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Lea diagrammas suivants iiluatrant la mtthode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 S 6 MKMWOrr MMUmON TBT CNAIT (ANSI and BO TEST CHART No. 2) 1.0 1.1 US 133 I3L6 140 L25 lu 116 ^ ^^PPUBJ M/C3E Ine 1>M Et M#» S>».t ■ ■n ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY A REFERENCE BOOK FOR STUDENTS OF POLITICAL ECONOMY AIW PROFESSIONAL AND LA? STUDENTS OF FORESTRY av BERNHARD E. FERNOW, LL.D. 1 OP FoBimv iM turn Umivhmtt or Towmro FOURTH EDITION NEW YORK THOMAS Y. CROWELL & COe'-.V''*-' ■"//*.. PITBI.TSHERS ' ^» '•• ••« S5i> F^B2:i93S Comacan, i90t, B* THOMAS Y. CROWELL fc Ca Fnbliahed Dwember, tgo*. Co ff 1 JrinA EDWARD A. BOWERS TO /Host nUISTINT, UNSXLnSH AND UNOSTBHTATIOUS XTFORTS, IN AND OUT OF OFFIOt, IS SO LAKGILY DUX THX SSTABUSHMXNT OT THK FEDERAL FOREST RESERVATION POUCY mmm w HP mpHP EDITORIAL PREFACE. Somi years ago I made a contract with Messrs. T. Y. Crowell & Co. for the editorship of certain volumes in their Library of Economics and Poll* tics, and among them the present work by Dr. Femow was included. Although I have resigned my position as general editor of this Library, X am glad to accede to the request of the publish- ers to continue the original arruigement for this volume. RICHARD T. ELY. f - \ : ■ i ■ i ■I PREFACE. In this volume it is proposed to treat of for- ests and foresixy from the st. 'dpoint of ' ^MiiraX economy. The statesman, the student of ocononucs, ai well as the layman who desires '.^lowledge on these matters, is to find \:trc suct information as will enable him to fo.: . an intelligent view and a true estimate of the position which forests and forestry should occupy in our political house> hold, or rather the position which the community and governments should take with refereace to their forest resources; it is to furnish a trust- worthy basis for formulating public policy. At the same time it is hoped that this presentation of the subject will be acceptable ^^ the growing number of professional foresters, assisting them in an intelligent survey of their art from a point of view outside of that of the technicist Hitherto the questions arising in connection with the proper utilization of our forest resources and with forest preservation have, in the United States, been largely discussed in a popular way, mostly by amateurs and laymen, who we«'e without a vu vifi PREFACE. knowledge of the technical side of the subject; the professional economists who, only incidentally and sporadically, refer to the question have also, at best, possessed only a reading knowledge of the natural history of the forest and of the forester's art As a result of this insufficient knowledge, these writings are only too frequently character- ized by one-sided arguments and a partisan atti- tude without sufficient basis in fact. Nor is there, as far as the writer knows, any book in the English language which attempts a full and systematic discussion of the subject in the manner in which it is to be treated here. This book, then, is not intended as a popular discus- sion, but proposes to supply a lack in the pro- fessional literature of economics in the English language; in fact, even the Germans have with perhaps one exception not yet produced a publica- tion exactly analogous, as may be learned from the annotated index to the literature given in the Appendix. The main difference between the present vol- ume and other existing books may be found in the fact that not only the things which directly inter- est the economist have been discussed, but also a more or less comprehensive exposition of the tech- nical details of the forester's art is given, which permits the forming of a judgment as to the condi^ tions and limitations under which this art, or how much of it, can or must be practised. i PREFACE. In discussing doubtful questions, the writer has endeavored to maintain a judicial spirit of inquiry, and to point out not only ideals, principles, foxd truths, but also practical limitations which prevent the attainment of the ideals. In order not to encumber the text too much, an appendix of notes, tables, and references has been added, which will assist in verifying conclusions drawn and give direction to those who desire to study further. To the unnamed friend who has kindly under- taken to revise the proof-sheets I desire to express my thanks. B. E. FERNOW. Ithaca, November, 1900. s.'-Mm^ ! CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. imtroductory : the relation op the state to Natural Resources ...... i CHAPTER II. The Forest as a Resource U CHAPTER III. The Forest as a Condition 54 CHAPTER IV. Forest and Forestry Defined .... 81 CHAPTER V. Factors of Forest Production and Busnncss Aspects ........ 106 CHAPTER VI. ^ Natural History of the Forest .... 140 CHAPTER VII. Methods of Forest Crop Production: Silvi- culture 165 Id xii CONTENTS. CHAPTER VIII. MflS Methods op Business Conduct: Forest Economy 197 CHAPTER IX. Principles and Methods op Forest Poucy . . taS CHAPTER X. Forest PoLiaES op Foreign Nations . . .374 CHAPTER XI. Forest Conditions op the United States . . 331 CHAPTER XII. The Forestry Movement in the United States 369 Appendix ••••«•••. 413 Bibliography . . • . • • , ■ . 491 Index ^ ... 509 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. CHAPTER I. IHTBGDUCT0S7: THB SILATIOH OF TBI STAIB TO HATgSAL £I80fDSCI8. Te2 natural resources of the earth have in tJl ages and in all countries, for a time at least, been squandered by man with a wanton disregard of the future, aiid are still being squandered wherever absolute necess-'ty has not yet forced a more care- ful utilization. This is natural, as long as the exploitation of these resources is left unrestricted in private hands; tinr private enterprise, private interest, knows only the immediate future — has only one aim in the use of these resources, namely, to ob- tain from them the greatest possible personal and ; esent gain. Occasionally there may enter into its consiuerap tion a desire to prolong the source of profi so that it m%y not only hold out during the lifetime of the individual, but continue flowing for his heirs; or else other than business considerationa 9 I ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. may, for a while at least, preserve possible sources of profit from mismanagement, usually by mere non-use, much more rarely by conscious manage- ment for continuity. In most cases it will be found that the busy com.petition of the present has a destructive tendency and leads to wasteful methods, especially if the resoiu-ces are large in comparison with the population and its needs. Density of population is the index of the intensity with which resources will be husbanded. Plenty breeds extravagance ; dearth breeds care. Thus in the United States, with its enormous resources in field's and forests and mines, which c^re open to the unrestricted, licentious use of a comparatively small population, the destruction of valuable material in the exploitation of these nat- ural riches, the careless and extravagant use of them, the neglect to which they are abandoned as soon as the cream is taken, are simply characteris- tic of all pioneering populations. With us, more- over, the pioneering stage fell into a period when the invention and development of railroad trans- portation intensified the disproportion of popula- tion and resources, opening up new territory and making virgin supplies available more rapidly thjui the needs of a resident population required, thus creating destructive competition in the attempts to profit from a non-intensive, rapacious exploitation and exportation. For, in the absence of a resident population to use the less valuable portions of the INTRODUCTORY. products, these had to go to waste, since only the best portions could bear the cost of transportation to distant centres of consumption. The amount of waste in materials, natural re- sources, and in energy, which tliis uneven settle- ment and development of tne country has produced, has been enonnou? in all directions, and more espe- cially in fields and forests. The desire for a tangi- ble share in the wealth that can be derived by the exploitation of these resources, the greed of the individual, together with the unfavorable distribu- tion of population, have led to their careless and wasteful use. From the standpoint of the individual, that use of his opportunities which gives him greatest satis- faction in the present appears justifiable; while society may incidentall> benefit from his efforts in producing and distributing wealth, the individual, as a rule, cares little • jut that result of his activ- ity, nor does he care if the results of his endeavors are the opposite from beneficial to society, unless society itself step in and protect its interests. From the fact that within any aggregation of people inimical interests arise, that the interests of one set of individuals may clash with those of another set, or that the welfare of the whole may be jeopardized by the unrestricted exercise of the rights of the few, the necessity for the limitation of the rights of the members arises, which, as far as the exercise of property rights 4 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. goes, finds expression in the old Roman law, *'UUr§ tHO n* alterum noceas," namely, such use of the property as shaU not entail damage to another party. This ancient restrictive principle, which is rec- ognized in all civilized states, was at first probably applied only to interferences between private inter- ests ; but finally the protection of the interests of the aggiwgation against those of the individual must have necessitated its application, whenever a communal interest would suffer by the unre. gtricted exercise of ind,*ridual rights. This restrictive function of the state, in addition to that of defending the aggregation against out- siders, will probably be admitted by all parties and schools as elementary and essential to the existence of the state. Divergence of opinion arises, how- ever, not only when additional, more positive, and directive functions are claimed for the state,— as, for instance, when the laissez-faire policy is to be supplanted by ^ faire-marcher promotive policy,— but also in the interpretation of t^ie meaning of the terms of the mere restrictive function, when the question arises, what is to be considered damage and who the other is that is to be protec ed. The very nature of the modern civilized govern- ment necessitates the very widest interpretation of these terms. Civilized states of to-day are mtended and built for permanency; they are not held to- gether by mere compacts of the single members of INTRODUCTORY. society, which may be broken at any time. While forms of government may change, the organization, the state idea, promises to be permanent This con- ception of the permanency of the state, the realiza* tion that it is not a thing of to-day and for a limited time, but forever, widens its functions and extends its sphere of action ; for it is no longer to be re* garded as merely the arbiter between its present members, but it become.^ the guardian of its future members; government becomes the representa> tive, not only of present communal interests, as against individual interests, but also of future interests as against those of the present Its object b not only for the day, but includes the perpetuity of the well-being of society, and the perpetuity of such favorable condi* ->s as will con- duce to the continued welfare and improvement of the same; in short its activity must be with -gard to continuity, it must provide for the fu- ture, it must be providential. We do not create this special providence for the individual, but for society; the individual will have to work out his own salvation to a large extent with the opportu- nities for advancement offered by society, but so- ciety itself can only act through the state; and, as tile representative of the future as well as the present, the state cannot, like the individual, "let the future take care of itself." In our present state activity and legislation there is as yet but little realization of its providential functions. Even ECONOMICS OF KORESTRY. the question of education, which in part providet for future improvement, U only imperfectly con- sidered from this point of view. The question of the franchise, as weU as that of immigration, both of which are of the greatest influence upon the future composition and condition of our society, are much more often discussed with reference to the rights of present members than with reference to the future of society. The one condition of social Ufe in which the action of the present influences the future almost more than in any other dnrcction, namely, the con- dition of the means of material existence and their economical use (the economy of resources), has re- ceived perhaps the least recognition in practice as weU as in theoretical discussion ; and especiaUy is this absence of attention to this most important branch of economics noticeable in English Utcra- The reason probably is that the need of careful analysis of this factor of social Ufe has as yet not been pressing. But as the world has been explored in all comers and the extent of its resources has become more nearly known, and as it is being rap- idly peopled everywhere and the causes of depopu- lation are becoming less, the warnings of Malthus and MiU come home to us with new force ; and the study of the nature of resources, their relation to social life and development, and their economy, be- comes a most important branch of social science, cr-^^*"W ■ INTRODUCTORY. which will ovenhadow lomeof the other bnmchet, now appearing all-important. When the quettiont of the extension of suffrage to women, of tariff, of taxation, of coinage and currency, which are all merely incidents, will have sunk into the back* ground, the question of the economy of the i-> sources which constitute and sustain the political, commercial, and social power of the nation — long neglected — will still cldm attefstion ; for only those nations who develop their natural resources eco nomically, and avoid the waste, of that which they produce, can maintain their p See " Forettry Conditions and IntereiU of Wisconiin," Bulletin No. 16, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Forestry, 1898. • See J W McGee, quoted in " Forest Influences," Bulletin Na 7, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Forestry, 1894. INTRODUCTORY. IS come impossible in the northern departments, due to the removal of forest cover, which furnishes pro> tection against northern winds. Lastly, as resources restorable and yielding in> creased returns to increased activity, we would iind most of those resources which are the product of human labor, industry, and ingenuity: the accu- mulated wealth, the accumulated educational fund, and other conditions of civilization, the people themselves, capable of performing labor. It might appear that, of the natural resources, the soil with its fertility, capable >. .ider intensive cultivation of increasing its yield, should be placed here ; but when this increased activity is unaccom- panied by rational method, this resource, too, will deteriorate almost to a degree where its restoration is practically prec'uded. Altogether, while possibility of restoration has served in our classification, the practicability of such restoration, i.e. the relation of expenditure of energy and money to the result, will have to be taken into consideration when state activity with regard to them is to be discussed. From yet another point of view we can distinguish between those resources, which yield directly a tan- gible material, necessaries or conveniences of life, serving the purposes of gain, and which are, there- fore, objects of industrial enterprise ; while others, though desirable and necessary, serving indir(>ctly for the comforts of society, industry, and progress 14 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. of civilization, do not call for the exertion of private ec*erprise and offer no incentive, or only an imperfect one, for private action, or arc beyond the limits of control by private individ- uals. Thus, if there i. the possibility of influencing climatic conditions by human action, which is doubted by some climatologists in defiance of many patent facts, it would be a matter of public concern rather than of private interest to preserve favorable or improve unfavorable conditions. As far as the forest yields useful material for the arts, it is an object of private industry ; but when, by its position on a watershed, the forest becomes an influential factor in the water conditions of the plain, it may still serve the purposes of gain and wealth, which are the objects of private industry, but its indirect significance for society at large exceeds the private interest Of the proper condition of waterways, of navi- gation and transportation, it may be said, that while private interest may be concerned with it for private gain, public interest is involved in it to a much greater extent. For private interest lies only in the direction of individual gain, while state interest lies in the direction of social gain, of gain for a larger number. Whenever, therefore, other purposes, which do not contemplate the highest profitableness, are to be subserved, especially pur- poses which are of interest to the communis at INTRODUCTORY. IS large, this class of resources must become an ob* ject of public economy by the state or community. Often it will be a difficult task in practice to assign a particular resource to a proper position with regard to its bearing upon social interests, but conservatism, which is the logical policy of society, will lead us in cases of doubt to lean toward the presumption that the interests of society are more likely to suffer than those of the individual ; ar 1 a mistake in curtailing private interests will be more easily corrected than a mistake in not hav- ing in time guarded social interests. Thus it has been urged against the selection of forest areas as state reserves for the purpose of protecting watersL^s, that it would be difficult to decide which areas are necessarily comprised in such selection, without withdrawing those of simply commercial value. That the widest constniction of the idci. of protective forests will be safer than the opposite, and should be the one adopted by the government, seems quite reasonable. To properly appreciate the position in any given case, we will have to weigh the present and 'utare significance of *^he resource, the likelihood ureaus of infor- mation| experiment stations/^d other aids to private enterprise constitute' the chief methods of expressing state interest with regard to these resources. The three great resources upon which mankind is most dependent, and which, therefore, demand foremost attention of the state, are the soil as food producer, the water, and the climatic conditions. The utilization of these three prime resources by agriculture forms the foundation of all other in- dustries, or, as Sully puts it, " Tillage and pastur- age are the two breasts of the state." It is true the manufacturer increases the utility of things, but the farmer multiplies commodities ; he is crea- tive, and he therefore above all others can claim a right to first consideration on the part of the state. The soil is a valuable resource as far as it is fertile and capable of agricultural production ; the fertility, while liable to deterioration, can, with few exceptions, be said to be restorable, and it cer- tainly yields increased returns to intelligent in- creased labor. It ranks, therefore, with those resources which can be left to private enterprise, c i8 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. calling only for the ameliorative functions of the government Eut while this condition prevails when the soil is put to agricultural use, it does not exist as long as the soil is not so utilized. By the withdrawal of large sections of land from such use, society is harmed, and deprived of the benefit which it would derive from the use of its property. The proper disposal and the appropriation of the soil to proper use form, therefore, fit functions of government control The rational appropriation of soil for either farm use, pasturage, or timber production, one would think, could be left to the regulation of private intelligence; yet the fact is, that the thin, rocky soils of mountain districts are worked for a scanty agricultural crop, when they should be left to timber ; while thousands of acres in fertile val- leys are still under the shade of virgin forests. Water and climate are the accessories to agri- cultural production, and supplement the resources of the soil. Not objects of private enterprise directiy, except in a limited manner, it is evident that, as far as they or the conditions which influ- ence them can be at all controlled, they should be under the direct control of the state. A rational management of the water capital of the world in connection with agricultural use of the soil will become the economic problem of the highest im- portance as the necessity for increased food pro- duction calls for intensive methods. And in INTRODUCTORY. 19 connection with this problem, it must become a matter of state interest, by a rational management of existing forests and by reforestation at the head waters of rivers and on the plains, to secure the conditions which make a rational utilization of the waters possible. For without forest management, no satisfactory water management is possible for any length of time, no stable basis for continued productive agriculture, industries, and commerce I It is the object of this volume to elucidate in greater detail the significance and character of the forest resource, to show its relationship to the con- ditions of social life, to pomt out the various aspects from which it can be viewed, with the final object of determining the position which the state should take with reference to it, based upon the conception of state functions as outlined in this chapter. We shall recognize that to the individual it is the timber, the accumulated growth of centuries, which is of interest, and which he exploits for the purpose of making a profit on his labor and outlay without any interest in the future of the exploited area. The relation of the forest to other conditions, direct or indirect, immediate or future, hardly ever enters into his calculations. On the other hand, the function of the forest, which it exercises as a soil cover by preventing ero- sion of the soil, by regulating water flow, changing surface drainage into subsoil drainage, and thereby flO ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. inflaendng the water stages of riven, and its possible relation to the local climatic conditions, preeminently renders it an object of government consideration. Here the general principle of the Roman Uw, Uttf9 tuo ne alttrum noceas, prevention of the ob- noxious use of private property, readily estabUshes the propriety of sUte interference, and by aittrum we are to understand, not only the other citizen of the present, but of the future as weE We will see. that the forest resource is one which, under the active competition of private enterprise, is apt to deteriorate, and in its deterioration to affect other conditions of material existence unfa- vorably; that the maintenance of continued sup. plies as well as of favorable conditions is possible only under the supervision of permanent institu- tions with whom present profit is not the only motive. It calls preeminently for the exercise of the providential functions of the state to counter- act the destructive tendencies of private exploita- tion. CHAPTER IL TME fOSMT At A BMOntCB. It may be stated without fear of contradictloii that outside of food products no material is so univcmUy used and so indispensable in human economy as wood. Indeed, civilization is incon- ceivable without an abundance of timber. The Qomad of to^iay, who herds over the treeless plains and prairies, is still Uke the Scythian of ancient times ; his Ufe, his culture, his attainments, are no more advanced. The successful settlement and civilization of our own treeless regions of the West became possible only through the develop- ment of means for the transportation of this most needful material So general and far-reaching has its use become that a wood famine, however improbable its occurrence, would ^ almost as serious as a bread famine. We may become less wasteful, both as regards food and wood, but the necessity of wood, as far as we can foresee at present wiU always be second only to the neces- sity of food, and far greater than that of any other material used in the arts. The necessity to us of any material depends on the extent and nature of ib, use, and on the possi- SI aa ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. biUty of replacing it by other materials. If we r^;urd the chair we sit on, the table we eat from, the paper we write on, as necessities, it is fair to say that over 99 per cent of all wood is used in supplying real wants, while less than i per cent is used to furnish luxuries, such as fancy articles, cwinf^s, and other decorations. But even if only the use of wood a£ fuel, for the construction of shelter for man and goods, for the building of bridges and harbors, for purpose ^^ of tran:>portation, agriculture, mining, and manufacture, b considered as necessary in distinction to unnecessary or luxu- rious uses, it may still be asserted that there is more than 95 per cent in bulk or weight thus consumed. Our civilization is built on wood. From the cradle to the coffin, in some shape or other, it surrounds us as a convenience or a necessity. It enters into nearly all our structures as an es- sential part. Over half our people live in wooden houses, and the houses of the other half require wood as an indispensable part in their construc- tion. It serves to ornament them, to furnish them with conveniences, to warm them, to cook the food. More than two-thirds of our people use wood as fuel, and until recent times it was the only or prin- cipal means of melting the ores and shaping the metals with which to fashion the wood itself (see Appendix). For every hundred tons of coal mined, two tons of mining timber are needed, and wood THE FOREST AS A RESOURCE. as in lai^ quantities is needed to mine our naetali. Every pound of iron, every ounce of gold, requires wood in its mining, wood in its manufacture, wood in its transportation. There is hardly a utensil, a tool, or even a machine, in the construction of which wood has not played a part, were it only to furnish the handle or the mould or pattern. The articles, useful or ornamental, made wholty or in part of wood, are innumerable. Our houses are filled with them, our daily occupations necessi* tate them wherever we are. For our means of trans- portation we rely mainly on wood. Our 260,000 miles of railroad track (190^000 miles railroad^ the carriers of civilization, lie on not less than 700,000,000 of wooden ties and need 140,000,000 annually for renewals ;» they run over more than 2000 miles of wooden trestles and bridges, they carry their passengers and freight in over 1,000,000 wooden cars, and much of the millions of tons of freight is shipped in wooden boxes and barrels, and * This drain on our forest resonrces for railroud ties or sleepers, which requires a wasteful use of our most durable timbers, is gradu- ally being reduced by preservative processes which lengthen the "life" of ties, and it bids fair to be soon avoided by the use of metal ties, which, except in initial cost, have proved themsehet superior in all other respects. Their use is long past the experi- mental sUge in other countries, there being, in 1894, not less than 3S,ooo mUes, or 9 per cent, of total track lying on metal, whUe the cheap initial cost of wooden ties in the United States has retorded their use here. Very exhaustive reporU on the metal tie question were published by the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Division of For- estry, in Bulletin No. 4, 1889, and Bulletin No. 9, 1S94. 94 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. Stored in wooden sheds. Ten million telegraph poles are needed to keep up communication be- tween distant markets. The forest furnishes the cooperage to market our vintage, to store our flour and fruit The forest furnishes the plough handle and harrow frame to cultivate, the threshing machine and windmill to prepare the crops, the cart to bring them to market, the bottoms in which they cross the ocean to foreign marts, and even the tar and pitch needed to keep the cargo safe. While iron ships have largely replaced the wooden bottoms in ocean travel, our coastwise and inland shipping, which requires a tonnage twice as large as the transatlantic trade, is carried mostly in wooden ships.^ We are rocked in wooden cradles, play with wooden toys, sit on wooden chairs and benches, eat from wooden tables, use wooden desks, chests, trunks, are entertained by music from wooden in- struments, enlightened by information printed on wooden paper with black ink made from wood, and even eat our salads seasoned with vinegar made from wood. * According to the report of the Commutioner of NaTigation, there were in the merchant marine of the Vnited States in the year 1900, a,507/>42 tons of sailing yessela, practically all of wood, and 2,657,797 tons of steam vessels, of which, undoubtedly, a large part was in wooden hulls, besides over 4^000^000 tons unrigged vessels, wooden barges, etc., permitting the above estimate. During the year 1900, 1447 vessels, with a tonnage of 393,790^ were built, cS which only half the tonnage was of it on and steeL THE FOREST AS A RESOURCE. 25 The uses of wood, multifarious now, are con- stantly increasing. With the manufacture of wood pulp and cellulose, an entirely new direction of use has been opened ; originally designed to furnish a cheap substitute for linen paper, its application in many ways is growing daily, and promises for the future the largest drain on our forest resources, the manufacture of wood pulp having increased more than threefold in the last ten years (see Appendix). To give briefly an idea of the extent of our own wood consumption, we may say that, if 5 persons are counted to a family, each family in the United States uses on an average about 2000 cubic feet or about 80,000 pounds of dry wood per year, the annual product of at least 50 acres of forest. The reasons for this universal and varied appli- cation of wood may be found in several directions. In the first place, the general occurrence of forest growth and the ease with which wood could be obtained and shaped directly to the purpose in hand made it naturally the material of earlier civilizations, but there are certain qualities in addition which will make its use always desirable, if not necessary. In the combination of strength, stifiFness, elasticity, and relatively light weight, it excels all other known materials. Not only is a stick of long leaf pine superior in strength to one of wrought iron of the sp-ne weight, but employed as a beam it will bear without bending a load six to 36 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. eight times as great as an iron bar of the same .length and weight. Moreover, the wooden beam will endure greater distortion than the metak with- out receiving a " set " or permanent injury. The ease with which it can be shaped and keeps its shape, the softness and yet unchangeableness, its non-conductivity of heat, of electricity, which makes its use more comfortable than that of metals, in addition, its light specific weight and many other qualities, recommend it for many purposes in pref- erence to other materials. But above all things its cheapness recommends it, — we are paying now, leaving out fancy woods, at the most 60 cents per cubic foot for the best wood, shaped, as against $5 to $10 per cubic foot for iron in sheets or bars. Moreover, it is the only material of construction which we can produce and repro- duce at will, while we know that most other mate- rials now in use must be sooner or later exhausted. Other materials have displaced wood in some uses, but other uses have arisen for wood, and often the substitutes have again been displaced by wood, when its superiority or peculiar qualities have been more fully recognized. Even in such nicely bal- anced structures as the bicycle, for which metal seemed the only proper material, wood has proved itself superior, at least in certain parts. A remarkable instance of this return to the use of wood instead of metal is that for factory and warehouse construction in order to reduce danger THE FOREST AS A RESOURCE. 27 from fire, it having been found that in case of fire iron beams and posts are twisted out of shape by the heat, causing the collapse of the whole build- ing, while with wooden posts and beams the chances of keeping the walls intact are much greater. Coal has largely displaced wood as fuel, yet ac- cording to the census of 1880 more than half of our population relied still on wood for fuel, and there is no reason to believe that the proportion has ) /*d measurably. In fact, if we may be allows consider the figures of the census of 1880 stil^ proportionately true, as far as bulk is concerned, our fuel consumption represents about three-fourths of our total wood consumption, and even in value this part represents nearly one-half of our entire enormous consumption of forest prod- ucts, and exceeds in bulk more than ten times the iron and steel handled in this country. Very interesting statistics regarding the displace- ment of wood by coal in Germany show that from the beginning of the last centur^% when coal began to be generally used as fuel, the consumption of wood increased in the same proportionate rate as the consumption of coal. The development of the cellulose and wood pulp industry, with the consequent ex ension in the use of paper m..de from this material for all kinds of purposes where elasticity and durability combined with strength and lightness is demanded, from collars and cu£Fs and combs to car wheels, has 38 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. g^ven new and constantly growing employment to wood. Considering, moreover, the very extensive and the very varied employment of wood, it will be appar- ent that substitution by ether materials cannot be readily accomplished and means inconvenience, and, in many cases, decrease of .omfort. Hence large wood supplies are, and unquestionably will continue to be, an indispensable requirement of oiur civilization, almost like water, air, and food. Besides wood supplies, the forest furnishes other materials of no small value. Of these, two classes at least give rise to industries of considerable ex- tent, namely the tanning industry and the naval store industry. The bark of certain trees, notably the hemlock and the oaks among our native species, contain the chemical compounds known as tannic acids, which serve for the manufacture of leather. The fact that this property of the bark has made the value of the same to exceed by far the value of the wood itself, especially as it is easier to transport the former, has led to an enormous waste of useful wood material, the trees, in mountainous regions especially, having been peel<^ and left to rot in the woods; and in certain i .ountsun regions diffi- cult of access this waste still continues. Thus 1,500,000 cords of tan bark worth about $10,000,000, which we use annually, entailed for- merly a sacrifice of nearly 1000 feet of lumber per THE FOREST AS A RESOURCE. «9 cord of bark ; of this now probably the larger part is saved. Lately, too, it has been found that the wood itself of some species yields paying quantities of tannin, which can be and are being extracted by special processes, thus again widening the field of useful- ness of the wood article itself ; while the metallic substitutes for tannins have so far not been able to displace the same to any great extent. The naval store industry, concerned in extract- ing from the living trees of certain kinds of pine, especially the Southern long leaf pine, and from other species, the resinous contents, and by distilla- tion obtaining turpentine, rosin of various kinds, and tar, is indebted to the forest to the extent of about $8, tates, creosote and other tar oils useful in the arts, are derived, adding another $3,000,000 or more to the annual revenue furnished by our forest resource. In addition to these materials, which come from the tree growth itself, there are many useful things growing in the forest, which in our country have hardly yet attained the dignity of industrial devel- opment; although the distillation of wintergreen oil from birch brush and the gathering of ginseng occupy quite a number of people industrially, while the huckleberry and cranberry crops furnish con- siderable additions to the fruit supply of gardens and orchards. How much may be obtained fron. the careful use of these by-products of the forest may be seen from the statement that in the Prussian state forests the revenues for 1 894-1 895 were : — For wood . For by-products For game . 1 14,500,000 . 1,000,000 90,000 It is seen that the by-products furnished about 7 per cent of the total income. ■I .HE FOREST AS A RESOURCE. 31 In one small village of Pomerania (Prussia), the amount paid for huckleberries which the poor population gathers in the forest amounts to 1^20,000 or 1^30,000 a year. In another small forest district it b calculated that the berry and mushroom harvests represent to the gatherers an annual income of $22,500, showing that even the revenues derived from the minor products of the forest may attain a considerable economic signifi- cance. What relative position from the standpoint 01 wealth production the forest resources and their exploitation take in the household of the nation may best be learned from a comparison with other sources of wealth and their production, considering the revenues from the different forms of wealth, the capital invested, the value of product, the number of people employed, and the wages paid. Unfor- tunately for such comparisons the data are, at least in our own country, but unsatisfactory, since the statistics of an industry like the forest industries, which are largelv removed from centres of production, and in which a large number of people are occupied only occasionally and for parts of the year, are necessarily deficient and must remain below the truth to an uncertain extent. It is, for instance, impracticable to ascertain the amounts of wood cut and used on farms for home consumption, or to apportion the employment of 33 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. labor in this home exploitation. In addition, the values of a material which on account of its bulki- ness is only to a limited degree object of thr world trade, are but little influenced by the world's de- mand, and dependent much more than food sup- plies on home demand only ; and hence the values of such material as wood are at a disadvantage, or at least on a different footing, when compared with other export materials. While the value of the raw forest products con- sumed every year in the United States at places of consumption, roughly shaped for further use, may be placed at $6cx),ocx>,ooo, this is enhanced by their further manufacture to over $1,200,000,000, thus making the result of the forest industries second only to those of agriculture, the value of whose products reached in the census year (1890) nearly $2,500,000,000, while the total production of metals which could in any way replace wood — gold and sil- ver and iron included — reached only $270,000,000, and the entire mining industry (quarries and every kind of mineral or earthy product included) but little over $600,000,000. (See Appendix for details.) Although the forest industries are carried on with proportionately small capital, over $560,000,- 000 were invested in the mere exploiting and first preparation of the material in the lumber business, while another $900,000,000 are employed in manu- factures which rely either entirely, or to an extent of over one-third of their product, on wood. THE FOREST AS A RESOURCE. 33 Of the total value of manufactured products, aggregating nearly |l 10,000,000,000 worth in the census year 1890, 17 per cent is to be credited to the forest resource, and nearly 20 per cent of the capital invested, of labor employed, and of wages paid in all manufactures. In addition to the capital and labor involved in the exploitation of the forest, we have to consider the large but indeterminable amount of labor in- volved in the transportation of the material from points of manufacture, which adds to the eco- nomic importance of these industries in the same, in perhaps greater proportion, than other indus- tries. So large is the money value resulting from the mere conversion of the products of our wood- lands that it equals at present annually a 2 per cent dividend on the entire wealth of the nation ($65,000,000,000, according to census in 1890). Th'T dividend, 'o be sure, is unfortunately largely paid, not from surplusage, but from capital stock, and a future generation will have to make good the deficiency. One very important factor often overlooked by laymen in appreciating the economic value of the forest resources of a country is the fact, that it is not wood simply that is wanted, but wood of certain quality useful for given purposes. A country may be well covered with woodlands and yet lack those valuable kinds of woods which lend 34 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. themselves readUy to the everyday uses of civa- izedlife. Again, it may be well supplied with valuable kinds, but these are found so scattered among the less valuable growth, the tree weeds, that their exploitation becomes cumbersome and ex- pensive. Thus we see Brazil and other South American countries, and AustraUa, in spite of their extensive forest areas, come to the United States for their lumber supplies, lacking as they do the soft, easily worked, yet strong and elastic coniferous kinds, which are par excellence the materials of construc- tion. Again, the valuable hardwoods of those coun- tries, possessing excellent qualities, besides their beauty, for which alone ^ e use them at present, will never be able to compete or supplant our own materials, for they occur in single individuals scat- tered among hundreds of other species, so that to supply any considerable quantity of any one kind requires culling over many acres, which renders them too expensive for general use. There is therefore nothing but ignorance in the comfortable ideas of those who look forward t< a supply of wood from those countries when oui own supplies give out. A proposition to secure statistics of the produc tive forest area and timber supplies of the work ready for the axe, and of the consumption by th* THE FOREST AS A RESOURCE. 35 population, was brought before the International Fc.estry Congress at Paris, in 1900. The attempt to secure such statistics in any way reliable is almost hopeless, when we cannot even in our own country get more than the roughest approxima' tions ; moreover, even if it were possible to secure some approximate figures, as long as there are no attempts at management of the resource, the knowl- edge would not be worth the expense it would en- tail to gather it, smce the conditions would change without record being kept, hence the value of the figures would be most ephemeral. A rough approximation would bring out the fol- lowing condition of the earth's surface, from which at least the potential forest area, that which, under natural conditions, did or does or is able to produce timber forest can be estimated : — Peicxntic Distsibution of Land Aria FMeBtulud ■CtuJ fOKtt Mib. Pnirie. PbiniMid Barms. North America . . . Sooth America . . . Europe Ana Africa AsitTaiia In bnUon acret . . . 4S 78 84 45 60 37 60% 18 5 la 10 3 12 38 7% 2 SO 10 6 S* 38 as 33% 10 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. One-third of the land area, then, is incapable of forest growth {not tree growth), 7 per cent is unfitted for it, and 60 per cent must be di\ided between farm and forest. How much is actually wooded it is impossible even to estimate, and how much contains available wood supplies, still less so. The world's requirement of wood materials ma> be estimated as follows, actual figures and statistics in some cases allowing reasonable approximations, but lacking, of course, for all oriental countries, Africa, Au3tralia, South America, any tangibU basis: fc- these, therefore, merely allowances b) guess are made: — North America Europe .... All other conntriet, Wood Riquiiikmbmt. lababitanti, ■ulUon*. 80 360 1,160 Per capita, cu. (t 300 19 Total million cu. ft. 2,400 >r440 3,300 or which ft. B.M. million. Pcrcapiu ft.BJ«. 40,000 33/XX> 4.5OO 500 60 This, for the i,6oo,oc»,ooo inhabitants, wouli average about 38 cubic feet per capita, of wood all descriptions, of which 6 to 7 cubic feet arc sai material equivalent to 40 feet board measure. The following countries furnish about the fol lowing quota of the saw materLl : — THE FOREST AS A RESOURCE. 37 8.11. United States. . • • . . . 37iOOO Rn*^-. . ia,ooo Aaatria .. • . • • , , 3,500 German/ ....... 3,000 Canada 3/»o Sweden and Norwaj a/xx) Qiina and Japan ...... a/xio France ........ 1,500 SorOh America ..•«.. ifioo India ••.••... 500 All others .•••••. i/x» 66,500 The use of wood per capita in the United States, with about 350 cubic feet, exceeds that of all other civilized nations; nearly one-quarter of this wood, or 85 cubic feet, is log material (100 cubic feet log ma- terial may be roughly figured as producing 600 feet B.M. sawed material), while England, importing nearly all her requu-ements, can get along with about 13 cubic feet of log material, and Germany with a consumption of 43 cubic feet of wood per capita, of which 15 cubic feet is log material. Both these countries. Great Britain importing practically all and Germany over 25 per cent of her needs, would indicate that a civilized nation in a northern coun- try requires between 12 and 15 cubic feet of log material. Outside of the United States and Canada, which export 28o,ooo,ocx> cubic feet, the coimtries which cut more than they consume are Russia with 420,ocx^ooo, Austria with 240,ooo,cxx>, Norway and 38 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. Sweden with 400,000,000 cubic feet : these export- ing countries, with additional small exportations from India and South America, supply the MOO,- 000,000 cubic feet which Europe imports, and for which she pays $200,000,000. For the United States the available timber ready for the axe has been estimated variously at from 1,380,000,000,000 to 2,300,000,000,000 feet B.M., corresponding to 35 to 50 years' requirements, which, if only a distant approach to the truth, im- presses the need of careful husbanding and attention to reproduction.* If one would wish to know what the needs of a people for wood supplies is (when there is no ex- travagance permissible, and when every stick is used down to the brush, and when coal is not so plentiful us to supplant all firewood), the figures for Germany, which possesses unusually good sta- tistics to make such calculation possible, furnish a good basis. Its 50,000,000 people live on 133,000,000 acres of land, — I on 2| acres as against i on 26 acres in the United States, — hence forest growth is mostly confined to the poorer soils, which are not fit for agriculture. From their 35,000,000 acres of such forest growth— f acres per person— the Germans » Many foolidi MMrtions regarding exiiting wood n j^pUc* in the Umted SUtea and Canada, which are rehearted by paendo-rtatia- tidans to ihow inexhauadble luppliea, are not worthy of coaddera- tiotu THE FOREST AS A RESOURCE. 39 take mostly only the annual accumulations, striv- ing to keep their stock, or wood capital, intact and in good reproductive condition. The annual cut amounts to 1,870,000,000 cubic feet of all sorts and sizes, or 53 cubic feet per acre, of which, how- ever, only 27 per cent, or round 500,000,000 cubic fee^ is of size fit for manufactures. These amounts are, however, not sufficient for the needs of the popu- lation ; and hence, although some 48,000,000 cubic feet of wood and woodenware, worth 1^26,700,000, are exported, over 305,000,000 cubic feet of wood and wood articles, worth l53i500,ooo, are imported ; so that nearly 10 per cent of the total consumption comes from outside, not counting much wood that forms part of manufactures imported, like pianos, wagons, etc. We have then here a consumption of 43 cubic feet per capita, of which 15 cubic feet is sizable material, and the value would figure to little less than $3 per capita, or say $150,000,000 is the wood bill of these economical people annually, as against 7 times that amount, which we spend. If you ask as to relative cost or price of these wood materials, one interesting fact stands out, namely, that while the value of their imports is |t 141 per ton, the value of their exports is ^25 5 per ton; in other words, Germany is careful to export more manufactured and high-priced material than she imports; thus, the exported lumber and wood brings her 32 cents per cubic foot, while she pays only 23 cents for the 40 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. imported wood. Again, the exported wood manu- factures bring her at the rate of M-20 per cubic foot, while she pays only $2.40 for the imported ware. We, on the other hand, export twice as much as we import, and that mostly raw materials, na.-iely, twice as much in value of raw materials as uf manufactures, and by so much decimating our resources, which we exploit beyond their power of reproduction. The temperate zones are the favored ones in that they abound not only in a variety of woods which are most readily turned to use in all the various directions in which wood is required in our civilization, but the most useful ones occur more or less gregariously, so that their exploitation can ^ r most readily and cheaply accomplished. This especially the case with the conifers, spruces, fin redwoods, and above all, the pines, which cover large areas exclusively or nearly so, and excel in the combination of desirable qualities all other ma- terials, so that without them our civilization would be badly crippled. Of the enormous yearly lum- ber consumption in the United States, amounting nearly to 40,ooo,ooo,cx» feet of board measure (enough to make a plank walk 30O feet wide around the world, or floor over entirely the states of Dela- ware and Rhode Island), the conifers furnish more than f and the pines alone ^; and again the white pine of the lake states furnishes f of this half, giv- ing to these supplies of one species an economic ■■ THE FOREST AS A RESOURCE. 41 significance beyond all others. The amount of vir* gin coniferous material standing ready for the axe amounts, probably, to less than 1,500,000,000,000 feet. This lumber consumption, to be sure, represents only one-quarter of our wood consumption ; but it is the important part, to supply which trees of large size, of good form, of special quality, must be on hand, and which it has taken a century or more to produce, — most of our lumber is furnished at pres- ent by trees over 200 years old. The other three- quarters of our consumpt^ton, for firewood and small dimensions, can be easily supplied from inferior material, the offal of the lumber trees and young growth, although at present much body wood is still cut into billets for firewood. The laymaUj who has no experience with the requirements and practice of lumber production, can hardly realize what a small percentage of the actual wood in a tree or an acre of forest growth reappears in useful shape from the sawmill. Not only is a large part of the tree in the virgin woods often altogether unfit for sawing, being crooked or knotty or rotten or \rindshaken, but the unavoidable waste at the mill in shaping the material reduces the output by at least one-third to two-thirds of the contents of the logs that are placed before the saw. That this mill waste increa.ses rapidly with the reduction in size of the log will become a significant fact, when the heavy sizes of the virgin 43 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. forest are exhausted and smaller sizes must satisfy our demands. It is, then, not woodlands, not the area of wooded country, which has a meaning as far as material forest resources are concerned, but the composition and condition of the timber on that area determines its value. Thus nearly 50 per cent of Massachusetts is cov- ered with a wood growth, but the lumber product of that state would not suffice td supply the needs of one-tenth of its population. Not only is there hardly any lumber to be found ready for the axe, but the percentage of growth capable of produc- ing desirable material is exceedingly small Thousands of square miles in the United States are in similar condition ; they are woodlands, but the composition and condition of the forest growth is such as to have no significance as regards lumber supply for the present and for a long future. The capacity of the forest to produce new sup- plies depends both as to quantity and quality on the climate, character of the soil, and still more on the care which the forest receives. In the uncared-for, natural, or virgin forest the production is always much smaller than in the forest properly managed, and, on the average, of a much inferior kind. Not that the magnificent clear lumber which we find in virgin woods could be much improved in quality, but considering the time and space, the product has been obtained with the maximum waste of both. THE FOREST AS A RESOURCE. 43 The virgin forest is always stocked largely with very old, and necessarily often decaying trees, which are doing little or nothing in the way of growth or else are deteriorating faster in quality than they increase in quantity; then there are myriads of saplings and small brush either of kinds which are undesirable or of individual trees which under the shade of the older will never have oppor- tunity to develop into valuable wood. Moreover, the virgin forest rar>ly covers fully the ground it occupies, but usually leaves larger or smaller open- ings growing to grass or shrubs, and among the trees forming the forest there are a large number which are not useful in the arts, — tree weeds. In addition dead trees and fallen timber always occupy considerable space which is thus withdrawn from wood production. Hence it is almost impos- sible to give even an approximate estimate of what the virgin forest actually produces, how much per acre and year grows in it This is certain, that while the few trees which overtower the general level of the rest of the growth and are fully developed, may have made as much wood as the species in the soil and climate could make, yet the useful wood production on the whole acre has been far below its capacity. The timber in our piner-s which is considered fit for sawing is mostly over one hundred and fifty years old, and it has, therefore, taken at least a century and a half to produce the five to ten thou. 44 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. sand feet B.M. per acre, which are ordinarily har< vested from these virgin woods. But this product was probably ready for the axe these thousand years, without increasing, the decay balancing the new growth ; generations of similar large trees have come to maturity, have fallen and decayed before and during the one hundred and fifty years in which the present crop developed. At the same time, to judge from the number and character of the decaying trunks which are found covering the ground, these generations have not been very many during the time that the present crop has been growing : the land has largely been wasted in producing useless material, — brush and tree weeds. In other words, the natural forest resource as we find it consists of an accumulated wood capital lying idle and awaiting the hand of a rational manager to do its duty as a producer of c continuous highest revenue. Such r..mce, $3,195; for beech, I836, making the acre pro- duce respectiTely 3 times, 4 times, and double the result. This con- sideration may serve as a pointer to our New England woodUnd owners, who are satisfied with the production <£ firewood. THE FOREST AS A RESOURCE. 49 showing that the cut remained below the produc- tion. In Saxony, the cut in the most intensively managed state forests has been doubled in the last fifty years, and yet the stock of wood capital standing has increared over i6 per cent ; while, in 1845, of. the cut per acre of 56 cubic feet, 11 per cent was saw timber, in 1893, of the 90 cubic feet cut, 54 per cent was timber fit for the mill. The gross revenue increased in that time 234 per cent, and the net revenue over 80 per cent. A financial calculation shows that the state's property has not only paid 3 per cent continuously in revenue, but has appreciated in value 24 per cent by mere accumulation of material. Since, then, these yields have been kept up for a considerable period without decreasing the amount of wood capital on hand, it is fair to assume that these figures approach nearly to the true producing capacity of these forest lands under the methods employed. Altogether, the 10,000,000 acres of German state forests, managed in a conservative manner for continuous production, average about 46 cubic feet of wood (exclusive of brush and rootwood) per year per acre, in which about 50 per cent, or 22 cubic feet, are millable product, log or bolt size. It is significant to note that the private forests of the empire fall much below these amounts, producing not more than 30 and 12 cubic feet per acre respectively. •^o ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. AccoidUig to a conservative calculation based upon the si: experiences, the forest resource of Ger- many rcpres its, in round numbers, a capital value of ill 80 per acre ($25 for the soil and 1^155 for the stock of wood), paying a constant revemte of 3 pei cent on such capitalization; or since there are some- what over 35,000,000 acres of forest, their capital value is equal to $6,340,000,000, producing a ecu- tinuous annual income of $190,000,000. The state properties are, moreover, constantly improving, and the revenue constantly increasing. While, to the casual reader, this showing ma> hardly appear as a very profitable business, we must not forge*^ that the result is obtained for the most part from soils which would ot. rwise h*t unproductive, for the forest areas in t ese co tries are in the main confined to the i 'n-agn u- tural lands, and to such as may not w<*h impunit)i be deprived of their forest cover. Furthermore, from the standpoint o*' national economy the productive employment ^f laboi directly or indirectly concerned is of Tiomei representing in labo; >rs' wages annually roui $150,000,000, namely, ;>35,ooo,ooo for expioitaii planting, road building and hauling f f >r^ ^i ucta, not including rail ana water trans 3or $115,000,000 for labo; in indu.stries con shaping the wood that not ess tha laboi ers' families may je estir ated to hi from the forest :rE snc in oc THE FOREST AS A RESOURCE. SI Although we are .ithout Jie statistics which would lermit a similar staf lent r garding the value ot our own fore ^t rtt rcc, e ^ecially as it has not st corr! to a stable conditi. as a man- aged prooerty, ye we i iy venture to nake a rea- sonable f less at some of its conditions, based upon such saitistica aata as are at hand, and judgment of prolMbilities. Our consumption we can reasonably appios- r ate with a round 25,000^000,000 rubic feei ai large-size naterial, for we do not use the brujtl' wood to any extent This, with an ei ima ed area of ound 500 "ocooo acres, means a ner acre of 50 cubic t, while even the mog ui- gulne estimate of new growth for this an* vanousiy stocked area could not be ^e tu exceed 10 cuuic feet of such wood as utilise per 1. re aid year, and is probai j- , km this Oi .ajge consumption, however, only one- quarter, . r 6,000,000,000 cubic feet goes into bolt or log-size material 'or mill use, the re befaig fire- wood, for which, to be sure, also m ' log-size material is used. The value of the uJl material, two-thirds of which is coniferous wood, represents about $500,000,000. An extravagant estimate of the available timber supplies ready for the axe — a guess which the writer has ventured upon the basis of various statistical data, experiences, and coasideratious of S3 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. possibilities and probabilities — would make the stock on hand about as follows : — BOUonfaM, KH. Northern States 500 Sotttbera States 700 Weiteni States 800 It is apparent that we are bound to exhaust these stores in less time than they can be replaced, that we are not living on interest, but are rapidly at- tacking our wood capital, — a process fully in keep- ing with the development of any new country, but also one against which reaction must set in in time, if serious consequences are to be avoided. Such reaction may be secured first through a more economical use of i:he timber resources, for our per capita consumption falls hardly short of 350 cubic feet, nearly nine times that of Germany and twenty-five times that of England, and hence a large margin is left for such economies. Finally, however, forest management, as prac- tised in other countries, will become an unavoid- able necessity to secure the continued production of needed wood supplies. There is one factor of national importance re- sulting from the industries concerned in the con- version of our virgin forests, which does not at all, or not to the same extent, attach to them in other countries, and which, in the end, is of more moment than estimates of stumpage or land values or values of products can express. THE FOREST AS A RESOURCE. 53 Not only does the lumberman with the system- atic development of his business, which has enabled him to supply a superior article as cheaply as the inferior one ?« sold in Europe, give rise to many manufactories and industries and render possible the development of distant agricultural regions, which in turn renders profitable the building of railroads and the employment of labor, but he has been the pioneer in bringing the wilderness itself within reach of civilized influences ; and while this has often been done at an unnecessarily extrava* gant sacrifice of much of our natural forest resources, the opening up of these backwoods must nevertheless be considered as a potent influ- ence for good, resulting from his business. Per aspera ad astra, through rough work to civ- ilization, is the history of the settling of the back- woods, which the logger has accomplished. Such settlement is necessary before forest man- agement can be profitably applied to the remnants of woodlands ; and while we may regret the waste- fulness with which this settlement has been made, we must consider it as a necessary step toward an extension of civilized conditions. CHAPTER III. THE rOBIST AS A COBDITIOIT. The earth may be said to be a potential forest A cover of tree growth more or less dense is or has been the natural condition at least of the larger portion of the habitable earth; and of the entire land surface not less than 60 per cent may be classed as actual or potential woodland. In the struggle for existence and for occupancy of the soil between the different forms of vegeta- tion, tree growth has an advantage in its tjrennial nature and in its elevation above its competitors for light, the most essential element of life for most plants. These characteristics, together with its remarkable recuperative powers, assure to the arborescent flora final victory over its competi- tors, except where climatic and soil conditions are nbt adapted to it The entire absence of tree growth from some localities, such as the northern tundras and the high peaks above timber line, is due both to tem- perature and soil conditions. Here the two char- acteristics of perennial life and persistent height growth; become unfavorable, since extreme winter THE FOREST AS A CONDITION. 55 temperatures above the snow cover, droughty winter storms, and frosts every month in the year can be endured only by those plants which have a rapid cycle of development, or are sheltered near the ground by the snow cover; the wet soil on the tundras, frozen for most portions of the year, or the thin soil on the Alpine peaks, adds to the difficulties for deep-rooting species in their contest with the lower vegetation. Again, in the interior of continents and other localities unfavorably situ- ated with reference to the great sources of mois- ture and moisture-bearing currents, deficiency of water, namely scant rainfall or low relative humid- ity, or both, and excess of evaporation, are inimi- cal to tree growth. Occasionally soil conditions, especially with reference to drainage, and climatic conditions CGmbined, may be more favorable to the graminaceous vegetation, at least for a time, giving rise to pampas, prairies, and savannas ; or else the unfavorable conditions combine to such a degree as to give rise to deserts. In addition, there are other inimical agencies in the animal world, which prevent the progress of forest growth and tend to preserve the prairie : locusts, rodents, ruminants, buffalo, antelope, horses, etc., impede the growth and spread of trees ; and especially where compact soil and deficient mois- ture conditions are leagued with these animals, the change from prairie to forest is prevented, at least for a time. 56 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. Woodlands arc the most unfavorable form of vegetation for the life of ruminants, and therefore for the support of the largest number of men. For food production, for agricultural pursuits, man must subdue and remove the tree growth. Hence forest devastation, forest destruction, is ti\e begm- ning of dvUization, its necessary prereqmsite. But while the removal and repression of the wood, as an impediment to culture and food pro- duction, is a necessary step toward a higher civiU- zation, the fact that at the same time it furnishes material equaUy indispensable in building up a av- ilization requires consideration abo, and the neces^ sity for its preservation in part, its continuance in possession of some portions of the soil, is indicated. HappUy, the very soiU and situations which are not fit for agriculture are still capable of support- ing tree growth ; and although the best timber, no doubt, may be grown on land most favorable to agricultural crops, the poorer soils and mountain slopes unfit for plough land wUl still yield wood crops of useful description. In reducing, therefore, the woodland condition to one adapted to the highest civilization, the rele- gation of the different soils and sites to the differ- ent uses to which they are best adapted, as fields, pastures, or forest, is a problem of true national economy. Besides the consideration of a proper proportion of woodlands to furnish the needful supply of woo<3 THE FOREST AS A CONDITION. 57 material,— *«^(>'/WJ.— there are other consid- erations which enter into this problem of the eco- nomic use of the soil and of distributing the various conditions of its occupancy. These are based upon knowledge of what we may call forest influences : the influence which the exbtence of a forest cover as a surface condition of the soil exerts upon soil conditions, temperature conditions, and water con- ditions, and by virtue of which we may charac- terize them as protective forests. While the most economic use of the soil for material production neceMttates relegation of forests to the poorer soils, protective considerations necessitate its relegation to certain localities. Whileour modem philosophy of aaturercadily per- ceives that all things are interdependent, and hence no change can take place in one condition without corresponding changes in other conditions, even the oldest civilized men intuitively recognized or at least suspected and appreciated the fact that the forest cover had some influence upon its surround- ings, upon climate, health, and water conditions of a country, as is evidenced by many sayings of Mosaic. Roman, and Greek writers, by which far- sighted priests prevented their destruction. The consecration of groves to religious use and various mythological conceptions connected with them, point in this direction. Thus Homer calls the mountain woodlands the habitations of the gods (reftA^ iBavdrmv), in which 5t ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. the mortals never fcU the trees, but where they fali from age when their time has come. His tree and woodland nymphs, originating in springs, seem to suggest the suspected relation of forests and springs. The legend of Erichthonios most beautifuUy hints at the dependence of agriculture and forest cover : when, by the felUng of a holy oak, he has of- fended the dryads, Ceres, the patroness of agricul- ture, is asked to send one of their number to the mountains of the Camasus to fetch Famine, whc takes hold of Erichthonios and kills him. These relations, thus darkly hinted at in earliesi times, became more clearly recognized by philo sophical writers. While Aristotle, in his " Na tional Economy," pomts out that an assured suppl) of accessible wood material is one of the necessary conditions of existence for a city, Plato, in hi •' Civitas," writes of the " sickening of the country ' in consequence of deforestation. The Romai "Twelve Table Laws," the organic law of thi republic, recognizes the necessity of forest protec tion, and Cicero, in his second Philippica, designate as enemies to the public interest those engaged ii forest devastation. Laws prohibiting forest d< struction in the mountain forests of the Apennine were generally enforced in the early middle ages as, for instance, in Florence, where deforestatio within one mile of the summit of the Apennine was forbidden, and it was only about the first pai of the eighteenth century that these wise provisiot THE FOREST AS A CONDITION. 59 which' had preserved the cover of the higher mountain ranges were abolished and the present sad condition of things was inaugurated in Italy. Mesopotamia, once praised as the paradise of fertility, where, according to Herodotuc, the cul- ture of the grape could not succeed on accoimt of its moisture, has become a sand waste, in which the Euphrates, once an ample source of water sup- ply, is drowned. Most of the springs and brooks of Palestine, and with them the fertility still cele- brated in the early middle ages, have gone. Greece shows the progress of a similar decadence ; Sicily, once the never-failing granary of the Roman Em- pire, once well wooded, now entirely deforested, suffers from repeated failures of crops. The so- called fumari, deep gullies in gravel, filled with washed debris, encroach after every rain upon the fertile fields, emptying them of water in a few hours. The first definite expression of such relations of forest cover to climate appears in a biography of Admiral Almirante, written before 1540, by the Spaniard, Fernando Colon, in the following words : — " The Admiral ascribed the many invigorating, cooling rains, to which he was exposed while sail- ing along the coast of Jamaica, to the extent and density of the woods which covered the slopes of the mountains, and adds that formerly Madeira, the Canaries, and Azores enjoyed the same abun- dance of water, but that since the woods which 60 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. had shaded the ground have been decimal, the rains have become less frequent" Similar lau guage is laid into the mouth of Christopher Colum- bus in the " Hbtoria de S. D. Fernando Columbo,'* 1 571, which is supposed, however, to be a spurious work. But it was not until the beginning of the eigh- teenth century that both in France and Germany voices became loud regarding the evil effects of forest devastation, and then, too, the growing deficiency of material supplies formed a still more prominent argument for action. Thus, in France, where — in spite of Sully's celebrated epigrammatic warning, "Za Franct pirira fauU des bois" and Colbert's forest ordinance of 1669 — only indifferent attentiru to a conservative forest policy was paid, the members of the acad^mie royale, Buffon (1739), and later the Mar-uis de Mirabeau (1750), exerted themse' ;8 t'^ bring abo'.-t a better conception of the value of forests. Buffon expressed himself, as a result of extended observations, that " the longer a country is inhab- ited, the poorer it becomes in forest growth and water." But the most forcible demonstration of this relation between woods and waters was had as a consequence of the extensive forest devasta- tion which took place during the years of the French Revolution, when an unrestricted people in their greed denuded large tracts of mountain woodlands in the southern mountain districts of THE FOREST AS A CONDITION. 6l that country. So soon did the evil effects become apparent, that even in 1792 tue governor of che Department of Basses-Alpes reported : " The Clear- ings progress rapidly; from Dique to Entrevaut the mountain slopes have been denuded of the finest forest growth; the smallest brooks have grown into torrents, and several communities have k)st by floods their harvests, herds, and houses." In 1803 the agricultural society of Marseilles complains as follows : " The winters have become severer, the summers drier and hotter, the bene- ficial rains of spring and autumn fail ; the M^jeanne river, flowing east and west, tears away its banks with the smallest thunder-storm, and inundates the richest meadows ; but nine months of the year its bed is dry, since the springs have given out ; irregu- lar destructive thunder-showers are of yearly occur- rence, and rain is deficient at all seasons." Yet, in spite of these early warnings, which were supported by theoretical discussions of such sound reasoners as Boussingault, Becquerel, and others, action to stem the destruction and to recuperate the lost ground was obtained only within the last forty years, after at least i,cxx>,ooo acres of moun- tain forest had been denuded, and all aftergrowth had been destroyed by fire and excessive grazing, in consequence of which the mountain streams, turned into torrents, had laid waste about 8,000,000 acres of tillable land, and the population of eigb- teen departments had been impoverished or driven 6a ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. out. Now, although with the expenditure of more than ^,000,000 only a small part has been recu- perated, the efficiency of a forest growth in hold- ing the soita of the slopes and retarding the run-off water seems experimentally demonstrated beyond peradventure. In Germany the greatest exponent of natural philosophy, Alex, von Humboldt, from observa- tions in many parts of the globe, came to the conclusion that forest conditions and climatic conditions are intimately related. Among the causes which tend to lower the mean annual temperature, he cited in his " Cosmos," " exUnsivt woods, which hinder the insolation of the soil b> the vital activity of their foliage, producing in tense evaporation owing to the extension of thes< organs, and increasing the surface that is coolec by radiation, and acting consequently in a three fold manner, by shade, evaporation, and radia tion;" and in another place he gives cxprcssioi to his conviction of the relation of forest cove and water conditions in the often-cited words " How foolish does man appear to me in destroy ing the mountain forests, for thereby he deprive himself of wood and water at the same time." In the beginning of this century, when th tendency of dismembering and selling the fores property accumulated by the state government began to spread, in part as a consequence c Adam Smith's doctrine, those opposed to such THE FOREST AS A CONDITION. 63 policy, especially in Germany, made vigorouA prop- aganda for the theory of the protective value of forest cover, an ', as is natural for propagandists, made many sweeping and extravagant claims, and an extensive literatiure, characterized by vigorous declamation of unsubstantiated facts, and by ab> sence of exact data, was the result The condition of Palestine and other Eastern countries, of Greece, Sicily, and Spain, once fertile, now more or less desolate, was dted, and morals were drawn from these experiences; discriminaF tion as to historic evidences of cause and effect was mostly wanting, so that this historic method of discussing the problem has been largely dis- credited. Systematic attempts to establish by experiments and exact methods the truth in the matter, at least as far as climatic influence is concerned, were made only within the last thirty-five or forty years. In France, Becquerel began in 1858 a series of obser- vations on temperatures within and without a forest cover; in 1866, the forestry school at Nancy was engaged in determining moisture conditions at sta- tions in the forest, and later in the open; and several other investigators, both in France and Germany, carried on such observations about the same time. In 1868, the Bavarian government in- stituted an exhaustive series of observations under Dr. Ebermayer, to determine the climatic condi- tions within a forest area. Switzerland followed ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. with three pain of parallel sUtioni, and in 1875 Prutiia ettablif hed an investigation, which still con- tinues, with seventeen stations, observations being taken at each on instruments set up within the forest and another set in a neighboring iield. In 1884, Austria instituted a series of radial stations at which not only the difference of meteorological data within and without a forest, but the influence of the forest on its surroundings, were to be meas- ured directly. Although, by these many and long continued observations, some valuable facts have been estab> lished, and our ideas as to the elements which enter into the problem have been cleared up, the real object of inquiry, namely, whether and how far forests exercise an influence upon climate, cannot be said to have progressed far to a solution, and it is questionable whether the present methods will ever lead to a solution. The reasons for this failure are at least three- fold. Both instruments and methods of meteoro- logical inquiry are as yet unsatisfactory. When, for instance, rain gauges will, according to their construction, the manner of their position, and the character of the wind and rain, during the same storm, register amounts varying from 7 to 40 per cent, we are without any means of appljring a con- stant factor of correction, and it would appear that no reliance can be placed on such measurements for the purpose of determining the difference of rain- THE FOREST AS A CONDITION. 65 fall within and without the forest. The diflBculty of finding stations within and without the forest which differ in no other respects than the forest cover, excluding all topographic and other influ- ences upon meteorological phenomena, is well-nigh insurmountable. Finally, whatever we may be able to do in ascer- taining the single meteorological data that give us an insi jht into the differences regarding these single elements under varying conditions, the difference in their combined effect, which we know as climate, still requires the application of a philosophical mind to the interpretation of the data. Hence we USA (71t) 4«2-O300-l>hoM (71«) -r«i HP 78 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. attributable mainly to the rebuilding of the old Roman drainage canals, which had been allowed to collapse, and the malaria-breeding mosquitoes have been reduced thereby. In any case, where drainage is to be secured, artificial canalization could probably be made more effective than forest planting. Nevertheless, a sanitary influence exists, as every one can experience, but it is mainly of a negative character : absence of smoke, dust, obnox- ious gases, and of strong winds which characterize the air of cities, and which to some extent (at least dust and winds) occur in the open, renders a forest region more healthful. Furthermore, it has been found that forest air is more free from pathogenic microbes. Especially those bacilli which develop in the soil, like the cholera, typhus, and yellow fever bacilli, find in the forest soil less favorable conditions for develop- ment, and, owing to the absence of strong winds, are less apt to be carried into the air, where they would be breathed by man. In fact, in the dense forest, where the variation of soil moisture is small and decomposing humus keeps the soil acid, no pathogenic microbes have as yet been found. Here, too, to be sure, the degree of effectiveness must depend on the condition of the forest and especially of the forest floor. It is also not impossible that the opening of large swampy forest districts may improve health conditions by changing moisture conditions; this THE FOREST AS A CONDITION. 79 especially with regard to malarial diseases. These are not produced by bacilli, but by parasitic pro- tozoa {Plasmodium malarice), which seem to thrive in the swamp conditions. As long as the water covers the soil, there is no danger, but as soon as the water recedes, the plasmodia develop, and with the assistance oi mosquitoes or by other means are communicated to man. A further indirect sanitary influence must not be overlooked in our modern economy of city life. The recuperation of bodily energy and of spirit which an occasional sojourn in the cool, bracing, and in- spiriting forest air brings to the weary dweller in the city must not be underestimated as an element in the general health conditions of a people. In addition, the question of a good water supply is being recognized as more and more dependent upon the condition of the sources of supply. Knowing that a large number of diseases are bred in soils, it becomes essential that the drinking water carry as little soil particles as possible, and although, by artificial means of filtration and sedi- mentation, the river water may be freed of sand and bacilli, we would have more assurance of freedom from disease, if the water came from a well-forested region, where, as we have seen, no pathogenic bacteria are produced, and if the wash- ing of the soil into the river on the way to the reservoirs were prevented by proper attention to preventing the erosion along its banks. 80 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. Summarizing the present knowledge of forest influences and viewing it from the standpoint of the practical economist, it will appear that there is sufficiont evidence of the value of properly located forest areas, as affecting at least water and soil conditions in a marked degree, and in a minor degree health and climatic condition^, to make the subject of forest conservancy one of great impor- tance. Especially is this the case with the forest cover on mountain sides and in the hill country, where the destructive tendencies of the water are apt to gather force, if not modified by the obstruc- tion of the forest floor. It is always to be kept in mind that not the extent, so much as the location and condition of the forest cover is of greatest importance, and tnat the effect can be determined only with reference to local conditions in every particular case. The protection of the soil cover at the head waters of streams thus becomes a concern of state activity, and the establishment of forest belts in drouth-ridden countries, or the fixation of sand dunes and drifting sands, becomes a public work of internal improvement. In the Appendix will be found further details regarding the measured forest influences, in the form of a resum^, taken from Bulletin VII, Forestry Division, U. S. Dept. of Agriculnire, entitled " Forest Influences," 1893, in which this question is exhaustively discussed. CHAPTER IV FOREST AND FORESTRY DSFIHID From age to age the relations of man to man, and of man to nature, change according to the development of science and art and the progress of civilization in general. What was important once has lost its significance to-day, and what appears to us highly significant at the present time had no existence in the minds of our ances- tors. With these changes in our conditions and conceptions the language used in expressing them also changes ; not only does our vocabulary in- crease, but words long used change their meaning, sometimes so radically, that Uttle is left of the first meaning. The conception and the word "forest" has in this way through historical development experi- enced a change to such an extent, that the origmal conception and meaning are almost, if not entirely, obliterated. In this change, both of conception and meaning, Teutonic development has made its impress. The word of Old High German origin, "Voorst," used to designate the segregated prop- erty of the king, or leader of the tribe. Toward 83 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. the end of the eighth century, latinized into " f oresta," or " f orestis," it assumed a more re- stricted meaning, namely, as referring to all the royal woods, in which the right to hunt was re- served by the king, either for himself or for thosu of his vassals to whom he ceded the right to the chase. (See Appendix.) Gradually, however, the kings employed their royal prerogative of forbid- ding any kind of action, under threat of the " ban," in extending their exclusive right to the chase, not only to neighboring woods, but to fields as well. By and by the temporal and spiritual princes and feudal lords succeeded in having their own holdings protected in the same manner, and de- clared as " ban forests," as far as the hunting was concerned, and by the thirteenth centiwy this pre- rogative was freely exercised by noble landholders. Under the plea of protecting the chase, the rights to cut wood (which had been free to all), to clear for agricultural use, and to pasture, were gradually restricted, and these restrictions, which had referred at first only to the property of the lords, were soon extended to apply also to the property of others which lay within the '' ban," so that at the er d of the ninth century a " forest " meant a large tract of land, including woods as well as pastures, fields, and whole villages, on which not only the rights to the chase were reserved to the king or his vassals, but the persons living on it in all their relations fell under the special jurisdiction of the "forest FOREST AND FORESTRY DEFINED. 83 laws." It was then a legal term, and had no refer- ence to natural but only to legal conditions, with the royal prerogative, the right to hunt, as a basis. Afforesting and disafforesting were correspondingly the legal terms which denoted the placing of dis- tricts under the forest ban and forest laws, or theii release from these restrictions. The forests of Dean, of Windsor, of Eppin f Sherwood, and the New Forest, in England, made famous by legend and history, were s'lch districts, set aside by the Norman kings for their pastime.^ The care which, under the forest laws, was bestowed upon the woodlands by special officers called foresters, fii-t for the sake of preserving the game, then for the sake of continuity of wood sup- plies, and the later release of the fields from the application of these laws, no doubt had a tendenc) to restrict the term forest again to the woodlands alone, \mtil finally, with the decadence of the regal prerogative, the old meaning wo s away entirely, and it referred no longer to a legal but to a natural condition, land covered with wood growth * It is interesting to noie that thl- medisevjl conception and use of thft terms lingered untJi nearly the present day, as] evidenced by a suit at court, deciaed in 1862, instituted by one of the dukes of Athole in Scotland, who hold extensive mountain districts either in thei' own right or as " foresters " for the crown, in virtue of which one of them claimed the power of preventing his neighbor, the Laird of Lude, from killing deer on his own lands, and the right to enter the Laird's lands himself for the purpose. The courts decided adversely. ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. in contradistinction to prairies and plains, meadow and field. In the German language, with the more intensive development in the rational treatment of the wood- lands, the limitation is carried farther, the word Forst being specific, and meaning the woods which are placed under management, the woods as an object of man's cultivatory activity, while the term Wald is generic, and refers to the natural condition of the soil cover. In the English language this distinction has not yet become settled ; especially in the United States the lexicographers seem to consider large extent and virgin or natural growth, an absence of cultivation, as distinctive attributes to the word forest, while the word woodlands is vaguely and inconsistently defined as. the generic term for land covered or interspersed with trees and of less extent than forest, or else land on which " trees are suffered to grow either for fuel or tim- ber" (Webster), accentuating thereby relation to the uses of man. (See Appendix.) Etymology, linguistic sense, and as we believe actual usage, especially in the literature of later times, since the subject of forests and forestry has become prominent, would warrant us to define, more precisely, woodland as the general or generic term for land naturally covered with woody growth in contradistinction to land not so covered ; forest as the restricted or specific term, namely, woodland whether of natural growth or planted by man, con- FOREST AND FORESTRY DEFINED. «5 sidered in relation to the economic interests of man and from the standpoint of national economy, as an object of man's care, a woodland placed under management for "forest purposes" and, we may also add, exhibiting "forest conditions." These last limitations are important ones and lead to the necessity of further definition. By the first restriction we exclude at once those lands covered with trees or woody growth, which •itvtt other than forest purposes, such as coffee plantations, orchards, which are grown for fruit, roadside plantings and parks, which are planted or kept for shade and omamjsnt, wind-breaks con- f ■ ting of single rows of trees, which, although like Che other conditions of tree growth mentioned may answer some functions of a forest growth, are not primarily intended to fulfil forest purposes and lack what we have called " forest conditions." The first and foremost purpose of a forest gprowth is to supply us with wood material; it is the sulh stance of the trees itself, not their fruit, their beauty, their shade, their shelter, that constitute the pri- mary object of this class of woodland. With the settlement of the country and the grow- ing needs of civilization this use must and will attach as an essential predicate, a fundamental requisite, to any woodland left as such, whatever other purposes it may or may not be designed to subserve, temporarily or continuously. Thus if the state of New York withdraws from 86 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. such use a large woodland area in the Adirondacks to subserve solely other purposes, this can be only a temporary withdrawal from its main purpose which time and intelligent conception of rational economy will reverse. Just so, if a private individual sets apart for the purpose of a game preserve a piece of woodland, and keeps out the axe which would utilize in part the useful timber, he frustrates the primary object of the forest growth temporarily and commits an economic mistake. Occasionally it is not the wood but some other part of the tree itself that is the main object of the harvest, as for instance the bark for tanning pur- poses or the T'ts lous contents which are transformed into naval stores. Yet, as a rule, the wood too is utilized and at least forest conditions are main- tained in the production of the crc?>. But when it comes to a maple sugar orchard, expressly grown for the purpose, or the cork oak plantation, man- aged for the cork, the primary object not only begins to vanish, but also the second criterion of a forest, namely, forest conditions, is absent, and this kind of woodland ceases to fall properly under the term "forest," the designation of orchard or plantation being more appropriate. Besides the great primary object of forest growth, that of furnishing useful materials either of wood or parts of the wood substance, there has been rec- ognized indistinctly through all ages, more cleariy FOREST AND FORESTRY DLFINED. 87 during the last century and with greater precision during the last thirty to forty years, that forest growth serves an object in the economy of nature and of man which under certain conditions may become equally if not more important than this direct primary one. We have learned that in general all conditions in nature are interrelated, and in particular that the condition of the surface cover of the ground not only influences more or less potently the condition of the soil and meteorological factors under the cover, but that this influence reaches even beyond the limits of the cover to its neighborhood ; and, with the recognition of this influence upon soil, temper- ature, and water conditions a new important forest use, namely, as a protective cover and climatic factor, has become established, so that we may dis- tinguish, according to whether the one or the other purpose becomes more prominent, supply forests and //I xtion forests, although the latter invariably also furnish supplies, and finally, when pleasure and game covt : are the main objects, we may speak of luxury forests. To fulfil either or both of the first two, more important functions satisfactorily or continuously, to furnish most useful material and to act as a protective cover, it is needful that the woodland designated as forest exhibit what we have called '* forest conditions." A forest in the sense in which we use the term, econoaiics of forestry. M an economic factor, is by no meant a mere col> lection of trees, but an organic whole in which all parts, although apparently heterogeneous, jumbled together by accident as it were and apparently unrelated, bear a close relation to each other and are as interdependent as any other beings and con* ditions in nature. Not only is there interrelation between p!ant and climate and between plant and soil conditions, but also an interrelation between the individuals composing the forest growth based on definable laws, and finally an interrelation between the arborescent growth and the lower vegetation ; the whole being a result of reactions of plant life to all surrounding influences and reciprocally of influences on all elements of it's environment Even the seemingly lawless mixture of species whiu. we find in the virgin forest is not altogether fortuitous, but a result of such reactions. Out of these reactions and interrelations result conditions which we call forest conditions, and which not only distinguish the forest from other collections of trees or woodlands, but also impart a particular individuality and character to the forest growth of each locality. Even the virgin woodlands may lack what we conceive as ideal forest conditions, when in the struggle for ex- istence other forms of vegetation have still the advantage over the arborescent growth and hence forest purposes are imperfectly performed, or when wmmmm FOREST AND FORESTRY DEFINED. 89 the latter has c t yet teen able to fully establish itself undt.- u* iavorable soil and climatic condi- tions. In sacn cases, which are frequent in the arid and sub-arid and the arctic regions, the single stragglers of trees, the park-like open stand, their stunted and scrubby appearance may leave it doubt- ful whether the term " forest," with its economic significance, is applicable to these woodlands, or may exempt them from consideration under the term. Forest conditions, thw.., imply :iore or less exclusive occupancy of the soil * ^ arborescent growth, a close stand of trees, us a consequence of which a form rxf indiviO -aH tree development results unlike thA -v-oduced in the open stand, itu J a more or less dense shading of the ground which excludes largely the lower vegetation. By so much as these conditions are deficient, by so much does the forest fail to fulfi' its economic functions, as a source of useful material and as a factor in influencing climatic and soil conditions. With regard to the first function, it must be understood that it is not wood simply that is required for the industrie? of man, but wood of certain qualities and sizes, such as are fit to be crt into lumber, as boards, planks, joists, scantlings, or into timber as beams, sills, and posts, into bolts free from blemish, which can be advantageously manufactured into the thousands of articles that are indispensable to* human civilization. Such 90 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. M ^m sizes and qualities combined are not as a rule pro- duced by trees in open stand. Their production requires the close stand, by which the trees are forced to reach up for light in order to escape the shade of their neighbors and all growth energy is utilized in the bole or trunk, the most useful part to man, instead of being dissipated in the growth of branches. The useful forest tree is the one that has grown up with close neighbors, which have deprived it of side light and thereby forced it to form a long cylindrical shaft, to shed its side branches early, which if persisting would have pro- duced knotty lumber, to confine its branch growth to the crown alone. Such conditions are also the most favorable in fulfilling the second function of the forest as regu- lator of waterflow and climate, for it is the shaded condition of the soil and the effective barrier to sun and winds, results of a dense stand, by which the forest exercises these regulatory functions. The history of the woodlands has been the same in all parts of the world, progressing according to the cultural development of the people. First the forest was valued as a harbor of game; then it appeared as an impediment to agricultural devel- opment, and relentless war was waged against it, while at the same time the value of its material stores made it an object of greedy exploitation, and only in a highly civilized nation and in a well-settled country does the conception of the relation of for- FOREST AND FORESTRY DEFINED. 9I ests to the future welfare of the community lead to a rational treatment of forests as such for con- tinuity and to the application of the principles embodied in the science of forestry. There existed some knowledge as to the nature of forest growth and the advantages of its systematic use among the Romans and Greeks. Ancus Mar- dus, the fourth king of Rome (about 640 b.c.X claimed the forests as a public domain and placed them under special officers. Later, under the re- public, they were in special charge of the consuls. Subsequently the continuous wars seem to have wiped out not only the administrative features but the forests themselves, and the Italians of modem times until lately had no more conception of the importance of the forest cover than the people of the United States, so that Italy to-day furnishes about as good an object lesson as any country of the evil effects of forest devastation. The real art of forestry b unquestionably of Teutonic origin, or was at least conceived rather early among the Germanic tribes; the first attempts at it seem to antedate even Charlemagne's time. Long before the royal prerogative of the chase lent an incentive to conservative treatment, there existed among the communistic villagers, who were aggregated in the so-called " Mark," owning all their land in common, crude but systematic at- tempts at rational utilization and even reproduction. The amount of wood that might be harvested with- 93 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. out detriment to future crops was determined, the better kind of timber being more economically cut, and the timber to be cut was designated by officials, whose duty it was to superintend the fell- ing, the removal, and even the use of the same. By and by even the firewood was designated, the dead and inferior material being assigned for it Charring and boxing for resin were carried on under precautions. The number of swine to be allowed in the oak and beech forests was deter- mined according to the quantity of seed mast. Grazing in the woods was allowed only under cer- tain regulations as to districts and number of cattle for every " Marker." The great damage by sheep and goats was recognized and their pasturing in the woods prohibited as early as 1158. Even an Arbor-day was anticipated in some parts, each man having to plant, .under the supervision of the forester, a number of trees proportionate to his consumption. In 1368, the city of Nuremberg began on a larger scale systematic reforestation of waste lands with pines, which was imitated by other communities, and we have documentary evidence that in 1491 a regular system of annual sowings of oak was in existence in the communal forests of Seligenstadt. By the end of the fifteenth century, indeed, fully organized forest administrations existed, and various " Forstordnungen " (forest ordinances) prescribed in detail the manner of exploiting and reestablish FOREST AND FORESTRY DEFINED. 93 ing of wood crops, and trespasses of all kinds were punished with heavy penalties. The first beginnings, then, of a rational forest management were of democratic origin, — a man- agement by the people for the people, who held the welfare of the community higher than the satis- faction of the greed of the few. To be sure, this state of things did not last. The Thirty-years War, which extirpated many of the cities and vil- lages, and brought other economic changes, reduced their holdings of forest property, which fell into the hands of princes and the nobility, and gradually the communal forest was supplanted by the royal or lordly forest, or through partition by the private forest of the single farmer. Then came a period of decline in forest management. Private greed disregarded the many regulations and ordinances against devastation. Fires ruined large areas in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and in addition excessive exploitation reduced the forest area in extent and brought it into poor condition. That era, reaching partly into the beginning of the nineteenth century, presents conditions some- what similar to those with which we are now con- fronted in this country. The Revolution of 1 792 opened wide the doors to the destructive element, and the teachings of Adam Smith still further reduced the wholesome restrictive functions of governments, and induced a movement to sell all government property. The damage which France 94 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. — up to that time living under a tolerably well developed forest policy — is now working to repair resulted from these times of forest dismemberment and forest destruction. Naturally voices agdnst this reckless procedure became louder and louder, as the effects of continued forest devastation and improper clearing became more and more visible, and, as the governments became stronger after the Napoleonic wars, reconstruction and return to con- servative policies were bound to follow. At the same time the technical part of forestry, the methods of forestry practice, had been gradually developed in an empiric way, and with the development of natural sciences were placed on a more stable basis and taught in special forestry schools and at universi- ties by :he end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth century. We can fairly well compare our pr'^sent movement in the United States on behalf of rational forest management with what was going on in Germany a hundred years ago. A fuller study into the history of this movement in the old countries, at which we have here glanced only briefly, would aid better than any academic discussions and arguments to a full understanding of both the economic and technical problems involved. In the pioneer days of a newly settled country, which is forest-covered like the eastern United States, man by necessity must remove a part of the forest growth for the purpose of ge'''-'ng ground for FOREST -' ND FORESTRY DEFINED. 95 food production. That part whii 1 is nor cleared for such purpose he exploits, usually regardless of the conditions in which he leaves it, cutting out the best trees of the most usef il species or else cutting off the entire growth and leaving nature to ti. - care of the future. When this crude forest exploitation and destruc- tive process has gone on so long that virgin sup- ples are nearly exhausted, that the effects of inconsiderate clearing or fo.-est devastation be- comes visible in soil washes, in high and low water stages of rivers, more frequent and more destructive floods, etc., then he begins to consider nore car^jfuUy the relation which the forest and its continuance bears toward the further develop- ment 01 society, toward the conditions of his sur- roundings; he realizes that he may not continue to disturb the balance of nature unpunished, nay, that he must be active in improving the methods oi nature, and weight that side of the balance which is favorable to him and his pursuits; he begins to bring more rational method into his use of the forest, he attempts to apply knowledge and care in its treatment, he makes it an object of eco- nomic thought, in other words he an? res at a first conception of and applies forestry, which may be most comprehensively defined as the rational treat- ment of forests for forest purposes. First he deter- mines upon a rational policy for his further conduct toward the forest, and then, having studied the ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. i manner in which fonsts grow, having become familiar with the science of forestry, he develops superior positive methods in treatment and per- petuation of the forest and applies the art of for- estry; and, adding the financial aspect in the application of the art, he practises the business of forestry. In its broadest sense thus the term " forestry," ac- cording to the point of view, represents a policy, a science, an art, a business. A policy is a general plan of behavior, a general line of conduct with reference to our affairs, embodying the philosophy, the motives and object of our programme. By de- termining upon a policy with reference to a resource like the forest, we assign it a place in our political or domestic economy, we make up our mind as to what to do with it. It is from this point of view that this volume proposes to discuss the subject Such a policy we naturally base on knowledge or science which furnishes us the reason for our policy, the why to do. This science of forestry comprises all the knowledge regarding forest growth, — its component parts, the life history of the species, and their behavior under varying condi- tions, its development and dependence upon natu- ral conditions, its retroactive influence upon those natural conditions, in short its place in the economy of nature and of man. When we come to formulate our knowledge into rules of procedure and apply the same to the FOREST AND FORESTRY DEFINED. 97 tr^tir.cnt of forest areas specifically, we begin to practise the art of forestry — we learn kow to do ; and finally, applying this art systematically for the purpose for which all tecLtiical arts are carried on, namely, for money results, we come to practise the business of forestry. Like agriculture, forcstrj' is concerned in the use of the roil for crop production; as the agfri- culturist is engageu in the production of food-crops, so the forester is engaged in the production of wood-crops, and finally both are carrying on their art for the practical purpose of a revenue. Forest crop production is the business of the pro- fessional forester. h forester then is not, as the American public has been prone to apply the word, one who knows the names of trees and lowers, a botanist; nor even one who knows their life history, a dendrolo- gist ; nor one who, for the love of trees, proclaims the need of preseiv j them, a propagandist; nor one who makes a ousiness of planting parks or orchards, an arboriculturist, fruit grower, land- scape gardener, or nurseryman ; nor one who cuts down trees and converts them into lumber, a wood- chopper or a lumberman ; nor one set to prevent forest fires or depredations in woodlands, a forest guard ; nor even one who knows how to produce and reproduce wood-crops, a silviculturist ; but in the fullest sense of the term, a foresier is a technically educated man who, with the knowledge 98 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. of the forest trees and their life history and of all that pertains to their growth and production, com- bines further knowledge which enable." him to manage a forest property so as to produce certain conditions resulting in the highest attainable rev* enue from the soil by wood-crops. The virgin forest grows where it pleases, and as it pleases, without reference to the needs of man. It covers the rich agricultural soils as well as the dry and thin soils of the mountain slope and top ; it may encumber the ground which can more profit- ably be employed in the production of food-mi te- rials, and it may be absent where its protection is needed for human comfort or for successful agriculture. Nature produces weeds — tree weeds — and use- ful species side by side ; she does not care for the composition of the crop ; tree growth, whatever the kind, satisfies her laws of development; nor has she concern with the form of the component trees, — they may be branched and crooked, short and tapering. In time, in a W\g time, she too may produce long clear shafts, but by her methods such results will only be accomplished in cen- turies ; nature takes no account of time or space, both of which are lavishly at her c mmand. The area of virgin forest which we harvest to-day has produced a tithe of the useful material which it is capable of producing, and has taken two to three- fold the time which it would take under skilful FOREST AND FORESTRY DEFINED. 99 direction to secure better results, quantitatively and qualitatively. It is in the application of the economic point of view, in relegating forest growth to non-agri- cultural soils, in influencing its composition and its development toward usefulness, in securing its reproduction in a manner more satisfactory to human wants and human calculations, than na- ture's fitful performances promise, that the for- ester's forest differs. Forestry in more or less developed form is begun when this economic point of view is ap- plied, whei care, however slight, is bestowed upon the virgin wood to secure its improvement and continuance. Before the finer methods " ' forest management become practicable under bach economic condi- tions as surround us, a common-sense manage- ment may be possible, which consists in more careful utilization of the natural forest, protecting it against fire, fostering young volunteer growth of the better kinds, by keeping out cattle, and in general avoidmg whatever prevents a satisfactory reproduction of the natund woods. For large sections of this country, this will for some time to come be the only forestry that is practicable, namely, wherever distance from market for infe- rior material makes finer methods unprofitable or impracticable. Finally, however, the art in its fullest and finest 100 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. development will become applicable through the length and breadth of our country, just as in the old countries. , As in every productive industry, so in the fores- try industry we can distinguish two separate yet necessarily always closely interdependent branches, namely, the technical art which concerns itself with the production of the material, and the busi- ness art which concerns itself with the orderly, organized conduct of the industry of production. Since the materials and forces of native are the source of the mighty processes of organic life which find expression in forest growth, the art of forest crop production naturally relies mainly upon a knowledge of natural sciences, by which the forester may be enabled to direct and influence nature's forces into more useful production, than its unguided activity would secure. The nature of the plant material, its biology, its relation to climate and soil, must be known to secure the largest, most useful, and most valuable crop ; that portion of botany which may be segre- gated as dendrology — the botany of trees in all its ramifications — must form the main basis of the forester's art. To study such a segregated portion of the large field of botanical science presupposes, to be sure, a sufficient amount of general botanical knowl- edge. In order to know, recognize, and classify his materials the methods of classification, the general anatomy and histology, must be familiar to him, FOREST AND FORESTRY DEFINED. lOI as well as general physiology and biology ; finally, he must specialize and become an expert on bio- logical dendrology, U. a knowledge of the life history, the development, and dependence up- surroundings, the ecology, of trees, in individuals as well as in communities, —a very special study, to which few botanists have as yet given much attention. Forest crop production, or sHvicuiturg, in its widest sense, may be called applied dendrol- ogy. And the forester is not satisfied only to know the general features of the biology of the species, their development from seed to maturity, their requirements regarding soil and light conditions, lit as he is a producer of material for revenue, he is most emphatically interested in the amount of production and the rate at which this production takes place. Far diflferent from the agriculturist's crop, his is not an annual one, but requires many years of accumulations, and as each year's waiting increases the cost of production by tying up the capital invested, it is of importance not only to know the Ukely progress of the crop, the mathe- matics of accretion, but ^b' . its progress may be influenced. In this connection the study of geology and meteorology, of soil and climate, the factors of !»!te, is required, as far as necessary to understand ihe relationship of plant life to surroundings, and teach the chemico-physical basis for wood produc- tion. The protection of his crop not only against 109 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. climatic ills, but against enemies of the animal and plant world, requires studies in that direction, and finally to harvest his crop and bring it to market and dispose of it to best advantage calls for engineering knowledge and acquaintance with wood technology. The business side of the forestry industry, which we call fortst economy^ relies mainly upon mathe- matical calculations and the application of princi- ples of political economy. The fact that the time from the start of the crop to the harvest may be fifty, one hundred, or more years — the time it takes to grow a useful size of timber — necessitates a more thoroughly premeditated and organized conduct, more complicated profit calculations, more careful plans, than in any other business which deals with shorter time periods. In this connection one of the first and most im- portant mathematical problems for the forester to settle, is when his crop is ripe. This is not as with agricultural crops and fruits determined by a natural period, but by the judgment of the har- vester, based upon mathematical and financial calculations. There are various principles which may be fol- lowed in determining the maturity of a stand, or what is technically called the rotation, t.e. the time within which a forest, managed as a unit, shall be cat over and reproduced ; but all rely finally upon measurements of the quantity of production as basis of the business oalculation, and hence forest FOREST AND FORESTRY DEFINED. 103 mensuration has been developed into a special branch of mathematics and many methods have been developed, by which not only the volume and rate of growth of single trees, but of whole stands, can be more or less accurately determined. Similarly, finance calculations have been more fully developed in the forestry business than are usually practised in any other business excepting perhaps Life Insurance. Witdiout going into further detailr of the con- tents of the science of forestry, reserving for two chapters a fuller discussion of the two main branches, a comprehensive view may be gained by the following systematic statement of the vari- ous branches into wuich forestry may be divided. 8 s ^ I |i .2 SYSTEM OF FORESTRY KNOWLEDGE. t. Porattrj Statiatki. Areas: forest conditions — distribution- composition. Products : trade — supply and demand — prices — substitutes. a. Forastiy Xconomics. Study of relaition of forests to climate, soU, water, health, ethics, etc. Study of commercial peculiarities, and position of forests and forestry in po- litical economy. 3. Bstoiy of FOrestzy. 4. Forestry Policy. Formulating rights and duties of the state, forestry legislation, state forest administration, education. I I04 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. a 0, t s. O 1 S: < 0. 8. la zi. xa. Fontt Botany. Dendrology, systematic and biologic— forest geography — forest weeds. Futon of Site. Soil physics, soil chemistry, meteorology and climatology with reference to forest growth. Timber Physict. Structure, physical and chemical proper- ties of wood, influences determining same, diseases and faults. Wood Tedinologj. Application of wood in the arts — require- ments — working properties — use of minor and by-products. SilTicnltare. Methods of producing the crop and influ- encing its progress. Forest Protection. Forest entomology — climatic injuries — fire, etc. Forest Utiliiation. Methods of harvesting, transporting, pre- paring for maricet. Fmest Kngineericg. Road building— water regulation— treat- ment of special cases, sand dunes, bar- ren swamps, moors, denuded slopes. FOREST AND FORESTRY DEFINED. 10$ gy ■ "' 1 I > ■ X 1 a z ij ■ °l ■ w 4g ■ ^ 8 ■ Bt S of ■ fig ■ . M i I. 13. Fontt Stmrvj. Area and boundary — topography — as- certaining forest condition — estabUah- ing units of management and adminia- tration. 14. Forest Mensuration. Methods of ascertaining volumes and rates of growth of trees and stands, and determining yields. 15. Forest Valnation, Statics, and Fiaaneo. Ascertaining money value of forest prop- erties and financial results of different methods of management, and compar- ing same. 10. Forest Regulation. Preparing working plans, determining felling budgets, and organizing for con- tinuous wood and revenue production. 17. Forest Administration. Organization of a forestry service : busi- ness practice and routine, including for- est law and business law applicable to forestry practice. Besides these essential and directly applicable branches of knowledge, it is desirable that the manager of a large forest property have also some knowledge of fish and game preser- vation, and of agriculture, if game, fish, meadows, agricultural lands, form integral parts of the property. CHAPTER V. rACTOSS OP F0SI8T PSODUCTIOH AHD BU8IR188 ASPSCTS. Forestry, as we have seen, is, like agriculture, concerned in producing continuously crops or equivalent money values from the use of the soil ; yet forestry differs from agriculture, not only in the kind of crop, but it differs totally in the man- ner of producing the crop and in the use and com- bination of all the factors of production. This difference is mainly brought about by that element in production by which forest production differs from all other productive industries, namely, the time element. Agricultural crops are usually ready for harvest the same year they are planted, or at least in a year or two ; orchard-crops require a few years to establish the basis for an annual or biennial return of crops ; but a wood-crop does not become useful until many years' growth has been accumulated. Every year a new layer of wood is laid on, over the layers that have been formed before, cornucopia-like, increasing the wood plant in height and circumference and consequently in io6 FACTORS OF FOREST PRODUCTION. 10/ volume. The crop is ready for harvest when a sufficient number of annual growths is accumu^ lated to make wood of useful size. This differs according to the use to which the material is to be put A five to ten years' growth of some kinds might suffice for hop and bean poles, for barrel hoops, canes, and the like ; at fifteen to twenty years the crop might furnish in addition some fence posts and poles as well as firewood, especially if grown from coppice. At fifty years some of the trees may have in part accumulated sufficient size to furnish bolts for the manufacture of carriage stock, hubs, and spokes, or small cooperage and other articles of small dimension, or even railroad ties and tele- graph poles. But with most species whicu are used to supply the large demands of the lumber market, sizes fit for the sawmill are in the temper- ate zones attained hardly in less than 75 to 100 years; while most of the trees that are now cut for that purpose nature has taken 1 50 to 200 years and up to 500 years or more to produce. In addition to size, quality, too, is a function of age, improving as a rule with increase in size. To produce a sawlog which will furnish a sufficiently large amount of clear boards free from knots, many years must have elapsed to cover with annual layers the stumps of branchlets of the younger tree, which by the shading of neighbors were killed and broken off by winds or otherwise. 108 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. Moreover, the wood of many species undergoes a chemical change as yet unexplained, but supposed to improve its quality, or, as in the black wabiut, its usefulness, — the change into heart-woid, which begins earlier or later with difiFerent species and progresses m( ; or less slowly, so that, while the useful size and form may have been attained, the useful quality may still have to be waited for. As the tree develops, it exhibits in all its parts the various sizes and qualities of all its stages of development, but in varying relative proportion, and as the log timber of the bole begins to pre- ponderate over the branch and brushwood of the crown, naturally the value production increases, and influences the financial result of the production. Now, the accumulation of annual layers of wood does not proceed by any means in a regular, even rate of equal proportions for each year. Not only is this rate of accretion varying with every species, and with every difference in soil and climate and other surrounding conditions, and with the seasons, but it differs in the dififerent life periods of the tree. The soft, light-wooded trees, like the cottonwood, aspen, silver maple, willow, and others, start out with a rapid growth, making good-sized trees in thirty to forty years, then rapidly decline in the rate of growth, and soon cease almost entirely, being com- paratively short-lived. Others, like many of our important hardwoods and useful conifers, grow FACTORS OF FOREST PRODUCTION. 109 slowly in their youth, then increase in their rate, continuing for a long time in an even, rapid devel- opment, then persisting at a slower but uniform rate to an old age. If we were to utilize these latter as soon as they reach useful size and then renew the crop, we would again and again repeat the period of slow growth^ and hence lose in relative quantity of production. If, on the other hand, we allowed the soft woods mentioned to grow beyond the stage of rapi-* growth, we would lose equally at the other end. The study of rates of growth of species and of quantitative production of stands of different species, the mathematics of forest growth, the results f-f forest mensuration, is so important a matter that we devote to it a special chapter. Here we only wish to point out that, among the factors of production, time plays a much greater rdle than in any other business, and in fact lufln- ences the use of all other factors of production and methods of procedure to such an extent, that, if forestry be carried on as a business by itself, its conduct becomes in many respects sui generis. The time when the crop is ready for the harvest, will be apparent from the above considerations, J not a mattv of natural period as in the ripening of fruits, but depends not only upon many com- plex considerations, varying with species and soil and climate, but upon market conditions, econom- ical considerations, and industrial requirements, and no ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. II:' is determined by the judgment of the harvester ; il: is a matter of choice influenced by technical, financial, and national economic points of view. The *:ime which elapses between the first estab- lishment of the crop and the harvest is technically called rotation or revolution or turttus, involving the idea of return to the same area for harvest, again and again; its determination is one of the most important problems for the business man- ager, and will find consideration in a later chapter. Besides the time element, there are, as in every producing business, three factors of production to be considered, which in varying combinations pro- duce the result, the creation of values — namely, nature, labor, and cap'*^^? The relative significance of each of these pro- ductive forces, as is well known, varies in every industry, and also to a degree with the intensity of their management. Forestry being the twin sister of agriculture, both attempting to produce values from the soil, it is natural to compare these two industries with reference to the part which each of the factors of production takes in it. It is difficult, if not impossible, to compare these industries with- out assuming as a basis a more or less equal development and degree of intensity. In our country, forestry as a business does not exist as yet, except in small beginnings here and there and without intensity, while agriculture, also, is as yet relatively poorly developed as an industry upon a FACTORS OF FOREST PRODUCTION- ill scientific basis. Forest exploitation, the mere rob- bing of the natural forest resources, and extensive farming, agricultural rapine, the robbing of soils of their native fertility, are as yet mainly prac- tised. In trying to find economic differences in princi- ple between the two industries, we must, therefore, for illustrations, largely rely upon countries where both the forestry and the fanning industry are fully developed side by side, and have reached a high de- gree of intensity, as in Europe. In comparing the two industries under such conditions, we will find that they differ widely in the relative significance and importance which the three factors of produc- tion assume. For while in agriculture the factor of labor is most important, nature second, and capital last, in the forestry business, in general, the reliance on nature is greatest, on capital next, while labor plays a less important part The fact that nature unassisted has produced the virgin woods, which furnish us satisfactory materials, while agricultural production is almost entirely dependent on human effort, will at once settle the relative importance of these two factors. Even when the mere exploitation of natural woods is supplanted by the systematic application of skill and labor in reproducing wood crops, the ele- ment of labor remains less important, for during the long period from seed to harvest time the for- ester can do but litUe to influence the progress of his 113 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. crop, and must allow nature and time to mature it; while the farmer is constantly busy during the progress of his annual crop, cultivating it to secure best results ; annually, ploughing and sow- ing recur ; or, if he apply himself to pasturing, his attendance upon the cattle is incessant, his busi- ness is "labor-intensive." The forester's crop grows mostly unattended ; only when harvest time comes is he busy ; aud since, as we will see farther on, he may reproduce his crop without direct labor by the mere manner of harvesting the old crop, even seeding time may not call for much effort; his business is " labor-extensive." And since most of his work comes during the late fall and winter, and ceases during the growing season, he cannot offer continuous employment for many workmen, and must rely largely upon an unstable crew, as does the lumberman. On the other hand, much of his work, although dependent on the season, is not limited so closely as regards the time of its performance as is the farmer's, and it is possible to concentrate or lengthen out the work more or less, as desirable. The fact that most of the forest work falls into the winter time, when farm labor is idle, is of the utmost economic value where a dense, poor population must find continuous employment through the year. Jf we compare these conditions in a country where both agriculture and forestry are most highly developed, as in Germany, we will find that agricul- FACTORS OF FOREST PRODUqTION. 1 13 ture occupies for the same acreage from 10 to 20 to even 30 times as much labor according to inten- sity of management, as forestry,* namely, 15 to 50 laborers continuously employed on 250 acres of farm as against i to 3, or in the average 2 laborers on the same acreage of forest. The 35,000,000 acres of German forest afford only $1 per acre in labor earnings, while, to be sure, they also give rise to a labor earning of over $3 per acre in wood- working industries. In other directions, too, does the labor question differ in the forest. While in agriculture intensive application of labor produces equivalent improve- ment in results, such improvement can in forestry rarely and only to a limi 2d degree be secured by in- creased labor. Not only is most labor in the forest technically simple, very little skill being needed and very little variety offered, but it permits piece- work to a much larger extent than is practicable on the farm, while opportunity for the use of ma- chinery is very limited, or at least as yet little developed. Nor does it permit much division, organization, specialization, such as is practised in manufacturing establishments. The greater intensity with which agriculture can » The Prussian state forest administration of nearly 7,000^000 teres employs one official for every 1465 acres, namely, i guard (FStster u. Waldwarter) for every 1800 acres, i manager (OberfSrs- ter) for every 9800, and i inspector (Oberforstmeister u. Forstrath) for every 61000 acres; and the common labor represcnU the annual employment of one man for every 175 acres. I "4 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. be profitably practised also makes a difference in the amount of superintendence which it necessi- tates. While an intensively managed farm of 250 acres would occupy a superintendent kuUy, a hun< dred times such acreage in forest may be placed under one manager to execute the working plans if, according to location and conditions, he is assisted by a number of guards. The protection of the property, indeed, requires under circumstances the comparatively largest at- tention. In German forest administrations, one guard is employed for every 500 to 2000 acres, exercising mainly police functions, which the dense indigent population, prone to stealing and trespass of various kinds, necessitates. In India,^ with a forest area under more or less intensive management of 75,000,000 acres, of which about two-thirds are reserved, the rest only pro- tected — after various reorganizations since 1864 when the first administration was organized, — the controlling staff consists of i inspector general, 19 conservators, 117 deputy conservators, 63 assistant conservators, and 112 provincial con- servators, or all together 312 officers, double the number employed in 1885 ; the executive and pro- tective service is satisfied with 1663 rangers and foresters and 8533 guards; all together 10,508 1 These figures refer to conditions in the year 1900, and are taken from the excellent book, "Forestry in India," by B. Ribbeatrop, Inspector General FACTORS or FOREST PRODUCTION. 11$ permanent employees, or one to a little leu than 7500 acres, are at present required. The gross income of this largest forestry estob- lishment in the world, constantly growing, was in 1892 to 1897 only about $8,000,000, while the ex- penditures represented 55 P«>r cent of the gross revenue, of which over $3,000,000 was paid for the permanent service. With us, where for the present less intensive management must form the rule, and where in some respects properties are less endangered, the size of a superintendent's and a guard's district may be four times as large and more. While the conduct of the business requires a small amount of labor, it is a peculiarity of the business that the formulation of working plans to be followed by the manager requires not only much more careful consideration, and also involves a con- siderable amount of skilled labor in securing the data, while their circumspect use requires a good deal more judgment than - aid be needed in a business which can change its modus operandi readily every year. It will have appeared from this discussion of the relation of labor to the industry, that the size cf the area upon which forestry is to be practised not only may, but must, be of considerable acreage if it is to be carried on profitably as a business by itself, if for no other reason than to occupy the manager fully and to leave enough margin for the 116 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. owner. While the small farm, owing to the possi- bility of increasing returns to increased labor, and hence a relatively large return per acre, can exist, — the small farm earning per acre as much as the large one, or more, — the small wood-lot cannot exist a» a separate busin'tss proposition ; only a^ attached to a farm or other business can it have economic justification, but, as we will see latei, it h even then at a disadvantage from mere silvicultural points of view. The indirect employment of labor to which for- est products give rise in transportation and final shaping and use of the wood material is probably greater than with farm crops. We referred just now to the amount of labor earnings of $$ which each acre of forest pro- duces in woodworking establishments in Prussia. In our own country the forest products annually consumed involve the moving over shorter or longer distances of not less than 500,000,000 tons, or, if we only refer to the lumber product, at least 100,000,000 tons must be handled to and from the mill and yard, which, if the average haul were not over 100 miles, may readily involve a cost of 11150,000,000 to $200,000,000, while $300,000,000 is about the amount of wages paid to the 500,000 employees occupied in transforming the raw forest product into articles of trade, and $100,000,000 to the loggers and mill men. With these and other figures (see Appendix) we come to an esti- FACTORS OF FOREST PRODUCTION. II7 mate which brings the labor earnings for our 5oo,> 000,000 acres of forest, that are being exploited but not managed, to not less than $600,000,000, or per- haps one laborer for each 250 acres, as a lowest fig- ure. The 360,000,000 acres of improved farm land reported in the census of 1890 occupied only one man for every 43 acres and the total crop translated into weight remains considerably below 200,000,000 tons, including meat, milk, butter, cheese, etc. It is well-nigh impossible to get even approxima- tions to the number of laborers employed in con- version of these foodstuffs, but the likelihood is that all together not mor<^ labor earnings can be credited to one acre of farm land than to the acre of forest land. This disparity is probably explained by the lack of intensity in farming, and the proba- bility that much of the farm land does not really participate in the crop, lying idle. If there exists, then, great difference regarding the amount and character of the labor element in agricultural and forest production, the use of the element of nature shows no less difference in the two industries. Not only is the element of nature relatively much more prominent in forest production, but the single factors, soil and climate, have different sig- nificance. For a crop which must withstand the rigors of winter and the variable conditions of all seasons, not for one, but for many years, and which by its character forbids the expedients of cultiva- Ii8 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. tion on which the farmer relies, special considera- tions regarding the relation of crop to climate occur. While most of our farm crops come originally from climates very different from those in which they are now grown, the possibility of extending forest crops beyond their native limits is very much more circumscribed, and even with native species the climatic influences of frost, drought, winds, require the adaptation of the crop to the site, and after- treatment different from farm crops. On the other hand, where, as in the high altitudes and northern latitudes, agriculture finds its climatic limits, forest cropping is still possible ; again, good farm crops may be raised in the semi-arid regions, where forest crops, while possible to establish, must by necessity be of only inferior value. Agriculture deals almost entirely with vegetable products, which, to be sure, originated with nature, but have been improved by man for human use ; its products are, if we may be permitted to exaggerate, unnatural, artificial ones, and the possibility of varying their character and adapting them to climatic conditions seems almost unlimited. Wood-crops, on the other hand, are still, even under the forester's hand, as nature unaided can and does produce them ; the possibility of influenc- ing their character is exceedingly limited : under the skilful guidance of the forester, to be sure, the manner in which the wood is deposited on boles and branches, the development of clear long shafts FACTORS OF FOREST PRODUCTION. 119 in preference to low-crowned and branched trees, and to a slight extent the structure of the annual ring, can be directed ; but so far the wood of nature's production and that of man's are very nearly if not quite the same, and forms which are better adapted to climatic or soil conditions have not been bred by man. The short cycle of development in agricultural crops and the long cycle in forest crops explain this difference. The forester can improve upon nature mainly by making it produce a larger quantity of ma- terial of useful form and of useful species per acre. But the greatest and radical difference between the two industries, one of the highest national economic importance, is the difference in the use of the soil. Agriculture is engaged in producing starch and sugar, proteids and albuminoids, in short, the com- pounds which are directly food materials ; and this production relies largely on the fertility, the min- erals of the soil, especially the rarer phosphorus, sulphur, potash, nitrogen. With the harvest all these are removed from the soil, and must be replaced by manures or through rotation of crops, or else the soil is sooner or later exhausted and becomes infertile. Forestry is engaged mainly in the production of cellulose and its derivatives, carbohydrates,^ which contain a minimum of these rarer elements. ^The composition of wood *< approximately 50 per cent C, 6 per cent H, 43 per cent O, i per cent N, i per cent mineral ash. I20 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. The air furnishes one-half the constituents, namely, the carbon, which the chlorophyll cells of the leaves assimilate under the influence of the sunlight, and almost the entire other half is furnished by the water of the soil. Not that tree life and wood production can entirely dispense with the presence of these minerals, but it requires them in smallest amounts, and the final product, which the forester har\'ests, is practically devoid of them. Moreover, those parts of the tree which in its life processes accumulate the largest amounts of these elements, namely, the foliage and small branchlets, do not usually form part of this har- vest, but are returned to the soil, so that, in fact, not only does the soil not lose any of its fertility, but, on the contrary, it is enriched at its surface by the decay of the litter, not only through the vegetable humus and the nitrogen-condensing bac- teria formed in the same'(see Appendix), but through mineral constituents in soluble form, which the tree has brought up from greater depths. Hence the well-known fertility of virgin woodland soil ; while agriculture exhausts soils, forestry enriches them.^ From the soil the forest crop derives mainly the * A field of poUtoei, for intUnce, uses of phosphoric acid three times u much as a beech forest, five times as much as a spruce forest, and nine times as much as a pine forest, and of potash nine, thirteen, and seventeen times as much as the three tree species respectively, while of nitrogen wood requires lo to 13 pounds per acre as against 60 to 90 pounds in potatoes, the conifers generally requiring less than the deciduous-leaved trees. FACTORS OF FOREST PRODUCTION. 121 water which is required for the biological processes, including the transpiration of the leaves, and for the composition of the wood, adding the hygro- scopic water which is finally lost when the wood seasons. Chemically water forms 48 per cent of the wood substance, while 40 to 60 per cent more is hygroscopically bound to it in the living tree, and 8 to 12 per cent remains so in the wood after seasoning; the whole forest area, therefore, pro- du -ly 40 per cent of dry substance to 60 per cei. water, so that the 8000 pounds annual produrt on a fully stocked acre divides itself up into 3CXX) pounds dry substance, 1250 pounds chemically bound, and 3750 hygroscopic, water. These are small quantities of water, but the tran- spiration current requires many times more. Fig- ures on this point are difficult to establish, as the variations, by species not only, but from day to day, in different seasons, are extremely great. An acre of beech may some days transpire not more than 5000 pounds, other days four times that amount, while agricultural crops seem to need from 50 to 100 per cent more. The interesting and impor- tant point is that coniferous tifes, especially pines, require from one-sixth to one-tenth of what decidu- ous-leaved trees transpire, whi:h makes them espe- cially valuable for dry soils and climates. The silviculturist draws from these facts, regarding the frugality of forest crops, the conclusion that he need not like the farmer manure nor change his 123 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. crop, provided the litter is left, and, moreover, that he can grow his crop on soils w'aich are not fit for agriculture. This fact, which also refers to soils and situa- tions that are topographically unfit for ploughing, is one of greatest importance to the political econo- mist For with the increased need of food supplies, the necessity of using the soils to their utmost arises, and the possibility of relegating the non- agricultural soils to forestry use is a welcome aid in the solution of this problem. This relegation of soils to their best use is now actively and con- sciously going on in the densely populated Ger- man states, the economic policy being to exchange worn-out, poor agricultural soil for forest use, and to turn agricultural soil under forest to farm use.* Hence, also, the mountain slopes, the very places where, for the sake of favorable water conditions, a forest cover is needed, are par excellence forest lands; for a slope of 15* makes them unfit for plough land, and one of 20" to 30" excludes them from use as pastures, while forest growth will still maintain itself satisfactorily on slopes of 40* or more. We come here to the re< ognition of a natural subdivision of our soils into absolute forest soils, those which are only fit for forest crops, and rela- tive forest soils, which may come into competition * Prussia has for some years appropriated large sums (#250,000 ■anoally) for the purchase and reforestation of poor, worn-out lands. rill FACTORS OF FOREST PRODUCTION. 123 with pasture and farm use, and which require care- ful consideration as to which use is financially, or for other reasons, preferable. If we compare the amount of production per acre in the two industries, it must not be forgotten that in such countries as Europe the forest occupies already mostly these poorer sites and situations, the absolute forest soils, and hence the comparison must be unfavorable, apparently, as far as money 3turns are concerned. In amount of vegetable material produced, for- est crops, to be sure, are in no way inferior ; nay, if we do not confine ourselves to the wood, but add the leaf litter produced per year, offsetting the straw of agricultural crops, the forest pro- duces larger quantities in weight than the farm. Taking average crops of the common farm prod- uce, there are produced dry weights of 34CX) to 4600 pounds vegetable substance per acre, of which, mostly, not more than one-third is repre- sented in the grain ; while the forest acre produces 8000 to 10,000 pounds, of which one-half or more is wood, namely, 4500 to 6500 pounds, with 450 pounds for roots, and 3600 pounds for leaves, the dry substance of wood grown per acre per year varying between 1500 and 3600 pounds, accord- ing to the site.^ The interesting fact is that all species produce on the same site the same weights, 1 A one-hundred-year-old stand then contains at best 180 tons of dry wood, equivalent to about 90 tons of carbon. 124 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. but, to be sure, the cubic contents vary greatly on account of the difference in specific weight, due to the manner in which the wood is deposited. This production in cubic feet is dependent on the condition of the forest crop, varying from less than 30 to 100 cubic feet, including the brush- wood. Taking only the more useful wood down to 3-inch diameter, which we call timber-wood, the results of large forest administrations average between 35 and 75 cubic feet, or about 55 cubic feet in the average, deciduous-leaved forest pro- ducing the smaller, coniferous forest the higher, figures. Differentiating qualities still further, we may state that to these figures corresponds a lumber product of 200 to 500 feet B.M. In this connection it is significant to note that in Switzerland the product in the government forests was 71 cubic feet (maximum 96, minimum 29), in the cantonal and commimal forests 50, and in pri- vate forests 47 cubic feet, i.e., 40 per cent less than in the government forests, an indication of superior management in the latter. In France the same difference appears, the government forests in 1876 producing at the rate of 49, the communal of 40, cubic feet. How the forest product responds to superior management appears in all German forest administrations. In Prussia, for instance, the cut, supposedly gauged to the annual growth, rose from 28 cubic feet in 1830 to 41 cubic feet in 1868, and to 51.5 cubic feet In 1900; in Saxony FACTORS OF FOREST PRODUCTION. 12$ the yield doubled in 50 years to 70 cubic feet for the average acre. The third factor of production, capital, must, as usually, be divided into the current or working fund which expresses the capital required to carry on the current business, and the fixed investment, which ex- presses the capital tied up permanently as a basis for continuous production. Since the labor expense is relatively small, since none or only simple machinery is necessary, ar *. simple tools and no buildings are required to hout the crop, and even the procurement of seed and plants may be often dispensed with, the current working fund in the forestry business may be rather small. While, according to statistics gathered by the United States Department of Agriculture in 1893, the current expenditure for wheat and com crops was $8.88 and $8.68 respectively, not counting rent for land and superintendence; in German forest administrations the cost of man- agement to be paid from a working fund averages about $2 per acre, being, for the single items, from 22 to 65 cents per acre for protection and adminis- tration, 30 cents to $1 for harvest, 15 to 22 cents for planting and cultural measures generally, 6 to 33 cents for road building, most of which might correctly be charged to investment. In the logging business, which deals only or mainly with exploitable timber, lacking or not tak- ing into consideration the younger age classes, the 126 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. case is entirely different, and the expenditures for harvest alone may range from 1^25 to $75 per acre and more. But the difference, that renders the established regulated forestry business unique, is the amount and the character of the permanent or fixed capital Both the farming and the forestry industry have in common, besides buildings and tools, the soil as the basis of production. Since forestry is gradu- ally relegated to the poor soils, this part of the in- vestment is comparatively much smaller than in agriculture, unless agricultural soils are used in for- est growing. Thus in Prussia, where, as we have seen, lately purchases of absolute forest soils have been made by the government, the average price paid in 3 years for about 7500 acres was less than II22, including occasionally inferior timber and build- ings, the range being from $3 to ^^33.30, while the better agricultural soils bring in the province of Brandenburg $100 to $160 per acre. In other districts, where forest products are higher in price, the value of forest soils ranges somewhat higher, namely, from 1^15 to |;6o and occasionally )i8o. But in forestry the fixed capital is not confined to the soil; the much larger value is represented in the growing stock of wood, which must be allowed to accumulate before it is ready for the axe. This is the most characteristic feature in the wood-crop- ping business carried on for continuity : that only the accumulated accretions of many years can be FACTORS OF FOREST PRODUCTION. 127 harvested, and that, until harvest time has arrived, they are tied up and are in the nature of fixed capi- tal, accumulating with compound interest charges. To understand the nature of this capital and get an idea of the amount involved, we will have to look at it from various points of view. If we were to start on a blank area and were to plant our crop, we would have only the soil (5) as fixed capital ; but since we could not harvest from year to year, and thus withdraw the interest, the ex- penditure for planting {E) would also have to be considered fixed ; moreover, the interest on both soil and other expenditures, being by necessity accumu- laving, becomes fixed, until at harvest time both capi- tal and accumulated interest, except the soil capital, become liquidated and then again the process of fixation is gone through. The fixed capital would then be {S + E) i.o^ -{S + E), or (S -{■ E) (i.o/"- i); r being the time during which ths capital is tied up, and / the interest-rate at which the capital is supposed to produce. If we started, aj. the forest exploiter does, with a ready-made crop of virgin timber, we might take the position which he usually does, namely, remove at once the valuable part of the crop, and turn it into cash, when as a rule both the current capi- tal involved in harvesting and transporting the crop, and the investment in land or stock, are liqui- dated at once, or in short time, the stumpage value paid ui.der such crude conditions being usually kept 138 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. disproportionat6 to its actual value ; and the basis of future production may be said to be a zero cap- ital, neither the soil nor the prospective under- growth being considered of any value, and in fact no conscious forest management for new crop being intended, the reproduction being left to accident and nature alone and allowing perhaps a return for further harvest at some later time. The aspect chauges when real forest manage- ment, not for intermittent returns, but for annual business, is contemplated, when the forest is to be so regulated that every year forever a harvest is to be secured in proportion to the capacity of soil and species of producing it continuously, i.e. when the increment only is to be harvested, which every year brings. We can readily conceive what the ideal condition of such a forest must be. If we had determined that our crop is best harvested when one hundred years of age, then, in order to harvest always one-himdred-year-old timber, we must have a series of one hundred stands, each one dififering by one year in age down to yearling growth, so that each year one stand becomes ripe. It appears then clear that the contents of the ninety-nine stands from one to ninety-nine years old, expressed in volume or value, are the wood capital ; and the hundredth stand is the interest or harvest or fell- ing budget (the last stand representing as well the increments of one hundred years, as the one hun- dred increments of one year on the whole area) FACTORS OF FOREST PRODUCTION. 129 wi ich may be cut ; and if reproduced as cut, the continuity of similar harvests is assured. If we call the annual increment of any one stand I, and instead of the one hundred years substi- tute the general term of years r (rotation^ the capital stock is the sum of the arithmetic series i+ 2» + 3« . . • + ''» which, according to well- known mathematical laws, is ^ x (ri + 1) ; or, since I is relatively quite small, it may be neglected, and if we substitute for ri = /, i.e. the annual increment of all the stands, the form becomes -/, or in other words the capital stock of wood which must be maintained is the increment occurring on the whole forest through half the rotation. It stands to rea- son that, with every species and eve:y soil, as well as with every rotation and system of management, the amount of / changes, and hence the capital stock required. It is evident that, for instance, in coppice forest, sprout lands, whicft are usually managed in rota- tions of not over twenty to forty years, the wood capital is much smaller than in timber forest, which requires from sixty to one hundred and twenty years and more to become mature. Merely to give an idea of the relative amounts which different conditions may require, we will assume that 70 cubic feet of wood per acre repre- sents the annual increment, then a coppice of 100 ISO ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. acres in twenty-year rotation would require as wood capital loo x 70 x 10 - 70,000 cubic feet ; while the same 100 acres managed as timber for- est in one-hundred-and-twenty-year rotation would require a wood capital of 100 x 70 x 60 » 420,000 cubic feet, or six times as much as the coppice in volume, and, to be sure, many more times in value, since in the timber forest higher-priced material is involved. In actual practice in a large avei age (Bavarian and French forest departments), the disproportion is much greater, namely, the wood capital in the timber torest is eight to twenty-five times as large as in the coppice. To give a few absolute figures which we can take from the elaborate yield tables of the Ger- mans, a Scotch pine timber forest of 100 acres in one-hundred-year rotation would require, accord- ing to the character of the site, that 400,000 to 900,000 cubic feet of wood be maintained as wood capital ; a spruce forest requires a wood capital of 560,000 to 1,540,000; and a beech forest under similar conditions managed for continuity would make it necessary to leave 500,000 to 700,000 cubic feet in round numbers, the lower figures for the poorer, the higher figures for the best soils. Translated into money values, these quantities would vary from $100 to $600 per acre, and in the coppice, to be sure, not over f ^o per acre. We see, then, that in a properly regulated for- / FACTORS OF FOREST PRODUCTION. 131 est management for timber production, while the soil represents the smallest portion of the fixed capita) ^^oil and wood capital combined exceeds the fixed capital needed in an intensive farm man- agement, and on the whole two to ten times the capital required in agriculture is needed to carry on forest management for timber production. Two most important deductions from the stand- point of political economy follow from this dis- cussion. First, that the time eleir'"* together with the large capital required in im^ .wood production, renders the forestry business undesirable to private enterprise of circumscribed means ; that long-lived persons, like the state and corporations, and large capitalists, can alone engage in it as a business by itself with hope of financial satisfaction. This does not exclude the farmer's wood-lot as an adjunct to the farm, but he will finally find it more advantageous, if he figures correctly, to man- age it as coppice, not as a timber forest. Secondly, the fact that capital and interest, wood stock and harvest, are mixed together, the differ- entiation being made, not by the character of the material, but by voluntary economic considera- tions and self-imposed saving, and that, while in the lower age classes the capital is tied up without any possibilities of realizing on it, it is possible to liquidate portions of it in the older age classes at any time, making it readily available, to be turned i>'l'! r-1 li^'' isa ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. into other channels — this ease of reducing the fixed capital without appreciable loss is one of the peculiarities of the forestry business, which Some- times may be of advantage, like a savings bank account, but also brings with it the danger of un- economic anticipation of the harvest, of disturbing the systematic progress of a management for con- tinuity, of returning to mere exploitation when there is an urgent need of money. Hence, not only capital, but economic capacity and character and moral strength are required to maintain a systematic forest management and with- stand the temptation to realize. Again the state, communities, and corporations, who have an interest in continuity, are most safely intrusted with a busi- ness that can be so easily unbalanced. It la also evident that a profitable, well-regulated forest management for annual returns as a business by itself is only possible on a large acreage. This will appear readily from the consideration that Ger- man government forests net from $i to ;$4.50 per acre per year (as against 1^24 for farm lands); hence, to furnish $1000 margin not less than 250 to 1000 acres are required, and to pay a competent manager's salary alone, without interest and profit on the business, requires at least 25CX) acres, while, to be sure, he would not be fully occunied with less than lo.ocx} to 20,000 acres. And we must not for- get that the results in these German forests are obtained now after a century of systematic manage- FACTORS OF FOREST PRODUCTION. 133 ment, and then are only possible by having very large areas under one management, when the good acres ofiFset the loss on the poor acres. Under such conditions 35 to 60 per cent of the gfross yield goes for labor and administration, one-third to one- quarter for the former, one-fifth to one-seventh for the latter, leaving 40 to 65 per cent of the gross yield as profit, equivalent to a rate of 3 to 5 per cent on the wood capital from soil otherwise mostly valueless. There are other consequences which follow from the character of the wood capital : ihe diffi- culty of determining what is capital, what interest makes the renting of woods for systematic forest management impracticable ; and such management is also unsuitable for stock companies, which are formed to make money fast and lack conservative spirit, however favorable such companies may be in conducting mere forest exploitation. On the other hand, it is conceivable that trusts could most advantageously carry on the forestry busi- ness, owing to the fact that large fixed capital is needed, and is most safely invested in forest growth, promising secure and steadily growing income, and that the more surely the larger the property under one management. There are, to be sure, dangers to the wood capi- tal from insects, storms, and fires ;^ but they can ^ In Prasuao forest diitricts in fifteen yean 405 firet were reported, bnt only 191 acres in 1,000^000 were damaged out of the 7,000^000 acres involTcd. 134 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. be reduced to a minimum of permanent injury, and the more easily the larger the property under one management All things in the production of which nature plays the important part have the tendency to rise in price, while those relying principally on labor and capital sink. That the price of wood is bound to rise is not only a matter of simple philosophy as long as forest area decreases and demand for wood increases, but also of history wherever natural resources have been reduced to the necessity of management (See further on regarding rise in prices.) The financial results of German forest administrations are certainly most assuring as ' the profitableness of a systematic forest ma ,> ment pursued during the last one hundred y- . through all the changes of economic conditiv^ns which have characterized that century. Evidences of the increasing profitableness of these administrations are given in the statistics contained in the Appendix. The increased yields and incomes there recorded do not, however, tell the entire story, for they do not show the additional improvement in the condition and earning power of the properties. Taking, for instance, the Saxon forest property of only 43O,0CX) acres, we find that, although the cut of wood had increased from 23,500 cubic feet in 1850 to 37,400 cubic feet in 1893, an increase of 60 per cent, the timber wood per cent (wood of FACTORS OF FOREST PRODUCTION. 1 35 superior size not cordwood) had increased from 14 cubic feet to 54 cubic feet per acre or nearly 300 per cent, and at the same time the wood capital had increased nearly 25 per cent, ^''hile the net in- come during the earlier period, when wood was worth 5.6 cents per cubic foot, amounted to $1.12 per acre, in 1893 the price had risen to 9.9 cents, or 76 per cent, but the net income had risen nearly 300 per cent, namely, to $4.37 for every acre of the property, while the expenditures had been more than doubled. When it is consider-d that Saxony has taken in about $200,cxx),cxx) during the last fifty years from a small area of rough mountain land, a tract half the size of many a county in the United States, and that without diminishing, but rather increasing, its earning power, the advantage of a careful treat- ment of forest areas, at least to the state, the com- munity, must be apparent. Considering the net income as the interest of the value of the forest lands at a 3 per cent interest rate, it appears that, meanwhile, the capital value of these lands has increased from $100 to j^iSO, whereas their deforestation would quickly convert them into poor alpine pastures, which would bank- rupt theur owners at $10 per acre. To the uninitiated an interest rate of 5 per cent, which the appreciation of the investment and the continued revenue of 3 per cent represents, would appear unattractive ; but when the conditions under iS6 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. which this rate is secured are considered, it would be difficult to find any other business that under similar non-speculative conditions and management could make such a showing. It is the consensus of a large number of promi- nent financiers in the United States,* that at the present time an absolutely safe, satisfactory long time investment in this country cannot net more than 3 to J J per cent, with a tendency to decreasing rates. A number of reasons can be adduced for the claim that the forestry business is one of those which is entitled to a low interest rate. It is weU known that the form of the capital varies the inter- est rate, besides those more general modifiers of the value of capital, such as the general safety, prosperity, and credit of a country, and the supply and demand for money. Among the features which render capital invested in forestry business of such a character as to satisfy a low interest rate, are the following : — Like all landed property, the safety of the invest- ment is great ; moreover, since forest property un- der forestry management does net, as we have seen, lend itself to renting, but is usually managed on own account, no allowance needs be made in the interest-rate it must bring for the premium for risk which loaned capital requhres. As long as the » " Letters of Promioent Financien on Interest Rstes," Equi- table Life Assurance Society, 1899. FACTORS OF FOREST PRODUCTION. 137 fire danger is as great as in this country, the safety of forest property under certain conditions (comfer< ous forest, dry regions) is, to be sure, greatly im- paired. That this danger does not need to exist is amply shown by European experiences, and as soon as forest properties are really managed and not only exploited, they will have the same safety. In Prussia, with 7,000,000 acres, including large pineries on sandy plains, in 25 years (1868- 1895) only 1400 acres, o. 0.02 per cent, or i acre in 4500, were burned over, and some years not more than I in 8000, a small percentage for so large and specially endangered properties. In the moun- tainous forests of Bavaria in 5 years (i 877-1 881) only I acre in 13,167 was lost by fire, less than 0.007 per cent of the 2,000,000 acres, the loss rep- resenting 2 per cent of the gross yield. This state lost heavily by insects and storms, but such loss is usually of little consequence on large areas, only disturbing the regular management, and readily compensated. In 1868 to 1878 windfalls and dam- age by beetles made: it necessary to anticipate the cutting of 400,000,000 cubic feet, and although thereby the regular cut was increased by 2.1 per cent, this increase remained without any influence on normal prices. The permanency an'' continuity of the invest- ment, the amenity and dignity of large landed property, recommend it to large capitalists; and since the nature of the business necessitates the i3« ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. employment of large fixed capital, the usual low rate prevails which accompanies large capital in- vestments, safely placed and avoiding the losses incident to re-investment The promptness and absolute assxurance with which the revenues may be expected, and also the advantage of being able ♦'o anticipate revenue when needed, have the same tendency. Finally, the general tendency to lower interest rates, and at the same time to higher prices for wood, promise an advantage in the future (especially in a country where, on account of extensive for- est exploitation, prices are still comparatively low) which will make investments in forest prop- erty for continuous management show superior advantage to most other forms of capital of large size. This rise of prices, of which we gave an example for the densely populated, industrial little state of Saxon^' comes out still irore strikingly in the larger, and more extensively managed Prussian for- ests. Here the averapje price per cubic foot nearly doubled in the .^5 years from 1830 to 1865, and from 1850 to 1895 it rose nearly 50 per cent, namely from 3 cents to 4| cents per cubic foot, all together an incease of i^ per cent annually for a period of 65 years. In every case of the state forest administrations of Germany, we observe steady increase in material production, value production, expenditures, appre- FACTORS OF FOREST PRODUCTION. 1 39 dation of investment, and net yield, as the table in the Appendix exhibits. One important policy which has brought about this result, and which defines in general the finan- cial requirement of forestry, has been that these state administrations were willing and able to forego present re jnue for the sake of continued future revenues, to give up immediate momentary profits for the sake of making larger profits distributed in time. Forest management means that some part of the forest, the wood capital, must be left, although it could be turned into cash, or that money be spent in establishing such a wood capital where it is defi- cient, waiting for the time of returns. No business realizes more than the forestry business that time is money, and time is what the small capitalist does not have. It is, therefore, not a business for the small capitalist, who must work for large margins. CHAPTER VI. HATUBAL mSTOST OF THE VOBSST. To understand the operations of the forester, it is necessary to have some knowledge regarding the life history of the object of his endeavor. We have seen that the forest is not a mere col- lection of trees, but an organic whole, the result of evolutionary development, of adaptations and reac- tions to the environment, of interrelations between the components of the forest and the soil, climate, and lower vegetation, as well as between the com- ponents themselves. While the forester must necessarily be thor- oughly conversant with the development of the single tree and all the conditions influencing it, he cannot stop there, but must also know its behavior when placed in relation to associates in the com- munity of companions, for it is his business to de- velop this community in such a manner, and bring all influences and elements of environment into such a relation to it, that it will produce a certain desired result. Acres of forest, not single trees, concern him. The virgm forest and the forester's forest will 140 fa^ NATURAL HISTORY OF THE FOREST. 14I necessarily differ, inasmuch as the former it u.erely the result of a natural evolutionary strug- gle among the different forms of vegetation, in which the "most fit" survivors may not be the economically desirable, while the forester substi- tutes artificial selection for natural selection, and makes sure of the protected survival of the most useful Within limits, at least, he has it in his power to mfiuence the seemingly lawless mixture of species which the virgin forest offers into a form more suitable for his purposes. The limits are set by the adaptability of the species to climate and soil, and by the skill of the forester in recog- nizing and utilizing the laws under which the natural forest develops. Climatic factors, temperature and moisture con- ditions, determine, in the first place, the field of natural distribution of the various species. Differ- ent species are adapted to live within different ranges of temperature and of relative humidity, or the combination of both ; hence, different types of forest occupy the different regions through which we pass from the tropics, with their palms and broad-leaved evergreen trees, through the de- ciduous-leaved forest of the middle latitudes, com- posed of oaks, hickories, chestnut, and tulip tree, to the northern latitudes, where birch, maple, beech, with pine, and hemlock, and finally, only aspen and spruce, can brave the wintry blasts. And beyond the last outposts of these, tousled and 14a ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. dwarfed, the esquimaux of tree growth, the treeless tundra is reached, where ice and snow abound all the year, the home of winter. Similar changes m type may be traced by ascend- ing some high mountain in tropic or subtropic regions. We may begin our journey under the palms. As we ascend 2000 or 3000 feet, we pass thi ^ugh the varied evergreen, broad-leaved forest, into the deciduous-leaved forest, not dissimilar to that of our middle latitudes. At an altitude of 8000 feet we enter the dom ; : >n of spruces and firs. At 10,000 to 15,000 jt the forest opens, the trees stand in groups, are dwarfed and tousled like their northern counterparts, hugging each other and the ground for protection against the winter storms ; finally, the timber line is reached, where killing frosts occur every month in the year, and no persistent life can exist. Again, variation in the relative humidity, in con- nection with temperature conditions, brings about changes in forest types ; from the humid seashore to the drouthy interior of continents, we find differ- ent species adapted to the many possible combina- tions of temperature, humidity, and winds, which together influence that most important physiologi- cal function needful in the life of the tree, tran- spiration. Dry climates, like cold climates, tend to diminish growth, and reduce the nurtber of species composing the forest Within the geographical range of the species NATURAL HISTORY OF THE FOREST. I43 thus Umitcd, 8011 conditions vary, and again dif- fcrentiate the distribution ; the frugal pines being able to subsist on the deep, overdrained sands, the shallow-rooted spruces on the thin soils of alpine situations, tht elms, swamp maples, tupelo, bald cypress, being indifferent to excess of moisture at their feet, the hickories, walnuts, and tulip trees seeking the rich, loamy soils, and others again being ubiquitous, adapted more or less readily to anv kind of soil. While, then, certain territory is assigned to ttic different tree species, which through eras of evolu- tion have adapted themselves to the cUmatic and soil conditions, — and this is a very important eco- nomic fact, since usefulness of species varies, — yet the absence of a species from a given locaUty docs not necessarily predicate its inabiUty to exist and thrive in such a locality, since there are also me- chanical barriers, like wide oceans and high moun- tain ranges, or there may be absence of suitable means of transportation for the seed, prevent- ing its spread, and these difficulties man can overcome. It is, therefore, not impossible to exchange and distribute artificially the useful species, as has been done in agriculture and horticulture. But in the case of plant material for forest purposes it is impracticable to give special protection to the introduced species through the long term of its growth to usefulness, as may be done in the case m 144 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. of animals < r even of iruit-trees. Acclimatization, so called, in forestry is, therefore, practically con- fined to overt .ming merely the mechanical barri- ers of distribution, i.e. to transport the species, where its means of transportation fail, and to give it a chance of showing its adaptati(»n or lack of it As a rule, the forester relies on the species which he finds in the locality in which he is to operate, and introduces from outside only species which he has strong reasons to believe are ada ted to his locality, md at the same time nromist de- cided advantage over the native onet either in quality or quantity of product or in ther s cultural qualities. Nor has much attempt been madr to impro e on the quality of the wood as nature produces it. While in agricultural products nature has been improved upon in nearly every case, i forest products very little attention has been ,iven to this subject. The forester, more t an the agriculturist, foiiow and imitates the proct .,es of natur that atti-pts is to direct them to produce in ic -«, better form and larger quantity if the be r ds which he finds on ana. While the presence -f a speies in the jsi- tion of the natural fc st is, th. first pi. !ue to climatic and soil nditio numerica dis- tribution and the man j of ii- .ence in the m NATURAL HISTOFV qF THE FOREST. 1 45 do a nixed forest de nd marily m two quabtie:, in CO Tibinati' n, namely, 1 relati a rapidity ai per- si c«nce o heigb» growth, and s relative require- ments for light, wi le the manner jf seed production, sc i transportation, and character of seed are addi- tional lectors. In those natural forests which are composed mail ' or entirely of one species, a comr ^acively rar** occurrence, the presumption is th Hmatic or oil conditions are such that ot'^er =.1 »' )t find them congenial, at least, ot vher must coiite ^ for root and air space One, by prolific production of d i ad antage over another which pr es f 5C every three or four years. The /y nut 01 the walnut, or the acorn or ^ cl n ;eds squir- rels, mice, birds, and water ent ts territory, whi • the light-winged seeds nrch and poplar, jTied by the winds, make these trees almost ubiquitous. The seed of the willow loses its power of germination within a few V rs or days; hence it is confined mainly to ^h rders of streams, where favorable opportunii for sprouting exist The acacia and others of the leguminous tribe, like the black locust, preserve their seed alive for many years ; nay, the seed of tlie former will often lie buried in the ground for years, until a fire that destroys all other vegetation breaks their hard seed coat and calls to life the dormant germ : the cc^es of some pines i-main closed, and release 146 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. the seed only when fire, which has probably de- stroyed all competitors, opens them. The pecu- liarities of the seed, then, account for much in the distribution of plants. Next comes the peculiarity of growth. The long-leaf pine, which, for the first four years, does not grow more than two or three inches above the ground, is at a disadvantage in that first period, during which it has occupied itself with forming a stout root system ; but thereafter, by virtue of this root system, it may endure what a faster- growing neighbor could not. The quickly growing aspen covers large areas, but its reign is of short duration, for, as with most of the rapid growers, its life is short The slower-growing spruce, which could support itself under the light shade of the aspen, remains on the field, the victor by sheer persistency. Capacity to resist unfavorable weather condi- tions — frost and drought — will give the advan- tage to one species over the other, while liability to attacks by animals, especially insects, may also prove disadvantageous in comparison with the others. There is little doubt in the mind of the writer that the big trees, the Sequoias, owe their long life to their immunity from insects and fungi and to their resistance to fire, to which their com- petitors succumb. Finally, however, the two qual- ities first mentioned, relative height growth and relative light requirement, are determinative. tei NATURAL HISTORY OF THE FOREST. 147 WhUe light is usually accompanied by heat and it is difficult to discern how much of the effect of it on plant growth is to be ascribed to the heat which causes transpiration, and how much to the light as such, yet it is now well known that light itseii exercises various influences upon vegeta- tion, some of which are still imperfectly or not at all understood. It is light which is indispensable in the formation of chlorophyll — the material which imparts the green dolor to plants; it is light, a certain degree of light, upon which the assimilation of carbonic acid in the chlorophyll and the formation of starch are dependent; it is light, together with other factors, which influences transpiration by the foliage, which determines the development of the crown and of the whole tree in direction and quantity of growth. It has been observed that various plants show need of a greater or smaller amount of light for their development Some plants always seek the shady place in the woods ; others enjoy the full sunshine of the meadow. The dense spruce forest permits 4)nly a moss-cover on the soil, while the open-foliaged oak forest permits a host of shrubs and herbs to subsist. Just so, some trees are found thriving under the shade of others, while these are intolerant of the shade of their neighbors, or can endure it only a short time. So all important and so well known is the influence of light on the de- velopment of a forest crop that on the difference of 148 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. light requirements of the various species are based the most important forestal operations. According to relative tolerance of shade, the species can be graded from the most tolerant to the least tolerant, into shade-enduring or light-needing. Those spe- cies which, like the beech or sugar maple, the hemlock or the fir or spruce, form dense crowns evidently need less light than those with lighter foliage, for the interior leaves of these crowns can grow and function in the dense shade. On the other hand, the light-foliaged, open-crowned larch or pine, aspen or poplar, ash or birch, show their extreme sensitiveness to the absence of light by the very openness of their crowns, by losing early the lower branches unless they are fully lighted, and in the forest by the inability of their seedlings and young progeny to endure the ."'lade of neigh- bors or even of their own parent trt:.-. To offset this drawback in their constitution, they have usually some advantage in the character of the seed, and are mostly endowed with a rapid height growth in their youth, so that, at least when the competition for light starts with even chances, they may secure their share by growing away from their would-be suppressors. They can keep them- selves in a mixed forest only by keeping ahead and occupying the upper crown level. The tolerant species, on the other hand, able to thrive in the shade of light-foliaged species, usually increase more stowly in height; but their capacity of NATURAL HISTORY OF THE FOREST. 149 shade endurance assures to them a place in the forest Many of them are characterized by a height growth which, though slow, is persistent ; while the light-needing species, by falling behind in their rate of height growth, often lose in the end what they attained in their youth. As a result the shade endurers finally become dominant, and the light needers occur in the mixed forest only sporadically, the remnants or smgle survivors of groups, all the outside members of which have perished; and only when a wind-storm or insect pest creates an opening of sufficient size is a chance for their reproduction given. Just as in the mixed forest the species are dis- tributed according to their shade endurance, so in the pure forest of one species, or of species of equal tolerance, will the different-sized or different- aged trees develop side by side according to avail- able light, each crowding the other, the laggards being finally killed by the withdrawal of light In a well-established young growth of white pine, the seedlings, some 50,ocx) to 100,000 on an acre, with their symmetrical crowns sooner or later form a dense crown canopy, excluding all light from the soil. After a few years the leaves of tlie lower branches, no longer able to function "under the shade of the superior part of the crown and of their neighbors, fail to develop and the branchlets die and break off ; this natural cleaning, which secures 150 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. the desirable clear boles, takes place during the period of rapid height growth, which occurs from the tenth to the thirtieth year. At the age of thirty years the trees are slender poles having a diameter of 3 to c inches, and a height of from 20 to 25 feet, with a few taller ones, the boles bearing a dense conical crown and beset for the greater part of their length with small limbs, the lower ones dead or dying. Not a few trees are seen to fall short of reaching the general upper crown level; the crowns of these laggards are shorter, more open, with fewer leaves on each twig. Others again will be foimd dead or scarcely vegetating, with crowns very poorly developed. In other words, we can recognize different vigor in devel- opment according to constitution and accidental opportimity, and can make a differentiation into development classes : the predominant, with their crowns 5 to 10 feet above the general level, which must finally make up the mature stand ; the sub- dominant, still alive and, should accident remove some of the superior class, ready to occupy their air space ; and the dominated or inferior ones, hope- lessly out of the race. Of the tens of thousands which started only 2000 or 3000 are surviving, and as each tree tries to expand its crown, and secure for itself as much air space as well as root space as it can, the result is a continued diminution of the number of trees occupying the acre. IKiHMHHHH NATURAL HISTORY OF THE FOREST. 151 This decimation b in exact mathematical rela- tion, except for accidents, with the development of the dominant, especially in height growth. At the age of eighty, of the several thousand trees which started in the race, only a portion — not more than 400 to 500— are left Then the diminution pro- ceeds at a slower rate, until finaUy only 200 to 300 occupy the ground, or as many as can conveniently fill the air space in the upper story, the number varying according to soil and climatic conditions and species. The time has arrived when the height growth is practically finished. The branches cannot lengthen any more to occupy the air space. After this a nu- merical change can take place only as a result of casualties, caused by fungi, insects, fires, or wind- storms; these of course may also from the start in- terfere in the regular progress of adjustment which takes place under the effect of physiolopcal laws. In reality the conditions of soil, climate, and species in combination are so various that this pro- cess of evolution does not appear so simple, yet the seemingly lawless, yet actually law-directed, appear- ance of a forest growth explains itself by these few observations of the results of action and reac- tion of its surroundings and of the single compo- nents. The factor of light is not only the most impor- tant one in bringing about the evolution of the natural forest, but practically almost the only one 152 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. under control of man. With the knowledge of the light requirements and with the judicious use of the axe, the forester it enabled to stimulate or suppress one species or another, and to direct in quantitative and qualitative development the prog- ress of his crop, and finally to secure the regen- eration of entire forest growths with species that to him are most useful. Not only is the composition largely a result of changes in light conditions, but the amount of pro- duction ceteris paribus is a function of the light, for the amount of foliage which the single tree can exhibit to the influence of light predicates the amount of wood k produces during the season, provided that food supplies are accessible. The whole art of forestry, in its technical as well as in its financial results, is based upon the knowledge and application of the laws of accre- tion. Just as the manner in which composition and numbers arrange themselves is a result of recognizable laws of development, so the growth of the individual tree as well as the growth of the whole stand of trees in quantity and form is sub- ject to laws which can be formulated. The math- ematics of forest growth, developed by forest men- suration,* reveal not only how, but how much, trees 1 The measurements to establish the progress of development are based upon the fact that trees grow annually in length at» their tips by addition of shoots, and in circumference by the superposi- tion of a layer of wood over those of former years, whicl. in a NATURAL HISTORY OF THE FOREST. 153 and stands of trees grow, how much useful mate- rial they are capable of producing, and under what conditions the largest amount of the most useful material may be produced most quickly upon a given area, which is the principal aim of the forester. As we recognize in the animal or m man cer- tain periods of development which are each char- acterized by progress in certain directions, so we can in the tree individual recognize an infantile stage, the seedling first unfolding the characteris- tics of the plant, and occupied in forming organs of nutrition. This process continues more vigor- ously during the juvenile period or brush-wood stage, when the difference in inherited capacity is most pronounced, some species shooting rapidly upward — mostly Ught-needing species— whUe others first consume considerable time in develop- ing a root system, a basis upon which the future persistent growth can establish itself. During this stage the difference in the rate of height growth of different species is greatest and we can speak of rapid and slow growers. After the juvenile period all species grow more or less aUke during the brief adolescent or pole-wood period, the maxir mum rate of height growth occurring in the tenth to fifteenth year with the light-needing and in the twentieth to fortieth year with the shade-enduring croM^ection tpp«mr u the well-known annual ring., permitting a •Utemeat of relation of performance to time. 154 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. species ; then follows the even rate of the adult virile, or young-timber period, during which matur / and frequent seed production absorb part of the energy until the maximum height is reached, and in the senile or old-timber stage height growth stops alto- gether. The virile stage is of most uneven length, and here the " law of the lever " asserts itself often : those which grow most rapidly in their youth, as a rule, cease soonest to exert themselves, while the slow growers are persistent and finally over- tower the rapid ones. The diameter growth proceeds slowly until a fully formed crown and root system can elaborate the material to be deposited along the bole in annual layers. As these conditions improve during the adolescent period, so does the rate of diameter growth increase aiid the maximum rate does not occur until the fortieth to eightieth year, then very evenly declining into late life; but t' area of a cross-section taken in any part die hJe, usually breast high, increases a considerable time after the diameter rate has begun to sink, as mathematical reasoning requires, the deposit each year being made on a larger periphery. Of greatest economic interest is the form devel- opment of the bole, which depends upon the man- ner in which the wood is deposited over the previous year's deposits. In well-fed trees, with fully developed crowns, standing in the open, so much food is elaborated that the lower portions NATURAL HISTORY 0/ THE FOREST. 15$ receive an excess, hence we find such trees with broad base tapering rapidly toward the crown; whUe trees of the forest, grown in ^nser stand, and having smaller confined crowns, elaborate less material, hence the lower portions do not receive so much, the result being a more nearly cylindrical form, or even taper. In the volume development matters become more complicated, and we must differentiate it into parts, namely, the volume of the bole, and that of the branches, and brush wood, not to speak of the root growth, or, as is customary with foresters, we may consider the volume of the useful timber wood, namely, material over three inches in diameter, as differentiated from the brush ' .>od, of smaller dimension. In a tree grown in the open, the crown is apt, for a time at least, to develop at the expense of the bole, and the deposition of new material Ukes place more largely in the branches. At the same time, since under this condition the largest amount of foliage is at work, the largest amount of total wood is also produced by such single trees. In the forest the branch development is impeded by the neighbors, hence each single component of the for- est not only produces less wood, but the distri- bution of the product is different, the valuable bole receiving more than the less valuable branches. Since open position secures quantity, dense position quaUty, we can conceive of such a position or density 156 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. of Stand that will secure the largest amount of deposit, compatible with the most useful form. In general, the volume accretion of trees in full enjoyment of light experiences a constant increase in rate after the adolescent stage, and continues at such rate for a long time, often into old age. Of course different soU and climatic conditions, as well as light conditions, influence the rate of growth, and the growth of different species also varies in amount. Here again the interesting law of the lever may be noted, namely, that on good sites the development is, to be sure, more rapid, but the culmination in the rate is also reached more rapidly, and the decline is more rapid. Similarly as regards species: those that start with a rapid growtii usually reach their culmination sooner than the slower ones, and are apt to decline more rap- idly in their rate, so that in the end the slow but persistent growers may outgrow the rapid ones in height, diameter, and volume. In the forest, as we have seen, the individual trees experience an influence in their development from the shade of their neighbors, and as a result, a differentiation of trees into size classes, dominant and inferior growth takes place, and finally as a consequence the dying off of the latter, the dimi- nution in numbers, which we have abready discussed. Both height and diameter, as well as volume growth, of these various tree classes, together with the dim- inution in numbers, must be studied to determine NATURAL HISTORY OF THE FOREST. 157 the important question of volume d^v^l^P^T* ^^^ rtands. Hopeless as this would seem at first, it ha* een accomplUhed with tolerable success by German foresters, and a good beginning has been made for the species of the United States. The general laws which have been deduced from the thousands of measurements made by the Germans are, within limits, applicable to our nafa^ species ; they exhibit at least what the possibihties are under good management In the first place, these measurements show that, w far as weight of production is concerned, the same acre produces annuaUy the same weight of dry material, with practically whatever species it may be grown, namely from 4000 to 8000 pounds i«r acre, according to the quaUty of the acre (see p. 123). In volume there is, to be sure, a considerable dtf- ference, due to the difference in specific weight of the wood of different species, and of the water con- tents; in other words, the trees with heavy wood would, ceteris paribus, produce less volume per year than the Ught woods. That the weight of vegetable product should be the same was logically to be expected, since on the same acre the active factors which produce assimilation and the potential energy of the soil remain the same, and the ^^^^^f'^' uct must be the same. Nearly one-half of this product is represented by foliage and roots, and one- fourth by brush wood and bark, leaving only about three-dghths available as useful wood matenaL 158 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. According to climatic and soil conditions, which, in combination, are technically called "site," the annual production of avaiiabU dry wood substance above ground, when the site is fully utilized, varies from at least 3500 pounds on the best sites to 1200 pounds on the poorest This production remains the same, regardless of the number of trees partici- pating in it, provided that the entire available light space be filled with active foliage, or, that, techni- cally speaking, there is a full crown cover. From this observation it appears that not the number of trees, but the density of crown cover, i.e. the intensity of utilization of the light, is the important factor in weight production, and, ceteris paribus^ in volume production. In other words, there may be two and three times as many trees on the same area, and yet no difference in total volume. The difiFerence due to numbers will ap- pear in difference of the distribution of volume in more or less useful form ; hence the proper gauging of numbers is one of the most important operations of the forester. As we have seen before, in a dense young growth of nature's sowing, there may be 50,cxx> or more trees per acre, which, by natural thinning after the twentieth year, are reduced to 2000 or 2500, and then diminishing steadily in number at a slower rate ; at the end of the hundredth year only 20Q to 250 occupy the upper crown level, or only 10 per cent are left, 90 per cent having succumbed to the shading, or NATURAL HISTORY OF THE FOREST. IS9 having become mere undergrowth. Hence, while on the whole the volume accretion has been in- creasing, there has been also a constant loss by the death of the inferior trees, a loss m volume which is equal to at leabt 30 to 4':> per c«nt ^^ the final harvest, and which, in part at least, can be saved by timely interference and utilization. It is evident that, with the great variety of con- diUons possible, the rate of production of useful wood, i.e. wood of log and bolt size fit for the arts, varies greatly. Yet through painstaking analysis and classification of the coUected measurements, it has been possible to construct for each species and site so^lled yield tables, which u der the premise of a fully stocked stand, i.e. full crown cover, and of proper practice in thinning out the dying trees, record the progress of volume accretion. These tables, then, are standards of measurement, with which the forester can compare his actual forest, to see how far he is away from the possible or normal conditions, and what he may expect to produce in the future. These state, for a given species and riven site, usually in periods of ten years, the total amount of wood per acre which will have l^n produced every ten years, and possibly the differ- ent classes or sizes of wood, stated at least percent- ically. the number of trees to be present, their average height and diameter, and other similar m- formation. For illustration such a table wiU be found in the Appendix. i6o ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. While in our natural unmanaged woods the final useful crop, which usually has accumulated over 200 years before it is considered fit for harvest, rarely exceeds 8000 cubic feet, in the managed German spruce forest, fully covering the ground, from which all useless species are eradicated, we may find at 30 ye^rs over 3000 cubic feet of wood, more than three times that amount at 60 years, and at 100 years 14,000 cubic feet of timber wood, having pro- duced at the rate of 70 cubic feet during the first two decades, at the rate of 240 cubic feet in the third decade, reaching its maximum with 267 cubic feet in the fourth decade, declining after this dec- ade so that in the ninth decade the rate may be only 100 cubic feet per year, and at 100 years the average rate for the whole period has become only 140 cubic feet. On poorer soils much less, down to one-half, of this production may be expected, and with other species, of course, the general progress of accretion and final result must differ; yet there is a remarkable regularity, a law of accretion ob- servable in all conditions, upon which an analysis of the assiduously gathered data lets m a flood of Ught. While the natural forest, if not interfered with by man or by accident such as fire, would follow, of course, the same laws, yet practically the result is a different one, because the economic point of view is left out, and tree weeds are mixed with the valuable species, thus naturally reducing the amount of useful production. NATURAL HISTORY OF THE FOREST. l6l But if we take the small stands here and there which occur in nature's forest, grown under similar premises as those of the tables, we wiU find, as would be expected, the same results; the stand has developed in the manner indicated by the tables. These tables of 'normal forest yield can serve us as a goal which may be gained by a proper forest management, when the useful product of nature's forest can be trebled and quadrupled. To illustrate the economic and practical value of the laws deduced from these tables we may state only a few of them. The so<:alled rapid growers, i.e, those trees which have a rapid height growth in their youth, are, in the end, not the largest pro- ducers, if stout sizes are desired: the persistent growers, t.e. mostly the shade-enduring trees, pro- duce relatively more in the long run. Hence, the rapid-growing aspen, which is near the end of its life at 80 >ear8, may have then produced at best 7600 cubic feet to the acre, while the shady, slower, but persistent spruce has, by that time, accumu- lated over 12 /xx) cubic feet, and is still growing at the rate of over 80 cubic feet per year. On good sites and with rapid-growing species, the culnination of the rate of volume growth occurs earlier than under opposite conditions, and then declines more rapidly, influencing, therefore, the most opportune time for harvest For the Scotch pine the highest rate of production may be l62 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. found on good sites between the twentieth and for- tieth year, with over i6o cubic feet per acre, and on poorer sites a decade later; while the slow- growing beech shows its culmination between the fiftieth and seventieth year, with 190 cubic feet per acre. In general, the volume of a stand progresses much more slowly than that of a single tree, and much more regularly, since it expresses all the variable conditions. It is a matter of simple mathematical demonstration that the maximum average accretion occurs when it is equal to the current accretion, i.e. equal to the accretion of the particular year. In other words, when the accre- tion which has occurred through a series of years, divided by the number of years, happens to be as large as the accretion of the current year, the high- est average production per acre and year has been attained. This occurs mostly before the fiftieth year with light-needing species and on good sites, later on poor sites and with shade-enduring species, but, to be sure, the value accretion, which depends upon the amount of large-sized material, culminates very much later. If a group of some hundred trees have grown together in dense stand, they develop so regularly and interdependently that the following relations will prevail : the contents of the average tree will be found to equal very nearly one-tenth of the vol- ume of the three stoutest and the seven slimmest NATURAL HISTORY OF THE FOREST. 163 trees which participate in the upper crown Icvd. and the volume of the whole stand may then be closely approximated by multiplying this amount by the number of trees involved : (. , J, 3 max.'-f7jmn.\ voL of stand = « x ^ ^ J- If the trees are arranged in size-<:las8es from the stoutest down, the average tree wiU be found to be at about 40 per cent from the stoutest For instance, in 500 trees, the 200th tree, counting from ths stoutest, will be the average tree. Moreover, if these trees arranged in size-classes are divided faito five groups, the first fifth wiU contain 40 per cent of the total volume, the second fifth 24 per cent, the third 17 per cent, the fourth 12 per cent, and the last, the slimmest, wUl represent only 7 per cent of the total volume of all the trees. These interesting deductions from the yield tables, which could be multiplied, are cited merely to impress upon the reader the fact that the forest grows under the influence of recognizable laws, just as the single tree does. If we differentiate the volume into the different sizes of material, logs of given diameter, cords of certain character, etc., expressed in quantities or relative proportions, and apply market prices, we can come to a concep- tion of the value accretion of a stand at any par- ticular time, and then can discuss upon a tangible basis the results of a forest management which may change at will the growth conditions and de- I^ ECONOWCS or fOKESTRT. velopmoit of a forest stand to secure results in a given time. Instead of computing total quantities, we can ex^H-ess the relationships in percentic proportions, conceiving the Mnnd of trees as a capital, and the accretion as the interest on such capital, and speak of Sm accretion per cent as basis for the more com- plicated finance calculations. CHAPTER VII. MBTB0D8 OF F0SS8T CROP PKODUCTIOH: 8ILV*CnLTUSI. There is nothing that needs to be more strongly emphasized and impressed upon the American public, and even upon the young professional for- ester, than that the main business of the forester is expressed in the one word " reproduction" ; his main obligation is the replacement of the crop he has harvested, whether produced by unaided nature or otherwise, by as good, if not a better crop of timber than he found. Silviculture, the technique of the growing of wood-crops, a branch of the broader subject of arboriculture, is the pivot upon which the wholi forestry business turns. As the farmer sows and reaps, so the forester harvests and replaces, although the methods of the two have little in common. Nor are the methods employed in other arboricultural pursuits applica- ble, such as the oichardist uses where the fruit is the object, or the landscape gardener, who looM for sBsthetic effect, or the roadside planter, who desires the shade. i66 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. The tree which satisfies these arboriculturists does not at all satisfy the requirements of the forester, for his point of view, his aim, is a different one and hence his methods are his own. In fact, single trees are not his object any more than the single grass blade is the object of the farmer ; the largest amount of wood in the most salable or profitable form is his aim, logs rather than trees, and the financial results from their harvest The final aim of the silviculturist is, therefore, attained only when he has removed the old trees and re- placed them by a yoimg crop. He grows trees in masses and for their substance. Not only does he deal with trees in masses, but with trees in natural conti'':'ons, being by financial considerations often limited in the use of artificial aids and methods, such as the other arboriculturists and the farmer in his crop production may employ. Restricted as he is, or finally will be, to the poorer soils and conditions, those least favorable to agri- cultural production, he is forced to the most con- servative management of the natural conditions in order to secure a desiiable result without too much expenditure, which his long-maturing crop cannot repay. The simplest method of harvesting the crop of uature and replacing it is to cut clean or clear the ground and plant or sow the new crop, the farmer's method. This is called " artificial reproduction " or "reforestation," and is largely practised in Europe. SILVICULTURE. 167 It is, of course, the only method applicable where the forest crop is to be started anew on abandoned fields, on the forestless prairies and plains, on the burnt areas which have grown up to useless brush, in short, where no old crop of desirable species is on the ground. Where an old crop of desirable kinds is already on the ground, the same method of clearing followed by artificial reforesta- tion may be employed, but there is also a choice of producing the new crop by seeds falling from the trees of the old crop, by "natural regen- eration." This method is the one by which nature mam- tains the forest. As trees grow old, decay, and fall, an opening is made into which the neighbor- ing trees throw their seeds and fill up the gap with a new seedling growth. The forester profits from this observation, and with the recognition of the laws under which forest growth develops, as detailed in the preceding chapter, he gives merely direction to this development in such a manner as to reduce the unfavorable and increase the favor- able conditions of development for whatever kinds he may desire to propagate, avoiding the use of the planting tool, and managing to secure the reproduction and development of the younfj crop by the mere use of the ace in the old crop. But he uses the axe differently from the lumberm.in. The lumberman, the first exploiter of the vuxed virgin forest, treats it like a mine from which he i68 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. takes the pay ore, culUng the best kinds and cuts, and abandoning the rest to its fate, which is usually made hazardous by fires running through the forest, fed by the debris he has left. If these fires have not killed the remaining growth, he may come back after a few years, and may find some of the smaller trees of the useful kinds, which he had left standing, grown to such a size as will pay to cut and transport to market ; these he calls "second growth." Possibly he may re- peat this culling process several times ; but finally the desirable kinds are cut out, and there is left a growth of undesirable kinds, of weeds which he has helped in their struggle with theii- rivals of useful kinds, by the removal of the latter. Meanwhile, wherever an opening is made by the cutting of trees, seeds from the neighboring growth fall to the ground and sprout, giving rise to some aftergrowth, but this is apt to be preponderantly of the undesirable kinds which were left; more- over, this young growth under the shade of th^i old trees, being deprived of the desirable amount of light, develops slowly and poorly. As a result of these operations, then, not only the prvseMt com- position of the growth is deteriorated, but also its future. Thus, in Kentucky, where the viuuab It- white oak used to form 40 per cent of the forest, the aftergrowth contains hardly 5 per cent; and in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Mmnesota, where the white pine has been culled out severely, its absence SILVICULTURE. 169 in the young growth has led to the curious belief among lumbermen that it does not propagate itself by seol. The forester, on the other hand, treatethe forest as a permanent investment and as a crop. All his operations keep in mind continuity and permanency for the future. Reproductioi not only, but repro- duction of the most useful kinds ^ and superior quality is his aim. The forester, instead of culling out the best kinds first, as the lumberman does, would take out the undesirable ones first, and thus improve the com- position of his crop. The material which results from these so-called " improvement cuttings " may sometimes not directly pay for the labor spent on them, but they are cultural operations, designed to put the property in more useful condition for the future, and hence they are at least indirectly profitable. When in this way the desirable kinds have been given the advantage (or sometimes simultaneously with the improvement cuttings^ a gradual removal of these takes place, either of single individuals here and there, or of groups of them, making larger or smaller openings ; or else more or less broad strips are cleared, on which the seed falling from the remaining neighboring growth can find lodgement, » Of the nemrly 500 ipecie* native to our country, only about 70 luniiri) wood of iufficient size and q.jkUty to dwerve he attention of the forester. 170 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. and sprout; and, at the young seedlings require more light for their deveh>pment, gradually more of the older timber is removed, or the openings are enlarged for new crops of young growth, and thus the reproduction is secured gradually, while har- vesting the old crop. Finally, when the last stick of old timber has been removed — and in a well-developed forestry system every stick is expected to be utilized — a young growth composed as far as possible only of the more useful kinds has taken the place of the virgin forest, to grow until it becomes profit- able to harvest again, when the same methods will secure another reproduction, and so on. To be sure, these operations are not quite so simple as they appear from this statement, for considerable knowledge of the requirements of each species and judgment of the needs of the young crop for its best development are needed to secure a successful regeneration, two requisites secured by study and experience, which, for Amer- ican species and conditi.as, are still lacking to a large extent The progress and manner ii which the natural re- generation by seed is secured give rise to variously named methods and to various results in the ap- pearance and development of the young crop ; but in all of these so-called natural regeneration meth- ods the young crop is secured by seed falling from the mother trees on or near the ground to be re- SILVICULTURE. 17" cupertted, and the old crop !• removed more or lets graduaUy, to make room for the young crop, the main difference being in the rapidity with which the old crop ia removed. The choice of method depends upon financial u well as silvicultural considerations. In protection forests and luxury forests, in which the financial questions become secondary and the requirement of a continuous soil cover may be paramount, the choice of method is circumscribed by this consideration. Here, methods in which the old crop is very slowly removed and replaced by the new crop are indicated, even if financial and silvicultural results would make other methods desirable. In supply forests, the cheapest method which secures desirable proportionate results in the crop is to be chosen. This must vary according to local conditions. CUmate, soil, and species to be dealt with caU for silvicultural considerations; the relative cost of planting and of logging or harvest- ing under diflferent methods influence the financial results. The clearing process followed by artificial re- placement entails a money outlay for the latter from year to year; the gradual removal methods with natural seeding avoid, to be sure, this outlay, but, since to secure the same amount of harvest, a larger territory must be cut over, they entail large initial investment for means of transportation, which MKMoonr MwumoN tkt own (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) 1.0 1.1 Itt ^ lit |a3 12.5 1^5 ii 1.6 A ^PP\JEDJM/t3E Ine IHICM Hail) S«rM( ••••»** 14M( USA (71*) 4M-O300-PlMm (7it) an-saw-rn 1/2 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. must be maintained for all the years of removal, and they occasion also otherwise greater expenses in the harvest than the concentrated logging in the clearing system, which may be done over tempo- rary roads. Where, as in Germany, most forest districts are provided with well-built permanent road systems, gradual removal methods are often probably the least expensive; but in the United States, in most places, unless water transportation can be relied upon, a gradual removal system means heavy initial outlays for roads, which may make the clearing followed by planting the cheaper method. It is in most conditions also the surer; for a complete success of the young crop can, in most cases, be forced. In the natural regeneration methods there are elements of uncertainty, the seed years may not come when expected ; in a mixed forest, which, for many reasons, is the most desira- ble form, the species seed irregularly, have diflferent requirements of light, so that the composition can- not be very well controlled ; the damage and loss occasioned in the young crop by the removal of the old crop must be discounted in the final result ; and besides, where the removal is very slow, the young crop is impeded in its development by the shade of the old crop. These systems, therefore, are better adapted to shade-enduring species than to light-needing. The main argument and the most important in favor of these methods is that they furnish protection to the soil, preventing its ipplpplp SILVICULTURE. 173 deterioration under the influence of sun and wind, to which the soil is liable in a clearing system, and giving also protection to the tender seedlings of such species as are subject to frost or drought. Under such conditions, therefore, i.e. where pro- tection of soil and young crop are necessary, the gradual removal methods will be chosen. Over 80 per cent of the forests of Germany are managed under a clearing system and rapid removal systems, and only 20 per cent under slow removal and other systems. Where, as in our culled forests, the valuable species have been removed and the weed trees have been left in possession, it stands to reason that no natural regeneration method will reestab- lish the better species ; they must be restored by artificial means. Finally, where conditions per- mit, a combination of natural and artificial methods may be resorted to in order to secure the best result. The crudest, least intensive method is an im- provement on the method of the lumberman, who culls the best trees here and there, the so-called method of selection. The improvement over the lumberman's practice, who is concerned only in the removal of the useful timber, consists in looking somewhat after the fate of the young growth, protecting it against competing species, giving it light as soon as practicable by further culling, and improving the composition by reduc- 174 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. ing the weed trees and also leaving more seed trees. The result is a forest in waich all ages and sizes are scattered over the entire area, coming neares«t to the conditions of nature. This system, in which the young crop has a poor chance to develop, and which is applicable to shade-enduring species only, is recommended for protective forest areas. In Germany it is applied only on small areas and on the steepest slopes, less than lo per cent of the German forest area being managed under it, and in the Prussian state forests, less than ^ per cent. The continuous soil cover, to be sure, is a feature which is its greatest recommendation, but this is secured at great expense and loss in accretion. To permit a better chance for the young growth, the so-called " group method " has been lately de- vised, in which not single trees, but groups of trees, are removed and the opening is expected to be seeded by the neighboring trees. From time to time, as soon as the young growth is well established, the opening is enlarged and additions of young growth secured in the form of an irregular ring or band around that of preceding years. An older method, similar to the last, consists in making the opening in the form of a narrow strip at right angles to the prevailing winds, and as the (,round is seeded to clear a new strip toward the SILVICULTURE. 175 windward side. This " strip method, just as any method which reUes upon the seed furnished by a neighboring growth, is more successful with those kinds which have Ught-winged seeds, easily earned by the winds over the area to be seeded, and which do not require any protection in their infantile stage It is a metho-l which, on account of the grater concentration in harvest, is probably advis- able in many cases in the United States. For heavy-seeded kinds Uke oaks, beech, hick- ories, and other nut trees, the more compUcated method of "regeneration under shelter wood or nurse trees" becomes necessary ; this consists ma serios of severe preparatory thinnings of the old crop which is to be reproduced, beginning a year or more before the time when a full seed crop is to 1^ expected, seed years recurring more or less period- icaUy These preparatory thinnings are made for the purpose of exposing the soU to atmosphenc influences, which hasten the decomposition of the Utter, thereby securing a serviceable seed bed. Enough trees of the kind to be reproduced are left on the ground to secure fuU seedmg and shelter and protection of the young crop. When the latter has come up. the nurse trees are gradually removed to give the young seedlings the reqmred Ught The whole operation, until the last nurse trees are removed and the young crop is estabUshed. may take from three to ten and more years, accord- ing to kinds, soU conditions, cUmate, and success 176 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. in securing the seeding. The greatest nicety of judgment is required to direct these operations, tiking into account the requirements of the species and the conditions and progress of development of the young crop. To secure a full crop by this natural method often requires, not only careful manipulation, but patient waiting for years, since t ^s do not bear seed every year and the young cro^- may from this or other causes fail to establiah itself wholly or in part, when another seed year must be awaited, or the " fail " places filled out artificially by planting. The artificial reforestation may be made either by sowing the seed or by transplanting seedlings cxuredfrom nurseries or from the woods. This planting or sowing is done after more or less care- ful preparation of the soil, the preparation and manner of planting depending on soil conditions, species, and financial considerations. Simple and effective as these artificial methods are, there are certain dangers connected with them, which follow their injudicious application. The exposure of the soil may lead to its deterioration, the sun-warmed areas are apt to breed insects, the standing timber, exposed to sweeping winds, may be thrown when the opening is large. Where in a natural seeding a hundred thousand seedlings would cover the soil and quickly replace the shelter removed in the old growth, economy will permit the planting of only a few thousand SILVICULTURE. 177 (usually 2500-5000 per acre), and it requires years before the crowns of the young growth close up to shade the ground thoroughly, meanwhile weeds and grass sapping its £tiength and retarding the devel- opment of the crop. Nevertheless, by a judicious application, making the openings small, utiUzing the shelter of some left-over trees for partial protection, increasing the number of plants, or sowing a cheap nurse crop, these dangers may be avoided. TheoreticaUy, however, the regeneration under shelter wood with a short period of removal is con- sidered the most efficient. While all these methods rely upon a repioduc- tion of the new crop by seed, directly or indirectly, thece is another mode of reproduction possible, owing to the capacity of some trees to reproduce new parts from buds, forming shoots from the stumps after the old tree is cut These stool shoots, or sprouts, grow into trees, and by the mere harvest of the old crop, the new crop is se- cured. This, in turn, may be cut, and the stump will produce again and again new sprouts. This simplest and crudest system of reproduction, called "coppice," which results involuntarily when the old hardwoods are cut, is upplicable only to the broad-leaved trees which are capable of producing valuable shoots in this manner; the coniferous trees, like pines, spruces, etc., are practically ex- cluded, although some possess the capacity of sprouting in inferior Jegree. 178 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. Even in broad-leaved trees the capacity for sprouting is possessed in different degree by the different species, and is more or less lost by dl in old age ; and especially after repeated harvests the stumps become exhausted and die, so that the forest is apt gradually to deteriorate in compo- sition as well as in density, unless fresh blood is added by reproduction from seed. Thus in Pennsylvania, where the system has been in vogue for a century and more to furnish charcoal for the iron furnaces, the valuable white oaks and hickories have been crowded out by the chestnut, which is a superior sprouter ; simUarly, in Massachusetts the inferior white birch replaces the more val .ble kinds in the coppice, as their stocks weaken and fall a prey to rot. Another disadvantage of this coppice system under which the woodlands of deciduous trees in almost all New England and the Atlantic States are reproduced is that, although the sprouts de- velop much faster than the seedlings from the start, they soon fall off in their growth, and are capable merely of furnishing small dimensions and fire wood. The coppice, therefore, is useful only for certain purposes, but cannot be relied upon to furnish material for the great lumber market The deterioration consequent to the continued application of the coppice is best studied in Italy and in certain parts of France, where serviceable SILVICULTURE. ^79 timber is aimott unknown, and fagots of small f re wood are precious articles. To avoid this objection a mixed system has been practised, by which part of the crop (the soK»lled 8tandard8)is allowed to grow up and be reproduced by seed, while the other part is treated as coppice ; but in this so-called standard-coppice (Ger. Mittel- wald,¥r. taillis conposf) the standards, unimpeded in their branch development, do not form service- able trunks, ar • 'ttion, by their shade injure the coppice g - While, then ' .uethods are of limited use, the only metiiod o. repr iucing the forest which is to serve as a basis for the supply of the enormous quantities of saw timber required in the markets is the so-called timber forest, the high forest, Hoch- wald of the Germans, or futaie of the French, which is reproduced by seed, and grows to full size and maturity, to be again so reproduced. As in the natural methods the axe is the only tool which is used to secure the regeneration, so is the axe the only tool which cultivates the young crop, such cultivation consisting in the judicious removal of surplus trees by the so-called thinnings, by which the quantity and quaUty of the crop is increased. To understand this, it is necessary to know that trees form wood by the function of the foliage under the influence of light. Hence a tree with much foliage and unimpeded access of Ught is bound to make much wood. ito ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. These conditions are fulfilled when the tree is allowed to grow in open stand, as on a lawn, without close neighbors, who would cut off some of the light supply. But trees under such conditions grow mostly into branches, the crown being developed at the expense of the bole, which remains short and more or less conical in shape, of little commercial or technical use, except for firewood; when the trunk is sawn into boards every branch appears as a defect, known as a knot, which makes it unfit for use in the better class of work, and thus, while the total quantity of wood in the tree is increased by the open stand, it is done at the exne ^se of quality. The object of the forester, however, is not sim- ply to grow wood, but to produce wood of such form and quality as is useful in the arts. The ideal tree for him is one with a long, cylindrical, branchless trunk, bearing its crown high up, which when cut into lumber produces the largest amount of material clear of knots, of straight fibre, and giving the least amount of waste or fire wood. His aim, therefore, must be to so place his trees that, while the largest possible amount of wood shall be produced, it shall be deposited in the most useful form also. By a close position, when each tree cuts off the side light from the neighbor, the formation of branches is prevented, or the branches which were ■H SILVICULTURE. I81 formed, being overshadowed, soon lose their vital- ity, die, and finally break off, leaving the shaft smooth, and, if this clearing was effected before the branches had reached considerable size, the amount of clear lumber is increased. But again, if the trees are kept too close, if too many trees are allowed to grow on the acre, each one having the smallest amount of foliage and light "t its disposal, the amount of wood produced by thfc ere may be fully as large as it is capable of producing, but it is distributed over so many individuals that each develops at the very slowest rate, and hence does not grow to useful size in the shortest time. To secure his object, producing the largest amount per acre of the most useful wood in the :hortest time, the forester must know what number of trees to permit to grow, so as to balance the advantages and disadvantages of close and open position. This number differs not only according to the species composing his crop, but also according to soil and climatic conditions and to the age of the crop, as we have seen in the preceding chapter. Some trees, having considerable capacity of enduring shade, like the beech, sugar maple, or spruce, may require many more individuals t> the acre than the more light-needing oaks or pines; on richer soils fewer individuals will produce I83 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. I! Mtisfactory results, when on poorer soils more individuals must be kept on the acre. The ques- tion of the proper number of trees to be allowed to grow per acre at different ages is one of the most difficult, on which practitioners differ widely. In genera], however, the practitioner has recog- nized the necessity of preserving a dense position for the first twenty to thirty years of the young crop, sacrificing quantitative development to ^uality and form. The close stand secures the long, branchless, cylindrical trunk, which furnishes the clear saw-logs of greatest value. Then, when the maximum rate of height growth has been attained, a more or less severe thinning is indicated, in order to secure quantitative development, and these thinnings are repeated penodically, to give more light as the crowns close up, and also to utilize such of the trees as are falling behind in this wood production. As a result of judicious thinnings, the rate at which the remaining crop develops may be doubled and quadrupled, the heavy, more valuable sizes are made in shorter time, and, where the inferior mate- rial removed in the thinnings is salable, a much larger total product is in the end secured from the acre, for many of the trees which were removed and utilized would have died, fallen, and decayed in the natural struggle for existence. In German forest management the amount util- ized in thinnings amounts to 25 per cent and more of the final harvest . .d. SILVICULTURE. I«3 Other considerationf also influence ihf s opera- tioni, such as the preservation of sou moisture, which is the most essendal contribution of the soil to tree growth, and which requires the soil to be kept shaded. In fact, there is nothing that a forester guards so jealously, next to the light conditions at the crown, as the soil conditions: a soil cover free of weeds and grass, and covered as amply f a possible with - heavy mulch of decaying leaves and twigs, and if this best protection of the soil moisture be defi- cient, a cover of shrubby undergrowth which re- quires less water than weeds and grass — tVi> is the character of a desirable 'orest floor. Altogether it will have appeared that the entire silvicultural requirements of the crop resolve them- selves into one, namely, proper management of light conditions, which is secured by the judicious use of the axe. While in field crops it is customary to grow only single species, in pure stands, the forester has dis- covered that, as a rule, not only better results, both in quantity and quality, but better protection of soil conditions and especially safety against many dangers from insects, frosts, and storms, etc., can be secured by mixed plantations, and hence he gives preference to mixed crops, although such crops, composed of several species, require more skill in their management. While the crop is developing, it is, of course, •mm 184 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. necessary to protect it against damage of various kinds. The young seedlings of some species are apt to suffer from frost or drouth, which is avoided by growing them under shelter of older trees, by draining wet places, securing opportunity for cold air to draw off, etc.,— mostly preventive measures. In prairie and plain it may be possible to assist their resistance to such damage by culti- vating the ground as the farmer does, but in the real forest country such means are excluded by the character of the ground, and the expense. Alto- gether the only practical remedies lie in the di- rection of foreseeing the damage and guarding against it. Animals, and especially insects, are frequently in- jurious to the young crop, and insects also to old trees, by their defoliation. This damage, too, can be largely obviated by preventive measures. Since many, if not most, injurious insects are monophagous, i.e. feed on one species, or at least one genus, mixed forests resist their damage better, since the number of host plants is reduced and the intermixed trees impede progress and development of the pest. Fewer insects develop in the dense shade and on vigorous, healthy plants, hence they can be kept in check to some extent by keeping the crop dense and in vigorous development, when it can resist the attacks ; and also by keeping the woods clean of debris, dead and dying trees, in which insects develop; finally, as uMma ratio, SILVICULTURE. 185 positive measures must be resorted to for collecting and destroying the broods of insects before they have time to do damage. Considerable amounts of money are spent in this direction in European forest management, amounting in ordinary times to from one-half to one cent per acre, but, from time to time, the pests break out in such numbers that no remedies will avail* Some loss must be sustained, which is, however, of less moment if the crop had already developed to suitable size and can be harvested when the trees have been killed. Wind-storms are a danger to older timber, es- pecially of shallow-rooted species, like the spruce, and on soft soils and exposed slopes or mountain tops. Here care must be taken in keeping the stand well thinned, so that the trees may get accus- tomed to the swaying of the winds in more open stand. In this way they are induced individually to form a better root system and become wind-firm, while in the dense stand their strength was only in the union with neighbors. Under conditions where damage from windfall is to be expected, it becomes necessary to arrange the felling areas so that no stand of old timber be suddenly exposed to the prevailing winds by the 1 In BawMi, in one year (X891), 1500,000, or ao centt per acre of property and I1.80 per acre infested, were tpent in combat- ing one imect, the nun, without much effect. The premature bar- verting of 60,000,000 cubic feet was the result of the damage. i86 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. removal or harvest of a neighboring stand. Since the prevailing winds in the northern zone come mostly from the western direction, it is sought to secure an arrangement of the stands of different age in series (a " felling series "), so that the old and tall timber is found at the eastern end, the age classes grading off to the west, the youngest at the western end, and the tops of the series of stands ideally appearing like a roof slanting down from east to west It is apparent that, under such an arrangement, the old timber can be harvested and reproduced without exposing any stands to the force of the wind, and the young timber is growing up under the influence of winds and becomes wind- firm. The greatest danger to forest properties, how- ever, is fire, and the protection against this most unnecessary evil, resulting mainly from man's care- lessness, absorbs a large part of the energy of the forester. Proper police, but also silvicultural meas- ures, reduce the amount of danger and damage. The damage which fire occasions is very vari- cble, according to a variety of conditions. Most forest fires are confined to the forest floor, running in the litter and young wood, scorching the older trees merely ; yet, under favorable conditions, the fire may run up the trees, becoming a crown fire and propagating itself from top to top and throw- ing firebrands and sparks to the ground, often for long distances. p>.^ SILVICULTURE. 187 Young crops, during the seedling and brush- wood stage, are readily killed, while older timber may stand scorching without much or any damage. Different species behave differently in this re- spect. The giant trees, or Sequoias, covered with a dense bark more than a foot thick, and their wood hardly mflammable, the Douglas fir, with a similar protection, are less liable to be damaged than the thin-skinned firs or spruces, beech or white birch and aspen. The green, succulent foliage and wood of broad-leaved trees is more resistant than the dry resinous foliage and wood of conifers. Drouthy conditions and dry soils are more likely to induce danger from fire damage than the opposite conditions. Finally, the presence or absence of an undergrowth, or debris, of dead and dry branches of trees, and the character of the forest floor, must make a difference in the ease with which a fire may start and run, the amount of heat it develops, and the consequent damage. The damage may consist in the total loss of the crop, which is usual imtil the pole-wood stage is reached. In pole wood and young or old timber the trunks may be only blackened, but more often the cambium la;, er below the bark is partially or en- tirely killed^ causing either the death of the tree, especially when recurring fires accumulate the damage, or secondary damage results through rot or insects which develop, especially in the weakest tices. i88 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. A damage even greater than the loss of the crop is experienced in the loss of the soil cover, the litter and duff, which is the forester's manure. This loss may become irreparable in localities where only a thin layer of mineral soil overlies the rock, and the opportunity for starting a new crop may be entirely destroyed. Tne fire danger in the United States is so great that in many local- ities it almost prohibits the practice of forestry; for who would want to invest money and energy in a property which is exposed to extra risks from fire by the absence of proper legislation, or by the lack of police and moral support on the part of the community in enforcing it, by the unpunished negligence or malice of incendiaries, and by the populational conditions of the country, which pre- vent the economical disposal of the debris from logging operations? The last-mentioned difficulty is perhaps the most important, because practically almost impos- sible to avoid. There must, especially in our vir- gin woods, always result from the harvest of the useful material a large amount of debris, tops, branches, brush, and other waste, which cannot be marketed ; and this not only impedes the devel- opment of a young crop, but adds to the danger from fire until decay has reduced the debris, which often requires many years, even decades. The proposition has been made to bum the debris after the logger. This is not as simple and SILVICULTURE. i«9 inexpensive as it appears, when care is to be taken not to damage the remaining growth and especially when natural regeneration is to be practised, or a young crop, already in part provided by nature, is to be saved. Where the culling is made light, only here and there a tree being taken, especially in the mixed forest, the amount of debris also is small and it may be left to natural decay, with the only pre- caution that the branches of the top are lopped so as to have the whole mass come into as close contact with the ground as possible, when the decay proceeds more rapidly. But where the culling is severe, as is often called for in pure woods and also ir. mixed stands, and a large amount of debris results, even this lopping of tops is of no avail; the fire risk con- tinues for many years. Incessant watching dur- ing the dangerous season is necessary, and even this proves futile, for a fir<.i, easily started by the slightest carelessness or by lightning,* will run in the debris so fast that no human power can stop it. 1 Although nndottbte'"-' most fires are the result either of malice, foolishness, or carelessnsss, namely, by smokers, campers, farmers in clearing brushlands, and others using fires, locomotives throwing sparks from smoke-stacks and ash-pits, the writer can attest that light- ning is occasionally the ckoic of fires. The old "snags," dead trees, the result of previous fires, are especially liable to be struck by lightning, and being dry, they burn, and propagete the fire c'tber by the flames bumir'; down to the ground, or else by sparks and burn- ing Umbs falling to the ground; but the writer has also seen liv« igo ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. Partial burning and piling of the brush reduce the danger somewhat, but hardly in proportion to the expense. The readiest remedy, where forestry is to be practised under such conditions, is to make a clean sweep, that is, clearing, burning up the debris, and replanting, or else, if natural regenera- tion is to be relied upon, adopting the strip system, when the opportunity of burning the debris totally is still possible. The danger from the debris continues longer *in coniferous woods than in the deciduous-leaved, the wood of which decays more readily in contact with the ground, although usually, in these latter, larger amounts of debris result. For instance, in the hard- wood forests of the Adirondacks, the mer>.hantable log material presents only one-third of the total amount of wood, two-thirds being cordwood and de- bris. The only hope here, in the absence of a paying home market for fuel from this inferior material, is to establish chemical works for its conversion on a large scale into charcoal, acetic acid, wood alco- hol, and other useful manufactures. trees, even of hardwoods, blaze when struck by lightning, and prop- agate the fire in spite of a pelting rain. Of 509 fires occurring in the Bavarian state forests during 6 years, 4 were demonstrably ac- credited to lightning and 7 to locomotives. Of 156 conflagrations in the Prussian state forests during 10 years, 3 were the result of lightning and only 4 from locomotives, 7 years out of the 10 being without any record of fire from this last cause, and that on a property of 7,ooo,oc» acres, over half of which was stocked with pine on dry sand' -oil SILVICULTURE. 191 In fact, the application of silviculture, i.e. tl-iC systematic production of wood-crops as a business proposition, in our culled, mismanaged woodlands throughout the United States is, in most cases, possible only where the means exist of utilizing this inferior material ; for the risks from fire are too great, or else the cash which would otherwise have to be spent in making room for the yovmg crop will surely exceed reasonable prop.»rtions. Only the state or other long-lived corporations can afford to spend money now in the hope of ade- quate returns in a distant future. That it is finally possible to reduce the fire dan- ger to a minimum by proper police regulations and by silvicultural measures, and by proper manage- ment and organization, is attested by the forest fire statistics of the German forest administrations, to which we have already referred on pp. 137 and 190. To these we may add that in any given !* get period within the last 25 years the acreage de- stroyed in Prussia or Bavaria (about 10,000,000 acres) rarely exceeds .005 per cent of the total forest area under state control In a recent report (1896) we read of " very considerable damage by fire " occurring in the Prussian state forests, referring to the burning over, not total loss, of 2500 acres. One fire is reported as destroying 1000 acres of a "hopeful" pine and spruce plantation 20 to 25 years old. In the next year (1897) the entire loss Hi 193 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. was not over lOO acres. This comparative im* munity is due to both administrative and police regulations. The Indian forest administration, under circum- stances not much less difficult, nay, perhaps more difficult, than those prevailing in the United States, refutes the assertion that forest fires may not be suppressed. Not only have the people of all timbered parts of India practised the firing of woods for many centuries, for purposes both of agriculture and pasture, but the natural conditions in many of the Indian forests are such as to discourage the ; lost sanguine. The forest in most parts is a mixed growth, of which a considerable portion is valueless and is left to die and litter the ground with dry and decaying timber, furnishing ready fuel. A dense undergrowth, largely composed of giant grasses and bamboo, covers the ground, green or dry, to which is added a mass of creeping and climbing vegetation. It is a dangerous forest, with hot, dry winds to i'an the flames ; and yet the forest de- partment fights and prevents fires, and succeeds in a measure. The efficiency of protection has con- stantly increased with perfection of methods, and the expenses have never exceeded $io per square mile in any year on an area of over 30,000 square miles, of which, in 1895, not more than 8 per cent experienced damage. The police regulations SILVICULTURE. 193 which lead to such results will be discussed in a succeeding chapter. Here the preventive silvicultural measures and arrant^ements in the forest, which are designed to reduce the fire danger, are to be only briefly enumerated. The experience that deciduous-leaved woods are less liable to danger suggests the maintenance of mixed forest; the fact that old timber is compara* tively safer, and that on large wind-swept areas the heat and the rapidity of progress of a fire is in* creased, leads to distributing the felling areas, and that means the areas of young crop, isolating them, making them smaller, and having them surrounded by older timber. Removal of the dead and dying trees by systematic thinnings wherever possible, and the disposal of the slash from logging opera- tions, are obvious means of reducing the danger. In German forest districts, more especially those unduly exposed to fir'* danger, a subdivision of the forest into blocks surrounded by avenues, or so- called rides, of 8 to 40 rods width, is made. These rides, kept free from inflammable material by annual burning, or perhaps by sowing to grass, serve the purpose of confining the fire within the block, and furnishing a base from which to fight a fire, for which the frequent roads may also be utilized. But these openings are worse than useless unless kept in proper condition, and unless the forces to 194 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. fight the fire are on hand, for if debris b allowed to accumulate on them, this dries out more read- ily, and, in addition, the draft of air along the rides only increases the fury of the fire. In older de- ciduous-leaved woods the shade keeps the ground moist, the fire runs more slowly, and a wider open- ing would in most cases prove undesirable. The same may be said regarding rights of way for railroads. The wide swath usually made, and usually not kept clear, but rather accumulating in- flammable debris, exposes the soil to the drying effects of sun and wind, and besides, creates drafts of air, fanning the sparks into flame. There would be more safety in a narrower opening, which the shade of a dense stand of timber, especially if of deciduous-leaved trees, would keep moist, with a tendency to extinguishing the sparks. The objec- tion that the falling of trees would impede and en- danger the traffic might be overcome by gradually removing those liable to fall. Through specially endangered districts, i.e. in coniferous forest, safety strips runnini? along the right of way may be maintained. On these, on both sides of the track, a strip of ground 25 feet wide is entirely cleared of all inflammable material, which may, if practicable, be used for farm pur- poses ; this is skirted by a strip of woods 50 to 60 feet wide, which remains wooded, acting as a screen for the sparks from locomotives, but is also kept clear from inflammable materials by annual raking SILVICULTURE. I9S and burning. Where this is not suffidoit, a ditch 5 to 6 feet wide and a foot or so deep is opened on the outside of this strip toward the endangered woods, the soil being thrown toward the track side and possibly planted with a light-foliaged, decidu- ous-leaved species; cross ditches through the safety strip every 300 feet add further to the safety by confining any fire within reasonable limits. The whole arrangement requires not over 200 feet, and that mostly usefully occupied, while furnishing almost absolute security. Such a system would be applicable in many cases in our own country. It would, with some slight changes, be perfectly feasible, and in the end profitable, for railrot ' companies to grow their tie timber in this way, using such light-foliaged rapid growers as black locust, catalpa, etc. Forest crop production as a business, silviculture, will become practicable and profitable in this coun- try only when reasonable forest protection is as- sured by proper exercise of state functions. Until this is secured, lumbermen will continue to exploit the natural forest without much regard to its fate after they have secured its present val- uable stores, for they cannot afford to assume the hazard of the fire danger. Before positive silvicultural methods are applied by them, they may find it advantageous to cut the virgin forest more conservatively, they may find that it pays in the long run better not to cull too 196 ECONOMICS OP FORESTRY. cloaely, that It is advantageous to leave more of smaller sizes, i.e. to limit the diameter to which they remove trees, so that they may return sooner for a second cut, and also to avoid unnecessary damage to the young volunteer crop. At present the limitation of size to be cut or to be left uncut is based . pon calculations of immediate profits to be derived, and does not take into account any future considerations, since the lumberman does not cut with a regard to the future, but attempts to secure the largest present gain. He views the forest'as a mere spf^ ulation. To curtail his pres- ent revenue for the sake of a future revenue by abstaining from cutting all that is marketable is the first step toward changing this point of view, introducing the idea of continuity, and treating the forest as permanent investment It must be understood, however, that the limitap tion of the size of trees to be cut or to be left uncut has not necessarily any bearing on the replace- ment of the crop ; it is not silviculture. It is in the main a financial measure, it being demonstrable that it pays better to leave small-sized trees to accumulate more wood uefore utilizing them, or else a device to prevent overcutting of a valuable species, so that it may not be eradicated too soon, a wise measure wherever systematic attention to positive silviculture cannot be given. CHAPTER VIII. METHODS or BUSIintM OOlTSUCTi roBMT xcoRoinr. As in every technical industry concerned in pro> duction, so in forestry the methods of the tech- nique — the technical art — are distinct from the methods of the business conduct. Silviculture rep- resents the technical art of forestry ; while under the comprehensive term forest economy we may group all that knowledge and practice which is necessary for the proper conduct of the business of forestry. Besides the purely technical care in managing the productive forces of nature to secure the best attainable quantitative and qualitative production of material, — the highest gross yield, — there must be exercised a managerial care to secure the most favorable relations of expenditure and income, — the highest net yield, a surplus of cash results without which the industry would be piurposeless from the standpoint of private enterprise and investment. Moreover, an orderly conduct and systematic procedure to secure this revenue is necessary. 197 198 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. Carried on by government activity for reasons of general cultural advantages, the net yield or money profits may be considered secondary, or perhaps may be dispensed with. It may even ap- pear rational to carry on forest management at a loss, for a time at least, just as is done in many other forms of public works, because of the indirect benefits derived from it, and for internal improve- ment Nevertheless, even in that case it would be desu-able to organize and to carry on the business of forest cropping systematically, with a view of bringing into relation results and efforts, i.^., of counting the cost. It is possible, also, to practise the art of silvicul- ture incidentally, as the farmer does, or can do, on his wood lot, without special business organization and elaborate planning, the owner harvesting and reproducing and tending his crop whenever need- ful ; but the case is different if forest growing is to be carried on as a business by itself with a view to continued and regular procedure, to continued and regular revenue ; in that case more elaborate planning becomes necessary. The one peculiarity which distinguishes the for- estry business from every other business is the time element. The forester cannot harvest annu- ally what 1 actually grown (the current incre- ment); the forest crop, as we have seen, must accumulate the accretions of many years before it becomes mature, i.e. of. sufficient size to be useful; FOREST ECONOMY. 199 hence, unless special provisions are made in the management of a forest property, the crop and the revenue would mature and be harvested periodically only, and that in long periods ; from twenty to a hundred years and more would elapse from the sowing to the reaping. The farmer may be satisfied to practise on his wood lot attached to his farming business what is technically called an " intermittent " management, harvesting and reproducing from time to time without attempting to secure regular annual re- turns. But when forestry is to be practised as an independent industry, it becomes desirable, as in any large mercantile establishment, to plan, organ- ize, and manage the business so as to secure, continuously and systematically, a regular annual income nearly equal or increasing year by year. The lumberman or forest exploiter also plans and organizes his business for annual returns, not, however, to be derived continuously from the same ground; he seeks a new field, he changes his location as soon as he has exhausted the accumu- lated stores of his forest property, which he then abandons or devotes to other purposes than wood- cropping. The forester's business is based upon the con- ception of what is technically called the "sus- tained yield " (Ger. Nachhaltigkeitshetrieb, Fr. Possibility), a continued systematic use of the same property for wood -crops, the best and aoo ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. largest possible ; this is secured by proper atten- tion to silviculture, reproducing systematically the harvested crop. Finally, when the industry is fully established, he is annually to derive this " sustained yield " as far as practicable in equal or nearly equaJ amounts forever, under an "annual sustained yield management." This is secured by means oi forest regulation, the principal branch of forest economy,* which comprises the methods of regulating the conduct of the business so as to secure finally the ideal of the forester, — a forest so arranged that annually, forever, the same amount of wood product, namely, that which grows annu- ally on all his acres, may be harvested in the most profitable form. As in every business there is an ideal, a standard in conduct and condition, which the manager more or less consciously recognizes and follows, or seeks to establish, yet, on account of uncontrollable cir- cumstances can never quite attain, so is the ideal of the forester never quite attainable, although it is his obligation to attempt and approach it as far as practicable. The ideal conduct of the management " for annual sustained yield" is possible only under the ideal 1 For this branch of forest economy a number of terms have been used, such as "forest organization," <' forest valuation," "working plan," "yield regulation," "forest management," which either linguistically are not commendable, or else single out a part of the work of the " forest regulator " to designate the whole. FOREST ECONOMY. aoi condition, which the forester recognizes in the " normal forest," tae standard by which he meas- ures his actual forest and to which he desires, as nearly and as quickly as circumstances permit, to bring his actual forest. The latter will usually be found abnormal in some one direction, or in several directions, and hence make the ideal conduct im- possible. The object of forest regulation, then, is to prepare for the change of an abnormal forest into a normal forest. In simplest terms, the normal forest is a forest in such condition that it is possible to harvest annually forever the best attainable product, or to secure con- tinuously the largest possible revenue. The concep- tion and schematic description of the normal forest we have already elucidated on p. 1 28 ff . It was there shown that such a forest must contain as many stands, varying in a^e by years or periods, as there are years in the rotation (f-= normal felling age) i.e. normal age classes must be present, so that an annually equal normal felling budget {ri=/) might be harvested, the reproduction being looked after, and the best possible, i.e. normal accretion (J), being secured by silviculture. As a result of these two conditions the normal stock (5.) would be present, which would permit the desired annual sustained yield management. We found that the normal stock, varyip'; n actual amount, of course, accord- ing to species, site, silvicultural system, and espe- cially length of rotation, is found by summing up 302 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. the arithmetical progression represented by the accumulated increments of the age cla^t^es, and that it rl assumes the general expression 5» = — ; that is to say, half the accretion which takes place thr igh- out the rotation forms the normal stock, which must be maintained for a sustained yield manage- ment, the other half furnishes the harvest or yield during the rotation. On p. 130 examples of the actual volume and value of normal stock under duferent conditions were given. While we have assumed, for the sake of simplic- ity of conception, that the stands of different age, the age classes, are separate in area one from the other, it is readily conceiv^able that all, or some of them, may be mixed together, on the same area as in the selection forest, where all age classes, from the seedling to the mature timber, are mingled; and if there are enough trees in gradation from the older to the younger, allow- ing for losses, so that the younger age class can replace in amount the older as it is removed or is growing out of its class, we would have arrived at normal condition for the selection forest. In the actual forest some one condition or all conditions will usually be found abnormal. The normal accretion may be deficient, because the area is not fully stocked or the timber is past its prime, old timber growing at an inferior rate, or rot oflf- setting increment. The age classes are usually not FOREST ECONOMY. ao3 present in proper gradation and amount ; some of them are probably entirely lacking, others are in exce.r either too many stands of older or of younger timber, so that even if the normal stock of wood in amount be on hand, it may be in abnor- mal distribution. The normal accretion can, of course, be estab- lished only by silvicultural methods. The other two conditions are attained or approached by reg- ulating the felling budget in area and amount, so that gradually the age classes and the normal stock are established. Various methods are employed to determine the actual felling budget, which will gradually lead to the final possibility of the nor- mal felling budget. The simplest method would be to divide the forest into as many areas as there are years or pe- riods in the rotation, and cut one, or the equivalent in volume, every year or during ever; period, when after one rotation the age classes are established. If proper attention has been given to the re- production and to keeping the reproduced areas fully stocked, the normal conditions are attained after the forest has b ^nce cut over, i.e. during the first rotation. Br s would bu^-clen the pres- ent generation with the entire cost of securing the normality ; at the same time necessitating not only unequal felling budgets, as better or poorer stands are cut, but also requiring that the harvest of timber past its prime be deferred, if the forest 304 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. is largely composed of old age classes, or that immature timber be cut prematurely, if young age classes predominate, — in either case a finan- cial loss. Indeed, the greatest practical difficulty which confronts the forest regula*^or is found in gauging the sacrifices which the present must make for the sake of the future. To overcome the difficulty of unequal felling budgets in part, the so-called " allotment methods " were invented, which try to distribute the felling areas so as to equalize the budget, the area allot- ment providing for equality of felling areas, the volwne allotment for equality of vplume, and the combimd allotment securing both, the main stress of these methods being laid on the establishment of normal age classes, from which finally the nor mal stock results. The simplest form of these methods, which is now in practice in Saxony and elsewhere, determines the felling budget only for the next decade in such a manner that the future will find a sufficient amount of stock on hand to secure an approximately sustained felling budget, determined from decade to decade. The most logical, although practically not always readily applicable, methods of budget regulation, which lay main stress on the existence of normal stock in proper amount, are the so-called normal stock or formula methods. These compare the actual stock {S^) with the normal stock (5„) which should be on hand, and determine the period {e) FOREST ECONOMY. 205 during which the difference in stock is to be equalized and the normal stock is to be secured either by saving of increment, if there be a de- ficiency, or by removing any surplus during the period of equalization ; the. establishment of the proper series of age classes being left to the future. The felling budget (6) which will secure this equalization may be expressed by formula: — *=/± •Jo ^n The choice of the period of equalization (i) is to be made with due consideration of the financial aspects of the property and the owner's financial capacity. Altogether, the principle of the " owner's inter- est " must be the guiding one in the management of any property ; and it would first have to be dem- onstrated that a sustained yield management, either annual or intermittent, and sacrifices of revenue in the present for the sake of a future improved revenue are in his interest. For it must always be remembered that financially forestry mcsins foregv- ing present revenue or incurring present expenditure for the sake of future revenue; it involves gauging present and future advantages, and the time ele- ment, as we have seen, is the prominent element in its finance calculations. Before an annual sustained jrield management will appear profitable in the United States, many ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. changes in economic conditions will have to take place, among which we may single out reduction of danger from fire ; opportunity for utilizing infe- rior material ; increase in wood prices by reduction of the natural supplies on which no cost of produc- tion need be charged ; the development of desire for permanent investments instead of speculative ones ; an extension of government functions in the direction indicated in the first chapter, leading to the practice of forestry by state governments on a large scale. Meanwhile all that can be expected from private forest owners is that they may practise more con- servative and careful logging of the natural woods, avoiding unnecessary waste, and as far as possible paying attention to silviculture, the reproduction of the crop, leaving to the future the attempt to organize a sustained yield management. Only governments and perpetual corporations or large capitalists can afford to make the sacrifices which are necessary to prepare now for such a manage- ment. In order to secure the data upon which the fell- ing budget may be regulated, k forest survey is necessary, which will embrace not only an area and topographic (geometric) survey, serving for purposes of subdivision, description, and orderly management, but also a quantitative survey, an ascertainment of the stock on nand in the various parts of the property, and of the rate of accretion FOREST ECONOMY. 307 at which the different stands are growing. Besides this stock taking * and measurement of accretion, accompanied by a description of the forest condi- tions of the different parcels or stands, all of which exhibit the present status of the forest, the con- struction of so-called "normal yield tables" is needed. These are the result of measurements on the most perfect, normally stocked stands of various species, stating what the content? of such stands should be at different periods of life, gener- ally from ten to ten years, giving, therefore, by decades the progress of accretion under normal conditions for the area unit. With the aid of these tables (see Appendix to Chap. VI) the sum- mation of which permits a statement of the normal stock required for different rotations, the sustained yield can be ascertained by comparing with the actual conditions, and gauging the felling budget as intimated in the formula given above. In order to translate the statements of volumes recorded in the yield tables into values, which is needed to permit finance calculations, the progress of accretion, or of accumulation of stock in size or assortments of different value, must be ascertained. This leads to the construction of financial yield tables, which give the value from period to period either of the unit measure of wood (cubic feet, feet B.M.) or of the unit measure of area (acre) nor- » For this qutntiutive survey, the term " valuation survey " has been adopted by English writers with doubtful etymologic proptk^. ao8 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. maTly stocked, or else the sUtement is made in percentic relation. When all these data have been laboriously gath- ered, with an attempt at a degree of accuracy greater or less according to the intensity of the proposed management, the formulation of a work- ing plan and the ascertainment of a proper felling budget can be begun. After having determined upon the general policy of management, with due consideration of the owner's interests and of market conditions, general and local ; and after having decided upon the silvi- cultural policy, including choice of leading species in the crop for which the forest is to be main- tained, and silvicultural method of treatment, as coppice or timber forest, under clearing system or gradual removal or selection system, — the most important and difficult question to be solved is that of the rotation, the time which is to elapse between reproduction and harvest, or the normal felling age, that is the age, or so far as age is in relation to size, the diameter, to which it is desirable to let the trees grow before harvesting them. In the United States, among the enthusiastic propagandists of the necessity of forest preserva- tion, there exist the crudest notions on this sub- ject, which it may be well here to set right. There is no maturity of a forest crop as we know it in agricultural crops ; wood does not ripen naturally, and trees do not even usually die a natural death FOREST ECONOMY. S09 at a given period, but death is with them a gradual process of decay, the result o' exterior damage, of insect and fungus attacks; trees actually die by inches in most cases, and it may take hundreds of years before the trunk is so weakened that iU own weight or a wind-storm may lay it low. It is, therefore, not practicable, as has been proposed, to harvest when death is approaching. Besides, the poetry .nd the picturesqueness of the forest might perhaps be subserved by leaving trees to grow until they die, allowing mighty giants to mingle vrith the younger generations, as in the virgin woods of nature, until they are past usefulness; but it would be abhorrent to economic thought thus to waste the energy of nature. The question of ripeness, of the proper felling age, wherever forest growth is an object not of mere pleasure, as in a luxury forest, tiust be determined by eco- nomic considerations. There is more sense in the proposition that the felling age be determined by a diameter limit below which timber is to be considered immature ; in fact, the forester bases his calculations of the rotation in part, at least, upon size of crop. But the propo- sition, frequently advocated, to restrict a forest owner to an arbitrary dian -ter limit, below which he is not to cut his crops, anywhere and everywhere, is not only unsound as an exercise of state policy, but also mistakes the economic questions involved m the determination of that limit, and entirely f aio ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. misjudges the value of ihe limitation as far as •ilvicultural results, the perpetuation of a valuable forest, are concerned. In fact, from this last and most important point of view it might be wiser, under certain conditions, to impose upon the owner the cutting out of everything below a given diam- eter. For, as we have seen in nature's mixed forest, valuable timber and weed trees are growing side by side; the diameter restriction indiscrimi- nately applied might prevent the removal of the objectionable portion, the weed growth, putting a premium upon the decimation of the more valuable portion. Without silviculture, i.e. attention to sys- tematic reproduction, a diameter restriction is of little value. With si 'viculture it is not necessary, for even the entire removal of the whole crop — denu- dation — and its replacement by planting or sowing would accomplish the object sought, namely, the continuity of the forest, and in many cases might be preferable to other methods. Arbitrary diameter restriction is merely a device to prevent a too rapid reduction of a valuable species before the time when its reestablish ment by silvicultural methods becomes practicable. Otherwise a diam- eter limitation has justification only when it can be shown that it is more profitable and in the owner's interest to leave trees below the diameter limit uncut for a longer time. In other words, the determination of the rotation or felling age, or of the felling size, is largely a FOREST ECONOMY. an matter of financial calculation. This calculation it, however, influenced by silvicultural and technical, as well as purely financial, considerations. The fact that the stocks in a coppice lose their vigor if sprouts are left too long uncut, or that frequent and full seed years do not occur until a certain period iu the life of the crop, sets limitations to the length of rotation ; the technical value of the product, sal- abiiity, and market requirements for special materi- als (firewood, poles, mining timber, raih-oad ties, saw timbers) may influence the choice, but finally quan- tity of product and money yield are determinative. From the standpoint of political economy it was supposed that the largest volume of product per acre per annum, the rotation of maximum volume, should be the aim of forest management, and the rotations chosen for state forests in Germany, which lie mostly between 90 and 140 years, were supposed to be based upon this principle. Lately, however, it has been shown that the largest aver- age product of wood per acre and year occurs much earlier, and usually before much of the crop has attained to desirable size. Since the accretion of a stand varies from period to period, gradually increasing in rate from its early stages to a given age and then again sinking, there must be a time when the average of all the diflfer- ent rates, the average accretion, attains its maxi- mum. If, for instance, a fully stocked acre of spruce contained at 120 years 10,200 cubic feet of 313 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. wood, it would have produced an average per year of I^?2? =: 85 cubic feet; if a stand at 80 years 120 contained 6880 cubic feet, it would have produced an average per year of -g^ = 86 cubic feet ; hence from the standpoint of volume production a rotation of 80 years would be preferable. It will be readily admitted that value production rather than volume production should be the aim, and since with age the size and with it the value increases, the year of maximum volume production will be of interest only as denoting the lowest limit of a rotation based on value accretion. If the price of 80-year-old wood averaged for all sizes 3 cents per cubic foot, and of 120-year-old wood 4 cents, then in the above example the average value ,, , 10200x4 accretion in the one case would be — ^^^ — = ^3.40 per year, while in the second case it would have been - ^^^ = 1^2.58 per year, hence the longer rotation would appear more favorable. But even the rotation of maximum value produc- tion will not satisfy any private investor, since it leaves out of consideration the expenditures nec- essary to secure the result. The annual expendi- tures for planting, taxes, administration, which are necessary to secure the annual harvest, should at least be deducted, and since these vary with the ^ FOREST ECONOMY 213 length of rotation, that rotation should be found at which the surplus of the annual values derived from the harvest over the annual expenditures b greatest, the so-called rotation of the highest forest rent. Finally, even this method of calculation can- not satisfy a strict financier, for it neglects to take account of the capital invested and the relation of the revenue to this capital, it neglects the interest account. The true financial rotation is that which brings the highest rate of interest on all the capital in- vested in soil and stock of wood, or, as it is techni- cally known, the rotation of the highest soil rent or "soil expectancy value" (Ger. Bodenerwartungs- werth). As we have seen (p. 129), the amount of stock of wood which must be maintained as capital for a sustained yield management increases with the length of rotation. In our example, in order to bring the stock corresponding to an 80-year rota- tion to the amount needed for a icxvyear rotation would require that the ovner should abstain from harvesting for about 20 years. The question then arises whether this saving will prove profitable, whether the accumulation of values to the looth year, which can only then be harvested, will ex- ceed the results which could be had by harvesting in the 80th year and investing the proceeds. Here appears for the first time the need of that branch of forest economy which may be truly called fo 314 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. est valuation, or \it\X.tr, forest finance vadi forestry statics. This branch concerns itself, not only with the ascertainment of the present value of a single stand, and with the future value to which it is growing, but also with its value as a part of a regulated forest management, in which for all time to come it is an inherent necessary member as a producer of values. It also occupies itself with comparisons of the financial resuHs of dififerent kinds of management. It is here that the foremost peculiarity of forest economy, namely, the time element, comes most proromently to expression. The inability of with- drawing annually the interest on the invested capi- tal makes compound interest calculations necessary, and since the investment in the young plantation, for instance, will have to be left untouched, accu- mulating upon itself the interest for fifty, one hun- dred, or more years, the question as to what interest rate it is fair to assume for compounding on such a long time investment, becomes important It is well known that every business, every employment of capital, according to its character, works with a different interest rate. There are many reasons why the forestry business should work with a low rate of interest. Compounding for such a long time, the general tendency of sinking interest rates must be taken into account, while, on the other hand, history has shown and philosophy sustains the expectation that prices for wood are di. FOREST ECONOMY. 215 likely to rise, as natural supplies are exhausted, and the demand for the better soils for agricultural use limits forest growing to the poorer, absolute forest soil. Forest properties, with the exception of the danger from fire, which will be greatly reduced when systematic management is begun, are in general safe properties and easily managed, requir- ing little labor. Hence, if safe long time invest- ments in the United States, such as savings and trust companies favor, are bri - now only 3 and 3 J per cent, t is justifiable to .0 higher, pos- sibly a lower, interest rate in forestry calculations. If now we inquire what the soil expectancy value," i.e. the value of the soil expressed by its expected yields, is, and how it is calculated, we must first conceive that every stand in a regulated forest management is expected to be harvested every r years (years of rotation) forever; the income is therefore in the nature of a periodic or intermittent interminable rent or revenue (R), the capital value of which at present (Cq) being found by well-known mathematical methods in the expression Q = -^ — The rent or revenue is composed of the final harvest yield ( K,.), and of intermediate incomes by thinning (7), occurring in the years a, d, etc., the values of whici. have to be ex- tended for purposes of comparison to the same time in which the harvest yield occurs, namely to the year r. The expenditures which have to be offset are the out- I;. ai6 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. lay for planting (c), if any, occurring at the begin- ning of the rotation, and hence to be extended to the end of the rotation, in order to bring it into relation with the yield, and the annual expenditures foradmiuistratio' , which can beexpressed as acapital (A), furnishing yearly forever the needed amount. With these items we can then express the soil rent value — By entering values which correspond to different rotations, that one may be found in which the soil rent value appears as a maximum, the true financial rotat^n. It will readily appear that, while theoretically this is the only correct financial method of calculating, practically it is difficult, almost impossible, to deter- mine values for the various items, on account of varying prices and uncertainty of interest rate for the future. Although all calculations in for- estry must necessarily be approximations, such calculation^ may serve as a guide for a time, to be recalculated with change of conditions. Where, as in well-established state forest ad- ministrations, the question is not one of strict financial business, and where absolute forest soils, which could not be used for other purposes, are involved, the simpler forest rent calculation is probably more satisfactory. It is of hbtorical FOREST ECONOMY. 217 interest to state that for nearly forty years a fierce literary battle as to the propriety of applying either one or the other method has been waged in the German forestry literature between the adherents of the forest rent and the soil rent theory of finance calculation. Where, as in the selection forest, the harvest is made by selecting trees here and there, as they grow to suitable size, instead of determining a rota> tion which covers the whole time from the seedling to the harvest stage, a calculation may be mac-; which determines only the last part of the rotation, namely, the time which is required by trees near cutting size to grow from one diameter class into the next higher, and then choose that diameter limit for cutting which appears most profitable — the exploitable size. Since this method of ascertaining a conservative felling budget is ad- vocated and used in the so-called working plans prepared by the United States Bureau of Forestry, it may be well to elucidate it more fully. It was first taught in 1746 by the German forester Oettelt, and adopted with various modifications by the French Code forestier, and later by the Indian Forest De- partment, as paving the way for better methods. By a forest survey, the number and contents of trees of different diameters near felling size found on the average acre is ascertait>ed ; by a series of measurements (stem analyses) the rate at which one diameter class grows into the next higher is 3l8 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. determined, and upon this basis a yield table is constructed which shows the amount of material obtainable from decade to decade according to the difference of felling size. That diameter limit then is chosen which in the long run appears most profitable. If, for instance, the actual survey showed of the exploitable species an average per acre of — 28 trees above 10 inches diameter, 23 trees above 12 inches diameter, 18 trees above 14 inches diameter, and it is ascertained that it requires 12 years for an 8-inch tree to grow into the lo-inch diameter class, 16 yeais for a 10-inch tree to grow to 12-inch, and 14 years for a 12-inch tree to grow to 14-inch di- ameter, then if a lo-inch standard were adopted the present cut would remove the 28 trees above lO-inch diameter, and no exploitable size will again be found before 12 years; while if the 12-inch standard were adopted, the return for another har- vest based on the same standard could not be made before 16 years, and the 14-inch standard would permit a return in 14 years. These data would then permit a tolerably accurate finance calculation, to determine which the profitable size in the long run would be. This calculation the Bureau of Forestry does not make, but instead ascertains and compares merely volume produc- tion by constructing a yield table. In a given case the yield table approximately FOREST ECONOMY. corresponding to the above enrmeration shows as follows (rounded off) : — Diameter limit to which cut i* made. Inches. lO 13 14 Actual stock on hand, M ft. B.M. 4.6 4- 3- Amount of cut obtainable after o I ao I 30 I 40 IsoyMn. M ft. B.M. ,40 44 .76 1.04 1.24 1.84 2 2.48 3.32 3.23 414 4.85 This table shows that, while the cut to lO-inch yields of course a larger harvest, the same harvest in amount can then only be again had in about 50 years; while the harvest is replaced in less than 30 years if the cut is made to 14-inch, and the average annual production is then largest namely, 3.32 ^^ = 1 10 feet B.M. per year. The report of the bureau nevertheless chooscit the 12-inch limit because "the present yield to a 14-inch limit is not large enough to justify the construction of logging roads, the building of camps, and other expenses necessary for lumbering." In other words, these calculations serve only as a general guide to direct the judgment. And es- pecially with this method caution is necessary, as it is based upon the assumption, probably not often correct, that reproduction will take place, and that younger age classes in sufficient number and amoimt are in existence to take the place of the older; 320 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. when, as is often the case in the virgin uncut woods, most of the trees are of exploitable size, this as- sumption and with it the method of regulating the budget fails entirely. An improvement of the method and a closer approach to true finance calculation could be made by basing the exploitable size on the highest net value per unit of volume in connection with the time it takes to replace it. In this connection it must be understood that, although one and the same stumpage price ^ per thousand feet board measure is paid for all sizes, the price per unit of volume as it grows in the tree is by no means the same, for the board foot measure as applied to round logs is not a unit of volume in the same sense as the cubic foot, a deduction variable ac- cording to log size being made from the true vol- ume to allow for loss in sawing. The following table based on one of the accepted rules of measurement( Doyle's) will elucidate this : — Diam. of log (length lo feet). Real Coatenti. XIO Contenu in lumber at mill. Stumpage value of foiett giown material per cubic foot if price per M ft -$5.00. Inch. lO 14 l8 24 30 Cubic feet 127 211 Hi 588 Feet B.M. 23 62 122 250 422 Centi. 1.8 2.4 2.9 ^ Stumpage is the amount of exploitable material ; stumpage price is . U)e price paid for the wood leave, or the wood as it stands in the forest. FOREST ECONOMY. 331 The value of the unit volume increases, there- fore, with the size of a log, yet in a decreasing ratio; if, now, the time required to produce the cubic foot is put in relation, a nearer approach to the profitable exploitable size may be made. A further improvement, designed to secure more surely a sustained yield, requires that the number of tretd (at least the dominant) of different diam- eter classes which are present be ascertained, and the number which should normally exist be deter- mined, when, if necessary, enough trees of the higher or lower diameter class can be left, or else the excess be removed, to bring the number to standard. Whatever method of budget regulation is adopted, it must never be forgotten that the approach to normality can only be gradual, and can be secured in shorter or longer time, depending on the owner's interests ; in other words, while the reg.iilation of a budget is primarily based on mathematical measxire- ments of accretion, yield, i.nd values, in practical application it must be modified by judgment, which makes allowance for changing conditions; for forest regulation only points the way, sets up an ideal which in practice we may never approach closely ; it gives us merely a standard, a measure, a check upon our business. It may even be to the best interest of the owner to defer entirely the attempt at a sustained yield management, leaving it to a more favorable future to regulate the budget accord- 133 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. iag to its requirement Finally, silviculture, re- placement of the crop, is the much more impor- tant obligation, assuring continuity of crops, and this an in many cases be practised without the elaborate organization of the ideal business con- duct. Of as much and e\** more moment than the budget regulaaon for ... orderly conduct of the business is the organization of the property into units of management, forest districting. This will be more or less elaborate accordmg to the intensity of t^e management. In Germany, a manager's district, which may compri 36 from 5000 to 25,000 acres, is divided into compartments of 50 to 100 acres, and sometimes more in each, which form the units of management, being numbered consecutively, and sometimes named. In the level country it is usual to locate these compartments, not only on the map, but in the field, Ly dividing the property into rectangular blocks separated from each other by openings (rides) running north and south, east and west, so that on the map the subdivision looks like an American city street system.^ In the mountainous country the subdivision is an irregular one, the division lines following the contours of the slopes, valleys, and roads, and usually the division lines are not opened. iThe ridet are oied for roads and senre in the pineries also as fire gauds. FOREST ECONOMY. 333 This merely geometric subdivision serves the pur- pose of easy orientation ; it enables the forest reg- ulator in his working plan to properly ascertain and describe the stock, and to plan the treatment of each compartment, and it enables the manager readily to locate and apply the prescriptions of the working plan. A number of these units may then again be combined into subdistricts or ranges for pur- poses of administration, fire patrol, etc., while all those which are to be managed under one silvi- cultural system are, at least in the working plan, segregated as working blocks or working sections, from those to be managed under another silvi- cultural system (coppice or timber forest etc.)^ or under another rotation. These various subdivisions are all noted on maps, as is abo, by colors, shadings, and signs, such de> scriptive matter as is desirable to present a clear, comprehensive picture of the actual forest condi- tions, and to indicate the changes which are to be attempted. One of the important prescriptions in the work- ing plan, especially wherever clear cutting systems are to be applied, or where species liable to wind- fall are involved, is the establishment of a proper sequence or collocation of felling areas — felling series {Hiebsfolge). (See p. 186.) Since danger from fire threatens the young crop more than old timber, especially in pineries, it is desirable to decrease the risk by making the fell- a34 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. ing areas small and so distributing them that they arc interrupted by old timber ; the same risk exists with regard to insect damage, and the same plan — disruption of the age classes — reduces that danger. Again, older timber grown up in the close company of a dense stand is wind-firm, and resists both wind- falls (uprooting) and wind breakages (breaking of stems), but when, by felling operations, portions of the interior are opened up and exposed to the force of winds, the trees are liable to be thrown, especially if of shallow-rooted species, or on shal- low soils. To avoid this damage it is desirable, not only to make the felling area^ narrow, so that the wind has less force, but to L-rate the fell- ings with regard to the prevailing winds (mostly westerly^ so that the older age classes He in the lee, the younger to the windward, the roof of the forest or the felling series ideally rismg from west to east, the fellings progressing from east to west. Where it becomes necessary to cut on the wind- ward side, opening up timber unaccustomed to wind exposure, a wind mantle is left on the wind- ward side, which is also a commendable prescription for small wood lots of farmers, to keep the dryin j winds out. Or else, in due time, ten to twenty years before the necessity for harvesting timber so located, a severance felling is made, a smaU opening which will induce the formation of a wind-firm mantle. FOREST ECONOMY. aas While these considerations of future danger make a distribution of felling areas desirable, present considerations of logging expenses dictate consolidation of felling areas, fo i:he concentrated logging can be done more cheaply than the dis- tributed logging, since temporary means of trans- portation may answer the first plan, while per- manent roadways become necessary in the latter plan. Here, again, we see that the forest regulator is constantly called upon to compromise between the exigencies of the present and the benefits for the future ; he must weigh the desirability and the finan- cial ability of present investment or present loss for the sake of future gain. The general working plan, then, — the result of the investigations of the forest regulator, — is more than a mere budget regulation ; it furnishes the broad basis, the prin- ciples and policies, for the entire 'management in all directions for a long time to come, taking into consideration present as well as future contin- gencies, and serving as a guide to the manager. Since, during the long time which such a plan contemplates, all sorts of changes, unforeseen and uncontrollable, take place, changes in economic conditions and changes in forest conditions as well as growth in experience, it is useless to make detail prescriptions beyond a short period, leaving to the future a readjustment and revision of the working plan and the formulation of new policies. Q 226 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. The detail prescriptions for the first decade or so are laid down in a periodic working plan, based upon the general working plan, in which the areas to be cut, and to be replanted, and the improvements to be made, are specifically designated. For the felling plan the areas that must first be cut are designated, namely the old and decrepit stands which are deteriorating, — a dead capital not growing in value, — and all the open stands which do not utilize the soil to full satisfaction ; next are chosen such parcels as need to be cut to secure a desir- able felling series in the future; and if more is needed to fill the required felling budget, areas near the desired normal felling age are added. Where practicable, the areas are prescribed in which thinnings are to be made for the improve- ment of the crop, and an estimate made of the probable amount secured by such thinnings, which is added to the main felling budget. Whatever planting operations may become desirable are detailed in a special planting plan. For the administration of a large and complex forest management, a thorough organization and bookkeeping are of course essential. These offer no especial peculiarities that need here be dis- cussed, except to state that besides the financial bookkeeping and the cost-keeping accounts, it is necessary to keep account of the results of the operations upon the forest conditions. For this purpose a ledger account is opened for each com- FOREST ECONOMY. 337 partment, in which the changes are noted to fur- nish a basis for the revision of plans for the future. It will have become clear that the business conduct of a forest management is, as every other business, influenced by the economic conditions, general and local, surrounding it. Much that is possible under the settled conditions of such coun- tries as Germany and France will not be practicable under our conditions, until they have become more fixed and stable. But the technical art — silviculture — which is the more important since it furnishes the basis for any kind of forest management, being based mainly on natural laws, is applicable everywhere, just as in Germany or France, where its methods have been developed and practised for centuries. CHAPTER IX. PSIHCIPLIS AND METHODS 07 F0BB8T P0LIC7. The expositions of the preceding chapters will have made it clear that the forest cover is of more importance to the household of a nation than many other of its resources, that it bears a peculiar relation to national prosperity, and also that its management for continuity oflfers various unique and peculiar aspects, which call for special active interest by the community at large and by its rep- resentative, the state. Briefly summarizing the arguments for such special interest and exercise of governmental activity, we recall that the forest is a natural re- source which answers simultaneously three pur- poses of civilized society: it furnishes directly materials used in very large quantities and almost as needful as food; it forms a soil cover wTiich influences, directiy and indirectly, under its own cover and at a distance, conditions of waterflow, of soil, and of local climate ; it has, in addition, an aesthetic value, furnishing pleasiure and recreation and benefiting health. The exploitation of this resource for private METHODS OF FOREST POLICY. 339 gain is apt to lead to its deterioration or eventual destruction, especially in a country where popu- lation is relatively small and unevenly distributed, when only the best kinds and the best cuts can be profitably marketed. Hence, since profit is the object of private enterprise, exploitation must under such conditions be by necessity wasteful. By the removal of the useful kinds and of the desirable individuals, leaving the ground to be occupie' by tree weeds and runts, the reproduction of the desirable and useful is prevented, and since the forest by changing its composition and quality is deteriorated in value, the future is injured as far as material ; ^^erests are concerned. Since, ^ .. the removal of the marketable timber, t erest of the individual in the forest is gone, it i . .rurally neglected, and conflagrations which follow the wasteful exploitation, with the accumulated debris left in the woods, kill or damage, not only the remaining old timber, but more especially all the young growth. Even the soil itself, often formed only by the mould from the decay of leaves and litter accumulated through centuries, is destroyed, and thus, not only the prac- ticability, but the possibility, of restoration is fnis- trated. In many localities the consequences of such destruction are f eh in deterioration of climatic conditions, and in uneven waterflow, floods and droughts being exaggerated ; in this way damage is inflicted on portions of the community far 330 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. removed from its cause and tmable to protect themselves. The private individual can hardly be expected to appreciate these distant interests of his own motion in the management of his forest property, hence the state must guard them. To insure a conservative treatment and conti- nuity of the resource, — a sustained yield manage- ment,— it is necessary to curtail present revenue or to make present expenditures for the sake of a distant future, since the crop takes many decades to mature. This dm- element is the peculiar feature in forest management which renders the use of the soil for such production undesirable for private enterprise concerned in immediate results. The fact that the capital invested in the soil and in the gradually accumulating wood growth must be tied up for many decades, and exposed to many dangers, before the harvest returns interest, and that hence finance calculations and financial trans- actions with such kind of property become com- pUcated, renders the safety of this resource in private hands doubtful, and points to the desira- bility of permanent, stable, long-lived ownership. The desire to get the largest present profit from his labor, which is the only incentive of private enterprise, will be also a constant incentive to cur- tail the wood capital necessary for a sustained yield management, and to let the future take care of itself. The interest in the future lies with the state ; the METHODS OF FOREST POLICY. 331 State must interfere, therefore, wherever the inter- ests of the future ciearly demand it. What form shall this interference take ? What shall be the policy of the state in regard to the forest resources ? The answer will vary according to our concep- tions of government functions, according to prac- tical considerations of expediency, and according to the character and location of the forest areas. In the first chapter we have endeavored to develop a conception of governmental functions based upon the logical proposition that the state is to protect the broad interests of th? many, the community, against the inconsiderate use of prop- erty by the few ; and we laid special stress upon the necessity of including the interests of the future community in this consideration, calling for the exercise of providential functions on the part of the state. While in principle this position may be regarded as a self-evident logical sequence of the state idea everywhere in application under differen J} devel- oped conditions of government, the manner and extent of exercising its functions will, of course, vary. In the densely populated monarchical coun- tries of Europe, with relatively scanty resources, a much more direct and strict interference is caaed for than in a country which has still plenty of elbow room, with plenty of resources ; here it may be expedient to leave adjustment to future con- 332 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. sideration and action, there expediency calls for prompt and vigorous assertion of state rights and obligations. How inconsistently in actual practice the princi- ples of state function may be applied can nowhere be studied better than in the United States. While, as a principle, we are inclined to demand restric- tion of state interference and insisting upon per- sonal liberty to circumscribe and minimize in many directions the sphere of governmental action and authority, we actually find paternalism rampant, almost to the verge of despotism, in other direc- tions, as in the liquor laws and oleomargarine laws, offering restrictions which no European would tolerate. Surely expediency has here dictated almost the annihilation of principle. We can, therefore, not expect to have the policies which satisfy one country, although based on sound prin- ciples, transferred and applied in the same way in another country. It may be conceded that the truly socialistic con- ceptions (much ventilated in forestry literature), which consider it a duty of the state to t?ke care that the materials necessary or desirable for the comfortable existence of its societj' be produced in sufficient quantity and economic .Uy, are either anti- quated and buried with the rest of physiocratic teachings, or are not yet accepted as true democratic doctrine. In mercantile pursuits, generally speak- ing, individual effort and responsibility are certainly METHODS OF FOREST POUCY. 333 preferable to government acti(»i and authority, which must often be arbitrary, indirect, uneconom- ical, and ineffective. Hence, as far as forest areas serve only the one object of furnishing supplies, and form the basis of industrial activity, we may, for a time at least, allow our general modem in- dustrial policy of non-interf erenc • to prevail, which is based upon the theory, only partially true, that self-interest will secure the best use of the means ot production. There is, however, one great generic difference between the forestry business and all other produc- tive industries, which places it after all on a dif- erent footing as far as state interest b concerned ; it is the time element, which we have again and again accentuated, and which brings with it conse- quences not experienced in any other business. The result of private activity which is supposed to come from self-interest is closely connected with the working of the well-known economic law of supply and demand which regulates the effort of the producer. This law and the self-interest can be trusted to bring about in most cases a proper balance rapidly, but in the forestry business this balance works sluggishly; before a shortage in supplies is discovered and appreciated, stimulating to pro- ductive effort, years will have elapsed, years which are needed to prepare for a supply to become avail- able in a distant future. How difficult it is to get conditions of forest supplies recognized and appre- 334 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY dated, we have experienced in regard to our white pine supply. It has taken twenty years to force this realization upon the producers, in spite of the fact that the federal government made a creditable effort to ascertain and publish the facts. And even now, when there is no more doubt of the fact that these most important supplies are bound to be practically exhausted in a short time, there is no very extensive self-interest aroused to adjust the balance of supply and demand, and to anticipate the shortage, simply because self-interest works only for the present and does not concern itself with a distant future. We must, then, admit that, even with regard to supply forests, the position of the state may be properly a different one from that which it would be proper and expedient to take toward other industrial activities. When, in addition to the mere material function, the immaterial benefits of a forest cover enter into the question or become paramount, there can be no doubt that both principle and expediency call for timely exercise of state activity. The so-called protection forests, therefore, which by virtue of then* location on steep mountain slopes or on sand dunes, or wherever their influence on soil conditions, waterilow, and climatic factors can be shown to be superior to their material value, must claim a more intimate and direct atten- tion by the state ; for here protection of present METHODS OF FOREST POUCY. 23S interests, as well as of future well-being, demand the application of the oM Roman law: Utere tuo ne alterum noceas ; here the police power of the state is invoked, extended according to our wider horizon and fuller conception of the need and direction to which the protective function of the state is required, as developed in the first chapter. In the exercise of this protective function, the state performs merely the primary logical duty of its existence, namely, securing for each of its members the maximum opportunity to do for himself, pre- venting interference, direct or indirect, by others ; it is not doing for the individual what he could have done for himself, and it is not liable to the charge of paternalism. In practical application of this principle, the question must, to be sure, be settled either in general or in each case, as to whether injury is being done or is to be anticipated by the unre- stricted use of the property, and what form the interference by the state is to take. There are three generically different ways in which the state can assert its authority and carry out its obligations in protecting the interests of the community at large and of the future against the ill-advised use of property by private owners : namely by persuasive, ameliorative, or promotive measures, exercising mainly its educational func- tions; by restrictive measures or indirect control, exercising police functions; and by direct con- 2$6 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. u trol, i.#. ownership and management by its own agents. Basing our conception of state function on the fundamental postulates, that the state has pri- marily the object to increase the freedom of the individual in personal and economic relations, and to promote the possibilities of individual effort; that the sphere of govemmei. U action and author- ity in circumscribing individual action and respon- sibility should be minimized to absolute necessity ; and that the state should undertake to do only whatever by its character it is better fitted to do for the community than the individual members can do for it, — our choice of method will be in the order named. As a general principle, only when persuasive and promotive measures fail or are insufficient, recourse is to be had to restrictive measures; only when even these are ineffi ent or inexpedient is the state to own and manage properties. In the first category we have to discuss educa- tional measures, taxation and tariff duties, bounties, and other aids in promotion of private industry. The educational function of the state is now recognized as one of the most prominent and bene- ficial in all civilized nations, although the degree and generality of its application still vary. In the United States we rely, as regards the higher and professional education, still largely on private charity and effort, with results comparatively satis- METHODS OF FOREST POUCY. 237 factory, yet by no means as efficient, as state in- stitutions couM make them. If, as is the case with some of our western state universities, the state provides the means of supporting the insti- tution by a certain proportion of the tax rate in- dependent of political changes, the institution it relieved of the necessity of keeping up the compe- tition for favor, which disadvantageously besets most of our private institutions of learning, and is destructive to the competition for scholarship and true scientific efficiency. A state institution, thus well endowed and inde- pendent of numbers and of undesirable rivahy, can at least promote efficiency with a freer hand. Charity is generally conceded to be undesirable where it can be avoided, and in educational matters the interest of the community ought to be sufficiently well recognized to repudiate support by charity. In the old countries the educational function of the state is so well established as to have almost eradicated private schools, except in certain special- ties and primary institutions. TYit forestry schools of Germany, all of which are now state institutions, originated, however, in private undertakings, the so-called " master schools," when a practitioner assembled around him young men and taught them all he knew. Such schools arose in lar^e numbers during the last half of the eigh- teenth century, — the first in 1763 in the Harz Mountains, — but were usually of short duration, m 938 ECX>NOMI< ■ OK FORESTRY the change to well-O! ;anizer1 state institutions taking place in the first decades of the nineteenth century. In the United States the state of New York was the first to recognize its obligation in this direction by instituting a College of Forestry in 1898, administered by Cornell University, a private institution. Almost simultaneously a "master school" was instituted on the Vander- bilt estate at Biltmore, N. C, and by private en- dowment a third school arose in connection with Yale University, while a number of other institu- tions attempt, at least, to keep abreast with the times by representing the subject in ' ime fashion in their curricula. We believe that finally, in each of the forested states, it will be considered a part of proper forest policy for some public institution of learning to furnish instruction in forestry. This does not nec- essarily mean university or higher professional education ; there is as much need for the lower grade education, of underforesters, logging basses, etc., such as Berea College, Kentucky, h s so auspiciously inaugurated. The only danger is, that multiplication in num- ber rather than increase li fficiency of a few such institutions will be the rule of the day, wh« t the fever sets in. In the European forestry literature a live.y dis cussion has continued for years as to whet -x tht higher education in forestry should be g; ^n at METHODS OF FOREST POLICY 339 separate special acadeir ies or f oreatt) school or whether thcae should b< connected witK un' rsi- ties. There are advantaes and disad^anta^ in either arrangement ; but ac beti - facilitica which can be had at universuy, with it» coi centrated intellectual an I laboratt -y apparatus, give the preference to the latter. In the United States propagandists have been loud in advocating: tiw; intrr <^uction of the subject into the primary public schools. While it is de- sirable that ur young itizens should become acquainted in a general ^ay with all the varied in- ter its of the world, and should he e some general inteiliger i.e regarding them, such well-educated teach --s can impart incidentally in reading lessons and .ihenfeise, it v. >uld, inde'^d, be mistaking the objec^ of p mat) education to introduce any special sy ematic t>. hing of professions or prac- tical arts Expedit tu -, if ot principle, forbids it, for with equal rights ry other branch of eco- nomics and every proiessional art might claim recog ion. Res Ies the establishment of schools, there are othe ans open for the state to exercise its edu caHonal functions. The endowment of scholar- m , especially travelling scholarships, has been eatest value in increasing capacity and intel- ace for promoting communal interests. As r as the practice of forestry does not exist, or joorly developed in the United States, it is W, 240 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. desirable to give opportunity to competent stu- dents for observing its practice where it b well developed. A year's, or even a half-year's, travel through the well-managed forest districts of Ger- many or France gives more insight into the possibilities, advantages, and methods of forest management than a lifetime spent in wrestling with the problems without having seen a practi- cal solution elsewhere. Next, no more efficient means of education in prac- tical arts which, like forestry and agriculture, rely still largely on empirics can be devised than the establishment of experiment stations. Experiments always imply the expenditure of means and energy for an uncertain result, by which, to be sure, the experimenter may profit, but, unless the experi- ment is carried on in the quiet of a laboratory, he is not alone benefited ; the observer, who does not share in the expense, shares in the benefit Hence, while the principle of self-interest will lead to ex> perimentation, expediency makes it desirable, in some directions at least, to broaden the field of experimentation, and to make the results fairly and openly accessible to the whole community. This is especially sc where the use of a limited resource, like the soil, to its greatest efficiency, is of benefit to the whole of society. If, as has been practically conceded, experimen- tation in agricultural lines is best done by state institutions, this is still more true in forestry lines, METHODS OF FOREST POUCY. 241 on account of the time element involved in most forestry experiments. In agriculture the answer to an inquiry may be often secured in inexpensive ways, and may be given in one season ; while in forestry, years of patient waiting and observation, wholesale methods or measiuements, large areas, and a large number of cases, are required to permit generalization. In both directions the activity of the private investigator is at a disad- vantage. To conduct investigations that must be continued for decades, and in a large way, a sys- tematic plan and organization is needed, such as only a public institution usually has at command. Moreover, comparability of results can be secured only when uniformity of method has been assured, and this again is more likely secured by coopera- tion between state institutions, or even by the char- acter and organization of a single state institution. The advantage of connecting such experiment stations with institutions of learning needs hardly any argument ; the mutual increase cl educational facilities and opportunities is patent. These edu- cational means can, of course, be extended by proper methods of publication of results, by or- ganization of meetings for their discussion, by so-called university extension, and finally, by the promotion of associations which have for their object the increase of application of knowledge in the actual forestry practice. Such associations give opportunity of impressing and driving home 243 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. what is desirable in practice, and also of finding out what are the needs of the private owner, and what the state should do to further his interests. The state of Minnewta has, for more than a quarter of a century, supported the efforts of such an association with considerable satisfaction by yearly appropriations. The countenancing of such private endeavor in educational directions is cer- tainly good state policy. A more direct and far-reaching influence upon private activity, still of an educational character, is properly exercised by the state in securing and publishing statistical information. Statistics, intel- ligently gathered and presented, form the necessary basis for a safe judgment of existing conditions and past progress of development, and also for forecast- ing the future tendencies of development and pos- sibly directing its progress ; they give clews, and are guides, not only for rational legislation, but also for rational conduct of private business. While self-interest may be quite efficient to ascertain con- ditions of supply and demand in daily, weekly, or monthly business for the sake of private business use, for the sake of the prosperous development of the community at large and of giving general direction to private endeavor, it is desirable that a state institution ascertain periodically the condi- tion of a whole industry and its relation to other industries. Such ascertainment is done with satisfaction METHODS OF FOREST POUCY. 243 only by the machinery of the state, which can make inquiries imiform, compel answers, and has no special interests to represent which might influence the reliability of the statements. In forestry statistics especially, the difficulties of as- certaining conditions of supply are beyond the capacity of individual inquiry, owing to the com- plicated nature of the object of inquiry. If there is difficulty in determining quantity and value of standing merchantable timber, which is within the actual vision of the estimater, how much more difficulty must be found in judging the prospec- tive quantity and value of the unperfected crop, the promise of the future ; and this is the essen- tial knowledge upon which is to be based, private as well as state activity with reference to this resource. We may only briefly indicate what kind of sta- tistical knowledge would be desurable in order merely to direct public policy.* In the well-ordered state the soils most fit for agriculture should be devoted to systematic food production, but just so should the non-agricultural soils, the absolute forest soils, be devoted to the sys- tematic production of wood-crops ; moreover, as we have seen, the forest in certain situations exercises a potent influence on cultural conditions. Hence * For a fuller litcainon aee " Consideratioiu in gathering For* otry Statwtict," bf the author, in Quarterly Pubtkatioas of the American Statistical Association, 189& 344 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. the knowledge of the extent of forest area of a country is by itself meaningless ; the character of the soil the forest occupies, its topographical loca- tion, and its relation to the hydrography of the country, must be known to permit an estimate of cultural conditions, to prognosticate likely change in area and the desu-ability of interference in its use. To get an idea of the amount and value, present and piospective, of the existing resource, there must be known the composition, i.e, relative occur- rence of merchantable kinds and conditions as to density, age, and character of growth, damage by fire, etc., and, most difficult of all to ascertain, con- ditions and stages of development of the young crop. Only forestry experts can so ascertain such statistics as to give them value. The other side of the question, market conditions and statistics of wood-consuming industries, offers some peculi- arities, but no difficulties. Furthermore, when forest management is once established, not only the condition of the resource, but the methods of its management, call for sta- tistical inquiry. In addition to these educational methods which incite private activity in the right direction by in- direct means, namely, by increase of knowledge, there are more direct ameliorative or promotive methods to be found in bounties which are given to aid private endeavor in the pursuit of private industry. METHODS OF FOREST POUCY. 24S These may take the form of assisting by money gifts, by furnishing plant material, by giving land as in our timber claim planting, by making work- ing plans or otherwise specifically assisting in private forest management beyond the giving of general information, and finally by tax release and tariff duties. We are approaching in these methods closely to paternalism, when the state is doing for the indi- vidual what the individual could or should do for himself, when the ^ate is doing more than provid- ing opportunity for individual activity; at least the danger of transcending proper policy and abusing public interest is always present with these methods. It is, therefore, necessary to scrutinize much more carefully the conditions under which proper policy is subserved by them. Curiously enough, these paternal methods have found much more favor and are more extensively \ised in ova coun- try than in the European countries, which are usually charged with the opprobrium of paternal- ism ; and in spite of the fact that the results have been rather disappointing, the advocates of these methods continue successfully to impress their opinions upon legislatures. The fact that these methods have failed before does not, to be sure, argue that with a change in conditions and with more circumspect supervision they may not be employed with better results, yet 246 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. the past experiences should serve at least the pur< pose of exercising caution in their employment In the years 1868 to 1873 a wave of legislation for the encouragement of timber planting, either under bounty or with exemption from taxation, went through the country from Maine to Nebraska, cul- minating in the so<:aUed timber culture acts by the federal government in 1 873-1 874. All of these laws proved practkally ineffective, or at least the results were inadequate except in taking money (Hit of the treasuries. Yet only in 1899 the State of Indiana revived the idea !■ a law " for the encouragement of for- estry," with an attempt at specifications which in themselves are devoid of tangible principle. This law provides that any owner may declare one- eighth of his property as a permanent forest res- ervation, this portion to be assessed at one dollar per acre, provided he either plant and maintain for three years, or, if natural woods, have on hand, not less than 170 trees per acre ; he must keep out cattle, sheep, and goats until the tr^es are four inches in diameter; and whenever any of the 170 trees die or are removed, he must replace and main- tain the number and protect them until they are four inches in diameter, and he may never cut or remove more than one-fifth of the trees in any year. A reference to the chapters on " Natural His- tory of the Forest" and on "Silviculture" will show how futile and inadequate this encourage- METHODS OF FOREST POUCY. 347 ment of forestry must prove to be in a timbered state like Indiana. In Pennsylvania, according to a legislative act of 1897, the owner needs to have only 50 trees to the acre, which must, however, measure at least 8 inches in diameter 6 (I) feet above ground ; as long as he keeps these in sound condition, in "con- sideration of the public benefit to be derived from the retention of forest and timber trees," he is to have 80 per cent of the tax on such lands refunded, provided that this be noi. more than 45 cents per acre and that no more than 50 acres are entitled to such release. From this last restriction one would suppose that a larger acreage would not be a pub- lic benefit; one fails also to see the rationale of the other measurements and numbers required, nor is it apparent what benefit to the public any 50 acres with 50 trees to the acre without special reference to its location might bring. The timber culture acts of the federal govern- ment, which had in view the amelioration of cul- tural conditions in the treeless territory of western prairies and plains, a very proper concern of gov- ernment, conferred title to 160 acres or smaller amounts of the public domain, if 40 acres or a proportionate smaller acreage was set out to trees. The crude provisions of the law and lack of proper supervision led to its abuse, and the results have been mostly disappointing, leading to the repeal of the 1?. V in 1891. a4S ECONOMICS OF FORESTi;^. The federal government also practised the method of furnishing plant material; this was done, however, with inadequate means and with> out proper discrimination. The writer himself, when in charge of the For- estry Division, United States Department of Agri- culture, was enjoined by law to distribute plant material, and did so long enough to convince him- self that the size of the country and the number of people with equal rights to this bounty, as well as the practical difficulties in handling such plant material, which must necessarily vary in kind according to locality, forbid the practice, or, at least, do not promise adequate results, except pos- sibly in planting a few shade trees. Yet, in connection with other methods A state action and with proper organization, this method has proved satisfactory in the European countries, namely, when the state enforces, and, by techni- cally educated officials, supervises reforestation of alpine locations, barrens, and waste places, and when the distribution of plant material is made, not to private owners, but to associations and com- munities, free, or at cost of production and on an adequate scale. It may, of course, under similar conditions and with similar judicious supervision, but only then, be employed successfully in our country. Within the last few years the federal govern- ment of the United States has inaugurated through METHODS OF FOREST POUCY. 349 the Forestry Bureau of the Department of Agri- ci. care another method of encouragement, which is also practised in the old countries, namely, to give to private owners specific advice as to the management of forest properties, the government bearing the larger share of the expense of securing the data for these soK»lled working plans. But for the educational feature involved, this would be a violation of our principle that the state should not do for the private citizen what he could do for himself. If, however, the benefit to be expeaed for the community at large is thereby secured, ex- pediency would lend countenance to such a method. The probability, however, is that in the absence of an obligation to follow the working plan, and in the absence of technical supervision in its execu- tion, the results will be hardly commensurate. The one principle under which the community can properly be called upon to tax itself — directly by paying bounties, or indirectly by refunding or reducing taxes and by imposing import duties — in order to encourage private industry is that the community will thereby secure extraordinary bene- fit. But the benefit must be specific, demonstrable, adequate, and, moreover, it must be evident that mere private self-interest will not be sufficient to secure incidentally the desired benefit The power of adjusting taxes is a mighty lever to industries, which can be used scientifically or unskilfully, for good or for evil; and those who JM 350 ECONOMICS or FORESTRY. advocate the use of the taxing power to encourage the forestry industry are perfectly justifiable, pro- vided it is used in a reasonable way. As a matter of fact, taxation of woodlands is at least in most forested states of the Union most unscientifically applied, and in such a manner as to encourage forest destruction and discourage forest management. Moreover, the quid pro quo iot which taxes are primarily exacted, namely, pro- tection of the property of individuals, is most inadequately performed by the community. It is customary to assess forest property by including the value of the standmg merchantable timber; in other words, not only the apparatus of production, but the product itself, the crop, is taxed. If the same principle were applied to agriculture, if the farmer were not only assessed sive water stages, to destructive floods, filling channels, thereby impeding navigation and silting agricultural soils, damaging neighboring or dis- tant interests, again makes the exercise of the police function of the state, in the wider sense in which I have defined it, necessary in order to prevent the consequences of mismanagement of the protective forest cover in such particuku- situations. The sugar planter in Louisiana, whose crop is endangered or destroyed by overflows due to causes a thousand miles away, has a right to pro- tection through the government. The city mer- MKiooorY moumoN T«r chait (ANSI and ISO TIST CHART No. 2) 1.0 1.1 la 116 140 1.25 11.4 1^ mii^^^H j4 /iPPUED M/C3E Ine 1(U Cm* Mofei S«rwt ' NechMM. NM YMi t4(oils and sites, leaving only the agricul- . ural s > Is and pastures to private enterprise. li ^m^mmmmmm CHAPTER X. fOSBST P0LICII8 OF FOBBIOH RATIONS. The conditions which a hundred years ago in- fluenced the policies of European nations in regara to their forest policies, — namely, the necessity of looking out for continuance of domestic supplies — have long ago changed. At that time the fuel question was still the i nportant one, for coal had not yet become an esiablished substitute, and, in the absence of railroad transportation, home sup- plies were a necessity. The many ordinances and laws, therefore, which attempted to assure continued home supplies have fallen into disuse, although the desirability of foster- ing home production and of securing the advantages of a general economic character which come from forest management — notably the employment of labor in winter time, which the forest industries offer — have still an influence upon the policy of governments, or are at least academically discussed as properly establishing a government interest even with regard to supply forests. In ihe main, however, the state forest policies of the European governments are based upon the 874 I Iilpppi«l mmmm mpi FOREST POLICIES OF FOREIGN NATIONS. 375 protective value of the forest cover, and the recog- nition that private interest cannot be expected or is insufficient to secure proper regard to this feature in its treatment of forest areas. It cannot be said, however, that a finally settied policy exists in any of the states, not even in Germany, but only that it is in a highly advanced stage of formation, with the tendency of increasing governmental interference. All the various methods of giving expression to state interest are employed ; the educational func- tion, the police function, and finally state owner- ship, being brought into use. State ownership of forest areas, which in thi be- ginning of the century began to decrease under the influence and misapplication of Adam Smith's teach- ing and the doctrine of individual rights, urged to its extreme -ro- sequences aft^r the French Rev- olution, is now on the increase. Thus France, during and after the ^ devolution taking the lead in this dismemberment of the forest property, which the monarchy had maintained (then nearly 12 mill- ion acres), sold during the years 1791 to 1 795 nearly one-half of the state forests, and continued to reduce the area until there remained in 1874 but one-fifth of the original holdings. Since then a reversal of the policy has been in practice, the area of state holdings is being increased, besides financial as- sistance in reforesting on a large scale being given to private owners and communities. 276 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. i In the budget for 1902, of ^2,800,000 appro- priated for the state forest department, $1,000,000 was set aside for the extension of state forests and necessary improvements in those now existing. The state now owns about 2,800,000 acres, — some- what over 12 per cent of the total forest area, — managed by a staff of 700 officials and protected by 3500 guards. In addition, private forest property is absolutely controlled as regards clearing ; no clearing may be done without notice to the government authorities, and in the mountain districts not without special sanction by the same. This control is especially stringent with refer- ence to the holdings of village and city corporations, which reprcsv ..t over 27 per cent of the forest area. These must submit their plans of management to the state forest department for approval, and are debarred from dividing their property, thus insur- ing continuity of ownership and conservative man- agement. The necessity for such control became apparent in the first quarter of the century, when, as a consequence of reckless denudation in the ailps, C^vennes, and Pyrenees, whole communities be- came impoverished by the torrents which destroyed and silted over the fertile lands at the foot of the mountains. Some 8,000,000 acres of once fertile soil in twenty departments were involved in these disastrous consequences of forest destruction on FOPEST POLICIFS OF FOREIGN NATIONS. 277 over 1,000,000 acres ui mountain slopes. The work of recovery was begun under the laws of 18^3 and 1864, and a revised law, the reboisement act, of 1883. Under this law the state buys and recuperates the land, or else forces communities or private owners to do so with financial aid from the government Since the operation of this law the state has spent in purchases of worn-out lands, in works to check the torrents and in reforesui.g, nearly if ,000,- 000, not including subventions to con muni' . and private owners. It is estimated tbat more than ^30,000,000 more will have to be ex;^ :nded before the area which the state p >- esses or will possess, probably . ^me 800,000 acres in all, will be restored. The work of fixation of sand-dunes, which has occupied the attention of foresters in all states bordering the sea-coast, has been promin'^nt in France since the beginning of the nineteenth cen- tury, especially in the Department of the Gironde, where during the years 1802 to 1864 a round $300,000 were spent in cooperation between the state, the municipal corporations, a:.d private own- ers to fix the 250,000 acres of sand-dunes and turn them into pine forest, which now, together with 1,500,000 acres of forest planted in its protection during the last century, yields a constant revnue and occupation for the poor population. A state forestry school at Nancy educates the officers, and is among the best on the Continent. England, in the home country, h^ had little ': I > a 278 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. f.\'. If ^ ^ need of a forest policy on account of its insular position and topography, although one-quarter of the country is waste, on which it would pay to cultivate wood-crops. It imports nearly all its needed wood supplies with over |l 100,000,000. Of the 3,000,000 acres of woodlands, mostly devoted to purposes of the chase or to parks, 2 per cent are state forests, and so encumbered with rights of adjoining commoners as pasture or for wood sup- plies that no rational management is possible. But in India there is a well-organized state forest administration, and the government there exercises itself also in promoting private forestry. The policy here differs from those in existence on the Continent of Europe, in that it is based on the sup- ply question rather than the protective value of the forest cover. In the past the native people of India, as far as known, never realized the importance of their for- ests. They were mostly more or less common property, or else belonged to the rajas. They were cleared, destroyed, mutilated at all times and in all places, and the use of wood seems never to have formed an important factor in Hindoo civilization. With the advent of foreign commerce, exploita- tion for the more valuable export timbers received a new stimulus, and the forests were culled regard- less of the future either of forest or people. This exploitation was aggravated by the construction of railways, which, in themselves large consumers, FOREST POLICIES OF FOREIGN NATIONS. 279 also offered a premium on all that contributed to increased traffic. When at last it was noticed that the demands of timber for public works in some localities could no longer be supplied without costly transportation, the matter received the tardy public attention. The present effective organization of a forest department and forestry service, covering now a forest property c* nearly 100,000 square miles, was established under the guidance of German thought and German methods, and for nearly half a century the heads of the state forest department were German foresters.^ Although the conditions surrounding the prob- lems of the Indian forest department are quite dis- similar from those with which we have to deal in our country, it will nevertheless be of interest, and suggestive for our own efforts in establishing for- estry practice, to give some space to a brief account of what has been established in India. In 1859, Dr. (now Sir) Dietrich Brandis was appointed superintendent of forests for Pegu; in 1862 he was charged with the duty of organiz- ing a forest department for all India, and in 1865 he was appointed the first inspector-general for the forests of India under the first Indian Forest Act. During the forty years of its existence this department has steadily and rapidly grown in the 1 Refer to the excellent account of this movenient in B. Ribben- trop, " Forettry in British India," Calcutta, 1900, 245 pp., 8vo. m ^n 28o ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. area managed, the number of men employed, and the revenue derived for the state. In 1898 this forestry department had control of about 90,900 square miles of forest, nearly half of all the for- ests, and about 10 per cent of the entire area of India. Of these state forests, nearly 82,000 square miles are "reserve" or permanent state forests, while the rest are held as " protected " and " un- classed," and will become reserve or permanent forests as fast as the necessary surveys and settle- ment can be made. The area of protected reserved forests is con- stantly varying, for although new areas are taken up, others are changed into reserves. About 28,000 square miles of forest property of the em- pire remain still unclassed. On page 1 14 we have given an account of the personnel req lired in the management of this largest and youngest forest department of the world and its financial results. More than half of India lies within the Tropics, and over 60 per cent is farther south than New Orleans, the latitude of which is 30". From this it is apparent that the climate is generally hot, but, owing to diversity of elevation and peculiarities of the distribution of rainfall, it is by no means uniform. The rains of India depend on extraordinary sea winds, or "monsoons," and their distribution is regulated by the topography of land and the rela- tive position of any districts with regard to the FOREST POLICIES OF FOREIGN NATIONS. 28 1 mountains and the vapor-laden air currents. Thus excessive rainfall characterizes the coast-line along the Arabian Sea to about latitude 20° N., and still more the coast of Lower Burma, and to a lesser extent also the delta of the Ganges and the south- em slope of the Himalayas. A moderately humid climate, if gauged by annual rainfall, prevails over the plateau occupying the large peninsula and the Lower Ganges Valley, while a rainfall of less than fifteen inches occurs over the arid regions of the Lower Indus. In keeping with this great diver- sity of climate, both as to temperature and humid- ity, there is great variation in the character and development of the forest cover. The natural dif- ferences in this forest cover are emphasized by the action of man, who for many centuries has waged war against the forest, clearing it permanently or temporarily for agricultural purposes or else merely burning it over to improve grazing facilities or for purposes of the chase. Thus only about 20 per cent of the entire area of India is covered by woods, not over 30 per cent being under cultiva- tion, leaving about 50 per cent either natural desert, waste, or grazing lands. The great for- ests of India are in Burma; extensive woods clothe the foot-hills of the Himalayas and are scat- tered in smaller bodies throughout the more humid portions of the country, while the dry northwest- em territories are practically treeless wastes. In this way large areas of densely settled districts are 282 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. SO completely void of forest that millions of people regularly bum cow dung as fuel. In the greater part of India the hardwood forest (conifers are scarce and confined in locality) con- sists not of a few species, as with us, but is made up of a great variety of trees unlike in their habit, their growth, and their product, and if our hard- woods oflfer on this account considerable ditficul- ties to profitable exploitation, the case is far more complicated in India. In addition to the large variety of timber trees, there is a multitude of shrubs, twining and climbing plants, and in most forest districts also a dense undergrowth of giant grasses (bamboos), attaining a height of 30 to 120 feet. These bamboos, valuable as they are in many ways, f -event, often for years, the growth of any seedling tree, and thus form a serious obstacle to the regeneration of valuable timber. The growth of timber is usually quite rapid; the bamboos make large, useful stems in a single season. Teak grows into large-size saw-timber in fifty to sixty years. But in spite of this rapid growth and the large areas not now in forest but capable of reforestation, India is not likely — at least within reasonable time — to raise more timber than it needs. In most parts of India the use of ordinary soft woods, such as pine, seems very re- stricted, for only durable woods, those resisting both fungi and insects (of which the white ants are specially destructive), can be employed in the FOREST POLICIES OF FOREIGN NATIONS. 283 more permanent structures, and ai therefore ac- ceptable in all Indian markets. With the irregular distribution of forests, the peculiarities of Indian a£f selves, it is but natural that the work thus far has been chiefly one of organization, survey, and pro- tection, and to a far less degree an attempt at im- provement by judicious cutting and reforestation. Over 23,000 square miles hav» been surveyed for forest purposes since 1874, at a cost of over 1^1,500,000. Work cf establishing and maintaining boundary lines, which is often a very difficult and costly matter in t!ie dense tropical jungles, involved during one year, 1894, an expense of over 540,000, and there are at present over 93,000 miles of such boundary lines maintained. Besides this survey work proper, there is a large force constantly at work to ascertain the amount and condition of timber supplies and to prepare suitable plans for their exploitation and improvement, so that over 20 per cent of the entire forest area, or about 20,000 square miles, is by this time manarca with definite working plans as fo amount of tr:-nber to be cut, the areas to be thinned, reforested, ^cc. liiO work of protection is chiefly one of pre- venting and fighting fires. This protection, with present means, cannot be carried on over the entire forest areas, of which large tracts are not even in 384 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY crossed by a foot-path, and in a land where the regular firing of the woods has become Ihe cus- tom of centuries, and where, in addition, intensely hot and dry weather, together with a most luxu- riant growth of giant grasses, render these jungle fires practically unmanageable. In all forests near settlements the forest must be isolated by broad " fire traces " or otherwise. In the jungle forests these traces must be broad; the grass, often taller than an elephant, must be cut and burned before the grass on either side is dry enough to burn. Similarly, the traces in the long- leaf pine forests must be very wide and first con- verted into grass strips, cut or kept clean by bvming. In spite of the unusual difficulties there were, in 1898, over 32,000 square miles protected against fire, and on only 8 per cent of this area did the element succeed in doing any damage. In this work, too, great progress has been made during the last twenty years; the efficiency has steadily increased, and the expense, about |lio per square mile in 1883, has been reduced to less than half, or 2 per cent, of the gross revenue. In the protection against unlawful felling, or timber stealing and grazing, the government of India has shown itself fully equal to the occasioi by a liberal policy of supplying villagers in prox- imity to the forests with fuel, etc., at reduced prices or gratis. Over $2,000,000 worth was thus disposed of in 1894- 1895, the incentive to timber FOREST POUCIES OF FOREIGN NATIONS. 285 Stealing being thereby materially reduced. A reasonable and just permit system of grazing, where again the needs of the neighboring villagers are most carefully considereii, not only brings the government a yearly revenue of nearly $8oo,cxx), but enables the people to graze about 3,ooo,cxx> head of animals in the state forests, with out doing any material dan^acje to tree growth. Though the forest^; of India are now, and will continue for some time, little more than wild woods, with some protection and a reasonable system of exploitation, in place of a mere robbing or culling system, yet the work of actually improving the forests steadily increases in amount and perfec- tion. In the large teak forests of Burma, as well as other provinces, care is takn to help this valu- able timber to propagate itself ; the useless kinds of trees are girdled, huge climbers are cut off, and a steady war is wage< against all specie^< detri- mental to teak regeneration. Where the teak has entirely disappeared, even planting is resorted to. Thus in Burma over 35,000 acres have been re- stocked with teak by means of taungyas, or plan- tations, where the native is allowed to bum down a piece of woods, use it for a few years as field (though it is never really cleared) on condition of planting it with teak, being paid a certain sum for every hundred trees in a thrifty condition at the time of giving up his land. a86 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. Similarly, the department expenuj large sums in establishing forests in parts of the arid regions of Beluchistan, and, on the whole, has spent on cultural operations, in different years, from 2 to 5^ per cent of its gross revenue, namely, at the rate of about $125,000 per year, over 100,000 acres having been planted since 1880. In disposing of its timber the government of India employs various methods. In some districts the people, paying a small tax, get out of the woods their needs. In other cases, the logger pays for what he removes, being neither limited in quantity nor qualit) of product. The prevalent systems, however, are the permit system, where a definite amount is to be cut and paid for, and the contract system, where the work is more or less under control of government officers, and the material remains governmental property until paid for. To a limited extent the Forest department carries on its own logging operations. In spite of many difficulties, a poor market (no market at all for a large number of woods), wild, unsurveyed, and practically unknown woodlands, Uiiusual and costly organization and protection, the forestry depart- ment has succeeded, without curtailing the timber output of India, to prepare for an ii rease of output in the future, and at the same time has yielded the government a steadily growing revenue which bids fair before long to rank among the important sources of income. FOREST POUCIES OF FOREIGN NATIONS. 38/ The growth of both gross and net revenue is illustrated in the following figures, rounded off, and figuring the rupee at one third of a dollar.* flmmm ■ PropoftioB of PMfad. Rrreniw. Expenditure. Surplut. Expcndittti* to RcTcniM* MdolUn. Vn ocoA* 1865-67 1,300 740 460 61 1868-73 1.540 1,100 440 71 1873-77 3,180 M70 710 67 1878-8* 2.360 1.630 730 67 1883-87 3.560 3,380 1,380 64 188&-93 4.7SO 3,700 2,050 56 1893-97 S.700 3.1*0 2,580 55 1897^ 5.930 3.400 2,530 57 This steady rise in revenue in response to a rise in expenditures, is one of the best arguments of the efficiency of the administration, brought about by a liberal policy in paying for efficient adminis- tration, including a generous pension system — a policy which in its results compares most favor- ably with the stingy, niggardly policy which usually prevails in the United States in the employment of public officers. The inspector-general receives about 118000, and the conservators about ^5000 per annum. ^The figures given on p. 115 difier on account of different Taltte ued in translating rupees. \ 388 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. In the expenditures it is of special interest to note that fire protection absorbs less than 2 per cent of the gross revenue, namely, about $100,000 per year, and about as much is expended on cul- tural operations, while the superior staff absorbs a little over 13 per cent and the subordinate staff with office establishments 14 per cent. The forest laws of India were, like those of most countries, a matter of growth and adaptation, with the important difference, however, that the well- defined object of preserving a continuous supply of the all-essential timber was from the beginning steadily kept in mind. The principal acts are those of 1865, 1869, and especially the "Indian Forest Act" of 1878, with secondary legislation applying to particular localities, such as the act of 1 88 1 for Burma and of 1882 for Madras, and others. In general, these forest laws provide for the establishment of permanent or "reserved" state forests, to be managed according to modem for- estry principles. They provide for a suitable force of men, give the forest officers certain police powers, prohibit unwarranted removal of forest products, the setting of fires, or otherwise injuring the forest property. The laws also regu- late grazing and the chase by permit systems, and prescribe rules by which the work of the depart- ment is carried on, as well as the manner in which officers are engaged, promoted, etc. Since the peculiar circumstances require men specially fitted FOREST POLICIES OF FOREIGN NATIONS. 289 and trained, schools were established to furnish the recruits for this steadily growing service. There is one at Cooper's Hill, England, where a thorough course is intended to prepare men for the superior staff positions, and the Imperial school at Dehra Dun, which is to supply the great i.jra- ber of the executive staff, the young men starting in usually as guards or rangers at a pay of about $2$ per month, working their way up to places worth 1^50 per month, and if well suited, eligible for further promotion. In the Dehra Dun school and the executive staff, the native element is fast making itself felt, and there is little doubt that the men of India will soon be able to manage the for^ eiii.< of their own native land. In most of the English colonies, there exist also beginnings of a forest policy, and in several of them, at least, forestry departments, albeit inefficient or impotent, as in New South Wales, whose timber wealth, originally enormous, is now rapidly deterio> rating under a loosely managed license system, although the department of agriculture and for- estry employs some 350 " foresters " and assistants on the 5,500,000 acres of *c'- ^-^d belonging to the government. Similarly in Western Australia, the conservator of the department of woods and forests is appar- ently powerless to extend any improved system of utilization over the 20,000,000 acres of woodlands to which the magnificent Eucalypts, especially the 390 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. Jarrah, Karri, and Red Gum, lend special value The government merely controls the cutting by issuing licenses under certain reservations, and by collecting the revenue. In South Australia, which is mostly a forestl' * plains country, a forest department was instituted in 1876 for two purposes, namely, to plant and ad- minister state forest reservations, and to grow trees for free distribution. In 1890 there were about 215,000 acres planted and in reservations, and dur- ing the fourteen years some 4,500,000 seedlings had been distributed ; the expenses above receipts having been $120,000 during the period. Cape Colony seems to be similarly situated, mainly forestless, and hence merely interested in tree planting, which is done in a small way by four conservators, who are directly under the Min- ister of the Colony. Here the government also assists municipalities in covering their watersheds by contributing half the expense. Even in the Soudan we note a beginning, a report for a plan having lately been at last called for. The Germans in their African possessions have also begun to introduce their painstaking forestry methods with success. Two years ago Egypt also entered the ranks of states with a forest policy, encouraging reforesta- tion by relief of taxes on planted land. The country which, next to British India, can claim to have the largest forest area under one F'.XEST POUCIES OF FOREIGN NATIONS. 39I poUcy is Russia. Although one ol the export countriet, with $10,000,000 to ^35,000^000, and largely in the pioneering stage, Russia in Europe, well wooded with 500,000^000 acres in forest, al- though much in poor condition, ha*- a well-devised forest policy, developed within the last thirty or fifty years, which consists not or!y in maintain* ing government forests to the extent of about 300^000,000 acres, divided into 1500 districts under tolerably good management, and 15,000^- 000 acres of Crown forests, persona- property of the royal family, but in restricting private owners (110,000,000 acres in large domains and 75,000,000 in lands of small owners) from abuse of their property, where the public welfare de> mands, while in the prairie country in southern Russia large amounts of money are spent by the government in planting forests and in assisting private enterprise in the same direction. With the Siberian forests and those of the Cau> casus added, the area of government forest may reach the large figure of 600,000,000 acres, which, though not yet all placed under management, is sooner or later to come under the existing forest administration. The restrictive policy dates from a very elabo> rate law passed in 1888, and extended greatly in 1900, in which the democratic spirit in the constitu- tion of the body controlling the exercise of property rights is interesting. The approval of working 1 1 , J I : 393 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. plans, or of clearings on private property, is placed in the hands of a specially constituted committee for each county, which includes the governor, justices of the peace, the county council, and several forest owners, and the government itself must secure the approval of this committee for its operations. By this law, throughout European Russia, wood- lands may be declared " preserved forests " on the following grounds: That they serve as preven- tives against the formation of barrens and shifting sands, and the encroachment of dunes along sea- shores or the banks of navigable rivers, canals, and artificial reservoirs; that they protect from sand drifts towns, villages, cultivated land, roads, and the like ; that they protect the banks of navi- gable rivers and canals from landslides, overflows, or injuries by the breaking up or passing of ice ; that when growing on hills, steep places, or declines, they serve to check land or rock slides, avalanches, and sudden freshets; and that they protect the springs and sources of the rivers and their tribu- taries. One hundred million acres of private forest have thus come under supervision. In these preserved forests, working plans are made at the expense of the government, and in the unpreserved forests at the expense of the owners. In each province the government main- tains an inspector-instructor, whose duty is to advise those who apply to him in forest matters, FOREST POLICIES OF FOREIGN NATIONS. 293 and as far as possible he is to superintend on the spot all forestry work. The government has established nurseries, from which private owners can obtain young trees and seeds at a low price. The owners are allowed to employ as managers of their forests the trained officials of the forest administration, while medals and prizes are given yearly to private owners for excellency in forest culture and management. Two higher and thirty lower schools of forestry are also maintained by the government. The forest institute in St. Petersburg, with a staff of 15 professors and instructors, and about 450 students, and one at New Alexandria, near Warsaw, supply the superior staff. But the most important and characteristic feature in educational direction are the 30 silvicultural schools, in which the rangers or under-foresters are educated, al- most entirely at government expense. There are usually 3 teachers employed, and forestry offi- cials having also other duties, for the 20 students at each of these schools. The total expense of such a school is about 1^3300, of which the state contributes about ^2500. Another characteristic feature is a method, re- vived in 1897, from German precedent of 150 years ago, and also practised in France, to secure refor- estation of cut-over lands. The wood-merchant who cuts timber on government lands, especially in the pineries, is obliged to clear the ground of debris. 294 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. M. replant it, and hand it back to the government in satisfactory condition. To insure compliance with this condition, a deposit of $2 to $4 per acre is ex- acted. Results are not as yet on record. Russia's small neighbors at the southwestern frontier, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Roumania also can boast of quite effective forest administration. In the former, which is to the extent of 50 per cent forested, the state has, since 1878, instituted an orderly management on its 5,ooo,ocx) acres of forest property, while Roumania, since 1881, has not only a forest administration for its 2,5C»,ooo acres of state lands, but has also a very efficient and strictly enforced forest protection law, under which 84 per cent of all the forest lands, the total forest area being 6,800,000 acres, are declared pro- tection forests, and their plans of management must be sanctioned by the state authorities. Since 1892, there is also established a forest melioration fund, to which the state contributes 2 per cent of the gross revenue from its forest property, for the purpose of encouraging reforestation. In Austria, which is wooded to the extent of 30 per cent, and which exports over $40,000,000 in excess of imports, the disastrous consequences which the reckless devastation and abuse of her moimtain forests by their owners has brought upon whole communities, have led to a more stringent and general supervision of private and communal forests than anywhere else. In 1868 a FOREST POLICIES OF FOREIGN NATIONS. 295 law was enacted which released reforested areas from taxes for 10 years, and under some condi- tions for 25 years ; the e£Fect seems to have been mainly a moral and educational one. Since 1883 there has been in progress a work of recuperation similar to the French reboisement work, in which, up to 1894, nearly ^i,5cx),ooo had been spent, the state contributing variously from 25 to 100 per cent toward covering the expense, the state itself having reforested over 200,000 acres of waste lands. A fully organized forest department man- ages the government forests, 2,500,000 acres, or 10 per cent of the total forest are. , which are gradually being increased by purchase. Nearly 2,000,000 acres are declared protection forests, and the state exercises the right to ex- propriate or place under supervision private prop- erty for protective purposes. Lately (1898), for the purpose of directing the government's policy regarding the use of its soil resources, a Land- wirthschaftrath (agricultural council), composed of 75 members, has been instituted, consisting of farmers, foresters, miners, and others. One higher and several lower schools supported by the state provide instruction. Austria's sister state, Hungary , also has a well- established forest administration, and since 1879 has had a law providing for supervision of private forest lands and for reforestation of waste lands, with the assistance of the state. ygl 296 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. Italy has long suffered from the effects of forest devastation by droughts and floods, but the gov- ernment 'v»as always too weak to secure effective remedies. Densely populated, with one-th-!-H of its area unproductive and one-quarter almost be- yond redemption, ^o country offers better oppor- tunities for studying the evil effects of deforestation on soil and waterflow. The state owns only 1.6 per cent, or 1 16,000 acres of forest, the balance of 7,000,000 acres belonging to communities and cor- porations or to individuals. Yet by the laws of 1877, revised in i588, the policy of state inter- ference is clearly defined. Excellent though the law appears on paper, it has probably not yielded any significant results, since owing to the finan- cial disability of the government there has not even been general enforcement. This law placed nearly half the area not owned by the state under government control, namely, all woods and lands cleared of wood on the summits and slopes of the mountains above the upper limit of chestnut growth, and those that from their charac- ter and situation may, in consequence of being cleared or tilled, give rise to landslips, caving, or gullying, a'^alanches and snowslides, and may to the public injury interfere with watercourses or change the character of the soil or injure local hygienic conditions. Government aid is to be extended where reforestation appears necessary. Of the 76,000 acres which required immediate re- FOREST POLICIES OF FOREIGN NATIONS. 297 f orestation for reasons of public safety, only 22,000 were reforested in twenty years up to 1886, the government contributing $85,000 toward the cost In the revised law of 1888, as a result of the past experiences, an elaboration of the same plan was attempted by creating further authority to enforce action. It is now estimated that 534,000 acres need reforesting at a cost of 1^12,000,000, oi which two-fifths is to be contributed by the state. Expropriation proceedings may be institutec* where owners refuse to reforest, with permission to reclaim in five years by paying, with interest, the cost of work incurred by the state. The latest addition to the inefficient means of coping with the evil is an Arbor Day imported from the United States. A forestry school at Vallombrosa furnishes all needed opportunity to learn the necessary forestry methods. Our Uttle .lister republic, Switzerland, has had a long struggle during the first half of the nine- teenth century to come to a rational forest policy, although the damage done by its absence was clearly enough seen. Only in 1898 has the fed- al government finally 5«ucceeded in becoming the ecutor of XY :. protective laws in all cantons. These laws prohibit clearing in the high Alps without sanc- tion by the federal authorities. With the assistance of the bund reforesting is done where needed. A forestry school in Zurich educates the staff. 298 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. Sweden and Norway have been the great forest exploiters and exporters of wood materiab of the last fifty years, supplying especially England with most of her needs. A comparatively large forest area (over 6o,cxx),ooo acres) accessible to water transport^^tion by the many fiords and streams in- vited this exploitation, the product of which, to the extent of over 60 per cent, goes to England and France and amounts now to nearly 2,000,000,000 feet, B.M. In Sweden, which contains nearly three-fourths of the forest area, crude beginnings of government interest are recorded from about the year 1500. In the year 1720 a director of forests was ap- pointed, the germ of the present Government Forest Department. It was then that the previous lax policy of the goveru. . oat gave place to a some- what sentimental solicitude. " It is rather amus- ing to read the jeremiads that were given utterance to both inside and outside the Riksdag by the men of light and leading of that age with regard to the question of forest exhaustion, when only the fringe of the woodlands had been touched and forest property had scarcely a nominal value as a realizable asset ... the champions of a policy of restriction originated equally as much in an appre- hended deterioration of climate as in an actual scarcity of wood. Both these apprehensions proved groundless, and we have the testimony of one of the foremost public men of Sweden that the FOREST POUCIES OF FOREIGN NATIONS. 299 climate of Norrland, especially, has beer much improved the last sixty years by the partial cutting down of the forests." ^ In the first part of the nineteenth century laws were passed to restrict clearing, determine the minimum size of logs to be cut, and, in some parts (Lapland), where climatic deterioration was specially feared, preventing all cutting without per- mission from the government. The more system- atic administration of government forests, some 18,000,000 acres, dates from the year i860, and with it a more conservative policy in the exploita- tion generally. The success of this administration seems not to have been conspicuous, due partly, perhaps, to an ultra conservative management, partly to the license system under which much of the State forests are cut over by lumbermen. Continuous agitation and troubling prophesies con- cerning the future of the timber trade led, in 1894, to a special investigation of the subject by a com- mission sent out from the University. As a result of this inquiry it appears that Sweden is fully able to continue her present cut, or even increase it, without exhausting her resource, provided it is sufficiently protected to permit its renewal and the cutting is done conservatively. The simplicity of the composition of the forest, namely, pine and spruce with oak almost exclu- » "The Wood Industries of Sweden," Timber Tradtt Journal, 1896. 300 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. sively, insure the renewal with valuable species, although it appears that the spruce is gaining over the pine. Replanting has been begun even by private forest owners; in some cases on large areas. Towns and country districts and parishes own extensive forest tracts. The parish of Orsa is an example of several in similar condition, real- izing a fund of $2,500,000 from its forest lands, which does away with the need of taxes. These areas are under the management of a local com- mittee, with the governor of the province as chair- man, a crude selection system only being practised. The country which has attracted the greatest interest in all matters pertaining to forestry, be cause the science of forestry is there most thor- oughly developed and applied, is Germany. It may, therefore, be of interest not only to describe the forest policies of Germany more fully, but briefly to trace their historical develop- ment. Although as early as Charlemagne's time a con- ception of the value of a forest as a piece of prop- erty was well recognized by that monarch himself, and crude prescriptions as to the proper use of the same are extant, a general, really well-ordered system of forest management hardly existed until the beginning of the eighteenth century. Spo- radically, to be sure, systematic care and regular methods of reproduction were employed e\on in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. In FOREST POLICIES OF FOREIGN NATIONS. 301 To understand the development of the present forest policy in Germany, one miist study the peculiar conditions and development of property rights that led to it Germany was originally set- tled by warriors, who had to keep together in order to resist enemies and conquerors on every side, and to be ready to move and change domicile at any moment. The soil which was conquered was, consequently, not divided, but, owned as a whole, was managed by and for the whole tribe. It is only in the sixth century that signs of private property in woodlands are discernible. Before that time '•: was res nullius, or, as it is expressed in legal manuscripts, "quia non res possessa sed de ligno agitur." Wood being plentiful and yet needed by every- body, it appeared not a crime to take it unless it had been already appropriated or bore unmistak- able signs of ownership, such as being cut or shaped. But severe punishments were in earliest times inflicted for incendiarism and for damage to mast trees, since the seed mast for the fattening of swine was one of the most important uses of the forest. There was not much need of partition, especially of the forests. The community, to which all the land of a district belonged, and which was man- aged by and for the aggregate of society, was called the "mark," a communistic institution of most express character, and every " marker " or 303 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. shareholder was allowed to get the timber needed by him for his own use without control. This early communal ownership of forest land undoubtedly explains the fact that even to-day over 5 per cent of the forest is owned by com- munities, cities, or villages. Gradually the neces- sity of regulating the cutting of the wood became apparent, as the best timber in the neighborhood of the villages was removed ; and we find quite early mention of officials whose duty it wai. to superintend the felling, removing, and even the use of the timber. By and by even the firewood was designated by officials. Manufacturers re- ceived their material free of charge, but only as much as was needed to supply the community. Occasionally there were rules that each man had to plant trees in proportion to his consumption. So that by the end of the fourteenth century quite a system of forest management had been developed. Meanwhile the Roman doctrine of the regal right to the chase had also begun to assert itself by the declaration of certain districts as ban for- ests, or simply forests, in which the king exclu- sively resen'ed the right to chase. The kings again invested their trusted followers and nobles with this right to the chase in various districts, thus gradually dividing the control of the same. While at first these reservations did not bring with them restrictions in the use of the timber or pasture or other products of the forest, these uses FOREST POUCIES OF FOREIGN NATIONS. 303 were grad,ooo marks and several hundred acres of land were required in the little kingdom of Saxony to get rid of the servitudes in the state forests. The Prussian budget contains still an item of 1,000,000 marks annually for this purpose ; and although over 22,000,000 marks and nearly 20,000 acres of land have been spent for -this pur- pose in Bavaria, the state forests there are still most heavily burdened with servitudes. The doctrine of the regal right to the chase, as we have seen, led to the gradual assertion of all property rights to the forest itself, or at least to the exclusive control of its use. This right found expression in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in a legion of forest ordinances, aiming at the conservation and improvement cf forest areas, and abounding in detailed technical precepts. At first, treating the private interest with some FOR£ST POUCIES OF FOREIGN NATIONS. 305 conskleration, they gradually more and more re- strict free management. Prohibition of absolute clearing, or at least only with the permission of the government ; the command to reforest cleared and waste places; to foster the young growth; limiting the quality of timber to be felled ; the pre- vention of devastation by prohibiting the pastur- ing of cattle in the young growth, rules in regard to the removal of the forest litter, of pitch gather- ing, etc., were among these prescriptions, with many others, sucli as prescribing the manner and time of felling, the division into regular fell- ing lots, determination as to what is to be cut as firewood and what as building timber. Then, with the increasing fear of a reduction in sup- plies, followed prohibitions against exportation, against sale of woodlands to foreigners, against speculation in timber by providing schedules of prices, and from time to time entire exclusion from sale of some valuable species. Even the consumer was restricted and controlled in the manner of using wood. In mediaeval times, besides private forests of the king and lords, only the communal forest (all- mende) was known, and small holdings of farmers were comparatively rare imtil the end of the middle ages. The Thirty-years War and the following troub- lous times gave rise not only to extended forest devastation, but also to many changes in owner- 306 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. ship of woodlands. With the growing instability of communal organization of the " mark," division of the common property took place, and thus private ownership by small farmers came about, reducing the communal holdings. Colonization schemes by holders of large estates also led to dismemberment. A very large amount of the mark forest came into possession of the princes and noblemen by force, and later the possessions of the princes were increased by the secularization of the property of monasteries and churches. Until the end of the last century these domains belonged to the family of the prince, just as the right to the throne or the governing of the little dukedom, thus contributing toward the expenses of government But when, as a consequence of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic wars and subse- quent changes, the conception of the rights of the governing classes changed, and in some states, like Prussia, much earlier, a division of domains into those which belonged to the prince's family as private property and those which were state forests was effected, so that now the following classes of forest property may be distinguished : — (i) State forests, which are administered by the government for the benefit of the commonwealth, each state of the confederation owning and ad- ministering its own. (2) Imperial forests, belonging to the empire yyr\ FOREST POUCIES OF FOREIGN NATIONS. 307 and administered for its benefit, situated in the newly acquired province of Alsace-Lorraine. (3) Crown forests (Fideicommiss), the owner- ship of which remains in the reigning family, which are administered by state government, but the revenues of which are in part applicable to government expenses. (4) Princely domains, which are the exclusive and private property of the prince. (5) Communal forests possessed by and admin- istered by village and city communities, or even by provinces as a whole for their own benefit. (6) Association forests, the remnants of the old " mark " forests, possessed by a number of owners, the state sometimes being part owner. (7) Institute and corporation, school or bequest forests, which belong to incorporated institutions, like churches, hospitals, and other charitable institu- tions. (8) Private forests, of larger or smaller extent, the exclusive property of private owners. The proportions of these classes of property which existed in the beginning of the century experienced considerable changes by the sale of state forests, the sales being due partly to finan- cial distress, partly to a mistaken application of Adam Smith's theories, which supposed that free competition would lead to a better management and to the highest development of the forest in- dustry as well as of other industries. 3o8 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. This tendency, however, was checked when the fallacy of the theory became apparent, especially with reference to a property that demands con- servative treatment and involves such time element as we have seen. The hopes which were based on the success of individual efforts were not realized, and al- though control of private action had been retained by the state authorities, this could not always be exercised, and the necessity of strengthening the state forest administration became apparent. The present tendency, therefore, is not only to maintain the state forests, but to extend their area by pur- chase, mostly of devastated or deforested areas and by exchange for agricultural lands from the public domain. Thus, in Prussia, the increase of state forest area has been at the rate of I4,cxx) acres per year since 1867; during the decade 1891-1900 170,000 acres of waste lands were added at the average cost oi $10 per acre, and the budget of 1900 contained $800,000 for that purpose. Bavaria spent about $6,000,000 in such purchases during the last 50 years. In districts where small farmers own extensive areas of barrens a consolidation is effected ; the parcels of remaining forest and the barrens are put together, the state acquires these and pays the owners either in money or other property. In Prussia, during the decade 1 882-1 891, 30,000 acres were in this way exchanged for 17,000 acres. FOREST POLICIES OF FOREIGN NATIONS. 309 and in addition some 200,cxx> acres, waste or poorly wooded, were purchased at an expense of i(>3i5oo,ocx), round numbers. During the same decade the reforestation of 8o,ocx> acres of waste lands was effected, while nearly 75,cxx) acres in the state's possession remained to be reforested. The annual budget for these reforestations of w?*^ 'inds has been $5oo,ocx} for several years. ' ea of barrens and poor soils in Prussia, fit 1 xurest purposes only, is estimated at over 6,ooo,v damage, led to the appointment of a commission — just as this year in the state of New York — to propose remedies. In the two reports made in 1896 and 1898, the influence of forest cover on retardation of snow- melting, and of the forest floor on retardation of run-off are admitted, but forest conditions are found tolerably satisfactory. Nevertheless, new legisla- tion is proposed to supervise private forest man- agement so as to preserve existing conditions, the following points being made : — 1. The forest areas which are of importance to the watershed must be definitely determined. 2. A prescription for their management is only to be made, and if the management is found un- 320 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. satisfactory by the county president, an appeal may be made to the courts. 3. Clearing may be forbidden, subject to appeal. 4. If unpermitted clearing is made, reforesta- tion may be enforced, but there is no right to force reforestation of lands now not in forest. 5. The ploughing of slopes may be forbidden, and regulation of drainage channels ordered, b 't in that case the corporation, for whose sake this is done, must pay the cost or damage to the owner. 6. The state is to give financial aid in secur- ing this work. Quite different in tone is the Bavarian law of 1852, revised and accentuated in 1896, which ab- solutely forbids clearing, as well as any severe thinning, except by permission, in all protection forc.>ls, namely, on tops of mountains and ridges and steep slopes, on the high Alps where danger from land and snow slides is to be anticipated, or on sand-dunes, and wherever waterflow is influenced. The forest administration, either at the request of the owner or, on its own motion and final decision, by the forest courts, is to decide whether or not a forest property falls in this category. The plans of management for such properties must be sub- mitted for sanction by the government under penalty of II20 to 1^300, and even ll'kx), per acre for any disobedience. Nor does the state recog- nize any obligation to compensate the owner for such restriction in the use of his property, although FOREST POLICIES OF FOREIGN NATIONS. 32 1 a proposition is now under discussion to give a tax release for 20 years for reforested tracts, pro- vided the owner foregoes all use of it for that period. The two smaller states of Baden and Wiirtem- berg seem to have succeeded better than any other states in their restrictive policies. Wiirtem- berg began proper measures, which have remained fundamental, as early as 1614, remodelling them m 1875 and 1879. The "forest police law " of 1879 decides : — (a) Clearing of forest requires a state permit: illegal clearing is punished with a fine. (6) A neglected piece of forest shall not be- come waste land ; the state authority sees to its reforestation with or without help of owner, the expenses to be charged to the forest. {c) If the state forester is convinced that a pri- vate owner cuts too much wood or otherwise mis- mar; ages his forest, he is to warn the owner, and if this warning is not heeded, the forest authority may take in hand and manage the particular tract. (d) Owners of small tracts of forest can com- bine into associations and can place their properties with municipal or even state forests for protec- tion and management. In the latter case they share the advantages of part of the municipal or communal forests which are managed by state authorities. The law of 1875 relating to the management 333 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. and supervision of forests belonging to villages, towns, and other public corporations, about one- third of the forest area, places all the forests un- der this category under direct state supervision; there being a special division of corporation or municipal forests in connection with the state forestry bureau. The law demands that all cor- poration forests be managed in accordance with the principles of a continued supply, the same as the state forests. The corporation may employ its own foresters, but these must be approved by the forestry bureau and are responsible for the proper execution of the plans of management. These plans are prepared by the fbresters an must be approved by the state forest author ' .?. If preferred, the corporation may leave the i ar agement of its forests entirely to the state uu- thoiities. This is always done if a corporation neglects to fill the position of its forester within a certain period after it becomes vacant Where the state forest authorities manage either corpora- tion or private forest, the forest is charged with eight cents per acre and year for this administration. This fee is generally less than it costs, so that the state has been really making a sacrifice so far in providing a satisfactory management for these forests. The forest policy of Baden has also been con- servative for a long time, and there is no state in Germany where the general conditions of the FOREST POUCIES OF FOREIGN NATIONS. 323 forests are better. Since all municipal and cor- poration forests are under direct state controV being managed by the state forest authorities, about 910,000 acres, or ove; 60 per cent of all forests, enjoy a careful, conservative treatment, which insures to them the largest possible return in wood and money. But even the private for- ests, representing another third of the forest area, are under the supe vision of the state authorities, and though the private owner may use his forest very much as he pleases, he can in no way devastate or seriously injure it. Clearing re- quires a permit, even a complete clearing cut, which latter is permitted only if the owner guar- antees the reforestation of the denuded area within a given time. Bare and neglected spots in forests must be restocked, and failure of private owners to comply with the forest rules and laws leads to temporary management of the forest by the state authorities, such management never to continue less than ten years. It is evident that the existence of thoroughly organized, efficient state forest administrations make the execution of the laws regarding the use of forest properties comparatively easy, and from the technical point of view the supervision compe- tent. Moreover, the good example which the forest management of the state sets is of most salutary influence, especially in showing that such management pays. 324 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. By good management for " sustained yield " the yearly cut has been increased, in some cases doubled, since the beginning of the century, and the income has increased of course in greater rate, partly due to advance in prices for wood, which for a long series of years has not been less than 1 1 per cent annually, partly to increase in the quality of the output, but largely to improvements in transpottation, for which large sums have been expended, especially during the last fifty years. The future promises even greater returns, when all the properties are in working order and covered with road systems. Moreover, it is believed that the state adminis- trations a'-'i now less profitable than they might be, as they are managed with great conservatism and without an attempt at greatest financial results, the economic objects being kept foremost. The following tables give most briefly an insight into the financial aspect of forest management of the leading states. They show that the financial results vary considerably for the different adminis- trations, owing largely to differences in market conditions ; they also show the in^/ease of revenue from 1890 to 1897. The figures for the who'e country are in part rounded-off estimates for all the state forests. The record of the city of Zurich is added to show how an intensively man- aged small forest property under most favorable conditions of market compares with the more ex- if FOREST POUCIES OF FOREIGN NATIONS. 325 t*N tp«>^ •ooitMiiino •dojs lapaiiraK •ooitoaioid ftn uoiimiitiiniB|»v Mod JO imo ja,{ •rw>x «0 Oi o> »? iH V m tt m m ^ w tt tm xtkO t^ M M r>) o 'i«2r 00 %o VO •" 00 (*> >n r> n ^ «o *s M M (( e« n lA I cT »' »* If T tT if ;; to O* 3 HH? St *^ 1^ «" c 9> .«> a 8 ? i2 3^ 53 tins' Pi M •• ♦ «* *• ft !? I I I jg I ^ O |£ S ^ cZ » FOREST POLICIES OF FOREIGN NATIONS. 327 Pucumc DisTUBunoN op Main Ezpimoitums, 1897. (1: Stale CtiMt of— Praiiia . • Bsvaiit . . Wfirtembcrg Saxony . . Baden . . Total ex- Far cant* 48 40 36 46 Adaiiaia- tiatioa and piotaction (auMtljr talariea). Par cant* 31 24 12 13 9-4 Cutting and moving tba Far cant. 14.8 30 14.6 14.5 17.7 Flaating, aowingi drainaga, workf wood roada,atc Far oaait 75 6.6 8.6 104 tensively managed larger forest areas. Judging from the results of the state administrations, it can be assumed that Germany produces annually wood values equal in amount to England's con- sumption, namely, somewhat over |lioo,ooo,ooo, or $3.00 gross and probably $1.75 net per acre, from soils that are mostly not fit for any other use, and which by being so used contribute to other favor- able cultural conditions. This net income, figured at 3 per cent, would make the capital value of soil and growing stock nearly |l6o per acre, and the value of the entire forest resource of Germany 20CX) million dollars. The revenues have apparently risen with the increase of expenditures. In 1850, when Prussia expended only 37 cents per acre, her net income was 46 cents; in 1901 her expenditure had in- creased to $1.43 and her gross revenue to $2.87, 328 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. although wood prices for the entire Prussian cut of 300,000,000 cubic feet have in that period advanced only 37 per cent ; while Saxony expended 80 cents per acre in the beginning of the century and netted 95 cents to^lay she spends three times the amount and has increased her revenue nearly fivefold. The table of the distribution of expenditures is especially interesting, showing that even in Saxony, the very state where the timber is usually cut clean and the land restocked entirely by planting with nursery stock, the item of planting, etc., uses up the smallest portion of the income. From this brief outUne it wUl be apparent that forestry in its modern sense is not a new, untried experiment in Germany, but that care and active legislative consideration of the forest wealth dates back more than four centuries; that the accurate official records of several states for the last one hundred years prove conclusively that wherever a systematic, continuous effort has been made, as in the case of all state forests, whether of ^rge or small territories, the enterprise has been successful; that it has proved of great advantage to the country, furnished a handsome revenue where otherwise no returns could be expected, led to the establishment of permanent woodworking industries, and has given opportunity for labor and capital to be active, not spasmodically, not speculatively, but continu- ously and with assurance of success. This rule has. fortunately, not a single exception. To be FOREST POUCIES OF FOREIGN NATIONS. 339 sure, isolated tracts away from railroad or water, sand-dunes, and rocky promontories exist in every state, and the management of these poor forest areas costs all the tract can bring and often more ; but the wood is needed, the dune or waste is a nuisance, and the state has found it profitable to convert it into forest, even though the direct reve- nue falls short of the expense. The unsatisfactory condition of many of the private forests and theur uneconomic exploitation, due to the speculative spirit developed after the Franco-German War, are deplored, exposed, and discussed with a view of extending state supervision. In Bavaria, in spite of severe prescriptions and in spite of the assistance given by the state, which distributed 127,000,000 plants during the years 1893-1899, deforestation is in excess of reforesta- tion, and the private forest diminishes. Similarly in Prussia during the last twenty years over 75,000 acres were deforested by private owners, although the state here too is exhausting all ameliorative and persuasive means, which, however, remain ineffec- tive. Hence the state buys the half-wastes, restocks them at great expense, and thus public money pays for public folly in not restricting ill use of forest properties. Of extra-European countries and nations, we should at least mention /apan, as one that has had a forest policy earlier than any of the European nations, and has now as efficient and modem ^'p- 330 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. paratus to carry it into effect as any, Germany hardly excepted. It is interesting to note that the historical de- velopment of thb policy considerably resembles Teutonic development under tfte feudal system. During ihe first century after Christ, and repeat- ed during later ones, frequent edicts were issued to enforce the planting of watersheds to alleviate floods, and the state representatives, the provincial princes, from early times too) xtive interest and supervised the fellings.* The forests thus protect, i by strict laws re- mained in comparatively good condition, so that in 1867, when the great modem change in the government of Japan took place, they came into imperial hands nearly unimpaired. A department of forestry, instituted in 1874, in the department of the interior, has the management of the state forests, which comprise 17,500,000 acres, or 30 per cent of the total forest area of 57,000,000 acres. Some of the private forests, namely, those declared protection forests, are under supervision. A forest academy, according to German models, and at first manned by German foresters, was established in 1882, which in 1890 was incorporated with the University at Tokio. »See an interesting historical sketch ia ZtUsdar^ft fbr das ftsammU Forstwestn, 1900. CHAPTER XI. fOKlST COHDITIOirS OF TEE UKITID STATIS. If considered simultaneously from botanical, geographical, and economic points of view, the forests of North America are unique in the world. The forests of the tropics are richer in species ; there are contiguous forest areas of greater extent in other parts of the world, and other countries possess forests of as high economic value. But it may be fairly truthfully claimed, that in no part of the world is to be found in combination under the ownership of one nation, a forest area of so large extent, oi so high economic value, furnishing such a large number of species of such varied useful- ness and in such accessible form and condition. Geographically and botanically we must differ- entiate the country into two absolutely unlike types, namely the Atlantic and the Pacific type. Practically the entire surface on the Atlantic side — west to a meandering line, which follows more or less closely the Mississippi Valley and runs no- where beyond the ninety-ninth degree of longitude — was originally a vast continuous forest compris- ing somewhat over one million square miles, or 33« 3.V ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. about 700 million acres,* of which less than 40 per cent, or less than 30U million acres, have been turned into farm lands, and an unknown acreage has been culled of its valuable stores of timber, ravaged by fire, or turned into useless brush lands. The area to the west, almost twi e as 1 irge. — 1200 million acres, — is mainly a lurestless, often treeless area into which stretch like narrow penin- sulas of varying width from the north the forested mountain ranges of the Rockies, not exceeding 100 million acres of woodlands and the forest of the Sierras and coast ranges of the P. ific with nearly the same acreage. The Atlantic forest occupying tl e humi'' egions of the United States and covering ooth v c s aud mountains, composed of a large variety o* broad leaved species with conifers intermixed, gradu 'y changes to the westward into the prairie country, practically forestless, although not treeless, where trees and forests of an inferior character a^e capa- ble of growing, ^ut where the gras-es are ble to compete successi ally with the arborescent 1 ora. To the west of the prairit beit lie tb ains and semi-arid regions, includir g c «t-. irrigable *The figures '^A in this chapt- r lay no tiitical ac- curacy but are mere rough s^^prt^ximation .i to give a general idea of reU'iinMhipa, »acfciM the econ edi. There are no accurate data hand: ^enn 'even the &. the different ■tates are accurate) nown, < cia' th iritie* dn ing widely, it is UBcicsB to attempt TyihtBg 1--.= of? figures. FDREST CONDITIONS. 333 valleys, fore^'^'oss teaus .nd mountai is, where tree growth .s ent. ly ab nt or stunU unles* irtificu V fostf^red. It is i o this type of coun- try that the K cky Mountai forest protrudes, of oniferous con position, for the most par' erf in- feri< development, except in the more northern portion ; and similarly, parallelmg the coast iro nor'^h to south, extends the Pacific fore't lu* g the mountain slopes of the Cascades, S. -Nevada, nd Coast Range, practically alr^ost H- com- posed of conifers, often of mos velop ne with only few broad- aved sp For t. purposes of this vo) c r accessary to consider the fore;^ lew'ly acquired outlying depe- far-removed Alaskan terri* iry lae interior of Alaska, bt untry with a short se. lorested in the manner of sucii countries, the tree growth mostly stunted and open, while the Alaska coast forest partakes of the haracter of the Pacific coast forest, with fewer sp< ^ of conifers (mostly only hemlock and spr ot inferior develop- ment The distribution then of forest country and open country is most uneven ; three-fourths of the wood- lands being concentrated on one side of the conti- nent, the remaining fourth being collocated in two parcels on the two great mountain systems of the other side of the contir at. mugnifi t de* not »dit m. the ies no of the cept to state that tii main an arid of vegetation, is 334 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. This distribution is, of course, mainly due to climatic conditions; low relative humidity of the air and deficiency of water supplies in the soil having much to do with the absence of forest cover over the larger part of our domain. The economic significance of this condition comes with the realization that the bulk of the best agricultural soils of the United States lies within the forestless region, and also that eventu- ally the irrigable portion of the arid regions is destined to be the richest, dependent on a rational management of water supplies, i.e. of the forest cover. On the other hand, while undoubtedly the productive timber area of this region may be arti- ficially extended in a small degree, the mam timber production of the country will have to be secured where nature originally placed it, namely on the east side of the continent, where climate favors forest growth, and diversity of surface conditions differentiates farm and forest soils. Here, where the centre of population lies, and with it the bulk of consumption, the problems of forestry and of timber production need foremost attention. So far, of the vast domain of the United States (1,900,800,000 acres) not one-fourth is occupied by farms ; in most sections of the forest country the farm area * falls below 50 per cent and in no state does it exceed 84 per cent A vast area, there- iThe Cenrat of 1900 gives the hxm area as 841,301,000 acres, of which, however, only 49.3 per cent are reported as improved. FOREST CONDITIONS, 33S fore, is not yet appropriated to any particular use, being wild lands, waste, or under forest The acreage given above would indicate a for- ested area of not exceeding 650 million acres, n*ftiely, the 900 million acres as given above, less the improved farm area in the forest country, which amounts to about 250 million acres ; but it should be well understood that this represents merely woodlands, areas covered with woody growth, which must be very considerably reduced if we apply the economic point of view and include only areas that contain or can without human aid prod- uce timber useful for the arts, — if we discuss, in other words, the forest area not as a natural con- dition, but as a national resource. Not only are large areas, especially in the west- em country, occupied by trees incapable of grow- ing to valuable size or quaUty, but in the eastern forest country there are large areas from which all valuable { owth has been removed by axe and fire. These are sometimes turned into actual bar- rens or are occupied by useless brush growth, which effectually prevents the reestablishment of valu- able forest growth without human aid, and hence they are for the present withdrawn from useful production. Trustworthy statistics of the actually produc- tive forest area are not in existence, although figures have been presented as such by statis- ticians without capacity to interpret their mean- 336 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. ing. We can only attempt rough approximations, applying to the data at hand personal knowledge and impressions gathered in the field with pro- fessional insight. We can readily admit that these figures are often far from correct, yet not so far but that they give a true conception of the general condition of things. Applying proper economic considerations, we may at once halve the figures given for both the Rocky Mountain and the Pacific forest, and re- duce that of the Atlantic forest, after deducting the actually enumerated farm area by only lo per cent, a small allowance to make for actual waste lands.^ We thus arrive at an area of round 5cx> million acres as representing the real forest resources of the country, a near enough ap- ^ Some bun for such redacdona may be f« b J in infonnadon oi the following kind; — The nearest approach to a itadttical statement for one of the Pacific Coast states, Washington, is made in the Twentieth Report of the U. S. Geol. Survey, 1900, Part V, from which it appears, that while the area reported as forest by the chief geographer is 47,700 square miles, only half that acreage is found to contain merchant- able timber, of which two-thirds is located in the western one-tiiird of the state. Here, of 15,858 square miles, formerly covered with merchanUble timber, 20 per cent are reported cut and nearly 23 per cent destroyed by fire. For the sUte of Oregon the same report upon rather insufficient data reduces the reported woodland area of 54,300 square miles to 45441 of timbered, i.e. economically valuable area. A similar survey of one of the Atlantic forest Mates, Vnacomdn, described in Bulletin 15, Forestry Division, U. S. Dept. of Agricul- tore, 1898, reduces the woodland, reported by the census of 1880^ FOREST CONDITIONS. 337 proximation for all practical purposes of the economist. The larger portion of this area of 500 million acres is, however, not to be conceived as filled with standing timber ready for the axe, but consists of "culled " forest, which means that the mercha.it* able timber of the better kinds has been removed more or less closely. How nearly this assertion must be true we may learn from the simple contemplation of the fact, that the constantly increasing population of the United States has drawn its wood supplies from this area originally of less than 700 ntillion acres, without systematic attention to reproduction. If we assume that the consumption per capita has not been quite as large as it is now (350 cubic feet), although there is not much reason for such assump- tion, and add up the population annually calling for such supplies since the year 178c only, we find that not less than 2,500 million people have had their annual requirements satisfied ; that means a total of not less than 600 to 700 billion cubic fe^ from 31,750 iqttare milei to about 26,904, of which nearly 50 per cent ia " cot over, largely burned over and waste brush lands, and one-half of this as nearly desert as it can become in Uie climate (rf Wisconsin." From such statements it will ^>pear that the method of arriving at the forest acreage, used by Mr. Gannett, chief geographer, in the , Nineteenth Report of the U. S. GeoL Surrey, namely to deduct dM Cum area of twenty years ago from the total land area, leads to no osefol result for pn r p o a ct of the economist. 33« ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. Taking into consideration the wasteful use of tim- ber, — the log-rolling fires in clearing for farm use, owing to the lack of market, — we may assume that less than half of this consumption was secured from these farm areas, the other part necessitating the culling of certainly 300 million acres, so that hardly 200 million acres containing merchantable timber may remain, even if we make allowance for aftergrowth. Comparing this probability cal- culation with the amount of standing timber, given on page 52, as an extravagant estimate, this area would have to contain an average of io,cxx) feet B.M., or 20CX) cubic feet of such wood as we use, which is not likely to be the case, or at least questionable. This area, moreover, is continually reduced by fire and by clearing for farm purposes, as the change of improved farm areas in the forested states from census year to census year shows, namely, an increase of about 25 million acres each decade in round figures. Some abandoned farms in New England, and in the South, to be sure, are gradually returning to forest growth, but these additions are small in proportion to the farm in- crease. Nevertheless, taking the forested area actually grown or growing to timber, in good, bad, or indifferent condition, it represents in the forest country of the Atlantic side still 40 to 45 per cent of the total land area, while about 20 to 25 per cent may be set down as waste lands. FOREST CONDITIONS. 339 The productive forest area of the western coun- try may be stated as not exceeding 14 per cent. For the whole country the v/oodland area according to the United States Chief Geographer, whose dis- cussions on these questions contain many misstate- ments and misconceptions, represents 37 per cent ; according to the writer's conception of what may be considered forest area, it is not much over 26 per cent This acreage of round 500 million acres under proper management would barely be capable of supplying continuously the present annual wood consumption of the people of the United States, which, as we have seen on page 51, amounts to about 25,000 million cubic feet; while we esti- mated that the virgin supplies still standing may be able to satisfy the present consumption for perhaps 40 to 50 years. The immediate inauguration of conservative treatment, of recuperative measures, and of proper economies in the use of wood may, therefore, be able to avert serious discomforts to be expected from a shortage in wood supplies, provided there be no increase in consumption, or perhaps even a proportionate reduction, as the population in- creases, which as we have seen in Chapter II. is possible. So far the census statistics record an increase of wood consumption, in values at least, of a round 30 per cent for every decade, and hence the economies, as well as the conservative and recuperative treatment, should be begun now. 340 ECONOMICS OP FORESTRY. The ownership of the forest area wiU largely determine how far such conservative treatment may be expected. Governments, which are logically conservative managers of their properties, own in the United States as yet only an insignificant acreage. Thanks to the forest reservation poUcy, inaugurated in 1891, the federal government has reserved and continues to reserve and exclude from sale or other disposal some of the pubUc domain, which still comprises over 500,000,000 acres. It is uncertain how much of this acreage is for- est covered. There are somewhat over 10,000,000 acres stUl held in the Eastern states, largely swamp lands and forest, while for the Western states. Mr. F. H. Newell, a few years ago,* estimated the public lands open for entry as follows : — Brush lands 96,000,000. Timber forest 70,000,000. Desert 69,000,000. Grazingland 374^)00,000. Since under the existing construction of the land laws, the timber lauds on the Pacific coast may be entered as agricultural lands, and since the lumber business of that region in the last few years has been greatly extended, it is fair to assume that by such entries the timber forest area of the pubUc domam has been considerably reduced from that esUmate. The forest reservations made by the federal » U. S. Gcol. Survey, Ann. Rep. 1894- FOREST CONDITIONS. 341 government to July i, 1902, comprise an acreage of nearly 60 million acres, hardly more than i per cent of the public domain, but it is well known that a considerable portion of these reservations is not timber land; they include brush lands, grazing lands, and desert In fact the examinations by agents of the United States Geological Survey indicate that of about 12 million acres examined, not more than 30 per cent contains merchantable timber, and the amount of such timber is estimated at not to exceed 24 billion feet B.M. In other words, on this vast area can- not be found one year's requirement for the whole United States, or six years' supply for the mills now operating in the Western states. There is no reason to suppose that the rest of the federal reserves are much better timbered, for the examined portions seem to represent fairly well average conditions ; hence, the forest reservation policy of the govern- ment, as far as the supply question for the country at large is concerned, has not, and indeed cannot, alleviate matters very much. Even if all the tim- ber lands now in possession of the federal govern- ment were withdrawn from entry, — and it is a short- sighted policy not to have done so long ago, — such reservation would bear on local conditions of supply only. But, indeed, for the welfare of the West- em states, the inauguration of the forest reservation policy is of the utmost importance ; not only from the timber supply point of view, but especially with 34a ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. regard to the question of water supply. "Tie vaU leys of the West being, for the use of their almost inexhaustible fertility, dependent upon irngation watem. the water conserving capacity of » wd^ kept forest cover is indispensable, and in this dmo- tion even the brush lands are of value. It would be only rational that the extensive plans for the development of irrigation systems m the West should include the rapid withdrawal from entry of all the mountain forest and brush lands, and their rational treatment with the mam object of preserving the soil cover. In the Eastern states, the single state govern, ments alone may carry out a similar reservation poUcy. and indeed the beginnings have been made here and there. The state of New York owns nearly one and one-quarter miUion acres with the owed purpose of increasing the acreage .: state latest; the state of Pennsylvania has entered upon the poUcy of acquiring state forest, and several other states are at least discussing the propriety of such ownership. But the majority of the states have not yet waked up to their obUgation in this respect, and com- munities, like villages, towns, cities, counties, which so often in Europe derive acceptable income from forest properties, have not yet considered such a poUcy, hence the forest areas are nearly enturely m private hands. , As to the character of this private ownership and FOREST CONDITIONS. 343 the distribution among different classes of owners, we are without data. The cer us of 1880 gave a statement of the ownership by farmers of 200 mill- ion acres in wood lots. This would mostly repre- sent a conservative ownership, although farmers do not always treat their timber lots as intelligently as they might ; but it is quite certain that much of this acreage has since passed into the hands of lumbermen and wood-working establishments.* Among these we must discern between the jobbers, who merely buy stumpage, i.e. the timber without the land, who, therefore, take no interest in the future of either, and hence are least con- servative in their treatment ^ f the forest, and the land-owning class, who are apt to take more thought of what may become of their holdings. It fa, however, only very lately that this interest ex- tends in the direction of conservative lumbering and of keeping the forest as such productive ; in most cases the policy of " skinning " is still the usual one, that means culling out the merchantable material, with a very variable result as regards the condition in which the forest is left. Sometimes, as when the spruce or pine is cut out from the mixed hardwood forest, its absence may be hardly noticed by the layman, the forest cover fa little interrupted, and the scattered debris sooner or iThe value of wood products, cut on farmen' wood loti, wu found by the census of 1900 to uoMmnt to lets than lao milUoa doUan, \\ 344 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. later decomposes, but the composition is surely altered in the old timber as well as in the young aftergrowth. Where the soft woods, which are the most valuable and the most easily removed by water transportation, had occupied a larger portion of the mixed forest, or were found in pure stands, or where hardwoods are lumbered, the case is less hopeful for the future, the accumulation of debris prevents largely a reproduction of valuable species, and the succession is of inferior kinds and shrubs, especially as the valuable seed trees have been either entirely removed or greatly reduced. Sooner or later fires run through the slashing, and if repeated may destroy not only all the struggling after- ^owth, but the humus, the soil itself, and so render the land practically useless for genera^ dons. Sometimes a fire at the right time may, however, have done good by reducing the slash, and, if seed trees were left uncut in the neighborhood, a de- sirable aftergrowth may have established itself, which but for a repetition of the fire would grow into desirable timber. In late years the severity of the culling pro- cess has greatily increased, since with improved means of transportation and reduced supplies smaller sizes have become marketable; as a result the chances of a valuable aftergrowth are greatly diminbhed, and most of the logged areas of to-day, differing from those of twenty or thirty FOREST CONDITIONS. 345 yean ago, are doomed to non-productive condition for generations. The owners of expensive permanent mill estab- kishments, relying on timber supply, are naturally more interested in a continuity of local supplies than those who can readily change their location when the supplies in one locality are exhausted. Hence such manufactures as the paper-pulp in- dustry will become or are already interested in more conservative use of their holdings. Lately, as in all commercial enterprises, a ten- dency has developed in the lumber industry to con- solidate forest properties and form trusts, which own many thousands or even millions of acres of forest land. Such trusts may be and probably are mostly formed for the immediate financial advantages ac- cruing from combination, but they could, and, if they consulted their true interests, would, practise a more conservative treatment of their timber and introduce forestry methods, which would prove in the end the wisest continual financial policy. Trusts, therefore, properly organized for con- tinuous business, may prove next to governments the most hopeful agencies for practising forestry, since they can control large areas under uniform and continuous policy. Another class of conservative owners of forest property is coming to the fore, namely, wealthy capitalists, who can see the financial advantages of 346 ECX)NOMICS or FORESTRY. the future in forest propertie*, and arc able to hold such propertiea until developments surround- ing them will make their conservative use under forestry methods possible. Others, including sporting associations, are own- ing forest properties for other than economic pur- poses. These, too, are naturally conservative, and when forestry practice is established in this country, will probably learn that their pleasure need not suffer by applying such practice to their properties and deriving financial benefits from them as well. As we have seen in previous chapters, forestry is profitable only in the long run and on large areas; it is a business which contemplates continu- ity for a long period, hence the more our forest resources pass into the hands of perpetual cor- porations and wealthy owners, the more hopeful is their fate. For a thorough understanding and discussion of the economic aspects of our forest areas, we ought to know, not only the extent of forest cover, and the character and condition of the forest growth, but its distribution over the different soils and topographic conditions, when it may be determined what areas are naturally to be kept in forest, and what areas must by necessity be turned into farm lands ; where the protective feature requires greater care in their management, or where they may be left to their fate. It will have appeared that in speaking of the FOREST CONDITIONS. 347 forest areas from the supply point of view, wc keep in mind that not only the old crop, the virgin timber ready for the axe, but also the young crop, the aftergrowth of valuable kinds, should be consid- ered as timber-producing area, and even the bare soil itself, if it is only left in condition to recuper- ate, and to reproduce naturally valuable species in a reasonable time. As far as mere soil cover is concerned, the value- less species and even the brush lands may aufhn to furnish protection and perform the functions, at least in part, of the timber forest ; yet even here, in order to make the best use of the soil in the household of a nation, it becomes necessary to eradicate the weeds and favor the useful species. As we have intimated before, there are weeds among trees as well as among the lower vegetation. Indeed, of the 500 species of arborescent growth of which we can boast in our woods, there are hardly more than 70 which deserve the forester's attention, although we may expand the number of useful ones to 100 or more, since in the absence of some better material, even the poor Lodge-pole Pine of the West, covering thousands of square miles, the Black Jack of the barrens, and the Scrub Pines of the sandy coast become valuable, at least for firewood. In the markets, where the finer botanical distinc- tions into species are neglected, it would be diffi- cult to find as many as fifty native woods quoted. be grown again consciously uy uum o «mu. ii *.»*.» - thsless, with all these eliminations, there remains ? large number of highly valuable species for whivh the chances of perpetuation are to be prepared by the forester. The most important furnishers of timber are the conifers: pines, spruces, firs, hemlocks, cedars, larch, and cypress, usually in commerce called soft woods in contradistinction to the broad-leaved trees, designated as hardwoods,* ahhough both groups contain both hard and soft woods. Our flora excels especially in a great variety of pines, those most useful trees of the temperate zone, of which we can boast at least ten timber- producing species, three softwooded white pines and seven hardwooded yellow pines, besides not less than twenty-five scrub-pines, useful to occupy the least favorable dry soils. Of other conifers the Red and Black Spruce of the Northeast, the Bald Cypress of the South, and the Douglas or Red Fir, Redwood, and Sugar Pine of the West are the most prominent staples, the others being of minor importance. Among the hardwoods the oaks are perhaps the ^Thii distinction hai received wnction in the court*. in importance may be placed the ashes, two impor- tant species, the hickories with five interchangeable timber species, the maples with four marketable species, and the Tulip Tree or Whitewood, the giant tree of the East, besides Chestnut, Red Gum, Bass- wood, elms, birches, and the rarer Walnut and Cherry for ornamental woodwork, with a number of others. The relative importance of these woods, and hence of the forest regions in which they are found, may be learned from the estimated distribu- tion of the annual cut as it appeared in the census year 1890.1 This total annual cut, including all material requiring bolt or log size, estimated at round 40,000 million feet B.M.,* was approximately made up of the following kinds and quantities : — BOlionCMt White Pine «a Spnif and Fir 5 » Thcie 6gurefl we not ceniiu itataticfl, which are tlwayi ihort of the truth, but efttmatet based upon census daU and other infonnadon, rounded oB to include unenumerated amounts; they approximate relative conditions averaged for a series of years. The prewnt actual cut must be somewhat larger than this approxima- tion, since the Census of 1900 ptaces the sawed product alone at 35,000 million feet B.M. f. . ' ' ■ million feet, which with a greatly reduced cut will last a few years longer, when the king of the woods will have been reduced to an inferior rank. In the same document the supplies of all conif- erous interchangeable material, standing ready for the axe in the Northern states, was estimated at a round ioo,ocx) million feet, while the annual cut at that time was placed at round i8,ocx> million feet. Since then the conception of what is mer- chantable timber has greatly changed, small-sized > See Senate Document, No. 40, 55th CongKM, l«t scMicti, 1897, " White Pine Timber Suppliet." FOREST CONDITIONS. 353 logs and small-sized trees have become salable, the cut, at least of White Pine, has been considerably diminished, and hence supplies will last still for years to come. In addition, on the areas .vhich in earlier years had been culled less severely, the trees that were left have put on growth sufficient to become marketable (second growth!); and occision- ally also jiatural volunteer reproduction has come, furnishing new supplies. Nevertheless, even if the estimates were doubled and quadrupled, the time of practical exhaustion of this resource will be upon us before recuperative measures have been fairly started. The Southern forest, although showing greater variety and number of species, does not add many hardwood species of economic value, which arc not represented in the Northern forest. But in conif- erous species it furnishes invaluaV>le supplies by a group of hardwooded yellow pines, the Bald Cy- press, and to a lesser extent the Pencil Cedar or Juniper. The sandy soils in which the Southern itates along the Atlantic and Gulf coast abound are occu- pied by vrst: pineries, in whkh for hundreds and thousands of square miles the hardwood species are almost absent except in the loamy hummocks and river-bottoms. The most important and valuable of these pines is the Longleaf or Georgia Pine, which predominates over the largest area in a belt paral- the coast from North Carolina to eaatern leling' ax 354 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. Texas, varying in width from 60 to 150 miles. In its southern range it is joined by the Cuban Pine, of equal or even greater value, although in the market not differentiated, and by the Loblolly Pine ; in its northern range it extends into the mixed forest which covers a belt of 20 to 60 miles more, in which the Longleaf Pine is associated with Short- leaf Pine, in the market called North Carolina Pine, with Loblolly or Oldfield Pine (called Virginia Pine), and with hardwoods. North of this belt of mixed forest the pine area is increased by the Shortleaf Pine, occasionally asso- dated with the Loblolly, occupying the sandy soils. Although the Longleaf and Cuban pines are supe- rior in quality, the other two have not much less vai . and application in the arts, being often sub- stituted ; and hence we can consider the whole pine belt as a unity, an area of about 150,000,000 acres, within which these pines do or did occur in mer- chantable quantities. Deducting the farm area and making allowance for hardwood areas interspersed between the pineries, the pine-producing area is probably not quite two-thirds of the area of distri- bution, or round 90,000,000 acres. The available supplies of standing timber were estimated by the writer seven years ago at between 200,000 and 300,000 milUon feet. At that time the annual cut exceeded 7,000 million feet, and as it has con- stantly and rapidly increased, the waning white- pine supplies stimulating the Southern lumber in- FOREST CONDITIONS. 355 dustry, it is probably safe to reduce this stand by at least 70,000 million, so that at best, less than the lower estimate is remaining to satisfy a demand of now over 10,000 million feet annually. We must again and again accentuate that these figurings are neither mathematics nor statistics in the sense of the enumerator, but are calculations of possibilities or probabilities sufficiently close to give an insight into the general situation. By changing standards, by cutting more closely, by avoiding waste in logging and sawing, by avoiding extravagance in the use of the materials, we may lengthen the time during which these stores may last, but unless they are replaced by reproduction, they must give out within much less time than it takes to grow a log tree, for the timber which we now cut is mostly 150 to 300 years and more old, and none of these pines make suitable sawlogs in less than 60 to 120 years. What under prevailing practices the chance for spontaneous natural reproduction and the condition of the cut-over areas are, may be learned from read- ing the excellent monograph on "The Southern Pines," by Dr. Charles Mohr.* The practice of annual firing of the woods, to improve the grazing, has in most places effectually prevented renewal of the pines. One of the forest industries ushjg a by-product, iMThe Timber Vbtx^ of the Scutbern United Statn, ' No. 13, Oivirioii of Forestry, U. S. Dept of Agriculture, 1896. 356 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. which is derived from bleeding the Longleaf Pine, the naval store industry, producing now values to the amount of $20,000,000 per annum, has also done much to reduce suppUes and reproduction. WhUe it might have been carried on, as it is m France, without injury to timber or young growth, the crude methods employed have destroyed much timber before the saw miUer was ready to use it, and much more has fallen a prey to the destructive fires which have followed the turpentine gatherer. Besides the pines there is found in the swamps of the Southern states another valuable conifer, the Bald Cypress. The area occupied by this species is naturally small, and with an annual cut which may now be much more than 5,000,000 feet, it can be soon exhausted, and the reproduction, which is naturally less ready on lands under water for several months in the year, may be counted as Of hardwoods we have large areas throughout the entire Atlantic forest, and as our consump- tion is relatively small, and the hardwoods repro- duce readily, their future is easily provided for. In the more settled parts of the New England and North Atlantic states and on the northern Appa- lachians of Pennsylvania and New YorU. the timber forest of hardwoods has mostiy beei» suppianied by the coppice, producing only firewood and small dimensions, but it will be an easy task to change it back into timber forest FOREST CONDITIONS. S$7 It is in the coniferous materials that we are most concerned, for they form three-fourths of our consumption, and their reproduction in competition with the hardwoods and the iires is not promising. Some ignorant people — ignorant both as to re- quirements of the wood industries and as to the condition and character of our forest resources — have claimed that the natural growth of young trees, without any attention, following the opera- tions of lumbermen, would suffice to replace that which is removed and would continue to furnish the required material The observant student, not to speak of the pro- fessional forester, can readily see that culling the valuable kinds and leaving the inferior tree weeds in possession of the soil almost entirely prevents in many cases reproduction of the valuable species. In other cases where the production of valuable kinds does take place, as, for instance, with the Southern pines, whenever the young growth is not killed by fires, the development is so unsatis- factory, that where with proper attenticii a new crop might be available in seventy to a hundred years, twice the time will be required to make clear timber of quality. In most cases recurring fires retard this natural re-growth still further or prevent it altogether. Of the character and conditions of the Western forests we have almost more detailed information than of the Atlantic forest, thanks to tLe various I sst ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. government surveys and railroad-land cruisings, and the examinations of the federal forest reservations by agents of the United States Geological Survey. These forests are all coniferous, the broad-leaved trees playing an insignificant part, although the Pacific Coast forests contain some valuable oak, ash, and maple. The Western forests are mainly confined to the mountain slopes, varying in char- acter with latitude and altitude, »./. with the varia- tion in moisture and temperature conditions. We have seen that probably 50 per cent of the wood- land area may be ruled out from consideration as timber producing, so that roughly only round 100,000,000 acres remain for that purpose, one- half on the Rocky Mountains, the other half on the Pacific coast. If this were all untouched, we might have found for the Rocky Mountain forest a stond of not exceeding 200,000 million and for the Pacific coast forest 1,000,000 million feet, but from these stores during our occupation of these territories at least 200,000,000 people have drawn their annual requirement of probably not less than 500 feet, and thtit in a wasteful maimer; a large amount of matiriil has been exported to neighboring states and across the sea. and a still larger amount has been destroyed by fire, so that, gathering indications from the reports of the Geo- logical Survey, the amount of standing timber, ac- cording to present standards and under present methods of utilization, will probably be less than FOREST CONDITIONS. 359 ;oo^ooo million feet It must be underatood, that especially on the Pacific coast, where lumbering is carried on not merely to supply local wants but for export, the most wasteful use of the timber is forced upon the lumberman by the destructive competition, the dbtance from market, with high freight rates, reducing the material actually market- able by 50 to 80 per cent and more below Eastern standards, the merchantable diameter limit fai the Fuget Sound regions being at present twenty-two inches. Even in the Black HiUs, in lumbering the pine of the forest reserve, mostly for local use, it has been estimr ted that 50 per cent of each tree cut for lumber is left in the woods, fully one and one- half cord for every thousand feet utilized. Throughout the Rocky Mountain forest the hard- wooded Yellow or Bull Pine is the most important tree, often occurring in pure stands as on the plateau forest of Arizona. To this arc joined the Douglas or Red Fir, becoming more prevalent and better developed toward the north, the Engelman Spruce and several other inferior spruces and firs, and occasionally a hemlock. Toward the north, in Idaho, where the timber improves in development and the forest in density, a white pine, the Silver Pine, and a larch of pro- digious dimensions, form most valuable stands, together with the Giant Cedar. Thousands of square miles are covered with the Lodge-pole Pine in pure stands almost entirely useless for timber. m atocon iBOumoN mr chait (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 3) 1.0 !lll 1.1 i 1.25 Itt U 12.8 132 IM lAO 12.5 |L6 A /iPPUED IM/GE Inc l*M COTI Moin SIrwt RschMlar, Ntw York 14609 USA <7I6) 4« - 0100 - PtMHW (71») )-ra> 360 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. although furnishing fire wood and small dimension material Thousands of square miles of the high elevations are occupied by the Subalpine Fir and scrubby pines of no commercial value ; in addition fire has not only damaged but destroyed thousands of square miles. The following figures abstracted from the United States Geological Report cited are illustrative. In the Priest Forest Reserve, which comprises about lOOO square miles, of which 850 were found timber- producing, at least 70 per cent of the timber once standing is estimated as destroyed by fires dur- ing the last thirty years, a loss in value of over $ioo,ooo,cxX). " Excepting a small area of about 1600 acres along the Lower West Fork, there is no body of timber of 1000 acres or even 500 acres extent not scorched by fire. In the lower zones there are over 200,000 acres on which the destruc- tion is practically complete. In the subalpine zone at least 40,000 of the 60,000 acres have been more or less injured by fire." In the Bitterroot Reserve, which contains over 4,000,000 acres, of 1,000,000 acres examined only 60 per cent was found wooded, half with the com- paratively valueless Lodge-pole Pine, 20 per cent with inferior Red Fir, and only 30 per cent with the valuable Yellow Pine, over 20 per cent of the origi- nal stand having been destroyed by fire in the last forty years. On the east slopes of the Cascades and Sierras FOREST CONDITIONS. 361 and throughout the Interior Basin arid conditions prevail, and hence wherever forest areas occur, the trees stand open and are stunted, and gener- ally of no commercial value. Yet the open pine forest of the Blue Mountains, of the slopes and plateau of eastern Oregon, made up of Bull Pine, furnishes at least a welcome local timber supply ; and the northern part of Washington, where moisture conditions improve, shows the effect in permitting an extension of the Rocky Mountain forest type of northern Idaho, with Bull Fine and Silver Pine o\ commercial value accompanying the comparatively valueless Lodge-pole Pine. The Pacific coast forest presents four types. The northern type, covering the west slope of the Cascade and the Coast ranges through Washington and Oregon, derives its value mainly from the Douglas or Red Fir, and is characterized both by density of stand and individual development and by dense undergrowth in response to the great humidity of the climate. Associated with the fir is found a hemlock of not much inferior develop- ment, but at present left unused, and the Giant Cedar. In the higher elevations some excellent true firs, Silver Pine, Engelman, and other spruces add variety, and along the seashore the Sitka Spruce and Port Orford Cedar of limited distribution, while Yellow or Bull Pine occupies the ^ andy flats and drier slopes. In its extension over the Coast Range of California the type changes somewhat, although 363 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. the same species are present and the density is alike, but the Redwood, congener to the Big Tree, is added, and, in its narrow, long belt of distribution from Oregon to the Santa Cruz Mountains, replaces in importance the Douglas Fir, 'vhirh seems to lose in value in its more southern range. The extension of the Cascade forest over the Sierra Nevada shows a much greater change, al- though the same species continue in the composi- tion with the same magnificent development, but the Sugar Pine, a congener of the Michigan White Pine, of ponderous development, is added and be- comes the main and most valuable timber tree, and the forest grows open, the undergrowth more scanty. Here the giant Big Trees occur in occasional groves, of historic interest more than of commercial value. Toward the south, both on the Coast Range and on the Sierra, the value of timber growth greatly diminishes, becoming reduced in size, the stand opening more and more; finally, in the southern ranges of the San Gabriel, San Bernardino, and San Jacinto mountains, the timber of value. Yellow and Sugar Pine and Red Fir, occurs only in groves among the brush and chaparral which covers most of the dry slopes. We have seen that the timber-producing area of this Pacific coast forest may not be estimated at more than round 6o,ooo,ocx> acres, containing somewhat over 6cx>,cxx> million feet of merchant- able timber. Upon the basis of a compilation of FOREST CONDITIONS. 363 timber cruisings of railroad companies, the United States Chief Geographer has for the states of Washington and Oregon placed the merchantable timber at less than 350,000 million feet on 38,000,000 acres, which appears to us a rather low estimate even with ti>e high standard at pres- ent prevailing. Timber cruisings are usually from 20 to 50 per cent below the actualities. The writer still believes that it would be per- fectly safe for purposes of this general discussion to raise this estimate 20 per cent, and, applying the same stumpage for California on a timber-produc- ing area of 18,000,000 acres, to arrive at the above figure, leaving 180,000 million feet of the amount credited to the Western states on page 52 to be found in the Rocky Mountains and scattered regions of the West. Indeed, with a change in standards and in log- ging practice, and especially with a more rational utilization of all the useful timber, this estimate may readily be doubled or even trebled, as the writer had done in the Senate document cited, when comparing supplies with the consumption of the whole country. Since the cut of lumber in the Pacific coast states does not exceed at present 5,000,000,000 feet, no immediate apprehension regarding supplies would be justified. Yet, when we find that the value of the mill-product of the three states in- creased according to the census from $8,000,000 in 364 F';ONOMICS OF FORESTRY. 1880 to ^30,000,000 in 1890, and to $54,000,000 in 1900, the security for the future is not as assured as the mathematical statistician figures out from the given data, especially sii.ce it is well known that forest fires keep in check useful reproduction and also consume or make useless considerable quantities of standing timber. (See note on page 336.) Unsatisfactory as is our statistical knowledge of our forest resources, it is sufficient to arouse most serious apprehension as to future supplies. We have, in the forests of the United States out- side of Alaska, a supply of coniferous material most unevenly distributed and not exceeding 1,200,000 million feet to satisfy a demand of at present 30,000 million feet per annum and con- stantly growing. Even if the estimates of supplies were doubled, and if fires were stopped, it must be evident to any student of the field that the repro- duction, left to nature alone, cannot replace in time our requirements. The argument for the adoption of immediate recuperative and conservptive measures from the supply point of view, in which the writer foi a quarter century 'las used his breath and pen wi«:h indifferent result, would appear well rus- tained. Small beginnings toward the solution of the prob- lems which arise from this condition of things have been made, but the importance of the forestry FOREST CONDITIONS. 365 movement has by no means been fully and gener< ally realized, as we shall see in the next chapter; the difficulty of changing existing usages, lines of procedure, and modes of thought require unusual effort and require tim«^ For the future, it i the end of much more importance to know wc acreage available for timber growing and the capacity of production of that acreage than the actually available supplies. These, no matter how large, every intelligent man will adn»:t, must sooner or later be exhausted, and we must rely upon the reproduction. The present acreage must, to be sure, change until all agricul- turally available lands have been turned into farms and all lands unfit for far*ning have been turned back into forest growth. But if we accept as mere indications of possibili- ties the prp jent acreage of timber land on the At- lantic side as 400,000,000 acres, and assume that it can be made to produce at the r,am«, rate ar. the German forests under good management, it would be able to supply continuously the present con- sumption of 25,000,000,000 cubic f'^et. The most important, most immediately needful change in thought and practice, without wh'ch forestry, the provision for future supplies, cannot be practically applied, is that in regard to forest fires. Forest fires are the bane of the forests of the United States — the most destructive agency; for while, with the exception of the Western forests, 366 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. the yearly conflagrations destroy comparatively small amounts of standing timber, they kill the young growth, the hope of the future, and destroy even the soil, the fertility, an accumulation of cen- turies of decaying leaf -mould. In comparison with our figures of bona fide con- sumption the direct loss of material through fires would appear, from such incomplete statistics as are at hand, as a small matter, perhans ? to 3 per cent of the total value of forest » - but the indirect loss can hardly be overes' - besides the seeming impotency of coping ^ destruc- tive agency discourages more conservative i jrest management on the part of forest owners, who are, under the circumstances, naturally induced to shorten the risk and turn into cash as quickly as possible what is valuable in the forest growth, leav- ing the balance to its fate. That, with the reckless exploitatio^i of our virgin woods, accompanied by these forest fires, which have become notorious throughout the worid, not only timber supplies have been decimated, but the protective function of the forest cover on moun- tain slopes has been considerably injured in many places, goes without saying. Although it is even more difficult to adduce defi- nite data regarding this influence, the argument of the pernicious influence of forest destruction on waterflow and loss of soil has found much more ready ears among the public. FOREST CONDITI*" IS. 367 Indeed it is often used in the most absurd, extravagant, and unintelligent manner. In the Eastern forest, especially the mountain forest, wholesale denudation is comparatively rare, since the lumberman usually culls merely ; repro- duction at least of a shrubby vegetation is most raiud, and there would be little danger of losing the protective cover through lumbering operations if the fires were kept out. Even if a fire goes through the slash, it is not many years before a new vegetation has established itself, and only repeated fires can produce a real denudation. The effects are, of course, variable according to a variety of circumstances and conditions, the time of occurrence of the fires, the amount oi debris to feed the flames, the character of the soil and its cover, etc. While the mountain forests on the Atlantic side show only here and there really serious detriment to soil and soil cover due to lumbering operations and fires, injudicious clearing for farm use and improper management of farm lands are much more frequently the causes of undue erosion and soil washes. Signs of the deleterious influences of undue deforestation are visible in all parts of the Eastern United States, and a chapter could readily be filled with detailed descriptions of regions which have especially sufiFered. 368 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. SandKiunes have been created by forest removal on all parts of our sea-shore; uneven water stages have been aggravated in all the older parts of the Umon ; soil washes can be seen in all the mountain and hill country, especially in the Southern states, With their abandoned or mismanaged farm lands. In the Western mountains, where fires are more destructive on account of the coniferous composi- tion and the dry climate, and where the pasturing Of sheep in the forests p. ents ready reCstpblish- ment of vegetation, the results are even more readily observed. We are experiencing droughts, we are suflFering from floods, we have uneven seasons; but how much of these conditions is to be ascribed to our forest conditions, how much to general cosmic causes, nobody can determine. At any rate these conditions can be discussed and corrected only for definite local points. We have, perhaps, nowhere as yet come to such state of afiFairs as those re- ported from the high Alps of France, Switzerland, Austna. and Italy, but a continuance of our present disregard of the soU cover must inevitably lead to them. ' Meanwhile the supply question is the more im- portant, and attention to this, leading to the practice of silviculture, will naturally also incidentaUy cor- rect the evils of denudation. CHAPTER XII. TBI fOSBSTsr movubht nr tbs unitid statu. From the very beginning of the settlement of the country some wise heads recognized that atten- tion to satisfactory forest conditions is as nece*. sary as attention to other economic conditions. William Penn, the founder and first legislator < . Pennsylvania, as early as 1682, stipulated in Ms ordinances, regarding the disposal of lands, that for every five acres cleared of forest growth one acre should be left ^o forest. In 1640, only two years after its settlement, the inhabitants of Exeter, N. H., adopted a general order for the regulation of the cutting of oak timber, then a most valuable export material, a precaution which other towns followed. In 1701, the governor of New York reports 40 mills in the province of New York, and referring to one working with 12 saws, he adds, " A few such mills will quickly destroy all the woods in the Province at a reasonable dis- tance from them." And he recommended that each person who removed a tree should pay for planting four or five yoang trees, as the Russians do to^ay.* * See " History of the Lumber Industry in tlie State of New York," by Colonel W. T. Fox, 6th Kept, of F. F. G. Com., 1901. SB 3fi9 I I -J 3;o ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. In 1708, the provincial assembly of New ungranted lands under a penalty of ^i m^ .«^ « .h.t early M„e .he province U ...^"^ the timber. No doubt thta early regaixl to tte dmber .uppUe. m the face of plenty ime M^gSy airough the momentum of education, ,'aS ^ the u«ge. and method, of the n!^^^. tries, where forest protection had alreadv bec^ «_«UbU,hed policy, and even tor^',^ A centuor later, real want seem, to have ar- t"^": "! ''"' »«"?»«->» <" It. For. in^45 tte Society for the Promotion of Agricutare. A^ and Manufactures pubUshed a report on thJbZi mode of preserving and mcreastog growth of ti^ be», a„ outcome of an inquiry by circular let^ Socttty for the Promotion of Agriculture offered pme, for succe«,ful forest plantations; white the federal government, between the yea^ , J! «nd .83.. appropriated money for the p«„i^ «d passed legislation for the'protectionTu^ rih^'v '"""""' '" "^'^ P-'Pose^ und^ bama, Florida, Louisiana «d Mississippi, -not as a matter of general forest policy, but to «sc^~ •ufficien, suppUes of a specij maj^^' ^^^ FORESTRY MOVEMENT IN UNITED STATES. 371 in amount, and supposed to be a continued necea* lity for building ar tbips.! We can now smile at the concern expressed so early by writers in public prints, with regard to the threatened exhaustion of forest supplies. But it must be understood that the extent of our forest domain was then entirely unknown, the population was confined mamly to the Eastern coast country, and i.. the absei o» raiht)ad communication, only the supplies adjr nt to rivers and sea were avail- able, aad, iust as in Europe, the fuel question was uppermoc^ as long as coal had not yet been de- ; iped; hence location of supplies close to centres ot civilization was of more moment With the rapid development of the country, and the opening up of means of transportation, such as the Erie Can?!, the apprehensions regarding supplies seem to have vanished. During the active period of expansion, from 1820 to 1860^ when the population more than quadrupled, over one and a half million farms were established mainly b,wn from the forest, the timber in the absence of a ready market being largely burned in the log pile ; and with the necessity of constantly having to subdue tree growth, not only a feeling of inexhaustible resources and hence of careless- ness, but almost a real pleasure in destruction * Uwi to rnnish malicious uid wilful incendiarism and some- times also careless firing of the woods were about this period ea- acted in almost ./ery state. 372 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. seems to have been inculcated in the early settlers. Then came the period of railroad building and the settling of the Western prairies and plains, after i860, and then only the enormous lumber busmess, as we know it to^ay. came into existence. The difference in the volume and character of the business of forest exploitation is most readily seen by comparing the census figures at different periods. In 1840, there were reported 31.560 lumber mills, with a total product valued a S12 043.507, or a little over $400 per mUl. Small country mills, run Uke gristmills and often m con- nection with such, sawed to order for home con- sumption, or sent material to the mouth of the river to be carried by vessel to home and foreign markets. By 1870. a change had already become apparent, when the product per mill was $6500, which in 1890 had grown to $19,000, or about three times the value of 1870 with only 21,011 mills reported. . u j In 1865. the state of New York still furnished more lumber than any other state ; it now is seven- teenth in the list with less than one billion feet. In 1868. the golden age of lumbering had arrived in Michigan, and this state is still second with over Lee billon feet; in 1871. rafts filled the Wisconsin River, and the state of Wisconsin is now the largest producer; yet the 30 mills of Eau Claire, 20 mills at Marathon. 20 mills at Fond du Lac. which m 1875 cut milUons of feet, are now all gone. -■—.--."■"*'■* - FORESTRY MOVEMENT IN UNITED STATES. 373 Besides the concentration of the lumber busi- ness into large establishments which these figures show, there are other interesting changes indicated in the census figures, which have a bearing upon the question of the need of a forest policy and the cause for its development While in 1890 the efficiency of the single mill establishments had in- creased to three times what it was in 1870, and to nearly fifty times that of 1840, the total product had also increased in the last twenty years nearly three times, but the capital employed in the lum- ber industry had increased four and one-third times ; and while capital became less efficient with concen- tration, the unit product of labor also became less efficient in spite of the improvement of machinery, every dollar of capital producing less result by over 40 per cent in 1890, in the value of the product, and every dollar of wages producing less result by over 12 per cent, but the cost of raw material had increased over 16 per cent, — all these are signs pointing to the deterioration and exhaustion of supplies at least in the principal producing regions. The census of 1900 is, at present writing, not ac- cessible in a form permitting such comparisons, except that we can note an apparent increase in value of product of nearly 30 per cent over that of 1890. (See Appendix for further details.) It would be difficult to .set a date or mark an event from which the change in the methods of the lumber industry, now such a stupendous factor 374 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. in forest decimation, might be reckoned; it came as gradually or as fast as railway systems de* veloped, and made accessible the vast fields of supply in the northwestern Lake states just as the supplies of the Eastern states began to weaken.^ By 1882 the Saginaw Valley had reached the climax of its production, and the lumber industry of the great Northwest, with a cut of eight billion feet of white pine alone, was in full blast South- em development began much later to assume large proportions, but by the present time the lumber product of the Southern states has grown to pro- portions equal, if not superior, to those of the Northern states. No wonder that those observing this rapid deci- mation of our forest supplies and the incredible wastefuhiess a ad additional destruction by fire, with no attention to the aftergrowth, began again to sound the note of alarm. Besides the writings in the daily press and other non-official publications, we find the reports of the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture more and more frequentiy calling attention to the subject. In the report issued by the Patent Office as early as 1849, we find the following significant language in a discussion on the influence of forests on water- flow and their rapid destruction : — "The waste of valuable timber in the United >See "American Lumber," by B. E. Femow, in "One Hun* dnd Yc«n of American Commerce," D. O. Ilajnea & Co., 1895. FORESTRY MOVEMENT IN UNITED STATES. 375 States, to say nothing of firewood, will hardly be* gin to be appreciated until our population reaches 50,000,000. Then the folly and shortsightedness of this age will meet with a degree of censure and reproach not pleasant to contemplate." The report of the Department of Agriculture for i860 contains a long article by J. G. Cooper on "The forests and trees of northern America as connected with climate and agriculture." In 1865, the Rev. Frederic Starr discussed fully and forcibly the " American forests, their destruc- tion and preservation," in which, with truly pro- phetic vision, he says : — " It is feared it will be long, perhaps a full cen- tury, before the results at which we ought to aim as a nation will be realized by our whole country, to wit, that we should raise an adequate supply of wood and timber for all our wants. The eviis which are anticipated will probably increase upon us for thirty years to come with tenfold the rapidity with which restoring or ameliorating measures sktUl be adopted:' And ag^ain : — " Like a cloud no bigger than a man's hand just rising from the sea, an awakening interest begins to come in sight on this subject, which as a ques- tion of political economy will place the interests of cotton, wool, coal, iron, meat, and even grain beneath its feet. Some of these, according to the demand, can be produced in a few days, others in \. $76 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. a few months or in a few years, but timber in not less than one generation. The nation has slept because the gnawing of want has not awakened her. She has had plenty and to spare, but within thirty years she will be conscious that not only individual want is present, but that it comes to each from permanent national famine of wood." The article is full of interesting detail, and may be said to be the starting basis for the campaign for better methods which followed. Another and unquestionably most influential official report was that upon " Forests and Forestry of Germany," by Dr. John A. Warder, United States commissioner to the World's Fair at Vienna in 1873. Dr. Warder set forth clearly and correctly the methods employed abroad in the use of forests, and became himself one of the most prominent propagandists for their adoption in his own coun- try. About the same time appeared the classical work of George P. Marsh, oiu: minister to Ita'y, "The Earth as Modified by Human Action," in which the evil eflfects of forest destruction on cul- tural conditions were ably and forcibly pointed out The census for 1870 for the first time attempted a canvass of our forest resources, and the rela- tively small area of forest became known. All these publications had their influence in edu- cating a larger number to a coo^aption and con- sideration of the importance of the subject, so that ■•- SPf: FORESTRY MOVEMENT IN IGNITED STATES. 377 when, in 1873, a committee on forestry of the American Association for the Advancement f Science was formed, and its memorial calling for the creation of a commissioner of forestry to gather information was pre ited to Congress, there ex- isted already an intelligent audience; and, although a considerable amount of lethargy and lack of interest was exhibited. Congress could be per- suaded, in 1876, to establish the agency in the United States Department of Agriculture out of which grew the Division of Forestry - ow desig- nated as Bureau cf Forestry. While these were the beginnings of an official recognition of the subject by the federal govern- ment, private enterprise and the separate states started also about the same time to forward the movement. In 1867, the agricul -^1 and horti- cultural societiei^ of Wisconsin a, inted a com- mittee to report on the disastrous effects of forest destruction, in 1869, the Maine Board of Agricul- ture appointed a committee to report on a forest policy for the state, leading to the act of 1872 " for the encouragement of the growth of trees," ex- empting from taxation for twenty years lands planted to trees which law, as far as we know, remained vrithouc result About the san^e time a real wave of enthusiasm with regard to planting of timber seems to have pervaded the country, and especially the Western prairie states. In addition to laws regarding the planting of trees en high- 378 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. ways, there were enacted laws for the encourage, ment of timber planting, either under bounty or exemption from taxation, in Iowa, Kansas, and Wisconsin in »So8, in Nebraska and m New York in 1869, in Missouri in 1870, in Minnesota in 1871.. in Iowa in 1872, in Illinois in 1874, in Nevada, Dakota, and Connecticut in 1877, and finally the federal government joined in this kind of legislation by the so-called timber culture acts of 1873 and 1874, amended in 1876 and 1877. For the most part these laws remained a dead letter. The encouragement by release from taxes, except in the case of the federal government, was not much of an inducement, nor does the bounty pro\'ision seem to have had greater success, except in taking money out of the treasuries. Finally these laws were in most states repealed. The timber culture act was passed by Congress on March 3, 1873; by this act the planting of timber on 40 acres of land, or a proportionate area in the treeless territory, conferred the title to 160 acres or a proportionate amount of the public domain. This law had not been in existence ten years when its repeal was demanded, and this was finally secured in 1891, the reason being that, partly owing to the crude provi^-ions of the law and partly to the lack of proper supervision, it had been abused and had given rise to much fraud in obtain- ing title to lands under false pretences. It is diffi- cult to say how much impetus the law gave to bona- FORESTRY MOVEMENT IN UNITED STATES. 379 fide forest-planting and how much timber growth has resulted from it Unfavorable climate, lack of satisfactory plant material, and lack of knowledge as to proper methods led to many failures, and on the whole the expected results were not realized. Private interest of homesteaders and settlers with- out these aids has probably been more effective. In this direction the establishment of arbor days throughout the states has been a stimulating influ- ence. From its inception by Governor J. Sterling Morton and first inauguration by the State Board of Agriculture of Nebraska in 1872, it has become a day of observance in nearly every state, and its adoption as a national holiday may be shortly expected. While, with the exception of the so-called treeless Stat ;, perhaps not much plannng of economic value is done, the observance of the day in schools as one set apart for the discussion 0/ the importance if trees, forests, and forestry, has been productive of an increased interest in the subject. Nevertheless, arbor days have had also a retarding influence upon the practical forestry movement in leading people into the misconception that forestry consists in tree-planting, in diverting attention from the economic question of the proper use of existing forest areas, in bringing into the discussion poetry and emotions, which have clouded the hardheaded practical issues and delayed the earnest attention of practical business men. 380 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. The amount of tree-planting performed on the prairies, plains, and Western valleys, although ag- gregating thousands of acres, is inflnitesunal, if compared with what is necessary for climatic amelioration ; and it may be admitted, now as well as later, that the reforestation of the plains must be a matter of codperative, if not of national, enter- prise. Indeed, as a result of an experiment instituted by the writer in 1890 to prove that the sandhills of Nebraska could and should be planted to conifers, the federal government has "ately reserved 200,000 acres for such planting, out of the 15,000,000 acres comprised in this sand-hill region. Private efforts in the East in the way of fostering and carrying on economic timber-planting should not be forgotten, such as the prizes offered by the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, the plant- ing done by the private landholders at Cape Cod, in Rhode Island, Virginia, and elsewhere. There have also been, here and there, farmers bestowipc^ care on the manner of cutting their woodlot.; lumbermen and other forest owners have, now and then, not only made special efforts to protect their forest properties against fire, but have done thei cutting conservatively and with care for the existing young growth. Yet, altogether, these efforts have been sporadic, unsystematic, and not on any scale commensurate with the destruction of virgin resources, as may be FORESTRY MOVEMENT IN UNITED STATES. 381 • learned from an article in the Year-book of the United States Department of Agriculture, for 1899, in which an attempt is made to collect the facts regarding these efforts and place them in the most favorable light While perhaps conser- vative culling has been practised by lumbermen in more cases than is known, actual forestry practice with a view to securing reproduction has been rare and only very lately introduced in a few conspicu- ous cases, the Forestry Bureau of the United States Department of Agriculture being instrumental in most of them ; this bureau offering to prepare so- called "working plans" for private owners, in which some rules for the cutting of mature timber are laid down, intended to insure a succession of young grc*^ th. It is stated, that owners of nearly 2,ooOtOOO <^cres have asked for such advice. With the increase of educated foresters able to make and carry out such working plans, and with the appreciation by the forest owners of the possibility of securing continuous revenues by a conservative treatment of their properties under such plans, these small beginnings promise to bring about the much-needed reform, especially with the owners of extensive tracts, who are financially able to forego the present revenue from closet cutting for the sake of better future returns, ^hich may be de- rived from more conservative lumbering. Most of the efforts to engage state governments in establishing forest policies originated in assoda* m ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. tioni formed for the purpote of making the necet- nry propaganda. The first forestry association organized for the purpose of advancing forestry interests was formed on January 12, 187^ in St. Paul, Minn., largely through the e£Forts of Leonard B. Hodges. This association was aided by state appropriations, which enabled it to offer premiums for the setting out of plantotions, and also to publish and distribute widely a Tree Planters* Manual. Revised editions are issued from time to time, and a distributiou of plant material is also occasionally attempted, the •tate aiding to the extent of ^1000 to ^aooo annually. In *875, Dr. John A. Wardei issued a call for a convention in Chicago to form a national forestry association. This association was completed in 1876 at Philadelphia, but never showed any life or growth. In 1882, a number of patriotic citizens at Cin- cinnati called together a forestry congress, incited thereto by the visit and representations of Baron yon Steuben, a Prussian forest official, when attend- ing the centennial celebration of the surrender of Yorktown. A very enthusiastic and representative gathering, on April 25, lasting through the week, led to the formation of the American Forestry Association. This association, holding yearly and intermediate meetings in different parts of the states, has FORESTRY MOVEMENT IN UNITED STATES. 383 become the centre of all private efforts to advance the forestry movement Twelve volumes of its proceedings contain not only the history of prog- ress in establishing a forest policy, but also much other information of value or orestry subjects. It now publishes a monthly journal, Tfu FortsUtt (since 1902 called Fonstiy and Jnigatum). It is unaided by government, its efforts being entirely borne by private means and the annual dues of its membership, its officers doing gratuitous work. It has been especially instrumental in bringing about the establishment of the federal forest reservation policy, which we will note further on in detail Other local or state forestry associations were formed more or less under the lead of the national association, and exist now in Massachusetts, Con- necticut, New Hampshire, New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, North Carolina, South Carolina, Ohio, Indiana, Minnesota, North Dakota, Colorado, Utah, and Washington, while several other societies, like the Sierra Club, the Water and Forest Association, and the Mazamas of the Pacific coast, and state horticultural societies in various states, make the subjec J be discussed and to be fostered. The wi. active of these associations, publish- ing also, since its formation in 1886, a bimonthly journal. Forest Leaves, is the Pennsylvania State Forestry Association, which has succeeded in thoroughly committing its state to a proper forest policy, as far as offi^cial recognition is concerned. 3«4 tCONOMICS OP FORKSTXY. UiuaUy, as a result of this associated private effort, various states have appointed forestry com- missions or commissioners. These commissions were at first for the most part instituted for in- quiry and to make a r- ort, upon which a forest policy for the sUte might be framed. Others have become permanent parts of the state organ> ization with executive or educational functions. Such commissions of inquiry were appointed at various times in Maine, New Hampshire. Vermont, Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl- vania. North Carolina, Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin, North Dakota, Colorado, California; while com- missioners or commissions with executive duties exist now or did exist for a time in Maine, New Hampshire, New Yoik, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Indiana, Kansas, North Da- kota, Colorado, and California. Maitu has an efficient forest fire law (chap. 26 of Revised Statutes) based on that of the state of New York, and a forest commissioner (created in 1 891, Public Laws, chap. 100)— the state land agent of the state being ex officio designated as such— to look to its execution. He is also to create an interest in forestry and furnish useful information on the subject. Two very interesting and instructive reports on the growth of the spruce and on allied subjects are the result. New Hampshire had a temporary commission of FORESTRY MOVEMENT IN UNITED STATES. 385 inquiry, appointed in 188 1 and reporting in 1885 * and another auch commission in 1889, reporting l. 1893, when the permanent forestry commission was created (March 39, 1893) with a paid secns tary, who publishes an annual report. The main function of the commission is one of inquiry and suggestion, Lesides partial supervision of the forest fire law. The acquisition of public parks, if pri- vate munificence should be found willing to fumbh the necessary funds, is also made a part of the function of the ommission. Two small areas have been donated for this purpose. Within the last year (1901) the Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests was formed, which, through the employment of a forester, attempts to secure increased practical interest. In Massachusetts no special public officers are charged with the care of forestry interests, and hence the otherwise useful existing legislation in the interest of forestry is probably of only partial effect. Its best feature is perhaps that of en: our aging communities to become owners of lowest tracts (chap. 255, acts of 1882). The city of Bor^ ton has made special efforts in this direction, lif- v- ing set aside more than 70cx> acres for for .&i parks. The State Board of Agriculture was, ir. 1890, ordered to inquire "into the condition of the forests of the state, the need and methods of their protection," and report thereon, which order did not produce anything of value. A bill to se- sc 386 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. cure such forest survey, introduced into the legis- lature in the year 1897, failed of passage. In Vermont a commission of inquiry was msti- tuted in 1882, reporting in 1884 without any prac- tical result, the proposed legislation remaining unconsidered. In New York a law was passed in 1872 naming seven citizens, with Horatio Seymour, chairman, as a state park commission, instructed to make inquiries with the view of reserving or appropriat- ing the wild lands lying northward of the Mo- hawk, or so much thereof as might be deemed expedient, for a state park. The commission, finding that the state then owned only 40,ocx> acres in that region, and that there was a tendency on the part of the holders of the rest to combine for the enhancement of values should the state want to buy, recommended a law forbidding fur- ther sales of state lands, and their retention when forfeited for the nonpayment of taxes. It was eleven years later, in 1883, that this recommendation was acted upon, when the state through the nonpayment of taxes by the owners had become possessed of 6oo,mmonwealth of unseated lands for the nonpay- ment of taxes, for the purpose of creating a state forest reservation," and another act, providing for the immediate establishment of three definite reser- vations in the three large drainage areas of the state. Under these acts, some 400,000 acres have been reserved. A second state had recognized the propriety of state foref*-s. 392 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. The third state falling in line is Michigan. It began in 1887 by constituting the State Board of Agriculture a forestry commission of inquiry, but the report of the commission, published in 1888, remained without immediate effect In 1899, a permanent forestry commission of three was ap- pointed, whose duty was in the first place also merely one of inquiry, with the requirement to submit in 1901 a bill "to carry out the objects for which this commission is appointed," but also empowering the commission to have withdrawn from sale, temporarily, 200,000 acres of " state tax homestead lands and swamplands belonging to the state," and to receive from private owners dona- tio -"^ of land. The commission presented a most admirable bill to carry out the forest reservation policy, but the bill was defeated, largely through the farming element. Nevertheless, the commis- sion secured a forest reservation of 70,000 acres, and the progress of this policy b well assured, although progress will probably be slow on ac- count of ignorant or selfish obstructionists. In Minnesota a law was enacted in 190 1, setting aside as a state forest reserve all lands unfit for agriculture that reverted to the state through delinquent taxes before 1891 ; but legislation, hav- ing in view the creation of forest boards and forest reserve areas under rather unique conditions, which was introduced in the legislature in 1897, failed to become law. FORESTRY MOVEMEK l IN UNITED STATES. 393 In consequence of the terrible warning by the forest fires of 1894, which destroyed nearly three quarter million dollars' worth of property, and sev- eral hundred lives, Minnesota created the office of chief fire warden, acting under the state auditor as forest commissioner, in charge of an organized service to combat forest fires. The chief fire war- den is also required to furnish annual reports, with suggestions relative to the preservation of forests and the prevention of forest fires. The four or five reports issued, show that the protective ser- vice is tolerably effective in spite of deficient ap- propriations, and the fact that the questions of forestry are systematically kept before the pub- lic is bound to result sooner or later in more com- prehensive action. The third of the three great lumber states, Wis- coHstHt was also scared by the forest fires of 1894 into enacting a forest fire law, similar to the Min- nesota law, which followed the principles of organ- ization first inaugurated in the New York law of 1885. Here the chief clerk of the state land office, and his deputy, were made forest wardens without additional salary. Towns are limited to $100 per year expenditure in extinguishing fires. It is easy to judge what the efficiency/ of such ser- vice may be. An attempt, through a commission of inquiry created in 1897, to commit the state further has so far failed. In the first year of the new century, two other 594 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. States recognized their responsibility, namely In- diana and Connecticut Indiana entered the list of states with a forest policy by the establishment of a state board of forestry and the enactment of a law exempting certain forest lands from tax- ation (see p. 246). Connecticut appointed a state forester under the board of control of the Agricul- tural Experiment Station, and enacted a law " con- cerning reforestation of barren lands," making a small appropriation for the purchase and planting of such lands. A few other states show feeble beginnings, some dating back a long time, without visible progress. In New Jersey, North Carolina, and West Virginia the state geological surveys have had the forestry interests in charge for several years, publishing from time to time useful information. A well-de- vised bill providing for a forest commission and state forest reserve failed of passage in the legis- lature of West Virginia in 1897. In Ohio a forestry bureau was instituted in 1885, its functions being of an educational and advisory nature. It published four or five annual reports containing information on a variety of subjects, but for a number of years these reports, and prob- ably the bureau, have been discontinued. In North Dakota t^e office of commissioner of irrigation and forestry was created in 1890, seem- ingly mainly for educational purposes. In Kansas lot some time the educational campaign for timber- FORESTRY MOVEMENT IN UNITED STATES. 395 planting of the State Horticultural Society was supplemented by the state in the establishment of two experimental tree stations, from which plant material is distributed to intending planters through a forest commissioner. The state of Colorado was the first to recognize in her constitution the existence of a duty on the part of the government with regard to her forestry interests. Article XVIII of the constitution, adopted in convention March 14, 1876, contains the follow- ing clauses: — " Sec. 6. The general assembly shall enact laws in order to prevent the destruction of and to keep in good preservation the forests upon the lands of the State or upon lands of the public domain, the control of which shall be conferred by Congress upon the State. "Sec. 7. The general assembly may provide that the increase in the value of private lands caused by the planting of hedges, orchards, and forests thereon shall not, for a limited time, to be fixed by law, be taken into account in assessing such lands for taxation." The constitutional convention also presented a memorial to congress asking for the transfer of the public timber lands in the then territory to the care and custody of the state, which remained, however, without attention. The intentions of the constitution to take care 596 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. of the forestry interests of the state were, bow. ever, not carried into e£Fect until 1885, when a law was passed creating the office of a forest commis- sioner and constituting the county commissioners and road overseers throughout the state, forest officers in their respective localities, to act as a police force in preventing depredation and fire, and to encourage and pro-:iot4 forest culture. But the provisions to carry out this laudable work were from the start insufficient, and the office of forest commissioner finally remaining without a salary became vacant, the law inefifective. A new de- parture, however, was made in 1897. In that year a department of forestry, game, and fish was created. The salaried officers provided are a com- missioner and three wardens, and the commissioner may appoint deputy wardens without p.' 7. Section 9 of the law provideis that — " Said commissioner shall, as much as possible, promote the growth and extension of the forest areas of the state, and encourage the planting of trees and the preservation of the so "-ces of water supply, but nothing in this act contained shall authorize the commissioner to interfeve with the use of timber for domestic, mining, or agric tural purposes, in accordance with existing laws. He shall have the care of all woodlands and forests which may at any time be controlled by the state, and shall cause all such lands to be located and recorded in a book to be kept for the purpose." FORESTRY MOVEMENT IN UNITED STATES. 397 Section 10 prohibits the appointment to any office created by this act of any person directly or indirectly engaged in the manufacture of lumber, raibroad ties, telegraph poles, or any business re- quiring a large iise of wood. The law makes it a misdemeanor to cause fires to be set without a guard, or to cut coniferous timber from public or state lands for shipment outside the state. The remainder of the law provides for the protection of fish and game. California began its course for the establishment of a forest policy in the most promising manner in 1885 by creating a state board of forestry. At first it was mainly a commission of inquiry with educational functions; police powers were con- ferred upon it in 1887 "for the purpose of making arrests for any violation of any law applying to forest and brush lands within the State, or pro- hibiting the destruction thereof," with an appropri- ation of 11130,000 for the two years following, but by 1 89 1 'itical complications and perversion of the moneys appropriated undid the good work of the first board, and the office, as well as the func- tions, were abolished. Besides three valuable reports on the forest conditions and forest trees of the state, the board left as an inhv^ritance two experiment stations, where exotic trees are being tested, now under charge of the University of Cdifomia. Lately the state appropriated $250,000 to purchase the remnant of tiie great Redwood 398 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. forest in the Santa Cruz Mountains for a public park ; such reservation, however, is only distantly and indirectly a part of forest policy. We have again and again referred to the first and foremost obligation of the state and the most urgent and important need of reform in the treat- ment of our woodlands, namely protection against fires. There is "o far no state as yet fully doing its duty in this direction, although tolerably effec- tive beginnings have been made in several states. The first comprehensive forest fire law, drafted by the writer, was enacted in New York in i88s in connection with the establishment of a forest commission. This law for the first time recognized the need of officers reyponsible for the execution of the law and of a well-organized army of fire wardens throughout the state. The states of Maine, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, and Minnesota followed, with some modifications, this example of New York. The most complete forest fire law is probably that of Minnesota, enacted in 1895, which is, like the others, however, only partially effectfve on account of deficient appropriations and limited functions of the com- missioner or fire warden.* It would appear from all experience now accu- mulated by the officers in charge of the execution » For a full difcUMion of this phase of forest policy, with reprint of the MinnesoU law, see H. R. Doc. No. i8i, 55th Cong. 3d , pp. 183-189. X** FORESTRY MOVEMENT IN UNITED STATES. 399 of this law, that the reduction in forest fires is largely a matter of education and the development of morals, which must come in time. Moreover, when real forestry is begun, when waste lands are not any more abandoned as useless, but planted to valuable timber, when forest properties are really managed for continuity, in short, when forestry is practised, both the necessity and the desire for careful protection of a valuable piece of property will bring about a cessation of incendiarism ; and the practice of forestry will soon come, when edu- cated foresters can be had to practise it. For the education of such, provision is being rap- idly made by the establishment of special forestry schools or of courses in forestry in existing institu- tions. Here again the state of New York recog- nized its educational function by establishing, in 1898, the State College of Forestry at Cornell University. With the establishment of this first professional forestry school, we may say that the art of forestry was removed from the mere field of discussion, and engrafted on our educational sys- tem, insuring a new era for rational forestry methods. In the following year, Yale University estab- lished such a school, and a r>dvate school was established about the same time on the Vanderbilt estate at Biltmore, N. C. Before this time and since, the land-grant colleges of several states had introduced at least courses on subjects touching 400 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. on forestry, without attempting professional train- ing, the object being mainly to give a general idea of the natural history of forest growth and the mean- ing and importance of forestry, and promoting public interest in forest protection and silviculture. Within a few years, however, it is to be expected that professional courses will exist in many of these institutions, and the flood of education will pour its beneficent influence over our neglected woodlands. A sufficient number of professionally educated foresters, it appears, have gone forth from these schools and are now at work in the United States (including the Philippines) to justify the publication of the first professional journal, the Forestry Quar- terly, which made its appearance in the fall of 1902, published by students, alumni, and faculty of the New York State College of Forestry. In this connection we should perhaps make also special mention of the effort of Berea College in Kentucky to furnish instruction in forestry to a class of rangers. Indeed, there is now more need to provide for this class of instruction, to rangers, logging bosses, under-foresters, etc., than for a multiplication of higher grade schools, nevertheless the latter is evidently contemplated by a number of colleges. In all these movements throughout the states, the efforts of the American Forestry Association and of the state associations may be recognized, FORESTRY MOVEMENT IN UNITED STATES. 401 and the actions of the federal government no doubt had also an indirect educational influence. With the establishment of the Division of For- estry in the United States Department of Agricul- ture (1876-1885) an official centre was created for supporting the forestry movement, and through the organization of the American Forestry Congress (changed later to American Forestry Association), in which the officers of the Division of Forestry naturally took a leading part, the sphere of in- fluence was greatly enlarged. These two agencies have moulded public opinion through the past twenty or twenty-five years and brought about the interest now taken in forestry matters. The history of the establishment of these two agencies may be read in the repeatedly cited public docu- ment (H. R. Doc. No. 181, 5Sth Cong. 3d sess.) and in the publications of the American Forestry Association. The main tangible result of the educational cam- paign of these agencies for a federal policy was the inauguration of the forest reservation policy. The first suggestion of such a policy appeared in 1876 with a bill (H. R. No. 2075) "for the pres- ervation of the forests adjacent to the sources of navigable rivers and other streams," which never progressed farther than the pigeonhole of the Public Lands Committee. Similar bills, introduced from time to time, experienced the same fate in the same or other 4C» ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. committees, until more definite reservations were called for. An act to establish a forest reserva- tion on the head waters of the Missouri and Columbia rivers passed the Senate in 1884, and again in 1885, but died in the House Committee; in the same year a general act providing for forest reservations was reported favorably in the H After this, hardly a year parsed without a nu of legislative propositions to the same effect b- :.ig introduced, the titles of the bills filling seveul quarto pages of the above-cited document. Hardly any kind of legislation which could be suggested was overlooked, from the creation of forest commissions to investigate the subject to providing for fully organized forest administra- tions and the establishment of forestry schools. The American Forestry Association presented a comprehensive bill drawn by the Chief of the Forestry Division in 1888, providing for the with- drawal from entry or sale of all public timber lands not fit for agricultural use, and for their proper administration under technical advice. (S. 1476 and S. 1779, soth Cong, ist sess.) Modifications of this bill were introduced from year to year, and their enactment urged with small success. Finally, in the Fifty-first Congress, through the earnest insistence of Secretary of the Interior John W. Noble, who was fully imbued with the necesiity of some action such as was advocated by the asso- FORESTRY MOVEMENT IN UNITED STATES. 403 elation, the following section was added to the act entitled " An act to repeal timber culture laws, and for other purposes," approved March 3, 1891 : — " Sec. 24. That the President of the United States may, from time to time, set apart and reserve, in any State or Territory having public lands bearing forests, any part of the public lands wholly or in part covered with timber or undergrowth, whether of commercial value or not, as public reservations, and the President shall, by public proclamation, declare the establishment of such reservations and the limits thereof." It is upon thb feeble " rider," attached to a bill hardly germane to the subject, that the forest reservation policy of the federal government is based, that the federal land policy, which before considered only disposal of the public domain, was changed, the government becoming a land- owner f(»r continuity. Acting upon this authority. Presidents Cleveland and Harrison established seventeen forest reser- vations, wi:h a total estimated area of 17,500,000 acres previous to 1894. The resji-vations were established usually upon the petition of citizens residing in the respective states and after due examination, the forestry association ccting as intermediary. Meanwhile the legislation devised for the ad- miuistration of the forest reserves, existing ok to be established (H. R. 119), specially urged by 404 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. Representative McRae, chairman of Public Lands Committee, failed to be enacted, although in the Fifty-third Congress it was passed by both Houses, but faile-1 in conference. Forest reservation with- out forest administration threatened to make the whole policy unpopular. Urged by the committee of the Forestry Associa- tion, which hoped to secure thereby poteut influence for the proposed legislation, Secretary Hoke Smith, of the Department of the Interior, impressed with the importancG of dev'sing some adequate system of protection -nd managemen* of the forests, both within the reserves and in the public domain, under date of February 15, 1896, requested the National Academy of Sciences, the legally constituted adviser of the government in scientific matters, to investigate apd report "upon the inauguration of a rational forest policy for the forested lands of the United States." Under date of February i, 1897, the academy submitted to Secretary Francis a preliminary report recommending the creation of thirteen adt'tional forest reserves with a total area of 21,379,840 acres. These reserves were proclaimed as recommended, without examination, by President Cleveland, February 22, 1897. On May i, 1897, the president of the academy submitted his com- plete report (Senate Doc. No. 105), recommending substantially the legislation so long urged by the Forestry Association. FORESTRY MOVEMENT IN UNITED STATES. 40£ A Storm of indignation broke out in Congress over the precipitate action of the President, the repeal of the entire forest reservation policy was demanded by the Western senators and represen- tatives, who felt insulted by the lack of consid- eration, and the laboriously achieved first step threatened to be lost. A compromise was, how- ever, effected. The sundry civil appropriation bill passed June 4, 1897 (see Senate Doc. No. 102), set aside only the proclamations of February 22, 1897, suspending the reservations which were made upon the recommenda- tion of the committee of the academy until March i, 1898, presumably to give time for the adjustment of private claims and to more carefully delimit the reservations. For this purpose an appropriation of 11150,000 to survey the reservations under the supervision of the Director of the Geological Sur- vey was made. The provisos attached to this ap- propriation embody the most important forestry legislation thus far enacted by Congress. These provisos had been in the main formulated in the above-cited bill known as the McRae Bill, which was passed by the House of Representatives and the Senate of the Fifty-third Congress — without, however, becoming a law ; and again had passed the House in the Fifty-fourth Congress, it being the legislation advocated by the American For- estry Association as a first step toward a more elaborate forest administration of the public tim- 406 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. ber lands. Excluding minor items, the law pro- vides that — "All public lands heretofore designated and reserved by the President of tne United States under the provisions of the act approved March third, eighteen himdred and nmety-one, the orders for which shall be and remain in force and effect, unsuspended and unrevoked, and all public lands that may hereafter be set aside and reserved as public forest reserves under said act, shall be as far as practicable controlled and administered in accordance with the following provisions : — '"No public forest reservation shall be estab- lished, except to improve and protect the forest within the reservation, or for the purpose of secur- ing favorable conditions of water flow, and to furnish a continuous supply of timber for the use and necessities of citizens of the United States; but it is not the purpose or intent of these pro- visions or of tne act providing for such reserva- tions to authorize the inclusion therein of lands more valuable for the mineral therein or for agri- cultural purposes than for forest purposes. " ' For the purpose of preserving the living and growing timber and promoting the younger growth on forest reservations, the Secretary of the Interior, under such rules and regulations as he shall pre- scribe, may cause to be designated and appraised so much of the dead, matured, or large growth of trees found on such forest reservations as may be :V.i FORESTRY MOVEMENT IN UNITED STATES. 407 compatible with the proper utilization of the forests thereon, and may sell the same for not less than the appraised value in such quantities to each pur- chaser as he shall prescribe, to be used in the State or Territory in which such timber reserva- tion may be situated, respectively, but not for export therefrom. Before such sale shall take place, notice thereof sh 1 be given by the Com- missioner of the General Land Office for not less than sixty days, by publication in a newspaper of general circulation, published in the county in which the timber is situated, if any is therein pub- lished, and if not, then in a newspaper of general circulation published nearest to the reservation, and also in a newspaper of general circulation published at the capital of the State or Territory where such reservation exists ; payments for such timber to be made to the receiver of the local land office of the district wherein said timber may be sold, under such rules and regulations as the Sec- retary of the Interior may prescribe; and the moneys arising therefrom shall be accounted for by the receiver of such land office to the Com- missioner of the General Land Office in a separate account, and shall be covered into the Treasury. Such timber, before being sold, shall be marked and designated, and shall be cut and removed under the supervision of some person appointed for that purpose by the Secretary of the Interior, not interested in the purchase or removal of such 408 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. timber nor in the employment of the purchaser thereof. Such supervisor shall make a report in writing to the Commissioner of the General Land Office and to the receiver in the land office in which such reservation shall be located of his doings in the premises. " ' Upon the recommendation of the Secretary of the Interior, with the approval of the President, after sixty days' notice thereof, published in two papers of general circulation in the State or Terri- tory wherein any forest reservation is situated and near the said reservation, any public lands em- braced within the limits of any forest reservation which, after due examination by personal inspec- tion of a competent person appointed for that pur- pose by the Secretary of the Interior, shall be found better adapted for mining or for agricultural purposes than for forest usage, may be res' -red to the public domain. And any mineral lands in any forest reservation which have been or which may be shown to be such, and subject to entry under the existing mining laws of the United States and the rules and regulations applying thereto, shall continue to be subject to such location and entry, notwithstanding any provisions herein contained.' " The law authorizes the Secretary of the Interior to permit the use of timber aud stone by bona-fide settlers, miners, etc., for fire wood, fencing, build- ings, mining, prospecting, and other domestic purposes. It protects the rights of actual settlers FORESTRY MOVEMENT IN UNITED STATES. 409 within the reservations, empowers them to build wagon-roads to their holdings, enables them to build schools and churches, and provides for the exchange of such for allotments outside the reser- vation limits. The state within which a reserva- tion is located maintains its jurisdiction over all persons within the boundaries of the reserve. Under the above enactment, the commissioner of the General Land Office has formulated rules and regulations for the forest reservations, and a survey of the reserves is being made by the United States Geological Survey, the appropriations for such a survey having been continued from year to year, and the date for the segregation of agri- cultural lands and their return to the public domain open for entry having been deferred. The appointment of forest superintendents, ran- gers, etc., although not with technical knowledge, to take charge of the reservations marks the beginning of a settled policy of the United States Government to take care of its long-neglected forest lands. Gradually the people of the Western states, who were opposed to the reservation policy, believing it an interference of their rights and an impedi- ment to settlement, have learned to appreciate the wisdom and the object of the reservations, espe- cially in the irrigation districts. Annually new areas are being reserved and the administrative features developed. At present writing there are set aside 58,850,ocx> acres in 56 reservations, in- 4IO ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY eluding two in Alaska, varying in size from a few thousand to several million acres. The administration of these reserves is still of the crudest kind, and forestry practice is as yet hardly attempted. In fact, the organization of the forestry service is still in embryonic condition. The administration of the reserves lies with the Department of the Interior, through a Forestry Division, under the Commissioner of the General Land Office. Meanwhile the technical knowledge is gradually developed in the Department of Agri- culture. The Forestry Division of the Department of Agriculture, dignified by being elevated to a bu'^eau in loni, is still without administrative function and occupies only an advisory position. But by an increase in appropriations (^146,280 for the year 1902) it has been able to extend its field considerably. It makes so-called working plans for the timber lands of private forest owners and planting plans, and investigates forest condi- tions, rates of growth, and other matters of in- terest, as before, only on an extended scale. It should, of course, be in charge of the public forest reservations, and introduce such technical manage- ment of the same as the case may permit To add to the curiosities and incongruities of the situation a third agency, the Geological Survey, has in charge the survey and description of the forest reservations with a view of delimiting the areas to FORESTRY MOVEMENT IN UNITED STATES. 41 1 be kept permanently as such. We have, then, three government offices, organically disconnected, albeit working in harmony as far as possible, intrusted with the forestry interests of the federal govern- ment. It is hoped that only a short time will elapse before logic will have its day, unity will be esUb- lished, and a forest administration under the Bureau of Forestry will be inaugurated. Curiously, too, we find that in one of our outlying possessions, the Philippine Islands, we are farther progressed in establishing a proper forest policy than at home. Here the Spanish Government had long ago established a forestry bureau to super- intend the exploitation of the public timber lands. The United States fell heir to the lands, some 20 or 30 million acres, and to the bureau. By good fortune the administration of this bureau came into the hands of an army officei who had for some years interested himself in the forestry question, and under his efficient guidance the management of this part of the public domain promises soon to be on a rational basis. We see then that the Federal Government has made a fair beginning toward establishing a definite forest policy, that a few states have also entered upon more or less definite plans to advance a state policy or secure private interest, and that the num- ber of private owners who contemplate the advisa- bility of practising forestry on their properties is rapidly growing. APPENDIX. NOTES TO CHAPTER I. Page 6. Keferriag to DMrth of Soglish Litenttoie on Icob- omy of fiesonrces. — The conceptions and ideas contained in this chapter regarding the classification of natural resources and the relation of the sUte to them were first formulated by the writer in his Vice-Presidential Address before the Section of Economic Science of the Association for the Advancement of Science, entitled "The Providential Functions of Govern- ment, with Special Reference to Natural Resources," and printed in the volume of Proceedings for 1895. The econom- ics of natural resources have received only incidental and scanty consideration by English writers. The only publica- tion known to the writer which discusses the subject in a broad manner is by G. P. Osborne, "Principles of Eco- nomics.*^ The satisfaction of human wants in so fiur as their satisfaction depends on material resources. Cincinnati. 1893. P. 9. — The feet that " emotion rather than reason, senti- ment rather than argument, are the prime movers of society " has been most forcibly and convincingly argued by Lester F. Ward in his " Psychic Factors of Civilization " and " Dynamic Sociology. " P. 16. Bminent Dom«in. — In all modern states the right of eminent domain {dominium emineus), i.e. the right of the state to dispossess private owners or to restrict them in the use of their property for the sake of the common weal, and for public purposes, is well established. At first exercised only by specific legislation in individual cases, since the end of the eighteenth century the right of eminent domain has 4«S 4i6 APPENDIX. become a matter of constitutional provision and of genera, legislation. The modern legislation also fully recognizes the right of the owner to adequate compensation and provides methods of procedure. In the United States the taking of land in invitum and the manner of ascertaining and securing the compensation is pro- vided for in the statutes of each state. This right of eminent domain has been most frequently exercised for the purpose of roads, railroads, canals, bridges, etc., for the reason that, although these uses of land are usually accompanied by profits to individuals, they are primarily to serve a public use. There seems to be no reason why the same right should not be extended in favor of other public utilities, like forests. The decision as to the public •- the United States, as in Enp \^ J, determination of the award for these decisions lie with the ac n- eminent domain for the purpose of securing the protection of forest cover, as practised by European states, is discussed in Chapters X and XI. *ssity of its exerdse is in t' to the courts, and the c to a jury. In Germany ration. The exercise of NOTES TO CHAPTER II. P. 31. Necessity of Wood Materials. — The necessity of wood for civilization, together with the constant increase in its use as industrial activity increases, is {>erhaps best illus- trated by the statistics of imports of wood in European coun- tries, which show the most remarkable increase of per capita consumption due to industrial development. In Great Britain, a country which supplies itself almost entirely by importation, and hence uses wood probably least wastefiilly, during the decade 1856-66 the import was 148 million cubic feet ; during the following decade it had grown more than 60 per cent, namely, to 244 million feet. During NOTES. 417 die decade 1880-90 the imports averaged round 300 million cubic feet, with an average value ot 975,000,000 ; and during the last decade the following changes in amounts and values toolc plac>. . — Ymt. MiUioaFw^ If illion DoUut. 350 78 38s 9a 435 106 500 127 455 117 I89I 1894 1896 1897 1898 — an increase in forty years by over 200 per cent, while the population only increased 43 per cent. In France, which is also relying upon imports to a very large extent (over 80 per cent in value), we find a still more striking increase of wood consumption, as may be judged from the statement of the values of wood imports, whidi were as follows : — Y«tr. MillioB Franci. Yew. MillioB Fnumi. 1827 .... 20.4 1875 . • • • 164.I 1840 .... 34.9 1880 .... 278 1850 .... 50.1 1890 .... 1579 i860 ... . 123.6 1900 .... 177 1868 ... . 1794 The wood exports increased during these seventy years from 4.5 million to 47 million fiancs, leaving, nevertheless, a total increase in excess of imports by over 700 per cent to satisfy the needs above home production, while the population in- creased about 20 per cent in that period, the home produc- tion slightly decreasing since 1870. 2£ 4i8 APPENDIX. In the case of France, deforesUtion at home may account in part for this increase of imports, especially in the earlier decades. Not so in Germany, the land fiamous for its con- servative forest management and thrift. Germany, which until 1863 was an export country, its ex- ports of wood exceeding its imports in that year still by 125,000 tons, after that year shows a constant increase of wood imports, and to-day Germany pays over $70,000,000 for wood in excess of its exports and in addition to its own crop. The excess of imports over exports averaged per year as follows : — Period. Thoutand ton*. Million marks. Period. Thousand tons. MUlion marks. 1865-69 . . 1870-79 . . 1880-89 . . 1890 . . . 890 1,966 1,650 2,892 63.S 128.5 1892 . . . 1894 . . . 1896 . . . 1898 .. . 3,000 2,506 3.090 4435 140.7 1 18.8 171 286 an increase in 40 years by 400 per cent in amount, in 20 years by over 350 per cent in values, besides a considerable increase in its home production, as is shown in Chapter X, while the population increased only by about 38 per cent. These figures would indicate in general an increase of 5 to 10 times in per capita consumption; increase in prices accounting only to a limited degree for increase in the figures. In spite of the substitution of iron and stone for timber wood and of coal for fuel wood, the wo<.d consumption in Germany has increased from about 1,625 million cubic feet in 1872 to 2,051 million in 1898. The consumption of fuel wood, to be sure, has lately decreased, but not in proportion to the coal mined, for the annual consumption of wood and coal per capita was as shown on opposite page. (This table leaves out importations, which add from 3 to 6 cubic feet, mainly to timber wood). NOTES. 419 TiaAarwoad. Fuel wood. OmL Cnbkft. Pwont Cubic ft. Itecmt Ton*. Pttr etat* i87»-7S »3 100 37 100 1.063 100 1876^ 13.4 95 36.3 95 1. 169 no i88i-«5 13.4 9S 34.8 92 1.445 136 1886-90 »3-4 103 33.8 88 1.686 «59 1891-95 14 108 33.4 83 1.939 183 1896 »4-5 III 33 83 3.153 303 P. 33. Propoitioa of Wood conraiiwd for HacMtitiM. — In this oonnectioa.it would have been proper to point out that this consumption refers to the net wood product. The un- avoidable Very large waste, which occurs in the shaping of the raw material for use, and which in most cases is a total loss, amounts to almost 50 per cent, — that is to say, of the cubic contents of a round average log only half the wood £dls from the saw in iisefiil size, the balance being turned into sawdust, slabs, edgings, etc, which only under special conditions can be made useful. In addition, a large amount of wood in the shi^M of top and branches is left in the woods unused, unless a dense population or spedal industrial development makes its use possible and profitable ; this loss may amount to another 30-30 per cent, so that of the wood of a forest-grown tree often not more than 30 to 30 per cent appears in usefiil shape. The following table shows how, in the usual mill practice, the loss varies with the size of material, and, at the same time, the value per cubic foot of forest-grown material increases •4th the size of log, a financial aigument against the cutting of the smaller trees and also an economic argument for the oigency of devising uses for the mill waste and forest waste. Much of this waste can be utilized, tut is usually thrown aside through ignorance of its value, or lack of handling Adlities. 4ao APPENDIX. Value Accretion and Waste of Wood. Dim oTIog loft long. Contcnuin cubic feet. Price •< U.oo per M ft. Rouad Mm Wute pw cent Com per log. Cost per cub^ log. product. Cent*. Cenu. 8 3-5 >-3 'is 9 2.6 3.8 la 7-9 4 SO ^ i6 14 8 43 60 4.8 90 31.7 14 35 13a 34 3'-3 21 3| 150 f. g 28 23 'M 5.8 fo 136.2 no - 20 993 The second column gives the actual cubic contents ; the third gives the feet board measure, as noted in the most favorable log scale translated into cubic feet by dividing by 12; the third »lumn -*hows the amount of waste experienced at the saw: the last column shows what the cubic foot actually in tht log has been paid for, if a stumpage price per M feet board measure prevailed. P. 27. Wood for Fuel in the United States.— The census of 1880 made a comprehensive canvass of the fuel wood con- sumption, which showed that 33.375.«» persons used wood for domestic fuel at the rate of 4' cords per capita, while the total consumption for domestic, raihoad, steamboat, and manufacturing purposes was nearly 146 million cords, the total valued at $322,000,000, or 2.9 cords per capita, nearly twelve times the German consumption. No statistics are at hand to estimate the preseat consumption of wood for fuel in the United States, but there are no reasons to assume that it has decreased appredably in spite of the fact of the enormous increase in coal consumption, which is mainly due to indus- NOTES. 431 trial development According to the United States Treasury Statistical Bureau^s Summary, the world's production of coal rose from 144 million tons in i860 to 450 million tons in 1887 and to 866 million tons in 1901, an increase in 40 years 01' over 500 per cent, and since 1820^ when coal was first more generally recognized as fuel, the increase has been 4500 per cent. Five-sixths of the present consumption was furnished for the last 30 years by Great Britain and Germany, and Belgium, the largest consumer of coal per ci4>ita after Great Britain. The coal production of the United Sutes, which in 1870 furnished but 15 per cent of the world's supply, has grown steadily until in 1901 it rq)resented, with 395 million tons, 34 per cent, outstripping Great Britain and Germany. What the substitution of coal for fuel means may be realized by translating the coal consumption into wood consumption. The fuel value of a ton of coal may be set equal to about 100 cubic feet of wood; hence the 170 million tons of coal now consumed per annum in the United States supplant 17 billion cubic feet of wood. To raise this amount of wood continu- ously not less than 300 million acres, more than half oiur pres- ent acreage (at 56 cuInc feet per acre), would have to be kept under good forestry management. P. 27. Cellulose and Wood Pulp Industry. — Wood pulp it either mechanically ground or chemically prepared, when it is called cellulose, or chemical fibre. Most of it is used for the manu£u:ture of paper. The progress of the wood pulp indus- try in the United States has l>een marvellous, as shown by the growth in daily capacity of running wood pulp mills. While in 1 88 1 this was less than 800,000 lbs., it had more than doubled in 1887, and again more than doubled within two years in 1889, increasing steadily from that time. The following figures, taken from Lockwood*s Paper Trad* Jottmal, include both mechanical pulp and chemical fibre, but do not take into account small amounts produced by paper milk directly : — 42S APPENDIX. 1889 1890 1891 189a 1893 4.14I1700 4.507.700 5.323.300 6495.400 1894 1895 1896 1897 /.59W00 8,330,400 9.509.000 10438.000 From data coUected by the twdfth census the daily capadty ior 1899 may be estimated at round la million pounds. In •tber words, in the last ten years the capacity of the mills has been trebled. The census statistics unfortunately are not cdlected in a manner which makes those of one census comparable with those of others, as they ether combine or separate p^ier and pulp, the raw and the finUhed product. This combination is explained by the fact that many mills product theu- own pulp. Only the census of 1870, 1880, and 1890 separate the pulp business, showing respectively value of iwoducts of round l49/}oo/x)0, $57yooo,ooo and $79,000,000 for wood pulp alone. For the census of 1900, the manufactures of paper and pulp were reported together as representing a product of $137,326,- 163, fiom 763 acdve establishments and 29 idle ones. There b 00 possibiUty of differentiating precisely how much of this value is to be credited to wood pulp, but ;^>parently only $38,000,000 are so credited as the cost of the wood materiaU to the manufacturers, while only $i4/xx>,ooo represent other materials, and $27,000,000 are for chemicals, fuel, etc. The total product of the wood pulp is given in amount as round 1 180 tons, of whidi neariy one-half was produced by the es- tablishments using it, about one-half of the total bang ground, the other chemically prepared pulp. In another table it is re- ported that i,986,3ro cords of wood were used by establish- ments uang wood, and also 630/xx) tons purchased wood nateriab, which may in part have beoi covered by imporUtion. The amount of other paper stodc used is only 1,000,000 tfMU, vahied at $1 5^)00,000, indicating that about one^ialf of our paper is made of wood. NOTES. 4»$ We my be nfe from these figures to esttmate the total wood consumption for this one manufiicture, paper, as rnumI a} milUon cords, in addition to a certain amount of fuel wood and an import, in spite of high tariff rates, of about 70,000 tons in excess of exports, worth between $3,000,000 and 13,000/100. The wood value of this industry is then ov«r 130^)00,000. Spruce constitutes about 76 per cent of all the wood used ; in this amount, however, a considerable proportion of balsam fir, and btely hemlocic, is indudsd ; 13 per cent is credited to poplar, and 1 1 per cent to other kinds. (For a brief but com- prehensive description of the industry, see Report for 1890^ Division of Forestry, United States Department of Agricul- ture.) To secure the round 2 million cords of spruce alone, almost entirdy cut in the northeastern states, at least 300,000 acres of virgin mixed woods must be annually culled, and over 3 million acres in pure spruce stands would have to be main- tained under good forestry management to secure this product continuously. The growth of this industry in European countries is not less remaiicable, as may be seen from the fiict that while in 1870 there were in Germany and Austria 93 wood pulp mills, in 1890 there were 836 reported, and 911 in 1896. In Sweden the export of wood pulp rose from 9003 tons in 1881 to 133,- 889 tons in 1895. In Germany the output of wood pulp con- sumes now over 500,000 cords of wood per annum, and, in the light of the anxieties which have lately been aroused in the United States rq;arding the enormous increase in this drain of our forest resources, it is significant to read the comment of one of the leading foresters of Germany : ** The advantage at this industry for forest management is that the small sixes of coniferous wood, which could formeriy be sold only as fuel wood at small prices or could not be sold at all, now have found a ready marlcet, and by this competition the wood prices, especially for small wood, have risen. A profitabU fortst 4H APPENDIX. wmnagtmtnt fer prhnU* owturt has in many pkutt ieeamt Nassau 0nfy throng tht wood pulp industry r Thk would indicate that in Germany it is the •maU-«ized material* the tops, which go into this manufacture, while with ns the logr are used, the tops are left in the woods, and no provision im re-growth is made. P. 28. SnbstttntiOB of Other Materials. — Whatever the reasoning regarding the possible substitution of other mate- rials for wood, the hbtoricJ evidence so far has been the other way : new and more extensive use of wood has accom- panied thf 'svdopment of these other materials. The in- JUt of wood consumption parallel with the increase of consu .don of its substitutes, coal, iron, and stone, simply ac- centuatfc. the influence of the great modem industrial develop- ment and increaseofdviliiation, which means increase in wants. p. s8. TanniBf Bark.— The leather industry, which in the year 1900 produced, with a capital of over $356,000,000 and a wage of over $105,000,000, a product valued at over $615,000,000, relies ibr the tanning, in spite of the in- creased use of substitutes, still mainly on the bark of two kinds of trees, namely, oak and hemlock. Of the amount spent for tan materials ($17,000,000), nearly $12,000,000 is for such bark and bark extracts, denoting a consumption of about 1} million cords of tan bark, as against about half that consumption in 1880. The consumption of hemlock bark is nearly three times as great as that of oak. ConsequenUy the largest production is to be found in western Pennsylvania and New York, where the largest supplies of this material are to be found, these two States producing about half the cordage consumed. One ton of hemlock bark will tan about 300 pounds of sole and 400 pounds of upper leather. The usual harvest of hemlock bark averages 12 to 15 cords per acre, worth $6 to $7 per cord. As long as the timber is used afterwards, which is now prob- ably done in most places, this utilization of a by-product is one of the important economies in forest utilization. NOTES. 42$ A very full aceoant of the industrjr is frr as its relstioB to forest supplies is concerned may be found in ''Reports on Forestry" by F. B. Hough, Vol. Ill, i88a, pp. 68 to laS. P. sf. The NsTsl Store loiostxy. — The naval store in- dustry is confined to the fdneries of the South, — Alabama, Florida, and Georgia being the principal produ«preciatioa of the comparative sign! cance of t te fiHrest resource, the writer, upon the basis of o-nsus data les, fence material, cord wo«k1, bark, and other by-products are included, leading to the following result : - Leading Indijstries ( imparbd. Artkla. CapiMll Acicttltiifv . • • fomt pradact*. total FoRtt indoMrtr „ rtnvst pfoduct^, oot ^ »- alad («atiBaiC()) . . . . Maau&cturM ining; «oed (Me tablt oa eppowte pafli) ■ . Mianal p w duc t i , total . . . Coal Gold and tilvor . . . . P^-inm Manufacttina of iron and ttcel Leather .... Leather manufacturet . . Woollen maaufa in- Cottoa tnanuiacti. s - • 48- S6e + M3 4>i loe ii4 .g"-. WafOk + PS 300 S7 I Mil- + 19* Raw till Mil Prac Hit- ■45 109 8 77 lie •53 •03 >5S regarding the manufiwtures using according to the estimated per- into their products and assuming lue of products stand in the same iterials used. As a matter of fiict, Aee » bshiy more Mtwr employed in shaping wood than perc^ ^e would indicate. To secure th" <; wood, these wer ceata g* nf wood tk ca{r>tal, labor, pf&iit^o as the rav MOTES. 437 F« <<> MANUTACTURBS UsINO WOOD. Ai Ct. CapiUi ployeefc W.«M. Raw ■Mterial. Vai«« ofprr ict. rOfMt iMlluOlM •Ml' ■mMd: Thous'oti Hudiedi >ui'imU Thoua'ndi Thou, iida LMBbn ad mUI ^products . • ■ . Tiiabn pmductt not ■aanbetund at l«6. 40 i.iAa 'aT.7«4 $«3«.5S6 $403.6« «W Havalitena . . . 46i >S3 ■J54 9J3 3I506 Tool 3M77 = ^L «4i.»<9 4*.034 il«Mifact' Tw pneti- callv wood: CiflMboxei . SS ».»34 3.367 7.09* PBcUagbosM j,OI- »«o *i477 I4>>45 •S.5>3 CutiMt aad « on i3,o»« 109 S.** »37l847 i6,i6a CarpcBitring . ";r •409 94.SJ4 "Ms 38,618 Coopmte . . HI •.637 Fumtur* factoi pfoducts . Kndling woo TOO 'n 34.47> 77« 38.796 1,187 94.87* 9,400 LaMs. . . Ptumg-iDUl 07 1 .71 8 48.970 33' I04.9»7 ..;:a! llatchci. >>94> 344 935 >>>94 Weed tur 4 4.»*7 3.947 u>.940 Weoc •nr . . Wood. . . •.7«« 7.4SS U l.»37 i.»»9 1.499 a,oo5 as Woedc . . . 333 3 «5S "4 5«« Total . . 337«>a 3,6jo 119^097 33».S«3 679.7SO MaauCKtarat in which wood leprewnM about 50 per cent of the raw OMieiiaU * Total . ««9.9l3 ■1? 7».4«o tt4,a*9 t»»,40i Wood per. tage . . 35.710 S7.»9» 114.704 Ifanu&ct n which wood f iti about ajV; J' ui t Total Wosc. nugc . . 3n.0S9 »,»43 MS.SH I4S.S78 9i8.*S *A 40.W 4.9»9 13.189 Maan&cturaa of wood ; Total S43.400 $•134 •93.638 443.t70 906.708 * ladodaa carriage* and wagon factory product, children's carriagea and tlcda, aHaai aad street cart, '.'»flln« and burial casket*, chairs, whedbarrowt, lewiag ■achia* caaes, anific>«l Umbs. and refriMrators, and shipbuilding. f Indode* agricaltunl impwments, Mliard table*, railroad and street car r^ yaif fomituie rraairt, washing BMcbine* and w rin iy r s, organs an'! ptanoa. % . ^tdndet Martsmithing and whaclwttghring, bridges, brooms and bnishe*. gliapowder, artittt' awtenals, windoiilb, toys and games, sporting gooda. lead MBCila, nirfli and pusipa. 438 APPENDIX. The proportions in which the various kinds of products contribute toward the total of $1^44,000,000 in value were figured as follows : — Mill products, lumber, shingles, laths, pickets, staves, carriage, implement, and furniture stock, etc. (35,000 million feet B.M.) Railroad construction (ties, bridge timber, telegraph poles) Export timber Wood pulp • • Miscellaneous bolt sizes . . . . Total materials requiring log and bolt sizes Fuel and fencing Charcoal Dyewood and gunpowder . . . < Naval stores Wood alcohol and acetic add Tanning material Maple syrup and sugar .... Grand total MOUotk cu. ft. MUlioB doilan. 6,000 55° 12 100 200 6,862 45 5 5 50 555 18,000 250 16 25,128 45° 7 •5 8.5 35 »5 5-5 1044 The cubic contents are estimates of the forest-grown material which might furnish the amounts of prepared materials at the given values. They give an insight into the possibilities and necessities of supply and Its character. The fiiel wood con- sumption in tiie above estimate has been assumed to have been somewhat decreased from that of the census of 1880, the value per cord ($2.20) to have remained the same. NOTES. 4S9 As win be seen in the notes to Chajrter XI, the census of 1900 places the value of the mill products, including an uncertain part of the rest of bolt and log size material, at 1566,832,984, to which at least the wood pulp with round $28,000,000 must be added, increasing this most important portion of forest products by about 10 per cent In the minor forest products the naval store industry has increased to over $20,000,000, the wood alcohol industry to nearly $4,000,000, the tanning materials being slightly reduced and the maple sugar industry slightly increased. The present value of all forest products, at places of first manu&cture or consumption, may then be safely placed at round $1,100,000,000. The value of the wood manufiicture has naturally also increased, increasing by so much the eco- nomic significance of our forest resource. To gain an insight into the importance of the forest resource in our industrial world the following comparison will serve, in which the manu- fiutures requiring wood as an essential part of the manufacture, including sawmills, etc., are placed in opposition to all the manufiictures of the country. In this comparison the reduc- tion for wood value only as given in the table on p. 427 has not been made. tlgo. Capital Product. WaflH. MilUan. MUtion. llMtuaiid. MiUkw. All manu&ctures . . . Manufactures dependent on wood Wood manufactures repre- sent of all manufactures 6*535 I^02 31% 9.373 1,756 19% 4,713 1,093 33% 3,383 543 34% ^30 APPENDIX. P. 33. WMdth of the Hatkm.— The total wealth of the United States was estimated, upon the basis of census data, in 1890 to be distributed about as follows : — BiUioa doUan. Real esUte not in farms 26.3 Farm property in land *3'3 Farm property in cattle and equipment . . • 2-7 Railways acd telegraph lines 9-3 Capital in large manufacturing Industrie*; . • 6.5 Mines, quarries, and their cajHtal stock . . .1.2 Gold, silver, coin, bullion i-* All other property 47 65.0 P. 35. FoiMt Ana of tke World. — As has been pointed out in various parts of this volume the forest area gives but an imperfect and unreliable basis for a discussion of the wood supply question ; the contents and their condition and the accessibility wood-consuming nations being th«i much more signific<^.^it factors. The table on p. 431 condenses information, more or less reliable, regarding some of the more important forest areas of the worid. While these figures cannot claim absolute cor- rectness, authorities varying more or less, ihey ?ive at least ;q>proximate ideas of the relaUve position of the countries enumerated. P. 51. Wood Consomption in United States. — Making allowance for the increases appearing in the census of 1900, we may now roughly state our consumption a* 26 billion cubic feet, one-third of which must be of log or boU size,— a yeariy harvest which could still be continuously supplied by our forest area of 500 million acres, if it were managed upon forestry principles, namely, as a crop harvested with due regard to its continuous reproduction, and if proper economy and differentiation of relative usefulness of material were practised. MOTES. 431 r (WWt MCS* Per out of PCf capita. Staia Cooatiy. MiUwoaent. uialana. Acres. owncnliip. Par cent. United SUtes . . 500 26 7 I.+ (see pp. 335-339) (650) (34) (9) Canada .... 800 38 »45 (probably avail- able, only) (350) (17) (64) Europe .... 767, 3« 2.05 Russia . . 47«.S 37-6 4-55 63 Finland . SO-5 61.6 20.37 40 Sweden 48.9 44 9 27.2 Germany 34-9 25.8 .67 32.9 Austria 24-3 323 1.03 7-3 France. 23.8 17.8 6.3 11.8 Hungary 22.7 28 1.30 16 Spain . 21.2 17 I.M 84 Norway 17 21 8.50 11.6 Bulgaria 10.8 45 325 Italy . 10.2 14.2 •33 4 Bosnia and Herzegovina . 6.8 53 4-33 70.2 Turicey. . . • 6.3 8 Roumania . . . 51 16.9 1.00 47 Great Britain . . 3 3-8 .20 3.« Servia . . . . 24 2.0 1.03 Switzerland . . 2.1 20.5 .73 4^4 Greece . . . • 2 iS-8 •93 80 Belgium . . . 1-3 17 .20 5 Portugal . . . .8 3-5 •15 8 Denraarie . . . .6 6.4 •25 M Holland . . . .6 7 .12 f Luxemburg . . .2 30.4 .90 India "5 n •40 SO Australia . . . . Jiq»n 57 60 1-45 y» 43a APPENDIX. NOTES TO CHAPTER III. P. 63. iBTMticatioiM in Vorwt Meteorology. — The results of the Bavarian observations, as well as the methods pursued, were published by Dr. Ernst Ebermayer in " Die physikalischen Einwirkungen des Waldes auf Luft und Boden und seine klimatologische und hygienische Bedeutung," Berlin, 1873 A very full summary is to be found in F. B. Hough's ** Report upon Forestry," Vol. I, Washington, Government Printing Office, 1878. A more complete discussion of the whole question and record of the investigations into "forest in- fluences " is to be found in Bulletin 7, Division of Forestry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1887, with further additions to be found in H. R. doc 181, 55th Congress, 3d session, 1899, from whidi sources the following daU are reproduced. P. 64. laefflciency of Sain Oaoges. — The inaccuracy of the rainfall measurement* by the ordinary unprotected gauges is explained by Mr. Qeveland Abbe, in the Bulletin dted, as follows: ''In the case of ordinary rain^ls we invariably have the air full of large and small drops, including the finer particles that constitute a drizzling mist and the fragments of drops that are broken up by spattering. All these are de- scending at various velocities which, according to Stokes, depend on their size and density and the viscous resistance of the air ; the particles of hail descend even £uter than drops of water, and the flakes of snow descend slower than ordinary drops. Now, when the wind strikes an obstacle, the deflected currents on all sides of the obstacle move past the latter more rapidly; therefore the open mouth of tfie rain gauge has above it an invisible layer of air whose horizontal motion is more rapid than that of the wind a little distance higher up. Of the fidling raindrops, the larger ones may descend with a rapidity sufficient to penetrate this swiftly moving layer, but the slower fidling drops will be carried over the leeward of the gauge, and, foiling to enter it, will miss bdng counted as rain- fall, although they go on to the ground near by. Evidently, NOTES. 433 the stronger the wind the larger will be the proportion of small drops that are carried past the gauge ; or again, the larger the proportion of small drops and light flakes of snow that constitute a given shower, the more a gauge will lose for a given velocity of wind. In brief, the loss will depend both upon the velocity of the wind and the velocity of the descent of the precipitation ; therefore, a gauge will, in general, catch less in winter than in summer ; less in a climate where light, fine rains occur than where the rains are composed of larger, heavier drops ; less in a country or in a season of strong winds than of feeble winds ; less when exposed to the full force of the wind by being elevated on a post, than when ex- posed to the feebler winds near the ground. . . . *« The distinction between the effect of the winds in heavy rains and fine rains is verj' dearly brought out by Bomstein's classification of the catch on twenty-six days of fine rain and forty-three days of heavier rains ; the percentages are shown in the following table " : — 43 Heavy raios. ■6 FiaeiaiiM. Windfeicc. No. erf' days. Deficit percent No-ofdayt. D«6cit percent ^ 3 »7 13 I 6 13 14 17 4 8 6 6 2 23 46 52 Rain gauges under trees do not record all the rain fiallen. The percentage of precipitation recorded imder trees of different kinds has been found as follows : — Entire year. Warm imon. General average Average for deciduous trees . . Average for evergreens . . . . 7S 74 77 70 65 74 SF 434 APPENDIX. fr ( These data are the result of observations at dzteen stations for about 150 years. The table shows that in the warm season 30 per cent of the rainfoll in the open fields £iils to reach the gauges under the trees. Taking all seasons together, 25 per cent is intercepted. This deficit does not inchide the water which drips from the leaves, for this is fairly accounted for by the gauges. It is the water which moistens the tree and its various parts and that which flows down the trunk. The former is evs^wrated with- out reaching the soil ; the latter reaches the soil finally, and is measurable. Some experiments have indicated this amount to be about 8 per cent of the precipitation. The same difficulties experienced with rain gauges are also found to attach to thermometers; the best thermometers placed side by side will vary by as much as 1.6" F. and usually 0.7° F., hence small differences of temperature may be merely inaccuracies, or due to non-uniformity of conditions, and cannot be argued as a result of forest influences. P. 69. Details of Meteorological Conditions within and out- side of Forests. — The following conclusions have been drawn from the German observations and are reproduced from the above-cited bulletin : — Difference of Meteorological Conditions WixniN AND Without the Forest. (i) Sail Temperatures. — The general influence of the forest on soil temperatures is a cooling one, due to the shade and to the longer retention of moisture in the forest floor as well as in the forest air, which must be evaporated before the ground can be warmed. As a consequence, the extremes of high and low temperature within the forest soil occur much later than in the open, and both extremes are reduced, but the extreme summer temperatures much more than the winter temperatures. The difference between evei^green and deciduous forests, which almost vanishes in the winter time, is in favor of the NOTES. 435 deddiMMM It a coding element in summer and autumn, while during spring the soil is coder under evergreens. The efiect increases naturally with the age and lieight of the trees. (a) Air Ttit^trahtrts undtr th$ Cramms. — The annual range of air tenqperature is smaller in the forest than in the open; the effect upon the minimum temperature {i.t. the effisct in winter) is less than on the maximum temperature {}.». the effect in summer). The combined effect is a cool- ing one. The range of temperature is more affected than the average absolute temperature, or, in other wcnrds, the moderating influence is greater than the cooling efiect. The monthly minima for middle latitudes are uniformly re- duced during the year, and the monthly maxima are much nutfe reduced during the summer than during the winter. On the average the forest is cooler than the open country in summer, but about the same in winter, with a slight warming effect in spring. The difference between the mean monthly air temperatures in the woods and in the open varies with the kind of forest much more than is the case for soil temperatures. The evergreen forest shows a symmetrical increase and dtcwe througfamit the year. The deciduous forest shows a vwirtli influence which diminishes from the midwinter to springtime, but increases rapidly as the leave? appear and grow, becoming a maximum in June and July, and then diminishing rapidly until November. The annual average effect is about &e same both for evergreen and deciduous forests. Fwests situated at a considerable elevation above the sea have sensibly the same influence on the reduction of the mean temperature as do forests that are at a low level. Young forests affect the air temperature very differently from mature forests ; in the former the minimum temperatures are always reduced, but the maxima are exaggerated. The observations on which this conclusion is based ought, periiaps, to be considered as pertaining rather to the case of tempera- tures in the tree tops. 436 APPENDIX. (3) Air TtmptratKrtt wUkin M# CfWWM.— The mean tempentuie of the air in the tree toj*, after correcting for elevation above ground, is rather higher than over open fields. The effect of tree tope does not apprecUUy depend upon the height of the station above ground. The effect upon the minima is generally greater than on the maxima, the total efect being a warming one. A tree-top sUtion is in general intermediate, as to temperature, between a sUtion near the ground in the forest and one in the open field. Evergreen forests show less difference between the temper- ature in the crown and below, and altogether more uni- formity in temperature changes throughout the year than deciduous growth. The vertical gradient for temperature wiihin the forest on the average of all stations and all kinds of forest trees is large, varying from a6i" F. per loo feet in April to 3.50° F. in July. A reversal of the vertical gradient, namely, a higher temper- ature above than below, occurs in the wood, especially in the summer time. It also occurs in the open au- regularly at night id m, : be three or four times as large as that just inenuw..ed. U '^neral, the action of the forest tends to pro- duce a vertical distribution of temperature like that over snow or level fields on clear nights. (4) Air Temperature above the Cravms. — Tht tempera- ture, at considerable heights above the forest, appears to be slightly affected by the forest, and more so with evergreens than with deciduous growth. The vertical gradients of temperature within 30 feet above the tops of the trees are aU reversed throughout the leafy season; the gradients are also greater above the tree crown than below, at least during the dear sky and calm air. The wmd affects the temperature under and within the crowns, but makes little difference above them. The surfiu* of the forest crown appears meteorologi- cally much like the surface of the meadow or cornfield. It is as if the soil surface has been raised to the height of the Uees. NOTES. 437 (5) Air T* ptratyrt'in Otturai. — From the preceding genenlizatioiia it appears that the forest affects tlte tempera- tore just as any collection of inorganic obstacles to suc^ne and wind ; biit as an organic being the forest may be also an indq>endent source of heat. Careful observations of the temperature within the trunk of the tree and of the leaves of the tree show that the tree temperature is affected somewhat by the &ct that the water rising brings up the temperature of the roots, while the food material from the leaves brings their temperature down, and the tree temperature, considered aa the result of the complex adjustment, is not appreciably afiected by any heat that may be evolved by the chenucal processes on which its growth depends. It is not yet clear as to whether the chemical changes that take place at the vat' fiKe of the leaves should give out any heat ; it is more likely that heat . . absorbed ; namely, rendered latent, especially in the formation of the seed ; the process of germination usually evolves this latent heat ; the immense quantity of water tran- spired and evaporated by the forests tends to keep the leaves at the same temperature as that of the sur&ce of water or mobt soil. (6) Humidity of Air. — The annual evapors. within the forests is about one-half of that in the open field ; not only is the evaporation within a forest greatest in May and June, but the difference between this and the evaporation in the open field is also then a maximum, which is the saving due to the presence of the woods. The average annual evaporation within the woods is about 44 per cent <^ that in the field. Fully half of the field evaporation is saved by the presence of the forest. The quantity of moisture thrown into the air by transpira- tion from the leaves in the forest is sometimes three times that from a horizontal water surface of the same extent, and at other times it is less than that of the water. The tran- siMration from leaves in full sunshine is decidedly greater than from leaves in the difiused dayUght or darkness. The 438 APPENDIX. abiohtte amoont of annoal trantpiration, as obacnred In ferasU of mature oakt and beeches in Central Euroix nuy amoont to 50 per cent of the total annual predpiutio.. and more ; with conifers, only one-sixth to one-tenth of this. The percentage of rainfidl, evaporated at the surface of the ground, is about 40 per cent for the whole year in the <^n field and about 12 per cent for the forest, and is greater under dedduous than under evergreen forests. The evaporation from a saturated bare soil in the forest b about the same as that from a water surface in the forest, other conditions being the same. The presence of forest litter like that lying naturally in un- disturbed ioTcsU hinders the evaporation from the soil to a nnarkable extent, since it saves seven-eighths of what would otherwise be lost The tm this cause. (S) When a forest encloses a small area of land, forming a Klade, its enclosed position brings about special phenomena of reflection of heat, local winds, and a large amount of shade. For such situations it is found that tiie mean range of tem- perature is larger in the glade than in the open; the gUde dimate is more rigorous tiian the climate of open plains ; tiie glade is cooler and its diurnal range laiger during the spring, summer, and autumn. Favorable influences upon moisture conditions of the aw are most noticeable in locaUties where much water U stored underground, with overiying strata which are apt to dry when our summer drought prevails. Here the forest growth is able to draw water from greater depths, and by transpiration return it to tiie atmosphere, tiiereby reducing the dryn«s and possibly inducing precipitation, in moist climates thU action would be less effective or of no use. Hence in regions witii oceanic climate, with moist sea winds, like England and the west coasts of Europe or of the northern United Stotes, deforestation from a climatic point of view may noke no appreciable difference, such as it would make in continental climates like the interior of our country, the Rocky Mountains, and Southern California. NOTES. 443 Whether large or small areas of forest and open fields alter, sating, or what percenUge of forest is most fiivorable, can- not as yet be discussed, since we are not clearly informed even as to the manner and the amount of influence which forest cover exercises. In general we may expect that an alternation of large forested and unforested areas in regions which on account of their geographic situation have a dry and rigorous climate is more beneficial than large uninterrupted forest areas, whidi would fail to set up that local circulation which is brought about by differences in temperature and" per- mits an exchange of the forest cliiuate to the neighboring field. More recent experiments tend to modify somewhat the con- clusions arrived at heretofore, and indicate, as has been sug- gested, that the differences 5n temperature and humidity of woods and of open land that have been recorded are largely to be attributed to variability of instruments and of readings, and to nonconformity of conditions. Even the well-planned Austrian experiments have produced neither striking nor consistent results. In 1893 Dr. Lorentz libumau concluded that forests did not cool the air of the mirrounding country, and that temperature extremes were even heightened in the immediate vicinity of the woods. Concerning humidity, it was found that while with one set of stations this appeared increased by an uncerUin trifle through the proximity of the forest, in another set no influence was observed, and in one case the air current firom the woods was positively drier at noontime than that of the open country, and even though Lorentz Libumau is still hopeful in the mat- ter, he felt compelled to admit that a "distance effect" of forest influence was so far not demonstrated. Schubert, in 1895 and again in 1897, published results ot extensive temperature measurements which point to aa entire absence of influence in this respect, the air of the forest being in no case sufficiently cooler to warrant a decision. His ex- periments gave a difference of only 5° F. in favor tarded, giving longer time for filtration into the ground, which also being frozen to less depth is more S4>t to be open for sub- terranean drainage. Altogether forest conditions favor in general larger subterranean and less surface drainage, yet the moss or litter of the forest floor retaitis a large part of the pre- cipitation and prevents its filtration to the soil, and thus may diminish the supply to springs. This is especially possible with small precipitations. Of copious rains and large amounts of snow water, quantities, greater or less, penetrate the soil, and according to its nature into lower strata and to springs. This drainage is facilitated not only by the numerous chan- nels furnished by dead and living roots, but also by the influ- ence of the forest cover in preserving the loose and porous structure of the soil. Although the quantity of water offered for drainage on naked soil is larger, and although a large quantity is utilized NOTES. 445 by the trees in the process of growth, yet the influence of the soil cover in retarding evaporation is liable to offset this loss, as the soil cover is not itself dried out. The forest, then, even if under unfavorable topographical and soil conditions (steep slopes and impermeable soils) it may not permit larger quantities ^ water to drain off under- ground and in springs, can yet influence their constancy and equable flow by preventing loss from evaporation. (3) The sur&ce drainage is retarded by the uneven forest flonr more than by any other kind of soil cover. Small pre- dptations are apt to be prevented from runnmg off superficially through absorption by the forest floor. In case of heavy rain- falls this mechanical retardation in connection with greater subterranean drainage may reduce the danger from freshets by preventing the rapid collection into runs. Yet in rq;ions with steep declivities and impermeable soil such rains may be shed superficially and produce freshets in spite of the forest floor, and an effect upon water conditions can exist only from the following consideration. (4) The well-kept forest floor, better than even the ckwe sod of a meadow, prevents erosion and abrasion of the soil and the washing of soil and detritus into brooks and rivers. This erosion is especially detrimental to agrkultural inter- ests as well as waterflow in regions with thin surface and im- penetrable subsoils, and where rains are apt to be explosive in their occurrence, as in ow western and soethem country. The best s

erinMnt by Wollny, in a series of incondusive sBiall pot experiments which led this investigator to the ques- tioaa^e remit that bare land was more condudve to percola- tion dnn ground covered dther by grass or trees. This would sorely be true only if the bare ground, as in the experi- ments, is kept in an artificial, not natural, condition. Attempts to deduce the influence of forest on waterflow fr(Mn whoksale measurements and observations have been made in this country by Vermeule, of New Jersey (see Proceedings American Forestry Assodation, Vol. XI, pp. 130-137, acd report of New Jersey Geological Survey, 1894), and Rafter, of New York (Proceedings of American Forestry Association, Vol. XII, pp. 139-165, and report of State engi- neer aud surveyor of New York, 1896), the former claiming that no appreciable influence existed, the latter calculating the iaflu- NOTES. 447 enoe of the forest to be equal in value to five or six inches of ninbJl, this amount ci liioisture being saved by its presence. Among recent papers which possess the highest value in describing the movements of water in the ground, and thus throw light on a most importai:^ phase of the whole subject, Bulletin 33 of the Experiment Station, Fort Collins, Colo., by Professor L. G. Carpenter, is noteworthy. Professor Carpen- ter shows that it is possible by mechanical means (ditches in this case) to prevent the rapid run-off in high-water time and thus produce a steadier flow of a stream and also raise the level of the ground water, as weU as saturate huge areas of otherwise arid land. In other words, he shows that in Colo- rado the work of irrigation has resulted in a rise in the level of the ground water, changing deep wells into shallow ones ; that it has taken water out of the Platte and Cache la Poudre riveirs, and saturated thousands of acres of formeriy arid land, the seepage of whidi has changed dry brandies into steady rivulets, and supplies already a steady inflow into the rivers, from which the water is taken above the fields. This inflow tends to make these rivers steady and vaifrirm soitreM of water supply, and makes irrigation fou&M at points bek>w where in former times such irrigation would have been out of the question. P. 78. Seiikatf Mhwaee. — The theories of dw devdoi>- ment oi the various pathc^enic bacilli in die soil whidi were based on Petteakoffer's authority have lately been discarded, and the origin ef malaria has also experienced a different ex- planation by some authorities. The general sUtement that the forest schIs, being removed from the contact with man^s occupations, is usually less favorable to the prop;^tion of pathogenic microbes remains true, and at least this indirect relation of soil conditions to malaria exists, namely, that the utosquito, which is considered the direct breeder of the disease, is dependent for its development on swampy conditions oi soil, stagnant water, pools, etc. 448 APPENDIX. NOTES TO CHAPTER IV. P. 8i. The etymology of the word ««foreit8 " is doubtfiiL It is only cotain that it is not, as has sometimes been claimed, of Latin, but of Germanic origin, as is evidenced from a manuscript of Zwentibold: «ut quandum silvam in bannum mitteremus et ez ea, sicut Frand dicunt, fbrestem £ace- remus." The unquestionable connection between wr, first, first and foTsty which was originally written vocrst (also vorsty vorist, forest, foreht,fortis), suggests the meaning attached to the word originally, namely, a piece of property set aside for the use of the king or " Fiirst." Other etymologists have tried to rehte the term fortsta to fera (wild animals), ferarum statio, and to foris (outside), referring either to game preserves or to location outside the range of the settled country. Lately again the word has been referred to the Latin fonts, a subdivided area. It is dumed that the original meaning, namely, « restriction of the chase," was of Roman origin. According to others the old German word signified " wood- land," and only in the sixth and seventh century was specially applied to the woodland owned by the kings or masters, and gradually in the eighth and ninth centuries assumed the restricted sense of reserved woodlands, and finally of the mere legal condition and rights. P. 83. Foresters {forestarii) and forest guards {custodes tumoris) are mentioned first under the Carolingians as hav- ing charge of the forest property of the kings or lords under the supervision of the majordomo; they had at first only police fiinctions, and were often taken bom the serfc. It was much later that their funcUons assumed a tedinical character. P. 84. It is interesting to note the historical develop- ment of the forestry idea in England and in the United L NOTES. 449 States by a comparison of the lexicographers from period to period. Richardson's New Dictionary of 1846 defines a forest still as "a great and privileged wood or woody wilderness; some (Frenchmen) have generally interpreted it as a place whereto access and entry is forbidden by the owner unto others, and hence it seems that privileged fishing or large waters (wherein none but the lords thereof could fish) were also termed forests." Webster's Dictionary in 1863 did not contain the word "forestry" at all; "forester" was defined as (i) an officor ai^inted to watch a forest or chase, and to preserve game and institute suit of trespass ; (2) an inhabitant of the forest ; (3) a forest tree. Forest was defined as (t) "an extensive wood or a large tract of land covered with trees. In America usually applied to a wood of native growth or a tract of woodland which has never been cultivated. It differs from < woods' chiefly in ex- tent." The second meaning refers to the legal term, as explained in the text. The edition of 1880 gives essentially the same definitions for forest and forester, but contains also " Forestry : The art oi forming or managing forests. (Rare.) " In 1 891 the rarity of the word "forestry" seems to have been overcome, the definition of forest remains the same; a forester has become "one who has charge of the grow- ing timber on an estate," etc., and forestry is " the art (tf forming or cultivating forests ; the management of growing timber." E'rii Lie Str.'-idard Dictionary of 1895 finds it still necessary to e/p ain thar its definitii^n, "forestry, the art of developing and n anaging forests," is 1 ased upon Professor Ely's use of the word when referring to New York state having acquired forests in the Adirondacks and having entered upon forestry, and tlurt its definition of a foroter as " one who has charge of a forest or of its timl)er, one who is versed in forestry," is ac 450 APPENDIX. based upon the use (rf' the word in the Report of the U.S. Forestry Division for 1 886. Nor is the definition of ** foraat "* any more certain of its propriety, Uclcing in definitenest: "a large tract of land covered with a natural growth of trees and underbrush ; a large wood, woodland, often with intervening •inces of open grounds.** NOTES TO CHAPTER V. P. 113. Labor in Forettiy.— The labor statistics oi Ger^ many for 1895 show one laborer employed to 310 acres in fop> estryand one to 10.6 acres in agriculture — a still greater labor-intensity in agriculture than indicated by the figures in the text, which 'vere orawn fivm less complete statistics. Altogether 352,566 people were deriving their living directly or indirectly firom forestry, besides 900,000 in sawmills and woodworking industries, while 17.8 millions were engaged in agricultural pursuits. P. 1 16. Forest Labor in the Ontted States. — In the United States, according to the census of 1900, there were 383,840 wage-eamtrs besides 14,333 clerV<« or other officials earning $153,000,000, and 43,322 proprietors engaged in forest ex- ploitation and sawmills and planing-mills, the wage-earners varying through the year from 350 to 650 thousand. In l<^ng operations alone there were employed besides 2400 salaried officials and clerks on the average 121 thousand wage-earners, varying from month to mnv'u between 90 and 156 thousand, the largest number being employed in January and February, the smallest in July; the wages paid to these amounted to ^6.000,000. Translating; the 35 billion feet, board n:eavure, produced roughly into acreage, say 6 million acres represent- ing the har\est area, there was one man employed for *!very 50 acres cut over, giving rise tr a labot earning of over $7 per ;; or, if we accept >r;. ^lioc acres as the productive NOTES. 4St iorett area, eadt 4000 acre* of these furnish employment for one man in the harvest alone, for twice the number in the mills, and three tinie« the number in woodworking establish- ments. Pp. 116 and 131. The Fanner's Wood-lot The fiumer's wood-lot h-x its unquestionable value to the Cinner and to the farm, not o Jy in furnishing fuel and repair material, and in giving occupation during the leisure of winter, but also in producing values from those portions of the fium which are unfit for agriculture, if he owns sudi, and in the indirect benefits from preventing soil washes, and from its wind-break efifects, if properly placed. Silviculturally the fimner's wood-lot is at a disadvantage, on account of its isolation and small size. It is, therefore, con- stantly wind-swept, and unless particular care is taken to maintain a wind-mantle on the outsorts, the soil is apt to deteriorate, reproduction is made difficult, and danger fix>m wind&ll is intensified. The time-element involved rules out the wood-lot from timber production ; the coppice and standard a^pice manage- ment for the productiou of fuel wood and sro-^ll dimensions alone fits the small farmer^ condition, and if in reach of a maricet for these, nuiy prove very profitable. Timber produc- tion is practically not a busmess for small areas, although theoretically and under peculir.r conditions in practice is not impossible. P. 122. ' Provided the Litter is Left' — The fellen leaves, twigs, bark, and other litter, decaying, form a mulch, which, covoing the soil, preserves the soil water from being evapo- rated and keeps the soil in granular, permeable condition, most £ivorable to water conduction. Besides, the largest amount of the mineral constituents ^hich the trees Imvc pumpdd up from the soil is stored in these youngest parts, which are i^tumed x the soil as the litter decays and forms tha humus. In the average there are annually returned by the tali of leaves and litter in a dense forest from 1800 to 4^00 4S3 APPENDIX. poaiuk per acre, containing, wcordlng to Und and condWon of growth and soil, from 34 to 230 pounds of minerali, potaih, phoaphoric add, magneria, lime, etc., and 12 to 60 pounds of nitrogen, the whole equivalent to not leaa than ao to 30 cent! or more of fertilizer. Thia accounu for the weU-known fertility of freah foreat tolls, which have accumuUted theae minerals In the surface Tuirge literature on the subject of forest Utter has been occasioned In Germany, owing to the conflicting Interests of foresters and smaU fanners who desire to, and by «»«»shy do, assist their scant crops by this forest manure, to the detri- ment of the forest aop. p 134 Results of foieat HanagenMit to Sazeny, and other state forest administrations. - The mort totef^^ management Is possible In this densely populated and highly todttstrlal portion of Germany. The periodic changes from 1817, when a systematic forest management had only been begun, through the century are exhibited m the fol- lowing tabulation, giving reaulu per acre on about 430/»o 1817-M. 1S54-6S. ISM-M. Felliiig budget, cubic feet 60 70 90 Timber wood, per cent . 17 48 79 6.67 Gross revenue, dollars . 1-75 3-54 Expenditures, dollars . .80 1.15 3.30 Net revenue, dollars •95 3.39 4-37 Revenue per $1 expended, dollars . . . • 3.20 3.10 3.90 NOTES. 4S3 The Mt ravenoM b ill the other Gennaa state fereit ad- niabtrations have riaen in aimilar manner, namely, in doUan per each acre under management: — Ymt. FniMia. BBWfcU SuBonjr. Wflrlam- b«I. «-. 1830 •44 .46 1. 10 .83 1. 61 1850 .46 .65 1.63 t.II 3.96 1870 .87 1.99 a-45 3.63 4.18 1875 i.ao 3.11 $•48 4.33 3.39 1880 •9» 1.19 4.08 3.66 3.a$ 1890 1.30 1.90 517 3-33 3.70 1895 1.03 174 4-33 3.81 4-14 1897 1.19 5.10 439 These figures show the influence of boom prices following the Franco-German war, but the agricultural depression of the hut decade in Germany, although noticeable in its effects on wood prices, has hardly interrupted the constant increase in the net yields of forestry. The groas yields of these forest properties contribute to the total gross budgets of the state administrations in Prussia, 4-5 per cent ; Bavaria, 9-10 per cent ; Saxony, 13-14 per cent ; WUrtemberg^ 16 per cent; Baden, 8 per cent; Austria, 0.7 per cent ; France, 0.7 per cent ; Russia, i .6 per cent A further proof of the efficiency of forest management is to be found not only in the greater total wood production per acre, which has been secured in all states by careful manage- ment simihrly to that recorded for Saxony on p. 453, but also in the larger proportion of timber wood (over 3 inches diameter) which is coming to harvest, in part at l«ist as a result of improved silviculture. NHCROoorr moumoN ntr chait (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) 1.0 s«* Itt lit U IM 1.1 IM 2.5 2.2 2.0 1.8 iJJ5 lU 1.6 ^ /»=y^-03 IMHGE Inc 1053 CMt Moin Straat RodiMtar, Nw York 14MI9 USA (71t) 4*2 - 0300 - PhOM (710) 2M - SOM - Fm 454 APPENDIX. This timber wood per cent increased as foUows : - Yaw. Pninia. Bavaria. Sasony. WQitem- bcr(> Baika. 1850 .... 26 17 3S 26 24 28 i860 ... • 29 19 45 32 1870 .... 30 32 61 40 34 1880 .... 29 32 75 39 35 1890 .... 47 48 80 54 42 189s ... . 50 SO 79 53 44 The total net income from aU the German state forests « ti.8o per acre, or $63,000,000. Of this gross yield, 65 per cent is for timber wood, from 3-10 per cent for by-products, the balance for inferior wood materials. How well deserved the reputation of the German forest administrations and financially how wise their maintenance has been may be judged by a comparison with other forest administrations. WhUe in 1890 the German forest admmis- trations showed a net revenue varying from $1.30 to ^.46 per acre, and in the average |i.8o, the state forests of the foUowing countries yielded per acre in the period stated : — . . $to$ . . .168 . . .32 . . .02 . . 48 France 1897 • . Austria 1887-1893 Hungary 1885-1894 Russia «896 . . Sweden ^894 • . Italy Spain 1893 1892 .33 .172 In Fiance, which comes nearest to the German results, a decline of gross yields has been noticeable in the last 40 years. The decade of 1860-1869 showed a total yield of round NOTES. 45S $8,000,000 average per year, while the following decades showed the averages of 7, 5.5, 5.4, 5.7, respectively ; the cause of it being probably, in the main, the dumge from timber forest to coppice. In Russia a constant increase in receipts during the last 15 to 30 years is the result of an improved forest administration ; every increase in expenditures bringing more than a com- mensurate result. This is brought out significantly by a comparison of yeariy net yields and expenditures which were from 1885 to '896: — Year. 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1 891 1893 1893 1894 189s 1896 Espendtturei. Million Rubd. 5-49 548 5.60 5-57 5.80 6.09 6.24 6.31 6.50 6.89 735 7.76 Net rwcniw* MillioB Rubd. 8. 8.2 8.5 104 12.8 I2.I 11.3 131 15.9 19.6 22.1 36.5 The German administrations also show this relation of expenditure to net revenues. Not only has every increase in expenditure in each state produced greater efficiency (see p. 327), but the net results from state to state are almost in direct relation to the expenditure, as will appear when com- paring the table of net yields with the following table of expenditures. The total expenditures are for the period from 1880 to 1896, the expenditures for administration alone for 456 APPENDIX. the period from 1890 to 1896, except for Prussia, for which the periods end in 1893 : — Total «ip«iditiiiM ptr acre, doUan . . . Per cent of gtOM Adminiitiatioa ozpeaM per acre, dollars . . Per cent of groM TeTcaiM PruMia. t.io-i.30 •SS ai.5 Bavaria. I.SO-0.4O 47-« ••7--93 •0.5-16.8 Sasony. •.ie-*.70 3«-39 •9S 14 WBrteat' berg. •7* a.io-a.lo 4»^ ID In the expenditures there are absorbed by woodchoppers 15-18 per cent of the income from wood sales. For plantirg alone the following expenditures per acre cf forest were in- curred in 1894-1895: Prussia, 22 cents; Bavaria, 6.5 cents; Saxony, 14 cents; WQrtemberg, I7» cents; Baden, 18.8 cents. This means not per acre planted, but per acre under management. P. 138. Rise in Wood Prices. — A very careful and exhaus- tive investigation into the movement of prices for wood and for agricultural products in Prussia, comprising *he fifty years from 1830 to 1880 (by Dr. Fr. Jentsch in Zeitschrift fir Forst- und Jagdwesen, 1887, pp. 91-108), during which time the price for wood (average) rose 74 per cent, namely, from i\ cents to 4^ cents per cubic foot, brings out the following facts: — 1. The tendency of prices for agricultural products as well as for wood ha'< been toward a rise. 2. Prices for -vood have increased more rapidly than those of the staples wheat and rye (imports!), less rapidly than of potatoes, beef; and butter. 3. Prices for wocd have risen more steadily than those for ag'icultural products. NOTES. 457 4. The relation between prices for wood and for wheat and rye shows a tendency in fovor of greater rise in profits fron forestry than from grain production. 5. Prices promise to rise further for an indeterminable time. This last prediction seems so far to have proved correct, as the following records from Upper Bavaria show. As an iverage result of yearly sales, round timber, f. o. b. boa , brought in — Y«ur. Ccnti per cu.ft. Ymt. Cot* CO. ft. 1886 1890 1894 3.2 2.33 2.93 1S96 1897 2.83 2.98 The prices for boards (i inch, 16-foot lengths) was per Mft., B.M.: — Width* .... 6iii. Sin, 10 in. tain. In 1886 . . . In 1897 . . . $12.50 15.00 $13.60 17.25 18.00 |I37S 20.00 To gain an idea of the appreciation of the wood product, without reference to kind, size, and quality, the following series of figures will serve : — Average Price per 100 Cubic Feet of Wood realized BY THE Prussian Government for its Entirie Crop (ABOUT 300,000,000 Cubic Feet). 1850 $3-27 1855 3-66 i860 369 458 APPENDIX. Average Price per ioo Cubic Feet of Wood Realized BY THE Prussian Govcrnment for its Entire Crop (ABOUT 300,000,000 Cubic Feet) — CotMnmd. 1865 t4-7i 1870 4-35 1875 5-21 1880 447 1885 4-30 1890 440 The highest price for any district was obtained in 1888, being I8.49, while the lowest was I2.82. The lower prices in later years are explained by the increased importations of wood, especially from Hungary, Russia, and Sweden. The influence which development of means of transporta- tion exercises on wood prices is interestingly exhibited in a comparison of the price prevailing in the district with lowest and the district with highest price, in Prussia. This relation changed during the last thirty years as follows, taking 100 for the lowest price: i860, 100:600; 1870, 100:380; 1P80, 100 : 300 ; 1890, 100 : 220. In other words, the range of price decreased in the thirty years of railroad building to one-fourth of the original one. In 1892 the difference in prices was 100 : 221, when timber wood stood 100:267, firewood 100:177, whUe rye, the most general agricultural crop, showed the relation of ioo: 116 in the lowest and highest market (a range of only 16 per cent); the bulkiness 01* the wood material circum- scribing its transportableness p.obably accounts ^'or this great difference. To compare prices of wood in America uo better means are at hand than the record of export prices on square timber from Canada, which brings the variable iten* of cost of produc- table in « Forest Wealth of Canada. given NOTES. 4S9 Cents per Cubic Foot. Yew. Whittpine. 0^ Elm. t'^f^ ^"S 4-51 5i-io 8i-i8 14-36 18-35 16-42 i3-»4 14-17 19-23 43-52 43-:') 45-5 » 7-10 7i-i4 9- ' 33-- 25-30 35-:3 Rise Per cent per annum approxunately . 12-36 7-18 33-47 5-7 18-23 6-5 Showing not only a constant increase of not less than 5 per cent per annum, but also a variation in range, which indicates reduction in the supply of better quality. The price of logs exported from Canada during the 2^ years from 1878 to 1893 appreciated, according to the same authority for all descriptions, 3^ per rant, and for pine aloce from I5.40 to $8.33 per M feet, or 5.4 p<>" cent. To explain the difference of these prices from the prices for square timber, it should be known that the square timber goes mostly from Quebtr to Great Britain, the logs mostly from Ontario to the United States, a difference in market and location which depresses the log prices disproportionately. A study of the prices paid for timber limits in Canada, wriich are more acces- sible than such data with us, will also show the tendency and the rate ot rising prices due to decrease of accessible supplies. T'.ie reduction in supplies is also well indicated by the change in the size of merchantable logs, which, in the seven years from 1887 to 1893, for which data are published in the above-cited document, changed in the Province of Ontario for pine from 122.5 feet B.M. per average log to 98.5, and for other kinds from 79 to 57 feet B.M. 460 APPENDIX. NOTES TO CHAPTER VI. p. 144. AccUnutlsation. — Acclimatization, i.e. use of ex- otic species for forest growing, has been sparingly practised except in planting where nature had not provided any native forest flora, the reason being that native woods usually satisfy the requirements, and that the long period of development before the real character of the wood and the behavior of the plant under new conditions can with certainty be determined detos the attempts. There would, however, appear to have been more hesiution than necessary on this last account. Trees which have lived in a climate for a decade during their infentile and youthful, tenderest stage, and behaved as in their native habitat, are not likely to change their diaracter later. The Germans have for the last thirty years systematically tested and introduced foreign, espedaUy American, species, with considerable satisfaction. Our white pine has been in existence in German forest plantations for over one hundred years and has been found most satisfectory. In Hunfpry over 170,000 acres of our black locust furnish to the wine- growers most satisfactory vineyard stakes. While it may still be considered safest to rely upon the native flora, yet if exotics, climatically adapted, promise more rapid growth, larger production, silvicultural qualities or quality of wood superior to the native, as for instance the Norway spruce, it is proper policy to supplant ihf, inferior native, pro- vided that no more is expect :d of it than it does and can do in its native home. P. 157. Weight Prodnction per Acre. — It is to be under- stood that this equal weight production of various species from year to year presupposes the species to be, at least in general, adapted to the locality or site and climate; moreover, this statement refers only to the actual experience with Ger- man species in German climate and soils. This experience merely proves the self-evident feet thai the same amount of water, sunlight, and temperature accessible in the same man- NOTES. 4fil ner produces the same amount of wood material in weight, n« matter what the species. The volumes would then vary in- versely as the spedfic gravity or weight of the woods, or v.iVfSz- : -, which is also borne out by the results of the German measurements. P. 1 59. Yield Tables. — A picture of the progress of a wood- crop is gained from the study of the so-t,ft. VntnoM VolwM inCMMMt. Ai*. o-ft Avaiat*- CcfftnL PncMM. 30 3560 »s 987 49 98 11.0 30 1680 34 3,3«o 78 »5S 71 40 1050 SO 4,300 los 311 5-3 50 720 60 7,640 119 »S5 3.7 60 510 73 7.360 133 137 5 70 380 82 8,560 133 "3 2.3 80 317 93 9»«7 131 "3 •9 90 365 99 10,744 ISO 99 .8 100 340 10s 11,730 117 98 •7 Yield Table op Scotch Pine, Site Class I. Number of trees. ATenge height, ft. Volume, cu.ft. Volume increment. Age. Average. Current. Percent 20 1700 23 775 39 98 130 30 1 170 36 3,185 73 138 6.0 40 736 50 3,820 95 113 3.0 SO 510 63 5,000 100 . 94 19 60 380 72 5.935 99 80 1-3 70 300 80 6,700 96 66 I.O 80 245 86 7.330 9> 58 .8 90 200 93 7,840 87 50 .6 100 170 93 8,275 83 45 •5 The average maximum total wood production per acre per year in a 100-year rotation under German conditions, for Ger- man species, German forest management, and for different site NOTES. 4^3 OWN w « n w M HO no Diagram ihor/iag comparative progresi of yield* of spiice, fir, pine, and beech, on best and poorest site claues. classes may be sUted as folkws, leaving out the yield in the thinninjs which may amount to as much as 40 per cent of the final harvest : — Sm Class . Scotch Pine. . Norway Spruce . Silver Fir . . Beech . . I. CU. ft* 93 »54 158 106 II. III. CU. ft. I CU. ft. 70 127 128 85 S6 99 I02 70 IV. CU. ft. 45 78 77 50 V. CU. ft. 35 56 35 By multiplying this average increment by 100, the years of rotation (or any number of years near that rotation), the total possible harvest per acre is obtained. It appears that 4fi4 APPENDIX. fir and tpruoe an the best producen, beech next, and pine, the moat light-needing ipedea, but also the most frugal as to soils, produces the least. Our White Pine compares probably more nearly to the spruce. The usual actual production £dls, to be sure, considerably below these figures. The entire pro- duction of wood per acre of all the German forests is esti- mated as 50 cubip feet] per acre per annum, or a total harvest of 1750 million cubic feet, half of whidi is timber wood and probably 4 billion feet B.M. saw -naterial. For France the entire product is estir \ted at 3s6/mo million feet, or lest than 40 cubic feet per acre. NOTES TO CHAPTER VII. P. 177. Sprouting Capacity of Conifers. — The only conifer which sprouts vigorously and produces shoots growing into trees seems to be the Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) of our Pad 'ic '. ut. Indeed, the peculiar appearance in the location rf 8om«! of the old giants in a drde suggests that these even may have originated as sprouts from stumps of still older trees» NOTES TO CHAPTER VIII. P. 313. Soil-rent Theory. Practicability and Profltable- ness of Silricnltnre. — The economic basis for forest manage- ment is not the same everywhere, hence the methods of calculating the productive capadty must vary. The soil-rent idea can apply only in highly developed, densely populated countries, where the dosest use of soils is imperative. Agriculture is not, as a rule, attempted on soils which do not promise a satisfactory return or soil rent, while the forest, finally, is relegated to the agriculturally useless s:'!. which would bring no rent by other use. On account of the diffi- culty of transportation of forest products, location is of more moment than the natural fertility of the soil. While this limitation may be overcome by the building of roads amd rail- NOTES. roadi, this b ^ven not poMible or financiany piacticable. Hence, area* disUnt from market may contain 'arge tupplies of timber of no value on account of their Inac.essibility, and no hat finance calculation ia practicable. Under auch conditiona, when not even crude exidoitation pays, forest management upon financial basis is surely excluded. Such properties in- capable of earning a rent must by necessity be looked upon differently from these near markets. While on the latter it may be possible to institute a sustained yield management, the forma- may only be ca^ -Uy exploited 'th'^ut too much waste and some attention to aftergrowth. NOTES TO CHAITER IX. P. 351. Taxation I i* on ProiawtiTtty. — In Germany e<^ ntempt is made to u.ujee private owners to conservative forest management by reduction of Uxes. Forest property is taxed like all other property upon its properly ascertained value, which, however, varies in different states. There is a soil tax (grundsteutr), an income tax, and a property tax. The soil tax is determined upon the premise of a sustained yield management and the basis of productive capacity under such management — " not to be gauged according to accidental expenditures or improvements or neglects, but according to a natural management under usual and generally practised dili- gence.!* The yield is determined upon the basis of the usually applied rotation with the species and kind of management. But it is the yield which can be secured under these circum- stances, not the yield which is actually secured, upon which the tax is based, so that the good manager who can secure u yield higher than the ordinary one is benefited, tb^ poor manager who allows his forest to deteriorate is punished. Moreover, since, as we have seen, wood prices and net yields improve, the older tax valuations favor the owner. Since the forest owner not only possesses the soil, but in a regulated forest management also the accumulated growing aH 466 APPENDIX. stock (see p. aoi) wWch represents usually 75 to 85 per cent of the total forest value, he is by so much richer than the fumer on similar soil, drawing interest not only on the soil value but also on thU accumulated wood property. In Bavaria only the soil rent furnishes the basis for taxation, so that the largest source of income, the wood stock, is untaxed ; other stotes recogniie this principle, hence the forest pays more tax than the form on soil of the same value and size. Formerly this was not done, and the forest owner was the favored tax- payer. In Prussia and Hesse the intention is to tax the soil rent only, but by peculiar method of calculation really a larger amount is taxed. In Saxony and some other stotes a most just, elastic, pro- gressive income tax for intermittent forest management is in v<^e, which is collected only when the owner receives an in- come, and remans unpaid in yeais without an income from the forest. No regard is here paid as to what part of the forest property is responsible for the income, in other words, the separation of wood stock and soil is not considered. In Prussia, on the other hand, the income from a decimation of the wood stock is not considered as liable to tax, because it is merely a change in form of capital. Of the whole forest value in Germany only J to J is charge- able to soil, soil values for forest purposes rarely exceeding |2oo and mostly not $100 per acre (see p. 126). In general terms the tax value of all the German forests figured at 3 per cent with a net income of $63,000,000 assum- ing results equal to stote forests, represents $2,100,000,000 ($700,000,000 for state forests, $350,000,000 for corporations, $1,050,000,000 for private forests), or $60 per acre — one-third the value figured on p. 50. (The Saxon state forests, which produce the highest net income, are figured as between $115 and $233.) Allowing i for the soil, the. wood capital repre- sents $50 per acre, or the total $1,750,000,000. Allowing a similar division of earnings, namely, | to be credited to soil and I to stock of wood, the soil rent at 3 per cent figures NOTES. 4^ 30 cents per acre, varying (in 1895) between 17.2 cents in Prussia and 72.3 cents in Saxony. Tlie forest soil in Prussia in the tax lists is assessed upon the basis of a net yield varying from 18.3 cents to f 1.25, average 49.5 cents per acre, while the fiirm soils are taxed upon the basis of a net yield of 81 to 396 cents, or 183.5 >° ^^ average. P. 363. Forest Fire Insnrance. — The Gladbacher Fire In- surance Company in Germany insures forest properties ac- cording to age, species, and local danger. The fire insurance value of young stands is calculated by a discount with a 5 per cent interest r-.' -> on the final harvest value ; for mature stands the actual present value is supposed to persist for 10 years. The premiums based for each 1000 mark insurance value are in the average, for broad-leaved forests, -. . 0.85 mark; for mixed conifer and broad-leaved forest, 1.20 mark; for conifers pure, 3 marks. The minimum rate is 0.45 mark, the maximum 4 marks per 1000 marie value. NOTES TO CHAPTER X. There should have been mentioned in the text, as of par- ticular interest to us, what position our neighbor Canada has taken with r^;ard to her forestry interests. Like the United States Canada possesses two forest regions, the eastern and the western, divided by a forestless prairie and plains country. The northern climate reduces both in the east and the west the species composing the forest ; but on the whole, the type of forest found at the boundary of the United States continues for a considerable distance into Can- ada, until with the decimation of species and decrease in de- velopment, the more or less open woodlands of the northorn forest type are reached, where spruce, aspen, and birch of inferior quality and no commercial, although of local valuer APPENDIX. similar to our interior Alaskan forest, in open stand and groves of greater or less extent, are scattered aaoss the continent. With only a small population, somewhat over 5 millions, on an immense area, 3,654,000 square miles, the availability of large parts of which are still unknr,wn and only 75 mUlions of acres occupied, Canada has drawn on her immense forest resource mainly for export to Great Britain and the United States and a few other wood consumers, but the two first- mentioned countries dividing the bulk in neariy equal shares. The amount of exports is, however, not as large as we would be led to beUeve from the frequent references to Canadas position as an exporter of wood, for the values of forest and miU products seem not to exceed $30,000,000, to which about 3 millions more of wood manufactures is to be added, the range of exports for the last ten yeani having been from $25,000,000 to $35,000,000, which b reduced by about $3,500,000 of imports. This represents a per capita export of about 140 cubic feet. It would appear that the United States exports on the whole more forest product than Canada, against whom she maintains a suicidal wood tariff. The great value of Canadian forests was early recognized, and even during the French regime reservations were made to protect the supply of oak suitable for shipbuilding, and in 1763, when the English took possession, a more organized system was established to accomplish the same object; a cer- tain area being set aside in each township, where cutting was prohibited except by the contractors for the many yards. Again, in 1775, the home government ordered the setting asidt of large tracts of pine-bearing land. Under this system the navy yard contractors had practically a monopoly, and the colonial government received no revenue from its forests. In 1836 in Upper Canada a measure was passed permitting any one to cut timber on the ungranted Unds by the payment of a fixed scale of rate to the Crown, and it is interesting to note that already there was an attempt made to perpetuate the NOTES. 469 forest by doubling the rate on all trees cut which would not square more than eight inches. By the Crown Timber Act in 1849 the granting licenses for one year only was permitted, with the provision that at the end of the year the government could make any desired change in the regulations. At first only a ground rent of 62 cents per square mile, or double that if unworked, was charged, but as competition forthe limits began, the system of auctioning them was introduced, and till this time this system has persisted with a few modifications. In this way the government still owns the land and has a right at any time to refuse to renew licenses, j At present there is a division of authority in the forest administration between the Dominion and the Provincial governments. The Dominion administration is under ihe Department of Interior, and controls the land north of Que- bec and Ontario, including Labrador on the east and extendi ing west to British Columbia and Alaska. The Dominion also owns a strip of land in British Columbia along the Canadian Pacific Railway, 40 miles wide and 500 miles long, which is heavily forested. This Dominion forestry branch has been established only four years, but ah-eady it has a fiurly efficient system of fire rangers, and has commenced a great work of forest tree plant- ing on the plains. This movement was really started by the Experimental Farms under Dr. William Saunders in 1889, and since that time to 1901, 1} millions of young forest trees and cuttings and 8.5 tons of seed, chiefly box-elder and green ash, have been distributed among the settlers. This work is taken up by the Interior Department more extensively. Most of the forest now being exploited comes under the jurisdiction of the Provincial governments, except in Manitoba and the territories, where the country is new and forest land scarce. In Prince Edward Island the forests are almort en- tirely under private owners, and not much has been done in the way of forestry. In the other provinces the forests are perhaps the most valuable form of public wealth. In all, 470 APPENDIX. a .ystem of licensing timber limits with «"~ ™»»°' ^^^^P* in price and regulations is in vogue, and in that way the timber lands themselves are still largely owned by the govern- ment The main problem before the administrations is the &e moblem, and aU have made some attempts at protection, but stai large areas are burned over annually, except in On- tario, where the ranger system has been very effecUve and in igoi the loss from fire was slight. During 1901 this pro- t^^ion, one-half paid by the limit holders, cost only $30,000, rSpificant »L when compared with the losses from fire in former years. ... ^l Already over 7^,000 acres have been ^\^^^^'l; Dominion or Provincial governments as forest "se^**""^' and it is expected that in the near future this will be greatly increased. Under the Federal Government some ten reserve, containing 3,000,000 acres, have been established m Mamtoba and the Northwest Territories on wooded mountain ranges andin he foothills of the Rockies. Ontario has foui reserves, viz. Lake Temagami of .400,000 acres, ^K^^J"!-*/** °J ,,l;9,ooo acres, an 80,000-acre tract m Addington and FroTenac countie^, and 45,000 acres in Sibly County, north of Lake Superior. In Quebec, the Laurentide Park conte.^ ,,634,000 aaes, and in f- last legislature m New Brunswick a WUwas passed authorizing the setting apart of a large forest reserve on the Crown lands. _ What is greatly to be commended in the forestry admmis- tiation in Canada is, that the state retains the ownerehip of the land and can at any time set aside any porUon desired, and that from the sale of the limits, ground rents, and royalties on timber cut, a revenue is procured, which in Ontario, at least, relieves the people from any direct tax for state pur- poses. If, under the present wasteful system of forest ex- ploitetion, such a revenue is procured, it may confidently be Lxicted that a much larger amount wUl be realized when the Jer^ations are increased, as Is expected, and the forests are placed under Hentific management. At present most of the NOTES. 471 mervations, except the Lake Teirn am!, consist of young trees, and it has not been decided what course will be taken to harvest the crop. Forestry associations exist in the provinces of Quebec, British Columbia, and also a Dominion associati^ ~ founded in 1898, which is largely composed of lumbermen, waking its future woric more hopefid. NOTES TO CHAPTER XI. In addition to the statistics contained in Chapter II and the notes to that chapter the following additional data may be of interest. The writer must caution readers again that such statistics are not to be conceived as mathematically correct enumerations. Even census statistics may not be considered more than approximations, and cont^n elements of judgment and estimate. To make them practically useful the informa- tion the/ contain must be used with discretion ; the information must be completed by estimate, i.e. by ''logical inferences from data and relatioas reported." While the enumerations should be reported by the enumerator exactly, the statistician i» justified in rounding off figures, for he is interested merely in relationships which are more cleariy brought out by such rounding off. Forest Area of the United States by States The subjoined table gives an estimate of \\^ areas which either bear commercially valuable forest ot are capable of producing such without effort of man in our [^- leration. This table is based upon a similar table prepared by the writer in 1893, corrected upon the basis of the fiirm area reported by the twelfth census. The geographical ^urangement and sub-additions have been m!«de with a view of bringing out the relative commercial and economic value of the forest areas. 473 APPENDIX. UMncDSTA-m Muae . . ■ New Hampalui* Venaont . . MawachuMtU Rhode Itland . ConiMCticut . NewEai^and New York . . Newjener ■ Delaware . ■ MaryUod . . Middle Atlantic Virginia. . . North Carolina South Carolina Georgia . . • Southern Atlan- tic states Atlantic CoAtT Florida . Alabama MiviMippi Louiaiana Gulf Texas Michigan Wisconsin Minneaou Northern lum- bering states Ohio . Indiana Illinois Northern agri' cultural sutes Laks Statbs West Virginia . Kentucky . . Tennessee . . Arkansas . . Missouri . . Central states NOTES. 473 Taii* continutd. lowft • • ■ North Dakota South DakoU N«bn«ka . Oklahoma , Praine sutes Intkriok Statu Montana . . . Wyoming . . , Colorado . . . New Mexico . . Eastern Rocky Mountain region Idaho Nevada .... Utah Arizona .... Western Rocky Mountain region Rocky MouM' TAIN ■■CiOM California . . Oregon . . . Wasnington Pat- £c coast Aran. Toulland surbca. »y.7S» _396!7lS. 64,448 66,33a 78.374 Btroaab Improved land in fvtwM. Thciuand acres »9.?97 9.644 X1.98S »8.43» <"J.04O 5.5" 9a8o9_ '59.'46 1,736 79a '1JI I 53.C4S 70>»33 5»,6oi 7»,a68 »49tgML 3>«ZL _8<3S8 4»,>3 ",9s; 3.3;8 3.465 103,048 18,751 Improved land. ai •3 Brush, forest, and wante land. -42_ ■iSL- 9 I 3 °-4 0.S a 03 -Li- re 79 77 57 7I fio 98^ 99 9; 996 j8j. 95 9» Prob- ably forest 13 I 3 7 Brush land. la 16 6 16 16 ti ai 40 9 «7 la 35 s OpM cooa- try. 60 SI 1* i7 9» 55 NoTB. — The authority for the area of improved form land is fomished by dM census of igoa The areas of forest, brush, and waste lands were ascertains by subtracting the area of cultivated land from the total land areas of the seversi states, anaare placed as per cent of the total arc's in column 4. The part of these supposed to be forest is estimated on information obtained by various agencies. For the western section of the country the further subdivision into forest, brush, and open countrjr is based partljr on sutistics gathered by Colonel Ensign and published in Bulletin a of the Division of Forestry, and partly on tha auq> published in the report of the Forestry Division for 1899. These figures would indicate that, in round numbers, less than 415 million acres are turned into ffirm lands, about two- thirds of which was hewn out of the forest ; that the pro- ductive area of forest growth, by no means all virgin, £dls 474 APPENDIX. ■omewhat below 500 miUion acres; that nearly 45© "M^o* acres are open country which is presumably incapable of pro- dudng any valuable forest growth on account of cUnr Atic defi- dendes, leaving a balance of over 500 miUion acres as waste and brush land, of which at least three-fifths have been made so by the combined efforts of axe and fire- The territorial distribution of the forest area may be broadly defined as follows : — (I) The Atlantic forest, covering mountains and valleys in the east, reaching westward to the Mississippi River and beyond to the Indian Territory and south into Texas, an area of about 1,361,330 sq**"* "'***' "°»*^y "^ ""*** growth, hardwoods and conifers, with here and there lar?e areas of coniferous ^rowth alone— a vast and continuous (a) The mountain forest of the west, or Paafic forest, cov- ering the higher elevations below timber line of the Rocky Mountains, Sierra Nevada, and Coast Range, which may be estimated at 181,015 square mUes, almost exdusively of coniferous growth, of enormous development on the northern Pacific coast, more or less scattered in the interior and to the south> (3) The prairies, plains, lower devations, and valleys of the west, with a scattered tree growth, on which, whether from dimatic, geologic, or other cuses, forest growth b con- fined mostly to the river bottoms. r>r other favorable situations, an area of about 1427,65s «!"«« ^^ °^ '*''*** 276,965 square mUes may be considered under forest cover of deadu- ous spedes east of the Rodcies and of coniferous and dedduous spedes in the west of this divide. The maps to be found in the reports of the Forestry Di- vision, United States Department of Agriculture, for 1893, and in the oft-dted H. R. Doc 181, give an idea of the rela- tive location of these forest areas and thdr economic value. Volume XI. Part 3 of the Twelfth Census contains not only a very detaUed and full elaboration of the sUtistics of the NOTES. AH lumber indostry, but also a nup showing the distribution of that industry over the country by values produced per sqiuure mile. This shows the most intense concentration of this manu&cture in the northern section of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota ; in the middle west of New York and Penn- sylvania, in Maine and New Hampshire, and, on the Pacific coast, in Washington and on a small territory in Oregon along the Columbia River, while the centres of intensive pro- duction in the Southern states are more widely scattered with reference to shipping ports along the coast and Missis- sippi River. Statistics op Wood Consumption. The elevo ith volume of the Twelfth Census, containing re- ports on ** Selected Industries," reaches the writer in time to give the following brief r^um^ of the lumber interests. The census of 1900 for the first time seems to have secured tolerably full although still incon >te statistics of the lumber industry of the United States, which show that the estimate of the writer of 40 billion feet B.M. (see op. 40 and 349) annual consumption is as near the truth as it can possibly be stated, including all material requiring log and bolt size, for the saw- mill product alone is placed by the census at 35 billion feet, precisely the amount which the writer deduced from the re- ported sawmill capacity in 1898.^ The allowance of 5 billion fieet for staves and headings, railroad ties, round and hewn timber used locally, telegraph poles, etc., is, indeed, hardly sufficient. Since, however, in the census statistics there are undoubtedly duplications, we may perhaps still adhere, for all purposes of economic discussions, to our round figure '>f 40 billion as representing &irly our present annual consump- tion. The summary of the census (1900), mixing up sawmills, planing mills, and timber camps, stands as follows : — 1 H. R. Doc. i8x, 5Sth Cong., 3d sess., p. 1x9. 476 APPENDIX. Number of estabUshmenti (icportiBg or exist- ing?) . . . Capital invested Salaried officials, 12,530 Wage earners, 283,260 Miscellaneous expense* Cost of materials used Value of products, total Saw mill Planing mill Timber camps Quantity of sawed lumber, M ft., B.M. $422,81 2/)6l 107,622,519 36,398,404 33«03S 1611,611,524 11,360,608 104,640,591 I7»73».5«9 3»7i9»3.548 566*832,984 35,084,166 The Chief Statistician of Manufoctures, commenting on these statbtics, which show an increase in lumber product of 30 per cent over that reported by the eleventh census, writer : — <' The consumption of wood iu the industries is increasing at a much more rapid rate than the population, in spite of the &ct that in many articles metals are substituted for wood. While the timber is being u* d >re and more economically and the waste is being diminis! a year by year, still the rate of destruction of the forests is yearly increasing." The figure of 1318,000,000 represents the cost of the logs and other raw materials at the various mills which produced the 35 million feet of lumber and whatever other products were produced in the mills. Discrepancies between the re- ported output of the logging camps (26 billion feet), and that of the sawmills, amounting to over 36 per cent ( !), are explained by the compiler as due to failure of small concerns reporting on the former and to increase in the scale at the mill. The sawmills alone seem to have produced from logs, bolts, and cords of wood valued at $135,000,000 a product valued at $423,000,000. In addition to the 35 million feet of umber valued at $390,000,000,^ representing 92 per cent 1 In another table this is reported as $385^,304. Altogether the tabulations do not < Iwavs agree. NOTES. 477 of the whole, the following materials were produced at the nilla: — Output op Factoribs usmo Wood Products. ValM. MmmU. QwrndtT. MUUm doUMa. Shingles, M 13,102,007 18.9 Hoops, M . . . 441.337 3.7 Staves, M 1,664,793 >37 Headings, M 124.089 4-3 Bobbin and spool stock, M ft 40.037 .5 Furniture stock, M ft. . 105,305 1.9 Agricultural implement stodc, M ft. 33.250 .6 Carriage and wagon stock, M ft. 83,686 1.8 Pickets and paling, M . 35.804 •3 Laths, M 3.523.998 4-7 All other sawed products 19.6 The mill product outside the lumber value was therefore round $70,000,000. These, as well as the following products of timber camps, exhibit the great variety of wood materials, all of smaller value, yet aggregating considi^.-^^le quantities. While these represent reported amount egular mills and camps, an unknown quantity is fui : . from irregular sotuxes, — fiumers and jobbers. Altogether it is certain that census figures must remain considerably below the actual truth, owing to the c:!^H nilty of reaching all the information. The independent timber camps added to the 3383 million feet of logs cut for sale, valued at |2o,6oo/xx), the following products, aggregating about $1 5,000,000 : — 478 APPENDIX. MaHiiaL Logs for export, M ft. Hewed timber, M ft. Buket stock, M ft. Cooperage stock, cordi Excelsior stock, cords Fence posts, No. Hop poles. No. . Handle stock, cords Hemlock bark, cords Oak bark, cords Piles, No. . • Paving stock, cords R^lway ties . . Shingles, rived, M . Mast and spars, No. Ship knees. No. Telegraph poles. No. Wheel stock, cords . Charcoal, bush. All other products . Qiiiiuti'ict. 85.306 39'759 7443 82,546 12,670 8,7iS«66i 1,305,700 6433 473."2 39.844 396,629 32,591,894 41 433 2,580 l,6ot 937*963 9.3«7 6,796,334 The distribution of the sawed product as reported by regions shows as follows : — New England, N. Adantic states Central states . Lake sUtes Southern states Pacific states • Rocky Mountain sUtes Miscellaneous . Million feet B.M. Adding k tor non^cnumenwd materiaU. 5»530 6.3 2420 2.8 8,760 10. 14,500 16.6 2,900 3-3 560 .64 400 .46 NOTES. 479 If we compaie thlt dlitribution with that given on p. 3J0 for the cen8.» year 1890, allowing for the nonHmumerated materiab at the aame proportion in all dUtrict., It wooW appear that the cut In the fint group of »Ute« hai pro«»»>ly lUghtly Increawd, but that the cut in the Central and Lake •tatet has very materially decreawd, unquestionably owing to decrease in supplies ; while t..e So..»Sem sUtes have Increased their output to meet thU deficiency, and the increase in the Western sUtes b but slight. Although regionally the white pine district Is now in lu toUl production outstripped by th« Southern states, yet the three sUtes of Wisconsin, Michigan, and MinnesoU are still by far the three .rgest lumber-pro- ducers, in the order named, with Pennsylvania a close fourth, these four states furnishing neariy one^uarter of the value and one-third of the product The white pine product of the three Lake stotes has been reduced neariy 40 per cent since 1890, the year of maximi. - productica. At that time it was 8.6 bU- lion feet (not including shingles) ; graduaUy decreasing, it has fallen now (1901) to 5.4 billion. The American Lumberman, which furnishes th«e data most acceptably, formeriy ridiculing the idea of waning sup- plies, comments on this decline significantly : — « We may say that if former methods of collecting sUtistlcs had been followed there would have been a heavier decline. That is to say, the report for .901 is more nearly complete than that for any previous year. It means simply that he timber is disappearing, that the still increasing wants of the country must be and are supplied to an increasing extent from other Sources. In that decline we see the chief stimulus to the growth of the lumber industry in the South and on the Pacific coast." And further accentuating the change of stand- ards, which made earlier estimates of standing timber wrong : "But what a change in quality! If all the remaining white nine could be manufactured into lumber and put on the mar- ket at once, it is doubtful if there would be as T^^lf !^„'r« ber, to say nothing about uppers, as there was in 1882 alone. 48o APPENDIX. And referring to the low condition of stocks in the yards: "The reason of this decrease in stocks seems to be that the demand can no longer be satisfied by drawing stocks down, but that the demand must in a measure remain unsatisfied or be supplied with other woods." , With due allowance for differences in manner of collating statistics, failures in securing information, and differences of values in money and price, the following figures of the vari- ous censuses may be used at least to show the tendenaes of increase in the lumber output, giving the per cent of increase over each previous decade. 1S50. laeo. WTO. laao. i«»*. i«oo. Number of enabluhments, thouwndt .... 18.8 «>.7 «5-8 'ST --^ 33 Per cent increue . . 10 «5 «-5 " 4* Capiul, million aoltart . 4X4 74-5 M3 5 «8«« 5579 «"•« Per cent incie«i« . . 80 93 »< «* «» loboien, thouMnd. . . SS-8 75-8 iS" »48 3«« ^ Per cent increaie . . 36 98 1.4 "* 9 Con of nutcrialt, milUon ... doltar. . . . . -S 44.6 I03-3 146 H** 3i7.9 Per cent increa«e . . 57 X3» 4* » 3* Value of productt, millioa doIUn .... 60.4 9«-7 "»•• *m «8 5*6.8 Per cent incieue . . 60 117 " 88 •» PopuUtion.maibn. . . n* 3i-4 386 50.. «••« 7«.3 Per cent increaie . . 36 «3 3«> ts •« From thU it would appear that whUe the population in the 50 years grew by 228 per cent, its lumber bill during the same period grew by 840 per cent, or from $2.60 per capiu to $7-43. an increase similar to that of the European nations as noted on p. 453 ef seq. Exports of wood, its manufiictures, and other forest products have also increased lately at a rapid rate, namely, as follows : — Million doUan. 1894 =*7.7 1895 ^7.1 1896 319 NOTES. 481 Millwn doUan. 1897 396 1898 37-5 1899 • 41S 1900 50.6 While imports have remained nearly stationary and usually below $20,000,000 in value ; of the exports less than 25 per cent are manufactured articles. The census compiler furnishes the following table, attempt- ing to show the change in proportions of the total lumber product furnished by geographical divisions from census year to census year : — NoTtheasteni Lake Southern Pacific Yean. states. sutes. sutes. states. 1850 i860 54.5 36.2 6.4 13-6 ,3.8 16.S 3-6 1870 36.8 24.4 9.4 1880 24.8 334 1 1.9 35 1890 18.4 363 15.9 U 1900 16.0 27.4 25.2 These figures represent only the reported mill cut with all the uncertainties accruing fi-om differences in their collation, but bring out sufficiently clearly the change in supplies, namely, the steady decrease in the northeastern states, the beginning decline in the Lake states, the increase in the southern output, and the slower increase in the Pacific states, mMnly for home consumption, hence in relation to increase of population. The different species are reported to have participated in the total cut as follows, arranged according to the relative position in the supply, verifying the writer's estimate, that three-fourths of our consumption is of coniferous wood, the pines alone furnishing 50 per cent of all lumber cut : — 4S3 APPENDIX. Conifers. Southern Pine (several species) White Pine Hemlock Spruce (and Balsam ?) . . . Cypress Norway Pine Cedar Tamarack Eastern Section . • . Red (Douglas) Fir Hemlock Yellow Pine (western) . • ■ Redwood Cedar Sugar Pine Tamarack Western Section . . All others Total Eardwoods (broad-leaved). Oak (various species) . - Poplar (Tulip) . . • • Maple Elm Cottonwood Basswood Gum (Red) Ash Chestnut Birch Hickory Black Walnut Sycamore All others Quantity. Million ieei, B.M. 9580 7483 i860 1448 496 259 "S 9 1736 1560 1000 Its 54 42 21,250 4.870 33 26,153 Totals 4438 1115 456 415 308 285 269 207 »33 97 39 208 8,633 34,786 Value. Tbouiand dollan. 80,726 94^980 17.832 16,333 6,604 3,oa2 1,383 104 15.050 16,305 3,646 1,260 650 338 i,"4 268,481 61,174 15,646 7495 5,240 4.304 3.955 2,748 4,264 3,764 1,658 1,815 1412 328 4,0':. 116,817 NOTES. 483 These figures do not, however, fully reveal the relative portion of the different species in the wood supply ; for the spruce, for instance, the consumption of sizeable material for wood pulp, with not less than 1000 million feet, will have to be added, and for other species from the same source some 300 million; the cut on farms, which is placed at nearly $120,000,000 in value, in part log or bolt size material, and not brought to milb, will have to be considered probably mainly in the hardwood cut. On the whole, the distribution given on p. 350 remains relatively correct It is especially interesting to note the large amount of hemlock reported as cut on the Pacific coast (see p. 361). Statements are ako made in the census report of the prob- able stand of uncut timber of the variuus species, without, however, giving the basis for such estimates, or rather guesses. These figures are as follows : — BUIwn Feet, B.lf . Sptxic*. Owmdbr Standing. lUClbciHWBi Southern Pine 300 46.5 White Pine . 50 16.4 Hemlock 100 6.8 Spruce (Eastern) SO 8.6 Cypress . 6S 6.6 Red Fir . 300 23.8 Western Pine . 125 24.6 Redwood 75 14.3 Sugar Pine 25 3-9 Hardwood (one-half oak) • • ? 30. These guesses would indicate a stock on hand of -.rirchant- able coniferous wood of not less than iioo billion feet, of which round one-half is credited to the Eastern states. The 484 APPENDIX. _j^ A^ not Me any reason for accepting these guesses as Witt . praen. cat of protaUy over »^^.^^^ ^T^l* tta ».o«.t now .Mding in .he counttyl" «r«v* thw sad foreboding unfounded! The foio^ng tabulation, based probably on mo« sub- s^Zlt^ the estinute of standing timbej « of jn^- rin showing the relative Foduc^J-ess ^'^ ^^^^^t. lands in the various sections of the fT^^l^x 'rTe forest ^eaee, contents, and value (capital invested) of the forest Zmn^ of the 8888 lumber firms reporting such^^ Average lUndof merdiantable timber per acre. Feet, B.M. NOTES. 485 These figxires accord closely enough wUh the writer's concep> tion, which was used in making the computation of the standing timber recorded on p. 52 upon the basis of the area stated on pp. 472-473- The compiler comments as follows: "The average stand of timber per acre, being that of selected tracts owned by lumbermen, is, of course, higher than the average of the ccmu- try or state, and in the case of several of the states where the average stand has been obtained, it is kncwn to be much higher. Thus in MinnesoU the average stand is about <■ le- half that here given, or about 3000 feet per acre. The san. , is the case in Oregon and Washington, where the laraje stands here given (24,500) must be divided by 2 to obtain the average stand of the state. The southern pine has an average stand, according to the best information,* of not far from 3000 feet per acre, a little lower perhaps in the east and somewhat higher in the •> est." With such reductions we can accept Mr. Gannetf s forest area of 700 million acres and find the condition of supplies even worse than the writer has presented it in Chap. XI. The average investment for stumpage would, froir 'He above tabulation lor the better lands, be $1 per M feet or $6.70 per acre ; but it is well known that these figures are undersUte- ments as to the true stumpage value, and the tables recording the stumpage values for different states and different species show this to be the case. Here the stumpage value per M feet is given as $2.18, which, with an average stand of 6700 per acre, makes the stumpage value per acre $14.60. That evn *'-se recorded stumpage values remain below the actual truth, ai least in certain instances, may be judged from the statement that the stumpage for white pine ranges in the states in which it is of importance between $3.50 and I4 per M, when in actual sales double the higher figure has been 1 See Dr. Charles Mohr, " The Timber Pines of the Southern United Sutes." 486 APPENDIX. paid, and thi. year mUliona of feet stumpage have been wld at mr*L than «8 oer M ft. Spruce stumpage is giveu as ranging Srt;:efn"a Indis when actual sale, in New York were made at more than the tatter price. _, *_ q« ^„t« in m range of average stumpage varies from 80 ^nte in Washingtorto U-9S in !<>»»» ^^^ «* ^^K* "* ''?"*** ^ Ji"' n'Sevlda to ^^ in Iowa, or I6.28 for the c^un^ S^cost of logging being therefore $390 per Mm the average ^d^ay go ^ « high as $7. At present, with m^ease m JS.r andTro>5sions, this cost U increased considerably. The average stumpage values per M feet B.M. of difen^t .pedes based upon the sUtemenU of forest-ownmg lumber- men figure out as follows : — Conifer. White Pine Norway Pine Hemlock SiHTUce^ Sugar Pine Cedar . Yellow Pine* Cypress . Redwood Tamarack Red (Douglas) Fir Haidwood Black Walnut Elm White Oak* . double this figure. « Includes probably all commeroal oaks. AvM*!*- Maximnm $3.66 U-oo 2.88 2.56 3.00 2.26 3.00 1.96 . 1.33 2.00 . 1.12 1.60 . 1.58 . 1.06 . 1.00 . -77 1.06 . 5.00 • 330 . 3.18 5-38 NOTES. 487 Haidwood — eonttHMtd ATtngt. Aih . . . . • 3-03 Poplar (Tulip) . 2.81 Chestnut . a.71 Maple . . . . . 2.66 Red Gum . 1.68 Basswood . . 1.50 Cottonwood . . 145 3.00 The lumber industry is stated to be the fourth among the great manufacturing industries of the country in value of prod> ucts, being exceeded by the iron and steel, the textile, and thte meat industry. But this does not sUte the relative value of forest products, including the large amount of fuel wood and other materials of home consumption not going through the mills, and the valuable by-products. If an these unenumerated forest products are counted in, the forest resource as a producer of values is unquestionably second only to agriculture. P. 342. Sesenration of Mountain Forests in connection with Inication. — In the western country, as Mr. Newell sUtes,^ "the forests of the arid region not only mark the greatest rain&ll but also indicate the locality from which come the principal streams. The headwaters of nearly all of our rivers which give value to the lands are within the forested regions." Hence the close connection between the extensive irrigation plans and forest management NOTES TO CHAPTER XII. P. 371. Fears of Wood Famine. — The fear of a wood fomine troubled the minds not only of our ancestors in this country but still more so in the countries of Europe a hundred years ago, before railroad transportation and navigation had 1 " Irrigation in the United States, " by F. H. Newell. T. Y. CroweU & Co.. 190a. 488 APPENDIX. been developed to their modern proportloni, making us inde- ^"^ifu 'r :S& exi^ibited by tbe foUowing M of title, taken from the catalogue of the library of the weU-known Se^ forest academy at Tharandt, which .how ti^ in G«r. „any one hundred year, ago fore.t condition, mu.t h^l^n «>mewhat .imilar to our., or worse, and remedie., quack and otherwise, were being discussed a. freely as with u.. CoUection of economic information, how »? P"««ote wood- -rowth, introduce better economy m the case of wooo, and prevent scarcity of wood suppUe. by applying buUd- ine timber more usefully, 1763- On the general deficiency of wood supplies and on the means how to meet it, 1765- . . , _. „,^ Proposition, how to meet the general decreaM of ^°^f^ ^es most quickly and .urdy, if not entirely at least for the greater part, 1788. Prize esLy on the question: How is the «P'^y ^'"'"f wood famine to be avoided and a proper reforestation of waste lands to be secured, I794- - , . , Answer to the question: How the wardty of wood can be overcome, i795- ...,/• j :> Open thoughts on scarcity of wood, espeaaUy of fire wood, m Schleswig-Holstein and how to help it, 1798- On wood famine, I799- ,. . . .^„„. Something on deficiency of wood supplies, with propositions how to cure it, I799- ,. ^ j r :«- The Cataipa (!) » a sure means of avoiding the wood famine. On some of the causes of wood scarcity which have not yet been recognized and appreciated, 1800. Forestry, or instructions how the deficiency in wood supply may be met, and their increase promoted, 1 801. iThis has been pointed out with similar I'OP'' ""^^V"^"*^! See Bulletin No. 37. Bureau of Forestry, giving . full descnption of characteristics of plantations of the Hardy Cataipa. NOTES. 489 Contribotioni to the avoidance of a wood fiunine, 1801 . Open thoughts on scarcity, prices, economy, In the use of wood, and on silviculture, 1803. Something on the general scarcity of wood in the Austrian sUtes, 1805. Investigations on the value of wood and the importance of the economic use of wood, 1806. Wood famine and the stote forests, 1840. On deforesUtion and inorease of wood prices, with remarks on the propositions which are made for the conservation of forests, 184?. , , . _. Short instructions for the increase and economic use of wood, The cause of increased wood prices and the importance of the care and preservation of forests as the only means to reduce them, 1846. P. 409. Pederal Forest ReeerratUms. — There are at present writing (October, 1902) 54 forest reservations, created under the act of March 3, 1891, embracing over 60 million acres, namely : — Acic*. ^^H Slat* or tcnitory. NmiiieoficaeiT*. Thou- ^^B Alaska Afognak Forest and Fish Culture . . . • ^ 1h The Alexander Archipelago H°^ H- Arizona ^ • • Grand CaHon . 1.853 mm San Francisco Mountain , ''975 H Black Mesa 4,059 nu Prescott . 434 Wm Santa Rita . 3^1 H Santa Catalina . '5<> H Mount Graham . 119 ■■ Chiricahua . 170 ^B California . San Gabriel Sierra 4,096 J^m San Bemard'nn , 737 ^M Trabuco Cafion . no ^H 490 APPENDIX. AcMi. StaM or taniMcy. MMMornMm. Tlwy California . Stanislaua . . • ' Sanjadnto Pine Mountain and Zaca t& Lake .... ■fjl LakeTahoe Santa Ynez 145 Cdlorado . White River . Pike's Peak '% Plum Creek 129 South Platte S4 Battlement Meaa 858 San Isabel .... 78 Idalio and MonUna . Bitterroot .... 4.147 2,926 Idaho and Washington Priest River . Flathead .... Lewis and Clarke Gallatin .... 40 Little Belt Mountains 5°i Madison .... 736 Absaroka .... 1,312 Nebrasla . Dismal River . 85 Niobrara . . - • 124 New Mexico Pecos River 43> Gila River. 2,327 Lincoln 500 Olclahoma . WichiU . . . • 57 Oregon Bull Run .... Cascade Range . 143 4436 Ashland . . . . «9 South Dakota and Wyoming Utah . • • • Black HiUs Uintah . . . • 1,213 876 Fish Lake . . . • 68 Washington Payson . . . • Washington Mt. Rainier 86 3»426 2/>28 Wyoming . Yellowstone Big Horn . . . • 1,834 1,217 Teton . . . • 4,127 Crow Creek 56 Medicine Bow . 431 BIBLIOGRAPHY A very full bibliography bearing upon the wbject-matter of this volume, mainly of German Uterature, but with a few reference! to French, English, and other languages, is to be found in Dr. Adam Schwappach's ForstpdUik, Jagd- u. FisdurtipoUtiky which appeared in 1894 as the loth volume of the Hand' und Lekrbuch dtr Staatmisstnschafttn, edited by KUNO Frankenstein. The volume itself is probably the best and most complete work on the subject, written, to be sure, from German pointo of view and indudmg the fish and game interests. , »l 1 .* This bibUography divides the subject, outside of the last two phases, into 16 sub-heads with over 600 tiUes (644 with repetitions), viz. : — I. Encyclopaedic hand-books, or histories of forestry, forest politics and forest law, and writings of general, theoretical, and methodological contents 119 titles 11. Collective works, reports, annuals, and mag- azmes ^'^ III. Forest law and forest It^-Jation of different States ; . • ^ ** IV. History and description of forest admmis- trations in different states and parts of states •.•,'.' ^^ " V. Conditions of production, economic signifi- cance, material and immaterial benefits of the forest "*» VI. State forests and state forest administrations 40 " VII. Education, experimentation, and associa- tion—The organs of forest politics . . 29 «* 491 ^^ APPENDIX. VIII. Meant of tnuuporUtion In foreitiy . . . lo titles IX. Tariff on wood ><» ** X. Forest Mrvitudes (righto of uter) . . . . i6 « XI. Partition and collocation of forett property and auociations for forest management . 5 ** XII. Forest laborers 4 ** XIII. Protective fotosto U * XIV. Supervision of private and commonal forest management ...■..•■• *4 XV. Police protection of foresto ....... 16 « XVI. Forett sUtistics 3» The scope of Dr. Schwappach's treatment of the part en- tided For*st Politics, will appear from a statement of the headings : — I, Conditions of production in forestry ... 38 pages II. The significance of foresis in the national economy *' III. Forest policies (Forstwirthschaftspflege) . 145 " I. The state forest. 3. Forestry education. 3. Forestry experimentation. 4. Forest statistics. 5. Forestry associations. 6. Transportation of wood. 7. Tariffs on wood. 8. Servitudes. 9. Division and amalgamation of forest properties. 10. Insurance of forest laborers. IV. Forest police 61 pages 1. Protective foresto. 2. Supervision of private forestry. 3. Supervision of corporate foresto. 4. Police protection. BIBUOGRAPHY. 493 In the cattOogue of the Library of the Royal Saxon Forest Academy at Tharandt, pubUahed In 1900 and containing a Uat of over 33,000 volumes, the subdivision entitled Forat Admi$t' istratum, Fortst Politics, and Ftrtst Statistics alone contains 731 titles. - J, _j In the « Handwdrterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, edited by Conrad, Elster, Lexis, and Loening (Jena, i900,Gustav Fisher), an exceUent article on Forstin by M. Indies treats the subject on 64 large 8vo pages very comprehensively and somevhat in tb«? manner of the present volume, in three chapters, namely, I, Signifl.cance, Extent, and HUtory of Forestt; II, Forest Management; III, Forest Politics. A selected biWiography accompanies each chapter; the last chapter more particularly referring to our subject contains only 63 tiUes and the entire bibliography about 160 tides. The writer is indebted for much sUtistical information to this article. In the " Handbuch der Forstwissenschaft," edited by Dr. Tuisko Lorey (Tubingen, 1887, 3 vols, large 8vo), one of the best encydopwiic works for the professional forester, J. Lehr, the author of the very complete chapter on Fortst Pontics, contents himself with a bibliography of 24 titles. These four lists lay naturally all or special stress on German publications. The French literature contains only few comprehensive treatises on the subject, but a large amount of ephemeral or magazine writings, espedaUy on the reboisement of the mountein forests, climatic influences, the duty of the sUte, etc. The best journal of reference is « Revue des eaux et forfits." The best work on the extensive reboisement operations of the French government is that of Demontiey. The English literature shows a considerable dearth of literature on afl forestry subjects, except with reference to the forests of India, the Indian Forester being now the only English forestry journal since the Journal of Forestry was abandoned seventeen years ago. 494 APPENDIX. f In the following list of books only a few standard works of general interest and works of reference are given, wliich cover the subject sufficiently for the general reader. The student is referred for fuller lists to the above-dted sources. The list of American reference books has been made as fiill as possible. Gerkaii. Arndt, B. Die Privatforstwirthschaft in Preussen. Berlin, 1889. Arnold, T. Russlands Wald. Berlin, 1893. Bedo, A. Die wirthschaftliche u. commerzielle Besdireibung der Walder des Ungarischen Staates. Budapest, 1885. Bambardt, A. Die Waldwirthschaft und der Waldschutz mit besonderer Rucksicht auf die Waldschutzgesetzgebung in Preussen. Berlin, 1869. Bernhardt, A. Geschichte des Waldeigenthunu, der Wald- wirthschaft u. Forstwissenschaft in Deutschland. 3 vob. Berlin, 1872-3. A standard work. Dankelman, B. Die deutschen NuUholzzdlle. Eine Wald- schutzschrift. Berlin, 1883. Ibennayer. Die physikalischen Einwirkungen des Waldes auf Luft, etc. Aschaffenburg, 1873. The first attempt of a sdentific discussion of forest influences on the basis of extensive experimental data. T. Fischbach, C. Lehrbuch der Forstwissenschaft. Beilin, 1886. The best brief treatment of the technicalities. Eagen-Doniwr. Die forstlichen Verhaltnisse Preussens. a vols. 3d ed. Berlin, 1894. An excellent, complete statistical and economic account of the Prussian forest administration. Eeoko, K. H. Beitrage zur Statistik der Forsten des euro- paischen Russlands. Petersburg, 1888. Translated by Guse. Berlin, 1889. Lehr, J. Bdtrage zur Statistik der Preise, besonders des Geldes und Holzes. Frankfurt, 1885. -f^.:*3..C'^ BIBLIOGRAPHY. 49S Ufcr, J. Die deutschcn Holzzelle und deren Erhbhung. Frankfurt, 1883. Economic arguments for retention and aboUtion of tariff on wood imports by two good authori- ties. ^ . T. Lfiffelholx-Colberg, F. Chrestomatie : Die Bedeutung und Wichtigkeit des Waldes, etc Leipzig, 1872. Interest- ing compilation of references and quotations from authors of all countries regarding the question of forest in- fluences. Lonntz Libuniau. Wald, Klima und Wasser. MUnchen, 1878. The best popular discussion of forest influences by the most prominent scientific investigator of the subject. ^ lorey, T. Editor. Handbuch der Forstwissenschaft, 3 vols. Tubingen, 1887. The best encyclopaedic professional handbook. Mayr, H. Die Waldungen von Nordamerika. Munchen, 1894. A good compilation, upon the basis of personal visits, on forest flora and forest conditions of the United States. RentzMh. Der Wald im Haushalte der Natur und der Volk»- wirthschaft. Leipzig, 1862. Schindler. Die Forste Oesterreichs. Schwappach, A. Handbuch der Forst- und Jagdgeschichte Deutschlands. Berlin, 1883 and 1892. Schwappach, A. ForstpoUtik, Jagd- und Fischereipohtik. Leipzig, 1894. „ , . u Seckendorlf. Die forsUichen Verhaltnisse Frankreichs. Leipzig, 1880. Seckendorfl. Uber die wirthschaftliche Bedeutung der Wildbachverbauung und Aufforstung der Gebirge. Wien, 1883. . . Weber, R. Der Wald im Haushalte der Natur und des Menschen. Beriin, 1875. Woelckof. DieKIir 1 der Erde. Jena, 1887. Brings many data on the influence of forests on climate. T. T. 496 APPENDIX. AUteaeise Itott n. JatdMitang (since 1835). Frankfort a. M. ZeitKhrift fiir Forit- and Ja{dwMen. Berlin. Since 1869. The two oldest and Ijest German forestry journals. BeitrXge nr Forststatistik des dmtachen Reicbs. Berlin, 1884. French. Aanoaire des eanz et forSts. Paris. (For statistical informa- tion.) P. de Boizo. Les fordts et le reboisement dans les Fyr6a£ea orientales. Paris, 1894. J. Cla.yi. fetudes sur 1' Economic forestiftre. Paris, 1862. M . Demontxey. Reboisement et Gazonnement des montagnes. 2d ed. Paris, 1882. C. Grandjean. Les landes et les dunes de Gascogne. Paris, 1896. A. Maniy. Les for#ts de la Gaule. Paris, 1867. A. Noil, itudes fbrestiires. Note sur la statistique foresti&re. Paris, 1884. Pnton et Goyot. Code forestier. Paris, 1900. Berne des eanz et forStt. Paris. (The forestry journal of France.) Italian. BertagnoU. I Boschi e la nostra Politica forestale. Bologna, 1889. SUtistica forestale. Firenze, 1870. English. John Cronmbie Brown. 16 volumes on forests and forestry conditions in various countries. Edinburgh and London, 1875-1887. B. H. Badeo-Powell. Forest law. London, 1894. B. Ribbentrop. Forestry in British India. Calcutta, 1900. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 497 Wm. SchUch. Manual of Forestry. S vols, ad ed. Lon- don, 1896. Vol. I contaiM chapters on the direct and indirect utflity of foresu, the sute in relation to forestiy. and forestry in Britain and India. Journal of Forestry and Iiitates Maaajement. 1 1 vols. Lon- don, 1877-1885. American. No single book treats of the subject of economics of forestry •^ionally, but the journal literature, proceedings of asso- f . ,, and official reports are discussing many phases of it. . g these should first of all be mentioned the various Government Reports : — Saporti of the TJ. S. Department of Agrindture, Govern- ment Printing Office, Washington, D.C. The first comprehensive discussion, contaning a large amount of infornw^ion on the conditions then prevailing and the prospects, are two long articles, namely, one published in the report for i860, — «The forests and trees of northern America as connected with climate and agriculture,'' by J. G. Cooper, and the other, published ir. 1865. — "American forests, their destiuction and preservation," by Rev. Frederic Starr. The following is a complete reference list to forestry sub- jects in the reports of the Department of Agriculture from the years i860 to 1886 : — Forest acreage in farms by states, 1 875, 247. and farm areas by states, 1884, 490. area of United States by states, 1885, 186. cultivation, general remarks. 1851, 53. on the Great Plains, article, 1872, 316. aK 498 APPENDIX. 'H: Forest, culture, circular asldng information, 1858, 75. experiment, 1875, 336" hbtorical review, 1870, 226. laws for encouragement, 1870, 234. profits, 1870, 232. destruction in tlie northwest, notes, 1873, 443. fires, remarks, 1883, 457. products, distribution of exports, 1873, 59. extent and value, 1883, 450. resources. Brewer's analysis, 1875, 35a. schools, general remarks, 1883, 459. trees, culture and management, 1864, 43 ; 1873, 161. evergreen, in northern New England, report on causes of destruction, 1883, 138; 1884,374; 1885,319. methods of planting, 1864, 45 ; •870» *28. of United States, Centennial collection, 1875, 151. sowing seeds and raising young plants, 1878, 303. • transplanting, remarks, 1878, 304. report, 1850, 455. warnings from history, 1865, 225. Forests, Ameiican, destruction and preservation, 1865, 21a evils of past destruction, 1865, 210. and timber, statistical information, 1868, 447. as connected with climate and agriculture, remailcs, 1S60, 416. dimatic influence, 1883, 4535 ^885, 196; 1886, 153. distribution in United States, 1885, 188. increase or decrease, general remarks, 1885, 190. influence on health, i860, 443. soil, i860, 441. streams and droughts, 1885, 192. notes on rapid destruction, 1884, 154. of United States by states, notes and statistics, 1875, 249 if. Forestry, experiment stations, remarks, 1883, 158. historical sketch of Arbor Day, 1886^ 181. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 499 Forestry, in schools, remarks, 1883, 458. investigation, outline of system, 1887, 614. progress, article, 1880, 653. list of publications, 1886, 326. literature, remarks, 1886, 183. of the Western stages and territories, article, 1878, 515. sUte encouragement, 1875, 334. statistics, article, 1875, 244. by sUtes, 1884, 137. In the reports after he year 1886 to 1893 the following articles, mostly prepared by the writer, bear on the subject of this volume : — Report for 1886— Forestry problems of the United States. General principles of forestry. List of ninety most important timber trees of the Jnited States. Report for 1887. (Special, not printed in report of Depart- ment of Agriculture) — Trade notes and tariff on lumber — mill capacity of United States. Systematic plan of forestry work. Conditions of forestry interests in the states. Report for 1888 — Forest influences. Cultural and trade notes. Report for 1889— Seedling distribution. Timber-culture acts. Influence of forests on water supplies. Report for 1890 — Wood pulp industry. Forestry education. Artificial rainfiUl. 500 APPENDIX. Report for 1891— , „ u u Foiwt planting experiments in Nebraska. Soutliem luml)er pines. Forest reservations and their management. ^F^lf cStiTns of the United States and the forestry movement. Forest fire legislation. The naval store industry. ^C^Mumption^d supply of forest products in the United States. German forest management. In the Year-book of the Department, published since 1894, the following articles ^pear : — Year-book for 1894 — Forestry for farmers. Year-book for 1895 — The relation of forest to farm. Tree planting on western plains. Year-book for 1896 — Tree planting in waste places on farms.. The uses of wood. Year-book for 1897— . . . » *v- The work of the Division of Forestry in relation .0 the fanner. Year-book for 1898 — Notes on some forest problems. Year-book for 1899 — Progress of forestry in the United States. Practice of forestry by private owners. Year-book for 1900 — Forest extension in middle west. Practical forestry in southern Appalachians. List of forestry associations. BIBUOGRAPHY. SOI List of schools of forestry. Ptognsa in forestry. Year-book for 1901 — Timber resources of Nebraska. Grazing in forest reserves. ■ Progress in forestry. Besides these annual publications the following separate Reports on Forestry have been published by the Department, containing a large amount of information on various forestry subjects. Vol. I. P.eportupon Forestry, prepared under the < ection of the Commissioner of Agriculture, in pursuance of ai act of Congress approved Auguxt 15, 1876. By Franklin B. Hough. Pp. 650. Index. 1878. Vol. II. Report upon Forestry, prepared under the direc- tion of the Commissioner of Agriculture, in pursuance of an act of Congre!;s approved August 15, 1876. By Franklin B. Hough. Pp. 618. Index. 1880. Vol. III. Report upon Forestry, prepared under the direc- tion of the Commissione. of Agriculture, in pursuance of an act of Congress approved August 15, 1876. By Franklin B. Hough. Pp. 318. Index. 1882. Vol. IV. Report upon Forestry, prepared by N. H. Eggle- ston. Pp. 421. Index, i map. 1884. The following Bulletins of the Division of Forestry, De- partment of Agriculture, reier more or less directly to the sub- ject of this volume. No. I. Report on the Relation of Railroads to Forest Supplies and Forestry, together with appendices on the struc- tuie of some timber ties, the behavior, and the cause of their decay in the roadbed, on wood preservation, on metal ties, and on the use of spark arresters. Pp. 149. Pis. 7, figs. 7. 1887. No. 2. Report on the Forest Conditions of the Rocky Mountains, with a map showing the location of forest areas on the Rocky Mountain range, and other papers. Pp. 252. Map I, diagr. i. 1888. 5oa APPENDIX. No. 5. What b Forertiy ? By B. E. Fernow, Chief of Division of FoMtry. Pp. S^- >89i. , - No. 7. Forest Influences. Pp. I97' ^HP' ^i' '^3- 1. Introductton and •ummary of concturion^ by a E. Ytnaw. fc Review ot iorett meteorological obwrvation.. a •««dy Preliminanr to the di«cu«ioa of the relations of forest to climate, by M. W. Harring- ton. 3. Relation of forestt to water supplies, by R E. Fernow. v No«» on the saniury signlllcance of forests, by B. E. Fernow. Appendices : 1 Determination of the true amount of precipitation, and its bearing on theories of f(»«st influences, by Cleveland Abbe. a. Analysis of tain- Ua with relation to sur&ce conditions, by George E. Curtis. No. 9. .Report on the Use of Metal RaUroad Ties, and on Preservation Processes and Metal Tie-plates for Wooden Ties. By E. E. RusseU Tratman, A. M., Am. Soc C E. (supple- mentary to Report on the Substitution of Metal for Wood in Railroad Ties, 1890). Prepared under the direction of B. E. Fernow, Chief of Division of Forestry. Pp.363- Pl»- 5- »894. No 13. The Timber Pines of the Southern United SUtes. By Chas. Mohr, Ph.D. Together with a Discussion of the Steucture of their Wood, by FiUbert Roth. Prepared under the direction of B. E. Fernow, Chief of Division of Forestry. Pp. 160. Pis. 27, figs. 18. 1896. No. 16. Forestry Conditions and Interests of Wisconsin. By FUibert Roth. With a Discussion of Objects and Meth- ods of ascertaining Forest Sutistics, etc. By B. E. Fernow. Pp.76. 1898. „ « .J A No. 21. Systematic Plant Introduction. By David A. Fairchild. Pp. 24. 1898. No. 22. The White Pine. By V. M. Spalding and B. E. Fernow. Pp. 185. 1899. No. 25. Notes on Forest Conditions of Puerto Rico. By Robert T.HiU. Pp.48. 1899- , , „ ti No. 26. Practical Forestry in the Adirondacks. By Hen-y S.Graves. Pp. 85. 1899. . ^ a^. t No. 34. A History of the Lumberlndustry in the State of New York. By William F. Fox. 1902. BIBUOGRAPHY. 503 MiMdlaaMM PnbUeatlOBi pnputd by AfMte «f th* D^ futamit of Africaltan.— -Catalogue of the forest trees of the United Sutes which usoally attain a h^ht of 16 feet or more, with notes and brief descriptions of the more important species. Pp. 38. 1876. Preliminary report on the forestry of the Mississippi Valley and tree planting on the PUins. By F. P. Baker and R. W. Furnas. Pp. 45- i^3* Arbor Day, its histcvy and observance. By N. H. E|^es- ton. Pp. 80. Figs. 13. 1896. Miscellaneous Special Report No. $. The prq^ter value and management of government timber lands and the distribution of North American forest trees, being papers read at the United Sutes Department of Agriculture May 7 and 8, 1884. Pp. 47. 1884. Miscellaneous Report No. 10. A descriptive catalogue of manufiwtures from native woods, as shown in the exhibit ot the United States Department of Agriculture at the World's Industrial and Cotton Exposition at New Orieans, La. By Charles Kcbaxdt Dodge. Pp. 81. 1886. F(H«str/ in the United States. By B. E. Femow. Report of United States commissioners to the Universal Exposition of 1889 at Paris. Vol. V, pp. 747-777- Pl»- 6- 1891. 8tat«n«.-it8 befon Ooi^rMsioiul Commtttees and in aaswsr to Seiate SssOiVtions.— Public timber lands, report of E. A. Bowers relative to desuable legislation. Ex. Doc., No. 343, Fiftieth Coni^ess, first session. Pp. 34. 1888. Statement on the relation of irrigatior. problems to forest conditions, by B. E. Femow, before Special Senate Committee on Irrigation and Redamation of Arid Lands. Fifty-first Congress, first session. Senate Report No. f98. Vol. 4, i^. 1 15-134. 1890. Statements in Report No. 1003, Fifty-second Congress, first session. (To accompany S. 3335) "to iMX>vide for the estab- lishment, protection, and administration of public forest reser- vations, and for other purposes." Pp. I3. 1893. 504 APPENDIX. Senate Document No. I73» Fifty^thlrd Congresi, second setaion. Letter from the Secretary of Agriculture . . . trans- mitting information in relation to investigations and experi- menu in the planting of native pine seed in the sand hills ti the Northwest. Pp. 14- 8vo. 1894. Stotements in House Report No. I443» Fifty-third Con- gress, second session. Investigations and Tests of American Timbers. Pp. 4> i894- Sutementa in House Report Na 497- P«bUc Forest Reservations. Pp. 23. 1894. Statement of B. E. Femow, Chief of Forestry Division, to the Committee on Agriculture, House of RepresenUUves [in support of H. R. 8389 and H. R. 8390, providing for forestry schools], February 16, 1895. Pp. 4- Senate Document No. 40, Fifty-fifth Congress, first session. White Pine Timber Supplies. SUtement prepared by the Chief of the Division. Letter of the Secretary of Agriculture. Pp. 21. 1897. Senate Document No. 105 '• ifty-fifth Cocjriss, first session. Report of a committee of the National Academy of Sciences on forest policy for the forested lands of the United SUtes, Pp. 49. 1897. Report upon Forestry Investigation of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1877-1898, by B. E. Femow. H. R. Doc. No. 181, S5th Congress, 3d session, 1899. 40* PP- 4to. Message from the President of the United States trans- mitting a report of the Secretary of Agriculture in relation to the forests, rivers, and mountains of the southern Appalachian region. Washington, D.C. Pp. aio. 1903. Reports of the U. 8. Geological Surrey, Washington, D.C. — Sixteenth Report, 1S94-1895, Part II, The pubUc lands and their water supply. By F. H. Newell. Pp. 463-S32. Nineteenth Report, 1898, part V, Forest Resorves. Twentieth Report, 1900, Part V, Forest Reserves, gives detailed report on a number of reserves, also articles on forest conditions and standing timber of Washington and forests of the United States by H. Gannett. BIBUOGRAPHY. 505 Ktportt of the CommlMioiwr of tho OoBoral land Otteo, Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C., give statistical and administrative information regarding the management of public Umber lands and forest reserves, also FortU Ruerv Manual frr the information and tise of forest officers, 1903. Pp. 90. Reports of Bnzean of Statistics, Treasnrj Department, Washington, D.C, gives statistics of exports and imports, monthly, quarterly, and annually, prepares annually Statistical Abstract of the United States, and also issues in the Monthly Summary of Commerce and Finance valuable spedal reports, among which. The Lumber Trade of the United States, 1900, pp. 1081-1169. Reports of Department of State, Washiagtoa, D.C— Con- sular Reports contain references to forestry, and forest condi- tions in foreign lands. Forestry in Europe, a s{>edal publication brings details of reports from the consuls of the United States, 1887, also Forest Culture in Sweden, by C. C. Andrews, 187s. Pp. 48. Census of i860, 1870, 1880, 1R90, J900, Washington, D.C, give statistics of lumber industry. As a result of the 9th Census an article on The Woodland and Forest Systems oftht United States, with a map showing forest distribution, by Frof. F. W. Brewer, was put lished in the Statistical Atlas of the United Stotr, 1874. Vol. IX of the loth Census (1880), pp. 612, is the first com- prehensive statement on forest conditions: Report on the forests of North America, by Chas. S. Sargent, 1884. Vol. IX, Part III, of the 12th Census (1900), "Selected Industries," contains an extensive compilation of the statistics of the lumber and other forest industries on 122 pages. Smithsonian Institute Report, 1869. Forests and their cKmatic influence, by A. C Becquerel, translated from the French. Reports of State Commissions. — California State Board of Forestry, 3 reports, 1 885-1890. 506 APPENDIX. Colorado Forest Commiuioner, 3 reports, 1885-1890. Kansas State Horticultural Society reports on forestry linot 1879. Maine Forest Commissioner, annual reports since 1891. Michigan Forestry Commission reports, 1887-1888, 1900- 1901. Minnesota Chief Fire Warden, annual reports since 1895. New Jersey Geological Survey reports on forestry since 1880. New Hampshire Forestry Commission, annual reporta since 1893. New Yoric Forest Commission (now Forest, Fish, and Game Consiaiasion), annual reports since 1886; Forest Pre- serve Boaru since 1897. New York SUte Collq^e of Forestry, annual reports of the director since 1899. North Carolina Geological Survey, Bulletin 5, 6, and 7. Ohio SUte Forestry Bureau, five annual reports since 1886. Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture, Division of For- estry, annual reports since 1895. Canada. — Report of the forest wealth of Canada by the statistician of the Department of Agriculture, pp. 339. Ottawa, 189$. Repcfft of the Chief Inspector of Timber and Forestry, annual since 1899. Ontario Bureau of Forestry, annual reports since 1891. Association Kepocts. — Proceedings of the American For- estry Association, 1 883-1 897, Vols. I-XII. American Economic Association, Vol. VI, No. 3, 101 pp., contains several papers on forestry subjects. Canadian Forestry Association, reports since 1900. Jottmals. — The American Journal of Forestry, edited by F. B. Hough, I vol. 1882-1883. Garden and Forest, by C S. Sargent, Vols. I-X. 1888-1897. The Forester (now Forestry and Irrigation), Vols. I-VI!I, 1895. (Originally published by John Gifford, then by the BIBUOGRAPHY. 507 American Forestry Anodation, now by H. M. Suter.) Wuh- Ir^fl^on, D.C. i jrest Uave^ publUhed by Pennsylvania Forestry Asso- dation since 189a. , . ... j Water and Forest, a quarterly, by Callfom» Water and Forest Association since 1900. Forestry Quarteriy (the first professional journal), published by students and faculty of New York Stote CoUege of For- estry. 1903. Books d iBttnst ia Conn«:tion with the SnhJwA.— George P. Marsh, The Earth as Modified by Man, Chapters on Tht Woods and the Waters, i**??. Popolar Itementary i' ea.?e (a few of the many). — E. Bruncken, North America- i-oresto and Forestry, pp. 265. New York, 1900. J. Gifford, Practical Forestry, pp.384. New York, 190a. F. B. Hough, The Elemento of Forestry. Cincinnati, 1883. F. Roth, First Book of Forestry, yp. 391. Boston, 1903. INDEX. Abwlute iorest soils, in. 043. AccHmstiiarion, h4< 4^- Accretion, rate of, 108-109: laws of, isa-id*; normal, 001-003, 9o6-ao8 ; maximam, oii-aix Adirondack Preserre, 86, 387, 39a Administration, forest S»PoUcy, forest Afforesting, defined, 83. A£ica, forestry in, 090. Age of timber trees, 41, 43. ^o/. 355; in relation to growth, 153- 154; classification by, 108-109, 001-004-, felling, 008-011, 006. Agriculture, 17-18 ; use of wood in. 04; compared with forestry, 30, X06, 110-196, 040-041. 043, 334. 45^.4^ Air, temperature and humidity of, 69-70, 435-435; as food-provider, 100. Alaska, forests in, 333: reserr*- tions in, 410. Alcohol, wood, 30, 190. 4*9- Algeria, deforestation of, 10. Allotment method of regulating fellings, 004. Almiiante, Admiral, 59. Altitude, relation of , to species, 14a. American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science, 377. American Forestry Association, 380-383. 400-405. Ameriem LMmbtrman, fuottd, 479- 48a Animals, as forest desUuyeri, 55, 184-185. Apennines, deforestation of, 58-59. Arbor day, 9a, 097. 379. Area, forest, statistics of. 35-36, 54, 430-431 ; necessary sise of, 115- 116, 130-133. 45» ; >"» Germany. 316; in ti» UJS.. 334-339> 47»- 475- Aristotle, quoted. 58. Asia, Western, deforestation of, la. Assessment of forest property, 350- 953. Associations, forestry, 041-040, 316. 370, 381-383. 39i>40i.47i: "port- ing. 346- Atiantic forests, 331-333. 3SO-3S«. Australia, forestiy in, 089-490. Austria, wood production in. 47: experiments in. 64. 443! e«plol»*- tion in. 057 ; forest policy a( vjx, a94-a9S. Bacilli. 78, 447. Bacteria, 100. Baden, forest policy of, 3»-3^ Bamboo, 193, o8x Bark, use of, in tanning, 08, 86.404. Bavaria, meteorological observa- tions in. 63; forest fires in, 137, I90IS.-I9I; insect pests in, 137, 185 «.; forest policy "M, 378. Boussingault, 61. Brandis. Sir Dietrich, 979. Brazil, importation of wood by. 34. Brash wood, 155, 335. Budget, felling, 138, aox-aaa. aa6. Buifon, quottd, 6a Building construction, use of wood in, 06-07. Bureau of Forestry, U.S. S*« United States Bureau of For- estry. Burma, forests of, 081 ; teak in, 085. Business, forestry as a. .Sm Econo- my, forest 9y-I»rod-'cts, forest, tf-31, 4*4-43S< Caufornia, forests of, 361-363; forest legislation in, 397-398. Campagna Romana, 77-78. Canada, exportation of wood by, 37, 053, 058, 468 ; wood prices in, 458-459; forestry movement in, 467-471. Capacity of forests, 49-46. Cape Colony, forest policy of. oga Capital invested in forestry. X05- 139. 030; in the U.S., 30-33, 373. 485 ; in Germany, 50. Carbohydrates. 119. CartMnic add. in forests, 77. Carpenter, L. G., 447. Cascade Range, forests of, 333, 360- 36* CeUnkxe, 05. 07, 4BI. Census reports, 376, 400, 47X-^4>i>^ Charcoal indust.y, 178, 19a Charlemagne, forest regulations oC 300k Chase, laws of the, 9, 80-83, '■*• 300-304. Chemical changes in wood, 106. Chlorophyll, 147. Cicero, quoted, 58. Civilisation, relation di, to kmttof, 19, ai-31. Clearing system. 45, ^71-173. Cleveland. President, 403-404. Climatic conditions, relatfon of, to forestry, 11-14, 17-18, 5*-S5. 59" 71, 90, loi-ioo, 1x7-118, 141-146, 156, ao9, 098-999, 439-444: to India, 080-981 ; in the UJS.. 334. 368. Coal, exhaustion oC 8-9, ii; as fiiel, 07, 401. Coast Range, forests of, 339, 3 ; 369. Cod* ftrtslur, 917. Colbert, forest ordinance -36«. 4«i-4*4. 486 ; growth rate of, 108-109; tranqpi- ration of, xoi ; sprouting of, 177, 464. INDEX. 5" Connecticat, fnett legMiUiaii ia, 394* Cotuumption of wood, in the U. S., as. 51. 337-339. 47S-48o; statis- tics of, 36-41, 4»6-4a9. Cooper, J. G., 375. Col^teration in tattttiy, 963. a66, a68, 31a, 38a Cooper's Hill. England, forestry school at, 089. Coppice, U9-131, 177-179. 356. 4S». 464- Cornell University, College of For- estry at, 838, 390-39». 399-^4a>- Corporation forests, in jermany, 3i7.3a»-3a3- Cover, fsrest, value of, 68-76, aaS, 365, 347, 444* Crop, forest, when rir^, loa, 106- 110; comparison of, with agricul- tural crop, iii-ia7; taxation of, aso-asi. Crown, growth of, i47-»50. »S4- 155; imporUnce of, 158; tem- perature of, 436. Crown Timber Act, 468. OiUing. 44. 9S. laT-iaS. 167-168, 173-174. 189. '95-196. 337. 343- 345. 357. Cuttings, improvement, 169-170. Cypress, Bald, 356. DiBKis, i88-i9a Deforestation, effects of, i»-i3. S8- 63,93-95. a6S-a67; «« Ita'X. 9i. 096; in Germany, 356, 313, 399; in France, 976-977 ; in the U A, 3«^-3M- Dehra Dun, forestry school at. 989- Dendrology, loo-ioi. DeserU, 19, 55. Deterioration of forests, 90, 45-46, 168, 178, 999; in the U.S., 335, 479^480,481. Diameter, growth in, 154; limit of. in catting, 196, ao9-«ii. 9i7-««^ 35a-353. Disafforesting, defined, I3. Distillation of wood, 30. Distribution, of forests, 35, 33^-337. 431, 474; of q>ecies, I4i-i49« D' -icting. forest. 999-996. Drainage, influence of forests on. 19-90, 79-75. 77-78. 444-447. Dunes, sand, in France, 77, 977 ; in Russia, 993; in the U.S., 368. Duties, protective, 945. 953-^. Ebermayer, Dr. E., 63> 43a. Economic questions, relative im- poitance of, 7-8. Economy, of resources, 6-9, 415; forest, 96-97, 100, 109-103, 197- 397 ; in wood consunipdon. 339. 355- Education, forestry. 936-044; in France. 977; in India, 989; in Russia, 993; m Germany. 315- 316; to Jq>an, 330; intheU.S., 390-391. 399-401. Egypt, forest policy of, 99a Eminent domtdn, 16, 969-973, 4IS- 416. Ei^laad, royal forests in, 83; forest conditions in, 978. Erichthonios, legend of, 58. Erosion, relation of forests to, za, 19. 75-76. 367. 445. Ethics, influence of forests on, 66. Eucalyptus, 77, 989-990. Europe, deforestation of, 19; pa- ternalism in, 945; forest policy in, 974-978, 991-399; forestry education in. 977. 993. 315-3*6. Evaporation, 70. 437-43^. 444* Exeter, N.H.. forest legislation of, 369. Exotics, 460. Experiment stations, 940-841; in Europe, 64, 316; in die U5, 394-3VS. 397. $13 INDEX. Exploitation of forests, 0-3. ii-ia. 19. 44-46. 90. 95. xa7-xa8. 167- 168. 195. 199. M8-a3«». 3*9. *W- 345; efect of tariff on. 453-855. ^: in the VS., jf^^fn, 37i- 376; in Canada. 46&-4^ Exportation of wood, 37-^4«>i 45*- 459,468.480-481. E9qi>ropriation of forestt for state purposes, 370-373. Famine, wood, in the U.S.. 369- 371. 374-376: "> Germany. 487- ^9. FelUug age. 308-311. 336. Felling budget, 138, 301-333, 336. Felling series. 233-336. Fertility of soil, imi^oved by for- ests, iso. Finance, forest. 3x3-333, 45>^S9: in Germany, 334-338; in the VS., 48o-4«'' ilies, fiwest, 39, 133-134. I37. »«. 18^191. 339, 344. 360. 365-367 : protection against, 191-196, aS9- 363, 38J-384. 39»-399, 467. 469- 470. Fisheries, 9, ix-xa. Floods, relation of forests to, 6x, 73-75. a76-a77. 318-319. 368. 445" 446. Floor, forest, 73-73, 76. 444-446' Florida, frost in, 70. Foliage in relation to wood pro- duction, 153, 155, 157. 179-180. Forest, history of word, 81-84, 448- 450; functions of, 85-87, 338; normal, 138-139, 30X-3oa. Forest Leaves, 383. Forest Wealth in Canada, 458. Forester, defined, 97-98. 448-449' Forester, The, 383. Forestry, history of, 9»-94: defined, 95-97,449; classification of, X03- X05. Forestry Qtuuterfy, 40a Fmests, classes of; 87. •7»-*7«: state, in France, 375; in India, 380, 388; in Russia, 393; in Roumania, 394: in Bosni*-Her- segovina, 394; in Austria. 395; in Italy, 396; in Germany, 306, 310; in the V&., {federal) 340- 343, 401-41X, (separate states) 34a, 386-39X, 395. 397-398; reve- nue from, 453-459- Formula method of regulating fell- ings, 304-305. Fox, W. T., gaoted, 369. France, deforestation of, xa-13, o»- 6a, 70 ; state control of mines in, 16; sand-dunes in, 77, 377; for- est policy of, 370, 375-377; Im- portation of wood by, 417. Franco-Germuj war, effect of, on forestry, 339. 453. French Revolution, effiect of, on forestry, 6o-«i, 93-94. *TS' V^ Frost, 143; in Florida, 7a Fuel, wood as, 33-33, 37, 374, «S% 430-431. Future interests, safiq;uarded by state, s-io, 15-16, 330-331. Game, protection of, 9, 83-83. Gannett, sUtistics compiled by, 339, 363. 483-485- Gauges, rain, 64, 43a-434. 438^39- Geographical distribution, of spe- cies, 141-143; of forests, in the U.S., 33»-333. 474-^75- Geology, rel-uon of, to forestry, xox. Germany, consumption of wood in, 37, 37-40,418^19; fore»t polio in. 47-50. 91-93, 3«>-3a9 : forestry terminology in, 84; agriculture and forestry in, XX3-114. X33,45o; forest revenues in, X33-X35, 453- 456; spruce growth in, x6o; methods of regulating fellings in, 173-174; rides in, X93,3aa; dis- trids in, am ; forestry schools in. INDEX. 513 tion in, a56-a58 ; claitificanon of ioresa in. 30^-307, 309, 313-3H; paper pulp industor in, 433-4^ • acclimatisation in, 460; wood production in, 469-464; taxation in, 465-467: wood famine in., 487^489. Gerwig. R.. quottd. 7»-73- Girondt, sand-dunes in the, 977. GladbacherFire Insurance C0..467. Government. 5m State. Grazing in forests, 73. 9*. a84-a8s. Great Britain, importation of wood by. 37. 4»6-4i7- Greece, sterility of, 59. Group metljod of reproduction, 174- Qroves, consecrated. 57. Growth of t ses, 106-109, 146-156. Hardwoods, 34; rate of growth of. io»-io9; coppice reproduc- tion of, 177 ; in India. aSa ; in the U.S.. 348-351. 356. 4«a^4»7- Harrison, President. 403. Harvest, time of. 106-110, ao8-aii. ai7-«i9: cost of, ias-ia6. Hars Mountain- . forestry school in the, 837. , . Hemlock, tise of, In tanning. 98, 434: in paper maldng, 403. Herodotus, gnoUd, 59. Hersegovina. .i- Bo8niarHer»- govina. Hesse, uxation in, 466. Hodges, L. B.. 382. Homer, quoUd, 57-58. Hough, F.B., 434. 43a- Huckleberry industry. 3«»-3*. Humboldt, A. von, qur"d, 69. Humidity, 71, 14* 437-444- Hungary, forest policy of. 99S; acclimatization in. 460. Hunting, 9. 8»-83. a88, 309-304. Hygroscopic water, lai. I ax. IDAHO, fore«U oC 359-3^ •Importation of wood. 37Ho; duty on.aS3-as8; ^ Eng«««». «7«5 by the U.S.. 481- Improvement, internal. 967. Improvement cuttings. i69-i7a Incendiarism, 963, 999. Income tax. in Germany. 465-467. India, forest administration in, ii4r IIS. 917. a78-aB9; forest fires in, 199-193. Indiana, forest legislation in. 846, 394* Industries, forest, 97-39, 4ax-4>9> 487. Insects, injury from, 133. ^37. M*. 089; protectfon against. 184-185. Insurance, forest fire. 963. 467. Intensive methods. 8. 13, 18. 46-47, Ii3-"S. 45* ^, Interest on forestry capital. 131- 139. 913-M5 : in Germany, 50. Internal improvement, 967. International Forestry CongicH, 35. Investment, forestry as an, 50, 131- 139. a»3-"»5. 345-346. Irrigation, 75; in the West, UA, 349,447.487. _ Italy, forest laws in, 58-59. 970, 396-997: deforestation o^ 91. JAMAICA. 59. Japan, forest policy of. 3^9-33^ Jentsch. Dr. F., 45*. Journals, forestry, 316, 383, 40a Jungles, in India, 989-984. KANaAS, expwiment itadona in, 394-395- King, F. W., 440. Knots. 90. 107, x8a Labor, required in forestry, s, W 111-117, 5/4, 4SIM5I. 5<4 INDEX. Uto «gk«.US..ptoe mps»r ^ 350, 47»-479. J^Bd-ownm. himbertof methods uStude, retatton d, to ■?«*•, I^w. property. 4^,*«^^. riir staUs) a46-»47. 369^ _-,^--a 48*-999'. in France, aTO- S^-'SS'aBS; in R««l||. S^; in ^^«Z^^^. Austrii^HungMy. •«: »»Swtt G«m«iy. 300-305. a";;^?';-*^ L|?l.tlon.for«t 5«Lnw, Litianwn. Dr. L., 443- . Ught, importance of, 54. MT-^S". L^nJ". fires caused by. i«9- Lto^«. foiestiy, 3««. 374^376. jSl£73.t».4Si-»Sa;b««»»« ot iM. 444- Loans, state, 96fr-a69. ,^^ Lodoroods /V,^ TV^fc J^wnwrf. lS::S^:£; caused by. -8<^ KSi;S^^'S44-^.53. 167-169. 173. i95-«90. «»• LoBcburg Heath. 968. McGSB.JW,?«w«rf.» McRae bill. 403-4f5- . ^ ... Maine, forest legislation in. 377. W- Malaria, effect of forests on. 77-79. 447- MaMins. 6. ' ^^ . Mannbctnres. v»* « «»« "• » 4»6-4«9- Maple sugar. 09-30. M«k system. 9^,!^^:^ MaiseUles. agricultural society. mmM. 61. Marsh. O. P.. ^w***. 7- 37«^ ^ Masracbnsetts, forest conditions tt, ^^•. forest legislation in. M^^iusetts Society far the Pio- motiMi of Agriculture. 370. Master schools." in Germany. «37. at BUtmore. a3«. 399- Mathematics in forestry. 65. KW 103. is»-i53* Mensuration, forest. 103. 15MS3- Mercantile theory, aS7- Mesopotamia, deforesution oC^ MetaU substitution of. for wooo, ^.. »9: production of. in the mS£«^. «>««<»« «>'• «» *^ estrv 63-71. 101, 43*"4**" Michiffm. wood production in. 37a; ibiert legislation in. 39e- Microbes In forests. 78. 447. Mlddl* Ages, forests to the. 8i-»4. MIU. J. S.. o. .^.^. Mini. saw. waste to. 4X. 419^ J influence of. on forestry. 345 : «« the U5..37»:373. 475-477. Mines, exhaustion of. 8. 11. ««« ^S.„;ol of. 16: timber u^ to. „; rerenue from, m the U5.. 3a. Minnesota, forestry »««x^*'" '»• a4a: forest legislation in. 04* 39»-393. 39«' , , - Mirabeau. Marquis «• ~ .,,4^ Mississippi, effects of d-iorestatkm upon, IX Mohr.C..^*3SS.4«5. Moisture, relation of, to forests, 55. 69-71. 14a. »83. 437--4»' INDEX. 515 Montoont, a8a Mou-cover, 7a-73« , . Mountain districts, best use of, 18, 199; waste in,a8; waterflow in, 75-76, 80; forest districts in. aaa, 487. Mushroom industry, 31. Mythology of forests, 57^8. NaHCm forestry school at. 63. German forestry, 306. National Academy of Sciences. U.S., 404- Nature element in forestry, 117- Naval store Industry. a9. 35*. 4^ Nebraska, Arbor day in, 379. New Alexandria, forest institute at, New England, coppice system in, N^ Hampshire, forest legistation of, 370. 384-385- , ., New South Wales, forest condi- tions in, 989. New Yoric State, reservations to, 34a; forest legislation in, 369, 386-391, 398; wood production New York State College of For- estry, 938. 390-391. 399-4a»- Newell, F. H., quoted, yv><3*^> 4m- Noble, J. W., Aoa. Normal forest, i28-«9- "o^"*^ Normal stock metiiod of fclUng, 904— 905* North America, forest conditions in. 33»-334' . , , North Dakota, forest commissioner of. 394- , . Norway, forests of, 998. Numbwrof trees inastand,i8i-i89; diminution in, 150-151. ^S*. *S8- Nur«nb«g, lore«H>tantliig to, 9«- 93- Nurse trees. 175. >77' Oak, use of, to tanning, flB. 4«4; in the US.. 348-349'. rtuirmr tions of. 370-371. , , .„ Oettett. method of ascertataing fcU- ing budget. 917. Officials, forest, in Prussia, 113 *J in India, 114. "87: P*y«>»o»t «"• ate ; powers of, 969. Ohio, forestry bureau of, 394* Olive, cultivation of. to France, »- 13.70. Omnge groves, to Florida. 7a Orchard, distinguished from forest, 86. , - Oregon, woodland area of. 336 «. '. timber supply ot 363. Ownership of forestt. communal. 969-973; stote, 969-a7». »7S-«7*> a8o, 991-993. 995; to Germany, 964, 30»-3«»7. 3IO-3"' 317-319. 331-393; in the U.S., 340-346. Oxygen, amount of, to forests, 77. PAcmc toests. 331-333. 336. 340. I 361-364.474. , ^ 1 Palesttoe. sterility of, S9. 63- Paper-pulp todtutry, »$, a7« 34Si 4ai-4«4. Parks, public 385. Paternalism, in the UA, a3a, "45" 1949. Penn, William, 369. Pennsylvania, forest legislation In, 947. 369. 391 ; state ownership to, 349. Pennsylvania State Forestry Asso- ciation. 383. , , ,^ Periodicals, forestry. 3w. 383. 4«»' Pettenkofler. 447. „ , PhiUppine Islands, forest policy in. Piil, naval stores from, 99; vahie 5i6 INDEX. I- flC4»^: odutnttioo of; Q4: >> the U.S.. 347-36«- FloDeerinc populsdoiu, a, S3> 94- 9S- Pbuit material, dlttribntkm oi, a«s. Mii VKt 4*^9^ Ptaatiukm, dtotinguiihed from for* Mt.M. FlMmodia.79> Plate. fMitd, si Mice. tore«t. i>*. »M, X9«. ^J-w*- Ptdky, forett. methods of. M»-a;3 ! in Itriy, 91. "Sft-a^/: h» France, ^5-^7: in India. 078-089; in Aostralia, 889-990 ; in Africa, 190: In RiiMia,a9X-a94: in Bo»- aift-HeiMKOTiaa, 094: in Ro»- Buia.g94; inAiutria-Hnngvy. 19^.495 ; ia Switaeiland. 097^ '• iaSwedea.a98-30o; in Germany. •00-3*9; in Japan, d^^ap: *«> tte V&.{/U*raJ) 376-379. 4«a- 4X1. («^«r««r J««««*) 369-374. \^A inn Pomerania, bucUcbeny indartry in, 31. Pniriea in the VS., 333. 474. Pnd^tatkm. 69-70. 43M39. 44i- ProlectioD Ibrefti. S7. «7». «74. n*" 935, a67-a68. i7S-■*■* officials in, xx3a.: forest poUcy oC laaa., 964. aT*. 3i7-3«05 «* of soU in, xa6; (ires in, 133, X37> I90«.-I9a, 96a; wood prices in, X38. 4S6-4S"; »«• ««i"?Lr forests in, 308-309. 3»»! *'?"*?' tation in, 313'. fo««*«T •cnoola in, 315 ; tasatfon in, 46s-467> Public lands, UA, 340-34^ ¥>9- 408. Public schools, foreatry instmctioa in,?39.3»«- Pulp, wood, as, a7, 345. 4«-^4^ Price of wood, statistics of. i34-»3S X38, 45&S59 : stumpage, aao, 400, 485-486. Priest Forest Reserve, 360. Private enterprise, waste caused by. i^ 90, 44-46, 998-930. 933-934. 979-973, 313; lta»««*»«on of, X3- 16 • state control of, in Germany. Si4r3i5; ta «*» UJ5.. S4»-346. Products, forest, 98-33; statistics <^ 193-1^; in the US., 349- 3SD.4i6^499> ,^ Property, individual. 3-4. «• "ff a66; mediaetval ideas of, a69; expropriation of. 970-97X. Protection (iapolitics). &*TarUL RAiuiOAOB. effect ot, oa exploHaF tion. 9. 957. 978-979, 37a. 374; state ownership ot, i6; xua d wood for. 93-94; danger of fire from. x89«.-i90. X94-X95. f*i effect of. on wood prices. 458. Rain gauges, 64, 43»-434. 438-439. Rainfall. 64-65; effect of forests on, 69-70,438-439: in India, rfx. Ramaan, experiments m, 446. Reforestation. X66-167, X76. 048, 067^469; in Germany, 9* 309. 315. 3«>. 3»3! in France. 977: in Russia. 993-994: *n Roumaaia, 094; in AustriarHungaiy, 995; in Italy. 996-997: inSwitRffland. 997; in Sweden. 300. Regeneration, natural, i67-»73; under nurse trees, X7S-X77; *V coppice, I77-X79. R^ulation, forest. 900. Rent, soil, 9ij-ax7. 951, 464-465. Reproductim. i6S. «69, x/s-XTft 357' Reservations, forest, in India. 980, a88; in Russia. 999-993; in the U.S., 34»-34a. 360. 401-4". 489- INDEX. $17 490; in New York State, 34s. I 386-390: in Fennt7Wanil^ 34a. agi; in Mlciilgan. 39a: in Cali- farnia.99y-39«: inC*nada,4M- 470- , KMomcei, exploitatioa m, t-4; economy of. 6-10, 415: claMifi- cationc^io. Rsrenne from fsmts. ae-33. »«»- ai7. aao-aaa. 45a-4S9; »" ^^• many. 4»-S«>. *3»-i36. 3a5-3«9; in India. 115. aBs-a«7; »»» «»» U5n4«M3«>- Rerolution (in fBTCStry), 110. Ribbcntrop. quoUd, X14. ■79- Rides. Ibe. x»-i94. «» . Koada. Improvement 01, 9: we 01. in Ibrestiy. xya. 46*^4*5- Rocky Mountain foreatt. 333-333. 3S»-96o.3^ Roman law, of property, 4, ao, ^5 ; on forests, 58. Rome, ancient, foreatry in. 91. Root, developneut of, I53-X54> x8s-xa6. Rotation, xoa, xio, aaS-«X3. Rothrock. Dr., 39X. Roumania, forest policy ci, 994. Russia, forest policy of; 991-994: meteorology in, 44a; forest rev- enue in, 455. Saoimaw Valley, lumber produc- tion in, 374« . ^ St Pelersbmf, ftneat institute at, 993. Salary of forester* in India, sBy. Sands, shifting, in France, 77, 977 ; in Russia, 99a; in the U.S., 368. Sanitary Influence of forests, 77-79' Saunders. Dr. W., 469* Sawing, waste in, 41, 4i9-4*>' Saxony, wood production in, 47-49t 134-135; felling buifeet in, 904; foiest conditions in, 304. iH> V'^' 3x8: forest revenue to. 31*. 45»- 456: income tax in, 466. ScholaraUpa, in forestry, ti»-*1fi> Schools of forestry, at Nancy, 444* SodaHsm, 939, 966-967. , ._. Society for the Promotion of Agi»- culture, 370. 380' ,^ Society for the Protection o« New Hampshire Forests, 385. Soft woods, defined, 348. Soil, as a resource X3. X7-X8; v». rieties of. 56. 156; relation 0^ to waterflow. 74-76; fertility of. 1x9- j X90, 183; absolute and relative, I laa-ia). 343-944; cost of, 196; \ I INDEX. 518 (Gallon of, to Bpedes, 143; »«"♦• M3-«i7. a5>. 464-465; «".46S- 467. Soudaa. forettry to. •9*' South, U&. torwtt to. 353-^ South America, importation of woodby, 34< Species, ditirbutlon of, 14»-M9. to the U.a. 347-349. 4»»-4»3. ^toc iheoty, 7»-73- Sport, influence of, 9. 34*. Spruce, growth of. 160, um ot. for paper pulp, 160, 433-434> 4»3' paper puipi •»~> ^-j -•— •■ ^ - Stand, open and dote, 89-90. «S^ stock companlea. 133. Strip method cf reproduction, 174* 175, 19a Stumpage, defined, aao», 343! value to the U.S.. 485-486- Subttitutet for wood. 96-99, 491. Subterrar. -out drainage, 19-90, 7a, 74-75. 444-447. Sugar, maple, 99-30. Sully. t»ottd, 17, 60. Supply and demand, 933-^4. «4»- Survey, foreat, 906-907. liana, opc" -»- — — ■ -' ' ■ , •, 156, 180-X89; pure and mUeo, 183; old and young, 901-903. Standard-coppice tyatem, 179. 45i. Starr, Rev. F., tu«Ud, 375- State, relation of. to private enter- «iie. 4-». I4-*. '30-«3S; "* biinistration of forest* by, W4. X3i-X3a. I3»-I39. 198. «6: edu- cational (unction of. 930-944, Momotive method* of. a44-a58; poUce function of. 958-967 ; own- ership of forests by. 969-973. 975- 976, 980. 99i-a93. "95. 306. 3»o. 340-349. 386-391. 395. 397-398. 401-411. Statics, forestry, 9i4-aM- IStioM. forestry. 5r* Experiment stations. Statistics, value of. 949-944, 47i. ot forest finance. 30-33. i9S-i«7. 139-138. 990. 987. 3a5-3a8. 45»- ^eo; of forest area, 35. 54. 334- 341. 430-43» : o' ^'^ consump- tion, 36-41. SI. 337-339. 416-499. 47S-480: of wood production. 5-39. 47-5>. 349-350. 480-483; of forest reservations, 489-490. SteriUty, caused by dcforestttion, 59.63- , Steuben, Baron von, 389. Stock, normal. i99-»3i. aoi-aos: taxaHon of. 951-953, 465-467- Sustain^', yield, 199-aM. "30. W* 394. Swair- aanger from, 78-79. Swef- , forest policy of. 998-3«»- Swit. riand. stations in. 63-64; for- est policy of, 970, 997-498. Syrup, maple, 30. Tanning. 98-99. 86. 494. Tariff on wood. 945, 953-958. Taungyas. 985. Taxation of woodlands, 945-953, 378. 465-467. Teak. a89, 985. Temperate tones. 4a Temperature, effect of forests on, 69-63. 66, 69. 434-437. 441-444: relation ot to growth, i4X-i4a X47. Terminology, forest, 8i-«S. 448- 450. , Tharandt, forest academy at, 488. Thinnings, 179. »89, 193. 996. Thirty-years War. effect of, on forests. 93. 3<«-3o6- Tles, railroad, 93. Timber, as a resource, ii-X9, 19; age of. 41.43. 107.35s; «»*«^ 9X7-931. ^^ Timber culture acts. 946-947, 37»- rtmier Trades Journal, qnoUd, INDEX. 519 Tlm« element, to forettry, loi-ioa, X06-IX0. xa7-i3a. i98-»99. »5. aas, ajo, 933-434, M*. «5S-«S*. J46. Toklo Univenitjr, towit depwt- ment of, 33a TorrenU. Sr# FToodi. Tnnspirmtion, 77. wx. 437^38- Transportadon, relaiion of, to ex- ploitation, a-3. aS7. a7*-»79. 37* 374,464-46$; useof woodin, 34; expense of, i7X-X7a ; relation of, to wood prices, 45B-4S9> Ty»t PUmUri Mamial, 38a, Tree weedt, 43^44. 9*. »*>• *68. aio, 347. Truste, 133, 345- Tundras, 54-55, 14* Tumus, 1X0. Twelve Tablet, Lawi of flie, 58. Unitxd States, waste In, »-3, 45, 59-53: merchant marine of, 34 •.; consumption of wood in, «$, SX. 337-339. 4«>-4«3. 475-48© ; exportation of wood by, 34, 37, 480-481 ; timber supply of, 38, 5a, 331-339. 483-485; fo«** *«™'- nology in, 84 ; rate of interest in, I3»j; paternalism In, 33a, 345-949; exhaustion of forests in, 334, 353, 574-376, 479-480; education in, 136-939. 39«>-39». 399-400; forest legislation in, 346-953. 363, 36/- 370. 377. 384-4"; tariff l^isla- tion in, 353, 358; forest area in, 334-339.471-475; reservations in, 340-343, 360, 40X-4XI, 489-490; wealth ot 439-430; forest labor in, 450 ; importation of wood by, 481; price of stumpage, 485-486. United States Bureau of Forestry, 917-8I9, 34S-949, 377. 381. 401. 4x0. United States Chief Geographer, report of, 339, 363. United States Departnent of A(ri- culture, X3S. 374^-375. 38i- United States Geological Survey. 336 <».-337. 341. 358. Jfio, 40s. 409-4". United States Patent Office, 374-375* Universities, courses in forestry at, a37-a38. 3«. 330. 390-39». 399" 400. Vaixoubrosa, fbiestiy icbool at. 997- Valuation, forest, 9x3-999. Value production, maximtun, iiai Vanderbilt estate. BUtmore, agS. 399- Vermeule, 446. Vermont, forestry oommbrion vt, 386. Vessels, wooden, 94. Virgin forests, waste in, 49-44> 9*- 99, X40-X4I; harvest in, 4ft, X97- X9B; in the U.S., 339. Volume development, 155-1641 maximum, aix-sxa. Wages of lumbermen, 50, xxfr-iX7, 450- Ward. L. F.. gitt>t*d, 966-967, 4x5. Warder. J. A., 376, 38a. Washington, forests of, 36X, 363. Waste of materials, 1-3, 38-99, 44- 46; in sawing, 41, 419-490; '" virjfin forests, 49-44. 98-99. M*- X4X. Water, as a resource, ii, 17-19 *. drinking, 79: '" "^ood, xax. Waterflow, influence of forestt on, 6x, 7X-76, 90. 966, 976-977, 318- 319. 343. 368. Waterways, sUte care of, X4-X6. Wealth. 31 ; of the \JS., 499-430- Weeds, tree, 43-144. 98. 160, 168, 910, 347- Weight of forest product, 157, 46a 1 West, \}S., settlement of, 9x; for- ' m sao INDEX. MUm,i3^ i. 396. 339-343. 3S7- 364. 474-47> JrTit»»irMJu, 13. 70-71. »M. 44°- ♦4i.4S«- ^ WitoonBin, defsrestation of, la; taxation of forests id, 95a; wood- land area of, 336 «.-337 «• > *'<»<* prodactionin,37a; forestry move- ment 01,377; forest legislation in, WoUny, experiments of, 446. Wood, importa' ~e of, ai-96, 4*7; consumption of, 35, 36^1, 5*. 337-339, 416^499, 475-^480; pulp. as. ay. 34$. 4«-4a4; subatitnte* for, 96-09, 4*' 1 growth of, lofr- 109; price of. 134-135. »3'. »«». 4*' 436-459, 4»5-4>7; produc- tion rate ot, 159-164. Wood-lott, ir6, 131, 190-199, 343, 380. 45»- Woodland, definr 1, 84. Wartemberg, foi st policy of, 3x7- 318. 391-399. Yale Uniwrrity, forestry school at, 938.399- Yield, sustoined, 199-993, 930, ^9 3*4. 465- ^ . Yield-tables. 15^164. acr aoB,9a«- 990, 461-463. ZOIUCH, fore school at. jg§; forest finracc £,3*4-396 PratidMt •» Noli g OB th« tobiact hu bM piriMik** fw »-!••• IRRIGATION By FRBDBRICK HAYNBS NBWBLL Ckuf Hydrographer, Uniitd Statts GtologictI Smr. ^ Tbit book hu had an extended and not *le, being latgf p^baKd by CongreiMnen, Sen on, and ot; r^ twMted in W. puWic welfare of thk country. The bo de^ - .a and Intemt- ingly with a problem now before our 1» Tt»k «■ an How bMt to lev our vacant desert landa (two of oar omI terri- tory) a make them fit for the hottje-ieeSfc <* A candid ttatMBcnt of uayaniiilied fac " WUl be ttkoB M •uthority." — ^ail" '• The firat cempichoMive wori V gieater than tho UrgMt iadtutrial c Simr. "ShooMli»waatapoitaiitln«o«Bc. 0. ho pr^iea of brigrtfao, i»d tliCi «■ tegUUtioD dealing with methodi of Und lurreying >ad of wMu^^tAMMm. - iMuai. C. RusMix. PiofesMr of GeolotT •" ^ Uniwmty of Midiig«. at) TimuM'HermU. .ter ooneemi&g Ml iadaiuy JO oi deiB time*." — Kmn$mi CH^ M-illMtnrtwl w«fc by ooe wbo thonmgUy ^Uyvdn."— X. C Minwinr, Hydkof- " A ci««r, timple, comprehensiTe, naduiuiids all the eoaditioiu as the- npb«r. U. S. G. S. "Ifthewbamanintheenu, .«1 State, who U fallyeomi*t«t to wito .work upon IrrigatioB. U b Pro.c«of NewelL'-W. M. WoouDauwa, U. 8. CuMiliiiw't. IiMliiaiiial Agent G. N. Ry. Wtth if6 lltastratloiM ta.oo Mt (By ■"Bi •»•»•) THOMAS Y. CROWELL & CO. AIW TOSK