmark. Poland was fast sinking, while the greatness of Russia was beginning. The power of the Turks was now much less to be feared, and, if they gained territory from Venice, they lost their possessions in Hungary and the neighbouring lands. In India the Dutch drove the Portuguese from the Islands, and the English settlements in India itself began. Colonization went on steadily in North America, and the English colonies were decidedly getting the upper hand. In the way of learning and literature, the United Provinces still produced great scholars and political writers ; but for literature in their own tongues England and France certainly stood at the head. Many of the most famous writers of both those languages, and also some of the chief philosophers, belong to this time. Spain and Italy had greatly sunk ; and Germany had not thoroughly recovered from the Thirty Years' War, though it is im- possible not to mention the great scholar and philo- sopher Leibnitz. Generally, French influence had too much power in Germany just now for anything very ^original to be done. /,'■> < >1 ■jv. ty 'I it I Si6 THE RISE OB RUS$U. [OHA^ CHAPTER XV. THE RISE OF RUSSIA. Character of the period (i) — rivalry of Austria and Prussia (2) — revival of the power of Spain j reign of the Emperor Charles the Sixth ; exchange of the King- doms of Sardinia and Sicily (2) — War of the Polish Election (2) — the Pragmatic Sanction (2) — War of the Austrian Succession; Prussian conquest of Silesia; election of Ciarles the Seventh (3) — Maria Theresa; her husband Francis elected Emperor (3) — Frederick the Great; the Seven Year^ War{s) — reign of Joseph the Second (3) — the Hanoverian Kings in England; attempt of the Pretender; dealings with France, Spain^ and Sweden (4) — War with Spain ; share of England in continental wars; administration of Pitt (4) — revolt of the American colonies; war with France and Spain (4) — independence of Irela^td (4) — reign of Lewis the Fifteenth; annexation of Corsica and Lorraine {^ — improved state of things in Spain ; the Family Com- pact; administration of Pombal in Portugal (6) — changes in Italy ; advance of Savoy ; revolution in Genoa and Corsica (7) — the Popes (7) — Reign of Peter the Great in Russia; Ms conquests from Sweden and other powers ; rise of Russia (8) — reigns of women in Russia; Catharine the Second; conquest of Crim Tartary (8) — affairs ofPnlond; the three partitions (8) '-loss of power and territory by Sweden; state of Denmark and the Duchies (9) — affairs of the Nether- lands; the Stadholdcrs in the Uttited 1 rovinces 7nade hereditary; revolts in the Austrian Netherlands (10) — success of the Turks against Austria (i i) — their wars with Russia; successive losses nf territory ; dealings of Russia with the Christian nations {ii)—gro7Jth of XV.] CHARACTER OF THE TIME. 3«7 the English power in India; career ofClive ; relation of England to the native states; trial of Warren Hastings {12)— the English Colonies in America; conquest of Canada (12) — revolt of the colonies; foun- dation of the United State "t (13) — cession of Florida (13) — Summary (14). I. Character of the Period. — The greatest change which took place in Europe during the time to which we have now come was undoubtedly the growth of the great power of Russia. No other state in Europe changed in anything like the same degree till quite the last years of the eighteenth century. Still Russia did not come to at all the same kind of rank which had been held by France, and, before that, by Spain. Nor did Russia rise to its greatness by dis- placing France in the way in which France rose by displacing Spain. Therefore, though this chapter is called after the greatest event of the period, still Russia will nut be the centre of our story in the same way that the Empire was for so long, and afterwards Spain and France. In fact there is not during this time any one power in Europe which stands out in any marked way above all others. There are several great powers which are much more nearly on a level than before, and among them one very important one is growing up in the form of Prussia. Indeed a great part of this period is taken up with rivalries between France and England, and between Prussia and Austria. And it is specially characteristic of this time that France and Sr^ain, the two great Bourbon powers are commonly allied against England. In short, no power in Europe holds a higher place at this time than our own country. Without exercising any general dominion or making any general conquests, England had a hand in nearly everything that went on. But we must, in this chapter, make the Imperial House of Austria the centre of our story, as hardly anything " 1'' , •,\,\ m ■m StS THE RISE OF RUSSIA. [CHAK It/, V I m ■«- '•- >m 'iii happened during this whole time in which that House had not a direct share. 2. The Reign of Charles the Sixth.— The greater part of the German history of this period is taken up with the rivalry between the Austrian House, the family of the Kings of Hungary and Archdukes of Austria, out of whom the Emperors were now chosen almost as a matter of course, and the House of Hohen- wllern^ the House of the Kings of Prussia and Electors of Bxandenburg, who had begun to rise into greatness under the Great Elector. But this did not begin till some time later, not till after the death of the Emperor Charles the Sixth. The first disturbance came — ^what, we should hardly have expected — from Spain. The new French King of Spain, Philip the Fifth, under his minister, Cardinal Alberoni, tried to get back the lands which Spain had lost, especially the kingdom of Sardinia, which had passed to the Emperor, and that of Sicily, which had passed to the Duke of Savoy. The Spaniards actually conquered Sardinia, and went some way towards conquering Sicily. But France, England, and the United Provin- ces presently joined the Emperor in the Quadruple Alliance 3igaLmst Spain, and the end of it was that Spain had to give up her projects, and the Emperor and the King of Sicily exchanged their two Italian kingdoms. Thus the Emperor Charles the Sixth became King of the Two Sicilies^ like Frederick the Second, and the Dukes of Savoy became Kings V Sardinia^ the title by which they were known nil the present King became King of Italy, This was in 1720, and in the same year the Emperor made what is called a Pragmatic Sanction^ which was guaranteed by the chief powers of Europe, and by which all his hereditary dominions, Hungary, Sicily, Austria, and the rest, were to pass to liis heirs female, in case he left no son. Presently this Emperor got entangled in a series of unsuccessful wars. On thQ «?.] CHARLES THE SIXTH 319 death of Augustus the Strong, in 1733, there was a double election to the crown of Poland between Frederick Augustus Elector of Saxony^ the son of the late king, and Stanislaus^ who had before been made King by Charles the Twelfth. The Emperor and Russia supported Augustus, but, as Lewis the Fifteenth had married the daughter of Stanislaus, he took upon him to make war on the Emperor, and he was joined by Charles Emmanuel the Third, King of Sardinia, and by Philip of Spain, or rather by his wife Eliza- beth of Parma, both of whom had designs on the Austrian possessions in Italy. Thus a war took place, in which the two Bourbon Kings were joined against the Emperor, and in which for once England took no part The end of this war, called the War of the Polish Election, was that the House of Austria lost the greater part of its Italian dominions. There was, as usual, a good deal oi" shifting among the smaller duchies, but the important changes were that the Two Sicilies were given to a younger son of the King of Spain — making a th*;d Bourbon kingdom in Europe — and part of the Duchy of Milan was given to the King of Sardinia, whose frontier, as usual, thus advanced a little. And not only the House of Austria, but the Empire also lost, for it was settle 1 that the Duchy of Lonaine, a fief of the Empire, should pass to Stanislaus — ^who gave up his claim to the crown of Poland — ^for life, and should be joined to France at his death. Thus France again advanced at the ex- pense of Germany. The Duke of Lorraine, Francis, who had married Maria Theresa, the daughter of the Emperor Charles, got the succession to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, where the line of the Medici was dying out, instead of his own Duchy of Lorraine. 3. The Wars of Austria and Prussia.—It was in this way settled that the hereditary dominions of the House of Austria should pass to the House of Lorraine, as representing the House of Habsburg in the \ ! ■? ?k s» THE RiSE OF RUSSIA, Dbhap. female .line. And it was no doubt expected that the Empire and the Kingdom of Germany would pass quietly along with the hereditary states. And all this did happen in the end, but not till after much disput- ing and fighting. When the Emperor Charles died in 1740, all his hereditary dominions, the Kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia, the Archduchy of Austria, and the rest, passed, according to the Pragmatic Sanction, to his daughter Maria Theresa, who was of course called by her highest title, that of Queefi of Hungary. The Empire of course was at the disposal of the Electors, and there was an interregnum of two years. But, notwithstanding the Pragmatic Sanction, various princes began to lay claim to the whole, or to particu- lar parts, of the dominions of the House of Austria. Above all, Charles Elector of Bavaria gave himself out as the rightful heir, and his claim was supported by France. Meanwhile Frederick the Second of Prussia^ commonly called Frederick the Great, who had just succeeded his father Frederick William, and had in- herited from him a well-disciplined army, put forth a claim to ♦he greater part of the Duchy of Silesia, and presently took possession of it by force. The next year the French and Bavarians overran Austria ; and in 1742 the Elector of Bavaria was elected Emperor as Charles the Seventh. Maria Theresa had now to take refuge in Hungary, where, notwithstanding all that CiC Hungarians had suffered from her predecessors, she found great zeal in her cause. Presently England and Sardinia came to her help, and the war went on in Germany till 1745, when Charles the Seventh died, and Maria Theresa's husband Francis was elected Emperor. From this time she was called the Empress- Queen, being Queen of Hungary in her own right and Empress as wife of the Emperor Francis. The war went on between the Empress-Queen, England, and the United Provinces on one side, and France and Spain on the other, till 1748, when Silesia was formally XVO WARS OF AUSTRIA AND PRUSSIA. 331 given up to the King of Prussia. It was under Fred- erick the Great that Prussia, the growth of which had begi.n under the Great Elector, rose to be one of the chief powers of Europe. He was a philosopher and writer, and, when he was not at war, he did much to make things better within his kingdom. But there was a good deal more fighting to come before the end of his reign, for in 1 756 another war broke out between him and the Empress-Queen. This was called the Seven Years' War, Now things turned about, for not only Russia, Poland, and Sweden, but even France was on the Austrian side, and Frederick was siinrounded by enemies and left alone on the continent. England however joined him, and in 1762 Peter the Third of Russia, who was a great admirer of Frederick, changed sides. The way in which Frederick bore up for so long against so many enemies was one of the greatest triumphs of military skill on record. There was another smaller war in Germany in 1777 about the succession of Bavaria, between Frederick and the Emperor Joseph the Sc'-odd, Joseph had bepii elected King of the Roma..' in f'i^A-) and he succeeded his father in 1765, being a.oj rr^de by his mother fellow-sovereign of her hereditary dominions. In 1780 Maria Theresa died, and Joseph reigned alone. Joseph had great schemes of reform in all his dominions, but he was too fond of putting everything to rights according to his own notions, without regard to the old laws of his different kingdoms, so that in the end he did more harm than good. In this way he tried to sweep away all the old institutions of Hungary, but just before his death in 1790 he restored them. He was succeeded by his brother, Leopold the Second, and he in 1792 by the last Emperor, Fi-ancis tJie Second. By th's time quite a new state of things was beginning throughout Europe. 4. Great Britain. — For a great part of this time during which Great Britain was so much mixed y Vl:^ 'km 't) 332 THE RISE OF RUSSIA, [CHA?. Up with the affairs of the continent, she had herself a foreign King. George the First could not even speak English, and he thought much more of .lis Electorate than of his Kingdom. The same may be said of George the Second also, though he had got so far as to speak English. Thus England got mixed up in several wars with w^ich she had not much to do. At the beginning of George the First's reign, Lewis the Fourteenth, just before his death, abetted an attempt made in 17 15 by the son of James the Second, who called himself James the Third, to win the crowns of England and Scotland, for of course he did not acknowledge the Union of the two kingdoms. This attempt failed, and England was on good terms, and even in alliance, with the Duke of Orleans, who was Regent for the young King Lewis the Fifteenth, This was the time when England joined with France and the Emperor Charles to withstand Spain. This time England really was threatened, for Spain now took up the cause of the Pretender, as did Charles of Sweden, who was angry because the King^ of Great Britain, as Elector of Hanover, had got his possessions in north- western Germany. In George the Second's reign we had another war with Spain, which began in 1739, and which was forced on the King and his Minister, Sir Robert Walpole^ by the general wish of the people, who were stirred up by tales of wrongs done to English- men b> the Spaniards in America. But little came of this war, except some additions to geographical knowledge in the shape of the famous voyages of Lord Anson, Then, from 1741 to 1748, England plunged into a war on the continent about a matter with which she had nothing to do at all, namely the war of the Austrian Succession, in which, as we have seen England took the side of the Queen of Hungary, and France that of the King of Prussia and the Emperor Charles the Seventh. Nothing came of this war either, as the English and French gave back their XV.] WARS OF ENGLAND, 333 conquests to each other at the end of it; but it should be remembered that in 1745 the son of the old Pretender, Charles Edward, with French help, made an attempt to gain the British crowns for his father. Scotland he actually did hold for a while, and he kept court at Edinburgh and even held Carlisle, but this rebellion was quelled, like the earlier one, at the Battle of Culloden. Then a war with France arose out of the quarrels between the colonists of the two nations in America, and this war got mixed up with the Seven Years' War in Germany. The war, as far as England was concerned, was chiefly waged by sea and in America; and under the administration oi Mr, Pitt, afterwards Earl of Chatham, many victories and con- quests were made, especially in the year 1759. The war went on into the reign of George the Third, which began in 1760, and it was ended in 1763 by the Peace of Paris y by which England got back much that had been lost by the war, and greatly enlarged her American possessions. But presently, in the reign of George the Third, the greater part of those possessions were lost altogether. An attempt to impose taxes on the colonists led to resistance. The thirteen colonies, from New England to Georgia, revolted, and in 1776 they declared themselves independent, and thus made the beginning of the great Federal Republic of the United States, The French stepped in during the war to help the colonists, and they were presently joined by Spain and the United Provinces ; and, when peace was made in 1783, Great Britain had to ac- knowledge the independence of the States and to give back Minorca to Spain. But Gibraltar, our other Spanish possession, was kept, and its defence during this war against the forces of France and Spain is one of the exploits of which Englishmen are most proud. In 1782 Ireland, which had hitherto been a kingdom dependent, first on England and then on Great Brita^in, became independent, ;.he two kingdoms of Y 2 '/I * 1 \ ' "1 I ■^ I "^ !, ,' it* ^ tl , I mi'"' su THE RISE OF RUSSIA. [chap. Great Britain and Ireland now having the same King, but distinct and independent Parliaments. It wa& also during this time that the English power vasdy extended itself in India, but that will be better spoken of in a separate section. During all these wars Great Britain commonly kept herself to her position as an insular power. She made no attempt at winning continental dominion, as she had done in the times of the old w?rs with France. ^ler ^ \\y outlying pos- sessions ill Europe wtv Gibvalvay ani Minorca; on the other hand, though for igi pow rs gave help to pretenders to the British Crown, there as no serious attempt on the part of any enemy to get possession of any part of the British islands. The true object of these wars was dominion in distant parts of the world, and the great gains and losses of England and France were not made in Europe, but in America and India. It marks quite a new state of things that this should be so. Europe had now ceased to be the only world of European nations. The great maritime powers held dominions in the East and West greater than they possessed at home; and the colonies which England lost have grown into a great English-speaking nation in the New World. 5. France. — The long reign of Lewis the Four- teenth was followed by the reig. , nearly as long, of his great-grandson Lewis the Fifteenth, who also came to the crown in his childhood, and reigned till 1774. Lewis the Fourteenth, with all that is to be said against him both as a man and as a King, was at least a ruler with a strong will, who had objects, and who largely carried those objects out. But Lewis the Fifteenth, though not without capacity, wilfully gave himself up to vice and idleness and the dominion of unworthy favourites. Yet France, as we have already seen, kept up her position as a great power throughout his reign, and she even gained some increase of territory. We have already seen how ^Tance took a xy.l LORRAmE AND CORSICA. »% leading part in all the chief wars of this time— how, except in the first war, she was always in alliance with Spain, nd opposed to Euqland, and how her wars with L ^land were maiuly carried on by sea, and among ne colonial possessions of t' e two countries. In Eir. jpe France extended herself in two places during -his cime, namely in Lorraine^ where the Dtichj, which had 1 jen given to King Stanislaus for life and which had greatly flourished under him, v/as joined to France at his death in 1766. And, as by this time nearly the whole of Elsass had been annexed bit by bit, the lands which France had taken from the Empire since the first seizure of the Three Bishopricks now formed a Uige and compact territory. The other gain of France at this time was in quite another part of Europe, namely the Italian island of Corsica. This had been ior a long time subject to the common- wealth of Genoa. But the Genoese government was oppressive, and the Corsicans revolted more than once. Their chief leaders were the two FaoHy father and son, of whom the second is by far the better known. The Genoese called in the French to help them, and at last, in 1768, they gave up their rights to France, and the French presently conquered the island. These annexations happened during the reign of Lewis the Fifteenth, during which time the internal state of the kingdom was getting worse and worse. His grandson Lewis the Sixteenth tried to make things better as well ac he could; but he was quite unfit for such a task, and he had in the end to suffer for the misgovernment of his forefathers, and for the despotism under which they had brought their Dwn kingdom and so many lands which they had added to it. 6. Spain. — We have already seen that Spain under the new Bourbon dynasty, showed, perhaps because her dominions were now so much smaller, 1 HI!' ■mc "^5 r'Bf r, y i 1 : I ,.)! 326 THE RISE OF RUSSIA. [chap. much more of life than she had shown during the latter part of the seventeenth century. This was shown both in a marked improvement in her govern- ment at home and in a vast advance in her European position. If her attempts to win back her lost terri- tory failed, she was able to set up Spanish princes on more than one throne in Italy. In the time of Alberoni we have seen that France and England were united against Spain ; in the later wars it was the other way, and the Bourbon kingdoms of France and Spain were united, by what was called the Family Compact^ against England and the allies of England on the continent. Presently they both set upon Portugal., as being an ally of England. The reigning King of Portugal was Joseph, who had an able minister called the Marquess of Pombal, By the brave resistance of the Portuguese and the help of the English, the French and Spanish invaders were driven back. D -ng this period the Jesuits were driven out of both Spain and Portugal, having been found, as they were in most countries, to be dangerous to the civil power. 7. Italy. — During this period Italy again gained some show of independence as compared with its state in the seventeenth century. It still formed a collection of distinct principalities and common- wealths, of which the commonwealths were oligarchies and the principalities despotisms, and most of the princes were members of foreign royal families. Little room was thus left for any real national feeling. Still the whole country was not utterly under the power of one foreign King, as it had been in the days of the Spanish dominion. On the other hand, the commonwealth of Venice, which had done such great things in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, seemed to lose all strength and life after the loss of Peloponnesos. For a moment indeed after the Peace of Utrecht, and still more after the exchange of Sicily ■">*»«w*!»tev ' from a very low position in Europe to a very great one. His policy was carried on by his widow Cat/ia- rine, who succeeded him in 1725 : for the crown of Russia passed, like the old Roman Empire, sometimes by will and sometimes by revolution, without any very certain rule of succession. During the greater part of the eighteenth century the throne was filled by women, Anne the niece of Peter, Elizabeth his daughter, and lastly Catharine the Second^ who succeeded in 1762 by the murder of her husband Peter the Third, and reigned till 1 796. With some checks, Azofiox instance being twice or thrice lost and won again in the wars with the Turks, Russia, notwithstanding its internal revolutions, went on advancing in the face of other nations. Under Catharine the Second the great con- quest of Crim Tartary or Crimea was made. Russia now got rid of the last trace of the oldTartar dominion, and she again had free access to the Euxine, as when Russian fleets threatened Constantinople in the ninth and tenth centuries. This conquest on the part of Russia was very much like the conquest of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabel. But the chief advance of Russia towards Western Europ ^ was made by her share in the successive partitions of Poland. The internal govern- ment of that country was so bad, both the King and the people being subject to a tumultuous nobility, that the state grew weaker and weaker. The last two Kings, Augustus Elector of Saxony, son of Augustus the Strong, and Stanislaus Poiiatowski, a native Pole, were forced on the country by Russia, axid attempts at % :l I. *J to it) WW M ^'■l -If- 'J (.^ % 'mi :i|i! : ^*' 330 THE RISE OF RUSSIA. [CHA^. internal reform, as being likely to make the kingdom stronger, were always checked. At last, in 1772, the Empress Catharine of Russia, Frederick the Great of Prussia, and the Empress-Queen, as Queen of Hungary — though the last very unwillingly — ^joined together to partitmi Poland, each taking certain provinces. In 1793 another partition was made by Russia and Prussia only, and in 1795 Pcland was altogether destroyed as an independent nation, and its remaining territory was divided among its three neigh- bours. What was then understood by Poland took in both the old Kingdom of Poland, the Duchy of Lithuania, and the Russian provinces which were held by Poland. Of this, Russia got back most of her old territory, and she took also the greater part of Lithuania. Prussia took West Prussia, the greater part of old Poland, and a small part of Lithuania. Austria or Hungary (whichever we are to call it) took the rest of old Poland, and some territory which had been P.ussian. In the Russian provinces the mass of the people were still Russian, and they had often suffered persecution from Poland for cleaving to the Eastern Church. This however does not justfy the breaoh of the law of nations, and the other two powers, which divided Poland it- self, had not even thus much of excuse to make. By this partition, Russia, which had hitherto stood on the coafines of Europe, ^tras brought into the middle of the continent and into the thick of European affairs. 9. Northern Europe. — During this time the Scandinavian Kmgdoms, especially Sweden, were of much less account tlian they had been in the period before it. Neither of them now took much share in the general affairs of Europe. Sweden had had more than one war with Russia, and in 1743 she had to give up the district called Carelia on th^ Gulf of Finland, and this time without gaining any territory to the West h ^v.) PARTlTIOtf OF POLAI^D. XJ« 1) •;; The history of the country is mainly remarkable for its internal revolutions. After the changes of 1720 the government became almost wholly aristocratic ; but in 1772 the royal power was set up again. In Denmark meanwhile the government remained an absolute monarchy, but the country was on the whole well governed and prosperous, and its naval power especially was greatly increased. During this time too the ever-shifting Duchies of Sleswick and Holstein were at last wholly united with the Danish Crown. Holstein was held as a fief of the Empire, while Sleswick was not. 10. The Netherlands.—During this time those provinces of the Netherlands which had belonged to Spain were held by th*' House of Austria, while the Seven United Provinces remained independent ; but, like Sweden, their importance in Europe in the eigh- teenth century was very much less than it had been in the seventeenth. In the war of the Austrian Succession, the United Provinces supported the Queen of Hungary, and the Austrian prov nces were overrun by the French. But when, in 1 747, the Dutch territory also was invaded, a change in the internal constitution followed, by which the Prince of Orange, William the Fourth^ was made hereditary Stadholder. His own piincipaiity cf Orange had before this been annexed by France. During the war between England and France which arose out of the revolt of the American colonies, there was a short war between England and the United Provinces, but both the grounds of quarrel and the terms of peace had almost wholly to do with the colonial possessions of the two countries. Presently there were disturbances in the country and dis- satisfaction with the Stadholder, William the Fifths which gave both the King of Prussia and the Emperor Joseph the Second excuses for interfering. By the end of this time, about 1790, the United Provinces had sunk into utter in^iignilioance, being almost wholly . "1. ''-?«[ I ! ^Si The kfsB Of Russia, tcHA^. under the control of Prussia. In the Austrian Nether- lands also the changes made by Joseph the Second led to revolts. II. The Turks. — The power of the Turks durii^ this time had altogether ceased to be dreaded by Christian nations. The advances C£ Russia during this time form the greater part of lb j European history of Turkey, but it was not till the reign of Catharine the Second that the advantage set steadily in on the Russian side, and in the early part of the period Turkey was decidedly successful on the side of Austria. During the reign of Mahnimid the First, who reigned from 1730 to 1754, in a war which began in 1737, the Turks, by the Peace of Belgrade in 1739, recovered from Austria the city of Belgrade, and all that had been given up by the P ace of Passarowitz. And by this treaty Russia was not to keep any fleet in the Black Sea. But in the war between Catharine the Second and Mustapha the Third, which began in 1769, the advantages were wholly on the Russian side. The loss of territory by Turkey during the reign of Catharine was great. By the Peace of Kai- nardji, in 1774, the Sultans gave up their superiority over the Tartar Khans of Crimea. The Khan was then recognized as an independent power, but the country was soon afterwards conquered by Russia. By the next war, which was ended by the Treaty of /assy in 1792, the Turkish frontier fell back to the Dniester. But still more important than these losses of territory was the system of interference in the internal concems of the Sultan's dominions which went on from this time on the part of Russia. As the Turkish government grew weaker, and as the tribute of children was no longer levied, the ''Christian nations, Greeks, Slaves, and others, which were under the Turkish yoke, jjegan to revolt whenever they had a chance. In so doing they were always encouraged by Russia, though they seldom really gained anything ^v XV.] RUSSIA AND TURKEY, 333 Russian meddling in their affairs. Still this tendency of the Christian nations to revolt, and the encourage- ment given to these revolts by Russia, all mark the beginning of a new state of things in Eastern Europe, and one which is going on still. It should specially be noticed that by the treaty of Kainardji Russia ob- tained certain rights of interference in the Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia^ which were under the superiority of the Sultans, without forming part of their immediate dominions. In these wars, Russia, which sixty years before had had no Euro- pean haven except on the White Sea, was able to send fleets into the Mediterranean. She was now fully established, not only as one of the chief powers of Europe, but as the ruling power in the south-east as well as in the north-east. The Eastern Church, which had been so long kept down under Mahometan bond- age, now again begins to be of importance, as being the religion both of the greater part of the Christian subjects of the Turks, and also of Russia which pro- fessed to be their defender. 12. The English Power in India. — It was in the course of this period that the great English dominion in India grew up out of the mercantile settlements of the East India Company. But this was not till after a hard struggle with the French, who at one time seemed likely to gain the greatest power in the pe*:in.;ula. In 1746, during the war of the Austrian Succession in Europe, Labour donnais, the French governor of Mauritius, seized Madras^ which was kept till the end of the war. But mean- while Dupleix^ the governor of Pondicherry^ the chief French settlement in India, formed great schemes of Fretich dominion in the East, and wars went on be- tween the French and the English in India, under cover of supporting different native princes. These wars did not stop even when France and England were at peace, in the time between the two wars of rfiiiif 1' T t I I f ■if '; t 314 T/TB RISE OF RUSSIA. [chap the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War. In 1756 the English settlement at Calcutta was taken by Suraj-ad-dowla^ the Nabob of Bengal^ one of the princes who owed a nominal vassalage to the Great Mogul. Now it was that many Englishmen died in what was called the Black Hole, But now came the great advance of the English power under Clive^ and the battle of Plassy in 1757, in which the Nabob, with a vast native army and with a small body of French auxiliaries, was utterly overthrown by Clive's little army of English and of natives under English discipline. This battle laid the real foundation of the English dominion in India. But the war with France still went on in Southern India with varying success till the Peace of 1763, when Pondicherry^ which had been taken by the English, was restored to the French. Since then it has been comnionly taken and given back Wiienever there has been any ^var between England and France. But neither the French power in India nor that of any other European nation has, since the days of Clive, been able to stand up against that of England. Since that time the English dealings with India have been much like those of ancient Rome in the Mediterranean lands. One state after another has first become dependent and then has been incor- porated, just as when a kingdom or comrr^onweaith was made a Roma.i province. It must be remembered that all this time the English dominion in India was not in the hands of the King's Govemuientj but was still in those of the Company. It was only in / 784 that the affairs of India were at all brought into the hands of the Home Government by the institution of the Board r Control^ a body acting in the King's name, to control in r jrtam cases the management a../. After Clive, the most famous name in the hitter)/ oi r?r?f sU India vis that of the Governor- General Vy-irrcu Hastings^ who was impeached and tried befi re Va House of Lords on various charges of li XV.] THE UNITED STATES. 335 oppression and misgovemment, and was acquitted after a trial which lasted many years. 13. Tiio Independence of the United States. — Georgia y. as the larl English colony that was founded in North America during this time. The English colonies lay wholly along the easc coast ; the French possessions in Canada and Louisiana hemmed them in to the north and west, and the Spanish colony of Florida to the south. The colonies of the different European nations took a large share in the several wars of the century. In 1759 Canada was conquered by the English troops, British and colonial ; this war was memorable for the victory and death of General Wolf e ?X Quebec, A laige French-speaking population in Canada was thus handed over to EngUsh rule, and the French settlements now no longer stood in the way of the growth of the English colonics to the west. By the samfe trea,iy of 1763 Florida Wcis given up by Spain to England, and Louisiana wi s divided between England and Spahi, the Mississippi being the bound- ary. The French were thus quite f tiut out of North America. Then came the attempt on the part of Great Britain to tax the colonies, thuir revolt, and the assistance given them by France, aid afterwards by Spain. When the colonies in 1776 declared them- selves independent, each colony formed an independ- ent State, joined together only by a very lax Confede- ration. But, when the war was over, a closer union was found necessary, and in 1789 the constitution of the United States of America, as a perfectly organized Federal commonwealth, remarkably like the consti- t'ltion of the Achaiari League in old times, was fully established. Each State kept its independence in its own affairs, but the Union formed one nation in all dealings with other powers. The first President of the new commonwealth was George Washington^ who had been the great leader of the colonists during the war. This constitution was gradually accepted by all the i\ mi m\\ I ! !■ ■ t(^' 336 THE RISE OF RUSSIA, [CHA». States. By the treaty of 1 783 Florida was given back to Spain, and the late British conquest of Canada, with the colonies of Nemt Brunsimcky Nova Scotia^ and N^'wfoimdlaiid^ remained part of the British dominions. The States were thus hemmed in to the north, and for a while to the south also ; but they had free power of growth to .the west, where new settlements were quickl}' founded and were admitted into the Union as independent Slates on the same terms as the first thirteen. 14. Summary. — The greatest events during this period are thus to be found in the furthest parts of the civilized world. The rise of Russia in Eastern Europe, the foundation of the English dominion in India, and the establishment of the United States in America, are the three greatest events of the time. They are more than mere common conquests or acquisitions of terri- tory. Each one of them is the real beginning of a new state of things. The English now fairly took their place as the leading people of the earth in coloni- zation and distant dominion. The British Empire in India is the greatest example of distant dominion, as distinguished from proper colonization, on the part of any European power ; and the establishment of the United States as an independent power has given to a people of English birth and speech the means of growing to far greater extent and power than they could have done if they had remained dependent on the mother country. Geographical knowledge was also greatly increased by the more thorough survey of the islands of the Eastern Ocean, including the vast island, or rather continent, of Australia^ which just at the end of the period with which we are now dealing, opened another field for English colonization. France was now altogether driven out of the world of distant dominion, and the other colonizing powers, Spain, Portugal, and Holland, could at most keep what they had got. None of tlie changes which happened in •^li ing this ts of the Europe, idia, and irica, are are more 1 of terri- of a new >ok their n coloni- ,mpire in inion, as e part of X of the given to eans of they Indent on |dge was [survey of the vast ;h just at dealing, France ,f distant , Spain, hat they lened in xv.] SUMMAK V. 337 Western Europe at this time were at all on the same scale as these, for the gains and losses of the mari- time powers had been made much less in Europe than in their distant i)ossessions. In Europe, the three Western powers, England, France, and Spain, kept nearly the same i)osition at the end of the i)eriod which they had held at the beginning. The United Pro- vinces and the Scandinavian kingdoms had fallen from their momentary greatness, and Italy hardly existed, except as the battle-field for other powers, and as a land in which the younger branches of ruling families might be provided for. But the House of Savoy was still pushing its way, and it gained some increase of territory by nearly every fresh treaty of peace. But in Eastern Europe the advance of Russia, at once against Sweden, Poland, and Turkey, the way in which, from having been cooped up inland, she made lier way ir*.^ both the Baltic and the Mediterranean, and becai* o a great and even threatening power, was the greatest European change cr the time. Eussia, after having been thrown back for so many ages, at last won the place which she had tried to win when she at- tacked Constantinople in the old times. Pier advance is also remarkable as bringing into prominence a race and a religion which had long been kept in the back- ground. The Slavonic nations with whom we have hitherto had most to do, tlie Poles, Bohemians, and others, belonged to the Western Church, and were more or less closely connected with the Western Empire. But with the rise of Russia, a Slavonic country which got its Christianity and civilization wholly from Constantinople, both the Slavonic race and the Eastern Church again rise into special im- portance. And so in some sort does the Eastern Empire also, by means of the influence which the Russian princes, as the most powerful princes of the Eastern Church, were able to exercise on those Qations of their own Church, both Greek and Slavonic^ 33S THE RISE OF RUSSIA. [CHAF. which were still in bondage to the Turks. The ad- vance of Prussia during the same time was very important, but it was not so important as this. The change was not so sudden, and it was not so great in itself. A new German power came to the front in Germany, and it has gradually grown to be the head of Germany, much in the same way as Wessex grew in England, Castile in Spain, and France in Gaul But its rise did not, like the rise of Russia, bring a race and a religion from the background to the front. The partition of Poland, in which Russia and Prussia had the chief share, stands pretty well by itself in history ; disputed and tributary dominions have often been divided between several claimants, but there is no other case of a great and independent country being cut up in this way among its neighbours. These political changes and the rise of these new^ powers weit ery great events in themselves, and they were also closely connected with the stir in men's minds which went on during this time. During the eighteenth century men were speculating on religion, government, and society r a more daring way than they had ever speculatec! on so great a scale before. French and French speaking writers, Voltaire, Rousseau, and others, were leaning on men's minds towards that general crash of existing things, good and bad to- gether, which marks the next period in so large a part of Europe. And rulers like the Emperor Joseph, Frederick of Prussia, and Catharine of Russia helped to the same end. For, though they ruled as absolute princes, yet the great changes which they made, both good and bad, tended to unsettle men's minds, and to make them more ready to break with the past alto- gether. This whole iieriod then .vas one of ^^ery great importance, but it was mainly in the way of pre- paration for what was coming. It was a time of great advance in both physical and moral science, and one of great mechanical discovery, But m most branches XVI.] SVMAf/IRY, 339 of art, learning, and original composition the eight- teenth century was below either the times before or the times after it. It seemo*.' as if the world needed to be stirred up by some such general crash as was now near at haiid. Ilif il CHAPTER XVI. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. Character of the thne (i) — reign of Leivis the Sixteenth; the States-General of lySgy they become the National Assembly (2) — Constitution of 1790/ abolition of mon- archy ; National Convention; execution of the King (2) — Reign of Terror; Robespierre ^ establishment of the Directory {2)— foreign wars of the Republic; rise of Napoleon Bitonaparte (2) — annexations in Germany y Italy y and the Netherlands ; wars in Switzerland and Egypt (2) — Buonaparte seizes the chief power as Coil" sul; character of his rule; t7'eaties of Luneville and Amiens (2, 3) — Buonaparte calls himself Emperor of the French and King of Italy (3) — conquests of Buona- parte; his dependent kings (3) — he invades Russia; liberation of Germany iS) f^^^ ^/ Buo7iapa7'te ; his return from Elba; battle of Waterloo ; his final over- throw{'^ — effects of the French Revolution ir Gt miany; abolition of the Empire ; title of Emperor of Austria; the new Kings; the Confederation of the Rniite {^) — B'uonaparte's victories over Prussia and Austria ; greatest extent of Buonaparte's domiiiion in Germany (5) — formation of the German Confederation (5) — changes iii Italy; its resettlement at the Peace (6) — dealifigs of Buonaparte with Spain; Joseph Buona- parte made King; campaigns of the Duke of Welling" t^:i; returii of Ferdinand the Seventh (7) — King John of Portugal goes to Brazil; liberation of Portugal (7) — changes i7i the Netherlands ; union of the whole Netherlands into one Kingdom (8) — the French in 1 \ ' ' 'i »^b THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. [CHA^. Swit::crl(tndj- i he Helvetic Republic j the Act of Medi- ation j formation of the Siuiss Confederation (9) — share of England in the (general War; bombardment of Copenhagen (10) — rebellion in Ireland ; Union oj Great Britain and Ireland {\o) — war with the United States; settlement at the Peace (10) — Russian conquest of Finland; election of Bernadottc in Sweden; union of Sweden and Norway {\\)— affairs of Denmark (11) — reigns of Paul and A lexander in Russia ( 1 2) — Peace of Tilsit; wars with Sweden^ Turkey^ and Persia (12) French invasion of Russia; Kingdom of Poland united with Russia (12) — decay of tfie Turkish Empire; in- dependence if Servia^ ^^yPl^ ^''^ other provinces; Turkish wars with France and Russia; accession of [vlahmoud (13) — English conquests in India; coloniza- tion of Australia (14) — revolutions of Hayti (14)— growth of the United States; purchase of Louisiajia; abolition of slavery in the Northern States (15)— Summary (16). I. Character of the Time. — We have now come, we may almost say, to our own times, to times which a few old people still living can remember. And these times are so full of matter that it would be vain to try to do more here than to point out the general effect which the events which then happened had on the relations of the states of Europe to one another. It was a time which saw such an upsetting of the existing state of things everywhere as had never hap- pened before in so short a space of time. The centre of everything during this time is France; and in France at this time men did what had never been done before; that is, they went on the fixed principle of changing every diing, whether it were good or bad, wherever their power reached, both in their own country and elsewhere. There was a general change of everything, often out of a mere love of change, and there was in particular a silly way of imitating old Greek and Roman ways and names, even when they were nothing to the purpose. But in this general crash the evil of ^S-^""*!****,,- l*^ %yi.] THE FRENCH REPUBLIC, 341 the older times was largely swept away as well as the good, and means were at least given for a better state of things to begin in our own time. 2. The French Republic— The events of the French Revolution must be told in the special History of France. It is enough to say here that Lewis the Sixteenth^ the grandson of Lewis the Fifteenth, who succeeded him in 1774, had to pay the penalty of the misgovern ment of so many Kings who had gone before him, and above all of the last two. Now that there was such a spirit of thought and speculation about in the world, men could no longer bear the abuses of the old French system of government, the absolute power of the King and the monstrous privi- leges of the nobles and clergy. The finances of the country too were in utter disorder, and generally there was need of reform i^i everything. Lewis the Sixteenth, an honest and well-intentioned man, but not strong enough for the place in which he foifnd himself, tried hard to make things better, though perhaps not always in the wisest way. At last, in 1789, \hQ States- General were called together, which had not met since 1 614. They were presently changed into a National Asstmbly^ which made the greatest changes in every- thing, abolishing all the old privileges, and giving all things as it were a fresh start. Among other things, they wiped out the old provinces, so many of which had once been independent states, and divided the whole country into departments, called in a new-fashioned way after rivers and mountains. The small part of Elsass which remained independent, and the territories of Venaissin and Avignon in the old Kingdom of Bur- gundy, which belonged to the Popes, were now finally swallowed up by France. Then came a time of great confusion and rapid changes. In 1790 a new consti- tution was made, by which the King's power was made very small indeed, and the old title of King of the French was revived. In 1 7 9 2 monarchy was abolished, i ■u Ml ; 1 I -■• ,1' ' :. « . M :l IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // ^ >. c?. {•/ ** 1.0 1.1 ItilM 125 2.0 HI I U I u 1*0 L8 |I.25|U,,.6 . < ^ 6" ► Hiotographic Sdences Corporalion ^\ iV ^ •SJ <> V 4^ •«^^V 23 WST MAIN STRfET WEBSTER, N.Y. MSM (716)372-4503 ■^ 5r 34S THE FRENCH REVOLUTION, [CHAP. and France became a Republic under the National Convention; in the next year the King was beheaded, and religion and everything else was swept away. Now came the Reign of Terror ; one party after another as it rose to power put its enemies to death. Among the men who had the chief hand in this general destruc- tion was the famous Robespierre, He was a native of Arras in Artois, but, owing to the conquests of Lewis the Fourteenth in the Netherlands, his country was now French. But, before long, a time of rather more quiet began under the Directory, Meanwhile France was at war with many of the powers of Europe ; for Kings beg?in to be afraid of the example* of France spreading. In 1790 war began with the Emperor and the King of Prussia, and, directly after the King's beheading in 1793, war was declared against England also. Thus began the long Wars of the French Revolu- tion, in which every part of Europe had a share at one time or another, and which went on, with some Stoppages, till 1815. The first part of the war may be looked on as lasting till 1797. It went on in the Austrian Netherlands, along the Rhine, and in Italy, and it was in the Italian part of the war that Napoleon Buonaparte began to make himself famous. He too, like Robespierre, was a Frenchman only through the annexations of France, being an Italian of Corsica who had to learn the French language. His victories in Italy forced the Emperor Francis to give up the Austrian Netherlands to France, and Piedmont and Savoy were also annexed. This was the way in which things went on during the whole time ; sometimes terri- tories were actually added to France ; sometimes they were made into separate states, nominal republics, which were altogether dependent on France. But for the old republics of Europe, whether aristocratic or democratic, no more respect was shown than for Popes or Kings. As the Emperor had given up so large a territory to France, that he might get something in 3CVI.] RISE OF BUONAPARTE, 343 exchange, he joined the French in destroying the ancient commonwealth of Venice, and they divided its dominions between them. France wished to get power in the east of Europe, and therefore took the Ionian Islands as part of her share. Then, in 1798, Buonaparte planned an expedition to Egypt, and, to get money, the Directory attacked Switzerland, be- cause Bern was known to have a large treasure. Pre- sently, in 1 799, another war began against the Emperor, who was helped by Russia ; this war chiefly went on in Switzerland. At home the Directory greatly mis- managed things, and, when Buonaparte came back the same year, he was easily able to upset it and to take all power into his own hands. An old Greek would have said that he made himself Tyrant; but, after the fashion of calling everything by Eoman names, he first called himself Consul and then Emperor; he had a Senate and what not, being in truth a still more absolute ruler than ever Lewis the Fourteenth had been. 3'. Napoleon Buonaparte. — Buonaparte was now master of France, and he came nearer to being master of Europe than any other one man had done before. For fifteen years the whole continent was in confiision. Kings and kingdoms being set up and put down again pretty much as it pleased him. But in France itself, though his rule was altogether despotic, and though in the end he made himself hateful by draining all the resources of the country for his endless wars, 5iere can be no doubt that the land gained by having a time of quiet after the disorders of the Revolution. He re- stored the Christian religion, and, like Justinian, put out a code of laws for his dominions. During the time when he called himself Consul, peace was made with the Empire at Luneville in 180 1, and with England Kt Amiens in 1802. By the former peace all Germany left of the Rhine was given up to France. The Rhine was in the Roman times the boundary between inde- pendent Germany and the Roman province of Gaul; S44 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION, [chap. xvi. but the modem kingdom of France had never come anywhere near the Rhine till the annexations began in Elsass. But now France got the Rhine frontier from Basel to its mouth, or we might say, from its source to its mouth ; for Switzerland was now merely a French dependency. In 1804 Buonaparte called himself Emperor of the French^ and he crowned himself at Paris, having sent for the Pope to anoint him. In this his object was to give himself out as the successor of Charles the Great, not merely as the successor of any of the local Kings of France. For it was of course part of his plan that men should look, as Frenchmen commonly do, on the great German Emperor as a Frenchman. It shows how thoroughly the old notion of the Empire had died out, when such a pretence could, have any effect on men's minds. Since Buona- parte's time the title of Emperor^ which once meant so much, has ceased to have any particular meaning. Everybody that chooses now calls himself an Emperor; the title has even been borne by several adventurers in Mexico and the West Indies. But, besides calling himself Emperor of the French, Buonaparte made part of Northern Italy into a kingdom, and called himself King of Italy in imitation of the old Emperors. No King of Italy had been crowned since the Emperor Charles the Fifth was crowned at Bologna, but now Buonaparte was crowned again the next year at Milan. Before he had taken up these titles, he was again at war with England, and he planned an invasion of our island, which he never carried out. For the power of France by sea was broken by the English under Lord Nelson at the great battle of Trafalgar. From this time Buonaparte did much as he pleased by land, but the smallest arm of the sea stopped him everywhere. Meanwhile his great land campaigns spread with little stoppage over the years from 1805 to 1809. He now brought the greater part of Western Europe more or less under his power. He set up his S46 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION, [CRAIP. brothers and other dependents as Kings of Spain, NajtleSy Holland, and elsewhere, and he moved them from one kingdom to another, or joined their dominions on to France, just as he thought good. He cut short the dominions both of Prussia and Austria, and made himself really master of the rest of Germany, joining what he pleased to France, and calling himself -Pr^/^^/^r of the rest. In 1811 his power stood at its height. What he called the French Empire took in France with all its old conquests, Germany west of the Rhine, the Netherlands and the United Provinces, and North-west Germany also, so that the French frontier took in Hamburg and Liibeck, and reached to the Baltic. At the other end it took in all Western Italy, including Rome ; the rest belonged to the Kingdom of Italy ^ of which Buonaparte called himself King. Beyond the Hadriatic a large territory made up of the former possessions of Austria and Venice and the Republic of Ragusa was also part of the French Empire. The Kingdom of Naples was held by his brother-in-law y^^dJ^i^/w Murat^ but Sicily and Sardinia were still held by their own Kings, because they were islands, and the British fleet could help them. Denmark was his ally, and Spain was under his brother. But presently deliverance began to come from two quarters. In 181 2 Buonaparte thought good to invade Russia, but the climate fought against him as well as the people, and he had to come back the next year, for the first time, utterly discom- fited. The next year, 18 13, Germany began to rise against him, rather by a common impulse of the people than by any act of the German governments. But Austria, Prussia, Sweden, and most of the smaller German states, gradually joined against him. Germany was now set free in the great battle oi Leipzig. Mean- while, ever since 1 808, when Joseph Buonqpartehsidbeen sent to be King of Spain, the British troops had been engaged in the deliverance of the peninsular kingdoms. Now it was that the Duke of Wellington won his greaj^ XVI.] FALL OF BUONAPARTE, 347 victories over several of Buonaparte's best generals. In 1814 the Allies entered France on both sides, the English from the south, the other powers from the east. Several battles were fought at both ends of the country. At last Paris was taken, Buonaparte abdi- cated, and he was allowed to hold the little island of Elba, keeping the title of Emperor. The French people were now quite weary of him, and they gladly welcomed the restoration of the old royal family in the person of the last King's brother, who called himself Lewis the Eighteenths But in the next year, 181 5, Buonaparte came back ; he was received by the army, and reigned again for a few months, till the Allies again gathered their forces, and he was overthrown for ever by the English and Prussians at Waterloo, He now abdicated again ; but this time he was not trusted to stay anywhere in Europe, but was kept in ward for the rest of his days in the island of Saint Heletia, a British possession in the Atlantic between Africa and America. The wars of the French Revolution were now over. By a series of treaties made at Paris and Vienna f the boundaries of the different states of Europe were settled afresh, and France had to give up die conquests which she had made during the republic and in the time of Buonaparte. The boundaries of the restored kingdom did not greatly differ from what they had been before the wars of the Revolution began. 4. The Fall of the Empire.— The part of Europe which, next to France itself, was most affected by the French Revolution was Germany. The changes in Italy were in themselves equally great, but Italy had already been partitioned out over and over again, while Germany had never before fallen under a foreign dominirn. It was during this time that the old state of things, and the old ideas which had lasted so long, came altogether to an end. The Roman Empire and the Kingdom of Germany were now abolished, even in name. First of all, as we have seen, the 348 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. [CHAP. Austrian Netherlands, which were now pretty well separated from the Empire, and all Germany west of the Rhine, including the three great archbishopricks of Mainz, Koln, and Tr/Vr, and the old royal city of Aachen, were all added to France. Meanwhile the princes who lost their dominions by the Peace of Luneville were allowed to make up for it at the cost of the bishopricks and free cities east of the Rhine, and a new electorate of Hesseti-Cassel was made, whose Elector, as it turned out, never had any one to elect. In 1804, as soon as Buonaparte began to call himself Emperor of the French, Francis the Second, King of Hungary and Archduke of Austria, being Emperor-elect of the Romans and King of Germany, began to call himself Hereditary Emperor of Austria, whatever that meant. And in 1805, after the war had begun again, and after the Austrians and Russians had lost the great battle of Austerlitz, the Emperor made a treaty with Buonaparte at Pressburg, which was drawn up between the Emperor of Germany and Austria and the Emperor of the French and King of Italy. It was time that the Empire should come to an end, when its chief had in this way forgotten who he was. And so it happened within two years. Many of the German princes had by this time joined Buonaparte. They declared themselves independent of the Empire, and they began to call themselves by higher titles, Kitig of Bavaria, King of WUrttemberg, and so forth. They then made themselves into the Confederation of the Rhine, which was put under the protection of Buonaparte, and they added to their dominions such of the remaining free cities and smaller principalities as they thought good. This was in 1806, and in the same year the Emperor Francis formally resigned the Empire altogether, and no Roman Emperor has since been chosen. Thus the old Kingdom of Germany, which had gone on ever since, the division of the dominions ot Charles the ltvi.1 THE END OF THE EMPIRE. 349 Great) and the Roman Empire, which had gone on in one shape or another ever since Augustus Caesar, came at last to an end. The Kingdom of Burgundy was now wholly forgotten, and sU of it was now either aiinexed to France or, being part of Switzerland, was quite under French influence. As for the third kingdom, that of Italy, we have seen that Buonaparte called himself King of it, though by the Treaty of Pressburg he promised that France and Italy should not be joined again after his time. Thus all traces of the old state of things passed away. But the former Emperor Francis still went on calling himself Emperor of Austria, and his successors in the Kingdom of Hungary, the Archduchy of Austria, and his other hereditsuy dominions, have gone on doing so ever since. 5. The Settlement of Germany. — The union of the German States, which had been so lax ever since the Peace of Westphalia, thus quite passed away. Buonaparte had now to deal with the separate states which had not submitted to him. Prussia had made a separate peace long before, and now, in 1806, the King Frederick William the Tliird made a league with France by which he obtained the Electorate of Hanover, which belonged to the King of Great Britain. But the yoke of the French alliance was too hard to bear, and a war broke out between France and Prussia, in which Prussia was supported by Saxony. Now came the great battle of Jena, in which the Prussians and their allies were utterly defeated. Saxony now gave way, and the Elector was made King, and joined the Confederation of the Rhine. In the next year Prussia was cut short at the Peace of Tilsit; her western dominions and some other districts were made into a Kingdom of Westphalia, of which Buona- parte made liis brother Jerome King, while the lands which Prussia had taken from Poland, except WeSi Prussia, were made into a Grand Duchy of Warsaw^ 350 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION, [chap, xvl which was given to the new King of Saxony. Austria meanwhile, having again ventured on war in 1809, was overthrown at Wagram, and had to yield her south-western dominions to France and Bavaria, being thus quite cut off from Italy and the Hadriatic. Lastly, North-western Germany, including the free cities of Lubeckf Bremen^ and Hamburgh was altogether joined on to France. To crown all, the German states were made to send men to help in Buonaparte's attack on Russia. Then, in 18 13, came the uprising of the German people, which the German govern- ments had to join one after another. And lastly, in 18 1 5, at the Congress of Vietinay the state of Germany was finally settled as it stayed till a few years bacL There was no longer an Emperor or a King of Ger- many; but the German princes and free cities, of which last four only, Lubeck, Bremen^ Hamburg^ and Frankfurt, were left, formed themselves by a lax Federal tie into the German Confederation. Many of the small states were swallowed up, and the boundaries of all were settled afresh. And it should be marked that several of the chief princes who were members of the Confederation joined it for parts of their do- minions, but not for all. Francis of Austria, who had been Emperor, and his successors, were to be Pre* sidents of the Confederation; they joined it for the Kingdom of Bohemia, the Archduchy of Austria, the County of Tyrol, &c., but not for the Kingdom of Hungary or their other dominions out of Germany. So the greater part of the Prussian dominions were within the Confederation, but the Kingdom of Prussia itself, that is, East Prussia and the Polish provinces, lay out of it. So too the Kings of Great Britain, Denmark, and the Netherlands — a new kingdom to be presently spoken of — were members of the Confede- ration for Hanover (which was now called a kingdom), Holstein and Lauenburg, and Luzelburg severally. The Genuan princes whom Buonaparte had set up as 35* THE FRENCH REVOLUTION, [CHAP. Kings, those of Bavaria, Wiirttcmberg, and Saxony, kept their titles ; but, as the King of Saxony had stuck to Buonaparte as long as he could, a large part of his kingdom was added to Prussia. All the princes promised free constitutions to their people, but most of them forgot to give them. 6. Italy. — Itab was as much tossed to and fro during these times as Germany. It is hardly worth while to mention all the little commonwealths and principalities which were set up and put down. The first conquests from Austria and Venice were made into the Cisalpine Republic^ which was afterwards changed into Buonaparte's Kingdom of Italy, A large part, at last taking in Rome itself, was, after many shiftings, a Ligurian Republic^ a Kingdom of Etruriay and what not, joined on to France, and the Pope, Pius the Seventh^ was got into Buonaparte's power. In the South, first Buonaparte's brother Joseph and then his brother-in-law Murat held the Kingdom of Napl|2S. When things were settled in 1 815, the princes who had lost their dominions came back again. The King of the Two Sicilies, who had all along kept the island, got back the continental kingdom also. So the King of Sardinia got back Piedmont and Savoy, and the Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the lesser principalities were set up again, and the Pope again held Rome and his old temporal dominions. But the commonwealths were not set up again. Lucca became a Duchy ; Genoa was joined on to Piedmont, and the Duchy of Milan and the Venetian dominions, which had changed their names so often, were made into the Kingdom of Lombardy and Venice, and joined on to Austria. Only little San Marino kept its freedom. Thus Germany and Italy both remained disunited, cut up among a number of absolute princes. But there was this difference between them : the German princes were Germans, and the country had a certain unity, however la3c, in tft) iTAiy, SPAm. ETC. tsi the Confederation. But Italy was altogether cut up. A large part was held by Austria and by the Pope, and the other Kings and Dukes were not real Italian princes, but all looked to Austria as their chief. Piedmont indeed was held by a native prince, but its government still was despotic. This was (he third time — under Charles the Fifth, under Charles the Sixth, and again under Francis the Second — that the House of Austria had the chief power in the Italian peninsula. 7. Spain and Portugal. — Under Charles the Thsrdf who had been King of the Two Sicilies, Spain went on greatly recovering herself, as she had done before under Philip the Fifth. In the reign of Charles the Fourth, under the administration of Godoy^ when the French Revolution began, Spain at first acted against France j but afterwards in 1796, she joined France against England and Portugd, as she did again when war broke forth once more in 1803. Buonaparte presently began to meddle in Spanish afiairs, and he caused the King to abdicate in 1807. He then moved his brother Joseph from Naples to Spain, but the patriotic Spaniards proclaimed Ferdi- nand the Seventh, the son of the late King, though he was actually in Buonaparte's hands. Then came the great struggle in which the French were finally driven out of the Peninsula by the English victories. In 18 1 4 the lawful King Ferdinand came back, but he overthrew the fi:ee constitution which had been made during his captivity, and reigned as an absolute monarch. Meanwhile Portugal, the old ally of Eng- land, was ovemm by the French, and John the Sixth, the King, or rather Regent for his mother Maria, left Portugal for the great Portuguese colony of Brazil^ where he went on reigning, and did not go back to Portugal till after the peace. The Portuguese at home meanwhile shared in the war of independence along with the English and Spaniards. A A iT-f-siriirtTTr ,';»■,:*■.■■"» j-'^(lvll;,f-,(,V.;>-i'.-*- Tv"- BS4 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. [CRAF 8. The Netherlands. — The Austrian Nether- fands, as we have seen, were conquered and joined to France, with which they remained united till the Peace. The Seven United Provinces were in 1795 turned into a dependent commonwealth called the Batavian Republic^ which in i8a6 was turned into a kingdom for Buonaparte's brother Leivis, But in 18 10 Buonaparte took his brother away, and joined Holland and the other provinces to France. At the Peace the whole Netherlands, except the districts which had been conquered by Lewis the Fourteenth, which France was allowed to keep, were formed into a Kingdom of the Netherlands^ under William Prince of Orange f who also held the Grand Duchy of Luzelburg or Luxemburg within the German Confederation. 9. Switzerland. — The old state of things in Switzerland, the Confederation of the Thirteen Can- tons surrounded by their allied and subject states, went on till 1798, when the French came to seize the treasure at Bern. Their coming had tlie good efifect of releasing the Romance-speaking people of Vaud from the yoke of Bern, but the French went on to invade the democratic cantons also. They now set up what they called the Helvetic Republic^ which took in the old cantons and most of their allies and subjects. But they were no longer to be a Federal state, in which each member is independent in its internal affairs j the Helvetic Republic was a single common- wealth in which the cantons were no more than de« partments. Geneva and some other of the allied districts were added to France, some now, and some afterwards in Buonaparte's time. But, as the new republic did not suit the Swiss people, who were used to a Federal constitution, Buonaparte in 1803, by the Ad of Mediation, gave them a better constitution, in which the old cantons and several new ones were joined together as separate states, but on equal terms, without the old distinction of confederates, allies, and *..•» ts^^m-i^ )". ii^ll^|tffPl^;'^fl'#^Jif ' 'W-'r' •" " "T\ /M .7^*^ ltf;JT'^^l!I^^,'^#r-"^»""H'ff'M^f»'f^(7.'^ Jtvi.] SWITZERLAND. 3SS subjects. Now for the first time there were independ- ent Romance-speaking cantons as distinguished from allies and subjects. Buonaparte kept Switzerland alto- gether dependent on France, but on the whole he treated it somewhat better than he did other countries. At the Peace, Geneva and the other districts which had been joined on to France were set free, and the Swiss Confederation of twenty-two cantons was formed, though with very lax union among themselves. The neutrality of the Confederation was acknowledged, as was also that of the northern part of Savoy, which had once belonged to Bern. This, with the rest of Savoy, went back to the King of Sardinia, and it was not to be given by him to any power except Switzerland. lo. Great Britain and Ireland. — The external history of our own country chiefly consists of the long war with France, with the short stoppage after the PecLce of Amiens. England was the one enemy whom Buonaparte could never cajole or win over, as, at one time or another, he did all the powers of the continent. She was the object of his special hatred, and he did all that he could to ruin her trade, by forbidding, when he was at the height of his power after the Peace of Tilsit, all dealings between England and any continental state. But England kept her power by sea, and, except the great campaigns of the r>ake of Wellington in Spain and Portugal, it was by sea that the English share in the war was carried on. The great victories of Nelson, at the mouth of the Nile in 1798 and at Trafalgar in 1805, altogether broke the naval power of France, and of Spain, which at Trafalgar was joined with France. Equally successful, but less righteous, were the two attacks on Denmark in 1 80 1 and 1806, in which latter Copenhagen was bombarded. Meanwhile there was a rebellion in Ireland in 1798, the suppression of which was followed by the union of the Kingdom and Parliament of Ireland with that of Great Britain in 1800, when the > i A A 2 ■ r •• ■ 356 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION, [CHAT. title of King of Fratice^ which had been borne by every King since Edward the Third, was at last dropped. Towards the end of the great war with France there was unhappily a war with the United States from 1813 to 181 5. By the final Peace Eng- land, as usual, kept large distant conquests, but she gained no territory in Europe, except the island of Malta, which, up to the French Revolution, had be- longed to the Knights of Saint John, and of the Frisian island of Heligoland, a possession of Denmark. The Ionian Islands also, part of the old Venetian dominion in Greece, were made into a Republic, under a protectorate on the part of England which did not differ much from actual sovereignty. II. The Scandinavian Kingdoms. — ^At the beginning of the French Revolution the reigning King of Sweden, Gustavus the Third, was engaged in a war with Russia, which led to no change on either side. He also increased the royal power, but he was mur- dered in 1792. The next King, Gustavus the Fourth, was more zealous than anybody else against Buona- parte and the French ; but he had no means of doing any great things, and he contrived to offend all other powers and his own subjects as well. Russia now conquered all Finland, and in 1809 the King was deposed, and the free constitution was restored, with- out either the despotism or the oligarchy which had of late prevailed by turns. As the new King, Charles the Thirteenth, had no children, the Swedes chose Bema- dotte, one of Buonaparte's generals, to be Crown Prime, and to succeed to the kingdom at the King's death. In 18 1 3 Bernadotte joined in the war of liberation in Germany, and led the Swedish troops against his old master. As Sweden had taken the part of the Allies, while Denmark had been on the side of France, it was settled at the Peace that Norway, which had all this time had the same king as Denmark, should be joined to Sweden, to make up for the loss of Finland, which -^';MM ' '4 xvl) SCAUDMAria AND RUSSIA. $Sf was kept by Russia. But the Norwegians withstood this arrangement; they chose a Danish prince for their King, and they made themselves the freest con- stitution of any state in the world ''at has a King at all. They were so far conquered that they had to accept the union with Sweden, but they joined it only as a perfectly independent kingdom, keeping its new constitution. Meanwhile Denmark still remained an absolute monarchy. When the Empire came to an end, the King of Denmark incorporated his German duchy of Holstein with his kingdoni. At the Peace Denmark obtained the small piece of Potnerania which was held by Sweden; but this was presently given up to Prussia in exchange for the Duchy of Lauetiburg, and the King of Denmark became a member of the German Confederation for the Duchies of Holstein and Lauen*' burg. 12. Russia and Poland. — After the death of Catherine the Second in 1796, her son /'d!/// succeeded. In his time the Russian armies acted with those o! Austria in the campaigns of Italy and Si/idtzerland, but Paul soon afterwards made a separate peace with Buonaparte. Paul seems to have been quite mad., and he was murdered in 1801. His son Alexander re- mained at peace with France till 1805, when he again joined with Austria, but, after the overthrow of both Austria and Prussia, he made peace with Buonaparte at Tilsitf and a small part of the Lithuanian possessions of Prussia was added to Russia, Alexander and Buonaparte seemed to have pretty well agreed to divide Europe between them, as if they were to be the Eastern and Western Emperors. Russia and France remained at peace for six years, during which time Finland was conquered from Sweden and a war was waged with the Turks. In this last the Russian frontier was advanced to the Danube, much as, long before, the French frontier had reached the Rhine. By ano- ther war which went on at the same time with Persia^ I f 3S8 THE FHENCH REVOLUTION. [CHA». Russia gained a large territory in the land between the Euxine and Caspian Seas. At last, in 1812, came the French invasion of Russia, which led to the fall of Buonaparte, and Russia took a leading part in the last wars in which he was overthrown. At the general Peace the Gratid Duchy of Warsaw^ which Buonaparte had formed out of the Polish provinces of Prussia, and to* which the Polish territory gained by Austria at the last partition had been added, was taken away from the King of Saxony. The Grand Duchy ofPosm was given back to Prussia. The rest of the Duchy of Warsaw was made into a Kingdom of Poland, with a constitution of its own, which was united with Russia as a separate state, like Sweden and Norway, or like Great Britain and Ireland just before the union. The city of Cracow f the old capital of Poland, which stood at the meeting of the dominions of the three powers^ Russia, Prussia, and Austria, was made into a separate commonwealth, under the protection of all of them. The new Kingdom of Poland did not differ very much in extent from the old kingdom before its union with Lithuania and its conquests from Prussia. It did not take in all that had belonged to the old Poland, but it took in some other lands which had not been part of it 13. The Turks. — Sultan Selim the Third came to the throne in 1789, while Turkey was engaged in the war with Russia and Austria which was ended by the Peace of /assy. He had to struggle against enemies on every side. The Turkish power had now got very weak, and many of the subject nations, Christian and Mahometan, were seeking for independence. Many of the distant Pashas in Europe and Asia seemed likely to set up for themselves, just as happened at the break- ing up of the Caliphate and of the Mogul Empire. Especially the Christians of Servia revolted in 1806 under Czerni George (that is. Black George). Servia wns conquered again in 1813, but in 1815 it again cevolted under MUosh Obre^tawitz, and it was after a XVI.] RUSSIA AND TURKEY, 3S9 while acknowledged as a separate, though in some degree dependent, state, as it still remains. And in Czemagora or Montenegro^ the small mountain land on the borders of the old Venetian and Turkish possessions, the Christians had never submitted, and they kept up a constant warfare with the Turks. So did the Christians of Souli in Epeiros and their Ma- hometan neighbour Ali Pasha of Joannina ; and the Mamelukes in Egypt were practically independent. In the midst of all this came the successive French and Russian wurs, and it was of course the interest of Russia to stir up discontent everywhere among the subject nations, and especially to put herself forward as the protector of all who belonged to the Eastern Church. In the war with France both Russia and England naturally took the Turkish side, and it was by English help that the French were driven out of Syria and Egypt. In the war with Russia, equally naturally as things stood then, England was on the Russian and France on the Turkish side. But Selim, who was a reformer, was deposed in 1807 and presently murdered. Then came Mahmoud the Second^ whose reign lasted till 1839, taking in great events which will come in the next chapter. 14. British Possessions abroad. — Itwasdiu:- ing this time that the English dominion was practically spread over nearly all India. During the adminis- trations of the Marquess Cornwallis and the Marquess WellesUy as Governors-General, the greater part of the country was either annexed to the English do- minions or brought wholly under British influence. In the course of the war large conquests were also made among the French, Dutch, and Spanish possessions, and by these means England acquired Ceylon, the great colony of the Cape of Good Hope, the Mauritius or Isle of France, several of the West India islands, and a small territory in South America. Colonization was also beginning in Australia and in the neighbouring 360 TUB FRENCH JRBVOIVTIOM iGHAh island of Ibsmania or Van Diemaris Land. Mean* while we may mention, though it did not happen in any British colony, that in the island of Saint Domingo^ ffispandola, or Hayti^ which, at the begin- ning of the Revolution, was held partly by France and partiy by Spain, the negroes in both parts set up for themselves. A number of revolutions followed in imitation of those in Europe ; sometimes republics were set up, while sometimes a successful negro called himself Emperor in Hayti, just a& Buonaparte did in France. 15. The United States.— The new Constitution of the United States came into force in the same year that the French Revolution began, and, for about forty years, a remarkable succession of able rulers filled the office of President. The republic grew and prospered, and a great number of new States arose, especially in the lands to the West. But one territory was added in a different way. Spain had now given up her possessions in Louisiana to France, and in 1803 the whole of the French possessions ii^ North America were bought by the United States. The States thus gained, not only the territory which forms the present State of Louisiana, but a claim to all the lands beyond the Mississippi which lay south of the British and north of the Spanish settlements. Out of this territory a great number of new States have gradually been made. During this time too negro slavery was done away with in the Northern States of the Union, but not in the Southern. Out of this difference mainly came the disputes between the Nofthern and Southern States which had been so important in late years. 16. Summary. — Thus, in the space of about five- and-twenty years, Europe was more changed than it had ever been before in the same space of time. The great wonder of these times was that, in France itself and in all the countries which were brought altogether under French influence, old ideas and old institutions tnJi SUMMARV. 3fit were utterly swept away in a way that had never happened before. It followed of course that much that was good and much that was bad perished to- gether. France itself, since the Revolution, has never had a government of any kind that could last for any time. But, on the other hand, none of the ever- shifting French governments have brought in anything like the abuses and oppressions of the old monarchy. So in other countries, where the old governments went on or where the kings came back again at the general peace, the restored princes mostly forgot their pro- mises and went on reigning as despots ; yet men in general had learned lessons which they never forgot, and which bore fruit afterwards. Even where there was no great political change, there was a wide social change; and we may say generally that, since the French Revolution, there has been no part of Europe where the people have been so utterly dowji-trodden as they were in many parts before. Thus serfage, answering to villainage in the old times in England, has been abolished wherever it still went on, though in Russia this has been done only quite lately by the present Emperor. And, though no man ever did more than both Buonaparte himself and the Allies who over- threw him in parting out nations to this and that ruler without asking their leave, yet during all this time ideas were growing up which have taught men that such things should not be done. So again, though the union both of Germany and of Italy was not to happen at once, yet the wars of Buonaparte led men in boA countries in different ways to feel more strongly than they had ever felt before that all Germans and all Italians were really countrymen, and that they ought to be more closely joined together. As for particular changes, France came out at the end of the war with nearly the same boundaries and under the same dynasty which she had at the beginning, but with her internal state utterly changed. England had raised 3N TffE FRBI^Cff REVOLUTION, [chap. rvi. hei own position in Europe to the highest pitch ; hex European territory had been increased only by one or two small islands, but she had vastly increased her colonial dominions. Germany had changed in every- thing; the Empire was gone, and after the time of confusion, a lax Confederation had at last arisen, in which it could not fail that the two great states of Austria and Prussia would strive for the mastery. Italy was still cut up into a crowd of small states ; Austria held a large part of Northern Italy, and had a commanding influence in the whole peninsula. Spain had got back her old d)niasty. Portugal might be said to have be- come a dependency of Brazil, instead of Brazil being a dependency of Portugal ; this is the only case of a state of the Old World being governed from the New. Switzerland had got rid of the old distinctions, and a Confederation on equal terms had^been made. The whole of the Netherlands^ less happily, were joined into a single kingdom. Sweden finally withdrew from the lands east and south of the Baltic, but the whole of the greater Scandinavian peninsula came under one ruler, though its two parts remained distinct kingdoms, Norway keeping her new and very free constitution. Russia had grown at all points, and Poland had been restored in a kind of way, though not in a way at all likely to last In the New World the great English- speaking commonwealth was fast advancing. And this time, as commonly happens in times of great general stir, was a time of great inventions and of great writers in various, ways. Germany, above all, now thoroughly awoke, and both her learned men and her original writ- ers began to take the place which they have ever since kept ' 'fl MUmON OF GBRMAl^Y AND ITALY. ^Q) »:|l CHAPTER XVII. THE REUNION OF GERMANY AND ITALY. Character of *he present time; stronger feeling of nation^ ality; change in the nature of wars {i)-^revolutions in France; reign of Lewis the Eighteenth j illegal acts and deposition of Charles the Tenth; Revolution of July (2) — reign of Louis-Philippe; attempts of LouiS' Napoleon Buonaparte (2) — Revolution of February ; Louis-Philippe driven out; the second Republic; administration of Cavai^nac (2) — Louis-Napoleon Buonaparte chosen President; he seises absolute power and calls himself Emperor (2) — his wars with Russia and Austria; Savoy and Nizza taken from Italy (3) '—he attacks Prussia; Prussiasupported by all Germany ; victories of the Germans; Buonaparte taken prisoner ; Paris taken; Elsass recovered by Germany (3) — the third Republic; the Covcirayme of Paris ; administration of M. Thiers (3) — steps towards the union of Germany; the Zollverein — revolutions of 1848 (4) — war between Prussia and Austria ; formation of the North-German Confederation; Austria shut out of Germany (4) — union of Germany agaiitst France; the southern states ' join the Confederation; King William chosen Emperor (4) — disturbances in Italy; dominion of Austria; reign of Charles- Albert in Sardinia (5) — reign of Pius the Ninth; revolutions and wars of \Z^ \ the new republic suppressed (5) — constitutional reign of Victor Emmamiel in Sardinia; his second war with Austria; help given by France ; French attempts to divide Italy (5, o)^the Italian States join Sardinia; exploits of Garibaldi; Victor-Emmanuel chosen King of Italy ; the Pope kept at Rome by the French (6) — Italy joins Prussia against Austria ; recovery of Venice (6) — re- covery of Rome (6) — reign of Ferdinand the Fifth of Hungary; revolutions in Hungary and Austria; « Sfir tfJSOMO!^ OP GBPMAPn Am !fAt K tcRiif . Hungary conquered by Russian help (7) — reforms after the war with Prussia; Francis Joseph King of Hunf^ary (7) — weakness of the Turks; Greek War of Independence; battle of Navarino; kingdom of Greece (8) — wars between Turkey and Russia; independence of Egypt (9) — Crimean War; affairs of the JJanubian Principalities (9) — union of Russia atid Poland; revolts of the Poles under Nicholas and Alexander the Second; serfage abolished; suppression of the re- public of Cracow (10) — reign of Ferdinand the Seventh in .Spain; revolts on behalf of the Constitution; intervention of France (11) — civil war on the death of Ferdinand; reign and deposition of Isabel; election of Amadeus of Italy {liy— revolutions and civil war of Portugal; reign of Donna Maria (11) — separation of Belgium and tJte Netherlands; affairs of Luxent' burg (12) — changes of government in the Swiss Can- tons; war of the Cat ho lit and Protestant Cantons; establishment of the Federal Constitution (13) — Den- mark becomes a constitutional state; disputes between Denmark and the Duchies; Sleswick and Holstein joined to Prussia (14) — affairs of Sweden and Nor- way; reforms in Sweden (15) — affairs in Great Britain; less interference in continental affairs than before; extension and increased independence of the British Colonies; abolition of slavery (16) — wars and mutiny in India; the government transferred from the Company to the Crown {16)— firm union of all Great Britain; troubles in Ireland; meamresfor its benefit (•16) — revolt of the Spanish colonies in America;- revolutions of Mexico (17) — separation of Brazil from Portugal (^\%)— advance of the United States ; secession and reconquest of the South States; cdfolition of slavery (19) — Summary (20). I. Character of the Time. — ^We have now come altogether to our own times, and there is so much to tell that we must cut our tale very short indeed. A long time of peace has been followed by a time full of wars. And there is much to mark in these latest wars. Military science has greatly advanced, and the means of getting about have been hi 1 CHARACTBR OW THE TfME. 34 greatly improved. It has therefore followed that wars nave been, on the one hand, carried on with mudi greater armies, but that, on the other hand, they have been brought to an end in a much shorter time than formerly. There has been no Thirty Years' War, not even a Seven Years' War, in our time. There has also been a much stronger feeling of nationality than there ever was before. Some nonsense has been talked about this matter, because it is not always easy to say what makes a nation. For, though language proves more than any other one test, it will not always do by itself. Thus in Switzerland four lan- guages are spoken : yet the Swiss certainly make one nation. But, when men thoroughly feel themselves to be one nation^ when they wish to come together as such and to get rid of the dominion of foreigners, it is clearly right that they should be able to do so. Now this is what in different parts of Europe men have been striving to do in our own time more than they ever did before : and this feeling has been shown above all things in the joining together of xhe great nations of Germany and Italy, which had been so long split up into a number of small states. This change is the greatest event of our times ; but it will perhaps be better understood if we first run through the changes that have happened in France, as they have had so much to do with the history of the other countries, but we must tell the tale in as few words as may be. 2. Revolutions in France.— After the final overthrow of Buonaparte, Lewis the Eighteenth came back again, and reigned as a constitutional King, but many of those who came with him would gladly have had the old state of things back again, when the King ruled as he pleased, and when the nobles and clergy were set up above the rest of the nation. Of this sort was his brother, the next King Charles the Tenths who was the last who was crowned at Rheims, and I* S66 REUNIOH OF GERMANY AND ITALY. (CRAP. the last who called himself King of F^ana. For when, in 1830, he put out some ordinances which were wholly against die law, the people of Paris rose, and King Charles was driven out in the Revolution oj yuly. We may mark in all these changes how the one city of Paris always acts, and how the rest of France accepts what it does. This time, when the King was driven out, his cousin Louis-Philippe Duke of Orleans was made King, with the old title of King of the French^ and with a freer constitution. France was not engaged in any great wars during the time of these three Kings; only in Africa the piratical power of Algiers was put down, and all that part of the coast of Africa became a French dominion. After some re- volts at Lyons and Paris early in his reign, Louis- Philippe reigned quietly till 1848 ; only twice in his reign Louis-Napoleon Buonaparte^ a nephew of the first Buonaparte, tried to make a disturbance. The first time he was allowed to go free ; the second time he was imprisoned, but he escaped. But in 1848 the King's government had become unpopular, and in February of that year he was driven out, as Charles the Tenth had been. This time a Republic was set up, and in June there was a second revolt in Paris of the more extreme republicans, which was put down by General Cavaignac. But when the Presideiu of the Republic was to be chosen, Louis-Napoleon Buonaparte, who had been allowed to come back, was chosen by many votes over Cavaignac He was chosen President for four years, and he swore to be faithful to the* re- public. But at the end of the third year, in* Decem- ber 185 1, with the help of the army, he seized upon the government, as his uncle had done, and called himself President for ten years with nearly absolute power. The National Assembly^ which passed a vote to depose him, was dissolved by force; many men were killed, and others were sent to the unhealthy colony of Cayenne, while most of the chief men of a?ll.J WARS AtfD REVOLUTIONS OF FRANCE. Tfil the country were imprisoned for a while. A year after, in December 1852, he called himself Emperor^ as his uncle had done before him. 3. The Wars of France. ~ -When Louis-Napo- leon Buonaparte took the title of Emperor, he gave out that the Empire should be peace ; but there have been wars in Europe ever since, in which France has taken the chief part. In 1854, when a quarrel again arose between Russia and Turkey, France and Eng- land both joined in the war against Russia and shared in the victories over the Russians in the Crimea, In 1859, when there was a dispute between Austria and Sardinia, France made war upon Austria, and it was given out that France would free Italy from the Alps to the Hadriatic. But, when the French armies reached the strong fortress of Verona, all that was done was to make a peace with Austria, by which Italy was freed only as far as the Mincio. At the same time, the two provinces of Nizza and Savoy y the remaining Burgun- dian possessions of the King of Sardinia, were given to France. This new possession took in the districts whose neutrality had been guaranteed, and which, according to old treaties, if they ever passed from Sardinia, were to pass to Switzerland. Lastly, in 1870 France declared war upon Prussia, the reason given being that there had been talk of giving the Crown of Spain to a distant kinsman of the King of Prussia. But Prussia was supported by all Germany. The French crossed the German frontier, but they were driven out in a few days, and then the German armies entered France, and won a series of victories. Buona- parte himself became a prisoner : afterwards he came to England and died there. Meanwhile he was declared deposed, and a Republic was again set up in Paris. Paris was besieged, and surrendered to the Germans, and a treaty was made by which, besides the payment of a large sum of money, nearly all ElsasSf together with that part of Lorraine where 1 .f T^?!iKwn^''*'"'"-^"' Stt REUNIOI^ OF GERMAITY AI^D ITALY. [CHAF. Gennan is spoken, and also the strong fortress oi MdZf w.ere given back to Germany. Thus Strassburg and tiie other German places which had been gradual- ly taken by France have become German again, and the French frontier, which first reached the Rliine in 1648, is now kept quite away from it. Soon after the peace with Germany, Paris was held by the Commune isis or extreme Republicans, and the city had again to be besieged and taiken by the Government of the new Republic under the President M. Thiers, who was at one time chief minister under King Louis-Philippe. Since then M. Thiers has resigned, and the present President, Marshal Macmahon, was chosen. In this year, 1875, ^ regular republican constitution has been made ; but ever since the fall of Buonaparte, thei;e have been different parties in France, some wishing to bring back his son, and others wishing for a King, either Henry the grandson of Charles the Tenth or one of the princes of the House of Orleans. A. The Union of Germany. — The German princes, when they were set up again at the Peace, mostly forgot their promises of setting up constitutional governments ; still the national spirit largely tended towards progress and union. And one great step towards it was taken, as Prussia gradually, from 18 18 onwards, became the centre of a commercial union among the German states, the members of which agreed to levy no duties on merchandise passing from one state to another, but to levy them only at the common frontier. This union, called the Zollverein, was gradually joined by most of the German states. In 1848 there wcfc revolutions over the most part of Europe, and among them in Prussia, Austria, and most of the German states ; an attempt was made at the same time to join Germany together under an Emperor and a common Parliament, instead of the lax Confederation which had gone on since 181 5. But, before long, things came back much as they were 5 be 184 XVII.] VmON OF GERMANY, 369 before, till in 1866 a war broke out between Prussia and Austria, in which the German states took different sides. Prussia got the better in so short a time that it has been called the Seven Weeks* War, By the peace which was now made Austria was shut out from Germany altogether, the Kingdom of Hanover and. some smaller states, among them the free city of Frankfurt, were annexed to Prussia, and the Northern states were formed into the North-German Confeder- ation, under the presidency oi Prussia, with a common constitution and assembly. When France made war on Prussia in 1870, the Southern states took part in the war as well as the Northern. They soon joined the Confederation, Bavaria, the largest of them, keeping some special privileges to herself. Thus all Germany, except Austria, Tyrol, and the other German dominions of the House of Austria, has been joined together much more closely than it had ever been since the Thirty Years' War, or indeed since the great Interregnum. And, while the German siege of Paris was going on, King William of Prussia, being in the great hall of Lewis the Fourteenth at Versailles, received the title of German Emperor from the princes and free cities of Germany. And presently the German lands held by France were, as we have seen, joined again to the new Empire. Of course, in the old use of words, this was a restoration, not of the Empire, but of the Kingdom of Germany; for in old times, as we know by this time, the title of Emperor could be held only by one who was, or claimed to be, sovereign of either the Old or the New Rome. But now that several of the German princes are called Kings, it would have been hard to find a better title than Emperor for the chief of a Con- federa,tion which has Kings among its members. 5. The Revolutions of Italy. — Italy can hardly be said to have had any history from 1815 to 184S. There were many conspiracies, and some m> B B H ' ?iMs^5^!^r?w 3^ REUNION OF GERMANY AND ITALY, [chap. surrections, in different parts of Italy, especially in 183 1. But the Austrian .power was strong enough, not only to hold the Austrian possessions of Lom- bardy and Venice, but to keep the smaller princes on their thrones. Meanwhile the movement for the liberation and union of Italy was growing up in its north-western comer. In 1831 a new branch of the house of Savoy, that of CarignanOy succeeded to the Sardinian crown in the person of Charles Albert. In the early part of his reign he ruled harshly, but he was an enemy of Austria. Then, in 1846, the present Pope, Pius the Ninth, was chosen, and for a while it seemed as if he were going to do great things for Italian freedom ; so much so that his dominions were partly occupied by Austria in 1847. ^^ ^^^ course of 1847 and 1848, most of the Italian princes gave their people constitutions. Milan and Venice rose against Austria, and now the King of Sardinia entered the Austrian dominions in Italy at the head of an allied army from various parts of the peninsula. But he was finally defeated at Novara in 1849, and he abdi- cated, and was succeeded by his son Victor Emmanuel the Second. Meanwhile Venice, which had again be- come a republic, was recovered by Austria. Rome, whence the Pope had fled and where a republic had "been set up, was overcome by troops sent by the new republic of France, and the constitutions in the other Italian states were withdrawn. Thus, after 1849, Italy was left in much the same case in which she had been, before the insurrections. The Pope was maintained, in his dominions by French help; Austria had re- covered her possessions; but Sardinia remained a constitutional and advancing state, for King Victor Emmanuel steadily kept his word to his people. 6. The Union of ;Italy. — And now, after ten years, came the beginnings of the great movement which has at last made Italy one. In 1859 there came the war between Sardinia and Austria, in which XVII.] ■■#: UmON OF ITALY. 371 France took a part : by the peace Austria gave up Lombardyy but kept Venetia. France now tried to make what was called an Italian Confederation^ but, as Austria was to have been a member of it^ it could have been no real Confederation at all, and the Italians settled the matter themselves by wil- lingly foining themselves to the kingdom of Victor Emmanuel. Now it was that Garibaldi^ who had before defended Rome against the French, wonder- fully delivered the Two Sicilies, and joined them also to the kingdom of Victor Emmanuel. The King of Sardinia thus had possession of all Italy, except the part held by Austria, and Rome, where the French still kept the Pope in possession. In 1861 Victor Emmanuel was made King of Italy by the Italian Par- liament, and in 1865 ^^^ capital was removed to Florence till Rome could be had. The kingdom had hardly been established in 1861 when Count Cavour^ who had had the chief hand in bringing about the new state of things, died. When the war broke out in 1866 between Prussia and Austria, Italy joined Prussia, but the Italians were defeated by the Austrians both by sea and land. But at the peace, Austria gave up Venice and Verona ; but she kept, not only the old Venetian possessions in Dalmatian but Istria^ Aquileia^ and Trent, Italian-speaking places which formed part of the ancient Kingdom of Italy. Lastly when the war between France and Germany caused the French troops to be withdrawn from Rome, Rome was at last joined on to the Italian kingdom, and it now of course is the capital of Italy. The Pope's spiritual position remains unchanged, though he is no longer a temporal prince. 7. Hungary and Austria. — Francis the First of Hungary ,yf\io till 1806 had been \hQ Emperor Francis the Second, went on reigning in Hungary, Austria, and his other states till 1836. Then came Ferdinand the Fifth, In 1847 and 1848 there were revolutions in B B 3 ^*l Mi^r'-'' TW^'^^' i^2 kEmioi7 OP GEkMANY And iTAlY. [chap. Austria and Hungary as well as elsewhere. The Hungarians stood up for their ancient constitution with certain reforms, and, when Ferdinand abdicated, they refused to acknowledge Francis Josephy who suc- ceeded him in Austria, because the abdication was not lawful according to the laws of Hungary. After- wards they set up a republic under the famous Kossuth, But feuds had unluckily arisen between the Magyars and the other races in Hungary, and this greatly helped the reconquest of the country by Austria, which how- ever was not done without the help of Russia. Hun- gary now remained crushed till after the war between Austria and Prussia. Then the government was put on a better and more lawful footing; Austria and Hungary became two distinct states under a common sovereign, and Francis Joseph was lawfully crowned King of Hungary in 1867. Since then Hungary and Austria have agreed well together; but difficulties have arisen through the other states, Bohemia and the rest, asking for more or less distinct governments. The AustrO'Hungarian Monarchy^ as it is called, is in fact a mere joining together of various nations with- out any natural connexion; but this is the general character of South-Eastern Europe, and Hungary seems marked out to be the leading state among the Christian nations in those parts. & The Deliverance of Greece. — We have seen that the Ottoman power had been growing weaker and weaker, while the subject Christian races were growing stronger. Servia had won back her freedom, and Montenegro had never lost hers. In 1 82 1 the Greeks revolted. The War of Independence began, strangely enough, in the Danubian Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia^ but presently the Greeks revolted in all parts of the Ottoman dominions where they were strong enough. In some parts they were put down with cruel massacres, but in the greater part of old Greece the inhabitants, Greek and Albanian, with XV11.1 Tim DELIVERANCE OF GREECE, 373 some little help from the other subject races and much more from volunteers from Western Europe, were able to hold their ground against the Turks. But in 1826 Sultan Mahmoud called in the help of the Pasha of Egypt, Mahomet AH, who had a better disciplined army than his own. His son Ibrahim — that is Abra- ham — ^brought the Greeks almost to destruction, and Peloponn^sos might have been altogether wasted, had not the three powers, England, France, and Russia, stepped in and crushed the Ottoman fleet at NavarinOj the old Pylos, in 1827. The French troops afterwards drove the Egyptians out of Peloponnesos. The end of this was the establishment of the Kingdom of Greece, It has had two Kings, Otho of Bavaria, who was turned out in 1862, and the present King, George of Denmark, The kingdom has also been increased by England, :;„ 1864, giving up the protectorate of the Ionian Islands^ which became part of the kingdom of Greece. But the new state has not been so prosperous or well governed as it was once hoped that it might have been. It has been cooped up within a bad frontier, and moreover the Greeks have had their heads too full of the memories of the old times, and they have been too fond of copying the institutions of Western coun- tries which are not suited to them. 9. Turkey and Russia. — Meanwhile great changes went on in the Ottoman dominions tiiem- selves, and the Turks had several wars with Russia and other powers. In 1826 Sultan Mahmoud de- stroyed the Janissaries, who had now become a tur- bulent and useless body. In 1828 a war with Russia followed. The next year the Russians got as far as Hadrianople, and a treaty was made by which Russia gained some advantages at the mouth of the Danube and made some stipulations on behalf of the Christians in Turkey. Then followed wars with Mahomet Ali^ the Pasha of Egypt, in which several of the European Ipowers took part, and which ^yere ended in 1 84 1 by Egypt :;••:. In 1822 Brazil was declared independent with a free constitution, under Don Pedro as Emperor, The crowns of Brazil and Portugal have since remained distinct, as on Pedro's abdication he was succeeded by his daughter Maria in Portugal, and by his son Pedro in Brazil. Brazil has had fewer disturbances, and has beer more prosperous, than any other South American state. 19. The United States.— But neither in die Old nor the New World has this period made more im- portant changes than it has in the commonwealth of the United States. Many new States have been founded towards the West, and the great dominion of Texas, which had been part of Mexico, first became a separate commonwealth, and was afterwards joined on to the Union. But the greatest event in th^istory of America has been the war which began in 1861 between the Northern and Southern States, There were many causes of difference between them, the chief being the allowance of slavery in the South, while it had long died out in the North. On the elec tion of Abraham Lincoln as President, in i860. South Carolina seceded from the Union, and the rest of the Southeni States presently followed her. They called themselves the Confederate States, and set up a Fede- ral constitution, nearly the same as that of the United States, under Jefferson Davis as President. Then followed the war which lasted till 1865, when the Confederate States had to submit About the same time President Lincoln, having just been chosen President a second time, was murdered. The result of the war has been the reconstitution of the Union, and, the final getting rid of slavery throughout all parts of the North American continent. In Brazil and in the Spanish and Dutch colonies it still goes on, but in Brazil it will come to an end before many years. 20. Summary. — Thus, in our own days, France has ZVIL] 1HE UNITED STATES. 3*3 e ;d :d :h again, for the third time, tried to get the chief power in Europe, and a third time she has been beaten back^ and has been driven to give up part of her former conquests. The rest of Europe has been completely changed by the union of Italy into one kingdom, and by the union, though less close, of nearly all Germany under the leadership of Prussia. Austria has with- drawn from both German and Italian affairs, and has become a state joined with Hungary, something in the same way as Sweden and Norway. The last traces of Polish independence have been trampled out, and Denmark has been cut short by the complete loss of the Duchies. Two new kingdoms have arisen, namely Belgium and Greece, of which the former has pros- pered much more than the latter. The whole East of Europe has during the whole time been more or less unsettled, as it doubtless always will be, as long as a Mahometan power rules over Christians. On the whole Europe has greatly gained in freedom and good government since the end of the wars of the French Revolution. But on the other hand, the keep- ing up of vast standing armies by nearly all the govern- ments of the continent makes peace at all times un- certain, and the tendency of later times has been to lessen the importance of the smaller states and to group Europe under a few great powers. Still, both in our own island and hi most other parts of Europe, men may be very glad that they live in our own day and not in any of the times which have gone before us. :^t P;!' >, INDEX. ; French annexation of, 348 Abba«» forefather of the dynasty of the Abbassides, 131 Abhundes, dynasty of« overdirow the Onumiads, 131 ; end of, 206 Abdal-iahman founds the Ommiad dy- nastv at Cordova, 13a Abd-al-rahman III., Caliph, greatness of the Mahometan power in Spain under. 162 Abtt-Bekrr first Caliph, zaa, 134; his wars with the Empire, laa Abyssinian war, the, 379 Acadie, French colony of aoiuired by Britain, 3x4. See Nova Scotia. Achaia, later importance of, 46; be- finning of the League of, 47 ; ezten- aon of, ib. ; war of, with Sparta, 48 ; helped by Antigonos Ddsdn, ii. ; resigns Corinth to him, ib, ; in alli- ance with Philip, ib, ; helps him against Rome, 66 ; becomes the ally mR«me,t^.; extension of the League, S; war with Rome, ib.; diasolution the League, 68 1 Principality of. Act of Mediation, 354 Acre, taken by the Mahometans, 197 Adolf of Nassau, King, sia Aetius. Roman general, commands at QiAlons, Z05 /Blfred, see Alfred Aneas, 55 JEjosxa Silvius, see Pius II. ^quians, their wars with Rome, 58 <£schylu8, 35 /Rthelberht, King of Kent, Bretwalda, 141 ; converted by Augustine, ib. il^dred the Unready, Danish inva- sions of England in his reign, 152 ; driven out by Swegen, Hi. .Atolia, rise of its people, 44 : League of, 47 ; war with the Achaians and Macedonians, 48; aUianc9 with Rome, 66 ; Roman conquest of, 67 Africa, its geo^n^phical character, 10 ; Roman province o/, 65 ; settlement of the Vandals, 107; recovered to the Empire by Belisarius, xz8; Saracen conquest of, 123 Agathokl@s, Tyrant of Syracuse, 6z Ag@silaos, King of Sparta, his caaOf paigns in Asia, 37; returns to Greece, 38 Agincourt, battle of, 227 Agis, King of Sparta, attempts to throw ofF_ the Macedonian yoke, 44 Agricola, his cr^iiquest of Britain, ^9 Agrippina, \vife of Germanicus, death of, 87 Agrippina, wife of Claudius, poisons him, 87 Aigos-potamos, defeat of the Athenians at, 36 Aix, see Aquae Se>.tiae Akarnania, JLeague of, 48 ; helps Philip against Rome, 66 • Akbar, Mogul Emperor, 31 z Aktion, battle of, 81 Alarcos, battle o(, 9.0A Alaric, King of the West-Guths, takes Rome, 104 Alberoni, Cardinal, minister of Philip V. of Spain, 318 Albort I., King, son oa Rudolf of Habsburg, grant of Austria to, sza ; murder of, ib, Albert II.. King, 214 Albert of JBrandenburg, Duke of Prus- sia, 277 Albigenses, crusades against, 200, 201 Alexander the Great succeeds Philip, 40 ; takes and destroys Thebes, ib. \ his victories at the Granikos, IssUi c c V' SM mDBX. and ArbSla, 41 ; takes Tyrt:, ib. ; conquers Egypt and founds Alc\un> dria, ib. ; death of, ib. ; effects of his conquests, ib. Alexander Severus, Emperor, takes the name of Antoninus, 9a; his wars with Persia, 93 Alexander I. of Russia, his relations with Buonaparte, 357 Alexander II. of Russia, abolition of serfage under, 374 Alexander II., Pope, sanctions Nor- man invasion of England, 150 Alexander V., Pope, chosen by the Council of I^sa, 217 Alexander VI., Pope, a6o Aexander Famese, Duke of Parma, a69 Alexandria, foundation of, 41 ; becomes Uie seat of Greek learning, 73 Alexios Angelos, restored to the East- em Empire by the Crusaders, 198 Alexios Komninos, Eastern Emperor, X64 Alfonso of Aragon recovers Zaragoza, x62 ; growth of the kingdom under, ib. Alfonso V. of Aragon, 238^ Alfonso VI. of Castile, union of Leon and Castile under, 162; recovers Toledo, ib. Alfonso VII. of Castile takes the title of Emperor, 204 ; his wars with the Almohades, ib. Alfonso VIII. of Castile defeated by the Caliph Jacob at Alarcos, 204 Alfonso X. of Castile, his election to the empire, 211 Alfonso XII. of Spain, 37s Alfred, King of the West-Saxons, his wars with the Danes, 143 ; his treaty with Guthrum, 144 Al|;iers, French conquest of, 366 All, Caliph, 131 Ali Pasha of Joannina, 359 Al Kayem, Caliph of Bagdad, asks help of Togrel Beg, 164 Allia, Gauls defeat the Romans at the, 58 Allodisd tenure, origin and nature of, Almohades, growth amd decline of dieir power i.i Spain, 204 Almoravides, dynasty of m Spain, 162 Alp Arslan, Sultan, defeats the Em- peror Romanos at Manzikert, 164 Alphabet, originally Phcenician, 23 Alsace, see Elsass Alva, Duke of, his government in the Netherlands, 268 Amadeus, Duke of Aosta, King of Spain, 375 ; abdicatM, tf . Ambrose, Samt, Archbishop of liulan, submission of Theodosius, to, 104 America, discovery of, 386 ; origin of its name, ib. ; Spanish settlements in, 287; Frencn, English, and, Dutch settlements in, 289-290 ; 313 ; American War of Independ- ence, 323; revolts of the Spanish colonies, 381 Amerigo Vespncd gives his name to the New World, a86 Amiens, Peace of, 343, 355 Amphiktionic Council, 40 ; Philip made member of, ib. Amurath I., Sultan, takes Hadrian* ople, 235 Amurath II., Sultan, union of thr Ottoman monarchy under, 236} besieges Constantinople, ib. ; defeats Wladislaus of Poland, 341 Anabaptists, revolts of, in Germany, •63 Andriskos, heads the Macedonian re^ volt against Rome, 67; defeat ^(^ tb. Angevin dimasty in En^ .^nd, z6r. Angles, a Low-Dutch tribe, 113 ; give their name to England, ib. Angora, battle of, 236 Anne, Empress of Russia, 339 Anne, Queen of England, union o£ England and Scotland under, 302 Anne of Britanny, her marriages, 264 Auson, Lord, 322 Antalkidas, Peace of, 38 Antigonos Dosdn, King of Macedonia, helps the Achaians, 48 Antigonos Gonatas, King of Mace- donia,* 45 Antioch, its foundation, 42 ; capital of the Seleukid kingdom, 69 ; won back to the Eastern Empire, 151 Antiochos the Great, nelps the ^to- lians, 67 ; defeated by the Romans at liiermopylai, ib. ; at MagnSsia, 68 Antipatros, Macedonian general takes Athens, 44 Antoninus, x^^ Alexander S»ev«nK Antoninus, see Caracalla Antoninus Pius, Emperor, 89 Antonius, Marcus, Triumvir, 8z ; dvil war of with Brutus and Cassius, ^.\. makes war on the Parthians, U>.\ influence of Kleopatra on, ib ; his dvit war of with Caaar, it.; his defeat and de^ih of, ib. Apennines, the, 31 INDBX. ^ ApoUdn, Philip of Macedonia declares himself chamiiion of, 3^ ApoUdnia, submission of to Rome, 65 Aqus Sextiae, Roman colony of, 71 ; defeat of the Teutones near, 7a Aquiuine, early inhabitants of, 71; part of the Spanish kingdom of the West-Goths, 106 ; conquered by the Franks, 107; Romance speech of, zio; part of the dominions of Charles the Great, 133 ; duchy ot X39 ; seized by Philip the Fair, 335 ; rule of the Black Prince in, 336 : French conquest of, 326, 228 Arabs, a Semitic nation, 7 ; see Sara- cens Arados, see Arvad An^on« kingdom of, its erowth, i6a ; House of, reigns in Sicily, 302 ; con- quests of her Icings over the Ma- hometans, 304 ; umon of Sicily with, 334, 838 ; relations of, with Naples, ib. ; war of, with Provence and France, ib. ; union of Castile with, 339, see Castile and Aragon Aratos, frees Sikydn, 47 ; leader of the Achaian League, ^. Arb§la, battle of, 41^ Arcadius, Emperor in the £ast,io4 Archangel, port of, 278, 328 Architecture in the i ith century, z6o, x66 ; in the 12th and 13th centuries, 308 ; in the 13th, X4th,and zsth cen- turies 342 Ardeshir, see Artaxerxes Argos, its early greatness, 27; joins tne Confederacy against Sparta, 38 ; besieged by Pyrrhos, 45; joina the Achaian League, 47 Aria, see Iran AristddSs the Just, 34 * Aristocracy, meaning of the word, 29 Aristophanes, comic poet, 35 Arkadia, League of, 39 Anus, doctrine of, 100 ; Teutonic na- tions become followers of, 102, Z03 Ailes, see Burgundy Armada, the Spanish, 25^, 374 Annies, standing, beginnmg and cause of, 247 Arminius, victory of over the Romans, 85 Armorica, British settlement in, X33 ; called Britanny, ib. Amulf, King of the East -Franks and Emperor, Z37 A/pinum, birth-place of Marius, 75 Arras,' treaty of, 232 ArsakSs, founds the kingdom of Par- thM,68 Art. highest development of found in the AryaA nations of Europe, s; Roman. 85 ; state of in the 13th, 14th, and Z5tn centuries, 24X ; influence of, on modern Europe, 346 ; la the z6th and Z7th centuries, 390 ArtaxerxSs, Kin^ of Persia, helps the Athenians against Sparta, 38 Artaxerxes, founds the Sassanid d]r- nasty, 93 Arthur of Britanny, son of Geoflfreyt death of, attributed to John, xgo Artois, part of the county of, annexed to France, 354 ; freed from homage. Arts, mechanical state of among primi* tive Aryans, 4 _ Arvad, a Phoenician city, 33 Aryan, use of the word, 3; its origin, 8 Aryan nations of Europe, 3, 3 ; con- nexion among their languages, 4; early state of, before their disper- sion, ih.\ their advances in religion and government, 5, 6 ; movements of, in Europe and Asia, 9; order of their coming into Europe, Z3, z6; encroached on by the Turanians, ib. , strugi^le between them and the Tura- nians^ m Euroi)e, Z05 Ashanti war, the, 379 Ashk, see Arsakes Asia, south-western, chief seat of the Semitic nations, 7; extent of the Turanians in, 8; Aryan settle- ments in, 9, 20 ; its geographical character, 10; Greek colonies in, 28, 31, 33 ; conquests of Alex- ander in, 42 ; Macedonian king- doms, 43, 68 ; Gaulish settle- ment in, 44 ; first Roman Pro- vince in, 65 ; spread of Maliome- tanism in, 122 ; Saracen conquests in, 123: extent of the Eastern Em- pire in, under the Macedonian Emperors, 150; power of the Seljuk Turks in, 163; ravages and con- quests of the Moguls in, 205, 206 ; rise of the Ottomans in, 234 ; rise of Timour in, 235 ; Russian dominion in, 285 Asia Minor, Greek colonies in, a^, ^z ; Persian dominion in, 33 ; submission of the Greek cities in, to Xerx€si 34 ; the Persians driven out of, ib. \ latter part of the Peloponnesian war carried on in, 36 ; campaigns of Agesilaos of Sparta in, 37 ; cession of the Greeks in to Persia, 38; Macedonian kingdoms in, 43; Roman dominion in, 68, 69 ; Seljuk power in. X64 i C C 2 ill'i itt WDSX. Auembly, national, common among Aryan peoples, 6, 38, 56, 73; Roman, becomes too large, 74 ; eflccts of the feudal tenures on, 175; nature of in France, 193, 194 ; in England, Astolf, King of the Lombards, 127 Astrakhan, taken by Ivan the Fourth, 378 Athaulf, King of the West Goths, begins the Gothic kingdom In Gaul and Spain, 104. Athens, commonwealth of, 37 j tyranny of Peisistratos, 30 ; reforms of Soldn 31 : expulsion of Hippias, 33 ; head of the League against Persia, 34 ; greatness ofunder Periklfts, 35: wars with Persia, id. ; war with Sparta, ii.l expedition to Syracuse, 36 ; sur- readers to Lysendros, ii»; govern- ment and expulsion of the Thirty, »J. ; second war with Sparta, 38 ; par- tial restoration of her power, 39 ; war with Philip, 40; surrenders to Antipatros, 44 ; in alliance with Rome 86 ; Duchv of, 199 Attalos the First, King of Pergamos, kelps Rome against Macedonia. 66 ; Attalos the Tliird, leaves his king- dom to the Romans, 69 Attila, King of the Huns ; defeated at Chalons, 105 Augsburg Confession, 363 ; Peace of, Augustine, Saint, his mission to Britain, 141 4tu^sius, title of, given to Roman Emperors, 81, isi Augustus Cssar, (Caius Julius Oesar Octavianus) Triumvir, 81 ; defeats Antonius and Kleopatra, tl>. ; his special title of Augustus, id. ; his reign, 84 ; literature and art under, 85 Augustus the Strong, Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, wins back Kaminiec from the Turks, 310; his deposition and restoration, iS. ; death, 319 Augustus III., King of Poland, 329 Aurelian, Emperor, 92 ; overthrows the kingdom of Palniyra, 93 Aurelius Marcus, Emperor, 89 ; his wars with the Germans, 90 ; his writings, ii>. Aurungzebe, Mogul Emperor in India, decline of the Empire under, 312 ; revolt of the Mahrattas from, i6. Austerlitz, battle of, 348 Australia, beginning of colonization in, 336 ; Lnglish in, 359 Austria, origin of the Duchyi 147; grant of to Albert of Habsburg, 313 ; many of its Dukes chosen Em- perors, 214; early dealings with owiss League, 230 ; dynasty of hs Spain, 354 ; Its Archdukes Kings of Hungary, 379 ; its power, 304 ; rivalry with Prussia, 317 ; loss of Italian dominions, 319 ; wars undet Charles the Sixth 318 ; with Prussia, 320, w ', Genoese revolt against, 337; share of, in the final partition of Poland, 330 ; wars with Buonapvte, 346, 348, 350 ; dominion of in Italy, 353, 370; war with France, 367 ; with Prussia, 369; finti loss of her Italian dominions, 370, 317; relations with Hungary, 372 Austrian Succession, War of the, 330, 33a Avars, wars of the Empire with, xso^ 135 Avignon, become the seat of Popedom, 215; seized by Lewis XIV., 398; French annexation of, 341 Aaov, conquered by Peter the QrtU, 328 Baber, his reign and descendants, 3x1 Babylon, taken by Cyrus, 33; death of Alexander at, 41 Babylonish Captivity, meaning of the name, 215 Bagdad, capital of the Abbassides, 131 ; taken by the Moguls, 206 Bajazet the Thunderbolt, Sultan, growth of the Turkish power imder, 335; defeated by Timour, 336; de- feats Siegmund at Nikopolis, 241 Bajazet II., iultan. 237, 278 Baldwin, Count of Flanders, goes on the Fourth Crusade, iq8; made Emperor of Constantinople, i^ Baltic Sea, answers to the Mediterra- nean in Northern Europe, 10 Barbarians, meaning of the name, 36; settlements of within the Empire, loa Barcelona, County of, 139 Bartholomew, Saint, massacre of, 367 Basel, Council of, 217, 218 Basil L, Eastern Emperor, reign of, 150 Basil II., Eastern Emperor, 150; power of the Empire under, 151 ; overthrows the Bulgarian kingdom, id. Basques, remnant of the noD'Aryan people of Europe, 8, 13 m moBX. Hatavian Republic, 354 Batavians, revolt of, against Rome, 8b Batou Khan, Mogul invasions of Eu- rope under, 205 Bavaria, under Charles the Great, 133 ; Mrar of succession to, 321; Begging Friars, preaching of WycIifTe against, 2x7 Belgium, kingdom of, 268, 376, 'see Netherlands Belgrade, Mahomet II. repulsed from, 341 ; taken by Suleiman. 279 ; ceded to Austria, 304 ; restored to Turkey, ^32 ; Peace of, ib. Beusarius, his Persian campaigns, 118; ends the Vandal kingdom in Africa, »&. ; his wars with the Goths in Italy, ib. Bender, Charles XII. takes shelter at, 308. Beaedict,^ Saint, founder of western monasticism, 179 , Benedict XIII., Pope, 217 Benedict XIV., Pope, 328 Beneventum, Pyrrhos defeated at, 61 Berengar, King of Italy, submits to Otto the Great, 148 Bern joins the Confederates, 230 ; follows the teaching of Zwingli, 271 ; her alliance with Geneva, ib. ; her conquests, ib. Bemadotte, chosen Crown Prince of Sweden, 356; see Charles XIV. of Sweden Bernard, Saint, preaches the Second Crusade, T05 Bemhard of Weimar, his share in the Thirty Years' War, 281 Bcsan9aD, annexed by Lewis XIV., Bithynia, kingdom of, 44 Blake, Admiral, 300 Boeotian League, character of, 46 Bohemia, origin of, 133 ; its relations to the Empire, 147, 171, 172 ; Hus- site war in, 217 ; Frederick, Elector Palatine, King of, 280 Bombay, English settlement of, 313 Boniface, Apostle of Germany, 141 Boniface, Marquess of Montferrat, goes on the Fourth Crusade, 198 B'oniface VIII., Pope, reign and death of, 215 Boulogne, English conquest of, 265, 273 Bourdeaux, rule of the Black Prince at, 226 Bourses, 227 Houvmes, battle of, 191 Bragajua, Portuguese dynasty of, 254 tSrandenburg, Electorate of, 977, 283, 30^. see Prussia Brazil, Portuguese colony, 290; its separation from Portugal, 383 Bremen, Commonwealth of, 183 ; Bishoprick of, annexed to Sweden, 282 ; to Hanover, 309 Bresse, annexed to F*- uce, 378 Bretigny, Peace ul, 226 Bretwalaa, meaning of the name, 141 Britain, its inhabitants, 79, 112 ; cam- paigns of Caesar in, 79; Roman conquest of, 87-89; Picts and Scets invade the Roman province, 112 ; first Saxon invasion, 1x3 ; Roman troops withdrawn from, ib. ; English conquest of. ib. ; settlement of tV Knglisn in, x-jo; of the North- men, x^2 ; the English kings become Lords of, 144 ; destruction of Roman towns in, 182 Britain, Lesser, see Britanny. Britanny, origin of the name, 133; Duchy of« annexed to France, 264 ; popular speech of, t^. Bruce, Robert, separation of ScotUtnd from England under, 224 Brutus, Marcus Junius, conspires with Cassius and kills Ceesar, 80; de- feated at Philippi, 81 Buda, Turkish pashalic at, 979 Building, knowledge of, among primi- tive Aryans, 4 Bulgaria, kingdom of, zsx ; conquered by Basil 11.^ ib. ; converted to Christianity, 153 ; revolts against the Empire, X98 ; conquered by the Turks, 23s Buonaparte, Napoleon, rise of, 342: his wars in Italy, ib. ; in Switzerland and Egypt, 343 ; Consul, ib. ; reigns as Emperor of the French and King of Jtaly, 344 ; his war with England, ib. ; his dependent kings, 346 ; invades Russia, ib. ; general alliance against, ib. ; his fall, 347 ; his return from Elba and final overthrow, ib. Buonaparte, Louis Napoleon, his early career, 366 ; chosen President of the Republic, ib. ; reigns as President for ten years, ib. ; as Emperor, 367 ; his wars with Russia and Austria, ib. ; his dealings with Italy, ib. ; his war with Prussia, ib.; his death ib. Buonaparte, Jerome, King of West- phalia, 349 Buonaparte, Joseph, King of Spain, 346 Buonaparte, Lewis, King of HoUanJi 354 "if m m 'fel m AVMJf. Bursundians, settlement of, iu Gaul» i(i6 Burgitndy, County of, temporary an- nexation of, by France, 328; part of the dominions of Charles the Bold, 233 ; of Charles V. , 35a ; conquered by Lewis XIV., 295 Bun;undy, Duchy of, 1^9; beginning of the Valois Dukes of, 331 ; growth of their power within the Empire, 333 ; united to France, 333 Burgundy, Kinedom of, 136, 137 ; its union with the Empire, 155 ; rela- tions of, with France, 193; broken up, 311 ; the greater part annexed to France, 349 Burgundy, various meanings of the name, 331 B3fzantion, 44 ; keeps its independence, 44 ; the capital of Empire removed C. Cabot, Sebastian, discovers the main bnd of America, 386 Cadiz, see Gades Casar, title of, 81, 96 Caesar, Caius Julius Octavianus, see Augustus Ca»ar Csesar, Caius Julius, his birth and cha- racter, 78; his conquests in Gaul. «5. ; his campaigns in Germany and Britain, 79 ; nis civil war with Pom- peius, 79, 80; his dictatorship and death, 80 ; his writings, 86 Caius Csesar, sumamed Caligula, Emperor, 87 Calais, English conquest of, 335 ; re- taken by the French. 265, 273 Calcutta. English settlement at, 3x3 ; taken by Suraj-ad-dowla, 334 Caliph, meaning of the word, 122 Caliphate, Eastern, beginning of, us ; division of, 125, 131 ; decay of, in loth century, 164 Caliphate, Western, begianing of, 133 ; end of, 162 Calmar, union of, 339 Calvin, John, his German followers 264 ; teaching of, 266 ; his settlement at Geneva, 372 Cambray, Lea 1, tie of, 256 Camillas, Marcus Furius, Dictator, takes Veii, 58 Canaanites, native name of the Phoe- nicians, 22 Canada, French settlement of, 389 ; EngliJ^ conquest of, 335 ; French RMlUonan, 378 Candia, war of, «j6 Cannse, battle of, 64 Canute, see Cnut Cape of Good Hope, Portuguese du* co/ery of, 338 ; ceded to England, 359 ,. Capitoline Hill, Sabine settlement on, 55 Caracalla, Emperor, ^i, 93 ; exten- sion of Roman citizenship under 9a Carelia, Russian annexation of, 330 Carlist wars in Spain, 375 Carolina, firstcolonizedoy Huguenots, 389; English settlement of, 3x4: Sout V secession o( from ITmtea Sta« -a, 38a Carle >^itz, Peace of, 304, 307 Carthage, Phoenician colony of, 33, 61 ; treaty of Rome with, 58 ; extent of her power, 61 ; difference between her warfare and that of Rome, 63; her navui superiority, i6. ; her wars with Rome, 63— -i65 ; her fleet defeated by the Romans, 6^; her Sicilian possessions ceded to Rome, id. ; her dominion in Spain. 64, 70 ; becomes dependent on Rome, 64 ; taken and destroyed by younger Scipio, 65 ; restored as a Roman colony by Cxsar, 83 ; capital of the Vandal . k ingdom in Africa, 1x7; taken by the Saracens, 133 Casimir IV. of Poland, annexes West* em Prussia, 240 Cassius, Caius, conspires with Brutus against Caesar, 60; defeated at Philippi, 8x Castile, united with Leon under Alfonso VI., 163 ; separated from Leon, 304 ; reunited, td. ; campaign of the Black Prince in, 337 ; union of, with Aragon, 339 Catalans, revolt of, against John ot Aragon, 238 CSteau-Cambresis, Peace of, 365 Catharine|of Medici, her influence over her sons, 266 Catharine I., Empress of Russia^ ^329 Catharine II., Empress of Russia, suC' ceeds Peter III., 329 ; her conquest of Crim Tartary under, ii. ; her hhare in the partitions of Poland, 330 ; death of, 357 Cato, Marcus Porcius, 78 Catullus, Roman poet, 86 Catulus, Caius Lutatius, defeats the Carthaginians by sea, 63 Cavaignac, General, administration of. 3^ INDEX. 391 Cavour, Count, his! share iu the union of Italy, 371 CaTenne, French colony of, 289, 366 Cetts, th« earliest Aryan settlers in Western Europe, 13 ; remains of th«r languages, 13, 133 ; their place nt history, 16; their settlements in Spain, 70 ; in Britain, 112 Ceylon, 313 ; acquired by the English, Cnairdneia, victory of Philip at, 40 ; ▼ictorv of Sulla at, 77 Chalk€aon, Persian armies encamp at, ChaUddikfi, peninsula of, conquered bv Philip, 40 Chflloos, battle of, 105 Charlemagne, see Charles the Great Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, reign and abdication of, 370 Charles, Duke of Lorraine, delivers Vienna from the Turks, 304 Charles Edward Stuart, (the Young Pretender) attempt of, 323 Charles Emmanuel, Duke of Savoy,272 Charles Emmanuel the Third, Duke of Savoy and King of Sardinia, his ex- change of kingdunis with Charles VI., 318 ; his share in the war of the Polish succession, 319 Charles Martel defeats the Saracens at Tours, 125 ; mayor of the palace, X38 Charles of Aniou, conquers the king- . dom of Sicily, 201, 202 ; loses the island, 20a Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, his rivalry with Lewis XL, 233 ; His schemes and conquests, ib. ; his war with the Confederates, 233 ; death Charles the Great, conq^uers Lom- bardy, 128: his titles, tb.\ elected Emperor, to. ; extent of his empire, 133 ; his death, 135 Charles the Bald, King of the West Franks ami Emperor, 135 ; his king- dom, 136 Charles the tat, Emperor, union of the Frankish kingdoms under, 136 ; de- posed, ib. Charles uie Simple, King of the West- Franks, his grant to Rolf, 145 Charles IV., Emperor, crowned King of Burgundy, 213; his Golden Bull, ib. ; present at the battle of Crecy, 226 Charles V., Emperor (the First of SpainX his pedigree, 252 ; extent of his possessions, t^. ; abdication of, aS4; overdurows die liberties of Castile, 255 ; his wart In Italy, asj makes peace with Francis, 358 crowned at Bologna, ib. ; his deal- ings with the reformers, 263 ; gives Malta to the Knights of Saint Jofan« 279 ; takes Tunis, 280 Charles VI., Emperor, 304; becomes King of the Two Sicilies, 318 ; his Pragmatic Sanction, ib. ; his wars, 319; death of, 320 Charles VII., Emperor (Elector ot Bavaria), disputes the claims of Maria Theresa, 330; his election and death, ib. Charles I. of England, execution of, 275, 300 Charles IL of England, restoration of, 300 ; his intrigues with Lewis XIV., 301 ; joins with him against Holland, ib. Charles V. of France, breaks the Peaok of Bretigny, 226 ; his title of Dau- phin, 22S Charles VI. of France, 227 Charles VII. of France, crowned at Rheims, 227 ; murders John the Fearless, 232 Charles VIII. of France, his conquest and loss of Italy, 255 ; marries Anne of Britanny, 264 Charles IX. of France, 266 Charles X. of France, illegal acts and deposition of, 365^ Charles I. of Spain, see Charles V., Emperor Charles II. of Spain, part of his da- minions claimed by_ Lewis XIV.. 295 ; his alliance with the United Provinces, 296 ; death of, 29H Charles III. of Spain, King of the Two Sicilies, 327; rise of Spain under, 353 Charles IV. of Spain, 353 ; abdication of, ib. Charles X of Sweden, 308 Charles XL of Sweden, greatest eK> tent of the power of Sweden under^ 308; Sweden becomes an absolute monarchy under, ib. Charles XII. oi Sweden, exploits and death of, 308 ; abets the attempt of the Old Pretender, 323 Charles XI 1 1, of Sweden, 356 Charles XIV. of Sweden., 378 Charles XV. of Sweden, 378 Charlotte, Princess of England, 376 Charter, the Great, wrested from J olm, 193 Chatham, William Pitt, Earl of, 323 ^ Chaucer, GeoflFrey, influence 01 Ott works un ihc English language 84a ■'1: w. m M {!• m mbMk. Chauvin, se« Catvtn Chili separates from Spain, 381 Chilpenc, King of the Franks, dcpo* •ition of, 128 Chlodwig, King of the Franks, 106 ; made Roman Consul, 117 ; his de- scendants, 127 Chorasmians, Jerusalem taken by, 197, ao6 Chosroes, or Nushirvan. greatness of Persia under, 118 Chosroes II., his conquests from the Empire, 120 Christian I. of Dennirk, 239 Christian II., hLs reign in Norway, Denmark and Sweden, 075 ; driven out of, ib. Christian IV. of Denmark and Nor- way, 976 ; his share in the Thirty Years' War, 280, a8i CLrjstian IX. of Denmark, 377 Qurutina, Queen of Sweden, annex- ations under, 276 ; her abdication, 308 Christianity, origin of, 94, 121 ; its growth and i>ersecutions, 95 : its establishment in the Empire, 100; various forms of, zoi ; early dis- putes, TOO, zoi, 121 ; conversion of European nations to, 151, 153 ; spread of, in the zoth century, 177 Chrjrsostom, see John Church, General Councils of, xoo, xt6; Eastern, condition of, 1x5; Iconoclastic controversies inj 127; Eastern and Western, disputes between, 149, 151 ; Western, how affected by the Teutonic settle- ments, 169; theory of the. ideal powers of the Popes, ib. ; Eastern and Western, further division be- tween, 177, 178; reconciliation be- tween Eastern and Western, 218; changed relations between the Church and the Empire, 247 ; Eas- tern, modern importance of, 248, 333 Cicero^ Marcus Tullius, 78 ; 86 Cimbn, invade Gaul, 72; defeated at Vercella, ib. Cimbric ChersonSsos. see Jutland Cjsalpine Republic, 352 ' Cistercians, order of, itq Cities, greatness of, in Italy, 183 Citizen^ip, 55, 60 Civil Law, Origin of, 89; Code of, compiled by Justinian, 1 17 ; study of, in Middle Ages, 170, 173, 219 Cla'i •'ii, Emperors ot tneii house, 86 Ciftudius, Eiupei'ur, chosen by the ClauHiits Oothicus, tt»r'>#ror, 9I) ^; his victory over the i.> tlis, 94 Clement HI., Pope, crowns Henry IV. Emperor, 156 Clement V. , Pope, his subservience to Philip the Fair, 215 ; moves his Court to Avignon, ib. ; joins with Philip to destroy the order of the Templars, if>. Clement VI., Pope, deposes Lewis of Bavaria, 213 Cisalpine Oaul, 51; Roman conquest of, 6c,, 7c demerit VII., Anti-Pope, see Robert of Geneva Clement VII., Pope, 258; makes peace with Charles V., ii. ; his policy, 260 Qemeat XIV., Pope, suppresses the Jesuits, 328 Clergy, marriage of, forbidden by Gre- gory VII. 157 ; position of, in Middle Ages, 178, 179 ; distinction between regular and secular, 170 ; learning in the West chiefly in their hands, z8o; one of the three Estates, 193 Clermont, Council of, 165 Clive, Lord, career of, 334 ClovLs, see Chlodwig Cnut, his conquest of England, xsas his northern dominion, io. Cola di Rienzi, see Rienzi Colleges founded in English Unifsi^ sities, 24 z Cologne, see KOln Colonies. Phoenician, extent of, aa, as, 70; Greek, extent of, 23, 25, ^o; their relation to the mother cities, 87, 284; their early prosperity 28, 33; their difTerence from Enropean colo- onies, 264, see European Colonies Columbus, Christopher, his discovery of the New World, 286 Commodus, Emperor, 90 Commons, one of the three E^tates^ 193 ; House of, see Parliament Commons of Rome, see Plebeians Commonwealths, German, xSa, 183; Italian, 183 ; 219 — 223 Commune, of Paris, 368 Como, oppressed by Milan, 186 ; seela help 01 Frederick Darbarossa^ ib. Cond^, Prince of, his share m thi Thirty Years' War, 282 Confederate States of North America, 382 Confederates, see Swiss League Conrad II., Emperor, first of the Fnmconian dynasty, 155 ; unites Burgundy with the Empire, ii. M. }m£x. i^ Conrad, ion of Henry IV., war of, with nis father, 156 Conrad III., King, 185; goes on the Second Crusade, 186, igs ; makes a League with the Empetur Manuel, 186 Conrad IV., King, son of Frederick 11., 189 Conrad in, attempts to win back Sicily, aoa ; his defeat and death, iA. Constance, see Constanz Constance of Britaiiuy, mother o< Arthur, 190 Constance, wife of Henry VI., £m> peror, 187 Const:<>"Mie the Great, first Christian £111, . r, 97,; union of the Empire under, id. ; moves his capital to iiy- zantion or New Rome, 99; his changes in the government, i/>. ; division of his dominions, td. ; his baptism, zoo ; calls the Council of Nikala, ii. Constantino Koprdnymos, Emperor, reign of, 126 Constantine VI., Emperor, deposition of, laS Constantine Palaiologos, last East- ern Emperor, his reconciliation with the Western Church, 336; his defence of Constantinople, and death, 337 Constantinople, becomes the capital of the Empire, 99 ; Greex influence in, i6. ; Saracen sieges of, 133 ; Rome becomes independhent of, 138 ; Latin conquest of, 198, 199 ; won back by Michael Palaiologos, 199; besieged by Amurath II., 236 ; by Mahomet, II., $i. ; becomes capital of the Ottoman Empire, 237 Constantius, Emperor, father of Con- stantine the Great, 98 Constantius, Emperor, son of Constan- tine the Great, reunion of the Em- pire under, 99 (^onstanz. Peace of, granted by Frede- rick I., 187 ; Counc I of, 217 Constitution of England, 6 ; 175 ; 192, «93 , . Consuls, power of the Roman kmgs transferred to, 57 ; Plebeians first chosen, 58 Copenhagen, Treaty of, 308 ; bombard- ment of, 340 Cordova, Ommiad dynasty founded at, 13« ; seat of the Western Caliphate, a. Corfu, Venetian possession of, 237, 859 ; attacked by the Turks, ^07 Cvintbf early foundation of, sj ; ioina the Confederacy againftt Spnrta, j8 ; Alexander's synod at, ^o; jviiiis tha Achaian League, 46 ; destroyed by Mummius, 67 Corsica, its ancient inhabitants, 51 ; subject to Carthage, 6z ; ceded to Rome, 64 ; its relauons to the East- ern Empire, 118, za6; revolt of, against Genoa, 335 ; annexed to France, ib., 327 Cortex, Hernando, his conquest •£ Mexico, 387 Corvinus, Matthias, Ki-*" ' ' utgary, 241 Comwallis, Marquess,, his administra- tion in India, 391 Cosmo de' M edict, see Media Council, nature of, among Aryan nn> tions, 6, 172 Councils of the Church, sff Church Courtray, battle of, 339 ; why famous* it. Cracow, Commonwealth of, 358 ; s«|y' pression of, 375 Crassus, Marcus Licinius, defeated and lulled by the Parlhians, 77 Crecy, battle of, 235 Crete, Saracen conquest of in, 1^9; won back to the Eastern Empire, Z51 ; Venetian possession of, 337, 359 ; conquered oy the Turks, 306 ; their conquest of, i6 Crimea, 378 ; Russian conquest of, 339 ; war in, 367, 374, 378 Crnesus, King of Lydia, conquers the Greeks on the coast of Asia, 33; conquered by Cyrtis, ib. Cromwell, Oliver. Protector, greatness of England under, 300 Crusade, First, preached by Peter (he Hermit and Urban II., 165 ; taking of Jerusalem, id. Crusade, Second, preached by Saint Bernard, 195 Crusade, Third, I96 Crusade, Fourth, chararter of, 197, 300; taking of Constantinople, Crusades, be^nning and causes of, 163 ; meanmg of the ^ name, 165^ : effects of, 166, 195 ; againsLihe Albi- genses, 200 ; against SiAly, aoi ; in the north of Europe, aoa Cuba, 381 Curland, Duchy of, 277 Culloden, battle of, 323 Cj'prus, Phoenician settlements in, 23 ; Greek settlements in, 25, 27 ; sepa* rate Empire in, 19S ; subject to Venice, 337 ; conquered by IIm Turks, 359, a8o im m m Cj INDEX. Kkig of Persia, his conqucHts of Babylon and Ly^ia, 331 ; of the Oracle settlements in Asia, ib, Ciar. origin of the name, 378 Csocns, 133 Cwrnagora, ut Montenegro, 358 D. Dacta, wars of, with Rome, 89 ; made m province of by Trajan, oi ; eiven up b^ Aurelian, 94 : Gothic king- dom in, 103 ; Romance language of, III Damascus, capital of theOmmiads, i3|i Dandolo^ Henry, Doge of Venice, his share m the K>urth crusade. 198 Danes, their relations with Charles the Great, 133 ; their ravages and settle- ments oC 14a ; conquer Northern England, 143 ; their wars with Alfred, ib. ; their settlements in Gaul, 144, 145 ; their final conquest of England, 153 Dante Alighieri, fixes the standard of the Italian language, 181 ; his atti- tude towards the Empire, 219 ; his birth and death. 23a Danube, Roman boundary crossed by the Goths, 83, 103 Darius, Kins of Persia, his expedition against Athens, 33 DoMfhin^ origin of the title, 338 David II., Kmg of Scots, captire in England, 336 Davis, Jefferson, President of Con- federate States, 383 Deccan, the, 9 Dedns, Emperor, persecutions of Christians under, 95 Delaware Bay, Swedish colony of, 913 ; Dutch conquest of. ib. Demitrios Poliorketds, King of Mace- donia, 4S Democracy, meaning of the word, 29 Demosthenes, stirs up the Athenians against Macedonia, 40, 44 Denmark, greatness of, 173, 303 ; its decline in the 13th century, 339; reign of the House of Oldenburg in, ib. ; its relations with Sleswick and Hnlstein, ib. \ its separation, from Sweden, 375 ; accepts the Refor- mation in, 276 ; wars of, with Liibcck, ib.\ cedes Scania to Sweden, 308 ; becomes an absolute monarchy, tb. : Sleswick and Holstein united with, 33 ; her exchange of territory in 1814, 337 ; becomes a constitu- tionai state, 377; loss of the Duchies, Dermot, Irish King, 194^ De Ruyter, Dutch admiral, jeo De Witts, murdered, 308 Dictator, his office at Rome, extant of his power, 58 Diet, German, in Middle Agei, 176 Dijon, capital of the Duchy of Bur- gundy, 139 Diocletian, Emperor, his division of the Empire, 96 ; his abdication, ih. ; persecution of the Christians under, 97 Dionysios, Tyrant of Ssrracuse, 61 Directory in Prance, 34a Ditmarschen conquered by Denmark, 976 Dominic, Saint, founder of the Do- minicans, 179 Dominicans attacked by WickliiTe, 917 Domingo, Saint, iet Hayti Domitian, Emperor, 88, 89 Dorians, their migration, 31 Drusus, campaigns of, in Germany, 85 Dunkirk, cession of, to England, 283 ; sold by Charles II. to France, 301 Dupleix, governor of Pondicherry, 333 Dutch, settlements of High and Low, XI3 Dutch colonies in America, agc^, 3x3 ; in India, 313 E. Eadgyth, see Edith Ear, a common Aryan word. 5 East, the, character of its nistory, a, 83; prevalence of Mahometamsm in, 133 East-Angles, kingdom of, 14X East-Saxons, kingdom of, 141 Eastern Caliphate, see Caliphate, Eastern Eastern Church, see Church Eastern Empire, separated from the Western, 129—131 ; its greatness under the Basilian dynasty, 150, 151 * Slavonic invasions, ib^ ; decline o£ its power, 163 ; cut short by the Seljuk Turks, 164 ; its revival under the KomnSniah dynasty, ib.^ 198 ; becomes practically Greek, 171 ; uncertainty of succession in, 177 ; its decline, 198 ; its restoration,^ 199 ; becomes more strictly hereditary, 199, 200: its advance and decline \x\ 14th century, 234 ; end of, 237 Eastern Mark, see Austria East India Company, its beginning and growth, 31 1, 312, 333 ; its powen tnusferrod to the Crown, 334, 379 mDBX, m HcRWr^t, Kir.ii of t!ic West Saxuiu, lus .suuMmacVi 143 £dgar, King of the Englisbf reign, of, Bdith, daughter of Edward the Elder, marries Otto the Greats x^a Edmund. Magnificent, King of the English, his wars with the Danes, >44 Edmund Ironstd^ King of the Eng- lish, his wars with Cnut, 152 Edmund, son of Henry III. of Eng- land, crown of Sicily offered to, aox Edward the Elder^ King of the Eog^ lish, his wars with the Danes, 144 ; t receives the homage .of all Brit&in. a. Edward the Confe&sor, King of the English, son of* iii^thelred, 15^ ; his alliance with the Emperor Henry II., 156; la^ of tile West-Saxon dynasty, 158, 1-59 Edward I. of England, his crusade, 107; his conquest of Wales and Scotland, 224 Edward II. of England, 225 Edward III. his claim to the French crown, J5 ; . his alliance with the Emperur Lewis, ib. ; gives up and re-asserts his c|aims, 226 Edward VL of England, 273^ Edward the Black Prince, his rule at Bourdeaux, 226; restores Peter of Castile's crown, 238 Egbert, tee Ecgberht Eginhard, his hfe of Charles the Oreati 145 Egypt.submits to Alexander the Great, 41 ; rule of the Ptolemies in, 43, 73 ; Roman conquest of, 81 ; Saracen conquest of, 123 ; separate Calijphate bit 164, 19s \ ^recovered by Safadin, igiS ; campaign of Saint Lewis in, 197 ; annexed by Sultan Selim, 279 ; campaign of Buonaparte in, 343; its aiodem relation to Turkey, 373 Eirfin§t deposes Constantine VI., 128 Elaeabalus, Emperor, takes the names of Aurehus and Antoninus, 92 Elba, Buonaparte exiled to, 347; his Ktum. from, ib. Eleanor of Aquitaine, wife of Henry II. of England, 161 Electors of the Empire, origin of, 176 Elizabeth, Empress of Russia, ^29 Elizabeth, Queen of England, final settlement of the Reformation under, 973 ; conspiracies against, 274 ; her war with Philip, ib. Elizabeth of Parma, wife of Philip V. ofSpaini3X9 Elizabeth, daughter of jauies I. ol England, married to Frederick* Elector Palatine, a8i Elsass, French annexations of, iSj* 286, 325, 341 ; given back to Ger- many, 368 Emmanuel Filibert, Duko ol 8afoy« 272 Emperor-elect, title of, 261 Empire, Roman, tet Roman Empire Empire, Eastern, see Jb^astern Empire Empire, Western, lee Western Empire England, foundation of th(t kingdom of, X44; its connexion with th« Western Empire, 152 ; Danish con* Suest of, ib. ; restoration of West* axon Dynasty, 153 ; Nomun con- quest of, 158, x6o; relatbns with France, 160, 289 ; growth of Feudal ideas in, 174, 175 ; growth of its con- stitution, 192, 194 : its connexion with Ireland, 194, 195 ; final union of Wales with, 224 ; relations with Scotland and France, 325— 227 : loss of her pos.sessions in Aquitaine. 226, 227 ; historians of, 241; religious and social movements in, 242 ; decline of villainage in, ib. ; civil wars in, 279, 275 ; the Reformation in, 273 ; its later relation and union with Scot- land, 274, 275 ; its colonies, 289, 290, 3x4, 378 ; wars of, with France, 298, st99 ; greatness of, under the Par- liament and Protector's »••, 3po ; her ^ wars with the United Provinces, ib. , 301 ; degradation of, under Charle* and James, ib. ; effects of the Revo- lution in, ib- ; legislative union of Scotland with, 302 ; growth of her power in India, 3x1, 3x9, 334, 359; growth of her maritime power, 3:3 { her foreign wars, 399, 393; r«* volt of her American colonies, 393 ; her colonization in Australia, 39^, 359 ; her wars with Napoleon Buona- parte, 343« 344' 355 ; vtnth the United States, 350; with RiLssia, 378; her later wars, 379; her relations with Ireland, ib. English, the early home of, 78, X13 ; their conquest of Britain, XX3 ; its difference from other Teutonic settlements, 1 14 ; keep their own laA- guage and religion, ib. ; their kkig- doms in Briuin, 140, X4z; their conversion, X4T ; histo^ of their language, 160, 242; later settlements of, 284 EpaminCndas, restores Mess£nS; 30; killed in the battle of Mantineia, sA, fipciros, relations of its peopU to th6 \ u !' \i: &: m HfbMit. OntkMt wo, 26 ; kingship in, 98 ; its greatsess under Pyrrhos, 45 ; reck- oned as a Greek sute, i6. ; becomes a Federal conimoawealth, 48 ; helps Maoedoniaagainst Rome,66 ; Roman conquest of, 67 ; despots of, 199 Efudamnos, submits to Rome, 65 Estates, assemblies of, 19^ established in France by Philip the Fair 193, 194 Esthonia, 202 Etruria, doubtful origin of its peoptle, ^3; Confederation of, H. ; Gaulish invasion of, 58 Eugenius IV., Pope, 317; holds a council at Ferrara and Florence, 318 Eumen§s, King of Pcrgamos, 69 Euripides, 35 Europe, its geographical character, xo; its three great peninsulas, ti; settlement of the Aryans in, 12—15; its rharacteristics in modem times, 046; spread of Christianity in, 348 EvesliSiv, battle of, 194 F. Family Compact, 336 Farel, WiJUaro, 371 FatimUeS; 'heir Caliphate in Egypt, 105 ; put down by Saladin, 196 Federation, natur'^ of, 46 Ferdinand III. of Castile, finally unites Castile and Leon, 304 ; his conquests from the Mahometans, t6. Ferdinand, King of Naples 3^8 Ferdinand of Aragon, marries Isa- bella of Castile, 338 ; their conqu :st of Granada, 239; his conquest of Navarre, 253 ; his treaty with Lewis XII, 356;i^,his conquest of Naples, ii. ; joins in the League ot Cambray, id. ; his death, 257 Ferdinand VII. of Spain, 353, 375; death of, u,. Ferdinand I^ Emperor. 963 Ferdinand 11., Emperor, his successes in the Thirty Years War, 280 ; his death, 281 Ferdinand III., Emperor, 281 Ferdinand V. , of Hungary and Austria, ^371. 372 Ferrara, Coun^j'l of, 218 Feudal Tenure, origin of, 174 ; its dif- ference from allodial tenure, id. ; effects of, 174, >/s Fiefs, see Feudal Tenure Finland, Russian conquest of, 356 Fins, a remnant of the non-Aryan people of Europe, 8 Flanuninus, Titus Quinctius, proclaims th:: freedom of Crteece, 66 Flanders, Counts of, 139; afieftofthft French crown, 220: united to the Duchy of Burgundy, 23a; freed from homage to France, 258 Florence, Council of, 2x8 ; subjection of Pisa to, 321 ; constitution of, 221, 223 ; power of the Medici in* 222 ; the birthplace of Dante, id. ; gets rid of the Medici, 256 ; obliged to take them back, 257 ; siege r.nd subjuga- tion of, 259 : the Medici made Dukes of, il>. ; Sienna added to, i6. ; be* comes the temporary capital of Italy, 37» Florida, Spanish colony, 325 ; ceded t« England, id. ; given back to Spain. 336 Forest Cantons, the three, league formed by, 229 France, origin of name, 107 ; Duchy of, 139 ; beginning of the kingdom 140 ; end of her connexion with the Empire, 149 ; relations of, with England, 160, 161 ; effects of the Nor- man conquest on, ii. ; effects of the Feudal Tenures on, 176 ; the crown becomes hereditary, 177 ; relations of, with Enpland under Hfnry II., 189 ; conquest of English possessions in, X90 ; growth of the royal power ibf 191 ; advance o^ her dominion, 193; constitution ot, Z93, 194; sup* pression of Templars in, 216 ; allied with Scotland against England, 225 ; wars of, with England, 225—227 ; further extension of her dominion, 228; Duchy of Burgundy annexed to, 233, 252 ; peasant revolts in, 242 ; ac- quires Roussillon and Artois, 254; rivalry of, with Spain, 255, 257 ; ad- vance of the power of, 264 ; her annexation of Britanny, id. ; her wars with England, 265 ; wins back Calais, id. ; her wars with the Empire, id. , annexes the three Lotharingian bishopricks, id. ; her wars with Spain, 866, persecution and civil wars in, id. I dealings of, with Savoy, 272 ; her part in the Thirty Years' War, 281 ; further annexations of, 283 ; her settlement5 in America, 289; greatness of, under Lewis XIV., 294; Grand Alliance formed against, 298 ; persecutions of Protes'ants in, 299; wars of, 318, 319, 323 ; position of, in 1 8th century, ^f>4 ; ner annexations of Lorraine and C'ursica, 325 : allied with Spain against Portugal, 326; her wars with England i" India, 333, 334 ; her loss of Canada. 335 ; be» ginning of the Revolution, 341 s iNDMX. 39t< dtVided into defmrtments, Ob, \ an-< nexes Venaissin and Avi^'non, ib. ; becomes a Republic, 34s ; wars and conquests of the Revolution, ib. ; rule of Buonaparte, 343 ; extent of his Empire, 346; restoration of the Bourncns, 347 ; heyirvrth- Ameri- can possessions bought by United States, 360 ; revolutions in, 365, 366 ; late wars of, 367 ; last Republic of, Franche Comt^ see Bur^^undy FruMcia, meanings of tte name, 107, Z36 ; extent uoder Charles the Great, 133 Francis I. of France, hi» rivalry with Charles V., 257 ; his wars in Italy, ib. ; his caprivi^v and release, ib. ; makes peac« with Francis, 358 ; his conquest of Savoy, 965; character and death of, ib. Francis II. of France, reign of, 266 persecution of the Huguenots under, ib. ; marries Mary of Scotland, 874 Francis, Duke of Lorraine, marries Maria Theresa, 310; succeeds to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany ib. ; see Francis I., Emperor Francis I., Emperor, 320 Frands II., Emperor, ^i ; resigns the Imperial crown, 348 y his title of Empetor cf Austria, ib. ; President of tne German Confederation, 350 ; reign of, 371 Francis Tuseph of Austria, 372 ; crowned King of Himgary, ib. Francis, Saint, founder of the Francis- can order, 179 Franciscan Order, foundation of. 179 Franconia, origin of the name, 155 Franconian Emperors, 155 ; end of their dynasty, 156 _ Franken, see Franconia Frankiurt (am M?in), free city, 350 ; aiinexed to Prussia, 369 Franks, first heard of, 94 : their settle- ments in Gaul, '106; their advance under Chlodwig, 106, 107; their dominion in Italy, 127 ; great- ness of, under Charles the Great, 133 ; divisions of their kingdoms, 135 ; union of, under Charles tiie Fat, 136; Eastern, use of the name, 165 Franks, East, choose Amulf king, 137 ; their kingdom grows into Germany, ib. Franks, West, choose Odo king, 137 ; their kingdom grows into France, >a9 Frederick I., Emperor, sumamcd Barbarossa, 186 ; his dealixija with the Italian cities, ib. ; with the Popes, 187 ; with tlie Kings of Sicily, ib. ; with the Eastern Empire, ib. dies on the Third Crusade, ib.; 196 Frcierick II.. Emperor, his two elec- tions, z88 ; called the *' Wonder of the World," ib. ; flourishing state of SicUy under, ib. ; his dealings with Germany, Italy, and the Popes, ib. ; wins back Jerusalem, 196 ; favours Teutonic knights, 203 Frederick III., last EmpeKMr crowned at Rome, 2x4 Frederick I., King of Denmark and Norway, 276 Frederick II., ib. Frederick III. of Denmark, the king* dom becomes an absolute monarchy under, 308 Frederick VII. of Denmark grants a free constitution, 377 Frederick, Elector of Saxony, pro- tector of Luther, 262 Frederick, Elector Palatine, chosen King of Bohemia, 280; driven out, ib. Fdrderick of Aragon, King of Sicily, 224 Frederick of Austria, double election of, with Lewis of Bavaria, 213 Frederick of Swabia brother of Con- rad III., 186 Frederick William I., the Great Elec- tor of Brandenburg, 277 ; joins the league against Lewis XIV., 296 Frederick I., first King of Prussia 277. 303 Frederick William I., king Prussia, 303 Frederick II. (the Great) of Prussia, his claims to, and conquest of Silesia, 320 ; growth of Prussia under, 321 ; his share in the partition of Poland, 330 Frederick William III. of Prussia, hb annexation of Hanover, 349 Frederickshall, Charles the Twelfth killed at, 308 Freedmen obtain Roman citizenship, 74 French, DuP 3S of, 139 French, Romance speech of Northern Gaul, III, 139; use of, in England, 160, 242 ; jts mediaeval literature, 181, 241, 2yt Froissart, his history <^ the Hundrwl Years' War, 241 W INDEX Gftdes, PhoBBidan colony, 23 Galada, scttlemeat of, 44 Galba, Emperor, 88 Callienus. Emperor, 93 GanKandli, sei Qeme6t XIV. Garibaldi, 371 Gascon^, Duchy of, 139 Gaul, Cisalpine, 51 ; Roman conc^uect of, 69, 70 : inimded by Gmbri and Teutones, 71 Gaul, Traiusalpine, Greek colonies on the coast, ^s,jx', Roman Province in^ U.\ Cnsar** conquest of, 78 ; reason of Its importance, 70 ; settlement of Bw^ndians and Krenks in, xo6; Romance nations and languages in, X09— 3r:i * Saracens in, 133 ; driven out of. 1115; invasions >uid 5ettlo> mentk of Northman vri, 144; see Wnamn Gai /s, dieir invasion of Greece and Mace--a64 ; results of Peace of Au^sbum, afii ; the Thirty Years' War m. aSo, 383 : state of, after the Peace of WestphaUa, 983 ; state of literature in, 391 ; liberation ■ of,fromBuonaparte,346; effects of the French Revolution in, 347-* 349; end of the kingdom of, ^47, 348 ; con- federation of, 350 ; formation of the ZoUverein 'n, 368; revolutions in, ib.\ union &iA Empire of, 369 Ghioelin, origin ana meanf^g of the name, 186 Gian Galeazzo Visconti, se4e "Vlsconti Gibraltar, taken by the English, 399, 302 : defence of, 313 GlabT ), 'Manias Aalius, defeats Antio- ch(^ at Thermopylai, 67 Gods, names of, common to Aryan nations, 6 ; Roman and Greek con- founded, 54 Godfrey of BoulL<^e, King of Jerusa- lem, 165 Golden Bull, the, 2x4 Good I Tope, Cape of, its discovery, 385 Gothic L\nguage, 94, zia Goths, f'l.st heard of, 94 ; wars of, with Romans, ib. ; defeated by Claudius, ib. ; converted by UliUas. ib. ; ttass into the Empire, ib. ; defeat Vaiens at Hndrianoplc, £&.; their settle- ment in Dacia, 103 Goths, East, their dominion in Italy, X07, 109 ; overthrow of their king- dom, 1x8 Goths, West, take Rome, xo^ ; their kingdom in Gaul and Spam, X04, 106 ; lose and recover part of Spain, XX8, 131 Gotland, Isle, of, annexed to Sweden* 276 Gotthard Ket\Jer, Grand Master of Livonia, his cessions to Poland, 377 Government, earliest form of, among Aryan nations, 6, 38 \ forms of, in Greece, 28; in andent Rome, 54; CnSQ^ 'if ^^Qfling annies upon, 847 .•««iK'trd Alliance, the, 398 G^ramkos, battle o^ 41 Graason, battle of, 233 Gvatian, Emperor, extmction of pagan- ism under, zos, 103 Grarelines, battle of. 26$ Great Britain, kinf^dom of, 302, 323 ; revolt of the American colo- nies from, 333, 3'J5 : portion Tof, in z8th century, 334 ; Ireland united to, 35s ; )r>osses;ions abroad, 359 ; extension and increased independ- ence of her colonies. 378 ; less mter- ference of, incoLAtinental affairs, 379 : later wars of, ib.i firm tmion of, 3x3- 379 GrMt Mo^l, title of, 3x3, 379 Great Schism, 2x6 Great Interregnum, axo Greece, Aryan settlement in, Z2 ; its history earlier than that of Rome. 18; influence of its geographical eharacter on, xx, 21 ; its early political advance, 2x ; early history of, how far trustworthy, 31, 32 ; first Persian invasion, 33 ; second, 34 ; supre- macy of Philip, 40; Gaulish in- vasion, 44 ; character of its later history. 45; prevalence of Federal government in, 46, 47 ; f he lost days ef its independence, 48 ; first dealings ef, with Rome? fi-eed fi-om Mace- donia, 66 ; practically dependent on Rome, ib. ; final con^uest^ 67 ; kifluence of its culture in Asia, 69 ; lasting power of its civilization, 8z ; Slavonic setticments in» 151 > Turk- ish conquest of, 237 ; War of In- dependence, 372; kmgdomo^ 373 Greek, an Aryan tongue, 4 ; use of, in the Eastern Empire, zi6, x8o; in Southern Italy, 129 Greek provinces of Rome, 83 Greeks, their kindred with Italians, X2, 20, 53 ; first Aryan nation mentioned in wntten history, 19 : their reb.tions to the neighbounng cations, 20 ; their relations with the Phcenicians, 23 ; extent of their colonies, 23, 24; distinction between them and the Barbarians, 26 ; their forms of govemnieat, 38—29 ; their religion, B: cunquist of their cities in Asia mcT, bj Crcesus, 33 ; by Cyrus, td. ; their disputes, with Persian Kings, ii ', submission of their colo- nies to Xerxes, 34 1 their Asiatic cities ^[iven up to Peraa, 98 ; of their dvilization in Asia, 43, 43 ; their colonies in Southern Itauy s^ 53 ; their colonies in Gaul, 71 Greenland, Scandinavian settlement in, 3'86 Gregory I. (the Great), Pope, sends Augustine to Britain, 141 Gregory II., Pope, withstands the Iconoclasts, 137 Gregory III., Pope, withstands the Iconoclasts, 127 Gregory, VII. (HUdebrand) POpe^ dSputes of, with Henry IV., 156; driven out l^ Henry, ib.i his designs, "57 Qr^Lovf IX., Pope, opposes Frederick 11., Z96; preaches crusade agsunst the Prussians, 303 X., Pope, his measures ot Gregonr pacincj pacification, 2x4, 3x5 ; his death, U. Gregory XI., Pope, orings back the Papal court to Rome, 3x6 Gregory XII., deposed by Council of Constanz, 3x7 Gueif, origin and meaning of tht name, z86 Guise, family of, its relations with France, 266 Gmihiid, daughter of Cnut, marries the Emperor Henry II., 156 Gunpowder, invention of, 219 Gustavus Vasa, King of Sweden, 975 ; growth of the kingdom under, ib. Gustavus Adolphus, of Sweden, 276 ; his share in Thirty Years' War, 281 : death of, ib. Gustavus III. of Sweden, war of, with Russia, ^56 ; murder of, ib. Gustavus IV. of Sweden, reign and deposition of, 356 Gutenberg of ^lainz, his inventicn of printing, 219 Guthrum. Danish King, Alfred's treaty with, 144 -' «'■■*' ■ H. Habsburg, House of, 913, 319 Hadrian, Emperor, 89; gives up the conquests of Trajan, 90 ^ Hadrian IV., Pope, his disimtes with Frederick I., 187; gives his Bull to Henry II. for the conquest ot Ire- land, 194 Hadrian VI., Pope, character ef, 160 Hadrianople, battle of, Z03 ; talcen by the Giiomans, 235 Hamburg, commonwealth of, iBjt Hanseatic League ii.' i ! !|i! m 1, 1. 1: Ik it « i ■ : 4M WDMX. HiimTnif' Barkat, ^wih of the Car- Cha^nian power in Spain under, 64 Hannibal, general of the Cartha- KinianSt takes Saguntum, 64; his campaigns in Italy, ti>. ; defeated by Scipio, 64; makes a league with Philip of Macedonia, 66 Hanovo-, Electorate of, joined to Prussia, 349 ; kingdom of, 350 ; annexed to Prussia, 369 ,Hanseatic League, formation of, z8a ; its wars with Scandinavia, 23^ ; diminution of its power, 283 j its cities annexed to France, 350 ; joins the German Confederation, id. Harold btaatund, Danish King, wars of Otto II. with, 149 ; conversion of, a. Harold Hardrada, of Norway, invades England, 159 Harold, King of the English, defeated by William the Conqueror, 159 Rasdnibal, 64 Hastings, battle of, 159 Hastings, Warren, 334 Hayti, 386; revolutions in, 360 Hebrews, a Semitic nation, 7 Hedwig, Queen of Poland, marries Jagellon, Duke of Lithuania, 340 HeUgoland, English possession of, 359 Hellas, meaning of the word, 20 Helvetic •Republic, 345 Henry, Duke of Saxony, elected King of Germany, 147 ; his wars with the Bfagyars, i3. Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria, his wars with Frederick I., 187 ; marries Matilda, daughter of Heturjr II. of England, ii.; loss of dominions, i6. Henry II., Emperor, 149 Hennr III., Emperor, his dealings with the Papacy, 155; his alliance with England, 156 Henry IV., Emperor, revolt of the Saxons against, 156 ; disputes between him and Gregory VII., 156 ; his wars with his sons, id. ; drives Gregorj' firom Rome, iS. ; crowned Emperoi by Clement III., t5. Henry v.. Emperor, his war with his father, 156; his disputes with the Popes, a. ; marries Matilda, daugh- ter of Henry I. of England, id.; ends the Franconian dynasty, id. Henry VI., Emperor, his conquest of Sicily, 187 Henry VII., Emperor, revival of the Empire under, sia ; coronations of, at Milan and Rome, id; death of. Henry I. of England marrias Matilda, daughter of Malcolm of Scotland, 161 Henry II. of Ehgland, pedir''oe of, 161 ; marries Eleanor of Aquitaine. id. ; dominions of, 188 ; death of, 190 ; conquest of Ireland tmder, 194 Henry III. of England, reign of, 19Z, his wars with France, 192 ; civil wan of his reign, 193 Henry V. of England, his French victories, 237 Henry VI. of England^ crowned at Paris, 32? Henry VIII. of England takes Bou* logne, 265 ; aspires to the Empire. 272 ; throws off the Papal power, 373 Henry I. of France, 161 Henry II. of France, his wars with the Empire, 265 ; annexes the three Bishc^ricks, id. ; persecution of Hu' guenots under, ao6 Henry IIL of France, a66, ti&j Henry IV. of France and Navarre, leader of the Huguenots, 366; his possessions, 267 ; turns Catholic, id. ; his murder, id. Henry, Don, Infant of Portugal, mari- time discoveries and conquests under, 238 Henry of Trastamara, dvil war of, with Pedro of Castile, 337; kills Pedro, 238 H6rakleia, long independence of, 4^ Heraciius, Emperor, 120; his Persian campaigns, lai Hermann of Salza, Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, 203 Hlrodotos, history of, 32 Heroes, children of the Gods, 30 Heroic Ages, a8 Hessen-Cassel, Electorate of, 348 High -Dutch tongue, influence of Luther on, 291 Hierdn, King of byracuse, helps Car< thage against Rome, 62 ; makes an alliance with Rome, 13 Hlldebrand, favours the designs of William the Conqueror, 159^ set also Gregory VII. Hindostan, Aryan settlements in, 9 Hippias, Tyrant of Athens, 33 Hispaniola, see Hayti History, different a.spectsof, x ; Eastern and Western, different characters of, 2 ; division of, into periods, ij ; how soon trustworthy, 17, i8 ; writers of. at Constantinople, 180 ; English and French writers of, 241 Hohenstaufen, House of, 185 Holagou Khan, ends Caliphate of Bagdad, 206 INDEX, 401 Holland, Stadholdership of. 307; see Netherlands and United Pro- Tinces Holstem, Duchy of, its relations with Denmark, 339, 331, 357, 377 ; a fief 6f the Empire 239 ; joined to Prussia, 377 Holy League, the, 256 gomeric Poems, their value, 31 onorius. Western Emperor, 104 Horace, 86 Hospitallers, foundation of, 180, 195 ; driven out of Rhodes, 270 ; their possession and defence of Malta, ib. House of Commons, origin of, 194 House of Lords, origin of, 194 Hugh the Great, Duke of the French, Z40, his .wars with Lewis, U>. Hugh Capet, Duke of the French, chosen King« 140 Huguenots, persecutions of, 266 ; massacre of, 267 ; colonize Qurolina, 289 Hundred Years* War, 225 ; compared with PeI(^onnesian War, ib. ; end of, 337 Hungarians, their settlement in Europe, 15, 146; their wars with Germany and conversion, 147, I77 Hungary, kingdom of, founded, 147, 171 , ravages of the Mogulsin, 206 ; its connexion with the Empire, 213 ; its Angevin Kings, 240 ; threatened by the .Turks, ib.\ designs of Austria on, 241 ; Turkish conquests in, 279 ; crown passes to House of Austria, ib.'y revolts against Ferdinand II., 280; reign of Leopold, 303; Turks driven ont of, 304 ; crown mude hereditary, ib. ; civil wars in, //>.; dealings of Joseph IL with, 321 ; revolution and re-conquest, in, 371, 372 ; restoration of, 372 Huniades, John, exploits of, against the Turks, 241 Huns, driven out of China, 103; enter Europe, ii.; their dominion under Attila, 105 ; their dcUut at Chalons, ib. Huss, John, burning of, 217 Hussite War in Bohemia, 217 I. Ibrahim lays waste Pcloponnesos, 373 Iconoclasts controversy, 126, 1.^9 Ignatius Loyola founds the Order of Jesuits, 261 Ikouion, capital of Seljuk Turks in Asia Minor, z66 lUad, see Homeric Poems Illyriia, Greek settlements in, 35; war of, with Rome, 65 ; Romany Em- perors from, 92, 94, 9(5 tmp«raior title of, 80, 81 Imperial Chamber, 262 Infantry, "use of, in war, 247 India, Aryan settlements in, 9 ; begin- ning of Mahometan conquest of, 164 ; English and Dutch settlements in, 311 ; Mogul rule in, ib.^ 312 ; begin- ning of the Company in, ib. ; French and English struggles for supremacy ip» 333; growth of EngHsh power hi, 334, 359 ; mutiny of the native soldiers, 379 ; its government trans- ferred to the British crown, ih. Indies, West, discovery of, by Colum- bus, 260 Innocent II., Pope, 185 ' Innocent III., Pope, 188 ; his dealings with John of England, 191 Innocent IV., Pope, deposes Fred- erick II., 188, 191 ; protests against the taking of Zara, 198, 200; pro- claims a crusade aga'.nst the Albi- genses, 200; offers crown of Sicily to Edmimd of England, 201 Innocent VIII., Pope, 223 Interregnum, the Great, 211 Ionian Islands, Republic of, formed under English protection, 356 ; in- corporated with Greece, 373, 378 lonians, their Asiatic colonies, 31 Iran, meaning of the name, 8 Ireland, 'Cel ic inhabitants of, 112; EnglLsh conquest of, 163, 194 ; Re- fc^rmation in, 250 ; Cromwell's con- quest of, 300 ; conquest of, by William III., 302; independence of, 323 ; rebellion in, 355 ; union of, with Great Britain, ib.\ disaffection in, 372 ; disestablishment of Church in, ib. Irish, a Celtic people, 112, see Scots Irish tongue, 13 Isabella, wife of Edward II. of Eng- land, 225 ; Edward Ill's claim to the French crown through her, ib. Isabella, Queen of Castile, marries Ferdinand of Aragon, 238 ; their joint rule, ib. ; conquest of Granada under, 239 ; death of, 251 Isabella 11., Queen of Spain, reigij deposition of, 375 Issos, battle of, 41 Italian, a Romance tongue, no ; fixed by Dante's poems, iSi ■ ItaUans, their kindred with the Gieek-s, 13, 53, 59 ; tlieir relations to Romei 60 ; rise against Rome, 75 D D '•■n «M IKDEX. Italy, oneof the t)u%e ereat Eurupean peninsulas, xx; its Ar^'an and pre- Aryan inhabitants, 12, 13, 50, 53 } geografjhy of, ^ ; effect of its geo- graphy on its history, 52 ; language, religion and government in, 54; Leagues in, ib. ; Roman conquest Vf, 59, 6x : invaded by Hannibal, 64 ; end of Emperors in, 105; passes into 'the hands of the Barbarians, Z06; rule of Odoacer in, ib.\ East Gothic kingdom in, 107; flour- ishing state of, under Theodoric, 109*; recovered to the Empire by Belusahus and Nars€s, xx8; Lom- bard conc^uest of, t^., 126 ; decline wf the Imperial power in, 237 ; dominion of the Franks in, vz% ; nue of Lothar in, xss ; rival Kiugs, 137 ; kingdom united to Germany, liS ; growth of the towns in, 183 ; decline of ibeir power and freedom, ib. ; dealings of Frederick I. with, 186, 187; Frede- rick II.'s wars in, 188 ; falls off from the Empire, 210; revival of leamlog in, ai8, 3i9;use of printing and gun- powder in, 2x9 ; its Commonwealths in X4th and X5th centuries, 21^— 332 ; growth of Tyrants in, ib. ; made the battlefield of Europe, 35^, 305 ; rivalry of France and Spaia in, 255, 357; wars of Charles VIIL and L«wis XII. in, 355—257; wars of Charles and Francis in, 257 ; domi- nion of Charles V. in, 358 ; Spanish rule, in, 16. ; no progress made by Reformation in, 260 ; state of, in the eighteenth century, 326 ; wars of the French Revolution in, 342, 352; Buonaparte's kmgdom in, 3^; re- storation of the princes, 352 ; changes in, ib. ; power of Austria in. 553 ; disturbances in, 369 ; revolutions and wars, ; deliverance of, 367 — 371; formation of the kingdom, 370, 37:. Iturbide, Emperor of Mexico, 381;^ Ivan Vasilowitz, frees Russia from Moguls, 240 Ivan IV. of Russia, his wars, a*/? ; takes the title of Czar, 378 j; Jacob, Caliph of the Alniohades, de- feats Alfonso of Castile at Aiarcos, 204 ; growth of the Mahometan power m Spain under, ib. Jagcllon, Duke of Lithuania, marries Hcdwig, Queen of Poland, 240 ; his conversion, ib. Jamaica, English conquest of, 300 ' i James the Conqueror, King ot AragoA, reign of, 204 iamcs V. of Scotland, death of, 374 anies I. of England (VL of Scotland), union of England and Sootland under, 375 ; his foreign policy, ib. James II. of England, reign and ab- dication of, 398, 30 s James Francis Edward Stuart (Old Pretender), attempt of, abetted by Lewis XIV., 333 ; by Spain and Sweden, t^. Jamteland annexed to Sweden, 376 Janissaries, origin of, 335 ; decay of, 310; end of, 373 assy. Treaty of, 33a ehangir, Mogul Emperor, grants a Charter to the English, 31 z Jena, battle of, 34^ Jenghiz Khan, rue of the Mogal* under, 305 Jerome Buonaparts, King of West- phalia, 349 Jerome of Inague, burning of, az7 i Jerusalem, taken by Pompeius, 77; de> stroyed by Titus* 88 ; taken by the Crusaders, 165; kingdom of, 165, 195 : taken by Saladin, zq6 ; won back by Frederick II., id.; final capture of, b^ the Chorasmians, 197 ; end of the kingdom, ib. Jesuits, order of, their foundation and growth, a6i ; power of, ib. ; driven out of Spain and Portugal, 336 ; suppressed by Clement XlV., 338 Jews, a Semitic people, 7 ; religion of, ib. ; subdued by Titus, 88 ; persecu- tion of, in Spain, 255 Joachim Murat, King of Naples, 346 Joan of Arc, called the Maid of Or- leans, 227 Joanna of Castile, 353 ; married to Philip of Austria, ib. Joanna L, Queen of Naples, 333 Joanna IL, Queen of Naples, 233 John, Chrysostom, Saint, Patriarch of Constantinople, xx6 John XII., Pope, crowns Otto the Great, 148 John XXII., Pope, quarrels of, with Lewis of Bavaria, 313, 2x6 John XXIII., Pope, deposed, 217 John of Aragon, revolt of the Catalans against, 238 John of Austria, Don, 369 John, King of Bohemia, killed at Crecy, 21a, 326 John of England succeeds Richard, 190 ; loses Normandy, ib. ', quarreU with lunocent the Third, 191 ; sigM the Great Charter, 193 INDEX. 403 Joha, King of France, taken prisoner At Poitieni, 326 fohn the Great, King of Portugal, 338 ohn VI. ofPortugu goes to BraflJ, 353i 376 Jonn of Salisbury, 908 John, Duke of Bedford, Regent of France, 3*7 John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, his murder, aaa ohn, Duke of Calabria, 338 i ohn Tzimiakds, Eastern Emperor, murders Nikftphoros Phokas, 150 ; his wars and victories in the East. ib. ; defeats the Russians, 15Z John Komn£nos, Eastern Emperor, re% viva! of the Empire under, xo8 John VatattAs, Emperor at Ntkaia, Joseph I., Emperor, reign and death JosepnII., Emperor, his reign and reforms, 331 Joseph Buonaparte, King of Spain, 340 Juares, President of Mexico, 381; Maximiliaa killed by, ib, Jugurtha, conquered bv Marius, 75 Jiman, Csesar under Constantms, 99 ; campaigns in Gaul, ib. ; his re- storation, 99; reign and death, zoo; paganism, zoz Julitis Il.„ Pope, his share in the League of Cambray, 356 ; his Holy League, f^. ; his alliance with the Swiss, tb. ; his policy, 260 Justinian, Emperor, reign of, 117; bis buildings and code of laws, ib. ; extent of the Empire under, zz8 Jutes, a Low-Dutch tribe, xz3 ; found the kingdom of Kent, Z14 jttV tile, xh'i, ijXf 204 • Lfc'iniaas, King of Spaita, killed at lliormopylai, 34 Leopold L, Emperor, a4ian(:e c., wiih the United Provinces, 996 ; rei^ cf, }03 ; gives up Huog.'xry ro his son oseph, J04 Leopold II., E'nueror. 331 ; his pre- vious rule as Grand Duke .of Tus- cany, 397 Leopold, 'Duke of Austria, defeated at IVlorKarten, 330 Leopold of Austria, defeated at Sem- pach, 931 Leopold, King of Belgium, 376 Lepanto, defeat of the Turks at, 954 ; 380 Lepidus, Marcus iEmilius, 81 Ix:ukti-a, defeat of the Spartans at, 38 Lewis I. (the Pious), Emperor, 135 ; divisions of the Empire under, ii. Lewis, the German, extent of his kingdom. 136 Lewis II., Emperor, his reign in Italy, 136 Lewis the Cljild, last of fhe Karlings in Germany, 137 Lewis IV., Emperor, hi-j disputed election, 213 ; his dsposition, id. ; his alliance with Edward III. of Eng- land, 295 I^wis IV., King of the West- Franks, 140 Lewis v., l\5t of the W.;Stem Karlmgs, 140 Lewis VI. of France, 199 Lewis VII. of Franf;e, xgo ; goes on the Second Crusade, 195 Lewis Villi, of trance, the English crown offered to, by the Baroiis» 119 Lew ft (X. (Saint) of Pmnoe, t9it prnwth of the kmgdom under, 193 ; )ii> crt>s;ides and death, 197 Lewis XL of France, his annexation of Provence, 998 Lewis XII., his Italian wars, 9>s wars and annexations, 996, 998 ; his devastation of the Pa- latinate, iA. : his persecution of the Protestants, 999 ; revokes the Edict of Nantes, id. ; his intrigues with Charles ll., 301 ; recognizes the claims of die Old Pretender, 39a Lewis 'XV. of Frrjice, his reign and Lewis J^L of France, his reiga and execution, J40, 341 Lewis XVI 1 1, of France, his restora- tion and reign, 347, 365 Lewis the Great, King of Hungary and Poland, 940 Lewis II. of Hungary, killed at Mohacs, 979 Lewis Buonaparte, King of Holland, 354 Lignitz, battle of, 905 Lignria. inhabitants of, 51 ; Roman conquest of, 70 Lincoln, Abraham, President of United States, 389 ; murder of, ii. Lithuania^ language of, z6, 909, 906 ; its conversion, growth, and onion with Poland, 940 Literature, Roman, under the Empire, 8f ; early Teutonic, 181 ; Italian, be- ginning o{, 908, 918 Liudprand, King of the Lombards, 117 Livonia, conquest of, by the Teutonic ^■ Knights, 180, 903 ; Swedish conquest of, 308 ; given up to Russia^ 309 Li> V, 86 Lodi. seeks hc;ip from Frederick Barbarossa against Milan, x86 I Luneville, Peace of, 343, 348 Luther, Martin, preaching of^ 962 ; condemned at Worms, 263 ; followers of, ib. ', his death, ib. Luxemburg, Duchy of, 376 Lydia, kingdom of, conquered by Cyrus, 33 Lykia, league of its cities, 43, 69 ~_ " of, 188; Fi nexation of. 228 Lyons, Coimcil Mahomet, bom at Mecca, lai ; spread of his religion, 122 Mahomet II., Sultan, called the Con- queror, 23C ; his siege and conquest of Constantinople, to. ; his conquest of Greece and Trebizond, 2^7 ; death of, ib. ; defeated by John Htuiades, Mahomet IV., Sultan, 310 Mahomet, Almohade, his defeat at Tolosa, 204 Mahomet All, Pasha of Egypt, 373 Mahrattas, revolt of the, 312 Mainz, its Archbishops and Electors 1^9 ; French annexation of, 348 Maiorian, Emperor, 105 Malta, given to the Knights of Saint John, 279; Turkish siege of, ib.i English possession of, 350 Mamelukes, 359 Manfred, Kmg of Sicily, crusades pr<^ached against, 201 : n^eated and slain by Charles of Anju. , 20a Mantineia, battle of, 39 Manuel KomnSnos, Eastern Emperor, his relations with Italy, x86, 187; his defeat by the Turks, 198 Manzikert, battle of, 164 Marathdn, battle of, 33 Mardonios, Persian General, defeated at Plataia, ^4 Margaret of Flanders, married to Philip, Duke of Burgundy, 232 Margaret, Queen of m)rway, union of the Scandinavian kingdoms under, _. , 239 rench an- Mana, Queen of Portugal and Brazil, Lysandros, Spartan admiral, defeats the Athenians at Aigos-potr uos, 36 M. Macedoiua, its inhabitants, 20; Greek colonies in, 23 ; not at first counted as Greek, 26, 39 ; its relations wim its Kings. 28 ; its rise under Philip 39 ; invaded by Uie Gauls, 44, 4^ ; reckoned as a Greek state, 45 ; its wars with Rome, 66, 67; its dis- memberment and final ^ conquest, 67 ; Slavonic settlements in, 151 MacMo>on, Marsha), President of the IVench Republic, 368 Madras, English settlement at, 312 ; taken by the French, 333 Mscenas, Caius Cilnius, 86 Magnesia, defeat of Antiochos at, 68 Magyars, see Hungarians Mahmoud I., Sultan, 33a Mahmoud II., Sultan. 359, 373 376, 381 Maria Theresa of Spain, marries Lewis XIV., 29s Maria Theresa, Empress and Queen. of Hungary, her marriage, 319 ; her disputed succession, 320; her part iii the Seven Years' War, 321; in the partition of Poland, ^.3,0 Marigniano, battle of, 2157 Marius, Caius, his wars with Jugurtha and victories over the Teutones, 7a. 75 ; his civil war with Sulla, 75, 76 Mark, 147 Markos of Keryneia, general of the Achaian League, 47 Marlborough, Duke of, 299 Marseille, see Massalia Martin V., Pope, 217 Mary; Duchess of Burgundy, 233; marries- Maximilian, 252, 261 Maiy> daughter of Lewis of Hun* gary, marries Siegmund, 240 Mary, Queen of Scots, her marriagei reign, and beheading, 274 406 INDEX, Mary I. of England marries Philip TI. of Spain, a;^ ; loss of Calais under, it. : restoration of *^z Pope's power under, ib. Mary II. of England, her marriage and election as Queen, 301 Maryland, 389; settlement of, aoo Majualia. Ionian colony, 35 ; alliance with Rome, 71 Massinissa, King of Numidia, ally of Rome against Carthaee, 6s Matilda, daughter of Henry I. of England, marries Henry v., 156; marries Geoffrey, Count of Aujou, 161, 189 Matilda,daughter of Henry II., mar* ries Henry of Saxony, 187 Matilda, daughterofMucolmi marries Henry I., t6z Klattnew Paris, 908, 941 Matthias I., Emperor, aCa Haurioe, Emperor, his ^srs with thb Avars, lao ; murdered by Phocas, ib. Maurice of Orange, leader of the war in the Netherlaiads, 069 Maximian, joint Emperor with Dio- cletian, 96 ; his enforced abdication, ib. ; persecution of the Christians under. 97 Majdmilian I., King of the Romans, marries Mary of Burgundy, 252, 961 : his share in the League of Oimbray, 356; his death, 957; his new titles, 361 ; his reforms, a(6a Maximilian II., Emperor, 363 :Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico, 381 Mayence, see Mains Mayors of the Palace, i3> Maxarin, Cardinal, 981 Mecca, birthplace of Mahomet, lai Medici, their power in Florence, sas ; their banishments and restorations, 956—359; established as Dukes, •59 Medici, the elder Cosmo de', his power at Florence, 93a Midici. Lorenzo de*, his power at Florence, aaa lfit:dici, Cosmo de', Duke of Florence und Grand Duke of Tuscany, 359 h> -diternmean Sea, the centre of the '.nree old continents, xo ; Phoenician itud Greek colonies on, 93^ 35 I'.l igalopolis, foundation of, 39 ; joins the Achaian League, 46 A. srowingians, Prankish dynasty of, 137 Merwings, see Merowingians Messdne, Spartan conquest of, 31 ; freed by ifpaminOndas, xg Mets, Bisho|inck oC sieM by Henry II. of France, 3*^5; given hack, to Germany, 368 Mexico, Spanish conquest of, 9871 revolutions in, 381 Michael Palaiologos, Eastern Em- peror, wins back Constantinople, Michael Romanoff, Czar of Russia, avS Middle Ages, application of the name, 183 Miguel, Don, of Portugal, vt6 Milan, dwelling-place of the Western Emperors, 90; crowning place of the Emperors as Kings of Italy, 1^8; her oppression of smaller cities, 186; Duchy of, under the Visconti, aao; under the Houk of Sforza, ib. ; submission of Genoa to, 931 ; conquest of, by Lewis XII. of France, '356 ; restored to House of Sforza, 357 ; taken by Francis I., ; by Charles V., 953 ; granted to his son Philip. as8 ; part of its territory ceded to Savoy, 3x9 ; Napoleon Buonaparte crowned at, 344; an- nexed by Austria, 353; revolts against Austria, 370 Miletos, flourishing period of, a8 Military Orders, xSo, 195 AY//, a common Aryan word, { Milosh, Obrenowitcn, revolt 01 Servia under. 358 MiltiadCs. Athenian General, defeats the Persians at Marathdn, 33 Minnesingers, 908 Minorca, taken by the English, 309 ; restored to Spain, 333 Mithridatds, King of Pontos, his war with Rome, 75 ; defeated by Sulla in Grerece, ^J\ his final defeat, ib. Moguls, their invasions and conquests, 30S ; their religion, ib. ; their dynas- ties at Kasan and in Persia,3o6; over- throw the Calipliate and the Seljuk Turks, ib. Mohacs, battle of, 379 Moldavia* union of, with Poland, 309 ; Russian influence in, 333 ; beginning of Greek war of independence in, 373 ; its union with Wailachia, 374 Monstrelet, his history of the Hundred Years' War^ 34x Montenegro, its relations with Turkey, „359:373 ^ Morad, see Amurath Spain, 955 . Morosini, Francesco, conquers Pelo» ponndsost 3^7 ; choficn I>QKe, ik- INDEX, 407 Motoow, capital of Russia, 940 Mutnmius, Lucius, destroys Corinth, 67 Murat, Joachim, King of Naples, 346 Murten. see M orat Mustapha III., Sultan, 31a Mykald, Persians defeated at, 34 MykfinI, itt early greatness, 37* N. Nabis, Tyrant of Sparta, 66 Najara, .f/#Navarete Nancy, battle of, 233 Nantes, Edict of, its revocation, 29^ Naples, kingdom of, its separation from Sicily, S02 ; disputes for its $uccession, 333 ; conquered by Fer- dinand of Aragon, 352, 356 ; reign of Joachim Murat, 346 Narbonne conquered by Saracens, 123 Narses, finally subdues the Goths, 118 Narva, battle of, 308 National Assembly of France, 341 ; dissolution of, 366 National Convention of France, 34a Navarete, battle of, 238 Navarino, battle of, yix Navarre, kingdom of; canquered by Ferdinand of Aragon, 253 Nelson, Lord, 344 Nero, Emperor, deposition and death of, 87 Nerva, Emperor, 89 Netherlands, their connection with Burgundy, 332, 333 ; with Spain, 252 ; their revolt, 254, 368 ; Spanish pro- vinces transferred to Austria, revolts in, 3» : annexed to France, 348, 354; kingdom of, 351; separation of Southern provinces from, 376 Neufch:;t61, its connexion with Prus- sia, 303 New Ainsterdam, capital of New Netherlands, 314 ; see New York New England, colony of, founded, 289, 2QO New Jersey, colony of, founded, 314 New Netherland, Dutch colony of, ago ; annexes Delaware Bay, 313 ; English conquest of, 314 New Orleans founded, 314 New Rome, see Constantinople New York, origin of, 314 Nice, see Nikaia and Nizza Nicholas, Emperor of Russia, 374 Nicolas v., Pope, 223 Nikaia, council of, 100 ; capital of the Sfldjttk Turks, 164 ; Empire of, 199 ^iV- ioroa, Phokas, Eastern Em- peror, wins back Crete, 150 ; murder of, ib. Nikomfideia, capital of Diocletian, 96 Nikopolis, battle of, 241 Nimwegen, Peace of, 296 Nizza, Turkish siege of, 280; annexed to France, 367 Norman Conquest, effects of, on Eng- land and France, 159 Norrnans, conquests in Italy and Sicily, 163 Normandy, foundation of the Duchy of, 144, 145 ; its growth 158 ; French conquest of, 190 Northmen, their settlements, 142, 144 North-German Coufederation, the, 369 Nova Scotia, oriein of, 314 Novara, battle of, 370 Novgorod, becomes a republic, 3oa Nushirvauj see Chosroes Octavius, see Augustus Odyssey, see Homeric Poems Odenathus, reign of, at Palmyra, 03 Odo, .Count of Paris, King of the West Franks, 137 ; does homage toAmulf, ib, ; defends Paris against the North- men, 144 Odoacer, reign of, in Italy, 106 Olaf, King of the Northmen, his war in England^ and conversion, 153 Oliva, Treaty of, 308 Olynthos, conquered by Philip, 40 Omar. Caliph, i2« Omniads, dynasty of, at Damascus, S31 ; at Cordova, 132 Orange, Principality of, 268 ; seized by Lewis XIV., 283 Orchomenos, victory of Sulla at, 77 Orleans, siege of, raised by Joan of Arc, 227 Orleans, Regent Duke of, 33a Oscans, 53 Ostend, siege of, 269 Othman, Caliph, 131 Othman, gives his name to the Ottoman Turks, 234 Otho, Emperor, 88 Otho of Bavaria, King of Greece, driveu out, 373 Otranto, taken by the Turks, 237 Otto the Great, defeats the Magyars, 147 ; subdues Berengar, King of Italy, 148 ; crowned Etnpcror, ib. ; death of, 149 ; marries Edith, daughter of Edward the Elder, 15a Otto II., Emperor, his wars with VB^ Danes, 149 I > w i4o8 INDEX. Otto III Emperor, called the Won- der of tnc World, i4<) Otto IV.. Kminr.ir, i88 Ottocar IV., Emperor, Kitip of Hohe- mia, 313 Ottoman Turks, l)CKinninp and growth of their (li)iniui(Mi, 235. -54; their advance in Kitrope, 335 ; thoir levy of trihntc children, //. ; take Con- stantinople, 336 ; take ( >tr 'nto, 237 ; their defeat at Lepanti, 254, 280 ; freatness of, under Suleiman the «iw-giver, 279, 280; their wars with Persia, 279 ; with ITunRary and the Empire, 303, 304 ; with Venice, 306, 307 ; with I'oiand, 309 ; their decline, 310, 332, 358; their wars with Russia, ^57, 358, 359, 373, 374 ; revolts of suoject nations against, 358, 372 ; wars with France, 359 : with Egypt, 373 Ovid, 86 Oxford, rise of the University, 208 P. Pm^auuSf meaning t)f the word, loi Palaiologos, dynasty of, 200 Palmyra, kingdom of, destroyed by Aurelian, 93 Palatine, first Roman settlement on Palatinate, ravat;od by Lewis XIV. 298 Paoli, the, leaders of the Corsican revolt from Genoa, 325 Papists, origin of the name, 251 Paris, capital of the I )uchy of France, 139; of the kingdom of Knance, 140.; siege of, 144 ; rise of the University, 208 ; peace of, 323 ; taken by the Allies, 346 ; German siege of, 367 Parliament,, English, 193, 194 Parliament of Paris, humiliation of, by Lewis XIV., 295 Parthenon, 307 Parthia, *kini;dom of, founded by Arsakfes, 68 ; wars with Rome, 77, 89, 93 ; revolt of the Persians from, 93 Passarowitz, 1 tacc of, 304, 307 Patrician, title of, 128 Patricians at Rome, 57, 73, 74 Paul IV., Pope, war of I'hilip II. with, 254 Paul, Emperor of Russia, mnrdrrcd, 357 Faullns, Lucius /Kmilius, defeats the Macedonians at Pydna, 67 Pavia, b.ittlf? of, 257 Pedro, King of Aragon, defeated hy Simon of Montfort, 201 Pedro of Aragon, King of the Island of .Sicily, 202 Pedro the Ouel, King of Castile, ex- pulsion and restoration of, 237, 238 Pedro, Don, Emperor of I5ra7il, 333, King and Regent of Portug.d, 376 Pedro, II., of r.r.izil,,382 Peisistratos, Tyrant of Athens, 30 Pelopidas, greatness of Thebes under, 38 Peloponncslan War, 35 PeloponiiGsos, Turkish conquest of, 237 ; VenctLin concjuest of, 307 ; re- con. Penu'^ylvania, colony of, founded, 314 Penn, William, colonizes Pennsylvania, 314 Pergamos, kingdom of, ^3, 68 ; its greatness under Eumenes, 69 ; be- comes a Roman province, i6. Penkle.s, his greatness at Athens, 35; effect of his influence on the govern- ment, t'i. Perseus, King of Macedonia, 67 Persia, growth of, under Cyrus, 12; wars and alliance with the Greeks, 33~36; revival of, under Artaxerxes, 93 ; wars with Rome, 93, 116, 193: greatnessbf, under the two Chosroes, ti8, 120 ; victories of Heraclius over 121 ; Saracen conquest of, 125 ; rise of Turkish dynasties in, 164 ; Mogul dynasty in, 206 ; bcgiiuiing of the modem kingdom, 279 ; wars with th« Ottomans, id. ; with Russia, 357 Persians, their Ar>'an origin, 9, 32 Pern, Spanish coiupiest of, aS^r Peter, King of Aragon, Castile, and Portugal, see Pedro Peter the Hermit, preaches the First Cnisade, 165 Peter the Great, rise of Russia under, 328 ; his title and policyi 329 Peter IIL of Russia, murder of, 329 Pharsalos, battle of, 80 Philip II. of Macedoni.i, rise of Mace- donia under, 39 ; conquers Olynthos, 40 ; his supremacy in Greece, and death, id. Philip V. of Macedonia, his wars with Rome, and defeat at Kynos- kcphale, 66 Philip Augustus of France, his cnis-ade, h/j, 196 ; annexes Nor- mandy, 190 ; wins the battle of IV)uvincs, T()i Philip the Fair of France, founds the Estates rf F- nil, 0, tot; his quanel. I INDEX. 4B9 «4th Boniface VITI., 9i<;; xubHcr- vieace of the Popes t«), io. ; destroys the Templars, ais ; seizes Aqiiitaine, 9a^ : annexes Lvoiis, azS Phihp I. of Castile, his descent and marrince, asa Philip 1 1, of Spain, 951 ; his per- secution of the Moors, 955 ; marries Mary of Encland, 373 Philip III. of Spain, decline of the Spanish power under, 954 ; expels the Mortscos, 355 Philip IV. of 'Spain, loses Portugal 954; his wars with France, ib. Philip V. of Spain, disputed succession of, 999, 518 Philip of Valois, Duke of Burgundy, marries Margaret of Flanders, 2.yi Philip the (k)«l, Duke of Burgundy, growth of the Duchy under, 339 Philip of Swabia, disputes the crown with Otto of Saxony, 188 Philippi, battle of, 81 Philippine Islands, Spanish settlements in, 985 Philopoimfin, General of the Achaian League, 47, 66 Fhocas, Emperor, usurpation and death of, lao Phoenicians, their origin and colo- nies, 33 ; their relations to the Greeks, 93 Picts, in Britain invade the Roman province, 112 Piedmont, French annexation of, 34? : recovered by King of Sardinia, 359 ; Genoa joined to, ib. ; despotic ffovernment in, 353 Pl^in, King of the Franks, his wars with the Lombards, 128 Pisa, subject to Florence, X9i ; con- quers Sardinia, 162 ; its Ghibellin- ism, 186 ; Council of, 917 Pitt, William, Earl of Chatham, 323 Pius XL, his writings and attempted crusade, 923 Pius VII., Pope, 35a Pius IX., Pope, 370, 371 , Pizarro, Francesco, his conquest of Peru, 987 Plassy, battle of, 334 Plataia sends help to the Athenian! at Marathtin, 33 Plebeians at Rome, their origin, 57 ; their disputes with the Patricians, 5^' 73 , ,„ , Podoha, given up to the Turks, 309 Poitiers, battle of, 225 Poland, rise of, 147; its conversion, 177, S02 ; Mogul invasion of, 205 ; its u^iion with Lithuania, 240; its great- ness under the Jagellons, 976 ; iu wars with Sweden and Russia, 977, 378 ; its crown made purely elective, 278; its decline, 378, 309 ; partirions oC 330 ; new kingdom of, united to Russia, 358; revolts of, against Russia, 374, 375 Poles, Slavonic people. 15, 133 Polish Election, war or the, 319 Polybios, history of, 68 Pombal, Marqtjess of, 326 Pomerania, shiftiiigof territory in, be- tween Sweden, Denmai-k and Pru^ sia, 289—309 Pompeius 'Cnieus, his eajtcm wan, 77 ; his civil war with Cxsar, 79 ; hit defeat at Pharsalos and death, 80 Pondicherry, 334 Pontos, kingdom of, 44 Popes, beginning of their power, 196 ; disputed elections of, 155, 187,917; , theu disputes with the Emperors, 156, 158 ; theory of their power, x88, 913, 916; their claim to dispose of kingdoms, 194 ; seat of, removed to Avignon, 915 ; brought back to Rome, 9 16 ; their _ position in the 15th century, ai8; increase of their temporal power, 323, 3^3, 359 ; dis- content with, 948, a49, 361 ; their character in the i6th century, 360, a6i ; end of iheir authority in England, 373; their character in the i8th century, 397 , v"i\d oi their temporal power, ^71 Portugal, wars of her Cngs vith the Mahometans, 904; growth of her power, 338 ; annexed to Spain, 354 ; restoration of, ib. \ her settlements in Africa and India, 985 ; her share in the war of the Spanish Suc- cession, 305 ; attack of Spain and Fraiv''*'- on, 326; expulsion of the Jesuits irom, ib.\ liberation of, 353 ; revolutions and civil wars in, 370 Posen, Grand Duchy of, given bacK to Prussia, 358 Pragmatic Sanction, the, 318 Pressburg, Treaty of, 348 Pretender, the Old, see James Francis Edward Stuart Pretender, the Young, see oharles Edward Stuart Printing, invention of, 219 Protestant, origin of the naae, 951, 963 Provence, origin of the name, 71 ; county of, a fief of the Kmpire, 901 ; held by Charles of Anjou, ib. ; B'rench annexation of, 238 Provinces, Roman, condition of, 63; ,1 1^ 410 INDEX. Latia, Greek and Oriental, di«tino> tion ot, 83 Provincials, Roman, 63 ; 73 Prussia, Gregory I A. preaches a against, so^ ; conquered by )iie Teutonic Knignts, ii.]^ rrosade ; >Vest- ern Pnijisia annexed to Poland, «4o; Dii.chy and kingdom of, 277; growth of, 303 ; Silesia annexed to> 330; ;&■ share in the partitions of Folandi 330; dismembered by Buona- pute, 346 ; war with France, 367 — 369 ; forms^ the ^ollverein, 768 ; revolutions in, il. ; war with Aus- tria, 369; annexes Sleswick and Holstein. 377 Ptole'lhies, kingdom of the, in Egypt, 43 Puhowa, Charles XII. defeated at, 30S Panic, Latin form of Phoenician, 63 Pydna, battle of, 67 Pyrer«ees, Peace of the, 394 Pyrrhos, King of Epeiros, killed at Ari^os, 45 : helps the Tarentines against Rome, 60 ; goes bto Sicily, 6z; defeated by the Romans at Boieventum, ib. Q. Qoadruple Alliance, the, ^18 Quebec, Xxktn by the English, 335 Raleigh, Sir Walter, founds the colony of Virginia, 289 Radstadt, Treaty of. 299 Ravenna, Exarchate of, ta6; taken by the Lombards, 127 ; won back by Pippin, 128 ; battle of, 256 Raymond, Count of Toulouse, crusade preached against, 201 Rdbrmation, the, chief causes of, 248, r:9; different forms of in differimt countries, 250 Rcqr^lus, Marcus Atilius, 63 Reign of Terror, the, in France, 34a Ren^, Duke of Lorraine, helped by the Swiss league, 233 Rene, King of Sicily, and Count of Provence, 238 Rhine, the, boundary of the Roman province of Gaul, 79 ; Coi ederation of the, 348 Rhodes, commonwealth of, 44 ; held by the Knights of St. John. 237 ; the Knights driven out of. 279 Rkhard f. of England, his crusade S90 196 Richard, Earl of Cornwall, elected king of the Romans, an Richelieu, Cardinal, growth of the royal power under, 267 ; his share in the Thirty Years' War, 281 Rienzi, Cola di, his Tribuneship, 322 Robert, Duke of the French, his grant to Rolf, 145 Robert, King of Naples, 223 Robert of Geneva, or Clement VL^., anti-Pope at Avignon, 216 Robert Wiscard, his conquests in Southern Italy, x6? Robespierre, ^43 Roger II., King of Sicily, 163 : league of East and West against, 186 Roger Bacon, ao8 Rolf, first Duke of the Normans, his settlement and baptism. 145 Roman Empire, greatest extent ; civil wars, 797-81 ; conouest of gypt, 81 ; beginning of the Empire, ib.; her position under the Emperors, 84 ; literature and art of, 85 ; ceases to be the seat of government, 96; taken by Alaric, 104 ; growth of the Papal power, xa6> 156 ; decline of the Imperial power, 197 ; threatened by the.Lombards, ib. ; saved by Pippin, ia8 ;^ separated from the Eastern Empire, zap ; crowning place of the Western Emperors, 131 : return of the Popes to, from Avignon, a 16; revolution of Rienzi at, sa2 ; sack of, 958 j held bjr the French, 370 ; the capital of united Italy, 371 Rouen, settlement of Rolf at, 145; taken by Henry V. of England, 227 Rousillon, shiftings of, between France and Aragon, 938, 254, 283 Rousseau, 338 Rudolf, of Swabia, his election and death, i<6 Rudolf of Habsburg, elected Kinc;, 9X3 ; not crowned Em- (^ror, ib. ; ms reign, ib, ; grants the iJuchy of AuS' tria to his son Albert, ib. Rudolf II., Emperor, 262 Rudolf, last King of Burgundy, 155 Russia, state of, in the 13th century, ao9 ; subjection of, to the M(»[uls, «g6; Xithuaoian oonquest of the Western provinces of,»i^. ; deliverance of, from the Moguls, 240 ; growth of, 377, 978 ; her conquest of Siberia, 285 ; greatness of, under Peter Uie Great, 328, 329 .: het conouest of Crim Tartanr, 399; share of, in the partitions of Poland, 330; her anr nexations of Carelia, tb. ; dealings with the nations subject to the Turks, 332i 333> 337 : Buonaparte's invasion of, 346; wars with Swc^^en, Tur- key, and Persia, 357, 373 ; French in- vasion of, 358; kmgdom of Poland united with, ib. ; her new European position, 373 ; revolts of the Poles against, 374, 375 ; abolition of serine _»n,37S Russians, a Slavonic people, invade the Eastern Empire, 151 ; defeatea by John TzimiskSs, ih. ; convei'sion of, to Christianity, 153 Ryswick, Peace of, 398 8. Saguntum, taken by Hannibal, 64 Saint Domingo, see Hayti Saint Helena, Buonaparte banished to, 347 Samt John, knights of, se^ Hospi- tallers Saint Petersburg, foundation of, 338 Saint Quentin, battle of, 26^ Saint Sophia, church of, bmlt by Jus- tinian, ZX7 Saladin puts down the power of the Fatimites, 196 ; takes Jerusalem, ib, Salamis, battle of, 34 Saluzzo, joined to Savoy, 372 Samnites, their^ wars with Rome, 59 ; join the Marian party, 75 ; finally conquered by Sulfat 76 Skm Marino, Commonwealth of, 183, „ 259. 352 . Saracens, nse of, 121; accept the doctrine of Mahomet, 122; their conquests from the Empire and the Goths, 123; driven out of Gaul, 125 ; division of their Empire, ib. ; their conquest of Persia, ib. ; repulsed from Constantinople, 126 Sardinia, its ancient inhabitants, 51 ; its relations to Carthage and Rome, 61, 64 ; recovered from the Saracens by Pisa, 162 ; reconquered by Spain, 318 ; Dukes uf Savoy become iCings of, 318; rule of the Carignano dy- nasty in, 370 ; wars of, with AuKtiai) ib.^ 371 411 INDEX. Sassanide<:, dynasty of» in Persia, 93 Savoy, Counts and Dukes of, 229, 370 : their relations with Switzer- land, 271 ; their hoss and gain of territory, 272 ; growth of their power, ?oS» 3>9> 387; liccome Kinys of licily, 306 ; comparison of S;ivoy and Sweden, 309 ; become Kings of Sardinia,3i8 ; neutrality of the north- ern part guatantccd, 355, 367 ; an- nexed to France, 367 Saxons, their invasion and settlement in Britain, 113, 114 ; their settlements in Gaul, 113; the English so-called by the Celts, ib. Saxons, Old, conquered and converted by Charles the Great. 133 ; revolt against Henry IV., 156 Saxony, Duchy of, broken up, 187 ; alliance of, with Prussia, 349 ; elec- torate and kingdom of, ib. Scandinavia, conversion of, 153, 177 ; union of the kingdoms of, 239 ; wars ot, with the Hanseatic League, ib. Schaffhausen, canton of, formed, 271 Schwyz gives its name to the League, 230 Scipio^ Lucius, Cornelius, defeats Antiochos at Magnesia, 68 Scipio, Publius Cornelius, defeats Han- nibal at Zama, 64 Sc'iio, Publms Cornelius ^milianus, takes Carthage, 65 ; takes Numantia, 7» Scotland, settlement of the Northmen in, 142 ; position of the Kingdom, 172 ; dealings ofl with England and France in tne X4th century, 224, 225 ; her independence acknow- ledged, 224; Reformation in, 250, 374 ; her kings become Kings of England, 275 ; union of, with Eng- land, 300; effects of the Revolution in, 30X ; final union with England. 303 Scots in Ireland and Northern Britain, 112; invade the Roman province, 141 ; their early relations to the English, 143 ; serve in French armies, 025 Seleukids, extent and decline of their kingdom, 43, 48 Seleukos, his kingdom, 43 S-lim the Inflexible, Sultan, conquests Selim ll, Sultan, 280 Sciim III., Sultan, 358; murder of, Seljuk Turks, rise, growth and decay of their power, 163, 164 Semitic nations, their history, 7 ; thdt influence on religion, ib. Sempach, battle of, 231 Senlac, see Hastings Septimania, see Narbonne Serfage, general abolition of, 361 ; in Russia, t5., 374 Sertorius. revolt of, in Spain, 74 Servia, Turkish conquest of, 335 ; revolts and independence of, 358, 373 Seven Weeks' War, the, 369 Seven Years' War, the, 321 Severus, Alexander, Emperor, 93 ; his wars with Persia, 93 Severus, Septimius, Emperor, 90 Seville, won back from the MaJiometans by Ferdinand III., 204 Sforza Fr.incesco, Duke of Milan, 330 Shah Ismael, founder of the Soplus in Persia, 279 Shah Jehan, Mogul Emperor, 31a Siberia, Russian conquest of, 385 Sicily, its inhabitants, 20, 36 ; Phoeni' cian and Greek settlements in, 33, 35 ; their wars, 35, 61 ; origin of Its name, 53; Pyrrhos helps tho Greeks against the Carthaginians. 61 ; battle-fleld of the Aryan and Semitic races, 63 ; becomes a Romr I province, 63, 64; Saracen conquest of, 133 ; Norman conquest of, 163 ; kingdom of, ih. ; union with the Empire, 187 ; reign of Frederick II. m, 188; conquered bv Charles of Anjou, 302: revolt and separation of the island, ib. ; united to Aragon« 334, 338 ; to Savoy, 306 ; reumted^ to Nanles, 3x9, 337; delivered by Garibaldi, 371 Siculi, give their name to Sicily, 53 Siegmund, Emperor, his dominions, 313 ; his zeal for ecclesiastical re- formation, 314, 217: marries Mary of Hungarv, 240 ; defeated by Ba* jazet at Nikopolis, 34X Siegmund, Duke of Austria, 333 Sienna, annexed to the Duoiy of Florence, ^59 Sigismund I., of Poland, abolishes the Teutonic order. 277 Silesia conquered by Freuerick the Great, 320 Sikydn joins the Achaian I 333, 337 Slavery, abolition of, in British colo- nies, 383 ; in United States. 382 Sleswick, Duchy of, its relations with Denmark, 239, 33*, 377 ; annexed to Prussin, ib. Smalcaldic League, the, 363 Sobieski, John, King of Poland, de- livers Vienna from the Turks, 30^ ; his election, 309 ; his Turkish vic- tories, ib. ; his death, 3x0 Solon, lawgiver of Athens, 31 ; his poems, 32 Sophis, dynasty of, in Persia, 379 Sophocles, 3j5 Spain, remams of non- Aryan people in, 8, 13, 70; its geographical character, IX ; Celtic settlements in, 13, 70; Phoenician and Greek, settlements in 33> 35, 70; Carthaginian dominion in, 64 ; Roman conquest of, 64, 70,171, 85 ; Gothic kingdom in, 104, io6, xoq; ''^ttlement of the Vandals in, 107 ; growth of the Romance language in, xioi southern part won bade to the Empire, xi8; conquered by the Saracens, 123; growth and decline of their power, x6a; end of the Western Caliphate in, ib. ; advance of the Christina states, 171; p;rowth of new Mahoinetcia dynasties in, r^ ; end of the Mahommetan ?pwer, 351 ; under Ferdinand and sabel, ajs; under Charles the Fifth, ib. ; declij e luder his suc- cessors, 254, 255; expulsion of the Moriscos, 255; rivalry with France, ib. ; wars v/Ith Elizabeth of England, 274 : with France, 283 , her colonies, 285, 287 ; aggressions of Lewis XIV. on, 295 ; disputes as to her succession, 305 ; temporary revival of her power, 318, 326; alliance with France against Eng- land and Portugal, 326; expulsion of Jesuits fj-om, ib. ; dealings of Buonaparte with, 533 ; Peninsular war^ ib. ; later revolutions and civil Wars in, 375 Spanish Succession, war of the, 298 Sparta, her conquest of Mess6n§, 31 ; joins with Athens against Xerxes, . ; , jielps* to defeat Mardonios at ■ ib,\ war of, with Athens, 34; pel] 35 ; gives help to Syracuse, 36 ; over, comes Athens, ib.\ her supremacy i'» Greece, 37 ; makes war upon Per . i, ib.\ wars with Athens and Thelios, 38; destroys Olynthos, ib. ; in ;.ili- ance witl^ Athens, 39; wars witb the Achaian League, 48 Speyer, Diet of, 263 Spice Islands, Dutch settlements, 311 ; massacre of Englishmen in, ib. Spinola, Marquess, his siege of Os- tend, 269 Stadholder, office of, 307; abolished, 307. 308 Stanislaus Leszczynski made King of Poland by Charles XIL, 310 ; his second election, 319 ; Duchy of Lor- raine settled on, ib. States General of France, becomes the National Assembly, 34X Stephen II L, Pope, asks help of Kppin, laS Stilicho, Roman general, checks the West-Goths, 104 Stralsund, siege oif, 308 Strassburg, seized by Lewis XIV., 296 Suleiman the Lawgiver, Sultan, be- sieges Vienna, 263 ; wars and con- auests of, 279, 280 Suliotsj defend their independence against the Turks, 359 Sulla, Lucius Cornelius, his civil war with Marius, 75 ; his dictatorship, 76 ; his victories in Greece over Mithridat^s, 77 Suraj-ad-dowla. takes Calcutta, 334; defeated at Plassy., ib. Siurat, first English settlement at, 3x2 Sweden, separated from Denmark, 27s ; her wars with Poland, 277 ; her share in the Thirty Years' War, and relations to the Empire, 282 ; be- comes an absolute monarchy, 308; greatest extent of her power ib.\ compared with Savoy, 309 ; her loss of 'power and territory, 330; union of Norway with, 357 ; reforms in, 378 Swegen, son of Harold Blaatand, his apostasy, conquest of England, and death, 15? Sweyn, see Swegen. _ Swiss serve in foreign zu'mies 233 i their infantry, 242 ; their defeat at Marignano, 257 Swiss O)nfederation, the, 355 Swiss League, beginning of the, 220 ; its extension, 230 ; relation of, to the Empire, France, and Austria, -ibji war of, with Charles the Bold, sjj ; 4t4 mDkx. eflects of the Burgundian War on, r^.; growth of its power, 270; see Switxerland Switzerland, twglDntog and ^wth of the League, 229, 230 ; origin of the name, tb.\ theii* relations to Austria and the Empire, ib. \ the Burgun- ^n Mrar and its effects, 233 ; growth of the Confederation m, 270 ; annexations of, ib. ; admi:>^ion 01 new Cantons, ib, ; the Refor- mation in, 27 z ; relations with the Dukes of Savoy ib. \ formal ac- knowledgement of her independence, 382 ; relations to the French Re- public and^jEmpire, 343 ; the Hel^- tic Republic and act of mediation, 3S4 ; the Swiss Confederation, 355 ; war of the Catholic and Protestant cantons in, 377 : establishment and reform of the Federal constitution in, ib. Swords, Knights of, joined with the Teutonic Knights, 203 Sybaris, flourishmg period of, 28 Syracuse, flourishing period of, 28; Athenian siege of, 36 ; its Tyrants, 61 ; taken by the Romans, 64 Syria, Seleukid kingdom of, 69; Roman conquest of, 77; Saracen conquest of, 123; Ottotnan conquest of, 879 m' ■.., Tacitus, 86, 89 Tangier, English possession of, 30a Taras, see Tarentum Tarquinii, dynasty of, at Rome, 56 Tartars, the, ^^/ Moguls Tarentum, Ureek city of, asks help of Pyrrhos, 60 Tasmania, English colonization in, 360 Templars, military order, foundation of, 180 : chief strength of the kingdom of Jerusalem, 195 ; suppression of, ars, 216 Temujin, see J[enjghiz Khan Teutones. their mvasion of Gaul and defeat by Marius, 72 Teutons, second Aryan swarm in West- em Europe, 14 ; their settlements in the Empire, 102, 169 Teutonic Constitutions, changes in, 173 Teutonic Knights, military order, their establishment in Prussia and Livonia, iSo, 203 ; defeated by the Moguls at Lignitz, 205 ; their wars with Poland, 240, 276 ; abolished, 277 Texas, annexed to the United States, Si. 3«a Thebes, chiefcity of Boeotia, at; Hrfp« Xerxes, 34 ; in alliance with Sparta, ^5 ; joins the confederacy against Sparta, 38 ; her greatness and wars with Sparta, 38, 39; joins A hens against Philip, 40 ; her revolt and destruction under Alexander, ib. ThemistoklSs, commands Alheniaa fleet at Salamis, -u^ Theodisc^ meaning of the word, *5 Theodore Laskarls, Emperor at Ni- kaia, i^ Theodonc, King of the East-Goths, his reign in Italy, 107; extent ofhi'S dominions, X09 Theodoric, King of the West- Goths, killed at ChfiV'^n? 105 Theodosius the - -eat, extinction of paganism under, xc*? ; his reign and penance, 104 Theognis of Megnpra, his poems, 39 Theopband, sister of Basil IL, marries Otto IL, 151 Thermopylai, battle of, 34 ; defeat of Antiochos at, 67 Thessalonica, massacre of tlks inhabi- tants of, 104 Thessal]^ its inhabitants, 20, a6 Thiers, M. , President of the French Republic, 368 Thirty Years'' War, the, 280—282 Thucydidfis, his history of the Pelo- ponnesian War, 35 Tiberius, Emperor, reign Of, 86, 8t TigranSs, King of Armenia, subc'vd by the Romans, 77 Tillv, his share in the Thirty Yeai War, 250 Tilsit, Peace of, 349 Timour, rise of, 23^ ; defeats Bajazel at Angora, 236 ; death of, ib. Titus, Emperor, destroys Jerusalenn, 88 , succeeds Vespasian, ib.\ hb popular name, ib. Togrel Beg, founds the Seljuk dynas- ty, helps the Caliph Al Kayem, 164 Toledo, won back by Alfonso VI., 162 Tolosa, battle of, 204 Toul,Bishoprickot, annexedto France, 265 Toulouse, capital of the West-Gothic kingdom 106 ; crusades against, and annexed to France, 192, aoo, aoi Tours, battle of, 125 Towns, growth of, 182 Trafalgar, battle of, 355 Trajan, Emperor, 89; his conquests, 89, 90 Trapezous, see Trebizond Trebizoud, Greek Em^e of, 199 1 INDEX, 4t§ outlives the Empire of Constanti- nople, 200 ; conquered by Mahomet II. I 237 Trent, Council of, 261 Treves, see Trier Trior, dwelling place of the Western Caesar, 96; its Archbishops and Electors of the Erpire, 179 ; French annexation of, 348 Triple Alliance, its object, 301 Troyes, Treaty of, 227 Tunis, taken by Charles V., 280 Turan, meaning of the word, 8 Turanian nations, their^ position in Europe and Asia,8 ; their later settle- ments in Europe, 15 Turenne, his part in the Thirty Years' War, 282 Turkey, see Ottoman Empire Turks, their settlement in Europe, z6 ', when first beard pf, X'-^o ; see Otto- mans and Seljoks. Tyrants, meaning of the word, 29, 80 ; in Greece, 30, 33 ; in Sicily, 30, 32, 61 Tyre, taken by Alexander the Great, 41 Tyrt-iuoSt his poems on the wars of Spart? :uid MessSn6, 31 % Ulfilas, Bishop, preaches Christianity to the Goths, 103 ; his translation of ihe Bible, ib. Dbrica, Queen of Sweden, 308 Umbrians, 53 United Provinces, their unbn, 269 ; their independence formally acknow- ledged, 269, 282 ; their power, ^270, 307 ; their wars with France, 295, 896, 308 ; with England, 300, 301 ; join the Triple Alliance against France, ib. ; high position of, in Europe, 307 ; the Siauliuldership made hereditary, 331 ; their decay, U>. ',. the Batavian Republic, 354 ; the Kingdom of the Netherlands, 367 U'lited States, 323 ; their union and independence, 335 ; formation of new ttates, 360; purchase of Louis- iana by, ib. ; aDolition of slavery in the.Northern States, ib. ; annexation of Texas, 382 ; secession and re-con- quest of the Southern States, ib. \ final abolition of slavery, ib. Universities, growth of, 241; colleges founded in, ib. Unterwaldun, Canton of, 229 Urban II., Pope, holds the Council of Q«rmuut, 165 Urban IV., Pope, offers the crown of Sicily to Charles of Anjou, 201 Urban VI'., Pope, his disputed elec- tion, 2t6 Uri, Canton of, 220 Utrecht, Treaty of, 299, 302, 30* V. Valens, Emperor, his reign in the East, 103 ; killed at Hadrianople, 104 Valentinian, Emperor, his leign in the West, wars of, with the GermanSi 102^ 103 Valenan, Emperor, taken prisoner by the Persians, 92; persecutions ii Christians under, 95 Valais, see Wallis Vandals, their settlement in Spain and Africa, Z07 Van Tromp, Dutch adimral, 300 Varna, Wladislaus of Poland Icilled at» 241 Varus, Publius Quinctilius, defeated by Arminius, 85 Vasco da Gama, his discovery of the Cape of Gopd Hope, 285 Vauq, liberation of, 354 Veii, Roman conquest of, 58 Venaissin, Frencn conquest of, aaS; given up to the Popes, ib. ; Freack annexation of, 341 Venetia, Roman conquest of, 70 Venice, rise of, n8 ; her relations to the Eastern Empire, 120 ; her share in the fourth crusade, 198 ; her Eastern dominion, 199 ; her con* stitution £tnd power by land, 221 ; her wars with the Turks, 254, 259. 306; League of Cambray formed against, 256 ; annexed to Austria, 352 ; revolt and reconquest of, 370 \ united to Italy, 371 Vercellae, defeat of the Cimbriat, 72 Verden, Bishoprick of, annexed. to Sweden, 282 ; given up to Hanover, 3oq Verdun, Bishoprick of, annexed to France, 265 Vcsi)asiau, Emperor, reign of, 88 Victor, anti-Pope, 187 Victor Amadeus II., Duke of Savoy, growth of his power, 305 ; becomes King of Sicily, 306 Victor Emmanuel II. of Sardinia, 370; chosen King of Italy, 371 Vienna, besieged by the Turks, 263, 279. 304 ; Congress of, 350 Vienne, sale of the Dauphiny of, 228 Villehardouin, writes an account of the taking of Constantinople, 208 •WW «rs*««*#'«****' n-^ifMi«ia^«p 416 INDEX. Virgil, 86 Virginia, English colony of, 289 Visconti, Gian Galeazzo, first Duke of MUan, 220 ; Filippo-Maria, aao Viteliius, Emperor, 88 Vultaire, 328 W. Wagrain, battle of, 350 Wales, its final union with England, 334 Wallachia, united with Poland, 309; Russian influence in, 333; Greek war of independence begins in, 373 united with Moldavia, 37^ Wallenstein, his share m uie Thirty Years' War, 280 Wallis, its conquests from Savoy, 371 Waipole, Sir Robert, 322 Warsaw, Grand Duchy of, 349, 358 Washington, George, President of tho United States, 3^5 Waterloo, battle of, 347 Welf, heads the Saxon revolt against Conrad III., x86: (;»«^jr called from, ib. Waibling, Ghibelins called from, 186 *. Wellesley, Marquess, Goveruor-Gene- rnl of India, 3^0 '' '• range), Stad- tadholder, his ed Provinces, election to the oz editary Stad- I greatness of ; nis claim tn 159; de'"(.i;.-< i. ; crow ucil f Sicily, 137 of Sicily, 'it len, 383 ,308 Ivingary and ,,S4X fs 317; spread tnia, a. the Pelopon- is i&vasion of the Gr«at :st of, 67 ers, 198 162 re-union of 106 it, 93 confounded 54 le, 230 ,eague, 33^5 271 : ap.d death \Sr