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 (DOMINION OK CANADA) 
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 Prepared under directions of 
 
 HO.\. SYDNEY A. FISHER, 
 Minister of Agriculture, Ottawa. 
 
 Prepar^e d'aprfe? les ordres de 
 
 L'HON SYDNEY A. FISHER, 
 Minislre de I'Agriculture, Ottawa. 
 
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ERRATA 
 
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¥ 
 
 Paris International Exhibition 
 
 1900 
 
 CANADA 
 
 ITS 
 
 HISTORY, PRODUCTIONS 
 
 AND 
 
 NATURAL RESOURCES 
 
 PREPARiri) nv 
 
 GEORGE JOHNSON. F.S.S. (Hon.). 
 
 UNDER THE DIRECTION OF 
 
 HONORABI.E SYDNEY ARTHUR FISHER. 
 
 MINISTER OF AGRICUWURE, CANADA. 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE OF CANADA, OTTAWA. 
 
 1900 
 

 /oW/3 
 
Table of Contents 
 
 Extent of Canada 
 
 SiroKT HisTOKY OF Canada . . 
 
 Cj.imatb of Canada 
 
 Population of Canada — 
 Aboriginal . . 
 
 OtluT 
 
 Political Constitution — 
 
 Federal . . 
 
 Provincial 
 PfnLic Lands — 
 Dominion 
 Provincial 
 Public Debts — 
 
 Federal . . . . . . . . ' 
 
 Provincial 
 Public Revenues and Expenditi r.i:s 
 Education 
 Chime 
 
 Industuifs of Canada — 
 ExTPiAtTivE Industuies : 
 
 Agricultnre 
 
 Fisheries 
 
 Forest 
 
 Milling 
 Constructive Industkiics 
 Transportation — 
 
 Canals 
 
 Kail ways 
 
 Shipping 
 
 Auxiliaries of Transport: 
 Banking . . . . 
 
 Telegraphs . . 
 Telephones 
 Postal Service 
 Insurance . . 
 Navigation Securities 
 
 Trade and Commerce 
 
 Cities 
 
 Newspapers 
 
 Animal Life and Hunting Grounds 
 
 I'AGK 
 
 1-4 
 . 4-2() 
 . 20-;!8 
 
 40-45 
 4(>-52 
 
 52.57 
 5V-5!) 
 
 GO-GG 
 G(i-C9 
 
 70 
 
 71 
 
 72-75 
 
 7G-S() 
 
 80-S4 
 
 .. 84-91 
 
 92-95 
 
 95-101 
 
 100-113 
 
 114-116 
 
 llfi-122 
 122-127 
 128-130 
 
 130-133 
 
 134 
 
 . . 135 
 
 . . 133 
 
 135 
 
 137-138 
 
 138-143 
 
 144-150 
 
 .151-153 
 
 154- 1G8 
 
To THE Hon. Sydnev Fisher, M.P., P.O., 
 
 Minister of Agriculture and Statistics. 
 
 Sir, — In preparing under your instructions a handbook 
 of Canada for the Paris International Exhibition, 1900, I 
 have endeavoured to give information about the Dominion 
 which will be useful both to the student and to the general 
 public, to those whose avocations lead them to gather facts 
 for use in enlightened discussion and to those who seek infor- 
 matiou for their own purposes. 
 
 The facts about Canada, as about any country, are best 
 presented in a statistical form when the space at command is 
 limited. 
 
 I have attempted to make such selection of facts as will 
 illustrate the development of the country, chietly during the 
 period of the Union by virtue of which we became one 
 country from the Atlantic to the Pacific Oceans. 
 
 I have the honour to be, Sir, 
 
 Your obedient servant, 
 
 Ottawa, Feby., 1900. 
 
 George Johnsox, 
 
 Statistician, F. S. S. (lion.) 
 
F 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 When the Cabots, John and Sebastian, in 1 497, and Jacques 
 Cartier, in 1534, presented themselves before their respective 
 sovereigns on their return from explorations on the eastern 
 face of the country now called Canada, they were asked, 
 naturally enough, questions by their interested monarchs ; 
 what were the people like, what about the country, the pro- 
 ducts, the trade possibilities, the climate, the rivers, etc. 
 
 Carfcier had with him Donnacona, King of Canada, and 
 other savages to show how the people looked. Both Cabot 
 and Cartier had specimens of the minerals and other natural 
 products as evidence of the value of their discovery. 
 
 Four hundred years later the Canada of to-day presents 
 herself in the Courts of the Paris International Exhibition, 
 1900, to show by her exhibits what she has accomplished. 
 
 It is the aim of the present brochure to give answers to 
 the questions that naturally arise in the minds of those who 
 inspect the trophies of the forest, the mine, the field, the 
 water and the workshop, which Canada has sent, with good 
 will to France and a desire to prove her standing among the 
 peoples of the world. 
 
 Canada can boast of having sent to the mother country, 
 France, the first collection of her products ever made, and 
 thus of having been the first promoter of international ' hi- 
 bifcions. Giles Hocquart, Intendant of New France, concluded 
 to have an exhibition giving a general view of the resources 
 of his satrapy. In order to make it scientific as well as indus- 
 trial ami statistical, he deputed competent men to classify 
 and name the trees and plants. Products of the mines and 
 fisheries, the forest wealth, woods and furs, fruits of durable 
 kmds, and grains were on exhibition. After exhibitintr them 
 
VI. 
 
 INTIiODVCTION. 
 
 for a time in Canada, Hocquart sent the whole collection to 
 France, where it was on exhibition in 1737. 
 
 In 1747, M. (le la Galissonniere made a large collection of 
 the flora and fauna of Canada, as well as of its minerals. This 
 was also publicly exhibited in the parent country. 
 
 Canada sent collections in 1855 and 1878 to the exhibi- 
 tions held in Paris in those years. 
 
 This, therefore, is the fifth occasion that she has attempted 
 to give to France and the world information of the variety, 
 extent and suitability of her products. 
 
o 
 
 CQ 
 
CANADA. 
 
 I. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Jacques Cartier, of St. Malo, sailed up "the ji^rcat river" 
 in 1534, gave it the najue it bears, and wrote in his journal 
 that the natives" called the place, in which thoy ha<l established 
 themselves for the time V)eing, Cavata, the meaning of which, as 
 subsequent investigations have shown, is " collection of wig- 
 wams." 
 
 In the slightly changed form, Canada, the word is now- 
 applied to that portion of the North American continent not 
 included in the United States of Noi'th and Central America, 
 and Mexico. 
 
 This northern region, which faces three oceans, contains 
 3,676,247 square miles of continental area, and the Arctic 
 Archipelago, the area of which has not been determined, but 
 may be estimated at 310,000 square miles. 
 
 At different times in its history this country has been 
 divided into Provinces and Districts. At present there are 
 16 of these divisions. Eleven of them have, in pai't, salt water 
 for their boundary ; five are wholly in the interior. 
 
 Four of the eleven border on the Arctic Ocean. One looks 
 out on the Pacific. Four are bounded on their seaward side by 
 the Hudson Bay, and four are washed by the Atlantic Oceaa 
 and its great estuarial sea, the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 
 
 All the sixteen Provinces and Districts are well watered, 
 the rivers and lakes of Canada being on a scale commensurate 
 with the vastness of the country. 
 
 The valley of the St. Lawrence penetrates the Provinces 
 of Ontario and Quebec, in a southerly and westerly direction. 
 
CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 for a navigablo distance of over 2,300 miles from the ocean. 
 It has tributary rivers, such as the Ottawa, with a total length 
 of 780 miles, the St. Maurice, the Saguenay, the Manicouagan, 
 the Trent, the du Loup, the Richelieu and many others. 
 
 The lacustrine expansions connected with the St. Lawrence 
 and its tributaries a' ineroua, and many are of great size. 
 Lake Superior has a j,rea of 31,420 sq. miles; Lake Huron 
 28,780; Erie lO.OIW ; Ontario 7,3:J0 ; Nepigon 1,450: Lake St, 
 John 3GG ; Lake Simcoe 300 ; Lake St. Clair 360, and there are 
 other smaller lakes making up an area of over 75,000 square 
 miles of Canadian lakes connected with the St. Lawrence. 
 
 The Provinces of the East, or the Acadian region, have 
 rivers of large size. The St. John River drains an area of 
 26,000 square miles, one half of which is in the Canadian 
 Province of New Brunswick. Other rivers of considerable 
 magnitude are the Restigouche and the Miramichi. 
 
 West and north of the St. Lawrence River and its tributaries 
 are many rivers of lar -^ size. In the Territories and Manitoba 
 are the Mackenzie (2 miles in length), the Copper Mine and 
 Great Fish Rivers, *. . u flow into the Arctic Ocean : the 
 Saskatchewan River (1,500 miles) ; the Red River and its 
 tributary, the Assiniboia, which flow into Lake Winnipeg, 
 discharging thence through the Nelson River and the Churchill; 
 the Haye and other rivers, which How into tlie Hudson Bay, 
 draining into it the waters of an area estimated at 370,000 
 square miles. In British Columbia are the Eraser River and 
 the Columbia (1,200 miles), and in the Yukon District is the 
 Yukon River, which carries off the surplus waters of a great 
 tract of country in Canada before flowing into the sea on the 
 western side of th^ United States District of Alaska. Con- 
 nected with these and other rivers are lakes of large size. 
 Lake of the Woods (1,500 square miles), Lake Manitoba (1.900), 
 Great Bear Lake (11,200), Great Slave Lake (10,100), Atha- 
 basca (4,400), Winnipeg Lake (9,400), Winnipegosis (2,0.30). 
 
 The principal Mountains of Canada are the Rocky Moun- 
 tains in the west, which extend in Canada from the Arctic 
 Ocean to the United States, and contain the highest peaks in 
 
CA AM DIA X IL 1 SI) BOOK. 
 
 8 
 
 Canada ; among the chief being Mount Hooker, 16,760 feet 
 
 higli. 
 
 From one of the mountain peaka of the Rockies water 
 falls into streamlets that carry it into greater streams which 
 timl their way to the Arctic Ocean, to Hudson Bay and to the 
 Pacific Ocean. 
 
 Further west than the Rocky Mountains range is the 
 Coast range, and between these are several ranges, the Selkirk 
 and the Gold being the principal. 
 
 Thus in a general view Canada consists of the mountain- 
 ous regicm of the West, the prairie country between the Rockies 
 and Hudson Bay, and the woodland region, comprising the 
 Provinces of Ontario, Quebec, Now Brunswick and Nova 
 Scotia. 
 
 The width of these several belts east and west is : Moun- 
 tain, (iOO miles; Prairie, 1,000 miles; Woodland, 2,300 miles. 
 
 The area of 3,670,24(6 square miles is divided for purposes 
 of administration into the following Provinces and Districts: 
 
 Provinces and 
 
 DlHTUKTS. 
 
 Original ConlVileralioii — 
 
 Ontario 
 
 Quebec 
 
 Nova Scotia. 
 
 New Brunswick 
 
 Provinces admitted — 
 
 Manitoba 
 
 liritish (/olunibia 
 
 Princt- Fidward Island. . 
 Distri(;ts created — 
 
 Keewatin 
 
 Aasiniboia 
 
 Sa-skatchewan 
 
 Alberta 
 
 Atliabaska 
 
 Yukon 
 
 Mackenzie . 
 
 X'liKava 
 
 Franklin 
 
 Great Lakes and Rivei-s . . 
 
 Totals 
 
 Date of 
 Organization 
 or Admission 
 
 July 1, 1867 
 
 " " 1, 18()7 
 
 " 1, 18()7 
 
 " 1, 1807 
 
 " l.'i, 1S70 
 " L'O, 1S71 
 " 1, 1873 
 
 .\pr. 12, 1870 
 
 May 17, 18S2 
 
 "" 17, 18S2 
 
 " 17, 1882 
 
 " 17, 1882 
 
 .June 13, 1898 
 
 Oct. 2, 18<)5 
 
 " 2, 1895 
 
 " 2, 1895 
 
 Ahe.\, Scu'.vi'vK Miles. 
 
 Water. 
 
 24,650 
 
 2,900 
 
 50 
 
 100 
 
 9,890 
 1,000 
 
 258,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 0,000 
 
 745 
 
 ll,8ii0 
 
 *2,000 
 
 82,010 
 
 I80,0(X) 
 
 l^nk'n. 
 
 47,400 
 
 ()27,535 
 
 Land. 
 
 219,650 
 
 3-44,450 
 
 20,550 
 
 28,100 
 
 64,066 
 
 382,300 
 
 2,000 
 
 498,000 
 
 89,340 
 
 108,000 
 
 99,255 
 
 239,5(10 
 
 196,300 
 
 481,200 
 
 27(),000 
 
 Unk'n. 
 
 3,048,711 
 
 Total. 
 
 244,300 
 
 t347,3.>0 
 
 20,600 
 
 28,200 
 
 73,956 
 
 383,.300 
 
 2,000 
 
 756,000 
 
 90,340 
 
 114,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 251,300 
 
 198,300 
 
 563,200 
 
 456,000 
 
 Unk'n. 
 
 47,400 
 
 t3, 676, 246 
 
 * Not iiicUuling the Territor'al Soas. 
 t Franklin not included in the Total, 
 
CANADIAX HA XDBOOK. 
 
 The Dominion is as large as France and all her colonies, 
 with Italy and Switzerland thrown in. 
 
 11. 
 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF CANADA. 
 
 There is so much that is unique in the history of Canada 
 that the task of presenting an adequate conspectus of her past, 
 within the narrow limits imposed, is far from being one easy 
 of accomplishment. The most that can be done is to bring 
 under review some of the leading incidents and personages 
 and to indicate as far as possible their inlluenct.' in moulding 
 her history and determining the course of events. 
 
 The history of Canada may be divided into three periods : 
 the first covering the discovery and exploration of the country; 
 the second its occupation and settlement by the French ; and 
 the third its development as part of the British Empire. 
 
 1st Period. The Discovery and Exploration of Canada. 
 
 The Norse Sagas have been recognized in recent years ns 
 possessed of undoubted value as historical works. " The nar- 
 ratives which tell us of Viidand and of Leif Eric's son are 
 closely intertwined with the authentic history of Norway an 1 
 Iceland." From these Sagas of the tenth and eleventh cen- 
 turies comes the record of the earliest voyages of discovery on 
 the north-eastern shores of this continent. The movement of 
 population from Norway, after the naval battle of Hafursfiord 
 in 872, resulted in giving Iceland in a few years a population 
 of 50,000 souls. Among these was a settler named Gunn- 
 bjorn, who, in 870, was driven by a fierce western storm to 
 Greenland, where he and his crew passed the winter, return- 
 ing to Iceland in the following spring. The story of their 
 adventures lingered among the firesides of the liomes of Ice- 
 land for many a lon^ year, and after a century had passed, 
 
CANADIAX HANDBOOK. 
 
 6 
 
 Eric the Red, being outlawed for killing a neighbour in a 
 brawl, resolved to spend the years of his banishment in s^^arch- 
 ing for the western land associated with Gunnbjorn's adven- 
 ture. He left Iceland in 983, and in three years' time had ex- 
 plored the south-east side of Greenland and, following the 
 shore round Cape Farewell, had examined a portion of the 
 west side, where he found in one of its deep fiords a place for 
 a home. Returning to Iceland he proved himself so good an 
 emigration agent that he soon left with 25 vessels. He en- 
 countered storms and lost eleven of his fleet. The remainder* 
 carrying four or five hundred persons, arrived safely at the 
 selected spot. The colony was successfully planted and for 
 four hundred years the descendants lived and laboured and 
 loved on the west coast of the land Eric had named Greenland. 
 During many years communication was constant between the 
 colonists and the Mother Isle. Among those who accompan- 
 ied Eric was one Herjulf, who, on one occasion, went to Iceland 
 on a lengthened visit. His son, Bjarni, thought he too would 
 cross over to Iceland to see liis father. Lauded there he found 
 that his father had left for Greenland ; sailing after him 
 Bjarni was borne by contrary winds far to the south, making 
 after many days an unknown land. He turned to the north 
 and in eight or ten days sighted the well-known fiord on the 
 Greenland Coast. 
 
 Naturally there was much speculation about the unknown 
 land Bjarni had seen and some years after Leif, the son of 
 Eric, sailed in the summer time of the year 1000 southward 
 bound and came to a barren land plentifully covered with flat 
 rock. This land he called Heluland or Slate Land. Con- 
 tinuing his voyage of discovery he arrived at a land covered 
 with forest. This wooded coast he called Markland or Wood- 
 land. From this land he stood out to sea and, driven before a 
 north-easterly wind, came in sight of land. Following the 
 coast, he came to a body of water connected with the ocean 
 by a short river. Entering the lake he determined to winter 
 there and, as one of his men found grapes in abundance, Eric 
 called the place Vinland and there spent the winter, returning 
 
6 
 
 CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 with a cars:o of lumber to Greenland the following year. The 
 communication with a lumber country, thus opened, continued 
 from year to year till, in the spring of 1007, Thorfinn Karlsefni 
 resolve upon forming a colony in Vinland and accordingly 
 sailed thither. The colony, however, did not succeed and the 
 survivors returned to Greenland in 1012. The best authority, 
 Dr. Storm, concludes after careful investigations that 
 Vinland was that part of Canada known as Nova Scotia and 
 that these Norse Voyagers sailed along the Labrador coast, 
 and the Newfoundland coast and crossing the straits had at- 
 tempted colonization in Acadia. 
 
 The practical results of these early voyages of discovery 
 were of little value. The facts were in the Sagas ; but South- 
 ern Europe having little or no communication with the 
 countries in the north never learned of the existence of the 
 New Continent. It was not till John and Sebastian Cabot, 
 father and son, had persuaded Henry VII to commission them 
 to make a voy-Agc of discovery by sailing westward that Vin- 
 land was rediscovered in 1497, the land-fall being, as seems 
 fully established, at Cape Breton. In the following year, 
 Sebastian Cabot made another voyage, going into high lati- 
 tudes for the purpose of discovering a north-west passage to 
 the Indies. On this voyage he sailed as far north as Hn Igon 
 Straits. Animated by his example, Gaspar Cortereal, a Portu- 
 guese gentleman, sailed along the eastern sea front of the 
 country now called Canada, from Hudson Straits (which he 
 named Rio Nevado — the " River of Snow " ) to the Bay of 
 Fundy. It is claimed that he partially explored the Gulf of 
 St. Lawrence, but of the result of his investigation no record 
 remains. England and Portugal being thus connected by 
 voyages of discovery with Canada, France was not far behind. 
 The probable date of the first French expedition to Cape 
 Breton is 1504 The French navigator Djnys explored the 
 great Gulf of St. Lawrence in 1506. 
 
 From that time onward the rich fisheries of the New- 
 foundland Banks and the shores of the Gulf became the matr- 
 net drawing the hardy Breton, Basque, Norman and West of 
 
CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 7 
 
 England fishermen to our coasts. Cape Breton, a name pub- 
 lished on the earliest maps, derived its name from the Breton 
 fishermen, who thus began the long continued custom of trans- 
 ferring the names of their European homes to this continent. 
 
 None of the voyages thus taken, however, had any refer- 
 ence to the settlement of the country. It was reserved for 
 France to make the first attempt in this direction, when, in 
 the year 1518, the Baron de Lery fitted out an expedition 
 with that end in view. Unfortunately the fates were not 
 propitious to this venture, and beyond the landing of some 
 horses on Sable Island, where they multiplied greatly and 
 exist in droves to the present day, nothing was accomplished. 
 
 Franco had as yet done little in exploring or occupying 
 any portion of this boundless continent, whose wealth was 
 filling the coffers of her rivals, and Francis I resolved to claim 
 a share of the prize. " Shall the Kings of Spain and Portugal," 
 he exclaimed, " divide an America between them ? I would 
 like to see the clause in father Adam's will bequeathino- that 
 vast inheritance to them." Under his direction, therefore, in 
 1524, Verrazano, a Florentine, was sent forth. He ranged the 
 coast from Florida to 50° north latitude and annexed on 
 behalf of France the entire region previously explored by the 
 Cabots, designating it " New France." The rival claims 
 arising from these explorations were the chief grounds of 
 the long and bloody conflict which later on was waged 
 between Great Britain and France for the possession of this 
 magnificent region beyond the seas, and the maritime supre- 
 macy that went with it. 
 
 Thus fitfully and feebly were the first attempts to found 
 settlements on the North American coasts carried on up to 
 the close of the first quarter of the sixteenth century, and, as 
 we have seen, without anything practical or permanent being 
 achieved. 
 
 2nd Period. Occupation and Settlement by the French. 
 
 In the year 1534 when France had somewhat rallied 
 from the disaster inflicted upon her during recent wars, fresh 
 
8 
 
 CANADIAN 11 A ND BOOK. 
 
 enterprises were undertaken in the New World, and on the 
 20th April of that year the real discoverer of Canada proper, 
 Jacques Cartier, a native of St. Malo, was sent out with two 
 small vessels of about 60 tons each. Sailing through the 
 Straits of Belle Isle he scanned the barren coast of Labrador, 
 and almost circumnavig ed Newfoundland. Turning thence 
 south-west ward, he passed the Magdalen Islands, and on a 
 glorious July day entered the large bay, for which the intense 
 heat suggested the name of " dos Chaleurs " it bears to this 
 day. On the rocky headland of Gaspe ho landed and, erect- 
 ing a huge cross bearing the fieur-de-lis of France, took 
 possession of the country in the name of his sovereign 
 Francis I. 
 
 Learning from the natives of the existence of a great 
 river leading so far up into the interior that " no man had 
 ever traced it to its source," he sailed up the gulf of St. 
 Lawrence until he could see land on either side. But the 
 season being well advanced, he deemed it prudent to go no 
 further until he should return next .summer. 
 
 Delighted with the report his faitiiful lieutenants 
 brought back, the French king, in the following year, fitted 
 Cartier out with three fine vessels, of which the largest was 
 120 tons burthen, and despatched him with the special 
 ble.ssing of the bishop of St. Malo and with a commission 
 from himself to " form settlements in the country and open 
 traffic with the native tribes." The little squadron reached the 
 mouth of the St. Lawrence about the middle of July, and, the 
 10th of August being the festival of St. Lawrence, Cartier 
 gave the name of that saint to the small bay in which he 
 then was, since when it has been extended to include the entire 
 gulf and river. 
 
 Continuing up the noble stream, he came, on September 
 7th, to a fertile, vine-clad island which he named the Isle of 
 Bacchus. It is now the Island of Orleans. Heie Donnacona, 
 the Sachem of the Algonquin nation, made him a state visit, 
 accompanied by no less than five hundred followers in twelve 
 liuge canoes ; and seven days later, having made up his mind 
 
CAXA DIA N HA XDBOOK. 
 
 9 
 
 to winter in the country, Carticr anchored his fleet at the 
 mouth of the St. Charles river, where stood the Indian town 
 of Stadacona, beneath the high beetling promontory now 
 crowned with the historic ramparts of Quebec. 
 
 Impatient to explore the river stretching out so grandly 
 before him, Cartier advanced with fifty men in his smallest 
 vessel. But the sand-bars of Lake St. Peter compelled him 
 to take to his bouts. In these he pressed onward, until on 
 October 2nd he reached the populous Indian town of Hoche- 
 lasfa. nestling beneath the wood-crested height which with 
 characteristic loyalty he called " Mont Koyal," .since anglicized 
 into Montreal. The friendly natives thronged the shore by 
 hundreds, and received the pale-faced strangers with mani- 
 festations of the utmost delight, loading their boats with lavish 
 presents of corn and tish. From his kindly hosts, Cartier 
 learned of the existence, far to the west and south, of inland 
 seas, broad lands and mighty rivers, then an almost unbroken 
 solitude, now the home of a prosperous people. 
 
 After three da^'s of pleasant intercourse, Cartier returned 
 to Stadacona and wintered there, liis little force suffering 
 severely from insufficient food and inade(iuate clothing, 
 being also plagued with scurvy of a malignant type, whose 
 violence neither processions, vows nor litanies availed to stay. 
 The following spring he returned to France, taking with him, 
 much ajjainst their will, Kincj Donnacona and nine of his chiefs 
 as living trophies of his expedition. 
 
 Five years elapsed before Cartier returned to Canada as 
 Capt. General and Master Pilot. Associated with him was the 
 Sieur de Roberval, whom the French Monarch .had created 
 Lieutenant-General and Viceroy of his newly acquired posses- 
 sions. The natives were at first friendly as before, but became 
 hostile on learning that Donnacona and his companions had 
 not returned ; and Cartier's treachery began to recoil upon his 
 own head. Another gloomy winter was spent, and again the 
 would-be colonists went back home disheartened, although 
 Roberval, whom unforeseen obstacles had detained in France 
 for a twelve months, meeting them at Newfoundland, tried 
 
10 
 
 CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 hard to retain them. Roberval continued on his course and 
 wintered at Cape Rouge, whither, in 1543, Cartier was sent to 
 carry the orders for his recall, and the latter, after enduring a 
 third winter, left the country in the spring of 1544 never to 
 return. 
 
 With the disastrous failure of all these early expeditions, 
 the efforts of France to colonize Canada were suspended for 
 a full half century, with the single exception of the Marquis 
 de la Roche's quixotic attempt to settle Sable Island with a 
 band of convicts selected from the royal prisons — an attempt, 
 it need hardly be said, that had no other result than to furnish 
 historians with a highly romantic episode, and a spot on that 
 " dark isle of mournint; " with the name of the " French 
 Gardens." 
 
 With the opening of the seventeenth century there appears 
 upon the scene one c^f the most remarkable of the many 
 remarkable men who have taken an active part in moulding 
 the destinies of Canada. This was Samuel de Champlain, 
 whose high qualities both as sailor and soldier marked him 
 out as one peculiarly fitted for the task of opening up New 
 France to civilization. Accordingly in 1G03 he was commis- 
 sioned, in conjunction with Pontgrave, for this arduous enter- 
 prise, and his first voyage, which produced nothing but a 
 cargo of furs, was made in that year. Two years later, how- 
 ever, he returned in connection with a much larger expedition 
 headed by the Sieur de Monts, who had obtained a patent of 
 the vice -royalty of La Cadic or Acadie, now called Nova 
 Scotia, and the first actual settlement by Europeans within 
 the boundaries of the present Dominion of Canada was then 
 (1605) made by de Monts at Port Royal (now Annapolis Royal) 
 in Nova Scotia, and there the first field of wheat ever sown 
 by the hand of white man in all Canada was sown — winter 
 wheat it was, for Poutrincourt says " it grew under the snow." 
 The little colony here established, after a fitful existence of 
 several years, was finally destroyed by the English under 
 Argall, the bitter strife between the French and English 
 nations, which disturbed the continent for one hundred and 
 
CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 11 
 
 fifty years, there finding its beginning, and making, during 
 its continuance. Port Royal famous as the most assaulted spot 
 on this continent. It has been taken by force, five times by 
 the English — by Argall in 1613, by Kirk in 1621, by Sedgwick 
 in 1654, by Phipps in 1690 and by Nicholson in 1710. It was 
 by them abandoned or restored to the French four times — by 
 Arg§,n in 1613, by the treaty of St. Germain in 1 ()32, by treaty 
 of Breda in 1667 and by treaty of Ryswick in 1697. It was 
 unsuccessfully attacked by the English three times — by Church 
 ill 1694, by March in 1707, and by Wainwright also in 1707. 
 It was unsuccessfully attacked by the French and Indians 
 twice — in July, 1744, by Abbe de Loutre, and in September, 
 1744, by Duvivier. It was taken, sacked and abandoned twice, 
 once by pirates in 1690 and once by United States revolu- 
 tionary forces in 1781. 
 
 It may be considered the nursery from whose small but 
 vigorous beginnings sprang the two branches of the two great 
 races which, after a hundred and fifty years of fierce fightings 
 around Port Royal for supremacy through the arts of war, 
 are now, and have been for a century and a third, joint pro- 
 prietors of Canada, having settled down to nobler rivalries in 
 the arts of peace, with the one common object of making the 
 land they live in a shining example of the prosperity that 
 surely comes from concord and well cemented union. 
 
 Passing from Acadia to Canada proper, we find Champlain 
 in 1608 once more ascending the broad St. Lawrence, and on 
 the 3rd of July, beneath the craggy heights of Quebec, laying 
 the foundation of one of the most famous cities of the new 
 world. The colonists soon were comfortably housed and the 
 land cleared for tillage. Thenceforward, during many years, the 
 history of Quebec was the history of Canada, and its annals 
 contain little beyond the pathetic struggles of the colonists 
 with the difficulties of their situation, and the dangers which 
 constantly menaced them from their Indian foes. For the 
 intense hostility of the Indians, the Fi-ench were themselves 
 wholly to blame. We have already seen how Cartier's treat- 
 ment of Donnacona recoiled on him; and now Champlain, 
 
12 
 
 CA NAD I A N II A XI) HOOK. 
 
 under stringency of circumstance through necessity of divid- 
 ing the Indian tribes for his own preservation, incurred the 
 implacable hatred of the powerful Iroquois nation, by joining 
 forces with the Algonquins in an attack upon one of their 
 strongholds. The temporary advantage thereby gained was 
 dearly paid for by a century and a half of rapine, plunder and 
 nameless barbarities. 
 
 The Prince of Conde, Admiral Montmorency, and the 
 Due of Ventadour became successively viceroys of Canada, 
 but the valour, fidelity and zeal of Champlaincdmmanded the 
 coiilidence of them all, Dauntless and tireless, he explored the 
 St. Lawrence and Ottawa Rivers, warred against the Indians, 
 visited the mother country again and again in the interests of 
 hia beloved colony, strengthened the defences of Quebec ; in 
 fact was the heart and soul as well as the head of the entire 
 enterprise. While he was Governor of Quebec, the little 
 town endured the first o£ the six sieges it has experienced in 
 its eventful history. It was invested by Sir David Kirk, 
 aetiiiir luider instructions from the EnjjHsh court, and starved 
 into an honourable surrender in the year 1()29. But it turn- 
 ing out that peace had been concluded between the nations 
 before the surrender, by the Treaty of St. Germain signed in 
 1632 the whole of Canada, Cape Breton and Acadie was 
 restored to the French. Three years later, Ciiamplain's busy 
 life drew to a close, and on Christmas day the noble soul, 
 whose character was more like that of knight-errant of 
 meditBval romance than that of a practical soldier of the 
 seventeenth century, passed peacefully away at the Castle of 
 St Louis, which he himself had built upon the summit of the 
 clirts of Quebec. 
 
 Champlain had many successors in the arduous office of 
 governor of New France, but none of like spirit, until Fron- 
 tenac came in 1672, and the colony grew very slowly, scarce 
 one hundred Europeans being added to it during the five 
 years succeeding Ciiamplain's death, while in 1663, when the 
 charter of the Hundred Associates, a company which promised 
 
CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 13 
 
 much and performed little, was annulled, the total foreign 
 population did not exceed two thousand souls. 
 
 The chief reason of this slow growth, as compared with 
 the rapid advance made by the English colonies in Virginia 
 and New England, was that, under Jesuit direction, far more 
 interest was taken in the conversion of the savages than in 
 the colonization of the country. From 1632 to 1082 priests 
 of the Jesuit, Recollet and other orders, traversed the land, 
 undaunted by trackless forests, terrible privations, merciless 
 foes and appalling loneliness, pushing the work of thf cliurch 
 wherever human beings v/ere to be found and souls saved. 
 The Recollets were the first of Europeans to pierce the wilder- 
 ness lying between the St. Lawrence and the Bay of Fundy. 
 Within five years of their coming we find their sandalled feet 
 on the Nepisiguit and on the St. John, on Cape Sable and at 
 Port Royal. When Champlain made his expedition to the 
 Huron country, the Recollet Father LeCaron went air ad of 
 him in his zeal and was the first to carry the cross to 
 the tribes of the great Laurentian Lakes. The Jesuits wore 
 the pioneers of civilization in the far West. Their annual 
 reports constitute a perfect mine of priceless information on 
 early Canadian history. Conspicuous among tiiem were 
 Peres Hennepin, Lalemaiit, Jogues, Brebeuf, Chaminot, Mar- 
 quette and Dablon, and many a priest heroically laid down his 
 life I'ather than swerve aside, or turn back from the forward 
 course be believed God had called him to pursue. 
 
 In the Spring of 1042 the foundations of Montreal, the 
 future commercial metropolis of Canada, were laid by Mai- 
 sonneuve with all the pious pomp and churchly ceremonial 
 possible amidst such primitive surroundings, and thus onward 
 into the heart of the country civilization slowly made its way, 
 fighting with th3 relentless Lidians for every foot of the 
 passage. 
 
 In 1672 the Jesuit Pere Albanel crossed from the River 
 St. Lawrence to the bottom of the Hudson Bay and took for- 
 mal possesssion for the King of France. Representatives of 
 
 I 
 
14 
 
 CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 tlie King of England were there before him. In later times 
 the question of priority of discovery was hotly debated. 
 
 The occasion producod the man, and during the years 
 168G-1()[)7, Pierre Le Moyne, Sieur d'Ibcrvillo, a member of 
 a family of fourteen children, throe of whom were killed in 
 service for their Prince and foui of whom were governors of 
 forts or provinces, began his remarkable career by crossing 
 the wilderness between the St. Lawrence River and Hudson 
 Bay and capturing Moose Factory from the English, Ho fol- 
 lowed up his initial victory with such spirit that he fought 
 many battles by land and by sea, one of the latter, that in 
 Hudson Bay in 1097, being described by the best authorities, 
 French and English, as the fiercest and bloodiest battle of the 
 war. When in 1G97 he finally left the Great Bay and re- 
 turned to France he could tell of six forts and seven governors 
 of the Hudson Bay Co. captured by him, besides his exploits 
 in New England, Acadia and Newfoundland. 
 
 In 1672, the same year in which Pere Albanel visited Hud- 
 son Bay, the Count de Frontenac was appointed Governor, and 
 next to Champlain, he is in every way the most conspicuous 
 figure among the early holders of that office. The chief glory 
 of his administration was the spirit of daring exploration and 
 discovery by which it was characterized, the grandest achieve- 
 ment of all being the exploration of the Mississippi River and 
 the Great West under Joliet, Marquette, La Salle and Henne- 
 pin. The sufferings of the colonies from the Indians, more 
 especially the Iroquois, were terrible during this period, and 
 at times it seemed as if these would really succeed in driving 
 the detested "palefaces" from the country. Then in 168(S 
 came the breaking out of war between France and England, 
 leading to hostilities between the French and New England 
 colonies. These were carried on with varying success until 
 the two nations came to terms, and by the treaty of Ryswick 
 (1607) restored to each other whatever conquests they had 
 succeeded in making. The following year Frontenac died and 
 was succeeded by De Callieres 
 
CA XA J) /A X HA XD HOOK. 
 
 16 
 
 After four years of peace, the war of the Spanish succes- 
 sion again involved England and France in bloody strife, 
 which, of course, had to bo shared hy the colonies, and thence- 
 forward until 1718, tragic scenes were enacted from the ocean- 
 laved shores of Acadia to the pathless forests of the West, in 
 which French, English and Indian warriors outvied one an- 
 other in lust for blood 
 
 By the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) the whole of Acadia, 
 Newfoundland and Hudson's Bay were given to England, in 
 whose possession they have ever since remained. 
 
 During the long period of peace that now ensued, the 
 population of Canada, which by a census taken in 1721, was 
 found to be only 25,600, slowly increased, and its internal de- 
 velopment made consi(leral)le progress. The cultivation of 
 the soil was, however, greatly neglected for the seductive fur 
 trade, which possessed for the adventurous voi/ageiir and 
 eoiweur des hois a fascination that even its enormous profits 
 did not wholly explain. Assuming the garb, these often assum- 
 ed with it the social habits of the red men, living in their wig- 
 wams, marrying their daughters, and rearing a dusky brood 
 of children from whom have descended the Metis or Half- 
 breeds of whom there are many representatives in our Western 
 Provinces. 
 
 In 1744, the war of the Austrian succession once more in- 
 volved the colonies in a series of hostilities which were chief- 
 ly remarkable for the capture of the supposed impregnable 
 fortress of Louisburg in Cape Breton by the English under 
 Pepperell (1745), and the first appearance of George Washing- 
 ton, "the father of his country," who was then a valued offi- 
 cer in the English colonies. The war terminated between the 
 principals with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), but this 
 truae was regarded by both nations as only a breathing spell 
 to prepare for the coming struggle that would decide the pos- 
 session of the continent. 
 
 In 1754 the expected conflict opened with a brush be- 
 tween a small body of troops undei* Washington and a party 
 of French soldiers under Jumouville at Fort Duquesne. 
 
10 
 
 CAyAJJAIX JIAMHiOOk'. 
 
 \Vaahin<:^ton took the initiativo, and, as Bancroft says, liis. 
 connnand to " fire " " kin(llo<l the world into a flame." Then 
 began that memorable war whicii, kindling among the forests 
 of America, scattered its fires over the kingdoms of Europe 
 and the sultry Empire of the Great Mogul — the war made 
 glorious by the deatlis of Wolfe and Montcalm, the victories 
 of Frederick and the exploits of Clive ; the war which con- 
 trolled the destinies of America and was first in the chain of 
 events which led on to her revolution with all its vast and un- 
 developed conseciucnccs. 
 
 The fluctuating fortunes of that fearful conflict, as the 
 tide of war ebbed and flowed over the plains, down the rivers 
 and through the forests of New France, New England, an<l 
 the West and South, we cannot follow. It is known in history 
 as the seven years' war, lasting as it did from 1755 to 17G3 
 and buing concluded by the Treaty of Paris in the latter j'car. 
 During its continuance, many battles and sieges of great 
 interest and importance took place, and many leaders won 
 undying fame for themselves by their splendi<I achievements^ 
 but transcendinii: all other events in ma<niitude and far-reach- 
 ing consequence and towering high above all other men in 
 the imperishable glory of their deeds, the siege of Quebec 
 and the rival connuanders Wolfe and Montcalm, seem by their 
 vastness to fill the whole picture as one looks back upon it 
 from these present days. On the 13th of September, 17;"3}), 
 Wolfe w^on Quebec on the fields of Abraham, and just one year 
 later the capit\'lation of de Vaudreuil at Montreal before the 
 couibined armie? of Amherst, Haviland and Murray completed 
 the English conquest of Canada, and the entire continent, 
 with the sole except" 
 Miquelon on the 
 hands. T .. to third period, viz : 
 
 ittle islands of St. Pierre and 
 ud coast, passed into English 
 
 3rd; C0NQL1..ST ANi . ERMANENT Possession by the English. 
 
 Of the conque. I we have already spoken at the close of 
 the preceding period ; it now remains glance at the history 
 of Canada since it has been a British ssession. 
 

 
 a, 
 
 2 
 '5 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 .a 
 

 
CA XAJJ/AX HA XT) BOOK. 
 
 17 
 
 A. de Celles, French Librarian of the Parliamentary- 
 Library, in making a comparison between tlie French of 
 France and those of Canada, says : " First, we (French Cana- 
 dians) have self-government in its entirety. Just as our 
 Federal Government and our Provincial Administration are 
 the expression of the vox j'opuli in its fullest sense, so the 
 County Council — an autonomous body created by the elective 
 franchise — moves in the smaller sphere of local affliirs. But 
 this is nob all ; the parish or village municipality, which also 
 owes its existence to popular suffrage, is the starting point of 
 the whole system and sets the machinery in motion. Tlie 
 county ami parish or village council are but miniatures of the 
 central power." 
 
 Mr. Benjamin Suite says " the conquest abolished t^.e 
 paper money of the old regime and substituted cash payments ; 
 enibled the habitants, who formed nine-tenths of the popu- 
 lation at the time, to purchase where they pleased and what 
 they pleased, instead of being obliged to go to the Company's 
 or Government store ; sfave greater freedom for trade and 
 abi^lished unjust monopolies ; and paved the way for those 
 Legislative measures which, at a subsequent date, conferred 
 local self-government and schools upon the French subjects- 
 of Great Britain." 
 
 The printing press wa? introduced into Canada a year* 
 after the Treaty of Paris was signed, that is in 1764, and the 
 tirst printi 1 matter published in Canada was the prospectus 
 of the Quebec Gazette, a newspaper which continued in ex- 
 istence till 10 years ago. 
 
 Wliile there was, as a matter of course, a good deal of 
 friction between " the new subjects," as the French were 
 called, and tlie British settlers or " old subjects," yet under the 
 temperate and judicious guidance of General Murray and Sir 
 Guy Carleton matters proceeded hopefully and the country 
 entered upon a career of prosperity, rapidly increasing in 
 population and wealth. 
 
 In the year 1774, what was known as the QiiebiC Act 
 was passed by the British Parliament. It extended the bounds 
 
 B 
 
18 
 
 C'.liSvlD/^liV HANDBOOK. 
 
 of the Province from Labrador to the Mississippi, from the 
 Ohio to the watershed of Hudson Bay. It established the 
 rifjht of the Frencli to t'ae observance of tlie Roman Catholic 
 religion without civil disability, and confirmed the tithes to 
 the clergy, exempting, however, all Protestants from their 
 payment. It restored the French civil code and established 
 the English administration of law in criminal cases. Supreme 
 autliority was vested in the Governor and a Council of from 
 17 to 23 members the latter being nominated by the Crown 
 and consisting for the most part of persons of British birth. 
 
 This Act gave profound dissatisfaction, not only to the 
 English-speaking minority in Canada, who considered that 
 their rights had been ruthlessly sacrificed, but also to the 
 American colonists, who complained bitterly over the transfer 
 to Canada of the country north and west of the Ohio river, 
 for which they had so long and variously struggled. Dospite 
 all protests and appeals, the Act, which naturally gave great 
 delight to the French population, continued to be the rule of 
 the province for seventeen years. 
 
 The colonists were now called upon to pass through 
 another war period — bloody but brief — and this time with 
 their own countrymen across the border. In the year follow- 
 ing the passing of the Quebec Act, the long smouldering tires 
 of secession in the American colonies burst into flame. On 
 April 19th, 1775, the " minute men" of Concord and Lexing- 
 ton " fired the shot heard round the world," and the War of 
 Independence began, which ended in the loss to England of 
 some of her American colonies. One of the first steps taken 
 by the Secessionists was to capture Ticonderoga and Crown 
 Point on Lake Champlain, and thus possess the gateway to 
 Canada. Forts St. John and Chambly soon followed, and on 
 the 12th November Montreal succumbed. But the tide turned, 
 when, flushed with their first successes, the Americans essayed 
 the capture of Quebec, two daring attempts resulting only in 
 disastrous failure. On the 4th July, 1776, the revolting 
 vcolonies declared their independence and the war closed on 
 
CAXADIAX HANDBOOK. 
 
 19 
 
 the 19th October, 1781, with the surrender of Cornwallis at 
 Yorktown, Virginia. 
 
 By tlie terms of the treaty of peace signed at Versailles 
 September 3rd, 1788, Canada was despoiled of the magnificent 
 region h'ing between the Mississippi and the Ohio, and was 
 divided fnjm the new nation designated " the United States 
 of America " by the great lakes, the St. Lawrence, the 49th 
 parallel of N. latitude, and the highlands dividing the watei'S 
 falling into the Atlantic fi'om those emptying themselves into 
 the St. Lawrence and the St. Croix Rivers. 
 
 Throughout all the secessionary movement, a consider- 
 able number of the American colonists had remained faithful 
 to the Mother Country. At the close of the war it became 
 painfully evident that there would be no peace for them 
 within the boundaries of the United States. They found 
 their property confiscated, their families ostracized and even 
 their lives menaced. In this emergency, the British Parlia- 
 ment came to their aid. A sum exceeding three million 
 pounds sterling was voted for the assistance of these United 
 Empire loyalists, as they were proud to call themselves ; 
 transport ships were provided for their conveyance to Canada 
 and every possible arrangements made for their domiciliation 
 in the sea-board provinces, and in what is now the province of 
 Ontario. It is estimatt'd that no less than 25,000 persons 
 were thus induced to find refuge in the British colonies, 
 where they proved of the utmost value in opening up and 
 settling the country. 
 
 At that time (1784) the present province of Ontario was 
 almost a wilderness. The entire European population is vSaid 
 to have been under 2,000, and these dwelt chiefly in the 
 vicinity of the fortified posts on the St. Lawrence, the Niagara 
 an<l St. Clair rivers. On the other hand, the popuh-ition of 
 Lower Canada was about 120,000. In order therefore that 
 the Western region might be developed, the Home Govern- 
 ment ort'ered generous grants of land to those who would 
 settle there, besides assistance in the way of seed, stock and 
 farming implements ; under these inducements, the wilder- 
 
20 
 
 CANADIAN IIAXDBOOK. 
 
 ness soon bej^an to make way for smiling farms, thriving 
 settlements and waving fields of grain. 
 
 In 1786, Lord Dorchester (of whom we have already 
 heard as Sir Guy Carleton) became Governor-General of 
 British North America. The Canadian colonists now 
 demanded the same constitutional privileges as were enjoyed 
 in the maritime provinces, those latter having been oi-ganized 
 in 1784-85, under special constitutional charters. The demand 
 Avas met by the granting of the Habeas Corpus Act and 
 of trial by jury in civil cases. But this did not content the 
 Canadians, who asked also for an elective Legishitive 
 Assembly, and a larger measure of constitutional libeity. 
 Accordingly in 1791 the Constitutional Bill was passed by 
 the British government. It divided Canada into two pro- 
 vinces, known as Upper and Lower Canada. Each province 
 received a separate Legislature, consisting of a Legislative 
 Council appointed by the Crown, a Legislative Assembly elected 
 by the people, and a governor appointed by the Crown nnd 
 responsible only to it. The Assembly was elected for four 
 years and in it was vested the power of raising a revenue for 
 roads, bridges, schools and similar public services. A body 
 which soon become obnoxious to the people was the Executive 
 Council. It consisted of salaried officials of the Crown and 
 judges, who were the confidential advisers of the Governor 
 although not accountable for their acts either to him or to the 
 Legislative Assembly. They generally held scats in ohe Legis- 
 lative Council and virtually conti'olled the legislation by th'^ir 
 predominant, yet irresponsible, influence. 
 
 The new constitution, as Fox predicted, worked badly 
 almost from the outset. The Legislative, and especially the 
 Executive, Councils became objects of popular jealousy, and 
 questions of both church and state soon began to divide the 
 people into parties and engender bitter political animosities. 
 
 The first Legislature of Lower Canada sat at Quebec in 
 1791, when that city contained about 7,000 inhabitants ; and 
 the tirst Legislature of Upper Canada, at Newark, the present 
 town of Niagara, in 1792, where it continued to sit until 1797, 
 
CAXADIAX HANDBOOK. 
 
 21 
 
 when it removed to York (now Toronto), which city had been 
 founded by Governor Simcoe two years previously. 
 
 The progress of the country in trade and population, and 
 the development of its resources were rapid. The tide of 
 emigration steadily increased, the Irish troubles of '98, especi- 
 ally, leading many hardy settlers to seek new homes in the 
 virgin wilds of Canada. 
 
 As the province increased in wealth and population, the 
 evils of a practically irresponsible government began to be 
 felt. The Executive Council, composed of the governor and 
 five of his nominees, removable at his pleasure, gradually 
 absorbed the whole administrative influence of the colony. 
 
 In the year 1812-1 4 the young auxiliary nation was called 
 upon to undcrg . a severe orde.al through the United States 
 declaringwar against Great Britain partlj' because of sympathy 
 with France and partly through misundei'standings between 
 the two governments. The United States naturally selected 
 Canada as the first object of their attack. The position of the 
 two countries was very unequal. Canada was totally unpre- 
 pared for the conflict. She had less than 6,000 troops to 
 defend loOO miles of frontier. Her entire population was 
 under 300,000, while that of the United States was eight 
 n)illions. Despite this startling disparity, the Canadians, 
 rallying as one man to the loyal support of their government, 
 bore themselves so nobly throughout the two years' struggle 
 which ensued, that when it ended the advantage lay clearly 
 upon their side, and the victories of Queenston Heights and 
 Chateauguaj' are to-day pointed to with the same patriotic 
 pride as Britons take in Paardeberg or Frenchmen in 
 Austerlitz. 
 
 At the close of the war, the domestic dissensions, sus- 
 pended while all attention was concentrated upon the defence 
 of the country, broke out afresh. In both Upper and Lower 
 Canada the people began to assert themselves against the rule 
 of the Executive Councils, and the breach between the two 
 branches of the Legislature grew wider every day. Conflict- 
 ing claims as to revenue and other matters also sprang up 
 
 lij 
 
22 
 
 CAXADIAN JTAXDBOOK. 
 
 between the two provinces, to obviate which their union was 
 suggested so far back as 1822, but then withdrawn in con- 
 sequence of the intense opposition manifested bj' the French 
 population of Lower Canada. In Lower Canada, Louis J. 
 Papineau, and in Upper Canada, William Lyon Mackenzie, 
 came forward as the champions of popular rights and were 
 after a time drawn into actual rebellion. The struggle for 
 Responsible government, once entered upon, was never per- 
 mitted to relax until at length, in 1840, acting upon the sug- 
 gestions contained in the famous report of Lord Durham on 
 the state of the Canadas, the Home Government determined 
 upon the union of the two provinces and the acknowledgement 
 in the new ccmstitution of the principle of Responsible Govern- 
 ment. Resolutions were passed by the Provincial Legislatures 
 in favour of the scheme, and a bill based upon them passed 
 the Imperial Parliament in 1840 and went into effect on tlie 
 Gth February, 1841. On that day the provinces of U|)per 
 and Lower Canada were peacefully united under one admini- 
 stration, and responsible government was firmly established, 
 the designations of the new period becoming Canada East and 
 Canada West. 
 
 The Act of Union provided that there should be one 
 Legislative Council and one Legislative Assembly in which 
 each province should be equally represented. The Council 
 was composed of twenty life members, appointed by the 
 Crown ; the Assembly, of eighty-four members, elected by 
 the people. The Executive Council or Cabinet comprised 
 eight membei's and was responsible to the Legislature. It 
 was presided over by the Governor-General, who held his 
 appointment from the Crown. The control of all public 
 revenues was vested in the representatives of the people. In 
 June, 1841, the first united Parliament met at Kingston. 
 Three years later the seat of government was changed to 
 Montreal, and on the destruction of the Parliament Builditiirs 
 by a mob in 1849, it went to Toronto, remaining there till 
 1865, when it went to Quebec for a few years, becoming, in 
 fact, an ambulatory Legislature, resting for a term in the 
 
CAXADIAX HANDBOOK. 2S 
 
 capital of Canada West, and for another term in the capital of 
 Canada East. 
 
 CONFEDERATION. 
 
 For many years after the year 1704 the Province of Can- 
 ada remained separated from the other parts of British North 
 America. Before the separation from (Jreat Britain of the 
 Colonies, that later formed the United States of North Ameri- 
 ca, statesmen were found to advocate a union of the Colonies 
 in some form of federal combination. After their independence 
 had been secured, the New England and Southern States com- 
 bined in a federal Union. Tiie belief that this system was the 
 best for countries of an extended area and sparse population 
 was entertained by public men who remained true to the mon- 
 archical pi'inciples. Colonel Morse, who was ap[)ointed by the 
 British Government to report on the best methods to be 
 adopted in the changed condition of things consequent on 
 the success of the American revolution, advocated, in llHH, 
 a union of all British North America "for the preservation of 
 the fragments of British power on this continent." The 
 division of the Canadian Province into Upper and Lower, how- 
 ever, under the Constitutional Act of 1891, destroyed for a 
 time the idea of union. Lower Canada, peopled largely by 
 the French, desired to retain the laws respecting land and 
 property to which the people had been used. Upper Canada, 
 settled largely by United Empire Loyalists and people of the 
 English-speaking race, desired the laws to which they had 
 been accustomed. There was no way to meet the views of 
 both except by constituting two provinces where one had 
 been. So, for nearly a half century, the two provinces devel- 
 oped along side of each other, each pursuing the course its 
 own people deemed best. 
 
 In time die system of government which suited the in- 
 fant Colonies gave evidence of being unsuited to their more 
 developed state. A larger measure of self-government was 
 demanded. Especially was it desired that Responsible Govern- 
 ment should be introduced. Li fact the people believed that 
 
 V 
 
 ~h'. il 
 
24 
 
 CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 the British system in its entirety was best for them and that 
 they were prepared for self-government to its fullest extent. 
 Investigations by Lord Durham and other competent 
 men convinced the Home Government that the time for 
 consolidation had arrived. The Union Act of 1840 was the 
 result, and in LS41 the two provinces, separated for 50 years, 
 came tojjether utjain as we have seen. One of the most im- 
 portant Acts of the first Parliament was the Municipal Act, 
 by which each township, county, town, \illage and city 
 manages its own local affairs and has power to levy taxes for 
 local improvements and local government. 
 
 The development of the United Province of Canada went 
 steadily on. But in the evohition difficulties arose, partly iu 
 consequence of the more rapid growth of the western region, 
 partly because of the trade policy of the United States. 
 These difficulties were met by the Confederation of the four 
 provinces, of Canada West, Canada East, New Brunswick and 
 Is'ova Scotia which had advanced together in knowledge of 
 tlie principles of self-government and in practical experience of 
 the application of these principles in the administration of 
 public affairs. 
 
 The political training of the four provinces had brought 
 them in the early sixties to the point where union became a 
 necessity if further development and expansion were to be at- 
 tained. In 18G4 Lord Monck, then Governor-General of the 
 two Canadas, communicated with the Lieut.-Governors of the 
 other provinces, with the result that a convention of Repre- 
 sentatives met at Quebec, formulated a plan of union which 
 secured the approval of the legislatures of New Brunswick, 
 Nova Scotia and Canada. The Parliament of Great Britain 
 as the Parliament of the Suzerain, passed the Act known as 
 the Union Act of 18G7, which is the Constitutional Act, under 
 which for a time only the four provinces acted. 
 
 One of the first acts looking to expansion of the new Con- 
 federation was the acquisition by purchase of the rights of 
 the Hudson Bay Company in the territory obtained by them 
 
CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 -'0 
 
 under their Charter granted to them by King Charles II, in 
 1670. 
 
 This acquired, the Province of Manitoba was constituted 
 in July; 1870. British Columbia, offered Responsible Govern- 
 ment and the Canadian Pacific Railway, entered the Confed- 
 eration in 1871. Prince Edward Island joined in 1(S73 and 
 the remaining portions of Rupert's Land were divided during 
 the years 1876-1895 into districts named : Keewatin, Assini- 
 boia, Saskatchewan, Alberta, Athabasca, Mo-ckenzie, Yukon, 
 Uugava and Franklin. 
 
 The process of development which had been the experi- 
 ence of the four original provinces, parties to the pact of 
 Confederation in 1807, was closely followed in the new ac- 
 quisitions. Manitoba and British Columbia received at once 
 the boon of self-government in local affairs, being placed on an 
 equality with the provinces in the east. The Nortliwest 
 Territories were governed : 1st. By the Lieut.-Governor of 
 Manitoba, 2nd. By a Lieut.-Governor and Executive Coun- 
 cil, appointed after five years' experience of the personal rule 
 of one man. 8nl. By a Lieut. Governor and a Council, part- 
 ly elected and partly nominated. 4th. By a Lieut.-Governor 
 and an Advisory Council of four persons, selected by the 
 Lieut.-Governor from the Legislative Assembly of 22 members 
 the Advisory Council acting on matters of finance, and hold- 
 ing office during pleasure. Legal experts were appointed by 
 the Governor in Council to aid His Honour in legal questions. 
 5th. By a Lieut-Governor and a Legislative Assembly with 
 powers the same as those conferred on the other provinces un- 
 der the Union Act of 1807, except the borrowing of money on 
 the sole credit of the Territories. The Executive consisted of 
 the Lieut.-Governor and a committee of four selected by the 
 Lieut.-Governor. 0th. By a Lieut-Governor and an Executive 
 Council selected bv the Lieut.-Governor from the Leirislative 
 Assembly, the members selected having to bo re-elected by 
 the people on accepting office under the Crown. The last 
 dev^elopment, placing the Legislature of the Northwest Terri- 
 tories almost on an equality with the other Legislatures, was 
 
 
2fi 
 
 CANADTAN IIAyDBOOK. 
 
 brought about in 27 years from the first organization of 
 government. In these years the Northwest Territorities 
 passed from pupilage to the enjoyment of home rule and 
 responsible government. These Territories were unrepre- 
 sented in the Federal Parliament till 1887, when, by Act of 
 that Parliament, they were given two senators and four 
 elected representati vos. 
 
 From one end of Canada to the other, during all the years 
 that the people have been developing a system of gcvernment 
 suiting themselves, the loyalty of all to the British Crown has 
 been tiie supreme and central idea. The first minister of Can- 
 ada, Sir Wilfrid Laurier said in a speech delivered in Paris in 
 Aug., 1897, " I love the France which gave us being: I love 
 the England which gave us lil»erty." Sir George Cartier con- 
 veyed the same idea when he said he was an Euglishuiau 
 speaking French. 
 
 III. 
 
 CLIMATE. 
 
 The British Empire has an area, roughly speaking, of 
 9,000,000 square miles, of which one-third is in North 
 America, one-third in the Antipodes, one sixth in the tem- 
 perate zone of Europe and Asia, and one-sixth within the 
 tropics. If one portion of this great empire, enclosing within 
 its ample bounds a fifth of the globe, has been decried because 
 of its intense heat, and another on account of its aridity, 
 Canada can claim to be the greatest sutierer of all from its 
 association in the popular mind with intense cold ; " Siberian " 
 and " Canadian " having long been interchangeable terms to 
 denote the utmost severitv of cold. The furs which have 
 been distributed throughout England for jjenerations from 
 many a Canadian stream, forest or plain, the possession of one 
 side of the north pole, and the ownership of the snow-capped 
 Rocky Mountains, have contributed to give Canada an Arctic 
 
CANADIAN IIANDIiOOK. 
 
 ifi 
 
 name and a hyperborean reputation by no means in accord- 
 ance with actual facts. 
 
 Wiieu the French monarch signed the treaty which 
 transferred Canada to Great Britain, he sought to lessen the 
 importance of his rival's ac(iuisition and to diminish the 
 degree of the sacrifice the French nation was called upon to 
 make, by exclaiming, while he signed, "after all, it's only a 
 few square miles of snow." In official circles the expression 
 found acceptance and down to a comparatively recent date 
 the Frencli king's estimate continued to be the belief of the 
 l)est iidormed in Europe. Nut many years ar > an eminent 
 English statesman referred to Canada as " tiiose huge ice- 
 bound deserts of North America ;" while the geographies of 
 the schools and the encyclopedias of the libraries have in- 
 variably represented Canada as doomed in great part to 
 eternal sterility from the severity of its climate. 
 
 Ten years agcj a writer in Winsor's Narrative and Critical 
 History of North America, dealing with the physiography of 
 tlie continent, saiJ, " The region north of the St. Lawrence 
 and of the great lakes is not to be regarded as having any 
 very great value from the forest resources it affords ;" this 
 assertion being based upon the belief in the conuuon notions 
 about the severity of the climate. Last year (181)9) the saw 
 mills of Lake Michigan were so dependent on the very region 
 referred to that they drew upon those " valueless resources " 
 to the extent of 212 million feet. 
 
 The expeditions sent to the north pole have had much to 
 do with the continuance of these strange misconceptions 
 which have persistently retained their position among the 
 " facts " relating to Canada's climate. According to Parry, 
 the cold of Melville Island was so intense that hot water 
 allowed to fall from the topmast reached the deck as hail ; 
 mercury could b^ fired as bullets from fowling pieces, and 
 balls of frozen almond oil, when fii'cd at planks, pierced them 
 and fell to the ground unbroken. 
 
 Many other similar accounts have been published by 
 veracious navigatoi's respecting the Arctic slope of the 
 
28 
 
 CA XADTAN IIAXDIIOOK. 
 
 Dominion, and these have been applied by a sweeping 
 generalization to the whole country till intensity of cold has 
 been burned into the average European mind as the most 
 striking characteristic of Canada. 
 
 Agents of railway companies in the states and territories 
 south of the international boundary line have striven to per- 
 petuate the notion that the climate of Canada is against the 
 country's future. Not long ago the Canadian department of 
 agriculture found that there had been distributed, throughout 
 England, thousands of pamphlets in which it was asserted, 
 with the proper quantum of hypocritical lamentation, that 
 the climate of Manitoba consists of " S(!ven months' Arctic 
 winter and five montiis' cold weather ; " the object in scatter- 
 in'*; the statement beinjj to attract intendinj; settlers from 
 Manitoba to Dakota as possessing a better climate. 
 
 It can no more be denied that there are regions of 
 Canada where the frost never leaves the ground, than it can 
 be denied that there is a great American desert, stretching 
 for several degrees of latitude lietween the Gulf of Mexico 
 and the international boundary ; but the Dominion of Canada 
 is so vast in extent that one part may be charged with per- 
 petual snow, while another is bathed in almost perennial heat 
 and sunshine. One part receives the cold atmosphere of the 
 " Frozen Sea," another the humid air of the Atlantic, another 
 the mild genial breezes of the Pacific, and still a fourth hag 
 the surface of its .soil baked by the heat of tropical waters. 
 In the extreme northern parts, vegetation is so stunted that 
 the highest tree does not reach a child's knee ; in the southern 
 parts, vegetation is so luxurious that fruits and fiowers grow 
 with as much vigor as in Italy or the south of France. 
 
 Between these great extremes, all the cereals, grasses and 
 flowers of temperate regions are found, anrl as we proceed 
 northwards oi- southwards we meet an unbroken gradation of 
 vegetation. This country has, in fact, all the climates of 
 Europe from the Mediterranean to the Arctic Ocean ; as might 
 be expected, seeing that it extends from the latitude of Rome, 
 
CANADuy Ji AM) nook'. 
 
 so 
 
 in Italy, to that of North C'apc in Norway, and is of almost 
 e([uul area. 
 
 Climate is an extronioly complex matter anrl one that 
 dt'periils oi) a siii;^nlar variety of conditions. Of these, the 
 most manltest and inclusive arc heat, rain, cloud, wind and 
 electrical conditions. They are, to a certain extent, dependent 
 oil eaci) other, but ultimately they may he traced haeic to 
 certain general causes, viz : 1st, position in latitude ; 2nd, pize 
 uiid form of land ; 3rd, elevation aljove the sea ; 4th, form, 
 position and elevation of neigh bourinj,' land : oth, nature and 
 temperature of the nearest marine current ; Gth, position, dis- 
 tance and direction ol the nearest continent. 
 
 These points have all to be fully studied, as much in deal- 
 ing with the cliniatii of Canada as in discussing that of any 
 other country. Jt is clear that climate is not a (piestion of 
 latitude and longitude ; that the South is not necessarily warm 
 and the North, cold , that the East wind does not ahvavs briii" 
 rheumatism . that the South wind need not be hot, or the 
 Southwest be accompanied Ijy rain. 
 
 The very great differences in climate in England, com- 
 paratively small in extent as Great Britain is, should warn 
 persons against forming one general conclusion as regards the 
 climate of so vast a country as Canada. The climate of Bath 
 and that of Torquay are well known to differ essentially, and 
 even the two small islands of Jersey and (luernsey, not much 
 more than twenty miles apart, are extremely different as 
 retjards climate. 
 
 One good result has come from the long-endured slander- 
 ing of our Canadian climate ; great attention has been given 
 to meteorological investigation.s. The study of the science of 
 climate has been stimulated by the determination of Cana(.la 
 to present /'ac^s' in j)lace of a.ssertions and wanton a.spersioiis_ 
 The Dominion Government has eight chief we;ither stations; 
 'Si first-class stations reporting to the central otBces by tele- 
 graph : 31 first-class, 172 second-class and 85 third-clas.s 
 stations. There are 93 storm signal stations, oi which 73 are 
 
30 
 
 CAXADATN HANDBOOK. 
 
 display stations ; 16 stations at which self-registerinf]f sun- 
 shine records are maintained. 
 
 Great Britain is one of earth's most favoured regions for 
 wheat rrrowing. It 1ms a summer of about (JO** to 62®, F. In 
 the Northwest Territories the Dominion Government main- 
 tains 16 stations where the tein])erature is daily recorded. 
 Ten of the sixteen showed a mean summer temperature of 
 60'' to 65® F. for the year 1898. 
 
 In all these stations the agents of the Canadian Govern- 
 ment are engaged studying daily, and almost liourly, the climato 
 of the country at places as widely apart as the most easterly 
 point of the southern shores of Hudson Straits, and Victoria 
 in Vancouver Island. The records of the Hudson Bay forts 
 have l)een searched for " weatlier notes." The narratives of 
 travellers have been closely scanned for references to the 
 climate. 
 
 From all these sources there is abundant evidence that 
 Canada, climatically considered, is a country well fitted for 
 Europeans. 
 
 Time has amply justified the conclusions of Malte Brun, 
 "tliat Canada and t'^e other British possessions in North 
 Amrrica (now forming the Dominion), though apparently 
 blessed with fewer physical advantages tlian the States to 
 the south, contain a noble race, and are evidently re.«^rved 
 for'', lofty destination. Ever3'^thing there is in proper keeping 
 for the development of the combined physical and mental 
 energies of man. There are to be found at once the hardihood 
 of charactei- whicli conquers difficulties, the climate which 
 stimulates exertion, and the natural advantaires which reward 
 enterprise. Nature has luarked out this country for exalted 
 destinies." 
 
 No one particular in her category' of advantages is more 
 effective as an instrument to enable Canada to take the 
 position thus declared, by an eminent authority, to be her's in 
 the future, than her climate. 
 
 Taking the conditions referred to as the true guides to 
 climate, we find that a large portion ot Canada Is in latitudes 
 
CAXADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 31 
 
 which in Europe have proved the most favorable to the health 
 of man. Tlie mean temperature of the regions watered by 
 the Moose and Abbitibi Rivers corresponds with the north of 
 Europe, being 05 F. The regions drained by tlie northern 
 parts of the Ottawa and by the Saguenay, and the northern 
 parts of Nova Scotia correspond with the south coast of Eng- 
 land, Paris, the middle of Germany, and the soutli of Russia, 
 being GO F., wliile 65*^ F. represents the summer temperature 
 of the regions bordering upon tlie upper St. Lawrence Lakes, 
 Loudon, Toronto, Kingston, Montreal, the St. Lawrence to 
 Quebec, and eastward to Fredericton, the capital of the prov- 
 ince of New Brunswick. 
 
 Altitude more than latitude makes clhnate, and in this 
 respect Canada occupies a position superior to most regions. 
 According to Humboldt, Europe has a mean elevation of (571 
 feet. South America of 1,132, Asia of 1,151, and North America 
 of 748 feet. The Canadian part cf North America is placed 
 at 300 feet. 
 
 The ascent from the ocean to Lake Superior does not 
 average more than six inches in a mile, and even this ascent is 
 not markedly noticeable till we proceed westward. Montreal, 
 the head of ocean navig ition, reached only after passing over 
 several hundred miles of fresh surface water, is but eighteen 
 feet above the level of the sea at low water, as it rolls under 
 the lighter fresh water along the bed of its estuary. 
 
 The marine currents are singularly favorable to Canada. 
 Along the Atlantic coast, the Gulf stream exerts its benign 
 influences to such an extent that on Sable Island there are 
 troops of wiM ponies, tlie pvogenitor.s of which, some centuries 
 ago, were shipwrecked and cast upon the island, and tiiere, 
 successive generations, without shelter of an\' kind, have lived 
 and multiplied. In Halifax, in the depth of winter, a dozen 
 hours of south wind will mow down the snow-banks, as a mow- 
 ing machine cuts down the ripened grass. 
 
 Along the Canadian littoral of the Pacific Ocean the 
 Japanese current produces the same effect on the climate as 
 the Gulf stream does in Eu<rlaud. Vancouver Island is like 
 
 I 
 
82 
 
 r'.LV.l 1>1AN HANDBOOK. 
 
 i ' 
 
 the south of England, except that it has n greater summer heafc 
 with less humidity. In the vicinity of Victoria the highest 
 temperature in the shade in July and Au(''ust ranges from 80 
 to OO'' F., while the thermometer in winter seldom goes as low 
 as 22'^' below freezing point. New Westminster, in i ititude 
 49M3', has a mean temperature for the year of 50 degrees. 
 Pelee Island, Ontario, in latitude 41*^.50', has an annual mean 
 temperature of 49 degrees. As respects the ocean currents it 
 may be said that they make a difference in the regions atl'ected 
 by them of 10'^ of latitude. 
 
 East of the Rockies, Profes.sor Macoun found a large area 
 which had been previously described by travellers as the apex 
 of the o-reat American desert. He concluded '■■><" 'er iuvestitia- 
 tion that this region was not naturally sterile soil, but a di-ied 
 and baked surface caused by influences operatmg for ages, the 
 chief of which was the heat of the Gulf of Mexico borne by 
 the winds therefrom, and losing their moisture while passing 
 over the heated sand plains lying between t'le Gulf and Canada. 
 Acting upon his conclusion he made an experiment, subsequent- 
 ly tried on a large scale by the managers of ' ' Canadian PariHc 
 Railway. The ground was broken up, and beueath the hard- 
 ened surface was found a soil possessing in the highest degree 
 the constituent elements of the best soil. It had been hermet- 
 ically sealed and thus prevented from wasting il/S s'veetness 
 on the desert air. Tlie same influence, having its source in the 
 Gulf of Mexico, combined, according to some observers, with 
 the Chinook winds, operates upon the climate of that region — 
 the r.mching ground of Canada. In the district of Alberta, the 
 winter climate is comparatively mild, not severe ; blizzards are 
 unknown, and stock winter in the open air and come out tat 
 and in good condition in the spring. The Stock Association 
 of Alberta reports about 250,000 head of cattle, 100,000 of 
 sheep and 50,00!) horses. Other individual o^'* rs have about 
 one-third more. The reports from all are favorable as to the 
 future, speaking well f )r the climate in mid-winter. 
 
 The great bodies of water which are a distinguishing fet"",- 
 ture of Canada also exert considerable influence on the climate. 
 
CA XA 1) I A y II A XI) B OK. 
 
 33 
 
 Hudson's Bay is 1,000 miles long by 600 wide. Its tom- 
 peraturo is 65' F. during summer ; in winter it is 3^ warmer 
 than the waters of Lake Superior. The chain of fresh water 
 lakes, which, almost without a break, extends between latitude 
 4445 and latitude 51 north, and from longitude 75 to longitude 
 120, covers, togi-ther with the smaller lakes, an area of 130,000 
 square miles, and contains nearly one-half of all the fresh water 
 on the surface of the globe. The moderating intluences of these 
 large bodies of water, which never freeze over, will be at once 
 recognized. 
 
 In the older settled portions of Canada the undoul)ted ex- 
 j. 'ience is, that the climate has been modified by the decrease 
 of the forest area and the draining of swamp lands. ivlolte 
 Brun says "the same changes, as to climate, are taking place 
 in Canada which were observed in Europe when the dark 
 masses of the Hcrcynian forest were felled, and its morasses 
 drained by the laborious arms of the Germans, and the climate, 
 becoming more mild, has undergone a change of 8' to 10^ on 
 the average, since the efforts of European industry were first 
 applied to the cultivation of the country." 
 
 The number oi centenarians, especially among the 
 Canadians of French descent, whose ancestor.) for ten genera- 
 tions have lived nnd died in Canada, attests the suitability of 
 the climate to the European races ; as aLso do the facts that 
 the weight ot children at birth and the size at twenty-one 
 years are far above the average of Europeans. 
 
 During the insurrectionary movement in the Canadian 
 Northwest, in March, 1885, men and bcjys were marcluMl front 
 the Niagara peninsula, and from all the cities between London 
 and Halifax without any special selection. Five thousand 
 troops, with another thousand employees of various kind :, 
 travelled in opea box-cars over the Canadian Pacific railway,- 
 marched across the "gaps" in the then incompleted raihvav, 
 trudged through snow and slush b}^ forced marches north- 
 wards from three points of the railway hundreds of miles 
 distance from each other. They slept in tents without taking 
 any extra precautions as rrgar<ls health. Yet of the six 
 
84 
 
 CAXADIAN IIAXDBOOK. 
 
 thousand, during months exposed and going as far north as the 
 53rd parallel, not one man died from any disease traceable to 
 the climate. There was complete immunity from disease. 
 
 But, says somo one, "wlxile this is all true as regards the 
 effect of the climate on human life, is it not a fact that vege- 
 table life suffers ''^ Is it not a fact that throughout the whole 
 of Canada, while the mean temperature is equal to that of 
 Europe, there are summer frosts which sei'iously diminish the 
 chances of success for agricultural operations ? " 
 
 This question has also been made the subject of careful 
 investigation. 
 
 Sir George Simpson says the vine is abundant on the 
 Kaminiistiquia River, a tributary of Lake Superior from t!ie 
 north west, where also the tomato has been found growing 
 wild. He alsa states that, in his day, buffaloes roamed in 
 countless herds in the region watered by the Saskatchewan, 
 " The grass to feed them," says Sir George, " is rich and 
 almndant, and the buffaloes winter there, together with the 
 domestic animals taken thither for the use of the white man 
 and the Indiar." 
 
 Professor Macoun found the cucumber ripening in the 
 Peace River district in August. In the valley of the Ottawa 
 the grape flourishes, and the census returns show that the 
 yield of grapes in Canada, which for the year 1880 was 
 3,89G,.')08 pounds, was for the year 1890, 12.252,331 pounds. 
 If you look through the exhibits from Canau.i, you will find 
 apples, pears, peaches, and other fruit, wiin.h suggest a fine 
 ■climate, better for such fruit than that possesseo. 'v .iiy oth(!r 
 part of " Greater Britain," and, if the price paid io^- v.'»aadian 
 apples in the London mai'ket is good evidence, better than 
 any part of the United States. 
 
 There is Ijeyond question, one drawback which, in the 
 Northwestern territories of Canada, tl)OUgh not to so great a 
 degree as in the Western States to the South, make the mean 
 temperature of the summer lower than it would otherwise be, 
 and at the same time destroys, to a certain extent, the 
 accuracy of the deduction made from that mean temperature. 
 
i 
 
 CAXADIAX ITAXDnOOK. 
 
 S5 
 
 
 Tliat drawback is the occurrence in occasional years of a 
 summer frost. Upon the fact of this occurrence, interested 
 persons have commented on the climate for wlieat raising. 
 The experience of the early settlers in Ontario was similar to 
 that of tlie earl}'' settlers in Manitoba. We never hear now 
 of this as an objection to Ontario. Already in tlie Prairie 
 Province early planting has to a very considerable extent 
 overcome the obj^'ction, as the wheat reaches in such event a 
 period in its growth whicli enables in to withstand the sudden 
 lowering of the temperature. The hard Fyfe wheat has been 
 a nu)st successful seed. 
 
 With a splendid soil— an alluvial black loam with an 
 average depth of twenty inches, resting on a sub-soil of clay, 
 — with an average yield, based on ten 3'ears' reports, ot over 20 
 busliels to the acre, and with practically eight days in the 
 wiek, owing to the length of time the sun is above the 
 horizon in those higher latitudes, it may be counted a cer- 
 tainty that the energy and enterprise of the people will ere 
 long succeed in overcoming the one difficulty in the success- 
 ful raising of wheat that has been experienced — a difficulty 
 moreover which only in occasional years presents itself. The 
 exhibit of Manitoba wheat and other grains will speak for 
 themselves as to quality ; the 3'ield of last harvest e(|ual to 
 51,()()(),000 bushels, of which 28,000,000 bushels were wheat, 
 will show that Canada is destined to take high place among 
 the world's grain-growers, especially so when it is recalled 
 that the crop of 1890 was but 20] million bushels, indicating 
 an crease within the decade of nearly 200 per cent. 
 
 That the wheat growers are satisfied with their exper- 
 ience is seen iii the fact that in Manitoba, the area sown in 
 wheat in 1899, was double tliat of 1890, and that in Northern 
 Ail)erta the acreage in grains in 1899 was more than double 
 that of 1890. 
 
 The following table gives the average summer and yearly 
 temperature at stations in the Dominion cf Canada, with the 
 
 1 H 
 
36 
 
 CAXADIA X HANDBOOK. 
 
 latitude, longitude and height above the sea. Tlio temper- 
 atures are derived from tea years' observationa and over, 
 whenever practicable : — 
 
 STATIONS. 
 
 c 
 
 u 
 
 British Columbia. 
 
 Afiuspiz 
 
 Ahbiitsl'ord 
 
 I'.nrkcrvillr 
 
 ('iiriiKniali, \'.I 
 
 DonaUl 
 
 iMiiu'im, V.I 
 
 Kiuk'ihv 
 
 Fiviu'h Vicek, V.I 
 
 Ilazlcnu'ii' 
 
 Kainlodps 
 
 KuiH'i- Island 
 
 New UVsliiiiiistor. 
 
 N. Niconu'ii 
 
 Nicola Lake 
 
 Port Simpson 
 
 Kiver's Inlet 
 
 Spence's I'.i'i(lj;e...., 
 
 Stuart's Lake 
 
 Vietoria, \A 
 
 Vernon 
 
 N. W. Territories. 
 
 Battleford 
 
 Banff 
 
 Chaplin 
 
 Caij,Miy 
 
 iMlnidUtnU 
 
 Henrietta 
 
 Iiulian Head 
 
 IMoose.Iaw 
 
 IMedicine Hat 
 
 Ooniku]) 
 
 rinclier Civek 
 
 Tarkland 
 
 Trine.' Albert 
 
 (in'Api)elle 
 
 Rejjina 
 
 Swift ("unent 
 
 49 
 V) 
 53 
 48 
 5! 
 4S 
 50 
 4i) 
 4!) 
 50 
 4.S 
 4!) 
 49 
 50 
 54 
 51 
 50 
 54 
 48 
 50 
 
 52 
 51 
 50 
 51 
 53 
 51 
 50 
 50 
 50 
 53 
 49 
 51 
 5;*, 
 50 
 50 
 50 
 
 14 
 
 L'S 
 45 
 32 
 20 
 
 o 
 () 
 
 41 
 58 
 13 
 12 
 9 
 34 
 39 
 2;] 
 28 
 24 
 14 
 
 41 
 10 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 21 
 
 1 
 
 30 
 
 15 
 10 
 30 
 27 
 20 
 
 V. 
 
 o 
 
 121 
 122 
 121 
 124 
 
 31 
 
 1() 
 35 
 18 
 117 11 
 
 123 ^2 
 119 7 
 
 124 30 
 
 122 43 
 1211 Lit 
 
 123 3.S 
 122 54 
 122 2 
 130 39 
 130 20 
 
 12 
 
 19 
 20 
 12 
 
 121 
 124 
 123 19 
 119 15 
 
 108 
 115 
 10(i 
 114 
 113 
 JOS 
 103 
 105 
 110 
 101 
 114 
 102 
 10!) 
 
 lo:! 
 104 
 107 
 
 ft. 
 
 4180 
 
 130 
 
 2090 
 
 40 
 
 1180 
 
 1193 
 
 20 
 
 35 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 30 
 30 
 40 
 35 
 37 
 20 
 
 U 
 
 
 
 47 
 
 *> — 
 
 45 
 
 330 
 
 59 
 
 2(; 
 
 20 
 
 770 
 
 1800 
 
 85 
 1240 
 
 1620 
 4542 
 2202 
 
 3:{so 
 
 2158 
 
 1924 
 1745 
 2161 
 
 3750 
 
 14!t2 
 
 2115 
 1885 
 2439 
 
 Mkan- 
 rK.Mi'i;i;ATrRE. 
 
 SIM- 
 
 .Mi;i!. 
 
 60.8 
 61.5 
 55.4 
 .55.9 
 .59.5 
 61.4 
 64.3 
 61.0 
 60 .". 
 67.6 
 62.7 
 63.3 
 t>3.0 
 (il.9 
 45.2 
 57.9 
 70.2 
 .54.3 
 58 . S 
 63 () 
 
 t;2.3 
 54. () 
 65.0 
 58.8 
 59. 3 
 6 1. .'5 
 ()2.!) 
 61. (S 
 ()3.7 
 (iO.O 
 58.8 
 59.6 
 59.5 
 61.6 
 62.7 
 <)4.5 
 
 Vk.mi 
 
 47.8 
 48. 4 
 36. () 
 47.2 
 ;!6.4 
 48.7 
 44.4 
 47.6 
 48.4 
 47.1 
 49.4 
 .50.0 
 49.1 
 42.2 
 44.3 
 45.7 
 4H.8 
 33.2 
 4S.7 
 44.9 
 
 32.9 
 34.6 
 35 . 7 
 37.4 
 :!5.9 
 31 .5 
 3s.() 
 
 :;o.9 
 
 30.0 
 30.0 
 38.9 
 30.5 
 
 ;io.7 
 ;'.:!. 4 
 
 :!2.5 
 37.6 
 
CAXADfAX IIAXDP.OOK 
 
 STATIONS. 
 
 Manitoba. 
 
 AwiMtie .. 
 
 l>raii(loii 
 
 I'.iiinardo fUiisst'll). 
 
 Cliaiuiol Jslaiul 
 
 EllUTSoll 
 
 Elkhiiru 
 
 y irt ()sbi)rne 
 
 ]!iilvie\v 
 
 Mimu'doya 
 
 •< 
 
 / 
 
 4!) 51 
 50 h\) 
 hi 18 
 
 •in 1 
 
 A\) hP, 
 •JO 53 
 •19 54 
 50 10 
 
 Portage la I'lairic 40 
 
 ; tonv .Mdiintaiii 50 
 
 Winnipeg 40 53 
 
 Ontario. 
 
 Alton 
 
 J'xignor 
 
 J'.t'atiico 
 
 liarrie 
 
 r>rantf()rcl 
 
 I'irnani 
 
 ])an('i'()ft 
 
 ('t)ttani , 
 
 CiilliuirwiKid .. 
 
 Colilwatcr 
 
 ("loniarf 
 
 Di'scmnto 
 
 Umliani 
 
 Kl(ira 
 
 lOgivnioiit 
 
 (ivavt'nl Hirst ... 
 
 Ilailcyhnry 
 
 lialiburton 
 
 llaniilton 
 
 Kingston 
 
 London 
 
 Lncknow 
 
 Lindsay 
 
 Ijidvi'lield 
 
 ]\looso Factor V 
 
 ]\Iaita\va .".. 
 
 North IJnico ... 
 Ki.igara Falls... 
 
 Niagara 
 
 Owen Siinnd ... 
 Orillia 
 
 43 
 44 
 45 
 44 
 
 ! •> 
 
 43 
 -!5 
 4i 
 44 
 44 
 45 
 44 
 44 
 43 
 44 
 44 
 47 
 45 
 43 
 44 
 42 
 43 
 44 
 44 
 51 
 40 
 44 
 43 
 43 
 44 
 44 
 
 51 
 40 
 
 « 
 2:5 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 30 
 3S 
 23 
 11 
 10 
 41 
 
 
 54 
 29 
 
 1 
 
 1(1 
 13 
 
 ro 
 
 5() 
 20 
 25 
 1(5 
 15 
 2:"> 
 u 
 
 13 
 
 •'.I 
 
 99 33 
 
 00 57 
 
 101 
 07 
 07 
 
 lot 
 
 07 
 
 100 
 
 20 
 23 
 13 
 11) 
 II 
 35 
 
 00 48 
 OS 1 
 07 12 
 97 7 
 
 80 5 
 ^0 50 
 70 20 
 70 41 
 
 80 
 81 
 
 77 
 
 00 
 
 50 
 
 82 45 
 80 15 
 
 70 40 
 
 77 
 77 
 80 
 80 
 80 
 
 9 
 4 
 
 50 
 
 24 
 
 5 
 
 19 20 
 78 30 
 
 78 28 
 70 54 
 70 29 
 81 12 
 
 81 
 78 
 78 
 80 
 77 
 81 
 79 
 70 
 80 
 70 
 
 30 
 45 
 15 
 5(5 
 55 
 25 
 6 
 
 55 
 24 
 
 
 ►-1 a 
 
 ft. 
 
 1170 
 "710" 
 
 830 
 803 
 7()0 
 
 12.50 
 
 830 
 7.50 
 
 04 
 
 1274 
 
 1450 
 
 770 
 
 0S7 
 
 303 
 
 285 
 808 
 
 87: 
 
 30 
 
 507 
 
 Mkan 
 TEMriaiATriiR. 
 
 Mr.K. 
 
 04.9 
 03.1 
 50 4 
 02.7 
 04.2 
 01 .0 
 (54.3 
 01.0 
 00.5 
 ()4.2 
 (il.l 
 0(5.0 
 
 01.5 
 04.2 
 (52.3 
 00.5 
 (57.5 
 (5(5.2 
 (52.4 
 00.2 
 (55.1 
 05.3 
 04.5 
 (5(5.7 
 (55.0 
 04. () 
 (52.5 
 (54.8 
 02.9 
 (53.0 
 07.0 
 (50.3 
 07.7 
 (55.5 
 04.8 
 0(5,5 
 01.0 
 02.0 
 04.1 
 07.7 
 (5S.7 
 (53.8 
 (54.7 
 
 Yk.vr. 
 
 34.5 
 33.1 
 
 30 
 
 ;;o 
 35 
 
 32 
 
 34 
 
 32 
 
 :!2.0 
 35.2 
 32.0 
 33.3 
 
 41.8 
 42.5 
 30.5 
 43.1 
 45.1 
 44.6 
 3i).l 
 48.0 
 43.7 
 41.0 
 40.9 
 43.(5 
 43.2 
 42.3 
 40.3 
 41.4 
 37.3 
 40.0 
 40.1 
 43.4 
 45.7 
 44.3 
 41.0 
 42.3 
 31.8 
 38.2 
 43.5 
 45.9 
 47.4 
 42.5 
 41.9 
 
38 
 
 CA XADTA X II A XT) BOOK. 
 
 STATIONS. 
 
 Ontario.— Co III 111 vrd. 
 
 Ottawa 
 
 Port Staiilt'v . 
 Point Cl'irk" .. 
 I'.'lce Island.. 
 Port I)uv(!r.... 
 I'ort Art lull-.. 
 I'arrv Sound , 
 Pctrrljorotij^li. 
 
 Pi'inbrokf 
 
 Paris 
 
 Rockliffe 
 
 Savanna 
 
 S.ingt'en 
 
 Spnicedale .... 
 Stony Cri'ck. 
 
 Stratford 
 
 St. Mary's .... 
 St. Geoi'ge .... 
 
 Toronto 
 
 Uplands 
 
 AViiitt) River. 
 
 AVIiilcside 
 
 Windsor 
 
 WVlland 
 
 AVoodstock . .. 
 
 Quebec. 
 
 Broine 
 
 Cranbonrne .. 
 Chicontinii.... 
 
 Danville 
 
 FatliiT Point 
 Iiuntin}i;don., 
 
 Montreal 
 
 Quebec , 
 
 Richmond ... 
 
 New Brunswick. 
 
 J5athurst 
 
 Chatham 
 
 Dalhousio 
 
 Fredericton 
 
 (hand ,Manan .... 
 Point Lepreanx . 
 
 St. John 
 
 St. Andrews 
 
 u 
 
 
 u 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 ■< 
 
 45 
 42 
 44 
 41 
 42 
 48 
 45 
 44 
 45 
 43 
 4U 
 48 
 44 
 45 
 43 
 43 
 43 
 43 
 43 
 45 
 48 
 45 
 42 
 42 
 43 
 
 20 
 40 
 
 5 
 50 
 47 
 27 
 15 
 17 
 50 
 ]2 
 12 
 55 
 30 
 30 
 13 
 23 
 ]5 
 14 
 39 
 48 
 35 
 
 
 VJ 
 59 
 
 8 
 
 45 10 
 4() 20 
 48 25 
 45 47 
 48 31 
 45 5 
 45 30 
 40 4S 
 45 40 
 
 47 39 
 47 
 
 48 
 45 
 44 
 45 
 45 
 
 4 
 
 57 
 
 47 
 
 4 
 
 17 
 
 1^ 
 
 75 42 
 81 13 
 
 81 44 
 
 82 3.S 
 80 i:? 
 89 12 
 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 89 
 
 78 
 
 77 
 
 80 25 
 
 77 55 
 
 90 18 
 •) 
 
 21 
 
 81 
 79 40 
 
 79 45 
 81 
 81 11 
 
 80 12 
 79 21 
 79 25 
 85 IG 
 79 30 
 83 2 
 
 79 17 
 
 80 47 
 
 72 36 
 
 70 43 
 
 71 5 
 
 72 1 
 68 19 
 74 10 
 
 73 35 
 
 71 13 
 
 72 8 
 
 65 42 
 
 65 29 
 60 22 
 
 66 .'!() 
 66 46 
 66 28 
 ()() 4 
 
 u: > 
 
 ft. 
 
 294 
 592 
 595 
 
 635 
 644 
 635 
 722 
 3S9 
 840 
 418 
 150() 
 656 
 
 1191 
 
 1040 
 
 722 
 
 350 
 
 1252 
 
 980 
 
 150 
 "20 
 
 187 
 296 
 437 
 
 21 
 39 
 161 
 49 
 30 
 70 
 
 Mi..\s 
 'rr.Mi'KiiATrnE. 
 
 SVM- 
 .Ml'.It. 
 
 66.6 
 
 6().4 
 63.8 
 72.4 
 66.6 
 59.3 
 63.5 
 67.4 
 66.6 
 67.6 
 63.6 
 69.3 
 63.4 
 62.8 
 69.0 
 64.9 
 65.8 
 67.1 
 65.4 
 61.4 
 58.2 
 63.8 
 70.3 
 67.7 
 6(i 2 
 
 63.8 
 60.6 
 62.3 
 64.6 
 55.3 
 65.5 
 66.8 
 63 
 64.2 
 
 66.4 
 63.4 
 59.8 
 63.5 
 59.4 
 55.1 
 59.1 
 CO. 2 
 
 ■^'K.Ml. 
 
 41.2 
 45.5 
 43.6 
 49.0 
 4(5.0 
 34.5 
 40.6 
 4:?. 2 
 40.5 
 45.4 
 38.4 
 31.7 
 43.1 
 3S.8 
 47.0 
 ^3.4 
 44.6 
 44.9 
 44.2 
 38.1 
 32.4 
 40.9 
 47.7 
 45.6 
 44.3 
 
 40.1 
 36.0 
 35.9 
 39.7 
 34.6 
 40.6 
 41.9 
 38.5 
 40.1 
 
 40.7 
 39 4 
 36.2 
 40..3 
 42.7 
 40.2 
 41.2 
 41.3 
 
CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 89 
 
 STATIONS. 
 
 Nova Scotia. 
 
 Digbv 
 
 Ilalit'iix... 
 
 rictoii 
 
 rarrsboro 
 Sydney ... 
 Truro 
 
 Q 
 
 H 
 
 ■< 
 J-4 
 
 44 3S 
 44 Li 
 4.-1 42 
 44 28 
 10 
 
 4(5 
 4.') 
 Yiinuouth 4:5 
 
 B. Island. 
 
 50 
 
 Cliarlottetovvn 40 14 
 
 (ii'oi-gi'town 4() 11 
 
 Kilmuhinning 4(3 4S 
 
 y. 
 
 9 
 
 - w 
 
 1 
 ft. 
 
 / 
 
 65 46 
 
 40 
 
 (>;{ m 
 
 97 
 
 02 41 
 64 2.-) 
 
 
 40 
 
 60 10 
 
 55 
 
 61] i>^ 
 
 73 
 
 m 2 
 
 ()5 
 
 63 10 
 
 3S 
 
 02 ;;.-) 
 
 
 64 2 
 
 
 TEMPEKATtnE. 
 
 SlM- 
 MEIl. 
 
 62.4 
 ()2.4 
 MM 
 60.3 
 60.7 
 61.7 
 58.8 
 
 02..'? 
 62,6 
 61.2 
 
 Year. 
 
 43.2 
 4.S.7 
 4.5. 1 
 42. () 
 41.7 
 41.9 
 43.5 
 
 41.0 
 41.<> 
 .Si). 7 
 
 POPULATION. 
 
 INDIANS. 
 
 When the French, led by Champlain, in 1608 imdertook 
 to establish themselves on the slopes of the St. Lavvren(3e at 
 the point where the closing of the river suggesteci the appro- 
 priate name of Quebec — "the narrowing place" — to the Indians 
 they were the one European nationality here. Over the 
 whole broad expanse of the continent the Indian roamed the 
 supreme lord. These Indians might be divided practically 
 into two — the Five Nation Indians and the others. Between 
 these there were bitter feuds of long standing, so that the 
 whole extent of the forest-covered area was the scene of 
 battles and raids. Almost the first fact that forced itself 
 on Champlain was thc.t if he desired to obtain a footino- on 
 this continent for his colonists he must enter into friendly 
 alliance with the Algonquins and espouse their aeadly 
 enmity with the Iroquois. 
 
40 
 
 CA X. [i)LL\ HA XDli OK. 
 
 It is in these two groat divisions of Indians that wo must 
 seek for the roots of the ahoriginal people of the Nortli 
 American Continent. The two original groups are the Malay- 
 Polynesian and the Turanian. These grotips arc both repre- 
 sented in Canada, the Algonquins belonging to the former, 
 the Iroquois, the Tinnehs and Eskimos to the latter. Through 
 the Algoncpiins, Canada's aborigines are connected with the 
 people inhabiting the vast area from Malacca to New Zealand, 
 <iud from Madagascar to the Sandwich and Easter Islands. 
 Through the Iro(iU()is they are connected with the Finnic, 
 Turkic and Mong(jlic classes of Asian and European peoples. 
 Tile two are distinct. The AlgoiKpiin languages ditter radi- 
 cally from those of the Iro([Uois both in grammatical and in 
 verbal forms. The flatter face, inferior stature and more 
 delicately formed extremities of the Algonquin are in marked 
 contrast with the prominent features, the larger proportions 
 and the muscular development of the Iroquois. The Ircjcjuois is 
 preeminently a landsman, a vvarrior,and a lover of manly sports, 
 while the Algon(|uin loves the water, is unaggressive, and spends 
 his spare time in idleness. Taciturnity, with all that it implies, 
 such as the absence of humour, is characteristic of the Algon- 
 quin, but not of the Iroquois. The Iroquois was originally a 
 sun worshipper, but such the Algonquin never was. In fact 
 these two families have nothing in common beyond the mere 
 accident of condition and certain minor features of life 
 resulting fx-om mutual intercourse. The Algonquin and the 
 Iroquois, who have jointly contributed to the portraiture of 
 the ideal red man, are the representatives of two families as 
 distinct as any that can be found outside the Aryan and 
 Semitic areas of the old world. 
 
 The Indians of Canada, springing from two distinct 
 ancestries, may be divided into four families: {ti) the Iinniits 
 or Eskimo, {h) the Tinnehs, (c) the Algonquin and {d) the 
 Huron-Iro(iuois. 
 
 The Innuits — meaning " the men," their own name for 
 themselves, Eskimo (raw meat eaters), being the term of 
 derision conferred on them b^ the Algonijuins — are the oldest 
 
t VI XA I> L I A' JI. 1 XD BOOK, 
 
 41 
 
 of the nlioriginal races in Canada. From a consideration of 
 the many points of agreement between the cave men of 
 France and CJreat Britain — the sewin'' needles, the necklaces 
 an^l ai'mk'ts of cut teeth, the daggers made from nnth'rs, the 
 talent for artistic sketching of men and beasts, and scenes in 
 which mun and beast figure, many paheontologists are inclined 
 to agree with Professor Boyil Dawkins that the Eskimos of 
 to-day are the survivors of the race that made their homes in 
 the pleistocene caves of Western Europe — an antiquity so 
 great that in comparison with it the interval between the 
 building of the Pyramids of Egypt and of the Eiffel tower 
 shrinks into a point. 
 
 The Inmiits inhabit the littoral of the northern fringe of 
 Canaila from Labrador and Ungava Bay to the boundary line 
 between the Yukon Territory and Alaska. From the latter 
 region along the whole coast line to Ungava Bay they all 
 speak the same language, are characterized b}' the same 
 intelligence and the .same capacity to iind the means of sub- 
 sistence in a region in which white men, with all the resources 
 of civilization at their back, have experienceil great diflSculty 
 in maintaining themselves in health and vigour. "They have 
 much artistic capacity, and Arctic navigators have descrilxMl 
 witli wonder the ease with wliich they have taken pencil and 
 traced the shore lines." They are bold and daring on the 
 water, attacking alone in their frail kayaks on the open sea 
 the largest sea animals. 
 
 The Tiimehs, or Dene Dindjies, inhabit the vallej' of the 
 Athabasca River, the Peace River district, the regions north 
 of Great Bear Lake, to the south of the Innuits' ocean-washed 
 belt of land, the mountains of the Mackenzie River, the 
 slopes of the Rocky Mountains and almost the whole of the 
 region w^est of the Rockies, including Vancouver and Queen 
 Charlotte Islands, from which places they have poured in 
 adventurous bands and taken possession of the country south 
 of the Iiinuit territory. 
 
 Immediately south of these are the Algonquins, who, 
 originating in the East, where they were next-door neighbours 
 
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 CANA DIA y II A NDBOOK. 
 
 i 
 
 of the Innuits, pushed their way from the interior of Labra- 
 dor and throughout the region between the Atlantic sea coast 
 and Lake Superior to the southern regions of the Canadian 
 Northwest, where, as Saulteux, Prairie Crees, Wood Crees, 
 Blackfoot, Bloods and Piegans they have taken root and 
 shown themselves in every way as vigorous as the more 
 easterly stock from which they originally sprung. The Cree 
 language is *the typical language of this, the most widely 
 distributed Indian race; including, in addition to the westerly 
 tribes alread}' enumerated, the Micmacs, Melicites and 
 Abenakis of the Eastern Maritime region, the Naskapees and 
 Montagnaisof Labrador and Eastern Quebec, the Mississaugas, 
 the Odjibwys and the numerous tribes of Western Quebec 
 and Ontario which the French secured as allies in the " half- 
 century of conflict." These tribes were great hunters, roamed 
 over a vast extent of territory and as warriors proved their 
 capacity in many a border war during the long period when 
 French and English strove with each other for supremacy in 
 the waters of Acadia, in the pine forests of Maine and 
 Massachusetts, along the southern shores of the great 
 Laurentian Lakes and by the side of the Mississippi River 
 from source to mouth. 
 
 The Iroquois, the second great family, resembled the 
 French and the English in their power to organize, to provide 
 wise rules for government in peace or in war. There were 
 five tribes at first, generally designated as the Mohawks, the 
 Oneidas, the One>ndagas, the Cayugas and the Senecas. Sub- 
 sequently the Tuscaroras joined them and they became known 
 as the Six Nations, or more often as the Iroquois. As such they 
 held the balr.nce of power between the French on the Lakes and 
 the English on the Atlantic sea-board, playing one against the 
 other with skill and securing for themselves the profitable work 
 of middlemen in the fur trade with other tribes. There are 
 scattered bands of the Huron-Iroquois, as the Hurons of 
 Lorette, near Quebec city, those of Caugnawaga, Lake of the 
 Two Mountains, St. Regis, and the Iroquois found in several 
 places on the peninsula between Lakes St. Clair and Erie. 
 
CAXADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 43 
 
 These are east of Lake Superior. West are to be found the 
 Assiniboines and the Sioux, belonging to the Dakotahs, and 
 thus allied to the Iroquois as sprung from a common Turanian 
 or Northern Asiatic origin. 
 
 In 1871, in the first census of the Dominion, the subject 
 of the Indian population received careful attention. There 
 were found to be 36 tribes, divided into Eskimo, 1; Dene- 
 Din'ljie, 19 ; the Algonquins, 11 ; the Huron-Iroquois, 5. 
 
 As regards numbers there were : 
 
 Of the Eskimo race 4,028 
 
 '« " Dene-Dindjie 42,000 
 
 " " Algonquin 46,000 
 
 " " Huron-Ii-oquois 10,330 
 
 Total 102,358 
 
 As regards mode of living : 
 
 Chiefly by fishing 23,000 
 
 In camps by prairie hunting 18,000 
 
 In villages in settled districts 17,358 
 
 By families in the woods 44,000 
 
 As regards the general geographical distribution : 
 
 West of the Rockies 26,000 
 
 East " " '• 70,000 
 
 As regards political divisions : 
 
 Province of Prince Edward Island 323 
 
 " Nova Scotia 1,066 
 
 , " " New Brunswick 1,403 
 
 " Quebec G,988 
 
 " " Ontario 12,978 
 
 " " Manitoba 500 
 
 " " British Columbia 23,000 
 
 Rupert's Land 33,500 
 
 Labrador and the Arctic watershed 22,000 
 
 IS u 
 
 ' 'I- 'I 
 
 I 
 
 
44 CAXADAfX JJAXUJ:OOK. 
 
 The Report of the Sup»'*intendent-General of Indian 
 Affairs for 1898, gives tlie numher of Indiaus at 100,093, 
 sliuwing (hiring 27 years a decrease of 2,2(15. 
 
 The following are the increases and decreases in 1898 as 
 compared with 1871 : 
 
 Increases. Decreases. 
 
 Prince Edward Island 9 
 
 Nova Scotia 3(jl .... 
 
 Is ew Brunswick 224 .... 
 
 Province Quebec 8,089 .... 
 
 Ontario 7,(140 
 
 British Columbia 1,973 .... 
 
 Manitoba 0,216 
 
 Kemainder of Territory 22,359 
 
 Net decrease 2,20.5. 
 
 These comparisons show that the Indians on the reserves 
 and in the older jirovinces are increasing in population so fast 
 as to be almost an off-set to the decrease in population which 
 the Territories evidence. During the 27 years the Indians of 
 tlio plains have been brought within the sphere of influence 
 of civilization, and have suffered because the introduction of 
 railways, the destruction of the larger game like the buffalo, 
 and the restriction of the area of production for them by set- 
 tlemer' and by ranching grounds, have been moi"e powerful 
 force., -or depletion than the reproductive force of the race 
 for growth. 
 
 Of the total of 100,000, 74,118 are reported to the Indian 
 Department as resident oa the reserves ; the remainder are 
 nomadic. 
 
 The Indians of Canada are in various stages of develop- 
 ment. Some are polygamous, while some have adopted the 
 civilization of the white population to such an extent as 
 scarcely to be distinguished from them. Some would not 
 know what a vote for a member of parliament means. Others 
 possess the electoral franchise and prize it highly. Some are 
 increasing in numbers and others are decreasing. 
 
CAXADIAX HANDBOOK. 45 
 
 The returns as to Indians resident on reserves show their 
 
 condition. 
 
 1898. 
 
 Numbers on reserves 74,118 
 
 Quantity of land cultivated, acres 111,880 
 
 New land made in the year 1,932 
 
 Number of implements 72,344 
 
 Number of horses, cattle, sheep, pigs, etc 77,148 
 
 Hay crop for the year, tons 68,447 
 
 Grain " " " " bush 717,375 
 
 Potatoes and other roots " 414,525 
 
 Fish, furs and other industries $1,23(1,043 
 
 The Government of Canada has taken charge of the 
 Indians. Like an army they have been, and are still in large 
 numbers, fed and clothed by the Government. They are wards 
 of the nati( Vi, but unlike wards in most cases, they have 
 never had any serious disagreements with their guardians. 
 With tiicir consent their lands in many instances have been 
 sold until an Indian Fund has accunuilated amounting now to 
 over S3, 725,000. Schools — day, boarding, and industrial — have 
 been establishctl for them and about 273 teachers, many of 
 whom are Indians, are engaged in teaching. In these schools 
 are 9,880 pupils and the annual inspection shows good results, 
 the number of pupils having increased from 4,000 in 1885 to 
 the number stated in 1808. 
 
 In the Industrial Schools the total number of pupils, ac- 
 cording to the report for 1898, was 202, of which number 142 
 were learning to l)o carpenters, 54 shoemakers, and the 
 remainder tailors, blacksmiths, bakers, printers, etc. 
 
 In the performance of the task the Government has the 
 aid of the various Christian donouiinations who have estab- 
 lished missions in many places and have won the confidence 
 of the Indians, The census of religions shows that there are 
 42,.'):}0 Roman (/atholics, 10,448 adherents of the Church of 
 England, 8,855 Methodists, 1,054 Presbyterians, and 1,581 
 other Christian persuasions. Of the remainder, 15,615 are 
 given as Pagans and 14,010 as "unknown." These include 5,000 
 
 ■■■?' 
 
 m 
 
 If 
 
 u 
 
 w 
 
 I 
 
:-i I 
 
 46 
 
 CAXADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 Indians in the District of Un^ava and 1,000 Innuits scattered 
 along the Arctic coast. 
 
 Tho total expenditure on account of the Indian popula- 
 tion was in 1899 $1,214,930, of which amount the sum of 
 S228,710 was derived from tiie Indian Fund and 8986,220 was 
 from the appropriation annually made by the Federal Parlia- 
 ment in support of the Indians. 
 
 THE WHITE POPULATION. 
 
 The various settlements at Acadie, New England, Virginia 
 and on the St. Lawrence in the first decade of the seventeenth 
 century were effected with difficulty. Population was first 
 attracted to this continent from Europe, and scattered settle- 
 ments were formed from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Gulf 
 of Mexico. These immigrants peopled the regions contiguous 
 to the coast, and pushed their way slowly into the hinterland, 
 in an ever-widening circumference. While this movement 
 was in progress along the Atlantic coast, the cLscendants of 
 the few hardy Norman emigrants, who had secured afoot-hold 
 at the confluence of the Saguenay and St. Lawrence rivers 
 and there founded their first establishments on Canadian soil, 
 pushed vigorously forward, exploring and settling the St. 
 Lawrence and its tributary rivers and streams. 
 
 Two centres of population were thus formed on this con- 
 tinent. Sometimes an advantage secured by one centre at- 
 tracted wanderers from the other. Thus the withdrawal of 
 the United States — the second great country in area on this 
 continent — from the British Empire, caused an extensive 
 movement of population from the Atlantic sea-board, between 
 the St. Croix and the Delaware rivers, to British territory, 
 tens of thousands going from New York and other porta to 
 Nova Scotia and New Brunswick by water, and thousands 
 painfully forcing their way through forests to the then 
 unoccupied regions north of Lakes Erie and Ontario. 
 
 The cession of Acadie to England by the French led to 
 the dispersion of the French Acadians and their settlements 
 
CAXAJJlAy HANDBOOK. 
 
 47 
 
 in little communities from Maine to Louisiana. Some of the 
 more northerly eoininunities in after years attracted the 
 French population of what is now the Province of Quebeci to 
 the Eastern or New England States, where by the slow acc:J'e- 
 tion of years there is at present a considerable number, chietly 
 employed in factories. i 
 
 It is difficult to tell which of these two centres in tiie 
 course of the years has the better succeeded in wiiiniug popu- 
 lation from each other and from European countries. Up to 
 1840 the Canadian centre liad obtained an absolutely larger 
 number of European inunigrants. Then came practically the 
 opening up of the Western States, a region which began to 
 attract attention in 1830. This fact, taken in connection with 
 the movement of population from Ireland owing to famines 
 gave a greater impetus to the United States centre and it 
 rapidly passed the Canadian in the race for population. The 
 attractions of new lands of reputed fertility were very great, 
 and many thousands of Canadians passed over to the newly 
 opened regions, the movement continuing for years. Canada's 
 Northwest Territory, the counterpart, and in many respects, 
 the superior of the Western States, was locked up and was 
 destined to remain locked up for thirty years, the Hudson 
 Bay Company holding the key. 
 
 The territorial claims of this trading company were 
 purchased by the Canadian Government in 1870, and Canada 
 to recover her lost headway began at once to develop the new 
 region, prosecuting the survey of lands with such energy that 
 in ten years there were nearly 70,000,000 acres completely 
 surveyed, to which since that date there have been added 
 tan million acres, as demands arose. So that thtsre are now 
 over eighty million acres set out for settlement, giving 500,000 
 farms of 100 acres each. 
 
 In the meantime, for a whole generation population had 
 spread throughout the Western States towards the Canadian 
 boundary line. When the restraints to settlement were re- 
 moved by the purchase of the territory, then began a move- 
 ment of population from the United States to the Canadian 
 
 f ^ m 
 
ir- 
 
 I 
 
 48 
 
 CAXADFAX IIAXDBOOK. 
 
 Northwest, whicli, especially in recent years, has equalled in 
 volume any o^' the many streams that in the past, now moviuL,^ 
 in one direction and now in another, have helped to mix up 
 the people on the l)order land of the two countries to the 
 great advantage of both. 
 
 In ISOO the population of what is now known as Canada 
 was under 400,000. According to the last census, taken in 
 18!)1, it was 4,.S'}3,239, and according to the latest estimate of 
 the statistician it will close the centurj'- with 5,400,000, show- 
 ing the gain in the century to have been 5,000,000 on an 
 original population of 400,000. 
 
 Canada will begin the new century M'ith the same number 
 of inhabitants as the United States began the century now 
 passing away. 
 
 The main racial divisions in Canada are into French and 
 English-speaking i'ac( s. Of the former in 1801 there weie 
 found to be within Canada 1,404,074, the greater proportion 
 by far being massed within the bounds of the Province of 
 Quebec, all in fact, excepting 218,(528, of whom 10,123 were 
 in the neighbouring Province of Ontario, and nearly all of 
 these in the border counties of the Province. 
 
 The proportion of the French-speaking race is increasing 
 in Quebec. It was 788 per cent, in the census of 1881, and 
 797 per cent, iu that of 1891, a gain of nearly one per cent. 
 in ten years. 
 
 The bilingual population, thus gathered together and 
 seeking to accomplish the task of developing the vast country 
 entrusted to them and of supplying it with all the parapher- 
 nalia of modern civilization, were at the last census found to 
 be divided along lines now to be mentioned. 
 
 The population at the last census, which was taken on 
 the 5th April, 1891, was 4,833,239. Between that period and 
 the 30th of June, 1899, the inhabitants are estimated to have 
 increased to 5,312,000. The proportion of the sexes calcu- 
 lated from the returns of the census of 1891, is 5,091 males to 
 4,909 females in each 10,000 of the population. 
 
' ' 
 
C VI XA DIA S II A NDBOOK. 
 
 <19 
 
 According to the same census 86.52 per cent, of the in- 
 habitants of Canada are native-born and 96 83 per cent. 
 British-born, which, of course, includes the Canadian-born. 
 The natives of Ireknd numbered 149,184. ; of England, Wale* 
 and the Channel Islands, 220,957, and of Scotland, 107,594.. 
 Those born in tlu v nited States numbered 80,915, and tho-ie 
 born in Germany, 27,752 ; natives of France numbered 5,880. 
 
 The religions of the people were : Protestants, 2,745,453 ; 
 Roman Catholics, 1,992,017; Jews, 6,414; without creed and 
 creed not given, 89,355. 
 
 The largest Protestant denominations were : Motliodists, 
 847,705 ; Presbyterians, 755,326 ; Church of Ei\gland, 646,059 ; 
 Baptists, 303,839. 
 
 Classifying the population according to ages and denomi- 
 nating the classes as follows : Infants, persons under one 
 year old ; children, from one to five years old ; boys and girls, 
 from 5 to 15 years ; youths and maidens, from 15 to 20 years ; 
 young men and women, from 20' to 30 years ; middle-aged 
 men and women, from 30 to 50 years, and old men avd 
 w&men, 50 years and upwards, the following results are 
 obtained : 
 
 Infants 
 
 Children 
 
 Boys andCJirls 
 
 Youths and Maidens 
 
 Yoiuig Men and Women 
 
 Middle-aged Men and Women 
 
 GUI Men and Women 
 
 Not Given 
 
 1891. 
 
 MALES. 
 
 (}i,;ms 
 
 244,807 
 577,274 
 258,;]L'o 
 431,()7r) 
 523,54() 
 2.'V_>,00I 
 31,5;J5 
 
 FEMALES. 
 
 5<),]49 
 245,330 
 557,892 
 254,412 
 4l'it,028 
 493,952 
 308,413 
 
 31,581 
 
 Of the aged 33,143 were 80 years old and upwards, and 
 of these 3,644 were 90 years old and upwards. These latter 
 Males, 1,771 ; females, 1,873. 
 
 .1 
 
 were 
 
If 
 
 50 CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 By the census of LSOl in each group of 10,000 there were 
 6,317 single, 3,2.SG married, and 807, widowed. Of the single, 
 8,313 were males, and 3,004 females. The n es were divided 
 into: 1,537 under 21 years of age, and 1,7VJ over 21 years. 
 Of the 3,004 females 1,201 were under 15 years of age ; 1,520 
 wei'e of the reproductive age (15 to 45) and 203 were over 
 45 years. 
 
 The persons whose occupations were given to the 
 enumerators in the census of 1891 numbered 1,659,355, 
 against 1,890,004 in 1881. 
 
 Divided into classes the occupations of the 1,659,855 
 persons were : 
 Class 1, Engaged in agriculture, mining and 
 
 fishing 790,210 
 
 Class 2, Trade and transportation 186,095 
 
 Class 3, Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits. 320,001 
 
 Class 4, Domestic and personal service. > 246,183 
 
 Class 5, Professional avocations 68,280 
 
 Class 6, Non-productive class 62,986 
 
 Total 1,659,355 
 
 These figures show that one person out of every three is 
 eufrafred in bread-winning. 
 
 The pi'oportions which the classes bear to " the total 
 number are : — Class 1, 47.6 per cent ; class 2, 12.2 per cent ; 
 class 3, 10.3 per cent ; class 4, 14.9 per cent ; class 5, 3.8 per 
 cent, and class 0, 8.2 per cent. 
 
 Class 1, constituting the primary producers, those who 
 draw from field, forest, mine and sea pastures, the products 
 which sustain life and provide materials for shelter and 
 clothing, is sub-divided into 
 
 (a) Agricultural 736,207 
 
 (b) FLslupg 27,079 
 
 (c) Lumbering 12,756 
 
 (d) Mining 15,168 
 
 Total 790,210 
 
CAXADIAX HANDBOOK. 61 
 
 In class 2, (the distributors)— 13,928 sailors, 23,552 rail- 
 way employees, 17,409 express men, teamsters and draymen- 
 with others, provide transportation ; 1,712 wholesale mer- 
 chants and 40,714 retail dealers conducted our trade; there 
 M'ere 2,174 hankers and bank officials. 
 
 In class 3 there were : 
 
 Workers in wood 78,(504 
 
 " " stone 3(),S56 
 
 " " wood and metals combined 10,241 
 
 " metals 49,476 
 
 " food products 24,123 
 
 " dress materials 72,158 
 
 " leather 23,813 
 
 " books and printing 9,392 
 
 " sundries 21,338 
 
 Total 320,001 
 
 The miners increased from 0,541 in 1881 to 13,417 
 in 1891. 
 
 The housing of the people of Canada required 855,535 
 houses, giving an average of 5.7G persons to the home. 
 
 As the average sized familj' in Canada was 5.25, prii- 
 tically every family in Canada had a home. 
 
 The character of the homes is seen in the fact that 81 
 per cent, of the houses were built of wood, as befits a country 
 where the forest area is nearly 38 per cent, of the total area 
 of the country, the highest of any country, excepting Sweden, 
 Servia, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Fifteen per cent, of the 
 houses were built of brick, 3 per cent, of stone and 3 per cent, 
 com') 'Site. 
 
 With respect to the accommodation of the dwellings, 
 542,969 were one-storied, 287,200 two-storied, 21,377 three- 
 storied and 3,040 four-storied ; 2.92 per cent, of the houses 
 were one-room dwellings, 7.97 per cent, two rooms, 11 per 
 cent, three rooms, 15.7 per cent, four rooms, 12.4 per cent, five 
 rooms, 43.4 per cent. 6 to 10 rooms, 5.6 per cent. 11 to 15 
 rooms and 1 per cent, over 15 rooms. 
 
 li "^ 
 
 i 
 
52 
 
 CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 Thus more tlian tliree -quarters of the houses of Canada 
 contain more than three rooms, and over 434 of each 1,000 
 contain from 6 to 10 rooms. 
 
 The increase in dwellings in 10 years was nearly 16 per 
 cent, and the increase in population nearly 12 per cent. 
 
 The people of Canada are, therefo) e, comfortably housed, 
 and have secured larger houses, better pi'ovided with those 
 accessories to liealth and vigour, space and absence of crowding, 
 than they had in 1881. 
 
 During recent years there has been a large addition to 
 the population through inunigration. Thus to the end of 
 September, 1899, in the nine months of the year, 27,586 
 persons arrived at our ocean ports and declared their inten- 
 tion to settle. Of these, 19,587 were bound to the North- 
 west, and of these 7,500 were Doukhobours. In addition to 
 tlie 27,586 persons from over sea, there were reported at 
 Winnipeg 3,246 declared settlers from the United States 
 during the nine months, while west of Winnipeg, along the 
 frontier of Manitol)a and the Northwest Territories, 1,500 
 more arrived from the United States. These figures arc ex- 
 clusive of arrivals in the Yukon Territory. 
 
 V. 
 
 THE CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. 
 
 The people of Canada during more than 100 years nave 
 actively exerted themselves to provide a form of government 
 suited to their circumstances. The result of their eftbrts is 
 embodied in the constitution which is set forth in the British 
 North American Act, 1867, 80 Vic, cap. 3. 
 
 The executive government and authority is vected in ohe 
 Qu( en of Great Britain and Irelaad, who governs througli the 
 person of a Governor-Gouerul, appointed by her but paid by 
 Canada. 
 
CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 53 
 
 By the adoption of this plan, the Canadian Constitution 
 has become the very image and reflection of parliamentary 
 government in England. The Governor, like the Sovereign 
 whom he represents, holds himself aloof from and superior to 
 Political parties, and governs through constitutional advisers, 
 who have acquired ascendancy in the Commons. 
 
 A Council, known as the Queen's Privy Council for 
 Canada, taken only from members of the Dominion Parlia- 
 ment, forms a ministry which must possess the confidence of 
 tlie majority in the House of Commons. The power of dis- 
 missing the ministry lies with the Governor-General. 
 
 The command of the Canadian military, both active and 
 reserve, is vested in the Queen, who appoints an officer of the 
 British army of no less rank than a Alajor-General, who is 
 paid by Canada, and must be subject so the authority of the 
 Minister of Militia. Tho seat of Government is at Ottawa. 
 
 There h one Parliament for Canada, consistinjr of the 
 Queen, an Upper House styled the Senate, and a Lower House 
 stvled the House of Commons. 
 
 The Senate consists of eighty-one members, appointed for 
 life by the Governor in Council ; twenty-four from Ontario, 
 twenty-four from Quebec, ten each from Nova Scotia and 
 New Brunswick, three from British Columbia, four each from 
 Prince Edward Island and Manitoba, and two from the North- 
 west Territories. Each senator must be not less than thirty 
 years of age, a born or naturalized subject, and possessed of 
 property in his own province, real or personal, of the value of 
 $4,000. He must continue to be a resident within the province 
 for which he is appointed, 
 
 The House of Commons consists of 213 members, elected 
 for five years, (unless the House is sooner dissolved) on the 
 basis of representation by population for the older provinces, 
 the arrangement being that the Province of Quebec shall 
 always have sixty-five members, and the other provinces pro- 
 portionately to population according to the census, which is 
 taken every tea years, the last being taken in 1891, 
 
 II 
 
64 
 
 CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 By provinces, under the latest rearrangement the 213 
 representatives in the Commons are apportioned as follows : — 
 92~Ontario, 
 
 Original provinces of the 
 confederation. 
 
 By terms of Statutes admitting 
 
 them and amendments 
 
 thereto. 
 
 65 — Quebec, 
 
 20 — Nova Scotia, 
 
 14 — New Brunswick, 
 
 5 — Prince Edward Id. 
 
 7 — Manitoba, 
 
 6 — British Columbia, 
 
 4— N. VV. Territories, , 
 
 Bills for appropriating any part of the public revenue or 
 imposing any tax or impost must originate in the House of 
 Commons, but no such bill can be introduced unless recom- 
 mended by message from the Governor General 
 
 The privileges and immunities of the Senate and the 
 House of Commons are defined by the Parliament of Canada, 
 but must not exceed those enjoyed by the Imperial House of 
 Commons in 1867. The sittings are annual but may be 
 oftener. 
 
 The naturalization laws are as follows : — 
 
 1. Alien women married to British subjects become, ipso 
 facto, naturalized British subjects. 
 
 2. Aliens, after three years' residence, bringing certifi- 
 cates of good character, on taking the oath of residence and 
 allegiance before a judge, commissioner, or magistrate, and 
 causing the same to be registered in a court of record, can 
 have a certificate of naturalization given them, and enjoy all 
 privileges of British subjects. 
 
 Voting in elections for representatives sitting in the 
 Commons is by ballot. 
 
 In addition to those of age (21 years), citizenship and 
 sex (male), common to all voters in all the provinces, the 
 qualifications of electors for representatives of the Dominion 
 House of Commons are those which are adopted by the 
 Legislatures of the several provinces for provincial elections. 
 In the provinces of Ontario, Manitoba, British Columbia, and 
 the Northwest Territories, the qualification is practically 
 residential manhood suffrage, with length of residence varying 
 
CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 66 
 
 from six to twelve months — the shorter term being thnt 
 of British Columbia, and the longer that of Manitoba and 
 the Northwest Territories. 
 
 In the eastern provinces a more elaborate system is em- 
 ployed, based upon ownership of real property^ position as 
 teachers or clergymen, personal property, income, and resi- 
 dence, the length of the latter being one month in Quebec, 
 and twelve months in Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, 
 and New Brunswick. 
 
 By the Act of Union the Dominion Government has 
 control of all matters which by that Act are not specially 
 delegated to the provinces. It has power to make laws for 
 the peace and good government of the whole Dominion, as 
 also to regulate : 
 
 1. Public debt and property. 
 
 2. Trade and commerce. 
 
 3. Indirect taxation. 
 
 4. Borrowing on the public credit. 
 
 5. The postal service. i 
 
 6. The census and statistics. 
 
 7. Militia and defence. 
 
 8. Tighthouse and coast ser^nce. 
 
 9. Navigation and shipping. 
 
 10. Quarantine. 
 
 11. Fisheries. 
 
 12. Currency and banking. 
 
 13. Weights and measures. 
 
 14. Bankruptcy and insolvency. 
 
 15. Naturalization. 
 
 16. Marriage and divorce. 
 
 17. Penitentiaries. 
 
 18. Criminal law, including procedure in criminal case* 
 
 t 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNMENT. 
 
 The business of the country is transacted by the members 
 of the Cabinet, each of whom, as a rule, presides over a 
 department. 
 
 1 
 
€6 
 
 CANADAIN HANDBOOK. 
 
 These departments are as follows : — 
 
 1. The Governor-General's office. 
 
 2. The Privy Council office, with charge of state papers 
 and records of council. 
 
 3* The Department of the Minister of Justice and 
 Attorney-General, including the management of peniten- 
 tiaries. 
 
 4. The Department of Railways and Canals. 
 
 5. The Department of the Minister of Public Works, 
 having control of all public works, other than railways and 
 canals. 
 
 6. The Department of the Minister of the Interior 
 including : a, Dominion Lands ; 6, Geological Survey ; c, 
 Indian pSairs and Immigration. 
 
 7. The Department of the Secretary of State, including: 
 a, official correspondence with the Governor-General's office 
 and with the Lieutenant-Governors of the Provinces ; b, the 
 printing and publishing of the Official Gazette ; c, the regis- 
 tration of all public legal documents ; d, the Government 
 stationery and Queen's Printer's office. 
 
 8. The Department of the Minister of I^farine and 
 Fisheries, including : construction and maintenance of light- 
 houses ; river police ; revenue coast-guard ; steam boat 
 inspection ; protection of fisheries and fish culture. 
 
 9. The Department of the Minister of Militia and Defence 
 including : militia, fortifications and military schools. 
 
 10. The Department of the Minister of Finance, includ- 
 ing : Treasury board, government savings' banks, and Audit 
 office. 
 
 11. The Department of the Minister of Customs. 
 
 12. The Department of the Minister of Inland Revenue, 
 including : collection of the excise ; canal and timber slide 
 tolls ; ferry dues and the carrying out of the Acts relating to 
 the inspection of food, gas, weights and measures. 
 
 13. The Department of the Postmaster-General, including 
 Post office savings' banks. 
 
CAXADIAN llAyDBOOK. 
 
 57 
 
 14. The Department of the Minister of Agriculture, in- 
 cluding : the Patent ofBce ; census and statistical office ; 
 quarantine and experimental farms and dairy interests. 
 
 15. The Department of the Minister of Trade and Com- 
 merce. 
 
 In addition to these there is the Department of Mounted 
 Police, administered by the President of the Privy Council. 
 
 For the purpose of communicating directly with the 
 Imperial Government, the Dominion has a resident repre- 
 sentative in Loudon called the High Commissioner for 
 Canada. 
 
 PROVINCIAL CONSTITUTIONS. 
 
 The Government of Canada appoints the Lieut.-Governors, 
 of whom there is one for each province, whose salary is paid 
 by the Dominion Parliament. 
 
 Each province has its own elective assembly and admin- 
 istration with full power to regulate its own local affairs as 
 set forth in the Confederation Act ; to dispose of its own rev- 
 enues and enact such laws as it may deem best for its own in- 
 ternal welfare, provided only such laws do not interfere with, 
 and are not adverse to, the legislation of the Federal Parlia- 
 ment. 
 
 The Dominion Government assumed the debts existinjr at 
 the time of the Union, agreeing at the same time to pay the 
 provinces an annual subsidy, which is a grant equal to eighty 
 cents a hoad of the population of the four provinces originally 
 forming the Dominion, as ascertained by the census of 1861, 
 except in the case of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, where 
 it was arranged that the subsidy should increase each decen- 
 nial census till the population in each case reached 400,000. 
 
 Besides this subsidy there is given to each province an 
 annual allowance for government, and also an annual allow- 
 ance of interest on the amount of debt allowed, where the 
 province has not reached the authorized debt. 
 
 The provinces retained possession of the lands belonging 
 to them before Confederation. Manitoba, having no public 
 
 
■fSPP 
 
 58 
 
 CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 I Mi ■ 
 
 lands at the time of its creation into a province, has since re- 
 ceived from the Dominion Government a gift of swamp lands. 
 The provinces appoint all the officers required for the 
 administration of justice, with the single exception of the 
 judges. 
 
 They regulate :— 1st, Education ; 2nd, Asylums, hospitals, 
 charities and eleemosynary institutions ; 3rd, Common goals, 
 prisons and reformatories ; 4th, Municipal institutions ; 5th, 
 Shop, tavern and other Hcenses; 6th, Local works; 7th, Sol- 
 emnization of Marriage ; 8th, Property and civil rights ; 9th, 
 Administration of justice, so far as the constitution, mainten- 
 ance and organization of provincial courts of both civil and 
 criminaljurisdiction and the appointment of magistrates or 
 justices of the peace, are concerned. 
 
 Emigration and immigration are subjects of both federal 
 and provincial legislation, but provincial laws on the subject 
 must not conflict with federal enactments. 
 
 The general principles of the Canadian Constitution are : 
 representative government by ministers responsible to the 
 people ; a Federal government having charge of the general 
 public good ; and Provincial governments attending to local 
 and provincial interests. 
 
 The Provinces have not any power to organize and main- 
 tain a provincial military force, being in this respect unlike 
 the States in the Union to the south ; nor have they final legis- 
 lation, the Dominion Government possessing, under the con- 
 stitution, the power of veto. 
 
 Excepting in Prince Edward Island, Municipal institu- 
 tions have been adopted in all the Provinces of the Dominion, 
 the germ of which is in the municipality. Several of these 
 form a township, and these in turn are subdivisions of the 
 county. The council of each county, township, city, town and 
 incorporated vdlage has power to pass by-laws for obtaining 
 such real and personal property as may be required for the 
 use of the corporation ; for appointinjr and paying pound- 
 keepers, fence-viewers, overseers of highways, road-surveyors, 
 road-commissioners, valuators ; for granting money in aid of 
 
CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 69 
 
 agricultural societies, mechanics' institutes, manufacturing es- 
 tablishments or road companies ; for regulating driving on 
 roads and bridges ; egress from buildings, and making drains ; 
 for inilicting certain fines ; for planting ornamental trees and 
 prohibiting the sale of intoxicating liquor under the Temper- 
 ance Acts passed by the Legislature. 
 
 Each village of 750 or more inhabitants, each town of 
 2000 and upward and each township has its council elected 
 annually by the rate-payers. The whole have, by their reeves 
 and deputy-reeves, a representation in the county council 
 which meets periodically. Taken in the large it may be said 
 that Canada is preeminently the land of self government. 
 The people have been trained for years in municipal govern- 
 ment and by it keep control of expenditure for municipal pur- 
 poses as through the Provincial Legislature and the Federal 
 Parliament they keep control of expenditures for provincial 
 and general purposes. 
 
 VI. 
 
 THE LAND OF CANADA. 
 
 The land of Canada consists of granted and ungranted 
 land. The ungranted land in the older pi'ovinces is the pro- 
 perty of the provinces and is disposed of by officials ap- 
 pointed for the purpose, in accordance with the provisions of 
 statutes passed by the several Provincial Legislatures. 
 
 The ungranted land in Manitoba and the Northwest 
 Territories belongs to the whole people of Canada and is 
 administered by the Federal Government. 
 
 The following is a concise statement of the essential 
 features of the law governing the disposal of Dominion lands 
 in Manitoba and the Northwest Territories : 
 
 I i.kM 
 
 
60 
 
 CANADA IN HANDBOOK. 
 SYSTEM OF SURVEY. 
 
 The Dominion lands are laid out in quadrilateral town- 
 ships, each containing thirty-six sections of as nearly one 
 mile square, or 640 acres, as the convergence of meridians 
 permits ; the sections are situated and numbered in the fol- 
 lowing diagram : — 
 
 ' 
 
 W 
 
 N. 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 36 
 
 30 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 18 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 B. 
 
 S. 
 
 The townships are numbered in regular order northerly 
 from the iuteniational boundary or forty-ninth parallel of 
 latitude, and lie in ranges numbered, in Manitoba, East and 
 West from a certain meridian line styled the Principal Meri- 
 dian, drawn northerly from the forty-ninth parallel, and 
 throughout the Northwest Territories, in ranges numbered 
 westerly from other initial meridians styled the Second, 
 Third, Fourth Meridian, and so on, according to their order 
 westward from the Principal Meridian. 
 
 Each section of a township, or 640 acres, is divided into 
 quarter sections of 160 acres each, styled, according to posi- 
 tion the North- West, North-East, South-West, or South-East 
 quarter-section, and to facilitate the descriptions of letters 
 patent of less than a quarter section, every section is supposed 
 to be further divided into quarter-quarter-sections, or 40 
 
CAXA DIAX II A XD BOOK. 
 
 61 
 
 acres, numbered as shown in the following diagram, and called 
 legal sub-divisions : — 
 
 W. 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 5 
 4 
 
 U 15 
 
 11 10 
 
 6 , 7 
 
 3 2 
 
 16 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 E. 
 
 «. 
 
 DISPOSAL OF DOMIXION LANDS. 
 
 In regard to their disposal the Dominion lands in ]\rani- 
 toba and the Northwest Territories may be considered as 
 divided into two classes, viz. : Even-numbered and odd-num- 
 bered sections. 
 
 Within a certain area the even-numberod sections, except- 
 ing those numbered 8 and 26, which are allotted to the 
 Hudson's Bay Company, are open for homestead entry, and 
 the odd-numbered ones, (excepting 11 and 29, which are 
 School Sections), are held for sale, and also as land grants in 
 aid of the construction of Colonization Railways. 
 
 The area in Manitoba and the Northwest Territories 
 which has been alienated for actual settlement, including both 
 homestead and sales, amounts to nearly 13 million acres. The 
 area set out for settlement by the surveyors is 80,040,000 
 acres. 
 
 HOMESTEADS. ~ 
 
 Any person, male or female, who is the sole head of a 
 family, or any male who has obtained the a^e of eighteen 
 years, is entitled, on making application before the Local 
 Agent of the District, in which the land he desires to be 
 enteie, for i« situated, and paying an office fee of ten dollars, 
 to obtain homestead entry for any quantity of land not ex- 
 ceeding one quarter-section, or 160 acres, of the class of land 
 
n r 
 
 62 
 
 CANA DTA X HA XD BOOK. 
 
 open to sucli entry. This entry entitles tlie holder to occupy 
 and cultivate the land to the exclusion of any other person^ 
 the title remaining in the Crown until the issue of patent for 
 the land. 
 
 The settler is allowed six months from the date of 
 obtaining homestead entry, within which to complete or 
 pei'fect such entry by taking, in his own person, possession of 
 the land, and beginning residence and cultivation, and if the 
 entry be not perfected within such time it becomes void ; 
 except where entry is obtained on or after the 1st of Sep- 
 tember in any year, and the six months would expire before 
 the 1st of June following, in which case an extension of time 
 to the latter date is granted. 
 
 In the case of immigrants, or other persons, intending to 
 settle on public lands, the Minister of the Interior, on requisi- 
 tion signed by them, may authorize any person they may 
 name to obtain homestead entries for them before their 
 arrival in the territory in which the hind they desire to 
 occupy is situated, and in such case the time for perfecting 
 entry may be extended to twelve months. 
 
 The settler, on proving that he has resided on and 
 cultivated the land for which he has homestead entry during 
 three years from the date of perfecting his entry, is entitled 
 to a patent from the Crown for the same, provided that lie is 
 a British subject by birth or naturalization ; in case of his 
 death, his legal representatives succeed to the homestead 
 right, but they or some of them, must complete the necessary 
 duties. 
 
 A homesteader has also the privilege of obtaining a 
 patent for his homestead before the end of three years, 
 by paying the Government price at the time for the land, and 
 proving that he has resided theron for twelve months from 
 the date of perfecting entry and that he has brought thirty 
 acres thereof under cultivation. 
 
 In case a certain number of homestead settlers, embi'ac- 
 ing not less than twenty families, with a view to greater 
 convenience in the establishment of schools and churches and 
 
 ! t ' 
 
CAXAJHAX IIANDBOOK. 
 
 G3 
 
 for advantages of a similar nature, ask to be allowed to settle 
 together in a hamlet or village, the Minister of the Interior 
 may dispense with the condition of residcnct; on the home- 
 stead, hut the coinlition of cultivation must be carried out on 
 each one. There are also provisions in the land laws for co- 
 operative farming if undei-taken by not less than ten persons. 
 
 A homestead entry is liable to be cancelled at any time 
 that it is proved that the settler has not resided upon and 
 cultivated his homestead for at least six months in any one 
 year from the date of perfecting entry ; but in case of illness, 
 properly vouched for, or in case of immigrants returning to 
 their native land to bring ou*^^ their families to their liome- 
 steads, or in other special cases the Minister of the Interior 
 may grant an extention of time during which the settler may 
 be absent from his homestead, but such leave of absence will 
 not count in the term of residence. 
 
 The privilege of homestead entry only applies to agricul- 
 tural lands. 
 
 WOOD FOR SETTLERS. 
 
 
 In townships which consist partly of prairie and partly 
 of timber l^nds, the timber lands are, where it is considered 
 expedient, divided into Wood Lots of not more than twenty 
 aci'es and not less than 10 acres, and any settler not having 
 more than ten acres of wood land on his homestead quarter- 
 section, is entitled, on making application before the Local 
 Agent, to be entered for one of such lots, the applicant paying 
 the price fixed for the same, and on his fulfilling the require- 
 ments of the Act, in respect to his homestead, a patent shall 
 issue to him for such wood lot. 
 
 The cancellation of the homestead entry also involves the 
 cancellation of such wood lot, and the forfeiture of the pur- 
 chase money for the same. 
 
 The settler is prohibited from selling, prior to the issue of 
 patent, any of the timber on his land, or on the appurtenant 
 wood lot, without permission from the Minister of the Interior, 
 
64 
 
 CANADIA X JIA XDliOOK. 
 
 under penalty of fine or imprisonment, or both, as well as the 
 forfeiture of his homestead rights. 
 
 SALES 
 
 The odd-numbered sections of Dominion lands, exceptin*^ 
 School Sections and wiiere tliey may be reservo<l as grants in 
 aid of Colonization Railways, are open for purchase at such 
 prices and on such terms and conditions as may bo fixed from 
 time to time by the Governor-in-Council. 
 
 EDUCATIONAL ENDOWMENT. 
 
 The Parliament of Canada has made a liberal provision 
 in aid of education in Manitoba and the Northwest Territories 
 by setting apart Sections 11 and 21) in e\'ery township 
 throughout the extent of the Dominion Lands as an endow- 
 ment for such purpose. These sections are styled School 
 Lands, and are administered by the Governor-in-Council 
 through the Minister of the Interior. It is provided that they 
 shall be disposed of by sale at public auction at an upset price 
 fixed from time to time by the Governor-in-Council ; the 
 moneys realized from such sales to be invested in Dominion 
 securities, and the interest aiising therefrom paid over to the 
 Government of the Province or Territory within which the 
 lands ai'e situated, towards the support of the public schools 
 therein. 
 
 Hudson's bay company's sections. 
 
 Sections 8 and 20 in every fifth township, that is, in 
 townships 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and so on, and Section 8 and three- 
 quarters of Section 26 in all other townships are reserved to 
 the Hudson's Bay Company, under the terms and conditions 
 of the deed of surrender from the said Company to the Crown 
 by which the Ccjmpany is entitled to one-twentieth of the land 
 within the " Fertile Belt," which is found to be satisfied by 
 the allotment of the said sections. 
 
 FUEL FOR settlers. 
 
 Settlei'S will experience no difficulty in obtaining a suffi- 
 cient supply of fuel. In those portions of Manitoba and the 
 
( '. 1 .V.l I) 1. 1 S 11. 1 SI) HOOK. 
 
 65 
 
 Northwest Territories where wood is not foimrl to any great 
 extent, nature has furnishcil coal as a substitute. In Southei'ii 
 Manitoha, wood may be obtained from the Turtle Mountains, 
 Brandon Hills, and along the baid^s of the Souris River ; the 
 "Manitoba and Southwestern " railway furnishing the b«'st 
 possible access to the Souris coal field from which a consider- 
 able percentage of the fuel used in Southern Manitoba and at 
 many points on the main line of the Canadian PaeiHc railway, 
 as far east as Wimiipeg and westward to Moose Jaw, is. 
 obtained. 
 
 In that portion of the Province of Manitoba lying noitli 
 of the Assiniboine nearly every half section of land will be 
 found tt) contain a certain quantity of wood an<l some parts 
 of the tiMct are very thickly wooded. That portion of the 
 District of AssiniV)oia which lies to the south of the Qu'Ap- 
 pelle and South Saakatchewau Rivers is fairly supplied with 
 either wood or coal. 
 
 In Northern Alberta and for some distance to the east of 
 the RocUy Mountains, and along the rivers in Southern Al- 
 berta, an abundant supply of timber for fuel is obtained, and 
 throughout the whole of Alberta there is an abundant supply 
 of coal, and at no point in it will a settler probably be more- 
 than forty or fifty miles from a coal mine, and 70 per cent, of 
 the district would come within fifteen miles of one. The 
 coals found in Alberta vary from a high-grade lignite up to 
 the highest grade of anthracite, and the supply is inexhausti- 
 ble, sufhcient to supply the entire world for centuries. In 
 addition to the regular largely operated collieries situated at 
 Lt'thbridge, Caimiore and Anthracite, there are scattered ail 
 through the district smaller mines, the output of which will 
 vary from 100 to 5,000 tons per annum. These latter ai-e 
 operated by the .settlers themselves to furnish coal to their 
 neighbors, and the price varies from 50 cents to .SI. 50 per 
 ton at pit's mouth, the settlers teaming the coal to their 
 residences. 
 
 At the points named the output is shipped partly to 
 United States points, and partly to Canadian points as far 
 
l! '': 
 
 66 
 
 CAXADIAN IIAXDBOOK. 
 
 r< 
 
 I' 
 
 east as Winnipeg and as far west as Vancouver, and the out- 
 put is increasing rapidly. 
 
 BUILDING MATERIAL. 
 
 In addition to small local mills at a few points in South- 
 ern Manitoba and the District of Assiniboia, there are mills 
 situated on the Lake of the Woods, on Lakes Winnipeg 
 Manitoba, and Winnepegosis ; at Brandon, Prince Albert, 
 Battleford, Edmonton and vicinity, Red Deer or the Bow 
 River, at Calgary and other points. On Sheep Creek and 
 the Old Man's River these sawmills have an output varying 
 from 200,000 feet per annum up to ten or twelve million, and, 
 in addition, lumber is brought into the Territories and Mani- 
 toba from British Columbian points, the price of said lumber 
 varying from 88 to $30 per thousand, according to quality. 
 Roofing material in the shape of shingles is worth about $2 
 per thousand. The country is beautifully supplied with 
 building material in the shape of limestone, sandstone, gran- 
 ite ; also clays for the manufacture of brick, cements, etc. 
 
 PROVINCIAL LANDS. 
 
 In the Province of Ontario it is provided that public 
 lands which have been surveyed and are considered suitable 
 for settlement and cultivation may be appropriated as free 
 grants. Two hundred acres is the limit of the Act regulat- 
 ing the disposal of them as free grants. A single man over 
 •ei'diteen vears of age, or a married man havinfj no children 
 under eighteen years cf age residing with him, can obtain a 
 grant of one hundred acres. The male head of a family, or 
 the sole female head of a family having a child or children 
 under eighteen years of age residing with hiai or her, may 
 obtain a free grant of two hundred acres, and may also pur- 
 chase an additional one hundred at the rate of 50 cents (2s) 
 per acre. 
 
 The settlement duties required are as follows : To have 
 at least fifteen acres cleared and under cultivation, of which 
 .two acres at least are to be cleared and cultivated annually 
 
CANADTAX II AND BOOK. 
 
 67 
 
 during five years ; to have built a habitable house at least 
 sixteen by twenty feet in size ; and to have actually and con- 
 tinuously resided upon and cultivated the land for five years. 
 Tile loeatee is not bound to remain on the land all the time 
 during the five years, but may be absent on business or at 
 work for, in all, not more than six months in nny one year. 
 A loeatee who purchases an additional one hundred acres 
 under the regulations must, within five years from the date 
 of sale, clear fifteen acres and cultivate the same before being 
 entitled to a patent ; but ho is not required to build a house 
 or loside on the purchased lot wdiere he holds it in connection 
 with a free grant. 
 
 In the Rainy River district, to the west of Lake Supe- 
 rior, consisting of well -watered, uncleared lands, free grants 
 are made of one hundred and sixty acres to a head of a fam- 
 ily having children under eighteen years of age residing with 
 him (or her), and one hundred and twenty acres to a single 
 man over eighteen years, or to a married man not having 
 children under eighteen residing with him ; each person ob- 
 taining a free grant to have the privilege of purchasing 
 eighty acres additional at the rate of 81 per acre, payable in 
 four annual instalments. The settlement duties are the same 
 as set out above, excepting that only three years' residence is 
 required. The soil of this district is a deep loam, and for an 
 area of nearly a million acres is very fertile. 
 
 Outside of the free grant townships, uncleared land 
 varies in price from 2 shillings to 40 shillings an acre, accord- 
 ing to situation anil soil. Cleared and improved farms can 
 be bought at prices ranging from £4 to £10 an acre. The 
 money can nearly always be paid in instalments covering 
 several yeark 
 
 In the Province of Quebec the Government have sur- 
 veyed about seven million acres of Crown lands. 
 
 These lands purchased from the Government are to be 
 paid for in the following manner : One-fifth of the purchase 
 money is required to be paid the day of sale, and the remainder 
 
68 
 
 CANADFA N UAXDHOOK. 
 
 h 
 
 in four equal annual instalments bearing interest at 6 per 
 cent. But the prices at wliich these lands are sold are so low, 
 viz.: from Is 5d to 2s 5d, that these conditions are not very- 
 burdensome. The purchaser is required to take possession of 
 the land sold within six months of the date of sale and to 
 occupy it within two years. He must clear and have under 
 crop, in the course of four years, ten acres for every hundred 
 held by him, and erect a habitable house of the dimensions of 
 at least sixteen feet by twcntj'. 
 
 In the Temiscaniingue settlement north of the city of 
 Ottawa, twenty-five townships have been surveyed, five of 
 which have been opened for sale, subject to settlement and 
 pine tree regulations, at 50 cents an acre, half cash and balance 
 in two equal annual instalments with interest. 
 
 The settlement dues are actual residence on the land 
 purchased for four years from the date of pui'chase, clearing 
 and having under cultivation and crop at least 10 acres for 
 fvery 100 acres, and building a habitable house 16 feet by 
 20 feet. 
 
 In the Province of New Brunswick it is estimated that 
 there are about 7,000,000 acres of ungranted land. Crown 
 lands may be acquired for actual settlement. (1) One hun- 
 dred acres are given to any settler over IS years of age, not 
 owning other land, who pays $20 in cash or does work on the 
 pul)Iic roads, etc., equal to SlO per annum for three yeais. 
 Within two years a house IG ft. by 20 ft. must be built, and 
 two acres of land cleared. Continuous residence for three years 
 from date of entry and the cultivation of 10 acres in that 
 time are required. 
 
 (2) Single applications may be mnde for not more than 
 200 acfos of Crown lands without conditions of settlement. 
 These lands are put up at public auction at an upset 
 price of !?1 an acre. Purciiase money to be paid with applica- 
 tion. Cost of survey to be paid by purchaser. The above 
 sections apply only to lands fit for agricultural purposes. 
 Lands well timbered are not sold outright. 
 
CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 69 
 
 In the Province of Nova Scotia there are nearly one and 
 a half million acres of land belon^jins: to the Crown, a con- 
 siderable quantity of which is unsuited for cultivation. The 
 price of Crown lands is $10 p3r 100 acres. The distinction 
 is made in the price between 100 acres and smaller lots, as 
 the difference in cost of survey, defrayed by the Government, 
 is very trifling All minerals and ores are reserved to the 
 Crown, except limestone, plaster and builamg materials. 
 
 In the Province of British Columbia, the land and pre- 
 emption laws are as follow : Every heaJ of a family, widower 
 or single man, eighteen years of age, being a British subject, 
 born and naturalized, has the right to pre-empt a tract of 
 land not exceeding 160 acres in extent, wjst of the " Cascade 
 Range" of mjantains; or 320 acres east of these mountains, 
 Personil residence during a period of two years, reasonable 
 intervals of absence being permitted, and improvements to 
 the average of $2.50 per acre are necessary to complete the 
 pre-emption right. Upjn proof of these, the settler is 
 entitled to claim his Crown Grant in freehold to the tract 
 oec'ipied and improved. The price to be paid is $1 per acre, 
 payable in four annual instalments, the first to be paid one 
 year to the date of record. The patent will be granted upon 
 proof by declaration, in writing, of the sectler himself and 
 two other persons, of occupation for two years from the date 
 of pre-emption. No person can hold more than one pre-emp- 
 tion claim at a time. 
 
 Timber and haylands may be leased from the Government. 
 Timber lands pay a yearly rental of 15 cents per acre and 
 a royalty of 50 cents per 1000 feet on all logs cut. 
 
If'v^pr 
 
 v\ 
 
 
 jl 
 
 hi s 
 hi i 
 
 !, 
 
 70 CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 VII. 
 
 PUBLIC DEBT OF CANADA. 
 
 The public debt of the people of Canada in connection 
 with the Federal Administration on the 1st July, 1899, was: 
 
 Gross debt $345,100,902 
 
 Assets 78,886,364 
 
 Net debt 266,274,538 
 
 The assets consist of amounts invested as sinking funds 
 
 to meet borrowings ; debentures, etc. The sinking fund, 
 
 (which bears interest) amounts to about six-sevenths of the 
 
 total assets. 
 
 The public debt was created at the time of the Union 
 
 (1867) 
 
 (1). by the assumption of the debts of the several 
 members of Federal Union amounting with revisions 
 
 to $109,430,148 
 
 Since that time there has been spent on 
 capital account : 
 
 (2) For canals 51,975,978 
 
 (3) For Railways 109,385,285 
 
 (4) For Northwest Territories 7,770,131 
 
 (5) For other Public Works & buildings 9,795,382 
 
 $288,326,924 
 
 Thus, over twenty million dollars beyond the amount of 
 the net public debt have been expended by the people of 
 Canada for public purposes. 
 
 The interest paid on the public debt averages $2.66 per 
 $100. The improvement in the credit of the country is 
 measured by the great decrease in the interest paid ns com- 
 pared with 1868, when the average interest was $4.51 
 per $100. 
 
 Besides the amounts expended on railways as above, the 
 (Tovernment of Canada have for some years adopted the 
 
CANADIAN HANDBOOK, 71 
 
 policy of giving bonuses to aid in the construction of rail- 
 ways, chiefly branches or feeders of the main lines. The 
 amount thus granted to the 80th June, 1898, is $4.3,119,222. 
 This sum has been paid out of current receipts. 
 
 Analysis of the public debt contracted before confedera- 
 tion, shows that of the total amount assumed by the Federal 
 Government ($109,430,148) the sum of !3;63,635,092 was 
 expended on public works; $52,944,175 being for railways 
 and canals. 
 
 Thus the public debt has been created in large part by 
 the expenditure required for the extension of the Dominion 
 over all continental British North America, for improving the 
 lines of intercommunication, for safe guarding the coasts and 
 for facilitating the general business of the country. 
 
 Two other facts may be mentioned in this connection. 
 
 First, the ungranted and unpledged Crown lands belong- 
 ing to the Dominion, if valued at 4/ an acre, would pay the 
 whole public debt. 
 
 Second, the public buildings, the canals, the public rail- 
 ways, and the public lands, though their cost is included in 
 the public debt, are not considered in the Public Accounts 
 as assets to be placed against the debt. 
 
 In addition to the public debt of the General Govern- 
 ment there are the debts of the several provinces. These 
 amount in gross to the sum of $55,957,179 divided among 
 the provinces : 
 
 Gross. Net- 
 Quebec $35,450,548 $21,604,479 
 
 Nova Scotia 8,711,802 2,387,314 
 
 New Brunswick 3,198,859 2,621,867 
 
 Manitoba 5,701,951 8,669,472 
 
 British Colnmbia 7,425,262 4,845,414 
 
 P. E. Island 468,757 
 
 $55,957,179 $40,128,546 
 
 The Province of Ontario's statement shows a surplus of 
 assets over liabilities on 31st Dec, 1899, of $2,250,932, her lia- 
 
 
 \jL r 
 
v; -;~m 
 
 lli 
 
 IS !l: 
 
 72 
 
 CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 bilities being for railway assistance given and amount- 
 ing to $3,053,870, and in aklition a further sum of $2,000,000, 
 balance of accounts witu the Dominion. 
 
 Of the public indebtedness of the Province of Quebec, 
 $15,550,291 represents assistance given to railways within the 
 Province, not included in the assets. 
 
 The current revenues of the Dominion of Canada are ob- 
 tained : {a) from taxation ; (h) from receipts from lands, post 
 office, railways, canals and other sources. 
 
 In the year ended 30th of June, 1899, the revenue was 
 $46,743,336 and the expenditure S41,904,592. 
 
 Taking six years, 1894-99, the revenue has been 
 $232,099,765 and the expenditure $231,753,051, the two bal- 
 ancing each other, with $346,714 receipts more than expendi- 
 ture. 
 
 The general balance sheet for the year ended June 30th, 
 1899, shows the following condition : 
 
 RECEIPTS. 
 
 1. Consolidated Fund, as above $ 46.7 ^3 336 
 
 2. Loans and Doinini(jn Notes 8 /08,447 
 
 3. Open Accounts 107,Ool,673 
 
 Total $102,503,456 
 
 Exi'ENnriTJnE. 
 
 Consolidated Fund as above % 41 {)n4.592 
 
 Ki'deniption 2 'JO" 008 
 
 Open Accounts 1 17,661, 8o6 
 
 Total $162,563,456 
 
 The actual sources of revenue and branches of expendi- 
 ture comprised under the division called Consolidated Fund 
 are : 
 
 RECEIPTS. 
 
 To^„*s«r, H<*) Customs $25,316,842 ) «!Qior;Qn7fk 
 
 Taxation J J^^J ini^rimX R,y. §9,041,226 \ $31,958,070 
 
 Lands 1,544,940 
 
 Public Works and Post OfficL' 7,627 713 
 
 Interest on Investments 1,590.448 
 
 Various 1,022,165 
 
 Total $46,743,.1P6 
 
CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 78 
 
 EXPEXDITURES. 
 
 Public Debt, Interest Charges and Sinking Funds $13,510,854 
 
 vSubHidies to Provinces 4,25U,63G 
 
 Public Works 2,287,514 
 
 Militia and Defence 2,122,292 
 
 Collection of Revenues 9,81)7,453 
 
 Other Expenditure 9,5)05,823 
 
 Total $41,901,572 
 
 The amount of revenue obtained from taxation in 1899 
 was 74.8 per cent, of the whole. During the preceding 10 
 years i^ ".veraged 76.5 per cent. 
 
 The sources from which the several Provinces derive 
 their income, are: Dominion Subsidy, Crown Lands, Succession 
 Dues, Licenses, etc. 
 
 The expenditures are for Education, Maintenance of 
 Public Institutions, Hospitals, Agriculture, Administx'ation of 
 Justice, Legislation, Civil Government, etc. 
 
 The Province of Ontario in 1898 received: 
 
 Dominion subsidy $1,19(5,873 
 
 Crown Lands, woods and forests, rents 1,1U0,540 
 
 Licenses 270,701 
 
 Interest 304,061 
 
 Succession duties 20(),1S() 
 
 Other sources 502,932 
 
 Ontario expended on : 
 
 Civil Government and Legislation 418,178 
 
 Administration of Justice 430,277 
 
 Education 735,999 
 
 Public institutions and hospitals 1,079,928 
 
 Agriculture 200,689 
 
 Other expenses 926,010 
 
 The Province of Quebec received : 
 
 Dominion subsidies 1,086,714 
 
 Interest 220,152 
 
 Lands and forests 1,0()8,719 
 
 Licenses and tax on com.-corporati(ms 809,356 
 
 Succession dues - 163,455 
 
 Other sources 827,744 
 
 11 
 
J'l 
 
 7^ CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 Quebec expended on : 
 
 Interest, redemption of debt, sinking fund $1,591,177 
 
 CiviHJovernnient and Legislation 477,188 
 
 Administration of Justice 521,717 
 
 Public instruction 418,7()0 
 
 Agriculture 197,'226 
 
 Public works, buildings, asylums 579,328 
 
 Other expenses 029 974 
 
 The Province of Nova Scotia received : 
 
 Subsidy from Federal Government 432,S07 
 
 Mines 277',o52 
 
 Succession dues 5g 102 
 
 Crown lands 20 202 
 
 Other sources 67 143 
 
 Nova Scotia expended : 
 
 Interest 09 220 
 
 Education 247 999 
 
 Hospitals 124 207 
 
 Legislation and Civil Government 104,508 
 
 Other expenses 343 276 
 
 The Province of New Brunswick received : 
 
 Dominion subsidy 4^53 530 
 
 Lands and forests 15j 900 
 
 Licenses (liquor) and taxes Incorp. Comps 40 785 
 
 Succession duties g 193 
 
 Other sources 18 336 
 
 New Brunswick expended : 
 
 Interest ]25,o06 
 
 Education 201,013 
 
 Asylums and hospitals 48,000 
 
 Legislation and Civil Government 63,373 
 
 Agriculture 26,139 
 
 Public works 194,000 
 
 Other 68,419 
 
 m 
 
CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 76 
 
 The Province of Manitoba received : 
 
 Subsidy $701,fi42 
 
 Lands 84,555 
 
 Licenses (liquor) 26,712 
 
 Interest 33,025 
 
 Succcsaion duties 2,104 
 
 Other 88,600 
 
 Manitoba expended : 
 
 Legislation 36,004 
 
 Education 205,868 
 
 Agriculture 10), 710 
 
 Administration of Justice 118,516 
 
 Public Works .' 190,239 
 
 Other 121,551 
 
 British Columbia received : 
 
 Dominion subsidy 242,089 
 
 Lend sales, leases. Royalty 218,552 
 
 Eev. from mines 399,978 
 
 Succession duties 2,822 
 
 Property taxes 370,936 
 
 Interest on investments 19,323 
 
 . Other 179,323 
 
 British Columbia expended : 
 
 Interest, sinking funds, etc 199,017 
 
 Civil Government and legislation 339,147 
 
 Public instruction, hospitals, etc 151,163 
 
 Administration of justice 100,814 
 
 Education 247,756 
 
 Public works 746,376 
 
 Other 303,013 
 
 Prince Edward Island received : 
 
 Dominion subsidy 181,953 
 
 Provincial land tax 30,084 
 
 Public lands 14,274 
 
 Income tax 5,557 
 
 Licenses ~. 15,597 
 
 Other sources 28,720 
 
 P. E. Island expended : 
 
 Education 129,818 
 
 Interest and sinking fund 21,234 
 
 Legislation 7,789 
 
 Public works 60,048 
 
 Hospitals, asylums 26,668 
 
 Other 47,543 
 
CANADIAN HANDllOOK. 
 VIII. 
 
 h i 
 
 i i' 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 Under the fundamental law of Canada the general 
 subject of education is specially the care of the provinces; 
 the rights and privileges of denominational and separate 
 schools as existing in 1S()7 being carefully guarded. 
 
 The Provinces of Ontario and British Columbia have a 
 Minister of Education and a general superintendent. In the 
 Province of Quebec education is under the control of the 
 Superintendent of Public Instruction, assisted by a council of 
 85 members, divided into committees for the management of 
 tiic Roman Catholic and the Protestant Schools respectively. 
 In Manitoba, New Brunswick and Northwest Territories the 
 Executive, associating with them others not of the Executive, 
 with a superintendent, have control. In Nova Scotia the 
 Executive Council and a. superintendent carry on the work. 
 In Prince Edward Island the education is under the control 
 of a board and a superintendent, both appointed by the 
 Government. 
 
 The educational facilities for the aboriginal inhabitants 
 of Canada are provided by the General Govei-nment of 
 Canada, who are the guardians of the Indian tribes. 
 
 The Educational equipment of Canada consists of 17 
 universities, 19 colleges, 19 classical schools, 7 ladies' colleges, 
 1 academy, 14 denominational and private institutions not 
 having degree conferring powers; 318 boarding schools for 
 young ladies. In addition to these there are 26,794 public 
 and other schools, supported partly or wholly by the Provinces. 
 
 In the universities, colleges and other higher institutions 
 then are 11,545 students. In the young ladies' boarding schools 
 15,300 and in the public and other schools 1,0G0,239. 
 
 Taking the population of both sexes between the ages of 
 5 years and 20 years of age, 66 in every group of 100 are 
 enrolled on the attendance books. 
 
 Five of the 17 universities are non-denominational, 3 
 are under the control of the Church of England, 4 under the 
 
 it 
 
CAXADTAX HANDBOOK. 
 
 Churcli of Roino, 1 under tho Presbyterian Church, 2 under 
 the Methodist Chureli, and 2 undor the Baptist C'hurn'- 
 
 Tho lari^est university in Canada is the L^niversity of 
 McGill, in Montreal. It owns property to tho vahio of 
 82,800,000, has an endowment of S2,7oO,0()0 and an income from 
 endowments of 8230,0;)0. 1 150 stu<UMits are in attendance. 
 
 Tho University of Toronto lias 1822 students, an endow- 
 ment of 8l,l(S7,GcS3, owns property to the value of Sl,4r)7,«'*;J9 
 and has an income of SlU),0S7. 
 
 In the Province of Ontario, under the University'' Feder- 
 ation Act of 18(S7, a uniform standard of higher education is 
 sought in tho unioti of the various denominational universi- 
 ties with tho non-denominational University of Toronto. 
 
 Methodist, Presbyterian, R Catholic, Episcopalian Uni- 
 versities and Collesxcs and other institutions have thus 
 federated and atRliated with tho Provincial inbtitution. 
 
 Tho same policy has been pursued in other provinces. 
 In tho Province of Quebec the University of Laval (Roman 
 Catholic) and McGill (non sectarian) are the centres around 
 which the other institutions rally. 
 
 A .statement of the possibilities, in the way of Education, 
 though specially describing McGill University, will give a 
 clear idea of the status of higher education in Canada and oL' 
 the extent to which the people have endeavoured to securo 
 the benefits of university education. 
 
 McGill University, Montreal, founded in 18T4 hj a 
 wealthy citizen, has been enabled to reach its present high 
 position among the Universities of the M'orld by private 
 munificence. With a teaching staff of over 1(50 professors, 
 lecturers and demonstrators, it affords advanced instruction to 
 about 1200 students in all the bi-anchos of higher University 
 work in Arts, Science — Pure and Applied — Law, Medicine 
 and Comparative Medicine, and Veterinary Science. It 
 opens its courses in Arts and Pure Science to women on 
 equal terms with men, and grants degrees of B.A., M.A , 
 B.Sc, M.Sc, D.Sc, D.Litt.. B.C.L., D.C.L, M.D., CM, and 
 D.V.S. The undergraduate course in Arts, Applied Science 
 
 % 
 
 III 
 
\ 
 
 I . 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 i; 
 
 78 
 
 CAXADTAN IIASDBOOK. 
 
 and Me<licine, extend:, over four years ; in Law and 
 Veterinary Science, over three years. The buildings of the 
 University occupy a beautiful site in the City of Montreal, 
 and its urrivalled laboratories and equipment for research 
 work, particularly in the Departments of Medicine, Biology, 
 Physics, Chemistry, Civil, Mechanical and Electrical En- 
 gineering, and Mining and Metallurgy, are attracting students 
 from all parts of the world. It possesses in addition a beau- 
 tiful Library and Museum, and has recently provided a 
 magniticent residential hall for its women-students, a step 
 which will shortly l)e followed by the erection of residential 
 halls for men. The University extends its influence to schools 
 throughout Canada, and there are afRliated to it no less than 
 four theological and three other colleges, situated at Quebec, 
 Stanstead, and Vancouver. 
 
 For general education the several provinces allot a very 
 considerable portion of the public revenue. The Gcmeral 
 Government spends several Imndted thousand dollars antmally 
 on the education of the Indian children. The expenditure 
 for public schools in 1898 was nearly nine million dollars, 
 equal to Si. 70 per head of the whole population. 
 
 Excepting in the Province of British Columbia, the 
 people of the several provinces contribute towards Education 
 by direct taxation. Thus, of the total mentioned above, the 
 Government grants amount to $3,209,050 equal to nearly 38 
 per cent. 
 
 The grants by the several gove nments are equal to 
 more than 2G per cent of their total revenue. 
 
 To this extent the people and the governments co-operate 
 to provide the children with educational facilities and this they 
 have done for many years. 
 
 In the census of 1891, the Federal Government made 
 an inquiry into the educational statistics of the people and 
 were able to secure returns from 4,777,838 persons of the 
 total of 4,823,239. From 55,401 Indians living on the farthest 
 verge of the country only the general population statistics 
 could be obtained. 
 
VAX.HHA.y JIASDIIOOK. 
 
 70 
 
 ICS 
 
 The 4,777,838 persons were divided into three groups. 
 First, those; 20 years old and iipwards, of wh(jin 2,l.S5,4Gl were 
 able to read ; second, those between 10 and 20 yeai-s.ot' whom 
 9r)S,4';}5 were able to read, and third, those under 10 years old 
 of whom 2.S9,S97 wore able to read. The statement sIkjws 
 that nearly 71 per cent, of the people of all ayes were able 
 to read. 
 
 The examination of the returns relative to writing showed 
 that nearly GO per cent, of the total population could read 
 and write. 
 
 The Province of Quebec showt>d a general average of 
 education lower than the other provinces. Against a general 
 averaire for the whole Dominion of 80. -iO for adult muu's nble 
 to write, and 80.2(3 for adult females, Quebec's averag« wa>: 
 for adult males Gl, and for a-lult females G7, Quebec l>eing 
 peculiar in that the female adult population abi: to read ,d 
 write forms a larger proportion of the whole than the male 
 adult. 
 
 The returns, however, indicated that the juvenile popula- 
 tion of Quebec had made a deciiled advance. Taking 100 for 
 the standard of highest excellence, the adult population stood 
 at 63.9 while the juvenile population, between 10 and 20 years 
 of age, stood at 77.8. 
 
 The census returns created intelligent interest in the 
 subject of education in Quebec, and evidences are not wanting 
 t J show that commendable advance has been made since 1891. 
 
 According to the latest returns'there are 2(J,473 teachers 
 connected with the public schools of Canada, a large propor- 
 tion of whom are females. In the Province of Ontario, in 1885 
 62 per cent.of the teachers of the public schools were fe- 
 males ,and in 1898, 70 per cent. 
 
 In the cases of Manitoba and the Northwest, where the 
 Federal Government owned the land, Parliament, by one of 
 the first Acts relating to the Northwest after the country 
 had been acquired, set apart two out of every 36 sections of 
 640 acres each for school purposes. 
 
80 
 
 CANADIAN handbook: 
 
 In the Provinces of Ontario (partially) and Quebec 
 (wholly), the public schools are divided on religious lines, there 
 being in each public schools called Roman Catholic Separate 
 Schools and Protestant Separate Schools. 
 
 In the Province of Ontario, 42.000 pupils are enrolled in 
 the Separate Public Schools, and 440,000 in the General 
 Public Schools. 
 
 In the Province of Quebec there is some commingling. 
 In the main, however, the Roman Catholic Scliools have 
 275,000 pupils and the Protestant 38,035 pupils — the propor- 
 tion being the same as the proportion of Protestants and 
 Catholic in the general population. 
 
 In tiie other provinces the education laws recognize no 
 division on those lines. 
 
 IX 
 
 CRIME IN CANADA. 
 
 During the twenty-two years, 187G-98, the functionaries 
 of the courts or tribunals for the administration of justice in 
 Canada have been called upon to supply the Department of 
 Agriculture and Statistic? with returns giving certain particu- 
 lars respecting crimi, in accordance with the requirements of 
 the st;^'„ate in such case provided. 
 
 The classificat'.on adopted is the general one — of indictable 
 offences and summary convictior , The indictable offences are 
 tried either by jury or (by consent) by Police or other Magis- 
 trate and under the Speedy Trials Act. 
 
 The statistics of the earlier yefirs are not complete, since 
 the work was new to the officials. The country has, however, 
 a bo ly of fairly accurate statistics relating to crime for the 
 period 1883-1808. 
 
 This, though limited compared with the long-gathered 
 statistics of crime in many other countries, possesses value in 
 enabling us to determine tha position of Canada in respect 
 to crinie. 
 
CAXADIAX HANDBOOK. 
 
 81 
 
 Taking, however, the periofl 1887-98 for our guidance 
 through the Uibyrintlis of criminality, we have for the twelve 
 ycar.s 4415,524 convictions for indictable and other offences. 
 Of tlie.se 12.8 per cent, were for offences against Lhe person ; 
 11.7 per cent, for offences against property ; 32 G per cent, for 
 drunkenness and 43 per cent, for other crimes and misdemean- 
 ors, largely offences against order. 
 
 These totals show a yearly average of 37,127 convictions 
 for offences of all kinds. In the year 1898 the convictions 
 were 38,206. Both absolutely and relat. ,ely to population, 
 punished crime in 1808 was higher than in 1897, but it was 
 lower than in 1802, 1SJ3 and 1894, showing that the growth 
 of crime in Canada is sporadic rather than continuous. This is 
 a good showing when the great development in our mining 
 population is taken into account. 
 
 Oi tho 415,524 convictions, 55,2(58 were for indictable of- 
 fences, the charges numbering 80,353 ; so that convictions 
 formed G8 7 per cent of the ch.irges. This approximates close- 
 ly to the ratio of the two countries from which the great bulk 
 of our population springs 
 
 In the first three years of the period under review the 
 charges made of crimes and misdemeanors committed in con- 
 nection with in;lictable offences averaged 5,(559 a year. In 
 the last three yexrs they averaged 7,717, showing an increase 
 in chai'ges of imlictable offences of 36 per cent. The convic- 
 tions conse(iuent on these charges averaged 3,745 and 5,466 
 respectively, an increase of 46 per cent. Convictions, there- 
 fore, increased at a greater rate than charges, showing either 
 more care in preferring the charges, or stricter administration 
 of the laws, or both. 
 
 Males convicted of indictable offences averaged 3,417 in 
 the first three years and 5,217 in the last three years of the 
 12-year period, while females averaged 328 in the first, and 
 353 in the last term of three years. The proportion of the 
 sexes in the first three-year, period was 91 men to 9 women. 
 In the fourth three-year period it was 94 men to 6 women. 
 The proportion of women criminals is becoming less. 
 
 I 
 
 t n 
 
 
 t- 
 I 
 
82 
 
 CANADIAX HANDBOOK. 
 
 The number of persons convicted for the first time in the 
 first three years of the ]2-ycar period averaged 3,210, and in 
 the fourth three year term, 4,877. Relatively, these criminals 
 were 85 per cent of the total convictions in the first three 
 years and 80 per cent, in the last three years. 
 
 Kecidivists have increased, those convicted repeatedly 
 forrninfr 9 per cent, of the convicted in the last three years of 
 the 12-year period against 5 per cent, in the first three years; 
 and those convicted twice forming 11 per cent, against 5.3. 
 The increase is largely in the mining Provinces of Nova Scotia 
 and British Columbia and in the Province of Quebec. 
 
 Accoi'ding to occupations, the statistics warrant the fol- 
 lowing conclusions : 1st, that compared with their numbers^ ^he 
 agricultural class contribute a very small peicentage to the 
 criminal class ; 2nd, that the commercial class commit, more 
 than their proportionate numbers warrant, crimes under the 
 heads of ofiences against the person, and forgery, and offences 
 against the currency ; 3rd, that the domestic class commit 
 Climes just about proportionately to their numbers ; 4th, 
 that the indu.strial class liave less than their proportion in all 
 the six divisions of crime except in ofiences against property 
 with violence, where tbey slightly exceed their proportion ; 
 5th, that the professional class have a nmch lower percentage 
 of criminals than their proportionate share in the occupations 
 would give ; (jth, that labourers contribute more than their 
 phai-e to every class of crime, their percentages being, crime 
 39 per cent ; population 12 per cent. 
 
 About GO per cent of the convicted were born in Canada. 
 As the native population in SG^, per cent of the whole popula- 
 tion, the criminals in Canaila born outside of the Dominion 
 are more numerous i-elatively tluin the native born, forming 
 but 13^ per cent of the population and supplying 40 per cent 
 of the criminals. 
 
 Those unable to read and write formed 18 per cent of 
 the criminals ; tho.se posses.sed of an elementary education 
 were 74 per cent of the whole, and those having a superior 
 education 8 per cent. These percentages are about the same 
 
CA NA DIA N HA NDBOOK. 
 
 83 
 
 V 
 ill 
 
 Ir 
 le 
 
 as the proportions of persons unable to read or write and of 
 persons having the ability, to the whole population. 
 
 Cities and towns furnish 76 per cent of the criminal 
 population of Canada, and the urban population is only 29 
 per cent of the whole population. 
 
 The total number of persons charged with murder dur- 
 ing the 12 years is 279, and the convictions numbered 88. 
 The acquittals were ()8 per cent, of tiie charges. In the 
 United Kingdom, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Spain, 
 and Belgium, taken together, the acquittals are G4 per cent, 
 of the charges in the case of the crime of murder. 
 
 Drunkenness is strictly dealt with by tiie courts, the 
 country having, as a whole, a strongly expressed sentiment 
 against drunkenness. 
 
 There has been a decrease in the number of arrests and 
 convictions on account of drunkenness, the annual average of 
 t'.ie three years 1887-8-9 being 12,821, and that of the tliree 
 years 189G-7-8 being 11,046, while convictions of infractions 
 of liquor license Acts fell from an annual average of 3,705 in 
 1887-8-9 to a yearly average of 2,088 in the years 1896-7-8. 
 
 The amount of spirituous liquors, including wine and 
 beer, consumed in Canada during the period 1887-8-9 aver- 
 aged 4.28 gallons (Imperial) per head of the population. The 
 average of the three years 1896-7-8 was 4.31 gallons. In 
 thj first period the average annual quantity of beer consumed 
 per head was 3.19 gallons, and in 189G-7-8 it was 3.G0 gal- 
 lons, the consumption of spirits decreasing from .72 gallons to 
 .62. Contemporaneously with the decrease in the average 
 consumption of spirits there was a decrease in the convictions 
 for drunkenness, the two facts together in licatin""- the jreneral 
 trjiid towards increased sobriety. The decrease in convictions 
 was 14 per cent, and the decrease in spirits consumed was 
 also 14 per cent. 
 
 All the foregoing statements serve to show that the 
 authorities charged with the maintenance of law and order 
 in Canada have the people well in hand, and that the people 
 
 if 
 
 • 
 
84 
 
 CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 born in the country have less disposition to break into crime 
 than the foreign population that finds its way into the 
 Dominion. 
 
 It is, therefore, a good country for peaceable, law-abiding 
 people to come to. 
 
 X. 
 
 INDUSTRIES OF CANADA. 
 
 Dividing the industries of the country into the extractive 
 and the constructive, we find that the census of 1891 gave 
 790,210 persons engaged in the first, namely: 
 
 In Agriculture 735,207 
 
 Kislieik'H 27,07!) 
 
 Luuibering 12,757 
 
 Milling 15,108 
 
 P)y the same authority, there were 370,256 persons en- 
 gaged in the manufacturing and mechanical industries of 
 Canada, making a total of 1,160,400 persons. 
 
 Thus, taking the whole population, in every group of 10,000 
 persons there were 2,2S7 engaged in these two branches, the 
 proportion being 1,521 in the extractive and 766 in the con- 
 structive industries. 
 
 In the United States there were, according to the last 
 census, in every 10,000 group 2,252 persons engaged in these 
 branches of industry: 1,439 in the extractive and 813 in the 
 mechanical. 
 
 The data for a comparison on the above lines between 
 other countries, to ascertain the relative position occupied by 
 Canada are not available. The following grouping will, 
 
VANADTAX HANDBOOK, 
 
 85 
 
 r 
 
 [c 
 le 
 
 In 
 V 
 
 however, sufficiently indicate the status of Canada in com- 
 parison with other countries. 
 
 III 
 
 Pehsons in Each 10,000 Gkolt 
 Engaged in 
 
 Agriniltiire 
 
 I'ulnstry and Mines 
 
 Tnulc and Transportation.. 
 
 Professional 
 
 Servants 
 
 o 
 
 rj 
 
 ^ 
 
 r1 
 
 Q 
 
 fD 
 
 • 
 
 n 
 
 
 p 
 
 2 
 
 W 
 
 S 
 
 '£ 
 
 
 P 
 
 3 
 
 s 
 (I? 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 I' 
 
 VJ 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 1,002 
 
 070 
 
 1,714 
 
 1,377 
 
 1,521 
 
 I, COO 
 
 2,392 
 
 1,185 
 
 875 
 
 701) 
 
 •J 52 
 
 444 
 
 439 
 
 531 
 
 38() 
 
 15:5 
 
 2H() 
 
 283 
 
 140 
 
 131 
 
 258 
 
 ()21 
 
 014 
 
 (iitO 
 
 509 
 
 5Q 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 1,529 
 791 
 3()0 
 
 I 810 
 
 It will be seen that the development of Canada is closely 
 along continental lines, and that in 1890 the divisions of 
 labour corresponded very intimately to those of the United 
 States in 1880, especially in the extractive and mechanical 
 industries. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Tn the subdivision of Agriculture, Canada takes high 
 rank. 
 
 She has a fertile soil, a good climate, easy methods of 
 transportation, and other characteristics which give her pre- 
 eminence as a raiser of stock and grower of wheat and other 
 cereals of the highest quality. 
 
 A brief statement of the agricultural capabilities of each 
 of the provinces is all that can be given. 
 
 Prince Edward Inland has an area of 2,000 square miles, 
 1 ,280,000 acres. Of that area 1,214,240 acres were occupied, 
 and 718,092 acres improved in 1890. Of the total, 536,1V5 were 
 under crop, 3,845 acres in orchards and gardens, 1 78,082 acres 
 in pasture, and 496,156 in woodland and forest. Practically 
 44 per cent, under crop, 41 per cent, in woodland and forest, 
 and 15 per cent, in pasture. Dr. Saunders, chief director of 
 the experimental farms, says : The island has a moist, cool 
 climate in summer. The total precipitation in rain and snow 
 is from 35 to 40 inches. The soil is loamy and fertile. Until 
 
86 
 
 CAXADTAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 ' 
 
 Ifi 
 
 recently the chief farm products were oats, wheat, and 
 potatoes, and smaller proportions of barley and buckwheat. 
 Turnips and hay are also important crops. Cattle and sheep are 
 kept in increasing numbers. Eggs also are produced in con- 
 siderable quantities. Of recent years the farmers of the 
 island have directed their attention to dairy products with 
 great success. 
 
 Nova Scotia has an area of 13,152,241 acres ; 6,080,000 
 aci'es are occupifd. Of the.se, over 4,000,000 are woodland 
 and forest; 969,548 acres are in crop, 994,113 acres in pasture, 
 and 30,000 acres in garden and orchard. 
 
 The principal crops in this province are oats, potatoes, 
 barley, buckwheat, and hay. 
 
 The trade in cattle, sheep and swine is large, and the 
 yearly output of cheese and butter has been much increased 
 of recent years. 
 
 Fruit growing has also developed within recent times to 
 a remarkable degree. The Annapolis and Cornwallis valleys 
 are specially adapted by climate and situation for the growth 
 of large fruits, and the choicest sorts of apples, pears, plums, 
 and cherries are produced in abundance. In these valleys 
 there are 450 square miles of land, every part of which is 
 eminently suitable for fruit growing. During late years the 
 output of apples for export has been half a million barrels. 
 
 Tlie development in cheese and butter making is seen in 
 the fact that during the past seventeen years the number of 
 cheese and butter factories have about doubled. 
 
 New Brunswick, which adjoins Prince Edward Island 
 and Nova Scotia, has an area of 17,984,130 acres, of which 
 4,471,250. are occupied. Of the occupied land 1,01 8,70 -J- are 
 under crop, 479,607 in pasture, 2,691,460 in woodland and for- 
 est, and 767 acres in orchards and gardens. 
 
 Much of the land is rich and fertile and when well culti- 
 vated yields gootl crops of grain. 
 
 Professor Johnston, F.R.S., of England, carefully ex- 
 amined into the capabilities of the soil of New Brunswick 
 and reported ; 
 
 
CAXADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 87 
 
 1st. The soil of New Brunswick is capable of producing 
 food for a population of five or six millions. 2nd. In the 
 capability of growing all the common crops on which man and 
 beast depend the whole province, taken together, exceeds the 
 most favored parts of New York State. 3rd. The climate is 
 an exceedingly healthy one and it does not prevent the soil 
 from producing crops which, other things being equal, are i.ob 
 inferior in quality or quantity to those of average soils in 
 England. 
 
 Considerable attention has been given in recent years to 
 dairying. During 17 years the cheese factories and creameries 
 have increased from 4 to 59, most of the increase being due 
 to development in the past five or six years. 
 
 The Province of Quebec has an area of over 222,000,000 
 of acres, of which more than one-half is in forest and wcioii- 
 land. The surface is very varied, with ridges of mountains 
 and lofty hills, diversified with rivers and lakes. The cliiuute 
 varies much in dillerent parts of the province, but the winter 
 weather is steady and the atmosphere clear and bracing, with 
 a good depth of snow, which gives excellent sleighing. The 
 summer is warm and pleasant and vegetation advances 
 rapidly. Much of the country is well adapted for farming, 
 the soil being loamy and fertile. The principal cereal crops 
 are oats, wheat, peas, buckwheat, barley, rj'e, and maize. 
 Potatoes and turnips are largely grown. Cattle are ke[>t in 
 increasing numbers, the number of milch cows being grer.tcr 
 in 1891, according to the census of that year, than in 1S71 
 by 35 per cent, and since the census of 1891 this fact of in- 
 crease has been more marked. 
 
 Tobacco is an important crop in the province. Fruits 
 are grown readily in some of the more favored districts, and 
 there are many good orchards in the valley of the St. Law- 
 rence. Nowhere does the celebrated Fameuse apple reach 
 so great perfection as on' the island of Montreal, where also 
 many varieties of pears and plums of fine flavor are grown. 
 In the Eastern Townships fruit growing is carried on to a 
 considerable extent. 
 
 1 
 
88 
 
 CAXADLl X HANDBOOK. 
 
 
 As in the other provinces, so in Quebec respecting dairy- 
 ing, upon which much attention has been bestowed during 
 the past ten years. In 1881 Quebec had 140 cheese factories 
 and 22 creameries. In 1891 she had 617 cheese factories and 
 111 creameries. In 1899 there were 1,192 cheese factories, 
 404 creamerie.s, and 307 combined cheese and butter factoriei, 
 a total of 1,903, showing an increase of 1,775 within the 
 decade. 
 
 Ontario has an area of over 142,000,000 acres (220,000 
 square miles), over 100,000 square miles being forest and 
 woodland. By the census the total of improved lands in the 
 province was 14,156,000 acres, of which 10,366,280 were 
 under crops, 3,461,620 in pasture, and 330,000 acres in gar- 
 dens and orchards. 
 
 Ontario has a great variety of climate, the extremes both 
 of winter and summer being tempered by the great lakes. 
 
 The following are the principal crops of 1898-9, with the 
 quantity of each produced : Wheat, 32,000,000 bushels ; oats, 
 89,897,000 bushels; maize, 23,400,000 bushels; peas, 15,200,- 
 000 bushels ; barley, 14,830,000 bushels ; potatoes, 20,200,000 
 bushels ; turnips, 64,000,000 bushels ; mangel wurtzels, 
 21,900,000 bushels ; carrots, 4,300,000 bushels. The crop of hay 
 and clover was 4,400,000 tons. 
 
 Fruit is grown to a very large extent in this province. 
 The area in orchard, garden and vineyard given in the 
 census returns was 335,000 acres. 
 
 From these were gathered 11,726,000 pounds of grapes 
 and 5,800,000 bushels of apples, peaches, pears, plums and 
 other fruits. 
 
 The succeeding years have seen very considerable de- 
 velopment in fruit culture. The yield of apples in 1896 was 
 55,900,000 bushels, and in 1897 there were 6,100,000 apple 
 trees 15 years old and over, and 3,435,000 under 15 years old. 
 
 The vineyards increased from 5,000 acres in 1890 to 
 11,100 in 1897. 
 
I 
 
 CA NA D I A X HA XDB OK. 
 
 8d 
 
 In the Niagara peninsula and along the shores of the 
 western part of Lake Erie peaches are successful, over half a 
 million peach trees being planted. 
 
 Tomatoes are extensively grown, and the fruit canning 
 business has developed into a large and flourishing industry. 
 
 Recently attention has been given to cultivation of 
 tobacco, and so successful have been the efforts that the returns 
 of 1<S9(S gives over 10,500,000 pounds against 314,000 pounds 
 in 1890/ 
 
 The live stock of the province also shows an increase, 
 milch cows having increased in 1897 over 1891 by 74,070, and 
 numbering in the latter year 940,230. Other horned cattle 
 (not oxen) increased by 187,680, from 1,052,008 in 1891. 
 Swine increased 163,570 from 1,121,396, and sheep increased 
 678,580 from 1,021,709. 
 
 In the production of dairy articles the development has 
 been great. In 1871 tiie province had 323 cheese factories 
 and creameries. In 1881 23 creameries and 551 cheese fac- 
 tories, a total of 574. ' In 1891 45 creameries and 893 cheese 
 factories, a total of 938. In 1899 there were 228 creameries 
 and 1181 cheese factories, a total of 1409. 
 
 The number does not tell all the tale, the later factories 
 being larger and better equipped than the earlier ones. 
 
 Adjoining the western extremity of Ontario is the Pro- 
 vince of Manitoba, with an area of over 47 million acres. 
 The surface is somewhat level, with stretches of prairie, inter- 
 sected here and there by wide valleys, in which run small 
 rivers and streams, the banks of the valleys being more or 
 les3 fringed with trees. About forty per cent, of the whole 
 province is forest and woodland. The greater part of the soil 
 is composed of a deep rich vegetable mould of great fertility. 
 The principal crop is wheat, of which 1,630,000 acres were 
 sown in 1899, yielding 28,000,000 bushels, according to the 
 statements of the Government officials. Oats yielded 22,500,- 
 000 bushels from 575,000 acres, and the total grain crop of 
 the Province for 1899 was 51,000,000 bushels. 
 
 The yield of potatoes is large, and considerable area ia 
 
rT" 
 
 90 
 
 CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 devoted to tlax. The climate of Manitoba is warm in summer 
 and very cold in winter, but the air is dry and bracing. 
 Winter usually sets in in the latter part of November aini is 
 nearly over by the end of March, although frosts occur fre- 
 quently at nights for several weeks later. 
 
 The quantities of cheese and butter made in the province 
 have increased very much. In ISiSl there were no returr.s of 
 cheese factories or creanieries. In 1(S!,)1 there were reported 
 8 creameries and 28 cheese factories, nnd in 1898, 31 cream- 
 eries and 85 cheese factories — a condition which indicates a 
 development of nearly three times that, of 18i)l. 
 
 The indications all point to Manitoba becoming a great 
 cattle raising region. 
 
 Westward from Manitoba are the four provisional terri- 
 tories of the the Canadian Northwest. Assiniboia has an 
 area of 90,840 square miles ; Saskatchewan of 1 14,000 .s(jnaro 
 miles; Alberta 100,000, and Athabasca 251,800 square miles. 
 
 These great divisions, extending from the westei-n bound- 
 ary of Manitoba to the Rocky Moinitains, are partly traversed 
 by railways, vv^hich have opened up the country for settlement. 
 A comparatively small population is scattered over this 
 immense area, containing over 850,000,000 acres, a large 
 portion of which could be utilized for farming purposes. 
 
 At the present time about 7,000,000 acres have been 
 transferred to farmers, and under 1,000,000 acres are occupied 
 by ranches. The wheat produced in the N. W. Territories in 
 1899 was 12,000,000 bushels. 
 
 Broad and level or rolling plains characterize the Terri- 
 tories along their southern boundaries, and a wide belt lying 
 north of the 49th parallel, extending from about the 102nd 
 parallel of west longitude to the base of the Rocky Mountains 
 has a dry climate, caused probably by the hot winds which 
 blow northward from the great American desert. This 
 portion of the Territories is estimated to CMitain nearly 
 50,000,000 acres. The soil of this more or less arid region .s, 
 as a whole, of a very fertile character, consisting mainly of a 
 rich alluvial loam, bx-oken in places by tracts of sand and 
 
 'If 
 
■l 
 
 CAXADFAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 91 
 
 gravelly ridgos. Tho anniuii rainfall over this dry region 
 varies at ditt'erent points from sevon to fourteen inches, the 
 mean of the whole area being at lO.ni inches, the larg<'r part 
 of which falls in May, June and July. With some adilitional 
 water, supplied Ly artificial means, much of this land pro- 
 duces good crops At tho close of the season d 1808 there 
 were 177 irrigation ditches and canals in operation in southern 
 AUierta and western Assiniboia. These have a carrying 
 capacity sufficient to irrigate 103,000 acres. The results 
 which have followed have been most encouraging. Thei-e is 
 now no reason to doubt that through irrigation a large portion 
 of Alberta and Assiniboia will be rendered fruitful every 
 year. 
 
 Beyond the spent force of tho hot currents of air, begin- 
 ning from 125 to 175 miles north of the International bound- 
 ary immense districts, partly wooded and well watei-ed, are 
 found ; tho soil is wonderfully rich and fertile, with conditions 
 favorable for mixed farming and especially for the raising of 
 cattle and for dairying. There the natural grasses grow far 
 more luxuriantly than on tho open prairie southward, while 
 the belts and clumps of woods, interspersed with stretches of 
 open country, afford favourable conditions for tho growing of 
 grain, with good shelter for stock. The climate in the Terri- 
 tories north of the dry belt is much like that of Manitoba, 
 and spring opens about the same timo from the Red River to 
 the Athabasca. 
 
 In 1881 the Northwest Territories had no creameries 
 and no cheese factories. In 1891 the census enumeration 
 found three creameries and four cheese factories. In 1898 
 there were 19 creameries and V^^ cheese factories. 
 
 Further information about the Northwest Territories 
 can be obtained from the pamphlets publislied by the Depai t- 
 ment of Interior, Ottawa, Canada. 
 
 British Columbia, the Pacific Ocean Province of the 
 Dominion, is 383,300 square miles in extent. West of the 
 coast range the climate is mild and genial, much like that of 
 many parts of England, where the holly, laurel, rhododendron 
 
r 
 
 93 
 
 CA XA D I A X JIA XDllOOK. 
 
 and tho yew Hourish with the apple, pear, plum, cherry and 
 in some districts tho peach. In those parts of tho province 
 between tho Coast range and tho Rockies are many fine 
 valleys, more or less utilized for farming and ranching. In 
 some of these the rain-fall is not sufficient to admit of the 
 successful cultivation of crops v ith -rigation ; there are, 
 
 however, many mountain streams a\ lable for this purpose, 
 and on some of the ranches very fine crops of grain are grown, 
 and excellent fruits, especially apples. 
 
 ii i 
 
 page 
 
 FISHERIES. 
 
 The second of the extractive industries mentioned on 
 84 is the fisheries. These are the largest in the 
 world, embracing over 5,000 miles of sea coast, in addition 
 to inland seas, innumerable lakes and a great number of 
 rivers. 
 
 With regard to their value, str !s prove it to be fully 
 in proportion to their extent. Tho ^. aucts of our fisheries, 
 exported and sold on tho Dominion markets in 1807, amounted 
 to $22,783,.54() ; but this by no means represents the value of 
 the total catcli, for in Canada the home consumption is very 
 great — 100 pounds per inhabitant being calculated to 30 
 pounds in England. As the fisheries extend throughout the 
 length and breadth of the Dominion, almost every settler is 
 afforded an opportunity for catching fish for domestic use. 
 This renders it impossible to give full returns of the whole 
 catch. It is approximately estimated that the value of the 
 home consumption last year was $15,000,000, giving a total of 
 thirty-seven or thirty-eight million dollars as the yield, ex- 
 clusive of the catch by foreign fishermen. 
 
 Professor Prince has summarized the fisheries of Canada : 
 
 (1) The Atlantic division from the Bay of Fundy to the 
 Coast of Labrador, embracing deep sea and inshore fisher iesi 
 cod, mackerel, haddock, halibut, herring, hake, lobster, oyster- 
 seal, and white whale fisheries. Annual value $10,000,000. 
 
1 
 
 VA XA J> lA y II A SI) HOOK. 
 
 96 
 
 (2) The C8tnarine nnd inland waters of Nova Scotia, New 
 Brunswick, Prince KdwarJ Island and Quebec, including tish- 
 eries for salmon, shad, gaspereaux, striped bass, smelt, and 
 (in the lakes) land-locked salmon, lake trout, maskinonge, 
 etc., of the annual value of Sii, 500,000. 
 
 (3) The great lakes of the St. Lawrence and tributary 
 waters. Lake whitetish, great lake trout, lesser whitefish, 
 sturgeon, pike, perch, (pickerel), black bass, l)rook trout, mas- 
 kinonge, pike and numerous carps. Value !?2,000,000. 
 
 (4) Great Northwest lakes, including Manitoba, yielding 
 lake white fish, sturgeon, pike, perch, tullibee, pike and gold 
 eye. Value, including newly developed caviere and sturgeon 
 sounds inilustries, ^1,000,000. 
 
 (5) Pacific interior or Rocky Mountain plateau, compris- 
 ing little developed fisheries, land-locked Pacific salmon, lake 
 white fish, lake trout, river ti out, and numerous cyprinoids, 
 none of them identical with eastern species. 
 
 (G) Pacific Coast fisheries. Halibut, black cod, oolachan, 
 anchovy, herring, smelt, and at least seven different species of 
 Pacific salmon abound. 
 
 (7) Hudson Bay and peri-Arctic area. Whale, walriis, 
 sea-trout, pike, sturgeon and possibly .salmon, cod and shad, 
 occur in these vast waters, Hudson Bay being an immense 
 pocket 1,000 miles in length and 000 in width. The richest 
 whalinjr grounds in the world are in this recjion. 
 
 Official Valuation' <>r the Yield ok the Fisukuies hy Puovinles : — 
 
 Pkovixce. 
 
 Nova Scotia...... 
 
 New lirmiswick 
 
 Prince Etlwaid Island... 
 
 British Columbia....- 
 
 (Quebec... .. .. ... .o. ..,.=., 
 
 Ontario ..- 
 
 Manitoba and Morthwewt TiTtitories. 
 
 Total 
 
 1887 
 
 $S,.37»),7S2 
 3,.').")!),5(l7 
 l,Oo7,42n 
 l,i»74,sr>7 
 l,77;i,r)G7 
 1,5:51,850 
 12«.()84 
 
 1S!)7 
 
 $8,()i)(),:5-!l 
 
 3,i);54.1:r> 
 
 954 .!Uy 
 
 0,i.38,S(i5 
 l,7:?7,0ll 
 
 l,2S!(,,s;2 
 038,4 Ki 
 
 §18,079,288 I $22,783,540 
 
I ,.wr 
 
 94 
 
 CANADAIN HANDBOOK. 
 
 ■I i 
 
 i 
 
 The values of the yield of some of the principal fish in 
 1897 are: Cod, S3,901,539; Herring, .S2,099.077 ; Lobsters, 
 $3,485,260 ; Salmon, $5,078,175 ; Mackerel, $597,300 ; Had- 
 dock, SS82,4S3 ; Trout, $534,873 ; Sardines, $356,797 ; White- 
 rish, $651,429. 
 
 The Destixati> ' ani) Value op Canadian Fish Exports for 
 
 1S7G AND 1808. 
 
 Name of Country 
 
 I'liiti'd States 
 
 Britisli West Indies 
 .Spanisli West Indie: 
 
 Great liritaiii 
 
 South America 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 Italv 
 
 Ilayti 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 Portugal 
 
 France •• 
 
 Australia 
 
 Madeira 
 
 (iibraltar 
 
 .Tapan 
 
 Other coiuitries 
 
 Total 
 
 1898. 
 
 $2,979,404 
 H;}3,438 
 
 7.S7 727 
 
 4,S22,688 
 
 436,820 
 
 177,9.S9 
 C(),i()5 
 37,733 
 26,340 
 55,416 
 
 .3^1,046 
 
 17S,6:]7 
 17,986 
 46,.")22 
 
 $10,841,061 
 
 Much attention has of late years been given to the develop- 
 ment of the fisheries. The Federal Government has granted 
 a yearly sum of $150,000 or $100,000 as a bounty, to be 
 divided among tho vessels, boats and men engaged in the 
 prosecution of the fisheries. Tiie results which have followed 
 the policy are an increase in the number and a great improve- 
 ment in tho build and outfit of tho fishing vessels. 
 
 In 1885, after the system had been in operation a couple 
 of years, the number of men engaged in the fishing industry 
 was 59.493, the number of vessels 1,177, with a tonnage of 
 48,728 tons and a value of $2,021,633. The number of boats 
 was 28,472, with a value of $852,257; the number of fathoms 
 of nets used was 3,014,384 and their value $1,219,284. The 
 
C'AXADIAX HANDBOOK. 05 
 
 total value of vessels, boats, nets, weirs, lobster traps, fish- 
 houses, piers, sailing and steam smacks, connected with the 
 fisherie.4 amounting to 86,697,459. In 1897 the number of 
 men was 79,059 ; of vessels 1,184 ; tonnage 40,679 ; number of 
 boats 37,693 and fathoms of nets 5,602,462, the total amount 
 invested being 89,370,794. 
 
 The number of men emploj'ed increased by one third. 
 The tonnage of the vessels decreased by one sixth, the number 
 remaining about the same. The number of boats increased 
 by about one third and the value of the plant used in con- 
 nection with fishing increased by more than one-third. 
 
 The number of men employed in vessels decreased by 
 560 ; the number of men employed in boats increased by 
 16,800. 
 
 The development therefoi'e has been in the direction of 
 boat fishing. 
 
 The Dominion Government has provided fish breeding 
 establishments, of which there are 15 in different parts of the 
 country. From these, since 1874 when the policy of deve- 
 loping the fisheries by means of these establishments was 
 expanded, there have been 2,428 million of fry distributed — 
 an annual average of 93 million. During the five years, 
 1894-98, the annual distribution has averaged 230 million. 
 
 The distribution has consisted of white fish, lobster, 
 Atlantic salmon, Great Lake trout and sockeve salmon. 
 
 The fry distributed iu ]s<.'S consisted of palmon 12,452,000 
 
 Lake trout 2.77S.O0O 
 
 Lake white fisli lls,000,000 
 
 Lobsters 100,000,000 
 
 , Considerable attention is given to the cultivation of the 
 
 oyster and everything possible to be done to maintain and 
 expand the fisheries of Canada is done. 
 
 f 
 Is 
 Is 
 
 LUMBER INDL'STllY. 
 
 The third great industry mentioned is the lumbering. 
 The forests of Eastern Canada formerly extended in an 
 
 i-n 
 
96 
 
 CA \A DIA N HA NDB OK. 
 
 Ir 
 \> I 
 
 almost unbroken stretch from the Atlantic Ocean to the head 
 of Lake Superior, a distance of over 2000 miles. 
 
 The groat plains rf the Northwofrt, always within the 
 memory of man, iiave been sparsely lumbered. On the Pacific 
 slopes of the Rocky Mountains, down to the shores of the 
 ocean, there ai'e mammoth trees that can favourably com- 
 pare with the growth of any region on the globe. From the 
 earliest days of its occupation by the French, the forest wealth 
 of the country washed by the St. Lawrence River engaged the 
 attention of the Home Government, who saw therein vast re- 
 sources available for their naval yards, and they drew from 
 these forests large numbers of masts and spars and issued 
 stringent regulations for the preservation of the standing oak. 
 
 When the country was ct'ded to the British Government 
 but little attention at first was paid to its vast lumber supply, 
 owing to the fact that almost the whole of the Baltic trade 
 was carried in British bottoms and that the lumber of Northern 
 Europe provided an unfailing and profitable return freight for 
 the shipping thus engaged. When, however, the troubles of 
 the Napoleonic era began, and especially when the continental 
 blockade was enforced, the lumber supplies of the Baltic be- 
 came uncertain and insufficient. It was then that the hnuber 
 importers of Gi'eat Britain turned their.attention to the North 
 American colonies and found there not only all the lumber 
 they required but occupation for the vast tleet of vessels lying 
 unemployed in their harbors. Thus we find that while in 
 the year 1800 only some 2G00 loads (ccjual to 52 tons) of 
 lumber reached Great Britain, in 1810 there were 12.5,J}00 
 loads, and in 1820 about 308,000 loads. 
 
 When the war duties imposed on wood of European 
 growth were gradually reduced it was feared that the Cana- 
 dian product would no longer be able to hold its position in 
 the English market, handicapped as it was by the short season 
 of navigation and the heavy charges for ocean freight and in- 
 surance then current. These fears, however, proved ground- 
 less as the following figures show : 
 
■"■J: I 
 
 |i 
 
 CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 07 
 
 1850 exported to the United Kingdom 1,052,817 loads. 
 1859 " " " 1,248,009 " 
 
 1872 " " " 1,211,772 " 
 
 lcS81 " " " 1,301,301 " 
 
 1891 " " " 1,044,041 " 
 
 These figures represent j^ears of normal trade ; for the 
 timber trade like every other has its periods of depression and 
 inflation. 
 
 A noticeable feature in these returns is the steady decline 
 in the quantity of square timber exporteil to England and a 
 corresponding increase in the quantity of sawn or manufac- 
 tured woods. Thus in the first year of Confederation (1807) 
 the exports of timber from Canada formed 42 per cent of the 
 exported timber and manufactured wood. In 1897 it formed 
 but 15 per cent of the two classes. 
 
 This is entirely in favour of the Canadian limit-hoMer 
 and his employees, the greater labour expended on the 
 manufacture being beneficial both to the capital and to the 
 labour of Canada. 
 
 During the early part of the century the export lumber 
 trade of Canada was confined to the United Kingdom and the 
 West Indies. A great change however has taken place. The 
 pine lands of the North Eastern States of the adjoining' 
 Republic have become depleted and unable to meet the 
 requirements of the trade in those States. The result is that 
 the resources of Canada have been drawn upon to such an 
 extent that during the period of Confederation the exports 
 to the United States form a total of 3-30 million dollars, an 
 average of $11,300,000 a year, the average of the first ten 
 years being $8,100,000 and for the last, 812,900,000; showing 
 an increasing reliance upon the forest wealth of Canada. 
 
 Timber was long the staple article of Canada's export 
 trade but with the development of the country it now ranks 
 after the products of the farm. 
 
 Taking logs, lumber and other products of the forest, the 
 exports in 1868 amounted to $18,800,000 and in 1898 ta 
 
 It 
 
98 
 
 CAXADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 $26,650,000. In the same years the exports of farm products 
 increased from 319,700,000 to 877,400,000. 
 
 While the lumber interest does not occupy, relatively, the 
 Important position it did in the export ti'ade of the coun- 
 try it yet forms an important additio to the revenues and 
 wealth of the country. la addition to the very large sums 
 invested in timber limits, the capital invested in sawmills and 
 in other industries having wood for their chief raw material, 
 amounted in the census of 1891 to nearly $100,000,000, pay- 
 ing wages of over thirty million dollars a year and having 
 an annual output of nearly one hundred and twenty and one- 
 half million dollars. 
 
 At the base of all these industries stand the 12.750 
 persons whose occupation in the census was given as lumber- 
 men. 
 
 S ! 
 
 The forest wealth of Canada is very great. Taken with 
 exports, the per capita consumption is about 300 cubic feet a 
 year. For many years the pine saw logs floated down to and 
 past Ottawa on the Ottawa River have numbered nearly four 
 million annually. The production in the census year of logs, 
 pine, spruce and other, was 33,538,000 standard logs — each 
 having 100 feet board measure. The total value of the raw 
 products of the forest in the census year was over $80,000,000> 
 or about !?16 per head of the population. 
 
 Since the census there has been practically a revolution 
 in the lumbering industry, especially in the relative value of 
 spruce. The development of the demand for wood pulp has 
 given to Canada's spruce trees a value that, considering the 
 vast area over which the spruce extends, is largely beyond 
 the value of the pine trees. 
 
 In pulp mills in 1891, Canada had invested about 
 $2,800,000. In 1899 the amount invested was about 
 $15,000,000. The total production in 1891 was about 
 $1,000,000. The capacity of the mills in 1899 was over 1 200 
 tons a day. 
 
 i^ 
 
CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 99 
 
 The forests of Canada contain pine, spruce and hemlock, 
 oak, elm, maple, beech, birch, butternut, hickory, basswood, 
 cherry, etc. The area of distribution is largo, nearly 38 per 
 cent of the whole area of Canada being forest; larger, therefore, 
 than most of the countries of Europe, the forest area of France 
 being not more than 18 per cent, of the whole area of France. 
 
 British Columbia is thought to possess the greatest com- 
 pact reserve oi' timber in the world. THe coast, as far north 
 as Alaska, is heavily timbered, the forest line following the 
 indents and river valleys and fringing the mountain sides. 
 The wooded area is estimated at 285,000 square miles and 
 includes many kinds of timber. The Douglas spruce is the 
 show tree of British Columbia and indeed of Canada. 
 
 Of the 340 species of trees found on the North American 
 Continent, 123 grow in Canada, 94 occurring east of the 
 Rocky Mountains and 29 on the Pacific coast. 
 
 In addition to the forest belt which is in the provinces of 
 Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Southern Quebec, Southern 
 Ontario, Manitoba and British Columbia, there is the great 
 Northern forest of Canada which stretches from the Straits 
 of Belle-Isle round by the southern end of James Bay, to 
 Alaska, a distance of about 4,000 miles, with a breadth of 
 some 700 miles. Of this northern fringe Dr. Robert Bel), 
 Assistant Director of the Geological Survey, says : — 
 
 " This vast forest has everywhere the same character- 
 istics. The trees, as a rule, are not large, and they consist 
 essentially of the following nine species : Black and white 
 spruce, Binksian pine, larch, balsam fir, aspen, balsam poplar, 
 canoe birch, bird cherry, white cedar, white and red pine ; 
 black ash and rowan occur sparingly in the southern part of 
 this belt." 
 
 With such large areas of forest Canadians in the past 
 have given little attention to reproduction, believing that 
 nature can hold hoi^ owu against the forces of destruction. 
 The general conclusion is that the forces of protection and 
 reproduction are now practically as powerful as those of des- 
 truction. 
 
 El 
 
il 
 
 100 
 
 CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 Dr. Bell, already quoted, saj's: 
 
 " The dead trunks of the larger trees generally' itand for 
 many years after a great tire. In the summer following one 
 of these conHagnitions the blackened ground becomes partly 
 covered by a growth of herbaceous plants, berry bushes and 
 shoots from the roots and butts of deciduous trees which have 
 retained some vitality, besides numerous small seedling trees. 
 The huckleberry bushes, which are very common for the first 
 few years, especially on rocky, silicious ground, bear abund- 
 ant crop? of fruit. Thoy have sprung from large old roots, 
 which are almost everywhere present in the thick woods, 
 although their tops are quite inconspicuous and bear few or 
 no berries. In 15 or 20 years the ground is covered with 
 poplars, birches, willows, etc., to a height of about thirty feet. 
 By this time the dead trunks of the old brule have lost most 
 of their branches and the smaller one.s have fallen down. If 
 we look under this growth we shall discover many healthy 
 young conifers overshadowed by the more rapidly growing 
 deciduous trees. At the end of about fifty years the conifers 
 are everywhere showing their heads in the form of sharp 
 apices, their dark color contrasting strongly with the lighter 
 shades of the other trees. In the race to get above the 
 deciduous trees they develop tall trunks with the branches 
 high up. In one hundred years the poplars are dying and 
 falling down and the canoe-birch has attained maturity and 
 soon after shows signs of old age. Meantime the older coni- 
 fers have overtopped the other trees and given a new char- 
 acter to the general appearance of the forest. The youngir 
 conifers of various ages which have been springing up from 
 seed every year take possession of the ground left by tlie 
 decay of the first occupants, and in about 150 years the forest 
 has again become almost entirely coniferou.s. Such is the 
 rotation of crops of trees which is perpetually going on in 
 these regions. Perhaps one third of the. whole area consists 
 of "second growths" of less than 50 years, one-third of ti-ees 
 from 50 to 100 years old, while the remaining third may be 
 100 years and upwards." 
 
CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 MINING. 
 
 101 
 
 The fourth great industry x'eferred to on page 84 as ex- 
 tractive industries is that of mining. The census returns 
 give the number of miners employed in 1890 at 13,417, ex- 
 clusive of officials and quarrymen. 
 
 This is an increase of 6,876 over the number given by 
 the census of 1881 and indicates a very great development in 
 the mining industries of the country. 
 
 Separated into provinces these 13,417 miners were found 
 as follows. In 
 
 r 
 
 British Columbia 
 
 Manitoba 
 
 New Brunswick 
 
 Nova Scotia 
 
 Ontario 
 
 Prince Kdward Island 
 
 Quebec 
 
 N. W.T 
 
 Total 
 
 IS-l. 
 
 1891. 
 
 Increase. 
 
 2,792 
 
 4,591 
 
 1,799 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 121 
 
 97 
 
 2() 
 
 2,72S 
 
 5,()()0 
 
 2,932 
 
 49;] 
 
 1,0.34 
 
 541 
 
 4 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 391 
 
 1,5:!4 
 
 1,143 
 
 () 
 
 474 
 
 4(iS 
 
 (),0ll 
 
 i:].4i7 
 
 (i,.S7() 
 
 The number of miners indicates with accuracy the por- 
 tions of the Dominion whose mineral wealth has been ex- 
 ploited and partially developed. Nova Scotia and British 
 Columbia have been for years pre-eminently the mining sec- 
 tions, as will be seen from the fact that over 70 per cent, of 
 the miners find occupation in those two provinces. The census 
 returns indicated, however, that the other provinces were 
 making somewhat more rapid strides than the two, since in 
 1891 they had 23^ per cent, of the miners against 15^ per 
 cent, in 1881. 
 
 The development of mining since 1891 has been more 
 rapid than in the previous decade. Greater care has been 
 bestowed on the management of the mines. Skill in admin- 
 istration and skilled labor have been brought to bear upon the 
 mining industry with important results. Thus, in 1888, the 
 number of tons of coal raised in Nova Scotia, per man 
 
 IN 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 • 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
102 
 
 CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 employed was 339, in 1894 it was 370 tons and in 1898 it 
 was 500 tons. 
 
 The annual returns to the geological survey gave the 
 value of the minerals produced in the Dominion since 1886. 
 
 The total since 1886, includ.'ng 1898, amounts to 3250,- 
 161,200. 
 
 The development may be judged by i.]:e average of three 
 year periods. 
 
 1886-88 Annual Average $11,355,500 
 
 1860-91 " " 16,584,627 
 
 1892-04 " " 18,532,-452 
 
 1805-97 •' " 23,095,525 
 
 Dividing the totals into metallic and non-metallic we 
 have: 
 
 Metallic 
 
 Xon-Mt'tallic, 
 
 1880-88 
 
 2,275,225 
 
 8,830,280 
 
 1889-91 
 
 4,095 815 
 12,205,485 
 
 1892-94 
 
 4,3.39,247 
 14,273,204 
 
 1895-07 
 
 0,320.009 
 14,415,015 
 
 1S99 
 
 28,83.3,717 
 18,441,795 
 
 Since 1886-8 metallic have gained $26,558,492 
 
 " " non-metallic have gained. S 9,611.515 
 
 The greatest gain has been, therefore, in the output of 
 metallic minerals. 
 
 Of these the most important are : Copper, which has 
 risen from a value of $154,629 to $2,655,319; gold, from 
 $1,202,563 to $21,050,000; lead, from 812,230 to $l,20o.399; 
 nickel, from nothing to $2,067,840, and silver from $317,932 
 to $1,834,371. 
 
 In the non-metallic group the greatest gains are : Coal, 
 from $5,000,000 to $9,040,000; graphite from nothing to 
 S16,180; mica, from $29,677 to $163,000; natural gas, from 
 nothing to $387,271. 
 
 The mineral wealth of Canada is so great that an Amer- 
 ican authority referring to it says : "To particularize, the un- 
 developed wealth of this northern land would require 
 volumes." 
 
 As might be expected from her vast areas and from her 
 varied geological formations Canada is marvellously rich in 
 
 $ 
 
CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 103 
 
 minerals, the chief of which of economic importance, accord- 
 ing to the reports of the Geological Survey, are classed as 
 follows : 
 
 1. Metals and their Ores. 
 
 2. Minerals used in certain manufactures. 
 
 3. Minerals used in Agriculture. 
 
 4. Minerals used as pigments, 
 
 5. Combustible and Carbonaceous materials. 
 G. Refractory minerals. 
 
 7. Minerals applicable to Building. 
 
 8. Minerals for grinding and polishing. 
 
 9. Minerals applicable to miscellaneous purposes. 
 
 Metals and their ores. — Sir William Dawson, writing on 
 the Iron and Coal of Nova Scotia, says : "It is a remark often 
 made that the iron ores of Canada, rich and magnificent though 
 they are, suffer in their practical value on account of their 
 distance from the mineral fuel required in so great quantity 
 whenever smelting processes are Undertaken on a large .scale. 
 To a certain extent better means of communication and larger 
 and more economical working must remove this disadvantage. 
 It should, however, be borne in mind that the great iron 
 deposits of Nova Scotia, equal in extent and value to any 
 others in the Dominion, are not so situated ; but are in close 
 proxmity to some of the greatest coal fields in the world." 
 
 During recent years business men have appreciated the 
 importance of the iron deposits of the eastern part of the 
 Dominion. Smelting works are now in course of erection in 
 Sydney, Cape Breton, to cost ten million dollars, in close 
 proximity to the famous coal areas and to the great limestone 
 deposits of the same island. 
 
 In addition to this there are, in Nova Scotia, the Nova 
 Scotia Steel Co.'s Works, with a capacity of 2.5,000 tons of 
 coke iron a j'ear ; the Londonderry Iron Co.'s Works and the 
 Bridereville Charcoal Iron Co.'s Works. 
 
 In the other provinces there are the Canada Iron Furnace 
 Co., manufacturing coke iron, and the Drummondville Works, 
 
104 
 
 CAXADLiy JIAXDBOOK. 
 
 in Quebec Province ; the Hamilton Blast Furnace Co., manu- 
 facturing coke iron, and liavitig a. capacity of 40,000 tons per 
 annum ; the Deseronto Iron Works, witii a capacity of 12,000 
 tons; and the Midland Furnace Works, (18,000 tons) all in 
 Ontario. 
 
 The Dominion, in 1898, used 114,035 tons of pig iron, 
 iron kentledge and scrap. Of tiiis amount 72,039 tons were 
 were made in Canada. 
 
 When Canada began seriously to develop the iron wealth, 
 she offered a bounty of §1.50 per ton upon all pig iron manu- 
 factured in Canada. This was in 1883. Since then various 
 changes have been made in the amount of bounty and the 
 method of its application. The result, however, is the gradual 
 development of the iron industry. In 1884 the home-produced 
 pig iron was 30 per cent, of the whole consumed. In 1898 it 
 was 63 per cent. 
 
 Magnetic ores occur abundantly throughout the several 
 counties ot Ontario ; and the Legislature of the Province has 
 set aside the sum of 8125,000 as an Iron Mining Fund, out of 
 which tlie Provincial Treasurer is authorized to pay iJJ.OO per 
 ton of pig metal, product of iron ores raised, mined or smelted 
 in Ontario. 
 
 Hematite iron ores are found in all parts of Canada. 
 Geologically, Canada's hematites iiave a wide range in time. 
 They are found in the Laurentian, Huronian, Lower and 
 Upper Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous and Lias formations. 
 In New Brunswick large deposits of hematite ore are 
 found near Woodstock, and the iron produced is remarkable 
 for its great hardness and strength. When converted into 
 wrought iron it is pronounced, on the authority of Sir William 
 Fairbairn, to be specially adopted for the plating of ironclad 
 vessels. It is also admirably adapted for steel. 
 
 Chromic Iron ores and Titanic iron ores are found in 
 different parts of Quebec. 
 
 Limonite and bog iron ores are also widely distributed. 
 Clay iron-stones are found in rocks of various ages in all 
 the provinces. Those of the Tertiary Age occur in the lignite- 
 
CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 105 
 
 bearing strata, west of Red River. Of these, Dr. George M. 
 DdW-son, Director of tlie Geological Survey, writes : " Siioukl 
 these ores ever come to be worked, limestone for use as a tlux 
 Could be obtained in considerable quantities from the boulders 
 of Silurian age which strew the plains.' 
 
 A score of miles up the St. Maurice River, P.Q., is Lac a 
 la Tortue, a liody of water 4 miles long by 1} wide. It 
 occupies the centre of a large area of swamp land, largely 
 composed of sand. These sandy lands produce a rank vegi- 
 tation which, decaying, furnishes organic aci<ls in solution in 
 the waters draining into the lake. As these waters percolate 
 through the sand they come in contact with the iron rust in 
 the sand, dissolve it and carry it into the lake. The air in 
 contact with the surface of the lake turns the protosalt into 
 a persalt, which being insoluble in water forms a film upon the 
 surface and at length sinks to the bottom and there forms 
 " cake " ore. This is gathei ed and conveyed to the Radnor 
 furnaces, and being smelted with charcoal produces, when 
 mixed with bog and magnetic ores, a charcoal iron of the very 
 best kind ; of course the lake is constantly receiving fresh 
 accretions of iron, the chemical processe;? going on without 
 cessation. It is thus a continually replenished iron mine. 
 
 The iron ores of British Columbia are abundant ; Dr. 
 George M. Dawson, C.M.G., describes the bed on Texada 
 Island as a very rich magnetic ore assaying 68.4 of iron, and 
 a very low percentage of phosphorus and other impurities, 
 with only 20 miles of the navigable waters of the Strait of 
 Georgia between it and the Comox coal field, and both the 
 iron and the coal close to the water's edge. 
 
 Lead. — The only ore of lead found in Canada is the 
 sulphuret or galena. At Thunder Bay and the Nepigon 
 region to the north of Lake Superior very numerous and 
 valuable veins of ore are found. 
 
 The statistics of export sufficiently indicate the extent of 
 the development and the provinces in which that develop- 
 ment has taken place. 
 
106 
 
 CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 In 1898 there were exported from Canada 43,957,021 
 pounds, of which 43,827,776 pounds were pr.jdacdd in British 
 Cohnnbia, the reuminder beinfj about equally divided be- 
 tween the Northwest. Territories and the Province of 
 Quebec. In British Columbia lead is mined chieHy as an ore 
 of silver. Small veins occur in the Provinces of Ontario, 
 Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. 
 
 Copper. — This occurs in Canada in the forms of native or 
 metallic copper and of the sulphuretted ores. The former is 
 confined principally to the rocks oE the upper copper-bearing 
 series on Lake Superior. The latter are widely diffused. In 
 Ontario, on the north-eastern shore of Luke Huron, extensive 
 veins of rich copper ores have been nnned for years, often 
 with great protit. On Like Superior the native coppn*, 
 which has boen so extensively and profitably worked on the 
 Michigan shore, also exists in large quantities on the Canadian 
 shore. 
 
 In Quebec ami the other Eastern provinces, especiallj'' in 
 Cape Breton Island, deposits of copper have been found and 
 in many cases mined. In the Eastern Townships of Quebt'C, 
 the copper occurs in small quantities in the pyrites mined 
 chiefiy for the production of sulphuric acid. 
 
 In the Province of Ontario, the nickel copper mines of 
 the Sudbury district are the chief source of copper. 
 
 British Columbia has only recently come into the field as 
 a copper producer. Its copper comes mainly from the Nelson 
 mining district of West Kooicnay. The real value of the 
 ore lies in the gold and silver it contains. A few hundred 
 tons of fair copper ore have b^on ^.ip! ' from Texada 
 Island. 
 
 In a paper read befo- ^b" ' i^ . ining Engineers 
 
 in September, 1899, Mr. M. ver ,iys: "It may be 
 
 safely said that the western portic of Vancouver Island pre- 
 .sents to-day features of great proii iso so far as copper deposits 
 are concerned." 
 
 The export tables of the Dominion show that si c Con- 
 federation 26,864 tons of fine copper and ISo,''"' .ons of 
 
CAiYADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 107 
 
 copper ore have been exported. The value of the whole is 
 $7,6G2,90S, an averac^^e of S244.000 a year. In the year 189S. 
 the value of the export was $804,778, thus showing the de- 
 velopment tliat has taken place of recent years. 
 
 Nickel. — Canada lias but one serious rival in the produc- 
 tion of this metal — the French colony of New Caledonia. 
 The deposit in Sudbury, Out., is nickeliferous pyrrhotite, and 
 the discovery was made by the navvies of the Canadian Pacific 
 railway, while making a cutting through a small hill. Since 
 work began ten years ago 35,000,000 pounds have been 
 extracted, an average of 3,500,000 pounds a year. The extent 
 of the development that has taken place may be measured by 
 the fact that the export in 1898 amounted to over 5,500,000 
 pounds. 
 
 GjU.— This metal has been found in almost all of the 
 Provinces and Territories of Canada. Practically, however, 
 its production is limited to the Provinces of Nova Scotia and 
 British Columbia and the new district of Yukon, which, con- 
 taining the Klondike region, has sprung to the front within 
 two or three years. 
 
 Of the .S108,285,000 of gold which Canada has contributed 
 to the "M.rld's store, British Columbia's share is $00,000,000 ; 
 Nova Scotia, S14,000,000; Ontario, $265,890 ; Quebec, $272,352, 
 while the Northwest Territories have contributed $17,000,000, 
 of which amount the Yukon contributed $10,000,000 in the 
 year 1898. Since 1896 the development has been very con- 
 siderable, the out-put in that year having been $2,754,000 ; 
 the output in 1898 was $13,775,000, and in 1899 it was $21,- 
 050,000, of which the Yukon contributed $16,000,000. 
 
 In the Province of Nova Scotia gold mining has been a 
 very steady industry, the annual average output since the 
 discovery, in 1802, being $360,000,growing to $538,500 in 1898. 
 
 The gold produced in Nova Scotia is by quartz mining, 
 no placers of any importance having been discovered. 
 
 In earlier years the quartz seldom ran below $12 per ton. 
 In 1898, 26,903 ounces were produced from 76,500 tons of 
 quartz, showing the value to be about $7 per ton. The cause 
 
 ' ■• 
 
.■'fir" 
 
 108 
 
 e.l XADIAX IF. I XDBOO K. 
 
 of this is that the extraction of ijokl is carried on more scientifi- 
 cally and economically now than it was in the early years, and 
 that thus it has become profitable to treat low grade ores. 
 
 In the Province of Quebec not much mining for gold has 
 been performed. 
 
 While gold has been produced in Ontario for several years 
 it is only since the establishment of the Bureau of Mines that 
 any well directed effort has been made. In 1891 the value of 
 the gold reported found in Ontario was only 82,000, In 1898 
 it was S265,889. 
 
 Respecting the gold producing capabilities of the Province, 
 Mr. Archibald Blue, the Director of the Government Bureau 
 of Mines.writes: " The free milling ores of Northern andNorth- 
 Wostern Ontario offer, probabl}', as fair a reward to the miner 
 and capitalist .as any ores in the world; and their extent and 
 contiimity admit of no doubt." 
 
 In tlie Saskatchewan District of the Northwest Territories 
 a small quantity of gold is obtained from the bars in the 
 Saskatchewan river, near Edmonton. The amount varies from 
 year to year, the highest being §55,000. The total thus pro- 
 cured .since 18S7 is S24S,000. 
 
 British Columbia has been a steady producer of gold .since 
 18G2,theannual avei'ago product having the value of Sl,600,000 
 and the output of 1899 being valued at about four million 
 dollars. 
 
 The Yukon District of the Northwest Territories has been 
 yielding gold since 1885. It is only, however, within a very 
 recent period that the gold deposits of the Klondike section 
 have attracted the atteiition of the world. The value of the 
 product sprung from $300,000 in 1897 to $10,000,000 in 1899. 
 
 Full particulars respecting the gold deposits of Canada 
 can be obtained from the Department of the Interior, Ottawa, 
 for the Northwest Territories and from the several Provincial 
 Governments, whose offices are : In Nova Scotia, at Halifax ; 
 in Quebec, at the City of Quebec ; in Ontario, at Toronto, and 
 in British Columbia, at Victoria. 
 
CAXADTAN HA XDnOOK. 
 
 109 
 
 ;if 
 
 Silver.— The three Provinces of Ontario, Quebec and 
 British Columbia are producers of silver in hn-ger or smaller 
 quantities. 
 
 In the " sev^enties " Ontario produced from a mine on 
 Silver Islet, near the mouth of Thunder Bay, Lake Superior* 
 a considerable quantity of silver. 
 
 In British Columbia silver was produced at the rate of a 
 few thousand ounces a year. It was, however, in 1895 that 
 the production went over a million ounces. The returns of 
 the Dominion Geoloo-ical Survey give the production of 1897 
 at 5,472,971 ounces. The total production of the Province 
 from 1887 to 1898 amounted to 15,()7I3,370 ounces. The total 
 production of the three Provinces in the same period was 
 18,500,000 ounces. 
 
 Other metals. — Amon" other metals found in Canada are 
 cobalt, zinc and platinum. 
 
 Of minerals used in certain chemical manufactures Canada 
 has iron pyrites, chromium, manganese, titanium, molybdenum 
 and magnesia. 
 
 Of minerals used in agriculture, apatite, gypsum, marl and 
 salt are widely diti'used. 
 
 G\'psum is found in great abundance in Ontario, the out- 
 crop extending from Niagara Ilivei' to Lake Huron for 150 
 mile^. In Quebec the supplies come mainly from the Magdalen 
 Islands, Extensive and practically inexhaustible beds are 
 found in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. 
 
 The salt produced in tlie Dominion is almost all manu- 
 factured in the Province of Ontario, the census returns show- 
 ing that, of 20 establislmients in Canada, 19 were in Ontario. 
 The salt beds of southwestern Ontario cover an area of 2,000 
 s(]uare miles. They were <'iscovei-ed first at Goderich, in 
 18()5, in boring for petroleum, and since then wells hive been 
 sunk at a dozen other places. In Kincardine the upper bed 
 is reached at about 900 feet from the smface ; in Godrrich at 
 1,000 feet; in Courtright at 1,(500 feet. A well drilk-d in 
 Windsor in 1892 yielded salt at a little over 1,127 feet. Sub- 
 sequently another well was drilled by the same company — 
 
 t 
 
110 
 
 CAXADIAN JIA XDBOOK. 
 
 Iho Canadian Pacific Railway Co. — near the first. In each 
 case the company drilled through 40 feet of rock salt, then 
 encountered rock 23 to 80 feet thick, t^ien a second layer of 
 salt 23 feet thick, then rock 5 feet thick, and then 38 feet of 
 salt. 
 
 Among minerals used for pigments are iron ochres, which 
 are found and extensively manufactured in Quebec and Onta- 
 rio, and in smaller quantities in the eastern provinces. 
 
 Sulphate of barytes is also widely distributed. 
 
 I 1 
 
 The fifth subdivision includes combustible and carbon- 
 aceous materials. 
 
 The coal areas of Canada are estimated at 97,200 square 
 miles, not including areas in the far north — known, but as 
 yet undeveloped. These are : 
 
 1. The coal fields of Nova Scotia and New Brunswiek. 
 
 2. Those of the Northwest Territories. 
 
 3. Those of the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 4. Those of British Columbia. 
 
 The coal areas of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick 
 cover about 18,000 square miles. The productive areas are 
 divided into 
 
 (a) The Cape Breton area. 
 
 (f)) The Pictou area. 
 
 (c) The Cumberland area. 
 
 All in the Province of Nova Scotia ; New Brunswick contain- 
 ing, so far as known, no seams of sufficient magnitude to be 
 successfully worked in competition with the Cumberland 
 miiios. 
 
 The knovv'n productive coal fields of Nova Scotia occupy 
 an area of about G85 square miles, of which the Sydney and 
 Cumberland fields comprise GOO square miles, the remainder 
 being divided between the Pictou and the smaller fields of 
 Antigonish and Cape Breton. The number of collieries is as 
 f oUov/s : 
 
 I 
 
CANADIAN HANDBOOK. n] 
 
 Cumberland, 3, viz. : Jorrgins, Jubilee and Springhill. 
 Pictou, 2, viz. : Intercolonial and Acadia. 
 
 Cape Breton, 6, viz ; Capo Breton, Dominion, Sydney, 
 North Sydney, Mabou, Xew Campbelton and Broad Cove. 
 
 The output from all in 180S amounted to 2,281,454 tons, 
 of which G.'U per cent, came from the Cape Breton collieries, 
 the remainder being about equally distributed between the 
 Pictou and the Cumberland collieries. 
 
 During twenty-five years the total output of the coal 
 mines of Nova Scotia has been 43,000,000 tons, an average of 
 1,660,000 tons per annum. The output of 1898 was 2,563,180 
 tons. That for 1899 is reported to be much larger. 
 
 The Dominion Coal Company have begun operations on 
 a large scale for the manufacture of iron and steel, and these 
 will lead to an immense development in the production of coal. 
 
 The seams in the Cape Breton basin vary in thickness 
 from 5 to 9 feet. In the Pictou basin they vary from 6 feet 
 to 34 feet 7 inches in thickness. 
 
 Taking one analysis from each coal field in Nova Scotia 
 we have 
 
 • , ■ !VrixES , 
 
 Syilney, Albion, 8i)niifr Hill, 
 
 - ('-B. Pictou. Cuiiilx-rl'd. 
 
 P-c. p.c. p.c. 
 
 Moisture 3.04 1.29 1.40 
 
 Volatile combustion 0I.14 2').44 31.2.5 
 
 Fixed carbon 01.50 61.54 Gl 58 
 
 Ash , 4.32 10.25 5.7(3 
 
 There are no coal measures from New Brunswick west- 
 ward until Manitoba is reached. 
 
 Of Manitoba and Northwest Territories Dr. Geo. M. 
 Dawson, Director of Geological Survey, says : 
 
 "The known areas of true and lignite coals of the best 
 quality extend .along the base of the Rocky Mountains from 
 the 49th parallel to the vicinity of Peace River, a distance of 
 500 miles, with an average width of nay 100 miles, o-ivinf a 
 total area of 50,000 square miles. It is not intended to affirm 
 
 i 
 
jr* 
 
 112 
 
 CAXADAIN IIAXDIWOK. 
 
 that the whole of this area is continuously unflerlain by coal, 
 but outcrops of coal are so general throughout it that, taken 
 in connection with the character and regularity of the strata, 
 it may be stated with safety tliat it is throughout a coal field. 
 An additional area stretchiiiir eastward as far as the Souria 
 River and Turtle Mountains yields lignites only, but those 
 often of very good quality and well fitted for local uses, may 
 be roughly estimated at 15,000 square miles." 
 
 The third coal area of Canada is that in the "Rocky 
 Mountains. This, tho'\:;h small as measured by miles, con- 
 tains much coal of the best quality. One of these areas has 
 been found to hold several seams of anthracite of very jjood 
 quality. Those in the Cascades Basin have an area of sixty 
 square miles. The small coal area of Crow's Nest Pass ia 
 very rich. 
 
 From the Territories the coal accounted for as produced 
 was 4o(J,000 tons in 1898, of which 20,000 tons were anthra- 
 cite. 
 
 The fourth area is that of the Pacific Coast. Vancouver 
 Island contains two productive coal areas — Nanaimo and 
 Comox, the first about 200 and the second 800 square miles 
 in extent. A very rough approximation gives 800 square 
 miles as the extent of the coal areas of Queen Charlotte 
 Islands. 
 
 In quality the Vancouver Island bituminous coals are 
 found to be superior for all practical purposes to aiiy other 
 coals on the Pacific Coast. They rank in San Fraucisco with 
 the West Hartley coals. These widely-spread coal deposits 
 on Vancouver Island entitle the Province to be called the 
 Britain of the North Pacific. 
 
 The output of the coal mines of British Columbia, be- 
 giiiiiing in 1874 with 90,000 tons, has steadily increased, and 
 in 1898 was 1,272,000 tons. 
 
 In the Comox district the productive measures show ten 
 seams of coal with a total of 29 feet 3 inches, the thickest 
 seam being 10 feet. 
 
CAXAIJIAN HA XL) BOOK. 113 
 
 The character of the coal is evidenced by the follovvin<r 
 analysis: ° 
 
 T^Y^^^r Slow Coking. Fa.-t Coking. 
 
 Volatile combnstive 00 1 a oop,. 
 
 iMxed carbon (., n~ r;o r;- 
 
 A„i, o4.u,j, 59.5.) 
 
 6.29 6.29 
 
 Asbestos.— Tlie mineral whieh is produced in Canada 
 under this name is in reality not asbestos proper, but a form 
 ot serpentine called chrysotite. It occurs as veins in certain 
 portions of the great belt of serpentine rocks in the Eastern 
 lowns nps of the Province of Quebec. The silky, fibrous 
 parts liave to be carefully separated from the rock. The 
 production in 1898 was 23,78,5 tons, valued at.s48G.227. 
 
 Next in order are the refractory minerals, Canada has 
 ot these = plumbago, mica, soapstone, and sandstone. 
 
 The plumbago is a pure crystaline and is widely distrib- 
 uted. The others mentioned are very generally distributed. 
 Materials for brick, pottery and glass abound. Lime- 
 stone for common lime is abundant, as also are aigillaceou^ 
 limestones and do.nites yielding good hydraulic cement. 
 
 _ Grinding and polishing materials are found in all the pro- 
 vinces Corundum has been found recently in considerable 
 quanti y, and the Ontario Bureau of Mines (Report for 1897) 
 ha,s published a report of forty or fifty pages on the subject 
 ol corun.lum in that province. J " 
 
 Of buil.ling stones, Canada possesses an abundance 
 Gramte. co„,pa,-„,g fovoraWy with the best granites rfo 1 er 
 countnes ,s fonnd in n,any localit.es. Sand.ftones of ar s 
 colors and textures aho,n,d. The collection ot marbles i , the 
 Geoog,ea Mnseun, at Ottawa indicates a profusi ^ o aU 
 kuKl. Flagstones, roofing slates, lithographic stones etc are 
 abundant and of good quality ' 
 
 There are numerous mineral .springs in different narfs of 
 Canada, and mineral wateiN nr. u ^H a "'"^^^"^ V^'^^ ot 
 
 wateis are bottled, nearly a million 
 
 I 
 

 114 
 
 CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 jijallons being reported to the Geological Survey as used for 
 that purpose. 
 
 MANUFACTURES. 
 
 The constructive industries of Canada liave been devel- 
 oped to a very considerable degree. 
 
 Wiien Canada presented lier.-sclf before the world in the 
 Paris Exliibition of 1855 she could only tell of 28 or 30 
 ditl'eront manufactures established in the country. Tiicre 
 were saw mills, grist mills, carding mills, woollen mills, distil- 
 leries, tanneries, breweries and foun Iries of small size and 
 number. Tlie others were still fewer and sm<aller. The best 
 that the Hand Book of 1855 could say was that the most 
 important of the manufactures was that of shipbuilding, the 
 number of ships built in Quebec city, the chief seat of the 
 industry, having been 48 in 1853, valued at 82,500,000 ; that 
 the St. Maurice River iron mines employed 300 hands ; that 
 considerable progress had been made in the development of 
 manufactures requiring iron and steel for their bases, such as 
 locomotives, carriages, edge tools, agricultural implements, 
 etc.; that cotton manufacture was very small; that woollens 
 were made on a somewhat extensive scale; that 1,G31 saw 
 mills were producing 722,000,000 feet of lumber per annum, 
 and that grist mills numbered under 1,200, retjuiring a capi- 
 tal of 85,000,000. 
 
 The whole industrial class numbered a little over 71,000. 
 
 By the year 1891 the 30 different manufactures of 1851 
 had expanded into 303, and the number of the industrial 
 class into 370,000. 
 
 The census returns of 1891 — which are the latest, the 
 census being taken every ton 3'ears— show that the number 
 of manufacturing and mechanical establishments increased 
 from 49,722 in 1881 to 75,968 in 1891, an increase of 53 per 
 cent.; that the capital invested increased from 8164,958,000 to 
 8354,621,000, an increase of 115 per cent, and that the value 
 of the output increased from 8309,700,000 to 8476,200,000, 
 an increase of 53 per cent., notwithstanding the very great 
 drop in prices between 1881 and 1891. 
 
CAXA DIA N HA XDBOOK. 
 
 US 
 
 As is natural in a country so largely a wooded country, 
 the manufacturing industries connected with wood form a 
 1 irge proportion of the total. The capital invested in these 
 amounted to 28 per cent, of the total capital invested in 
 manufacturing. 
 
 The development of manufactures connected with foods 
 is also a natural development. 
 
 The only return in 1855 in this connection was that of 
 grist mills, with a capital of $5,000,000. Bakeries were few 
 and far between, the bread used being mostly home made. 
 There were no cheese factories, and but little cheese was made 
 in the homes of Canada, the census returns of 1851 giving a 
 total of 4,182,000 pounds as the year's make of home-made. 
 Much of the cheese consumed was imported from other 
 countries. 
 
 In 1891 the total capital invested in manufacturing having 
 vegetable and animal foods for their basis was $42,700,000, 
 flour and grist mills having increased their capital from the 
 amount already given for 1851 to over 823,000,000. 
 
 In cheese the factory has been added to the home-made, 
 and the total of the two in 1890 was 114,982,000 pounds, or 
 neax'ly thirty times the amount of 1851. From being an im- 
 porter of cheese Canada is now the largest exporter among 
 the world's countries, our exports in 1899 having been 
 198,000,000 pounds. 
 
 The canning industries are of comparatively recent 
 growth. Still, in 1891 the capital invested in canning indus- 
 tries was about $9,000,000, very largely increased since then. 
 
 In printing and publishing, bank note engraving and the 
 like, the capital invested in 1891 amounted to $10,500,000; in 
 carriage making to nearly $11,000,000; in drinks and stimu- 
 lants, to nearly $27,50!),000; breweries having a capital of 
 $8,53:^,000, and oUgar refineries of nearly $0,000,000. 
 
 There was a great growth m the number of establish- 
 ments for the preparation of j«rated waters, the value of the 
 out-put for the year being nearly a million dollars. In the 
 manufacture of tobacco the sum of $2,100,000 was invested. 
 
> r - 
 
 116 
 
 CAyADIAX HANDBOOK. 
 
 In the manufacture of leather, boots and shoes, harness, 
 there lias been a great development, the capital employed in 
 1891 beinf? retui-ned at nearly $19,000,000. 
 
 Our largest cities and towns had been lighted with gas 
 some years before the Paris Exhibition of 1855 took place, but 
 the use of gas was only beginning to become general. Of 
 course the application of electricity was unknown. B}^ the 
 census of 1S!)1 the capital invested in lighting appliances was 
 $21, 3)35,000, an increase during the decennial period 1881-91 
 of $18,500,000. 
 
 In the manufacture of textile fabrics an<l dress materials, 
 Canada could not do very much in the Exhibition of 1855. 
 Since then there has been great improvement, and the total 
 capital invested in 1891 in these branches was S4'?, 100.000, 
 of which $13,200,000 was in cotton mills and 89.500,000 in 
 woollen mills. 
 
 It will be seen that Canada as a manufacturer stands in 
 a very different position to what she occu^Died iii the Paris 
 Exhibition of 1855. 
 
 In the main the development of our manufacturing and 
 mechanical industries has followed the lines suggested by our 
 development of the extractive industries and by the growing 
 wealth of the country. 
 
 XL 
 
 TRANSPORT SERVICE. 
 
 From the development of our industries of the field, the 
 forest, the mine, the waters and the workshop, necessarily has 
 sprung the develojMnent of our means of transport, for the 
 purposes of distribution. 
 
 In the early stages of Canadian life the St. Lawrence 
 River, from Montreal to its mouth, supplied tin- facilities for 
 transport. When, however, the early policy of concentration 
 gave way to the policy of expansion the obstacles to rapid 
 transportation began to be wearisome. The portages were 
 
CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 117 
 
 improved, tho rapids reduced, where practicable, and the class 
 of boats chan<^ed for the better. 
 
 As settlement increased the high roads of the country 
 were opened and improved. A regular system was adopted 
 for the purpose, and for years the river and tlie roads were 
 the only means of communication. Soon the idea of improv- 
 ing the river by means of canals took root. Nature hail ren- 
 dered the St. Lawrence navigable to Quebec for ships of the 
 largest size. Vessels of 500 or 600 tons burden could go as far 
 as Montreal, but beyond that were the St. Louis Rapids, which 
 put an end to further progress. Beyond St. Louis Rapids large 
 vessels could sail up for some distance — to encounter, however, 
 forty miles of rapids, before Kingston, at the foot of Lake 
 Ontario, could be reached. It was plain sailing over the great 
 lake, but between Lake Ontario and Lake Erie there was a 
 distance of 27 miles, in the course of which the ascent was 300 
 feet, and the frowning front of Niagara Falls intervened. 
 After entering Lake Erie the Durham boat had free course 
 through Lakes Erie, Huron and Michigan, but the way to 
 Lake Superior v;as barred by the Sault Ste. Marie. 
 
 These several obstacles the Canadian people determined 
 to overcome, so that from the western feeders of Lake Superior 
 freighting of supplies could bo carried on without interruption. 
 
 The first efforts resulted in artifici il water ways to over- 
 come the rapids immediately above the Lachine Rapids — the 
 Cedar, Cascades and Coteau. These, begun in 1779 and finish- 
 ed in 1781, sufficed for a time. 
 
 But these were merely efforts of the 'prentice hand of 
 Canada. 
 
 Within a few years an elaborate Canal system was evolved- 
 It included within its comprehensive grasp (a) the improve- 
 ment of the St. Lawrence River, (6) of the Ottawa Rivei. (c) 
 of the Rideau River, (d) of the Richelieu River and Lake 
 Champlain, and (e) later on the completion of a canal in the 
 Island of Cape Breton. 
 
 Connected with the St. Lawrence River there are 55 
 miles of canal — supplied with 4-8 locks of various dimensions* 
 
118 
 
 CA XA DIA N 11. 1 NDIiOOK. 
 
 from 150 x 20^ f(!ot to 900 x GO feet, ami haviiiij a doptli on the 
 sills from 14 to 20 feet, the greater number of the locks being 
 of the standard size, 270 x 45 feet, and 14 feet deep. 
 
 The work of completinj^ this system of canals has been 
 facing on for many years, the canal to overcome the Lachine 
 Rapids, near Montreal, having been begun iu 1821, and the 
 Welland Canal to overcome Niagara Falls in 1824. 
 
 In connection with this cannl development it was resolved 
 to provide a submerged canal between Quebec arid Montreal, 
 m order to overcome the shoals, cf which there were in the 
 aggregate nearly 50 miles, divided among 20 different places, 
 the widest being in Lake St. Peter (1747 miles). Tiiese shoals 
 were composed of gravel, sand, clay, boulders and shale rock. 
 
 This work was begun in 1844. By 18G0 the increase of 
 depth elfoctcd was !) feet, givijig a 20 feet channel to Montreal. 
 By 1878 the depth was 22 feet ; by 18S2 it was 25 K-v.t ; by 
 the end of 1888 it was 27i feet. During the season of 1898 
 the depth of water varied from 27 feet 5 inches to 32 feet. 
 
 The total cost, including the expenditure on the abandon- 
 ed straight channel > 31st Dec, 1899, amounts to $5,300,000, 
 and the total quantity of dredged matter to 23,234,000 yards. 
 
 This work has made Montreal x-emarkable, from the fact 
 that it is a fresh water seaport, frequented by the largest craft, 
 98G miles inland from the Atlantic, 250 miles above salt water, 
 and nearly 100 miles above tidal influences. In the bottom of 
 a lake, whose water was from 11 to 18 feet deep upon the fiats, 
 a submerged canal has been excavated entirely by steam, 17 
 miles long, and with sides in the worst places over 16 feet 
 high. 
 
 The growth of the shipping of Montreal has kept pace 
 with the development of the channel. In LS50 the number 
 of vessels arrived from sea was 210, of an averai^e tonnatre of 
 220. In 1880 the number increased to 710 vessels and the 
 average tonnage to 900 tons. In 1890 the arrived vess^'ls 
 numbered 746 and the average tonnage was 1,250 tons. In 
 1898 the vessels from sea arrived at the port were 8G8, with 
 
 hi:! 
 
CAXA DfAX IIAXDUOOK. 
 
 119 
 
 a total tonnage of 1,584,072, an average of 1,825 tons, and 
 the largest vessel entered having a tonnage of f),725 tons. 
 
 Montreal thus leads the Atlantic ports of this continent 
 in average size, the I'ort of New York coining next, with an 
 average sized ocean going vessel of 1,769 tons, and Phila- 
 delphia with a l.GGO ten vessel for its average size. 
 
 In actual sea-going tonnage entered, Montreal rivals 
 New Orleans, and is only exceeded by New York, Boston, 
 Philadelphia and Baltimore. 
 
 T)ie most receui expansions of the St. Lawrence River 
 canal system are the .Sault Ste. Marie and Soulanges Canals. 
 
 The first named connects Lakes Superior and Huron, and 
 is necessary because of the difference of 18 feet between the 
 levels of tlie lakes. At this place the first canal built was in 
 the year 1797 by the Northwest Fur Company, to enable 
 them to carry their furs and su] plies to and from the Indian 
 country in the northwest. The first canal was 40 feet long 
 and 9 feet wide, and had a totul lift of 9 feet, and the boats 
 were towed from the end of the lock up a sluice-way by 
 oxen the remainder of the distance to Lake Superior. This 
 canal had the first lock ever built on the North American 
 Continent. The site upon which this primitive lock was 
 built is preserved and used as a fish pond, and the oaken floor 
 is as good apparently as it was when laid over a hundred 
 years ago. Locks of various sizes have been built from time 
 to time, and now there are three locks in operation, two on 
 the United States side and one on the Canadian. The larger 
 one on the United States side is 800 feet long and 100 feet 
 wide. The Canadian lock is 000 feet long and 60 wide, and 
 is said to be the lonjjest lock in the world. Both the Cana- 
 dian and the T"''nited States locks can pass vessels drawing 20 
 feet of water. 
 
 The business accommodated by these canals is very con- 
 siderable. Indeed, few persons have any idea of the extent 
 of the business served by the canals at the Sault Ste. Marie. 
 
 H 
 
120 
 
 CjL\A I) L I X JIA y J) HOOK. 
 
 I 
 
 I *' 
 
 n 
 
 
 )>. 
 
 Tlio Suez Canal is the hi<^h\vay for Europe and Asia. 
 TiiroUfrh it pass ships Hyinj^ the liritisli, the Gorman, the 
 Dutch, the Italian, the Austro-Hungariaii, the Norwegian, the 
 Spanish, the Russian, the Portuguese, the Japanese, the French 
 and other flags. In 1.S07 the Suez Canal was used by 2,98G 
 vessels, having a tonnage of 7,899,87.'} tons net, and in 1898 
 by 3,503 vessels, having a tonnage of 9,238,()()0 tons. 
 
 Through the canals of the Sault Ste. Marie in the same 
 year (1897), there passed 17,170 vessels, having a registered 
 tonnage of 17,G19,9.'}3 registered tons, and in 1898 there were 
 17,701 vessels of 18.()22,764 tons. 
 
 The Canadian Sault Canal is operated hy electricity, and, 
 in conseijuence, the a^'erage tinie of making a lockage, includ- 
 ing all delays to vessels in this lock, is fourteen minutes and 
 fourteen seconds, whilst that of the U. S. lock, operated by 
 hydraulic power, is 36 minutes and 31 seconds. 
 
 The total cost of building the Canadian canal at Sault 
 Ste. Marie is 83,084,227. 
 
 The Soulanges Canal, opened in the autumn of 1899, is 
 14 miles long. The rise of 82i feet between Lake St. 
 Louis and Lake St, Francis is overcome by four locks. 
 Three of these, each of 23J feet lift, orcur in the first 
 mile from the Ottawa River. 'Ihen there is a reach of 
 some two and a half miles to the fourth lock, which has a lift 
 of 12 or 13 feet to low water level of Lake St. Francis. The 
 canal is, for purposes of navigation, a straight line throughout. 
 Electricity is used as the moti vc power. 
 
 The amount of earth and rock removed to make this 
 canal was about eight milinn -iubic yards. 
 
 The other canals of this system have been brought into 
 unison with the general scheme 
 
 The Welland Canal lifts vessels of 2.55 to 200 feet in .ength 
 from Lake Ontario to Lake Erie, a lift of 327 feet. Begun 
 in 1824, opened partially in 1829, and wholly in 1832, its 
 enlargement was begun in 1841 owning to the fact that the 
 size of vessels had so increased that more than one-half the 
 vessels navigating the lakes were unable to pass through the 
 
 ii 
 
VAX AVIAN llANDliOOK. 
 
 121 
 
 cannl The first ciilarifetnent was no sooner completed than it 
 was found necessary to increase the depth of water, as the 
 vessels continued to increase in size. In 1S59, the St. Law- 
 rence route not maintaining its shire of the Western ti'ade, 
 and of tiie grain trade in particular, iniiuiries were instituted 
 into the causes of diversion to rival routes. The result was a 
 second enlargement. The canal has now tvventj'-six locks of 
 the standard size — 270 by 45 feet, with fourteen feet water on 
 the sills. 
 
 The Ottawa and Rideau Canal system has for its ohject 
 the connecting of Montreal by tlu! way of the Ottawa and 
 the Uideau Rivers witli Kingston at the foot of Lake Ontario. 
 The total distance from Kingston to Montreal by this route 
 is 245 miles. The larger locks are 200 b^'^ 45 feet and the 
 smaller 134 by 32 feet. These canals were originally con- 
 structed to afford an interior line of water communication. 
 The highest point is the Rideau Lnko. ' hicii is 202 feet above 
 the level of the Ottawa at the 3utlit ot' the canal. 
 
 The Richelieu and Lake Cliamplaui ivsrem eommi'tices ;it 
 Sorel at tlie confluence of the rivers St. Liwrenc" at.d Riche- 
 lieu, 40 miles below Montreal, and extenls al:»ng die latter 
 river to the basin of Chambly ; thence by the Cliambly canal 
 to St. Johns; thence to Lake Champldin, at the .southern end 
 of which connection is ma le by the Champla' ^ Canal with 
 the Hudson River by which the City of New York, on the 
 Atlantic seaboard is reached. The Chambly Canal is 12 mile.s 
 long. 
 
 It will thus be seen that by the Canal system of Canala. 
 as originally sketched, it was proposed; ist, co f'.rm an inter- 
 ior route of transport from Montreal to Lake OnUM'ic rulapted 
 for the conveyance of troops and munitions of war , 2tid, to 
 overcome obstacles in the St. Lawrence and thus give con- 
 tinuous, safe water communication between the grain-growing 
 r'gionsof the great Laurentian Lakes and Montreal; 3rd, to 
 make Montreal a port for ocean steamships of the largest 
 size, and 4th, to bring Montreal and New York into communi- 
 cation with each other by means of water transport 
 
122 
 
 VAXADAIN HANDBOOK. 
 
 The total amount expended on the construction of our 
 canals to ;iOth June, 1898, is !i?7 5.040,000. It' to tliis sum is 
 added the cost of the submerged canal between Montreal and 
 Quebec, the total amount expended in the effort to supplement 
 our waterways as means of commuuication is over 80 million 
 dollars. 
 
 The humber of vessels passing through our canals in 1897 
 was 80,398, with a total tonnage of 874-,622 tons, or three- 
 quarters of a million more tonnage thiin passed through the 
 Suez Canal in the same vear. 
 
 The proportions of freight carried, taking theWelland Canal 
 as the standard, are : Forest products, llpe)- cent; farm pro- 
 ducts, Coper cent.; merchandise and manufactures, 21 percent- 
 There are aitluents of the St. Lawrence which have either 
 not needed canal aid or but to a small extent. Thus the Sa- 
 guenay is one of the tributary streams of the great river. It 
 is navigable for the largest vessels for nearly ninety miles. 
 The Ottawa llivpr is opened by means of St. Anne's Lock, one- 
 eif]Chthof a mile in lenfijth, and thence forms a water thoroufjh- 
 fare for a distance of more than 200 miles for vessels 200 feet 
 long by 45 in breadth. 
 
 UA 1 1- WAYS. 
 
 It was early felt that railways were needed in addition 
 to canals. In 1832 v charter was obtained from the ler-isla- 
 ture of FiLiich Canada for a railway to connect the waters of 
 the St. Lawrence, near Montreal, with those of Lake Cham- 
 plain by taking the base line of an isosceles triangle, instead 
 of the two water sides up to that time used, thus securing 
 speedier communication between Montreal and New York by 
 a mixed water and rail route. It was opened in 183(j, horses 
 being used at first and locomotives in the followinf year. 
 Two railways were incorporated in 1834 in Upper Canada. 
 
 In Nova Scotia a railway was built in 1839 to connect 
 the coal fields of Pictou with the loading grounds on the 
 Gulf of St. Lawrence. 
 
 Ml 
 

 CAXADIAX HANDBOOK. 
 
 123 
 
 It was, however, in the year 1851 that the country began 
 to feel the need for a comprehensive system of railways. In 
 that year an Act was passed by the Legislature of the Prov- 
 ince of Canada making provision for the construction of a 
 main trunk line througli the two Canadas. In the same year 
 delegates from the British North American provinces went to 
 England to arrange for the construction of a railway from 
 Quebec to St. John and Halifax, and in that year the con- 
 struction of a railway through British territory to the Pacitic 
 Ocean was brought before the Legislature. 
 
 In 1855 there were 5G3 miles of railway in what is now 
 the Dominion of Canada. The Grand Trunk Co. had also 
 constructed 292 miles in the United States to connect Mon- 
 treal and Portland. It was therefore with promise for the 
 future rather than actual fulfilment that Canada presented 
 herself at the Paris Exhibition of 1855. Work went on 
 slowly at first. By 18G5 the 563 miles had become 1,290 
 miles, and in 18G7 there were about 2,000 miles of railway in 
 the country. The union of the four provinces of Upper and 
 Lower Canada, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick took place 
 in 18G7. In the next decade there was an addition of 0,218 
 miles. By 1887 the added miles were 8,575, and in 1899 the 
 total mileage was 17,250. 
 
 Since 1867 the 2,000 miles with which Canada began her 
 existence as a Dominion have increased over eight times. 
 
 Down to the consummation of the union the several pro- 
 vinces had expended !:f'l 50,000,000 for railways, of which 
 Government had contributed 831,400 000; other sources, 
 !ii>ll8,GOO,000. Since that time the federal or general Govern- 
 ment has contributed 8120,110,000, and other sources S()72.- 
 700,000, making a total expen.ded for railways of 8941,297- 
 000, towards which the Government of the Dominion has 
 contributed 16 per cent., including the Government railways, 
 the cost of which amounts to 859,437,000. 
 
 In addition, the general Government has given large 
 grants of land, amounting in the aggregate to about 40,000,- 
 000 acres, of which the grant to the C.P.R. was on final 
 
 '' i 
 
 m 
 
m 
 
 124 
 
 CAXADTAX HAXDnOOK. 
 
 arljustment 18,200,000 acres. For this eKpenditure of S941- 
 000,000 the several provinces have (1899): 
 
 Ontario 
 
 Quebec 
 
 Now JJmnswick 
 
 Kuva Scotia 
 
 Prince Edward iHlaiid 
 
 Manit<)])a 
 
 ^'ort invest Territories 
 British Columbia 
 
 Square "^liles of 
 Area to Each 
 Mile of Rail- 
 \va V. 
 
 33.3 
 
 104.7 
 
 19.5 
 
 22.1 
 
 45.6 
 223.7 
 429.7 
 
 Taking population and railway milca(:je, the western 
 portions of the Dominion have a larger railway mileage in 
 proportion to population than the older provinces. 
 
 Thus, British Columbia, the four Territories and ]\Iani- 
 toba have Oi per cent, of the population and over one-quarter 
 ot the whole railway mileage, while Ontario, Quebec and 
 Nova Scotia, with 83i per cent, of the population, have a 
 little under 65 per cent, of the railway mileage. 
 
 The reason for this difference is that the railways in the 
 newer portions of the Dominion have been built as a means 
 of transporting settlers and opening up the country, while in 
 the older and better settled provinces railways have followed 
 settlement instead ot preceding population. 
 
 This accounts in a measure for the large amovT<t of 
 assistance in money and lands the Government has given to 
 the railways, in addition to the cost of construction of rail- 
 ways owned and operated by the Government. 
 
 From the square miles of area to each mile of railway in 
 existence, it will be seen that Canada has by no means com- 
 pleted her railway development, but as population increases 
 will find hei'self constantly forced to provide more mileage. 
 
 Mil 
 
CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 m 
 
 It is difficult even now for the existing railways to carry- 
 to the seaboard the surplus grain crop of Manitoba within 
 the season. To carry the crop of 1899 would require 72,000 
 cars Nvith a capacity of 25 tons each. 
 
 In 1855 there was no connected system of railways in 
 actual use. It was in the brains of our public men, ready to 
 be turned into iron and steel as soon as the men and money 
 could be found. 
 
 In 18G7 things were not much better. Still, the work 
 done began to show. Four hundred and ninety-one loco- 
 motives werr needed for the 2,089 miles of railway then in 
 running order. There was an equipment of nearly 8,000 cars 
 of all kinds. The passengers carried numbered 2,784,(500, 
 and the freight carried amounted to 2,272,000 tons. The 
 revenue had reached the respectable sum of S12,000,000, and 
 the expenditure was about !i58,O00,0O0. 
 
 Ti.3 average charge per passenger was SI. 63, and per ton 
 of freight ^3.19. For this charge of S1.G3 the passenger was 
 somewhat roughly transported from one chief town to the 
 other, without any conveniences of any kind. Iron rails 
 were used. There was but a single track on the roadlds. 
 and the cars bumped from one rail to the next as if each rail 
 was protesting against receivi'.g the burden from its prede- 
 cessor. The train started with a jerk that nearly separated 
 the head from the body, and stopped with a jolt that threat- 
 ened a frequent and sudden farewell of the upper half of the 
 spinal column from the lower, to the destruction of the vital 
 forces necessary for animal existence. 
 
 In ISyS the passeng rs carried numbered 18,444,049, and 
 the freight carried amounted to 28,785,903 tons. The reve- 
 nue of the railways was $59,715,105, and the working ex- 
 penditures were 839,137,549. The average charge per passen- 
 ger was 85 cents, and per ton of freight Si. 33. The average 
 cost of transport to the passenger has fallen 78 cents, and to 
 the business man dealing in goods SI. 80 per ton, the decrease 
 being about 50 and 00 per cent, respectively. 
 
 ' i ! 
 1 - ! 
 
 i 
 
 f i 
 
It 
 
 120 
 
 CAXADIAX IIAXDBOOK. 
 
 For this lower cliarge of 85 cents the passonf^er is com- 
 fortably housed, fed and otherwise provided for. He travels 
 on a smooth roadbed, laid with steel rails connected in the 
 most up-to-date way. He Jiardly notices that the train has 
 started or hrvS stopped, except bv means of the sense of sight. 
 He loaves ]\Iontreal or Ottawa in the evening, goes to bed, 
 and wakes up in the morning in Toronto or well on his way 
 to St. John. The speed has been developed in strict ratio to 
 the improvement in other respects. Some of the more im- 
 portant railways between centres of population give the 
 public an average annual speed of 45 miles an hour for the 
 ])assenger trains. Several have an annual average of 40, of 
 85, of 30 miles an hour. 
 
 The Canadian Pacilic Railway carries passengers from 
 Montreal to Vancouver, on the Pacific Ocean, 2,900 miles, in 
 100 hours — notwithstanding that GOO miles of mountainous 
 reiiion are included. 
 
 For freigiit trains the annual average of all the railways 
 of Canada in 1808 was 17 miles, the highest averages being 
 25, 24 and 20 miles. 
 
 In 1898 the equipment of the railways included 2,11G 
 locomotives, larger and more powerful than the 401 that 
 sufficed in 1867 : ami 05,000 cars of all kinds — beyond com- 
 parison superior to the 8 000 in use in 1807. 
 
 In addition the railways of to-day ai'e provided with 
 snow ploughs and Hangers which reduce to a minimum the 
 liabilitv of detention durinu* the winter months. 
 
 The people used the railways for passenger traffic at the 
 rate of 8,000 in every 10,000 of the population in 1807. In 
 1898 they used the steam railways so much that every 10,000 
 of the people had taken 35,000 passnges. 
 
 In addition to this use of the steam driven railway car 
 the people of Canada have 635 miles ni all of electric railway, 
 and this method of transport they utilized in 1898 to such an 
 extent that about ninety-five million passengers were carried, 
 which is equal to eighteen passengers tor every man, 
 woman and child in Canada. Thus every person in Canada 
 
 \ i' 
 

 C. I XA DIA X HA XDBOOK. 
 
 m 
 
 averages twenty-one and a half passages a year by steam or 
 electrical car. 
 
 Til e railway system of Canada consists of 1G6 railways. 
 By process of absorption and assimilation, twenty-tive of 
 these have been amalgamated and form the Grand Trunk 
 Railway System. The consolidation of twenty-three railways 
 has produced the Canadian Pacitic Railway System. The 
 remaining IIS have consolidated more or less, so that, taken 
 together, there are eighty-two separate and distinct railway 
 organizations employing 2,116 locomotives and 65,251 cai-s of 
 all kinds, passenger, freight, refrigerator, etc. 
 
 Thirty-five railways, not included in the above, employ 
 electricity as the motive power. These are used chiefly in 
 the cities and to.wns, though in some instances in Western 
 Ontario they are employed in transporting passengers through 
 rural districts. 
 
 The Canadian Pacific Railway has a mileage of 7,001 
 miles; the Grand Trunk, 3,162 ; the Intercolonial Railway of 
 1,355 miles, and the others of 5,732 miles. 
 
 The Canad'an Government's railways, generally called 
 the Intercolonial, are the only railways owned and operated 
 by Government, the others being company-managed railways. 
 The Government railways cost ^60,000,000 for construction 
 and equipment, and have been run at a netexpi'uditure greater 
 than receipts, amounting to 88,4-68,000, equivalent to an aver- 
 age loss of $273,170 a year. 
 
 Their value, however, has more than comp9nsated for 
 this charge upon the revenue. Like a river, they have deve- 
 loped the regions through which they pass, and have been a 
 great factor in the increase of internal tradf', which hardly 
 existed before the Union in 1867, and is now, taking Ontario 
 and Quebec Provinces as one, over 8100,000,000 a year. 
 Ontario and Quebec have with the other provinces East and 
 West this exchange of commodities, almost non-existent 
 thirty-two years ago. 
 
 i 
 
128 
 
 t•A^'ADL 1 X If. 1 xi) /; o k. 
 
 M 
 
 SHIPPING. 
 
 The third of the ^reat anus of trade as a distributor is 
 the shipping of a country. 
 
 Canada employs in her over-sea trade a tonnage of 
 13,237,000 tons of shipping. In the distribution of the pro- 
 ducts of Canada and the United States, by means of the 
 Great Laurentian Lakes and the rivers connected with them, 
 there were employed 12,183,050 tons in 1S99, the gi-eater 
 tonnage being Canadian. During 31 years GO per cent, of the 
 tonnage thus employed has been Canadian. 
 
 In addition to the shipping employed for ever-sea and 
 lake transport between other countries and Canada, there is 
 the shipping employed in tlie coasting trade of the country. 
 This shipping carries goods from port to port within Canada, 
 and is called coasting, though the word by no means ex- 
 presses all that is meant to be conveyed. Thus, a vessel 
 going from Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, to Boston, across the 
 mouth of the Bay of Fund\^, is classed as engaged in the 
 ocean or over-sea trade, while a vessel going from Quebec or 
 Montreal to Vancouver or Victoria, in British Columbia, and 
 having to go I'ound Cape Horn, is classed as a coaster. The 
 tonnage engaged in the coasting trade oE Canada amounted 
 in lSf)[) to 30,.")51",000 tons. Thus, for the water-borne trade 
 of Canada there were required 55, 975,0. tons of shipping. 
 
 The growth of each of the three branches is a fair index 
 of the developuujnt of Canada. In 18fi8 the tonnage required 
 to carry on our business of an international character between 
 other countries and ourselves over the ocean amoianted to 
 4,320.000 registered tons; in 1809 to 13,237,000 tons. The 
 tonnage on the Great Lakes, carrying the trade between 
 Canada and the United States, amounte<l to 8,603,500 tons in 
 18G.S, and to 12,184,000 tons in 1899. The demands of the 
 coasting trade required 8,000,000 tons of shipping in 1808, 
 and over 30 millions tons in 1899. The first and third class 
 increased about three times and the second about 40 per cent., 
 the last mentioned having increaseil less than the others because 
 water-borne goods on the Great Lakes have encountei'ed a 
 
II 
 
 I.cnislalive lliiililiir^>, I'niviiictj lirili^li C.jliHiil)i;i 
 
li 
 
CAXAD/AX IIAXDnoOK. 129 
 
 greater competition from tiie railways, which at many points 
 connect Canada and tlie United States. 
 
 The growth of the internal trade is indicate-! but parti- 
 ally by the tonnajre eno-a^ed in the coasting trade, since, on 
 account of the construction of the Guiadian (Government and 
 the Cana.lian Pacific Railways, connecting Montreal and 
 Quebec with Halifax and 8t. John, a large amount of freionb 
 that would go by vessel is carried by car. nearly one-halt^of 
 the treights of the Government Railway connectincr Nova 
 fecot.a and New Brunswick with Montreal, consisting^of coal 
 and lumber. 
 
 The Dominion stands seventh on the list of countries 
 ownnig slnppi,^-, Great Britain, the United States, Germany, 
 Norway and L ranee, in the order named, being ahead of 
 Uanada. ° 
 
 For many years Cana<I> made rapid strides i„ ovviierslvp 
 of vessels and in 187S reael.ed her higl.cst point, having in 
 tl.at yeur 1.3:J3,0I3 tons of shipping on her registry books. 
 
 Cana,l,an shipyards was a, high as 101,000 registere.l tons ia 
 
 M^oTiStonr^-"" -"-'' '^ "- -'^- '" -'■--- 
 
 The reason for tlie aln,ost complete cessation of the shin 
 
 una sceti snips. Ihe reasons for tlie verv otp.i<- a r, 
 tonnage owned in Canada are the ee^If ^ ', , ^a-ld 
 the sale to other countries, principally Norway. ° 
 
 The extent of the declino i^^ con,, ,'. ^i 
 tabular statement, cou.partri^^^.^'i.^^:' "--P^.v^-'S 
 
 \u 
 
tae 
 
 CA NA DL 1 .V JIA XDJJOOK. 
 
 SirippiNo Built in Canada 
 
 PllOV INCUS. 
 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 
 
 1878 
 
 27,368 
 
 40,7>S4 
 
 10,870 
 
 2,400 
 
 10,382 
 
 45 
 
 15 
 
 1808 
 
 700 
 4,0(12 
 4,130 
 1,872 
 
 372 
 12,228 
 
 150 
 
 Incn-ane 
 
 Decrease 
 
 
 New Uniupwick 
 
 
 26,578 
 
 44,822 
 
 G,731 
 
 537 
 
 Nova Scotia 
 
 
 Quebec 
 
 Ontario 
 
 
 
 Prince Edward Island 
 
 
 10,010 
 
 Britisii ('olunil)ia 
 
 12,183 
 144 
 
 12,327 
 
 Manitoba 
 
 
 
 
 Net decrease 
 
 100,873 
 
 24,522 
 
 88,078 
 70,351 
 
 
 
 
 
 The country has set itself energetically to work to remedy 
 this state of things. At the base is the development of the 
 iron industry by the encouragement of the manufacture of pig 
 iron. This has been so successfully prosecuted that instead of 
 the proportion of home made pig being 36 per cent, of the 
 whole consumption, as it was in 1884, it is 63 per cent, of the 
 whole in 1898. 
 
 In the meantime large and well placed steel w^orks are 
 approaching completion near the ancient site of Louisburg in 
 Cape Breton — the beginning of an effort to adapt ourselves 
 to the changed conditions which have rendered our forests 
 useless for shipbuilding purposes. 
 
 XII. 
 BANKS. Etc. 
 
 Having dealt with the arms of trade, we come now to 
 the auxiliaries to the transport service. 
 
 These consist of facilities for safe, speedy and cheap 
 conduct of business, and include bank.^, telegraphs, telephones, 
 post offices, navigation securities and insurance. 
 
 For the disposal of the business transactions of the 
 country, internal and external, there are thirty-seven banks 
 
C'AXAIJJAX 11 AM) BOOK. 
 
 131 
 
 P 
 
 :3. 
 
 with a capital paid up of 862,571, !)20. In addition they have 
 accumulated earninf^s, called reserves, aniountin<,'' to over 27 
 million dollars. Tiie system adopted in Canada is head offices 
 with branches. 
 
 Thus, the thirty-seven main banks have G30 branches 
 spread all over the country, tiiere being 30(5 in Ontario, 117 
 in Quebec, (59 in Nova Scotia, 30 in New Brunswick, ^(J in 
 Manitoba, 47 in British Calumbia, G in Prince Kdward Island 
 and 20 in the Northwest Territories. The Bank of Montreal, 
 with head office in Montreal, has a total of 46 branches, 24 in 
 Ontario, 4 each in Quebec and Nova Scotia, 1 in Manitoba, 8 
 in British Columbia and 3 in the Northwest 'lenitories. 
 
 These branches are in constant communication with the 
 head office and thus the Geiicral Manager is made acquainted 
 with the trade movements of all sc.'ctions of tlie country. 
 
 The basis of the banking system is gold and Dominion 
 notes. 
 
 The several Acts relating to the subject require that the 
 general government, to whom banking and currency are 
 alloted by the fundamental Act of Union, shall hold (1) 15 
 per cent of S20,000,()00 in gold ; (2) 10 per cent additional 
 either in gold or Dominion s:curities guaranteed by the 
 Imperial Government ; (3) 75 per cent in unguaranteed 
 Dominion bonds and 4th, gold, dollar for dollar, of any excess 
 of issue over 820,000,000. 
 
 Holding these securities the Federal Government may 
 issue Dominion notts redeemable at certain points and those 
 the banks must hold to a certain amount. In addition, the 
 banks must hold a certain amount of gold. 
 
 Thus prepared the banks may issue notes for not less 
 than $5 to the amount of the unimpaired paid up capital. 
 
 To further protect the note holders the banks have to 
 deposit with the Government an amount ecjual to 5 per cent, 
 of their note circulation to form a fund for the security of the 
 note holders, who are further secured by a provision requir- 
 ing that the notes of a suspended bank shall bear interest at 
 
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132 
 
 CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 it : 
 
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 6 per cent, till the public is notified that the notes can be 
 redeemed. 
 
 The Dominion has a monopoly of the Si, S2 and S4 notes 
 The average circulation in 1898 of aH denominations, 
 was : Dominion notes, $23,230,000 ; bank notes, $37,874,000. 
 Against the Dominion note circulation, the Government held 
 of specie $13,244,347 and guaranteed and unguaranteed de- 
 bentures $19,196,667, in all $32,441,000, while the banks had 
 $9,283,000 in specie and $15,214,500 in Dominion notes, in 
 all $24,497,500. Thus, at the base of the system is 
 the sum of $22,527,000 in gold, supplemented by guaranteed 
 and unguaranteed debentures of a face value equal to 
 $19,200,000. The total issue of notes averaged about $01,100,- 
 000 and the goM and guaranteed and unguaranteed debentures 
 to protect, averaged about 57 million dollars. 
 
 The banks have assets on the whole etjual to considerably 
 more than the liabilities, the latter being in a ten year period 
 71 per cent, of the assets. 
 
 The public use these banks for deposits and for discounts. 
 The discounts representing the assistance the banks give to the 
 business men are a fair guage of the business activity. 
 During each month of 1898, the daily average of discounts to 
 the public was $223,800,000. The business men required 
 that amount on an average from the banks. During the year 
 1868 the daily average amount so required was $52,300,000. 
 
 In the same period the deposits increased from 
 $33,053,000 in 1868 to $230,101,063 in 1898. 
 
 The bank and Dominion notes in circulation increased 
 from $12,102,000 in 1868 to $61,200,000 in 1898. 
 
 In addition to their paid up capital the banks have 
 developed a rest, being amounts earned but not paid out in 
 dividends. The amendment to the Bank Act requiring the 
 statement of the amounts at rest was passed in 1883, and in 
 1887 the amount was $17,883,000, increased in 1898 to 
 $27,627,000. The banking capital employed by Canada is 
 therefore really over $90,000,000. 
 
 The business of the banks as represented by the trans- 
 
CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 133 
 
 actions of the clearing houses is shown to be large. Montreal 
 was the ninth city on this continent in respect to the extent 
 of the bank clearances. 
 
 The Canadian system works well, providing an elastic 
 currency, which responds to the calls of the community in 
 harvest time and retreats within the banks as soon as there 
 is a redundancy. 
 
 In adf'ition to banking facilities the country has felt the 
 need for further facilities in the transference of money. The 
 Government has accepted its duty and has provided the pub- 
 lic with a system of money orders and of registering letters 
 which greatly facilitates the operations of business. 
 
 The number of registered letters sent by the post office 
 authorities in 1898 was 3,534,500, against 704,700 in 1868, an 
 increase of three times the per head number. 
 
 In 1869 there were 550 money order offices, and the total 
 business done was $3,664,468, of which all but 3100,800 rep- 
 resented orders issued in Canada. In 1898 the total amount 
 issued was 16,682,000 of which 14,518,480 represented orders 
 issued in Canada and 2,162,900 orders issued in other countries 
 pa^'able in Canada. 
 
 The rates of charges on local money onlers are from 3 
 cents for orders up to $2.50, to 40 cents for orders between 
 $90 and $100. 
 
 The banks and express companies also issue money orders 
 payable in Canada and other countries, the I'ates of the ex- 
 press companies being from 3 cents per $3.00 to 30 cents per 
 $75 to $100 order. 
 
 The facilities for the transmission of money are therefore 
 ample, and equal to the smaller operations of trade as well as 
 to the largest financial movements, 
 
 TELEGRAPHS AND TELEPHONES. 
 
 Further to assist the business and add to the convenience 
 of the people, the country is well supplied with the telegraph 
 and the telephone systems. 
 
i- 
 
 ii: 
 
 i 
 
 1, 
 
 • 
 
 184 
 
 CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 The telegraph system is in the hands of companies, the 
 Government only owning and operating those lines which 
 have been built in furtherance of the public service between 
 places where the traffic could not be expected to be sufficient 
 to compensate private outlay, but where public interests 
 require that there shall be communication, especially in con- 
 nection with the signal and other stations established by the 
 Marine Department along the shores of the Gulf of St. Law- 
 rence, the Maritime Provinces and British Columbia, and the 
 more distant portions of the Northwest Territories. 
 
 The total number of land lines and of cables owned by 
 the Government in 1899 was 2,990 miles, 239 miles being 
 cables. 
 
 For the quarantine service, the Government has 53 miles. 
 For the island.s in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 455 miles. For 
 the Northwest Territories, 700 miles, and for British Columbia 
 and Yukon Territory 13GI m^les. 
 
 The Government lines are used by the Government for 
 purposes connected with quarantine, the fisheries and the 
 fisheries protection service. Daily reports are sent from the 
 63 stations in connection with the fisheries of the several 
 Eastern Provinces to one central station where the move- 
 ments of the fish are charted and then telegraphed to the 
 principal fishing localities of the provinces. 
 
 The companies between them own 29,548 miles of tele- 
 graph line and 76,013 miles of wire ; have 2,591 offices and send 
 and receive 4,407,265 messages. The accommodation thus 
 afforded is equal to any country, Canada having a telegraph 
 office for each group of 2,026 persons, while the United States 
 has one for each group of 3,349, Great Britain one to every 
 3,834, France one to every 3,273, and Germany one to every 
 2,842. 
 
 The telephone system is under the control of companies, 
 62 of which fairly enough cover the ground. The returns 
 from 37 of these show than in 1898 there were 1,369 offices, 
 43,547 sets of instruments, 70,430 miles of wire on 19,211 
 miles of poles, and that the number of messages sent was 
 
CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 13S 
 
 about ninety million. The telephone system is largely utilized 
 throughout Canada in the rural districts, the farmers by 
 means of it being put in close touch with the markets, to their 
 very great beneiit. 
 
 INSURANCE. 
 
 When men have ships at sea or valuable buildings on land 
 or families they wish to provide for and arc able to afford the 
 expenditure, they effect insurance, fire, marine, life, accident, 
 etc. 
 
 In many respects, therefore, insurance is a test of 
 advancement. 
 
 The companies doing ousiness in insurance in Canada 
 are obliged to procure a license from tlie Dominion authorities 
 authorizing them to transact business. Before the license 
 can be issued, securities to the amount of $50,000 if a Cana- 
 dian company, and $100,000 if incorporated outside of Canada 
 must be deposited with the government to ensure the per- 
 formance of their obligations by the companies. 
 
 The Superintendent of Insurance has (1899) 100 com- 
 panies under his supervision. 
 
 44 of these do Life insurance business. 
 
 Life insurance (ass,essment plan). 
 
 Fire insurance business. 
 
 Inland marine " 
 
 Ocean marine " 
 
 Accident insurance " 
 
 Guarantee " " 
 
 Steam boiler " " 
 
 Plate glass " «< 
 
 Burglary guarantee insurance business. 
 
 Registered mail " " 
 
 Sickness " « 
 
 It was not till 1 804 that Canadians deemed themselves 
 wealthy enough tc secure insurance against fire. 
 
 The first company to offer insurance against fire to the 
 people of Canada was the Phoenix of London, which began 
 
 7 
 36 
 6 
 2 
 9 
 5 
 1 
 4 
 J 
 3 
 3 
 
 « 
 
ii 
 
 186 CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 business in Halifax in 1804. The first bill relating to fire 
 insurance in Ontario — then Upper Canada — was passed in 
 1831. 
 
 In the first year of Confederation, year ended June 30th, 
 1868, the amount at risk in the several companies reporting 
 to the Dominion Government was equal to $56 per head of the 
 then population. In 1871 it was $65 ; in 1881, $107 ; in 1891 
 $158, and in 1898, $170. The total amount at risk increased 
 from $188,000,000 in 1869, to $895,395,000 on first January. 
 1899, an average yearly gain of $24,400,000. 
 
 The companies doing active Fire Insurance business in 
 Canada number 33 ; of 6 were Canadian, 20 British and 7 
 United States. These companies have received in premiums 
 during 30 years : 
 
 Canadian companies $ 33,742,872 
 
 United Kingdom 92,167,069 
 
 United States 14,641,161 
 
 Total $140,551,102 
 
 They have paid for losses : Canadian companies, $23,- 
 908,000 " United Kingdom companies, $62,692,519 ; United 
 States companies, $9,85i>, i82 ; a total of $96,456,010. The 
 losses paid amount to 68.63 per cent of the premiums In one 
 year (1877) a fire nearly destroyed the city of St. John, and in 
 that year tlie losses paid were $4,727,000 more than the 
 premiums received. 
 
 In 1881, the average amount of fire insurance on the 
 occupied houses of the land was $626, and in 1891 it was $883, 
 an increase of 21 per cent in the decade. It will thus be 
 seen that the use of fire insurance is very general. 
 
 In 1898 Life Insurance business was transacted by 33 
 active companies, 15 Canadian, 8 United Kingdom and 10 
 United States. 
 
 The total amount in force at the end of 1898 was $368,- 
 523,985, which was an increase for the year of $24,512,000, 
 the new business in 1898 amounting to $54,764,700. 
 
 The total amount effected in 1869 was $12,854,132, so 
 fiiat since Confederation the life insurance effected per annum 
 
 < 
 
VA iVA D I A N II A XJJ 11 OK. 
 
 137 
 
 < 
 
 has increased over four times. In the same period the total 
 amount of life insurance in force increased from S35,7 00,000 
 in 1869 to $368,500,000, or more than 10 times. 
 
 This has not been occasioned by an increase in the 
 amount of insurance effected per individual so much as it has 
 Isen by the more general employment of life insurance. In 
 1878 there were 50,781 policies in force having an average 
 value of $1,670 ; in 1898 there were 214,700 policies in force 
 with an average value of $1,659. 
 
 The development of tlie insurance business in all its 
 branches is a fair index of the development of Canada in all 
 the ways in which the growth of nations expresses itself. In 
 1869 the total premiums paid by the people for the various 
 forms of protection of life and property the subject of 
 insurance were under four milliondollars. In 1898 the amount 
 paid in premiums was over 22 million dollo.rs. 
 
 Since Confederation the people of Canada have indulged 
 largely in tiie luxury of insurance in all its forms, having paid 
 in all 3:50 million dollars hi the form of premiums. 
 
 The amounts deposited by the companies with the Govern- 
 ment and with trustees for the protection of assui'ers, made 
 up at the end of 1898 the sum of $34,154,000, distributed : Fire 
 and Inland Marine, $6,347,470 ; Life, $26,899,000 ; Accident, 
 Guarantee, etc., $907,087. 
 
 For the protection of the shipping that resorts to our 
 harbors, and for the development of the St. Lawrence River 
 as a route to the interior of this continent, and as part of the 
 great C;inadian highway between Europe and Asia, the coun- 
 try has supplied itself with securities to navigation rendering 
 the several approaches to Canada from the Atlantic and from 
 the Pacific oceans as safe as the approaches to any of the 
 great ocean terminals in any part of the world. 
 
 The light-house system of Canada is free for all nations 
 without payment of dues of a,ny kind. It is extensive, 
 rapidly expanding, and is maintained in a high degree of 
 efficiency. 
 
m 
 
 188 
 
 CANADAJN HANDBOOK. 
 
 U, , 
 
 In 1867 there were 198 light stations, 227 light houses, 
 and two fog whistles in the Dominion, as then constituted. 
 In 189d there were 654 light stations 816 light-houses, 22 
 fog whistles, and 40 automatic fog horns. The whole number 
 of persons engaged in the outside service looking after the 
 "lights of Canada" was 1,825. 
 
 With this staff, and at an average expenditure of S870,- 
 000 a year, the ports and harbors of the sea coasts, the rivers, 
 and the Great Lakes are looked after, and rendered safe for 
 the mariner in storm and fog. There are 3,200 miles of sea 
 coast and 2,600 miles of inland coast provided with fog 
 whistles, bell buoys, automatic buoys, ordinary buoys and 
 beacons. Steel coast-buoys have been substituted for the 
 ancient wooden ones, and the districts buoyed number about 
 three hundred, with 3,000 buoys. 
 
 Gas buoys are provided in the St. Lawrence, in Pelee 
 Passage, Lake Erie, and in Parry Sound. 
 
 Seven or eight steamers are employed in this service, and 
 they are constantly on the move examining the buoys, visit- 
 ing the light-houses and the humane establishments, and 
 inspecting the lifeboat stations. 
 
 Of course many thousands of miles of Canada's coast line 
 included in the Hudson Bay line and other parts have not 
 been lighted, the requirements of navigation not yet embrac- 
 ing these regions. 
 
 i 
 
 XIII. 
 
 TRADE AND COMMERCE. 
 
 The Canadian fiscal year ends on the 30th June. Dur- 
 ing the 31 years of Confederation, from 1868 to 1898, both 
 years included, the total export and import trade of Canada 
 was $6,311,796,483, making an average of $203,606,340 a year. 
 The total external trade for the year ended 30th June, 1899, 
 was $321,661,213, an increase of 58 per cent, over the average. 
 
i 
 
 I 
 
 CANADIAN HANDBOOK. £89 
 
 The progressive development of the external trade is 
 seen in the following figures : 
 
 Annual average for 10 years, 1868-1877 $173 014 619 
 
 ii \[ 1878-1887 iy5i384,'782 
 
 Year 1898 !'''"'''' ?29,.12,671 
 
 Year 1899 ^'''"'^''^ 
 
 321,661,213 
 
 During the first ten years the total trade averaged $47.80 
 per head ; in the second period, $44.51 ; in the IhTrd period 
 $46.47 ; in 1898, $58.02, and in 1899 it was $60.55. 
 
 The imports during the first ten years averaged $27 06 
 per head ; during the second. $24.15 ; during the third. $24 28. 
 In 1898 they were $26.74 per head and in 1899 $30.64 per 
 head. ^ 
 
 The dutiable imports averaged $17.26 per head in the 
 first ten years, $18.11 in the second, and $15.65 in the third 
 ot the decades. In 1898 they were $16.03 per head and 
 m 1899 $18,51. The imports free from duty averaged $9.81 
 per head in the first ten years, $6.04 in the second, and $8 63 
 in the third. In 1898 they were $10.71 pe.- head and in 1899 
 $12.13. 
 
 The percentage of dutiable imports to the total was, in 
 the first period, 66.2 per cent.; in the second, 75.9 per cent • 
 m the third, 65.2 per cent. In 1898 it was 90 per cent., and 
 in 1899 60.42 per cent. 
 
 Dividing the articles imported into classes, the results of 
 analysis are : 
 
 A— Articles of food and animals, annual average, 21 years $20,470 000 
 
 Tj ,J! , . '' " year 1898 23,'798,'422 
 
 ±5— Articles in a crude condition, annual average. 21 years ...- 18,879,223 
 
 p ,'', , '' ," year 1898 25,627,068 
 
 C— Articles wholly or partly manufactured for use as ma- 
 terials in manufacturing, annual average, 21 years . . 15,442,002 
 
 T, ,/' . '' . " year 1898 23,858,106 
 
 D-Manufactured articles ready for consumption, annual 
 
 ,, average,^ 21 years 38,408,800 
 
 „ , ,. , '' " year 1898 43,750,240 
 
 i!.— Artioles of voluntary use and luxuries, annual average, 21 
 
 „ y^^ 8,967,080 
 
 " year 1898 9,27o,326 
 
m 
 
 140 CAXADIAN IIASDliOOK. 
 
 In tho iHt claag (A) the free goods averaged, 21 yearH $ 7,445,661 
 
 " " " year 1898 11,236,381 
 
 In the 2ud claws (B) " " 21 years 14,239,620 
 
 " " year 1898 21,333,213 
 
 In the 3rd class (C) " " 21 years 5,1*72,040 
 
 " " year 1898 11,139,533 
 
 In the 4th class (D) " " 21 years 5,291,820 
 
 " " year 1898 7,591,085 
 
 In the 5th class (E) " " 21 years 282,833 
 
 " " " year 1897 381,862 
 
 The customs duties in Canada are levied on the invoice 
 
 values of the articles. 
 
 By classes these duties are: 
 
 Class A — Customs duties, annual average, 21 years. $3,850,057 
 
 " " year 1898 ". 3,247,735 
 
 Class B— " annual average, 21 years 878,700 
 
 " year 1898 1,173,296 
 
 Class C — '■ annual average, 21 years 2,355,870 
 
 " yeurlS9S 2,850,158 
 
 Class D — " annual average, 21 yeai-s 8,444,147 
 
 " " year 1898 9,986,684 
 
 Cla.<s E — " annual average, 21 years 3,954,988 
 
 " year 1898 4,899,915 
 
 The principal articles imported in Class A are breadstuffs, 
 fruits, provisions, sugars, tea. 
 
 The principal articles in Class B are coal, cotton, wool, 
 drugs and dyes, fur skins, hides, ores of metals, hemp (un- 
 dressed), logs (round and manufactured), timber, crude rubber, 
 seeds, raw silk, unmanufactured tobacco and raw wool. 
 
 The pi'incipal imports under Class C are brass, cement, 
 copper, cottons, drugs and chemicals, furs, iron and steel, jute 
 cloth and yarn, lead, leather, lumber and timber, marble, 
 metals, oils, paints and colors,, plaits (straw), potash, India 
 rubber (elastic webbing), salt, stone, wood, woollen goods, 
 and zinc. 
 
 The principal articles in class D are agricultural imple- 
 ments, printed books and periodicals, brass manufactures, 
 brooms and brushes, buttons, carriages, waggons, bicycles, 
 clocks and clock cases, combs, copper manufactures, corks, 
 
L 
 
 CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 141 
 
 cottons, earthenware and ohina, electric meters and motors 
 fishing lines and twines, fur (manufactured), flax hemp and 
 jute manufactures, gloves and mitts, gunpowder and other 
 explosives, gutta percha manufactures, hats, caps and bonnets, 
 iron and steel manufactures, lead manufactures, leather manu- 
 factures, -letal manufactures, optical instruments, paper 
 manufactures, printing presses, ships' boilers, soap, telephone 
 instruments, twines, watches, webbing, wood manufactures 
 and woollen manufactures. 
 
 In class E the principal imports are ale, beer and por tor, 
 carpets, uncoloured cotton fabrics, curtains, fancy goods, '^u\d 
 and silver manufactures, jewellery, musical instruments, paint- 
 ings, drawings and engravings, silk manufactures, spirits and 
 wines and manufactured tobacco. 
 
 The countries from which Canada chieHy imports what 
 she wants are: Great Britain and other parts of the British 
 Empire and the United States. From these two countries 
 Canada obtained in 1899 $U1,568,5S5. leaving $21,195,723 
 for all other countries to supply. Germany supplied $7,382,499; 
 France, $3,879,872, and all other countries, $9,933,352, of 
 which amount China, Japan, Belgium and Spain sent $5,590,- 
 085. 
 
 In the ten year period, 1889 to 1899, the countries from 
 which Canada imported stood relatively as follows : 
 
 1889 Imported from British Empire 49.61 percent 
 
 " Foreign Countries 5D.39 " 
 
 1899 " British Empire 35.90 " 
 
 " " Foreign Countries 7i.lO " 
 
 In 1897 the Dominion of Canada provided a preferential 
 tariff, under which goods coming from Great Britain and some 
 other Treaty Powers should be admitted at a lower rate than 
 those ot other countries. The Parliament of Canada in 1898 
 made a change in the preferential tariff clause, by which 
 imports from Great Britain, the British West Indies and other 
 portions of the Empire, come into Canada on payment of a 
 duty of customs 25 per cent, less than that levied on foreign 
 countries. This came into operation on 1st August, 1898. 
 
i 
 
 III 
 
 142 CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 The total export trade of the Dominion during thirty- 
 two years amounts to $3,075,216,073, including domestic and 
 foreign produce and coin and bul' a. Of this amount 
 $299,614,727 represents foreign experts and $178,522,376 
 coin and bullion and short returns, leaving $2,597,078,970 ab 
 the domestic export of Canada to be analyzed. 
 
 This export trade is divided as under : 
 
 Export of the Mine $ 155,418,071 
 
 " " Fislieries 224,948,542 
 
 " Forest 19-?,1»88,750 
 
 " Animals •oojrnnQPo/ 420,893,S4n 
 
 " Agricnitnre !?.»-4,G00,8-2| 503,700,973 
 
 " Manufactures 1,078,508,380 
 
 *• Miscellaneous 11,114,405 
 
 Total 2,597,078,970 
 
 The extractive industries, namely, agriculture, mining, 
 forest and tishing of Canada, have had in thirty-two years an 
 exportable surplus of $1,507,956,185; the mechanical industries 
 an exportable surplus of $1,078,008,380. 
 
 Thus the extractive industries contributed 68.1 percent 
 and the constructive industries 41.1 per cent, of the value of 
 the exports of the country. 
 
 Taking them in their several branches, mines contributed 
 6 per cent. ; fisheries, 9 per cent. ; forest, 7 4 per cent. ; animals 
 and their products, 16.3 per cent. ; agriculture, 19.3 per cent. 
 
 The following analysis will show the component parts of 
 the exports of manufactured articles : 
 
 Export of Cheese $ 235,018,037 
 
 " Butter 62,172,477 
 
 " Flour 64,445,470 
 
 " Wood 581,936,071 
 
 " Ships 17,264,450 
 
 •♦ Other • 117,171,875 
 
 Total , $1,078,008,380 
 
 Of these exports, $361,635,984, representing butter,cheese 
 and flour, are allied to and dependent on agriculture, and 
 $599,200,521 are based on the out-put of our forests. 
 

 CANADIAN UAXDliOOK. 
 
 14J 
 
 tliese lines has 
 
 In a word, the sum of $1,286,236,806 represents the value 
 of Canada's exports connected with the farm, and hhe sum of 
 $79ii.l89,271, the value of her exports connected vith the 
 forest, leaving $518,652,898 to represent the value of the ex- 
 ports of the mines, the fisheries, marufactures allied with them 
 and " miscellaneous." 
 
 Thus about 50 per cent, of our exportable surplus is due 
 to our agricultural development ; 30 per cent, to our forest 
 wealth and 20 per cent, to our mineral deposits, our fisheries 
 and other sources. 
 
 The devtsljpment of the country alon< 
 been rapid. 
 
 Our total exports of home produce in I8G8 amounted to 
 $45,600,000, and in 1899 to $133,000,000. 
 
 Our exports of cheese in 1868 were $620,543, and in 1899 
 $16,776,765; of flour in 1868, $2,284,488, and in 1899 
 $3,105,288. 
 
 The exports of wheat and flour in 1868 were equal to 
 3,500,000 bushels, and in 1899 to 14,000,000 bushels. The 
 exports of gold-bearing quartz, nuggets and dust, in 1868 
 were valued at $15,814, and in 1899 they were worth 
 $3,272,702. 
 
 The total produce of the mines exported in 18t)8 had a 
 value of $1,276,000, and in 1899 of $13,368,150. 
 
 With respect to the destinations of these exports Great 
 Britain takes 61^ per cent, or considerably more than one-half 
 of all our exports of domestic growth and manufacture. 
 
 The changes which have taken place in a ten year period 
 are: 
 
 Exports to British Empire 41.7 p.c. 65.5 p.'c. 
 
 " Foreign Countries 58.3 '< 34.5 <• ' 
 
 In 1889 the exports of Canada were considerably less to 
 tho Empire than to foreign countries. 
 
 In 1899 about 13/20ths of the exports of Canadian pro 
 duce went to the other portions of the British Empire. 
 
l1i 
 
 144 
 
 CANADIAN HANDBOOK'. 
 
 I ■■ 
 
 The exports of Canada were equal to 817.07 per head of 
 the population in 1868, and in 1899 they were $29.91 per 
 head. 
 
 The Empire brought from and sold to Canada in 1877 
 i$80,980.225, and in 1899 S130,4()0,934, an incroaso of trade 
 both absolutely and relatively, the trade having increased 
 faster than the population. 
 
 XIV. 
 
 THE CITIES OF CANADA. 
 
 The cities and towns of Canada, having over 5,000 inhab- 
 itants, and their increases during the decennial periods, given 
 below, show the development which urban life has attained in 
 this country. 
 
 Toronto . 
 
 Qubbec 
 
 Hamilton 
 
 Ottawa , 
 
 St. John 
 
 Halifax 
 
 London 
 
 Winnipeg 
 
 Kingcton 
 
 Victoria 
 
 Viinconver . . . , 
 
 ►St. Henri 
 
 Brant ford 
 
 Cliarlottetown 
 
 Hull 
 
 Giielph 
 
 St. Tlioniaa . . . 
 
 Windsor 
 
 Slierbroolie. . . . 
 
 Belloville 
 
 Peterborough . 
 
 1871 
 
 Alontroal 107,225 
 
 5G,0!)2 
 .'59,699 
 26,716 
 21.545 
 28.805 
 29,582 
 15,826 
 241 
 12,407 
 3,270 
 
 8, '07 
 8,807 
 
 ' 6,878' 
 2,197 
 4,25.3 
 4,4H2 
 7,305 
 4,611 
 
 ISSl 
 
 15r),2,S7 
 90,196 
 62.446 
 35,960 
 31,307 
 41,353 
 36 101) 
 26 2(;6 
 
 7 985 
 14 091 
 
 5,925 
 
 ""6 4i.5' 
 
 9.616 
 
 11485 
 
 6 890 
 
 9 890 
 
 8 367 
 
 6 561 
 
 7 227 
 
 9 516 
 6,812 
 
 1891 
 
 216,650 
 181,220 
 63,090 
 48,980 
 44,154 
 39,179 
 38,556 
 31,977 
 25,642 
 19,264 
 16,841 
 13,()S5 
 13,415 
 12,753 
 11,374 
 11.265 
 10,539 
 10,370 
 10,322 
 10,110 
 9,914 
 9,717 
 
b- 
 
 }n 
 in 
 
 •T. 
 
 ■A 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 ■r, 
 
 > 
 
 a: 
 O 
 
 in 
 
 D 
 O 
 
 H 
 
 O 
 
In 
 
 III 
 
CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 145 
 
 Stratford 
 
 Ste. Cunegonde. . 
 iSt. Catharines. .. 
 
 Cliatham 
 
 Brock vi lie 
 
 Moiicton 
 
 Woods' )ck 
 
 Trols Rivieres . . , 
 
 Gait 
 
 Owen Sound 
 
 Berlin 
 
 Levis 
 
 St. Hyacinthe . . . 
 
 Cornwall 
 
 Sarnia 
 
 Sorel 
 
 New Westminster 
 
 Fredericton 
 
 Dartmouth 
 
 Yarmouth 
 
 Lindsay 
 
 Barrie 
 
 Valleyfield , 
 
 Truro 
 
 Port Hope 
 
 1871 
 
 1881 
 
 4,313 
 
 ' V'.soV 
 
 5,873 
 5,102 
 
 3^982 
 
 7,570 
 3,8-7 
 3,3(ii) 
 2,743 
 6,691 
 3,746 
 
 '2,929 
 5,636 
 
 6,606 
 
 4,(149 
 3,393 
 
 5,114 
 
 8,239 
 4 849 
 9,631 
 
 r,8-3 
 
 7.009 
 
 5,032 
 
 5,373 
 
 8,670 
 
 5,187 
 
 4.420 
 
 4,054 
 
 7,597 
 
 5,321 
 
 4,468 
 
 3,874 
 
 5,791 
 
 1,500 
 
 6,218 
 
 3,7c'<6 
 
 3,485 
 
 5,080 
 
 4,854 
 
 3,906 
 
 3,461 
 
 5,581 
 
 1891 
 
 9,501 
 
 9,293 
 
 9,170 
 
 9,054 
 
 8,793 
 
 8,765 
 
 8,612 
 
 8,334 
 
 7,535 
 
 7,497 
 
 7,425 
 
 7,301 
 
 7,016 
 
 6,805 
 
 6,693 
 
 6,609 
 
 6,641 
 
 6,502 
 
 6,249 
 
 6,089 
 
 6,081 
 
 5,550 
 
 5,516 
 
 5,102 
 
 5,042 
 
 MONTREAL 
 
 is the chief city of Canada. It is built upon a series of 
 terraces, marking the former levels of the river, and is 
 nearly four miles long by two broad. Mount Royal, which 
 rises 700 feet above the river level, forms a magnificent back- 
 ground to the busy city. The estimated value of real estate 
 within Montreal is $180,000,000. It has increased in popula- 
 tion since 1891, both by annexation of adjacent municipalities 
 and by natural increase, and contains now a population of 
 about 2.50,000. Its hotels and public buildings are fine, and 
 Dr. W. H. Russell years ago pronounced its quays " imperial 
 in their proportions." 
 
 Fifteen lines of steamships trade regularly to the port. 
 
 I 
 
146 CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 The statistics of the business of the port are as follow 
 
 YEARS. 
 
 1850 
 
 1880 
 18>5 
 1890 
 1895 
 1898 
 
 si:a-goinci 
 
 
 VliSSELS 
 
 TOTAL 
 
 ARKIVED. 
 
 TONNAGE. 
 
 211 
 
 46,156 ; 
 
 710 
 
 628,271 
 
 029 
 
 683,854 
 
 740 
 
 930,332 
 
 640 
 
 1,069,3S6 
 
 868 
 
 1,584,072 
 
 MERCHANDISE 
 EXPORTED. 
 
 MERCHANDISE 
 IMI'ORTED. 
 
 $ 1,744,7"2 
 30,2;J4,9(I4 
 25.274,898 
 32,027,176 
 40,348,197 
 62,729,180 
 
 $ 7,174,780 
 37,103 869 
 37,403,250 
 45,lo9,124 
 41 ,Si96,686 
 61,117,703 
 
 Montreal is the centre of the great railway systems of 
 Canada. The Grand Trunk, Canadian Pacific and Canadian 
 Government railways have their headquarters in this city. 
 The Central Vermont and South-Eastern railways connect 
 the two systems first mentioned with the railways of the 
 Eastern and Central United States. Besides these, there are 
 several minor roads centering in Montreal. It is the most 
 important manufacturing city in the Dominion, having large 
 and varied industries, which give employment to many 
 thousands of artizans. 
 
 TORONTO 
 
 is the largest city on the Canadian side of the great lakes. It 
 is the seat of the law oouits, and the centre of education for 
 the great Province of Ontario. Entered by six railways, con- 
 verging from different points of the compass, possessing a fine 
 harbour, situated in the centre of a rich agricultural district, 
 and being at once the religious, educational, political, literary, 
 legal, and commercial cent.-e of the most populous province 
 of the Federation, it has advanced with great rapidity. Its 
 population in 1898 was 186,500. Its growth is manifest by 
 the returns. The value of assessed property in 1878 was 
 $49,053,765, for 1886 it was $72,721,559, and for 1898, 
 $126,681,312. 
 
CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 147 
 
 QUEBEC. 
 The city of Quebec is passing through a period in its 
 history, such as all the old garrison towns of Canada have 
 passed through since the withdrawal of British troops. In 
 addition it has had to experience the sharp rivalry of Montreal, 
 made the keener in consequence of the improvement of the 
 channel between the two cities. The effects were seen in the 
 small increase in the population in 1891, compared with the 
 previous census taking. The construction of railways, and 
 the development of manufactures and interprovincial trade 
 during the last twelve or fifteen years, have given the Ancient 
 Capital a fresh start. The extent to which it has suffered 
 through the successful absorption of its trade by Montreal, 
 may be judged from the fact that while, in 1876, the tonnage 
 entered outwards for sea was 711,386 tons, in 1898 it was but 
 461,174 tons ; Montreal in the same years increasing from 
 368,925 tons in 1876, to 1,131,379 tons in 1898. The Canadian 
 Pacific Railway has recently extended its facilities to Quebec, 
 thus connecting it directly with the great Northwest by rail. 
 
 OTHER CITIES. 
 
 The chief cities in the Maritime Provinces are Halifax 
 and St. John. Both are fine ocean ports. The harbour of 
 Halifax is pronounced the finest among the great harbours of 
 the Empire. It is easy of access for ships of every class, and 
 capacious enough to afford anchorage for the navies of all 
 Europe. It runs inland over fifteen miles, and, after passing 
 the city, suddenly expands into Bedford Basin, a beautiful 
 sheet of water, covering an area of nine square miles, com- 
 pletely land-locked. Halifax is the chief naval station of 
 British North America, and the only city now occupied by 
 Imperial ti'oops. The city and harbour are protected by 
 eleven different fortifications, armed with powerful batteries. 
 Large stores of munitions of war of all kinds, including tor- 
 pedoes, are kept there by the Imperial Government. It has 
 of late years made rapid strides in manufacturing. St. John, 
 the commercial capital of the Province of New Brunswick, is 
 
 •a.' 
 
148 
 
 CAX^tDIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 l|; 
 
 - ' 
 
 admirably situated at the mouth of the lliver St. John, has a 
 harbour open all the year round, regular steam communication 
 with all parts, and railways running east, west, and north. 
 It has extensive maritime and manufacturing interests, and is 
 the centre of the lumber trade of the country watered by the 
 St. John River. It sutlered severely in 1877 from afire which 
 reduced the business protion to ashes, but with characteristic 
 energy the people set to work to rebuild their city, and it now 
 forms an active, progressive community. The population of 
 Halifax is now 45,000, and of St. John 48,000. 
 
 According to the census of 1891 Hamilton was the fourth 
 ^nost populous city in Canada. It is one of the most rapidly 
 growing and enterprising cities in the Dominion, beautifully 
 situated on the south-western curve of Burlington Bay, at the 
 western extremity of Lake Ontario, and has superior facilities 
 for becoming a large manufacturing city, being accessible 
 from all points by I'ailway and lake navigation, and being 
 situated in the centre of the finest grain-producing region of 
 Ontario. 
 
 London, the westernmost city in Ontario, is splendidly 
 situated on the River Thames, in the County of Middlesex. 
 Sixty years ago its present site was a wilderness ; now it is a 
 fine city, regularly laid out, having wide streets well built 
 upon with handsome buildings. It has good railway com- 
 munication with all parts of Canada. The aim of its founders 
 was to reproduce in Canada tlie names associated with ilie 
 London. Accordingly, it has its Pall Mall, Oxford, Waterloo, 
 and Clarence streets ; Westminster and Blackf riars bridges. 
 London (Canada) is surrounded by a rich agricultural -country, 
 furnishing it with a large trade in wheat and other pro luce. 
 Within its borders, ai'e numerous manufactories, mills, machine 
 shops, foundries, breweries, banks, ^isylums, colleges, etc. 
 
 Ottawa, the seat of the Federal Government, is the 
 entrepot of the great lumber t^ade, of the Ottawa River and 
 its tributaries, and on the piling grounds around the Chaudiere 
 falls there is always a stock of lumber estimated at 12.'),000,- 
 000 feet. To keep these filled to their fullest capacity a 
 
CAXADIAX HANDBOOK. 
 
 149 
 
 id 
 re 
 
 a 
 
 number of mills cluster around the falls, employinj^, some of 
 them, over a thousand men ; supplied with the finest ma- 
 chinery ; lighted with powerful electric lights, by the aid of 
 which, work, during the season, in maintained without ceas- 
 ing both day and night. The extent of the lumber trade of 
 this region, of which Ottawa is the centre, may be estimated 
 by the fact that, during the past sixteen years, an annual 
 average of 3,785,000 pine logs has passed down from the 
 Upper Ottawa and its tributr.ries. The city itself is also 
 lighted by electricity. Its population is 56,000. 
 
 The buildings beloncjing to the Federal Government are 
 the chief attraction of Ottawa ; the main one, situated on a 
 high bluff which juts out into the Ottawa river, is the Parlia- 
 mentary. It contains the Senate Chamber and House of Com- 
 mons. Tiie dimensians of these halls are the same as those of 
 the House of Lords, viz., 80 by 45 feet ; they are lighted by 
 the electric light. The whole building, which is 5C0 feet in 
 length, is constructed of a light-colored sandstone, the walls 
 and arches being relieved witli cut stone dressings of sand- 
 stone, and with red sandstone. The library, a circular build- 
 ing, constructed after the plan of the library of the British 
 Museum, has a dome 90 feet high, and is in the rear of the 
 central tower, which is 250 feet high. 
 
 Separated from the main building, and distant from either 
 end about a hundred yards, are the two departmental build- 
 ings, each with a front of 375 feet in length. The growth 
 of departmental business, occasioned by the development of 
 the Northwest, has rendered necessary the construction of a 
 third departmental building, which has a front of 287 feet in 
 length. The buildings together cover about four acres and 
 cost over 85,000,000. 
 
 Ottawa is well connected with the rest of the Dominion 
 by railways, which run in every direction, north, south, east 
 and west. As illustrative of the extent of countrj'^ governed 
 from Ottawa, the distance of some of the cities and towns of 
 Canada from the capital maybe given: Battleford (North- 
 west Territories), 2,328 miles; Calgary (Northwest Territories), 
 
150 
 
 CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 % 
 
 2,141; Winnipfig (Manitoba), 1,302; Victoria (British Col- 
 umbia), 2,871 ; Toronto, 261 ; London, 377. These are western 
 cities. Turning eastward, Halifax is 978 miles distant from 
 Otta\\^a ; St. John, 835 ; Charlottetown (Prince Edward 
 Island), 1,060 ; Montreal, 120; and Quebec, 279 miles. By the 
 aid of railways and telegraph lines, cities as far apart as 
 Charlottetown and Victoria arc within hailing distance of the 
 the Capital. 
 
 Victoria, the capital of British C^olumbia, is a thriving 
 city with a winter population of 24,000. Tiie seal-fur, sal- 
 mon canning, fish and lumber trades have been greatly deve- 
 loped during recent years, and the harbors of Victoria and 
 Esquimalt are thronged with shipping, to an extent un- 
 known a few years ago — an earnest of the business that will 
 be done there in the near future. The scenery is marvellous- 
 ly fine ; the climate salubrious, and sport abundant. It 
 boasts of being the most English town in Canada. It has 
 direct steam communication with San Francisco. A sub- 
 marine cable across the Gulf of Georgia connects it with the 
 main land, and thence with the other Canadian cities. The 
 telephone system and electric light have been introduced, as 
 is the case in most of the cities of Canada. 
 
 The following is the official statements of assessed values, 
 excluding exemptions: 1880, $2,681,250 ; 1885, $5,178,800 ; 
 1890, S9,367,600; 1895, Sl6,757,805 ; 1898, $17,051,010. 
 
 Vancouver is one of the rapidly growing cities of the 
 west coast. In 1886 it was practically non-existent. In 1889 
 it had a population of 5000 and an assessed value of property 
 of $2,639,077. In 1898 the population was 25,000 and its 
 assessment $14,949,000. 
 
 Rossland is another of the rapidly growing towns of the 
 mining regions of Canada. It was a town of 1000 inhabit- 
 ants in 1895 and in 1898 it had a population of 7000 with an 
 assessed value of $1,440,000. 
 
 The city of Winnipeg is of recent growth. Its popula- 
 tion in 1871 was 241 ; in 1881, 7,985, and in 1891, 25,600. In 
 
CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 161 
 
 1898, its population was 393,840 and the assessed value of 
 property S22,852.000. 
 
 The city is lighted by electricity and gas. It has good 
 banking facilities, hotel accommodations, street cars, and 
 complete water and drainage systems. The main street, 100 
 feet wide, is paved with cedar blocks, over two miles in length 
 and is one of the liandsomest streets in Canada. The city, 
 like nearly all Canadian cities, is provided with the electric 
 fire alarm system, and the equipment of the fire brigade is 
 complete. 
 
 XV. 
 
 In 
 
 NEWSPAPERS. 
 
 There may have been a prititing press in Canada before 
 the country was ceded to Great Britain in 1763. If there 
 was, it was here only temporarily and was taken back to 
 France before the English took possession. 
 
 There was a printing press in Halifax, Nova Scotia, and 
 from it a newspaper was issued early in 1752. In Quebec the 
 first published newspaper was issued in mid-summer, 1764. 
 New Brunswick followed in 1785; Prince Edward Island in 
 1791. Upper Canada (now Ontario) did not rejoice in a 
 newspaper till 1793. British Columbia sought enlightenment 
 from newspapers first in 1858 ; the Northwest Territories in 
 1859, and Manitoba in 1872. The Yukon Territory had 
 papers for the first time in 1898 — the " Klondike Nugget" 
 and the " Midnight Sun." 
 
 In 1855 there were about 100 publications in the shape 
 of periodicals and political newspapers, of which about 30 
 were published in Lower Canada, and the others in tlie sev- 
 eral provinces now constituting the Dommion, by far the 
 greater number in Upper Canada, now Ontario. 
 
 The census of Canada for 1851 gives the number of 
 compositors at 900. The census of 1891 gives the number at 
 6,650. 
 
152 
 
 CANADIAN HANDBOOK, 
 
 In 1885 Canada had G46 newspapers and periodicals 
 published within her borders. 
 
 Of the GJ-f) papers published in 1885, daily were 71; tri- 
 weekly, semi, bi, and weekly, 484; semi-monthly, 13, and 
 monthly, 73. 
 
 In 1808 the total periodical press equipment of the coun- 
 try was 1,219 publications. Of these 113 were issued daily 
 or oftener, 855 were semi, bi and weekly papers, and 251 
 were semi-monthly and monthly. 
 
 In 1885 there were 7 journals published in German, 51 
 (of which 15 were daily) in French, the remainder being in 
 English. In 1898 there were 98 (of which 8 were daily) 
 published in French, 9 published in German, 1 in Danish, 1 in 
 Swedish, 3 in Icelandic, 1 in Gaelic, 1 in Chinook, and 1 
 which employs three languages, Cree (Indian), French and 
 English. 
 
 According to provinces the number of newspapers and 
 periodicals were: 
 
 Ontario 
 
 Qiu'boc 
 
 Nova Scotia 
 
 Ntnv Brunswick 
 
 Manitoba 
 
 Pr in CO Edward Island 
 
 British Colmnhia 
 
 Northwest Territories 
 
 1S85. 
 
 1S08. 
 
 300 
 
 Gr,3 
 
 ii:? 
 
 187 
 
 4(J 
 
 02 
 
 38 
 
 m 
 
 2G 
 
 101 
 
 11 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 (iO 
 
 6 
 
 30 
 
 [ncrcase. 
 
 ()7.4 
 
 fio.5 
 100.0 
 
 47 4 
 200.0 
 
 37.0 
 725.0 
 55(5.0 
 
 Naturally the increase in the newer provinces is propor- 
 tionately greater than in the older. 
 
 The provinces of Ontario and Quebec hold relatively 
 nearly the same position as they did in 1885. 
 
 The journals published in the English language in the 
 Province of Quebec number 104, viz.: 8 daily, 54 weekly, 7 
 semi-weekly, 32 monthlies and 3 quarterlies. The French 
 
CA XADFA .V HA XDBOOK. 
 
 153 
 
 papers publishetl in Queboc Province numbered 82, namely: 
 8 d lily, 42 weekly, 5 somi-weokly, 24 monthly and 3 semi- 
 monthly. 
 
 Ontario had only five journals published in French. 
 
 A fair index of the mental activities of the Canadian 
 people is afforded by the newspapers of the various interests 
 of the land. Class journals have increased very considerably. 
 In 1885 there were 22 departments of knowledge represented 
 by 44 journals. In 1898 there were more than double the 
 interests, and these were represented by 338 journals advo- 
 cating special intot'jsts, as paper, groceries, fruit, gold and 
 coal mining, dairying, bee-keeping, and iron. 
 
 According to the census returns there were, in 1871, 308 
 printing offices, employing 3,497 hands, and having iui in- 
 vested capital of S2,lo8,000. 
 
 In 1881 there wore 394 printing offices, employing, in all, 
 5,311 hands, and having an invested capital of $4',291,13G. 
 
 In 1891 there were 589 printing offices, employing, in all, 
 7,705 hinds, and having an invested capital of li?8,()89,G86. 
 
 The printing presses of Canada are employed not only 
 to print the periodical papers, but also to print books, etc. 
 The number of copyrights issued affords some indication of 
 the mental activity of the people. In 18G8 these were 31 in 
 number, and in 1898 they were 734. Among the works 
 printed and copyrighted in Canada in 1898 were 23 works 
 on history, 15 on biography, 30 on science, 6 on economics, 
 33 on law and jurisprudence, 25 on theology, 52 on education, 
 1] on voyages, travels, etc., and 34 novels and romances. 
 
 These by no means represent the full measure of the 
 intellectual condition of the people of Canada, since, under 
 the present copyright law, books are introduced into the 
 Canadian market which are copyrighted in otiier countries. 
 Thus, in the year 1899 the importation of books amounted to 
 r/ 50,000. 
 
If !' 
 
 154 CANADIAN HANDnOOK. 
 
 XVI. 
 
 ANIMAL LIFE AND HUNTING GROUNDS. 
 
 Canada has long been looked upon as the sportsman's 
 paradise, possessing as it does so large a share of indigenous 
 animals. The stringent game laws of the Old World are 
 modiKed here, such laws of the kind as do exist having refer- 
 ence to the " close," or breeding season. Game here is common 
 property ; it affords food for the settler, s^iort for tiie disciple 
 of St. Hubert, and the hunter and trapper each Hud pecuniary 
 profit in its pursuit. 
 
 Wild beasts, or beasts of prey, such as panthers, wolves 
 and bears, although formerly abundant, are now rarely to be 
 found, except in the depths of the great northern forests, or 
 in the fastnesses of the mountain ranges. In tu almost un^ 
 trodden depths of the Rocky Mountains and the Selkirk 
 range in the Far West, abundant trophies of the chase can yet 
 be obtained by the adventurous sportsman who may turn his 
 steps in that direction. 
 
 The waters of Canada teem with wild fowl in the spring 
 and autumn, especially during the latter season, when migra- 
 ting to winter quarters in the South ; and, as to the finny 
 tribe, nowhere else on the American side of the Atlantic, can 
 such fishing be had as the various provinces of the Dominion 
 afford. 
 
 To present to view as concisely as possible the advan- 
 tages Canada offers to the sportsman, it will be well to give a 
 description of the various kinds of animals and of the chief 
 hunting grounds. 
 
 Of wild animals, then, there are the panther, wild cat, 
 lynx, fox, wolf, bear, moose, cariboo, elk, deer, antelope, moun- 
 tain goat, mountain sheep, musk ox, buffalo, squirrel, marmot, 
 hare, rabbit, porcupine, raccoon and badger. Of fur-bearing 
 animals, there are the fisher, sable, weasel, ermine, mink, wol- 
 verine, otter, skunk, beaver, and, on the sea coast, the seal. 
 
 Of feathered game, there are grouse (known here as par- 
 tridge), prairie fowl, quail, geese, ducks, swans, brant, curlew, 
 
 rM\ 
 
CA XA DIA N HA SDBOOK. 
 
 155 
 
 snipe, woodcock, plover, pigeon, cranes; whilst of hawks, 
 eagles, owls, crows, and other carrion birds, there are many 
 varieties. Of smaller birds, beautiful either in plumage or for 
 song, there is a vast abundance during the summer, and the 
 ornithologist may revel to his heart's content in collecting 
 specimens of great beauty. 
 
 Of fish there are, in the bays and harbours of the coast, 
 mackerel, herring, cod, haddock, halibut (a species of enormous 
 turbob), hake, pollock, shad, smelt, and eels, whilst of shell- 
 tish and lobsters there is an abundant supply. The rivers 
 connecting with the sea on both the Atlantic and Pacific 
 coast contain splendid salmon trout, whitefish, maskinonge, 
 pike, pike-perch or dor6, perch, bass, sturgeon, and a variety 
 of smaller fish, and all the mountain streams are alive with 
 brook trout. 
 
 Reptile life is not largely developed in Canada, a fact due, 
 probably, to the long period of cold weather prevalent, and, 
 apart from rattlesnakes, which are now comparatively rare, 
 there are no poisonous snakes of any consequence. Lizards 
 are not numerous, and attain no great size, but frogs and toads 
 are abundant. The Menobranchus of the great lakes, a pecu- 
 liar water lizard with external gills, and a similar reptile, the 
 Siredon, in the lakes of the Northwest, are remarkable 
 species of this class of animal life. Leeches infest the streams, 
 especially in the Northwest, where they cause much incon- 
 venience to explorers, surveyors, and others who have to 
 travel over swampy ground and through shallow pools. 
 
 Insect life is ver^' abundant during the warm season, the 
 butterflies being beautiful in colour, and the beetles remark- 
 able for their marking and brilliant hues. Years ago the locust 
 and grasshopper of the Far West, at certain recurring periods, 
 swarmed in such myriads as to be a terror to the district they 
 invaded. Bred for the most part in the arid central desert, as 
 soon as they obtain their wings they took the course of the 
 wind in their flight, and carried devastation wherever they 
 settled. During recent years there has not been a recurrence 
 of this plague of the past. Mosquitoes are the chief insect tor- 
 
m^m 
 
 156 
 
 CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 ■4 
 
 i- 
 
 mentors, but their attacks end with the dry heat of summer, 
 although they are always present in damp places. A large 
 fly, known as " the bulldog," i§ troublesome, but not abundant, 
 and flying ants are apt to prove very annoying to the tra- 
 veller over the Western plains. 
 
 Space is too limited to give more than a passing notice 
 to the larger animals respectively, and the description is not 
 written for scientific instruction, but simply for general 
 information. 
 
 The American panther, cougar, or catamount, corresponds 
 very nearly to the puma of South America. It was known 
 to the early discoverers of the New World as the American 
 lion, and was formerly abundant, but is fast disappearing 
 before civilization. It is now heard of only occasionally, and 
 then only when an unusually severe winter deprives it of its 
 prey and drives it out of the tangled swamps or the northern 
 solitudes. It is a dangerous animal to encounter, and when 
 pursued will take refuge in a tree, whence it is apt to spring 
 upon the hunter or his dogs. 
 
 The wild cat and lynx are fast disappearing in the older 
 provinces, but are common in the Far West, especially in the 
 country bordering on the Peace River. 
 
 Foxes are abundant everywhere, the common, or red fox 
 being of little value, while the cross or silver foxes are highly 
 prized, especially the latter. They are shot or trapped indis- 
 criminately, but there are several well-organized hunt ciabs 
 in the Dominion, with their packs of hounds who carry on the 
 good old sport. The kennels at Montreal are especially worthy 
 of notice, and the sportsman paying them a visit is certain to 
 receive a cordial welcome. 
 
 Wolves in the older provinces are only found on the out- 
 skirts of settlement, but, unless met with in packs, in winter, 
 they are great cowards. The grey wolf is a strong, powerful 
 animal and very cunning. In the Northwest they are found 
 on the prairie, around the willow thickets and hiding in the 
 long prairie dodging grass, but are abundant in the great 
 northern forest, where doer are to be found. The prairie 
 
CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 157 
 
 wolf or coyotte, is a smaller animal and very cowardly. It is 
 common all through the prairie country, and it may be fre- 
 quently seen in group's on a distant hill top, or heard around 
 the camp at night. Its skin makes a useful addition to the 
 settler's cabin and is also a handsome trophy when dressed as 
 
 a rug. 
 
 Although bears are plentiful in many parts of Canada 
 they are seldom seen (being nocturnal in their habits) except 
 by the hunters. The black bear, the commonest of the tribe, 
 is perfectly harmless, and never attacks man unless wounded. 
 Its food consists of berries and larvje of insects and ants ; it 
 plays havoc in a field of oats when ripe, in which when feed- 
 ing it is easily shot. Its skin is much sought after and bear's 
 meat is frequently exposed in our markets for sale in winter- 
 
 The grizzly bear makes his home in the Rocky Mount- 
 ains, whence he sallies forth on the plains and is the most 
 ferocious and dangerous of his tribe, being possessed of amaz- 
 ing strength and activity, attaining a weight when full 
 grown of from 600 to 700 pounds. It is unable to climb 
 trees like other bears, and when pursued turns and shows a 
 most determined fight. Great skill is required in the pursuit 
 of this animal, but the danger of the chase renders the sport 
 most exciting. There is a species of bear met with in the 
 barren grounds of the Northwest and in the Peace River dis- 
 trict known as the Cinnamon bear, very similar to the black 
 bear in habits and size. It is comparatively rare. 
 
 The deer family include the most important of our large 
 game animals, of which the Moose is by far the largest, stand- 
 ing as high as a horse. Hunting moose is an art, as the 
 long snout and ears of this animal give it most acute powers 
 of hearing and a very fine sense of smell. Its gigantic horns 
 are well known and in constant demand, and its fiesh is con- 
 sidered a great delicacy. 
 
 The Elk, Stag, or Wapiti, formerly distributed all over 
 Canada, is now extinct in the older provinces, but is found in 
 Southern Manitoba and is yet abundant in the Peace River 
 district, but is fast disappearing with the advance of 
 
r 
 
 ji 
 
 158 
 
 CANADIAN HANDBOOK, 
 
 civilization. Its fine branching liorns make a splendid trophy, 
 but they prove a most formidable weapon of defence when 
 the animal is brought to bay. 
 
 The Red Deer is abundant, except in old settled districts 
 where no forests are left, and its pursuit affords great sport to 
 the huntsman. Indisci-iminate slaughter, till within the last 
 few years, threatened its extermination, but stringent If ws for 
 the observance of the close season are making the deer more 
 plentiful. 
 
 The Black-tailed, or Mule deer, is met with in the bush 
 country of the Northwest, but is rare and difficult of access. 
 
 Deer-shooting in season can be had in almost any part of 
 Canada, provided guides are procured. 
 
 The Cariboo, or reindeer, is the fleetest, wildest and most 
 shy of all the deer tribe. 
 
 Tlie woodland Cariboo is abundant in Labrador and may 
 be found in considerable numbers in New Brunswick. In the 
 adjoining province of Nova Scotia, their numbers are grad- 
 ually decreasing, their stronghold now being confined to the 
 Cobequid Mountains and the uplands of Cape Breton Pro- 
 ceeding westwards, it is found in Gaspd and the south-western 
 portions of Quebec, and in the northern districts back of the 
 Ottawa and St. Lawence rivers, whence it ranges as far as the 
 southern limits of Hudson Bay, where it is succeeded by 
 another species known as the barren ground reiiideer, or 
 cariboo. This is a smaller animal, seldom exceeding 150 
 pounds in weight, whilst large specimens of the woodland 
 cariboo weigh upwards of 400 pounds. 
 
 The Mountain Goat is common in the Rocky Mountains 
 above the tree line, but as winter sets in, it comes down to 
 the lower grounds. Its long white wool is silky and beauti- 
 ful. Professor Macoun speaks of them as being numerous on 
 Mount Selwyn, and agile in jumping from crag to crag. In 
 Bow River Pass they are abundant. This animal must be 
 stalked with great caution, its habits being very much like 
 those of the chamois in Switzerland. 
 
CAXADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 159 
 
 ins 
 I to 
 
 ti- 
 |on 
 
 In 
 I be 
 
 ke 
 
 The American bior-horn, or Rocky Mountain sheep, is 
 confined entirely to the mountain ranges of the far West, 
 where it dwells secure amongst the high cliffs, leaping un- 
 scathed from crag to crag. It is exceedingly wary and diffi- 
 cult of approach, and has to be stalked with even more pre- 
 caution than the stag. The horns on the male are so large at 
 the base that they cover all the upper portion of the head 
 down nearly to a level with tiie eyes-, and the skull is exceed- 
 ingly strong. The horns and head not infrequently weigh 
 over 50 pounds. 
 
 The Antelope is the fleetest of all Canadian mammals, 
 and when at rest is beautiful and gracefully statuesque. It 
 is essentially a dweller in the open country and is rapidly 
 disappearing before the advance of settlement. It'^an easily 
 out run a horse, but after running some time it will stop sud- 
 denly and, if the hunter hides, it will return and fall an easy 
 prey. It is sometimes hunted with greyhounds, but more 
 frequently stalked. Great caution and patience are required, 
 as its eyesight is so keen that all the sportsman's care is 
 needed to approach it. 
 
 The Musk ox is found only in the noi'thern part of the 
 Dominion, stretching from the waters of North Hudson's Bay 
 to the Arctic Ocean. It is the size of a small ox, has very 
 short legs, and yet is fleet of foot. Its fleece may almost be 
 called double, with long surface hair, under which is close and 
 fine wool. As a robe, the musk ox skin is preferable to that 
 of the buffalo, of which it has taken the place. 
 
 The Bison, or Buffalo, in former times, was met with 
 from the eastern boundary of Manitoba to the Rocky Moun- 
 tains, and from the international boundary to Peace River. 
 Before the advent of the white man, it roamed in countless 
 thousands over the western plains, but to-day it is practically 
 extinct. Like the Indian, it has retreated before civilization, 
 and the shrill whistle of the locomotive, shrieking across the 
 prairie, has sounded the deathknell of the large game of the 
 West 
 

 160 
 
 CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 Of smaller animals, the sportsman can always fintl an 
 abundance. In the older provinces squirrel shooting afFoi'ds 
 considerable sport, the black and grey species being there in 
 good condition. 
 
 Rabbits are also abundant everywhere; but, unlike the 
 English rabbit, they do not burrow, lying hid under logs and 
 stumps or rank herbage whence they are started by dogs. In 
 winter they change their grey coat to one of white fur, corre- 
 sponding with the snow. This animal is really a hare in its 
 habits, but only the size of an Englisli rabbit. The country, 
 especially in the Northwest, seems alive with them in some 
 years, while in others they are scarcely seen. 
 
 On the western plains and near the Rocky Mountains, the 
 prairie hare, or jack rabbit, is found, corresponding closely to 
 the English hare and about the same size. 
 
 In the older provinces the raccoon, which was once very 
 abundant, is now scarce, and were it not for its nocturnal 
 habits, would long ago have become almost extinct. 'Coon 
 hunting with dogs, on a moonlight night, on the edge of a 
 grain field, where these animals resort to feed, affoi'ds groat 
 sport. 
 
 Of the marmot tribe, the ground hog is abundant on the 
 edges of the clearings, and on the prairies gophers and prairie 
 dogs are very common. The holes made by the latter are a 
 source of annoyan3e to the rider, often causing as much in- 
 convenience as those of the badger. 
 
 The latter is only met with in the far West, and is un- 
 known in the old provinces. It is very shy, but at the same 
 time inquisitive, peeping out of its hole, in which it takes 
 refuge, to ascertain the cause of its fright. 
 
 Porcupines, an enlarged species of the English hedge- 
 hog, are met with, more or less, everywhere in warm slopes 
 and thickets, and like their English congeners are slow in 
 their movements. 
 
 The fur-bearing animals are generally regarded as the 
 peculiar propertj* of the trappers and Indians, and although 
 steadily sought after, are yet more or less abundant. 
 
CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 161 
 
 53 
 
 in 
 lie 
 
 The wolverine is scarce and rapidly disappearing. Its 
 skin is a handsome trophy, the animal being the size of a 
 large dog. 
 
 The beaver is only to be found far from man's improve- 
 ments, but, in the Peace River district they are yet to be 
 found in colonies, and their daais are stated by explorers 
 through that part of the country to be the cause of the exces- 
 sive floods that occur there. Many small lakes cv'^ their 
 existence to these dams. 
 
 Closely allied to the beaver but widely different in their 
 habits are the musk-rats, common in all ponds, marshes and 
 rivers from one end ot Canada to the other. A very large 
 business is done in musk-rat skins and, although persistently 
 hunted and trapped, its great fecundity saves the race from 
 extinction. 
 
 The above short sketch of the mammals has been given, as 
 the larger animals are more generally inquired after than 
 small game. To enumerate the feathered or finny tribe would 
 fill a volume, but it may safely be averred that no country of- 
 fers -^ greater variety of ducks than Canada. 
 
 Swans breed only in the far North, and are seen only 
 when migrating. 
 
 The goose breeds onthe northern lakes. Teal are abun- 
 dant. Bitterns are common along the grassy marshes and 
 sedgy banks of the rivers. Heron are not uncommon, and in 
 Manitoba and the Northwest pelicans are abundant. Of the 
 grouse, plover, woodcock, snipe and smaller game, due men- 
 tion will be made in describing presently the hunting grounds 
 of the various province?. 
 
 The same remarks apply to the fish of the Dominion, 
 their name being legion, and every river, lake and pool teems 
 with some kind or another which will afford sport either to 
 the troller, fly-fisher or angler. 
 
 The hunting grounds of the various provinces may now 
 be shortly treated of respectively. 
 
 Nova Scotia is more celebrated for moose and salmon 
 than the other kinds of game that are found in the sister 
 
162 
 
 CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 Is ■-■? 
 Ir 5 
 
 provinces. Moose are plentiful although constantly hunted, 
 and afford rare sport for British officers quartered at Halifax. 
 The neighborhood of the chain of lakes between Annapolis 
 and Liverpool, and the Petite and the Garden rivers is claimed 
 as one of the best hunting grounds, whilst the Indian guides, 
 necessary for the full enjoyment of sport, know all other 
 likely grounds. Cariboo are found in the Cobequid Moun- 
 tain district. Grouse are plentiful all through the province, 
 but the finest shooting is woodcocTc, which are found in great 
 numbers. Snipe are tolerably abundant and salmon abound 
 in all the rivers, whilst the number of trout will surprise the 
 fisherman unaccustomed to Canadian streams. 
 
 The principal attractions of New Brunswick for the 
 sportsman are moose, cariboo, salmon and the St. Croix trout 
 or land-locked salmon. Moose are not nearly as abundant as 
 in former years, and can only be found by parties visiting the 
 province enlisting an old hunter in tlieir cause. The great 
 Tantamar marsh in the south-eastern part of the province has 
 the reputation of being a splendid snipe ground, while the 
 Restigouche is equally celebrated for the quantity of wild fowl, 
 especially geese, that visit it. 
 
 The fishing in the New Brunswick rivers is especially 
 good. The Nipisiguit, Miramichi, Restigouche, St. John, and 
 others afford the salmon fisher glorious sport. A pilgrimage 
 to the Restigouche would afford sufficient material to keep 
 his memory busy for years to come. A well-known Amer- 
 ican sportsman writes that "the northern countries of the 
 province that border on the Bay of Chaleur, afford unques- 
 tionably the best field for sportsmen to be found in America 
 east of the Rocky Mountains." In the St. Croix and its 
 splendid chain of lakes trout abound, and are of a kind 
 peculiar to it, known as "lanfl -locked salmon." Whether in 
 reality a different species or a degenesrated salmon is an open 
 question, but they are very gamey, afford first rate sport, and 
 are excellent eating. Easy of access, and in a beautiful 
 region of the country, St. Croix is a favorite with tourists. 
 
 ;i| 
 
CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 163 
 
 
 ica 
 its 
 ad 
 in 
 len 
 nd 
 Cul 
 
 The Province of Quebec affords excellent shooting in 
 many parts ; swans, geese, ducks, grouse, woodcock and snipe, 
 moose, cariboo, salmon, and trout are found in abundance in 
 their several localities. The chase of the two former is 
 only pursued during the winter, is hardy and exhilarating, 
 but real, downright hard work, and repays the toil. In 
 the rivers emptying into the River and Gulf of St. Law- 
 rence, the lordly salmon is to be found, and the fly, or any 
 other fishing is simply superb. In the River St. Lawrence 
 are localities noted as the resort of wild swans, geese and 
 ducks, snipe and plover, curlew and sea-fowl of every kind, 
 while the forests all through the province teem with grouse, 
 and the woodland openings and swampy thickets harbor 
 countless woodcock in their season. The large amount of 
 unsettled country in the province tends to keep up the abun- 
 dance of game, in which the more settled portions of Canada 
 are deficient. 
 
 The Province of Ontario is so varied in its different districts 
 that what applies to one portion is perhaps the opposite of 
 another. Where settlement has advanced, game has disappear- 
 ed before it, but there are large tracts of the country yet re- 
 maining clothed with the virgin forest, only visited by the 
 lumberman, in which game of all kinds abounds. The Ottawa 
 district is yet one of these, as well as Nipissing and Muskoka, 
 although the Canadian Pacific Railway and its connecting lines 
 are now opening these regions for settlement, and a few years 
 hence may class them only as amongst the localities that once 
 held game. Moose are met with on the Dumoine and Coulonge 
 rivers, and in the backwoods of the head waters of the Ottawa 
 river, whilst deer are plentiful ; duck and grouse shooting is 
 good, with a fair show of woodcock and snipe, and the waters 
 teem with maskinonge, pickerel and bass. In all the rivers tri- 
 butary to the Ottawa on its nf>rth shore, and in the lakes which 
 lie scattered everywhere in its vicinity, trout are plentiful. In 
 central Ontario, in the Old Frontenac or Kingston district, 
 there is still good sport to be had among the ducks, grouse 
 and snipe, though not equal to former years. The country in 
 
164 
 
 CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 its rear, being rocky or marshy, and unsuited for farming, 
 still abounds with deer, and is a favorite hunting groundi 
 especially along the Opeongo and Hastings section. At the 
 Thousand Islands, a long stretch of the St. Lawrence river, 
 unsurpassed for beauty, and a favorite summer resort, splen- 
 did trolling is afforded for bass and maskinonge.to say nothing 
 of fishing for smaller fry. Rice Lake, in the rear of Cobourg, 
 and the neighboring lakes are famous for maskinonge and 
 bass and the innumerable quantity of wild ducks that resort 
 there to feed upon the vast fields of wild rice which abound 
 along those waters. The Holland marsh, between Toronto 
 and Collingwood, is famous for snipe, plover and duck. It its 
 vicinity, in years gone by, was one of the famous pigeon 
 roosts, or places where the wild pigeons flocked to breed in 
 thousands, whence they made their daily incursions into the 
 surrounding country for food. This has, however, disappeared, 
 though, stragglers occasionally return to the roost, but the 
 mighty flocks of pigeons have emigrated to South America. In 
 autumn these birds are to be found .scattered in small flocks 
 along the edges of clearings, feeding on grain fields, but their 
 numbers are very limited and yearly becoming less. On Lake 
 Erie, Long Point and Point Pelee, the St. Clair flats, on the 
 western boundary, and Baptiste Creek, are admirable ducking 
 grounds. Long Point, averaging eight miles in breadth and 
 projecting some twenty miles into the lake, with wide fringes 
 of marsh on both sides, in which wild rice is the chief growth, 
 is controlled by a club of sportsmen, who keep it strictly pre- 
 served, and thus have it well stocked with game. Quails 
 have been introduced with grouse on the higher ground, and 
 wild turkeys have, of late years, been introduced, which are 
 thriving on the ridge of land running the length of the Point, 
 crowned with oak, maple, cherry, elm, and chestnut trees, 
 aftbrding a splendid cover for this noble bird. The only local- 
 ities in Canada, apart from this, where the wild turkey yet 
 remains, are in the counties of Essex and Kent, and there 
 they are rare. In the early days of settlement, the whole 
 western peninsula of Ontario abounded with the turkey, and 
 
CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 165 
 
 the peculiar growth of the woodlands there, comparatively 
 free from underbrush, afforded magnificent sport. Proceeding 
 northwards along Lake Huron, along whoso shores curlew, 
 plovfti, and water-fowl abound, the Manitoulin Islands still 
 aflford good siiooting and fishing in the waters round them. 
 At the Straits of Mackinaw and Sault St. Marie, splendid 
 fishing can be had, the salmon trout of Lakes Huron and Su- 
 perior attaining a very largo size, whilst all the rivers running 
 into the Georgian Bay and Lake Superior teem with trout 
 and are a favorite resort. Whenever the country is in a state 
 of nature, the sportsman must rough it and live under canvas, 
 laying in before he starts his necessary camp furniture and 
 provisions. All along Lake Superior, the rivers and streams 
 running into it, especially the Nepigon, are a paradise for 
 trout fishermen, and seem still to possess as many fish as when 
 discovered. Bears, deer, and an occasional wolf may here be 
 killed, whilst the larder may be kept well supplied with 
 feathered game. 
 
 In Manitoba, within a few miles west of Winnipeg, 
 prairie fowl are to be found scattered in all directions, in 
 numbers sufficient to satisfy any sportsman, whilst in autumn 
 ducks and water-fowl literally cover every pond and lake. 
 Successive flocks of these keep sport alive. First, in August, 
 the grey duck and merganser make their appearance, suc- 
 ceeded in September by sea-ducks of every description, and 
 during these months geese, ducks and prairie-fowl take to the 
 stubble-fields, where civilization has reached, and are easily 
 shot. Professor Macoun states that about forty species of 
 game birds are to be seen on the prairie at that season. In 
 Southern Manitoba, the elk is yet found in the neighborhood 
 of Moose Mountain (wrongly named), for the moose frequents 
 the country further north, lying between Lakes Manitoba 
 and Winnipeg, and the country west of Lake Manitoba. In 
 the latter, as well as in tlie waters of Winnipeg, there are 
 large quantities of whitefish of a very large size and superior 
 quality, and sturgeon of an enormous size are found there, 
 and in the Saskatchewan and Red rivers. In all the mountain 
 
166 
 
 CANADIAN HANDUOOK. 
 
 
 nil ! 
 |i i 
 
 II 
 
 streams of the Northwest which unite to form the South 
 Saskatchewan there are multitudes of beautiful tiout with 
 salmon-colored flesh. To the sportsman and the lover of the 
 picturesque there is no place in that portion of Canada that 
 holds out inducements equal to those to be found in the Bow 
 River district. Hunting or fishing, as he turns his gaze to 
 the west, he will see, towering up to the skies, peak over peak, 
 the everlasting hills. Should the mountains become tiresome, 
 he has only to turn to the east and look over the swelling 
 prairie, until in the distance the grassy mounds melt into the 
 limitless horizon. The Peace River district is a great resort 
 for bear, both black and grizzly, and there is abundance of 
 the larger game also — elk moose, and deer. All its lakes 
 team with fish of the very best quality; geese and ducks 
 during their migrations are in countless thousands, an evi- 
 dence of which is given in the fact of many thousand geese 
 being killed and preserved for winter use every autumn at 
 the Hudson Bay post. Fort Chippewayau. At the same place 
 no less than 25,000 whitefish are dried every year for winter 
 use, such as are not required as rations for the men being fed 
 to the train dogs. The country here is described as park-like, 
 the undulating plains being dotted with groves of trees. 
 
 Within the Rocky Mountains, besides fishing, hunting 
 the Bighorn and the Rocky Mountain goat will give exciting 
 sport. In spring and summer the males form separate bands 
 of from three to twenty, and feed along the edges of glaciers, 
 or rest among the castle-like crags of the high summits. 
 Whether quietly feeding or scaling the wild cliffs, their noble 
 forms and the beauty of their movements never fail to strike 
 the beholder with lively admiration. In the months of 
 November and December, all flock together, male and female, 
 old and young. Wary in the extreme, they are most diflScult 
 to approach, and it only by exercising all the stratagems of 
 a hunter that a shot can be fired at them, Man's incursions 
 in the mountains arc making the animals more wary every 
 year, and were it not for the inaccessible places they are able 
 to scale, and the giddy heights they fearlessly tread, where 
 
 i'f 
 
CANADAIN HANDBOOK, 
 
 167 
 
 ke 
 of 
 
 of 
 
 ble 
 ere 
 
 men cannot follow, their davs would be soon numbered and 
 they would become like the buffalo, an animal of history. 
 
 In British Columbia, the general aspect of the country 
 naturally impresses the sportsman that it is a land abounding 
 with game. The rugged mountain ranges are wooded on their 
 slopes and have in their embrace, lakes, swamps and natural 
 meadows; lakes of all sizes, from the little pond to the body 
 of crystal-like water 100 miles long, often linked by streams, 
 lake after lake turning and twisting to find an outlet to the 
 ocean, generally through one or other of the larger rivers of 
 the province, all abounding with fish. On the low lands and 
 near the coast in the winter the black-tail deer is numerous. 
 This animal frequents the dense coniferous forests of the 
 Pacific coast, delighting in their dark and damp recesses. It 
 is seldom found far from timber or from some thick covert 
 into which it can retreat. To the northward, where it has 
 been but little hunted as yet, it comes down frequently to the 
 salt water to feed on a species of sea weed cast up on the 
 shore, and the Indians kill many, so feeding, by stealing up 
 within shot in their light canoes. Deer are abundant on the 
 islands and among the mountains of the coast, but there are 
 great areas of territory where, owing to the thick and tangled 
 character of the undergrowth, stalking is out of the question, 
 because of the impossibility of noiseless progress through the 
 thickets. The elk is abundant on the coast line of the main- 
 land, especially east of the Cascade range. Grouse are found 
 everywhere, both on the mainland and the island, frequenting 
 the thick fern and the pine lands, the willow grouse much 
 resembling the English partridge. Prairie fowl are plentiful 
 in the valleys of the east Cascade region and occasionally the 
 rare game bird, the large sage hen or " cock of the plains," 
 may be found above Osoyoos. Ducks, geese, snipe, and 
 pigeon are everywhere, the mouth of the Fraser River espe- 
 cially being a great resort for wild-fowl. The valleys of the 
 Thom^json, Okonagon, and Cache Creek afford good sport for 
 the rifle and the gun, and, in the mountain districts, bears 
 may be had with the aid of a guide and experienced hunter. 
 
168 
 
 CANADIAN HANDBOOK. 
 
 The Grizzly and Cinnamon bear, with wolves and lynx can 
 bo hunted, bnt the sport is by no means free from danger, and 
 considerable ror.(.;hing must be encountered by the hunter. 
 
 Salmon in British Columbia are far more numerous than 
 in the Atlantic Provinces of the Dominion, coming up from 
 the sea in millions ; this is no exaggeration. Si.\ species are 
 said to exist in the waters of the Pacific Coast, four of which 
 are excellent and of great commercial importance. 
 
 On the Fraser, the Skeena, and the Bass rivers, large can- 
 neries are located. Trout abound in all the lakes and streams, 
 and white-fish are common in the lakes in the middle and north- 
 ern interior of the provinces. Smelts of two kinds are abun- 
 dant on the coast, and a delicate fish known as the " Candle 
 fish," or Oolachan, is very abundant along the coast in spring. 
 
 In some portions of the province, the country is open 
 and dotted with trees, much like an old world park, and a 
 horseman can canter along at will without underbrush to 
 impede his progress. Snow seldom falls to any depth, except 
 in the mountains, and as a consequence, the game is not 
 driven from its regular grounds, as in many of the other 
 older provinces. 
 
 In conclusion, this remark applies universally ; that with 
 the advance of settlement, animal life retreats. The western 
 plains, so lately thronged with bands of elk and antelopes and 
 roamed over by countless herds of bison, are yearly required 
 more and more for human pastures, instead of nature's feeding 
 ground. Hills, valley, forest and meadow everywhere are 
 alike coming under man's control, thereby rapidly pushing to 
 the verge of extinction many species of animals which were 
 formerly abundant. But for the true sportsmen, there is yet 
 abundance of game, and the migrations of the wild fowl save 
 them from the universal destruction which threatens quad- 
 rupedal life. Canada is easy of access, its hunting grounds 
 are equal to any of those in Europe, and free to all, and for 
 scenery and beauty of landscape, for the grandeur of its 
 forests, the wild solitude of its mountains, and the placid 
 waters of its inland lakes, it stands unrivalled. 
 
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