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Tous lee autrea sxemplairas originsux sont filmte sn commen9ant par la premiere page qui comporte une amprainta d'impreaaion ou d'illustrstion st sn tsrminant par la derniire page qui comporte une telle empreinte. Un dee symbolee suhranta apparattra sur la damiAre image de cheque microfiche, seion le caa: le symbols — ^ signifie "A SUIVRE", le symbols 7 signifls "FIN". Lee cartee, planchea, tabiaeux, etc., pauvent Atre flimte A dee taux de riduction diffirents. Lorsque le document est trop grend pour itrm reproduit en un seul ciichA, il eat film* * partir do i'angle sup4riaur gauche, de gauche i droite, et de haut wt baa, an pranent le nombre d'lmegea n^caaaaira. Las diagrammes suivants iliuatrent la m^thoda. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 BOARD OF AaEICULTURE. REPORT OK the Results of Investigations INTO CHEDDAE CHEESE-MAKING, carried out on behalf of the BATH and WEST and SOUTHERN COUNTIES SOCIETY in the years 1891-98. BY F. J. LLOYD, F.C.S, F.LC. VmenteU to Varltatnent li» Comntanlr of ^er maints. BY Slmr r^n^""^ MAJ^??v?.sTATIONBRT OFPIcn BY DAttLING 4 feON, Ltd, 1-3, Gbbat St. Thomas Apostlk KC JOHN Ml'NllES^rrn'^^^'^S^' WESTMIN.TKJi, 8 w!f or '^'^' ^■''' """^ HODGES, PIGGiS, * CO, Lim,tod^l04, Grafxon STBlt«T, DnBLUX. [C.-9374.] Price Is. Id. 1899. SALE OF GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS OlBoe Pnblioationa. 4c &o and »ii an«K 3,ir \ ^^aperei, Acta of Parliament, Rflooi4 IN ENGLAND:— For Geological Maps :-Mr. E. Stanford; Cock«pur Street S W Patent OflBce Publicatio na are sold at the Patent Office! •^"'^^*'*' ^^' Po"l*T^. E.G. "■ Offil^pSlK.^^^^ *!»« Admiralty and Patent^ "" '''''90^We?t^i^i:?SetfGZg?w^^^^ ^ '''" ''' ^^ «*-*' Edinbux^h. and IN IRELAND :-Me.8n,. Ho noBB. Floors, A Go., Limit ed. 104. Grafton Street, Dublin. OHDNANCE SURVEY MAPS OP GREAT T^pttatw »«t^ , are Agents for the sale of the^^MaDs in L»^?J5.^^^• f*^ IRELAND .—There ordered at many HeSl Pob? o£s aT hr,^ t"^'"* ^"^""t ^'^P'^" «*" =*'«« *'«' Director-General Ordnance anrv«»s;.Jh through any Bookseller, or from the the Officer in C^e Ordnance^YrVe^^^^^^^^ ' "' "» '"^^ ^ «>* I-l-'d. from ^ Pub£a «:iSl^:i'*'«'"''-^*«'^* Parliamentary and Official Parliamentary t Statutes — PmJZic General, Session 1898. With LidesL TablM A« n«*i. S^.«;!»,W a.™. B,.„«„^„. rD'&?;i Jlt;i872-,M0. Xl^^il Revised Editions. Tables showini? BnlM«««^r.+ t> i « Vnoa 78.6d. each. 60 & 61 Viot. 1897. "r^JTvo" S'^^^titSTeT^' ''^"*^' ''^ ^°*- ^V-!?," Sta<«te« in /'orce, Ittder. to. 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EYRE'^"sP0TOMWOo?5F'FfJ'H f 'y "' *^^°"«^ ="^y Bookseller, from li I KJi .V h I u ^^/»W00DE Bast H ardinq Street, Fleet st be et, B.C.: asd JOHN M S>'^7^P>f ^n.^^?^^'^' WESTMINSTfik, S.W. ; or ' ' ^ JOHN ^l^^'^IIl.S & CO ,2, HANOVER STREET EDINBURGH, and HODGES, FIGGis, & Co., Limited, 104, Grafton Street, Dvnug [C— 9374.] Prm> l.s^ 7r/. 18fl9. Bath and West anij Southeun Counties Sociktv, 4, Tkkkace Walk, Hath, June 30, 1899. To the Scrrctitn/ of' f lit' /ioiinf of A(n'f'nill'iri', 4, Whifc/inll Plure, Loin/o,,, ,S. IT. Sib, , I ivin (lirccti'd by the Council of the Uath and AVest and Southern Counties Society to transmit to you, to be laid before tlie Jioard of A<>i'icultuie, the acconipanyin{>; special Report, prepared, in coniplianc<> with the request contained in your letter of the 25th March last, by Mr. F. T. Lloyd, F.C.S., E.I.C., on the Results of the Investigations into Cheddar Cheese-making undertaken by the Society at the suggestion of the Board con- veyed in their letter of Ist August, 1891. The Report reviews the progress of the Investigations from their commencement in that year to the end of the past season, and indicates the lessons of practical value to cheosemakers which have been elicited. I am, Your obedient Servant, THOS. F. PLOWMAN. /Secretary. CONTENTS. ••• #•• •• ••• ••• •! • ••• ••• Report „, Part I. Systems of Cheddar Cheese nmkiiig „ II. The Origin of the Obacrvations and tlio Methods of Investigation adopted. III. The Sites on which tiiu Experiments iiave been carried out. )i IV. The Conditions which affect the Quantity and Quality of Milk. ^ „ V. A Systematic Description of the Recorded Oljscr- vations. „ VI. The Bacteriologicfil Observations • • ••• „ VII. Experiments on the Various Methods of Makini? Cheddar Cheese. „ VIII. The Manufacture of Cheddar Cheese by Cannon's System. „ IX. The Conditions essential to the Manufacture of Cheddar Cheese of High Quality. Inijex • •• •• Page. 5 » 21 38 <;i 140 lyy 207 218 243 cU68— 1750— 1/99 Wt 22219 I) .V S REPORT ON INVESTI&ATIONS INTO CHEDDAR CHEESE-MAKIJSfa. 2'w tin' Secretfinj of the Bath (iml Wr^t and Smithrrn Conntii'H Societji, Sir, In the summer of 1891, I was instructed by the Bath and "WtJst and Soiithcm Counties Society to carry out observations on the manufacture of Cheddar Cheese, and that the first object of such experiments should be — (a) " The formulating of a complete scheme of investigation of the science which underlies the existing prar. Bacteria, tho.se infinitely minute vegetable growths which are now found to i)lay so important a part in both the welfare and ills of mankind, were not absent from the milk and dairy, and were fighting either for or against the skill and intelli- gence of the cheese-maker. The study of these bacteria there- fore received attention ; some which j)layed an injurious part in the manufacture of cheese were gradually discovered, and one or two of these were traced to their source. It was ascertained that trouble invariably resulted from contamination of the milk with dirt prior to its reaching the dairy, and that inferior cheeses were frequently due, not to any want of skill on the part of the cheese-maker, but to want of cleanliness on the part of the milkers. Dirty hands to milk with, and dirty cows to milk, probably caused more inferior cheese than all the other causes put together. Thus the conclusion has gradually been forced upon me that the study of bacteria is the line along which future progress must b« looked - . The object of tluH reseftrch work must bo to fr»>t a c(>mj)l»'t« liHt of the organisms which an* found in milk whoy, curd, or checHe ; to company th« organisjus found from yi-ar to ytuir ; to wtudy the ctlVct produced upon the curd or chccHc by tlicir presence; to aHcertain their source; and if they are injuriouH, what means may be taken to prevent them finding their way into the milk, or how best to deal with the milk when they art? present. Tho results of my observations were eatdi year report now jjrepared a general report for the Hoard of Agriciul- ture on the work which Iuih Im'cii don. 10. If cheese in dairy have Argus his eyes, Tell Cisley the fault in her huswifery lies. Tom Piper hath hoven and puffed up cheekes ; If cheese be so hoven, make Cisse to seeke creekes * Poore cobler he tuggeth his leatherly trash, If cheese abide tugging, tug Cisley a crash. f If LazarJ so loathsome in cheese be espy'd. Let b!iyes§ amend Cisley, or shift her aside. Rough Esau was hairy, from top to the foot ; If cheese so appeareth. call Cisley a slut. As Maudlin wept, so would Cisley be drest, For Whey in her cheeses, not halfe enough prest. If gentiles be crawling, call maggot the pie ; If cheese have gentiles, at Cisse by and by. Bless Cisley (good mistress) that bushop doth b»in, For burning the milke of her cheese to the jjan. If thou, so oft beaten, amendest by this, I will no more threaten, I promise thee, Cis. Thus Dairy maid Cicely rehearsed ye see, What faults with good huswife, in dairy-house be. At market abhorred, to household a griefe. To master and mistri:! as ill as a thiete. William Camden, wiitinfif about IGOO, in his description of life during the reign of (^ueen Elizabeth, states that Cheddar Cheeses were then made of such a size that it took two men to lift one on to the table. ^ Fuller, writing about half a century later, complains that C'heddar Cheese was so dear that it was only to be found on the tables of the rich. Then comes a long gap, during which little can be found about Cheddar Cheese, though much was written about C!heshire Cheese. The first precise description of Cheddar Cheese-making that I can find was written about 1856. A deputation was sent by the Ayrshire Agricultural Association to inquire into the methods of making cheese in the counties of Gloucester, Wilts, and Somerset. This deputation published a report, which was copied in the Bath and West Journal for 1857, Vol. 5. p. 158. In this report the deputation Avrote as follows concerning Cheddar Cheese: — The Joseph Harding System. We were indebted to Mr. Titley, cheeeefactor, Bath, for an Introduction to Mrs. Harding, Marksbury, and her nephew, Mr. Joseph Harding, Compton Dando, who make first>-rate Cheddar Cheese. In addition to the girls who do the work of the dairy, several men and boys are employed to milk the seventy-three cows belonging to Mrs. Harding at Marksbury. The men carry the milk, but they do not enter * Seeke creekes. Make holes to let out the gas. t Shake her well. I Lttzar. Nauseous ; probably refers to the liy. § Bayes. Appears to refer to the cloths with which the cheese is bound. Systems of Cheddae Cheese Making. 11 the dairy in doing so. It is poured through a sieve into a reooiver out- side, from which a pipe convoys it through the wall to the cheese-tub, or to the coolers. A canvas bag is also placed over the inside end of the pipe so that a double precaution is used against impurities entering with the milk. ' The rennet is prepared much in the way that it is done in many Ayr- shire dairies. Mrs. Harding steeps live veils at once, and this usually suflSces for two weeks, in which time about twenty-one cwt of cheese may be made. The veils appear to have been carefully cleaned and pre- served. Pure, well-flavoured rennet is certainly indispensable in the manu- facture of first-class cheese. Immediately after the morning milking, the evening and morning milk are put together into the tub. The temperature of the whole is brought to 80 degrees by heating a small quantity of the evening milk. Ihe thermometer is regularly used. In spring and towards winter a small quantity of annatto is used to improve the colour of the cheese. It is put into the milk «long with the rennet at seven o'clock. After the rennet is added an hour is requisite for coagulation. At eight o'clock the curd is partially broken and allowed to subside a few minutes in order that a small quantity of whey may be drawn off to be heated. This whey is put into a tin vessel and placed in a boiler in an adjoining apartment, to be heated in hot water. The curd ia then most carefully and minutely broken— Mrs. Harding and her niece performing this part of the work with utensils called shovel breakers. The ser- vants are never entrusted with this duty. When the curd ia completely broken, as much of the heated whey is mixed with it as suffices to raise it to 80 degrees, the temperature at which the rennet was added. Nothing more is done to it for another hour. A little aften nine o'clock the work is resumed. A few pailsful of whey are drawn off and heated to a higher temperature than at eight o'clock. The curd is then broken as minutely as before, and after this 18 carefully done an assistant pours several pailsful of the heated whey into the mass. During the pouring in of the whey the stirring with the breaker is actively continued, in order to mix the whole regularly and not to allow any portion of the curd to become overheated. The tem- perature at this time is raised to 100 degrees, as ascertained by the thermometer, and the stirring is continued a considerable time, until the minutely broken pieces of curd acquire a certain degree of consist- ency. The curd is then left half an hour to subside. At the expiry of the half-hour the curd has settled to the bottom of if- U-' P^^^^S o^ **i6 ^hey is the next operation, and the ease with which it is performed would astonish an Ayrshire dairy manager The greater proportion of the whey is lift*^ in a large tin bowl, and poured through a hair sieve into the adjoining coolers. As it runs into the leads, it appears to be very pure. When the whey above the mass of curd IS thus removed, a spigot is turned at the bottom of the tub and the remainder is allowed to drain oflf, which it does very rapidly without any pressure being required. To facilitate this part of the work the tub IS made with a convex bottom, and the curd is cut from the sides of the tub and placed on the elevated centre. It is carefully heaped up, and then left for an hour with no other pressure than its own weight After this inten-al it is cut across in large slices, turned over once on the centre of the tub, and left in a heap as before for half an hour The whey drips away toward the sides of the tub and runs off at the spigot; and no pressure being applied, it continues to come away com- paratively pure. After undergoing these simple and easy manipulations, and lyinc un- touched durina the intervals that havp boon inon+i'or.-.-i 4.1,-, -,~j ;„ ripe for the apphcation of pressure. But great care is taken not to put it mto the vat to be pressed at too high a temperature. If the heat be .2 IimgTioATioNs iKTO Ch£doak Chxbss Maxhto. above 60 degrees, and ii usually ia higher at this time, the curd is broken a little by the hand and thrown upon a lead cooler, until it is brought down to the desired temperature. It is then put into vats and subjected fo 8 moderate pressure for about an hour. The next process is to take the curds from the vat«, break them finely by putting them through a simple curd-mill, mix them with salt, and raaie them up into cheeses. A pound of refined salt is suflScient for half a cwt. of curd. The cheese ia put into the press at from two to three o'clock, and remains till the morning. Between the time of salting and six o'clock of the same afternoon, something near to one quart of whey is pressed from each cwt. of cheese, after which as much does not come as would wet a cloth. Next morning the cheese is reversed in the vat, and a calico cloth put upon it to give it a smooth surface, and the following morning another fine cotton cloth is put upon it. The third morning it is laid upon the shelf. The spring and early summer cheeses are reantly dry. At this time only two methods were known, th(> one by the use of heat, the other by the use of pressure ; tht> latter was the system of Joseph Harding, the curd being sub- jected to pressure in the A'at before being finally ground and pressed into a cheese. Tn 18G0, Joseph Harding conti-ibuted a paper to the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society on recent improvements in dairy practice. Having described some of the chief mechanical improvements of recent years, he draws attention to two variations which had been introduced into the system of cheese- making, the one being slip-scalding and the other an attem])t to make the cheese ripen more rajudly. He says : - - Sltp-scaldlnir-- The process is now conducted in the following inaii- ner. The morning's milk is mixed with the evening's at a temperature of about 80O (varying 2° or 3° in the spring and autumn), the rennet then is added, and an hour is allowed for the curd to form, when it is carefully broken up ; and here commences the system of slip-scaldinq, now generally .adopted in preference to the old method. The scalding whey is now added to the curd in its pulpy state, before it has had time to subside and get hard. Experience has shown us that a finer description of cheese 's produced upon this principle, which is adopted by the best dieese-makers in this county. WhHt is here called scaWinq is the raising the mass of curd and whey to the temperature of lOO© Fahr. The curd is then allowed to subside, and, after the whey ia drained otT and the curd becomes dry, instead of being broken by the hand, it is passed tlirough the curd-mill, after which salt is added and mixed with it in the proportion of 1 lb. to 56 lbs. It is then put into the vat and press. where it remains three days, after which it is taken to the cheese room. The cheeses are uiade from H to 14 inches in thicknesR, snino oven Jaore. They are only turned twice in tlie press, and that is when the clot) a are changed. Systems of Cheddar Cheese Making. 13 Xapia-rlpenlnir*~'7'^'' nictliod of keeping tin' rhcenf in tin' clweHe-rnom ho* oho hrt'ii liiiiti-nn-d. At one time we thought it desirable to keep them in a low and even damp temperature, but the cheese was then a long time in getting ripe, and a fine mellow flavour was not readily obtained. We now introduce them at once from the press to the cheese-room, which is kept at a tem- perature of from 50° to 70°, as the case may be ; and we find that the cheese ripens foster, acquires a richer flavour, and can be sold much sooner ; so that our thick cheeses are often cut over the counter at three months old, sometimes even less ; though a few years since the same sized cheese would have required eight or nine months to acquire the same degree of ripeness. It is a somcwliat remarkable fact that the use of soixi* whey is not mentioned in either of tliese papers. It is first mentioned in a short paper by Alexander McAdam, who, having been a most snceossful exhibitor at Kilmarnock, in 1861, published in the " Scotch Journal of Agricultiire," an account of his system. He says : " For various reasons I ]irefer makinji' my cheeses ac- cording to the Cheddar system. I usually put in about -4 to 5 quarts of A'eiy sour whey to 140 gallons of milk." It is now necessary to go back a little. The systems of cheese- making', u]) to 1850, had all been devised for the production in home dairies of one or at most two cheeses a day. In 1850* the factory system of cheese-making was started in America, and it soon became necessary to vary the methods of produc- tion so as to (leal with a large quantity of milk mth the least possible hand labour. Thus by degrees ai'ose what is known as the American system of cheese-making. This system has taken no hold in the West of England, but it has been introduced into Scotland, where it has superseded the system of Joseph Harding. The instructor engaged for this work was Mr. R. J. Drummond, and the following is a brief account of the system he adopted as given by him in a paper published in 1889.t 77/ r Scotch Syntem. In the year 1885 I was engaged as cheese instructor by the Ayrshire Dairy Association, to teach the Canadian system of Cheddar cheese- making. Instead of having the milk from 500 to 1,000 cows, we had to operate with the milk from 25 and not over 60 cows. The system of cheese-making commonly practised in the county of Ayr at that time was what is commonly known as the Joseph Harding or English Cheddar system. The ('<(int(/ii(ii III' ./■'((I'lori/ Si/slem. Our duty in this system of cheese-making begins the night before, in having the milk prox)erly set and cooled according to the temperature of the atmosphere, so as to arrive at a given heat the next morning. Our ob- ject in this is to secure, at Ihe time we wish to begin work in the morning, that degree of acidity o . ■omess essential to the success of the whole operation. " Arnold, " American Dairying." t. British Dairy Farmers' Association. Journal, VoK '., Part II, p. 07. 14 Investigations into Cheddar Cheese Making. IwIT/^ matured before the rennet is added, as impatience at this ?S?n, K .*'*"'^^ """""^ ""^ •',^'*^ '" **»« °>»J'»"g of a cheese. I advise S^f l?"" ^T-^ ^'■"'" ^'^'^ *•'"'' t^" '■^""et i« abided till the curd is ready for salting, which means a six hours' process. nf^MV^V''T * ^ f' oz. of Hansen's rennet extract to each 100 gallons of milk at a temperature of 86° in spring and &4o in summer, or enough to coagulate milk firm enough to cut in about 40 minutes, when in a proper condition. In cutting, great care should bo taken not to bruise the curd ,nZl v."f fT''^' '"' ^'-■'•"'^■^J^ith perpendicular knife, then with hori- zontal knife the saine way as the perpendicular, leaving the curd in small cubes about the size of ordinary peas. Stirring with the hands should .egm immediately after cutting, and continue for 10 to 15 minuL prior to the application of lieat. At this stage we use a rake instead of the mehor/frl'^'V"*-' /;'"■'• ''"""^ *i?f ^"*'"S process, which lasts about 1090 ■ ^T |™'-\i'/ beginning until the desired temperature of 100° or 102 is reached After heating the curd should be stirred another 20 minutes, so as to become properly firm !,efore allowing it to settle. We Lfor^-f'""^ *"/'%'" ^¥ ^^^y f""y '^"'^ ^°"'- '^t^'- snowing it to settle Wtl^ln'.-r'"'^/°I'''""^,"^\*^? •"'3'y' ^^^^'^ '« ^*'g"l«t«d altogether tiL nH- f^'^'°".°^ ■*i'\!!"^'' .** ^^^ ^''"^ *^« >•«""«* i« addled. At the first indication o acid, the whey should be removed as quickly as pos- W wLn f f this point hes the greatest secret of cheese-making-to know when to draw the wTiey I depend entirely on the hot iron test at this stage, as I consider it the most accurate and reliable guide known to determine when the proper acidity has been developed. To applv this test, take a piece of steel bar about 18 inches long by an inch wWe and } inch t nek and heat to a black heat ; if the iron is too hot, it wiu'burn lie curd ; ,f too ..old ,t will not .stick ; conHcquently it is a very simple matter to determine the proper heat. Take a small quantity of ^he Turd from the vat and compress tightly in the hand, so as to expel all the whey, pres.s the curd aganst the iron, and when 'acid enough it will draw fine silky threads i inch long. At this stage the curd should be removed to the curd-cooler as quickly as possible, and stirred till dry enough to allow It to mat, which generally takea from five to eight minutes The curd IS now allowed to stand in one end of the cooler fo" 30 minutes when It IS cut into pieces from six to eight inches square' and tZed and so on every half-hour until it is fit for milling. To determine when llio curd IS ready for salting, the hot iron test is again resorted to a^d when the curd will draw fine silky threads U inches long, and at thesamc ime have a soft velvety feel, and when pressed in the" hS The butter- fat will separate with the whey from the curd, it is ground I generally advise using 1 lb. of salt to 50 lbs. of curd, more or less according to the condition of the curd. After salting we albw the curd to llresl"""'"' " " *" '"°^ '^' ''^' *« ^' thoro^ghlyl-slolved befoie This system is very larjrely adopted in America, Canada, and the C olonies. l.em^ more es])eeia]]y suited to the manufacture of cheeses on the factory scale. Present Day System.- What system of cheese-makinir pre- ceded tliatot Joseph Hardin.., I have been unahle to discover Ills, therefore, I desicnate The Old System, of which there is at present no typical representative. It appears to have undergone more or less niodi- hcation at the^ hands of nearly every cheese-maker, so that it wou d now be difficiilt to decide what the original was like, had it not been so m.inutely described. It continues to be adopted by many makers, and now and again some of these take a forward 1 Systems of Cheddar Cheese Making. 16 i position as prize winners. But the result of any inquiry is the statement that the system they adopt is their own. In other words, they have in some slip^ht manner modified the system they were originally taught, and now call it their own. This is greatly to be regr'etted, for these continual variations cause the original to be forgotten, and prevent that uniformity which it is most desirable should exist in the make of any one variety of cheese. The old system of manufacture having depended upon tradition, had, like most things which depend upon tradi- tion, been imperceptibly altered until scarcely any of the original remained, and in its place certain well-defined systems had arisen. These had been practised for years before my investigations brought me in co.itact with thein. They, however, had never been descriln-d in print, but by degrees l'])erHuaded the authors or best known representatives' of the various systems, to give a full description ()f their method, and rendered them such as- sistance as was in my ])ower to this end. Excluding the Anieiican or Factory system the greater ])()r- * '« P»««ible with one boiler o get tlie first scald on m about 15 minutes when dealing, say, with K.0 galons of milk. I ut when a larger quantity of milk is being dealt with It is advisable to have two boilers for heating the whey. The tem- perature of the first scald is 94° Fahr. The whey to^ obta n tWs scald need not bo heated above 120° Palir. The curd is stirred in the scald for 2 minutes, and then aUowed to settle. As soon as possible, vynJ'^^^ " ''^''"J •^!I'P''\ °^ ^°y ^^^ ««^°""1 ^''"W. The whey is heated to 1^0 *alir., and m about 15. minutes it is possible to liavo the curd in second scald at a temiierature of 106° Fahr. Very little cliange is made in the temperature of the scalds to meet the varying ripe- ness of the milk ; but, when the milk is not quite so ripe as could be wislied, it is peiTOissible to use a slightly lower scald. fn.^ffi *''''''^.'' ^*''mi'^ '" *!l'^ ^'''''¥ ^"^ ^ minutes, and then allowed to settle Zl T"*''; ^^° r^ "°'^ ^''' "" ">'' ^'°ttom of the tub in a uniform layer. It must next bo moved up from the sides of the tub towards the centre by gentle yet firm pressure with the flat of the hands. n,3'^\ ""^l f ''i ?r® "^''cs^^ry to properly carry out this operation. The curd should be left m a sohd ma.ss on the centre of the tub with a spa-e of about SIX inches between the sides of the tub and the edge of the curd, and yet without any small pieces of curd, which have been broken off froin the mass floating in the whey. After this has been done, the curd 18 again allowed to rest, and should be fit to permit the whey bein" drawn 30 minutes after the second scald was on. ° Here, again, experience must determine whether the condition of the curd will permit the whey to remain on for 30 minutes, or whetlier it will be necessary to keep it on for a longer time. When all goes well, the curd acquires m the 30 minutes a consistency which the experienced maker soon learns to judge. But this state may be reached in less time, es- pecially in very warm weather, or when the milk is unusually ripe or. on the other hand, when the conditions are reversed, it may take loAger. Cutting the Curd.-As soon as the whey is off, the curd lying on the bottom of the tub is cut into foot squares and turned over, the outer squares being placed on edge, and resting against the interior ones. They are then covered with a cloth or thin cloths, and left for some minutes— the time varies, and is judged by the condition of the curd. The shorter the time— say 5 minutes— the better the curd, and the resulting cheese. Each square of curd is now cut into two pieces and taken to the cooler. If the acidity is low, these slices are placed close together to keep in the heat ; but if the acidity is developing rapidly they are not packed closely. The curd is covered with light cloths only The curd 13 turned ujion the cooler after 20 miimles, again after 30 minutes and once again before cutting. It is then cut into pieces 3 inches square' packed closely, and covered with a cloth. It is opened up and turned at 1-168 B 18 Investigations into Cheddar Cheese Making. tho end of 20 niiiuitcn, a;{ain nt tho end of 30 ininutcH, and again opened and moved at the end of 40 iniuuteH, The curd Ih j,ni)und at B.30 jliii., then spread over the cooler, covered with ulotlis, and left till aliout 8 p.m., wlieu it is Halted — *.ij ll>s. of salt being used for emdi liundredweigiit of cheese — and, if a tirui curd, vatted. If the curd is soft, it hIiouUI remain 10 to 15 minutes on the cooler after being salted, and before being vatted. Tiie temperature of the curd when vatted should bo 70*^ Fahr., and the full weight of the press shoidd not l)e i)ut on until the curd has l>een in the ju'css for (iO minutes. Sucii is a brief outline of tiie system as carried out under the mo.st favoiu'ublo circumstances. But every operation will need careful atten- tion, and have to l)e varied according to the weather and ripeness of tlie milk, in order to obtain uniform results in the cheeses. It is upon the knowledge and skill which the maker ]n>ssesses, in judging the condition of the curd at each stage, and in knowing Imw to vary tiie operations of manufacture to meet those conditions, that success depends in tliis, as in every other, system of cheese-making. 7Vie Cannon Sij.stem. Some 20 to 25 years aoo, Mcssis. Hill Bros., Cheese Faolors of Evercreech, after settino' out the ten ])riru'i])al i)oints of cheese making', witli a few "observations" thereon, had tlieni printed, and oireulated them privately. ]<]aeh copy was marked "This eommtinieaticm is privileoed, and for ytnir serviee only," so that althoufijh possessing a eopy I must not reveal the eon- tents. Nevertheless, as this pi'ivate efPort has done much to improve the quality of Cheddar Cheese during the past quarter of a century, the fact ought to he recorded. One of these papers came into the hands of Mr. Henry Cannon, whose wife hegan to utilise the information, and to improve on the ideas, with the result that she became the same year a Prize winner. The system finally adopted, which will be very fully described later on in this report, has since been practised and taught by Mr. Henry Cannon, of Milton Clevedon, Evercreech, and was brought prominently before the public in 1887, when a cheese made by his daughter. Miss E. -T. Cannon, took, at Frome, the champion prize, in a class open to the competition of the whole world, for the best Cheddar Cheese. When, in 1890, the liath and West and Southern Counties Society started a Cheese School in Somerset, it was decided that the Cannon system should be the one taught at the School, and Miss E. J. Cannon was a])])oinied teacher. Tho following is a brief account of the Cannon syst'Mu, sufJi- cient only to enable the subsequent ])ages to be understood. A complete description will be found on p. 207. The Evening's Mill: is broiight into the dairy and strained through fine muslin into the cheese-tub. In the morning, the evening's milk is skimm-cd, and the cream placed in the warmer with a ]iortion of the 6veain.^'s milk. This is heated so tliat the whole of the milk, morning's Systkms of CiiEnnAR Ciikksk Making. 19 and evening's, is brouglit to the coripct tempcraturp for ronntt- ing. This tcmpciaturc is 81° y A roitain quantity of wlipy, whioli lias boon reserved from the piovimis day's make, is now licalcd in the warmer to 84° and added to the milk to nisuic siiHicicnt acidity. The next operation is to add the necessary quantity of rennet. Uhen th(> curd has attained a rcrtain decree of ■firmn..ss. it '\,r ,V}} " '"■^'-'^H'''- '"^"''^-qu'-ntl.v the euid is allowed To sottlo un(. the whey has risen. Whc-n the whev has properly ns.-n, the breakmfr of the rurd commences. After breakini^. the curd IS allowed to settle for fiv(. minutes. SufHcient whey ««o 1? I?* ''"'^'' /"'■ *'^^ ni^rrow's cheese. The first scald is ti 88" I*., the second to 94°. The curd is kept continually stirred in this scald until it lias acquired a certain dcfrre.. of firmness. It is then allowed to s(> tie for 15 miiiut.'s, the whey is drawn off throi.oh a strainer into the whey leads, and the curd is cut with a knife into blocks about (. or 8 inches square, and pih-d on the bottom of the tub. Ihe piled curd IS covered with thin cheese-cloths and wrappers, and left to drain, as a rule, until the whev drops from the tub Iho curd 18 next cut into six or ..{ohf blo'eks, one- half tak -n to the rack in the "cooler," broken with the hands into small pieces and tied up tijrhtly in a cloth. The remaining half is treated in a similar manner, and the two bundles are tli<'n placedone on toj) of the other, and subjecttnl to pressure The whole IS wrai)ped round with cloths to keej) the heat in 'ho curd Ihe curd 18 left thus for half-an-hour, then taken out of the clotli, and cut with a knife into oblong pi(>ces. These are well mixed together, and again tied up in the cloths. The curd is cut a second time, packed up as before, and subjected to pres- sure for half-an-hour. The curd is tlum opened up, broken into umps, again ti(>d up, and subjected to the same pressure as liefore for half-an-hour. This operation is repeated until the curd is fit to grind. Some Effects of Various Systems. A close investigation of the Cheddar Cheese industry reveals the tact that the methods of manufacturing Cbeddar Cheese are as numerous as are the localities in which it is made The various methods differ not merelv slightly, but to a very re- markable decree, so that at first sight it seems quite impossible that practically identical results can be obtained by such diver- gent means. Yet practically identical they are, that is to say, the result would in all cases be undoubtedly Cheddar Cheese, and no other variety. Yet there is a difference between the cheeses made on the various systems. Some will ripen more quicldy than oth(>rs made on another system, while a third .system maV produce a cheese '''' B 2 20 Investigations into Ciieddae Cheese Making. taking still longer to ripen. Thus u rupidly rijiening cheese will [n> reudy tor the nmrket three montliH uft<'r it is made, others will take six months to ripen, while formerly it was the eustom (o keep a Cheddar (Mieesi" twelve months before it was considered (it for eonsiimption. Henc« the extreme methods have become known as " rapid " and " slow " rioening systems. In Httvour, there is not much variety due to the system of make. The texture of a Cheddar (Cheese shouM be aksolutely luii- form and solid. Some methods tend to produe(> this result far more certainly than others, the latter leaving u cheese more or less "oi)en," that is, showing occasional spaces in tiie interior. Wliile B(mie system* tend to produce a hard cheese, others jiroduce a much softer and mellower curd, which is considered (d' importance as regards (puility. A Cheddar Cheese, when cut, should be soft and fat, neither hard nor crumbly. It should have both the aroma and flavour of a nut. the Ho-caUed "nutty fhivour ' so much st>uglit after. Ft should melt in the mouth, |)roducing not only an agreeable flavour, but leaving a nu)st pleasant after-taste. It should taste neither sweet nor acid. If either in snu'll or in taste or in after- taste there is anything the least unpleasant, sucii taste or smell is termed a taint. 21 lUtti 11. TuK Ukiuin oi' TiiK Ohskrvations and the Methods of Invksticjation Adoi'tkd. Tho Hcopo and conditions of the enquiry.— Tho record of olwervationH.— The duteniii nation of iioidity.— Ex| lanation of the record of obHervatioUH.— Tho record of ttimlynes. — Tho niethodfl of analycis adopted. The Origin of the Ob.iervationa and Methods of Investigation Adopted. In 18!)l till) condition of our knowledge of clii'CHi'-muking wus NUcli UH luiH been described in the ])i('ccding ncction. I'roni time to tinio complaints had been made by thosi' iiilei'estetl in the industry that it was founded entirely upon empiricul rules. Joseph Ilardinj,' had complained that " chee,se-makini>', as a science, is not understood." He pointed out some of tlie infor- mation which he, as a practical man, wanted from science; includiiij'' " u cliemiral knowledj;c of the constitution of the curd and whey tlii()uj>iiout the process," and he hnisbes by sayinj;- that if only such knowledf>e were forthcoming, " cheese could be made (as it ought to be) upon principles scientific, and conse- quently un(4'nng." Such was the complaint of practical men in 18(i(). The late ])r. Augustus Voeleker subsequently wrote some articles on the chemical aspect of cheese-making, which exhibit tho great ability that always distinguished his work. In 1891 the Board of Agriculture decided that it was de- sirable to have research work mad<' into the manufacture of cheese, and as regards Cheddar Cheese, ap])roached the Ihith and West and Southern Counties Society, to know whether that Society would imdertake such research if supported bj- a grant in ai(l. The Society decided to accept this oftVr, and I was appointed by the Council of the Society to make observations on the practice of Cheddar Cheese-making, as cairied out at the Society's Cheese School, with the view, if possible, of throwing some light on the many problems which arise from time to timi' in a Cheese Dairy. Scope and Conditions of the Inquiry. My instructions were as follows : — " To pay special attention to any circumstances connected with the practical work of the Schoof which might, from time to time, be brought to mv notice bv the head teacher. 22 Investigations into Cheddar Cheese Making. " To visit the School not less than onco a week, and undertake, at my own laboratory, such bacteriological or other researches as might be found necessaiy in connection with the School. 10 provide a competent assistant to remain constantly at the School, makin,^' liaily such analyses, doing such work, and keeping such records as might be considered desirable " As this was the first official atl(>mpt to provide a scientific side to a ])ractical Cheese School, it was regarded in the light of an experiment, to be carried on for a limited time, +o deal with limited objects. It had, however, for its main object— ''(a) The formulating of a complete scheme of investi- gation of the science— of which it is not too much to say that at ])resent very little is known— which underlies the existing ])ractice of the best cheese-makers. During the whole of the i)rocess of cheese-making chemical dianges are constantly occurring which are very imperfectly un(h>rstoed ; whilst th,> existence, development, and effect of various bacteria during the different stages of the process doubt- less exercise a material influence on the cheese produced, and require to be carefullv studied. Amongst other subjects of inquiry it was desired that par- ticular attention should be given to: "(h) Variations in quality of milk from cows feeding in different pastures. ^ "(c) Causes of defects in cheese-making from quality of miik, clianges in temperature, &c. i j " (d) Effect of temperature in ripening of cheese." It was an essential condition that the ])ractical teaching given at the School should not be in any way interfered with. I'he Record of Observations. The first task I had to undertake was to draw up a system of daily observations which should leave no important operation in the manufacture of Cheddar Cheese unrecorded. Sueli a record would afford data upon every point of cheese-making, from which subsecpient deductions might be made. No svstematic investigation had ever been carried out in connection with Uieilctar Clieese-makmg, pi'ior to the cemmenc(>nient of these observations. At a school in France it had been proposed to cany out observations, and a form of record had been prepared but the observations were never made and tlie form was not applicabh^ to Cheddar Cheese. A system of recording the dailv observations was prepared, and by d(>gre(>s took the form shown in file following page, while in the Appendix, Table 1 is a ij'production of the Record Book for the month of Jun(> 180'^ After an experience of several years with tliis form of recortL It lias not been possible to find any facts which are omitted except tlie number of cows, the date when the c],c('..p is sold (weighed), and tl-e number of davs which elapsed between Methods of Investigation Adopted. 23 the making and sale of the cheese. Fov sake of reference, each observation Avas numbered. In all, GO observations were made dailj-, togethei' with analyses of the mixed milk, of the whey, and of the curd. RECORD OF OBSERVATIONS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 UKI.ATIMi T" Kvi;NIN■(;'.-. Mll.K Tiitiil Vol. of Milk. .Mll.K Hk.vtkii. .ST.U.F. \Viii:v. IlKI, \riX(f TO Ml.XKll Mll.K, i^C, Name of Kidds. Vol. ■if .Milk Acidity. Vimn- tity. Temp. Vol. Acidity. Acidily hefore Ken- Meting. Time of llen- ueting. Ilennet Added. Vol. Pl-o- portion. wills. 1 gulls. (-•alls. gulls. A.M. ounces. 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 02 33 34 34a 35 Time Acidity of Time Aci(lii,\' Hay of when Whey of MImth. Curd hefore hreak- cut. hre.-ik- ing. ing. put aside. .\.M. A.M. Time | .■^ciildiiK' ■ com- I iuence.«. Temp. of .-. Saiiiiiled. W.'lIlT. Fat. Ca«eiii,&c. JIincr;il Matter. Ihese tables together comi)letely cover the whole process of Iheddar Cheese manufacture. It has been found possible to utilise them with slight variations in the study of other varie- ties of cheese and in all such cases they have been found to attord a complete record, and to give a minute insight into the operations of manufacture, so that by subsequent study of the facts so recorded it has been possible to obtain a clear insight into the rationale of the system of manufacture. By so doin<-- It becomes possible to discover the causes of failure on the one hand, or of success on the other. It is greatly to be regretted that no complete record has been made of the process of manu- facture of any oni" of the varieties of English cheese, if we ex- cept the work which was done by Mr. Smetham, with regard to ( Jiesliire Cheese. It is not to be supposed for one moment that an ordinary cheese-maker could keep such a minute record as the above, which is only suitable for the purpose of investiga- tion. Jhit a condensed form of the tables, such as will be found on p. .>2(., might be kept in every Cheese ])airy with advantage, and would aftord information that could not'fail to be of the utmost value, and would well .epay the time and labour of keeping it. Determination of Acidity. Practical cheese-makers have known for years that both in the manufacture and ri].ening of ch(>ese, the acidity ])roduced, which IS known to the chemist as "lactic acid," materially in- tiuences the results obtained, but no method had up to the time of the commencement of these observations, been introduced for the accurate and easy estimation of aciditv, either in milk or in whey. Hot - Iron Test. - The (.nly test that had been api)lied and ])ractised was that known as the hot iron test. This was used to determine the acidity of the curd, or, i)erhaps, itATOuld be more correct to say the condition of the curd when in the whey after the scald, and also to determine the acidity of the curd before grinding. This test has been very fully described on p. 14, under the Canadian or Factory system of cheese- malung. Tlie test appears ncNer to liave 'been thorouffhlv studied. Tlie length of the threads so obtained is used bv the Methods of Investigation Adopted. 25 A8ll. cheese-maker as a guide to the acidity oi: the curd, but how far it actually depends upon the acidity, or Jiow far it may be in- fluenced by the moisture nr fat in the curd, does not appear to have been accurately determined. The greatest drawback of all to the hot-iron test is the uncertainty of the heat of the iron itself. It is evidently impossible by the use of any uncertain standard to determine with accuracy, either the acidity or any other condition of curd. The Soda Test.— I therefore adopted for the estimation of acidity a method which has been practised in analytical labora- tories for years past, namely, the use of a standard solution of an alkali (soda), and of a substance termed an " indicator," which changes colour according to whether a solution is acid or alkaline. The Indicator.— After making the necessary experiments, a substance termed " phenol-iihthaleiu " was adopted as the indi- cator. This substance is i)roduced from carbolic acid, it dissolves in alcohol, and produces a colourless solution. If a minute portion of washing soda is added to this solution, it immediately turns a bright crimson colour, but if siibse(|uently some sour whey is added, the crimson colour will grailually disappear until a ])oint is reached when the liquid has just lost its colour, and yet has scarcely become Avhite. This would indicate that the li(;[uid was neither alkaline from the presence of soda, nor acid from the presence of whey, but in a condition which, being neither acid nor alkaline, is ternied by chemists " neutral." Therefore the solution of ph(4iol-j)htlialein is called an "in- dicator," for if the li<|uid is turned crimson, it indicates the l)resence of an alkaline substanc(% like ammonia or soda; if white, it indicates the ])rcsence of an acid, such as lactic acid. Experiments have shown that the solution of phenol-phtha- lein must have a definite strength, and the one which wa3 finally adopted contained 0'2 grammes of solid plienol-phthalein dissolved in 100 c.c. of a mixtui'e of equal parts of water and alcohol. This solution must be kept slightly pink by adding to it from time to time one or two drops ot the soda solution to be now referred to. The Standard Solution of Soda.— If a solution of soda be so made that one cubic ccnlimetre will exactly n( u- tralise a definite (|uantity of lactic acid, such a solution is termed a standard solution. In my investigations, as is usu'd with chemists of the pres(>jit day, the I'rench system was dtlopted. A standard solution of causitic sotla was employed, one cubic centimetre of which would exactly niHitralise one-hundredth of a gramnip ( • 01) of lactic acid. In all estimations ten cubic centimetres of milk or whey Avere taken for tlu* test. If, there- fore, this ton cubic centimetres took two cubic centimetres of soda to nexitralise it, then it contained two-lmndredths of a gramme of lactic acid, and there would therefore be two-tenths 26 Investigations into Ciieddau Cheese Making. of a oTummc in one liuiidicd cubic centimetres; in other words two-tenths per cent ( • '^0) of lactic acid. Therefore, usin^r ten cubic centimetres of tlic liquid to be tested, and a solution of caustic soda of this stronfj-th, (>ach cubic centimetn; of soda used reiiresents -1 per cent, of lactic acid, and each division of the c.c. represents one one-hundredth (01) per cent, of lactic acid. Precautions Necessary.— The standard solution of soda undergoes chanj^e if exposed to the air, and loses its strenifth. It IS therefore necessary that the stoppers of the bottles in which the solution is kept should be well vaselined, and only a small bottle of standard solution should be kept for daily use. Usiner the Test.— The method of estimating the acidity was as follows:— 10 c.c. (cubic centimetres) of milk, whey, or other liquid in which it is desired to estimate the acidity, are accurately measured out by means of a small instrument termed a "pipette," and placed in a one-ounce -ilass phial or in a p(ucelain dish. It is desirable for the sake of com- parison to put the same quantity of the lirjuid into another phial, so as to have a standard of colour when making- the itest. Two or three drops of the phenol indicator solution are added to one of the bottles. The standard solution of sodium hydrate, each cubic centimetre of which is capable of neutralising exactly -01 gramme of lactic acid, is poured into a graduated glass vessel termed a "biuvtte," on the end of which is a piece of glass coming to a fine point, and on the indiarubbi'r which connects this <.;iass ])oiiit io the biirette is a pinch-cock, which when pi"ss( <1 open-, and allows the liquid in the burette to graduallv come from the fine point The burette holds :20 c.c, and has lipon it 200 divisions The 10th division is marked "1," the 20th "2," and so on. These hgiires 1, 2, '^, &c., repr(>sent c.c. of liquid. T'pon cautiously adding- the standard solution from the graduated burette to the 10 c.c. of mill: in the small ])hial, a tint is produced, which ui)on shaking the bottle will disappear ; when by the addition of a few more drops of the soda solution, the colour will remain permanent, this will indicate that all the aci(. present in ih(> milk or whev has been neutialised. It will now be necessary to read the quantity of standard solution which has been taken from the burette to neutralise the acidity. To facilitate this reading, the burette should contain a white float, having a black line u])on it which falls as the licjuid in the burette is withdrawn. Suppose the substance being tested was milk, and that it required 20 divisi(nis I.e. down to the figure "2," to neutralise it. Then tii(- aciditv of the milk would be 0-20%. If it t„ok 22 divisions, the acidity would be 0-227/. The burette must be kept well corked wheii not being used. Wlier(> the standard is to be used frequently, it is better to fit up the apparatus in such a wav as to do away with the neces- sity of frequently filling the burette from a small bottle The METiions OF Investigation Adopted. 27 following- method was adopted in carrying out the investiga- tions, and has jiroved to be relial)h> and expeditious: — The standard solution of caustic soda was contained in a Winchester quart bottle placed on a shelf well above the rest of the apparatus (Fig. 1). From this, by means of a glass syphon Fig. 1. — .Acidity Apparatus. tube, the solution was brought down automatically to the burette. As this standard solution, if exposed to the air, de- teriorates by absorbing carbonic acid, it must be kept in an air- tight bottle. But, unless the air could enter the bottle, none of the solution would s- phou over. The air so drawn into the bottle of standard solution was therefore first made to pass through a small bottle of strong soda tinted with phenol- phthalein. This wash-bottle absorbs all the carbonic acid from the air before it passes into the standard solution, while the moment the solution in the wash-bottle loses its power of absorbing car- bonic acid, it also loses its colour. This was found to work ad- mirably, and the strength of the standard solution remained unaltered until used up. The syphon tube containing the standard solution was at- tached to the bottom of the burette by a — j joint, and the flow 28 Invkstigations into Cheddar Cheese Making. of lh(^ solution was Btoppcd by a i)incli-cock acting on a piece of iu(lianibl)('r tul)ing, whidi connected the syplion and — j joints. (l*'if? 2.) Upon opening tliis pinch-cock, the standard solution flows into the burette and carries up tho float. When the line Fig. 2.— Burette Arrangement. on tliis float conesponds with the first mark on the burette, the pincli-cock is closed. The burette is now full. The tests are tin-u made (>xactly as above described. Not only has the acidity apparatus enabled me to obtain con- siderable insiglit into the chemistry of cheese-making, but its use is no longer confined to mere jiurposes of investigation. It has been placed upon the market, and there are many cheese-makers now emi)loying it daily. The evidence which "t have received froni cheese-buyers tends to show ithat its use has resulted in a considerable improvement of the cheese made, not only as regards quality, but also as regards uniformity. The use of the acidi- meter might be taught with advantage in the schools of every county where cheese-making is carried on. ^ Dilute Standard Solution.— For the ])urpose of investiga- tion, I have at times iised a standard sohition one-fifth the Methods of Investigation Adopted. 29 strength of the above, so that each c.c. represented only • 02 per cent, of lactic acid, and by means of this solution, some of the changes which are not so easily observiMl when iising a stronger solution have been investigated. The use of this more delicate solution is attended with considerable difficulty, and cannot be recommended to anyone exce])ting a trained chemist. Explanatioh of the Record of Observations (Aj)fendix 1). The Date of Manufacture, Col. 1.— It will be noticed that there are always two (lutes, the first represt4its that of the even- ing's milk, and the second that of the morning's milk. Where the day's make of cheese is referred to, it will always be by the second date, namely, that of the morning's milk. Name of Field, Col. 2.— The object of recording the names of the fields on which the cows were pastured was to try and discover an answer io the second question ])ut to me, namely, " if any and what variations in quality of milk aro' from cows feeding in different ])astures." ()wing to the small size of the fields in Somerset, and the comparativcdy large number of cows kept at each of the cheese school sites, it was not pos- sible to j)lace the cows for several days in succession upon the same pasture ; frequently it has even been necessary to keep tliem upon different pastures by daj' and by night. It is desirable to keep a record of the fields upon which the cows are pastured for another reason. Those who are ac- quainted with cheese-making know full well that trouble fre- quently arises when cows are feeding in one particular field, hence it is well to keep a record so as to determine, if possible, not (mly whether any trouble may be localised to a particular field, but also, if any trouble arises from year to year, whether it is always associated with a certain pasture. Volume of Milk, Cols. 3, 13, 15.— It is essential in cheese-maJving that the tubs should be accurately gauged, preferably with a loose gauge which can be taken out as soon as the volume of milk has been determined. In my early ob- servations, the weight of milk was given, but as I found that farmers and cheese-makers were accustomed to volume an(^ had some difficulty in calculating the volume from the weight, I subsequently recorded the volume only. It is easy to convert volume of milk into weight (lbs.) a])pi()ximately, by multiplying the number of gallons by 10 '3 ; on the other hand, if the weight of milk is given, this can be converted into gallons by dividing by 10:3. Where there is a fixed apparatus for heating the morning's or evening's milk (Col. 10), fliis should also b(^ accurately gausred bv means of a movable gauge, similar to that used in the milk tub. 30 Invkstfuations into OiiiinnAR Ciikksk Making. It 18 also (l(',siral)l(>, for tho ])iir|)os(' of invostif^atiou, to havp a n>roi)tacl(" for lh(> wlicy, wliicli is ^ranged. But thin I havo not had, and my dctiMininatioiis of the volume (.f whoy were merely a|v|)roxima room, theie should be fixed to the wall a thermometer which indicates both the maximum and minimum temperature reached between each reading. l<'ig. 4. These thermometers are reset by the aid of a magnet. That in the dairy must be set every evening when the milk is brought into the dairy, and read the n(>xt morning. It will then show the nmximun and mini- mum temi)(>ratur(> to which the luilk has been subject during the night (Col. 9). It .should then be reset, and after the cheese is finished again read, and the nuiximum and minimum tem- perature of the dairy during the day recorded ((^ol. 40). The tem])erature of the milk, whey and curd should be taken with an accurate glass thermometer, ]ir(-ferably with one having a straight stem, which can b(> thrust into the curd without fear of breaking (Fig. -'{). The use of a thermometer which is fixed to n Fig. 3.— Thermometer. any wooden or metal support for testing the temperature of milk IS a mistake, for it is almost impossible to thoroughly clean these Methods of TNVKSTUiATroN AnopTRn. 3! HupfxirtH, jind the thermometer may tlien he the meajis of ("irrying u taint troni llie milk of the one day into the milk oF tlie next. Floatinj;' thermometei's lunc one advantaj^e, inaNUUieh as tliey are h'ss frequently hri.ken, hut it is dilfieuit to ohtain tliem accurate, and they ^■eiierally have a round hulh which is u disadvaiitaj^'c. A nuiximum aii(l_ minimum tlierniometer, I'^ifj;' 4, will l»e ic- (juired in the cheese room to leeord the variationsOf 'remperatxire Fij,'. I. — Maximum and Miiiimum Thcruiomctcr. (Ools W-[)7). This should he placed half way hetween the top and hottom shelves, f(H' experiments show that the temperature is generally 1° V. higher at the top of the room and 1° V. lower at tlie floor than the medium temperature. A hygrometer, Fig. 5, which is an instrument containing two thermometers, one with its hulh kept; wet, the other with a dry hulh, is also necessary. The difference between the reading (if these two th(>rmometcrs shows the amount of moisture in'^the atmosphere (C(ds. 58-59). It is essential that the accuracy of the thermometers in use he made certain of. The majoiity of cheap thermonu-ters are inaccurate, frecjuently two or three degrees out, and it makes very considerable difli'(>rence, say in the temjierature for rennet- ing, if ycnir thermometer ivgistcrs 81°, while in fact the milk may be 87° F., or 81° F. J)uring the past eight years 39 Invkstioattons into CiiRnDAR OiiEESE Makino. I have supplied Miss Cannon wi+h thormometers, every one of whicli was tostod aguinut ray Kew Standard Ther- Fi,u;.^"i. — TlypfrometerH. mometcr, and proved to be within half a degree of absolute ac- curacy. Nearly every pupil attending- the school was glad to obtain an accurate instrument. It would greatly ])roniote the cheese-making industry if some system could be instituted to have therjuonu'ters tested for cheese-makers at a nominal charge. Great attention should be paid to the temperature of the dairy and of the cheese room, for evidence points to the fact that tem- perature plays a part in cheese-making and eheese-rip(>ning far more important than is geiuu'ally supposed. It is, in my opinion, as necessaiy to have tliermomelers iMM'mancntly fixed in the dairy and cheese-room as it is to use one in the actual operations of cheese-making. Acidity, Cols. 7, 11, 14, &.C.— The figures in these columns giv(^ the ])ercentage of acid (lactic acid) present in the liquids, tested in the manner previously described. Keating- Milk, Cols. 16, 17.— To raise the mix(>d morning's and evening's milk to the requisite temperature for renneting a ])ortion of the latter is heated. The temperature of renneting is not recorded as it was uni- formly 8-1° r. Why this temi)erature of 84° shoiild have been fixed for the renneting of millc it is impossible to say, b\it it is interesting to know that it lies exactly half way between 70° F. and 98° F., -which may be taken as the two extremes for the development of the lactic acid organism. Methods of Invkstkjation Adopted. 33 Stale WlMjr, Ool«. 18, 10.— From time immemorial a cer- tain quantity of whey taken from the tub the previous day, im- mediately after eutting the curd, has bet-n kept aside and added to the mixed milk the following morning before rennetiug. The object has been to increase the acidity of the mixed milk, to introduce tlie luetic acid organisms, and so secure a rapid de- velopment of acidity in the subsequent stages of manutucture. The ([uuntity of whey added to the mixed milk will vary, nminly according to the acidity of the mixed milk, which in its turn will depend upon the temperature of the dairy during the night. On occasions it is not possible to use stah' wlu-y, for if there was a taint in the previous day's curd, it would be wrong to put any of the whey from that curd into the milk of the following day. It would perpetuate the taint, for, as will be subsequently shown, taints are duo to the presence in the milk and whey of certain micro-organisms or bacteria, and not to any peculiarity in the method of manipulating the curd. Bennet, Cols. 22, 23.— These figures represent, Col. 22 the actual volume of rennet added, and Col. 2.{ the proportion this bears to the volume of milk or the number of ounces of milk to which 1 oz. of rennet has been added. Long before these in- vestigations were commenced, I was struck with the very care- less way in which cheese-makers measured out and used rennet. They sometimes employed a tea-spoon or desscrt-sjioou of no standard size, sometimes a broken cup or broken wine-glass was used, and frenuently the actual quantity of rennet employed was neither known, nor did it vary with the volume of milk. This induced me to have a proper rennet measure made, whereby the rennet could be accurately estimated to the 100th part of an ounce. The following illustration of the rennet measure. Fig. 6. This IS an measure Fig. 6. — Rennet Measure. has always been used at the school, and is now being largely employed in the county of Somerset, and elsewhere. The figures in column 23 are obtained by multiplying thf number of gallons of milk by KiU to convert them into fluid ounces, and dividing bv the amount of rennet taken. 1468 Q 84 Investigations into t!iiEi)i)AH Oiieesk Making. Exiuuplo, August 27:— Milk 'JO fjallons. IfiO Rennet ounces 17) 144(K)-0 (8470 13G 80 68 120 119 10 This proportion is of rnnHidorablo interest, and tlio lessons to be learnt from it are of iniportanee. It will later on in this roi)oit be shown that tlu^ necessity of accurately measurinj^ the (|uantity of rennet used in cheese-niakinf? is f>reater than niiglit at first bo supposed. Acidity of Whey, Col. 2S.— After the curd has been cut, and allowed to stand for a short time, a small quantity of whey rises on the curd from which it is easy to take sufficient for this estimation of acidity. Temperature of Curd, Cola. 38 and 50 The straight stem thermomeit(>r is forced into the curd for about 6 inches, al- lowed to remain there a few minutes, and then gradually with- drawn until the mercury is just visible. The temperature is then read. The thermonu>ter should not be completely with- drawn, as the tem])ei-ature would fall before the reading could be made. Acidity of Drainlng-B, Cols. 39 to 45.— At each stage in the treatment of the curd, when it is on the cooler, a sufficient quantity of whey drains from it to enable the acidity of this licjuid to be estimated. All the drainings from each stage must be colleete11 mixed bef(U'e the acidity is determined. A clean vessel must then be emjdoyed to collect the drainings from the next stage. Acidity of Curd when Milled, Col. 46.— This subject will be fully considered in a subsecjuent ])art of this report. Acidity of Iilquld from Press, Col. 53.— This is probably the most important estimation made during the day. It is desir- able to allow either a definite quantity of liquid to come from the press, or u definite lime to ela])se, say 15 minutes, before esti- mating the acidity. On the other hand, it is not desirable to Methods of Investioation Adopted. 33 Tnlliu""*'^ M V'" )"1"'.'^ ''''■'* ^'""^ ^'^'^y- ^ '" »^»ch case the acidity would d..v..lo,, in th.. liquid itsdf, and not accuratdy indicate the acidity which it possessed when in the curd. ke^Y,f^L.**^l ^""*'„?**- "--A weighing machine should be kept in tlio dairy. The vat should be weighed, and then the ground curd placed in it, an grammes) by Hchmidt's method. These methods of analysis ha\e not been selected as beinj? the most accurate or best (upon which point opinions may differ) but becai.se they w.-re the only means which could be adopted under the conditions for carrying out chemical analysis wiich existed a most of the schools. The space at my disposal ^^'a8 very limited, and the absence of gas was a considerable draw- 38 Paet III. The Sites cm which the Expeetments have been caeeied out. '^'%'nrSifin-f&*ttaSSenoTr',''-^%r ^^^ °^ Farm, Names Character of SoH CuSte Ra^nf n n ' w*"?^"^'? '"^^'^^'^ ^""^ ^''P' Chemical Someriet.-The Effect nfT.-St^p' Y^^""'' '^°-).-The Scouring Land of for Cheese. "* ^""'°^ Pastures.-On Soils said to be unsuitable Site No. l.—Vallis, near Frome, 1891. T.W f^'^'ft' ^-rf ^•^^^^^l' ^^ 1891, wa8 located at VaUis patron oOIr'f Y;'Pf'*^ °* t^^ ^'^^^^' ^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^e occu- « of the fipLl r^- u^* "°^'^*^'^^ °* ^^0^^ 320 acres, oJntc:Ta76trtoPt ^ile'^Vr ^^ ^'^^^^^ '''^^ ^^^ coloured gree'n, the"aft*^r-gro^h: brown ^"""""' ^^^^^'^ ^^'^ numbe/'^'""' "^ "^"^^^ *^" "*^^^ ^-^« f-i --e seven in No. 1 Oxen Lea;!e 22 acres, -i Ihe Leazo 42 3 & 4 Stevens 14 5 Summer Leaiie 12 6 The Mead 6 " 7 ITie Front IQ " Mown and fed afterwards. Fed all the season. do. Mown and fed afterwards do. Fed all the season. Botanical Eep„rt of Air. Cairuthers, F.R.S. ,»d af.e™.lh would app,r?„^^!,X1? ill'ifr^J. - '''« ARKrED OUT. : Farm, Names Map, Chemical uring Land of ) be unsuitable i at Vallis the County 1 the occu- 320 acres, , others in from the istures are seven in Aerwards. n. fterwards. I. Id perma- i over 20 the pas- received ind 2 lbs. ;hat called rich allu- paaturea lenote the eld, as the hay. Site NO! Vallis near Frome IP XXX. s.w. Alluvium Silt Forest Marble Clay &. Oolitic Limestone Fullers Earth ^ Calcareous Clay Fullers Earth Rock , . .Angular Limestone Inferior Oolite Limestone Carboniferous Limestone Limestor.e XXX s,w _.S*r''"'''" ^'^ ^^^ '^""^ «« i^ the adjoining nitTf '^'if '"•**"^ ^?**°'" of the field the cocksfoot largely pre- dominates, and there is no clover. '"8^'J' l"^ .S^^J^ ^^'■^^'^•-'l''^« g'-«««es are cocksfoot, dogstail, yeUow oatgrass, rough- stalked meadow-grass anJ ryegrass. There is some white closer and yarrow, a good -eal of rib-grass, and some of the larger plantain. The chief characteristics of these four pastures are the large quantity of cocksfoot in them, and the fair amount of clover and yarrow. ^ '"^^ °' III. Natural pasture on shallow stiff loam, resting on limestone. coSnfr^i!""'^*'^ f'^- ^^^f r ^''''.'} f "'•'"«' """^ ^^th it is associated Z^Zl\ "^^^r^^ <^°"" «". 16 •Ifi 29 •74 23 •14 13 trace (iO •60 54 ^33 ti7^67 10(yOO lOO-OO •( / •93 •0035. .U •Co r56 lO^Sl •yf) •.S7 •fi5 •30 •32 •24 •002 •23 72^11 100^00 13^,S7 1'88 14-59 4 '56 •3(i •65 •79 •27 •13 •01 2^14 60-75 100-CO H-43 0-64 8-41 2-25 •72 •65 •20 •25 •13 trace •95 65^37 -51 •62 •004 •004 •51 •62 •003 •014 100^00 -54 •66 •0035 Dr. Voelcker in his report said : — > In^No«'°'i\'^lT^f/,i ''• ™^' ^'?-^" '"'''"'' "'^'^ ^-"^^g '""ch in colour, teined nnif. u ^" Pieces of lune were discernible, and No. 4 con- soils ioTl'-Ss ir^'i/" ^"'•- V'''^ ^ ""'^^ ^^'« noticeable. The sous Nos. 1 and 2 esp.=cially contained a considerable quantity of rooUets. No^'T, to^l mrV" "'"""" "^ ^""" ^'"'^ '"'^^ approaching, in the c«e of Taking them generaUy, the soils were all extremely rich and tha analy.,.« evidently show that the land must be old and 2h mstuxe The richness is apecially seen in tho 'arge proportion of organic rnatter ^-^l S';X"sot%"''"'^'"\f''' letter ^ofng^vSh the excepS oTnaturSy peaty soilfl far more than would be found in any arable field, or^ anv Jii ' "^' ""' "^ ^'"^ ''''" ^°' ^^''^ ^°"« time doVS The proportiOTis oi iron and alumina together are larae in each cm- 3 3 rTT.''^*''' ''■ .^.°- ^ ''"»^^"« ""'«h the most Imna Then No' 3, and both of tnem much less iron than the oth-tt three. , Jj-,- 'm* '°'^ *^^". is abundant lime, the least quantity bein^ in No S *.thuugi. ilicro 15 ample tliere, 1 think, for aU needs. No 1 contains"*^ or- 3es SiTKS OF Exi'ERIMKNTS. 41 bei^'o°2?nor ""'? ^^' '"'?' are exceptionally rich, the lowest amount ^!^ ^ J cent namely, in No. 2, but here, even, there is quite double what m met with m good arable Boib. All the soils are, again, well Bupphcd with maj^osia. ' *»""*' ^"" «it '^' P^'^^P''' ^J» .potash that the soils one and all show unusual rich- E 'dr:^S. nr"^"^ ^''^ '^ ^^'^^-^ -* -^ - ^^ -^ •Itoifher SSi^'^-n"" ^^^^^P^'^T^ in nitrogen, and therefore one is altogether justified m considering the soils as very fina ones indeed so It- V '''I^"^»"«° "f PJ**"* food is concerned, and I should be incUned to byty^maSiV'"''^' " ""'' ^^^" '^ '^""^ ^^^ improve'the "ct^dftio^^ I have also determined in thorn the chlorine, and this brines out on« tifri -hlh nT ' ^?J''^ *° 0,; 22 per cent, of chloride of sodium, . quS. tity which one would be inclined to ooaaidor large. ^ »alnfall.-I am indebted to the Froine Water Company for the ramfall as taken by them during the tliroe months of th« observations, of which the following is a copy •- ^ Rainfall. August. September. in. 1 . .. -04 1 2 . .. -02 5 3 . .. -23 7 4 . .. -01 8 6 . . -14 14 6 . .. -02 15 9 . . 14 18 10 . . 44 19 11 . . -13 20 1^ . . -08 21 15 .. . -03 22 18 .. . -61 2.H 19 .. . 11 24 20 .. . -28 25 21 .. . 1-37 2C, 23 ,. . -05 28 24 .. . -04 30 25 .. . -08 27 .. . -89 28 .. •54 2t( ,.. •17 30 .. •13 31 .. ■35 in. •39 •05 •04 •02 •52 •13 •09 •IG •a 5 •03 •20 •01 •01 •0() •05 •03 •10 October. in. 1 ... •OG 2 ... •24 6 ... •72 7 ... 1-80 8 ... 21 9 ... •34 10 ... •GI H ... •37 12 ... •24 13 ... •14 14 ... •58 15 ... •51 16 ... •54 17 ... •25 18 ... ■05 19 ... 114 20 ... •IS 21 ... •28 22 ... •70 23 ... •79 20 ... ■04 27 ... •57 Analysis of Water — The water suni)Hed to tha ^o,^ analysed with tl.o result ..ho..vn in the f ollotlg tltl^T iH very pure water and also a hard water, which is in mv nl!" • a desirable quality in water drunk by cow whose mS isT h"' converted into cheese. ' ^ " *° '^^ 42 IKVESTIGATIONS INTO CheDDAE CheESE MakiNO. Composition op Water. oS'nf"''^*"' ""^^'*te'- of combination JJxi le of iron and alumina ... 'carbonate of lime . Magnesia ... Sodium chloride Other alkaline salts Sulphuric acid ... Silica ... ••• ... Total solid matter per gallon Free (saline) ammonia Albuminoid (organi--) ammonia grains. 1 -rA 1-40 2()02 0-42^ 115 1-.35 0-(J0 0-14 2G-62 •0015 ■0035 mi . -uuao Site No. 2.^.Axhridge, 1S92 possession of Mr. Charles TilW ^'P ^^^^^' ^nd was in the -VT-dbrn£irg\t°Llor W^^ ''' """"' *'^^^ house. ^ ""^ ^^"'"'^ ^^«'^' about one mile from the No. 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13* Field, at Compton House Farm, Axhrklge. Large Leaze Seven acres Eight acres Ten acres ... Botany Bay Ten acres ... Six acres ... Foui" acres Six acres ... Moor House Twelve acres Sharnhams Fourteen acres Acres. 22 7 8 10 6 10 6 4 6 14 12 15 14 Pasture Aftergrowth Pasture Aftergrowth )) Pasture and whether the herbaTi, H' 7 ?' '"' '°'"'' -^^'o™, ago.t lion, which I regret pSorCa,?^,.,"'" "fj" t ^'^^''^ ')»^»- un,„rt„„atel,-, „^„t beifaZ Writ Te'ft^"' '""'««"'• '"'• No".tt2i?a: °°""^ "™ ^'»"- » » "'• Ml lorferrf N and W bj SQ. grains. 1 •r)4 1-40 i()02 0-4:? M5 0-m 0-14 G-G2 1015 035 ime, and i village 8 in the B fields, 1, those J 13 in "om the d ap- ago.t qxies- e, he, ■3 N lAXX nil iMiiif 3 S MAX luvjdiiioj rain]An||vl Sites of Expkeimknts. 43 To mc the grass appeared of rough (juality, and there seemed to be many useless jHunt.-i in the pastures. Geohigically, the land is alluvium, and the nature of the soil is best shown by the analyses and report of J)r. Voelcker, to whom carefully mixed samples were sent for analysis. Rei'ort or Dk. Voei.ckeu on the Soils. The results of analysis of the fiv. soils are as follows : — Soil dried at 212° F. contain— 10 Acres. 14 Acres. Moor House. 7 and 8 Acres. Large Leaze. 'Organic matter and water of combination Ferric oxide Ferrous oxide Alumina ... ... Lime Ma^jnesia Potash Soda Phosphoric acid Sulphuric acid Sulphur (as mlphides) ... ... Insoluble silicates and sand 13-99 2-60 1-49 5-42 •87 117 •7;j •;J7 •19 ■10 •04 7:5()3 15'67 381 •94 r,'2S 1 CI i.-.o •71 •45 •23 •10 •02 15-23 3 78 •73 fi^i9 •90 110 •65 •87 •22 •11 •02 70-20 15-60 4-02 •66 «-54 •90 127 •85 •47 •18 •14 •04 6933 17-98 3-81 1-09 7-06 1-03 1-30 •88 •66 •22 •14 •02 65 '83 lOO^OO lOO^OO lOO'OO 100-00 100^00 •Containing nitrogen Equal to ammonia Nitric acid Chloride of sodium •60 •7,S •0020 •00,-. •65 •79 •0.»2,-. ■0().-> •69 •83 •003 -00.-. •66 •80 •003 -005 •75 •91 •0035 •005 a Dr. Voelcker, in his report stated : — The samples contained a great deal of rootlet*, which tended to show high resulta in organic (vegetable) matter and in nitrogen resulting th«re- The five different eoila were very similar in appearance, being of greyish-brown colour, and of the nature, I should say, of a clay loam. The analytical residts brought out the fact that all five aoiJa were strik- ingly a ike in general composition. Indeed, there is no one point that inarkedly distinguishes any one soil from another, and remarks made on the composition of one will apply almost equally to all. I have noted on the high amounts of organic matter and nitrogen Lime also 18 present in ample quantity in aU, though there are no cases of the occ jrrence of the amounts found in the Frome soil (Vallis Farm) in 1891. • Tu" soils further show richness in potash, and both in this respect and m that of the supply of phosphoric acid, all the soils are in good fertility. The separate estimation of chlorides did not brirg out any case in which any excess of salt was shown, such as occurred with one of the Frome soils. On the other hand, I found a good deal of iron present in the ferrous and not merelv in the fnrrid stAt.i>. anrl onnsonuopH" r ^oj-Jtv-.a-j iu- amounts separately. Analysis also showed that sulphides (probab^ as pyrites) were present to a small degre*. 44 Investigations into Cheddar Diikkse Makino. nJ'?^?/^" 't"^^"*'""^.'' I'"'"*" would lead mo to think that the >oil> were not in the best cmditi.,,, ..f cultivation iKmnihlo, but that further aorati\>n S„?;"'"« 1 "'" ""'' ^^""''* '•" •'^'""'"•'»'- Wk-ther they „e eCtu^Sr drained or not appi-ars to mo wortliy of conaidoration. ^ Water Supply.-Tho water was Bupplied to the cattle by means ot dyUcs or ditcIicH in which, owing to the dry season It ran at times very low. The water appeared ito be of very varying composition, mainly consisting? of surface drttim.jre water, which is not, in my opinion, well adapted for cows in milk huch M-ater is as a rule deficient in lime, too soft in fact, and ,t is wel known that, owing to the considerable amount of hmo secreted by the cow in her milk, hard water is a de- Mderatum. Site 3.~~Bidleigh, near Glaitonhury, 1893. For the work of the Cheese School this year two farms were rejjuisitioned to supply the milk. They we- ^ situated at But- M^^ M^'^'n^T ""H? ^"""^ (ilastonbury, on the property of Mr. 11. Neville Grenville. f r j This part of the county is noted for certain laud, which is teiiaed the scouring land of Somerset, but the cattJ-i were never fed upon this scourinij^ land. The milk was supplied by Mr. H. Q. Bethell, the tenant of Lower Rock 1< arm, and by Mr. Hunt, tenant of Bridge Farm, whose fields ad,|om Mr. Bethell's. The fields u])on which the cattle were jjastured for tlu^ greater portion of the season were on the low-lying lands which border the River Brue But dUiring the first three weeks ox April the cows were on " Beeears Well and "Park Gates," and were then receiving h/v, roots and cake. The cake was fed up to May 17th. During these lirst thus weeks there was no taint in the milk or curd The following plan shows all the fields on which the cattle were fed. There were in all 13 of which the following is a Hot • — Fields at Butkigh. 1. Routhmoor or 12 acres ) 2. Southmoor or 18 acres ) 3. River (or Clapps corner) Common 4. y acres Common 5. Common mead 6. 12 acres (or Inside) Common ... 7. Common 5 acres 8. Reynolds' Common , ? Hyatt's CoF'Tion 10. Lower Horstys 11. Gilbert's Duck Pool ... ,.'. 12. Periams and Horseys 13. Moor's Horsey's Acres. The 30 13 9 8 , 12 . 5 . 6 , 6 . 12 . 5 . 8 . 11 . Both Mr. Bethell and Mr. Hunt were firmly no good cheestt coul). he made from some of then- Pasture. Aftergrowth. Pasture. Aftergrowth Pasture. Aftergrowth, » convinced thaj laud, wpj th^y K Making. k thftt the Boils were thaf, further aoration r they are efffotuaUy d to the cattle to tho dry si-uson, •od ito be of vory surface droim.ge iptcd for oowH in f, too soft in fact, lerable amount of 1 wAtor is a dfr- , 1893. r two farms were situated at But- the propei'ty of a laud, which is catt]*i were never ill, the tenant of of Bridge Farm, unon which the the season were iver Brue. But Bre on " Beggars iving hty, roots, 1. During these 3r curd. vhich the cattle i^ng is a liot : — Pasture. Aftergrowth. Pasture. Aftergrowth Pasture. Aftergrowth. convinced thaj land, wp J tii^y Site NP 3. Butleigh (Alluviumi Moor home \ i Sites of Experiments. 45 -*-. pointed out certain fields which were noted as causing the milk to be unsuitable for cheese-makinj^. It was evident that the cause might reasonably be expected ti> be found in ithe nature of the herbage growing upon the land. Mr. Carruthers was there- fore requested to visit the farm ar.-J inspect the herbage, which he did on tlie 27th June. The following is Mr. Carruthers' report : — Bo.ANiCAL Report op Mr. Cakruthers, F.R.S. I visited the-ie farms on the 27th June, and examined with caie the vegetation of the ten fieldw in which the milch cows graze. All these fields aie on the flat alluvium of the valley, which consists throughout of a fairly uniform stiff loam. With but slight moditicati m, the vegetation is also singularly uniform. The principal grasses are wild barley grass, broom grass, rye grass, and false florin. Less freijuently are found meadow fescue, tall fescue, sheep's fescue, cocksfoot, and Yorkshire fog. The most abundant grasses are those of inferior quality, but the rich alluvial soil produces a vigorous growth on which the cows thrive. The only grasses that are permitted by the stock to run to seed are rye grass, barley grass, and false florin ; very few heads were to be seen, the whole pasture being very clo.sely eaten down. A fair amount of white clover exists in all the fields, being very thick in some places. A few scattered plants of red clover are present in all the fields. There was a considerable quantity of the yellow bird's foot trefoil on Mr. Hunt's farm. The most abundant weed was buttercup ; this weed was specially oljserved in Lower Rock Farm. There was an absence of yarrow in all the fields of this farm. On the other hand, yarrow was present in all the fields of Mr. Hunt's farm, and with it "all-heal" and some thistles. One field on this farm contains a good deal of yellow rattle. I compared the vegetation of the fields which (it was said) always supplied good milk with that in the fields in which the milk was of inferior quality, and made inferior cheese. There was no difference in the vegetation t() account for the difference in the quality of the milk. Geologically, the land at Butleigh was similar to that at Axbridge, being all alluvium. lUit a comparison of the analyses of the soils shows that those at Ihitleigh contained far more clay than those at Axbridge. In my opinion, the soils were very similar in apjjearance, and Mr. Cariuthers, as will be seen from his report, formed the same op'nion. Samples of the soil were taken from eveiy field, but subsecpiently I selected only a few of the most typical samples. Thus the " Thirty acres " of Mr. liethell was a little lighter in colour and more feriniginous than the other soils. It was con- sidered the best of all the fields. Hyatt's (Common, which was considered the worst field, appeared identical with Mr. Bethell'a worst field known as " Horseys." The other soils were very similar ; but I selected two which appeared to me least like one another. These four samples of soil were then forwarded to Dr. Voelcker. aiul it will be 8"9n from his rei)ort th.at chemicallv and aw repfiirds fertility, tiie " Tliirly acren "Hyatt's Common" the w(»rst soil, is tlic best soil, and 46 Investigations into Cheddae Cheese Making. Report ok Dr. Voei.cker on the Soils. reslfts :-"' """"''' "* '"" ^'"""^ ^'^^'^ '^^ ^^^^'g^ *='*-« t^e following Soil dried at 212° F. Inside Common, considered the poorest of 3 Commons, mainly subsoil 2-8 in. Organic matter and loss on heating Ferric oxide Ferrous oxide ."* Alumina Lime \" Magnesia Potash Soda '_" Phosphoric acid "* Sulphuric acid ' Insoluble silicates and sand ... Nitrogen £<|ual to ammonia Nitric acid 17-48 5-20 2-01 13-93 ■87 1-10 1-02 •24 •36 -16 57-63 Hyatt's Common Mr. Hunt 100-00 -61 •74 •008 14-69 7-17 -88 8-41 1-30 -90 -85 -34 •41 •1.5 64-90 Clapps Corner Common. Thirty Acres. 10000 'oo -67 •008 19-54 4-88 1-28 13-63 -99 1-03 1-02 •56 -37 •17 .56-5 ^i 20-88 100-00 •73 •89 •008 6^36 ro3 15^10 •89 •90 1-45 •92 •40 •14 51-93 100-00 •81 •98 •008 Each soil contained a trace of chlorides, but not more The four soils TltEr.l'f ;" fPPf ranee, and are all ^f a distinct ciayey nature, shcfw in thpiV rV ^'i* "''*"'■?' ^" ^^^ ^'^^^ °f different samplesf the four soils pSiin ve it S'?'"''r' ''"'*f^ ^'"'^^ differences^f 'chemical com faTrly TJeed an^ ^n fV'^ F''"'''"^ *\"* ^^^^ ^^^^^^le one another very between an vnnf' f .k ''' I '='*" '^^' ^^^^^ i« ^^^ s»ch striking variation "^Pi^^^aLXf^^:^:^;' ^" '''- -^^ accoSntforthe alumbaTn*NT?lH^^-*'?K°°%-^l!^?^ ^''^"^^ ^' i" ^^^ «™^» quantity of conTars VS'in m ^^"^ '^'^'^^'^ increased amount of lime which it The faet^Jat Nn 7"^"^ ""PP'T *" ^" ^^^^^'hat the lightest of the four, of the oThpr^ n,« '^^T\* ^"T"" proportion of ferrous oxide than any ?L fully oxfdisT.PT:^^^ ^^^^^^ ^ ^"'"^ indication of its being in I Sred th« Inlr ?'';r'.f"^ *^'' ™*y ^*^« *° ^^ ^ith its beini con- siaerert the poorest of the three common soils. Beyond this I see nn TstuTd'S °at *t ^•'''""'^/- "'Y* ^^"«*' ^° --""*"- iSe'rioritr^ " 1 snouid not at the same time be surprised to hear that TSTn 9 »,„= Ume^^1t*lt*"""\^"T*^°'^^^^ iron ialte.' '" Phosphoric acid, and more fuUy oxidised state of ite All four soils are very rich alike in phosphoric acid, potash and nitro genous organic matter, and the differences in any of these shown by 4; ^^ It will thus be seen that neither a botanical examination of ...e nert^ago, nor yet a ehcmicjix examination of the soils, found any reason for the local opinion as to the unsuitability of the 1 Sites of Exfebiments. 47 ig land for cheese-making, nor did they throw any light on the difficulty met with in practice. The results of subsequent in- vestigation lead me to think that the trouble at Butleigh was due very largely io the character of the drinking places for the cattle, the importance of which will be demonstrated later on in tliis Report. T^T**A°*^""~'^^^ following table, for which I am indebted to Mr. JSeville Grenville, shows the rainfall as recorded by him at Butleigh during the seven months of the observations. April. May. June. July. Au- gust. Sep- tember. Octo- ber. in. in. in. in. in. in. in 1 2 3 •03 •03 ... ... •02 •09 ... • ■* ... ... ... .. . •60 ... ... ... •41 •08 4 ... • *• •08 •54 •21 6 6 7 8 9 10 ... ... •03 •32 ••• ... ... ... •OG •42 •30 ... ... ... . .. .. . •03 •40 ... ... •15 • *. •55 •12 ... ... •10 • •• »■• •03 ... ... ... •08 *>• •29 11 12 ... ... ... •41 •12 •04 ... •20 13 14 IF, •07 ■03 •04 •25 •79 ... 1*. •07 '19 1(5 •03 •17 ... • .. •06 17 1 Q ... •19 ... •10 ... •0(5 •15 18 ... •20 • * • •02 •10 •17 19 20 •05 ... •85 •23 •25 •06 21 22 •03 •30 •io •28 •21 •12 •03 23 24 •02 ■ 1 •09 •40 •10 •41 ... •13 2r> 2(1 27 28 29 30 31 •02 •04 •1.') •17 r3i •05 •09 •06 •08 •15 •05 •36 •11 •05 •']"9 •37 •05 Total inches ... •17 ' •88 4-12 1^43 2-60 3-66 Water supply.-The cattle drank from the river Brue which m sp.te of the very dry season, always afforded then, an arni^le supply of ^yater. Whether this was of good quality I did iot deternune, it not being until subsequentlv that, I d-'scovered i^- eHtgtot sewage 111 producing those taints which were so prevalent i 48 INV.SXXG.XXOXS xNxo Ch.bbxk Ch^sk Making. lands bTundXfythe^ Rri^inl^r^i! ^"^f^^^* ^o^^sts of low-lying Bouth-west by a ranL of hn?s ^ n T'^'P ^'"«' ^^d on the parallel to tlfe MenSpe ^4 r^''.'^%^,^^^^ ^"" «^«^o« exceptionally flat and level an 1 «/?r\*'''", ^'^."^ ^''' ^ ^^lley. land is the -town of G lastonburl p^' ^!^^ °* *^^ ^^"^7' i«- dually widens, and v^r IS ^" ■^''^"' *^'^^« ^^^ valley Wa- ends in a long stretch f^^fctT^n,^™ *« the sea, wh^efe it on the north to Bridgwater 1 If,/ *^' ^^^^^^^"f? from Weston the School was tharoTlfr Joh^T^?*^- P,^r*^"^ ^^^^^t^d for . parish of Mark is situated ,-nfh\*r'' "* ^^^'^' ^ouse. The five miles from the seas^or^anT f'^^V^l^ Weston and Bridgwater ' ' ^^'^'*'* half-way between No. 1. V.irtr,4- M »» >> 1) )> )> M »> >> «) 1. 2, 3. 4, 6. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Eight acres. Two acres. Pour acres. Sixteen acres. Three acres. Five acres. The Pen The five acres. Church Path. Crib House, ^e twelve acres. The ten acres. Yarrow ground. But Lake. Tile House. Size 8 acres. ■Aftergrowth. 4 16 3 6 2 6 9 6 12 10 6 9 9 Pasture. >» •I tt » n »» Aftergrowth. Pasture. Botanical Report of Mr Wm n The 8 -1 • • Carrcthers, F.R.S. « great °sii^narir;'l„lEreTe« * r««^«"« vegetation. Th.ro The prmcipal grasses are Cocksfoot mL?f- P",'*"^^« '" the various fields perenne) Do|stail (CVo,rr„f 7r JS? " ^^^ (Sm pmfenic). These four grasses exIIfthrnV if . ^/l"'"el grass (Hordeum proportions. Cocksfoot Ts one of the te,l°"* *''" ^™« '" °«»^ly eaua consequently draws its food ?rom a l^f r^n'^'^- ^* '^ deep-rooted, Td many other grasses, and therefor? gro^^^id'^f deeper mass of soil 'than o nutritious and palatable food. ^3 i^'dP^°^""T * ^"«' """""nt fn nSr' «"PP^y'"g « le«^^er quantity of tood Sd l^'l''^ ''"""P^ * ^°^^' in pastures consist, to so large an extenf ^f ti! 'J^' ^"^ever, the bents grasses, they cann;t be considered 2 fa' .rite'fn^f '?^''^f^^ '^ ^^''^ two IB a very inferior grass which in ord> / n f "^ °^ '*^"^^- Squii-rel tail But on a rich soil like tha at Ma^k .„,< E""" T"^ ™P''^'? ^o seed of nutritious food. Sheep ancfc^^e prosper^JH^^^^ " ^"^^^ '^^"nt where Squirrel tail is, by a long wav th« T.-i ? P^^turea b fikmerset tfep season jf .-wi.-^ "^ .-° y* ''"^ Dredominnpt- £»-— ci- , . ^ '* ^^°^"'^"^ * conad«,bl9 quantity of fo"4e,^whicb ttten , ^KING. 94. 1 of low-lying side, on the and on the t run almost lies a valley, e valley, iA- valley gra- sea, where it rom Weston selected for louse. The alley, about ay between het portion number, of )Ie distance fowth. ire. wth. re. fields on ;. •n. Th(>ro 0U8 fielda. is (LoUum (Hordeum arly equal 'oted, and soil than ;e amount T a lower the bents these two iiirel tail to seed. ) amount Somerset Early in i» eaten Site N04. Mark Lower Lias Clay 5.W. ■I i W. I % I StTES OK ExPERrMKNTS. 49 A htt e Yarrow (Jchdina Millefolium) was n et with in 111 tL , nuS^;ai^']:,Z :^^'' - ''■"' --'*'- ^"^-^- «~ «upp,iea a • o.lfrJ';?;''"- ' ^'T ^"u^^ ^> ^^^"^'^^ ^'^ «^"^^l^r to that at the nfe- < odincr sitos, minu.]y alluvuim, except the few fields close to the Hou.se, where only the afterf^rowth was fed t was remarkable how c-losely the soils in all the fields ipi roac-hed one another in character, so ninch so thit T .f « S iH'sitated as to whether it was necessarv to sen n n- . h* 1 ' sample t., the Society's Consulting Chen. for^^dv^ I .K-nde,l, however, to selec^t the two n.ost dissimilar ,Cn p ^ \nd Rki'oht of Di!. Voei.ckek on the Soir« 1 rie iinaljfical results were as follows :— S(>lr,S BniKD AT 212" FAIIItKMIKIT. Butlakc. <'ril) irouse. *Orfranic matter and I(,ss on hoatiii--- I'errous oxide ... 2itll 18-(M Ferric oxide 1)0 V24 Alumina ... •1-2I i-or. Lime . '" '" 8 -28 7-7« Magnesia ... l-4:i \-2H Potash . 1-23 M3 Soda ... 102 •8S Phosphrric ;icid ... •6fi •02 •■^uiphnrioaeid ... •2(1 •24 Insohildesiliiales and sand ... I.'i •II * ' ' *•* l)l'.;7 Ct^IO Idii-dd loo-oo •Containing nitrogen Nitric acid •S3 •78 Chlorine ... " •00,55 •i)o,-) ^At:a trace trace 1) XX SI 50 Invkstigations into Chkddaji Ciieesk Making. It will 1)0 at once seen, hy anyone converHiuit with uhemical analysin, that the above results represent soils of great riehness. In character" they are rather heavy, l)ut their mechanical condition is excellent, the rootlets radiating in every direction and keopinjr the earth oi)en and friable. The samples are very rich in organic vegetable matter, the accumulation, probably, of long continued pasture growth, and tiiey contain much nitro- genous matter derived therefrom. In phosphoric acid they are also very rich, they have plenty of lime, with- out the defects of soils too rich in that material, and they are exceedingly well supplied with potash. Site No. 5. — Haselbury, near Cretvkerne, 1895. Haselbury House is situated about three miles from Crewkerne, ami is in the possession of Mr. G. D. Templeman. The farm cousista of 554 acres, of which 344 are arable and 210 pasture. Being mainly ujjon hilly land, some of the fields lie high, but others are down in the A'alley. The following is a plan of" the farm, showing the fields which were utilised for feeding the daiiy cows. In all there were 12 of which the following is a list: — 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. Fit'ldx at Hiisi/liin-//. Hams Great Leaze Inner Leaze Clover Wood 56 21 15 17 acres. Beat Wood and Gainblin 30 Water Meadow 13 Oafc Close 5 New Mead 4 Hanging Hill 10 Gravel Sleight 19 Lower Solomons 6 Middle Solomons 6 »> Aftergrowth. Pasture >> >> >> Aftergrowth. »> Pasture. Pasture. The reason why so large an acreage was ftnl, was the great scarcity of grass due to the dry season. Mr. Carruthers investigated the herbage on the 22nd of July, and renoi'ted as follows : — ■ Repoi!T ok Mh. Wm. Cakki'thkrs, F.R.S. This farm contains different qualities of jiasture due to the varieties of soil. One i.s a rich alluvial soil tilling up the bottom of the valleys. This pro- duces a large crop of good grasses, iirincijjally Cocksfoot and Hard Fescue ; with these are small ipiantities of Rye-grass, Meadow Fescue, and Fiorin {A(irostis vulfjoris). There is a fair amount of White Clover and a little Red Clover. YaiTow is fairly abundant. "Lower Haggett Meadows" and "Hazel Ditches" belong to this group. They are both clean and valuable jiasturos. The fields '' Middle and Lower Solonuuis " Iiave a somewhat similar soil and a more varied vegetation. The principal grasses are Hard Fescue, Rye-grass, and Cocksfoot ; the Hard Fescue is most abundant, and the other two follow closely after it. There is in addition a fair amount of Dog's-tail and Sweet Vernal, and a little Timothy. Here, as generallv G. laly.sJH, that er they are he rootlets able. The simulation, mch iiitro- limo, with- jxcoediiigly i rewkerne, rhp farm ) pasture, liigh, but Ids which the great of July, 'arielies of This pro- d Fescue ; jnd Fiorin !id a little Meadows " clean and limilar soil d Fescue, , and the fimount of generally Site NP 5. Haselbury [Marly Clay &, perhaps a little Marly Limestone] LXXXIX. N.W Qr. Slirel Imf Sttmfnil LXXXIX S.W LXXXIX N.W. Ur. Sktellini Sites of i'lxi'KniMKVTs. 51 ,?'««^r "'"'rt-hvcd KraHNes an they .lisappeare.l have beLi rcnK the remairiH of the original niixtiiro whiU^ tho uX JVl \ P'"''"f>'y In the lighter soils, but especially in the " Beet Wood fc'i-.u '• j Clwniiral C/idiuirtt'i- of Soil a. ^^Geologically, the land at Haselbuiy consists mainly of marly On fhe different parts of the farm Avliich were down in grass the soils varied slightly in appearance, so samples which were typical of the whole were sent to Dr. Voelcker for analysis The following IS the result of his examination of these samples Report of Db. Voelckeu on the Soils. Soils dried at 212° Fiihr. *Orpranic matter, Carbonic and loss on hcatin}? ... Oxide of Iron Alumin,'* tLime ' Magnesia Potash .' >So (i-81 127 •.-)3 •!»7 •44 •l« •17 •03 (!(i37 lOOOO •81 •OS 2-27 Beat Wood. v.vn 7^!t2 103 ■46 •45 •11 •16 •14 •002 73^07 1 00^00 •.-.13 (i2H 1.83 Hams. ll'!»5 3r.!» 7-30 3 23 •76 •75 •Hi •14 ■08 •002 7204 10000 •406 •493 3'93 D 2 52 InVK.sTKJAIIONS into ClIKDItAU ClIKKSK M.VKlVn. Vo. 1. Miihllf SiilniiiDii.i vr.iH a lijjht l)ri>\vn-ci)!(>iiro(l loam. It is the lightest of tho four Hoilfi, No. 2. (iamhlin Ih dirkor oolnured, and a hoavior loam than No. 1. It hah rather more clay in it. No. 'A. lift WdikI iH much liku Xo. 2, hut is nitlior lighter in colour. It h iH flintn interHpersed in it. No. 4. Uiiin^ is, in appuaranci-, somewhat similar to No. 1. It has a good deal of flint in it. The analy.'^cs show that No. 4 is a different soil to the other three, con- tainir^ as it does considoral)ly more lime A<* a whole, the soils are not anythin<{ like so rich in character as those at Mark Farm — tho site of last year's cx[icrinicnts. They arc, with . "">./ li. n.w. Altuvium Lower Lias Clay and Limestone haeticf-the upper pari being White Lias Liiriestone Sites of Exi'eriments. 53 Site No. 6.~Cossington, near IJridffwater, 1896. o..-n!l',*'l'''^'"^'' "^ ^"«^i"«lou is situate upou comparatively high I ;;""l""'" "^^lr'' 7^""J^' "*' tl^^ ^l"« I^ias formation, , fl ''^ ri' ^"'^ *i'"'' ^'"'" ^^''^ ^'^^ ^-^l^^-y" «r «i«or8 of the nortJi-west ot Somerset. w^r'i^'l*'' ''"'■"'' V'"^^^"St«n, in the occupation of Mr. Walter V> . lucker, was selected as the site of the School for 1896, be- cause Lossington was said to be a place in which it was difficult lo make good cheese. The accompanying' plan shows the portion of the farm on wnicli tJie rows were fed. Geologically the land is composed partly of alluvium, partly nt lower has clay and partly of limestone. The fields we/e niainly down on the moor, where the soil is clay, and wheie peat abounds, or is intermingled with the soil. The fields on v.?.mT^ '* r 11'^'%*'''^' f"^ comparatively small. The soil paitakes of the b ue Lias character, arl the herbage is what is known as teart," or " scouring." The fields were not marked out as in fonner farm«, the cattle being able to roam over many fields. Hence we must refer to these main4y as teeding grounds. In all, there were six Nj. Hatches Newliinds Holywell Middle Moot Furlong Still) close Furlong Home fields 30 acres Pastui-e. 12 „ Aftergrass. «n „ Pasture. Aftergraa.s. do. 1 1 „ do. Hatches was looked upon as the principal milking ground because It attorded the best pasture. Half of Holywell was n^ tended to be mown, but owing to the dry summer, and want of keep, the whole had to be fed. No botanical examination of the herbage was made by Mr ( arruthers, nor were any samples of soil sent to Dr. Voelcker. ' AVater was supplied to the cattle by means of dykes or ditches running througli the fields, the water in which came from a spring in the higher ground of Cossington. In spite of the drouglit, there was always sufficient water, though, as mi^^ht be expected, it was not plentiful. * " Site No. 7. —Long AsJiton, near Bristol, 1897 and 1898. , Fenswood Farm Long Ashtoii, about four miles from Bristol, IS the property ot Sir Greville Smythe, Bart., and was in the occui)ation oi Mr. Richmond Harding. That portion of it which was used lor feeding the dairy cows consisted of about 150 54 LxVKSTfGATIONS INTO ChedDAR CheESE MakiNG. ^Jt ?S^SS^el!^/^^ '-''- - -^^^^^ the Fields at Long Ash ton. •2. 4. 5. 1. Wilmots and Ground. Home Field and Orcliurd Middle Rowens Fishers ... Hop and Mead ... «• The Tips 7. Kings Craft 8. Great Tininy , y. Little Tining 10. Goulstons Ground 11. HivingsHill ... 12. Battens Sideland 13. Hill Top 14. Costlands 15. The Mead Bushey 2ti Pasture 1897. 1898. Pasture, limed. Aftergrowth Pasture After-grass Pasture 17 Aftergrowth Pasture Pastu I unli left limed. re. Aftergrowth. Pasture. BOTA»ICiI. EXPORT or Mn. CAWiVTHEKS, F.E.S ■ cows had been feeding The na^fnri Y ^*^™ >" ^^ich the dairy and other weeds whS gav e%S ^doT t^o"°m^-,r'* 'TJ''''^ ^'^^ oS cheese made from such milk TherpT^ ^u^' "•"** ^ ^^^ butter and count for the difficulties S ctese majg'^in Sr^ ^" '''' '^^^^"^^ *« «<= ?Xifo:\LZtnSns'^i^^^^^^^ ^^-P- Marl, but are on th^e lower lias. tZj^eT^^ ma'de'oTthf ^'l ^'''' During a portion of each season ii 2 ^^^ ^°^^^- artificial foods to ^he cattle ^' necessary to supply TAe Scotirinff Land of Somerset. well known and form one S f h,. . T Pf ^^^^r soils, which are The soourin, laX^ea^:^^ .^ITp'S t^ fl" "^ '^ runs m tracts, mainly on the h Xr 1^ i ^T "^^y' ^^^ H"entb in the hollov/s, bein,' confinLl , ^/"^ *"' ^'^^^ ^^^- lower or blue Lias. A the presenop n ■ J[' ^^'"^ '?!'t"'''P «* ^^^^ portant bearing upon the cheS^ 1 • ^'''- T^^^ ^^« ^^^ i^- feeding of cattle on ^coudnn WM ?^ 1"^^"^*^'^' *«'' t^e ciated with a taint in t e curd I h-p ^•'""'* ^'^variably asso- the subject. ^' ^ ^^^^ S^yen some attention to Ii f ! Site NQ 7. Fenswood Farm Long Ashton w.*/ .**■ i'l/* ?r/^5 Limestone MiHstone Qr>t ' s.iv. Red Marls ^^fenarth Beds Sites of Expeeiments. 55 My first attempt M-as to see whether analyses would throw any ight upon the cause Two samples of soil were obtained from typical scounnj.' land, and analysed with the following results. Analyses of Soils (ScouKiNfj Lanij). Soils dried at 212" V. Hutchings. Bludgeley. ~ Organic matter and loss on h Oxide of Iron Alumina ]'" Lime Magnesia Potash ^oda Phosphoric acid ... Sulphuric acid ... ,,[ Carbonic acid, &c. ... Insoluble ... ♦Containing nitrogen Equal to amnnmia eating 14-40 10-02 (5-83 3-20 1-20 •t!0 -90 -40 -Ifj (52-30 10000 -(it! 17-65 9-55 (i-93 3-20 1-00 •(i8 •10 •42 •10 •42 59-95 100-00 -58 •(!9 My first thouyht was that the amount of magnesia in the laud nught account tor the herbage grown thereon having a scouring ettoct. liut li we compare these analyses with the analyses made by Ui Voelcker of the soils at Axbridge we shall see that the amount o± magnesia is not even so great as in the Axbridge soils. i he scouring soils show, however, one peculiarity, an abnormally high percentage of nitrogen. Now, land containing a high proportion of nitrogen has a very rapid and forcing effect upon vegetation, and when conditions combine to promote a rapid growth of plant life upon a soil rich HI magnesia salts of magnesia enter the j,lant, and would have a scouring effect upon the cattle. Such appears to me to be the most probable cause of this scouring herbaoe It has been attributed also to the Purging Flax (Linnm oatharttcmn) which is frequently found growing in abundance (m scouring land. Be the cause what it may, the effect is marked. In 1891 I observed that a change of food -when the cows were first given cake- was productive of a taint in the milk. As is well-known, a change of diet is productive of a certain amount of scouring, thoutrh It mav only last a day or two. A similar effect was noted at Axbndge, in 1892. and it is universallv stated bv cheese-makers, that it is imnossible to make good cheese olt' scouring land. We learn from these facts, that .anything which causes rows to scour will spoil or deteriorate the cheese. It will introduce 6Q Investigations into Cheddae Cheese Making. fa'cal orgaiiisms into the U'ilk, cause a fuical amell in tlii:' curd, such as was ])i'esent ifcquoutly at iJutleigh, aud only the very greatest care will enable the cheese-maker to produce good cheese under such circumstances. The only remedy that can be suggested at present is scrupu- lous cleanliness, which, though necessary at all times, is in- dispensable upon soils of this nature. An Experimental Cheese was made at Mark in 1894, to test the eit'ect upon the cheese oi land which had the reputation of being scouring and bad for cheese-making. The cows, had been divided into two lots sometime previously, one lot, 21 ii. number, were on the scouring land (in all, 24 acres), and yielded b'i gallons of milk. The other lot, ti\i cows, were on the old ])astures, and yielded 51 gallons. During the makinj.;, antl even at the time of vatting, the two curds showed very little difference in quality; if anything, that from the scouring laud being not quite so good as the other. The cheeses, when ripe, showed, however, far more difference in quality ; that from the milk off the scouring land being of very poor quality, while tlu^ other cheese was much better, though not of good quality. I had j)ointed out the great necessity of care to insure the cows being clean when on scouring land, and doubtless this care was obsei-ved, and so rendered the result less striking during tlie making of the cheese than it would otherwise have been. Moreover, the experiment was made in the Autumn, when the effect of the scoiiring land is far less marked than in the Spring. The Effect of Liming Pastures. It is generally considered in Somerset that land which has been heavily stocked with sheep is not suitable for cheese- making, and that sheep should not be allowed to roam or feed on the jjastures during the cheese-making season. Whether there is any ground for this belief, I have not had time to investigate. The difficulties in cheese-making Avhich were met with at Long Ashton, in 1897, coupled with the fact that this farm had been heavily stocked with sheep previously, led to an assump- ition that perchance this might be the cause of the trouble, and as it is believed that such pasture can be materially improved by liming, it was determined in 1898 to ap})ly lime to certain of the pastures, so as to ascertain fthe cft'ect. The Home fields, Wilmots, and Hushcy Ground, having in the past been heavily stocked with sheep, it was decided to select these for the experiment on liming. The orchard also was limed, so that the cattle could he both kept and brought home to milk on land which had all been limed. The ai)plvTttion of the lime was commenced about thi> middle of Febi uary, hut was not finished until early ia April, and it was not until some time after that there was snf+irient rain to wash the limo into the soil. The quantity of lime used was two tons to t!u> acre. Sites ui- Expeeiments. 57 ILe method ol fxpfniuciiting was to liettj) the cattle for a certain length of tune on the Jimed laud, lueldt* 1 and 2, then tor a similar period on the unlimed land, Fields '6, 4, and 5 and subsequently on the limed land. ' The lime was considered by Mr. Harding to have produced a marked imjjrovement in the herbage. ' The effect of the lime was also noticeable in the cheese-tub, inasmuch as the curd seemed firmer and better than it was when the animals were on the unlimed land. Neither chemical analysis nor bacteriological examination showed much difference in /the curd. The quantity of the milk was not appreciably affected, so far as one could judge; but it was difficult to determine this, as for each period the cows would normally be giving a larger yield of imlk than in the preceding period. The quality of the milk appears to have undergone but little change, as may be seen from the following figures: — Co.Mi'osriioN 01- Mi.xEi) Milk. ■ Solids. Fat. Casein. Allm- min. Sugar. Ash. Apr. 22, limed land 12-r)0 3-5a 2-43 •41 5-45 •G8 May !), unlimed... ]2'54 3'(;2 2-39 •30 5-48 •Of, May 17, limed ... 12-5(3 .■5-GO 2-()0 •42 5-2() •68 May 25, unlimed... 12-46 8-44 2-o(; •43 .^•33 •70 Ihere appears to have been some slight effect upon the acidity ot the mi k, for when upon the limed land the cows yielded mi k of slightly higher acidity than they did when on the unlimed. The following table shows the average acidity of milk during the periods named : — o .; e Ist period to ICth April on unlimed land 2nd period to Ist May on limed land... 3rd period to 14th May on unlimed land 4th period to 20th May on limed land 5th period to 30th May on unlimed land 175 190 185 190 190 These results are the average of numerous observations, hence It may be that there was a slight improvement in the casein the aWe analvsTs ''""'^ ^'"^' ^""^ *^^' ^' supported by Analyses were made to determine whether there was more and^ The results showed such great variations from both the limed and unlimed land that no definite conclusion could be drawn therefroir. 58 Invkstigations into Cueuda£ Ch££se Making Bacteriological exaiuinatious of tlio milks aud .ctii'ds were equally negative ijj. their results, wliicli was to be expected, as the curd showed no more liability to taints when on the unlimed land than when on the limed. Hence, the only results actiially obtaini'd were a slightly in- creased acidity of the milk, probably accompanied with a slight improvement in its casein contents, and consequently a firmer and better curd. Considering how imjjortant it is to have a firm curd, and in view of the improvement of the herbage on the limed land, there can be no doubt that the liming was beneficial and would have an effect lasting much longer than for the period of the experi- ments. Moreover, the exceptionally dry season was not cal- culated to produce the beat results which ordinarily accrue from liming. It also necessitated the removal of the cows from pas- ture to pasture frequently, so that the exjieriment came to a close at the end of May, before the permanent effect of the lime could be determined. On Soils said to he Unsuitable for Cheese-making. There aie certain soils or farms in England, especially in Somerset, upon which, if tradition can be believed, there are spectre sign-boards bearing the words, " Good cheese cannot be made here." Unfortunately, no one is able to see these signs except the tenant for the time being. But the belief in the inability to make good cheese on certain soils is so wide- spread, and the conviction that it is founded upon fact is so strong, that the subject received careful attention and inquiry. Some people said that the Society always selected a site for its Cheese School where it was possible to make not only good, but the best cheese, but that if a site were selected where good cheese had not been made before they would find out that it was im- possible to make good cheese on such soil. In 1892 a site was selected, where the milk was produced off alluvial land overlaying peat, and where it was difficult to make the best cheese. In 1893, the Committee again determined to select a difficult site, and the school was fixed at B i+leigh. Yet the prices fetched by the cheeses averaged from June to October, 68s. per cwt. and 66s. per cwt. for the season. It might be inferred that no difiiculty was found in making cheese upon this site. Such supposition would be far from correct. The difficulties were great, and such as had not been met Avith during the two pre- ceding years. Although these difficulties fluctuated from day to day," being at times very great, at others only slight, and this even when the cows were on the same pasture, yet as a matter of fact they were nearly always present. All the skill and experience, which Miss Cannon possesses in an exceptional degree, were needed to cope with them, and I can quite believe I Sites of Expeeiments. 59 I that au ordinary clieese-maker would find bucIi ditticulties in- surmountable. A site was selected in 1894, wliere, according to local tradition, it was not possible to make good cheese. To use the words o± a local man who spoke to me on the subject, the com- mon opinion was •• that no good cheese had been made in Mark tor thirty years.' IS'othing is more striking to an observer of local behels than the strong hold which they obtain upon the generaJ inhabitants of a district. It would be difficult to ac- count tor them even were they foundeu on facts over which the inhabitants had no control, but when, as is generally discovered upon investigation, they are mainly founded upon superstition, one teels that no language can be too strong in which to de- nounce such folly. • l^^f\ ^^^^' " *^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ tradition? So far as can be iudged from hearsay, the people in certain parts of Somerset have to a certain extent lost the art of making good Cheddar Cheese, ihere may have been some special causes tendintr towards this end, included among them being, perhaps, certain difficulties intimately associated with the district, such as a bad water supply, or the dying out of those inhabitants who possessed special skill in the manufacture of cheese and who were looked upon as guides in all cases of difficulty. ±rom these, and perhaps other causes, the quality of cheese may materially decline in a particular district. After a tew years the inhabitants begin to consider it a matter of course that the cheese which they produce will be of poor quality, and they do not seem to attempt to improve it, or to seek for the cause of its inferiority. If they do, then, with that perversity cliaracteristic of human nature, thov seek for a cause outside themselves, and, as a rule, partly, perhaps, from their inability to tJiink of any other cause, they put the blame upon the land ir^^i ^ ml! i*^"" ^'"^^ becftme firmly rooted in the parish of Mark, ihe land was universally declared to be unsuitable for making cheese, and it was held that no good cheese could be made there. Thus, for three consecutive years the Cheese School had been located in a district where it was said good cheese could not be made, and always because of the nature of the land. On each ot these occasions the soils were analysed by Dr Voelcker and in no single instance was he able to detect the presence of any chemical constituent which would be injurious to the milk or to the cheese made therefi-nm, or would in any way prevent good cheese being made off such land. The pastiires were carefully examined by the Societv's botanist, Mr. Carruthers and he too m all cases reported that in these pastures he was unable to find any weed or plant which would cause the sho-htest taint in the milk, or which could in anv way be con- sidered as even remotely likely to injure the milk, or cause the pasture to he the source of any taint in the cheese. I shall hope to prove that, graat as the difficulties undoubtedly are on some farms 60 Investigations into Chkddau CUEJiSK Making. the real cause of these ditticulties is not the laud. Ihus, in 1892 1 found that " taints ai)j)eari'd more frequi-nt when the wind was in oi • quarter, than when in anolhw, " and this led me BuhM-uucntly to discover that the earthenware drain-pipe whu-h earric-l the; wliey to a receptacle in the furmvard and opened >t(. the dairy, was u verital-.- u. t! i-t i.it;anisin>., which were carried inlo the atmosphere of the dairy und so caused trouble. Ihis same source of trouble i Invvc known destroy u wlude year s make ot cheese in other dailies. It was remedied at Axbndge, and since then Miss Tilley has produced excellent cheese. The trouble found at Butleif,^h in 181);} was undoubtedly due to the water supply, and that at Mark, in 1894, was, to a certain e-ient, due to the same cause. As at Uii*'- igh so at Mark ther> was one field noted for producinji; tainted milk, and Mr. 1 eters was most anxious I should discover the cause. But I was unable to then My subsniuent work, however, on tlH> organisms ot sponsv curd at Has.dbury led Mr. Peters to try the remedy suffttvked, and I subseiiuently received from him a letter con- taining the following: "The field which always produced the taint vvas the 12 acres (No. 11). I did not fence off the water, but dipiied water from anotlu>r pit and placed it in tubs for tl)e cattle, which they drank, and we found the curd much better, with little or no taint. Mv opinion is that it would pay to dip water for cows at all times.*' .^ • j +1 <„ i,„ In view of this accumulated evidence, it is devoutly to l)e hoped that we shall hear less in the future of lands upon which, according to tradition, it is not possible to n^ake good cheo.-^ The sooner this superstition of the West is as dead and buried as is the belief in witches, once so prevale^nt in the ^ame distTicts the better. The belief that the cause of bad cheese lies in the soil is as pernicious as a belief in the evil influence of some super- mtural presence; it is a veritable demon destroying all hope o improvement, and preventing all att^^mpts to overcome^ t difficulties which undoubtedly exist, and it has already been the ruin of far too many people, and of the peace of far too many households. 61 Part IV. i-icts, I the ipoi- po (if till' 1 tho nanv "f Milk ISMI ixM^ . rr \ v^ '^"r^ ;i ,,' '• ^vcrnge Cnmiwsition ne Conditions which Affect the. Quantity and the Qnalil,, of Milk. ^ stock, he yield of milic, and the effect of se^n, A. each site where the Cheese School has been held. It ^.ill then be L nd that ,m the same tarm, from the same cows, and off the same pastures, boih the ,,„antity and quality of the mHk vieK varu^ from year to year, and this vnriation can only be a,- counted for as ^ ue to changes in both U.e quantity and quality hat the effect of differen farms and different seasons ts even ■ till more stnlang. Further, the breed of the cows, droughi, lesults which ;ire obtained. The infl,H.nce of season will be found to be remarkable in many way while a comparison between different seasons is po Slide by detennininfr the date when the maximum yield o milk IS obtained. Thus, m the years 1892, 1895, 1897, and 1898 monZTi ^^^'™ .\'"li<>f "'"k was .ot obtained until W. month of June, whilst in the years 189 1894, and 1896 the averafj^e maximum yield was (.btained in ^ay The Stock and Yield of Milk at Vallis in 1891. The imber of cows was about 50. They were o! somewhat varied character, bein^ mainly cross- bred animals witli both Longhorn and Shorthorn^bod ^ the The size of their ud.lers was, in my n inion, small, and conse qiiently the animals were not calcufated to f,iye a lar^e yielS'f In addition to the f,.od which they obtained from the nas- tures, the younger animals, about one-third of herd le'.Cl trom September loth a mixture of 'Z lbs. cotton-cake.' andl lbs' hnseed-cake each, per diem. Th. composition of the milk for 62 InVF.STIOATIONS into CllKDDAtt ClIRKSF XfAKINli. 1 the August. Sn.ton.bor. iin.l OctoWr. is nlunvn in Ti.l.lc f., an. yiold of milk, curd, &c., in '^nhW 11. The Stock and Yield of Mdk at Aehridtfe in ISO'J. ()„ April iHt tlHMv wore, .'lOrows in .nilk Thos. l.a.l inmwd t„ 48 ],v Mav 2'M\u l.-aving two moro 1(. calvr. h-n w.mt hef.-. s wilh lli.-ir first ralf. Tlu' ....vvs wc.r ..nlinary Sh.Hthon.H o .u. pnTiso rlnuactcr. No os,M.<.ial car.; api.carcl lo "^7, ';;'•. \f |„ l„o...l good milkers, and no rcgisiiM- or record ol tlu> nuiU ot individual cows had lu-cn kept. , • i. ,i,.,.;.,„ il„. The cows wer.' on th.- j.asHires day and ni-h dutiug th< whole perio.l of chose-nutkino. They revived a l.ttle cake m tlie early months, and also in the autumn. influence of Season.- 'I'he season was nu>st unfavourable to th^"v,.owrh^.f .-ras>. and the cows w.-re, therefore, . ompelled to ^ve about ami keep n.oving to get sufHcient iood. It is evi- l, nt then that the conditions were such as t.. prohibit either Uu largest quantity or the best quality of milk Wing obtain^cb Though it is difKcMilt to com].are the milk of one herd with that of another, mu.-h less at a year's interval, and to «ay 'lofin itoly ^diat cause's the difference, if anv. between t/--' ^r* ^^^^^^^^^^^^ monThs. August, September, and October, is interesting :- AVFaUClK UOMFOSITION OK MlI.K. Water Si)li(l«. VallisFarm, Fromo. Aug. I 1891 •■• Compton House Farm. Ax- ( ^ bridge. Aug. 1H!<2 ... ( Vallix Farm, Fronic. Sept. I IHIU I Compton House Farm. Ax- ( V,ri 87'H 81119 S(l-87 12('>1 12-28 KiMKI 12-.'>(i 13-81 i:!-i:» l^iit. Casein. 'Albumin, H-87 :t-38 l-K! :(-.-.7 4-7.5 4 -Oil Sutfiir. i;-7() 2-tir. 2-99 2-87 ;i-2l •V08 •41 ■41 •47 •51 4-84 ,5-2(> 4-(>9 4-(il 4-84 Ash. •77 •()8 ■78 ■er. ■77 ■70 As it seemed probable that the difference first observed in Aunist was due mainly to season, Mr. Armstrong, fj-'c^^^^J of V illis Farm, was asked to send me samples of the mixed •lit wa; th^n obtaining, taken from ^s ch^- W^, at the «n.ne time as the samples were being talve>n at ^n', K^ults of he did in September, and again in October, and ^^^J^^J^l^^JJ the analyses of these samples are given in the following table i i Conditions afff^ting thk Milk. 63 Hule hy Hid.. Nvifh tho roHuIfs obtained on Hip samp dav« in 1891 at VhIIis, and in I8!)2 ut Axbiidjf,.: — Dull Sept. 12 1.1 It ir. ir. Avfriiffd Oct. 21 24 25 2<> 27 Avcrajce V.\r,i,is, Iwi. VALr.is, ihh:'. Kilt. (;ii«('ln I ((3 4(»7 ;i'H.-, .•|!»M :vi:, 4(l(! ;i!)(; Hcili.ls H7r, 1278 M-73 12-HO H-75 I2(!n M'HIi 12,S» '.••i:t ll'-HH 900 i:io« H-H7 I2«;i I'"at, (•02 .'l-HH .•tim ;t-,s4 :!'H7 Ciwcln, .tc. 8'(W H-70 ^■"p(> .s-7(i M-(!(l N71 SoliOx. i2-3r. 12-72 I 12-44 ! )2-72 ! I2'.Vt j I2r)<; AXMIIMKIK, 1HI)2. Kill, ;iT.7 ii"(i5 H-4:) 12-55 i! 3 -mi I SI 4'!>8 r)-o7 4!»l r. •((.-, r)'2() >'(ii CiiHdin Ac. H-!l» S-!t7 M-M7 K-lt7 !t-(i7 SolidK. I2'«>4 I2:.2 1 2(!2 12I4 12112 1 2-52 H-D7 i 12-5« '•••1(1 1»'()8 !I07 St()!l 1)10 i;i!i4 14-0(i 1414 14MI0 1414 i4-;io I4IU 4'it; 4-24 4-05 41« 4-52 4-4!» 4-2 il-Ot lf04 !»-B5 !C22 !t-0(i {(•Oi") !»'07 I;C1H 1318 13-10 13-38 13-58 13-54 1 3-3(! 3-88 4-08 4-08 413 4-01 3-80 4-00 '.••20 !C25 !)-25 !t-2it 13 (»4 13-28 13.28 13-38 l3-2(> 13-00 «'21 I 13-21 rt will be soen that the iniljc obtained at Vallis in 1892 was poorer than in 1891, which is probably the result of season, but it was nrher than that friven at Axbridge. So the i.oorer quality ol he nulk yielded at Axbridge is probably characteristic of the milk yielded by such pastures. •77 -(58 -78 -ec. •77 -70 The Stock and Yield of Milk at Bwtleigh in 1893. M^x^t \f ^^P/'\lt'^^'-^ ^«re 38 cows in milk, 21 belonging to ^ed MV R ;,'lP ^ ' ^ ^'- -^^-""*- ■ '^^^'y ^^^'" then beiifg 111 ted. Ml. iJethell s cows rec-iving six pounds of cotton-cake per diem and inangods, and Mr. Hunt's a little less cake but addi- tional hay Soon aft<>r the chees.-making began, they were turned out to grass in the home fields, and on the 25th April went down on the moor, owing to the exceptionally warm s..ason Ihey were, however, given some compound cake for some little time afterwards. (Jii the 18th Aiiril there were 42 cows in milk, 24 of Mr. B.^thell's, and 18 of Mr. Hunt's- and on the 29th, Mr Bethell had 25, and Mr. Hunt 19 in milk.' On the llthAlay thev were increased to 52, and on the 25th there were 55 in milk. Th,> number remaim-d about tho same for the rest of the period. They were mostly Shorthorns; and the average Aneld from Mr. Bethell's cows was greater than that from Mr. Hunt's. This, Mr. TJeihell attributed to the fact that he took great care in selecting the cows, and got rid of those i I t?4 InVKSTKJATIONS into ('HKOnAR ClIKKSK MaK1N(J. which were found to yield loss than \iv considtM-od a lair amount V 1 milk. The effect of the Season.— 'I'hi* season was an exceptional one, and the result tliereol' was seen in many ways. Kirst. The I'tVeet of the warmth was already felt in .\iiril. Thus in ISD'J the average time of vattinjjf in (hat monih was (l.r)S p.m., whil(> in 18i):i (ho average time was [M p.m., nearly '■!}, htmrs sooner. That (his was due to the heat is shown by (ht> I'a'et (hat (h(> averaj,'t> (emperature of ilie dairy in 1S!)2 was f) I - (ll)^\ and in IS!):} ironi T)!) -(kS°. It is also seen by eoinpiuinfr (he averafi'e (eniperature of the eurd whtMi in vat, which ii\ l.S!>'^ was (ITo Kahr., while in IS!);? it was 7(1° Fahr. Secondly. If we com])are tl>e averafi't> r(>sults ohiained a( Hut- lei;,'h in iSD-'i wi(h those obtained at Vallis and A.\brid!,'e in ISDI and ISD'J. it will be seen that the yiidd ol' milk, owing to the shortness of keep, declined in lune, and slill further in -luly, while in each of the ])receding years it rose in .lun(> very c(ui- siderably, and even in -Fuly was in one case more than, and in the oth(>r nearly ecpial to, the yield in May. (h't-at as was the iiiiluenci^ of th(> heat, as seen in the monthly average milk-yield, it was stiU greater wh(>n the yitdd is com- l)ared week by w»>ek. Indeed, the Ihu-tuations were (luite le- markable, the yield sometimes rising, and then again falling in a manner not easily to be accounted f(U'. Effect of Drougrht.— The following facts sluiw the elTcct of tln< drought, and also indicate how very rapidly the cows felt (he effect of any change {jvodueed in the food. The milk sui)ply ou th.e whole gi'adually decreased from the end of .May. During the last w(>ik of Mav the cows were yielding aJDoui !(i() gallons of milk. From that date scarcely any rain fell until the '.2'Jml and 'J"{rd Tune (see IJaii'fall, p. 17). The average yield of milk for the week iireceding this fall was 131 • 7 gallons pei' day, but for the week aUvr it rose to i;57-l per day. Then it began to di- minish, until on the lHh July it .anutunlcd to oidy ^2^\ gaihms. Effect of B.ain. -A slight fall of rain on ihe 11th July, followed by others on irit'li and l!)th, had such an effect that whereas the .average yield for the first ten days in the month was only ll?0'() gallons ])er day, the avtTagi' daily yield for tln^ last ten days was 14'.3-9 gallons. Effect of SrouK'ht on Quality. The clfi'ct (Ui the (luality of (he milk was also most marked. Thus, while in April of each year the amount of cheese made from one "allon of milk has been practically identical, and in former jears had increased ('very month, yet in 1S9JJ, after slightly increasing in May, it actually fell again in June, and in .lulv and August was less than in either of (he ])recoding years. We are justified there- fore in concluding (hat, both in quality as well as in quantity, the milk was diminished by the prolonged drought. Conditions afkectin« thk Milk. 65 MoiiiK arixiouH t.» d.muwor what ..ffoct tlu, .Innipht was haviiiir upon th,YU>mpnsit.,.>u ,.f Ih. ,„ilk yiH,l,>,l at Vallis an.l Ax- l)rul^r,., „.i„.,.„ ti,„ CI,,.,..,,. ;^,.1j„„| ^y,j^ j^^.j^j .^^ ij^jji ^^^^^1 1^^^^., ■ ^ wroto to Mr. .Ar.nstmn^- an.l Mr. 'I'ill..y asking. |„r muluL. I K'sn they v.-ry k.n.lly furwar.l.Ml. Unfortunatrly. lh,> tin,.- takni ,n tho transit of tlirH,> HainpI.>H was ho Io,,.-, and th.> hoat so ^m>at that Hotnn,.H wh.-n th.y r.«arh,Ml „,.. th.-y w.mv r„r- »ll('(l, and a full and satisfactoiy analysis could „ot h.' made. Tho following an. tlw results ohiaincd, an.l Ih-v ar.- intt'rcsting: — -^ A I'lrtii/i ('(i/ii/Kis// >s,l„u, ,;/• ■'/;//;./•'•'''« I ■';//'«, .lr/,,v,/,/,, n,„l /lull,,,,/,, l„„rnn I'M/i ami 'Mil, Mail, I Hi);}. Miilc Crom- Vallis Axl>ri(lj,'n ... ill IH<)2... Miitloigli l''Ht. ,'(•08 ... ;(• 1 c. ■ .. :\-ib *•• .'{•18 ("llHoill, ^Sn:. Solids. H'8(i II!M H'.tl I2(»7 8-',l.r) VI- -H) H-'.IH I'JiC. It iH n..t..worthy :lhat tl... milk from Vallis, wlii.l, in (!,.. au-tumn, as Hh..wn hy tl... n'sulls in I.S!)1. is ri.h.-r than that .vu. d.'d m mVi at Axl.ri.l^.... or than that vi.>l or Hut .Mfrh. Th.. r.'i.son .,r this is doul ss tlu- i'a.-t that lMf,^h j^roun.l l.k.. that at Vallis IVIt ih. .Ir.n.-ht and heat nior," t luui th.uno.u- lands at Axhrid-.' an.l Hu.||,.i<.h. In th." milk tVon. tli.'se soils th.'iv was r.'inarkahlc similarity. W,' ..an als.. ,■,,..,,.,.■,. th.. milk yi,.|,[,.,l at Vallis, Axbri.lK.., an.l Muth.igh f..r Ih.- later ,,orti..u ..f (h.- s..as.,n .luriK- ih, three v.'ara. "^ V:.n,,,a..ili„„ ,,/■ ,1/,//, „/ I „//,,. ,1,,./,,,,/,/,^ „,„/ /;„^/,,.,^/^ ran, pa ml WM. A'iillis, 1st wook in Hoptenilicr, ■}- !l ISil'i. A.xhri.lK'o „ I81t;$. lh.tU.iKl. 18!M. Vallis, 1st week in Ontobcr '2 7 1H!)2. Axl...i,iiro „ 18U\ I '>■h^ WVAl VlWlt i;5-4!» i4i;8 ^(i Investigations into Chkddar Cheese Making. It will be Been that the composition of the milk at Butleigh in September was again very similar to that yielded at Ax- bridpfe diirinj; the same month of 1892. The rapid rise in (|uality of the milk at Butleigh in October is due to the equally rapid and exceptional fall in the quantity yielded, and is there- fore no criterion of the influence of the land or the pastures or the season. yV/r ^Sfark an,/ Yield of Mill; at Mark in IS!)4. Tlic spring ot 1894 was exceptionally warm and early, so that when the work of the School comiuenced on the 1st of April, the cows, then only twenty-two in number, were out on the pastures, and remained out during the whole seven months covered by the observations. The herd was not a special one, the cows, including those subsecpiently bought by Mr. Peters, being ordinary dairy cows, mainly of shorthorn character. With these ourchases the herd uumbi'red fifty-three. From the 1st to the 21st of Ai)ril they renuiined in tlie fields near the house ; on the 22nd of April they were sent down on the moor. If we consider the nature of tlie soil, as shown by Dr. N'oelcker's Ile])ort, the nature of the herbage, as shown by Mr. Camithers' Kepcu-t, and the well-known fact that the year 1894 was ('xcei)tionally favourable to growth, we shall at once realise tiiat Ti])on this farm all tlie conditions were favourable to the ])roduction of a large yield of milk. Table II. shows what this yield was, and that it was the liighest vield which was obtained during Wif^ eight years, 1891 to 1898. It is a somewhat remarkable fact, and well illustrates the desirability of care in the selection and breeding of dairy cattle, that the average daily yield of milk ])er cow at Butleigh, from 1st of May to the end of October in 189-'{, in spite of the exce])- tionally unfavourable season, was 27 lbs., and that exactly the same quantity, viz., 27 lbs., was the average daily yield at Mark from the 1st of May to the end of October, 1894, during a season when food was abundant. Sffect of Food on the Quality of I«llk.— But, while the average quantity of milk yielded daily was exactly the same both at Butleigh and Mark, the com])osition of that milk was very dit!'ei'ent. The milk at ^Mark was of exceptionally good qualitv, so that th(> ])ro])oi'tion of cheese made from each gallon of milk was far <>'reat(>r than at Butleigh. Indeed, it was as hi^i'li as it had been durinu' the (hre( igl piccedin g years, and was Conditions affecting the Milk. 67 aliuost identical with the yield obtained from the cows fed on erualled P^'*"^^« ^^ ^^^^^^> and it has not been since It is often asserted that the quality of the food has no in- Hiience iipon the composition of a cow's milk. I do not believe in this theory which is utterly opposed to the universal ex- perience of al practical men, and of all properlv conducted ex- periments. The facts above stated afford stiikin^r ovid.-nce of tlie influence of food upon the quality of milk. The difference .11 the composition of the milk vielded at Mark as com],ared with that yielded at Butleifjh in 189:i, and at Axbrid-^e in 189'>, IS well shown m Table I. on p. 80. The Stock and Yield of Milk at Haselhury in 180-5. On account of the size of the farm the stock was divided into two portions, so separated from one another that each lot was milked by separate milkers, and the milk brought home in dif- ferent carts and trunks. In all there were, during most of the time, seventy cows, of which thirty were on tlu> ,)a8tures in the valley, and forty on the hill pastures. The former were, as is usual in Somerset, milked in the fields, and for the i,ur|)ose of diHtinction, will be referred to as the field herd; the second lot were milked in a yard situated at and known as Rushv Wood and will in future be referred to by this name. The cows were well fed (luring the whole season, a liberal su|)])ly o± artjhcial food beiiio. oiven during the time when the yield of the pastures was insufKcient. The herd was made ui), tor the most ])art, of animals br.-rl by Mr. Templeman from cows Uiiown to be good milkers. Number of Cows.— At the beginning of the season fortv-one cows were in milk. The weather being mild, they were out an the pastures, but as the food was scanty, each animal received dailv in addition, four ])ounds of decoiticated cotton-cake, and tw() pounds of a mixture of bran, ground cotton seed (c(nitainin..' 2[i per cent, oil), and barlev meal. On the IGtii of A])ril some silage was given to the cows. The use of artificial food was con- tinued up to the l.'Jth of May, being slightly varied during that j)eriod for reasons which Avill be refeiTed to subsequently? (Jn the 13th of May the cows were placed upon the summer i)as- turage without additional food. In the meantime the number of cows had Micreased On the 9th of Apnl five were added, making in all forty-six, and on the ^.,rd of April the number rose to fifty-three. No more were added until the l-'Uh of May, wh(>n eleven, mostly heifers w(>i'e brought into the heid. Two were added on th<"' 14th of'Mav HfiS E 68 Invkstigations into Cheddar Cheese Making. two on the 2l8t, and Knally two on the 29th, bringing the total number up to seventy. Tliere was no variation in this number durinfij the weason up to ilie 22n(l ui September, after which a few cows were tjradually uitlidrawn. Towards «he end of the season, on aeeouut of the drought, the eowB alNO received artifleial food. Milk Vleld.— TIk' f>'reate,st quantity of milk was yielded on (.he loth of May, and amounted to 198 gallons from sixty-six head of cattle, or exactly 3 gallons of miJk per head. The average yield per head per day will be found in Table II., p. 83. Influence of Food on the Quality of Milk. - The effect of the high feed with artificials was to produce milk exceedingly ricJi in fat, containing during the month of April on an average 12 • 65 per cent, of total solids, with no less than :» • 70 per cent of fat. With the cessation of this supply of artificial food in May the composition of the milk changed, so that the average amount of total solids was only 12'58 per cent., containing .'{-'{O per cent, of fat. The influence of food ixpon the composition of a cow's milk is strikingly illustrated by these figures, for I cannot con- ceive how the high proportion of fat in tho milk during the month of April can be explained except by the fact that the cows were then receiving a liberal allowance of artificial food. The subsequent falling off in quality was not entirely due to the influence of food, but partly to the increase in the number of cows, more especially of heifers. From tho end of May the com- ])()sition of the milk gradually improved, as it invariably does, and the milk at Haselbury was richer than that yielded at the Cheese School durin<.' the previous three years. Casein In Milk.— There is one ])oint about the composition of this milk which is of importance. While in April the milk contained no less than -'{-TO per cent, of fat (see Table I.), due, I believe, to tlie high feed, yet this food appears to have had no effect upon the percentage of « asein, which was almost exactly the same as liad been found in previous years during April, when the percentage of fat was low. Each month, however, the percentage of casein rose as in former years. But the percentage of casein in the milk at Haselbury was as low as, and in most instances lower than, the percentage found in the milk at any of the Cheese Schools held during the preceding tour years. As a rule the casein increases with an in/Tease of the fat. But at Haselbury the percentage of casein fiiad i»o definite relation to the amount of fat, for wltile in A})nl the ])ercentage of casein was only 2 • 43, in July it had risen to 2 • 07, although the milk contained less fat. In 1892, at the Axbridge School, the per- centage of casein was also Ioav. f then came to the conclusion that this deficiency of «asein woiild appear to be due to locnlity or season, or to some especial peetiijjapity of the .stock, rather Conditions affecting thk Milk. 69 than to any fixed relation between the constituents of the milk and subsequent investigation proved this to be the case* The Stock and Yield of Milk at Cosmujton in 1896. On the 1st of April there were fifty-one cows in -milk. These were already out on the pastures, thirty in Newlands, receiving hay in addition, and twentv-one on Stubclose re- ceiving, owino- to the shortness of keep there, not only hay. but also cotton-cake (about (I lbs. each per day). The number of cows were increa^^ed by 14th of May to fifty- eiglit, and in the meantime had been changed into other fields. Un the Jth ot June there were sixty-two cows in-milk This number continued in-milk up to 21st of Septembi>r, when ten of tli(> cows were milked only once a day; and on October 4th tlie number in-miik dropped to forty-nine. On 27th_of August there were ten feeding on " af tero'rass " and receiving cake; and on 12th of Septemb.-r tliere were twenty cows cake-fed. Tlius, owing to the drought, some of the cows had to be fed on cake during the greater' portion of tli(> season. Ittilk yield — The greatest amount of milk yielded was on tlie 4th of^^^May, when fifty-five cows gave 175 "gallons, or an average of 3 • 18 gallons per cow. Even Avhen the number of cows had risen to sixty-two on the 9th of June, the maximum volume of milk obtained was only 10^5 gallons. Comj)aring tJiese figures with the 189.3 results, it is interesting to note that in that year the maximum yield was given twelve days later, on IGth of May. and only reached :) gallons per cow. AVe thus see liow early was the season of 189(J. Quality of IVEllk. — Table I. appended hereto shows the average composition of the milk which was yielded at (lossing- ton, from which it will be seen that the milk at ( 'ossington was exceptionally rich in fat during the whole season. Effect of Brougrht on Casein and Solids other than Pat — The casein in the milk, while normal during April, May, and June, ^'e^i u.ring the months of July, August, and Septem- ber below ,lie eormal. A careful study of these results will sliow that the solids-other-than-fat in the milk also fell during these later months below the normal. I have found this to be a somewhat characteristic result of an exceptional drought and '■ Slv iuitliir ill \H'M\ ami 1.S98. 70 Investigations into (hiKnoAR C'iikesk Making. scarcity of food, especially with individual cows, some appear- ing to be affected far more than others.* T'he Stock and Yield of Milk at Long Ashton in 1897-08 The cattle were shorthorns, mostly bred on the farm, and were by a bull which was considered to have come from a goad milking- strain. The Vield of Milk,— ^'o record of the milk yield had been ke])t before the ('hees(^ Schuol commenced, but it was roughly estimated at about 2 gallons i)er head per day. Judg- ing from the results obtained in 1897, this estimate is probably not far from correct; but I do not consider it very satisfactory tor a well-bred and w(^]l-fed herd. Talving the average of the seven months it is only 2 21 gallons per day, while at Mark the yield was 3 • 39 gallons per day, and at Haselbury and Cossing- lon 2"18 and 2'1() gallons respectively. On all dairy farms a record of the milk-yield of each cow should be kept, and the poor milkers gradually weeded out. This would probably greatly augment tit'! average yield and well repay the little trouble involved. The Quality of the Ittilk.— This, throughout the season, was inferior from a cheese-maker's point of view, owing to the deficiency of casein and consequent small return of curd. t)nly in the months of September and October was as much as 1 lb. of curd obtained from a gallon of milk. The average composition of the milk is shown in Table I. on p. 80. It is not possible to lompare these figures quite cl(),sely with those of former years, because newly calved cows were brought into the herd from time to time, while in former years all the cows had calved in the spring of the year. So poor in solids other than fat was th(> milk fourul to be on the days on which the u.sual observations were made in April, 1897, that during the months of May, June, July, and August it was deemed necessary to analyse the milk daily. It is the average results of these daily tests which are recorded in the table showing the average composition of the milk. In 1898 the stock at Long Ashton was practically the same as in 1897. Hence, any variation in the yield of milk must be attributed mainly to the season. In April the milk was excep- tionally poor in casein, and contained much less fat than in 1897. In May there wai^ a slight increase, which was partly lost in June, and not quite regained in July. But during ■' Mr. A. W. Stokes has recently investigated the result of the dry season. 1898, and confirms these results. (Society of Public Analysts.) had was ■ms a d the bahlv liUl'c Conditions affecting tiik Milk. 71 August, September, and October, there was a slight improve- S/''^'' '"''''' "b*ai»^fl in 1897, both as regards fat and T ^"^ T'S' ^T'^y.':^' »* this improvement, the milk yiekled at -Long Ashton is still conspicuous as having contained loss ca,sein dunng i^ch of the seven months than has been present in the milk yielded at any previous Cheese School. Hence the small return of curd per gallon of milk. The Influence of Season.— This, in 1898, was exceptionally had some effect in keeping low the i)ro])ortion of solids otlun- than fat, including the casein, as already drawn attention to. Composition of Milk of Individual Cows.— In 1897, the milk was exceptionally defii ;nt in casein, and one of the first objects of these experiments in 1898 was to try and discover the cause. There were two probable causes, feither it was peculiar to the cattle, or it was the result of some peculiarity in the food. If due to the cattla it would probably be much more marked in some than in others, but if due to the herbage or food it would be common to all. Hence, it was decided to completely analyse the milk of every cow in the dairy. 72 iNVKSTKiATlONS INTO (JIIKDDAR (JlFKEJSK MaKINO, This was a tedious process, for only a few such analyses can be earned out at a time, and as the herd was not originally kept for cheese-making, but for the sale of milk, some cows were being continually drafted out of the herd, and iresh ones introduced. The work proce(>d('d gradually, and it became <'vident that the dpfioicnoy of casein in the milk was not general, but was pe- culiar to certain cows. This made it necessary that the milk of every cow, except those, soon to be withdrawn fi-oni the herd, as being near the end of their milking time, should be fully analysed. The milk of fifty-three cows was examined, and the results of these analyses are given in the following table (see next jjage). Anu)ng these cows four were found to give milk of most (exceptionally bad quality. These four were tested again and ayain to make quite sure that no mistake had been made in the analyses. The average results of these tests are given in the following table, as also the average composition of the milk of the remainder of the herd: — Solids. Fat. Casein. Of four abnormal Cows Of remainder of Herd 1()-21 12-i)5 252 3-85 1-87 2-5.3 Cattle Yielding- abnormal Milk In the table showing the composition of the milk of individual cows there will be found tour aniiiials. Cherry, Ayshire Horns, Xo. 8, and Eighteen, who gave milk of such poor quality that it may be culled abnormal. It will b- seen that others were also peculiar. Thus, assuming 2-\ ])er cent, of casein to be a fair minimum amour t for milk during the month of A])ril, and 2-5 for milk during the monfli of May, w(> find that eight cows tested in the former months, and SIX in tlie latter, fell below these standards. The first two were discovered on the 18th April, and the milk was again tested on the 21st and 22nd, to make sure that there Imd been no mistake in the analyses. Influence of Abnormal Ittllk.— The next step taken was to tiv and make a cheese from the milk of thps(> cows, and see what effect the milk would have. It was only ])ossible to get the milk of three of the cows into the small' vat which had been made for exi)eriniental purposes. The first thing noticeable was the_ effect of kee])ing the milk of the abnormal cows out of the ordinary milk. Thus, on the day preceding this experiment, the com])ositi()n of the milk of all the cows was as follows, side by side with which I give the composition of the abnormal milk on th(> followiiiy dav, an ., April 15 .. April 18 .. April !8.. April 18 .. April 18 .. April 111 .. April lit.. April 1'.).. April 22 .. April 22 .. May 10.., May May May May May May May May May May May May May May May May May May May May May June June 21 June 21 June 21 June 2;{ June 23 June Aug. Aug. Amu:. 10. 10. 10. 12. 12. 12. 12. ].'{. 13. 13. 13. Ki. Ki., 18., 18.. 18 . 18 .. 27.. 27.. 27.. 27.. 21 .. 2.'! , Ki. 16. Total Solida. Fat. 12-1I2 13-78 13-18 13-10 1418 13-SH 12-80 11-74 12-34 12-34 14-(;4 1 3 -1(0 11 -!M 12-01. 1 0-8(i 10-44 12-12 12-02 12-utJ 14-50 12-06 14-92 11-64 12-40 8-00 12-82 9-54 11-10 13-10 12-74 12-84 13 08 13-34 12-60 13-40 14-52 13-02 13-32 12-20 12-90 12-78 12-42 13-38 ; 12-80 j 12-76 14-50 13 00 12-12 12-90 I 11-98 12-08 12-28 1272 Casein, '^'l'"- mm. 4-05 5-20 4-29 4-01 4-99 4 -.50 4-21 2-9(; 3-92 3-73 5-37 4-02 3-00 2-50 2-33 2-40 2-52 2-34 2-51 2-10 2-40 2-40 2-17 2-10 2-05 2-28 2-70 ' 2-08 2-7(i 1 2-00 2-72 1 1-88 3-52 2-25 3-99 I 2-04 3-18 2-70 4-80 3-43 2-41 5-76 2-73 2-68 2-48 3-03 1-27 (.') 1-97 1-70 4-07 2-47 2-20 1-70 2-70 1-93 3-78 2-03 3-84 1-93 3-48 2-77 3-49 2-80 3-30 3-06 3-78 2-50 4-07 2-04 4-90 3-38 3-73 2-07 3-79 , 2-90 3-71 2-31 3-78 2-07 3-01 2-67 3-42 2-34 4-32 i 2-02 3-58 1-83 0') 3-05 2-70 4-68 3-27 4-29 2-57 3-15 l-.32(.') 3-04 2-00 31 4 1-34(0 3-00 1-74 3-14 1-12 3-40 1-52 •45 •35 •41 -30 •38 •30 •34 •35 •33 ■46 •34 -31 •57 •35 •42 •.50 •33 •3.3 •47 •58 •01 •30 r86(0 •47 •34 •56 •54 •44 •40 •49 •41 •02 -48 •14 •01 •36 •54 •40 •35 •40 •42 -38 •37 •07 •43 •45 •52 •55 •52 •30 •42 ■39 Yield. galla. J 1-1 14 2 1^ 2 2i 2 u 1 ij 1 H H 1 1 n ft 4 1 1 li li 1 1 3 2 If 2 u n 1 li 1 n n 1 li * Cows yielding abnormal milk. P^il'iT'^'T'^''"',.'"*""''". '"'"'•'*"' (•'> '"■•^ '!"'' 'o fhe fact that owin-r to .ome eculiar,t.v ,n tl,„ casein it could not be a,,vurately ..stimate.l (.«.v alZ^. 30). l.^'•l n. — 1 IIP re- peculiarity in the 74 Invkstioatfons tnto Citkddar Cftrksk Makino. i^: i SolidH. Fat. Casein. June 7.— Mixed Milk of all Cows i-iit; •y.n 2-4'» Juno 8. — Almornuil Milk l(fM4 2-Hi; 2-0() Juno 8. — Remainder of the Milk 12-44 3'H3 2r>7 T\ut eftVct of koopinff the abnormal milk out of tlio cht'ese-tub was jnarkt'd. Miss Cannon ropoited— " the curd oame much firmer and nicer; it was shotty and of a f;;ood texture through- out. The curd here has never before been so good." Great difticulty was found in making a cheese from the abnormal milk alone. In the first place, the rennet seemed to have no action upon the milk. It was more than two liours after renneting before the curd set, though with the remainder of the milk, the same proportion of rennet had not only set the curd, but this was fit to cut fortv-fivo minutes after renneting. The curd remained soft, and much fat was lost in the whey. The acidity developed very slowly at first, but, when it had started, went rapidly, which had been a characteristic peculiarity of the cheese-making at Long Ashton. The yield was exceptionally small, being only lbs. of curd from 9 gallons of milk. On June IGth the experiment was re])eated. The following is the com])Osition of the two milks on that day; — Solids. Fat. Ciisein, Abnormal Milk Remainder of the Milk ... 1-95 2-52 In order to give this abnormal milk every chance, one quart of stale whey was added to ripen it, and 50 pei' cent, more ren- net than for the oi'dinary milk. The result was better, but the yield of curd was only 7^ lbs. from 9 gallons and 1 (juart of milk. The whey did not contain such an excess of fat as on the former occasion, so that the small yield of curd was not due to loss in the whey. Ikit there is one striking peculiarity of the curds of these two cheeses; whereas the abnormal milk curd on tlu> 8th June contained 44*90 ])er cent, moisture, and on the IGth June 44-80 per cent., the curd from the remainder of the milk contained on the 8th June only 4090 per cent., and on the IGth, 42-30 per cent, moisture. These experiments, coupled with the abnormal composition of the milk, convinced me that, to some extent, the disadvan- tages which had been met with at Fenswood Farm were due to C(>XDITMNS AFFECTINU THK Milk. 75 tl.is souic." The8o four cows gave milk in vvTiich all tlu a^cu- It r! f""^ '^".'l^"*' '"'^^^ ^^^'"' ^onc,.iitrttt..cl-milk of iow aridity and a small percentage of casein, yielding curd tainoA T^"""""^ an excess of moisture, and a wh.'y wi,;. U con- am od an ox(^ , of 1 unless special precautions iere tuk.' to prevent this fat passx,, , into the whe/ Hence, at n.y nvjuest" three ot the .ws were di osed of. The fourth waj kept foi' tlTTafr ''' "' ' ""^'^ ^""^ ''""^'■'^ *" ^"^ «^'^^ "'*" iJ^^I *'•"'' 'f '^'T V" '""^ ^'"''' ^^ ^1^« fi'^^T '^"ling 1897, t^o having been bought that year for the j.urpose of obtaining th,. qua., ty ot nulk required for the School. The other two Ma ! b(HM ,1 the h,.rd for some years past, having b(>en bred by Air. Harding. J here was no sign of any disease or peeuliarit'v in these eows. In taet, newly acquired cows were sus- J.ected, and uixrn attempting to churn the cream f.cm the milk (.t these cows separately, it was found almost impossibl.>. The re- sult was that the butter-making from this milk had to bo ffiven up, and the cows attened for the butelu-r. 1 am oi opinion^tha J this abnormal milk is a peculiarity of certain strains of cattle, and 1 base this opinion not merely on th.^ fact that no sjiecial eause could be found for the production of this milk, but because 1 have from time to time, come across other cows in different parts of the country yielding similarly abncnmal milk, and hav.. not in a single instance^ been able to trace its origin to disease. J Practical Reaulta.-The practical results are important, ft IS eviden that it cheese-makers find exceptional d fficulti >s in jnak.ng cheese, they will have to consider how far these fficul- ties may be due perchance to one or moiv cows yieldir a - normal milk The way in which dairy farmers^ are "jl t e o'^vhi: , ^T/:^^"f "^^' *'-i^: ^^^-\ -ith c^ows, the past hLo" ot Avhicli they know nothing whatever about is most indis- creet. In addi ion to the risk which farmers run of n i- ducing disease into «ie lu-rd by this system, it is now evkhmt that they run a furtlu-r risk of purchasing cows whose mi k mSinri """^ deteriorate the produce of those which h y previously possessed.* -^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) I / ^'^Z /^^ M, fe f/i fA 1.0 I.I :^ !^ Ilia I4P 1.25 ijil 1.0 ■uuu U III 1.6 m Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 87i!-4S03 '^ \ iV "% V ^^ ■% 76 Investigations into Cheddar Cheese Making. The Effect of Different Pastwres on the Quality of Milk. This subject of inquiry is one which presents considerable difficulties, and results obtained in any one year must not for one moment be expected to apply to all seasons, nor those obtained in one place to be applicable to others. Moreover, to satisfactorily investigate such a subject almost ideal condi- tions are requisite, and these have not existed at any site of the Cheese School The conditions most suitable existed in 1891, at Yallis where the helds were larger and the animale upon the same pasture longer than at any subsequent site of tne Cheese bch(K)l. But even at Vallis Farm keep was short, and the cows could not be left upon the same field or fields for any length of !l^^"j-i^ ^™«^' however, to see whether any information upon this difficult question could be gathered, the following table was drawn up, showing the average percentage of the chief con- 8.itueiits of milk produced upon the various fields during each month, also stating the number of days' milk which these averages represent. The results are interesting, but they do not warrant any hard-and-fast conclusions being drawn therefrom. 1. It will at first sight be noticed that the milk improves in quality each month upon all the fields. 2. It will next be noticed that the milk produced in August on the Leaze and Stevens is superior in solids and fat, and in- ferior m casein, to that produced on the Summer Leaze and lueaze and that the same result is obtained in September. This might have been accidental, but curiously enough the milk pro- duced upon the Front and the Leaze is superior in both solids, tat, and casein, to that produced upon the Oxen Leaze and Leaze, or upon the Mixed Fields during August, while the same relative superiority is maintained throughout both September and October. This comparison might be carried further, but sufficient han been pointed out to show that in this instance there would appear to be a fluctuation in the constituents of the milk depending upon the pastures, which is independent of that fluctuation in quality due to season, or the prolongation of the time the cows have been in milk. There are some minor subjects arising out of this table of averages, one of which is of considerable interest. There are tew, it any, continuous series of analyses of milk in which the percentage of casein has been determined ; the result is, that a somewhat new and important fact is revealed regarding the fluctuations of this constituent. It will be noticed that the casein is affected both by the time of the year and by the nature of the pasture, though it is only to a slight extent as compared with the variations in the fat. Conditions affecting the Milk. 77 78 Investigations into Cheddak Cheese Making. Summary of Results. From the preceding facts it would appear that quantUy of milk depends mainly upon succulent food. Thus, where the conditions are favourable to the production of abundant grass, be those conditions local or climatic, the maximum milk yield has been obtained. The quality of milk appears to depend upon far more numerous factors. The cattle themselves, and the nutriment in their food, are the primary causes of fluctuation. But it will be seen that the nutriment in the food depends not only upon the character " .„ ^^ .^°^^ ^^*' ^^^0 ^Pon climatic conditions. Moreover, the milk will vary in quality not only in a general way, by at times containing more solid matters than at other times, but there is distinct evidence that the constituents of these solids also vary according to the food of the cows. 2"he Volume of Morning's and Evening's Milk. During the whole period of these observations, the volume ot mornings milk has always been greater than that of the evening 8. The maximum variation is in the month of October, the smallest variation in the month of July. The volume of the mornings milk in April is one-fifth more than that of ihe evening a • in May it is one-sixth, in June one-eighth, in July one-twentieth, in August one-eight, in September one-fifth, and in October one-fourth. Hence the relative increase is greatest in October, and next in April and September. These facts are not difficult to explain. In July the work of harvest keeps the farm hands busv until late in the evenino- and the evening's milk is broiight into the dairy later in that month than during any other part of the year. Thus the time which elapses between the two milkings is more equal than during any other month. On the other hand, in October, the dark mornings make the milking later than usual, while the draw- ing m of the day causes the milking to be done earlier in the evening, so that the time which elapses between the two milk- ing^ is most uneven. Thus it would appear that the morning's milk is more than the evening's mainly owing to the longer time which has elapsed since the last milking, iu other words, the animal has had a longer time in which to produce the milk. Decline in the I 'c Yield due to the time ^ohich has elapsed since Calving. It appears from the results of t]ies(> observations that cows which calve in the month of March and April come to the flush of their milk yield about one month or six weeks after calving, and maintain this flush for about four to six weeks. After this ])eriod there is a decline in the quantity of milk yielded Conditions affecting the Milk. 79 Ib there any definite proportion in this falling-oif in the milk yield? Take the highest average daily yield (146 gallons Th J'?-^ "' h ™P^T"^ f^oni which the decline commences. Ihe falxing oif during the month of July amounts /to 19 gallons P^/X .i^*" /^.^^ September to 18. and in October to ^o. Ihus the decline for each month is about one-eiffhth the maximum yield. The following table shows this very clearly. Faij.in(; off in Milk Yield due to time since Calving. Loss at the end of Average falling off in Gallons. Proportion approximately. If Proportion exact, Gallons. 1 month 19 33 ol 7(1 One-eighth = ^ Two-eighths = ^ Three-eighths = jj Four-eighths = ^ 18 36 54 72 The Annval Milk Yield of So.uerset C, nws. As the observations wtuo carried on each year for only seven iiu.uths of the milking period it is not possible to state with (•(-rtainty what is the actual yield of the cows at each farm I luvve, however attempted to estimate this yield in the followintr manner. In the tables, p. 81-85, the average vield per head per day is given ; by multiplying this by the nuinber of days in each month we obtain the total montlily yield, from which the total yield for seven months is easily obtained. The yield dur- ing the remaining three months must be estimated. I have done this by assuming that the loss each month would be onlv one-tentli of the maximum yield. Tlie results thus obtained ari- as follows : — Year. Actual Yield, 7 months. Estimated Yield, 10 months. 1891 1892 1893 1 .'•'94 189r) 189(3 1897 1898 Gallons. Gallons. 426 473 443 501 492 550 r)ll 5(18 461 ,'■)():"'. 464 500 474 664 453 507 80 Investigations into Cheddar Cheese Making. If, as these results would justify one in assuming, the average yield of milk per cow is only about 500 gallons, it is evident that considerable improvement is not only possible, but highly desirable, and could probably be brought about at no very great expense by greater care in breeding. Table. I. Average Composition op Milk for each Month during the Years 1891-98. Month. Year. Locality. Total Solids. Fat. Casein, per cent. per cent. per cent. ("1892 Axbridge 11-75 3-06 2-35 1893 Butleigh 11-89 3-09 2-43 1894 Mark 12-31 3-29 2-42 April ■ 1895 Haselbury* 12-65 3-70 2-43 1896 Cossington 12-75 3-83 2-43 1897 Long AshtonJ 12-74 3-87 2-45 J898 1) I) 12-28 3-48 2-29 fl892 Axbridgo , 1204 8-12 2-55 1893 Butleigh ' 1201 3-05 2-59 1894 Mark 1--J-51 3-35 2-73 May ■ 1895 Haselbury* 12-58 3-:!9 2-60 1896 Cossington 12-78 3-70 2-64 1897 Long AshtonJ 12-42 3-53 2-48 J898 II II 12-52 3-55 2-51 ri892 Axbridge 12-20 3-17 2-65 1893 Butleight 12-03 3-08 2-65 1894 Mark 12-52 3-40 2-69 June ■ 1895 Haselbury* 12-56 3-51 2-58 1896 Cossington 12-.59 3-57 2-64 1897 Long AshtonJ 12-28 3-42 2-43 ,1898 V M "« 12-24 3-38 2-49 ri892 Axbridge 12-20 3-21 2-66 1893 Butleight 12-14 3-20 2-49 1894 Mark 12 -.52 3-47 2-64 July ^ 1895 Haselbury* 12-68 3-60 2-67 1896 Cossington 12-61 3-66 2-58 1897 Long AshtonJ 12-20 3-39 2-35 LI 898 II II ... 12-47 3-52 2-50 ri891 Vallis 12-61 3-87 2-76 1892 Axbridge 12-28 3-38 2-65 1893 Butleigh+ 12-14 3-19 2-77 ugust ... 1894 1895 Mark Haselbury t 12-78 12-.- 2 3-70 3-80 2-76 2-68 1896 Cossington 12-73 3-83 2-66 1897 Long AshtonJ 12-45 3-63 2-38 1898 I» 1! 12-71 3-84 2-43 For first and third weeks in month. f For first week in month only. J Once in eight days. Conditions affecting the Milk. Tahh I. — coutinned. 81 Month. Year. Locality. Total Solids. fl891 Vallis per cent. 1 H-00 1892 Axbridpre 12-,"i0 1893 Butleighf 12-53 September... 1 1891 ' 1895 Mark 13-05 Haselbury* 13-(i3 1896 Cossington 13-19 1897 J.898 Long Ash ton I 11 )) 12-89 12-76 ri991 Vallis 13-8] 1892 Axbridge 13-13 1893 Butleighf ... 13-49 October ... , 1894 Mark 13-40 1895 Haselbury* 13-70 1896 Cosaington ... 1 3-38 1897 Long Ash ton J 13-22 Ll898 » ,. ... 1 13-24 Fat. per cent. 4-13 3-r.7 3-53 3-i*S 3-94 4-31 3-86 3-91 4-75 4-00 4-30 4-89 4-55 4-41 4-18 4-20 CaHein. per cent. 2-99 2-87 2-95 2-83 2-91 2-71 2-59 2-59 3-21 S-08 3-H 2-95 2-92 2-8.-. 2-71 2-75 * For first and third weeks in month. f For first week in month only X Once in eight days. Table II. Average Yield op Milk, Ccim, and Cheese for each Month during the Year.s 1891-98. VALLIS, ] 891. 1 2 3 4 it fi 7 Month. Average Cheese Average No. of Cows.* yield of Milk per head per day Vol. of Milk. Curd taken from Press. Cheese when Sold. Shrink. a«e in Ripen- ing. from one gallon of Milk. April 40 galls. 2-02 galls. 81 lbs. 73 lbs. 69 lbs. 4 lbs. •85 May 4(i 2-59 119 117 111 6 •93 .Tune 50 2-64 132 132 123 <» -93 .Tuly 50 2-24 112 114 107 7 •96 August 50 1-82 91 99 91 8 1-00 September ... 50 1-58 79 sn 82 5J i 1-ot October 50 1-04 52 64 59, J 6 1-14 Average * Nn nnnii-af^ r.. 48 1-99 95 98 92 -98 1893, 80 these figures are only approximate. MRa 1892, and P 82 Tnvesttgations tnto ruKDDAR Chkesk Making. Table II. — rnnthiwd. AXIIRIDGE, 1892. 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 7 MOXTJI. Average No. or Cows. Average yield of Milk per head Vol '• ^"''^ ^JJ.'- : taken Milk. 1 *'''°™ Press. Cheese when Sold. Shrink- age in Ripen- ing. Cheese from one gallon of per day. Milk. April .. 86 galls. 220 galls. 7!l lbs. 70 lbs. (i6 lbs. 4 lbs. •83 May 42 2-60 KIU 102 94 8 •86 June 50 2-54 127 \2i 113 9 •90 July BO 2-32 llfi 11,-, 108 •93 August 60 2-00 100 l()2i 94 ^ •94 S pt^mber ... 50 1-68 H4 itl 85 6 101 October .10 M6 r,8 (i8 62 n ro7 Average 47 2-07 !l(i !>(> 89 7 •93 BUTLEIGH, 1893. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Month. Average No. of Cows. Averasje o/iSl vol. j h^ad : Milk, per day. Curd taken from Press, ; Cheese when 1 Sold. Shrink- age in Ripen- ing. Cheese from one gallon of Milk. April ... May June July August September October 40 51 55 .55 55 55 55 galls. 2^65 2^92 2^.56 2-43 2^43 1^86 1^24 palls. 106 149 141 134 134 102J 68 lbs. 96 142 130 129 131, J 109J 80 lbs. 89 132 121i 122 124 104 77 lbs. 7 10 8i 7 7i 5i 3 lbs; •84 •88 •85 •91 •92 1*02 M3 • Average 52 2^80 119 117 IW - ..7 - •93. Month. Conditions affecting tiik Milk. Tiihh IT, — rn)iliininl. H'A MARK, IH'.U. 2. 4. I Average Average ^'^-l^* No. of Cows. of Milk per head per day. Vol. of Milk. Curd 1 aken from PresM. Cheese when Sold. Shrink- i\',J.O ill liilien- iny. ChoGse from one gallon of Milk. April 33 galls. 3-12 galls. 102 \hi. 101 lbs. 9K 1 llw. 5 U.S. •i»4 May 50 2-i)« 148 148 l-fo ,' « •94 June ,-)l 2-74 140 111 132 1 9 •94 July .-)2 2-48 129 131 124 7 ■90 August r.2 2-15 113 118 112 6 1-00 September nn 1-89 100 112 lOU 6 l-Oil October 53 1-40 74 87 82 i> Ml Average 49 2,39 115 120 113 7 •99 HASELBURY, 1895. 1. 2. 3. 4. '). (1. 7. Month. 1 Average No. of Cows. Average yield of Milk per head per day. Vol. of Milk. Card taken from Press. 1 Cheese when Sold. Slirink- ajre in Ripen- injr. Clieese from one gallon of Milk. April May June July August September ... October 4C fil 70 70 70 69 66 galls. 2 74 2-87 2-61 2^09 1-99 1-64 117 galls. 12(i 175 183 146 139 113 76 IbH. 126 167 168 148 152 124 90 lbs. 118 159 159 138 138 119 87 lbs. 8 8 9 10 14 5 3 lbs. •94 •91 •87 - •95 •99 ro5 1-14 Arenige 64 216 137 139 131 8 •98 1468 F 2 84 iNVESTinATIONS INTO (yllEnDAR CnEESE MaKINO. TiihJi' I l.— riiiiliiiunl. COSHINOTON , iHite. 1. 2. M. 4. 5. (;. 7. Month. Average No, of CowH. Average yiuhl of Milk per head per day. Vol, of Milk. f ""J, ' Cheese Z'^"'" i Hohl. I resH. 1 1 ] Oheese Shrink- from ajre in one Ripen- gallon iug. of Milk. April ?Jay June July AuguHt September ... October 51 5(> 59 (Id CO (iO 50 galls. : 2'CO 2'28 178 1-28 M2 galls. kk; i.-.s i:i7 1(»7 77 5(> lbs, i:u! 1(14 152 lail 114 80 CC lbs. i;w 157 142 LSI 110 80 Cli lb«. , iba. « i -MO 7 'iU 10 •'.t;i 8 1 -W, 4 1 1-O.S (1 1-04 i 4J 1 1-1(1 Average 57 217 IL'.S 122i lie CJ -'M LON(J ASTITON, 1897. 1. 2. H. 4. T). K. 7. Month. Average j Chee.te Average No. of yield of Milk Vol. of Curd taken Cheese Shrink- age in from one Cows. per head per day. Milk. from Press. Sold. Ripen- ing. gallon of Milk. gallB. galla. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. April 36 2-55 92 90 85 n •92 May 45 2-88 130 124 114 10 •88 June 48 2-70 130 123 113 10 •87 July 49 2-(tS 102 95 87 8 •85 August 49 1-8:'. 90 85 78 7 •87 September 50 1-70 88 H9 83 •94 October 47 1-68 79 81 77 4 •97 Average 40 2-21 1011 1 98 91 7 •90 Conditions akkkctincj thk Milk. H.5 To hi, ■ 11. — rniilillllKl. LON'J A8HT0N, 181(8. 1. 2. 3. 4. '). (1. 7. Month. AveriiKe 1 OheeHti Average No. of OOWB. yield of Milk per hea- on the pastures during the cheese-making season. But what was more striking was the fact that at each site the acidity of the milk varied mon; or less from month to month. AVhen we come to average the acidity for the seven years of the observations, it will be seen that the fluctuations almost disappear, and we obtain a nearly constant acidity for each month, equal to 0-19% of lactic acid. It seldom rises above 022, nor should it fall below 01 7 without inquiry into the cause, as will be explained hereafter. It was not until 1897 that any abnormal condition of the milk as regards acidity arose. Then the acidity of the milk was so low that it became necessary to investigate the cause. Milk of Abnormal Acidity — The cause of the abnormal acidity of the milk in 1897 was discovered in 1898. As pre- viously pointed out on p. 72, certain cows were discovered at Long Ashton yielding abnormal milk. Upon testing the acidity of this milk, the results obtained were for Cherry, •14 per cent., and for Ayrshire Horns •!?> per cent. These re- sults, it will be seen, are quite exceptional — the average of the I i)KscEa"noN OF ItEcoHUED Obskrvations. 87 hml being ; ly-u^d were equally uuexpeote.l. It wa», theio- i /• ''"\«''°^"»^ t'^ H"^ »P tl"« line ol inquiry, and. «icle by luh .1 comp.oto unulyH..H of th.> milk, o8timution,s were HubHeouontly mad, of the acidity of each cow'h milk. It was then discovered that the acidity of the milk varied Kenerallv jn proportion to the casein in the milk. This i» well sliown by the folowinflr taWe, which gives not only the average acidity of the milk ot the tour excej)tional cows, hut also the acidity of the other milks, taking the averages according to the pro- portion of casein they contain. ' ^'"VST*-" . Average acidity Under 2 per cent, caHom '14 Over 2 and under 2 -5 per cent, caaein ... -20 Over 2-5 and under 3 per cent, casein ... -21 Over 3 per cent, caaein .23 As it is generally found that the proportion of solids in the milk 18 in direct relation to the proportion of casein, we may roughly express these results by saying that the greater the pro- portion of solids in the milk, the higher is the natural acidity ot that mi k. Th.3 probably accounts for the fact that the acidity of the milk is generally higher in the latter part of the year, when -the milk is richer, than in the spring. It appears to me that these results justify the conclusion that the estimation ot the acidity of each cow's milk would give the cheese-maker a rough (though not absolutely accurate) guide to the proportion ot casein and solids m the milk, and as to its suitability for cheese-making. Any cow yielding milk of very low acidity should be regarded with suspicion by the cheese-maker. The Bffeotof Milk of Abnormal Acidity.- The influence of th(. abnormal milk of the four cows upon the whole of the milk and the cheese produced therefrom was remarkable ; but it can only be appreciated when studied in conjunction with the effect ot keeping it out of the mixed milk. In the first place, this milk, owing to its low acidity and Humll proportion of casein, diminished the percentage of both acid and casein in the mixed milk. The fiffect of the Xiow Acidity.— Diminishing the per- centage of acid in the milk necessitates a lower percentage of acid beinc obtained in the curd before grinding, for the lower the percentage of acid in the milk as drawn from the cows the lower must be the acidity obtained in the liquid from press It will subsequently be shown that the acidity of the liquid from l)ress, for a fairly quick ripening cheese, should be five times that of the evening's milk when brought into the dairy, and with ordinary milk this can easily be obtained. But when dealing with abnormal milk a diflRculty arises due to the want of casein. The fiffect of the Xiow Casein. — Owing to the deficiency of the milk in casein, the curd will be wanting in contractile 88 Jnvkstigations into Cheddar t'liEKsK Maiuni;. power, so that by the time sufficient acid has been produced in the curd lor it to be ground, it will not be sufficiently dry— in otlier words, it will not have expressed sufficient whev The practical difficulty which the cheese-maker has t( meet m to de- cide whether to put away the curd when sufficient acidity is developed, although it would not be properly dry, and the cheese would consequently ripen rapidly— for a wet curd always ri- Ijens more rapidly than a dry curd— or to obtain the requisite dryness with an excess of acidity, which would also make the cheeses ripen rapidly and further introduce the risk of produc- ing- an acid cheese. Miss Cannon decided to adopt the former system, and m my opinion was iwstified in doing so. Yet it necessarily resulted in certain peculiarities which will be re- ferred to subsequently. (See Moisture in Curd.) The Ripening- of Milk.- Although the influence upon the luiik of keeping it all night at a high temperature is un- doubtedly marked, yet it is strange to see that the proportion of acid which is found in the evening's milk the following morn- ing shows no vei-v great advance upon that which was present m the evening wl^^^n it came into the dairy. This is undoubtedly due to the fact that m Cannon's system of make no very great amount of acidity needs to be developed in the evening's milk, the necessary acidity generally being obtained by means of sour whey. Hence the evening's milk is well stirred, and allowed to tall in temperature during the night. But when, as has been sometimes the case, it was desired to ripen the evening's milk and, for this |>urpose, it has been kept warmer than usual, the acidity ])r()duced ha.s been considerable, and I have known it rise during the night from • 20 to • 25 per cent. This, however, 18 exceptional ; but it proves mat the acidity test is capable of showing any exceptional rise in aciditv. The average rise in the acidity of the evening's milk during the night will be • 01 per cent., though, if the dairy is very warm during the night it may rise • 02 per cent. Hence the average aciditv of the ni ght's nnlk in the morning is • 20 per cent. It was wiiL a view of trying to di-over more accurately the exact amount of acid produced during the night, that in 1896 the acidity determina- tions were made with a soda solution only ^th the strength of that ordinarily us^d. After sjiecial experim.-nts had been made on the subject, this was found to be the best strength solution to use By its use irt was possible to estimate the acidity to >Lth part^ot 1 per cent. The results obtained showed very clearly the difference between the evening's milk when brought into the dairy and after standing through the night, and also confirmed those M'hich had been previously obtained with the ordinary soluaon. As the use of this dilute solution is attended witt rtitticu ty, it had better not be employed by anyone except a trained chemist. ... i As it is of the utmost importance to the cheese-maker to know the acidity of the evening's milk in the morning, and as some Dkscrii'tion 01-' Kkcokbkd Ubskkvations. «!) (iifiiculty has been tnuiul in Dbtainiug sufficiently accurate i'.'- sults, it may be well to here describe a method of distinfjuish- iue the ripeness of milk by means of rennet, which is largely era- ])]oyed by cheese-makers and gives, with care, reliable results, (hough, in my opinion, it k quite as difficult to use as the acidi- meter. Testing^ Ripeness of Milk by Rennet. — This system 01 testing the ripeness of the milk is based upon the fact that the time which a given t^uantiiy of rennet takes to curdle a given quantity of milk at a definite temperature depends upou the acidity of the milk. To obtain accuiate results, it is es- sential that the rennet should be from the same source for every test, and that the volume of milk and of rennet and the tem- l)erature of the milk should always be the same, and be most accurately determ-'ned. The test is made as follows : —1 oz. of milk at 84° Fahr. are poured into a vessel, which can be placed in anothei- vessel containing watei at 84° Fahr. A few minute pieces of cork or straw-skm are Hoated on the milk; ;i oo c.c. (1 drachm) of rennet (some use 1 teasj)oonful) are now accurately measured and delivered into the milk rapidly. The watch, which must have a second-hand, is held in th(> left hand, and the time the rennet is added must be accurately noticed. Stir the milk rapidly in a circular direction, and" remove the stirring-rod at the end of 10 seconds. The straws or cork will revofvt with the milk. But suddenly they will stop, which indicates that xhe milk has curdled. Time the mon)ent thev stop— to the second. The number of seconds which the rennet takes to curdle the milk shows the ripeness. Each maker knows bv ex- perience the standard he wishes to work up to. About 19 to 22 seconds is usually the time taken. I have carried out a series o^' ex])erirnents with the rennet test, side by side with the acidimeter test, and the results obtained are almost identical. Hence the rennet test can be relied upon in cai-eful hands, but great care is undoubtedly necessary in its use. it reliable results are to be obtained. aipeniner Evening's Milk.-Seeing how necessary i^ is to ripen the evening's milk property, many experii..ents have been made to this end, one of which, by the addition of a little sour whey to the milk, may here be mentioned. The acidity of this whey was -35 i.er cent. which in the eveninir was only • 19, was in the mo'rning • 66~per .•ent., hence the whole of it was a solid mass of curd. The main cause of this result was the high temperature of the milk and HP, a consequence, the rapid development of acidity. A number of experiments were subsequently made with small quantities ot whey upon a definite quantity of milk kept at a constant 90 Invkstxgatiojns into Cheddak Cheese Making. I Ill- temperature in the incubator. The results are tabulated below, being iirst calculated to 1,000 volumes of milk, so as to make them easier of comparison : — Rksults of Exi'KKiMKNTS on the Ripening of Milk by iidilition of Whey taken from the tub after Breaking the Cukd. Volume of Milk. Volume of Whey. Temp, at which kept. Milk cui-dled. Acidity of the curdled Milk. 1000 10-0 75-85 Before 13 hours per cent. •64 It 5-0 2-5 100 67-77 After 15 and before 23 hours •62 •57 •70 )) 5-0 I) •70 )) 2-5 ') )} n •69 )i 20 64-72 ly hours 20 minutes after •65 ») 1-0 65-72 22 hours after •65 )» •5 65-72 22 hours 50 minutes after •64 It 18 very evident that the action of sour whey upon the milk IS both poweii'ul and uncertain, and the rennet present in the whey may have contributed thereto. Therefore it is quite im- practicable to use sour whey to raise the acidity of the even- mg'H milk during the eai-ly and late months of the cheese^ making season. But the influence of temperature in develop- ing the acidity is well shown in the results obtained, which indicate the imperative necessity of keeping the milk and dairy warm at night, especially during cold weather, if we wish to ensure sufficient ripeness in the milk by the morning. Whey Cream.— A second experiment was made to see whether more rapid development of acidity could be obtained, and the value of the adding the whey cream from the to the milk in the warmer, so mixed with the milk before rennetinsr. cheese enhanced, by previous day's make to get it well rhe quantity of whey as cream was -J gallon. Very little difference was manifested dur ing the making of the cheese, except that the whey had on its surface an oily appearance, and had a slightly strong smell. The addition of ti^e whey cream promoted the souring of the curd ; while the fat did not come out again in the whey, but enriched the curd. Where whey butter has but little sale, or only at a low price, the practice of putting the whey cream back into the next day's milk may be advantageous, especially in the early months of the season, provided there be no taint in the whey. The Influence of Rennet on Acidity.— In the act of set- ting, the acidity of the milk partly disappears. This is proved Desc&iptiok or IIecorded Obseb VAT IONS. 91 by the small amount of acid iound in the firat whey which sppai-ates from the curd after it is cut. It will be found on con- sulting the tables (Col. 25) that the acidity of the whey at this stap-e is only two-thirds that of the original milk. It is difficult to state what change has taken place. Ix the original acidity of the milk were due to acid salts alone, it would not be so diHicult to explain, for the casein in milk is undoubtedly com- bined with lime, which, to a certain extent, is set free in the act of coagulation and would then combine with the acid salts and partly neutralise them. Two things, however, are certain : first, that all the lime which is combined with the casein is not liberated in the act of setting, for a large quantity subsequently separates from the curd ; secondly, it is almost equally certain that some of the acidity of the milk is due to the acid nature of the casein itself. Whatever the changes may be they are evi- dently chemical changes, and follow the law of all 'Aemical change in being exactly proportional. Ttae Development of Acidity in the Whey.— Alike one of the most impoi-tant and at the same time one of the most difficult operations in the manufacture of a cheese, is to obtain the necessaiy amount of acidity in the whey before it is drawn. That condition of the curd when in the whey, which the practical chi^se-maker calls " shotty," and judges by the feel of the curd, and by which he estimates whether the whey may be drawn or not, is a condition which may be brought about by a development of acidity, or by heat alone, though in practice it is the result of a combination of the two. In the Cannon system of cheese-making ii is necessary that tliis condition should be brought about by the development of acidity. Under favourable circumstances, this condition of the curd is coincident with the development in the whey of an acidity slightly greater than the acidity of the milk before renneting. Thus, with normal milk of an acidity of 0-19, that of the whey should be 0-20. But it is only occasionally that this amount of acid can be obtained. Nevertheless the cheese-maker should aim at obtaining it. The greatest difficulty will arise during the months of April and May, and is probably due to the milk not being properly ripened, "in fact it is always difficult to obtain when dealing with milk of low acidity. It is similarly difficult with milk of abnormal quality, whether this be due to excess of fat, or a deficiency of casein. When from whatever cause there is a difficulty in obtaining this amount of acidity in the whey, care must be taken not to stir too long, but to allow the curd to settle and rest in the whey until the requisite amount of acidity has been developed. Under such circumstances it will probably only be possible to obtain in the whey an acidity -01 or '02 per cent, below that of the mixed milk. The Influence of the Scald on Acidity.— Up to the time of cutting tiic curd, the acidity present in the milk and whey, as already described, is due mainly to acid salts. 92 Investigations into Cheddau Chkesk Maki NG. It ;1 U i ihe subscquciil production of acidity iu tlie wliey and curd will be due to tlie growth of a certain organism or bacterium, to be described more fully in a subsequent portion of this re- |)()rt, but .vhich is known as tne bacillus acidi lactici. This organism feeds upon the sugar of the milk, and in so doing converts it into lactic acid. Xow both lactic acid and heat have the power of contracting the curd, rendering it firm, and ex- pelling from it that liquid which is known as whey. l\Mien the milk sets the bacteria are caught in the curd, and oiiiy com- |)aratively few escape in the whey. Thus it is that the forma- tion of acidity, durintv cheese-making, is taking place mainl\- in the liquid within the curd, and not in the liquid surrounding the curd. This is well shown by comparing the acidity of the whey surrounding the curd (Col. 34) with the liquid which drains from within the curd when this is piled (Col. 3n). This fact has many important bearings upon the manipulations of cheese-making, and is the one which more than any otlier gives rise to the various systems of cheese-making which exist. If then the temperature of the scald be low, say, !)I:° F., the contraction of the curd due to heat is comparatively slight, and whatever contraction takes place is mainly due to the for- mation of acid within the curd, and the contracting power which it exerts. But if the tem])erature is higher, then the con- tracting power of heat comes into play side by side with that of aciditv, and exerting more and more influence the higher the temperature until, with a scald temperature of 105° F., it 18 possible to obtain the curd in a sufficiently "shotty" condi- tion to be fit for the whey to be drawn off without any material increase in the acidity. True, the greater heat of this scald is slightly more favourable to the rapid growth of the bacillus Hcidi lactici, but, on the other hand, the contraction of the curd withdraws from the curd the whey containing the sugar on which the bacilli feed, and it will always be found that the less whey there is in the curd the slower will be the production of acidity. For this reason, a wet curd is one which may be- « ome very rapidly acid, hence the origin of what will be found in the descrintion of the Cannon system of cheese-making in a subsequent portion of this report as a soft acid curd. The Development of Acidity In the Iilquld In Curd.— From the time that the whey is drawn off the acidity developes within the curd only, and the quantity of acid has been esti- mated in the liquid which drains from the curd during each subsequent process to which it is subjected. The drainings from each stage svere collected separately, and the results of the acidity determinations are given in the tables in Cols. 39-45. The development of acidity during these stages depends upon several factors, first and princijially, on the number of bacteria present in the curd when taken from the tub, secondly, on th(! heat of the curd and whether this heat is maintained or not, thirdly, on the nioisiurc in ihe curd, and lastly, on the amount of air which is allowed to get to the curd during Desckiption of Recoeded Observations. 93 the operations. Thus it is that, while on one day the curd is fit to be ground, there having been already developed sufficient acidity, after th i first or second cutting, and quite early in the afternoon, on other days it is not fit to grind, owing to the absence of acidity, until it has been cut twice and turned four or five times at intervals of about one hour, so that it is not ready to be ground until late at night. In the manufacture of a Cheddar Cheese the greatest diffi- culty which the maker liad to contend with, before the intro- duction of the means of estimating acidity, was to determine when the curd was fit to grind. If the curd is ground before sufficient acidity is developed, then the cheese does not ripen ])roperly, and often puffs up and is blown. On the other hand, if too much acidity is developed, the cheese ripens too rapidly, is too acid wlu'U it should be ripe, and will sometimes run wet in the cheese room or crack and afford a lodging for the cheese fly. Prior to the introduction of the acidimeter, the cheese- maker had to depend upon the taste, appearance, and texture of the curd to determine when it was fit to grind. My investiga- tions soon convinced me that the amoixnt of acid present in the whey which drains from the curd, when in the cooler, was an accurate indication of the fitness of the curd for grinding. In order to fix a standard for this acid, the average acidity of the liquid from the curd immediately preceding grinding has there- fore been calculated, and the results are given in Col. 45a. N'ow arises the most important question. "\Yliat should this acidity be. As the acidity which will control the cheese is in- dicated by the liquid from press, the cheese-maker must first determine what the aciditv of that liquid should be. Then, making allowance for the rise or fall in acidity which will take ]ilace during grinding, vatting, and pressing tlie curd, he will be able to estimate what acidity the liquid which drains from the curd when on cooler should show immediately before that curd is ground. The Acidity of the Iiiouid from Press.— These figures ((!ol. 5-'») must be studied in conjunction with those of Col. 45a just referred to. They show that on an average the acidity rises in the whey or curd during the time of grinding and placing in the vat irom • 92 to ] • 02, ])er cent. Hence, if we can deter- mine what amount of aciditv is requisite in the liquid from the press, we shall have a standard for the li(]uid from the curd when this curd is fit to be ground. Our chief consideration in fixing this standard will be the time in which we desire the cheese to be i-ipe. If we wish a slow ripening cheese then the acidity must be lower, if a very quick ripening cheese, higher, than oiiY ordinary standard Another consideration o[ u portance is the fact that an acidity in the liquid from press which, at one schnnl, or at one time of the vear, has jriven an excellent clieese, at an>.ther school or even at the same school, but at a diffei'ent period <'f the season, 94 Investigations into Cheddae Cheese Making. has given either a too acid cheese or one showing a deiiciency oi acidity. This subject has been one of considerable difficulty to explain, but, after a very careful study of all the facts, it would .seem to be due to the varying quality of the milk. Where the luilk from whicb the cheese was made has shown a high pro- portion of acidity, there a cheese made with a high acidity 111 the liquid from press has been excellent. But if from a milk with a low acidity a cheese is made having a high pro- portion of acid in the liquid from the press, this cheese will, ut the end of three months, which may be taken as the average time of ripening for cheese made on the Cannon system, be found to be too acid. I have carefully studied the re- sults of the eight years' work as regards the acidity of the milk, and of the liquid from press, side by side with the opinions of the cheese-buyer upon the vaxious cheeses, and it appears to me that the amount of acid required in the liquid from press must depend entirely upon the original acidity of the milk. For a cheese of fairly rapid ripening quality, the liquid from press must contain five times the acidity of the original milk. Thus, while on one farm, where the milk shows O'lS per cent, of acid when brought into the dairy, the acidity of the liquid from press luay be taken as -90 ; on another, where the acidity of the milk is -20, the acidity of the liquid from press should be 1-00 per cent., and in the autumn, or at farms such as Vallis, when the milk shows an acidity of -22 per cent, the liquid from press may contain 1.10 per cent, of acid. There are certain to be conditions on some farms which may necessitate some slight variation from this standard, apart from the variation which will be necessary for a slower ripening cheese. Those cheese-makers who are using the acidity appa- ratus as a guide in their cheese-making would do well to bear these facts in mind. This standard for the acidity of the liquid from press also presupposes that the curd is sufficiently dry. (See Moisture in Ciird.) If the curd is moist, then the standard of acidity will be too high. Acid cheeses are nearly always the result of a moist curd and high acidity in liquid from press. Acidity erolng- Hack.— Frequently during the months of August, September, and October the acidity of the liquid from the press is less than the acidity of the last drainings from the curd when on the cooler. It has been noticed on isolated occa- sions in most years, but never to such an extent as to affect the averages, until 1898. It is invariably associated with a fsecal taint in the curd, so that it is probably the result of bacterial changes. ^ Its practical importance is this, that when such taint arises it is necessary to develop in the curd before vatting more acidity than is desired in the liquid from the press, otherwise the cheese will be tainted and inferior. ; The Influence of Salt on Acidity.— It is a common belief among cheese-makers that the salting of the curd checks the Description of Recorded Observations. 95 lormation of acidity. Tliis supposition is entirely erroneous, so far as my experience goes. Indeed, so necessary is salt for the growth of bacteria, that it is one of the substances which must be placed in all artificial nutriment prepared for their growth A study of the tables shows that even during the addition of salt and the placing of the curd in the vat, the formation of acidity has been still going on, so that the liquid which comes away from the press is more acid than the last drainings from tne curd before grinding. Tests were made of the liquid from press immediately pres- sure was placed on the cheese, and the average acidity of the liquid was found to be 1 • 075 per cent., while the liquid coming away half an hour afterwards had an average acidity of 1 088 per cent. "^ However, with the idea that it would be of more practical value to make a distinct experiment upon this point, and record the result, the following course was adopted. On the 6th of •June, 1895, the curd was salted and divided into two portions one was vatted immediately after salting, the other spread out to cool, and left for three-quarters of an hour before vatting he acidity of the drainings before grinding was -91 per cent. 1 he acidity of the liquid from the press of the portion vatted im- mediately after grinding was 1 • 08 per cent., while that of the portion which was allowed to stand for three-quarters of an hour was 1-22 per cent The portion vatted immediately wa8 at a temperature of 76° Fahr., that vatted after standing three- quarters of an hour was 72° Fahr. The aciditv of the liquid from the press of the portion first vatted was again talcen when the second portion was vatted, or three-quarters of an hour after It had been in the press. It was then found to be 1 • 14 per cent It will thus be seen that the salt did not retard the formation of acid in either portion. The formation of acid was more ranid in the portion exposed to the air than in the portion placed m the press, even though the latter was 4° Fahr. higher in tem- perature. This experiment proves beyond doubt that salt does not stop nor even retard the formation of acid in the curd. It also shows wny, in those methods of cheese-making in which the curd is spread out to cool before being vatted, it is not necessary to pro- duce so much acidity in the earlier stages as is essential when the curd is vatted immediately after being ground. The Acidity of Curd.— Curd is one of those complex or- ganic substances about which chemists know very little. In 1892, I found that, during the process of cheese-making, a large quantity of lime was extracted from the curd not only in the whey, and in each of the drainings from the curd on the cooler while it is developing acidity, but also from the curd when hnally placed in the press. Now, this lime would exist in the milk, or more accurately in the curd when just set, either in solution or in combination with casein; if in solution, it would subsequently be present in the whey, but if in combination with 96 Invkstigations [nto (Jheddar (Jhekse Making. casein, it would remain in the curd. The analyses of whey show that only about two-thirds of the mineral matter of thu milk are present in it, so we must conclude that the remainder is in the curd. From a series of analyses made of the liquid t rom the press and of the curd, I find 0-5 per cent, of lime in the former, and nearly 1 per cent, in the latter. The only pos- sible supposition is that it is combined with the casein. It \vouhl, therefore, appear that casein is an acid substance, that it is combined with lime in cixrd, and that as lactic acid is pro- duced in the curd, it takes havhv this lime and leaves an acid casein behind. If (liis be the n<>ht explanation, then it is evi- dent that curd, in addition to the acidity which it possesses from tile lactic acid it contains, would have an acidity of its own ])iutly proportionate to the amount of lime which had been taken away from the casein, but mainly in proportion to the quantity of pure casein present. My first attempt to determine the acidity of curd was made in 1891. Considerable difficulty was experienced, and after fre (|uent attempts, the only plan found practicable was to cut the curd into very fine pieces, to weifyh out 1 pramme, place it in a glass tube, and boil with 25 c.c. of standard soda solution, until the whole of the curd was entirely dissolved. The solution was then washed into a glass vessel, and the quantity of free soda ])resent estimated by standard sulphuric acid. This being de- ducted from the qiiantity originally taken, showed the amount of alkali neutralised by the curd. Thus: — Quantity of Alkali taken Quantity present after boiling with curd Neutralised by curd c.c. 250 3-7 which would represent 3 • 7 per cent, of lactic acid, only 1 gramme of curd having been taken. Finding such a difficulty in llie estimation of the acidity of the curd, I confined my estimations in 1891 to this one stage of the ciird only. The results obtained were so high that they could not be due to lactic acid, and could only be accounted for by the fact that casein is itself an acid substance and evidently neutralised the soda. In 1892 the estimations were continued, and again the fluc- tuations in the acidity of the curd when milled were very great, yet I was totally at a loss to explain the cause. On several occa- sions, in order to confirm the results, two tests were made in the curd of the same day ; and the results obtained were so close as to ])reclude the supposition that the method was faulty ; moreover many tests were made which gave absolutely concordant rosults. Why the curd should on some days show an acidity of 7 • 2 per cent, and on others only 3-0, I was utterly unable to discover in spite of many experiments. The subject was left in abeyance xmtil 1896, when the qxiestlon I Drsoriptfon 01' Kkcohdkd Ojjskrvations. 97 once inoio aroHH m my nuiul-is tliovo an aridity or acid con- ditioii ot the curd imlopendcnt of and .littVivnt to the acidity ot the liquid hy which that curd is imiuv.niatcdy And, if so i^ II ot importance f* J'Jxjienmeiits were made to determine tlie acidity of the curd bv the tollowinf^ four methods : («) l\yo grammes of curd were cut up into fine pieces, placed in a flask with distilled water, and allowe.l to stand in a warm place or j?ent y heated, and after standinjr for twelve hours the acidity oi tlu; li(|uid was determined. (b) Thinking that the warmth employed in method " a " miirht cause the production of lactic acid, two ffiammes were treated similarly to the above, but the solution was immediatelv boiled so as to destroy the bacillus acidi lactici. r^A^Y' K;^'""!""'" of curd were rubbed up in a mortar with rlistilled water into fine particles, and the acidity thereof im- mediately determined. (d) Two grammes of eurd were cut into fine pieces, placed in a flask with water, and an excess of caustic potash solution, and the liquid Lolled. Subsequently the free potash was determined so that the amount ot potash consumed showed the acidity of the curd, soluble in alkali. The following table gives a few examples of the results obtained and also the acidity of the liquid from press on the same dates. ' Dati:. Acidity by •' d." Acidity 1)V " h." June fi „ 24 „ 2t; July 1 18!)fi. •85 '•94 1-04 Acidity •87 •!)0 \-04 •89 •97 •99 P05 A cidity of liqui •99 Acidity Itvv/." Acidity due to Curd. ^•05 iV.37 f/KJ 4^40 4^;58 I'rom these results, which have been ccmfirmed by numerous other exi)eriments, we learn that method "«'' does not succeed in obtaining all the acid liquid out of the curd. That method ^ b," while it improves the results owing probably to the contraction of the curd ly heat expelling Its acid contents more thoroughly, still fails to give quite .so high results as method ' .,'' which was consequently adopted in sub- sequent work. It is, fortunately, a more simple and more rapid method than either " a " or " h." ^ Comparing the results obtained by method "c" with the acdify of the liquid from the ,>iesH, it will be seen that thev are practically identical, so that this m.-thod of analysis appears io give us merely the same acidity as that of the liquid which 1468 fr tc^iAi ' / 88 LnVKSTIGATION.s into ClIKUDAU ClIEKSK MaKING. is ill tlu! curd. Ah the curd contains only oO per cent, of liquid at moHt, we niifihl expect the figures to Ite one-luilf those of the li(|uid from tlie press. Whv they are identical with the liquid from the press. I am unalue to explain, it has been noticed that after estimating the acidity by method " - " *'" '• " there is a secondary reaction, which takes place slowly, and is more dilli- cult to determine, i)ut which gives almost constant resul*:-?. So far as I am able 'to judge at ])resent, this is due to the acid salts present in the curd. Casein Acidity. - Tlie result obtained bv method " (/ " is very dftfeicnl. Mere, in addition to the acidity soluble in water, we have an acidity which \\v miisl assume to be due to (he S'did substance of the curd in^pluble in wnter. -iul>M'(|nenlly termed the " casein acidity." By dcduetini; Irom tlii> total acidity the acidity due to the soluble portion, we obtain the true acidity oi the insoluble portion or cn'-ein. The acidity of the casein, as determined by nu'thod 'Vi " fluc- t\mted from day to day in a most remarkable nuuiner as in ])re- vious years. The determinations with which the results obtained seemed mostly to accord, were those of the acidity of the licjuid fnmi the press. Hut, though up to 18{)(i v(>ry numerous expeiiments had been made to try and discover if there were any relation between these two determinations, no constant relation could be dis- covered. Tabulating the figures obtained in 1890. and com])aring them with results obtained in 1H()'2 — the only year for which the necessarv data existed — tht^ followinii' results were obtained. TaHLK. SIIOWINf: AVl'.li.VIP. " CaSKI.N AflDnv' OK CiRI) l)lRI\(i THK I'lRT Id Days or f.acu ]\roNTii. Juiif July Angust September. Octoliov Is! 12. 4-27 ;i-77 3-C2 ;V]6 Tliese figures seem to prove beyond doubt that curd when vatted is an acid solid, surrounded by an acid pickle. Also, that the acidity of this solid varies not only from day to day, but in ditfei'cnt months, decreasing during July and August, but in- creasing subsequently. These results were of sufficient interest i "''■ J)K.SCflIl*TION OF RecoRDKD UflfSEKVATIONS. 99 to wammt turtht-r luvcsUfcrutioii. ll.uv far the uciilitv ot tlio solid, m distinct fiom tlie liiiuid, mij.|it uftect tho liiuMiinir u,- quuhty ot tlu- clu'csf ri'iuuiiu'd to be dtftenaiaed. Duiinfr 18U7, the acidity ot the curd was tre(iueutly estimated by at ieast two methods, and iu addition many experiments were made. ^ It was now found that the miantity ot acid wliieh appears to be pr.'sent in the cunl .h^pends very hugely upon tlie way in whicli the method adojjted for iU estimatiou" was carried out. 'I'lie results by anv process depend primarily upon tlio quan- tity of water with which the curd is diluted "iH.fore estimating the acidity. This is seen in the following experiments. 'I'wo ^^ramnies uf curd were finely minced and ^T) e.<'. water ad(h-d, [lie acHhly indicated was • T.". prr cent. : "J j-rammcs of the same finely minc<'d curd when treated with IIM) c.c. water showed only ■••if per cent, acidity. ^ A similar result is obtained if the curd is oroun.l into a i.astb with water before the estinmtion of acidity. Thus •.' nrammes nf curd were ground up in a mortar witli M) c.c. water, and showed an acidity of 1 • ()() p,>r cent., while 2 grammes of this curd when ground up with 100 c.c. water showed only -85 per cent, of acidity. Xumerous ex])eriments were made upon this point, quantities of water varying from 3.") c.c. to 150 c.c being used, and always with the same varying results. The most feasible explanation of tlieso variations is that tho alkaline solution of soda with which the ■estimation is made acts upon the casein itself when in a finely divided stat.\ and that this action diminishes with the increasing dilution of the solution. The results also depend on the fin(>ness <.f th(> curd In order that there should he no doubt a))out this, tluve expcri- uients were made with the same curd, 2 gramnu-s being taken in each case. One portion was ground as finely a, possible the second not quite so finely, and the third roughly. The acidities obtained were 1-35 per cent., llf, per cent., and 100 per cent respectively, which prove that the action of the soda depends on the fineness of the curd. Similar fluctuations wer(> found when f timating the " casein acidity " by treatment with soda method d, the results also varying with the quantity of soda taken, and with the temperature to which the solution was heated. Some experiments were also nmde to test the effect upon the estimation of using indicators other than phenol-phtha- lein. Ihe results were rather remarkable. With inethyl- orange as indicator, the curd, instead of showing an acid re- action, now showed an alkaline. It was very evident, in face of these results, that if the determination of !he acidity of the curd had to be made or was likely to tluow any liyht upon the pro- blems of cheese-making, the acidities must be estimated daily m precisely the same way. The following methods were therefore fixed upon in order to obtain uniform results, but as there is no standard by which to 1468 G 2 100 Tnvi'stioations rvTo (*iiKi>nAit Cukknk Makino. I'liHui'c ilu'ir ;a'<-urucy, they cannot )•<« iooUt'd npon un lu'Iug moni accmnlt' lliiui aiiv otluT nictlMuls. Vov the t'sliniatuin of thf uciilily soluble in wuter, ~ "Tuiiiuu'm ol' curd were Uikuu, lubhed ii|i in u niortur with a Hniail (juantity of water, and made up to JJU c.e. For tlie estimation of casein acidity. '^ j^iammes were taken, minced very Hue, transferred to a lariye test lube with IT) c.c. 8oda mdution, each c.e. of which would neutralise 0"01 lactic acid, boiled, and the excess (d' unneutralised soda esti- iiiated : I bat which had been neutralised repn rented the "casein acidity." All tlie li<,»'ureH ^'iven in the toHowinj; tables were obtained in this way, and lepiesent the acidities in terms of lactic arid (percentaji'cs). Acidity of the Ourd at Different Staerea in the Manu- facture of the Cheeses.— This lias been estimated on three (MM'asi((ns, and the results are given in the following table ; — AciorriKs OK Oonn at Dippkuknt Staoks.— PKRCKXTAor:, ar Lactic Acid. hi stage in Miinu- lacture. After taking *'o («oler After Ist (•utling' „ 2n0 345 3 45 A careful study of these figures shows that both the acidity of the li{|aid di'iiiuing from the curd, and the water soluble aciditv of the (uud itself, increase rapidly during the r- \iiu- facture of the cheese, but there is no eorresj)onding increase in the acidity of the curd. The aci'lity soluble in water is due mainly to the lactic acid pi-eseht in the curd. The casein acidity is remarkable for its constancy. C \<. >vould expect it to rise simultaneously with the rise in aeidU >• rf the I'v^uid from curd. But it does not. There -;;■• '. ■ Hue douU as to the important ].raftioal lesson to be learnl troin these figures, namely, that the acidity of the T)Ksrttii'TH)v ok ItKcoiiDKn (>nsi; llV,\TIO,N«. lot riiid atti.nls no iiKlicatioii ol llir pio^ri'SH in ummitucimv, wliih^ tlu' acidity ot till- li(|iti(l .Iminiiijf frnm tin- curd tnuhtiihtiMlly ttttonLs tt vciy distiiul jriiidc f«. tli,> coiLliMon of tli.' ciiid itMcll'. Acidity of Ourd when Oround Tliis was cHtiiiialfd JOI tiMi.s diiniij.- the s.'as(»ii |S!(7^ |,„(|j „„ n.„.a,.,|s sohiliililv in ualcr and Nolul)ility in soda. It is not nt^c'ssurv to (jiiotc tiu'M' vcdn- niinotis fijj'iin's. It will Im sumcicnt tt)' j,nv.' merely aveiujre i-esnlts. 'riic (d)ject of talu'iij-- these av<'ia pre.ss contained luidei acid ■;:;/ Of 3H samples where the li(iuid from press contained under lOO per cent. acid Of 2'J samples where the liquid from ) press contained over 1 00 per cent. >■ acid I ((•7ri ((•Hi') 0-l»4 1-()| Acidity ! A(Mdit,y of of ;('iinl in'Sodu. (Mini in (Casein Water. | acidity). I inn, U)!, M7 i';w .$•47 ;V;"i7 aM)8 ^^■H{) It IS evident that the acidity of the curd, soluble either in wat<'r or in soda, rises on aii average in the same proportion as tlie acidity oi the liquid from press, indeed, appears to he de- I»eiident upon the acidity of the licjuid which permeates the curd. It weald even appear that the acidity of the casein ijroner is alniu,s:t unaltered, l-'or if we deduct from' the acidity of the curd in soda the acidity of the liquid from press, we obtain as the true acidity of the casein the following figures, 2 • 7^*, 2-7:3, 2-74 2 • 7G, whidi are remarkably similar. 'I'lu'se figures indicate that tor the practical cheese-maker the acidity of the liquid from the press 18 an anqjlv sufficient guide to the acidity of the curd when it IS placed in the cheese- room. The last point of importance was whether the acidit\ of tin- curd would influence the ripe cheese. It has only ijeen' possible to make « few experiments upon this subject,' the results of which are tabulated below. U»2 InV1>TJGATI0NS into ClfKDIMtt ClIKKSK MaKINc;. Aoirlity of Acidity of Acidity of Acidity of Dati;. Liquid from Curd in Curd in ripe Cheese Pre«s. Water. SoH l-8f) a-80 •2.-ao May i') •'.)5 1 -no a-60 2-80 ., " ■n: l'4(l 3-l).o 2-8o „ 12 •!»() 1-211 ;i-8() 2-7r. .. 21 1-07 1 -Hiy ;}■«() a-(M) •lliile h i-oa 1 •2r) 4^()(i .3-1(1 „ 2-1 •H4 1-ar. a-75 2-9(1 ,. 2H i-(»;i 1 ■,% ;t-Ho 3-00 Jnlv 1 II 12 l-2a •5-Gr. 2-ti8 .,' 11 •'.III 1-20 .".-or. 2-80 ,. 24 ■!i;i l-jil .•{-»;.■) 2-()8 Aug. Ill l-no 1-211 ;i-ori 2-u; ! t •m 1 -2.) ;i'7o 2-34 Sept. H ■711 ■".Ill 3'40 2- It; .. U ■HI •0(1 3^70 2-Ui .. 22 •ltd ■90 a^4r. 2-i(; .. 2a ■8!) -'.»(» .'(■4r) 2-34 ,. 2H ■h:, ■'.Ill a-af. 2-34 Oct. 12 ■HI ■h:, a-4o 2-34 .. I'.l ■h;\ ■'Xr> a-.".(i 1-98 'riii'iso results iiulicatc that tlio ju-iility of tlio ripe clieeso, as esHmatpd l)y treatnunit witli water follows most closely tlie acidity of the liquid from press. It is evident that both as rejiards " casein acidities " in the curd, and the acidity of the ripe cheese, there are now and attain excejitions to the rule Avhich has been indicated above from the study Of averages. These exceptions are, I find, sometimes due to the i)resence of a particular taint in thi> curd which iuvarial)ly causes the liiiuid fn.ui press to show less acidity than was pre- sent in the liquid coming from the curd before «>rindinjr (*(' p. f)4). Probably other Nuriations are lartiely due to the pro- portion of licpiid (whey) and of poie casein present in the cnni when ground not \wing constant. Summarisin the dairy than by careless uuinii)ulation in the dairy. Whether it is advisable that the milk should be carried int-o the dairy by the milkers is, in my opinion, doubtful. They are liable t(| bring in on their boots more dirt than is desirable, i am in( lined to think the old system of having a shoot leading from outside the dair\- to the cheese-tub is |)referable. This would not prohibit the milk being strained before it fell into the tub. as Rennet. I'he rennet which has been used at tlie Bath and West School during ihk^ course of these investigations, was Hansen's extract. The quantity which has been reqi ired has varied, not only at each cheese school, but fre(]uently at the same school during' the course of the cheese-making season. The reason for these fluc- tuations has I)een difHcult to trace. It ap[)ears to depend par- ticularly on tlie (|uality of the, milk, thus in tlii^ autumn, when the milk is richer than iu the earlier part of the year, the pro- portion ro|»ortions of reniu '. lleviewing the results ob- tained at the various eheese sehools, it would ai)i)ear that the (|uantity cd' rennet does not vaiy so much between dift'eient sites as it will actually on one and the sanu> farm during the season. The practical cheese-maker must therefore be guided as to the quantity of rennet to use by the time which it takes to set the curd, and must use such quantity only as will enable him to have a nicely firm curd, fit for cutting* 45 minutes after the rennet is added to the milk. Once having found out by experience the proportion to use, the rennet measure should be employed subsequently. If iusuftieient reniu't be emi)loyed, the curd is soft, and unless sufficient tinui be given to the curd to proj)erly set tliere will be u considerable loss of fat in tlie whey, as the eurd will not be sufficiently firm to hold it. If an excess of rennet be employed, then, when the scald is applied, the. curd is drawn together to(j rai)idly and the whey is expressed before it has had time to })er- form its i)ro])er function, namely, to enable the bacteria feeding on it to bring about ithe desired acidity within the eurd. An excess of rennet, by contracting the curd with too much force, nuiy also cause some of the fat to be pressed out of it and lost in the whey. This contraction takes jdace }noi(> rapidly tlie greivtej' the acidity of the milk before rennetiug. Hence, when the milk is very ri])(>, more than usual care should be taken not to emi)loy an excess of rennet. ( )n the other hand the use of too little rennet will cause the curd to retain too much nutisture, to be soft, and therefore to subsiMjuently develoj) acidity somewhat too raj)idly, or in excess. The iiirtuence of re^nnet on the time which the cheese takes to make is treated subse(|uent]y, p. I'-il. A better cheese is nmde where there is a small ))roj)orlion of rennet than where tlu>re is a large i)r(i])ortion. This conclusion lias been airivrd at aftei' careful observation, and direct cx]»eri- ment?. For examj)le, a cheese made in August with the lowest DeSCRU-JION of HkcoKDKI) OUSEIIVATIONS. |(>5 nil -d witli onv madt. tluri. ,luy,s j.ii.vio.islv, tor which ihc ugliest i.ropoitioii of romu.t ha with a Jarorr i,i(.,,.„ti,.n „f ,,.nii(.t. So also a olu..,so ni^.],i.m\nn- mad. wili; in th,. n.ak ' of ill .-ho,. .-s oT of h; -ason for ol.tainin,- Ih.i,. opinions. Th.... ..an h ;"" .."! nt nutriment for their existence. Hen .fit neces- sary not only to insure that the rennet us..d is pur^s but to W. tin a place wh.n-.; and in such a mann,.r that it is"n. lable to become eontaminated. I have foun.l a bottle wifl. , a Vnt tZ^ZV" "'": "^'^ ^^-'^ «terilis..d milk an ad^iliraWe itceptatle tor the renn..t ..mploycd m the dairy. 106 InvkstutATions into (Ihkddar Ciikksk M/.KtN(;. The Effect of a HUjfi Heald. lu order to determine the ett'ect ot a liigher temperature for scald than that adopted in the Cannon system, it has been necessary to make i ertain experiments. In the hrst experiment the milk was treated exactly tiie same as usual up to the time of the first scald, i'or the second scald it was raised to u temperature of 95° F. Tin- acidity ot the mixed milk was "23 per cent. The acidity of the whey after first scald Avas "IT, and at the commencement of the second scald '175. It rose vt-ry slowly, and had not reached the de- sired amount until 12. (i p.m., having' been in scald 2 hours 8.') minutes. The (juantity of fat in the whey was veiy ;j;reat, due to the long stirrinjy in scald. When the whey was first drawn it showed an acidity of '2;") per cent., but when the whole had been drawn it showed an acidity of "27, pioviup^ that the formation of acid had been going on within the curd, and had not shown itself in the whey. This is confirmed by the acidity of the drainings from the piled cxxrd and the rapid development of acidity afterwards. The curd was vatted at 4.49 p.m., was very dry (as shown by the small loss in press !»s well as by analysis), and lost considerably in the cheese-room. Hence heat produces a contraction of the curd simihir to that produced by acid.* Where a high tempeiature is used in the secimd scald, tlu' develo])mont of acidity in the curd must take place after that curd has been removed fiom the whey, and not while in the Avhey as is permissible with a lower scald tem- perature. The above and other experiments have shown that when a high scald is employed, the curd is so contrat^ted by heat that the acidity subseciuently d(>veloped in the curd is not recog- nisable in the whey. In the next experiment the cui'd was scalded to fOU° L\ in two scalds. ""(Vhen the second scald was on, the whey showed •18 per cent, of acidity. The curd was stirred in scald for five minutes, and then allowed to rest for thii-ty minutes. The acidity of the whey stamling on c rd was '20. The acndity of ** The following Hgurew alt'ord ii strikiiis: pmol' (>( tlii.s luci ; — Tem{i. uf Scald. Time i)i Sciilrl. Aoiility of Dminiii}!;'^. Piled Curd. Moisturt" in Curd. August 14 V 15 90° 101"^ h. ui. 1 50 U) •88 •Hs 47-45 107 the up J)KSCKIJ'TI0N 01- HeCOKDKD OlISKUVATIOXS. the whey when drawn was -'Z'i. But the drainings from piled curd showed a high acidity. The curd was broken u,, and spread un rack lu cooler covered with a cloth, and no weight put on. The drainings came away pretty freely, and the curd held together well. There was rather a small weight of cheese, but it was a good cheese. It is thus evident that with a high scald it would be necessary to conii)letely alter the system of manufacture. The analysis of the whey ])roved that 'there was no increase in the amount of fat due to the high s(;ald, evi- dently because stirring in the whey had not been adoi)ted. The rise in acridity had been so rapid, and had gone so far, in l>ievi()us experiments when a high scald was used, that to pre- vent it no sour whey was employed for the next (experiment. I he scald was raised to 100° F. as rapidly as possible, l)einir hrst raise.l to 89° b\, and then t<» 100° F. Stirring lasted for live minutes only, and the curd was then allowed to s(!ttie and remain in scald for twenty-hve minutes. The whey, when stir- ring was fiiiished, show(>d acidity -17 per cent., and when drawn it was still It. So far, the object of making a cheese with hb^h scald and low acidity had been attained. The (.nird was ])iled for thirty-seven minutes before the whev commenced to droi), was then cut into (i-inch cubes, taken to cooler and laid out thereon. The aciditv of the first drainings was very slight. The curd was turned, albnved to remain one hour, and'agam turned, when the acidity of drainings was •4".>. It was late in the even- ing before the acidity of the drainings was sufficient to justify vatting the curd. anveloi)nient of iii'ulity in the curd. Following this line of argument, anotliei' Kx]n"rimental Cheese was made to determine wlu^her, if the subsetpient development of acidity in the curd weiv ensured, the cheese wfuild be of good qualily. The curd was scalded as (juieklv as possible to 101° F., stirred for five minutes, allowed to settle for twenty minutes,' and the whey drawn. When taken from the tub, the curd was rut into blocks, spread out on ihe rack in cooler, covered with a cloth, and. whHc the drainings were still low in acidity, the r 108 iNVKStlGA'riONS INTO ClIEDDAU ClIEKSK MaKING. ii Ifl f I curd WHH j^iound, salted, and spread out to cool. It took 2^ hours to cool, during wliich time the acidity rose rapidly, so that the liquid from ])res,s was more acid than usual. This turned out to be an " excellent cheese." Thus it is evident that whether we obtain contraction of the cuid in the whey by heat or by acidity, we can produce an excellent cheese provided v.iavc be taken to obtain subsequently the juoper amount of acidity in tue cui'd before it is vatted. Tern jjci'/if art of f/ic Cind irhin \ ofteii. It is held by many cheese-makers thai it is not advisable to vat the curd at a higher temperature than 70° 1"\ In the Cannon system, however, temperatxire plays a secondary part to acidity, hence, as soon as sufficient acidity has been developed in the curd, this is vatted. The resiilt is that the curd will vary greatly in temperature. So far as can be judged by a careful examination of the records of observations, putting the curd away at a high temperature has not had the effect of producing a bad cheese ; some of the best cheeses have been the product of curd vatted at as high a temperature as 77°- 80° F. Moidure in Curd. The proportion of moistuie which is left in the curd when this is vatted is of considerable importance, as it will mateiially aft'ect the ripening of the cheese. If too much moisture be left in, the cheese will ripen too rapidly, while if there is not suffi- cient moisture, the cheese will not only be slow to ripen, but may become too dry and so deficient in quality. The average proportion of moisture left in the curd during the y(>ars 1891 to 1896 was 4r0(! per cent., which may thus be taken as the standard for Cheddar Clieese. By studying the figures in the Appendix (T ,ble 3), it will be seen how very nearly the average for each mouth and for each year a])proaches this standard. The moisture in the curd when taken from the tub to the cooler was estimated daily fnmi '.29th July to 19th August, 189''{, to determine what quantity of moisture was lost during the subsequent operations of cheese making. ITiese results show that the moisture at this stage varies some- what considerably as compared with the veiy slight fluctuations found in the curd when ground. Thus the results were: — Mdisinn ill Cdiil irhiii Inkat /mni Tub. Mitiimuin Maximum Mean 11 '45 pur coat. r)0'20 ,. Desoriptton of Recokdkd Obsk RVATIONS. 109 1 lie high proportion of moisture iu the cuid. which was .-•liaracteriHtK" ot the cheese maih' iu 1897 and aoai,, during the months of April, May, and June, or rather part of June, 1898 {see p. Id9), was, m all probability, due to tlu' iuHuenco of the abnormal in ilk, or of milk deficient in casein. Experimental cheeses were made with this milk, and on the same day the cheese was made as usual with the ordinary milk, from which* all the abnormal milk was kept out. The following results conclu- sively prove the effect of the abnormal milk on the moisture in the curd : — iHt Exp.— Curd from the iibiunmal milk fWl"t'''"^''r*'''- • , 44-90 per cent. l^urd iroiii the lemaiiuler of the milk contained water 4o.()() 2nd Exp.— Curd from ahnormal milk con- ' '" "' tuined water 44-80 Curd from the remainder of the milk " " contained Mater... . i^-mi • •• ... -t- ilU „ ,, These results leave no doubt as to the effect of the abnormal milk upon the moisture of the curd, and the considerable fall in the average moisture in the curd in the months of Jr'-/, August, September and October, after the cows yielding the abnormal milk had been disposed of, confirm this opinion.* But, at the same time, the observations show that this abnormal milk was not the sole cause of the high proportion of moisture in the curd. Whenever there was present in the milk a particular taint- u ^^\- 1.^* "^^^ ^"* *^^*^ vinegar taint was very closelv allied to It— -which caused the acidity to rise wyth' undue' rapidity, and necessitated the cmd being vatted much eailier tlian usual, then there way invariably a high i)roportiou of moisture in that curd It was, therefore, thought desirable to make svas made, the temperature of the second scald being 100° R Next day iho cheese was made v^-ith an ordinarv temperature for the second scald of 9r,o f.. and the following . In 1808, duruig April. May, and June, it wa.s 42-78, and durini; the remamuig months, 40-91, I ! 110 Invkstigations into Cheddar Cheese Making. cxuiuiued by Mr. Hill. In his opiuioii, that mado with a scald temperature of 100° l'\ was the best of the three and excellent, though it was not quite ripe, and did not cut fat. That made with the scald temperature of 10")° I', was more solid, very mild, and a good keeping cheese. These results arc;, in my opinion, most important. They show how largely the keeping (piality of a cheese depends \ipon the amount of moisture in th(^ curd, as well as upon the amount of acidity. I lliink, nuireover, they justify the conchision that on farms where the milk is I'ither deficient in acidity, |)oor in casein, liable («t yield a wet curd, (ir in produce a c\n\\ wliicli developes acidity with greater rapidity than is desirable, in facl. from any cause whalever. produces a very ra])i(l lipening clie(>se, a second scald tempera- ture of 100° V. is desiral)le. It is. however, necessaiy io point oiit that wIkmi a high scald is (>mployed the curd must subsequently be kept veil open, so that by the time the proper degree of acidity is obtained, the temjieraiture of the curd shall have fallen to nearly 70° F., in order that it may be fit to vat at once. An experiment was also made to bring about the contraction of the curd by the use of a larger pro])ortion of rennet, but the resulting cheese was inferior in quality. This confirmed the results obtained some years previously, as to the effect of an excess of rennet. The Com])os/twii of Milk. The (^ompositioi of the milk with which the cheese-maker has to deal affects, as will have been seen in this report, the propor- tion of rennet to be used, the acidity which may be ob^ivined in the whey before drawing off. and th(> acidity which should be present in the curd when this is taken to the cheese-room. Its influence on the proportion of rennet, and on the acidity of the whey when drawn, was most marked at Haselbury in 1895, as may be "seen ov considting the results for that year. The high percentage of fat in the milk, coupled with the comparatively low percentage of casein, necessitated a moie careful handling of the curd than usual. Consequently, it was found necessary to draw off the whey, and take the curd from the tub from 22 to 1^6 minutes sooner than had been customary in former years. Hence the acidity of the whey when drawn Avas always less than the acidity of the mixed milk. The influence of the composition of the milk on the acidity of the liquid from press is shown in the following table, which gives the average amount of fat in the milk, and the average amount of acid found in the liquid from press, for the three years 1893-4-5, and for three months of 1891: — D^:sca^l'T^o^ of KKatUDiii) Obskrvation.s. m C0.MI'AKIH0N of Actl)ITIK9!Uul FaT duiillg tllO YoiUH IStH aiul l8f»H-5. Locality. April ... Mav ... •Tune ... Jnlv AugiiHt September October Averitye .lveru;^ti I'ercciitagt! i Acidity of of Ful ill I Liquid froni Milk. I l>rf«i. 1803 18!I4 18^^ Biitleigh ... Mark ... Haselhiiiy 1 m\ l8iM 1 m, Biitleii/li... Mark ... HascHxirv 1 Hti;; i8;m BiitUdxlr .Maik ... HaxoHuiryt 1 8!i;i 18iU I8iir, Butidgli* Mark ^ ... Hasolburv' I8(i;i !8!)4 181):) 18111 181)3 1894 1895 1891 1893 1894 \m> 1891 Htitli'igli Mark ... Haselburyf Vallis ... Butleigh* Mark Haselburyf Vallis "... Butleigh* :\rark Haselburvt Yaliis ■..: 3'01i 3-29 .3-70 3-(),T 3-3.T .■i-39 3-((K 3'4(» M-ol 3-2(1 3.47 3-tiO 3-111 3-70 3-80 3-87 3-53 3-93 3-94 4-13 4-30 4-.39 4-55 4-75 1-08 l-Oo 1-11 1-02 I -OS 1-12 Tdl •99 l-()9 -89 1-02 1-12 -911 1-04 1-09 1-07 •94 1-02 -98 1-11 -95 104 1-08 1-22 • For first week in month only, f For first and third weeks in "month. t For first week only : during third week there was a taint in the milk which prevented proper acidity l)eing developed. ft is perfectly ovident from the preceding facts that the f^reater the knowledj^^e whicli a cheese maker can obtain as to the composition of the milk with which he has to deal, the better. Ijnfortunately, such knowledge is not easily obtained The most simple guide to the richness of the milk' is the weio-ht of eurd which is produced from one gallon of the milk. '^ The amount of fat can be approximatelv estimated by the creamo- meter, though more accurately by the Rabcock or'Gerber test^i- The determination of the acidity of the milk will also aflPord some indication of its fjuality. Th^FatofMUh. In all the estimations of fat this substance is isolated and weighed in little glass flasks. Experiments were made, first by 112 TwKSTfOATfOVS INT(t ('riKHnAH (Wfl'.l'.SK, MaK IN(i imxmff it witli hot wut.T, to (lissolvo oiil any acid solublf in wutor tliat mi^'lil ho present; but only u tiaoe could ever be found. Then the tut was treated with" alcohol, to dissolve out any acid soluble in alcohol, and the acidity of the solution was estiinated. In sonw years no solul)le acids were obtained, but in 1S!)(J, both in the tat of whey and in that of curd, an apprecial)le amount of acid substance was found. [ hav calculated the acidity present as oleic acid, and tlu> followin-.' table gives the average results obtain(>d from alx.ut ten detenuinations made each month in both whey and curd: — PERCENTACiK OK Ot.KIC AflO I.\ FaT lltOM WllKY .VND OlIMi. Whey. (.'uvd. May 4-10 June ;{()-74 8-84 July ... : M-2H (!-l)4 August Kl-IH 3- to Se{)teml}er 17-71» .'li')') Octol)or i;)'()8 :v\H Ihe results vary with each cheese in a somewhat remarkable manner, for which fact an explanation has yet to be sought. One experiment was made by determining the acidity or olei(i acid in the fat from a cheese "when ripe to compare it with that found in tlie same curd at the time of vatting. The results were as follows: — Per cent. Oleic acid. l-il8 On SeiJt. 7th, IP'.tij, in curd On Nov. L'oth, ill cheese On Jan. -^8th, 18!I7, ui ripe cheese ... _ Practically no change seems to be produced in the fat by ripening. I am unable to trace any relation between the acidities pro- duced during cheese-making and these oleic acid determinations, so that it would a])[»ear that the fat in the original milk varied in nature from day to day. In l(S9r), the fat which was coming from the ])ress was found to be not ordinary butter-fat, but a fat of exceptional proper- ties. It had the normal composition of butter-fat in most re- spects, but its melting jjoint was as low as 54° F., the solidifying point being 51° F. In another instance a sample of this fat showed solidifying |)oint (i(;° F., the fat in the whey butter from the same milk had a solidifying point of 79° F.. while the _av(U'ag(> melting point of biitter-fat is about 89° F. The question thus arises, does this fat form a regular consti- tuent of milk-fat? r^nfortunately, we know leally very little about the composi- tion of milk-fat. Most of the work which has been done has Dkscrii'tion of REcoRDKn Ohskevations. 113 b.H>n with buttiT. It (locH not a^p.-ar tlmt tins butter was made with HeparatHl m-am, i)robably it was not, ho that tlic fat in the skim milk and butter-milk, which at a h»w estimate wouhl re- present at least one-sixth of the whole, has apparently been entirely neglected Further, although it is evident that butter- tat eontains sev.-ral different fatty acids, and therefore .lift'er.nt tats, y.-t how tar these fats exist separately, or how far they exist as compounds, appears to be uncertain. The precedinlr results i)oiiit to the possibility of their .-xistinfr separately under certain conditums. Otherwise fats must at times be pre- sent in the milk which are not present at other times. The wlioli! subject IS one which recpiirc's further study. The. Ultimate Dhtrihution of the Constituents of the Milk. What becoines of the constituents of the milk during the manufacture of a cheese? Take th,. ii^Mires for July, 1895. Ihe averaoo volume of milk upon the days on which analyses were made amounted to 14:{ oall„„H, which would weiyh ]'A7:] pounds. Ihis milk nmtaine.l 12(i.S p.,- cent, of s.did niatter, 01- an average daily anumnt of ISOwT pounds of srdids IJy a simple calculation, it AviU be found that of this only I)0'>1 pounds are recovered in the curd, while O-tOS pounds i)as,s etf in the whey, and a ^S j,„unds are lost in the licpiids from the coider and press Hence, in the process of ch,.cse-makinf,^ less than halt the total solids of the milk are recovered in the cheese 1 erhap.s it is not b(.side the mark to ask whether sufftoient at- tention has y(>t been f^iven to the other half? The total weight of casein in the milk amounted to about -'iO pound.s i)er diem, while the solids in the curd, deducting the fat and mineral matter, amounted to about 40 i)ounds, showing that the curd contained about one ])ound of sugar. The remainder of the sugar and (he albumin passed into the whev. Composition of Whey— The principal loss of constituents ia in the whey, the average composition of which for each month of every year will be found in the Appendix (Table 3.) The average composition for the whole i)eriod is solids 7-04 fat •;{2, mineral matter -50. The principal constituent of the solids IS sugar. The results of 20 analyses show the avera.ve percentage of albumin in whey to be -50, and to vary from -^58 'to The following analyses of the whey, taken during the various stages of the manufacture of a che(>se, are interesting, as .vivino- some idea of ithe chemical changes which are takino' place Thev imlicate also the stages in the manufacture when fat is most likely to be lost: — 1468 H 114 iNVKSTKiATtONS INTO ClIKDDAa ClIKKSK MaKINQ. FardvntiiK* cii Whoy boforc! breakinj^... Whey after breaking ... Whey when drawn DraiiiingH from pili 1 Curd Wliey fr.im Curd taken to ODoh^r Whoy after Ist cutting Wlioy after 2nd cuUing Whey after 1st turning Drainings from press ... AuKiulbth, l»:. 7-(i7 7-78 7-.H1 7-9fi 1.T4H -20 -.-15 •27 •07 1-07 1-12 •!l"> -91 -78 HuBar, AlT.u- ntin, Ao. 6 00 l>'12 (5-13 r>-r,] r,T.6 r.-.-..f) !i-78 Alb. ■64 •Bl ■S3 •f)B ■ Mr. 1.47 s^yot • This result is probalily too high, as the Curd was allowed to settle before the sample was taken, and probably a portion of the fat hud risen to the •urfaoe duiing this time. t Mainly s;vlt. The above figures show how, with tho development of acidity, tlicre is a constant abstraction of the mineral matter from the curd, and that the chief loss of fat is during tho first and second cutting of the curd. Hence the necessity of caro in pci-forming this operation. I am inclined to think the above results throw some light up(m one or two questions of scientific and popular interest. First, we cannot possibly account for tlie uniform proportion of sugar and albumin in these liquids, and the irregular amounts of asii, without ccmiing to the conclusion that these bodies do not exist in the curd in a similar state. lliere is no reason to su])i)(>se ithat the sugar and albumin, which are in solution in th(> milk, have b(>en rendered insoluble by the ])rocesses of cheese-making. And there is good reason to believe that at least a poition of the lime in tho milk, if no other ash constituent, is in an insoluble form combined vnih the casein. If this is so, the above results are easily explained. The acid, as it is formed, combines with this lime, and with- draws it from the casein, forming calcium lactate. X.OSB of Pat in Chee8e-makln?.-To what extent the fat ori- gmally present in the milk is ordinarily lost durinjr the manu- facture of a cheese is well shown by the following figures: DKsrnri'TroN op RKconnKn Ojiskuvations. I15 Flit proHent in Weight of Kilt in pouiuln. AUKUHt fltil, 1892. Milk Oi.rd whfly ; ••; UraiiiiugH from cooler ... Total found ... Error of AnalysiH Fat in liquid from presH ... 3'J(;(; August 27th, 18U2. 3707 •12 3311 July, 18'J5. 39<)8 •32 30-(i() 214 •15 32'8U 63'UJ 48-51 3-t;i •90 5302 •22 •11 •0(i 18 Ilr/i^r^' ^T'^''""' ^\'V '^'""" "" "-^^'•Ptional amount of fat toss of rat In the Whey.-An al.iionual loss of fat in tho whey may be duo to oarol.ss hroakinj, of th. curd. AVlu-n not tion oi the mnK!"' '' " ^""''""•^' '^"" *" ^^'^' ^'^''""^^ -'"'P"- Wheneyer the proportion of casein iq the milk has been small m proportion to the fat there has be< n a loss of fat froni X curd. Sometimes this c>ss is in the liqui.l from the press oni- tames j^ the whey, and in the latt^n- ease very little will be lo t .^,1. '' T."^ from press. Why is this? If the aridity de- vol pes with a fair degree of rapidity, so that the acidity of the whty wlum drawn is hijrh compared with the originaf acidity of the milk, contraction of the curd will liave taken place while n the whev, and so the fat it was unable to retain would have been expelfed in the whey. On the other hand, if the whey is fit ISll T, ' u ^/^"t?^t^™ "*' tl»' <'^n-d has taken place, the fat will be expelled subsequently when the curd is ubmitted to pressure in the vat. The loss of fat in the whey due to a soft condition of the curd, iSr^and 1898™'^ ''^'"" '"^ *^'' """'' '^"'' '^'^^ illustrated in Throughout the season of 1898, the curd was soft, and, in spite of every precaution and the greatest care, the amount of yl;^xcep??89T'''' ^^ ' ''""' '' ^""^ ^"'" ^" ""^ P^^^'^«"« American Curd Knlvea.-These results induced Miss Uinnou to obtain some American curd knives, with which to cut the curd, and exi)eriments were made to test the relative merits fii > I* 1 116 Investigations into Cueddae Cheese Making. of the curd knives as against the breaker. Tlv^ results of two consecutive tests were as follows : — American knives used by a pupil, fat in wliey -27 per cent. Breaker used by the same pupil, fat in whey '44 ,, From time to time tlu; whey was analvsed when the breaker had been used, and a<^ain when the American knives had bei>n used, and always with the result that much less fat was i)resent in the whey when the American knives were employed. If ^liss Cannon had always used the breaker, less fat would, no doubt, have been present in Ihe whey than was found on the averafje, but the ])U})ils have to make the cheese, and in their first efforts at using- the breaker they naturally cause more fat to pass into the whey than an experienced cheese-maker wcmld, especially if the curd is soft and diiticult to cut without loss of fat. These results evidently point to the fact that the American curd knives are instruments which might be introduced into Cheddar Cheese dairies with advantage. They are mostly employed where oblong tubs are used for the cheese-making, but can be easily used in the circidar tubs. Conuiu^neing at the side of the tub, the curd is cut once round in a spiral form to the centre with the vertical knives, and similarly once with the horizontal knives. No attem])t is made to cut the curd into small cubes. The subsequent breaking of the curd is carried out with the breaker in the usual manner. These ex])eriments conclusively prove, that to ensure the minimum loss of fat the breaker should be as cheese had no relation to the acidity of the lifjuid fi-om press. Thus on the 15tli of April the acidity of liquid from press was 1-09, and fat came (mt of press as usual; on the 17th, the acidity was only 1-03, and "more fat than usual came out"; on the 19th, the acidity was 1-24, and " much less fat came out." On examining the record of temperature, it Avas found that to a certain extent the amount of fat was influenced by this, for the higher the teni])erature at which the cheese was vatted the greater the amount of fat from the press. Some experiments were made in which the curd was allowed to cool before it was vatted. Tlii^ result was satisfactory. Far l(>ss fat then came out. Henc(> it is evident that where there is a tendency for fat to come out in the press, it is necessary to allow the curd to cool to 70° Fahr. b(>fore vatting. It must "not, however, be forgotten that by opening' u]) the curd, and allow- ing it to cool after grinding, the acidity will increase consider- ably. This accounts for the high acidity on the 19th of A])ril jireviously mentioned. But ni'ither tlie acidity nor yet the tein])erature of the curd were the main causes of this loss of fat, for it had no fixed relation to either. The artificial food of the cows was changed once or twice, but without any noticeable effect, the fat continuing to come out in the press as before. Hence it did not ap])ear to be due in any way to the food on which the cows were fed. Without any apparent cause it suddenly ceased on the L'Jth of May, after which date it never occurred, although both the aci- dity of the liquid from the press and the temperature of the curd when in vat were subsequently as high, in fact higher, than when the loss of fat occurred. On the same day, l-'Uh May, the milk rose from 154 to 194 gallons, simultaneously with the intro- duction of eleven more cows into the herd. This causi'd me to study the effect which these cows had ])roduced upon the milk. I found that during the period preceding this, iha averaffe 118 Investigations into Cheddar Cheese Making. composition of the milk was fat •'{•(!() per cent., casein 2U per cent., ami tliat in the week immediately following the introduc- tion of these cows the fat fell to 3-m per cent., while the casein ro.se to 2-58 per cent. At first sight this does not a])pear to be a great dilierence, but the dift'erence is better appreciated bv cal- culating the amount of casein present for each pound of fat. It will then be seen that up to the llJth of Mav, for each pound of lat present in the milk, there was only •()() pound of casein pre- sent, while, after that date, for eacli ])ound of fat there was present -ll pound of casein, which therefore would be far better able to retain the fat in the cheese. Mineral Matter.— The total mineral matter in the milk and all the products therefrom has been estimated, and the results obtained are given in the following table : — Mineral Matter in Milk and all its Products. Subst; ance on Milk 22nd September, 1897. Whey .Tn liquid from curd After taki ig to cooler Ist cutting ... 2nd „ 1st turning ... ^ „ 2nd „ In curd Weight. Percentage of Ash. Weight of Miner.il Matter. lbs. '898 792-0 T-O 1-5 I-.') 1-0 10 94-0 898-0 •(58 •oG '•80 •98 124 142 1-58 2^00 lbs. G-10() 4435 •05(> •014 •018 •014 •015 i-m) 6-432 Ihat the total mineral matter found in all the products is greater than that present in the milk is probably due to the error of analysis, and the oxygen and carbonic acid combined with ithe constituents. The time in Milk, Curd, Ac.-The mineral constituent ^n milk which plays the most important part in the manufacture of a cheese is lime. In the following table will be found the total quantity of lime i)resent in the milk on three days, and how this lime was subsequently distributed over the vai-ions i)roducts of the cheese. It will be noticed that about one-half of the lime in the milk remains in the curd, the remainder being lost m the Avhey, and other liquids draining from the curd. "" The lime in the curd has been estimated on twenty-nine occasions, and the results show that the curd contains on an average 1-08 pel cent, of lime (CaO). Description of Hecohded Observations. 119 Lime in Mri.K and all the PunnucTB tiiekkkkom. Substance on Weight. Percentiiye of Lime. (CaO.) Milk 7th May, 1897 Whey Ourd ; ."." Draininys after taking to cooler (I ,, 1st cutting )) ), 1st turning ») )» -nd „ 11)8. l,'J4!l 1,110 122 lOi 2 1 1 •224 •095 M7() •235 •3(54 •481 •594 •(]60 Milk 20th July, 1897. Whey Curd [\[ ■;; Drainings after taking to cooler )) II 1st cutting ., 2nd 11 .. 1st turninj' 1,000 •2128 895 95 H H 1 1 •101 r064 •325 •392 •537 •G05 Milk 22nd September, 1897. Whey Curd .'.'■ ;;; Drainings after taking to cooler II .1 1st cutting ') )) "-^Jid „ )> 11 Ist turning )) 11 ^nd H98 792 94 7 n U 1 1 •224 Weight of Lime. (CaO.) lbs. 2-79 r054 1435 •025 •009 •0(»9 ■OOC) •00(5 2^544 •128 •904 1011 ■021 •000 •005 •006 V%3 2011 •129 ro2i rotu 1-000 •215 •015 •308 •004 •408 •000 •52() •005 •004 •000 ... 2-0.57 Ihe second fact illustrated by this table is that as the acidity o± the liquid draminj^- from the curd increases, from the whey onward, the ])ercentage of lime present in the liquid also in- creases, provnif.' that the increasino' acidity is drawino- this hme away from the curd. "Jhis view is supported bv'' com- jmrmg the percentage of lime in the curd with the acidity of the liquid from press. Taking into acctmnt a number of exam])les, it is found that the bifjher the percentao-e of lactic acid developed in the curd, the smaller the proportion of lime which is left in that curd. These results, hoAvever, are com- plicated by the fact that the percentage of lim(> originallv pre- * — ^'jp*' 120 Investigations into Cheddar Cheese Making. sent in the milk is not a constant factor. Tt would thus aj)- ])ear that the lime is in some way connected with the curd, as chemists say, " combined " with it. Hence the diffc rence between freshly coa<>ulated curd and curd when vatted must be very considerable ; the former mi^ht be described as a comi)ound of lime and casein, the latter will be deficient in .dine, and so there may be in it free casein. But this chanf>e will not be limited to the time which elai ses between the curdlinj)' of the milk and the vatting of the curd. It will also proceed during- the rii)eniiif? of the cheese; and may pro- bably be the chief chemical chanj^e which takes place during rijieninf*". The calcium lactate so formed in the cheese would su])])ly an admirable food for bacteria, one which would more easily explain the formation of the chemical compounds u])(m which aroma and flavour depend than does the more complex substance casein. There is another interestinji' and ]iossible deduction. It is certain that the acid in the human stomach would be even more ca])able of wiihdrawinfj this lime from curd than the lactic acid l)roduced during the manufacture and ripening of the cheese. But anything that tends to neutralise the acidity of the stomach t(>nds to produce indigestion. May there not be then a good chemical exi)lanati()n of the ])opular belief that new cheese is indigestibl(>? I think this suggestion worthy ccmsideration. Moreover, if it contain a truth, may it not account in some way for the diminished favour with which cheese is looked upon as a food by the working man, he being able to obtain only cheese which is almost new, and this opens u]) onc(> more the ecimomi- cal question as to the advantages of the early ripening methods of chees(^ manufacture. Xilquld from Press.— Comi)lete analyses were made of six samples of this liquid taken at different periods. The average of the six analvses is as follows : — Water Fat Lactic Acid Albumin Sugar Mineral matter (mainly salt)... 8-2-23 348 •99 ■70 3-38 9-ir. 17-77 100-00 The percentages of lactic acid, of albumin, and of mineral matter fluctuate but slightly. The percentage of fat is liable to greater fluctuation, while that of ugar is the most irregular. Summary.— Summarising these lesults, we find that of the total solids present in milk one-half is lost in cheese-making. The curd retains the whole of the casein, most of the fat, about one-third of the mineral matter and a very small quantity of sugar. The remainder of the sugar and mineral matter, as also the albumin, v^ss off in the whey and other drainings from the curd. Description of Recorded Observations. 121 The Time tohich is Required to Make a Cheese. The principal fault to bo found with the method of manu- facture adopted at the School is the uncertainty, and sometimes great length, of the time required to make the cheese. Prac- tical cheese-makers appear to be totally unable to explain why the time before the curd is fit for vatting varies so greatly. It is evident that it would be a great advantage if the curd could be vatted by 4 p.m., which frequently happens without any loss of quality; for some of the best cheeses made have been vatted earlier than this, but at times the curd has not been vatted until 10.17 p.m., and even then the acidity of the last drainings has only reached -87 per cent, of lactic acid. I have therefore paid considerable attention to this question, and find many causes which undoubtedly operate to this end. 1. Tlie time will depend partly upon the number of bacteria originally jjresent in the milk, ' especially the evening's milk (see p. 159). This, at present, the cheese-maker cannot alto- gether control though he can do so to a large extent by proper treatment, i.e., keeping the evening's milk warm. The use of stale whey is mainly to increase the number of bacteria, and con- sequently we find that when no stale whey is used, owing to a taint in the previous day's cheese, the cheeses take longer in making. Frequently, although no stale Avhey was used, the curd was vatted early. The explanation is that the acidity of the evening's milk had sufficiently risen by the morning' be- cause it had been kept warm. Iii other words, the growth of the bacteria present in the evening's milk had been promoted and kept up during the night, so that the number present in the morning in the mixed milk was probably greater than when, under ordinary conditions, stale whey was employed. 2. The quantity, or rather the proportion of rennet used, will, for reasons already mentioned, considerably affect the time of vatting. This is well shown in the followino- table : — Infldence of Rennet on time of Vatting. High Proportion of Rennet. Low Proportion of Rennet. Date. Time of Vatting. Date. Time of Vatting. P.M. P.M. August 11 h.Uh August 14 4.10 „ 4 6.10 „ 10 3.30 „ 8 8.30 „ 18 3.15 September 26 5.45 September 12 3.35 1 3.5 11 2.58 23 5.15 13 3.25 October 24 7.5 October 16 5.50 „ 7 ... ... ... 7.0 15 5.45 „ 8 6.30 V 22 Average time „. 7.20 Average time 6.9 4.39 li7r In 122 Investigations into Ciikddar Ciiekse Making. It will thus be .seen that the average daily gain in time by- using the smaller proportion of rennet was 1 hour 30 niiniites. 3. The (levi'lopnient of sufficient acidity in the whey during the second scald, prior to drawing the wliey off, exercises con- siderable effect upon the time when tlie curd will be fit to grind. If the acidity of the whey when drawn in less than that of the mixed milk before renneting, the subsequent development of acidity in the curd will be slow, so that the curd will not be vatted until late, while if the acidity developed in the whey before drawing off be high, compared with that of the mixed milk, the time of vatting will be earl^' The following instances will illut . .: '.^se facts: — Date. 1 Aoia in Acid in Milk. Whey. Time of Vattinjr. August 23 „ 21 September 20 19 October 20 ... „ 2G per cent. •24 •2.1 •22 •23 •21 •21 per cent. •2G •22 •25 •19 •24 •20 P.M. 2.50 5..30 3.38 7.55 6.20 8.55 As these results were obtained solely in the autumn it was deemed desirable to see whether the same principle was true in the early months of the yenr. The following table shows the results in the month of May of six early and six late vatted cheeses. Influence of Acidity of Whey on Time of Vattino. Date. Acidity in Jlilk. Aoiditv in Wliey. 'limoof Vat ting. Date. Aeirtitv in Milk. Acidity in Whey. Time of Vatting'. May 6 „ 18 ... „ 21 ... „ 19 ... „ 15 ... „ 12 ... •21 •22 •22 ■21 •22 •22 •25 •20 ■21 •20 •19 •22 P.M. 4.10 4.40 5.0 5.15 5.25 5.30 5.0 May 17 ... „ 10 ... „ 13 ... „ 5 ... ,. 24 ... ., 22 ... Average •23 •22 •23 •21 •24 •24 •17 •19 •18 •18 •19 •20 P.M. 10.0 9.57 9.B0 9.50 9.45 9.35 Average •21 •21 •23 •19 1 9.50 1 Besides the saving in time and trouble, there is a distinct advantage gained by so working as to ensure a fairly rapid development of acidity in the curd. During the early part of the cheese-making season there is frecjuentfy considerable difHculty in obtaining this acidity in the whey before drawing off. In such cases it is not desirable to keep 'tte curd stirred during the whole period, but when it P.M. 2.50 5.30 3.38 7.55 6.20 8.55 tv Time of ey. Vatting'. P.M. J l(».0 ) »..-)7 < 9.B0 i 9.50 ) ;).I5 J o.au ) 9.50 1 „. Dksckh'tion 01" Rkcohdkd Observations. 133 has been brought to a sufficieut state of division, and is fairly solid, It should b(! allowed to settle and left in the whey for such period as may be necessary. In the month of May, 1892, there was much difficulty in getting the curd sufficiently ripe for vatting before a late hour in the evening, and an experiment was made to determine whether it were pos.sible to develop sufficient acidity in the whey dunng second scald prior to drawing off the whey to ensure an early cheese. The acidity of the mixed milk was ^-'J ; after cutting, -15; before breaking, -16; after firet scald, '17; at commencement of second scald, -175. The scald commenced at 9.40 a.m., and the second scald was in at 10.20, and then a most tedious operation was gone through in order to fulfil (the conditions of the ex- periment, and obtain in the whey, before drawn, sufficient acidity. The acidity of the whey rose most slowly, taking about twenty minutes for a rise of -Ol per cent., so that it was not until 12 o'clock that the whey showed the desired acidity of '24 per cent. ; then the curd was 'allowed to settle, the time in scald having occupied 2 hours and 35 minutes. Xevertheless, from that moment the acidity progressed rapidly, and consequently, in spite of this long and tedious process in the morning, the curd was fit to grind at 5.;j5 p.m. Only six cheeses during the month had been vatted at an earlier hour. Thc'f. are occasionally instances in which the curd has been slow u, develop the necessary acidity, even though the whey has been slightly more acid than the milk. These exceptions are, I think, explained i)artly by the first cause mentioned— namely, a want of bacteria in the milk to start with— and partly by the second cause— the quantity of rennet used. Should, by accident, the whey be drawn before sufficient acidity IS developed, the curd should be allowed to remain piled longer than usual, for now, when it is warmer (than it will be at any subsequent stage, the formation of lactic acid will take place most rapidly. The rapidity with wliich the formaticm of acid takes place at this stage is well shown by the following figures, though the curd only remained piled 17 minutes : Aciditv of whey when first drawn • 23 per ceni Towards the end of drawing (just before piling) -29 Liquid from curd when first piled -36 ',' After a short time -37 Final droppings '41 During the early years of these observations. Miss Cannon always tasted the whey which first came from the piled curd, and determined in this manner how long the curd should re- main piled, liut very few makers ])ossess sufficient delicacy of taste to form an accurate opinion on such basis. The use of the acidimeter now obviates this trust to taste. The addition of sour whey to the second scald would fail to 124 Investigations into Ciieddau Ciieksk Making. bring about the (Icsircd end ; tlio dcvolopniont of acidity is needed within the eurd, while siieh luhlilion wouhl promote the (h'velopment in the wliey and tend to harden the outside of the curd. 4. Tlie tenv])erature of the second scald has considerate in- fluence on the time which it takes to (d)tain the re(iuisite acidity, and hence on the time required to make the cheese. (8ee p. 10(i, The Effect of High Scald.) The Ripening of Curd. One of the original objects of the experiments was to discover, if j)ossible, what changes take place during the ripening of curd and its conversion into cheese. Everyone knows how very dilferent in texture and flavour newlj^-made curd is from ri])e cheese. There is every reason to su2)pose that the ripening of cheese depends ou the growth and chemical changes produced by bacteria. For it is well known that if a cheese is kept at a low temperature, such as retards the growth of bacteria, ripen- ing takes place slowly. On the other hand, when a cheese is kept at a higher temperature, more favourable to the growth of bacteria, ripening takes place rapidly. Hence the investi- gation divides itself into two parts — first, what bacteria an^ at work in the ripening of a cheese, and secondly, what chemical changes are brought about by their growth ? It is the second subject, nauu'ly, what chemical changes take place in the ripening of curd, which must now receive atteniton. Only those who have studied chemistry can at all ai)preciate the difficulties of such an investigation, and it is far from an easy task to clearly explain the work which has been done. (Jurd, when taken to the cheese-room, consists of water, fat, a small amount of milk sugar, lactic acid, albumin, and mineral matter (including the salt added to the curd), and lastly, " curd " itself, or the " casein " of the milk in a solid and insoluble forri. That all cheese when ripe has lost moisture and become dry was evident. Some workers said that the fat was increased, others denied this, while the changes which had taken place in the casein were but little understood. My first object was to devifse a method of analysis which might throw some light on the changes that had taken place. The ]n-imary question was, did the ripening of the cheese render the casein or anv other substance soluble in water ? The Com2>osition of Ripe Cheese. The difference in appearance between the white solid interior and the yellow semi-liquid exterior of a half-ripe Caniembcrt Cheese, affords a striking example of change due to ripeness, Dksceii'tion 01' Hecordki. Observations 125 and my ^ist oxjx.iiiTK-ntH wen- mado tlicrowith. As (lifficulties Wf-ro u>(. witli and overcouu', tlu> system of analysis was ex- tended and at last a definite system of examinaticm was drawn u}). Uwing to the small sample of cheese which can be ob- tained from a honnj.', and the minute amount of substances to be estimated, it was not always possible to carry out the com- plete Hiacme nor yet to check li^vars whidi seemed doubtful. In si)ite ot these drawbacks and the incompleteness of the re- sults, they throw some lij-ht upon the subject of ri])ening. llie analylical data are yiven in the table on paf,n! l:^(i Kor th(v information of those who may wish to apply this method of investij^ation to other che(>ses, I will briefly describe the process ado])ted. In order to obtain accurate results, the various de- terminations must be made with the utmost rapidity comi)atible with accuracy. The solutions undergo rapid change; after wJucii the results would be useless and misleading All the chc'imcal solutions and ai)i)aratus must be scrupulously accurate an(l tested sj)ecially before commencing work. Tlie sam])le of cheese is cut up on a i)orce]ain slab into minute tragments; these must be well mixed together and i)ortions taken lor each determination. As regards the first six esti- mations, the m(>thods by which these are made are well known No / is obtained by rubbing up I gramme in a mortar with water, and the acidity is estimated as ])reviously described for CT.rd. Tlie soluble constituents are estimated as follows: 5 grammes ot the samjde are taken, rubbed to a thin i)aste witli a little water in a ])orce am mortar, and then transferred to a graduated glass cylinder (stoppered), and the mixture made up to 104 cubic centimeters. This will yield 100 cubic centimeters of solution. After repeated shaJdngs, the mixture is allowed to r:tand until next morning, when it is filtered, and the determi- nations are immediately made in the filtered liquid. Tn these d(>terminations the acidity is first estimated as usual, the portion taken for this estimation being then evaporated to dryness for the solids. I find that unless precaution is taken to first neu- tralise the solution there is a loss during evaporation, No. 13 is estimated by Kjeldahl's method. No. 14 by distillation, after making slightly alkaline. No. 15 by titrating with standard sulphuric acid, usinj? metliyl orange as indicator. ° No. 16 by distilling the solution used for No. 15 estimation. After repeated investigations no fat has been found in the soluble constituents. Some of the nitrogenous constituents are soluble in ether after he sample has been dried. Tlius an attempt to estimate tlu _tat in the cheese by drpng with gypsum and then extracting with ether in a Soxhlct ajiparatus, has yielded abnormally hio-h tat results, while the estimation of the nitrogen in the extracted residue o-ives abnormally low casein (nitrogen) results 126 iNVESTIGATIOyS INTO OlIEDDAR ClIEESK MaKINO. I !l^ I i f I Ssf V §!;■ 13:5 «?5 S cS t S S r^ 55 i?i3 •n ^^ ^ IM M s '' o •-« ri^ : : ■ : a l-l O S9 O in in ■♦ « cc " s S O '-r O ffi t^ O »-^ i-H w 1.* fc e^ . « o M 1- r- O •* « «-» o c^i .V :ji I • .:, <1 4t -c to in m t- o ■* Os -^ en IN S ^ 35s§ 55 en to ■ OS ■ ■ : 1 n T^ fa to ««i m — 1 i-i 3> to en in m 00 00 o o en a 8 OS. « 6 fS?;" en m IM = CO ; : •«" • 1 Ek o CO <0 1(5 p-i 30 in in in 1 - -H rs 1^ H o M in ^ ao in n -x- 1' O o^ <0 M c C-. ot cniM S; " : ^ i-x : : -^ : • ; (a g "+7 ■< % o m m '$ § . ■♦en : : ■ ■ '• ! bo © M a o -1* 2=> o o o open 5 00 o § «e o -x m — -0 .« o^ cc a> -**< ^ ^H en > OS 1-1 05 i O b. (M M IM in —1 M l-H •''"■'.*■ : ■1- -0 M b. 1- in in in 1^ -^ '^ en ^^ o o o to « o pa o •• o O o^ < CO ) fx " ■ m IM (M ■ 00 • ■ «H © . o 0< c — m ic 00 1^ o t» IS t^ ? S s in .* (O r- x> f- tp -t> IM to -H C^l t4H (C3 °s. cr. o ec to o to r) en N (M F- 1 1^ r- M ■ .^ : • : fl ^ s a in in ff^ CO m in --K -r . , .2? . . 2 ;2 '^ -< ■ ■ en ■ as - .^ o a, a 1- rt O cc o; in « « n CT IM • : : • '.~ : : ■* in rH to s a OS . . : a> • .•— ■ ^ — • .2 : • : =0* : ra : 5 • ■ M ; . . ^ . H .1) . H M ^' : u : S : w : a .9 -3 1 13" 1 "s • • -^ -li •• 1 1 : : to • • a : : =4 .9 2 1 :| : a o .i 1 .§1 ^ 3 : is : • .s 08 ::2 & • « ; 1 .2 WS .3 1 ri IM M •* lO to r- 00 ■< I .3 1 bo a 0) s a> Oi 3 e DkSCRIPTION of EECOEDKn OUSKRVATIONS. 127 Let us now ttun to the results obtaiued. It is evident that, during ni„.ninf;, nraetically no Hiange takes place in the fat It IS not incivas,-,! in quant ily. and it is not rendered soluble. Ihe most nuuked ehanp. is ilie gradual increase in the amount ot Hohds renden.l soluble (No U), while this soluble matter is Bivn to consist mainly of nitrogenous substances (No. 13). Side by HKle with this change, w,. huv,. a ,.„„stant increase in both the acidity of tlu. chees,. and in the soluble acids, and it is highly i)n.lmbl.. that this increase in achlity is the primary' cause of the incivase in solubility of the nitrogenous matter. In other words, the principal factors in the ripening of cheese are the continued production of lactic acid, side by side with an increase in the solubility of the casein, or nitrogenous con.poun.ls. ] ut this is not all. As (he casein is remlered soluble, we hnd an incr.>ase in the amount of ammonia (No 1-1) and also of substances like ammonia, having a basic action (No 1.)). Ihere can be little doubt but that these substances are j)ro(lucts of the decomposition of casein, and, so far as mv experiments go at pr(>sent, the main ])orti(,n of the casein ap'- pear.s to have been converted into peptones. T haw not been able to hnd any soluble albumin. Now, if we examine the figures relating to the cheese of 22nd April, we shall find on 17th August, wlu-n the cheese had com- menced to g'o „|f, that, while the soluble acidity (No. 10) had not increa,sed since July, the actual acidity of th.> cheese (No. 7) had decreased, ihe formation of lactic" acid had ceased, and fermentation of the s(»luble constituents— in other wordJ de- coniposition-had set in. The germs of taint not vet destroyed in th,. curd but ai)paivntly kept in check by the ai^tivity of the actic acid bafilluH, so long as that organism was at woi'k, now, having the field clear, comnu^nced anew their evil influence. One other ;.oint in connection with the ripening of cheese was investigat(>d, namely, the effect of keeping a cheese for tweve monthr. The cheese of SeptemlxT 7th, 1890, was analysed for the third time on November 18th, 1897, and the resul s of the tluTe analyses, are given in the preceding table. It will be s.'en that the acidity of the cheese has increased, com- paratively speaking, but slightly. But the soluble consti- tuents hav(. very greatly increased, as also the soluble acidity Also there has been a considerable amount of butyric acid formed. -' Tlie very small quantities of butyric acid found in the other cheeses show that \}w conclusion at which I have arrived from a micros. 'opical examination of the cheeses is correct, and that the butync ferment plays practically no part in the ripeninj? of Cheddar Cheese. ® On the other hand, the very considerable increase in the per- centage of lactic acid in the cheese lemls additional proof to niv conclusion that it is the d(>veloi)ment of this acid which play's the most important part in the process of ripening. 198 Invkstigations into CiiKnnAR Oiikksk Making. On Bxoeaslvely Kapld mipenlnr Cheese.— 'Hip invpsti- gution into tho ripening of Cheddar (!hpp8P which had been conunenced in lH!)(i, was contintied in 1H'J7, a 8ami)le of the chee»o made at Long Ashton on 24th April being Hiibmitted to analysiH on ilhe 14th of June. It will be seen that then> has been a rapid de- velo|)ment of acidity, and nearly 11 per cent, of the curd ban become Holnble in water, ho that it already »howed signs of being nearly ripe, thcmgb not two mtrnths had elapsed since it was made. These figures greatly surprised me, and led to in- (luiries which subsequently resulted in my discovering that ]<\'nswood Farm bad been iiot(>d for nmkins (mickly-ripening cbeese. This result was confirmed on tlui 20t}i December, 1897, I then carefully tasted the cheeses of Auguhl, September, and October, and was 8uri)rised to find that the October chcf-ses were in ripe condition, and of good Hiivour. Tho September chees(>8 were in my opinion sligbtly overripe, and not of such good flavour, and the August clieeses had gone off considerably. Thus the experience of 1897 convinced me that the cheese made at Long Asliton was of excei)tionally rapid ripening (jiiality. This was due to tbe presence in the curd when vatted of a bigb percentage of moisture, and thi^ ].resence in tbe milk of taints which promoted both the ripening of tbe cheese, and its subsecjuent deterioration. One of the most striking ppculiaiities of this taint (the vinegar taint) was that it did not show itself in the curd during the early stages of ripening, so that anyone tasting the cheese might reasonably think it would improve upon keeping^ The Committee, however, had paid dearly for the lesson in 1897, and were not going to repeat it in 189S. Unfortunately the season of 1898 was greatly against the cheese made at Long Ashton, the great and continued beat caused the cheese to ripen even more rapidly than in an ordinary season, though every ])ossible means was taken to keep the cheese-room cool and well ven- tilated, an outlet for air beincr made in the roof, and an inlet in the door.* The question, however, arose— if the cheese does not show the taint until it is fully ripe, how can we determine when this ripeness has taken place? Here the results of my past experi- ments came to my help, and I considered that it was possible to determine the ripeness of the cheese with sufHcient accuracy for practical purposes bv means of the solubility of the curd and the percentage of soluble acid. Some of the members of the Committee were not prepared to accept this as a test of ripeness, but after fully discussing the subject, it was decided that this • A simple method was adopted which might be followed in most cheese dairies Six two-inch holes were bored in the bottom of the cheese-room door and a sliding shutter containing similar holos placed inHide, by meiins of Which the holes could either be left completely open, or partly or com- pletely closed at will. ! ;.' Dksckiption of UKrottDKo Obskrvations. 129 chprnical IfHt 8h(.ukl be adopted in 1898, and that the cliers. s Hhoiild be Hold when, in my opinion, they were fit for sale. The Chemical Te»t of Hlpeness.— Ah previously pointed out, il ii Hiiiuplc {') gniiimu.H) ot curd, taken imiii.MliiiicIv 1>> fm,. heinj; vaUed, be ground up in a nu)rtar with .')() cc. water, and mad.' up lo lot cc, and the Holution, after HtundiuL' for 'J ' bourH, b,. filtered, it will he found that a reitain amount of rurd IN Htduble and has puHsed into the water solution, as also a rei- tain amount (d' acid. As the eurd ripens, the proportion of solid \vlneli is soluble in water increases and also the pro|»or- tion of acid. I[<-nce, the amount of soluble nuitter, and of soluble acid may be looked upon as a test of the progress of npeninj;, in other words, of the ripeness of the cheese. It was deemed necessary in the first place to determine what results would be obtained by examining,' in this way curd as vatt(-d. Twenty-two samples' of curd, immediately after it was ^■round. were examined so as to give me a standard for the future, and the average results of these analyses were a> follows: Solids in newly made curd solnhle in water ... 474 |)fr cent. Acidity oi' newly made curd soluble in writer ... I 00 The percentage of soluble solids in eurd when ground vnrie'^ from .'VSn to H per cent., though this large amount is rarelv found. The soluble acidity is more constant, varying only from •Sn to l'2n per cent. Tt will be necessary to bear tbese facts in mind when considering the following table. This table gives the resuHs of the soluble solids and acid which were determined in a number of cheeses at different periods of ripening in lSf)S. A^'AI.vaI■,.^ OF (luKF-i: lo snow Soi.riu.K I'okstitiif.nts. PlltC 1 Xnmbcr nl' Woi'ks SohiliU' Solubli" Aoid Paic X'lmlicr or w.cks iilli'r when 'I't'stcd. SoIiiMc Soliil)! . Aiid wlicn niiiih' alter when Test I'd. Siilidx per c'l'nt. per I'cnt. (Ill lilClll'l. wiu'ii iiuulf. Solids per L'l'nf. per cell!. (IIM luetic >. April 1 1:.' 1 1-0(1 1-SO .Tunc Id 11 \:,-m 2(Mt !l 11 ll-Sil I'Sd .. 1(1 1(1 17'dO 24(» 1 .". S 1 •.>•()() 2'(i(i .. 2:) 10 lfi( 2 20 L'l; 7 U'liO 1 fid .. .'id s II'IO 1 CO .Tiilv !• l.S I. I' 2(1 2-40 ,.' Id i;< l.^.-2d 2'dd May r> 10 ].")-00 Mid .. 11 13 1.1-Sd 2()0 .. •> ir. 15'fiO 2-dO ., i:i 12 14(1(1 2-2(» 17 10 1.-20 r(i(i „ 17 11 i;!Sd 2'()o 17 11 1") (if) L'-dd .. 27 12 l.S-20 l-so .. 17 i.-> 17-.")0 2' 10 .. IS 1.-. KiOO 2-40 .\ii^r. (1 Id 14 dO 2-00 lit I.-. KWIO :i'4o .. 1(1 !l 1 in-so 2-20 „ 2.-) 8 14-00 I'Cid „ 2(1 s ; 12 DO 1-40 2."i i;i 15(1'! 2'dd S.'pt. 1 (1 12 lid 1-2(1 .Iiiiu' 7 ]•> ].")•:.'() 22(1 .. n •' 1 IS-ld 1-40 • > f 17 I7()0 : 2tld .. 21 1 10-eo 1 .00 1468 130 Investigations into Chkddak Cukkse Making. It will be seen from, these Hgures, first, tliat the proportion of soluble constituents and of soluble acid increases with the age of the cheese. The cheeses of May 5th and 17th, and of June 7th and IGth, show this well. Secondly, that this increase is not always the same for an equal period of ripening, which is probably due to the fact that the temperature at which the cheeses are kept is not constant throughout the season. This variation is well seen by compar- ing the cheeses of April 9th, May 5th and l7th, June 25th, and August 6th. Each of these was analysed at the end of ten weeks, and it will be seen that the August cheese ripened mosrt; slowly, the April cheese next, then the May cheese, and lastly the June cheese, which ripened most rapidly. The rapid ripening of the June cheese was mainly due to the great heat of August. There is one other point about these analyses which must be noticed, namely, that the soluble solids at times increase more rapidly than the soluble acid. This is very probably due to the initial solubility of the curd varying as already pointed out. The figiires which have been obtained are not perhaps suffi- ciently niimerous to justify taking the average resiilts as a permanent standard : the following, however, may be quoted : — Average Soluble Solids. Average Soluble Acid. Cheeses 8 weeks old or younger 13'2 1-57 Cheeses from It to 12 weeks old 14-7 1-'J5 Cheeses from 1.3 to IG weeks old 15-8 2-20 lu 1896 the soluble constituents in a cheese thirteen weeks old, which was of a very good quality and in perfect condi- tion, aniotuited to 14 • 80 per cent. I therefore decided to take this as my standard for tlu' April clu^eses, and to determine aa the season proceeded whether the standard required to be altered or not. How this worked out in praatice now remains to be related. On the 15th day of Jui^j analyses were made of two of the Aj)ril cheeses, and the results were so high tliat, in my opinion, it was desirable to at once take steps to sell them, for such ar- Dksckii'tion 01-' Rkcohded Obs SEilVATIONS. 131 rT2Thl' ^^f f fy t^^e time. The cheeses were sold on the 12th day ot July lor 50s. a cwt. In Mr. Hill's opinion tho se;":rbut*""^ "^";: ^;T ^'^^ ^ ^"^^^^^^^ unpleasant^flaZr t 1847 'nJ^ it ^^^^.«1« they we.e better than those made in to loin teen weeks old, were considered fully rii)e. X„w if we S';i"';.^ f'-'^^y^^'f 1^^^-'^ "1 the preceding? table, w.' shall hnd that the cheeses of the 4th and 9th April,^hen onlv eleveal and twelve weeks old respectively, showed nearly as much soluble matter as I had taken as my standard. Hence 1 felt no reason to alter this standard. On the 19th of July, the cheeses of 5th, 17th, and 25th of Alav were tested, and yielded the results seen in the table, p 129 In thereto?''''' '^^'''' ^* *'''" '^^''' ''"'^ ^^^ ^''^^^^^^ was informed As some of the Committee thought that the cheeses were beinjr placed on the market too soon, two of the May cheeses, viz., 18th and 19th, were kept back in order to determine whether by *'?''''^r Pi"8- tliey would improve or deteriorate. The rest of the May cheeses were not sold until the yOth day of August, and fetched 58s. per cwt. The cheeses had not been sold so promptly as I could have wished, and had already, in my opinion, commenced to deteriorate. On the Gth October, the buyer, when visiting the jmrchasers of these cheeses, was asked "V7 f "i- He informed me subsequently that he found them hot and stingy, and not worth nearly so much as he had given for them in August. The two May 'cheeses which were kept back were subsequently tested, and were not considered so ^ood as when the remainder were sold. One had kept fairly well but not the other. "^ ' Further proof of the deterioration of the cheeses by keeping is found in the prices which the first half of the June Cheeses fetched. On the 1st September, three of the June cheeses were analysed, and found to be fit for sale; but, from some cause or other, they were not sold until the 6th of October. The result was that they were over-ripe, and ov\j fetched 50s. per cwt. .Vfter this date, owing mainly to the elimination from the daily of the abnormal milk of the four cows previouslv referred to .n this Rei)ort, the cheeses were of a different character al- together and fetched for the remainder of June and the first half of July, 60s. per cwt. The analvses of the four July cheeses, 9 to l-'}, w(>re started the dav tiny were sold and the results again show that the standard of about 14-8 per cent of soluble solids was a fairly accurate indication of a ripe Cheddar Cheese. The second l-.alf of the July cheeses and those of August September, and October, were sold on the 14th December, and 1468 r 2 132 Investigations into Cheddar Cheese Making. fetched GOs. per cwt. On 17th November, the cheeses were tasted ; not one oi them was hot or stingy, and, though some were not of the finest flavour, yet they were a very considerable im])rovement on all the cheeses made prior to the 15th June. From the results of these investigations, I am inclined to think that the determination of the solid matter soluble in water and the acidity thereof afford a very fair indication of the ripe- ness of a Cheddar Cheese. And so far as can be jtidged from the results at present obtained, not more than 15 ])er cent, should be soluble, and the soluble acidity should amount to under 2"5 per cent. Summary of Results. — From the preceding investi- gations we get some slight idea as to the processes which are taking place during ripening, and their practical bearing is both interesting and important. So long as lactic acid is being developed in the curd, so long is the cheese ripening. When the maximum acidity has been attained, it then begins to gra- dually diminish, decomposition sets in, and the taints, or rather the bacteria of taints, which up to this ])eriod seem to have been compelled to lie dormant, now re-assert their sway. The process of ripening is followed by that of decay, the rapidity of which will de])end mainly upon the impurity of the original milk and curd. We also understand why it is that cheeses which, if examined during the period of ripening, are foxmd of fair quality, when kept over that period " go off," di- minish materially in value ; and become in time absolutely valueless. It cannot be too strongly impressed upon cheese-makers that a cheese, when ripe, is at its best, and from that time it begins to deteriorate. The Avarmer the room in which the cheese is kept, the more rajiid is both the ripening and the subsequent falling off. Thus it is that cheese made late in the season keeps better and longer than that made early. The early made cheese is ripening in a continually rising temperature ; the process of ripening is ther(>fore continually increasing in rapidity. The late made elieese ripens in a continually falling temperature, and therefore the process of ripening is week by week more and more checked. Hence it is that a cheese-room requires to be arti- ficially heated in the autumn or the cheeses will not properly ripen. The temperature of a cheese-ripening room should be iibout 65° F. The only jiossible means of checking the ripening of a cheese bej-ond a desii-able point is to at once place it in a low tem- ])erature. I am informed by Messrs. Douglas, who have had exceptional o])portuiiities of iiuicring what temperature is best, that, as the result of their experience, they recommend 40° F., and this temperature is one which would agree with the dictates Description of Recorded Observations. 133 of science, so far on we are at present able to judge. Still I have reason to thmk that even at this temperature certain changes will take place, though the subject is one which has not vet been thoroughly investigated. I merely mention it to warn cheese-makers that cheese could not be kept indefinitely even at this temperature. If a cheese has been made from exceptionally pure milk, the clianges which proceed in the cheese, after what may be termed complete ripeness has been reached, are such as will not ma- terially injure the cheese, and they will proceed comparatively slowly. But if any taint was in tlie milk when the cheese was made, then the clianges which take place after complete ripeness has been reached are more rapid and more destructive to the quality of the cheese. It is impossible to study these results without feeling that the question ot the rapid ripening of cheese and its consequent re- sults needs, indeed demands, serious consideration. Has not rapid npenmg been carried too far? While, on the one hand, it is not imperative to make a cheese that requires a twelve- month in which to ripen, is it desirable to make one which is npe three months after it is made, and commences to show signs of decomposition a month later, unless made under exceptional conditions or kept at a temperature which few cheese-makers can ensure. Composition of Ripe Cheeses.— A large number of the cheeses made each year have been analysed, and the average results obtained are collected in the followinsr itable : — AvKRian: Composition ov ('HKnn.vn Cheksk nniiixo 18'.»l-!)7. Made in Xnniber Analysed. Water. Fat. Casein, i;c. Mineral Matter. April ... 21 :{5-7r, 31 -51 28-71 4-(i3 May lit 35'71 30-8!) 29-30 4-;o June 25 35' 10 30-81 30-12 3-U7 July 20 34-68 31-23 30-18 3 90 Augu.st 21-) :?5-51 31-51 21) -05 393 September 2i) 35- 74 31-47 2S-SG 3-'.)3 October 27 HO'.-.'J 31-87 27-(!6 3-88 Average 175 35 '58 31-83 2i»-12 3-97 If I t'. ? 3 ■ 1 PI 134 Invkstigations into Cheddar Cheese Making. It thus appears that the average composition of ripe Cheddar Cheese is as follows: — Water. Fat, Casein. Mineral Matter. Sfi-SS 31-33 2912 . 3-97 It was for long maintained that in the ripening of cheese, fat was formed out of the curd. The analyses of many ripe cheeses have been compared from time to time with the analyses of the curd from which those cheeses have been produced, with the result that they afford no evidence that fat has been produced m the ripening of Cheddar Cheese. The amount of salt present in the cheeses varies, but as the mean of some analyses it appears to be about 2-70 per cent. The prices obtained for the cheeses which have been made during the course of these observations are shown in the follow- ing table: — Prices obtained for the Cheeses made during 18!)1-9m. Month. Shillings per Cwt. of 112 lbs. 1891. 1892. i 1S9.S. 1894.1 1895. April May June July August ... September October ... 54 (!5 66 66 66 66 c,r, 58 60 65 66 88 68 68 68 70 ) 68 70 : 68 70 , 68 I 1896. 1897.! 1898. 60 6.S 64 58 64 i 58 65 j 58 65 I 58 60 I 58 54 66 66 71 71 72 72 60 & 41/6 50 58 ( 50 ) 60 (60 \ 50 60 60 60 Description of Recoeded Observations. 135 "^ O I— I Eh m PQ o o CO P O PS W "^ O •pios nonAV oBMijo JO )ti;(!9w •SVOaJ Ut SH01 I to O "M -(• iM ■£ -M ! S! -I< CO C>) -< o Ot. 2xi-t 1-5 -ti X r- 1^ ■gX) -t< « Ol O 3i ^ juil Aon,\\ JO Ajipfoy ojojoq AotjAV JO •^1!P!''V r,i •pappmauusa g JO aot4,ioclo,tj ir^M ' S a ^ '-^ »f^ '-l •'t ec i^ n a '~ n -f 'O -<< IS -ti (S 35 C) » CO CC 30 !0 S c ■^' ■>! ■M 'M « m ■>! fL p ':^ *>! *>! c^i ^* cs ^i S "'^^HAV 9IWJS JO ^i»!P!OV •5l[itu JO aum|OA injoj, »5M *i^ 3 •Ajippv •oumioA. o H w o Eh o H «! •Xjipii'V ^ *~ ^ ^ -i M CO o =-. c-l o -K 7! O -+> -(< d 1— o f- g jj ^1 c-i c-i Ol c^t ■^| ~.| — "S oo o in 30 ! 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Introduction.— Bacteria ; Their xhape, wize, weight, I'ootl, .kc.— MioroHjopical Examination of Milk. \.o.— Inolation and Cultivation. —Counting Bacteria.— The Importance of IJacteria.— The Bacillus Acidi Lactici.— The Hacttrio- logical Examination of Cheo.ic.— Pure Cultures as Startlers.— The Organisms Injurious to Cheddar Cheese,— The Vinegar Taint. — Spongy or Holey (Jurd.— The Fii'cal Taint.— Puffing of Cheese.— Uopoy Milk Bacteria.- Mould in Cheese.— Oidium Lactis.— Yeasts.— Uennet.— The Variations in the kind of Bacteria found at Different Periods of the Year and at Different Sites. Introdnetory. It is well known that the chanj^es which take place in milk during its conversion into cheese are brought about by the action of what are usually called "ferments." The term fer- ment is now restricted to "a chemical substance, such as "dia- stase," which is the active principle in malt, or to rennet, and should not be applied to those living organisms or minute plants which are known as bacteria or organised ferments. These organised feiments probably do, in many instances, secrete a true feiinent, but there is no evidence to show that those with which the cheese-maker is concerned act in this manner. The principal organised ferments which the cheese- maker has to consider are " yeasts " and "bac^teria," and some- times " moulds." These organised ferments are present every- where ; they have various shapes, are only capable of growing under certain conditions, which vary with different individuals, while each seems to have a special power of inducing chemical change. MouldB.— These play so small a part in the manufacture of Cheddar Cheese that no discussion of them is necessary. The Veasta are characterised by their method of growth as they multiply by budding. They are mostly round or oval. Bacteria. The Bacteria are much smaller than the yeasts and of very different shapes, as shown in the following illustration (Fig, 7). They are all characterised by the fact that they mul- tiply by splitting in two. Each half then grows to a full size BACtEErOLOQICAI, OflSKRVATIONS. 141 •.:• •;•' ••i>'*^> /f^» f--"i j» S;^/ ^. m* i^^ \ji ?'to. 7.— Bacteria. Except A, all the other illustrations are ropreseutatioiis of e. Chains, composed of either short or long rods i>. Long threads, or Leptothrix. organism, and proceeds itself to split in two, and so produce two new organisms. Those bacteria which are in the shape of globes are termed cocci or micrococci ; when they grow almost invariably in pairs they are termed diplococci ; if four cocci grow together in the form of a 8(|uare they are termed tetrads ; while if these four are superimposed upon another similar four, so as to form a bundle of eight, they aie termed sarcina. When several grow in a 112 INVKSTUUT.ONS TNTO CuKODAE ( ^HKKSE MaKIKO. staphylococci. ^""'^ "^ ^""^ix'^ thoy are termoa of ?:n::in!.n:;!i:I ;;;;:;*:ir - ^^o- which take «. fonu f-quonth- also ..1^:^' ll^! I^i'" ^^^ 2 t '"'"^" ••"'"''^^' "^ wh. til. . th.. or^^an.sn. .s a coctus or bacillu,. .ion. however b"tweon 1 'n;iil%^'TV''-il"^ *'"•'"' *'- ^ivi- J{..t when the div .^'on doe not . •' '""-i^ ''"'"^''^ ^'^i^'^"- Krow into lon^. thr mis he dLi ".^"' "'^^'^ ""^* ^^^^ bacilli Kiven to these tlS Th t -n" '"' "^*^ "^ leptothrix is a..,l .ho bartiia „,r,ai,l t be ^p^kS"'""' " ™"'"' " ™P»'"". t..™.-,l comma blcim '' "* '"■'»" '*"»'«'". ""■•« are neSat l=s^.S;:^^!^]-^- with i. _ line about one-eiUth ff an neb it° """^ ^""^^^ f"™ « them it has been neo.- aiT to adnr^' ^^'-T' *'"^ measuring standard is the oneiSndth nl^ %'P'"'^n'^^"^^^^'^- This t.'rn,ed a micron. It is des^^natid wlb'" ^^"l^^.*''-' -"^^ i" If^tt^r " m." namely, '>." ""'''^"^^^^ V t^e Greek siprn for the thaTlftfo-ugh^:: lt^?r,f r'" P-uliarities of bacteria is consequently^inktoXl^t mV^na'^-i^^^ '^^^•^' r' peculiar chemical action there w/^ •?,''"'*' "^^''^^ »" their of the liquid. Just as ^ bt 1 1\ ]T '"-"^''^^y ^^an at the to,, the number of men at vor so the e^ •'''7' 'i*P^^^>' *'^^' ^'^'^'-tei is the more rapid the Zaier the n^.Tr"^ 7^'"'' "* '^'' ^^^t^"- This peouliariiy of si^kTng to th " boUom Tf "'^"^ '"■^"^"*- placmc, some lactic acid organisms in a testh.], ^^.P.^'^^^d by and, after thorough mixin-. W, il tbt / ' ^""tainmp: milk, suitable for thefr growth" and fL i ^"'"S^* "" temperature result was that the milk at the bottom ^JT <^^f '"'bance ; the a solid mass, while the m Ik at theln o^t/^^i!"^^^^'^ ^"^" quite liquid. Hence the practice of k^pJ- t *"^' ^^^ained well stirred has probably KmrtL^'C^l'^r''" '"^^^ . — u tseanng on tne thorough IlACTKUIOLOUlfAL UilSKKVATIONS, 143 riiu'iiing oi the uvouiug's milk, iu uddiUou to itu well-kuowu action ol kt'upiuy tlio tut tioiu rising. Food.- iJuctfriu aiv v fgctublob, uud liko ull vegetubles. re- (luir." both lumural uud cuibuuucuous food, lor their L'rowth they recimre not only nuitublo iood, but also Hullicient liuut und moisturo. It sullicnnt moisture bt; not i)rovidL-d, they dry up, but do not always lose th.-ir vitality, und may remuin for a con ' siderab tiiuo m this dried up condition, ca.mbie ut any n.onient ot startin^r uito m^ive growth when moisture is again provided. Ihe want of sutHcient heat has a similar ett'ect : with a decrease in temperature activity decreases, while as the heat approaches to that of the blood activity increases. This is why milk is kept cold to j,revent its getting sour, and kept warm to promote the development of acidity. In taking their food from any substance which they feed upon bacteria do not as a rule consume this substance, but only a very small portion thereof. In taking away this small portion, theV materially alter the substance and leave a residual material which 18 quite distinct from the original substance. Thus in feeding upon th< sugar of milk, tliey leave behind a substance which 18 known as lactic acid, other compounds beintr formed at the same time The old idea, still frequently met with in text-books, that they split up the molecule of milk sugar into two of lactic acid was a very pretty theory, but quite erroneous. Some bacteria require air, or more precisely, oxygen, to enable them to hve activel;^, and are termed " aerobic," others are only activ(^ when no air is present (anaerobic) while some are capable of growing under either condition, and arertermed "facultative " All these varieties are supposed to take an active part in the manufacture of Cheddar Cheese. Orowth. -The rapidity of the growth of different bacteria vanes greatly. Ihus, if several varieties be kept on the same food and at the same temperature, some will increase in numbers tar more rapid y than others. This is well seen in a plate cuHure (see p. 146), as each of the colonies formed is the result of the growth of one organism, and as all have been growin"- for the same time, it is very evident that those producing the farire colonies grow far more rapidly than those producing the small ci)lonies_. Now, the smaller circular or oval colonies are those of the lactic acid bacillus, while the larger colonies are produced by bacteria which are impurities, and ought not to be present And these investigations have proved beyond question what this plate culture admirably illustrates, that nearly all the bacteria which are injurious to Cheddar Cheese grow more rapidly than the lactic acid organism. Light, especially direct sunlight, is most detrimental, in fact destructive to many varieties of bacteria. i ill 144 iNVKSTUiATIONS INTO ClIKDDAR ClIEESK MaKINU. M icroscojneal Examination It will b." cvidiMit thai to stiKly orf,mnisina so minulo as the Dactciia special a])|)aratus is necessary. They can only be s(>oii jinder he liio;liesl powers of ilie inicroseo])e When magnified at. IrasI (.00 (lines, but for systematic study it is necessary to be ii(>l«' to study (hem iMa-nilied 1,000 times: This requires a L'oo.l «>ne-t.weltth inch objective, and a liifrh ])ower eye-i)ioce. Into (li.> method of usin... tlie imcroscoi)e for this work, I (h) not purpos(> to enter here. If it is (h>sired to study the bacteria alive under the micro- scopic so as to determiiK- whether they have the i)ower of movinff or not, this IS done in wliat is termed the " han-nnir droi. " a niimit^> (luantity of li,,uid in which the bacteria arc livimr „r liave b,>en placed for the iiurjiose of examination, beinff ''sus- p.'iided from the under side of a covpr-nables them to be far more easily seen A brief descniition of this method of examination may "not be out of place. Take, for example, a drop of milk. A minute portion of this milk is placed on a cover-f?lass, spread out as much as it can be by means of a ])latinum ne^-dle, and dried It IS then passed throufrh the flame of a spirit-lamp three tini(>s, by which it is raised to such a temperature as will solidifv all tho albumen in the liquid or rather in the dried layer. 'The cover-plass is next floated for two minutes on the surface of some aniline staiu contained in a watch j^lass. The bacteria will now absorb the siain, as will also to a certain extent the cas(>in of the milk. The cover-filass is taken out of the stain, and slightly washed in water, then dipped once or tAA-ice into alcolnd. and again washed in distilled Avater until no colour comes away. Tf now examined under the microscope it will be found that the bacteria are deeply stained, -while most of the stain has been washed out of the casein and albumen of the milk. Such is the most simple method of staining bacteria whether from a pure culture or in milk or whey. The microscopical ixamination r f the bacteria in cheese is somewhat more difficult, owing first to the presence of so much fat. and secondly to the ease with which th(> curd takes u]) any stain used, and thereby hides the bacteria. A method which I have found to give admirable results is the following : — A small portion fiom the interior of a cheese is taken up with a sterile platinum rod and rubbed down into a very fin(> layer on a cover glass. This is well dried, jiassed twice through tbe flame of a Bunsen burner or spirit-lamp, washed in a watch- glass, film downward, with ether, dried, and again passed 1U(!Tkri(»l()(jk;ai. ( hismiv axioms. 145 through tho Uuiiscn Hamo twice. Tho ether removes the fat without affecting the bacttriu. Next insert the cover-glass in the staining solution and stain veiy deeply. An alkaline so- lution of methylene blue gives good i-esults. Wash off the excess of stain, then insert tlie glass in a 2 per cent, solution of acetic acid B.P. until jad discolurised, and m mediately after- wards in a '6 per cent, solution of ammonia for a few seconds. Subsequently wash in distilled water. If successful, the bacteria will now be deeply stained on a colourless ground. If they are .not sufficiently stained, again place the glass in the stain for a minute or two. They will now take up sufficient stain, and as the casein has been ])artly removed by this treatment, if pro- perly conducted, the ground will be only slightly coloured. The best results are, liowever, obtained when tliis further treatment is not necessary. The same method may be adopted for the examination of milk, and has been found invaluable in these investigations. Stains. — The stains which I have found of most value are (a.) /ielil's earbol fuchsine solution. fb.) (jentian ov methylene violet. (('.) .Methylene blue. (d.) Hrunswiek b'owii, uiid watei- solutions methylene violet and blue for contrast staining. of fuchsine, Oram's Method.— This method of staining bacteria is so valuable as a means of distinguishing between different varie- ties that it is necessary to describe it as it will be frequently numtioned hereafter. Most of tlu^ aniline dyes are dissolved by alcohol. ]{ut certain bacteria have the ])ower of absorbing some of these dyes and presiimubly of alteiing them into com- pounds which, when tr ited with iodine, are rendered insoluble in alcohol. ]Jut these bacteria are t)nly capabb; of doing this M'ith certain dyes, such as, methylene or gentian violet. Tho cover-glass j)re])ai'ation of the bacteria is deeply stained with on(^ of these two dyes. This is best done if tin; stain be kept warm, by standing it on a water bath for 10 to 15 minutes. TIk! excess oi' stain is just washed off' in water which must be allowed to drain from ihe cover-glass, and this is next ])lacod in a solution p violet, and the milk bright red. Only certain bneteria are cajiable of retaining the stain when subjected to this treatment, and if a liquid is being examined containing both bacteria which retain the stain and others which do not, tlien the fonner will be stained deen violet, while the latter will be stained bright red by the fuchsine. 1468 K 146 Invksttgations into Chkddar Cheese Making. Isolation and Cultivation. Plate Culture.— When it is desired to isolate all tlie varie- ties of bacteria in a sample of milk, whey, or curd, the followinj^ method has to be adopted : a drop of the sample, if a liquid, or a small piece, if a solid, is taken with the greatest care on a sterile needle, and placed in some sterile salt solution, about 10 c.c. in a test-tube, to dilute it. Subsequently, a drop of this dilute solution is taken upon a sterile needle and placed in 10 c.c. beef broth gelatine, which for the time is kept at a tem- perature of 90° E., 80 that it is liquid. The inoculated liquid gelatine is tlien poured into a sterile fiat dish (Petri dish), placed on a level surface, and allowed to cool to the tempera- ture of the atmosphere. When cool, the gelatine becomes solid, and the micro-organisms which were contained in the substance ])laced in this gelatine are now fixed, so that they cannot move about. This " ])li(te culture " is placed in an incubator, and kept at a uniform temj)erature of 70° Y. Most micro-organisms are capable of living and multijdying in this gelatine, and each one rapidly increases in number until it has ])roduced so many that a little " colony " of tliese bacteria is formed which may be seen with the naked eye. The following is a reproduced photograph of such a plate (Fig. 8), showing the colonies and tlieir different iiif Fiii-. 8.— Pliit.j Ciiluii-e f Jiiictfriii. Wlien the plate has been kept in the incubator for or ten days, the colonies will be sufHciently large, microscope so characteristic — appearance. about seven and when examined under llu which niay be seen from tlie following illu'stration of four differ ent colonies (Fig [)) — as to enable the next step in th(>ir study to he taken. '\ Bactkeiologtc'al Odsekvations. 147 Yeast Liquefying Colony. 1468 StreptoooccuB. K 2 148 InVERTTOATTONS into ChKBDAR f'lIKKSI-. ^fAKINC. I Large colony, Taint-prortucing Bacillus. Snwll colony, Lactic Acid Bacillus. Fig. 9.— Colonies on a Plate under Microscope. Streak and Stab Cultures.— By means of a stei-ile needle, a minute quantity is removed from one of these colonies, and the needle drawn along- the surface (streak-culture) or thrust into (stab-culture) some nutritive gelatine contained in a test-tube. Here the bacteria will in the course of from seven to ten days have grown ^'> considerably as to form a more or less definite sti-eak of growth on or in the gelatine. Sliould the plate have several colonies, which from their appearance mav be con- sidered the growth of different organisms, then as *man\ cul- tures in test-tubes are made as there are ditferent colonies "on the plate. With due care each of these test-tube cultures will contain only one variety of bacteria, and in such case will be what is called a " pure culture." The reproduced photograph opposite, Fig. It), shows how diiferently various organisms grow in these test-tubes. A small portion i's taken from a pure culture and a slide made, so that the organisms mav be examined under the microscope. Subsequently, pure cultures are started from this first one in or upon other substances, more especially milk, beef broth, agar, &c. By carefully noting the aspect of the colony on the ])]ate, and 'of the growth in or on various sub- stances, one is able to compare the results with the work of other observers, and so find out whether the organism has been found^ before, and, if so, when and where. Meantime, each organism has to be indicated by a numlxn- in default of a name. Zilquefying- Org-aniBma.— The bacteria which are found on the plate Avill be of two distinct classes, sonui will yi-ow in or on the gelatine without liaving any visible effect upon it, while others will liquefy the gelatine. Those which liquefy the gela- tine when transplanted to some gelatine in a test-tube are always made into "stab cultures," i.e., the platinum rod on which the bacteria have been removed frdm the plate is thrust liACTERIOLOarCAL OBSERVATIONS. 149 into the gelatine. But those which do not liquefy the gelatine are always grown on the surface and these are termed " streak T "xFisf. 10.— Pure Cultures, cuHuros." The luetliod ol growth of the " stab cultures" varies greatly, and distinctive names are given to the various growths. Shake Cultures.— Tliese are made by inoculating 10 c.c. of gelatine in a test-tube ut a temperature of 90^, so that the gela- tine is liquid, shaking it well, so that the substance becomes spread throughout the gelatine, and cooling rapidly. The chief object of these shake cultures is to determine whether any gaa is pi'oduced by the bacteria. Milk Cultures.— For studying the effect of bacteria on milk, in the first instance, they are grown in 10 c.c. of sterile milk contained in a test-tube. I have found that separated milk is the best material for this purpose owing to the veiy small amount of fat wliich it contains. But as the process of separa- tinn causes most of the bacteria tn itass into the separated milk, and as this separated milk is generally at a high temperature when separation takes place, it is most desirable that it should 150 iNVKSTIOATrONS INTO (lUKDDAR (^HEESK MaKING, be cooled immediately, and that it should be most thorouply sterilised before being- used for piae cultures. XiitmuB Tinted Culture Media.— An attempt was made to differentiate between various bacteria by cultivatiufr them oi) gelatine whicli had been coloured blue with litmus. They were also grown in milk tinted witli litmus. The sub-cultures on gelatine containing litmus did not grow so well as those on ordinary gelatine, and I could discover no advantage in the use of litmus gelatine for distinguishing between the various kinds of bacteria. Prof. Coun, however, tells me that he has found lit- mus gelatine, when used for i)late cultures, of great value as an aid to distinguishing' the acid- producing bacteria. If, however, it is desired to ])hotograph the cultures, better photographs can in most cases be obtained when they are grown on litmus gela- tine than when grown upon th(> oi'dinary gelatine. There are a few exceptions to this, foi' sonic of the cultures absorb the blue colouring matter of the litiiniK, and are less distinct than ordinarih^ The cultivatioii of the bacteria in milk which has been slightly tinted blue with litmus is of far more value as a means of dis- tinguishing between different varieties. Aneeroblo Org-anisms. — For the study of the anierobic organisms, two methods have been adopted. The iirst was to in- oculate 10 c.c. of sterile milk, heat the milk gently so as to ex- clude all the air, and then cover with a layer of vaseline, which has been first sterilised, and then just melted and poured on the top of the milk. The second method has been to grow the bac- teria in gelatine containing 1 per cent, grape sugar. Ag'ar, Potato, and other MaterlalSn— Some of the organ- isms found have been cultivated upon these substances, for the method of pre])uung which the text-books on bacteriology must be consulted. Sometimes it has also been found necessary in place certain chemical sul)stances in the various media to de- termine the effect of these, or to su])ply special nutriment, which was not present in the ordinary gelatine or milk tubes. Other Methods of In vestlg-ation.— These depend partly upon special processes of staining, such as the staining of the flagella in the bacillus coli communis, also upon the production of definite chemical compounds, which are easily tested for, such as the formation of indol also by the bacillus coli communis. These and other methods will be found fully described in the most recent works on bacteriology. Counting- the Bacteria.- -In order to count the bscteria pre- sent in a sample of milk, whey, or curd, the following methods have been adopted. A definite quantity or weight of the milk, &c., has been diluted to a given bulk with sterile waiver or salt fiACTEKTOLOfilCAL OBSERVATIONS. 151 solution, and from a dctiniti' quantity of this solution a plate ciilture has been made. It is seldom thiit all the cultures on a jdate can be counted. It is then necessary to divide the plate up into segments and count the number in 3 or 4 of these seg- ments and take the average. At times, so uumeroiis will be the bacteria that even this method cannot b(> adopted, and in such case I have covered the plate at various parts with a piece of paper having holes cut in it of exact dimensions, -J, j, ^-inch square. By counting the colonies visibhi over these holes at several parts of the plate, and by knowiny' the area of the plate, the average uumb(>r ])resent can be a])proximately esti- mated. The Importance of liacter'ia. The importance of bacteria to the cheese-maker cannot be over-estimated, 'i'l -'V produce the lactic acid without which no cheese could be uu'-de, they bring about those changes in the curd which are terii cd ripening, and they are the cause of most of the troubles which tlie checse-nuiker has to contend against, commonly termed " taints." Thus, of the inferior cheeses made at the Society's cheese school, a careful estimate shows that seventy-five per cent. Avere due to taints produced by bacteria. Hence, there are some which are desirable and others which are undesirable, and our first consideration must be to ask whence come these bacteria? So far as we can judge at present they are universal. They are present in the air we breathe, in the atmo- sphere, floating about with the particles of dust which may be seen floating in the atmosphere with every sunbeam. How numerous they are in the atmosphere, even in the dairy, may be seen from the following fact: — On the 24th of October, 1891, at a time when the dairy had not been previously entered by the students for about ten or fifteen minutes, but during the manuFacture of a cheese, I ex- posed a prepared surface of gelatine for two minutes. No lesa than forty-eight organisms tell upon that surface of under nine square inches in the two minutes. Of these six were moulds, and the remainder were bacteria. But it is not only the atmosphere which is so thickly popu- lated with bacteria, they are present in the food of the cows, in the water they drink,' and in the soil. Nowhere are they to be found in greater numbers than in dirt of every description. . Hence the milk with which cheese is made is literally swarm- ing with bacteria; in fact, I have occasionally found nearly 100,000,000 bacteria per cubic inch in milk just before the rennet was added. Most of these organisms will have come from the atmosphere. The question will at once arise in the minds of my readers, how if it that with so many organisms present in the milk, it ia 152 Investigations into Cheddar Chekse Making. possible to make good (•he«>se? It will be as well to at once ex- plain. Many of these air organisms have, I find, little or no action on milk. Moreover, the laetie acid formed in the numu- facture of the cheese destroys most of diem, and thus prevents them doing any hanii. A striking illustration of this fact is shown hy Uie following experiment. A charaetenstic organism is found' in hav, known as the hay haeillus (bacillus sublilis). As it was fre(]uenilv present in . a bacillus nor vet a coccus, whi.-h should be pertec.,ly spherical. There ou^ht to 1m. some w(.r.l to designate an organism so shaped ; but at present there is not. hence it is termed a bacillus. This small, stumpy, or egg-shape.i l)acillus ( Ki;-. U) varies prreatly in size, according, so far as T can judge, to tli." food which J I'ik'. 11.— 'Die Baoilliis Aui
  • wing on a plate (gelatine) culture, the colonies cannotbe distinguislu>(l from those of the ordinary bacillus acidi lactiei, being round on the surface, spherical or lemon-shaped when orowing in the interior, white and small. The streak culture on gelatine shows more marked difference, It is slower of growth -, and forms a very thin streak, seldom one thirty-second of an inch wide, and it is made up of numerous, 158 Invkstigations into (!hkj)I)ar (!iikkse Making. for the most part disconnected, colonies, whereas in cultures of the bacillus acidi lactici, as a rule, the colonies coalesce to form a u: ' "or:n surface growth. This strepto-bacillus ajjpearH to have a remarkable power of l)roducinf>- lactic acid, for in several instances milk was coagu- lated by it in from twenty-four to thirty hours. Here it may be well to explain the word "' coa<>ulated." When the milk sets in a solid mass, in which the whole of the water of the milk is con- tained, I term it coagulated. The true lactic acid-forming bac- teria always produce this effect. There are other organisms which have the power of " curdling" milk, but they sejjarate or precipitate the curd from a more or less clear whey. This dis- tinction between the bacillus acidi lactici and other organisms is very marked. Cheeses were made from milk inoculated with this organism, and in these cheeses, when ripe, I was able to find the strepto- bacillus, as well as- the oi'dinary bacillus acidi lactici. i Importance of the Xiactic Acid Bacillus.— It will be evi- dent that so fai' as the miinufucture oi; Cheddar Cheese up to the tine of vatting the euid is de])eiident on the growth and chemi- <'al acticm of bacteiia, any organism essential to these ciianges must be invariably jiresent at all stages, and that any organism which is only occasionally found must be considered as acci- dental and a contamination. Thus one fact was soon conclusively provi-d, namely, that in the manufacture of Cheddar (!heese one and only one organism played an important part np to the time the curd was put into the vat, and that organism Avas the bacillus acidi lactici. What part this organism ])layed \i]} to this stage has already been eonsideronl, inasmuch as all those chemical changes due to acidity, which have preA;ously been described, are due to its growth. There are, however, one or two considerations which deserve further attention. The milk has been examined frequently, l)oth as it came into the dairy and when it had stood in the dairy over-night, and the bacillus acidi lactici has invariably been ])resent in large numbers. But the numbers vary considerably. And this ex- plains why it is ot times necessary to use so muca sour whey in the manufacture of the cheese, while at other times less whey is required. The imp«ntance of these bacteria does not depend upon their size, but upon tlieir number, and upon the ra])idity of their increase. This increase results in a simultaneous ,)roduetion of lactic acid. Hence the acidity determinations are indirectly estimations of the number of bacteria present. The milk of the 2nd of May, 189G, about three to four hours after it was drawn from the cow, that is soon after it came into the dairy, con- tained over 750,000 bacteria in one cubic inch. The number BaCTKRI()L()(^ ICAL ( )B.SKRVATrON.S. 159 of bacteria in the evening's milk is of the utmost importance, for it is mainly upon the increase in the number of these bac- teria during the night that the next day's cheese-making will depend. If the cheese-room and milk are kept warm this in- crease will be considerable, but if not kept warm it may not be sufficient. This is shown by the following figures: — On the Night of Temp, of Dairy. Temp, of Milk in Morning. No. of Bacteria in one cubic inch of Milk Ist to 2nd September 9th to 10th September '.Ith to loth April C5-t)t> 07-()8 (i5-7;5 72 74 74 11 million. 87 ., How greatly the number of bacteria varies in the mixed morning's and evt'niiig's milk just before the rennet is added, can be seen from the following table, in wliieh, io indicate the iniportanee anil intini'iiet^ of tliese bacteria on the nuinufacture of the cbeese, a few of the ordiiary observations as to times and acidities ar(> also given. Aciditv Iiici'casc Acidity of l.itiuid Irom Prcy^ Time liaolcriain ...i.ufv in-li o( 1 .„ ' Mixed Mii;t, ^^"''y- of in 'I'inio I):il>'. Liiiuid from I'ilod Acidity wliilo Card Curd rcniiiincd Piled. C'urii Viitted. (P.M.I C-rd. I'ilt'd. por cent. per ri'llt. per cent. mill. percent. h. m Sept. 2, ihim; ... ll.."llHI,()IIO ■L'(i:> ■27(1 •nii.-, 2.-. •!I(J 7 10 Sept. 1(», ]S!m; ... .■>7.7eii.(i(Mi •2(1.-. •;!(Ui ■(I;I5 1(1 •ill* 2 1(1 .\pril 1(», IS'.m; ... ST. (100.110(1 •isr, •32.-) •140 -> l^t)2 1 4 ' This curd, if it had beiMi left some tiiiie loii<;cr lielore ^'rinding, say ;10 minutes, would probalily have had alumt the sniu' acidity as the other two. It is clearly evident tbat the time of valtlng and the develop- ment of acidity in tlie i)iled curd are deix-ndent upon the nun»- l)er of bacttnia originally present in the milk. la face of these figures, it is scarcely necessary to point out how important it is to k<>ep the evening's milk at a moderate temperat\ire. in order to prevent the cheese-making on the following day luung unnecessarily protracted. They also indi- cate why the cheese-maker uses " stale whey." They also enable us to understand why it is that the Cheddar Pljppap.Tviakors in Scotland, who ripen tbe milk up to a fixed II HI 1 160 Tnvkstigations into OiiKnnAU (!tii.;ksk Maictncj. standard before renneting, siiccecd, aa a rule, in finishing clieese- niakiug early in the afternoon. If only a fixed standard of acidity could be obtained in the mixed milk before renneting, cheese-making \^ ould be more regular than it is. Sour Whey or the Whey put aside This liquid has been examined from time to time, and in every case found freer from extraneous bacteria than any other liquid examined. It has seldom contained more than two or three' varieties of organisms other than the bacillus acidi lactici, hence it is admirably suited for the purpose to which it is applied, namely, to in- crease the number of the lactic acid bacilli in the mixed milk. Thus science explains the true foundation of this practice. I understand that it is not universal in Cheddar Cheese-making to take the whey which is to be ])ut aside the moment after cutting when sufficient has risen on the curd to permit of its being re- moved. But this undoubtedly should be done wherever stale whey is used, for the whey at no other stage of the manufac- ture possesses the same purity. The linrtrt'ioln(iical E.i'aminafioii of Cheexc. When, in 1891, these experiments were first started, it was almost universally beli<>ved that the ripening of clieese was du(> \o the growth of the bacillus amylobaclei' or biityiic acid bacillus. To quote the words of no less an authority than J)e IJarry, " the butyric acid fermentation is ess(>ntial to the ripening of cheese." Duclaux* had found in Cantal cheese ten varieties of bacteria, to which he gave liie name of Tyrothrix, the most prominent among these being certain forms known as leptothrix or long thread bacilli. My sur])rise then was great when in the examination of the cheese made in 1891 I was unable to find a single instance of a leptothrix organism, and very few of the bacillus amylobacter. As I then wrote in my report: — "The examination of the cheeses shows that when ripe only two or three organisms are ])resent in any iiuiubei. Those in most abundance are the bacilli acidi hiclici. 'rhe others are a long and very thin bacillus, and a shorter and thicker bacillus. (!(miparatively few of these are present in the later made clieeses. After having examined several of the cheeses made in August last, 1891, and u])on finding now, in January, 1892, that th(> organism present in infinitely hirgest numbers is the bacillus acidi lactici, it would a])pear that as in the making, so in the ripening of Cheddar Cheese, this organism plays the chief role. Hitherto, it has been supposed that the ripening of cheese was duo to * Jje Lait, Paris, 1887, Bactkkiol()(;ical Obsekvations. 161 the action of the bacillus umylobacter, but these observations do not support that vi(>w." Analyses were therefore made of a few of the cheeses to deter- mine whether the acidity had increased in the process of ripening. The folhtwint? are the results obtained: — Ourd Vatted of ('hwldar(!heese is during' the lirst few months de|iendent niiiinly on the c(mtinued a<'tion of the bacillus acidi iactici. Such was the result of my first year's obsetvations. It was scarcely to l)e expected that so novel and revolutionary a result should be at one accepted. Hut the result of all my siibse- ([uent woik and of the work of others who have studied this subject {jocs to prove the accuracy of these deductions. In the meantime many cheeses have been examined bac- teriologically. In cheese we have to deal with a substance fi'om which the air is exchided, and conse<[uently should exjyect to find ])resent those orf>anisms which hitherto have had no opjuirtunity of p-rowinf^-, namely, the anaerobic orjjfanisms, such as the bacillus amylobacter or butyric; acid organism. These large thi<;k rod l)acteria are, however, very seldom found, and even when pre- sent there are very f(nv. That there should be so few varieties of oiganisms in the cheese would be somewhat sur|)rising were it not for the in- vestigations of Freudenreich into the ri])ening of l*]mment1ialer cheese. He was unable to discover in these cheeses those va- lieties of bacteria which had ])reviously been sujjposed to be essential to the ripening of cheese, thus suppoi'ting in a ic- markabie manner the results of my observations on Cheddar Cheese. There are several vaiieties of the butyric acid bacillus. The one previously referred to was the first known, and has been thoroughly studied by Prai!mowslci. A bacillus amylobacter, which is entirely different to that of the older writers, I have found in many of the cheeses, though not in all. It is seldom present in large numbers, and for one of the bacillus amylobacter there will be hundreds of other organisms U«8 L 162 iNVKSTrOATlO.NS INTO ('llKI)T)AU ClIKKSK MaK1N(1. I'! i i>i !i present. It is, therefore, very evident that for cheese of the dos('ri])tiou made by Miss Cannon, wliirh may \w dc- Bcribed as niodorately (juick rii)«'niug' checKo, tlu> bacilhis amylo- bacter plays a vtry secondary part. What then are the bac- teria ])r('senl in f".;('h large luiniberH":' 1 am not qnite pr«'- l)ared to dogma! !•<»- upon this jjoint, b\it the rcsnlts hitherto obtained all pitint in one direclion, nuniely, that it is the lactic acid bacillus. In a chiiwe examined soon after it is made, the bacilli are jiossesscd of all the propciii(>H which ( haractcrise the bacillus acidi ]a milk, the milk curdle.'* within a couple of days. If we kcc^p th(> cheese, and from time to time place a little in some sterile milk, it will be seen that the ])ower of curdling the milk is slowly being lost. At last it .sceniH to entirelv disappear. Yet jdace s(mie of this same cheese in some milk from which the air is (>xcluded, and the milk will l)e curdled. Aitlumgh for a long time ii will be ])ossible to obtain a {growth of this lactic acid bacillus (m gelatine, yet after a time even this is n)ost ditticult. and finally nothing will grow upon a jdsrte culture. The long confinement of the organism apart from the atmos])heit> ai)pears to change its nature, and causes it to lose its most characteristic property. But the fact remains that it is this lactic acid organism which has brought about whatever changes have taken ])1ace in the cheese, and whicb we desciibe as " ripening." 'J'he microsco|)ical and bacteriological examination of a large number of cheeses each year, cheeses of varying agt's and quality, soon revealed the fact that the number of bacteria in tht^ (.I^PPf,^' varied very considerably. For some time after the manu- fa<'ture of the c-hVcse. the number of bacteria incn^ased, but the older the cheese aftei' the period of ripeness th(> moie ditlicult it was to find living organisms, and in 1H9'.i I fcmnd thai there came a time in tin life of the cheese Avlien "not a single aerobic organism could be found." Subse<|uent work has ^uoved two facts, first that the organisms which in the early stages of ripen- ing increase with such ra))idity are almost entirely the lactic acid bacilli, and secondly, that there are at times present in the cheese organisms (aerobic) which survive until after the death of the lactic acid 1^4/illi. These organinms, howevei', in course of tim(> also appear to die. It in evident thai if a cheese ex)uld once attain to this conditicm without having developed a taint, such a cheese might lse-maker. Summary of the part wliich the Bacillus Acldi Iiactlci pl»7» in the manufacture of a Cheddar Ch««««. The bac- teriological observations made during the past eight years have, in my o|>ini(ui, conclusivt>ly pioverl the following three points ii'garding the lactic acid bacillus. 3« Ba(!TKRI07,0(;I('AL OnSKRVATIONS. 163 Ist. That by its j>'n>wth and the resulting production ol lactic acid, most ot' the organiHnis which arc prcHont in the milk due to air contamination are gradually destroyed, whiles even those which are not destroyed are frequently checked in their growth. 2nd. That up to the time of vatting the curd, all the opera- tions in the manufacture of l!ie cheese are dependent upon, and subservient to, the growth of the bacillus acidi lactici in that curd. Hrd. That the subsequent ripening ni the cheese is also de- pendent upon this organism.* * In the 14tli annual report of tlie Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, 1897, Messrs. Habcock and Russell iniijlishod an article oi\ • Unorganized Ferments of milk ; a ne-,s factor in the ripening of cheese," in which they endeavour to i)rovu that the ripening of cheese is due to siicli unorganized ferments, 'riierc are tlireo points in this article to which I wish to draw attention. First, Messrs. i;ai)c()ck and KusHell aie scarcely justified in statin;.' that "this rin(ipul buctcriu iu the cheese vere tlu' hiuilli ot lactic iWU 1. In the Hucceediu}^' yi ivr ex- j>rrinn'iits were ni Luh' to sec how tar this kiuiwU'dge might be turned to account, bv inoculating the milk with thesi' oigan- isms Since then nuiny experiments have been mad;', buit the results obtained were such tiuvt 1 piirposely refrained fiom introducing tho use of i»ure vn Itures (»f bacteria into ('heddar Oheese-makin; Somerset, and for th«> following reasons. First: -in my t would have been foolish for me to put forth, lor tin ion 1 m opin o'uidanee of cheese-makeis, any ideas wliieh, when they attempted to carry them into effect, would be found wanting in practical value. 1 had con\c to the conclusion from my observa- tions that inoculating the milk with a |)ure culture of the lactic acid bacillus would not insure a good cheese. Otlu'r things being eijual. thr i>ieatt'r the number of la«tic acid bacilli in the tl milk, tlu' g)i .'iter the chance of a good curd, but 1 am still of >piniou thai this organism alon(> will not produce that nutt\ [wour whuii IS so nuu h soujjht after as being the essential itic of an (>>;ce(lent Cheddar Cheese rharaeeris sideration was that the presi>nce abundance won Id not entirelv coun Th ic. se( ■ond con- oi the bacillus aci
  • i at times, and utterlv baffle the skill of even the nmst exi)eiienced nuikers. Thirdly: I had observed that when there hapi)ened to be naturally an "xeess of lactic acid organisms in the milk, so that acidity cope with 1. It was deveb.ped ra])idly, many makeis were utterly unable to co| th le conditions, i ind the resultina' cheeses were too acn verv evident that tlie use of imrt iltures of la<'tic acid bacteria won Id "■rea tlv auii'im ni this ditiicultv, and that until some from a private duiry si'parator, and af^ain, " in gravity in'oani, tlii" ar.'oiu.^ of enzymes would l)o'imu'Ii lari^er than in se]mvator croani." A eareful study of tliis article ooiifiriiiN my opinion thai while it is quite possible tlnit milk mav .•ontain enzvmes, which play a certain part iu the rip.-iHTi!,' of curd, as does proliably the enzyme of rennet, yet the authons have failed lo pro\ e that llie.ne enzymes play so iiniiortant a i>art as they assume. In fact this theory iiKerly fails to e.tcplain why two cheeses made from the same milk, (ine containiii"^, v,-lun votted. a hi-^h i>ro])ortion of acid, and the other a low proporii.-.u of acid, sl'ould take different limes to ripen. Yet the curd with hi<,'ii acidity would hi ripe one or two months Viefore that with low acidity. liACTJiUlOLOtilCAL UllSKllVATlONS. Ifi.') aiuuiruU- luotuoil ui cslimatiug' the acidity tluriug the pioctihs ui chceHi'-iuuiviug was in gciicial vogiii', tlii' clu'CHi'-maki'is wiut nut ill a positiuii to make lull usi' ul llu- (listinciich ol' Hiicuce. JJut tlio UHO oi' the upparatuH Inr tt'sting acidity, vvliicli had hern (Uio ttutcomc of Iht'.sc iuv( stigatioiis, wa8 growing iapiidly growing during the whole of the night. It would, therefore, seem of little value to introduce a pure culture into the milk in the morning, as at most the bacteria <'ould only have a slightly l)eneticial inllueuce under such circumstances. The employnu'nt of pure cultures has been most successful in the production of butter, because it is possible to first destroy all bacteria present in tli(> milk as it comes into the dairy, by heating it ixt a temperature which is destructive to bacteria. This is termed pasteurisation. It is not possil)le, or at least ixcee evening's milk. Hut even this was too much, and resulted in developing an excessive amount of a(!idity in the evening's milk, which in the morning amounted to 'J?? ])er cent., so that the experiment was a failuie. In the second experiment, both the temperature at which the inoculated milk was kei)t, and also the lime after inoculating, were reduced. Only one (juant of milk was used, which was inoculated at 10. -50 a.m., kept at a tem])eiature of 85° Fahr. foi' ten hours, and placed in the evening's milk at 8.30 p.m., the acidity then being '27 per cent. Next morning, (the ev(»ning's milk had an acidity of 'VA per cent., and the mixed milk 0'2;5 per cent. It was renneted at 7.35 a.m.; cut at 8; broken at 8.5. First scald on 8.45, temp. 90° Fahr. Second scald on 9.10, temp. 100° Fahr. : stirred five minutes, and settled ton minutes. AVhey drawn 9.25. Curd not jn'led : twice cut, and turned fivi,> (imes, G''"uu from having in the mixed milk a sutticient number of lactioacid-producing bacteria. For, as pointed out years ago, if the milk is originally free from taints, (he v/hey taken From the tub immediately after lireaking is excei)tionally tree from bacteria other than the bacillus acidi lactici, so that it is practically a nearly })ure culture. When, owing f<» a taint in the preceding day's milk, the stale whey could not be employed, fairly successful results have been obtained by using as a starter ripened milk. This has been pre- pared by placing about ten gallons of the evening's milk in a small warmer, heating this to 98° F., antl keeping it on the top of the heating api)aratus over-night, lightly covered with a thick doth to prevent dirt entering the milk, and to retain the temperature. In this way the milk ripens very ra|)idly. In the morning the whole of the evening's milk is warmed as much as it may be, and this rii)ene(l milk is put into it. The ri])ening process continues, and the absence of sour wh<'y is to a large extent made up for. The Oi';/aiii.sins Injurious to Cheddar Cheese. By far the uely sujtposed in sonu' way to be connected with lit to be nu)re ])r(n'alenl in certain districts, or uj»on certain soils; and a similar impicssion had prevailed with rejiard to the diseases or taints of curd. Hence there had arisen a widespread belief tnat upon such soils good cheese could not be made. Taints due to Bacteria.— The proj«ress of science has within comparatively recent years proved beyond doubt that these diseases which had baffled the wisest i>hysicians to account for are the result, not of dirt, as generally understood, nor yet (»f any peculiar locality, but ai'e due to the presence in "the human b(Mn•'' cheese-making has tn attack. During the autumn si wmu-r td 1897 there were seveiul out- breaks (it typli'iid tever ui V'tiii'laud. Here was a disease [)ro- duced by a detinitv ergauism wliieh is well known to bacterio- logists and II he easily discovered iu any substance which coiilai is it. . ft everyone now knows iiow dith(;ult it proved to discover the cause of these outbreaks, to trace the typhoid bac- teria to their source. 'I'liose wlu) are versed in daily matters will readily understand the dith( iilty o\' tracing the souret^ of bacteria which are injurious to cheese. Many of these have not yel l)een discovered. I m-u those which have been are so sliglilly studied, as com 1 with tli • typhoid bacillus, that it is not yel always possibh m trace them to their source. In spite (d every possilile endeavour, man d these organisms have so far entirely baffled me. Tain'- there were on nmny occasions, and samples of tlie milk, wi y and curd were then most carefully examined, but no organism could be isolated which when fjrown in milk would cause a similar taint. Precautions necessary when Taints present.— Medical men tell us, and have conclusively proved, that the various di,seases to whicli nu'u are liable, such, for imstance, as diph- theria, i)neunu»nia, or tubercle, are each the result of the growth of a special organism in the human body. The farmer knows tliat the same is tnu' (d many of the worst diseases to which his herds are liable: it i> onlv ncfcssarv to mention pleuro-|meu- monia among cattle, and swine fever aiuitng pigs. We know that diseases inodm-ed l)y such micro-organisms are fre- <|uently contagious : that it is merely necessary for a ])ei'fectly healthy animal to conu» into contact with, or sonu'tinu's only into the neigh hourhood (d. animals so diseased, in order to become tlu-mselves contaminated with the bacteria, and thus to (■(mtract the disease which the organisms |»r()duce. Such know- ledge teaches us a lesson, and points to the necessity of certain precaiitions Ix'ing ciirefully observed by the clieese-maker, sinuild he by any accident get into his dairy a diseased curd — by which I mean ;i curd containing any taint. Let him re- nu'mber that the mere contact ;d' Ins luinds with such curd is sufficient to convev the bacteria which cause that taint to the surface of any utensil which he may subsecpiently handle. Tt is therefore im]»erative when any taint arises to g(>t that curd nut of the dairy, mi far as possible, before the evening's milk ^r^:^.% IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) k A {/ ^.% :/. u. ^ m. 1.0 I.I 1.25 |50 ll"l^ u Ilii ■^ 140 u •A u 12.5 KM 2.2 2.0 1.8 U 1 1.6 'C Photographi( Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WESSTER.N.Y. 14580 (716) 87i2-4503 A m V N> 9> 'f^ -^A, "^^ .^^ C/j "^ ^ 1?0 Investigations into Cheddar Cheese Making. comfs in. On no account should any of the whey which has come from the tainted curd be used in the next day's cheese. In fact the whole of the whey should be got out of the dairy as quickly and as thoroughly as possible, and every utensil should be cleaned with, if possible, more than usual care ; but es- pecially the handle of the breaker with which that cheese was made. Sources of Taints.— The following have been found to be some of the sources of those organisms which give rise to taints in the milk or curd. Atmosphere. — Au impure atmosphere where the cows are milked. This may arise from many causes, principal among which is the presence in the neighbourhood of some source of foul air, especially that which emanates from decomposing animal or vegetable matter. The custom ai milking the cows always in one part of the field is so universal in Somerset, that I fear it will be no iise my protesting against it: but a moment's consideration will con- vince anyone who knows the state these milking-places get into, that the custom could well be dispensed with. In the heat of summer the droppings of the cows soon dry, and when trampled upon are scattered as dust and contaminate the atmosphere in which the cows are being milked. If it is difficult to obtain the milk fairly pure when the cows are milked in the fields, it is far more difficult to do so when they are milked in a stall or shed, unless the shed be kept scrupii- lously clean. The floors of many sheds are so badly laid that this is quite impossible, and even when it is possible, sufficient care is not taken by the men to keep the sheds clean. This is far more easily done if water be used when cleaning out the sheds, than if tin- floor be merely brushed. The above sources of taints are such as can be avoided with a little trouble. But there is a possibility of the atmosphere being a source of other difficulty in a manner not yet under- stood. Oeogrraphical Distribution of Taints It is at the pre- sent day almost, if not quite, impossible to say what organisms can or cannot come from the atmosphere. Being consulted by dairy farmers in different parts of the country, it came to my knowledge that the troubles which were being felt at the Cheese School in 1893, were also being met with in other parts of the country. Thus, a cheese-maker in the Midlands sent a sample of milk giving trouble. In it were found exactly the same organ- isms as were present at the Cheese School, and which I asso- ciated with the tainted curd, although there had been no op- portunity of proving tie assumption correct. Similar results were obtained with milk received from Buekinghaiushire, and also from Essex. Enquiries soon brought the information that Bactekiological Observations. in fermenting curd, and a difficulty in making; good cheese, was being found in many places, even by those who were making upon totally different systems. I was informed that no such difficulty had been met with by the Cheddar Cheese-makers in the West of Scotland. The season in the West of Scotland was entirely different to that of the West of England. Now, if a tainted or peculiar condition of milk appears over a large district, or part of the country, and does not appear in another part, and the only difference that we can find between these localities is a climatic difference, are we not justified in assuming that this had something to do with the presence or absence of the taints in the milk ? Though this may not be the correct explanation, as we know little about the geographical distribution of bacteria, yet we have strong grounds in support of this reasoning if we may Judge by analogy. It is a well-known fact that cei-tain diseases produced by bacteria, will at times be prevalent over large areas, and for a certain time, while not present in other parts, and that they will disappear as suddenly as they came. We say that there is an epidemic of a disease. Is it not pos- sible that there are epidemics of diseases or taints which affect milk, brought about by bacteria, just as there are epidemics of diseases among men? This, at leawt, was the only possible explanation which would satisfactorily act^ount for the facts met with in 1893. Even if further work may prove that it is not a tenable hypothesis, still it will be very serviceable as a working hypothesis for guidance in future investigations. It points, however, to the necessity for this research work being extended, and not confined to one part of the countiy only. Impure Drinkiner Water.— Perhaps the most prolific source of taints is impure drinking water. The ponds, which are the principal drinking places on so many farms, and which in hot weather become more or less dried up, are so contaminated with the droppings of the cattle as to be little better than sewage, and are undoubtedly the worst offenders. In many parts of the countiy, the cows drink from dykes or ditches. The banks of these are so high and steep, that it is necessary to mak'? special slopes down to the water for the cattle to obtain it. The water at these drinking places becomes ('(mtaminated with the droppings of the cows, and dxxring the very hot weather, when the cows will stand in the water, if not at other times, it gets splashed on to the teats, dries there, and when the cows are milked, some of this dirt gets into the milk. Nowhere is so much difficulty in cheese-making found as in those parts which have a bad or sluggish water supply. Unfor- tunately such water is liable to be contaminated not only by cattle, but frequently by the drainage of cottages on the banks of the dyke. t,i 172 Investiuations into Cheduab, Chkese Making. The evil effect of sewage is not confined to these dykes. 1 have found that even the streams which pass through some farms, and in which there is a much greater flow than in the dykes, are so contaminated with sewage that if the cattle are allowed to obtain access to these streams, there is almost cer- tain to be a taint in the curd. This has been j)roved over and over again. At Mark, at Haselbury, and again at Long Ashton, there have been striking instances of the effect of contaminated water upon ithe cheese. It is often said that cheese-maldng 18 more difficult now than it was some fifty years ago. Yet, u])(m investigation, it will be found that better premises exist for dailies, that better apparatus can be procured, and that m nearly every respect the modern cheese-maker is working under cujnditions which are an iin})rovement (m those of his ancestors. Still the difficulties seem greater. May it not be that the tnu^ cause of these difficulties is to be found mainly in the contamination of the streams of the country, which has taken place during that period, largely owing t^» the introduc- tion of modern sanitary arrangements by which nearly every stream in the country has been c(mverted into an open sewer!' The chief trcuible from impure water is " sjjongy " curd. I have made some incjuiries to try and discover in what respects dis- tricts less liable to spongy curd differ from thow^ where it is prevalent, and, so far as can be judged, it seems less frecfuent where the streams come direct from the hills witli little chance of sewage contamination, and also where the streams liave a stony bottom, so that the water runs clear, and is not subject to frequent contamination from the dislodged, mud of a bank. Moreover, looking back through the records of the Dairy Schools in past years, it is noticeable that spongy curd was not found at Vallis, where the water supply was from a spring, and was brought into troughs from wliich the cattle could drink. Nor was it prevalent at Axhridge, where the water supply was from dykes cut in the peat or moor land, quite away from sources of contamination by sewage. On the other hand", it has been ])re- valent at Butleigh, at Mark, and at Haselbury, where in each place the water supply has been more or less liable to con- tamination with sewage. Now, we cannot ensure the ]nirity of the str'-iins, though this is a matter with respect to which every dairy farmer who takes an interest in local matters may well bestir himself. Tn the meantime, however, something else must be done, and it seems to me that the best, the most simple, and the least expensive ])lan will be, wherever possible, to prevent the cows gaining access to the streams by supph'ing them with water in tn-ughs. In selecting a site for these troughs, care should be taken to have them as far as possible from the place where the. cows, are milked. This has been done on several fanns with remarkable advan- tage. Especially has this been the case at Mark. Indeed, I am quite certain that the reason why many fields have an especial mi: arc Bacteeiolouical Obsebvations. 173 bad repute for cheese-making, is because in these fields the cattle gain access to some contaminated pond or stream. On most cheese-makinf^ farms it would be money well spent to put up drinking troughs for the cattle, and pump the water into these as required. In my experience, where the cattle have been supplied with water in troughs there has been far less trouble in the iheese-making than where they drink from a stream or pond, into which they can get. The Teats and Udders of the Cows.— These will become contaminated with dirt, and it is necessary to have them most scrupulously cleaned just before milking.' Sores on the teats are most troublesome and at times are far too numerous. The scabs from these sores in milking become detached, and are to he found in the strainer ; both the scabs themselves and the matter wliich exudes from the sore when the scab is torn oft' contain bacteria, which are ])roductive of trouble in cheese- making and wliich can be found in the milk. Equally injurious is a sore in the teat or udder, and milk from such a cow should on no account be used for cheese-makinsr. The Hands of the Milkers.— Speakinp- generally, whatever soils the hands of the milkers will certr:.ilv contaminate the milk. The milkers hands should not only be well washed before milking but, if necessary, during milking time. Some ot the principal sources of gathering dirt to which they are sub- ,iect are as follows: — Milk Stools.— The filthy state of the milking stools on some larms is almost incredible. It is impossible for a milker to ■take up the stool with his hands which are generally damp, if not wet, though they ought not to be, without getting some of the dirt from the stool on to his hands and tlience into the milk. All the milk stools sliouhl be jieriodically well scrubbed, and every endeavour made to kee]i them clean during tlie cheese- making season. Spans — It is the custom in Somerset to span the cows when milking, that is, to tie the legs togethor. The span used is generally made of rope, wliich is a very absorbent substance. ^Now, should a cow dung when being milked, it is highly pro- bable that some of this dung would splash on to the span As soon as one cow is milked, the milker takes off the span and places it upon the next cow to be m/lk' d. In doing so, his hands become contaminated with the ;aa;erial upon the span, and as soon as he commences milking this material passes into the milk Tuflgnig from the foul condition which thi' span ^ets into in the course of only a few days. I am quite convinced that the use of spans " is an absolutely certain method of con- taminating milk. When used, they should be frequently 174 Investigations into Oheddae Oheese Making. scalded, but, strange to say, there seems to be a strong dislike om the part of the milkers to having them cleaned. Why so many of the cheese-makers of Somerset persist in employing them, when over the greater part of England they are unknown, passes my comprehension. My advice is, get rid of spans ! It may not be possible to do so at once, but by degrees it can be accomplished, and once done, farmers will wonder why on earth they used them so long. Drinking- Cider or Beer during Milking.— This custom should on no account be allowed. Cider, especially old cider, contains numerous bacteria, some of which appear to be in- jurious to cheese-making, hence, it should not be drunk during milking, and if taken immediately before, the hands should be well washed after drinking it, and before milking. Dirty or Defective Utensils.— No careful cheese-maker would allow any utensil to be dirty, but some are not sufficiently alive to the importance of having the utensils free from slight defects. The merest pin-hole will harbour bacteria, and has been found by me to be a source of taint. This is especially the case if the pin-hole lead to a covered space as is someitimes the case, with, for example, a pail, containing a slip of brass on which is marked the capacity. The most minute hole will allow milk to leak in behind this strip of brass, and to be a source of constant contamination to all the milk subsequently placed in that vessel. Flies. — These at times are very troublesome. Many will get into the milk during the period of milking, more especially at certain times of the year, and particularly during a very dry and hot season. Probably milkers take very little heed whether flies get into the milk or not ; but I am certain that it is neces- sary to prevent this as much as possible. One knows how flies settle upon any dung in a field, they take some of this upon their bodies or feet, and carry it to the cows or any other article upo which they next settle. Now, having examined the bacteria j the dung of cows and horses, I find certain forms present which are not generally, and should not be, in milk. Finding these bacteria in milk on several occasions, I discovered that the bac- teria were carried to the milk by flies. Many investigations were made, and these ])roved, without doubt, that when flies were very numerous in the milk, these bacteria were also numerous. Whitewash in very warm weather appears to attract flies, hejice, they are sometimes numerous in the dairy during th(f great heat of the summer, and during that period the milk is generally more tainted than later on. Again, I have noticed that whey, when there are large numbers of flies in it, will fer- ment in a quite peculiar manner. Dirt J Milking.— It is an accepted fact that milk, as it comes from the cow, with the exception perhaps of the first Bacteriological Obseevations. 176 ounce or so, is free from bacteria * Hence, the bacteria which get into it before it enters the dairy must come : First, from the air which it passes through in its passage to the pail. Second, from the pail itself. Third, from the hands of the milkers, or fourth, from the teats, udder, or body of the cow. The pre- vention of these sources of contamination constitute what is usually termed cleanliness, and it is evident that the majority of taints are undoubtedly preventible. Unfortunately, the neces- sity of cleanliness in nailking is not so well recognised by farmers as it should be, and I have invariably noticed that when cheese- making is started on a farm where" milk selling has formerly been carried on, there is considerable difficulty in making good cheese, because the milk is never collected" in so cleanly a manner as it should be. Survival of Taints.— A careful examination of veiy many of the cheeses has revealed the fact, that, of the organisms which caused the various taints, only a few varieties survived in the cheeses, and these only in some few of them. What is the ex- planation of this fact ? It is that sufficient acidity was produced in the curd before it was vatted to ensure the destruction of the invading organism. When the curd was put up with too little acidity, the taint was subsequently more or less perceptible in the cheese. On the other hand, if too much acidity were pro- duced, then the cheese, though it would not be a good one, was at least free from uny taint. But this is not always the case. There are other taints which do increase during the ripening of the cheese, and the reason for this is evident, that the bacteria which cause them are not destroyed by the lr»ctic acid. More- over, there are some taints which appear to arise in cheese some time after it has l)een made, and, so far as I can judge, after it has become ripe. The cause of this is not yet certain, but some results which have been obtained during' these investigations lend support to the following explanation. Examination of such tainted cheese has shown that the older a cheese the fewer the aerobic organisms present. The late Rev. T. Constable, who took great interest in these investigations, sent me a sample of (iheese which far surpassed in abomination any I have ever tasted. In this cheese not a single aerobic organism could be found. This points to one of two conclusions, which are im- Since writing the above I have received from Messrs. V. A. Moore and A. E. Ward, Bulletin No. 158, Cornell University Agricultural Experi- ment Station, wherein are recorded some remarkable re.sults. I am not altogether Bur^irised at these results, as my own work had gradually forced upon me the possibility of such a discovery. The inquiry was " concerning the source of gas and taint producing bacteria in cheese ciu-d," and " has brought out several facts, heretofore generally denied, concerning the source of bacteria in fresh millc." The research demonstrates that " b^teria do exist sometimes in the milk ducts of the udder itself, as well as in the teate." It also shows that "certain species of bacteria when once intro- duced into the udder are able to remain there for a considerable length of time, thus becoming a constant source of contamination." 176 Invkstiuations into CiiKnoAu Ciieesk Making. portant. First, if a taint is caused by an aerobic organism it evidently remains long after its cause has been destroyed, and JH therefore due to the formation of a definite chemical com- |)ouud. Here is ii new field for chemical lesearch. Or, secondly, it may !«' that these taints are due to the action of anaerobic bacteria, mid this would account for my failing to discover them. There are some well-known facts which support this supposition. The cheese-maker finds that if there is a teint it is well to open up the curd as frequently as possible, thus allowing the air to get to it, and forward the growth of acidity ; and it is generally recognised that Hie sooner a tainted cheese is sold the better, for the taint augments with keeping. Hoth of these facts support the view that some taints are due to organisms which do not need air for their growth and development. The Vinegar Taint. I ¥ 11! Mil In the early part of the year there is a taint frequently pre- sent in the curd to which T have given tht^ name of tlie vinegar taint, because it produces in the curd a smell similar to that of vinegar. I have sometimes t^iought it similar to " aldehyde." i\\ addition to the pnxluction of this peculiar smell in the curd, it has the power of rapidly increasing the formation of aciditj'. This taint was first noticed in 1892, when T thought that it might be due to the presence of a variety of bacillus acidi lac- tici, and drew attention to the fact as follows : — One fact whicli has been very forcibly impressed upon me during the observations, is that at times the development of acidity in the process of cheese-making is far more rapid than at others, even though the initial acidity of the milk was the same as usual, and during subsequent treatment, no cause for the vaiiation was ajjparent. 'Phis taint again o<'cuned in 189:3, and was reported on as follows : — When this taint is present, the curd sours veiy rapidly, and requires to be closely attended to. Such was the cheese made on the 27th of April, 1893, which was put away at 2.fi p.m., although the average time of vatting for the month was 4..'»4 ]).m. ; it will also be noticed that though the acidity of the whey coming from the curd after second cutting was only "94 per cent., yet the acidity of the liquid from press was 1.12, which is very liigh. On the 16th and 21st of May, a similar rapid de- velo])nient of acidity took ])lace ; in the one instance the cheese being vatted at 12.55, and in the other at 2.10, although the average of the month was as late as 4.57 p.m. In 1894, when the School was located at Mark, the vinegar taint was again present, more or less frequently up to the 18th May, and I obtained certain organisms, somewhat characteristic cocci, which were subsequently found at Cussington in the early part of 1896. They had not been present at Crewkerne in 1895. BAOTEllIOUKUCAt, OjJSKIt VAT IONS. 177 1 was thus led to ^)ay some uttontion to I'ig. l-'{). »loPs not for i'eptlonully larfjo (Fig. this coccus. It iff ex- m chains, but is ire- Fig. 13.— CocouH of Vinefjar Taint. queutly found in pairs; the adjacent sides of (he two cocci beintj so flattened that they look like one large organism with a divid- ing line* separating it into two rounded-end cones. Growing on the plate (gelatine) culture the colony is very small and perfectly spherical. In course of time, growth being very slow, a pit-like cavity of liquefied gelatine fs noticed, at the bottom ot which hes the little colony. Examined under the inicroscope at thi., stage it is seen to have partly lost its clear nrculai- edge which is now slightly irregular. The colony is opaque, no internal structure is visible, and it possesses a Jiffht yellow colour. Later on, it seems to burst, and particles float out into the liquid gelatine. It is one of the most slowly lique- fying organisms 1 have met with. It retains stain by Gram's method. ^ vj.xauio A stab culture in gelatine after some time begins to show liquefaction, which at the surface gradually extends to the sides ot the tube, and the liquefied portion takes the shape of a sac, at the bot.om of whjch is a white or slightly yellow deposit, while the liquid gelatine is slightly cloudy. The organism when grown in milk slowly produces a curd- ling effect, and the precipitated curd takes a characteristic pinkish tinge. beLg™ep?y Snei ""^''^'"^^^P^' ^^ ^ "1^*^ "'^^tained space, the organisms 14G8 M 178 iNVESTIfiATIONS IN'KI ClIKDDAa UlIEKSK MaKINO. (Jn iigar uu oclirc-coluuKMl growth Ih fornuul, and on pota- l(ies a light (ichrc-colourt'd ^iciwdi. MxpcrimcntH wiuv luadv- witli this (»ii;aiii.siii in tlu' usual luainicr, aiul llic vinegar taint wan obtained. 'Ihe cheene, when ripe, was nut good, and had a wrong flavour. A seeond expeiinient was uukU', the milU heing divided into two ])arts, one ijioeuhvted, one not inoeulated; and again the inoculated milk ])ioduced an interior cheese to the milk not ituK'ulated. Aa to the orii>]n of this micro-coccus. Fortunately, owing to its power of retaining a stain wlien treated by (iram's method, which l)v far tl." greater number ol organisms found in milk are not able to do, it was comparatively easy to examine various probable sources of contamination. The coccus was soon found in cctw's dung, and so long as it gave trouble in the dairy it was always to bi found in this material. Then came a period when the coccus was no longer found in the curd. Again the cow's dung was examined from time to time, but none of the cocci could be discovered. Towards the end of the season the organism again made its apjiearance in the curd. Once more the dung was exnmined, and again the coccus was found in it. There can he little doubt but tlyit its presence in the milk and curd was accounted for, as several other organisms may be, by want of cleanlinc'ss, and the remedy is evident. But from a scientific point oi view this subject raises another and more in- teresting problem, how came the micro-organism into the dung':' And to this question T have been unable to find any c(mclusive answer. Thus for se\-eral years the vinegar taint had given much trouble from time to time. Miss Cannon, Avhose sense of smell is more acute than mine, tells me that there are several varieties of the vinegar taint. Bad as this taint had been in preceding years, it had never been so bad and so constant as it was at Fenswood Farm in 1897. It was therefore sur])rising that when the taint was most marked at Loutf Ashton, the micrococcus above described could not be found in th(> curd. This led me to search for another organism capable of producing the taint, but, in spite of every effort and long-continued bacteriological work, the cause of this taint could not be discovered. As freijuently happens, bowever, that which batHes the most persistent efforts of investigation is discovered by what may almost be termed an accident. So it was in this instance. AVhen making experiments with pure cultures of the bacillus acidi lactici, it was decided to use for each experiment a culture from a different source to those previously em])loyed. On one occasion, instead of obtain- ing the results expected from the use of a i)ure culture of the lactic acid bacillus, we were surprised to obtain a most powerful vinegar taint. The result of this experiment will best be realised if T quote from the notes made in the diary at the time.— "Tin of milk inoculated with No. 24b. at 7 a.m., kept in HACTKlUOMMilCAI, OlISKKVATIONs, 7f» "Ik H u..|t sln.agly of vi,u.j.ur, and ha.l (>-J() ,mt ..nt . 1 f v « wth on Uh; Hato, hut als,. in th- pun, ..uiturV on ^ a i. Ih,. mill , . II •'"'^''■'' ?' ^^''•'" ^'"''"' '" '""•^ it •■''"«<■« lonc(, It s not to bo w..n,l..i-o,| at llnil this nr.'anisn. ac ..s,.a,M.,l n„t,n.. Having, foun.l it, attnnpls wre nu l.stinfvuish It from th<. hariilus a,.i
  • . It may be a species of lactic acid organism, but on this point I am unable to dogmatise Its close resemblance to the lactic aeid bacillus renders it' most difhcult to inv(>stigate, for it always seems associated with the bacillus acidi la.tici, at least we have never been able to find sen? ^"^ substance where the bacillus acidi lactici was not pre- As to its source the results obtained have not been conclusive At Haselbury, m 1895, there were two herds. Separate cheeses were made from time to time from the milk of each of these iierds to determine if any difference were noticeable. It was H08 M 2 i J 180 Investiqations into Ciikddab Ciieksk Makinu. found that the milk from tho lluHhy Wood herd fri'qiu'ully produced the vinegar taint, when the other milk did not. Nuw, the Itushy Wood cattle were milked in the Htalls, the others in the fields. This t'a(!t, coupled with the jjicnalence ol' the tuint in the Hprin)^, when the cattle are generally milked in the sheds, also with its prevalence at Ashloii in IHDT, when the cattle were milked in the sheds, causes the taint to be peculiarly associated with stall-milking. It is, however, only right to mention that, ho far as can hv i'udged, it is almost always found in stale milk, where this las accumulated, tor example, in the crack of a faulty vessel, or in a cloth which has been used to wipe u]) milk and has not been properly c!( aued afterwards. These were proved on several occasions to hav ' been the cause of the taint. The effect of the vinegar taint was to hasten the production ot acidity. Now, io quote the words of Aliss Cannon, " wlien the curd ripens quickly, i.e., dui-ing making, the cheese ripens quickly." This statement I have found by actual observation to be accurate, and Mr. Hill, when examining the cheeses, would nlways find these cheeses " too acid " or " slightly stingy." Analvfis also shows that a curd containing the vine- gar taint almost invariably has too much moisture. The practical remedy for this faint is a higher scald to (d)tain a drier curd, and the production in the curd of less acid than usual piior to grinding. Spongy (or Holey) Curd. As its name denotes, this taint is characterised by the produc- tion of holes in the curd. It is frequently met with, and especially when the cows are feeding upon the " scouring land "' peculiar to Somerset. In 1894, the first distinctive proof was obtained that this taint was due to a specific micro-organism, and in subsequent researches it wat; found that there were at least four others capable of producing spongy curd. As the result of a careful study of the bacteria found at Mark, in 1894, I was led to sus- pect that some of these cultures were very similar to a well- known organism, the bacillus coli communis. In 1895, Mr. J. P. Laws, who was studying the bacteria found in London sewage for the Iiondon County Council, supplied me with a pure culture of this organism, which is a constant inhabitant of sewage. One of the first experimental cheeses made in 1895, was with milk into which this organism had been placed the preceding night. The milk inoculated with this bacillus coli communis pro- duced a spongy curd. My next experiment was made with the organism, discovered in 1894, and found to produce a spongy curd, to see whether by being kept growing on artificial food during the winter it had lost its power to produce sponginess. A spongy curd resulted M i Bactehioloqical Obseevations. 181 from the experiment. J .wing that this power of producing i^as and blowing th. .urd into a Bponge in a cLaractoriaSc p3ar?ry oi lu, orKanisni not doHtroycHl b^ succ.^Hsive cultivation. After prol.mgod and careful invontigation, I have littlo doubt hut that ^ho^organ,Hm of 1891 is aisot variety of the bucmue coU com- Suksoqia'ntlv two othor organisnig were discovered which are wTll '^•I'i^r '^'"" ^"*''""'' "'"• ""•' ^^'''^-h was distinct, the bacillus guilh^bcuu. The bacilluH guillebeau is found in the milk of animals suf- fenng from sore teats. I will (l,.nl, in the first place, with those organisms which if Zlifi- "'7 !^^V''-,r' 80 Binailar that they may be classed as varieties of the bacil us coh communis. The first of these, dis- covered at Mark, and found subsequently at Ilaselbury, for the sak(. of (listinrhon will in future be "referred to as bacillus coh communis No. 1. (Fig. 14.) The effect of this organism wag Vig. 14.— nacilhw Coli Communis. No. 1. not only to make the curd spongy, but to produce a most obiec- tionable fsecal smell, which is frequently met with in curd. Ihis smell 18 sometimes present in the ciird to a slight extent without there being any noticeable sign of sponginess, which may occur when the organism though present is not in large nuiubers, or may be due to other organisms. Further investigation soon proved that there was another organism capable of produciny- a siiongv curd, which, though very similar to the one just described, had certain distinctive pecuharities, so that it may be designated bacillus coli communis -No. 4. [l ig. 15.) m- 182 Invkstigahoxs into Chkddar Cheese Making. This organism was found at Haselbury even more frequently than the former. It differs slifi^htlv in form, and in growth from Fie, but, ]n view of the facts above stated, it appears de- sirablt> to ])revtnt them coming nearer to the dairy than is inevitable. More es))ecially is it necessary not to put the cleaned trunks n.d milking pails out to dry where fowls are running abon^, as tlieir di'ojjpings, especially in hot dry weather, may become dried up and scattered in the dust. This dust woiild settk» u])on the milk jjails, and the organisms which it coutained woul 1 find their way ivito ih(> milk and pnuluce sptmgy curd. One characteiif-tic of both these (u-ganisms is that, as a rule, they prcv(>nt the devclojuueul of acidity in the ciird, so that whent'vc!' they are present in the milk, the ch<'ese takes much longer to make than it otherwise would. This has been made strikingly Moti-'ablc in all the ex]n>rimental cheeses as com- ])ared with the cheeses made on the same days from milk which had not been inocxilated. AVhen, therefore, a cheese shows signs of s])onginess it is well to take special ])recauii(Mis to insure ob- taining sufficient acidity, and not on any account to hasten the manufactnr(> of the cheese. 'I'hose who have the acidity appa- ratus can (>asily find out at what rate th(> acidity is being pro- duced, but without the a])]>aratus it is mo'^t difficult to judge. Bacteriological Obrervattons. 183 If, however, sufficient acidity be produced in the curd before it IS vatted, then, unless the organism is present in large numbers, the cheese improves in the ripening-room. So far as can be judged from experiments made on the ripe clieeses, th'i organ- isms would see'u to be mostly destroyed during this rii)ening process. But the cheese is never of tl'u^ best qualitv. The appearance of the curd when either of these organisms IS present is characteristic and well-known. It shows numbers of small holes or eyes spread throughout the curd, varying in number according to the amount of the contamination i)resent, but the hoh's are always small. Sometimes a far more sj)ongy curd than usual was i)roduced with large holes quite distinct from those resulting fr(un the organisms above referred to. Tb.ese curds were investigated, the organisms prestnt being isolated and cultivated, and a"mong them was one which, so far as it is ])0HHible to judge from memory and my note-books, had not been met witli in former years. This subsequently proved to be the bacillus yuilh-lieau. (Figs, in and 17.) .An experimental cheese was mmle with milk Piir. Id.— liacillns Uiiillelicai \ Fig. 17,— B, li.iillebt'iiu in Milk. • A. ■ . ^ ■ ■ ■■ 184 Investigations into Cheddar Cheese Making. into which this organism had been placed. The curd was blown into holes much sooner than on any former occasion, and so numerous were the holes, so great the amount of gas formed, that the curd finally rose and floated upon the whey. The following illustration (Fig 18) is a reproduced photograph of this 1 1 , Fig. 1 8. — Spongy Curd. curd. This photograph is about one-half the natural size of the piece of curd photographed. In attempting to discover the source of the organism to which this remarkable result was due, I ob- tained two others which produced similar large holes in the curd during the latter stages of the cheese-making process. One was found in the mud taken from the bed of the brook from which the cows drink. The other, B. coli communis, No. 'i (Fig. 19) was found in cow's dung. A more complete and scien- ^m- Fig. I'J.— B. Coli Communis,, No. .S. tific description of these organisms, whicli are also probably varieties of the coli communis, is appended hereto, Bacteeiological Obseevations. 185 The result of this bacteriological work proves that there are, at least, five orframsms capable of producing spongy curd, and The presence of the bacteria which produce spongy curd is, I find easily discovered, as one and all produce an abundance of gas when growu m a gelatine shake culture. Their presence is also fieqiiently noticed in the whey, which during the night will fermont to such an extent that in the mornin| the whey cream will be blistered and frothy. ^ The Source of these Orffanisma.-The varieties of coli communis are mL organisms characteristic of sewage and ob- tained their name from the fact that they were originally found ;n the laro.e mtestine or colon. I was therefore prompted in looking for the source of these contaminations to search for the presence of sewage where it should not be. As will be seen from the plan opposite p. 50, the water supply at Hast'lbury was a stream which after passing through the vSlaee of Haselbuiy, ran through some of the fields of the farm This water was examined bacteriologically on several occasions, and while sometimes the bacillus coli communis could be found in he water, at oti.er times it could not. When the mud on the banlcs of the strptim at or near the plac.^s where the cattle would (Irnik was examined, then the organism was always found n> tracing this stream upwards houses were found which, s(, tar as couhl be discovered, in some instances drained into the stream. A ow,svwage is known to be highly contaminated with tlie bacillus coli communis, hence it would be possible for the organism o find its way into the stream from this source, and. as the contamination by the sewage in a small village would be intermittent, this might account for the organism being found in the stream at one time and not at another. The presence of the organism in the mud on the banks where the cows drink is ea,sily accounted lor, as such places are invariably contaminated with the cow s droppings, which I proved to contain the bacillus coll communis. This bacillus is rapidly destroyed by sunlight Hence it is desirable to keep the banks and surface of the streams tree from excess of growth, and as chnm as possible. We have then two sources from which water may be con- Uiminated with one oiganism whirli produces spongy curd hrst^the entrance of sewage into the stream from cottages upon its bank, and secondly, of droppings from the cows, when thev get into the stream to drink. Tlie water splashing upon the cows, and subs(>(iuently drying uj)on them would, with the movements of milking, become dislodged and fall into the milk and not even the washing of the teats would comiiletelv iire- vent tills contamination. " Wliile my investigations were in progress, and quite unknown to ine, the Bntidi Medical Journal had appointed a siierial com- mission to inquire into the quality of the milk sold in some of 186 Investigations into Cheddar Cheese Making. 14 i the poorer districts of the Metropolis. In addition to a chemicai examination of tlie samples, a bacteriological examination was made, wMoh resulted in the commission reporting that "every sample examined contained specimens of the bacillus coli com- munis." It seonis evident that, whether from the dirt on the cows or from their bein,:^ milked in an impure atmosjihcre, one of the principal contar.iiuations to which milk is liable is the presence of the bacillus in question. I have not yet found distinct evidence of milk beinf»- contami- nated with the bacillus coli communis floating in the atmos- phere from the dried-up droppings of the cows, yet there is every reason to suppose that such contamination not only might, biit does arise, and that it is one cause of the difficulty of ob- taining pure milk when the cows are milked in the stalls. While these scientific results prove beyond a doubt both the cause and the origin of spongy curd, it is certain that ex])erience had already indicaited these sources of trouble to practical cheese makers. Thus in answer to certain inquiries which were made in 1895, regarding the prevalence of spongy curd, I received, among othe.s, a letter from Mr. Henry McFadzean, the able teacher of cheese-making in Galloway, Containing the following para- graphs re spongy curd : — "I have no hesitation in saying that the cause is from the water. It was in a few cases I have known caused by the cows getting to very bad water, and whether or not the drinking or their standing in it, caused it, I am not qnite certain, but that one or both caused it, I am quite certain. " I have also seen holey and spongy curds got from milk that was partly sjjoiled, by tlie milk from a cow having a chill or weed in the vessel or udder being put in amongst the rest ; this is a great trouble, and occasionally cheeses are spoiled by makers not knowing of, or watching for, such a cause." A striking illustration of hoAv this trouble of spongy curd may arise, happened at Long Ashton in 1898. One day tlie curd was terribly spongy. Inquiries were at once made to ascertain what had happened out of the ordinary course. It was found that some of the cows had been allowed to get into a paddock, ad- joining the yard, where there was a pool of dirty stagnant water, from which some of them drank and into which of course they went more or less. They managed to get into this paddock twice, and each time a spongy curd was produced. To make sure that it was the water it was examined bacteriologically, and in it was found one of the most typical spongy organisms, which was also found in the curd on the days when this was spongy. This organism when cultivated in gelatine (shake culture) pro- duced abundance of gas, blowing the gelatine into a veritable sponge. Some time later this taint again arose in the curd, and it was found that the cows had not been into the paddock adjoining the Bacteriological Observations. 187 yard, so a new source had to be looked for, and was at last dis- covered. The field Hop au.l Mead (Xo. 5) is on the slope of a hill on the top of which are some cotta^^es known as Providence cottages, ihe sewage from some of these cottages is allowed to pass into a receptacle in the rock which, when it is full, over- flows on to the Hop and Mead. This appears to have happeiied early in July, and when the cows were next turned out into this held the curd became both spongy and tainted with a peculiar tamt that had not been previously noticed Now con- sidering that the landlord had gone to the troubl(> and expense of having the liristol Watei' AVorlcs (lompany's water laid on to a trough in this field, it seems almost incivdibl(> that anv of the cows should take tlu^ tioubh' to mount the hill and get at this (lirtv. foul-smrlling pool in order to try and lick up some ot the iiquul therein, but such had happened, for the cows were watched, and one or two were seen to do this. The si)ot was immediately railed off, and that sounv of trouble and the troubli' its(>lf were got nd of. The Oroanismr wnreu euonucE Spongy Cunu. Bacillus Cor.r Communis. No. 1. This organism is a sliort bacillus of varying leno curdling of the milk ensues. j Stains. — Stains readily in fuchsine solution. Spore Formation — Appears marked. Motility — None. Xemarks — The organism is in many respects similar to Bacillus t'oli Communis and may be a third variety. Curd made from milk inoculated with this organism contains very large holes, quite different to tho.se produced by the Bacillus Coli Communis, and coes not possess the characteristic faecal smell. The development of acidity is not retarded. Si'ONCSY Curd Bacillus. No. 4. (/y. Bacillus Guillkheau (o). A small, nearly sqiiaro bacillus, which, being very minute, was at first thought to be a coccus. Source. — Curd. Orowtl*.— PZ„/e C'ullun' on Gelatin, .—The colonies are much raised, with smooth and shiny surfaces, dirty white in colour, and of slimy consistency i he gelatine is not liquefied. Streak Culturr on Gelatine.— The growth is rapid, and presents a thick, moist, and shiny appearance, is dirty white in colour, and of such slimy consistency that in a short time the whole growth slides down to the bottom of the tube. The organism when grown on gelatine appears to have ii capsule. Streak Culture on Agar.—K white spreading growth, slightly raised, having a smooth, flat, and shiny surface, and rather irregular crinkled edge. The growth does not slide down as in the gelatine culture. In Beef Broth. — Sediment formed. In Mill,:— At 70" Fahr. the milk thickens into a pasty-like mass at the end of seven days. staiiiB.— Stains readily in fuchsine. Methyl blue shows the capsuled appearance best. Spore rormatlon.— Not observed. Remarks — When grown on agar there is no sign of a capsule, but on gelatine and in milk a capsule appears to be formed. Milk inoculated with this organism makes a remarkably spongy curd with such large holes that the curd floats. Smell nauseous. Acidity developea rapidly while curd in the whey, but afterwards proceed very slow. Spongy Curd Bacillus. No. 5. A very minute bacillus, with rounded ends, about -7 n long and -4 u wide. Source— In mud, at the edge of the stream from which cows drank. Orowtb. — Plate Culture on Gelatine. — An irregular-shaped surface colony white and spreading. "" Streak Culture on Gelatine. — A thick, slimy, dirty-white growth, which gradually slides to the bottom of the tube, but does not liquefy the gelatine. Streak Culture on Agar. — Very similar to that on gelatinej but is more inclined to spread, and does not slide oflE the surface. In Beef Broth. — A sediment produced, the broth remaining clear. In Milk. — Does not curdle nor digest the milk. 190 iNVKSTUiATION.s ,NT., VhkUUAH ('mKKSK MakiNO. StalnB.—Htaiim with Hoino dirticulty. Spor« Pormatloa.—Not olwurvod. Motility — Not ()l)jiorvutl. The Fa'cal Taint. ui'coiiR's uui «• stnnio- }in+'„..<, iU.. I • " ., V-'^ iium a/i nisi, f,, ilnl'l'^n ' ^''''* ^^^'^'^ •>''^"'^ i('l.t>aleil attempts Imv. I.ooa m-uh. 1 ' ^l^^fg'^^f^^^wliicli prelum this tiint. Tl ou^/^^^;^^^^^ , ill r ^'""/"V ^'^^^ ^'V"t ut will by intioducilijr (Ju.m into the ' 1 I "."* ''l'^" *" 8'^^'^' ^^^'^t '^'^"^t description of e o4an -us whu-h ]ius been given of the bactena^rodieing spo^i^; h'me^ZTt "'^'^j' ^'^' ""''•'' ^-^^^ ^y S-l fortune to Two ,L ^ i-^^e ition, gave a reniarkabhwesult. iwo cheeses were made, one witli half the ordinary milk U... •ind n';^./'? 1' ""'"'' «T'^""^^^-^' investigated at the time, 1895 tirbacTel/in hp f ouly available supposition is that made ?1^ •• ' ^1 P'"'f ^"^^i"'"' ^^^*^ ^^'l^i^li the inoculation was tret'o^ioirro^ tneir own poison (antitoxin to inhibit the growth of these oigamsms during the manufacture of the cheese^ And this may ft'cal tJinJ" "^ "P'"*'^ ^"^^""^'^ *« P^-^'l^- artificially^^ whlSer tt'i^'''"^'' *r • i%Pi-''«^'»t' it i« most difficult to know n. TJ, -A-r ""' ''^^''"'''^ sufficient acidity for grinding oT not^ ihe acidity apparatus was found of ver/o-reat advanfaaj in hcdping to determine this most important 'pLt '''""'"^' As illustrating the difficulty of judging the acidity when this taint was present, it may bi mentioned that upon oi such occasion, Mr. Cannon happened to visit the dairy. I asked hTm a lef^mvTe'^Sd^l'r^. "'^ V"" f^-""*^- ^**-' -aSng S caietully, he said that it was; but, udging from the aciditv tes , It was not. I thought it would be a good elpZiZlft «Sr X^T^'i '^"''' ^^"^^ *^ *"-^^' ^^^^ ^^^ ^'lieese was rip^for sale, whether he was right or not. This cheese was made on TUcTEiai<)L()(JICAL OnSBRVATIONS. 101 the 2bih -lunc, 189^, and was tasted by Mr. Hill, Mr. Cannon himscll', and Air. (iibbons, uu the 17iii .September. The result was a very inFendr (cheese. Extended observation and experiments have jiroved thai when this taint is present in tlie eurd the best cheeses result when a I'ifili acidity is obtained before vattinf>'. In such eases the (Uf>anism which jtroduces the taint, it' not destroyed, is at least kept in cheek, and I liave known many elieeses Avliieh when made had this^ taint, lose it durinj>' ripeniug and teteh a liily, and do not appear to materially aft'ect Chi-ddar Cheese-nuiki'is. In 1896 organisms which when grown in milk give it a slimy (■onsistency, or j)roduce Avhat is known as " vo\wy " milk were more con.mcm than usual. The organism Avhich possessed this power to the greatest ex- tent was a coccus (Fig. 20), which grows mostly in pairs, diplo- cocci, and does not retain stain by Gram's method. On gelatine plate cultures {\w colonies are fairly large, circular, dirty-white in colour, and opaque. A streak culture on gelatine produces a rapid growth, white, thick, and Avith smooth, shining surface. This organism when grown in milk causes the latter to thicken and become slimy, and subsequently a glutinous ma- terial appears to settle out of the milk. I i 192 iNVKSTIOATrONS INTO CiriCDnAR rilKKSK MaKINO. An cxporinicntul cIicchc was made witli milk inoculated wi uun,nlh,d Growth of r I r""^'^' '■"^^"';';^ "^'*''' '""'^'^ ^■'•o"' it' '^"•l « growth of th.; MKHiid was mvaiiahlv obtained. AlthouLrh pre- sent in the m.lk HO frequently it has not been found in rsiig e o^heese nor ran any effect be traced to its presence in the milk As to Its ong.n m 189:>, after nu.ny fruilh-ss attempts to di«: cover Its source ,t was at last found growing abundantly in the mrthenware dra.n-pjpe which carried the whey to a reiptacle tamiilt;n''^"ir' • ""'V'* ^'"'' '"^'"-i'^'^^ly. i.ux-ulated with h.. ba.-illus acidi lactiei, the yeasts grow with 'apyl'ty ;;- • r; Kxoeriments made with these yeasts all tend to show that they improv-|. the flavour of the resulting cheeses, and much further study is rtHjuired in this direction. Rennet. The bacteria present in rennet, even when this is of the best duality are numerous and varied. Moreover. I always had in rennet the round yeast p.vvi.nisly referred to. I'he practical un- portance ..f these facts is to slu»w that rennet is not a liquid nhil.itorv to the trrowth of bacteria, so that if it be kept in an impure atmosphere, or allowed to become contaminated in any way it will become a continual source ot taint. i't The Variation in the Kind of Bacteria found at different periods of the year and at different sites. The bacteriolof,ncal work which has been done each year in connection with these observations has been considerable, take for instance the year 1890. Forty-eight plate cultures were made at Cossington, from which "eighty-six pure cultures were obtained and studied. These may be classified as follows : — „ . (liquefying ^^"""^ I non-liquefying „ .,,. ( liquefying I^''*""' i non-liquefying Yeasts, &c. ••• 16 21 8 31 10 86 Similar work had been done at each Cheese School, and from the results thus obtained, it was discovered : — First, thait .%i d^^'erent times of the year certain organisms make their app^^^rauco .-ud subsequently disappear. Thus, in 1894 of 16 fun-Jy?' organisms — i.e„ those wdiich have the pf^^yer of cauivii»g ihe solid nutrient gelatine, on which they are grown, to be cvmverted into liquid— three were found in April, Bacteeiolooical ObskrvAtions. 195 four in May, and nin« in June. Some of IhcHo vrvro again found in the montliH of July and Auj/tist, but Bubswiucuthr it was very rare to obtain a liqucfyiuj^ organisui. Secondly, tlio taints have a oertuin periodicity. Thus the vinegar taint is alnioHt always present in the spring of the year, it is follownl with u tendency to spongy curd, and lastly vrith the faecal taint. Year after year I have noticed this ( haracteri.stic periodicity in the taints." Lastly, some of the organisms found frequently one year are scarcely, if ever, seen the next. In 1896, M in former yeans, nearly all the liquefying organ- wms worti found during th»» early part of the season, that is during A|)ril and May, in which months eighteen of the twenty- four Iiqu»|fying organisms were olitained. The persistence of this peculiarity year after year seems to point to the faat that the variation is duo to simio unex|)lained peculiarity of the season. 'rhen again, the organisms which were most abundant in 1895 —the varieties of coli communis— though jjresent in 1890, more especially towards the latter part of the season, i.e., from August to October, were not ne«rly so frequently found as in 1895. Other organisms which were not found at all in 1895, were far more i)roininent in 1896. But many of these were very similar to, i£ not identical with, organisms found at Mark in 1894. Now, the farm at Mark is only five miles, as the crow flies, from the farm at Cossington. The cows at Mark, or some portion of them, feed in the low-lying nmrsh or moorland which stretches away continuously till it merges in the moorland or marshes on which many of the cows 8upj)lving the milk at Cos- sington were kept. Tlie thought naturally arises, can there be any common cause which accounts for the bacteria found in 1894 and 1896 being so similar? Seaaon or Ziooality.— Are certain bacteria found in cer- tain districts and not in others? Is it locality or is it season which causes these strange fluctuations in the varieties of bac- teria present each year during the cheese-making season ? One of the objects of investigation for the season of 1897, wjvs to try and discover an answer to this question. To this end the occupiers of the farms where the Cheese School had been held since the observations were commenced in 1891, were requested to forward me samples of curd" in stop- pered bottles, and by this means I obtained simultaneously a sample of curd of the same day's make, from each of the former sites of the Cheese School. This was done on three separate occasions, once in May, once in July, and once in September Fortunately, cheese was being made at all these dairie.«. U68 N 2 %l 196 Investigations' into Cheddae Cheese Making. The samples were forwarded : — Site of School in Mrs. J. D. Armstrong MissTilley Mrs. BothcU Mrs. J. Peters Mrs. Cx. D. Teiupleniiui Mrs. Tucker ValliB, near Frome Axbridge ... Butleigb Mark liaselbury CoHsington 1891 1893 1894 1895 1896 Plate and other cultures ot the«e curds were made by ray assistant the moment they reached 1dm at Long- Ashton lie liaving been previously instructed to prepare for tliem, so tliat there might be no delay in their iiivestigation. . As soon as the colonies on the plate cultures were suthcientiy advanced in growth, I went down to the Cheese School to examine them. The plates were merely numbered, bo that x mi'dit not know from whence each came. From the peculiarities of the colonies on these j.lates, I was able at once to pick out at least two or three, and state whence they came, ihe plate ot the curd from Haselbury was the one most easi y distinguishea, and next came those from C'ossingtou, Mark, and Axbridge. There was not, so tar aa my memory served me, any stnlung oharacteristic about the plate from Butleigh, except on one occasion; whilst the plate from Vallis I was not once able to discover. * • Upon subsequently making enquirie«^Mr Armstrong (J»;if ) 'i^ *° whether the cheeses he Imd made in 1897 were different »" •;">; ^^^^ *° ^J^^^^e he had made in preceding years -for th« bacteria P^T.^'^'V* "^^ ^^^J^ Y^n" Buch as have invariably been present in tainted nnlk-I lecenert a long letter from him, from which I extract the following :— '-Respecting the bad taints we bad in June, there are three sources we tliinlf wp mav have "ot the taint from. , , * " 1 Our ciw ' talfs are not so good as we could wish, and we have some trouble in keeping them clean and free from smell in very hot ^vea.tHer. - 2. Through the hot weather of this summer the cows ^^r" fond ol uettin-r into a p..nd. and sometimes got some of the pond dirt on * f i'^eat«- ^ "3 We hJe been feeding a deld that was sow., the year the Dairy School was here, and that field contains a lot of weeds, includmg' a lai ge quantity of ox-eyo daisies. The reason we think it might 1-, ^^'^^^^^Tn th is, we fed the same tield some two years ag... and had •^.^"^i =»J,X curd cheese ■ ray wife could smell it quite plainly when breaking down the curd 'i ma™say we take every possible care with the milking, having the cows teats wSiedMe > dirty, ^id' provide the mdkers with P^'^f ores which are washed every week. We also have the milkmg-stools washed eve.y other "^"""Last year we had a splendid lot of cheese, w« took three First P;-i=;e«, wid sold four months cheese at 7f,,s-. per cwt. We have not been s<, f< v unate this year • we have a very good lot oi July, August, and September cheese but through May and June we liad these bad taints, and do what we would we could not stop them.' , 1 1 ii v,.,„Qtr.«ii/ is bT It appears to me that the second cause suggested by Mr. Armstroug is by far the most probable oue, • my 1, he that BACTEK10L0(iICAL ObSERVAHONS. lo? l««f "i"^" °I tHe plates were alike; on each there were, more or less characteristic co onies. Of courne. tl.e lactic aci, colonies So Co? hi' ^Z f'' '^"^ -"^"'^^ ^^'"1 ^I'-^P-- between the posting of the curd to my assistant and the oxaniination of the t^H^ ^^ rtl Bufficient to develop the acidity considerably. wikh w.nfn h^^' r'\''^ destroying some ?f tl.e bactorfa momir+T T' ^'^"^ ^""i^'^' ^^«^ *^« I'l^te t)eeu made the moment the curd was ground. The results of these investigations are, in my opinion, con- elusive unon one point, nam(Uy, that the reason why certain bactena have been found at one School and not at another is due to local and not to climatic causes.* Ft must not be sup- posed tor a moment that climatic conditions have no ettVct; for, at present, we can only attribute the fuclnations in the varie- ties of bacteria which take jilfu-o at each School durinir the seven months season of cheese-making to climatic conditions. The problem of far greater importance is, why should dif- ferent localities be infested with difT.^reut bacteria, whence do they come and what conditions i)reHerve them in one place, whilst in others they are not to be found, or at most only rarely? Bacteria and Plants.- In 1898, following up this work 1 thought it (It^sirablo to determine if tliere were bacteria on the plants of the fields, aud if these bacteria were different or similar. ITie uh^a originated in May, when the grass of the hmedandunhmed fields at Fc-nswood Farm was examined, and the bacterm, although in the main similar, were found to be slightxy different Subsequently, when going over the farm with Mr. (,arruthers, I noticed the plant Liuum catharticum (purt^inff flax) was present in some of die fiel.ls, but did not appear to be present m others. Might it be that the variations in tho bacteria at different sites was jartlv due to the different plants found in the pastures at these sites? The idea was in- teresting, and, on thinking of the well-known fact that both animal and vegetable parasites are found to have a marked preference for certain plants, it seemed to me quirte possible that, if bactena were found to be present on the plants, these, too,' «■ It i.s impossible for me to record these facts without recoL'nising that they are quite oppoRed to Tchat I had expected : that thoy throw a new light altogether upon the problems of cheese-making, and open up onc3 again the question as to whether the universal belief among cheese-makers, thi^t it is more dithcult to make cheeses in some localities than in others, may not have a legitimate foundation. Still, one cannot con.sider that the opeiiing-up of this question once again is altogether a retrograde sfep. The object of these investigations has been merely to discover the truth. In the past, because we could not find, either in the chemical analvsis of the soil or in the botanical examination of the pastures, any support for these local sup- positions, we were led to doul)t their bein-r foinided upon fact \nd wc were justified in doing so, for it must not be forgotten that either to 'the soil or to the pasture all difficulties were invariably attril)uted. We ought not to aFsume, from the results of these few experiments that the matter is conciusively Bottled either one way or the other. Is I 198 Investigations into Ciieddae Cheese Making. might exert a selective power. On the 29th June, milk cul- tures were made with Ldnum catharticum and Onmiis arvensis, (liest-han-ow), small portions of these plants being placed in sterile milk tubes. The result of the examination of ithese cultures was to show a distinct difference. On 16th July the experiments were carried further. The sterile milk (tubes were taken out into the fields. A piece of the plant was gripped with sterile forceps, cut off, and immediately placed in the milk. In this way five plants were examined — Achillea millefolium (Yarrow), Daclylis glomerata (Rougli Cocksfoot), Trifoliumrepens (White Clover) — and the two previously mentioned. Siib- sequently, plate cultures were made from these, and the bacteria examined more closely. This experiment was repeated on the 10th August ; but my assistant could not find the Linum cathar- iicum, so only four milk cultures were made, three of the plants being taken "from within IS inches of each other. The bacteria found on the Trifolium repens were always very similar— more so than those on other plants. They were characteristic and different in both appearance and chemical action to those on the other plants. The bacteria on each of the four plants, taken at the same time, and from the same spot, were different. These are the two principal conclusions to which I have come from a very careful examination of all the results obtained. It would not be possible here to give in detail a description of the various bacteria found ; it must suffice to say that the results lead me to believe that there are distinct bacteria on the various plants, or at least that some bacteria are found more often and more certainly on some plants than on others. The subject is one which cannot possibly be dealt with in a few experiments like these, but is worthy of the most careful attention on the part of botanists. It appears to ojien up an entirely new field of bac- teriology—one of con.siderable interest, and may be of great practical utility. 199 Part VII. ExPKfiiMKNTs ON THE Various Methods OF Making Cheddar Cheese. ^''^Ti.Sr''*^!,,^%"r''y. System— Experiments on the Scotch System -Some lystems "° ^^'^ ^«"°- Systems.-The Relative Advantagefof different E.rj,eAments on the Candy System of Cheddar Cheese-making. In 1892 some experiments were made to try the effect of a SnT ' ^''\'f''^^--^y ^^^-^ C^^andy infoiiied me that in making some of tlie experimental cheeses of 1892, I had very c osely followed his system without being aware of it. The con- clusions to which those experiments led were, that in Cannon's system the whey was pressed from the curd mainly by means of acidity, but that in Candy's system the whey would be expelled mainly by means of heat. In 189;{ I determined to study mo.v '. hTif ^ '^1 '""t/ ^i''\^r Cheese-makinf. which depended upon a high scald. The best-known of these is Candv's system To ma^e sure that I understood it, I wrote out a description, and sent It to Mr Candy, who returned it in due course, with the informa- tion that It was not sufficiently accurate in some of the details, and that he thoiight it would be better for me to come to his place and study the system there. This I did, and on the last day o± my visit, made the cheese, so far as possible, Mr. Candy watching me, and pointing out and correcting all errors ir mV manipulation. Mr. Candy subsequently published a full .lescriji- tion of his method of cheese-making, which is reprinted on p. 15 ot this i;gport. '■ ^ Mr Candy, in order that I might see how this system was Adiied to meet different degrees of acidity or ripeness in the milk, was kind enough to take the trouble to obtain the milk eacli day in a different stage of ripeness. The foHouinff tabic s urns the acidity developed in the various stages of manufacture at Mr. Landv s ; — Tahle of Acidities at Mr. Candy's. 3rd Oct. I 4th Oct. Mixed milk before renneting ... Whey before breaking Whey when drawn .' Draining from piled Curd First drainings on cooler Second ,, Third " First draining after cutting Second „ ,, Third and last draining after cutting Liquid from press •20 •12 •13 •17 •17 •21 •24 '•'33 •33 •83 5ch Oct. •205 •21 •12 •13 •13 •14 •15 •15 •1(5 •15 •i;i •17 tt ..;.) •30 •31 •30 •92 !•• «i. ' '. ; 200 Investigations into Cheddar Cheese Making. if \vc conn)arc the above figures witli tlio acidities obtained on Cannon's system, it will be at onee seen that the devek)))inent of aeidity in Candy's system is very slow. There can be iittk' (h)ubt that we liave liere a complete confirmation of the (h'diictions previously stated, namely, that Avhile Cannon seeks to obtain the necessary dryness of the curd before grinding by means of acidity, Cnndy obtains that dryness at an earlier stage by means of heat, and develo[)s acidity sub- sequently. The i)rin('i|)le common to the two systems, is to obtain a curd before vatting which shall contain only a certain amount of whey, and that whey possessing a certain acndity, and it will be found that this is the ultimate aim of every method of Chetklai' Cheese-making which exists. I went direct from Mr. Candy's to the School at Butleigh, and there, on the Gth October, made a cheese upon his system. The analysis proved that the; amount of moisture in the curd was abuost identical with that which Miss Cannon obtains in her curd. Mr. Candy informed me that cheese made upon his sys- tem required longer to ripen than three months. This state- ment of Mr. Candy's Mhieh it may be tak(>n for granted is based upon ex])erience, is a c(uifirmatibn of the opinion which I ven- tured to express in l.SD'J, and which all subsequent work has confirmed, namely, " that a cheese made with low acidity re- quires longer to ripen than a cheese with high acidity." Tainted Ittilk.— In Candy's system the curd is exposed to the air while on the rack, but in Cannon's system it is kept encased in cloths, and with a weight on it. An experiment was t'nereiore tried, to determine whether there would be any dif- ference in the two nu>thods when working with milk contain- ing the ffEcal taint. The milk was divided in half, one half treated on Can.ynu's system, the other on (Tandy's. When Miss Cannon's curd was vatted at 5 p.m., it had the fa;cal smell strongly developed, but was otherwise a gdod curd. In the curd made on Candy's system, the sme 1 was perceptible, but not nearly so strong. When the cheeses wore cut for sale, no ti'aec of the taint could be found in either. Miss (Gannon's cheese was the be+ter of the two, but the superiority of this cheese was easily accounted for. Cheeses made on Candy's system are not ready for market so soon as those made on (iannon's system, hence the experimental cheese, though good, had not then acquired the flavour which would be developed with lonjier ripening. Ex'perimenix on the Scotch System of Cheddar Cheese-making. The Scotch system of making Cheddar Cheese as carried on in the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright, possesses certain distinct pecu- liarities wdiich so far affect the principles that underlie cheese- malcing that it will be well to briefly describe the vsystem as I have seen it carried out in the Stewartry and elsewhere. Various Methods oi' Manufacture. 201 The first conHideiatiou witli tlie Scotch maker is to oUain the e.voiung s imlk of mifficient ripeiK'88 by the inorniim. This ripe- ncss he tests by means of the rennet test. If the milk, aft,>r the whole of It has l)een brought to the right temperature for ren- neting shmikl not be of sufficient rii.eness. then it is covered up ami left to ripen; on no account would the rennet be added until the milk was sufficiently ripe. The rennet is then added, in the proportion of 1 oz. to 27 gallons of milk, or one part of rennet to 4,320 parts of milk. Ihis IS the second striking point about the Scotch system, the amount of HMinet used being about twice the quantity em- poyed by the West of England cbeese-makers. The ciird is allowed to set for one ]u)ur, and is then bv means of American curd knives cut tliree times in different directions until it is divided into small half-inch cub(>s. The advantage of usin{r the American knives is that the amount of fat left in the whey is less than when the shovel-break(>r is used. But there is one dis- advantage which, unless care is tak<>n, may more than counter- balance all the advantages. In order to use the knives with eas(. the curd must be firm, more so than is necessary with the tl f''';^-]^''^^: ;iii^re can be little doubt but that this has gradually brought about the custom of using more and more rennet until at last, as already shown, it has become double the amount generally used in the West of England. This excess ot rennet IS detnmental to the manufacture of cheese of the finest quality. . The curd is scalded to 97° F. The cheese being made in jacketed tubs this scald is produced gradually, taking about etti"'';!*"- , ^'"V""^ " then stirred f.u. 25 miiJ^tes. alfowTd to settle the whey drawn, and the curd taken out of th.^ tub and placed upon a cleth over a rack in the cooler. The curd when taken out of the tub on to the cloth is crumbled up into fine particle^, and the whey taken up with the curd drains fhrouffh the cloth 1 he curd having been thoroughly broken up, and the excess of whey allowed to drain off, is covered with cloths and allowed to rest 30 minutes. It is then turned, and again broken up, but not so fine as b(>f re. It now gradually solidifies, and is next cut into b Ocks abou, 1 ft. wpiare, on the surface, and about 3 or 4 ins. in thickness. These are piled together, turned occa- sionally, and finally ground. The curd is then spread over the cooler, and when sufficiently cool is salted and put into the vat. '■ In the early stages of the manufacture of this cheese, the sys- tem^ adopted IS very similar to the Candy system, but it has one distinct peculiarity, namely, the crumbling of the curd into small fragments when it is taken from the tub to the cooler. Ihe effect of this crumbling process is to admit the air into the curd in a manner, and to an extent which does not happen in any other system of Cheddar Cheese-making with which I am acq^uainted. And the result of this aeration 18 to promote the active development of the bacteria, more especially of the lactic i m 202 Investigations into Cheddar Cheese Making. acid organisms present in the curd. Owing to this the development of acidity is rapid, and sufficient aciditv is obtained in the curd before vatting. although this takes place about 2 p.m. The saving of time by this method of cheese-making a,s compared with either the Candy or Cannon h\ tem is considerable. The detenninations of acidity which I made in Scotland showed that fairly uniform results were obtained, and about the same amount of acidity was developed as in the English systems. Thus, in one instance, which will suffice for quotation, the acidities were as follows : —Mixed milk, -22 per cent; whey, when curd taken to cooler, ^O per cent. ; drainings from curd when it was con- sidered ht to grind, '67 i)er cent.; liquid from press, l-O^ per cent. The difference in the acidity of the liquid coming from the curd wlien it was considered fit to grind, and that of the liquid from the i)ress is explained by the fact, that after being ground the curd is spread out to cool and air gains access to it and promotes the growth of the acid-forming organisms. The same result is obtained in Candy's system. Indeed, we are forced to the conclusion that it is this unrecognised development of acidity in the curd when cooling that enables many people to make a good cheese by this systt^m, who are unable \o make it by the Cannon system, where the amount of acidity in the curd has to be determined by the sense and experience of the maker before the curd is ground and put away. Some experiments have been carried out on the Scotch system of making Cheddar Cheese, to determine certain points.' The first was to discover why, in this system, the cheese is made ill so short a time. This experiment was with milk having an acidity of '22 per cent. To obtain this acidity, great care had been taken in the ripening of the evening's milk, for it seemed obviously neces- sary to obtain it, if rapid results were to be secured. On the other hand, being convinced that the use of an excessive amount of rennet was ('atrimental to the manufacture of a good cheese, only one part was added to 7,000 of milk. In all other respects the cheese was made on the Scotch system. The acidity of the liquid from the curd rose rapidly after it was taken to the cooler. The curd was ground at 1.30 p.m., left to cool, and vatted at 3.30 p.m. The acidity of the liquid from the press was 1-00 per cent. The cheese was good, but not so good as the best English Cheddar Cheese, being rather too dry. The chief peculiarity of the cheeses made on the Scotch system is their dryness. The analysis of the curd showed that it contained only 37-60 per cent, of water, whereas the average composition of the cheese made in the same month at the School showed 4012 per cent, of water. Similar results have been obtained with samples of curd sent from Scotland ; they all contain less water than should be present in a curd which will ripen into an excellent cheese. This is a natural result of using a large proportion of rennet coupled with a high scald. Ordinarily a rapid cheese cannot be made unless the milk Various Methods ok Manufaqtuejb. 203 is ripe to start with. To ascertain if this held true of the ficotch system also, the second cheese was made with milk which showed less acidity. The result was that the cheese took as long to make as did a cheese made from the other half of the milk hy Miss Cannon on her system. Neither of the cheeses was vatted until 7.40 p.m., and both contained the same amount of acK present in the curd. The liquid from the press of the cheese made on the bcotch system contained 10:{ per cent, of acid; of that made by Miss Cannon 102 per cent, of acid. These experiments ccmclusively show that the value of the .Scotch system so far as its rapidity goes, depends primarily upon obtaining sufhcient ripeness in the milk to start with, and that lailing this It IS as long a process as Cannon's system. When ripe the cheese niade on the Scotch system sho'wed the pecu- liar dryness which had characterised the former experimental cheese. ' In the preceding remarks upon the Scotch system of making cheese. It has been slate.l that opening up the curd and leaving It in a fine state exposed to the air immediately aftex caking it from the tub, and, again, for cooling b(>fore vatting, ensures the development of acidity. It may not unnaturally be asked, upon what grounds is such a statement made. It is based upon a number of observatums and determinations of acidity and is conclusively ])rove(l by the next experiment. A cheese was being made by Miss Cannon in the usual way. When the curd was removed from the tub, it was divided into two parts, each of which was subsequently treated in the usual manner up to the first turning. The acidity of the li(,uid which came from the curd at this stage was -78 per cent. Half the curd was then ground and spread out to cool, the other half was wrapped up in cloths, as usual, to keep the heat in the curd and promote ripening. The second half, after reniaininir wrapped up for half an hour, was ground and salted, and the cooled and uncooled portions were vatted within a few minutes of each other. The acidity of the liquid from press of the curd which had been opened up to cool was 1-14 per cent.; the acidity of the liquid from press of the curd which had been wrapped up a »s only 1 09 per cent, although the temperature of the latter was, when in the vat 8° F. higher than that of the cooled iiortion. Ihis exiieriment affords very conclusive e^^dence of the effect of o|)ening up the curd to the atmosphere, and proves that the development of lactic acid is promoted more by the free access of air than by temperature. (Jne reason which had been given to me by Scotch makers for the large amount of rennet used was that it helped to ripen the cheese more rapidly. An experiment was made to test this point The milk was divided equally between Miss Cannon and myself. She used one part of rennet to 9,000 parts of milk • 1 used one part of rennet to 4,500 parts of milk. So far as pos- sible, the cheeses were made alike; but Miss Cannon's curd 204 Invkstigations into Oiieddar Chkesk Makini;. mado with less rennet contained less acidity than the cnrd made witli the larger proportion of rennet, llenee the rcHult cannot be relied upon as due solely to the action of rennet, uev(;rthe- less when the cheeses were sold the one made with most rennet, showed more fat, and was slightly the better cheese, having ripened more thoroughly than the other. * : h li! iij Some Thoughts on the Various Systems of Cheese -ma kitig. The various systcius uf cheese-niakiu^r now in vogue were described in Part 1., and in the preceding pages certain facts are rec()rded which have been proved by experiment in connec- tion with three of these systems. It may now be well to ask, first, whether there is any reason why there should be so many systems; secondly, whether some systems are more suitable to certain conditions than others; and thirdly, whether it would not be possible to construct a sysftem of cheese-making which should combine th(^ advantages of each? These questions may be discussed from two standpoints, the one having regard to a system which should be suitable for a private dairy, where only one or two cheeses are made in the day, and the other to a factory system, where a large quantity of milk has to be dealt with at a time. I do not think that Cannon's system is suitable for factory purposes, for the large amount of labour which it would entail in dealing with the curd during the processes of cutting' and turning would be quite insurmountable. As regards cheese-making in a private dairy, it may be well to consider seriatim the points which have been raised. There is, I think, ample reason to believe that the vaiious sys- tems which have arisen are not entirely due to chance, though undoubtedly they are so to a large (>xtent. These investigations have shown that, owing to the variations in the ccmi position of milk, even from farms in the same county, there is a need for some variation in the methods of manufacture. If milk were a liquid of uniform composition, then it would be unnecessary to have more than one system of (Uieddar cheese-making. But liiilk is no(t of such a nature. It is a liquid of very varying composition, varying not only from month to month and year to year on the same farm, and from the same stock, but varying also in the same month and in the same year upon different farms, ev(>n itv the same locality. That this difference is partly due to the breed of the cattle I am (piite prepared to admit, indeed T will go so far as to say it is chiefly due to breed. But at the same time, in my opinion, it is also ])artly due to food, and (this again to the nature of the soil and the herbage natural to that soil, and there can be little doubt but that it is this variation in the composition of the milk yielded at different farms which has led to the various systems of cheese-making. This brings us to the second problem as to whether some systems are more suitable to certain conditions than others. Vaeious Methods oi' Manufactheb. 205 Ihore can bo but one answer to tliis question, and that is in the athnimtivc lake foi- example, the iuilk which was yiehled at Long Ashtou in 18i)< and KSi)8, with its marked dehciency of casein. Here it is ovid.-nt, from the results of experiment, and also from theoretical (Jonsidc'rationH, owing („ the high propor- tion of moisture in the curd, that a higher Hculd than that ised scaldTm" T ^''''' '"''*'''' ''''""^'' ^^''"'^ ^^"" ^''"'l^^^^T Lastly, we pass to the r.msideiation of that far more dittioult wW r'l '''' n 1 * '!"' '^ ""'""^i' ^"' ^''''''^^^ t" fonstruet a system which should be abh. to combine th<. advantagt-s of all otliers lo commence with, il must be eh-arly realised that one part of a system often depends uj.on some preculing part. Ulius, for examp e, the high scald in Candy's system is necessary to con- tract the curd because that cunl ,h.,.s not contain a 'sufti.-ient munber of the lactic acid producing bacteria to cause the con- traction of the curd by the dey-lopment of acid. Had Candv used sour whey, as do.>s Cannon, it would be dilHcult under ordi- nary conditions to also employ such a high scahl. Henct- the necessity of a ow scahl in Cannon's systen.. Let me take another i ustration. Owing to the fact that, when th.«. curd is taken to the c(K)ler in the (Gannon system, it already contains a large proportion of acid, and, owing to the low sc^ald, a large I.ropoi-tion of whey, ,t is necessary that tlu. remainder of this system should be designed to get rid of this whey as rapidly as possible lest suthcient acidity be produc-d, and the curd be ready to grmd before it is sufficiently dry. Hence the system of wrap- I)ing It up in cloths and putting pn^ssurc; upon it, and of cutting and breaking it up into fine pieces from time to time. ^ hut m Candy's system all th(> operations subsequent to the curd being placed upon the cooler are devoted merely to the development of acidity, an.l no account is taken of the moisture m the curd This, in fact, has already been expelled to a suffi- cient extent, and any surplus remaining is certain to be ex- peiled naturally as the acidity develops. Lastly, let us examine the Scottish system. The great care taken to ripen the milk has produced more acidity than would be present in the mixe.l milk employed in Candy's system, yet scarcely less than would be present in Cannon's system, where Rour whey had be,>n used, and there is a growing tendency on the part of Scotch makers to employ sour whey. Thus we get m the first place, as regards acidity, an approximation to Cannon's system, next in the high scald. w.> have one of the characteristic features of Candy's system. What is the result? The curd IS dry and comparatively acid as well. Hence the sub.sequent operations an^ directed to cooling and consolidating the curd as rapidly as ])osnble without pressure, as in Cannon's system, yet without that lontr and tedious Avaiting for the development" of acidity _ which is the chief drawback to Candy's system. H will be s(>en bow difficult is the task of endeavouring to combine m one system all the advantages of those now existing Ihe results of these observations all tend to demonstrate the 206 Investigations into Cheddar Cheese Making. ■' advantage of using sour whey, or some other means of adding to the milk a culture of the lactic acid bacillus. If this can be done, and the evening's milk well ripened, then I am in favour of a higher scald than that employed in Cannon's eystem, yet one not so high as that of Candy, a second scald of 100° F. would, I think, be ample. We should thus obtain a curd containing ami)le acidity, and yet slightly diyer than the Cannon curd. Instead of ])iling the curd in the tub, I should prefer to draw off all the whey, carry the curd to the cooler, and break up fine as in the Scotch system, so as to ?'"t rid of the whey, and open up the curd to the atmosphere, as tins would pro- mote a subsequent rapid development of acidity. The curd should then be brought together with the object of consolidating it as soon as possible, and be kept warai during this ])rocess. Acidity should now proceed with fair rapidity and also all ex- cess of moisture come away from the curd.' And lastly, the curd, if properly manipulated, should, when ground, not' be at too high a temperature to vat. This system would be appli- cable either in a farmhouse or in a factory. Moreover, it would be ])ossi1)le by such a system to so manipulate the curd as to develop in it, by the time it was ready to grind, either a higher or lower percentage of acid, according to whether a rapid or slow-ripening cheese was required. It will be evident from what has ])receded, that no system of cheese-making can be carried on throughout the year, and on every farm, without modification. Thus, in the early part of the year, when there is always difficulty in obtaining "sufficient acidity in the mixed milk, it would be necessary to lower the temperature of the scald lest the curd should get too dry before sufficient acidity had been developed in it. On the other hand, where acidity had developed too rapidly, It would be necessary to increase the temperature of the scald. The tendency of the curd to get too cool, during the early spring or autumn nionths, would have to be carefully guarded against by means of a stove in the dairy. In fact, every dairy should be kept at a temperature of nO° to 65° F. during the cheese-making season, whatever the temperature may be outside. ffj; < |i I The Relative Advantages of Different Systems. After a very careful investigation of the various systems of cheese-making, I have come to the conclusion that as good a cheese can be made by any one as by any other. As a rule, when a maker fails to make good cheese, it is not the fault of the system, but is due to want of cleanliness or want of sufficient skill. Nothing is more disastrous than for a maker who hai not met with success to alter his system or to take up another. The only course for him to pursue is first to discover, from those who possess experience of the system which he has adopted, in what respects he has failed to carry the system out properly, and then to remedy these defects, 207 Pakt VIII. THK MANUFACTURK OK C.IKDDAH CIIKKSE HV Cannon's SYSTKM T.n.: M„.T .MPOUTANT AC„..TV ..KTKHM.NATiONS IN Tms SVSTKM. The Manufacture of Cheddar Cheese hy Cann,m\s System. The exi,enm,.nts and ohscivations. winch have boon mad.' at he Uu-ese Schools of the Hath and WcHt an/\Vl;' "'^; ""I;" ^■'"" 1""''^^"'^' "^^1; '^' *^«^^ "* y-^ ^-^ the .Lpe a- ture of the evening's milk in the morning. In June, July and August, about one-half will be necessatv; in the pring and autumn, more than half may be necessary.' ^ ^ The Mornlng-'a Milk is now strained into the tub con- taming the remainder of the evenin-^'s milk. " fj^^ i''"" in acidity will sliow whether the milk is verv rine or nnf Tt should be only -01 to -03 above the evening acidity ^ ^ " * ^* 208 TiCVKSTIOATIONS INTO ClIKDDAE ChRKSK MaKINO. Then tlu' .piantity o! milk in tho tub and in the warmer should bo noted, and also tht- tianiM-ralurt! of racU. Tt i .«HH..ntial in ..h.M.H..-makinKr io know tho (luant.ty of m Ik that is bi.ii.i; dealt will.. VVithnul posHCHHinp this know odg.' "it n ..isi*!.!. to ascertain whetlun- tho cows an- ."-'; -"-^^ ll.-ir vi'ld an.l imvinu' for their keep; to ju.l^'e wli.-tliei tlu an un o .h-se' n.ade is what it ou^ht to be; to accurate v estimate tlu- c,uantity of rennet wlu<. . should be »-l »" >; ce.u.rallv. to conduct the many operatn.ns ot cheese-uxakinK In f re and not hap-ha/.u..l method. Therefore the necessity o having both the cheene-tub and warnu.- accurately pranked cannot be too strontrly urL'ed npon all cheese-makers. While it is custmnar • to find cheese-tubs with a pauRC, it i« seldom ihat the warmer har, one., Yet.to faci itate an£enBU accuracy in cherse-makinir. it is advisable to have accmate ^Ji pes for both cheese-tul. and warmer. ,T;he ^.M^^es shmild m t L Ld to the tub, but made to h^'^I'^V'''""! Tho e a .': so that th.-v can be .asily rem.wcd and cb^annb ^ hose at m sent supplied with cheesc-t>ibs are not ^raduat^^d finely enough^ Thev arV only marked to sho.v r,-pallon differen.-es whereas it wouhl be Jy to sub-divnde each of these cl-i-ons into 5 so a to paupe the exact number of gallons present. Ihese niark« miS reach only half-way across the pan pe. Greater care 2 1 also be taken to place the che.-se-tub exactly horizontal : t men y there is a difference of two or more gallons in the re iS o^ the ffauge, according to its i)Ofiition on the tub. In «uc Iwase i is neces ary to take rthe readings at two opposite ;lt:. and th: .uean of 'the two readings will show the quantity of milk present. -, , „.- 1W41U —The first operation is to bring the" ;nrofT°'Xto"rco.^«t U.u.A«^ i<»- -nneUng. '''H: Srr Stfthe to„>peratu.-e to which *;;P-«o„ of plenty of evening's milk in the warmer. wwr. Each ftal'"" ''' *" '"'' """ '" '" '" ^ L Manupactuek by Cannon's System. 209 which rci.nscuts iiU ilcgrwi-B of hi'ut, Ihcn-foro tho 20 gallouH iiiust U- luiHcd yo ubdvc tlic tcini.fiutuiv nMiuiivd ho m to give thcHc (.U (ifgivcs of h.'ut up U> th(« milk in ilu- tub. Tlie t.'ui- ])(Tutur(^ iv(iuiiv(l is 81°, to which U(hl the '6° rcquiml, and wts obtuiu S(0 us the tciupcratuiv to which the evening's uullt must m heated. On the other liand, if the (iO gallons were at 86° F., they would have to be lowered 2° each, or 1:.>0 degrees of heat, which IS the mime as lowering 20 gallons (i degrees each. Hence, the ^U gallons would be re<|uired at a temperature 0° below 84°. or at 78° l*\ The rule may be stated thus. Multiply the number of gallons of milk in the tub by the number of degr(>es which they have to 1m« raised or lowered, and divide th(> number so (d)(aincd bv the gallons of milk in the warmer. The result shows the number of degrees above or below 84, to which the milk in the warmer must be brought. E.rampU\~'V\wiv are 17 gallons of milk in warmer and ol in tub at 82° F. The milk in the tub has therefore to be raised 2° F. Multiply Divide by 51 X 2 = 102 17)10'-i ( 6 102 Add to 84, and we obtain 90° as tho temperature to which the 17 gallons have to bo raised. Whey Added. — A certain quantity of whey, which has been ri^served from the previous day's make, is now heated in the warmer to 84°, and added to the milk to ensure uutHcient acidity. The quantity depends mainly upon the temperature to which the evening's milk has fallen "during the night, as also upon the acidity in the morning. If it remains above 70° F. in tho morning, about 1 gallon of sour whev should be used for every 50 gallons of milk ; if under 70° but above 050, from 2 to -'{ gallons would be desirable. The quantity must, how- ever, depend upon the judgment of the maker. When the acidimeter is used if the rise in acidity has been only -01 a full amount of whey may be added, but if it has risen O'V, only a small quantity or even none art; all Avould be necessary', especially in very warm weather. In some instances, wh(>re the dairy- is small and the milk remains at a high temperature all night, it is not necessaiy to add any whey. Should there have be(>n any taint in the ])revious day's milk, it would be unwise to add any whey from that day's make. It will then be necessary to keep the heat in the evening's milk during the night, by covering the tub over with a cloth, not forgetting to stir so as to prevent the cream rising. ^Reuneting-. — The next operation is to add the necessarv quantity of rennet. After abiding the rennet the milk is 1468 Mil p ill 210 iNVESTIOATrONS INTO ClIEDDAR ClIEESK MakiNG. thoroughly well stiiivd io.v 10 minute8. When tho milk k very ripi'—which will Imvo been noticed ii the crcaiu tiistod u iittJe sour before, being put into the warmer, as also by llie quantity of acid present, a shorter period will be sutHcient. ' The tul) is then covered over, thive laths being Hrst laid across the top ()t it, and upon them a " wrai)p("r " of sackcloth. This will maintain the heat in the milk and kee[) oi.;, dust. _ Measuring- Rennet.- To use the proper quantity of rennet IH one ot the most important points in cheese-making. The quantity will depend upcn the tiim- of year, tlu> composition of the milk, and the strength of the rennet. The first two can only l,e estimated from exi)erieuce antl by careful observaticms fnuu day to day. The latter can be easily determined by the aid of a few instruments. It is impossibh" to lay too Imu'li stress upon the imj)ort(l in excess, a hard curd will be obtiiined ; and when in- sutticient IS used, a soft curd ensues, causing white whey and a considerable h,ss of ^ it, unless the very greatest care is subse- (piently ex(>rcised. A good rennet extract will cause 9,000 times its own volume ot mi k to set in a firm curd in 45 minutes. Seeing then tiie reniarkabl(> strength of the rc-nnet extract, it is most nec(>ssary to Jiave a means of very accurately m<>asuring out the (uiantitv necessary. ' Some cheese-makers use merely an old tea-cui., and wonder why they do not get th(> sanu" results with (heir , I.ecse day after (lay. Some use the ordinary medicine glass divided into tea- s}>oo_ns, but this is not nearly accurate (Miough. At my su"'- gestion, Messrs. Townsoii and Mercer, of 79, l^ishopsgatr Sire "t London, have made a two-ounce graduated glass cylinder- measure, having 200 divisions, each of which reijivsents 100th part of an ounce. With tliis measuiv it is («asv to accuraielv measuiv out the necessary (|uantity of rennet, while to calcu- late wliat this (luantity is will be very sim])le. ^(lultii.ly tlie number of gallons of milk by Ui, and divide by 0, the result will show the number of divisions of rennet necessary For example : 72 gallons of milk are in the tub', multiply this oy ](), the result is 1152, which divided by 9 o-ives l'\S- nud therefoiv 128 divisions of rennet will be required.'in ot.h(vr words. l"^a ounces. • w ' o'^nUn^'^./^r'*''"* ''■^"'" ^^''^ pi'ni)ortion of rennet to milk IS 1 tr) 9,000: if tlie proportion is to be 1 to 8,800, then divide by 8-8, or if 1 to 9,200, then divide bv 9-2. Testing- Rennet.- lo test the strength of the rennet, pro- ceed as follows. Take 6 o/. of milk, Avarm to 84° F add 10 divisions accurately of rennet ; stir well for a secon.l ,u- two and note carefully how many seconds elapse aftcu- adding the rennet before the milk sets firmly; the time will vary according to MANUFACTirRK BY CannOn's SysTRM. 211 In this way, it is after a littl(. oxj)m,.nco caHiiy i,nssil,I,. in M] ;tn;.ti; =^">;/--,r"-t hou,.hi L uss of fat 1 he American curd knives may b<. us.-d instead of the breaker, sp/l''' ;"^;V^''^^''^^'- ''^"''•'^•^'lu.'ntly. the curd is allowed to settle untd the whev has ns.-n. The time which elapses befor,. he whey r,s(.s and the curd is fit to break will varv nearly every day, and the whey is allowed to rise more thoroMf.'hlv in autumn han ni summer. When the whey rises quicklv-one hour from le time otrennet.ufT-it indicates thai a (,uite sufficient quantity of acid was present in the milk; but if the whey rises more rapidly, fheiv was an excess of acidity; while, if if takes (mfioi than one hour from time of rennetin^;, then there was a ack of acidity, ni which case the stirrin;-- durino' scald will hav,. to be continued for a longer period than wouhl otherwise be necessary. Breaking. -AMien the wh.-y has properly risen, tlu" " break- ni«. ot he cur.1 comnienc.>s. Th,> curd must b,. broken m-ntlv but_ evenly for halt an hour, at tlu- end of which lime it should be in a uniform state of fine division, and in pi,«ces about the size of peas. After breakinfj, ih,. curd is allowed to settle for .^) minutes butftcieiit whey is then dipped out and put aside for the morrow s cheese. Tl^At Scald.— A quantity of whey is now ])laced in the warmer, and heated to such a temperature that when it is again mixed with the portion in the tub, the latter is raised to a tem- perature of -88^ ¥. The healed wh(>y shoul.l be ad.led f.radually the contents of the tub being- slowlv stirred the whole time As a rule it is found that if one-fourth the contents of the tub are heated to 110° F. this will be sufficient. This is called the first 1468 a 21 2 Investigations into Ciieddak Cheese Making. 11 il i ) 1 I s Hcald. Should tlie acidity be developing more rapidly than usual it is desirable to raise the first scald to 90° l\ instead of 88° F. The temperature to which this portion of whey must be heated may be estimated by means of a similar calculation to that adopted with the evening's milk. Thus, if there are 60 gallons in tub and 15 in warmer, the temperature in tub is, say, 8^°, hence GO gallons have to be raised 5 degrees each, or yOO degrees of heat; the 15 gallons in the warmer must there- fore be heated 20 degrees above the required 88°, or to 108° F. "While the whey is being warmed, the hand is passed round the sides of the tub from top to bottom, so as to separate any curd whicli may cling to the sides. The curd must be kept stirred while the whey is being heated. The hot whey having been added, the curd .is well yet slowly stirred for 15 minutes and then allowed to pitch or 'settle for 5 minutes. When the acidity is rising rapidly it is only desirable to stir for from 5 to 10 minutes. Second Scald.— A fresh portion of whey is placed in the warmer, usually about one-seventh the contents of the tub, and heated to 130°, and sufficient is gradually added to the tub to raise the contents to a temperature of 92° F. This is the second scald. Later in the year the temperature of the second scald is raised to 94° F.* The whey for the second scald must never be heated above 1-30° F. so more must be taken when a higher scald is required. The curd is kept continually stirred in this scald until it has acquired a certain degree of firmness. ' This firmness is esti- mated by the sense of touch of the maker, some of the curd being pressed in the hand. Others use the hot-iron test. The curd shoiild attain a condition which is technically termed " shotty." Ordinarily, this condition is obtained after about 30 minutes' stirring, though sometimes it may take much longer. In fact, it cannot always be obtained, and the curd is then known as " sweet." When the curd is sufficiently hard, the contents of the tub are very rapidly stirred round "into the condition of a whirlpool, so as to gather the curd into the centre, and the curd is tlien allowed to settle. The acidity of the whey should now be tested. If the acidiity be correct, the curd should remain for 15 minutes, but if "" sweet," and not firm, it must remain for a longer period, in fact it should remain until the acidity is nearly the same as that of the mixed milk befoie renneting. Subsequently the whey is drawn off through a strainer into the whey leads. ' The curd is then " piled." Plliner Curd.— This operation consists in turning up thp outer rim of curd, which lies on the bottom, and immediately II u • If the acidity is going very rapidly it is desirable to make the second scald higher, 9()°, 98° or evon 100° F., according to the rate at which the •cidity 18 developing. ING. Manufactuhe by Cannon's System. 213 ipidly than . instead of y must be :culation to lere are 60 in tub is, ;es each, or must there- ) 108° F. issed round sparate any st be kept hey having 15 minutes When the r for from red in the le tub, and the tub to the second nd scald is ated above s required, ntil it has jss is esti- curd being The curd . " shotty." minutes' . In fact, known as 'outents of lition of a d the curd ey should ird should n, it miist d remain lixed milk ff through lied." g up the imediately e the second it which the around the side of the tub, and throwing it back on to the centre pile of the curd, more especially around the edge, so aa to build up in the middle of the tub a solid circular block of curd, the edge of which is about six inches from the side of the tub. The crumbs of curd in the strainer are placed on the top of the pile, and well pres.sed in with the hands. The curd is next cut with a knife into blocks about to 8 inches square — this being about the height of the piled card. The centre blocks having been turned over, the outer ones are placed upon them, the heap cut round with a knife, so as to remove all pro- jecting edges, and the jjortions cut off placed on the top. All the crumbs are next carefully swilled down with whey from the sides of the tub, and from around the pile, collected in the strainer, and then placed on the top of the pile. The piled curd is covered with thin cheese-cloths and wrappers, and the curd is allowed to drain, as a rule, until the whey only comes in drops from the tub. This will take from 5 to 80 minutes ; even longer if the curd is " sweet." The acidity of the liquid from the piled curd should be estimated. It should be about half as much again as that of the mixed milk. When the curd is too firm from an exgess of acidity, it is sufficient to cover it when drain- ing with thin cloths only, and when the acidity is very high, the ciird need not be piled, bxit simjily turned, and at tmce re- moved to the cooler. Ripening- of Curd.— The curd is next cut into six or eight blocks, one-half taken to the " rack " in the " cooler," broken with the hands into small pieces, and tied up tightly in a cloth. The remaining half is treated in a similar manner, and the two bundles are then j)laced one on top of the other, and subjected to pressure by being covered with a tin pan re- versed, on which are placed a cloth, a thick board, and a heavy weight. (See Fig. 22, p. 222.) The weight varies from 5(i lbs. to 84 lbs., according to the quantity of curd. The whole is wrapped round with cloths to keep the heat in the curd, and so promote its ripening. Should, however, the curd contain an excess of acid, it is not advisable to wrap it up. The curd is left thus for half-an-hour, during which time a certain amount of liquid drains away from it. When the curd contains an excess of acid, from 5 to 15 minutes is sufficient time to elapse both at this stage and between the subsequent turn- ings throughout the ripening prw^ess. First Cutting.— The curd is tuken out of the cloth and cut with a knife vertically, say from N. to S. and E. to W., at dis- tances of one to two inches, so as to produce oblong pieces of curd one to two inches square, and about 4 inches in length ; when soft and acid it is cut finer than when sweet. These pieces are well mixed together, again tied up in the cloths, the bundles being reversed so that the upper one is placed under- neath. The bundles having been treated as above describwV 214 Investigations into Cheddak Cheese Making. are subjected to the same pressure for a further period of half- an-hour. Again some liquid drains away. Second Cuttlng-.-The curd is taken out of the cloth cut as before, then pressed down so as to lie at an angle of45° with tne coo er, and again cut across, so that each oblong piece be- TZ t^ "^!? *^"'^^°^ "^«^« «"^-« «f -bout onf ilich each in size, men the curd is very sweet it is cut into larger, about two-inch, cubes The cub-s are packed up as before !nd subjected o pressure for half-an-hour. The acicfity of ^ e licm"d >.dnch drains away should be estimated, and compared wTth Imt of the drainings from piled curd, as it will afford evklence o whether the acidity is developing rapidly or slowly. unips by being pressed against the rack, again tied up and sub- J.'ctecl t(. the same pressure as before for half-an-hour Ihis operation is ivpeated sometimes twice or thrice, at re- Sne'n 'aff'"'^' " half-an-hour, except when the curd is 'slow to men as frequently happens m the spring and autumn. It may then be necessaiy to leave one hour between each turning, or oven longer after the second or third turning ^ 1 he turning of the curd proceeds until it has attained the requisite degree of ripeness. The curd should then be dry and solid when cut leathery and flaky when torn asunder, of good taste and smell, and sufficiently acid. The acidity must be es imated m the whey draining from the curd, and not until this shows sufficient acidity should the curd be ground . No part of the manufacture of Cheddar Cheese requires more judgment, experience and natural aptitude than to determine when the curd has attained that condition in which it may be considered fit to grind. • tluw',!?-?*"^!!*"^ Saitingr.-The curd is then passed through the curd mill spread on the cooler and salted. The quantity of .fJT:^ .7 "''• f" ^}U^'- "* ^^^'^^ The salt is thoiS^^^^ mxed with the curd which is then placed in the vat, each po Z tWat eU:r' " '""^' ^"'""^ ''^"^ ^^^^^^^"5^ - - *" P-k Pressing-. - The vat is then put under the first press, pres- sure being applied very slowly and increased gradually unt I full pressure IS applied, this should take from 30 minut s to th, cut as 450 with piece be- inch each to larger, 'fore, and the liquid with that idence of >ken into and sub- :e, at re- s slow to It may "ning, or ined the dry and of good must be lot until [■es more 'termine may be through mtity of roughly irh por- to pack 's, pres- y until lutes to led u]), 11 pres- of the e times 's milk lave an in the without lecse of which Manufacture by Cannon's System. 215 ara a constant source of trouble to Cheddar cheese-makers are destroyed. Next morning the cheese is removed from the first press, and dry cloths having been put on it, it is placed in the second press, which should exert slightly greater pressure. This operation is repeated the third day, still greater pressure being now placed upon the cheese. On the morning of the third day the cheese is greased, a cloth pinned tightly round it, and a cap placed on each end. The cheese is then returned to the press, and the next morning is bound, weighed, labelled, and taken to the cheese room. Wliere many cheeses are made, it is advisable to have two cheese-rooms for ripening the cheese. The temperature of the one to which the cheeses are first taken should be maintained as far as possible between 63° and 68° F. The second room may be cooler, with a temperature of 58° to 63° F. For three or four weeks after the cheeses are made, they mixst be turned every day ; and subsequently they should he turned every few days until sold. Such is a description of the method of making Cheddar Cheese adopted at the School of the Bath and West and Southern Counties Society. But, in addition to a close attention to the details herein mentioned, it h essential to the production of a good cheese that the following conditions lie observed. Cleanliness.— First and foremost, it is necessary that the greatest care be taken in milking, to prevent any contamination getting into the milk. And should the milk in the evening be brought into the dairy before the day's cheese has been vatted, the cheese-maker must wash her hands before touching any of the apparatus used for the evening's milk. The apparatus and all utensils employed must be kept scru- pulously clean by thorough washing and scalding, not the least trace of curd being left anywhere. Badly made, as also worn- out, utensil's, cannot possibly be thoroughly cleansed, and must be rejected. The dairy itself must be kept clean and well ven- tilated, and nothing should be kept in it except what is abso- lutely requii-ed for the cheese-making. The floor must be well laid," and all cracks, open joints, &c., filled in with cement, and the drain should be an open one. Should any milk or whey be spilt on the floor, it must immediately be vyiped up with a clean flannel or mop. In addition to the minute attention to details which has lieen insisted on, it is essential that an ever- watchful intelligence should be possessed, and constant observation exercised, by every cheesemaker who aims at the rare result of producing through- out a whole season, cheese of the best quality, at once rich, mild, and uniform in character. Nothing short of the most exact attention to every detail herein set forth will ever secure the manufacture of cheese of tliis high quality. , } -I 216, Investigations into Cheddab Cheese Making. THE MOST IJIPOETANT ACIDITY DETERMINATIONS IN CANNON's SYSTEM. Those who, in caiiying out this system, use the acidimeter are anxious to know which are the moat important acidity deter- minations. It will be well to answer this (jucstion, and, at the same time, to draw attention to the most striking points in the residts which may be obtained, even at the risk of repeating what has already been stated in the preceding pages. The acidity of the evening's milk is the ^ ■■ ■ .'" ^ermiuaaon necessary, and this should be made when it if: . t into the dairy, and again in the morning. If the eve. > a milk has been ke])t sufficiently warm, the acidity will have slightly risen during the night from say • 19 per cent, to • 20 per cent. If the dairy has been close and its temperature high, the acidity may have risen to '21 or '22 per cent., as freqiiently happens during the months of August and .Se])tember. It is not absolutely necessary to take the acidity of the morn- ing's milk, but that of the mixed milk must be taken most carefully before renneting, for it will be the key to the day's jjroceedings. It is always desirable to begin cheese-making with milk sufficiently ripe, and the best acidity to aim at ob- taining is '20 per cent. The next determination of acidity necessary is in the whey when the curd is thought to be suffi- ciently firm to stoj) stirring. The whey if fit to be drawn oflp should then have an acidity of "01 or 02 below the mixed milk when renneted. If it has not, it will be necessary to allow the curd to settle, and to wait until the acidity is developed. It takes about 15 minutes to rise -01 per cent, in acidity. The acidity will rise as the whey comes from the curd, and will reach in the end "01 to •02 above what it was Avhen stirring ceased. It is well to adopt the standard of "01 per cent, below that of the mixed milk as the best acidity for the whey to ac(iuire before it is drawn off; but, under exceptional conditions, it may be necessary to draw oft' the whey before it has acquired the standard acidity. The next determination of acidity desirable is that of the drainings from the piled curd on the tub, for it will give some idea of the rapidity with which the cheese should subsequently be handled. If it is found that the acidity from the piled curd is less than half as much again as that of the whey, then, in all probability, the subsequent development of acidity will be slow, and the necessary precautions should be taken to hasten it so far as possible, more especially by keeping the curd warm. But if the acidity of the liquid from piled curd is more than half as much again as the whey, then acidity is develnjjing rapidly, and care must be taken to hasten on silbsequent opera- tions accordingly. The subsequent determinatinns of .acidify will bo made to determine when the curd is fit to be ground. There is no stage in the manufacture of a cheese more difficult to estimate Manufactuee by Cannon's System. 217 than this. If the acidity apparatus were used for this deter- mination only it would well repay its cost and the trouble of learning to use it properly. The acidity of the liquid which conu's from the ])ress is the final determination made. There will, as a rul(% be a close relation between these two estimations, varying mainly aecordinf>' to the weather, or rather the tem- perature of the curd, which again is due mainly to the tem- j)erature of the dairy. The rate at which the cheese will ripen will depend upon the acidity of the licjuid from press more than itpon any other factor, assuming of course that the cheeses are kept at a uniform ripening temperature. If the acidity be low, the ripening j)rocess will be slow ; if the acidity be high, the ripening pro- cess will be rapid. The c()mi)osition of the milk from which the cheese is made plays an important part in determining the (juantity of acid which is permissible in the liquid from the press, in other words, in the curd when this is ta':en to the cheese- room. The richer the milk, the more acid there may In' present in the curd. We have seen that the richer the milk the higher the acidity of that milk, hence, after careful consideration of all the facts obtained in these investigations, I have come to the conclusion that the acidity in the liquid from ])re8s should be five times that of the original acidity of the milk, that is of the evening' ,ailk, not of the mixed milk prior to renneting. Such are the chief determinations of acidity required. At no time will the cheese-maker find greater benefit accrue from the use of the acidity ap])aratus than when dealing with tainted milk. Of the more frequently present taints the faecal taint is characterised by delaying acidity, and the Aanegar taint by causing a rapid develoj)ment of acidity. Many of the cheeses made at the present day are inferior owing to the presence of these taints. But if when the former taint is present, a suffi- cient amount of acidity is developed in the curd before it is ])ut in the press, the taint will ])ass oflp dui'ing the subsequent ripen- ing. And when the vinegar taint is ])resent the development of acidity can be checked, and so prevent the cheese from acquiring an acid or stingy flavour. Hence by the careful use of the acidimeter both these troubles can be largely controlled. 218 Paut IX. If' Vf, t i:i The Conditions Essential to the Manui'ACTurk of Ciieduar Cheese oe High Quality. The Dairy.— The Equipment of the Dairy.— The Cheese Room.— Knowledge and Skill.— A Daily Hccord of Work.— Miimmary. The Conditions Essential to the Manufacture of Ciieddae Cheese of Hmii (Iuality. The first and absolutely essential condition of the manufac- ture of " best " chet\se is, as has been clearly shown in this re- port, to have milk of normal c(miposition, from healthy cows, and ])eiieetly clean. Without this, no skill and no care will ensurt! success. Next, it will be necessary to have the proper conveniences with which to make the cheese. These are a suitable dairy and cheese-room properly equipped with aj)paratus. The Dairy. It would appear to be self-evident that the room in which cheese is made should be suitable for the purpose for which it is intended, yet, after eight years' experience of Somerset dairies, I regret to state that very few are in any sense properly constructed. Hence, at nearly eveiy site which has been selected for the Cheese School of the Bath and West of England Society during the past eight years, some, and in most cases con- siderable, alterations have had to be made before the dairy was considered suitable. It may be well then to give some account of the requirements of a good cheese daii*v. The first consideration is that the room should be so placed as to be free from unpleasant smells. As a rule the pig styes are placed far too near the dair>', or the window of the dairy opens on to the farmyard, which is sur- rounded with horselboxes or cattle stalls. In such cases it is necessary not to use the pig-styes or cattle-stalls during the period of cheese-making. Another simrce of foul air obtaining access to the dairy is the presence therein or close by of drains. There should on no account be any drain in the dairy. 1 have known the cheese of the best makers spoilt owing to the whey lead which stood in the dairy being connected with a drain which went direct to the pig styes. When the wind was in a certain II,. t t I1 1 il Conditions Essential to High Quality. 219 quarter, he foul gas in this drain found access to the daily and spoilt nearly a whole season's make of cheese. All the liquid from the dairy should i)asK out by an open surface course leadinj^- to, and opening over, an outside drain which is well tra-jped. In some farmhouses the privies, which are simply earth closets, are far too near the dairy and cannot fail to be the source of an impure atmosphere which enters at the win- dows. Lastly, the dairy should be separated from the dwelling- house, and not open, as is frequently the case, into the kitchen or scullery. Nor should it be near' the pantiy. The old idea of converting the dairy into a ])antry ought by this time to be expl(Mleil, still, T liave seen within recent years "fairly high game in a cheese dairy. Within reason, the larger the room the better, though, if the atmosi)h(!re be kept |)ure, and cool, it is (piite possible to nuike good cheese in a small dairy. The room should by preference fae(> north. But if open to the east, or south, or west, the sun, during the time of making, must be i)revented, by blinds, from shining into the room. Good ventilation is a primary necessity, and this should be obtained without draughts. It is best jnoeured by two windows which should be covered with fine Mire gauze, so that, when the windows are open there is less chance of a draught. Moreover, the wire gauze keeps out flies and insects which at times are very troublesome. During the early spring, and again in the autumn, it will be necessary to keep the dairy heated. There is no better means of doing this than by a slow combustion stove on the Tortoise prin- ciple or one similar thereto. The heat from these stoves can be regulated, they keep in for a considerable time without atten- tion, are clean, and safe. A similar stove will also be required in the cheese ripening room. The floor of the dairy should be concrete or cement or well laid stone, so that it may be even, and have no cracks in which milk or whey can lodge. The walls should be well plastered and whitewashed. An excellent wash for this purpose is made with two- thirds white lime and one-third cement. Care must be taken to have no size in the whitewash, or it will attract flies to such an extent that they will become a nuisance. One or tAvo wooden shelves and a small cupboard, both at such a height that they can be readily reached, and so kept clean, are also necessary. The Equipment of the Dairy The utensils used in cheese-making are not numerous, and these, and t' ese only, should be kijit in the dairy. lit If 11! 220 Investigations into Ciieddae Cheese Making. The cheese tub (Fig. 21) mainly in vogue is a round metal (tin lin'l copper) tU, not jackoted. It should be provuled with a very lar^e tap the plug of which can be lifted out and raised on a wooden stand si as to be within easy reach of the cheese- raker and th,s do away with needless stopping. No nm should l»p soldered on to the top of the tub. ■ 3 i -a In manv dairies the milk and whey have to be earned outside the dahyfn buckets and heated in large milk vessels standing in M i Conditions Ksskntial to High Qualitv. 221 p H H •a ^ o bb a copper of hot or boiling water. This syHtciii entails mwh labour, and, ho fur uh I um aware, it bus no special advantage to recommend it. At the Hath and West Oheese School, this heating of the milk has always been done bv means of steam in a wainiei- placed in tlie dairy, close to the cheese tub. The steam is generated in a boih-r, one of the best for tlie purpose Ix'ing iluit of Messrs. J. U. Tetter an 1 Sons, Yeovil. This boiler lias the advantage of s\ipplying both hot water or steam for cleaning the utensils, and there is probably nothing so cleansing as steam. A metal co(der containing a rack, the cheese presses (Fig. 22), a cheese n-ill, and a stool on which to place the cheese when it is being bandaged are the principal other utensils. The cheese presses are three in number, and the second should subject the cheese to greater pressure than the first, and the third to greater jjressure than the second. It is very doubtful whether the ordinary cheese presses do this, also what pressure they exert: The influence of varying pressures on the resulting cheeses is a subject which deserves investigatitni. Fretjuently the whey lead is kept in the dairy, but it is better, where possible, to keej) it outside. A weighing-machine should be in the diary to record the weight of each day's cheese before the cheese is taken to the ripening room. The smaller xitensils are the strainer, the breaker, a skimmer and bowls, the rennet measure, acidimeter, and record book, etc., etc. ; these may also 1)6 k(>pt in the dairy The American curd knives, which are seen in Ing. 21, have not as yet been largely introduced into the dairies of Somerset, but as will be gathered from this report, they deserve further atten- tion. These knives consist of an oblong frame, in which are set, at distances of about half an inch apart, very sharp knives, running the whole length of the frame. Two such frames have to be used, each capable ot reaching to the bottom of the cheese vat. In one the knives are set vertically, and in the other hori- zontally. Nothing should be in the dairy which is not used daily in the manufacture of the cheese. The Cheese Room. This should be above the dairy, and there should be a lift from the dairy to the cheese room, so that the cheeses can be easily removed to the latter. The floor of the cheese-room should be of wood, and it is most undesirable to have a cheese- ripening room with a stone floor, or one just above the groiind. Freedom from damp, uniform temperature, and ventilation, are the chief necessities of a cheese ripening-room. At the same time no draught should ever play on a cheese while it is ripen- ing, hence some precaution is necessary as to how the ventila- tion is obtained. The cheeses should be placed upon shelvei h- : UIkI not (Ml l|m Hniii- n( ♦!.„ '^.•-pon,.,,,,!rjii,i:r;;,,,,.ii,rt:tl:,:"'^;-r Fis. ?2._i Ch«»e D,.irj. Tho PhUe Prw™. So. Kr^'i w'L*r^i 'Ls'r''™ '^i''*''™' 'i'^'™- cl a SW " ''' "-l^-turemust be kept oonsUl ,fy ^f s I t :ii '5 Conditions Ksskntial to Hum (Juamty. 22:i Knowledge and >:i/cill. AHHiimiiij^ llmt thi! ntiiditions iiicviously icforicd u> arv ul)- taincd it will hn m-ccssaiy for llic cliccsc-inalvti' to pomMfHs tlm knowltdf^c of how to use tliciii. Wlwit in it tlmt (lir |iriu'tic(il rlu'«!8('-iiiaki'r haw in view, wlii'tlicr coUHcioiisly or miconsciously, ill Huhjcctiii;;' tlic milk and curd to (lie mari\ o|)fratioiiH rfcjiii- sitc to the iiiaimfactmc! of a cht't'sc:'' ll is to obtain tlic curd, witli the least |)ossil)lt' loss of fat, in such a condition that it will ii|)cn into a ^ood chccso. The tcHts applied bv the nniker to enwuic this icsnlt are em- pirical, and depend upon the senses of touch and taste and smell. Hence, the cause of failure with many to produce a lirst-<'lasH ('licese in due nuvinly to their not poHHeH,sinj>' naturally, or as the rcHult of education ov experience, the re(|uisite delicacv or de- j>ree u\' sensitiveness in tcmch and taste and smell. l''or iii- stance, some ])eoplc cati jud^^c by the sense of ta.'^te with a fair dej^ree of accuiacy, whether the curd is lit for ^rimlin^', while (dlierH seem utteily unai)le to do this. On the other hand, some arc never able to form a c(Hrect jud^;mcnt, by the sense of touch, of the ((uidition of the cuid when in scald, and whether it is tit to allow the whey to bt> drawn, lhourind- inj,', appear to have no dilMculty in estinu\tin^' whether the cuid is fit to ])ermit the whey to l)e drawii or not. Mvidently, to over- come this natural inaptitude of estimatin nccessaiy to sul)stitute sonu' means of determiuiufi them, which would not de|)(Mid upon individual capacity. This problem attracted my attention in 1H!)I, and to solv(> it tlie Krst tliin<>' ncccs.sary was to determine what that c(uidition was which Miss Ci.nnon with such remarkal)le ability, cstinuited l)y her (>xceplionally keen senses of taste, touch, and smell. AVas it a clicmical condition, capable of bcin^' doteiiuined by cliemical methods of invcsti- <;at ion ? The result of tlie eiyht years of (d)servation luis been to prove, that all these conditions wliicli th(> cluM'se-nudvcr in the past had to determine by means of taste and smell, are chemical conilitions which may be estimated wnth jifreatcr accuracy by chemical means. Thus the fitness of the curd to settle in scald is coincident with the whey attaininf>' an acidity ap|)roachin<>' the acidity of the milk before renuetinf:i^, on an averajje it will bo slifyhtly less (see Appendix, Table 2), at times slip^htly ftiore. The latter conditions are obtained most fre- quently in the antiimn, as may be seen from the following examples : — September, 18'J1 October, ISln' )» V average acidity of mixed milk ... '224 percent. ,, „ whey ... "232 ,, „ „ mixed milk ... "214 „ „ „ whey ... -217 „ 224 Investigations into Ciieddab, Cheese Making. hi ! From the time of drawing the whey to the time of grinding the curd every step in the manufacture, excepting the time curd remains piled, proceeds by time stages of certain duration, and no special aptitude is required until it becomes necessary to judge whether the curd is fit for grinding or not. This, without doubt, is the time when the greatest demand is made upon the cheese-maker's judgment, and when any large error will hopelessly ruin the cheese. An error in judgment at any previous stage may, by a skilful maker, be very largely counteracted in subsequent operations, but not so any error at this stage. The difficulty of judging the condition of the curd at this stage has in the past probably been the greatest difficulty the cheese-maker had to contend against. How difficult it was, may be seen from the following figures, obtained before the value of the acidimeter had been ])roved. On August 30th, 1891, the acidity of the liquid last coming from the ciird before gi-inding was "84 per cent., three days before on the 27th it was •93, and three days before that, on the 24th, it was as high as 105 per cent. In September we find the acidity ranging from •87 on the 18th, to 1-10 per cent, on the 15th, and in October from -92 on the 22nd to 115 per cent, on the 9th. If so skilful a maker as. Miss Cannon was unable to judge of this stage with no greater degree of accuracy than is shown by these figures, what, we may ask, would be the condition of the curd before grinding in the hands of a less skilful maker ? Thus the two stages in the manufacture of a Cheddar Cheese most difficult to determine empirically are ; first, when to stop stirring, and to draw the whey, and secondly, when to grind the curd. , , The introduction of the acidity apparatus has done away with these difficulties, and although' I am well aware that the use of the acidity apparatus is not actually a condition essential to the manufacture of good cheese, yet I am convinced that for many makers it is a necessity, and that for all it will ])rove of advantage. By its use the" cheese-maker can determine the acidity of the whey, and so decide when to draw this off, and by so doing will secure not only the proper development of acidity in the future stages of cheese-making, but also materially di- minish the time which the cheese takes to make. Lastly, it has been amply proved that the acidity of the whey which drains from the curd, when in the cooler, is a sufficiently accurate guide to the condition of the curd before grinding, and by securing uni- formitv in this aciditv, the cheese-maker will also ensure uni- formity in the quality and ri])ening properties of the cheese. Whether the cheese be made on Cannon's system, Candy s system, or the Scotch system, matters not ; the acidity of the liquid from the press must 'for one and all be uniform from day to day. Nor should it vary except within narrow limits. Speaking generally, the acidity of this liquid should never fall below '^ SO per cent., nor rise above 120 per cent., and the nearer it can bo kept to I'OO V-r per cent, the better. Conditions Essential to High Quality. 295 But the accurate determination of these acidities will not alone ensure a good cheese. Equally important ^vill it be to pay strict attention to temperature, time, and every other factor which can be accurately determined. Moreover, these must be recorded. A Daily Record of Work The record of observations kept by me for scientific pur- poses is too detailed for the ordinary routine of the cheese- maker; it would not only occupy too much of his time, but, what is by no means a small consideration, woiild use up too much of the standard soda solution, the cost of which appears to stand somewhat in the way of the more general use of the acidi- meter. Still the use of the acidimeter has steadily increased in Somer- set, and it has been considered desirable for some time past, to teach each pupil at the Society's School how to employ it. There- fore, in 1897, the time appeared to me to have arrived when a record of acidities, &c., should be kept in the dairy by the pupils, which should be such as they might subsequently use in their own homes and work. Hence, for this record, I d(>t('rmined to select only the most important data of each day's work. On the opposite page is a blank copy of this record book as kept by the pupils in 1898, and every cheese-maker might keep with very little trouble and considerable advantage a similar record. 1<168 226 Investigations into Chkddae Cheese Making. THE STUDENT'S Page 1. Day of Month, 0>>HervationH on Cattle, FioldH, Wator Supply, Ac. EVENING'S Milk. Volume. galls At Night. Temp. "F. Acidity In Mornins;. Tomp. of Milk. o p_ Temp, of Dairy during night. o p_ Acidity, °F. pagk ;5. Day of Month. Time ■when Curd cut. Acidity of Whey beforo break- ing. Time of break- ing. Time scalding com- meaced. Temp. of Scalds. 1st. 2nd. Time taken in stir- Acidity of Whey after ring, stirring. °F. mins. Time in Scald. WllEY. Acidity ■when drawn. mins. .\cidity of drain- ings from Sile.l urd. Page 5. D V of Mojth. IlEL.VTINa TO CUUD. Temp. in Viit. '¥. Weight when Vatted. lbs. lAoidity I of Time ! '*1""^ of Vatting. from I'rtss. Wcnght taken to Curing Uoom. lbs Loss in Press. lbs. Curd from 1 gallon of milk. lb. UIPK CHEESE. Date when sold. Weight when gold. lbs. Loss during ripen- ing. lbs. Conditions Essential to High Quality. 227 [JDENT'S RECORD BOOK. Page 2 Acidity, MOHNINO'S MILK. No. of Cows in Milk. Total Vol. of Milk. Stalk Whey. Mixed Milk, &c. Volume. Acidity.* Volume. Acidity. Acidity bcifore Hcn- ncting. Time of Hen- netintf. Konnet added. Pro- portion. Kails. galls. galls. ounces. Page 4. WHEY. Acidity of iditv drain- hen ings awn. from pilel Curd. Time Curd re- mains piled. Time Curd taken from Tub. Temp. of Curd when taken from Tub. Acidity of whey dkaining from Curd. Salt added. Temp, of When taken to Cooler. After Ist cut- tint.'. After Una cut- ting. After 1st turn- ing. After 2iid turn- ing. After 3rd turn- ing. After 4th turn- ing. Dairy during day min. max. min. "F. lbs. oz. "F. "F. PA(iE (). DlIEESE. light hen 3ld. bs. Loss during ripen- ing. lbs. Obsorvations on quality of Curd, Cheese, &o. [I IS not .aways possibJo to mix ilu- whole of tho morning's milk together take the auidity. 1468 to P 2 I'r' 1 If i H'l 228 Investigations into Cheddah. Cheese Making. No cheese-maker can ever liope to attain success unless a care- tul record of the work done daily is kei)t; and every cheese, before being taken to the curing-room, should have sewn on it a label showing the da^e of manufacture. Then whether the cheese be good or bad, it will be possible to turn back to the record and discover the cause of this success or failure. No cheese-maker so self-educak^l need fear but that in time he will produce Cheddar Choose of the highest quality. Summary. The conditions which are essential to the manufacture of good Cheddar Cheese may then be summarised as follows : —First, a suitable dairy, and cheese-room, properly equipped. Second, apparatus free from defects, and scrupulously clean. Third, milk of normal composition, from healthy cows, and perfectly clean. Fourth, skill and forethought in the making. Fifth, the acurate determination of all those factors of acidity, tem- perature, and time, which can be determined accurately. Sixth, the careful daily record of these determinations. Seventh, a study of this record to determine the causes of the best and worst cheeses produced. 4 f, 1 H.iii- I a care- cheese, m on it ther the i to the in time ) of good — First, Second, Third, perfectly , Fifth, ty, tem- Sixth, venth, a best and APPEiNDlX fl III r i ! 230 APPENDIX. TABLE I.— RECORD OB OBSERVATIONS MADE AT THE BATH AND WEST 1 2 34S67S 10 11 Uelatinu to Evening's Milk. Niime of Field. (t-i o o 1 At Night. In Morning. a O & 6 B 1^ 9"— t H >> '3 Sp la t 1 ■0 'o < GalU. P.M. °P. °F. °/o A.M. min. max. °F. /o 31-1 I Sharnam's 1 ( Large Leaze ( 59 6.30 65 86 •22 7.10 04 68 70 •23 1-2 Ditto 00 6.30 64 87 •22 • •* <•• ..• ... ... 2-3 3-4 1 Moor House, 1 I Large Leaze ) Ditto 60 0.20 64 87 •23 7.15 7.15 62 61 66 64 70 68 •24 •24 4-5 Ditto 61 6.5 63 86 •23 7.20 61 03 09 •23 5-6 Ditto 67 5.30 63 85 •21 6.45 61 65 68 •24 6-7 Ditto 64 6.30 64 87 ■21 7.5 63 64 70 •22 7-8 Ditto 64 6.20 66 86 •22 7.10 64 67 73 •24 8-9 Ditto 62 6.40 66 87 •21 7.10 65 63 73 •24 9-10 Ditto, 12 acres 63 6.45 69 92 ■23 7.10 66 70 74 ■26 10-11 11-12 1 Sharnam's [ \ Large Leaze ) Ditto 60 58 6.30 6.20 67 66 89 90 •22 •22 7.20 7.20 65 05 70 68 72 70 •24 •25 12-13 Ditto 55 5.10 65 90 •23 7.15 03 66 08 •25 13-14 Ditto 61 6.30 66 85 •23 7.7 03 06 69 •23 14-l.i Ditto 63 6.35 62 86 •22 7.0 01 65 70 •24 15-16 Ditto 63 6.30 63 86 •22 7.7 02 04 69 •23 16-17 Ditto 60 6.15 62 85 •23 6.40 61 64 67 •24 17-18 18-19 Moor House, 1 Large Leaze ( Ditto 63 58 6.35 6-30 62 61 87 86 •22 •22 7.15 7.10 61 60 64 62 69 67 •23 •23 19-20 1 Large Leaze, ( 14 acres ... Ditto 54 5.45 62 82 •22 6.,->0 60 63 67 •23 :}0-21 58 6.30 63 84 •22 7.0 60 63 67 •23 21-22 Ditto 66 6.15 63 83 •22 7.10 62 64 71 •25 22-23 Ditto 62 6.10 64 90 •21 7.15 62 65 71 •25 23-24 Ditto 59 6.30 63 87 •21 7.10 62 64 69 •23 24-25 Ditto 60 6.45 64 87 •21 7.3 63 65 69 •22 25-26 26-27 1 Moor House, 1 \ Large Leaze f Ditto 61 57 6.40 6.0 64 67 86 90 •21 •21 7.30 7.15 63 64 65 67 70 71 •23 •24 27-28 Mixed Fields... 60 6.30 66 91 •21 7.30 65 69 72 •24 28-29 Ditto 57 6.20 65 90 •22 7.30 65 70 68 •21 29-30 Ditto rerage B7 6.30 04 90 •21 7.15 63 67 69 •24 •23 At 60 6.2 64 87 •22 7.10 62 65 69 ApPKIfDIX. 231 ?• a-" ■3 < op °/o 70 •23 70 •24 68 •24 09 •23 68 •24 70 •22 73 •24 73 •24 74 •26 72 •24 70 •25 68 •25 69 •23 70 •24 69 •23 67 •24 69 •23 67 •23 67 •23 67 •23 71 •25 71 •25 69 •23 69 •22 70 •23 71 •24 72 •24 68 •21 69 •24 69 •23 OP ENGLAND SOCIETY'S CHEESE SCHOOL, JUNE, 1R92. 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 SI 22 23 MORNINQ'S Milk Milk IlKATEO. Stalk Whey. Mi.KED Milks, &o. 1 a bb a Ronnot added. 4 C M ■u a u , t a O a o a Acidity of Whey before breaking. Time of breaking. Acidity of Whey put aside. i Time Scalding com- mences. Tempera- ture of 8cald. a I W .9 a i a 1 a o a Relatinq to WHEY. i ■ft 09 O O o a a u d +-• H S % .^a 22 a o 1 g A.M. A.M. A.M. min. h. m. min. 31-1 1-2 8.22 •16 8.35 •17 9.40 88 90 75 2 5 87 •22 •29 30 3-3 8.22 • •• •16 8.40 •17 9.35 88 90 60 2 5 86 •23 •33 35 ;j-4 8.25 •16 8.45 •16 9.40 88 90 60 2 5 87 •24 •53 35 4-5 8.30 •15 8.55 •16 9.50 88 90 60 2 20 87 •22 •33 40 .5-6 7.55 •15 8.15 •15 9.10 88 90 60 2 15 86 •21 •30 30 6-7 8.30 •15 8..50 •16 9.50 88 90 60 2 20 86 •21 •28 45 7-8 8.10 •16 8.30 •17 9.34 ;88 90 60 1 51 87 •21 •27 35 ?-9 8.14 •16 8.27 •17 9.30 88 90 60 2 87 •23 •30 35 9-10 8.15 •16 8.35 •16 9.32 88 90 60 2 8 86 •23 •34 30 10-11 8.32 •16 8.50 •17 9.44 88 90 60 1 53 87 •23 •32 25 11-12 8.40 •16 8.57 •18 9.52 88 90 60 1 48 86 •22 •30 35 12-13 8.26 •16 8.51 •18 9.51 88 90 60 2 9 85 •21 •34 30 13-14 8.27 •16 8..50 •17 9.51 87 90 60 2 9 82 •23 •35 23 14-15 8.12 •15 8.35 •16 9.35 88 90 60 2 84 •20 •24 50 15-16 8.21 •15 8.40 •16 9.45 8S 90 60 1 45 87 •21 •26 35 16-17 8.20 •15 8.45 •15 9.49 88 95 90 2 35 89 •27 •43 20 17-18 8.35 •16 8.45 •16 9.40 88 90 60 2 86 •21 •26 35 18-19 8.35 •15 8.55 •16 10.0 88 90 60 1 52 86 ■22 •28 25 19-20 8.20 •15 8.37 •16 9.33 88 90 60 2 7 86 •23 •29 35 20-21 8.45 •15 9.7 •16 10.5 88 90 60 1 50 86 •22 •27 30 21-22 8-25 •16 8.52 •17 9.47 88 90 47 1 37 86 •23 •30 25 22-23 9.12 •16 9.30 •17 10.25 88 90 60 1 50 85 •22 •2i 45 23-24 8.30 •14 8.45 •15 9.40 8S 90 60 2 87 ■21 •27 32 24-25 8.20 •14 SAO •15 9.40 88 90 71 2 13 88 ■22 •32 37 25-26 8.45 •15 9.2 •15 10.7 88 94 20 2 8 92 •23 •45 15 26-27 8.30 •16 8.43 •17 9.45 88 90 45 1 31 88 •25 •35 30 27-28 8.40 •15 9.0 •17 10.0 88 90 47 1 35 87 •23 •34 30 28-29 8.35 •15 8.55 •15 9.57 89 90 45 1 41 86 •23 ■34 35 29-30 8.30 •15 8..55 •16 9.54 88 90 45 1 43 87 ■22 ■33 30 Aver- 8.28 •15 8-47 •16 9.46 88 90 56 1 59 86 •22 •32 32 age Appbnbix. 933 AND WB81 I 38 36 INQ TO i ;ey. to . 09 BTJ a ■3 3 n" o ^:s u °ft ^ i^fl O i§2 a ,thiued. 37 38 30 40 41 42 43 44 4S 46 47 48 40 a 1 s •pa ii go r- Acidity op Whey duuinq Theatmbnt OF CUHD. a SI I < Salt Audbd 2 a L ■*-* i/ o o 1" 1 1 i a o s. bi a 1— 1 Do D 1 a B & SI i 1 Tempera- ture of Dairy. 12.50 85 •41 •50 •70 •81 •92 ... ... 6^20 lbs. ozK 2 10 3^15 min 64 max. 67 12.50 87 •50 ■64 •80 •86 •92 1^01 7^20 2 9 194 62 «-5 12.65 88 •53 •65 •80 •84 •92 •97 ... 4-00 2 11 r99 61 64 120 86 •52 •67 •82 •89 •91 ... .. 5^60 2 11 2^05 61 64 12.25 87 •47 •60 •73 •84 •88 •96 ... 4'90 2 10 2^01 62 6« 1.80 85 •42 ■50 •62 •73 •80 •82 ... 5^00 2 12 2^06 64 67 12.35 86 •38 •50 •71 ■86 •90 •97 ... 4^20 2 12 2^08 64 «7 12.40 86 •46 •60 •74 •81 •88 •94 ... 7^10 2 11 2^05 66 7f 12.40 87 ■45 •69 •87 •91 •96 ... ... 6^30 2 12 2^05 67 72 12.35 87 •53 •68 •82 •91 •96 ... ... 4^00 2 10 2^02 66 69 12.50 86 •49 •64 •80 •88 •95 ro4 ... 4^40 2 12 2^04 65 67 1.5 86 •46 •60 •75 •09 •98 ... ... 5^20 2 12 2^13 63 66 12.55 84 •55 •75 •97 1^09 ... ... ... 3^90 2 12 2-02 62 65 1.00 87 •41 •61 80 •94 ro5 ... ... 6^40 2 13 2^07 62 64 12.35 87 •42 •58 •77 •89 •97 ro8 ... 5-20 2 12 2^03 62 64 1.15 89 •63 •79 •90 roi ... ... 4^00 2 12 2^07 61 64 12.50 85 •40 •58 •78 •95 1-00 ... ... 3^60 2 12 2^03 61 62 12.50 85 •43 •56 •76 •87 •97 ro8 ... ( 3^90 > 3^80 \ 5^00 2 11 2^07 61 64 12.45 86 •45 •60 •79 •87 I'Ol ro9 ... 2 11 2^05 61 64 1.0 86 •41 •51 •68 •76 •94 roi ... 3^90 2 10 2^06 62 65 12.25 86 •39 •53 •64 •75 •83 ro3 ro6 4^20 2 15 2^11 62 66 1.30 88 •44 •57 •71 •78 •89 •95 ... 6-00 2 14 213 63 65 12.50 86 •42 •54 •68 •80 •86 •96 1-00 ( 4^30 1 4^30 1 5^30 2 13 211 63 66 1.5 88 •54 •65 •78 •89 • 3 roo ... 2 11 2^05 63 66 1.2 87 •57 •67 •75 •83 •96 ... ... 2 12 2^08 63 67 12.15 88 •57 •71 •80 •92 •99 ... 4-30 2 10 2^03 66 69 12.55 87 •56 •67 •82 •89 •93 ... ... 4^00 2 11 2-09 66 70 12.40 87 •60 •74 •88 •93 ... ... ... 4^20 2 8 r99 66 68 12.35 88 •54 •69 •83 •93 ... ... ... 4^00 2 10 r97 64 67 12.51 87 •48 •62 •78 •87 •93 ... ... 4^60 2 11 2^05 63 66 f" V. h - !f fi '• 284 Intesttoattons into Cheddar Cheese Making. TABLE I.— RECORD OF OBSERVATIONS, JUNE, W.ii—oonfiHued. 00 5t 5> 58 54 65 06 07 08 00 60 - HklatinqToCuud ' Acidity of liquid 1 ifroin Press. llELATINU TO CUKKSBS. ^ > a i 1 □ Is 1^ ti, c 1 fa .§1 •11 & a Teraporiiture of Chei'no lloom. IIVRromotor litoadlnifH, ja a o "S Morning. RvoDing. MorninK- Evening. O S .d it Min. Max. Min. Max Wet. Dry 64 Wet 62 Dry 64 31-1 74 lbs. 128 1 P.M. 6.55 1-14 H)H. 118i lbs. 63 68 63 6t 62 Ibfl. 109i 1-2 ... ... ... 119 ... ... • •• «■• ■ •• *•> • •■ • t* 110 2 3 74 132^ 5.37 1-21 122 lOi 57 63 58 62 58 69i 60 63 112i 3-4 73 135i 6.0 1-21 127 8J 56 61 ' 53 60 56 58 58 60 115 4-5 74 131 5.45 1-16 121J 9i 58 59 j 58 61 57 59 60 62 112i 5-6 75 130i 5.25 1-18 120 lOj 58 61 1 58 64 58 60 63 65 112 6-7 75 133 9.0 1-18 122 11 60 64 ; 57 62 61 63 59 62 118 J 7-8 75 132 8.B0 1-15 119i 12J 62 67 58 67 61 63 59 63 112 8-9 77 130i 7.15 1-24 120 lOi 62 67 66 74 62 64 70 73 Uli 9-10 T8 134 4.4() M8 121 13 67 72 ! 68 74 66 70 71 74 112i 10-11 77 129i 4.55 1-20 118 Hi 66 74 66 68 65 67 66 70 109i 11-12 73 134i 6.0 1-20 123^ u 64 68 64 64 63 65 63 65 114i 12-13 74 135 5.30 1-15 125 10 58 64 58 63 o8 61 61 64 117 13-14 77 136 4.10 MO 127i »h 58 62 58 62 67 69 60 62 i 117i 14-15 74 135 J 5.50 1-09 126 !>i 53 61 56 61 55 58 59 62 117 15-16 7t 135i 5.45 1-18 125 lOi 57 61 58 59 57 59 58 60 117 16-17 76 132i 4.40 114 125 n 56 58 57 58 56 57J 66 58 113i 17-18 73 135J 5.50 1-13 125 J 10 54 59 55 60 55 57 58 61 116i 18-19 72 129i 6.0 1-14 121 8i 54 60 57 62 57 59 58 J 61 112 19-20 73 131 5.25 1-16 121 J 9J 56 60 64 63 56 58 59 62 113 20-21 72 127 6.30 1-16 117i 9J 56 60 57 59 57 69 59 61 109 21-22 72 139 6.30 1-19 I27i Hi 58 60 ' 59 64 58 60 62 64 119i 22-23 73 lifli 7.10 1-18 125 J 9 60 63 60 62 61 63 60i 62i 115i 23-24 73 133 6.50 1-17 124 9 59 61 57 64 59 61 62i 64 114i 24-25 76 131 6.0 1-14 120 11 60 (i3 60 64 60 62 62 64 112 25-26 77 132 5.0 113 121 11 61 63 ! 61 66 60 i 62 65 67 113 26-27 78 129 4.0 1-19 117 12 64 66 64 69 63 i 65 68 70 109 27-28 78 1.85 5.10 1-22 123 12 64 69 62 67 65 67 63 65 112^ 28-29 77 125,i 4.0 1-16 116 9i 64 69 63 67 65 67 65 67 107 29-30 76 133 3.50 1-13 121 12 61 66 62 65 62 64 62 64 112 ... 75 132 5.37 1-16 122 10 60 64 60 64 60 62 61 64 113 Appendix. ns ameto ili«H. r Evening. Wet. Dry. 62 64 60 63 58 60 60 62 63 65 59 62 59 63 70 71 73 74 62^ 64 114J 62 64 112 65 67 113 68 70 109 63 65 112i 65 67 107 62 64 112 61 64 113 IM 00 I M o D o o (4 h9 Q O v. c ^ <) t :2 I '2t?>VOej.g.gg.^j.g,^^gg^^_jj^^^^^ i-H o m e M S5 ="S?iggi5?§Sg5g»g5?3SSS?5i5J5§)?J^g5 00 CO ?5S : m O! 00 3» ?< 5>l W fl o © >(5 in _ * 1(5 -«< »5 • 00 a> oo 35 I'i »o »o o U5 I (2 ■o IS i;^g:3§s:;gisr^:g^[5:3i§:^5.'§fs.'§:gj§£;:gsi§g:§:g;§ X3 -<1 ^ ^ ^ ^ =r^«^S^§^^^S;^^^55^S!Ngl?35SSJgS?S?J3 S :?SjtHSSSK^s^;^s?:jgs^5Ss:g?:sgsg2:?2 .O ""° «"n 'O '« W 'O W ■(-. «5 o .O i i i /o i .;» W i O i i o « ^, i " :?S^f;^^S;^£;§^f?S5^^q!5Ss§gSSq:«gSgo ■s^:sip^g(,'§gr:Kgs;§3:§g3S§gss:§sgs?g > r— I I— I r— > 1-^ r—i i—f ^n^ p_| ^^ ^^ ,_( rg _, .J .„ -^ „, .^ t, ao =5 = ^ 2 CO ^ o !C I- oC J. o .-^ IN m Ti< U3 «o ti 00 en ■-"-"-"-"-I '-' --l M "-i rx Cq IN (N 1 > H H - •«1 ^ piT per per gallH 8f o ,,. u I.. cent. a.m. min. iinax. ° F. (-'rnt. gollH. cent. gallH. April 1892 37 55 81 ■18 78 n-> 5.-. 65 ■19 44 ■17 81 IHtW 50 6.0 64 83 18 57 65 65 •19 59 ■111 109 1891 47 6.51 58 85 21 7.6 56 59 88 ■22 55 ■21 102 181).-) 54 6-48 58 88 •176 6.16 56 59 69 •184 70 ■180 124 18H6 112 6.20 62 81 ■181 6.49 (H 611 75 ■194 69 •181 131 1HU7 39 6.13 63 87 •198 82 67 73 ■207 46 57 ■198 8fi Average . . 48 6.13 60 81 ■188 6.57 58 62 69 ■197 ■188 105 May 183:' 50 613 02 83 •21 7.15 69 61 67 •23 59 ■20 109 181)3 71 6.18 66 87 •IH 61 66 68 •19 80 ■19 151 1894 70 6.3) 60 HI ■22 7.13 58 60 68 •23 78 •>>o 118 1895 74 6.7 63 89 •190 6.54 60 63 70 •20 91 ■19 165 ISltfi 77 6.38 66 87 ■1H6 6.".4 6:; 66 71 ■199 89 ■177 166 1897 511 6.17 63 88 •185 •195 7.4 60 63 73 ■189 70 ■184 129 Avorago . . 67 6.21 6.1 86 60 64 70 ■206 78 •192 145 June 1H92 fill 6.3 64 87 ..;.) 7.10 62 on 09 ■23 67 ■21 127 189:) 71 6.8 69 89 ■18 , , 64 70 70 •19 7H •18 149 1894 68 6.44 64 82 ■21 75 62 61 69 '•i>t 72 ■21 140 1895 8(1 6.35 67 89 •20 6.54 65 67 72 •21 89 ■19 169 1898 72 6.44 68 88 •172 6.51 66 69 73 ■185 85 •106 157 1897 62 6.44 66 89 ■170 65 67 71 •178 69 •168 131 Average . . 69 8.29 66 87 •192 7.0 64 67 71 ■202 77 •187 146 July 1892 56 6.43 65 87 ■21 7.18 63 66 69 ■23 60 ■21 116 189'^ HI 6.5 74 90 ■18 67 75 72 ■19 69 ■17 130 1894 64 7.0 66 84 ■21 76 64 67 70 ■22 65 ■20 120 1895 66 6.,38 66 88 ■20 6.57 65 67 73 ■21 77 ■19 143 1898 73 7.16 68 87 ■196 6.47 67 69 72 ■208 69 ■190 143 1897 51 7.31 68 87 •146 190 66 68 71 ■1,57 52 •144 103 Average . . 62 6.52 68 87 7.2 65 69 71 ■202 65 ■184 127 Aug. 1891 39 5 47 64 89 ■22 6.45 64 68 ■24 52 •22 91 18!t2 47 (i.Ml ()6 87 •21 7.2 64 66 69 ■23 53 ■21 100 1893 68 liJH 71 89 •19 67 73 73 ■20 75 ■19 143 1894 55 7.15 65 82 •22 75 64 66 76 ■22 .58 ■20 113 1895 56 6.7 65 88 •20 7.0 63 65 73 ■22 78 ■20 1,34 1898 62 6.5-1 68 86 •182 6.33 66 68 72 ■196 .57 ■177 119 1897 47 7.40 68 89 ■149 66 70 74 •154 44 ■149 91 Average . . B3 6.40 67 87 •196 6.53 65 68 71 •208 60 ■192 113 Sept. 1891 36 6.6 61 89 ■21 7.0 60 63 70 ..),j 43 ■21 79 1892 39 6.21 61 84 •21 7.15 60 62 68 •23 45 •22 84 1893 51 6.34 70 87 •18 63 71 68 •19 61 •18 112 18M 48 7.2 63 83 •22 7.10 62 64 69 •23 62 ■22 100 1895 52 6.10 65 89 •20 7.2 64 66 74 ■22 64 •20 116 1890 36 6.44 67 83 •180 6.50 66 67 74 •192 46 •177 82 1897 38 6.28 6.29 65 89 •162 •■ 62 65 74 •171 51 •159 89 Average . . 43 65 86 •194 7.3 62 65 71 •207 62 •195 95 Oct. 1891 24 5.50 58 86 •21 7.8 54 59 67 •21 28 •21 52 1892 86 6.2 66 76 ■21 7.34 60 65 63 •22 32 ■21 58 1893 38 6.5 62 84 ■19 57 63 65 •20 45 •19 83 1801 34 6.43 S-! 79 •00 7. if 01 66 76 .O.J 40 •21 74 ISt'i 38 6.17 64 84 ■19 7.15 61 65 73 ■2(1 45 •19 81 1898 27 6.49 65 80 ■185 7.23 63 66 71 ■20 37 ■181 64 1897 34 6.12 62 87 •167 60 62 71 •176 48 •164 82 Average . . 31 6.17 63 82 •198 7.20 59 64 69 •205 39 •194 70 ONTH OK BACH H ! 189a, AxbrUlKe ; 1, Anht(in.) 13 14 15 SIOKNINd'H Milk. ^ 1 •a 1 u >> ^ § 3 > <1 H per KOllH. cent. Kails. ■W ■17 HI no •Hi 109 55 •21 102 71) ■IHO 124 fill •IHl 131 4(1 •198 85 57 •188 105 59 •20 109 HO •19 151 7H •>)*> MH Wl •19 16;-. Hit •177 166 70 •184 129 78 •192 145 07 •21 137 7H •18 149 T2 •21 14(1 H» •19 169 85 •106 157 69 •168 131 77 •187 146 60 •21 116 69 •17 130 65 •20 120 77 •19 143 69 •190 143 52 •144 103 65 •184 127 52 •22 91 5H ■21 100 75 ■19 143 5H ■20 113 7H •20 134 57 •177 119 44 •149 91 60 •192 113 4H •21 79 45 •22 84 61 •18 112 52 •22 100 64 •20 116 46 •177 82 51 •159 89 52 •195 95 2H •21 52 H2 •21 58 45 •19 83 40 •21 74 45 •19 HI 37 •181 64 48 •164 82 39 •194 70 AppBTn>ix. Table 2.— Rbsultm or OasEiiVATioNs.— Avekaok fok each Month Ykab, I81H— !t7. (The looftllty of tho (;»'«'«;«<; fl<;hool in o,i(-h your wnn an toIluw« : 1891, ViiIIIh ; 1893. 189,t, HntlPltfli J 1894, Murk ; 1H9,1, iriiM<,ll,ury | 1896, CoHslnKlon ; 1H97, AMlitc. 387 OK KACH 10 17 18 19 20 Month AND Ykau. Milk, IlEAl'Kl). H April 1892 18113 1894 1895 1890 1897 AvoriiKo . . May 1802 ln93 1HI4 1H95 IH;Nt 1897 Avoroge . . Juno 1892 18H3 1894 1895 1896 1897 Average . . ai aa 23 24 an STALK WllKV. i? Ashri» 11 ■a a 'SB 22 o a "si X tab a ■*.» 1 bi) a 'S u 3 *^ X tb o ■d ■ls^ O o >.i S 1st. '2na. s 2 a II a| D'o 1 h O % s Ill 11 H H H H "J 9.54 88 92 44 1 1.35 90 •16 ■23 30 12.20 91 •36 •48 ■6'^ 72 ■84 •90 •90 1896 9.48 88 93 52 ; 1.49 92 ■223 •329 12 12.9 91 •42 •,58 ■73 •83 ■85 •97 1897 9.51 88 88 93 40 ! 1.30 92 •173 •26 10 11.54 92 •36 •54 •71 •84 •92 127 Average . 9.45 93 42 1.39 90 •191 •283 23 12.13 91 •42 •57 •73 •83 •88 •92 July 1802 10.3 88 90 .37 1.29 88 •21 •29 41 12.38 88 •52 •71 ■88 •91 •93 100 466 1893 9.,37 88 94 48 1.5;) 91 •19 •2/ 23 1225 92 •40 ■55 71 •81 ■86 18!)4 9.40 88 94 3.'> 1.28 92 •18 •27 24 12.0 92 47 •03 73 •SI) •86 •93 1895 9.47 88 92 43 1.33] 90 •17 •25 22 12.4 90 ■39 •,58 •78 •87 •83 •95 ■95 1896 9.51 88 93 52 1.45 91 •203 •304 16 12.12 91 ■40 ■60 •77 •80 •98 •93 POl 1897 9 51 88 94 51 1.21 91 90 •169 •187 •28 16 12.28 91 ■37 50 •66 •80 •88 •92 115 Average . 9.48 88 93 44 1.36 •277 24 12.18 ■91 ■42 •59 •77 •83 ■89 •93 Aug. 1891 9.36 88 93 39 1.43 90 •25 •:35 29 •48 •63 •76 •83 •88 •93 3^25 1892 9.58 88 91 37 1.23 87 •21 •3iJ 41 12.31 89 •53 •68 •84 •84 •88 4^47 1893 9.18 88 I'l 42 1.43 92 •18 •26 27 12^28 92 •45 ■f>->, •77 •86 •90 1894 9.53 88 94 27 1.19 92 •17 •23 ,34 12.14 91 •,39 •.■|4 •TO .(,., •84 •90 ]89,T 9,39 88 94 34 l.liO 91 •18 •27 20 11.58 92 •39 •,54 73 77 ■84 •89 •89 ]89ii 9.37 88 93 47 1.41 91 •178 •23 27 12.15 91 •38 •55 73 ■77 •87 •99 ■»5 1897 9.48 88 94 42 1.3,-) 1.32 93 •104 •20 8 11.49 93 •39 •55 72 •85 ■89 •86 •91 n5 A verage . 9.45 88 93 38 91 •190 •271 27 12.12 91 ■43 •59 75 •82 •91 Sept. 18*1 9.33 88 94 53 .1.43 91 •23 •36 26 12.7 91 ■53 •63 •75 .f,., ■93 •96 394 1892 9.58 88 90 35 1.22 87 •2(1 •26 42 12.30 88 ■48 •67 •87 •87 •91 4-69 1893 10.0 88 94 41 1.39 92 •18 -SI 31 12.37 »•>, •42 •60 •75 •86 ■88 •91 189t 9.55 88 94 30 1.21) 91 ■19 ■23 27 12.9 91 •39 ■53 ■69 •78 ■84 ■90 189.-) 9.35 88 94 43 1.36 91 •20 30 16 11.46 91 •4'^ ■.59 •77 •86 ■89 •92 •92 1896 9.41 88 94 M IM 92 ■201 ■318 17 12.19 92 ■43 ■63 ■81 •86 ■89 •93 •92 189 ( 10.7 88 95 93 SI 42 1.35 93 91 ■178 ■197 ■27 ■287 10 24 12.3 93 ■35 ■52 ■59 ■70 ■76 •82 •88 •93 ■90 Average . 9.50 88 12.13 91 ■40 •84 ■88 •92 Oct. 1891 100 88 93 60 1.51 90 ■22 ■,35 33 12.47 90 ■52 51 ■r>. •87 •94 ini 3^20 1892 10.19 88 90 39 1.27 86 ■19 ■24 40 12.51 (1/ •42 •55 70 79 ■83 •90 410 1893 9.51 88 92 36 1.28 9,) •20 ■27 26 12.18 92 ■39 •59 •74 •87 •93 •94 1894 Ift.Hi uu 91 3.") 1 2! i»l ■IH ■21 31 1",3(! (I'J ..IT •53 ■Cfl •81 ■SO •tM 189.) 9.5 1 88 94 46 1.36 91 ■18 ■26 39 12.29 91 •44 ■59 74 •89 ■9'^ •93 ■93 189.) 10.24 89 91 49 1.52 91 ■199 ■2'/l 39 12.59 91 38 •57 ■74 78 •94 •99 •90 1897 10.10 10.8 88 88 95 93 40 43 1.25 93 ■197 •28 7 12.3 93 •35 •49 •67 •81 •89 •93 •87 Average . 1.35 90 ■195 •273 29 1 12..39 91 •41 ■55 71 •83 •90 •05 •• ,' I ilNG. ONTH OF EACH s ; 1892, Axbridgo ; 7, Ashton). \t 42 43 46a 46 F Whey during o ENT OP CUUD. ^ ? to bi> 1 a Sq.S O o P ■tf -d 1 ) 1 -*-» T3 00& o % e . ■" c ►-t) .s ) •84 •93 •92 roo 7 •86 •94 •92 r32 4 •83 •90 ■94 H •87 ■93 •99 4^6a t •87 •87 •94 2^97 I •84 •8H •92 i •72 •84 •90 •90 H •83 ■85 •97 1 •84 •92 127 i •83 •88 •92 I •91 •81 •93 100 •86 4^66 1 •80 •8H •03 1 •87 •83 •95 •95 1 •8(1 •98 •03 roi i •80 •88 •92 ns J •83 ■89 •93 i •83 •88 •93 3^25 •84 , , •88 4^47 ■8« •90 •82 •84 •90 •77 ■84 •83 •89 •77 •87 ■99 •95 •85 •82 •89 •86 •91 Via •91 •82 •93 •96 3-94 1 •87 •91 469 •8« •88 •91 •78 •84 •90 •8ti ■89 ■92 •92 •8ti ■89 •93 •92 •82 •88 -93 1 ■no •84 ■88 •92 .. •87 •94 101 3^20 79 ■83 •90 410 •87 •93 •94 •81 •Kf! •9-! •89 •92 •93 ■93 78 •94 •99 •Wl •81 •89 •93 •87 •83 •90 •05 •• Appendix. lABL. 2.-RB,„„s OF 0«»MVAriO»«.-AVEBAM .OR MOH MONTH OP «0H " 48 49 50 Si 62 53 64 66 66 67 239 Month AND Year. Salt ADDED. J3 in Tem- perature of Dairy. Relating TO Curd. a 2 lbs oz Apr. 1892 1 11 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 Averiiffo . iliiy 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 Average . June 1892 1893 1894 2 3 2 1 2 13 2 14 1 14 2 4 2 5 3 2 3 5 3 13 3 H 2 14 3 2 2 11 3 4 3 4 2^15 2^07 2^12 2^07 2^10 IHWl 3 12 18!ll) 3 10 1897 2 15 Avcrajre . July 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 Avenue , Auf?. 1891 1H92 1893 1894 1895 1H1I6 1897 Average . •Sept. 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1890 1897 Average . Oct. 1891 1892 1893 1891 IXilft 1896 181)7 3 4 2 9 2 12 2 13 3 3 3 3 2 5 2 13 2 3 2 4 3 3 2 9 3 3 2 12 2 1 2 8 2^10 2-07 2^06 2'II4 2^II7 216 2^19 2^10 205 213 211 214 2^16 2-13 2-04 2'09 2^08 2-07 2^09 2-23 59 61 63 .59 61 64 60 61 63 65 63 65 67 65 is . ■d ,54 60 59 68 .57 62 ,58 60 62 65 62 67 1 15 2 13 2 2 8 2 7 2 13 2 2 2^10 2^09 2'00 214 2 00 211 2-0.-) 2-26 2^09 r99 202 2113 2-06 210 2^12 207 2'06 2 09 2^0(i 1 15 2-02 2 4 1 7 1 8 Am ] 12 1 14 1 16 !08 I-II8 64 °F. 67 76 72 72 76 74 67 66 72 67 69 72 71 7.3 72 76 75 75 77 76 lbs. 77 106 109 1,32 1.34 89 108 110 1.55 162 183 p.in 6..58 4.34 5.18 4.32 .3.43 227 58 69 60 Relating to Cheeses. xJ o ga 5.S .0 Per cent, r08 rns 1-05 111 101 ro8 4.15 175 4.39 132 4.41 4.35 1-07 7.31 Ins 4.57 1 102 4.0 I'oa 69 67 77 69 70 73 _71 71 75 153 75 132 78 151 77 153 76 79 79 77 76 81 77 79 79 78 176 167 133 152 127 131 141 1.56 1.53 104 135 104 112 149 128 1,51 1.34 91 67 1 76 68 76 70 67 72 66 74 66 74 HI 74 68 74 64 74 66 73 j 124 9'' 99 124 120 1.S6 97 94 (■8 V2 104 94 1(14 79 ,5.0 5.37 3.41 .3.52 t..57 .3.40 3.8 4 9 4.53 4,45 4.0 3.'22 3..56 4.10 4.11 4,47 t.8 4,14 .5,6 2.50 5.(1 2.13 112 roi •98 106 116 roi ■99 1-09 •96 ■98 ro3 118 89 1^(I2 ri2 i-oo ■93 1-02 1-07 114 •9(1 f(l4 IW ■96 ■89 lbs, 71 98 101 ]'24 12t) 84 101 102 141 148 171 164 123 142 r22 138 111 164 155 121 141 115 122 131 145 142 98 Temperature of Chee.se Room. Morning. Eveninp.l lbs, 1^ 125 99 102 138 118 141 121 85 4.2 5.30 3.33 4.34 ,5.13 ;i.3;l :i.45 4.(J 4.25 6.24 5,34 41 5,0 fi.iO 5.38 90 3.50 87 5,15 101 no I -07 •94 V02 1(11 ■83 115 88 91 115 112 128 90 9U 11 10 13 12 12 12 9 11 12 9 10 11 II 6 10 5 10 11 1(1 10 10 () 54 ,56 64 55 63 (!2 ,58 60 60 66 60 60 65 63 •99 102 1-22 64 111 m ■95 97 l-OI 87 lOl 9? •90 74 ■81 87 [■01 82 63 02 68 63 63 64 65 04 62 63 (i7 62 62 63 64 63 61 5S 66 62 03 61 59 49 6(1 53 55 ' 58 ,55 64 ,57 j 63 I 02 ! 59 I 58 63 .58 ,58 J7 61 64 66 64 67 66 65 Hygrometer Reading. Morning. I Evening. Q 60 j e5 65 i 62 55 I 52 .58 [ .55 58 I ,5,5" .58 65 ,59 63 63 60 ,56 62 56 61 60 57 61 ,55 ,55 ,58 r-R M 57 56 67 67 69 64 65 65 66 66 66 60 69 65 66 (i2 64 62 68 63 63 65 65 64 68 66 70 68 65 67 66 74 67 69 68 67 61 59 62 67 61 66 66 64 64 i 68 63 67 (i2 63 03 i 65 ! 66 67 71 65 66 65 67 60 64 60 62 64 62 62 63 67 61 .58 66 66 61 64 i 60 05 03 ,58 59 61 62 I 67 (i3 61 00 6(i t)2 63 65 63 62 60 67 65 70 6(i 63 62 63 61 64 63 (i6 65 67 65 75 66 68 69 67 lbs. 68 91 98 116 118 78 95 94 131 140 160 1,57 112 62 1;h2 65 65 63 60 6-t 63 64 62 61 63 67 65 63 67 65 65 61 ti5 67 64 63 64 66 113 129 132 1.52 145 113 131 63 108 67 116 «2 i 65 63 I 60 55 55 I 62 58 i 61 6(! ! 67 .'■'8 I 60 ,57 58 60 m 59 •5ti 58 58 55 j 58 I 56 57 ! 61 "rJT fil ,58 65 62 60 01 0(1 61 56 55 57 r.8 ,57 57 55 56 6i 61 68 65 66 63 63 64 .59 ,57 61 .W 6(1 58 b:'; 6(1 57 5!. 58 58 I ,57 60 I RH 124 1,35 1,37 90 118 91 94 131 112 1.S3 119 77 108 82 ^5 109 100 12.' 83 84 96 60 62 91 82 92 77 ^!i ! i K ' i i I t I 240 ft o U X' h-* u OJ 1 EH rH OS 00 s r-l H •- ■^ J«( ." 13 H a U s u ^ r-H ,a b bc O H ? H n K O o? S s H 0) o bt •^ •d u ■E^ ^n M no O ^ .S-- M ?a > ,c3 "i >■ fM » 1 m (H CO h? if •4 a It; S ■^ ii cc t« c9 O en rt ?= 1* (^ H o o o I— ( (U H Investigations into Chedoab Cheese Making. § D O Cx O o g 2 o o 1 ■* uj in CO 00 00 lO 1-1 ■* ■-( t- o N e^ IN »< rt N OS IN OS OS OS lo lO in ■* IN m -H o w IN IN N IN IN IN o so - in in in lO in in 1 OS 00 CO in 00 to 'N to CO O Pi t^ to OS OS to 00 OS OS 00 !>• 00 in in in in in in 00 00 m 1 cS -*t ph CO O to -H O 00 o -* to o t- t^ to to l> t^ l> l:~ i b O O 2 o to OS t^ •^ CO -1 to to to t^ to t- 00 to IN 00 O CO t^ -1 l> to t^ t^ to t~ g CO in M N t^ -1 t- to hp l> O t~ o IN 00 IN IN OS N !>• to bp tp to t^ t- "a a 00 lO IN 1^ to OS (N CO lO CO -* (N lO lO lO lO lO lO 00 CO ilo in !N CO in -H CO (N CO CO ■* -X CO m in in lo m m in CO in to o 1 p*< to in IN CO CO CO CO CO in in in in lo in IN CO in IN CO O OS p*< Pi o rl in 00 ^ CO ^ M^ CO CO 00 CO OS in o pi to 00 CO CO pf -If CO CO 00 CO OS pi« OS o m !>• CO CO CO ^ CO CO eo ■ d 1 lO CO IN CO CO in CO -^ --x -^ *ti -"jt* W IN IN Cl IN ff^ p-l to IN to OS pt* bp 00 in to pk to to in CO (N IN IN IN IN IN to in IN 1 to OS OS O CO t- O O IN 1^ 00 00 CO CO CO CO CO CO t^ -* M IN in m OS o in -H o CO CO 1^ to CO CO CO CO CO CO 00 CO CO t~ 00 O Pi 1^ o Pi o ■* in in in CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO pi O t- O to Pi M (N -»■ to to to CO CO CO CO CO CO to CO 1 "o 03 in OS •-- in 10 ■* t^ 00 CO to (^ l^ f-l -H IN IN !N IN in CO IN 1-H -n — 1 »H 00 00 in o o in in t>- m IN IN IN IN IN IN i— t i-H 1— 1 rH r1 1-^ 1—1 ■* (N l-H O CO IN to OS 1^ IN o in in in CO N IN IN IN IN M Pi pp Pi Pi Pi PI 00 CO IN O pf IN 00 Pi to IN PI m to to pt< IN IN IN IN IN IN Pi 1-1 pp Pi 1-1 Pi CO •* IN Pi S3 1 in »-* OS in in to IN rl to CO IN IN cr 00 <^ t- 1^ t- 00 00 00 00 00 00 in to 00 to OS 00 IN IN in OS OS ■* ■* IN ■* ^- b- t~ t- t^ t^ CO 00 00 00 OO 00 OS in 00 o t- 00 -X Pi CO 00 OS pjl Pt< -f to f- t- l>- t>- t^ t^ 00 00 00 00 00 OO IN to tp 00 O to 00 IN OS pf 00 00 p*< CO CO in t^ t^ 1^ b- h- t- OO 00 00 00 00 00 in 00 Si N CO ■* m to t- OS OS OS OS OS OS 00 00 00 GO 00 CjO 1-1 1-H 1-c rH Pi rl It IN CO •* in to t^ OS OS OS OS OS OS OO OO 00 00 00 00 I-H rH rH fM pH 1-1 > IN CO -H m to h- OS OS OS OS OS OS 00 00 00 00 00 00 pi PI Pi pi pH pi o § >-> 0) •< (N CO -H in to t~ OS OS OS OS OS OS 00 00 00 GO OO OO Pi pi Pi Pi pH Pi "a 1-5 r J .1 NTO. CO C(J 5<< O O >-• N N e^ W IN N IN t^ 0^ If: o b» CO »H CO ■* -< 00 lO Ci Oi — * t-H o o (N IN m w CO CO O in k ■ 00 to 'N so CO o rl t^ <0 OS OS to 00 05 OS 00 b- 00 »0 iO lO lO »0 lO 00 00 m IN ■* 00 •*< r^ © OO IN CO O O t< i-i O O rt IN i-l ■^ -tl -fl -Jl -^ -^ CO OH lO in O) M OS ■>♦< lo lO -^ -1* ^ lO lO •iH 00 CO 00 lO — eO OT C^ IN IN lO CO CO t^ 00 in CO t- (N 00 50 rt rt i-H O «o to l> t- t- 1?- —1 o IN 00 IN IN OS N t- to t^ t* CO t- t- IN n? O OS -*< >-l . CO CO CO ^ CO CO eo CO OS M* t^ 00 in CO •* ) (N -»■ CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO O -* IN 00 -H CO IN 1-1 m CO CO ■<»< IN IN IN IN IN iM »-H t-^ ("^ PH p-H t-H CO IN 1-4 O «0 00 (N 33 -f 00 00 ■>*< CO CO in 1^ t^ 1^ 1^ h- t- OO 00 00 00 00 00 m 00 (N CO ■* lO CO t~ OS OS OS OS OS OS 00 00 00 00 OO QO fH r^ ^H rH l-H i-H "3 1 1 AVPENDIJ H6^ 243 INDEX. A* Abnormal milk Acid chocHes Acidimeter. Sr, Acidity apparatus. Acidities for Candy's system Acidity and f lecal taint Acidity apparatus Acidity apparatus, Value of " Acidity, Determination of ... Acidity determinations Acidity determinations, the most important Acidity developed by exposure to air Acidity, development in curd Acidity, development in curd when cooling Acidity going back ... ^ Acidity in whey ... [' Acidity of curd ... *"" Acidity of liquid from press ' Acjdity of milk ... Acidity of milk, guide to composition" Acid produced within the curd Advantages of different systems Aerobic org-anisms Aftergrowth ... [[ Air, Bacteria in ... " Albumin, Estimation of ." Albumin in whey ... American curd knives ... Anaerobic organisms Anaerobic organisms. Culture of Analysis, Methods of -Analysis of. *v- Composition of. Analysis of cheese Analyses, average results f<)r "eight years Annual milk yield of cows Armstrong, J. D. ... Axbridge Paub. 72 94 . 199 . 190 27 . 224 24 86 . 216 . 203 92 202 94 . 91, 122 95 93 86 87 92 206 143 38 152 36 113 115 143, 176 160 35 125 240-41 79 38, 196 42 Bacilli Bacillus Bacillus Bacillus Bacillus Bacillus Bacteria Bacteria Bacteria Bacteria, Bacteria, acidi lactici amylobacter coli communis guillebeau of vinegar taint . and locality and plants counting... Elfect of light on. 141 153 IGO 150, 180 181,183 179 140 196 197 150 143 Ill ^ I, \l , 1 244 Indkx. Bacteria, Effect of seanon on Bacteria, Experimenting with Bacteria, Food of ... Bacteria, (Irowth of Bacteria, Importance of Bacteria in udder ... Bacteria, Size of ... Bacteria, Weight of Batli and West and Southern Counties Society Best Cheddar, Conditions essential td Boiler for producing steiim... Breaker, Handle of, and bacteria Breaker. The Breaking Burette arrangement Butleigh.,, Butyric acid 0. Calving, Effect of time since Cam3en, Wni., on cheese ... Canieinhert cheese Canadian system of making cheese ... Candy system Candy system, Experiments on Candy, T. C. Cannon and Candy systems compared Cannon, Henry Cannon, Miss E. J. Cannon system Cannon's system, complete description of Capsuled bacteria ... Carruthors, W., F.R.S., on pastures ... Casein acidity Casein and acidity. . . Casein, Difficulty in estimating Casein, Effect of drought on Dasein, Estimation of, in milk Casein in milk Cattle, effect of selection on Cattle yielding abnormal milk Causes of failure ... Cheddar ... Cheddar cheese, Composition of Cheddar cheese, Qualities of Cheddar cheese, whei'e made Cheese at its best ... Cheese. Average yield 1891-<,)8 Cheese, Bacteriological examination of Cheese, Composition of, during ripening ('heese making, Ultimate aim in Cheese puffing Cheese rooms Cheese room temjjerature ... Cheese room, Ventilating the Cheese running wet Chei'se school, Sites of Cheese, Studying bacteria in Cheese, Time required to make 38 nl, 194 1.02 14:j 14:5 151 nr> 142 142 21 218 221 17(1 ik; 211 28 44 127 78 10 12(5 1.'5 1.^) 19!) l.-j 205 18 8,18 18 207 142 15, 48, 50, 54 98 87 .%, 73 ()9 30 08, 71. 72, 70 00 72, 75 223 9 133 20 9 i;?2 81-85 100 120 200 191 21.5, 221 132 128 ^t3 38,190 144 202 1 NDEX. 245 Cider producing taints Cisley, tlio dairy-mayd Cleanliness Clock in dairy ... ... " " Coagulation v. curdling ... ,,, Cocci Coccus of ^'inegar taint Colonies of bacteria Composition of aimormal milk Composition of Cheddar cheese Composition of curd Composition of liquid from press ... Composition of milk 57, G2, 63, 1)5, 72- Composition of scouring land Composition of soils ... ..[ Composition of water „. ,.[ Composition of whey Conditions essential to high c lality ... Contractile power of curd ... Cossington Cows in Somerset, annual miUc yield of Cows, Purchasing ... Cream unchurnable Curd, Acidity of ... Curd, Acidity of, at different staijcs... Curd, Acidity of, when ground '' ... Curd, Average yield of, 1891-98 ... Curd, Composition of Curd fit to grind ... ... '." Curd from one gallon of niiiic ... Curd, method of analysis of Curd, Moisture in... Curd, Taking temperature of ... Curd, temperature when vatted Curd, when fit to grind Curd, when necessary to cool Cutting the curd ... ... [[] Page. 174 " ..". 215 30 156,158 141 177 ... 146,155 72,74 126,129,133 135-139,235,240,241 . •■• ... ... 120 <4, 77,80, 111,135-139,235,240,241 55 40, 43,"46, 49, 51, 55 42 52 135-139,"235, 240, 241 ... 218 87 53 79 75 75 95 ... 100 101 81-85 240 93 85 37 ... 108 ... 34 108 214 117 211,213 Dairy, equipment of cheese Dairy, Temperature of Dairy, The cheese Difficulties in cheese-miiking Dilute standard soda Diplococci Drain pipe in dairy Drinking troughs for cattle Drinking water, Impure ... Drought, Influence of, on milk Drunimond, R. J. Dryness of cheeses Duclaux and yeast Duclaux on cantal cheese ... 219 90, 206 218 75 28 141 60 173 171 64, 69 13 202 193 160 E. Enzymes, ilabcock and Russell on Evening's milk, Bacteria in 163 159 M 1 1! :i ' 1 i 5^46 Index. Evening's milk, Heating ... Evening's milk, Ripeness of Evening's milk, Treatment of Factory system of making ... Facultative organisms Fsewil smell Fiscal taint Fat, Effect of ripening on ... Fat, Estimation of, by Schmidt's method Fat in liquid from press Fat, Loss of, ia cheesemaking ... * Fat lost from press Ft lost in whey ... rat not produced by riponinc Fat of milk Faulty utensils Fields, Recording ... First scald Flagella of bacteria Flavour of cheese ... Fleischmann's formula Flies ... ... ... ■■} Floating curd Food, effect of a change of . . , Food, Effect of, on milk ... Fowls and bacteria Freudenreich ou Emmenthaler chees i Fuller on cheeee ... l!i(), Paoe, 208 201 207 1.3 143 181 200,217 112 a5 116 114 115 104 134 111 180 21) 211 1.50 11)4 35 174 184 55 66,68 182 161 10 a. Gauge in cheese tub Geology of sites ... Gram's method of st.iiuinsr. Hands of milkers . . . Hangiag drop, the Harding, Joseph . . . Hard water for cows Haselbury Hay bacillus Hill Bros., Evercreech Hot iion test Hygrometer H. 208 39,43,45,4y,51,5S,54 145 173 144 10, 21 41 50 152 18 14, 24 31 ffiii III _:v. Indicator, how made Indigestion and cheese Individual c.n\r>. Milk of Inferior cheeses ... Isolatiflg bacteria . . . 25 120 71 151 140 Index. 247 K. Knowledge, Necessity of .. Paoe. 223 L. Lactic acid, how formed Lactic acid-producing hiieteria Lactic acid, rate of production of Land unsnitable for cheese... Leptothrix Le vure de lactose ... Lime in curd Lime in mills Lime on pastures ... Liquid from press Liquid from press, Acidity of Liquid from press, Composition of Liquid from press. Fat in ... Litmus gelatine ... Long Ashton Loss of fat in cutting 143 153 150 45, 4G 141 19,'5 9G, 118 118 5(i 34, 93 217,224 120 11(5 150 53 114 M. ^IcAdam, xl.Iexander MacFadzcan on spongy curd Mark, near Ilighbridge Measuring rennet ... Micron, A ... ... \ Microscopical examination of bacteria Milk, Abnormal ... Milk, Acidity of ... ... ''." ■' Milk, as it comes from the cow Milk, average yield of 1 89 1 -98 Milk, Composition of Milk, Conditions which affect Milk, Curd from one gallon of Milk, Difference between morning and evening Milk, distribution of constituents of Milk, Effect of pastures on Milk, effect of yield on quality of ... Milk from individual cows ... ... ,_[ Milk, Maximum yield of ... ,[[ Milk, method of analysis of Milk of abnormal acidity ... Milk of individual cows Mil k, (( uality affected by drough t Milk, Quality of, what due to Milk, quantity of, due to food Milk, Testing ripeness of, by rennet Milk, to convert gallons into pounds Milk, Varying composition of Milk, Volume of ... Milk-cultures Milkers' hands Milk-fat ;;; Milking, Effect of dirty ... ..'. [[[ 13 ... 186 48 .. 210 142 144 72 ... 57,80 ... 175 „„ 81-85 62,63,65,77,80,110,240 61 85 78 113 76 71 73 69 35 86 71 64 78 78 89 29 204 29 149 ... 17;{ 112 ... 174 I I 24H In'dex. Milking in (!■ Mn ... Milkiii;^ in Htalin ... Milkiiit? wtoolw Milk-yiolil, Aiiimiil, of cows Milk-yiold at AxbiiilK" Milk-yioUi at Butloif,'li . ■ Milk-yielil at CoHsingtou ... Milk-yiold at HaMell)iiiy Milk-yield .at Lou;{ Aslitun Milk-yiold .at Mark Milk-y'.oldat Vallin Milk-yiold, Decline in Millimetre Mineral matter in milk Moisture in curd ... Morning's milk, Treatment of Mould in cheese ... Moulds ... Mud of streams ... N. Nutty flavour of cheese Paqe • 170 170, IHO i7;i 7l» 62 03 6!» 67 70 66 61 78 118 108 •J07 iy'2 140 18& 164 Observations and analyses. 1894 Observations and analyst'! 1895 Observations and analyses. 181M> Observations and analyses, 1897 Observations and analyses, 1 898 Observations for June, 1892 Observations, The record of Oidium lactis Oleic acid in milk fat Organisms injurious to cheese Organisms which produce spongy curd iHi; 137 138 l.Hlt 22 192 112 167 187 P. I ! i:^- Pastures, Botanical Reports on Pastures, Eifect of lime on Pastures, Eifect of, on milk Peptones... Peters, John ' . . . Phenol phthalein ... Pig styes... Piling curd Plants and bacteria Plate culture Presses for cheese. . . Pressing the c'lrd ... Prices of cheese. 1 89 1 -98 ... Pure cultures Pure cultures as starters . . . Purging flax 38, 45, 48, .'JO, 54 oG 76 ... 127 ... 48,60 2.'. ... 218 ... 212 ... 197 ... 143,146 ... 221 ... 214 ... 134 ... 148 ... 164 ... 197 Paoe • 170 170, IHO 17a 7a 62 03 6!t 67 70 66 61 7H \i>h 118 108 •207 iy2 140 185 104 IBf) IHi) 137 i:w 230-23 ^ 22 l'.t2 112 167 187 , 45, 48, r)0, 54 oC 70 ... 127 ... 48,00 25 ... 218 ... 212 ... 11)7 ... 143,140 ... 221 ... 214 ... 134 ... 148 ... 104 ... 197 Indkx. Q. 949 Quality of milk, what due to (jiiantity of milk, what due to ••I R. RainfaU in 18!M Rainfall in 1893 Riipid ripening ... Record, A daily ... Record of analysis Rennet ... Rennet and abnormal milk... Rennet, caknlating proportion of Rennet, effect of exccHS Rpnnet, effect on time of v!»tting Rennet, influence on acidity Rennet, intluenco on ripening Rennet measure ... Rennet, Strength of Rennet, Testing strength of Hennet, to CHtimatc quantity "f Rennet used in Scotland Rcnneting Results of analyses, avernge for eigh Rest! Us of observations, average for Ripe cheese, Comp isition of RipeneHH, Chemu I test of ... Ripeness, Standard of Ripening and acidity Ripening and rennet Ripening evening's milk Ripen i ng of cheese Ripening of curd . Ripening of milk .. Ripening, Rate of... Ripening, Rate of, due to acidity Ropey milk bacteria Salt in cheese Salt, influence on acidity ... Salting the curd ... Sarcina ... Scald, Effect t a high Scald, Effect of, on a'i ity ... Scotch system Scotch system, Experiments on Scouring land ... Season and bacteria Season, Influence of. on milk Season of 1893 ... Season of 1895 ... Season of 1890 ... Second scald Separated milk Sewage and spongy cunl ... 1468 t year eight years s. Page. 78 78 ... 41 47 13,20. 128. 133 ... 225 35 33, 103, 194 74 34 ... 105,110 ... 121 90 ... 203 ... 33,210 ... 210 ... 210 ... 104 ... 201 ... 209 ... 240,241 ... 2;^,fl-239 ... 124. 1.34 ... 129 ... 132 ... 217 ... 203 89 '.'.'. 13,20,120 ... 124 88 ... 217 200 ... 191 .. 134 94 214 .. 141 .. 106 91 13 ,.. 200 ,.. .".4,180 195 '61.62.64,71 63 50 53 ... 212 ... 14t; ... 18.0 R VH) llTDIiX. Sewage, Effect of ... ... .,; Rhake cultured Sheep, Effect of, on cheese... Shotty curd Sites of experimentH Skill, Necessitjy of Slip scalding SU)w ripening Sraetham, A., on Chewhiie cheese Soda test Soft acid curd Soils, Analyses of, at Axbridge Soils, Analysest of, at Butleigh Soils, AnalyeeH of, at Haselbury Soils, AnalyseH of, at Mark... Soils, AnalyscB of, at Vallis Soils, AnalyseH of scouring... Soils and cheeHe making Soils, Composition of Solids other than fat Soluble constituents of cheese Soluble constituents of curd Sour whey Spiins Spongy curd Spongy curd and acidity ... Spring and fall checHes, Ripening of. . . Spring cheescK Stab cultures Stains for bacteria Stale whey Standard solutions Staphylococci Starter, Pure culture as Starter, Ripen i d milk as ... Stewartry of Kirkcudbright, Cheese maki Stingy cheeses Stirring evening's milk Stokes, A. W., on effect of dry season Stove in dairy Straining milk Streak cultures Streams and bacteria Streams, Purity of Strepto-bacillus acidi lactici Streptococci Sweet curd Systems, Thoughts on the various ... "gin Paue. 172 149 <")« 91 38 22H 12 20 24 2ft !)2 43 4« r.i 49 40 i,f, 5K 6!) 12fi, 129 129 13. IftH, I'iO 173 180 182 132 10/ 14« 14;") 121. 25 141 1G4 1(57 2(X) 180 142 70 219 103 148 18.'> 172 lf)7 141 212 204 ..33 20'.> T. Tainted milk Taints ... Taints due to bacteria Taints, Geographical distribution of Taints, Periodicity of Taints, Survival of i'eart land. Sn- Scouring. Teats of cows Temperature of cheese room 200 60. 167 lt>8 170 19f. 17;") 173 32 ^.A. , Tni>kx. 25\ Temperaturo of dairy Tetrads ... ThermoineterH Timu required to inuko a Tortoise Htovo TroughH for cattle Turning the curd ... Tu88er on cheese ... Tyrothi-ix cheeso Page. 32 141 'M) 121 21 •) 178 214 9 160 Udders of cows . . Udders, Size of Unchuriiablo cream UtenfiiN, Drying .. Utensils, Effect of u. 173 til 75 182 174 \f)0 V. Vallis. near Frome Various systeius*, Effects of... Vinegar taint Voelcker, Dr. Augustus Voelcker, Dr. J. A. Soil analyses ... Volume of milk, morning and evening 38 19 lOlt, 176, 217 21 40, 43, 46, 49, T.l 78 20'.» w. Warmer, A steam ... Warming, Dr., on oidiuni lactis Water, Composition of Water for cattle ... Water, How to supply, if poUut' Water supply and taints Weed in udder Weighing machine Wot curd Whey, Acidity of ... Whey added to scald Whey, Compositiiii of W hey cream Wliey, Developing acid in ... Whey, Drain- pipe for Whey from piled cur-l Whey lead Whey, loss of fat ill Whitewash 221 193 41,52 41,44 60 60 186 35, 221 88, 92 34 123 113,240 90, 185 91 193 123 218, 221 115 174,219 y. Yeast Yield of milk, curd, and cheese, 1891-98 140. 193 81-85 Il I I I LONDON: J-iilKTED FOR HER MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE, By DARLING & SON, Ltd., 1-3, Gukat St. Thomas ai'osti.k. E.C. 1 »W. il ■ F I C E, .C. Commercial and General Interests. State Trials, being Reports of the Chief State Trials which have taken place between Frank T^le 'Thomson, R.N. Prepared nnder the frM^^^^^KCB Complete i^ WyviUe Thomson, Knt., F.R.S.; and now of Sir John Murray, K.C.B. Complete m Fifty Volumes. Price lOli. 15«. li"? Pay, Appointment, Promotion and Non-effective Pay ot the for. 1898. Engineeks. Field. Drill. Medical Coups. Royal Army. Manual for the. i»?9- Do Extract from the. Sec. II. Drills and Exercises, Royal "Warrant Price Is. Price 2». Price 9d. Price id. NILE, STd CorS BEWKr-DONaOLA, SUAKIM, KaSSALA, AND OMD.KMAN.^^Roport RhSdesia. Southern. Precis of information concerning. By Major C. T. D^awkins. Sn^A^'/Handr^She. Part I., Geographi^. f-J H^- Hist<,ri^- SS Sdpply Transport and Barrack Services. Regulations for. laaa. . 5. J' " VoLUNTEtRS IN Brioaue AND REGIMENTAL Camps. Orders and Regulations f m Carlisle. Geology of the Country around. By! Sussex. Water Supply of, from underground Clement Reid. Xiooal Oovernment Board «— Urban Districts op Longton and Ienton. prevalence of Diphtheria therein. EPIDEMIC Diphtheria in the Borough op Tunbuidge Wells. Report on^^^^ ^^ , V. Holmes, F.G.S. sources. By W. Price M. Whitaker and Price 3tf. Report on the, in reference to Price 1«. Kingdom. Lisb of. Year 1898 Home Office t— Mines in the United Friendly Societies Itegrlstry Office. Smi^rants' Information Office, 31, ^ Colonies, Handbooks for. April 189 No. 1. Canada. 2. New South Wales land. 6. Western Australia. 7. 10. Natal. ^, , ^ ,. No. 11. Professional Handbook deaiin tion Statutes and General Handboo No. 13 (viz., Nos. 1 to 12 in cloth). Consular Reports, Summary of. Am^ Intending Emigrants, Information f price Id. Ceylon, price Id. Marylai African Republic, price 3d. West Ind; Torelern Office i— AFRICA BY Treaty. The Map of . By S Commercial Treaties. (Hertslet s.) A Great Britain and Foreign Powers so far By Sir E. Hertslet, K.C.B., &c., Vols. I. ♦" State Papers. British and Foreign alphabetically arranged) *<> Vol^ ^.5 Vol.82. 1889-1890. Vol.83. 1890-1 Soard of Trade Journal, of Tariff ai The Guide Book of the. 1899. Iroadway, Westminster, viz.: — 8vo. Wrapper. 3. Victoria. 4. South Australia .smania. 8. Ne\. Zealand. Price 3s. Price 6