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Las diagrammes suivants illustrant la mAthode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 THE "MEDICINE-MAN"; OK, INDIAN AN^D ESKIMO NOTIONS 01- MEDICINB. A Paper read before the Bathurst and Rideau Medical Association, Ottawa, 20th January, 1886. BY ROBERT BELL, B.A.Sc, M.D., LLD., Assistant Dikectok of the GKoi.or.iCAL Survey of Canada, Ri'printrd from the " Canada Medical and Simfical Journal " for March and April, 188(3. GAZETTE PRINTING COMPANY. CoUectiorv 1 -^ KKPUINTKD FROM TIIH - CAXAKA MKDK'AL .V' SUKr,ICAL JOUliyAL." MAKCU-APKIL, 18«t>. THI- "MEDICINEMAN"; Or Indian and Eskimo Notions of Medicine. A fttjn r read hifvri tin- Hallnirst (uid Jiidran Medical A-^soci'dimi, Ollinnj, '2()th Jinmirij, ISSC. I'.v UOBKRT HELL, B.A.Sc , M.D, LL.I>, AbBibiiut Directui of the Geological Survey of Canada. Last year, having had tlie houor ot" reading before you a paper on " Diseases among the Indians," I would now beg to follow it with a short account of the notions of these people on the sub- ject of medicine. The science of medicnie has now arrived at such perfection among civilized nations that we have almost forgotten the crude beginnings out of which our present knowledge has been gradu- ally evolved. Lut from our pinnacle of learning, it is curious and interesting to observe the darkness amidst which some of our fellow-men are groping even yet. The false and mistaken notions as to the principles and practice of medicine which pre- vailed among our forefathers are recalled by some of those in vogue among the red-men ; and while, in the light of our own superior knowledge, we may be disposed to laugh at their primi- tive ideas, we are reminded that many — perhaps the majority — of the doctrines once taught among our own people were absurd enough. It is very difficult for a white man to learn precisely what the aborigines' views on medical subjects really are. Indians are by nature very reticent, and they appear to be afraid of ridicule ; or in some cases they are jealous of giving pway what they con- sider valuable secrets. It is seldom, indeed, that a white man gains their confidence sufficiently to induce them tosjic;!!; unre- servedly on this subject. Even with a good knowledge oi" the Indian ch": actor, one re(iuires to gain an insight into this sub- ject by slow degrees — first, perhaps, by observing any judi- cious and serious (juestioniug, as opportunities arise, one may build on these and ask further (piestions until he learns the greater part of what is current among them. Many [>eoplc speak of " the Indians " as if all tribes were alike in every respect. But, in truth, there are great difierences. Those with whom I am best ac(|uainted pcisonally, from about thirty years' intercourse, are the various branches of the wide- spreading Cree or Outchipwai stock. I have also had some exj)erience of the Eskimo, who differ widely from all the other aborigines of the continent, and who are not ranked as Indians at all. Among the Outchipwais, the term " medicine" does not mean strictly material remedies or the practice of the healing art, but rather a general power or influence, ot which that of drugs is only one variety. Hence a "medicine-man" is not simply a doctor of medicine, but a sort of i)riest, prophet, medium and soothsayer. He is also a juggler, conjurer, sorcerer or magician and general dealer in the supernatural. A mere knowledge of medicine proper is rather one of the lower oi' accessory branches of his profession, and it is often practiced b\' those who have no pretensions to be considered full-fledged medicine-men. Even women sometimes obtain great reputations as doctors. To tha medicine-man a knowledge of drugs is valuable, principally to enable him to carry out different kinds of poisoning as may best serve his ends. His most important function and the secret of his power is his dealing in occult influences. In former times, the great medicine-men among these Indians devoted their whole lives to the study and practice of their art, and even yet it receives the greater part of their attention. They were accustomed to do no common work, but lived at the 8 expense of the band they were amongst. They had t^i-eat influ- ence with the people, principally from preying upon the super- stitious fears which had become inculcated by their own class from generation to generation for this express purpose. For the medicine-men form a secret society, with exclusive privi- leges, and they exercise a terrible influence in degrading their people. The seeming respect which is accorded to them is begotten of cowardly fear which has formed part of the educa- tion of the rank and file. They pretend to dispense good and bad luck, to control the weather, to Ix; able to influence the movements of game and fish so as to bring plenty or starvation to the tribe, to predict events, to tell the fortunes of individuals, to bring about the sickness or death of men or dogs at a dis- tance, and generally to have the confidence and cooperation of both good and bad spirits, with whom they communicate freely i>n certain set occasions. The common people employ them in favor of themselvea or then- friends, or against their enemies, just as we do lawyers — for a consideration. It is here that the secret society business comes to their aid. Among the Outchipwai Indians there are many hypocrites who have not the manliness to fight their ene- mies fairly, or to openly resent an injury, or even to tell an adversary their opinion of him to his face. Such individuals will smile and profess great friendship, while harboring the bit- terest enmity and even murderous designs. An Indian may be living at a considerable distance from the person he wishes to injure, and in order to gratify his revenge he will hire his medicine-man to carry out his purpose. But the latter will never appear on the scene. He will find means to operate secretly through another medicine-man who may not even be suspected. As threats are thus often actually followed by the dire results predicted, persons who may chance to fall sick, or to meet with any accident, become accustomed to attribute their misfortune to the machinations of an enemy or to the ill- will of some medicine-man ; and in order to counteract it, they must employ another medicine-man to remove the cause. ThuH the established belief in the powers of the medicine-man brings much grist to his mill. The "opposing counser' having received his fee, in the shape of some article of value to an Indian, will proceed with some grotesque ceremony and pre- tend to draw to himself and nullify the evil intUience which has heen trouhling his client. He will atlect to suck out the poison from the man's body or to go througli agonies of pain, writhing and twisting himself amidst many groans, as if he were receiv- ing, all at once, the essence of the disease of his patient. Or he may make-believe that he has been suddenly struck inter- nally by some sharp instrument. 'Jlie shock and accompanying exclamation are followed by spitting blood (usually from having surreptitiously lanced his gums) and the coughing up of an arrow- point, or a small piece of sharp bone or stone, which the evil spirit of the other sorcerer had transferred to him. In u short time the patient is expected to say he feels better ; otherwise it is a sort of slight on the '' streniith " of the conjurer's '• medi- cine." Sometimes the medicine-man will pretend to receive these sudden internal shockM ^o show the potency of some other member of the profession distance and the danger resulting therefrom, and hence the necessity for his own " strong medi- cine " as an antidote. He will then spit up the mysterious missile along with some blood, and after a groan or two will subside with a sigh of relief One of the modes of conveying an evil influence to a distance is to make a drawing on a piece of birch bark, or even in the sand, to represent the figure of the j)erson to be injured, and then to select the site of the organ, as the heart, lungs, or bowels, which is to be operated upon. This is then stabbed through with a sharp instrument, or touched with poison, and an appropriate charm is repeated at the same time. The apparent uncertainties of human life and fortune, and death itself, are thus accounted for, all being controlled by the medicine-men. A person dies, not from natural causes, but because it is the pleasure of some one of this all-powerful class that he should die, and because he has been unable to find another one capable of counteracting his " medicine." In order to communicate with the spirits, the medicine-man must have a special kind of wigwam or retreat erected. This is done by planting a nuraher of nicely trimmed poles in the ground in the form of a circle about five or six feet in diameter. They are fixed in the erect position by being firmly bound together by hoops at intervals, with a crowning one at the toj). The poles are lashed to the hoops with spruce roots or other fastenings. This frame is securely enclosed with bark all the way up, so that no one can peep in, even if disposed to do so, which, however, is never attempted. The medicine-man then gets inside and fastens up the opening. He mutters and sings at intervals, and then maintains a perfect silence. Suddenly the medicine wifirwam is violentlv shaken, after which it i« CD V ' announced that the spirits have arrived and he is ready to answer questions. T have been present on some of these occa- sions. A question must generally be accompanied by a fee, such as a plug of tobacco or a box of matches. The answers are given in a deep sepulchral voice, and are sometimes direct and positive, but oftener ambiguous, and, in the latter case, great ingenuity is sometimes shown in constructing an answer which will be verified, whichever way events may happen. Or instead of giving any answer, the attention of the audience (which is squatted around the wigwam) may be diverted from the main point of the interrogation by some poetic or entertain- ing "yarn." When fairly cornered the medicine-man will say the spirit refuses to answer, is offended or has just left for the day, his presence being suddenly required elsewhere. Of course, with experience and intelligence in his favor, the chances are more than even that his predictions will be ful- filled, and great stress is laid on every hit, while the failures are easily forgotten. In this way, even supertitious white servants of the Hudson's Bay Company and others come to have a certain faith in these conjurers. The practices of the Indian medicine-man are evidently closely allied to the old-world witch- craft. It may be asked whether these men are themselves sincere or believe in their own practices. In some cases and to some extent I think they do, but in others they are clearly guilty of fraud and trickery. I have known instances wliere, havinj; become Christians, they have confessed that their forrnoi '.'oiirse had been all imf)OStnre. Some of them have, however, been known to become really possessed with terribh' halhicinations. In regard to the [)ractice of medicine proper, the common Indian notion of disease is Hiat it is caused by some evil influence, which must be removed, either by drivin<; off its spirit with the tom-tom and sinking, or by a charm, and by sut-'kini; or blowing upon the part affected. The idea of drawing or sucking out the evil is the prevailing one in their theory of the practice of medi- cine. A medical practitioner is thus associated with the nature of a leech. This is well illustrated in the custom of naming children. Names are given to Indian children by the grand- father or recognized patriarch of the family-circle or band. The subject of the first striking dream which he has after the child's birth fletermincs it3 name. If he dreams of a creature which, lives by drawing out his food as a woodpecker, which draws grubs out of trees, or of a leech, but particularly of the mosfjuito, that most determined and energetic blood-sucker, it is considered a good omen, and that the child, whether male or female, is to be regarded as called to the medical professFon. If a male, as soon as he is grown up, he is put in training to ascertain if the Great S{)irit really intends him to be a medicine-man. The first point in the student's education is to try his powers of endurance and to see if the spirits will reveal themselves to him. For this purpose he is submitted to tortures, as by cutting and running wooden skewers through his muscles and by starvation. The latter is carried out by his retiring to some unfreiiuented place close to good water, so that he may be tantalized. He selects a site on the brink of a river or on the end of a point in a lake, and there builds himself a sort of couch or nest in a tree, or a jjlatform of poles between three or four trees standing close together, and stays upon it day after day without food or drink until he become delirious, if he can stand it so long. At night he prays earnestly to the Great Spirit to reveal to him some new thing, and to give to him mysterious or supernatural power. Before he has had time to perish from hunger and tliirst, liis friends <^o to relieve him and to iiacertain the result of liis vi;^ils. It i.s said there are many faihires at the start. If, however, the candidate he deemed a suitahle sultjeet, he hecomcs articled to an old practitioner and duly initiated. Only one student is tulrity of then- medicines are vegetable, but some are derived from animals, as die beaver, the musk-rat, the skunk, the deer, toads, sn kcs, insects, etc., while olhers are mineral, as iron pyrites, gypsum, s:ilt, ochres, clays, ashes, etc, Parts of rare animals, impossible to obtain at the time, may be pres- cribed as the only means of saving a jiaticnt, who appears sure to die in any case. One of tlie most curious prejiarations in use amongst them is the " black poison," the effects of which are well known around the lakes of the Winnipeg basin and in the Swan River district. Some time after administration, it changes the color of an Indian's skin from brownish-yellow or copper-color to a sooty black, at the same time causing hair to grow on unusual parts, especially in an Indian, as on the cheek bones, etc. Its first effects are sickness, headache, and pains in the back and limbs. Afterwards, ulcerative sores break out in various parts of the body, chiefly over the joints, more particu- larly the knuckles. I have tried in vain to ascertain the com- position of the " black poison," or to obtain a specimen of it. I have been told by a person who professed to have seen it, that it is a brown snuff-like powder, with a slight and rather sicken- 8 ing smell. A small quantity administered in food appears to be sufficient to produce the above effects. One victim, Peter Brass of Fort Pelly, informed me that it was given to him, unper- ceived, mixed witli a dish of berries. I have heard it stated that it manifests its properties if smoked with tol)acco, but this seems doubtful. It is said to be derived partly from a plant which does not grow north or east of Lake Winnipeg, possibly the poison ivy, Rhus toxicodendron. It is also said to contain the dried acrid matter from glands in the skin of the toad. Although the medicine-man may have a considerable know- ledge of the properties of many medicinal agencies within his reach, he d^ends, for the removal of disease, more on sorcery, beating the tom-tom, singing, etc., than on the efficiency of drugs. I have seen a miserable sick Indian, fresh from the hands of the medicine-man, with his poor body all painted with figures of tortoises, fishes and other creatures, in order to cure him of some internal trouble. A great medicine-man will not condescend to diagnose a case by the tedious process of examining the patient and asking questions. He is supposed to know all about it with- out going into these details. An English doctor told me that once when he was examining a sick Indian, to his surprise, neither the man himself nor his friends took much interest in the process. After answering a few questions in a sullen manner, they ex- claimed, " We thought you were a doctor." When an Indian becomes really sick he yields to his weakness, gives himself up to die, and is the most abject of creatures. The drumming on the tom-tom seems to rouse him a little, and to keep up his courage. An Indian canoeman once fell sick on my hands, and obliged me to stop my journey and stay in camp for two or three days in order to nurse him. He secretly sent word by some friend to bring a reputed medicine-man who was then camped at a considerable distance away. I was treating him as well as circumstances would permit with the aid of a small assortment of medicines which I had along with me. He was about well, and able to resume work the following day, when the medicine-man arrived late in the evening, after I had turned into my blankets. He and the friends Avho had come with him 9 /■■, made the night hideous with their tom-toms and the monotonous " hi-ya, hai-ya ; hai-ya, hi-ya" ! But as they had great faith in it, I did not interfere. Going over to my patient at daylight, I enquired how he had stood it. He repUed that he was now (juite well, that the medicine-man (who, by the way, was sleep- ing triumphantly close by) had driven off the spirit of his sick- ness, that it was now far away, and he was ready for work again. He did not recognize that he had to thank either myself or nature for the cure. The Indian doctors do not understand the nature of delirium. When a patient becomes delirious, as in fevers, etc., they say he is about to " turn windigo " — that is, to become possessed of an irresistible desire for cannibalism. It was then the doctor's duty to knock the patient on the head. Many a life has been sacri- ficed in this way. Midwifery is completely ignored by the great medicine-man, as beneath his dignity, and it is left entirely to the female doc- tors. A profound knowledge of obstetrics is seldom called for, as parturition is generally extremely easy, owing, principally, to the comparatively small size of the infant's head. Delivery is effected by placing the patient on her hands and knees on the ground, and supporting the abdomen by the hands of the accoucheuse. In surgery, the medicine-men confine themselves to setting bones, dressing wounds and ulcers, and alleviating pain by any means in their power. They never attempt any grave operation, although their general knowledge of anatomy is not to be despised. They resort to cupping by means of sucking-tubes. They some- times bleed by onening a vein in the arm with a sharp chip of flint. I hav' some evi^lence, in the shape of relics discovered in mounds, vhich leads rac to think that certain of the ancient Indians had a better knowledge of surgery than those of the present day. The sweat-bath is in universal use. In preparing for a race, or any other great muscular effort, they sometimes anoint the body and have the muscles kneaded by a friend after taking one of these baths. 10 The wild Eskimo appear to suffer from fewer diseases than Indians or whites. Among those of Hudson's Straits, notions of medicine are, as far as can be learned or observed, more crude and primitive than among the Indians. They also have a class of medicine-men whose pretensions to perform all kinds of miracles are of the most extravagant character. They appear to deal almost entirely in the supernatural, and to make little use of medicines. They have no hesi- tation in declaring to their own people that they can cure all kinds of disease and prolong life indefinitely, if they only choose to do so. They account for their own death by saying they wish to die, or that they are overcome by a still greater, but unseen, medicine-man. They say they can and do make themselves larger or smaller at will, or change themselves into some other animal, or enter into a piece of wood or stone ; that they can walk on the water or fly in the air ; but there is one indispensable condition,— no one must see them. They find themselves powerless to perform these miracles if anyone is look- ing on. I was once called to prescribe for a noted medicine-man on the Eastmain coast of Hudson's Bay, who had accidentally shot himself through the abdomen, and was suffering from peri- tonitis. All his pretensions had vanished, and he was most anxious to live. When one of these doctors visits a patient, after ascertain- ing the seat of the disease, he will rub and blow on the part and then withdraw his hand slowly and as if with difiicultv, in order to show that he is hauling out a heavy weight of pain ; at the same time he looks upward, rolls his eyes, and groans. Having pulled the disease out of his patient's body, he throws it away with a great effort, muttering some imprecation, after which he breathes more fn ly and looks for his fee, immediate payment being required by their rules of etiquette. Some of the Eskimo women profess to be doctors. They have a few minor surgical appliances, and they alleviate the pains of rheu- matism, scurvy, sprains, etc., by rubbing or manipulating the parts afifected. But their chief mode of cure is by strokinf^ the body with an air of mystery while repeating charms. The doctor is generally accompanied by other women,who join in the choruses of the charms. 11 The following are some of the plants used medicinally by the Outchipwai Indians : — Acorns calamus, sweet flag or " fire-root," as infusion or in powder, or it may be chewed whole, for colds and Jatulence. NiipJtar advena. yellow pond-lily, as a tonic and for poultices. AUcH alba and A. nigra, spruce. The fresh inner bark is beaten to a fine homogeneous pulp to form astringent poultices for healing obstinate sores. Dr. Mathews of York Factory states that a decoction of the leaves or spray is used internally for scurvy and externally for rheumatism. Abies balsamea, the balsam tree. The clear liquid " gum " from the blisters is applied freely to fresh wounds, and a decoc- tion made from the bark is taken in large doses for diseases of the chest. jSalix and Populus. Decoctions of the bark of both willows and poplars are taken as l)itter tonics and in fevers. Dr. Mathews informs me that the Indians of A'ork Factory find a powerful astringent in one of the dwarf or creeping willows ; also, that they drink an infusion of the bark of the grey willow, n. small tree of that region, for rheumatism. Lonicent ciliata, honeysuckle, and Kibes rubrum, wild red currant. Tiie stems and twigs of these two shrubs are tied into bundles and boiled together in a comparatively small quantity of water ; the strong decoction is taken in large doses for diseases of the bladder. Jtiniperns commvnis, jiraiper. The Indians, generally, know the diuretic properties of the berries. In some parts of the country the stems are boiled and the inner bark beaten to a pulp to form ])Oultices for foul sores. Ledum latifolinm, Labrador tea. A decoction of leaves and flowers is used for diarrhoea. A weak infusion is sometimes taken as a poor substitute for tea. The chewed leaves are applied to wounds and skin affections. Dr. Haydon, who re- sided six years at Moose Factory, says a decoction of the leaves or flowers is used in which to boil clean rotten wood of the white birch, which is afterwards dried, pounded and sifted. The 12 powder is used as a remedy for chafing and to dust new-born infanta. He considers it a useful application. Cornus circinata, C. sericea and 0. stolonifera. An infusion of the bark of any of these dogwoods is taken in moderate doses for diarrhoea. A decoction of any of them in large doses is reported to be emetic. In small doses, the decoction is taken for fevers, colds and coughs. The bark dried quickly at the fire is used to smoke, either alone or mixed with tobacco. 7m versicolor, blue-flag. The dried root in powder is used as a cathartic. Prunus Pennsylvanica, pigeon cherry. A decoction of the bark is employed as an invigorating tonic in debilitated states of the system. Pi/ruff Americana, mountain ash. A decoction of the young shoots is used as a tonic, and also, according to Dr. Haydon, for pleurisy, or what appears to be this disease from the symptoms they describe. Mentha Canadensin, wild mint. The infusion as a carminative. Prunnella vulgaris, self-heal, l^aid by Dr. Haydon to be chewed for sore throat. Poly gala senega, snake root. The word senega is one of the varieties of the Outcbipwai name for this plant, and means yellow-root. It grows principally in very calcareous soils, and is not found beyond latitude 52^ in the region north of the great lakes. It is highly prized by the Indians, and is used by them in inflammation of the lungs, colds, coughs and sore throats. A knowledge of the medicinal properties of the plants of the region I have referred to might often prove valuable. In distant travels in this northern wilderness the stock of medicines which one can take with him is necessarily very limited, or one may chance to have none at all. In case of emerg ncy, it is there- fore desirable to know the virtues of the native plants, always at hand, in order that one may make the most of them in the absence of more powerful remedies. The Eskimo, who live entirely on raw animal food, appear to 13 regard any edible vegetable substance as medicine They eat wirh great relish the northern blueberries and cranberries, and where they cannot get these, they take the leave? of the dwarf willows, a plant of the parsley family, called - scurvy-grass " {Ligmticuiii), and almost any kind of sea-weed. On the shores of Hudson's Straits they collect and eat the starchy roots of Polyiiomim oivip(trin7i,vihich grows there in considerable abun dance. It is a singular circumstance that, notwithstanding the sameness of their food, and the fact that they never wash either their bodies or their clothing, the Eskimo appear never to be afflicted with scurvy, whereas white men, under a similar regi- men, would be almost certain to be attacked.