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 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
LOUISIANA STUDIES. 
 
 LITERATURE, CUSTOMS AND DIAI.I-CTS. 
 HISTORY AND EDUCATION. 
 
 By ALCER FORTIER, 
 
 Professor of tht French Lan>^iiag,- and LiUraturt in Tulane Univtrsity 
 
 oj Louisiana, 
 
 rJ 
 
 I 
 
 -V 
 
 i> 
 
 NEW ORLEANS: 
 Published by F. F. Hansell & Bro. 
 
COPVKIGHT 
 
 1894. 
 
 F. F. HANSELL & HUO. 
 
 PRESS OF 
 
 L., Graham \' Son, Ltd, 
 
 NEW OKLEANS. 
 
1 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 For the last ten years the author of this book has been de- 
 vothig much time to the history of Louisiana, and he has pub- 
 lished in different literary and scientific journals a number of 
 papers on the literature, customs, dialects, folk-lore, and history 
 of his native State. Some of these papers have been revised 
 and are now published in this book, together with some new 
 studies. The work done has been mostly one of original re- 
 search and patient investigation, and the author hopes that his 
 Louisiana Studies may be of use to the future historian of 
 Louisiana, as history can not be written without taking into 
 consideration everything concerning the literature, the speech 
 and the inner life of the people. The author hopes also that 
 his book will be of interest both to Louisianians, who will rec- 
 ognize in it many familiar names, customs and incidents, and 
 to people outside of Louisiana, who will see a true picture, as 
 tar as the author can judge, of the inhabitants of the Pelican 
 State. 
 
 ALCEE FORTIER. 
 New Orleans, January 24, jSg^. 
 
! t 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I.— LITERATURE. 
 
 PA OB. 
 
 I. The French Language in Louisiana i 
 
 IL Literature in the Colony 6 
 
 1. Julien Poydras 7 
 
 2. Poydras' poem, La Prist dti Morne du Bdton Rouge^ 
 
 par Monseigneur de Galvez 18 
 
 in. The French Literature of Louisiana „ 23 
 
 1. History and Biography 24 
 
 2. The Drama 32 
 
 3. Poetry ;...... 40 
 
 4. Novels 55 
 
 5. Miscellaneous Works 62 
 
 6. The Athinde Louisianais 64 
 
 IV. English Literature 87 
 
 1. History, Biography, Literary Criticism 91 
 
 2. The Drama 101 
 
 3. Poetry and Literary Sketches 104 
 
 4. Novel* — 113 
 
 PART II.— CUSTO/ . AND DIALECTS. 
 
 I. Customs and Superstitions in Louisiana 125 
 
 II. The Creole Dialect 134 
 
 III. The Acadians of Lou .na and Their Dialect 14S 
 
 1. A Brief History of Acadia 149 
 
 2. The Acadians in Louisiana 162 
 
 3. Th radian Dialect iSi 
 
 IV. The Is . OS of Louisiana and Their Dialect 197 
 
vi 
 
 Table of Contents. 
 
 PART III.— HISTORY AND EDUCATION. 
 
 r. War Tr.MKs (1861-1865) 211 
 
 1. Introduction 211 
 
 2. The Capture of New Orleans 214 
 
 ;;. Honrj' Walkins Allen — Battle of Haton Rouj^e 223 
 
 4. *' Dick '■' Taylor and the Caiupaiijns on the Teche 
 
 and in the Trans-Mississippi Department 230 
 
 II. A IJitiicK History OF Education in Louisiana ...242 
 
 1. Colonial Times 242 
 
 2. Colleges and Private Schools Before the War 249 
 
 3. Public Schools Before the War 258 
 
 4. Public Schools in New Orleans 264 
 
 5. Public Schools Since the War ...268 
 
 6. Colleges and Schools Since the War: 274 
 
 Tulane University of Louisiana 274 
 
 11. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College 287 
 
 The Louisiana State University and Agricultural 
 
 and Mechanical College 289 
 
 Colleges of the Jesuits 291 
 
 State Normal School 29S 
 
 Universities for the Colored People 299 
 
 Colleges and Schools in Rural Louisiana -301 
 
 Schools in New Orleans 305 
 
211 
 
 211 
 
 214 
 
 '<!!che 
 
 230 
 
 ...242 
 
 242 
 
 240 
 
 258 
 
 264 
 
 268 
 
 274 
 
 274 
 
 287 
 
 tural 
 
 289 
 
 291 
 
 298 
 
 299 
 
 301 
 
 305 
 
 PART I. 
 
 LITERATURE. 
 
 I-TKE FRENCH LANQUAQE IN LOUISIANA. 
 
 The history of the literature of Louisiana is in- 
 teresting and unique, as it is written in two lan- 
 guages. We may even note the curious fact of 
 men writing equally well in English and in French 
 and being thoroughly bi-lingual. It is, therefore, 
 of importance to know something about the history 
 and form oi" the French language as used in Louis- 
 iana. It is a well-known fact that the descendants 
 of the French in the colonies have always retained 
 the language of the mother country. In America, 
 as a general rule, the children of Germans, of 
 Spaniards and of Italians know very little of the 
 speech of their fathers, while we see Americans of 
 French origin retaining the language of their an- 
 cestors as a mother tongue down to the fifth and 
 sixth generations. The same thing can be observed 
 in Canada, and we know with what tenacity the 
 Canadians have clung to their original language, 
 and how the French element, contrary to the gen- 
 
I I 
 
 2 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 eral law of the philosophy of history, seems to be 
 absorhinj^ the English popuhition. 
 
 The coh)iiy of T^ouisianii was founded by Iber- 
 ville in 1699, and New Orleans by Bienville in 
 1 718. The French imrnij^nants, with a few excep- 
 tions, belonged to a good class of society, and the 
 language spoken b them was pure and elegant. 
 In 1763 the infamous King Louis XV, after hav- 
 ing lost Canada and the Indies, begged his or sin, 
 Charles III of Spain, to take off his hands that 
 Louisiana which had cost so much money and 
 brought none to the government. The Louisian- 
 ians loved the mother country and were proud of 
 the name of Frenchmen, remembering only the 
 F" ranee of the 17th century, of the glorious days of 
 Louis XIV, of Rocroy, of Lens, and even of 
 Denain, and forgetting Rosbach and the infamy 
 of Louis XV. There was a revolution in 1768 in 
 J^ouisiana, and the colonists, despairing of remain- 
 ing Frenchmen, thought of proclaiming a republic 
 on the bankr 01 the Mississippi, and expelled the 
 Spanish governor. History tells us how cruelly 
 O'Reilly treated the noble conspirators, and how 
 the Spanish rule, imposed by force, was afterward 
 mild and paternal. From 1763 to 1801, Louisiana 
 was a part of the Spanish empire, but French con- 
 tinued to be the language of the colony, and Span- 
 ish was merely the official tongue. Most of the 
 Spanish officials married ladies of French descent, 
 and the language of the mother was really that of 
 the family. A great many Creoles of Spanish ori- 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
Literature. 
 
 ns to be 
 
 by Iber- 
 tiville in 
 V excep- 
 ancl the 
 elegant, 
 ter hav- 
 er sin, 
 nds that 
 ley and 
 ouisian- 
 roud of 
 )nly the 
 days of 
 even of 
 infamy 
 1768 in 
 remain- 
 epublic 
 lied the 
 cruelly 
 nd how 
 crward 
 uisiana 
 :h con- 
 Span- 
 of the 
 escent, 
 that of 
 sh ori- 
 
 
 5; 
 
 gin do not know a word of Castilian, but speak 
 French as well as native Frenchmen. The Span- 
 iards in Louisiana have left as traces of their 
 domination a high and chivalric spirit, a few geo- 
 graphical names and a remnant of their laws to be 
 seen in our civil code, but have exerted very little 
 influence on the language of the country. 
 
 When Napoleon took away Louisiana from 
 Spain and, not being able to keep the colony, 
 sold it to the United States in 1803, French 
 was almost exclusively the language of the inhab- 
 itants. They soon came to love with ardor the 
 great republic to which they had been trans- 
 ferred, and on the field of Chalmette the new 
 Americans were just as patriotic as the men from 
 Tennessee and Kentucky, and Andrew Jackson 
 praised the gallantry of the French Creoles. 
 
 Nevertheless, however attached to the institu- 
 tions of the United States, the Louisianians cher- 
 ished the language of their ancestors, and for a 
 long time did not care about learning English. 
 They were not less Americans in the sense of 
 nationality, for did not the Roman provinces 
 defend the Republic and the Empire as well as 
 Italy herself? Are the Swiss less patriotic because 
 there are four different languages spoken in their 
 country? Are not the Catalans as jealous of the 
 honor of Spain as the Castilians themselves? 
 
 For about forty years after the cession to the 
 United States, the Louisianians of French descent 
 studied little English, and, in reality, did not abso- 
 
1 ' 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 I I 
 
 lately need that language in their daily pursuits. 
 The Hon. Chas. Gayarre, the venerable historian 
 of Louisiana, has told me that in the Legislature 
 of the State there was a regular interpreter 
 appointed for each house, at a salary of $2000, 
 whose duty it was to translate, if required, the 
 speeches and motions of the members. It was, it 
 seems, very amusing sometimes to see a Creole 
 representative abusing an American colleague, 
 who remained perfectly unconcerned, until the 
 interpreter, having translated the hostile address, 
 the party attacked would suddenly rise and reply 
 to his adversary in vehement terms, which had 
 also to be translated before the opposing member 
 could reply. In the courts of justice the jury, 
 which was always composed in part of men who 
 did not understand English, had to be addressed 
 in English and in French. 
 
 Of course, such a condition of things could not 
 last, for the population coming from the other 
 States soon outnumbered the descendants of the 
 original settlers and English became the oiTicial 
 language of the State. The laws, however, are to 
 this day published in English and in French. 
 
 The Creoles of Louisiana, and I mean by that 
 expression the white descendants of the French 
 and Spanish colonists, have always occupied a 
 high standing in the community. Several of the 
 best governors of the State were Creoles, and 
 many went to Congress, and a number were 
 distinguished as judges, lawyers, physicians, and 
 
Literature. 
 
 mrsuits. 
 istorian 
 isliiture 
 jrpreter 
 $2000, 
 •ed, the 
 was, ii 
 Creole 
 league, 
 itil the 
 ddress, 
 i reply 
 :h had 
 I em her 
 ■ jury, 
 n who 
 ressed 
 
 Id not 
 
 other 
 
 Df the 
 
 flicial 
 
 are lo 
 
 ' that 
 
 LMlch 
 
 ed a 
 the 
 
 and 
 Kere 
 
 and 
 
 writers, both in verse and in prosc. The Creoles 
 are, in short, men of energy, in spite of the ca- 
 lumnious assertions to the contrary, 'and, as a rule, 
 speak, very good French. They generally pro- 
 nounce French well, and are remarkably free 
 from any provincial accent. 
 
 The French spoken in Louisiana is generally 
 lietter than that of the Canadians. It is easy to 
 account for this. The Canadians were separated 
 from the mother country in the middle of the 
 eighteenth century, and, even long before that 
 time, immigration from France was limited, and 
 the population was increasing rather by the ex- 
 traordinary fecundity of the inhabitants than by 
 the influx of immigrants. The language of Can- 
 ada has remained nearly stationary, and is almost 
 the idiom of the seventeenth century; that is to 
 say, it is sometimes quaint and obsolete. In Lou- 
 isiana, immigration continued for a longtime, and 
 in the beginning of this century a great number 
 of exiles came from the French Antilles, and 
 added many persons of high birth and refined 
 manners to the original settlers. 
 
 We received, however, in 1765 the immigration 
 of the unfortunate Acadian exiles, who did not 
 contribute toward keeping the French language 
 in a state of purity. Although many rose to high 
 positions in the State, the language of a number 
 of them still constitutes a real dialect. 
 
 Another cause of the purity of our language is 
 the fact that during the old regime almost all 
 
Louisiana Studies. 
 
 I t 
 
 young men of rich families were educated in 
 France. They received an excellent classical 
 education, but learned no English. My father 
 told me that on his return home after a seven 
 years' course in a French college, he knew so lit- 
 tle English that he had to go to Lexington, Ken- 
 tucky, for some time to study the language of the 
 country. My grandfather, who was born during 
 the Spanish domination, spoke French only, and 
 did not allow English to be spoken in his family. 
 We are not so exclusive at present, and we are very 
 anxious that our children should know English 
 perfectly well, but we still consider French as the 
 mother tongue, as the language of the family. 
 
 Though French is still the mother tongue of 
 many thousands of Louisianians, the fact can not 
 be denied that it is not as generally spoken as be- 
 t'ore the war. Considering that our Creole authors 
 know that in writing in French they have but lit- 
 tle chance of being read outside of their State, 
 their patriotic and disinterested devotion to the 
 language of their ancestors is certainly remarkable 
 and most praiseworthy. 
 
 I 1 
 
 II— LITERATURE IN THE COLONY. JULIEN POYDRAS. 
 
 His Pop:m, "La Prise du Morne du Baton 
 Rouge par Monseigneur de Galvez." 
 
 During the French domination the colony of 
 Louisiana improved very slowly, and although the 
 inhabitants were generally men of culture the 
 
Literature. 
 
 ited in 
 
 iassical 
 
 father 
 
 seven 
 
 so lit- 
 
 , Ken- 
 
 of the 
 
 durino" 
 
 y, and 
 
 amily. 
 
 e very 
 
 nglish 
 
 as the 
 
 Y- 
 ^ue of 
 
 in not 
 
 IS be- 
 
 ithors 
 
 ut lit- 
 
 5tate, 
 
 ) the 
 
 cable 
 
 RAS. 
 
 VTON 
 
 y of 
 
 the 
 the 
 
 
 population was so small that there could be no lit- 
 erary enthusiasm. We find, therefore, during that 
 period, no vvo^ks written in Louisiana except the 
 reports of officers, among which may be mentioned 
 a paper in 1745 by Deverges, an engineer, upon 
 the mouths of the ?/Iississippi river. Another doc- 
 ument is also of great importance ; it is the cele- 
 brated " Memoire des Negociants et Habitants de 
 la Louisiane sur Tfivenement du 29 Octobre, 
 1768," written by Lafreniere and Caresse, two of 
 the chiefs of the revolution of 1768, which was so 
 heroic and ended so unhappily. 
 
 During the Spanish domination the most warlike 
 and popular governor was Galvez. Julien Poy- 
 dras wrote, in 1779, an epic poem in French on 
 the campaigns of the young governor. The work, 
 * ' La Prise du Morne du Baton Rouge par Mon- 
 seigneur de Galvez," is patriotic, and does full 
 justice to Galvez and his army. 
 
 In 1794 appeared " Le Moniteur de la Lou- 
 isiane," probably the first newspaper published in 
 Louisiana. 
 
 Julien Poydras, the author of the earliest work 
 in our literature, deserves a special mention, and 
 I shall reproduce here an article published by me 
 in the New Orleans Picayune, March 9, 1890: 
 
 The centennial of Washington's inauguration 
 has carried us back to the eighteenth century and 
 placed before our eyes the men and women of an- 
 other age. We see the gentlemen with their peri- 
 wigs ending in a queue tied with a ribbon, with 
 
8 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 i 
 
 their knee breeches, silk stockings, and shoes with 
 silver buckles. With the short sw^ *d at their side, 
 they enter the parlors and make oiately bows to 
 the ladies, who, with jupes a paniers and stupen- 
 dously high head dresses and red heeled shoes, 
 receive them gracefully. 
 
 The manners were courteous and refined in good 
 society, and the Louisianians one hundred years 
 ago took pride in their social accomplishments and 
 elegance. Many of them were wealthy, but they 
 were ignorant of the luxuries which their poorer 
 descendants now enjoy, and their houses were 
 rough-looking and the furniture exceedingly plain. 
 The men who dwelt in these houses, and whom 
 we have just described in all their finery, had, 
 many of them, led adventurous lives before suc- 
 ceeding in conquering fortune. Some, like St. 
 Denys, had gone on distant expeditions and led 
 the lives of heroes of romance ; some had fought 
 the Indians and vanquished the Natchez and the 
 Chickasaws, while others had been engaged in in- 
 dustrial and agricultural pursuits, and had had to 
 overcome a thousand obstacles before reaching the 
 goal. 
 
 One of the latter was Julien Poydras, a mer- 
 chant, a planter, a statesman and a philanthropist, 
 whose name can be seen on a marble tablet at the 
 Charity Hospital in New Orleans as one of the 
 greatest benefactors of that noble institution. A 
 grateful people has given Mr. Poydras' name to 
 one of our principal streets, but Mr. Zenon de 
 Moruelle, of Pointe Coupee parish, has not thought 
 this a sufficient tribute to the memory of a worthy 
 man and a good citizen. He has called my atten- 
 tion to Julien Poydras' remarkable career and has 
 furnished me with the data necessary for this short 
 
Literature. 
 
 shoes with 
 their side, 
 y bows to 
 id stupen- 
 led shoes, 
 
 ed in good 
 ired years 
 ments and 
 ', but they 
 eir poorer 
 ises were 
 iglyphiin. 
 nd whom 
 lery, had, 
 fore suc- 
 , like St. 
 ! and led 
 id fought 
 2 and the 
 ed in in- 
 1 had to 
 :hing the 
 
 a iner- 
 thropist, 
 2t at the 
 ; of the 
 ion. A 
 Jame to 
 non de 
 thought 
 worthy 
 y atten- 
 nd has 
 s short 
 
 4 
 
 biographical sketch. It seems to me, now that we 
 are all occupied with the customs and personages 
 of the eighteenth century, that the life of a typical 
 representative of a past civilization maybe of some 
 interest to the Americans of our times. Honesty, 
 perseverance and energy constitute the true man, 
 and are admired now as they always were, and 
 Julien Poydras, of the eighteenth century, may 
 serve as an example to the men of the nineteenth. 
 
 Julien Poydras de Lallande was born in Nantes, 
 in Brittany, about the year 1740. He served in 
 the navy, but was made a prisoner by the English 
 in 1760, and taken to England. During his cap- 
 tivity he studied the English language, and even 
 German. He managed to escape after three years, 
 and went to San Domingo hidden in a merchant 
 vessel bound for the West Indies. From San Do- 
 mingo he passed over to Louisiana, where he ar- 
 rived, it is thought, in 1768. That year will ever 
 be memorable for the heroic revolution by which 
 the French colonists endeavored to throw off the 
 yoke of the Spaniards. They wanted to remain 
 Frenchmen, and they expelled the Spanish gov- 
 ernor; then, abandoned by the mother country, 
 they tried to establish a republic in Louisiana. 
 We know what was the fate of those valiant men 
 — Lafreniere, Villere, Marquis, Caresse, Milhet 
 and Noyan. They fell victims to O'Reilly and 
 are known to history as the martyrs of Louisiana. 
 
 It must have been very sad to Julien Poydras to 
 reach Louisiana only to see her become a Spanish 
 province. But to a man of energy and enterprise a 
 wide field was open in a new country admirably 
 situated for commerce and with a soil created by 
 the sediment which the noblest river in the world 
 had been depositing for centuries. The princi- 
 
I '' 
 
 lO 
 
 'l 
 1 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 ! !■ 
 
 I ! I 
 
 I I 
 
 pal agricultural product in Louisiana during the 
 eighteenth century was indigo. It was extensively 
 cultivated and yielded a large revenue. Corn 
 also was cultivated, and the perique tobacco, so 
 celebrated to-day, was known to our ancestors a 
 ^lundred years ago. Indigo, at the end of the 
 •century, lost almost all its value, and the planters 
 were already threatened with ruin when cotton 
 was introduced in upper Louisiana. Whitney in- 
 vented the cotton gin in 1793, and fitienne de 
 Bore succeeded in making sugar in 1795. The 
 prosperity of the colony was assured. 
 
 Mr. Poydras remained but one year in New 
 Orleans, for he had understood, with a remarka- 
 ble intelligence, what profit could be derived from 
 a direct trade with the country parishes. He bought 
 some merchandise and started on foot from New 
 Orleans. Look at the young peddler with his 
 bundle on his back. He marches on briskly and 
 gayly. He reaches a plantation house. The lit- 
 tle negro children swarm around him and look at 
 him with wonder. A servant notifies the lady of 
 the house of the arrival of the stranger. She has 
 a room prepared for him, and the master returning 
 from the field at midday greets him most cordially 
 and invites him to share the dinner of the family. 
 In the afternoon the merchant spreads before all 
 his stock of goods, and the lady buys something 
 for every member of the househeld, not forgetting 
 the favorite slaves, giving to the men large knives 
 and shining tin pans, and to the women copper 
 jewels and flaming headkerchiefs. Everywhere 
 the peddler goes he is received with unbounded 
 hospitality and he soon sells all his wares. Thus 
 did Julien Poydras, in a short time, accumulate a 
 large sum of money. 
 
Literature. 
 
 zi 
 
 V, 
 
 -i 
 
 After traveling all over Louisiana he fmary 
 bought a place in Pointe Coupee and settled 
 there. Here again the young Frenchman had 
 shown his good judgment, for Pointe Coupee was 
 favorably situated for trade with the posts of 
 Natchez, Baton Rouge, the Opelousas, Natchi- 
 toches, and even with New Orleans. The knowl- 
 edge of English which Mr. Poydras had acquired 
 during his captivity was of great use to him in his 
 dealings with the Americans, who were already 
 occupying the Florida parishes. He soon added 
 to his plantation a large tract of land in the rear, 
 extending as far as False river. By a three-mile 
 route on his own plantation he came to a point 
 most important for trading, to reach which other- 
 wise he would have had to make a circuit of fif- 
 teen miles. He built a store at False river, and 
 the cultivation of cotton having become general in 
 Pointe Coupee and the more northern parishes, he 
 built a cotton gin on the Mississippi and one at 
 False river and derived great profits therefrom. 
 
 Julien Poydras was really a remarkable man 
 and endowed with wonderful energy and perse- 
 verance. He seemed to have been created for the 
 requirements of his epoch and to have known per- 
 fectly how to adapt himself to circumstances. He 
 was exceedingly sober and frugal, very gentle in 
 his disposition, and drew to him the sympathy of 
 all who knew him. His reputation for honesty 
 and ability rapidly spread, and his business rela- 
 tions extended all over the province. He traded 
 with the military posts of St. Louis, Ste. Gene- 
 vieve, the Illinois, Vincennes on the Wabash, 
 Ouachita, Arkansas, Natchez, la Roche aDarion, 
 now Fort Adams, Natchitoches, Baton Rouge, St. 
 Francisville and West Florida. He provided the 
 
12 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 ' I 
 
 'I 
 
 I , 1 
 
 II T' I 
 
 ' 
 
 i \'n\\ 
 
 posts with European merchandise and received in 
 exchange indigo, cotton, salt meat, buffalo skins, 
 bears' grease and flour. He soon grew rich and 
 bought lands everywhere. He had agents in dif- 
 ferent parts of the province to attend to his 
 interests. 
 
 There being so little lu.ruryin Louisiana at that 
 time the planters had to practice a forced econ- 
 omy, for money was plentiful in the parishes. Mr. 
 Poydras, being esteemed by every one, did a 
 flourishing banking business, as all had unlimited 
 confidence in his integrity. He even dealt with 
 the colonists at Nacogdoches, in the present State 
 of Texas. 
 
 Having succeeded in amassing a large fortune, 
 Mr. Poydras thought of returning to his dear Brit- 
 tany, where he had brothers and sisters whom he 
 generously helped. It was a natural feeling on 
 the part of a man who had left his country poor to 
 wish to return to his native town an important per- 
 sonage. We all like to show to the friends of our 
 childhood what we have been able to accomplish 
 in a few years of absence ; we all like to return 
 again to the places where had dwelt our father and 
 mother. It seems that we see again their sym- 
 pathetic faces, that we again hear their kind voices. 
 A Frenchman, especially, in whatever pait of the 
 world he may be, never abandons the hope of see- 
 ing sweet France once more. Mr. Poydras, how- 
 ever, was disappointed, for while he was preparing 
 for his journey the Revolution broke out. He was 
 filled with horror at the excesses of the reign of 
 terror, and he said in one of his letters: "Men 
 gif I with reason, who with sangfroid shed tor- 
 rents of blood, are not worthy of the name of 
 men." Later, when order was re-established in 
 
LiTKRATURE. 
 
 13 
 
 ceived in 
 ilo skins, 
 rich and 
 its in dif- 
 •d to his 
 
 la at that 
 :ed econ- 
 ihes. Mr. 
 e, did a 
 mlimited 
 ealt with 
 ent State 
 
 fortune, 
 
 [ear Brit- 
 
 vhom he 
 
 eling on 
 
 poor to 
 
 ant per- 
 
 s of our 
 
 omplish 
 
 return 
 
 ler and 
 
 ir sym- 
 
 voices. 
 
 L of the 
 
 of see- 
 
 s, how- 
 
 eparing 
 
 He was 
 
 eign of 
 
 "Men 
 
 ed tor- 
 
 ime of 
 
 ihed in 
 
 France by Bonaparte, Mr. Po3'dras thought again 
 of returning to Europe, but having lost his broth- 
 ers and sisters he concluded to remain in Lou- 
 isiana. With his characteristic generosity he sent 
 for his nephews and nieces, of whom three came 
 over to him: I^^'^me. Bonneaud, to whom he gave 
 a large plantation in Pointe Coupee; Charles Poy- 
 dras and Benjamin Poydras de Lallande, whom 
 he instituted his universal legatee. 
 
 Two or three times a year Mr. Poydras went to 
 New Orleans. It is curious to note how he trav- 
 eled. The poor 3^oung peddler whom we have seen 
 in 1769 going with his pack from house to house, 
 twenty years later had his own boat in which he 
 leisurely descended the Mississippi. His craft, it 
 is true, was a flatboat covered with a tent, but he 
 had with him six oarsmen, a cook and a servant, 
 and lived in regal fashion, stopping on his way 
 at the plantations of his friends, of whom he had 
 a number in every parish, and being received 
 everywhere with that hospitality so characteristic 
 of our Southern country. When he went to the 
 Avoyelles, where he had large herds of cattle, 
 he crossed the impetuous Atchafalaya river on a 
 raft, holding by the bridle his horse, which swam 
 after him. So much accustomed was he to primi- 
 tive ways of traveling that when, in 1809, at the age 
 of seventy, he was elected a delegate to Congress 
 from the Territory of Orleans, he started from 
 Pointe Coupee on horseback, followed by one 
 servant, to reach the capital. It took him six 
 weeks to accomplish the journey. We are glad to 
 know by his letters that he returned to New 
 Orleans at the end of the session in a ship, as 
 a civilized man. 
 
 Julien Poydras was tall and well built, and his 
 
! I 
 
 I I 
 
 ! ';l; 
 
 \. I 
 
 
 1 1' I 
 
 I 
 
 H 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 features were regular and pleasing. He was very 
 pious and led a most moral life. Tie never was 
 married. In spite of his numerous occitpations 
 he found time to write poetry, and sang heroic 
 deeds on his lyre. lie wrote an epic poem in 
 1779 on Galvez, the young and warlike gov- 
 ernor. 
 
 Although very wealthy, Mr. Poydras lived in a 
 simple and unostentatious n'anne-*. He was kind 
 to every one, and his house was open to all who 
 knocked at his door. In 1798 Louis-Philippe, 
 Duke of Orleans, on his way down the Mississippi 
 river, stopped at Pointe Coupee and was received 
 at Mr. Poydras' house, who, it is said, furnished 
 the exiled prince with money to continue his jour- 
 ney. 
 
 Mr. Poydras lived to a very old age ; a man oi 
 the eighteenth century, he never wished to change 
 his costume, and in 1824 the contemporary ol 
 Louis XV was still dressed as the subject of that 
 monarch more than fifty years before. This good 
 and estimable man was rather inclined to melan- 
 choly, in spite of his kindly disposition. Perhaps 
 he had perceived too well the vanity of things 
 human. 
 
 Having passed by many years the allotted three 
 score and ten, Julien Poydras was prepared to 
 take his departure from this world. In the begin- 
 ning of June, 1824, he took to his bed, for his 
 strength had abandoned him. Without any real 
 illness, his life was passing away, as the flame in 
 a lamp flickers and dies out when there is no 
 longer any oil to feed the wick. Although ex- 
 tremely weak, Mr. Poydras was always desirous 
 of standing up, **For/' said he, **a man on his 
 feet never dies.'* His friends would hold him up 
 
 It: 
 
LiTKRATURE. 
 
 IS 
 
 was very 
 jver was 
 :itpations 
 'f^ heroic 
 poem in 
 ike gov- 
 
 ived in a 
 was kind 
 all who 
 Philippe, 
 ississippi 
 received 
 urnished 
 his jour- 
 
 a man oi 
 3 change 
 orary ol 
 t ol^that 
 his good 
 ) melan- 
 'erhaps 
 : things 
 
 ed three 
 a red to 
 e begin- 
 
 tor his 
 my real 
 flame in 
 e is no 
 Ligh ex- 
 iesirous 
 on his 
 
 him up 
 
 
 for a few minutes each day, and it was while 
 standing and with a smile on his lips that he died. 
 Death must not have had any terrors for a man 
 whose benefactions were to continue beyond the 
 tomb. He bequeathed $40,000 to the Charity 
 Hospital, in New Orleans, was the founder of the 
 Poydras Asylum, in the same city, and gave $30,- 
 000 to establish a college for indigent orphans in 
 Pointe Coupee. To the parishes of Pointe Coupee 
 and West Baton Rouge he left $30,000 each for a 
 most noble and poetic purpose. Each year the 
 interest of the money bequeathed was to be given 
 to the young girls without fortune who had mar- 
 ried during the year. Of how much happiness 
 has Mr. Poydras been the author for more than 
 half a century! How many lovi g hearts have 
 blessed the name of the old man ^ ,'ho, unmarried 
 and childless, had been anxious to provide the 
 means by which deserving young girls were en- 
 abled to enter the tiiie sphere in which lies wo- 
 man's happiness — that of the wife and mother! 
 
 At his death Mr. Poydras left twelve hundred 
 slaves. He had always been opposed to slavery, 
 but had had to ac ept the institutions of the country 
 in which he lived. He ever hoped that the day would 
 come when the negroes would be emancipated, and 
 he said to his friends that the change from slavery 
 to liberty should be accomplished gradually. He 
 understood that in 1824 it was too soon to bring 
 about emancipation, but he thought that the minds 
 of the people could be prepared for the change, 
 and that it could be brought about without any 
 violent convulsions. He, therefore, ordered, by a 
 special clause in his will, that twenty-five years 
 after his death all his slaves should be set free. 
 Unfortunately, when the year 1849 came those 
 
x6 
 
 Louisiana Stui)Ii:s. 
 
 
 directions were unheeded and the slaves were not 
 liberated. Whatever may hav'e been the reasons 
 at the time for disobeyinfr Mr. Poydras' instruc- 
 tions we can not but deplore that his wishes were 
 not respected. The liberation of such a large 
 number of slaves might have contributed to a 
 gradual emancipation of the negroes and have 
 spared our country untold miseries. 
 
 The bulk of Mr. Poydras' estate went to his 
 nephew, Benjamin Poydras de Lallande, who, in 
 1840, returned to France, where he married Mile, 
 de la Rouliere of the Chateau de la Gacherie, 
 near Nantes. 
 
 Julien Poydras was on intimate terms with 
 Governor Claiburne and General Wilkinson, and 
 took a great interest in public affairs. He was 
 president of the first legislative council of the 
 territory of Orleans, delegate to Congress from 
 1809 to 1812, president of the constitutional con- 
 vention of 181 2, president of the senate from 
 1812 to 1813 and again, in extreme old age, from 
 1820 to 1821. The pioneer of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, the peddler of 1769, had become a states- 
 man. 
 
 He lies buried in the cemetery of St. Francis 
 church in Pointe Coupee parish.* There is no 
 marble monument to mark the resting place of 
 the philanthropist, but the most enduring of all 
 monuments is the memory of his exemplary life ; 
 for it can truly be said of such a man : the good 
 that he has done has lived after him and his name 
 is blessed. 
 
 It was thought for a long time that Poydras' 
 poem on Galvez was lost, but at the end of 1891 
 
 ^A monument has l;itely been erected to Poydras in Pointe Coupee parish. 
 
 ii 
 
LiTKUATl'Ui:. 
 
 17 
 
 Mr. II. L. Favrot, of Now Orleans, loUl nic that 
 he had a copy of the work in his possession, and 
 he has kindly allowed me to copy the poem and to 
 republish it. 
 
 Poydras' work has no ^reat literary merit, but 
 it is interesting as an historical document, and it is 
 as such that I reproduce it here, givin<r an exact 
 copy of the ori<rinal, with the spelling and punctua- 
 tion of the time. Wliile speakin*^ of tlie poem ol 
 Poydras we must remember that in 1779 I^^ench 
 poetry was, in general, as cold and pompous as 
 Poydras' verses. The poetic inspiration of the 
 seventeenth century was dying out and was only 
 kept up by a few graceful ard elegant writers. 
 The eighteenth century had but too many jioems 
 like those of Louis Racine, J. B. Rousseau, Le 
 Franc de Pompignan, Lebrun and Poydras. Tlie 
 style is bombastic, mythological comparisons 
 abound and are often ill suited. Poets like Vol- 
 taire, like Gresset, like Andre Chcnier, were rare 
 in France in the eighteenth century. Why should 
 we expect to find them in Louisiana? Let us be 
 satisfied with Poydras' work and let us be thank- 
 ful to him for having given us a poem in i^']^). It 
 is already a great merit to have been tlie first and 
 to have hac enough patriotism to try to immortal- 
 ize in heroic verses the . jroic deeds of our ances- 
 tors of the eighteenth century. 
 
 J 
 
 
Iiirlili!! 
 
 
 i 
 
 . i 
 i 
 
 ! 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 f ! 
 
 i 
 
 i8 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 
 LA PRISE DC MORNE DU BATON ROUOB. 
 
 PAR MONSKIGNEUR DE GALVEZ. 
 
 Chevalier pensioiine de I'Ordre Royal distingue de Charles 
 Trois, Brigadier des Armees de Sa Majeste, Intendant, lu- 
 specteur et Gouverneur General de la Province de la Loui- 
 siana, etc. 
 
 A LA NOUVELLE ORLEANS, 
 Chkz Antoine Roudousquie. Imprimhlr DU Koi, KT DU Cabildo. 
 
 M.DCC.LXXIX. 
 
 POEME. 
 
 Quel fracas et quel bruit vient frapper mon oreille? 
 
 Je dormois, tout a coup la foudre nie reveille. 
 
 A ses coups redoubles je vois freiuir nies Eaux, 
 
 Et trembler mon Palais, retentir les Echos. 
 
 Quel Mortel, ou quel Dieu vient ici dans sa rage, 
 
 Troubler la douce paix, de mon heureux Rivage, 
 
 Ou sous mes sages Loix, mes habilans cheris, 
 
 Couloient les plus beaux jours, sans peine et sans soucis. 
 
 Chers objets de mes soins, ils vojoient I'abondance, 
 
 Prevenir leur besoins, toujours dans I'affluence, 
 
 Des biens vraiset reels, ils goutoient les douceurs; 
 
 Les faux, les superllux ne touchoient point les cu::urs. 
 
 Ils i^aoroient les noms de discorde, de guerre, 
 
 Et des autres tieaux, qui ravagent la Terre, 
 
 Dans le sein de mes Eaux, ils trouvoient les Poissons, 
 
 Le Gibier d^ns les Bois, les Roseaux pour Maisons, 
 
 T'our ctancher leur soit, mon Onde la plus pure, 
 
 Et pour se reposer la plus belle verdure. 
 
 Leu IS Heches, et leuvs arcs, sont des dons dans mes mains. 
 
 A moi seul ils devoient, leur bonheur et leurs biens. 
 
 lis vivoient satisfaits, sous mon heureux Empire 
 
 Mais un hardi Mortel! voyons ce qui I'inspire: 
 
 Chaimanle Scaesaris, pars, voles vers ces lieux, 
 
 D'ou i'entends ce grand bruit, et ce fracas aftreux. 
 
 llJIliJII 
 
Literature. 
 
 ^9 
 
 L^ d'un ceil attentif. eti hoiutne deguisee 
 Saisis tout avec soin, I'arfaire con•^omm^5e, 
 Viens in'instruire de tout, je desire savoir, 
 Si quelque tenieraire, attente a men pouvoir. 
 11 dit, et Scaesaris, comnie un trait fendit I'Ondt;, 
 Secouant ses cheveux, vit la clarte du Monde. 
 Sous les traits d'un mortel, elle va dans le Camp, 
 Et connut le Heros a son nir triomphant. 
 ?211e entend ses discours, et volt toute I'Annee, 
 A I'envi I'un de I'autre, au Combat animce. 
 I^e succes le couronne, on voit sur les Rem parts 
 Des Ennemis vaincus, Hotter ses Etendards. 
 Salisfaite Elle part, se replonge dans TOnde. 
 Et va revoir le Dieu dans sa grote profonde, 
 Sur son trone d'Erain, pensit il I'attendoit, 
 Sa tete sur sa main tristemenl reposoit. 
 Les ennuis devorans, s'emparcnt de son ame, 
 II ne voit, il n'entend que le feu et la tlamme. 
 En vain autour de lui, les Tritons empresses, 
 Tachent de rappcUer ses esprits egares. 
 II n'est touche de rien, son ame est (Hourdie; 
 Tel on voit un tnortel pret a perclre la vie. 
 La belle Messagt^re, arrive des combats, 
 II la voit, il lui dit, viens, vole entre mes i)ras. 
 Ma chere Scaesaris, oh ma Nyrnphe cheric! 
 Je te vols, quel plaisir! satisfais mon envio. 
 Apprends-moi, quel malheur menace nos Cli.rnts, 
 Quels moyens avons nous d'arreter leurs debals? 
 Tu sais ce que je puis, ma supreme puissance I 
 La Nymphe repliqua d'un air plein de drcence, 
 Dieu du Mississippi, terrible en ton courroux, 
 Quel pouvoir oseroit, s'opposer tl tes coups? 
 Du Nord, jusques au Sud, tu etends ton empire, 
 Ciiaque peuple it I'envi, Jl tes faveurs aspire. 
 A ton ordre I'on voit tes deux bords s'ecrouler, 
 Hommes, betes et bois, dans ral)ime rouler. 
 Quaiul soumis a ta voix, ton Fleuve se courrouce, 
 Et tes lots entasses, pr^cipitent leur course, 
 Les botes de nos bois, effrajes du danger, 
 Quoique prompts, et legers ne peuvent I'eviter. 
 
 &: 
 
1 " 
 
 III 
 
 20 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 Ill 
 
 ' i < 
 
 l^i 
 
 Tes eaux dans luur fureur sappent jusqu'aux colliiies, 
 Leurs tristes habitans perisseiit sous leiirs mines! 
 Mais Dieu, pour cette fois, cesses de t'allarmer, 
 Mon recit n'aura rien, qui puisse t'enflanimer. 
 Je I'ai vu ce Ileros, qui cause tes allarines 
 11 reseiiihlait un Uieu, revelu de ses amies, 
 Son Panache superbe, alloit au gre du vent, 
 Et ses clieveux epais lui servoient d'omement. 
 Un niaintien noble et ficr annonyoit son courage, 
 LMieroique vertu, brilloit sur son visage, 
 D'une main il tenoil, son Sabre eblouissant, 
 De I'autre il reteuoit, son Coursier bondissant. 
 II niarchoit le i^reinier, c. son brillant Cortege, 
 Pleins d'une noble ardeur, et tiers du privilege, 
 De courir avec lui, le hazard des combats, 
 Desiroient les dangers, pour signaler leurs bras. 
 Les braves Fantassins, les suivoient en colonne. 
 Tons bouillonnans du feu, de Mars et de liellonne, 
 lis marchoient en bon ordre, il pas surs, et hardis, 
 Meprisant les perils, voloient aux Ennemis. 
 Apres eux Ton voyoit, marcher sans artifice, 
 De nos fiers Habitans, I'intrepide Milice; 
 Et leurs adroites mains, qui ti "oient des Sillons, 
 Avec la meme ardeur, elevoient des Bastions; 
 Et faisoient des Fosses, Parapets, et Tranchdes, 
 Machines et afluts, pour se battre inventees. 
 Pour I'art de conqu^rir ils semblent etre nes. 
 Leurs braves Ennemis, en sont dpouvantes, 
 Jusque dans leurs Remparts, ils sentent leur courage, 
 Rien ne les garantit, des etiets de leur rage. 
 La marche finissoit, par les Gens de couleur: 
 Vifs, ardens a donner, des marques de leur caeur. 
 L'intrepide Galvez, partout les encourage, 
 Ses discours, son aspect les excite au courage. 
 Cependant tout s'apprete, et I'Anglois le premier, 
 De ses bouches d'airain, lance le fer meurtrier. 
 Leurs coups pr(-cipites, ^ I'instar de la foudre, 
 Frappent, et renversent, reduisent tout en poudre. 
 En vain ils rallument leurs feux etincellans, 
 Rien ne peut ebranler, les braves Assiegeans, 
 
 I 
 
Literature. 
 
 21 
 
 Malgre les traits m«rtels, qui menacent leur vie. 
 
 lis disposent bien tout, dressent leur Batterie, 
 
 Les Canons sont pointes, I'impatient General, 
 
 Met le feu au premier et donne le signal. 
 
 On le suit h I'instant, et leurs foudres de guerre, 
 
 Droit au Fort Ennemi, dechargent leur Tonnerre. 
 
 II en est traverse, il repond a leurs feux, 
 
 Et le combat s'anime, et devient furieux. 
 
 A se battre I'Anglois, redouble son courage; 
 
 Toujours avec fureur, il revient a la charge. 
 
 II r6siste longtemps, h leur puissans efforts; 
 
 Mais il chancelle enfin, sous leurs coups les plus forts. 
 
 Leur boulets foudroyans, renversent ses terrasses, 
 
 Le ravage, et la mort, marquent partout leurs traces. 
 
 Fatigue de combattre, et toujours sans succes, 
 
 II ne se llatte plus, d'arreter leurs progres. 
 
 II met Pavilion Blanc, pour marquer sa ddfaite; 
 
 Le Camp le voit, et dit la conquete est done fnite. 
 
 La Victoire en ce jour arrache des Bretons, 
 
 Les Lauriers toujours verds, dont elle orne nos fronts 
 
 Galvez victorieux, assemble son Arm6e, 
 
 Charme des sentimens, dont elle est animee, 
 
 II lui tient ce discours, touchant, digne de liii, 
 
 Et qui doit dans les cceurs, graver son nom ch(5ri. 
 
 Intrcpides Guerriers, compagnons de ma gloire, 
 
 Par vos mains aujourd'hui, j'ai gagne la Victoire, 
 
 En S]iartes, I'on vous voit, voler au champ d'honneur, 
 
 Et partout vous montrez, une insigne valeur. 
 
 Pour marcher sur mes pas, vous quittez vos campagnes. 
 
 Et vos tendres Enfans, vos fideles Compagnes. 
 
 Je sens ce que je dois a vos soins, vos Exploits, 
 
 Je saurai les vanter, au plus grand de nos rois. 
 
 Compte/ sur sa justice, et ma reconnoissance. 
 
 Nos vertus recevront, leur juste recompense. 
 
 Oui le rang distingue, qu'il daigne m'accorder, 
 
 N'auroit rien de flatteur s'il devoit arreter, 
 
 Le cours de ses faveurs, un plus juste partage, 
 
 Entre nous, croyez moi, me plairoit davantage 
 
 II dit, et tout le monde par ses acclamations, 
 
 L^assure de son coeur, de ses dispositions. 
 
ii 
 
 22 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 Scaesaris racontoit, et toute I'audience, 
 
 Dieu, Nymphes et Tritons, ' 'coutoient en silence. 
 
 Une secrette jove, aniinoit tous les cceurs, 
 
 Et tous se declaroient, en faveur des Vainqueurs. 
 
 Elle voit dans leurs jeux, leur curiosite peinte, 
 
 Et ieur dit, ecoutez, je parlerai sans feinte. 
 
 Enfin nous les voyons, ces tetns; ces heureux terns, 
 
 Qui vont nous procurer, les plus grands chancjemeus. 
 
 Les Ronces, les Roseaux, et I'Epine sauvage, 
 
 Ne deguiseront plus notre fecond Rivage. 
 
 Des Colons diligens, feront par leur travaux, 
 
 De nos deserts affreux, les sejours les plus beaux. 
 
 Nos plaines par leurs mains tous les ans cultivees, 
 
 D'abondantes Moissons, serout toujours ornecs: 
 
 Nous verrons dans nos Pres leur bondissans Troupeaux, 
 
 Leurs Vergers, leurs Jardins, couvriront nos coteaux. 
 
 Ceres, Pomone et Flore, et les Graces naiVes, 
 
 Se plairont avcc nous, sur nos fertiles rives. 
 
 Le Zephire badin, de son souffle leger, 
 
 Entr'ouvrira les Fleurs, qu'il aime a caresser, 
 
 L'Abondance, et la Paix, seront dans nos Confrees, 
 
 A Pamour, au plaisir, a jamais consacres; 
 
 Tant que dans nos Climats, ce genereux Vainqueur, 
 
 D'un Peuple qu'il chcrit, fera tout le bonheur; 
 
 Le Dieu Pinterrompant, laisse eclater sa joie, 
 
 Je le vois, lui dit-il, c'est le Ciel qui Penvoie. 
 
 Qu'il vive dans le sein, de la prosperite, 
 
 Qu'il goute le plaisir, de se voir adore. 
 
 Que ses grandes vertus, soient par tous celebrees, 
 
 Que ses belles actions, obtii.nnent des Trophees. 
 
 Je dirai a mes Eaux, de moddrer leur cours, 
 
 Et de fertiliser le lieu desou sejour. 
 
 Par des sentiers de Fleurs qu'il parvienne a la Gloire. 
 
 Que son nom soit ecrit, au Temple de memoire. 
 
 Cbantez, Nymphes, Tritons, enflez vos Chalumeaux. 
 
 Tout respire la joie, en I'empire des Eaux, 
 
 Je veux a son honneur, instituer une Fete, 
 
 Qui consacre h jamais, sa nouvelle Conquete 
 
 d 
 
Literature. 
 
 23 
 
 CHANSON 
 
 SuR l'Air, Jusque dans la Moindre Chose, Etc. 
 
 Dois-je croire mes oreilles 
 Et ce recit enchanteur, 
 Quoi! chaque jour des merveillea 
 De ce fameux Gouverneur. 
 L'Ame grande et genereuse 
 Pe ce Mortel demi Dieu 
 Croit la grandeur onereuse, 
 Si Elle nc fait des heureux. 
 
 Appollon prete ta Ijre, 
 Viens seconder mes efforts, 
 C'est un rcve, c'est un delire. 
 Je succombe a mes transports. 
 L'ennemi lui rend les armes, 
 II le comble de bienfaits, 
 II goute dans ses allarmes, 
 Les delices de la paix. 
 
 C'est un heros magnanimc, 
 Chantons tons a qui mieux mieux, 
 Et d'une voix unanime, 
 Elevons-le jusqu'aux Cieux. 
 Au beau Temple de memoire, 
 Erigeons-lui des Autels, 
 Galvez merite la gloire, 
 De devenir Immortel. 
 Fin. 
 
 Ill— THE FRENCH LITERATURE OF LOUISIANA— 
 
 1814-1893. 
 
 Jefferson having acquired the colony of Louisi- 
 ana for the United States in 1803, its population 
 and the material interests of the people increased 
 so rapidly that the territory of Orleans became a 
 ■State in 181 2. Two years later the first book 
 
 ':. 
 
II .i 
 
 '^ 
 
 24 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 •( 
 
 of our own literature was published, a tragedy, 
 '* Poucha Iloumma," by Le Blanc de Villeneufve. 
 I shall not speak at present of this work, as I wish 
 to divide my subject into several parts: history 
 and biography, the drama, poetry, novels, and 
 miscellaneous works. I may add that in this re- 
 view of our Louisiana Literature I do not speak of 
 the journalists, of whom many were quite distin- 
 guished. 
 
 History and Biography. 
 
 The history of Louisiana is exceedingly inter- 
 esting, and it early attracted the attention of a dis- 
 tinguished man. Judge Francois-Xavier Martin, of 
 the Supreme Court, who wrote in 1827 his history 
 in English. 
 
 As the majority of Louisianians in the beginning 
 of this century only spoke French, a history in 
 that language was very necessary to them, and 
 Mr. Gayarre evinced his patriotism when he pub- 
 lished in 1830 his " Essai Historique sur la Lou- 
 isiane." * The author was then but twenty-five 
 years old, but we can see on every page a great 
 enthusiasm for his subject and his devotion to the 
 State. The narrative is clear, and the method is 
 good, and we can already recognize in this essay 
 the author of the ** History of Louisiana." Mr. 
 Gayarre has been the Henri Martin, we might add 
 the J. R. Green, of Louisiana. He has spent al- 
 
 * Charles Giyarr^, " Essai Historique sur la Louisiane," i Vol. lamo, 
 441 pp. Imprime par Benjamin Levy, VouvelleOrleans, 1830. 
 
 Jii4. 
 
^m 
 
 Literature. 
 
 25 
 
 most his whole life in writing and re-writing the 
 history of his native State. 
 
 In 1846, he published his *' Histoire de la Lou- 
 isiane " * in two volumes. It comprises only the 
 French domination, but the work is of great value, 
 as Mr. Gayarre, who had been United States Sen- 
 ator and afterward Secretary of State of Louisiana, 
 had been able to procure many documents of our 
 colonial period, and had given them in full in his 
 history. The author seemed in this work to 
 wish to divest his writings of his own person- 
 ality, and he adopted the plan which has ren- 
 dered de Barante's *' Dues de Bourgogne " so 
 interesting, that of giving the documents of the 
 times, and causing the personages to relate, as it 
 were, their own history. This method is very at- 
 tractive, but it is not the philosophy of history. 
 Mr. Gayarre's own views were of too great im- 
 portance to be ignored, and his countrymen w^ere 
 highly pleased when he gave his last work on Lou- 
 isiana written in English a more philosophical cast. 
 Mr. Gayarre was greatly honored by his State in 
 his youth, and although he has now no official po- 
 sition, no one is more venerated and esteemed in 
 Louisiana than our historian. 
 
 In 1841, Mr. Victor Debouchel published his 
 " Histoire de la Louisiane, depuis les premieres 
 decouvertes jusqu'en 1840."! The work is inter- 
 
 * Charles Gayarr6, " Histoire de la Louisiane," 2 Vol. 8vo. Magne and 
 Weisse, Nouvelle-Orl6an.s, 1846 and 1S47. 
 
 t Victor Debouchel, •' Histoire de la Louisiane." i Vol. i6nio, 190 pp. J. 
 P. Lelievre, NouTelle-Orleans, 1841. 
 
26 
 
 Louisiana vSrirDHis. 
 
 :i!l 
 
 J! 
 
 ^i 
 
 esting and the style is clear and concise. The aim 
 of the author was to write a history for schools, 
 but which mi^ht be read with profit even by men 
 of culture. The dates are very carefully given at 
 the beginning of every paragraph treating of a 
 different subject, and the contents of each chapter 
 or " esquisse " are indicated by a well chosen 
 title. Mr. Debouchel gives some amusing details 
 about our old laws: in 1808, the fees of a lawyer 
 were $16 before the Supreme Court or the Cir- 
 cuit Court, and before a parish court $5. In 1809, 
 however, the fee was fixed at $11 for every case. 
 The last part of Mr. Debouchel's book is devoted 
 to the great financial crisis of 1840, when a spirit 
 of speculation seemed to have taken possession of 
 the Louisianians. The history ends with the fol- 
 lowing very encouraging enumeration of the 
 schools in Louisiana in 1840: three large colleges: 
 Franklin in Opelousas, Jefferson in St. James, 
 Louisiana at Jackson: thirty academies, of which 
 six were for young ladies, and three convents. 
 
 Mr. Debouchel's work was followed in 1854 ^y 
 Mr. Henri Remy's, who published a well written 
 " Histoire de la Louisiane "* in the SL MicheU a 
 weekly paper of the parish of St. James. It is 
 very much to be regretted that the publication of 
 this history was discontinued whei. the author had 
 only gone as far as 1731. The wars against the 
 Natchez and the Chicassas are related with many 
 
 * Henri R^my, " Histoire de la Louisiane." cf. Le Journal St, Michel 
 Paroisse St. Jacques, 1854. 
 
 \\ 
 
Literature. 
 
 27 
 
 :. The aim 
 or schools, 
 in by men 
 ly given at 
 mating of a 
 Lch chapter 
 ;ell chosen 
 sing details 
 )f a la^^'3^er 
 or the Cir- 
 . In 1809, 
 every case, 
 is devoted 
 hen a spirit 
 )ssession of 
 nth the fol- 
 on of the 
 fe colleges: 
 St. James, 
 5, of which 
 nvents. 
 
 in 1854 by 
 veil written 
 
 . MicheU a 
 imes. It is 
 )lication of 
 author had 
 igainst the 
 with many 
 
 urnal St. Michel 
 
 I 
 
 details and great impartiality, and we see very 
 often that justice was not always on the side of the 
 white man. If the savage was cruel in his warfare, 
 it must be admitted that he had generally been led 
 to hostility by the act of some inferior. French 
 officer, as was the case with Chepar, at Fort 
 Rosalie. Mr. Remy praises Bienville as gover- 
 nor, but is very severe against the French govern- 
 ment and its unwise colonial administration. 
 
 Two works written by ladies, both teachers of 
 reputation in New Orleans, are now to be exam- 
 ined. Mme. Laure Andry imitated LameFleury's 
 simple and conversational style, and succeeded 
 in producing a really charming " Histoire de la 
 Louisiane pour les enfants."* I have never read 
 a book which pleased me more ; it is so unassum- 
 ing and, at the same time, so entertaining. 
 
 Mme. D. Girard, an old lady of most wonder- 
 ful energy, who still teaches, although some of her 
 pupils are now grandmothers, published in 1881 
 her " Histoire des Etats-Unis suivie de I'Mistoire 
 de la Louisiane. "t It is a small book and more a 
 chronicle or chronology than a history, but is 
 very useful for reference. 
 
 We now come to a work which was received by 
 the people of Louisiana with almost filial respect. 
 Bernard de Marigny, whose ancestor had been a 
 companion of Iberville, after having been a mem- 
 
 * Mme. I..aure Andry, *' Histoire de la Louisiane pour les Enfants." i 
 Vol. i6mo, 163 pp. Eug. Antoine, Nouvelle-Orleans, 18S2. 
 
 ^ Mme. D. Girard, ' "Histoire des EtatsUnis suivie de I'Histoire de It 
 Louisiane." 1 Vol. i8mo, 84 pp. Eug. Antoine, Nouvelle-Orleans, 1881. 
 
' 1: 
 
 28 
 
 Louisiana Studijcs. 
 
 1:1 
 
 I 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 • i 
 
 Hi 
 ii 
 
 n< 1 
 
 !i 
 
 1 ' f 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 iui 
 
 'iii 
 
 1 1 II 
 
 1 1 
 
 h ; 1 
 
 1 
 
 Hi 
 
 ber of two State constitutional conventions, and for 
 many years, of the House and Senate of Louisi- 
 ana, presented in 1854 to the Legislature of the 
 State his ** Reflexions sur la Politique des Etats- 
 Unis. Statistique de I'Espagne, de Tile de Cube, 
 etc."* The author was then seventy years old and 
 struggling with adversity, although he had once a 
 fortune of $4,000,000, and his father had received 
 with princely hospitality the exiled Louis-Philippe 
 d'Orleans. Mr. de Marigny was one of the most 
 typical men of the old regime, generous, elegant, 
 brave and witty. His " calembours " have become 
 as celebrated as his duels, and his eloquence was 
 natural and pleasing. His work begins with the 
 treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, explains the 
 causes of the American Revolution, and gives a 
 rapid review of the annexations to the United 
 States, urging on the latter to take possession of 
 Cuba. The author then enumerates the conquests 
 of the European nations, and gives a glowing- 
 account of the future of our union. Strange to 
 say, only seven years before the Civil War began, 
 he did not seem to have foreseen the terrible 
 events that were approaching. Mr. de Marigny 
 ends by claiming in a few touching words the 
 indulgence of his fellow-citizens: " en raison des 
 motifs qui raniment mes forces et me font pres- 
 que oublier mes malheurs et mes vieilles annces." 
 
 •Bernard de Marigny, "Reflexions sur la Politique des Etats-Unis, 
 Statistique de I'Espagne. de I'lle de C ube," etc. i Vol. 8vo, 95 pp. J.L. 
 Soll6e, Nouvelle- Orleans, 1854. 
 
LlTKRATLRK. 
 
 29 
 
 and for 
 
 LfOuisi- 
 
 of the 
 
 Etats- 
 
 : Cube, 
 
 aid and 
 
 once a 
 
 iceived 
 
 'hilippe 
 
 le most 
 
 ilegant, 
 
 Decome 
 
 ice was 
 
 ^ith the 
 
 ins the 
 
 L^ives a 
 
 United 
 
 sion of 
 
 iquests 
 
 owing 
 
 nge to 
 
 :»egan, 
 
 errible 
 
 arigny 
 
 ds the 
 
 on des 
 
 t pres- 
 
 tices." 
 
 ats-Unis, 
 jp. J.L. 
 
 ** Ilistoire des Comitcs de V^igilance aux Attaka- 
 pas,"* by Alexandre Ikirde, is a true story, but 
 has all the interest of a romance. It relates the 
 efforts of some valiant men to free their parishes 
 from the bandits, who, like the Chauffeurs^ were 
 committing tlie greatest atrocities, and whom the law 
 was powerless to punish. The vigilants were men 
 of courage, of wealth and of culture, and among 
 them were Alexandre Mouton, ex-governor and 
 United States Senator; his son Alfred Mouton, the 
 brave general killed only a few years later at Mans- 
 tield; Major St. Julien, a real chevalier; Alci- 
 biade De Blanc, afterward a judge of our Su- 
 preme Court; Alcee Judice, most eloquent and 
 intrepid; the Martins, the Voorhies, the Brous- 
 sards and many others of the best and most re- 
 spected families. Mr. Barde not only gives the 
 history of the committees ; he describes most ac- 
 curately the picturesque Teche country, and re- 
 lates all the legends and traditions of the Attakapas 
 region. I do not think that any history of Louis- 
 iana can give as correct an idea of life in our 
 country parishes before the war as Mr. Barde 's 
 work. No one can begin to read it without finish- 
 ing it, and the adventures of our Louisianians are 
 as interesting as those of Dumas' celebrated 
 '* mousquetaires." 
 
 " Esquisses Locales "t par un Inconnu (Cyprien 
 
 ♦Alexandkk lUmjE, " Histoire des Comites de Vigilance aux At 
 takapas." 1 Vol., Svo., 42S pp. Imprimerie du Meschcaebe et de i'Avaiit 
 Coureur, St. JeanHaplisle, 1S61. 
 
 tUN iNioNNU (CypkiknDlfour), " Esquisses Locales." i Vol. Svo., 
 '47 PP- J. L. SoUee. 
 
 Fi 
 
30 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 Ml ! 
 
 I* 
 
 " 
 
 jiliiii^ 
 
 
 Dufour) 1847. This work was first published in the 
 Courrier de la Louisiane, and excited the greatest 
 interest. The ,'iuthor presented a series of pictures 
 of the most prominent men of the day, and showed 
 the most consummate tact and skill in his criti- 
 cisms. His style is sprightly and witty, and he dis- 
 plays throughout the utmost finesse. For us who 
 read that book after nearly fifty years, and who are 
 almost posterity for the men mentioned by Mr. Du- 
 four, we must aiimit that his judgment about his 
 contemporaries was almost always correct, and 
 that his predictions about their future were quite 
 prophetic. For instance, when he speaks of John 
 Slidell, the great Louisiana politician, so widely 
 known afterward through the *' Trent " affair, he 
 portrays tlie wily diplomat in the most graphic man- 
 ner. *' Esquisses Locales " is a very useful work for 
 the student of the history and literature of Louis- 
 iana. He can see in looking over the pages of 
 this little book all manner of men of the old 
 regime: lawyers, statesmen, journalists, prose 
 writers and poets. I only regret that Mr. Dufour 
 did not extend his gallery of portraits to the physi- 
 cians of the time, of whom so many were dis- 
 tinguished, and that he did not give us a glimpse 
 of old plantation life, by presenting to us some of 
 our refined, chivalric and intelligent sugar planters. 
 It is a great loss to our literature that "Un In- 
 connu," who was an able lawyer, has produced 
 only one work, for such a brilliant pen could have 
 given us some charming comedies of real life. 
 
Literature. 
 
 31 
 
 d in the 
 greatest 
 pictures 
 showed 
 is criti- 
 i he dis- 
 us who 
 yvho are 
 Mr. Du- 
 )Out his 
 !ct, and 
 re quite 
 of John 
 ) widely 
 ffair, he 
 lie man- 
 ,vork for 
 i Louis- 
 :)ages of 
 the old 
 prose 
 Dufour 
 e physi- 
 ere dis- 
 glimpse 
 some of 
 planters. 
 Un In- 
 oduced 
 Id have 
 eal life. 
 
 r 
 
 In the parish of St. James there is at a distance 
 of five miles from the river a settlement in the 
 woods; it is called " la Grande Pointe," and is 
 very prosperous. The inhabitants are all de- 
 scendants of the Acadian exiles, and have re- 
 tained the energy of their fathers. The m':;n are 
 great deer and duck hunters, and cultivate the 
 land; the women are very pious and industrious. 
 It is there that old Perique manufactured the famous 
 tobacco carrots which bear his name. *' Le Destin 
 d'un Brin de Mousse,"* by Mile. Desiree Martin, is 
 an autobiography, and reveals to us the daily life of 
 these worthy people. The author speaks with great 
 reveience of her parents, especially of her grand- 
 father, a patriarch surrounded by a progeny ol 
 seventy-eight children and grandchildren. From 
 having been a most happy '*gardeuse d'oies," 
 Mile. Martin became an unhappy nun. After 
 many years passed in a convent she retired 
 to "la Grande Pointe," and related her 
 story and that of her ancestors to her little 
 nephews. Although an ex-nun, there is not a word 
 of irreverence against religion in the book; the 
 author seems to have been of a thoroughly truthful 
 and honest disposition. She communicates to us 
 all lier feelings and we can but respect her 
 filial piety, her devotion to her God and her love 
 for Louisiana. Here is a pleasing and characteristic 
 passage: "Avant de mettie pied a teiTe, devinez 
 
 *Mllk Uesikee Mak'IN, "Les Veillees d'une Soeur ou le Destin 
 d'nn Hrin de Mousse." i Vol. lOmo, 2.^0 pp. Imprim. Cosmopolite, Nouvelle- 
 ' )' e Ills, 1S77. 
 
WWrn 
 
 32 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 \\\ 
 
 ii; 
 
 i|iiiin!ii!i;!;i 
 
 1 : ■ , ! 
 
 .-'lil 
 
 '•Mi 
 
 ill 
 
 1 :; i' 
 
 i i l! 
 
 lij ! 
 
 ; 'i 
 
 ! 1 
 
 1 1 
 
 11 
 
 J 11 . 1,: ' 
 
 done, mes chers enfants, quelle idee enfantine me 
 vint? — De boire de I'eau de votre fleuve tant 
 aime. 
 
 — Tout juste, chere Louisa; je me fis apporter 
 un verre d'eau du Mississippi et je le vidai d'un 
 trait en disant; ' Fontaine, je ne boirai jaimais de 
 meilleure eau que la tienne.' " 
 
 Before passini^ to another subject I wish to men- 
 tion, under the head of history, though not strictly 
 belonging to it, an address by Mr. Gayarre in op- 
 position to Mr. Livingston's report to the Legisla- 
 ture on the abolition of capital punishment.* The 
 work was published in 1826, and was one of the 
 earliest in our Louisiana literature. 
 
 The Drama. 
 
 Before the rrvival of the drama in France by 
 the rise of the romantic school; before " Henri III 
 et sa cour; " before *' Hernani," and while Marie- 
 Joseph Chenier, Lemercier, and Ducis were still 
 masters of the stage, we had in Louisiana a tragedy 
 which may be read with some interest. Le Blanc 
 de Villeneufve, an ex-officer in the French army, 
 wrote at the age of seventy-eight, a drama on an 
 episode of Indian life. While employed by the 
 government among the Tchactas, from 1752 to 1758, 
 he heard the story of the father who had sacrificed 
 himself to save his son's life, and he says that 
 many years afterward he thought of writing a 
 
 *CharlcR Giiyarr6, *' Disconrs adre«'< h Legislature, en refutation dn 
 RajiporL de Mr. Livingston sur I'Aholition de la Peine de Mori." i Vol. 12111.' 
 35 )([). Hcuj. r^evy, Nouvelle-Orleans, i8j6. 
 
Literature. 
 
 33 
 
 antine me 
 auve tant 
 
 1 apporter 
 ^idai d'un 
 jaimais de 
 
 jh to men- 
 ot strictly 
 irre in op- 
 e Legisla- 
 nt.* The 
 )ne of the 
 
 -''ranee by 
 Henri III 
 ile Marie- 
 were still 
 a tragedy 
 Le Blanc 
 ich army, 
 ma on an 
 id by the 
 2 to 1758, 
 sacrificed 
 s.iys that 
 writing a 
 
 refutation clu 
 I." I Vol. 12111.' 
 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 play on this subject, in order to defend the Indians 
 from the imputation of having been savages with- 
 out any human feelings. 
 
 This work, " Poucha Houmma,"* is a regular 
 classical tragedy, and the unities of time, place, 
 and action seem to be well observed. The style 
 is somewhat too grandiloquent and Cornelian for 
 Indian personages; for instance, the play begins 
 
 thus : 
 
 Augustes descendans d'un peuple sans pareil, 
 
 Tres illustres enfans des enfans du Soleil, 
 
 Enfin voici le jour ou la saison prosp^re 
 
 Va payer vos travaux d'un precieux salaire: 
 
 Ce jour, vous le savez, jadis par nos ajeux, 
 
 Fut toujours mis au rang des jours les plus heureux, 
 
 Je n'ai jamais manque d'en celebrer la fete, 
 
 Depuis soixante hivers ecoul^s sur ma tete. 
 
 Que vos coeurs satisfaits s'expriment par vos chants; 
 
 La terre, *'ous vox >eux, a place ses presens: 
 
 A notre bienfaiteur offrez-en les premices. 
 
 Puisse-t-il agrer vos pieux sacrifices! 
 
 Pour moi, triste jouet du sort le plus cruel, 
 
 Je ne puis presider a I'acte soleniiel. 
 
 L'ancien de nos vieillards pourra preniire ina place, ' \ 
 
 Je dois tne retirer, je le demande en grace. 
 
 (<i part). 
 
 Malheureux que je suis, un reve me confond .... 
 
 We see then that, as in ''Athalie," a dream is 
 pursuing Poucha-Houmma with its sinister omen, 
 lie does not wish to preside over *' la Fete du Petit 
 Ble," the most important of all the festivals of the 
 Iloummas. Tchilita-Be, Poucha's brother, exhorts 
 him to attend to his duties of chief, and asks him 
 
 *Le Blanc de Villenenfvo, " Poucha-Houmina." i Vol. izmo, 58 pp. Im 
 primerie du Courrier de la Lnc, Nouvelle-Orlcans iSi/ 
 
Ml:1ll!':l!i| 
 
 34 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 'lilhliiili ii 
 
 il 
 
 •!PH:!i|| 
 
 .:! I 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 ■ii 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 '1; 
 
 ,1111 
 
 ■ ' 1 i 
 
 ' 1 1 
 
 •■'I: 
 
 I :, . ! 
 
 to relate his dream. The latter says that he had 
 dreamed that his son Cala-Be, who had escaped 
 after having killed a Tchacta, was to be put to 
 death the next day. In the second act, Cala-Be, 
 accompanied by his wife Fouchi, whom he had 
 married among the Attac-Apas^ returns to his vil- 
 lage. In the third act is related the festival of 
 the *' Petit Ble," one feature of which was that 
 the children were to be flogged unmercifully by 
 their mothers on that day. While the " Petit Ble " 
 was being celebrated, arrives Nachouba, a friend 
 of Poucha-IIoumma, who says that the Tchactas 
 are coming to claim the murderer. The Houmma 
 chief thereupon orders his son to escape from his 
 enemies, and there is a touching struggle between 
 the father, who wants to save the son, and the 
 latter and liis wife, who want lo brave the ene- 
 mies. At last Cala-Be and Fouchi withdraw, and 
 Poucha-IIoumma receives the Tchacta envoys. 
 There is an assembly of the tribe, and the Iloumma 
 chiefs offer all their treasures for the life of Cala- 
 Be. The Tchactas insist, however, upon the law 
 of retaliation, and Poucha surrenders himself to 
 save his son. The tribe, in consternation, allow 
 their chief to be led away. In the fifth act Cala- 
 Be returns to submit to his fate, but he only arriv<."S 
 after his father has been put to death, in his place, 
 and he listens with horror to Nachouba's recital 
 of the last moments of Poucha-Houmma. 
 
 If we consider that the author of this tragedy was 
 seventy-eight years old when he wrote it, and if we 
 
Literature. 
 
 35 
 
 t he had 
 
 I escaped 
 
 be put to 
 
 Cala-Be, 
 
 1 he had 
 
 to his vil- 
 
 estival oi 
 
 was that 
 
 :ifully by 
 
 etitBle" 
 
 , a friend 
 
 Tchactas 
 
 Houmma 
 
 from his 
 
 : between 
 
 and the 
 
 the ene- 
 
 iraw, and 
 
 envoys. 
 
 Iloumma 
 
 of Cala- 
 
 the law 
 
 mself to 
 
 ^n, allow 
 
 ict Cala- 
 
 y arrivL'S 
 
 lis place, 
 
 recital 
 
 ^edy was 
 md if we 
 
 remember ^'Agesilas" and **Pertharite" of Cor- 
 neille's old age, we must admit that our first Louis- 
 iana drama was, under the circumstances, a work 
 of some merit- At our last Exposition was the 
 portrait of Mr. de Villeneufve dressed as a 
 Tchacta chief. 
 
 In 1839 ^- Lussan published in Donaldsonville 
 " Les Martyrs de la Louisiane,"* a tragedy in 
 five acts. It is worthy of notice, as the person- 
 ages are the heroes of the revolution of 1768. The 
 Louisianians could hear on the stage their ances- 
 tors uttering words of defiance to O'Reilly and 
 offering their lives for their country. The princi- 
 pal character is Joseph Villere, father of our 
 second governor, a man of a magnanimous tem- 
 per. Having heard of the arrest of his friends in 
 New Orleans, he left his plantation to share their 
 fate, and was placed on a frigate, where he was 
 killed] by the sentinel on his attempting to i*un to 
 his wife, whose voice he had recognized. His last 
 words are really line : 
 
 Je te devais mon sang.. ..toi... .que j'ai tant cherie.... 
 
 Louisiane adorce....O ma noble patrie.... 
 
 Dis, si j'ai su garder....l'lionneur....et mon serment.... 
 
 (Giving his bloody handkerchief to a sailor). 
 Pour ma feinnie....elle est ljl....c'est mon dernier present! 
 
 In the last act Lafrcniere and his friends are in 
 prison, and the former says: 
 
 Adieu done a la vie, a cet anio'ir sacrd, 
 
 Dans le fond de nos occurs si longtemps epure! 
 
 * A. Lussan, " Martyrs de la Louisiane." i Vol. 8vo. 122 pp. E Miutin 
 and ¥. Vtou, Dunaldsonvillc, 1839. 
 
36 
 
 ) 
 
 i ! 
 
 t I 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 lili 
 
 ! 
 
 in 
 
 i 
 
 IMj 
 
 
 
 ■■ 
 
 HhIL 
 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 O moil pays! .adieu! nous tombons sans nous plaindre, 
 Si par notre trepas, tes maux doivent s'^teindre. 
 
 The conspirators are then led to execution, all 
 of them dressed most elegantly, and Lafrcniere 
 exclaims: 
 
 Nous sotnmes pr^ts, monsieur! D'aujourd'hui cette enceinte 
 Pour la posterite devieiit illustre et sainte; 
 Et, martyrs du devoir, son burin redoute 
 Grave nos noms au seuil de I'immortalitd. 
 
 This tragedy is of the Romantic school ; the uni- 
 ties of time and place are not observed, and the 
 play seems to be of the style of *' Hernani" and 
 of ** Marion Delorme." All Louisianians, all 
 Americans, will read *' Les Martyrs" with enthu- 
 siasm, for it is indeed a most patriotic work. 
 
 Mr. Lussan's second drama, ** Sara, la Juive," 
 in five acts and in prose, hardly deserves to be 
 mentioned. 
 
 Among our most popular dramatists was Mr. L. 
 Placide Canonge of L'Abeille de la Nouvelle- 
 Orleans. He wrote the librettos of several operas 
 and many poems which have not been gathered in 
 book form. His two most celebrated works are 
 " Qui perd gagne,"* a comedy in one act and in 
 prose, and " Le Comte de Carmagnola,"t a 
 drama in five acts and in prose. The comedy 
 appeared in 1849, and was dedicated in a very 
 clever letter to Alfred de Musset. The work is a 
 
 •*' Qui Perd Gagne." iVol.Svo, Le Courrier de la Louisiane, Nou- 
 velle-Orl^ans, 1849. 
 
 t L. Placide Canonge, "LeComte de Carmagnola." i Vol. 8vo. S? PP. 
 Le Courrier de la 2:,tf»«ia»/, Nouvelle-^rlians, 1856. 
 
 ^ 
 
Literature. 
 
 37 
 
 re, 
 
 •n, all 
 miere 
 
 ticeinte 
 
 e uni- 
 tid the 
 "and 
 IS, all 
 gnthu- 
 
 j> 
 
 uive, 
 to be 
 
 Mr. L. 
 
 avelle- 
 operas 
 ;red in 
 ks are 
 ind in 
 .,"t a 
 omedy 
 a very 
 •rk is a 
 
 arte, Nou- 
 Jvo. S? PP' 
 
 i 
 
 proverb, and Mr. Canonge has succeeded quite 
 well. His comedy is light und witty. A husband 
 wagers with a friend that he will come to a ball 
 with him and leave his young wife at home. The 
 latter has heard their conversation, and induces 
 her husband to play a game of cards with her, on 
 condition that if he loses he will spend the evening 
 at home. She renders herself so agreeable during 
 the game that the Imsband loses on purpose, and 
 then acknowledges that he has played "A qui 
 perd gagne." 
 
 *' Le Comte de Carmagnola " ( 1856) was acted 
 several times in New Orleans, and was always 
 seen with pleasure. The subject was well chosen, 
 as the history of the Milanese shepherd, who rose 
 to be general-in-chief of Milan and then of Venice, 
 is in itself intensely dramatic. The author supposes 
 that the Duchess Beatrice de Tenda, while being 
 led to the scaffold, gives a paper to the young 
 Carmagnola in which she says that Bianca de 
 Visconti is not her daughter, but an illegitimate 
 child of the duke, and that the real heiress to the 
 throne is Michaela, who has been brought up by 
 Carmagnola's father. 
 
 Carmagnola is in love with Michaela, and it is 
 in order to recover her crown that he becomes 
 great. A pretty incident in the play is that both 
 daughters of Visconti love Carmagnola, whom the 
 duke fears and hates. The captain, after many 
 thrilling events, falls at Venice in the presence of 
 
'^^ 
 
 38 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 hir'i.i: 
 
 ijfliUjI!! 
 
 Michaela and Bianca, who had vainly tried to 
 save him. 
 
 This drama, by its numerous incidents, may be 
 reckoned in the class of the " Trois Mousque- 
 taires " and of the "Bossu." 
 
 Among our Louisiana authors Dr. Alfred Mer- 
 cier is one of the best known. He has tried ail 
 subjects except history, and lias succeeded well in 
 every one. He is a dramatist, a poet, a novelist, 
 an essayist, a philosopher and a scientist. His 
 views are always original, and his style, both in 
 poetry and in prose, is elegant and correct. 
 
 Dr. Mercier published his first works in Paris in 
 1842. They comprise " La Rose de Smyrne," 
 ''L'Ermite de Niagara" and "Erato." I shall 
 mention at present only " L'Ermitede Niagara,"* 
 as it may be ranked as a drama, the author himself 
 calling it a mystery. 
 
 Pere Daniel, a hermit dwelling among the Tus- 
 caroras, has received in his ajoupa (his hut) a 
 stranger, EUfrid, whom he loves as his son. 
 Adina, a young Indian girl, comes every day to 
 visit the good father, and soon loves the white 
 man. She relates with a charming and almost 
 biblical simplicity her first interview with Ellfrid: 
 
 Un jour, j'allais piiiser a la source voisine: 
 C'etait un jour superbe, et j'allais en chantant, 
 Heureuse de I'air frais et d'un ciel dclatant. 
 Je l'aper<;us ^ I'ombre, aupres de la fontaine, 
 
 *Dr Alfred Mercier, "I'Ermite de Niagara," lamo., 176 pp. Jules 
 Labitte, I'aris, 1842. 
 
Literature. 
 
 39 
 
 tried to 
 
 may be 
 ousque- 
 
 :d Mer- 
 
 tried all 
 [ well in 
 lovelist, 
 3t. His 
 
 both in 
 t. 
 
 Paris in 
 lyrne," 
 
 I shall 
 ^ara, * 
 himself 
 
 le Tus- 
 lut) a 
 
 IS son. 
 
 day to 
 white 
 almost 
 llf rid : 
 
 »p. Jules 
 
 Aussitot je me tais, et j'hesite, incertaine 
 Si je dois avancer, mais avangant toujours. 
 II paraissait pensif : ses yeux suivaient le coiirs 
 De I'eau qui murmurait H voix plaintive et basse. 
 En tremblant j'v plongeai ma vide calebasse; 
 II la prit sans rien dire, et sans rien dire encore, 
 Sur ma tete il la mit pleine jusques au bord. 
 Moi, je leve les bras, pour prendre I'equilibre. 
 Mais lui, voyant alors que je ne suis plus libre, 
 II depose un baiser sur ma peau qui brOlait. 
 
 In the second act we are introduced to the 
 
 council of the chiefs, where Maktagol, jealous of 
 
 Adina's love for EUfrid, excites the Indians against 
 
 the pale face. The warriors attack the young 
 
 man's hut, but are repulsed, and EUfrid wanders 
 
 in the night around the cataract. There, he is met 
 
 by the genius of the Falls, who, Adamastor-like, 
 
 addresses him, and exhorts him to go and explore 
 
 the subterranean palace of the River God, old 
 
 Niagara. The young man throws himself in the 
 
 cataract, and sees at the bottom Niagara and his 
 
 tributaries. The description of the poet is here 
 
 very fine : 
 
 Je ne sais quels rayons eclairent ce lieu p4Ie, 
 Pareils a des reflets d'aurore boreale: 
 On dirait qu'une gaze, un crepuscule d'or, 
 Tend de plis Lransparents le profond corridor. 
 
 On his return from Niagara's palace, EUfrid 
 meets Adina, whose joy, on seeing him alive, 
 betrays her love. Pere Daniel marries them, and 
 the Indian girls conduct the bride to her hut. 
 During the night, however, the Tuscaroras attack 
 Ellfrid, who is mortally wounded with a poisoned 
 
 f-4 
 
 r F 
 
40 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 ll! 
 
 '\ 
 
 li 
 
 -ItJ! 
 
 Mm. 
 
 ji^'i' 
 
 arrow. Adina sucks the blood from the wound, 
 but EUfrid can not be saved, and his wife does 
 not survive him. 
 
 The plot of this mystery is interesting, and the 
 verses are good. As it is the only work of the 
 kind in our literature, I thought necessary to give 
 some details about it. 
 
 > The last dramatic work published in book form 
 in Louisiana is a comedy in verse by Dr. C. 
 Delery, *' L'Ecole du peuple."* It is a keen 
 satire of carpet-bag rule in our State, and very 
 entertaining to those who have known the person- 
 ages who appear on the stage. 
 
 Although but few dramas have been published 
 in Louisiana, many good comedies have been 
 written to be played by amateurs. Judge Alfred 
 Roman and Judge Felix Voorhies, of St. Martins- 
 ville, have probably been the most successful in 
 these *' comedies de salon." 
 
 Poetry. 
 
 Louisiana, with its romantic history, its stately 
 river, its magnificent forests, its luxuriant vegeta- 
 tion, ito numerous bayous overshadowed by secu- 
 lar oak irees, and its picturesque scenery on the 
 coast of the Gulf, seemed to be a fit abode for 
 poets. They were inspired by the climate, by the 
 nature of the country, by patriotism, by the chiv- 
 
 *Dr. Chas. Delery, •* L'Ecole du Peuple." i Vol. laaio. Imprimeric 
 du Propagaieur C"a/Ao//yw*, Nouvelle-Orl^aas, 1877. 
 
Literature. 
 
 41 
 
 le wound, 
 wife does 
 
 ;, and the 
 rk of the 
 •y to give 
 
 00k form 
 y Dr. C. 
 3 a keen 
 and very 
 e person- 
 published 
 ive been 
 ^e Alfred 
 . Martins- 
 :essful in 
 
 :s stately 
 t vegeta- 
 by secu- 
 y on the 
 bode for 
 e, by the 
 the chiv- 
 
 Impriinerie 
 
 airy and bravery of the men, and, above all, by the 
 beauty and grace of the women. Our literature, 
 therefore, is rich in poets, richer perhaps than 
 that of any other State. We have many verses 
 published in Louisiana, and probably more still 
 which their authors have not given to the public. 
 
 Often has the father or the mother recited 
 touching lines, which have been treasured by the 
 children of the family as most precious legacies, 
 and which were yet to remain unseen by alien eyes. 
 I am familiar with many Creole poets whose works, 
 though unknown to the great world of literature, 
 would be read with emotion and pleasure, their 
 themes being the most sacred feelings of humanity. 
 Indeed, the gift of verse seems a not uncommon 
 endowment among a people characterized by so 
 much sensibility and vivacity as our Creoles. Of 
 the poems published by my countrymen, I regret 
 to say that I have not read all. In spite of their 
 merit, the works of Louisianians are now rare in 
 our State, and many of them I have not been able 
 to procure. 
 
 Among our earliest poets is Mr. TuUius St. 
 Ceran, who wrote " Rien-ou Moi,"* in 1837, ^^^ 
 ** Mil huit cent quatorze et mil huit cent quinze,"t 
 in 1838. In this author we find a lively imagina- 
 tion and the greatest enthusiasm for his subject. 
 His poetic talent can not be said to have been of a 
 
 * TulliusSt. C^ran, «' Rien-ou Moi." i Vol. Svo, 194 pp. G. Brusle, Nou- 
 velle Orleans, 1837. 
 
 t ' 'Mil huit cent quatorze et Mil huit cent quinze," i Vol. Svo, 51 pp. 
 Gmix et Cie,NoiivelleOrl6uns, 1838. 
 
tlii':Mi 
 
 I 
 
 ll:i 
 
 !^ I 
 
 ,;l ■ 
 
 i i 
 
 I',! 
 
 ilil 
 
 •ii|!j|[;| 
 
 III 
 
 , i 
 
 Mi 
 I I 
 
 42 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 hij^h order, but liis works may be read with inter- 
 t-st, as they show a sincere patriotism, and give an 
 idea of the feelings of the time. 
 
 Another work of great local interest is an epic 
 poem in ten cantos by Urbain David, of Cette, a 
 resident of Louisiana. The book, like that of 
 Mr. St. Ceran, was inspired by the glorious events 
 of 1815 and is entitled *' Les Anglais a la Louisi- 
 ane en 18 14 et 1815."* The history of Packen- 
 ham's defeat is related with some force and with 
 many details which must be pleasing to the de- 
 scendants of the heroes of the battle of New 
 Orleans. 
 
 In 1846, there appeared in New Orleans a 
 })oetical journal called " Le Taenarion."t Mr. 
 Felix de Courmont took the satirical pen and 
 wrote several satires which were severely criti- 
 cised. It is amusing to read the defence of the 
 author; his replies are sometimes quite correct, 
 but he generally allows himself to be carried away 
 by his passion, forgetting that it is as natural to be 
 criticised as to be praised. Mr. de Courmont was 
 neither a Juvenal, a Horace, nor a Boileau, and it 
 is with pleasure that we turn from his satires to his 
 minor pieces. " Le Morne Vert," " L' Amour," 
 **Le Dernier des Caraibes " are really graceful 
 poems. 
 
 * Urbain David, •' Les Anglais h la Louisiane en 1814 et 1815." i Vol. 
 i2mo. 60 pp. Nouvelle Orleans, 1845. 
 
 t Felix de Courmont, ** Le Taenarion." i Vol. 8vo, Gaux and Cie., Nou- 
 velle-Orl6ans, 1846-47. 
 
 iH 
 
Litj:rature. 
 
 43 
 
 ith inter- 
 id give an 
 
 s an epic 
 f Cette, a 
 t that of 
 (lis events 
 a Louisi- 
 
 Packen- 
 and with 
 ► the de- 
 
 ot New 
 
 'rleans a 
 "t Mr. 
 pen and 
 ely criti- 
 e of the 
 
 correct, 
 ed away 
 ral to be 
 lont was 
 
 , and it 
 es to his 
 Lmour," 
 graceful 
 
 IS." I Vol. 
 Cie.,Nou- 
 
 (( 
 
 A 
 
 Les Vagabondes" by Caniille Thierry,* con- 
 tains some charming verses. " L'Amant du Cor- 
 saire " begins thus: 
 
 Petit oiseau de tner, toi qui reviens sans doute 
 
 D'un rivage loiiitiiiii, 
 Oh! disinoi, n'as-tu las loncontre sur ta route 
 
 Le svelte brigantin? 
 
 " Mariquita la Calentura " is a work of toucli- 
 ing melancholy; it spi-aks ol a poor woman, 
 legendary in New Orleans, pursued in the streets 
 by ihiii^d ff If ns, and who had once been a beautiiul 
 Spanish girl : 
 
 Tu parlais de rnmant fidMe, 
 I)e I'Espagnol (lui, cliaciiie soir, 
 Agrafaxt sa Icgere cchelle 
 Aux murs vieillis dc ton niaiioir. 
 
 " Les Cenelles,"t a word which signifies a 
 small berry, is a collection of poems which are ol 
 some merit. The authors are \"alcour, Boise, 
 Dalcour, Dauphin, Desbrosses, L:iMusse, Liotau. 
 Riquet, St. Pierre, Thierry and Victor Sejour, 
 whose work " Le Retour de Napoleon " v\^iis 
 favorably received in France. 
 
 Mr. Constant Lepouze,| a Frenchman residing 
 in Louisiana for twenty years, may be considered 
 one of our most correct and classical poets; he 
 translated beautifully the odes of Horace and his 
 ninth satire, " Le Facheux." Itisto be regretted 
 
 ♦ C:iinille Thierry, " Les Vas^abondes." i Vol. i2ino. Paris. 
 t" Les Cetic'lles." i Vol. 161110. NouvcUe-Orleans. 
 t Constant Leponzc', I'ocsies Diverges, i Vol Svo, iS^ pp. i>riisle and 
 Lesseps, Nouvelle-Orleans, iS.^S. 
 
44 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 
 that Mr. Lepouz^'s translations are so little known, 
 for the author must have been a remarkable Latin 
 scholar. 
 
 *'Les Lazareennes,"* "Fables et Chansons, 
 Poesies Sociales," by Joseph Dejacque, is the 
 only work of its kind published in Louisiana, 
 where, I may add, it had very little success, 
 although it contains poems of no little literary 
 merit. The author seems to have been a socialist, 
 and in his book attacks the family ties and prop- 
 erty, repeating with emphasis Proudhon's cele- 
 brated words: ** La propriete, c'est le vol." This 
 is the only work published in Louisiana which 
 speaks unfavorably of our city and its inhab- 
 itants; the others evince a most sincere patrio- 
 tism. Mr. Dejacque had talent, as can be seen 
 from the following lines: ** D'Esprit Rebelle a 
 Malin Esprit- 
 
 >> 
 
 ,i i 
 
 ' ii I 
 
 
 
 ut 
 
 !'i 
 
 II semble qu'une F('!e h litre d'apanage, .', .^ 
 
 A sur vous, blond lutin, sern^ ses dons d'amour, 
 Qu'e'.Ie 1 d'un diuniant form6 votre visage, 
 Et 66 tsyeux au tendre email du jour! 
 
 O ^ lUs belles fleurs exprimant les fluides, 
 
 1 fit une argile et modela vos chairs, 
 Ou oien, — comme Cypris, de ses langes humid«s, — 
 Qu'elle vous a tir(5e, autre perle! des mers. 
 
 During our civil war. Mars and Bellona, as the 
 poets would say, had chased away Apollo and the 
 Muses, and but one poem inspired by the war 
 
 ♦ Joseph Dejacque, "Les La7.ar6ennes," etc. i Vol. 8vo, 199 pp. J. 
 Lamarre, NouvelleOrl^ans, 1857. 
 
Literature. 
 
 45 
 
 tie known, 
 able Latin 
 
 Chansons, 
 [ue, is the 
 Louisiana^ 
 i success, 
 le literary 
 1 socialist, 
 and prop- 
 on's cele- 
 ol." This 
 ana which 
 its inhab- 
 re patrio- 
 n be seen 
 Rebelle a 
 
 mr. 
 
 3S, 
 
 id«s, — 
 
 la, as the 
 ) and the 
 the war 
 
 » »99 pp. J. 
 
 
 was produced. It is " Lcs Nemcsienncs Con- 
 Icdcrces "* ( 1863 ) by Dr. C. Delcry. The work, 
 as was to be expected, is most bitter against the 
 Federals, and stigmatizes General Butler. 
 
 We have one specimen of didactic poetry in 
 Louisiana, "IIomo,"t by Mr. Chas. Oscar Du- 
 gue, a well written poem in seven cantos, but 
 which is of little interest, and no more read than 
 ♦'La Religion," ** La Navigation," or *'Les Jar- 
 dins." Mr. Dugue also pubHshed, under the title 
 of *'Essais Poctiques," a volume of poetry said to 
 be very good. Unfortunately, I could not procure 
 a copy of the work. 
 
 It is with pleasure that, according to the division 
 of my subject, I return to Dr. Alfred Mercier's 
 poetical works: "La Rose deSmyrne"t and 
 " Erato." The former is a graceful and touching 
 orientale^ and relates the love of Hatilda, the Mos- 
 lem's wife, for a young and beautiful giaour and 
 the sad fate of the lovers. The introduction of 
 this work is another proof o:^ the intense love of 
 all Louisianians for their State. 
 
 D'otl vient done cette voix qui me traverse I'ame, 
 Comme passe le soir la brise snr la lame; 
 Vague comme le son que soupire a longs traits, 
 La harpe eolienne au milieu desforets? 
 C'est la voix du passe, cette voix caressante 
 Qui parle au voyageur de la patrie absente. 
 
 ♦ Dr. C. Del6ry, "Les N^mfeicnnes Conf^d6r6es." i Vol. i6mo, 
 Mobile, 1863, 
 
 t Chas. Oscar Dugu6, "Homo." i Vol. i3mo, 205 pp. Paul Daffis, 
 Paris, 1872. 
 
 X Dr. Alfred Mercier, '• La Ross de Smyrnc." "Erato." i2mo, 103 pp. 
 Jules Labitte, Paris, 184a. 
 
iiii 
 
 46 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 Une ombre, uii mot, que sais-je, un rien I'^veille en nous. 
 Ainsi, doux souvenirs, toujours me suivrez-vous? 
 Oh! mainlenant, tandis que sous ce ciel de brume 
 Entre mes doigts glacce jes sens fremir ma plume, 
 Sous ce ciel, 011 juillet est plus froid h Paris 
 Que ne Ic tut jamais decembre en mon pajs. 
 
 " Erato" is a collection of short poems, of which 
 the best are '* Sui Mer," *' Patrie " and " La Lune 
 des lleiirs a la Louisiane." I can not resist the 
 temptation of giving a few lines of *' Patrie:" 
 
 Apros huit ans tcoules dans I'absence, 
 Je viens revoir le ciel de mes aieux: 
 Doux souvenirs de mon heureuse entance, 
 Apparaissez un moment a mes yeux! 
 
 Voici mon fleuve aux vagues solennelles: 
 En demi-lune il se courbe en pas-sant, 
 Et la cite, comme un aiglon naissant, 
 A son flanc gauche etend ses jeunes ailes. 
 ♦ ♦ + * * 
 
 Apr('s huit ans ecoules dans I'absence, 
 Fitl('Ie oiseuu je reviens a mon nid; 
 Le souvenir vaut parfois I'esperance: 
 C'est un doux songe oil ITime rajeunit. 
 
 Scarron, the first husband of Mme. de Main- 
 tenon, whose sole title to a pension was to be *' le 
 malade de la reine," found the time, in spite of 
 his sufferings, to write " L'Encide Travestie " 
 and to ridicule the heroes of anti(j[uity. His was 
 not a touching note, and the song of his poetic 
 lyre had no pathos. If his body was affected, his 
 mind did not seem to suffer, very different in this 
 from Gilbert and Millevoye, whose beautiful 
 elegies one can not read without being deeply 
 
 Hi 
 
Literature. 
 
 47 
 
 e en nous. 
 
 
 ,? 
 
 -.'f 
 
 me 
 
 -"■j 
 
 me, 
 
 1 
 
 of which 
 
 
 La Lune 
 
 
 resist the 
 
 1 
 
 rie:" 
 
 ■■%'•■' 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 .-'■i 
 
 
 If 
 1 
 
 :le Main- 
 
 ■.■ ' 
 
 be " le 
 
 
 I spite oJ 
 
 
 avestie " 
 
 
 His was 
 
 
 is poetic 
 
 
 cted, his 
 
 
 It in this 
 
 
 )eaiitiful 
 
 
 deeply 
 
 
 moved. Louisiana had her Gilbert, her Mille- 
 voye; his talent was of the highest order, and his 
 tender and melancholy verses can well be com- 
 pared to "Le Poete Mourant " and " La Chute 
 des Feuilles." It was in 1841 that Alexandre 
 Latil published his *'Ephcmeres, Essais Poeti- 
 ques."* The author was an invalid and a prey 
 to an incurable disease, and his poems are a lamen- 
 tation and a prayer. Very often did the pen fall 
 from the weak hand, while from the heart were 
 surging his rhythmical complaints. The preface 
 to the work is exceedingly well written ; it is a 
 protest against the modern school and, at the same 
 time, an affectionate dedication of his verses to 
 his countrymen. The book was well received in 
 Louisiana, and Alexandre Latil' s name will be 
 long remembered as that of our most sympathetic 
 poet. Among the ** Ephemeres," I have noticed 
 "Amour et Douleur," '* Deception et Tristesse," 
 " Desenchantement," **A mon Grand-pere and 
 "A mon Pere et k ma Mere," the dirge of the 
 poet : 
 
 Encore un dernier chant, et ma lyre ephemere 
 S'echappe de mes mains, et s'eteint en ce jour, 
 Mais que ces sons mourants, 6 mon pere, ma merel 
 Soient exhales pour vous, objets de mon amour. 
 De cet hymne d'adieu si la note plaintive 
 S'envole tristement pour ne plus revenir, 
 Vous ne I'oublirez pas; votie oreille attentive 
 L'empreindra pour jamais dans votre souvenir. 
 
 ♦Alexandre Latil, •* Les Eplicnieres, Essais Poctiques. 
 Svo, 198 pp. Alfred Moret, Nouvellt-Oiluans, 1S14. 
 
 I V< 1. 
 
^R? 
 
 48 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 Helas! si du tombeau per<jant I'etroit espace, 
 
 Mon nom pouvait, un jour, voler a Tavenir, 
 
 II irait, parcourant sa lumineuse trace, 
 
 De vos douces vertus graver le souvenir, 
 
 Dans son sillon de gloire a travirs tous les ages, 
 
 II parlerait de vous aux etres geiicreux; 
 
 II leur dirait combien furent robles et sages 
 
 Les sentiments divers de vos coeurs vertutux... 
 
 Mais non! le faible accord de ma lyre plaintive 
 
 Expire autour de moi sans produire d'echos. 
 
 Ainsi soupire et meurt la brise fugutive 
 
 Qui d'un lac azure vient caresser les flots. 
 
 Ah! si I'affreux oubli dans son line ""ul immense 
 
 Ensevelit bientot et mon nom et n es vers, 
 
 Je conserve, du moins, la touchante esperance 
 
 Qu'ils seront a vos coeurs toujours presents et chers. 
 
 One of our most prolific writers was Dr. Chas. 
 Testut;* he tried poetry and prose, but had a 
 greater reputation as a poet than as a novelist. His 
 small volume, *'Les Echos," contains many 
 pieces written in all kinds of rhythms. One can 
 see that the author is a thorough master of versifi- 
 cation, and whether he tries the Alexandrine or 
 the short verse, even the four foot verse, his 
 poetry is always correct and natural, and the 
 rhymes are remarkably rich. Dr. Testut was a 
 striking example of the generally unsuccessful 
 practical life of a poet; although he had written 
 many volumes and been much admired, he 
 was at his death, after fifty years' residence 
 in New Orleans, in a position to which a man 
 of his talent should not have been reduced. 
 
 ♦Dr. Chas Testut, "Les Echos." i Vol. lamo. 304 pp. H. M^ridier, 
 NouTClle Orleans, 1849. 
 
Literature. 
 
 49 
 
 His poems are graceful and usually sad, and his 
 subjects are principally meditations or descriptions 
 of touching domestic scenes. His verses to Latil 
 are among his finest, and also "La Derniere 
 Heure du Condamne," " Le Jour des Morts " 
 and" Aux Jeunes Filles," from which I take the 
 following lines; 
 
 Si vous saviez quel reve, 6 jeunes filles, 
 Nous jette au coeur votre regard si doux; 
 Comme souvent, au bruit de vos mantillas, 
 Nous tomberions muets a vos genoux! 
 Si vous saviez, quand votre front balance 
 Les songes d'or caches dans votre oeil noir, 
 Quels chants d'amour tout remplis d'esperancc 
 Nous confions h la brise du soir.... 
 
 i vous saviez comme, au front des poetes, 
 Vos beaux noms d'ange allument des rayons; 
 Comme nos voix h vous ;:hanter sont pretes, 
 Comme pour vous, loin des jeux, nous prionsi 
 Nos premiers chants, notre premier delire 
 Viennent de vous comme I'air vient des cieux; 
 Et des doux sons qu'exhale notre Ijre, 
 Nous vous devons les plus harmonieux. 
 
 In our Creole population many ladies write 
 French admirably, but through a mistaken sense 
 of modesty their works have not been published. 
 It was not possible, however, in the nineteenth 
 century, where women in Europe and in America 
 have shown themselves equal to men in mental 
 ability, that no poetical work written by a woman 
 should be published by a Louisiana lady. It is, 
 therefore, with the greatest pleasure that I read 
 ** Une couronne Blanche, Roman poetique,"by 
 
so 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 Mrs. EmilieEvershed.* Don Fernand de Heres, 
 after a life of dissipation, marries a very young 
 girl whom he loves, but whom his jealousy ren- 
 ders unhappy. A child is born, and is the consola- 
 tion of the countess; every day, over the little 
 cradle, a white wreath is placed, emblem of inno- 
 cence and piety. The infancy of the child is 
 beautifully described, and we look with joy at the 
 little thing, when she tries her first steps, and when 
 she fondly caresses her mother. One day a little 
 girl knocks at the gate of the palace ; her name is 
 Rosita, and she is blind. She pronounces the 
 word Dolora and holds a picture in her hand. 
 The countess understands the sad story; on her 
 death bed, Dolora, the victim, sends her child to 
 her father. The injured wife pardons the guilty 
 husband and receives Rosita as her daughter. 
 She and Bianca are brought up together, but 
 when the white wreath is placed on Bianca's fore- 
 head for her first communion she dies, and '* ia 
 couronne blanche " is deposited on her tomb. Is 
 not this plot of a romance simple and poetic, and 
 do we not recognize the delicate touch of a 
 woman in those charming pictures? 
 
 Quand je ne pleure plus , . . . je vols ces jours heureux 
 Ou je pouvais baiser tes chers petits pieds roses, 
 Et tes petites mains, et tes levres mi-closes; 
 J'effeuille en souvenir tou^ ces biens precieuxl 
 
 Parfois je reve encor tes premieres caresses, 
 Et tes premiers baisers, et puis tes petits bras 
 
 * Mine. Emilic Evershed, " Uiie Cuuroiiiie Blanche." i Vol. 8vo. 363 
 pp. H. Bossange Paris, 1S59, 
 
If 
 
 Literature. 
 
 SI 
 
 S'attachant h mon cou . . . . je suis tes premiers pas! . . . , 
 Mais pour ces biens perdus, je n'ai que mes tristesses. 
 
 Est-ce done murniurer, Dieu qui brisez mon coeur? 
 Vous me I'aviez donnee et vous I'avez reprise 
 Ma douce fleur du ciel, pur souffle de la brise: 
 Est-ce done murmurer un long cri dedouleur? 
 
 " Les Epaves, par Un Louisianais," * a volume 
 large and well bound, published in 1847, is now 
 before me. According to the editors, the manu- 
 script was found in a trunk saved from the wreck 
 of "THecla," a steamboat on the Mi^u "ssippi river. 
 Although a well known Louisianian was supposed 
 to be the author, the name oi the poet was never 
 positively ascertained. 
 
 The work comprises many poems written in a 
 lively and witty manner, but what is of greater 
 interest than the original verses of *'Un Louis- 
 ianais " is his translation of the epigrams of Mar- 
 tial, which may be compared to Lepouze's trans- 
 lation of Horace, mentioned above. 
 
 We now see the names of two brothers more 
 widely knovv^n outside of Louisiana than any other 
 of our poets: Dominique and Adrien Rouquette.f 
 To them may truly be applied the " poeta nascitur, 
 non fit." From their earliest youth they held in 
 their hands the lute and the lyre, and in old age 
 the language of poetry seemed to be natural to them. 
 Poetry was a passion in the two brothers, and both 
 
 *" Les Epaves, par Un Louisianais." i Vol. 8vo, 38S pp. H. Bossange, 
 Paris, 1847. 
 
 t Dominique Rouquette, "Les Mesch.ic^beennes." i Vol. i6nu), 159 pp, 
 Paris, 1838. 
 
 t ~, " Fleursd'Am^riqne." 1 Vol. Svo.joj pp. H. Meridier, Nouvelle- 
 
 Orl^ans, 1859. 
 
52 
 
 Louit^iANA Studies. 
 
 have written many poems. Born in Louisiana, 
 they were educated in France, in the old Armorica, 
 the land of druidical legends, where everything 
 recalled poetical souv^enirs. On their return to 
 their native State, they lived in solitary Bonfouca, 
 in the magnificent pine forests watered by those 
 romantic rivulets, the Tchefuncte, the Bogue- 
 Falaya and Bayou Lacombe. Around them were 
 the remnants of the Chactas, the faithful allies of 
 the French ; and in the wigwams of the Indians 
 the brothers usctl to sit to smoke the calumet with 
 the chiefs, or to look at the silent squaws skil- 
 fully weaving the wicker baskets which they 
 were to sell the next morning at the noisy " Marche 
 Frangais." It is thus that Adrien and Dominique 
 Rouquette learned how to love nature and solitude, 
 and that they were impregnated with the sentiment 
 of poetry. When they write about the prairies, and 
 the forests and the Indians, their descriptions are 
 most realistic, and it seems to us that we see the 
 graceful Chactas girl in her canoe or swimming in 
 the limpid waters of the bayous, that we hear the 
 cry of the whip-poor-will, and that we are perme- 
 ated with the perfume of the meleze, of the boisfort 
 and of the resinous pine tree. 
 
 We may perhaps regret that the brothers Rou- 
 quette did not vary their themes a little more, but 
 their poems have '* un gout du terroir " which can 
 not fail to be appreciated. 
 
 Dominique Rouquette's first work was ** Les 
 Meschac^b^ennes," published in 1838. He pub- 
 
 P 
 
Liisiana, 
 morica, 
 :rything 
 ;turn to 
 nfouca, 
 )y those 
 Bogue- 
 m were 
 allies of 
 Indians 
 let with 
 ^^s skil- 
 :h they 
 March e 
 niniqiie 
 oli tilde, 
 ntiment 
 ies, and 
 ons are 
 see the 
 ming in 
 ear the 
 perme- 
 hoisfort 
 
 rs Rou- 
 )re, but 
 ich can 
 
 it 
 
 Let 
 
 le pub- 
 
 is 
 
 
 Literature. 
 
 53 
 
 lished also in 1857 a large volume, **Fleurs 
 
 d'Amerique." I shall quote only a few lines of 
 
 the latter: 
 
 Le Soir. 
 
 Dejh. danfi Ies buissons dort la grive bAtarde: 
 
 La voix du bucheron, qui dans Ies bois s'attarde, 
 
 A travers Ies grands pins se fait entendre au loin; 
 
 Aux bceufs libresdu joug ayant donne le foin, 
 
 Sifflant une chanson, le charretier regagne 
 
 Sa cabane on I'attend une noire compagne, 
 
 Et fume taciturne, accroupi sur un banc, 
 
 Sa pipe, aux longs reflets du mel^ze flambant. 
 
 Loin de I'humide abri des joncs qu'elle abandonne, 
 
 La moustique partout et voltige et bourdonne, 
 
 Et nocturne taureau cache dans le Hmon, 
 
 La grenouille bovine enfle un rauque poumon. . . . 
 
 Un silence imposant et formidable plane 
 
 Sur Ies eaux, la foret et la noire savane; 
 
 La nuit, comme I'upas, sous une ombre de mort, 
 
 Semble couvrir au loin la terre qui s'endort. 
 
 Adrien Rouquette was a priest; his principal 
 work is "Les Savanes," * a book of poems on 
 L(3uisiana subjects. He also wrote " I'Antoniade 
 ou la Solitude avec Dieii,"t along eremitic poem 
 from which I take the following patriotic lines : 
 
 Amerique, 6 patriel Amerique, 6 ma mere! 
 
 S'il est un de tes fils assez 14che et vulgaire, 
 
 Pour t'entendre offenser et pour te renier, 
 
 Seul, sans pleurs, sans regrets, qu'il meure toutentier! 
 
 Que son nom efface des pages de I'histoire, 
 
 Efface de tout coeur et de toute m^moire, 
 
 Entoure du linceul d'un eternel oubli, 
 
 Dans la nuit du tombeau descende ensevelil 
 
 •Adrien Ronquette, " Les Savanes." i Vol. i2mo, 306 pp. Jules Labitte, 
 Pans. Alfred Moret, Nouvelle-Orl^ans, 1841. 
 
 t , " L'Antoniade." i Vol. 8vo. L.. Marchand, Nouvelle-Orl^ans, 
 
 i860. 
 
 t' ' ! 
 
 ilK: 
 
 * i 
 
54 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 The following extract from "LesSavanes" is 
 
 very tine : 
 
 L'Arbre des Chactas. 
 
 C'etalt un arbre immense; arbre aux rameaux sans nombre, 
 
 Qui sur tout un desert projetait sa grande ombre. 
 
 Ses racines, plongeant dans un sol sablonneux, 
 
 Rejaillissaient partout, boas aux mille noeuds; 
 
 Kt, se gonflant k I'oeil , comme d'enormes veines, 
 
 Ou eut dit d'un haut-bord les cilbles et les ehau-es. 
 
 Arbre immense et geant, les arbres les plus hauts 
 
 A son pied s'inclinaient comme des arbrisseaux. 
 
 l^eployant dans les cieux sa vaste et noire cime, 
 
 II s'y plaisait aux chocs que I'ouragan imprime. 
 
 De sa circonference embrassant I'horizon, 
 
 Sous son d6me sonore, en I'ardente saison, 
 
 II pouvait arbriter, endormis sur les herbes, 
 
 Tout le peuple chactas et ses troupeaux superbes. 
 
 ^* ^P 'r ^ " 'r ^T 
 
 Puis, autour de cet arbre, arbre aux rameaux immenses, 
 Voltigeaient coHbris, aux changeantes nuances; 
 Papes verts, geais d'azur, flamboyants cardinaux, 
 Nuages d'oiseaux blancs et de noirs etourneaux 
 Et leurs plumes semblaient d' eblouissantes pierres! 
 Et I'aigle, en les voyant, eut baisse les paupieres! .... 
 * )ti * * * * * 
 
 Eh bien! cet arbre-roi, ce g^ant des forets, 
 
 Cette arche, cette ^chelle aux infinis degrds, 
 
 Un homme aux muscles forts, un homme h rude tache, 
 
 Suant des mois entiers, I'abattit de sa hache! 
 
 II I'abattit enfin; et puis, s'assit content; 
 
 Car, dans I'arbre, il voyait quelques pieces d'argent! 
 
 >)> l|i )|c >)< >(< * >)• 
 
 Mais si tu fus vainqueur de I'arbre des Chactas, 
 
 Impie, il en est un que tu n'abattras pas; 
 
 Un arbre bien plus haut, bien plus fort, et dont I'ombre 
 
 Couvre I'Eden si frais et I'univers si sombre. 
 
 Et cet arbre est celui que Dieu meme planta, 
 
 L'arbre saint de la Croix; I'arbre du Golgotha; 
 
Literature. 55 
 
 L'arbre que I'homme en vain frappe aussi de sa hache; 
 II le frappe en tous points, et rien ne s'en detache; 
 Rien; car l'arbre toujours, gigantesque, eternel, 
 S'elance, et va se perdre aux abimes du ciel! 
 
 We had also in Louisiana, besides the authors 
 whom I have mentioned, some poets whose works 
 I could not procure, among whom are Alexandre 
 Barde, Duperron, Guirot, and Calongne. In the 
 different poems which I have read their names are 
 mentioned quite favorably; Mr. Barde seems to 
 have been the best. 
 
 Of the poets whose works have not been pub- 
 lished, Anatole Cousin, Valerien Allain and Eu- 
 phemon La Branche were the most popular. 
 
 In speaking of our Louisiana authors, I do not 
 refer to those who have left our State, such as 
 Albert Delpit, Henri Vignaud and Mme. Helene 
 Allain. 
 
 In concluding this review of our poets, I think 
 that it can truly be said that a selection of their 
 works would compare favorably with those of many 
 authors whose reputation is much greater. 
 
 Novels, 
 
 It is extraordinary that with its romantic history 
 our State did not produce more works of fiction. 
 The romances of Louisiana have not yet been 
 written in prose, although our poetic scenery has 
 inspired many a songster. We have, however, a 
 few novelists whose success should have encour- 
 aged others to follow their example. 
 
S6 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 . :-■ i 
 1 ■ , 
 
 
 . 11: lilli 
 
 I have read two novels of Dr. C. Testut: ** Le 
 Vieux Salomon " * and ** Les Filles de Monte 
 Cristo." The former is intended to represent 
 scenes of plantation life, and was written in 1858, 
 but published only in 1873. It is to be regretted 
 that the author, in his pity for the institution of 
 slavery, should have introduced in his work a 
 planter worthy of Mrs. Beecher Stowe's Legree, 
 presenting thus as a type what was really an excep- 
 tion — a planter cruel to his slaves. 
 
 ** Les Filles de Monte Cristo " is a continuation 
 of Dumas' admirable epic, and has a moral pur- 
 pose. In the original novel, Dantes, the millionaire, 
 appears as inexorable as fate, and punishes sternly 
 and without pity, rewarding sometimes, but those 
 always who"]had been good to the poor sailor boy. 
 In the sequel, Monte Cristo devotes his immense 
 fortune to aiding all who are unhappy. Having 
 lost Haydee, he returns to France, after an ab- 
 sence of twenty years, with his daughters, Merces 
 and Gemma. On meeting his Mercedes, his old 
 passion returns, and the beautiful Catalane be- 
 comes his wife. Surrounded and assisted by all 
 those whom he had saved formerly, Dantes now 
 forms an association of which the aim will be to 
 look for misery and relieve the unfortunates. 
 Merces and Gemma, from fear of being loved for 
 their money, live as otivrieres for some time and 
 
 ♦Dr. C. Testut, "Le Vieux Salomon." i Vol.4to, 176 pp. Nouvelle- 
 Orleaiis, 1872. 
 
 " Les Filles de Monte Cristo." Pamphlet form, 8vo,52opp. Impfrimerie 
 Cosmopolite, Nouvelle-Orl^ans, 1876. 
 
mm^^^ 
 
 Literature. 
 
 57 
 
 Monte 
 present 
 
 1858, 
 
 gretted 
 ition of 
 ^^ork a 
 /Cgree, 
 excep- 
 
 luation 
 al pur- 
 onaire, 
 sternly 
 t those 
 or boy. 
 imense 
 Having 
 an ab- 
 Merces 
 his old 
 me be- 
 
 I by all 
 es now 
 
 II be to 
 iinates. 
 ved for 
 ne and 
 
 Nouvelle- 
 mpTimerie 
 
 "i 
 
 ft 
 
 
 are married to two deserving young men. They 
 and their husbands help Monte Cristo in his great 
 undertaking, and every day some wretch is rec- 
 onciled to life. At last Mercedes dies, and the 
 count soon follows to the grave his adored one. 
 Their bodies are conveyed to the isle of Monte 
 Cristo, and '.iie filial piety of the daughters trans- 
 forms into a blooming oasis the barren rock, 
 where had landed, so many years before, the es- 
 caped prisoner of the '' Chateau d'If." 
 
 One can see in Dr. Testut's book a generous 
 idea and an ardent love for everything good and 
 true, and many incredible events and visionary 
 ideas ma^ be pardoned when one remembers that 
 the author was inspired by a genuine philanthropy. 
 
 Mme. S. de la Houssaye,* of the Attakapas, a 
 member of one of our oldest families, is another of 
 our lady writers. She has published several novels 
 in the newspapers of her parish, and she is said 
 to be preparing for a Paris editor a work on 
 Louisiana, for which she is well qualified on ac- 
 count of her lively imagination and her numerous 
 family traditions. Her most inte»*esting novel is 
 " Le Mari de Marguerite," published in V Aheille 
 de la Nouvelle-Orleans in iS8^, as a. feuillelon. 
 It is the story of a spoilt and vain Virginia girl, 
 proud of her grandfatljer's plantation and fortune, 
 and dreaming only of heroes of ron ,nce. She dis- 
 cards her cousin and intended husband at the 
 
 •Mme. S. de la Houssaye," Le Mari d« Marguerite." Abeille de In 
 Nouvelle-Orl^ans, 1883. 
 
 I 
 
 
 'U 
 
58 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 ;it 
 
 sight of a handsome man, and abandons her 
 home to follow him to New England. Very soon, 
 however, she regrets the luxury of her Virginia 
 life and treats her husband most unkindly. The 
 great civil war breaks out, and Wm. Gray is re- 
 ported to have been killed. Then begins the 
 punishment of Marguerite: her grandfather dies 
 in a battle and she loses her fortune. Reduced to 
 poverty, the frail Southern girl, like so many noble 
 women, shows an indomitable energy, finally be- 
 coming a governess. Her husband returns under 
 an assumed name and refuses to recognize her; 
 he is at last touched by her love and sorrow, and 
 they both live happily in the old family mansion 
 recovered from the Federals. 
 
 The story is quite romantic, and the style is good. 
 
 Father Rouquette published in 1879, *' La Nou- 
 velle Atala," * an Indian legend. The work is 
 admirably written, and one can see the great en- 
 thusiasm of the author for his subject. As in 
 * ' r Antoniade, ' ' Father Rouquette speaks of solitary 
 life, and exalts the sacrifice of a young girl who 
 leaves the world to live in a forest. The descrip- 
 tions of nature are ver}'^ poetic, and Chatah-Ima's 
 Atala is no unworthy sister of Chateaubriand's. 
 
 Dr. Alfred Mercier's first work of fiction, **Le 
 Fou de Palerme,"t is a novelette, in which is re- 
 
 I i il'I'i 
 
 ' imillilln 
 
 * Adrien Uouquette, " La Nouvelle Atala." i Vol. i6ino, 138 pp. Pro- 
 pagateur Catholtgue, Nouvelle-Orl^ans, 1879. 
 
 t Dr. Alfred Mercier, " Le Fou de Palerme," i Vol. i6mo, 140 pp. 
 Nouvelle-OrUans, 1873. 
 
Literature. 
 
 59 
 
 lated a touching love story. The plot is very 
 simple, but at the same time attractive. 
 
 " La Fille du Pretre "* is a work of great philos- 
 ophy; the author attacks the celibacy of priests 
 with as much vehemence as George Sand had at- 
 tacked confession in ** Mademoiselle de la Quin- 
 tinie." The novel is divided into three parts: 
 " Fausse Route, Expiation, Rehabilitation." A 
 young man, Theotime de Kermarec, is forced into 
 the priesthood by his parents, and, shortly after, 
 succumbs to his passions. His victim, Jeanne 
 Dubayle, flees from her home, and writes to her 
 lover that she is going to die. Theotime, in 
 despair, abandons the priesthood, and wants to 
 sacrifice his life for a noble cause, the independence 
 of Italy. He joins Garibaldi's army and behaves 
 as a hero. After the fall of the kingdom of 
 Naples, he takes part in a revolt of Poland 
 against Russia, is taken prisoner and sent to 
 Siberia. This is Expiation, ReJiahilitation must 
 soon follow, for Theotime has suffered and his 
 crime has been forgiven. 
 
 Jeanne had not killed herself, for while in 
 the act of throwing herself in the Seine, she is 
 saved by maternal love for her unborn babe. She 
 becomes the friend of Louise, a woman who is in 
 the same posit'on as herself, and both go to the 
 hospital, where a young physician, Ludovic, takes 
 the greatest interest in Jeanne. The description 
 
 * , "La Fille du Pretre." 3 Vol, 8vo. Imprimerie Cosmopolite, 
 
 Nouvelle-Orl^ans, 1S77. 
 
 ! ; 
 
6o 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 of the hospital and the philosophical thoughts in- 
 spired by it have merit, and can be compared to 
 the like scene in " Les Mysteres de Paris." Jeanne 
 dies and leaves a daughter, Jeannette, who is 
 adopted by Ludovic. 
 
 Many years passed, and France has been van- 
 ([uished at Sedan, and the Commune has begun 
 its atrocious deeds in Paris. Theotime is a cap- 
 tain in the army of Versailles, when the capital is 
 taken. There is a terrible fight in a cemetery, 
 and Ludovic, Louise and Jeannette are engaged 
 in it. Theotime saves his daughter without know- 
 ing her, and after the war, goes to Italy. He 
 finally finds Jeannette, marries her to Ludovic, and 
 is rehabilitated by paternal love. 
 
 I give the entire plot of this work, because it 
 created quite a sensation in New Orleans, where 
 there are so many Catholics. Whether Dr. Mercier 
 was right or wrong in his crusade against celibacy 
 does not concern us; but we must admit that he 
 iiandled his lance fearlessly and well. 
 
 " L'Habitation St. Ybars"* is a Louisiana 
 story, in which life before the war on a large 
 sugar plantation is very well described. Although 
 the work is of great interest as a novel, it is of 
 still greater importance for the study of philology. 
 Dr. Mercier, who is a master of the Creole patois, 
 uses it freely in his book and keeps thus an ad- 
 
 ♦" L'Habitation St. Ybars." i Vol. i2mo, 331 pp. Eug. Antoine, Nou- 
 velleOrl^ans, 1881. 
 
LiTERATURi:. 
 
 6i 
 
 mirable coiUeur locale. The following extract is 
 really charming for its simplicity and truth: 
 
 Demon, St. Ybars' little boy, comes into the 
 kitchen with a cage, and Mamrie, the old nurse, 
 tells him: "Asteur assite la e conte moin coman 
 to fe pou trape pap laie. 
 
 Demon termina son 'epopee, en accompagnant 
 sa parole de grands gestes qui epouvanterent les 
 oiseaux; le male renouvela ses efforts pour passer 
 a travers les barreaux de sa prison ; sa tete etait 
 en sang. Demon le repoussa a I'interieur, en 
 disant avec impatience : 
 
 Reste don tranquil, bete! 
 
 To bon toi, lui dit Mamrie; to otc li so la-liberte 
 e to oule li contan. Mo sre voudro oua ga to sre 
 di, si ye te mete toi dan ain lacage comme (^*a. 
 
 Mete moin dan ain lacage ! s'ecria Demon sur le 
 ton de la fierte indignee; mo sre cace tou, mo sre 
 sorti e mo sre venge moin sur moune l-'ie Vi te 
 emprisonnin moin. 
 
 Ah! ouette, tou Qa ce bon pou la parol, repli- 
 qua Mamrie; si ye te mete toi dr.n ain bon lacage 
 ave bon baro en fer, to sre pa cace arien ; to sre 
 mete en san, epi comme to sre oua Q'l P<i servi ain 
 brin, to sre courbe to latete e to sre reste tranquil 
 comme pap la va fe dan eune ou deu jou. 
 
 Non! repartit Demon, mo sre laisse moin mouri 
 de faim. 
 
 Qa ce ain bel reponse, <^i'^ Mamrie; to fier 
 nieme! to pa ain St. Ybars pou arien. 
 
 Le malheureux pape, brise de fatigue etait 
 atfaisse sur ses ])attes; sa poitrine se gonflait 
 (louloureusement; ses yeux noirs etincelaient de 
 colere. Sa femelle, refugiee dans un coin, faisait 
 
62 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 entendre de petits oris plaintifs. Apres un mo- 
 ment de silence, Demon dit: 
 
 Mamrie, ga comme fumel la triste. 
 
 Ce pa etonnan, reprit la bonne negresse, lape 
 pense a so piti! ye faim, yape pele moman; me 
 moman va pli vini; ce lachouette ou keke serpen 
 ka vini e ka mange ye. Demon devint pensif. 
 Tandis que sa nourrice voyait a une chose ou a 
 une autre, il contemplait ses prisonniers. II se 
 leva, et sortit sans rien dire. Au bout de quelques 
 minutes, Manrie le vit rentrer; son trebuchet etait 
 vide. 
 
 Eben! dit-elle d'un air etonne, cote to zo- 
 zos. Une fausse honte empecha Demon de dire 
 ce qui en etait; il repondit d'une voix mal as- 
 sured Ye chape. 
 
 Ye chape! reprit Mamrie en secouant la tete, 
 to menti! mo parie to rende ye la liberie. 
 
 E])en! ce vrai, avoua Demon, ce vou f ante ; 
 ga vou di moin su fumel la e so piti te fe moin la 
 peine. 
 
 Les yeux de Mamrie se remplirent de larmes ; 
 elle tendit les bras a Demon en lui montrant toutes 
 ses dents et en disant: 
 
 Vini icite, celera! vini mo mange toi tou 
 cru. 
 
 It is a pity that '' 1' Habitation St. Ybars " has 
 not been translated into English, for it is a much 
 more correct picture of Louisiana life than is to be 
 found in many other works better known outside of 
 our State. 
 
 Miscellaneous Works. 
 
 Under this title we may mention ' collection of 
 thoughts and maxims of different writers, pre- 
 
Literati' RK. 
 
 63 
 
 pared by L. N. Fouche.* It is the only work of 
 its kind published in Louisiana, and contains some 
 maxims of real philosophy. 
 
 " Les Yankees Fondateurs de TEsclavage aux 
 Etats-Unis et Initiateurs du Droit de Secession," 
 by Dr. C. Delery,t was written like ** les Nemes- 
 iennes Conf^derees " during the war, and is of 
 course a party work. 
 
 Not only did Father Rouquette write **rAnto- 
 niade" and "la Nouvelle Atala," in which he 
 describes the charms of solitary life, but in 1852 
 he produced ** la Thebaide en Amerique ou 
 Apologie de la Vie Solitaire et Conten^plative."$ 
 I must admit that, in spite of the numerous quota- 
 tions from the fathers of the church and the piety of 
 the author, the book had no attraction for me, and 
 that I found it uninteresting, and better suited to 
 the monks of the middle ages than to the Chris- 
 tians of the nineteenth century. 
 
 " Gombo Zhebes," by Mr. Lafcadio Hearn,|| is 
 a dictionary of Creole proverbs selected from six 
 Creole dialects. I have read with pleasure the 
 fifty-one proverbs in our Louisiana patois. The 
 translations in English and in French are very 
 accurate. 
 
 *L, N. Foijch^, " Nouveau Recueil de Pens^es, i Vol. lamo, 144 pp. 
 Caj)o, Nouvelle Orleans, 1882. 
 
 t Dr. Charles Delery, " Les Yankees Fondateurs de I'EscIavage aux 
 Etats Unis et Initiateurs du Droit de Secession." i Vol. 8vo, 31 pp. Paris, 
 1864. 
 
 I Adrien Rouquette, '* La Thebaide en Amerique.'' i Vol. 8vo, 144 pp. 
 H, Miridier, Nouvelle-Orl^ans, i8t;2. 
 
 II Lafcadio Hearn, ' Gonibo ^h^bes." 1 Vol. Svo, 4a pp. W.H.Cole- 
 man, New York, 1885. 
 
64 
 
 Lou I S [ A \A S'i'l' [) t !<:« . 
 
 Major John Augustin has published in the 
 Times-Democrat * some charming Creole songs. 
 
 Our contemporary literature is contained almost 
 exclusively in '* Les Comptes-Rendus de I'Athenee 
 Louisianais,"t the journal of a society established 
 in order to encourage the study of the French lan- 
 guage and literature. It is almost impossible to 
 mention all the papers published in the " Comptes- 
 Rendus." Many of them are works of great value. 
 I notice in the first volume: " Chroniques In- 
 diennes," by Dr. C.Delery; '' Souvenir," a touch- 
 ing Indian story, and " de I'lnterjection Ha! 
 Ah!" by Dr. C. Turpin; " Cession de la Louis- 
 iane a la France " and " Esquisse biographique 
 de John Rutledge," by Hon. C. Gayarre; " Em- 
 ploi des Torpilles, Batteries blindees, et Canons 
 ray^s a Charleston," by Gen. Beauregard; " de la 
 Poesie dans I'Histoire et de quelques Problemes 
 sociaux," by Mr. C. Bleton; " de I'H dite as- 
 piree," byDr. Dupaquier; ''LaTarentule," by Dr. 
 Hava; "Etude sur les Eclairs," by Dr. Alfred 
 Mercier, and by same author an interesting paper 
 on '* la Langue Creole;" *' Elle," a poem by Mr. 
 J. Gentil. Mr. O. Debouchel contributes several 
 pretty fables, and Mr. George Dessommes many 
 poems, of which '* Geoffroy le Troubadour" is a 
 charming romance of the times of Chivalry. 
 
 In volume II of V Athiide I note Dr. O. Huard's 
 remarkable paper, " De TUtilite de la Langue 
 
 ♦John Angustin, "Creole Soriijs." Times-Democrat, 
 t" Comptes-Rendus de l'Ath6nee Lonisiiinais." i Vol. 4(0, ciiS jip. 
 ?876-i88i. I Vol. 8vo, 718 pp. i88iiii84. i Vol. 8vo, 521 pp. 18S5-1SS6. 
 
 ;,-J 
 
m 
 
 Literature. 
 
 65 
 
 He 
 
 M 
 
 pi 
 
 Frangaise aux Etats-Unis;" "Longfellow," by 
 Mr. Jas. S. Hosmer; " Un Ancetre de la Sainte 
 Alliance," by Mr. P.V.Bernard; "Centhuit Ans," 
 by Mr. B. Rouen; " Le Matin," po^sie, by 
 Dr. Alfred Mercier; and a lecture by Dr. Mer- 
 cier, "La Femme dans les Poemes d'Homere." 
 In this volume also is a poem on La Salle by my 
 old father, Mr. Florent Fortier. May it be per- 
 mitted to his son to inscribe in this volume the 
 verses of one who was so dear to him, and who 
 was a true representative of our Creole planters, 
 whom the war had ruined, but who were to the 
 last energetic and noble. 
 
 La Salle. (1682-1882). 
 
 Quel est done ce h6ros, ce fils de I'ancien monde, 
 
 Qui bravant la tempete et la fureur de I'onde, 
 
 Argonaute nouveau, sur des bords inconnus, 
 
 A plante son drapeau? Deux cents ans revolus 
 
 L'ont vu s'agenouillant sur la terre etrangere, 
 
 Offrir d'abord £l Dieu sa fervente priere, 
 
 Et prenant du Sauveur le symbole adore 
 
 L'elever vers le ctel dans un concert sacr6. 
 
 Vous I'avez tous nomme: Ce h6ros, c'est Lasallel 
 
 Lasalle, dont la gloire est pour nous sans rivale. 
 
 Si le Seigneur creant un miracle nouveau, 
 
 Te faisait, aujourd'hui, sortir de ton tombeau, 
 
 Quel sentiment d'orgueil gonflerait ta poitnne, 
 
 En voyant les bienfaits de sa grA,ce divine. 
 
 Ce fleuve, malgre lui, retenu sur ses bords, 
 
 Faisantpour les briser d'inutiles efforts, 
 
 Dompte par le genie, et portant sur son onde, 
 
 Dans des palais flottants, tous les tresors du monde. 
 
 Ces cites, ces palais, ces eglises, ces tours, 
 
 Remplacjant le wigwam disparu pour toujours, 
 
 Et ton nom, prononce dans la langue cherie. 
 
 It 
 
 ■.;■ 
 
66 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 Mm.iI-^ 
 
 Par les fils descendants de la noble patrie. 
 Ce nom ne mourra pas, et tu verras demain 
 Tons les peuples unis, se tenant par la main, 
 Le coeur rempli d'amour, relever sur la plage, 
 Cette croix, que jadis tu pla^ais au rivage, 
 Et qui pourra redire aux peuples a venir, 
 De fils reconnaissants le pieux souvenir. 
 
 Volume III of V Athenee is also quite interesting, 
 but I shall note specially: " La Race Latine 
 en Louisiane," by Hon. C. Ga3^arre; ''Dante 
 Alighieri, conference," and "La Curee, poesie," 
 by Dr. Alfred Mercier; " Le Bouvreuil," a 
 story by Dr. C. Turpin; " Le Soir, poesie," by 
 Dr. J. J. Castellanos; " Le Talisman de Gerard, 
 nouvelle," by Mr. Gustave Daussin; "A ma 
 Soeur" and "A ma Fille, poesies," by Mr. Max 
 Cousin. 
 
 The volume of ^^VAthenie'' for 1887 comprises 
 about two hundred octavo pages ; the articles are 
 quite varied and are all written with care. The 
 contributions of Dr. Alfred Mercier are the most 
 valuable; there is always to be found something 
 original in the works of the secretary of AVthinee. 
 His article on the condition of Hamlet, although 
 it comprises but a few pages, is an excellent psych- 
 ological criticism. Dr. Mercier's poems are grace- 
 ful and harmonious. " Tawanta " is the story of 
 an Indian girl near the Niagara Fells, who is aban- 
 doned by her lover for a pale-face rival. The In- 
 dian is sleeping in his canoe tied to a tree not far 
 from the dreadful cataract. Tawanta sees him, 
 she cuts the string, the canoe drifts into the rapid 
 
 .15 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 ■^ 
 
•ft*! 
 
 Literature. 
 
 67 
 
 current, and the unfaithful lover awakes to die in 
 the frightful abyss. Here are a few graphic verses : 
 
 ** La pirogue s'^loigne, elle glisse sans bruit, 
 Et d'abord I'Indien ne sent pas qu'elle fuit. 
 Elle entre tout a coup dans ces courants rapides, 
 Oil le Hot se herisse en crinieres liqu' es. 
 Et la plus de de salut! on vole comme un trait, 
 On arrive, on bondit, on tombe, on disparait." 
 
 <'Camma" and 'Ma Sirene," by Mr. G. Daus- 
 sin, are two historical episodes related very skil- 
 fully as romances. ' ' Camma ' ' evinces a thorough 
 knowledge of the history of the Gauls of Galatia 
 and of their wars with the Parthians. The heroism 
 of the priestess of Diana is well described and 
 touching: she marries her husband's murderer, 
 but it is in order to be able to present to him the 
 poisoned cup. She will drink from it first, but 
 what matters it to her? she will be united in death 
 to her Sinat. Mr. Daussin is one of our most 
 promising writers. 
 
 Mr. B. Rouen's ** Rayon de Soleil " is a charm- 
 ing little story, of which the plot is very pleasing 
 by its simplicity : An old man who has lost his 
 wife becomes hypochondriac and does not want to 
 see any longer the light of the sun. He sends for 
 a carpenter to fasten the windows of his room. 
 The young man is received in the house by the 
 daughter of the old man. The work is done, but 
 a few days later the carpenter is again called, for 
 the window is again open. The same thing hap- 
 pens several times, and the carpenter is always re- 
 
r 
 
 68 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 ceived by the young girl. He soon falls in love 
 with her and marries her after the death of the 
 father. He then learns from his wife that it was 
 she who was letting into the sick man's room the 
 beam of light that was to brighten her own life. 
 
 Dr. G. Devron has devoted much time to the 
 study of the curious points in the history of Louis- 
 iana. In one of his communications to V AtJUtUe 
 he gives some interesting details about the last of 
 the Montezumas. H;s Excellency Senor Don Al- 
 fonso de Montezuma committed suicide by cutting 
 his throat. He died at New Orleans, on October 
 22, 1836. His death was caused by a disappoint- 
 ment in love. Prescott, quoted by Dr. Devron, 
 says in a note of Book V, Chapter ii, of his '' His- 
 tory of the Conquest of Mexico," that the Count 
 of Montezuma shot himself with a pistol and died 
 at the age of at least seventy years. Carbajal Es- 
 pinosa, author of a " History of Mexico," goes 
 further than Prescott, and says that Montezuma 
 killed himself on account of a love trouble, a -pe- 
 sar deque contaha entdnccs mas de setenta u ochenta 
 aflos de edad, (Chapter vii, p. 388.) These as- 
 sertions of Prescott and Espinosa threw a kind of 
 ridicule on the death of the last direct descendant 
 of the Emperor of the Aztecs, and we are grate- 
 ful to Dr. Devron for having proved that when the 
 Count killed himself through disappointment in 
 love he was not seventy or eighty years of age, 
 but only fifty-two. Dr. Devron obtained from the 
 curate of Santiago, in the town of Lorca in Spain, 
 
 -9 
 

 Literature. 69 
 
 an official copy of Montezuma's certificate of bap- 
 tism, in which it is stated that * 'Alfonso, Josef, 
 Antonio, Pedro, Nolasco, Nicolas, Diego, Manuel 
 de Sta. Gertrudis, hijo legitimo de D. Jose Mar- 
 silla Montezuma Caballerizo de Campo de Su Mgd. 
 y de Da Saltadora Garcia de Alcaraz y Tor- 
 recilla," was born February 6, 1784, at i o'clock 
 in the morning. 
 
 Dr. Devron produced also an official copy from 
 the records of the Board of Health of Louisiana, 
 giving the same date to Montezuma's birth and 
 death as stated. This unfortunate gentleman, 
 who had large estates in Spain and who had been 
 chief civil magistrate in Madrid in 1816, 181 7 and 
 1818, resided eight years in New Orleans. When 
 he died, in 1836, he did not leave enough to pay 
 his debts, as is proved b}'^ the following official 
 inventory of his property: 
 
 $2.65 en petite monnaie trouvee dans une de ses 
 
 poches, et produit de la vente $324 87 
 
 Frais de cour 185 18 
 
 Laissant une balance de $^39 69 
 
 a partager entre les creanciers privilegies. le Dr. Puissant et 
 Calixte Labiche garde-malade, f.c.l., dont le compte etait pour 
 chacun de $300, et qui regurent individuellement $69.84^. 
 
 I reproduce these researches of Dr. Devron as 
 I believe that they have an historical interest; they 
 certainly entitle the author of them to great credit 
 for his industry and critical accuracy. 
 
 Mr. Gaston Doussan's paper, ** Lafayette en 
 Am^rique," is written with enthusiasm for the sub- 
 
 1 
 
70 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 ject. The author's partiality to his hero is cer- 
 tainly excusable in an American of French 
 descent, and we read with interest the glowing 
 tribute to the " heros des deux luondes." 
 
 Other articles of interest in the Comptes-Ren- 
 dtis de VAthenie for 1887 are Dr. DeU'Orto's 
 translations from the Italian, and Mr. Doussan's 
 " Revolution Frangaise." Mr. M. Cousin has 
 several graceful poems, and Mr. George Des- 
 sommes a singularly touching sonnet, "A deux 
 Morts.'' 
 
 The Comptes-Rendus de V Atheiice Louisianais 
 for 1888 form a volume of 234 pages — a very 
 creditable showing, if we consider that every word 
 published in our Louisiana magazine is original 
 matter and written by the members of the society. 
 
 Dr. Alfred Mercier contributes several poems, 
 of which one, *' Message," is so graceful and 
 pure that I can not refrain from reproducing it; 
 
 Ou done vas-tu, gentille amie, 
 De ce pas rapide et leger? — 
 Dites-moi, Seigneur, je vous prie, 
 Ou demeure le beau Roger. 
 
 Roger? c'est moi, ne t'en deplaise; 
 Entre et dis-moi ce que tu veux. — 
 Puisque c'est vous, j'en suis bien aise; 
 D'un mot je vais combler vos vceux. 
 
 Dis bien vite ce mot magique, — • 
 Mon message vous le dira. — 
 Quel est-il? — La fiere Angelique 
 Qu'en vain maint galant adora, 
 
 Vous envoie un baiser bien tendre, 
 Sur mes levres elle I'a mis. — 
 
 III ilHIit.i 
 
 i%iiW^ 
 
Literature. 
 
 7» 
 
 I I 
 
 -^ 
 
 Sur tes lerves je vais le prendre. — 
 Prenez, cela vous est perinis. — 
 
 Ce doux baiser veut qu'oii le reiidej 
 Pour un je t'en confierai deux. — 
 Beau Roger, j'accepte I'offninde; 
 Pour un baiser deux valent niieux. 
 
 These charming verses, written by a man over 
 seventy years of age, are a good proof that the 
 atmosphere of Louisiana is not so stifling as it is 
 sometimes said to be. Two other poems by Dr. 
 Mercier, " Dans la Rue " and " Oli sont-ils? " are 
 serious and slightly misanthropical, betraying a 
 feeling not common to our venerated poet, whose 
 philanthropy the writer of these lines has tried to 
 depict in an article entitled " Un Poete Louisi- 
 anais." Dr. Mercier occupies so high a place 
 among our Louisiana authors that I may be per- 
 mitted to quote the following extract from my 
 article: "Dr. Mercier, in his long career, has 
 seen all the miseries to which man is subject, but 
 he has also met with noble sentiments, and he is 
 one of those who believe that humanity is not en- 
 tirely bad, and that vices can be corrected oy good 
 advice and kind v/ords. It is this benevolent and 
 enlightened philosophy which draws to him all 
 who know the perpetual secretary of ' I'Athenee,' 
 and which is the principal charm of his writings. 
 Simple, modest and unselfish, he is not continually 
 occupied with himself, and he can see the world 
 such as it is, and revive in his works the person- 
 ages whom he has met in life. He seems to have 
 considered poetry as a relaxation from his more 
 
72 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 serious duties, and he calls the Muse to him, not 
 to confide his sorrows to her, as the author of the 
 ' Nuits,' but to take his flight with her toward 
 those regions where are to be found charming 
 children, beautiful young girls and variegated 
 flowers. Although a physician, he has always 
 contrived to devote a few hours to literary labors, 
 and his love for the French language, his efforts to 
 preserve among us the tongue of our fathers, have 
 entitled him to the gratitude of his fellow citizens." 
 Dr. Devron continued in 1888 his interesting 
 studies on Louisiana history. In a letter of an 
 Ursuline nun, dated October 27, 1727, she says: 
 
 .... nos matelots pour faire nos berres fichoient 
 des Canes en terre en forme de berceau autour 
 d'un Matelas, et nous enfermoient deux a deux 
 dans nos berres ou nous couchions tout habilez, 
 puis couvroient le berceau d'une grande toile, de 
 facon que les Maringouins et les Frapes d'abord, 
 ne pussent trouver aucun petit passage pour nous 
 venir visiter. 
 
 To this day, in our country parishes, the expres- 
 s\on /aire son bermesLns to cirazv the mosquito bar. 
 
 "La Soiree du Colonel" is a clever novelette 
 by Mr. G. Daussin, but Captain Fernand Bercier 
 is really too good-natured or very bold; he mar- 
 ries Miss Marechal, who had begun her acquaint- 
 ance with him by slapping him in the face for not 
 having accompanied her well on the piano. In 
 spite of the invraiseinb lance of the plot the story is 
 well told and pleasing, 
 
;;? 
 
 Literature. 
 
 73 
 
 The May numl^er of the Comftcs-Rcmlus is 
 filled almost entire' ■ with contributions from 
 ladies. Mrs. Corinne Castellanos Mellen presents 
 " Feuilles Mortes," an admirable translation from 
 the Spanish of Becquer. The poetic melancholy 
 of the original is faithfully expressed in the trans- 
 lation. — " Les Poesies de Lamartine," by Mrs. 
 E. Aleix, is a conscientious and able study, writ- 
 ten with real feminine delicacy. The following 
 extract will show how well our Creole ladies write 
 French ; 
 
 La noblesse et I'elevation des pensees, la 
 dehcatesse des sentiments, la beaute harmoni- 
 euse de la forme, I'elegante purete du style, rap- 
 pellent les plus beaux vers de Racine. II parle a 
 toute intelligence eprise du beau, a toute ame 
 eprise du vrai, et fait vibrer en nous, par une sym- 
 pathie irresistible, tous les sentiments qu'il eprouve. 
 Avec des accents d'une tristesse inhnie, il nous 
 fait sentir le neant des joies d'ici-bas; mais, en 
 meme temps, il nous donne I'espoird'une destinee 
 immortelle dans une autre patrie. Aux prises 
 avec ce douloureux mystere qu'on nomme la vie, 
 ce probleme insoluble et terrible lui arrache des 
 plaintes sublimes. A cote d'extases infmies, 
 d'elans d'amour et de foi, il y a des gemissements 
 ineffables. Helas ! il a tout eprouve, tout souffert. 
 Ah! pourquoi faut-il que dans toute existence 
 humaine, meme les meilleures, les plus pures, 
 
 " On sente toujours trembler des larmes, 
 Ou retentir une douleur?' " 
 
 ** Causerie," by the Hon. Paul E. Theard, is an 
 eloquent and witty address on the French Ian- 
 
74 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 guage in Louisiana; and " Voyage en Oceanic," 
 by Mr. P. Lamal, and " Promenade au Canada," 
 by Guy de Morant, are interesting descriptions of 
 travels. 
 
 In the July number of V Athenee^ Mr. J. L. 
 Peytavin devotes a few pages to the refutation of 
 the ridiculous pictures in Mr. Cable's " Creoles of 
 Louisiana." 
 
 Sir Humphry Davy, the great English chemist, 
 is so little known as a philosopher, and his last 
 work, ** The Last Days of a Philosopher," con- 
 tains such sublime thoughts, that we feel grateful 
 to Mr. Gastop Doussan for having given us an ab- 
 stract of Camille Flammarion's translation of Sir 
 Humphrj/'s book. Mr. Doussan expresses in 
 graceful language the e^ ^^ted ideas of the Eng- 
 lish scientist and of the i- rench astronomer. 
 
 The last work published in 1888 in the Comftes- 
 Rendus de V Athenee is " Fortunia," a drama in 
 five acts, by Dr. Mercier, The play, like Hugo's 
 •-Cromwell," was not written for the stage; it may 
 be called a dramatic novel. It is highh interest- 
 ing and at times very pathetic. The stoiy is that 
 of a beautiful I3ra::ilian lady who becomes insane 
 on hearing of her husband's infidelity, and who 
 dies miserably in a forest. The drama is quite 
 lengthy, and is certainly an important work. The 
 only characters in {he play which I would criticise 
 are those .^f Ringsbie, the platonic lover of Fortu- 
 nia, and Donha Alves, her mother. 1 he first has 
 remained too good a friend, after having subdued 
 
 / ' 
 
J 
 
 Literature. 
 
 75 
 
 :;! 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 ■:? 
 
 his Dassions, and the second does not seem sufli- 
 ciently touched at the death oi her unfortunate 
 daughter. 
 
 In 1888, ^^esides the papers contained in the 
 Comptes-Reuaus^ we have ''Lidia," by Dr. 
 Mercier; " Tante Cydette/' by Mr. George 
 Dessommes; and Pouponne et IJaUhazar," ])y 
 Mrs. De Lahoussaye. "I-/idia" is an idyl; the 
 plot is very simple, it is the romantic love of two 
 noble and pure hearts. In this age of realism it is 
 good to have before one's eyes persons whose 
 ideal is kindness, beauty and intelligence; and the 
 sympathetic faces of Lidia, of Aurelien, of sttur 
 Brigitte, cause us to forget our trouliles and sor- 
 rows. " Tante Cydette," by Mr. Dessommes, is 
 a novel of New Orleans life, and depicts very 
 faithfully the customs of a certain class of our so- 
 ciety. The character of the matchmaking Tante 
 Cydette is quite vecu, as the modcrtiisants would 
 say. Mme. De Lahoussaye, who lives in the 
 Attakapas country, presents in '' Pouponne et 
 Balthazar" a story of Acadian life. The work 
 gives a good pic^^vire of the customs of the descend- 
 ants of the Acadian exiles. 
 
 1889 — The name wliich is seen oftenest in the 
 Comptes-Rciidus de rAlhciide is that of Dr. 
 Alfred Mercier, who although advanced in years, 
 has all the enthusiasm of a young man. An 
 excellent Greek -.nd Latin scholar, a learned 
 physician, an admirer of Danto and of Cervantes, 
 he writes elegantly and forcibly both prose and 
 
76 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 verse. His works are well known in the State, 
 and he enjoys a well-deserved popularity. 
 
 ** Sommeil, Reves, Somnambulisme " is an in- 
 terestinj( article by Dr. Mercier. He calls attten- 
 tion to the strange phenomena accompanying sleep 
 and mentions how Captain Rossel, who was shot 
 during the Commune, required so much sleep that 
 he had to be awakened by the jailor on the morn- 
 ing of the execution; while Emperor Justinian, 
 on the contrary, needed only one hour's sleep in 
 the twenty-four. Dreams, in particular, are care- 
 fully considered by the author, and we take an in- 
 terest in the subject on account of its importance 
 in the ancient dr.^^na and in the classic French 
 tragedies. 
 
 In 1843, on completing his studies in Paris, Dr. 
 Mercier took a trip to the Pyrenees. He describes 
 his journey in a charming manner, from notes 
 taken at the time. Before leaving Paris he went 
 to pay a visit to his old friend, Lakanal, the cele- 
 brated Conventionncl^ whose name is associated 
 with the history of education in Louisiana as presi- 
 dent of the College of Orleans. Lakanal intro- 
 duced the young Louisianian to the great sculptor 
 David (of Angers). 
 
 The author gives an excellent idea of the Py- 
 renees country, and the customs of the inhabitants 
 both in France and in Spain. Although half a 
 century has passed since the doctor nsited the 
 mountains which nature has placed as a barrier 
 between the two great nations, and although the 
 
 
 
 
 iMUi. 
 
■ '1 '■ 
 
 Literature. 
 
 77 
 
 )es 
 
 :nt 
 
 .ro- 
 >tor 
 
 world has made wonderful progress since then, it 
 is doubtful whether in these mountainous regions 
 there has been any considerable change in the 
 manners and customs of the people. The Spanish 
 priests must still be drinking from the forro^ the 
 young men must still be hunting the fleet moun- 
 tain deer, the bear and the wolves, and the hostess 
 of the inn on the roadside must still be selling to 
 the travelers, with a coquettish smile, red, green, 
 blue or yellow garters embroidered with gold oi 
 silver on which love-mottoes are inscribed. The 
 same costumes must still be seen as fifty years 
 ago; everything on the high mountains seems to 
 be immutable as the hard rocks which form them. 
 On leaving the Pyrenees the doctor exclaims: 
 
 Solitudes grandioses et douces, paix profonde, 
 ciel ^toile, nuit poetique et propice aux meditations 
 on I'ame sonde rinfmi qui est en dehors d'elle et 
 cekii qui est en elle, est-ce la derniere fois que je 
 jouis de vous? Je I'ignore; en tout cas, adieu et 
 
 inercil 
 
 In " Role des Medailles dans I'histoire des Pays- 
 lias" Dr. Mercier makes an analysis of one oi 
 lulgar Quinet's noblest book, " Fondation de la 
 Republique des Provinces-Unies." The author 
 pays a magnificent tribute to William the Silent 
 and Marnix de Sainte Aldegonde, and show show 
 the liberators of the Netherlands, in their inces- 
 sant warfare against Philip, used medals as a 
 means of rousin^^' the anger and the patriotism of 
 the people. *'The Revolution," says Quinet, 
 
78 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 ** spoke incessantly to the people througli thou- 
 sands of brass mouths." 
 
 Mrs. Eulalie L. T. Aleix contributes two charm- 
 ing articles to the Comptes-Rendus for 1889: 
 " Le Livre d'or de la comtesse Diane," and 
 " Maximes de la vie par la comtesse Diane." 
 Both studies express a philosophy delicate and 
 entirely modern : 
 
 Quelle question redoutez-vous le plus? Celle 
 pour laquelle une reponse serait un aveu. 
 
 Aimez-vous mieux un coup de pied ou un coup 
 de patte? — Un coup de patte, parce que je peux 
 le rendre en restant bien elevee. 
 
 Quelle est la personne la plusaimable? — Celle 
 qui me persuade que c'est moi. 
 
 II est rare que la tete des rois soit faite a la 
 mesure de leur couronne. 
 
 C'est le bruit que font nos illusions en s'envo- 
 lant qui nous les revele. 
 
 •'Utilitc des Langues Vivantes," by Mr. Fran- 
 cois Tujague, is a strong plea in favor of the teach- 
 ing of the modern languages, and especially of 
 French. He mentions the fact of the closer rela- 
 tions of men in different countries by means of 
 constant travel, and states how emigrants feel at 
 home in a foreign country, if they are able to 
 speak the language of the people among whom 
 they live. Tie spea1 • of the admirable literature 
 of the modern nations and of the great thoughts 
 embodied in their masterpieces, and concludes by 
 urging the Louisianians to study French most 
 
 { 
 
 m 
 
-f — • '■■) II 
 
 I ' 
 
 Literature. 
 
 79 
 
 )St 
 
 diligently. He has faith in the perpetuity of the 
 French language in Louisiana, and says : 
 
 Croire que dans un avenir plus ou moins rap- 
 proche, le fran^ais ne sera plus, en Louisiane, 
 qu'un souvenir d'antan, c'est avoir du bon sens 
 des Louisianais, de leur esprit de prevoyance etde 
 ieur amour du progres une opinion erronee. 
 
 Dr. G. Devron makes some very interesting con- 
 tributions to the early histor}^ of Louisiana, and 
 publishes a letter giving curious details of the life 
 in New Orleans four years after the foundation of 
 the city. The letter was written by Father Raphael, 
 Cafucin sufericur de la Mission. Dr. Devron re- 
 stores with critical accuracy a number of words 
 which had been torn from both edges of the paper. 
 The same letter was translated later by Mr. John 
 Gilmary vShea, and published in volume ii of the 
 Historico-Catholic Society of the United States. 
 
 Mr. J. L. Peytavin gives an ingenious explana- 
 tion of a problem in physics; I'abbe Langlois con- 
 tributes a scientific paper on botany; Mr. IL Dubos, 
 a well written article on the "Avantages de la cul- 
 ture des Arts ;" and Dr. Mercicrand Mr. E. Grima 
 publish some graceful poems. 
 
 Mr. Grima's "Pour un Nickel" is light and 
 witty, and Boileau would have called it " un ele- 
 gant badinage." A young lady enters a city car 
 and on going to pay her fare perceives that she 
 has forgotten her purse. She stands confused and 
 is on the point of leaving the car, when a young 
 
 IHtf 
 
8o 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 man, like a true knight, rises to relieve her of her 
 embarrassment and steps hurriedly to the box to 
 deposit the needed nickel. But, oh horror I he 
 seeks in vain in his pockets, not a cent is to be 
 found. He already thinks of rushing out and of 
 going into exile in some distant land, when on 
 touching his watch chain he linds a nickel in a 
 ring. 
 
 Marthe, ma vieille bonne, iui moment de mourir 
 
 Voulant me laisser d'elle un dernier souvenir, 
 
 L'avait mis en mes mains: '' Tiens, prends-le, me dit-elle, 
 
 Pour te porter bonheur." Et Marthe disait vrai, 
 
 Mon bonheur est parfait. La jeune demoiselle 
 
 Qui n'avait pas de bourse et pour qui je payai, 
 
 L'inconnue aux yeux noirs, est niaintenant ma teinme. 
 
 Entre ses freles mains j'ai pu risquer mon dnie. 
 
 Oui, n us sommes heureux, et, fortune mortel, 
 
 Mon bonheur si parfait n'a coute qu' nickel. 
 
 No analysis could give an idea of the harmonious 
 verses of Dr. Mercier. Let us quote the dialogue 
 between the Suns and the Night: 
 
 Les Soleils. 
 
 Nous som nes les Soleils, les vainqueurs de la Nuit; 
 Devant nous elle fuit et meurt. A nous I'espacel 
 A nous I'eternite, nous dont la flamme enlace 
 L'immensite profonde et partout resplendit! 
 
 Gloire h, nous, rois puissants dont le regard ft^conde 
 Les spheres decrivanl leur orbe autour de nousl 
 Notre chaude clarte rejouit chaque monde; 
 La vie est un bienfait de nos feux purs et doux. 
 
 A nous seuls appartient I'fetendue infinie; ; 
 
 Immortels nous flottons et toujours avanpons. 
 N^s de nos mouvements, des iieuves d'harmonie 
 Circulent dans I'ether partout oil nous passons. 
 
 ■■■■I 
 
I« I ■■ 
 
 I.;, 
 
 LlTERATURI^. 
 
 8l 
 
 La Nuit. 
 
 Vous mentez, o Soleils! h moi seule appartiennent 
 L'espace sans limites et I'iminortalite. 
 Au-ciela des lointains ou vos rajons parviennent, 
 Mon noir abiine ctend sa iiiorne immensite. 
 
 Semt^s de loin en loin sur mon manteau d'ebene, 
 Vous ornez pour un temps ma severe beaute; 
 II n'est permis qu'Jl moi, moi votre souveraine, 
 l)e dire a haute voix: — J'ai toujours existe. 
 
 D'innouibrables soleils, avant votre naissance, 
 Etincelaient deji\ sur I'abime sans fond; 
 Oil boul-ils aujourd'hui? qui pleure leur absence? 
 Qui cherche leur dclat disparu de mon front? 
 
 Cessez done, orgueilleux, de chanter vog louangesl 
 
 Eclairez, echauffez les mondes habites. 
 
 Je vous absorberai, passageres phalanges, 
 
 Quand par le temps qui fuit vos jours seront comptes. 
 
 Our literature- '^^-^Mshed in 1889 is certainly very 
 creditable. 
 
 The articles which appeared in the Comftes-Ren- 
 diis de r Athenee in 1890 are of a character more 
 varied than in 1889. The first paper which at- 
 tracts our attention is an " Etude sur Robert-Ed- 
 ouard Lee," by Mr. G. Doussan. The author evi- 
 dently studied his subject carefully, and has ren- 
 dered full justice to the great Confederate chief- 
 lain. Let us be thankful to Mr. Doussan for pre- 
 senting to us a very interesting picture of a man 
 whose 'memory is honored by every American, 
 and who, in the opinion d many, is the most 
 perfect character in our history since Washing- 
 ton. 
 
 *' Le Pugilat chez les Anciens et les Modernes,** 
 
 M 
 
S2 
 
 Louisiana Stul ■;. 
 
 by Dr. Alfred Mercier, jL^ives us an account oi 
 prize-fi;^htin^" among the ancients, and describes 
 the terrible duel between Epeos and Eur^-alos, in 
 the twenty-third book of the Iliad, and the combat 
 of Dares and Entellus, in the fifth bojk of the 
 /Eneid. However horrible and brutal those fights 
 of the ancients appear to us, in spite of the beau- 
 tiful verses of the greiJ*-, U masters of antiquity, 
 we nuist remember that they were the outcome oi 
 a civilization in which physical force and skill were 
 of the greatest use in battle. Now, however, as 
 the Doctor remarks, men are killed in wars at great 
 distances, and physical strength, as exemplified by 
 the combats described by Homer and Virgil, is no 
 longer necessary. Let boxing, therefore, be con- 
 sidered an hygienic exercise, and let us not adore, 
 as did the Greeks, athletes whose brutal exhibi- 
 tions are demoralizing and revolting to our sense 
 of delicacy. 
 
 Dr. Mercier, who has made a special study of 
 the Creole patois and who uses it with great charm 
 in his novels, has translated several of ^sop's 
 tables into our Louisiana patois. He gives the 
 fables imitated by La Fontaine, and shows that 
 those of zEsop translated into the naive and sweet 
 Creole patois are not unworthy to be compared 
 with those of the great fabulist of the seventeenth 
 century. 
 
 The following fables are really charming and 
 quaint in their new garb : 
 
^ 
 
 ill! 
 
 Litj:i^.\ture. 
 
 83 
 
 ISC 
 
 ot 
 
 •ni 
 ")'s 
 he 
 lal 
 
 COMI'KR Ri:\AR. 
 
 ComiMM* Renar cntrc clan ain l)oulic comcdicn, c 
 l()iiill(' (Ian ton so bitin. Li troiive ain mask ki te 
 iolinian bicn faitc ; li pran li dan so jiatte, e li di 
 conniic ya: '* Ki bel latete I nuunpagagnin la cer- 
 vcl laddan." 
 
 CiGAL K FkOUMIS. 
 
 Dan tan liver froiimis tape fe seeher grain dible 
 ki te uniide. Ain cigal ki te bien faini mancU' ve 
 kicboge pou mange. l-iroumis laye rcjionne: 
 " Dan tan lete C(jter vou pa sen-e keke nonrritute? 
 Main/el Cigal di ye: " Mo te pa gagnm tan; mo 
 te toujour ape cbuite." Froumis parti rire e di 
 ii:" Dan tan cho vou te cbante; asteur fe frette, 
 vou danse." 
 
 In "Paracelse" Dr. Mercier places before us 
 the famous and enigmatic pb}sician, and makes 
 him relate to us his dream while under the in- 
 lluence of the powerful essence discovered by 
 him. Dolor, Aphrodite, Invidia, Avaritia, Politica, 
 Jocosa speak to him in vain: lie only heeds Pallas 
 Athene, who leads him to her temple, and then he 
 converses with Vita, Fides, Novitas and Mors, and 
 although devoted to Scientia, he receives Poesis 
 as his best friend. Tliis allegory, although fan- 
 tastic, is written with great force, and the lan- 
 guage of Paracelse is poetic and harmonious. 
 
 Dr. AFercier published also in pamphlet form a 
 long philosophical poem, " Reditus et Ascala- 
 phos." Rcclitus seeks solitude, and has taken 
 refuge in a lofty tower built upon a rock. He has 
 
84 
 
 Louisiana Studiks. 
 
 fled from the society of man and believes that he 
 is alone in his eagle's nest, when he hears a voice 
 near him in the darkness. He then perceives in 
 the light of the moon an old and gigantic owl. It 
 is Ascalaphos, whom the wrath of Ceres and Per- 
 sephone has metamorphosed, and who has been 
 condemned by the goddesses to live forever. He 
 has a long conversation with R^ditiis, in which he 
 expounds to the latter the history and destiny oi 
 mankind. The bird of night then takes his flight 
 toward Africa, into the interior of which the white 
 man is at last penetrating, and Reditus exclaims in 
 verses really grand: 
 
 II a pris son essor. Quels vigoureux coups d'aile! 
 II va plus promptenient que la prompte hiroiuielle. 
 II est deja bien loin. Ce n'est plus qu'un point noir; 
 A peine si mes jeux peuvent encore le voir. 
 Dans une vapeur d'or il plonge, et la lumiere 
 L'absorbe. Je le cherche en vain dans I'atniosph^re: 
 Plus rien. Oh! si j'avais des ailes conime lui; 
 J'irais revoir le ciel ou nies beaux jours ont lui, 
 Les jours d'enchantement, d'esperance et d'ivresse, 
 Les jours si fugitifs de I'heureuse jeunesse. 
 Mais ne regrettons rien. Laissons s'evanouir 
 L'image d'un passe qui ne peut revenir- 
 
 Dr. Deir Orto contributes to the Comptes- 
 Rcndus some interesting translations from the 
 Italian. We feel pained at the sad death of Toto. 
 the ouistiti who dies of sorrow because he has 
 broken to pieces his lady-love, the porcelain mon- 
 achella, 
 
 Mr. Peytavin presents the result of important 
 researches made by him upon the vicissitudes 
 
 .(llllu 
 
ilppii«p 
 
 LlTKR/VrrRK. 
 
 85 
 
 It 
 
 of the theatre in Richmond during the war, and 
 renders justice to tlie energy and love lor his art 
 ot Orsy Ogden, who, in spite of numberless ob- 
 stacles, managed to keep his theatre open until 
 the fall of the capital of the Confederacy. 
 
 Mr. George Dessommes' "La Legende d'Or- 
 este " is a scholarly piece of work. The author 
 makes a comparative study of the Oresteia in 
 /Eschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, and gives a 
 clear idea of the differences in the genius of the 
 great Greek dramatists. 
 
 "Autriche-Hongrie," by Franz Kupetz, is an 
 interesting account of the present condition of the 
 empire of Francis Joseph, and " Citrus trifoliata," 
 by Dr. Devron, is a scientific botanical study. 
 
 Mr. E. Grima wrote, in 1890, several light and 
 graceful poems: " Pourquoi Jean est reste gar- 
 con " is witty and amusing, and " Elegie " is very 
 touching. 
 
 Dominique Rouquette, perhaps the best and 
 
 most original poet that Louisiana has produced, 
 
 died in May, 1890. I devoted a few pages in the 
 
 Comftcs-Rendus de V Athenee to the memory of 
 
 the old bard of the Tchefuncte. I wish to 
 
 reproduce here one of his delicate and tender 
 
 poems. 
 
 A Mme. Ad^xe C * * * 
 
 Dites, avez-vous vu, comme souvent je vols, 
 Sur les pieux vermoulus, au rebord des vieux toits 
 Une plante fletrie et reduite en poussiere? 
 Dites, avez-vous vu la sauvage fougiire, 
 Dessechee aux rajons de nos soleils d'ete, 
 
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 Louisiana Sjudjics. 
 
 Sur im liaii'^.ir croulant, tonil>;ml ik- \ i tiislo? — 
 La plantf iiu'a rc^icl qiiclquc pieu trciublaiil porte, 
 Farii'e, eliolee, a nos veiix .seinlilc inoitc; 
 Balancce au rel)oicl dii \ iciix hanj^ar inouvant, 
 Ce n'est qu'im pen de poiidie abaiulonnce au vent; 
 Mais qu'une fraithe oiidee iiialtendue arrive, 
 Laissant couler sur clle une fimilte d'eau vive; 
 La plante, bcnissanl le torrent l)ienfaiteur. 
 Kecouvre sa verdure et toule sa fraicheur; 
 Ainsi, dans notre canirqu'un tourbillon emporte, 
 Dans nos couurs oublieux, I'amiti*' senible inorte, 
 Mais le doux souvenir, Ja raninuint part'ois, 
 Lui donne la beautr, la fraicheur d'autrefois. 
 
 I shall mention only biieny the works published 
 from 1891 to 1893. Jn 189 1 Dr. Alirod Mercier 
 published a novel, " Johnnelle." It is a work of 
 high philosophy, in which the author attacks in- 
 fanticide, that monstrous crime, but yet too fre- 
 quent. Mr. Edward Dossommes published in 
 Paris " Femme et Statue," a clever archieological 
 study. Miss Marie Augustin published in 1892 a 
 strong and dramatic novel, " Le Macandal," 
 based on an interesting episode of the revolt of 
 the blacks against the whites in San Domingo. 
 
 The writers in the Coniptes-RendusdeV AtJicucc 
 from 1 89 1 to 1893 are nearly the same as those 
 in 1889 and 1890. We may add to that list 
 the names of Mr. A. Schreiber, Mr. Felix Voorhies, 
 and Mr. H. L. Ducroq. 
 
 I take the liberty to mention here my historical 
 lectures, **le Chateau de Chambord " (1884), 
 '*les Conquetes des Normands" (1889), my 
 literary lectures, " le Vicux Fran(;ais et la Littera- 
 
 I 
 
l^ITERATUKIi. 
 
 87 
 
 lure (111 Moyen Age" (1885), "Sept Graiuls 
 Auteurs du XlXe Siecle "^ (1889), " ^^abriel 
 crEnnerich/' an historical novelette (1886), and 
 "Histoire de la Litterature Frangaise " (1893). 
 
 The French literature of Louisiana is no un- 
 worthy daughter of that of France, and will long 
 continue to live; it is modest and simple, but 
 above all sincere in its love for Louisiana, the 
 United States and France. 
 
 
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 IV.-ENGLISH LITERATURE. 
 
 The English literature of the State of Louisiana 
 is very extensive and we have so large a number 
 of authors in every branch that in such a short 
 sketch I can only mention the most important ones, 
 or, at least, the works which have marked the 
 development of our literature. 
 
 For a number of years after the cession to the 
 United States the conditions were not favorable to 
 Entrlish literature. The settlers from the United 
 States were not very numerous and they were too 
 much absorbed by their material interests to attend 
 to literary pursuits. As the prosperity of the State 
 increased more attention was paid to education, 
 but the culture of the people, as in other South- 
 ern States, was directed principally to statesman- 
 ship, and we had great orators, distinguished 
 journalists, but comparatively few authors of note. 
 It is proper to state, however, that the celebrated 
 
 :•''.« 1 
 
88 
 
 Louisiana SiUDUis. 
 
 Dc Bow's Review exertetl a ^reat influence, for 
 many years, upon literature. Its pages contain 
 papers of value on all kinds of subjects and it is a 
 complete encyclopedia of the Old South. The 
 institution of slavery is claimed by many as having 
 been detrimental to literary activity. It was not, 
 perhaps, so much slavery itself as the material 
 prosperity accompanying it which was a drawback 
 to literature. The Southern people were content 
 with attending to their mercantile and agricultural 
 interests and with governing the nation, to a great 
 extent, and although many were highly educated 
 few wrote in branches generally included in the 
 term literature. Too many, however, spent their 
 energy and their talents in defending with their 
 pens the cause of slavery, a cause which was 
 naturally considered by them legal and just. Slav- 
 ery, in that way, injured literature. Let us not, 
 however, scorn the Old South, for the New South 
 did not spring into existence in full womanhood as 
 Minerva of old ; it is but the continuation of the 
 Old South ; the New is possible only because tht 
 Old has existed. The changes accomplished 
 since the war were the result of circumstances 
 existing before the war, and the expression tht 
 New South should be taken rather as indicating y 
 condition of things transformed but not new. 
 
 After the convulsion caused by the war literaturt 
 revived slowly in the State; the excellent news- 
 papers in New Orleans, both in French and Eng 
 liah, contributed largely to that revival i^vdevotinti 
 
•1 
 
 LlTKRATURE. 
 
 89 
 
 as they are still doin^, a larj^e space in their col- 
 iiniiis to hterary subjects. The greatest factor, 
 however, in the development oJ our literature in 
 tlie last lew years has been the establishment in 
 New Orleans of the Tulane University. It has 
 raised considerably the level of education, and by 
 its public lectures and the inlkience of its faculty 
 and students has given a wonderful impetus to the 
 literary spirit. The State University at Baton 
 Rouge has also done good work in that direction. 
 It is but fair to state the iniluence exerted from its 
 foundation, many years ago, of the New Orleans 
 Academy of Sciences, and ottiie "Geographic" and 
 "Quarante" Clubs. These societies are doing for 
 English literature in Louisiana what the "Athenee 
 Louisianais" is doing for French literature, and their 
 share in the intellectual development of our people 
 is considerable. The " Geographic" and *'Quar- 
 ante " Clubs were organized by the ladies of New 
 Orleans. Col. Johnston, in his excellent lectures 
 on Sliakspeare delivered at Tulane University in 
 1890, says on this subject: "The feeling has come 
 iionie to our best and stroni^cst women, those 
 who mould and sway the opinions of the mass, 
 that they must not delay to enter into that higher 
 realm of thought which lifts humanity, even so 
 much as one step, nearer to the Divine Archetype. 
 And they have adjudged aright when they decided 
 that this was to be found in the best literature. For 
 liie best literature embodies the best thought of the 
 hiirhest thinkers, addressed to the hearts of all 
 
 
 in 
 
 ? I 
 
■■^ 
 
 90 
 
 l^ouisiANA Studies. 
 
 mankind." The course of study pursued by these 
 clubs includes many important subjects, among 
 which we may mention: Study of Greek D;:ama, 
 of Ancient Religions, of Victorian Poets of Eng- 
 land, and of France in eighteenth century. 
 
 It is very much to be regretted that Art and 
 Letters, a beautiful illustrated magazine pub- 
 lished in New Orleans in 1887, did not last more 
 than a year. Its influence on our literature was, 
 however, beneficial, and some of the best local 
 writers were contributors to it. 
 
 Current Topics is a sprightly little monthly mag- 
 azine edited by Mrs. P. W. Mount (Ruth Ramay). 
 It is to be hoped that its success is assured. 
 
 The Southern Art Union, an institution organ- 
 ized also by ladies, did a great deal of good in the 
 few years of its existence, and we will concUule 
 the list of factors in our intellectual and literary 
 development by mentioning the Louisiana Journal 
 of Education and the Louisiana Educational So- 
 ciety. The yournai of Education was founded in 
 1879 by Pi'ofessors R. M. Luslier and W. O. 
 Rogers, and continued until 1888, owing to ihe 
 energy an/i devotion of Prof. Rogers. Its pages, 
 like those of DeBozv's Reviezv, contain a g-eat 
 number of very important papers and form a large 
 part of our literature. The Louisiana Educa- 
 tional Society has stirred up public sentiment 
 throughout the whole State in favor of education 
 and has established at Ruston one of those noble 
 institutions, a Chautauqua. 
 
LlTJ.K ATUKE. i;l 
 
 IIisToiJV, r>i()(;ir\iMiv, Literary Cuiticism 
 
 AND Sketches. 
 
 Louisiana will always claim as belon«nntr to her 
 the ;^reat naturalist, Audubon, whose admirable 
 works, '' Hirds of America" and " Quadrupeds of 
 America," have excited the admiration of man- 
 kind. Audubon was born in Louisiana in 1781, 
 and she is proud of her son. 
 
 If in natural history we have but one name, in 
 political history we have several, and these have 
 trenerally devoted their talent to writing- the history 
 of their State and country. 
 
 Our earliest historian is the learned jurist Fran- 
 gois-Xavier Martin. His history of Louisiana was 
 published in 1827, and republished in 1882, accom- 
 j)anied by an interesting memoir of the author by 
 Judge W.W. Ilowe, and Annals from 1815 to 1861 
 by J. F. Condon. This work occupies a high rank 
 in our literature, and is written with French con- 
 ciseness and clearness. It begins with an excellent 
 topographical view of the State, gives a brief ac- 
 count of events in America before the settlement 
 of Louisiana, and relates with impartiality and 
 force the events in our colonial and State history 
 lo the year 1815. The battle of New Orleans is 
 described in detail, as well as the events leading to 
 the imposition of the fine upon General Jackson. 
 Judge Martin justifies the action of Judge Hall, 
 and the opinion of such a profound jurist is entitled 
 to great weight. 
 
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92 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 4 
 
 With the name of Judge Martin that of Judge 
 Gayarre is intimately associated, as both hav^e writ- 
 ten liistories of Louisiana which are the best which 
 we have. After having published his two histories 
 in French Mr. Gayarre rewrote his History ol 
 Louisiana, and published it in English in four vol- 
 umes. This work has placed Mr. Gayarre with 
 the greatest historians of America, and is recog- 
 nized by all as a standard work. It begins with 
 the Romance of the History of Louisiana, in which 
 the legends of the State are related in a llorid style 
 suitable to the subject. The history proper is based 
 on original documents, and is narrated with such 
 impartiality that the author has been accused of 
 not condemning with suflicient severity the cruel 
 acts of O'Reilly. 
 
 Gayarr^'s History of Louisiana is so well known 
 that I shall pass to his Philip IL This work is not 
 in reality a history of the gloomy and cruel tyrant 
 of the Escurial, but a series of striking and forci- 
 ble tableaux which remind us of Carlyle's "French 
 Revolution." The author gives first a graphic 
 description of the horrible death of Philip, and 
 shows the sanguinary despot resigned, calm and 
 composed at the moment of appearing before his 
 judge, and calls attention to the curious psychical 
 problem involved in that death with its apparent 
 unconsciousness of guilt. The different scenes of 
 Philip's reign are presented to us: the probable 
 murder of his son, his efforts to suppress heresy 
 throughout Europe, his persecution of the princess 
 
Literature, 
 
 93 
 
 Kboli and of Antonio Perez, the extraordinary re- 
 sistance of the latter, his defence by the people of 
 Saragossa and the ultimate loss of the fiicros of 
 Aragon, and the complete enslavement of the 
 Spanish people. The reign of Philip, in spite of 
 his power, marks the beginning of the downfall of 
 Spain under the rule of the house of Austria, and 
 Mr. Gayarre has indicated clearly the causes which 
 led to the ruin of the great kingdom of Charles and 
 Pliilip. It is to be regretted that the historian did 
 not present to us some scenes of the conflict be- 
 tween Philip and his subjects of the Netherlands; 
 he might have given us striking pictures of Alva 
 and of the heroes of the house of Orange. 
 
 Besides the above works Mr. Gayarre published 
 in different magazines a number of important his- 
 torical and literary papers. We may mention: 
 ''A Historical Sketch of the Two Lafittes," "A 
 Louisiana Sugar Plantation of the Old Regime," 
 "The New Orleans Bench and Bar in 1823," 
 "Mary Stuart," "Don Carlos and Isabelle de 
 Valois," "Literature in Louisiana," and "The 
 Creoles of History and *^be Creoles of Romance," 
 in which he refutes completely Mr. Cable's mis- 
 representations of the Louisianians of French and 
 Spanish descent. We shall again refer to Mr. 
 Gayarre as a dramati a.id a novelist; we must 
 now consider Judge Alexander Walker's " Life of 
 Andrew Jackson and Battle of New Orleans 
 i860." '. ^ author gives a brief account of Jack- 
 son's care before he went to New Orleans in 
 
 1 
 
 1!? 
 
 i 
 
 J 
 
94 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 1814 to dclend that city from the inv\'\sion of the 
 En<rlish. lie then describes minutely the memo- 
 rable events of December, 1814, and January. 
 1815, and his narrative is very interesting^. Mr. 
 Walker was a patriot and he gloried in the 
 achievements of the Americans. He defends the 
 brothers Lalitte from the accusation of piracy and 
 robbery, and what is pleasinjr to a Louisianian 
 who reads this book, the author proves how 
 patriotic were the Louisianians in tlie war against 
 the English, liow noble were the women of New 
 Orleans, how intrepid and devoted were the Louis- 
 iana soldiers, of whatever origin. The defeat and 
 complete rout of the British army b}/ Jackson is 
 an extraordinary event in history, and Mr. Walker 
 can be said to have accomplished well the task he 
 had underlaken of narrating the heroic deeds ot 
 our fathers in 1814 and 1815. Judge Walker's 
 son, Mr. Norman McF. Walker, is also a well 
 known writer. Ilis paper, "The Geographical 
 Nomenclature of Louisiana," published in the 
 Magazine of American History for September, 
 1883, gives proof of much research and explains 
 very ingeniously the curious and interesting geo- 
 graphical names in Louisiana. The town of 
 Gretna, named from the fact of an old justice of 
 the peace "getting out of bed at any hour of the 
 night to marry a couple of young lovers from the 
 city;" Paincourtville, "Short-bread Town," so- 
 called because a traveler passing through the 
 village many years ago was unable to ob- 
 
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 lo- 
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 ot 
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 50- 
 
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 L 
 
 ITKUATl'KK 
 
 95 
 
 lain from the poor inhaliitariLs a single loaf of 
 bread. 
 
 No history of the literature of Louisiana, however 
 brief, would be accurate without the mention of the 
 distiniiuishcd scholar Alexander Dimitrv, whose 
 learning was jM'odigious and who did such good 
 work tor the cause of education in our State. It is 
 lo be regretted that Prof. Dimitry has left no works 
 in book form; his sons, however, John and Charles 
 Dimitry, are able writers, and his daughter, Mrs. 
 X'irginia Dimitry Ruth, was a well known poet and 
 litterateur. John Dimitry wrote a History of Louis- 
 iana for schools. Charles Dimitry is a novelist and 
 a poet and will be mentioned later. 
 
 While speaking of school histories it is proper to 
 mention Prof. H. E. Chambers' Histories of the 
 United States, published by Messrs. F. F. llansell 
 & Bro., of New Orleans. These works are recog- 
 nized as possessing merit and are eminently teach- 
 able. Although written with impartiality, they pre- 
 sent in their true light all i[uestions in which the 
 wSouth was directly interested and do full justice to 
 the heroism of the Southern soldiers in the late 
 war. An important feature of these histories are 
 ilie search questions and list of books presented 
 for parallel reading. 
 
 Among the biographies of the great Confederate 
 generals none deserve a higher rank than Col. W. 
 P. Johnston's ''Life of Albert Sidney Johnston." 
 The style of the book has been much praised, and 
 the author is recognized as being a master of Eng- 
 
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 \^ 
 
 -"7 rsTirtr' 
 
 1 i 
 
96 
 
 Louisiana Studucs. 
 
 lish prose. Gen. Johnston's character is one of 
 the noblest in our history, and his military career 
 was conspicuous for his devotion to duty. His ser- 
 vices in Texas, in the Far West, and in the South- 
 ern Confederacy are related with many details and 
 with true filial lov^e. Col. Johnston is also the au- 
 thor of lectures on SI ikspoare, comprising studies 
 on Macbeth and I Ian .et. His theory that James 
 VI, of Scotland, was the j)rototype of Hamlet is 
 ingenious and well argufd. Dr. W. T. Ha. js, 
 United States Commissioner of iuhication, has 
 spoken of Col. Johnston's book as being among 
 the best Shakspearian studies published in this 
 country. 
 
 The "Military Operations of Gen. Beauregard," 
 by Col. Alfred Roman, is another important work 
 concerning the Civil War. The life and campaigns 
 of the celebrated Louisiana soldier are described 
 minutely by Col. Roman, who wrote English 
 as well as French, and we take the greatest pleas- 
 ure in readin<5 of the achievements of one of the 
 most distinguished generals and military engineers 
 in the Confederacy. Judge Gayarre has reviewed 
 favorably in the Southern Historical Society Pa- 
 pers the ''Military Operations of Gen. Beauregard'' 
 and says: ** Henceforth, of our Civil War it will 
 be impossible to write the history without taking 
 this valuable contribution to it into the most serious 
 consideration." 
 
 The opinion of Gen. Beauregard on military 
 matters is always important, and the soldier world 
 
LiTKRATURE. 
 
 97 
 
 d\ 
 
 must hare been well pleased when they read Gen. 
 Beauregard's " Commentary on the Campaign and 
 Battle of Manassas" and his "Summary of the 
 Art of War," published in 1891. The style is 
 lear and simple, I may say mathematically pre- 
 cise, and documentary evidence is given for the 
 statements advanced. 
 
 *' Military Record of Louisiana " and ** A Sol- 
 dier's Story of the War," by Napier Bartlett, are 
 useful and patriotic works. One reads with emo- 
 tion the long list of our Louisiana soldiers, where 
 are to be met so often the words " killed," " died 
 of sickness," ** wounded," a sad but glorious 
 record. 
 
 Louisiana must be thankful to Mr. Bartlett for 
 his work, and also to Col. Wm. Miller Owen for his 
 excellent history of that famous organization, the 
 '♦ Washington Artillery." »* In Camp and Battle " 
 relates with wit and pathos the camp life and the 
 battles of the celebrated battalion. There is humor 
 for some incidents and deep earnestness for others. 
 The author guides us in an interesting manner 
 throughout the whole war over numerous battle- 
 fields, and concludes with those words which 
 every Southern man, old or young, will heartily 
 approve: ** Sons of veterans, brave young hearts, 
 greet it (the United States flag) and rally under it, 
 and should our country ever become engaged in 
 foreign war and call to its aid the men of Louisiana, 
 be assured the Washington Artillery will take the 
 field at the first bugle blast, and again show the 
 
 
98 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 world of what stuff it was made in the days that 
 are gone, when the brazen throats of its guns 
 blazed forth on so many ensanguined battle fields 
 under the eyes of its beloved commanders, Lee, 
 Johnston, Beauregard and Longstreet." 
 
 The " History of the Third Regiment Louisiana 
 Infantry," by W. H. Tunnard, is another work 
 which relates the brave deeds of our soldiers, 
 and which we read with pride. 
 
 One of our most heroic governors was H. W. 
 Allen. A monument has been erected to him 
 on the hill at Baton Rouge, where stands our 
 capitol, and our people will always remember the 
 name of the true patriot who was maimed for his 
 State and governed it so well in the most trying 
 period of its history. Before the war Henry W. 
 Allen was a planter in West Baton Rouge, and in 
 1859 took a trip to Europe. He relates his voy- 
 age in "The Travels of a Sugar Planter," and 
 we read the book with a feeling of awe at the un- 
 expected fate of the man who in i860 was a 
 peaceful traveler in Europe and so soon afterward 
 was to be a leader in one of the fiercest struggles 
 ever recorded. Governor Allen's literary work 
 must be cherished with veneration by the State 
 for which he suffered so much, and all should read 
 the tribute paid to his memory by Mrs. Sarah A. 
 Dorsey. Ker '* Recollections of Henry Watkins 
 Allen," written, it is said, at Gov. Allen's dying 
 request, was published in 1867. Mr. J. W. David- 
 son, in ** Living Writers of the South," quotes 
 
/' 
 
 Literature. 
 
 99 
 
 the following opinion of Mrs. Dors ^y's book from 
 a Southern periodical: "This work presents the 
 most accurate account of the late war in the Trans- 
 Mississippi Department that has been given to the 
 public from a Southern point of view." The 
 battle of Mansfield, where were killed those valiant 
 men, Gen. Mouton and Col. Armant, is described 
 with great force. 
 
 The St. Louis Cathedral is so intimately con- 
 nected with the history of the State that Mr. 
 Louis J. Loewenstein rendered a service to the 
 community by publishing in 1882 his short history 
 of the sacred edifice. 
 
 *' Municipal History of New Orleans," by W. 
 W. Howe, published in the Johns Hopkins Uni- 
 versity Studies in Historical and Political Science 
 (1889), is a scholarly work which traces accu- 
 rately the different changes in aur municipal gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 Norman's "New Orleans and Environs" de- 
 serv^es to figure in our list of historical \v^orks. It 
 was w^ritten in 1845, and describes a New Orleans 
 almost unknown to us who are living half a cen- 
 tury later. Mr. Norman, speaking to the men of 
 1895, says prophetically: "We ask the kindness 
 of the critics of that period, should they deign to 
 turn over these pages, begging them to consider 
 that our humble work was produced as far back as 
 the benighted age of steam!'' 
 
 In 1892 Miss Grace King published an inter- 
 esting *' Life of Bienville." The work is based 
 
 
 U 
 
 »fe. 
 
 Si 
 
 m 
 
lOO 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 on original documents and has great merit. Miss 
 King wrote also in collaboration with Prof. J. R. 
 Ficklen an excellent school History of Louisiana. 
 The work has been adopted for use in the public 
 schools in the State. 
 
 Gen Richard Taylor's " Destruction and Re- 
 construction " is one of the most valuable works 
 we have on the history of the Civil War. Gen. 
 Taylor relates his campaigns in Virginia and in 
 the Trans-Mississippi Department and his work is 
 interesting and well written. 
 
 In writing the biography of the Hon. Chas. 
 Gayarre Mr. E. C. Wharton rendered a service to 
 his native State. It is a just tribute to a devoted 
 son of Louisiana. 
 
 **The Life of James Henley Thornwell," by 
 Dr. B. M. Palmer, is written in that admirable 
 style and with that wonderful eloquence which 
 have made Dr. Palmer's name so well known 
 throughout the country as a pulpit orator. It is 
 always interesting to read the life of a good man 
 written by a good man, and Dr. Palmer's biog- 
 raphy of Dr. Thornwell, as well as his *' Forma- 
 tion of Character," are works which elevate both 
 the heart and the mind. 
 
 Mother Austin Carroll has written the Annals 
 of the Sisters of Mercy and many papers published 
 in the Catholic journals. 
 
 We must not omit the important Historical Col- 
 lections of B. F. French. 
 
Literature. 
 
 lOI 
 
 m 
 
 ti 
 
 The Drama. 
 
 Our literature comprises few dramatic works, but 
 those which we have are of some interest. One of 
 the most tragic and noble events in our history is 
 the revolution of October, 1768, by which our an- 
 cestors drove out the Spanish governor imposed 
 upon them, and, not being able to remain French- 
 men, resolved upon proclaiming their indepen- 
 dence. It is well known that O'Reilly put to death 
 the chiefs of the patriots of 1768 and 1769. Their 
 names, however, have come down to us as those of 
 the Martyr Patriots^ and it is this theme which 
 Judge T. Wharton Collens chose for a tragedy in 
 iive acts and in verse. The work was written in 
 1833, and published in 1836; in the saine year it 
 was performed at the St. Charles Theatre and 
 favorably received. The principal personages are 
 Lafr^niere, Villere and Aubry. The first two are 
 most patriotic, and represented in their historical 
 character, but it is to be regretted that the author 
 should have made of Aubry a vile and mercenary 
 wretch, who plots with Gabriel, a half-breed Indian 
 brought up by Villere, the death of the magnan- 
 imous planter and the ruin of his family. Aubry's 
 conduct in those sad events is far fr m being 
 blameless, but he was not a murderer. The play 
 is too horrible, in spite of the love of Lafr^ni^re and 
 Adelaide, Villere's daughter, and we must admire 
 the lofty sentiments of the author more than the 
 plot of the work. The verses are good, and Judge 
 
102 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 Collens can be counted among our poets. He 
 wrote also two works on psychology and political 
 economy, *'Humanics" and"TheEdei. -Labor." 
 
 Judge Gayarre, whose name is to be seen on 
 every page of a history of literature in Louisiana, 
 published in 1854 "The School of Politics," a 
 dramatic novel, one of the most interesting works 
 that I have ever read. It is a sharp and amusing 
 criticism of American politics, and it is with the 
 utmost finesse that the author takes us behind the 
 scenes on the political stage and points to us the 
 wires as they are pulled by the rival candidates 
 for senatorial honors. A love story entwined in 
 the plot introduces an element of poetry in the 
 play, while Beckendorf, an honorable representa- 
 tive and beer dealer, who wishes to become an am- 
 bassador to Europe, is a burlesque and amusing 
 character. Randolph, the honest man, wins the 
 race for which he was apparently not striving, but 
 in his deep laid plans he is not as scrupulous as we 
 might expect from the most honest man in that 
 world of politicians. A few years ago Judge Gay- 
 arre published another amusing comedy, " Dr. 
 Bluff, or the American Doctor in Russia.'* 
 
 "The Late Lamented" (1878), by Judge W. 
 W. Howe, is a very good comedy. Mrs Bil- 
 lington erects a mausoleum in her garden to her 
 first husband. Major Bagatelle, and her maid 
 sei-vant, Mary, sings continually the praises of her 
 late lover, James Barber, in presence of her pres- 
 ent lover, John Poole. The deceased major and 
 
! I 
 
 Literature. 
 
 103 
 
 r. 
 
 ler 
 W 
 
 bs- 
 (nd 
 
 James are lamented, as having possessed all vir- 
 tues, and Col. B. and John Poole are despised 
 "because they are living." James, however, re- 
 turns from the battle field, where he is supposed 
 to have been killed, and says that Major Bagatelle 
 is among the Indians in the far \v est. On seeing 
 James alive Mary perceives that he is a drunkard 
 and a worthless fellow, and her mistress, on hear- 
 ing that the major is not dead, remembers his de- 
 tects, and begins to love her second husband. 
 Fortunately it is found out that James is a rogue 
 and that Major Bagatelle is not resurrected, and 
 both women are cured of their folly. Although 
 the principal incident of the play is suggested, as 
 the author says, by Octave Feuillet's " TUrne," 
 the comedy is a work of merit. 
 
 Mr. Espy W. H. Williams has written a number 
 of dramas in verse, among which may be 
 mentioned " Parrhasius," "Witchcraft, or the 
 Witch of Salem," and " Eugene Aram." Mr. 
 Williams has also published many poems in our 
 local press. 
 
 Mr. E. C. Wharton, a well known journalist, 
 wrote several dramas, which were acted with suc- 
 cess in New Orleans. He wrote a comedietta in 
 one act, "The Young Couple" (1851), expressly 
 for those remarkable youthful performers, Ellen 
 and Kate Bateman, who appeared in it in St. 
 Louis, New York and London. He also wrote 
 for them "Dick the Newsboy," which was later 
 extended to a three-act play by Mrs. Bateman, 
 
 m 
 
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 1, ■; I 
 
 , I 
 
 ..^WMM'-w-.-.ij 
 
104 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 Mr. Wharton wrote also '*The Toodles," a come- 
 dietta in one act, and several farces vrhtch were 
 very successful. " The Baggs-es," ** The J. J's," 
 **Ten Thousand Filibusters," also '* House to 
 Rent," a dramatic sketch published in the Man- 
 hattan Magazine. Mr. Wharton wa^^ a man of 
 merit, but he was so modest that he did not havfi the 
 reputation which he deserved. Attention should 
 be called to the name of an eminent Louisiana 
 playwright. 
 
 Poetry and Literary Sketches. 
 
 Our literature, both in English and in French, is 
 exceedingly rich in poets. We have many authors 
 who have left well known names, but whose works 
 are not easy to be found. I shall be satisfied with 
 naming those and shall give more details about our 
 best living poets. 
 
 J. W. Overall and M. F. Bigne}^ were liberal 
 and enlightened patn is of literature in New Or- 
 leans. Both were poets, and Mr. Bigney pub- 
 lished in 1867 a volume called "The Forest Pil- 
 grims and Other Poems,'' among which the 
 "Wreck of the Nautilus " has often been quoted. 
 
 Want of space forbids anything else but mention 
 of a number of our female poets. For a detailed 
 account of their writings I beg to refer to ** Living 
 Female Writers of the South" (1872), by the 
 author o^ " Southland Writers," and to'* The Liv- 
 ing Writers of the South" (1869), by J. W. 
 Davidson. In these two books we find the names 
 
 .,.,... 
 
Literature. 
 
 105 
 
 of M. Sophie Homes (Millie Mayfield), autho: of 
 " Carrie Harrington, or Scenes in New Orleans," a 
 prose work, and of two volumes of poems, ** Pro- 
 gression, or the South Defended," and '* A 
 Wreath of Rhymes;" Mrs. Anna Peyre Dinnies 
 (Moina), " The Floral Year," one hundred poems 
 illustrating a bouquet of flowers; Mrs. Marie 
 Bushnell Williams, a distinguished pupil of Alex- 
 ander Dimitry, whose translations from different 
 languages are admirable and whose poems are held 
 in high esteem; Mrs. Julia Pleasants Creswell; 
 Mrs. Eliza Elliott Harper; Mrs. M. W. Crear; 
 Mrs. Suzan Blanchard Elder, daughter of Gen. A. 
 G. Blanchard, whom it was my good fortune to 
 meet at the New Orleans Academy of Sciences, a 
 brave soldier and a scholar. Mrs. Elder has largely 
 contributed to the press under the 7iom de plume 
 ** Hermine," and has written vigorous war songs 
 and harmonious poems; Mrs. Mary S. Whitaker, 
 the well known author of the novel '* Albert Hast- 
 ings " and of many poems, whose daughter Lily is 
 also a poet; Mrs. M. B. Hay; Mrs. E. A. Mori- 
 arty; Mrs. Louise (Clack) Richardson; Mrs. 
 Florence J. Willard, novelist and poet; Mrs. E. 
 M. Keplinger; Mrs. Virginia French, who can be 
 considered a Louisiana author, a talented poet and 
 novelist; Mrs. Mary E. Bryan, one of our best 
 Southern poets ; Mrs. Alice Dalsheimer; Mrs. M. 
 G. Goodale. Many other names could be added 
 to the list, but in this brief sketch it is impossible 
 to give a complete account of our female writers, 
 
io6 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 I. 
 
 ** Translations from Lamartine and Other 
 Poems," by James T. Smith, is a book which de- 
 serves to be better known. It is interesting to a stu- 
 dent of French to see how well Mr. Smith trans- 
 lates the works of the author cf the •' Meditations." 
 
 *' War Flowers" (1865), by John Augustin, 
 contains some pretty poems written during the war, 
 ** many of them," says the author, " having been 
 scribbled on the limber chest of a 12-pound Na- 
 poleon, many in the trenches — others, more for- 
 tunate, had the honor of taking a position in a 
 lady's album." Major Augustin wrote also French 
 poetry, and was a distinguished journalist. 
 
 Mrs. Mollie E. Moore Davis, Mrs. Gideon 
 Townsend and Mrs. Nicholson are without doubt 
 our three best known poets. 
 
 Miss Moore (Mrs. Davis) began writing poetry 
 before she was nine years old, says the author of 
 "Living Female Writers of the South," and she 
 was called "The Texas Mocking-bird." We are 
 indeed fortunate that she has become one of Lou- 
 isiana's sweetest songsters. Col. C. G. Forshey 
 said of her: " Taking Miss Moore's poems all in 
 all, tLey indicate a wide range of excellence, a 
 lofty sweep of thought, a subtle gift in allegory 
 and personification, and richness in exquisite fan- 
 cies." I have before me a volume of Mrs. Davis' 
 early poems, and I can but approve every word of 
 Col. F shey's eulogy, " Minding the Gap " is 
 touching and rich in local coloring, and " Heart's 
 Ease," " Going Out and Cominj]^ In," "Forgot- 
 
Literature. 
 
 107 
 
 ten," ** Hidden Music,'* are soft and tender." I 
 liked especially "Stealing Roses Through the 
 Gate," it is so gay and sprightly, and ''The Golden 
 Rose," a sad story of love and veng jance. 
 
 Stealing Roses through the Gate. 
 
 L') g tngo do you remember, 
 
 When we sauntered home from school, 
 As the silent gloaming settled, 
 
 With its breezes light and cool? 
 When we passed a stately mansion. 
 
 And we stopped, remember Kate, 
 How we spent a trembling moment 
 
 Stealing roses through the gate! 
 
 But they hung so very tempting, 
 
 And our eager hands were small, 
 And the bars were wide — oh, Kittie, 
 
 We trembled, but we took them all! 
 And we turned with fearful footstep, 
 
 For you know t'was growing late, 
 But the flowers, we hugged them closely, 
 
 Roses stolen through the gate! 
 
 Well, the years have hastened onward. 
 
 And those happy days are flown : ^ 
 Golden prime of early childhood, 
 
 Laughing moments spent and gone! 
 But yestre' en I passed your cottage, 
 
 And I saw, oh, careless Kate! 
 Handsome Percy bending downward, 
 
 Stealing roses through the gate! 
 
 Stealing roses, where the willow 
 
 O'er the street its long bough dips: 
 Stealing roses — yes, I'll swear it, 
 
 Stealing roses from your lips! 
 And I heard a dainty murmur, 
 
 Cooing round some blessed fate: 
 Don't deny it! Wasn't Percy 
 
 Stealing roses from the gate? , 
 
 ■.i 
 
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 dp- 
 
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 Louisiana Studie:3. 
 
 Mi 
 
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 1 
 
 Mrs. Davis' later poems have not been gathered 
 in book form. Let us hope that we may soon have 
 another volume from our ''Louisiana Mocking- 
 bird." In that book would be found " Pere Dago- 
 bert," and **Wanga," that powerful poem pub- 
 lished in Harper'' s Weekly July 20, 1889. The 
 withered old woman at her incantations would re- 
 mind us of the witches in " Macbeth," if there was 
 not in her a tender chord — love for husband and 
 children. 
 
 Her voice is hushed, she crouches low , 
 
 Above tl>e embers' flickering glow. 
 
 The swamp wind wakes, and many a thing 
 
 Unnamed flits by on furry wing. 
 
 They brush her cheeks unfelt; she hears 
 
 The far-off songs of other years. 
 
 Her eyes grow tender as she sways 
 
 And croons above the dying blaze. 
 
 Oh, de cabin at de quarter in de old plantation days, 
 Wid de garden patch behin' itan'de godevine by the do', 
 
 An' de do'-yard sot wid roses, whar de chillun runs and plays. 
 An' de streak o' sunshine, yaller lak er slantin' on de flo' ! 
 
 Mrs. Mary Ashley Townsend was first known 
 by her *'Crossbone Papers," " Quillotypes," 
 **My Penny Dip," called by J. W. Davidson 
 "the best and wittiest plea for babies that has 
 ever circulated through Southern ephemeral litera- 
 ture." She published also in 1859 "The Brother 
 Clerks, a Tale of New Orleans," but although 
 her prose is much admired it is through her poems 
 that she has acquired a national reputation. 1 
 liave iust read her two volumes of verse, and my 
 
Literature. 
 
 109 
 
 opinion is that Xariffa is one of the greatest poets 
 of America. ** Her blank verse," says a critic, **is 
 remarkable for its ease, vigor and spirit;" her 
 sonnets are elej^ant, and her rhymed v«,'rse is har- 
 monious. In " Xariffa's Poems" we see '* Creed," 
 that poetic hymn which really began Mrs. Town- 
 send' s great reputation. Here are the last two 
 stanzas : 
 
 I believe who hath not loved, 
 
 Hath half the sweetness of his life unprovcil: 
 
 Like one who, with the grape within his irasp, 
 Drops it with all its crimson juice unpressecl, 
 And all its luscious sweetness left ungtiessed, 
 
 Out from his careless and unheeding clasp. 
 
 I believe love, pure and true. 
 
 Is to the soul a sweet immortal dew 
 
 That gems life's petals in its hours of dusk — 
 The waiting angels see and recognize 
 The rich crown jewel, love, of Paradise, 
 
 When life falls from us like a withered huvsk. 
 
 ** Down the Bayou and Other Poems," contains 
 that thrilling narrative ** The Captain's Story," 
 and many other poetic gems. Mrs. Townsend's 
 tribute to Gen. Albert Sidney Johnston was worthy 
 of the subject, and her pen is always ready for a 
 patriotic work. 
 
 Another sweet singer is ** Pearl Rivers," Mrs. 
 Nicholson. A critic has said of her: " She is 
 one of Nature's sweetest poets, and as pure-hearted 
 as the blue river from which she takes her name — 
 a wild-wood warbler, knowing how to sing of birds 
 and flowers and flowing brooks, and all things 
 
 H m' 
 
 i 
 
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 Louisiana Studiks. 
 
 beautitul." Pearl Rivers' '* Lyrics " seem to have 
 flown naturally from her lips, and hers is indeed a 
 ** Singing Heart: '* 
 
 The world has bruised the singing heart, 
 
 It has wept tears like dew; 
 And Slander, with a poisoned dart, 
 
 lias pierced it through and through. 
 
 But singing hearts are hard to Icill, 
 
 And God made mine with wings, 
 To llj above all earthly ill; 
 
 And so it lives and sings. 
 
 Mrs. Nicholson is proprietor of the New Orleans 
 Picayune,, and writes often in that paper in prose 
 and verse. 
 
 Julie K. Wetherill (Mrs. Marion A. Baker) is 
 one of the most gifted among the many ladies who 
 write for the newspapers and magazines. Her 
 poems are graceful and harmonious, as *' Echo " 
 and *'A Fountain Sealed," and also concise and 
 epigrammatic, as 
 
 A Meteor at Dusk. 
 
 Behold 1 one turns, with wind-blown, golden head, 
 A backward glance to where the feasters stand. 
 
 Where songs arise, where bloom of wine is shed; 
 And so the lamp from out her slackened hand 
 
 Falls; and the darkness falls; and day is dead. 
 
 Mrs. Baker is a literary critic of great merit; 
 she is witty, accurate and forcible. Her articles 
 ** The Seamy Side of Literature " in Liffincotf s 
 Magazine and " The Minutes by the Clock " in the 
 New York Critic are models of good-natured 
 irony. 
 
 
 Ml!l-.|| 
 
LiTKRATlTRK. 
 
 I I I 
 
 Mrs. James Durno (Felix Grey), literary critic 
 with Mrs. Haker, at the Times-Democrat, has 
 written many poems and short stories for the Sun- 
 day issue of that paper. Mrs. M. R. Field 
 ^Catharine Cole) writes in the Picayune a.nd is 
 one of our best known /ili^ralcurs. Iler sketches 
 are always bright and clever. Mrs. J. C. Nixon 
 has given interesting literary lectures, and Mrs. 
 Bisland has contributed poems to our local press. 
 I must not fail to mention here that charming and 
 gifted writer. Miss Elizabeth Bisland (Mrs Wet- 
 more), who began her literary career in New Or- 
 leans and who now has a world-wide reputation. 
 Mrs. Laura F.Hinsdale is also a well known poet, 
 and so are Miss Marcia Davies, Mrs. Caroline 
 Rogers and Mrs. J. G. Aiken. 
 
 Among the men who write poetry in our city we 
 must mention Charles Dimitry and Col. W. P. 
 Johnston. The latter has written a number of 
 poems wh'ch have added to his reputation as a 
 littirateur. 
 
 Among our poets we may mention also Richard 
 D'Alton Williams, the Irish patriot, who lived at 
 Thibr Jaux from 1856 to 1862, and is buried 
 there. 
 
 Joseph Brennan, another Irish patriot and poet, 
 was connected for three years with the New Or- 
 leans Delta^ and died in New Orleans in 1857. 
 
 Among the writers from North Louisiana we 
 shall mention Mrs. Slaughter (Pleasant Rider- 
 hood), of Ruston, who has contributed to the 
 
*<■«« 
 
 112 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 magazines many sketches and stories, Mrs. Mattie 
 H. Williams, of the Shreveport Caucasian^ and 
 Mrs. L. Jastremski (Olive Otis). 
 
 Judge A. A. Gunby, of Monroe, has published 
 a number of well Vv^ritten papers on literary and 
 educational subjects. 
 
 Mrs.Sallie Rhett Roman's articles in the Sunday 
 Times-Democrat and in the magazines have been 
 much admired. They are always written with 
 force and evince thought and excellent judgment. 
 
 James R. Randall, the author of ''My Maryland," 
 may be counted among our poets, as for sometime 
 Louisiana was his home. 
 
 Mrs. John R. Ficklen's paper on "Dream Po- 
 etry," in Scribner^s Magazine^ evinces originality 
 and thought, and was favorably commented upon. 
 
 Mrs. Robert Sharp published in ylr/ and Letters 
 a charming description of a ' * Vacation in Norway. ' ' 
 
 Mr. Andrew Wilkinson's sketches of plantation 
 life are accurate and curious. 
 
 Mr- Matilda A. Bailey's literary sketches have 
 been very popular. 
 
 I shall close this account of our poetry with the 
 following verses published by Col. Johnston in the 
 Century Alas^azine for 1884, and which teach a 
 lesson of Christian humility and self-forgetfulness : 
 
 The Master. 
 
 AN IMITATION. 
 
 Q. Tell me, O Sage! What is the true ideal? 
 
 A. A man I knew — a living soul and real. 
 
 Q. Tell me, my friend 1 Who was this mighty master? 
 
 A. The child of wrong, the pupil of disaster. 
 
Literature. 
 
 113 
 
 Q. Under what training grew his lofty mind? 
 
 A. In cold neglect and poverty combined. 
 
 Q. What honors crowned his works with wealth and praise? 
 
 A. Patience and faith and love filled all his days. 
 
 Q. And wlien he died what victories had he won? 
 
 A. Humbly to live and hone — his work was done. 
 
 Q. What mourning nations grieved round his bier? 
 
 A. A loving eye dropped there a sorrowing tear. 
 
 Q. But history, then, will consecrate his sleep? 
 
 A. His name is lost; angels his record keep. 
 
 Novels. 
 
 As with our poets the number of our novelists 
 is large, and I shall epeak of the best known 
 and of the most recent. The first name to attract 
 our attention is that of Charles Ga3'^arre, who, be- 
 sides writing several novelettes, published two 
 novels, ** Fernando de Lemos " and " Aubert Du- 
 bayet." Mr. Gayarre may not propeH.y be called 
 a novelist, because in neither of his works does 
 he give a complete plot or tries to delineate a 
 character by the events in which the personages 
 are involved. ** Fernando de Lemos" has more 
 of fiction than *' Aubert Dubayet," but in both 
 works we see the historian of Louisiana, who 
 strives to instruct as well as to please. Many in- 
 teresting incidents are related in " Fernando de 
 Lemos," and the author displays poetic feeling 
 and great imagination in the cemetery scenes with 
 the mad sexton. The episode of Backbone and 
 Sadfish is amusing, and the anecdote about Judge 
 Papillon is humorous; he decided his cases 
 with the help of two peas which he drew from 
 
114 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 Iif|. 
 
 his pocket — black for defendant, white for plain- 
 tiff. 
 
 In **Aubert Dubayet,'* which is rather a history 
 than a novel, we have accurate pictures of the 
 men of the two great revolutions, the American 
 and the French. We should be grateful to Mr. 
 Gayarre for honoring the memory of Dubayet, the 
 Louisianian, who shared with Kleber the glory of 
 defending Mayence, who was a general of division 
 in the army of the Republic and who died at 
 thirty-eight minister plenipotentiary of France at 
 Constantinople. 
 
 Mrs. Sarah A. Dorsey, already mentioned as 
 an historian, was also one of our best novelists. 
 She was, as Mrs. Williams, an accomplished lin- 
 guist and read six lang^i jes. She wrote ** Lucia 
 Dare," *' Agnes Graham," *'A Southern Villegia- 
 tura" and ** Panola." Of these works I read 
 only the last, which gave me a great opinion of the 
 author's talent. The plot is well drawn, the char- 
 acters well sustained aud the style is good. "Pan- 
 ola" has a great quality, one not so common as 
 people might imagine, it is interesting. When 
 Mrs. Dorsey died in 1879 she left to Jefferson 
 Davis his last home, Beauvoir. 
 
 Mr. Charles Dimitry has written poetry and sev- 
 eral novels, of which "The House on Balfour 
 Street" (1868) is a work of great force. It re- 
 minds one of Dickens, Hawthorne and Thackerav. 
 It has the sombre and somewhat repulsive gloom 
 of " Dombey and Son," in the flight of Mrs. Dom- 
 
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ICtl.,' .! 
 
 Literature. 
 
 "5 
 
 bey and her pursuit by her husband; the philoso- 
 phy of " The House with the Seven Gables," the 
 sarcasm and bitter irony of ** Vanity Fair." The 
 character of Captain Vernon is too fierce, that oi 
 Blacker too weak, but that of Mrs. Arncliffe is 
 gentle and natural, and the curiosity of Mr. 
 Creech, although exaggerated, leads to unraveling 
 the plot. Mr. Dimitry at a mature age might give 
 us an excellent novel. 
 
 Mr. John Dimitry is the author of the admirable 
 epitaph of Gen. Albert Sidney Johnston and has 
 translated into English the most amusing episodes 
 of Rabelais' inimitable *' Pantagruel et Gargan- 
 tua." *' Norodom," by Frank McGloin, is a story 
 of the East and is related with warmth and anima- 
 tion. The imagination of the author is really ex- 
 traordinary and the enchantments of the Palace of 
 Ferozia are worthy of those of the gardens of Ar- 
 mida. The style is too uniformly florid and leads 
 to monotony, but the book strikes the imagination 
 and is read with pleasure. 
 
 Dr. W. H. Holcombe, one of our distinguished 
 physicians, was known as a literary man by his 
 poems and by his^Swedenborgian studies, and the 
 public was well pleased when he published, in 
 1890, his "Mystery of New Orleans." I take 
 pleasure in reproducing here what Dr. Holcombe 
 says of the Creoles of Louisiana: ** These men 
 were the root-stock or foundation-head of the 
 Creole civilization, a social state distinguished for 
 the courage and honorable bearing of its men, the 
 
ii6 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 beauty and refiner. . jnt of its women, and the highl}? 
 polished manners of both sexes." Again he says: 
 " The Creoles he met in private and at the clubs 
 spoke English so perfectly and fluently that only 
 the most attentive and cultivated ear could detect 
 any deviation from the standard. The differences 
 of accentuation and intonation were so delicate, 
 mere nuances, that they never could be transferred 
 to paper, or represented by any possible species oi 
 bad spelling." It is to be regretted that Dr. Hol- 
 combe should have given to some of his heroes the 
 names of several of the oldest Creole families in 
 Louisiana, a fact which is displeasing to those who 
 bear those names at present, and which is contrary 
 to usage. The doctor's novel appeared to me a 
 well planned and vigorous book, and his great 
 knowledge of hypnotism and other spiritual sci- 
 ences gives an air of reality to the most incredible 
 events. His treatment of the negro question is 
 fair and rational and will be approved by all im- 
 partial Southern men. 
 
 Miss Grace King is one of our best lovelists. 
 She has written a number of short stories in 
 the different magazines and has won for her- 
 self quite an enviable reputation. " Madrilene" 
 reminds us of Theophile Gautier's fantastic and 
 powerful poem, '* LaComediede la Mort," and the 
 surroundings of the poor girl and her sad fate are 
 vividly described. This very vividness, however, 
 produces on us a somewhat painful impression, as 
 we are carried along breathless through the plot. 
 
Liti:r.\ture. 
 
 117 
 
 Tlie style is forcible, but the .sentences are some- 
 times a little too short. I may apply the same 
 remarks to " Bayou 1' Ombre," '* The Christmas 
 Story of a Little Church," and the last two chapters 
 of " Monsieur Motte," *' The Drama of an Even- 
 ing," and " Marriage of Marie Modeste." I have 
 nothing but praises for '* Monsieur Motte " and 
 " On the Plantation." Life in the boarding school 
 is beautifully described, as well as the sweet love 
 of the old couple, Madame Lareveillere and Mon- 
 sieur Goupilleau. The descriptive style of Miss 
 King is poetic and true to nature. The first pages 
 of " On the Plantation" are really charming, and 
 give a longing for country life. Besides the above 
 works Miss King has written "Earthlings, ' ' * 'Bonne 
 Maman," and several other stories. We may pre- 
 dict a bright future to our young Louisiana nov- 
 elist. 
 
 Mr. George W. Cable's works of fiction are 
 well known, and, as a rule, have been much ad- 
 mired. While residing in Louisiana he wrote his 
 "Old Creole Days," *' Madame Delphine," and 
 "The Grandissimes." He is a novelist of some 
 talent, especially in his short stories, and presents 
 tableaux with force, but his descriptions of Creole 
 life and his types of the Creole gentleman and lady 
 are utterly incorrect. They are misrepresentations 
 Df an honorable and chivalric race, and have ex- 
 cited the just indignation of every Louisianian of 
 the Latin race and of many of the Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 After reading Mrs. R. T. Buckner's ** Toward 
 
 
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 III 
 
 Rl 
 
 
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 ; t 
 
 i 
 
 jii 
 
 ■ ;!'MI 
 
 M 
 
 ^i^ 
 
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 Louisiana Studiks. 
 
 the Gulf" one feels a sensation of inexpressible 
 sadness at the fate of the sweet Bamma and her 
 pretty boy, but in spite of our pity for their mis- 
 fortune we must thank Mrs. Buckner for her cour- 
 age in telling us in such a touching and eloquent 
 manner that miscegenation would indeed lead the 
 South toward the Gulf, toward a fathomless 
 abyss. Let the two races live separate, it is bet- 
 ter for both. The book is very well written and 
 the description of the Mississippi and of the cre- 
 vasse on the plantation is quite graphic. *' To- 
 ward the Gulf " is certainly one of the best works 
 in our literature. 
 
 Mr. Laf cadio Hearn began his literary career in 
 Louisiana and wrote his chief works in New 
 Orleans. "Stray Leaves from Strange Litera- 
 ture" and "Some Chinese Ghosts " are weird 
 and poetic, and '* Chita " is a remarkable work. 
 The style is brilliant and the author seems to paint 
 rather than to write, so vivid are his descriptions. 
 It seems as if we were present at the time of the 
 dreadful catastrophe which annihilated Last 
 Island ; we hear the sound of music at the hotel, we 
 see the graceful couples gliding before us, while 
 the roar of the tempest keeps time with the dance, 
 and all at once there is a crash like thunder, he 
 ball room is rent by the fierce hands of the power- 
 ful wind, the waves sweep over the despairing 
 men, women and children, and soon numberless 
 bodies are carried along by the mad waters toward 
 the mighty gulf. On a table is a dead woman and 
 
m 
 
 Literature. 
 
 119 
 
 a child tied to her by a scarf; the brave fisherman 
 Viosca saves the charming girl, and Zouzoune, 
 the Creole child, becomes Chita, the daughter of 
 the Spanish couple. How poetic is Chita, and how 
 terrible is the death of the doctor, who imagines 
 thath is lost wife is calling him, her chiri^ and 
 who, in his delirium, calls Chita his own dear girl, 
 and yet dies without being able to kiss her golden 
 curls. Mr. Hearn could be compared with Pierre 
 Loti and «' Chita" with '' Pecheurs d'Islande," 
 if the high coloring of the style were not sustained 
 so long that it became somewhat monotonous. 
 
 *' In War Times at la Rose Blanche,'* by Mrs. 
 M. E. M. Davis, will now attract our attention. 
 The book is full of pathos, so much so that in 
 reading it tears came very often to my eyes. 
 While looking a^ the father and sons going to the 
 war it reminded me of days long past when I saw 
 my brother and cousins **go to the front" full 
 of hope and ardor, and of the time of the return 
 home with everything lost except honor. The 
 devotion of the slaves is true, and in many families 
 there were Uncle Joshua, Mammy, Justine, Virgil 
 and Dandy. Mrs. Davis' style is exceedingly 
 pleasing, it is so simple and natural. How touching 
 are the Federal officer's words a hen he announces 
 the death of the husband and father: ** He 
 stooped and bent one knee to the ground and 
 drew the child gently to him." **Myson," he 
 said, putting the sword into the small hands and 
 closing them upon it, *' give this to your mother 
 
 N> 
 
 I 
 
I20 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 and tell her tliat it was the sword of a brave and 
 honorable man who died a gallant death on the 
 battle field." I wish I could give longer quotations 
 from Mrs. Davis' book in order that all may see 
 what a charming work it is. Mrs. Davis has 
 written many stories and sketches, among which 
 we must mention Keren-happuch, a series of clever 
 papers on New Orleans life and scenes. 
 
 Mrs. Ruth McEnery Stuart is one of the most 
 gifted of Louisiana's daughters. I have read 
 with great pleasure her stories published in the 
 different magazines. "The Golden Wedding" 
 represents exactly the childlike and na'ive char- 
 acter of the negro who has not been spoilt by the 
 politician, and " Christmas Gifts" is an interest- 
 ing story of slave times. " Camelia Ricardo " 
 and **Carlotta's Intended " give us an idea of 
 dago life, and although we catch a glimpse of the 
 dreaded mafia, the plot of both stories is graceful 
 and touching. Mrs. Stuart has now attained suc- 
 cess and will continue producing her life-like 
 novelettes. 
 
 Mr. E. C. Wharton's '*Warof the Bachelors" 
 is a long and carefully written novel in which many 
 incidents lead a well constructed plot to the con- 
 clusion. 
 
 Mr. George Augustin has published a volume 
 of stories, ** Legends of New Orleans," which 
 give promise for the future, and Miss Marie 
 L. Points has written in the Sunday Picayune 
 many interesting stories of local life. 
 
Literature. 
 
 121 
 
 ■■i 
 
 (( 
 
 The Story of an Enthusiast*' ( 1888), by Mrs. 
 C. V. Jamison, is a work in which the author dis- 
 plays great imagination and poetic feeling. The 
 story is somewhat weird and fantastic, but we take 
 a great interest in the fate of the unfortunate artist, 
 Markland, and the sweet Dorethea. The *'head 
 with the black beretta," the sublime creation of 
 Raphael, seems to be a living personage and plays 
 the principal part in the plot. The secondary 
 personages are also powerfully drawn, and one 
 may well say that Mrs. Jamison's book is a well 
 written story, sad, touching and mysterious. 
 
 I have never read a more charming story than 
 "Lady Jane" (1891), by Mrs. C.V.Jamison. It 
 is so simple, graceful and touching, and the per- 
 sonages, includinjj the heron, are so real. A little 
 boy meets on a train going to New Orleans a lady 
 and her little daughter and gives to the latter a 
 blue heron. The lady and her child fall into the 
 clutches of INIadame Jozain and her worthy son, 
 Raste, at Gretna, and after the death of her mother, 
 poor little Lady Jane remains in the power of 
 Madame Jozain (Tante Pauline). We see them 
 a little later in Goodchildren street, where we meet 
 Pepsie, Tite Souris, M. Gex, Mile. d'Hautreve, 
 and the Paichoux family. They are all good 
 friends of Lady Jane, but Madame Jozain runs 
 away with the poor child, who soon falls into'great 
 poverty. She is taken in Margaret's asylum, and 
 a friend of her mother's, Mrs. Lanier, discovers 
 who she is, with the help of Arthur Maynard, the 
 
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 122 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 nisss ^fi 
 
 iiii 
 
 boy who gave the blue heron. Lady Jane becomes 
 an heiress, rewards all her kind friends, and the 
 story leaves her a beautiful girl of seventeen, in 
 the company of Arthur Maynard. 
 
 Among the young authors in Louisiana there 
 are none more promising than Mr. Thos. Mc- 
 Caleb. A gt-andson of Judge T. Wharton Col- 
 lens he seems to have inherited the literary talent 
 of that gentleman, and while yet at school he gave 
 proof of his taste for literature by his well written 
 essays. Mr. McCaleb published in 1892 a novel, 
 ** Anthony Melgrave,*' which met with very flatter- 
 ing success. The story is pathetic and well told and 
 the author gives a correct description of American 
 society. The personages in the book meet and 
 talk and act in a natural manner, and the plot, 
 although romantic, is simple and interesting. We 
 read the work with great pleasure and keep in our 
 minds the names of the unhappy senora Cardenas 
 and her jealous son Enrique, of the beautiful 
 Marion Lemore and the distinguished Anthony 
 Melgrave, and we are delighted at the happiness 
 of the two latter personages, the most sympathetic 
 in the book. 
 
 Mr. McCaleb will soon publish a work on Lou- 
 isiana literature, and we believe that ''Anthony 
 Melgrave" should occupy a high rank among the 
 novels written by oux Louisianians. 
 
 ** Southern Silhouettes," by Jeannette H. Wal- 
 worth, gives a good idea of Southern life and is a 
 book written with a noble purpose. 
 
Literature. 
 
 123 
 
 1 can not close this account of the English 
 literature of Louisiana without calling attention to 
 the excellent papers published in the Louisiana 
 Journal of Education by my friends and col- 
 leagues, President Johnston and Professors 
 Rogers, Sharp, Ficklen, Jesse, Hurt, Ayres, Cald- 
 well, Pearce, and Deiler. Prof. Deiler has also 
 written in the German language some valuable 
 papers on the history of German immigration in 
 Louisiana: ** Das Redemptions-system in Louis- 
 iana," ** Sally Miiller, die Weisse Sklavin " 
 (1889), ** Geschichte der Einwanderungvon 1820 
 bis 1890." 
 
 Col. J. W. Nicholson's mathematical works, 
 published in New Orleans by Haiisell & Bro., 
 deserve to be included in our list. 
 
 m 
 
 tic 
 
 In concluding this brief history of the literature 
 of Louisiana I beg to state that it is not presented 
 as a complete work. The aim of the writer was to 
 be just and conscientious in his work. If he has 
 shown that his native State deserves to occupy an 
 honorable rank in the literary world his labors will 
 not have been in vain. 
 
-'^•i 
 
 4 
 
m 
 
 f 
 
 PART II. 
 
 CUSTOMS AND DIALECTS. 
 
 I-CUSTOMS AND SUPERSTITIONS IN LOUISIANA. 
 
 In order to understand fully the customs of a 
 past age and of plantation life before the war, we 
 must bear in mind that the planters lived in the 
 greatest op .lence and possessed many slaves. 
 These were, as a rule, well treated by their masters, 
 and, in spite of their slavery, they were contented 
 and happy. Not having any of the responsibilities 
 of life, they were less serious than the present 
 freedmen, and more inclined to take advantage of 
 all opportunities to amuse themselves. 
 
 New Year's Day on the plantations was an oc- 
 casion of great merriment and pleasure for the 
 slaves. Its observance gave rise to scenes so 
 characteristic of old times that I shall endeavor to 
 describe them. 
 
 At daylight, on the ist of January, the rejoicing 
 began on the plantation ; everything was in an 
 uproar, and all the negroes, old and young, were 
 running about, shaking hands and exchanging 
 wishes for the new year. The servants employed 
 
 mi 
 
 ■n 
 
I 
 
 IS- 
 
 126 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 at the house came to awaken the master and mis- 
 tress and the children. The nurses came to our 
 beds to present their souhaits. To the boys it was 
 always, '* Mo souhaite ke vou bon gar^on, fe plein 
 I'argent e ke vou bienhereux;" to the girls, **Mo 
 souhaite ke vou bon fie, ke vou gagnin ein mari 
 riche e plein piti." 
 
 Even the very old and infirm, who had not left 
 the hospital for months, came to the house with the 
 rest of r atelier for their gifts. These they were 
 sure to get, each person receiving a piece of an ox 
 killed expressly for them, several pounds of flour, 
 and a new tin pan and spoon. The men received, 
 besides, a new jean or cottonade suit of clothes, 
 and the women a dress and a most gaudy head- 
 kerchief or tignon, the redder the better. Each 
 woman that had had a child during the year re- 
 ceived two dresses instead of one. After the sou- 
 haits were presented to the masters, and the gifts 
 were made, the dancing and singing began. The 
 scene was indeed striking, interesting and weird. 
 Two or three hundred men and women were there 
 in front of the house, wild with joy and most boist- 
 erous, although always respectful. 
 
 Their musical instruments were, first, a barrel 
 with one end covered with an ox-hide — this wa!> 
 the drum; then two sticks and the jawbone of a 
 mule, with the teeth still on it — this was the violin. 
 The principal musician bestrode the barrel and be- 
 gan lo beat on the hide, singing as loud as he 
 could. He beat with his hands, with his feet, and 
 
Customs and Dialects. 
 
 127 
 
 sometimes, when quite carried away by his en- 
 thusiasm, with his head also. The second musi- 
 cian took the sticks and beat on the wood of the 
 barrel, while the third made a dreadful music by 
 rattling the teeth of the jawbone with a stick. Five 
 or six men stood around the musicians and sang 
 without stopping. All this produced a most strange 
 and savage music, but, withal, not disagreeable, 
 as the negroes have a very good ear for music, 
 and keep a pleasant rhythm in their songs. These 
 dancing songs generally consisted of one phrase, 
 repeated for hours on the same air. 
 
 In the dance called carabine^ and which v/as 
 quite graceful, the man took his danseiise by the 
 hand, and made her turn around very rapidly for 
 more than an hour, the woman waving a red hand- 
 kerchief over her head, and every one singing — 
 
 *' Madame Gobar, en sortant di bal, 
 Madame Gobar, tignon li tombe." 
 
 The other dance, called fili Chactas^ was not as 
 graceful as the carabine y but was more strange. 
 The woman had to dance almost without moving 
 her feet. It was the man who did all the work : 
 turning around her, kneeling down, making the 
 most grotesque and extraordinary faces, writhing 
 like a serpent, while the woman was almost immov- 
 able. After a little while, however, she began to 
 get excited, and, untying her neckerchief, she 
 waved it around gracefully, a^'d finally ended by 
 wiping off the perspiration from the face of her 
 
 »>ii 
 
128 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 Ill 
 
 danseur and also from the faces of the musicians 
 who played the barrel and the jawbone, an act 
 which must have been gratefully received by those 
 sweltering individuals. 
 
 The ball, for such it was, lasted for several hours, 
 and was a great amusement to us children. It 
 must have been less entertaining to our parents, 
 but they never interfered, as they considered that, 
 by a well-established custom. New Year's Day 
 was one of mirth and pleasure for the childlike 
 slaves. Very different is this scene from those de- 
 scribed in *' Uncle Tom's Cabin," for the slaves 
 were certainly not unhappy on the plantations. 
 The proof of this is, that, although our equals po- 
 litically and citizens of the United States, they 
 often refer to the time of slavery, and speak will- 
 ingly of those bygone days. 
 
 Another custom which was quite interesting was 
 the cutting of the last cane for grinding. When 
 the hands had reached the last rows left standing, 
 the foreman {coimnandeur) chose the tallest cane, 
 and the best laborer (le metlletir couteatc) came to 
 the cane chosen, which was the only one in the 
 field left uncut. Then the whole gang congre- 
 gated around the spot, with the overseer and fore- 
 man, and the latter, taking a blue ribbon, tied it to 
 the cane, and, brandishing the knife in the air, sang 
 to the cane as if it were a person, and danced around 
 it several times before cutting it. When this was 
 done, all the laborers, men, women and children, 
 mounted in the empty carts, carrying the last cane 
 
ml 
 
 Customs and Dialects. 
 
 129 
 
 in triumph, waving colored handkerchiefs in the 
 air, and singing as loud as they could. The pro- 
 cession went to the house of the master, who gave 
 a drink to Qvevy negro, and the day ended with a 
 ball, amid general rejoicing. 
 
 Shooting at the fapegai was another great pop- 
 ular amusement. A rude bird representing a 
 rooster was made of wood, and was placed on a 
 high pole to be shot at. A calf or an ox was 
 killed, and every part of the wooden bird repre- 
 sented a similar portion of the animal. All who 
 wanted to shoot had to pay a certain amount for 
 each chance. This sport is still a favorite one in 
 the country, both with the whites and the blacks, 
 but not so much so as before the war. 
 
 The negroes, as all ignorant people, are very 
 superstitious. The celebrated sect of the Voudoux, 
 of which so much has been said, was the best proof 
 of the credulity and superstition of the blacks, as 
 well as of the barbarity of their nature. 
 
 The idea of incantation and of charms for good 
 
 or evil is as old as the world. In Virgil's eighth 
 
 eclogue we all remember the words of Alphesi- 
 
 boeus : 
 
 " Terna tibi hrec priraum triplici diversa colore 
 Licia circumdo, terque haec altaria circum 
 Effigiem duco; numero deus impare gaudet." 
 
 In the Middle Ages astrology was considered a 
 science, and sorcery was admitted. It is well 
 known that when John the Fearless of Burgundy 
 killed Louis of Orleans, the celebrated theologian 
 
 ( r( 
 
 Fl 
 
 
 
130 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 [I iwWil:. li 
 
 Jean Petit proved to the poor Charles VI that 
 John had rendered him a great service in killing 
 his brother, as the latter had conjured the two 
 devils, Hermas and Astramon, to harm the king, 
 and they would have caused his death had not the 
 Duke of Burgundy, like a devoted subject, saved 
 his liege lord. 
 
 The religion of the Voudoux was based on 
 sorcery, and, being practised by very ignorant 
 people, was, of course, most immoral and hideous. 
 It is, fortunately, fast disappearing, the negroes 
 becoming more civilized. The dances of the 
 Voudoux have often been described, and were, 
 according to the accounts, perfect bacchanalia. 
 They usually took place at some retired spot on the 
 banks of Lake Pontchartrain or of Bayou St. John. 
 
 Although this sect is nearly extinct, the negroes 
 are still very much afraid of their witchcraft. The 
 Voudoux, however, do not always succeed in their 
 enchantments, as is evidenced by the following 
 amusing incident. One of my friends, returning 
 home from his work quite late one evening, saw on 
 a doorstep two little candles lit, and between them 
 four nickels, placed as a cross. Feeling quite 
 anxious as to the dreadful fate which was to befall 
 the inhabitants of the house, the gentleman blew 
 out the candles, threw them in the gutter, put the 
 nickels in his pocket, and walked off with the 
 proud satisfaction of having saved a whole family 
 from great calamities. This is how the Creoles 
 fear the Voudoux 1 
 
Customs and Dialects. 
 
 131 
 
 The negroes are also very much afraid of the 
 will-o'-the-wisp, or ignis fatiius. They believe 
 that on a dark night it leads its victim, who is 
 obliged to follow, either in the river, where he is 
 drowned, or in the bushes of thorns, which tear him 
 to pieces, the Jack-a-lantern exclaiming all the time, 
 ^^AzCi ate, mo gagnin toi,^* — "Aie, aie, I have 
 you.'* 
 
 The old negro who was speaking to me of the 
 
 ignis fatuus told me that he was born with a 
 caul, and that he saw ghosts on All Saints Day. 
 
 He also added he often saw a woman without 
 a head, and he had the gift of prophecy. 
 
 There are a great many superstitions among the 
 people in Louisiana, but they may be common to 
 all countries. They are, however, interesting: 
 
 1. A person must come out of a room by the same door through 
 which he came in; otherwise there will be a misfortune. 
 
 2. Put nails in shape of a cross in the nest of a goose, that 
 thunder should not spoil the eggs and prevent them from 
 hatching. 
 
 3. When a woman whistles, it makes the Virgin Mary weep. 
 
 4. When little children in their sleep put their arms on their 
 heads, we must put them down, for they are calling misfor- 
 tune on their heads. 
 
 5. When the palate falls, we must tie very tight a lock of hair 
 in the middle of the head, and the palate will resume its 
 natural position. 
 
 6. A dog that howls at night announces the death of some 
 one. 
 
 7. A horse that neighs where there is a dead body announces 
 the death of some one. 
 
 8. When a hearse stops before your door it is a sign of mis- 
 fortune. 
 
 9. To kneel on the threshold is an omen of misfortune. 
 
 % 
 
 I 
 
 If 
 
 
 % 
 
 \i 
 
132 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 10. When one eats a sweet potato one must, eat first a piece of 
 the peel in order that the potato should not be too heavy 
 on the stomach. 
 
 11. If in walking your right ankle turns, you will have a 
 pleasant surprise; if it is the left ankle, a disappointment. 
 
 12. If your right ear is hot, some one is speaking well of you; 
 if it is the left ear, some one is speaking badly of you. 
 
 13. To pass a child through a window makes a thief of him. 
 
 14. To pass over a child lying down will prevent him from 
 growing. 
 
 15. You must always burn and not throw away your hair, be- 
 cause the birds will pick it up to make their nest, and that 
 will make you crazy. 
 
 16. If you make a child who stammers eat in the same dish as 
 a little dog, that will cure the child. 
 
 17. If your nose itches an old bachelor is going to kiss you, 
 and a young man is crazy to do so. 
 
 18. If you strike your '^ crazy bone," you will be disappointed 
 
 19. If a child teething looks at himself in a mirror, his teething 
 will be painful. 
 
 20. To pass in front of a carriage at a funeral is a bad omen. 
 
 21. When a fly bothers you it is a sign that you are going to 
 
 receive a letter. 
 
 22. When a snake is cut to pieces, its friends come to get it to 
 put the pieces together, 
 
 23. When in taking leave four persons cross hands it is a sign 
 of marriage. 
 
 24. To dream of death is a sign of marriage; to dream of a 
 marriage is a sign of death. 
 
 25. It is a sign of misfortune to pass the loaf of bread turned 
 down. 
 
 26. When you cut a banana you cut the cross of Christ. 
 
 27. If you have a sore on the tip of the tongue, it is a sign that 
 you have lied. 
 
 2S. If you forget what you were going to say, it is a sign that 
 you were going to lie. 
 
 29. If you sweep the feet of a child with a broom, it will make 
 him walk early. 
 
 30. To turn a chair on one leg is a bad omen. 
 
Customs and Dialects. 
 
 133 
 
 31. If scissors fall down with one point in the floor you will 
 receive a visit, and it will come in the direction in which 
 the other point lies. 
 
 32. If you plant lettuce on Good Friday it will not grow. 
 
 33. If you plough on Good Friday the ground will bleed. 
 
 34. If you carry an Irish potato in your pocket it will cure your 
 rheumatism. 
 
 35. To cure a wart take a green pea, cut it, rub it on the wart, 
 then take the pea and wrap it in a piece of paper and 
 throw it away. The person who will pick it up will get the 
 wart. 
 
 36. To open an umbrella in the house chases away the lovers. 
 
 37. To put an umbrella on the bed causes disputes. 
 
 3S. To throw black pepper on a table is a sign of marriage. 
 
 39. It chases chicken lice from a chicken house to put in it 
 the head of a crocodile. 
 
 40. It cures rheumatism to tie n eel's skin on the leg or the 
 arm. 
 
 41. You must watch for a full moon if you want to make soap. 
 
 4^. It makes the hair healthier to cut the ends of it at the time 
 of the new moon. 
 
 43. If you cut your nails on Monday you will secure a present 
 during the week. 
 
 44. If you wear green garters you will often receive presents. 
 
 45. If you walk on the tail of a cat you will not marry during 
 the year. 
 
 46. It is a sign of misfortune to stumble in a graveyard. 
 
 47. It is a sign of misfortune to light a candle in a room when 
 there is already another light. 
 
 48. It is a sign of good luck to meet a person who squints. 
 
 49. It is a sign that you will hear good news if you see a white 
 butterfly. 
 
 50. If a girl wears on her left leg a yellow garter which has 
 been worn by a bride she will marry during the year. 
 
134 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 II— THE CREOLE DIALECT. 
 
 While speaking of the French language in Lou- 
 isiana, it is necessary to say a few words about 
 that very peculiar dialect, if it may be called so, 
 spoken by the negroes in lower Louisiana. It is 
 quite interesting to note how the ignorant and 
 simple Africans have formed an idiom entirely by 
 the sound, and we can understand, by studying 
 the transformation of the French into the Creole 
 dialect, the process by which Latin, spoken by the 
 uncivilized Gauls, became our own French. How- 
 ever ridiculous the Creole dialect may appear, it is 
 of importance to the student of philology; for its 
 structure serves to strengthen the great laws of 
 language, and its history tends to prove how dialects 
 have sprung from one original language and spread 
 all over the world. 
 
 To the negroes of Louisiana may be attributed 
 the same characteristics that Prof. James A. Harri- 
 son recognizes in the American blacks of the South, 
 that is to say, humor and a namte bordering on 
 childishness, together with a great facility for imi- 
 t?.dng the sounds of nature and a wonderful aptitude 
 for music. Their language partakes necessarily 
 of their character, and is sometimes quaint, and al- 
 ways simple. Their plantation songs are quite po- 
 etical, and I may say, charming in their oddity. 
 
 Of course there is no established orthogr;:- 
 phy for the Creole patois, and this obscure 
 dialect of a Romance tongue is written, like the 
 
 m 
 
Customs and Dialects. 
 
 135 
 
 Spanish, without regard to etymology and simply 
 by the sound, though the letters, in passing from 
 the language into the dialect, have not kept their 
 original value. It is this misconception in hearing 
 that has given rise in the patois to the word-decay 
 so important in the formation of dialects, but we 
 may also observe in the language of the negroes a 
 great many examples of abbreviations due entirely 
 to the want of energy of the person speaking, a 
 principle well established by linguists, and of great 
 value. The negro does not wish to say emhar- 
 rassdy embiter, appele?'^ entendre^ vouloir, atijour- 
 d* hiii, icorcher^ la-dedans^ capable^ but will say: 
 '3^/^, ^-piU^ Hende^ ^ oiili^ ''joi'di, ^corche^ ladan, 
 capab* , cutting off as many letters and even syl- 
 lables as possible, as we have done with the Latin 
 for our French. 
 
 The process of agglutination is very frequent in 
 the Creole patois, and we see such expressions as 
 ill nomme (un homme) and dd nomme, in dezef 
 (un oeuf), d6 lacloche (deux cloches), troi dizo 
 (troisos), in lari (une rue), which may appear 
 very strange, but are not more so than our deux 
 Her res and Ic lendeniain. 
 
 The genitive of the Old French exists purely in 
 the Creole patois, and if the student of la langue 
 d' Oil finds it strange to see such expressions as 
 ** en son pere verger," he will be quite astonished 
 to hoar the Louisiana negro say : choal yUe 7nouri^ 
 which might indicate that Jules was a horse, if we 
 did not know that he was the owner of the animal. 
 
 
I 
 
 ♦if 
 
 136 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 My friend, Dr. Alfred Mercier, even says that 
 there is a dative in the patois, imported by the 
 blacks from San Domingo, such as zic a inotn, 
 my eyes, tchor a li^ his heart. I believe, however, 
 that this mode of expression is very rare, and that 
 the possessive adjectives are much more used; 
 mo zidf so tchor, 
 
 PHONETICS. 
 
 With regard to the phonetics of the Creole dia- 
 lect, we may say that the letters have not changed 
 as much as in Negro-English. 
 
 Vowels. 
 
 a 
 is pronounced: 
 
 1. a in French: asteur, anon (allons). 
 
 2. o " moman, popa. 
 
 e 
 
 1. e mute in French: nomme, fame. 
 
 2. e " " 'pele, k^ke (quelque), t^te. 
 
 3. i " '* piti, chimin, li (le). 
 
 4. in " " donnin (donne). 
 
 i 
 
 as i in French: 'rive (arriv6). 
 
 o 
 
 1. o in French, cote. 
 
 2. o in French word cotte: rose. 
 
 3. i in French: michie (monsieur). 
 
 u 
 
 1. i in French: lari, pini, vini, jige. 
 
 2. ou '' la nouitte, tou souite. 
 
 3. oua *' mo oiia (ja (jai vu cela). 
 
 
 iiW 
 
 ■ 
 
 iilliyiiiiiiiiiil^trr' T 
 
 i 
 
 ||nRH|i 
 
 I. z in French: zie (yeux). as consonant* 
 3, y " bajou. as vowel, 
 
Customs and Dialects. 
 
 Diphthongs. 
 oi 
 
 1. c in French: fret (froid) dret (droit). 
 
 2. oi 
 
 137 
 
 (( 
 
 de/oi (des oies). 
 
 3. oin ** nioin (moi;. 
 
 4. o ** zozo (oise.'iu). 
 
 ni 
 
 1. ai lii French: lair (I'air), 
 
 2. in " coniiin (connais). 
 
 eu 
 
 1. ai in French: bonair (honheur), lonair (I'honneitr), 
 
 2, e *' vie (vieux). 
 
 ou 
 o in French: 'jordi (aujourd'hui). 
 
 au 
 
 au in French: au bor dolo (au bord de I'eau). 
 
 oe 
 e in French: ser (soeur). 
 o " tchor (cceur). 
 
 Of the nasal sounds, an and /;/'are as in French; 
 on is pronounced : 
 
 1. on in French: bonjou (bonjour), moune (monde). 
 
 2. o " mo, to, so (mon, ton son). 
 
 un is in in French, pronounced /?;«^, when it rep- 
 resents the numeral adjective un. 
 
 Consonants. 
 b 
 
 is as in French. 
 
 e 
 
 1. tch: tchor (coeur) . 
 
 2. k in French: connin (connu). 
 
 3. s " cila (celui-la). 
 
 d 
 
 1. d in French: donnin (donn6). 
 
 2. dj Dje (Dieu) 
 
 % 
 
 r 
 
 \ 
 
138 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 f 
 
 is as in French. 
 
 gand ] 
 often like z: manze, (mange), zongle (jongle). 
 
 h 
 
 is always mute, and consequently disappears in writing: so 
 lonair (son honneur). 
 
 k, m, n, p 
 
 areas in French. 
 
 I 
 
 1. y: ye (les). 
 
 2. n: anon (allons) cf. Old French aner, whence aler and aller. 
 
 r 
 generally disappears, aspou for pour, neg' for n^tjre, vende for 
 vendre, or comes before the vowel, as dromi for dornii. 
 
 s 
 
 1. 8. in French: so. 
 
 2. ch ** chong6 (songe), 
 
 t 
 
 1. t in French: tomb6. 
 
 2. k " to kenne (le tien). 
 
 3. tch " tchombo (tenu), 
 
 and is always pronounced at the end of words. 
 
 q and x 
 
 ar*" jcessary, as k takes the place of q, and the Creole 
 
 .jis being written phonetically does not need x, which 
 represents cs or gs. 
 
 ▼ 
 
 1. V in French: vini. 
 
 2. w in English: li oua (il a vu). 
 
 z in French (zte) (see vowels above). 
 
 z 
 
 is pronounced as in French, but is used to mark the plura', the 
 sound of the plural s being represented by z: de dezo 
 (deux os). 
 
 ez disappears, as that sound is represented by i. 
 
Customs and Dialects. 
 
 Parts of Speech. 
 
 139 
 
 THE ARTICLE. 
 
 Just as the French have simplified the Latin 
 pronoun ille, ilia, illud into le, la, les, the negro 
 has formed his article by taking la for both gen- 
 ders singular: nomme la, fame la, and by chang- 
 ing les into ye for the plural, and joining it to the 
 singular la: nomme lay^, fame laye.. 
 
 masculine singular: la 
 
 feminine singular : la 
 
 masculine and feminine plural: layo. 
 
 The partitive article does not exist in the patois, 
 as the words des or du are changed into d^ and 
 di, and joined to the noun as one word: mo manze 
 dipain e dipomme. De la disappears: mo boi 
 labiere. If we wanted to use the word with an 
 article, we would say: labiere la bon, divin la 
 mauvais. 
 
 du becomes di 
 des " de 
 de la disappears. 
 
 The indefinite article a or an is represented by 
 tn, pronounced i^me for masculine and feminine. 
 The article is the most extraordinary peculiarity 
 of the Creole dialect; the French article is always 
 joined to the noun and the article in the patois 
 added, even in nouns taken in a partitive sense. 
 
 The elided article Tis represented also by la for 
 masculine or feminine: nabe la (rarbre); dole la 
 (reau). 
 
 nni 
 
 wim 
 
 II' 
 
 5i i^ 
 
 I' 
 
 a 'Si 
 
1 
 
 140 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 THE NOUN. 
 
 There is no distinction of gender in the patois. 
 The article hi serves for masculine and feminine 
 singular, and ye for the plural, and the adjectives 
 are therefore always invariable. The grammar of 
 the noun is ' nsequently very elementary. The 
 only dilliculty is to know how to form the noun, 
 and that difficulty can be overcome by applying 
 attentively the rules of plionetics given above, and 
 by observing the invariable agglutination of the 
 article to the noun. 
 
 A peculiar expression is that used for grande 
 personne and enfant: gran mounc and piii tnoune, 
 personne not being considered. 
 
 THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 The qualifying adjectives are all kept in the 
 masculine, and we have such expressions as boti 
 niichie la, hon michle luyc ; ban niadatne la, bon 
 ma dame laye. 
 
 Possessive Adjectives. 
 
 masculine and feminine singular, 
 mo, to, so. 
 masculine and feminine plural. 
 mo, to, so, with y^ placed after the noun: (mo piti ye). 
 
 Dhmoxstkative Adjectives. 
 
 cila for masculine and feminine singular: nomme cila 
 
 fame cila 
 
 cila ye for " " plural: nomme cila y6 
 
 fame cila ye. 
 
 ITuMERAL Adjectives. 
 !n, d^, troi, cate, etc., primie, dexieme, etc. 
 
Customs and Dialects. 
 
 141 
 
 Indefinite Adjectives. 
 
 The indefinite adjectives are the same as in 
 French, but pronounced differently: keke 
 (quelque), ki (quel), pligiere (plusieurs), etc. 
 
 The comparison of adjectives is by pli (plus) 
 and aussite (aussi), and of course there is no ir- 
 regularity, and meilleur is always pli bon. 
 
 THE PRONOUN. 
 
 P E R s o X A I. Pronouns. 
 
 First person. Second person. 
 
 mo(me)j moin (moi), nou. to (tu and toi) toi, vou. 
 
 Third person. 
 
 li (le, lui and la), je (les). 
 
 y^ also represents ils, elles, eux, leur, se, en, y and soi. 
 
 Interrogative Pronouns. 
 Qui moune, que, qui 5a. 
 
 Relative Pronouns 
 are not often used as *' la chose que je t'ai dite,'* 
 kichoge la mo te di toi. ( Observe kichoge formed 
 from quelque chose, and used as one word.) 
 
 Demonstrative Pronouns. 
 
 masculine and feminine singular: cila, cila la, 
 
 plural: cila ye, cila layd, 
 singular: (ja. 
 
 
 
 Possessive Pronouns. 
 In the possessive pronouns the t is changed into 
 k. Cf. M. MuUer's remark on the subject — 
 "Science of Language," pages i8i and 182. 
 Vol. II. 
 
 mo kenne nou kenne 
 
 to kenne vou kenne 
 
 so kenne so kenne 
 
 ■ * I 
 
 ^ (^ i 
 
 f 
 
 ,1 ! 
 
 ^1 ,; 
 
 i^mi 
 
( .! 
 
 142 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 Indefinite Pronouns. 
 
 The only point of interest about the indefinite 
 pronouns is that our very convenient word on is 
 changed into y^: y^ di Qa (on dit cela), and that 
 rien becomes arien. 
 
 THE ^ERB. 
 
 In all the Romance languages the verbs are 
 complicated and difficult. However, in that very 
 remote Romance dialect, the Creole dialect, the 
 verbs are very sim- le and easy. There is no dis- 
 tinction for the conjugations and hardly any for 
 the tenses. The forms ape from apres, U from 
 ete, sra and srai from serai, maid from all^ being 
 sufficient to indicate the present, the past, and the 
 future. 
 
 COUPE (couper). 
 Present Indicative. 
 
 mo ape coupe " 
 to ♦' 
 
 
 11 « 
 
 nou " 
 
 
 • conVracted into ■ 
 
 vou " 
 
 
 
 ye *• 
 
 * 
 
 Impicrfbct. 
 
 mo te ape 
 to " 
 
 coup6 
 
 
 li " 
 nou " 
 
 
 <- contratced into • 
 
 vou " 
 
 
 
 yi ♦« 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 mape coupe 
 
 tap6 
 
 
 lape 
 
 
 noupe 
 
 
 voupe 
 
 
 yepe 
 
 
 motape 
 
 coupe 
 
 totape 
 
 
 litap^ 
 
 
 noutap^ 
 
 
 voutape 
 
 
 yetap6 
 
 
 B^ 
 
mm 
 
 Customs and Dialects. 
 
 M3 
 
 Past Definite, Inde 
 
 :finite, Anterior, 
 
 AND PLUPERFtCT. 
 
 mo te coupe 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 mo coup6 
 
 to " 
 
 
 
 to " 
 
 li " 
 
 nou " 
 
 contracted into ■ 
 
 
 li " 
 
 nou " 
 
 vou " 
 
 
 
 vou " 
 
 y6 « 
 
 
 k 
 
 y6 « 
 
 
 ^il 
 
 Imperative. 
 Coupe — anon coupe couri coupe. 
 
 Future. 
 
 male coupe — contracted into ma coupe 
 tale " ** " ta " 
 
 li ale ►' " '« la '< 
 
 nou" " 
 
 vou 
 ye 
 
 <( 
 
 <» 
 
 (I 
 << 
 
 > not contracted. 
 
 Future Anterior. 
 
 mo 
 
 sra 
 
 coup6 
 
 to 
 
 (t 
 
 it 
 
 li 
 
 u 
 
 €^ 
 
 nou 
 
 « 
 
 <{ 
 
 vou 
 
 it 
 
 « 
 
 V(i 
 
 (t 
 
 <( 
 
 Conditional Pres. and Past, 
 
 mo 
 
 sre 
 
 coup6 
 
 to 
 
 i( 
 
 (< 
 
 li 
 
 tt 
 
 (( 
 
 nou 
 
 It 
 
 (( 
 
 vou 
 
 (( 
 
 u 
 
 vA 
 
 u 
 
 It 
 
 \' ^1 ^■ 
 
 The subjunctive does not exist in the Creole 
 patois. ** 11 faut que je coupe'' is "I* fo mo 
 
144 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 coupe," the infinitive being used instead of the 
 subjunctive. 
 
 All the verbs are conjugated on the model given 
 above of couper. The auxiliaries change entirely, 
 and avoir disappears, and is replaced hy ga/ngntn 
 from gagiier. So the conjugation of avoir is: 
 
 mo ape gaingnin or niape gaingnin 
 to ♦' " '• tape " 
 
 etc., the same as for couper, substituting gaingnin to conpi. 
 
 The verb ctre only exists in the forms ie^ sra^ 
 sre used in compound tenses and in the expression 
 yi. of the present, from ^5/, viz. : *' Ou eies-vous?" 
 On vou yi. *' Ou sont-ils?" Oti ye ye? 
 
 The passive is always replaced by the active 
 form, and the present indicative of etre aime is: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Imperfect Indicative. 
 
 (on) ye 
 
 laimin 
 
 moin 
 
 
 
 yet6 1 
 
 aimin 
 
 moin 
 
 ye 
 
 
 toi 
 
 
 
 ye 
 
 li 
 
 toi 
 
 j6 
 
 
 li 
 
 
 
 y^ 
 
 u 
 
 li 
 
 ye 
 
 
 nou 
 
 
 
 yt 
 
 (( 
 
 nou 
 
 ye 
 
 '*. 
 
 vou 
 
 
 
 yi 
 
 <( 
 
 vou 
 
 ye 
 
 
 ye 
 
 
 
 y^ 
 
 (t 
 
 ye. 
 
 Future- 
 
 -je sra 
 
 laimin 
 
 mo'n 
 
 , etc. 
 
 
 
 
 Conditional — _y 
 
 e sre laimin 
 
 moin, 
 
 etc. 
 
 
 
 ■"lii 
 
 Impersonal Verbs. 
 
 They are also expressed by y^. 
 
 Present Ind. — ye nege. 
 Future — ye sra n6g6. 
 
 Imperf. Ind.— ye te nigi. 
 Cond. — y6 816 n6g6. 
 
 Irregular Verbs. 
 
 Aller — IS generally replaced by court as ** il est 
 all^" li couri, except in anon. 
 
Customs and Dialects. 
 
 145 
 
 envoyer — becomes voye 
 
 sortir — becomes sorti 
 
 dormir 
 
 (( 
 
 dromi 
 
 ouvrir 
 
 (( 
 
 ouvri 
 
 mentir 
 
 u 
 
 menti 
 
 courir 
 
 (C 
 
 couri 
 
 venir 
 
 << 
 
 vini 
 
 mourir 
 
 n 
 
 mouri 
 
 boire 
 
 <i 
 
 boi 
 
 coudre 
 
 l( 
 
 coude 
 
 naitre 
 
 a 
 
 nette 
 
 connaitre 
 
 u 
 
 connin 
 
 prendre 
 
 it 
 
 prenne 
 
 vivre 
 
 i( 
 
 vive 
 
 rire 
 
 i{ 
 
 • 
 
 ri 
 
 s'asseoir 
 
 (I 
 
 assite 
 
 valoir 
 
 n 
 
 vau 
 
 voir 
 
 « 
 
 oua. 
 
 vouloir 
 
 « 
 
 ould 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 
 
 Contrary to all Ron-. n nee languages, the Creole 
 dialect does not form iio adverbs of manner by the 
 suffix 7nent, L .i:in mente. Instead of saying: ** II 
 est mort bravement," the negro says: li mouri ben 
 brave or tre brave; ben or tre indicating man- 
 ner. 
 
 Adverbs of place — icite, lil, ala (voil!t), enhau, enba, dihor, 
 
 divan. 
 Adverbs of time — dipi can, dimin, asteur, touzou, zamain, 
 
 jordi. 
 Adverbs of quantity— in pe, boucou, etc. 
 Adverbs of interrogation — cofer, combien, etc 
 Adverb of doubt — petete. 
 Adverbs of affirmation and of negation, as in Frencli. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 The prepositions are almost the same as in 
 French. The negro, however, never says stir or 
 sotis^ but enhau and enba, viz. : ** en hau la table, 
 en ba la table.'* Pour becomes foti» 
 
 The principal conjunctions are: e, ou, ni, main 
 (mais), pasque (parce que), pisque (puisque). 
 
146 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 iflRlcn 
 
 INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 As in all languages, any word maybe used as an 
 interjection in the dialect, to express a sudden emo- 
 tion of the mind, but with the exception of the univer- 
 sal oh! and ah! Bon Dje (BonDieu!) is most used. 
 
 FORMS OF ADDRESS. 
 
 Michie, madame, mamzelle, maite, timaite, 
 viemaite. Remark that mamzelle is used very 
 often by the negroes, even while speaking of a 
 married lady, in the same way that the French 
 did, down to the seventeenth century, when not 
 addressing a lady of noble birth, as "Madem- 
 oiselle Moliere," the great Moliere's wife. 
 
 Mr. Littre, in his " Histoire de la langue fran- 
 gaise," says that the Iliad can be translated more 
 easily into Old French than into our modern lan- 
 guage, and he gives the first book of Homer's poem 
 written in the language of the thirteenth century. 
 I believe that Old French, in its turn, can be 
 translated very well into the Creole dialect, and I 
 give below a few lines of " la Chanson de Ro- 
 land" in our Louisiana patois. 
 
 Old French. 
 
 Li quens Rollanz se jut desuz un pin, 
 envers Espaigne en ad turnet sun vis, 
 de plusurs choses a remembrer li prist: 
 de tantes terres cume li bers cunquist, 
 de dulce France, des hunies de sun lign, 
 de Charlemagne sun seigneur kil nurrit, 
 ne poet muer nen plurt e ne suspirt. 
 mais lui meisme ne volt metre en ubli, 
 claimet sa culpe, si priet deu mercit: 
 
Customs and Dialects. 
 
 147 
 
 m 
 
 veire paterne ki unkes ne mentis, 
 saint Lazarun de mort resurrexis, 
 e Daniel des liuns ^uaresis, 
 guaris de mei I'anme de tuz perils 
 pur les pecchiez que en ma vie lis I 
 son destre guant a deu en purofrit, 
 sainz Gabx^ols de sa main li ad pris 
 desur sun braz teneit le chief enclin, 
 juintes ses mains est alez ksa tin. 
 deus li tramist sun angle cherubin 
 e saint Michiel de la mer del peril, 
 ensemble od els sainz Gabriel i vint' 
 I'anme del cunte portent en pareis 
 
 Creole Dialect. 
 
 Conte Roland assite enba in pin, 
 
 cote I'Espagne li tournin so llguire, 
 
 li commencb pense boucou kichoge: 
 
 tou laterre ye li prenne comme in brave, 
 
 la France si doux, nomme so ianiille, 
 
 e Charlemagne so maite, qui te nouri li 
 
 li pa capab' peche crie t^ soupire. 
 
 main li ve pa blie li rneme, 
 
 li confesse so pech^, mande bon Dje pardon: 
 
 *mo bon popa qui jamin menti, 
 
 qui te ressuscite Saint Lazare 
 
 et sauve Daniel de lion laje, 
 
 sauve mo zame de tou danzer 
 
 pou peche qu<5 dans mo la vie mo fai. 
 
 so degantdrdt li ofri bon Dje, 
 
 saint Gabriel prenne li dans so la main 
 
 enhau so bra li tchombo so latete, 
 
 so lamain ye jointe, e li mouri enfin, 
 
 bon Dje voye so zange cherubin 
 
 e saint Michiel de lamer pdril, 
 
 avec ye saint Gabriel vini 
 
 ^ ye portc so zame dans paradis* 
 
 11 /i 
 
 If: 
 
 
 
148 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 Ill -THE ACADIANS OF LOUISIANA AND THEIR 
 
 DIALECT.* 
 
 Everything concerning French Louisiana seems 
 at this time to possess an interest for the public; 
 and it has been my purpose, in some measure, to 
 give an account of its language, its literature, its 
 dialects, its folklore and its inhabitants. My pa- 
 pers published in the Transactions of the Modern 
 Language Association have been so kindly re- 
 ceived that I feel encouraged to continue my la- 
 bors in a Held vast and fertile but difficult to ex- 
 plore. The work to be done is. to a great extent, 
 one of original research and of patient investiga- 
 tion, and it will require several years to present a 
 tolerably complete tableau of picturesque French 
 Louisiana. I now desire to present another feature 
 of the picture by giving a sketch of the Acadians 
 and their dialect. It may not be amiss to begin 
 this stud}^ by taking a bird's-eye view of the his- 
 tory of Acadia, from the settlement of the colony 
 to the dispersion of the inhabitants. We shall 
 then accompany Evangeline to the beautiful banks 
 of the Teche and follow her canoe and that of 
 Gabriel as they glide along its placid waters, leav- 
 ing scarcely a ripple on the gentle stream which 
 the names of the unhappy lovers have rendered 
 immortal. 
 
 ♦For this sketch of the history of Acadia I have taken as my chief 
 guide Parkiiian's admirable '•Narratives," although I do not always 
 share Ins opinions and arrive at the same conclusions. For a complete 
 bibliography of the subjectsec '• Critical and Narrative History of America," 
 edited by Justin Winsor. 
 
Customs and Dialects. 
 
 I. 
 
 149 
 
 Even before the time of John Cabot the Nor- 
 mans, the Bretons and the Basques are said to 
 have known Newfoundland, and the first descrip- 
 tion of the shores of our United vStates was made 
 in 1524 to a French King, Francis the First, by 
 the Florentine Verrazano. Ten years later we see 
 the bold son of St. Malo sailing on the broad St. 
 Lawrence, which was to be the scene of so many 
 conflicts for the possession of its rugged shores. 
 In 1535 Jacques Cartier saw the future site of 
 Quebec and Montreal and became acquainted 
 with the Indian tribes, the future allies of the 
 French in their contest with the English. New 
 France was discovered, but who was to establish 
 the first settlement in the name of the most Chris- 
 tian King? In vain did Jean Frangois de la Roque, 
 Sieur de Roberval, in 1542, brave the terrors of the 
 Isle of Demons and attempt to plant a colony in 
 New France. Of his ill-fated expedition nothing 
 remained but the name of He de la Demoiselle, 
 where the stern Roberval abandoned to the de- 
 mons his niece Marguerite to punish her for an 
 unhallowed love. The Marquis de la Roche 
 with his ship load of convicts was not more suc- 
 cessful in 1598 than Roberval half a century be- 
 fore. Champlain and de Monts were to be the 
 fathers of Canada ond Acadia. The former had 
 been sent on an expedition to the new world by 
 the Commander de Chastes, and on his return to 
 France associated his fortunes with those of de 
 
 M 
 
 I 
 
I50 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 Monts, who had just been made Lieutenant-Gen- 
 eral of Acadia. 
 
 "The word Acadia," says Parkman, ** is said 
 to be derived from the Indian Aquoddtanke, or 
 Aqiwddie, meaning the fish called a pollock. The 
 Bay of Passamaquoddy, * great pollock water,' 
 derives its name from the same origin." 
 
 The region designated by this name comprised 
 a large territory, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick 
 and Maine, but was later considered to embrace 
 the peninsula of Nova Scotia only. The climate 
 was much milder than that of Canada, and all 
 travelers describe the country as beautiful. The 
 tide in the Bay of Fundy is grand, and there are 
 excellent ports along the coast. We need not 
 then be astonished that Poutrincourt, one of de 
 Monts' companions, was so pleased with the Port 
 Royal that he obtained a grant from de Monts, 
 and, in 1605, established a colony which, after 
 many vicissitudes, was destined to be celebrated in 
 history and in romance. De Monts himself, with 
 Poutrincourt, Champlain and Pontgrave, had, in 
 1604, founded a settlement at St. Croix, but the 
 place was badly chosen, and after a winter of 
 misery the colony was transferred to Port Royal. 
 De Monts was a Calvinist. and he had taken with 
 him to the New World both Catholic priests and 
 Protestant ministers, who, it can well be imagined, 
 were not on very good terms. Such were their 
 quarrels that the sailors buried in the same grave 
 a priest and a minister " to see if they would 
 
1! 
 
 Customs and Dialects. 
 
 151 
 
 lie peaceably toj^ether." De INIonts returned to 
 France to protect his fur trade monopoly, and left 
 Pontgrave in command at Port Royal. He was 
 absent many months, and Ponti^rave had aban- 
 doned the colony, leaving onWtwo men in charge, 
 when Poutrincourt arrived with supplies. Pont- 
 grav6 returned, and another attempt was made to 
 establish Port Royal on a solid foundation. The 
 poet Lescarbot gives an interesting account of the 
 winter passed without very great sufferings, and 
 already the colonists were beginning to hope, 
 when, in the summer of 1607, news was received 
 that de Monts' charter had been rescinded and 
 that the colony must be abandoned. The settlers 
 departed with heavy hearts, leaving the Indians 
 full of sorrow. The French had been humane 
 and friendly to the savages. 
 
 The settlement in Acadia had apparently failed, 
 but Poutrincourt was not discouraged. He ob- 
 tained from the King a confirmation of his grant, 
 formed a partnership with the Sieur Robin, and in 
 1610 returned to Port Royal with other settlers. 
 Unhappily, however, the year 1610 was as fatal to 
 Acadia as to France : the great King, Henry IV, 
 was murdered, and soon afterward, Madame la 
 Marquise de Guercheville obtained from Marie de 
 Medicis a grant of all Acadia. The pious Mar- 
 quise was associated with the Jesuits and wished 
 to convert the IndiuxiS. Her agents and priests, 
 especially the able and energetic Father Biard, did 
 not agree with Poutrincourt and his son Biencourt, 
 
ill '^ 
 
 152 
 
 Louisiana Studies 
 
 and discord was supreme in the colony, when, in 
 1613, a heavy blow fell on the rising settlement. 
 Samuel Argall, already noted for having abducted 
 Pocahontas, heard of French Port Royal, captured 
 a part of the inhabitants and dispersed the others. 
 Father Biard and Madame de Guercheville's com- 
 mander, Saussaye, finally reached France, and the 
 good lady's plans for saving the souls of the 
 Indians were frustrated. 
 
 Jiiencourt had escaped durmg the destruction of 
 Port Royal and was roaming in the woods with a 
 few followers, when Poutrincourt arrived with 
 supplies. At the sight of his son's misery, the 
 Baron lost all hope for his colony and returned to 
 France, where, in 1615, he died a soldier's death. 
 Biencourt, however, rebuilt Port Royal and kept the 
 colony alive. Little progress was made, as in 
 1686 the whole population of Acadia was only 915. 
 There had been troublous times in the colony from 
 161 3 to 1686, and several masters had ruled the 
 country. In 1621, Sir William Alexander obtained 
 from James I a grant of New Scotland and tried 
 to establish baronetcies in Acadia. His plans were 
 but short-lived, as the English surrendered the 
 province to the French in 1632 by the treaty of St. 
 Germain. Louis XIII appointed M. de Razilly 
 Governor of Acadia, and the latter named as his 
 lieutenants, Charles de la Tour and the Sieur 
 d'Aulnay. Here comes a romantic episode: the 
 two lieutenants, as in duty bound, quarrelled and 
 made war upon each other. La Tour went to 
 
1 . 
 
 Customs and Dialects. 
 
 153 
 
 '^' 
 
 illy 
 
 15oston to olMain aid aj^aiinst his rival, and in his 
 absence d'Aulnay attacked his fort. The phice 
 was most bravely defended by Madame de la 
 Tour, but she was defeated and died of mortifica- 
 tion. Her husband strug<j;led for some time with 
 little success a<^ainst d'Aulnay, but the latter died, 
 and la Tour settled all dilliculties by marrying his 
 rival's widow, a queer but not unwise proceeding. 
 
 Acadia had become once more peaceful in 1653 
 by la Tour's marriage, when one year later the 
 English took possession of the colony. Cromwell 
 was ruling England at that time, and he vmder- 
 stood how important it was for the English settle- 
 ments on the Atlantic that Acadia should not 
 belong to the French. By his orders Major 
 Robert Sedgwick, of Charlestown, and Captain 
 John Leverett, of Boston, subjugated Acadia, 
 which was kept by the English until 1668, when, by 
 the treaty of Breda, it was restored to the French. 
 
 For twenty-two years the colony enjoyed peace 
 under French rule, and the inhabitants led com- 
 paratively quiet lives, enlivened by some adven- 
 tures with the Indians and the English. A very 
 romantic character is the Baron de vSt. Castin, the 
 son-in-law of Matakando, the most powerful Indian 
 chief of that region. In the company of his Indian 
 relatives the bold Baron waged incessant war 
 against the English. 
 
 In 1690 Frontenac was for a second time gover- 
 nor of New France, and by his energy and cour- 
 age he saved the colony from ruin. He repulsed 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 ra 
 
154 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 the attacks of Phips against Quebec and of Schuy- 
 ler against Montreal, carried war into the English 
 possessions and nearly broke the power of the 
 Iroquois. He was not, however, able to save 
 Acadia from the enemy. This settlement was too 
 remote from Quebec to be effectually protected 
 and fell again into the hands of the English. In 
 1690 William Phips sailed from Boston with a small 
 fleet and reduced the principal Acadian settle- 
 ments. He obtained great booty and was well 
 received on his return to Massachusetts, although 
 his expedition seems to us more like a piratical raid 
 than legitimate warfare. 
 
 Acadia was again restored to the French in 
 1697 by the treaty of Ryswick, and when Fron- 
 tenac died in 1698 Louis XIV was still master of 
 all New France. Frontenac is a most interesting 
 and heroic character; he was proud and stern, 
 but at the same time most brave, skilful and 
 shrewd. His name and that of Montcalm are the 
 greatest in the history of New France. 
 
 Nearly one hundred years had passed since de 
 Monts had landed in Acadia, and the unfortunate 
 colony had been thrown about like a shuttlecock 
 from the French to the English and from the 
 English to the French. In the beginning of the 
 eighteenth century three expeditions sailed from 
 Boston to conquer Acadia. The first two were 
 not successful, but the third, commanded by Gov- 
 ernor Nicholson and composed of thirty-six ves- 
 sels, took Port Royal and subdued the country. 
 
 nil 
 
m. 
 
 Customs and Dialects. 
 
 155 
 
 The whole number of inhabitants in 17 10 was 
 twenty-tive hundred. Three years later, by the 
 treaty of Utrecht, Acadia was formally ceded to 
 England, and France, in order to compensate for 
 the loss of Port Royal, called by the English An- 
 napolis, had to build on Cape Breton the celebrated 
 fortress of Louisbourg. The Acadians had fought 
 bravely for their independence, and it was only 
 after a gallant resistance that Subercase had sur- 
 rendered Port Royal. The English imposed their 
 domination upon Acadia by force, and it is not 
 surprising that the inhabitants refused to become 
 Englishmen and did all in their power to remain 
 faithful to their king, their religion and their 
 language ! 
 
 L'abbe Casgrain in his charming, book, ** Un 
 Pelerinage au Pays d'Evangeline," has given a 
 beautiful description of Acadia and calls attention 
 to the poetical and expressive names of some parts 
 of the country: Beaubassin, Beausejour, le Port 
 Royal, la Grand-Pree, names characteristic of the 
 simple and peaceful disposition of a people who, 
 if left to themselves, would have been satisfied 
 with praying to their God and attending to their 
 numerous children. In 1885 l'abbe Casgrain vis- 
 ited all Acadia, and manifests his delight on seeing 
 a land of quiet and happiness, a land of which a 
 great part has agc^n become French. What a con- 
 trast between the Acadia of our days and that of 
 1755 1 'T'"^^ descendants of the exiles have pros- 
 pered once more in the land of their ancestors, 
 
 ill 
 
iS6 
 
 Louisiana vStudies. 
 
 but their present state of contentment does not 
 make us forget the misery of the past. The field 
 that was once the scene of a bloody battle may 
 now be covered with green turf and variegated 
 flowers, but still there will rise before us the faces 
 of the dying and we shall hear the thunder of the 
 cannon. La Grand-Pree and Beaubassin may pre- 
 sent an attractive sight, but the names recall to 
 our minds the scene of a dreadful tragedy. 
 
 By the treaty of Utrecht it had been stipulated 
 that the Acadians might withdraw to the French 
 possessions if they chose. There is no doubt that 
 the English governors did all in their power to 
 prevent the emigration to Cape Breton or to Can- 
 ada, and, as they were not harsh, as a rule, to the 
 inhabitants, the latter preferred to remain in the 
 country of their ancestors. They refused, how- 
 ever, for a long time to take the oath of allegiance 
 to the English sovereign, and when a part of the 
 men took the oath, it was with tacit if not ex- 
 pressed understanding that they would never be 
 compelled to bear arms against the French. That 
 the priests in Acadia and even the Governor of 
 Canada tried to keep the inhabitants faithful to the 
 French king, in spite of their being English sub- 
 jects, there is no reasonable doubt. We can hardly 
 blame this feeling, if we consider what great 
 rivalry there was at the time between the English 
 and the French in America, and also the spirit of 
 intolerance then everywhere prevalent. The priests 
 must have considered* it a duty on their part to try 
 

 Customs and Dialects. 
 
 157 
 
 to harm the English heretics, and although we 
 may not approve the act of some of them nor the 
 duplicity of some of the French agents, we do not 
 find in their conduct any excuse for the cruelty of 
 the English. 
 
 Seeing how disaffected the Acadians were with 
 their new masters, the Marquis of Cornwallis, in 
 1749, laid the foundations of Halifax as a protec- 
 tion against Louisbourg. A number of the inhab- 
 itants had escaped from the colony at the instiga- 
 tion of Tabbe LeLoutre, says Parkman, and had 
 gene to the adjoinir.g French settlements. Their 
 lot was a sad one, as the French were not able to 
 provide for them and the English would only re- 
 ceive them as English subjects. It is not aston- 
 ishing that they should make a kind of guerilla 
 war with their Indian allies against the English 
 and that they should attempt to excite their coun- 
 trymen against the conquerors. It must be ad- 
 mitted that the English were in great peril in the 
 midst of men openly or secretly hostile to them; 
 but no necessity of war can justify the measures 
 taken to rid English Nova Scotia of her French 
 Acadians, Let us now relate briefly the terrible 
 event which has made the word Acadia sadly 
 celebrated. 
 
 In 1755 the Governor of Acadia was Charles 
 Lawrence, a man destined to obtain an unenvia- 
 ble notoriety. He resolved to expel the French 
 from the posts which they still held in the colony. 
 A force of eighteen hundred men commanded by 
 
 P 
 
iS8 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 Colonel Monckton started from New England and 
 captured Fort Beausejour, which the cowardly and 
 vile commandant, Vergor, surrendered at the first 
 attack. On the plains of Abraham he was also 
 to be the first to yield to Wolfe and to cause the 
 defeat and death of the brave Montcalm, the fall 
 of Quebec, and the loss of Canada. 
 
 After the capture of Beausejour, Fort Gaspe- 
 reau surrendered also, and there was no longer 
 any obstacle to prevent Lawrence fi*om accom- 
 plishing a design which he must have been cher- 
 ishing for some time. The Governor determined 
 to remove from the province all the French Aca- 
 dians. He required from the inhabitants an oath 
 of unqualified allegiance, and on their refusal he 
 resolved to proceed to extreme measures. Park- 
 man says that 
 
 *' The Acadians, though calling themselves neu- 
 trals, were an enemy encamped in the heart of the 
 province," and adds: " These are the reasons 
 which explain and palliate a measure too harsh 
 and indiscriminate to be wholly justified." 
 
 It is impossible to justify the measure in any 
 way; fear of an enemy does not justify his mur- 
 der, and the expulsion of the Acadians was the 
 cause of untold misery both ph^^sical and moral 
 and of the death of a number of men, women and 
 children. If the harsh removal of the Acadians 
 is justifiable, so is Bonaparte's massacre of the 
 prisoners of Jaffa. He could not provide for 
 
mt 
 
 y. 
 
 Customs and Dialects. 
 
 159 
 
 i 
 
 them as prisoners, and if he released them they 
 would immediately attack him again. 
 
 Governor Lawrence was so much the more in- 
 excusable, because the only Acadians that gave 
 him any cause of anxiety were those of Beause- 
 jour, and they had been defeated. The inhabitants 
 of the Basin of Mines and of Annapolis were 
 peaceful, prosperous and contented, and although 
 they might have sided with the French in an inva- 
 sion of the province, they never would have 
 thought of revolting against the English. They 
 were an ignorant and simple people, but laborious, 
 chaste and religious. Their chief defect seems to 
 have been an inordinate love for litigation, a trait 
 which they inherited from their Norman ancestors. 
 
 Lawrence took away the guns of many of the 
 inhabitants by an unworthy stratagem, and then 
 he ordered the ruthless work to be done. Monck- 
 ton seized the men of Beausejour, and Winslow, 
 Handheld and Murray did the same at la Grand- 
 Pree, at Annapolis and at Fort Edward. Let us 
 picture the scene at la Grand-Pree. 
 
 Winslow issued a proclamation calling upon all 
 the men to meet him at the village church on Sun- 
 day. There he was at the appointed hour with 
 his two hundred and ninety men fully armed to 
 meet the intended victims. Four hundred and 
 eighteen men answered the call and assembled in 
 the church. What was their consternation on 
 hearing that they were prisoners, that all their 
 property was confiscated, and that they were to 
 
i6o 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 be torn from their homes with their families. No 
 resistance was possible, as the men were un- 
 armed. They were put for safe keepin^*' on board 
 four ships, and on the 8th of October the men, 
 women and children were embarked. This was 
 le grand derangement of which their descendants, 
 says I'abbe Casgrain, speak to this day. Wins- 
 low completed his work in December and shipped 
 2510 persons. Murray, Monckton and Handfield 
 were equally successful, and more than 6000 per- 
 sons were violently expelled from the colony. A 
 few managed to escape, although they were tracked 
 like wild beasts. In order to compel them to sur- 
 render, the dwellings and even the churches were 
 burnt and the crops were destroyed. The fugi- 
 tives suffered frightfully, and many women and 
 children died of misery. In this scene of perse- 
 cution we are glad to see the brave officer Boishe- 
 bert defeat a party of English who were burning 
 a church at Peticodiac. Unhappily, as already 
 stated, no resistance could be made, and the un- 
 fortunates were huddled together like sheep on 
 board the transports, to be scattered about all 
 along the Atlantic coast among a hostile people 
 speaking a language unknown to them and hav- 
 ing a creed different from their own. 
 
 Who can imagine the feelings of these mr . and 
 women when the ehips started on the fatal journey 
 and they threw a last glance at their once beautiful 
 country, now made " desolate and bare!" How 
 many ties of kindred and of love were rudely 
 

 Customs and Dialects. 
 
 i6i 
 
 torn asunder! The families were not always on 
 the same ship, and the father and mother were 
 separated from their children, and many Evange- 
 lines never met their Gabriels. The order of 
 expulsion was harsh and cruel, and it was ex- 
 ecuted with little regard for the most sacred feel- 
 ings of the human .leart. 
 
 We shall not follow the Acadia ms in the^r wan- 
 derings. Let us only state that their lot in the 
 English colonies was generally a hard one. Very 
 few remamed where they had been transported 
 Many returned to their country after incredible 
 sufferings, to be again expelled in 1762; some 
 went to France, where they formed a settlement 
 at Belle Isle; some went to the Antilles, and some 
 at last found a true home in hospitable Louisiana. 
 At the peace of 1763 a number of Acadians re- 
 turned to Nova Scotia, and their descendants, to- 
 gether with those ol the inhabitants who had 
 escaped from the persecution, number now, ac- 
 cording to I'abbe Casgrain, more than 130,000 
 souls. This fecundity is wonderful, and if we 
 consider the tenacity of those people, their attach- 
 ment to their families, to their country, to their 
 religion, we may indeed say, with the warm- 
 hearted Canadian abbe: ** The Acadians areas 
 astonishing for their virtues as for their misfor- 
 tunes." We now close this brief sketch of the 
 ancestors, and proceed to a study of their de- 
 scendants living in Louisiana. 
 
l62 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 
 II. 
 
 Mr. Gayarre in his "History of Louisiana,** 
 says: 
 
 Between the ist of January and the 13th of 
 May, 1765, about 650 Acadians had arrived at 
 New Orleans, and from that town had been sent to 
 form settlements in Attakapas and Opelousas under 
 the command of Andry. 
 
 Many others of the unfortunate exiles came to 
 Louisiana, some from the Antilles, but the greater 
 part, m rude boats built by themselves, floated 
 down the streams flowing into the Mississippi and 
 reached New Orleans, where they expected to find 
 the white banner of France. Two years before, 
 however, the infamous treaty of Paris had been 
 signed, and Louisiana now belonged to Spain. 
 The Spaniards had not yet taken possession of the 
 colony, and the French officials received most 
 kindly the unhappy strangers. There they were 
 on the levee of New Orleans with their wives and 
 children, helpless, destitute, possessing only a few 
 articles of wearing apparel, they who a few years 
 before were prosperous farmers with comfortable 
 homes and fertile fields. But at last their journey 
 was ended and they were again to find a home and 
 lands much more fertile than those which they had 
 left. About fifty miles above New Orleans the 
 Acadians gave their name to one of the parishes 
 of Louisiana, and the Acadian coast, now called 
 St. James, was one of the first settlements made 
 by the exiles. Later they spread all along the 
 
Customs and Dialects. 
 
 163 
 
 Mississippi river and the adjoining bayous, and 
 their desc:endants are to be found in every parish 
 in lower Louisiana. They form an important and 
 useful part of our population, although many of 
 them are as simple and ignorant as their ancestors 
 of 1755. They are, however, generally honest 
 and laborious, deeply religious and very much 
 attached to the idiom of their fathers Many rose 
 to the highest position in the State, and we have 
 among us to-day elegant ladies and cultivated 
 gentlemen belonging to the Acadian race. They 
 are proud of their ancestors, and justly so, because 
 if the latter were peasants, they were, at the same 
 time, martyrs to their religious and patriotic feel- 
 ings. If there ever was any prejudice against the 
 Acadians among the descendants of the early col- 
 onists, it existed only among narrow-minded people 
 and was not manifest. 
 
 Having thought of the Acadians and their dia- 
 lect as an interesting subject to study, I determined 
 to pay a visit to the Attakapas country made 
 classic by the genius of Longfellow. In the 
 beginning of September, 1890, 1 left New Orleans at 
 7:30 A. M. by the Southern Pacific Railroad and 
 arrived at St. Mary Parish after a journey ol five 
 hours. Along the route the train passed through 
 lields of tall sugar cane, yellow corn and golden 
 rice. Every now and then we crossed a bayou, or 
 a marsh or a forest. Shortly after leaving the city 
 we reached ** Bayou des Allemands " named for 
 the German settlers who had been sent to America 
 
 f 
 
 I, 
 I 
 
 
164 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 by the famous John Law. In the middle of the 
 bayou is an island covered with trees and briers, 
 on which is a hut which serves as a hunting lodge 
 for the sportsmen, whose canoes for duck-shooting 
 are to been everywhere. Trees grow to the edge 
 of the water of all our bayous and render the 
 smallest stream pic i'rr;^que. 
 
 After passing another beautiful stream, Bayou 
 Boeuf, we see a few of the Indian mounds which 
 are so interesting to the archaeologist and the eth- 
 nologist, and at Morgan City we cross the wide 
 and turbid Atchafalaya, the rival of the Missis- 
 sippi, and which threatens, if not curbed by arti- 
 ficial means, to divert the waters of the great river 
 from its present channel. 
 
 A few miles after passing Morgan City I leave 
 the train and am soon on a plantation situated on 
 both sides of the Teche. After dinner I take my 
 little nephews with me and we go to the bayou. 
 There is in front of the house a drawbridge which 
 is opened every time a boat or raft passes. We sit 
 on the bridge and I look on the waters flowing 
 beneath and I can hardly see the direction of the 
 current. A few months before the bayou had been 
 a torrent overflowing its left bank. St. Mary Par- 
 ish is one of the most prosperous in Louisiana, and 
 everywhere there are central sugar factories with 
 the most modern appliances, the powerful mills, or 
 the diffusion process, and through this busy scene 
 of progress flow the tranquil waters of the Teche, 
 its banks covered with moss-grown live-oaks. 
 
 «TI-| 
 
t 
 
 Customs and Dialects. 
 
 165 
 
 
 
 Here is the same spectacle which tht; poet has s 
 aclmiral">ly described. It is civilization now, but 
 side by side with the primeval forest. Under thi^ 
 stately oaks the children run and play while I lie 
 upon the grass and meditate. My thoughts return 
 to the past and I imagine what must have been 
 the feelings of the Acadians when they saw for 
 the first time in 1765 the beautiful Attakapas 
 country. 
 
 Not far from the plantation where I visited is a 
 village called Charenton. It is but a hamlet, but it 
 possesses a church and a convent of nuns. The good 
 sisters of St. Joseph have established a school for 
 girls which does great good to the neighborhood. 
 The mother superior, a very agreeable and intel- 
 ligent lady, is a descendant of the Acadians. 
 Very near the village is a settlement of Indians. I 
 observed them with curiosity, as they are the sole 
 remnant of the Attakapas tribe, the fierce man- 
 eaters. Some of the squaws are handsome, and 
 the men have the real Indian type, although I am 
 told that the tribe is rapidly disappearing and 
 mingling with the negroes. The women make 
 very pretty reed cane baskets, quite different in 
 design from those which the Choctaws sell at the 
 French market in New Orleans ; the men cultivate 
 a little patch of ground and sell fish and game. 
 One hundred years ago the Indians were numerous 
 on the Teche ; they seem to have melted away 
 without being molested. The mere contact of 
 civilization was sufficient to cause them to vanish. 
 
1 66 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 It seems to have been an inevitable destiny, and 
 we may say in the words of Victor Hugo : 
 
 ** La chose siinplemetit d'elle-meme arriva 
 Comme la nuit se fait lorsque le jour s'en va. 
 
 Two miles from Charenton is the Grand Lac, 
 which I desired very much to see, so one morning 
 at daybreak I started in a light buggy with the 
 oldest of my nephews, a Sophomore of Tulane 
 University. There is in reality no route leading to 
 the lake ; we had to pass for several miles through 
 a forest on the bank of the Teche and it gave me 
 great pleasure to see the bayou where it appeared 
 most wild. After a ride of two hours we left the 
 shore of the Teche and turning toward the interior 
 we soon arrived at the lake. I felt delighted at 
 the sight: before us sti-etched the blue waters, 
 which a light breeze caused to undulate gently, 
 and in the distance could be seen the sails of two 
 schooners which seemed to be the wings of marine 
 birds skimming the surface of the waves. All 
 around the lake is a forest, and on the trees we 
 could see the cardinal bird with his scarlet robe, 
 the jay bird with his silver and blue jacket, the 
 black bird with his golden epaulets, and what 
 pleased me most, numberless mocking birds, those 
 admirable songsters, which the impudent English 
 sparrow is rapidly driving away from our Southern 
 land. 
 
 Being so near the Atchafalaya, the Grand Lac 
 is liable to overflows and, last spring, its water in- 
 undated a large extent of country. A levee made 
 
 ti \.. 
 
Customs and Dialects, 
 
 167 
 
 in great part with shells has been erected by the 
 owner of the plantation immediately adjoining the 
 1 ke, and as there are large oak trees on the bank, 
 the place is a favorite resort in summer for pleasure 
 seekers. While we were crossing a little bayou by 
 means of a tree which the wind had thrown down 
 and which served as a suspended bridge, we saw 
 an old Indian on the other side. He appeared to 
 us as the spirit of the lake summoned to protect 
 it from the pale face, and already our imagination 
 was taking its flight toward fairy land when we 
 were suddenly brought back to reality by the voice 
 of the red man, who was speaking to us in 
 English. Never did our national idiom appear to 
 me more prosaic than in the mouth of this 
 descendant of the Attakapas. We hastened to 
 leave him and turned our eyes again toward the 
 lake. Here my mind reverted to another scene 
 and events long past presented themselves to me. 
 In the year 1862, after the fall of New Orleans, our 
 plantation being on the Mississippi, fifty-seven 
 miles from the city, my father thought that it 
 would be more prudent to put his family out of the 
 reach of the invading army and he sent us to St. 
 Mary parish, where there was a Confederate 
 army to protect the Attakapas country. After a 
 few months, however, the Federals spread over 
 the country, and it was thought advisable that we 
 should return home. My brother, aged seventeen, 
 enlisted as a Confederate soldier in the Trans- 
 Mississippi department, and my father started 
 
 III 
 
i68 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 with the younoer children on the return journey. 
 VVe embarked in two large skiffs, with two Ind- 
 ians in each one as oarsmen, and we went down 
 the Teche. The trip was most pleasant to me, as 
 we passed through numberless bayous, stopping 
 at night at the houses of friends, and taking our 
 meals during the day under the shade of some 
 large tree I have no recollection of the route, 
 which ended only at the mouth of Bayou Plaque- 
 mines, in Iberville parish, where there were car- 
 riages to take us home; but although only six 
 years old at the time, I shall never forget the anx- 
 iety of my father, when, on entering the Grand 
 Lac, the booming of a cannon was heard. It was 
 thought to be a Federal gun-boat and our Indians 
 were ordered ^o jw most diligently. Twenty- 
 eight years had passed since I had crossed the 
 Grand Lac as a fugitive, but yet on that Septem- 
 ber morning of 1890 I thought I heard still the 
 voice of our devoted father encouragir-: his little 
 children with his tender words of love. 
 
 While in St. Mary I had oc asion to visit a 
 number of planters, who received me very kindly 
 and who did all in their power to help me in my 
 work. Tiiey introduced me to some Acadians and 
 communicated to me a few characteristic expres- 
 sions of the Acadian language. I was, however, 
 anxious to see St. Martinsville, and, after promising 
 to return to St. Mary, I took the +**ain and went to the 
 oldest town on the Teche. It was with real 
 plep/'ure that I started on my journey; I had never 
 
 
 ■: t *v> ' 
 
1 
 
 Customs and Dialp:cts. 
 
 169 
 
 gone to that part of Louisiana before and every- 
 thing was new to me. I passed on my way Jean- 
 erette and New Iberia in Iberia parish. They are 
 bo*^^ thriving towns, the latter especially, on ac- 
 count of its proximity to the celebrated salt mines 
 on Avery Island. It has a handsome Catholic 
 church, an elegant public high school and some 
 beautiful private residences. The following ex- 
 tract fr^m Judge Martin's '* History of Louisiana " 
 gives a very good idea of the geography of the 
 Teche country: 
 
 The Teche has its source in the prairies, in 
 the upper part of the settlements of Opelousas, 
 and during the season of high water, flows par- 
 tially, into the Courtableau. As it enters the set- 
 tlements of Attakapas, it receives from the right 
 side Bayou Fuselier, which Bayou Bourbeux con- 
 nects with Vermilion river. A little more than 
 twenty miles farther, it passes before the town of 
 St. Martinsville, and reaches, fifteen miles after, 
 the spot on which the Spaniards, soon after the 
 cession, made a vain attempt to establish a city, 
 to which the name of New Iberia was destined; 
 t /enty miles from the mouth of the Teche is the 
 town of 1 ranklin. 
 
 I may add iiere that the Teche becomes a noble 
 river shortly before mingling its waters with those 
 of the rapid Atchafalaya. From Jeanerette to 
 New Iberia the fields presented the same beauti- 
 ful crops of cane, rice and corn which I had seen 
 along the route from New Orleans; but after pass- 
 ing Nev/ Iberia, cotton begins to be seen, and I 
 
170 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 noticed in one patch of ground the curious fact of 
 our four great staples growing side by side — cane, 
 cotton, rice and corn. Such is the wonderful 
 fertility of our soil. 
 
 St. Martinsville does not lie on the Southern 
 Pacific Railroad, and it is only lately that it has 
 been connected with the main line by a branch 
 leading to the Teche. This may account for 
 the stagnation of business in the town, which, 
 before the war, was very prosperous. I had let- 
 ters of introduction to several distinguished gen- 
 tlemen, but I saw on arriving in that Creole town 
 that a Creole needed no credentials to be well re- 
 ceived. I ^-^und myself among friends, I may 
 say, among relations, as all the persons ^ met knew 
 my family and I knew theirs. French is essentially 
 the language of the inhabitants and it is well 
 spoken by the educated class. The latter speak 
 English also, but the lower class speak the 
 Acadian French mixed with the Creole patois 
 and a little English. In the interior settlements 
 {au large) little or no English at all is spoken, 
 and at Breaux Bridge, in St. Martin parish, and in 
 the adjoining parish of Lafayette, French is 
 taught togetl. er with English in the public schools. 
 Although we desire to see every child in Louis- 
 iana speak English we wish every one to speak 
 French also, and I was very glad to see how the 
 people of St. Martin are attached to their French. 
 Among those who have done the most to en- 
 courage the study of French in his parish is Mr. 
 
Customs and Diai.ects. 
 
 171 
 
 Felix Voorhies, a descendant on his mother's side 
 of an old Acadian family. He has established a 
 dramatic society for which he has written several 
 charming comedies, and although he writes ele- 
 gant French he is perfectly familiar with the 
 Acadian dialect. I am deeply indebted to him 
 for the interest he took in my work and the help 
 he kindly gave me. 
 
 There is but one hotel in St. Martinsville ; it is 
 a large house with a wide gallery and massive 
 brick columns. Everything is as in ante-bellum 
 days; no register awaits the names of the guests, 
 and the owner seems to have implicit confidence 
 in the honesty of his boarders. As the criminal 
 court was in session, the members of the jury 
 were taking their dinners at the hotel when I ar- 
 rived. There being no place at the table for me, 
 I was given a comfortable rocking chair and I sat 
 in the dining-room during the dinner of the jurors. 
 As several of them were Acadians, I listened very 
 attentively to their conversation and took notes 
 while they were speaking. All of them spoke 
 French, but the influence of English on their 
 French was sometimes apparent. One of them, 
 speaking of an important criminal case, said to 
 the others: *' Vous serez tons lockes (locked up) 
 ce soir." Another, to express his contempt of 
 the argument of a lawyer, said: *' Qa, g'a n'a pas 
 grand fion ave moue" (that does not produce 
 much effect on me) ; and his friend replied: ** II 
 aura un bon bout (pronounced boute) encore avec 
 
172 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 cette affaire." Although I was veiy hungry, I 
 was sorry to see the jurors leave the table to go to 
 the court house to be lockcs. 
 
 After dinner I took a walk over the town, and 
 never have I seen a more quiet and orderly place 
 and one where there are so few bar-rooms. The 
 life in that old Creole town reminded me of autre- 
 fois, as depicted to me many times by my aged 
 friends. There was not much animation in busi- 
 ness, but order and decency prevailed everywhere 
 and the people were uniformly affable and polite. 
 I spent the evening very pleasantly with my host, 
 his wife and his grandmother, conversing with the 
 old lady about the past. 
 
 I awoke very early the next morning, and on 
 opening the window of my room I saw a pretty 
 sight: the bayou was just beneath, its waters green 
 with water plants and rushes, and in the distance a 
 prairie, above which was rising resplendent a Sep- 
 tember sun. A knock was heard at the door, and 
 answering it I found a little negro girl bringing me 
 a cup of real Creole coffee. 
 
 At a short distance from the hotel is the church, 
 on the green before which stands the statue of the 
 last curate, Father Jan, who died an octoge larian, 
 beloved by his parishioners. The present priest. 
 Father Langlois, is a botanist of great merit who 
 has made imp^ rtant discoveries in the flora of 
 Louisiana. He is a corresponding member of 
 TAthenee Louisianais, and I determined to pay 
 him a visit. He received me very kindly and 
 
Customs and Dialects. 
 
 173 
 
 obiit 
 
 16 ejusdem 
 
 mensis 
 
 f. jean 
 
 Irangois 
 
 showed me his admirable botanical collections. 
 I asked his permission to look over the church 
 register, and on turning to the year 1765 I saw the 
 record of the first child born of Acadian parents 
 in St. Martin, probably the first born in Louisiana. 
 I give here the exact copy, with the original spell- 
 ing and punctuation, as per certified copy kindly 
 made for me by I'abbe Langlois: 
 
 Lan mille Sept cent soixante cinq le onze 
 may je p"''^ capucin Missionaire apostolique cure 
 de la n«"* accadie soussigne, ay Baptise avec les 
 cert'iTionies ordinaires de leglise maru;uerite anne 
 n^e la veille de legitime Mariage d'olivier thibau- 
 daut et de magdelaine Broussard ses pere et mere 
 le parrain a este Rene trahan, et la Marraine 
 ^^■^■^^^^" Marie thibaudaut qui ont declare ne savoir signer 
 de ce requis selon I'ordonnance aux attakapas les 
 jours et an que dessus 
 
 (signe) f. jean francois c. cur6 
 Masse 
 Anoyu 
 
 Olivier Thibaudaut, the father of the little girl 
 born in 1765, was a descendant of the celebrated 
 meunier Tbibaudaux, seigneur de Chipody in 
 Acadia in Poutrincourt's time. The family is 
 exceedingly numerous in Louisiana, and they 
 have given their name to one of our towns on 
 Bayou Lafourche. One of the Thibodaux was 
 president of the Senate in 1824, and was acting 
 Governor for a few weeks, after the resignation 
 of Governor Robertson. The Broussards, the 
 family of Olivier Thibaudaut' s wife, are also very 
 numerous in the State. Thibodaux, Broussard, 
 Landry, Leblanc and Bourgeois are the largest 
 families in Louisiana of Acadian descent. 
 
174 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 In the register of St. Martin church I saw also 
 the name of a distinguished Louisianian, a profes- 
 sor in the Oratorian order in France and curate 
 of St. Martin for many years. Etienne Viel trans- 
 lated in beautiful Latin verse the twenty-four 
 books of Fenelon's " Telemaque." Louisiana 
 may well be proud of a writer of whom Barthele- 
 my, the author of the "Nemesis," has said: 
 
 "Viel, qu de Fenelou virgilisa la prose." 
 
 There being such vast prairies in the Attakapas 
 the Acadian settlers compared them with the wide 
 expanse of the ocean and applied to them many 
 nautical terms. They say aller an large, or 
 mettre a la voile when they start to cross the 
 prairie, and an island is, in their language, a piece 
 of wooded ground in the prairie. 1 was shown 
 Vile des Cypres while in St. Martin. It is in a 
 prairie which is not far from the Grand Bois, an 
 immense forest which begins in the Attakapas 
 country and extends as far as the Arkansas line. 
 In the Grand Bois, near St. Martinsville, are a 
 number of lakes, of which one. Lake Catahoulou, 
 is two and a half miles long and three-fourths of 
 a mile wide. It is one hundred and ten feet deep 
 and is said to be beautiful. It is a great place for 
 hunting and fishing, but is full of alligators and 
 gar-fish. I was shown an Acadian who, being in 
 a canoe on a fishing excursion, was followed by a 
 gar-fish twelve feet long. lie seized an oppor- 
 tunity and jumped on the back of the fish, which 
 
Customs and Dialects. 
 
 I7S 
 
 IS 
 
 le 
 
 ly 
 
 or 
 tie 
 ce 
 
 a 
 an 
 as 
 e. 
 a 
 u, 
 ot 
 ep 
 or 
 nd 
 in 
 a 
 or- 
 ch 
 
 dived with him to the bottom of the lake. On 
 arising from the water our hero said to his terrified 
 companions: " Now, he will not return." This 
 individual was a real type and his conversation 
 was very instructive in its quaintness. 
 
 St. Martinsville was the home of a true hero, 
 Alcibiade De Blanc, ex- justice of our Supreme 
 Court. It was he who started the White League 
 movement which was to save Louisiana from 
 carpet-bag and negro rule. Not far from the 
 town, in Lafayette parish, lived another true and 
 chivalric Louisianian, Alexandre Mouton, ex- 
 Governor and United States Senator, who was 
 the son of an Acadian exile. He died lately at a 
 very ad anced age, and Louisiana could but bless 
 the Enrli'^^^ for sending her a race that could pro- 
 duce .. .1 men as the governor and his son, the 
 valiant general who fell a victor at Mansfield. 
 
 The eminent men that have arisen among the 
 Acadians in Louisiana shov/ what good elements 
 there are in that race, but unfortunately, they are, 
 as a rule, lacking in ambition. They are labori- 
 ous, but they appear to be satisfied if, by cultivat- 
 ing their patch of ground with their sons, they 
 manage to live with a little co-ntort. The mother 
 and daughters attend to the household duties and 
 weave that excellent fabric called the cotonnadc. 
 The greatest defect ci the Acadians is the little 
 interest they take in education; a great many are 
 completely illiterate. As the public school system 
 progresses, education will spread gradually among 
 
■^WP" 
 
 176 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 them, and being an intelligent race they will pro- 
 duce many men like Alexandre Mouton Educa- 
 tion will, of course, destroy their dialect, so that 
 the work of studying their peculiar customs and 
 language must not be long delayed. 
 
 On Sunday, September 21, I went to church, 
 where I saw the whole population of the town, 
 and after bidding adieu to my newly made friends 
 I left St. Martins vilie, where I had met kind gen- 
 tlemen and fair ladies, taking with me a good 
 stock of Acadian expressions. A few hours later 
 I was again in St. Mary parish. I wished this time 
 to live in the prairie, where I thought there would 
 be a better chance of observinr. the Acadians. 
 The prairie is now entirely cultivated around 
 Jeanerette and is dotted everywhere with the cot- 
 tages of the small farmers and with the comfort- 
 able houses of the large planters. For a week I 
 roamed all over the country with some friends 
 who were kind enough to take me to the places of 
 interest and to the persons who might help me in 
 my work. 
 
 Having heard that every Saturday evening there 
 was a ball in the prairie, I requested one of my 
 friends to take me to see one. We arrived at 8 
 o'clock, but already the ball had begun. In the 
 yard were vehicles of all sorts, but three-mule 
 carts were most numerous. The ball room was 
 a large hall with galleries all around it. When 
 we entered it was crowded with persons dancing 
 to the music of three fiddles. I was astonished to 
 
Customs and Dialects. 
 
 «ee that nothinjT was „!.. i . ' ^'^'^ 
 
 -as told that an^Tv i,etf '°^^""•^"«. ""' I 
 could come in. rLe L • '"""^ ^^^'^^^^ 
 
 'nent derived his proLT" ^"?^' "''^ '^"^^'-'ain- 
 -"ents. My friend a i \T "'^ ''"'<^ °f «fresh- 
 
 '•" the neiiorh od ,::; £T"^' "'^"'"•' '^°■•" 
 «0"s and I had a ' " '°f "=«' me to many per- 
 
 '«- dialect, as evefvl/'r'^'^ ^° ''^'^"- ^'"^ ^ca- 
 Acadian rac;. I ^'f^J' *"« "elonged to the 
 
 "Votre fiUe est-elle i jr' P",?''''"^ 'ookinsman: 
 replying: " o„; ^ ^ corrected me bv 
 
 ever^he^idnS Ly^^fr-^^^ -' 'a." fr„w! 
 
 ■"e me his ./„;„,, ^^ ^"'"' although he showed 
 
 f eshment room, whelw^r. '"'"''" '" '^' - 
 but I observed hat the f '"' '"^' '^"^""ade. 
 
 'toffee, which indeed was n' ^"""^ ^^« ^lack 
 
 ^"Pper was served r?.'"'- ^""idnight 
 "•«. the national ct:?:::^'^'"''^" ^°"'^° ^^''^ 
 
 ward^luht^oTnVlTr''"' ""'''°""' -'' awk- 
 
 They were ele^n" le^S.^- ^V charming. 
 
 handsome. Thev had , ''^^'^ and exceedingly 
 
 and beautiful blaTk hat ? '''"' ^°'' ""-"^ ^^es 
 
 '°°k«d I was aston.shed .^'""^ °^ ^^" "''^^ 
 
 probably very few of tJ "^ ^"'^^■"' *° ^ear tha^ 
 
 O" «-eni„g fo the c verrtio^n"?' V "' ^^''- 
 that they had no education p """ '"'^'^"^ «ee 
 
 "yall, but occasional" En" lish""''."'''^ ^P'"^- 
 After suDDer m, ^ • . ^''^^ was heard. 
 
 - /. /.fr/it"' it,? - '-^ ^ -anted to 
 
 P""^^- I followed him without 
 
 
 l/( : ' fi 
 
178 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 knowing what he meant and he took me to a room 
 adjoining the dancing hall, where I saw a number 
 of little children thrown on a bed and sleeping. 
 The mothers who accompanied their daughters 
 had left the little ones in i\iQ pare aux pelits before 
 passing to the dancing room, where I saw them the 
 whole evening assembled together in one corner of 
 the hall and watching over their daughters. Lcfarc 
 aux pettts interested me very much, but I found the 
 gambling room stranger still. There were about a 
 dozen men at a table playing cards. One lamp 
 suspended from the ceiling threw a dim light upon 
 the players, who appeared at first very wild, with 
 their broad-brimmed felt hats on their heads and 
 their long untrimmed sun-burnt faces. There 
 was, however, a kindly expression on every face, 
 and everything was so quiet that I saw that the 
 men were not professional gamblers. I saw the 
 latter a little later, in a barn near by where they 
 had taken refuge. About half a dozen men, play- 
 ing on a rough board by the light of two candles. 
 I understood that these were the black sheep of 
 the crowd and we merely cast a glance at them. 
 I was desirous to see the end of the ball, but 
 having been told that the break-up would only 
 take place at 4 or 5 o'clock in the morning, we 
 went away at i o'clock, I was well pleased with 
 my evening and I admired the perfect order that 
 reigned, considering? ^^at it was a public affair and 
 open to all who wished to come, without any en- 
 trance fee. My friend told me that when the 
 
Customs and Dialects. 
 
 179 
 
 dance was over the musicians would rise, and 
 going out in the yard would fire several pistol 
 shots in the air, crying out at the same time : le 
 bal est fint. 
 
 The names of the children in Acadian families 
 are quite as strange as the old Biblical names 
 among the early Puritans, but much more harmo- 
 nious. For instance, in one family the boy was 
 called Duradon, and his five sisters answered to 
 the names of Elfige, Enyone, Meridit^, ^zeina 
 and Fronie. A father who had a musical ear called 
 his sons Valmir, Valmore, Valsin, Valcour and Val- 
 ^rien, while another, with a tincture of the classics, 
 called his boy Deus, and his daughter D^ussa. 
 
 All the Acadians are great riders and they 
 and their little ponies never seem to be 
 tired. They often have exciting races. Living is 
 very cheap in the prairie and the small farmers 
 produce on their farms almost everything they use. 
 At the stores they exchange eggs and hens for city 
 goods. 
 
 Several farmers in the prairie still have sugar 
 houses with the old-fashioned mill, three per- 
 pendicular rollers turned by mules or horses. 
 They have some means, but are so much attached 
 to the old ways that they will not change. It will 
 not be long, however, before the younger genera- 
 tion replaces the antiquated mill with the wonder- 
 ful modern inventions. The AcadJans are an in- 
 telligent, peaceful and honest population ; they are 
 beginning to improve, indeed many of them, as al- 
 
IMAGE EVALUATION 
 TEST TARGET (MT-3) 
 
 
 VQ 
 
 <^ 
 
 /}. 
 
 if^fefe OJ 
 
 /. 
 
 V 
 
 /^ 
 
 'T 
 
 '/ 
 
 1.0 
 
 I.I 
 
 1.25 
 
 '-1^ |2.5 
 UJ 1^ 12.2 
 
 t 1^ 
 
 "112.0 
 
 JA 111.6 
 
 '^-^^U 
 
 % 
 

 w- 
 
 :^. 
 
 ^ 
 
i8o 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 ready stated, have been distinguished, but as yet too 
 many are without education. Let all Louisianians 
 take to heart the cause of education and make a 
 crusade against ignorance in our country parishes ! 
 Before leaving the prairie I took advantage of 
 my proximity to the gulf to pay a visit to Cote 
 Blanche. The coast of Louisiana is Hat, but in 
 the Attakapas country live islands or elevations 
 break the monotony. These are rugged and 
 abrupt and present some beautiful scenes. A few 
 miles from the prairie is a forest called Cypremort; 
 it is being cleared, and the land is admirably 
 adapted to sugar cane. The road leading to Cote 
 Blanche passes for three miles through the forest 
 and along Cypremort Bayou, which is so shallow 
 that large trees grow in it and the water merely 
 trickles around them. On leaving the wood we 
 enter on a trembling prairie over which a road has 
 been built, and we soon reach Cote Blanche. It 
 is called an island, because on one side is the gulf 
 and on the others is the trembling prairie. We 
 ascended a bluff about one hundred feet high and 
 beheld an enchanting scene. In the rear was 
 the wood which we had just left, stretching like a 
 curtain around the prairie ; to the right and to the 
 left were a number of hills, one of which was one 
 hundred and fifty-seven feet high, covered with 
 tall cane waving its green lances in the air, while 
 in front of us stood the snuar house with large 
 brick chimneys, the white house of the owner of 
 the place, the small cottages of the negroes on 
 
Customs and Dialects. 
 
 i8i 
 
 both sides of a wide road, and a little farther, the 
 blue waters of the gulf. I approached the edge 
 of the bluff, and as I looked at the waves dashing 
 against the shore and at the sun slowly setting in 
 a cloudless sk}', I exclaimed: ** Lawrence, de- 
 stroyer of the Acadian homes, your cruelty has 
 failed. This beautiful country was awaiting your 
 victims. We have here no Ba}' of Fundy with its 
 immense tides, no rocks, no snow, but we have a 
 land picturesque and wonderfully fertile, a land 
 where men 'are free — our Louisiana is better than 
 your Acadia!*' 
 
 in. 
 
 I am indebted in part for the list of proverbs 
 and curious sayings I shall offer to the Hon. 
 Felix Voorhies, of St. Martinsville, who made the 
 following interesting remarks to me about the 
 Acadian dialect: 
 
 Each locality has its peculiar patois; thus at the 
 upper limit of our parish, one uses expressions 
 which are never heard at the lower limit. The 
 dialect in Lafourche differs essentially from that 
 which is in use in St. Martin, at Avoyelles or on 
 the Vermilion Bayou. 
 
 The remarks of Mr. Voorhies are correct, as I 
 have myself observed, and the}^ may apply with 
 equal truth to the patois in France, where differ- 
 ences are found in the speech of the peasants liv- 
 ing within the same dialect boundaries. Local 
 influences have always modified the language of 
 uneducated people, even when they belonged to 
 
 i' 
 
 \\ 
 
 I % 
 
 ir 
 
 ;: i' 
 
 !i; 
 
'Hi 
 
 u 
 
 182 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 the same race; political influences have also been 
 very powerful ; for instance, the more or less com- 
 plete subjugation of the conquered by the con- 
 querors. The difference of races, however, is 
 the greatest cause of the different dialects. 
 
 Just as the Latin gave rise to the eight Romance 
 tongues, the langnc iV oil was divided into differ- 
 ent dialects, due in great part to the difference of 
 races in the provinces of the north of France. In 
 the same way we may account for some of the 
 variations in the Acadian dialect of Louisiana. 
 Canada and Acadia were settled mainly by emi- 
 grants from Normandy, Poitou, Aunis, Prittany 
 and Picardy, with a few from Paris. The dialect- 
 ical peculiarities of the ancestors may still be 
 found, to a certain extent, among the descend- 
 ants, although they must have been very much 
 weakened by long residence in America. The 
 constant intermarriage of people whose fathers 
 were from different provinces tended certainly 
 to erase the peculiarities of speech, and at the 
 time of the dispersion of the Acadians in 1755, their 
 language must have been nearly uniform. I 
 should, therefore, arrive at the conclusion that the 
 differences in the Acadian dialect in Louisiana are 
 due more to local influences than to the provincial 
 peculiarities of speech of the Norman or West 
 France ancestors. The English language has 
 naturally exerted a great influence on the Louis- 
 iana Acadian patois, and so have the Spanish and 
 Creole patois, producing thus a very interesting 
 
m 
 
 Customs and Dialects. 
 
 183 
 
 speech mixhire. The dialect by contact with for- 
 eign languages has lost somewhat of its simplicity, 
 observes Mr Voorhies,but it has gained in origi- 
 nality. The following expressions, of which 
 some are very quaint and picturesque, bearoutthe 
 truth of the above assertion. As I intend to con- 
 tinue my studies of the Acadian dialect in the dif- 
 ferent localities, so as to be able, by a study of the 
 peculiarities, to arrive at a better understanding of 
 the whole subject, I shall indicate from what par- 
 ish the different specimens are taken. 
 
 1. From the Parish of St. Martik. 
 
 Roupiller^ sommeiller, from roupille, Spanish ropi/la, diminu- 
 tive of ropa. In connection with this word it is proper to 
 state that the Acadians sometimes use expressions which 
 are in reality good French, hut not in common use. 
 
 Se galancer^ corruption of se balancer. 
 
 Piouter, ronfler par saccades. Probably a corruption oi pioneer 
 in the argot. 
 
 Un homme vciile, un homme faihle. Veule like roupilUr is 
 
 found in Littre, but is seldom used. 
 Un chcmin vidchant, un chemin boueux. A curious use of 
 
 mechant, but which any one can understand who has seen 
 
 the hard, sticky mud in the prairies. 
 Dans les Fordoches^ dans la misere, dans I'embarras. Lee 
 
 Fordoches, a remote settlement. 
 Rifler la niortj to be in danger of death. Rifler^ to pass very 
 
 near something. 
 Virftappe^ a slap with the back of the hand. 
 Blhnexir, corruption of blemir. 
 
 Tripe ipurde, a very lean person. Vulgar but expressive. 
 ye te garde un pUit de ma chicnne^ tu me payeras cela; you 
 
 will answer for that. 
 Uh phin dc soupe^ a greedy man. 
 IJn carencrOf a great meat eater. 
 
 
 r?:: 
 
 I'- ' 
 
 is 
 
 ; 1 
 
 
184 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 Poser la chiqne ct faire le mort^ demeurer coi. A man must be 
 quite disconcerted to stop chewing and lay down his to- 
 bacco without saying a word. 
 
 Charrer^ to converse. Very much used. See "Mireio,' vi. 
 " Et tout en fasent la charrado." 
 
 Fendre. son gargantia, to beat some one. Garganna from 
 Spanish gurganta. 
 
 Un bengale, a man to be feared. From tigre du Bengalc. 
 
 The Acadians use the following expressions 
 borrowed from the Creole patois; 
 
 Mon gardcmatiger, the stomach. 
 
 Mon tends, the ear. 
 
 MoH senii, the nose. 
 
 Mon oi clair, the eye. 
 
 Faire chiquer poteaii, to prevent a young man from dancing 
 
 with a young girl. 
 T a pas passd tantdt, there must be no delay, let the matter be 
 
 settled immediately. 
 Un candi, a man without energy, as soft as candy. 
 Un guime, a young cock; from the Eng. game. 
 Garion, a stallion. (See Eng. and iicoich garran and garron, 
 
 a gelding, a work horse.) 
 Badjfuler^, to speak Xowd, guetde, pronounced djeule. 
 Mariocher, to live in concubinage. 
 Cheval des c/iemius, a horse which ambles. 
 Virer de Voiil^ to die. The word virer, to turn, is very common. 
 
 It is used in many compounds: vire-mouches., the tail, vire- 
 
 chienSf the horns of a cow. 
 Un beau tchoc, a fine fellow (ironically). Tchoc probably from 
 
 coq. 
 your pour clair, Zherbe, to flee. Used as an order. 
 Une romaine, a fine dress. 
 Flanquer un veiix-tu courts to give a good beating, to make him 
 
 run. 
 Dans les poux de boiSf same as dans les Fordoches^ to be in 
 
 distress. 
 Tailler dans le gingas, to lie. 
 fouper la peau chatouiy to exaggerate. C/taloui, the raccoon. 
 
hr 
 
 Customs and Dialects. 
 
 •8s 
 
 Des racatc/tas, long spurs. (Fr. raca, Provencal racca, a 
 worthless horse. Diez, " Euniologisches Worterburch.") 
 
 Dichircr la couverte eti deux^ to fall out with some one, cor- 
 responding to rompre la patlle. 
 
 Un frros (losf a rich man. 
 
 Fiiire la djeule donee., to plav the hvpocrile. 
 
 Un grand tiuiruelingiie., a tall, awkward fellow. 
 
 Unecaiin, a doll; as in the Creole patois. 
 
 Mettre an pare ox parqncr des annnaux, to take them from the 
 prairie and place them within enclosures. Metire an cor- 
 rail, is also frequent, from Spanish corral. 
 
 line chdtine^ a woman with light hair (cheveux chalain). 
 
 Une germine^ a fir^t cousin. 
 
 Tonner les moutons, corruption of tondre. 
 
 Crier pour la pirogue., to call for help. Often used while play- 
 ing cards. From the language of hunters. 
 
 Fendre son biscnif, graisser sa caloquinte, to beat. 
 
 Claion, a gate, probably from French claie, '' old French cloie, 
 Provengal cleda, Middle Lat. clida and clia, diminutive 
 cletella. Of Celtic origin." (Uiez, "EtymologischesWor- 
 terbuch.") 
 
 Ilncher, to call in a loud voice, from " linear, Provenyal near 
 and uchar, Picard huquer, Piem nclic. From hneher comes 
 huchety hunter's horn. Norman houter, English hoot." 
 Diez, *' Etymologisches Worterbuch. Monte snr le claion et 
 huche-les is often heard. 
 
 Une galline, a game cock, from Spanish gallina. 
 
 Une bocotte, a small woman, fat and not elegant. 
 
 Btre sans reserve, to be ready for the fight. 
 
 Le passer au carlet, to beat him. 
 
 With regard to the fondness of the Acadians for 
 nautical terms referred to above, the following 
 lines sent me by Mr. Voorhies on the subject are 
 very interesting: 
 
 lis vous diront: En gagnant Ic large^ vous 
 aurez a votre gauche une ile que vous cdtoierez. 
 Vous verrez un grand bois dans le lointain — quand 
 VOUS aurez navigtU une bonne partie de la journ^e, 
 
1 86 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 vous arriverez a ce bois dans Vanse x, y, ou z. II 
 y a la une maison; vous n'aurez qu'a lUlcr^ etun 
 tel viendra vous recevoir. Si vous pouvez con- 
 tinuer, il vous filotcra dans ce liois, autrement 
 vous n'aurez qu'a virer de bord et revenir ici. 
 
 II. From the Parish of St. Mary. 
 
 TJ arise is tlie prairie advancing in tlie wood like a small baj'. 
 II a PIk Hg6^ he gave way (he ** dived") through tear. 
 Holer J to pull. Much more common than lirer. 
 Chapotey^ to whittle a piece of wood; corruption of Eng. chip. 
 yubloroc^ a lantern. 
 
 Claion^ not only in meaning of gate, as in St. Martin, but 
 synonymous with/a/'c explained above. 
 
 Mialery to weep, from miauler. L^enfaut miale, 
 Mon cachcmbau^ my TP'PC' ProvenQal cachimbau. See 
 " Mireio," xii.) 
 
 Avoir le respire court et le discoiirs egari, to be dying. 
 Fort oyer y to swim. 
 
 Coniportement Wun cheval^ the gait of a horse. 
 Faire chaudiere ensrmb/e, to marry. 
 
 Patcharac ici, patcharac tU) to fetrike right and left, probably 
 from patatras. 
 
 Tchicadence^ meche de fouet. 
 
 Se pimper, to dress oneself well; from adj. pitnpant. 
 
 Ah! la ffniuche, Ahl the disagreeable woman; from ^riucAeux. 
 
 Du fard, for la farce. 
 
 Les ag-th, the harness. Another nautical term. 
 
 Utt /ouyoHf a finger sore; probably from fouiller, the sore being 
 deep enough to be dug into. 
 
 Giiminer la terrt, to pulverize the ground. 
 
 Terl, Boucher^ to laugh. 
 
 Lts iclkzesy lightning. 
 
 Caiiler, to back out in a fight, to shrink, as the milk on becom- 
 ing clabber. 
 
 Une liof/istf a lioness; from the English. 
 
 GaroiAe, to whip; probably another nautical word from garo- 
 ck^ir^ cordage, 
 
Customs and Diat.ects. 
 
 187 
 
 m 
 
 ,ly 
 
 C/nc derce, a rocking chair. 
 [/u tuofcef a piece. 
 
 La routine^ the road. The expression, Prends ta routine h 
 
 volotitd, is to dismiss some one. 
 Une ballettse, a dancer; from bal, but reminds us of old French 
 
 baler, 
 Fairc sa crdvdson^ to die. 
 Desselle-toi que je te tnonte, Enlbvc ta soutadkre que je te monte^ 
 
 prepare for a fight. 
 Cela fait xirl It makes one shiver, it is astonishing. A com- 
 mon exclamation. 
 
 Both words may perhaps be 
 curious examples of the shorten- 
 ing of words so common in the 
 patois. Or are they from O. Fr. 
 bars and Lat. mors-usf 
 Embancher, to sit together on a bench. 
 Qa quine^ it is progressing: from yw/we in a game. 
 Macornej marriage. An Acadian called Charles, going to the 
 
 marriage of the daughter of another Charles, said: y^vas 
 
 h la macortie a la fille a tocaille. 
 CliHy in common use for tombi. The following expression was 
 
 heard at the house of an Acadian: ^«'rt qu^alle a qu^a 
 
 crief — Alle a qu^ille a chu. 
 Un branle, a cradle. A good word, as the cradle used to hang 
 
 from the ceiling of the room. 
 Contre ceinture, a ditch. 
 Des cigales, corn shucks; a corruption from cigars^ as the 
 
 shucks have somewhat the shape of a cigar. 
 Barrihre en filine^ a fence with palings. 
 
 \% 
 
 .1^ 
 
 M 
 
 \ . 1 
 j 
 
 f 
 
 ng 
 
 )m- 
 
 xro- 
 
 Phonetics.* 
 
 ^—pronounced generally A and a as in French, but the ten- 
 dency is to lay much stress upon the A and to make it a. 
 The a is often changed into 0, as in the :*«jle patois, 
 popa^ mom an. 
 
 e — the a is generally lost; the E often becomet< a: ch^re for 
 chkre^ alle, ior elle ; Noal f'^r Noel; e remains; 3 becomes 
 tu : tnesure, becomes miusu , 
 
 i" — remains, or has the sound 01 » nfiole^ lion, pion. 
 
 *The Pkonetic signs are from Pasty's ''Lea Sons 4u Franfais." 
 
 
 11 
 > 1 ; 
 
 
 
 i' 
 
 1 - 
 
 :- 
 f 
 
 
i88 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 o — the O hardly exists, cAosf and cdte being both pronounced 
 
 chose and cote. 
 u — pronounced a: une becomes sne. 
 y — has the sound of L in pays, Mat's, 
 at — has the long sound in vrai (vre). 
 oi — has kept in many words the Norman WE in moiy Illinois 
 
 toi, etc., pronounced also e: froid becomes fret/; rrfroidir 
 
 becomes fredir; becomes sometimes UAN : ntot ottcn pro- 
 nounced mUAN. 
 a« — pronounced d, pDvre. 
 
 eu — becomes ui: Enffcnc, Europe becomes tugene lurope. 
 o«— becomes sometimes o: otl eat-ce? pronounced o est-ce? 
 un — the n of the nasal is heard and the un often becomes ;e^V. 
 c — pronounced very often tch: curi (ichure). 
 d — becon.es dj: Diett (Djeu). At the end of words sounds 
 
 like / as in qtiand followed by a consonant: quand 
 
 (quante le ferez-vous?). 
 J — always pronounced at end of word nrrfs, ocitfs, etc. 
 A— The // aspirate hardly exists: des zhuricots, des zhdros, etc. 
 j — sometimes z, Zoze for Joseph. 
 I — often dropped: i va for il va; the L always pronounced 
 
 likey. 
 ft — sometimes fi: mafiiere. 
 g — always pronounced in cif/q. 
 r — very often dropped : pou for pour, j'ou for jour, etc. ; by a 
 
 curious transformation recette becomes arcette, prenex 
 
 becomes pernez. 
 5 — pronounced at end of word: olora becomes alorse; changed 
 
 into ri tant pis becomes tant pire. 
 t — often not pronounced: piasse for piastre. 
 «— pronounced like s at end of word: eusse, ceuse, deusse, 
 
 sisse, disse for eux, ceux, deux, six, dix. 
 X — is sometimes replaced by y; Jenon for Zdnon. 
 
 With regard to the parts of speech there is little 
 to observe in the Acadian dialect; there is, of 
 course, a great deal of contraction, of abbrevia- 
 tion, as in the language of all uneducated people: 
 fvuy ft'voiSy cUe femmey etc. The Itaisofi with 
 
Customs and Dialects. 
 
 189 
 
 1 1 
 
 by a 
 \reuez 
 
 anged 
 
 leusse, 
 
 the s and t is jjonerally incorrect; the / being pro- 
 nounced like Zy and the 5, though more rarely, 
 like t: un gros-t-hommc. On account of the 
 //V;/5^«, which is much more frequent in the dialect 
 than in the French, the hiatus is almost unknown 
 in the former. 
 
 The peculiar part of the syntax of the Acadian 
 is the use of the pronoun of the tirst person singu- 
 lar with a plural verb: f dtions^ fazionSy and often 
 that same form of the verb used with the pronouns 
 of the third person : // ctionsy Us it ions. Instead 
 of favons the contracted form f ons is frequent. 
 The neuter verbs such as allcry farlivy sortir, 
 etc., are usually conjugated with avoir. The re- 
 flexive verbs have generally dropped the auxiliary 
 elrc. 
 
 The formation of nouns from verbs is common 
 as in French. Mr. Voorhies calls my attention to 
 two interesting words: Une p^se irovnpeser, une 
 tromfe {unc erreur), from se trimiper. I refer 
 briefly here to the peculiarities of the dialect, as in 
 the longer specimens given below the points of 
 interest will be fully explained. 
 
 The two following letters are interesting, not 
 only as specimens of the dialect, but also with re- 
 gard to folklore, as the customs and manners of 
 the Acadians are described. I am indebted prin- 
 cipally lor the subject matter to Mr. Zenon de 
 Moruelle, formerly of Pointe Coupee parish, whose 
 valuable suggestions with regard to writing the 
 dialect I also desire to acknowledge. 
 
 sf|. 
 
 'W' 
 
190 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 M 
 
 PKEMIERE LeTTRE. 
 
 Bayou Choupique^ le 3 Nofcmbre^ i8go» 
 
 MON CHER MUS.SIHU PniLOLOGUE: 
 
 D'nbord I'public s'a intdresse a connaite notre histoire, 
 inouan' j'va dire tout 9a j'connais et pi* les aiitres vontconter 
 ya ils saviotis.^ l*ou 9a je connais, j'ai toujours attendu* dire 
 que les premiers Cadiens qu'a venu icite dtions arrives du 
 Nord par le Missippi. lis veuions des Illinoui^s c iMtions 
 ^parpilles tout Ic long du tleuve et ceuzes* qua quitte la grand 
 bande avions arrete cotd nous autres. lis ctions tous des 
 chasseurs et d^s coureurs des bois. La beautd des chauva- 
 gesses les avions tentcs; 9a fait y en a plein dans eux autres 
 qui s'avions marid avec ces filles des bois. Mouan j'en con- 
 nais plein des families icite qu'a du sang chauvage et mCMtie 
 quMls etions bien fiers de descendie des premiers habi- 
 tants; i' s'disions les seuls vrais Amdricains. Pour lors 
 done eune fois dtablis icite tous ces gaillards-la s'avions 
 mis a travailler dur; et pi i s'etions bati des cabanes 
 et avions defrcchi' et netteye d'la terre et chacun dans 
 eux autres a eu eune desert" pou cultiver du mais, du tabac, 
 de I'indigo, et boucoup plus tard du coton et pi ensuite a venu 
 la canne et ensuite le riz. 
 
 Nos grands-popas avions eu boucoup des pitits. Qa me fait 
 jongler dans mon jeune temps, quand ma pauvre ddfinte 
 moman me faisait carder du coton pou faire )a cotonnade; les 
 fils Etions tindus" bleus ou rouges. Alurs on avait des bien 
 jolies tchulottes et des vdreuses'" pot aller vous promener 
 I'dimanche. On avait etd d'auparavant a la messe pour ap- 
 prendre le catdchime avec le tchurd et pi quand on dtait pard'^ 
 on faisait sa premiere communion. Oh I maisc'dtait eune beau 
 jour, on sentait qu'on dtait Idgere comme une plume. A rien 
 m'aurait pas tentd pou faire eune pdchd, a rien aurait pu me 
 faire virer^^ de bord et prendre eune mauvais chemin comme 
 les mauvais garniments. 
 
 I Mot. 2 Puis. 
 
 3 The first person plural of the verb used with pronouns of first person 
 singular and third person plural. 
 
 A Entendu. 5 Cetix. 6 Ils. 7 Difrichi. 
 
 8 Champ, a curious expression. The word distrt must have designated 
 the prairies. 9 Teints, 10 Vareuses, 11 Prit. 
 
 la Virer dt bord, one of the nautical expressions so common among the 
 Acauians, 
 

 Customs and Dialects. 
 
 191 
 
 ap- 
 
 ^eau 
 rien 
 me 
 itne 
 
 ersoD 
 
 Aussitdt on ^tait assez grand pou travailler la terre, on soi- 
 gnait les betes. Notre pojia nous donnait toujours eunc tite 
 taure''' pou connuencer et au bout de qucque temps alle'* 
 avail un veau, ya fait ciip^ cliacun iluns nous autrcb avail un pHit 
 commencement pou nc . marier. 
 
 Nous autres dans la campagne on se tnariait jeune. On 
 courtisait les filles et einie fois un gargoii avail clioisi sa pre- 
 tendue, la noce tardait pas boucoup. Oh! muis du Djiab si on 
 s' amusail pas bien mieux cju'il c't' heiire. A eune noce ou 
 eune bal on dansail des rigodons, el c'tlait si lentanl que les 
 v' onlers meines quiltaient leur violon el se mettaienl a cor- 
 cobier comme les aulres. Ah! tu peux guetter" va, c'etail 
 pas comme a c'l'heure, non. Parlez-moi des aulres fois, oui. 
 A present a n'importe qui temps i dansions; nous aulres on 
 dansail jisque quand la saison commen9ait a fredir, mais par 
 exemple, quand le Mardi*" Gras lombail un samedi, i avail pas 
 de Catherine/' i fallail un bal. Dans les grands chaleurs on 
 avail pas le temps, on Iravaillait trop boucoup dur la charrue; 
 i fallail rabourer la terre, renchausser et dechausser I'mais el 
 I'coton, et pi ii la fin de I'et^ faire des mulons de foin et de 
 paille. J'vous garanlis on elail souvenl mal en position avec 
 le soleil qui vous grillail la caloquinte,'^ les chouboulures, les 
 maringouins, les betes rouges et les poux de bois. On avail pas 
 meme le temps de charrer^" un peu, comine disait nainaine'" 
 Soco. 
 
 Sit6l le soleil 6lait couche fallail jongler a boire eune bonne 
 lasse de lait el manger un peu de couche'^ couche el pi aller 
 s'fourrer en bas le here ^' pou dormir un peu et se lever a la 
 barre du jour. Cre mille miseres i avail des moments on 
 fumail^^ un vilain colon; surtoul quand noire detinl popa 
 vivail. II elail toujours le premier deboute; i fallail filer 
 raide. Mai povre definl, les Bon Djeu I'a pris, et mouan 
 meme je suis apr6sprocher'* cotd le cure pou garder sespoules. 
 
 13 G^nisse. 14 Elle, 
 
 If, Tu peux truelter. va: You may say what you please. 
 
 16 ^uand le Mardt Gras tombait un sawedi: In carnival time. 
 
 17 I avait pas de Catherine: It had to be done. 18 Lfi tete, 
 
 19 Ckarrer, to converse. 20 Marraine, 21 A dish made with com 
 
 meal. 22 La moustiqu lire. 
 
 33 Onfumait un vilain colon, for on Jilait: We were in an embarrassint; 
 situation, 
 
 24 Prochtr c6U le cur i pou garder ses poules: I shall soon die; I shall 
 be in the cemetery to take care of the curate's chickens. 
 
 ji-r: 
 
 \ ' 
 
 ! i 
 
 ) I 
 
193 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 ^M' 
 
 Bon Djeu merci, au jour d'aujourd'hui tons me pitJts sont 
 gtands. Je leiirs y ai donne tout <;a j'avais, et comme 
 i me reste plus arien, <;a c'est juste que <ja j'ai fait pou 
 eux autres ils le faisious pou mouan. J'ai pas fait avec 
 eux le partage a Montgomniery. C'dtait dans le temps a d'Arta 
 guette'** que ce fameux lapin Id, vivait. C'etait un gail- 
 lard qu'dtait plus coquin que bete; quand il allait a la 
 chasse avec ses camarades, comme il etait fort comme eune 
 cheval il commen^ait toujours par grogner faire stmblant 
 t'etre en colere. I leur faisait eune bonne cache et quand il 
 fallait partager le gibier il prenait tout et laissait la restant pou 
 les autres. ^a fait depi ce temps-'a nous autres ons dit tou- 
 jours le partage a Montgommery. 
 
 Ma plume connait galoper quequefois dansl'pass^, alle prend 
 TestampiCj^' mais je connais I'arreter quand meme j dois li 
 mettre eune bridon. Comme je me sentions lasse j'vas finir 
 icite ma premiere lettre, et je vous promets, Mussieu, de vous 
 ^crire encore anvant le jour de Noal On doit faire eune grand 
 rdveillon si vous voulez venir. On va se revoir plus tard. 
 
 Je vous salue de loin, 
 
 Batis Grosbceuf. 
 
 ! I 
 
 r 
 
 • * 
 
 Deuxieme Lettre. 
 
 Bayou Choufique,, le 12 Novembre, i8go. 
 
 Mussieu Philologue — Vous me disez comme (ja dans vot' 
 reponse que ma lettre vous avions fait bien du plaisir et pou je 
 continue a vous confer les affaires des premiers Cadiens qvi' 
 etions venus icite. C'est jus au fur et k musure j'^cris que 9a 
 m'revient. Pour lors done jevas tout vous dire tout 9a je con- 
 nais. P'ti brin ^"^ par p'ti brin (ja va finir par faire eune gros 
 las. Biensury en a des choses qui alliens vous interboliserj^" 
 parce que c'est pas un p'ti morceau j'avions pou confer. 
 
 Les Acadiens avions etc chasses par les Anglais. C'est des 
 fameux coquins qu'etions pou ainsi dire des pirates, ils avions 
 profite de leur butin apres que ces malh vireux avions parti de 
 leur pays, et les coquins savions empare de leur maisons pou 
 
 a< Very long ago; D'Artaguetle and Vincennes were burned by the 
 dii 
 
 7 
 as Surprendre. 
 
 Indians.' 26 Le fHort aux dents: Stampede 
 
 37 A curious rendering of "petit il petit I'oiseau fait son nid. 
 
 '■^- : I 
 
Customs and Dialects. 
 
 193 
 
 iihrri 
 
 )U 
 
 eusse rester et pi ils avions eu des deserts^'' ton bien cultives. 
 I.es Acadieno leurs y avions toujours garde un p'tit chien*"' 
 de leur chienne et a chaquet'ois qu'ils entendions dire God-dam, 
 c'est comme si on leur jetait de la cendre chaiide dans e dos. 
 No3 aieux aimion^ la chasse Le grand-popa de nion popa 
 etions grand chasseur. Bon matin il etions debout et aprds 
 s'avoir rince^' la dalle, il fallait qu(^que chose pou bousiller^'- 
 I'estomac. II partait, mais bien sur, aussi bien (jue le IJon 
 Djeu a fait les pommes, il revenait charge de gibier; des can- 
 ards, des chevreuils et des ours. Alors il evitait"^^ des amis pou 
 diner avec lui; c'etait des vrais ramequins,^* des vraies bam- 
 boches. La on decidions donner un bal pou umuser la 
 junesse. Un p'tit gargon a cheval allions porte en porte eviter 
 tout le monde. On dtait pas fier, on etait out egal nous 
 autres. D'abord on etait honnete, on demaiulait pas la 
 restant. Le monde venions il pied, d'autres a cheval, bou- 
 coup en charrettes. On avait pas oaleche ou barouche; on 
 attelait Ti Gris et Ti Noir et <ja vous trottions sur le chemin 
 comme les grands chevals qui venions du Kentucky. V'lh, la 
 chanchon on chantaitdans c'tempr 'a, ecoute^-bien : 
 
 Premier Couplet. 3 •'» 
 
 Depi que j'ons fait connaissance 
 
 D'un certain tendron, 
 
 J'ons courons h, I'accointance, 
 
 J'ons perds la raison. 
 
 Je ne connais dans la nature 
 
 Rien de plus flatteur 
 
 Que I'aimable creature 
 
 Qui me tchient au tchoeur, bis» 
 
 Second Couplet. 
 
 L'autre jour en cachette, 
 Alle me fit present d'un b<<cot.^' 
 Ah! ma bouche en devint muette 
 Et j'en restai tout sot. 
 
 29 A pretty expression: "des deserts bien cultives." 
 
 30 Garder un p'tit chien de leur chienne; avoii unc dent centre quelqu'un. 
 
 31 Apris avoir bu. 32 Remplir. 33 Invitait. 34 Grands diners. 
 
 35 The songf is naive and graceful, although the metre is not always cor- 
 rect. 36 Un baiser. 
 
 4 
 
 ( . 
 
v 
 
 194 
 
 
 lif 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 Ce becot-la au fotid de nion ame 
 
 Imprima le bonheiir; 
 
 II redoublii la rtainme 
 
 Qui nie tchient au tchoeur. /j/s. 
 
 Troisikme CoirPhET. 
 
 II n'y a rien de lemarqualile; 
 Partout un soleil. 
 Dans le monde habitable 
 On trouve tout pareil. 
 Mais alle a nia douce aiuio. 
 Uu pitit air fln.fteur 
 Une fidgire de fantaisie 
 Qui me tchient au tchoeur. 
 
 />is. 
 
 QUATRIEME COUI'LKT. 
 
 La beaute la phis tentante 
 
 Peut me faire les yeux doux. 
 
 Ah! je hii dirions: vous etes charmante 
 
 Mais il n'y a rien pou vous. 
 
 Ce n'est jias que sa fidgire jeune et belle 
 
 Ne soit pleine de traicheur, 
 
 Mais ce n'est pas vous qu'etes la demoiselle 
 
 Qui me tchient au tchoeur. //is. 
 
 On ne s'embetait pas a faire de la politique comme vous 
 autres avec vos elections h tous les six mcis. Nous, les aufres 
 tois, le Gouverneur nommait un commandant^'' dans notre 
 paroisse. II ^tait capitaine des armeesdu roi, et grand jige, et 
 comme on avait pas de proces, il avait pas grand chose a faire; 
 jus fumer sa pipe, et pi se promener le matin et se reposer 
 I'apres midi. Quecpiefois le commandant r''iflait une succes- 
 sion et il gardait une bonne part pou lui aussite; il disait il 
 dtait hefritier nonmme par le Gouvernement. 
 
 Quand y avait un mariagc tons nous autres on accompagnait 
 jes maries h I'Eglise et apres la <;aremonie on revenait en chan- 
 tant, et a la noce on tirait des coups de fisil. C'etait eine habi- 
 tude, ga prouve que nos aieux aimions la poudre et qu'ils n'en 
 
 37 During the Spanish domination. 
 
I ait 
 
 [bi- 
 ■'en 
 
 Customs and Dialects. 
 
 ^95 
 
 avions pas peur. Lendemain de la noce chacun reprenait son 
 ouvrage pou travailler dans le desert. Mouan, comtne j'etais 
 piti, je montions a califourchon sur le cheval de charrue et 
 mon grand frere tchombonsait •'* les guides: 9a allait pu vite 
 comme ga. 
 
 Quand y avait un enterrement nous autres on portait le mort 
 en terre sur un boyard h bras. Tout le monde acconipagnait 
 le pauvre defint et comine c'etait fatigant, les porteurs etions 
 changes de temps en temps. Qh allait tout doucement, mais 
 quand la gareinonie Etions tiiiie on revenait raide reprendre 
 I'ouvrage, parce qu'on fouinaitpas dans ce teinps-li. Oh! non, 
 on bouquait •'^ pas su Pouviage. 
 
 Aussite si on etions pas tou riches du nioins on avait de quoi 
 quand la guerre a venue. Dans les families le plus vieux gar- 
 Qon elait cila qu'allait h. I'ecole et par ensuite quand il ^tait 
 assez savant il montrait a tous les autres de la famille. Le 
 second iHait charpentier, le troisime forgeron et le quatri^me 
 cordonnier. Les tlUes faisiont la cotonnade et coudaient;*" 
 c'eta" 'outes des bonnes couturieuses,*^ par ainsi tout se faisait 
 su l'ha->i.Lation. 
 
 On avait pas ni Raide*' Rode ni Estimbotte *^ mais quand 
 c'etait pou voyager on etait pas embarrasse. On allait aux At- 
 takapas et aux Opelousas h cheval et les fc iimes venions tout 
 de nieme comme les hommes. On campait dans le bois le soir, 
 on allumait ein bon feu pour chasser maringouins et les tigres, 
 on faisait du cafe et on charrait jusqu'a n.enuit. Les hommes 
 faisions la garde et au p'tii jour on se remettaiten route. Mais 
 quand on arrivait chez des amis on bien des parents dans la 
 prairie, alors c't5tions descontentements, des plaisirs, des diners 
 jusqu'a on etait tanne.** On etait trop contents nous en tourner 
 cote nous autres parce que on etait lasse s'amuser, i fallait 
 penser a travailler. Mais tous les ans on faisions ces voyages, 
 parce qu'on apprenait boucoup des quequeschoses. L'homme 
 qu'est bien instruit c'est cila qu'a boucoup roule sa bosse dans 
 le monde. 
 
 F'aut je vous conte un charibari ** qu'on a donne a un vieux 
 qui s'avait mari^ icite c6t^ nous autres. A ce charibari le 
 
 38 A verb formed from (ettir bon. 
 
 y) On nereculait J>as. /^o Cousmient, ^\ Couturi res. 
 
 43 bteamboat. 44 Fatigu6. 4$ Chmrivari, 
 
 43 Railroad. 
 
 ji, 
 

 196 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 ^1' 
 
 monde ^tions venu de tous cot^s, mais on a fait tant du train*' 
 et du tapage, c'ctait up tumulte qu'avait boulevers^ tout le 
 voisinage. Alors le commandant avions donn6 I'ordre de finir 
 tout ^-a, aussite <;a I'n arrete net. Mois les chicanes et les cha- 
 mailles avicus cf)ntinu(^ dans le jour; 9a fait y en a eu puisieurs 
 batailies et duels et plusieurs jeunes hommes s'avions mas- 
 sacrd a coups de fisils; y en a deux qu'avions 6t6 tues. Mouan 
 je m'a trouv^ comproniis coinme temoin. J'ai-t-et6 oblig^ de 
 ddcamper. 
 
 Je m'ai embarque dans euiie pirogue et j'avtons derive 
 jusqu'^, la ville cdt6 mon parrain. Quand j'etionslas flaner et 
 naviguer *'' h la Nouvelle-Orleans j'ai parti a pied pou tourner 
 chez mouan coute qui coAte. J'avions trouve du monde je 
 connaissions tout partout, <;a fait j'etions pas oblig^ tcheman- 
 der*** a manger ni jiou coucher. ^a c'est le plus joli voyage 
 j'avions jamais fait. J'ai pris deux ans pou m'en revinir. II 
 faut je vous dUy je suis violonier de mon etat, pas un bal s'a 
 jamais donne sans c'est mouan qui joue. J'avions arrivd un 
 samedi tl St. Jacques, y avait un bal, mais le musicien s'a 
 trouve mal.ide. J'ai offri *^ mes services, ah! comme tout le 
 monde etions content. Lendemain j'etions ^vite dans tous les 
 maisons. J'avions reluque la veille au soir une belle Aca- 
 dienne; Magint(m m'avait tap^ dans I'oeil. Alors, je I'y ai 
 dit tout suite: " la belle, vous me plait, si vous disez oui on va 
 se marier." Alle m'arepondu: "Tape, <;a me va." Je m'ai 
 marie avec alle et on^'*^ a reste cdi6 son pere jusqu'a plus de deux 
 ans. Par apr^s j'avions appris la mort a ma pauvre moman. 
 J'ai revenu au Bayou Choupique pou regler la succession. Ma 
 foi, quand j'ai eu ma part j'ai dit comme <ja, tant pire pou les 
 amis j'ai quittd derri^re, inouan, je vas rester icite dans mon 
 pays. Vous voyez, Mussieu Philologue, oil I'ombril*^ est en- 
 terre on veut toujours rester; y a queque chose comme qui 
 dirait qui vous amarre ^' \h. 
 
 On dit le Cadien connait pas a rien parce qu'il a pas d'indu- 
 calion, mais il faut li donner eine chose, il aime son pays, sa 
 famille et ses amis, et si y en a qui rougissent quand on les ap- 
 
 46 Du bruit. 47 Se promener. 48 Dcmander. 
 
 49 This incident is true, as well as the marriage that followed. 
 
 50 On for nous, or je, is very common. 
 
 51 oar on est ni. 52 Anothernautical term for attache. 
 
 IJ 
 
Customs and Dialects. 
 
 197 
 
 pelle Acadiens, mouan je vas vous dire, Mussleu Phiiologue, 
 j'en suis bieii fier. Pensez-vous pas que j'avons raison? 
 
 Je vous salue de loin, 
 
 Batis Grosbceuf. 
 
 I hope that this brief sketch of the Acadians 
 of Louisiana and of their dialect will be an intro- 
 duction to a more complete study of the subject 
 hereafter. 
 
 
 
 ut 
 
 u- 
 
 sa 
 
 IV.— THE SSLENOS OF LOUISIANA AND THEIR 
 
 DIALECT. 
 
 My attention having been called to the Islenos 
 of Louisiana as being a lit subject for study, I 
 determined to visit those people and to give an 
 account of their mode of life and language. I 
 have hardly as yet been able to collect enough 
 material for a paper, but knowing the interest 
 which is taken in this subject by several Ameri- 
 can scholars, and in Europe by such men as Pro- 
 fessor Schuchardt, of the University of Gratz, and 
 others, I thought it best to present the few notes 
 which I was able to take on the occasion of two 
 visits to the country of the Islenos. 
 
 In Judge Martin's History of Louisiana (Edition 
 1882, page 224), he says: 
 
 The province now received (1778) a consider- 
 able accession of population by the arrival of a 
 number of families, brought over at the king's 
 expense, from the Canary Islands. A part of 
 them formed a new settlement at the Terre-aux- 
 Boeufs, below New Orleans, under the order of 
 
 
 -I 
 
 Ik. 
 
198 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 I! 
 
 Marigny de Mandovillc ; a part was located on the 
 banks of the river Amite, behind Baton Rouge, 
 under the order oi St. Maxent, and formed the 
 settlement of Galveztown; the rest formed that of 
 Valenzuela, on Bayou Lafourche. 
 
 A house was built for each family, and a church 
 in each settlement. They were supplied with cat- 
 tle, fowls and farming utensils; rations were fur- 
 nished them for a period of four years out of the 
 king's stores, and considerable pecuniary assist- 
 ance was also afforded to them. 
 
 Judge Ga3'arre, in his History of Louisiana, 
 repeats Martin's statements about the Islenos, and 
 in DeBozu's Revieu)^ Vol. Ill, page 23, we see, in 
 an address delivered by Henry A. Bullard, the fol- 
 lowing words : 
 
 Little colonies from Spain, or the Spanish 
 islands on the coast of Africa, were scattered in 
 different parts of the country. Such were New 
 Iberia in Attakapas, Valenzuela in Lafourche, 
 Terre-aux-Boeufs and Galveztown. They still retain 
 (January, 1S47), to a certain extent, their lai • 
 guage, manners and pursuits. 
 
 A few lines further Judge Bullard adds : 
 
 The little colonies of Spaniards at New Iberia 
 and Terre-aux-Boeufs never had any written con- 
 cessions, they were put in possession by the public 
 surveyor, and it was not long since the change of 
 government that their descendants obtained an 
 authentic recognition of their title from the United 
 States. 
 
 In DeBow's Review^ Vol. XII, page 23, men- 
 tion is made of Madame Arroyas, one of the emi- 
 
I 
 
 Customs and Dialects. 
 
 199 
 
 grants from the Canary Islands, who was still liv- 
 ing in 185 1, aged upward of ninety. The popula- 
 tion of Galveztown in 1788 was given as 256. 
 
 The above historical facts are the only ones to 
 be found about the Islenos. They came to Louis- 
 iana during the administration of the heroic Gal- 
 vez and received from that chivalric i^overnor the 
 same kind treatment which he extended to all of 
 his Catholic Majesty's subjects under his care. 
 Marigny de Mandeville, under whom the Canary 
 Islanders settled at Terre-aux-Boeufs, was a dis- 
 tinguished Louisianian whose ancestor had been a 
 companion of Iberville in 1699. It was his son, 
 Bernard de Marigny, who received in New Or- 
 leans with such princely hospitality the exiled 
 Louis-Philippe d'Orleans. 
 
 On a beautiful day at the end of June, 1891, 
 my friend Dr. J. Dell' Orto and I took the New 
 Orleans & Shell Beach Railroad and started for 
 St. Bernard parish. Our train passed through 
 historic ground, for shortly after leaving the city 
 we saw the plain of Chalmette, where Wellington's 
 veterans were defeated by Jackson and his brave 
 troops, among whom were many Louisiana Creoles. 
 We saw the charred ruins of Villere's house where 
 were established Pakenham's headquarters; we 
 looked with sorrow and shame at the monument 
 erected to Jackson on the battle field, and which 
 stands dilapidated and unfinished. We crossed 
 the canals and bayous by which the British troops 
 had come from the lakes; we passed Poydras 
 
 i! 
 
 )•■ > 
 
 -rll 
 
200 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 il 
 
 plantation, vvbich had belonj^ed to the poet, states- 
 man and philanthropist, the friend of the sick, of 
 the orphans and of indigent girls. After a journey 
 of two hours we left the bain at St. Bernard sta- 
 tion, where Dr. Dell' Orto had some friends. 
 
 The descendants of the Canary Islanders are 
 known in Louisiana as les Islingties. The prin- 
 cipal families are the Estopinal, Nunez, Serpas, 
 Ojeda, Guerra, Gonzalez, Gutierrez and Guajiro. 
 There is also the Puig (Puch) family, which is 
 Catalan, but descended from the Ojedas. A num- 
 ber of these people are men of education and of 
 some wealth; the senator from St. Bernard parish 
 is an Estopinal and the sheriff is a Nunez. The 
 great majority, however, as with the descendants 
 of the Acadians, are poor and ignorant. They 
 cultivate their little patch of ground and raise vege- 
 tables, chiefly potatoes and onions. They are also 
 great hunters. They all speak Spanish, but a 
 few speak the Creole patois and the younger ones 
 speak English. Their language is not as corrupt 
 as might be expected. You may judge by the fol- 
 lowing conversation which we had with an old 
 woman who could neither read nor write : 
 
 — Buenos dias, sefiora; ^estaes lo que llaman Uds. la Terre- 
 
 aux-Bceufs? 
 — Si, seilo Qsefior); la Terre-aux-Bceufsf que sirve mas para 
 
 los bueyes, que para los cristia'os. 
 — ^Ud. nacid aqui? 
 
 — Si, seflo (sefior) ; mi padre y madre eran Espafioles. 
 — I De que parte de Espafia? 
 — Islefios. 
 
1- 
 
 re- 
 
 ^ra 
 
 Customs and Dialects. 
 
 201 
 
 -I Conio Islefios? i De que isla? 
 
 -Yo no se. Islefios; — es to do \u que se. 
 
 -;, Eran todos Islefios los priineros habit.intes de aqui? 
 
 -Casi, pero el seflo (sefior) Puig era Catalan. 
 
 -I Que lengua se habla mas aqui? 
 
 -Antes en este punto no se hablaba masque el espafiol— ahora 
 
 de pocos afios se habla mas la leng^ i. fransesa (trancesa). 
 
 Hoy en dia (with regret) la lengua espanola se va paa tras 
 
 (para atras) ; tienen verguensa (verguenza), les d&corde- 
 
 dad (cortedad) de hablar el espafiol — los nifion ya la van 
 
 dejando, estan cogiendo la lengua inglesa. 
 -I Como aprendid Ud. espafiol? 
 -De mis padres. 
 -I No lo estudid Ud? 
 -No, seflo (sefior). 
 -I Habla Ud. f ranees? 
 -Si, sctin (sefior), he aprendido muchas palabras que niesclo 
 
 (tnezclo) con el espafiol. 
 -I Sabe Ud. el nombre de los viejos Espafioles, primeros habi- 
 
 tantcs de la parroquia.? 
 -Oh I son muchos; pero yo no ten^o mernoria; por eso, no 
 
 puedo darle rason (razon). Yo padesco (padezco) mucho 
 
 de mal de cabesa (cabeza) que me corta la mernoria; pero 
 
 nu&&tro vesint (vccino) Felipe Gutierrez podra darle mas 
 
 rason (razon) que yo. 
 -I Su marido de Ud. vive? 
 -No, seflo (sefior) ; murio hara sinco (cinco) oseis aflos, de la 
 
 edad de oclienta afios. 
 -I Hay muchos deesta edad que viven todavia en la parroquia? 
 -J Oh! si, los vesinos (vecinos) podran darle rason (razon) 
 
 mejor queyo. 
 -I Sus hijos hablan espafiol? 
 -Si, seflo (sefior), todos. 
 -I Que tal la salud de Ud? 
 -Asi, asi; ademas de la cabesa (cabeza) sufro tambien del 
 
 estogamo (estomago). 
 -Adios, sefiora; no quiero molestarla mas; muchas gracias de 
 
 8U bondad. 
 -Nada, seHo (sefior) ; al contrario, me alegro mucho de su 
 
 visita; me ha alegrado el corason (corazon). 
 
 
 1' 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 % 
 
 
 
 11 
 
1 
 
 'H|' 
 
 202 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 ! ! 
 
 ! 
 
 *. 
 
 Translation. 
 
 — Good morning, Madam; is this what is called la Terre- 
 
 aux-Boeufs? 
 — Yes, sir; /« Terre-aux-Bixufs^ which is of more use to oxen 
 
 than tc Christians. 
 — Were you born liere? 
 
 — Yes, sir; my father and my mother were Spaniards. 
 — From what part of Spain? 
 — Islanders. 
 
 — How, Islanders? From what islands? 
 — I do not know. Islanders, that is all that I know. 
 — Were all the first inhabitants Islanders? 
 — Almost all, but Mr. Puig was Catalan. 
 — What language is spoken most iiere? 
 
 — Formerly in this place nothing was spoken but Spanish-- 
 now for the last few years the French language is spoken 
 most. To-day the Spanish language is going backwaid; 
 they are ashamed, they are afraid to speak Spanish— the 
 children are already abandoning it; they are taking hold 
 of the English language. 
 — How did you learn Spanish? 
 — From my parents. 
 — You did not study it? 
 — No, sir. 
 
 — Do you speak French? 
 — Yes, sir; I have learned many words which I mix with the 
 
 Spanish language. 
 — Do you know the number of the old Spaniards, the first in- 
 habitants of the parish? 
 — Oh I there are many; but I liave no memory; for that reason 
 I can not answer your question. I suffer very much from 
 headaches, which deprive me of my memory, but our neigh- 
 bor, Philip Gutierrez, may answer better than I. 
 — Is your husband living? 
 
 — No, sir; he died five or six years ago at the age of 80. 
 — Are there muny of that age who are now living in the parish? 
 — Oh, yes; the neighbors will answer better than I. 
 — Do your children speak Spanish? 
 — Yes, sir; all. 
 — How is your health? 
 
Customs and Diat.ects. 
 
 203 
 
 ■ — So, so; besides having lieadachcs, I suif'erfrom my stoinacli. 
 — Good hy, madam. I do nol w isli to trouble you any longer. 
 
 Many thanks for your kiniiness. 
 — Not at all, sir; on the contrary, your visit pleases me very 
 
 much; it has pleaded my heart. 
 
 An Isleno speaking of the bad condition of the 
 public road said : 
 
 *' Las autoridades no se curan de aryanchar el camino, y el 
 probr ipobre) paga paa too (para todo)." 
 
 From the above specimen of the hmguage of the 
 Islefios we see the tendency to abbreviate by drop- 
 ping the final consonant, sefiu for seno7\ and even 
 the middle consonant, faa too for para todo. In 
 faa tras we notice the shortening of para and the 
 use of the shorter tras for atras. 
 
 The c before e and i is invariably pronounced 
 5.' franscs for frances, sinco for cinco. 
 
 The z is also pronounced s: vergilcnsa for ve?'- 
 gileiiza^ mcsclo for 'tnczclo^ rason for razon, ca- 
 besa for cabeza. 
 
 A most curious metathesis is estooamo for esto- 
 mago. Some peculiar expressions are les da cor- 
 dedad {cortcdad) dc hablar espafiul ; cstaii co- 
 o'lcndo la Icngtui inglesa {cogiefido, taking hold 
 of) ; 7nal de cabesa {cabeza) que me corta la 
 memoria; arranchar el ca^nhio. 
 
 The old woman was not lacking in humor, as 
 we see by her remark, "Zr/ Terr e-aux- Been fs que 
 sirve 7nas para los bueyes que para los cristia7ios.''* 
 She lived alone in her cabin with two young 
 
 i 
 
 i^ii^ 
 
 \i 
 
I^l I 
 
 204 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 li. 
 
 kiM, 
 
 daughters and told us that they earned their living 
 by cultivating the ground. 
 
 My second visit to the Islefios was on Novem- 
 ber 29, 1891. Mr. Ben Olivier had kindly invited 
 me to spend the day with him at his father's plan- 
 tation in St. Bernard parish. The Olivier family 
 is one of the oldest and most distinguished in 
 Louisiana. Their name originally was Olivier de 
 Vezin, and now some members of the family are 
 known by the name of Olivier and others of De 
 Vezin. There being a number of families in the 
 State descended from the French nobility, names 
 of landed estates have often become family names, 
 the Le Bretons are Des Chapelles, St. Mesme, 
 D'Orgenois; the Soniats are also Du Fossat, and 
 the Beauregards are also Toutants, the Confederate 
 general being called Beauregard and his brother 
 Toutant. 
 
 Mr. Olivier lives in the same house where he 
 was born eighty-seven years ago. He is a most 
 affable gentleman, and I received from him and 
 his family a very cordial welcome. We were fur- 
 nished with horses and on we started, Mr. Ben 
 Olivier and I for r/le, where live those descend- 
 ants of the Spaniards, who are yet the children of 
 nature. Shortly after leaving the Olivier planta- 
 tion we passed the former place of the Chevalier 
 de Reggio, of princely blood. General Beaure- 
 gard's maternal grandfather. The house where 
 lived the old nobleman exists no longer, but fortu- 
 nately the dwelling where was born General 
 
Customs and Dialects. 
 
 205 
 
 :al 
 
 Beauregard is still in existence, and we had seen 
 it from the train a few minutes before. 
 
 La Tcrre-aux-Bccufs is a narrow strip of fertile 
 land about ten miles from the Mississippi river. 
 On the right is Lake I^t"ry and on the left Lake 
 Borgne. As we advanced toward the gulf the 
 strip of land grew narrower, and after a ride of a 
 fevr miles we ccnild see on both sides of us the 
 trembling prairie. As we rode along we passed a 
 number of small farms where nothing was culti- 
 vated but the onion, and every person we met 
 spoke Spanish. To Mr. Olivier's greeting, ^ i como 
 esta, paisano? a courteous reply in Spanish was 
 given by men and boys. A small boy wiih a gun 
 larger than himself was on the roadside, and 
 when we asked him alM)ut his game he answered, 
 na. The hunt had been tuiiia to him. 
 
 After riding five or six miles we reached a dense 
 wood where could be seen immense oak trees 
 with gigantic trunks, but shorn of then* largest 
 limbs by the powerful wind which blows from the 
 gulf. The forest is called " Bois du Lac," or by 
 the Islenos, " Bois delLacre." It took us about an 
 hour to cross it, after wMch we reached the 
 Spanish settlement. The scene wr wild and 
 strange: Bayou Boeuf, which was a mere ditch at 
 the Olivier plantation, had become a deep and 
 rapid stream of salt water. It has two branches, 
 one flowing into Lake Lery and the other into 
 the gulf, which is at a distance of five or six 
 miles. The land comprised between the two 
 
 •A 
 
 t'^' 
 
2o6 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 §> 
 
 i i 
 
 branches of the bayou was P/le, which we had 
 come to see. The dwellings are on both sides of the 
 bayou and are mostly palmetto huts. As it was a 
 cold day nearl}, all the men had <^one hunting and 
 fishing, and the women were indoors; a few 
 children, however, dark-haired and brown, were 
 running about in the cold wind, bareheaded and 
 barefooted, and a young man in a canoe was 
 crossing the bayou in the direction of a hut, be- 
 fore which was standing a young girl, probably 
 Innocente, said Mr. Olivier, the belle of the vil- 
 lage with Agrippina. 
 
 The Spaniards on r//e live entirely by hunting 
 and fishing. The women fish in the bayou in front 
 of their huts, but the men go to the gulf for fish- 
 ing and to the lakes for hunting. They bring back 
 immense quantities of fish and ducks, which are 
 sent to the Olivier railroad station, ten or twelve 
 miles distant, in small carts drawn by oxen, yoked 
 Spanish fashion, b}'- the horns. The land does 
 not belong to the Islcfios; tliey build their huts 
 and pay one dollar a month for the rent of the 
 land. The palmetto huts struck me with amaze- 
 ment — how could human beings in a civilized 
 country live in such dwellings! There is no 
 chimney, and the fire is made in the hut on a few 
 bricks, the smoke escaping through an opening in 
 the roof. 
 
 In order to s^e the Islefios at home we called on 
 old Pepe Martin, whom Mr. Olivier knew. The 
 old man received us very well and gave us a cup 
 
 ! 1 
 
on 
 'he 
 
 Customs and Dialects. 
 
 207 
 
 of coffee and biscuits. His sixteen-year-old 
 daughter took charge of our horses and we sat at 
 a rough table with old Pepe. His wife was seated 
 by the fire holding a baby on her knees, while a 
 two-year-old boy was crouching in a corner and 
 looking at us with astonishment and fear. Pepe 
 smoked with relish a cigar which my companion 
 gave him and Mrs. Pepe seemed to enjoy her 
 cigarette. She listened with attention to the con- 
 versation and smiled at the jokes of her husband, 
 but did not utter a word. We were really with the 
 cliildren of nature, where man is supreme and 
 woman is nothing but an obedient being. We 
 learned indeed from Pepe how uncivilized were 
 the Islefios of V lie; not one person in the whole 
 number of about three hundred inhabitants could 
 read. They lived without the schoolmaster and 
 the physician, and only needed the priest for the 
 marriage and funeral ceremonies. Here were men 
 - nd women living without instruction and without 
 religion, and I could not help pitying them. They 
 seemed, however, perfectly contented; they were 
 very poor, but the palmetto hut was warm, the 
 hunting and fishing furnished food, the mother 
 and children were in good health, the father was 
 strong and jovial. He said, speaking of the game, 
 " ;/^ hay hecassina, fero -patosy We could see^ 
 looking at the wails covered with soot, that rac- 
 coons were more plentiful than snipes; every- 
 where were hung skins of the favorite game of the 
 negro. 
 
 1' ; ' 
 
208 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 The Islenos are a pure race ; they have a perfect 
 horror of the negro and marry among themselves. 
 Both boys and girls marry from the age of fifteen, 
 said old Pepe, and there are many children in 
 each family. The women are rather handsome 
 and are very dark, owing as much to the hard life 
 which they lead as to their natural complexion. 
 
 We asked Pepe to give us a song, and he sang the 
 following decima de atnor, as he said, v.hich I 
 wrote under his dictation: 
 
 
 'ir 
 
 ^ll 
 
 Una Decima de Amor. 
 
 Si tu amor quieres vender 
 
 Sera una fiera batalla; 
 
 Yo sere un rajo con ala 
 
 Haia (hasta) ganarte, mi vien (bien), 
 
 Se alguno con falsa hasafia (hazafia) 
 
 Hablara de tu hermosura, 
 
 Veras, en defensa tuja, 
 
 Sere un fiel leon en batalla. 
 
 Amor, luchando, se halla 
 
 Hata (hasta) que gane la palma; 
 
 A.si, *dile que se vaja. 
 
 Yo sigo tu entendimiento, 
 
 Porque le cortare el viento; 
 
 Sera una fiera batalla. 
 
 Lo sifio de Dio (Dios) ven ano (vengatlvo) 
 
 M'ensefiara a querer. 
 
 DisPH (dicen) que me ande ver 
 
 En tu braso (brazo) colocado. 
 
 Aqui me tienes potrado (postrado)^ 
 
 Dime tu fiel verdadero. 
 
 En defensa de tu sielo (cielo) 
 
 Yo sere un rayo con ala. 
 
nil 
 
 Customs and Dialects. 
 
 209 
 
 A Lovtt Song. 
 
 If you wish to sell your love 
 
 There will be a fierce battle; 
 
 I shall be a thunderbolt with wings 
 
 Until I can win you, my love. 
 
 If any one with false exploits 
 
 Will speak of your beauty, 
 
 In truth, in your defence, 
 
 I shall be a faithful lion in battle. 
 
 It is by struggling that love is found 
 
 And the crown is gained; 
 
 Therefore, tell him to depart. 
 
 I shall do what you desire 
 
 Because I shall put him to death; 
 
 It will be a tierce battle. 
 
 Tbe avenging saints of God 
 
 Will teach me how to love. 
 
 They say that I shall see myself 
 
 Resting in your arms. 
 
 Here you hold me at your feet; 
 
 Tell me indeed that I am your faithful lover. 
 
 In defence of your heaven 
 
 I shall be a thunderbolt with wings. 
 
 Old Pepe's decima is far from being a correct 
 poem; it is, however, queer and expressive. We 
 may pardon mistakes in prosody to a man who is 
 ;i " thunderbolt with wings," " a faithful lion in 
 battle,'* and '* a tender lover at the feet of his 
 lady-love," 
 
 We notice the omission of the 5, hata for hasta, 
 potrado ioY posirado ; the softening of b into v^ mi 
 vien for tnib'ien; the z and the c before e and i 
 pronounced like 5, hraso for brazo^ hasaila for 
 hazaf,a^ disen for dicen^ si el for del; vengano for 
 vengativo is curious. 
 
m 
 
 2IO 
 
 Louisiana Studies, 
 
 As we had a long ride awaiting us we were soon 
 obliged lo bid farewell to Pepe and liis 'nteresting 
 family. We returned to Mr. Olivier's plantation, 
 paid a visit to the sugar house, where was boiling 
 the fragrant syrup, and latc^ in the evening took 
 the train for New Orleans. While on our way 
 back to the great city of the South, where civili- 
 zation is so highly developed, where are to be 
 found all luxuries, I was haunted by the vision of 
 the palmetto hut, and of the old man who said: 
 " JVo qidero na ma que habitual (beans) cafe y 
 ^an,** What is it that satisfies us, civilized men? 
 
PART III. 
 
 HISTORY AND EDUCATION. 
 
 II' 
 
 y 
 
 I— WAR TIMES (1861 = 1865). 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 When Louisiana was ceded to Spain in 1763 
 the colonists were in despair, and still more so 
 after the cruel execution of Lafreniere and his 
 brave confederates. The rule of the Spaniards, 
 however, was mild, and the Louisianians were 
 happy under the domination of the King of Spain. 
 In 1801 the colony was ceded back to France, 
 but the French took possession of it in 1803 only 
 to surrender it to the United States. The pur- 
 chase of Louisiana was one of the wisest deeds of 
 Jefferson and the most fortunate thing for the 
 Louisianians. From that time they knew that 
 they would be independent citizens and no longer 
 subjects to be bartered and sold like cattle at a 
 despot's will. In 181 2 the Territory of Orleans 
 became the State of Louisiana, and Claiborne, 
 the territorial governor, became the governor of 
 
212 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 \m,:]\ 
 
 the State. The inhabitants had learned to respect 
 and esteem him during the nine years of his ad- 
 ministration ot the territory, and they showed great 
 confidence in him during the trying moments of 
 the English invasion. 
 
 All Louisianians in December, 1814, and Jan- 
 uary, 1815, showed themselves devoted Americans, 
 and they were warmly commended by Jackson. 
 The rout of Pakenham's army is one of the most 
 glorious events in American history and was a 
 happy omen for the future of the new-born State. 
 Indeed, from the battle of New Orleans in 181 5 
 to the civil war in 1861, Louisiana enjoyed won- 
 derful prosperity. Agriculture and commerce 
 were developed, schools were carefully fostered, 
 and the wealth of the people was continually in- 
 creasing. The governors of the State had been 
 able and conscientious, the laws were liberal, and 
 only one thing seemed to be a cause of anxiety 
 for the future — it was slavery. This great question 
 brought about for a time the disruption of the 
 Union, although the South did not fight only to 
 maintain slavery. The Southern men were in 
 favor of States' rights, and when they believed 
 those rights to be attacked they seceded from the 
 Northern and Western States. There is no doubt, 
 in my mind, that if the South had been victorious, 
 slavery would have been abolished. Emancipation 
 would have been gradual, but it would surely have 
 come, and without the evils that accompanied a 
 sudden emancipation, which disorganized labor 
 
HisToiiv AND Education. 
 
 213 
 
 m 
 ved 
 the 
 abt, 
 
 3US, 
 
 tion 
 
 ave 
 
 Id a 
 
 ibor 
 
 and caused such wide-spread ruin. Let us not, 
 however, consider what might have happened. 
 The war took place, the slaves were freed and be- 
 came citizens, and the South passed through the 
 terrible ordeal of Reconstruction. She is now free 
 once more, and free within the Union, and surely 
 not one of her sons wishes now that it had been 
 otherwise. But the men of the South fought 
 valiantly for their cause and should be proud of 
 these four years of our history, 1861 to 1865. Let 
 us cast a glance at the events which took place in 
 Louisiana in war times and we shall honor and re- 
 vere the men who defended so heroically the soil 
 of their State against such tremendous odds. 
 
 Never had Louisiana been more prosperous than 
 in i860, but at the end of that year the election of 
 Lincoln foreshadowed great and serious events in 
 the country. South Carolina seceded from the 
 Union in i860, and Governor Thomas Overton 
 Moore, of Louisiana, called the Legislature 
 together in extra session in December, i860. An 
 election for delegates to a State convention took 
 place on January 7, 1861, and preparations for 
 war were begun. The convention met on Janu- 
 ary 23, and elected ex-Governor Mouton as presi- 
 dent. On January 26 an ordinance of secession 
 was .dopted and signed by one hundred and twen- 
 ty-one delegates, seven refusing. Delegates were 
 sent to the convention held at Montgomery to or- 
 ganize the Southern Confederacy, and Louisiana 
 severed the ties which bound her to the American 
 
214 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 m^ 
 
 Union and cast her lot with the other South- 
 ern States. For four years she was one of the 
 Confederate States of America and on many a 
 hloody battle field her sons fought gloriously and 
 well. 
 
 The Capture of New Orleans. 
 
 To retain control of the Mississippi was of the 
 utmost importance to the Confederacy, and the 
 Federals exerted their utmost efforts to open the 
 river and its most important tributaries. Forts 
 Henry and Donelson fell after a gallant resistance ; 
 Island No. lo was also taken, and at the end of 
 1861 there only remained above New Orleans two 
 points — Vicksburg and Port Hudson — which might 
 prevent the Federal fleet, called the Western Flo- 
 tilla, froiTi sailing down the river to New Orleans. 
 The latter city, in April, 1862, was almost with- 
 out an army to protect her, as Louisiana's sons 
 were nearly all at that time on distant battle fields. 
 Gen. Mansfield Lovell, commanding the depart- 
 ment, had only 6000 men under him, and he 
 seems to have done all in his power to protect the 
 city. The Confederate government provided some 
 vessels for the defence of the city, but did not act 
 with sufficient celerity in completing the iron- 
 clads which were then building. The fleet of 
 rams and improvised gun-boats were to support 
 Forts St. Philip and Jackson, but did not do all 
 that might have been expected of them. The com- 
 manders of the vessels, with few exceptions, were 
 
History and Education, 
 
 215 
 
 he 
 
 the 
 
 >me 
 
 act 
 
 ^on- 
 
 of 
 )ort 
 
 all 
 )m- 
 tere 
 
 not men of experience and ahility. They cer- 
 tainly were not equal in talent to Farragut and 
 Porter. 
 
 Admiral Porter, in his article in tlie Cetiiiiry 
 Mdi^azinc (1885), "The Opening of the Lower 
 Mississippi," says that in Novemher, 1S61, he 
 communicated to President Lincoln and the Sec 
 retary of the Navy a plan which he liad formed 
 for the capture of New Orleans. The plan was 
 approved b}'^ Gen. McClellan, and Captain Farra- 
 gut was suggested by Commander Porter to com- 
 mand the expedition. On the 20th of February, 
 1862, Flag Otllcer Farragut arrived at Ship Island 
 and began to arrange his squadron. He scon had 
 seventeen vessels, mounting one hundred and sev- 
 enty-seven guns, and a large mortar flotilla com- 
 posed of six steamers and a number of schooners. 
 Forts Jackson and St. Philip were well fortified, 
 had a brave garrison of about seven hundred men 
 each, commanded by a gallant and able man, 
 Gen. Duncan, and the obstructions in the river 
 ** seemed formidable," said Farragut's chief of 
 staff. He reported them to consist of "eight 
 hulls moored in line across the river, with 
 heavy chains extending from one to the other. 
 Rafts of logs were also used, and the passage 
 between the forts was thus entirely closed." The 
 obstructions, it is said, would have been far more 
 effective if Beauregard's plan of a double swinging 
 boom raft had been adopted. 
 
 Admiral Porter says that the raft placed across 
 
M 
 
 216 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 i.Ui! 
 
 IhI 
 
 the river **was not formidable or ingenious.** 
 The Confederate fleet consisted of twelve vessels, 
 and a number of fire rafts had been prepared. 
 Unfortunately, the machinery of the iron-clad 
 '* Louisiana " was not completed and she had to be 
 secured to the river bank during the engagement 
 with Farragut. The machinery and boilers of the 
 gun-boats were protected with cotton bales. 
 
 The Federal fleet crossed the bar with some 
 difficulty, and when about three miles from the 
 forts Farragut ordered Commander Porter to 
 begin the bombardment with the mortar vessels. 
 The mast heads of the latter were covered with 
 brush and it seemed to be from the trees that the 
 firing proceeded. This was on April 18. The 
 forts returned the firing, but they suffered exceed- 
 ingly from Porter's mortars. On the 20th the 
 cable in the river broke in two, and on the 24th 
 Farragut attempted to pass the forts with his fleet. 
 General Duncan had requested Commanaer Mitch- 
 ell to send the "Louisiana" below the forts to stop 
 the advance of the Federals, but the Confederate 
 officer in nominal command of the fleet did not 
 heed General Duncan's request. The Federal 
 fleet advanced in three divisions — the first, of eight 
 vessels, commanded by Captain Bailey; the second, 
 of three vessels, by Farragut, and the third, of six 
 vessels, by Captain Bell, The mortar vessels 
 engaged the water batteries of Fort Jacksrn, and 
 Captain Bailey, at 2:30 a. m., pushed on boldly 
 up the river. The two forts cannonaded furiously, 
 
History and Education. 
 
 217 
 
 but did no real damage to Bailey's ships, which 
 passed the forts and attacked the Confederate 
 vessels. Let us call attention here to the admi- 
 rable conduct of Cupt. Beverly Kennon in the ram 
 " Governor Moore." The latter attacked the gun- 
 boat " Varuna," rammed her, and having only two 
 guns ( 32-pounders), and being placed in such a 
 position that she could not lower her guns so as to 
 strike the " Varuna," Captain Kennon ordered the 
 gun to be fired through the bow of his own vessel. 
 The ball passed through the " Governor Moore " 
 and struck the " Varuna," and through the hole in 
 his ship Kennon fired again at his adversary. 
 The ram " Stonewall Jackson " came now to the 
 Moore's assistance and rammed the '* Varuna," 
 which sank shortly afterward near the river bank. 
 Captan Kennon's ship was afterward attacked by 
 several vessels and was abandoned and burned, 
 and such was also the fate of the " Stonewall 
 Jackson." 
 
 Farragut's flag-ship, the ** Hartford," was 
 severely treated by the forts and came near being 
 destroyed by a fire raft pushed boldly against her 
 by the tugboat " Mosher." The Confederate 
 ram *' Manassas " did good service, but Farragut's 
 division succeeded in passing the forts and joined 
 Capt. Bailey. The third division, under Capt. 
 Bell, passed without much resistance and the fleet 
 proceeded to New Orleans. Gen. Lovell, who had 
 come down the river to have news of the fight at 
 the forts, returned hurriedly to the city, and, sur- 
 
2l8 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 Mi i i 
 
 m 
 
 rendering it to the civil authorities, withdrew his 
 army from New Orleans. There seems to be no 
 doubt that there was nothing for him to do after 
 the enemy's fleet had reached the city. He would 
 have uselessly exposed old men, women and 
 children to a cruel bombardment. 
 
 Commander Porter, after Farragut's departure 
 for New Orleans, remained with his mortar fleet 
 to capture the forts, and to him Ge*i. Duncan sur- 
 rendered on April 29. The iron-clad " Louisiana" 
 was burned by Commander Mitchell, who was 
 taken prisoner. The Confederate soldiers had 
 done all that brave men could do in defending their 
 flag, and even their enemies admired their con- 
 duct. 
 
 Farragut easily silenced th'i Confederate bat- 
 teries at Chalmette, and at 10 o'clock, April 25, 
 1862, reached New Orleans. The scene was 
 weird and grand: the river boats were burning and 
 floating down, a mass of flames, the cotton and 
 sugar on the levee were also set on fire, the rain 
 was falling in torrents and large crowds were on 
 the river front looking with despair at the huge 
 Federal gun-boats. Farragut sent immediately 
 Capt. Bailey to demand the surrender of the city, 
 but Mayor Monroe said that Gen. Lovell was the 
 proper person to see. The latter replied that his 
 army had already left the city and he was going to 
 join them. Capt. Bailey also asked that the 
 mayor lower the State flag which had been hoisted 
 on the City Hall. The matter of the surrender of 
 
History and Education. 
 
 2T9 
 
 the city and of the lowering of the flag was sub- 
 mitted to the council by the mayor, and the lattor's 
 position was sustained. Mayor Monroe said tliat 
 the Federals could take the city if tliey wished, as 
 no resistance waspossibie. *' We yield," said he, 
 '* to physical force alone, and maintain our alle- 
 giance to the government of the Confederate Slates. 
 Beyond this a due respect for our dignity, our 
 rights and the flag of our country does not, I 
 think, permit us to go." The mayor's principal 
 adviser in those trying times was the Hon. Pierre 
 Soule, the great orator and statesman. By his 
 courage and eloquence he calmed the people aiul 
 prevented any attack against the Federal oflicers 
 sent by Farragut. Pierre Soule certainly rendered 
 an immense service to New Orleans on that occa- 
 sion, and he also, by his advice sustained Mayor 
 Monroe in the courageous and dignified position 
 which he took. After several days of negotiation, 
 during which Farragut threatened to bombard the 
 city, it was finally decided that New Orleans would 
 not be surrendered and that the Federals would 
 rake possession of it. They were also to lower 
 the State flag placed on the City Hall by the 
 mayor on the 20th. Mr. Marion A. Baker, at that 
 time secretary to the mayor, has given such a vivid 
 description of the last scene in the great drama 
 begun at Forts Jackson and St. Philip that we 
 wish to quote the last paragraph of his article pub- 
 lished in the Century Magazine of i886, page 
 462: 
 
220 
 
 Louisiana Studies 
 
 I i 
 
 As soon as the two ofPcers left the room, Mr. 
 Monroe also vvf^nt out. Descending the front 
 steps he walked out into the street and placed 
 himself immediately in front of the howitzer 
 pointing down St. Charles street. There, folding 
 his arms, he fixed his eyes upon the gunner, who 
 stood, lanyard in hand, ready for action. Here he 
 remained, without once looking. up or moving until 
 the flag had been hauled down by Lieutenant 
 Kautz and he and Captain Bell reappeared. At 
 an order from the oilicers the sailors drew their 
 howitzers back into the square, the marines fell 
 into marching order behind them, and retired as 
 they had come. As they passed out through the 
 Camp street gate Mr. Monroe turned toward the 
 hall, and the people, who had hitherto preserved 
 the silence he had asked from them, broke into 
 cheers for their mayor. 
 
 I shall not relate Butler's tyrannical, cruel and 
 corrupt administration in New Orleans. The ex- 
 ecution, or rather the murder of Mumford; his 
 wholesale spoliations, and especially that of the 
 office of the Consul of Holland; his insults to the 
 patriotic women of the city, have branded his name 
 with infamy, not only in America, but in the whole 
 civilized world, and his conduct was disavowed 
 by the Federal government, which recalled him 
 after a few months and superseded him by 
 Banks. I do not believe that there will now be 
 found an}'- man of honor and of true courage that 
 will excuse in any way Butler's infamous Order 
 No. 28: 
 
History and Education. 
 
 221 
 
 Mr. 
 
 ront 
 iced 
 itzer 
 ding 
 
 who 
 re he 
 until 
 in ant 
 , At 
 
 their 
 s fell 
 ed as 
 ;h the 
 rd the 
 erved 
 e into 
 
 Headquarters DiiiPARTMENT of the Gulf, > 
 New Orleans, May 15, 1862. > 
 
 [^General Order No. 2S.'] 
 
 As the otFicers and soldiers of Ihe United States 
 have been subjected to repeated insults from 
 the women (calling themselves ladies) of New 
 Orleans, in return for the most scrupulous non- 
 interference and courtesy on our part, it is ordered 
 that hereafter, wh.jn any female shall, by word, 
 gesture or movement, insult or show contempt for 
 any olllcer or soldier of the United States, 
 she shall be regarded, and held liable to be 
 treated, as a woman of the town plying her avo- 
 cation. 
 
 By command of 
 
 Major General Butler. 
 
 G. C. Strong, A. A. G., Chief of Staff. 
 
 After the fall of New Orleans the Federal <run- 
 boats ascended the river, and being attacked by 
 Confederate batteries on the banks, bombarded the 
 plantations as the}' passed. This was natural where 
 there were batteries, but, too often, houses were 
 bombarded, in front of which stood no batteries. 
 How well do I remember the ilight of our whole 
 family to the river front to seek the protection of 
 the levee, whenever a gun-boat was coming. 
 There we stood behind the levee, my sisters 
 and myself, our school-mistress and our nurses, 
 while our father stood on the levee to look at 
 the Federal gun-boats and at the shells, wh* h 
 generally passed over our heads, but which, occa- 
 
 n 
 
m 
 
 222 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 mn\ 
 
 
 ff,;?, 
 
 :i 
 
 sionally, were buried in the levee and covered us 
 with dust. Our house was never touched b}' the 
 shells, but tliose of a number of our relatives and 
 friends were considerably damaged, and I remem- 
 ber seeing cart loads of balls strewn in the yards. 
 How dramatic all this was: the huge iron-clad 
 "Essex" passing in triumph the river batteries, her 
 shells whizzing like huge meteors over our heads, 
 and we helpless against the invaders ! I remem- 
 ber also the holes dug in the ground and covered 
 with thick beams and several feet of earth, the 
 inside arranged like a comfortable room and filled 
 with provisions of all kinds. Then came the Fed- 
 eral soldiers in garrison on the plantation, and 
 well beliaved; then the insolence of some of the 
 liberated slaves, the temporary arrest of my father 
 and grandfather, the serio-comic scenes at the 
 provost marshal's court, where, too often, favors, 
 or rather rights, had to be bought ; then the flight of 
 the family to the Teclie and the pillaging by the 
 conquering army; the return home and then com- 
 plete ruin. From this ruin we, sons of rich 
 planters, have now partially recovered, and the 
 men of 1894, who were boys in 1862, do not keep 
 any unkind remembrance of War Times. They 
 shall, however, never forget the exciting scenes, 
 in which several years of their boyhood were 
 passed and which changed so completely the ca- 
 reer of so many Louisianians. 
 
History and Education. 
 
 223 
 
 d us 
 ^ the 
 
 and 
 iiem- 
 ards. 
 -clad 
 s,her 
 .eads, 
 mem- 
 ivered 
 h, the 
 I filled 
 iFed- 
 1, and 
 of the 
 I father 
 at the 
 favors, 
 lio-ht of 
 
 by the 
 com- 
 
 )f rich 
 
 id the 
 
 )t keep 
 They 
 
 scenes, 
 were 
 
 Ithe ca- 
 
 Henry Watkins Allen — Battle of 
 Baton Rouge. 
 
 No man should be more honored by the people 
 of Louisiana than Henry Watkins Allen, the 2va7- 
 governor, and we believe that it may be of inter- 
 est to give a brief account of his life as related by 
 Mrs. Sarah A. Dorsey in her " Recollections" of 
 her hero. 
 
 Allen was born in Prince Edward county, in 
 Virginia, April 29, 1820. His father, Thomas 
 Allen, was a physician, a man upright and stern; 
 his mother, Ann Watkins, was most gentle and 
 lovable. Dr. Allen lost his wife and moved to 
 Kay county, Missouri, in 1833. His son Henry 
 was sent to school for some time, then he was 
 placed in a store as a clerk, but he finally pre- 
 vailed upon his father to send him to college. He 
 remained at Marion College, Missouri, for two 
 years, but ran away at the age of seventeen and 
 went to Grand Gulf, Miss. He became private 
 tutor in a planter's family and then opened a 
 school at Grand Gulf. He read law in the mean- 
 time and was admitted to the bar and was getting 
 a good practice, when, in 1842, he left for Texas 
 at the head of a company to fight against Mexico. 
 He took part in the battle of San Jacinto and 
 behaved with great gallantry during the six 
 months for which he had been mustered into the 
 service. 
 
 On his return to Grand Gulf he again practised 
 law, and meeting Miss Salome Ann Crane, a bright 
 

 1 
 
 II ! 
 
 '*i|i 
 
 M\ 
 
 224 
 
 Louisiana Studies 
 
 and beautiful girl of eighteen, he fell in love with 
 her, and, her parents objecting to the match, *'the 
 young people," says Mrs. Dorsey, " took matters 
 in their own hands, eloped together one bright 
 moonlight night, and were married at Grand Gulf 
 on the 4th of July, 1844." Four days after his mar- 
 riage Allen fought a duel, and wounding his 
 adversary was himself severely wounded. He 
 was elected to the Legislature in 1846 and served 
 with distinction. He was at that time perfectly 
 happy, having been reconciled to his wife's pa- 
 rents and given a home on a plantation by his 
 father-in-law. His beloved Salome, however, fell 
 ill, and died after six years of wedded life. 
 
 Allen, at the death of his wife, left Grand 
 Gulf and moved to a plantation in Tensas parish, 
 Louisiana. He soon afterward went to Cooper's 
 Wells, in Mississippi, for the benefit of his health, 
 and there he met an old planter from West Baton 
 Rouge, who took such a liking to Allen that he 
 induced the latter to accompany him home. He 
 afterward enabled his young friend to become the 
 owner of a large estate. Allen went to reside 
 in 1852 on his plantation, *' Allendale," in West 
 Baton Rouge, and in 1853 was elected to the 
 Legislature. In 1854 ^^ went to Harvard Uni- 
 versity for some time to study law, and in 1859 ^^ 
 undertook a journey to Europe. In his '* Travels 
 of a Sugar Planter " he described his impressions 
 of the old world. In 1861 he went to Virginia, 
 then to Havana, where he stayed till Maj . 
 
History and Education. 
 
 225 
 
 On returning to Louisiana he immediately en- 
 rolled in the Delta Rifles, and shortly aftenvard, 
 became lieutenant-colonel of the Fourth Louisiana 
 Infantry, of which Robert J. Barrow was colonel. 
 Four companies of the regiment were sent under 
 Allen to Ship Island. They remained there sev- 
 eral months and were thoroughly disciplined by 
 their chief. Allen was afterward stationed at Fort 
 Berwick Chene, at the mouth of the Atchafalaya, 
 and in March, 1S62, the Fourth Regiment having 
 been sent to Jackson, Tenn., Allen was elected 
 colonel of the regiment and appointed military 
 governor of Jackson by Beauregard. At the bat- 
 tle of Shiloh, on the first day, Colonel Allen was 
 wounded by a minie ball which passed through 
 his cheek. lie put some cotton lint on the wound, 
 tied his handkerchief around his face and con 
 tinned to light. On the second day he led a des- 
 perate charge of his regiment, and Mrs. Dorscy 
 says tliat a ;';entlcman on Beauregard's staff said 
 of him: " '^i'here was Allen, his face tied up in a 
 bloody handkerchief, with a bit of raw cotton 
 sticking on his cheek — which certainly did not 
 improve his beauty — one minute entreating, pray- 
 ing, weeping, tears streaming as he implored the 
 men to stand ; the next moment, swearing, raging 
 at them, abusing them, berating them, giving them 
 every angry epithet he could think of; then 
 addressinsc them in the most affectionate words. 
 But he succeeded in gathering together not only 
 his own men but a number of stragglers from other 
 
 Ml 
 
II 
 
 ii' 
 
 i 
 
 'm^ 
 
 i 
 
 ' ■ *' , ^ 
 
 226 
 
 Louisiana Siudies. 
 
 regiments, whom he coaxed or abused back into 
 the ranks. The last I saw of him he was off with 
 them like a whirlwind into the thick of the battle. 
 It made me both laugh and cry to watch him. He 
 was a regular Murat — but instead of the luhite 
 -plume ^ it was the white specks of cotton, and head 
 tied up in the white handkerchief, that was always 
 in the van." 
 
 After Shiloh Allen was sent to Vicksburg, 
 where he behaved with his usual gallantry. Let 
 us here call attention to the heroic work done by 
 the ram "Arkansas." The little vessel was built 
 on the Yazoo river, and on the 15th of July, 1862, 
 she ran the gauntlet of the whole Federal fleet be- 
 fore Vicksburg, numbering "in all forty gun- 
 boats, mortar boats, rams and transports." She 
 was attacked by the "Tyler" and the " Caron- 
 delet" and the " Queen of the West," and the 
 tremendous iron-clad " Essex," but sped on, 
 striking right and left, and moored at last under 
 the batteries of Vicksburg. The city was well 
 defended, and that part of the river was held by 
 the Confederates. It was now important to free 
 Baton Rouge from the Federals. 
 
 The capital of Louisiana was captured by Far- 
 ragut on May 28, 1862, and bombarded, and in 
 July the place was garrisoned by about 3500 men 
 and protected by five gun-boats and a few trans- 
 ports. Gen. Van Dorn ordered Gen. Breckin- 
 ridge to attack the Federals at Baton Rouge, and 
 the latter took with him Allen and his Fourth 
 
History and Education. 
 
 227 
 
 Liee 
 
 Regiment. It was resolved that the attack 
 by land would be supported by the famous 
 "Arkansas " on the river, for it was usrless to 
 fight a battle which, if successful, would be a 
 barren victory, as long as the Federal vessels lay 
 before the city and could bombard it. Van Dorn 
 informed Breckinridge that the "Arkansas " would 
 co-operate with him on the 5th of August, and on 
 the 4th the Confederate army, numbering about 
 2600 men, left Camp Moore and marched on Baton 
 Rouge. Fauntleroy's Batter}'- opened fire at day- 
 break and soon the fight became general. Allen 
 was on the left wing near the State House, under 
 General Ruggles, and commanded the Third and 
 Fourth Louisiana and Boyd's Louisiana Battalion. 
 He charged with impetuosity, having been told by 
 Ruggles, " to march straight to the front until he 
 was ordered to stop.''' No obstacles could make 
 the Confederates stop — neither walls, nor fences, 
 nor thick hedges of cherokee roses through which 
 no bird could fly. On they marched, driving every- 
 thing before them, until they saw their beloved 
 commander fall, shot through both legs. There 
 was a momentary pause, but again the troops 
 rallied and pressed forward, as everywhere else 
 on the battle field, under Breckinridge himself, 
 and Helm and Hunt, and Buckner and Clark, 
 and Breaux and Thompson and other valiant men. 
 The battle raged near the Protestant Cemetery, 
 near the State House, through the streets of the 
 city, and the enemy were driven back to the banks 
 
IPI 
 
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 M 
 
 228" 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 of the river under the protection of their gun- 
 boats. Breckinridge was victorious, and waited 
 anxiously for the arrival of the "Arkansas, "with- 
 out the help of which the land victory was fruit- 
 less. Alas I when about five miles from Baton 
 Rouge the machinery of the vessel was deranged 
 and the gallant ram was put on fire by her crew, 
 and going down the river passed by the enemy's 
 fleet and exploded. Such had been the fate of 
 the "Louisiana," and "Stonewall Jackson," and 
 "Manassas," and "Governor Moore" and other 
 vessels while resisting Farragut's advance. Breck- 
 inridge retired to Camp Comite, then he fortified 
 Port Hudson and left Gen. Bowen in command at 
 the Comite river. 
 
 Allen's life was at first despaired of, but after 
 many months he recovered sufficiently to offer his 
 services again to the Confederacy. He was made 
 brigadier-general in September, 1863, and sent to 
 the Trans-Mississippi Department. Soon after- 
 ward he was elected Governor of Louisiana, and 
 was inaugurated at Shreveport on January 25, 
 1864. He displayed in his new functions great 
 administrative ability an^. labored incessantly for 
 the good of the people. He prevented the cotton 
 in the State from being burned and accumulated 
 large stocks of provisions, medicines and objects 
 of prime necessity, with which he relieved the 
 wants of the needy. He provided the ladies with 
 cotton cards with which they wove clothing for 
 the soldiers in gray. "This gift," says Mrs. 
 
r 
 
 History and Education. 
 
 229 
 
 Dorsey, ** awoke unspeakal^le gratitude in our 
 breasts." The IVcrr Governor inspired every one 
 with his zeal and patriotism and sent re-enforce- 
 ments to the army of Kirby Smith, whom he helpod 
 in every way in his power. Until the surrender of 
 Lee and Johnston, Governor Allen stood at his 
 post and was idolized by the people whom he 
 served so well. After Appomatox he, the man 
 with the martial spirit, was averse to continue a 
 useless and disastrous struggle and he aided pow- 
 erfully in bringing about the capitulation of the 
 department. He had not thought of himself, for 
 he knew that the end of the war was to make of 
 him an exile. We wish to quote here a few lines 
 of his farewell address to the people of Louisiana 
 on June 2, 1865: 
 
 My countrymen, we have for four long years 
 waged a war, which we deemed to be just in the 
 sight of high heaven. We have not been the best, 
 the wisest, nor the bravest people in the world; 
 but we have suffered more and borne our suffer- 
 ings with greater fortitude than any people on the 
 face of God's green earth. Now let us show to 
 the world, that as we have fought like men, like 
 men we can make peace. Let there be no acts of 
 violence, no heart-burnings, no intemperate lan- 
 guage, but with manly dignity submit to the inev- 
 itable course of events. Neither let there be any 
 repinings after lost pi ^perty ; let there be no crim- 
 ination or recrimination, no murmurs. It will do 
 no good, but may do much harm. You who, like 
 myself, have lost all (and oh, how many there 
 are I ) , must begin life anew. Let us not talk of 
 
230 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 
 
 'ill 
 
 despair, nor whine about our misfortunes, but with 
 stron;^ arms and stout hearts adapt ourselves to 
 the circumstances which surround us. 
 
 Governor Allen's noble words have been heeded 
 by the people of Louisiana, by the people of the 
 South. They have not despaired in their misery, 
 but have labored bravely to repair the dis- 
 asters of the past. They have succeeded, for 
 in all their woes they had kept tlieir honor intact, 
 and the future was theirs, according to the words 
 of the historian, Henri Martin, speaking of France 
 after the defeats of the war of 1870: " Qui garde 
 I'honneur, garde I'avenir." 
 
 Governor Allen went into exile in Mexico, where 
 he struggled for a few months against poverty and 
 pain. He established a newspaper and worked 
 for a living — he who had had millions at his disposal 
 when he was governor. He died in the city of 
 Mexico, on April 22, 1866, and was buried in the 
 Confederate uniform. His remains have been 
 brought back to Louisiana soil and they now rest 
 under a monument erected in front of the capitol 
 of the State, not far from the place where he 
 fought and fell in defending Louisiana. 
 
 **Dick" Taylor and the Campaigns on the 
 Teche and in the Trans-Mississippi De- 
 partment. 
 In his book, *' Destruction and Reconstruc- 
 tion," General Taylor gives a most interesting 
 account of his campaigns during the Civil War, 
 
^ 
 
 History and Education. 
 
 231 
 
 and we can not take a better guide to lead us over 
 the battle lields in Louisiana. 
 
 Richard Taylor was born in New Orleans and 
 was the son of Zachary Taylor, the hero of Buena 
 Vista. In 1 861 he resided on a sugar plantation 
 in St. Charles parish and was a member of the 
 State Senate. He was also a member of the 
 convention which adopted the ordinance of se- 
 cession, and at the beginning of the war he was 
 appointed colonel of the Ninth Louisiana In- 
 fantry. The regiment left immediately for Rich- 
 mond, but arrived a few hours too late to take part 
 in the battle of Manassas. Taylor introduces us 
 to all the great Confederate otlicers at that time 
 and gives his opinion of their character and genius. 
 He pays a splendid tribute to A. S. Johnston, 
 Jackson and Lee, and deplores the misunder- 
 standing and ill feeling existing between Joseph 
 E. Johnston and Davis. He was appointed a 
 brigadier-general by President Davis and took 
 part in a number of battles in Virginia. He must 
 have been devotedly attached to his soldiers, for 
 he always refers with great feeling to the death in 
 battle of his officers and men. He appreciated 
 also whatever was humorous or quaint, as the fol- 
 lowing extract will show: *' Breaking into column, 
 we pursued closely. Jackson came up and grasped 
 my hand, worth a thousand words from another, 
 and we were soon in the streets of Winchester, a 
 quaint old town of some five thousand inhabitants. 
 There was a little fighting in the streets, but the 
 
2 32 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 1 'H 
 
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 l:ili 
 
 J|i I ( I 
 
 people were all abroad — certainly all the women 
 and babies. They were frantic with delight, only 
 regretting; that so many " Yankees" had escaped, 
 and seriously impeded our movements. A buxom, 
 comely dame of some five and thirty summers, 
 with bright eyes and tight ankles, and conscious 
 of these advantages, was especially demonstrative, 
 exclaiming, **0h, you are too late, too late!" 
 whereupon a tall Creole from the Teche sprang 
 from the ranks of tlie Eighth Regiment, just pass- 
 ing, clasped her in his arms, and imprinted a 
 sounding kiss on her ripe lips, with ' Madame I 
 je n'arrive jamais trop tard I' A laugh followed, 
 and the dame, with a rosy face, but merry twinkle 
 in her eye, escaped.'* 
 
 Taylor was sent to take command of the Louis- 
 iana District in 1862, and in his book, he gives an 
 accurate and interesting description of the topog- 
 raphy of Louisiana and of the character and 
 customs of the inhabitan'" He speaks very kindly 
 of the Creoles, and praising highly the 
 
 heroism of ex-Gov ivlouton and of Laclair 
 
 Fuselier, the fiery c-.d patriotic old man ever to 
 the front in battle, he says : '* I have dwelt some- 
 what on the characters of Mouton and Fuselier, not 
 only because of their great devotion to the Con- 
 federacy, but because there exists a wide-spread 
 belief that the Creole race has become effete and 
 nerveless. In the annals of time no breed has 
 produced nobler specimens of mankind than these 
 two J and while descendants of the French colo- 
 
History and Education. 
 
 233 
 
 nists remain on tb.e soil of Louisiana their names 
 and characters should be reverenced as are those of 
 Hampden and Sidney in En<rland." 
 
 Gen. Taylor had to contend against great dif- 
 ficulties in his department, for the Federals had 
 possession ol a large part of the State, and after 
 the battle of Baton Rouge, felt more powerful 
 than ever. At liayou des AUemands they had a 
 post of two hundred men and harassed and plun- 
 dered the inhabitants in the vicinity. Col. 
 Waller, by the orders of Gqvi. Taylor, attacked 
 and captured the post, where he found booty of all 
 kind gathered by the Federals. The Confederate 
 general complained of these robberies to Butler, 
 who, says Gen. T.iylor, gave orders that the pil- 
 laging should be stopped. It is probable that 
 Butler wanted to have himself the monopoly of 
 that kind of warfare. 
 
 The next engagement in Louisiana took place at 
 Labadieviile. There Col. Leopold L. Armant, of 
 the Eighteenth Louisiana, met, with five hundred 
 men, a force of four thousand men under General 
 Weitzel, and checked for a time the advance of 
 the enemy. Armant was serving under Gen. 
 Alfred Mouton, and no braver man ever lived. I 
 can not help calling attention specially to the 
 Eighteenth Regiment. While a boy during the 
 war I heard continually my relatives and friends 
 speaking of the famous " Dix-huitieme." At 
 Shiloh it was commanded by Alfred Mouton as 
 colonel, and my uncle, AJfred Roman, was lieu- 
 
234 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 1 II'! 
 
 I 
 
 I;': 
 
 in I 
 
 3- S 
 
 a 
 
 tenant-colonel. Mouton was wounded at Shiloh, 
 and Roman became inspector general on Beaure- 
 gard's staff at Charleston, and Armant became 
 colonel of the regiment. His grandfather's plan- 
 tation in St. James parish was adjoining that of 
 my grandfather, Valcour Aime vhere I was born 
 and was living at the time of the war. A number 
 of men from Si. James were in the Eighteenth 
 Louisiana, and I took a special interest in that 
 regiment. The impressions of childhood are so 
 strong that I shall always remember vividly the 
 deeds of the soldiers on the Teche and in the 
 Trans-Mississippi, and the siege of Charleston, as 
 related to me during the war. In Cornay's Bat- 
 tery were my only brother and my first cousins, 
 George Ferry and Michel Fortier ; in the Eighteenth 
 Regiment were some of my best friends; at 
 Charleston, with Beauregard, were my uncle 
 Roman and my cousin, Capt. Albert Ferry. Al- 
 though the operations in Virginia were grand and 
 admirable, and although I reverence and love Lee 
 and Jackson, I feel personally attached to the 
 soldiers of the Trans-Mississippi, and to Beaure- 
 gard and his men, as I heard them mentioned 
 daily in my childhood. It is therefore a pious 
 task on my part to devote a few lines of homage to 
 the army in which served my brother Louis, the 
 boy soldier, who did duty for two years on the 
 Teche and in the Trans-Mississippi Department, 
 and died before he was twenty, two months after 
 his return home. 
 
 In 
 

 History and Education. 
 
 235 
 
 At .ibout the time of Armant's en<^agement with 
 Weit7Jvil there happened a fortunate event for the 
 Confederacy. Near New Iberia, on Bayou Petite 
 Anse, on what is now known as Avery Island, an 
 immense mine of rock salt wonderfully pure was 
 found while digging salt wells. Judge Avery, the 
 owner of the place, generously placed the mine at 
 the disposal of Ta3dor and his army, and it was 
 indeed a boon. 
 
 Vicksburg, still held by the Confederates, and 
 Port Hudson being well fortified, the river between 
 these two points was practically closed to the 
 enemy. They evacuated Baton Rouge when 
 Taylor moved on the Lafourche country, 
 but Mouton having abandoned Lafourche and 
 gone to Berwick Bay, Weitzel followed him. The 
 Federals entered Berwick Bay with their gun-boats, 
 and the Confederates had, as far as possible, to 
 place batteries on the banks of every navigable 
 stream or bayou. In the artillery work Major 
 Brent did admirable service, and Cornay's Battery, 
 which had fought bravely against Farragut in de- 
 fending Forts Jackson and St. Phihp, was of great 
 help to Mouton. The latter was now at Camp 
 Bisland, on the Teche, about midway between 
 Franklin and Jeanerette. The " Cotton," a large 
 river steamer, was converted into a war ship with 
 the aid of a few pieces of railroad iron and some 
 bales of cotton. That vessel, commanded by 
 Capt. Fuller, co-operated with Mouton in defend- 
 ing the Teche. Unfortunately Weitzel succeeded 
 
!»:! 
 
 I 1 
 
 236 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 Ml 
 
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 ! 
 
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 1 
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 i. 
 
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 Mi 
 
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 '!il! 
 
 in driving away Mouton's pickets, and the ** Cot- 
 ton" after the loss of many men, was destroyed by 
 Mouton's orders. This misfortune was com- 
 pensated by a most daring expedition. The 
 *' Queen of the West," a Federal steamboat ar- 
 ranged as a ram, passed Vicksburg and entered 
 Red river. There she was disabled by a shot 
 from Fort De Russy and captured. This event 
 had hardly happened, however, when the '' Ind- 
 ianola," a powerful iron-clad, apj '^ared below 
 Vicksburg. The '* Queen of the "West" was re- 
 paired, and the " Webb, a fast and strong tug, was 
 protected as well as possible, and Major Brent 
 started on Febuary 22, 1863, with both vessels to 
 attack the *' Indianola." Such an expedition, 
 with such means, "seemed madness," says Taylor, 
 but the boldness of the Confederates was re- 
 warded. Their two vessels rammed the " Indian- 
 ola," one after the other in the same spot and sank 
 her. But this heroic action was of little use, for 
 shortly afterward Farragut passed Port Hudson 
 with several gun-boats, and the river up to Vicks- 
 burg was again lost to the Confederates. 
 
 The Federals, in April, undertook to dislodge 
 Taylor's army from Bisland. The latter had less 
 than three thousand men and was attacked by a 
 force of sixteen thousand men; Weitzel and 
 Emory with twelve thousand men advancing up 
 the Teche, and Grover by Grand Lake. On the 
 13th of April a desperate battle was fought at 
 Bisland and the Federals were repulsed, but Tay- 
 

 History and Education. 
 
 237 
 
 Cot- 
 dby 
 com- 
 
 The 
 it ar- 
 tered 
 
 shot 
 event 
 'Ind- 
 below 
 IS re- 
 y, was 
 Brent 
 els to 
 dition, 
 'aylor, 
 as re- 
 ndian- 
 d sank 
 se, for 
 
 udson 
 Vicks- 
 
 slodge 
 ad less 
 d by a 
 ei and 
 ing up 
 On the 
 aght at 
 at Tay- 
 
 lor's position was turned by way of Grand Lake 
 and he had to retreat from Bisland. He retreated 
 in perfect order to Opelousas, and the Federals 
 were at liberty to throw their forces against Port 
 Hudson. The gallant resistance on the Teche 
 had, however, produced an excellent moral effect, 
 and the Louisianians still had some hope of pre- 
 venting the enemy from spreading all over the 
 State. 
 
 Porter passed the batteries at Vicksburg, and 
 Fort De Russy on Red river was abandoned by 
 the Confederates, and Alexandria captured by 
 the Federals. Banks, however, soon abandoned 
 Alexandria to march against Port Hudson, and a 
 part of h-s army encamped at Berwick Bay. Mou- 
 ton and Green returned from the Texas line to the 
 Teche country, and Taylor was ordered by Gen. 
 Kirby Smith to try to *' do so?nel/ifno' " for Vicks- 
 burg, now pressed closely by Grant. He moved 
 on to the Tensas river, but could accomplish noth- 
 ing against Grant. He returned to Alexandria, 
 and there made some very successful raids against 
 the enemy. On June 23, 1863, he carried the 
 Federal post at Berwick Bay and captured twelve 
 guns, a great abundance of arms and provisions 
 and many prisoners. He sent Mouton to Thibo- 
 daux, Green to Donaldsonville, and his scouts 
 even advanced on the right bank of the river to a 
 point sixteen miles above New Orleans. An at- 
 tack on the city might have been atternpted, but 
 news was received of the fall of Vicksburg on 
 
1 h! 
 
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 M 
 
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 238 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 :i ! .1 
 
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 lifl 
 
 iiii 
 
 July 4, 1863, and of Port Hudson on July 9, and 
 the Confederate army had to withdraw into the 
 Ped river country trails Mississippi. 
 
 General Green, who was one of Taylor's most 
 efficient officers, defeated the Federals twice — once 
 on the Fordoche, in September, and once on the 
 Courtableau, in October, 1863. In the winter of 
 1863-64 Prince de Polignac reported for duty to 
 General Taylor, and was given the command of a 
 Texan brigade. The men, at first, were opposed 
 to him, but he soon gained their confidence, and 
 showed himself later a worthy successor of Mou- 
 ton as commander of Louisianians. General de 
 Polignac, by his gallant conduct in the Trans- 
 Mississippi, has wiped out the odium attachetl to 
 his name by the narrow-minded, incompetent and 
 despotic policy of Polignac, minister of Charles X. 
 
 General E. Kirby Smith was in command of the 
 whole department, but his field of operations was 
 so vast that, with his headquarters at Shrevcport, 
 he left the immediate direction of the troops in 
 Louisiana to General Taylor. The latter now 
 prepared to resist an attack of Porter's nineteen 
 gun-boats and of Banks' army composed of 18,000 
 men under Franklin and 10,000 under A. J. Smith. 
 The Confederates retreated from the Atchafalaya 
 to Mansfield, a distance of two hundred miles. 
 There Taylor resolved to make a stand against 
 Banks and advised Kirby Smith that he would 
 give battle on April 8, 1864, unless he received 
 contrary orders. 
 
History and Education. 
 
 239 
 
 and 
 
 the 
 
 nost 
 
 )nce 
 
 I the 
 
 iv oi 
 
 ty to 
 
 L of a 
 
 ^osed 
 
 , and 
 
 Mou- 
 
 •al de 
 
 rrans- 
 
 aed to 
 
 nt and 
 
 ■les X. 
 
 of the 
 
 s was 
 
 eport, 
 
 lops in 
 
 |r now 
 
 Ineteen 
 18,000 
 Smith, 
 tfalaya 
 miles, 
 lagainst 
 would 
 ;ceived 
 
 The Confederates numbered eighty-eight hun- 
 dred men and Banks had an army of twenty thou- 
 sand, and was supported by Porter's gunboats and 
 transports, but the Federal commander was so 
 incompetent and his army was so divided that Tay- 
 lor was enabled to attack him at Mansfield with 
 about an equal number of soldiers. The Louis- 
 ianians under Mouton were inspired with a mar- 
 velous ardor, and rushing through an open field 
 into a ravine upon the enemy enti> iched in a 
 wood, they suffered heavy losses. There fell 
 Beard, Caufield and Clack of the Crescent Regi- 
 ment, Walker of the Twenty-eighth and Armant 
 of the Eighteenth. Leading the Eighteenth, 
 sword in hand, Armant was struck by a ball in the 
 arm; again he was shot through both thighs; he 
 fell, but raising himself on his wounded arm he 
 called upon his men to advance, and waved his 
 sword in the air untiLhe was killed by a shot in 
 the breast. The heroic Mouton was also killed 
 at Mansfield, and the victory won on the soil of 
 Louisiana cost her the lives of some of her most 
 worthy sons. Taylor had been ably seconded by 
 Generals Walker, Green, Polignac and others. 
 
 The day after the battle of Mansfield, Taylor, 
 re-enforced by about 5000 men, attacked Banks at 
 Pleasant Hill. The Confederate army numbered 
 12,500 men and the Federal 18,000. The battle 
 was hotly contested and lasted until night, but the 
 Federals retreated and left the field of battle 
 to Taylor. Although no great results were ac- 
 
 j 
 
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 240 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 %iW 
 
 I 
 
 complished by these battles, Mansfield and Pleas- 
 ant Hill are yet glorious names in the history of 
 Louisiana. With a small army the Confederates 
 had defeated Banks and inflicted on him very 
 heavy losses. The question now was to cut off 
 the retreat of the Federal army and fleet, and 
 Taylor was anxious to begin the pursuit. He 
 says in his book that Kirby Smitli was not in 
 favor of his proceeding too far from Shreveport, 
 and did not co-operate with him as he should. 
 However, an attempt was made at Blair's Landing 
 to cut off Porter's fleet, which, on account of the 
 low water, was advancing slowly in Red river, 
 and in that engagement the gallant Green, the 
 best general left to Taylor, was killed. The Con- 
 federate general, in his history of his campaigns, 
 devotes a few touching words of regret to Green, 
 and also to Captain Cornay, killed shortly after- 
 ward while attacking the gun-boats. "Captain 
 Cornay," says Taylor, '*who, with Mouton, Ar- 
 mant, and many other Creoles, proved by distin- 
 guished gallantry that the fighting qualities of the 
 old French breed have suffered no deterioration 
 on the soil of Louisiana." 
 
 General Kirby Smith having gone with an army 
 of 7000 men to meet Gen. Steele, who was then in 
 Arkansas, Taylor was left with an insufficient 
 force and was unable to prevent the escape of 
 Porter and Banks. He, however, harassed them 
 considerably and destroyed some of the vessels 
 and transports. The Federals succeeded on May 
 
m 
 
 History and Educatioxn. 
 
 241 
 
 13 in building a clam to cross the falls in Red river 
 at Alexandria, and on May 19, 1864, they crossed 
 the Atchafalaya and were beyond the reach of tlie 
 Confederates. Taylor had accomplished a great 
 deal in that campaign with an army of about 13,000 
 men, reduced later to 5800. "Our total loss," 
 says he, " in killed, wounded and missing was 
 3976; that of the enemy nearly three times this 
 number. 
 
 x\fter the retreat of Banks Gen. Taylor applied 
 to be relieved from duty, and returned with his 
 family to Natchitoches. There he was informed of 
 his promotion to Lieutenant-General and assigned 
 to command on the east side of the Mississippi. 
 The end, however, was near; there were Sher- 
 man's march and Hood's defeat, the Confederacy 
 was attacked on all sides, and the last few months 
 of the war were nothing but a heroic struggle 
 against overwhelming forces. Gen. Taylor speaks 
 highly of the defence of Spanish Fort by Gen. 
 R. L. Gibson, and he relates his surrender to 
 Gen. Canby, and states how he met later in New 
 Orleans Generals Price, Buckner and Brent, who 
 had come to surrender the Trans-Mississippi De- 
 partment. 
 
 Thus the war in Louisiana ended. No soldiers 
 fought better than the sons of the Pelican State, 
 and the history of her regiments is a long tale of 
 heroism. 
 
 i 
 
242 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
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 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 II— A BRIEF HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN LOUISIANA. 
 
 Colonial Times, 
 
 Great interest is always taken in looking toward 
 the past and living, as it were, with the men and 
 women of preceding generations. It is by observ- 
 ing their customs and manners and by studying 
 their civilization that we are enabled to understand 
 our own. Progress is but a gradual development 
 of ideas and forces, and although some great men, 
 some unforeseen events, may give a sudden and 
 rapid impetus to civilization, there are always to 
 be found some causes for revolutions and for the 
 success of great men, independently of their 
 genius. Was it possible that the condition of 
 education should have been the same in the colony 
 of Louisiana as it is in one of the sovereign States 
 of the American Union? Was a complete system 
 of free public schools possible in Bienville's days? 
 Evidently no. The educators of France, in the 
 eighteenth century, were the religious societies. If 
 there was to be any education in a French colony 
 it could only be given by the religious orders. 
 Bienville, therefore, acted for the best interests of 
 the colonists in his endeavors to procure edu- 
 cation for their children, and our ancestors in 
 French and Spanish colonial days were not as 
 neglectful of the great cause of education as thi^y 
 are generally supposed to have been. Mother 
 Austin Carroll, of the Sisters of Mercy, contrib- 
 uted to the American Catholic Review for 1886 
 
 
,1 
 
 History and Education. 
 
 243 
 
 and 1887 two valuable papers on colonial educa- 
 tion in Louisiana, and guided by her, we shall pay 
 a visit to the New Orleans of 1723. The future 
 metropolis of the South had already been in exist- 
 ence five years when the sagacious Bienville suc- 
 ceeded in having the seat of government trans- 
 ferred from the sandy shores of Biloxi to the fertile 
 banks of the Mississippi. The hundred huts men- 
 tioned by Charlevoix soon became spacious man- 
 sions, which, although rough looking and un- 
 wieldy, contained in their poorly furnished rooms 
 and wide halls elegant gentlemen and ladies and 
 charming children. The parents had been edu- 
 cated in France. Where were the little ones to 
 be instructed? The wealthy inhabitants sent their 
 sons to the colleges of the mother country, but 
 could girls be separated from their mothers, and 
 what was to be done with the sons of the poor? 
 A worthy Capuchin monk, Father Cecil, opened 
 a school for boys near his church, and was the 
 first teacher in Louisiana. As to the teachers for 
 girls, Bienville thought of the sceurs grises of his 
 native Canada; but having failed in that direction, 
 he consulted Father Beaubois, superior of the few 
 Jesuits at that time in Louisiana, and was advised 
 by him to procure the services of the Ursuline 
 nuns. A treaty was signed on September 13, 1726, 
 between the nuns and the Company of the Indies, 
 and Bienville, although he was no longer governor 
 when the Ursulines arrived in Louisiana, is en- 
 titled to the honor of being the founder of the 
 
244 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 ..iilP;i.' 
 
 ■ '( 
 
 first girls' school and tlie first hospital in the 
 C()lon3^ 
 
 It was no easy matter tor the Ursulines of Rouen 
 to obtiiin permission to leave France, but through 
 the intercession of Cardinal Fleury, that benev- 
 olent monarch, Louis XV, ^;ov'</c/t>//5/y gave his con- 
 sent to the departure of the nuns. They met at the 
 monastery of llennebon, in 13rittany, went to 
 Paris in January, 1727, and finally embarked at 
 Lorient on February 22. The nuns were twelve 
 in number; their superior was Mother Tranche- 
 pain, a converted Calvinist, and among the sisters 
 was the gifted Madeleine Hachard, to whom and to 
 the mother superior with the singular name we 
 owe the interesting and charming letters which 
 tell us of these events in our early history. The 
 expenses of the nuns were to be paid by the com- 
 pany, a plantation and a convent were to be given 
 them, each received 500 livres, and 600 livres 
 were guaranteed imlil their plantation should be in 
 cultivation. They were, besides, free to return 
 to France if not pleased with the colony. 
 
 After a long voyage they reached New Orleans 
 on August 7, 1727. The description of the coast 
 from the Balize to the town, by Madeleine Hach- 
 ard, is most curious and realistic. On arriving at 
 New Orleans the Ursulines were very cordially 
 received by Gov. Perier and his wife, and all the 
 inhabitants. The latter pointed out their town 
 with pride, and compared it with Paris, an opinion 
 which Madeleine Hachard hardly shared, although 
 
 
History and Education. 
 
 245 
 
 she says that the ladies were dressed with ** rich 
 gokl-stripcd stuffs." Bienville's house, the best 
 in the colony, was given to them as a residence 
 until their monastery was completed. The follow- 
 ing description of the house, where was estab- 
 lished our ihot girls' school, is interesting: 
 
 It was situated in the square now bounded by 
 Bienville, Chartres, Douane and Decatur streets. 
 It was two stories high ; the Hat roof could be used 
 as a belvidere or gallery. Six doors gave air and 
 entrance to the apartments on the ground floor. 
 There were many windows, but, instead of glass, 
 the sashes were covered with line, thin linen, 
 which let in as much light as glass, and more air. 
 The ground about the house was cleaned, it had a 
 garden in front, and a poultry yard in the rear, but 
 the whole establishment was in the depth of the 
 forest; the streets, marked by the surveyor some 
 years before, had not yet been cut through as far 
 as Bienville street, on which the nuns' garden 
 opened; on all sides were forest trees of prodig- 
 ious height and size. 
 
 The Ursulines remamed seven years in Bien- 
 ville's house, and removed in 1734, amid a great 
 pageant, to their new building on Conde street. 
 The venerated mother Tranchepain had died a 
 short time before the transfer, but Bienville, the 
 real founder of the school, was agai governor for 
 the third time, and accompanied the sisters with 
 his brilliant staff to church, and then to the mon- 
 astery. On July 13, 1734, when the Ursulines 
 entered the buikling, where they were to reside 
 
246 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 Rt 
 
 I 
 
 t 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 i ' 
 
 r 
 
 1 
 
 
 Ml 
 
 
 
 1 : 
 
 
 vJii 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ninety years, they had twenty boarders, three 
 parlor boarders, three orphans, seven shive board- 
 ers to be instructed for baptism and first com- 
 munion, many day scholars and *' many black 
 and Indian women, who attended our school 
 every day for two hours." As wives were very 
 scarce at that time the girls married at thirteen or 
 fourteen, and most of them must have preferred 
 attending to a husband's household than obtaining 
 a higher education, " but henceforth no girl was 
 allowed to marry without being first instructed by 
 the nuns." 
 
 Their school was certainly an excellent one for 
 the age, and they seem to have been particularly 
 successful in teaching music. The girls educated 
 by the Ursulines were superior in culture to the 
 boys, who had little opportunity of obtaining an 
 education, unless they went to France. With a 
 keen appreciation of the disadvantages under 
 which the men were laboring in Louisiana, and 
 wishing to make them the equals of their wives, 
 Bienville and Salmon wrote to the French gov- 
 ernment on the 15th of June, 1742, the following 
 remarkable letter, which must be quoted in a his- 
 tory of education, however brief: 
 
 It is long since the inhabitants of Louisiana 
 made representations on the necessity of their hav- 
 ing a college for the education of their children. 
 Convinced of the advantages of such an establish- 
 ment they invited the Jesuits to undertake its crea- 
 tion and management. But the reverend fathers 
 
History and Education. 
 
 247 
 
 iree 
 
 ircl- 
 
 om- 
 
 lack 
 
 hool 
 
 very 
 
 ;n or 
 
 irred 
 
 ining 
 
 I was 
 
 ;d by 
 
 le for 
 
 Lilarly 
 Lcated 
 to the 
 ig an 
 ith a 
 [under 
 , and 
 ives, 
 gov- 
 •wing 
 a his- 
 
 [isiana 
 Ir hav- 
 
 Ldren. 
 
 Iblish- 
 crea- 
 
 ithers 
 
 refused, on the ground that they had no lodgings 
 situated for the purpose, and had not the necessary 
 materials to support such an institution. Yet it is 
 essential that there be one — at least for the study 
 of the classics, of geometry, geography, pilotage, 
 etc. There the youths of the colony would be 
 taught the knowledge of religion, which is the 
 basis of morality. It is but too evidently demon- 
 strated to parents how utterly worthless turn out 
 to be those children who are raised in idleness and 
 luxury, and how ruinously expensive it is for those 
 who send their children to France to be educated. 
 It is even to be feared from this circumstance that 
 the Creoles thus educated abroad will imbibe a 
 dislike to their native country, and will come back 
 to it only to receive and to convert into cash what 
 property may be left to them by their parents. 
 Many persons in Vera Cruz would rejoice at hav- 
 ing a college here, and would send to it their 
 children. 
 
 Mr. Gayarre, from whose history the above letter 
 is taken, says: 
 
 This joint application of Bienville and Salmon 
 for a college was set aside on the ground that the 
 colony was too unimportant for such an establish- 
 ment. 
 
 As the Jesuits were suppressed in Louisiana in 
 1763, and their plantation confiscated and sold for 
 $180,000, no college was established by them 
 before 1847. The Ursulines, however, continued 
 to prosper diu'ing the French and Spanish domi- 
 nations, and the boys managed to obtain an edu- 
 cation of some sort, as all the accounts about the 
 
 I 
 
248 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 1 
 
 Hf' ■ ' -w, 
 
 colonists mention them as being *' refined and 
 
 elegant." Ulloa, the first Spanish governor, was 
 a distinguished scholar, but could do nothing for 
 education on account of the hostility against him. 
 O'Reilly patronized schools, as did every other 
 Spanish governor. The Spanish officials took a 
 great interest in the Ursulines, as most of them mar- 
 ried Creole girls, pupils of the good sisters. The 
 government established Spanish schools, to which 
 were sent as teachers some able scholars from the 
 universities of Spain; but such was the attach- 
 ment of the colonists to the French language that 
 the Spanish schools were little patronized. The 
 Ursulines, also, although they received among 
 them several Spanish ladies, remained so devoted 
 to the French language that Bishop Penalvert 
 says, in 1795:* 
 
 Excellent results are obtained from the convent 
 of the Ursulines, in which a good many girls are 
 educated, but their inclinations are so decidedly 
 French that they have ever refused to admit among 
 them Spanish women who wished to become nuns, 
 so long as these applicants should remain ignorant 
 of the French idiom, and they have shed many 
 tears on account of their being obliged to read in 
 Sp mish books their spiritual exercises and to com- 
 ply with the other duties of their community in the 
 manner prescribed to them. 
 
 When Louisiana was ceded to Napoleon the 
 nuns were terrified at the prospect of living under 
 
 tGayarrc, page 378, Vol. III. 
 
History and Education. 
 
 249 
 
 a government born from the French revolution, 
 and sixteen of them petitioned Charles IV for 
 permission to retire to Havana or Mexico. They 
 left in 1803, in spite of the friendly remonstrances 
 of Commissioner Laussat. The sisters remaining 
 in Louisiana, being anxious for their rights, wrote 
 to the President, through Bishop Carroll, and re- 
 ceived very kind letters from Madison, then sec- 
 retary of state, President Jefferson and Governor 
 Claiborne. They left their monastery on Conde 
 street in 1824, and went to the spacious building 
 which they now occupyc There they continued to 
 prosper, and received visits from Jackson and 
 many distinguished men. Their old convent was 
 for some time occupied as a State House, and is 
 now the residence of the Archbishop of Louisi- 
 ana. Colonial education was almost entirely in 
 the hands of religious societies. We shall now 
 see the efforts of the people, represented by their 
 Legislature, to establish a system of popular edu- 
 cation. 
 
 Colleges and Private Schools Before 
 
 THE War. 
 
 The legislators of the Territory of Orleans and 
 of the State of Louisiana took u great interest in 
 education, but made the mistake, for a number of 
 years, of establishing too many colleges and acad- 
 emies, instead of laying a broad foundation to an 
 educational system by establishing elementary 
 schools. They made, however, attempts in that 
 
 f' 
 
 
250 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 M 
 
 direction, as will be explained in the article refer- 
 ring to public schools. 
 
 Of the colleges established by legislative enact- 
 ments, so many have had an ephemeral life that it 
 would be useless to refer to them. In this short 
 sketch only those institutions will be mentioned 
 which have exerted a decided influence on our 
 educational history. All the colleges, acade- 
 mies and schools which have lived and died in 
 our State have doubtless played their part in the 
 development of the education of our people, but 
 from want of space they can not be included in 
 this sketch. 
 
 Prof. R. M. Lusher, who for many years was 
 an etFicient State superintendent of education, 
 wrote in the Louisiana yournal of Education a 
 series of articles on " Legislative Education in 
 Louisiana." The writer desires to acknowledge 
 his indebtedness to him for matters pertaining 
 to legislative enactments concerning education. 
 In 1804 projects were formed for establishing a 
 college in New Orleans, and in 1805 the celebrated 
 College of Orleans opened its doors to the youth 
 of the territory. It had an existence of twenty 
 years, and was the alma mater of many of our 
 distinguished men. The Hon. Charles Gayarre, 
 the historian of Louisiana, has given an interesting 
 account of the College of Orleans in his *' Fer- 
 nando de Lemos.'* He speaks of Jules Davezac, 
 who was principal in 1812; of Rochef'" c, principal 
 and professor of literature, who was passionately 
 
 Will 
 
t!"I 
 
 History and Education. 
 
 25 1 
 
 fond of poetry and Latin and had a horror for 
 mathematics, while Teinturier, the mathematician, 
 despised literature. He mentions Lakanal, the 
 
 last principal, whose nomination to that office was, 
 It is said, fatal to the institution, as the parents re- 
 fused to confide then- children to a regicide. 
 Lakanal, however, had heen the founder of the 
 admirable system of education prepared by the 
 men of the French revolution, and miirht have 
 done much good to the College of Orleans had 
 there not been such opposition to him in the 
 city. 
 
 Mr. Gayarre's ''Fernando de Lemos " begins 
 thus : 
 
 The church of St. Augustin, at the corner of 
 Hospital and St. Claude streets, now stands on a 
 portion of a large tract of land once appropriated 
 to the College of Orleans, the first educational m- 
 stitution of Louisiana which was incorix)rated by 
 her Legislature ; it flourished for a short time with 
 a promise of duration, but it soon disappeared, 
 leaving few traces of its existence save a fragment 
 or two of its long dormitories, which have been 
 converted into private dwellings, and save, also, a 
 few sexagenarian gentlemen who, by their classical 
 attainments and fine manners, show that the de- 
 funct institution was not without its merits, and 
 had, in some instances, at least, accomplished the 
 purpose for which it had been erected. 
 
 The course of studies was good, and instruction 
 in the languages comprised Greek, Latin, French, 
 English and S )anish. 
 
252 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 [I' 
 
 i • 
 
 i ) 
 
 M 
 
 In the room containing the archives of the city of 
 New Orleans are the files of several old newspapers. 
 It gave us great pleasure to look over the pages of 
 papers published from 1804 to 18 19, but we found 
 in them little reference to education. In V Ami 
 dcs Lois^ of September 24, 1819, is an announce- 
 ment of the literary exercises and examinations of 
 the College of Orleans. On September 24, public 
 examinations in arithmetic, geometry, algebra, me- 
 chanics; September 25, Latin, English, French, 
 Spanish; September 27, the pupils of the first 
 English class will deliver addresses on the follow- 
 ing subjects : Love of Country, The Defeat of the 
 English at New Orleans in 181 5, Eulogium on 
 Washington, The Advantages of Public Educa- 
 tion, The American Independence, Eulogium on 
 Franklin. Nothing certainly could be more patri- 
 otic than the subjects of these addresses; one 
 could see that the Louisianians remembered with 
 pride the battle of New Orleans. 
 
 The pupils of the French class were to read 
 essays in verse. It is expressly stated in the an- 
 nouncement that the addresses to be read were 
 composed by the pupils, while those which were 
 to be recited were composed by the professors. A 
 French comedy in five acts and in verse, " Les 
 Incommodites de la Grandeur," par le Pere Du 
 Cerceau, was also to be played by the students. 
 Father Du Cerceau is now forgotten, although his 
 works were popular for a century. He was born 
 in 1670, and was killed in 1730 by the accidental 
 
 W^ 
 
History and Education. 
 
 253 
 
 ityof 
 pers. 
 res of 
 ound 
 
 unce- 
 )ns of 
 public 
 a, me- 
 re nch, 
 e first 
 oUow- 
 of the 
 am on 
 Sduca- 
 um on 
 patri- 
 ; one 
 d with 
 
 o read 
 Ihe an- 
 were 
 were 
 .rs. A 
 " Les 
 tre Du 
 dents. 
 Liih his 
 born 
 idental 
 
 discharge of a gun in the hands of his pupil, the 
 Prince of Conti, 
 
 The names of young men and boys of our best 
 families are to be seen in the list of pupils who 
 won prizes. Mr. Gayarre, then fourteen years 
 old, won the prize for algebra, and the best pupils 
 in the first class seem to have been Antoine Dol- 
 honde and Edward Fortin. The poem, " L'Or- 
 anger," published in P Atn? dcs Loi'soi September 
 4, 1819, was probably written by Dolhonde or 
 Fortin, the two best poets in Prof. Rochefort's 
 class. The poem, written in French, was cer- 
 tainly very creditable in a young student, and 
 shows that much attention was paid to the muse in 
 the oldest secular college in Louisiana. 
 
 In February, 1825, the College of Orleans was 
 superseded by the College of Louisiana, estab- 
 lished at Jackson, East Feliciana. The latter in- 
 stitution became later the present Centenary Col- 
 lege of Louisiana. 
 
 In 1840 and 1841 large sums of money were ap- 
 propriated to the following colleges and acade- 
 mies: College of Louisiana, College of Jeffer- 
 son, College of Baton Rouge, College of Frank- 
 lin, College of Alexandria, Montpellier Academy, 
 Johnson Female Academy, Spring Creek Acade- 
 my, Claiborne Academy, Poydras Academy, Provi- 
 dence Academy, Minden Seminary, Springtield 
 Institute, Plaquemine Academy, Franklin Acade- 
 my, Catahoula Academy, Pine Grove Academy, 
 Greensburg Female Academy, Vermilionville 
 
254 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 m 
 
 Academy, Clinton Female Academy. ** For the 
 support of education," says Mr. Lusher, *' prior 
 to the establishment of a general system of ele- 
 mentary free public schools, t. <?., from 1812 to 
 1845, inclusive, it will have been seen that Lou- 
 isiana expended $1,636,897.61." This amount 
 had been expended chiefly for fostering acade- 
 mies and colleges; but, says Mr. Lusher again, 
 *'no appropriations of public funds were ever 
 made to those institutions (private academies) 
 save on the condition that they should board and 
 instruct, free of charge, ten or mure indigent 
 pupils," and " a similar obligation was imposed on 
 most of the colleges." 
 
 With regard to money derived from lotteries for 
 the support of education, one can not but approve 
 heartily the following words of Mr. Lusher: "On 
 the same memorable day (April i, 1833), the 
 General Assembly of Louisiana wisely dethroned 
 the genius of folly which had so long presided 
 over the cause of education in Louisiana, by de- 
 creeing that the privilege of drawing lotteries for 
 the support of schools should expire on January i, 
 1834, ^"^ ^^'^^ thereafter lotteries should be pro- 
 hibited." 
 
 With regard to private schools and teachers ex- 
 isting in the beginning of the century, we believe 
 that the best way to give an idea of their course of 
 studies is to copy some old newspaper advertise- 
 ments. The following is from the Louisiana 
 Courier of October 15, 18 10: 
 
r the 
 prior 
 : ele- 
 12 to 
 Lou- 
 nount 
 icade- 
 again, 
 ; ever 
 iinies) 
 "d and 
 idigeut 
 )sed on 
 
 ries for 
 ipprove 
 : "On 
 3), the 
 hroned 
 resided 
 by de- 
 aries ior 
 luary i , 
 be pro- 
 bers ex- 
 believe 
 lourse of 
 Ivertise- 
 \otiisiana 
 
 History and Education. 255 
 
 EDUCATION FOR YOUNG LADlliS. 
 
 JVo. J2 Toulouse Street. 
 
 Mrs. Martin, a native of London, lately arrived 
 in this city, informs the ladies and gentlemen of 
 New Orleans that she intends to open a school for 
 young ladies. They will be taught tlie Englit>h, 
 French and Italian languages grammatically, writ- 
 ing and arithmetic, geography, history, mythology, 
 chronology, etc.; embroidery, print and crape 
 work, French darning and every kind of fancy 
 work, as well as plain sewing and marking, etc.; 
 music, dancing and drawing by the most eminent 
 masters. 
 
 Mrs. Martin hopes by her unremitting assiduity 
 to merit the patronage and esteem of the public, 
 and the strictest attention will be paid to the 
 morals and deportment of those pupils consigned 
 to her care, either as boarders or day scholars. 
 
 Mr. Martin will attend, himself, to the French 
 language, writing and arithmetic. He will on the 
 same day open an evening school for gentlemen, 
 from 6 till 9. For terms apply at the house. Mr. 
 Martin will attend ladies and gentlemen at their 
 houses. 
 
 As can be seen, there were enough branches 
 
 to choose from in the Martin School. Here is 
 another from the Louisiana Courier of July 16, 
 1810: 
 
 A young man of good character wishes to teach 
 the French grammar, arithmetic, history, geogra- 
 phy and mythology. Persons desirous to take 
 lessons will be attended upon at their dwellings. 
 Apply at this office. 
 
 I 
 
n 
 
 256 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 The importance attached to mythology in 18 10 
 should induce us to pay more attention to this in- 
 teresting and necessary study. 
 
 And here is still another from the Lotilsiana 
 Courier of September 12, 18 10: 
 
 A person well qualified to teach the French 
 wishes to procure a few scholars, and having 
 some knowleage of the English, he would under- 
 take to instruct American gentlemen in the rudi- 
 ments of that language. Apply at this office. 
 
 It is not probable that the specimen given of the 
 teacher's knowledge of English brought him many 
 American gentlemen to instruct. 
 
 The Louisiana Courier of June 3c, 18 19, has 
 the following announcement: 
 
 *i 
 
 FRENCH AND ENGLISH SCHOOLS, 
 
 Corner of Poydr as and Magazine Streets, Suburb 
 
 St. Mary. 
 
 That school disposed for the reception of young- 
 persons of both sexes can not fail to be acceptable 
 to the inhabitants of the Suburb St. Mary, since 
 it presents to them the double advantage of having 
 their children instmcted on moderate terms and at 
 a short distance from them. 
 
 There will be taught there for $4 per month 
 reading, writing, grammar and arithmetic. The 
 director of the school having procured the as- 
 sistance Ox an able teacher of the English lan- 
 guage, that language, as well as history, geography 
 and drawing, will l3e taught for $3 a month more. 
 The pupils will, besides, provide themselves with 
 
mr' 
 
 History and Education. 
 
 257 
 
 1810 
 
 his in- 
 
 u'siana 
 
 ^^rench 
 having 
 iinder- 
 e rucU- 
 :e. 
 
 1 of the 
 a rnaiiy 
 
 19, has 
 
 Suburb 
 
 young 
 :eptable 
 y, since 
 
 having 
 s and at 
 
 books, pens, ink, etc. The school will be opened 
 on Monday, the 5th of July, at 9 o'clock a. m. 
 For further information apply to Messrs Rouiignac 
 and Layet, at the Suburb St. Mary. 
 
 It is evident by the wording of the notice that 
 the English language was not included in the reg- 
 ular course of studies, and that the reading, gram- 
 mar and arithmetic referred to were taui^ht in 
 French. It is also curious to note the fact of a 
 school session opening on the 5th of July. 
 
 We find, also, in 1819, notice of a day school 
 for young ladies and an evening school for young 
 gentlemen, kept by Mr. and Mrs. Bournos. In 
 L' Ami des Lois, of July 5, 1819, Mr. CuvilHer 
 announces: 
 
 " That he has just opened a school in which he 
 teaches to read, write and the first elements of 
 arithmetic, in two months at the soonest, three 
 months at the latest. He corrects also the most 
 vicious handwriting, in six, seven or eight lessons, 
 according to tlie method known by the name of 
 writing in six lessons." He further declares " that 
 any engagement contracted with him will be con- 
 sidered null and void whenever a person not un- 
 provided with intelligence will not have learnt in 
 the time prescribed." 
 
 The classes were held from 5 to 9"in the morn- 
 ing, and from 4 to 7 in the evening. It is a great 
 pity that Mr. Cuvillier's method, for which, says 
 he, he had exclusive rights for all the United 
 States, should not have come down to us Per- 
 haps, however, it frequently happened with Mr. 
 
 to 
 
258 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 I. 
 
 '■'\'^ 
 i 
 
 ]■} . 
 
 i 
 
 Cuviliier's pupils that they were *' unprovided 
 with intelligence." It was their fault, and not that 
 of the method, if they did not learn in the time 
 prescribed. 
 
 Among the earliest schools in New Orleans was 
 that of Jeannin & Dubayle. Mr. Jeannin was a 
 graduate of the Polytechnic s<.'-.ocv' in France, 
 and an able teacher of mathematics. When the 
 Ursulines left their first convent on Conde street, 
 I'abbt^ Portier, who afterward became a bishop, 
 kept a school in the former monastery of the 
 nuns. This institution became, a little later, a 
 central school, with J. B. Moreau as principal. It 
 was there that Dr. Alfred Mercier, the distin- 
 guished physician and author, was educated. 
 Many elderly gentlemen in the city were educated 
 at Mr. Boyer's school in the thirties, and many 
 middle-aged men went in the fifties to the Audubon 
 college, kept by Prof. S. Rouen, who was an ex- 
 cellent teacher of French. The best school for 
 girls in New Orleans, before the war, was that of 
 Miss Hull. 
 
 Public Schools Before the War, 
 
 We have seen that from 1805 to 1845 numerous 
 colleges and academies were established in the 
 various parishes of the State by the Legislature. 
 Let us see what were the provisions, however 
 meagre, which were made daring that time for 
 elementary public schools. In 1808 an attempt 
 
 I!. ■ i 
 
 ! 
 
 I 
 
History and Education. 
 
 259 
 
 was made to provide by taxation for public 
 schools, but the next year the act was practically 
 annulled by a provision that " none but those 
 willing to pay the tax should be required to con- 
 tribute it." In 181 1 ip20oo a year were appro- 
 priated for schools in every parisli, except Orleans, 
 and for several years, until 1827, a small amount 
 was given nearly every year for public schools. 
 The Constitution of 181 2 made no provisions for 
 colleges or schools, and it was left to the Legisla- 
 ture to use its judgment m the matter. It should 
 have been stated, however that in 1806, says Mr. 
 Lusher, 
 
 The Legislature had instructed the sheriff of 
 each parish to call upon all heads of families to 
 meet on a convenient day, and to select five com- 
 missioners to adopt a plan for establishing free 
 public schools, at the expense of the parish, and to 
 report said plan at the next session of the Legisla- 
 ture. The regents of the College of Orleans were 
 also directed to report a plan for such schools in 
 the city of New Orleans. 
 
 Public schools had, therefore, been established 
 in the parishes, but how far they were free can be 
 judged from the fact that when, in 1826, the 
 College of Orleans was abolished, two primary 
 schools and one central school were established 
 in New Orleans, in which gratuitous instruction 
 was limited to one hundred pupils. In 1827 the 
 amount allowed each parish was $2.62^ for each 
 voter, as per census, but the maximum was not to 
 
 11 
 
26o 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 exceed $1350 year)}', nor the minimum to be less 
 than $800. 
 
 In 1829 the Poydras College for indigent fe- 
 males was established in Pointe Coupee from 
 $20,000 left by that philanthropist, and $1800 
 added to the amount by the Legislature. The 
 college building was unfortunately burnt a few 
 years ago. 
 
 In 183 1 appropriations for public schools were 
 $43,705.07, while only $10,000 were given to col- 
 leges. From 183 1 to 1835, inclusive, more money 
 was appropriated for public schools than for col- 
 leges, and in 1834 ^^^ secretary of stale was made 
 ex-officio superintendent of schools to receive re- 
 ports from parish officers and have them brought 
 before the grand jury if derelict in their duties. 
 
 In 1836 the president of the board of regents of 
 the public schools of New Orleans was author- 
 ized to draw on the State treasurer for sums to 
 meet current expenses of the schools until regu- 
 lar appropriations could be made, provided the 
 amount should not exceed $10,000. In 1837 
 Louisiana accepted the surplus revenue from the 
 Federal government, and the faith of the State 
 was pledged therefor. Later, part of that fund 
 was appropriated for colleges and academies. In 
 1839 appropriations for public schools were $45,- 
 663.02, while nearly $80,000 were granted to col- 
 leges and academies. In 1841 the councils of the 
 municipalities of New Orleans were required to 
 levy taxes as might seem just and proper for the 
 
History and Education. 
 
 261 
 
 : less 
 
 It fe- 
 
 from 
 
 pi 800 
 
 The 
 
 . lew 
 
 were 
 col- 
 loney 
 r col- 
 made 
 ve re- 
 ought 
 ies. 
 nts of 
 
 thor- 
 ms to 
 
 egu- 
 d the 
 
 the 
 State 
 fund 
 , In 
 
 col- 
 
 >f the 
 
 td to 
 
 the 
 
 n 
 
 establishment of one or more schools in each mu- 
 nicipality for graf' itous instruction of children, 
 and the State treasurer was to pay the municipali- 
 ties $2.62)^ per taxable inhabitant, provided the 
 aggregate should not exceed $10,000. In 1841 the 
 pubHc schools received $44,487.64, while colleges 
 and academies, as usual, were granted nearly 
 double that amount. 
 
 The reports of the State superintendents of ed- 
 ucation to the year 1869 having been lost during 
 the war, the following figures from the United 
 States census of 1840 are interesting and im- 
 portant: 
 
 Orleans parish, city of New Orleans (three mu- 
 nicipalities), universities and colleges, 2; number 
 of students, 105 ; academies and grammar schools, 
 10 ; number of scholars, 440; primary and com- 
 mon schools, 25; number of scholars at public 
 charge, 130; number of white persons over 20 
 years of age who can not read and write, 171; 
 State of Louisiana, total number of universities or 
 colleges, 12; total number of students in universi- 
 ties or colleges, 989; total number of academies 
 and grammar schools, 52; total number of students 
 in academies and grammar schools, 1995; total 
 number of primary and common schools 179; 
 total number of scholars in common schools, 3573; 
 total number of scholars at public charge, 1190; 
 total number of white persons over 20 years of 
 age who can not read and write, 4861. 
 
 In 1842 appropriations for public schools were 
 $15,668.05 and for colleges and academies double 
 
 %<h. 
 
2^2 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 that amount. In 1843 and 1844, for public schools, 
 $22,966.74 and $28,459.71; for colleges and 
 academics nearly three limes as much. The mis- 
 taken policy of fostering higlier and secondary 
 schools to the detriment of the primary schools 
 was, however, soon to cease. Already the patri- 
 otic governor, A. B. Roman, had uttered these wise 
 words in 1834: 
 
 Common schools, wholly free, are the only 
 ones that can succeed under our form of govern- 
 ment. They break down the odious distinction 
 which exists in those in Louisiana between the 
 children of the poor and those of the 
 rich, they oblige tiie rich as woll as the 
 poor to be interested in the selection of 
 competent teachers lo take ch ;e of them, 
 and they offer the best ol all possible 
 guarantees, to wit; experience. This infallible 
 teacher of all statesmen of the land has proved 
 that the juoject of educating the indigent class 
 gratuitously, in schools opened for the children of 
 the opulent, who pay for their instruction, is an 
 illusion in a countrv where tlie first ideas imbibed 
 by man are those of liberty- and equality. 
 
 The Constitution of 1845 really created the pub- 
 lic school system in the wnole State. In that year 
 appropriations for public schools were $48,420.70 
 and for colleges only $12,500. 
 
 The Constitution of 1845 ordained that a super- 
 intend-:;";t of education should be appointed to )• 'd 
 oiHce lor two years, and by Article 13.J it was 
 ordainect that the Legislature should establish 
 
upp-- 
 
 HlSTORY AND EDUCATION. 
 
 263 
 
 pub- 
 year 
 20.70 
 
 iuper- 
 
 ] d 
 
 t was 
 
 ablish 
 
 free public schools throughout the State, and 
 provide means for their support, by taxation or 
 otherwise. 
 
 In 1846, $18,488. ' were appropriated for " free 
 public schools " and nothing whatever for colleges 
 and academies. A new era had begun. By Act 
 225 of 1847 the school age was between six and 
 sixteen, and one mill on the dollar was to be 
 levied on the ad valorem amount of taxable prop- 
 erty in each parish. The superintendent was to 
 receive $3000 a year and was required to visit 
 annually each parish in the State. Fortunately 
 for Louisiana the first superintendent appointed 
 was the eminent scholar and friend of education, 
 Alexander Dimitry. Under his vigorous admin- 
 istration the schools prospered marvelously. As 
 an evidence of the interest taken in the cause of 
 education in 1849 and 1850 is the fact that in these 
 two years $602,828.63 were paid by Louisiana for 
 the support of free public schools. Large amounts 
 were also paid in 1851 and 1852, but the efficiency 
 of the whole sy& tva of education in rural Louisi- 
 ana was impaired by two unwise provisions of an 
 act passed in 1852, abolishing the olTice of parish 
 superintendents, exempting the State superintend- 
 ent from making annual visits to the parishes and 
 cutting down the salary of that officer to $1000. 
 The schools, however, continued to prosper, and 
 wlien tlie war broke out in 1861 they were in a 
 nourishing condition. 
 
264 
 
 Louisiana Studipjs. 
 
 Public Schools in New Orleanc. 
 
 We are greatly indebted tor the following facts 
 to the kindness of the lion. William O. Rogers, 
 who has done more for the city schools than any 
 other man ever a resident here. The city of New 
 Orleans was divided by the Baron Carondelet, in 
 1792, into four wards. Its revenue amounted to 
 less than $7000. In 1804 New Orleans was made 
 a port of entry, and Bayou St. John a port of de- 
 livery. The city was incorporated by the legisla- 
 tive council of the territory in 1^0^. At that 
 time, and for several years after, the city did not 
 extend below Esplanade jr above Canal street. 
 There was not a paved street in the city. This 
 was the old first municipality. The increase of 
 trade caused many English-speaking people to 
 move above Canal street, as far as Gravier street, 
 and this led to the establishment of the second 
 municipality. It was called the Garden District, 
 because the residences were scattered and sur- 
 rounded by cultivated land. At the time of the 
 war these four districts constituted the city of New 
 Orleans. Their organization was unique. Each 
 municipality retained some features of individu- 
 ality. Each had its separate system of public 
 schools, its board of school directors, with a school 
 superintendent and a system of high, grammar and 
 primary schools for which they were separately 
 lesponsible. At the same time these separate 
 districts were in close relalioa with the common 
 
 •li' 
 
 lii 
 
^in 
 
 History and Education. 
 
 265 
 
 g facts 
 :<.ogers, 
 lan any 
 of New 
 lelet, in 
 .nted to 
 IS made 
 •t of de- 
 
 legisla- 
 At that 
 
 did not 
 I street. 
 r. This 
 ;rease of 
 ;ople to 
 r street, 
 
 second 
 istrict, 
 nd sur- 
 of the 
 of N ew 
 Each 
 dividu- 
 public 
 school 
 arand 
 arately 
 eparate 
 ommon 
 
 council of the city, to whom reports were annually 
 made, and upon the basis of these reports the an- 
 nual appropriations were made, the directors 
 elected and the interests of all protected. The 
 annual cost of maintaining the public schools of the 
 city averaged about $250,000; unnecessary ex- 
 penses were naturally incurred. Tiie public 
 schools were first organized in 1841. Samuel J. 
 Inters, Joshua Baldwin, Dr. Picton, J. A. May- 
 bin, Robert McNair, Thomas Sloo, were prom- 
 inent in this movement. They were distinguished 
 for public spirit and for energetic devotion to their 
 work, giving much time and labor to the details of 
 opening the public schools. The best systems of 
 Europe and of the Northern States were carefully 
 studied. They called to be first superintendent, 
 Mr. Shaw, of Massachusetts, and had the guid- 
 ance of Horace Mann, then at the height of his 
 fame and usefulness as a great educator. As a 
 consequence of these labors the public schools of 
 the second municipahty soon acquired a great 
 reputation. They were patronized by all classes, 
 rich and poor. The high schools, one for boys 
 and the other for girls, were especially aided by 
 the scholarship and devotion to them of the dis- 
 tinguished Joseph A. Maybin, a brilliant lawyer, 
 an eloquent speaker, and an honored citizen. 
 
 The success of this movement gave an impetus 
 to public education in the districts, and soon each 
 was vying with the others in efforts to increase the 
 number and efficiency of the public schools, 
 
 w 
 
^^ 
 
 266 
 
 Louisiana Studies, 
 
 Having separate boards of directors and school 
 management, the schools partook of sectional en- 
 vironments. Below Canal street the lessons were 
 given mainly in the French language, and tlie 
 teachers were required to be examined first of all 
 in their knowledge of the French language and 
 literature. In those days many families never 
 crossed into the American portion of the city. 
 Above Canal street French was taught in the high 
 schools, but the main part of the education of the 
 children was in the English tongue. In these two 
 grand divisions of the city the schools were as dis- 
 tinct, the tastes, aims and aspirations of teachers 
 and pupils as different, as the peoples of England 
 and France. 
 
 When, in the civil war, the city fell into the hands 
 of General Butler, he abolished these district lines 
 and made one of his adherents the superintendent 
 of the schools of the whole city. It has continued 
 to be the form of government to this day, thus bring- 
 ing our city in accord with the grand sweep of 
 the educational work of the whole country. Where 
 there were once ten or twelve high schools — the 
 neighboring cities of Lafayette, Jefferson and 
 CarroUton having been united in the corporate 
 limits of New Orleans — there are now three high 
 schools, one for the boys ii'^d two for the girls. 
 Among those who have contributed to the success 
 of our public schools, before or alter the war, should 
 be named, Gov. L. A. Wiltz, Robert Mills Lusher, 
 William O. Rogers and A. R. -innings. The 
 
 .1 < 
 
iSBSSaSi 
 
 4 
 
 History and Education. 
 
 267 
 
 latter was founder of the Lyceum and Library 
 Society, and for many years its devoted director. 
 He selected the admirable list of works which con- 
 stitute the basis of that library. He organized 
 public lectures by such men as Gliddon, iVgassiz 
 and others. Upon the methods which he origi- 
 nated the library grew rapidly, and for a time 
 had a great success. The public library of St. 
 Louis, Mo., which has grown to be one of the 
 most important factors of education in that city, 
 was copied after the details of our own library. 
 Mr. Ira Divon, the efficient superintendent of the 
 St. Louis public schools, came to New Orleans 
 for the j'lurpose of examining into the workings of 
 our Librar}^ and Lyceum Society and acknowl- 
 edged publicly his indebtedness for the valuable 
 suggestions and information derived from it. 
 
 In 1870,, during the State superintendency of 
 Thomas W. Conway, an effort was made to mix 
 the races in the public schools, and an act was 
 passed through the Legislature imposing severe 
 penalties upon any person refusing admission to 
 any public school of the State to a pupil on ac- 
 count of "race, color or previous condition." 
 The attempt to enforce this law in the public 
 schools was immediately and emphatically re- 
 sisted. Colored children, instigated to apply for 
 admission to white schools, were firmly refused by 
 the teachers, under directions of the city school 
 l)()ard. In several instances, where the colrx'd 
 pupils had been admitted, upon a concerted 
 
^m 
 
 268 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 movement, large companies of parents visited the 
 schools and required the obnoxious classes to 
 withdraw. Great excitement prevailed in the 
 city, and it looked for a time as if serious trouble 
 would result. By degrees the excitement sub- 
 sided and colored children were placed in their 
 own schools. An equitable distribution of school 
 funds and buildings was made, and the arrange- 
 ment has since existed to tha satisfaction of both 
 parties. No attempt of a general nature has since 
 been made to mix the races in our public schools. 
 
 The schools are now conducted by an efficient 
 board of directors and superintendent and are 
 doing very good work. The number of children 
 enrolled, December 31, 1893, was: boys, 11,216; 
 girls, 12,272. Total 23.488. 
 
 The school buildings in New Orleans are very 
 fine, thanks to the generous donations of John 
 McDonogh, whose history is too well known to be 
 repeated here. Mr. William O. Rogers, as already 
 stated, contributed powerfully by his energy, his 
 tact and his good judgment to the success of the 
 city schools. He is now secretary of the Tulane 
 University, and is still doing good service for the 
 cause of education in Louisiana. 
 
 Public Schools Since the War. 
 
 In i860 an annual allowance of $6.50 per child 
 enumerated was required for the support of the 
 free public schools, and $650,000 were appropri- 
 ated by the Legislature out of the current school 
 
 i^i: 
 
History and Education. 
 
 269 
 
 ted the 
 ises to 
 in the 
 trouble 
 it sub- 
 in their 
 
 school 
 irrange- 
 of both 
 as since 
 schools, 
 efficient 
 and are 
 children 
 
 11,216; 
 
 are very 
 of John 
 wn to be 
 already 
 rgy, his 
 s of the 
 Tulane 
 ; for the 
 
 ler child 
 It of the 
 hpropri- 
 t school 
 
 fund. We see then how prosperous were the 
 schools in the year preceding the war. From 1861 
 to 1865 little could be done for the cause of educa- 
 tion, but in 1866, with the Hon. R. M. Lusher as 
 State superintendent, the schools were recovering 
 from the effects of the war, when the infamous 
 Constitution of 1868 threw everything in a state of 
 chaos. Mr. Lusher was ousted from the position 
 which he was tilling with so much profit to the 
 State and credit to himself and replaced by an in- 
 experienced and injudicious officer, T. W. Con- 
 way, whose endeavor was to please the politicians 
 who were ruining Louisiana, the carpet-baggers 
 who had managed to obtiiin the control of aflairs 
 through the ignorar- -ro vote, and who, from 
 
 1808 to 1877, rnisdirecied the affairs of the people 
 of the State. Conway and Brown, as superin- 
 tendents of education, were influenced by their 
 superiors, Warmoth and Kellogg, and the schools 
 were in the same wretched plight as every public 
 department. The State was called upon to in- 
 struct an immense number of negro children, 
 while the whites, who alone bore all the burden of 
 taxation, were impoverished, and the school fund 
 was misappropriated by the miserable men at the 
 head of affairs. It is not to be woiu^ered at that 
 for several years the schools were > ntirely inade- 
 quate to fulfil the purposes for which they had 
 been established. In New Orleans, under the able 
 direction of the Hon. William O. Rogers, and 
 thanks to the devotion and patience of the faithful 
 
270 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 corps of teachers, the schools rallied sooner than 
 in the country parishes, but we have seen what 
 trials were undergone by the patriotic people 
 who were endeavoring to rebuild the city 
 public schools. On September 14, 1874, ^^^^ 
 men of New Orleans broke the shackles which 
 bound them to tlie Reconst ". ction government, 
 and although tlio Wliite League was met with 
 the power of the United States government, and 
 had to yield to force, on January 9, 1877, the 
 work begun on September 14 was completed, and 
 Louisiana was freed from partisan rule. She ac- 
 cepted the condition of things brought about by 
 the war, and resolved to instruct, as far as lay in 
 her power, the white and the black children in tlie 
 State. The Constitution of 1879, however, was 
 not sufliciently liberal and wise with regard to 
 public education, and only appropriated about one 
 mill for that purpose. It is certainly a diflicult 
 task to educate with limited means a large number 
 of children, but the work has been going on 
 bravely. There is some progress every year in 
 the matter of the duration of the school term, and 
 with local taxation courageously borne, we can be 
 assured of arriving at success. Let us count on 
 our own efforts, on our energy, to educate the 
 children of I^ouisiana, and on no external aid. 
 lie alone deserves to succeed who has faith in 
 himself and in his own State. The white children 
 must be educated, that they might become intelh- 
 gent citizens, and the blacks must be instructed in 
 
 I' ' 
 
 . '^'Hh- 
 
ler than 
 jn what 
 people 
 he city 
 874, the 
 ;s which 
 inimeiit, 
 net with 
 lent, and 
 877, the 
 ited, and 
 She ac- 
 about by 
 as lay in 
 ren in the 
 iver, was 
 egard to 
 bout one 
 II dilTicult 
 number 
 roing on 
 year in 
 erm, and 
 e can be 
 count on 
 icate the 
 nul aid. 
 faith in 
 children 
 le intelli- 
 Iructed in 
 
 History and Education. 
 
 271 
 
 order to develop them and to draw them from the 
 ignorance which makes them an easy prey to un- 
 scrupulous and designing politicians. Let us see 
 what is now the school system of Louisiana. 
 
 The State Board of Education established by 
 Act 81 of 1888 consists of the governor, attorney- 
 general, superintendent of education ex ojicioy 
 and of six citizens to be appointed by the gov- 
 ernor, one from each congressional district of the 
 State. The board appoints the school directors in 
 every parish, except in the parish of Orleans, 
 selects and adopts a series of text-books for all the 
 public schools, prepares rules and regulations for 
 guidance of the scliools and directs what branches 
 of study should ])e taught. The first board con- 
 stituted under the law of 1888 was composed of 
 Governor Nicholls, Attorney-General W. H. 
 Rogers, Superintendent of Education Joseph 
 A. Breaux, Franklin Garret, of Monroe; W. 
 IT. Jack, of Natchitoches; William Clegg, of 
 Lafayette; C. E. Cate, Hammond; Rev. L L. 
 Leucht and Prof. Alcee Fortier, of New Orleans. 
 Jos. A. Breaux was appointed a justice of the Su- 
 preme Court, and W. H. Jack succeeded him as 
 State superintendent. That important office has 
 been filled by honorable and competent men since 
 1877, to~wit: R. M, Lusher, E. H. Fay, Warren 
 Easton, J. A. Breaux and W. H. Jack.* 
 
 The parish superintendent, whose office is of 
 
 *In 1S92 A. D, Lafargiie was elected State Superintendent. 
 
( !,• 
 
 272 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 
 such great importance, has a compensation entirely 
 inadequate, $200 per annum. The salary of the 
 State superintendent and of the city superintend- 
 ent, $2000 each, is also too small. Tiie following 
 facts with regard to the school funds are copied 
 from an address delivered by the lion. \V. 11. 
 Jack, on June 3, 1S91: 
 
 The public school funds are also fixed and es- 
 tablished by the organic law. These are expressly 
 declared to be: First, the proceeds of taxation for 
 school purposes as provided by the Constitution ; 
 second, the interest on the proceeds of the sales 
 of all public lands heretofore granted by the 
 United States for the use and support of the free 
 public schools; third, of all the lands and other 
 property which may hereafter be bequeathed, 
 granted or donated to the State and generally for 
 school purposes; fourth, all funds or other prop- 
 erty than unimproved lands bequeathed or granted 
 to the State, not designated for other purposes; 
 fifth, the proceeds of vacant estates falling under 
 the law to the State of Louisiana;" also "pro- 
 ceeds of all fines imposed by the district courts 
 throughout the State, and amounts of forfeited 
 bonds, collected in criminal cases, less costs and 
 commissions. 
 
 The taxation for school purposes does not mean 
 more than one and one-eighth mills and consists 
 also of a poll tax. With regard to the trust funds 
 we may state that the proceed ^f school lands, 
 sixteenth sections, etc., were considered a loan 
 made to the State, on w^hich 6 per cent, interest 
 was to be paid. In 1872 this s.(cred fund was out- 
 
History and Education. 
 
 273 
 
 irely 
 the 
 end- 
 wing 
 ipicd 
 
 ^ 11. 
 
 1(1 es- 
 ressly 
 3n for 
 
 ition ; 
 sales 
 y the 
 e free 
 other 
 athed, 
 lly for 
 prop- 
 •anted 
 poses; 
 under 
 " pro- 
 courts 
 feited 
 ,s and 
 
 mean 
 msists 
 funds 
 llands, 
 loan 
 iterest 
 LS out- 
 
 rageously sold at auction, and the amount realized 
 was used to pay fraudulent bonds. The Constitu- 
 tion of 1879 I'ecognized the free school fund of 
 $1,130,867.51 and promised to pay 4 per cent, 
 interest; also the seminary fund of $136,000, pro- 
 ceeds of the land granted by the United States 
 government to establish a seminary of learning, on 
 which there is an interest of 4 per cent. 
 
 In an address delivered in 1880, Mr. E. H. 
 Fariar, in the case of the agricultural and me- 
 chanical fund, said: 
 
 There was not only a reduction of the interest 
 from 7 to 5 per cent., but the principal, which 
 had already been reduced 40 per cent, by the 
 funding law of 1874, ^'^^ ^^^ restored. The 
 convention of 1879 decreed that this interest (on 
 the last three funds), amounting even in its re- 
 duced form to nearly $60,000, should be made a 
 burden upon the funds annually raised for the 
 purposes of public education. 
 
 We may say, therefore, that in reality no inter- 
 est whatever is paid. 
 
 In concluding this article on tlie public schools 
 since the war, we take pleasure in quoting the 
 following words from the address of the efficient 
 State Superintendent, W. H. Jack: 
 
 We do not pretend to say that our system is by 
 any means perfect, or that its success is commen- 
 surate with our desires. We do mean, however, 
 that the people, black and white, throughout the 
 State, are thoroughly alive to the importance of 
 public education, and that instead of illiteracy 
 
 *^ M 
 
IMAGE EVALUATION 
 TEST TARGET (MT-S) 
 
 1.0 
 
 I.I 
 
 1.25 
 
 IU|28 |2.5 
 tii iU 1 2.2 
 
 ^ IAS 111112.0 
 
 1.4 IIIIII.6 
 
 V] 
 
 vQ 
 
 el 
 
 c 
 
 Up 
 
 c^i 
 
 
 A 
 
 '^ > 
 
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 V 
 
 

 L^- 
 
274 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 ffn^R' 
 
 II I, 
 
 iilii 
 
 nil!! 
 
 'Hi! 
 
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 1 
 
 ^1 HHK 
 
 beinjT on the increase, we. are stamping it out 
 faster than any other State in the Union, except 
 Virginia. 
 
 Colleges and Schools Since the War. 
 
 TULANE UNIVERSITY OF LOUISIANA. 
 
 Of the colleges and schools since the war Tu- 
 lane University of Louisiana must be placed first, 
 the following account of which is chiefly derived 
 from a history of that institution written by Presi- 
 dent William Preston Johnston: 
 
 The Tulane University of Louisiana came into 
 existence as such by operation of law in July, 
 1884. But its origin is just half a century earlier. 
 Its starting point was the organization of the 
 '* Medical College of Louisiana," in September, 
 1834. This was chartered April 2, 1835, ^"<^1 in 
 March, 1836, issued the first degrees in medicine or 
 science ever conferred in Louisiana or tlie South- 
 west. In March, 1839, it issued its first degrees 
 in pharmacy. The first faculty consisted of 
 Thomas Hunt, dean and professor of physiology 
 and pathological anatomy; Charles A. Luzenberg, 
 surgery; J. Monro Mackie, theory and practice 
 of medicine; August H. Cenas, obstetrics and 
 diseases of women and children; Ed. II. Barton, 
 materia medica, therapeutics and hygiene ; Thomas 
 R. Ingalls, chemistry; John H. Harrison, adjunct 
 professor of anatomy, and Warren Stone, demon- 
 strator of anatomy. A gradual reconstruction of 
 the faculty occurred, and we find Dr. Warren 
 Stone filling the chair of surgery from 1838 to 
 1873, when he was succeeded by Dr. T. G. Richard- 
 son, who had, however, entered the college as 
 
' 
 
 History and Education. 
 
 275 
 
 professor of anatomy in 1B59. Dr. James Jones 
 held different chairs in the college from 1836 to 
 1874; Dr. Cenas, from 1840 to 1866; D. J. L. 
 Riddell, 1837 to 1862; Dr. Harrison, from 1836 
 to 1849, and Dr. Thomas Hunt, from 1835 ^o 
 1867. Dr. S. M. Bemiss filled the chair of theory 
 and practice of medicine from 1867 to 18S4; Dr. 
 Samuel Lot^an, from 1873 to 1885, '^^^ Dr. S. E. 
 Chaille, that of physiology and pathological 
 anatomy from 1868 till the present time. Since 1853 
 the deans have been Dr. I'homas H. Hunt, 
 1853-65 ; Dr. T. G. Richardson, 1865-85, and Dr. 
 S. k. Chaille since 1885. 
 
 The following facts are taken from a sketch 
 of the medical department written by Dr. S. E. 
 Chaille: 
 
 It is the oldest medical college in the South- 
 west; it is, in age, the third south of the Potomac 
 and Ohio rivers, and the fifteenth in the United 
 States. Only four of the fourteen older colleges 
 exceed in the number of students the medical de- 
 partment of Tulane University, and it ranks, if age 
 and the number of students and the alumni be 
 considered, as first in the Southwest and South, 
 and fifth in the United States. 
 
 The first course of lectures was delivered in the 
 State House, the second at No. 40 Royal street, 
 and for some years after in different buildings. In 
 1843 the present law department was erected as a 
 medical college on a plan by IMr. Darkin, an 
 architect of repute. Four courses of lectures were 
 delivered there, when the present medical college 
 
'I ■ 
 
 flll^ll 
 
 276 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 li: 
 
 
 building was erected on Common street, now 
 Tulane avenue. The Constitution of 1845 or- 
 dained as follows : 
 
 Article 137. x\n university shall be established 
 in the city of New Orleans. It shall be composed 
 of four faculties, to-wit: One of law, one of medi- 
 cine, one of the natural sciences and one of 
 letters. 
 
 Article 138. It shall be called the University 
 of Louisiana, and the Medical College ot Louis- 
 iana, as at present organized, shall constitute the 
 faculty of medicine. 
 
 Article 139. The Legislature shall provide by 
 law for its further organization and government, 
 but shall be under no obligation to contribute to 
 the establishment or support of said university by 
 appropriations. 
 
 The act of organization (Act of 1847, No. 491, 
 page 39), witli some trifling changes, was re-en- 
 acted in 1855, and is substantially embodied in the 
 revised statutes of 1856 and 1870. The control of 
 the university was vested in thirteen administra- 
 tors, of which body the governor, the chief justice 
 and the mayor of New Orleans were ex-ojfcio 
 members, and the others were appointed by the 
 governor, with consent of the senate. With some 
 small changes, this remained the governing body. 
 
 The first board of the University of Louisiana 
 was composed of the following members: George 
 Eustis, chairman; A. D. Crossman, Gov. Isaac 
 Johnson, Maunsel White, Isaac T. Preston, Levi 
 Pierce, W. P. Hart, Preston W. Farrar, R. C. 
 
History and Education. 
 
 277 
 
 Nicholas, Isidore Labatut, M. M. Cohen and W. 
 
 C. Micou. Their first meeting was held April 27, 
 1847. 
 
 The law department was organized under a 
 plan presented to the board of administrators by 
 Judge Isaac T. Preston, May 4, 1847. The first 
 law faculty was constituted as follows: Judge 
 Henry A. Bullard, Richard Henry Wilde, Judge 
 Theodore H. McCaleb and Randell Hunt. Prof. 
 Wilde died in November and was succeeded by 
 Judge Thomas B. Monroe. 
 
 In 1850 Christian Roselius became a professor; 
 in i85i» Daniel Mayes; in 1854, Sidney L. John- 
 son; in 1855, Alfred Hennen; in 1865, Alfred 
 Phillips; in 1869, CarletonHunt; in 1870, Thomas 
 Allen Clark; in 1873, Thomas J. Semmes. Since 
 then, Charles E. Schmidt, Henry C. Miller, James 
 B. Eustis, W. F. Mellen and Henry Denis also 
 filled chairs in this department. 
 
 At the law school the common law is taught, 
 but the civil law is made a special study. The 
 degree of bachelor of laws granted by the univer- 
 sity entitles the person on v/hom it is conferred to 
 admission to the bar of this State. The graduates 
 of the school constitute a large number of the 
 most respectable practitioners of law in Louisiana. 
 Some of them occupy high judicial positions. 
 
 The history of the academic department before 
 the war is one of failure, although strenuous 
 efforts were made by competent men to establish a 
 good college. A committee was appointed by the 
 
 I 
 
Wl!#ii'< 
 
 278 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 m 
 
 n 
 
 i|^ 
 
 :i!! 
 
 ■y 
 
 board of administrators to '* report on the ex- 
 pediency of organizing the department of letters 
 and natural sciences, and on tlie means that can 
 be commanded to that effect." Rev. Dr. Francis 
 Liston Hawks was elected president of the Uni- 
 versity of Louisiana, and served as such until his 
 removal from the State, May i, 1849. Plans 
 were also formulated to raise funds, but the only 
 amounts subscribed were $500 each by Glendy 
 Burke and Judah Touro. The minor expenses 
 were paid by the administrators. A preparatory 
 department was organized on November 23. 1847, 
 and George C. Anthon was chosen as principal. 
 The school was supported by tuition fees, supple- 
 mented by private subscription. The Legislature 
 appropriated $35,000 for books, buildings and 
 apparatus, on condition that no portion of that 
 money be paid for salaries of professors, teachers 
 or oflicers of the university. The minutes state 
 that $3839 were paid for books, furniture and 
 apparatus for the preparatory school. George C. 
 Anthon resigned April 25, 1850, and was suc- 
 ceeded by C. W. Sears. 
 
 Judge T. H. McCaleb was elected president of 
 the university on June 25, 1850, and held this office 
 until his resignation, June 25, 1853. In th(i 
 meantime a large part of the university buildini^s 
 were put under lease, and again sublet as ice- 
 cream saloons, and club rooms, with music, danc- 
 ing, beer and wine, and for other inappropriate 
 purposes. This state of things was not remedied 
 
 
 I 
 
History and Education. 
 
 279 
 
 ;nt of 
 I office 
 the 
 Idin^s 
 ice- 
 lanc- 
 >riate 
 ledied 
 
 until it became an intolerable nuisance and 
 destroyed the reputation and value ot the school. 
 In the winter of 1855 the school was reorganized, 
 with Mr. Sears as dean and professor of mathe- 
 matics; J. D. B. DeBow, the distinguished editor of 
 DcBow's Review, professor of commerce; Mr. 
 Glutton, geology; M. Roux, French; Mr. Kohl- 
 meyer, Hebrew and German, and W. P. Riddell, 
 chemistry. 
 
 On April 24, 1856, a new board entered upon 
 their duties. On December 23, 1856, L. Dufau 
 was chosen principal of the grammar school and 
 professor of moral science; J. Gentil, professor 
 of French, and W. H. Peck, professor of belles- 
 lettres. On April 14, 1857, all appointments of 
 professors and officers in college and high school 
 were revoked to take effect June i, 1857, and the 
 east and west wings were leased to Messrs. Sears 
 and Dufau, to be conducted as a private enter- 
 prise, under the general supervision and patron- 
 aire of the board. The lease was rescinded on 
 February 15, i860. In a report to the Legislature, 
 the board states: 
 
 The collegiate department has not prospered, 
 owing to the want of resources and not having 
 been favored with any appropriations by your hon- 
 orable bodies. The scholars number 40; in the 
 grammar school there are 100. 
 
 The institution was closed in i860, and the war 
 intervening, no effort was made for many years 
 to sustain an academic department. 
 
1 
 
 28o 
 
 Louisiana Studiks. 
 
 
 Dr. Tlioinas Hunt was unanimouslv elected 
 picisident of tlie university on March 2, 1866. He 
 died Marcli 23, 1867. I lis brother, Randell Hunt, 
 was elected April 30, ^867, to succeed him as 
 president. 
 
 In 1877 the following board of administrators 
 was appointed by Gov. Nicholls: Judge J. H. 
 Kcnnard, president; Judge H. N. Ri«.';hlor, W. K. 
 Seymour, Alfred Moulton, Thomas A. Adams, E. 
 F. LaVillebeuvre, D. C. Labatt, J. B. Latilte, and 
 Gov. F. T. Nicholls, Chief Justice Manning and 
 Mayor I. W. Patton, ex ojjicio. 
 
 In 1878 the board of administrators organized 
 again the academic department, and it was opened 
 on November 4, 1878, with R. H. Jesse as dean 
 and professor of Latin and Greek and of English 
 literature; J. L. Cross, professor of mathematics 
 and natural science; M. P. Julian, professor of 
 French and French literature, and R. B. Mont- 
 gomeiy, professor of penmanship and com- 
 mercial course. The courses were modeled after 
 the system of the University of Virginia, and were 
 elective. There were three classes — junior, in- 
 termediate and senior — and a diploma was given 
 for the completion of the course of studies in 
 each school. Graduation in a certain number of 
 schools entitled the students to degrees. In the first 
 year sixty students were matriculated, and the con- 
 vention of 1879 having been memorialized by the 
 board, the Constitution contained a provision 
 which recognized the University of Louisiana in 
 
 Ibn 
 
■'; I'-L- 
 
 History and Education. 
 
 281 
 
 its three departments, and authorized the Legisla- 
 ture to appropriate for its support an amount not 
 to exceed $10,000 annually. 
 
 In November, 1879, ^ preparatory department, 
 or high school, was organized, with Prof. Alcee 
 Fortier as principal and Prof. E. L. Bemiss as 
 associate. In 1879-80 there were 89 students in 
 the high school and 88 in the academic depart- 
 ment. It was therefore necessary to increase the 
 corps of instructors, and in October, 1880, both 
 departments were reorganized. L. C. Reed was 
 appointed principal of the high school, with five 
 associate teachers, and in the academic depart- 
 ment, Brown Ayres was appointed professor of 
 jihysics, mechanics and chemistry; Robert Sharp, 
 of Greek and English language; J. H. Deiler, of 
 German, and Alcee Fortier, of French language 
 and literature. Considering the limited means at 
 its disposal, the institution was exceedingly pros- 
 perous until its absorption into Tulane University 
 in July, 1884. The building formerly known as 
 the Mechanics Institute was bought for $20,000, 
 given by Mr. Trlane, and is now Tulane Hall. 
 The Fisk library was transferred by the city to 
 the university, and has been exceedingly valuable 
 to the public in general and to the students. 
 
 The dean o 'h^ academic department of the 
 University of Louisiana, from 1878 to 1884, was 
 Prof. R. H. Jesse, a man of remarkable executive 
 a' ''ty, force of character and of excellent judg- 
 m* and scholarship. The success of the insti- 
 
282 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 If ■ ! 
 
 
 '. 
 
 
 1 
 
 ! 
 
 it 
 
 
 
 ll 
 
 
 
 tution under his charge was so great that Mr, 
 Jesse, in 1891, was appointed president of the 
 University of Missouri. The university was also 
 greatly indebted for its success to Judge J. H. 
 Kennard, president of the Board of Administra- 
 tors, a man of great intelligence and energy. 
 
 The University of Louisiana became the Tulane 
 University in 1884, through the munificence of 
 the great philanthropist, whose life, from a sketch 
 placed at our disposal by Col. Johnston, we shall 
 narrate briefly. 
 
 Paul Tulane was the son of Louis Tulane, who 
 was born in 1767, at Rille, France, and whose 
 father and grandfather had held t le office of 
 probate judge at Tours. Louis Tulane immigrated 
 to San Domingo, where he h.id a brother-in-law, 
 who was a wealthy planter. The latter was mur- 
 dered with all his family during the insurrection 
 of the slaves, and Louis Tulane, in 1791, escaped 
 with his wife to the United States. He settled in 
 1792 at Cherry Valley, near Princeton, N. J., and 
 there his son Paul was born in 1801. His mother 
 died in 1813 and his father in 1847. Paul Tulane 
 had only an elementary education, and at the age 
 of fifteen he entered the store of Thomas White, 
 at Princeton. In 1818 his cousin, Louis Tulane, 
 of France, came to the United States and took 
 him as a traveling companion. They visited Jack- 
 son at the Hermitage and Clay at Lexington, and 
 Paul Tulane met on the first steamboat from New 
 Orleans to Louisville some Creole gentlemen who 
 
History and Education. 
 
 283 
 
 were takin<; iheir sons to college in Kentucky. 
 Wlien he was living in Louisiana he said tlial it 
 seemed strange to him that young men should 
 leave their State to be educated, ^nd that he 
 should like to see a good college built in Louisi- 
 ana, where the boys could be educated at home. 
 **This," says Colonel Johnston, '*was probably 
 the origin of that great purpose, which grew and 
 developed until it found its expression in his en- 
 dowment of Tulane University. '* 
 
 Mr. Tulane went to reside in New Orleans in 
 1822. The yellow fever was raging, and *'it was 
 easier,'* said he, **to secure a place where so 
 many were vacant from death or abandonment.*' 
 He soon established a business for himself, and 
 was very successful in all his undertakings. He 
 1 ad the reputation of being an honorable and pru- 
 dent business man, and was exceedingly char- 
 itable. When the war broke out he was quite 
 wealthy, and although he lost considerabl}^ at that 
 time, he had still a handsome fortune alter the 
 war, having invested a part of his gains in New 
 Jersey since the year 1840, on the advice of his 
 father, who was then living in France, and who 
 warned him against the results of the probable 
 abolition of slavery in the South. 
 
 In 1873 Mr. Tulane removed permanently to 
 Princeton, N. J., where he lived in a fine man- 
 sion surrounded with thirty-four acres of ground. 
 He continued his benefactions in his old age, and 
 he told Col. Johnston that from the close of the 
 
284 
 
 Louisiana Studies, 
 
 i 
 
 war to 1882 his ^itts made lor the education of 
 young men and women averaged $15,000 per an- 
 num, lie never married, and his lite in New 
 Jersey was plain and unostentatious. 
 
 It was on April 18, 1881, that Mr. Tuhine told 
 Gen. R. L. Gibson that he desired to give his 
 property in New Orleans for the education of the 
 youth of Loui ma. Gen. Gibson drew a plan 
 by which the donation was to be put in* effect, 
 and Mr. Tulane approved it. The plan, and a 
 letter from Mr. Tulane expressing his intentions, 
 were sent to Dr. T. G. Richardson, "with the re- 
 quest," says Gen. Gibson, "that he w^ould call 
 in consultation Judge Charles E. Fenner, Judge 
 E. D. White and Mr. James McConnell, who had 
 been designated by Mr. Tulane, and put the whole 
 matter into shape according to the laws ot Louis- 
 iana. Their advice was also desired in the selec- 
 tion of additional administrators and for the 
 execution of the trust." The first board of ad- 
 ministrators chosen by Mr. Tulane consisted of 
 the above named gentlemen and of Messrs. E. H. 
 Farrar, P. N. Strong, Rev. B. M. Palmer, Rev. 
 Hugh Miller Thompson, Charles A. Whitney, 
 Samuel H. Kennedy, Walter R. Stauffer, Cart- 
 wright Eustis, Henry Ginder, John T. Hardie, 
 R. M. Walmsley and William O. Rogers. 
 
 **Mr. Tulane's first donation," says Col. John- 
 ston, "was valued at about $363,000. He sub- 
 sequently made other donations, until the amount 
 given by him aggregated $1,050,000. It was his 
 
History and Education. 
 
 285 
 
 ation of 
 I per an- 
 
 in New 
 
 ane told 
 
 oive his 
 ~ .. .. 
 
 n of the 
 V a plaa 
 effect, 
 n, and a 
 tentions, 
 ,h the re- 
 auld call 
 r, Judge 
 who had 
 ^he whole 
 Louis- 
 le selec- 
 for the 
 d of ad- 
 sisted of 
 s. E. H, 
 ^r, Rev. 
 Vhitney, 
 r, Cart- 
 Hardie, 
 
 |l. John- 
 [e sub- 
 amount 
 was his 
 
 expressed intention to add largely to this sum, but 
 as he died without a will, these intentions were 
 never carried out." He died March 26, 1SS7, 
 and was buried a*^ Princeton, N. J. Great honors 
 were paid to his memory in New Orleans, and he 
 is considered in Louisiana as the greatest bene- 
 factor the State ever had. 
 
 Mr. Tuhine had stated in general terms in his 
 letter that his donation was for the education of 
 the white youth of Louisiana. The Board of 
 Administrators concluded to found an institution 
 of learning, and in January, 1883, they selected 
 Col. William Preston Johnston as president of the 
 proposed institution. Col. Johnston was at that 
 time president of the Louisiana State University 
 at Baton Rou;^e, and had been formerly a pro- 
 fessor at the Washington and Lee University in 
 Virginia. 
 
 By an agreement with the State of Louisiana, 
 the University of Louisiana served as a founda- 
 tion for the Tulane University. The right of ap- 
 pointing to a scholarship was given to each repre- 
 sentative and senator in the State, so that a great 
 number of students are educated without cost at 
 the university. By an amendment to the Consti- 
 tution voted upon in April, 1888, all the property 
 belonging to the Tulane educational fund was 
 exempted from taxation. 
 
 "Tulane University," says the catalogue, ** is 
 divided into the university department of philoso- 
 phy and science, Tulane College, Tulane High 
 
286 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 iiL 
 
 
 School, H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College 
 for Young Women, the Law Department and the 
 Medical Department." In the university proper the 
 student **musf receive the inspiration of the scien- 
 tific spirit and pursue his studies by the scientific 
 method, under the guidance, but not under the 
 authority of a professor." The university work 
 leads to the degrees of Maste of Arts, Doctor of 
 Philosophy, and the engineering degrees. 
 
 Tulane College offers four courses of study: 
 Classical,- literary, scientific, and engineering; 
 each leading to a baccalaureate degree. A man- 
 ual training school has been established, and a 
 thorough course in drawing is offered. 
 
 * Tulane High School prepares the students to 
 the college; the instruction is given in two paral- 
 lel and equivalent courses of study, to-wit: First, 
 classical; second, literary and scientific. The 
 faculty has fourteen professors, assistant profes- 
 sors and instructors. Prof. Ashley D. Hurt has 
 been head master since 1884. 
 
 Tulane University, in all its departments, is 
 progressing rapidly and is destined to be a most 
 important factor in the development of the civili- 
 zation of the State. Mrs. T. G. Richardson has 
 made a donation of $100,000 to the medical col- 
 lege, and a new building has been erected for that 
 department on Canal street. A large lot has been 
 bought on St. Charles avenue for the university 
 
 « Tulane High School will be discontinued at the end ot the aeMion of 
 1893-94. 
 
History and Education. 
 
 287 
 
 ::ollege 
 and the 
 Dper the 
 e scien- 
 cientific 
 ider the 
 ly work 
 >oclor of 
 
 f study; 
 neering; 
 A man- 
 id, and a 
 
 Lidents to 
 wo paral- 
 it: First, 
 ic. The 
 t profes- 
 llurt has 
 
 lents, is 
 Je a most 
 the civili- 
 Idson has 
 
 lical col- 
 Id for that 
 I has been 
 
 iniversity 
 
 proper and college, and commodious buildings 
 will soon be erected. The work of Tulane Col- 
 lege is extensive and thorough and may be com- 
 pared with that of the best colleges of the United 
 States. The university courses have been very 
 successful, and the independent and original work 
 accomplished by the students has been most grati- 
 fying. Louisiana has good cause to be thankful 
 to Paul Tulane and to honor and revere the mem- 
 ory of the excellent man who toiled that others 
 might reap the benefits of his labors. 
 
 H. Sophie Niowcomb Memorial Colt^ege.* 
 
 The IT. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College for 
 young women was founded in 1886, as a memo- 
 rial to her daughter, by Mrs. Josephine Louise 
 Newcomb, of New York City, the widow of War- 
 ren Newcomb, tormerly a successful and highly 
 esteemed merchant ol New Orleans. The origi- 
 nal fund of if 100,000, afterward increased to 
 $220,000, was entrusted to the administrators of 
 the Tulane educational fund, who established the 
 college in accordance with the design of its 
 founder, and n.ade it a department of the univer- 
 sity. 
 
 It is the aim of this college to offer to the young 
 women of Louisiana and of the South educational 
 opportunities similar to those supplied by female 
 
 Lhe seMioa of 
 
 • The writer is indebted for this sltetch to Prof. Brandt V, B.Dixon 
 prtaideut of the college. 
 
i 
 
 288 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 colleges of the first rank in other parts of the 
 United States, and its various courses of study are 
 
 devised in accordance with this purpose. 
 
 The college was opened for the admission of 
 students in October, 1887, in a large residence, 
 bought for the purpose, situated on Howard 
 avenue and Camp street. Here it remained for 
 three years, by which time it became evident that 
 more space and better facilities were required. 
 These were secured by the purchase and building 
 of its present home on Washington avenue, in the 
 choice residence portion of the city. Here it is 
 finally located on a large square of ground, more 
 than three acres in extent, shaded by numerous 
 live-oaks, palms and other trees and shrubb-^ry. 
 The main building, in the Italian style of archiicc- 
 ture, contains, in addition to numerous class rooms 
 and studios, a large assembly hall, a chapel, 
 library and memorial room. The physical, chemi- 
 cal, and biological laboratories are well equipped, 
 and placed in a separate building. 
 
 Besides the usual college courses, classical, 
 scientific, and literary, special facilities are offered 
 for the study of art. The normal art course is 
 similar to that of the Massachusetts Normal Art 
 School in Boston, and a specified amount of art 
 instruction forms a part of each regular course of 
 study. Industrial art receives particular attention 
 and includes among other features clay modeling, 
 casting in plaster, wood carving, perspective model 
 and architectural drawing and design. Excellent 
 
History and Education. 
 
 289 
 
 , of the 
 tudy are 
 
 ssion of 
 sidence, 
 Howard 
 ined for 
 lent that 
 equired. 
 building 
 Li, in the 
 [ere it is 
 id, more 
 umerous 
 rubb-^ry. 
 archivcc- 
 ss rooms 
 chapel, 
 chemi- 
 iiipped, 
 
 lassical, 
 offered 
 ourse is 
 mal Art 
 t of art 
 ourse of 
 attention 
 odeling, 
 'e model 
 excellent 
 
 1 
 
 opportunities are likwise offered to special students 
 in other branches of art, such as drawing from 
 cast and from life, painting in water and oil, etc. 
 
 Owing to the want of suitable academies and 
 fitting schools in its locality it was found necessary 
 at the outset to organize a preparatory department 
 and to modify somewhat the usual college course, 
 but the growing appreciation which has been 
 shown to this institution, and the increasing 
 demand for advanced study on the part of its 
 students, has enabled its officers rapidly to raise its 
 standards of admission and of graduation to those 
 which are maintained by the foremost colleges 
 elsewhere. 
 
 With its steady advance in grade and equipment 
 and its rapidly growing corps of students, it is 
 attracting wide-spread attention throughout the 
 Gulf States as the representative women's col- 
 lege of that section. 
 
 The Louisiana State University and Agri- 
 cultural AND Mechanical College. 
 
 The following historical statement of the Louis- 
 iana State University and Agricultural and Me- 
 chanical College is taken from the catalogue of 
 the university: 
 
 The Louisiana State University and Agricul- 
 tural and Mechanical College had its origin in 
 certain grants of land made by the United States 
 government in 1806, 1811 and 1827 " for the use 
 of a seminary of learning." In 1855 the Legisla- 
 
290 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 ture founded the Louisiana State Seminary of 
 Learning and Military Academy, locating it three 
 miles from Alexandria, in the parish of Rapides. 
 The institution was opened Janua.^ 2, i860, with 
 Col. William Tecumseh Sherman as superintc nd- 
 ent. Its exercises were suspended June 30, 1S61, 
 on account of the war, but were resumed Octolier 
 2, 1865. The college building was burned Octo- 
 ber 15, 1869, and on the lirst day of November 
 following, the institution resumed its exercises in 
 Baton Rouge, where it has since remained. The 
 Louisiana State Agricultural and Mechanical Col- 
 lege was established by an act of the Legislature 
 approved April 7, 1873, to carry out the United 
 States act of 1862 granting lands for this purpose. 
 It was located at the Chalmette battle ground, but 
 temporarily opened in New Orleans, June i, 1874, 
 where it remained till its merger with the univer- 
 sity. On January 2, 1877, ^^^ ^^^ '^^ passed by 
 the Legislature of 1877, igniting the State Univer- 
 sity and Agricultural and Mechanical College, and 
 locating the same temporarily at Baton Rouge, 
 became a law, and was promulgated June i, 
 1877. 
 
 The two State institutions, as thus united and 
 constituted into one and the same institution of 
 learning, began Lheir first joint session on October 
 5, 1877, under the name and legal title of the 
 Louisiana Stale University and Agricultural and 
 Mechanical College. 
 
 The United States government generously gave 
 up the splendid buildings and grounds of the 
 military garrison, at Baton Rouge to the State 
 University and Agricultural and Mechanical Col- 
 lege, August 27, 1886, where the institution is now 
 domiciled. 
 
History and Education. 
 
 ry of 
 
 tiiree 
 ■)ides. 
 , with 
 lU nd- 
 1861, 
 :tober 
 Octo- 
 :mbcr 
 ises in 
 Tlie 
 il Col- 
 dature 
 Jnitcd 
 rpose. 
 id, but 
 , 1874, 
 mi ver- 
 sed by 
 Jniver- 
 re, and 
 louge, 
 ne I, 
 
 :d and 
 lion of 
 
 ctol)er 
 lot the 
 
 l1 and 
 
 gave 
 >1 the 
 State 
 Id Col- 
 lis now 
 
 291 
 
 Three courses of study have been established : 
 The agricultural, the mechanical and civil en- 
 gineering, and the literary. There is also a course 
 in book-keeping. A preparatory department or 
 sub-freshman class is attached to the college. 
 Col. J. W. Nicholson is president of the univer- 
 sity. The institution is prosperous and is doing 
 good work for the cause of higher education in 
 Louisiana. 
 
 The Colleges of the Jesuits. 
 
 The history of the colleges of the Jesuits is 
 taken from notes kindly furnished the writer by 
 the Rev. Father Hogan, S. J. While speaking of 
 colonial education, we quoted the letter of 
 Bienville, in 1742, in which he asked for the es- 
 tablishment of a college in Louisiana and sug- 
 gested the Jesuits as the proper parties to conduct 
 the institution. Two facts are inferred from the 
 letter: First, that before 1742 the Jesuits had no 
 establishment of education in lower Louisiana, 
 nor is it likely that they had any in the twenty-one 
 years that elapsed from 1742 till 1763 (the year of 
 their expulsion from Louisiana by the French 
 government), since they had charge only of the 
 Indian missions of the entire Mississippi valley 
 and were practically excluded from all spiritual 
 jurisdiction over the colonists. The spiritual di- 
 rection of the colonists had been given to the 
 Capuchin Fathers by the Bishop of Quebec, 
 under whose jurisdiction was all French North 
 
292 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 11 
 
 I 
 
 America. The Jesuits had a residence in New 
 Orleans, indeed, but it wns only to serve as a 
 centre from which to draw mission supplies. The 
 second very evident fact that we see in Bienville's 
 letter is the opposition of the French government 
 to any Jesuit college in lower Louisiana. A 
 Jesuit college had, however, ben granted to 
 upper Louisiana. Three different historiims are 
 witnesses to this fact. Rosier, in his '• Early 
 Settlement of the Mississippi Valley," page 27, 
 tells us that the missionaries (Jesuits) had a col- 
 lege and monastery at Kaskaskia, in Upper Louis- 
 iana, in the year 1721. And Bancroft, " History 
 of the United States," Vol. Ill, speaks of a Jesuit 
 college in Quebec. 
 
 "Its foundation," writes he, ** was laid under 
 happy auspices in 1635, j^^^ before Champlain 
 passed from among the living; and two years be- 
 fore the immigration of John Harvard, and one 
 year before the general court of Massachusetts 
 had made provisions for 9 college." 
 
 In Heriot's *' Canada," page 30, the author 
 says: 
 
 The college of the Jesuits at Quebec was long 
 considered as the first institution on the continent of 
 North America for the instruction of young men. 
 The advantages derived from it were not limited 
 to the better class of Canadians, but were extended 
 to all whose inclination it was to participate in 
 them; and many students came thither from the 
 West Indies. 
 
 
 mu 
 
New 
 as a 
 The 
 i^ille's 
 iment 
 \. A 
 ed to 
 IS are 
 Early 
 je 27, 
 a col- 
 L«ouis- 
 Listory 
 Jesuit 
 
 under 
 
 plain 
 
 be- 
 
 d one 
 
 usetts 
 
 uthor 
 
 long 
 ;nt of 
 men. 
 tiited 
 [nded 
 Lte in 
 the 
 
 History and Education. 
 
 293 
 
 From all the early documents of the colony, 
 thus tar accessible, we gather that no university or 
 college or high school existed in lower Louisiana 
 under the French domination. The colonists and 
 their governor, Bienville, petitioned the home gov; 
 ernment for a college, to be in charge of the 
 Jesuits, and were refused. The Jesuits, indeed, 
 were expelled from the colony in 1763, and the 
 college dreamed of by Bienville was to become a 
 reality only in the following century. 
 
 Hardly had freedom asserted its sway in 
 Louisiana under the American flag than the So- 
 ciety of Jesus reappeared after an absence of 
 sixty years. In 1823, at the suggestion of John 
 C. Calhoun, secretary of war under President 
 Monroe, Bishop Dubourg, of New Orleans, in- 
 vited the Jesuits of Maryland to christianize the 
 Indians of upper Louisiana, by establishing mis- 
 sions and schools among them. Later on one of 
 these schools developed into what is now known as 
 the University of St. Louis. Already in 1834 
 may be seen upon its rolls as many as fifty 
 names of students from the vicinity of New Or- 
 leans, whilst in 1837 more than half of the entire 
 number on the rolls were from Louisiana. These 
 Jesuits of upper Louisiana gradually extended their 
 labors southward to lower Louisiana. They es- 
 tablished colleges at Cincinnati, Bardstown (Ky.), 
 and at Grand Coteau, La. This latter was the 
 first college established by the Society of Jesus 
 within the limits of the present State of Louisiana. 
 
m 
 
 294 
 
 Louisiana Siudiks. 
 
 The College of St. Charles, Grand Coteau, La., 
 dates back to 1835, when Archbishop Blanc, of 
 New Orleans, desired the Society of Jesus to take 
 charge of a college at Iberville. They acceded 
 10 the request of founding a college, but did not 
 regard the proposed site as favorable. The 
 claims of Donaldsonville were also considered, 
 but preference was given to a beautiful spot in the 
 Attakapas country which, on account of its slight 
 elevation, was called Grand Coteau. At its open- 
 ing in 1835, ^^^^ establishment consisted of one 
 log house and one large frame building. In their 
 stead are at present two large, imposing edifices, 
 many outhouses and one of the tincst churches in 
 that section of the country. Over sixty boys, 
 boarders and day scholars, answered the first an- 
 nouncement of the new institution. In after years 
 the roll usually varied with the varying fortunes of 
 the State, but the average number of pupils was 
 about 130. This was considered highly satisfac- 
 tory in the midst of an agricultural country, where 
 prosperity depends upon the annual crops, whose 
 condition is ever fluctuating. 
 
 The programme of studies was the same that 
 usually prevails in Jesuit colleges. The profes- 
 sional staff included from twenty to thirty profes- 
 sors. This college is said to have enjoyed the 
 singular privilege of being the only one of the 
 Cc 'sderacy, west of the Mississippi, not closed 
 during the war, thanks to the protection of both 
 governments that successively ruled in those parts. 
 
History and Education. 
 
 29s 
 
 I, La., 
 nc, of 
 
 take 
 xeded 
 id not 
 
 The 
 dered, 
 
 in the 
 \ slight 
 5 open- 
 )f one 
 n their 
 iifices; 
 :hes in 
 
 boys, 
 irst an- 
 
 years 
 mes of 
 is was 
 ttisfac- 
 
 1 where 
 Iwhose 
 
 le that 
 )rofes- 
 »rofes- 
 td the 
 )f the 
 :losed 
 both 
 [parts. 
 
 In 189T it underwent a radical change. Though 
 still prosperous enough, its faculty thought that 
 owing to an abundance oi colleges and high 
 schools in the Attakapas country, it might enter a 
 new sphere of usefulness. It was, therefore, con- 
 verted into a seminary of higher studies for the 
 Catholic priesthood. It has, therefore, ceased to 
 be a seat of secular learning and will henceforth 
 be devoted only to religious purposes. 
 
 St. Joseph's College, Baton Rouge, La., was 
 established in 1849, at the request of Archbishop 
 Blanc, of New Orleans, when the Society of 
 Jesus assumed charge of the spiritual interests of 
 the city of Baton Rouge in the latter part of that 
 year. The then parish priest of the city, Rev. A. 
 Martin, withdrew to the town of Natchitoches, 
 which, three years later, became the seat of a bish- 
 opric, of which he himself became first bishop. The 
 site chosen for the college was four blocks in the 
 rear of the old parish church in the section of the city 
 called Spanishtown, which was at the time thinly 
 settled. The erection of the buildings began in 
 July and was completed in time for the opening of 
 classes in October of the same year. A charter 
 obtained from the Legislature of the State of 
 Louisiana conferred upon it the power of bestow- 
 ing all the degrees of a university. The enter- 
 prise went on with varying fortunes from 1849 till 
 1856. It gradually became evident that circum- 
 stances did not as yet justify the establishment of 
 a first-class college there. Through all these 
 
296 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 1 
 
 ) 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 ^^_ 
 
 years of its existence the programme of studies usual 
 in Jesuit colleges was followed as closely as pos- 
 sible. A competent faculty was in charge and all 
 that ability and zeal for education could accom- 
 plish was done to secure success. Though the 
 number of students on the rolls often went beyond 
 a hundred, still this attendance was too scanty and 
 irregular to answer the hopes of the faculty. The 
 town, was also at that time, a fever centre, and on 
 accoimt of the ravages of sickness amongst pro- 
 fessors and pupils studies were, on several occa- 
 sions, entirely suspended. Thus a combination 
 of reasons caused the closing of the college. 
 This the faculty did with great reluctance in the 
 autumn of the year 1856. The members of the 
 staff went to reinforce the faculties of other Jesuit 
 coll jes in the South, whilst numbers of the 
 pupils sought admission into these same colleges in 
 order to complete their interrupted course of 
 studies. 
 
 The College of the Immaculate Conception, 
 New Orleans, La., situated on the corner of Com- 
 mon and Baronne streets, and in the centre of the 
 city of New Orleans, dates back to 1847. Common 
 street, upon which the present structure is partly 
 situated, is said to derive its name from the fact that 
 150 years ago it was the boundary line or common 
 between the city of New Orleans and the historic 
 Jesuit plantation that covered all the land now known 
 as the First District. In 1847 the Jesuits re-entered 
 New Orleans upon the invitation of Archbishop 
 
History and Education. 
 
 297 
 
 >tion, 
 
 )om- 
 
 If the 
 
 Imon 
 
 irtly 
 
 that 
 
 ion 
 
 loric 
 
 )wn 
 
 ?red 
 
 lop 
 
 Blanc and secured the present site for a churcli and 
 school. A brick building, three stories high and 
 40 feet wide by 150 feet long, was immediately 
 erected, and together with an adjoining frame 
 house formed the new college. Where are now 
 the parlors was then a large hall that for long- 
 years did the duty of parish chapel. With time 
 the primitive estal)lishment yielded its place to the 
 present vast structure, and the modest chapel gave 
 way to the present magnilicent church. The col- 
 lege opened in the autumn of 1849 with a profes- 
 sional staff of ten members -''.nd an attendance of 
 100 pupils. From that time »n to the outbreak of 
 the civil war the average number of students was 
 250. And from the close of the war on, this num- 
 ber slowly but in cessantly swelled. The system 
 of studies existing in all Jesuit colleges has been 
 lollowed as faithfully as circumstances permitted. 
 In Louisiana circumstances have not yet permitted 
 full develop nent, or allowed their programme of 
 education to expand into a university. The aim, 
 therefore, of the Society of Jesus has thus far 
 been to offer to youth a collegiate course. It 
 ordinarily includes the primary school, tlie high 
 school, and the college proper, and, therefore, its 
 classes are usually the following: The rudiments, 
 the grammar classes, then the poetry, rhetoric, and 
 philosophy classes. The plan of studies embraces 
 the following courses: Post-graduate, classical, 
 aad commercial. There is a also a preparatory 
 department, to which are admitted students who 
 
298 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 know how to read and spell creditably and who 
 know the elements of arithmetic. In all classes 
 the day's work begin and ends with prayer. The 
 Catholic religion alone is taught, but non-Cath- 
 olics are also welcome and their religious opinions 
 are studiously respected. The Jesuit colleges count 
 among their graduates many of the most dis- 
 tinguished men in Louisiana. 
 
 The State Normal School, 
 
 The following sketch of the State Normal 
 School is taken from the catalogue: 
 
 The Loiiisiana State Normal School was found- 
 ed by an act of the General Assembly approved 
 July 7, 1884. Under the provisions of that act 
 the State Board of Education selected the town 
 of Natchitoches as the domicile of the school, and 
 appointed as its Board of Administrators the fol- 
 lowing residents of the place: David Pierson, 
 E. E. Buckner, L. Caspari, T. P. Chaplin, H.B. 
 Walmsley. The board organized with Judge Da- 
 vid Pierson as president, and on December 29, 
 1884, elected Dr. Edward E. Sheib, of Baltimore, 
 president of the faculty. The school began its 
 first session in November, 1885, and Dr. Sheib 
 continued in charge until May, 1888. By an act 
 of the General Assembly, approved June 20, 1888, 
 it was enacted, *'that the Board of Administrators 
 of the State Normal School shall consist of six 
 competent white citizens, who shall be selected 
 and appointed by the State Board of Education, 
 one from each of the first five circuits of the courts 
 of appeals and one from the city of Natchitoches." 
 The Board of Administrators, appointed under 
 
History and Education. 
 
 299 
 
 id who 
 classes 
 The 
 i-Cath- 
 pinions 
 s count 
 st dis- 
 
 Normal 
 
 1 found- 
 3proved 
 
 this act, met at Natchitoches, July 2, 1H88, 
 and organized with Hon. W. H. Wise, ot 
 Shreveport, as president. The position oi presi- 
 dent of the faculty was tendered to Thomas I). 
 Boyd, professor of history and English literature 
 in the Louisiana State University and A. and 
 M. College, who promptly accepted the oHice 
 and entered upon the discharge of its duties. The 
 State Normal School has for its object to train 
 efficient teachers for the public schools of the 
 State of Louisiana. It proposes to accomplish 
 this end: i. By giving those students who take 
 the full three years' course an accurate knowledge 
 of all the branches taught in the public schools. 
 2. By giving them an insight into the laws of men- 
 tal development, the history and philosophy of 
 education and the science and art ot school teach- 
 ing and school management. 3. By instructing 
 them in the best methods of teaching the com- 
 mon school branches, and by requiring them to 
 put those methods in practice by actual teaching 
 in the practice school. 4. By seeking to develop 
 in them a high order of character, independence, 
 self-control, love of learning, faithfulness to duty 
 and zeal for teaching. 
 
 Universities Eor the Colored People. 
 
 The univp 'lity for the colored people, known as 
 the Southern University, was established in the 
 city of New Orleans by the Constitutional Con- 
 v^ention of 1879, which provided that it would be 
 entitled to an annual appropriation by the Legis- 
 lature of not more than $10,000 nor less than 
 $5000. In 1886 a special appropriation of $14,- 
 
300 
 
 Louisiana Studies 
 
 !;. ■ ' 
 
 i 
 
 cx)o was secured for completing the new university 
 building on Magazine street. Says the catalogue : 
 
 In view of this special appropriation the annual 
 appropriation of $10,000 was cut down to $7500. 
 The university is organized with the following de- 
 partments: I. Grammar school, composed only 
 of the seventh and eighth grades. 2. The normal 
 department. 3. The high school department for 
 boys and girls. 
 
 The establishment of the Southern University is 
 a proof of the good will of the whites toward the 
 colored people, and of their desire to see them as 
 well educated as possible. 
 
 The catalogue of the Straight University says: 
 
 The Straight University dates back to 1869, 
 when the American Missionary Association pur- 
 chased the ground on Esplanade street, upon 
 which to establish a university for the higher 
 education of the colored people. A building was 
 erected by the United States governm nt, and 
 dedicated in February, 1870, receiving its name 
 in honor of Hon. Seymour Straight, who was a 
 liberal donor to the institution, and who has 
 always been its generous friend. In 1877 the 
 building was destroyed by fire, and almost imme- 
 diately ground in a far more desirable situation 
 for the purpose was purchased, and the present 
 university building erected on Canal street. It 
 was ready for occupancy October, i, 1878. 
 
 The Straight University has done much good to 
 the colored people in Louisiana. It has an indus- 
 trial department with good promise for the future. 
 
History and Education. 
 
 301 
 
 iversity 
 ilogue : 
 
 annual 
 $7500. 
 ing de- 
 ;d only 
 normal 
 aent for 
 
 ersity is 
 
 vard the 
 
 them as 
 
 ty says: 
 
 ^o 1869, 
 ion pur- 
 t, upon 
 J higher 
 ding was 
 nt, and 
 its name 
 ho was a 
 vvho has 
 877 the 
 St imme- 
 situation 
 present 
 reet. It 
 8. 
 
 good to 
 in indus- 
 le future. 
 
 The Leland University calalogue says : 
 
 The Leland University owes its existence to the 
 wise forethought and broad generosity of the late 
 Holbrook Chamberlain and his estimable wife. It 
 was incorporated in 1870. The .school was 
 opened in 1874. 
 
 The courses comprise the following: Theolog- 
 ical college, college preparatory, normal, inter- 
 mediate, and model school. The institution 
 belongs to the Baptist denomination. It is situ- 
 ated on St. Charles avenue. 
 
 The New Orleans University is mainly sup- 
 ported by the Freedmen's Aid Society of the 
 Methodist Episcopal church. It opened in 1865 
 and received a charter in 1873. It is situated on 
 St. Charles avenue. The institution possesses a 
 theological department and a normal department, 
 together with the usual college courses. It has 
 also a good beginning for an industrial school. 
 With four universities in New Orleans, and with 
 public schools throughout the State, the colored 
 people in Louisiana have an excellent opportunity 
 of acquiring a good education. 
 
 Colleges and Schools in Rural Louisiana. 
 
 The colleges and schools in rural Louisiana are 
 numerous; and it is impossible in such a brief 
 sketch to mention all the schools in the State or to 
 give an idea of their courses of studies. Only the 
 most important institutions will be named, and the 
 date of opening given : Jackson — Centenary Col- 
 
r 
 
 li 
 
 302 
 
 Louisiana Studies 
 
 liii 
 
 
 
 : !■ 
 
 
 
 ? 
 
 
 
 ' i 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 
 ti 
 
 
 
 ' 1 
 
 
 
 ■ 1 
 
 'i i 
 
 
 ' ? 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 bi 
 
 
 lege of Louisiana, opened 1839; ^fethodist Epis- 
 copal South denomination. Keachie — Keachie 
 College, opened 1856; Baptist denomination. 
 Shreveport — Thatcher Institute, opened 1870. 
 Coushatta — Male and Female Institute, opened 
 1887. Mt. Lebanon — Mt. Lebanon University, 
 opened 1853. Mansfield — Mansfield Female Col- 
 lege, opened 1855; Methodist Episcopal South 
 denomination. Clinton — Silliman Female Col- 
 legiate Institute, opened 1852. Minden — Min- 
 den Female College, opened 1850. Jackson — 
 Feliciana Female Collegiate Institute, opened 
 1850; Presbyterian denomination. Shreveport — 
 Shreveport Seminary. Arcadia — E. A. S. Male 
 College and Arcadian Female College, established 
 1886. Homer — The Methodist College, estab- 
 lished 1856. Natchitoches — St. Joseph's College. 
 Thibodeaux — Thibodeaux College, established 
 1859. Fort Jesup — Masonic Institute. The sis- 
 ters of the Sacred Heart established a convent at 
 Natchitoches in 1846. Besides their large institu- 
 tion in New Orleans they have a convent in St. 
 James parish. The Daughters of the Cross 
 established their first convent at Cocoville, or 
 Hydropolis, in 1855. They have established in- 
 stitutions at Fairfield near Shreveport, Shreveport, 
 Monroe, Marksville and Mansura. The order of 
 St. Joseph has convents in New Orleans, St. Mar- 
 tinsville, Opelousas and Charenton. 
 
 Jefferson College, in St. James parish, had so 
 great a reputation before the war that it is proper 
 
: Epis- 
 ^eachie 
 nation. 
 1870. 
 onened 
 versity, 
 lie Col- 
 1 South 
 le Col- 
 1 — Min- 
 ckson — 
 opened 
 /eport — 
 S. Male 
 ablished 
 ;, estab- 
 College. 
 ablished 
 The sis- 
 nvent at 
 institu- 
 nt in St. 
 le Cross 
 v^ille, or 
 shed in- 
 eveport, 
 order of 
 St. Mar- 
 had so 
 proper 
 
 History and Education. 
 
 303 
 
 to devote a few lines to the history of that institu- 
 tion. The following is taken from De Bow's Re- 
 view^ Vol. XI, page 437: 
 
 On February 16, 1831, the College of Jefferson, 
 in thti parish of St. James, was incorporated by an 
 act of the Legislature. The project of creating 
 that institution had been set on foot a few years 
 before through lists of private subscriptions opened 
 by a number of public-spirited gentlemen, at the 
 head of whom was Gov. A. B. Roman. His zeal 
 for establishing a college on a scale commensurate 
 with the wants of the State caused him to be con- 
 sidered as its principal founder. Twelve thou- 
 sand dollars were subscribed in the parish of St. 
 James alone. The college was opened in the 
 spring of 1834, ^'^^^ was for some years liberally 
 supported by State appropriations. The cost of 
 the buildings was $124,000, and that of the land on 
 which they were erected $10,000. It contained a 
 numerous body of able professors, averaged dur- 
 ing the last five years of its existence above 200 
 pupils, and could be compared without any disad- 
 vantage to any other institution of the Union. In 
 1842 the main buildings were destroyed by a con- 
 flagration ; part of them being insured were after- 
 ward rebuilt, and the college was opened again 
 for the reception of pupils, but it never recovered 
 from the shock it had received. The State hav- 
 ing ceased to support it as she had previously 
 done, the doors of the institution were soon finally 
 closed. 
 
 In 1855 ^'^^ Louisiana College was incorporated 
 by the Legislature. It was the old Jefferson Col- 
 lege resurrected, principally through the efforts of 
 
304 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 that distinguished planter and philanthropist, Val- 
 cour Aime, aided by Governor Roman, Florent 
 Fortier, Sentime Fortier, A. Ferry, J. D. De- 
 negre, Valcour La Barre and others. The college 
 was very prosperous under the presidency of 
 Louis Dufau, and took again the name of Jeffer- 
 son by an act of the Legislature on March 5, 1861. 
 C. O. Dugu^, one of the best French poets of 
 Louisiana, was president of the revived Jefferson 
 College. In an address delivered on September 
 6, i860, he pays a well deserved tribute to Val- 
 cour Aime, the principal benefactor of the college. 
 Jefferson College closed its doors during the 
 war, as all the students who could bear arms went 
 to fight for the Confederacy. In 1865 Valcour 
 Aime, who held the greater part of the shares of 
 the college, about $25,000, being anxious to see 
 the institution revive, most generously gave his 
 shares to the Marist Fathers. The latter pur- 
 chased some of the outstanding shares, and, taking- 
 possession of the college, again opened its doors 
 to the youth of the State. It is, however, a mat- 
 ter of surp^-ise to the writer that the Marist Fathers 
 do not acknowledge publicly in th ^ir catalogue 
 their debt of gratitude to Valcour Aime, and trace 
 the history of the institution to its origin in 1831. 
 It would be strange indeed if the Tulane Univer- 
 sity were ever to forget Paul Tulane. Why have 
 the present owners of St. Mary's Jefferson Col- 
 lege apparently forgotten Valcour Aime, the pious 
 man, the friend of education and of the poor? 
 
 ipfi 
 
 :! I 
 
 iji 
 
History and Education. 
 
 305 
 
 Louisiana has also institutions at Baton Rouge 
 for the deaf and dumb and the blind. 
 
 Schools in New Orleans. 
 
 One of the best commercial schools in the South 
 is the Soule Commercial College and Literary 
 Institute, founded in 1856 and chartered in 1861. 
 It receives students of both sexes, and its gradu- 
 ates are thoroughly prepared for commercial life. 
 
 There is also the Southern Commercial and Lit- 
 erary College. 
 
 Among the best private schools for boys in the 
 upper districts of the city are those of T. W. 
 Dyer (1885), L. C. Ferrell (1888), H. S. Che- 
 net (1892), and Louis Leche. In the lower 
 districts we have the schools of Durel for boys, 
 St. Isidore school of the Christian Brothers (1879), 
 the Pinac school for boys and girls, the Henrion- 
 net school, the Vatinel school, and the Picard school 
 with separate departments for boys and girls. 
 For girls we have the Guillot Institute, founded in 
 1868, the C^nas School, the Columbian Institute 
 and the Augustin Fortier school, and many 
 others. 
 
 In the upper districts, among the numerous 
 schools for girls, may be mentioned the Carnatz 
 Institute (1865), Southern Academic Institute 
 (1881), the Dykers School, the School of Mrs. 
 Blake and Mrs. Chapman, the school of Mrs. 
 Nixon, and the Home Institute conducted by Miss 
 Wright. 
 
3o6 
 
 Louisiana Studies. 
 
 The Sylvester-Larned Institute for Young La- 
 dies, established in i86S, exerted during its ex- 
 istence for a number of years the greatest influence 
 on the education of the young ladies of the upper 
 district. Prof. Willianri O. Rogers was president 
 of the school and of the board of directors. 
 
 The Union Frangaise has a flourishing school 
 for girls on Rampart street. It gives free tuition 
 to many children, and asks of the others but a 
 nominal fee. 
 
 The convents of the Sacred Heart, of St. 
 Joseph, of the Sisters of Mercy, and other Catholic 
 institutions, have a large number of pupils in their 
 establishments. 
 
 In 1866 A. V. Romain established his Classical 
 and Commercial school, which soon became an 
 excellent institution. The writer was a student 
 there, and desires to acknowledge his indebted- 
 ness to the teachers who labored for him so faith- 
 fully and ably — A. V. Romain, George Gessner, 
 L. A. de Montluzin and William Walker. When 
 Mr. Romain died, in 1872, New Orleans lost one 
 of her foremost educators. Of his associates only 
 one is still teaching; it is Prof. George Gessner, 
 now connected with Tulane University, than whcm 
 no one has ever been more devoted to his pupils 
 and more zealous in his work. 
 
 In a history of education it is proper to mention 
 Mme. M. D. Girard, who for half a century has 
 been teaching in New Orleans, and the brothers 
 
oung La- 
 ig its ex- 
 influence 
 the upper 
 president 
 rs. 
 
 »g school 
 se tuition 
 irs but a 
 
 , of St. 
 Catholic 
 3 in their 
 
 History and Education. 307 
 
 Uber who celebrated lately the fiftieth anniver- 
 sary of the foundation of their school 
 
 One can see by this brief sketch of the history 
 of education in Louisiana that great efforts were 
 made in the past to educate our people. Much is 
 being done now for the cause of education, and 
 we have every reason to hope that Louisiana will 
 soon stand on a par with regard to the general 
 
 ir StaTes!' '-' ''-''' -''' '- --^ '-red 
 
 Classical 
 came an 
 student 
 idebted- 
 so faith- 
 jessner, 
 When 
 lost one 
 tes only 
 xessner, 
 n whcm 
 3 pupils 
 
 nention 
 ury has 
 •rothers