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CANADA NATIONAL LIBRARY BIBLIOTH^QUE NATIONALE M I Gift of Offert par Miss Mae Burriss ;(.-.»■•' r ^K T X^ m if ' ' S i« ' /rfc o s'O 7 ^'"" ^ CHAPMAN'S MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. m 'I A POPULAR AND PBAOTIOAL EXPOSITION" OF TBI MmERALS AOT) GEOLOGY ov CANADA. BY E. J. CHAPMAN, Ph.D. PRorissoB nr ttniyebsitt coixbob, Toronto, (liATI PBOKUOB IN UNITIRSITT OOLLIOI, LONDON, IMGLAHO.) WITH OYIR TWO HUNDRED WOODCCTS, AMD A COPIOUS INDEX. IrORONTOi W. C. CHEWETT AND CO. 1864. 0/6 'U (i( )mzi Q^H ^P/^ HN^, il^ J TOBOMTO: PBUTID BT MTUb k eiBlOV, TOVM STBUT. 1 \ t» SIR W. B. LOGAN, P.R.S., Ac, &o., Ac, , Simtot of itf tUtloafal JSwrteg of ffinstai, THIS WORK (■▲BID I.ABCtBLT ON TBI IXFLOBATIOm 0» TBI antTIT) 18 INSOSIBBD. n ALL HOMAOl AHD BIBFIOT, ■T hh snroiBi j'jjt.ij). I THS AUTHOB. PEEPAOE. t The subject matter of this volume was originally published in the form of a series of papers, in the pages of the Canadian Journal of Science nnd Art. In its present shape* the work is intended to fulfil two purposes : first, to supply the general reader with a popular, and, at the same time, a practical, or really useful, handbook of our minerals, fossils, and geology ; and secondly, to serve as an explana- tory introduction to the enlarged Beport on the Geology of Canada, and other publications, issued by the Geological Survey. The term ** popular,'* in its application to works of this kind, is so frequently abused, that I may perhaps be allowed to explain, at the outset, the sense in which it is employed in the present volume. This will be done most readily, by an explanation of the scope and general character of the work. With this view, it may be observed that the subject of the present Essay is arranged under five divisions or parts. The two first, of these, relate to the minerals of Canada ; the other three, to our fossils and rock groups. !Now, if it were de- signed to draw up a description of Canadian minerals for the perusal of the mineralogist, these substances might be arranged in a chemical or chemico-physical order, and an analysis of their crystallographic peculiarities, chemical relations, and other allied points of inquiry, at once entered upon ; but as this work is intended to meet the wants of the general reader, another method^a popular or explanatory treatment — is rendered necessary. The object here, moreover, is not only to describe the characters, uses, localities, &c., of these minerals, in general terms; but to enable the reader, whilst acquiring this information, to recognise these bodies, or, in other words, to make out their names, whenever subsequently met with ; and thus to convey to him, as far as it goes, a really practical knowledge of the subject. The more common characters or properties, consequently, by which minerals are distinguished from one another, are first passed under review. These, discussed in Fart i, are considered, TUl PKXrACK. tf howeyer, only in their simpler or more practical bearings, so as to oc- casion no difficulty in their application. In Fart ii, our Canadian minerals are arranged in groups and sections, founded on these easily-observed characters, in such a manner as to lead at once to the recognition of any species : see pages 20 — ^22*. During the publi- cation of this portion of the work in the Canadian Journal, many amateurs and others, previously unacquainted with Mineralogy, availed themselves of this plan, and always succeeded, by its use, in discovering the name of any specimen presented to them. In the descriptions of the minerals, thus arranged, all the more important characters, uses, Canadian localities, &c., are fully given ; and at the close of the division (page 62), these substances are re-arranged in groups according to their chemical composition. In order, moreover, to facilitate still further, the recognition of the more common minerals of Canadian occurrence, a synoptical view of the distinctive characters of the latter, is also given at the conclusion of this Pabt, (page 64). The third part of the work is devoted to a brief but sufficiently- detailed analysis of the classification, structural characters, compo- sition, modes of formation, and other allied points, relating to rocks in general. In this division, the various technical terms employed in geological descriptions, are fully illustrated and explained — refer- ence being made, as firequently as possible, to Canadian examples. An introductory section of tl^is kind — together with the general sketch of the typical characters and natural relations of organic re- mains, in the succeeding division of our subject — is absolutely neces- sary to ensure a proper understanding of the geology of Canada, as developed in Pabt t. Fersoi^s upacquainted with these details, can have no clear conception, for example, of what is implied by the term *' metamorphic ** in its application to rocks, or by that of "Silurian strata," " trap dyk^," ** anticlinal axis," <' unconformable stratification," and so forth. As a general rule, the term Silurian is associated in their estimation with some particular kind of rock, as limestone, sandstone, or the like ; and experience shews that there are many readers of geological books, who have but a very confused idea * The Bfcader is recommended to nuurk the nnmbw of the paura to which the Sections refer, imnediately after each of these, on pacet 21 and ft. Thus : after " Aspect metallic : H»rd« neas sufBcient to scratch glass : A :— write, pegs 28. Af|er " Aspect metallic : Hardness in- sulltcient to scratoh glaiai B :— write, pay* 17— and so on with regard to the other sectiona and wib se eti oni. r. ° ' r il H [ i i PREFACE. a of some of the commonest principles of geological reasoning. It is next to useless, in like manner, to inform a person, unacquainted with the more general details of Zoological classiBcation, that a par- ticular set of strata contains many examples of Orthia testudinaria, or of Calymene Blumenbachii, oroth er fossil species : or even to state that the strata in question are characterized by the presence of particular brachiopods and trilobitea — since he can have no idea of the true nature and existing relations of these forms. For this reason, I have tried to put myself, throughout, in the position of the uninitiated reader ; and I have given in Fabt it, a general view of the leading classes and groups of the Animal Kingdom, with the fossil relations of these, as regards Canadian strata, fully explained. I have also taken care, whenever it seemed necessary, to prefix to each group a few explanatory observations on the structural charac- ters of the shell or other parts found in a fossilized condition, as will be seen more especially under the corals, brachiopods, cephalupods, trilobites, &c. The reader will thus be rendered familiar with most of the technical terms employed in the descriptions of fossils in other works ; and the examination of these bodies, when their peculiar characters and conditions of occurrence, and their relations to exist- ing types, are thus known, will present an interest altogether new. A fragment of fossil-marked shale, picked up on the lake shore, on the road, or in the quarry, becomes to us something more than a mere piece of stone, if we can read aright the strange record of life and death, of ancient shore and sea, and Nature's ceaseless changes, thus impressed upon its surface in some far distant epoch of the Past, between whose day, and ours, immeasurable ages must have come and gone. But apart from this, a practical interest is also at- tached to the study of these organic remains : inasmuch as certain fossils are characteristic of certain strata, and serve to define the geological position of these in the rock series generally. Hence the necessity of the study in even geological investigations of a purely technical character. Finally, in Part v., after these introductory sections, the various geological formations of Canada, including their economic materials, fossils, instructive exposures, &c., are brought under review. In this part of my work, more especially, I am bound to record my obligations to the Seports and other publications of Sir William Logan and the assistant officers of the Geological Survey. I have h X PRBFACI. been careful, throughout, to acknowledge my special obligation! to these geologists, as well as to Dr. Dawson, the able Principal of MoGill College, Montreal, and others ; but it is only just that I should prominently express also, in this place, my indebtedness to the researches and publications of the Survey, generally. In justice to myself, however, it should be stated, that the materials of this part of the work, though largely, and, in places, essentially, de- rived from the sources in question, have been put together, as re- gards generalizations, &c., in at least an original spirit. They are interwoven, also, with various notices drawn from my own field- books, and are accompanied by no inconsiderable amount of expla- natory observation. The engravings given in the work are of somewhat rude execution ; but there is at least this merit connected with them : a small number only — under ten or twelve, at the most — have been copied from other publications. The rest are either original diagrams, or figures that I have drawn directly from the objects which they represent. For the use of the greater part of these woodcuts, I am indebted to the Canadian Institute of Toronto. In order to render the volume especially useful as a book of refer- enr,e, an exceedingly copious index has been added to it. A glance, at this, will shew the large amount of matter condensed within the book. In conclusion, 1 may observe that the earlier portions of this Essay were printed in 18G1 ; and that the entire work was completed, as now given to the Public, at the commencement of 1 863. Various circumstances h. wever, over which I have had no control, have pre- vented its final publication until the present time. E. J. C. University College, Toronto, February 1, 1804. CONTENTS. Pam ilttboddotory noticb 1 Part I. — How Minerals are distinguiahed from one another Aspect or lustre (3) ; Colour (4); Streak (6); Form (5); Structure (10); Hardness (11); Specific'Gravity (13); Relative Malleability (14); Magnetism (14); Taste (14); Action of Acids (16); Action of the Blowpipe (16) ; Trial of Fusibility (17) ; Water Test (1»). Part II.— The Minerals of Canada 19 Introductory Notice 19 Index to the classification 21 Chemical Arrangement of Canadian Minerals 62 Simplified Grouping of more Common Species 64 Part III. — How^Rocks are classified and distinguished : with special refer- ence to the Rocks of Canada 66 Eruptive Rocks 66 Lavas (67); Obsidians (67) ; Trachytes (67) ; Traps and Greenstones (68) ; Serpentines (70) ; Granites and Sjenites (70). Metimorphic Rocks 72 Sedimentary Rocks 77 Composition of Sedimentary Rocks (76) ; Formation of Sedimentary Rocks (80); Action of the Atmosphere (81); Action of Streams and River-s (8 1 ) ; Action^of the Sea (82); Consolidation of sedi- ments (84) ; Changes to which the||Si>dimcntary Rocks have been subjected (83) ; Elevation above the'Sca (86) ; Denudation (87) ; Tilting up and Fracturing of |Strata (88)|; Mctamoiphism and Cleavage (91). Classification of Kocks in accordance with their Relative Ages 91 Part IV. — Somb Remarks on Organic Remains, with special reference to Canadian* Forms 99 Fossilized Ve^i^etnble Remains 97 Fossilized Animal Remains 97 Protozoa 98 Infusoria (OS and 324) ; Sponges (99 and 224) ; Rhizopods or Foramin- ifera (99). Radiated Animals' 99 Corals (Graptolites, lOO; CoraU proper, 101), Acalepha (106) ; Echi- nodermata (Crinoida, 106 ; Blastoida, 107; Oystidea, 108; Thyroida, 110; Asterida, tlo; Ophiurida, 111 ; Echinida, HI ; Holothurida, 112). Molluscous Animals •!* Bryozoa (ll'i); Bruchio|)oda (113); Lamellibranchiata (119); Ptero- P Articulated Animals 132 Annelida (132) ; Cirrhopoda (133) ; Crustacea, including Trilobites, Ac, (138). Vertebrated Animals. 141 Pabt V. — Canadian Rock Formatioua : their Sub-divisions, Fossils, Econo- mic Materials, and Topographical Distribution 141 Introductory Notice 141 Azoic Rocks of Canada 143 Laurentian Scries 143 Mineral Characters (144); Structure (148); Intrusive Rocks (148); Economic Materials (149); Area (161): Agricultural Capabilities (152). Huronian Series 163 Mineral Characters (lo'j); Intrusive Rocks and Mineral Veins (165); Economic Materials (156) ; Topographical Distribution (156). Palreozoic Rocks of Canada 16 Y Silurian Series 167 Lower Silurian Series 167 Potsdam Group (157); C'alcifcrous Group (161); Cliazy Formation (167); Trenton Group (168); I'tica Formation (176) ; Iludson River Formation (177). Middle Silurian Series 180 Medinaand Clinton Formation ^ 180) ; Niagara Formation (182) ; (luelph Formation (187). Upper Silurian vSerics 18« Onondaga Formation (18S) ; Lower Heldeibirg Group or Euryplcrua Formati>Mi (lUit). Devonian Strata 191 Orinkany Formation ( 191) ; Cornit'erous Formation (l!)2) ; lIamiUon(or Lumhton) Formation (195) ; I'ctroleum Springs and Wells (19tJ); Portage and Chemung Group ("JdO). Carboniferous Strata (liona venture Formaliou) 201 Sketch-Map of the Getdogical Forniutions of We,stern Canada 202 Post-Ttrliary Deposits of Canada 'JO-I Drilt Formation ("jm): I'osl-Glarial Depo.-ita (2(>."») ; Conditions under which tlie Drift and Post-GIacial deposits were accuumlatcd (20*.)) ; ilecent deposit* (211) ; Economic Materials (212). Qcneral (»utline ami Reca\iitulat()ry Sketch of llio Geology of Canada 218 Canadian Rock Furmalious ('l\'.l ; A /oic Scries C-'l.'t); L:uirentide Moun- tains (Jlti; Great Northern Ilu^in of Canada (21 1) ; Great Sontii- ern KaHin of Canada (215); The Masin of the Lakes (215); The SL Lawrence Hasin (219); The Eastern or Mettuiurphic Hasin of Canada (221). Corrrrtions and Addition'' S2.t Index i'ib \'-\ :i'i:|;<^ «,?',•. /'■'.> •i^'v'" -<"! r..-, , POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THK MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF . C A.N A, jyA.. Introductory Notice. In attempting to convey to the general reader a practical or really useful knowledge of the Minerals and Geology of Canada, it is ac •< visablc to consider the subject ui\dcr the following heads : 1 . IIow minerals are distinguished from one another. 2. The minerals and metallic ores met with in Canada. 3. IIow rocks are classified and distinguished. 4. Organic Remains : their use and teachings. 5. Subdivisions and distribution of Canadian rocks. The term " Geology " comprises, strictly, a knowledge of the phy lical history of the Earth, as revealed to us by the study of the rock- masses which lie around and beneath us ; and by a comparison of 2 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE the results of ancient phenomena, with the forces and agencies still at work in modifying the surface of the g;lobe. As geology is thus es- sentially based on the study of rocks and their contents, and as rocks are made up of a certain number of simple minerals, it is necessary, or at least advisable, to obtain a knowledge of these latter (so as to be able to recognize them when met with), before proceeding to the discussion of the rocks into which they enter. With these minerals, also, it is conrenient to consider a few others of economic application and common occurrence, including the more important metallic ores. In this consideration, the characters or properties by which n.inerals are distinguished from one another will first be explained, intioduc- tory to a Tabular Distribution of Canadian minerals. The latter will be so arranged as to enable the reader to make out the name of any one of the included species, with great facility. i. I. How Minerals aue distinguished from one another. Minerals are distinijuishcd from one another by certain characters or properties which they possess : such as form, degree of hardness, fusibility, &c Hence, it is to these characters that our attention must be first directed. Mineral characters are of two kinds : phi/sical or cx/er;m7 characters, and chemical characters. The foniu'r arc cxliihitcd by the mineral under ordinary conditions ; the latter, only wlicu the mineral is exj)os- ed to the action of heat or mineral aeida, by which, in general, a certain degree of chemical decomposition is effected. Hence the term " chemical " as applied to these latter characters. The physical properties of minerals are somewhat numerous ; but many, although of the highest interest in indicating the existence of natural laws, and in their relations to physical science generally, are not readily available as a means of mineral discrimination. These, conseqnently, will be omitted from consideration in the following pages ; and the other characters will be discussed only in so far as they admit of direct application to the end in view — namely, the practical discrimination of minerals one from another.* • In the pxplanntion of tlio^o vnrlous phnra''tpr:i. It is ocpnMonally riprpssar.r to rcftT. m CMtnplcs. to a fow iiihNtKnocN of foirlKn firrnrrencc. Tho reader will therpfdro nndpntand. that tlip presrnt Vnrt ofthlt* Kssay niakex no xoprial 'iipiitioii of tiip iniiiprnlN ofCniiada, but in limply an Introduction to Part II, in wliich tlipso inincraLs will be fotiiid nrrnngcii (Qg«tlier. MINERALS AND GEOIiOOY OF CANADA. § The following are the characters in t;^ lestion : 1. Aspect or Lustre. 2. Colour. 3. Streak. 4. Form. 5. Structure. 6. Hardness. 7. Specific Gravity. 8. Relative Malleability. 9. Magnetism. 10. Taste, &c. 1. Aspect or Lustre. — We have here to consider, first: the kind ; and, secondly, the degree or intensity of the lustre, as possessed by the mineral under examination. The kind of lustre may be either metallic, as that of a piece of copper, silver, &c. ; or sub-metallic, as that of most kinds of anthracite coal ; or non-metallic, as that of stones in general. Of the non-metallic lustre there are several varie- ties, as, more especially : the vitreous or glassy lustre — example : rock- crystal ; the r«?«i»ot«s lustre — ex.: native sulphur ; the ^car/y lustre — ex. : talc ; the silky lustre (usually accompanying a fibrous struc- ture) — ex. ; fibro»i9 gypsum ; the stony aspect ; the earthy aspect, &c. These terms sufficiently explain themselves. Occasionally, two kinds of non-metallic lustre are simultaneously present, as in obsi- dian, which exhibits a " resino-vitreous " aspect ; and the lustre in some zeolites is pearly witiiin, and vitreous externally. In mica, and some few other minerals, there is frequently a pseudo-metallic lustre. This may be distinguished from the metallic lustre properly so-called, by being accompanied by a degree of translucency, or by the powder of the mineral being white or light-colored : minerals of a true me- tallic aspect being always opaque, and their powder being always black or dark-colored. So far as regards the metallic and the non- metallic lustres, there are very few minerals which exhibit (in their diff't'rent varieties) more than one kind. Thus, galena, the common ore of lead, copper pyrites, &c., always present a metallic lustre ; whilst, on the otlier hand, quartz, feldspar, rale-spar, gypsum, &c., are never found otherwise than with a non-metallic aspect. Hence, by means of this easily-recognized character, we may divide all minerals into two broad groups ; aud thus, if we pick up a specimen 4 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE and wish to ascertain its name, we need only look for it amongst the minerals of that group with which it agrees in lustre. The first step towards the determination of the substance will in this way be ef- fected. The degree of lustre may be either splendent, shining, glistening, glimmering, or dull ; but the character is one of comparatively little importance. 2. Colour. — ^When combined with a metallic aspect, colour becomes a valuable character in the determination of minerals, because it then remains constant as regards a given substance. Thus galena, the common ore of lead, is always lead-grey; copper pyrites, always brass-yellow ; native gold, always gold-yellow ; and so forth. When accompanied, however, by a vitreous or other non-metallic lustre, colour is, practically, a character of no value ; as in that case, the mineral may present, in its different varieties, every variety of colour. Thus, we have colourless quartz, amethystine or violet quartz, red quartz, yellow quartz, &c., just as in the vegetable kingdom, we have red, white, and yellow roses ; and dahlias, &c., of almost every shade. When combined with a metallic aspect, the colour is said to be me- tallic ; and of metallic colours we may enumerate the following : Ti'Ui. f Silver-white ex. Native silver. White... -J-,. , . « . , , (Tm- white ex. Pure tm; cobalt ore. p f Lead-grey ex. Galena. '" I Steel-grey ex. Specular iron ore. Black Iron-black (usually with sub-metallic lustre) ex. Mag- netic iron ore. r Gold-yellow ex. Native gold. Yellow.. ■? Brass-yellow ex. Copper-pyrites. ( Bronze-yellow (a brownish-yellow) ex. Magnetic pyrites. Red Copper-red ex. native copper. These metallic colours are often more or less obscured by a black, brownish, purple, or iridescent turface-tarnith. Hence, in noting the colour of a mineral, a newly-fractured surface should be observed. The non-metallic colours comprise, white, grey, black, blue, green, red, yellow, and brown, with their various shades and intermixtures ; as orange-yellow, straw-yellow, reddish-brown, greenish-black, &c. In minerals of a non-metallic aspect, the colour is sometimes uni- form { and at o^er times, two or more colours are present together, in MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 5 spots, bands, &c., as in the varieties of quartz, called agate, blood- stone, jasper, and so forth. In Labradorite, or Labrador feldspar, a beautiful play or change of colour is observed in certain directions. The finer varieties of Opal also exhibit a beautiful and well-known iridescence. 3. Streah. — Under this technical term is comprised the colour of the powder produced by drawing or " streaking " the mineral under observation, across a file or piece of unglazed porcelain. The charac- ter is a valuable one on account of its uniformity ; as, no matter how varied the colour of a mineral may be in different specimens, the streak will remain of one and the same colour throughout. Thus, blue, green, yellow, red, violet, and other specimens of fluor spar, quartz, &c., exhibit equally a white or "uncoloured" streak. The streak is sometimes '* unchanged," or of the same tint as the external colour of the mineral ; but far more frequently it presents a difiPerent colour. Thus, Cinnabar, the ore of mercury, has a red colour and red streak ; realgar, a sulphide of arsenic, has a red colour and orange-yellow streak ; copper pyrites, a brass-yellow colour, and greenish»black streak ; and so forth. In certain malleable and sectile minerals, whilst the colour remains unchanged in the streak, the lustre is increased. The streak is then said to be " shining." Finally, it should be remarked, that in trying the streak of very hard minerals, we must crush a small fragment to powder, in place of using the file ; because otherwise, a greyish-black streak, arising from the abrasion of the file, might very possibly be obtained, and so conduce to error. It may be observed, however, that all minerals of a non-metallic as- pect, and sufficient hardness to resist the file, have a white streak. 4. Form. — The forms presented by minerals, may be either regular or irregular. Regular forms are called crystals, whether the minerals which present them be transparent or opaque. The term " crystal " was first applied to transparent vitreous specimens of quartz or rock- crystal ; but, as it was subsequently found that opaque specimens of quartz presented exactly the same forms, and that opaque as well as transparent forms of other minerals existed, the term gradually lost its original signification, and came to be applied to all regular forms of minerals, whether transparent, translucent, or opaque. Minerals of a metallic lustre are always opaque ; and many of these, as iron pyrites and galena, occur frequently in very regular and symmetrical A POPULAH EXPOSITION OF THE crystals. Crystals originate in almost all cases in \7hich matter pas se from a gaseous, or liquid, into a solid state ; but if the process take place too quickly, or the matter solidify without free space for expan- sion, crystalline masses*, in place of regular crystals, will result. If a small fragment of arsenical pyrites, or native arsenic, be heated at one end of an open glass tube (five or six inches long and one-fourth of an inch in diameter), the arsenic, in volatilizing, will combine with oxygen, and form arsenious acid, which will be deposited at the other end of the tube, in the form of minute octahedrons (Fig. 3, below). In like manner, if a few particles of common salt be dissolved in a small quantity of water, and a drop of the solution be evaporated gently (or suffered to evaporate spontaneously) on a piece of glass, numerous little cubes and hopper-shaped cubical aggregations will re- sult. Boiling water, again, saturated with common alum, will deposit octahedral crystals on cooling: the cooled water not being able to retain in solution the full amount of alum dissolved by the hot water. In like manner, sugar, sulphur, and other bodies crystallise by slow cooling from the molten state. The study of crystal-forms constitutes the science of Crystallogra- phy. To enter into the details of this scienee would extend our present discussion beyond its proposed limits, and carry us altogether beyond the object in view — the simple determination of the names of commonly-occurring minerals — and hence we shall confine ourselves to the general statement, that crystals admit of being arranged in six groups, or " systems ;" the forms of each individual group passing into one another by simple transitions, but having no relations to the forms of the other groups.* The names of these respective groups. * The reader deairous to take up the study of Crystallofrraphy in a more extended manner, may attend the author's special courHcs of lectures wliich inrludo that subject. In those, the use of rrystalloKraphio instruments is shewn, and the lectures are illustrated by nu- merous wood and porcolain models, drawings, nod natural cryatala. The following is ex« tracted from the hyllabus of the advanced course on Mineraloiry : CuTSTALLOORArHY, Pabt I.— Crystals, how dcAned. Formation of Crystals. Elements of Crystals: planes, edK^i, auRlcs; diaKonals, axes. Forms and combinations. Replacing planoa. General nomenclature of Forms and simple Crystals. Law of constant Angles. MeasuromLMit of Angles. Laws of Symmetry: Hulohedral, Ilvmihedral, and Tetartohedral Forms. Class! fion'. Ion of Crj-stals. ©IraorphUm. Isomorphism. Compound Crystals. Distortions. Pseudomorphs. Part II.— The six systems of Grystallioation. The Monometrlb lyttem. The Dimetrio lystcm. The Hexagonal syittem. The Triuietric system. The Monucliuio system. The Triclinio system. Method of ascertaining the system of a sivcn Crystak Past III.— Optical and other physical relations of Crystallograpliy. - "*fljf MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA' with figures of a few of their more common forms and comhinations, are given in the annexed tabular view. ; The Monometrio or Regular System. — This group includes thj cube (Fig. 1), the rhombic dodecahedron (Fig. 2), the regular octa- hedron (Fig. 3), trapezohedrons or leucitoids (Fig. 4), pentagonal dodecahedrons (Fig* 5), &c. Fig. 6 is a combination of the cube and K'-^ry Via. 1. Fio. 2. Fio. 3. Fio. 4. Pio.6. Fio. 6. Pio.7. octahedron ; Fig 7, a combination of the cube and pentagonal dcde-v cahedroa. Native 8;old, silver, copper, iron pyrites, galena, magnetic iron ore, garnet, fluor spar, rock salt, and numerous other minerals, crystallize in this system. , ^. .. _ _, The Dimetric or Square-Prismatic system. — This includes, princi- pally, square-based prisms and pyramids (or octahedrons), and their combinations. Figures 8 and nine are examples of Dimetric crystals. <^^3>i Fio. 8. Fio. 9. ^ •■^••w- € Amongst minerals, Copper Pyrites, Tin-stone, Zircon, and Idocrase, may be cited as belonging to the group. „,,,•»., The Hexagonal system. — Regular six-sided prisms (Fig. 10) and pyramids (Fig. 11), combinations of these (Fig i2), rhombohedrona 8 A POPULAR KXPOBITIOM OP THE (Figs. 13 and 14), and soalenobedrons (Fig. 15), are included nnder this system. Graphite, Red Silver ores. Cinnabar, Specular Iron Ore, Corundum, Quartz, Beryl, Apatite or phosphate of lime, Cal- ^ TiChlO. Via. 11. V Via. 18. Via. 13. Pio. 14 Tio.lC careous Spar, Dolomite, and Carbonate of Iron, are some of the principal minerals which belong to it. The Trimetrio or Rhombie system. — This system includes right- rhombic prisms, rectangular prisms, rhombic octahedrons, &c., and their combinations. Fig. 16 is a rhombic prism ; figs. 17 and 18 are Fia. 16. Fio. 17. Via. 18. combinations boionging to this system. White iron-pyrites, mispickel or arsenical pyrites, native sulphur, topas, staurolite, arragonite, heavy spar, celestine, and Epsom salt, are some of the principal minerals which belong to this group. The Monoclinio or Oblique Rhombie system. — Bhombic prisms and pyramids, and rectangular prisms and pyramids, with oblique or sloping basOf belong to this system. Figs. 10 and 20 are monoclinic MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. combinations. The principal minerals comprise: Augite, Horn- blende, Epidote, Orthoclase, or potash feldspar, Stilbite, and Gypsum. Fia. 19. Pio. 20. :j& The Triclinic, or Doubly Oblique system. — The forms of this system are oblique (or they incline) in two directions. The crystals in general are more or less flat and unsymmetrical in appearance. No two planes meet at right angles ; and there are never more than two similar planes present in any crystal belonging to the group. Axi- nite, Albite or soda feldspar, Labradorite or lime feldspar, and sulphate of copper, are the principal triclinic minerals. Such is a brief exposition of the six crystal systems. For present purpcfses it will only be necessary for the student to impress upon his memory the following forms, so as to be able to recognize them when met with. The cube (Fig. 1;, the regular octahedron (3), the rhombic dodecahedron (2), the pentagonal dodecahedron (5), the cubo-octahedron (6), the regular six-sided prism (10), a combination of a six-sided prism and pyramid (12) a rhombohedron (13 and 14), a scalenohedron (15), a rhombic prism (16). The irregular forms presented by minerals are of very subordinate importance ; so that a few of the more common need only be men- tioned. Most of the terms used in reference to these, explain themselves. Irregular mineral forms : — Globular or nodular, ex. quartz, iron pyrites ; reniform or kidney-shaped, ex. quartz, &c. ; botryoidal or mammillated : a form made up of a series of rounded elevations and depressions, or otherwise exhibiting a surface of this character, ex. red and brown iron ore, calcedony, &c. ; stalactitic, ex. calc spar, (&c. ; coralliform, resembling certain branching corals, ex. arragonite ; dendritic or arborescent, a branching form, often made up of small aggregated crystals, ex. native silver, native copper, &c. ; filiform or wire-like, ex. native silver ; acicular, in needle-like crystallizations, ex. many varieties of augite, hornblende, epidote, &c. When a 10 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE mineral has a perfectly iudefinite shape it is said to be " massive " or ♦* amorphous." Structure : — In the majority of minerals, a certain kind of struc- ture, or, in other words, the ahape as well as the mode of aggregation of the smaller masses of which they are composed, is always observ- able. Structure in minerals may be either lamellar, laminar or foliated, prismatic, fibrous, granular, or compact. When the mineral, as in most varieties of calc-spar, heavy-spar, feldspar, and gypsum, for example, is made up of broad tabular masses producing a more or less stratified appearance, the structure is said to be lamellar. When the tabular masses (whether straight, wavy, or curved,) become extremely thin or leafy, as in mica more especially, the structure is said to be laminar, or foliated, or sometimes micaceous. The scaly structure is a variety of this, in which the laminse are of small size. When the component masses are much longer than broad or deep, as in many specimens of tourmaline, beryl, calc-spar, &c., the structure is said to be prismatic or columnar. When the prismatic concretions become very narrow, the fibrous structure originates. Fibrous min- erals may have either : a straight or parallel-fibrous structure, as in many specimens of gypsum, calc-spar, &c. ; a confusedly- fib reus structure, as in many specimens of augite and hornblende ; or a radiated-fibrous structure, as in the radiated varieties of iron pyrites, in natrolite, wavellite, «&c., — the fibres radiating from one or more central point;i. Minerals made up of small grains or granular masses are said to have a granular structure ; ex. granular or saccharoidal limestone, granular gypsum, &c. Finally, when the component par- ticles are not apparent, the mineral is said to have a compact struc- ture, as in the native malleable metals, obsidian, and most varieties of quartz. Hard and vitreous minerals of a compact structure (ex. obsidian), generally show when broken, a conchoidal fracture, or a series of circular markings resembling the lines of growth on the external surface of a bivalve shell. Almost all minerals, especially those of a lamellar structure, separate more readily in certain directions than in others. This peculiarity is called cleavage. The fragments resulting from ** cleav- age " have often a perfectly regular or definite form. Thus the purer specimens of calc-spar, no matter what their external form, break very readily into rhombohedrons, which measure 105°5^ over their obtuse edges. Galena, the common ore of lead, yields rectangular MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OP CANADA. II or cubical cleavage forms ; whilst the cubes of fluor-spar break off most readily at the corners or angles, and yield regular octahedrons, fig. 3. Hardness. — The hardness of a mineral is its relative power of resisting abrasion, not that of resisting blows : many oi the hardest minerals being exceedingly brittle. Practically, the character is of great importance. By its aid gypsum may be distinguished in a moment from calc-spar or limestone, calc-spar from feldspar, and copper pyrites from iron pyrites, not to mention other examples.* The degree of hardness in minerals is conventionally assumed to vary from 1 to 10 (1 being the lowest) as in the following scale drawn up by a German mineralogist, Mohs^ and now generally adopted : Scale of Hardness — Mbhs' Scale. ikv' 1. Foliated Talo, ' ' 2. EooK Salt, a transparent cleavable variety. 3t Calcabeous SpA.n, a transparent variety. 4. Fluoe Spae. 5. Apatite. 6. FlcLDSPAB. 7. Rock Chtstal. 8. Topaz. 9. Corundum. 10. The Diamond. . i Aji., In order to ascertain the hardness of a mineral by means of this scale, we attempt to scratch the substance under examination, by the different specimens belonging to the scale ; beginning with the hard- est, in order not to expose the specimens to unnecessary wear. Or, we take a fine file, and compare the hardness of the mineral with that of the individual members of the scale, by drawing the file briskly across them. The comparative hardness is estimated by the resistance offered to the file ; by the noise produced by the file in passing across the specimens ; and by the amount of powder so * Gypsum may be scratnhed by the finger nail. Calc-spar and copper pyrites may be ■entched easily by a knife ; whilst feldspar and iron pyrites are hard enough to scratch windKlass. Not Ioiik a^o, as mentioned by Sir William Logan, a farmer in the Ottawa difctric't was put to much expense and annoyance by mistaking feldspar for crystalline lime- •tone, and attempting to burn it into lime. > n A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE obtained. The degree of hardness of the mineral is then said to be equal to that of the member of the scale with which it agrees the nearest. Thus, if the mineral agrees in hardness with Eiiior-spar \*e Btiy, in its description, H (or hardness) =4, If, on the other hand, it be soi. ewhat softer than fluor-spar, but harder than calcare- ous spar, we say, H=3.5. Finally, if, as frequently happens, the hardness of a mineral vary slightly in different specimens, the limits of the hardness are always stated. Thu?, if in some specimens, a mineral agree in hardness with calc-spar, and in others with fluor- spar, we say, 11 = 3 to 4 ; or, more commonly, H = 3 — 4. If the hardness be very rigorously tested, it will frequently be found to differ aliglitly on different faces of a crystallized specimen, or on the broad faces and the edges of the lamina) of foliated spjcunens, — but this, so far as regards the simple determination of minerals, is prac- tically of little moment. As the minerals of which the scale of Moh^ consists, may not be in all places obtainable, or always at hand when required, the author of this work contrived some years ago auother scale, agreeing closely enough for practical purposes with that of Mohs, and exact- ing for its application only such objects as are always to be met with. The following is the scale in question ; its use explains itself: Chapman's Convenient Scale of Hardness, to correspond with that of Mohs. 1. Yields easily to the nail. 2. Does not yield to the nail. Does not scratch a copper coin. 3. IScratehes a copper coin, but is also scratched by one, being of about the same degree of hardness. . 4). Not scratched by a copper coin. Does not scratch glass (ordinary window-glass). 5. Scratches glass very feebly. Yields easily to the knife. 0. Scratches glass easily. Yields with dilliculty to the knife. 7. Does not yield to the knife. Yields witli difliculty to the edge of a (He. 8, 9, 10. Harder than flint or rock-crystal. Convenient terms of comparison for ^degrees of hardness above No. 7 cannot be easily obtained ; but that is of little cons(>quence, as there an; but few minerals of common orcurreiKUJ which exhibit a higher degree ; and these arc rcudily divtiuguished by other char- MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 13 acters. Where, in the above scale, two terms of comparison are employed, both must of course be attended to in the determination of the hardness. Specific Gravity. — This is also a character of great value in the determination of minerals. The specific gravity of a body is i^s weight compared with the weight of an equal bulk of pure water. In order to ascertain the specific gravity of a mineral we weigh the specimen first in air and then in water. The loss of weight in the latter case exactly equals the weight of the displaced water, or, in other words, of a volume of water equal to the volume of the mine- ral. Now, the specific gravity of pure water, at a temperature of about 62°, being assumed to equal I, or unity, it follows that the specific gravity of a mineral is obtained by dividing its weight in air by its loss of weight in water. Thus, if a = the weight in air, and to — the weight in water, G, or sp.gr. = , Example. — A piece of calcareous spar weighs 66 grs. in air, and 42 grs. when immersed in rain or distilled water. Hence its sp. gr. 66 66- = -- = 2.75.* 42 24 The weight of the mineral may be ascertained most conveniently and w ith sufficient exactness for general purposes, by a pair of small scales such as are commonly called "apothecaries' scales." These may be purchased for a couple of dollars, or even less. A small hole must be made in the centre of one of the pans for the passage of a horse-hair or silken fibre, about four inches in length, and fur- nished at its free end with a " slip-knot " or running noose, to hold the specimen whilst it is being weighed in water. Tiie strings of the perforated pun may also be somewhat shortened, but the balance must in this case be brought into equilibrium by a few strokes of a file on the under side of the other pan, or by attaching thinner strings to it. If grain weights be used with this balance, the follow- ing will be required : 50 grs , 30, 20, 10, 5, 3, 2, 1, 5, 0.3, 0.2, C.l. The specific gravity bottle often recommended in mineralogical works, is too heavy to be carried by the scales described above. Bottles of the smallest capacity, weigh, when filled with water, at least 500 grains ; and these scales will not carry more than 200, or 260 grains at the most. They are not very sensitive, indeed, when * This ia tka maximum spuolflc yrarity of oalcarooua iiMkr. I# A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE loaded with more than 50 or 60 grains in each pan, although often of great delicacy when carrying lesser weights. The use of the sp. gr. bottle requires a chemical balance, costing, at the very lowest, some twenty-five or thirty dollars, besides being of difficult porta- bility ; and hence its employment for general purposes is scarcely- available. Relative Malleability. — Some few minerals, as native gold, native silver, sulphide of silver, native copper, &c., are malleable or ductile^ flattening out when struck, instead of breaking. A few other minerals, as talc, serpentine, &c., are sectile, or admit of being cut by a knife ; whilst the majority of minerals are brittle, or incapable of lining cut or beaten out without breaking. In testing the relative maliL-ability of a mineral, a small fragment should be placed on a little anvil, or block of steel polished on one of its faces,* and struck once or twice by a light hammer. To prevent the fragment from flying oft' when struck, it may be covered by a strip of thin paper, held down by the forefinger and thumb of the left hand. Thus treated, malleable bodies flatten into discs or spangles, whilst brittle ones break into powder. Magnetism. — Few minerals attract the magnet in their natural condition, althougli many do so after exposure to the blowpipe. (See below.) In trying ifa mineral be magnetic, we chip off a small frag- ment, and apply to it a little horse-shoe magnet, such as may be purchased anywhere for a quarter of a dollar; or otherwise wo apply the specimen io a properly suspended magnetic needle. In this manner tlie black granular masses which occur frequently in our gneissoid or Laurentian rocks, and in the boulders derived from them, may easily bo recogni.sed as magnetic iron ore.f Many speci- mens of magnetic iron ore (and ahso of magnetic j)yrites) exhibit " polarity," or attract from a given point, one cud of the needle, and repel the other. Taste. — Tliis is a very characteristic although limited property, being exhibited only by a few soluble minerals. In these, the tastp may be saline, as in rook salt ; or bitter, as in Epsom salt ; or metal- lic, as in sulphate of iron, and so forth. , • Tho lUtli' iinviU calN .. " WHt('h-irmk«»rs' imvtN,'» tre very milUhln for this piirposo. They msy bo pHrcJi.inrtl (wliiro WKtc-hmakeiN' to<)N uro mild) for Imir-it-dollar, or pvon Ipm. t T)io ritl IT dark-c-olnurcd ilravaltlo iiiutiMss iit thc»o ruckH ooiuiat ufuilca or iiiuro raroly of horiibli'tido. MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OP CANADA. 15 Chemical Chabactebs.* — These, so far as regards the deter- mination of mineral species, comprise H.a results produced by the action of acids ; and the relative fusibility, &c., of minerals, as ascertained by the employment of the blow-pipe. Action of Acids. — The acid-test is resorted to, chiefly for the pur- pose of distinguishing ti.e carbonates from other mineral substances. The majority of carbonates, as carbonate of lime, carbonate of oxide of copper, &c., when touched with a drop of diluted hydrochloric acid (the ** spirit of salt " of the shops), produce a more or less vigorous effervescence. This rer.* ';ion is still more marked, if a small frag- ment of the mineral be dropped into a test-tube containing a little of the acid. The effervescence arises from the escape of carbonic acid. Some carbonates, as carbonate of iron, dissolve very slowly, and scarcely produce any effervescence, unless employed in a pulver- ised state, or unless the acid be gently heated. Sulphate of lime and various other miuerals dissolve iu hydrochloric acid, but without causing effervescence. Quartz, feldspar, &c., on the other hand, are quite insoluble. Certain silicates, and more especially those named " zeolites" dissolve partially in hot hydrochloric acid, leaving tho undissolved silica in the form of a gelatinous mass. Gold and platinum are not attacked by strong nitric acid, whilst this dissolves copper, silver, &c., very readily. Cupreous acid-solutions have always a green or blue colour. Ked copper ore dissolves with effervescence iu nitric acid producing a coloured solution ; by which chnriU'ters it may be readily distinguished from the red silver ores. • Tho Chouiirnl Charnctcrs of miiiprals arc ilispussrd in tho present work in the briefest terniH. To linvc fiiti-rcd I'lill.v into tlicst- (,'liiiiacl('r8, would hivvcran i(>(l ns altoKCtlicr beyond the objrrt in view : tho ^inlpl(^ ilclciniiiiation of th<^ iiiiinei of Canadian miniirnls. Tho advancf'd litctiims jtivcn tlaily iluriiiit tlie Mi'haolinas Turra in irnivorsity CoIIcro, To. ronto, liy tlio antlior, arc open to all studfnls di'sirous of obtainiiiti; more ample infurniation on the snl)jo(!t. Thu aiini'.xcd cxtKu-lis taken from tlio author's sjllaLus to this course of iMtures ! ro "TUK CUKMIOAI, HELATIONS OF MISKUALOOT. " Ttie Chemical Cons/itudon of Mincrah.— 1, Clieniical Nnnicnplature as applied tc MincralDcy ; i.', TIic Laws <>r Cotubinatinn ; ."», The Atomic Theory : t, CliLinical Notation : fi, Connlru(tion cf Clirniica! Formula); fl, Isouiorphlsni, or Law of Substitution; 7, Atomio VoUinu's. " The Chrmirnl F.rnmitiadon i/ Mi»rriih.— \, Action of Acids, Ac. 2, Fmploymcnt of the HldW-pipo, coniprisiiii?: n, Instrnnimt!* anil Applianccn; h. K4>aii;entH; r, Operations ; d Roai'tiuna; and i, I'lan of AnalyniH in th» examiiialion nf an unknown substance.*' Stnilents atfi'iidinK thi'Nc lectures, am btrotmly advised to ro throuKli, also, a oourao of rractical Clieuiistry, iu tlio Laboratory of Uulver^lty College, uuUor the direutiuu of I'rofei. ■or Croft. [pi a w in 16 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OP THE / The acida used in these experiments may be conveniently kept in small glass bottles furnished with a long glass stopper, reaching to the bottom of the bottle, and with a glass cap to prevent the escape of corrosive fumes. For geological purposes (testing calcareous rocks, &c ,) strong hydrochloric acid diluted with half its bulk of pure water, is principally used. The " specimen basket " may be provided near its upper edge with a little nest, or wicker-work pocket, for the reception of the acid bottle. Action of the Blow-pipe.— The blow-pipe in its simplest form is merely a narrow tube of brass or other metal, bent round at one extremity, and terminating at that end in a point with a very fine orifice (a: fig. 21). If we place the pointed end of this instrument „^^^^^^ jiist within the flame (and a little above ^^^^^^^5- the wick) of a lamp or common candle, ^^"3) ®"*^ '^®^ ^'^'^ gently down the tube, the ^^ flame will be deflected into a horizontal position, and its heating powers will be wonderfully increased. Many minerals when held in the form of a thin splinter at the point of the blow-pipe flame, melt with the greatest ease ; and some are either wholly or partially volatilized. Other minerals, on the contrary, remain unaltered ; and thus, by the aid of the blow-pipe, we are often enabled to distinguish from one another, in a moment, various minerals which in external characters may be closely alike.* The blow-pipe has, strictly, a three-fold application. It may be employed, as just pointed out, to distinguish minerals from one another ; some of these being fusible, whilst others are infusible ; some attracting the magnet after exposure to the blow-pipe, whilst others do not exhibit that reaction ; some imparting a colour to the flame, others volatilizing, and so forth. Secondly, the blow-pipe may be employed to ascertain the general composition of a mineral, or the presence or absence of some particular substance in it, as copper, lead, iron, cobalt, manganese, sulphur, arsenic, nod the like. Thirdly, the blow-pipe may be used to determine in certain special Fio. SI. * More convenient formi of blow.pipe will b« found dewrtbed in ipeoial worki on the uie of (hat initrument, but the common fbrm deicribod above it quite luflkient for the etmple •iperlments required In the deturmioktion of our ordinary mluerala. MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 17 eases the actual amount of a metallic or other ingredient previouslj ascertained to be present in the substance under examination.* In the employment of the blow-pipe (in conjunction with external characters) in the simple determination of our Canadian minerals, we are never compelled to resort to more than two experiments : the fusioH'trial, and the water-test. The student will find it of advan- tage, however, to study in addition the reactions of the more common metals and metallic oxides as given in special works on the Blow- pipe. To describe these reactions in the present essay, would extend the subject much beyond its allotted limits. The Trial of Fusibility. — In order to ascertain the relative fusibility of a substance, we chip off a small particle the (amaller the better) and expose the point of this to the extremity of the blow-pipe flame — holding the test-fragment in a small pair of tongs or forceps with platinum tips ;t or supporting it, if it be of a metallic aspect or of a certain weight and exhibit at the same time a coloured streak, on a piece of well-burnt pine charcoal. The particle thus exposed to the flame ought not to be larger thau a small carraway seed. If it be fusible, its poiut, in the course of ten or fifteen seconds, will become rounded into a bead or globule. The proper method of blowing can be acquired by half-au-hour's practice. The cheeks are to be filled with air, and this is to be urged gently and continuously down the tube by the compression of the cheek muscles, the operator breathing at the same time (if he require to do so) through his nose. By a little practice this becomes exceedingly easy ; and the blowing need never be kept up (at least in experiments of this kind) for more than a quarter of a minute at a time. A thin splinter will exhibit signs of fusion in ten or twelve seconds, or not at all. The use of the instrument, therefore, is easily acquired, and is in no way injurious to the health. Thus treated : (a) The test-fragment may "decrepitate" or fly to pieces. Example, most specimens of galena. In this case, a larger fragment * See fur example, a paper by the author " on the AssayinK of Coala by the Blow-pipe," in the Cu) idian Journal, Vol. III. page 208; and Philosophical Magazine for July, IMS. Alio Plattncr't " Probirkunst mit doro Lothrtihre." t Theie forceps may be obtained from any dealer in chemical apparatus. For simple expa> riments Ihey may bo replaced by a strip of thin sheet ircn bent into the form of a pair of nippers or tong*. Some twine or silk must be twisted round the middle part to praYont th* fingers ftrom being burned. >f 18 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OP THE must be heated in a test-tube over a small spirit lamp, and after decrepitation has taken place, one of the resulting fragments may be exposed to the blow-pipe flame as already explained. (b) The test-fragment may change colour (with or without fusing} and become attractable by a magnet. Example, carbonate of iron. This becomes first red, then black, and attracts the magnet, but does not fuse. Iron pyrites on the other hand becomes black and mag- netic, but fuses also. (c) The test-fragment may. colour the flame. Thus, most copper compounds impart a rich green colour to the flame ; compounds con- taining baryta, and many phosphates and borates, with the mineral molybdenite, colour the flame pale green ; sulphur, selenium, lead, and chloride of copper colour the flame blue of different degrees of intensity ; compounds containing strontia and lithia impart a crimson colour to the flame ; some lime compounds impart to it a paler red colour ; soda compounds, a deep yellow colour; and potash com- pounds, a violet tint. (rf) The test-fragment may become caustic. Example, carbonate of lime. The carbonic acid is burned off", and caustic lime remains. This restores the blue colour of reddened litmus paper. It also imparts if moistened, a burning sensation to the back of the hand or other sensitive part. (e) The test-fragment may take fire and burn. Example, native sulphur ; common bituminous coal, &c. (/) The test-fragment may "volatilize," or dissipate in fumes, either wholly or partially, and with or without an accompnnying odor. Thus, grey antimony ore volatilizes with dense white fumes ; arsenical pyrites volatilizes in part, with a strong odor of garlic; com- mon iron pyrites yields an odour of brimstone, and so forth. (ff) The test-fragment may fuse, either wholly, or only at the point and edges; and the fusion may take place quietly, or with bubbling, and with or without a previous " intumescence" or expansion of the fragment. Most of the so-called zeolites, for example, (minerals abundant in Trap rocks), swell or ciirl up on exposure to the blow pipe, and then fuse quietly. Lepidolite fuses with great bubbling, and colours the flame red. Feldspar only melts on the edges, at least, in ordinary cases. (A) The test-fragment may remain unchanged. Example, Quartz, and various other infusible minerals. MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 10 T%« Water'te»t.— Many solid minerals contain a considerable amount of water, or the elements of water, in some unknown physical condition. Gypsum, for example, contains 20.93 per cent, of water. In order to ascertain if a substance yield water, we chip off a frag- ment (of about the size of a small pea) and heat this in a common test-tube (or better, in a small " bulb-tube " or glass tube closed and expanded at one end, as shown in the accompanying figure) over the flame of a little spirit lamp. If water be present, it will rise and condense in the form of a thin film or in small drops, on the cold neck or upper part of the tube. When the moisture begins to appear, the tube must be held in a more or less horizontal position, otherwise a fracture may be occasioned by the water flowing down and coming in contact with the hot glass. A small spirit lamp may be made by fitting a piece of glass tubing an inch long (to serve as a wick holder) into the cork of any short, stout bottle. A proper lamp, however, with a glass cap to prevent the evaporation of the spirit when the lamp is not in use, can be pur^ chased for a quarter of a dollar. Fia. 22. PART II. THE MINERALS OF CANADA. Introductory Notice. In the preceding chapter we have given a brief review of the more common characters or properties employed in the determination of minerals. The present subdivision of our work exhibits the practical application of these characters, in the distribution of our Canadian minerals into a small number of easily recognized groups, so arranged as to lead at once to the names of the included substances. 20 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE By referring to the heads of this arrangement or classification,* as given below, it will be seen that there are four principal groups ; A, B, C, and D : the first two containing those minerals which ex- hibit a metallic aspect ; and the other two containing our glassy, stony, pearly, or earthy-looking minerals. The metallic-looking sub- stances jilaced in group A are sufficiently hard to scratch window- glass ; whilst those placed in group B, are too soft to effect this. In like manner, the minerals of non-metallic aspect placed in group C, scratch glass ; whilst those placed in group D, are less hard than glass, and are consequently unable to scratch that substance. The term "glass," as employed in this sense, means ordinary window- glass. By these simple characters it is easy to determine in a minute, to which group a substance under examination belongs. This deter- mined, we proceed to a consideration of the sub-groups, 1, 2, 3, &c., of the group in question In the sub-group or section to which the substance will thus be found to belong, there will probably be 8»me three or four, or perhaps half-a-dozen, other minerals ; but these, it will be seen, are readily distinguishable, one from another, by colour, colour of streak, structure, or other easily determined character. In this manner we arrive, without difficulty, at the name of our mineral. To illustrate this by example, let it 1r* supposed that we have a piece of a red, dull, and somewhat earthy-looking substance, the name of which we wish to ascertain. By its non-metallic aspect, we see at once that it belongs either to group C or to group D. We try if it will scratch glass. It is not sufficiently hard to do this : hence it belongs to group D. Turning now to the respective sub-groups or sections under D, we find that our mineral has no taste, and hence does not belong to Z) 1. Neither does it take tire (although it blackens) when a thin splinter of it is held for a moment in the flame of a candle, or in the tlame of an ignited match : and hence it does not belong to D 2. It has, however, a coloured streakf (red), and ao l)clongs to the next section, D3 Now in this section there are only two minerals with red streak : or only one, indeed, of un- doubted Canadian occurrence — Earthy Red Iron Ore, commonly • The Kencral resdor should uiidersUiid that this ciauiftcation is a purely artificial one, intended solely to lead to thd recognition of minerals by means of their more obvioiu or easily determined characters— somewhat on the principU of the Linnean classiflcatioo of plants. t For an eiplaiiation of these characters, technical termH, fto-, see I'art I. MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OP CANADA. n called Hed Ochre; and as our mineral becomes magnetic ''ter expo- sure to the flame of a match or candle, it can be nothing ciSe than a specimen of that substance. This example will be sufficient to shew the method of procedure to be followed in order to ascertain the name, &c., of an unknown mineral, by reference to the annexed Tabular Distribution. In this connexion, it has been thought advisable to include a few substances of more or less common occur- rence in the United States, although not yet found in Canada ; and also to refer occasionally, in smaller type, to some other minerals of economic value or popular interest, so as to make the subject more complete, and render our Tables available for the examination of the small collections sometimes imported into this country for the pur- poses of study. Some of the substances thus noticed, may also be discovered eventually in Canada. Finally, it should be observed that the descriptions of these various minerals, given in our Tabular DiSTKiBUTiON, are necessarily exceedingly brief, referring only to matters of easy comprehension or general importance. When, how- ever, the name of a mineral is once discovered, the reader, if he de- sire to pursue the subject further, can refer for fuller details to any of our ordinary works on Mineralogy. A Tabular Distribution of Canadian Minerals, including, ALSO, A FEW OTHER MiNERAL SuBSTANCES OF COMMON OCCURRENCE. GENERAL INDEX. The reader is to deterniine, by this Index, the group and sub-group to which his unknown ininerni belongs ; and he is then to refer to the descriptions given under that sub-group in the pages immediately following the Index. Aspect Metallic i ^'''^ ^"«»S*^ *« '"'''^''^ S^'^^^ ^- ( Not hard enough to scratch glass . . B. A .XT » II- f Hard enouaib to scratch glass C. Aspect Non-nietalnc < " ° { Not hard enough to scratch glass . D, A. Aspect metallic. Hard enough to scratch glass : Colour, Light Brass-yellow A \. Colour, Pale copper-red A 2. Colour, Tin-white, or Silver-white ... A3. Colour, Steel-grey, Black, or Brown A 4. 22 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OP THB B. Aspect metallic. Not hard enough to scratch glass : Malleable or Ductile B 1. Yielding to the nail £2. Not yielding to the nail B 3. C. Aspect non-metallic, (glassy, stony, &c.) Hard enough to scratch glass : Infusible. Very hard : not yielding to the knife C \. Infusible, or nearly so. Yielding to the knife ..... C 2. Fusible. Not yielding water in the bulb-tube C 3. Fusible. Yielding water in the bulb-tube (^^. 22). . . C7 4. D. Aspect non-metallic, (stony, glassy, &c.) Not hard enough to scratch glass : Soluble, and thus affecting the taste D \. Taking fire when held (in thin splinters) in the flame of a candle D 2. Not exhibiting the above reactions. Streak, coloured D 3. Streak, white. Not yielding water in the bulb-tube . . D 4. Streak, white. Yielding water in the bulb-tube (/iff. 22.) D 5, A. Aspect Metallic Hardness sufficient to scratch glass A 1. — Colour, Light Brass-yellow. Iron Pyrites. — A substance of a pale brass-yellow colour, with greyish-black streak, occurring in amorphous, globular, and other masses, and in Monometric crystals (cubes, generally with alter- Qately -striated faces, pentagonal dodecahedrons, kc.,Jigs. 23, 24, 25.) FiR. 2a. Fig. £4. FiK. 25. H. 6.0-G.5 ; sp. gr. 4.8-i>.J. Fusible, with sulphur fumes, into a magnetic globule. One hundred parts contain: sulphur, 53*5; iron, 4G7 ; but the iron is sometimes in part replaced by a little co- balt or nickel, and occasionally minute portions of gold and silver are accidentally present Iron pyrites occurs in uU kinds of rocks, and is exceedingly common ; but is useless as an ore of iron. It yields copperas, or iron-vitriol, by decomposition ; und it is often converted MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. on the surface, or wholly, into hydrated brown oxide of iron. It sometimes forms the substance of organic remains, as in many of the Trilobites, &c., of our Utica Slate. Amongst the principal Canadian localities,* we may note, more especially, the counties of Pontiac (Clarendon Township), Terrebonne, Berthier (Lanoraie Seign.), and Sherbrooke (Garthby Township), in Canada East ; the vicinity of Balsam Lake, where it occurs with magnetic pyrites ; and many places on the north shore of Lake Huron, Lake Superior, &c. A nickeliferous variety occurs in D'Aillebout, Berthier Co.; and an auriferous variety in Vandreuil, Beauce Co., C. E. We have obtained some brilliant though small, crystals from the white feldspathic trap of the Montreal Mountain ; and also from the Niagara limestone, and other fossiliferous rocks ; but iron pyrites occurs chiefly in our Laurentian and Huro- nian Formations, and in the Mctamorphic district of the Eastern Townships. The general reader will find these geological terms fully explained in some of the succeeding narts of this series. Radiated Pyrites, or Marcaaite, also belongs to this Section, but it does not appear to have been noticed in Canada. It baa the same composition as common Pyrites, but crystallizes in the Tiimetric or Rhombic System. Many globular specimens, with radiated structure, sometimes referred to Marcasite, belong truly, it should be observed, to comnioo Pyrites. A. 2. — Colour, Pale Copper Red (usually with grey or black external tarnish.) Arsenical Nickel — Pale copper-red, tarnishing dark-grey. Streak, brownish-black. Chiefly in small amorphous masses. H. 5*0-5 5 (it scratches glass feebly.) Sp. gr. 7.3-7.7 (a salient character.) Fusi- ble, with strong odour of garlic. One hundred parts contain : Arsenic, 56 ; Nickel, 44. This substance, often called Copper- Nickel from its co})per-red colour, is the common ore of nickel ; but in Canada it is very rare. It has been found in small quantities in Michipicoten Island, Lake Superior. A substance composed of sul- phur, arsenic, and nickel, occurs likewise, but in very small quanti- • For the localities mentioned in these descriptions, we are very largely indebted to the pub- lications of the Canadian Qoolojtical Survey, and cspoccially to the Esquisse Geologique du Canada, by Sir W. E. Logan and T. Sterry Hunt. We shall be greatly obliged to our readers for any information respecting localities of Canadian minerals; and more especially, if a ■mall fra^n.ent of the substanoe referred to in the information, be furnished at the same time. A piece no larger than our ordinary pea will be of Kufflcient size. Although we are constantly receiving specimens of ditfurent kinds for examination, the exact localities of these arc generally kept secret by .the senders, in the belief that something has been dis- covered of more than usual value. 24 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THK ties, at the Wallace Mines, Lake Huron. It is somewhat less hard than Arsenical Nickel. The Townships of Bolton and Ham, in the metamorphic district of the Eastern Townships, are also cited as localities of nickel ore. The ore is said to occur there very sparingly in Serpentine, associated with Chromic Iron Ore. A. 3. Colour, Tin or Silver-white (sometimes with grey or yellowish external tarnish.) Arsenical Pyrites (Mispickel.) — Tin or silver-white, inclining to light steel grey. Streak, greyish-black. In amorphous and granular masses, and in modified rhombic prisms (Trimetric System.) H. 5. .5-6.0 ; Sp. gr. 6.0-6.4. Fusible, with garlic odour, into a magnetic globule. One hundred parts contain : sulphur, 20 ; ar- senic, 46 ; iron, 34. This mineral is of very common occurrence in many countries. It is quite useless as an ore of iron, but is em- ployed in Germany and elsewhere in the production of arsenious acid, the white arsenic of commerc^ Arsenious acid is obtained also, and more abundantly, from arsenical nickel and certain cobalt ores. In Canada, arsenical pyrites occurs in small quantities with common iron pyrites, &c., in our azoic and metamorphic rocks more especially, at various localities : as at the Lake Huron Mines ;* in Clarendon Town- ship (Pontiac Co.) ; in the Chaudiere Valley, &c. It sometimes con- tains a little cobalt, in which case, after exposure before the blow-pipe to drive off the greater part of the arsenic and sulphur, it fuses with with borax into a rich blue glass. The common cobalt ores (Smaltine and Cobaltine) belong also to this Section, but they have not yet been discovered in Canada. A 4. Colour, Steel-grey, Iron-black, or Brown. (No fumes before the Blow-pipe.) [Principal Minerals. — Streak, dull-red : Spenifar ,/ron Ore. Strongly magnetic ; streak, black: Magnetic Iron Ore. Yieiiling water in the bulb-tube; streak, yellowii*hbrown; Brown Iron Ore."] Specular Iron, or Red Iron Ore — Dark steel-grey, often inclining to blueish red. Streak, dull-red, the same as the colour of the earthy varieties described in Section Z> 3. In rhombohedral crystals and crystalline groups, and in lamellar, micaceous, and fibrous-botryoidal masses, the latter often called Red Hsematite. H. 5.5-6.5 ; sp. gr. 4.3-5.3. In thin splinters, fusible on the edges (although commonly said to be infusible.) Becomes also magnetic after expo- MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 25 sure to the blow-pipe, and is often feebly magnetic in its normpl con- dition. One hundred parts contain : Oxygen, 80 ; Iron, 70. This mineral is one of the most valuable of the Iron Ores. In Canada, it is exceedingly abundant, more especially in our Laurentian rocks, al- though less ^ ) than the Magnetic Iron Ore. It occurs chiefly in these rocks in the Township of MacNab, on the Ottawa, where it consti- tutes a vast bed, twenty-five feet thick, in crystalline limestone ; and also associated with crystalline limestone at Iron Island, Lake Nipis- sing (Mr. Murray.) In the Huronian rocks, it is found at the Wallace Mine, Lake Huron ; and it occurs likewise in metamorphic chloritic schists (altered Silurian shales of the age of the Hudson River group), associated with magnetic iron ore, dolomite, &c., in the Eastern Townships of Sutton, Bolton, and Brome. Ilmenite. — This substance, (normally, perhaps, a compound of the sesqui-oxides of titanium and iron,) has an iron-black or dark steel- grey colour, with black or dark reddj^h-brown streak. It closely re- sembles and passes into Specular Iron Ore. At Baie St. Paul, C.E., a large deposit of Ilmenite, three hundred feet in length and ninety feet broad, occurs in a feldspathic rock of the Laurentian series. It is associated with small orange-red grains of rutile. The same substance (according to Sir W. Logan,) occurs also, mixed with magnetic iron ore, in a thick bed in serpentine, in Vaudreuil, Beauce County, C.E» Magnetic Iron Ore. — Iron-black, with sub-metallic lustre and black streak. Occurs in monometric crystals (octahedrons and rhombic dodecahedrons, figs. 26 and 27), in amorphous masses of a granular or lamellar structure, and also in small grains. Strongly magnetic, often with polarity. H. 5.5-6.5 ; sp. gr. 4 9-5 2. Infusible, or nearly so. One hundred parts contain: Oxygen, 27.6; iron, 72.4; (or sesqui- oxide of iron, 69 ; protoxide of iron, 31.) This when pure, is the most valuable of all the iron ores. Its black streak, and strong mag- netism, (and, when crystallized, its form), easily distinguish it from spe- cular iron ore. In the Laurentian rocks of Canada, it occurs in vast beds, rendering this Province one of the richest iron-containing countries of the world, abundantly amongst the metamorphosed Silurian strata of the Eastern Townships. Its principal " Laurentian " localities comprise : the Pig 26. FiR. 27. It occurs also 26 \ POPULAR EXPOSITION OF IH*. Townships of Marmora, Belmont, and Madoc, with those of South Sherbrooke, Bedford, and Crosby, in Canada West ; and the Town- ships of Hull aud Litchfield, on the Ottawa, in Canada East, The supply at these localities is apparently inexhaustible. The Townships of Bolton and Brome, and the Chaudiere Valley, may be cited amongst the localities of this ore in the luetamorphic district south of the St. Lawrence. In this district, however, as remarked by Sir William Logan, its value is much lessened by admixture with titanic iron, chlorite, &c. In the form of black magnetic sand (either alone or mixed with iserine, ), this ore is also of exceedingly common occur- rence on the shores of many of our lakes, islands, &c. The black iron-saiid of the Toronto "Peninsula" is a well-known example. Iserine. — This is a black titaniferous iron ore, bearing the same re- lation to Magnetic Iron Ore that Ilmenite bears to Specular Iron. It occurs chiefly in the form of magnetic sand, or in small granular masses, mixed with magnetic iron ore. It occurs with "iron sand" on our lake shores, &c., and probably with magnetic iron in the Eastern Townships. It can only be distinguished from the latter mineral by a blow-pipe (or other eh niical) examination. Fused on charcoal with microcosmic salt in a rciucing flame, the glass becomes, on cooling, deep red. Chromic Iron Ore. — This substance is also closely related to Mag- netic Iron Ore. It has a black colour, with sub-metallic lustre, and dark-brown streak. It occurs commonly in amorphous granular masses, and consists normally of sesqui-oxide of chromium and oxiie of iron. H. .'i.f) ; sp. gr. 4.3-4.0. Bolton and Ilam, in the "me- tamorphic district " of the Eastern Townships (where it occurs in veins of about a foot in thickness, in serpentine) arc its principal Canadian localities. It is found also in other places throughout this district, in small grains, in dolomite and magnesite rocks. When quite pure, it may be distinguished from magnetic iron ore by its brown streak and lower sp. gr. ; as well as by its want of (or feeble) magnetism. Chromic Iran Ore is used for the preparation of chro- mium comj)0«nuls, employed in dyeing, painting, &C. Broivn Iron Ore {Linionite), — Brown of varioun shades, with sub- metallic (or sometinu'S stony or silky) aspect, and yollowi.sh-brown streak. Occurs chiefly in botryoidul masses with fibrous structure (a variety often called lirown Jltcinnflte), and also in vesicular and earthy amorphous musses ( Uoff Iron Ore). U- d.U-ii.O ; sp. gr. 3.5-4.U. MINERALS AND GEOLOtJY OF CANADA. 27 Blackens before the blow-pipe, and becomes magnetic. In the bulb- tube {^fi'j- 22) it gives off water. One hundred parts contain (if the substance be pure) : Sesqui-oxidc of iron, 85.G ; water, 14.4. This is likewise a valuable ore of iron. The Bog Iron Ore variety (in addition to yellow ochre described in Section D 3) is that which chiefly occurs in Canada. This variety is a comparatively recent product ; and its formation, indeed, is still going on in places, by deposition from water in the form of carI)onate of iron oxide, this being after- wards converted into the hydrated sesqui-oxide. It occurs in great abundance in Post-tertiary dej)osits in the Three Rivers District, C.E., ^yielding the celebrated " St. Maurice, or Three Rivers Iron," largely employed for castings) ; and also in the County of Norfolk, C.W. ; besides many other localities. Altogether, the following Townships aud Seigniories are enumerated by Sir William Logan {Esquisse g^ologiqiie du Canada) as yielding this ore : Middletown, Charlotte- ville, Wftlsingham, West Gwillimbury, Fitzroy, Eardley, March, Hull, Templeton, Vaudreuil, St. Maurice, Champlain, Batiscan, Ste. Anne, Port Ncuf, Nicolet, Stanbridge, Simpson, Ireland, Lauzon, St. Val- lier, &c. These bog iron ores always contain a small amount of phosphoric acid, which becomes reduced during the process of smelt- ing, and usually renders the iron (by the presence of phosphide or phos- phuret of iron) " cold-short." Cold-short iron is more or less brittle, and, hence, as a general rule, it is only available for castings. The St. Maurice ores are said, however, to yield excellent malleable iron. Note.— Ab the iniiioruls of this Suction (A 4) prcaent, In inauy of their vario- ties, n Hoinewliut doubtful inetaUlo ospuut,* tbey will be refurreil to Hgaia, uader Group C B, Aspect metaUic, TIardnesft insufficient to scratch glass. B 1. MulleahU; or Ductile. IPrlncipul Minurfttsr—Ooioui yeUow : Native Oold Dolour white, with dark tii'insh. Native Silver, ('olnur durk iemlgroy : Sulpftidit of Silver. Colour cop|)cr-reiJ : Native Copper.] Native Gold. -Rich golden-yellow ; in sniull granular or sub- crystalline masses, scales, and dust. Sp. gr. varying from about 16.0 • Thit t««rni "as|icct," as horc oniployod, roft'M not merely to tlie "lustro" of tlio nub- ■Unco, but to ilM Ki'Dcrnl nppcKrniicf* and pliarnclcrN, takoii toftPtlicr. Thus but Tow, if any, ■pm^lmonst of Dok li'ou Oro cxliiblt a iiictalhc lustro |iru|H-rly aocallcil ; and yd niottt twmuni, on tnkinit up (iiir of thosr NpocinirnH, would rrfiT it at onco to l\w molnllio Kroup, or, iu '«(hor word'4, would coniiidt'r it to bp a metallic lubiitanco of mmho kind. 28 A FOPVLAR EXPOSITION OF THE to 19.0. Easily fusible, but otherwise inalterable before the blow- pipe. Distinguished by this latter character, and also by its high Bp. gr., its malleability, &c., from copper pyrites, iron pyrites, and other substances of a similar aspect. Anotlier salient character, ap- plicable more especially to dust gold, is the quality of remaining un- affected by nitric acid. In Canada, native gold occurs over a wide area (in alluvial sands, Si.c.) in the metamorphic district south of the St. Lawrence, although not in sufficient abundance to cause the regular working of the auriferous sands of this district to be remunerative. The sands of the following strean»s and rivors, more particularly, are stated by Sir William Logan to contain gold : The Guillauine, Les- sard, Bras, TouflFe-des-Pins, Du Lac, Famine, Du Loup, Metgermet, and Poser's stream ; with the Chaudiere and St. Francis. These, with the exception of the St. Francis, belong chiefly to Beauce Co., C.E. Sir William Logan states also, that native gold litis been found in small quantities in a vein with Specular Iron Ore, in the township of Leeds, Megantic Co., C.E. Traces of gold have likewise been discovered in the native silver of Prince's Mine, Lake Superior. (See, also, auriferous varieties of Iron Pyrites, A I ; Copper Pyrites, B 3 ; and Blende, Ii'3.) The gold of the Eaatern Townships contains, according to Professor Sterry Hunt, from 11 to 13 per cent, of silver. Small grains of l*latinum and Iridoamium are mixeil with it here and there, as in the sands of the Riviere du Loup, &e. Native Silver' — Silver-white, often with dark or yellowish external tarnish. Found chiefly in crystalline arborescent groups, and in small, scaly, granular, or wire-like masses, associated with native copper, at St. Ignace and Michipicoten Islands ; and with sulphide of silver, Ac, in calcareous spar, at Prince's Mine, Spar Island, Lake Superior. Sp. gr. 10-11. Easily fusible. Sulphide of Silver (or Silver Glance). —Dark lead-grey or black, with shining streak. Perfertly ductile. Chiefly in small masses with native silver, sulphide of copper, galena, malachite, Ac, in a vein of quartz anil ealc spar, at Prince's Mine, Lake Stiperior, Sp. gr. about 7.2. Fusible and reducible to metallic silver per se before the blow- pipe. One hundred parts contain: Sulphur, 13 ; silvir, 87. It ii easily distinguished frcnn sulphide of copper, galena, &e., by 'ts per- fect malleability, as well as by its lilow-pipe charhcters. Native Copper: — (!oppir-rei!, with shining streak. (/liiefly in arborescent and amorphous masses, more rarely in determinabl* MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 29 crystal-groups (Mouometric.) H. 2.5-3.0. Perfectly malleable. Sp. gr. about 8.9. Easily fusible, imparting a green colour to the flame. Native copper occurs in immense abundance on the south shore of Lake Superior, but on the Canada side of the lake it has been found in small quantities in St. Ignace and Michipicoten Islands. In the latter Island, at Maimanse and Mica Bay, accompanying copper glance and copper pyrites. It does not appear to occur at all amongst the extensive deposits of copper pyrites, &c., on Lake Huron. In the Eastern metamorphic district, native copper is said to have been noticed at St. Henri, Dorchester Countv. B. 2. Yieldiny to the Nail pMiuoipal Miuerals. Streak white, Mica. Streak black, colour, black or dark* grey : Graphite. Streak anil Colour load grey ; imparting a pale green tint to the blow-pipe flame : .\/'>lifbd(!n!.te.'\ Mica : — In lainiiwir or scaly masses, with a false pearly-nK'tallic aspect. Colour, various ; streak, white. See Section D. i. Graphite: — Chiefly in black or dark-grey foliated masses or small scales. Feels somewhat greasy ; marks on paper ; sectile, and flexible in thin pieces ; II. 1.0-2.0 ; Sp. gr. about 2.0. Inalterable before the blow-pipe. It occurs in small scales disseminated more or less throughout our Laupentain formation, and more especially in the crystalline limestoiu of that series ; but its principal Canadian localities are the townships of Grenville (.\ddington County,) and Fitzroy (Carleton County,) on the Ottawa. At the former locality it constitutes several veins, each of an average thickness of about five inches ; and is associated with garnets, zircon, feldspar, ami other minerah;. (Jraphite when of fine granular structure and dark colour, is extensively employed, under the popular Jiatne of Plumbago or " Black-Lead," in the manufacture of the so-called black-lead pencils. ii consists, however, simply of carbon (or of carl)on mechanically mixed with oxide of iron,) and does not contain a trace of lead. Our i-anadiaii graj)hite is unfortunately too coarse and not sutticiently intense in colour for pencils, but, according to Sir William Logan, it may be \u:i'i\ in the mainifacture of refractory crucibles. Some samples that we have seen, might he employed also wIhmi ground to puwd;-r, as a polishing material for grates and stoves. Molybdenite : - This substance much resembles graphite, but is of a lighter colour ; and whilst it leaven a black trace ; i The true Drift Formation. (Hero a jcront break occuth in tho geological scale as represented in Canada.) Carboniferous Formation (developed in part only in Oasp*^.) Devonian Formation, Silurian Formation,* ^ Iluronian Formation, ; Laurentian Formation. , • • Tho great foKslllferous formation of Canada. Metamorphosed or rendered crystalline In part, in tho so-called " metamorphic dUtrlrt " of the Kastern Townships and surround* ing region. mm 32 A FOPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE species may be easily distinguished from the variegated specimens of cop;)er pyrites or yellow copper ore. Chiefly in amorphous or small granular masses accompanying yellow copper pyrites in quartz. Some- times, as observed by the writer J^Canadian Journal, New Series: vol. 1, page 187) in pseudomorphs, or altered (Dimetric) tetrahedrons, after the yellow ore. 11=4.0 ; sp. gr. 4.4-5.0. Fusible with sulphur fumes into a magnetic globule. One liundred parts contain (as a mean) : sulphur 25, copper 60, iron 15 This mineral occurs with copper pyrites :it most of the localities given in the description of that substance, above. It is found also in the townships of Inverness and Leeds, Megantic County, C.E. Sulphuret of Copper, or Copper Glance : — Dark lead-grey often with blue or green tarnish ; streak, black and slightly shining. Chiefly in amorphous masses, more rarely in small flat six-sided crystals (Trimetric.) H 2.5-3.0 ; sp. gr. 5.5-5.8. Fusible with bubbling, colouring the flame green, and leaving a copper globule surrounded in general by a dark scoria. One hundred parts contain : sulphur 20.2, copper 79.8. This valuable ore occurs in some abundance at the Bruce Mines, Lake Huron. It is also found at Prince's Mine on Spar Island, Lake Superior, as well as in the Michipicoten Islands and in the Island of St. Ignace on that Lake, associated with copper pyrites, native copper, &c. It occurs likewise (with purple copper pyrites, &c.,) in the eastern metamorphic district : as in the townships of Leeds and Inverness in Megantic county. In the former of these townships it lies, according to Sir William Logan, in a ferruginous dolomite, associated with specular iron ore and a small quantity of native gold. Galena : — Lead-grey, with black and somewhat shining streak. In amorphous masses of lamellar or granular structure, and in monome- tric crystals — more especially in cubes and cubo-octahe- drons, fff 28. It breaks easily, owing to its well-mar- ked cubical cleavage, into rectangular fragments. H. 2.5 ; sp. gr. 7.2-7.7. Decrepitates before the blow-pipe and yields lead globules, with the deposition of a yellow coating on the charcoal. One hundred parts contain : sulphur 13.4, lead 8G.G ; but a portion of the sulphide of lead is generally replaced by sulphide of silver. The silver in most of the Canadian samples, however, is insuflicient to meet the cost of its extraction. Galena is the source of nearly all the lead of commerce. It occurs in Fit? 28. MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. ^ 33 Canada iu very many places, but nowhere, apparently, in large quantities. It is chiefly found in connection with the crystalline limestones of the Laurentian formation, associated with crystallized calc-spar and sulphate of baryta, and sometimes also with zinc blende and iron pyrites. It occurs thus, occasionally forming thin veins, in the townships of Lansdowne and Bastard, (Leeds County, C.W. ;) Bedford (Frontenac County, C.W. ;) Fitzroy (Carleton County, C.W. ;) Ramsay (Lanark County, C.W. ;) Petite Nation (Ottawa County, C E. ;) and, in smaller quantities, in many other townships lying more especially along the southern outcrop of the Laurentian country. Galena has been met with also in the Huronian rocks of the Michipicoten and Spar Islands, Lake Superior, associated with copper ores, calc-spar, amethyst-quartz, &c., and on the neigh- bouring shores. Also in the metamorphic district of Eastern Canada ; more especially in the quartz veins of the Chaudifere Valley (with zinc blende, common and magnetic pyrites, native gold, &c.) as in the seigniories of Vaudreuil and St. George. Zinc Blende : — This substance varies in its aspect from sub-metallic to vitreo-resinous. The more metallic-looking specimens are dark- brown, black, brownish-yellow or brownish-red, with yellowish or reddish-brown streak, and high lustre. Found chiefly in lammellar and small irregidar masses, and in more or less obscure crystals of the Monometric system. H. 3.5-4.0 ; sp. gr. 3.9-4.2. Infusible. One hundred parts contain : sulphur 33, zinc 67. Zinc Blende, although so abundant in many countries, can scarcely be called an ore of zinc : the attempts to employ it for the extraction of the metal, having hitherto proved of very partial success. It may be used however, when ground to powder, as the basis of a wash or paint for frame buildings and wood-work generally. In Canada, Zinc Blende occurs in some abundance at Prince's Mine on Spar Island, and at Maimanse, Lake Svperior, with copper ores, galena, &c. Also in small quantities with galena, in the townships of Lansdowne, Bedford, &c., (see under galena, above) ; and in the eastern metamorphic district of the Chau- diere Valley. The Blende of this latter locality (seigniories of Vau- dreuil and St. George, Beauce Co.,) has been shewn by Mr. Sterry Hunt of the Geological Survey, to be slightly auriferous. m A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE C. Aspect, non'metallic {stony, glassy, etc.) Hardness sufficient to . *■ scratch glass » C. 1 — Infusible. Very hard, not yielding to the knife. [Quartz is the only mineral of common occurrence, belonging to the present section. In colour, degree of transparency, and general appearance, this substance varies exceedingly ; but its specific gravity is always under 2*9, whilst the other minerals (of Canadian occurrence) included in the section, exceed 3*0 in density. Feldspar id sometimes confounded by beginners with quartz ; but the former in thin splinters, is more or less readily fusible. The two minerals may be distinguish- ed also, at once, by the following characters : Quartz breaks with an uneven or conchoidal fracture, and never exhibits smooth cleavage planes. Feldspar, on the other hand, possesses a strongly-marked lamellar structure, and breaks easily in certain directions, so as to present a smooth, polished, and somewhat pearly fracture-plane.] Corundum. — Red, blue, brown, greeniah, black, &e. la small granular masses and hexagonal crystals. H. O'O^ and hence much above that of quartz ; sp. gr. 3*9-4'l. Quite infusible. Corundum consists, normally, of pure alumiua. The transparent red varieties constitute the Ruby of commerce, and the blue varieties the Sapphire. The coarser dull-coloured varieties are called Adamantine spar ; and the opaque, black and dark grey varieties (often miied with magnetic iron ore) form Emery, a substance used largely, from its great hard- ness, as a polishing material. Some of the finer kinds of corundum exhibit when cut, a beautiful opalescent six-rayed star. These are called asteria sapphires, ^c, according to their colour. Red (and blue) corundum occurs sparingly in the crystalline limestone (Laurentian series) of Burgess township, Lanark Co., C. W. Spinel. — Red, blue, dull-green, black, &c. In small granular masses, but chiefly in regular octahedrons, simple or modified ; figs. 29, 30. The latter figure represents a common twin-form, or combination of two octahedrons. Infusible, H. 8*0 ; sp. gr. 3'5-4'5. Spinel is an alumi- nate of magnesia, but a portion of the magnesia is usually replaced by oxide of irim, as in the black varieties called pleonaste, more especially ; or by oxide of zinc, as in the Swedish dark green variety called Oahnite or automolite. Normally, it consists of alumina 72, magnesia 28. The clear red varieties are employed in jewellery under the name of Spinel or Balas ruby. Well-crystallized black speci- Fig. 29. Fig. 30. MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 35 mens occur in the Laurentian limestone of Burgess township, C. W. ; and bluish specimens with clintonite (a chloritic, altered mineral,) in D'Aillebout, Job* - Co., C. E. Magnetic Iron Ore. — Black with black streak, and in general, a sub-metallic lustre. Massive, or in octahedrons and rhombic dodecahedrons. Strongly magnetic, often with polarity. See A 4, above. Chromic Iron Ore. — Black ; chiefly massive, and usually with sub- metallic lustre. Streak, dark brown. Imparts a fine green iiour to borax before the blowpipe. See A 4. above. Quartz. — A substance of a vitreous or more or less stony aspect ; colourless, or of various colours, as purple, brown, red, green, yellow, &c. Occurring in crystals and crystalline groups, figs. 31, 32, and also in nodular, botryoidal, and amorphous masses. The crystals are commonly six-sided prisms, streaked across, and terminated by a six-sided pyramid. H. 7*0 ; sp. gr. 2'6-2-7. Infusible ; but melting (with great effervescence) with carbonate of soda, into a clear glass. Quartz consists normally of pure silica, the coloured varieties owing their tints to minute and accidental admixtures of sesqui-oxide of iron, bituminous matter, and other inessential i "re- dients. Special names have been applied by lapidaries and others to the leading varieties of quartz. Thus we have, Roch Crystal (including the so-called " Quebec diamonds," &c.); Smoky Quartz, a brown variety of rock crystal ; Amethyst, a purple or violet-coloured quartz, in which the edges of the crystals are usually more deeply coloured than the other parts ; Cairngorm, a yellow transparent quartz ; Rose Quartz ; Milk Quartz, a white translucent variety ; Galcedony and Cornelian, gr^y, ^hite, bluish, yellow, and red, uncrystallized translucent varieties of quartz ; Cat's-eye, an opalescent or chatoy- ant calcedony ; Ghrysoprase, a light green translucent variety ; Heliotrope, a dark green variety, sometimes with red spots and then called Bloodstone ; Plasma and Prase, other green varieties the latter often mixed with actynolite ; Ajate, Onyx, Sardonyx, &c., uncrystallized varieties of various banded colours ; Jasper, coarse, opaque, red, brown, and other coloured specime m, often striped, and with dull lustre on the fractured surface ; Flint and Fig. 31. Fisr. 32. 36 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE Sornstone, &c* Crystallized quartz occurs ia various parts of Canada, more especially where Laurentian rocks prevail, and ia the altered rocks of the eastern townships. Amethyst is found abun- dantly on Spar Island, where it forms a broad vein with calc-spar holding native silver, and at Thunder Bay and other spots on Lake Superior. Agates, also, in great variety, occur in the trap rocks and in the shingle beaches of that region (Michipicoten Isle, St. Ignace, Thunder Bay, &c.) A jasper-conglomerate, evidently an altered sedimentary rock, occurs on the north shore of Lake Huron. Agates and red and green jaspers occur also in Gaspe. Hed jasper passing into jaspery iron ore, likewise near Sherbrooke ; and, with veins of calcedony, on the river Quelle (Kamouraska Co.) C. E. Silica often constitutes the fossilizing substance of organic remains, as in the Devonian corals of western Canada ; and it is frequently found in crystal-groups in the inside of many fossil shells. Finally, it may be observed, quartz forms one of the essential components of granite, gneiss, and many other crystalline rocks. Sandstones also consist essentially of quartz grains cemented together, or consolidated by pressure; whilst in beds of sand and gravel we have the eame substance in loose grains and pebbles, as explained more fully in Part III. Ztrcon.— Red, brown, or grey, with resino'vitreous aspect. Chiefly in small crystals : (square-based prism-pyramids), fig. 33. H. 75 ; sp* gr. 40-4'7. Quite infusible. One hundred parts consist of : silica 33'2, zirconia 668. The transparent, yellowish-red varieties are employed in jewellery under the name of Hyacinth. Small crystals, sometimes of good quality, occur in the crystalline limestone (Laurentian Series) of Grenville township, Argenteuil Co., C. E. Those Fig. 33. ^hich have come under our observation are simply in- teresting as mineral specimens, but Sir "William *Logaji has obtained some of fine colour and transparency, " constituting veritable gems." (Esquisse geologique du Canada.) ,. , > Andalmite. — Chiefly grey or pale red ; in granular masses, and in rectangular or rhombic prisms. The latter are sometimes compoundf presenting a cruciform figure on the cross section. These constitute the variety Chiattoliie, (fig. 34.) H. (normally) = 70-7-6, but oftec less by alteration or weathering; sp. gr. 8'l-3'2. Quite infusible. General oomposition : silica 87, idumina 68. In Canada, MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 37 TiK. 34. this mineral occurs in reddish crystals and small masses in micaceous schists (altered Silunan strata,) around Lake St. Francis in the counties of Megantic and Beauce. It may be distinguished from feldspar by its higher specific gravity, and also by its complete infusibility. Staurolite: — Brown, red, greyish. Commonly in cruciform (Trimetric) crystals; otherwise in more or less simple, rhombic prisms. H 7-7-5, but sometimes less by alteration ; sp. gr. 3-5-3'8. Quite infusible. General composition: silica, alumina, peroxide of iron. This mineral occurs sparingly in the metamorphic sti-ata of the Eastern townships, although it is abundant in the mica slate of Maine, Vermont, &c. , Butile : — In small crystalline scales and grains, and in flattened aquare-based prism-pyramids, of a red or orange colour, with semi- metallic lustre. H. 6"0-6*5 ; sp. gr. 4-15-4-2o. Infusible. Forming with borax in a reducing flame a dark amethystine-blue glass, which by exposure to an intermittent flame, becomes transformed into a light-bli e enamel. In Canada, Eutiie, in a distinct form, occurs only in small quantities in the iron-ores of die Eastern metamorphic region, as in the townships of Sutton, Bolton and Brome ; and with llmenite in the Laurentian rocks of Bale St. Paul, Canada East. It consists of Titanic acid (= Oxygen 39, Titanium 61.) ■ Condrodile: — Chiefly in small grauular masses of a deep yellow colour, imbedded (usually with accompanying scales of graphite,) in crystalline limestone. H 6-6*5 ; sp. gr. 3-l-3"2. Infusible, but becomes white before the blowpipe. With borax, roells into a clear glass, which, if thoroughly saturated, may be rendered milky by flamiag'. This mineral is a silicate of magnesia, combined with a emnll pi-opocfciou of fluoride of magdesium. It dissolves with gela- tiuixation in hydrochloric acid. Condi'odite occurs in some abundance in the cpystiVlliue limoNlones of our Laurentian rocks, more especially in I he townships of South Ci'osby (Leed^ Co.) C. W., and Granville (.Irgeuleuil Co.*) C. E. Also in St. Jei-ome, (Terrebonne Co.) in the Lower Province. '*' Olivine : — In gieen, yellow, or brownish gt jilns and granular masses (soiueiimes crysuilliue) in lilie eiupiive rocks of Moativiil, Rouge- • Tliiii U iucon'octly printerl ' Addin^ton Co.' in our dtscr iption of Graphite, B 2, above. 88 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE mont, Moutarville, etc., in Eastern Canada, as first recognised by Mr. Hunt of the geological survey. H 6 0-6'5 ; sp. gr. 3'3-3'6. Infusible, gelatinizes in hydrochloric acid. Composed of silica and magnesia, the latter usually in part replaced by protoxide of iron. Tourmaline : — (Infusible varieties) : yellow, green, etc., mostly in three or nine* sided prisms. This mineral is described under C 3, the Canadian varieties being (chiefly) fusible. Feldspar (Including Orthoclatte, Albite, etc.,) : — In white, red, green, or greyish cleavable masses and crystals. Fusible in thin splinters. See Section C 3. The following minerals may alao be referred to, in connection with this group :— Opal. — Hydrated silica. A vitreous, or resino-vitreous mineral of various colours, occurring only in nodular or amorphous forms. Sp. gr. 2'0-2 2. Gives off a little water in the bulb-tube. The iridescent varieties constitute the noble opal ; the colourless glassy variety in botryoidal masses, forms the hyalite; whilst the opaque, or faintly translucent varieties, of white, grey, red, brown, and other colours, comprise the semi-opal, milk opal, wood-opal, &,n by silicate of copper. The crystals are pyro-electric, and are slightly fusible on the edges. Sp. gr. 8 3- 8*5 ; LI. 50. Oives off water in the bulb-tube, and dissolves in heated hydrochloric acid. Com. position : Silica 26, oxiie of zinc 65'5, water 9*5. Carbonate of Zinc, in colour, etc, resembles the silicate, but the crystals are rhombohedrous. H. 6.0 ; sp. gr 40 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE Fie 35. Fig. S6. 4'0-4'4. Dissolves with effervescence id acids. Composition : carbonic acid 86*2, oxide of zinc 64-8. These minerals are frequently found intermixed. They consti- tute (with Red Zinc Ore) the essential " on's " of Zinc, properly so-called. See the remarks under Zine Blende, B 8, (page 182) above. C 3. Fusible. Hot yielding water in the bulb-tube. Garnet .'—Colour, chiefly red of various shades, but also black, brown, green (both dark and pale,) yellow, and even white. Com- monly in crystals (rhombic dodecahedrons and trapezohedrons, figs. 35 and 36) ; otherwise in granular and rounded masses, or amorphous, with lamellar structure. H. 65-75 ; sp, gr. 3"5-4"2. More or less easily fusible, the dark specimens yielding a magnetic bead. Compo- sition, essentially silica and alumina, (or silica, alumina and sesqui- oxide of iron,) with either lime, or magnesia, or protoxide of iron or manganese, or several of these bases combined. (See a very complete series of analyses in Dana's ** System , of Mineralogy," vol. 2, pages 191-2.) Garnets are of comparatively common occurrence in the gneissoid rocks of the Laurentian formation, more especi- ally in contact with beds of crystalline limestone. The mineral thus occurs in bands of gneiss properly so-called, quartz, hornblende rock, &c., along or near to the edges of the limestone beds in very- many localities, although it is found also in various places more or less remote from these beds. Briefly, amongst other Laurentian lo- calities of Garnet, we may mention the following : — Various spots along the Muskoka river, as the Lake of Bays, &c. ; the townships of Marmora and Elzevir, Hastings County, C. W. ; Barrie and other townships in Frontenac County, C.W. ; Hull, Ottawa County, C.B. ; Chatham, Chatham Gore, and Grenville towuHhips (dark red and hyaciutli-red varieties) in Argeuteuil County, C. E ; the parish of St. Jerome in Terrebonne County, C. E. ; Rawdon township, Montcalm County, C.E. ; Hunterstown, Mnskinunge County, C E. ; «&c. In some of these 'ocalities, (St. Jerome especially, see Sir William Lo- gan's Keport for 1H53) the garnets are suftieiently abundant to bo available as a polishing materinl in place of emery. AmongHt the nUered strata south of the St. Lawrence, Mr. Hunt has discovered ccitaia white or liglit-coioured beds which exhibit the composition of a lime guruet. In the township of Oxford, one of these i-onaiata MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 41 /5> of irregular rounded masses of white garnet. — H. 7*0 ; sp. gr. 3-536 — asoociated with serpentine ; and at the Falls of the Eiver Guil- laume in Beauce Couut}', the same substance forms a compact homo- geneous rock (See Mr. Hunt's Beport for 1856.) Idocrase, — This mineral is identical with Garnet in composition and general characters, but differs in crystallization. It occurs in modified square-based prisms and pyramids of the Dimetric system, at least when crystallized. In other respects it cannot be dis- tinguished from garnet. Idocrase has been found, associated with crystalline limestone, in Clarendon township Frontenac county, C. W. ; Calumet Island on the Ottawa ; and Grenville township, Argenteuil County, C. E. Pig. 37. .. Tourmalipe. — Of various colours, black, brown, yellow, green, blue, and pale red ; sometimes colourless. The black variety is commonly kuown by the name of Schorl. Tourmaline occurs in modified three, six, nine, or twelve-sided prisms longitudinally striated, or in columnar or fibrous masses. The crystals are generally triangular on the cross fracture, owing to the predominance of three prismatic planes ; and this character is usually sufficient to distinguish the mineral from other substan- ces. H. 6*5-7-6 ; sp. gr. 3*0-3'3. The black, and most of the brown varieties fuse easily, the others, as a genera! rule, being either infusible, or fusible on the edges only. Tourmaline presents a somewhat complex composition, but its essential constituents comprise : silica, boracic acid, alumina (or alumina and sesqui-oxide of iron) with lime or magnesia, or one of the alkalies, or several of these bases combined. Fine examples of this mineral occur in connection with tho crystalline limestones of the Laurentian rocks at Calumet Island on the Ottawa (greenish* yellow crystals); in the township of Fitzroy, Carleton County, C. W. ; in Clarendon township, Frontenac County, 0. W. ; in the townships of Mathurst and Elmslcy, Lanark County C. \V. ; in Ilunterstown, Mttskinongfe County,0. E. ; at St. J6rome, Terrebonne County, C E ; and other localities. In addition to the general triangular form of its cry«tal8 and columnar concretions, tourmaline may be distinguished from hornblende and other minerals of this section, by exhibiting electrical properties when heated. The clear varieties moreover, aro Fix. 38. 42 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE generally translucent when viewed transversely, and quite opaque when viewed longitudinally, even in the shortest fragments. Sphene. — This mineral, as regards iCanadian localities, occurs in small masses or little sharp- edged crystals of an amber* yellow colour in the crystalliue limestones of the Laurentian series generally ; and in the eruptive trap rocks of the eastern Province. H. 55 ; sp. gr. 3'4-3 6. Fusible on the edges with bubbling into a dark glass: Essential components : silica, titanic acid, and lime. Our best known localities comprise G-rand Calumet Island on the Ottawa ; Burgess township, Lanark County, C. W. ; Orenville township in Argenteuil County (in crystalline limestone and also in trap) ; St. Jerome parish, in Terrebonne County, C. E ; and the eruptive rocks of Mount Johnson, Yamaska, &c., of the district of Montreal. Epidote. — Chiefly in modified oblique prisms, and in fibrous and lamellar masses of a dark or light'green colour, passing into greenish- yellow, brown and grey. H. 6-0-7-0 ; sp. gr. 3-2-3'5, expands before the blowpipe into a slag-like mass, which melts upon its edges but resists further fusion. By this latter character it may be easily distinguished from hornblende, augite, idocrase, and other minerals of this section. Epidote occurs in many of our eruptive rocks, as in the greenstones of Lake Superior and the north shore of Lake Huron, and in some of the traps of Eastern Canada, although nowhere, apparently, in very prominent specimens. Mr. Murray, in his report for 1858, cites tho east shore of Portage Harbour, Lake Huron, as a locality of this mineral. jrorn6/mi(fo.— Darkorlight-green, black, brownish, and sometimes light-grey or colourless. In prismatic crystals (of the Mouoclinic System) figs. 80 and 40, or more frequently in amorphous masses o' a fibrous or lamellar structure. The dark varieties are commonly known as Hornblende or Ainphibole ; the bright or light-green varietiiH, as Actynolite\ and the greyish or colorless varieties, as Tremolite, H. 5-5-60 ; sp. gr. 30-8-4. Easily fusible, the dark specimens yielding magnetic beads. Composi- tion : silica and magnesia, the latter in part replaced by protoxide of iron or lime ; alumina being also sometimes present. This mineral fotm* one of the esseutial components of many FiK. 8». ViK. M. MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 48 metamorphic and eruptive rocks. It thus occurs in syenitic gneiss, hornblende-slate, &c., throughout the large area occupied by the Lau- rentiaa strata, and in the intrusive syenites associated with these — as in the township of Grenville, Argenteuil county, C. E , and other localities. It occurs also in crystals and fibrous masses ia the beds of crystalline limestone belonging to this series. Amongst other Lauren- tian localities, we may enumerate. Grand Calumet Island (Tremolite, &Q.) ; Blasdell's Mills, river Qatineau; Grenville, &c.,— in Canada East ; with the neighbourhood of Terth, Ac, in Lanark County, C. W. (the acicular variety termed *' Haphilite ") ; Elzevir township, Hastings County (dark-green, and in places, black fibrous masses which have been taken for coal) ; Barrie and other townships in Eroutenac County ; the Muskoka river, the Ealls of the Madawaska, &c., — in Canada West. In the more modern metamorphic district south of the St. Lawrence, hornblende occurs largely as a rock con- st? cu. t, as in Beauce and other counties. Also in crystals and cryb' v grains in the eruptive masses of Shefford, Beloeil, &c., of tha. ' .ct. Any He, — This mineral in colour and all general characters, as well as in composition and blowpipe comportment, closely resembles Hornhlende. The crystals belong likewise to the Monuclinic Sytem, but differ in aspect, as shown by fig. 41, one of the most common combiiiatioijs. The front prism^angle (and the angle of cleavage- masses) = 124°30' in hornhlende, and 87*6' in augite ; but some of the lightcoloured {diopaide) crystals belong- ing to the latter, occur in flat rhombic prisms like fig 40 above, and give an angle of 14P2r*. Structure, lamellar or Hbrous. H. 50-6-0; sp. gr. 3-2-3-5. Fu- sible, the dark varieties yielding magnetic globules. Com[)o:^iliiJU, as in Hornblende: see above. The dark- green, black, and brown varieties commonly bear the name of augite (proper) or pyroxene ; the clear green varieties, that of sahlite ; and the white, greyish, or pale-green varieties, that of diopside— hut many additional names have been bestowed on this mineral, in relation to locality, structure and otiier conditiuns. Both hornbltinde and augite, it should be remarked, ofier a transition to Fig. 41. • If wt< (Ir'iiotc tlid rtr»t pridtn in amclto by V, thU Intter prihin «= \\. It isthe moat oomiuoii form of the diupaiUe prlims imbedded lu our oiyitalline llmeitone. u A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE terpentine: one stage in this transition producing the peculiar varieties, ashestus and amianthus. These are chiefly of a light-green or white colour, fibrous, silky, and flexible— often to such an exteut as to admit of being woven into cloth. Diallage^ described below, appears to be a transitional form of this kind. Augite occurs in the bands of crystalline limestone— and in some places as a rock component, forming, in admixture with Wollaatonite, distinct beds — interstratified with the gneissoid rocks of the Laurentian Series, as in the counties of Argenteuil, Terrebonne, &c. In Argenteuil county, a green, granular variety {Ooccolite) is also found. This mineral occurs likewise in the metamorphic schists of the eastern townships, and in crystals and granular masses in the eruptive rocks of Montarville, Bougemont, &o., belonging to that section of t}ie Province. Hypersthene. Bromite. Diallage. — These are generally regarded as varieties of Augite. They occur in cleavable masses of a pinch- beck-brown, green or greenish-grey colour, usually with a pseudo- metallic lustre. Sp. gr. 3'2-3*5. Fusible more or less readily, the dark varieties yielding a magnetic bead. Diallage is of low hardness, and it yields almost always a little water in the bulb-tube, and hence will be referred to amongst the minerals of D 4 and D 5 below. In composition, these miuerala, like augite, are essentially silicates of magnesia (or of magnesia and protoxide of iron.) Hypersthene occurs in small quantities in the feldspar bands of the Laurentian strata, as iu the counties of Terrebonne, Lanark, &c. Also in foliated mass^es in a mixed feldspatbic rock, in the parish of Chateau- Bicher, (Montmorency County,) below Quebec, (T. Sterry Hunt : Beport for 1854.) Wollasfonite ( Tabular Spar.) — White or light-grey, (rarely red or brownish.) Chiefly iu tabuUtr masses with fibrous structure. H. 5*0; sp. gi'. 2-77~29. Fusible more or less eaf«ily. Compoaitioa : itilicu oJ, lime 48. Found principally ia the Laii'*enliun HmeNloues, as "ii the parish of St. JiW-otne, and in Moriu towni«il)i(), Tc-tebonne County, C. E. : h) Grooville uown^hip, Argenteuil Coiun y, iind ovher locnliiies. AVollithiouMe fo»ms also, in union wJch angite, n disiinct rock belonging lO the Laurentian meiiimorpMc neries, (See the " EHffiiiHHe (fro(o(ji(jus dit Caitaih,'^ by Sir W. E. Logim aiid T. Sterry Hunt.) MIN&RALB AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 45 Orthoclase or Potcuh Feldgpar. — This mineral occurs in white, red, pink, light-green, and greyish cleavable masses, and in crystals (frequently twins,) of the Monoclinic System, figs. 42 and 43. The cleavage planes meet at an angle of 90°. H. 60 ; sp. gr. 2-5-2'Q. Fusible with difficulty, although the edges of a thin y — ~\ splinter become easily rounded. By this character, (C-'f^} as well as by its lamellar cleavable structure, feld- \^;;^y^ spar may be readily distinguished from quartz. Composition, essentially : silica, 64'8 ; alumina, FiR, 42. Fig 43. 18'4 ; potash, 16*8. Feldspar is one of the compo- nent minerals of granite, syenite, gneiss and other eruptive and crystalline rocks — and, as such, occurs abundantly throughout the area occupied by the Laurentian deposits ; and also amongst the eruptive masses of the more modern metamorphic region, including the district of Montreal, &c. Amongst special localities, we may cite the following: — Lanark County, C. W., where the beautiful " avanturine " variety termed '* Perthite," and green and other spe- cimens, occur. Grenville, and Chatham, in Argenteuil County : red and other crystals in porphyritic trap. Chambly, in the County of that name : large yellowish- white crystals in porphyritic trap. The Yamaska Mountain ; &c. Feldspar yields by decomposition a white clay or earthy mass termed '* Kaolin " or " porcelain clay,* largely used in the arts. Alhite or Soda Feldspar. — This mineral closely resembles common feldspar in colour and general characters, but differs in belonging to the Tricliuic System, and by containing soda in place of potash. Its cleavage planes do not meet at right angles, but at inclinations of 93° 36' and 86° 24'. It enters generally into the composition of trap rocks, and replaces the orthoclase of some granites and syenites. In Lanark County, C. W., a beautiful iridescent variety, the so-called ** peristerite," is met with. Labradorite or Lime Feldspar — Chiefly light ordark grey, greenish, or lavender-blue, with frequently a beautiful reflection of green, blue, orange, and other colours. Commonly in cleavable, lamellar masses, the cleavage planes (one of which is usually striated) meeting at angles of about OSi* and 80i«. H. 60; sp. gr. 2'67-2-77. Some- what easily fusible in thin splintera. Composition: essentially — silica, alumina, and lime, with a portion of the latter replaced by 46 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OP THE Boda. Labradorite (or a mixture of various triclinic feldspars,) forms one of the metamorphic rocks of the Laurentian series, interstrati- fied with the gneissoid and other crystalline rocks of that age. Fine examples of the mineral occur in Lanark County, 0. W. ; and in St. Jerome, Morin, Abercrombie, and the seignory of Mille Isles, in Terrebonne County, C. E. Many of these examples are (externally) opaque- white, by weathering. Boulders containing opalescent feld- spar masses, occur also abundantly in Grenville, &c., in the neigh- bouring County of Argenteuil.* Labradoritic rock occurs also in the parish of ChtLteau Bicher in Montmorency County, C. E. ; and opalescent specimens are cited from islands oS the north-east shore of Lake Huron. JVo<«.— MineraloKists hare established under the names of AnorthUe, Andesine, Oligoelata ftc., various additional species of lime feldspar. These are triclinio in crystallization, and more or less closnly related. As a general rule, indeed, they are only to be distinguished by accurate chemical analysis. Practically, they mny be clused with Albite or Labradorite, To Anorthite, the so-called B^townite is referred. This is a greeuish-white feldspathlo mineral, found in boulders about Ottawa city. Another smoky or greenish-blue mineral, of a somewhat feldspathic character, from Perth, Canada West, is referred also to the same species. Scapolite or PTerwcriV*.— "White, greenish, reddish, &c. Chiefly in lamellar and fibrous masses, and in crystals of the Dimetric System, of which an example is {riven in fig. 44. H. 5*5 (but much less in weathered specimens) ; sp. gr. 2'6-28. Easily fusible. Composition, essentially : silica 49, alumina 28, and lime 23, the latter in part replaced by a little soda. Scapolite occurs in the Laurentian limestone-bands, as in Calumet Island on the Ottawa ; Grenville township, on that river, (Argenteuil County); Hunterstown in Maskinong6 County, Fig. m. C. E. ; and Golden Lake (with graphite, &c., Mr. Murray : Report for 1854) in Algona township, Renfrew County, C. W. A peculiar mineral, or rather rock, of a peach-blossom-red colour, ocf urriug in Lanark County, C. W., and known as Wilsonite, (after Dr. James Wilson of Perth,) is an altered or semi-decomposed scapolite contain- ing carbonate of lime and a little water. 4. — Funhle. Yielding loater in the bulb- tube. Prehnite. — Green of various shades, generally pale, and sometimes colourless. Chiefly in botryoidal and globular masses with radiated- • A beautiful vase worVed from one of these boulders may be seen in the Museum of the Gwloglcal Surrey in MontrML MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 47 fibrous structure ; or in closely aggregated, flat, prismatic crystals belonging to the Trimetric System. H. 6-6"5; sp. gr. 2*8-3*0. Fuses easily, and with continued bubbling ; and yields from 4 to 5 per cent, of water in the bulb-tube. Composition : silica, alumina, lime, and water. Prehnite occurs most commonly in association with trap rocks, and is occasionally found in the veins which traverse the Huronian formation on the north shores of Lakes Huron and Superior. On the south (and also on the noHh-west) shore of the latter lake, it occurs in great abundance, cl ely associated with *^ ^aiive copper of that region. At Isle iloyau ^ beautiful variety occurs in small water- worn, nodular pieces of a rich green colour and radiated-fibrous structure. The fibres radiate from many central points, and these often consist of a nucleus of magnetic iron ore. This variety is commonly known by the name of Chlorastrolite (signifying green star-stone.) It is considered by some observers to be a distinct species, as its sp. gr. • (2'98-3*20,) is somewhat higher, and its amount of water somewhat greater, than that of prehnite. The former arises however from the intermixed iron ore (to the presence of which, also, the deeper colour is to be attributed,) and the latter I find to be exceedingly variable. Five specimens in selected fragments, yielded respectively the following per-ceutage of water; — 4*86, 5*51, 4 11, 4" 18, 4*60. Chlorastrolite forms, when polished, a handsome (though opaque) stone, fit for rings and brooches. In some directions, a slight chatoyance is observable. Datolite. — Chiefly pale green or colourless, in botryoidal and fibrous masses, and in monoclinic crystals. H. .5*0-5'5 ; sp. gr. 295- 3*0. Fusible with bubbling ; imparting a greenish tint to the flame ; and yielding in the bulb -tube about .5 or 6 per cent, of water. Com- position : silica, boracic acid, lime and water. Occurs with prehnite, laumonte, &c., in association with the traps of the north shores of Lakes Huron and Superior. Fine crystals are found at Isle Royale, and on the south shore of Lake Superior, in the copper region. Thomsonite. — Chiefly in white or light-coloured acicular crystali and fibrous masses, in (or connected with) the traps of Lakes Huron and Superior. H. 5'0-5"5 ; sp. gr. 2'3-2'4. Fusible, with previous intumescence. If free from weathering, in which case it will be trans- lucent, it yields about 13 per cent, of water in the bulb- tube. Com- position : silica, alumina, lime, soda, and water. 48 A POPITLAR EXPOSITION OF THE Analcime, — Chiefly in trapezohedrons (fig. 45,) of a white or greyish colour, associated with the traps of Michipicoten Island and the shores of Lakes Huron and Superior. H. 5'0-5 5; sp. gr. 2 0-21. Fusible quietly, id eat, without intumescence or bubbling. Yields in th« bulb-tube from 8 to 9 per cent, of water. Composition : essentially, silica, alumina, soda, water. Fig. 46. Apophyllite. — In lamellar masses and dimetric pyramidal crystals of a white or light colour, with pearly opalescence on the top or basal plane. H. 4-5-50 ; sp. gr. 2'32-2-37. Exfoliates before the blow- ipe and^fuses with bubbling. In the bulb-tube, yields about 16 per cent, of water. Composition : silica, lime, potash, and water. Found here and there in connection with the traps of Lakes Huron and Superior. Fine crystals come from the copper region of the south shore of the latter lake. Thomsonite, apophyllite, and other •* zeoli- tic " minerals, occur also, it may be observed, both abundantly and in fiae examples, in the trap rocks of Nova Scotia. These are sometimes red, greenish, &c., as well as colourless. [Wilsontte — Altered Scapolite. — In columnar masses of a peach- blossom-red colour, from Lanark County, C. W. See under " Scapo- lite," C 3, above. I). Aspect Non-metallic (stony, glassy, etc.) Hardness insujicient to scratch glass, D 1. Soluble (sapid) minerals. To ibis group, belong : Rock Salt, Sulphate of Iron or Oreen Vitriol, Sulphate of Copper or Blue Vitriol, Epsom Salt, and other soluble minerals, none of which have been discovered, as yet, in Canada. Rock Salt occurs in lamellar masses and in cubes, either colourless or coloured brown, red, etc. It has a strongly saline taste, and it is deliquescent Oreen Vitriol occurs chiefly on decomposing iron- pyrites, in white or greenish crusts and acicular crystals. Blue Vitriol, as a blueish eflBorescenoe or in cryst^iIiiDe groups on decomposing copper ores ; and also in solution in mine waters, from which the copper may be preoipated on pieces of iron. Both yield .» strongly metallic taste. MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 49 J5. 2. Taking fire when held in thin splinters in the flame of a candle. The minerals beloDgiug to this group admit of a natural subdivision into two sections, according to the following arrangement : — § 1. Burning with bluefiame and odour of Sulphur or of Garlic : — Native Sulphur (aspect, resinous; yellow, sp. gr. about 2*0); Orpitnent, (golden or lemon-yellow, paler in the streak, sp. gr. 3'4-3-6) ; Realgar, (red, with orange-yellow streak) ; Oinnabar or sulphide of Mercury, (red, with red streak ; sp. gr., in pure specimensi 8 0-8'2). Orpiment and Realgar are compounds of sulphur anJ arsenic, and yield, when burning, an alliaceous or garlic like odour. § 2. Burning wilh yellomsh flame and bituminous or resinous odour: — Arabfir, and also the various kinds of Bituminous Goal, including Jet, with Brown Ooal or Lignite, and Bitumen or Asphaltum, may be placed in this section. Of these minerals, two only have been met with in Canada : (1.) A kind of indurated bitumen, occurring in small, black, and more or less friable masses, in crevices in the Trenton Limestone and other fossiliferous rocks, sometimes filling, indeed, the interior of fossil shells, and much resembling coal in its general aspect ; and, (2.) A dark variety of Petroleum, becoming viscous and even solid on continued exposure to the atmosphere. This latter substance, which occurs abundantly in springs and wells traversing the Devonian beds of Inniskillen, Mosa, (Sec, of the western peninsula of Canada, and which has also been discovered in Gasp6, will be noticed fully in its geological relations, under Part Y., of the present Esi^ay. The bituminous and more or less inflammable shales of these Devonian beds, and those belonging to the TJtica Slate subdivision of the Lower Silurian series, will come under review, also, in the same place. D. 3. Not exhibiting the reactions of D. \ or D, 2. Streak coloured. ' Earthy Manganese Ore : — Black or Brown ; in earthy masses which usually soil the hands. Streak, chiefly dark-brown, sometimes black. Infusible, yielding water in the bulb- tube. When fused with carbonate of soda, it forms a " turquoise enamel," blue whilst hot, and green when cold. Composition very variable, but essentially : hydrated sesquioxyd of manganese. Earthy or Bog Manganese Ore, sometimes called "Wad," occurs in the Eastern Townships of Bolton and Stanstead ; in Aubert-GaUion, Tring, and Ste. Marie, in Beauce County ; and at Ste. Anne, in Canada East. Scalg Iron Ore (A variety of Bed Iron Ore) : — In glistening, red masses, of a scaly or laminar structure ; streak, red. Soils the hands, more or less. Becomes magnetic before the blow-pipe. This variety of Red Iron Ore occurs in small quantities at many of the localities in which the latter mineral is found. See A. 4, (page 25). Some specimens have recently been sent to us from the back of Peter- boro', Canada West. 50 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE Bed Ochre (An earthy variety of Red Iron Ore): — Chiefly in amorphous masses of a dull red colour, with earthy aspect, red streak, and low degree of hardness ; but sometimes occurring as a red powder. It leaves a red trace on paper. Blackens and becomes magnetic before the blow-pipe, or when held (in the form of a thin splinter) in the flame of a candle or ignited match. Red Ochre occurs at Point-du-Lac (St. Maurice County), St. Nicholas, Ste. Anne, and other localities in Eastern Canada, accompanying Bog Iron Ore and Yellow Ochre. With the latter, it is largely employed as a wash or paint for wood-work, and also in the preparation of various pigments. Boff Iron Ore (A variety of Brown Iron Ore) : — Chiefly in amorphous masses with sub-metallic aspect. Colour dark brown ; streak, yellowish-brown Gives off water in the bulb-tube, and becomes magnetic after ignition. For more complete description, see A. 4, (page 27.) YeUow Ochre (An earthy variety of Brown Iron Orfi) : — In amor- phous and earthy masses of a dull yellow colour and streak. Leaves a yellow trace on paper ; gives off water in the bulb-tube, and becomes magnetic after ignition. Localities and uses, the same as those of Red Ochre, described above. Of the two ochres, however, the present is by far the more abundant, and is the principal basis of the pigments manufactured at Point-du-Lac, in St. Maurice County. Quite recently it has been found, in some abundance, in the County of Middlesex, C. W. Humholtine, (Oxalate of Iron): — In yellowish crusts or thin layers in the bituminous shales (Devonian) of Kettle Point, Lake Huron, and the township of Inniskillen, Canada West. Streka, pale veliow or greyish. Turns black and red before the blow-pipe, and becomes magnetic. Yields about 16 per cent, of water in the bulb-tube. . j Uran-Ochre, (Hydrated Oxide of Uranium) : — In small earthy masses of a yellow colour, accompanying actynolite jn the magnetic iron-ore of Madoc, C, W. Blackens before, the blow-pipe, but does not fuse. Vivianite or Phosphate of Iron: — In blue pulverulent masses, associated with bog iron ore in Vaudreuil County, on the St. Law- rence and Ottawa, C. E. Composition : phosphoric acid, protoxide of iron, and about 28 per cent, of water. MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 51 Malachite or Green Carbonate of Copper: — Chiefly in green masses of a fibrous or lamellar structure, sometimes with botryoidal surface and banded shades of colour. Otherwise, in earthy coatings on copper ores, &c. Streak, pale green. H. 3*5 — 4*0 (or less) ; sp. gr. 3"7 — 4i'0. Yieldis water in the bulb-tube, and becomes reduced per se to metallic copper before the blow-pipe, tinging the flame green. Composition : carbonic acid, 20 ; oxide of copper, 72 ; water 8 — the latter, however, usually somewhat higher. Mala- chite occurs in small quantities, with native silver, &c., in quartz and calc-spar at Prince's Mine, Spar Island, Lake Superior. Also occasionally, as an incrustation, amongst the copper ores of Lake Huron and those of the Eastern Townships. The blue carbonate, in an earthy state, is sometimes mixed with it. . , .. The followiog minerals may also be referred to, in connexion with this group ;— Red Copper Ore (suboxide of copper.) Red, with re CHLORIC Acid: Cnlcite or Oalc Spar. — § 3. EFrsRVKSoiNG feebly in Oold, but SENSIBLY IN HoT AciD : Dolomite, Maffnenite. — § 4. Fusible : Fluor Spar (phos- phoresces) ; Heavy Spar (colours flime pah green) ; Celestine (colours flame red), — Infusiblk: Lii^lit-coluured varietiiv of Zi)ic fi/«i(fe. § 1. Yielding to the Nail, , J//c«.- The term " mica" includes properly, a series of distinct though closely allied silicates, presenting equally a metallic-pearly lustre and a strongly-nmrked foliaceous or fissile structure, the thin, component lamina? of which are flexible and elastic. These distinct species being, however, in many in.stances, of very difficult separation — frequently requiring indeed, for that purpose, the aid of accurate 52 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE Fig. 46. chemical analysis, and minute optical and crystallographic investiga- tion—they may be grouped together in an Essay like the present, more especially with regard to their geological bearings, and treated practically as one species. Thus considered, mica occurs in foliated and scaly masses, and occasionally in six-sided and rhombic prisms, of a white, brown, black, grey, green, red, or yellow colour, with pseudo-metallic or pearly aspect. The prisms are often tabular, as in figure 46. H. 10 on the faces or broad surfaces of the laminae, and sometimes as high as 5-0 on the edges. Cleavage very strongly marked in one direction, so that by means of the finger-nail, or the point of a knife, leaves of extreme tenuity may be obtained. These are flexible and elastic. Sp. gr. 2*7 — 3*1. Some varieties are fusible ; others become opaque before the blowpipe, but do not fuse. Common mica is essentially composed of silica, alumina, and potash ; but other micas contain magnesia, oxides of iron, lithia, &c. Mica is a component of granite, of orainary gneiss, mica slate, and other eruptive and metamorphic rocks, besides being of frequent occurrence in trachytes, lavas, &c. In Canada it occurs in more or less distinct specimens throughout the area occupied by our Laureu- tian rocks, and also in the metamorphic district of the Eastern Townships, both in the stratified 'crystalline and in the trappean or trachytic rocks there present. In the crystalline limestone (Lauren- tian Series) of the township of Grenville, Argenteuil county, C.E , plates are obtained of sufficient size to be employed for stove-fronts, lanterns, &c. We possess some crystals of a yellowish-green colour, over half-an-inch in length, and perfectly translucent in a transverse direction or parallel with the cleavage-plane. They are imbedded in crystalline limestone and are said to have come from the Upper Ottawa. A lithia-containing mica, known as Lepidolite, in granular- scaly masses of a pink or reddish-grey colour, and pearly lustre, occurs in Maine, and elsewhere in the United States, but has not been found, as yet, in Canada. It fuses very easily and with con- tinued bubbling, tinging the flame red. Talo (certain varieties.) — In white or greenish foliated masses, somewhat unctuous to the touch, and yielding readily to the nail. Most varieties give ofi" water when heated, and hence this mineral is described more fully under division D 5 below. Asbesttu. — In soft, fibrous, and more or less flexible masses, of a MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 58 green, white, or other colour. Easily fusible. See under Horn- blende and Augite, OS, above. (Pages 42-44.) § 2. EFrEEVBaciNo strongly in Cold Acids. Calcite or Calc Spar. — Of all colours — white, grey, yellow, black, &c., with white streak. Occurs in lamellar, fibrous, and granular masses, in stalactites, &c., and in crystals of the hexagonal system, some of which are shewn in the accompanying figures. Cleavage strongly marked in three directions, producing a rhombohedron of 105" 5' and 74«> 56',— fig. 47 a. H. 3-0 ; sp. gr. 2-5— 2-75. Infusible, but glows strongly before the blowpipe, and becomes caustic. Soluble with efiervescence in acids. Composition : carbonic acid 4j4, lime 56 ; but a small portion of the carbonate of lime is generally replaced by carbonate of iron or magnesia. This substance, in the form of lock masses, (limestone, marble, &c.,) is perhaps the most abundantly distributed of all minerals, quartz only excepted. In Canada, in the crys- taUine limestones of the Laurentian Series, and in the vast calcareous deposits of the Huronian, -^,_^^ Silurian, and Devonian formations, it occupies ^C^TT^!^ extended areas, although much concealed by the overlying clays and gravels of the Drift. Bhombohedrons, scalenohedrons, and other crystals are frequently met with in cracks and hollows in these limestone and other rocks.* Stalactitic masses are also found under similar conditions ; and nodular concretions occur in the amygdaioidal traps of Lake Huron and L.:--<^ Superior, crystallizations, also, amongst the copper depv>c i.s of these lakes. White and variously coloured marbles of much beauty are obtained from our Laurentian rocks, and from the rvcce modern metamorphic series south of the St. Lawrence ; but thf^s^^, with the other economic limestones of Canada, will come under review in Part V. of this Essay. It should be observed:, however, that many of our so-called Fig. 47. Fine * Whilst writing this description, for example, we have received some large crystals (com* binatious of a rhombohedron and two iicalenohcdrons) fi-om a cavity in the Trenton limestone (Lower Silurian Series) of IIuntiiiKdon township, in the oonnty of Hastings, C.W. The avity containi^d an immense number of tliosi; crystals. 54 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE limestones ore dolomites or dolomitic limestones, containing magnesia. See under Dolomite below. Note. — Carbonate of lime is ii dimorphous aubstancc, occurring under two dis- tinct series of crystal-forms: the crystallographic difference being accompanied, moreover, by a difference of hardness and other physical characters. It thus forms two distinct minerals : Cole tpar waA Arragonite. Whilst the former, or normal condition of carbonate of lime, is exceedingly abundant, the latter is comparatively rare. Arragonite ciystallises in rhombic prisms and other trimetric combinations (the compounds of which often present a pseudo -hexagonal aspect) and also in fibrous, coralloidal and botryoidal masses. Small splinters, when heated, become immediately opaque, and crumble or decrepitate gently into powder, a peculiarity by which this mineral may be distinguished from calo spar. Fibrous arragonite appears to occur sparingly amongst the Lake Superior traps, and occasionally in thin coatings on the sides of cracks in some of our limestone rocks, but nowhere in very distinct specimens. § 8. Effervescing in heated Hydroohlohic Acid, but not at all, or only feebly. in cold acids. Dolomite. — White, grey, brown, &c., in lamellar and granular masses, and in rhombohedrons, closely resembling calc spar. H. 3'5-4'0 ; sp. gr. 2*8-295. Infusible, but becoming caustic after ignition. Effervesces feebly in cold, but vigorously in heated acids. Composition : carbonic acid, lime, and inagiiesia ; or, carbonate of lime 54'35, carbonate of magnesia 45'65 ; a certain portion of the lime and magnesia being, however, generally replaced by protoxide of iron or manganese. Dolomite occurs (iu small groups of rlunnbo- hedroms) amongst the copper ores of Lake Huron, and also in fissures and cavities in many of our limestone rocks, as at Niagara Falls and elsewhere. Many of our so-called limestones indeed, consist, iu themselves, of dolomite, pure, or nearly so. Those of Gait, Guelph, &c., in Canada West, may be cited as examples. Others are dolo- mitic limestones, or mixtures of limestone and dolomite. Very few are wholly destitute of magnesia. Crystalline dolomite and dolomi- tic lime.stoiie, again, exactly resembling the ordinary crystalline limeMtones, occur in beds amongst the gneissoid roeks of the Fiau- rentiui Series, as at Lake Mazinuw, Ac. These rocks come pro* perly under diseuMsion in Part V. JlaifUftfite. ~Vf \\\tv, grey, iScr., in granular-crystalline masses and in rhombohedrons, much like those of eale spar atui dolomite.* H. * In calc '•par, the cIcAvavi' rhoniliohcilroii ni«'iiHiirR!t ion" 5' ovor a polar odfco -, in dolomite, lUA^ IS ; nnd in niaffii«>Nlt<> 107^ 29'. In cartmnntc of imii (a mliioral iilau iNjIunKinii, with MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 55 .8'5-4-5 ; sp. gr. 2-8-30. Infusible, but becoming caustic after strong ignition. Composition : carbonic acid 52-5, magnesia 47.5 ; but most specimens contain a small amount of carbonate of iron, lime, &c. Magnesia does not efferversce in cold hydrochloric or nitric acid, and dissolves but slowly in these acids under the aid of heat. In Canada, this mineral occurs in beds amongst the altered Silurian strata of Bolton and Sutton townships, in Canada East. (See analyses by T. Sterry Hunt in the Geological Report for 1856.) § 4 Fusible. Fluor &)ar.-Chiefly in cubes, either simple, or modified on the edges and angles (Fig. 48, a to c). These cubical crystals break readily at the corners, owing to their strongly-pronounced octahedral cleavage, and the regular octahedron (Fig 4« d) may thus be obtained from them. Specimens occur of all colours, but chiefly, dark violet- blue, lilac, yellow, green, white, and grey : the edges of the crystals being often of a deeper or lighter shade, or even of a diiferent colour, from the central parts. Streak, white. H. 4 ; sp. gr. 3-1-3-2. Fusible before the blowpipe into a white enamel, but moat specimens de- crepitate on the first application of the flame. — (See Part I., pages 17-18). When crush- ed to a coarse powder and gently heated, a greenish or other coloured phosphorescence is usually exhibited. Composition : fluorine 48*7, calcium (the metallic base of lime) 513. Fluor spar occurs in some of the crystalline limestones of our Laurentian rocks ; and here and there in the metalliferous veins of ti, .; Huronian formation ; also, in small cavities in the limesiones of the Silurian series. The best known localities comprise Fluor Island in Prince's Bay, on the north shore of Lake Superior, where line green crystals occur ; Iron Island on Lake Nij)irfsing, where blue c-ystals were discovered by Mr. Murray* ; the township of Koss in Renfrew County, on the Ottawa ; FlR. « CftrlxniBto of iiMnRnneiie, twrboimte o( xiiio, ftr., to the nntural Rmiip of Rhomtmliedrel (/arbonatcs), tlio Haniu aiikIo cqualH 107'^. • See Cnmnlian Jouituil, Vol. Ill, Nnw Berii'N, p. 325. Also Geoloftleal R«>|M)rt for 1H54, Tho cryitnN (K?cur In orcvlccK snd (iMNurcs of « raven iou» limhiir, in miy form in mineral bmiicN, hwvi a i|>apor. ( A coin or KlA!'<^4l for the purpoic.) If AulphnrlHt prewnt, ayellowiHh, brown, ur black stain will nwult. See Onnadinn Journal, Now Kfriet, Vol. III., p. 217-IH. Both itulphate of baryta and Nulphate of Rtrontia disaolve readily in carbonate of soda b«for«> the blowpipe, reMcmbling, in thiN roNpect, alkaline iul> phatcH. Sulphate of lime (with all lime «nlts) on the other hand, rr(|uireit the addition of a little borax to promote nolnhllity. ^ Fig. SO. ' MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 57 Celestine or Sulphate of Strontia : — White, grey, pale-blue, Ac. In lamellar and fibrous masses, and in Trimetric crystals, often closely resembling those of Heavy Spar. A common combination is shewn in Figure 50. H. 3-0-3"5 ; sp. gr. 3-9- 4*0. Before the blow-pipe, it (generally) de- crepitates, fuses, and imparts a red coloration to the point of the flame. (See also the note under Heavy Spar.) Composition : sulphuric acid 43*6, strontia 54*4. Celestine occurs with small crystals of dolomite, gypsum, fluorspar, blende, and other minerals, in cavities of the Niagara limestone, as in the district around the Falls, and in the vicinity of Owen Sound, &c. Drummond's Island, Lake Huron, is likewise a noted locality of this mineral. It occurs also, occasion- ally, in crystalline limestone, as in the neighbourhood of Kingston. Celestine is the chief source of strontia salts, used in pyrotechny to impart a red colour to rockets and signal lights, and for laboratory purposes. § 5. Infusible. Zinc Blende (Sulphide of Zinc) : — This mineral has been already described under sub-division B 3, (page 33,) but it is men- tioned again in this place, as some of the light- coloured varieties present a vitreo-resinous or other non-metallic lustre. These are chiefly light brown or yellow, with colourless or very pale-brown streak. H. 35-4 0. Infusible. Sometimes phosphorescent when rubbed or scratched. Small bright-yellow crystals and crystalline innHses occur sparingly in cavities and fissures of the Niagara lime- stone in the vicinity of the Falls. For other localities, &c., see B 3, above. D .'). Streak, white. Yielding water in the bulb-tube. Tbe inincrain of thin huIi diviHion (muuy of which, however, are merely altiireii varioties of oUicr Mpecies) may be cunvenieiitly grouped in three Heotions, as follows: j^ I. YlKLOINO TRACIhB ONLY, OR A VKUY SMALL AMOUNT OK WATEk; Mica, (gome few varielieB) ; Talc, (including Steatite); Renstlaeritc ; Dinllagt. ^% YlKLDINO A OONSIDKRAnLK AMOUNT OF WATER; SLOWLY DlSSOI.VKn nYB0B\X oRroKR TiiK BLowpifR: Serpentine; Chlorite; Lotfanite ; Pholerite. J| 3. Yield- INO A LAROK AMOUNT OK WATKK : RKADILV DIHKOLVED BY BORAX BKKORK TUB BLOW- PirE, TUB BEAD, WHEN SATURATED, UBOOMINO OPAQUE : Ol/pSUttl. Mica : — In folintod inasBes, ifec , with pearly pseudo-metallic lustre. Normally, anhydrous. — but specimens occasionally yield a little m 58 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE •water when heated in the bulb-tube. See sub-division D 4 (§1) above. Talc; (inciudimg Steatite): — Greenish- white, green, greyish, &c. In foliated, and also in compact masses, which feel more or less greasy, and which yield to the nail ; sp. gr. 2"55-2'8. Very sectile. Flexible in thin foliee. but not elastic. Infusible. Composition : silica 62, magnesia 33, water 5, Talc occurs in the form of talcose slate, in foliated masses, and more especially in the form of steatite or compact talc, principally amongst the metamorphic rocks of the more modern series, south of the St. Lawrence. Under the latter condition, or that of steatite, it forms extensive beds in the town- ships of Fotton, Sutton, Bolton, Stanstead, Leeds, Ireland, Broughton, &c., throughout this region. It occurs also, though far less abun- dantly, amongst the older metamorphic rocks of the Laurentian series, as in the townships of Marmora, Elzevir, &c., in Canada West. It is used as a fire-brick or refractory stone, and also as a coarse pnint or wash. lietiHelaerite (a variety of Steatite, or Altered Aiigite) : — Oreenish-white, browuish, Ac. ; m grnnular and compact masses much resembling steatite, and in pseudo morphoiip crystals after au^^ite. H. 26-4'0 ; sp. gr. about 2"7-2-8. Very seotile. Lus^tre, somewhat waxy. Infusible, yielding about 4 or 6 per cent, of water in the bulb-tube. Com|>o8ition : silica, magnesia, and water. Renselaerite cannot be regarded as a distinct mineral species. The crystals are evidently augite pseudomorphs, III (i the substance agrees essentially in composition with steatite. It occurs in k)eds associated with the crystalline limestone.') of the Laurentian rocks, as in the township of Orenville, Argenteuil County, C. E. Also in the townships of Ramsey, Ruwdon and Lnnsdown. In Grenville, it contains (in fisBures) a solt, yellowish-white, and earthy variety of serpentine (— • aphrodite.) Diallage : — This substance is generally regarded as a variety of Augite. (See C 3, above, page 43.) Normally, it is anhydrous; but it is frequently more or less altered, and contains 3 or 4 per cent, of water. It forms lamellar or foliated masses, chiefly of a green or greenisii-grey colour H., sometimes, 5 0, but usually rather less ; sp. gr. .'VO to 3'1. Fusible into a greyish slag, though not easily. Canadian specimens give olf a little water in the bulb- tube, and bccoino in genernl red or reddish-brown. A variety from the township of Oxford, analysed by Mr. Sterry Hunt, contained: silica 47*20, nuignesia 24*53, protoxide of iron 801, alumina 3*40, lime 11'30, water 580 ; with traces of the oxides of nickel and chemium. Occurs chieflv in the altered strata of the Eastern Town- MINERALS AND GKOLOGY OF CANADA. 59 ships, as in Oxford, Ham, and elsewhere, associated with serpentine, chromic iron ore, &c. § 2. Yielding a considebable quantity of Water in the BULB-TUBE. SlOWLT SOLUBLE IN BOBAX BEFOBE THE BLOWPIPE. Serpentine, (including Retinalite, Picrolite, Chrysotile, Sfc.) : — This substance occurs chiefly in amorphous or rock masses of a green, red, brown, bluish-grey, yellowish, or other colour, fre- quently veined or mottled. Also, occasionally, in small granular and fibrous masses, the latter sometimes producing a serpentine-ashestus. Lustre, usually somewhat waxy. H, in general, about 30 ; some- times 40-5*0. Very sectile, sp. gr. 2-2-2*6. Some of the fibrous varieties fuse on the edges, the others are infusible. All yield water (and harden) in the bulb-tube. Composition, essentially : silica, magnesia, and about 12 to 15 per cent, of water. Serpentine occurs in association with the crystalline limestones of the Laurentian rocks, as in the township of Grenville, Argenteuil county, C.E., where it occurs in disseminated grains; Calumet Island on the Ottawa ; the township of Burgess, Lanark County, C.W. ; Marmora and adjacent townships, with magnetic iron ore ; and in other places where these rocks prevail. It is met with, however, far more exten- sively amongst the altered Silurian strata of the Eastern Townships, both alone, and forming, in some localities, especially in the town- ships of Oxford and Broughton, serpentine marbles of great beauty. Fine varieties of green serpentine occur about Brompton lake, in the former of these townships. A tough, fibrous variety occurs in Bolton township, Hrome County. In Bolton and Ham also, serpentine rock, carrying thin beds of chrotuic iron ore, is met with ; and in the county of Beauce, this roek contains a bod of mixed magnetic and tilaniferons t)re, fifty f'let in thickness. To these localities must be added Mount Albeit in Gaspe, where, as described by Mr. Rich- ardson of the Geological Survey of Canada, an inexhaustible supply of green, brown, and varioiiHly striped and mottled serpentine, capable of eeoiioinic employment, occurs in association with chromic iron. In its rock rilations. serpentine will be discussed more fully in H succeeding part of this Essay. Chlorite. — This niineral occurs chiefly in foliated, scaly, and granu- lar masses of a dark green «'olonr ; or in greenish-grey slaty beds, iii '.in 60 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE forming the so-called potstone, a name also sometitnes applied to varieties of steatite. H. 2'0 — 2"5 ; sectile ; sp. gr. 2-6 — 2*8. Fusible (or fusible on the edges only, in some varieties,) and yielding water in the bulb-tube. Composition, essentially : silica 32*. 5, alumina 185, magnesia 36, water 13 : hence, the chloritic potstones differ from the workable steatites in containing alumina as an essential consti- tuent. In union with quartz, forming chlorite slate, this mineral is of common occurrence amongst metamorphic strata. In Canada, it occurs chiefly in the altered rocks of the Eastern townships, associated with magnetic and specular iron ores, sphene, &ic., and with beds of dolomite. In this region, as in the townships of Potton, Bolton, &c., it is met with a^so in thick beds of a slaty or more or less compact structure, forming an aluminous potstone of good workable quality. Chloritic schists, probably of Huronian age, occur likewise, according to Sir William Logan, in great force in the valley of Lake Temisca- ming, within the northern geological-basin of Canada. (See Part V. of this Essay.) Loganite, — This BubataDCC named by Mr. Stcrry Hunt, in honour of the Director of the Geological Survey of Canada, is a very doubtful species. It occurs in sub- resinous brow^uish masses, and in apparently pseudomorphous crystals (after Ilorn* blende ? Danu,) in the crystalline limestone of Calumet Island on the Ottawa. H, 3'0; sp. gr. about 2'6. Composition, according to the analysis of T. Sterry Hunt : Silica 82*49, alumina 18*18, se^qui-oxide of iron 2*1 4. magnesia 86.77, line 0'96, water (and carbonic acid) 16*92. Dana places it under Pyrosclerite, a mineral closely related to Chlorite, if, indeed, tk'uly separable from timt species. Pholerite. — The substance thns named, is usually looked upon as a product of alteration, arising from the decomposition of one of the feldspar species, (see C. 8, above: page 45,) or, more directly, from the alteration of day slate. — Uuder this view, it is a kind of Kaolin, with which substance it agrees in general composition. It presents, however, peculiar physical charucfers, much resembling those of talc, a mineral with which it is often confounded. Pholerite occurs in soft, unctuous, and scaly masses of a pearly aspect, and of a white or pale {green- ish oi yellowish colour. Sp. i^r. 2 3 — 2*6. Before the blowpipe, it exfoliates and ourls up, but remains infusible. It consists esseutiullv, of silicii, alumina, and water: the latter varying from 13 to 16 per cent. Nacreous scalen of this mineral occur, in fissures, in sandstone strata of Silurian age, near tiie Chaudi(!lre Falls in Canada Eitst ; and many of the altered slates of the adjoining metamorphic region appear to owe theii taloose aspect to its pretence, or to that of closely relttle'l uon-nnigni-'-ian silicate:* of more or les^ indffinite composition. MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 61 § 3. Yielding a large amount of water. Readily dis- solved BY BORAX BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE : THE BEAD, WHEN SATURATED, BECOMING OPAQUE.* Gypsum. — (Hydrous Sulphate of lime.) — This important mineral occurs chiefly in lamellar, fibrous, and granular masses, of a white, grey, yellowish, or other colour, and also in crystals of the Mono- clinic System, a common example of which is shown in the margin : fig. 50. Lustre often pearly. H=1'5 — 2 0, (and thus, all specimens of gypsum may be scratched by the nail,) Sp. gr. 2.2.5 — 235. Sectile; and, in thin lamellae, somewhat flexible. Yields a large quantity or water in the bulb-tube ; becomes opaque in the flame of a candle ; and exfoliates and fuses before the blowpipe, into a white enamel. Composition : sulphuric acid 4651, lime 32*56, water 20'93. The transparent cleavable varieties are often called " selenite," and the fibrous and fine granular varieties are known by lapidaries as " satin spar," and ** alabaster," — names, however, sometimes applied to varie- ties of calc spar. Gypsum, when deprived of its water by a low heat, forms the well known plaster of Paris. In Western Canada, this most useful mineral occurs abundantly in the Gypsiferous or Onon- daga Salt Group of the Upper Silurian Series (see Part V. of this Essay) : as in the townships of Dumfries, Brantf<»rd, Oneida, Seneca, and Cayuga, more especially, along the valley of the Grand River. The gypsum does not occur in beds, properly so-called, but in vast irregular masses, supposed by Mr. Sterry Hunt, {Comptes Rendus, 1855, and Esquisse geologique du Canada,) to arise from the action, on the surrounding limestone strata, of springs containing free sul- phuric acid. In these localities the gypsum is more or less mixed with carbonate of lime. Fibrous and other varieties occur also in the vicinity of Owen Sound, an d throughout the tract of country, generally, between the eastern extremity of Lake Erie and the mouth of the Saugeon. Likewise, here and there, in small cavities and fissures in the Niagara limestone and older rocks. f'p * The tiaino result is produoed with a moderate amount of the assay substance, when the bead is exposed to the action of an intermittent tlame : a procesti technically termed " naming." • ;r :1? 62 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE APPENDIX. A Classified List of the Canadian Minerals described above. In this list, which is intended to serve as a kind of Index to the minerals described in the present Part of our Essay, each substance will be found arranged under the chemical sub-division to which it belongs. The letters and numerals within brackets, refer to the groups and sub-groups of the Arrangement adopted above. , . 1 . Simple Substances. Native Gold, {B. 1.) Native Platinum and Osmium-Iridium, {B. 1.) Native Silver, {B 1.) Native Copper, {B. I.) Graphite, (^•2.) 2. Arsenides and Sulphides, (Combinations of arsenic, or sulphur, with metallic bases.) Arsenical Nickel, {_A. 2.) Sulphide of Silver, (i?. 1.) Galena or Sulphide of lead, (B. 3.) Sulphide of Copper, {B. 3.) Purple Copper Pyrites, {B. 3.) Copper Pyrites, {B. 3.) Zinc Blende, (B. 3, and D. 4..) Molybdenite, {B. 2.) Magnetic Pyrites, kB. 3.) Iron Pyrites, {A. 1.) Arsenical Pyrites, {A. 3.) 3. Oxides of Iron, Mangannse, &c. Specular or Red Iron Ore, (./4, and I) 3.) llmenite {A 4.) Brown Iron Ore {A A, and D 3.) Magnetic Iron Ore (./ 4, iiud C 1.) Iserine (A 4.) Chromic Iron Ore (A 4, and C 1.) Earthy Man- ganese Ore (i) 3.) Urau Ochre (Zi 3.) 4. Alumina and Aluminafes. Corundum (C 1.) Spinel (^ 1.) 5. Silica and Silicatfit*. Quartz (CI.) Zircon (^U.) Audalusite (6M.) (\anite(Cl.> Staurolite (C 1.) Garnet (C 3.) Idocruse (C 3.) Epidote (C 3.) Mica(/)4.) Tourmaline ((; 3.) Chondrodite (C2.) Olivine ((72.) • Keeping in view tJ>e popular ami explanatory character of this Essay, it may not be inappropriate to observe tliat the t 4.) Magnesite {D 4.) Arragonite (D 4.) Malachite and Blue Carbonate of Copper (D 3.) 8. Sulphates. Barytine or Heavy Spar (D 4.) Celestine or Sulphate of Strontia (i> 4.) Gypsum (D 5.) Epsom Salt {see Supplement.) 9. Phosphates. Apatite or Phosphate of Lime (C 2.) Vivianite (D 3.) 10. Fluorides. Fluor Spar (D 4.) 11 Salts of Organic Origin. Humboldtine (2) 3.) 12 Bituminous substances, Asphaltum and Indurated Bitumen (D 2.) CONCLUDING NOTE TO PART II. The minerals of Oanadiao occurrence —including both the very raro and the doubtful spec , such as native Platinum, occasionally found in small grains with the Native Gold of the Rivi6re du Loup ; and the altered substances, Renselaerite Pholerite, tbc, — amount in number to about seventy. Many of these are of more or less local occurrence, but others, on the contrary, are comparatively common. These latter are collected together, and arranged in accordance with their more obvious characters, in the Table annexed to this Note. The less experienced 'i:; m MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. reader, consequently, may avoid some trouble in Ihe determination of an unknown mineral, by consulting this Table in the first instance. If the specimen under examination do not agree with the species here cited, the regular Table given at page 21, can then be referred to. In case of agreement also, recourse may bo had to the latter as a confirmatory test. CANADIAN HINKBALS OF .MORE COMMON OOOUBRBNOB. * Aspect Metallic or 8ub-Metallic. ** Hard enough to scratch glass. Brass-yellow : — Iron Pyrije a (.4 1.) Steel-grey; powder, reddish : — Specular Iron Or e {A 4.) Iron-black ; powder, black ; magnetic : — Magnetic Iron Or e {A 4.) *** 7*00 soft to scratch glass : Bronze-yellow ; slightly mRgnetic ; —Ma gnetic Pyrites (5 3.) Brass-yellow ; streak, greenish-black : — Copper Pyrites (B 8.) Reddish, with blue tarnish ; streak, greyish-black : — Purple Copper PyriLe s (fi 3.) Lead-grey ; breaking into rectangular fragments : — Galena ( R 3.) Lead-grey ; in soft scales ; marking : — Molybdenite (B 2.) Black ; in soft scales ; marking : — Graphite (B 2.) Lustre, metallic-pearly ; brown, silvery-white, etc. ; in scales or foliated masses with white streak : — Mica (2> 4.) ■ f Aspect, vitreous, stony, or earthy. _ If Hard enough to scratch glass. Colourless, amethystine, red, <&c. ; No lamellar structure. Infusible: — quartz (CI.) White, red, green, &c. ; Lamellar structure. Fusible on the edges : — Feldsvar (Orthoclase C 3.) Dark-red ; in 12-pided crystals, Ac. Fusible : — Garnet (C .S.) Black ; fibrous, or in triangular crystals. Fusible : — Schor l (,C 8.) Black or greep, (sumetimes colourless in crystalline limestone.) Fusible : — Hornblende and Au 6.) I -own. Streak, yellowish-brown. Magnetic after exposure to heat : — Botj Iron Ore (D 8.; Also Yellow Ochr e (2) 3.) Red. Streak, red. Magnetic after ignition : — Red Ochr e &nd Scaly Iron Ore {D 3.) MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 65 PART III. BOW ROCKS ARE CLASSIFIED AND DISTINGUISHED : WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE ROCKS OF CANADA. In different localities, as a general rule, different kinds of rock occur. This must be familiar to the most casual observer. Thus, around the Falls of Niagara, and extending for miles across that sec- tion of the country, we find vast beds of limestone. About Hamil- ton, with other rocks, we have sandstone or freeston . At Toronto, our rock-masses consist of beds of clay and gravel, overlying grey and greenish shales. Near CoUingwood, and again at Whitby, we observe dark-brown and highly bituminous shales, containing the im- pressions of trilobites in great numbers. At Kingston, we meet with limestone rocks differing from those at Niagara, and giving place, as we proceed north and east of the city, to beds of crystalline rock of granitic aspect, geologically known as Gneiss. Some of the " Thou- sand Islands " consist of a very ancient sandstone. At Montreal, again, together with limestone, &c., we find in the picturesque Moun- tain, a dark and massive (or unstratified) rock, termed Trap, and more or less closely allied to the lavas of volcanic districts. These examples, without proceeding further, are sufficient to shew the diver- sity which prevails with regard to the rock -matters of comparatively neighbouring localities. But if we look, not to the mineral characters of these and other rocks, but to their respective origins or modes of formation — as evidenced by what is now going on in Nature in dif- ferent parts of the world — it will be found that they fall naturally into three groups, as follows : Eruptive Rocks. Metamorphic Rocks. Sedimentary Rocks. In each of the above groups, the included rocks are of various periods of formation, as explained in the Chronological Classification at the close of the present Part of our Essay. Before proceeding, however, to a discussion of this question, and in order more especially to prepare the general reader for a proper understanding of Part V, in which the geology of Canada first comes properly under rfjview, it is necessary to consider these groups separately, and to enter into a few of their more practical details. ^f; When the rock is of a black or dark colour, more or less compact, and amorphous in form, it is termed Trap. This variety occurs in numerous dykes on the north shore of Lake Huron and on the shores of Lake Superior. When a trap rock contains distinctly imbedded crystals of any mineral distributed through its mass, the name of this mineral may be conveniently attached to it. Thus, the Montreal mountain consists principally of Augitic Trap. The same variety, containing olivine* in addition, forms the mountains of Montarville and Rougemont. When the rock assumes a columnar or basaltiform structure, it becomes Basalt. This variety does not appear to be common in Canada, but it occurs, here and there, on the north shore of Lake Superior, and probably in other parts of the Province. When, again, as frequently happens, a trap or basalt is of a more or less coarsely-vesicular structure, or contains oval or other shaped cavities usually filled with calc-spar, amethyst-quartz, agates, various zeolites, &c., the rock is called an Amygdaloid, or Amygdaloidal Trap. Numerous examples occur in the northern district of Lakes Huron and Superior ; and the agates of Michipicoten Island and other localities of this region, are derived from the disintegration and washing away of the amygdaloidal traps in which they were originally enclosed. The greenstones, or diorites, occur under the same conditions as the traps. Compact and amygdaloidal varieties arc common about Lake Huron, &c. ; and Sir William Logan, in his Report for 1853, has described the occurrence of a columnar greenstone in the Township of Grenville, Argenteuil Co., C. E. In some greenstones, the com- ponent minerals, feldspar and hornblende, become individually per- ceptible. This variety might be called, indifterently, a granitic trachyte, or a granitic diorite, and placed in either of these groups.f A latitude of this kind, in the classification of these eruptive rocks, • Tlu) ntudcnt should refer to the descriptions of these nilncrali in the prcccdiiii? Part of this Essay. See the Index, pwres fl2.H, ahovr. t If niin..lt> dUtlnctions bo advisablo, the term granitic trachyte miuht b? resirloted to •uch of thi'.te rooks as contain orthotrlasu or putasli ruldspar, whilst those in whiuli triclinio feldspars oru pr. sent miKhl bo called Krauitio diuritci; but it Is nut always possible to OMry out these distinolloua. 1 ( . \'A 4v W\ 70 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE ii unavoidable. Their frequent transitions and irregularities of com- position, render the drawing of very definite lines a complete im« possibility. For this reason, the attempt to frame a number of so- called species out of the trappean and other eruptive rocks, and to bestow upon these distinct names, becomes both useless and unphilo- Bophical. Finally, it may be observed, that many varieties of trap and green- stone are very subject to decomposition, yielding soils of much fer- tility. By weathering, they become mostly dull-grey, brown, or red. 5. Serpentines. — The rocks of this series are essentially hydrated silicates of magnesia. They consist, strictly, of varieties of one mineral substauce, serpentine. (See above, p. .59.) Their colour is somewhat variable, but chiefly green, brown, reddish, or greenish - grey — these tints frequently occurring together in veins and patches. They are more or less soft and sectile, and somewhat granular or com- pact in structure ; forming dykes and irregular masses, although comparatively of rare occurrence as eruptive rocks. Most serpentines are found in large beds, and are evidently altered sedimentary deposits or metamorphic rocks, but undoubted instances of eruptive serpen- tines occur in Tuscany and elsewhere. In some cases, howevc^, mas- sive serpentines of this kind may have been derived from the iiltera- tion of trap and greenstone rocks. The serpentines which occur in Canada, are considered to belong entirely to the Metamorphic series, and are described, consequently, under that division. 6. Granites. — These rocks possess normally a crystalline aspect and strongly-marked granular structure, whence their name. They are also especially characterized by the presence of free silica, or quartz, as an essential component. They occur in irregular, unstrati- fied masses (often breaking through and tilting up the surrounding rocks), or in tortuous branching veins. Some are of very ancient date ; whilst others arc of comparatively recent formation, at least in a geological point of view. Hence the obvious objections which apply to the use of the terms "Primary" or "Primitive," often bestowed indiscriminately on all granitic rocks, as well as on strata of metamorphic origin — these latter, like the granites, and all other rocks, indeed, being of various periods of formation. Under a subse- quent section, it will be shewn that the age of a rock is in no way indicated by mineral characters or composition. Adhere two granitic MINBKAL8 AMD GROLQGY OF CANADA. H or other vefaw int isect, tke ittteraected yein (which is geneval^jr £splaced moreover, one portion being thrown up or down) will, of course, be the older of the two. In like manner, where a granitic or other eruptive rock underlies another rock of any kind, this latter will necessarily be the older of the two if veins pass into it, or if it he altered by chemical or mechanical action. The more important roeks of this section, comprise granite ancF syenite Oranite, properly so-called, is composed of three minerals : Quartz, Feldspar, and Mica, full descriptions of which are given in Part II. of this Essay. The quartz is colourless and vitreous ; the feklsfwr, usually white or flesh-red, with smooth and somewhat pearly cleavage planes; the mica, white, grey, brown, black, or sometimes grees, in scales, specks, or folise, of a pearly-metallic aspect. In the fine- grained granites, these component minerals become so intimately blended as to be individually undistinguishable. When crystals <^ feldspar are distinctly imbedded in a fine or coarse grained granitic mass, a variety termed Porphyry, or better, Porphyritic Granite, is produced. The term "porphyry" (from vopcftvpa) as the name would indicate, was originally applied to rocks of this kind in wluch the base or imbedded crystals were of a red colour ; but it is now conventionally bestowed on all rocks containing distinct crystals of feldspar or othei minerals. Thus, we have porph>ritic granite, por- phyritic trachyt", ulls of imcUinj furnaces, these. MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. m metamorphic results, as seen in Nature, are probably due not so much to the simple agency of heat, as to that of various gades and heated vapours accompanying the protrusion of the eruptive mass. In many localities, on the other hand, these eiFects appear to have been pro- duced without the iirect intervention of eruptive rocks, in which case the alteration or t letamorphism has probably proceeded Irom steam and gases transmitted from below, from heated chemical solutions percolating the altered rocks, or from other causes more or less imme- diately dependent on the presence of subterraneous heat. Be this as it may, it is now universally conceded that the crystalline stratified rocks are altered sedimentary deposits — sandstones, slates, limestones, and so forth. In Canada (as explained more fully in Part V.) there are two distinct series of metamorphic rocks. One, including the Laurentian and in part the Huronian series, belongs to the Azoic Age, and constitutes the most ancient group of rocks of this conti- nent. The Laurentian series is made up of vast beds of gneiss, crys- talline limestone, and other rocks described below, and it extends over almost the entire northern portion of the Province. For geo- graphical limits, geological and other characters, see Part V. of this Essay. The Huronian rocks of the north shore of Lake Huron, Ac, are also in part metamorphic, and include, amongst other more or less altered deposits, some remarkable quartz and jasper conglome- rates. The other series of metamorphic strata are of more recent, although still of ancient, date. They belong to the Silurian and Devonian periods of the Palaeozoic Age (see the close of this Part, and also Part V ), and they occur in the Eastern Townships and ad- joining district south of the St. Lawrence. On the edge of this latter metamorphic region, the passage of the unaltered into the altered strata may be traced in many localities. The following are the more important metamorphic rocks of Cana- dian occurrence : Gnei,i«. — This crystalline rocU only differs (lithologically) from granite and syenite by occurring in beds or strata. It is of two kinds : micaceous or ordinary r/neisK, and syenitic or hornblendic gneiss. The former consists of quartz, feldspar, and mica ; the latter, of quartz^ feldspar, and hornl)leit describes also the occurrence uf garnet rock in asso- ciation with micaceous schists, at Bale St. Paul. Chlorite Slate. — This rock, of a greenish colour, and normally of a schistose structure, occurs both amongst the If magnesia, more or less sectile, and of various colours, but chiefly dark-green, greenish-grey, or greenish-white, often with red or bluish veins, or variously mottled. It is very commonly mixed with carbo- nate of lime or dolomite, forming serpentine marbles of green, choco- late-brown, and other colours. In Bolton, Ham, and other townships of this district, beds of chromic iron-ore are associated with these serpentine rocks ; and a bed of magnetic and titaniferous ore, fifty feet in thickness, occurs in the serpentine of Beauce. A large deve- lopment of serpentine rock, fit for economic purposes, occurs also with chromic iron-ore at Mount Albert, in Gaspe. According to Mr. Richardson (Report for 1850), the rock-exposure at this locality pre- sents vertical cliffs of several hundred feet in height, and covers an area of not less than ten square miles. Diallage Rock. — This rock consists principally of the mineral called diallage (see page 58, above), or of diallage and chlorite. It has a clear green or pale-bronze colour, is more or less fissile, and occurs in association with the serpentines of the Eastern Townships, to which, also, it is very closely allied. Quarts Rock, or Quartsite. — The rock thus named appears to have been formed by the alteration of sandstone strata. It has a more or less vitreous aspect on newly-fractured surfaces, is very hard, and is either colourless, or yellowish, greenish, pale red, brownish, &c. It occurs abundantly amongst the Huronian rocks of the north shores of Lakes Huron and Superior ; and also amongst the Laurentian strata of many localities, as at St. Jerome and elsewhere. A remark- able quartz-conglomerate, containing pebbles of red jasper and white quartz in a colourless or pale-yellowish quartzose base, is met with in the Huronian formation of the Bruce Mines district ; and other con- glomerates of a somewhat similar character occur in the Laurentian series. These shew clearly the metamorphic origin of the rocks in question. Crystalline Limestone, — This rock consists of carbonate of lime in a semi-crystalline condition. It is usually white or pale reddish, and is sometimes veined or clouded with yellow, blue, green, and other coloured streaks and patches. Its structure is fine or coarse granular, somewhat resembling that of loaf sugar, whence the term " saccba- roidal limestone," bestowed on this rock. Crystalline limestone occurs in beds amongst the metamorphic strata of the Laureatiaa MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. and Huronian series, and also amongst tho^io of the more modern, series south of the St. Lawrence. The sniientine marbles of the Eastern Townships have already been alluded to. These limestone hands are not only of economic employment, — many yielding marbles of superior quality, — but, when occurring amongst the gneissoid rocks of the Laurentian series, they impart fertility to the otherwise too generally unproductive soil. Where the gneiss rocks are un- covered by Drift deposits, it is only indeed in connexion with the crystalline limestones or beds of feldspar-rock, that soils of any depth or fertility can be expected to occur. It is perhaps needless to oh- serve, after what has been stated in Part II. of this Essay, that crystalline limestone may be distinguished from quartz and feldspar by being easily scratched by a knife, and also by dissolving with effervescence in diluted acids. For special localities of Canadian marbles, see Part V. Crystalline Dolomite and Magnesite. — In external characters and conditions of occurrence, the crystalline dolomites resemble the or- dinary crystalline limestones, but consist of carbonate of lime and carhonate of magnesia. A fine saccharoidal variety occurs amongst the Laurentian strata of Lake Mazinaw. Beds of Magnesite, con- sisting of carbonate of magnesia mixed more or less with feldspathic or quartzose matters, occur amongst the altered Silurian strata of the Eastern Townships. These beds are chiefly white, greenish, or bluish-grey in colour, and generally resemble crystalline limestone. Some, by weathering, become reddish-brown. (T. Sterry Hunt, Report for 1856.) SEDIMENTAR7 ROCKS. The rocks of this division make up by far the greater portion of the Earth's surface. Having been formed by the agency of water, they are often called Aqueous Rocks. They are chiefly of mechanical formation, consisting of muddy, sandy, and other sediments, collected by the mechanical action of water, and subsequently consolidated by processes described a few pages further on. Various limestones, how- ever, and certi.in other rock matters of this division, are of chemical origin, or, in other words, have been deposited from waters in which their materials were chemically dissolved. These sedimentary or aqueous rocks are characterized by alwaya ^'V% ' nf i ft .'i 'l'\ '!]? J. 'ft 78 A POPULAR BXPOSmOK OF TH« '* occurring in beds or strata (with the occasional exception of certain irregularly-heaped masses of drift materials) ; secondly, by exhibiting in many instances, a more or less clearly-marked detrital or sedimen- tary structure ; and thirdly, by often containing organic remains. These latter, comprising shells, bones, leaf-impressions, &c. (see Part IV.), are the fossilized parts of ,animals and plants which lived upon the Earth, or in its waters, during tl e periods in which these rocks were under process of formation, as indicated below. The sedimentary rocks may be conAeniently discussed under the following heads : Composition or mineral characters ; Modes of formation ; <^hanges to which tbey have been subjected after deposi- tioB. (1) Composition of Sedimentary Bocks. — Viewed as to their com- position, these rocks comprise : Sandstones, sands, and gravels — or arenaceous rocks. Clays and clay -slates — or argillaceous rocks. Limestones and Dolomites — or calcareous rocks. Conglomerates and Breccias : rocks of mixed composition (see below) , Trap tufas : stratified de? osUs formed out of materials derived from the doiuslation of 'rap and greenstone rocks. Rock matters of purely organic origin, as coal, &c. To these may be added a 1 ew other substances of subordinate oc- cTirreace, as gypsum and rod; -salt. Sandstones are nothing more than beds of consolidated sand. 6Y OF CANADA. 7fli ^ount of carbonate iv decomposed by black, and red. Those which contain little or no iron, burn white, and yield consequently white bricks. ^ Many clays are highly calcare- ous; others, bituminous, &c. Note. — The term thale is often ap- plied to fissile consolidated clays ; but this term is applied equally to fissile or slaty limestones and sandstones. When the term is used, therefore, the kind of shale should also be signified : as an argillace- oua shale, an arenaceous shale, and so forth. Bituminous shales, as regards their mineral base, may be also arenaceous, calcareous, &c. Limestones and Dolomites are principally, haps, of chemical formation. Water containing free carbonic acii (derived from decay- ing vegetable matters, &c.) dissolves a cert. of lime, but the bicarbonate, thus formed, i& various natural agencies, even by mere exposure to the atmosphere, and a precipitation of calcareous matter takes place. In this manner, calcareous tufas (so common in many of our swamps, streams, &c.), together with stalactites and stalagmites, are produced ; and similar processes, acting on a larger scale, may have given rise to extensive depositions of limestone strata in ancient seas and lakes. Some lime- stones, again, are formed almost wholly of the calcareous shells or tests of crinoids, foraminifera, and other organisms (see Part IV.) ; but others are, undoubtedly, mechanical or rock deposits, derived from the wasting of coral reefs and older limestone formations. Limestones consist of carbonate of lime, more or less pure ; dolo- mites, of carbonate of lime and carbonate of magnesia in equal atomic proportions ; and dolomitic limestones of these two carbo- nates in other proportions, the lime carbonate generally predomina- ting. Dolomites and dolomitic limestones appear in many cases to have been simple chemical precipitates, and, in others, to have origin- ated from the alteration of limestone rocks by the action of soluble magnesian salts. These calcareous rocks are of various colours : grey, white, black, yellowish, &c. Their texture is sometimes very close and uniform. At other times, the stone is made up of small spherical concretions, when the texture is said to be " oolitic." Oolitic limestones are of all geological ages. Some limestones, again, are of an earthy texture : the well-known chalk of Europe is an example ; also our own " calcareous tufa," or " shell marl." Many of the dark limestones, as those of Niagara, &c., are more or less bituminous. All effervesce in acids ; but the dolomites produce merely a feeble m ^yn\ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // {./ 4r %^ id. 1.0 IJ £lli 125 ■10 i" I Ui 1^ 12.2 t lio 12.0 »- ^ I IL25 JBU 11.6 6" I ss V^A Va /: Photographic Sciences Corporation ^ \ \ 4^ 33 WIST MAIN STRUT WUSTIR.N.Y. I4$I0 (7)*)a73-4S03 O^ \ & ^ ^ r 80 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OP THE efifervesence unless the acid be heated. Limestones which contain from 1 5 to 25 per cent, of argillaceous matter in intimate admixture^ yield hydraulic or water lime. Beds of this kind occur at Thorold, Cayuga, Loughboro', Kingston, Hull, Quebec, and other localities. (See Part V.) Conglomerates consist of rounded stones or masses of quartz, sand- stone, &c., cemented together, or imbedded in a paste of finer sand- stone, limestone, or other rock substance. The imbedded masses are sometimes of great size, a fine example of which may be seen at Quebec. Conglomerates, both altered and unaltered, are abundant amongst the Huronian rocks. Breccias consist of angular masses or fragments of rock, cemented together, chiefly of some kind of limestone. Whilst conglomerates frequently consist of materials brought from a greater or less dis- tance, true breccias are necessr.rily formed in place. Examples of calcareous breccias occur in the Eastern Townships. Also with im- bedded trap and slate fragments, near the Bruce Mines, Lake Huron, and elsewhere. (2) Formation of Sedimentary Rocks. — The manner in which the ordinary sedimentary rocks, sandstones, shales, &c., have been formed, or built up t& it were, is rendered clear by the observation of certain natural processes still in action. We find for example, at the present day, that sediments of various kinds are constantly being carried down by streams and rivers into lakes and seas, and are there deposited. We find, moreover, that the cliffs of many sea (and lake) coasts are being continually abraded and washed away by the actioi. of the waves. Observation shews also, that the sedimentary matters thus obtained, are always deposited or arranged in regular layers or beds, and that they frequently enclose shells and sea-weeds, together with bones and leaves, drifted from the land, and other organic bodies. Hence it is now universally admitted, that, with the exception of cer- tain limestones and dolomites, beds of rock-salt, gypsum, coal, and other chemical or organic deposits of small extent, all the sedimentary rocks have been formed directly out of previously-existing rock-masses, by the wearing away or destruction of these ; and secondly, that they have alt been formed or deposited under water. In pursuance of this inquiry, consequently, we have to consider, first, the origin or derivation of the sediments of which these rooka MINERALS AND OEOLOOY OF CANADA. 81 are made up ; and, secondly, the processes by which the consolidation of the sediments into rock, properly so-called, was effected. The sediments of which these rocks originally consisted, were derived from previously-existing rocks, by decomposing atmospheric agencies, — rain, frost, and so forth ; by the action of streams and rivers on their beds ; and by the destructive action of the waves and breakers of the sea. Action of the Atmosphere. — All rocks, even the most solid, are constantly undergoing decomposition and decay. The exposed face of a rock of any kind, for example, soon changes colour, and becomes in general more porous than the other portions of the rock. This e£Fect is technically termed " weathering." Its action gives rise to the production of soils, and frequently causes the fossils contained in the rock to stand out in relief, these, being in many cases less easily decomposed than the mass of the rock itself. Every shower of rain that falls, takes part in this decomposing or disintegrating action, and carries off something, in solution or suspension, to lower levels — id e»t, into streams, lakes, and seas. Frost, and, in certain districts, carbonic acid and other gases issuing through crevices in the rocks, assist this destructive process. ■ ; <#. > ■. c Action of Streams and Rivera. — The action of streams and rivers in wearing their clmnnels is both chemical and mechanical. Calcareous river-beds are wasted bit by bit by the dissolving power of the water, especially during the autumnal season, when dead leaves and other decaying vegetable matters yield the water a large supply of carbonic acid. On the other hand, a mechanical waste is also very generally taking place to a greater or less extent : and thus numerous rivers are continually cutiing back their beds, and forming ravines. It is thought by many geologists, that the Falls of the Niagara River have in this manner gradually receded from the escarpment at Queenston to their present site ; and there is scarcely a river, or small stream indeed, in any part of Canada, that does not exhibit in its banks in- dications of erosive action. Where streams wind through the sands and gravels of our Drift deposits, as in the neighbourhood of Toronto, to cite a single amongst so many instances, examples of this action are especially apparent. The River Don, it is said, during a three days' freshet, about fifty years ago, greatly enlarged its channel| and 82 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THB K. ( added much in places, to the steepness of its banks. The amount of detrital matters borne down by some rivers to the sea. is, at first thought, almost incredible. This is well shown by the formation of deltas. The delta of the Mississippi, on this continent, for example, tike all other deltas, is formed almost entirely out of the sandy and other matters brought down by the stream. On entering the sea, the velocity of the river is necessarily checked, and the sediments are thus thrown down. Much of the coarser matter is indeed deposited on the bed of the river itself, raising this, and compelling the formation of artificial banks, or levies, to prevent inundations. Finally, as a well-known illustration of the immense amount of sedimentary matters borne seawards by certain rivers, the case of the Oanges, as described BO fully by Sir Charles Lyell, in his " Principles of Geology," may be here cited. That river, it haa been demonstrated, by actual observa- tion and experiment, conveys annually to the sea an amount of matter that would outweigh sixty solid pyramids of granite, each, like the lai^est of the Egyptian pyramids, covering eleven acres at its base, and standing 500 feet in height. A considerable quantity of sediment is also produced by the slow movements of glaciers in Alpine and other districts in which these remarkable ice-rivers prevail. The glacier of the Aar, which covers with its tributaries an area of only six or seven square miles, thus furnishes daily, according to some recent researches of M. CoUomb, at least 100 cubic yards of sand. This is carried o£F by its terminal stream or torrent. Action of the Sea (and of large bodies of Water generally.) — Vast in amount as are the sediments collected by rivers, they are far sur- passed by the accumulation of detrital matters obtained by the waves and breakers of the sea. All who have resided for any length of time on an exposed aad rocky coast, must be well ai»'*re of the de- structive action of the waves. The cliiTs subjectec this action, gradually become undermined and hollowed out; »iiJ thus lirge masses of rock are brought down by their own weight. These, sooner or later, are broken up, and spread in the form of sediment along the shore, or over the sea-bottom. On some coasts, the amount of land destroyed in this manner almost exceeds belief.* On some * It would obviously be out of plMW In ra Biaj like tlte'inraMnt, to enlMwe on this point Tbe r«Ml«r unflunlUftr with geoloftioftl datailf of thla obwMter, should oonsult, mora es- podftUy, Lyell's PrincipUt tf Otolon, M>d »1m tho C(mr$ M4mtnMr0 of the lato Aleide d'Orbicoy. MINERALS ANP OEOLOOY OF CANADA. parts of the eastern sbores of England, and the opposite or western shores of France, for example, the sea has thus carried off, within the present century, from fifty to over one hundred yards of coast-— measured backwards from the shore-line — and for a distance of many miles. Grave-yards, shewn by maps of no ancient date to have been located at considerable distances from the sea, have become exposed upon the cliff-faces ; and forts on the French coast, built by the First Napoleon, at two hundred metres and upwards from the edge of the cliff, now lie in ruins on the beach, or have altogether disappeared. These localities are mentioned as being more especially known to the writer ; but in all parts of the world examples may be found of the same destructive process. In the clay and sandy bluffs of our own lakes, as at Scarbro' Heights on Lake Ontario, and elsewhere, the effects of this action maybe equally studied. On a subsequent page it will be shewn that these results of denuda- tion, however striking in themselves, were greatly surpassed by those of former geological epochs ; but confining our view at present to modem effects only, it must be evident to all that an enormous amount of sedimentary matter is annually, or even daily, under process of accumulation. The question then arises as to what becomes of this. The reply is obvious. The detrital matter thus obtained, is deposited in lakes or at river-mouths, or along the sea-shore, or over the sea-bed — contributing day by day to the formation of new rocks. In other words, existing rock-masses, worn down by atmospheric agencies, by streams and rivers, and the action of the sea, supply the materials f ^r other and, of course, newer deposits. And thus, when we look upon a piece of stone derived from one of these, we may picture to our- selves the scene of its formation, and, with the poet, hear — The moaning of the homeless sea, The sound of streams that swift or slow Draw down iEonian hills, and sow The dust of continents to be — —for truly, is it the dust of new continents that is thus being depo- sited, atom by atom, by these slow but continued processes. All sediments diffused through deep or quiet water, arrange them- selves, under general conditions, in horizontal or nearly horisontal beds : the latter, if deposited on gently-sloping shores. Professor H. D. Rogers, in his recently.published Report on the Geology of Pennsylvania, contests to some extent this usually-received view, and m m >'%-i ''^•^ !>, w f . M A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF ?HE maintains that certain inclined strata of mechanical formation were ori- ginally of inclined deposition. This may be true under local or excep* tional, but certainly not under general, conditions. (See proofs, further on.) Where, however, sands and gravels are thrown down by currents and running streams, an oblique arrangement commonly takes place ; but this is more or less confined to the subordinate layers of which the larger beds consist, as shewn in the annexed figure. The incUned layers have sometimes different degrees of inclina- tion, and even dip (in different beds of the same strata) in opposite directions, indicating changes in the tidal or other currents by which they were thrown down. This inclined arrangement is termed "false bedding," or "oblique stratification." It may be seen in some of the more ancient, and also in some of the more modern deposits of this continent, as in the Potsdam Sandstone of the south shore of Lake Superior, and in the Drift gravels of many parts of Canada. Having thus rapidly traced out the formation of the mechanically- formed sedimentary rocks up to their deposition in the state of detrital matter on the beds of seas, lakes, or estuaries, we have now to inquire how these accumulations of mud, sand, &c., become hardened into rock, properly so-called. CoMolidation of S'ediments.— Most sediments hold within them- selves the elements of their own consolidation, in the form of particles of calcareous or ferruginous matter, which act upon the other sub- stances in the manner of a cement. Frequently, also, a large amount of calcareous matter is derived from the decomposition or solution of imbedded shells and other organic remains made up of carbonate of lime. In the majority of strata, and in sandstones more especially, merely casts or shell-impressions are thus left, in place of the origin- ally imbedded shells. Masses of solid conglomerate are daily under process of formation, in places where springs containing calcareous or ferruginous matter infiltrate through the gravels and pebble^beds of our Drift deposits. Many thermal springs (and even ordinary river-water) also contain considerable quantities of silica in solution ; and there is reason to believe that in former periods of the Earth's history, springs of this kind must have prevailed to a very great ex- tent. These flowing into seas and lakes where sediments were under process of deposition, must also have lent their agency towards tht MINERALS AND OEOLOGY OF CANADA. 85 consolidation of such deposits. Many of our Canadian limestones, it may be observed — as those, more especially, which occur at the base of the great Trenton group (see Part V.) — are highly siliceous. The enormous pressure exerted upon low-lying sedimentary beds by those above them, must likewise have been sufficient in many instances to have efiPected consolidation. Loose materials, as graphite powder used in the manufacture of the so-called " black lead " pencils, are thus rendered solid by artificial pressure. Spongy platinum, again, by the same process, is converted into the solid metal. The heat transmitted in earlier periods from subterranean depths, or generated amongst low-lying sediments by natural causes, may also have been concerned in the work of consolidating the originally loose materials of stratified rocks. It may be remarked, likewise, that sediments occasionally become solidified by simple desication. The shell-marl, or calcareous tufa, of our swamps, &c., becomes thus hardened on exposure to the air. (3) Changes to which the Sedimentary Rocks, collectively, have been subjected.— These changes comprise, principally : (a) Elevation above the sea level, with alternations of upheaval and depression ; (b) Denudation ; (c) Tilting up and Fracturing ; and (e) Metamor- phism and Cleavage. It is, of course, to be understood that whilst certain strata may have experienced all of these effects, others, on the contrary, have been subjected to upheaval, or to upheaval accom- panied by denudation, only. (a) Elevation above the Sea Level. — The stratified rocks, it has been shown, must have been deposited originally in the form of sedi- ments, under water ; and from che marine remains which so many of them contain, it is evident that as a general rule they were laid down on the bed of the sea, either in][ deep or in shallow water. We find these rocks, however, now, at various heights above the sea-level, and frequently far inland. Hence of two things, one : either the sea must have gone down, or the land must have been elevated above the water. The sinking of the sea would appear at first thought to be the more rational explanation of this phenomenon ; but if we look to existing Nature, we find no instance of the going down of the sea, whilst we have many well-proved examples of the actual rising and sinking of the land. In connexion with this inquiry, it must be borne in mind 'X ^^vi ::l 86. A POPULAR KXPOSITION OF THE that the sea cannot go down or change its level at one place without doing the same generally all ever the world. To afford a few hrief illustrations, it may he ohserved that on several occasions within the present century, large portions of the Pacific coast of South America have heen raised hodily ahove the sea, leaving beds of oysters, mussels, &c., exposed above high-water mark. The phenomenon, to the inhabitants of the coast, appeared naturally to be due rather to a sinking of the waters than to an actual elevation of the land ; but at a certain distance north and south of the raised districts, the relative levels of land and sea remain unaltered : and hence, if the sea had gone down within the intervening space, its surface must have presented an outline of this character — * \. X *. a manifest impossibility. The land is also known to be slowly rising and sinking in countries far removed from centres of volcanic activity. Careful observations have shown, for example, that the northern parts of Sweden and Finland are slowly rising, and the south and south-eastern shores of the Scandinavian peninsula are slowly sinking : whilst around Stock- holm there is no apparent change in the levels of land and sea. The whole of the western coast of Greenland is slowly sinking ; buildings erected on the shore by early missionaries, being now in places under water. A slow movement of depression, it is likewise inferred, is taking place along a considerable extent of the Atlantic sea-board of the United States. (See Canadian Journal, vol. ii. new series, p. 480.) On the shores of Newfoundland, of Cornwall, and other districts, examples occur of sub-marine forests, or of the remains of modem trees, in their normal position of growth, below low water-mark ; whilst in neighbouring localities no change of level appears to have taken place. Besides which, without extending these inquiries ftir- t^r, we know that many fofsiliferous strata are hundreds, and even thousands, of feet above the present sea-level : — on the top of the Collingwood escarpment, for example, we find strata containing ma- rine fossils at an elevation of over 1500 feet above the sea ; and on the Montreal mountain, shells of existing species occur at an eleva- tion of about 600 feet. And hence, if these strata had been left dry hnd by the sinking of the oceanic waters in which they were deposited, an immense body of water, extending over the whole globe, must in ttrnie unaccountable manner have been caused wholly to disappear. It is therefore now universally admitted, that the sedimentary rocka MINERALS AND OEOLOOT OF CANADA. 87, hav^ come into their present positions^ not by the sinking and re- tiring of the sea, but by the actual elevation of the land. Mapy strata afford proofs of having been elevated and depressed above and beneath the sea, successively, at different intervals. Many sandstones, for example, exhibit ripple-marked surfaces, and some, impressions of reptilian and other tracks, through their entire thick- ness. This indicates plainly that they were formed slowly in shallow winter, and that they were left dry, or nearly so, between the tides. And it indicates, further, that the shore on which they were deposited, layer by layer, was undergoing a slow and continual movement of depression, otherwise the process of formation would necessarily have ceased, and the strata would present a thickness only of a few inchejs, or of a few feet at most. Afterwards a period of upheaval must have commenced, bringing up the rocks to their present level. In certain strata, also, the upright stems of fossil trees occur at various levels. ;. tmd in some localities, beds containing mturine fossils are overlaid byi otiiers holding lacustrine or fresh-water forms ; and these again by others with marine remains. Finally, to bring this section to a closjs, we have a striking example of alternations of land-upheaval andr depression in the geology of Canada generally. Around Toronto, for, example, we have strata of very ancient formation, belonging to the, Lower Silurian series, overlaid by deposits of clay, gravel, and sand. Between the two, a vast break in the geological scale occurs. In other parts of this continent, many intervening formations are pre- ^^nt (see the Table of Rock Groups, a few pages further on) ; a^ hence, it is concluded, that the Silurian deposits of this locality, after their elevation above the sea, remained dry land for many ages« .1- 'Jut the intervening groups were under process of deposition in other Sots ; and that, finally, at the commencement of the Drift period* e country was again depressed beneath the ocean, and covered with the clays, sands, and boulders of this latter time. Another period oj^ elevation must then have succeeded, bringing up both the Siluril^|( and the Drift formations to their present levels above the sea. (6) Denudation. — This term, in its geological employment, signifies the removal or partial removal of rock masses by the agency of water. The abrading action of the sea, of rivers, &c., acting under ordinary conditions, has already been alluded to; but the erosive effects of water, under conditions now no longer existing, may be seen in nu- merous localities. Sections of the kind shewn in the accompanying fi't 1 i I ■hi 88. A POPULAR EXPOSITION OV THK figure, for instance, are met with almost everywhere, producing undu- lating or rolling Mv countries. Here it is evident that the strata were once continuous in the space be- tween a and h. Valleys thus resulting from the removal of strata, are termed ''valleys of denudation." Some of these valleys are many miles in breadth. Their excavation, consequently, could not have been caused by the streams which may now occupy their lower levels. Their formation is universally attributed to the denuding action of the sea during the gradual uprise of the land in former geological epochs. Fre- quently isolated patches of strata are left by denudation, or are cut off by wide distances from the rocks of which they originally formed part. These are termed "outliers." Thus in Western Canada, small isolated areas, occupied by bituminous shales of the Devonian series, occur in the townships of Enniskillen, Mosa, &c., and constitute out- liers or outlying portions of the Chemung and Portage group (see Part v.), as largely developed in the adjoining peninsula of Michigan. The matter carried off in some districts by denudation, must have been of enormous amount ; and when it is considered that n^ost of the inequalities on the Earth's surface — those at least not immediately connected with mountain chains — have arisen from this action, it will readily be perceived that materials for the formation of newer strata were abundantly provided by this means alone. "(c) Tilting up and Fracturing of Strata. — Whilst some strata re- tain their original horizontality, others are more or less inclined, and some few occupy a vertical and even a recurved position. That strata were not originally inclined, at least to any extent, is proved by the known arrangement of sediments when diffused through water,— these (with the exceptional cases already pointed out) always depositing themselves in horizontal, or nearly horizontal, layers. The same fact ;:'^"' ot). ,1 - ^''. ■■-■■■ ''^'^' MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. kC is shewn also by tbe frequent presence of rows of pebbles, fossil shells, &c., parallel with the planes of stratification, as in fig. 66 ; by the occasional presence of the fossilized stems of trees (evidently in their positions of growth) standing at right angles to these planes (fig. 57) ; and sometimes by the presence of stalactites suspended in a similar position. The inclination of strata is technically termed the dip ; and the direction of the up-turned edges, the strike. The dip and strike are always at right angles. In observing the dip, we have to notice both its angle or amount, and its direction, — as north, north-east, NIO^E, and so forth. The direction of the dip is of course ascertained by the compass ; the rate of inclination, by the eye, or by an instrument called a clinometer. The most convenient instrument for both pur- poses, is a pocket compass, furnished, in addition to the needle and graduated limb, with a moveable index hanging from the centre of the compass and playing round a graduated arc, as in the annexed out- line (fig. 58.) When the line A—B is held horizontally, the index / hang- ing perpendicularly, cuts the zero mark of the graduated arc. From each side of this point, the gradua- tion is carried up to 90^. If, con- sequently, the line A — B be placed parallel with the dipping beds of any strata, the angle of the dip will be at once shewn by tho index. A con- trivance of this kind, exclusive of the compass, may be easily made out of a semicircle of hard wood. The index may consist of a piece of twine extending below the graduated limb, and kept taut by a lead plumb or by a stone. When strata dip in two directions, the line along the culminating point of the strata is termed an anticlinal or anticlinal axis (= a in fig. 59) ; and the line from which the strata rise (= « in fig. 59), is called a synclinal or synclinal axis. Synclinals when of a certain magnitude, constitute " valleys of undulation." Anticlinals are aho often hollowed out by denudation, forming valleys or troughs called "valleys of elevation '* (= e in fig. 69.) The term "elevation " ap- plies here, however, to the raised strata, and not to the actual position of the valley, as many of these so-called valleys of elevation lie in the 1 A % A, POPULAE CXP08ITIQN OF XH|B,^^.^ beds of rivers, or occupy comparatively low ground. The city of CSncinnati is situated in a remarkable valley of tbis kind. Finally, itrmust be observed, tbat when strata lie in parallel beds (as in fig. 59), the stratification is said to be conformable or concordant. When on the other hand, the beds are not parallel, the stratification is said to be unconformable. The accompanying section, in which the inclined beds belong to the Laurentian, and the overlying beds to the Lower Silurian series (see Fart Y.), as shown on I^^^HK A) Crow Lake, north of Marmora village) is an example of unconformable strati- fication, or of want of concordance be- tween these two series of rocks. As explained further on, a want of con- formability always indicates a geologi- cal break, or the commencement of a new geological period. Both horizontal and inclined strata frequently exhibit fractures of greater or less extent. Mineral veins, it may^be mentioneci, consist essentially of cracks or fractures running through the surrounding rocks, and filled up, by various agencies, with sparry, earthy, and ipeti^c matters. The strata on one side of a fracture are often dis- placed, being thrown up or down, as it were. This peculiarity ip technically termed a fault. An example is shewn in the annexed diagram. The levels oc- cupied by a displaced bed are sometimes only a few inches, and at other times upwards of a thousand feet, apart. At the first formation of ft fault or slip, an escarpment or terrace of greater or less height must necessarily have ariaen ; but in very few cases (if in any case unconnected with existing earthquake pheno- mena) is anything of this kind now observable, the ground having MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 91 boon levelled down by the agency of denudation. In mountainous districts, the fracturing of strata has sometimes given rise to narrow vallqrs or gorges, called *' valleys of dislocation/'most of which have bera subsequently widened by the atmospheric disintegration of the surrounding rocks, and by the streams or torrents of which they tutually form the channels. (^) MetamorphUm and Cleavage, — The subject of metamorphism has already been sufficiently explained, under the head of Metamor- phic Rocks, above. It is merely alluded to here as one of the changes to which strata of various geological ages have been sub- jected. The term " cleavage " is applied to a peculiarity affecting many clay-slates, and occasionally other strata. The rocks thus affected) are rendered eminently fissile or slaty by numerous cleavage planes which run through them in a direction generally inclined to that of the lines of bedcUng. The latter, in inclined strata especially, are sometimes distinguished with difficulty from the planes of cleavage, but they may be cUscovered by tracing out Unes of fossils, or interca* U^ed bands of a slightly different mineral composition, colour, &c., which mark, of course, the planes of deposition, and across which the cleavage lines usually pass without interruption. That cleavage is a superinduced effect, is shewn by this latter circumstance, and more particularly by the fact that imbedded fossils and stones are frequently elongated in the direction of the cleavi^ planes. The cause of the phenomenon is still exceedingly obscure ; but it is now very generally r^arded as due to long continued pressure acting at right angles to the lines of cleavage, whilst the rock was permeated by water oi Bteam, or whilst it still retained its sedimentary condition. Many of the slates of the Eastern Townships, as those of Richmond, Kingsey, Melbourne, Westbury, &c., owe their fissility to superinduBec| deavage. fl">:J|( ii ■'■'V.-'^-lT m m ''.i'K" m CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS IN ACCORDANCE WITH THEIR RBLATIVB AGBS. Our preceding illustrations have shewn us the distribution of rocks into three great groups — Eruptive, Metamorphic, and Sedimentary rocks— in accordance with their modes of derivation or general forma- tive processes. But these rocks admit of another and far more in- teresting classification : one based on their relative ages or periods of formation. oi A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THK It is now universally admitted, on proofs the most unanswerable^ that the various sedimentary and other rocks which make up the solid portion of our globe, were not formed during one brief or unbroken period, but were gradually elaborated and built up during a long series of ages. In areas of very limited extent, for example, even in the same cliff-face, or in excavations of moderate depth, we often find alternations of sandstones, limestones, clays, observe that by the careful study and comparison of these remains, geologists have subdivided the rock-groups into a certain number of formations, indicating the bygone ages and periods of the Earth's history. Without entering at present into minut or contro- verted subdivisions, we may group these various formations as in the annexed tabular view : Modern Formations. Drift Deposits. Oainozoio or Terturt Rooks. Mksozoio or SlOONDART Rooks. Cretaceous Series. Jurassic Series. Triassic Series. Paljcozoio Rooks. Permian Series. Carboniferous Series. Devonian Series. (For Canailltn Bub-dlvltoiM, ••• P*»v V.) Silurian Series. (For Cintdlaa Sub-dlTltioDi, we FAmv V.) Azoio Rocks. Huronian Series. Laurcntian Scries. Notes on the above Table. (1) The formations enumerated in this table, are never found altogether : that is to say, they never exhibit a complete series at any one locality. But they are known to occur in this order, by a com- parison of their relative positions at different places. Thus, in one district, we find (in ascending order) the Silurian and Devonian se- ries ; in another, the Devonian and Carboniferous, and so on. • Mm ■I:, if k M .1 A POPULAA EXPOSITION OF THK (2) In Canada proper, the following series alone occur: ' "' ' Modem formations. Drift deposits. Carboniferous series (in part only, in GaspS.) Devonian series. Silurian series. Huronian series. Laurentian series* These comprise, lithoiogically, various sedimentary and metamor* phic strata, with, in some cases, accompanying eruptiye rocks, is described ftilly in Part V. (3) One or more of several consecutive formations (as shewn in Note 2) are often " wanting " or absent at a given spot. The Car- boniferous rocks may thus, in certain districts, be found resting on the Silurian, without the intervention of the Devonian series. But the relative positions of these groups are never reversed. The Devonian beds are never found under the Silurian, for example, nor the Creta- ceous under the Jurassic. The absence of particular strata, at a given locality, is accounted for by the elevation of the spot above the sea-level during the period to which the strata in question belong ; by denudation, or by the district having been situated beyond the area of deposition to which the sediments extended. (See some of the preceding observations under " Formation of Sedimentary Rocks," "Denudation," &c.) (4) A formation of a given age may be represented in one place by a limestone ; in another, by a sandstone ; in a third, by argilla- ceous shales, and so on. This will be easily understood, if we reflect that at the present day these different kinds of rock are being formod simultaneously at different places. Many of our preceding observa- tions have amply illustrated this, but the fact may be rendered still clearer by the accompanying diagram. In this sketch, the dark out- line is intended to represent a somewhat extended line of coast, with a river debouching into a deep bay. In the latter, the argillaceous or muddy sediments (m), brought down by the river, may be deposited. At O, we may suppose a granitic headland. The arenaceous or siliceous sediments («) derived from the disintegration of this, will be arranged along the shore beyond it, by the set of the current. Finally, at L, we may suppose the occurrence of exposed cliff's of IflNBRALS AND OKOLOGT OP CANADA. % '•!!..•: .•j''^:.:.,:'i''j- ■< )■/ limestone, yielding calcareous sediments (0). These various sedimen- tary matters will be also in places more or less intermingled, pro- ducing rocks of intermediate or mixed composition. But these rooks will be shewn to be of the same period of formation, by the identity of some, at least, of the organic bodies enclosed in them. As recent formations, moreover (although many of the enclosed shells, <&c., would necessarily be distinct, owing to the diverse nature of the sediments, the more or less exposed character of the coast, the vary- ing depths of water prevailing at different parts, &c.,) we might expect to find in one and all, coins, pieces of pottery, and other ob- jects of human workmanship, proving their contemporaneous origin. Hence, the age of a rock is in no way indicated by mineral composi- tion : sandstones, limestones, Ac, are of all geological periods. (5) From time to time, during the gradual deposition of these sedimentary formations, various eruptive rocks were driven up amongst them, producing (in general) chemical or mechanical alterations of greater or less extent. This action is still going on^^as witnessed in volcanic phenomena. PART IV. SOME REMARKS ON ORGANIC REMAINS, WITH SPECIAL RCFERRNCR TO CANADIAN FORMS. Many stratified rocks, it has already been explained, contain the fossilized remains or impressions of vegetable and animal forms — vestiges of departed races of plants and nnimala which peopled the Earth and its waters during the epochs in which these rocks were under process of deposition. So numerous in some instances are the remains in question, that certain strata appear to be almost entirely m ' i'il 06 A POPULAR BXP08ITI0N OF THE made up of them, either in a perfect or in a fragmentary condition. The study of these fossils has a three-fold value : first, in enahling us to recognise one rock division from another, each division holding its own proper and separate forms ; secondly, in elucidating obscure points in the structural and other relations of existing types ; and thirdly, in shedding light upon many of the past conditions of the globe, both physical and organic. In illustration of the first or more practically useful character in connexion with these remains, it may be observed that in the great coal-bearing and all overlying strata, we do not meet with a single trace of the peculiar group of Crustaceans termed Trilobitea (see figures of these a few page.^ further on), although in earlier-formed or lower strata these forms occur generally, and often in great abundance. Hence, in a rock containing trilobites, no matter how similar such rock may be in as- pect and mineral characters to coal-strata, we may be assured that it will be useless to bore or excavate for coal, at least with the expecta- tion of finding great workable beds of that material, such as occur in the proper coal formation. Some fossil remains, belonging to the most recent geological de- posits, are identical with existing species ; others are akin to these, without being actually identical with them ; and others, again, are wholly without representatives in existing Nature. Th^se various bodies comprise chiefly : the casts or impressions of sea-weeds, fern- fronds, and leaves of higher vegetable types, with occasional fruits and stems of trees ; the remains of corals, star-fishes, and other radiated animals ; the shells of mollusca ; tests of crustaceans ; and teeth, bones, and more or less complete skeletons of vertebrated animals. In some cases, these remains have evidently been entombed where the plants, corals, mollusks, &c., were actually living ; whilst in others, they have been drifted to a greater or less distance with the sediments of which they now form part. The process of fossilization is a gradual replacement, atom by atom (as in the case of many mineral pseudomorphs), of the original organic substance of the body by mineral matter. The fossilizing agents comprise the general sub- stance of the enclosing sediments, together with certain special sub- stances, of which the more common include — silicn, carbonate of time, and carbonate of iron, the latter being frequently converted into peroxide of iron, and also into iron-pyrit( s. (See page 23 above.) MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 97 Fossilized Vegetable Remains'. — The fossil plants obtained from the generality of Canadian rocks, are comparati . ely of little interest. Throughout the broad areas occupied by our Silurian strata, (as in other parts of the world,) only fucoids or seaweeds appear to occur. It is in the Devonian formations that land plants are first met with ; bdt in Canada, with the exception of Gasp6 in the extreme east of the Province, obscure traces of these forms have alone been discovered. In Western Canada, as in the case of the underlying Silurian strata, our lower Devonian beds have only yielded fucoidal types, and it is merely in the limited patches of the Chemung and Portage Group (see Part V.) that fragmentary remains and impressions of terrestriid forms occasionally occur. Long furrowed stems, several feet in length, and varying in diameter from an inch to three inches, occur in the dark bituminous shales of that formation, at Cape Ipperwash (Kettle Point,) on Lake Huron. These have been referred to Catamites, a genus of sub-aquatic or marsh plants of common occurrence in the coal strata, but their character is still obscure. The fossil plants of Gaspo are described in valuable papers by Dr. Dawson of Montreal, in the fifth and sixth volumes of the Canadian Naturalist. In fig. 64 we give a sketch of a common but still unnamed fucoid from tha Trenton limestone of Belleville and other parts of Canada. Fig. G.5 represents another supposed fucoid, the Scolithus linearis of Hall, irom the Pots- dam sandstone of the Fi»r. 64. Fig. 68. County of Leeds, C. W., and other districts (see Part V.) It forms, in general, cylindrical or flattened reed-like casts, varying in length from a few inches to a couple of feet, and traversing the strata across the direction of their bedding. The true nature of these casts, however, is still involved in doubt. By some paltcontologists they are looked iipon as resulting from holes or tubes made by sand-burrowing annelides. l-'innlly, it may be observed that impressions of modern leaves (Thuja, Populus, Acer, ^c, ^c.,) are occasionally found in our drift chys and shell marl deposits (see Part V.) Fossilised Animal Remains .- — Keeping always before us the fact that this Essay is addressed strictly to the general reader, it will b« t'. 1 ■s^ i ■' M ■A lil ,^ A POPULAS KCP08ITK»f OF THX necessacf, before adverting to the animal remains occurring in Cana- dian rocks, to pass briefly in review the classification^charaoters of the leading zoological groups as recognised in existing Nature. Animal orgiuiisms appear to be constructed after five principal types : the so- called Protozoic type, the Radiated type, the Molluscous type, the Articulated type, and the Vertebrated type. Protozoa stand upon the extreme and oscillating limit of the Vegetable and Animal worlds. They include a series of Infutorial fonnst in great part of vegetable origin, Sponges and Rhizopoeh. Radiated Animals exhibit, at least in their typical forms, a radiated arrangement of their structural parts, as seen in the coral polyp, the sea-urchin, and the starfish. They are all aquatic, and chiefly marine. Molluscous Animals, as the name implies, are soft-bodied, and the greater part secrete an external calcareous shell, as in the oyster and the snail. In some few, however, the shell is internal, as in the cuttle- fish ; and some again, as the common slug, are without a shell, or pos- sess merely the rudiments of one. Articulated Animals comprise insects, crustaceans (as the lobster, crab, &c.,) and other forms with usually a distinctly jointed body, covered in many instances by a hard integument or even by a shell. Finally, Vertebrated Animals possss an internal skeleton, of which the principal and most persistent part is the vertebral column. They include fishes, batrachians, (as newts and frogs,) reptiles, birds, and mammals. Since the first creation of living things, representatives of each of these great types — that is to say, of the Radiated type, the Molluscous type, &c., — probably peopled the earth in each and all of its varied periods of development ; but hitherto, traces of vertebrated forms havo escaped detection in the lowest fossiliferous rocks, fishes first appearing in Europe at the extreme top of the Upper Silurian deposits, and with us, in the Devonian strata. Protozoa. — This sub-kingdom includes: Infusoria, Sponges, and Rhizopods. Infusoria. — These are microscopic organisms, for the greater part, if not wholly, of vegetable origin, although (as in the case of the well- recognized spores or earlier stages of development of many crypto- gams) possessing powers of locomotion. Recent Infusoria occur in all waters in which decomposed matters are present, and they are fre- quently found also in clear running streams. Some are entirely soft- bodied, but others are protected by a calcareous, siliceous, or ferrugi- MINERALS AND OEOtOiSY OF CANADA. dd nbus ^hell. The microscope has sheWn that many bog-iron deposits* iHlitieouB marls and tripolis are almost entirely made up of the remains of these creatures. Beds of tripoli occur at Laval and Lalioraie (Sir W. E. Logan) in the Lo^efr Province, but their infusorikl fdttns do not seem to have been specially examined. Sponges. — Modem sponges consist of a gelatinous mass, full of pores, and possessing in general the power of secreting a horny frame- work or kind of skeleton — the *' sponge " of commerce. This horny framework is commonly strengthened by a number of sharp spines or spicula, crossing each other in various directions. The spicula are either siliceous or calcareous, according to the species. Fossil spicula often occur in flints and in infusorial deposits. Dr. Dawson has also detected them in the Drift deposits of Montreal, (see Part V.) The ancient sponges appear to have secreted a hard calcareous framework, and to have been more nearly related to corals. If we except the doubtful Stromatopora (see under "corals," page 102), our Canadian rocks do not appear to have yielded any characteristic forms, but some obscure species occur in the Mingan Islands and elsewhere. (See Appendix.) Rhizopods (or Foraminifera.) — The animals of this class are aquatic, and, with few exceptions, of extremely minute size. They swarm ip many of our seas. Their soft gelatinous body is sometimes naked, or enclosed in a horny capsule ; but more commonly it is protected by a calcareous and usually many-chambered shell, perforated for the passage of long and delicate filaments, whence the name of the class, from pi^a, a root. The latter forms, or those possessing shells, are generally known as Foraminifera. The only representatives of these in Canadian Deposits occur in the Drift or Post-Pliocene accumulations of Montreal and its vicinity, where they were discovered by Professor Dawson. (See illustrations and descriptions in the Canadian Naturalist, vols. 2 and 4.) All have been recognised as identical with existing forms. Fig 66 is a greatly enlarged view of one of the most common species. Polys- tomella umbilicatula. Radiated Animals.— The following Classes belong to this division : POLYI'IFKKA or CoRALS, ACALEPHA, and EcHINODERMATA. Corals. — The fossil forms of Canadian occurrence referred to this class may be conveniently arranged in two groups : Graptolites and FiK. 66. > . vs?* 1 ^ . 4 Hi rii f I If :■! 100 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE Corah proper. The true position of the graptolites, however, w exceedingly uncertain ; but the general opinion allots them a place near the Yirgularise or sea-pens, belonging to the lower of the two great orders or divisions in whic^i modern forms of this class are mostly arranged. It should be observed, nevertheless, that some naturalists divide the PoiiYPiFERA into three Orders — Hydroidaf Alcyonaria and Zoantharia (or groups with other names synonymous with these) — and place the graptolites (with the modern Sertularia, Ac.t) in the first order. Agassiz, again, removes this order to the class ACALEPHA. Graptolites. — The common form of the graptolite-structure is that of a narrow band or " stipe," with a row of " teeth," i.e., the mouths of cells, on one or on both sides. The teeth or serratures are pointed or even mucronate in some species, and obtuse in others. Sometimes in place of forming a narrow band, the cell-structure takes a leaf-like shape, and at other times it assumes a spiral or convolute form. Spe- cimens have also been found, more especially in the Quebec group of rocks in the vicinity of Point Levi, in which several stipes cross each other or radiate from a common centre, around which there is a thin connecting membrane. Our ordinary examples, it is thus evident, are merely fragments of the true graptolite-structure ; and as some of these occur in branching forms, of which the branches are only toothed on one side whilst the main stem is toothed on both margins, it is more than probable that the same species has been described in some instances under diiferent names. Being entirely confined to the Silu' rion strata, the graptolites are especially interesting and valuable as geological test-forms. On this continent they are chiefly characteristic of the Lower Silurian division, (see Part V.) By some authors, the forms with serratures on each side of the stipe are described under the generic name of Diplograpsus ; and those with serratures on one side only, under that of Graptnlithus. As examples uf Canadian forms, we may cite at present Oraptoli' thus Loyani, Fig. 67, from the base of the Lower Silurian formation ; Graptolithus (or Diplograpsus) pristis, Fig. 68, with acute or sub- mucronate serratures, from the Trenton limestone, Utica Slate, and Hudson River group of the same formation ; G. {= Diplograpsus) ratnosus, with obtuse or somewhat truncated serratures, Fig. 69, from the Utica Slate and Hudson River group (Lower Silurian) ; and G, priodon, (=:G. clintonensis, Hall) Fig. 70, with reversed serraturei, from the Clinton and Niagara group of the Upper Silurian series. MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 101 ^<•^.i•■» ».: 'jsi;!.'-' vi) ••*'';■'■ ,»:.. '/ r.^ ■ f \,Jf A WP ^ {^"Tm JkJ -^4!^i'^ N-'x^ Fig. 67. Fig. 68. Fig. 69. Fk. 70. Corals proper : — The animal substance of corals consists of a soft gelatinous mass containing one or many digestive sacks or stomachs, each provided at the opening or upper part with a number of retractile tentacles. These sacks with their tentacles are technically known as " polyps." The gelatinous mass possesses likewise (in the majority of cases) the power of secreting amidst its tissues a calcareous or horny framework, the " coral " of popular language. As a general rule, this secreted solid portion consists of one or more cavities or cells, in and around which the organized fleshy sack oi' polyp is contained. This, however, is not always the case. Sometimes, as in the celebrated " Red ^Coral " of the Mediterranean, the polyp-cavity is fashioned in the midst of the gelatinous matter, without any correspond- ing cavities in the support. When cells occur in this support or " corallum," they exhibit either a round, oval, or polygonal opening ; and, if more than one in number, they are either in juxtaposition, or connected by short transverse tubes, or by a mass of more or less porous tissue called " coenenchyme." The cell is sometimes smooth Hi 102 A POPVLAR EXPOSITION OF THE within, but more commonly it is furniahed with a number of radiating plates or lamellae. These, in some forms, are but slightly developed, or ocjcur only im a rudimentary condition ; whilst in others they ex- tend far into the cell, and even unite there i^ a central golumn. A centi^al column or "axis" sometimes, however, exists by itself, and may have radiating lamellee of its own projecting towards the circum- ference of the cell ; but this latter modification is not observed in any of the Paleeozic types. Whether radiating lamellae are present or not, the cell is very generally divided horizontally by a series of transverse plates or " diaphragms," either extending across the entire cell (Fig. 71, a, which shows three cells thus divided) or occupying the central A B Fig. 71. portion of this, whilst the sides are filled with small and more or less irregular plates, called " vesicular tissue," (Fig. 71,6). In the genus Cystiphyllum, again, the interior of the cell is entirely filled with these irregular vesicular plates (Fig. 71, c). Finally it may be mentioned that many corals possess an enveloping wall or sheath. This is termed an " epitheca." The following are the more important or characteristic fossil species met with in Canadian rocks : 1. Stromatocerium rugosum, Fig. 72. — In this form, there are no apparent cells, but the corallum is made up of numerous concentric and wavy lamellae. Lower Silu- rian : Trenton group* ; more especially abundant at the lower part. This fossil is also known as atromatopora rugosa, and is sometimes classed as a sponge. A closely related species, Stromatopora concentrica, occurs in the Niagajra group of the Upper Silurian series, and passes in some districts into the Devonian rocks. FiK. 72. * The Bubordinkte divisions of our Silurian and Devonian strata will be found described in full in Part V. MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 103 Pig. 73. 2. Stenopora fibrosa (= Chatetes lycoperdon) Fig. 73. This form is made up of long fibrous or acicular tubes, nvith numerous transverse dia- phragms. These latter, however, to be properly seen, require the aid of a magnifying glass. The corallum is either globular, hemispherical, dendri- tic, or irregular. The dendritic forms often resemble sea-weeds, but, except in much weathered specimens, a magnify- ing glass will generally show their punctured surface (the openings of the cells), and their delicately fibrous structure. Very common throughout the Trenton Group, Utica Slate, and Hudson River Group of the Lower Silurian Series. Found also in the Upper Silurian rocks. 8. Favosites Gothlandioa ( = F. Niagarenais) Fig. 74. —The corallum in this species is properly hemispherical and sometimes of large size, but specimens are generally obtained in the form of irregular masses. These are made up of hexagonal or polygonal cell-tubes with numerous transverse diaphragms, and with pores in the cell walls. They are the " petrified honeycombs " of quarrymen, &c. Principally Upper Silurian ; but found occasion- in the Lower Silurian and frequently in the Devonian Series. 4. Mickelinia convexa, Fig. 76. — The corallum in this species consists of large but shallow polygonal cells, with convex and in part vesicular diaphragms, and pores in ceil walls. Devonian strata, Canada West. Pi)r.75. 5. Halysites catenulatus C= Catenipora escharoides), fig. 7C. — In this species, the well-known "chain coral," the oval cell-tubes are united in chain-like groups. There are numerous diaphragms, and some rudi- mentary radiating-lamellae. Chiefly character- istic of the Clinton and Niagara group (Upper Silurian), but found also of late years in the Lower Silurian series. Fig. 74 ^^ ¥'M 'i III I -,11 ■I! Fifr 76. 104 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE 6. Syringopora tubiporoides, Fig. 77. — The cor- allum in this form consists of round, elongated, and somewhat flexuous tubes, connected by tranverse tubes of short length. Another species, S. Hiain- fferi, resembles this^ but its tubes are of much smaller diameter. Both occur in the Devonian rocks of Western Canada. Fig. 77. 7. Columnaria alveolata. Fig. 78. — This species much resembles Favosiies Gothlandica, the corallum being made up of hexagonal and polygonal cells in close juxtaposition, but the mouths of the cell-tubes are bordeaed by short radiating lamellse. Nu- merous diaphragms are also present, but the cell-walls have no pores. Trenton group (Lower Silurian), and principally met with at the lower part of this group ( = Black River limestone, see Part V.) Fig. 78. 8. Petraia cornicula (= Streptelasma of Hall) Fig. 79. Corallum horn-shaped, simple, consisting of one large cell with well-developed radiating lamellae, but without dia- phragms. Trenton Group (Lower Silurian). A closely related species from the Niagara Group (Upper Silurian) has been named P. calicula. Another species, P. profunda, from the base of the Trenton Group, has a conical and nearly straight form. All of these vary iu length from about half an inch to an inch and tiiree-fourths. Fig. 79. 9. Zaphrentia prolijica. Fig. 80. — Corallum, horn-shaped, simple; with alternating large and small radiating lamellae, and transverse diaphragms. A " septal fossette " or indentation passes down the interior of the cup on one side ; and externally, fhe corallum is enveloped in a thin epitheca. This is a cotrparatively large species, varying in length from about an inch and a half to over five inches ; but a still larger species, Z. gigantea, is often found accompanying it. Tliis kitcr form is FiK. 8«. two or three inches in diameter, and two feet MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. Jflt' fig. 81. or more in length. Both occur in the Devonian series (Corniferous limestone (see Part V.) of Western Canada. - 10. Cystiphyllum Senecaense (Billings) Fii?. 81 (a fragment) ; Corallum horn-shaped, simple, slendii, and usually curved. Interior filled with vesicular tissue. Radia- ting lamellae quite rudimentary. Diameter three- fourths of an inch, to an inch and a half. Length, varying from three or four inches to two feet (Billings). Devonian rocks (corniferous limestone) of Canada West. Various other species of Cysti. phyllum occur in these rocks. Amongst others, C. aggregatum ( Billings ), in groups of irregularly cylindrical tubes covered by a wrinkled epitheca. These corals represent our most abundant and characteristic species, but numerous others occur in special localities. For information respecting many of these, the reader is referred to the Reports of Mr. Billings in the publications of the Canadian Geological Survey, and also to valuable memoirs by that palaeontologist in the fourth and fifth volumes of the Canadian Journal. An extended analysis of these forms would not only exceed our proposed limits, but would be altogether out of place in an Essay like the present. Acalepha. — Until lately, this class was held to include only a series of soft-bodied marine animals {Medusa, &c.,) of which no fossil representatives have as yet been obtained. The recent researches of Professor Agassiz, however, render it very probable that the Graptolites and some of the lower forms usually classed amongst the corals may belong to this division. Echinodermata. — The echinoderms constitute a class of marine animals provided with an external test or shell, composed of many pieces, or with a tegumentary semi-calcareous skin. Some are free, and others, fixed animals. These latter are attached to the sea-bottom by a jointed calcareous stem ; but in some instances the animal is only thus attached during a portion of its life, and becomes free in the adult condition. The class may be subdivided into the following Orders: 1, Crinoida ; 2, Blastoidaf 3, Cystidea; 4, Thyroida ; 6, Asterida ; G, Ophiurida ; 7, Euryalida ; 8, Echinida ; 9, Holo- thurida. < m ■ -1] ' fij Mi 106 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OT THE 1. Crinoida. — In the majority of fossil crinoida or encrinites (" sea- lilies "), the general form consists of a hody or digestive sack, covered by calcareous plates, and furnished at its upper part with a series of jointed arms or tentacles, and at its lower part with a jointed and per- forated stem (compos ' of numerous round or pentagonal plates) by which it was attached to the sea-bottom : see fig. 82. This Order it of great paleeontological interest. In the seas of the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic periods, its representatives swarmed in vast numbers; whilst but few forms belonging to it have been obtained from Tertiary rocks (see the Table of Formations on page 93 above) ; and in existing seas the order is almost extinct, two or three species alone remain- ing to represent it. The best known of these is the Pentacrinus caput-Mediisa of the West Indian seas. A small species of Comatula exists also in the Irish Channel, and of late years has been carefully studied. This form is fixed by a stem in the early condition, and afterwards becomes free. The fixed stag*? was originally thought to be permanent, and the species was known as Pentacrinus Europaus. The genus Marsnpites, of the Cretaceous rocks, was also a free form, during a portion, if not during the entire period, of its life. The cup shaped body of the crinoid tmimal is technically termed the " calyx." It is enclosed by numerous polygonal plates, arranged, for each genus, in definite order. The plntts in a row immediately above the stem are roniiuonly known as •' basnls." These are usually three or five in uuuihcr. The next series, absent, however, in many genera, are called s\ih-rndials, and the next, supporting the base of the arms, are known as " radials." The radials always range in five vertical rows, each row being made up of one or several plates, between which occur other plates, termed inter-radials and unal plates. The upper part of the calyx is covered (in most genera) by numer- ous small and irregidar plates, t<'rmed, collectively, the "vault." The vault-plates are sometimes "j)rolonged into a so-called " trunk," the office of which is still undetermined' In some species the vault has two openings, iu others only one. Fiff. 82. MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 107 Numerous stem-fragments of crinoids occur throughout our Silurian and Devonian rocks, but entire or even tolerably perfect forms are exceedingly rare. As the character of the stem differs frequently in the same species^ and in different parts even of its own length, and is more or less alike again in different spe- cies, these fragments can only be described as "crinoid stems." Fig. 83 represents a piece of arenaceous shale, from below the Drift clay of Toronto, covered with portions of crinoid stems, some being seen in transverse section, whilst others are shewn longitudi- nally. This shale belongs to the Hudson Biter Group of the Lower Silurian Series (see Past V.) Owing to this fragmentary condition of our Canadian examples generally, and to the great rarity of perfect or determinable forms, it is unnecessary in an essay like the present (and would indeed be useless where we are obliged to restrict the number of our engravings) to attempt descriptions of genera and species. The crinoids of our Lower Silurian strata will be found described in great detail by Mr. Billings, in the fourth Decade of " Canadian Organic Remains."* Of the species met with in our ether formations, no complete record has yet been published. Fig. 83. ■ ^ I '''Ml ■f-' •4 ■•a. 2. Blast oida. — The forms placed in this Order have been separated of late years from the Crinoids j)roper. They present an oval or globular body, (the calyx) composed of several series of plates, and having at the summit five " nmbulacral areas " or rays, in the shape of a star, furrowed down the centre of each rny, and striated across. These are thought to have supported delicate tcjutaclos, but no armi have been discovered. The body was fixed to the sea bottom by a short, jointed stem. The order contains but few genera. The genui * III fiirthar iUiMtration of the inutility ofcntcriiiR into doscriptions of tlieiio forms in tti* prpsciit plaL'o, It may lio olmcrviMl tliat, of sevoral sptjcios dfscrilM'd and flgurcd by Mr. Billinttti, only singlo gpocinuMis arc known. Wo havo thcreforo tliought it advisaV)lc to rodtrict, for the greater part, our limited niniibor of ongravingw to reprettentations of char* aoteriiitiu or commonly, Mr. nilllngs dcscribcg nineteen new forms, bclon|ring to his grncra, Pleurocystites, Qlj'pto- Pig. 88. • Pentremitfti cxlilMtstliroe wricH of |>lat<'«(oxcluHiveof the Anibularroid tirrirs) : Hasalt lUdlalu, mid liitcr-rftilialM, tho 1. tti-r rcMtiiiK upon tlic rniiialH In «lt(>rnat« position. Tho radlalM aro couiparatiTcly large, tlio Intcr-radials •mall, mo that tho anihiilacroidM extend Into the former. In Ulasdiiitocrinus the reverse of thin takes |)l»eo. Tho inter-rmdiHlii ar« large, and tho aiubulauroi Jr do not extend beluw thoui. I MINERALS AND GECT^OGY OF CANADA. 10» cystites, Oomarocjatitea, Amygdalocyatites, Malocystitea, Palaeocystites, and Ateleocystitea. The genua Pleurocystites is a very remarkable one. It b chiefly characterised by the diasimilar structure of the two sides of the body ; a series of comparatively large plates covering the dorsal side, whilst the ventral side consists of an open space protected by an integument covered with numer- ous small plates. The genua, with ua, appears to range from the Ohazy to the Hudson River group ; and geographically from Canada to Wales and Bohe- mia (Caradoc group and Barrande's etage D.) Six species are enumerated : P. tqtkamomt (plates plane or slightly concave ; pectinated rhombs, with obtuse angle above); /*. ro6u8Kartl to Cryptoi riniist (Vnii Uiicb), and tliu oilmr «o-oallcd non-porirerouM typva? t This 1h tlio AcliHorrinu* tenuimdiatus of ilall. The otluT iipocius appi>rtaini>iK to tbv ditrornnt Koiiura onuiuuratod in tliu tuxt, buloiiH uiitlruly tu Mr. UilllUK«. ■ v:- S--' I *lf 1 '4 i I no ▲ POPULAR KXPOSmON OF THB but their speeifio oharaoten are necessarilj someirhat obscure. Ptnallj, in thk genus Ateleooystites, a single species, A. HuaUyi, is mentioned. The calyx in jhtif form appears to haTe, as in Pleurocystites, a dorsal side made up of com- paratirely few plates, with numerous small plates on the rentral side. In other respects, bowerer, the genus is a very peculiar one, and perhaps referable to • distinct group." 4. Thyroida. — ^This Order is represented by a single genus, Affela- erinitea : a peculiar type, connecting the cystideans with the star- fishes. It presents a somewhat flat, circular form with a five-rayed Btar at the upper part, each ray being composed of two series of inter- locking plates, whilst the intermediate spaces are covered by numerous 8cale-like imbricating plates, arranged more or less irregularly. The rays in some species are long and curved, and in others straight and short. Between two of these rays there is a circular open- ing, covered by five or ten triangular plates in the form of a " pyramid," as in the cystideans. The genus ranges from the Lowor Silurian to the Carboniferous formar tions. Figure 86 represents Jgelacrinitet Billingm of the Trenton limestone (Lower Silurian). Other species iVom the same formation, A. Dicksoni and A. {Edrioaster) Bigshyi, have long curved rays. (Decade III. " Canadian Organic Remains." See also for a more complete description of A. Billingsii, a paper by the writer in the Canadian Journal, Vol. V., p. 350, and in the AnnaU of Natural History, August, 1860.) 5. Aaterida. — This Order includes the greater number of the so- called star-fishes. The body is covered by a thick skin, strengthened by plates and tubercles of carbonate of lime. There is no stem, and the mouth is always on the underside of the body, in the centre of the arms or rays. These are five or more in number. The visceral cavity or stomach extends into them. Species occur in all formations from the Lower Silurian upwards, but the Order appears to be more numerouH in existing seas than in the waters of any former epoch. In the Third Decade of Canadian Organic Ilenmins, Mr. Billings describes several species from the Lower Silurian rocks. These are placed under the following genera, hut specimens, it should be observed, are of rare occurrence, and the characters of those obtained arc more or less obscure. ti^j.c.nii, ciulte Fig. 86. 4 1 I MINERALS AND OEOLOOY OF CANADA. PtUa$terina. — Five rays, with intermediate connecting area. P. atellata, more or less regularly pentagonal. P. rugosa, dorsal plates in part stelliform (ventral aspect unknown.) Petratter. — Connecting area very slightly developed. Large marginal plates. P. rigidus, (characters imperfectly known.) 8tma$ter. — No connecting area. Rays without spines or overlapping plates. 8, Salteri, rays comparatively broad. 8. puleheliita, rays long and narrow. Tamiaster. — No connecting area. Rays narrow, covered in part with spines, and with their outei*, or adambulacral, plates partly over- lapping. T. spinoaui ; T. cylindrieua. (The latter of these is apparently the larger and more robust species of the two, but otherwise the characters are much alike). In addition to these forms, small and more or less imperfect specimens of Asterida, probably referable to Hall's genus Palseaster, are occasionally obtained from the Niagara limestone of the Upper Silurian Series. 6. Ophiurida. — The star-fishes of this Order differ from the Asterida proper, in having their arms or rays quite distinct from the central visceral-cavity. With the exception of a doubtful fragment from the eastern Post-Tertiary deposits (see Part F.), no examples have as yet been noticed in Canadian rocks. 7. Euryalida. — In this Order, the arms and stomach are also distinct, but the body is only partially covered by calcareous plates. No fossil representatives.* 8. Echinida. — This is an important Order, but fossil representatives are all but unknown below the Mesozoic rocks, and none (with the ex- ception of a modern form in the Post-Tertiaries of Beauport, see Part v.) are of Canadian occurrence. The echinids, of which the modem •* sea-egg " or " sea-urchin " may be taken as a type, have no arms. The body is hemispherical, oval, cordiform, &c., and covered by a calcareous test or shell, composed of polygonal plates joined at their edges. Some of these plates, in radiating areas termed " ambulacra " are perforated for the passage of retractile respiratory tubes. The test moreover, is covered by moveable calcareous spines (which fall off after the death of the animal) ; and it has always two openings, one of which, the mouth, is invariably situated on the under side of the body. In existing seas these forms are exceedingly abundant, and they ajipear to have been equally numerous in the seas of the Caino- zoic and Mesozoic ages (see Table of Formations, page 93, above). • The Protaitor of E. Forboa t« now rofurred to thoOpliiurida. m ■M \ It 4 '• m ■ .-It ] 'II 1: 112 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE In the Palaeozoic deposits, on the other hand, only three or four genera have been met with, and examples of these are rare. As already remarked, our Canadian rocks of this age have not yet offered any representatives of the Order. 9. Holothurida. — This Order comprises various more or less soft- bodied marine animals, of which the Holothuria or " sea-cucumber '* may be taken as the type. Fossil representatives are of exceedingly doubtful occurrence. None belong to Canadian rocks. Molluscous Animals. — The forms of the sub-kingdom Mollusca may be arranged under the following groups and classes : — A. Coralli- form Mollusca : 1, Bryozoa. B. Acephalous {or headless) Mollusca: 2, TuNiCATA, (no fossil representatives); 3, Brachiopoda; 4, La- MELLiBRANCHiATA. C Encepholous Mollusctt : 5, Pteropoda ; 6, Heteropoda ; 7, Gasteropoda ; 8, Cephalopoda. Bryozoa. — The bryozoons (so named from the general moss-like aspect of their united cells) are minute animals of marine habitat. They form cell-colonies after the manner of most coral animals, but present a higher organization than these latter. They possess a dis- tinct oral and anal cavity, and assimilate in many other respects to the molluscous type. The compound cell-structure in some forms takes the shape of leaf-like expansions, and in others is either den- dritic, plumose, rounded, or irregular. It is also either free, or attached by growth to shells and other sub-marine bodies. Modern bryozoons abound in all seas. Fossil forms of this class are also exceedingly numerous, ranging throughout the entire series of fossiliferous rocks. Their separation from corals is, in many instances, however, a task of much perplexity ; and, as those found in our Cana- dian strata are of little importance as test- forms, we confine our illustrations to a single example, Fenestella elegans, (Fig. 87), from the Niagara Group of the Upper Silurian Series. Representatives of the class, it may be observed, occur as low down as the Calciferous-Sand-Rock (see Part V.) ; and Professor Dawson, on the other hand, has found a number of species identical with existing forms, in the Post- tertiary deposits of Eastern Canada. These are described in the fourth volume of the Canadian Naturalist. Fig. 87. MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 113 The Chaptolitet, already described as a section of the Polypi fer a or Corals, (see page 105, above) are referred by some paleeontologists to the present class. Brachiopoda. — The brachiopods are marine, headless mollusks, provided with a bivalve shell. The valves of this shell are always of unequal size ; and one is situated on the dorsal, and the other on the ventral side of the animal. The ventral valve is almost invariably the larger of the two, and without reference to the anatomy of the mol- lusk would be naturally taken for the dorsal valve. The valves, though unequal in size, are " equilateral " — i. e., a vertical line drawn straight through the middle of each valve, divides the shell into two exactly equal parts. This serves to distinguish at a glance a brachiopod shell from the shells of other bivalves : or at least from the great majority of these, as some few, the Pectena for example, have nearly equilateral shells. A depression or "sinus " frequently occurs down the centre of one valve, and a corresponding projection or " mesial fold" down the centre of the other. The sinus is almost invariably on the ventral, and the fold on the dorsal valve. The pointed upper extremity of the valve, is tech- nically known as the " beak." In some forms the valves are close together ; but in others, a closed space (often striated across) occurs between the two. This is called the " area." See Fig. 88 and accompanying explanation. In the centre of the area, or under the beak of the ventral valve, there is frequently (as in the spirifers, &c.,) a triangular or circular orifice, the ** foramen." This opening, in the species which possessed it, served for the passage of the pedicel by which the animal *' " was attached to the sea-bottom. The foramen is situated, at other times, upon, or near to, the ventral beak, as in spirigera, Ac. In many species again, it appears to have become closed by age ; and in others, it is altogether absent. The line of junction between the upper part of the valves is termed the hinge-line. It is straight in some genera, {Orthia, Strophomena, Spirifer^ for example,) and arched or curved in others, {Athyns, Bhptconella, Pentamerus, Terebratula, etc.) * D^dorml valve. F— ventral vatvo. a, area ; h, beak of ventral valve ; f, foramen ( h-h, the binge Hue ( m, poaitiou of mesial fold { t, position of mesial sinus. I '"f!li1 ■m rn 'I r V*; ^'i J) m 1 i 114 A POPULAR BXPOSltlON OF THS II ..**•.' i) In many brachiopods, the shell is traversed by minute pores or tubu- lar prolongations. When this is the case, the shell is baid to be ** punctate ;" and when the pores are absent, it is termed *' im- punctate." ;» (. > The brachiopods possess, as their chief characteristic, a pair of long fleshy '* arms," covered with delicate cilia, and either entirely confined in a coil within the shell, or capable of protrusion to a certain extent. In some genera, the inside of the dorsal valve carries peciiliar spiral processes, or a shelly loop or other calcareous framework, for the support of these arms. A support of this kind is however wanting in many genera, or is otherwise merely rudimentary. The brachio- pods differ essentially from the lammellibranchiate bivalves in the non-possession of distinct branchiae or breathing gills. In existing seas the brachiopods are comparatively rare, the number of known species not exceeding fifty ; whilst the fossil species discovered up^to the present time, amount to over thirteen or fourteen hundred. They constitute moreover, at least ninety per cent, of the bivalve shells met with in the lower fossiliferous rocks. '^ r v • ■ . : The following are the more important genera of Canadian occur- ence: Lingula, Orthis, Strophomena, Leptcena, Spirifevt AthyriSt Spirigera, Atrypa, Bhynconella, Pentamerus, and Strichlandia, Idngula : — Shell : horny, thin, oblong, and nearly equivalve. Black and shining in our examples, and consisting largely (as first shewn by Prof. Starry Hunt), of phosphate of lime. No internal calcareous appendages. This genus ranges from the Lower Silurian epoch into the present or existing period. Numerous species occur in our Silurian formations. L. quadrata, fig. 80, from the Trenton Limestone, Utica Slate, and Hudson Biver Group (Lower Silurian,) may be cited as a common example. _. Ortliis : — Slioll calcareous. Bi-convex or plano-convex ; with straight hinge-line, and punctate surface. No internal supports, properly so-called. This genus ranged throughout the Palaeozoic age, but was most abundant during the Silurian and Devonian periods. The species have usually a more or less circular outline, with the surface of the shell marked by fine or course radiating lines. Canadian examples are exceedingly numerous ; more especially those belonging to (). teatudinaria, fig. 90, of the Trenton and higher divisions of the Lower Silurian series. Fig. 91 represents O. peeti- MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 115 Hi Fig-M. Fig. 91. Fig. 92. Fig. 93. !,H'') j-::/^;^^e •;%•!. fe ;y:. Fig. 94. nella; jBg. 92, O, tricenaria, and fig. 93, O. Jyna:, all of common occurrence in the Trenton Group. 0. elegantula of the Niagara Group (Upper Silurian) is closely related to O. testudinaria, and has the general form of fig. 90. 0. Vanuxemi, fig. 94, is a Devonian species. The Lower Silurian form, O. h/nx, fig. 93, has the general aspect of a spirifer, but its mesial fold and sinus are marked by several plications, a character not exhibited by any of our Canadian Spirifers. It was formerly called Delthyris lynx. Strophomena ; — Shell, concavo-convex ; hinge-line, straight ; no internal supports. This genus ranges from the Silurian to the Carboniferous formation. Canadian examples are very abundant. Fig. 96. Fig. 96. Fig. 95 represents S. altemata, a species of exceedingly common occurrence in the Trenton and Hudson Eiver Groups (Lower Silurian.) S.Jilitexta is a closely related form. Fig. 96 exhibits another well-known species, S. rhomhoidalis {= Strophomena and Zeptana depressa,) from the Niagara Group and other Upper Silurian strata, and also from the Devonian rocks of Western Canada. tii '■i.l 116 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE I In tbese latter rocks a few species of Ohonetes and Froductus, (genera allied to Strophomena,) also occur. Zeptana : — This genus (or rather sub-genus,) merely differs from Strophomena by the character and elongation of its muscular impressions. L. sericea. Fig. 97, of the Trenton and Hudson Biver Grroups, is a species of common occurrence. pj ^j Spirifer : — Shell with internal calcareous processes in the form of two spiral coils pointing outwards. Hinge-line straight, long ; area well developed, with triangular foramen. The genus ranges from the Silurian to the Triassic (or Jurassic) epoch, but is chiefly charac- teristic of Upper Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous rocks. Fig. 98 represents S. Niagaretms of the Upper Silurian, and Fig. 99, S, ) •'-.<%■ Fig. 98. Pig. 99. mucronattu of the Devonian series. Both are of common occurrence. The hinge-line of the latter is sometimes shorter (as compared with the height of the shell,) than is shewn in the figure. In our Western Devonian rocks, several other species occur : as S. dtiodenarius, with eight or nine rounded ribs on each side of the mesial fold ; S. rari- eostatus, with two or three coarse plications on each side of the fold ; S. gregariay a small species, &c. These are figured and described by Mr. Billings in the Canadian Journal, vol. VI. Another common species of the Upper Silurian series, is S. radiatus. This differs chiefly from S. Niagarensis by its finer and more numerous plications. A third Niagara species iS. suloatus, has about eight plications on each side of the mesial fold, crossed by the rough and strongly-pro- nounced edges of the layers of growth. Athyris : — The shell in this genus has internal spires as in Spirifer^ but the hinge-line is curved, and the area is absent or rudimentary. Species range from the Silurian to the Triassic formations. Several occur in our Devonian rocks. One of the most common of these, MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 117 Fig. 100 A. clara, (Billings,) is represented in fig. 100. A. Maia ia a somewhat similar species, but with a more developed or longer mesial fold and sinus, and with a slight space or false area between the beaks. These and other Devonian species are described in detail by Mr. Billings, in the Canadian Journal, Vol. V. ■■• Spirigera : — This genus or sub-genus differs from Athyria in hav- ing a perforation or foramen in the beak of the ventral valve. S, concentrica of the Devonian rocks is shewn in fig. 101. The genus Retzia is nearly allied to Spirigera, but the shells are smaller ai^d strongly ribbed. Fi>r. loi. Atrypa : — A good deal of uncertainty still prevails with regard to the proper limitation of this genus. In outward form it agrees with Bhynconella, see below, but appears to i "' ■ possess internal calcareous spires, the points of which extend into the hollow of the smaller or dorsal valve. !Fig. 102 represents an exceedingly common spe- cies, A. reticularis, of the Upper Silu- rian and Devonian strata, but chiefly characteristic of the latter. r Pig. loa. Bhynconella .'—Shell, in general^ strongly bi-convex. Hinge-line, curved ; no area. No internal spires, but in the living species the arms are coiled spirally, the spires pointing downwards and inwards. The genus ranges from the Lower Silurian into the existing epoch. Fig. 103 represents a small form, R. plena, very common in the Chazy 0- I ^i »!» >i« l\ ^ \0 U; Fiff. 103. Fig. 104 Fig. 105. 118 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THX limestone of the Trenton Group, (Lower Silurian) ; and fig. 104, M. increheseens, a closely related species occurring abundantly through- out the Trenton limestone. In this latter species, the plications on the shell are crossed by well-marked imbricating lines of growth. Numerous examples of this genus occur also in our Upper Silurian and Devonian strata. A modem species, found in the Post-Tertiary deposits of Eastern Canada, R, psittacea, is figured in the wood- cut 105. Fig. 106 is a representation of the old R%yn» conella Jiemiplicata of the Trenton Group, now referred by Mr. BUlings to his new genus Came' rella. It is characterized by a few broad plications on the lower part of the shell. Pi«. 106. Pentamerus : — In this genus, the shell is prominently bi-convex, with arched hinge-line and large incurved beak. Internally it is divided by septa into several chambers. The genus ranges from the Silurian to the Carboniferous formations. P. oblongw, of the Nia- gara Group, is represented in fig. 107, the sketch 107 a shewing a fig. 107. Fig. 107 a. ventral view of the internal cast. P. arattts, of the Devonian rocks, is figured in 108. This latter form is closely related to the well-known typical species P. galeatus. Stricklandia : — This genus has been recently established by Mr. Billings. It includes certain more or less oval forms with nearly equal valves, formerly referred to Pentamerus, S.elongata, a Devo- nian species, is shewn in fig. 109. Other species occur in these and in the Upper Silurian rocks. MtitlERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 119 ;'-:/f''- .,-.■' ■ .* li a rrtB (■^r ; ; . :.,; Fig. 108. . , Fig.109. ^ Our Canadian formations do not appear, as yet, to have offered any examples of the well-known genera. Crania, Calceola, and Tere- bratula, Lamelliboai^ohiata (or Coitchii'eba.) — Lamellibrancbiate mol- lusks are marine or fresh- water animals of the acephalous type. They are provided in the adult condition with laminated gills or branchisB for breathing purposes, (as seen, for example, in the so- called " beard " of the oyster,) and they secrete a bi-valve external shell. The two valves in most genera (those of the Ostreidce and some Aviculidte are the only exceptions) are of equal size, but always more or less inequilateral. (See under the Brachiopods above). These mollusks are exceedingly abundant in the fossil state, though less numerous than the brachiopods in the older rock for- mations. The known species obtained from the seas, lakes, and rivers, of existing nature, somewhat exceed three thousand, whilst nearly double that number of fossil species have been recognized. These latter, however, belong it must be remembered, not to one period, but to many successive epochs ; although on the other hand, it is manifest that we see in them merely an incomplete record of the lamellibrancbiate fauna of the Past. In their classification, the lamellibrancbiate mollusks fall into two leading sections and four groups, as follows : (1) ASIPHONIDA (1 a) Plmroconcha, (1 h) Orthoconcha. (2) SiPHONIDA (2 a) Integro'Pallialia, (2 &) 8inwPallialia. Ml Iff , i)ji 120 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE Fig. no. The animals of the first section are without the peculiar respira- tory tubes possessed by the Siphonida. These latter, for example, have a pair of short or long siphonal tubes, which assist in the pro- cess of respiration, and which admit in the Sinu-pallialia of extension beyond the shell. The Pleuroconcha, (group 1), of which the oyster may be taken as a type, rest in their natural jiosition with one valve below, and the other above, and thus approximate to the Brachiopods. They have in general but one large muscular impression in the centre of the inside of each valve. This forms a shallowpit, occupied by the muscle which keeps the valves closed. The common fossil known as Amhonychia radiata (fig. 110) may be cited, though doubtfully, for its true affinities are still obscure, as an example of this division. It is exceedingly abundant in the Hudson Eiver Group of the Lower Silurian series. The forms of the second group, or Orthocon- cha, (as restricted above*,) are also without siphonal tubes, but their valves are right and left, instead of upper and under, as regards the normal position of the animal, and the muscular impressions are two in each valve- The fossil species known as Modiolopsis modiolaris tig. Ill, so common in our Hudson River Group, belongs in all pro- bability to this division. The genus Cyrto- donta of Billings, (with its sub-genus Vanuxe- mia), may also be referred to the Orthoconcha of this Section. Fig. 112 represents the Cyrto- donta Huronensis (var. siihcarinata) of the lower part of the Trenton Group. Another and more remarkable species of this genus — widely known as the Megalomua Canadensis, of Hall — occurs in great numbers in the Onondaga Salt Group, (Upper Silurian), of Canada W'^st, and more especially in the neiglibourhood of Gait. It is found chiefly in the form uf iuteruul casts, as shewn in the figures 1 13 and 113 a. * Tho term Orthitconcha, it vhould bo obiwrved, !■ applied by 80tno palusoiitolufiiiiti to our frroups, 1 b, 2 a, and 2 6. cullcctivcly— tlie forma of tho two first of tiicito buiiiK unitod under the lubordiuate group of InUgro-PalUaUa, FiK. m. MINERALS AND GKOLOGY OF CANADA. 121 ,'-'-■ ■''»(.>'. Ill ■f- ■I wn our ider Pig. 112. Fig. 113. Fig. 113. o. The lamellihranchs of the third group, Integra- Pallialia, have the upright (or right and left) position of the orthoconcha of Section I., but, unlike these latter, they possess a pair of short respiratory tubes. The muscular impressions, two in each valve, are connected, as in the forms of the last group, by an uninterrupted shallow groove or " pal- lial impression," — i.e., a continuous line without any bend or sinus in it. The existing fresh-water genus C//clas, species of which occur in our Post-Tertiary deposits, and especially in those of "Western Canada, may be cited na an example of the present group. (See Part V.) Finally, the moUusJoi of the fourth group, SiawPalUalia, possess a pair of long siphonal-tubos, capable of extension beyond the shell ; and their two muscuhir impressions are united by a more or less deeply sinuated pallial line. Many of these lamellibraneha burrow Fig. lis. Fig. 114. in the aniul of the shores on which they live, between the tide marks, with their respiratory tubes extending to the surface ; and fossil exajnpU'H occupying this upright position, and hus shewing tho animiils to liavc been fossilized in their original burrows, are met with in certain str!it:u As examples of the gmup, wo mtiy refer to il/yo trunni/tt, lig. 114, and to Sujicava riiffon', lig. 115, both of which aro of exceedingly common occurrence in thu Post-Tertiary deposits of Eastern Cinuuhi. 'pV.y x X ■ ,' ■ ti'i -■<■ fJ 122 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE ! I Fteropoda : — The living pteropods are swimming or floating mol- lusks, frequenting the open sea. Some few are naked, but tho greater number secrete a delicat*? external shell (univalve), and all possess a pair of fins or wing-like appendages for natatory purposes. In the pteropods with shells, the head is more or less indistinct. The Chnularia is the only form of Canadian occurence, referrible, and that doubtfully, to this class. Fig. 116 represents 0. Trentonensis of the Trenton Group. The shell in this genus is more or less conical and four-angled, furrowed longitudinally, and marked transversely by numerous straight or zig-zag lines. These latter often resemble rows of minute punctures. The genus extends from tho Lower Silurian division into the Lias formation of the Mesozoic rocks. Fig. lie. Hetebofoda. — The representatives of this class are regarded by many naturalists as forming simply an Order {Nucleohranchiatd) of the class GASTEROFODik. They constitute however a truly aberrant group, having affinities with the Pteropods on the one hand, and with both Gasteropods and Cephalopods on the other. Existing forms, like the pteropods, are of pelagic habit, swimming, by means of a fin-like appendage, in the open seas. The swimming organ is a modification of the gasteropod foot : see below. Some are without a shell, whilst others secrete one of a fragile and delicate texture* Fig. 118. PlR- "7. sometimes provided, as in many gastero- pods, with a lid or "operculum," by which tho opening of tho slull is closed when tho nnimol withdraws itHolf with- in it. Tho fossil gtMiera Maclurea, Uellrrophon, nnd CyrtolUrs, from certain characters which their shells appear to PiR. lis. •t*'::'! MINERALS ANP GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 128 possess in common with those of the modern genus Atalanta, are usually referred to this class; but much uncertainty still prevails with regard to the true affinities of these fossil types. The compara- tive solidity of the shell is opposed to their alliance with the Atalan- tid■■;■ ^ \^^ -(;'■■■ ..1 dm ,1 126 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THB branchiate cephalopoda, on the other hand, are almost extinct. The Nautilus is the only remaining type ; and of this, no more than two- or three living species are known ; whilst from rocks of various ages, upwards of 150 fossil species have been collected. The shell in the tetrabranchiate group is divided into a number of compartments or chambers, by concave, sinuous, angulated, or highly- lobed partitions, called " septa " — the animal inhabiting the outer chamber — and it is traversed, throughout its entire length, by a tube or '* siphuncle " of variable form and position. In the Nautilus, according to Professor Owen, this siphuncle opens into the cavity which contains the heart ; and its use, although still doubtful, is thought to be to keep up the vitality of the shell in parts distant from the creature's body. It passes through the various chambers without affording any communication between these, so that the old idea respecting the use of the tube, and according to which th& animal was thought by its means to be able to fill the chamber with water, or to eject this, in order to sink or rise at will, is now altogether exploded. Under ordinary conditions the nautilus appears to creep on the scabbed, head downwards, at moderate depths, and to feed on holothurise, star-fishes, Crustacea, &c. The accom- panying diagrams, fig. 126, exhibit the marginal outline of the more general kinds of septa presented by the shells of this group. A simple septum of the or- thoceratites and nautilus is represented by a; an angulated septum of the goniatites by h / a lobed and denticulated septum of the cera- titea by c; and a foliated septum of the ammonites, baculites, hamites, &c., by d. In accordance chiefly with these characters, the Tetrabranchiata, or chambered cephalo- FiK-186. pods, may be classed as follows : Family I., Nautilid^. — Septa with entire or slightly sinuous mar- gins. Siphuncle, variable. Sub-Family 1, Oomphoceratida.-^k^QtiwcQ of shell partly closed, or much contracted. 8ul' Family 2, Orthoceratidee, Of JHfautilidiS ^jrcyar .—Aper* ture more or less open. 3t,f-' MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA^ 127 Wamily II., AMMONiTiDiE. — Septa prominently lobed. Siphuncle "external," or along the apparent back of the shell. Suh'Famihf 1, Ooniatidce. — Septa angulated, i. e., with angular lobes. Suh-Fdmily 2, Ceratidee. — Septa lobed and denticulated.. Suh'Family 3, Ammonitidce proper. — Septa foliated. The Ceratidae and Aramonitida9 proper are entirely restricted toi- rocks of Mesozoic age, and are consequently unknown among Gana* dian fossils. (See the Table of Formations given at page 93 of this work, and also those of Canadian occurrence on the succeeding page). The sub-families of the Gomphoceratidae, Orthoceratids^, and Goniatidse present Canadian examples; but those belonging to the first and last of these sub-families, are few in number and of comparatively rare occurrence ; and even the Orthoceratid®, though rich in examples, are confined, with us, to a small number oi genera. It is not necessary, therefore, in describing these forms, to adhere to any close system of classification, more especially as th& fragmentary or otherwise imperfect condition in which the fossil cephalopoda of the lower rocks so generally occur, forbids in many instances the strict application of definite structural characters. This understood, our Canadian genera may be conveniently described in the following order: Orthoceras (including Qonioceras, &c., as explained below), Cyrtoceraa, Phragmoceras (belonging to the first sub-family, but placed here, for convenience, as allied by form to cyrtoceras), LituUes, Nautilus, and Ooniatitea. Other genera, enu- merated by palaeontologists, and occurring with us, are distributed under one or more of these types.* Orthocerds. — In this genus the shell is straight and conical, taper- ing tfiore or less gradually from the body chamber to its other * Mtthj of the Koncra hitherto established for the Tetrabranchiate Cophalopodd c:in only be regarded as provisional. Cimractera until recently considered of Rencrie value (and on which distinct Kcnera have been founded by Pictet, D'Orbigny, Hall, and other paloeontolo* gists of iutliorit,v), arc now shewn to bo more or loss inconstant, and consequently of un- certain application. The siphuncle in its form a)id position, as roKards at least the types with simple septa, appears niuru especially to be acharncter of this kind; but it may be questioned whether tho mere shape of the shell, althouKh a readily observable character in most instances, and hi'nco a convenient one, is actually of any greater value. It would lecm, for pxainple, that relations quite as close must have obtained between an orthocenu With oiUinary siphinu'Ie and a sli«litly curved cyrtoceras— ns between tho former and an ortluK'eras (or endoceras) with a laterally-situated siphuncle of large sisu and more or !«•• aberrant structure. ■i ■■*;':■'<. '.^•Q * t'f' § W H m ■m V.U 128 A rOPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE extremity. The septa are simply concave, or slightly sinuous, and at comparatively short distances apart. If we imagine the shell of a nautilus unrolled and straightened out, we have the typical ortho- ceras shell. The siphuncle ia variable, both in shape and position. Three convenient, if not strictly natural, sub-genera, Orthoceraa proper, Onnoceras, and Endoceras, may be founded on its characters. The genus ranges from the Lower Silurian into the Triassic forma< tion. In many of its examples, the shell, if perfect, would shew a length of several feet. The first sub-genus, Orthoceraa proper, has a siphuncle in the form of a narrow tube, central or sub-central in position. 0. lame/losutn (fig. 127) and 0. bilineatum (fig. 128), both from Lower Silurian Strata, are Canadian examples of common occurrence. The second sub-genus, Ortnoce- ras, comprises the various ortho- ceratites (as the species of the genus Orthoceras are collectively termed) with moniliform or •' bead- ed" siphuncle, as shewn in Or- moceraa tenuifilvm (fig. 129) from the Trenton limestone and lower beds. This sub-genus includes the Huronia and Actinoceras of au- thors, and also the peculiar flat- tened species named Gonioceras anceps by Hall. This latter form is an Orthoceras with beaded siphuncle and slightly sinuous septa, and with a shell so compressed as to offer almost trenchant edges. Fig. 130 represents a fragmen- tary specimen. The species is very common in the Chazy and Black river limestones at the lower part of the Trenton group. In weathered specimens, both of this and other species of Ormo- ceras, the outer portion of the *"'«• '30. A worn fraittnont shell is often obliterated, when the beaded siphuncle aiid septa. with its attached septa, has a certaui resemblance to the vertebral column of a fish. Weathered specimens of this kind are Fig. 127. Fig. 128. Fig. 129. MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANAOA. 129 usuftUy described by quarrymen and farmers as fish remains ; but no vestiges of a true fisb, or other vetebrated type, have as yet been dis- covered in our Silurian strata. In the third sub-genus, for which, without regard to the supposi- tion originally involved in the term. Prof. Hall's name of Endoceraa may be retained, we may place the orthoceratites with very large and laterally-situated or more or less marginal siphuncle. Endoceraa proteiforme, of Hall, (fig. 131), is a familiar Cana- dian example. The si- phuncle, in this species, often contains a long cone of calcareous matter, made up of successive layers. This secretion probably served to counterbalance the increasing buoyancy of the shell, as the air-cham- bers during the growth of the latter became more and more numerous. The shells of smaller orthocer- atites are also sometimes found, with other acciden- tal bodies, in the interior of these large siphuncles. Examples of Endocerat proteiforme, five or six in- ches in diameter, and in fragments of over eighteen inches or two feet in length, have been obtained from the Trenton limestone of Nottawasaga township, near CoUingwood, C- W. ; also from Belle- ville ; and from the Hudson River beds of the River Humber, near Toronto, as well as from other parts of the Province. One of the largest specimens, yet collected, was obtained by the writer from the shores of Georgian Bay, (Lake Huron,) and is now in the Museum of the Toronto University. NoTK : — Wo have retained for the orthoceratites described above, the specifio names by which thej are familiarly known in Canada, after the determinations ofProf. Hall in his " Palaeontology of New York." But OrihocerM huMllonm Fig. 131. ■x;r-?i. ^"if»1 '^,1^^ 130 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE is probably 'dentical with the European species, O. regulare ; whilst O. tentn^ Jlium may perhaps be referred to O. cochleatum (Schlotheim) ; O. bilinecUum to O. calamiteum (Munster) ; and Endoceras proteiforme to Schlotheim's O, vagt- natum. Gonioceras anceps, on the other hand, is quite distinct from the Oriho- eeras anceps of De Koniuck, and also from the earlier and doubtful O. anceps of Count Munster. An extended discussion of synonymes, or minute comparison of specific details, would be quite out of place, however, in an Essay of the present character. Cyrtoceras: — This genus includes the curved orthoeeratites with normal shell-aperture. The septa are simply concave, or slightly Binuated, and the siphuncle variable. Its forms, as at present known, may be arranged under two sub-genera, representing the first and third amongst the straight or true orthoeeratites. The genus ranges from the Lower Silurian into the Carboniferous foi'mation. The first sub-genus, Cyrtoceras proper, has a gradually tapering and more or less slightly curved shell, with small siphuncle : the latter occupying a central or sub-central position, or lying along the larger curve of the shell. Fig. 132 is a sketch of C, annulatum from the lower part of the Trenton group. In the second sub-genus, characterised by a large siphuncle as in the endoceratites, we may place the Piloceras of Salter. This form pre- sents short, thick, and slightly curved shells with large siphuncle. The latter often contains a cone of calcareous matter, as in Endoceraa proteiforme. The type, as yet, is comparatively rare, but a species has been discovered in the Calciferous Sand Rock of the Mingan Islauds, by Sir William Logan and Mr. Richardson. This is de- icribed by Mr. Billings in the Canadian Naturalist, Vol. Y., p. 171* In making Piloceras, however, merely a sub-genus of Cyrtoceras, as explained above, we follow our own views. Pkragmoceras : — This genus, in form, is closely allied to Cyrto- ctras, and is also confined to Palaeozoic rocks. The shell is curved, and the septa simple or slightly sinuated ; but the aperture of the shell is more or less strongly contracted. The siphuncle is variable, although in most species hitherto referred to Fhragmoceras, it lies along the shorter curve of the shell. In the Bohemian l\ perversiim of Barrande, and in the P. prcematurum of Billings, it occupies, nevertheless, the convex side. Fig. 133 represents a fragment of the Fig. 139. nm MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OP CANADA. 131 latter species (after Billings), from the Black River Limestone of La Cloche Island, Lake Huron. FiK. 133. a- Beprcscnta the aperture. Pig. 134. To this genus. Hall's Oncoceras comtrictum (fig. 134) should also t»e referred. This species is exceedingly common in the lower part of the Trenton group ; but when in imperfectly preserved specimens, it cannot be distinguished from a cyrtoceras. The siphuncle is near the outside or larger curve of the shell. Lituites: — The shell in this genus, is involute or "rolled up" (like that of the nautilus) for a certain distance, and is then pro« jected in a straight line. The septa are simply concave, and the Biphuncle of small size and mostly central. Species have not been found as yet above the Silurian rocks. In fragmentary specimens, however, it is often impossible to deter- mine the genua — the straight part of the ehell resembling that of an orthoeeras with narrow siphuncle, and the involute portion being identical with the shell of a nautilus. Fig. 185 represents the lAtuitea undatus of Hall. Examples having a general resemblance to this, but (as first pointed out by the writer) with external siphuncle, occur in our Lower Silurian beds, at Lorette near Quebec, and elsewhere. Nautilus. — This genus is one of peculiar paleeontological interest, as the only living type of the great group of tetrabranchiate cephalo- pods, or those inhabiting a many-chambered shell. It passes (although with diminished, and, of course, with changing species) from the Silu* rian epoch into the existing age — its fossil representatives traversing Fig. 135. 1 ., ' 'm ■'iiii \i. '■m m ■ *■" 132 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OP THE the rocks of all intervening periods. The shell is involute, the septa simple, and the siphuncle mostly central in position. Our Canadian examples are scarce, and have not yet been thoroughly determined. Goniatites. — This genus first appears in Devonian strata, and be- comes extinct in the Triassic deposits. It belongs, as already stated in our introductory remarks, to the family of the Ammonitidae, and is essentially characterized by its angulated septa (see fig. 126, above). The shell is involute in form, like that of the nautilus, and the siphuncle external and of small size. Several species occur in the Devonian rocks of Western Canada, but the relations of these have not jet been fully worked out. As already explained on a preceding page, the second or Dibranchiate Order of Cephalopods — comprising the Argonaut, the Octopus or " Poulpe " of the French, the Loligo, (more familiarly known as the Calamary or Squid), the Sepia or Cuttle-Fish, the extinct Belemnite, and other kindred genera — are without representatives in rocks of Canadian occurrence. Articulated Animals. — The forms of the sub-kingdon Articulata (see above, p. 98), are arranged in the following classes : — Annelida, CiRRHOPOOA, Crustacea, Arachnida, M yriapoda, and Insecta ; but of these, the annelids, cirrhopods, and crustaceans are alone repr&> sented by fossil examples in Canadian rocks. Annelida. — The annelids comprise various worm-like forms, and are usually grouped in three Orders : — Abran?hiata, Borsibranchiata, and Cephalobranchiata. The abranchiate annelids are without any visible or external branchiee. They include the common earth-worms and other forms unrepresented in the fossil state. The dorsibranchiate annelids are marine worms with tufts of branchise in the form of delicate filaments at regular distances along the sides of the body. They offer a few fossil species, but have not been recognized in Canadian rocks. Finally, the cephalobranchiate annelids, also marine types, possess thread-like branchiae around the mouth or head. Some of these forms secrete a calcareous tube or shell for the protection of the worm-like body. These constitute the genera Serpula and Spir- ■orbis : the former having an irregular wavy tube, whilst in the latter the tube is spirally rolled up. These tubes are mostly attached to the backs of shells or other sub-marine bodies. A fine species of Berpula, D. splendent, seven or eight inches in length, and a quarter MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 13a of an inch across the opening, has been described by Mr. Billings from the Chazy limestone of the Lower Silurian Series {Canadian Nat., vol. iv., page 470). Other genera of cephalobranchiate anne- lids form a protecting tube or sheath of fragments of shells or grains of sand {Terrebella, Sahella) ; but our rocks have not yet offered any examples of these. CiRRHOPODA. — The cirrhopods form a small group of marine ani- mals, sedentary in their adult condition, and more resembling mol- lusks at first sight than members of the articulated series. They secrete an external many-valved shell, and possess a number of delicate plume-like cirrhi, or so-called "arms," capable of protrusion beyond the shell, and of thus creating currents in the water, by which food is brought within the creature's reach. There are two more or less distinct types : pedunculated and sessile cirrhopods. In the former, to which the well-known barnacles belong, the animal is attached, head downwards, to ships' bottoms, pieces of floating timber, &c., by a kind of semi-corneous stem ; whilst in the latter, typified by the balanus or " sea acorn," the shell is fixed directly by its base to rocks and other sub-marine bodies, or to such as lie between the tide-marks.* Fig. 136 represents a group of several balani, to shew the general form of the shell. Fragments of one or two species occur in our Post-Tertiary or compara- tively modern deposits, at Beauport and else- where in Eastern Canada (see Part V.) ; but no cirrhopods are met with in our lower rocks. The balanidee, indeed, appear to date only from the * ^^ Tertiary age, although the anatifidcR or pedunculated forms exhibit representatives as low down as the Jurassic series, and perhaps in still older deposits. Crustacea. — This important class, abundant at the present time in genera and species, is sub-divided into a considerable number of Orders ; but, of these, two only, embracing the Cyproids and the Trilobites, present examples of common occurrence in Canadian rocks. The higher and more typical forms of the crustaceans — the Deca- pods — comprising the various lobsters, crabs, and other allied species — offer no representatives below the Carboniferous formations. * The bnlaiii, though usually fixed tostationary bodies), are sometimes, liko their cousins the barnacles, fated to a more or less migratory life. We carried off surreptitiously from a publio dinner table, a short tirao ago, iho beak or projecting part of the head-covering of a large lobster, to the extreinily of which a full grown balanus was attached. The specimen may be seen, b|y the curious in such matters, in the Museum of the Toronto Univeniity» ' ■■■? 'i£ i"m /'•■ t' •ii! !:;*■ » IM A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THK It * •'. ^t' a.' Fift. 137. Maguiflod Specimen. Cyproids, or Bivalve Entomostracam. — ^The crustaceans of this order are more or less minute forms, partly inhabitants of the sea, or of brine solutions, and partly of fresh water. The existing marine types belong mostly to the genus Cythera or Cytherina : the others to the genus Cypris. In each, the form is closely alike ; and in fossil species the one is scarcely to be distinguished from the other, except by its associated fossils. In living fo-ms, the minute animal is seen to possess a delicate bivalve shell, with curious tufted feet and antennee, which it projects beyond the shell when swimming. These little crustaceans occur in rocks of all ages, and much resemble, in the fossil state, small scattered grains or seeds (fig. 137). The shell is frequently brown and lustrous, and usually oval or semi-circular in shape. Canadian genera (Organic Remains Decade IV.,) have been referred to Beyrichia, Leperdita, Sec, but their characters are quite microscopic and more or less indistinct. Trilobites. — This order is entirely extinct. Its representative?— evidently marine types — are confined to the lower and middle portion of the Paleeozoic series ; or range, in other words, from the earliest fossiliferous rocks, into the base of the great Carboniferous formation. Above the deposits of the latter geological horizon, not a trace of a trilobite has been discovered. The nearest existing type to this extinct group, appears to be the Limulus, or " King-crab " —a form which must be familiar to all who have visited the New England coast. The shelly covering of the back, with a portion of that which pro- tected the under side of the head, are the only parts of these crustaceans which have been pre- served to us. The back (see fig. 138) consists of three principal parts : the Buckler or Head- shield, II; the Body or Thorax, T; and the Pygidium or Caudal-shield, P. The shell, moreover, in most instances, is strongly tri-lobed by two longitudinal furrows, as shewn in the figure. From this character the order derives its name. In the centre of the hcad-shield there is usu- ally a distinctly raised portion (=Gin fig. 138) Fif.ias. '^li y ^':'if\ MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 135 called the glabella. It is bounded laterally bythe two longitudinal furrows mentioned above ; and is either smooth, or variously lobed, furrowed, or granulated. In some genera it expands anteriorly, or towards the upper part ; and in others it becomes contracted in this direction. The head-shield in most genera exhibits also on each side of the glabella a sutural line — called, technicnlly, the facial suture- as shewn at //in Fig. 138. The direction of the facial suture differs somewhat in different genera, as explained in our descriptions of these, below. In some few (as in Trinucleus) agnin, it is either absent, or con- cealed by being situated along the edge of the shield. The eyes (c e) when present, occur on each side of the head-shield, in the line of the facial suture, as shewn in the figure. They are compound, as in ex- isting crustaceans, insects, &c. ; and the component facets in certain genera (Daltnannites, Phacops) are thrown up in strong relief, form- ing the so-called reticulated eye. In other trilobites the reticulation is less distinct.* The sides of the head-shield or " cheeks," (c' c'), often separate along the facial suture, and are found detached. The shell is continued over the head-shield ; and under the glabella, where the mouth was situated, a so-called hypostoma or labrum is occasionally found. This, which is also and more commonly met with in a de- tached state, is generally of an oval form ; but in the genus Asaphut (see below) it is hollowed out into a fork, or is somewhat of a horse- shoe shape. The hinder or lower extremities of the head-shield are rounded in some species, whilst in others they terminate in long or short horns. The body or thorax of the trilobitc is composed of a series of sepa- rate rings or segments, varying in number in different genera. Each fiegmcnt is sub-divided into three parts by the two longitudinal fur- rows already alluded to. The middle part, or that between the furrows, is generally known as the axis, whilst the outside portions arc called sides or pleur(e. These latter have their ends rounded in some species, and pointed, or even prolonged into spines, in others. In some, also, there is a raised band on each pleura, and, in others, a groove or furrow. Detached segments, or the three-curved impres- Bioiis of these, shewinp; their trilobed character, arc frequently seen in our Utica Slate and other fossililcrous rocks. The greater or lesi degree of mobility with which the thoracic segments were endowed, * III the Kt*iiut Ilarpei, accnniliiK to narrando, thu cyo in pitoudu-coiiipound, onntiiitinK of ■tmplo utonmtn in tncri-ly apprniimate union. Roo an articio by tli« writer, on the olasaifl* oatioa-cliaractflra, Ac. of the Trilubitcjt, in the Canadian Journal, Vol. I , pp. 871-286. '"''W M ^^■'.WA ;-■ ■'•>' , •- ■ y%n ' \\ m f I .'. 18G A POPULAR EXPOSITION OP THE permitted the trilobites to bring the under parts of the caudal and head-shields together, both for the protection of the soft or unde- fended parts of the body, and also, in all probability, to enable the creature to sink with greater rapidity into deeper water during moments of danger or alarm. Specimens in this "rolled up" con- dition are of very common occurrence (see fig. 143 a, and 144). The shell covering of the pygidium or "tail" (P in fig. 138), consists of a single or entire piece : or rather, perhaps, of various consolidated segments. It is very generally met with detached from the other portions of the body. Its outline is either rounded, pointed, or digitated ; and it sometimes terminates in a long spine, or exhibits several spinous processes. In some genera it is very small, whilst in others it equals the hend-shield in size. The more important genera and species of Trilobites, occurring in Canadian rocks, are enumerated below : Trinucleus. — Head-shield surrounded by a perforated border ; gla- bella, globose and strongly pronounced ; eyes, wanting. Six body -rings. Caudal-sbield of moderate size. T. concentricus (fig. 139), of the Trenton and Hudson River Groups, is our only species; but examples of this (in a more or less fragmentary stntc) are common. When perfect, the corners of the liead-shicld teriiii- nate in horns, and a spine projects backwards from the base of tiie glabella. Average length between one and two inches. P'*?- '"^o- Asaphus. — Head, thorax, and pygidium, of about equal size. Glabella smooth or slightly furrowed, and not much raised. Eyes tolerably near together. Hypostoma forked. Body-rings, eight in number. Our two most common species comprise A. p1atijcephalu», formerly called hoteles giyas (fig. 140), with rounded head angles and nearly smooth pygidium, chiefly from the Trenton Group ; and A. Canadensis (Fig. 141), with licnd-angles terminating in points, and with furrowed pygidium, from the Utica Slate deposits. Frag- ments of this latter form, and sometimes entire specimens, orrur in great abundance at Collingwood and at Whitliy (see Canadian Journal* Vol. III., p. 230). The forked hypostoma is shewn at a in tiie above figures. Another species, A. megistoa, with smooth pygidium and MffMB^AXiS ^NO QE0L06Y OP CANADA. 167 liorned head-shield, is also common in the Trenton Limestone of Cobourg, C.W. The genus asaphus, hoth. on this Continent and in FiR.140. Fig. 141. Europe, dc .. i pass out of the Lower Silurian series. Examples vary in Ici.o-* »rom less than an inch to over eighteen or twenty inches. Ot/i/ffia:— Tins genus resembles Asaphus in its general aspect, number of body-rings, &c., but possesses an oval in place of a forked hypostoma. It is often impossible to decide, consequently, as to which genus fragmentary examples should be referred. Under Otf^gia, the Dikelocephalua of Dale Owen, and the Bathyunu of Billings, should probably be placed. Several species of these, although in a more or less imperfect condition, have been found in the Quebec group (see Part V.) of Point Levi, and also, as regards Bathyurua, in the corresponding Calciferous Sand Rock of tbe Mingan Islands, as well as in the Chazy Limestone of Grenville, &c. Tbe body-rings in the lat* ter type are perhaps nins in number, but few specimens, in which they arc complete, have as yet been met with. Fig. 142 represents a frag- mentary example of It, Angelinit nfter a Hgure by Mr. Billings, from the CImzy limestone. A portion of the head-shield of B. Sa//hrdi, copied also from Billings, is shewn at a. In Dikelocephalua, the py- gidium has often a deeply serrated or ipinoee margin ; bat It maj be •6 Fig. 141. ■ ■■m )?1 «l 138 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE questioned whether all the separated caudal-shields referred to that type, really belong to it.* The species are restricted, as far as present observation goes, to the lowest fossiliferous zone. Illanus : — In this well-characterized genus, the shell-covering is more or less smooth and comparatively free from furrows. Head, thorax, and pygidium are in most specimens nearly equal in size. Glabella broad, but feebly raised [or otherwise defined. Eyes far apart. Body-rings generally ten (rarely eight or nine) in number. Py5;idium almost or quite smooth, with even, rounded outline. The genus belongs to both the Lower and Middle Silurian deposits, but is chiefly found in the middle and higher parts of the lower scries. Fig. 143 represents one of our most common species, from the Trenton and Hudson River group?. It is usually referred to Illcenua crasaicauda. ample is shewn at a. Phacopa: — Glabella largely developed, expanded anteriorly, and often granulated but not lobed. Facial-suture cutting the sides of the head-shield. £yea strongly reticulated. Head-angles and pleurro with rounded ends. Body-rings eleven in num- ber. Pygidium with rounded or entire outline. Range of genus. Lower Silurian to Devonian. Phacops bufo (6g. 144) from the Devonian beds of Western Canada, is one of our most characteristic and and best known species. Dalmnnnitcs .'--Like Pharops, but witli lobod glabella, head-angles extended into horns, and pointed or spinose plouroc. Pygidium also with more or less sjjinose margin, or otlirrwisc terminating in a point or spine. Fig. Wit rci)Ycscnts Daliiiainiifes limuluntft (rom the Niagara group. The caudal spine, in mnny specimcnn, is broken off. Pig. 143. A "rolled-up" ex- Fip. 1 It. •Tho rniifhI.Rlilr.ld referred to mkelirephalut mar.nipvun (ran. Nat,, Vol. V., p. 307) ap- ptora to liavc equal If not KrvAtcr claiiuii to bo placod uiidor CarauruM, ex- MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA, 139 The reader will find descriptions of various fragmenfary species in papers by Mr. Billings in the fourth and fifth volumes of the Canadian Naturalist. He is referred also to that publi- cation for figures of less known or uncertain «pecies of Ilicenus and other forms of this order. ; Ceraurus. — This genus is the Cheirurua of European authors. It is more or less closely allied to Dalmannites, but the eyes exhibit only a delicate reticulation, and the pleurce have a raised band on the surface, in place of a groove as in the latter type. The glabella is large, and furrowed at the sides. The facial suture cuts the side of the head-shield. The angles of the head terminate in points or horns. The pleuroj are also pointed ; and the caudal shield has a spinose or serrated outline, or otherwise terminates in one or several horns. Body-rings eleven in number. The genus ranges from Lower Silurian into Devonian beds. A common species from the Trenton Group, Ceraurus pleurex- anthemus, is shewn in fig. 14G. Impressions of the glabella, and of the two-horned pygidium, are especially abundant. Fig. 145. --■■■■.♦■'tis 7 ■•■:,>l.}. i "3 FiK.lW. FiR. U7. Calymcnc. — The glabella of this genus is prominently developed, lobcd, and contracted anteriorly. The head-ant^les arc roundetl, and the facial suture cuts those. The boily-rings me thirteen in num- ber : pleunc rounded. Pyp;i(lium with entire outline. Our most coniuiou s|)ecies is the widely distributed C Blumeubachii (fis;. 147). This species ranges from the Trenton Group into the Devonian deposits. It is very frequently found in a "rolled up " condition. M ] ' 140 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OP T»B Vlg. 148. Homalonotus. — This genus has the same num' ber of hody-rings as Calymene, and the general shape, direction of the facial suture, &c., is also the same. The glabella, however, although con- tracted anteriorly, is without lobes, and the two longitudinally furrows, which impart a three- lobed character to the trilobites generally, are here but feebly developed. A common species of the Niagara Group, //. delphinocephalus is represented in Fig. 148. Triarthrus. — This genus is also somewhat allied to Calymeiie, but the body-rings are fourteen, or from fourteen to sixteen, in number^ and the head-shield and pleurae, in some species, terminate in points. The glabella is nearly straight at the sides, not much raised, and marked on each aide by three short furrows. !P. Beckii, (fit;. 149) of our Utica Schist formation, is the best known species. Impressions of the glabella of this form occur abundantly in the shale beds near Collingwood, and also in the neighbourhood of Whitby, C. W. In T. Beckit, each segment of the thorax bears in the centre a short spine. In another species, made known by Mr. Billings under the name of T. spinosuSf a long spine descends from the neck furrow of the glabella, and another from the eighth body-segment. A third species, T. glaber (Billings), is destitute of spinvs. The two latter forms occur in the Utica Slate of Lake St. John, north of Quebec. Conocephalites. — In this genus, the gabella, though convex, is very short, and the body- rings are fourteen or fifteen in number. Its species are characteristic of the lowest fossiliferous deposits, and are mostly of very small size. The head-shield of C. Zenkeri, after Billings, is figured in wood-cut 150 {Can. Nat., vol. v., p. 205). It occurs in the Quebec Group of Point Levi. Paradoxidet. — Head-shield terminating posteriorly in horns ; gta> bella well developed; body-rings over fifteen in number; pleuroa Fig. 140. Fig. ISO. ■Tm MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 141 pointed, the second or third pair often longer than the others; caudal-shield, very small. This genus is also characteristic of the lowest zones of fossiliferous strata. Some more or less ohscure Bpecics, first found in Vermont, have lately been discovered in the Quebec Group of Anse au Loup, on the north shore of the Straits of Belle Isle. Vertebrated Animals. — Remains of vertebrated forms are of rare occurrence iu Canadian rocks. O Silurian strata are entirely desti« tute of any signs of these itiaui. nd traces only hav* ?>;. ,et been discovered iu our Devonian beds. These consist of fish scales and impressions (North Cayuga; St. Marys; Maiden; Kettle Point; Bear Creek). In the higher Drift accumulations, the bones and teeth •of the Mastodon and Mammoth, the latter an extinct species of elephant {Elephas priinigenius), are occasionally found ; and in these and more recent deposits, the remains of existing forms, such as those of the capelin (Malloius villosus), the lump-sucker {Cijclostomus lumpus), the northern seal (Phoca Grcenlandica), the Canadian beaver, Wapiti, &c., have also been discovered. No marine forms, however, have been found in these deposits west of Kingston, as explained more fully, in our rcmirks on the Drift and succeeding period, in tl^e i^ext division of our subject. ■.■•r/'i'"'' PART V. Q/tShJilLS BOCE-FORMATIOKS : THEIR SUBDITTST059, FOSSILS, ECOffiO* ItIC MATERIALS, ANU TOFOQBAVUICAL DISTBIBUTIOIT. Infroductortj Notice. — The lowest rocks of tho geological series, hitherto recognised, consist of a vast thickness of crystalline and Bemi-crystalline strata, or beds in a more or less altered or meta- raorphic condition, entirely destitute of organic remains, and honco classed together under the common term of Azoic Rocks. They are regarded as sedimentary deposits, collected in the earlier seaa tv'hich extended over tho greater portion of the earth during that period of its history which preceded the creation of organic typea la Canada, as will bo seen below, these Azoic rocks are euormousl/ developed. Above tho deposits of tho Azoic Age, various sandstones, lime* atones, slates and other strata, iu which organic reraaius first appeoTa Kit ' 'if 1' • 1 J I' ' g| ;1 m 142 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THB ate recognized as forming the second geological series, and are known collectively as Palaozoic Rocks. The term " Palaeozoic," signifying "ancient life," is bestowed on these strata in allusion to the marked difference which prevails between their organic types, viewed as a whole, and those belonging to existing Nature. Among the more remarkable exviiict forms of the Falecozoio Age, Graptolites,. Cystideans, numerous Brachiopods, Orthoceratites, Trilobites, and some peculiar fishes, hold a prominent place. Eeptilian types are rare, and of comparatively low organization ; and Mammalia appear to have been entirely absent. In Canada, the lower members of the Falasozoic strata are largely developed, but the higher divisions of the series are of only partial occurrence, or are altogether wanting. The strata of a succeeding series, still ascending in the geological scale, are known as Mesozoic or Secondary Fossiliferous Rocks. Their organic remains are quite distinct from those which occur in the underlying formations. Ammonites aud Belemnites, wiih highly organized reptilian types, including the Ichthyosaurus, Plesiosaurus, Pterodactyl, Iguanodon, are fully represented — examples of all existing orders, with the ex- ception of that in which Man is alone included, being met with ia these deposits. In Canada, however, the Cainozoic formations do not occur. . Finally, a still higher series of deposits, partly merging into thtt Cainozoic, where these occur, and in part consisting of the products of existing causes, may bo classed together under the term of Po£t- MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OT CANADA. 14^^ Tertiary deposits. These, which include the great Drift formation^, and sundry accumulations of more recent origiu, are largely deveK ped. in Canada. ■ .. ; {, ...;,.,•';,■.■;>: ■■ri^y iin^ BKETCH-SECTION OF CAUADTAN EOCK-rOBMATIONS. D " " : f^. 161. ..,, - w}=Azoic Strata (Laurentian and Huronian.) B=Palseozoic Strata (Chiefly Silurian and Devonian.) C^ Post-Tertiary deposits (Drift and Modern accumulations.) D=Eruptive roclts (Traps, Trachytes, Syenite, Granite.) Our rock-formations, therefore, as shown in the accompanying dia- gram, comprise representatives of the Azoic, Palaeozoic, and Post- Tertiary series, a wide break occurring between the two latter, — to- gether with trap dykes and other masses of eruptive origin. The subdivisions and leading characters of these will now be considered. We commence with the older formations, and proceed upwards to those of modern date.* AZOIO BOCKS OF CA:srADA. Huronian. Laurentian. The Canadian rock- formations of Azoic age, are referred to two series : the Laurentian, below ; and the Huronian above. This sub- division, not yet fully recognized by American geologists, was first proposed by Sir William Logan ; and the terms " Laurentian " and '* Huronian " are of his bestowal. The former is now adopted in Europe for gneissoid strata of the same ancient date. The Lauren- * in the present place, these rcok*formations will bo considered separately, and in a moro or loss detailed manner as regards structural characters, economic i, charactoristio fossils (when exhibited), localities of instructive exposures, and other allic' >oints of inquiry; and afterwards, in a connected skcteh, their mutual nlations will bo sl.^wn, together with the special geological areas which occur within the Province. The general reader will scarcely Caln a clear idea of the Gcolo^ty of Canada, uutil after the perusal of this Utter section. The present details are necessary, however, as an introdnctlon to this. '"! ' 4j( 5 1 !-;• hA lii A ^Pt7LAR feJCPOSltrON OF THB i J r.^'ur tkn scries, which fonns the lower and more largely developed portion of the Azoic group, is chiefly characterised by its highly crystalline condition, and (as regards Canada) by the great beds of iron ore which it contains. The Huronian series includes many conglomerates and partially-metamorphosed slates amongst its strata, and is traversed by numerous quartz veins holding copper pyrites and other copper ores. Iron ore is also associated with this series, but not abundantly in Canada. The semi-crystalline conditina of its rocks (as compared with the highly crystalline gneissoid strata of tho Laurentian series) and the marked prevalence of slaty conglomerates, constitute its moro distinctive characters. Laurentian Series.— ThQ&o strata, the oldest series of deposits re- cognised on tho American continent, are regarded as sedimentary accumulations, originally collected together by the action of water, and converted subsequently into a crystalline condition by the agency of metamorphic forces. (See under the head of *' Metamorphic Bocks '* in Part III). Their absolute thickness cannot be ascer- tained) but it must be very gi-eat, embracing many thousands of feet ; and their exposed area in Canada, as estimated by Sir William Logan, covers a surface of about 200,000 square miles. It will be convenient to consider these Laurentian rocks under tho following heads :— (1) Mineral characters; (2) Structure; (3) Associated intrusive rocks ; (4) Economic materials ; and (5) Topographical distribution. Mineral characters of the Laurentian strata ; — The stratified rocks of Laurentian age consist essentially of vast beds of micaceous and horn- blendic gneiss ; intcrstratified with subordinate beds of quartz-rock* mica-slate, hornblende-rock, crystalline limestone and dolomite, and oxidized iron ores ; and associated with thick beds of feldspar rock or anorthosite. In addition to these, a few quartzose conglomerates (shewing the metamorphic character of these deposits), thin layers of serpentine, beds and layers of a talcose character (Reuselaerite.or pyral- lolite : see Part II.), and others composed in large part of Wollasto- nite, are intcrstratified with the limestones, or with Uk; gneissoid bedSj of particular localities. These different kinds of mjtamorphic rocks have been described already in Part III. ; but a few additional re- marks on some of their more special characters are necessary here. Viewing our Canadian formations, of this nge, in their broader features, wc may subdivide them conveuif utly, and to some extent naturally^ MINERALS AVD GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 145 into three groups, viz : — (a) Gneissoid strata ; (b) Limestones, Quartz- ites, and Iron bands ; and (c), Anorthosites or feldspar rocks. " (a) Gneissoid Strata : — These make up the larger mass of our Lau- rentian rocks. Ordinary gneiss, as explained in Part III., consists of quartz, potash-feldspar, and mica ; whilst in syenitic gneiss, the mica is replaced by hornblende. These varieties occur both alone and mixed with one another, throughout our Laurcntian districts. The feldspar is generally red or white, the quartz colourless and vitreous, and the mica and hornblende of some dark tint — black, brown, or green. The two latter minerals occasionally die out, when a binary mixture of quartz and feldspar results. In certain beds of coarse structure, the stratification lines become obscure ; but usually, and even in hand specimens, gneiss exhibits a striped or banded aspect, by which it is distinguished from ordinary granite. The potash-feldspar or orthoclase (see Part II.) is sometimes replaced or accompanied by soda-feldspar or albite, but the instances of this are not common. The predominating colour of these gneissoid strata, is reddish or dark grey, the latter resulting from stripes of dark mica combined with narrow cones of white quartz and Vfhite or pale red feldspar. When much hornblende is present, the rock may assume a black or dark greenish colour, or present a flecked surface of red and black : exhibiting in the former case, a transition into hornblende-rock. A red gneiss with green layers of epidotc, forming a stone well adapted for ornamental purposes, occurs at Carlton Place near Kingston, and at some other localities. The black or dark-green hornblende-rock associated with the gneissoid and limestone strata, frequently contains crystals of red garnet (Barrie township, &c.) ; and the latter mineral sometimes occurs in the gneiss or quartzitcs in considerable abundance (Grenville, River Rouge, &c.) It is usually found, however, in the vicinity of the lime- stone bands, occasionally forming true garnet-rock. (b) Limestones, Quarfzites, and Iron Ores: — The limestone beds associated with the gneissoid and other Laurcntian rocks are often of a fine granular or saccharoidal texture ; at other times coarse granular, and occasionally almost compact. The colour is usually white or grey, but for short distances the rock is sometimes of a pale reddish, or greenish tint. It is frequently zoned with specks and scales of mica, serpentine, or graphite , and contains also various accidental minerals, of which the more abundant or interesting comprise : Iron pyrites i apatite or phosphate of lime ; sulphate of baryta ; tremolite, diopside, ;■.■■*■ ■ :■■',• *>,f^': mi ■m-^ ;:K' f ■HU\ iii ■■Hi M ;■ '■ ^ il 146 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THB ^ '.' and other varieties of hornblende and augite; garnet; tourmaline; condrodite ; spinel ; corundum , molybdenite, &c. Descriptions of these mi lerals arc given in the second Part of this Essay. A tal- cose mineral (Renselaerite or Pyrallolite), probably an altered augite, (see Part II.) occurs also in interstratified beds with the limestones of some localities (Ramsay, Grenville, Rawdon) ; and in Grenville and Burgess, yellowish and greenish-grey serpentine occurs under similar conditions. Phosphate of lime likewise, occasionally forms irregular bands amongst the strata: as, more especially, in North Elmsley, South Burgess, and Ross ; and at Calumet Falls. Some of the limestone beds are of great thickness. According to Sir William Logan, who has devoted much time to an elaborate ex* amination of the crystalline limestones of the Ottawa region in par- ticular, certain beds exhibit a thickness of 1500 feet. In the district alluded to, four beds, presenting an aggregate thickness of over 3500 feet, have been traced out and mapped. For full information respect- ing the structural and other characters of these, the reader is referred to the Revised Report on the Geology of Canada, by Sir William Logan and the other officers of our Geological Survey.* The more im- portant localities in which workable beds of crystalline limestone occur, will be found under the head of *• Economic Materials." below. The crystalline dolomites, composed of carbonate of lime and carbonate of magnesia, closely resemble the crystalline limestones, and occur un- der the same conditions, the two being frequently interstratified. A fine saccharoidal variety is found on Lake Mazinaw in the County of Frontenac, and a more compact kind occurs in the townships of Madoc, McNab, Loughborough, Shefiield, Grenville, &c. Many of these dolomites, it is remarked by Sir William Logan, become of a yellowish brown colour by weathering. The quartzites and quartzose conglomerates, mentioned above, may be referred to in connection with the limestones, as they are generally found in their immediate vicinity or otherwise interstratified with them. Some beds of quartzite present a thickness of several hundred feet. This rock, composed of quartz more or less pure, exhibits a vitreous or sub-vitreous aspect, and is either colourless or of a pale reddish, brownish, or greenish tint. The quartzose conglomerates arc com- * To thin valuable and truly national work, it may bo mentioned here, tlio present Essay U mainly intended to serve as an iiitrodtiction : illU!called* greatly exceeds in extent the other portions of the Province. C. JgricuHurvl Capabilities : — As a general rule, liable only to par- MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 153 tial or local exceptions, the Laurentian area is not favorably circum- stanced for agricultural occupation. Soils of depth and fertility can only be expected to occur under the following conditions : — first, where feldspar rocks or anorthosites prevail, most of these yielding calcareous soils by decomposition ; secondly, where the belts of crystalline lime- stone crop out and form the surface of the country ; and thirdly, where the rocks are covered to a sufficient depth by Drift clays and sands. These latter deposits, however, are usually filled in these districts with large and numerous boulders, and rarely extend over areas of any con- siderable size. Patches of a certain extent occur here and there, but they are too generally separated by huge and bare masses of gneissoid rock, familiarly known to the settlers as ** elephants' backs." Such, at least, is the general condition of the country in the back townships of the western counties mentioned above. Northwards, and in Eastern Canada, the severe climatic relations which there prevail, must be added to these disadvantages. In those parts of the province, however, which are occupied by other rock-formations, numerous uncleared tracts of unrivalled fertility are still left to repay the settler's toil. Huronian Series : — The rocks of this gro\ip, the next in ascending order above ihe Laurentian series of strata, may be described unJer the following heads: — 1, Mineral characters ; 2, Associated intrusive rocks ; 3, Economic materials ; and 4, Topographical distribution.* 1. Mineral Characters of the Huronian Strata : — The «r rrcks con- sist principally of thick beds of quartzite, passing into (ju.atzosc and jasper conglomerates ; green slate rocks passing into slate conglomer- ates ; bands of compact or sub-crystalline limestone ; and interstratified masses or beds of greenstone. The entire thickness of the series, where fully displayed, is probably not far short of 20,000 feet. The quartzites are chiefly white or greenish in colour, but exhibit in some places grey, brownish, and also red tints. Some arc Aitreous in tex- ture ; others, more or less arenaceous. In the conglomerates, the included pebbles, which are sometimes quite small, consist of different varieties of quartz — colourless, opaque-white, brown, black, dark-red, :lpi m * It is but just to state, that moHl of tlio facts given under tliusc hends. aro drawn from tho publications of tlio Gpfilrgical Survey of CHuaUa. The writer, however, ha» visited the nortli iihorc of Lalto llmon wliore Die roclis of thij series aro eliiedy displayed; and lie has thus pzainiued many of tho strata and preeustono inaNHcs in situ, and has procured, person- ally, A consiiderablw collection of sprcinicus from that locality. He is consequently better able than a mere rompilor would bo, to classify and separate from fubordinuto details the moro fcalient points bclonKing to the study of this RooloKical gronp. These observations will apply also to other cases in which ho is more especially indebted to the labours of the Survey. U4 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OP THE &c., — the latter constituting the variety known as jasper. The slates and slate conglomerates appear to owe their general green colour to the presence of chlorite and epidote, or perhaps more commonly to the former alone. In some, different shades of green (or of green, hlack, and red) run in parallel lines, imparting to the rock a heautiful riband- ed aspect. "Well-marked slaty cleavage, however, is apparently very rare : if ever present. In the conglomerates, the enclosed pebbles, or rounded fragments, for some are eight or ten inches across, consist of pieces of gneiss, syenite, quartz, &c., evidently derived in many instances from the adjacent Laurentian rocks. Some of these slates and slate conglomerates form vast stratified masses of between two and three thousand feet in thickness. The limestone beds of the Huronian series are of comparatively subordinate importance. They are chiefly of a light or dark grey colour, though in places they offer a white, greenish or brownish tint. In structure, they are more or less compact, or but slightly crystalline ; the latter condition is, however, rare. Some exhibit a brccciated appearance, and all seem to contain a good deal of siliceous matter. Thin beds of chert (a flinty variety of quartz) occur indeed iuterstratified with them, in some places. In addition to their want of crystalline texture, these limestones differ from those of the Laurentian series in not containing any crystallized minerals — aj)atito, garnets, tourmaline, hornblende, &c., — a fact point- ed out by Professor Sterry Hunt. The masses of greenstone inter- stnitified with tliP slates and other beds of this series, are of somewhat doubtful origin. Thoy may consist, as suggested by Prof. Hunt, of altered sedimentary deposits ; or they may be stratified beds made up of niateiials derived from neighbouring dykes and eruptive greenstone masses ; or, otherwise, they may consist of overflows of igneous rock during tlu' building up of the associated strata; or of lateral dykes, so to say, forced at some after period between the lines of bedding. As regards structure, &c., they exhibit several varieties. Some are large- grained, consisting of feldspar (usually of a greenish-white color) and dark green or black hornblende. Other varieties are fine-grained, and of a uniforni grecis colour except when they become nniyj^daloidal or contain cavities filled with calc spar, magncsite, quartz, &c. Certain fine-grained varieties also become schistose and quite sectile, from the presence of a large quantity of chlorite. These finer greenstones are likewise porphyritic in ])lacc3, or hold imperfect crystals of feldspar ; and those of coarser grain, by the addition of a little qtiartz, pass MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OT CANADA. 155 i;-;' occasionally into syenitic gneiss or syenite — according as to whether the rock be regarded as of sedimentary or eruptive origin. 2. Associated Intrusive Rocks, Mineral Veins, ^c : — The intrusiye rocks which break through the Huronian series, and belong apparently to the same geological period, consist of numerous dykes of dark greenstone, varying in breadth from less than a foot to two hundred feet or more ; and of some large masses and veins of red granite, frequently of an epidotic character. An exposure of the latter occurs in force on the north shore of Lake Huron, associated with Laurentian strata, but is regarded by Sir William Logan as most probably of Huronian age from its agreement in mineral characters with similar veins which traverse the deposits of that period at neighbouring localities. Some of the greenstone dykes are older, and others newer, than the granite masses. The vein-fissures filled with copper pyrites, &c., which are so abundant amongst these Huronian strata, are of still later formation, since they cut many of the greenstones and granites, and often break the continuity of these and the surrounding beds, causing upthrows or downthrows of greater or less extent. An enor- mous fault caused by a dislocation of this character, has been traced out by Mr. Murray in the valley of the Thessalon and adjoining district. In one place, a downthrow of nine thousand feet is attributed to this fault. (See the Report for 18.58. Also Canadian Journal, vol. V, p. 463.) Finally, it may be observed that several large anticlinals extend across the Huronian strata of this region generally. The axis or summit of one of these, crosses the workings of the Bruce Mines. 3. Economic Materials : — The more important substances of this class obtained from the Huronian rocks, comprise : copper ores ; qunrtzose sandstones suitable for glass making purposes; hones of good quality; and (as ornamental stones) tlu' jasper conglomerates mentioned above. The copper ores belong chiefly to copper pyrites, purple cop- per pyrites or erubcscite (the "horse flesh ore" of the miners), and copper glance : minerals which have been fully described in Part II* These occur on the north shore of Lake Huron in veins or lodes, varying in thickness from about two to ten feet. The gangue or veinstone consists essentially of quartz, and the average yield of metal is said to be from six to eight per cent : amounting, however, in the dressed ore to about eighteen or twenty per cent. The principal workings are at the Hruce Mines (Cuthbertson location), Wellington Mines (Keating location), and at the Copper Bay Mines ; but ore has been found also at the Wallace Mine near the mouth of White ,' J ■, • t^l ^■x H .it SI 166 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THS Fish River, at Echo Lake,, Root Ri?er, Garden River, Mississagai River, Spanish River, and other locaUties of that region. The ore (according to Mr. Murray's observations) appears to be far more abundant in the greenstones than in the quartzites. Lodes of some richness in the greenstone, \rhen passing into the latter frequently become quite poor. Ottertail Lake, an expansion of the Thessalon River, is named by the Geological Survey as a locality from which good hones may be obtained. They are cut from the green or greyish siliceous slates, found towards the base of the series. From some of the soft chloritic slates, also, the Indians have long obtained sufficiently compact and sectile masses to be worked into pipe-bowls and other objects. 4. Topographical BUtribution : — The Huronian rocks are unknown throughout the greater portion of Western Canada, and in the East they appear to be entirely wanting. The Laurentian rocks of these districts, either form the surface of the ground, with or without a covering of Drift, or are otherwise overlaid unconformably by Silurian strata — the Huronian being absent. The principal Huronian area extends along the north coast of Lake Huron from a few miles west of French River, where this enters the lake, up to the the neighbourhood of Root River opposite the northern part of Sugar Island, or to within a short distance of the Sault Ste. Marie. A narrow strip of the shore-line, however, from about ten miles north of the eutranc to Lake George to a j)oiiit west of Little Lake George, consists apparently of newer strata. The extension northward of this Huro- nian belt has not yet been definitely made out, but it does not appear to exceed ten or fifteen miles, and in places is less than this. Huronian rocks are exposed also at several points on Lake Superior : as in Batchehwahnung Bay ; at the mouth of the Dore, and around the lower part of Michipicoteu River ; in strips along the coast I'arther west ; and more extensively around the lower part of the Kaminis- tiquia lliver, and elsewhere, on the coast of Thunder Bay. In many parts of this region, the Huronian rocks are followed uncouforinably by a somewhat similar series of altered strata, associated with dykes and interstratified masses of trap, and containing also, copper ores, native copper, and othvr metallic matters. Until recently, these strata were considered to be of Huronian age ; but they are now looked upon as altered Silurian deposits, belonging in part to the Potsdam group, and partly to the Caleiferoua or Quebec Series. They will be described, cousequeutlv;, under those diviMJuns. HIITKRALS AND GEOLOGY OP CANADA. 157 PALEOZOIC BOOKS OV OAITADA. The formations of Palaeozoic age, recognized in Canada, comprise, in ascending order: (1) A complete aeries of deposits belonging to the Silurian Epoch; (2) A succeeding series, referrible to the earlier part of the Devonian Epoch ; and (3) A partial development of Carboniferous strata— these latter, however, being only found in Gasp6, at the extreme east of the Province. SiLXTBiAV Strata: — The Silurian strata are usually subdivided into two series— the Lower and the Vpper Silurians, respectively ; but in Canada, the officers of the Geological Survey have recently adopted a third or additional group — the Middle Silurians. This latter group includes the lower portion of the Upper Silurian series as originally constituted.* Lower Silurian Series ; — This series comprises, in ascending order, the following subdivisions : — 1, The Potsdam Group ; 2, the Calci* ferous Group ; 3, The Chazy Formation ; 4, The Trenton Group ; 6, The Ftica Slate Formation ; and 6, The Hudson River Formation. Note :— The OaloiferouB and Chazy strata, as regards their ocourrenee in the neighbourhood of Quebec and tbroughont the Eastern TownBhipe, are united by Sir William Logan under the term of the Quebec Group. It would also, per* haps, be more in conformity with Nature to unite the three latter divisions, as given above, and to arrange the whole as in the annexed Table. The term " Ontario Group " might be adopted for the proposed union of these higher formations. Ontario Group, ' Hudson River Formation. Utica Formation. Trenton FormHtion. ' , Bird's Eye and Blaelc River Formation, ^ . „ ( Ohasy or Sillery Formation. Quelle Group. ^ Onlciferous or Levis Formation, T, ^ 1 /1 i Beauhnrnuis Formation. PotHdau. Group, j ^^,^,^,i^i^^jq^i^ Formation. (?) H i-l The higher beds of the Upper Copper-bearing strata of L. Superior (t) The bottom beds of the Upper Oopper-bearing strata of L, tSuperior (?) The Potsdam Group : — This subdivision, until a comparatively recent period, was known us the Potsdam Sandstone. Its stratified * The term " Upper Silurian." it Hhould be observed, is emplo; d In the preceding Parts of this KsMsy in its original signification i.e., aa including the tHwoalled " Middle Silurians " of the lator gystvm of division ■.wi ■■■<;■'?">, m.r I' i^. ■^M\ 158 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF TH£ Ij deposits may be arranged under the heads of: deep-sea strata ; shal- low-sea or shore-line deposits ; and altered rocks. Of the deep-sea strata of the Potsdam epoch, merely uncertain indications have at present been obtained Sir William Logan has suggested that some dark slates which are found to occupy a lower geological position than the Quebec beds of Point Levis,* may very possibly represent some of the deep-sea deposits of that period ; whilst it is certain that the ordinary sandstones, of the epoch, were shore-line or coast deposits. This is proved by the presence of ripple marks, and tracks of Crustacea or other animals, as well as by the general nature of the sediments of which these sandstones consist. The slates, however, may be of contemporaneous formation with the sandstones : a point at present unsettled. Another series of slate rocks and slaty con- glomerates, somewhat resembling those of the Huronian series, associated with beds of chert (a flint-like variety of quartz, some- times coloured black from the presence of anthracitic matter), grey dolomites, (weathering red), interstratified trap bed^, and some argillaceous sandstones, occur in Thunder Bay, and especially near the Grand Falls of the Kaministiquia River, and probably belong to the Potsdam period. They overlie the Huronian rocks in uncon- formable stratification with these, and hence belong to a succeeding geological epoch. If of Potsdam age, the question again arises as to whether they represent a distinct series, older than the sandstone beds Ui the east, or whether they are to be considered of the same period of deposition. If older, they might be arranged as in the above table, under the name of the Kaministiquia formation. They are more or leas altered by metamorphic action, and contain native copper, iron pyrites, and other metallic matters. Ah the sandstones or shore-line deposits of the Potsdam Group form the most characteristic and widely-spread rocks of the period, as exhibited at least iu Canada, it is necessary to refer to them in somewhat greater detail. In the table given above, they are desig- nated as the Beauharnois Formation, from their especial development in the county of that name. They consist essentially of beds of sandstone of various colours, but chiefly white, green, red, brown, or yellowish ; and of conglomerates of different degrees of coarae- * IntbeproiMiiciationof thU word the final letter is luute. Ucnce the .word u often written L^ri. MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 1591 ness. Many of the sandstones are fine-grained and of a purely silicious character, and some exhibit bands or stripes of di£^rent colours. With these beds, a few layers of dolomite i or of more or less impure limestone are occasionally interstratified. Fossils, with the exception of fucoids, are of rare occurrence. In addition to the problematical ScoUthus (see Paet IV., page 97),* the most common is a species of lingula {L. acuminata, fig. 155), a genus which thus occurs in the very lowest of our foasiliferous rocks, and which, passing npwards thi ugh the entire series of geological formations^ is still found in the seas of the existing age. Soraie remarkable fossil tracks occur also in our Potsdam beds. These be- T\ft.\hf,.—Lin(juia long to two distinct types or genera. The oldest, ac«?njna /|.ii:!l M.t: the caudal shield or tail-spine of the animal, and the ptt-rtiarkd by the creature's elawa. Tracks of Protichnites occur at other locali- ties in Beauharnois, and likewise in Vaudreuil, «fee., in Eastern Canaddi. *Tho Scolitkus cavities llgurcd an tills page appear to differ from the common Canadian fomiit ill bcinK longer and more regularly cylindrical. The Canadian type L^ named i9. Cana- dentis by Mr. Billings. (See Revised Report on the Geology of CauMli^) P. ^01« ., . ,, , . M .i l/l'i M ill ■■•' .;! I. r,; a. f.ii ,1* "III ii;^ 160 A POPULAR KXPOSITION OF THR They have also heen found near the Town of Perth in the Townahip of Druramond, Canada WeHt, where they are accompanied by the second kind of track impressions nlluded to above. These latter exhibit narrow bands about five or six inches in width, with "beaded" edges, and usually a central beaded line crossed, by a transverse series of curved or straight ridges : the whole presenting, as stated by Sir William Logan, a general resemblance to a rope- ladder. An idea of this appearance may be gleaned from fig. 157. ViK.iaJ—Cliwdctiehnitea Wil4oni (Lofcan)- On account of their ladder-like aspect, Sir William Logan has desig- nated these tracks under the generic name of Climactichnites. Fig. 167 represents C. WU«oni (Logan), so named from the discoverer of these latter impressions, Dr. Wilson of Perth, to whose explora- tions Canadian geology is also largely indebted in various other respects. The more important economic materials of the Potsdam Group comprise building stones of gpod quality, as those from Lyn and Nepean employed in the construction of the Parliament Buildings at Ottawa ; sandstones for glass-making purposes, being almost free from oxide of iron (Beauharnois, Vaudreuil), ; and sands and sand- Btonet> for lining the sides and floors of iron furnaces. The friable sandstone of the Township of Pittsburg (just east of Kingston), and other beds on the St. Maurice in Eastern Canada, are largely used for the latter purpose. To these materials must be added the native copper, native silver, silver glance, amethyst quartz, and sul- phate of baryta, contained in the veins which traverse the bottom rocks of the upper copper-bearing series of Lake Superior on the coast and islands of Thunder Bay, as at Prince's Location west of Fort William,* &c. — always supposing the altered rocks in question to be really a portion of the Potsdam Group. • When the earlier portions of this tssay wein printed, tho upper cop|)cr-b«aring roclts of Lalie Superior had not been definitely separated from the iindorlyinK and gieatly resomblinK Huronian series. Thissliould be borne in mind with roKard to the desoriptions of certain fflineralain Pftrt IT. MINERALS AND GBOLOQY OF CANADA. 161 The Haudatoues and cuuglomerate^ of this group are developed chiefly in the Countiea ot Beauhamoid, Vandreuil, Two Mountains, and Berthier in Eaateru Canada ; and in those of Grenville, Leeds, Lanark, Kenf'rew, and C'arletou in Canada West. A narrow belt occurs also to the west of the gneissoid ridge that crosses the St. Lawrence at tbe Thousand isles. This belt runs through the T> wn- shipH of Pittsburg, Storriugtou, and Loughborough, and dies out a little to the west of Knowltou Lake. At these various locrtlitiefl the Potsdam beds lie in unconformable position on the upturned edges or between the foldings of the Laurentiau rocks. Strata be- longing to the Potsdam Group have likewise been traced out, by the officers of the Geological Survey, on the north shore of the Straits of Belle Isle ; and the formation is also thought, on good evi- dence, to occur between the Miugan Islands and the adjacent coast. The thickness of the formation appears to vary from about forty feet or less, in some localities, to six or even seven hundred feet, in others. Interesting exposures occur more paiticularly at the following places: — Loughborough, Bel, and Knowlfcon Lakes; north shore of the St. Lawrence, a mile or two below Brockville ; north shore and islands of Charleston Lake (Townships of Lansdown and Eseott, in Leeds County) ; vicinity of Beverly in the Township of Bastard ; Otty Lake, in Drummond Township, and surrounding district ; Townships of Nepean and Gloucester, in Carleton County ; Lake St. Louis ; Lake of Two Mountains ; Point St. Anne and Point du Grand Detour, in Vaudreuil ; Lachutt*, on the Riviere du Nord ; River St. Maurice (various parts, near the Cachee, &c.) ; an d Hem- mingford Mountain in the Township of that name, on tbe border line oi' the Province.* The name of this group is derived from Potsdam, near Ogdensburg, in tbe State of New York. This name was applied to it by the New York geologists, long before the Geolo- gical Survey of Canada was commenced. The Calci/eroua Group : — This division was formerly known as tbe Calciferous Sand Hock formation, a name bestowed upon it by the New York Survey . The latter term, however, is to some extent a misnomer, since the prevailing or more characteristic strata (in the * Mauy interestiitK details and measurements in reference to these and other localities, will b<.' found in the Revised ReiKirt on the Geology of Cauada, issued by Sir William Logan aiid hiH colleagues. "■'1 c/:i 4- ■■ 'ifl • ; ifl ff : ■ ii 162 ..'•<' A POPULAR KXPOSITION OF THE unaltered distridts) are chiefly dolotnitic .ime^tones ; although many contain, it is true, a considerable amount of sandy or silicious matter. A specimen from Higaud gave to Prof. Hunt an amount of insoluble matter equal to 36"90 per cent. ; and samples from near Prescott, and from the Beauharnois Canal (the latter containing casts of Ophileta cowipacta) yielded to the writer amounts varying from 27*12 to over 40 per cent. Other specimens from near Brockville and elsewhere, left, however, an insoluble residuum of less than 8 per cent. The rocks of this group may be conveniently discussed under three heads, viz. :— Normal Deposits ; Displaced and Altered strata of Eastern Canada ; and Altered strata of Lake Superior. .j Normal deposits of the Calciferous Group : — In Canada those con- sist principally of dark -grey dolomitie or magnesian limestones, many containing, as stated above, a ceitaiu amount of arenaceous matter. They are also interstratified very frequently with beds of grey, white, or brownish sandstone, varying in thickness from a tew inches to four or five feet. The (Jalcareous beds in many districts yield but a poor description of lime, and hence the term " bastard limestones," often applied to them by settlers and others. Small cavities lined or filled with calc spar, or more rarely with quartz, heavy spar, or gypsum, occur in some of the beds ; and these and other beds occa- sionally exhibit in places a coarse concretionary structure. Fossils are of rare occurrence. The most common, perhaps, is the Ophileta compacta, fig. 158. Scolithus casts (figured on an earlier page) appear also in certain strata. In Western Canada, these normal Culcit'crous lo.-ks are apparently unknown west of the gni'isttoid belt that i-rosse.-* the St. Lawrence at tlie Thou- sand Isles. Tliey may occur, however, in a thin band aloiiji,' the inuer or south-western edge of the outcrop of the Potsdam ueries in the TowiiuMps of Pittsburg and Loughborough, although no certain indications of their presoiu'c havf as yet been found. On tlu' eastern .side oi tlid ^,'noi.-*.-ioid hilt, they are Non>e\vhai t'xten- sively developed — as slit^wn bv tin- ana marked 4 in the ma|> u lew pages further on (fig. 240)— although niort" m ka.i ohscuied l-v lluck FiK. l.)H - Ophileta rnmpartn (."Salter) 'If J , MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 163 feeds of Drift. Exposures occur in the Counties of Leeds, Gren- ville, Lanark, Renfrew, Carleton, &c., of this district. An impor- tant vein of lead ore (galena) occurs in this Formation in the Town- ship of Bamsay, Lanark County. In Eastern Canada, these beds occupy also a considerable area, aud occur in the Counties of Beau- harnois, Vaudreuil, Two Mountains, Cbambly, L'Assomption, &«. They have been discovered likewise, of late years, in the Mingan Islands and on the adjacent coast, a locality in which they have proved more foMiliferous than in other and more western sites. Displaced and altered Calciferous Rocks: — The displaced strata and altered beds of this age in Eastern Canada, are known more espe- cially as the Quebec group. Under this term, however, the succeeding Chazy beds (in an equally altered condition, and which cannot in this district be well separated from the Calciferous deposits) are also inclu- ded. These strata, until a comparatively recent period, were thought to occupy a somewhat higher place in the Silurian series, or to lie at about the hoiizon of the Hudson Uiver Formation, near the top of the Lower Silurians. The fossil evidence traced out by the skill and perseverance of Mr. Billings, Palajontologist to the Geological Survey of Canada, first shewed their true position. They consist of a series of grey, black, red, and green shales, in places over a thousand feet in thickness, with interstratified iiods of dark and other coloured dolomites, limestones, and sandstones, holding graptolites, brachio- pods, trilobitcs, and other fossils. In this condition, these l)eds occur ;jf:„:. i' ' Viit. l.-.l). UraptolithuK /.ogcni (Mull). Kite. li!0. n, l'hyllii(irai>fvs ttums (Hall). It. OlioliUti iiffdoKd (KilliiiK!*)' <\ IAhi/uIii QiKihflrcuxiii (RWUntn). .1 >"'■■ 111 more especially in the Island oC OrK'nns, ueai Qiu-Ih'c, an»l in the district around Point Levis opposite the city- As they extend south* wards i>Sii 164 A POI'ULAB EXPOSITION OF TUB I altered by metaniDi'phic agencies. The fossils are obliterated i and the shales and other strata are changed into gneissoid, talcose, chloritic, and epidotic schists ; and also into Hssile slates, serpentines, crystal- line marbles, and other analogous rocka. Some of these hold large >!fi^ ConooepfMliten Zenkeri (BiUinKit). PiK. IMS. Bathyurut Sc^ordi (BilliUKM). amounts of copper ore, chromic iron, magnetic and red iron ores, galena, &c. ; and the sands and alluvial sediments, derived from tieir disintegration, contain native gold. (See the descriptions of these minerals in Part II). The unaltered or fossiliferous strata of this series present also an abnormal character, in being tbrcod by a great dislocation and uplift into a position apparently higher than that occu* pied by tlie Trenton and other strata of really newer t'oniiation. This dislocation or great fault appears tu be one of a conneiaed series extending along the whole line of the Appalachian Mountains from Alabama to Eastern Canada. The immediate fracture along the line of which the Quebec Formation has been lifted up, is traced from the vicinity of Lake ChumplHin to a point just above Quebec, and from thence through the north part o ' the Island of Orleans, and along the Gulf of the St. Lawrence into the coast of Gasp6. The strata to the south and east of this dislocation are much disturbed, and in* clined at high angles, even where they remain (as on the edge of the disturbed region) tree troni metamorphic or chemical alteration. Many of the rocks, both altered and uuHltered, of this region, ountain irregular fissures partially filled or lined with a peculiar anthracitic substance osually regarded as an altered bitumen- It is black, more or less lustrous, and usually very brittle. Sometimes (as hIsu in more recent strata) it tills cavities in fossil corals and shells. It occurs more e?)peciully around Qnebec, in the Island of Orleans, at Point Levis, and in the townsbipN of Aeion, Grantham, St. Flavien, iSce, it is occasionally taken for eoal ; but although chemically of the nature of certain varieties of this substance, it differs from it geologically, and essentially, by never occuring in true or workal le beds, but only 'M^ MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OP CANADA. 165 in irregular masses and narrow veins of no utility. Its ash does not exhibit any trace of vegetable structure, as seen in the ashes "f all ordinary coals. The following are the more important economic substances of the Quebec Group.* «) Copper Ores : — These comprise chiefly the yellow or common Pyrites, Purple Pyrites, and (Copper Glance, occa- sionally mixed with small portions of native copper and native silver. The ores occur in large irregular or lenticular masses, or in beds, and yield from eight to about eighteen per cent, of metal. Workable quantities are known to exist in the townships of Acton, Upton, Wickham, Durham, St. Flavien, Leeds, Cleveland, Melboiirne, Suttou, Chester, Ham, and Garthby ; and indications of copper occur in many other localities of this nutfi orphic* icgion. 6) Gold: — Indi- cations of gold have been met with near t\\f Chaudiere Rapids, and in a quartz vein in the township of Leeds. The gold of the alluvial districts will be referred to in connexion with the economic substances of the Drift Formation, as it occurs in the deposits of this latter age. c) Chromir Iron Ore : — (la beds in serpentine : townships of Han:, Bolton, and Melbourne. Mount Albert : Schickshock Mountains of Gaspe). rf) H(jem(t f it tc Aud Magnetic Iron Ores: — (in beds: town- ships o( Brome and Sutton), e) Galena ; — (Sutton, Chaudiere Valley), f) Carbonate of Mayneiia, Soapstone, and Potstone : — (Sutton, Bolton). ^ng Slates : — (Melbourne, CleveUnd, Orford, Tring, Kingsey. Walton's quarry, near Richmond (Melbourne township), is in active operation. The cost of the slates delivered and loaded on the cars at RieI'mond, is four doilari^ per KM) square fee^t for those of lii.i. 9iKe('24in. x 12), and two and a quar'er dollarii for the smaller size (Urn. x 6). j) WAet- •^<»i^# ;— (Stanstead, Hatlev, Bolton, Kingsey). Calri/erouH Strata of Lake Superior : —'^\v^w strati form the higher bed» of the upper coppcr-bearinj: series of the lake region, — the lower bed* of this series, as explaiiu-d uliov)*, Iteing now generally referred to the Pot»dHm Group. They cohMio* of quartzose iand* * Th<< roader wilt tlnd variotii ttoUlli of niui'li IntoriMit on the ro|>p«r ininpR, nIk. v qiiar* rteii. Ac, of tlu< BMtoni Towiishipx hikI utiicr lural>tit>ii of thu Quebec Korinatioii, in tha IHwcriiiiivi' Cntalo-niouf tli<* KooiuMiiir Mineral^ of Canada in lh« liundon Intornatlonal kiiiilillion uf ifHiS. by Mir W. K. Luftaii. .1. •'■ ■I : i M ^j\ I I ■ :' A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE stones, red and greenish sandstone conglomerates, various limestoaes and shales, and interstratified masses of compact and amygdaloidal trap. These beds are also intersected by numerous trap or green- stone dykes ; and a vast mass of trap, in places of a basaltic char- acter, generally caps the entire formation. The total thickness of the group is estimated by Sir W. Logan as not far short of 10,000 feet. The cavities in the bedded amygdaloidal traps are filled with agates, amethyst-quartz, calc spar, various zeolites, green earth, epidote, specular iron ore, native copper, &c. Some of the intrusive dykes are porphyritic, and a few consist of syenite. (See Part III) The greenstone dykes present everywhere a transverse columnar structure and are frequently of great width. As they usually resist the disin- tegrating' action of the water and the atmosphere better than the main body of the rocks which they traverse, they often stand out in relief nnd form buttress-like masses extending into the lake, so as to produce many natural harbors and breakwaters. The rocks of this series are also traversed by a considerable number of mineral veins, belonging, according to the officers of the Survey, to two distinct systems, some being parallel with the range of the strata, whilst others run in a converse direction to this. The veinstones consist ufiually of calc spar, heavy spar, or quartz ; but sometimes of chert or agate, or of the above substances mixed with various zeolites, fluor spar, copper, copper-glance, the common and purple copper pyrites, galena, and hliuAc, in adfiition to much iron pyrites. The more imporfdiit metallic sites c(»iiprise Prinep's Location (native silver and silver glance) ; Harrison's Location, St. Ijinact Island (native copper with native silver; ; Mamainse (native copper and copper ores) ; and Micbipicotin Island. At tl-.c latter locality, native copper (in places slightly argentiferous) occurs not in a vein, but in nodules distributed thro'igh a bed of amygdaloidal trnp. The other economic inineraU of thene rocks, include the srdpliate (tf baryta (heavy spar) of Thun- der Bay ; the amethyst (juartz of the same locality ; and the agates of Micbipicoten and St. Ignaei'. Exposures of these higher beds of the upper copper-bearing series, occur [)rincijinl)\ on the south-east side of Thinuler ' where they form an esearpnunt of white sandstone (the bottom ) -r of the higher group) about '2iH) feet high ; also between Thunder Way and Plack Bay , at (iranit? Islet, Point Porphyry, Edward Island, the mouth of the Neejngon River, the Battle Islands, St. Ignace, Micbipicoten, MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 167 Cq»e Gargantua, Batchehwahnung B«y, and Mamainae. (Various interesting details respecting these and other less prominent localities of the rocks in question, will be found in the Revised B^port on the Geology of Canada by Sir William Logan and his colleagues.) The Chazy Formation: — ^This series of strata derivea its name from the town of Chazy, in Clinton cryunty, N. Y. It forms a tran- sition series between the underlying Calciferous beds and the over- lying deposits of the Trenton Group. In Canada, i! consists principally of grey, brownish-black, and other coloured limestones^ with shales and calcareous sandstones, the latter chiefly at the base of the formation. The limestones are sometimes dolomitic, and some- timus bituminous ; and they exhibit in places a concretionary struc- ture. Many are highly fossiliferous. Some of the more common fossils comprise Leperditia Canadensia (a bivalve entamostracan, fig. 163), and Rhynconella plena (a brachiopod, fig. 1G4). Also, the coral Stenopora fibrosa (fig. I65a), which ranges into the higher rocks ; Fig. \t&~ Leperditia Oanadennn (Jones). Pig. 164 —Bhynmmlla plena (Hall). Fig, IW — c !-(eMOpora Jibi-o»a (OoldftiHs) h. H'lthaporites Amfrricnvtm (\\\\\\v,f,H). r, Ltngula Ljfe/tii (KilliiiKi). Vitc. im.—BathyHru« Aiigrlivi (KilliiiK!<). a peculiar form of uncertain character, Holboporitrs Anirrironi'f (fig, 105 /') ; aurl lAnyntn LifeHil (fie. 105 r). This latter fossil af, Allu- mcticH Hnpids on cIk^ Ottawa, ia at '^ompautcd l>y numerous dark noduiea consisting chiefiy of phopphfti.^ of lime, and supposed to be ■.'1.. , , I iW' 168 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE coproliles. Bathyurut Angelini (fig. 166) is a trilobite belonging to this fonnation. It has been found in the townships of Huntley, Ramsay, Grenville, &c. The principal economic materials of the Chazy beds (exclusive of those from the altered rocks of the Eastern Townships as described under the Quebec Group, above : some uf these rocks being probably of Ch&zy age) comprise — a dolomitic limestone from the township of Nepean in Carktou county, yielding the well-known " Hull cement ; " grey, and grey-arid-red fine-grained limestones, capable of employment as marble, from Caughnawaga, Montreal, the Lake of Two Moun- tains, St. Dominique, and St Lin, in Canada East ; a thin-bedded limestociif, uiled with rhynconella plena, and largely quarried for tombsti PS and table-tops, from L^Orignal on the Ottawa; an excel- lent snuhoiic for building purposes, from near Pembroke, in Ren- frew oouiity, on a higher part of the Ottawa River; and good lii csfimes for the same purpose, from Montreal, Caughnawaga, Httjvv, and other localities!. The c ui ,ones of the Sault Ste, Marie and surrounding district, (formerly regarded as belonj^iiig to the Potsdam Group), are now thought to be of Chazy uge ; but otherwise the Chazy formation has not been definitely recognized west of Kingston, although it may perhaps be slightly developed between the Potsdam sandstoue and the limestones of the Black River formation in the townships of Storrington and Loughborough. In the area east of Kingston, between the Ottawa and the St. Lawrence, it occurs somewhat exten- sively. Exposures are seen in the townships of Nep an, March, Ramsay, Huntley, Ilavkesbury, &c., of that region. It occurs alvo largely on the other side of the Ottawa, in the townships of Ch.'itha.n, Grenville, Longueuil (P< escott county), and especially around the city of Montreal. It is found likewise in places farther east, between that point and the River Chicot ; and a^sin in 'he Mingan Islands. The Trenton Group : — This grouf derives its \\w from Trenton in New York. I'he lower beds o: the group have been separated from t!ie higher beds, and referred to two distinct formations, called, respectively, the Bird's Eye and the Black River Limestones ; but in Canada, n separation of this kind cannot be definitely carried out. As certain iossils, however, are restricted locally to the bottom beds of the group, or are more especially characteristic of these, the terms Bird's Eye and Black River Limestone, or the latter alone. MINERALS AND GK0L06Y OF CANADA. 169 :l'^-: if occasionally employed in reference to the beds in question : thus partially recognising two sub-formations, the Bird's Eye and Black River (united) below, and the Trenton proper, above. The strata of the entire group average from 600 to 700 feet, and consist almrst wholly of limestones, usually of a grey or black colour and more or less bituminous. Here and there a bed of sandstone, rarely ex- ceeding two or three feet in thickness, and a thin seam of calcareous clay, may occur amongst the series ; but limestone rocks essentially characterize the formation. Some of these are thick, and others thin- bedded, the latter passing into limestone shales. Fossils are exceed- ingly abundant in most of these beds. Those more especially charac- teristic of the lower sub-division, comprise : — Tetradiitm fibratum (fig. 167), Columnaria aheolata (fig. 168), Stromatopora rugoaa m ^'■n ■ ^■m ••#' Vig. Mn.—TetradiHm fibratum (hkiffurri). Hk. 1C8. • Ooluntnaria ulveulata (Ooldfwts). Fig. XVii—Stromatopot* fitf. \1(>. — yiae1ur»a LogaHi (H«11). n '^ t Wl itov 170 A rOPVLAR EXPOSITION OP THB (fig. 169), Maelurea Logani (fig. 170), Ormoceras (Orthoceras) tenui' Jilum (fig. 171), Ormoceras (Gonioceras) anceps (fig. 172)« and other orthoceratites with beaded siphuncle (see ante^ Part IV.) Also species of Lituitea, Cyrtoceras, and Phragmoceras (figs. 173, 174, and 175). if :.i PiR. Vll.—Ormoreras tenuiftlum (Hall). Fig. \7i.—Ormo'fra3 anceps (Hali). Fig. \13.--Lituiies undatus- (Hall). Fig. \^*.—Cyrtoceraa annulatum. Pijr. 176. — Phragmooercu pramatuntm (BilUngi). tin, \76.— Oncocerat conttrictum (Hall). The more characteristic or otherwise interesting fossils of the Upper or Trenton subdivision, properly so-calletl, are exhibited in the following figures. The Koolnnfical positions and afiinities uf these have alreadv been indicated in Paut IV. Viff. 178. — fetraia comicula (Hall). Fii^. W.— StenoporaJi/jrota* '" Idras ((JoldraH.K). Pig. 170.- - Olvpfi>nt»Mn £o<7^ •omvlimca known h j:, pttropolUana, A'tS MINERALS AND OfiOLOOY OF CANADA. 171 V'^'; tj^.». , titl.C.niL. swttc Pig. 180.->Jcretoortn«<««^ BilUngsii (CIwptnMi). Fig. 183.— O. peetintlla (Conrad). Fig. 181.— XinpMto qua- drata (Hall). Fig. 182.-Or*;3»A;tW*V ■« \ tig. 196 —Trtnuel&n* '•on ■ FUr. l^—Endoeeraa proiti/ltrmt (Hall). ¥\k. {m.—Ataphuii plJ %:•■ f f ■u- e>. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) A (a I.U lis I.I ii IIIIIM I" «^ " 2.2 L25 SI 1.4 1.6 '/] Photographic Sciences Corporation ^N ^ L17 ^\ 33 WIST MAIN STMIT WItSTIRN Y 14510 (716) •73-4503 6^ I? .. "^'p 4^ 174 nt A POPULAR KXPOSITION OF THK cially around Ottawa City ; but they occupy a still more extensive area on the west side of the Laurentiau belt, already so frequently alluded to as separating the Silurian deposits of the basin betweeQ> the two rivers, from the same deposits of the region west of Kingston. In this latter district, they form the north shore of Lake Ontario to the neighbourhood of Cobourg, and stretch Borthwards into the town- ships of Loughborough, Portland, Camden, Hungerford, Madoc, Mar- mora, and Dummer ; and northwestward along the southern outcrop of the Laureutian rocks up to near the mouth of the River Severn on Georgian Bay, — a line of small lakes occurring for a great part of this distance between the highly-tilted gneissoid strata and the nearly horizontal Black River and Trenton beds. From a little west of Cobourg, the other or more westerly limit of the Trenton outcrop runs also to the north-west, and comes out on Georgian Bay a short distance west of CoUingwood. The whole of Lake Simcoe, with l&tX^ aam, Rice, and other smaller lakes, lies thus within the Trenton area ; but the country is much covered by drift deposits, so that exposurea of rock are not of very frequent occurrence except along the northera limit of the formation as given above, and at these points, the Black. Biver or lower subdivision is chiefly exposed. The upper or Trenton beds, on the other hand, come out chiefly on Lake Oatario. Still farther to the west, the formation runs across the northern portiom of Manitoulin Islands, and is also seen in Lacloche, Mississaguc, the Snake, and other smaller isUuds, along the north shore of Lake Huron. It occurs finally on the north part of St. Joseph Island al the entrance of St. Mary's River. The underlying sandstone of this island, as well as the sandstone beds of Sault Ste. Marie, formerly referred to the Potsdam series, arc now looked upon as representatives^ in this region, of the Chazy formation. In Eastern Canada, exposures of the Trenton Group occur more particularly at and around the village of ('aughnawaga, on the south bank of the St. Lawrence ; at Point Claire ; around Montreal ; on Isle Jesus, Isle Biznrd, &e. ; at St. Lin, and in the environs of that villnge ; at 8t. l{o('(|Uf niid other phices on the Achignn, as well as on tiie rivers Naquarenn, Hayonne, and Chnloupe, and here nnd there between thche points and the Hiver St. Maurice; at various places iu the seigniories of Portneut, Deschnnihault, and La Chevroiiere ; at Pointe aux Trembles on the St. Lawrence ; Quebec and its vicinity ; around the Moutmorenci Falls ; on the River Ste. Anne ; at Cape MI^fcRALd AND OKOL6oY 6i 8jiVADA. iTb Tourmente and Cape Aux Rets ; on the Gouffre river ; in the seignory of Les Eboulemens ; at Murray Bay ; and at Lake St. John on the Saguenay. These localities of the Trenton Group in Eastern Canada, with others of less importance, are described very fully in Sir William Logan's Revised Report on the geology of the Province. The Utica Formation : — This subdivision (named after the City of Utica in the State of New York) is generally known as the Utica Slate Formation. It comprises a series of dark-brown bituminous shales, interstratificd here and there with a few beds of dark lime- stone. The shales weather light>grey, and yield by decomposition a soil of much fertiHty. In Western Canada, the entire thickness of the formation is under one hundred feet; but in parts of Canada East, it is at least three times that amount. Considerable difficulty, however, is experienced in separating the Utica beds from the over- lying deposits of the Hudson River Group, and sometimes, also, from the underlying Trenton strata— certain fossils ranging throughout the three groups, and beds of passage occurring likewise betweien these. Anthracitic matter, as in many other of our rock formations, is occa- lionally found in thin coatings on the surface of the shale beds. la lome districts, as in the townships of CoUing^'ood and W'hitby, C. W., these shales are sufficiently bituminous to yield profitable amountei 6f miq^ral oil and gas for illuminating purposes. The Collingwood ihales have afforded about twenty gallons of oil to the ton ; but the distilleries of that place have now ceased working, chiefly in conse- quence of the large and cheap supply of mmeral oil furnished to commerce by the " oil-wells " of the West. The following figures exhibit the more characteristic foa<^(ls of the Utica formation. 4 .■i.l tpe Pig. \»,-Gravtolifhu» prUtia (HUiiiRtr). lift. \99^Linemln obtuta (Hall.) Fiff. i09r-Triarihrtul'.BmMi (Qrcvu). 176 A POPULAR KXPOSmON OF TH« -:•■>- ^/.^. r' : %><,:E.,.;0jr-^V' *■•:.' .,! UMT \i'. .' ■\.A. :. '••' ■ .; :.i A 'ha tfl W, "'• 1/% 1 • • . '■ N 1 - .- •■•^.^ •:.^i!" ' 1 I * 1 ^ ' 1 ; \ ■■r i,:-rs Fig. 201.— .l«opAi(« Oanadentia (ChapmsD). :r In addition lo the above forms, several species of brachiopods, which occur also in both the Trenton and Hudson Biver Groups, are also frequently met with. The most abundant of these comprise : Orthis testudinaria (fig. 182), Strophomena alter nata (fig. 186), Rhynconella increbescetu (fig. 187), and Leptcena aericea (fig. 204). In Western Canada, the Utica formation (No. 7 on tbo map, fig. 249) occupies a small area in tbe immediate vicinity of Ottawa city, another in the township of Cumberland, and a third in Clarence and Plantagenet (Counties of Kussell and Predcott) ; but it is far more extensively developed in the geological region on the western aide of the gneisaoid belt which crosses the St. Lawrence at the Thousand Isles. In this region, it forms the shore of Lake Ootiirio from a little west of Cobourg to the township of Pickering, and sweeps from these points to the north* west, coming oui, at Georgian Bay in the towaships of Nottawasaga and Coilingwuod. Within T 'nlerven- ing space, however, it is entirely obscured by a thick cap{' jf Drift deposits. It appears also in a narrow band in th'j Mauitouliu Islandt:, more especially in the neighbourhood of Cape Smyth ; and is obscurely seen on St. Joseph's Island. The best exposures in Western CHuado, occur near Ottawa City ; oti aud udjuceut to the shore of Lake Outario, in the township uf Whitby ; in NuttHwusaga Bay under the " Blue Mountains," a tew miles weot of Culliugwood Uarbour ; and ut Cape Smyth and bomu of the ut ighbuuring bays and small inlands of the Mamtoulin grouj). Tbe formation in Eastern Cnuada, preseutt* in many localities a MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OV CANADA. 177 eonsiderable developement. Exposures occur at Montreal, and in tbe vicinity of that city, where the shales are much penetrated by trap dykes ; also on the Bichelieu Biver, and in the adjoining dis- trict ; here and there on the north shore of the St. Lawrence, between Montreal and Quebec, as on the St. Maurice and Achigon rivers ; largely in the vicinity of Quebec itself, and more especially about Beauport and the Falls of Montmorenci, and along the north shore of the Island of Orleans ; again near Cape Tourmente ; and at Lake St. John on the Saguenay. The Hudson River Formation. — ^The strata of this sub-division in Western Canada, consist essentially of arenaceous shales. These are chiefly of a bluish or greenish-grey colour, but become brown by weathering. They are occasionally interstratified with layers of ordinary sandstone, and with a few beds of limestone — their extreme thickness being about 700 feet. In Eastern Canada, the formation consists also in chief part of shales of a similar character, mixed with subordinate beds of bituminous shale, conglomerate, and limestone. Its thickness in the vicinity of Quebec is estimated at about 2000 feet ; bui iu Western Canada, it does not exceed 700 or 760 feet in thickness. Many of its fossils are identical with those of the Tren- ton and Utica groups ; but certain forms are peculiar to it ; and others (such as amhonychia radiata, modiolopsit niodiolaris, ^e.) although occasionally occurring in the Trenton group, are more par- ticularly characteristic of the present formation. The accompanying figures represent some of the most important of these fossiliced mains. Pl|f. ZOi—Orapto. lithmi bicomia (Hall.) Piir. 203.— O. ramoau$ (H»11.) Vlfr. tH—I'tptana ttri- eta (Sowcrby.) iza A POPULAR EXPOSITION Of Tf|S ,-i'?,i;M.-:-:y;5f radiata (Hall,) ( . ;<' '« .' I 4/Jt 'rv Fig. tM'^Xodiolop$i» tnodiolaris (Conrad). Fife. iffl.^Oyr- tolitet om*- . t::i--!" ','.1' ( ■>. ■- ' /««(Onnfmd) Fig. 808 —Ori» (Hall). PiR. 20»~r'a/j/mrn.t hlvi- mrnlmrliii (BroKiiiart) -n In addition to the above, the following speciet* (finrunMl undor tha Trenton Group, on a preceding page) are also of common occur- rence: — Stenopora fibrosa ^fig. 177) ; Petraia cornicula (fig. 178); Orthis teatudinaria (fig. 182); Strophomena alternata (fig. 180); Rhynconella increhescena (fig. 187) ; Orfhoceras hilineatum (fig. 193); O. lateralis (fig. 192) ; Trinucleus concentricus (fig. 195) ; Asaphui platifcephalut (fig. 196) ; and Illtpnus crass cauda (fig Vd'')a). , In weiiitern Canada, the Huddon lliver formation occurs as an outlier in the vicinit}' of Ottawa Cit} , associated with the bitumi- nous shales of the Utica •cries. Its chief development in this sec- tion of the Province, however, is between the more western extrem- ity of Lake Ontario, and the Western shores of Georgian Bay. It forms the shore-line of Lake Ontario from the liiver Kouge in the Township of Pickering (Ontario (^o.), to th« River Crodi^ in Toronto MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 179 Pl township (Peel Co.) ; and sweeps from these points to the north and n.irth«west, coming out on Georgian Bay in the townships of GoUing- wood, St. Vincent, Keppel, and Albemarle. Lonely Island and the other islands between Cabot's Head and the Manitoulins are also composed of Hudson Biver strata ; and the formation runs through the Manitoulin group, and across Drummond Island — reappearing in Sulphur Island, and on the north shore of St. Joseph's Island, from whence it passes into Michigan. Instructive exposures, from which many fossils may be collected, occur more particularly on the banks of the Don, Humber, Mimico, Etobikoke, and Credit, along the southern outcrop of the formation. Also at Point Boucher in Notta* wasaga Bay ; Point Rich, Point William, Cape Crocker, and Point Montresor, further west along the coast. Oo Lonely and Babbit islands, at Cape Smyth, and various points along the north shore of the great Manitoulin ; and on the northern headlands of Cockbum Island. In Eastern Canada, the formation is exposed more particularly on the banks of the Bichelieu, about Chambly, and on the Biviere des Hurons and the Yamaeka, these rivers probably running, according to Sir William Logan, on three parallel anticliuals. Also on the south shore of the St. Lawrence, between St. Nicholas and the Biviere du ChSne ; around Quebec, and largely at the Montmorenci Falls ; and on the north side of the Island of Orleans. It has been discovered also on Snako Island, Lake St. John ; and likewise on the coast of Gaspe, between Cape Bosier and the River Marsouin, and more especinlly about the Magdalen Hiver. Finally, the Hudson Biver Formation occurs in forco along the north coast of the Island of Anticosti, where it is priticipally composed, however, of argillace- ous limestone. The romarkublo fossil bodies named Beatricea by Mr. Billings, were discovered at this locnlity, and also at Lake St. John, some years ago, by Mr. Richardson of the Geological Survey. These fossils resemble j)etrilied fragments of the trunks and limbs of large trcew. Their true nature is still doubtful, but they are general- ly regarded as belonging to an extinct genus of corals. The Hudson River formation is not .ich in economic materials, but it yields in places some tolerably good flagging stones. At the " Blue Mountain," in CoUingwood township, whetstones of fair quality are also obtained from this formation ; and certain strata near Quebec furnish a good hydraulic cement. A very strong cement has likewise fa .■|': ¥: IftO A POPULAR RXPOSITION OP THE been manufactured from a dark dolomitic bed of tbis age, occurring on the Magdalen River, in Gasp^. Middle Silurian Series. The rockfl of this series, as explained on a preceding page, originally formed part of the Upper Silurian division. They have been separated from the latter, by the officers of the Canadian Geological Survey, in consequence of certain peculiarities connected with their occurence in the Island of Anticosti. In this island, situated at the entrance of the St. Lawrence Gulf, the rocks in question contain fossils belonging to both the Lower and Upper Silurians (as occurring elsewhere), and thus appear to offer a transi- tional series, or middle term, between these two divisions.* They compose the " Anticosti group " of Sir W. E. Logan, with the over- lying Guelph deposits ; and present, in ascending order, the following formations: — (1.) The Medina and Clinton Formation; (2.) The Niagara Formation; and (3.) The Guelph Formation. These, as regards Western Canada, might fairly be grouped together, under the term of the Niagara Group. Medina and Clinton Formation. — In the State of New York, the rocks of this subdivision constitute two more or less distinct sets of strata ; but in Canada, the upper or Clinton series merges on the one hand into the underlying Medina beds, and, on the other, into the succeeding Niagara series. Its deposits consequently are partitioned off between these two formations, the term " Clinton " being, how- ever, retained to designate the higher strata of the first or lowermost of these. Thus defined, the Medina and Clinton subdivision consists in Canada of red and green arenaceous tihales, succeeded by a coarse and somewhat loosely consolidated sandstone of a red colour, with overlying soft red marls and shaly beds, striped and spotted with green, and capped by a bed of grey sandstone (known as the " grey band,") of from ten to twenty feet in thickness. These strata, about 614 feet in thickness at the western extremity of Lake Ontario, con- stitute the Medina series proper. The succeeding Clinton beds comprise a series of green, greyish, and red shales — the latter, highly ferrugino\is-i-witli 8ome interstratified limestones and dolomites. At the mouth of the Ninp;»ira River, the Clinton division, as thus defined, is merely a few feet thick ; but it incrcnses in thickness towards the north-west, and attains to about 1 80 feet on the shores of Georgian Bay, by Cabot's Head. * Tlie miDQ hoIdH Kood hnwover, to lome ntent, In otiier lncftlitici>. MINERALS AND GKOLOGY OT CANADA. 181 FiR. SIA. In the annexed section, 1 indi- cates the higher portion of the Medina beds; 2, the grey band, which forms the upper limit of this series ; 3, the Clinton strata ; and 4, 5, and 6, the succeeding calcareous beds of the Niagara formation. In the Medina de> posits, fossils are exceedingly rare. They appear vrith us to be limited to fucoids, and to a single species of lingula of a triangular or cuniform outline (L. cuneato.) The most characteristic fucoid is the Arthrophycus Harlani, (fig. 211), a form which occurs also, and more abundantly, in the Clinton beds. These latter contain, in addition, va- rious corals, brachiopods, trilo- bites, &c. ; many of which, however, belong likewise either to the succeeding Niagara for- mation, or to some of the Fig. ill.— Arthrophyeus Harlani (Hp.h.) Hudson River or Trenton beds' of the Lower Silurian series. Some of the most abundant comprise : Stenopora fibrosa, (fig. 117,) Heliopora fragilis, (fig. 212,) Favosites Golhlandica, (fig. 214,) Strophomena rhomhoidalis, (fig. 232,) Orthis lynx, (fig. 135,) O. elegantula, (fig. 218,) Spiri- fer radiattu, (fig. 220,) Atrypa reticularia, (fig. 240,) and Calymene Blumenbachii, (fig. 209.) This formation (Nos, 9 and 10, the latter denoting the upper or Clinton beds, in the sketch map, figure 249) constitutes the greater portion of the south shore of Lake Ontario, and sweeps round the western extremity of the lake, by Hamilton, &c., to within a short distance of Oakville. From these points, it runs in a general north- erly and north-westerly direction through East and West Flambo- rough. Nelson, Caledon, &c., up to the western extremity of Georgian Bay, where its higher strata form the lower and middle portion of the promontory of Cabot's Head. From Queenston, where it enters Canada, along the whole of tliis distance, the formation is capped by an escarpment or cliffrface of the succeeding Niagara Pig. iM.—HtlioporafrO' gilia (HalL) ii - 1 'i ' Mi ▲ POPULAR BXPOaiTION OF THE Strata ; whilst the *' grey band " at the top of the Medina sub- division proper, stands out in many places as a distinct terrace below the sloping bank formed by the out-cropping but debris^corercd edges of the Clinton beds. Further to the west, the formation is seen in the Manitoulin Islands. Some of the more instructive expo- sures occur at Queenston, and in the gorge of the Niagara river j at the Welland Canal in Thorold ; at St. Catherines ; near Jordan in Lonth township ; on Stoney Creek, in Saltfleet ; at Hamilton ; Wel- lington Square ; Dundas and its neighborhood ; Waterdown in East Flamborough ; Georgetown ; Esquesing ; on the River Credit in the township of Caledon ; on several creeks in Nottawasaga ; at Owen 8ound and on the Sydenham River ; and at Cape Commodore and along part of the adjacent coast up to Cabot's Head. In Eastern Canada, the Medina and Clinton formation has not been definitely recognised ; but Sir William Logan states that an escarp- ment of red shales overlying the Hudson River series, on the south shore of the St. Lawrence, between the rivers Nicolet and Gentilly, together with another restricted patch of a similar character, in that district, may very probably be referred to the Medina division. The only important economic materials belonging to the formation, are derived from the Grey Band at the top of the Medina beds, and from a dark dolomitic limestone of the Clinton subdivision. The former yields an excellent building stone, and also grindstones of good quality, (Hamilton, Dundas, Waterdown, Georgetown, &c.,) ; whilst from the latter, about Thorold and St. Catherines more especially, a strong water-lime (known as Thorold cement) is largely manufactured. The Niagara Formation ; — The group of strata thus named, in- cludes, in Canada, the upper portion of the Clinton subdivision af recognized by the geologists of the New York Survey, together with Pig. %\9.—Pentamerut oblongm and Internal *a$t. m- MIIf|;«A|4S AV^ GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 183 the Niagara beds proper. Thus defined, the formation consists at its lower part of about twenty feet of dark-grey limestone (in part dolo- mitic, and in which the well-known Pentamerus ohlcmgus, fig. 213, first appears), followed by a considerable thickness of dark, more or less bituminous, thin bedded limestones or calcareous shales, which in their turn are overlaid by dark, thick-bedded limestones, also of a bituminous character. These relations are shewn in the section, fig. 210: beds 4, 5, and 6. At the Falls of Niagara, the calcareous shales make up a thickness of about 80 feet, and the thick-bedded strata which succeed, and over which the cataract breaks, exhibit about the same amount ; but in adjoining localities it attains a thick- ness (f 1 65 feet. Thin bands of gypsum occur in both the shales and limestones ; and the latter contain, in various places, small cavi- ties i^nd fissures filled with crystals of calc spar, pearl spar or dolomite, gyp^m, blende, galena, &c. They often enclose, also, peculiar casts of 4einewhat doubtful origin. The general form of these is ihewn in f^ure 214. Casts of this kind occur not only in the present formation, but likewise occasionally in the Tren- ton limestones, and in the strata of the Onon- daga and various other groups. They are generally known as crystallites or epsomites, and have probably been formed by the infiltra- tion of carbonate of lime into spaces previously occupied by crystalline masses of sulphate of magnesia or soda, or of some other soluble nuncral. Many of the Niagara beds are ex- ceedingly rich in fossils. Some of the more FiK.2u. cliaracteristic of these (in addition to the Penta- merus ohlonyus depicted above) are shewn in the following figures : — ill Jl .■■:■"■(: \f m* Fi)r. "16 —Frtvosiles Goth- laudira (rjoldt'us.s). Pi|r. t\i6,~Halysites cafvnulntuit (Linn^rus). 'i ■Ui m A POPULAR BXP08ITI0M OP TBI ::!!. ^-;: V>h:<: Vis. ill.— PeneaMla elegant Fiff. i\%.—Orthis ele- Fifr. i\9.—apififtr NiagarmttU (Hall).. gantula (D%\mKa). (Oonrad). Pl(t. 220.— «. radiatn* (Sowerby). Fir. i£\.—Dalmannite» limulurus (Oreen). Vig. fiS.—HomaloHotut delphinocephaluM (Oreen). In addition to the above forms, Strophomena rhomboidalU (fig. 232), Atrypa reticularis (fig. 240), Calymene Blumenbachii (fig. 209), with various other species, are likewise more or less abundant. Some of the beds of this formation consist in great part also, of broken Items and other fragmentary remains of crinoids. The Niagara formation (No. 11 in the sketch map, fig. 249) is well displayed around the great Falls and along the gorge of the Niagara River. The abrupt cliff-face or escarpment, which runs with slight interruption from that locality, to Cabot's Head on Georgian Bay, through portions of the Counties of Lincoln, Wentworth, Halton, Peel, Simcoe, and Grey, is made up principally of this series of strata. The formation constitutes also, Fitzroy Island, the " Flower Pots," &c., together with the southern portion of the Manitoulin Islands — from whence, turning to the south west, it extends along the western shore of Lake Michigan. Good exposures occur more particularly at the MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OP CANADA. 185 Falls, and along the Niagara River between these and Queenston ; also on the Welland Canal near Thorold ; in the vicinities of Hamil- ton, Ancaster, Dundas, and Rockwood ; at Belfontaine on the River Credit in the Township of Caledon; at various points in Mono, Mulmur, Nottawasaga, Artemisia, and Euphrasia Townships, where it forms high cliffs, more especially at the Nottawa and Beaver Rivers ; Owen Sound and neighbourhood ; Cape Paulet on Georgian Bay, and along the coast to Cape Chin ; and likewise at Cabot's Head. At this latter locality, the lower part of the cliff, to a height of about 180 feet, consists of the Clinton subdivision — the Niagara beds resting upon this up to the summit of the promontory. The annexed figure exhibits the Niagara and underlying strata as occurring in the gorge of the Niagara River between the Falls (F) and Queenston (Q). The dip of the beds, however, is unavoidably somewhat exaggerated. fig. 223.— Section of the Niagara, Clinton, and Medina strata in the RorKe of the Niagara Birer, between the Falls and Queenston. 1 ■- Red marls and shales (Medina). a — " Grey Band " (Medina). 8-i- Oreenieh shales (Olintou). 4 -^ Lajer of Pentamerus linacstone (Old CUntou ; now referred to the Niagara Oruup). 6 •^ Calcareous shales (Niagara). 6 ^ Niagara limestone. df Drift and Post-Tertiary accurnulalions. i§^ I m V ■ In the accompanying sketch, fig. 224, a section of the rocks across the Falls is shewn, with Goat Island (G) in the centre. No. 5, as in the preceding sketch, indicates the Niagara shales ; No. 6, the thick bedded limestone ; and d the Drift and Post-tertiary deposits. A de- notes the American side, and C the Canadian shore. The Post-terti- ary accumulations will be alluded to more fully iti our description of 1 m A POPtJLAlt BXI»0«ltfphiral Moffaxine for Julv, IMU, ami in tlit> Canadiitn Jnuntal, Vol. VI , p. 221 Aliio u> an it'll' by lluburl Uull.ur tliu Caitatliau QeuluKlcal Survey, la tho Oanadian NaturalUt Vol. VI. MINERALS AND GiiOLOGY OF CANADA. 187 .,i.^ originally recognised : hence the separation of the soHsalled Middle Silurian series — these Anticosti beds being taken as the type of the Ihtter subdivision. The exjiediency of the separation, however, is somewhat questionable. Finally, with regard to the Niagara Formation, it may be observed that limestone strata of apparently the same age, but resting on Huronian rocks, have been discovered at Lake Teniiscamang, north of the great Laurentiau water-shed which separates the northern geolugi- cal area of Canada from the western and eastern areas of the south. See the general sketch of the distribution of our rock formations, a few pages further on. The Guelph Formation : — The rocks of this formation, unlike the Niagara and other Canadian strata, have not been traced beyond the limits of the Province. The " Leclaire limestone " of Iowa, which at one time was thouglit to belong to the same geological horizon, is now referred by Professor Hall to the Niagara subdivision. The Guelph Formation, as known in Canada, follows the more western limit of the Niagara area, and occurs especially in the vicinities of Qalt and Guelph. According to Sir William Logan, it appears tu form a lenticular-shaped mass, gradually thinning out both westward in Lake Huron, and in the neighbourhood of Ancaster, in the east. Its greatest thickness is estimated at about 160 feet. Its strata con- sist essentially of white or light-coloured dolomites mostly of a peculiar semi-crystalline or granular texture. These yield excellent building materials. Many of the enclosed fossils are identical with those of the Nia- gara beds, as Favotitea Gothlandica (iig. 215), Ilalysitea catenulatut (fig. 21G), &c., but others appear to be confined to this foraiation. % ?.<■ ^^, FiK. anadinn exposures are exhibited chiefly near the village of Waterloo, in Bertie township, on the Niagara Kiver ; along the (»rand lliver between Cayuga and Paris, and higher up the stream near the Don Mills j at i I' m m 5: i t in 190 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE ' places near Ayton and Newstadt, in the township of Normanhy, on the Upper Saugeen ; around Walkerton, on the Saugeen River, in Brant township ; and at various points down the river, more espe- cially at the elbow in the south-west corner of Elderslie township, ■ and on the banks of the stream a little below Paisley. At the mouth of the Saugeen, and on the adjacent coast south of this, the forma- tion is concealed by Drift sands and clay. The gypsum or " plaster " deposits constitute the most valuable economic material of the Onondaga beds ; but some of the dolomitic Bliales of the formation, as those at Walkerton, furnish also valuable 'materials for the manufacture of hydraulic cement. The gypsum Is '' principally mined or quarried at Cayuga, Indiana, and York, in the township of Seneca ; also at Mount Healy and elsewhere in the ad- '- joining township of Oneida, on the opposite side of the Grand River ; ' in Brantford township ; and largely around Paris. The annual * amount obtained at present from these localities, is between fourteen and fifteen thousand tons.'*' The Lower Helderberg Group. — The group of rocks thus named, ' is developed somewhat extensively in the vicinity of the Helderberg Mountains and in the eastern part uf New York generally, as well as in the more eastern part of Canada south of the St. Lawrence ; but it thins out towards the west, and presents merely two or three out- lying patches in the neighbourhood of Montreal, and a comparatively narrow strip of slight thickness in Western Canada, between the east- ern end of Lake Erie and the township of Cayuga. It may probably extend beyond this latter point along the western limit of the Onon- daga zone, up to Lake Huron, but no exposures of its strata hare been seen west of that township. This strip, in no place exceeding fifty feet in thickness, consists of the lowest division of the group as subdivided by the New York geologists, or of the equivalents of their " Water-lime Group or Tentaculite Limestone." With us, in Western Canada, it might be called the " Hertic or (.'ayuga dolorrute, as its only known exposures are in those townships ; or a still better term wouhl be the Eurypterus f'ormntion, so named from its principnl and charncteristic fossil : the Euryptertm remipcs, a low form of tl«e crustacean elnss, fit^ured in woodcut 2'J7. In the nlxjvc ((twnsliips its strata ccntsist of thin-bedded greyish dolomites, iuterstrntiHed towards It • TJio irypxuiii, at. (iniirricd, ni-IU at alpdut ^'i f tio tmi. Wlicn irriiMiul for ninimrc, tli« coit iwr tuii i-H nbuul I^^U ; and wltfii oHli'iiidd for jilaMtfi', about tlftevii or sixtei'ii dullarH. ^.^ I) MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA| the base with a few brownish shales, and witL a brecciated bed composed chiefly of dolomite fragments. ■■•i i At St. Helen's Island and Round Island, opposite Montreal, on , Isle bizard, and at one or two neighbouring localities, some outlying or small isolated patches of conglo- meritic rock, referred to the Lower Hel- derberg division, have been recognised of late years. Their existence was first pointed out by Dr. Dawson. They are made up of fragments of various rocks, gneiss, Trenton limestone, Ftica shale, syenite, &c>, cemented together by a paste of greyish dolomite. These con- glomerates are regarded as patches of strata once continuous with the Lower Helderberg series of eastern New York, theif removal in intervening areas having been effected by denudation. The lime- stones and shales which at Cape Gasp^, and elsewhere in that region, rest un- conformably on the dark shales of the Calciferous or Quebec formation, are likewise referred by Sir William Logan to the Lower Helderberg group. Tbese beds are, at present, known provisionally as the " Upper 6asp6 Limestones" — the lower limestones of the Gaspfe series, already alluded to as occurring on the Chatt< , Rimouski, and other rivers of that district, being referred to the Middle Silurian period. See the remarks on this point, under the Niagara formation, above. Devonian Strata. — The rock formations of Devonian age, occurring in Canada, are restricted to the following subdivisions (here named in ascending order) : — (1), The Oriskany Formation; (2), The Corni- ferous Formation; (3), The Hamilton Formation; and (4), The Portage and Chemung Group. Of these, however, Nos. 1 and 4 are but very slightly developed. It is in the Devonian strata, it will be remembered, (at least as regards this continent) that we find the first traces of vertebrated life and of land vegetation. The Oiisknuy Formation. — In Canada the so-called Oriskany beds consist essentially of white or brownish sandstones of both fine and coarse grain, averaging about seven or eight feet in thickness. These rest on a layer of chert or hornstone. The latter contains FiR. 287. Euryptenu remipet (reduced). W m >«! * ■■■i, : J ■ "it' 1 192 A POPlTLAm EXPOSITION OF THE much iron pyrites ; and the hottom heds of the sandstone present here and there a hrecciated structure, being chiefly made up of frag- ments of this chert. Fossils are very abundant, but the greater num- ber appear to be identical with those of the overlying Corniferous formation. This fact, combined with the cherty character of the beds, renders the separation of the two groups little more than a mere arbitrary distinction. Amongst other forms, the following may be enumerated as especially abundant : — Favosites Gothlandica (fig. 215), Zaphrentis prolifica (fig. 230), Strophomena rhomboidalis (fig. 232), Atrypa reticularis (fig. 240), Stricklandia elongata (fig. 236), Pentw merua aratus (fig. 235), and Calymene Blumenlachii (fig. 209). This formation, which is somewhat extensively developed in the State of New York, enters Western Canada in Bertie township (about opposite to Buffalo) and appears to extend as a thin band along the southern edge of the Eurypterus or Onondaga deposits, at least as far as the County of Norfolk ; but the only known exposures occur at places in the townships of Bertie, Dunn, North Cnyuga, Oneida, and Windham. From the exposure in North Cayuga, a little north of the Talbot road, good millstones have been obtained.* The'Oriskany formation is probably represented in Eastern Canada, according to Sir William Logan, by some of the sandstones of Little Gaspe and that district. A small seam of coal, under two inches in thickness, occurs in these beds, together with numerous carhonized plants. The latter have been described and figured by Dr. Dawson in the Canadian IfaturaUsf, vols. V. and VL The Corniferoua Formation. — This group of strata includes the «• Onondaga limestone " and the " Corniferous limestone" of the New York ideologists. Its name is derived from the occurrence of nodular masses and layers of chert or hornstone in many of its beds. It is made up essentially of liinestoncs, generally free from magnesia, but often highly bituminous, combined with layers of chert, and with a few beds of calcareous sandstone and an occasional band of bitumi- nous shale. The total thickness of the formation, with us, is apparently under 200 feet, but this is somewhat doubtful. The limestones are exceedingly fossiliferous ; and in places (more especially towards the base of the formation) they abound in fragments of crinoids and other organic remains in a silicified condition. The fossils, indeed, are • These are iimnuraw»ville, iioar Cayufta. in HaldiniaiKi Couitty : from wliom, also, iiitercHtiiig suitvn of fosaiU, buloiiging to the formJktlon* of that diulriet, ma> bo procured. MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 193 mostly, though not entirely, in this condition throughout the group. They have formed the nuclei, to which, during the consolidation of the strata, much of the cherty matter has been attracted. In some of the silicified corals and brachiopods, petroleum is also found. A few of the more important^ organic remains are shown in the annexed figures :— :":?fi| 'V,J ■ . 'i i li't Pig. 828. Mtiehelinea convexa (D^rbigny). Fig.889L Syringopora Maelurei (BiUings). FiS.2S0. Zaphrtntis proliflM (BUUngi). li'' ^^ V ':.( .«.«" Fig. 231. C^tiphtfUum Seneeam»$ (BilUnga). Fig. ssa. Strophomena rhomboidali$ (Wftlilenberg). Fig. 233. Spirifergregarint (Hnll). Pig. 2a4. Athyris Clara (UllliiiK«). FiK. 2315. Penlamerus aralutt (Conrad). IN A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF TBE . li. .!.'*«illv;. Fig. 23fi. Stricktandia elongata (Billings). Tig. 237. Phaoopa bufa (Green). In addition to these forms, Spirt fer mucronatus (fig. 238), Spirt' ^era coticentrica (fig. 239), and Atrypa reticularis (fig. 240), may also be mentioned as being of common occurrence. The Corniferous formation (No. 16 in the sketch-map, fig. 249) occupies two extensive areas in Western Canada, although covered and obscured in most places by Drift accumulations. These areas comprise portions of the counties of Welland, Haldimand, Norfolk, Brant, Oxford, Perth, Huron, and Bruce, on the one hand, and parts of Kent, Essex, and Lambton on the other. A comparatively broad tract, occupied by the Hamilton formation, intervenes between these two areas. The latter formation, as shewn some years ago by Sir William Logan, rests in a depression on the summit of a flat but im- portant anticlinal which traverses this western peninsula in a general east and west direction. Exposures of Corniferous strata occur more particularly on or near to the shore of Lake Erie in the townships of Bertie, Humberstone (Rama's Farm, near Port Colborne), Dunn, Rainham, Walpole, Woodhouse, &c. ; also in North and South Cayuga ; near Woodstock village ; largely at St. Mary's ; in Car- rick township, on a branch of the Maitland, and also in the adjoining township of Brant ; at Point Douglas on Lake Huron, and elsewhere along the coast, in the townships of Bruce and Kincardine ; further south, near Port Albert, and on the Maitland, near Goderich ; and also at the extreme west of the peninsula, as near Amherstburg, on the River Detroit. Many of these exposures, and more especially that of the last- named locality in Maiden township on the Detroit, furnish excellent MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 195. building materials ; but the Coruiferous formatiooi is chiefly of im- portance, in an economic point of view, as the supposed source of the great oil supply of this western region. As the oil-wells in successful operation, however, occur entirely within the central area, across which, as stated above, the Hamilton formation extends, their discussion will , be entered into in connexion with the latter series of strata. In Eastern Canada, the Corniferous formation is undoubtedly repre- liented by a portion of the Gaspe deposits, and probably also by some of the altered strata of the Eastern Townships. The beautiful yellow- veined marbles of Dudswell are thought to be of this age. In Gasp6 likewise, as near Douglastown and elsewhere in that district, petroleum springs occur in Devonian strata referrible either to this series, or to the somewhat lower horizon of the Oriskany Formation. The Hamilton Formation. — The name of this formation must not be confounded with that of Hamilton in Canada : a city situated on strata (the Medina) of a much lower geological horizon. As a mis- conception of this kind often occurs, it is almost to be regretted that our Provincial Geologist did not in this instance depart from the usual and strictly legitimate plan, and propose for the group in question a Canadian or palaeontological name. It might be called appropri- ately the Lambton or Goniatite formation, the latter type first appear- ing in the beds of this series. The term " Hamilton," as at present applied to the group* is from the village of that name in Madison County, New York. The American geologists usually subdivide the formation into three groups, distinguished chiefly by lithological cha- racters. The lowest group consists of dark bituminous schists known as the Marcellus shales ; the second group, or Hamilton group proper, is made up of argillaceous and other shales or flags, with an inter- stratified bed of encrinal limestone, and in some places an overlying limestone bed called the Tully limestone ; finally, the third or upper- most group is composed of dark shales closely resembling those of the first division, and known as Genesee shales. Some observers separate these latter, however, from the Hamilton formation, and place them in the succeeding Portage group : a view adopted by the Canadian Survey. The Marcellus shales thin out greatly towards the west ; and on entering Canada, the formation appears to consist. only of the second group ; but its junction with the underlying Corni- ferous strata has not yet been observed. It crosses the counties of Norfolk, Elgin, Kent, Middlesex, Lambton, and the 80u<'h part of Huron ; but is much obscured throughout by overlying Dritc deposits. m ^'■■i"i.i m m 'A ■■|! i t 196 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE The best and almoslithe only known exposures occur in the township- of Bosanquet in the north-west corner of the county of Lambton* As there seen, its strata are composed of soft grey calcareous shales, with one or two beds of encrinal limestone. Sir William Logan esti- mates the total thickness of the formation, with us, at about 300 feet. The shales contain numerous fossils, the most abundant, perhaps, being the four species figured below.* Fig. 238. Spiiifer mucronatu$ (Connd). Fig. 839. Spirigera ooneenMea (Von Buob). Fig. 240. Atrypa reOcularit (LinnsBUs). Fig. Ml. Orthia Vanuxtmi (BilUngs). In addition to these, several corals and some other brachiopods are of common occurrence ; and examples of the trilobite, Phacops hvfo, fig. 237> are often met with. Petroleum Springs and Wells, — As stated on a preceding page, the celebrated " oil-wells " of Western Canada are principally situated within the area occupied by the Hamilton shales, although the oil itself, more properly known as petroleum or fluid bitumen, is thought to arise from the underlvina; Corniferous formation. The existence *Thu8o Hpccic's occur nlHoalxindaiitly in the Corniferous formation ; and Atrypa retiow larit ia found as low down as the Clinton group. MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 197 of natural springs of petroleum in the valley of the Thames, appears to have been known to the Indians long before the clearing of that district. Under the name of " Seneca oil," the petroleum from these sources was employed as a popular remedy for rheumatism, &c., by the early settlers, who are said to have learnt the use of it from the Indians of the locality. In the Geological Report of the Canadian Survey, for 1850, Mr. Murray pointed out the occurrence of several of these so-called " oil springs " in the townships of Mosa and Ennis- killen ; and in the Report of the succeeding year, attention was called to a deposit in that district of bitumen or mineral tar, arising from the thickening or drying up of petroleum overflows. One of these concreted petroleum deposits occurs in the southern part of Ennis- killen, forming two detached portions of about an acre each, and varying in thickness from about a couple of inches to two feet. Another deposit of a similar character, three or four inches in thickness, has been since discovered in the northern part of the township, eight or ten feet beneath the surface of the ground. It occurs in Drift clay above a stratum of gravel. Subsequently ta the announcement of the natural springs of this locality, others have been found in the townships of Zone and Orford ; and some also near Tilsonburg, in the township of Dereham. These latter lie beyond the limits of the Hamilton formation, or over the Corniferous lime- stone ; and petroleum has been obtained by wells from that rock. In 1857i the idea occurred to Mr. Williams, of Hamilton, CVf., then engaged in the distillation of the solid bitumen of Enniskillen, to bore through the Drift clays of that district into the underlying^ rock beds, in the hope of striking subterranean reservoirs of the petroleum, such as had been shown to occur in Ohio and Pennsyl- vania — and his attempt was rewarded by an almost unexpected suc- cess. At the present time about one hundred wells or bore-holes have been put down in Enniskillen alone. Many of these were at first " flowing-wells," the petroleum rising above the surface of the ground ; but after flowing for some time, the action in the greater number suddenly ceased. Some, however, still continue to flow. Altogether, an immense quantity of petroleum has been obtained from these sources. The wells in Enniskilhrn are of two kinds, known respectively as surface and rock wells. The former pass through the soil and Drift clay to a depth of about 50 or 60 feet into a stratum of gravel imme- Mm m m i s P ;i' 198 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE diately above the rock ; whilst the latter are continued into the rock itself, to an average depth of from 50 to 150 feet. The discharge . from the wells is accompanied, in many cases, by salt water, and by emissions of inflammable gas. In some of the wells which have ceased to yield petroleum, salt water has taken the place of the rock oil. ,.., „ , The fissures or reservoirs in which the petroleum occurs, are appa^ rently of restricted size, and very irregular in their course. Whilst in some instances, neighbouring wells afPect each other, and thus evi- dently draw their supply from the same immediate source, in other instances, borings put down close to wells in active operation, and: carried even to a greater depth, have failed to strike the oil fissure. The origin of the petroleum is involved in great obscurity. Two views have been suggested in explanation of its occurrence. One of these connects the presence of the rock oil with the great coal deposits of Michigan, or those of Ohio and Pennsylvania. The coal-bearing strata of these districts occupy a much higher geological position than the petroleum-containing beds of "Western Canada. The Penn- sylvania coal strata are geologically over 10,000 feet above these latter ; and a thickness of 860 feet intervenes between the top of the Hamilton formation and the coal deposits of Michigan. A long interval of time must therefore have elapsed between the deposition of the two series of strata. But the petroleum may have been gene- rated in the Michigan beds at some subsequent epoch, and have been carried along a system of fissures into our Devonian rocks : the two formations, owing to the dip of the strata, occupying very nearly the same topographical elevations. Several facts are opposed, however, to this view. In the first place, no evidence of the occurrence of liquid petroleum amongst the Michigan coal seams has hitherto been obtained, neither are any reservoirs of petroleum known in coal rocks of other localities ; secondly, small quantities of petroleum and of solid bitumen, (a closely allied substance) occur in various strata far below, and topographically far removed from coal deposits ; and thirdly, the direct distance between the rim of the Michigan coal field and the oil district of Enniskillen is at least 80 miles, so that the existence of continuous fissures of communication between the two is not very probable. The second view regards the rock oil as originating within the strata in which it occurs, by some pieculiar decomposition of facoidt MINERALS AND GEOLOUY OF CANADA. iWi Ck •ge of animal remains. Fucoids or sea-weeds, it must be remembered, are the only vegetable matters hitherto discovered amongst the fossil- ized bodies of our Silurian and Lowr Devonian rocks. But if we adopt this view, we must adopt, also, certain other and apparently ' unwarrantable conclusions. The organic remains of these strata are nbt more numerous than those of other strata in which not the slightest traces even of petroleum have been found ; neither do they present any characters peculiar to themselves and suggestive of oil-forming- capabilities. Hence we have to infer the existence in the Devonian 86as in which these deposits were laid down, of a vast abundance of soft-bodied animals, or sea-weeds, of a nature altogether unknown : a most gratuitous supposition. The enormous quantity of petroleum yielded by these sources, and by others in the American States and elsewhere, renders the formation of this substance from sea weeds or perishable animal remains in the highest degree improbable. But are we absolutely driven to the adoption of either of the above views, in order to explain the occurrence of petroleum in our Devo- nian strata ? The question mainly turns upon this : Are we forced to assume with certain chemico-geologists — who refuse all explanation^ of natural phenomena incapable of being rendered evident by labora tory experiments-^that all forms of carbon, and all compounds into which carbon enters (with the sole exception of carbonic acid, and that only in part) are necessarily of organic derivation ? With all respect for laboratory investigations, some of which have shed much light on obscure geological problems, it cannot be doubted that this view assumes too much. There are many facts, universally recognized as such, which chemistry is quite unable to explain. The allotropic conditions of certain simple bodies, for instance, carbon amongst the number ; the existence of chlorine, oxygen, &c., in the solid state in the greater number of their compounds ; the peculiar condition of water in hydrated substances, and so forth. We have the positive fact likewise that carbon exists, as such, in meteoric stones ; that it separates often in crystalline scales from molten iron ; and that it is present in steel, a fusion-product, also, as sometimes prepared. Why, then, are we debarred from assuming its existence amongst the primary or original components of the earth-mass ? During volcanic outbreaks in many parts of the world, petroleum has frequently made its appear^ ance, through fissures on the sea-bed, or around the volcanic vent, as lite of the products of the eruption. This was memorably the case I':. i. ■^ lis m ■ i n I to 1 I I it I I « 200 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE in the eruption of Vesuvius in 1861.* The great petroleum springs of Central Asia, which have been flowiug for ages also, with those of Zante (trentioned by Herodotus) and others of different localities, lie essentially in areas oi volcanic action ; and the so-called mud-vol- canoes often pour out large quantities of bituminous matter, mixed with other products. It might be argued that in these cases the petroleum is derived from deeply-seated coal beds, but of this we have no proof. And when we consider the fact that small quantities of bitumen and petroleum occur in rocks geologically far older than those of the coal series, we have an equal right to assume that these matters may be generated, without the aid of organic bodies, by un- known chemical action within the crust of the earth, and m^y be poured out through fissures from time to time, both amongst deposits under process of accumulation, and amongst others already consoli- dated.f In this manner, I imagine, our petroleum springs of Western Canada have originated. And I would go beyond this, and refer to the same action a leading part in the formation of all bituminous shales, and of coal seams generally. In the latter case, the liquid bitumen or petroleum may be conceived to have flowed into broad marshes, or over low-lying districts, in which an abundant vegetation was under growth. The vegetable matters thus saturated and mixed up with the thickening petroleum, would add their substance to the formation of the coal, and would be chiefly instrumental perhaps in imparting to this its peculiar character. On this view, the formation of bituminous shales by the saturation of the finer kinds ot sedimen- tary matter by petroleum overflows, becomes readily explained ; and also the close agreement in character which exists between the shales of the coal measures and those of many Silurian strata. The old view does not explain these points in a satisfactory manner. The petroleum theory likewise obviates the necessity of assuming the growth of an enormous and unparalleled vegetation during the Carboniferous period; and it explains why the vegetation of after |>eriods so rarely yielded coal — the outflows of petroU'um having chiefly taken place during the Carboniferous epoch, ond only locally at other times. The Portage and Cheniiivy (irnup. — The rocks of this }j;roup, 80 largely developed in the peninsula uf Michigan and other districts of • See CatuuliaH Joumul, vol. vU , p. 180. t -t the term " uiikiidwii ( liciiiiral action " be liorH ohjoitod to, wi may rcfiT, ii;:inii|nt other vHiu'it, to tlint of tli<- (liiiiiKHKl: a Nulmtaiioe uertaiiily foniiud by cliuiiiical actiuii, bul of a kind altuK<'tliur uiiknoNVit to ui«. MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 201 m. ing» se of lie vol- ixed the the American States, occur with us in the form only of a few isolated and inconsiderable patches. These consist of black and highly bitu- minous shales — the probable equivalents of the "Genesee slates,'* referred by some observers, as already explained, to the Hamilton formation. The principal locality of these shales is Cape Ipperwash, or Kettle Point, in the township of Bosanquet on Lake Huron ; but they occur also nearly twenty miles inland from this point, on a creek near Kingston Mills in the south part of the township of Warwick ; and also, still further inland, in the township of Brooke. The shales weather dull-grey, and those of Cape Ipperwash are occasionally coated with a yellow crust of oxalate of iron (see Part II, under "Humboldtine"). They contain large spherical concretions (with radiated internal structure) of carbonate of lime ; and also much iron pyrites. In the shales of Kettle Point, likewise, long flattened stems of vegetable forms (mostly referred to the Calamites inornatus of Dawson) are of common occurrence ; and impressions of fish scales are met with in those of Warwick. The thickness of the exposure at Kettle Point is under fifteen feet ; and it is still less than this at the other localities. Carhoniferons "Strata. — The Bonavenfure Formation. — The only locality at which Carboniferous strata occur in Canada is the south- eastern extremity of Gaspe. Exj)osurc8 of great thickness range along the Bay of Chaleurs and the coast of Perti', and enter Gaspo Bay. These Cnrhoniferous strata occur conseciuently, for the greater part, in the district of llonaventure ; and as they make up the entire portion of the island of that name, off Perco, Sir WiUiam Logan has bestowed upon them the name of the lionavoifi'rp Fonnatlon. Th'^y consist essentially of conglomerates, associated with red and brown sandstones and some reddisli sliales. The eonu;lonierates are made up of pehl)les of limestone, saiidstone, syenite, agate, quartz, and other rock-matters, held together hy an arenaceous or \mxi\y calcareous cement. Many impressions and casts of vegetal)lo remains occur throughoul this formation, hut its beds are apparently destitute of coal. Tiioy beh)ng to the base of tiu' coal series, ))roper ; and evidently form a portion of the northern rim of the New Briuiswiek coal field. The Bonaventure Formation rests unconforniably on ti»e (Jaspi^ sandstones and limestones, and dips generally towards the south-east. According to Sir William Logan, it presents a total thickness of about 300 feet. m 4'' i. I ' *1 ; I* in I r: 1' H . '■[- J02 it -A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE SKETCH-MAP OF THE GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS OF WESTERN CANADA. Fig. 249. MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA* MS V.' i^hn J,; 'ErU Group. Grand River ( Group \ Niagara or Jnti-\ eotti Group- \ References to Map on preceding page. Devonian Sbriis: No. 18. Portage and Chemung Group, (Kettle Point Form.) IT. Hamilton (or Lambton) Formation. 16. Corniferous Formation. 16. Oriskany Formation. Upper Silubiam Sibikb: 14. Eurypterus Formation, or Lower Helderberg Group. 13. Onondaga or Gypsiferous Formation. ' HiDDLl SiLtBIAN SiBUS : 12. Guelph Formation. 11. Niagara Formation. 10. Glinton Formation. 0. Medina Formation. ' LowKR Silurian Sibiss: , ■i Ontario Group. Quebec Group. | Potidam G.(inpart.) .Azoic Group. \ 8. Hudson River Formation. t. Utica Formation. t 6. Trenton (including Bird's Eye and Black River) Pn. 5. Ohazy Formation, 4. Calciferous Formation. > 3. Potsdam Formation. Azoic Sebibs : 2. ITuroninn Formation. 1. Laurcntiiin Formation. 'it! 204 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE THE POST-TERTIARY DEPOSITS OF CANADA. Under this term, we include three series of deposits : the Drift or Glacial series, the Post-glacial series, and certain still more recent accumulations. These, though properly distinct, merge so gradually into each other, that no actual lines of demarcation can be drawn between them. The Drift, or Glacial Formation proper, consists of thick beds of clay, sand, and gravel, with boulders or transported stones of various kinds and sizes, spread generally over the surface of the country, and extending on this continent to about 40° N. latitude. It does not ap- pear to contain any fossils. Those cited as belonging to it, come properly from Post-glacial deposits. When these Drift materials are removed from the underlying rocks, the surface of the latter (where not in a partial state of disintegration) is generally found to be worn down, so as to present a smooth or even polished condition, and is traversed also by numerous thin lines or grooves, running in a ge- ne: a1 north and south direction — that is to say from some point between N. W. and N. E., towards the opposite direction in the south. The boulders vary in size from mere pebbles to masses of many tons* weight, and consist of all kinds of rock. In some places they belong to rock-mnsses of the immediate locaUty, but far more generally they have been transported by some powerful ngency from other and dis- tant sites. With the exception of certain mountainous localities, in which the boulder-courses radiate around central points, these travel- led stones have been derived (ns regards the northern hemisphere) in- varialily from northward-lying regions. In Canada, the greater num- ber of bouldi-rs consist of gneiss or other varieties of rock belonging to the great Laiu'eutian area descril)ed in a preceding part of this Essay ; but where limestone or other strata oceur in the im- mediate neighbourhood to the north, tlie^e gueissoid boulders are often mixed with pebbles and transported masses derived from (he latter beds. Like the surface of the underlving rock, many boulders are smoothed down ujtou one side, ami exhibit, upon this, delicate parallel furrows. Polished anil striated roek-surfaces oceur, in Canada, on the north shores of Lakes Superior and Huron ; on the Bine Mountains, ('oUingwood township, at an elevation of about l,r)0() feet above tlie sea ; in the vicinity of Niagara Falls ; the neighbourhoods of Belle- ville, Kingston, Marmora, Bruckville, Ottawa, Montreal, Quebec ; and MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA 295 at Other localities.*' These drift-heds vary in thickness from a mere coating in some spots, to over 100 feet in others. In all places they rest upon denuded surfaces. As a general rule, the lower beds consist of calcareous clays, frequently, if not usually, free from boulders ; whilst sand, gravels, and boulders, mixed here and there with seams of clay (mostly free from lime), make up the higher portions of the mass. The conditions under which these various matters appear to have been accumulated, will be referred to presently. The Post-glacial deposits consist, like those of the true Drift epoch, of beds of clay, sand, and gravel, with here and there a few boulders ; and they appear to have been derived in most instances from re-distri- buted Drift materials. Hence they are often designated by the term of Modified Drift. In Canada, east of the gneissoid belt of the upper St. Lawrence, and throughout the New England States of the North- ern Union, these Post-glacial deposits contain marine and estuary shells, refer rible for the greater part, if not wholly, to species of moUusca now existing in the Gulf of the St. Lawrence, or along the coast from Labrador to Cape Cod. Shells of this kind, mixed with a few other marine types {Balani, &c., see Part IV), occur at various heights above the sea level, extending, as regards Canada, up to about 500 feet. Some of the principal localities of their occurrence, comprise : Kemptville in Oxford Township, Grenville Co. (about 250 ft.) ; Win- chester Township, Dundas Co. (about 300 ft.) ; Kennyon and Lochiel Townships, Glengarry Co. (2/0-300 ft.) ; Fitzroy Township on the Upper Ottawa, Carleton Co. (360 ft.) ; Green's Creek on the Ottawa, (about 120 ft.) ; Montreal Mountain (various heights up to nearly 500 feet), and environs of Montreal generally ; Upton, Eastern Townships (about 270 ft.) ; Beauport near Quebec (about 120 ft.); Mouth of the River Goaffre (130-360 ft.); Shore of the River Matanne in Gaspe (about 50 ft.) ; Banks of the River M^tis (130-245 ft.) ; and terraces of the R"ver Ste. Anue and Riviere du Loup. At Green's Creek on the Ottawa, the shell beds contain, also, examples of the capelin (Mallotus villosus) and the lump-sucker {Cyclostomw* lutn- pu/i) ; and the remains of the northern seal (Phoca Oreenlandica), with detached vertebric of a whale, have been discovered in the Montreal deposits. Professor Dawson divides the Eastern Post-glacial beds into two ' As rejtards localltleB In Westorn Canada, see papers by the author, in Canadian Jour* •all vol. V. p. 41( aud vol. VI. p. 221. li 1-^ I T 206 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE series : a comparatively deep-sea deposit, the " Leda clay ; " and a shallow-sea or shore-line deposit, the " Saxicava Sand." Some of the more characteristic fossils of the Leda clay, comprise : Leda Port- landica, and Rhynconella paittacea ; and those of the upper group : Saxicava rugosa, Mya truncata, Tellina ^ranlandica, and £ueeinu» undatum.* Tig. 248. Ltda Portlandiett. Pig. 243. Ehynconella psittaeea. Piff.ZM. Saxieava ntgota. FIr. 245. Mya truncata. FiK. 246. Tellina gnenlandica. FiR. 247. Buecinum undaium. *Tho reader is rcfcrrrd fur tifcures of the othrr fossils of these Post» by Robert Bel], of the Geological Survey of Canada, in the Canadian Naturalist for February, 1S61. Tills was followecl by a more ex» tended article by the author of this work (who had previoUHly communicated some of his observations to Mr. Bell), read before the Canadian Institute \n March, 1861, and published In the Canadian Journal, vol. vi„ p, 221, and in the Philosophical Magazine for July of that year. In this paper, the former union of our lake waters, and the lacustrine oriKin of the terraces north of Toronto, Ac, was first malntnuipd. A succeeding paper by the author {Canadian Journal, November, 1861, vol. vi.,p. 497), described a remarkable locality— first made known to him by one of his students, Mr. A. E. Williamson, of Toronto— in which untos and other fresh-water types occur in vswH abundance, near the Nottawasags Blrer, bttweeo Lake Simcoe and Georgian Bay, il i i«: :• 'I 'I I I i! 208 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE along the gneisaoid belt of the Upper St. Lawrence : the line, it will be remembered, which separates the eastern or marine deposits of this period from those of lacustrine origin. In this connexion, it is inter- esting to observe that in the township of Fakenham (as discovered by Andrew Dickson, £sq.,) and also in that of Augusta, both immediately adjacent to this gneissoid belt, a few fresh-water types have been found in conjunction with shells of Tellina Greenlandica, (fig. 246), a marine or brackish-water species. The destruction of this barrier — whether of ice or rock — accompanied probably, and perhaps occa- sioned, by a gradual and periodically-interrupted depression of the eastern country, eventually lowered the waters to their present levels, and caused the formation, by denuding action, of the various ridges and terraces which occur so prominently throughout the lake districts. Those north of Toronto, described as ridges by Sir Charles Lyell, and thought by him to be of marine origin, are really a succession of ter- races rising one above another up to a height of about 7G0 feet above the present surface of Lake Ontario, and then successively descending towards Lake Simcoe and Georgian Bay — their abrupt or escarped faces being always in the direction of the nearest lake. The moUusca of this region during the Post-glacial period, appear to have been throughout identical with those of our present lakes and rive""? ; and most of the mammalia were of the same genera and species as those which now inhabit Canada. Of this latter class, the more common remains comprise the jaws and rthcr parts of the common beaver {Castor fiber) ; the horns and bones of the Wapiti {Elaphus Canadensis*) ; and the teeth and skull of the black bear (JJrsus Amerieanus). Two at least, however, of the mammals that roam- ed over the shores of the great lake region during the period in question, are extinct. These are the Mammoth, an extinct species of Elephant, {Elephas primiffcnius) ; and the Mastodon (M. Ohioticus?). Their remains, hitherto found with us, consist mostly of detached molar teeth (fig. 248) ; but examples, more or less entire, of the skull and FiR.248. tusks have also been discovered. trSote tSth of SS^t^rokS:^: The sediments in which these occur. * The WspiU, although at on« time common throughout Canada, ia now only to be found in the extreme northern and north>weitern rcgioni. and will probably become extinct at no distant dajr. MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 209 appear to be of the same age and character as those which at Amiens, Abbeville, Creil, Suffolk, Bedford, and elsewhere, contain flint imple- ments of rude manufacture, mixed with the remains of the mam- moth and other types, both living and extinct. The arrow-heads and other stone implements so constantly found in our Canadian super- ficial deposits, are of a much less primitive character, however, and belong in all probability to a comparatively recent date. Conditions under which the Drift amd Post-glacial deposits were accumulated. — It is now universally admitted that the various deposits of the Drift, and immediately succeeding period, were accumulated under conditions more or less resembling those which at present pre- vail in Arctic latitudes. This conclusion is based chiefly on the following facts: — (1). The resemblance of the polished, rounded, and striated surface of the rocks beneath the Drift, to the surface-rocks of Alpine regions in which glaciers prevail, or to those which in higher latitudes • have been subjected to glacial action generally. (2.) The greater development and extension of glaciers in these regions, during the interval between the close of the Cainozoic period and the commencement of the existing epoch, properly so-called. (3.) The evident signs of the occurrence of ancient glaciers in lower and more southern districts during the same period. (4.) The appa- rent impossibility of any other agency than that of ice to have effected the transportation of the numerous boulders scattered throughout Drift-covered regions : many of these boulders, including some of large size, having been carried across lakes, seas, ravines, and other obstacles, to far distant localities. And (5), the general arctic or northern character of the mollusca, &c., found in the modified drift or Post-glacial deposits of various countries. The fossils which occur in Cainozoic strata, prove clearly the preva- lence of a warm, if not of a tropical ^climate, throughout the period during which these strata were deposited. Towards the close of the Cainozoic Age, however, the relative levels of land and water, through- out all the more northern and extreme southern portions oi the globe, appear to have undergone great though gradual changes, dm Ing which, a period of increasing cold came slowly on, covering all the more ele- vated districts with enormous glaciers, filling the sea with floating icebergs, and compelling a general southerly migration of such life- forms as were able, by this or other means, to resist its destructive influence. The greater part of Canada must certainly have been s iij.: '!■■ tl til' I 11 * '1 ¥ I 1 210 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE submerged beneath the sea, during a portion at least of this period* The polishing and striation of the rocks may have been occasioned in part by glaciers, and in part by stranded icebergs ; but the trans* portation of the boulders from the northern districts, southwards, must have been chiefly effected by the agency of the latter : just as at the present day, large masses of granitic and other rocks are dropped over the bed of the Atlantic by the melting of the icebergs on which they travel from the north. It should be mentioned that, as a general rule, these icebergs are nothing more than fragments detached from the extremities of arctic glaciers, where the latter reach the level of the sea. The stones brought down by these enormous ice-rivers, or broken off their rocky shores, collect in large heaps at their lower extremities, and many are thus floated off" by the detached bergs, and conveyed over broad oceanic spaces to distant and more southern spots. That the country east of the gneissoid belt of the Upper St, Lawrence was beneath the sea to a depth of at least 500 feet at one period of this glacial epoch, is shown by the numerous deposits containing marine and estuary fossils, which occur, as explained above, throughout that area and the adjoining New England States. The same thing is proved also for both portions of the province, by the thick masses of drift clay, &c., which could only have been accumuL- lated under water. As regards Western Canada — and this may pro- bably apply to eastern districts likewise — a gradual submersion of the Paleeozoic or more southern portion must first have taken place, since the lower clays are highly calcareous, and are evidently derived from the Silurian and Devonian strata immediately beneath or closely adja- cent to their areas of deposition. The depression still continuing, the higher lands and gneissoid strata of the north would be brought within the influence of the waves, and thus the sands, gravels, and boulders of the Upper Drift deposits, would be gradually accumulated. A re-sorting of these materials must have occurred to some extent during the subsequent elevation of the country, producing, in part, the various post-glacial deposits ; although in the western region, most of these latter must have been formed by the great lake-waters which extended over this area, as described on a preceding page, after the final elevation of the land. The cold of the Drift period, with its accompanying phenomena, came on gradually, and as gradually diminished in intensity ; or, in other words, these glacial manifesta- tions shrunk back slowly, ^fter a certain lapse of time, to within the MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 211 higher latitudes and Alpine elevations in which they still preyail. No strong or abrupt lines of demarcation can thus be drawn between the close of the Cainozoic Age and the dawn of the existing state of things. The one period merged slowly into the other ; and certain life-forms, indeed, appear to have existed throughout all the changes which occa- sioned and accompanied the general deposition of the Drift. Recent Deposits : — ^These comprise various formations, of limited thickness and extent, produced by causes now, or recently, in action at the localities in which these deposits occur. The principal consist of: Shell marl, calcareous tufa, bog iron ore, ochres, and peat. Shell marl is a soft calcareous deposit made up largely of the minute shells of cer- tain species of planorbis, cyclas, and other fresh-water moUusks. It occurs at the bottom of almost all our lakes, ponds, and swamps ; and sometimes forms near the margin of these, a bed of several feet in thickness. This lies usually at a short depth beneath the surface of the ground. It shows the former extension of the pond or swamp near which it is met with. Several specimens, examined by the wri- ter, contained nothing but carbonate of lime mixed with a little sand ; but some are said to contain phosphate of lime. The substance on exposure to the atmosphere becomes about as hard as ordinary chalk. Calcareous tufa is a deposit of carbonate of lime on moss, twigs stones, &c., and is of very common occurrence in many of our smaller streams. Good specimens of a solid structure, capable of receiving a fine polish, are produced by some of the springs whi -"h issue from cre- vices in the Niagara escarpment, as at places near Hamilton, Rock- wood, Falls of Noisy River, and other localities along the line of coun- try through which the escarpment runs. A large deposit occurs also on the Beaver River, in the townships of Euphrasia and Artemisia. See under the " Niagara Formation," above. Boff Iron Ore (see Part II.) is a hydrated sesquioxide of iron, a variety of Brown Iron Ore or Limonite. It arises from the decompo- sition of iron pyrites and other ferruginous substances in rocks and soils, and the after solution of the oxide of iron, thus formed, by water containing free carbonic acid or organic acids. The iron compounds dissolved by this agency, and carried into swamps and other low-lying places, are there deposited, and are subsequently converted into hy- drated sesquioxide. Patches of this kind are also occasionally found on hill tops and sides, by deposition from springs containing ferrugi- nous matter. This bog ore occurs in small quantities in numerous lo- m ',■1 T ■ i 'ti > 212 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THS calities throughout the Province; but largely in Norfolk County, C. "W"., and along the north side of the St. Lawrence, especially in the Three Rivers District, and in the counties of Vaudreuil and Bellechasse, Canada East. The iron ochres, generally associated vnth the bog oce, have a similar origin (see descriptions of these, in Part II.) The red ochre is anhydrous, but the brown and yellow varieties contain a cer- tain amount of water, usually about 20 per cent. Economic Materials of the Post-Tertiary Deposits : — ^These com- prise, Goldj Bog Iron Ore, Ochres, Brick Clay, Shell Marl, Moulding Sand, and Peat. Gold : — Native gold in fine grains, including here and there a small nugget, occurs in the Post-Tertiary sands of the metamorphic region south of thc^St. Lawrence : or throughout the area lying between the River Richelieu and the Gaspe peninsula ; and more especially along the valleys of the St. Francis, Chaudiere, Riviere des Plantes, Etche- min, and Riviere des Loups. (See under " Native Gold," in Part II., B. I.) Boff Iron Ore : — The principal localities of this substance are given above. The ore, at present, is only melted at the Radnor Furnaces, Batiscan, C. E. The neighbouring furnaces of St. Maurice, after con- tinuing in operation for over a century, went out of blast a few years ago. V Ochres : — These are capable of extensive use as paint materials. A yellow variety, becoming brown and red on ignition, occurs abundantly in the county of Middlesex, and also at Sydenham and in the town- ship of Nottawasaga, in Canada West. Red, brown, yellow, purple, and grecnisli-black ochres occur likewise in workable quantities near the mouth of the Ste. Anne River, and in the seigniories of the Cap de la Madelaine and Pointe du Lac, in Canada East. AlsQ in the Eastern Townships. The black ochres contain a considerable quantity of peroxide of manganese. Brick Clay .—Clays suitable for bricks and tiles, occur very gen- erally throughout the Province. "White or yellow bricks are largely manufactured in the neighbourhoods of London, Hanover, Toronto, Cobourg, Peterborough, &c. Red bricks at Walkerton, Sydenham, Toronto, Montreal, St. Jean (Lobiniere), and many other places. Manufactories of drain tiles are in extensive operation at Treadwell village, on the Ottawa, and in the vicinity of Quebec. MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 21.1 Shell Marl : — This substance, described above, is much employed as a manure, and occasionally also as a whiting or wash-material. It occurs, more or less, all over the Province, but has been worked more especially, in the townships of Bentinck, Carrick, Brantford, King, W. Gwillimbury, Scarborough, Thurlow, Sheffield, Olden, Nepean, and W. Hawkesbury, in Canada West ; and near Montreal, &c., in Canada East. Sand for Moulding : — Good sand for this purpose, has been ob- tained from the neighbourhood of Dundas, and also at Sydenham (Owen Sound.) Peat : — Large deposits of this useful substance are known to occur in many parts of the Province, but hitherto, on account of the abun- dance of wood, they have been generally neglected. Some of the more important localities comprise : Longueuil, opposite Montreal, and many places along the south shore of the St. Lawrence, between that point and the Riviere du Loup (Sir W. Logan). Also La Valtrie, and the seigniory of Cap de la Madelaine, on the nortli shore. The ex- plorations of the Geological Survey have made known, Ukewise, a large peat area on the south side of the Island of Anticosti. In Western Canada, peat occurs chiefly in the townships of Plantaganet, Clarence, Cumberland, Gloster, Goulbounie, and Westmeeath, in the Ottawa region. Also in the townships of Humberstone and Wain- fleet, on Lake Erie. i fill 1 ■ I I GENERAL OUTLINE AND RECAPITULATORY SKETCH OF THE GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 1. Canadian Rack Formations, — The rock groups occurring within the limits of Canada, comprise representatives of the Azoic, Lower Palfeozoic, and Post-Tertiary series. The Upper PciljEozoic deposits (inclusive of the Coal Measures proper) togetliei- with the entire forma- tions of the Mesozoic and Cainozoic Ages, are altogether unknown within the limits of the Province. 2. Azoic Series, — The rocks of this series, comppsed of Sedimen- tary matters deposited in ancient seas, apparently before the crea- tion of organic types, and subsequently rendered more or less crystal- line by metamorphic forces, are subdivided into two formations. The lower of these is named the Laurentian, and the higher, the Huronian Formation. The Laurentian strata consist principally of highly crystalline beds of micaceous and hornblendic gneiss ; hornblende rock ; tl 214 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE IP I crystalline limestone and dolomite ; oxidized iron ores; quartzite; and anorthosites, or rocks composed chiefly of lime and soda feldspar. In an economic point of view, the Laurentian Formation is essentially characterised by the vast beds of magnetic and specular iron ore that occur within it : full details of which are given in a preceding page. The formation is many thousands of feet in thickness, and it covers an area of 200,000 square miles — running from Labrador along the north shore of the St. Lawreuce to the vicinity of Quebec, and throughout all the more northern and north-western portions of the Province, as shewn in the sketch-maps, figs. 1 54 and 249. By reference to the latter, it will be seen that in the district between Prescott and Kingston, a narrow belt of this formation crosses the St. Lawrence, and expands over a large extent of country, comprising the Adiron- dack region, in the State of New York. This belt forms a somewhat important feature in the geology of Western Canada. It will be al- luded to again, in connection with this sketch, under the name of the "gneissoid belt of the Upper St. Lawrence." The Huronian Formation which constitutes the higher division of the Azoic series, consists chiefly of green and greyish slate-conglomerates and other partially altered strata, interstratified with greenstone masses, and tra- rersed by numerous trap dykes. It contains also many quartz veins, holding copper pyrites and other copper ores in workable quantities. The total thickness of the formation is probably not much under 20,000 feet. Its strata are chiefly developed along the north shore of Lake Huron (No, 2, in fig. 249), and in places on Lake Superior. 3. Laurentide Mountains. North and South Basins of Canada. — A high water-shed or range of mountainous country, averaging a height of from one to two thousand feet above the sea, but rising in places to nearly four thousand feet, traverses the greater portion of the Laurentian area, and forms at one part of its course the " Lauren- tide Mountains." It divides tlie Province iuto two great basins or geological areas : known, respectively, as the North and South Basins. 4. Great Northern Itasin of Canada. — The area occupied by this basin, lying to the north of the Laurentian water-shed, and sloping towards Hudson's Bay, as regards its geological characters, is still comparatively unexplored. The formations known to occur within its limits, comprise the Laurentian and the Upper Silurian series. The Huronian rock-* arc thought to occur also, in the form of Chio- ritic schists, in the valley of Lake Temiscaming, but no traces of MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 315 Lower Silurian strata have anywhere been met with. Hence, it is suggested by Sir William Logan, that, the Laurentide mountainous range formed, from Labrador to the Arctic Sea, the northern shore line of the ocean during the Lower Silurian period. The land to the north, being thus above the level of the sea, would receive no depo- sition of Lower Silurian strata ; but an after movement of depression must have ensued during the Upper Silurian epoch, bringing down this northern district beneath the sea, and so enabling the sediments of the latter period to be laid down upon its area. 5. Great Southern Basin of Canada : Its subdivisions ; — The southern geological area of Canada, is in itself divisible into three smaller basins : (1) the Basin of the lakes ; (2) The Basin of the St. Lawrence ; and (3) The Eastern or Metamorphic Basin. The two first of these are separated from each other by the gneissoid belt of the Upper St. Lawrence alluded to above ; whilst the third or Eastern Basin is separated from the St. Lawrence area by a remarkable dislo- cation, accompanied by physical and chemical changes of great moment. This dislocation is evidently connected with the elevation of the Appalachian mountain chain. As traced in Canada by Sir Wm. Logan, it runs from near the northern extremity of Lake Champlain in a general north-easterly direction to the St. Lawrence, which it crosses immediately above Quebec ; and then turns to the east, traver- sing the northern part of the Island of Orleans and passing down the river into the Gulf, from wheuce it appears to re-enter the south shore a few miles above the mouth of the Magdalen River in GaspS. The strata within the area circumscribed by this dislocation, are thrown up generally into highly inclined beds ; and they exhibit, in other respects, many signs of the actiun of powerful disturbing forces. See under the head of the " Calciferous Formation," on a preceding page. In the more central portion of the area, also, they are much altered, or coi verted into crystalline schists, &c., and rendered metalliferous by morphic agencies. The strata of the Lake and St. Lawrence on the other hand, betray few signs of these disturbing iqftienceit except in the case of the upper copper-bearing series of Lakpf'fiuperiort and in parts of Gasp6, as described fully in a prccedifl|^ diviiion of this Essay. jjf^ 6. The Lake Basin of Canada t — Of this geologjf61 basin, properly speaking, only the north-eastern and northern pf^tions actually OOcar within the boundaries of the Provmce. It inq^jeg all the area to tho east or left of the Laurentian district niark«^ i_i in the iketoh-iBAp i: ■! } M m - t ■'""M li '^ ], I / / 216 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE \ \ 1 \ \ fig. 249. Though affected here and there by slight local disturbances, the strata within this area have a general westerly dip, extending as far as the central part of Michigan, in consequence of which, on pro- ceeding from the gneissoid belt of the Upper St. liBwrence, just east of Kingston, towards the southern extremity of Lake Huron, the various formations (exclusive of the Calciferous and Chazy series ?) from the Potsdam to the Hamilton beds, with those also of Kettle Point, are successively traversed. The dip of these strata, however, (except here and there, under local conditions) is exceedingly slight, rarely exceeding two or three degrees, and averaging in general less than half-a-degree, or about 30 or 10 feet in a mile. The annexed section will serve to convey a general idea of the sequence of these formations, as shewn on the map, between the gneissoid belt east of Kingston, and the coal strata of central Micliigan. The thickness of intervening rock between the top of the Hamilton formation and the lowest of the Michigan coal seams, is about 840 or H.'iO feet. Fig. 250. SKETCH-SECTION OF FORMATIONS OF WESTERN PART OF CANADA AND EASTERN MICHIGAN. ('Hie dip necessarily exaggerated.) IfttSM Ibis, it JO >9 B Michigan. Lalce £rio district. 7 C 3 Nio^ani (list. Lake Ontario /rt;jf>riw, cycJns, vSic.), occur at different heights above our j)resent lake-waters ; whilst there seems to be an entire absence, in these beds, of marine or estuary types, such as occur in deposits of a siinihir age in tiie St. liawniiee basin. Hence the inference, that, at a comparatively recent geological period, our MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 219 great lakes were united into one vast fresh-water sea, held back, on the east, by an elevation of the gneissoid belt of the Upper St. Law- rence, or perhaps by a huge glacier-barrier extending in that direction, as explained on a former page. 7. The St. Lawrence Basin : — This Basin is separated from the Basin of the Lakes, just described, by the gneissoid band, which, passing southwards from the Lac des Chats on the Ottawa, crosses the St. Lawrence at the Thousand Isles, and forms the Adirondack region of New York. On the other hand, it is cut off from the Eastern or Metamorphic Basin (although, strictly considered, this forms an isolated central portion of its area) by the great dislocation alluded to under §5, above. This dislocation, accompanied both by a great upheaval and the manifestation of active metamorphic forces, runs from near the northern extremity of Lake Champlain to Quebec, and from thence along the north shore of the Island of Orleans, and down the river and gulf, as far as the coast of Gaspe, which it enters near the mouth of the Magdalen River. The area of the St. Lawrence Basin thus includes the peninsula between the gneissoid belt, the lower Ottawa, and the Upper St. Lawrence, together with a large extent of the south shore of the latter river, and all the north shore from the Ottawa to the Gulf, except a small portion (including the chief part of Quebec) lying within the above mentioned line of dislocation. It may be considered to include, also, the extreme eastern and southern parts of Gasp^ ; the Island of Anticosti, and the Mingan Islands. Towards the western part of this area, more especially in the peninsula just west of the junction of the Ottawa and St. Lawrence Rivers, the Potsdam and Cal- ciferous formations (Map : Nos. .3 and 4) are well displayed, together with the Chazy and Trenton limestone beds (Nos. 5 and 6). The latter occur also largely on the eastern side of the Ottawa, as around Mon- treal, &c. ; whilst the Utica and Hudson River formations extend more particularly along each bank of the St. Lawrence up to (and on the north, beyond) Quebec — apart from the small area, immediately around Quebec itself, cut oiF by the before-mentioned dislocation. At the Falls of Montmorenci, the Trenton, Utica, and Hudson River di- visions occur in force ; and the latter runs along the north side of the Island of Orleans. These formations occur also in the small outlying basin of Lake St. John on the Upper Saguenay. The Trenton lime- ttones form likewise some isolated patches on the north shore of the Qulf, M at the Seven Islands, the Straits of Belle Isle, &c. ; whilit th« ■r M 220 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE MingAn Islands consist chiefly of the Chazy formation, the Trenton beds appearing at the south side of Large Island, one of the group. The northern shore of the Island of Anticosti is made up of Hudson Riyer beds, the rest of the island consisting of Middle Silurian strata. In Gaspe, the Hudson River formation occurs on the north shore, be- tween Cape Rosier and the River Marsouin. Eastward and southward the peninsula is chiefly compoi ed of strata referred to the Devonian series, in which a thin seam of coal and immerous fossil plants are met with ; whilst along the Bay of Chaleurs and the coast south of Gasp6 Bay, the inclined Devonian beds are overlaid unconformably by a vast thickness (amounting to no less than 300 feet) of«Carboniferous sand- stones and conglomerates, the Bonaventure Formation of Sir William Logan. These strata, however, are quite destitute of coal. Mountainous masses of eruptive traps and trachytes occur towards the more western extremity of the St. Lawrence Basin. These break through Lower Silurian strata, and were formed, probably, during the Upper Silurian or earlier part of the Devonian epoch. They are tra- versed in most cases by dykes of more recent origin — apparently erupted towards the close of the Devonian period, or perhaps at a still later date. The more important of these intrusive masses, comprise : Rigaud (in Vaudreuil Co.) ; Mount Royal or the Montreal mountain ; Montarville or Boucherville (iu Chambly Co.) ; Rougemont (in Rou- ville Co.) ; Belceil (in Verchercs Co., near the Grand Trunk Railway) ; Monnoir or Mt. Johnson, south of Bclocil ; and Yaniaska. Other masses of a similar character, as those of Brome and Shoff'ord, lie just within the Eastern o; Mctamorphic Basin ; but as tliese are evidently connected with the above series, the wliole may be described together. The mountains of Montreal, Montarville, and Rougemont, are essen- tially augitic traps or dolerites. They present a dark color iu most parts, and contain, in many places, distinct and comparatively large crystals of augite ; Fig. 251. Small granular masses of olivine, with black grains of Magnetic Iron Ore and Ilmcnite (mine- rals described in Part II.) are also commonly present, es])ecially in the Montarville and Rougemont mountains. These trappean masses are penetrated by dykes of white or light-coloured compact trachyte (see Paut III.), which contain miiuite crystals of iron pyrites, and generally efler- Flg.851. vesce \}\ acids from the presence of intermixed carbonate of lime. The Rougemont mountain, is traversed also by granitic trachyte MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 221 (Part III.) of a grayish colour, and partly micaceous. The moun> tains of Rigaud, Beloeil, Monnoir, Yamaska, Shefford, and Brome> are essentially granitic trachytes, consisting of light-coloured potash-feld* spar, with small grains of black hornblende, or scales of brown or black mica ; and usually containing, in addition, some small crystals of yellow sphene (see Part II.) and grains of magnetic iron ore. Much valuable information on the composition of these picturesque and iur teresting mountains, is given by Professor Sterry Hunt, in the Geolo* gical Report for 1859. See also the Canadian Journal, Vol. V., p. 426, and the Revised Report of the Geological Survey, 1863. The surface of the St. Lawrence Basin, like that of the Lake area, is also very generally covered by thick accumulations of the Drift and Post-glacial epochs : comprising clays, gravels, and boulders. But the fossil shells, found in the upper part of these, are all of a marine or es- tuary character. They are referrible to species which still exist in the Gulf of the St. Lawrence, or on the coast of Labrador. These shells occur, not only on comparatively low levels, but at considerable heights also, above the present surface of the sea. Some of the most noted lo- calities comprise the neighbourhoods of Ottawa and Montreal ; terraces on the Montreal Monntain : one, nearly 500 feet above the sea-level ; Beauport near Quebec, about 1 20 feet above the sea ;• and various ter- races on the Lower St. Lawrence, the Ste. Anne River, the Matanne, the Metis, &c., in the Gasp^ peninsula, at heights varying from 40 or 50, to 245 feet above the present sea-level. It is evident, therefore, that at the commencement of the Post-glacial or present period, the entire or greater part of the St. Lawrence basin must have been deeply submerged beneath the sea. 8. The Eastern or Metamorphic Basin of Canada : — This basin, forming strictly, a portion of the St. Lawrence area, is separated from the latter by the great dislocation already described in §§ 5 and 7. It includes the site immediately under and around Quebec, the central and southern part of the Island of Orleans, the south shore of the St. Lawrence from a little west of Point Levis to near the Magdalen River, and all the intervening area to the south (including the greater part of the eastern tov/nships, &c.) as far as the Province boundary. In the more northern part of this region, the strata, consisting of the Calci- ferous and Chazy formations (united into the Quebec group), are raised along the line of the before-mentioned dislocation into a position ap- parently above the horizon of the Trenton scries. (See the remarks, m 222 A POPULAR EXPOSITION OF THE on this point, under the head of the Calciferous Formation, towards the commencement of the present Fart of our Essay). They are also liighly inclined, and consist chiefly of black and other coloured grap> tolitic shales, with associated beds of dolomite, limestone, &c. At a certain distance south of the St. Lawrence, and more especially in the counties of Bagot, Drummond, Shefford, Orford, Brome, Stanstead, Sherbrooke, Megaii'^c, Beauce, &c., these beds are much altered by metamorphic action : being changed into gneiss-rocks, talcose and chloritic schists, serpentines, variously coloured marbles, and other rocks of a similar metamorphic character ; whilst their fossils become gradually obliterated. They are associated also in many of these lo- calities, with vast irregular masses of copper and iron ores ; and are traversed by veins containing galena, and here and there by auriferous quartz-veins. These metallic deposits, with the marbles, slates, and other economic substances of the region, are enumerated more fully under the Calciferous Formation, on a former page. The alluvial matters derived from the disintegration of the metamorphic rocks uf this Eastern Basin, contain grains and occasionally small nodules of native gold — as explained at the same place, and also under the des- cription of that metal in Part II. The Notre Dame and Shickshock Mountains, an extension of the AUeghanian chain, belong to the north- eastern part of this area. These mountains, which rise in places to a height of 4,000 feet above the sea, consist of metamorphic strata of the Quebec group, including vast beds of serpentine and intermixed chromic iron ore. The eruptive granites of the Megantic Mountains, and those which occur in Winslow, Hereford, Stanstead, Barton, Wee- don, and other neighbouring townships, lie also within tlie limits of this metamorphic zone. MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CANADA. 22tf CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS. Page 28, line 6 of note— for *' our," read "an." Grey Antimony Ore : page 30. This ore, accompanying Native Antimony, Oxide of Antimony^ and Kermesite or Red Antimony Ore, (an oxy-sulphide), has recently been found in a vein, traversing slate rocks of the Quebec Group, in the township of South Ham, 0. E. Page 29, line 23 — for " Addington Co.," read " Argenteuil Co." Galena : page 32. The galena veins of the Township of Ramsay, Lanark Co. traverse the Calciferous Formation. Both galena and copper pyrites have re- cently been discovered, in considerable quantities, in the township of Lake, in North Hastings. Garnet : page 40. Since our description of this mineral was in type, Prof. Sterry Hunt has described the occurrence of a bright green garnet, containing six per cent, of oxide of chromium, in the township of Orford, C. E. This variety occurs in microscopic cjystals (chiefly rhombic dodecahedrons) and in small grains imbedded in calc spar, and is accompanied by minute specks of sulphide of nickel. A specimen, presented to the author by Prof. Hunt, is in the Museum of the Toronto University. Page 40, last line ; page 50, line 4 trom bottom ; and page 59 — for " Oxford," read " Orford." Sphene : page 42. Brown crystals of this mineral occur in gneissoid rocks north of Balsam Lake, and in the crystalline limestones of Calumet Island, &c. Augite or Pyroxene : page 43. The white or light-colored diopside crystals found in the crystaline limestone of the Upper Ottawa region, present the combi- nation shewn in the following figure. The vertical faces F Fmeet pi^^. 252 B at an angle of 87"6' and F Fat 90° ; and as these latter predomi- nate, the prisms have a remarkably square appearance. Fig 253 exhibits the same combination from Orford, C. E., but in twin crystals, with plane of union parallel to F; and with these faces BO greatly extended as to produce a so-called bladed or tabular M V Our sketch is drawn from memory, as the specimens kindly Fitc. 25S. presented to us by Prof Sterry Hunt, were lost in the great fire at the Rossin House. Page 46. To the minerals belonging to G 4 on this page, a a variety of Orihite may be added. Specimens obtained re- cently from Hollow Lake at the head waters of the South Mus- koka, present the following characters:— Jet-black ; amor- phous ; H = 5-5 ; sp gr. = 3-288 ; Busily fusible with very great intumescence ; yielding a little water in the bulb-tube ; gelati- nizing in heated hydrochloric acid. Orthite is essentially a silicate of alumina, lime, oxide of iron, and oxide of cerium, with 2 or 3 per cent of water. I i.^;| 324 A POPULAR EXPOSITION, ETC. Epsom Salt : page 48. This substance, a hydrated sulphate of magnesia, occurs in the form of an efflorescence, or thin crust, on the exposed surfaces of some of the Utica shales, Clinton dolomites, and other rocks : as at Montreal, Dundas, and elsewhere. It is evidently, at these localities, a more or less recent deposit from waters percolating through the strata. Page 80, line 13— for " chiefly of some kind of limestone," read '• chiefly by Rome kind of limestone " Page 88, line 19— for"Enni8killen, Mosa, &c.," read "Bosanquetand Warwick.' Page 89, line 26 — for " Sillery group, near the top of the Lower Silurian Se- ries," read " Quebec group, near the bottom of the Lower Silurian Series.*' Infusoria : paere 98. This provisional class should probably be abandoned- acme of its included forms (the Desviidea and Diatomaceee) belonging most pro« bably to the Plant-world ; whilst others, including the ciliated infusoria {Para- mecium, Vorticella, &c.,) occupy an unknown place amongst higher types. The JUiizopods, as regards their fossil representatives, fall into two series : the calca- feous-shelled Foraminifera, and the silioeous-shelled Polycystina. The latter like the siliceous DiatomaceiB, have no action on polarized light. By this character, when in a fragmentary state, they may be readily distinguished from the ordinary Foraminifera. Sponges : page 99. These forms, as stated in the body of the work, are all but unknown in our Canadian Palaeozoic rocks. Two somewhat doubtful species, discovered by Mr. Richardson in the limestone of .^nse an Loup on the north shore of the Straits of Belle Isle, have been described by Mr. Billings during the printing of this Essay. The species in question have a certain re- semblance to casts of Petraia, and may perhaps be corals. Mr. Billings places them under a new genus, Archeocyathus. The limestone beds in which they occur, belong to the Potsdam and Calciferous Formations. Page 104, line 1, — for Syringopora lubiporotdes, read S. Madurei. Page 178, line 9 from bottom, — for O. lateralis read 0. lamellosum. Page 207, line 6 of note — in reference to the assumed union of our lake waters during the Post-glacial period — for " first maintained," read " first maintained on Qeological grounds." As stated in the author's earlier communication on the subject [Canadian Journal (2) vol v, 299, and Phil. Mag., July, 1861), the first idea of this ancient extension of our lakes, is due to the late Mr. Roy, an engi- neer of Toron ,0. Mr. Roy communicated a paper on the subject, with reference more especially to the terraces of Lake Ontario, to the Geological Society of London in 1837 ; but as the view, embodied in this paper, was unsupported by any geological evidence, it was rejected altogether by Sir Charles Lyell, and by geologists generally. In a short paper on the Nottawasaga valley, published in the Canadian Journal in 1853, Mr. Sandford Fleming, C. E., revived the opinion of Mr. Roy as to the lacustrine origin of the lake terraces, but con- sidered the question solely in its physical, as distinguished from its geological, aspect. The subject then remained undiscussed, until prominently brought forward, and first supported on gcologicai grounds, by the author of this work in bis communications to the Canadian Journal and Philosophical Magazine^ in 1861. Up to that datb, the marine origin of our Drift and Post-glacial terraces, was viewed, it is believed, by most geologists as « settled point. INDEX. 225 INDEX. in Abercrombie, 46, 151. Abranchiata, 132. Acalepba, 105. Acetabulifera, 125. Action of Acida, 16. " the Atmosphere, 81. " Blowpipe, 16. Acton, 31, 32, 166. Actynolite, 42. Adamantine Spar, 34 Addington, 162. Adirondack Mountains, 162, 214. Agate, 85, 36, 166. Agclacrinites, 110. Albemarle, 179. Albite, 46. Alumina, 62. Ambonjchia radiata, 120, 1*78. Amethyst, 35, 36, 166. A^mherstburg, 1944 Amphibole, 42. Ammonitidse, 127. Amygdaloid, 69. Amygdalocystites, 109. Analcime, 48, 63. Ancaster, 185. 187. Andesine^ 46. Angus. 207. Anhydrite. 189. Animals, classification of, 98. Animal Remains, 97. Annelida, 132. Anorthite, 46. Anorthosites, 147. Anticlinal axis. 89. Anticosti, 186, 213, 220. Group, 180, 203, 217. Antimony, 223. " Ore. 30, 223. Anvil, 14 Apatite. 39, 63, 145, 146. Aphrodite, 58. Apophyllite, 48. Appallachian Chain, 164, 215, 222. Aquamarine, 38. Aqueous Rocks, 97. Argenteuil, 29 36, 37, 40, 42, 45, 46, 52, 69, 69, 72, 76. Argillaceous Rocks, 78. Argonaut, 126, 132. Arragonite. 54. Arsenical Nickel, 23. " Pyrites, 24. Arsenides, 62. Artemisia, 185, 210. Arthrophycus Harlani, 181. Articulated animals, 132. Asaphus, 136. A. Canadensis, 136, 1T2. A. megistos, 136, 172. A. platycephalus, 136, 172. Asbestus, 52. Asphaltum, 49, 63, 197. Asiphonida, 119. Aspect, 3. Asterida. 110. Atalanta, 123. Athyris. 116. A. Clara. 117, 193. A. Maia, 117. A try pa, 117. A. reticularis. 177, 181, 184, 192, 194, 196 Aubert Gallion, 49. Augite, 43, 220 Augitic Trap, 69, 220. Augusta 208. Automolite, 34. Axis, anticlinal, 89. " synclinal, 89. Ayton, 190. Azoic r?ocks, 143, 203, 213' Bagot, 31. 222. Baie St Paul, 25, 37, 76, 147, 160. Balaniis, 133. Balas ruby, 34. Balsam. Lake. 30, 31, 174, 217. Barnston. 72, 222.# Barrie (Frontenac"), 40, 43, 151. Barrie (Simcoe). 207, 217. Baryta, sulphate, 66, 161. Basalt, ()9. Bathyurus. 137 167. Basin, Eastern, 221. •' Lake, 215. Northern, 214. > t-'l 226 INDEX. Basin, St. La^rrence, 219. " Southern, 214. Bastard, 33. Bastard limestones, 162. Batburst, 41, 56. Batiscan, 212. Battle Islands, 166. Bay of Ghaleurs, 201, 220. Beatricea, 179. Beauce, 25, 33, 37, 41, 49, 75, 76, 222. Beauharnois. 158, 169, 160, 161, 162, 163. Beauport, 133, 177, 206, 221. Bear Greek. 141. Bedford, 33. Beloeil. 43, 68, 221. Belfontaine, 186. Belle Isle (Straits), 141, 161. Bellerophon expansus, 122. Belleville, 129, 173, 204. 207. 217. Belmont, 26, 149. Bentinck, 213 Berthier, 23, 161. Bertie. 190, 192. 218. Beryl. 38 Beyrichia, 134. Bird s eye Limestone. 168, 216 Bitumen, 49. 197. Bituminous Shale, 175, 201. Bivalve entomostracans, 134. Bizard, Isle, 174, 191. Black Bay. 166. Black Lead. 29. " Manganese Ore, 30. " Oxide Copper, 51. Black River Limestone, 168, 174, 216. Blasdell's Mills, 43, Blastoida. 107 Blastoidocrinus. 108. Bloodstone, 35. Blowpipe, 16—18. Blue Mountains (Coll.), 176, 179, 204. Bog Iron Ore 27, 50. 211, 212. Bolboporites Americanus. 167 Bolton, 25. 26. 37. 49, 65, 59, 60, 76, 1C6, Bonaventure Formation, 201, 220. Bonne-ch6re l{. 74. Bosanquet, 201, 222 Boucherville, 220. Boulders, 204. Bracbiopoda, 1 1 3. * Branchifera. 123, Brant. 189. Brantfoid, 61. 190, 203, 213. Breccia, 80 Brick Clay. 212. Brockville, 161, 162, 204. Brome. 37. 68 166. 221. Brompton Lake, 59 Bronzite, 44. Brooke.piS. Broiighton, 68, 69. Brown Iron Ore, 26, 60. Bruce, 194. Bruce Mines, 31, 32, 66, 76, 166. Bryozoa, 112. Bulb-tube. 19. Burgess, 34, 35, 38, 42, 69. Bytownite, 46. Cabot's Head, 179. 181,182, 184,186,207 Oainozoic Age, 142. 209. Calcareous Rocks. 79. Spar, 53, 62, 64. Tufa, 211. Calamites inornatus, 201. Calcedony. 35. Calciferous Group, 161—167, 203, 219, 221. Calcite (Calc Spar), 53, 64, Caledon, 182, 185. Calumet Island, 39, 41, 42, 43, 69, 146. Calymene, 139. C Blumenbachu. 139, 178, 181, 184. Camden, 174. Canada West (Sketch-map of), 202. (Section of), 143, 216. Canadian Minerals, 19. 62, 64 Canndian Rock formations, 94, 141-221. Carbonates, 63. Carb. Copper. 51. Carb. Lime, 53. ( Fide also Limestone.) Carb. Magnesia, 54, 166. Carb Zinc. 39. Carboniferous strata, 201. Carleton, 33, 41, 161. 163, 173. Carlton Place. 14.i Carnellan, 35. Carrick, 194. 213. Cat's Eye, 3.i. Caughnawaga, 168, 174. Cayuga, 80 141, 189, 190,292, 194, 218. Celestine. 67. Cephalobranchiata, 132. Cephalopoda, 125. Ceraurus, 139. C. pleurexanthcmus 139, 173. Cliarably, 45. 68, 179. Champlain (see under " Lakes.") Chapman's Scale of Hardness, 12. Chatham, 40, 4) 72, 149. Chatham Gore, 40. Cliriteau-Richer 44, 46. Chatte R,. 18rt, 191. Chaudi^re Valley. 24. 26. 28, 33, 166,212 Chazy Formation, 167. 203, 220, 221. Cheirurus. 139, INDEX. 227 ;,207 ,219, 146. 4. 2. 6. -221. one.) .218. i,212 21. Ohemical Characters, 16. Ohert, 161, 166, 192. Ohester, 166. Chiastolite, 36. Ohlorastrolite. 4*7. Chlorite. 69, 63. Chlorite Slate, 60, 75, 222. Ohromic Iron Ore, 26, 165. Ohrysoprase, 36. Oirrhopoda, 133. Clarence, 176, 213. Clarendon, 23, 24, 41. Clay Slate, 78. Cleveland, 166. Cleavage (mineral), 10. (rock), 91. Climachtichnites, 160. Coal, 162. " Origin of. 200. Oobourg, 137, 173, 174, 176, 217. Coccolite, 44. Cockburn I. 179. Coldwater, 1 73. Collingwood, 66, 129, 136, 160, 175, 176, 179,217. Colour, 4. Golumnaria, 104. C. alreolata, 104, 169. Comarocystites, 109. Comatula. 106 Conchifera, 119. Conchoidal fracture, 10. Concordant stratification, 90. Condrodite, 37. Conformable stratification, 90. Conglomerate, 80. Connularia, 116. C. Trentonensis, 116, 171. ^onocephalites, 140. Consolidation of sediments, 84. Copper Bay, 1 66. Copper, native, 28, 166. glance. 32. 166, 166, " nickel, 13. pyrites, 31, 64, 166, 166, 166. " pyrites (purple), 31, 64, 155, 166, 166. Corals, 99. Cornelian (or Carnelian), 35. Cornwall, 173, Corundum, 34. Couchiching. l73. Credit ( Ftdc River Credit.) Crinoida, 106. Crosby, 26, 37, 160. Crow Lake, 70, 148. Crustacea, 133. Crystals, 5—9. Crystalline Limestone, 76, 145, 161 Dolomite, 77, 161. Crystallites. 183, 189. Cumberland 213. Cuttle Pish, 125. Cyanite, 38. Cyclas, 121, 207 Cyclostomus lumpus, 141. Cypris, 134. Cyproids, 134 Cyrtodonta. 120. Cystidea, 108. Cystiphyllum, 106. Cyrtoceras, 130. Cyrtolites, 122. Cythera and Cytherina, 184. rj D'Aillebout, 23. Dalmannites, 135, 138. D. limulurus, 138, 184. V Datolite. 47. Decapods, 133. Delthyris ( Orthis) lynx, 116. Denudation, 87. Dereham, 197, Devonian Strata, 191, 203, 218. Diallage, 44, 58. Diallage Rock, 76. Dibranchiata, 125, 132. Dikelocephalus, 137. Dimetric System, 7. Diopside, 43. Diorite. 69. Dip. 89. Diplograpsus, 101. Dolertte, 68. Dolomite, 54, 77, 79, 161, 187. Dolomitic Limestone, 79, 162. Domite, 68, Don ( Vide River Don.) Don Mills, 189. Dorchester, 29. Dor6 ( Vide River Dor6.) Dorsibranchiata. 132. Douglastown, 195. Drift, 204, 209, 218. Drummond, 31, 160, 161, 222. Drummond's Island, 57. Dudswell, 195. Dumfries, 61. Dummei, 56. Dundas, 182, 185, 213. Dunn, 194. Durham, 165. Dykes, 68, 149, 154, 156, 166. 166, 214, 220. Eardly, 27. V 1 3S8 IMDESL. Eai^by Manganese Ore, 49. Eastern Basin, 221. Eastern Townships, 22, 25, 26, 28, 31, , 32. 33, 37, 49, 55, 59, 50, 60, 68, 72, 73, 75, 77, 80, 91, 165, 205. Echinida, 111, Echinodermata, 105. Echo Lake, 156 Economic Materials : Laurentian Strata, 149. Huronian " 155. Potsdam ' 160. Quebec " 165. Trenton " 173. Utica " 175. Hudson Rir. " 179. Medina " 182. Niagara " 186. Guelpli " 187. Onondaga " 188. OriskaKv » 192. Corniferous " 194. Hamilton " 196. Post-Tertiary" 212. Edrioaster, 110. Bdwaid Island, 168. Effervescence in Acids, 15. 63, 54. Elaplius Canadensis, 208. Elderslie, 190. Elephas primigenius, 141, 208. Bleration of Strata, 85. Elevation, Valleys of, 89. Elmsley, 39, 41, 145. Elora, 188. Ehevu', 40, 43, 68, 148. Emerald, 38. Emery, 34. Endoceras, 129. E. proteiforme, 1 29. 272. Endogenous Rocks, 66. Enniskillen, 197, 198. Epldote, 42. Epidotlc gneiss, 145. Epsomites, 183. Epsom Salt. 224. Srubescite, 31. Eruptive Rucks, 66. Eseott, 161. Esqupsing. 182. Etchemin R 212. Etobicoke, 179. Euphrasia, 185. BuryaliiU 111. Eurypterus Formation, t9o. 208, 217. ■urypterus remipps. 191. Facial suture (Trilobitcs), 136. Falls, Niagara, IH3, 186, 187, 207. False bedding, 84. Famine R. 28. Fault, 90. Fault, Huronian, 156. " Quebec group, 164, 216. Favosites, 103. F. Qothlandioa, 103, 181, 183, 187. Feldspar : Lime feldspar, 46, 161. Potash feldspar, 45, 64, 67, 151. Soda feldspar, 46, 161. Feldspar Rock (Anorthosite), 74, 147, 213. Fitzroy, 27, 33. 41. Fitzroy Island, 1 84. Flamborough, East, 181. West, 181, 182. Flint, 86. Flower Pot Islands, 184. Fluor Spar, 56. Foraminifera, 99, 224. Form, regular, 6. " irregular, 9. Formation of Sedimentary Rooka, 80. Fort William, 160. Fossilized animal remains, 97 — 141. " vegetable remains, 97. , Fracturing of Strata, 80. French River, 74, 75, 166. Frontenac. 33, 40. 41, 168. Fusibility, trial of, 1 7. Galena, 82, 160, 168, 166. Gait, 64, 187, 188. Garden River, 166. Garnet 40. 64. 223. Garnet Rock, 76, 147. Gartbby, 23. GaspS, 36, 164, 179, 180, 191, •15, 919, 220. Gasp^' Limestones, 186. Upper. 191. Gasteropoda, 123. Georgetown, 182. Georgian Bay, 129, 148, 168, 174, 178, 181, 184. 208, 207,218. Glabella (Trilobites), 136. Glacial Formation, 204. Glacial Furrows, 204. Glaciers. '210. Glacier Barrier, 207, 219. Glengarry, '206. GloncestiT. 161, 212. Goat Island. 186, 186. (iodoricb, 194 Gold. 'J7, Itsfi. 'ill. Goniphdcerntidie, 126, 187. Goniatidae, l'i7. INSKX. 229 Oonktites, 182. Ooniatite Formation, 198. Oonioceras anceps, 128. Qoalbourne, 213. Gneiss, 78, 14S, 218. Granite, 11, 228. Granitic Rocks, 70. Granitic Trachyte, 6*7, 68. Grand River, 61, 188, 189, 180. Grand River Group, 208. Grantham, 164. Graphite, 29, 160. Graptolites, 100, 113. Graptolithus bioomia, 177. G. Logani, 1(^8. G. pristis, 175. G. ramoauB, 277. Gravity, specific, 18. Green's Creek, 206. Greenstone, 69. Grenville (0. E.), 29, 86, 87, 40, 41, 42, 46. 46. 69, 72, 145, 149, 160, 161. Grenville Go. 306. Grey Band (Medina), 180, 188, 186. Guelph, 64, 187. Guelpb Formation, 187, 208, 218. Gulf, St. Lawrence, 161, 164. Gypsiferous Group, 188, 217. Gypsum, 61, 64, 188, 188, 190. Eeematite, 24, 166. Haldimand, 180, 194. Haiton, 184. Halysites eatenulatui, 108, 188. Ham. 24, 27, 69, 78, 166. Hamilton, 181, 182, 211, 217. Hamilton Formation, 195, 208, 218. Hanover, 212. Hardness, 11. " Scale of Ohfipman, 12. " " " Mob?, 11. Harrison's Location, 166. Bastings, 43, 63, 162. Heavy Spar, 66, 64, 161, 160, 166. HeIio()ora fragilis, 181. Heliotrope, 36. Helix, 126. 207. llemmiiigfurd, Mt, 161. Hereforii, 72. HespeU'r, 188. Hoteropoda, 122. Holostomata, 123, 124. Holothurida, 112 Homnlonotus, 140. B. delphinocephalus, 140, 184. Hones, 160, 179. Hornblende, 42. Hornblende rook or slate, 74, 146, 213. Hornblendic Gneiss, 73. Hornstone, 36. Horseflesh Ore, 166, ( Ficfe Porple Cop- per Pyrites). Hudson River Formation, 171-180, 303, 216, 217, 219. Hull, 26, 27, 160. Humber, ( Vide River Humber). Humberstone, 194. Humboldtine, 60, 201. Hunterstown, 41. Huntingdon, 63. Huron, ( Vide Lake Huron). Huron County, 196. Huronian Rocks, 158-166, 203, 218, ar4. Hyacinth, 36. Hyalite, 38. Hydraulic limestones, 80, 179, 182, 190. Hypersthene, 44. Hypersthene Rock, 74. Idocrase, 41. Igneous Rocks, 66. Illaenus, 138, 173. Ilmenite, 26, 147, 149, 220. Infusoria, 98, 224. Intrusive rocks (Laurentian) 148. Ippewasb, Gape, 97, 201. IreUnd I., 27. Iridescent Feldspars, 161. Iridoamium, 28, Iron Island, 26, 66, 66, 180. Iron Ore : Bog, 27, 211, 212. Brown, 26. Chromic, 26, 166. Magnetic, 25, 149, 165, 220. Red, 24, 149, 165. Scaly, 49. Titaniferous, 25, 147, 149, 220. Iron Pyrites, 22. " Magnetic, 31. Iron, Phosphate, 60. " Sulphate, 48. Irregular Furms, 9. Island ofOrleanf 163, 17T, 216, 221. Isle Bizard, 174, 191. Isle Royale, 47. Isoteles gigas, 136. Jasper, 35. Jasper conglomerate, 36, 76, 168. Kaministiqiiia, ( Vide River K.) Kaministiquia Formation, 158. Kninouroska, 36. Kaolin, 46, 60, 72. Keatiug's Location, 155, 280 INDEX. KemptTille, 205. , Kennyon, 205. Eeppel, 179. Kettle Point, 97, 2(^, 218. King, 213. Kingsej, 165. Kingston, 65, 141, 146, 160, 174, 204, 214, 216, 217. Kingston Mills, 201. Knowlton Lake, 161. Labrador, 151, 205, 214, 215. Labradorite, 46, 46, 147, 151. Labrum, (Trilobites), 136. Lac des Ghats, 152, 219. Lachine, 68. La Cloche Island, 131. La Chrevrotiere, 173, 174. Lachute, 161. Lake, 223 Lakes : Balsam, 31, 217. Of Bays, 40. Brompton, 59 Ghamplain, 164, 216, 219. Charleston, 161. Couchiching, 173. Crow, 90, 148. Echo, 166. Bel, IBl. Brie, 61, 190, 194, 213. George, 166. Golden, 46. Hollow, 223. Huron, 23, 42, 47, 48, 61, 53, 66, 57, 67. 69, 71, 76, 97, 187, 190, 194, 204. Knowlton, 161. Loughborough, 148, 161. Ifasinaw, 54, 77, 146. Metapedia, 186. Michigan, 184 Mud Turtle, 30. Nipissing, 26, 56, 26, 160. Ottertail, 166. Otty, 1«1. Ontario, 83, 147, 176, 178, 180, 181, 207. 208. Rice, 174, 217. St. Francis. 37. St. John, (0. E.) 177, 179, 219. St. John. (0. W.) 148, 173. St. Louis, 161. Simcoe, 174, 217. Superior, 28, '29. 30. JJ8, 86. 42, 47, 48, 61, 58,65,67,67,69,71,76.84,152, 166, 160, 204. Lakes, Basin of, 216. Lake Huron Mines, 24. 26, 165. Lake Superior Copper-bearing series Calciferooi, 165. Potsdam. 168. Lambton, 196. Lambton (Hamilton) Formn, 195, 20^ 218. Lamraellibranchiata, 119. Lamp, Spirit, 19. Lanark, 33, 34. 41, 44, 45, 66, 56, 163, 173. Lanoraie, 99. Lansdowne, 33, 56, 161, Large Island, 220. Laurentian Rocks, 143-163, 213. Laurentide Mts., 214. Lauznn, 27. Lava, 67. LaValtrie, 213. Laval, 99. Lead Ore, ( Vide Galena.) Leda Clay, 206. Leda Portlandica, 206. Leeds, 33, 37, 66, 68, 97, 163. 166. Leperditia, 134, 167. Lepidolite, 52. Leptoena, 116. L. (Strophomena) depressa, 116. L sericea, 116, 176, 177. Lea Ebonleraens, 175. Limestones, 79, 146, ke. — (See under respective formations.) Lime Feldspar, (Vide Labradorite and Anorthosite) " Hydraulic, ( Vide Water Lime). " Phosphate, ( Vide Apatite). " Sulphate, ( Vide Gypsum). Limnea, 125, 207. Limulus, 159. Lincoln, 184. Lingula, 114. L. acuminata, 169. L. Lyellu, 167. L. obtusa, 175. L. quadrata, 114, 171. L. Quebecensis, 163. Lituites, 131, 170. Lochiel, 205. Lnganite, 60. Lonely Isle, 179. Longuouil, 213. L'Orignal, 168. Loughborough, 146, 146, 162. 174. Louth, 182. Lower Hdderberg Group, 190, 203. Lower Silurian Sories, 167. i08, 216, 217. Lustre, in minerals, 8. Maclurea Logani, 122. 123, 109. INDEX. 231 UcNab, 26, S6, 146, 151. Mackinaw, 189. Madoc, 26, 50, 146, 149, 174. Magdalen, ( Vide River Magdalen). Magnesite, 54, 77. Magnetic Iron Ore, 26, 147. 149, 1 «6, 220. Magnetic Pyrites, 31. Magnetism, 14. Maimanse, 29, 33. 166. Maitland, ( Vide River Maitland). Malachite, 61, Maiden, 141. 194. Malleability, 14. Mallosus villosus, 141. Malocystites, 109. Manganese Ores, 30, 49. Manitoulin Islands, 174. 176, 179. Marble, 161, 166, 196 Marcasite, 23 Marcellus Shales, 195. March, 27. Marmora, T" ?i8, 69,74. 76, 149, 174, 204. Marston, 1?. Maskinon^ 11, 46. Meaford, r Medina Fcu^anon, 180-182, 203. MegalomiiR Canadensis, 120, 121, 187. Megantic, 28, 32, 37, 72, 222. Melania, 207 Melbourne, 01, 165. Metamorphic Basin, 221. Metamorphic Rocks, 72, Metamorphiam, 72, 91. Mesozoic Rocks, 142. Mica, 61, 150. Micaceous Gneiss, 73, Mica Slate, 74, 174. Micbelinea convexa, 103, 193. Michigan, 189, 198, 200, 21G. Michipicoten Island, 23, 29, 31, 32, 33 36, 69, 166. Middlesex, 60, 195, 212. Middle Silurian Series, 180, 203. Middletown, 27. MillcB Roclies, 173. Millstones, 161, 192. Mimico ( Vide River Mimico). Minerals, Distinctive Characters of, 2. Minerals, Canadiim, Lists of, 2T, 62, 64. Mingan Islands, 161, 163, 219, 220. Miepickel, 24 Mississaguc Islands, 174. Modified Drift, 'J06. Molluscous Animals, 98, 112. Molybdenite, 29, 64, 160 Molybdenum, Sulphide of, ( VuU Molyb- denite) Monnoir ( Vitle Mount Johnson), Mono, 185. ' Monoclinic System, 8. «. : u ' Monometric System, 7. Montarville, 38, 44, 220. Montcalm, 40. Montmorenci, 44, 46, 74. Montmorenci Falls, 174, 177, l78, 219. Montreal, 23, 37, 42, 65, 68, 69, 99, 168, 173, 174, 177, 204, 205, 212, 220, 221. Morin, 44, 46, 48. Mount Albert, 59, 76, 1 65. Mount Healey, 1 90. Mount Johnson (Monnoir) 42, 68, 220. Mulmur, 185. Murcbisonia gracilis, 124. M subfusiformis, 124, 171. Murray Bay, 175. Muskoka ( Vide River Muskoka). Mya truncata, 121, 206. Myriapoda, 132. Native Copper ( Vide Copper). " Gold ( Vide Gold). " Silver ( Vide Silver). Nautilidse, 126. Nautilus, 131. Nelson, 21 7. Nepean 161, 168, 213, Neepigon River, 166. Niagara, 66. Niagara Falls, 67, 66, 81, 185, 186, 204, 207 Niagara Formation, 182-187, 203, 217, 218. Nicolet, 27, Nickel, arsenical, 23. Nickeliferous Pyrites, 23 Nipissing ( Vide Lake Nipissing). Norfolk, 'J 7, 19'2, 194, 195. Northern Basin of Canada, 2M. Notre Dame Mountains, 222. Nucleobranchiata, 122. Oakville, 217. Obolella pretiosa, 163. Ob'^idian, 07. Orhres, 50, 64, 212. Ogygia, 137. Olden, 213. Olivine, 37 Oncoceras constrictum, 131, 170, Oneida, «l, 192. Onondaga Formation, 188-190, 208, Onyx, 35. Opal, 38. Ophileta compacta, 124, 168. Ophiolite, 76. !32 INCjSX. Ophiurida, 111. Orford, 40, S8, 59, 165, 222. Organic Remains, 95-141. Orillia, 101. , Oriskany Formation, 191, 203, 218. Orleans ( Vide Island of). Ormoceras, 128. 0. anceps, 128, 170. 0. tenuiBlum, 128, 170. Orpiment, 49. Orthis, 114. 0. elegantula, 184. 0. lynx, 115, 171. 0. pectinella, 115, 171. 0. testudinaria, il5, 178. 0. tricenaria. Ii5, 171. 0. Vanuxenii. 116, 196. Orthite, 223. Ortboceras, 127. 0. bilineatum, 128, 172. 0. crebriseptum, 178. 0. lamellocum, 128. 0. proteiforme, 129, 172. Ortboceratites ( Viiie Ortboceras). Orthoclase (Potash Feldspar) 45, 67, 71, 151. Ottawa, 163, 174, 176, 178, 204, 221. Ottawa River ( Vule River Ottawa). Outliers, 88. Owen Sound, 57, 185, 186, 207, 213, 217. Oxford, 189, 194, 205. Oxides, 62. Ox Point (BelUville), 173. Paisley, lUO. Palcenbam, 208. Palasterina, 111. Palaeocystites, 109. Paleozoic Rocks, 142. Palaeozoic Rocks of Canada, 167. Pallial impression, 121. Paludina, 12:^. Paradoxides, 140. Paris, 189, I9i», 207. Pearlstone, A7. Peat, 213. Pegmatite, 71. Pentamerus, 118. P. aratu.<), 119, 193. P. oblongus, 118, 182. Percti. 2nl Perth, 43, 194 Perthite, 45, 161. Peterborough, 49, 50, 152, 212, 217. Petraia. 104, 17. ». Petraster 111. PeUuleum, 4tf, 10«. Petroleum Wells, Origin of, &c., 198* 200. Phacops, 138. P. bufo, 288, 194, , Pbolerite, 60, Phosphates, 68. Phosphate of Lime, 80, 645, 146. " Iron, 50. Phragmoceras, 130. P. prcematurum, 180, 170. Physa, 207. Physical Characters of minerals, 2. Pickering. 176, 178. Piloceras. 180. Pitchstone, 67. Pittsburg. 162. Planorbis, 122, 126, 218. Plantagenet, 613. Plasma, 35. Plaster (of Paris). 61, 188, 190. Pleuroconcha, 110. Pleurotomaria, 114. Pleurocystites, 109. Plumbago, 29. 150. Plutonic Rocks, 66. Pointe-aux-Trembles, 174. Point du Lac, 50. " du Grand Detour, 161. " Boucher, 179. " Douglas. 194. *• L6vi, 89, 100, 184. " Montresor, 179. " Rich, 179. " Ste. Anne, 161. " William, 179. Polypifera, 99. Pontiac. 24. Porifera (Sponges), 92, 224. Porphyry. 71. Porpbyritic granite, 71. trachyte, 68. Portage Group, 200, 208. Port Albert. 194. Port Colborne, 194. Port Hope, 217 Post Glacial Doponits. 206, 209. Post Tcrttary DeposiU, 204-218. Potstone, GO, 76, 166. Potton, £8, 60. Prase, H5. Prehnite, 4tt. Prescott. Irt2, 214. Prescott County, 178, 168, 176. Preston. 188. Prince's Itey, 56. Prince's Mine, (Luke Superior), 28, 31, 51, 1H6. Proticlmi^s, 169. INDEX. 233 ProtoBoa, 98, 228. Pseudo-metallic lustre, 8. Pteropoda, 122. Pulmooifera, 125. Pumice, 61. Purple Copper Pyrites, 81, 166, 168, 166. Pygidium (Trilobites), 186. Pyrallolite, 146. Pyrites : Arsenical, 24. Copper, 81. Iron, 22. Magnetic, 81. Pyrolusite, 80. Pyrosclerite, 60. Quartz, 35, 64, 71, 160, 160. Quartzites, 76, 146, 146. Quartzose Sandstones, 78. Quartz Rock, 76. Quebec, 80, 164, 174, 177, 179, 204,212. Quebec Diamonds, 85. Quebec Group, 157, 108, 208, 219. Queenston, 181, 186. Radiated Animals, 99. Radiated Pyrites, 23. Radnor Furnaces, 212. Rainham, 194. Rama, 178 Ramsay, 163. Raphilite, 48. Rawdon, 4(t, 146, 147. Realgar, 49. Red Antimony Ore, 228. Red Copper Ore, 61. Red Hammtite, 24. Red Iron Ore, 24, 49, 64. ( Vide also Specular Iron Ore.) Red Ochre, 50, 64, 212. Red Zinc Ore, 61. Renfrew, 46, 56, 66, 161, 178. Kenselacrite, 60, 144. Rptinite (Pitchstone), 67. Rhizopods, 99. 228. Rhynconelia, 117. R- (Gamerella) Pcmiplicata, 118, 17 1. R. increbescens, 118, 171. R. plena, 117, 1«7. R. psittacea, 118, 206. Rice Lake, l74, 217. Richmond 91, 106. Rigaud, 168, 220, 221. Rivers : Achigan, 1 74. Bayonne, 1 74. Beaver, 186, 211. Rivers: Bonne Oh^re, 74. Bras, 28. Chaloupe, 174. . Chatte, 186, 191. Chaudi^re, 28, 166, 212. Cliicot, 168. . . Coldwater, 178. Credit, 178, 179, 182, 186, Des Hurons, 1 79. Des Plantes, 212. Detroit, 194. Don, 81, 179. Dor6, 30. Du Chdne, 179. Du Lac. 28. Du Loup, 28, 68, 205, 212, 218. Du Nord, 161, Etobicoke, 171. Famine, 28. Pish, 166. French, 76, 162, 166. Garden, 166. Grand, 61, 188. 189, 190. Guilliaume, 28, 41. Humber, 129, 179. Irwine, 188. Kaministiquia, 168. Lessard, 28. Magdalen, 179, 219. Maitland, 194 Marsouin, 179, 220. Matanne, 205, 221. Metis, 205, 221. Metgermet, 28. Mimico, 179. Mississague, 156. Mississippi (Can ), 166. Montmorenci, 179. Muskoka, 42, 223. Naquarean, 174. Neoplgon, 166. Niagara, 180, 184, 186, 189. Noisy, 211. Nottawasaga, 186. Ottawa, 149, 162, 168,206. Quelle, 86, 89, Root, 81, 156. Richilieu, 177, 212. Rimoiiski, 191. Ste. Anne, 2(i6, 212, 221. St. Francis, 28, 212 St. Lawrence, 161, 176, 212,218,214, 216. St. Marys, 174. St. Maurice, 161, 174. Saiigeen, 61, 189, 190. Severn, 162, 217, 234 INDEX. Rivers: Spanish, 166. ^ , ^ Speed, 188. Sydenham, 182. Thessalon, 166. ' Touffe-des-Pins, 28. Rocks : Structural characters, &Cq 66- 96. Eruptive, 66. MetamorpLic, 72. Sedimentary, 77. Rock Crystal, 36. Rock Oil, 196. Rockwood, 186,211. Ross, 66. Rougemont, 44, 68, 220. Ruby, a4. Rutile, »7. Ste Anne, 50 ( Fidt Rivers). St. Catharines, 182. St. George, 83. St. Henri, 29. St. Ignace, 29, 32. St. Jerome, 30, 31, 40, 41, 44, 46. 8t. Lawrence ( Vide Rivers.) St. Lin, 174. St. Mary's, 141, 194. St. Maurice, 27, ( Vide Rivers). St. Maurice Iron, 27, 212. St. Nicholas, 60. St Roque, 174. SabcUa, 133. Sablite, 93. Sands (for glass making), 160. Sands (for furnaces), 160. Sands (for moulding), 213. Sandstones, 78. Saltfleet, 182. Sault Ste. Marie, 168. Saxicava rugosa, 121, 206. Saxicava sand, 2U6. Scapolite, 4«). Scarborough, 88, 213. Scolithus. 97, 169. Secondary Fossiliferous Rocks, 142. Sedimentary Rocks, 77-94. Sediments, derivation of, 81. Sediments, consolidatioo of, 84. Seneca, 61, 190. Seneca Oil, 197. Sepia, 132. Serpentine, 69, 70, 76, 166. Serpentine-marble, 76, 166. Serpula, 187. Seven Islands, 219. Sheffield. 213. Shett'ord, 43, 68, 220, 221. Shell Uarl, 211, 213. Sherbrooke, 28, 26, 86. * Schickshock Mts., 166, 222. Schorl, 41, 64. Silicates, 62. Silicate of Zinc, 89. Silurian Strata, 167. Lower Silurian Series, 167-180. Middle Silurian Series, 180-188. Upper Silurian Series, 188-191.- Silver, 28, 166. Silver Glance, 28, 166. Simcoe County. 162. Simcoe ( Vide Lake Simcoe), Simpson, 27. Sinu-pallialia, 121. Siphonida, 119. Siphonostomata, 123. Snake Island (Lake Huron), 174. Sketch Map: Western Canada, 202. Sketch Section : Canadian Rocks, 143. Sketch Section : Part of Canada West and Michigan, 216. Soapstone 166. Southern Basin, 216. Spanish R., 156. Spar Island, 28, 82, 33, 61, 66. Specific Gravity, 18. Specular Iron Ore, 24, 64, 160, 166. Sphene, 4->, 222. Spirifer, 116. S. gregarius, 193. S. mucronatus, 116, 196. S. niagarensis, 116, 184. S. radiatus, 184. Spirigera, 117. S. coiicentrica, 117, 196. Sponges, 99, 224. Stanbridge, 27. Stanstead, 58, 166, 222. Staurolite, 3T. Steatite. 68. Stcnaster, 111. Stenopora fibrosa, 103, 167, 177. S petropolitana, 177. Slorrington, 161. Striitilication : Conformable, 90. Unconformable, 90. Straits of Belle Isle, 141. Streak. 6. Stricklandia elongata, 181. Strike. 89, Stromatocerium rugosum, 102. Stromatopora rugosa, 102, 169. Strophomena, 116. S. altcrnata. 116, 171. S. rbomboidalis, 116, 192. INDEX. 23S Strncture, 10. Balphatea, 68. Sulphate of Baryta, 66, 161, 166. " Lime ( Vide Gypsum). " Magnesia, 222. " Strontia. 61. Sulphides, 62. Sulphide of Copper, 82, 166. •• Lead ( Vide Galena). " Molybdenum, 29, 160. " Silver, 28, 165. ( Vide, also. Copper Pyrites, Ir 'yn.. Magnetic Pyrites, Zinc bleude). Sulphurets ( Vide Sulphides), 62. Sulphur, Detection of, 56. Superior, ( Vide Lake Superior). Sutton (C. E.), a5, 65, 58. 165. Sydenham, 212, 218, 21*7 (Vide Owen Sound). Syenite, 72. Syenilic Gneiss, 78. Syenitic Granite, 72. Synclinal axis, 89. Syringopora Hisingeri, 104. S. Maclurei, 104, 229. Tabular Distribution of Canadian Min- erals. 21. 62, 64. Tabular Distribution of Rock 'Forma- tions, 93, 94, 203. Taeniaster, 111. Talc, 58. Talc Slate, 75, Talcose Granite, 71. Tarnish, 4. Tellina Graenlandica, 206. Teraiscaming ( Vide Lake Temiscaming) Temnleton, -27 Tentaculifera, 126. Terrace Cove. (Lake Superior), 80. Terrebonne, 23, 37, 4u, 41, 42, 44, 46, 148, Tertiary Rocks. 142. Tetrabranchiata, 125, Thessalon Valley, Fault in, 166, Tessalon ( Vide River Thessalon). Thorold, 80, 182. Thorold Clement, 182. Thonisonite, 47. Thousand Isles, 66, 162, 219. Thunder Bay, (Lake Superior), 36, 166, 158, l«o. 166. Three Hi vers, 27. Three lUvers or St. Maurice Iron, 27, 212. Thurlow, 218. Thyroida, 110, TUled Strata, 88. Tinstone, 88. Topaz, 88. Toronto. 26, 65, 129, 207, 212, 211. Tourmaline, 41. Trachytes, 67. Traps, 68, Trap Dykes, 68, 164, 166, 214. Trap tufa, 78. Treadwell, 212. Tremolite, 42. Trenton Group, 168-175, 208, 217, 21». Trenton Limestone, 18 n L*ricllnic System, 9, Triclinic Feldspars, 46, 147. Tring, 49, 165, Trilobltes, 96, 184-140. Trimetric System, 8. Tripoli, 99. Tufa: Calcareous, 79. Trap, 78. Two Mountains, 168, Unio, 207, Upper Copper-bearing Rocks of Lakft Superior, 157 : Calciferous gr., 161. Potsdam gr,, 168. Upper Silurian Series, 188, 203, 217. U))ton, 31, 165, Uran Ochre, 50. Utica Formation, 176-177, 203, 217, 219. Valleys of Denudation, 88. " Dislocation, 91. Elevation, 89, 90. Undulation, 89, 90. Vaudreuil County, 27, 161, 163, 212. Vaudreuil (Beauce County), 23, 25, 33. Veins, Granitic, 71. Vertebrated Animals, 98, 141, Victoria County, 162. Vivianite, 50. Volatilization, 18. Walkerton. 190,212, Wallace Mine (Lake Huron), 24, 31, 166. Walpole. 194, Walsingham, 27. Wapiti remains, 208. Water, Action of. Water in Minerals, how ascertained, 19. Water-lime, 80, 179, 182, 190. Water-lime Group, 190. Waterdown. 182. Waterloo, 189. Warwick 201, Weedon, 72, 122. 5^.36 Welland, 194. Wentworth, 0. B, 149. Wentworth County, 184. Wernerite, 46. Westbury, 91. Westmeatb. 218. Wbitby. 176. Wilsonite, 46. Windfaam, 192. Winslow, 72, 222. WoUastonite, 44. WoUastonite Rock, 7S. Woodhoose, 194. :noex. Woodstock, 194. , j ;<;;!j Tamaska, 46, 68, 220. « ? !: . • Yellow Ochre, 60, 212. , : > r Yellow Copper Ore, {Vide Copper Py- rites). Zaphrentis prollfica, 104, 19S. Zinc Blende, 88, 67. " Carbonate, 89. " Silicate, 89. Zircon, 36. Zone, 197. t, TOBOMTO : PBWTBD BT LOTBLIt AMD OIBSOM, VONei STBUT. • ' =''"■' i iinnii^iwi^ijmMam